Jianhai Xiang
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Jianhai Xiang Editor
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
With 30 figures
Editor Jianhai Xiang Institute of Oceanology, CAS 266071, Qingdao, China E-mail:
[email protected]
ISBN 978-7-03-025725-3 Science Press Beijing ISBN 978-3-642-05345-0 e-ISBN 978-3-642-05346-7 Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York Library of Congress Control Number: 2009937447 © Science Press Beijing and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover design: Frido Steinen-Broo, EStudio Calamar, Spain Printed on acid-free paper Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
Not for sale outside the Mainland of China (Not for sale in Hong Kong SAR, Macau SAR, and Taiwan, and all countries, except the Mainland of China)
Editor-in-Chief Yongxiang Lu
Editorial Committee Yongxiang Lu
Chunli Bai
Erwei Shi
Xin Fang
Zhigang Li
Xiaoye Cao
Jiaofeng Pan
Research Group on Marine of the Chinese Academy of Sciences Head: Jianhai Xiang Consultants: Yunshan Qin Ruiyu Liu Dunxin Hu Baorong Hou Members: (In the alphabetical order of Chinese surname) Feng Gao
Lanzhou Branch, National Science Library, CAS
Baorong Hou
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Yijun Hou
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Chaoqun Hu
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Dunxin Hu
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Chaolun Li
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Tiegang Li
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Ruiyu Liu
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Lijuan Long
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Xiwu Luan
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Feng Pan
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Song Qin
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Yunshan Qin
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Ping Shi
Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Sustainable Development, CAS
Jinming Song
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Song Sun
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Huili Sun
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Fan Wang
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Dongxiao Wang
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Shiguo Wu
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Jianhai Xiang
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Guifang Xing
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Qinzhao Xue
Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Sustainable Development, CAS
Wen Yan
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Hongsheng Yang Institute of Oceanology, CAS Hong Yi
Institute of Acoustics, CAS
Rencheng Yu
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Dongliang Yuan
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Roadmap 2050
Members of the Editorial Committee and the Editorial Office
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Zhigang Zeng
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Si Zhang
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Guofan Zhang
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
Mingjiang Zhou
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
*
Foreword to the Roadmaps 2050
China’s modernization is viewed as a transformative revolution in the human history of modernization. As such, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) decided to give higher priority to the research on the science and technology (S&T) roadmap for priority areas in China’s modernization process. What is the purpose? And why is it? Is it a must? I think those are substantial and significant questions to start things forward.
Significance of the Research on China’s S&T Roadmap to 2050 We are aware that the National Mid- and Long-term S&T Plan to 2020 has already been formed after two years’ hard work by a panel of over 2000 experts and scholars brought together from all over China, chaired by Premier Wen Jiabao. This clearly shows that China has already had its S&T blueprint to 2020. Then, why did CAS conduct this research on China’s S&T roadmap to 2050? In the summer of 2007 when CAS was working out its future strategic priorities for S&T development, it realized that some issues, such as energy, must be addressed with a long-term view. As a matter of fact, some strategic researches have been conducted, over the last 15 years, on energy, but mainly on how to best use of coal, how to best exploit both domestic and international oil and gas resources, and how to develop nuclear energy in a discreet way. Renewable energy was, of course, included but only as a supplementary energy. It was not yet thought as a supporting leg for future energy development. However, greenhouse gas emissions are becoming a major world concern over
* It is adapted from a speech by President Yongxiang Lu at the rst High-level Workshop on China’s S&T Roadmap for Priority Areas to 2050, organized by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, in October, 2007.
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the years, and how to address the global climate change has been on the agenda. In fact, what is really behind is the concern for energy structure, which makes us realize that fossil energy must be used cleanly and efficiently in order to reduce its impact on the environment. However, fossil energy is, pessimistically speaking, expected to be used up within about 100 years, or optimistically speaking, within about 200 years. Oil and gas resources may be among the first to be exhausted, and then coal resources follow. When this happens, human beings will have to refer to renewable energy as its major energy, while nuclear energy as a supplementary one. Under this situation, governments of the world are taking preparatory efforts in this regard, with Europe taking the lead and the USA shifting to take a more positive attitude, as evidenced in that: while fossil energy has been taken the best use of, renewable energy has been greatly developed, and the R&D of advanced nuclear energy has been reinforced with the objective of being eventually transformed into renewable energy. The process may last 50 to 100 years or so. Hence, many S&T problems may come around. In the field of basic research, for example, research will be conducted by physicists, chemists and biologists on the new generation of photovoltaic cell, dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC), high-efficient photochemical catalysis and storage, and efficient photosynthetic species, or high-efficient photosynthetic species produced by gene engineering which are free from land and water demands compared with food and oil crops, and can be grown on hillside, saline lands and semi-arid places, producing the energy that fits humanity. In the meantime, although the existing energy system is comparatively stable, future energy structure is likely to change into an unstable system. Presumably, dispersive energy system as well as higher-efficient direct current transmission and storage technology will be developed, so will be the safe and reliable control of network, and the capture, storage, transfer and use of CO 2, all of which involve S&T problems in almost all scientific disciplines. Therefore, it is natural that energy problems may bring out both basic and applied research, and may eventually lead to comprehensive structural changes. And this may last for 50 to 100 years or so. Taking the nuclear energy as an example, it usually takes about 20 years or more from its initial plan to key technology breakthroughs, so does the subsequent massive application and commercialization. If we lose the opportunity to make foresighted arrangements, we will be lagging far behind in the future. France has already worked out the roadmap to 2040 and 2050 respectively for the development of the 3rd and 4th generation of nuclear fission reactors, while China has not yet taken any serious actions. Under this circumstance, it is now time for CAS to take the issue seriously, for the sake of national interests, and to start conducting a foresighted research in this regard. This strategic research covers over some dozens of areas with a longterm view. Taking agriculture as an example, our concern used to be limited only to the increased production of high-quality food grains and agricultural by-products. However, in the future, the main concern will definitely be given to the water-saving and ecological agriculture. As China is vast in territory, · viii ·
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Population is another problem. It will be most likely that China’s population will not drop to about 1 billion until the end of this century, given that the past mistakes of China’s population policy be rectified. But the subsequent problem of ageing could only be sorted out until the next century. The current population and health policies face many challenges, such as, how to ensure that the 1.3 to 1.5 billion people enjoy fair and basic public healthcare; the necessity to develop advanced and public healthcare and treatment technologies; and the change of research priority to chronic diseases from infectious diseases, as developed countries have already started research in this regard under the increasing social and environmental change. There are many such research problems yet to be sorted out by starting from the basic research, and subsequent policies within the next 50 years are in need to be worked out. Space and oceans provide humanity with important resources for future development. In terms of space research, the well-known Manned Spacecraft Program and China’s Lunar Exploration Program will last for 20 or 25 years. But what will be the whole plan for China’s space technology? What is the objective? Will it just follow the suit of developed countries? It is worth doing serious study in this regard. The present spacecraft is mainly sent into space with chemical fuel propellant rocket. Will this traditional propellant still be used in future deep space exploration? Or other new technologies such as electrical propellant, nuclear energy propellant, and solar sail technologies be developed? We haven’t yet done any strategic research over these issues, not even worked out any plans. The ocean is abundant in mineral resources, oil and gas, natural gas hydrate, biological resources, energy and photo-free biological evolution, which may arise our scientific interests. At present, many countries have worked out new strategic marine plans. Russia, Canada, the USA, Sweden and Norway have centered their contention upon the North Pole, an area of strategic significance. For this, however, we have only limited plans. The national and public security develops with time, and covers both Foreword to the Roadmaps 2050
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diversified technologies in this regard are the appropriate solutions. Animal husbandry has been used by developed countries, such as Japan and Denmark, to make bioreactor and pesticide as well. Plants have been used by Japan to make bioreactors which are safer and cost-effective than that made from animals. Potato, strawberry, tomato and the like have been bred in germfree greenhouses, and value-added products have been made through gene transplantation technology. Agriculture in China must not only address the food demands from its one billions-plus population, but also take into consideration of the value-added agriculture by-products and the high-tech development of agriculture as well. Agriculture in the future is expected to bring out some energies and fuels needed by both industry and man’s livelihood as well. Some developed countries have taken an earlier start to conduct foresighted research in this regard, while we have not yet taken sufficient consideration.
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conventional and non-conventional security. Conventional security threats only refer to foreign invasion and warfare, while, the present security threat may come out from any of the natural, man-made, external, interior, ecological, environmental, and the emerging networking (including both real and virtual) factors. The conflicts out of these must be analyzed from the perspective of human civilization, and be sorted out in a scientific manner. Efforts must be made to root out the cause of the threats, while human life must be treasured at any time. In general, it is necessary to conduct this strategic research in view of the future development of China and mankind as well. The past 250 years’ industrialization has resulted in the modernization and better-off life of less than 1 billion people, predominantly in Europe, North America, Japan and Singapore. The next 50 years’ modernization drive will definitely lead to a better-off life for 2–3 billion people, including over 1 billion Chinese, doubling or tripling the economic increase over that of the past 250 years, which will, on the one hand, bring vigor and vitality to the world, and, on the other hand, inevitably challenge the limited resources and eco-environment on the earth. New development mode must be shaped so that everyone on the earth will be able to enjoy fairly the achievements of modern civilization. Achieving this requires us, in the process of China’s modernization, to have a foresighted overview on the future development of world science and human civilization, and on how science and technology could serve the modernization drive. S&T roadmap for priority areas to 2050 must be worked out, and solutions to core science problems and key technology problems must be straightened out, which will eventually provide consultations for the nation’s S&T decision-making.
Possibility of Working out China’s S&T Roadmap to 2050 Some people held the view that science is hard to be predicted as it happens unexpectedly and mainly comes out of scientists’ innovative thinking, while, technology might be predicted but at the maximum of 15 years. In my view, however, S&T foresight in some areas seems feasible. For instance, with the exhaustion of fossil energy, some smart people may think of transforming solar energy into energy-intensive biomass through improved high-efficient solar thinfilm materials and devices, or even developing new substitute. As is driven by huge demands, many investments will go to this emerging area. It is, therefore, able to predict that, in the next 50 years, some breakthroughs will undoubtedly be made in the areas of renewable energy and nuclear energy as well. In terms of solar energy, for example, the improvement of photoelectric conversion efficiency and photothermal conversion efficiency will be the focus. Of course, the concrete technological solutions may be varied, for example, by changing the morphology of the surface of solar cells and through the reflection, the entire spectrum can be absorbed more efficiently; by developing multi-layer functional thin-films for transmission and absorption; or by introducing of nanotechnology and quantum control technology, etc. Quantum control research used to limit mainly to the solution to information functional materials. This is surely too narrow. In the ·x·
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In terms of computing science, we must be confident to forecast its future development instead of simply following suit as we used to. This is a possibility rather than wild fancies. Information scientists, physicists and biologists could be engaged in the forward-looking research. In 2007, the Nobel Physics Prize was awarded to the discovery of colossal magneto-resistance, which was, however, made some 20 years ago. Today, this technology has already been applied to hard disk store. Our conclusion made, at this stage, is that: it is possible to make long-term and unconventional S&T predictions, and so is it to work out China’s S&T roadmap in view of long-term strategies, for example, by 2020 as the first step, by 2030 or 2035 as the second step, and by 2050 as the maximum. This possibility may also apply to other areas of research. The point is to emancipate the mind and respect objective laws rather than indulging in wild fancies. We attribute our success today to the guidelines of emancipating the mind and seeking the truth from the facts set by the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China in 1979. We must break the conventional barriers and find a way of development fitting into China’s reality. The history of science tells us that discoveries and breakthroughs could only be made when you open up your mind, break the conventional barriers, and make foresighted plans. Top-down guidance on research with increased financial support and involvement of a wider range of talented scientists is not in conflict with demand-driven research and free discovery of science as well.
Necessity of CAS Research on China’s S&T Roadmap to 2050 Why does CAS launch this research? As is known, CAS is the nation’s highest academic institution in natural sciences. It targets at making basic, forward-looking and strategic research and playing a leading role in China’s science. As such, how can it achieve this if without a foresighted view on science and technology? From the perspective of CAS, it is obligatory to think, with a global view, about what to do after the 3rd Phase of the Knowledge Innovation Program (KIP). Shall we follow the way as it used to? Or shall we, with a view of national interests, present our in-depth insights into different research disciplines, and make efforts to reform the organizational structure and system, so that the innovation capability of CAS and the nation’s science and technology mission will be raised to a new height? Clearly, the latter is more positive. World science and technology develops at a lightening speed. As global economy grows, we are aware that we will be lagging far behind if without making progress, and will lose the opportunity if without making foresighted plans. S&T innovation requires us to make joint efforts, break the conventional barriers and emancipate the mind. This is also what we need for further development. Foreword to the Roadmaps 2050
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Roadmap 2050
future, this research is expected to be extended to the energy issue or energybased basic research in cutting-edge areas.
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The roadmap must be targeted at the national level so that the strategic research reports will form an important part of the national long-term program. CAS may not be able to fulfill all the objectives in the reports. However, it can select what is able to do and make foresighted plans, which will eventually help shape the post-2010 research priorities of CAS and the guidelines for its future reform. Once the long-term roadmap and its objectives are identified, system mechanism, human resources, funding and allocation should be ensured for full implementation. We will make further studies to figure out: What will happen to world innovation system within the next 30 to 50 years? Will universities, research institutions and enterprises still be included in the system? Will research institutes become grid structure? When the cutting-edge research combines basic science and high-tech and the transformative research integrates the cutting-edge research with industrialization, will that be the research trend in some disciplines? What will be the changes for personnel structure, motivation mechanism and upgrading mechanism within the innovation system? Will there be any changes for the input and structure of innovation resources? If we could have a clear mind of all the questions, make foresighted plans and then dare to try out in relevant CAS institutes, we will be able to pave a way for a more competitive and smooth development. Social changes are without limit, so are the development of science and technology, and innovation system and management as well. CAS must keep moving ahead to make foresighted plans not only for science and technology, but also for its organizational structure, human resources, management modes, and resource structures. By doing so, CAS will keep standing at the forefront of science and playing a leading role in the national innovation system, and even, frankly speaking, taking the lead in some research disciplines in the world. This is, in fact, our purpose of conducting the strategic research on China’s S&T roadmap.
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Yongxiang Lu President of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
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CAS is the nation’s think tank for science. Its major responsibility is to provide S&T consultations for the nation’s decision-makings and to take the lead in the nation’s S&T development. In July, 2007, President Yongxiang Lu made the following remarks: “In order to carry out the Scientific Outlook of Development through innovation, further strategic research should be done to lay out a S&T roadmap for the next 20–30 years and key S&T innovation disciplines. And relevant workshops should be organized with the participation of scientists both within CAS and outside to further discuss the research priorities and objectives. We should no longer confine ourselves to the free discovery of science, the quantity and quality of scientific papers, nor should we satisfy ourselves simply with the Principal Investigators system of research. Research should be conducted to address the needs of both the nation and society, in particular, the continued growth of economy and national competitiveness, the development of social harmony, and the sustainability between man and nature. ” According to the Executive Management Committee of CAS in July, 2007, CAS strategic research on S&T roadmap for future development should be conducted to orchestrate the needs of both the nation and society, and target at the three objectives: the growth of economy and national competitiveness, the development of social harmony, and the sustainability between man and nature. In August, 2007, President Yongxiang Lu further put it: “Strategic research requires a forward-looking view over the world, China, and science & technology in 2050. Firstly, in terms of the world in 2050, we should be able to study the perspectives of economy, society, national security, eco-environment, and science & technology, specifically in such scientific disciplines as energy, resources, population, health, information, security, eco-environment, space and oceans. And we should be aware of where the opportunities and challenges lie. Secondly, in terms of China’s economy and society in 2050, we should take into consideration of factors like: objectives, methods, and scientific supports needed for economic structure, social development, energy structure, population and health, eco-environment, national security and innovation capability. Thirdly, in terms of the guidance of Scientific Outlook of Development on science and technology, it emphasizes the people’s interests and development, science and technology, science and economy, science and society, science and eco-
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Preface to the Roadmaps 2050
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environment, science and culture, innovation and collaborative development. Fourthly, in terms of the supporting role of research in scientific development, this includes how to optimize the economic structure and boost economy, agricultural development, energy structure, resource conservation, recycling economy, knowledge-based society, harmonious coexistence between man and nature, balance of regional development, social harmony, national security, and international cooperation. Based on these, the role of CAS will be further identified.” Subsequently, CAS launched its strategic research on the roadmap for priority areas to 2050, which comes into eighteen categories including: energy, water resources, mineral resources, marine resources, oil and gas, population and health, agriculture, eco-environment, biomass resources, regional development, space, information, advanced manufacturing, advanced materials, nano-science, big science facilities, cross-disciplinary and frontier research, and national and public security. Over 300 CAS experts in science, technology, management and documentation & information, including about 60 CAS members, from over 80 CAS institutes joined this research. Over one year’s hard work, substantial progress has been made in each research group of the scientific disciplines. The strategic demands on priority areas in China’s modernization drive to 2050 have been strengthened out; some core science problems and key technology problems been set forth; a relevant S&T roadmap been worked out based on China’s reality; and eventually the strategic reports on China’s S&T roadmap for eighteen priority areas to 2050 been formed. Under the circumstance, both the Editorial Committee and Writing Group, chaired by President Yongxiang Lu, have finalized the general report. The research reports are to be published in the form of CAS strategic research serial reports, entitled Science and Technology Roadmap to China 2050: Strategic Reports of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The unique feature of this strategic research is its use of S&T roadmap approach. S&T roadmap differs from the commonly used planning and technology foresight in that it includes science and technology needed for the future, the roadmap to reach the objectives, description of environmental changes, research needs, technology trends, and innovation and technology development. Scientific planning in the form of roadmap will have a clearer scientific objective, form closer links with the market, projects selected be more interactive and systematic, the solutions to the objective be defined, and the plan be more feasible. In addition, by drawing from both the foreign experience on roadmap research and domestic experience on strategic planning, we have formed our own ways of making S&T roadmap in priority areas as follows: (1) Establishment of organization mechanism for strategic research on S&T roadmap for priority areas The Editorial Committee is set up with the head of President Yongxiang Lu and · xiv ·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
(2) Setting up principles for the S&T roadmap for priority areas The framework of roadmap research should be targeted at the national level, and divided into three steps as immediate-term (by 2020), mid-term (by 2030) and long-term (by 2050). It should cover the description of job requirements, objectives, specific tasks, research approaches, and highlight core science problems and key technology problems, which must be, in general, directional, strategic and feasible. (3) Selection of expertise for strategic research on the S&T roadmap Scholars in science policy, management, information and documentation, and chief scientists of the middle-aged and the young should be selected to form a special research group. The head of the group should be an outstanding scientist with a strategic vision, strong sense of responsibility and coordinative capability. In order to steer the research direction, chief scientists should be selected as the core members of the group to ensure that the strategic research in priority areas be based on the cutting-edge and frontier research. Information and documentation scholars should be engaged in each research group to guarantee the efficiency and systematization of the research through data collection and analysis. Science policy scholars should focus on the strategic demands and their feasibility. (4) Organization of regular workshops at different levels Workshops should be held as a leverage to identify concrete research steps and ensure its smooth progress. Five workshops have been organized consecutively in the following forms: High-level Workshop on S&T Strategies. Three workshops on S&T strategies have been organized in October, 2007, December, 2007, and June, 2008, respectively, with the participation of research group heads in eighteen priority areas, chief scholars, and relevant top CAS management members. Information has been exchanged, and consensus been reached to ensure research directions. During the workshops, President Yongxiang Lu pinpointed the significance, necessity and possibility of the roadmap research, and commented on the work of each research groups, thus pushing the research forward. Special workshops. The Editorial Committee invited science policy Preface to the Roadmaps 2050
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the involvement of Chunli Bai, Erwei Shi, Xin Fang, Zhigang Li, Xiaoye Cao and Jiaofeng Pan. And the Writing Group was organized to take responsibility of the research and writing of the general report. CAS Bureau of Planning and Strategy, as the executive unit, coordinates the research, selects the scholars, identifies concrete steps and task requirements, sets forth research approaches, and organizes workshops and independent peer reviews of the research, in order to ensure the smooth progress of the strategic research on the S&T roadmap for priority areas.
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scholars to the special workshops to discuss the eight basic and strategic systems for China’s socio-economic development. Perspectives on China’s sciencedriven modernization to 2050 and characteristics and objectives of the eight systems have been outlined, and twenty-two strategic S&T problems affecting the modernization have been figured out. Research group workshops. Each research group was further divided into different research teams based on different disciplines. Group discussions, team discussions and cross-team discussions were organized for further research, occasionally with the involvement of related scholars in special topic discussions. Research group workshops have been held some 70 times. Cross-group workshops. Cross-group and cross-disciplinary workshops were organized, with the initiation by relative research groups and coordination by Bureau of Planning and Strategies, to coordinate the research in relative disciplines. Professional workshops. These workshops were held to have the suggestions and advices of both domestic and international professionals over the development and strategies in related disciplines. (5) Establishment of a peer review mechanism for the roadmap research To ensure the quality of research reports and enhance coordination among different disciplines, a workshop on the peer review of strategic research on the S&T roadmap was organized by CAS Bureau of Planning and Strategy, in November, 2008, bringing together of about 30 peer review experts and 50 research group scholars. The review was made in four different categories, namely, resources and environment, strategic high-technology, bio-science & technology, and basic research. Experts listened to the reports of different research groups, commented on the general structure, what’s new and existing problems, and presented their suggestions and advices. The outcomes were put in the written forms and returned to the research groups for further revisions. (6) Establishment of a sustained mechanism for the roadmap research To cope with the rapid change of world science and technology and national demands, a roadmap is, by nature, in need of sustained study, and should be revised once in every 3–5 years. Therefore, a panel of science policy scholars should be formed to keep a constant watch on the priority areas and key S&T problems for the nation’s long-term benefits and make further study in this regard. And hopefully, more science policy scholars will be trained out of the research process. The serial reports by CAS have their contents firmly based on China’s reality while keeping the future in view. The work is a crystallization of the scholars’ wisdom, written in a careful and scrupulous manner. Herewith, our sincere gratitude goes to all the scholars engaged in the research, consultation · xvi ·
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To precisely predict the future is extremely challenging. This strategic research covered a wide range of areas and time, and adopted new research approaches. As such, the serial reports may have its deficiency due to the limit in knowledge and assessment. We, therefore, welcome timely advice and enlightening remarks from a much wider circle of scholars around the world. The publication of the serial reports is a new start instead of the end of the strategic research. With this, we will further our research in this regard, duly release the research results, and have the roadmap revised every five years, in an effort to provide consultations to the state decision-makers in science, and give suggestions to science policy departments, research institutions, enterprises, and universities for their S&T policy-making. Raising the public awareness of science and technology is of great significance for China’s modernization.
Writing Group of the General Report February, 2009
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and review. It is their joint efforts and hard work that help to enable the serial reports to be published for the public within only one year.
The ocean is the cradle of life, the precious deposits of resources, the hotbed of wind and rain, the channels of trade, and the defence of national safety. Ocean is closely related with major, overall, and long-term issues, such as, safeguard to the interests and the national security, and human survival, the sustainable development, global climate change, and strategically important oil, gas, and metal ores resources and so on. The development and utilization of marine resources and marine environmental security will become a focus of the world’s competitions in national economies and in science and technology. In the future, marine scientific and technological level and innovation capability will be dominated by competition. Since the 1990’s, with the rapid growth of marine economy in the world, marine economy is and will continue to become the world’s new economic growth points, also becomes a strong motive for competing marine resources and re-delimiting the blue territory in all main coastal nations. Since 21st century, in order to respond to new demands and challenges of the situation, coastal countries highly concern in overall the strategic marine realm. The United States, Japan, other countries, and regional organizations are intensifying their adjustments in the ocean or the development with new strategies and policies, and increasing the fund-input into marine science and technology research and development in order to seize the initiative in a new round of international maritime competition. Ocean plays an irreplaceable role in China’s current and long-term development. As the wealth of valuable resources and the largest space for sustainable development for human society, ocean is particularly important to China—the most populated country in the world with relative shortage of a wide range of strategic resources. Nowadays, under the economic globalization and multi-polarization of world politics, the following issues will certainly become the prior research areas in China: marine rights and interests and national security; investigation and assessment of marine biological and mineral resources; marine environmental monitoring and ecological restoration; regional development and integrated management of coastal zone; ocean circulation systems and climate variability predictions, as well as modern maritime security and so on, which all depend on marine science and technology innovation and progress. As a big marine country, China has 18,000 km of coastline, nearly three million km2 of the blue territory in which marine resources are rich. However, compared with the United States, Japan and other marine strong
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powers, China’s marine science and technology and marine industries are far behind the requirements of a marine power. China is facing strong challenges to the national marine security and economic, social development, and at same time, China is facing an excellent opportunity for future development in marine science and technology. How to meet the needs in national strategies, in rapid economic and social development for marine science and technology, how to solve major bottleneck problems and constraints, how to achieve a leap in the development of marine science and technology, and how to construct a marine power, have become the focuses of the whole nation and all communities. Under the situation, in October 2007, the Chinese Academy of Sciences carried out a strategic research project on the roadmap pictured in China towards 2050 in 18 important areas of science and technology. As one of the 18 fields, the roadmap of marine science and technology development, which is studied by groups of marine experts, is focusing on national needs and major marine science issues, aiming at economic and social development of China’s future strategic needs, looking forward to the forefront of technological development in the world’s oceans, analyzing in-depth the international marine science and technology development, finding seriously some key problems and potential impact on development of marine science and technology in China, forecasting tracks and scenarios of the ocean science and technology development, and drawing the roadmap of China’s development in marine science and technology. Conducting forward-looking strategic research, is not only demand of the country’s future sustainable economic and social development, but also demand for gradually increasing the capability of independent innovation for building an innovation-oriented country. Therefore, this study is conducted under the guidance of Comprehensive, Coordinated and Sustainable Development—the Scientific Concept of Development, for independent innovation and supportive development in the future; to meet the core needs in the rights, interests, wealth, health, and safety of the nation; to combine national major needs with the forefront scientific development, fundamental research with technical capacitybuilding, and forward-looking layout with the scientific feasibility; to provide solutions to major marine science and technology issues in China and the world at present and a period of time after; to address the constraints of marine science and technology bottleneck in the development of key technologies; to analyze the relationships among technology, economic, social and political development; to outlook the country needs with breaking through the shackles of the traditional framework for the next 40 years in marine science and technology development; and to clarify the innovation goals of China to 2020, 2030 and 2050 with specific development roadmaps. Marine science and technology is a variety of disciplines and the complex blend of technologies including physical oceanography, marine geology, marine biology, marine ecology and environmental sciences, marine chemistry, and · xx ·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
In this study, with methods of integrated research, comparative analysis, bibliometrics, systems analysis, matching forecasts, the experts exchange forum such as seminars and conferences in a number of ways, the hot spots and trends of international marine science and technology developments are analyzed and predicted, trying to grasp the international cutting-edge development and the national urgent needs, envisioning the long-term objectives, strategic needs, and routes of marine science development in China, and putting forwards practical policies and measures. The basic research process is: expert selection, program design, research objectives and research methods determination, technical line design, project task decomposition, the formation of the first draft of the strategic study, by idea exchange, expert advice, and amend research findings. Under the guidance of the Strategic Planning Bureau and the Resources and Environment Science and Technology Bureau, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), this project is completed jointly by the Institute of Oceanology, CAS; South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, CAS; Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Sustainable Development, CAS; Institute of Acoustics, CAS; Institute of Atmospheric Physics, CAS; Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources, CAS; Shenyang Institute of Automation, CAS; and Lanzhou Branch, National Science Library, CAS; and so on. In more than a year, the research team, taking full advantage of accumulated wisdom and academic achievement, has organized eight expert seminars, aiming at China towards 2050 on vision, mission and plans in development of marine science and technology, having the relevant issues discussed and forecasted in development path and key areas with a clear roadmap. In recent years, China has formulated a series of scientific and technological development plans, relevant state departments, universities and research institutes have carried out strategic studies on the development in Preface
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marine observation technology. It is not only a large scientific project but also a typical of experimental science, characterized by long development cycle and unpredictability. Multi-disciplinary marine science and technology is not only interrelated, but also has relatively independent sub-areas, each with its own characteristics and special problems, which not only needs a solid foundation of knowledge and application engineering, but also demands for strong support of high-tech. In this study, by considering actual situation of multi-disciplinary marine science and making top-priorities, five topics: marine environmental security, marine ecology and security, marine biological resources, oil and gas and mineral resources are established, taking into account of the sustainable development of other fields in marine science and technology, and thematic reports are formed. On the basis of the sub-areas research results, this general report, a strategic research report on marine science and technology is formulated.
Roadmap 2050
marine areas or disciplines, which yielded many new results, new ideas and proposals, such as “Outline of the National Program for Medium- and LongTerm Scientific and Technological Development (2006–2020)” [1], “Outline of the National Eleventh Five-Year Guideline for the Development of Marine Science and Technology” [2], “Strategy Report of Earth Science Development in the 21st Century (2009)” [3], “Reports on the Development of Marine Science Disciplines (2008)” [4], “China’s Development Strategy For Marine Science Research (2008)” [5], “On Several Strategic Issues in Marine Science And Technology (2007)” [6], “China National Offshore Development Report (2007)”[7], and so on. These documents are used as policy-making advice, as well as our research references. During the study, we made reference to many literature and books; however, some materials were got from the Internet, some original source(s) or original author(s) could not be found, it may also have missing contents and incomplete statements, to which apology may be made. We would like to express sincere thanks to all the authors.
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Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
Abstract ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 1
Introduction ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 5
1
Major Demands of National Development on Marine Science & Technology ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 9 1.1 Needs from Sustained Economic Development in Marine Science and TechnologyĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ9 1.2 Social Development Demand on Marine Science and Technology ĂĂĂ 16 1.3 Needs in Marine Science and Technology from National Maritime Rights and Interests ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 20 1.4 Needs in the Marine Science and Technology from Development of Science and TechnologyĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 22
2
The International Forefront and Trends of Development in Marine Science & TechnologyĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 24 2.1 The National Marine Development Strategies of World’s Major CountriesĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 24 2.2 Major International Marine Scientic Research Plans ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 32 2.3 The International Trends of Development in Marine Science and Technology ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 46
3
Status and Opportunities of Chinese Marine Science & Technology DevelopmentĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 52
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Contents
Roadmap 2050
3.1 Status of Development of Marine Science and Technology Research in China ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 52 3.2 Major National Sea-related Scientic Research Projects ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 75 3.3 Opportunities and Challenges in the Development of Chinese Marine Science and Technology ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 87
4
Major Scientic Problems and Technologies in Key Research AreasĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 100 4.1 Major Scientic Problems and Technologies in Marine Environment Areas ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 100 4.2 Major Scientic Problems and Technologies in Marine EcologyĂĂĂĂ 106 4.3 Key Science and Technology Issues in Marine Biological Areas ĂĂĂ 112 4.4 Key Scientic Problems and Techniques of the Marine Oil and Gas and Mineral Resources ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 123 4.5 Key Scientic and Technical Problems in Sustainable Development of Coastal Areas ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 130 4.6 Development and Utilization of Other Marine Resources ĂĂĂĂĂĂ 133
5
The Roadmap of Development in Chinese Marine Science & Technology to 2050ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 139 5.1 Constitution of the Roadmap of Development in Chinses Marine Science and Technology to 2050ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 139 5.2 The Goals of Chinese Marine Science and Technology Development to 2050 ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 142 5.3 Depicting the Development Roadmap of Chinese Marine Science and Technology to 2050 ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 145 5.4 The Roadmap of Development in Marine Environment Security ĂĂĂ 150 5.5 The Development Roadmap in the Field of Marine Ecosystems Security ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 152 5.6 The Technology Development Roadmap of Marine Bio-resources ĂĂ 155 5.7 The Technological Development Roadmap of Marine Energy Sources and Mineral Resources ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 161 5.8 The Development Roadmap in Comprehensive Utilization of Seawater Resources ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 167
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Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
Protection Measures and Countermeasures ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 169
References ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 174
Epilogue ĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂĂ 177
Contents
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Roadmap 2050
6
In this document, we focus on Chinese roadmap to 2050 on research and development of marine science and technology under the principle of three combinations, including combination of major national need with forefront of scientific development, combination of fundamental research with technical capacity-building, and combination of forward-looking layout with scientific feasibility. By analyzing the needs of the national development of marine science and technology, the international forefront and the trends, and the status, opportunities and challenges and major scientific issues of China’s marine science and technology development, we laid emphassis upon marine environment and security, marine ecosystems security, marine biological resources, marine energy and mineral resources, marine observation technology, sea water resource and sustainable development of coastal areas. On the basis of our analyzing results, we prospect and foresee the trend and route of the development of marine science and technology to 2050 in China, with clear outlines of China’s urgent issues in marine science and technology; propose the strategy and the goals at different phases. With the above analysis, we put forward a general roadmap of marine scientific and technological development with specific plan suggestions in related areas. China’s marine economy in recent years shows a trend of rapid development, especially in the new industries based on high technology. Sustainable development, transformation and upgrading of the traditional marine industries require for knowledge and technology innovation. Rapid development of emerging marine industries depends on major breakthroughs in marine high-tech. National demands for energy and strategic mineral resources are promoting exploitation of abundant oil and gas resources, energy, and mineral resources. Social development, including the survival and development of coastal residents, offshore protection and pollution control, marine disaster prevention and forecasting, and coastal zone sustainable development, requires more understanding of marine science and technology at higher level. In rescent years, the sovereignty of China in some regions of the East China Sea and the South China Sea is under challenge, it is an important task for China to safeguard the sovereignty over the waters using marine science and technology in a long time ahead. Internationally, countries have introduced, one after another, new marine development strategies in ocean science and technology. The United States implemented the Ocean Action Plan, a roadmap for development of marine
Roadmap 2050
Abstract
Roadmap 2050
science and technology in the next decade; the United Kingdom put forward the Ocean Research Program for 2025 (Oceans 2025) for the implementation of all-round development of marine science and technology, taking the lead in marine development and utilization of new energy technologies; Canada has also implemented her Ocean Action Plan, and will focus on the Arctic sea in the future; Japan launched the “Basic Plan on Ocean Policy”, a comprehensive strategy to promote its maritime power; Russia wants to resume her maritime power status, forging a maritime power in military and ocean-shipping with marine science and technology. China’s neighbors including Vietnam, India, and South Korea have also launched their own ambitious maritime strategy. Since the 1980’s, with the development of marine science and technology, international organizations and many countries have launched a series of largescale ocean research and observation programs, such as Climate Observation and Prediction of the Earth System (COPES), Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS), the Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone (LOICZ), Global Ocean Ecosystems Dynamics (GLOBEC), the Land-Ocean Interaction in the Coastal Zone-II (LOICZ-II), the Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study (SOLAS), the Integrated Marine Biogeochemistry and Ecosystems Research (IMBER), the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP), the Census of Marine Life (CoML ), the Global Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms (GEOHAB), the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), Array for Real-time Geotropic Oceanography (ARGO), the Global Ocean Carbon Observing System (GOCOS), the European Marine Observation and Data Network (EMODNET), and European Sea Floor Observatory Network (ESONET) and so on. We can see the international trends and forefronts of marine science and technology development by viewing from the development and evolution of these research projects. Under such an international marine science and technology development background, great progresses have been made in marine fields via the implementations of China’s major and key projects, such as the National Basic Research Program of China (the “973” Program), the National High Technology Research and Development Program of China (the “863” Program), the National Natural Science Foundation of China, and other special national projects. With the enhancement of country’s comprehensive economic strength, the marine science and technology will be given high priority by the government with gradual increase of financial support. In addition, with the establishment of foundation for the development of innovation in marine science and technology, China will see opportunities of rapid development in marine science and technology. Meanwhile, China will also face a number of challenges: the overall level of the marine science and technology is to be enhanced; the scientific research is in a crucial period of change from followup to innovation; technical development lag can not meet the needs of rapid development of marine scientific research; institutional mechanisms can not adapt to the needs of rapid development of marine science and technology; ·2·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
Abstract
·3·
Roadmap 2050
investments into science and technology are still insufficient; and the overall level of human resources of research is to be improved urgently. The guiding ideology of China to 2050 for the development of marine science and technology is, to consider the comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable development of national economy, society and technology, with the focuses on the needs of national economic, social development guided by the Scientific Concept of Development, closely surrounding the needs of national economic and social development and marine rights for marine science and technology, and taking “protect rights and interests, increase wealth, maintain health, apply safely, and develop rapidly” as the guidline for development; aiming at the national needs at different stages to break the shackles of the traditional framework; focusing on the major marine science and technology issues of China and the world in current and the future period of time and adher to the principle of “to combine major national needs with cutting-edge of scientific development, basic theoretical research with technical capacitybuilding, and forward-looking layout with scientific feasibility”; takeing “Demand-oriented problem solving, leading in promising fields with own advantages, people-centered team building, long-term planning and overall arrangement” as the strategy; expecting and forecasting the development of marine science and technology in the future 40 years, putting forward major scientific and technological problems and their solutions, and realizing the China’s marine science and technology strategic objectives in 2020, 2030 and 2050 with a clear developmental route. The goals of development to 2050 in China are that the marine science and technology in ability and achievements will achieve the level of advanced countries in the world, not only serving for building China into a maritime power, but also contributing greatly to the world’s sustainable use of marine resources and the health and safety of the oceans. In specific, in the field of marine environment and its security: to establish advantages in research into the air-land-sea interaction in the triangle area of western Pacific–eastern Indian Ocean–Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and into the offshore circulation off China, and to establish a regional advantage of in situ observation and numerical simulation in relevant sea area. In the field of marine ecosystems and its security: to enhance the observation capacity in coastal ecosystems and exploration ability in deep-sea, to deepen the awareness of major marine processes of biology and ecology, and to improve the understanding of natural and human disasters and their prediction capability, providing scientific guidance for establishing sustainable ecosystem-based oceans management and development models, ensuring stabile marine food output, and clean, healthy, and stable marine environment, and building up a secured marine ecosystems. In the field of the marine bio-resources: aiming at China’s strategic objectives of sustainable development and utilization and major energy-saving emission-reduction technology needs, to develop and use deeply and efficiently the marine bioresources, fisheries resources, marine biomaterial-based chemical resources,
Roadmap 2050
marine microbial resources, and marine life genetic resources, to realize innovation and breakthrough in marine biotechnology and marine resources, meeting China’s demands in economic and social development, and promoting China’s sustainable development and utilization of marine bio-resources. In the field of marine oil-gas and mineral resources: to enhance the exploration and resource evaluation capacity of marine oil-gas and mineral resources, to deepen the understanding of mineralization and formation of marine oil-gas reservoir in the seabed, and to improve the ability of locating marine oil and gas and mineral resources, providing scientific guidance for exploration, development and utilization of offshore oil and gas and mineral resources. In the sea water resources: to solve problems of fresh-water shortage in islands and coastal regions, to industrialize fresh-water production by desalinizing sea-water at low cost, to support sea water based chemical industry in sustainable manner, and to realize large-scale use of rare strategic resources, making sea water resources utilization as a major socio-economic industry in China. According to the above objectives, we drew this roadmap of development in marine science and technology and in the related sub-fields. The following measures must be taken to achieve our objectives: 1) to develop high technology, and to realize coordinated marine economic, environmental, and social development; 2) to change institutional mechanisms for innovation and creation, to strengthen domestic collaboration in science and technology, and promote all-round development; 3) to increase fund input into marine science and technology, strengthen the infrastructure reconstruction, and to enhance the supporting capability; 4) to strengthen the “Talents, Patents and Standards,” the three major strategies, and to promote technological innovation; 5) to strengthen international exchanges and cooperation to improve the ability to lead the development; 6) to enhance ocean observing ability to achieve the sharing of marine data; 7) to strengthen the building of technology platform and base, and to upgrade the capacities of R&D and industrialization; 8) to implement the Ocean Action Plan, and to carry out long-term observation for research; 9) to strengthen the promotion of marine sciences, and to create the atmosphere of maritime power.
·4·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
The sea covers 71% of the surface of the earth, containing a vast reservoir of energy and resources significant in political, military and economic strategy. It is the place of competition in world’s offshore nations for ocean development and utilization. In the 21st century, focusing on the development of marine resources, marine environment, and marine rights and interests security, a new round of competition in the ocean has been taken internationally. Powerbuilding strategy in marine realm is put again on the agenda of every waterfront nation. As the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is about to come into effect at the international level, countries around the world ocean development are re-taking actions for marine resources, marine rights and interests, and the division of marine territory. The global warming accelerates sea ice melting in the Arctic, opening potential sea lanes through the North Pole; the Arctic Ocean’s rich resources are under a new round of dispute over maritime rights and interests of the region. Russia inserted the national flag under the North Pole seabed in August 2007, declaring the sovereignty of the Arctic Sea; Canada announced a new maritime patrol in the Arctic and the Northwest Corridor Plans for deep-water port construction; and Norway, Denmark and other countries have claimed for sovereignty. All these actions have increased the tension in the Arctic. Conflicts on Arctic sovereignty are intensifying, and non-Arctic countries have expressed a concern about the Arctic environmental protection, sustainable economic and social development. In recent years, red lights are frequently turned on in the East China Sea and the South China Sea. Japan and the United States wanted to defend the Diaoyu Islands; the Philippines legislature mapped the Nansha Islands of China and part of Huangdao reefs of their own; U.S. ships entered the South China Sea waters frequently. Chinese principle of Putting aside Disputes and Seeking Common Development made in 1990’s for the South China Sea is facing challenges, causing severe situation to defense key waters of the region. A new round of the ocean competition has been different from the past marine competitions, it is based on high-tech military competition, economic competition and competition in science and technology. Marine scientific and technological level and innovation capability will play more important roles in the future competition. Responding to the new situation and challenges, all
Roadmap 2050
Introduction
Roadmap 2050
coastal countries have to adjust the sea policies or develop new strategies for the sea concern on the ocean issues from an overall strategic perspective, increase investment in research and development of marine science and technology, implement marine science and technology action plan, in order to seize the initiative of a new round of international maritime competition. Ocean is an important component of the Earth system, and the main drive of the world’s climate and environmental change. At present and for a fairly long time to come, the global-warming leading environmental change is not only a hot scientific issue, but also has risen to political heights of international concern. Marine surveys and studies are carried out to explore the ocean secrets, the study of marine environmental changes in the global role in the early 21st century will become the top priority of the next few decades. Under the situation, as a key part of the Earth system science, marine science and technology is bound to usher in all-round development of the opportunity. China is the country of world’s earliest marine explorer. The ancients have long operated on the sea for fishing, salt manufacturing and navigation. At the same time, it continued to observe and understand the oceans and accumulated a large amount of marine knowledge. 1405–1433 in Ming Dynasty, Zheng He carried out seven voyages onto Occidental Oceans, showing overall national strength and strength of sea control in the Ming Dynasty to the international community. Zheng He fleet reached the furthest to the south of the Equator in the east coast of Africa and Madagascar, which is more than half a century earlier than Columbus sailing to the Americas from Europe. In navigation and understanding of the oceans, the technical level was far more than advanced over the West at that time [8]. However, since the Qing Dynasty, the ruler’s attention to the oceans started to diminish, especially after the Opium War, China was gradually annexed to a semi-colonial and semi-feudal country, with the result that Chinese modern marine scientific research and technological development has been slow down, and almost lost the control in marine scope. At the same time, foreign waterfront nations began to develop national marine force; and in a short time, maritime supremacy alternated for hegemony in different periods of time at sea and formed different marine powers. In the late Qing Dynasty, Li Hongzhang launched the Northern Fleet in the naval battle against Japanese invaders (the Sino-Japanese War); however, the fleet was totally annihilated; the dream for achieving a marine power through a strong navy shattered. Since the founding of New China, the Chinese defence forces and marine technology have been strengthened. After Chinese reform and opening-up, marine science and technology have been developing rapidly in various marine disciplines and technology sectors; and the utilization of marine resources has made many substantial results, which greatly contributed to the development and utilization of marine resources and to the revitalization of the marine economy. However, in respect of the sea, after all, China missed a several hundred years of development time, coupled with many-year serious shortage ·6·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
Introduction
·7·
Roadmap 2050
of investment into marine science and technology, Chinese marine science and technology lagged far behind the level of maritime power in the international field, and the marine science and technology are still in follow-up and simpleimitation. This negative situation cannot support in full power the China’s maritime defence and marine sustainable and rapid economic development. At present, Chinese economic, social, science and technology are rapidly advancing in an overall catch-up period, the international status and influence become increasingly prominent. In 2008, China’s gross domestic product (GDP) reached 4,222 billion U.S. dollars, ranked the third place after the United States and Japan (according to the World Bank in February 2009). In many fields of science and technology, China is also leading the country to catch up with international science and technology. Shenzhou-series spacecrafts were developed and launched, making China the third country in the world in mastering manned spacecraft technology next to the United States and Russia, together with the lunar exploration satellite that successfully launched, China has achieved a qualitative leap in the field of space technology, which has attracted worldwide attention. In the current far-reaching impact from the global economic crisis, China will certainly become one of important forces in the world against the crisis. In the fight against piracy in Somalia, China has also showed her maritime military and sci-tech strength, and a role of a responsible and peaceful development country is being erected in the international arena. Viewing 2050, China’s GDP may rise to the first or second place in the world with enhanced comprehensive national strength and breakthrough with irreplaceable role-playing in international political, economic, and science and technology arena. With this vision, China is bound to become a technological power, to which we must steadily promote the development of high technologybased innovation strategy, comprehensively promote the construction of an innovative country in order to support scientific and technological innovation, and to lead the all-round development in economic and social sectors. Also in 2050, innovation and development of marine science and technology will become an important part of the vision achievement. On the one hand, enhanced comprehensive national strength will strongly guarantee the development of marine science and technology with a powerful financial support and strong backing, and the all-round development in science and technology will also provide technical support to the marine science and technology advancement. On the other hand, innovation and development in marine science and technology will be able to support the marine industries and offer solutions to Chinese current issues regarding maritime rights and interests. In the research development in aerospace and marine systems, China has gone further up in the space road, by having making eye-catching achievements in the world; and additionally is about to realize its moon-landing plan. In the Sea-Tour journey, although we are progressing gradually following the previous line, but we have built a solid foundation for marine expedition. In the whole, since the Zheng He pioneering, we missed too many chances. Therefore, the
Roadmap 2050
marine journey of exploration is still full of challenges with many difficulties. Looking forward 2050, we believe that with the strong national support, Chinese development of marine science and technology will result in major breakthroughs, and China will leap from a big country to a strong country in ocean science and technology. Once again, we must not miss opportunities for the development of maritime power. We must rely on marine science and technology to realize the maritime power dream that formed and lasted for many generations. Although the road may be long and uneven, we must be always persistent in pursuing our goal. The long marine journey will certainly see the dawn at the ocean as the reward after all by the effort of the whole nation.
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Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
In the coming decades, Chinese sustained economic development requires major and urgent needs for marine biological resources, oil and gas resources and mineral resources; The peaceful rise of China must have a strong coastal defense and security; better life and harmonious society building demands for the safety of marine food and healthy marine environment. Marine science and technology in China faces a strategic opportunity of the great development.
1.1 Needs from Sustained Economic Development in Marine Science and Technology 1.1.1 Needs in Upgrading Traditional Industries and Emerging of Novel Industry
Emerging Marine Industries [9] Marine emerging industry includes emerging marine industry groups in background of high-tech development, such as the bio-pharmaceutical industry, marine power industry, water use industry, marine chemical industry and offshore oil and gas industry. Marine emerging industry reflects a general trend of economic development in the 21st century in coastal countries and regions. Marine biological pharmaceutical industry: refers to manufacturing activities that use marine organisms as raw materials for extraction of the active ingredients, using which marine pharmaceuticals and health products are produced and processed. Marine power industry: refers to the use of ocean energy in the coastal areas, marine wind energy for electricity production.
Roadmap 2050
1
Major Demands of National Development on Marine Science & Technology
Roadmap 2050
Water use industry: refers to the direct use of seawater and desalination activities, including fresh water production from seawater, for industrial cooling water and city usage for residential, fire-fighting, and other activities. Marine oil and gas industry: refers to ocean exploration, mining, transportation, processing crude oil, and natural gas production activities. Marine chemical industry: chemical industry, including sea salt, sea water chemistry, algae biochemistry, and marine petrochemical production activities.
Since the reform and opening-up, China has made great progresses in development and utilization of marine resources and marine economy. The marine economy has become a new growth point of national economy. However, compared with the world’s maritime power, we still have a big gap. Therefore, high priority should be given to the development and protection of marine resources. A fast-and-good marine economy development depends more and more on the strong support of marine science and technology. According to the 2008 Statistical Bulletin of China’s Marine Economy released by the State Oceanic Administration [9], the country’s marine economy in 2008 continued to maintain steady growth, at a higher growth rate than that of national economic development. According to preliminary calculation, the GDP from national marine-related sectors in 2008 reached 29,662 billion Yuan, 11.0 percent higher over that in 2007, taking 9.87% of the total GDP, 0.13% increase from 2007’s. Among them, revenue form the marine industries is 1.7351 trillion Yuan, and 1.2311 trillion Yuan increase from marine-related industries; 160.8 billion Yuan increase from the primary marine-industry, 1.4026 trillion from the secondary, and 1.4028 trillion from the tertiary industry, forming up the ratio of industrial structure of the marine economy as 5:47:48 (Fig. 1.1). Marine tertiary industry Marine secondary industry Marine primary industry The proportion of gross marine product to GDP 8.68 8.80 9.37
12
10.03
9.74
9.87
10
9.64 9.17 8
6
4
2 2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Year
Fig. 1.1 2001–2008 GDP from marine industry (Source: the State Oceanic Administration, Statistical Bulletin of China’s Marine Economy in 2008)
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Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
28.08% Coastal tourism
18.10% Marine fisheries
7.14% Marine oil and gas industry 0.08% Marine mining 0.48% Marine salt 4.45% Marine chemical industry 0.48% Marine biological pharmaceutical industry 0.06% Marine power industry 31.51% Marine transportation 0.06% Marine utilization industry 3.36% Marine engineering construction 6.22% Marine shipbuilding industry
Fig. 1.2 Ratios of major marine industries in 2008 (Source: the State Oceanic Administration, Statistical Bulletin of China’s Marine Economy in 2008)
In the development of major marine industries, the fastest growing one in 2007 was electric power industry, as marine bio-pharmaceutical industry, as new industries [9]. 1) The marine power industry: A group of offshore wind power projects is in operation, leading fast development in marine power industry, adding 8 billion Yuan to the industry, or by 51.6 percent growth from 2007. 2) Marine bio-pharmaceutical industry: The annual increase value was 5.8 billion, representing 28.3 percent growth from 2007. 3) The water use industry: Seawater desalination and comprehensive utilization were expanded in a growing scale; substantial progress was made in technology. Throughout the year, 8 billion Yuan increase was achieved, 22.7 percent growth from 2007. 4) The marine chemical industry: Impacted by oil prices fluctuation, the price of marine chemical products showed high-to-low pattern; however, the growth trends of the marine chemical industry remained increasing, and achieved 54.2 billion Yuan value-adding, an increase by 6.8% over 2007. (A) Sustainable Development, Transformation and Upgrading of Traditional Marine Industries Need Knowledge and Technological Innovation The development of marine fisheries relies on marine bio-resources. Since the past 20 years, marine fisheries, marine aquaculture industry in particular, has been growing rapidly. The oceans have become an important high-quality protein source. The human needs for marine bio-products are 1 Major Demands of National Development on Marine Science & Technology
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In 2008, Chinese major marine industry is in a good shape. Marine transportation, coastal tourism, marine fisheries and other traditional industries continue to maintain steady growth in the three industries, the value-increase from marine industries accounts for 31.51%, 28.08%, and 18.10%, respectively, totaled to 77.69%. Marine bio-pharmaceutical industry, marine power industry (new ocean energy power generation), water industry, and other new industries grew rapidly. Fig. 1.2 gives the ratios of various industries.
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increasing. Marine fisheries products have accounted for 1/5 of the national animal food (meat, poultry, aquatic products, etc.) supply. It is predicted that by 2030, Chinese total population will reach 1.5 billion; nearly 10 million tons of aquatic products will be needed to meet the requirements of people. Fisheries resources have the characteristics of migratory movement, even after the maritime boundaries are delimitated, issues on the distribution of biological resources and protection will still exist. Based on the concept of “state of origin” for fishery resources (for example, in the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea and the South China Sea, a number of important economic fish and shrimp’s spawning grounds are in the side of Chinese coastal waters, while the grow-up individuals will migrate to the waters of neighboring countries in a season), the protection of marine bio-resources and fisheries interests in the future is a long-term and arduous task for China to safeguard its maritime rights and interests. Corresponding to the increasing requirement on fisheries production and sustainable development, many problems still exist in Chinese development and utilization of marine bio-resources and the industry. Phenomena indicating serious decline of fishery resources, such as frequent alternation of major economic species, trend of more young and small and low-value catches, have not been fundamentally alleviated. The development in marine ecosystembased agriculture is restricted by the lack of germplasm, diseases, environmental degradation and poor quality of products. Coastal eutrophication has become a new potential threat on marine bio-resources, and there are no effective prevention and control measures against the impacts associated with large-scale anoxic zone and red tide events on fishery resources. Problems in quality control of aquatic products and outdated processing technology seriously impact the industrial restructuring and sustainable development of marine fisheries. To guarantee the food security and preserve the marine rights and interests, it is necessary to promote the marine fisheries industry from “production type” to “quality and benefit type” and “responsible type” of the modern marine fisheries. To this end, the vulnerability of marine biological resources and diversity should be fully understood, and platforms for basic investigation and research activities into marine bio-resources for sustainable development and utilization should be built up. Furthermore, studies on biodiversity and new biological resources should be supported. Protection and rational exploitation of marine bio-resources is one of the major requirements for healthy development of the marine industries of China. (B) Rapid Development of New Marine Industries Depends on a Major Breakthrough in Marine Science and Technology Knowledge enhances the economy, and technology gives a birth to a new industry. Development of new agricultural products, new food products such as biodegradable plastics, new bio-fuels and other new materials, need continuous progresses in regarding science and technology, based on technological approaches in life sciences and biotechnology. From the marine bio-resources, we can not only access to protein food, but also access to medicines, biological · 12 ·
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products, as well as fiber, materials and energy. Marine biotechnology is a new discipline boomed from the 1980’s, and has become a rival field of high-tech in countries of the world as an important strategic component of development. At present, the main direction rapidly advances in four fields: First, the mariculture, the goal was to upgrade the traditional industries, to promote the leaps and bounds of aquaculture in breeding industry in the cultivation, disease prevention and control, large-scale production, and many other aspects. Second is the development of marine natural products. The goal is to explore and make use of new high value-added marine resources and promote marine new drugs, new materials, and special features of marine biological activity in mass production scale. Third, with marine environmental protection and restoration, the sustainable use of marine resources and industrial sustainable development are ensured. Fourthly is the utilization of functional genes of marine bio-sources in order to take initiative in future bio-technology development. Knowledgebased new economy of marine biology has a more profound meaning and a broader outreach compared with the traditional agriculture. Marine medicine and marine biomass energy industry are rising industries benefit to the human beings, having greater development potential and space in China. Marine energy reserves are enormous. According to theoretical calculations, the global reserves reach 76 billion kW, of which 15.7 billion kW can be used. The explorable ocean energy in China totals at 0.441 billion kW [10]. Therefore, marine energy is worthy of great importance in the 21st century’s as alternative energy sources. China has long coastline, the economically developed coastal areas bring together more than 40% of the population and it’s gross domestic product accounts for 60% of the country. Due to the lack of conventional energy resources, it needs to transport coal, oil and natural gas from the central and western regions. If a portion of energy can be taken from the ocean, considerable transportation and power consumption can be saved. In addition, China has more than 6,500 small islands, covering an area of 80,000 km2, population is more than 30 million, the needs of the marine energy are urgent. Particularly, new renewable clean energy, such as marine wind energy, tidal energy, wave energy, ocean current energy, thermal energy, and salinity energy, etc, are inexhaustible and have small environmental hazards. Therefore, the industry development of new marine energy has unlimited potential and is greatly demanded. In the development of emerging marine industry, the sustained growth depends on a strong driving force of innovation and development in marine science and technology, in which the key of persistent development is the breakthrough in technology. The ocean wind, wave and flow energy is great, also has a formidable destructive power, the difficulty of technical development and utilization is also large, and thus is inseparable with the technology development. Salt-water corrosion on the metal structure is very strong, marine organisms also have amazing vitality to quickly cover the sea surface of marine constructions. Therefore, to develop ocean energy must solve these problems first[10].
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China has carried out experiments and projects very early for marine wind power, tidal power, wave energy power generation, there have been some achievements, such as the marine wind power generation; but other new industries, such as ocean wave energy generation, thermal-difference power generation, biomass energy use, etc., are still in the stages of theoretical research, testing and small-scale R&D, and partial commercial production. Part of the research results for commercial scale production is very small; these new industries will undoubtedly raise the demand for higher and more urgent development of marine science and technology.
1.1.2 Marine Oil and Gas and Mineral Resources Development Needs Support of Modern Marine Science and Technology (A) Marine Oil and Gas Resources The ocean oil resources takes about 45% of the total global reserves. Of the seabed of the continental shelf (water depth less than 200m), 57% is the potential oil and gas sedimentary basin. Deep-water oil and gas exploration in recent years found that the continental slope is rich in oil and gas resources; the oil-gas discovery operations on shallow continental shelf are gradually replaced by that in deeper areas. Since the 1950’s, with technology advance and the energy demand growth, as well as the increasing difficulty of finding new oil fields on land, it is natural to look toward the sea. Exploration, development of marine oil and gas resources have become direction of development in the world. With the marine exploration progressing and our understanding deepening in recent years, oil and gas resources found in China’s national offshore grow fast in volume, and further intensifing the offshore exploration and development for oil and gas resources will greatly ease the huge domestic demand for oil and gas resources. According to conservative estimates, Chinese offshore oil resources amount 24.6 billion tons, marine and natural gas resources at 15.79 trillion m3, which is 23% and 29%, respectively, of Chinese total oil resources and gas amount. With the increased investment in ocean exploration and improved exploration level, marine oil and gas resources will be greatly enhanced. In order to maintain the sustained and healthy development of the national economy, we must meet China’s growing energy needs, and effectively solve China’s future energy security issues, advance the planning by 2050 for energy development goals and the realization path, and further intensify the exploration of marine oil and gas resources and development, which will greatly alleviate the pressures of enormous domestic demand for oil and gas resources. (B) Natural Gas Hydrate Gas hydrate is a new energy resources produced in seabed of a continental slope and permafrost zone, which is an ice-state supra-molecular cage-like solid formed by water and natural gas under low temperature and high pressure; · 14 ·
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(C) Seafloor Hydrothermal Sulfide, Polymetallic Nodules and Cobaltrich Crusts Seafloor hydrothermal sulfide is one of products of seafloor hydrothermal activity, and recording partial history of hydrothermal activity, being rich in copper, zinc, gold, silver and other useful elements. It generally situates in the water depth between 1,000–3,500 m, and is a highly potential long-term resources. To research hydrothermal sulfide resources, and to understand the deep structure of the hydrothermal-active area, can not only ease the demand for mineral resources for development of human society, but also can help us to understand very well the modern seafloor hydrothermal activity mechanism, the evolution of history and fundamental issues such as mining laws, the flow cycle mechanism and passages of seafloor hydrothermal fluid, and to provide a new perspective in land-based exploration of ancient seafloor hydrothermal sulfide. It is the necessary basis for further study and knowledge source for the international communities today to carry out the new hydrothermal areas, and for the long-term monitoring of hydrothermal activity. Deep-sea hydrothermalactive area and its sulfide and mechanisms distribution area, similar to the resources coastal submarine resources distribution area, have become the highly 1 Major Demands of National Development on Marine Science & Technology
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each standard cubic meter of gas hydrate can release 160–180 m3 of natural gas, with carbon dioxide emissions of only 24% of that from burning fossil fuels. It is widely recognized that gas hydrate is an important follow-up clean energy which can replace oil and conventional natural gas in 21st century. It is estimated that the world’s gas hydrate reserves reaches as high as 1.2×1017 m3 [11], which is more than twice as much as the total of the world’s proven conventional carbon fossil fuels, and have great prospects for energy development and important strategic value. Gas hydrate is an ideal new type of energy in the 21st century. On the one hand, gas hydrate is a kind of clean energy, the main gas component is methane, the rational development and use of natural gas hydrate resources will greatly alleviate the negative effects such as environmental pollution brought by current traditional energy consumption. On the other hand, gas hydrates is closely related to the Earth’s environment. Researches show that in geological history many mutations of the global climate and environment and many disasters happened, which caused by sudden submarine gas hydrate decomposition. At present, South Korea discovered a large quantity of gas hydrates in the Ulleung Basin, East China Sea; Japan has drilled gas hydrate in the Nanhai Trough. Both these two countries are intensifying the commercial exploitation. China found gas hydrate samples in the Shenhu region in the South China Sea, but in the East China Sea, the work is relatively few. Therefore, strengthening the research in these two waters for hydrate, studying in-depth the gas hydrate reserves and reservoir characteristics and distribution to alleviate the shortage of Chinese energy situation, and to safeguard the rights of the Chinese waters and to ensure economic and social sustainable development, are of great political and economic significance.
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international concern. Deep-sea is also rich in resources of polymetallic nodules and cobalt-rich crusts. Among them, polymetallic nodules distribute in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Ocean in depth of 4,000–5,500 m, rich in copper, nickel, cobalt, manganese and other metal elements, the total amount of its resources is far higher than the corresponding land-based reserves. And cobalt-rich crusts are rich in cobalt, nickel, manganese, platinum, and other rare earth metals, mainly in the 800–3,500 m water depth at the upper slopes of seamounts in the thickness of a few centimeters (the thickness of thicker crust can be more than 12 cm). Cobalt-rich crusts can contain high cobalt content up to 2.3% that is eight times more than the average cobalt content of polymetallic nodules and several dozens times higher than the native primary cobalt ores in continent. No cobalt mines have been yet found capable of matching the cobalt content volume in the cobalt-rich crusts. Facing fierce competition in today’s world for resources and spaces, deep-sea polymetallic nodules, cobalt-rich crusts and hydrothermal sulfide distribution are no doubt the extremely important strategic resources for the future development of human being. With the diminishing of land resources and developing science and technology, deep-sea polymetallic nodules, cobalt-rich crusts, and hydrothermal sulfide distribution areas are very likely to become the worldwide rival areas of the future’s economic, political, and military competition and the realization of human dreams of deep-sea mining.
1.2 Social Development Demand on Marine Science and Technology 1. 2.1 The Needs in Marine Science and Technology from Survival and Development of Coastal Residency The constantly rapid development in marine industry contributed to Chinese national economy, and also eased effectively the enormous pressure of employment, and favored the social stability for development. In 2008, some 32.18 million people worked in marine sectors, providing 670,000 more jobs than in 2007. With the strong support of marine science and technology to marine industry, marine industry will continue to generate more jobs, to promote employment, to stimulate domestic demand, and to promote social stability. More than 50% of the world’s population live in coastal areas, and the relationship between oceans and human health has never been such close. A health, coastal ecosystems and clean seafood are prerequisites for high-quality lives of the coastal residents. With the development in marine biological resources, the treatment to human complex diseases requires new drugs from the ocean, which ultimately · 16 ·
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1.2.2 The Needs in Marine Science and Technology from Coastal Ecological and Environmental Protection and Pollution Control Environmental quality in coastal waters of China is so far good in overall situation; however, the inshore zones have been polluted to different degrees in some estuaries, bays, ports, and adjacent sea areas of the large and mediumsized cities and major industrial areas. In 2008, the overall level of pollution in Chinese coastal waters is still relatively high. The seawater of about 137,000 km2 does not meet the clean water quality standards. Polluted waters are mainly distributed in Liaodong Bay, Bohai Bay, Laizhou Bay, the Yangtze River estuary, Hangzhou Bay, the Pearl River estuary, and the coastal part of medium-sized cities. Pollutants from 88.4 percent of the sewage-discharging sites exceed the standard for waste water discharge, and sea areas adjacent to some of the sewage-discharging sites have serious pollution problems [12]. In addition, the rapid but out-of-order development of the mariculture industry causes negative impacts on coastal ecosystems, leading to a series of problems, such as pollution, eutrophication, change of ecosystem structure and function, disease and red tide etc.. These problems brought about catastrophic impact on the sustainability of coastal ecosystems service, particularly the mariculture industry, causing serious problems of diseases and mass mortality of cultured organisms, and deteriorating environment. To solve these problems is an important task for scientists in China now and in the future. Studies on these issues will also have a significant impact on the international community, because the scale of mariculture industry in China, as well as the types of mariculture and cultured organisms, impacts of mariculture on marine environment and the ecosystems responses, are unique in the international arena, and widely-concerned by international scientific and industrial communities.
1.2.3 The Needs in Marine Science and Technology from Marine Disaster Prevention and Control China is one of the marine disaster-prone countries; hurricanes and storm 1 Major Demands of National Development on Marine Science & Technology
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relies on the development of marine medicine. 1940–2006, a total of 175 effective anti-cancer compounds were found in the world, most of them came from marine life. Since 1997, about 20,000 compounds were identified in marine matter, of which 30% are of activity. Antimicrobial drugs, including cephalosporins, anti-AIDS Avarol, zidovudine, anti-cancer Didemnin B, Vidarabine etc., about 50 marine and other drug candidates, were developed. On-going drugs include anti-cancer Bryostatin I, Punaglandin, and so on for about 30 species. Although China develops fast with great momentum in the technology and industry of marine pharmaceutics, it still lags behind the international advanced level for some distances with a wide gap in meeting the treatment of human health and disease.
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surges are particularly harmful, causing marine casualties and huge economic losses every year. Table 1.1 gives the 2008 Chinese major marine disasters and losses [13]. Table 1.1 Statistics of Chinese maritime disaster losses in 2008 Disaster types
Deaths (including missing) the number / person
Direct economic losses / 100 million Yuan
Storm surge (including nearshore wave)
56
192.24
Waves
96
0.55
Sea ice
0
0.02
Red tide
0
0.02
Tsunami
0
0
Coastal erosion
0
0
Seawater intrusion and soil salinization
0
0
Salt tide
0
0
Sea-level change
0
0
Enteromorpha prolifera
0
13.22
152
206.05
Total
In 2008, before the Beijing Olympic Games, Enteromorpha prolifera outbreak in the Yellow Sea in eastern China coasts causing heavy economic losses and negative impacts (Fig. 1.3).
Fig. 1.3 The Enteromorpha prolifera outbreak in Chinese coastal waters in summer 2008
The development of disaster prediction and early warning system and the progress of disaster prevention technology can effectively reduce the extent of marine hazards. The master and the forecast of dynamic changes of the marine environment are the key to improve climate forecasting and disaster early warning in extreme weather events, especially for hurricanes, storm surges and · 18 ·
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1.2.4 The Needs in Marine Science and Technology from Coastal Zone Sustainable Development Coastal zone not only has high physical energy, biological diversity and a large number of human activities (the coastal zone area taking about 8% of the Earth’s surface area, contributing about 1/4 to the global biological productivity, providing more than 90% of marine fisheries resources and other valuable bio-resources, fostering 60% of the world’s population along the coast about 60 km inland from coastline [14]), but also is a fragile zone in the global ecological environment. In addition to providing rich resources, natural disasters frequently take place. Coastal zone has become an ecosystem under tremendous pressure [14]. One is from changing challenges from the coastal system, including everchanging system of waves and ocean currents, the changing process of climate and topography, and the natural alteration of coastal system caused by the fluxes of the land, atmosphere and ocean. Another is the interference by human activities. Currently, coastal zone is the region of most human activities affected, with pollution, eutrophication, changes in sediment transport, urbanization, land reclamation, over fishing, tourism, and mining; they constantly threat the healthy development of coastal ecosystems. The human-impact on the highly altered ecological system has been from regional to global, and has become a global problem. The sustainable use and protection to this crucial and vulnerable part of the “Earth System” have been put on the international agenda as important issues, and regulated in forms of international documents or convention in order to coordinate the coastal zone development. China is located in the western bank of Pacific Ocean, facing the sea in eastern and southern sides, with more than 18,000 km-long shoreline, the area of coastal zone is about 285,000 km2, the number of the islands over 500 m2 is more than 5,000. Chinese maritime regions are in the middle and low latitude with superior natural environments and resources, which are conductive to economic development. China has made fast progresses in the desalination of seawater, seawater chemistry, beach culture, the coastal zone, as well as the use of new energy sources, such as coastal tourism. However, while rapid economic growth in coastal zone created enormous economic benefits, it also resulted in the natural environment damages in the area, influencing directly the sustainable development of coastal mangroves, corals and coral reefs, and spawning grounds in estuaries and gulfs, such natural ecosystems.
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other major marine disasters. The booming economic and social development call for the services in early warning of marine disaster; and the services are rapidly growing with higher demands, and especially in detailed and costumed patterns.
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1.3 Needs in Marine Science and Technology from National Maritime Rights and Interests 1.3.1 Needs in Marine Science and Technology from Maintenance of Territorial Security and Sovereignty Dispute over the maritime delimitation and island’s sovereignty between China and neighboring countries are unsolved and intensified. China’s geographical coverage is vast linking many neighboring countries by the ocean. These countries advocated the establishment of maritime neighbors 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone rights. Therefore, parts of the sea areas claimed overlapped, from which many disputed maritime delimitation occurred. Of a total area of 380,000 km 2 of the Yellow Sea, 180,000 km 2 areas controversial among China, North Korea, South Korea; of the total area of 770,000 km2 in the East China Sea, there are 160,000 km2 sea area of controversy between China and Japan, in which some overlapped with the area claimed by the Republic of Korea; in the South China Sea, China not only has the dispute on the delimitation of maritime zones with the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, Vietnam, but also has dozens of islands invaded and resources plundered, showing a grim reality to China. With the fight and growing importance over waterfront countries’ claim on coastal maritime rights and interests, the dispute of China with its neighboring countries will be more complicated, contradictory, and diversified over the issues in the delimitation of maritime zones and island sovereignty.
1.3.2 Needs in the Marine Science and Technology from National Maritime Security Understanding and forecasting the dynamic changes of the marine environment are essential to national security to protect the marine environment. At present, more than 70% of the total Chinese oil imports are through the Straits of Malacca, and nearly 60% of the vessels are Chinese ones through the strait every day. The lifeline of Chinese ocean shipping includes the Taiwan Strait, the South China Sea, Strait of Malacca, the Indian Ocean, and the Arabian Sea. Therefore, the protection on the sea passageways is clearly the need of national strategic interests expansion, and has risen to an issue of national socio-economic development, social security, and national security, as an overall strategic focus. In the access to information of marine environment, the gap between China and the United States is huge. The United States has conducted the ocean exploration and monitoring for more than 30 years, the acquired information of marine environment is far more than we have, in the global coastal waters, including China offshore. As a result, of national and historical reasons, China · 20 ·
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1.3.3 Needs in the Marine Science and Technology from High Seas Resources Development The Article 86 of “the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea” provides for that the high seas “are not included in the exclusive economic zone, in the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State, or in the archipelagic waters of an archipelagic State.” The high seas are not subject to the jurisdiction and control of any country. Freedom on the high seas is treated as the legal basis for the high seas regime. In 1958, “Convention on the High Seas” states: “Freedom of the high seas is exercised under the conditions laid down by these articles and by the other rules of international law. It comprises, inter alia, both for coastal and non-coastal States: 1) Freedom of navigation; 2) Freedom of fishing; 3) Freedom to lay submarine cables and pipelines; 4) Freedom to fly over the high seas.” This is the traditional “Four Freedoms.” “the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea” added two more freedoms, that is, by international law, freedom to allow the construction of artificial islands and other facilities, and the freedom of scientific research [15]. The high seas area occupies about 70% of the global oceans. At present, many countries are active in developing marine high-tech, trying to take the lead in entering the high seas, international seabed area, and Polar Regions. To achieve the dream of maritime power, China should not be limited to offshore resource development and to safeguard the rights and interests, but to broaden his field of vision to the development and utilization of high seas resources as a strategic focus, pay close attention to the high seas to carry out exploration and development into high seas resources. China has carried out exploration in the international seabed area, delineated about 75,000 km2 polymetallic zone in the Pacific Ocean, and carried out the polar expedition; however, these works can not meet the needs far more in high seas for resource development and utilization, and scientific and technological research. Exploration and research are still needed to be increased in the high seas, and construction of various marine exploration vessels and manufacturing of deep-sea detectors to be speeded up, including exploration and sampling in the oceans (including uninhabited islands) of importance [16].
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has rarely conducted survey in the Pacific to the Indian Ocean, and almost be nil in the Atlantic Ocean. In particular, in the areas of the normal access to the controversial area of the western Pacific and the key sea channel and other military-sensitive areas where Chinese naval vessels can hardly enter, the data of these regions are almost blank in China. To access and use the environment data of critical area and main sea-lanes, to enhance the protection to the marine environment, to safeguard the national security, and to improve the sustainable and stable development of the country, are of great strategic significance.
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1.4 Needs in the Marine Science and Technology from Development of Science and Technology 1.4.1 Needs from the Development in Earth System Science on the Marine Science and Technology Earth system science was first proposed by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)of the United States in 1983. In mid-1980’s, the Earth sciences rapidly progressed, scientists clearly put forward a point of view that physical processes and biological process interact, from which “the Earth System” thought initiated. In 1990’s, this view has become a consensus in academia, the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan and other countries were developing relevant plans, causing the theory established and flourishes. In 1992, 22 U.S. universities incorporated the Earth system science education into their curriculum. At the same time, the United Nation’s “Agenda 21” takes the Earth system science as a basic scientific course for sustainable development. Earth system science covers a range of natural and social sciences; it treats the Earth as an interaction system among the core, mantle, lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere and planetary systems, constituting an integral part of a unified system. The study on the system focuses on the interaction among various components and explains the Earth’s driving force, evolution, and global change. Obviously, without knowing the area of 71% of the Earth’s oceans, it can not understand the Earth system. Therefore, the development of marine science and technology is no doubt an important part of the Earth system, and marine science and technology development plays a decisive role in advancing and innovating the theory of Earth system science.
1.4.2 Needs from Other Scientific and Technological Development on the Marine Science and Technology Marine science and technology development and the development of Chinese overall science and technology are inseparable. Marine science and technology is not only an important component of Earth system science, but also with other disciplines and technological development is also extremely close, there is a mutual promotion and common development of the internal links. Simulation and forecasts of ocean circulation, related climate research, and database building can promote the development in computer technology and internet technology. The needs from marine monitoring and management advanced the development and application in space sciences and technology, such as satellite remote sensing etc.; research into ocean dynamics fluid mechanics carried forward the studies on fluid dynamics, Earth fluid dynamics, and nonlinear Earth system dynamics; and the design, production, and deployment of marine observing instruments, sensors, and observation · 22 ·
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Fig. 1.4 Deep-sea hydrothermal area is “an oasis in the desert” (Source: LeBris. Biogeochemical interactions at deep-sea vents.2008,summer_school report)
In short, the development of marine science and technology can not be separated from other scientific and technological development, and in turn, the development of marine science and technology can promote the development of other science and technology.
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platform drove the growth of space science and technology and automated science and technology. Development in offshore drilling technology greatly promoted the understanding of the deep-earth structure and material composition, and boosted the development in marine geology, geophysics, and the microbiology of extreme environment. Life activities in deep-sea hydrothermal vent areas opens a window for studying the life sciences with a breakthrough, in which the bio-density is one to 100 thousand-fold higher than the surrounding region. Through the life process in deep-sea, the origin of life, the major scientific problems, can be further understood (Fig. 1.4).
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2
The International Forefront and Trends of Development in Marine Science & Technology
This chapter aims at the national oceanic development strategy of major countries of the world and internationally significant ongoing projects of marine science and technology, to clarify the forefront and trends of development in marine science and technology.
2.1 The National Marine Development Strategies of World’s Major Countries The ocean is the final space of human existence and development for treasure resources. Human society is being exploring the oceans in a new attitude, resulting in increasingly international competition. The United States pointed out: The oceans are the “final frontier opened up”, and they will turn the action to the oceans from outer space. Canada proposes to develop marine industries, enhance the marine quota, create jobs, and occupy the international market. Japan develops and improves its international competitiveness by speeding up its marine science and technology. The United Kingdom takes the development of marine science as a revolution in the next century. International maritime competition will be mainly in the following areas: discovery, development and utilization of new marine energy sources; exploration and development of new marine mineral resources; access to more and more marine food; acceleration of exploitation and utilization of new marine-sourced drugs; and achievement of more secure, more convenient mode of transport by sea and air routes.
2.1.1 The United States: the Implementation of Action Plan for the Marine and Mapping of Marine Science and Technology Development Roadmap In 1986, the United States taked the lead in the development of “global
(A) The Ocean Action Plan of the United States U.S. ocean action plan is not only a blueprint for the 21st century ocean in response to a long-term strategy, but also a recent action to be carried out and to lay a solid foundation in the next 10 years for the United States’ policymaking in marine, coastal and Great Lakes areas. The ocean action plan focuses on the following six thematic areas and 88 implements. The six themes include: 1) to strengthen the leadership of marine work and cooperation by establishing a new high-level Committee on Ocean Policy and supporting the establishment of the Great Lakes inter-agency working group and the alike; 2) to advance the scientific understanding on the oceans, coastal zones and the Great Lakes; 3) to enhance the use and protection of resources in marine and coastal zones, and Great Lakes; 4) to manage coastal zones and waters; 5) to support maritime transport; and 6) to promote international research on marine policy and sciences. In January 2007, the United States Commission on Ocean Policy issued the latest developments in its ocean action plan [19], in which a brief description of each action plan for marine operations, as well as the progress of sub-actions, are presented. The report notes that 77 of the 88 operations targets have been achieved, the major four objectives of the operation are also nearing completion, and of the remaining 11 operations, one is being adjusted and another 10 are proceeding as planned. At the same time, four new ocean-related action plans are added. (B) The United States Marine Routes of Scientific Development in the Next Decade U.S. Government Inter-Agency Committee on Marine Science issued routes of marine scientific development of the United States in the next decade the priority areas of marine scientific research and implementation strategies in January 26, 2007, in which six thematic contents and 20 recent priority researches and four priority areas are cited. These studies will be carried out by 2 The International Forefront and Trends of Development in Marine Science & Technology
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marine science planning”, stressing that the oceans are the last territory to open up, the first and the best to develop and utilize the ocean will be able to get the most interest; in 1990 published “the 90’s marine science and technology Development Report ”, pointed out that the development of marine science and technology to meet the growing needs of the marine in order to continue to “maintain and enhance the field of marine science and technology leadership. ” After entering the 21 st century, the United States speeds up the development of marine science and technology development. December 17, 2004, U.S. President George W. Bush issued an executive order issued the “The United States Ocean Action Plan” [17], becoming the study guide of marine science and technology of the United States in the 21st century. One of the main points under the action, in January 2007, issued a “routes of marine scientific development of the United States in the next decade—the priority areas of marine scientific research and implementation of strategy” [18].
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the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Science Foundation (NSF), the United States Geological Survey (USGS), and other government departments responsible for the implementation. a. Research Themes and Priority Research Areas 1) Theme 1: Natural and cultural marine resource management. Include: understanding the status and trends through accurate and timely comprehensive assessment of accumulation and distribution of marine resources; forecasting the stability and sustainability of marine resources through the understanding of the relationship between the marine species and habitats of the environment; understanding possible impact from human development on the stability and sustainability of marine resources; applying advanced knowledge and technology, and benefiting from a variety of natural resources from the open ocean, coastal zone and the Great Lakes. 2) Theme 2: To improve the resilience of natural disasters. Include: understanding the occurrence of natural disasters and the mechanism and improving the forecasting ability to the future disaster events; understanding coastal and marine system responses to natural disasters to assess the future shortcomings against natural disasters; developing multi-hazard assessment and the mitigation model, policies, and strategies. 3) Theme 3: The implementation of operations at sea. Include: understanding the interaction between maritime operations and the environments; with the characteristics of influential environmental factors on marine operation, predicting the oceans state; making use of environmental impact and sea operations to improve the marine transport system. 4) Theme 4: The role of the oceans in the climate system. Include: understanding the interaction between ocean and the climate system in different regions; understanding the impact of climate variability and change on the oceans, the marine ecosystem, and the biogeochemical cycles; predicting the future climate change and its impact on the marine impact based on the understanding of the oceans. 5) Theme 5: To improve the level of ecosystem health. Include: understanding and predicting the course of nature and human activities on ecosystems; assessing the impact of various human developments on ecosystems through understanding the natural and human activity, socio-economic evaluation, and the simulation; by strengthening the understanding of marine ecosystem, applying appropriate indicators and measurements on sustainable use and effective management. 6) Theme 6: To improve the level of human health. Include: understanding the formation and development of human health-threatening marine disasters; understanding ocean-related human health risks and the potential benefits of marine resources to the human health; understanding how to use and assess marine resources, as well as how human activities can prevent the health hazards from the oceans; through understanding marine ecosystems and biodiversity, developing marine products and the biological model, and · 26 ·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
2.1.2 Britain: Outlook in 2025, All-round Development of Marine Science and Technology The United Kingdom is located in the north-western Europe, and surrounded by the Atlantic, the North Sea and the English Channel, with the coastline of about 11,500 km, containing rich marine resources. Since the 1960’s, UK started the development of North Sea oil and gas field, soon formed a British marine economy as a new growth point. At the same time, coastal tourism, marine equipment and materials industry were also rapidly emerging. The ocean is the source of energy in Britain, protect and make use of the oceans is to ensure the continued development of the country. UK marine energy industry is rising for the goal of generating 1/5 of the national energy from the ocean, making the United Kingdom as the “Saudi Arabia” in terms of using marine power; therefore, new energy power generation from the oceans and the technology development are strengthened. (A) The United Kingdom Development Strategy of the 21st Century for Marine Science and Technology In 2000, the United Kingdom Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) and the Marine Science and Technology Board (MSTB) proposed its marine science and technology development strategies in the next 5–10 years, including sustainable utilization of marine resources and marine environmental forecasting [20]. In the aspect of sustainable use of marine resources, focuses are on the development and utilization of marine ecosystems, water quality protection and the role of marine biodiversity. In forecasting the marine environment, focusing on interdisciplinary, cross-space research, marine and climate change interactions, and data acquisition and integration. (B) Marine Research Projects in 2025 [21] Ocean Research Program for 2025 (Oceans 2025) funded by UK Natural 2 The International Forefront and Trends of Development in Marine Science & Technology
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improving the human well-being. b. Recent Priority Areas of Research Joint Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology (JSOST) recently developed a 4-priority-research-project (2–5 years), they are equally important, regardless of primary and secondary. Although the major efforts are on the above 20 research priorities research, it does not rule out other long-term (7 to 10 years) priority researches. The four research priorities include: 1) predicting how coastal ecosystems respond to hurricanes and other extreme weather events; 2) researching how to better grasp the development of fishery production the marine ecosystem; 3) developing new types of marine biological sensors, for effectively forecasting the outbreak of harmful algal blooms and other marine hazards; 4) studying main Atlantic circulation that can accelerate the climate change.
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Environment Research Council is a new research project to address key strategic scientific goals, and designed by and implemented in seven UK-leading marine centers, which is a national plans in challenge to the changing oceans. The Oceans 2025 project will enhance the understanding on the scale, the nature, and impact of these changes in science, and promote solutions to some of the most fundamental problems in marine science, which it is essential for the future development of sustainable marine resource management (Fig. 2.1).
Strategic issues
“Problem-driven” strategic research
·Continuous observation data and numerical model
·The leadership of UK climate change agenda ·Regional impact on global change
·UK biodiversity ·Contribution to the Convention ·The protection to endangered species and their habitats
·UK energy policy ·Sustainable use of marine living resources ·The alternatives of oil and gas ·Carbon dioxide sequestration
·Floods and other natural disasters ·Coastal erosion ·Sensitive habitats ·Contamination
Expected results
·Access to the original basic data for knowledge sharing and transfer
1. Global Change
2.Earth’s life support systems
3.Sustainable economy (resources)
4.Sustainable economy (environmental impact)
·Meet people’s interest on marine and marine life ·Enhance confidence in supporting scientific decision ·Encourage young people to engage in scientific research The accountability system of budget execution
·Build long-term data sets ·Construction of national infrastructure ·Nurture the nextgeneration science
Fig. 2.1 The relationship between Ocean 2025 project and the national needs of UK
The Ocean 2025 project planed the following 10 themes and 3 institutionbuilding projects. The 10 topics including: 1) climate, ocean circulation and sealevel; 2) marine biogeochemical cycles; 3) the course of the continental shelf and coastal zone; 4) biological diversity and ecosystem function; 5) continental margins and deep-sea; 6) sustainable marine resources; 7) health and human influence; 8) technological developments; 9) the next-generation marine forecast; 10) integration of continuous observation of marine environment.
2.1.3 Canada: Overall Maintenance of the World’s Longest Coastline with Current Focus in the Arctic Waters Canada is surrounded by sea, has the world’s longest coastline and the second largest continental shelf. The length of Canadian coastline can circle around the earth by more than six times. Part of the extension of the coastline formed the Canadian Arctic Islands, which is the world’s largest archipelago. · 28 ·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
2.1.4 Japan: Pursuing Comprehensive Marine Legislation and First-class Technology Japan, as a maritime nation surrounded by the sea with 35,000 km of coastline, is an extremely resource-poor countries; the marine resources, environment, and safety are vital to the Japanese nation. The ocean economy is the whole basis of national economic development, as the total value from marine and waterfront industries accounted for half of gross domestic product, the marine scientific research facilities and equipment has reached the level 2 The International Forefront and Trends of Development in Marine Science & Technology
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Of Canada’s 10 provinces, eight provinces and the Northern Territory, as well as many cities are along coast. Approximately, 23% of Canadians live in coastal areas. Coast of Canada has a great potential to benefit of present and future generations, and for coastal transport, fisheries and aquaculture, and leisure travel, it provides a very convenient living conditions. In 1997, the Government of Canada introduced the “Law of the Sea”. The “Law of the Sea” authorized the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada the responsibility for organizing and urging the formulation of Canadian Maritime Strategy. Accordingly, the federal government established the coastal management plans for three Canada’s regions: the Arctic Ocean Beaufort Sea, the Atlantic Eastern Nova Scotia Shelf, and the central Pacific coast of British Columbia. July 2002, “Canadian Marine Development Strategy” [22] was issued. In 2004, the Canadian Government committed to: through maximum use of marine technology to establish a network of protected marine areas, implement comprehensive management, and strengthen the action of laws and regulations. The “Canadian Ocean Action Plan” [23] is the respond to the commitment. The action plan is built on the four intrinsically linked parts, which is, the status of international leadership, sovereignty and security, sustainable development of marine management, and ocean health and marine science and technology. The focus of the recent actions are as follows: 1) international ocean management. Canada continues to play a leading role in the international marine management, and promotion of the Global Forum; 2) developing the framework of the Arctic Marine Strategic Plan, to solve pollution, biodiversity, ecosystems and human health issues with the eight Arctic countries and indigenous peoples; 3) resolving the over-fishing in north-west Atlantic coast; 4) for integrated ocean management, delineating five priority areas of management planning, including Placentia Bay and the Grand Banks; the Sciotion Shelf; the Gulf of St. Lawrence; Beaufort Sea; and the North Pacific coast. As a result of global warming, the Arctic ice is melting. The Arctic has become a hot spot for the development and utilization of the Arctic among circum-Arctic and non-Arctic countries. Canadian Government intends clearly to seize the Arctic as its ocean strategy, and recently announced the construction of a new maritime patrol Arctic plan, to build a new deep-water harbor establish a cold weather training center along the north-west channel.
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of world-class, especially the marine research vessel, scuba diving, and ocean observing instruments. In the international Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP), co-sponsored by the United States and Japan, spent 500 million U.S. dollars to create the 57,000 t “Earth” riser drilling vessel, representing the highest level in today’s world, even the United States envies over the “ship” that they can not afford. Supported by the “Marine and Coastal Commission” Japanese consortium, the “Oceans and Japan: A Proposal on the Ocean Policy of Japan for 21 st Century” [24] was formed, in November 18, 2005, after more than two years of discussions and studies, and it was submitted to the Chief Cabinet Secretary Shinzo Abe. February 6, 2006, Japanese “Ocean Policy Research Foundation” reported the Proposal in Tokyo, causing strong reaction and feedback. Article 16 of “Basic Act on Ocean Policy” that took effect on July 20, 2007, provides that “The Government shall formulate a basic plan with regard to the oceans”. To this end, based on the “Basic Act on Ocean Policy” a set of integrated marine policy was promulgated in February 8, 2008 as “Basic Plan on Ocean Policy” [25]. “Oceans and Japan: A Proposal on the Ocean Policy of Japan for 21 st Century” is divided into four parts, putting forward the goal of the ocean nation building, and discussing in detail the necessity of making national ocean policy, the urgency of improving the management system of marine, and the significance of ocean development for Japan in the future. “Basic Act on Ocean Policy” includes four parts, namely “General Provisions, Basic Plan on Ocean Policy, Basic Measures, and Headquarters for Ocean Policy”. “Basic Plan on Ocean Policy” includes: to compromise between development and utilization of the ocean and marine environmental protection; to ensure maritime safety, and enrich the knowledge of marine science; to develop the marine industry in a sustainable manner; ocean management; and strengthen marine research and resolve the issue of international cooperation. “Basic Measures” include: to promote development and utilization of marine resources; to protect the marine environment; to promote resource development within the exclusive economic zone; to ensure the competitiveness of maritime transport and ensure maritime safety; to promote oceanographic research; to strengthen marine science and technology research and development; to revitalize the marine industry and strengthen the international competitiveness; to implement integrated coastal zone management; to effectively use and protect the off-land islands; to strengthen international ties and promote cooperation among nations; to enhance the understanding of the nation’s marine, and to promote training of personnel.
2.1.5 Russia: Focus on the Development of Sea Power and Strengthen Control of Arctic Waters (A) Russian Marine Strategic Points [26] First, attaching importance to the development of the navy and · 30 ·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
(B) Russian New Developmental Strategies in the Arctic [27] In August 2007, Russia placed his national flag onto the Arctic sea floor. Later, Russia aimed at speeding up the development strategy of the Arctic Ocean, with the desire to develop the massive oil and gas resources in the Arctic. According to Russian foreign-related sources, the Russian Federation Security Council has proved the new strategies of development in the Arctic on December 17, 2008. The new strategies described the national basic principles 2 The International Forefront and Trends of Development in Marine Science & Technology
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maintaining a deterrent force at sea. Russian navy plans to build and equip eight strategic nuclear submarines in 2007 to 2015. At the same time, to form two aircraft carrier battle groups each with three aircraft carriers, and realize the entire aircraft carrier construction program in 20 years. Whether it is the Russian scientific expedition team for scientific exploration in the Arctic Ocean and setting flags at the ocean floor, or the Russian navy return for military exercises in the world’s oceans, are passing the same signal: the Russian maritime power are on the road to rehabilitation. The second is the development of offshore oil transport, to create largescale state-owned transport fleet. In June 20, 2007, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed an order on the establishment of a new type of Russian stateowned shipping, it is planned to merger the existing two companies, Russian Modern Merchant Vessel Company and Novorossiysk Shipping Company, to form the Russian state-owned large-scale shipping companies, oil tankers for transport and enter the World Top 5 ranks as soon as possible, with which take this opportunity to revitalize Russian maritime industry. The third is the reorganization of fisheries resources and the revitalization of offshore fishing. In order to reverse the decline in the Russian fishery production that has lagged behind, the Russian government has recently taken a series of macro-control measures: restored the Russian State Fisheries Committee in 2007, strengthened Russian macro-management of fishery production; revised the Russian fishing regulations with new fish quota to fishers of Russia with the reinforcement of the legal fishery system. In 2008, the Russian government set up five regional fisheries exchanges in Murmansk, Kaliningrad, Vladivostok, Kamchatka-Petropavlovsk and Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk City. Fourth, to accelerate the development of shipbuilding industry, and to construct new vessels for the power at sea. Russian shipbuilding industry is better developed in ship design and manufacture with a very high level of development. In June 15, 2007, the Russian government officially approved the establishment of a wholly-state-owned United Shipbuilding Industry Group, and planned a long-term shipbuilding industry development to 2020, trying to power the manufacturing sector to develop and enhance international competitiveness. In the next 20 years, the Russian plans to build 300 navy ships, 700 various types of transport vessels for commercial fleets, and 493 fishing vessels for fishing fleets in the next 5 years.
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and regional policy on the Arctic Ocean, provided that Russia should participate fully in the division of territories and resources of North Pole region. The new strategy points out that Russia will cooperate with other Arctic countries in the development of the Arctic Ocean; the Russian Arctic should be the basis for strategic resource. The Russian government recently not only announced to set up “the Arctic Forces”, but also showed their desire for control of Arctic waters, which also caused widespread concern in many countries.
2.1.6 Neighboring Countries: Ambitious on Marine Development Strategy Adjacent to China, countries of India, Vietnam and South Korea have also launched their ambitious marine development strategy. After the Ninth National People’s Congress, the Communist Party of Vietnam vigorously promotes marine development strategy; the navy is attempting to pioneer the oceans expansion, strive to become a marine power of the 21 st century in ASEAN and even the world’s. Adapted to this change, Vietnam’s military strategy, especially in the navy was modified significantly, putting the navy on the most important position of army-building, formulating short, medium, and long-term development plans for the navy, and trying to make the navy as a tool for protecting its maritime rights and interests. In recent years, with the rapid development of economy, India stepped up the pace of expansion in an attempt to become the regional hegemon for early realization of its strategic objectives. The Indian navy clearly noticed that, sea power is not only relevant to the ship, but also to the geo-strategic issues. Therefore, from the end of the 20th century onwards, the Indian navy was on the step by step beyond its traditional offshore regions with more farreaching deployment strength. India is being systematically cultivated the close relationship with several key countries. India has signed agreements with the Maldives and Mauritius on the island lease, and to rent the aircraft carriers from the United Kingdom and the Russian. It also plans to build its own aircraft carriers and warships. These actions have highlighted the long-term strategy of the Indian navy, which is, to plan and build a fortress at sea of the Indian Ocean and provide a springboard for launching long-range attacks for its navy [28].
2.2 Major International Marine Scientific Research Plans The ocean is a major component in the complexity of the Earth system science in interaction with the atmosphere and continents, and is an important factor affecting weather and climate change. Since the 1980’s, with the implementation of the World Climate Research Program (WCRP) and the International Geosphere-Biosphere Program (IGBP), as well as the development of specialized marine science and technology projects, marine scientific research has undergone an unprecedented development with unparalleled achievements. · 32 ·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
Earth system science partnership
DIVERSITAS
IGBP
ESSP WCRP
IHDP
Global joint project of sustainability
Water
Food
Carbon
Health
Fig. 2.2 The research projects of global concern
Since the 1980’s, many international programs have been conducted, including the “Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere” program (TOGA: 1985–1994 years), “World Ocean Circulation Experiment” (WOCE: 1990–2002 years), “Climate Variability and Predictability” project (CLIVAR: 1995–2015 years), and “the Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study” (SOLAS: 2000 onwards), for systematic observation and research on ocean circulation and ocean atmosphere interaction, and these programs played a key role in understanding the oceans in weather and climate aspects. As the research went on in-depth, scientists began to pay attention to wider areas, such as marine ecosystems, marine biological surveys, and the human beings’ impact on landocean interaction in the coastal zone (LOICZ-II), as shown in Fig. 2.3.
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At present, programs of the IGBP, IHDP (on human activities on the impact of global change), WCRP, DIVERSITAS (on biodiversity) constitute the Earth System Science Partnership (ESSP) who readjusted the direction of target to four major human-facing problems—food, water, carbon and health (Fig. 2.2). More than 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered by the sea, the ocean plays a decisive role in water circulation in the Earth system, climate variability, and carbon cycle. How to understand the roles the ocean plays in the Earth system and in the human survival and development have become crucial scientific issues.
Roadmap 2050
Important international marine research project
Marine physical chemistry
TOGA (1985–1994) WOCE (1990–2002) CLIVAR (1995–2015) SOLAS (2000–2012) LOCIZ-II (2002–)
Marine ecosystems
Geology, disaster, resource
JGOFS (1988–2002) GLOBEC (1991–2009) GOCOS (2002–) IMBER (2002–)
IODP (2003–2013) InterMargins (1999–) GEOHAB (1998–) CoML (2005–2010)
Marine observation
GOOS (1991–2010) ARGO (1998–) NEPTUNE (2000–) GOCOS (2002–) ESONET (2004–) COPES (2005-2015) EMODNET (2007–)
Fig. 2.3 The classication of major international research programs
2.2.1 Physical and Chemical Aspects of Marine Research Projects (A) Cooperative Observation and Prediction System of the Earth System In 2005, WCRP timely proposed a new strategic framework for the next 10 years—COPES (the Climate Observation and Prediction of the Earth System 2005–2015), i.e., the coordinated observation and prediction of the Earth System [29]. COPES was coordinated by WCRP Joint Scientific Committee, and participated by all research projects in collaborative fashion. WCRP will focus on COPES theme of “observing and forecasting Earth system” to carry out observation, simulation, and research work, in order to predict the future climate, sustainable development, disaster prevention and reduction, and to improve seasonal climate forecast, to determine sea-level rise and the speed, and to predict monsoon rainfall, for achieving new progresses in these aspects. The task of COPES new framework includes: 1) to predict the future climate: WCRP will proceed to develop a new generation of climate prediction models to improve the knowledge of which climatic factors are predictable; 2) sustainable development: accurate weather information can enable agricultural production and more efficient use of water resources, so that the use of natural resources will be more sustainable, and will promote the development of renewable energy. New Earth observation satellites will provide an unprecedented wealth of information on the Earth’s climate. WCRP will be able to precisely determine the usability of climate information and develop new products to meet the needs by working closely with customers in different countries, regions, and organizations; 3) disaster prevention and reduction: WCRP will cooperate with the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) · 34 ·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
(B) The Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone (LOICZ) Program II LOICZ (the Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone) is an International Geosphere-Biosphere Program (IGBP) core science program, established in 1993. In 2002, IGBP entered the second phase, the International Human Dimensions Program on Global Environmental Change (IHDP) has also joined with the implementation of IGBP joint LOICZ-II [30]. Facing scientific challenges in the new stage, LOICZ determined its next 10-year scientific plan and implementation strategy. The five research themes of the scientific objectives are as follows. Theme 1: The vulnerability of coastal systems and hazards to the social community, including 1) the studies on relevant environmental and social vulnerability; 2) Comments on the global trends from regional scale effects. Theme 2: Global change and coastal ecosystems and sustainable development, including 1) quantitative study on local human influence; 2) the combined effect of global change on coastal functions. Theme 3: Anthropological effects on river basin-coastal zone interaction, including five goals: 1) to identify the hot spots where coastal changes exceeded the natural social adaptability; 2) to single out the riverine impact on coastal zone from the local coastal marine evolution that caused jointly by river and coast; 3) to generate action programs to evaluate the possible future impact of rivers on the coast; 4) to identify the conflict of interest between coastal watershed communities and river drainage communities; 5) comprehensive evaluation on river basin–coastal systems, to ensure that the scientific research could provide a theoretical basis for the management of entire river basin and shore zone. Theme 4: Biogeochemical cycles in coastal and shelf waters. The main objectives are: 1) up-scale research; 2) down-scale research; 3) understanding the role of marine biogeochemistry; 4) methods: LOICZ program will increase the use of tools and methods for the observation, monitoring, analysis, forecasting coastal/shelf biogeochemical roles. Theme 5: Management of interaction between land and sea to achieve sustainable development in the coastal systems. The goal is through scenario analysis to identify and describe possible, sustainable, and accessible “future.” The key topics within the theme will be in an integrated multidisciplinary 2 The International Forefront and Trends of Development in Marine Science & Technology
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on natural disaster prevention and mitigation plans, based on which climate forecast and product design capabilities can be improved; 4) to improve seasonal climate prediction: WCRP current objectives has been turned to determine the climatic factors that can be forecasted, to improve seasonal climate forecast capability; 5) to determine the rate of sea-level rise: WCRP will determine better methods to evaluate the seawater thermal expansion, glaciers and ice sheets melting, and land-based water reserves, and determine which observation and research need to be carried out; 6) monsoon rainfall prediction: due to the complexity of monsoon interaction, to forecast the characteristics of the monsoon is still a challenging scientific topic.
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approach that committed to sustainability and resource use. (C) The Upper Ocean-Lower Atmosphere Study SOLAS (Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study) is the second phase of IGBP. One of the new scheme was initiated jointly by the IGBP, SCOR, WCRP and CACGP (The international Commission on Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Pollution)) in 2000 [31]. The second phase of IGBP scientific research program (IGBP II) primarily focuses on the weak links of previous studies, emphasizing the importance of the sea-air interface processes and the coupling between biogeochemical processes and physical processes. To this end, IGBP, SCOR, WCRP and CACGP put forward a joint SOLAS international research project in 2000, which was set as the core projects by IGBP and SCOR Committee in early 2001 and early 2002, respectively. The plan will be the first time to put the sea-air interface at the height of affecting the Earth’s climate system with clear scientific thought, to the purpose of getting the quantitative understanding of the biogeochemical and physical processes during sea-air interaction, to clarify how this coupled system can impact the environment and climate, and how it is affected by climate and environmental change. The SOLAS plans to target at the ranges of the upper 100 m ocean and the lower 1,000 m atmosphere. Its core areas of scientific researches are: 1) What is the key air-sea biochemical interaction and feedback (especially in relation to the trace gas)? 2) What controls the cross interface sea-air transmission and conversion? 3) What is the biogeochemical and physical processes of interaction and feedback? 4) What is the two-way interaction between the sea-air coupled system and the climate? The main assumptions with the SOLAS are: 1) the marine sulfur-release affects cloud condensate particles; therefore have a major impact on climate; 2) atmospheric aerosol iron can promote diatoms and other phytoplankton growth in marine “high-nutrient low-chlorophyll” regions, which in turn will affect the climate; 3) rapid industrialization changed the atmospheric nitrogen deposition pattern, thus affecting the marine life growth in some areas; 4) the impact of changes in ocean biogeochemistry in the 21st century is small on absorbing carbon dioxide produced by human activities; 5) the main impact of global warming on marine productivity is the world’s productivity decrease due to thermohaline circulation slowdown. The technologies and tools used by the SOLAS are: 1) the experiment of micro-perturbation. The respond of marine ecosystem to nutrients and other parameters changes can be simulated in a number of fertilization experiments. A successful example was iron fertilization experiment carried out in the equatorial Pacific, which has proved that iron limitation in the region is indeed a major factor in primary productivity. Atmospheric dimethyl sulfide (DMS) cloud condensate particles can be also used to study the disturbance. Away from the land and human activities, such as most of the southern hemisphere, DMS release influences cloud formation to a large extent. 2) the simultaneous oceanatmosphere observation and large-scale experiment. 3) monitoring the response · 36 ·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
2.2.2 Aspects of the Marine Ecosystems Research Project The Integrated Marine Biogeochemistry and Ecosystems Research (IMBER) is a new project of the second phase of IGBP [32], co-sponsored in 2003 by IGBP and SCOR (formerly known as OCEANS). The second phase of IGBP research project will focus on the security issues in ocean marine environment; questions are: What is the key functional part of marine systems to the Earth system? What is the main feedbacks among the oceans and other Earth system components? How the human society to adapt to changes in marine systems? How do the oceans buffer the global changes, and how do the oceans trigger changes in the future? IMBER focuses on the interactions between marine biogeochemical cycles and marine food web, which are closely linked to the Earth system and global change (Fig. 2.4), and to understand in overall the impacts of climate and human-driven marine biogeochemical processes on the marine eco-system (structure, function, diversity, stability, and productivity). IMBER and prestarted GLOBEC became two major ocean science programs of IGBP II (“sister program”), are also two food-web focused research programs to develop marine ecosystems integration research, of which, IMBER focused on the atomic and molecular level to understand the impact of migration and circulation of chemical substances in the ocean on food web structure and function, while GLOBEC focuses in higher levels of nutrition on food web. Both constitute together IGBP in target to the “global sustainability” needs, or in other words, “the carbon, water and food”, as the main core of the framework and research, in the marine area of, sustainable marine ecosystems will provide the scientific basis for more substantial; and the research will provide more solid scientific basis for sustaining marine ecosystems.
Earth system
Natural factor
Human system
Feedback influence
Artificial factor
Ecosystem
Ocean Biogeochemical cycles
Fig. 2.4 Marine bio-geochemical system (Source: http://www.imber.info/)
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to natural perturbation. The global change monitoring and early warning are very important for the determination of human impact on the Earth.
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2.2.3 Research Plans of Marine Geology and Biology and Disaster (A) The 10-year Plan of the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program The 10-year program IODP (Integrated Ocean Drilling Program) was first launched by the scientific communities in the United States and Japan, and echoed and participated by a number of countries. Started implement in October 2003, the project aims at the structure of Earth’s history by monitoring, recording, and analyzing submarine environment in sea floor sediments and rocks [33]. Built on the research and technology achievements made during previous Deep-Sea Drilling Project (DSDP: 1968–1983) and Ocean Drilling Program (ODP: 1985–2003), IODP uses multiple drilling platforms and technologies to advance the research, whose goal is to better understand the characteristics of the earthquake beneath the convergent continental margin, of the ecosystem of micro-organisms inhabiting the Earth’s sea floor, and of gas hydrates—the huge frozen carbon pool beneath continental margins. The 10-year IODP program clarified three major scientific research themes with eight objectives. Theme 1: The deep biosphere and the under-sea floor ocean, including under-sea floor oceans in different geological environments; deep biosphere; gas hydrate. Theme 2: Environmental changes, processes, and results, including the internal drive of environmental changes—extreme weather; external drives of environmental changes; internal and external co-drives of environmental change—rapid climate change. Theme 3: Solid Earth cycles and geodynamics, including the continental margins, oceanic large igneous activity area and the formation of oceanic lithosphere—continental rupture and the formation of sedimentary basins, large areas of igneous activity region, and the 21st Century Moho Plan; recycling of oceanic lithosphere to the deep mantle and the continental crust formation— seismogenic zone. (B) Census of Marine Life The Census of Marine Life (CoML) was launched by the American National Science Foundation (NSF) in 2000 [34]. It aims to assess and explain the ever-changing marine species diversity, distribution and abundance in order to understand the marine life in the past and present, and predict the future trends. At present, it has attracted the participation of more than 80 countries. The wide range of investigations and studies covers from cold polar to the warm tropical waters, from most human-exposed inter-tidal to 11,000 m deep trench, targeting organisms from tiny plankton to the sea lions, and then to deep-sea worms in sediments, as well as other marine hydrothermal-resisting lives on seamounts. The study includes the history of marine animal populations, the global census on coral reef ecosystems, deep-sea marine biodiversity survey, the global biological survey on seamount, biodiversity in the Arctic Ocean, · 38 ·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
Table 2.1 The field survey projects of CoML Realm
Zone
Field Projects
Nearshore
Soft-Bottom Communities: algae and sea grass (Natural Geography in Shore Areas – NaGISA) Global Census of Coral Reef Ecosystems (GCCRE)
Coastal
Regional Integrated Ecosystem Studies (Gulf of Maine Area Program – GOMA) Coastal Migrants (Pacic Ocean Shelf Tracking – POST)
Hidden Boundaries
Margins Abyssal Plain
Continental Margin Ecosystems (CoMarge) Census of Diversity of Abyssal Marine Life (CeDAMar)
Central Waters
Light Drifters Census of Marine Zooplankton (CMarZ) Swimmers Dark Tagging of Pacic Pelagics (TOPP) Mid-water Patterns and Processes of Ecosystems in the Northern Mid-Atlantic (MAR-ECO)
Human Edges
Active Geology
-
Biogeography of Chemosynthetic Ecosystems (ChEss) Census of Seamounts (CenSeam)
Ice Oceans
-
Arctic Ocean Diversity (ArcOD) Census of Antarctic Marine Life (CAML)
Microscopic Ocean
-
International Census of Marine Microbes (ICOMM)
(C) Global Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms (GEOHAB) In October 1998, SCOR and IOC (the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission) jointly held a seminar in Denmark. This is for the first time scientists of different scientific backgrounds coming together to discuss the global red tide issues from biological, chemical and physical perspectives. 2 The International Forefront and Trends of Development in Marine Science & Technology
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Antarctic census of marine life, and international census of marine microbes, and many other items. CoML divided ocean phenomena into known, unknown and unknowable. In terms of the technology and difficulty of investigation, CoML categorize the world’s oceans into six areas: 1) human edges; 2) hidden boundaries; 3) central waters; 4) active geology; 5) ice ocean; and 6) microscopic ocean. CoML Scientific Steering Committee determined the program’s task is to answer three questions: What animals lived in the ocean in the past? i.e., the study on the history of marine animal populations (HMAP); What animals live in the ocean now? i.e. to carry out field survey of marine areas; what animals live in the ocean of the future, that is the future of marine animal populations (FMAP) study. The field survey is further classified in its six different categories into smaller ones shown in Table 2.1. The development of Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS). OBIS is the information basis of the program that is to comprehend all survey data of CoML project and other ocean databases in the world.
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Participating scientists proposed that coordination and communication among different disciplines should be enhanced, and fostered a new international research project on HAB “Global Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms” (GEOHAB) (Fig. 2.5) [35,36]. This initiative has been adopted and ratified, subsequently a Scientific Steering Committee was set up. To achieve the mission, GEOHAB put forward the scientific goal: Improve prediction of HABs by determining the ecological and oceanographic mechanisms underlying their population dynamics, integrating biological, chemical and physical studies supported by enhanced observation and modelling systems. Tools and models
GOOS Observation
Other international plans
IOC IOC IPHAB IPHAB GEOHAB GEOHAB
LOICZ
SCOR SCOR Supervision National and regional research program in red tides Management
ECOHAB
EUROHAB
Others
GLOBEC
Others
Fig. 2.5 The cooperation of GEOHAB with other projects (Source: http://ioc.unesco.org/hab)
GEOHAB identified five program elements: biodiversity and biogeography; nutrients and eutrophication; adaptive strategies; comparative ecosystems; observation, modeling and prediction.
2.2.4 Plans of Ocean Observation and Technology (A) Global Ocean Observing System [37] The Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) is a large-scale project that co-sponsored and organized by IOC (the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission), WMO (the World Meteorological Organization), UNEP (the United Nations Environment Program) and ICSU (the International Council of Scientific Unions), aiming at establishing a permanent global system of ocean variables for observation, simulation, and analysis, in order to support the oceanic operational services. GOOS will provide: 1) accurate description of current marine state; 2) seamless forecast of the future marine environment; 3) basic data for climate change prediction. The system design of GOOS is a large-scale integrated marine hightech project, including marine remote sensing, automatic observation, acoustic detection, and tracking technology, as well as satellites, aircraft, ships, submersible, buoys, shore stations, and other manufacturing technology, which form up an interconnected three-dimensional, real-time marine environment · 40 ·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
Consecutive satellite remote sensing observation on sea surface temperature, sea level height, ocean color, and sea ice.
Situation of monitoring network in January 2008 (59%) 87%
The measurement of sea surface on volunteer ships (250 ships) Global buoy array of surface
100% drifting (1250 buoys) 62%
Tidal observing networks (170 real-time monitoring station)
81%
XBT subsurface temperature monitoring networks (51 observation chains) Argo sectional buoy
100% monitoring networks (plan to deploy 3000 buoys)
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Transmission monitoring (29 sites)
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74% Tropical moored buoys of global monitoring networks (119 planned)
Global networks in time series (58 planned)
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Monitoring of hydrology and total carbon (complete the whole ocean surveys in 10 years)
100%
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 year
Fig. 2.6 GOOS’s remote sensing and marine components as well as the roadmap for future development (Source: http://www.ioc-goos.org/)
(B) Real-time Global Ocean Observation Network Plans In 1998, the United States and Japan launched a global ocean observation 2 The International Forefront and Trends of Development in Marine Science & Technology
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observing and monitoring system. GOOS modules: 1) The Climate Module. The module is the marine part of the Global Climate Observing System. Its purpose is to monitor, describe and understand the physical and biogeochemical processes of ocean circulation and their impact on the carbon cycle, as well as the marine impact on decadal climate variation and to provide the data required by climate change projection. 2) The Health of the Ocean (HOTO) Module. The module is mainly related to marine pollution. Its main purpose is to provide information of marine environment deterioration and its characteristics and scope, human health, marine resources, natural change and ocean health. 3) The Living Marine Resources (LMR) Module. The module is mainly related to the food chain, and the relations of harmful algal blooms with marine ecosystems. 4) The Coastal Module. For many coastal countries, the module is of paramount importance, because it is closely related to coastal zone management, environmental protection, port and shipping, engineering, oil and gas development, tourism and entertainment, etc.. 5) The Service Module. The module’s purpose is to determine the provision of GOOS’s products and services, and to increase the amounts and the values of end-user products and services. As of January 2008, the climate module has made a great progress with largely increased global satellite coverage, including altimetry, ocean color and wind vector, as well as more than 50% of water observations positioning system (Fig. 2.6).
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plan. With the uses of a series of newly developed high-tech marine technologies (such as profile buoys, satellite communication systems and data-processing technologies, etc.), the plan aims to establish a real-time, high resolution global ocean monitoring system for middle to upper layers, in order to collect the global water profile data of the upper ocean temperature and salinity in a rapid, accurate, and large-scale manner, which will help understand the real-time large-scale changes in the ocean, improve the accuracy of climate forecasting, and prevent effectively the worsening global climate disasters (such as hurricanes, tornadoes, typhoons, ice storms, floods and drought, etc.) posed to the human beings. Therefore, ARGO came into being [38]. ARGO (Array for Real-time Geotropic Oceanography) is a “Real-time Global Ocean Observation Network”. Since its launch, ARGO project has been responded quickly with supports from more than 10 countries, including Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Japan, Korea, China and other countries, and has become an important part of GCOS (the Global Climate Observing System), GOOS (the Global Ocean Observing System), CLIVAR (the Climate Variability and Predictability Research Project) and GODAE (the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment) and other large-scale international observation and research programs. Up to October 2007, nearly 5,000 ARGO profiling floats had been deployed in the Pacific, Indian Ocean and the Atlantic waters by 23 countries and organizations. Some of the floats stopped working due to technical failure or communication failure and other reasons. Among 3,006 normal working ones, 1,696 (56.42%) are from the United States, 369 (12.28%) from Japan, ranking first and second places, respectively; China had 11 (0.37%) (of which two have been stranded in the gulfs of the Philippines) [39]. To March 3, 2009, in global oceans, there were 3,292 working floats (Fig. 2.7).
Fig. 2.7 The distribution of ARGO proling oats in the world’s oceans, on March 3, 2009 (Source: http://www-argo.ucsd.edu/)
The Ministry of Science and Technology and the State Oceanic Administration of China are actively looking for ways to support the ARGO · 42 ·
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(C) The Global Ocean Carbon Observing System [40,41] The Global Ocean Carbon Observing System (GOCOS) aims to better understand the ocean carbon cycle in the average conditions, and changes and trends of seasonal to decadal or even larger scales, as well as the marine carbon cycle and other carbon pools, especially the interactions at interfaces between the atmosphere and coastal land. In collaboration with GCOS (the Global Climate Observing System) and GTOS (the Global Terrestrial Observing System), GOCOS is developing an integrated strategy of monitoring of the global carbon cycle, and will become an integral part of the Global Observing Strategy (IGOS) (Fig. 2.8). The components of the global ocean carbon observing system: 1) basinscale observations: observation with sensors installed on supporting ships and vessels; upper-layer biogeochemical and ecological surveys; observation with floating devices and mooring devices. 2) large-scale observation: 5–10-year-cycled repeated detail hydrographic survey in the world ocean circulation experiment (WOCE); carbon system, biogeochemical variable, and instantaneous follow-up observation; the role of horizontal transmission. 3) time-series observation station: the carbon system in ecological dynamics, and the tracing data; large-scale biogeographic collaboration system; observation in the time span of 10 years or even decades. 4) satellite remote sensing observations: ocean water color satellite remote sensing (biomass, primary productivity, community structure, physiological characteristics, and colored dissolved organic matter; the role of air-sea exchange (wave characteristic, wind speed, friction velocity, sea surface temperature and atmospheric pressure); remote sensing technology based on the ocean carbon cycle scientific research. 5) coastal observation: inputs of rivers and groundwater; biogeochemical cycles; time series; sediment and water interaction; offshore waters and open interaction. 6) atmospheric monitoring: carbon dioxide, carbon isotopes, and the oxygen/nitrogen ratio of observation; atmospheric inversion model; deposition of dust (trace metals) and nutrients; weather driving force; the list of remote sensing data of carbon dioxide. 7) numerical model: diagnosis and inversion model; ocean carbon data assimilation systems; numerical model postforecast and the model evaluation. 8) technology development: the development of self-sustaining sensors for biological and carbon system parameters; mooring buoys; underwater observation devices and other observation equipment.
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plan in the forms of special projects at national level; in the next 5 years, the government will fund 10 million Yuan per year for deploying about 50 buoys, i.e. 250–300 buoys in total will be deployed during 2008–2012.
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Atmospheric carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide
Ocean surface Phytoplankton
Dissolved inorganic carbon Zooplankton
Physical mixing Horizontal mixing
Particulate organic carbon Dissolved organic carbon
Sediment re-suspension Sea floor Sedimentary organic carbon Biological activity
Diffusion and mineralization
Fig. 2.8 Carbon vertical migration and transformation in the ocean (Source: Yin Jianping et al. The Ocean Carbon Cycle Research)
(D) The European Marine Observation Data Network [42] The European Oceanic Administration and the European Science Foundation published an European vision report of the global ocean observing system on October 24, 2008, in which the establishment and future development of the European Marine Observation and Data Network (EMODNET) are longterm planned with description. As early as October 10, 2007, the European Commission issued the European Union’s vision of an integrated ocean policy document (also known as the Blue Book). It descries in detailed the future marine action plan and the focus of concern from stakeholders in order to face challenges from technological development, globalization, climate change and marine pollution and other issues, and proposes to establish an European marine observation and data network. The establishment EMODNET and financial support are necessary conditions for managing existing marine relationships. This action is to support good ocean management (including risk assessment, modeling and forecasting), understand more profoundly ocean dynamics (including climate change and geodynamics), improve resource utilization, and protect the marine environment, establish observation structures and networks required by permanent long-term monitoring, and provide services in basic data, data rescue, information management and distribution. EMODNET is now an observing system network in Europe for management of the data covering European coastal zone, the continental shelf and nearby basins. The main tasks of EMODNET are: 1) to establish and integrate open ocean observing systems, the continental shelf and coastal observing systems; 2) to coordinate among different approaches and strategies to strengthen the agreement under the principle of data management, data formats and data quality control; 3) to ensure that the data (including regional data processing, environmental assessment and simulation data) can be distributed to users (Fig. 2.9). · 44 ·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
-Salinity, temperature -Turbidity, oxygen -Chlorophyll, nutrient -PH value, alkalinity -Ocean depth -Primary producers
-Buoy -Airplane -Ship -Lander -Ferry -Cable Network -Sensor -Argo
Sampling and continual lab analysis on research ship or coast (including waters, deposition and plankton)
-Inorganic compound -Gas -Organic contamination -Biota function -Food chain -Red tide
Real Time Sensor data transmission to the network and communication system of ground stations
-Satellite communications -Global System for Mobile Communications -General Packet Radio Service -Fiber optics -Acoustics
Data collection and management system for data quality direct control, the data storage systems for data analysis and model application
-Database -Quality control -Data standards
Publish data to end users using software and information-based network
-Analysis -Expression -Network -GIS
Fig. 2.9 The elements of EMODNET (Source:http://www.eurogoos.org/publications/MB_EuroGOOS%20EMODNET%20Vision_nal.pdf)
EMODNET monitoring ranges include: 1) global scale: European marine ecosystems is an integral part of the global ecosystem, by the impact of the global ocean, waters within ocean are transported in cycle, and the atmosphere and ocean interact indirectly. 2) regional scale: European marine areas include the Arctic, Atlantic, Baltic, Mediterranean and Black Sea and the sub-marine areas in Adriatic Sea in North America. 3) local scale: the coastal zone is a complex region in natural and biological diversity, is also the most interactive zone between the nature and people, resulting in the greatest challenges in environmental observation, monitoring and evaluation. Based on this, Europe needs to develop multi-scale ocean observing and data networks to support sustainable development of marine resources with a useful tool for marine spatial planning (including integrated coastal zone management). EMODNET core is the integrated observing system in coverage of coast, regional seas and global ocean, need to develop related technologies, access the data from remote sensing platforms, and to maintain and expand the existing network of observing systems to ensure the continuity of remote sensing satellite data. (E) The European Sea Floor Observatory Network In 2004, the United Kingdom, Germany, France and other countries developed the European Sea Floor Observatory Network (ESONET) [43]; for different scientific issues from the Arctic to the Black Sea waters, ESONET selected 10 marine areas in the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean for sea floor long-term observation in networked stations. Objectives of ESONET: to explore the possibility of setting sea floor network systems in coastal zones of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean. Different from NEPTUNE (Neptune Project), ESONET will take a series of scientific projects, such as to assess the changes in the Norwegian sea ice and its 2 The International Forefront and Trends of Development in Marine Science & Technology
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Automatic continuous sensing measurement of physical, chemical, and biological parameters
Platform for satellite remote-sensing Buoys in waters or ocean surface Observation platform at the sea bottom
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effect on water circulation and to monitor biodiversity in North Atlantic and the seismicity of the Mediterranean, and so on. ESONET is the combination of inter-regional network system. The ESONET coordinators hope that 20 years later, ESONT will be able to monitor entire Europe (Fig. 2.10).
Fig. 2.10 ESONET observation stations (Source: http://www.oceanlab.abdn.ac.uk/esonet/ESONET_fullrep.pdf)
2.3 The International Trends of Development in Marine Science and Technology 2.3.1 National Demand-oriented Needs Become More Prominent Marine science and technology serve the national economic, social development and national interests, which has become more prominent and stronger in meeting the country needs, leading the development of marine science and technology in the future. The development of massive marine biological resources, energy resources, as well as a variety of strategic metals and non-metallic mineral resources have become the future pursuit for a waterfront country. At present, the rights and interests of the waters around the Arctic has turned increasingly a battle; similarly in the East China Sea where friction is escalating mainly due to the waters to the realization of tremendous economic value and strategic position. · 46 ·
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2.3.2 The Consensus of Mega-science Today’s marine science and technology development features most typical internationalization and mega-science. Philosophy of development of integration of air-ocean-space is increasingly apparent, the dreams of ancient Chinese to take the moon in high sky and catch sea turtle in vast ocean is no longer just the human imagination. In terms of the scope of the scientific system, mega-science covers a broad range of subjects including physical oceanography, marine meteorology, marine geology, marine biology, marine chemistry, marine ecology and environmental oceanography. Viewing the ocean in the Earth system, the ocean is an important component of the Earth system and an important factor of global climate change. The mega-science thought of marine science has become a consensus. Therefore, carrying out marine researches with the scientific theory of the Earth system has become an important ideological basis. As the issues, the human facing in global warming and eco-environmental problems become increasingly urgent, the branches of earth sciences are developing constantly, means and tools of study are getting more sophisticated and completed. As the result, a brand new philosophy regarding the overall behavior and evolution of the Earth system has been framed. Earth system science treats the Earth as a unified dynamic system involving geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, under the control of complex processes, being composed of phenomena of interrelation and interaction. With in-depth study and understanding of the increase in the Earth system, the role of the ocean in the Earth system has been widely recognized by the community of the Earth sciences, especially ocean’s decisive role in global climate change. Therefore, past research programs are closely linked among marine science and climate science. Meanwhile, the ocean itself is an extremely complex sub-system containing intricate physical, chemical, and biological processes, making more and more complicated for marine research. 2 The International Forefront and Trends of Development in Marine Science & Technology
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The development and utilization of ocean energy technology will be the focus of the future. The development and utilization of enormous marine energy resources are the main way to solve the future energy shortage, especially oil, natural gas and other strategic energy needs. With the development of the world economy, energy demand is increasing. Driven by market pressure and high oil price, the future global offshore oil and gas exploration and development will remain rapid growing, having the scope of exploration constantly expanded and mining operations deepened. With the continuous advancement of technology, development and utilization of marine wind energy, wave energy, tidal energy, and temperature differences can be a booming trend. To 2050, large-scale development and utilization of some new energy resources will become possible, such as that of gas hydrate and wave energy. The reserves of gas hydrates found in the Nankai Trough can supply Japan for 140 years after all the oil and gas of Japan are exhausted.
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The philosophy of the Earth system science shows a clear direction to marine science research activities. Current marine scientific research focuses more on the concepts of integration and systematics. Multi-disciplinary integration research has become very clear trend. In the next 40 years, cross studies between marine science and other disciplines will be further strengthen with possible birth of new research areas and fields, promoting the scientific and social progresses.
2.3.3 Innovation and Breakthrough in Technology is the Key of Capacity Development According to the survey, the knowledge-based marine economy is rising. Some less invested projects have decided and controlled the developments in other sectors with “enabling capacity”, such as “oceanographic research, education and training”, and other high-profile sectors, as shown in Fig. 2.11. DOUGLAS-WESTWOOD
www.dw-1.com
underwater vehicles
1 1 1 3 8
minerals ocean survey education & training submarine cables port management
Some small sectors are vital to others “Enabling” sectors & technologies
13 15 17 19 22
marine equipment marine services R&D aquaculture production shipbuilding
32 38
leisure boating revenues submarine telecoms revenues
(source: Douglas-Westwood 2000)
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shipping revenues offshore oil & gas production
0
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Marine & Ocean Tec Berlin, 27 April 2004
Fig. 2.11 Focus on the development of a knowledge-based economy of the oceans (Source: http://www. Douglas-Westwood 2000)
The development of satellite remote sensing technology provided possibility of large-scale marine observation and uninterrupted observations. The application multi-band integrated remote sensing instruments can be used for observing different elements of oceanography. Marine satellite remote sensing technology has entered the mature stage of the application and will greatly promote the development of marine science. Using satellites for ocean remote sensing is an operation of all-weather and all-sea-condition, providing a rapid, synchronous, large-scale, and continuous monitoring on the sea, with parameter-recording in sea surface, topography, sea surface temperature, sea ice, and near-surface phytoplankton pigment concentration. This is supplied a great deal of information for not only marine environment and disaster monitoring · 48 ·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
2.3.4 Long-term and Continuous Three-dimensional Observation has Become a Focus Development of modern science and technology has greatly expanded the field of earth science research, which also has made new demands on the observational data. Earth science research has reached the outer space, Earth internal, deep abyss, and the Polar Regions, and has gradually formed a global coverage of sky-based, space-based, ground-based and ocean-based observing systems. For marine scientific research, in view of air-space-ocean integration, three-dimensional ocean observing systems is a focus of future development. The implementation of global ocean observing system, global ocean realtime observation program, and global integrated Earth observing system, has made it possible to construct marine research networks in global, regional, and nation-wide scale, for long-term observation, monitoring, and information. Research on marine observation not only requires those from the atmosphere and continent, but also patrols at surface and detects the ocean into deep water, forming a three-dimensional observation network (Fig. 2.12); the building of such an observation network will become the key for marine science and technology development in the future.
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and forecasting, but also the development of marine resources, marine pollution monitoring, and the management over 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone. Since the 1980’s, the United States, Japan, France and other countries have launched a total of 10 oceanographic satellites. In 1991, the European Space Agency launched ERS-1 satellite with which microwave remote sensing sensors are quipped, taking a big step forward in ocean observing. The Institute of Atmospheric Optics (IAO), Russian Academy of Sciences, successfully developed a variety of marine airborne and space-borne optical radars and applied them for monitoring the oil leaking pollution on ocean surface, water transparency measurement, fish detection, and port navigation. Sea floor resources exploration and exploitation, and marine life observation require more sophisticated technical support. Application of a series of devices for site investigation and development, and the use of deepocean submersible vessels, have significantly improved the understanding of the ecosystem at sea bottom. The discovery of deep-sea ecosystem depended largely on the breakthrough development of deep submergence technology. As a significant impetus, advancement in data collection capability and computer technology greatly enhanced the simulation capacity over the marine ecosystem variation. Simulation and assimilation of massive observed data are increasingly important in scientific research; development and applications of numerical modeling will be the emphasis of predicting changes in ocean circulation and early warning of marine disaster in the next few decades.
Roadmap 2050 Fig. 2.12 Three-dimensional network of marine observation (Source: http://marfms.rutgers.edu/cool)
2.3.5 Major Research Projects Have Become an Important Organization Model As all countries are facing severe global warming, the ocean observation activities of global change and the organization model of international cooperation projects have been widely recognized, which will be further developed and innovated in the future. Since WCRP, IGBP, and other international research programs began, in nearly 20 years, marine scientific research, including a series of major research projects developed by leaps and bounds during the implementation. The evolution of these important marine science programs indicated hot research areas and transfer of priority in international marine science planning: 1) The researches on ocean’s role in global change remains marine an international hot spot of marine scientific and technological research, in which physical chemistry and dynamics of marine research are still dominant, from TOGA to WOCE, to CLIVAR and to SOLAS. 2) Studys on the marine ecosystems becomes the past medium-term research priorities, from GLOBEC (the Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics) to the IMBER (Integrated Marine Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research). 3) Studys of the coastal zone on impacts of human economic and social development has received more widespread concern from LOCIZ-I to LOCIZ-II. 4) From single ocean observing technology to integrated development of three-dimensional network, seen from GOOS, ARGO, COPES to ESONET. · 50 ·
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5) Researches into marine bio-resources and marine disasters caused a new round of attention (CoML, GEOHAB). 6) Explorations in deep-sea geological and biological processes is receiving increasing attention (international Integrated Ocean Drilling Program, IODP; international continental margin scheme, InterMargin; and International Cooperation in Ridge-Crest Studies, InterRidge).
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3
Status and Opportunities of Chinese Marine Science & Technology Development
China as a major maritime developing country, the development of marine science and technology plays an important role to protect national maritime rights and interests, national security, and marine environment, and to keep sustainable use of marine resources and other economic aspects. Since the reform and opening-up to the world, China has been making rapid development in marine science and technology with the overall enhancement in the capability of independent innovation. Chinese marine science and technology is in a good period of rapid development; however, both opportunities and challenges coexist.
3.1 Status of Development of Marine Science and Technology Research in China China pays more attention to marine scientific research with increasing concern, which promoted rapidly the development of marine sciences. Strategy formulation and programs and plans of marine science have been introduced frequently, having promoted significantly the progress of marine science and technology.
3.1.1 Chinese Marine Science and Technology Research System Marine science is a comprehensive science of multi- and cross-discipline system, involving basic science, applied science and engineering, as a modern marine science research system. In nearly 60 years of development science, significant progresses have been made in China in physical oceanography, marine geology, biological oceanography, marine chemistry, marine ecology, marine environmental science and other disciplines, which provided a scientific guidance and basis for marine fisheries, marine oil and gas resources, marine environmental protection and other fields such as disaster prevention and
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mitigation. Chinese oceanographic research activities are mostly conducted in offshore shelf areas, and feature own regional, multidisciplinary and comprehensive characteristics. The marine technology system has formed up three major categories during the active development, including marine environmental technology, resource exploration technology, and marine engineering, with more than 20 technical areas [7]. At present, there are about 130 marine research-related institutions, and more than 13 thousands scientific and technical personnel, having a group of scientists and technologists led by the Academicians of Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Chinese Academy of Engineering and relevant experts in the field of marine science and technology. China’s academic and technical personnel of main marine science and technology research are mainly distributed in the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the State Oceanic Administration, the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Ministry of Education; institutes of the Chinese Academy of Sciences including Institute of Oceanology, the South China Sea Institute of Oceanography, Yantai Coastal Zone Research Institute for Sustainable Development, Institute of Acoustics, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, the Ecological Environment Research Center, Shenyang Institute of Automation, Institute of Geology and Geography, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Energy and so on; the State Oceanic Administration affiliated are First Institute of Marine Research, Second Institute of Oceanography, Third Institute of Oceanography, the Ocean Information Center, the Marine Technology Center, the Marine Environment Monitoring Center, Marine Prediction Center, Polar Research Center, Tianjin Institute of Desalination and Comprehensive Utilization, etc.; institutes of the Ministry of Agriculture including mainly the Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, the East China Sea Fisheries Research Institute, the South China Sea Fisheries Research Institute; universities of the Ministry of Education, such as the Ocean University of China, Xiamen University, Tongji University, Sun Yat-sen University, Shanghai Ocean University, East China Normal University, Dalian Maritime University, and so on. In addition, there are a number of large enterprises and local research organizations who have also carried out marine science and technology research. This team of the international marine scientific and technological research is playing an active role continuously with major scientific and technological achievements. The number of patents is increasing year by year; and the level of scientific papers is rising constantly. According to the statistics of 2001–2008, 27 marine scientific and technical journals (impact factor >2.0) published 25,426 papers, ranking No. 12 in the number of papers published in the world (Fig. 3.1), and No.15 in citation frequency, and the average citation frequency is 8.43, slightly behind the overall average citation frequency at 11.42.
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Top 15 countries in ranking number of published paper in marine science from 2001 to 2008
1600 New Zealand Norway Denmark China Switzerland Italy Holland Spain Japan France Australia German Canada Britain America
1400 1200 1000 800 600 400
2008
2007
2005
2006
Year
2004
2003
2002
0
2001
200
Fig. 3.1 Top 15 countries in ranking number of published paper in marine science from 2001 to 2008
3.1.2 Status of Development in Chinese Marine Science and Technology Research Since the founding of new China, a series of major scientific implementation has made many outstanding achievements in marine science and technology research. Great achievements have been made in oceanographic research activities, including national comprehensive marine surveys, and those in Xisha and Nansha Islands, in the polar regions, global ocean, and resources of deepsea oil-gas and gas hydrate. Success in marine farming and animal husbandry has attracted worldwide attention; mariculture speedily boomed in algae, shrimp, shellfish, seafood, and other high-value species, creating significant economic and social benefits; significant progresses have been also made in basic biological studies on germplasm in the breeding and diseases, and in technology of engineered mariculture and of environment-friendly aquaculture. The comprehensive survey promoted the marine biological taxonomy and the classification of marine ecosystems, providing a scientific basis for sustainable use of biological resources in China’s coastal waters. All-round development in physical oceanography completed the wave spectrum theory, and promoted Chinese tidal analysis and prediction methods; important marine currents were found, including “South China Sea Warm Current”, “Taiwan Warm Current”, “East China Sea Cold Eddy”, “Mindanao Undercurrent” and others, which enriched importantly physical oceanography in the knowledge of ocean circulations in the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea and the South China Sea. Marine geological research has made important achievements in hotspot research fields, such as plate boundary dynamics, and the formation · 54 ·
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Outline of the National Eleventh Five-Year Guideline for the Development of Marine Science and Technology [2] China’s remarkable progress in marine science and technology set a good foundation for the future development. Comprehensive marine survey and inspection made significant progresses. The survey region expanded from the coastal islands, coastal waters, to the distant sea, the ocean, and to the Polar Regions, having accumulated a large amount of marine data. International sea floor resource exploration and research in the Antarctic and Arctic gained significant results. Around-globe marine surveys expanded the areas of Chinese oceanography research. Scientists obtained a series of independent high-tech innovations in marine monitoring, marine biology, and marine resources exploration. Operational numerical prediction of marine systems, seawater desalination, and comprehensive utilization of technology made new progress. Ocean satellite achieved a breakthrough by networking a series of ocean satellites. Great achievements have been made in basic research programs, having enriched the knowledge of China’s coastal waters and circulations, land and sea interactions, harmful red tide, formation and evolution of continental margin, marine ecosystems, and deep-sea environment, of which some results have reached the international advanced level. Application and industrialization of marine scientific and technological achievements are steady progressing. At the same time, system reform of marine science and technology produced some good results, the new operation mechanism of “Open, Mobile, Competition, Cooperation” resulted in the formation of ministerial keylaboratory-cored academic groups, and in the improvement of innovation and supporting capability; the number of research personnel are growing, and the basic conditions for platform construction are being strengthening; and the international cooperation in marine science and technology is progressing.
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and evolution of submarine lithosphere. Global change in the past and deepsea record became research focuses. Sediment transport and sea-bottom material movement underwent in-depth study with the progressing theory of submarine mineralization and widening offshore exploration for oil, gas, and mineral resources. In addition, study on deep-sea hydrothermal activity and the life course advanced with possible theoretical breakthrough in Earth system science. Researches have been considerably advanced in the fields of marine environment and security for sustainable utilization of biological resources in coastal waters, the mechanism of the harmful red tide prevention and prediction, biogeochemical cycles of important biogenic elements, offshore pollution and the negative impact. These achievements have provided strong technical supports to safeguarding China’s maritime rights and interests and security, promoting the development of marine economy, and strengthening marine management. These achievements have laid a good foundation for the further development of marine science.
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However, a wide gap still exists in the overall level of marine science and technology with the world’s advanced level, which can not meet the requirements of national development of oceanic courses. The main weakness includes: the independent marine technology research is limited, transformation and application of marine technology are insufficient, integration of production-education-research is imperfect; contribution from marine science and technology to the economy is relatively low, the level of basic research is not deep and systematic enough, knowledge of the laws of marine nature needs to be enriched; marine science and technology conditions and infrastructure platform construction lags behind, the capacity of large marine equipment for science and technology is obviously insufficient and less shared; creative talents, academic leaders, and high-level scientists and technologists are relatively not enough; inadequate investment in marine science and technology; problems in the operational mechanism of marine science and technology system still exist.
(A) Research on the Marine Environmental Safety Since the first comprehensive survey on the national marine in the 1959’s, China has made outstanding contributions to the knowledge of circulations in the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea, and the South China Sea. Two recent projects of the National Basic Research Program of China (the “973” Program), “Formation and Variation of Chinese Coastal Circulation, Numerical Prediction Methods and the Impact on the Environment” and “the Evolution of Marine Physical Environment and Its Environmental Effects on Continental Shelf, East China Sea” focus on the evolution characteristics and mechanisms of China’s offshore continental shelf circulation in the eastern part. With China’s coastal economic and social development, the flux of continental shelf circulation and the ecological effect have become increasingly prominent scientific issues. The exchange of shelf water circulation and Kuroshio water has become a core issue of concern to the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR) of the International Council of Scientific Unions, and Deep Ocean Exchanges with the Shelf (DOES). Kuroshio forms on east of Luzon, passes through the Luzon Strait, meets the East China Sea Run-through Current, and waterexchanges in large scale with the shelf currents of the South China Sea, the Yellow Sea, and the East China Sea. Two other projects of the “973” Program, “Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction in Asia–India–Pacific Junction and Its Impact on China’s Short-term Climate” and “Sub-Tropical North Pacific Circulation Variability and Its Impact on China’s Coastal Dynamic Environment” take the Luzon Strait circulation as one of the important observation items. China’s ocean observation began in the mid-1980’s. The State Oceanic Administration, the China Meteorological Administration and the Chinese Academy of Sciences jointly launched the “Sino-American Joint Investigation and Research on the Air-Sea Interaction in Equatorial West Pacific Ocean”; six institutes of the Chinese Academy of Sciences cooperated a investigation · 56 ·
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of “Tropical Western Pacific Ocean Circulation And Air-Sea Interaction”. The undertaking of these projects formed the first wave of China’s marine survey on tropical Western Pacific, fostering a team of the marine scientists leveling up with the international forefront of the fields and contributing greatly to the study in Chinese and global decadal climate changes. Unfortunately, China’s ocean activities suspended in the mid-1990’s soon after the termination of the Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere (TOGA) and the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE). In the 21st century, China timely adjusted the direction of development of marine science, on the basis of continuing to carry out research in China’s coastal waters, China brought forward the thoughts timely to develop ocean observations and research and to study the role of oceans in global climate change and regional climate. In 2002, China participated international ARGO (Array for Real-Time Geostrophic Oceanography) program, and then deployed China’s first Argo float in the East Indian Ocean. In 2003–2005, “ARGO China Ocean Observation Network” project deployed 19 ARGO profile buoys in the northwest Pacific Ocean, forming an initial ocean observation network of ARGO China. At present, China has invested 35 ARGO floats. Organized by state’s relevant departments, Chinese Academy of Sciences and other research bodies participated in a number of key-area focused project with the United States and Russia. From 2006 to 2007, the Ministry of Science and Technology approved several projects below the “973” Program: “Asia-India-Pacific Junction Air-Sea Interaction And Its Impact On China’s Short-term Climate”, “SubTropical North Pacific Circulation Variability and Its Impact on China’s Coastal Dynamic Environment”, “ARGO’s Upper Ocean Structure, Variability and Prediction”, indicating that China is to strengthen observations and research in the Western Pacific and Indian Ocean. In “Eleventh Five-Year” period, the National “863” Program is carrying out the research and development of three-dimensional monitoring technology in deep-water ocean dynamic environment; the main objectives are: to access to the real-time data of long-term, continuous, and simultaneous measurement in target area, and to gradually regulate the norms or standards of ocean engineering technology and environmental monitoring methodology; to access to the information of deep water inner ocean waves and other marine dynamic processes, to demonstrate far- and deep-reaching operation of marine dynamic environment monitoring system for China; to carry out the microwave, infrared, optical calibration test of remote sensing technology and related algorithms model for China’s own satellite remote sensing industry, such as the development of technical data support; to establish marine dynamic environmental system of information integration and application services in target area, to achieve real-time monitoring, disaster warning, information release, and other functions, and to provide information security to the national marine safety and marine resource exploration. Marine environmental forecasting is not only an important marine
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component of the marine economy, but also an important guarantee for the development. At the beginning of the 21st century, a marine environment forecast was made in accordance with China forecast status with the emphasis on disaster prediction, aiming to enhance forecast techniques in five cases of China currently facing, i.e., current waves, storm surges, sea ice, sea surface temperature, and El Nino. At the same time, in accordance with the development of marine economy in recent years and new demand from marine environmental protection and marine national defense, it is urgent for research and development of forecasting techniques in fields of marine temperatures, ocean currents three-dimensional structure, and red tide. Marine information technology is an emerging discipline in recent years. The 21st century is “Ocean Century”. The globalization of world economy and marine economic revitalization in coastal nations, require oceanographic information as a basis. From scientific and technological point of the view, information of the Earth science progressed from satellite remote sensing technology, geographic information systems, information superhighway, to the “digital earth” era. Facing international challenges in marine information technology and the needs of developing China’s maritime strategy, establishing the China’s marine information systems and developing “Digital Ocean”, have become the only way of national marine informatization. Sea floor exploration technology serves the current and long-term economic and social development as the purpose. Based on the previous results, it is necessary to aim at the development of international ocean exploration, proceed from reality, setting priority and several objectives, perform innovative research independently, and achieve technological breakthrough in sea-floor towing multi-parameter detection, in order to safeguard national interests and promote sustainable economic and social development. China participates actively in scientific research in the Polar Regions, and significant progress has been made. Into the 21st century, China has clearly defined basic guiding ideology for resources and environmental studies in the polar zones, that is: basic study strengthening, priority setting, international practice, and breakthrough making; to take global change research as the main activity, conduct basic research at the same time, perform polar regions specific or China-beneficial tasks favoring the sustainable development of national economy, and reach international advanced level in selected fields. (B) Marine Ecosystems and Ecological Security Research China has more than 18,000 km coastline, over 6,500 islands, and the jurisdiction of about 3 million km2 of sea area, in accordance with the “exclusive economic zone” and “continental shelf ” systems defined in the “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea”. These vast coastal areas and territorial seas have world-renowned fishing grounds, rich in economical marine lives. Chinese social and economic sustainable development is heavily dependent on marine resources development, utilization and protection. After the 1970’s, with the rising role of marine in economic and social · 58 ·
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development, marine ecosystems studies received unprecedented attention. According to the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Chinese Government formulated the “China Agenda in 21st Century—a White Paper on Population Environment and Development in the 21st Century”; the white paper clarifies the future strategy in sustainable development and takes “sustainable development and protection of marine resources” as an important field of action. “To understand the ocean at a strategic height” has been repeatedly emphasized by the Chinese government. On March 10, 2004, President Hu Jintao stated in a symposium of “Population, Resources and Environment” that ocean exploration is a strategic task to promote the China’s maritime economic development, and it’s necessary to intensify the ocean investigation and planning, enhance the management of sea area use, and strengthen the protection of marine environment to promote and ocean exploitation and economic development. For half a century, China’s marine ecological and environmental studies have gained rapid development. With the support from the Ministry of Science and Technology, the National Natural Science Foundation of China, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the State Environmental Protection Department, the Ministry of Agriculture, the State Oceanic Administration and other relevant departments, a series of achievements were made through the implementation of the National Science and Technology Supporting Plan, the National Basic Research Priority Program ( the “973” Program), the National High-tech Innovation Program (the “863” Program), and the National Natural Science Foundation projects, as well as a large number of specific marine investigation tasks. The species composition and their geographical distribution of marine lives along the coast of China have been systematically investigated, and the basic structure and function of coastal ecosystems have been primarily recognized, during which marine survey and monitoring capabilities have been greatly enhanced. In the marine ecosystems studies, the spirit of scientific exploration, technological innovation, national support and social needs have played positive roles. After entering the 21st century, under the guidance of a wide range of closely related international research projects on marine ecosystems, such as “the Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics” (GLOBEC), “the Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone” (LOICZ), “the Integrated Marine Biogeochemistry and Ecosystems Research”(IMBER),“the Global Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms ”(GEOHAB), etc., researches of marine ecosystems in multi- and cross-disciplinary integration received particular attention. Since the end of “Ninth Five-Year Plan”, the Ministry of Science and Technology seizes the opportunity to support and implement a number of the “973” Program concerning marine ecosystems, such as “the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea Ecosystem Dynamics and Sustainable Use of Biological Resources”, “Formation, Variability, Numerical Prediction and Environmental Impact of Circulation in China’s Coastal Waters”, “Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful
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Algal Blooms in China”, “Land-Sea Interaction in Chinese Typical EstuariesOffshore and the Environmental Effects”, “Key Processes and Sustainable Mechanisms of Ecosystem Food Production in the Coastal Ocean of China” and so on. These studies greatly enhanced the technological capability in the fields of integrated coastal observation, modeling, and forecasting of marine ecosystems, and resulted in a number of significant outcomes, such as estivation mechanism of dominant species of zooplankton Calanus sinicus in Chinese offshore, energy conversion of key species of food web resources and the sustainable management model, ecological roles of physical processes in two key life stages of Anchovy fish, biological and oceanographic mechanisms of a large-scale dinoflagellate blooms in the East China Sea etc.. These achievements have obviously driven the progress of marine ecosystems dynamic studies in China, and played an important role in promoting Chinese studies on marine ecosystems, which provided a strong technical support to safeguard China’s maritime rights, interests and security, promote marine economy, strengthen marine management, and further narrow the gap with forefront international scientific research. However, the gap in marine scientific and technological strength between China and the developed countries has not narrowed yet. China’s rapid socio-economic development has brought increasing pressure on the coastal ecosystems with a series of unusual ecological phenomena, such as harmful algal blooms, jellyfish outbreak, Enteromorpha bloom, fishery resources decline and so on, which shows that the Chinese coastal ecosystems is in a period of significant change. It would be highly likely to affect the services and the values of the coastal ecosystem. At the same time, lack of understanding of ecosystem in deep-sea and ocean will affect the expeoitation and utilization of bio-resources to some extent. Therefore, forward-looking planning for marine ecosystems and ecological security studies is necessary. However, the late start of the marine research, generally lower level of marine science and technology, and less capable of independent innovation, result in many difficulties and problems in China at present, such as frequently plundering of marine resources, tough situation of marine rights; under- and over-exploitation of marine resources, unclear assessment of marine resources; severe marine pollution, frequent events of red tide, high pressure on marine environment and ecosystems; fisheries resources decline and rare marine species endangered, and so on. In addition, lack or even blank remains yet in some research fields of international hot issues, such as the response and feedback of marine ecosystems to global climate change, the process of deep-sea ecosystems and the development and utilization of deep-sea biological resources, which seriously impede the China from becoming a maritime power. In the near future, scientific research in marine ecology and environment still requires national continued support. (C) Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Resources China has an abundance of marine biological resources, of which more than 3,000 kinds of fish, more than 300 kinds of shrimp, more than 600 kinds · 60 ·
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of crab, more than 700 kinds of shellfish, more than 90 kinds of cephalopods, and more than 1,000 kinds of algae; they are major sources of raw materials of animal food and processed animal food. In addition, it includes also coelenterate, echinoderms, amphibians, and some aquatic reptile species. Since the 1950’s, the development and utilization of marine bio-resources have received great attention. Especially in the past 20 years, the development and utilization of marine bio-resources and industries of China’s marine economy have become new growth points. China’s marine fisheries production and the scale have topped the world for many years, and ranked the first in exports of agricultural products, too. In 2008, the total value of national marine production reached 2.9662 trillion Yuan in GDP. Among them, the marine industries contributed 1.7351 trillion, and marine-related industries for 1.2311 trillion Yuan. Of the marine-related industries in China, 221.6 billion Yuan was from marine fisheries, increasing by 3.3% from 2007; China’s total output of aquatic products reached 48.9 million tons, marine fisheries and marine biopharmaceutical industry in 2008 increased by value of 227.4 billion Yuan [9]. a. Development and Utilization of Marine Fishery Resources Marine fisheries as one of the important agriculture sectors, make important contribution to industrial restructuring for fishery industry, income increase for fishermen, food safety guarantee, the optimization of people diet structure, and the improvement of competitiveness of agricultural exports; and meanwhile, play an important role in the maintenance of the national oceanic rights and interests, and participate in the development and utilization of aquatic resources in the high seas. Having developed for 20 years, China’s marine fishery progressed from only marine fishing and aquaculture, to gradually extend to aquaculture plus aquicultural proliferation, aquatic products in-depth processing, pharmaceutical, and other high-value-added industries. The extension of the marine industrial chain clearly indicted the production expansion and benefit increase, promoting greatly the growth of marine economy [2]. Over the past 10 years, China’s marine aquaculture industry and the fishing industry have made considerable development of marine economy and become important key industries. At present, China’s mariculture industry in coastal provinces (and autonomous regions) achieved unprecedented prosperity with constant growth in marine fishing capacity, which played a significant role in restructuring the industry and increasing income of fishermen in the coastal areas. China is actively promoting the integration and innovation of fisheries sciences, leading fisheries science to a new stage of development; meanwhile, the technical system of fisheries sustainable development gained more and more attention; international exchanges and cooperation in fishery is further strengthened. However, per capita consumption of aquatic products in China is only equivalent to the world average. A wide gap still exists between China and the world’s advanced countries and regions in the level of fishery science and technology. For example, investigation and monitoring on the fishery resources and ecological environment are inadequate; data of fishery investigation and
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production are lack of share. In overall, China is yet a big fishing power in terms of number, but in terms of quality and efficiency, with a big gap there. China has a long coastline, but lacks of large convergence of warm and cold currents, resulting in low potential resources, although there are many species in China’s coastal waters. Additionally, management measures are oldfashioned, fisheries resources tend to failure due to over-fishing. These objective conditions determine that the structure of China’s marine aquaculture must be shifted gradually from fishing-based type in the past to aquiculture-based type. In 1950–1960’s, the Chinese identified the life history of Porphyra, which is a historic breakthrough in key technologies of seed rearing and cultivation of Porphyra and kelp, opening a new era of agricultural development in China. Since the 1970’s, breakthrough was made one after another in key technologies of a wide range of important economic animal and plant breeding and culture, so that the potential productivity of the marine farming was further enhanced. Mariculture production increased from 780,000 t in 1980 to 14.456 million t in 2006, increasing the proportion of marine aquatic products from 19.9% to 55%. Breeding of important culture animals has made an important progress, having produced “Yellow Sea No. 1” Chinese shrimp, “Dalian No.1” hybrid abalone, “Penglai Red” Chlamys farreri, “Rongfu Kelp”, “Zhongke Red” bay scallop Argopecten irradians, “981” Gracilaria lemaneiformis, “the East II” kelp, and other new varieties. Genomics of important marine aquaculture animals has achieved important progresses in building genetic linkage map for Chinese shrimp, Chlamys farreri, oysters, abalone Gracilaria lemaneiformis, Argopecten irradians, large yellow croaker, and sea urchins, etc., and important growthrelating QTLs (Quantitative Trait Related Loci) of Haliotis discus hannai and Argopecten irradians have been located initially; China is the first country of the world in completion of the whole-genome sequencing of shrimp WSSV (White Spot Syndrome Virus), and has determined and analyzed three kinds of fish iridovirus genome sequences; additionally, China has launched wholegenome sequencing for Spirulina, oysters and others, and completed Anabaena draft genome mapping. Using bioinformatics techniques, genetic databases with Chinese resources characteristics have been established, laying foundation of property rights and technology for securing marine bio-function genomics resources and promoting the industrialization. Large and deep-setting antiwave cage technology developed very quickly with good applications for large yellow croaker, cobia and pompano. Land-based aquaculture technology progressed fast, and a number of large-scale equipment has entered the testing phase, indicating a good prospect; molecular technology of virus detection has been established for a series of fish, shrimp, scallops, having screened three kinds of materials capable of blocking the WSSV binding with shrimp cells, and explained Vibrio anguillarum metalloproteinases and density regulator gene of Vibrio alginolyticus, and its pathogenic mechanism; immunoenhancer for shrimp and microbial ecological agents were innovated and applied in shrimp aquaculture enhancing significantly the survival rate. · 62 ·
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However, due to long-term expanding reproduction at the cost of resources consumption, marine fisheries have been suffered from predatory destruction when they provide enormous wealth to the humankind at the same time, resulting in non-sustainable development situation. Promulgation of the “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea” leads the establishment of the international system; China and several neighbor countries signed fishing agreement and then implemented, which resulted in a significant contraction of fishery waters, raising new problems and new challenges. In recent years, China developed rapidly in of processing industry aquatic products. The processing capacity increased from 4.31 million t in 1996 to 16.3 million t in 2006. However, the intensive processing of aquatic products and marine food safety control lag far behind with the world level. Traditional marine food processing discarded many internal organs as waste or used them for processing low-value animal feed production, resulting in a tremendous waste of resources and also leading to a very serious problem of environmental pollution. b. Metabolites Utilization of Marine Biological Resources The special marine environment has created a unique way of life and metabolism, so that marine life has biological metabolites that a terrestrial life does not have. China’s research and development of marine biological metabolites resources has a longer history; marine medicine is a successful example. Supported by the national “863” Program and other marine biotechnology projects, R&D of marine resources have achieved unprecedented results. Haikun-Shenxi capsule, alginic polysaccharide sulphate (PSS), propylene glycol mannite sulfate (PGMS) and Hai Li Te have come out in succession; and a number of new marine health products, such as conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), Shenhailong (deep-sea dragon), Oushenbao and other products go into the market. R&D of marine biological products has also achieved remarkable results, pesticides “Nong Le-I” and “Tian Da-2116” have been applied so far to the areas of more than 4,000 mu (1 mu = 667 m2); researches on marine alkaline protease, lipase and lysozyme has reached 20 million units per liter fermentation broth, of which some have reached the industrial enzyme production scale. Studies on the extraction from and synthesis of marine organisms for drugs to treat cancer, viral diseases and heart disease, the greatest health risks to human, have become the focus of current research. Research on natural marine active ingredients is the basis for marine drug development. A wide range of marine life yields many unique secondary metabolites. However, the discovery of the marine bioactive ingredients is still in its initial stage in China. Well and systematically studied marine bio-materials are less than 1% of the total; there are still a large number of marine lives to be comprehensively studied and screened. Marine natural active ingredients often have complex chemical structures and very low content. Therefore, establishing rapid, tiny-amountsensitive extraction, isolation, and structure determination methods, and the application of multi-target screening to discover marine bio-active matter as
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new biological active ingredients are challenges for scientists. Marine organisms is a major source of human drugs. For example, currently widely used penicillin-replaced cephalosporins, whose precursor structure is from marine micro-organism mold Cephalosporium. Thus, the germplasm resources of marine micro-organisms are as important as a country’s energy and mineral resources, having the same great prospects of development and application, being also the country’s strategic resources. The success in development and utilization of marine microbial resources will create new industries. China has vast waters and rich resources of marine organisms. China’s study in the field started in 1950’s, when the mechanism of marine light-emitting bacteria was studied. More important research outcomes were made afterwards in seaweed aquaculture disease (sodium alginatedegrading bacteria), shrimp and scallops disease prevention and treatment, marine yeasts and the development and application of photosynthetic bacteria, microbial biogeochemical engine function, bio-remediation and pollution control, and environmental monitoring of micro-organisms. One after another on the East China Sea shelf, the Bohai Sea and the marine waters of Jiaozhou Bay, such as the number and types of micro-organisms, composed of a systematic investigation and study. Development for new and renewable sources of energy is an eye-catching progress, especially those of solar energy, wind energy, ocean energy, biomass energy, and so on, progressing rapidly. However, application of bio-energy in China is very few, mainly concentrated in oil-producing microalgae selection, preparation of bio-diesel, and bio-hydrogen production process optimization, etc., and often limited in a single research laboratory. c. Development and Utilization of Marine Biological Genetic Resources China’s marine biological functional genomics and genetic research have already started and made an important progress in the functional genomics of marine bio-economic organism, functional gene isolation, and cloning and application, having constructed the genetic linkage maps of Chinese shrimp, Chlamys farreri, oysters, abalone Haliotis discus hannai, the Gulf scallops, large yellow croaker, and sea urchins, etc., and initially positioned important growthrelating QTLs of Haliotis discus hannai and Argopecten irradians, taken the lead in the international community in obtaining the expression of a large number of sequence tags (EST) foe shrimp, scallops and other marine organisms; completed for the first time in the world the whole-genome sequencing of shrimp WSSV (White Spot Syndrome Virus), and determined three fish iridovirus genome sequences; launched whole-genome sequencing for Spirulina, oysters and other organisms, and completed Anabaena draft genome mapping; established Chinese resources specific genetic databases with bioinformatics techniques, laying foundation of property rights and technology for securing marine bio-function genomics resources and promoting the industrialization; constructed the expression of marine biological recombinant polypeptide which is one of a series of marine biological active materials owned completely with · 64 ·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
(D) Study of Marine Oil and Gas and Mineral Resources The ocean is the greatest incremental resources for supporting human society sustainable development in 21st century. Ocean accounts for 71% of the Earth’s surface area, of which 200-nautical-mile continental shelf and the area outside the continental shelf 200 nautical miles occupy about 22%. Rich undersea deposits of oil and gas resources, mineral resources, and genetic and biological resources, are the last resource treasure-houses that have not yet been fully understanded by human beings on the earth, such as seabed total reserves of gas hydrates, for example, it is conservatively estimated that the seabed total reserves of gas hydrates is about 2 times the total energy of known human fossil. National development requires not only land-based oil and gas and mineral resources, but also the support of offshore oil and gas and mineral resources. In order to meet the state’s oil and gas and mineral resources, ocean oil and gas, natural gas hydrates, hydrothermal sulphides, polymetallic nodules and cobaltrich crusts and other strategic resources provide the possibility. a. Offshore Oil and Gas Resources Exploration and Development With increasing global demand for the oil and gas and gradually decreasing land-based oil and gas resources, exploration for marine oil and gas resources becomes more and more important. Waters under the jurisdiction of China in total is about 300×104 km2. At present, the China’s national offshore oil exploration and development focused on offshore shelf basin; in the South China Sea, operations in south-central area are few because of the territory dispute, for only limited geophysical and related geological studies. The area of China’s offshore continental shelf and continental slope is 1.3 million km2, in which 10 large oil and gas basins have been found, being Bohai Basin, North Yellow Sea Basin, the South Yellow Sea Basin, the East China Sea Basin, the West Taiwan Basin, the Southwest Taiwan Basin, the Pearl River Mouth Basin, the Qiongdongnan Basin, the Beibu Gulf Basin and the Yinggehai Basin [44]. After exploration in the 1960’s to 1970’s, large-scale exploration and development in the early 1980’s to 1990’s with foreign cooperation, and currently independent and cooperative exploration, China has mastered the supporting technology of offshore oil and gas exploration, with an independent exploration and development capabilities for offshore oil and gas. In the offshore areas without territory dispute, the offshore oil and gas exploration and development are normal. In the North Yellow Sea Basin, the South Yellow Sea Basin, the East China Sea Basin, oil and gas exploration activities are subject to different degrees of controversy with North Korea, South Korea, Japan, and Chinese Taiwan. At the end of 2006, 66 oil and gas fields had been found in the six major Chinese offshore sedimentary basins, of which oil fields are mainly distributed in the Bohai Sea, the Pearl River estuary, and the Beibu Bay Basin, while gas 3 Status and Opportunities of China’s Marine Science & Technology Development
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independent intellectual property rights; and made a number of important breakthroughs in genetic engineering of seaweed, shrimp, and seawater fish with promising application potential.
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fields mainly located in the East China Sea, Qiongdongnan, the Pearl River estuary, and Yinggehai Basin. China’s proven oil reserves in coastal waters total 2.41 billion t, recoverable reserves of 513 million t, the remaining recoverable reserves of 284 million t, more than 80% of oil reserves are in Bohai Bay Basin. It is proved that the total of China’s offshore natural gas reserves is 573.4 billion m3, recoverable reserves is 341.2 billion m3, the remaining recoverable reserves is 291.7 billion m3, more than 70% of the reserves are located in the East China Sea, Qiongdongnan and Yinggehai Basin [45]. China’s offshore oil development shows an increasing trend year by year. Marine oil production in 2005 exceeded 36 million t, while it was 9.275 million t in 1995, more than doubled. The marine proportion of the total output of crude oil increased from 6.2% in 1995 to 16.5%. It is estimated that by 2010 China’s crude oil production will reach 193 million t, of which marine oil production will double that of year 2003 to over 50 million t, taking 25% proportion of the total output of crude oil [45]. b. Research on Gas Hydrate Exploration and Development Gas hydrate research in China began in the early 1990’s, compared with foreign countries, a late start. Institute of Oceanology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), implemented a hydrate-focus “973” Program in 2000 on RV “Kexue I” in the East China Sea continental slope with multi-channel seismic facilities. Ministry of Land and Resources did the same but highresolution job in 2001 in the East China Sea continental slope. In the following seven years, CAS has set up nearly 20 million total funding for five important directional knowledge innovation projects and the Guangzhou Center for Gas Hydrate Research, for carrying out the research on the formation of gas hydrates, reservoir conditions, and key technologies of exploitation. At present, approaches and results have been made in related research fields including the geological environment of the gas source and formation, and identification of conditions and gas hydrate accumulation mechanisms of natural gas hydrate with geophysical, geological and geochemical aids. Not only that, the state established special funds of 0.81 billion Yuan in 2002 for marine gas hydrate resources investigation, and unveil a large-scale investigation on gas hydrate in China maritime areas. China also set a cuttingedge topic “Key Technology of Exploration for Sea-Bottom Gas Hydrate Resources” in the “Tenth Five-Year Plan” period as Theme 820 of the “863” Program. In the “Eleventh Five-Year Guideline” period, the national “863” Program planned a major marine technology project “Natural Gas Hydrate Exploration and Key Technologies Development”; gas hydrate related technical issues were studied. In 2007, Guangzhou Marine Geological Survey of China Geological Survey Bureau discovered gas hydrates in borehole in southeast of the Shenhu Shoal in the middle slope of the northern South China Sea. c. Study on Hydrothermal Sulfide Seafloor hydrothermal sulfide is the potential resource causing the · 66 ·
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international concern, and also is one of the hot research areas to scholars in recent years among Chinese Earth Science. Preliminary investigation and research on hydrothermal activity and its resources have been done by China in the areas of Okinawa Trough, Mariana Trough, the East Pacific Rise, the Atlantic Mid-Ocean Ridges, the Southwest and Middle Indian Ocean Ridge, and Southwest Pacific, having completed the resource assessment maps of seafloor hydrothermal sulfide “occurrence”, put forward in the exploration target of the investigation in the international seabed area. Mineralogical and geochemical studies on hydrothermal activity and sulfide have been done in the Mariana Trough, the Okinawa Trough, the North Atlantic mid-ocean ridges, the NorthEast Pacific, Juan de Fuca Ridge, the Red Sea, and the East Pacific Rise, including in-depth comparison between continental ore deposits and marine counterparts in geochemical and isotopic composition, and fluid inclusion study with a number of results. With the national “863” Program support, in the “Tenth Five-Year” period, manned submersible, TV grab, Remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and other facilities were used for high-tech survey of seafloor hydrothermal sulfide. China has also developed independently technological platform of simulation for on-site hydrothermal fidelity docking sampling for rock-water reaction, hydrothermal column diffusion, and many other items, which provided technical support for hydrothermal sulfide investigation and ore-forming mechanism research. In 2003, with the implementation of the survey leg for the East Pacific Rise sulphide, China for the first time independently conducted an investigation over the East Pacific Rise with own methods and equipment, obtained many samples including hydrothermal sulfide and data, which pushed China a large step forward in the study of seafloor hydrothermal sulfide. Subsequently, in the global voyage in 2005–2006, China teams successfully performed hydrothermal sulfide research in the East Pacific Rise, the Atlantic Mid-Ocean Ridges, and the Indian Ocean Ridge. In addition, new hydrothermal activity area was discovered in the southwest Indian Ocean Ridge in 2007, and in East Pacific Rise near 2°S in 2008, announcing breakthrough in Chinese investigation on seafloor hydrothermal sulfide. Currently, China’s study of seafloor hydrothermal sulfides is at the stage of steady development. d. Study of Polymetallic Nodules and Cobalt-rich Crusts To safeguard China’s share of the international submarine resources common to all people of the world, meet the needs of economic development on the demand for mineral resources and make contributions to explore and utilize these international submarine resources for human beings, China started the survey on ocean polymetallic nodules and cobalt-rich crust in late 1980’s and mid 1990’s respectively. Although later than the western developed countries, China has made great achievements. During the “Seventh Five-Year Plan” period, the State Oceanic Administration and the former Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources organized individually 10 voyages in the eastern Pacific Ocean, the survey area
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covered 2 million km2 for polymetallic nodule resources. In 1991, China has become the pioneer investors for polymetallic nodules in the eastern Pacific Ocean and acquired 150,000 km2 pioneer area; in March 1999, China completed on schedule 50% of the give-up obligations, screened out an area of mining of 7.5×104 km2, and determined the nodule contract area; in May 2001, China Ocean Society and the International Seabed Authority entered into exploration contracts, the pioneer investors of International Seabed activities became the contractor of international seabed resource exploration, for the first time China had beyond-national-jurisdiction areas of 7.5×104 km2 with exclusive exploration right and priority for polymetallic nodules mining, which increased China total reserves of strategic resources. At the same time, China actively participated in geological model assessment plan on regional polymetallic resource potential, and reached a high level of research results in noduleforming mechanism and resource evaluation. At present, China continues to carry out the research into the resources of polymetallic nodules in the contract area for exploration and evaluation. Abiding and implementing the Exploration Contract, China conducted in-depth systematic exploration in the demonstration areas, deepened the knowledge of small-scale distribution of polymetallic nodules, resources and economic evaluation, further improved the understanding of quality, quantity, distribution and economic value of the polymetallic nodules, and almost located the mine site for commercial exploitation. In terms of cobalt-rich crusts investigation, in the “Tenth Five-Year Plan” period, focus was on the crusts in the Western Pacific Magellan Seamounts, and Mid-Pacific seamounts, having surveyed cobalt-rich crusts in 25 seamounts over nearly 300,000 km2 in the Pacific Ocean after a dozen of crews, from which about 10 seamounts were selected for further detail investigation. Therefore, China had preliminarily understood the cobalt-rich crusts distribution and grade characteristics in the Western and Central Pacific seamounts, and carried out small-scale study on grade changes. At present, target is further narrowed down from the 10 plus to several seamounts for active and in-depth investigation, and is now ready to meet the basic requirements for commercial exploitation of cobalt-rich crusts with regional delineation. (E) Research on Comprehensive Utilization of Seawater Resources Of the total water resources on the Earth, freshwater takes only 2.5%, while seawater accounts for 97.5%. Water is the basis of natural resources and strategic economic resources; the sustainable use of water resources is a major strategic issue in relation to economic and social development. China is one of the world’s 13 most water-poor countries, the total freshwater resources rank sixth in the world, but per capita is only 1/4 of the world average, ranking in 109th place in the world. In 2006, 40% of the China’s total population were in 11 coastal provinces and regions that took only 25% of the total country freshwater resources, but contributed 60% of the total GDP. At present, in a normal year, China’s water shortage is nearly 40 billion m3. Of more · 68 ·
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3 Status and Opportunities of China’s Marine Science & Technology Development
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than 660 cities nationwide, over 400 cities are short of water, of which 108 cities have serious water shortage. Some experts estimate that to 2030 China’s water shortage will reach 60 billion m3. Freshwater resources shortage or even crisis is the largest bottleneck constraints in the process of China’s sustainable economic and social development [46]. Seawater use has become a solution in many coastal countries to address the problem of freshwater shortage, and promote sustainable economic and social development as a major strategic initiative. In 2005, the world’s daily output of desalination water was about 35 million m3, of which 80% were for drinking water, and solved the problem of water supply for 100 million people, that is the world’s 1/50 of the population with drinking water by desalination. There are more than 13,000 desalination plants around the world. Seawater desalination as an alternative freshwater resources and the incremental technology, received more and more attention from many coastal countries. The volume of world’s direct use of seawater for industrial cooling reached about 600 billion m3 per year to replace a large number of valuable freshwater resources. In addition, the world produces annually 50 million t salt from the ocean, over 260 million t magnesium and magnesium, and 200,000 t bromine [46]. Therefore, taking water and resources from the ocean is a realistic choice to address China’s freshwater resources shortage in the coastal (near shore) areas, achieve sustainable use of water resources, and protect the economic and social sustainable development in coastal areas, having present and future significance. China has made remarkable achievements in comprehensive utilization of seawater resources. The value in 2008 increased by 5.9 billion, growing by 11.2% from 2007; desalination and comprehensive utilization are expanding in scale, making substantial progress in technology of marine water use. In 2008, the increased value of 800 million Yuan was made, which is 22.7% growth from 2007 [47]. a. Seawater Desalination Desalination as an incremental technique of substitute for freshwater has received more and more attention from the world’s coastal countries. Desalination research and development in China started in the late 1950’s; after 50-year research and engineering modeling, major breakthroughs have been made in reverse osmosis, electrodialysis and distillation (thermal method) and other mainstream desalination technologies (MSF, pressure gas distillation and low-temperature multi-effect distillation). China has independently designed and manufactured daily output of 3,000 t-class low-temperature multi-effect distillation and 5,000 t-class reverse osmosis desalination facilities, reaching daily output up to 120,000 t. Although China has basic conditions of industrial development of seawater desalination, but the level of research and innovation, the equipment manufacturing capacity, and system design and integration still lag behind foreign countries with a large gap: the industry scale is still limited and the cost is relatively high, which is the most important constraining factor in the development of desalination.
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b. The Direct Use of Seawater As a direct substitute for freshwater in uses of agriculture, industry, and household, direct use of seawater is an important way to save freshwater. At present in foreign courtiers, seawater circulating cooling technology has entered 30 000 m3/h class demonstration phase of industrialization, having formed “three chemicals and one tower” technology package and products: circulating cooling water corrosion inhibitor, scale inhibition and dispersion agents, bacteria and algae biocide, and water cooling towers; in the thermal power plants in the coastal zone of China, FGD (flue gas desulphurization) technology has become mature. Seawater has been directly used in construction materials, printing, dyeing, and chemical industries; the direct use for agricultural irrigation is in the study and the pilot phase; city use mainly for flushing the road, appliances, toilets, and fire fighting and so on. In organized serial research activities on direct use of seawater, China completed 100-t pilot industrial circulating cooling water test, and made breakthroughs in key technologies in seawater corrosion inhibitor, scale inhibition and dispersion agents, bacteria and algae biocide, water cooling towers, and completed 1,000-t and 10,000-t stereotypes and industrial application, for example, the 2,500 m3/h seawater circulating cooling system in Tianjin Soda Works, and the 2×14,000 m3/h seawater circulating cooling demonstration project completed in 2004 and put into operation in Shenzhen Fuhuade Power Plant. Although China has nearly 70 years history of the application of cycle cooling technology, but is still limited in the yearly amount of cooling water, with a big gap from developed countries in the technology and the quantity of seawater. c. Comprehensive Utilization of Seawater Chemistry Resources Seawater contains more than 80 kinds of chemical elements, which is the source of chemical resources of sodium, bromide, lithium salt, and magnesium salt, as well as uranium and deuterium that are important trace elements for national defense. Since the 1940’s, scientists around the world have carried out researches on a variety of seawater chemical resources and the utilization with series of comprehensive results. Every year in the world, 50 million t of salt, 2.6 million t of magnesium and magnesium oxide, 200,000 t bromine are extracted from the ocean. Sea salt production is a traditional sector in China for comprehensive seawater chemical use, and salt production neared 20 million t. Extracting bromine from seawater with air blowing out-process has been put into industry; and a large number of technological achievements in brine water comprehensive utilization have been made. Gas membrane method for taking potassium and bromide from seawater has made a breakthrough in key technology, so did in technologies of taking magnesium and lithium. Technology of the air blowing out-process is relatively mature; currently major technical problem is how to improve the process to increase the yield and purity, as well as how to further refine bromine for more value adding. Overall, the comprehensive utilization of most seawater-sourced elements is still in the R&D stage. · 70 ·
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(F) Research on Sustainable Use of Coastal Resources A coastal zone is important fronts of modern Earth system science disciplines, also the area sensitive in responding to the global change. Effected under the global change and the role of human activities, the flux of materials change and coastal ecosystems response in the estuary—river basin—coastal zone, have become an international research focus, with the main topics including the land-ocean interaction in estuary—river basin—coastal zone (hydrodynamic, sediment flux into the sea, landscape evolution, sedimentation and erosion, saltwater intrusion, the spread of pollutants, the impact of largescale projects, etc.), the system evolution and course (hydrodynamic process, sedimentation processes, coastal geomorphology dynamic process, mixing and diffusion process of pollutants, coastal zone ecosystems evolution, etc.); also the process model of materials flux into the sea in the estuary—river basin— coastal zone, assessment and forecast to the coastal ecosystems evolution, to the changes in climate and sea level and the impact on coastal zone system, and to the establishment of database applications. The comprehensive management of coastal zone resources and environment includes the coastal zone ecosystems and long-term fixed-point observation and research, fisheries resources in stabilization and recovery (the types of resources), species (especially endangered and rare species) protection, the prevention of invasive alien species, habitat protection and restoration, coral reefs and coastal wetland ecosystem protection and restoration, the early warning to the occurrence of harmful red tide, increase of environmentfriendly production of marine aquaculture, and the comprehensive evaluation and prediction of coastal ecosystems health and productivity. Researches on these aspects are implemented through global or regional large-scale research projects. Since 1980, Chinese coastal zone management and the development and utilization of resources have carried out a series of work; for example, having completed a “National Comprehensive Survey on Resources of Coastal Zone and Beach”, “National Comprehensive Survey on Island Resources”, “National 3 Status and Opportunities of China’s Marine Science & Technology Development
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Asking resources from the sea is a major strategy to resolve freshwater resources shortage and achieve sustainable use of water resources. The “Outline of the National Program for Medium- and Long-Term Scientific and Technological Development (2006–2020)”, “Outline of the National Eleventh Five-Year Guideline for the Development of Marine Science and Technology” and the state “Special Plan for Marine Water Use” set priority of development in the comprehensive utilization of seawater chemical resources, seawater desalination, and seawater use. In 2006, the National Science and Technology Plans launched a major project of “Technology Package of Seawater Desalination and Comprehensive Utilization” and conducted a series of technical studies, to address the problem of water shortage in China with a technical support. China’s comprehensive utilization of seawater resources has entered a new period of development.
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Marine Function Zone Division”, “National Marine Development Planning”, as well as some specific research projects. Over the past 10 years, China carried out studies and projects on sea-level change, coastal zone and marine disasters, coastal erosion, coastal environment and ecology protection, and protection and utilization of offshore biological populations, and other fields, with a number of research results. Tidal flat development and utilization in China is mainly the pond cultivation in inter-tidal zone or upper tidal zone, ground growing, inter-tidal shellfish aquicultural proliferation and algae culture. The most costeffective aquaculture is from prawns and shellfish. The tidal flats contain vast coastal zone resources, and provide ideal site conditions for building salt field base. At present, the utilization of brine by-product during salt production, the production of potassium chloride, bromide, magnesium chloride, thenardite, and other chemical products also have significant economic benefits. To safeguard the sustainable development of coastal zone ecosystems, since the 1990’s, China has established natural reserves in Changli Golden Coast, Shankou mangroves, Sanya coral reefs, Nanji Islands, Yancheng coastal wetland. Artificial reefs in Dong’ao of Zhuhai, Nan’ao of Shantou, Doumao Island in Sanduao of Fujian, Zhoushan Islands, Qinshan Island in Lianyungang, and Sanya are tested in large scale. A set of well-developed mangrove reforestation technology has been formed and are promoted in various parts of South China coasts. The “Yellow River Delta Wetland Ecological Restoration Project” strengthened the capacity of ecosystem self-regulation; The “Typical Bohai Coastal Habitat Restoration” plan established artificial vegetation communities and systems in river mouth areas of Haihe River, Dagu River in the Bohai Sea region. By enforcing the quality control of offshore seawater, restoring contaminated sand beach, and monitoring and remedying eutrophication in estuaries and coastal waters, coastal zone land and water pollution have been alleviated to some extents. Strong land-ocean interaction and frequent natural disasters make coastal zone as a zone of frequent occurrence. China’s coastal zone disasters can be classified into, according to the nature of disasters, marine climate disasters, marine hydrological disasters, marine geological disasters, and marine biological disasters, etc., of which the most typical is the storm surge, causing a direct economic loss of 19.224 billion Yuan in 2008. In recent years, the “Vulnerability Assessment” and “Vulnerability” research are paid with more and more attention. Assessment on coastal zone disaster risk and early warning system of marine disaster in China have reached a certain scale and forecasting capabilities after years of construction. However, the construction and operation of the system are far behind the demands from coastal and marine economic development in preventing marine disasters, and have a large gap from the world advanced level. China’s development and utilization of coastal zone trend is uneven. In some areas, it has been over-developed, generating local or sectoral conflict of interest, resulting in harm from industry to agriculture, and petroleum industry · 72 ·
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The key tasks of research and development in coastal zone proposed in the “Outline of the National Eleventh Five-Year Guideline for the Development of Marine Science and Technology”: [2] 1. Develop Marine Monitoring and Forecasting Technology, and Improve the Ability to the Protection of Marine Environment The technology of warning and emergency response to marine environment and disaster: offshore marine disaster early-warning technology. Focuses are on the development of early warning technology to storm surges, catastrophic waves, red tide, and tsunami; the development of sea-ice forecasting and disaster risk prediction, the high-resolution forecasts of marine surface wind field, high-precision numerical prediction of current, rapid high-precision numerical tsunami forecasting, the assessment of marine disaster hazard in coastal zones, etc.; early-warning and research on such geological disasters in coastal zones: coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion, and coastal wetland degradation. 2. Develop Technology for Marine Development and Protection, and Promote Healthy Development of Marine Economy The technology for development of marine bio-resources: Seed project in mariculture. Major targets are: to develop marine biological cell engineering breeding and molecular breeding technology, key technologies of cell and genetic engineering breeding, as well as the nursery propagation regulation and reproduction technology for a number of valuable marine species, and protection and conservation of important biological germplasm. Meanwhile, to carry out research on important marine species biological growth and anti-adversity, and breeding high quality, high yield, and stress-resistant fish, shrimp, shellfish, seacucumber, and algae. Technology of healthy mariculture: Focuses include the
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hurting aquiculture and tourism. Such incidents frequently occurred, calling for an urgent need to enhance the environment monitoring, protection and scientific management of resources. “China’s Outline of the National Program for Medium- and Long-Term Scientific and Technological Development (2006–2020)” and “Outline of the National Eleventh Five-Year Guideline for the Development of Marine Science and Technology” called for that the marine science and technology shall provide effective protection to marine economic and social sustainable development, exploration of marine resources, marine environmental protection and disaster prevention and reduction, and the maintenance of maritime rights and interests. “China’s Agenda 21” took marine resources and sustainable development and protection to environment as the main areas, and proposed to establish three systems: sustainable use of marine resources management system, marine ecosystems monitoring and protection system, and environmental prediction system. Therefore, the application of coastal zone research and key technology and scientific methods are of great significance to ensure the completion of a comprehensive well-off society and realization of China’s goal of economic and social sustainable development by 2020.
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construction of ecological farming system and evaluation of aquiculture capacity, disease control of aquaculture species, healthy and efficient aquaculture feed, technology and equipment of deep-sea cage culture, seafood safety detection, rapid pathogen detection and food-source disease surveillance and control, and recovering technology of damaged function in breeding and culture, etc. High-value use of marine bio-resources and functions of gene exploration: focuses are put on the deep processing technology of marine aquatic products, manufacturing of antitumor and disease-resistant micro-organisms, and such as a series of marine biopharmaceutical and new bio-medical materials; developing ultra-high pressure, supercritical fluid, membrane separation, and extrusion technology, and efficient bioactive natural products screening, separation, and identification; Exploring marine functional genomics for medical purposes and for biological function of major pathogen in mariculture, culture techniques of deep-sea marine flora, fauna, and symbiotic microbe, deep-sea micro-organisms “metagenomic” technology, and marine drugs for a number of major diseases prevention and control. The technology of sustainable utilization of marine bio-resources. Priorities are set on the development of the technology of resources management, restoration, and protection for sustainable utilization of coastal fisheries, the conservation of fishery resources and the aquacultural proliferation, habitat restoration for important species, artificial reef construction engineering and key marine pastures building, standardization of main fishing gear, important oceanic and polar bio-resources, acquisition of environmental information of offshore fisheries ground and salttolerant planting in coastal beach. Marine ecology and environmental protection technology, that is the marine ecosystem restoration technology: focuses are put on developing mangrove forests, seagrass beds, coral reefs, coastal wetlands, typical island ecosystems restoration and repair techniques, prevention of eutrophication of coastal eco-engineering, marine pollutants disposal, viruses and disease monitoring, and assessment and reconstruction of damaged marine ecology technology. 3. Conduct Marine Scientific Research to Improve the Cognitive Level of the Marine Law Evolution of marine ecosystems and sustainable use of marine resources: focus on the conversion of biogenic elements of continental margin shelf, and its impact on the ecosystems, interactions between biogeochemical cycles and marine food web, changes of marine bio-resources, the key process of marine ecosystems, the response of marine organisms to marine environment variability, biological process and the interaction with physical processes, and human activities impact on sustainable use of marine bio-resources in the coastal waters of China, and so on. Variation of the coastal zone environment and coastal sustainable development: the focus of study is on the following aspects: Chinese typical coastal sea-level rise and the trends of human-induced land subsidence, the process of China’s coastal zone and its response to the global climate change, the impact of human activities in coastal zones on the environment of mankind survival, the artificial coastal processes and the reaction of land and sea, and the coastal zone resources and its sustainable use. Marine pollution and marine disasters mechanism and prediction: focus on environmental pollution mechanism and environmental quality changes in
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3.2 Major National Sea-related Scientific Research Projects Since the 1980’s, China initiated a series of major scientific and technological research projects, including mainly The National Basic Research Program (the “973” Program), the National High Technology Research and Development Program (the “863” Program), The National Key Technology R&D Program (formerly the Science and Technology Program) [48] and the National Natural Science Foundation [49], as well as a large number of major relevant and special marine science and technology programs, and others from state’s ministries and commissions. The implementation of these research programs and plans greatly promoted Chinese marine science and technology, as well as the marine economy.
3.2.1 The Ocean-related Items of the National Basic Research Program (the “973” Program) The strategic objectives of the “973” Program are: to strengthen original innovation and provide solutions at a deeper level and broader areas for major scientific issues in national economic and social development, in order to improve China’s independent innovation capability and the ability to solve major problems for the country in the future. Since the implementation of the national “973” Program, there have been 22 ocean-related projects (Table 3.1) under the auspice of the “973” Program [48]. These projects are on resource development, maritime security, disaster prevention 3 Status and Opportunities of China’s Marine Science & Technology Development
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Chinese typical coastal waters, storm surges, tsunamis, sea ice, waves, red tide, exotic species, coastal erosion, seawater intrusion, their formation, prediction and prevention. 4. Carry out Marine Management Research, and Promote the Sustainable Development of Marine Cause Evaluation and management of the marine ecosystems research: focus on ecological problems in coastal surveys, the invasion of alien species monitoring and hazard assessment, marine ecosystems health diagnosis and evaluation methods, the total-amount control of pollutants into the sea, disaster risk assessment in marine and coastal zone, marine oil spills and pollution incidents, red tide outbreak, and the sudden emergency handling mechanisms, biodiversity conservation and management research. Utilization of marine resources and management of economic research: focus on theory and method of environmental values accounting on marine resources, theory of ecological asset management and value-adding, theory and methods of green accounting on marine economy, method and theory of marine ecological compensation, marine industrial policy, coastal zone economy and the layout optimization of marine productivity, and sustainable marine economy mode.
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and mitigation, and such major national needs, which have launched studies of coastal circulation, marine ecosystems, aquaculture diseases, the formation and evolution of the marginal sea, red tide, and so on, and achieved a series of high-level results, promoting China’s basic marine science research and the development, which would provide a strong support at the same time to marine economy, and to China’s international cooperation and exchanges with foreign partners in a wide range. Table 3.1 List of China’s national “973” Program in marine scopes
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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Project kick-off year
Project Name
Undertaking institution
Research field
Chief scientist
Amount /million Yuan
1999
Research on the Disease Occurrence and Disease Resistance of the Commercially Important Organisms in Mariculture
Institute of Oceanology, Agriculture CAS
Jianhai Xiang
28
1999
East Sea and the Yellow Sea Ecosystem Dynamics and Sustainable Use of Biological Resources
Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences
Qisheng Tang
34
1999
Formation, Variability, Numerical Prediction, and Environmental Impact of Circulation in China’s Coastal Waters
First Institute of Resources and Oceanography, the State Environment Oceanic Administration
Yeli Yuan
48.27
2000
Key Issues of Chinese Continental Margin Evolution and Major Resources
Institute of Oceanology, CAS Resources and Second Institute of Environment Oceanography, the State Oceanic Administration
Shu Gao Jiabiao Li
28
2000
Interactions Between the Earth Spheres: Deep- Sea Processes and Records
Tongji University
Pinxian Wang
20
2001
Institute of Oceanology, Ecology and Oceanography CAS Resources and of Harmful Algal Blooms First Institute of Environment in China Oceanography, the State Oceanic Administration
Mingjiang Zhou Mingyuan Zhu
28
2002
Land-Sea Interaction in Chinese Typical Estuaries-Offshore and the Environmental Effects
Resources and Environment
Shikui Zhai Pingxing Ding
28
2003
Glycobiology and glycolchemistry-Characteristic Ocean University of Sugar Chain Structure and China Function and Its Regulatory Mechanism
Cutting-edge science
Meiyu Geng
10
2005
Oil and Gas Formation and Distribution in Marine Carbonate Rocks in China
Resources and Environment
Zhijun Jin
Ocean University of China, East China Normal University
China Petroleum & Chemical Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development Co., Ltd.
Resources and Environment
Cutting-edge science
Unknown
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
No.
Project kick-off year
Project Name
Undertaking institution
Research field
Chief scientist
Amount /million Yuan
2005
Marine Physical Variations in Eastern Marginal Ocean University of Seas of China and Their China Environmental Impacts
Resources and Environment
Dexing Wu
29
2005
Key Processes and Sustainable Mechanisms of Ecosystem Food Production in the Coastal Ocean of China
Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences
Resources and Environment
Qisheng Tang
30
2006
Basic Research on the Control of Disease Occurrence in Important Mariculture Animals and the Immune Prevention
Institute of Oceanology, Agriculture CAS
Jianhai Xiang
28
2007
Air-Sea Interaction in “Asian and India-Pacic Area” and Its Impact on China’s Short-Term Climate
Institute of Atmospheric Resources and Physics, CAS Environment
Guoxiong Wu
38
2007
The Beijing-TianjinBohai Sea District: Process of Combined Pollution, Inuence of Eco-Toxicological, and Principles for Controlling and Restoring EcoEnvironment
Ecological Environment Research Center of the Resources and Chinese Academy of Environment Sciences
Jiuhui Qu
Unknown
2007
Dynamics of the South China Sea Continental Margin and the Potential for Oil and Gas Resources
Second Institute of Resources and Oceanography, the State Environment Oceanic Administration
Jiabiao Li
30
16
2007
Variability of North Pacic Sub-Tropical Circulation Ocean University of and Its Impact on China China’s Coastal Dynamic Environment
Resources and Environment
Lixin Wu
29
17
2007
Ocean Carbon Cycle and Tropical Forcing of Climate Tongji University Evolution
Multidisciplinary
Zhimin Jian
26
18
2007
ARGO’s Upper Ocean Structure, Variability and Prediction
Dake Chen
30
2008
Basic Research of Formation and Distribution Institute of Geology and Resources and of South China Sea Oil and Geophysics, the Chinese Environment Gas Resources in DeepAcademy of Sciences Water Basin
Weilin Zhu
18.81 (First 2 years)
2008
Basic Research on Enrichment and Exploitation of Gas Hydrates in the South China Sea
Shengxiong Yang
17.10 (First 2 years)
10
11
12
13
14
15
19
20
Second Institute of Cutting-edge Oceanography, the State Science Oceanic Administration
China Geological Survey
Energy
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(Continued)
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(Continued)
No.
Project kick-off year
21
2008
Carbon cycling in China Seas - budget, controls and Xiamen University ocean acidication
2008
Energy and Water Cycle Variability of East Asia under Global Warming, and Its Impact on Extreme Weather in China
22
Project Name
Undertaking institution
Research field Resources and Environment
Institute of Atmospheric Resources and Physics, CAS Environment
Chief scientist
Amount /million Yuan
Minhan Dai
18.68 (First 2 years)
Huijun Wang
13.92 (First 2 years)
Note: The Amount column marked “unknown” means that the gure was not found
3.2.2 Ocean-related Projects of National High-tech Research and Development Program Supported by the national “863” Program and other projects, marine science and technology have made a breakthrough and narrowed the gap to advanced countries. In ocean monitoring technology, China launched the first oceanographic satellite, with which the acoustic current profiling, highprecision measurement of CTD profiles, high-frequency ground wave radar and other ocean monitoring key technologies have been successful. Development of the sea surface drifting buoys, ARGO floats, and advanced ocean observing instruments and equipment have significantly upgraded the technological level of China’s marine and the market competition of domestic marine equipments. In marine biotechnology, a number of useful applications have been achieved such as in aquaculture germplasm optimization, and research and development of marine natural products and marine drugs. China’s national offshore shipbuilding technology and container technology advanced quickly, making China the world’s third largest shipbuilding country. In marine exploration and resources development, joint researches on deep water oil and gas and natural gas hydrate exploration, and the core technology of oceanic mineral resources exploration have made significant progresses, which will provide strong technical support to China’s exploration, investigation, and assessment of national offshore resources of oil and gas and ocean minerals [50]. (A) The Ocean-related Projects of the National “863” Program In “Ninth Five-Year Plan” period, the “863” Program deployed three major projects: the “Integrated Ocean Environment Monitoring System and Showcase Study”, “The Polyploid Breeding of Aquacultural Animals and the Sex-control Technology”, and “Key Exploration Technology of Giant Gas Field in Yinggehai and Hainan Island”. During the “Tenth Five-Year” period, another four major special projects were set up, i.e. “Technology of Water Pollution Control and Treatment”, “Key Technologies of Exploration and Development of the Bohai Oil Field”, “Mariculture Seed Engineering” and “Real-time Three· 78 ·
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(B) Theme and Focus of Ocean-research Projects of the “863” Program During the “Ninth Five-Year Plan” period, the “863” Program established three themes of technology in marine monitoring, marine biotechnology, and marine resources exploration and development. The theme of ocean monitoring technolog y : technolog y and demonstration test (major projects) of marine three-dimensional monitoring system, high-precision CTD measurement technology, vessel-borne acoustic current profiling techniques, synthetic aperture sonar imaging techniques, sea surface and water layer optical measurement technology, key technologies in ocean remote sensing applications, remote sensing technology and demonstration for marine fisheries information service, offshore fishing information service system, technology and demonstration for marine threedimensional monitoring system in the Pearl River estuary. The theme of marine biotechnology: polyploid breeding and control technology of mariculture animals (major special projects), engineering optimization of mariculture, seaweed seedlings engineering, marine key technology of genetically modified animals and plants, marine biological antitumor and anti-virus research and development of active substances, research and development of marine biological enzymes and toxin, and marine biomedical polysaccharide preparation for human body soft tissue repair, etc.. The theme of marine exploration and resources development: seabed topography and geological structure detection, comprehensive evaluation of marine mineral resources, seismic exploration for marine natural gas, marine geophysical logging and imaging, high-temperature ultra-high pressure drilling with marine extended-reach cluster wells, new multi-function mobile sea oil production system, heavy-duty beach climbing in very-shallow water transport. In the “Tenth Five-Year” period, projects in four themes started: marine resources development, marine biotechnology, marine monitoring technologies, and environmental pollution control techniques. The theme of marine resources development technology: focused on exploration of deep sea oil and gas and natural gas hydrate, exploration and development of oil and gas in the East China Sea, ocean mineral resources exploration and undersea three-dimensional detection and imaging, and achieved a large number of technological results of international advanced level. The theme of marine biotechnology: focused on developments in gene engineering, cell engineering, genetic engineering, biochemical engineering, functional genomics, bioinformatics and other key high-technologies; carried out 3 Status and Opportunities of China’s Marine Science & Technology Development
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Dimensional Monitoring on Ocean Dynamic Environment of the Taiwan Strait and the Adjacent Waters”. In the “Eleventh Five-Year” period, China initiated “Key Technologies for Gas Hydrate Exploration and Development”, “Regional Marine Monitoring System”, “Key Technologies for Deep-water Oil and Gas Exploration in the South China Sea”, “R&D of Three-Dimensional Monitoring of Deep Ocean Dynamic Environment in the South China Sea”. Up to now, the “863” Program has implemented four special projects and seven major projects [48].
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projects in the groups of marine aquaculture, natural products, functional genes, and salt-tolerant plant; and organized R&D in three emerging industrial sectors: marine aquaculture, marine pharmaceutics, and marine biological processing, which promoted marine biotechnology in China by leaps and bounds. The theme of ocean monitoring technology: focused on the development of a high-precision, technology and equipment of automated marine-site monitoring, large-scale and modularized ocean remote sensing monitoring techniques, and multi-parameter monitoring platform technology and technology integration model system. The theme of environmental pollution control techniques: developed 15 independent key technologies of own intellectual property rights, of which preparation of standard cyanobacterial toxin sample, rapid detection of algae toxin and production, and flue gas desulfurization denitration with pulse discharge plasma, having reached international high level, part of them at advanced level; the Bohai Sea coastal zone ecological restoration, technical integration of pollution prevention and model application in major fields have made important progresses, with the formation of a number of environmentally-friendly high-tech base for innovation and industrialization. In the “Eleventh Five-Year” period, the marine technology strategy of “deepen shallow offshore water research, open far and deep ocean realm” is set with focuses on: the use of offshore resources and deep reserves of strategic resources, the key technologies and major equipment of developing offshore marginal oil field, deep-water oil and gas fields, gas hydrate, and the ocean seabed mineral solid mineral resource exploration; the development and improvement of marine environmental monitoring technologies, especially far-and-deep sea monitoring techniques, in order to take control in threedimensional integrated monitoring over 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone and the Western Pacific; deep-sea biological resources exploration, marine drugs innovation and marine biological products development for high valueadding; the establishment of a group of marine high-tech R&D bases, foster a number of cutting-edge marine technology, and realize the far-reaching strategic transformation from shallow near seas to far deep oceans. At present, the key projects that had started-up are research and/ or development in the fields of: engineering integration and applications of measurement in mid-way oil and gas drilling, underwater gas production in the East China Sea, polymer-flooding oil recovery enhancing in the Bohai oilfield, deep-water multi-beam sounding system, shore-based integrated fiberoptic acoustic array, synthetic aperture sonar system, node test of long-term observation network, 4,500 m deep-sea-level operating system, deep-sea spacestation, deep-sea borehole drilling and sampling, extreme organisms and the genetic resource, deep-sea extremophiles acquisition system, disaster real-time monitoring and early warning to large marine red tide outbreak, the Bohai Sea marine eco-environment monitoring systems, information and application of the ocean fishing ground and fishery conditions, marine aquatic products · 80 ·
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3.2.3 Ocean-related Projects of the National Key Technology R&D Program The National Key Technology R&D Program established projects in two types: major projects and key projects, and implemented in two levels of items and topics. The major projects are to solve major economic and social problems, form major strategic products, support national key projects or major equipment development, as well as digestion and absorption of imported major technology, and other needs in line with the national strategy for economic and social development; they are leading projects of important influence, requiring coordination at the national level to promote cross-sectoral, inter-departmental and inter-regional projects. The key projects focus on breakthrough in publicinterest and common industrial and technological issues, to resolve the bottleneck of economic and social development issues, with strong prospects of application; support services to the national regional development strategy, enhance regional innovation capability, and support regional socio-economic development and regional major engineering projects. The National Key Technology R&D Program has so far funded two major projects of marine area during the “Eleventh Five-Year” Guideline period, and eight projects under the key project category [48]. Funding for these projects are high from at least tens of millions, to hundreds of millions. In the “Eleventh Five-Year” Guideline period, the finished major projects of the National Key Technology R&D Program in marine areas are: Firstly, “the Marine Fisheries and High Efficient Development of Beach: Research and Demonstration”, aiming at sustainable marine fisheries development and highperformance beach development, established in 2006; second is “the Technology Package of Seawater Desalination and Comprehensive Utilization” launched in 2006, targeting at key technical problems in desalination and comprehensive utilization. Project “Marine Fisheries and High Efficient Development of Beach: Research and Demonstration” focused on effective R&D and integration of a series of technologies as showcases, integrated culture-on-beach pollution control and bioremediation, shallow-water high-efficient green-cultivation and proliferation, aquaculture production engineering construction, salt-tolerant crop cultivation, marine-friendly and efficient fishing, and other critical and common technology issues; effective integration and optimization of land-based aquaculture, efficient development and utilization of tidal flats, shallow marine ecological farming, fish cage culture and the restoration and management of fishery resources, platform building for technological innovation, promoting 3 Status and Opportunities of China’s Marine Science & Technology Development
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processing, marine bio-functional genetically-engineered products, pilotscale marine microbial products, new marine bio-products, salt-tolerant plants integrated application in ocean beaches, and on-board marine fish processing, marine drugs that are anti-tumor, anti-cardio-cerebral vascular, and antinervous system diseases, and sea ice resources utilization, etc..
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traditional marine fisheries upgrade to a modern fashion and supporting China’s sustainable development of beach zones. The main tasks were set in two modules: common key technologies and technology integration/demonstration/ industrialization. The first module focused on on-beach breeding pollution control and clean production technology, a typical shallow-water high-efficient habitat aquaculture and its proliferation, engineering and construction of aquaculture technology and efficient production systems, economic salttolerant plant cultivation and large-scale application, marine-friendly efficient fishing. The technology integration/demonstration/industrialization module concentrated on technology integration and demonstration of efficient health beach farming for prawn, salt-tolerant plants, seaweed in a large-scale, seabottom proliferation of precious seafood, modern engineered culture, highperformance marine microalgae cultivation, off-shore cage culture, in-gulf cage cultivation upgrading and health performance, and proliferation of offshore fishery resources, and so on. “Technology Package of Seawater Desalination and Comprehensive Utilization” tackled technology hurdles in developing a technology package used in large-scale seawater desalination, the direct use of seawater, and the use of marine chemical resources, forming Chinese innovated marine water utilization system of technology, equipment, standards, and industrialization, in order to provide water security in China. Main tasks are to set up demonstration projects of: 50,000 t/d low-temperature multi-effect distillation desalination, the utilization of sea ice in Bohai Sea, water-electricity co-production—thermal film coupled desalination projects, nuclear energy powered desalination, membrane distillation desalination, 100,000 t seawater circulating cooling system, mega-residential seawater use, 1,000 t/a bromine-extraction using gaseous concentrated seawater membrane, 50,000 t/a potassium-extraction from seawater, million-ton magnesium from concentrated seawater, comprehensive utilization of concentrated seawater, and the regional integrated model of seawater use, such 14 research topics. Objectives are: seawater desalination, seawater circulating cooling, and example projects of large-scale marine chemical resources comprehensive utilization, to promote the formation of an industrial chain from seawater desalination and direct use of seawater to chemical composition extraction. In the “Eleventh Five-Year” Guideline period, the key projects of the National Key Technology R&D Program in marine scope that have been implemented are: Firstly, started in 2006, the “Emergency Treatment of Ocean Ship Ballast Water Purification and Oil Spill Contingency”. The second is 2007-launched “Major Marine Disaster Early Warning and Emergency Technical Studies”. The third one was started in 2007, “Corrosion Control and Its Application to Ocean Steel Structures in Splash Zone”. The fourth one was started in 2007: “Polar Scientific Research”. The fifth one was started in 2008, being “Key Technologies for Development and Utilization of Ocean Energy”. The sixth one was launched in 2008 that is “Fishery Resources in the East China · 82 ·
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3.2.4 Ocean-related Projects of the National Natural Science Foundation (NNSF) Programs The National Natural Science Foundation (NNSF) Program founds projects in several categories: general project, key project, major project, major research plan, and so on [49]. Since the start of the NNSF, it has funded in marine sciences one major research plan, five major projects, 108 key projects, 23 grants of the NNSF’s fund for Distinguished Young Scholars of China, three innovative research project groups, as well as a large number of funds of the general-project items, which formed marine project groups with a unified goal, and has played an important role in promoting the development of marine scientific research. (A) Ocean-related NNSF’s Major Research Plans “Global Change and Its Regional Response” research plan is the only ocean-related major research plan, which is initiated in 2002 and still on-going. The plan targets at a number of sensitive areas to global change in East Asia mainland and the coastal waters, focusing on carbon and nitrogen cycle, water cycle and monsoon evolution to study sea-land-atmosphere interaction in the Asian monsoon region and human activities impacts on regional climate change mechanism, to understand the regional responding mechanisms to the global environments: the pattern, the way, the course, the power system, and the future variation trends, of the responding, providing China’s water and food security, and a scientific ground for China when dealing with the position of the country involved in the International Convention, and so on. The “Research Plan” is scheduled to finish in 10–15 years, and its mediumand long-term implementation focus on five themes: “the marine environment variability and its response to the global change”, “East Asian monsoon evolution and its relationship with global change”, “sea-land-atmosphere interaction, water cycle, and the relationship with global change”, “ecological process and ecological security in key regions and the response to the global change, and the feedback” and “physical and mathematical issues in the global change and regional response”. 1) Variation of marine environment and its response to global change: to explore variation in key processes of ocean circulation at interannual, decadal time scales, and long-term trends of changes in offshore marine environment, to establish dynamic model, to study the evolution of coastal environment with geological records, to study Chinese land-sea interaction, coastal sealevel changes, and trend projections, and to fully reveal the variation of China’s coastal marine environment and its internal relations with global change. 2) The evolution of East Asian monsoon environment and its relationship 3 Status and Opportunities of China’s Marine Science & Technology Development
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Sea and Important Seafood Aquiculture and Proliferation”. The seventh one was started in 2008 as “Key Technology Research and Demonstration of Routinized Monitoring of China’s Typical Offshore Hypoxic Zones”. The eighth one was started in 2008: “research and application of key technologies for Emergent Disposal of Large-Scale Outbreaks of Enteromorpha”.
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with global change: to determine the formation of the monsoon environment, the era and the reason of major transition, to understand the evolutionary history, laws, drivers and mechanisms of the environment in different time scales, and to explore the global interconnectedness with the East Asian monsoon system, and the responses to global change and feedback from monsoon-driven geological and ecological processes, and to develop paleoclimate models. 3) The relationship among sea-land-atmosphere interaction, water cycle, and global change: to reveal the mechanism of the sea-land-atmosphere interaction in East Asian mainland and the surrounding marine areas, and its impact on China’s drought, floods, other major disasters, and the global changes in response, to ascertain regional water cycle changes in time and space in overall; to model multi-layer interaction; and to explore changes in regional air environmental quality and its response to global change. 4) Key processes of regional ecosystem and carbon cycle, and the response and feedback to global change: to reveal regional ecosystem response and adaptation to global changes, to understand the migration cycle and the mechanism of biogenic carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in water, soil and gas systems at their interfaces; to determine the key factors controlling the ecosystem processes, and to evaluate the characteristics of CO2 source and sink, and the trend in the next 10 to 30 years. 5) The physical and mathematical issues in global change and regional response: to focus on major physical and mathematical issues in the major research plan, and to search for new methods of physics and mathematics. (B) Ocean-related Major Projects of the NNSF a. The Ocean-related Major Projects of the NNSF Since the NNSF Committee set up major projects category, there have been five major projects (Table 3.2), focusing on the themes of harmful red tide, marine ecosystems, atmospheric physics, and ocean circulation, having obtained important achievements. Table 3.2 NNSF-funded major projects in marine areas No.
1
2
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Project name
Undertaking institution
Funding (in Million Yuan)
Implementation period
Project Leader
State
Dynamics and Prevention of Harmful Red Tide Outbreak in Typical Culture and Proliferation Fields in China’s Coastal Zones
Jinan University Institute of Oceanology, CAS
5
1997.01–2002.12
Yuzao Qi Jingzhong Zou
Finished
Bohai Sea Ecosystem Dynamics and Sustainable Use of Biological Resources
Second Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration; Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences
5
1997.01–2000.12
Jilan Su Qisheng Tang
Finished
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
No.
Project name
Funding (in Million Yuan)
Undertaking institution
3
Marine Recording of Ancient Asian Monsoons
Tongji University
4
Bio-Geochemical –Physical Coupling between Surface Ocean and Lower Atmosphere
5
Pacic Low-altitude Western Boundary Circulation and Warm Pool Low-frequency Variation
Implementation period
Project Leader
State
4.4
1998.01–2002.12
Pingxian Wang
Finished
Ocean University of China Institute of Atmospheric Physics, CAS
8
2004.06–2008.05
Shizuo Feng Guangyu Shi
Finished
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
10
2009.01–2012.12
Dunxin Hu
Ongoing
b. Ocean-related Project of NNSF for Distinguished Young Scholars of China To foster more young scientists and technologists and attract elites in China and in the world, the NNSF for Distinguished Young Scholars of China had set up 23 ocean-related projects under its auspice, since the beginning of the establishment of this fund (Table 3.3). Table 3.3 The list of project of NNSF for Distinguished Young Scholars of China No
Project name
Undertaking institution
Funding (in Thousand Yuan)
1
Marine Environmental Science
Ocean University of China
600
1996.01–1998.12 Jing Zhang
Finished
2
Marine geology
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
600
1997.01–1999.12 Shikui Zhai
Finished
3
Marine geology
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
600
1998.01–2001.12 Shu Gao
Finished
4
Marine biology
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
600
1998.01–2001.12 Ximing Guo
Finished
5
Physical oceanography
East China Normal University
600
1999.01–2002.12 Pingxing Ding
Finished
6
Marine environmental sciences (and oceanXiamen University related studies on global change, etc.)
600
1999.01–2002.12 Minhan Dai
Finished
7
Marine chemistry
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
800
2000.01–2003.12 Jinming Song
Finished
8
Marine environmental sciences (and oceanInstitute of related studies on global Oceanology, CAS change, etc.)
800
2001.01–2004.12 Zhiming Yu
Finished
9
Ocean remote sensing
800
2001.01–2004.12 Ge Chen
Finished
Ocean University of China
Research field
Project leader
3 Status and Opportunities of China’s Marine Science & Technology Development
Status
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(Continued)
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(Continued) No
Project name
Funding (in Thousand Yuan)
Undertaking institution
Research field
Project leader
Status
10
South China Bio-oceanography (and Sea Institute of bio-marine technology) Oceanology, CAS
800
2002.01–2005.12 Kedong Yin
Finished
11
Marine geology
Tongji University
800
2002.01–2005.12 Zhimin Jian
Finished
12
Physical oceanography
Institute of Atmospheric Physics, CAS
1,000
2003.01–2006.12 Jiang Zhu
Finished
13
Estuary and coastal research
Shanghai Jiaotong University
1000
2003.01–2006.12 Zhong Shi
Finished
14
Physical oceanography
Ocean University of China
1000
2004.01–2007.12 Dehai Luo
Finished
15
Physical oceanography
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
1000
2005.01–2008.12 Jinbao Song
Finished
16
Marine chemistry
Ocean University of China
1000
2006.01–2009.12 Guipeng Yang
Ongoing
17
Biological oceanography (including bio-marine technology)
Third Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration
2000
2007.01–2010.12 Xiang Xiao
Ongoing
18
Physical oceanography
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, CAS
2000
2007.01–2010.12 Dongxiao Wang
Ongoing
19
Fishery protection science
Sun Yat-sen University
2000
2008.01–2011.12 Qiwei Qin
Ongoing
20
Physical oceanography
Ocean University of China
2000
2008.01–2011.12 Wei Wang
In research
21
Physical oceanography
Ocean University of China
2000
2008.01–2011.12 Lixin Wu
In research
22
Marine chemistry
Ocean University of China
2000
2008.01–2011.12 Meiyu Geng
In research
23
Physical oceanography
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
2000
2009.01–2011.12 Dongliang Yuan
Ongoing
c. Ocean-related NNSF Innovative Research Groups To constantly support the cutting-edge scientific research and cultivate creative talent and groups, the NNSF established research groups with special funds for outstanding young and middle-aged scientists as leaders, focusing on major research directions and conducting basic and applied researches in China. Since its inception, the special fund has funded three ocean-related innovative research groups (Table 3.4).
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Responsible institution
Million (Yuan) in funding
1
Western Pacic Warm Pool and the ancient environment in East Asia: Comparison between continental and marine proxies
Tongji University
3.60
2004.01–2006.12
Zhimin Jian
Finished
2
Ocean biogeochemical processes and mechanisms
Xiamen University
3.60
2006.01–2008.12
Minhan Dai
Finished
3
Evolution and mechanism of the marine eco-system in typical Chinese maritime regions
Institute of Oceanology, CAS
3.60
2008.01–2010.12
Zhiming Yu
Ongoing
No.
Project name
Implementation period
Project leader
State
Introductions to the NNSF’s key project category and relevant major ministry or departmental level projects implemented are omitted in this book due to limited space.
3.3 Opportunities and Challenges in the Development of Chinese Marine Science and Technology In the 1980’s, the State Council and other relevant government departments have launched National “Climbing” Program, the National Key Basic Research Development Program, National High Technology Research and Development Program of China, The National Key Technology R&D Program, and related scientific and technological marine-special important research projects. Into the 21st century, the “Outline of the National Program for Medium- and Long-term Scientific and Technological Development (2006–2020)”, “Outline of the National Eleventh Five-Year Guideline for the Development of Marine Science and Technology”, and “Program for Marine Development by Reliance on Science and Technology (2008–2015)” etc. have been promulgated and implemented, marking China’s fast-growing opportunity stage of marine science and technology. The next 15 years is the period of strategic opportunity for China entering overall well-off society, as well as the period of marine science and technology. However, compared with the developed maritime countries, China’s marine science and technology has still a wide gap in overall level. Both opportunities and challenges coexist. We must seize the historic opportunity to develop and realize Chinese marine science and technology development rapidly.
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Table 3.4 List of NNSF’s ocean-related innovative research group projects
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3.3.1 The Marine Science and Technology of China Is in All-round Development with Opportunity (A) The Country Attaches Great Importance to the Development of Marine Science and Technology President Hu Jintao stressed the need to “accelerate the development of aerospace and the marine science and technology, and make peaceful use of space and marine resources”. It is necessary to advance the deployment of marine and other strategic areas, clearly pointed out in the “Decisions of CPC Central Committee and State Council on the Implementation of Science and Technology Program to Enhance the Capability of Independent Innovation”. Having realized that a present big gap in the capability of independent innovation of marine science and technology in China with foreign countries, “The Outline of the National Program for Medium- and Long-term Scientific and Technological Development (2006–2020)” [1] deploys a comprehensive plan of marine science and technology, takes aerospace and the marine science and technology as one of the five major long-term strategic missions, take marine technology as one of eight key frontier technology fields, and prioritizes the themes, cutting-edge technology, and basic research projects. The priority themes included seawater desalination, marine ecology and environmental protection, marine resources efficient development and utilization, large-scale ocean constructions and facilities. Marine technology was classified as a frontier technology, and marine science became an important basic research. Additionally, a strategic framework was proposed stating “the marine technology research in China shall be developed from shallow to deep, and offshore to ocean”. Moreover, the “Outline of the National Eleventh Five-Year Guideline for the Development of Marine Science and Technology” [2], launched and implemented a number of major or key projects under the guidance of “Outline of the National Program for Medium- and Long-term Scientific and Technological Development (2006–2020)”, as strategic and comprehensive actions during the “Eleventh Five-Year” period for developing marine science and technology in China. The “Program for Marine Development by Reliance on Science and Technology (2008–2015)” [52] states the guidelines of “deepen research in offshore sea, explore outer ocean, strengthen the security, and support the development”, planned and deployed national marine cause development with direction and main tasks for the period of the “Eleventh Five-Year” and onwards. The guidelines considered in overall the situation of nationwide human and technical resources, and the roles in co-coordinating marine science and technology in “demand-oriented, and innovation-promoted”, and “near sea and far ocean combined, foresighted deployment” manner, and in fully supporting and leading the development of marine science and technology [50]. In 2007, the Ministry of Agriculture issued a “Medium- and Longterm Fisheries Development Planning (2006–2020)” [53], with emphases on · 88 ·
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“Outline of the National Program for Medium- and Long-term Scientific and Technological Development (2006–2020)” [1] The priority themes of sea-related key areas: Desalination: focuses on the research and development of water pretreatment technology, nuclear energy coupling and electricity-water cogeneration method, membrane low-cost desalination technology and the key materials, comprehensive utilization of concentrated brine; the development of large-scale application of thermal desalination equipment, seawater desalination equipment and key equipment of concatenate coupling. Efficient development and utilization of marine resources: focuses on the research and development of exploration technology for shallow hidden reservoir, technology to increase oil recovery from heavy oil fields, technology and efficient use of marine bio-resources protection, and the technology of seawater direct use and comprehensive use of marine chemical resources. Marine ecology and environmental protection: focuses on the development of techniques and equipments to monitor marine ecosystems and environment, further strengthen the technological studies to protect the marine ecosystems and environment and develop technologies in marine environmental protection, ecological remediation, marine emergency treatment and high-precision numerical prediction of marine ecosystems dynamics. Global environmental change monitoring and the response: focuses on the development of monitoring on accurate large-scale environmental change, the control, disposition, and use of main-industry-released carbon dioxide, methane and other greenhouse gas emissions, bio-carbon sequestration and carbon sequestration engineering, as well as studies on climate change, biodiversity conservation, ozone layer protection, control of persistent organic pollutants and the countermeasures. Discovery, preservation, and innovation of germplasm resources, and coordinated cultivation of new varieties: focus on the research, discovery, development, and construction of germplasm resources of major crops, trees and grass, livestock and aquatic species with germplasm molecular evaluation
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aquaculture, seafood processing, aquaculture environment, the quality and safety of aquatic products, aquaculture equipment and engineering, as well as aquaculture information, such six areas as the core of technology research, promoting the coordinated development of sustainable aquaculture in China. Countries and relevant ministries have formulated and implemented a series of major scientific and technological plans and projects, in order to speed up the development of marine science and technology, construction, and maritime power, having laid foundation for the long-term objectives in 2050. These plans and projects is not only a huge driving force to China’s development of marine technology, but also a great challenge. In this situation, China’s marine science and technology has entered a period of rapid development.
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techniques; animal and plant breeding techniques and molecular orientated crossbreeding technology, large-scale seed production, seed breeding technology, and integrated processing technology. Healthy aquaculture and disease prevention and control of aquatic animal: focus on the research and development of save, quality, and efficient feed, large-scale healthy farming techniques and facilities to create high-performance specific vaccines, safe veterinary drugs and efficient equipment, early warning and monitoring animal disease and animal-borne zoonosis, epidemiology diagnosis, quarantine diagnosis, immune control, and regional purification and eradication technology, explore beyond offshore shoals, shallow waters and freshwater aquaculture farming to ocean fishing with on-board processing and storage technologies. Ocean-related cutting-edge technology: Marine technology: emphasis on the development of comprehensive multifunctional, multi-parameter and long-term operable marine techniques, in order to enhance the capacity of integrated deep-sea fishing technology. The focus of the research and development is on natural gas hydrate exploration and development technology, gathering and transportation of ocean-floor seated metal mineral resources, on-site high-performance extraction technology, and large-scale marine construction. Three-dimensional monitoring of marine environment technology: threedimensional monitoring is to synchronously monitor environmental elements in the air, shore stations, or at surface or within water, focusing on ocean remote sensing technology, acoustic detection technology, buoy technology, long-range shorebased radar technology, and the marine information process and application. Fast multi-parameter detection at ocean floor the ocean seabed rapid multiparameter detection of submarine geophysics, geochemistry, and biochemistry, and the other characteristics is as a synchronized multi-parameter detection and real-time messaging technology; and focuses on sensing in abnormal ambient conditions, sensor auto-calibration, and submarine information transmission. The development of natural gas hydrate technology: gas hydrate (hydrocarbons) deposits and stores in deep ocean underwater and underground. Focuses are on the theory and technology of natural gas hydrate exploration, and geophysical and geochemical exploration and evaluation, to breakthrough gas hydrate drilling and safety mining. Deep-sea operation: deep-sea operation supports the project of underwater deep seabed mineral mining activities. The techniques focus on deep underwater delivery, life support system, high-density energy power facility, high-fidelity sampling and remote transmission of information, deep-sea operation equipment and its manufacturing, and deep-sea space station.
“Program for Marine Development by Reliance on Science and Technology (2008–2015)” [52] The 21st century is the century of the ocean. The world’s coastal countries
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(B) The Country’s Strong Support for the Fast Development of Marine Science and Technology The past 30 years of reform and opening-up in China is the period of brilliant achievements in economy, society, culture, politics and science and technology. After 30 years of development, China’s comprehensive economic strength has markedly increased; the support to science and technology has been increased with year by year. In 2008, the national GDP reached more than 30 trillion Yuan, with 9% growth from 2007. In 2003–2007, the central budget for technology investment was 340.6 billion Yuan, while that in 2008 was 116.3 billion Yuan, increased by 16.4%. In 2009, the state will vigorously promote scientific and technological innovation, the central government investment in 3 Status and Opportunities of China’s Marine Science & Technology Development
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and the international community attach great importance to the maritime affairs. The international marine science and technology focuses on the world’s major strategic issues in environmental, economic, social, and maritime security needs, having progressed rapidly, showing new trends. Firstly, implementation of major integrated program of marine scientific research has brought up some new fields of marine scientific research, resulting in major breakthroughs in high technology. Secondly, marine biotechnology and deep-sea marine technology developed rapidly. Thirdly, marine monitoring and detection tend to high-resolution, large-scale, real-time, three-dimensional development manner, and building routinized marine environment monitoring system has become an important measure in many countries. Fourthly, a large number of marine scientific and technological achievements have turned into practical production forces, supporting and guiding marine industry to hightech development; marine economy has become an important part of the world economy. The overall objective is: to significantly increase the capacity and the level of marine basic scientific research, to achieve new breakthroughs in own R&D core technology, to complete in overall the innovation system of marine science and technology, and to markedly improve the ability of independent innovation; to prominently enhance the supportability of science and technology to marine economy, marine management, disaster prevention and disaster reduction, and marine security; to reach 50% of contribution rate of marine science and technology to marine economy; to optimize the resources deployment of marine science and technology, to increase the number of high-level personnel of marine science and technology by 30%, who will become an important force to develop the cause of marine science and technology. By 2020, the overall level of marine science and technology in China can match that of moderately developed countries, laying a solid foundation for maritime power in science and technology. Key tasks: to develop technologies of marine development, marine monitoring and forecasting to carry out proactive integrated management of marine science and research, to organize special major marine programs, to promote marine science and technology innovation system, to strengthen marine science and technology facilities, infrastructure platforms, and education, and promote China’s overall rapid development in marine scope.
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science and technology amounted to 146.1 billion Yuan, with an increase of 25.6 %. Research and development funding from the whole-society in 2002 was 128.8 billion Yuan and 366.4 billion Yuan in 2007, taking 1.07% to 1.49% of GDP [53]. To comprehensively implement the “Outline of the National Program for Medium- and Long-term Scientific and Technological Development”, during the “Eleventh Five-Year” period, the country significantly increased the input into marine science and technology in different aspects of the overall arrangements. The first is a special implementation of major science and technology, offshore oil and gas exploration and development was selected as a key task from the category of special major projects for large oil and gas fields and coal-bed methane development. The second is to strengthen basic marine research, having arranged a number of state-level major basic research projects, such as “Basic Research on the Control of Disease Occurrence in Important Mariculture Animals and the Immune Prevention”. The third is to vigorously promote research and development of marine technology. The “863” Program is conducted under the guidelines of “deepen shallow offshore water research, open far and deep ocean realm” in marine technology, focused on four cuttingedge aspects (three-dimensional marine environment monitoring, deepsea exploration and operations, marine oil and gas resources exploration and development, and the development and utilization of marine bio-resources), and implemented four major projects (key technologies and equipment for exploration and development of South China Sea deep-water oil and gas resources, those for gas hydrate resources, regional marine monitoring system, and the South China Sea deep ocean dynamic environment 3D monitoring technology). In key project category, more than 20 projects were implemented on frontier issues, including marine drug research and development, and underwater gas production systems in the eastern East China Sea. The National Key Technology R&D Program managed a number of major projects, including “Technology Package of Seawater Desalination and Comprehensive Utilization”, “Major Marine Disaster Early Warning and Emergency Technical Studies”. Up to now, the country has input some 2 billion Yuan for the R&D. The fourth is to strengthen the platform conditions of marine science and technology, by strengthening the state-level laboratories, field observation stations, and basic information collection. The fifth is to implement special project of marine industry science and technology, to develop marine science and technology to provide better service to the industry and the public, and to deal with any emergency [54]. With the country’s comprehensive economic strength enhancement and consecutive investment increase into the field of science and technology, remarkable achievements have been made in many fields. In recent years, a serial launch of Shenzhou-series spacecraft realized the Chinese dream of manned space flight and space walk. The “Chang’e” Project, China’s moon project, has successfully launched an around-the-moon satellite capable of doing remote sensing. It is believed that in the near future, moon landing and walking will be no longer just a dream for Chinese. The tremendous achievements in · 92 ·
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(C) The Base of Innovation Development of Marine Science and Technology Is Strong In marine biology, China has conducted a great deal of research in basic theory, resources investigation, important species cultivation, domesticated varieties, artificial breeding, and culture technology, and has built up gradually the world’s largest algae, shrimp, shellfish and fish aquaculture industry. The country has mastered key technologies of breeding economicallyimportant animal and plant, such as “Yellow Sea No. 1” Chinese shrimp, “Dalian No.1” hybrid abalone, “Penglai Red” Chlamys farreri, Rongfu kelp, “Zhongkehong” bay scallops, “981” Gracilaria lemaneiformis, and many other new varieties; established a set of relatively mature free filamentous seaweed culture and nursery technology, as well as the use of rapid somatic thallus propagation and breeding technology; carried out microbial metabolic engineering and bio-based product development, bio-based chemicals, biorefining technology, and other industrial biotechnology; built the genetic linkage maps for Chinese shrimp, Chlamys farreri, Argopecten irradians, Crassostrea gigas, Haliotis discus hannai, large yellow croaker, sea urchins, etc., and realized initial positioning of QTLs (important to the growth) for Haliotis discus hannai and the bay scallops; established gene research technology platforms in line with international standards on marine biological function, with new breakthrough in pharmaceutical, aquaculture species improvement and disease prevention and treatment of functional genes with China’s own property right; obtained a group of industrialization-potential functional genomics and quality cDNA library, to which a large-scale sequencing was performed; established China specific genetic resources database with bioinformatics technology, laying a solid foundation of property rights and technology for developing marine biological functional genomics resources and promoting the industrialization; and achieved considerable progress in marine drug development and high-value 3 Status and Opportunities of China’s Marine Science & Technology Development
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China aerospace science and technology shall thank China’s rapid economic development and scientific and technological innovation. Therefore, China’s marine science and technology will leapfrog and provide powerful support to the enhancement of the nation’s comprehensive economic strength. China has already achieved the dream of touching the outer space; however, there are still unknown fields in the marine world. Although the deepocean observation made significant progresses, a big gap is there from that of developed countries. Marine scientific and technological research in China started late with inadequate investment in marine science and technology since long, which is one of the main reasons for the lag. With the national emphasis on science and technology, especially on marine scientific and technological development, China’s funding in marine science and technology will significantly increase in the next few decades, and the development of marine science and technology will achieve great results as did in China’s space science and technology arousing the world’s attention. By then Chinese dream of exploring deep abyss as a marine power will also be realized.
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use of marine resources, as fucoidan sulfate, Haikunshenxi capsule and other two natural marine drugs have won national new-drug certificates. In the mid-1980, China began to carry out ocean observation, and organized Sino-U.S. joint investigation and research on air-sea interaction in the equatorial West Pacific and investigation on the circulation and airsea interaction in tropical western Pacific ocean, marking the first climax of China’s exploration in the tropical Western Pacific in line with the international forefront of research and making contribution to the studies of international and Chinese inter-annual climate change. In the early 21st century, China timely adjusted the direction of development of marine science, while continuing to carry out research in China’s coastal waters; China planed and supported the ocean observation and research to reveal the ocean’s roles in regional and global climate changes. Currently, the China’s ARGO framework for ocean observation has been largely finalized. In marine disaster forecasting, waves, storm surges, sea ice, sea surface temperature, and the El Nino, these five projects are focused to improve the forecasting techniques. In marine oil and gas resources, since 1956 when China carried out the investigation on oil seepage in Yinggehai near Hainan, up to the end of 2005, nearly 30 Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary basins, 66 oil and gas fields have been found, and gradually formed the Bohai Sea, the East China Sea, the Pearl River estuary and the western South China Sea, the four oil and gas development regions. In the early 1990’s, gas hydrate research in China started. In 1999, a high-resolution seismic survey in the South China Sea discovered gas hydrate indicative abnormal seismic profiles, confirmed the existence of the South China Sea gas hydrates. In 2007, China Geological Survey Bureau, Guangzhou Marine Geological Survey found and sampled gas hydrate in borehole in the southeast of Shenghu Ansha (shoal) in the middle slope of the northern South China Sea, marking a new breakthrough in the investigation of gas hydrate. In sea floor mineral resources exploration, in early 1980’s, China began an investigation on polymetallic nodules, became a pioneer investor, delineated the contract area, and has the exclusive right to explore the contract area with the right of priority development. Since the “Tenth Five-Year Plan” period, the focus of China’s ocean mineral resources investigation has been shifted to the cobalt-rich crusts from the polymetallic nodules. China conducted a cobalt-rich crusts survey in the target in the Magellan Seamounts in the Western Pacific, and preliminarily selected several seamounts as promising districts. At present, China has grasped in overall the information of cobalt-rich crusts resources on the Western and Middle Pacific seamounts. Subsequently, China has done a number of surveys on marine hydrothermal sulfide resources and obtained valuable data and samples of hydrothermal sulfide in the East Pacific Rise, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean. From then on, in 2007 and 2008, surveys were performed in the southwest Indian Ocean Ridge and the East Pacific Rise with new discoveries. China’s investigation on seabed mineral resources research expended. · 94 ·
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(A) The Overall Level of Marine Science and Technology Needs to Be Improved China’s marine science and technology has gone through the course of development for 50 years. After several generations of continuous and arduous works, China has made encouraging achievements which greatly improved China’s international status, which enhanced our national spirit greatly. The role of marine science and technology development becomes increasingly prominent; the contribution of marine science and technology to the economy grows gradually. Marine science and technology has transformed the traditional marine industries, and leads to the formation of new marine industries, which effectively supported the construction of marine power country. Although China is a large maritime country, it is not a strong maritime power. Compared with the developed maritime countries, China’s overall level of marine science and technology lags considerably behind. One of the reasons is the weak capability in scientific and technological innovation. Low selfsufficiency rate of key technologies, a small number of invention patents, and main marine equipments dependence on imports, this situation has not been fundamentally improved. In some areas, especially the exploration of deep-sea resources and environmental observation, relatively backward technology and equipment are still used; scientific research needs to be enhanced [55]. China’s overall level of marine science and technology still can not meet the national and industrial needs. The scientific and technological support to marine industry development, social progress, and national security is weak. Subject to restrictions on the level of marine science and technology, marine science and technology in China are faced with many difficulties and challenges: the marine environment information can not meet the national security needs; coastal ecology and environmental degradation have not been effectively curbed; scientific and technological support to sustainable use of marine bioresources is weak; attention to marine climate role in disaster forecasting is largely ignored; marine oil and gas resources exploration and exploitation faces serious challenges; strategic resources in deep-sea exploration and development lacks of long-term planning; scientific and technological support to the preservation of the marine rights and interests is seriously short; and the current capacity of ocean observing constrains seriously the development of the oceans [6]. (B) Scientific Research Is in the Critical Period of Change from Followup to Innovation Although some of China’s marine science and technology area have taken the lead in the world, as a whole, the marine science and technology of China is still in a follow-up stage after developed countries, unable to lead international marine science and technology development. At present, China is in the critical period of change from follow-up to innovation, during which the marine 3 Status and Opportunities of China’s Marine Science & Technology Development
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3.3.2 Challenges to Chinese Development of Marine Science and Technology
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scientific and technological development faces great challenges. Although China has already carried out a large number of international cooperation in science and technology research, but the Chinese role in most of the international projects is subordinate; China-led ones are rare. China is only passively involved in many international marine research programs, and so far, there is no Chinaproposed international project of marine science and technology to attract other countries’ participation. Independent innovation in many oceanographic fields is still relatively weak. In development of marine genetic chemical resources, original research and patents on lead compounds of marine bio-active materials are rare in China. Among about 1,000 of studied and identified marine compounds, only 25%–30% have physiological activity, of which brand-new compounds are very rare, and almost nil for those with original and independent intellectual property rights. In comprehensive utilization of resources of marine aquatic products, high-value-generating green technology, its system integration, and the removal of hazardous substances are China’s bottleneck in green and highvalue-adding uses of marine aquatic resources. In marine biological research and high-performance development in marine genetic resources, research in active compounds of marine microbiology is in recent years a new field; the marine microbial germplasm, its preservation, and the set-up of germplasm bank is at the initial stage, and the marine resource development and protection of micro-organisms are very far behind the world level; research into deep-sea microbiology has just begun; the genome researches for humans, higher animals, and plant have entered the post-genome era, while for those key economic biological plants, the work is still at the stage of establishing genetic maps. Marine environmental research and survey depend heavily on information capture. Currently, the observation capabilities are very weak in both time and space in China. On the one hand, lacking long-term continuous observation makes it difficult for real-time test in marine environment; on the other hand, the existing means of physical oceanographic observations are mostly limited to coastal waters, rarely entering the ocean. In the maritime areas under the jurisdiction of other countries, or in territorial dispute, or the region and the strait that China alone could not reach with its own power, long-term and large-scale pilot investigations can not be conducted. The limited observational data obtained could not be widely and effectively utilized or applied due to complicated system of multi-sectoral management, multi-channel access, and duplicated space-time dimensions, and many other reasons. In marine ecological and environmental studies, the lack of longterm observation data and the relative low capability in field observation are the major restraints. Meanwhile, numerical simulation capability of marine ecosystems dynamics is much behind the international advanced level, the capability in simulating important ecological processes, such as seafood yields in China’s coastal waters, changes of biological resources of key species, and the dynamics of harmful algal bloom, are still limited. Studies on modeling the · 96 ·
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(C) Lagging Technical Development Can Not Meet the Needs of Rapid Development of Marine Scientific Research Marine scientific research needs high-level high-performance and the most state-of-the-art technical support. Conducting observations and studying marine science need the application of aerospace and deep-water detection technologies, which is the key to marine scientific research. China’s ocean observing capacity is very weak, and needs urgently financial input, for all-round development in three-dimensional network of marine observation capability. Most of the observation were limited to coastal waters, rarely entering the oceans, which can not meet the national needs in fast growth in society, economy and military. China’s three-dimensional marine observation network is far from satisfaction, lacking near-shore platform for systematic observations. The new means of observation have not yet been widely applied. High-performance 3 Status and Opportunities of China’s Marine Science & Technology Development
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seasonal variation of physical environment for important coastal waters, the mechanism for the occurrence and succession of harmful algal blooms, the mechanism for the biomass fluctuation of key zooplankton species, impact of physical environment on single-species fishery production, and optimization of mariculture in typical farming areas, should be strengthened. In marine energy and mineral resources, for many years, China’s investment to oil and gas industry mostly went to very-shallow and noterritory-dispute areas, and the Bohai Sea area that suitable for oil and gas reserves, while the exploration in the East China Sea and South China Sea is relatively under-developed and unequipped with the technical condition for deep-water oil and gas exploration and operation. The distribution of oil and gas resources in deep water of China Sea remains unclear. The fund input to gas hydrate exploration is very limited in both amount and region. As the overall research in natural gas hydrate started late and at the low level, China does not have the gas hydrate mining condition, has not mastered the environmental protection technology for exploration, and has not grasped the distribution of the resources in China seas. It is yet far away from the commercial exploitation. In hydrothermal sulphide resources, China has a gap of nearly 30 years behind developed countries. Investigation of hydrothermal sulphide resources has just begun, with scarce knowledge of seafloor hydrothermal sulfide distribution and the full resources. In addition, research in deep-sea cobalt-rich crusts resources is in low level in China, especially in survey area and in research depth, and the basic research on the mineralization is very weak; knowledge on distribution and potential of cobalt-rich crusts resources is unsystematic. China also lags behind the progress of the International Seabed Authority of the legislative process in the “regional” cobalt-rich crusts investigation. Previously implemented projects on submarine lithosphere, seafloor mineralization, deepsea environment and its changes, deep-sea sedimentation, biodiversity near hot/cold springs environments, and key biogeochemical processes, etc., require more fund support for deeper and wider scope.
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automated sampling system is rare. The standardization of observation needs to be promoted. Data transmission is limited as the result of lacking national data sharing and global data exchange. Deep-sea exploration and high-fidelity sampling system calls for urgent optimization. Satellite observations on hightrophic level marine life is a blank. Deep ocean engineering and construction, marine engineering geology, surveillance and real-time monitoring to geotechnical disaster and construction failure, application of new marine construction materials and a new-type longlasting anti-corrosion materials, green application of anti-bio-corrosion and anti-biofouling technologies, safety evaluation on marine engineering facilities, service-life expectation and real-time monitoring technology, as well as new materials application for the deep-sea engineering facilities and corresponding marine engineering technology, are also needed to be substantially improved. In addition, in such aspects as new marine energy development and utilization, deep-sea detection technology, and early-warning forecast of marine disaster, including prevention and control technologies against harmful algal blooms, tsunami early warning and forecasting technologies, China has a long way to go to narrow the large gap. (D) Investment in Science and Technology Is Insufficient, the Overall Level of the Professional Man Power Needs Urgent Upgrade Although China has increased funding in recent years into marine science and technology, the status of long-time low financial input has not been improved in overall, which is in a strong contrast to the marine power in the world. In terms of the input among disciplines of earth sciences, the input into marine science did not get a priority, which does not match China’s will in maritime strategy. Experts and scholars have strongly called for the government to support China’s marine technology as did for China’s space technology. One of the key points is an extraordinary strategy of input. To realize the dream of marine power, the other key is the education and training for professionals. After decades of reform and opening-up, shortage in the professional human resource of marine science and technology in China has been eased to a certain extent, but the capable, independent, and creative high-level researchers and high-capacity personnels are still lacking. In fact, China’s teams of marine science and technology lack in overall of good comparative top-notch talent, cultivating and attracting more marine scientists or technologists in to the marine exploration cause. In particular, it is urgent to train a large group of top-notch leading scientists and technologists for piloting research and technological groups in the international arena. (E) The Institutional Mechanisms Are Hard to Adapt to the Rapid Development of Marine Science and Technology Progress The state’s marine-related research institutions and organizations belong to different administerial departments, lacking of co-ordination among agencies, and a unified organization and co-ordination; the resources and the · 98 ·
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(F) The Scattered Administration Should Be Changed by a National Specialized Agency to Coordinate the Development of Ocean Affairs At present, China’s marine research-engaged institutions belong to different departments or administrations, of which some focus on basic scientific research, some on applied scientific research, and still some on the both. As the result of belonging to different departments or industry sectors, it is difficult to really form a cohesive force, which can not meet the state’s major strategic needs of marine science and technology. It is urgent for the State Council to establish a specialized leadership to coordinate major domestic marine agencies (it could be a national marine science and technology coordinating committee), leading and regulating national marine development strategy, planning major oceanrelated project, coordinating and managing complex marine affairs involved in the diplomatic, economic, legal, scientific and other cross-sectoral issues. At the same time, army forces and non-army organizations are advised to establish a cooperation-sharing mechanism for building a marine scientific research and related management system, with which China’s marine cause will be promoted faster and better with necessary protection.
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data of marine observation can not be effectively shared, resulting in significant duplication and waste of resources. In the research project arrangement, due to institutional reasons, research institutions and departments repeated low-level studies, on the one hand, causing a waste of research resources, and on the other hand, resulting in scattered research power unable to solve major scientific and technological problems. Loose relationship between marine scientific research institutions and the industrial sectors hampered the transformation for many projects from research results to a real productivity. The low-rate transformation constrained the rapid development of marine economy. Meanwhile, to establish joint working mechanism in cross-fields and interdisciplinary manner to safeguard the maritime rights and interests of our country, to organize key scientific project on major issues and make breakthroughs in key technologies, to bring scientists and experts together are very necessary in order to strengthen prospective studies on international legal issues that are natural science based or marine scientific and technological closely related, with which China will have the power to affect the regulation of international law of the sea. Establishing institutional mechanisms suitable for comprehensive, coordinated, and sustainable development of marine science and technology is of great significance for the promotion of China’s rapid development of marine science and technology.
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Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
Compared to thousands of years of human civilization, the ocean has already had a history of several million years. The vast ocean, as well as the endless evolution, has left us with numerous unsolved problems and mysteries, which need the human beings to explore.
4.1 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Marine Environment Areas 4.1.1 Important Scientific Problems in Marine Environment Areas (A) Important Scientific Problems in Global Marine Environment Areas Currently, prominent problems of global oceanographic research are divided into two types: the climate problems and the environmental problems. On one hand, ocean accounts for 3/4 of the Earth surface, its roles and effects in the global climate system have become the main focus of climate dynamics studies. The thermohaline transport in the global ocean and its interaction with the atmosphere, as well as the ocean’s absorption of CO2, are the key processes to understand the crucial driving forces of the climate change. On the other hand, the impact and mechanism of the variation of ocean circulation on the sedimentary geology, biogeochemistry and marine ecology are the important subjects of environmental studies. In the future, oceanographers will be focusing on the above two important scientific problems in search for answers. The adjustment of the atmospheric circulation to sea surface temperature perturbations only takes a few months and reaches to an adaptation state, while the response of the oceans to the climate change can take hundreds of years, therefore, the main memory carrier of global climate change is the ocean. Currently, the most concerned climate issues include El Nino/ Southern Oscillation and its related climate variability and prediction in the
(B) Important Scientific Problems in Regional and Chinese Marine Environment Areas The three-dimensional dynamic structure and mechanism of the Western Pacific circulation, as well as its role in the global ocean circulation and climate change is the core subject in the study of the Western Pacific circulation. Traditional ocean circulation theory explains the western intensification of the ocean currents, but does not address the mechanism of the three-dimensional structure of the western boundary current and the associated process of the global ocean water exchange. Observation studies show that below the surface western boundary current, there is a reversed western boundary undercurrent in the Pacific Ocean. The dynamic mechanism of the undercurrent and their role in the water exchange of the North/South Pacific Ocean have left being unexplained. The sea surface temperature of the Indian–Pacific Warm Pool is the highest in the world. It is the main heat source to drive the tropical atmospheric circulation. The ocean dynamic environment variability in this area and the mechanism for it to impact the climate change is the primary problem in the circulation and climate dynamics research. Such studies would provide a solid 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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Indian Ocean, Atlantic Ocean and the world, the inter-annual to inter-decadal variability of seasonal and intra-seasonal signals of monsoon rainfall, decadal variability of the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean circulation, the evolution of meridional overturning circulation at shallow and deep layers, the effects of the great conveyor belt on the global carbon cycle and abrupt climate change, and so on, which all closely related to the study of ocean circulation. Ocean circulation and dynamics study has increasingly become an important research approach in climate studies. On a global scale, the water exchange between open ocean and continental shelf is important for the global carbon cycle, which serves as a core scientific issue in the international SCORDOES plan. Along with the continuous economic and social development, the marine environment issues, especially coastal environmental issues, become more prominent. Well-known environmental disasters, such as pollution, coastal eutrophication, harmful algal blooms, hypoxia and anoxia, coastal erosion, and the sedimentation or destruction of industrial facilities, occur frequently, which posed great impacts on the living condition of human-beings and the sustainable development of coastal economy. The lack of understandings on the carrying capacity of coastal environment, as well as the ecological and environmental processes of these disasters, hamper the development of effective management prevention measures. Climate change and environmental degradation have seriously challenged the survival of the entire human being and social development. The effective way to respond to these challenges is certainly not stagnation or retrogression, but to take scientific means to analyze and resolve the related issues. Oceanography is therefore an essential study to solve these issues.
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ocean dynamic foundation for the enhancement of weather forecasts and warning capabilities of major disasters and extreme weather events. The Bohai Sea, the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea, the South China Sea and etc., are important coastal areas for the survival and development of Chinese coastal economy. From the point of view of ocean circulation dynamics, the widest continental shelf exists in this area, with the strongest ocean current, Kuroshio Current, as its neighbor. This area is also affected by the world’s strongest monsoon system—the East Asian monsoon system, and receives the input of the Changjiang River (Yangtze River) which has one of the world’s largest runoff, and the Huanghe (Yellow) River which has the largest volume of sediment transport; therefore, its dynamic feature is very prominent. The core issue of the circulation dynamics of this area is the exchange of Kuroshio and continental shelf water, which directly relates to the understanding of the complex phenomena and processes in China’s coastal waters, and is also an important scientific issue on the coastal area protection and Chinese coastal economic development. The major scientific issues to be resolved in the western Pacific Ocean and coastal waters of China include: the Indian–Pacific circulation system and its role in climate change; China’s coastal waters circulation and water exchange with the Kuroshio and its environmental effects. The issue of the Indian–Pacific circulation system and its role in climate change is related to the dynamic mechanism of the climate change of China and the world, and is a key scientific problem of Chinese current disaster prevention and reduction and economic development and yet to be solved. The issue of China’s coastal waters circulation and water exchange with the Kuroshio and its environmental effects relates to the environment of China’s coastal areas and the global material and energy cycling. By studying the above two scientific issues, the process and mechanism of land and sea interaction in the Indian– Pacific–Qinghai-Tibet-Plateau triangle is clear, and the scientific basis of the short and medium term weather forecast is provided. Through the studies of the Kuroshio and continental shelf water exchange in China’s coastal waters, and the revelation of the shelf edge processes and mechanism, scientific foundation of environmental protection in China’s coastal waters and the global material and energy cycling can be therefore provided (Fig. 4.1). The main research subjects contain: 1) the three-dimensional circulation structure and the dynamic mechanism of the Indian–Pacific Ocean; 2) the land and sea interaction process and the mechanism in the triangular area and its role in climate change; 3) the water exchange process and mechanism between the Kuroshio and the shelf circulation; 4) the flux of exchange between the Kuroshio and the shelf circulation. The above research subjects can only be investigated by the combination of observation and numerical analysis techniques. On one hand, it is necessary to reveal the structure and variability of the Ocean and the Chinese coastal circulation, in situ observations and remote monitoring should be strengthened; · 102 ·
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Qinghai–Tibet Plateau
Western Pacific Warm Pool The Indian Ocean
Fig. 4.1 The sketch of the triangular area in the Indian–Pacic–Qinghai-Tibet-Plateau controlling the outbreak of the South China Sea Monsoon
4.1.2 Main Technical Bottlenecks Constraining the Development of the Marine Environment Areas At present, the main technical bottlenecks constraining the development of the marine environment areas are the restrictions of in situ observation techniques and network-building, and the limitations of the unenlightened development of numerical simulation technology and environmental forecasting integration. The former attributes mainly to the observation techniques and sensor problems, while the latter to the lag behind of the emerging computer technology and information science, and also to the lags in information integration and management. The details are as follows. (A) Ocean Observation a. Long-term, Real-time Observation Means of Far-reaching Ocean In the research of ocean circulation, it is necessary to develop long-term, real-time observation means of far-reaching ocean. At present, the moving-boat survey of the marine environment costs high. If investigations of large-scale and high-frequency are developed in the Western Pacific, Eastern Indian Ocean and far areas, the issue of cost-effectiveness of scientific research expenses will become more prominent. To avoid its happening, it is required to develop comprehensive marine environment detection buoys, submerged buoys and bottom founded buoys which can be deployed in the sea bottom for a long time. The main technical bottlenecks are the design of integrated observation system 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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on the other hand, it is necessary to enhance the research of kinetics of circulation system, especially the numerical simulation and four-dimensional assimilation studies, to better understand these mechanisms and changes of circulation system from a higher level.
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in deep-sea and accurate measurement of elements of marine environment, such as temperature, salinity, velocity, density, etc.. b. Real-time Observation Network of Coastal Marine Environment The effective implementation of real-time observation network of coastal marine environment is an essential method to carry out scientific research work of the marine environment. At present, only a very small number of marine observation sites in China need to develop coastal environment observation system and observation network. Its main technical bottleneck is the design of high-precision, integrated observation network system. c. The Platform for Marine Environment Investigation Instruments To facilitate underwater operations, it is required to use mobile underwater vehicles as a carrying platform to investigate the marine environment. At present, China has possessed the manufacture capability of 6,000 m unmanned submersibles and 7,000 m human occupied vehicle (HOV). Further development of multi-purpose serial products is demanded. The main technical bottleneck is the design of application-oriented underwater vehicles. d. Other Common Technologies Other common technologies include the control, navigation, positioning, new detection sensors and collaborative detection of multi-sensors, large capacity close-up acoustic communication, ultra-long-distance acoustic communication, underwater network link, relay communications between underwater and ship-borne, airborne, and satellite-borne three-dimensional space, long-term efficient energy, deep water pressurization, flow resistance, anti-trawling, anti-corrosion, anti bio-fouling, and on-the-ocean deployment and collection. e. Observational Data Sharing The scientific marine environment research relies heavily on the sharing of observational data. Currently, the “piece combination” in the management of ocean observation platform of China is becoming the major obstacle in the sharing of offshore research information, and is now a so-called bottleneck in the management. The marine technological breakthrough should meet the demand of marine science requirement. Bottleneck of communication exists in science and technology fields. (B) Marine Numerical Simulation Chinese oceanographic study, for a long time, takes data acquisition and qualitative study as the main research means, which is lack of the development of large-scale numerical simulation technology. Therefore, it has made the understanding of marine phenomena remain in a superficial level, and not rose to a more comprehensive theoretical height. The only ocean circulation numerical model with independent intellectual property rights is the Licom model, which is developed by the Institute of Atmospheric Physics, the Chinese Academy of Sciences. However, the configuration and parameters program of the model is still rough, there is a far cry from meeting the demands of ocean circulation research, and needs further development and polish. · 104 ·
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(C) Marine Environmental Forecasting Marine environmental forecasting is the aim of the reasonable and efficient application of marine environment information. The development of marine forecast technology must rely on numerical simulation and four-dimensional assimilation techniques. Over the years, the lagging-behind of this area has become one of the technical bottlenecks of Chinese marine research, which was caused by the insufficient attention paid to Chinese application technology. At present, the application technology of Chinese marine environment forecast studies, for various reasons, is lacking efficiency and vitality, and does not fully mobilized human resources of marine science. Other major bottlenecks include array signal processing, data fusion, integrated adaptive computing databases, multi-channel data management and quasi-real-time and real-time forecast.
4.1.3 Science and Technology Problems in Urgent Need of Solution In summary, the global major scientific problems in urgent need of solution in the field of marine environmental science, at present, is mainly the question of flux, that is, what role does the ocean play in the global cycle of mass and energy. Other need-to-be-solved-problems in the development of Chinese marine environmental science are the Indian–Pacific circulation system and its role in climate change, and the water exchange between China’s coastal waters and the Kuroshio and its environmental effect, etc..
Flux is the rate of flow of fluid, particles, or energy through a given surface. In oceanography, it also refers to the rate of flow of materials and energy through a vertical, horizontal or any part of a section.
(A) Major Scientific Issues in Urgent Need of Solution in the Western Pacific and China’s Coastal Waters a. Indian–Pacific Ocean Circulation System and Its Role in Climate Change Indian–Pacific Ocean circulation system is situated in the largest warm pool area with the highest temperature, which is one of the main heat sources to determine the global atmospheric circulation. Major scientific issues in urgent need of solution in disaster prevention and reduction and economic 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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At the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, the international ocean circulation theory made rapid progress. However, due to the fact that the scientific research team of ocean circulation in China is relatively weak, many of the advanced theories have not yet been fully grasped by the Chinese oceanographers, which largely constrained the carry-out of Chinese marine science and numerical simulation study.
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development are the study of the Indian–Pacific Ocean circulation system and its role in climate change, and the examination of the key dynamic mechanism in China and global climate change. b. Water Exchange Between China’s Coastal Waters and the Kuroshio and Its Environmental Effect Water exchange between China’s coastal waters and the Kuroshio and its environmental effect is a scientific issue of much importance, which is related to China’s coastal environment and the global cycle of mass and energy. It is hoped that, through focused study, the process and mechanism of land-sea interaction in the Indian–Pacific–Qinghai-Tibet-Plateau triangle will be clarified, which can serve as a scientific basis for the short-term climate prediction in China; and through the study of the water exchange between the Kuroshio in coastal waters and the continental shelf, the process and the mechanism of the shelf edge flux will be revealed, which could provide a scientific basis for the coastal waters environment protection of China and the global cycle of matter and energy. (B) Main Research Fields in the Western Pacific and the Coastal Waters of China Main research fields in the Western Pacific and the coastal waters of China include: 1) The three-dimensional dynamic structure and mechanism of the Western Pacific–Indian circulation; 2) The land-sea interaction process and mechanism in the triangular area and its role in climate change; 3) The water exchange process and mechanism between the Kuroshio and the shelf circulation; 4) The flux of exchange between the Kuroshio and the shelf circulation. The above content can only be realized by a combination of observation and numerical analysis. On one hand, in situ observations and remote monitoring should be strengthened to reveal the structure and variation of the Indian–Pacific and coastal waters circulation of China; On the other hand, it is necessary to enhance the dynamic research of circulation system, especially the four-dimensional assimilation studies of numerical simulation, to better understand the above-mentioned mechanism and change of ocean circulation system.
4.2 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Marine Ecology 4.2.1 Important Scientific Problems in Marine Ecosystems (A) Key Scientific Problems in Global Marine Ecology a. The Structure and Function of Global Marine Ecosystems · 106 ·
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(B) Main Scientific Issues in Chinese Regional Marine Ecosystems a. Global Change and Chinese Coastal Ecosystems The changing trend and the causes of the basic productivity (primary and secondary) in China’s coastal waters, whether is due to the effects of climate change or human activities; the relationship between fluctuation of China’s coastal fishery production and changes in the structure and function of basic food production web (zooplankton, phytoplankton); the intergration of changes in the structure and function of marine food web and biogeochemical cycles of biogenic elements, such as carbon; the relationship between the evolution of Chinese coastal ecosystems and neighboring ocean (the West Pacific Ocean). b. Succession of Coastal Environment and Ecological Security The understanding of the succession process and trend of coastal environment under the influence of human activity; analysis of the relationship between the ecological disasters, such as harmful algal booms and green tides, and human activities (input of nutrients and organic matters into the sea); interpretation of the impact of annual and long-term climate change (such as El Nino and North Atlantic Oscillation) on the occurrence of ecological disasters; discussion of the influence of ecological disasters, such as harmful algal blooms, on the ecological security of coastal waters; and development of predictive models for the prediction and prevention of ecological disasters. c. Restoration of Fishery Resources and Environment Basic biological studies on fishery resources, including the reproduction, growth, feeding habits, migration distribution of important resource species and their responses to the increasing human activities and climate change; 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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The study mainly includes the structure, function of marine ecosystems and its temporal and spatial variations, and the interrelationship between these changes and climate change and human activity. b. Marine Biodiversity and Its Trends The study mainly includes the species composition, the border, the biogeographical distribution, the biodiversity change, the causes and possible results of these changes in marine ecosystems. c. Deep Biosphere and Life Processes Under Extreme Environment The study includes studies on deep-sea micro-organisms under extreme environment, deep-sea biodiversity, deep-sea bio-active substances and genetic resources, and discussion on the origins of life in deep-sea. d. Ecosystem Management and Restoration In order to manage and restore the sensitive areas, such as the mangroves, coral reefs, salt marsh, sea grass meadows, seaweed beds and estuaries, it is necessary, through interdisciplinary research, to have a deep understanding of the natural processes, related institutions, cultural, ecological, social and political framework. An appropriate model is developed to analyze shortterm and long-term function of ecosystem, forecast ecosystem change, answer management-related questions, and thus turn into an effective decision-making supportive system.
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supplementary mechanism of important fishery stocks, including the mechanism for the formation of important spawning grounds, impacts of human activities on spawning grounds, early life history and population dynamic of fishery stocks; structure and function of marine food web, including the structure and function of food web, the relationship between species, material and energy flow etc.. Ecosystem-based integrated management of fishery resources, including the structure, function of fishery resources and their relationship with environmental factors, impact of dominant species alteration on fish province, indicators of the impacts of fishery on marine ecosystems, and assessment index of marine catch on the ecosystem structure and function. Studies on the techniques and theories of fishery resources reproduction, economic species releasing, and marine artificial reef-building are also needed. Environmental-sound mariculture techniques and theories, including the studies on ecological effects of large-scale aquaculture activities, systematic evaluation of the carrying capacity, proliferation potential and ecological role of cultured species, development of environmental-sound farming mode, optimization of the mariculture pattern and improvement of the seafood quality. d. The Function and Value of Marine Biodiversity The impact of marine biodiversity change on the function of marine ecosystem; impacts of key ecological processes, ecosystem fragmentation, alien species invasion and genetic modification on marine biodiversity; marine biodiversity change in response to global change and human activity; assessment and prediction techniques on marine biodiversity.
4.2.2 Major Technology Bottleneck Constraining the Development of Marine Ecological Studies The major factor constraining marine ecological studies in China is the deficient capacity in integrated ecosystem studies, and the lack of comprehensive understanding of China’s marine ecosystems, indicating serious insufficiency in the basic researches of China’s marine ecology, especially in studies of the changing trend of marine ecosystems. The main reasons include: insufficient attention to the basic researches of marine ecosystems and long-term ecological observation, no complete and systematic time-series observation data available, and no systematic researches on the dynamic and trend of marine ecosystems. The accumulation of long-term ecological observation data cannot be finished in a short period of time, which has become a must to step up the associated basic researches from now on. The development of coastal aquaculture has made great impact on the coastal ecosystems and environment, causing a series of problems, such as pollution, eutrophication, ecosystem structure and function changes, diseases and the HABs, etc.. The emergence of these problems has brought a series of challenges to the sustainability of coastal ecosystems and environment. The serious disease, high mortality rate, degraded environment have constrained · 108 ·
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the further development of marine culture industry in China. How to realize the sustainable development of the mariculture industry under the impacts of human activity? How can the fishing activities develop in a stable and coordinated way? These questions are important tasks before the Chinese marine scientists. For the important role of Chinese mariculture industry in the world, the international community of mariculture has paid extensive attention. If these problems can be successfully solved, it will be an important contribution to the study of international marine ecology. In addition, marine ecosystems and marine environment assessment studies have been carried on currently, however, there is no reliable index to evaluate the health of marine ecosystems, and different ecosystems should have different indicators, which is a problem in urgent need for coastal ecosystems planning and management. For marine biodiversity studies, the problems of low investigation frequency and unpolished investigation methods need to be solved. For example, every five years, Japan undertakes a comprehensive survey of the ocean and has accumulated 50 years of consecutive data. Britain carried out continuous plankton investigation in the Atlantic Ocean by using continuous plankton recorder. The regional fisheries management committee of the United States is well aware of the fisheries resources in charged waters. Although China has launched a number of comprehensive surveys and special investigations, the systematicness, continuity and comparability need to be improved. Research methods and equipments need to be further improved as well. The molecular biological methods, optical technology, acoustic imaging technology and remote sensing technology need to be adopted gradually to promote the level of marine biodiversity studies in China. In addition, the survey area of marine biodiversity is more confined to offshore waters in China, while the studies in the open ocean and deep-sea is rather dismal. In contrast, the international marine biodiversity studies not only includes the coastal waters impacted by human activities, but also expands gradually to the submarine canyon, ocean trench and deep-sea plain region, and involves in the bright and dark areas of the ocean. Furthermore, the deficiency of systematic, digital, and network-based information greatly restricts the development of marine biodiversity study in China. To sum up, the marine ecosystems and its security studies are facing the following three main technical bottlenecks. a. Lacking of Inshore Ecological Observation Platform The current marine ecosystems observation platform is not suitable for the monitoring of coastal ecology and environment greatly impacted by human activities. b. Limited R&D Capacity and Application of in situ Ecological Observation Equipment Many new biological and chemical sensors are still in the stage of development, and new chemical and molecular biological techniques have not
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been much applied. There is a lack of sensors for monitoring of chemical and biological pollution with high relevance and usefulness. Due to problems like bio-fouling, the applied in situ sensors are difficult to achieve a long-term use. c. Difficulty in the Effective Application of Remote Sensing Technology At present, the application of remote sensing technology in coastal ecosystems faces many difficulties. For example, the observation of the primary productivity is affected by the water quality of type II water body. It’s hard to extract the sub-surface data, and the satellite observations of organisms at hightrophic levels can not be achieved.
4.2.3 Major Scientific and Technical Issues in Urgent Need of Solution (A) Sustainable Development of Coastal Ecosystems With the exploitation of marine resources, some environmental problems have occurred in China’s coastal waters, which seriously threaten the sustainable economic development along the coast of China. For example, coastal eutrophication problem is getting worse caused by nutrient pollution of nitrate and phosphate. In 2007, an area of 145,000 km2 of China’s coastal waters have not met the clean water quality standard, which is similar to the situation in 2006. Occurrence of HABs, according to the incomplete statistics, reached 82 times in 2007. The spawning grounds and nursery farms of main economic fish and shellfish species in the Bohai Sea, the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, the South China sea are subject to different degrees of pollution. At the same time, changes have been observed in China’s coastal ecosystems, for example, the decrease of basic productivity and quality of fishery resources, abnormalities of biological community structure, decrease of biodiversity, degradation of germplasm and habitat alteration etc. According to the incomplete statistics, the benthic species in the intertidal zone of Jiaozhou Bay have decreased from 120 in the 1960’s to 20 at the present; the average length of fish in the Yellow Sea have decreased from 20 cm in the 1970’s to about 10 cm now. This phenomenon is more obvious in the estuary areas. Taking the Changjiang (Yangtze) River estuary and the adjacent waters as an example, the fishery resources of the large yellow croaker and squid (two of the four main fish species in this area) has become depleted, those of small yellow croaker and hairtail also recessed seriously. The succession and degradation of China’s coastal ecosystems have been increasingly concerned by the state and society, and is generally recognized as an important constraining factor for the development of coastal areas. However, there is still a lack of sufficient understanding and knowledge of the basic structure and function of coastal ecosystems, their succession pattern, and associated effects under dual influence of human activities and natural changes. Targeted on the problems of coastal resources recession, eutrophication and its associated ecological issues, it is necessary to systematically study the · 110 ·
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(B) Deep-sea Environment and Life Process Due to the limited accumulation in deep-sea researches, little is known about the deep-sea, and the exploitation of the deep-sea resources cannot be achieved now. However, in the face of great expectations and needs for deep-sea resources and space, the deep-sea has become a key area in the understanding of nature in the 21st century. Huge potential for progress exists in the deep-sea science and technology. The deep-sea accounts for 92.4% and 65.4% of the total area of the ocean and the Earth. To understand the deep-sea, it is necessary to implement longterm and stable deep-sea research projects, and progressively realize mutually supportive and promotion of deep-sea scientific research and high-tech progress. From the release of “Ocean Science Program in the United States for the Next Decade” in 2007 to the recent declaration of Russian sovereignty on the Arctic Ocean seabed, nations with ability and vision have made deepsea research one of core tasks in the development of national science and technology, and implementations has been made step by step, which greatly expanded the range and depth of interdisciplinary studies in the deep-sea. The establishment of a global view of the deep-sea and the scientific development of deep-sea research has become a common view of long-term development of the developed countries, and has constituted one of the mainstreams and a cuttingedge in today’s science and technology development. For the deep biosphere, human beings are only aware of its existence, but not clear of its basic characteristics and its role in the Earth system. Similarly, for the life phenomenon in extreme environments such as hydrothermal or cold seeps, human is also lack of sufficient knowledge and does not understand the resource significance of Deep Biosphere and biological activities in extreme environments, and whether they contain the essence of life and the answer to the origin of life. Through the implementation of deep-sea research projects, it aims to understand the deep-sea biodiversity, depict the biogeochemical processes, master the key processes of special deep-sea ecosystem and its resources and environment effects, explore the origins of life, develop new biological resources, such as the genes and bioactive substances, which would provide supports for the development of deep-sea resources, the use of deep space and the development of deep-sea industry. The study includes the understanding of the seabed under the oceans, key process of deep-sea environment, deep biosphere and life processes under extreme environments, aiming to solve the related issues. Through the application of new technologies and equipments, such as deep-sea sampling, on-site analysis and monitoring, it is suggested to choose seafloor hydrothermal/cold seeps and other extreme environments as 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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key processes under the coupling effects of climate change and human activities, reveal the processes, mechanisms and effects of coastal ecosystems changes, and put forward corresponding countermeasures and strategies. This will provide scientific basis for the sustainability of China’s coastal ecosystems.
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the starting point, and a clear understanding of the Deep Biosphere can be possibly achieved in the next decades.
4.3 Key Science and Technology Issues in Marine Biological Areas 4.3.1 Important Scientific Problems in Marine Biological Areas The ocean is the cradle of life. It occupies an area of 360 million km2 of the Earth and contains 80% of the biological resources, including more than 200,000 species of marine animals and plants and inestimable types and quantity of marine micro-organisms. The special environment of the ocean, such as high salt, high-pressure and hypoxia, creates a unique life process and metabolic pathways of marine organisms, and makes the marine organism to be with different biological characteristics and functions from the terrestrial biota. Marine organism resources include marine fisheries resources, biological metabolite resources, and genetic resources, which are not only important sources of human food, but the treasure house of inexhaustible resources. (A) Major Scientific Problems in Global Marine Biology With the increasing demands for marine bio-products and rapid growth of marine biotechnology, the sustainable use of marine living resources has become an important part of the development of marine science and technology and marine economy, and a research focus of the marine scientific research field established by the United States, Japan, the European Union and other countries, possessing strategic importance. a. Sustainable Development of Fishery Economy Fishery resources in the ocean play an important role in the marine economic development. The scientific development and rational use of marine fisheries resources are important ways to achieve the sustainable development of marine economy. Governments of many states, for a long time, have been attaching great importance to the development of marine fisheries, and have constituted a series of laws, regulations, policies, and measures in favor of the marine fisheries development, which greatly promoted the rapid development of the world’s marine fisheries and growth of marine fisheries production. However, due to the impact of resources consumption, extended reproduction as the main means of development, poor management, and the unimproved rule of law, the marine fisheries resources have been predatorialty damaged and marine fisheries has been driven into a position of unsustainable development. After “the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea” came into force, the new international system was established. Several neighboring countries and China have signed and implemented fishing agreement, and the fishing areas · 112 ·
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were contracted, which have raised new problems and new challenges. In order to achieve the harmonious development of economy, society and environment, marine ecological farming and fishing should be given great attentions. b. Marine Ecosystems and the Exploiture of Fishery Resources The major scientific problems encountered by scientists from all countries are the thorough understanding of the structure and function of the marine ecosystems, analysis of the status and roles of fishery species, revealing of the control network of their biological output through the interaction of the physics, chemistry, biogeochemistry and biological factors. The building of a scientifically rational and sustainably developed artificial marine eco-culture system is the key scientific problem in the process of marine fisheries controlled and interfered by human beings. As a result of over-fishing, pollution, environmental deterioration and other factors, the world’s marine fishery resources are facing the danger of depletion, for example, China’s annual output of hairtail reached to the highest 500,000 t, accounting for 70% of the world; but the production has been declining, and size-lessening, there is almost no fishing season formed since 1980s; the assessment, exploiture and utilization of fishery resources, coastal marine environment and resource conservation, restoration, update of fishing techniques and tools are the main scientific issues in the establishment of modern fishing industry in the world. In marine farming, the following issues should be strengthened in the key maricultured organisms: genetic breeding, molecular breeding, disease control and environmental control, biosecurity of seafood product; genomics and comparative genomics of some key fish species is a cutting-edge and basic research topic. c. Marine Bio-chemical Products Accompanied by a large number of fossil resources development, the development of marine biotechnology-based chemical products has been a research and development focus in international medicine, food, and chemical engineering field. The green processing of marine aquatic products waste has also become an important research direction. Marine biological genetic resources will be applied in industry, agriculture, medicine, environmental protection and military field, while marine bio-genetic industry will become an important component of the sustainable use of marine biological resources and become a new growth point of the marine economy; marine bio-energy organisms will become the fuel bio-reactor of bio-gas and bio-liquid, which will be an important contribution to the energy crisis. d. Development of Metabolites of Marine Organisms The development of healthy, functional, directional, high-value and personalized metabolites of marine organisms, for the objectives of green circle are the keys to the research and development of metabolites of marine biological resources. Therefore, the breeding and production of healthy and functional cultural species and the refining of biological products are the key scientific problems in the research and development of metabolites of marine biological
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resources. e. Origin of Life The question of the origin of life is undoubtedly one of the oldest and the most challenging scientific problems. Is the ocean not the birthplace of life on Earth? Since the Aristotle times till the present, “natural occurrence” has been invoked as the explanation of the origin of life. Although many scientists have been criticizing the point of view that life material originates from non-life material, Pasteur showed the existence of life must originate from existed life. However, the origin of the initial life has become a difficult problem. In the past 60 years, the Oparin and Haldane theory has specified and partially proved that life originates from the non-life chemical synthesis process in the ocean when the atmosphere is reductive with the main energy source being the sun’s ultraviolet rays and the discharge in atmospheric phenomena. These processes are now impossible to repeat, for the ozone layer shields the ultraviolet rays, the atmosphere is oxidative, and every original life will be quickly eliminated by the current organisms. However, in order to truly prove that the ocean is the cradle of life, it needs arduous and painstaking exploration, and with the time, finding more convincing evidence and through artificial simulation to confirm the above point of view. In the research and development of marine biological gene resources, abundant biological resources have been found in various extreme environments of the deep-sea, among which the deep-sea micro-organisms are the most, but most of these organisms are also unknown. Deep-sea bio-genetic research is not only one of the cuttingedge area in life sciences, but an important part in the exploration of the origin of life. (B) Main Scientific Issues in Regional and Chinese Marine Biological Resources a. Dynamic Changes in Fishery Resources and Complementary Mechanisms In the development of marine fishery resources, only with a clear understanding of the dynamic changes and complementary mechanisms of the fishery biological resources in different sea areas, to provide a scientific basis for sustainable fishing can be achieved. b. Fine Seed Cultivation and Disease Prevention and Treatment Fine seed cultivation is the prerequisite for the upgrading of fishery and aquatic products and rapid development of mariculture industry; disease prevention and treatment research is the guarantee of the sustainable development of mariculture industry. Strengthening the cultivation of fine strains and disease prevention and treatment research will provide a scientific basis for the development of improved strains and efficient disease prevention in China’s marine aquaculture, meanwhile, the sustainable and healthy development of aquaculture industry can also be realized. c. The Development of Marine Microbial Resources The acquirement of biomass of marine algae is not like the land-based crops competing with grain production on land resources and freshwater · 114 ·
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(C) Frontier and Inter-disciplinary Scientific Issues The sustainable use of marine biological resources involves all disciplines of marine science and life science, while marine fisheries, biological metabolites and genetic resources are interdependent and interrelated, which involved in various aspects of the structure and function of marine ecosystem and longlasting resources utilization. Particular emphasis should be paid to the crossdisciplinary of macro- and micro-biology of marine life; focus on the crossdiscipline research of marine ecology, marine molecular biology and chemistry, development of eco-farming technology, bio-refining technology of metabolites and sustainable development of special functional genes of economic organism, microorganism and deep-sea organisms. 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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resources. The development of marine algae-based bio-energy organisms has become a national energy strategy in Europe and America. Marine microorganisms are very rich in marine biological resources, their genes, secondary metabolites, enzymes and other active substances wait to be developed and utilized. For example, the growth of epiphytic micro-organisms, such as microorganisms in deep-sea environment, mangroves, and corals may become a source of innovative medicine. The development and utilization of marine microbial resources has become to an important area in competing for resources and its related intellectual property rights. d. The Development of Marine Biological Metabolites Marine chemical ecology research can reveal the mechanism of a variety of metabolites produced by organisms in different habitats; while proteomics and metabolomics research can make people understand the cause and effect of different secondary metabolites of marine organisms; for those products which possess the prospects of major pharmaceutical future, the structure of new active compounds with anti-tumor, anti-AIDS, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial or anti-senile activity in marine microbes and their symbiotic animals or plants, which should be focused. e. Research and Efficient Development of Gene Resources of Marine Organisms An important task for the current and the future is to strengthen the research and development of the functional genes of marine microorganisms and marine microorganisms combinatorial biosynthesis, emphasize the development and utilization of marine microorganisms and genetic resources of deep-sea organisms. To research into the gene resources in marine organisms and efficiently use them are the tasks in the present and the future. f. Marine Aquatic Products Processing and Comprehensive Utilization of Waste Resources In the marine aquatic products processing and comprehensive utilization of waste resources, the research on the mechanism of marine aquatic products processing and high-value usage of the waste should be enhanced, the chemical composition, resource characteristics and high-value use mode of the marine aquatic waste products should be thoroughly understood.
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4.3.2 Main Technical Bottlenecks Constraining the Development of Marine Biology In the 21 st century, the contradiction among the sustainable use of resources, environmental protection and population growth is increasingly prominent, and thus lead to a global technological revolution, the sustainable development and utilization of marine living resources are both effective and innovative. The research and development of new fisheries conservation and fishing technologies, molecular breeding design and disease immunity control techniques, ecological farming techniques, genetic engineering and bio-refining technology, marine fishery resources, biological metabolites and genetic resources will be an important innovation and breakthrough in the world’s marine economy to promote sustainable development. The United States, Japan, Britain and Germany are developing strategic decision of the sustainable use of marine living resources, aiming to take the vantage point in international political, economic and military competition in oceanography. (A) Marine Fishery At present, China’s aquatic products output is the largest in scale in the world. China’s aquaculture output reaches 30.27 million t, accounting for 64.3% of total output, 70% of the world total; China’s fishing trade accounts for 6.8% of global exports, with the exports being the first or second in the world, and imports, the tenth. Fishing population is 20.7 million, with 13.16 million of labor force, accounting for 2% of the agricultural population in China, provided with the Chinese people of 1/3 of animal protein, which greatly reduced the pressure on the food crisis, and played an important role in stabilizing prices. It is expected that the total output of aquatic products in 2010 will reach to 60 million t, with an average annual increase of 3.3%, 570 billion Yuan of fishery output value, an average annual increase of 6.4%; aquatic products in 2030 will reach to more than 7,600 million t. China’s aquaculture production in 2006 reached to 14,456,400 t, the first time surpassed the marine fish production (14,420,400 t), with a more reasonable proportion. Marine fisheries GDP was 455 billion Yuan in 2007, equivalent to 1.85% of the gross domestic product over the same period. Marine fisheries realized the added value of 221.6 billion Yuan in 2008, with 3.3% of increase in 2007. At present, China has become the only country of which the output of mariculture industry larger than the fisheries industry. a. The Excess Fishing Capacity and Recession of Economic Fishery Resources The conflict between China’s fishery industry development and resource environment is intensified. Too many fishing vessels and the destruction of coastal fishery resources, deteriorated the ecological environmental conditions of aquaculture waters. China has more than 480,000 motorized fishing boats, with 30% of excess fishing capacity, or some operations in some areas up to 50%, resulting in wastes · 116 ·
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(B) Marine Biological Metabolites Resource Development The research and development of China’s marine living resources metabolites have a long history; marine Chinese medicine use is typical in this regard. In green chemistry and industrial biotechnology, China’s activities have been gradually active. The problem of how to solve the integrated utilization of marine aquatic products and further refining has become the focus of the government departments, processing enterprises and other related departments, and also important issue on which scientists should focus. a. Marine Drugs Lacking of Originality Research For a long time, China’s drug development is mainly performed by tracking-study, marine drug research is no exception. Originality research and patents are rarely found in the active lead compounds of marine organisms; marine drugs with originality and independent intellectual property rights are also rare and few. b. Backward Technology of Deep Processing of Aquatic Products Despite the advantages of China’s aquatic resources, clustered aquatic processing enterprises and expected deep processing and utilization of marine 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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of production goods, which has brought a heavy pressure to the main economic fishery resources, resulting in serious economic decline of fisheries resources. Fishing species tend to be in lower food chain. Species at low-level food chain and with low value accounted for 60%–70% of the total catch; the country has suffered from environmental pollution which lead to the annual fishing loss of about 500,000 t, equivalent to economic value of about 3.0 billion. b. Extensive Mode of Production Consuming A Large Amount of Resources Extensive fisheries production and industrial development depend mainly on production element and mass consumption of resources, other issues include: low productivity, low levels of modernization, and low commercialization rate of scientific and technological achievements. Aquatic products processing and utilization level is not high, only 34.8% of total output, and processed aquatic products output is only 5.7% of the total; while in developed countries such as Japan, Canada, the United States and Peru, the output of aquatic products processing accounted for 60%–90%. c. Weak Industrial Support System The focus on the economic benefit and development of high-end food chain of fish production increased energy consumption and pressure on natural resources and food feed; seed breeding, disease control and resource conservation have an inadequate management technical and support system; fishery resources and environmental monitoring surveys and the basic research of fishery technology are lacks of systematicness and persistence. In short, there are lacks of a complete technical system from coastal fisheries resources assessment, conservation, multiplication, artificial release, through to the establishment of offshore fisheries, from the domestication of important wild species, selective breeding and culture of important species, disease prevention and treatment, through to the intensification of ecological farming.
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aquatic products, the majority of marine aquatic products processing is still extensive, the production process technology falls behind, with huge energy consumption, low resource utilization, low levels of control technology of product quality and safety, especially the excessive heavy metal products, seriously lagged control and removal technology of biological toxins, allergies source. c. Bio-refining Technology Systems to be Established Utilization of marine aquatic products and further refining, from a technical point of view, is lack of screening and application technical system of marine biological metabolites, the quality and safety monitoring system of aquatic products lining with the international standard, green and energysaving technology of aquatic product processing, and in an urgent need to develop a marine bio-energy and marine organism refining technology. (C) The Exploitation of Marine Biological Genetic Resources Study on China’s marine microbes starts late, in the past 10 years, marine microbial active substance study mainly lied in the microorganism enzyme preparation; China started the deep-sea and marine micro-organism study 10 years ago, active compounds of marine micro-organism developed fast in recent years, marine micro-organism germplasm preservation study and the building of germplasm library also started, aiming to systematically collect, identify and preserve large quantities of micro-organism resource. At present, the Chinese Academy of Sciences has the largest specimen museum of marine organisms. In recent years, germplasm preservation, with the participation of relevant units in China, was carried out, in marine fisheries organisms, pathogenic microorganisms, economic microalgae, and harmful algae. Nevertheless, the development and utilization of marine bio-genetic resources in China is still in the initial stage, and there are many issues waiting to be made breakthroughs. a. Researchers Need Teamwork Humans, higher animals, plant genome research has entered the postgenome era, but China’s marine bio-genome sequencing and analysis started soon, most of the important economic organisms are still in the establishment of genetic maps, and each laboratory works along, it is necessary to integrate the force, focusing on the key breakthroughs of science and technology. b. Key and Common Technology Constraining the Development In key and common technology, there is a lack of the collection of deepsea organisms, the cultivation of marine microorganisms, marine-omics and metagenome technology and the technology channel from genes to products.
4.3.3 Major Issues of Science and Technology in Urgent Need of Solution In recent years, marine biotechnology has made rapid development in China and in the overseas, playing an increasingly important role in the following areas: the promotion of important new discoveries in marine science, breakthroughs in key common technology in the sustainable use of marine bio-resources and preservation the health of marine ecosystems, support and · 118 ·
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(A) Principle of the Marine Ecological Farming and New Production Technology Marine fishery is the basis of national marine economy and strategic industry. Sustainable development of fisheries has become the theme of common concern in the 21st century, the supply role of aquaculture to aquatic products in the world has reached a consensus among scholars in developed countries, fish and other aquatic products, with an increase demand year after year, and acting as a safe protein source have been widely recognized by the society. Aquaculture has become a new rapid developing industry in developed countries. The aquaculture method is now facing a new revolution. The traditional mode of aquaculture farming is an inefficient and expensive method, the raise of the yield is at the expensive cost of environment, with high energy consumption, large quantity of emission. The development of some aquaculture models is often at the cost of blind introduction of alien species, over-extraction of groundwater, heavy use of wildlife resources, excessive use of chemicals, resulting in resource consumption and environmental pollution. Chinese annual imports of fish meal feed are more than one million t, consuming 1/3 of the world’s fishmeal production, which is equivalent to more than one billion U.S. dollars. Chilled small fish and shrimp are also used as fish feed in many places, with the feed conversion ratio up to 10 : 1, which not only consumed a great deal of valuable fisheries resources, extra food has also caused serious pollution. At present, the international society generally advocates a new farming 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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upgrading of existing important aquaculture, as well as the birth of the new type, knowledge based marine organism industry group. In the 21st century, the global aquaculture industry has the following trends: improved variety system, ecology, intensification and engineering; besides the insurance of enough fishery products in the market, importance of aquatic food safety and nutritional quality has been unprecedented attached, the production and trade of safe and green aquatic food has become the hot issues concerned by the national regulators and consumers. Marine biological metabolites resources are important sources of new drugs and fine chemical products. A total of 175 effective anti-cancer compounds were found in the world from 1940–2006, most of which come from marine life. Since 1997, about 20,000 compounds were identified from marine life in foreign countries, of which 30% possess activity. About 50 candidate drugs were developed, including cephalosporins, anti-AIDS drug Avarol, zidovudine, anti-cancer drugs Didemnin B, Vidarabine, about 30 drugs are currently being studied including anti-cancer drugs Bryostatin I, Punaglandin. The study of lead compounds with marine biological activity and their derivatives, and the development of an innovative medicine with special medicinal value will become an important international trend. The new situation on the marine bio-technology development has brought forward new requirements and new scientific and technological issues for scientists as shown in the following part.
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method rooted in the ecosystem (ecosystem-based), which combines biotechnology and engineering, with extensive use of new facilities, new feed with scientific formulas, using energy-saving, environmental friendly, safe and healthy new production mode to replace traditional farming methods. At the same time, many prominent issues exist, such as scarcity of improved varieties of artificial breeding, pandemic disease, environmental pollution and food safety problems. There is an urgent need of mining and creating new breeding germplasm resources, cultivating improved varieties and improve disease control and food safety guarantee capacity, develop modern science and technology of ecosystem-based marine aquaculture management, recovery and proliferation of natural fishery resources, increase and enhance the quantity and quality of artificial breeding, realize the harmonious development of resources restoring and marine aquaculture industry and ecological environment. (B) Biosecurity of Marine Aquatic Production With the increase of living standards, economic globalization and the worldwide rapid growth of international trade, an increasing number of countries and international organizations recognized the importance of biosecurity, which involves food safety, animal and plant life and health and the environment risk. Therefore, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has taken biosecurity as one of the organization’s 16 priority areas of interdisciplinary action in medium-term program, aiming to promote, develop and enhance a common strategy of food, agriculture, fisheries and forestry policy and management framework. Biosecurity of marine aquaculture is concerned with the management of health and environment risk of marine aquaculture related organisms. The risk includes all alien species, the introduction of disease organisms and pathogenic microorganisms of cultured species, major infectious disease destructing the biological diversity and cross-sectional disease resulting in decrease of largescale biological production, as well as biological and environmental pollution problems caused by developments of biotechnology.
Biosecurity is a new concept. As a result of different use by different experts in different countries, the understanding of the term has been deepened. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations considers the biosecurity as an integrated strategic approach, including policy and management frameworks of the analysis and management of food safety, risks of animal and plant life and health and environmental risks. It involves the introduction of pests and animal diseases and parasitic diseases, introduction and release of genetically modified organisms and their products, introduction and management of alien species and genotypes, as well as diffusion and utilization of bio-terrorist weapons. It is a package concept directly related to the agricultural sustainability, food safety, environmental protection and biological diversity, national security. Biosecurity
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Biosecurity can be understood as a set of technical and management measures including health defense and pathogen detection, isolation and detoxication in the process of aquaculture production. By strict enforcement of these measures, external infection can be prevented in order to effectively prevent the outbreak, spread and overflow of pathogens in the culture zones. Relevant departments in China should pay close attention to the biosecurity of aquaculture industry, research and develop high-tech of bio-security, establish in time biosecurity standards and norms of Chinese aquaculture industry, effectively implement in the production process, and ensure sustained and healthy development of China’s aquaculture industry. (C) Refined Technology of Marine Biological Resources By using modern biotechnology, the focus directions of new economic growth points are to biorefine marine biological resources, nurture and develop high value-added industries, and develop new industries like marine bio-energy. In the development of marine organism metabolites and products, biorefining technology should be developed, and introject with gene technology; breakthrough should be made in technological bottlenecks like the applications of marine organism metabolites products in industry, agriculture, medicine, environmental protection and military areas, to achieve high-value use. The quality and safety standards of marine products and marine food fully line with the international standards, so marine biological industries could become pillar industries. In traditional processing models of sea food, the internal organs of many animals are often discarded or used for the production of low-value feed, causing a huge waste of resources and serious environmental pollution. Therefore, how to utilize integrated green technology on the treatment of aqua-products and the processing waste, and how to improve the utilization ratio of seafood resources to realize energy-saving of marine food processing industry, have become very urgent tasks. 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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is a set of system for production, research and management system, in which people take active measures to ensure the healthy survival and production of living organisms, distinguishing from the passive defending biosafety. It reflects the concept of sustainable development of the human society and nature living in harmony. In the process of aquaculture production, biosecurity is defined as the management and control of health and environment risks related to mariculture production process. The risk includes all alien species, the introduction of pathogenic organisms and diseases of aquatic organisms, major infectious disease destructing the biological diversity and cross-sectional disease resulting in decrease of large-scale biological production, as well as biological and environmental pollution problems caused by developments of biotechnology.
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(D) The Use of Function Genes of Marine Organisms Genes of marine organisms have a wide range of application future in industry, agriculture, medicine, environmental protection, military and other fields. Gene products and drugs from marine organisms have become an important support industry in the sustainable use of marine biological resources. Marine biogenetic industry will become the new growth point in marine economy. China has made significant progress in research of functional genomics, gene isolation, cloning and application and construction of genetic linkage map of marine economic organisms. Some are earlier involved research areas in the international community. But generally speaking, problems, including the decentralized study forces, no team-work, low efficiency, no uniform system of quality assessment and higher costs are existing; therefore, it is necessary to establish research centers to accelerate the transfer of genetic research into products. It is obliged to strengthen the research on special functional genes in marine micro-organisms, economic fishery organisms and deep-sea organisms, and apply them as soon as possible into fisheries, medicine, industry and environmental protection industries. (E) The Development and Utilization of Marine Bio-energy The marine bio-energy organisms will be the bio-reactor of bio-gas and bio-liquid fuel, aiming to address an important contribution to the energy crisis. The acquirement of marine algae biomass is not like land-based crops competing for valuable land and freshwater resources with food production. The development of marine algae-based bio-energy in Europe and America has become an important part of the national energy strategy. In bio-fuel production, algae have a unique advantage. They are able to reproduce by an exponential order; the growth basically only needs sunlight, water and carbon dioxide; the farming land needed for the seaweed is far less than those of conventional soybeans and colza needed (Fig. 4.2).
Fig. 4.2 Important living fashion of biomass: “Submarine algal forest”
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4.4.1 Key scientific Problems of the Marine Oil and Gas and Mineral Resources Marine oil and gas and mineral resources are strategic resources, which have become the focus of major maritime powers in the world. To solve the key scientific problems in the development and utilization of marine oil and gas and mineral resources, major maritime powers have invested heavily in researches. (A) Key Scientific Problems of Global Marine Oil and Gas and Mineral Resources a. The Background of Deep Water Oil and Gas Reserve Formation and the Situation of Resources The understanding of the marine oil and gas is far behind the land oil and gas. Since the mid-80’s of the 20th century, with technology advances and the increasing demand in energy markets, as well as the increased difficulty of collection in aged oil fields on land and offshore areas, people’s eyes naturally went to deep water district. Especially when many large oil and gas fields were found in the Campos basin, Brazil, the deep water exploration is heating-up, and has become the world’s hottest exploration area. In 2000, in the Gulf of Mexico, oil and gas production in deep waters for the first time exceeded that in shallow waters. To the year 2010, global oil and gas production in deep waters will reach to 27.315 billion barrels and 214.601 trillion cubic feetƗ. It is estimated that 1/4 of oil resources in the world are hidden in the deep basin. Therefore, the development of oil and gas exploration in deep waters has attracted the enthusiastic attention of governments and scientists, deep water oil and gas study has become a current hot spot. Through investigation and study of the forming background of deep water oil and gas, with the understanding of the distribution of deep water oil and gas, studying the solutions of constitution of stratigraphic sequence in deep waters and prediction technology in the reservoirs, forming patterns, resource evaluation system and optimization of exploring targets which are related to oil and gas resources in deep-water areas, it will help to ease the tension of high demand for limited oil and gas resources, and promote the achievement in new development of theory and technology of marine oil and gas resources. b. Formation Background, Resource Potential and Environmental Effects of Natural Gas Hydrate Natural gas hydrate (NGH) is a new clean energy found in the ocean and permafrost (may be even earlier on the land) with a huge volume of resources.
! ! Ɨ 1 foot = 0.3048 m
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4.4 Key Scientific Problems and Techniques of the Marine Oil and Gas and Mineral Resources
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In January 2002, Japan and Canada successfully found NGH in Mallik 2L-38 wells, in the permafrost of Mackenzie Delta in northern Canada, which has brought dawn for the development and utilization of NGH. The United States, Japan and even India, a developing country, have put forward their hydrates research program, aiming to develop and utilize NGH in 2015 to 2020. To the end of 2007, NGH has been found, directly or indirectly, in more than 100 water areas in the world (including the northern South China Sea continental slope, Nansha Trough and the East China Sea continental slope). With the deepening of the research, rapid development was made in resource assessment techniques of international NGH, geophysical and geochemical exploration technology, drilling and sampling, and research and development of NGH extraction technology. In spite of this, the resource situation of NGH is not accurately known, the mining and its possible environmental, disastrous consequences are not properly solved. Through the investigation of forming background, source and environmental effects of NGH, the establishment of integrated tracking system of the distribution of NGH, the understanding of the distribution, possessing sophisticated resources forecasting and evaluation methods, the goal of reasonable development and utilization of NGH can be expected to be achieved. c. The Forming Mechanism and Distribution of Seabed Metallic Mineral Resources There is a lack of systematic and comprehensive understanding of cobaltrich crusts and hydrothermal sulfide resources, including the formation background of these resources, the background and law of the mineral ore formation and evolution in seamounts and mid-ocean ridges. The forming characteristics of seabed resources have not yet been grasped. Basic and comprehensive environmental data and information of the deep ocean is insufficient, and there is a serious shortage of capacity in the physical, chemical, and biological observation of deep seabed and thus unable to have a profound understanding of the formation mechanism and distribution of seabed mineral resources. With the improvement and enhancement of deep-sea research techniques in the future, and on the basis of continuous construction of deep-sea multiparameter environmental databases, enhancement of the evolution research of seabed lithosphere formation and understanding of the biological and fluid activities under the seabed, it is expected that, through the investigation of mineral resources of the seabed and an in-depth understanding of the essence of seabed forming function, undersea oil and gas, NGH, hydrothermal sulphides, cobalt-rich crusts, genetic and biological resources and the internal relations in the physical, chemical and biological processes above seabed can be constantly revealed, and the forming mechanism and distribution of seabed mineral resources can be grasped.
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4.4.2 Main Technical Bottlenecks Constraining the Development of Marine Oil and Gas and Mineral Resources (A) Exploration and Mining Technology of Deep Water Oil and Gas High-resolution seismic exploration and multi-wave multi-component (4D/4C) seismic exploration technology has become the major trends in exploration technology, applicable to new platform for deep water development, multi-function floating production installations, underwater production system, which is a hot spot and trend in the development of deep water oil and gas; it includes key technology of deep water oil and gas seismic exploration vessel, deep water platform technology, underwater production systems in deep waters, deep water oil and gas gathering technologies, key technologies of multipurpose, lifting pipe laying ship in deep water, key technologies of 3000 m deep water semi-submersible drilling platforms and geological drilling technology to enhance oil recovery. Exploration, drilling, development, engineering and security are the five key technologies in the development of marine oil and gas resources. (B) The Investigation and Exploitation of NGH The exploration and identification, fidelity sampling techniques, resource scope and effective evaluation and development of resources and its environmental effects study of NGH are the trends and focuses in the research of detection of NGH resources, which include: three-dimensional seismic acquisition of NGH, key technologies of post-refining and lithological seismic interpretation; high-resolution deep-tow seismic technology; high-precision electromagnetic integrated detection technologies of marine artificial source; evaluation of NGH resource body and heat flow in situ detection technology 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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(B) Main Scientific Issues in Oil and Gas and Mineral Resources in Regional Areas and China a. Forming Background and Resource Situation of Oil and Gas in China Sea Main issues in the forming background and resource situation of oil and gas in China Sea include: marine Tethys oil and gas, related issues between land and sea oil and gas, turbidite sandstone, oil and gas issues in pre-Cenozoic, stratigraphic sequence composition and reservoir prediction technology, forming patterns, resource evaluation and exploration target selection in deepwater related to deep oil and gas resources. b. The Forming Background, Resource Potential and Environmental Effects of NGH in China Seas The forming background, resource potential and environmental effects of NGH in China Seas mainly include: geological forming background and source problem of NGH, the establishment of integrated tracking system of the distribution of NGH, a mature prediction and evaluation method of NGH resources and environmental effects of NGH and other issues.
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needed by resource calculation; gas-tight collector of water samples in deep waters and its degassing technology; pore water collection, storage and shipborne quick testing technologies and in situ detection techniques of tracking gas in NGH forming system; key technologies of hydrate fidelity sample handling, well logging and drilling; cold spring monitoring techniques; the commercial exploitation of NGH. (C) Investigation, Exploitation and Use of Hydrothermal Sulfide and Monitoring Techniques of Hydrothermal Activity The integration and joint use of multi-disciplinary (geology and geophysics, geochemistry, biology), as well as the benthal, multi-parametric, high-resolution, high accuracy, direct detection/sampling technology has become the trends and hot spots of seabed exploration and evaluation technology of marine mineral resources, including: survey techniques of nonactive hydrothermal sulfide resource area; hydrothermal sulfide formation and the life course simulation technology; hydrothermal activity detection and monitoring techniques; deep-sea drilling technology and equipment; hydrothermal sulfide exploitation and use technology. (D) Mining and Application Technology of Polymetallic Nodules and Cobalt-rich Crusts in Deep Water The development of new mining operations platforms and technologies in deep water, increasing the comprehensive utilization value of polymetallic nodules and cobalt-rich crusts, and efficiently decreasing exploitation and utilization costs of polymetallic nodules and cobalt-rich crusts, include polymetallic nodules carrying technology in deep sea and mining technology of deep-sea cobalt-rich crusts.
4.4.3 Scientific and Technological Problems in Urgent Need of Solution (A) Three-dimensional Deep-sea Observation System in the South China Sea and Its Main Process Characteristics The South China Sea is the largest marginal sea in the West Pacific with an area of about 3,500,000 km2, located in tropic and subtropics. The main water body depth of the South China Sea basin is greater than 3000 m. TaiwanLuzon arc, in the eastern South China Sea, is a tectonic collision zone with strong activity since the Miocene, with frequent geological disasters, such as earthquakes and volcanic activity; the northeastern part of the South China Sea is connected with the East China Sea through the Taiwan Strait; while the eastern part runs-through with the vast Pacific Ocean through the Luzon Strait, the south-west side is linked with the Indian Ocean. The South China Sea is not only rich in oil and gas and biological resources, but also have seafloor hydrothermal activity and large-scale hydrothermal sulfides and other mineral resources, but also an ideal place to study plate tectonics, the Kuroshio Current · 126 ·
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(B) The Significance of the Tethys in the South China Sea to the Distribution of Large Oil and Gas Fields China’s future strategy of marine oil and gas resources faces the restructuring from north to south, from shallow to deep, the central work region shifting from the Bohai Sea to the South China Sea, from sporadic small oil and gas fields to large oil and gas fields, which is a fundamental direction of marine oil and gas work in the future. The entire South China Sea oil and gas resources are estimated to 30 billion to 50 billion t of oil equivalent, while China’s current production in the South China Sea is only 20,000 t/a, with a great potential [45]. Tethys tectonic domain is another global tectonic domain apart from Gondwana tectonic domain, Eurasia structure domain, the Pacific tectonic domain. This large structural zone bestrides Europe, Asia, Africa, South America and North America, and has a huge significance in the study the global geological evolution history; and its huge reserves of oil and gas resources has also attracted great concern of petroleum geologists and industrialists. There are a total of more than 80 sedimentary basins in the Tethys tectonic domain, with 2/3 of global conventional oil and gas reserves. Among which the east oil field itself possesses more than 1/3 of oil and gas proved reserves in the world, being the world’s largest oil and gas accumulation zones in the Tethys tectonic belt. The Tethys domain in China is mainly distributed in the northwest region, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and the South China Sea. Huge oil and gas fields were found in Tethyan domain of the northwest region, such as the Puguang gas field. Because the South China Sea region is covered by the sea water, the 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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research, research of bottom current of Antarctic, the Western Pacific Warm Pool and the Western Pacific border flow, and a key region of marine geology, marine biology and physical oceanography research. The studies of the basic elements and the main characteristics in important marine area and the key marine latitude cross-section have become the focus of attention in international scientific forefront, which also have a bearing on national maritime rights and interests, environmental security and resource protection and utilization. It is necessary to use long-term, accurate basic elements of marine observational data, analyze and study large-scale dynamic change and its impacts, which are also key problems to be solved in response to marine environment changes and marine resources utilizations. With the construction of three-dimensional observation system in deep-sea of the South China Sea; and gradual development of the long-term observation of crust structures and seismic activity in the South China Sea, the long-term dynamic observation and the study of the Cold Spring and deep water oil and gas in the South China Sea, the study of the relationship among sedimentation environment of the bottom current and the seabed topography in continental slope of the South China Sea, the internal waves and circulation change of the South China Sea and marine biodiversity and ecosystems and the carbon cycle research, deepening the awareness of the environmental change and resource situation of the South China Sea.
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conventional geological detection means can not achieve the objectives in the seabed; so since a few years ago, scholars have been debating whether or not the Tethys domain exists in the South China Sea. With the advances in marine technology, as well as increased attention on the South China Sea region, the problem of the existence of the Tethys domain in the South China Sea focus in: when the fracture zone of the Red River entered into the South China Sea, to which direction it extends, the east or the south? If the Tethys domain exists in continental slope-lower slope of the northern South China Sea, it means that there will be huge reserves of oil and gas resources of the Mesozoic. The northern South China Sea has very large area, and has a similar shape with the Persian Gulf. If the Tethys tectonic belt extends there, it will bring about a new oil exploration area—the Mesozoic marine carbonate oil and gas, which will greatly alleviate the tremendous pressure of China’s oil consumption. Through the geophysical—structural studies of the northern slope—lower slope in the South China Sea, the basic gravitational, magnetic and thermal anomalies study is implemented, and a framework of continental slope pattern in the northern South China Sea is delineated, with a understanding of the fracture zone and its evolution and development mechanisms and study of characteristics of the suture zone. The research of the Tethys domain in the South China Sea was carried out, by using deep reflection seism-Ocean Bottom Seismometer (OBS), to precisely position the suture position, search for Tethys sedimentary strata on both sides of the suture to study sedimentary strata, including the understanding of organic matter of the South China Sea sediment types. The study includes the oil and gas reserves of the Tethys domain in the South China Sea, marine carbonate sediment thickness in Mesozoic, distribution and continuity, analysis of the size and continuity of the oil reservoir, as well as the basic features of the covers. (C) Prospective Study of Ore-forming System of Deep-sea Metallic Mineral Resources with Hydrothermal Sulfide as the Principal Candidate The existence of deep-sea hydrothermal sulphides, polymetallic nodules and cobalt-rich crusts resources have met the strategic needs of state’s marine mineral resources, and made the country achieve the ultimate goal of the development and application of marine mineral resources, therefore, it is necessary to solve the existing constraints of major scientific and technological problems in the exploration, development and application of deep-sea metallic mineral resources. Despite China and foreign countries have made a series of achievements in the research of deep-sea mineral resources, which promoted the exploration and development process of deep-sea mineral resources, but there is a long journey to go for human beings in the comprehensive master, development and utilization of deep-sea metallic mineral resources. For example, it is not exactly clear the volume of resources of deep-sea hydrothermal sulphides and cobalt-rich crusts, the characteristics and laws of their distribution, and major forming process of deep-sea hydrothermal sulphides and cobalt-rich crusts. · 128 ·
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(D) The Structure, Environment Response and Resource Effects of Geological Evolution in East Asia in the Cenozoic in Southern South China Sea Since the Late Mesozoic, the expansion of the South China Sea, Philippine Sea, the Sea of Japan and other East Asian Marginal Seas and India–QinghaiTibet collision has led to drastic changes in the pattern of geological plate tectonics in mainland of East Asia, major combination changes happened in the continent and oceanic plate, and formed the Pacific West border flow and the East Asian monsoon. The South China Sea is located in the western Pacific subduction zones and the convergence of India–Qinghai-Tibet collision zone, strongly influenced by the two major tectonic events, continent rifting has taken place in South China, as well as seafloor spreading, subduction strikeslip movement and collision events, a huge change is also followed in the depositional environment. This series of tectonic events have provided a broad space for the deposition, power-supply for abundant oil and gas formation and preservation in the South China Sea oil and gas basin. Although the structural changes in East Asia have attracted the global attention of many scholars, but the breeding and formation mechanism in the South China Sea is not clear, and the current theory of plate tectonics cannot be reasonably explained, there are still a large number of academic disputes. To resolve these disputes, an in-depth understanding of geological structure and evolution of the South China Sea is needed. Among them, the Nansha District has experienced long-distance separation from the mainland of southern China and Kalimantan subduction, collision, which converge records of the evolution of the South China Sea, further understanding of its geological features is important in revealing the causes of the South China Sea formation. Since the Late Mesozoic, the Nansha Islands sea area has also experienced a large-scale migration and deformation of structural transformation, from the collision of continental margin into the continental margin rifting, and then into a collision of the continental margin, forming a large sedimentary basin. The Nansha Islands sea area has received clastic sedimentations from the Asian continent and the island of Kalimantan, and biological self-situ deposition, 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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By solving the evolvement and ore-forming system of deep-sea metallic mineral resources with hydrothermal sulfide as the principal candidate, the inherent relationship between the formation and evolution of the lithosphere on the seabed and the seabed forming function can be understood, including the distribution of seafloor hydrothermal sulfide resources, internal links and resource potential, formation mechanism of seafloor hydrothermal sulfide, environmental records and the issue of forming contrasts, the simulation experiment of resource formation and monitoring of seafloor hydrothermal sulfide resources, the role and function of the formation of the seafloor hydrothermal sulfide in the Earth system, which will contribute to a better understanding of the Earth’s deep-sea environment, as well as magma, fluids, the origin of life, the promotion of survey research of seafloor metallic mineral resources.
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having very rich oil and gas resource potential, formed a large number of oil and gas fields of biological reefs, with an expected oil and gas reserves of 20 billion–40 billion t of oil equivalent [44]. At present, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam and other countries in eastern and southern edge of the Nansha Islands have discovered many world-class oil and gas fields, like Nido, Pag-Asa and Malampaya. There is smaller extent of structural damage during the late period of major changes in tectonic framework in Nansha hinterland, preserving a more complete record of the evolution; data shows that large-scale reef layer and construction are well-preserved, with enormous potential in searching for oil and gas fields of organic reefs. Neighboring countries have a lower level of exploration research in this field. The carry-out of the research will help to reveal history and the driving force of structure change in the South China Sea and the East Asian and the interaction mechanism between continental and oceanic systems of the Earth. Large-scale oil and gas exploration and development in Nansha area was carried out by countries around the Nansha Islands, with a current annual output of 50 million–70 million t [45]. Hydrate has also been found in the southeastern part of the Nansha District in recent years, and it is expected that the hydrate reservoir is much larger than conventional oil and gas. While in seizing a large number of resources in the Nansha Islands, neighboring countries in the Nansha area have paid great attention in the research of the Nansha area. In the current shortage of energy supply in China, and neighboring countries encroaching the territories and resources of the Nansha Islands, it has huge theoretical and practical significance to strengthen the research of Nansha District and reveal the evolution of sea and land and resource effects in the East Asia.
4.5 Key Scientific and Technical Problems in Sustainable Development of Coastal Areas 4.5.1 Key Scientific and Technical Problems in Sustainable Development of Coastal Areas in the World (A) Study of Coastal Ecosystems The coastal zone is taken as a whole system of sea–land–human interaction; the development of coastal ecosystem research has led the coastal areas study to a forefront of the field. The research of the changes in coastal ecosystems requires an integrated multi-disciplinary and cross-cutting research, a combination of science and technology which bring along the all-round development of coastal scientific research and technological development. Key scientific problems in the sustainable development of coastal areas of · 130 ·
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(B) Disaster Research in Coastal Area and Environmental Protection Coastal area is a disaster-prone area, also an environmentally fragile area, together with the high density of human activities in the coastal zone, the disaster prevention in coastal zone and environmental protection have become an eternal topic of human and nature struggle. The mechanism of simultaneous occurrence of multi-hazards is a subject worthing an in-depth study: 1) study on the mechanism of the occurrence and development of the tsunami; 2) mechanism of chain occurring of a variety of disasters; 3) construction of comprehensive warning system for disaster forecasting; 4) environmental impact evaluation of leves, seawalls, breakwaters and other coastal engineering; 5) potential mechanism, effects and impact studies of waste dumping or deep-sea structures; 6) the water treatment technology of effective eradication of invasive organisms in ballast tank water; 7) the impact of the coastal sand mining, aquaculture, tourism on the coast ecological environment. (C) Integrated Coastal Zone Management In the international society, emphasis is paid on a comprehensive scientific management of coastal resources basins on the ecosystem, through ecosystem management of coastal zones, scientific and effective protection, restoration and management of coastal zone resources and improvement of the predictive power of coastal ecosystems management can be carried out. Main objectives of integrated coastal zone management are: maintain keeping the high quality of the coastal environment, the protection of species diversity, the identification and protection of key habitats, enhancement of key ecological processes, pollution control, identification of lands for development, prevention of natural disasters, restoration of damaged ecosystem and encouragement of participation and provision of planning and development guidance. Main scientific questions toward the above-mentioned objectives are: 1) the implementation of scientific research on coastal management that combinning the ecological system protection to social needs and ecological constraints; 2) benefit analysis of coastal zone management; 3) efficient fisheries 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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today and the future include: 1) the natural variability of coastal ecosystems and the measurement and description of human impact changes; 2) interdisciplinary research in fragile regions or systems such as mangroves, coral reefs, salt marsh, seagrass meadows, seaweed beds, as well as estuary; 3) the impact prediction and evaluation research of global change (temperature rise, sea-level rise, etc.) on the coastal ecosystems; 4) the selection of ecosystem observation elements and studies on the substitution of time series data; 5) cost-benefit analysis upon the society and economy depending on the ecosystem in the coastal zone; 6) the impact of human society, economic and biological activities on the species diversity in coastal zone ecosystems; 7) scientific research of effective disaster alleviation of impacts of extreme events on coastal ecosystems; 8) forecasting the impact of storm surges on coastal ecosystems.
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management system; 4) the applied research of coast geographic information system in integrated coastal zone management.
4.5.2 Main Issues Restricting the Sustainable Development of Coastal Zone China’s coastal zone is located between the eastern part of the Asian continent and western Pacific marginal sea with mainland coastline of 18,000 km, and the coastline length is about 32,000 km if the 6,500 islands are included. Chinese coastal regions have high degrees of urbanization, densely populated with developed economy, account for 13% of coastal economic belt of the land territory, carry about 40% of the national population, creat about 60% of the national economic output. The rapid development of the coastal economy greatly depends on the rich natural resources of the coastal zones and good ecological environment. On the other sides, due to increasingly frequent and stronger human activities along the coast, such as land reclamation, port construction, bridges and road building, dams and reservoir building in the upper reaches of the estuary, river closures and diversions, industry and civil sewage disposal, pesticides, chemical fertilizers and other non-point source pollution and fishing and other aquaculture activities, have made the coastal zone under heavy environmental pressure, therefore, it is imperative to carry out in-depth study of coastal ecosystems and integrated management. At present, China’s marine economy has entered into a period of rapid development, to meet the needs of this development, the next few decades will be a period of rapid accumulation of urban population and rapid economic development in China’s coastal areas. With reference to the international forefront research of coastal zones, China’s coastal economic and social sustainable development of coastal zones in China will be carried out. (A) Sustainable Development and Utilization of Coastal Zone Resources China is a developing country, and have many problems needed to be further resolved in the development and utilization of coastal resources and environmental protection, which mainly include: 1) the conflicts between overall lack of the development and utilization of resources and some of excessive development and utilization of resources; 2) the conflicts between insufficient construction in coastal zone and some construction projects lacking of scientific guidance; 3) the conflicts between partial improvement in coastal environment and overall worsening environment; 4) the conflicts between excessive number of management entities in coastal zone and low levels of management. Therefore, the research of coastal zone should be carried out according to the above-mentioned conflicts in the development and utilization of coastal zone, and carry out scientific research and technological development according to those conflicts. At the same time, it is necessary to closely focus on the development of coastal zone resources, energy development, industrial development, to carry out technical research and development of key industries, · 132 ·
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(B) Integrated Prevention and Prediction and Early-warning Research of Coastal Disasters China’s coastal zones face more prominent disaster risks than in other regions, on one hand, by increasing community awareness of disaster prevention and mitigation, and improving the social security and risk management system, to strengthen the ability of responding to major events as storm disasters, saltwater intrusion, sea level elevation and pollution in Chinese coastal zones; on the other hand, by relying on scientific technology to respond to disaster prevention and mitigation, through the knowledgs of the development mechanism of a variety of coastal disasters, the disaster prevention and prediction and early-warning systems will be established. Coastal scientific research and technological development should serve for the disaster prevention of coastal zone. (C) Integrated Management Study of Coastal Zone Integrated management level of coastal zone is directly related to the current and future health and sustainable development of coastal zones, the application of scientific research to the integrated management in coastal zone is one of the focuses. Closely focusing on the perfecting mechanism of coastal zone management system, completting comprehensive coastal zone regulations of China, so as to establish coastal zone management system with efficient administration based on national coastal zone development planning and laws. The development of coastal zone information integration technology and information technology, strengthen the application of advanced information technology in integrated coastal zone management; strengthen the close integration of social and natural sciences, and application of the social scientific knowledge (for example, the concept of ecological economy) in the integrated management of coastal zone.
4.6 Development and Utilization of Other Marine Resources 4.6.1 Seawater Resources and Its Chemical Development and Utilization Desalination refers to the acquirement technologies and processes of fresh water from sea water. According to the statistics of International Desalination Association, at present, a total of 133 countries around the world have applied 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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such as desalination technology, key technology of seawater chemical industry, new energy development technology research in coastal zone. It is necessary to depend on the scientific breakthroughs to promote the development of industries and the sustainable development of coastal zones.
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the seawater desalination system and constructed 15,000 desalination plants, the production has reached to about 35 million m3, which has solved the water problem for more than a hundred million people with an annual growth rate of 10% to 30%. The desalinated water is not only for civilian use, public water supply and irrigation, but also for general industrial water supply. At the same time, with good water quality of desalinated water, it can also serve as the raw water of ultra-pure water in high-tech semiconductor plant. Desalination has become or is planning to become an important component of water resources in Japan, the United States, Israel, Singapore, Spain and the Caribbean island countries. The international market of desalination is mainly in the Middle East and Mediterranean countries, and many potential users of desalination in South Asia, Central Asia and Africa. In the manufacturing countries of desalination plants, the United States and Japan accounted for approximately 30% of the market share. South Korea started in the early 80’s of the 20th century, and took export opportunities of a number of sets of distillation desalination device in the Middle East. In the world, more than 40 countries and regions have carried out the work of sea water desalination. About 25% of industrial cooling water is directly taken from the sea in U.S., with an annual consumption of about one hundred billion m3; in Europe, the United Kingdom, France, the Netherlands, Italy and other countries, the direct use of sea water is up to more than 250 billion m3 a year; in Asia, 60% of the total volume of Japan’s industrial cooling water is taken from sea water, up to 300 billion m3 per year. The use of sea water resources mainly includes salt making from sea water, sea water and potassium, bromine, magnesium from brine and other chemicals. Sea salt making from sea water is one of the traditional industries, has had a history of 5,000 years. For a long period, the focus of the use of chemical resources of sea water by mankind concentrates in the sea salt making from sea water, whereas the development of the extract of the other chemical elements was given less emphasis. (A) Main Problems in the Use of Sea Water Resources of China Although the use of sea water in China started late, it is one of the few countries that have mastered advanced technology of desalination in the world, but there are problems such as small scale, slow development, and uncompetitive market. It mainly shows in the following areas: First, the slow development of sea water use. Compared with developed countries, there is a large gap. The daily production of desalinated water in China accounts for only about 1‰ of the world production; the amount of sea water used for cooling water accounts for only about 6% of the world; a larger gap exists in the added value, variety and size of comprehensive utilization of marine chemistry resources between that of foreign countries. Second, the cost of desalination is still relatively high. The cost of desalination has dropped to the current 5 Yuan, but compared to the low water prices in most coastal cities, it is still high, which is the most direct and most · 134 ·
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(B) Science and Technology Issues of the Use of Sea Water Resources in China in Urgent Need of Solution Through the integrated development of seawater desalination combination technology with high energy efficiency, national industrialization of seawater desalination and comprehensive utilization can be achieved, by reducing the cost of desalination, and the basic realization of the similar price with tap water and become an important and reliable sources of fresh water in the region with a shortage of water resources; to optimize the integration of high-tech desalination, to develop new membrane materials with independent intellectual property rights, research and development of an integrated method for the efficient use of sea water desalination and chemical integration techniques; fining chemical resources of sea water, high value and hazard-free production, the development of the sea water (including solar salt concentration and the bitter brine after desalination of sea water, etc.) production technology of chemical resources like high-purity magnesium compounds and chlorine-free potash fertilizer, enhancing the capacity of comprehensive utilization of sea water resources, accessing a series of high value-added products, building new chemical industry structure of sea water in China. Take the side product of 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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important factor constraining the development of desalination. Generally speaking, the size of desalination industry is insufficient and a vicious circle is formed with the relatively high cost of desalination of sea water. Third, laws and regulations are inadequate. People do not take advantage of sea water application, and there is no binding legislation. The reasons for these problems are: 1) insufficient understanding of the importance of seawater use. Much attention is paid to the land and less care to the sea, and the sea is not looked at as water resources, and an important measure to optimize the coastal water structure; subjectively lack of the enthusiasm of access to sea water; insufficient publicity of cost-effectiveness and insufficient knowledge of sea water use. 2) The lack of overall planning and macro-guidance. 3) the lack of policies and regulations as incentives to encourage sea water use, such as the lack of public support and encourage policies and measures as tap water and conservancy water projects, and the desalination of sea water in strict accordance with cost accounting impacted the development enthusiasm of desalination of local enterprises; lack of the rigid fixed or statutory requirements of major user of seawater in coastal regions, making sea water utilization depending on market behavior at the beginning affeated seriously thereby constraining the development of the industry. 4) insufficient capital investment, especially in the industrial area, insufficient modeling, the lack of continues innovation technology supporting, localization rate needs to be improved. 5) imperfect market mechanisms of development and utilization of China’s sea water resources, leading to the deviation of price and value, which made people consider as high price of desalination water. To some extent, seawater desalination is not given great importance by the society, and made itself lack of market competitiveness.
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salt making from sea water, the bittern, as an example, according to statistics, there are 15 million m3 bittern available in China every year, of which 400,000 t potassium content (in KCl), 40,000 t bromide, magnesium (in MgCl 2) of 4,000,000 t, with a total value of 4 billion Yuan. However, due to technical, economic reasons, the utilization of bittern in China is less than 20%, which not only caused a serious waste of resources, and because of the long-term uneven chemical extraction of sea water resources, the marine ecosystems in coastal waters will be threatened.
4.6.2 The Development and Utilization of Marine Renewable Energy In the increasingly severe situation of the gradual depletion of fossil fuels and pollution on the land, some of the world’s major maritime countries have turned to the oceans. They have increased investments, facilitated and accelerated the pace of human development and utilization of marine energy, found out the resource situations, established development plans, organized experiments of technological projects and practical techniques and devoted a great deal of manpower and material resources. Development and utilization of new marine energy: mainly refers to the renewable natural energy resources contained in the ocean, such as tidal energy, wave energy, ocean current energy (trend energy), ocean thermal energy and ocean salinity energy. In a broader term, marine energy includes the wind energy over the ocean, solar energy on the ocean’s surface, and marine biomass energy. The ocean is a huge field of energy conversion; data shows that the renewable ocean energy available for use is more than 7 billion kW, being tenfold of the power generation capacity in the world. According to preliminary statistics, the total reserves of various types of ocean energy and energy available for development in China are shown in the Table 4.1. Table 4.1 Various types of ocean energy and energy available for development in China Global reserves/100 million kW
Energy available for development in China /100 million kW
Tidal energy
17
1.1
Wave energy
20
0.23
Ocean thermal energy
100
1.5
Ocean salinity energy
20
1.1
Types of ocean energy
Ocean current energy
0.3
0
Chemistry energy
0.18
0
(Source: Xiaoying Li, Shoulun Chen, Jian Lou, www.66wen.com, November, 2006) [56]
With the gradual intensification of worldwide energy crisis and environmental degradation, it is urgent to find a variety of alternative green energy. At present, only the tidal power generation technology is quite mature, · 136 ·
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Fig. 4.3 The rst commercial wave power generation equipment in the world (Source: http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/ceuk/chn/sfhd/t412052.htm) [57]
4.6.3 The Development and Utilization of Marine Space Resources Marine space is the basis of the existence and development of human beings and an important carrier. The marine space resources, consisting of sea surface, the middle sea and seabed, will bring new hopes for the longterm survival and sustainable development of mankind. The ocean has already become an important vehicle for human beings; the modern logistics, without the construction of roads, has made the five separated continents unite as a whole, through the ship transport. While harbor is a place for anchor and transit of transportation ships and loading and unloading goods, as well as the main places for people to develop and utilize the ocean space. The construction of channel tunnel, artificial island at sea, sea-crossing bridge, sea airports and cities are all the masterpieces in the utilization and development of ocean space. Coastal tourism is based on the coastal and island landscape, “sun, sand and sea water”, as well as rich and colorful history and culture of the sea, relying on the coastal tourist city, with prominent marine features, a number of coastal tourist areas, lines and points with coastal characteristics have been developed, such as national and provincial tourism resorts like Yalong Bay in Sanya, Hainan Province, Qingdao Shilaoren, Dalian Jinshitan and Beihai Silver Beach, which developed the seaside leisure products. In addition, a large number of entertainments, fitness and cultural facilities also came into being in various 4 Major Scientific Problems and Technologies in Key Research Areas
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and other forms of ocean energy applications are still at the exploratory stage. For example, British scientists have invented a unique device to generate electricity by using the up and down of sea waves (Fig. 4.3).
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areas, all kinds of popular international maritime entertainment projects were introduced into China, for example, large luxury cruises, diving, surfing, windsurfing, sailing and yachts; new three-dimensional pattern, on sea surface, in middle sea and seabed, has been developed in marine tourism, and coastal tourism has become a rapidly developing industry sector in coastal areas, full of vitality, with its eye-catching high-speed, it has become a pillar of the marine industry. However, the rational use of marine space is built on the basis of scientific proof, in accordance with different sea water areas and conditions, function zones should be scientifically and reasonably carried out. At the same time, the ocean is different from the land, regardless of the environment or in the ecological context, it has complexity and specificity. During the human activities in the development and utilization of ocean space resources, in the coastal waters and the ocean surface, it is necessary to resist the ever-changing weather conditions and the complexity of ocean water movements; in the deep ocean, it is necessary to adapt to the darkness, high pressure, low temperature, oxygendeficient environment; the seawater corrosion and the devastating sea ice have brought forward stringent requirements for the engineering equipment and materials, structures and construction processes. Therefore, the development and utilization of marine space resources is a project with high investment, high degree difficulty and high risk. Marine resources and assets are the material foundation for the development of marine industry, and its loss would undermine the foundation of the development of marine industry, and may even threaten the stable course of the national economy.
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Based on the detailed analysis on the needs of national security and economic and social development for marine science and technology, the analysis on the status quo and development trend of marine science and technology in China or in foreign countries, and the summary of the major scientific and technological issues in China, we put forward a guiding ideology for Chinese marine science and technology development, the overall objective to 2050, the goals to 2020 and 2030, and the roadmap of development in marine science and technology.
5.1 Constitution of the Roadmap of Development in Chinses Marine Science and Technology to 2050 5.1.1 The Guiding Ideology and Strategic Choices (A) The Guiding Ideology The development of Chinese marine science and technology must be guided in the scientific concept of development and to co-consider the comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable development of national economy, society and technology; focuses on the needs of national economic, social development, marine rights for marine science and technology, and implements the national guideline to science and technology, i.e., “Self-innovation, priority setting, supported development and lead the future”. And take “protect the rights and interests, increase the wealth, maintain the health, apply safely and develop rapidly” as the guideline of Chinese marine science and technology development from the early stage to the middle period of this century (Fig. 5.1). We should aim at the national needs at different stages, break through the shackles of the traditional framework, focus on the major marine science and technology issues of China and in the world in current and in the future period
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5
The Roadmap of Development in Chinese Marine Science & Technology to 2050
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of time, adhere to the principle of “Combination of major national needs and cutting-edge of scientific development, basic theoretical research and technical capacity-building, and forward-looking layout and scientific feasibility”, expect and forecast the development of marine science and technology in the future 40 years, put forward the major scientific and technological problems and their solutions, and realize the strategic objectives and development route of Chinese marine science and technology to 2020, 2030 and 2050. Human economy and society —the scientific development
In harmony
The unification of
human and ocean
Saving resources Rational development
Environment protection Seeking advantages and avoiding disadvantages
Marine resources
Marine environment
—sustainable use
—health and safety
Fig. 5.1 Unit the human and sea and develop scientically
(B) Strategic Choice Demand-oriented problem solving: Focusing on the urgent needs of national security and economic and social development for marine science and technology, we must select scientifically important issues and technology to achieve major success. Taking the key scientific issues and technology influencing Chinese marine economic and social sustainable development as the breakthrough point, implement marine scientific and technological actions to shake off the dependence on foreign marine science and technology as soon as possible, and form the independent intellectual property rights system of marine science and technology to effectively support the sustained and rapid development of marine industry. Leading in promising fields: In the past decades, China has formed its own advantages in some areas and branches in marine scientific research and technological development. In the next few decades, we must rely on and strengthen these advantages to become the leading force of the world’s marine scientific and technological development in related fields, and further gather strength for the internationalization of marine science and technology. People-centered team building: It is important for Chinese future marine science and technology development towards the intended target of forging a marine scientific research, technological development and ocean management team, which plays an important role in the national economic construction and social development. We must begin the construction of such a team with long· 140 ·
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5.1.2 Optimization Strategy for the Scientific Issues of Chinese Marine Science and Technology To predict, plan and design the long-term development objective of marine science and technology to 2050, we shall optimize important and critical scientific and technological issues for study according to the actuality of Chinese marine science and technology. We determine the optimal field and topic of science and technology according to the national needs, the forefront of technology and the basis of the existing research and development. Fig. 5.2 shows a three-dimensional map of selecting fields and the issues in optimization, in which the red cells is the scientific issues with most priority to be resolved. National demands
Existing achievements
Science frontier
Strategy to determine priority
Fig. 5.2 Optimization strategy for scientic issues
In line with these principles, we selected four preferred fields, marine environment security, marine ecosystems security, development and utilization of marine bio-resources, and marine oil, gas and mineral resources. From an economic development perspective, the importance of scientific issues can be put in the order as follows: the development of biological resources; oil, gas and mineral resources development; freshwater and chemical resources development; and the development of renewable energy such as wind, waves, tide and flow. From the perspective of society needs: human health and well5 The Roadmap of Development in Chinese Marine Science & Technology to 2050
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term planning. Long-term planning and overall arrangement: The development of Chinese marine science and technology should be with a view to the needs of national socioeconomic and coast defense security in the next few decades, and acclimate to the international marine scientific and technological development trend. We should predict the development of marine science and technology in China from a long-term scale and plan its development based on the accurate prediction. Particularly, we should make the forward-looking layout for some fields that have most developmental potential.
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being, safety of marine environment, marine ecology and food safety, maritime shipping and security, monitoring and restoration of ocean circulation, coastal zone protection and utilization, marine disaster monitoring and mitigation, and the divisions and regulation of functional zones, etc. (Fig. 5.3). Economic development e l ens tro con ter s t efi isas e ed f co ben zon n o i e r d y a n tal t i a s m r arin a f g cu fm no f co nin o o Se i o o t z n ty iga tio tion nal uri mit iza ety ora ctio util sec and saf est r d n d Fun n o d n od a ti n a o c a i n f y ing d tio fet nd be ing Pre tec tor ment e sa sa elli n m w Pro te d Mo iron aritim an sys Bio M th env Wi eco log eal e h nd n ica n ri ,w Ma ma l re ave Hu so , tid u al, rce flo wa sr Oil ene ,g wa as ble an dg ene as rgy hy Mi dra ne Fre te ral sh res wa ou ter rce an dc he mi ca Sp l re ac er so es urc ou es rce al ast
def
Scientific issues
The origin of life and evolution of marine organisms
Ecological structure and function and their responses to global changes
The impact of environmental characteristics and variability on organisms and human society
The total amount and distribution of global marine resources
The status and roles of oceans in the global system
Social demands
Fig. 5.3 Three-dimensional diagram of the relationship between marine scientic and technologic issues
5.2 The Goals of Chinese Marine Science and Technology Development to 2050 5.2.1 The Overall Objective China’s ability and success in marine science and technology should achieve the level of advanced countries in the world, serving for building China into a marine powerful country, as well as contributing significantly to the sustainable use of the world’s marine resources and marine health and safety. The marine environment and security: Establish an advantage in the study on the interaction between land and sea and air circulation in the triangular area of the western Pacific–the eastern Indian Ocean–the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, and China’s coastal circulation; establish regional advantages of in situ observations and numerical simulation in the relevant area; and establish the Chinese international leading role in these two fields. Marine ecosystems and ecological security: To enhance the capability · 142 ·
Marine Science & Technology in China: A Roadmap to 2050
5.2.2 Target of Different Phases By 2020 (short-term): important and rapid development stage of marine science and technology. The goal is to establish regional oceanography with Chinese local characteristics and deeply investigate marine fauna and the variation of biological diversity, circulation structure, evolution of continental margin, marine biogeochemistry, and so on. Thus, we can make a basic and forwardlooking theoretical norm for the sustainable use of marine resources and the research on the impact of ocean on the global change and Chinese climate. 1) Focus on the innovation and breakthrough of marine biotechnology, marine monitoring technology, and the development and utilization technology of marine resources. Support the sustainable and stable development of mariculture with the development of technology. Gradually recover the offshore fisheries resources, and improve the capacity of deep-sea fishing and aquaculture processing significantly. 2) Enhance the research and monitoring on marine ecosystems, and effectively curb the expansion of marine pollution. Scientifically plan and manage the coastal resources, and elevate the accuracy and precision in prediction of coastal environment factors and disasters. During this period, the integrated ocean observation capability will be significantly improved, and coastal studies will be further strengthened to recognize the basic situation of 5 The Roadmap of Development in Chinese Marine Science & Technology to 2050
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of coastal ecosystems observation and deep-sea exploration, increase the awareness of major marine lives and ecological processes, and improve the understanding and prediction capabilities for marine ecological disasters so as to provide scientific basis for constracting a sustainable ecosystem-based marine management and exploitation system, ensuring stable and continuous production of sea food, and clean, healthy and stable marine environment, and establishing a guaranteed marine ecological security system. Marine bio-resources: Aiming at the strategic objectives of sustainable development and utilization of China’s resources and major technological needs for energy-saving and emission reduction, enhance the development and utilization efficient of marine bio-resources, and deeply research and develop the marine fisheries resources, marine bio-based chemical resources, marine microorganism resources, and marine organism genetic resources to realize the innovation and breakthrough in marine biotechnology and marine resources R&D, meet the demand of China’s economic and social development, and promote sustainable development of China’s marine bio-resources. Marine oil, gas and mineral resources: Enhance the exploration and resource evaluation capacity of marine oil, gas and mineral resources, deepen the awareness of the formation process of marine oil and gas and abyssal mineral, and gain knowledge of marine oil and gas and mineral resources distribution to provide scientific guidance for the exploration, development and utilization.
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China’s blue territory, and launch the digital construction of coastal ecosystems. 3) Develop ocean remote sensing technology, make observation timely on marine environment elements, and provide an effective parameter for marine management need based on the ecosystem level; increase substantially the design and construction capacity of modern marine vessel and marine construction, and build a series of human occupied vehicle (HOV) in 2,000– 6,000 m in China, contemporary integrated scientific research vessel and aircraft carrier to provide technical support for deep-sea exploration. 4) Gain breakthrough in the bottleneck of deep-sea oil and gas exploration capacity and strengthen the comprehensive geological survey of ocean; put forward the new prospective region and layer of oil and gas and actively carry out preliminary exploration of offshore gas hydrate; complete the conceptual design and demonstrated research of the development and utilization of marine renewable energy such as waves, tide, etc.. 2021–2030 (medium-term): continuous enhancing stage of marine science and technology. Implement the great-leap-forward development of marine reproduction and mariculture, pelagic fishing, high-value-adding use of aquatic products, marine genetic productions, and marine drug development technology to promote the growth of marine bio-economy. Enhance the technology of marine fine chemical industry and modern marine service industry, and change marine industrial structure. The development and application of the largescale desalination technology based on cost fitting, emission reduction, and energy conservation will effectively mitigate the pressure of scarce coastal freshwater. The construction of seabed stations, and the gradual mature of deep-sea resources exploration technology and the exploitation technology of seabed resources will make the discovery and exploitation of deep-sea oil and gas, marine deposits become a reality. Furthermore, we should develop the safe collection technology of gas hydrate and realize the commercial application. 1) Take the ocean, especially the western Pacific, Indian Ocean and China Sea as a whole system to research and make innovative results in the marine high-tech, resources, and the Earth system science fields. Develop the real-time three-dimensional monitoring technology of marine dynamic environment, the in situ rapid monitoring technology of marine ecological environment elements, and satellite remote sensing and aerial remote sensing technology, and construct the multi-platform, multi-tasking three-dimensional ocean monitoring (observing) system to significantly improve the independent innovation ability of the safety and security of marine environment; Try to put the self-designed and volume-produced real-time monitoring equipment of marine environment multi-elements into the international market. 2) Preliminarily achieve the digitalization of China’s seas to understand and manage the environment capacity for a more scientific allocation and regulation. Healthy and harmonious utilization of the coastal zone become realized through the application of bioremediation technologies, as well as the · 144 ·
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5.3 Depicting the Development Roadmap of Chinese Marine Science and Technology to 2050 The general idea of Chinese marine science and technology development is the sustainable use of marine resources, healthy development of environment, and harmonious progress of the society. By 2020, the marine science and technology will double the support to marine economy of China. We will exert the potential of resources such as marine organisms, energy, mineral resources, space, etc., to improve the observational capabilities, achieve networking and digitalization, develop high-tech of marine strategy, and make efforts to narrow down the technological gap from developed countries. By 2030, the scientific and technological objective is to provide a reliable material basis for the construction of a well-off society. We will develop energy saving and emission reduction in order to increase the total value of marine industry for 20% of GDP, develop numeric ocean and improve the prediction and early warning capabilities to establish the independent innovation system of marine high-tech. By 2050, we will establish our rising blue industry with optimized structure and advanced technology and realize sustainable use of marine resources, serving better the national interests, environmental safety, ecological harmony, and human health. It focuses on two areas of marine resources development and marine environment security protection, especially on the three major technologies (marine monitoring technology, marine biotechnology and technology of development and utilization of marine resources), and significantly enhance the Chinese marine research and application capability by scientific and technological innovation, resolve a number of important scientific issues, and make a number of breakthroughs in key technologies, making China as one of the world’s leading countries in overall level of marine science and technology, and realizing our ultimate goal of ranking at the top three in the world, as shown in Table 5.1.
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adoption of enhanced capability in prediction and early warning of ecological disasters. 2031–2050 (forward): comprehensive great-leap-forward stage of marine science and technology. Make major breakthroughs at important scientific issues and key technology to lead marine science and technology rapid progress. The level of Chinese marine technology reaches the top three in the world, serving for building China into a maritime power and contributing to the sustainable use of the world’s marine resources and the health and safety of ocean.
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Table 5.1 Objects of the new system of development in aerospace and ocean in China to 2050 Category
Marine investigation and application
Content
Around 2020
Around 2050
Area of marine exploration
Extend from West Pacic to Extend to entire Pacic East Indian Ocean, and two and Indian Ocean Polar regions
Exploration depth
Reach down to 7,000 m with Human Occupied Vehicle (HOV) And 11,000 m with Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV)
Human Occupied Vehicle Drill down to 2,000 m beneath down to 11,000 m Drill down to 1,000 m submarine oor beneath submarine oor
Environmental security
Realize dynamic environmental forecast in the coastal regions
Realize environmental dynamic forecast in key ocean zones and ocean shipping routes
Ecological security
Realize the prediction Realize real-time and early-warning observation on ecological of signicant marine key factors in coastal regions ecosystems changes
Digital marine
Digitize preliminarily the sea Construct and complete Finalize the digitization of territory and the exclusive preliminarily the global oceans China’s offshore economic zone digitization
Cover the whole global oceans
Establish independent and advantageous global marine security system
Establish an integrated management mode for sustainable marine ecosystems
Oil-gas and mineral resources
Investigate and locate the major promising ocean areas of mineralization
Exploit deep-sea oil and gas in large scale; and begin trial commercial production of gas hydrate and submarine ore deposits
Bio resource
Reach 60 M ton shery (including that of freshwater) production; exploit new marine bioresources and enhance value-adding to products
Increase the sheries production amount to 80 M ton, construct new marine bio-industry clusters with high value
Realize the modernization in sheries and marine bioindustry sectors
Marine chemical resource
Realize sea water desalination and mass production of major chemoresources
Solve the freshwater shortage in islands and the like, and realize the mass productions of the rare chemical resources including nuclear fuel
Solve freshwater supply shortage in nearshore regions, and produce chemicals from seawater in a rened, high-value added, and innocuous manner.
Control the ecosystem degeneration in coastal zones, and plan and manage scientically the resources in coastal zones
Realize the integration management of coastal zone in a scientic and sustainable developmental manner
Marine resource exploration and application
Sustainable Establish a system of development of diagnosing and evaluating coastal zones coastal ecosystems
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Around 2030
Reach 100 M ton annual oil and gas production in the East China Sea and the South China Sea; begin commercial exploitation of gas hydrate and submarine ore deposits
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Therefore, China needs to implement the roadmap of space science and technology development and marine technology development to 2050. The roadmap of development of marine science and technology to 2050: Focus on two major areas of developing and utilizing the marine resources and protecting the safety of marine environment. By focusing on the three major technologies of marine monitoring, marine biology, marine resources development and utilization, and on four important scientific directions of physical oceanography, marine geology, marine biology, and marine ecology, we must strive to solve a number of important scientific problems and make a number of breakthroughs. The plans are: Around 2020, we shall complete the marine science system in China seas and adjacent waters, establish three-dimensional monitoring system and numerical simulation systems in the coastal zones and the Western Pacific, make a number of breakthroughs in new marine technologies, such as the utilization of marine biological gene, artificial aquaculture, fishery conservation and fishing, refined processing of biological resources, water desalination, and the utilization of chemical resources. Furthermore, we shall develop undersea detection equipment and technologies and establish new methods for exploration of deep-sea oil, gas and mineral. Around 2030, we shall explain the status and role of oceans in the Earth system science and establish four-dimensional assimilation system for monitor and numerical simulation in key marine areas, break through in the fields of molecular design of species, immune control of diseases, creation of marine drugs, development of rare chemical resources in seawater, and the safe exploitation and transportation technology of deep-sea oil and gas, gas hydrates, and mineral resources. Around 2050, the level of marine science and technology will reach the top three in the world, and we will establish the integrated monitoring system on coastal dynamic environment and ecology, global ocean monitoring system, and numerical prediction system, achieve the pastoralized mariculture and efficient use of marine chemical resources, integrate entirely the green refinement in marine bio-industry with gene utilization technology, and form the equipment systems for large-scale deep-sea resources development to constantly and effectively support China as a marine power (Fig. 5.4).
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Significant breakthrough in important scientific issues and key technologies
Improve the marine scientific system in China and its adjacent sea areas
Interpret the status and roles of ocean in the Earth system science
Reach world’s advanced ranks in marine science and technology
Ranks among the world’s ocean powers
Establish stereoscopic monitoring system and numerical simulation system in coastal environment and the Western Pacific
Establish monitoring system in key sea areas and four-dimensional assimilation system by numerical simulation
Establish the integrated monitoring system of coastal environmental and ecological dynamics
Breakthrough in new technologies such as artificial breed-
Breakthrough in marine technologies such as molecular designs, disease and immune control, creation of marine drugs, development of rare marine chemical resources.
Realize marine aquaculture farming and ranching and the efficient utilization of marine resources
Rapid progress from advanced levels to the top in marine technology
Science
Technology ing, fishery conservation and
fishing, fine processing of biological resources, utilization of chemical materials in sea water
Develop undersea detection equipment and technology
Breakthrough in safe mining and transportation technologies for deep-sea oil and gas, gas hydrates and mineral resources
Establish new method of deep-sea oil, gas and mineral exploration
2008
The level of marine science and technology ranks the world’s top three
2020
Establish the global ocean monitoring system and numerical weather forecast system
Highly integrate green refining of marine bioindustry with gene utilization technology
Establish equipments’ system to exploit deep-sea resources on a large-scale
2030
Contribute to the sustainable utilization of resources, environmental health and safety, and harmony and progress of human society Developt solutions to a number of important scientific issues and break througy a number of key technologies to strongly support the national security, and the development and utilization of marine resources
2050
Fig. 5.4 The roadmap of development in marine science and technology in China to 2050
We should intensively consider the marine observation and capacitybuilding of digital because they relate to the development of other marine science and technology fields having strategy and commonness. At the ocean observations technology aspects, to serve a better society, with our general guideline of “find out real situation, know well adjacent seas, explore the poles and expand to the ocean and the whole world”, we shall carry out researches sequentially on data collection and assimilation, digital simulation, forecasting and early warning of weather and disaster. Carry out the following works before 2020: the development and manufacture of autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), ROV and HOV worked in 3,000–7,000 m, the design and build of the deep-sea workstation, self-building and assembling of environmental monitoring components, the construction of marine satellites, marine dynamic parameters satellite, integrated survey ship, aircraft carrier and so on. Before 2030, we should complete the following works: carrying out the construction of aircraft carriers and 11,000 m ROV, real-time collection and transmission of space-based, sea-based and bottom-based data, self-building of family environmental factors monitor, the operation of high-performance satellite group array, the construction of modern fleet and bases, as shown in Fig. 5.5.
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Ocean monitoring monitoring g and digitalization digittalization Data collection and assimilation, digital simulation, weather forecasting and disaster warning
Operation, and serve the community
3,000–7,000 M AUV, ROV, HOV
Establishment of mother ship and deep-sea bases, 11,000 M ROV
Construction of deep-sea workstation
Real-time collection and transmission of space-based, sea-based and ground-based data
Manufacture and assemble independently the environmental monitoring facilities
Independent manufacture of the detector on serial environmental factors
Ocean No. 1, 2, oceanic satellite of dynamic parameters
Operation of high-performance satellite array
Construction of comprehensive research vessel, and the aircraft carrier building
Establishment of modern fleets and construction of bases
yss es and abbys le ore the poles plo plo exp ean, ex the ocea rds th a wa w to t, , as co o rc illiarr with ou ion on,, faamilia attio t ga stig invessti t inv ete ple mple Co Com
digitalize the ocean
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Fig. 5.5 The roadmap of development in ocean observing and digital technology
For the realization of strategic goals depicted in the roadmap of Chinese marine science and technology to 2050, China must implement the expansion of ocean capacity to reverse the lag-behind situation as soon as possible, and strive to hold the initiative in increasingly fierce global competition of ocean. The researches will focus on: building a multi-dimensional real-time ocean observation and research networks including space-based observation of the sea, underwater fixed and mobile observation, workstation deep, ocean buoys and beacons, and marine submersible ship; constructing the sea, sky, and land integrated information integrative treatment systems including marine basic database, marine environment and dynamic process models, dynamic simulation, virtual reality and visualization platform; improving marine development and utilization capacity, including the development of marine resources, marine ecosystems management, marine navigation safety, marine operation environment in specific area, and marine disaster warning. Before 2020, the researches will focus on the South China Sea and gradually extends to all the territorial waters and the exclusive economic zone; to 2030, the focus is on Chinese maritime strategic access and gradually extends to the western Pacific and Indian Ocean. To 2050, the researches will cover the world’s high seas.
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5.4 The Roadmap of Development in Marine Environment Security 5.4.1 The Guiding Ideology The marine environment science research and its development should face the significant national demand and global hot scientific issues, take off from solving major and key problems of science and technology and theoretical issues, pool resources and co-ordinate financial resources to move forward steadily from near to far and gradually increase the protection capacity of marine environment safety in China.
5.4.2 The Overall Objective The overall objective is to establish the international advantage in the study of the interaction between land, sea and air circulation in the triangular area of the western Pacific–the eastern Indian Ocean–the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, and the regional advantages in in situ observations and numerical simulation in the relevant areas, to lead the research of ocean circulation exchange in the global and continental shelf region through investigating the regional flux, and establish the international leading position of China in the two fields.
5.4.3 The Targets of Different Phase To 2020 (short-term): Offshore: Develop offshore observation from climate-scale to weathertime scale, and carry out the associated numerical simulation and fourdimensional assimilation study. Deep ocean: Establish the marine observing system in the western Pacific and carry out numerical simulation studies, with research findings being on the international level. Through the studies on regional water exchange between Kuroshio and the circulation in shelf region, lead the international research of water exchange between oceanic circulation and that in shelf region. 2021–2030 (medium-term): Offshore: Upgrade the ocean observation into mesoscale, and effectively improve the numerical simulation and forecasting capability of marine mesoscale phenomenon to provide accurate data and forecast for the research in environmental dynamics. Deep ocean: The observation and numerical simulation studies were extended to the Pacific and the Indian Ocean basin to make research findings on the world’s leading level. 2031–2050 (long-term): Offshore: Build efficient three-dimensional ocean observing systems in China offshore, and effectively improve the capacity of environmental early warning and monitoring. Deep ocean: Ocean observing system will be extended to the world’s · 150 ·
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5.4.4 Approaches and Courses Support the scientific research and observation platform by increasing stable and sustained investment, and establish and maintain the stable research teams for numerical simulation and four-dimensional assimilation to steadily realize the above-mentioned goals. The country focuses on the needs of coastal economic and social sustainable development and carries out research on substance and energy transportation in coastal waters and estuary, as well as the surveys and studies the environmental protection in the exploration for deep-sea oil and gas before 2020. To 2030, China will develop the numerical simulation and assimilation system of coastal environment and ecology, carry out the marine environment assessment of large-scale marine space engineering, and develop coastal environmental management and decision supported system by 2050. Focusing on the needs of climate and marine environment, carry out land-sea-air coupled studies in key regions to 2020, and then study the climate change induced marine disasters and the control to 2030; conduct the test of human intervention on the marine effects for climate change to 2050. Demanded by the national security needs, we must raise the prediction capabilities for environmental monitoring in offshore and adjacent oceans to 2020, and start to enhance the advantage in global marine environment safety and security in 2030, and realize it in overall to 2050, as shown in Fig. 5.6.
National needs
Develop three-dimensional monitoring ability of marine environment in Chinese coastal waters and the Western Pacific–East India
Guide the global DOES through research on the interchange between the Kuroshio and shelf water
Scientific goals
Develop coupling studies of sea, land and air in Asia, Pacific and India, and establish disaster prevention and reduction system
Promote offshore monitoring into the synoptic scale
Build preponderant security and safeguard in key marine areas and shipping routs
Develop exchanged research between global oceanic and shelf investigate the interchange between circulation Establish Asia-India testing and simulation system, and understand marine long-term changes and sharp oscillation processes
Further promote the ocean observation into meso-scale
Establish preponderant capability of independent global marine environment security and safeguard
Develop Earth system research
Forecast long-term changes in marine environment
Establish integrated monitoring system of offshore environmental and ecological dynamics
System supports Establish three-dimensional monitoring and numerical simulation system in coastal environment and the Western Pacific
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Establish monitoring system in key sea areas and four-dimensional assimilation system
Establish global ocean monitoring system and numerical weather forecast system
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Fig. 5.6 The technological development roadmap in the eld of marine environment
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oceans. Furthermore, carry out the global research of marine environment changes and establish the important position of China in global marine changes research.
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5.5 The Development Roadmap in the Field of Marine Ecosystems Security 5.5.1 The Guiding Ideology Aiming at the needs of China’s development in different stages, focusing on the major marine ecological security issues in China and the world at present and in the future, under the principle of three combinations of: “vital national needs with cutting-edge scientific development, basic theoretical research with technical capacity-building and forward-looking planning with scientific feasibility”, the trend of science and technology development in marine ecosystems and ecological security in the next 40 years is prospected and forecasted to underline the major science and technology issues and the solutions strategies, and furthermore to clarify the roadmap and innovation target of Chinese marine ecological studies to 2020, 2030 and 2050.
5.5.2 The Overall Objective To enhance the capability of coastal ecosystems observation and deepsea exploration, increase the awareness of major marine lives and ecological processes, and improve the understanding and prediction capabilities for marine ecological disasters so as to provide scientific basis for a sustainable ecosystembased marine management and exploitation system, stable and continuous production of sea food, clean, healthy and stable marine environment, and the establishment of a guaranteed marine ecological security system.
5.5.3 The Targets at Different Phases To 2020 (short-term): Aiming at the important issues, such as coastal resources recession, eutrophication and its associated ecological issues, to conduct systematic researches into key process of coastal ecosystems under the coupling effects of global change and human activities, reveal the processes, mechanisms and the effects of coastal ecosystems dynamics, put forward corresponding countermeasures for environmental protection, and provide the scientific basis for sustainable development in Chinese coastal ecosystems. The main researches include: regional biological oceanography, marine biological provinces and the change of biodiversity, succession of marine ecosystems and marine environment, sustainable exploitation of marine resources etc.. On the other hand, China will strengthen the innovation in marine biotechnology and marine resources development and utilization to sustain stable development of mariculture, gradually recover the coastal fisheries resources, and significantly improve the capacity of deep-sea fishing and aquaculture processing, enhance the research and monitoring efforts on marine ecosystems, effectively curb the expansion of marine pollution, scientifically plan and manage the coastal resources, elevate the accuracy and precision in prediction of coastal · 152 ·
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5.5.4 Approaches and Courses a. Approaches Start the action plan of marine ecological security: set up a national marine ecological baseline section, survey marine biodiversity and research systematically on the key issues and processes of marine ecology security. Establish coastal ecosystems observation system: establish the coastal observation and information systems using satellites, buoys, offshore platforms and comprehensive research vessels to support research and applications in offshore ecological security. Establish detection technological system in deep and far ocean: establish deep ocean exploration and information technology systems using ocean-going research vessel, ROV, high-fidelity sampling equipment and simulation system to support the research and applications in deep ocean ecological security. Construct the innovative research team: strengthen personnel training at 5 The Roadmap of Development in Chinese Marine Science & Technology to 2050
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environment factors and disasters. During this period, the integrated ocean observation capability will be significantly improved, and coastal studies will be further strengthened to recognize the basic situation of China’s blue territory, and launch the digital construction of coastal ecosystems. 2020–2030 (medium-term): Comprehensive in situ monitoring techniques for marine environmental elements, real-time three-dimensional monitoring technology on ocean dynamic environment, and satellite remote sensing and aerial remote sensing technology will be employed to establish multi-platform, multi-task, threedimensional marine environment monitoring system at different levels, to significantly increase the security capacity of marine ecosystems in China’s coastal waters. Preliminarily achieve the digitalization of China’s seas to understand and manage the environment capacity for a more scientific allocation and regulation. Healthy and harmonious utilization of the coastal zone will be realized through the application of bioremediation technologies, as well as the adoption of enhanced capability in prediction and early warning of ecological disasters. To occupy a place in the international oceanographic research in deep-sea ecosystem with better understanding of key biological production process and the cycle of biogenic elements. 2030–2050 (long-term): Fully elucidate the changes of the structure and function of marine ecosystems in China’s coastal waters under the scheme of the global change and human activities, to make short-, medium- and long-term forecasting for biological resources fluctuation and ecosystem change; realize the scientific management of marine ecosystems and provide technological support for the steady growth of national marine aquatic production; through the in-depth study on deep-sea life origin and processes to exploit the deep-sea bioactive substances and functional genes resources, providing theoretical and technical support for sustainable use of resources in the deep ocean.
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all levels and make efforts to build 3–5 world-class innovative interdisciplinary teams with project-driving. Solve major scientific problems and provide theoretical and technical support for integrated management of coastal zone, and forecasting and dealing with major disaster. Build innovative platforms: collecting the national advantages to build 2–3 world-class innovation platforms in the fields of offshore resources and deep-sea environment and process; support research and demonstration in key directions. b. Processes Targeted on the goals of ecosystem-based management, rational exploitation of marine resources, and safeguarding the health of marine environment, the health diagnosis and evaluation of coastal ecosystems, deep and open ocean detection system, ecosystem dynamics modeling, and digitalization of Chinese coastal ecosystems will be pushed before 2020. Targeted on the goals of capability development in safeguarding ecological security and early-warning of ecological disasters, the construction of multitask, multi-platform, three-dimensional monitoring systems for forecasting and early warning of ecological disasters and ecosystem changes, three-dimensional coastal observation network (buoys, remote sensing, submarine standard cable connection, and the seabed observation) will be pushed before 2030. Targeted on the goal of “short-, medium- and long-term forecasts for ecosystem and biological resource changes, real-time observation and prediction of global ocean, and realization of ecosystem-based scientific management”, the platforms on offshore resources and deep and open ocean processes will be constructed before 2050, as shown in Fig. 5.7.
Node strategies Technology path The objectives Scientific issues National needs
Promote the implementation of major projects, such as “the system building-up of coastal ecosystem health diagnosis, evaluation and security technology in China”, build an creative team, develop research platform and promote the construction of coastal, ocean, deep-sea observation system
Develop three-dimensional offshore multi-tasking and multi-platform monitoring system; improve exploration capacity in deep-sea and ocean; and promote the numerical construction of coastal ecosystems
Develop the forecasting ability of ecosystem changes, and promote ecosystem-based management
Construct an innovative team Establish an exploration technology system in deep open sea
Start an action plan of marine ecological security, and establish the observation system for coastal ecosystems
Build platform for offshore resources and environment, and key process of deep-sea
To 2020, to strengthen the research and monitoring for coastal ecosystems, effectively curb the expansion of marine pollution and protect the coastal ecological security; develop continuously the regional oceanographic research with Chinese characteristics, enhance the innovation and breakthrough in marine biotechnology, provide the theory and technical support for sustainable utilization of biological resources and sustainable and stable development of marine aquaculture industry; greatly improve the capacity of comprehensive observation, find out overall asset of China’s blue territory
To 2030, to establish the three-dimensional monitoring system of multi-tasking and multi-platform to coastal marine ecosystems, greatly improve the research and exploration capability in deepsea and ocean, achieve the innovative results in marine high-tech, resources and the Earth system science; realize the China’s coastal ecosystems digitization initially, improve the forecast and warning capability for ecological disaster; and understand better the key processes of deep-sea bio-production and biogenic element cycling
To 2050, to clarify the change regularity of Chinese coastal ecosystems structure and function influenced by the global change and human activities, make short-, medium- and long-term predictions for biological resources and ecosystem changes; provide scientific and technological support for steady growth of the total output of state’s aquatic products; realize ecosystem-based ocean management, and improve theoretical systems of marine biological origin and life processes
To focus on a series of key scientific issues, such as ecosystem changes in coastal zone under the multi-pressure, the ecological basis for sustainable fisheries, the response and feedback of marine ecosystems in global change, the understanding and utilization of biodiversity function, deep-sea environment and other key issues
To protect the coastal ecosystems, achieve the sustainable utilization of marine biological resources, safeguard the sustainable development of marine economy, and ensure the safety of coastal ecology
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Fig. 5.7 The roadmap of science and technology development in marine ecosystems and ecological security
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5.6.1 The Guiding Ideology Based on the idea of “boost economy with knowledge, and foster industry with technology”, we shall continuously obtain protein, food, drugs, fibers, and products, materials, and energy from marine bio-resources with the development in life sciences and biotechnology, develop new agricultural products, food, biodegradable plastics, and bio-fuels and so on, and realize the sustainable use of marine biological resources; in addition, develop the ecoaquaculture of marine life, marine bio-refining, and the technologic use of marine organisms’ metabolites and genetic resources, to lay a solid foundation for sustainable use of marine bio-resources.
5.6.2 The Overall Objective Aiming at the strategic objectives and major technology needs, the overall objective of China is to effectively promote rational development and utilization of marine bio-resources in sustainable manner, start systematic study on marine fishery resources, metabolic production resources, and genetic resources, and to achieve the independent innovation and solution for developing technology of marine bio-resources and satisfying China’s economic and social development. In marine fisheries resources: to conduct studies on the assessment, maintenance, aquaculture, artificial release and pelagic fishing resources, maintain and recover the coastal fishery resources, and enhance the ability of deep-sea fishing, domesticate important wild economic species for artificial breeding, develop molecular marker-assisted breeding and genetic engineering breeding techniques for important aquaculture species and achieve improved varieties of aquaculture species; establish new technologies of disease prevention and treatment, and develop eco-intensive farming to progressively realize the detailed, intelligentized, and digitized farming technology and facilities system; and develop eco-friendly mariculture and marine fishing for optimal sustainable fishery production. In production of metabolites of marine organisms: to develop bio-refining technology and highly integrated with gene technology; solve bottleneck problems in the application of marine organisms metabolites in agriculture, medicine, environmental protection, and military, achieving high-valued use up to the international standards in quality and safety of marine biological products and marine food; produce marine energy algae species appropriated to industrialization, and industrialize algae species farming, making marine bio-energy an important supportive new energy source, and marine organic industry a backbone industry in the marine industry. In gene resources of marine biology: to carry out a comprehensive omics’ studies of marine organisms and complete whole-genome sequencing of 5 The Roadmap of Development in Chinese Marine Science & Technology to 2050
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5.6 The Technology Development Roadmap of Marine Bio-resources
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important marine model organisms and economic species; develop technology for utilizing special function genes of micro-organisms and deep-sea microbes, and realize the industrialization of gene products of marine life such as recombinant enzymes; establish new industries of biogenetic pharmacy and marine microbial products, promoting a knowledge-based industry of marine bio-resources utilization to a key industry of national economy. Aiming at strategic objectives of efficient development and utilization of resources and at major technology needs of energy-saving and emission reduction, we shall develop and utilize marine bio-resources sustainably, carry on investigation on comprehensive utilization of marine fishery resources, marine biological metabolites and products, marine microorganisms and marine biogenetic resources, make innovations and progresses in marine biotechnology and development and utilization technology of marine resources, meet the needs of China’s social and economic development, and further promote the sustainable development and utilization of marine bio-resources in China.
5.6.3 Targets at Different Phases a. To 2020 (Recently) Development and utilization of marine fishery resources: Our goals are to optimize the layout of biological productivity and adjust aquatic structure; transform and upgrade traditional aquaculture and implement the efficient and high-quality, healthy and environment-friendly sustainable farming; to explore and domesticate a number of important wild economic types for marine culture, complete the whole-genome sequencing of a number of important breeding animals and identify a group of important functional genes related to the production, quality, disease resistance and other traits; to uncover and preliminarily clarify several metabolic pathways regulating the genetic network of important traits in plants and animals, and improve the gender control technology of marine fish and shrimp; to combine the molecular marker selecting technology and conventional breeding techniques to cultivate new aquaculture varieties; to establish molecular detection technology of aquatic disease, and develop rapid, specific and sensitive detection technology products; to enhance the research on marine bio-food safety, and further improve the regulatory system on the safety of aquatic products quality; thus, to support the transition of marine aquaculture industry from the traditional quantitybenefits type to the quality-benefits type, and promote the developments of marine aquaculture with improvements in the quality and scale of seeding in green technology and good facilitation, pollution-free, and well standardized products, and further promote the safe, efficient and sustainable development of aquaculture industry; and gradually maintain and recover coastal fisheries resources, and significantly improve the deep-sea fishing technology and capability. Refining and value increasing of marine organisms’ metabolites products: · 156 ·
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The goals are to make breakthroughs in bio-metabolites resources development on typical aquatic products and apply a number of marine resources of biometabolites with important functions in food and drug; promote development of marine food and bio-products industry, and boom up new industries of marine bio-metabolites products; make great progresses in the principle and technology of green utilization of major aquatic resources; gear to the international level in the regulatory system of the quality safety and standards for marine bio-products, marine foods and marine biological metabolites; to industrialize the comprehensive utilization of some important bio-metabolites as new points of growth in marine economy. Exploring and utilization of marine organisms’ genetic resources: The goals are to investigate the genes of marine microbes, economic organisms, disease organisms and deep-sea organisms, and complete the whole genome sequencing of important Chinese specific model organism and economic organisms in order to provide new clues for revealing the origin of life and its evolution; to thoroughly analyze the growth, disease resistance, stress, and gender-related QTL of important mariculture species, establish the molecular marker-assisted breeding technology, and apply genetic engineering-assisted breeding technology and genetic engineering vaccines; to screen and cultivate high-yielding, fast-growing, and low-cost marine energy species and have economic/technical values evaluated; to establish technology platforms used for the development and utilization of special functional genes of organisms in extreme environments such as deep-sea, and industrialize marine bio-genetic products such as recombinant enzymes; and to put marine biological genetically engineered drugs into clinical trials, and push the rise of new industries major in marine microbial products. b. 2021–2030 (Medium-term) Development and utilization of marine fishery resources: The objectives are to build functional genomics technology platforms of aquaculture species, carry out functional genomics research on production, quality, disease resistance and nutrient efficiency traits, clone and verify a number of new genes and regulatory factors with important application value; to establish the genome expression profiling of important agronomic traits using gene chip technology, and conduct comparative genomics studies, providing a large number of genetic resources and molecular breeding materials for the genetic improvement of major animals and plants; to complete in overall the construction of biological information database for important aquaculture species, building a solid technology system for bio-molecular designing of aquaculture species and for significant enhancement of breeding efficiency; to carry out research on developing key technology and equipment in sea-cage aquaculture industry, effectively raise the cage volume of actual culture and the ability of anti-typhoon, and enhance the sea-cage design capability to the international advanced level; and realize the fast development of green farming and fishing techniques and optimize the structure of marine aquaculture.
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Refining and value increasing of marine organisms’ metabolites products: The goals are to comprehensively study the chemical compositions of marine bio-metabolites and potential application of marine bio-metabolites products for human health, industry and environmental protection; to become an important direction of the industry of biological metabolites products, and the support for development of marine bio-industry and marine economy; to adequately exploit the marine biomedical resources, and achieve the industrialization of biogenetically engineered marine drugs; to benefit economic and ecological systems from marine energy species through genetic modification and comprehensive utilization for industrialized farming; to establish technical systems for the exploration, acquisition, and development of deep-sea biological resources; and to have innovative scientific discovery in the field of deep biosphere to lead the rise of industry majored in deep-sea biological metabolites resource utilization. Exploring and utilization of marine organisms’ genetic resources: The goals are to fully carry out the marine bioomics and molecular oceanography research and reveal the underlying mysteries in the deep biosphere; to establish the genetic information systems of marine organisms with Chinese characteristics; to apply marine biological functional genes in the industry and environmental protection; to apply disease resistance, stress and genderrelated functional genes for important mariculture species; to push forward the genetically engineered varieties of marine life into experimental and verification phases and achieve industrialization of marine bio-genetic engineering drugs; to bring economic and ecological benefits from the comprehensive utilization of marine energy species through genetic modification for the industrialization of farming/cultivation. We shall deepen the study of marine microorganisms, enhance modern production technology of marine organisms and change industrial structure of marine organisms, carry out the systematic investigation on marine microbial resources in the oceans, especially the western Pacific, Indian Ocean and China Sea as a whole to promote the sciences development on microbial resources in deep-sea biosphere, hydrothermal microbes, and cold seeps microbe, making innovative contributions to the high-tech of marine microorganisms and the utilization of marine microbial resources. c. 2031–2050 (Long-term) Development and utilization of marine fishery resources: The tasks are to build mature transgenic breeding technology in mariculture, and establish accurate technical detection system specific to transgenic strains; to finely map and clone the functional genes of important traits, and establish an integrated technological platform for detail mariculture information collecting, intelligentized breeding-equipment control, and precise production management and decision-making; to integrate fine marine aquaculture technology, and increase the contribution rate of marine science and technology to marine culture progress and the utilization efficiency of marine resources; to promote widely improved breeds and healthy aquaculture; to integrate · 158 ·
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5.6.4 Approaches and Processes Firstly, to start the national science and technology project of “marine eco-aquaculture and refining technology of marine organisms” with increased capital investment; to set up special attraction fund to encourage technological and scientific input from the Chinese Academy of Sciences and universities for fostering a group of technology leaders; and to encourage the joint tackling between research and production agencies. Secondly, to accelerate the processes for bringing up talent leaders in the 5 The Roadmap of Development in Chinese Marine Science & Technology to 2050
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environmental compatibility with efficient control, and real-timeness with high efficiency in disease prediction, prevention, and control. Refining and value increasing of marine organisms’ metabolites products: The tasks are to fully integrate the marine systematical biology, systematical industrial biotechnology, and systematical green chemistry technology; to continuously lead the development of marine bio-production and marine biotechnology; to widely use marine bio-metabolites products in industry, agriculture, medicine, environmental protection and military fields and make them an important foundation and new growth point to sustainable industry of marine biological resources; and that marine energy organisms become the efficient bioreactors of bio-gas and bio-liquid fuel, providing a realistic way of energy without taking land and food. Deep-sea bio-resource industries become new supports to marine bioindustry, and knowledge-based marine bio-industry will lead the development of marine economy and ensure the human health, food safety and energy supply. We will also establish a systematical study of marine aquatic resources and related theoretical and technologic systems for green utilization, establish a sound system for controlling the quality and safety of marine aquatic products, and production technical system of serial products, which will heighten the overall level of Chinese marine aquatic resources up to the world’s advanced level. Exploring and utilization of marine organisms’ genetic resources: to discover continuously important marine economical organisms, diseasespecific biological medicine, and the special-functional genes, and realize the applications and control; to widely use marine organisms’ genes in industry, agriculture, medicine, environmental protection and military fields; to make marine genetic engineering species and drugs as important supporters to the sustainable industry of marine biological resources, and to make marine gene industry as a new growth point of marine economy. We shall establish the theory and methods of using multi-targeted biological screening technology to discover new biological active ingredients, and to complete research on the recombinant technology of effectual functional gene of marine microbial active compounds and the expression technology of metabolic enzyme.
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sustainable use of marine bio-resources. Thirdly, to strengthen the construction of related technological innovation platform and technological innovation team major in the sustainable use of marine biological resources, and to establish good domestic research environment for marine bio-resources utilization. With the focuses on the fishery objectives of sustainable use of coastal fishery resources and responsible modern offshore fishing to 2050, we shall carry out the protection and restoration, artificial releasing, and artificial reefing, improve and innovate fishing gears and tools, develop offshore fisheries and on-site processing technology. To 2020, we are to carry out the research on artificial reproduction of resources, cell engineering for recovering and saving endangered species, and the forecast and prediction of fishing conditions and fishing ground. Focusing on the eco-aquaculture objectives of improving varieties of marine aquaculture species, constructing sustainable production systems and marine aquaculture with good ecosystem management, we shall research into molecular marker-assisted breeding, disease prevention and health culture, and energy-saving and environmentally friendly aquaculture. At the objectives of functionalization and personalization of foods and the realization of knowledge-based industries and the refining of modern marine pharmaceutical industry products, we shall mainly carry out the research and development on aquatic products processing for value-increasing, marine biomass production and refining, marine biological metabolomics and refining technology, refining of marine biological fibers and polymer, screening of leading compounds, and the creation of marine drugs to 2020. At the objectives of gene industrialization, socialization of new marine biotechnology industry, and the construction and use of marine microbiology, genetic resources and gene technology platform, we shall conduct various researches into omics-related marine biology, marine microbial resources, macro-genome technology, and deep-sea gene detection, and into the development and application of functional genes and gene technology platform building to 2020 (Fig. 5.8).
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Fishing
Artificial propagation of wild resources, the cell engineering to save and recover endangered species
The improvement and innovation of fishing facilities and methods
The forecast of fisheries and movement pattern of fish
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Protection and restoration of coastal fisheries, restocking by releasing seedlings and constructing reefs and the proliferation of reefs
Sustainable use of fisheries resources in coastal waters Responsible modern in open ocean fishing
Development and in situ processing of ocean fisheries Excellent molecular design and breeding varieties
Molecular marker-assisted selection
Marine ecological farming
Disease control and health culture
Improved varieties of mariculture
The new modern and sustainable production system
Energy saving, environmental friendly and harmless culture Mariculture based on the ecosystem management Functionalization and customization of sea food
Aquatic products processing and high valueadded The production and refining of marine biomass energy
Refined pfoducts
Metabolomics of marine lives and estraction technology
Knowledge-based industrial clusters using marine lives
The refining of marine biological fibers and the polymer Screening of lead compounds and creation of marine drugs
Development and application of functional genomics
Various marine biomics study
Gene exploitation and utilization
Modern marine pharmaceutical industry Gene industrialization
Marine microbial resources and genomics technology Industrial clusters of new marine industrial biotechnology Exploration and study of deep-sea genes The construction and utilization of marine microorganisms, genome databases and gene technology platform
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Fig. 5.8 The technologic development roadmap in the eld of marine bio-resources development and utilization
5.7 The Technological Development Roadmap of Marine Energy Sources and Mineral Resources 5.7.1 The Guiding Ideology In the development of marine energy, taking the principle of “shallow to deep, near to distant; oil and gas to hydrate, and recycled energy to broad potential”, we should develop into every detail the utilization of offshore oil and gas and mineral resources in the order of resources evaluation, delineation of seabed resources, improving mining technology and realizing resource utilization. We will start recently the investigation on hydrothermal sulfide resources in the international seabed area by delineating the region first then mapping the mineral deposits for new promising resources in the seabed. The assorted basic works include the researches on the formation and evolution of the seafloor lithosphere and the benthonic mineralization. In the development of offshore oil and gas and mineral resources, we will promote the development of deep-sea technological equipment manufacturing to safeguard the moderatescale deep-sea oil and gas and seafloor mineral resources, to accelerate the research and development process of environment-friendly alternative resources gradually, and to adjust and curtail the consumption patterns of oil and gas and 5 The Roadmap of Development in Chinese Marine Science & Technology to 2050
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mineral resource while develop new deep-sea industries.
5.7.2 The Overall Goals and Realization Approaches To 2020, we will focus on the exploration and acquisition of offshore oil and gas, exploration technology of deep-sea oil and gas, and gas hydrate; promote the development of the marine biological mass-energy, oceanscale application of wind energy, and the development of ocean wave, tidal, thermal energy technology, and have advanced deep-sea drilling technology and equipment; continuously improve the extraction and transportation technology of deep-sea cobalt-rich crusts and construct environmental multiparameter characteristic expression and changes prediction model of deep region; continuously carry out seafloor mineralization and accumulation mechanism, environmental effects, and other important researches; strengthen the systematic survey and monitoring on the structure of oceanic ridges and seamounts, magmatic activity, and hydrothermal system; continuously deepen the knowledge of the distribution pattern and resources status of cobalt-rich crusts; realize the commercial exploitation trial of polymetallic nodules and cobalt-rich crusts; continuously discover new seafloor hydrothermal sulfide distribution area and establish 2–3 hydrothermal activity stations; set up an indicator system for finding non-active hydrothermal sulfide zone; and design and build deep-sea workstation. To 2030, we will mainly develop efficient and safe collection and transport technology of offshore oil and gas in deep-sea oil and gas, exploration, acquisition and transport technology of pelagic oil and gas, safe collection, transport and application technology of gas hydrate, and largescale development and application technology of marine biological massenergy; improve power generation technology marine wind energy using, and promote the improvements and application of marine wave, tidal, thermal energy technology; realize the network of deep-sea station and establish 2–3 comprehensive deep-sea research bases; improve the theories of oceanic lithosphere formation and evolution and benthic polymetallogenic system, and develop evaluation methods for hydrothermal sulfide etc.; improve the investigation, monitoring and mining technology of hydrothermal sulfide and realize commercial exploration of hydrothermal sulfide mining; and master the low-cost collection and transport technology of polymetallic nodules to achieve the commercial exploitation of them. Before 2050, we will continuously improve the key technologies and facilities for the investigation, monitor and exploitation of deep-water oil and gas, gas hydrates, hydrothermal sulphides, polymetallic nodules and cobalt-rich crusts. Goal is to achieve the yield of 100 million tons of oil equivalent per year in the East China Sea and the South China Sea, and commercial exploitations of gas hydrates in China’s sea area, hydrothermal sulphides in the international seabed area, and cobalt-rich crusts, and to improve the construction of midocean ridges and seamounts research base in the international typical seabed · 162 ·
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area, shown in Fig. 5.9 and Fig. 5.10.
Ocean energy Exploration Explorratio on and and collection co olllecction of of offshore offfshore oil oil and and d gas gas
Efficient Efficie ent and and safe safe e mining min ning and transportation tran nsportatio on off offshore offfsh hore oil oil andd gas gas
Collection Colle ecttio on and an nd transportation trranspo orttatiion technology te echnolo ogy of of deep-sea deep p-sea oil and and gas ga as
Exploration Explorrattio on andd collection colle ection of of deep-sea deep-sea oil oil and and d gas gas
Exploration Exxplo oratio on off gas ga as hydrate hyydrate e
Exploration, Exp plo oratio on,, collection co olle ecttio on and and d transport transport of of offshore offfsh hore oil oil and and gas gas
Safe Safe collection, colle ectio on, transport tran nspo ortt and and application app pliccatio on of of gas gas hydrate hydrrate
The The e development devvellop pment of of marine marrin ne biomass bio omass energy energ gy
Marine Marrine biomass biom masss energy en nergy development de eve elo opm ment andd application appliccatio on in large la arg ge scales sccaless
Large-scale Larrge-sscale e applications applliccation ns of of marine marine wind win nd power po ower generation gene eratio on
Improvement Imp provveme ent of of marine ma arine e wind win nd power po owerr generation ge ene eratio on technology techn nolo ogyy
The Th he development develop pment off ocean occean wave, wa ave e, tidal, tid dal,, thermal th herm mall power powerr generatiog ge ene eratiog technology tecchnolo ogyy
Improvement, Im mprovvem men nt, finalization finalizzatio on and and application app pliccatio on of of technology te echnolog gy
Deep-sea Deep-ssea network networkk of of workstations workstatio ons
Design De esig gn and an nd construction co onsstructio on of deep-sea de eep p-sea workstation workkstatio on
re ewabblee ition the ren te, exxploitio ratte, to hydra anndgass to oila e;; froom oil ore r o sh off to o re m inssho frrom deep; fro ow ow to de alllo m shall from ion fro atiion plorrat Exxplo
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y erg ergy ene e en rine marin
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Fig. 5.9 The roadmap for technological development of marine energy sources eld
Develop the model of oil gas reservoirs, and delimit the prospective area of oil and gas
Understand the background and formation of oil gas reservoirs with evaluation of deep-sea resources
Understand the background and formation of gas hydrate with resources evaluation
Delimit the prospective area of gas hydrate
Understand hydrothermal sulfide ore-forming background, mechanisms, rules and resource potential
Locate prospective areas of sulphide resource
Improve the survey, mining and environmental protection technology of deep-water oil, gas hydrate and mineral resources, and develop the monitoring technology of hydrothermal, cold spring activities
Develop three-dimensional observation system in deep-sea of the South China Sea Understand the environmental characteristics, formation and evolution and resources potential in seamounts and mid-ocean ridge
Realize the commercial exploitation of oil gas and mineral resources
Monitor changes in deep-sea environment Develop new resources types Develop new disciplines
lization resources uti gy and realize ning technolo mi ve pro im rces, seabed resou rces, delimit ation on resou Carry out evalu
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Fig. 5.10 The roadmap for technological development of marine oil gas and mineral elds
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5.7.3 The Development Goals and Path of Offshore Oil and Gas Field To 2020 (recently): The development of marine oil and gas will transform from shallow to deep water, and its development center will move from north to the East China Sea and South China Sea. Focusing on the East China Sea and the South China Sea region, we shall deepen the basic theoretical studies of deep-sea oil and gas resources and understand the resources status of deep-sea water oil and gas in the exploration area. The goal is to reveal the deep-sea hydrocarbon accumulation mechanism and improve the exploitation technology and facilities of deep-water oil and gas. At the same time, establish the seabed three-dimensional observation network and associated land- or sea-based experimental observation platforms to study the formation and evolution of Chinese marginal seas, the changing conditions, the process of modern seafloor environment, and further provide monitoring and technical supporting platform for national development of marine oil and gas resources. 2021–2030 (medium-term): We will understand the spatial distribution and volume of China’s deepsea oil and gas resources; improve the key technologies and facilities for the investigation and exploitation of deep-sea oil and gas and strengthen the basic works of overseas oil and gas exploration, development and utilization. The goal is to establish a deep-sea oil and gas accumulation model, understand the accumulation of deep-water oil and gas in China sea area, improve the seabed three-dimensional observation network, and significantly upgrade the comprehensive monitoring ability in China’s seabed environment. 2031–2050 (long-term): We will achieve the production capacity of 100 million tons oil equivalent per year in the East China Sea and the South China Sea and reach advanced international level in deep water oil and gas exploration, development, and manufacturing a number of key technological equipments, and underwater network services.
5.7.4 The Development Goals and Path of Gas Hydrate Field To 2020 (recently): We will deepen the basic theoretical studies of gas hydrate, and gradually increase the investigation of gas hydrate; understand the spatial distribution, resources status and environmental effects of gas hydrate, and master the exploration, mining and environmental protection technology of gas hydrate; reveal the formation mechanisms and controlling factors of gas hydrate in China’s offshore area. Goal is to establish one or two long-term observatory on cold seep and one or two reserve base of gas hydrate resources in the East China Sea. 2021–2030 (medium-term): We will conduct research to understand the accumulation of gas hydrate · 164 ·
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5.7.5 The Development Goals and Path of Hydrothermal Sulfides Field To 2020 (recent): We will gradually increase the investigation of seafloor hydrothermal sulfides, and continuously investigate and discover new hydrothermal sulfide bodies; deepen the research on the mineralization background and the formation mechanism of hydrothermal sulfide, the relationship between hydrothermal sulphide mineralization and biological activity, and other important scientific research; understand the distribution and spatial structure of hydrothermal sulfide, and develop the investigation, monitoring, mining technology of hydrothermal sulfide. The goal is to delineate one or two prospective area of seafloor hydrothermal sulfide resource to 2010, to establish two or three hydrothermal activity stations and find effective indicator system of hydrothermal sulfide in non-active areas to 2015, and to establish the theory of multiple undersea ore-forming systems. Focusing on the mid-ocean ridges and seamounts in international seabed area, we will carry out systematic and comprehensive investigation of deep-sea geology and biology, and deepen the research of deep-sea basic geology and deep magma/fluid process. 2021–2030 (medium-term): We will expand the investigation region of hydrothermal sulfide; strengthen its basic theoretical research and develop its evaluation methods; understand the distribution and resource status of hydrothermal sulfide in the survey area; improve the investigation, monitoring, and mining techniques of hydrothermal sulfide to reveal the mineralization laws of seafloor hydrothermal sulfide. The goal is to achieve the commercial mining of hydrothermal sulfide and construct two or three comprehensive deep-sea survey bases at the international leading level in the typical sea areas; furthermore, to develop geological and resources investigation in mid-ocean ridges and seamounts, and explore new types of seabed resources.
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in Chinese marine area and the behavior and mechanism of gas hydrate in the global carbon cycle and global climate change. The goal is to preliminarily form one or two sets of mature and economically viable exploitation technology and realize commercial exploitation of gas hydrate in Chinese marine territories. 2031–2050 (long-term): We will gradually improve serial exploration and exploitation technologies for gas hydrate resource. The goal is to achieve commercial exploitation of gas hydrate in Chinese marine territories, and try to lead the development among international communities in some fields, such as accumulation theory of leakage-type and shallow-buried gas hydrate, phase equilibrium theory of the formation of gas hydrates multi-phase in a complex system, and promote the international development in manufacture of key technological equipment used for the exploration, exploitation, and utilization of gas hydrate, etc..
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2031–2050 (long-term): We will continuously expand the investigation region of hydrothermal sulfide; understand the distribution rule and abundance of hydrothermal sulphide in the investigate zone; establish an integrated model of hydrothermal system and possess low-cost mining technology of hydrothermal sulfide. The goal is to achieve commercial exploitation and use of seafloor hydrothermal sulfide, and reach the world’s advanced level in technolog y and in manufacturing a number of key deep-sea monitoring and equipments; and improve two or three research bases in mid-ocean ridges and seamounts in the international typical seabed area.
5.7.6 The Development Goals and Path of Polymetallic Nodules and Cobalt-rich Crusts Field To 2020 (recent): We will develop the technology and facility for the mining and transportation of cobalt-rich crusts; continuously expand the survey area of cobalt-rich crusts; further understand the ore-forming background and formations of polymetallic nodules and cobalt-rich crusts; resolve important scientific issues such as the effect of biological activity on the mineralization and the accumulation of the elements; establish the evaluation methods of cobalt-rich crusts resource and understand the distribution characteristics, and the resource status of cobalt-rich crusts in the survey area for ore-forming modeling. The goal is to establish the mineralization model of cobalt-rich crusts and achieve commercial trial mining of polymetallic nodules to 2010, and achieve commercial trial mining of cobalt-rich crusts to 2015. 2021–2030 (medium-term): We will expand the survey area of cobalt-rich crusts, clarify the distribution and resource status of cobalt-rich crusts in the survey area, improve the development and utilization technology of seabed polymetallic nodules and cobalt-rich crusts, and possess low-cost collection and transport technology of polymetallic nodules. The goal is to achieve the commercial exploitation and utilization of polymetallic nodules. 2031–2050 (long-term): We will continuously expand the survey area of cobalt-rich crusts, clarify the distribution and resource volume of cobalt-rich crusts in the survey area, and possess low-cost mining and transport technology of cobalt-rich crusts. The goal is to achieve commercial exploitation and utilization of cobalt-rich crusts and possess a number of the world’s leading technologies in the exploration, exploitation and utilization of cobalt-rich crusts and polymetallic nodules.
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5.8.1 The Guiding Ideology We should foster strategic thinking that the development and utilization of seawater is a solution of fresh water crisis and shortage of resources, which is an important foundation for the realization of sustainable development of national economy, and expand the resource utilization fields on large-scale production of seawater, to realize sustainable and efficient use of seawater.
5.8.2 The Development Goals and Approaches Our goals are to solve the lack of freshwater in some islands and coastal regions, and achieve large-scale production of low-cost desalinated seawater, support the development of chemical industry with seawater chemical resources, and achieve large-scale use of rare strategic resources. The utilization of seawater resources becomes a backbone industry of socio-economic development. Focusing on the research and development of large-scale desalination technology and its industrialization, we will develop desalination equipments for large-scale low-cost desalination with membrane and other key materials. Focusing on the direct use technology and desalination technology of seawater, we will develop pre-treatment technology of seawater, comprehensive use brine, gaseous membrane technology used for bromine concentration from brine, large-scale production technology of magnesium hydroxide paste preparation from brine, and the industrialization technology of chlorinefree potassic fertilizer extraction from brine. We should timely carry out the research on the extraction and use technology of rare strategic resources and achieve large-scale production of a number of important components, and build new industrial structure of Chinese seawater chemical industry and establish the basic industrial structure of seawater chemical resource utilization in China. To 2020 (recent): Desalination and large-scale production of major chemical resources: Research focuses mainly on the develepment of technologies of fresh water output from low-cost desalinated seawater, on lower energy cost and highperformance membrane and associated technology seawater desalination, and on large-scale integrated technologies for seawater desalination and highly combined technology between desalination and chemical extraction. Technical objectives: It will take about 10 years to match the price of the freshwater desalinated from seawater using membrane method, to that of tap water or little higher; realize largely the industrialization of seawater desalination in islands and important coastal water areas that lack of fresh-water and large-scale production of conventional chemical resources in seawater. Especially, we will overcome the industrial technologies of low-cost production for potassium salt using desalinated seawater (or seawater, bittern) as raw 5 The Roadmap of Development in Chinese Marine Science & Technology to 2050
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5.8 The Development Roadmap in Comprehensive Utilization of Seawater Resources
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materials. 2021–2030 (medium-term): The goals are to solve the shortage in freshwater resources in islands, and realize largely the large-scale production of scarce chemical resources, such as nuclear fuel, and to develop the technologies of extraction of rare element of strategic value, such as uranium, lithium, and heavy hydrogen, the intensification and co-production between rare element and common chemicals, and large-scale integration of extracting rare element from seawater with seawater desalination and direct use of seawater. Technical objectives: The actual extraction of rare element (uranium, lithium and heavy hydrogen) achieves the magnitude of application demand, forming a complete technologic system of seawater comprehensive utilization to solve largely the shortage of freshwater resources in islands. 2031–2050 (long-term): We will solve the shortage of freshwater resources in the coastal regions and realize the fining, high-value, and hazard-free production of seawater resources through R&D on key and packaged desalination equipment manufacturing and integrated assembling, on refining, multi-varieties, highvalue, and large-scale operation of seawater chemical resources. Technical objectives: to solve largely the shortage of freshwater resources in coastal regions, making seawater as a major resource pool for supporting socio-economic development and industrial and agricultural raw materials.
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In the 21st century, human beings have entered into a new era of ocean with all-round development and utilization. The ocean has become a strategic space in which many countries in the world competing in political, economic and military and other important areas. And ocean is directly related to national sovereignty, survival and development. Marine rights and interests are of vital important relationship with certain strategic areas such as national security, human survival, sustainable development, global climate change, oil and gas and certain metallic resources. The understanding of the ocean depends on the further development of marine science and technology, and the development of marine programs can not be separated from the development of a powerful modern marine science and technology support. At present, China’s marine career is now in a good period of rapid development with both opportunities and challenges. We have analyzed and mapped, from Chapter One to Chapter Five, the international marine science and technology development trends, major scientific research plans, current development of marine technology in China, major research areas of national marine science and technology plan and key scientific issues and technology, and scientific and technical bottlenecks and constraints in China’s marine science and technology development and strategic choice, goals and development road map. And we have also presented the strategic goal of marine science and technology development until the year of 2050. To realize the strategic goal and enhance China’s overall marine science and technology level, and support China’s marine economy and sustainable development, we need innovation with concerted efforts of China’s marine world, as well as necessary safeguards.
1 Develop High Technology, Realize Coordinated Development of Marine Economy, Environment and Society Efficient and sustainable marine economy is bound to rely on the development of marine high-tech innovation and industrialization. In today’s world, marine high-tech development is facing a strategic opportunity, we must
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seize this great opportunity, seriously implement the scientific development concept, constantly push forward the innovation of marine science and technology and key technological innovation and integration, focus on solving the technical and strategic constraints faced by national marine development and enhance China’s comprehensive innovation capacity as a solid knowledge and technical support for marine economy and social sustainable development.
2 Innovate Science and Technology Management System, Enhance Domestic Technology Collaboration and Promote Comprehensive Development Aiming at the sustainable usage of marine life, energy, mineral resources, security and sustainable development of coastal ecosystems, major national marine security needs, innovation of system mechanism, breaking the barriers between industry sectors, setting up the National Marine Science Coordination Committee under the State Council, therefore, the marine science and technology integration of domestic innovation units can be strengthened (the Oceanic Administration, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the institutions of higher learning, businesses and even military research institutions). To strengthen marine innovation system, China needs to adopt project-driven, platform-building measures focusing on cross-forecasting innovation activities as: organization of marine agriculture, high-value usage of marine bioresources, new marine energy, environment and life processes of deep-sea, marine environmental disasters so that to promote the overall innovation capability of China’s marine science and technology enhancement. To promote the development of marine industries by marine scientific and technological innovation, China needs to establish a joint mechanism of marine scientific research, education and research enterprises, and an innovation system taking enterprises as its core energy.
3 Increase the Fund into Marine Science and Technology, Strengthen Infrastructure Construction and Enhance Protection Capacity Compared with international maritime powers, China’s investment in marine science and technology has been low for long, especially in infrastructure construction, and other infrastructure work in the marine resources investigation, at the same time, blanks emerged in the research and investment of the new areas of marine research. The next few decades is the best opportunity for the development of China’s Marine Science and Technology; the country need to input vigorous support in policies and funding, at the same time, it is necessary to establish a relevant mechanism to promote marine business investment, enabling the formation of multi-input situation, to promote innovation and development of marine science and technology.
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Integration of marine science and technology research forces of national research units, focus should be paid on the establishment of a number of influential research teams in international maritime community. Further. aiming at three major objectives “Talent, patent and standard”, we shall fully play the positive role of strategic scientists, technology and technical backbone personnel to form innovative teams and achieve very productive results in people-training, patent-registration, and standard-setting; further promote the technological innovation mechanism of enterprises, to achieve a high degree of objectives, the sharing of personnel, funding and common equipment to speed up the radiation demonstration and transformation of research results. The introduction of internationally renowned experts in marine science and technology to China should be intensified, in particular the introduction of the famous overseas Chinese scientists to conduct research for home country. At the same time, it is necessary to expand the cultivation of reserve forces of marine scientific research, to overall increase the size of marine research team.
5 Strengthen International Exchanges and Cooperation and Improve the Ability of Development Leading It aims to strengthen the involvement and organization of international cooperation projects, with focus on the partnership cooperative relations with the world’s leading marine research institutions in North America, Europe and other developed countries, establish marine scientific and technological cooperation mechanism with neighboring countries in Southeast Asia, strengthen the long-term, stable cooperative relations with regional marine research institutions in Russia, Japan, India , South Korea and other neighboring countries, realize regular bilateral visits, select certain sea areas and key scientific problems, implement joint researches, actively promote the cooperation and exchange in field of marine science with third world countries like Africa and South America and further enhance China’s international reputation of marine science and technology. In international cooperation, passive participation should be gradually broke away, to strengthen the design of project and major plans, gradually increase the strength of China’s marine science and technology in the international plans and realize the principal advantages in some areas of international cooperation.
6 The Enhancement of Observing Capabilities and Realization of Marine Data Sharing Although China has greatly invested in the ocean observations over the past 30 years, and glorious achievements were attained, the development of the ocean observing is still the largest marine science and technology bottleneck in China. The establishment of three-dimensional observation network of marine science is still a main task in the future. At the same time, barriers to the 6 Protection Measures and Countermeasures
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4 Strengthen Three Major Strategies in “Talent, Patent and Standard” and Promote Technological Innovation
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sharing of data exist, which, to some extends, largely affect and restrict China’s innovation and development of marine science and technology, but also causing tremendous waste of resources. Based on the efficient operation of the existing CERN Jiaozhou Bay, Daya Bay, Sanya Bay field station, the construction of four observation platforms, the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea, Xisha, Nansha is actively promoted, the construction of four estuarine stations in Liaohe River Estuary, the Estuary of the Huanghe (Yellow) River, the Changjiang (Yangtze) River Estuary and the Pearl River Estuary is designed, to achieve the synchronized long-term monitoring of 11 sites, and provide data for the research and prediction of the impact of global change and human activities on coastal ecosystems. In the building of marine digital common platform, high-performance scientific computing and data technology platform includes computing platforms, system simulation platform and data platform. Attentions should be paid on the development and construction of databases, mass storage systems, numerical ocean forecasting system, visualization and digital products and network sharing platform.
7 Strengthen Technical Platform and Base Building, Upgrade Capacity in Research, Development and Industrialization The fundamental point science and technology development is to promote economic and social development. Aimed at the problems of China’s marine resources and environment, it is urgent to strengthen the construction of technology platform and the base, explicit industrial needs, focus on the objectives, arrange major projects and the direction of important projects, point at the transfer and transformation of the results of science and technology, upgrade research development capacity and industrialization capacity; systematically research and develop key common technologies, make breakthroughs in cutting-edge technology, develop new products, integrate key equipment, implement industrialization model and promote efficient and sustainable development China’s marine industry.
8 Implement Ocean Action Plan and Conduct Long-term Observation Study At the end of 2004, the United States Commission on Ocean Policy submitted to U.S. Congress a marine policy report named “a Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century”, where after, U.S. President George W. Bush issued an executive order and published “U.S. Ocean Action Plan”, which put forward specific measures for the implementation of “a Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century”. China, in 2006, issued “a Outline of the National Program for Medium- and Long-term Scientific and Technological Development (2006–2020)”; in order to implement the program, the State Oceanic Administration released “the Outline of the National Eleventh Five-Year Guideline for the Development of Marine Science and Technology” and identified eight key tasks. At present, the most · 172 ·
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9 Strengthen Marine Science Popularization and Build the Atmosphere of Maritime Power The development, utilization and dependence of the ocean require not only the strategic vision and vigor of high-level decision makers, but also recognition and support from people across the country. Therefore, it is imperative to strengthen marine science popularization, to further improve people’s conscious of the sea, through the development and implementation of a series of marine publicity programs, organizations of various forms of scientific experience, marine science popularization, as well as organization of pupils and students from all walks of life and social systems to participate in the exploration of marine science activities, to improve the ocean awareness of the whole society on the development, utilization and protection of the ocean, cultivate awareness of the whole society, and create a good atmosphere for the continuous innovation in marine science and technology.
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urgent task is to gradually implement “the National marine capacity expansion plans” to upgrade the overall level of China’s marine scientific research; the implementation of “China’s Ocean Action Plan (to 2050)”, centering on the main focus of marine science and technology research in China, major projects such as “the deep-sea observing networks” are deployed, phased objectives and overall goal are constituted, to establish long-term, real-time observation and research and enhance the level and ability of China’s marine observation and participation in major international research projects.
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In October 2007, the Chinese Academy of Sciences CAS deployed strategic studies of deployment roadmap to the year 2050, which include 18 major fields including marine science and technology. Since the arrival of the mandate, with the support of the Institute of Oceanology, CAS, research teams were formed including the South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, CAS, Yantai Institute of Coastal Research for Sustainable Development, CAS, Institute of Acoustics, CAS, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, CAS, Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Shenyang Institute of Automation, CAS, the Lanzhou Branch of National Science Library, CAS, and in 24 Nov. 2007, a launch meeting of strategic research project of deployment roadmap in marine science and technology development to the year 2050 was held in Qingdao. The roadmap is a new method to carry out strategic research and predict key technology development needs, being a very useful decision-making tool. The making process of roadmap is helpful for the identification of key tasks, the use of cooperation mechanisms to solve complex problems, and build consensus in the expression of short-term and long-term scientific and technological needs. Marine science and technology covers physical oceanogragh, marine geology, marine biology, marine ecology and environmental sciences, marine chemistry, and ocean observations and other simulation techniques and a variety of technical disciplines, the disciplines are interconnected, but relatively independent. Therefore, at the beginning of the study, a full discussion on how to carry out the research is conducted, through the optimization of subjects, and ultimately determined five research areas, the marine biological resources, safety of marine ecosystems, marine oil and gas mineral resources, marine environment safety, economic and social development, taking into account of sustainable development of other disciplines. The marine science and technology research roadmap is divided into five phases: the first phase is the project startup, the formation of the basic framework, the time node is from November to December, 2007; the second phase is the topic research under the basic framework, the formation of the first draft of strategic study, the time node is from January to June, 2008; the third stage is to extensively solicit the views of relevant experts in the field, revised and improved, forming the second draft of the strategic study, the time node is from June to August, 2008; the fourth stage is on the basis of improvement, the
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project advisory group and expert group make approval or revise to the project report and the overall report of roadmap for strategic studies and form the final draft strategy report, the time node is from September to October, 2008; the fifth stage is on the basis of the final report, to organize experts to review through CAS, revise and improve the content and form of the manuscript book, the time node is from November, 2008 to April, 2009. During the course of the study for more than a year, the study group has met six times with the attendance of the project advisory group, the project group of experts, special study group and two seminars were held, the meeting minutes were later distribute as the guidance of following work. Leadership participated in the study of attached great importance, the interaction among organizations exerted important roles, which ensured that the roadmap for research work carried out smoothly. During this period, the study group participated in three seminars organized held by CAS, to exchange the research progress, and listened to the advice and recommendations from experts of the leadership of CAS and the participants. The leader of the expert team is Prof. Jianhai Xiang from the Institute of Oceanology, CAS, with advisors being Yunshan Qin, Ruiyu Liu, Dunxin Hu, academicians of CAS and Baorong Hou, academician of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, the early members of the expert team include Song Sun, Si Zhang, Ping Shi, Guofan Zhang, Yijun Hou, Feng Pan, Mingjiang Zhou, Chenghu Zhou, Hongsheng Yang, Wen Yan, Qinzhao Xue, Feng Gao, Guifang Xing. After the startup of the project, in order to meet the needs of research projects, the research team was expanded to set up five sub-areas of special study groups of marine biological resources (head: Si Zhang, deputy leader: Guofan Zhang, members: Song Qin, Qinzhao Xue, Huili Sun, Chaoqun Hu, Lijuan Long), marine ecosystems security group (head: Song Sun, deputy head: Mingjiang Zhou, members: Hongsheng Yang, Chaolun Li, Rencheng Yu), marine environment security group (head: Ping Shi, deputy head: Fan Wang and Dongxiao Wang, members: Feng Pan, Chenghu Zhou, Dongliang Yuan, Hong Yi), marine oil and gas and mineral resources group (head: Yijun Hou, deputy head: Zhigang Zeng, members: Tiegang Li, Wen Yan, Shiguo Wu, Xiwu Luan), and economic and social development group (head: Jianhai Xiang, members: Guifang Xing, Feng Gao), synchronized to conduct research. The Strategic Planning Office of the Institute of Oceanology, CAS has assumed the implementation of specific organizations of the study. The final preparation of this book is assumed by Jianhai Xiang, Guifang Xing, Feng Gao, Dongliang Yuan, Zhigang Zeng, Hongsheng Yang, Chaolun Li, Rencheng Yu, Song Qin, Jinming Song, respectively, and Jianhai Xiang, Guifang Xing and Feng Gao are responsible for collection of the entire contents of the book. During the study process, Yongxiang Lu, vice chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress and president of CAS has instructed several times on this study in developmental and strategic seminars · 178 ·
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for key scientific and technological area of CAS, pointed out the direction for this study, and pointed out the study direction; many leaders, scientists and management experts of CAS have put forward a number of constructive suggestions for this study. Jiaofeng Pan, director of Bureau of Planning and Strategy, CAS, Feng Zhang, director of division, Wenyuan Wang, deputy director of division, Xiaobo Ren, deputy director of division of Bureau of Science and Technology for Resources and Environment have attended the seminars for several times and give us guidance; leaders participated in the study from various units have given a strong support; as project consultants, Yunshan Qin, Ruiyu Liu, Dunxin Hu, academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, from beginning to end, have participated in all the seminars and give a warm guidance and made an important contribution to the study. Many professors have also attended the seminars for several times and made valuable advices, including Hou Baorong, academician of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, Prof. Chenghu Zhou from Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resource Research, CAS, Prof. Zhang Aiqun from Shenyang Institute of Automation, CAS, Prof. Yifen Pu from the Institute of Atmospheric Physics, CAS, Prof. Weiqun Ku from the Institute of Acoustics, CAS, Prof. Linsheng Song, Zhiming Yu, Dejun Gong and deputy Prof. Jizhou Duan. We acknowledge the support and help of Institute of Oceanology, CAS, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, CAS, Lanzhou Branch of National Science Library, CAS. It should be noted that from the economic and social development of China’s future strategic needs, it is the first attempt to use the roadmap approach to develop the strategic research of marine science and technology, scenario analyze and result predict of the path of development of key marine science and technology, explicit the development goals of China’s marine science and technology for the next 20–40 years, draw roadmap for the development of China’s marine science and technology. Due to the limitation of cognitive ability and knowledge of the development of international as well as China’s marine science and technology at this present period, combined with the relatively short study period, the report has not yet grasped of the major scientific issues and bottlenecks, and has limitations in the forward-looking thinking and the realization of long-term goals. Due to the limitation of knowledge of experts participated in this research, and the limitation of knowledge, document and language level of the authors, it is hard to avoid in the present report omissions or errors, some of the points of view will be further consulted. As a continuing strategic research work, this report also need to further supplement and improvement with the time changes in the future. We warmly welcome criticism and correction from the readers.
