Research and Development Guidelines for the Food Industry

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES FOR THE FOOD INDUSTRIES

Wilbur A. Gould, PhD. Food Industries Consultant, President Midwest Food ProcessorsAssociation, and Emeritus Professor of Food Processing & Technology The Ohio State University

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES FOR THE FOOD INDUSTRIES COPYRIGHT@1991 CTI PUBLICATIONS, INC. Baltimore, Maryland All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or altered or utilized in any form or by any means, graphic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner. Inquiries should be addressed to: CTI Publications, 261 9 Maryland Ave., Baltimore, MD 21 21 8-4576

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 91-72707 ISBN Numbers are as follows:

0-930027-1 7-5 Cover photo (top) courtesy of Carnpden Food 8 Drink Research Association While the recommendations in this publication are based on scientific studies and wide industry experience, references to basic principles, operating procedures and methods, or types of instruments and equipment are not to be construed as a guarantee that they are sufficient to prevent damage, spoilage, loss, accidents or injuries, resulting from use of this information. Furthermore, the study and use of this publication by any person or company is not to be considered as assurance that a person or company is proficient in the operations and procedures discussed in this publication. The use of the statements, recommendations, or suggestions contained, herein, is not to be considered as creating any responsibility for damage, spoilage, loss, accident or injury, resulting from such use.

CTI PUBLICATIONS Inc. 261 9 Maryland Ave., Baltimore, MD 21 21 8-4576USA 301 -467-3338FAX 301/467-7434

PREFACE Research and Development (R & D) is of major concern to nearly all aspects of the food industry. R & D is an essential part of most agricultural college programs. Further, R & D is part of nearly all graduate students studying in the food science, food technology, food processing, and food related programs. Lastly, R & D is of vital interest to the public at large and, of course, the ultimate consumer of the fruits of R & D. My interest is putting this book together was developed because of necessity as my advisors, teachers, and peers always talked about research and development, but seldom got down to the 5 W’s and 1 H, that is, the why, the when, the where, the what, the who, and the how. My advisor and many of my teachers left it up to me and my colleagues to find out who was doing research and development work, what topics were considered worthy of good research in the field, when was the work done, where was the information published, why was a given approach taken, and how were the results being utilized in the industry. I was totally appalled by the lack of good resource material and pertinent information. Further, I could not fiid good and sound research methods that fit the situation that I was always interested in. Therefore, after much consternation and thought, I developed an R & D course of instruction for the graduate students interested in my area of expertise and the thoughts in this book reflect some of the things that I gleaned and shared with these students as we struggled through some 40 years of research in food processing and technology. Many of my graduate students have shared with me much information in this book as they have worked in both academia and the food industry. They are the ones that made this book come to fruition and they are the ones that suggested I document my thoughts for those who follow, My most sincere thanks to my former students, my many collegeaues, and my many friends in the food industry for their helpful suggestions, criticisms, and inspirations. I particularly wish to thank Winston Bash, Ken Beck, Ron Gould, Bill Hildebolt, Jackie Hood, Jim Mavis, Wade Schulte, and Bill Stinson for their critiquing this manuscript and their helpful suggestions. My special thanks to Art Judge, II and Randall Gerstmyer for their constructive comments, interest, cooperation and valued assistance. Wilbur Gould

This copy of

Research and Development Guidelines For The Food Industries belongs to:

ABOUT THE AUTHOR Wilbur A. Gould was reared on a farm in Northern New Hampshire. He received his Batchelor of Science degree from the University of New Hampshire in Horticulture-Plant Breeding. He started his graduate work at Michigan State University prior to service in the U.S. Navy during World War II. After military service, he completed his Master of Science and Ph.D. degrees at The Ohio State University. Dr. Gould retired from The Ohio State University after 39 years on the faculty as Professor of Food Processing and Technology. He taught 9 courses during his tenure and advised over 900 undergraduate students, 131 Master of Science Students and 76 Doctoral students. His major research interests were in Vegetable Processing and Technology and Snack Food Manufacture and Quality Assurance. He has authored some 83 referred journal research publications, over 200 Food Trade articles, and 9 books. Dr. Gould is a Member of Phi Kappa Phi, Phi Sigma, Phi Tau Sigma, Sigma Xi, Gamma Sigma Delta (Award of Merit in 1984), Alpha Gamma Rho, Institute of Food Technologists (Fellow in 1982), and American Society of Horticultural Science (Distinguished Graduate Teaching Award in 1985). The following are some of the recognitions that Dr. Gould has received The Ohio State University Distinguished Leadership to Students Award in 1963 and a Certificate of Recognition Award in 1986; Ohio Food Processors H.D. Brown Person of Year Award in 1971; Ohio Food Processors .Association Tomato Achievement Award in 1985; Ozark Food Processors Association Outstanding Professional Leadership Award in 1978; 49er’s Service Award in 1979; Food Processing Machinery and Supplies Association Leadership and Service Award in 1988; Ohio Agricultural Hall of Fame in 1989 and an Honorary Life Membership in Potato Association of America in 1990. Dr. Gould presently serves as Executive Director of MidAmerica Food Processors Association, Food Technology Consultant to the Snack Food Association, Secretary-Treasurer of The Guard Society, and Consultant to the Food Industries. Dr. Gould’s philosophy is to tell it as he sees it, be short and get right to the point.

Contents

Research & Development

For The Food Industries BY Wilbur A. Gould, Ph. D.

1.R & D And Its Role In The Food Industries 2.The R & D Department 3. Staffing The R & D Department 4.The Design and Layout Of The R & D Facility Chapter 5.Functions And Uses Of The Pilot Plant Chapter 6.Equipment And Pilot Plant Layout For The R & D Facility Chapter 7. New Product Development Chapter 8. Packages and Packaging Chapter 9. Proposals, Projects, Reports and Reporting Chapter 10. Handling Data Chapter 11. Communicating R & D Efforts Chapter 12. Costs, Appraisals, And Productivity R & D APPENDIX Tables Index

Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

1 9 29 37 45 51 75 87 91 97 127 137 141 171

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Chapter 1

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AND ITS ROLE IN THE FOOD INDUSTRIES "Research is to see what everybody has seen and to think what no body has thought" A. S. Gyorgyi

The food industry is continuously confronted with problems and concerns for its processes and its products. Consequently, great opportunities exist for future actions to improve the position of any given firm within the industry through research and development (R & D). Some of the present day major concerns include the following: AUTOMATION - Development of programs, equipment, and application to insure greater on-line efficiencies, better product uniformity, and a reduction of costs. BIOTECHNOLOGY & BIOENGINEERING and new processes.

- New products

CONSUMERISM - Dealing with Activists Groups and their wants, the changing eating habits and patterns, Dietary needs, Weight control, etc. ENVIRONMENT - Air pollution, solid and liquid wastes.

FOOD SAFETY - Uses of chemicals for production agriculture, food additives, chemical cleaners, micoorganisms, etc. LABELING ISSUES etc.

- Nutritional and other claims, quality,

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES LABOR - Lack of trained and skilled and scientific, costs and benefits including health care and insurance. NEW PRODUCTS - Modifications, reformulations and new creations. ON-LINE SENSORS AND CONTROLLERS - Identification of product quality during manufacture and for assurance of total quality control. PACKAGES AND PACKAGING - Metal, vs glass vs plastic vs composities and product liabilities, insurance, disposal biodegradable, microwaveable, retortable and shelf life. PROCESS CHANGES - Aseptics, Can Acid by acidification and refrigeration. QUALITY - Its identification, assurance and evaluation ramifications including analytical instrumentation shelf life testing, nutrition, and consumer education. RAW MATERIAL COSTS - Urbanization, drought, irrigation, and out of country produced. REGULATIONS - Their effect on development of new chemicals and their testing and on food plant operations including marketing of foods. RISK/BENEFIT CONCEPTS - Lack of definition and ultimate effect on slowing down of research and marketing of new products and new additives. SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL - Organic and inorganic chemical problems, including digestion times and use of mice organisms. LABELING - Nutrition, quality/grade identification including consumer education.

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Need for Research

More money is spent on food today than any other single consumer item. Yet, the food industry as a whole spends less money on research and development than any other industry. Some industries spend well over 20% of their gross dollar income for research and development while the latest figures indicate that the food industry does not even spend 1% on research and development. However, some companies spend a lot of money on research and new product development in their firm. Much of it is tied in with quality assurance, production programs, processing changes, marketing practices, etc. and not under an R & D Department or funds per se. In 1979 NSF published that the continuing rate of return to the gross national product for every dollar invested in R & D was 30 to 50%. This was for all industries. The return on dollars spent on R & D for the food industry may be higher or lower depending on the product and the firm. There is no question that R & D dollars over the long run should make for a good return on the investment if research is properly conducted with the results put into practice. If one goes back in history and looks at some of the b t real efforts to solve food problems, one has to take a look at the early 1800’s and Napoleon Bonaparte and his offer of 10,OOO Francs for the development of a method of food preservation. Bonaparte could only move his armies as fast as he could move his food kitchens as an army moves on its stomach. Today, the highest award by the Institute of Food Technologists is the Nicholas Appert award as Appert was the man that won the 10,OOO Francs for his method of food preservation in 1810, that is, the concept of hermetically sealing food in a container followed by sterilization.

What is Research? Progress as we know it today would not be possible without research. Boss Kettering stated “If you don’t do research until you have to, its too late”. This statement has been most true and many segments of the industry now realize the importance of a n on-going research and development program. Some segments of the industry allocate funds direct for contract or in-house research

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

and development. Most food firms today realize that the consumer wants new types and styles of different formulated foods. Change should be made in some cases in the food industries to make food better. Right after World War 11, the U. S. Government passed the Hatch Act and established a n elaborate system of funding agricultural research. Other agencies like the National Science Foundation, also, sponsored research in food and agriculture. Presently, private industry funds much of the research in the food areas. In addition, due in part to mergers, many companies have established elaborate R & D departments and do much of their research inhouse. Research in the food areas is a major part of the over 50 Universities around the US where food science and technology programs are offered. Faculty and graduate students do food research and development work as part of their work load or graduate training. Paul Hudson, former Dean of the Graduate School at The Ohio State University once stated that “research is evidence of creative urge and dissemination of information is the human trait of communication”. To me this is most relevant and it truly depicts the ideal type researcher. Too many people call themselves r e searchers, but they show little creativity and only communicate as little as need be to get by. Any one aspiring to be a researcher must be creative and they must want to contribute to man’s knowledge. Research in its simplest definition is doing those things that help build or advance existing knowledge. Research in the food industries should go beyond this and reduce costs of food production, costs of food preservation and costs of marketing the food supply. Research should strive to improve product quality, nutrient retention, and the shelf life of our food supply. Research in the food industries should develop new products, processes, and systems of preservation to continue to satisfy consumer wants. New products are needed today to satisfy the changing life style needs, to provide food for the large change in ethnic population, and to meet the needs of the changing demographics, that is, teenagers, the YUPPIES, and the increasing number of the elderly. The food industry should look at research as their road to the future not just to solve short term goals.

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The Scientific Method We learn new fads and ideas by chance, by trial and error, and generalization from experience and by logic, that is, reasoning things out or by using the scientific method of inquiry. The scientific method is an orderly system of search for the truth. There are six fundamental steps to be followed: 1st step -Identify the problem, establish the objectives or develop the hypothesis, that is, the ‘‘why” 2nd step -Find out “what” has been done to-date, that is, start with a library search of the literature, patents, etc. 3rd step -Develop a procedure or establish the approach to solve the problem, that is, the “how” to do it. 4th step Collect the data or gather the fads, that is, work the plan. 5th step -Interpret the data to find the solution to the objectives or test the hypothesis. 6th step -Develop conclusions, make recommendations, and summarize your efforts. Research is accomplished by people with inquisitive minds seeking the truth and new ideas and concepts, hopefully, to improve the food industry and all foods for mankind. Research may be very basic, that is, understanding the fundamentals of change or the reasons why things are different from one another. This in the past was accomplished by Federal and State agencies and many non-profit educational and institutional research organizations. Research may be very practical or applied, that is, determining the best usage for any given tomato variety. Generally, basic research in the food industry is left to the food scientist whether he or she be in academia as a candidate for the Ph. D. degree or a staff member in an R&D laboratory in the food industry. This kind of research is needed to build a base from which to make application by the food technologist to the food industries. The technologist applies this basic research to solve industry problems.

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RESEARCH 8z DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Product or process development research can be both basic and applied depending on what is being attempted. Development of a new food additive would be basic research while the application of an additive to given food items would be applied research. Many researchers do both types of research and they do not distinguish between either term. Frankly, I think too much has been written and made over about these terms in the literature and I think its high time we describe them both as those things that we diligently do to search for the truth or new knowledge to solve the problems of the food industries. From a researchers standpoint, problems are opportunities and that’s the way I look at food researchopportunities to help the individual food firm help itself to stay ahead of the competition.

Some Research Objectives The following are some broad areas that may be a part of the objectives or reasons for establishing and R & D program or department 1. To solve existing problems and nuisances in connection with materials, methods (processes), machines, finished products, services (manpower) and environment and to anticipate and prevent such troubles from occurring in the future. 2. To reduce costs involved in the use of materials, processes, products, and services.

3. To improve the quality of existing materials, products, processes and services. 4. To develop new products, new line extensions, or new uses

for exisiting materials, products, processes, and servcies.

5. To develop suitable substitutes for existing materials, products, processes, and services. 6. To develop uses for waste materials thus, creating new byproducts.

7. To keep the firm abreast of scientific and technological knowledge in areas of vested corporate interests.

R & D/ROLE IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY

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8. To establish, issue, and maintain standards and sped% cations for all incoming materials, products in process, and finished packaged products bought and/or sold by the firm. 9. To represent the firm in matters involving regulatory, scientific, and technological matters including labeling, nutrition, standards, waste disposal, and environmental matters. 10. To develop educational programs to maintain and improve consumer relations. 11. To assist the management of the food firm on long range plans and opportunities.

12. To improve the return on vested capital and on unit sales volume by increasing product qualities at the lowest possible costs. Figure 1-1

SOURCES OF INFORMATION A. Text Books

B. Meetings/Conferences/Workshops/Seminars C. Scientific Journals a. Primary or original works with experimental procedures and data-Peer Reviewed

b. Secondary publications 1. Abstrads 2. Reviews 3. Nomographs 4. AnnualReports 5. Advances in ..... 6. Symposia

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Figure 1-1 - Continued

D. Patents including foreign E. Master of Science (M. Sc.) Thesis and Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.) Dissertations

F. Translations of foreign works G. Trade Publications

H. Association Newsletters a. National and International b. State and Regional

I. People a. Direct, that is, one on one b. Meetings, open discussions.

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Chapter 2 The Research and Development Department “Most people look at what is, they never see what can be”. Albert Einstein The Research and Development (R & D) department is generally specific for any given food f h n depending on the firm’s size, magnitude and, of course, needs. In many cases a food firm may not wish to develop its own R & D in house. In these cases competent outside consultants and their laboratories or contractual arrangements can be made with academic institutions or contract laboratories or the firm may rely on its suppliers for research needs. Consulting laboratories or individual consultants have the big advantage over academic institutions and supply firms in that the information generated becomes proprietary. Further, many consultants are the best source for specialized problems because of their experience in a given specific subject matter area Organization of R & D Department The organization and structure of an R & D department may differ from the organization and structure of a n R & D program in an academic institution because the faculty in a n academic institution tend to follow lines of their graduate training. Some times they may respond directly to the needs of the industry in the area wherein the academic institution is located. Further, many graduate students have their own interests without regard to the departments program or areas of expertise and may be of little help without funds to support their studies in a given line of research or product development. All of these views suggest that strong leadership must be directed to build research and develop ment programs around the interest of the food firms in their area of interest.

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Some Purposes of an R & D Program The purposes of a n R&D program from a n industry viewpoint would include the following: 1. Reduction of costs with greater return on investments

2. Improvement of product quality

3. Increasing factory or firm's productivity 4. Developing new products compatible with production lines

5. Providing technical services to management 6. Elimination of materials

losses with better utilization of waste

7. Increasing sales 8. Generating new knowledge 9. Keeping the firm up-to-date on government regulations and technical matters, particularly with FDA, USDA, EPA, and OSHA. 10. Maintaining the firm's creditability with consumers.

The purposes will vary by firm and area of food production, but in the main they are the ultimate concerns to generate better returns on their investment. In an academic institution, the R&D program would have the following purposes: 1. The development of new methods, new practices, new processes, new products, and new technologies; 2. The solving of basic and applied problems;

3. The advancement of knowledge within any given area; 4. The creation of new opportunities; and,

5. The dissemination of new information.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT

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These purposes of R & D differ widely, but they are accomplished through the same route, that is, people. The people are the most important first step in the development of an R&D program. People do research, not food firms or institutions. People should be selected for research work based on their own enthusiasm, interest, originality, and creative thinking abilities. People in research must be able to reco@e problems (opportunities), they must be alert to original solutions, and they must be capable of following through to fruition. Experience is a wonderful teacher, but the experienced researcher must be one that has a record of accomplishments and one that is responsible to see that the solutions are found. Research is not something that can be turned on and off at will. Research and research people must have the follow through and they must strike when the “iron is hot”. A researcher must be creative if they expect to make accomplishments in an R&D program. Creativity is a difficult concept for certain people, but a food researcher can become creative if they are dedicated to their chosen profession, if they learn to participate and study the ramifications of food shows and EXPO’S, and if they keep abreast of the literature, and, most of all, if they learn to dream a little bit about their work. Research is exciting work and the researcher must have that drive, that determination, and that fire to want to solve the problem and inform all that will listen to his or her accomplishments. Its the actual communication of what, why, when, how, and where that make the story complete. A good researcher does not stop part way through the project, but sees the real glory in wrapping it all up in a neat package for all to see, that is, the published article or paper. Organization of an R & D Program A food firm may be organized differently depending on its size, its produds, and its ownership. Generally, all of them include the following areas as illustrated here in Figure 2.1 This approach sets forth the “ M s ” of the food industry with the exception of the MONEY. Money comes h m the owner, the Board of Directors, the banks, or other sources. Obviously, money is the key ingredient and investments are granted in the hopes that good returns on the investment will be rewarding to the investor.

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

R & D Responsibilities Management of a food firm may be made up of several subdivisions including an R & D department with a Manager or Vice President of R&D as its head. The R&D department may have many responsibilities not limited to research and develop mental activities. The R&D department gets its directions directly from management and the Policy Statement of the food firm. The following is a typical Policy Statement

Our food firm is committed to producing and processing high quality, safe, and nutritious products. We are successful because we care about you, our employees, and our customers whom we serve. We only use safe ingredients and we make our products uniformly. We market our products efficiently and we give our customers a good value for their money. We wish to continue to grow and to that end we believe in supporting research for better raw materials, greater efficiency in processing by using better equipment and methods, and the constant development of new products for new markets. We belieue in maintaining good relationships with not only our employees and our customers, but with our suppliers and the public at large. We believe in giving fair and just treatment to all concerned. We anticipate continued growth and we expect all our employees to contribute to our firm’s advancement. The reader should note that this policy statement stresses the interest of the firm in research. The policy statement does not state that the research is in-house, contracted for, or conducted through the use of consultants. The concern of the food firm is to stay ahead in the industry and to keep advancing its line of products efficiently. Every food firm establishing an R & D program should first establish a MISSION Statement. This statement should state in broad terms the scope of activities of the R & D department. The statement might read as follows:

The mission of the R & D department is to serve as the technical arm and to keep management up to date on technical know how and information in the areas of corporate vested

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT

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interest. R & D will be responsible for developing new products, new processes, and new programs for the benefit of the food firm. R & D will serve as the liaison for the firm on food regulatory matters, food safety, and food technological problems. R & D will develop specifications for all incoming materials, products in process, and all finished products. R & D will be responsible for all corporate quality assurance problems including the development and application of Statistical Process Control procedures and the training of personnel in its use, application, and value. R & D will be responsible for maintaining current files on all labels and recommending changes as the need warrants. R & D will recommend and support an annual budget for management’s consideration. R & D will be responsible for the maintenance of the R & D physical facilities and for management of all personnel in the department. The R & D Department Generally in the organization of an R & D department, the f i s t consideration is the size and magnitude of the department including the problems confronting the food firm. An R & D department may be staffed by one person and be very successful, but more often than not, at least, in this day and age, the team approach is much preferred when organizing an R & D program. Following are 5 possible organizational plans (Figures 2.2 to 2.7). Each has its won advantage and its really up to the situation at hand that determines the organizational structure. Obviously, I prefer the organization plan as shown in Fig. 2.7. This plan utilizes much that is in each of the other plans and stresses the team effort needed for covering all areas of most problems, Perhaps one of the most important aspects of any research program is to properly classify the area of study, particularly when making a literature study of that field. The system as shown in Figure 2-8 is similar to what IFT uses for classifying papers for presentation at their annual meetings. Its a good system and very simple to follow. It allows the researcher to classify his proposed area of study by both discipline and commodities. Of course, its always good to wander into other disciplines or commodities for gleaning of information that may be most pertinent.

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

The information shown in Figure 2-9 is a simplified path of how projects may proceed in a research program. The key points are: (1) obtaining a sponsor, (2) developing the strategy, (3) approval of the administration of the project including the formation of the research team, (4) the actual laboratory/pilot plant study, (5) the evaluation of the effort through the report, patents or other publications and (6) the suggestion(s) for future plans or additional studies in the area. Figure 2-10 states this information in a little different vein and shows the flow over time for completion of various aspects of any research proposal. Obviously, not all research can be completed in a year and some projects may be completed in a matter of days. The emphasis here is to show the researcher a proposed time table and how to log in the efforts as they are being attempted and completed. The Vice President for R & D or the Manager for R & D should have a library as all research starts in the library. The library should include his or her own textbooks, scientific journals-both primary and secondary (abstracts, reviews, nomagraph, annual reports, Advance in..., and copies of symposia on subjects related to the firm’s interest and manager’s areas of expertise), thesis and dissertations where applicable, translations of foreign papers, books, etc. that are germane, trade publications within the fiim’s field of interest, and Association Newsletters where applicable. Of course, the library must include Suppliers catalogues, Code of Federal Regulations, and an up-to-date copy of the Food Laws. Further, the library should have a computer tied to terminals for inter-library search. The Vice President or Manager of R & D must be an active member of various organizations relating to his or her field of interest including the local section and national IFT. He or she should be a participant in various technical meetings, committees, etc. concerned with the food industries. The Vice President or Manager of an R&D department or program has three primary functions: (1) To obtain professional and staff personnel for the R & D department, (2) To develop a satisfactory R & D budget, and (3) To measure the productivity of the R 8z D program including assigning priorities and staff to the R & D programs. He or she must, also, be knowledgeable in all

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT

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fiscal matters beyond the budgets, including record keeping and costs of doing business. A manager of R & D must know how to manage first and be a technologist or scientist second. He or she must be ingenious, creative, imaginative, resourceful, a decision maker, a communicator of concepts and programs, have the capacity for problem solving and problem analysis, great skill in listening, always objective, capable of understanding and have great patience, ability to ask the right questions, great future vision, sound knowledge of the overall business of the firm, and have the ability to influence and upgrade the technology of the firm. Finally, the manager must have bold imagination and be most enthusiastic, and he must have great ability to work cooperatively in the interpretation of all food processing operations and research. The R & D manager is a most important asset to a food firm and he or she is the leader of the R & D team. He or she should be a manager first and a technical person second. His or her job is to lead and he or she leads by walking around (MBWA) and being visible and informed of what is taking place. The staff in a n R & D department varies with the size of the food firm or the institution and the extent of the work. Ideally, the minimum size for efficiency and coverage of the needs of most research programs would be 5 professionally trained staff members in addition to the Manager or Director. There should be a Food Scientist, Food Engineer, two Food Technologists (physical evaluation and sensory evaluation), Food Microbiologist and one or more technicians, interns, or graduate students. Obviously, the size can go up or down from this suggested minimum level. If a firm only has one R & D employee, that person should have knowledge in the above disciplines. If the firm has several product lines, its impossible to do justice with a single R & D person. Some authorities suggest that technical people can best be supervised and handled in modules of 5 as indicated above. Beyond 5 technical people, the direction, supervision and leadership depends solely on the VP or Manager for R & D. The VP or Manager is most crucial in any R & D program. The management of a food firm must make the h a l decision, but the fact remains that research does not cost in the long run.A good R & D program is the survival of any food firm in this day and age.

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Budget for the R & D Department

Development of budgets for R & D is a subject warranting much consideration by the R & D Manager and his staff as manufacturing, marketing, and some in management may not always understand the role and contribution of R & D to a food firm.Likewise, some in R & D do not always understand the role and functions of other aspects of the food firm.R & D people may give the impression to other personnel in the firm of showing off, displaying too much intelligence, acting snobbish, or just not showing enough practical know-how. Therefore, it behooves the manager of R & D to involve all personnel in other areas of the food firm to keep them acquainted with the work of R & D. Most importantly, the manager of R & D and all personnel in R & D must be good communicators, they must be cooperators, and they must present a positive attitude and get themselves involved in as many of the affairs of the firm as possible. Its most essential that the manager of R & D meet informally with managers of marketing, manufacture, purchasing, personnel, planning and management on a regular basis to keep them informed on the work underway and the progress being made on all projeds in the R & D department. The citing of the dedication and progress of each one of the people in R & D is most essential in building the future programs of R & D. Actual display of data, ROI, and projected ROI are most important. After each informal meeting (at least, quarterly), the R & D manager should document the informal meetings with a formal report along with charts and data indicating progress and future plans. There should be no surprises at budget time and.everyone must be fully informed ahead of the budget meeting. Thus, the work of R & D is known for its contribution to the growth of the food firm and budgets are handled with ease.

R & D Projects The manager assigns priorities to R & D projects based on the following criteria: urgency, potential tangible results, prospect for success, cost of personnel and facility time including implementation of the successful results, and patent protection to the firm.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT

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The R & D manager and top management should consider the following factors in the evaluation of any new potential product, process, or program: (1) The market potential for the new product, process, or program including such things as feasibility, size, stability, t h i n g ,

consumer prejudice, and contribution to present product lines.

(2) The legal aspects of the product or process as to patent, hazards, compliance with existing or future regulations, waste disposal, and any infringements on competitors products or processes. (3) The cost to manufacture versus the selling price or ROI. Consideration is given to availability of raw materials, ingrdents, packaging, shelf life, and facilities and equipment. (4) The useful life of the product and its effect on competing produds the firm manufactures.

(5) The specifications and skills required for manufacture, marketing, and quality assurance. (6) The timing of the introduction of the new product, new process installation, or the adoption of the new program.

The R & D Manager and his staff are the right arm to top management. They should be most informative and helpful to all other departments, and they can be most beneficial to the success of any modem food h.

REFERENCES Fennema, Owen. 1983. The Food Industry: Charting a Course to the Year 2000. Food Technology, January issue. Gregory, Carl E. 1969 The management of Creative People. Reprinted by ICI America Dream A Little Library from J. of Creative Behavior Vo13 No 4. Heid, J.L. Research and Development. Food Processing Operations. AVI Publishing Co.

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

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Keaton, P. W. 1980 Five Ways to Review R & D Programs. Research Management. September issue. Kipp, E. M. 1978. How to Construct an Effective Corporate R & D Budget. Research Management, May issue. Kirk, James R. 1977. Research Priorities in Food Science. Food Technology, July issue. Kramer, Stanley 1981 The Art of Selling your R & D Ideas. Research Management. March issue. Przybla, Ann E. 1989. Ingredients Needed for Healthy Foods. Food Engineering, May issue. Wald, Robert M. 1977. The Successful Technical Manager. Food Technology. July issue. Watson, Charles E. 1975 Developing Creative People. Research Management, May issue.

Figure 2-1 ORGANIZATION PLAN FOR A FOOD FIRM

Board of Directors (Money) I

I

I

I

I

I

I

Administration Clerical Library Computers

(Microbiology)

2

b

(Pilot Plant Supt.)

VP for R 8 0 L

(Physical Eval.)

Figure 2-2 ORGANIZATION OF THE R & D DEPARTMENT

Quality Assurance Control Evaluation Audit

20

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Figure 2·3 BASIC PLAN FOR R&D

DIRECTOR

MANAGER PROJECT LEADER

TECt-f\JQ..OOIST

TECHNICIAN

ASSISTANT

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT Figure 2-4

R&D ORGANIZATION BY DISCIPLINE

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Figure 2-5 R & D ORGANIZATION BY PRODUCT

I DIRECTOR

ANIMAL PRODUCTS

PLANT PRODUCTS

MILK

FRUITS

MEAT

VEGETABLES

POULTRY

GRAINS

EGGS

PULSES

FISH

TUBERS

ETC.

NUTS SUGARCROPS OIL SEEDS

SEA WEEDS ETC.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT

23

Figure 2-6 R & D ORGANIZATION BY PROCESS

m1 BAKING

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PASTEURIZATION

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24

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Figure 2-7 R&D IDEAL ORGANIZATION PLAN (TEAM WORK)

PROJECT LEADER(S)

PROJECT LEADER(S)

DISCIPLINES

DISCIPLINES

PRODUCTS

PRODUCTS

PROCESS

PROCESS

QUALITY ASSURANCE

QUALITY ASSURANCE

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT Figure 2-8 CLASSIFICATION OF R & D BY DISCIPLINES WITHIN A GIVEN COMMODITY COMMODITLES Y m

B aEl

DISCIPLINES

11

25

26

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Figure 2-9

THE PATH OF PROJECT "G"

-

INDIVIDUAL ASSOCIATION

GOVERMENT

- RESEARCHGROUP (Design Vehicle) 4

FINANCIAL SUPPORT

-

-

ADMINISTRATION HEIRARCHY

LITERATURE PATENTS OTHER AGENCIES

RESEARCH TEAM 1

MATERIALS SUPPLIES LABORATORY PILOT PLANT

EQUIPMENT

PROCESS EVALUATION UPPORT PERSONNEL

EVALUATJON (REPORTS)

ANALYSIS

FUTURE PLANS (ADDITIONAL STUDIES)

23 PATENTSlPUBLlCATlON

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT

Figure 2-10

TIME SCHEDULE FOR A GIVEN PROJECT (Estimated duration 1 year)

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Objectives Developed & Methods Established Funds Secured Objective I Completed Objective II Objective 111 Completed

Discussion of Results COmDleted SummarytConclusions Completed Recommendations Final Report, Publications/Patents, & P r o m Expenses Submitted

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29

Chapter 3 STAFFING THE R & D DEPARTMENT “It takes a special kind of independence to invent something. You put yourself and your ideas on the line. And maybe people will say that you%e crazy or that you’re impractical”. George Bush People along with facilities, equipment, materials and suitable environment are all required for a successful R & D department. People should be the first requirement. People develop new products, new processes, and new methods for food preservation. People in great part are solely responsible for the success or failure of an R & D program. The selection and the the manage ment of people in the R & D department is crucial for accomplishing the ultimate objectives of the department. People make things happen and they are most important for the success of any food firm. The R & D Leader The first essential for the success of any R & D program is the Vice President of R & D, the Manager, the Leader, the Supervisor, the Chairman, The Major Professor, the Advisor, or whatever the title. This individual needs a thorough understanding of human relations, that is, standards of performance, discipline, and leadership abilities (see Figure 31).This individual must know how to motivate, how to communicate, and how to produce. He or she must be intelligent, well versed in the fundamentals of food preservation, food science and food technology; but always interested in learning new things. Thus, this person must be a professional, must be technically competent, and abreast of the field. The manager must be creative, innovative, versatile, enthusiastic, and exhibit great ingenuity. The manager must know the job thoroughly and he or she must work smart, that is exhibit great common sense, be well organized, and be most capable of using his or her time effectively.

30

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Other characteristics or traits, I would look for in my R & D leader would include a person who is reliable, a person who thrives on challenges, someone who is goal oriented, a person having high energy level, someone who Contributes beyond expectations, a person that is flexible, someone with great self respect, and an individual that contributes beyond expectations. I would, also, add that I would want a person as the leader of the R & D department who lives in the real world. He or she can be a dreamer, but they must be realistic. This leader of the R & D department must be able to recognize talent, be capable of attracting and holding productive people as part of the staff, have ability to direct and delegate effectively, be competent in handling problems and in dealing with new concepts, and be a person that can demonstrate good ability to interface effectively with superiors, peers, and subordinates. Most importantly this leader must be a good listener, he or she must be readily accessible, and he or she must always be visible. Interviewing, itself, is a separate aspect that the head of the

R & D department must understand and practice. A proposed interview evaluation form is shown in Figure 32. In addition to the completion of this form, the interviewer should summarize the interview by answering the following questions: 1. Does the applicant have the ability to adjust to the position?

2. Will the applicant have the ability to do the work required? 3. Will the applicant be accepted by ceworkers and other supervisors? 4. Does the applicant have a genuine interest in the position?

5. What is the possibility of the applicant remaining with the organization?

6. Does the applicant show potential for growth?

7. Are their any recognizable interfering fadors with the applicant?

STAFFING THE R & D DEPARTMENT

31

Most leaders fail because they are insensitive to others or they are unable to understand things from other peoples perspectives. Good leaders have a warm and pleasant personality, they have the ability to build team work, and they have the know-how to make employees feel important as individuals. Good leaders are like good coaches, that is, they understand their role as the coach and they do not try and be the quarterback. Thus, they are predominantly a developer of people and their skills. The following quotation from Elbert Hubbard, “REMEMBER THIS’,perhaps sums up my feelings relative responsibilities of cclworkers and others to their h

Remember this if you work for a man, in heavens’ name work for him. If he pays you wages which supply bread and butter, work for him; speak well of him; stand by him and by the firm he represents. If put to a pinch, an ounce of loyalty is worth a pound of cleverness. I f you must vilify, condemn and eternally disparage resign your position, and when you are outside, damn to your heart’s content, but as long as you are part of the firm do not condemn it. I f you do that, you are loosening the tendrils that are holding you to the firm, and at the first high wind that comes along, you will be uprooted and blown away, and probably will never know the reason why. The leader of the R & D department has two other critical requirements beyond leading the staff and the program of the department. First, they must be a numbers person and capable of building and defending a fair annual operating budget Budgets are quite simple and they should be based on actual facts including cost of living increases and maintenance of equipment and instruments. Further, they should include new items as needed to stay up-to-date and, hopefully, ahead of the best competitors. Secondly, they must develop long range plans and goals for the department. Long range goals include knowing the firms mission and objectives and how R & D fits into the growth plans of the firm.R & D should direct the organization into new growth areas, new processes to stay competitive, new products and packaging systems, and new line extensions where applicable. The accomp lishments of the R & D efforts will give greater returns on the

32

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

investments (ROI) if the leadership shows great imagination and realistic directions toward new areas and developments for the firm. The long range plans must constantly be updated and they must always have clearly defined written goals.

Additional R & D Personnel The other personnel in the department must have much of the leaders characteristics and attributes and be potential replace men& down the road. First and foremost, they too must be well trained in given disciplines including an overall knowledge of the food industry with specific depth in the fields of food processing, technology and science. Each member of the staff must be imbued with confidence, maturity, and self directing. He or she must be self motivated, have a n unusual high degree of integrity, be ethically and morally sound, positively oriented, and continuously searching, learning, developing, expanding, evolving, and interested in his or her area of expertise. A good R & D person must be above all honest, sincere, and reliable. They must be persuasive, tenacious, have great vision, always seeking challenges and new fields to conquer. Further, a good researcher should be most confident and helpful to subordinates to achieve their full potential. A good researcher is one who maintains control over all situations and a person who is a n outstanding communicator, both the written and spoken word. The good researcher should be proud of his or her accomplishments and be capable of sharing their information for the good of the firm and the food industry.

Tips for Supervisors The following are ten tips for all supervisors, leaders, managers, etc to follow for success with their ceworkers or employees: 1. Learn to give clear instruction ahead of time, that is, the

“how”, “why’, and ”what“ of the job or detail to be accomplished. 2. Commend all that you work with for a job well done.

3. Never criticize within hearing distance of third parties.

STAFFING THE R & D DEPARTMENT

33

4. Speak politely to all employees, ceworkers and superiors.

5. Listen to all employees attentively and without interrup tions.

6. Give top attention every day to any employee or a c e workers communications that require a reply.

7. Exchange ideas with ceworkers and employees and enlist their cooperation and suggestions toward developing better methods and procedures. 8. Within the limits of your area of responsibilities, delegate as much as you can. 9. Make all employees and co-workers feel that they belong and are valued members of your team. 10. Give every ceworker or employee a chance to train for promotion.

Starting a New Employee The following are suggestions that work when starting a new employee or coworker on the job 1. Give him or her an orientation to the firm and the department, preferably via video, showing the history of the firm,the officers and top management personnel, the human resource personnel, and the specific details of employment: a. Standards of performance, b. Levels of acceptable qualities, c. Policies on work habits and ethics, and, d. Dress code and safety factors. All of the above should, also, be in writing for each employee.

2. Describe the job in detail, how it fits into the total R & D program and the goals of the firm. 3. Start the new employee with on-thejob training with the Manager or Leader of the R & D department as the trainor, not ceworker or the Big-Brother or Big-Sister practice.

L

34

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES 4. Evaluate their progress at the end of the first day, end of the first week, and end of the first month. At the end of six months openly discuss their progress and make objective suggestions where applicable. Finally, at the end of the first year evaluate the new co-worker or employee and inform them of their future status with the department or the food firm. Be generous with praise and cautious with criticism.

5. Show a genuine interest in each co-worker or employee, call them by name, smile at them, and speak to them. Be alert to give service to them and give suggestions and requests, not orders. The most important thing is to treat others as you would want to be treated. Remember, “What counts most in life is what we do for others”.

In Figure 3 3 , there are 15 suggestions for “Leadership that Pay Big Dividends”. These are the suggestions that have been used most successfully when working with people. Figure 3-1

A SHORT COURSE IN HUMAN RELATIONS

The Six Most Important Words:

“I Admit I Made A Mistake” The Five Most Important Words:

“You Did A Good Job” The Four Most Important Words:

“what Is Your Opinion?” The Three Most Important Words:

“If You Please” The Two Most Important Words:

“Thank You” The One Most Important Word:

“We” The Least Important Word:

“I” Printed with the permission

of

Parade Magazine.

STAFFING THE R & D DEPARTMENT Figure 3-2 INTERVIEWING EVALUATION FORM (Rating scale: 1 equals Outstanding, 2 equals Above average, 3 equals Average, 4 equals Acceptable, 5 equals Limited potential)

NAME APPEARANCE: Grooming Manners

Posture Neatness

---

Dress Other

PREPARATION FOR INTERVIEW Knowledge of position Knowledge of Co. Pertinent and relevant questions EXPRESSION: Organization Ideas

Presentation Delivery . _ _

DIRECTION Well defined goals Realistic and Practical

Confidence

MATURITY. Responsible Decision Maker SINCERITY: Genuine Real

Self-reliant Leader Honest Wholesome attitude

PERSONALITY Enthusiasm Motivated Likeable

Industrious Will Fit -___ Total individual

QUALIFICATIONS: Academic Preparation Fits position available OVERALL EDUCATION Long range potential Ability

Work Experience

Ilrive and ambition

CANDID COMMENTS: (Spell out) Strong points; Sour notes;

Suggestions; Interviewed by

Date

35

36

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Figure 3-3

LEADERSHIP SUGGESTIONS THAT I LOOK FOR

1. Set a GOOD EXAMPLE. Employees tend to emulate the boss, so make sure you are worth imitating.

2. Call people by their FIRST NAME. There is nothing as nice as a cheerful work of greeting.

3. Keep people INFORMED. Eliminate the grapevine. When changes are in the offing, let people know. 4. Show a GENUINE INTERSET in everyone. You can learn to like something about almost everyone, if you try.

5. Be THOUGHTFUL of the opinions of others. There are 3 sides to every controversy, yours, the other fellows, and the right one. 6. Be ALERT to give service. What counts most in life is what we do for others.

7. Give CREDIT when credit is due. Everyone wants and needs recognition. 8. COMMEND an employee for a job well done. PRAISE in public, CRITICIZE in private. Ridicule a man for his mistakes and he will tend to avoid situations which expose him to the possibility of making another mistake. 9. Let people know your PLANS. Ask for their suggestions. Let them know that you want them to play a role in the decision process. 10. Emphasize SKILL, not rules. Keep an open mind about unorthodox solutions. His or her way may be better than your way. 11. Don’t give ORDERS, give requests and suggestions. 12. Give your people GOALS and a sense of direction. They need to know the why’s, what’s, and how’s of the work. 13. Within the limits of your responsibilities, DELEGATE as much as you can. 14. Give every worker a chance to TRAIN FOR PROMOTION. 15. Make all employees feel that they BELONG and that they are valued members of your team.

37

Chapter 4 THE DESIGN AND LAYOUT OF THE R & D FACILITY “The road to success is always under construction’,. Richard Levy The design of an R & D facility is determined in great part by the funds or capital available. A small facility may be most adequate depending on the scope and type of work contemplated. Whatever the size of the facility, it should be designed with future expansion in mind. Regardless of size, basic considerations should be developed around the type of operation contemplated and, of course, the use to be made of the facility. The design should be functional and include offices, laboratories, pilot plant, and storage areas all in one general area. The following design as shown in Figure 41 has worked well and it is one that offers much flexibility. It was designed to service 5 full time professionals, several graduate students or technicians and room for a classroom or adult seminars. This facility was designed for work with plant and fish type products, however, minor changes in the design could permit the processing of animal type products by adjusting for a killing floor, dressing area and a cutting room per se. Dairy foods could be handled in this type of facility as well as fabricated, formulated products, and baked products. In this design, the power, services, etc. all came from the main plant, The pilot plant is the focal point of the facility and this is as it should be in any R & D operation in the food industries. In this design, the pilot plant is some 120 feet long by 40 feet wide or 80 feet wide for the entire facility, that is, 40 additional feet wide for the storages, laboratories that service the pilot plant and for the offices over the storages and laboratories. The total area has some 14,400square feet of floor space. This design of the pilot plant has a minimum of a 20 foot ceiling with two floor drains running the length of the pilot plant located 10 feet from each wall with two disposals located in each drain 30 feet from each end of the room.

38

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

These drains should be formed from 112 round tiles, at least, 12 inches in diameter with shoulders designed for placing cast rust resistant steel grates (see Figure 42). The grates should be easily removed for cleaning. At the end of each tile drain and in the center between each disposal, high pressure water lines should be installed in the drains for thorough flushing of the drains. The floor in the pilot plant should be tiled using 6 x 6 inch tile 3/4 inch thick laid in sand on top of a concrete base. The tile should be grouted using acid and alkali resistant grouting. The floors should slope a minimum of 118 inch per foot to the tile drains, thus the water never flows or drains more than 10 feet in any one direction. The walls should be white ceramic tiled from the floor to the ceiling and at the floor juncture, the tile should curve outward a minimum of 1 inch. The window ledges should, also, be white ceramic tiled and the ledges should be on a 35 degree angle so that nothing can lay on the window sill, thus, allowing it to be flushed cleaned. If anything is hung on the walls, the holes should be completely sealed after hanging the fixture. All windows in the pilot plant should be sealed shut and all doors off from the pilot plant should be self closing. The outside doors to the pilot plant should, also, be self closing and equipped with air curtains to control the ingress of flies when opening to receive or ship out products. All doors should be tight fitting to prevent the entry of any rodents. Further all doors should be self closing and never propped open. The ceiling in the pilot plant should be painted white using white ceramic paint. All services (electric (110 and 220), steam, gas, air, vacuum) in the pilot plant should be properly suspended from the ceiling using rust resistant or galvanized tubular hangers. Drop lines from the main feeders or electric busduct should be used to supply services to each unit operation in the pilot plant. In the layout of the pilot plant, one should know ahead of time, if possible, the size and exact location of each piece of equipment and, thus, make proper allowances for in-line valves etc. when installing the service lines.

DESIGN AND LAYOUT OF THE R 8z D FACILITY

39

The pilot plant and all ancillary laboratories should be designed with positive filtered air flow. The illumination should be 120 foot candles using MacBeth or equivalent with proper protection to all fixtures, that is, plastic coverings or egg crate coverings over the fixtures. Clean-up hoses and sanitizing lines should be installed at 25 foot intervals so that hoses or lines need not be dragged the entire length of the pilot plant. If they should be suspended from the walls, they should be mounted flush to the walls with proper grouting after the installation to prevent any possible harborage of inseds. The pilot plant should have, at least, 4 safety showers equipped with eye wash basins that are strategically located throughout the pilot plant facility. These should be checked, at least monthly, for proper operation. The laboratories opening onto the pilot plant should have all doors open out into the pilot plant and, as stated before, the doors should be self-closing. The doors should have safety glass protected windows in the upper 1/3rd of each door. Preferably, the wall between the pilot plant and each laboratory should be constructed using clear glass block or plate glass windows.

Construction Each laboratory should be constructed using white ceramic tile or sealed concrete blocks that are painted with white ceramic paint. The floors should be tiled in each laboratory for ease of keeping clean and for greater service. The ceilings should all be designed for suspended acoustical tiles. In the center of the three main laboratories (microbiology, chemistry, and physical), services should be suspended from the ceiling or built into the floors for bringing up through the benches. Each laboratory should be constructed with a central 4 foot wide bench plus 30 inch benches on each side. At the end of each side bench, provisions should be made for 4 technician/graduate student 5 foot built in desks in each room. 36 inch high cabinets should be mounted over each side wall bench 24 inches above the top of each bench for

40

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

chemicals, glassware, supplies, etc. However, the center bench in each laboratory should be left open, but sinks should be installed with disposals at each end. The bench tops in the microbiology and chemical laboratories should be made of acid/alkalie resistant materials and in the physical evaluation laboratory, the tops should be properly fitted polished stainless steel. The sensory evaluation rooms and the experimental kitchen are designed for use in formulating foods for subsequent processing in the pilot plant. The kitchen’s secondary function is for preparation of samples for sensory evaluation, either by the sensory taste panel or the consumer panel. The sensory rooms are in two adjacent areas with the taste panel room designed for seating of 10 judges at one sitting while the consumer panel room is designed for seating up to 10 people around two taste testing tables. Each of these areas should be equipped with running water and disposals with proper receptacles for expectorating. The booths should be equipped with comfortable chairs on coasters for ease of entry or leaving without disturbing fellow taste testers. The taste panel booths should be wired for installation of computer consoles at each booth with the base unit in the kitchen. Each of the rooms should be well insulated as to noise and they should have positive filtered air flow with the humidity, also, controlled. These rooms should be comfortable and the walls free from any pictures, signs, etc. The walls, ceilings, and partitions should be painted with a Matt gray No. 8 paint. The counters in the kitchen and each of the taste panel booths should be made of stainless steel. The pass through openings for each taste panel booth should be, at least, to 8 inches by 15 inches. The doors should, also, be made of stainless steel and they should slide up and down easily or they should be hung for swinging in and out. The room should be lighted with MacBeth Daylight lamps and they should be adjustable for light intensity and color control.

The refrigerated storages should be self contained and each unit individually thermostatically controlled. The units should be constructed of stainless steel or equivalent non-corrosion resistant materials with all doors self closing. In addition each unit should have humidity control and all units should be properly illuminated. Adequate dry storage areas with humidity controls should

DESIGN AND LAYOUT OF THE R & D FACILITY

41

be provided in the refrigerated storage area or over the shops as indicated on the floor plan. The offices and conference/class room (see Figure 43) located over the storageAaboratory area should be designed for comfort and efficiency with outside illumination where possible. The entrance to the office area is from stairs located at either end of the walk way or from the inside stairs located by the shop area. Each staff office should have a conference style desk with two extra chairs in addition to a n executive type chair, a personal cabinet, 2 to 3 five draw metal files, a bookcase, credenza and a computer table with tie in to the master computer or main frame and printer. The office should be well illuminated (150 foot candles), and painted a light color. The conference/classsroom should be equipped with a chalk board, or better still, a panaboard at one end, projedor screen, comfortable chairs and tables setup school room style for 50 or more persons, lectern and a 3 x 5 table at the front. The clerical and secretarial office should be properly equipped for up to 3 persons. The Vice PresidenUManagers Office should be equipped with a chalk board, or better still, a panelboard, chairs for up to eight persons, desk, credenza, files, bookcase and chairs as indicated above for the staff. The library should be equipped with floor to ceiling bookcases, two desks with chairs and two comfortable chairs for reading. The computer room should have two terminals plus the main console and printer along with necessary tables and chairs. The facility should have a small shop for maintaining equip ment files, parts, and pertinent materials along with tools for maintaining the equipment in the pilot plant. The shop ceiling is 10 feet high as are the laboratories and the area over the shops may be used for dry storage, parts, small equipment, files, etc. The shop should be equipped to make piping, electrical, steam, air, etc. changes as needed. Further, the shop should have adequate tools and equipment to make minor parts and changes as needed for given types of equipment.

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45

Chapter 5 FUNCTIONS AND USES OF THE PILOT PLANT “Imagination is more important than knowledge, for knowledge is limited, whereas imagination embraces the entire world ’1 A1bert Einstein Pilot plants may be designed to duplicate a given commercial line or to maintain product identity or they may be designed with several different unit operations that can be operated independently for studying their effect upon product quality or efficiency of production. Further, they may be designed for changing any one unit operation as necessary to confirm their effects on productivity or quality improvement. There are many problems in the food supply today that need to be addressed and the pilot plant is one of the first places to develop the strategies that are going to keep our food supply competitive and effective, for example, Evaluation of new cultivars, new formulations, ingredients, and/or new processes and their effect on hished product quality improvement, including nutritive value retention. Processing practices that retain freshness, absolute safety, and sensory enhancement. Elimination of waste and better utilization of any waste materials that do occur. Better control of spoilage organisms without loss of product qualities. Identification and total elimination of potential hazards in the food chain. Development of on-line sensors to predict and control quality. Adoption of computerized systems for detailed analysis and control of processing lines and product qualities.

46

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Conducting systems of application and uses of food additives for greater product enhancement followed by shelf life evaluation and consumer acceptance. These suggestions could be greatly expanded to fit into any firms needs and program. Suffice to say that an R & D activity and function within a food firm or an institution can and should serve many functions and provide many services if it is to be useful and beneficial.

R & D in an Academic Setting

In an academic situation, an R & D facility can be used for classroom instruction and for demonstration of given unit operations and their effect on product qualities, processing practices, or for processing experimental samples for analytical studies. The pilot plant is an ideal facility for cooperation with production personnel on cultivar evaluation, production practices, removal of pesticide residues, if any, the uses of food additives and processing aides, and the effects of types of processes on nutritive value retention. Students need to work with machines and processes to understand practices that exist in the industry and how they can contribute to the improvement of the quality of processed products and the efficiencies needed within the industry. The R & D facility is a n almost must area for the training of graduate students by giving them hands on experience to better work within the industry. Hands on experience and the utilization of pilot plant equipment enables a graduate student to better understand food processing and its many ramifications and how the student can ultimately improve upon given unit operations for quality retention, process efficiencies, improved yields and through-puts. The many detailed studies by graduate students cannot be underestimated in their effects on the advancement of man’s knowledge of food processing. Of course, the facility serves as the faculties playground wherein they develop their expertise and the required publications to prevent the perish philosophy. The publish or perish philosophy is still with us and its not all bad as faculty can learn much from

FUNCTIONS AND USES OF THE PILOT PLANT

47

working with pilot plant equipment in the development of new foods and the science and technology of food preservation. Further, they will be better instructors because of their required work with the unit operations and given processes and they will be better able to communicate with h t hand knowledge with the commercial industry and their counterparts in the industries laboratories. The food industry is the ultimate winner in that most significant contributions to man’s knowledge come from the efforts of faculty. If one traces the history of food processing and its many achievements, one will find that the academic personnel have added much to the preservation of food and to the improve ments in food products as we know them today. Their published works are most significant for the improvements of processing technology and the development of procedures and processes for greater efficiencies, better utilization of raw materials, product quality improvement and the overall nutritive retention of our food supply. Their research papers, research bulletins, books, monographs, and other means of communication have contributed immensely to the improvement of our food supply and preservation practices. Their teachings have been most beneficial to all and many of the leaders in the food industry today are the fruits of faculty advising, couseling, and instruction. Uses of the R & D Facility An R & D facility serves a food firm in much the same manner. Specific examples include the following: keeping the firm abreast of changes that are beneficial to controlling and improving coats, improvement in given unit operations, evaluation of new equip ment, updating of processing systems, improvement in quality control and product assurance, defining the critical control points and hazards, control of any nutritional losses, development of better packaging technologies including shelf life performance, the designation of potential food additives and their application and uses, and the proper uses of chemicals in keeping the food plant clean.

Many supply firms servicing the food industry have need for the evaluation of their equipment either in-house or by contractual arrangements with outside laboratories or academic institutions.

48

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

They may not have in-house laboratories for testing this equip ment and its many applications, thus, an R & D facility is the right choice and it should be most helpful. In some R & D facilities, the supplier can and should be a part of the team to evaluate the new piece of equipment and have a hand in the development of any report. The combined efforts of the supplier with the researcher benefits all parties. Contract Research An R & D facility may only do contract research or do contract research as part of its work load. This kind of research may be proprietary and require the researcher and/or the R & D facility to sign agreements to this effect before initiating any arrange ments. Many R & D researches look at this type of research as a n opportunity to stay out in front and to better understand potential changes within the industry. Further, contract research has many off shoots. That is, inside leads for further studies, updating of the facility, funds to support other studies or graduate student, technicians or even staff. Contract research may involve such areas as: Pesticide, herbicide, chemical residues and removal, Ingredient evaluation, Maturity/storage studies, Equipment evaluation, Development of new processes, products, packaging systems including materials, shelf-life studies, nutrient retention, or quality improvement, Development of on-line sensors and their correlation to bench monitoring systems, Market studies along with consumer acceptance, New product formulations, Microbial controls,

FUNCTIONS AND USES OF THE PILOT PLANT

49

Development of specifications, New preservation practices including use of processing aides, Chemical composition including changes during processing and shelf life. The R & D facility can easily justify its existence and its use if the personnel operating it understand that research and product development does pay big dividends not just to the firm,but to the researcher that has that gebup and go-get-’em attitude, the insatiable desire, and the inner drive to make accomplishments. Its a great feeling to know that you have discovered, developed, and communicated your results to all that will listen or read or look. Research and development work in the food industry is a fascinating world unto itself.

51

Chapter 6 EQUIPMENT AND PILOT PLANT LAYOUT FOR THE R & D FACILITY ‘Zet us dedicate ourselves to ensuring that America is always a land in which, for those who dare to create new technologies and new businesses, the air is clear and the sky is open and the energies of man are free, where the enthusiasm for invention and the spirit of enterprise is always part of the American spirit, where men and women who want to build and dream can always find a h o m e . . Today, Tomorrow, and for all time to come”. George Bush

The equipment and the layout of the R & D facility w i l l depend, of course, on the size of the structure, its intended use, the funds available and the interest of the food firm or institution. The following is a list and layout for a plant food operation based on use by 5 professionals and several graduate students or technicians. It can be easily adjusted for other needs as they develop. Equipment For The Pilot Plant

The pilot plant is the focal plant of the R & D facility. The layout of the pilot plant should include the following:

Receiving area weighing Grading storing Formulating

52

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Preparation area washing sorting

Peeling, Coring, Husking, Shelling, Crushing Blanching cooling

Can, Jar, Package Filling Area Container washing Filling Product Brine/syrup or tablets or seasoning Exhausting/vacuumizing/gasing Closing

Preservation area Retorting Freezing (IQF, tray, bulk) Drying (Tray, Belt, Vacuum) Freeze drying Dehydro Freezing Fermenting (Acidic, alcoholic) Frying

Extruding Smoking

Storage area Room Temperature Freezer Temperature Shelf Life Conditions Equipment for a Plant Products Pilot Plant

The following is a specific list of equipment fm a fruit and vegetable research and development operation. The proposed lines as shown in Figures 6-1 thru 4 are specific for the items indicated, but they can easily be modified to handle other commodities or adjusted to substitute other unit operations. For example the snap bean line can easily be changed to handle peas, lima beans, or corn by changing the preparation equipment as

EQUIPMENT AND PILOT PLANT LAYOUT

53

suggested for this pilot plant operation. Similarly, the tomato line can handle potatoes, peaches, or pears with slight modifications.

All equipment in contact with the food should be of stainless steel or equivalent and all structural supports, should be of

tubular rust resistant metal. Much of the preparation equipment should be mounted on casters for ease in moving into and out of the pilot line as needed. All the equipment should be of sanitary design and properly shielded for safety. All servicea for the equipment should be designed for quick hook-ups with controls on each unit operation. Most of the following list of equipment is available from food equipment supply h. The firms listed are not necessarily the only supplier, but they are ones that have supplied equipment that I a m familiar with. The Model No. or size listed is, also, equipment that I have used successfully in a pilot plant. Sweet Corn Husker Sweet Corn Cutter Lima Bean & Pea Sheller Snap Bean Snipper Snap Bean Size Grader Snap Bean and Asparagus Cutter Abrasive Root Crop Peeler Chemical Peeler Continuous Water Blancher Tomato Juice Extractor Fruit Pulper Fit2 Mill Homogenizer Hand Pack Particulate Filler Volumetric/Juice Filler Can and Jar Washer Urschel Slicer, Dicer, Strip Cutter, and Mill Can Closing Machines (Steam-flo and Vacuum (No 1, No. 303, No. 46 oz. and No. 10) Glass Capper adjustable for various glass containers and finishes Can and Jar Spin Cooler Flexible Bag Sealer Flexible Bag former and sealer

54

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Mixing Tanks (5, 10, 20, 50 gal) Steam Jacketed Kettles (5, 10, 20 gal) Vacuum Concentrating Kettle (20 and 50 gal) spray Dryer Freeze Dryer Pressure Retort Tray Dehydrator Single and Twin Screw Extruders Pop Corn Popper Pop Corn Seasoning Applicator mftg. Granular Salter Tablet Dispenser Continuous Potato and Corn Chip Fryer High Temperature Short Time Sterilizer Continuous Tubular Blancher Steam Tray Blancher Slush Freezer Proofer and Rotary Baking Ovens Agitating Retort Simulator

Bench Model Belt Driver Disc Double Seamer Courtesy Dixie Canner Equipment CO.

Vacuum/Gas Model UVD Can Closing Machine Courtesy Dixie Canner Equipment Co.

EQUIPMENT AND PILOT PLANT LAYOUT

55

Other equipment includes conveyer belts, inspection belt, can and jar handling equipment, cider press and mill, and size graders for peas, potatoes, tomatoes, and other fruits. Stainless steel pans, trays, utensils, tables, and carts are essential depending on the extent of the operation.

Closing Machine Courtesy Dixie Canner Equipment Co.

Binot Extruder

Courtesy Dixie Canner Equipment Co.

56

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Ohio State University Pilot Plant Main Aisle

Ohio State University Pilot Plant Right Side Aisle Showing Tomato Line

EQUIPMENT AND PILOT PLANT LAYOUT

Vacuum Pan

Spray Dryer

57

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

58

Figure 6-1 LAYOUT OF TOMATO LINE IN OSU PILOT PLANT

1%

"

I:

*,

\.el

,'".,..

PEELED TOMATO LINE 1. Raw Tomatoes 2. Inspection Belt 3. Soak Washer 4. High Pressure Roller Washer 5. Chemical Peeler 6. Grading Belt 7. Empty Can Washer and feed track 8. Salt Tablet Dispenser 9. Cover Juicer 10. Continuous Exhaust Box 11. Continuous Double Seamer 12. Retort/Cooker-Cooler 13. Cased Product

EQUIPMENT AND PILOT PLANT LAYOUT

Figure 6-1 LAYOUT OF TOMATO LINE IN OSU PILOT PLANT - Continued

JUICE AND PULP LINE 14. Chopper 15. Hot Break 16. Surge Tank 17. Juice Extractor 18. Pulper 19. Concentrating Kettles 20. Can Filler 21. Double Seamer 22. Air Cooling of Ricked product 23. Cased Product

JUICE LINE 24. Surge Tank 25. Homogenizer 26. High Temperature Short Time Sterilizer 27. Filler 28. Salt Tablet Dispenser 29. Double Seamer 30. Inverter and Hold Track 31. Water Cooler 32. Cased Product

59

60

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Physical Evaluation Laboratory

The physical evaluation equipment should include scales for gross, net and drained weights, vacuum gauges, heavy duty electric can opener, screens for drained weight determination, stainless steel grading spoons, hand size graders for peas, beans, and pickles, rulers and given diameter plastic circles for defect measurements, hydrometers for sugar and brine solutions, brine cylinders, plastic grading trays, and headspace gas analyzers. In addition, the following instruments are essential: Color instruments: AGTRON Color Instrument Hunter Color & Color Difference Meter Spectronic 20 MacBeth-Munsell Disc Colorimeter

Color Evaluation of Tomato Juice

EQUIPMENT AND PILOT PLANT LAYOUT

Texture Instruments: Magness-Taylor Pressure Tester Christel Texture Meter FTC Texture Measurement System GOSUC Texturometer Viscosity/Consistency Instruments: Adams Consistometer Bostwick Consistometer GOSUC Consistometer Other Suggested Equipment: Specific Gravity Hydrometers Succulometer Infrared Moisture Meter

61

62

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Continuous Steam Blancher and Rod-Reel Washer being used for Snap Beans.

Alcohol Determination

EQUIPMENT AND PILOT PLANT LAYOUT

63

Microbiological Laboratory

The equipment for a micro lab is limited only by the extent of the microbiological research and development work. Glass ware and glass washing equipment is essential although many micro labs today use throw away plastic glassware. The basic equipment should include ovens, incubators, sterilizers or autoclaves, burners, colony counters, microscopes for 100 magnification for mold counting including Howard mold counting slides, microscopes with oil immersion lens with magnification to lo00 and modern water activity equipment. In addition specific equipment for fermentation studies, and identification media, and chemicals are essential for many programs.

GLC Measurement

64

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

HPLC Courtesy Campden Food & Drink Research Association

pH Measurement

EQUIPMENT AND PILOT PLANT LAYOUT

Image Analysis Courtesy Campden Food & Drink Research Association

Model # 17/18 Laboratory Finisher/Pulper Courtesy Dixie Canner Equipment Co.

Dixie Retort Equipped Processing Cans or Glass Jars

65

66

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Chemical Laboratory The chemical laboratory is an essential part of any analytical work on pilot plant samples, nutritional label preparation, quality assurance and formulation work. The extent of the equipment is again limited to funds, personnel, and interests. Basic equipment includes instrumentation and equipment for fiber, fat and oil, moisture, enzyme, pH and acidity, ash and mineral, carbohydrates (sugars and cellulose), vitamin and mineral assay, and protein analysis. The laboratory should be equipped with ovens, hoods, and a Muffle furnace. Also, glassware, chemicals and reagents are a major part of any analytical laboratory. Ideally, the chemical laboratory should be equipped to do chromatography work, both liquid and paper and if into flavor research and development work, a GCL apparatus must be part of the laboratory.

Distillate Concentration of Vapors

EQUIPMENT AND PILOT PLANT LAYOUT

67

Test Kitchen and Sensory Evaluation Laboratory This part of the R & D facility is most important for formulation and sensory evaluation. The equipment should include basic household equipment for sample preparation for the sensory work, that is, stove, pots and pans, refrigerator, spoons, forks and knives, glasses and food mixers or food processor. In addition the test kitchen should have basic restaurant pots and pans, mixers, ovens, and a heavy duty stove for product development work. The supplies would include flavors, colors, seasonings, and spices in addition to flour, sugar, starch, eggs, emulsifiers, thickeners, colorants, etc. All formulated products should come h m the kitchen for further study in the pilot plant.

Panel Evaluation in Room At Ohio State University

68

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Computers Probably the most important equipment for any R & D facility in these times is the availability and use of computers. Computers may be PC units or computers tied to the mainframe computer. In most cases both set-ups are desirable for all research personnel. The computers should be equipped with plotters and laser printers and modern software including spread sheets and statistics. Purchasing equipment for any part of the facility should only be made with extreme care and caution as all equipment is expensive and it takes “know how” to operate any piece of equipment for optimum results. However, equipment is essential to undertake many programs in R & D, but all equipment must be used to be of any value to the firm or the institution. In addition to the Tomato Line as shown in Figure 1, the following three lines are in-place at the Ohio State University Pilot Plant, that is: Snap Bean Line, Potato Chip Manufacture Line, and the Pop Corn Line. The snap bean line has production capacity of 1000 pounds per hour, the potato chip line at 100 pounds per hour and the pop corn at 250 pounds per hour. The details are shown here to give the researcher an opportunity to study various unit operations and how the many areas flow from one to another wherein improvements could be made.

EQUIPMENT AND PILOT PLANT LAYOUT

69

Figure 6-2

SNAP BEAN LINE

I

RAW BEANS

I DRY BEAN SORTER AND CLUSTER BREAKER

SNIPPER

SlZER U

>TWIN HOPPERS FOR LARGE & SMALL BEANS SLICER FOR LARGE BEANS INSPECTION BELTS

BLANCHE PUMP

SURGE TANK

ROD & REEL COOLER IQF BELT

INSPECTION BELT FILLER WITH SALTER FOR CANNED

BAG & BOX FILLER

ASE PACKER

70

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Figure 6-3 POP CORN MANUFACTURE

RAW CORN CONTROLLED STORAGE ROOMS

~ FEED HOPPER

~ HOT AIR POPPER

OLD MAID ELIMINATOR

~---SEASONINGAPPLICATOR

..

SALTER

FILLER

CASE PACKER

a

SHIP TO WAREHOUSE ANDIOR RETAIL OUTLETS

EQUIPMENT AND PILOT PLANT LAYOUT Figure 6-4 POTATO CHIP MANUFACTURE

STORAGE "A

lf

STORAGE

STORAGE

"B"

"C"

~---RAW POTATOES

r T O N E ELIMINATOR

rEELER

~NSPECTION !+---SLICER 14------'WASHER

!+---FRYER

SAL TER/SEASONER !+-----INSPECTION !+-----PACKAGING 14---

CASING

AREHOUSE/ RETAIL OUTLETS

71

72

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Heat & Control Potato Chip Fryer

Vareity Test Plot For Corn Hybrids

EQUIPMENT AND PILOT PLANT LAYOUT

73

Cretors Popcorn Popper, Seasoning Applicator, and Cristy Salter

~~

~

Juice Filler, Tablet Salter and Angelus Can Closing Machine in Ohio State University Pilot Plant

75

Chapter 7

NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT “A person who never made a mistake never tried anything new ”. Albert Einstein New product development is a major aspect of the food industry today. It all starts with new varieties, new cultivars, or new breeds; followed by new styles and types of packs: new ingredients and formulations; new engineered processes; and/or new packaging methods and new systems. It is all capped off by new label designs and new positioning practices to help the customer realize something is different about the product. Perhaps the most dramatic example of new produds is with the tomato. In the early days, tomatoes were peeled and canned as whole, almost whole or large pieces. Today they are not only peeled and canned as whole, almost whole, or large pieces; but as diced, sliced, crushed, juiced, pulped and concentrated as pulp or paste, soups, catsups and many many flavors and formulations of sauces for barbecuing and pizzas, salad dressings, and dried and fermented produds for flavors, seasonings, and cooking. The tomato used to be preserved as a canned or glassed packed product. The can is still the most popular form of packaging tomatoes and its many products; but, today glass and flexible packaging methods are a major part of presenting the product to the customer. Perhaps the greatest change has been the bulk storage systems for single, double or concentrated chopped or pulped tomatoes for later use in juice manufacture, sauces, catsups, soups, etc. The changes with the tomato has made it the leader in the development of new products, new processes, and new packaging systems. Its a great example of what can be done to process and merchandise an old product into many, many new styles, types, and formulated produds. The food industry in the past has relied entirely on state and federal agencies, service department of trade organizations, or suppliers for their research and development and new techno-

76

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

logies. Today, due to proprietary rights and competition, food firms may rely on their own organization to gather and evaluate information and apply it advantageously to their specific needs and interests. No firm today can exist on accidental discoveries. Many firms rely on their internal staff to duplicate or refine, upon their competitors products to more clearly meet their customer’s needs, to identify new business opportunities and potential winners and to focus the firms direction toward greater “company product fits”. The modern R & D department is directly responsible to general management and it is required to cooperate with every other department providing service and consultation along with its own program of research and development. More and more, the R & D department, being a planned organization, keeps ideas coming followed by testing and evaluation and eventually putting them to work advantageously in the interest of the firm. In the smaller firm, less coordination is required as all personnel are generally more closely knit and, thus, greater cooperation exists as everyone knows what is going on. Regardless of size, the following questions should be considered if one is attempting to develop new products, new processes, and/or new programs:

Is the organization, interested, and do they have the enthusiasm and capability to create new products or solve the prob lems with our old products? Is production oriented towards new products? Is marketing sufficiently motivated to meet the challenge of selling more new products? Is there sufficient capital available to invest in new products, new equipment for manufacturing, or the necessary in-plant modifications needed to produce the new product? Is this the best use for new capital? How does the proposed product fit into the exisiting lines of products we now manufacture and market?

Is there a stable source of raw materials, ingredients, and packaging materials for a new product?

NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

77

Is there a projected market for the new product? Does the new product have any advantages over any existing products? Are there any chances that our competition will scoop us on the new product venture? How can we protect our vested interest? Is the proposed product or process patentable? Are there trade secrets involved? How much lead time do we have?

Is the new product going to be cost competitive? Is the new product value competitive? Have we established specifications for the new product and, if so, have we developed quality control parameters and evaluation procedures? Have we developed any consumer data relative the need for and the use of this new product? What is the expected return on the investment? These questions are only a starting point, but they need positive answers if one is to proceed with new product, new processes, or new programs.

The Creative Person The first requirement after establishing the need, the desire, the interest, and the ability to develop new products is the selection of individuals to work in the new product area. Firms or deparb ments don’t develop new ideas, new products, new processes, or even new programs. People do. People are the essence of success in any firm.In a n R & D department one needs creativity. Creativity is a function of knowledge, imagination, and evaluation. The creative person receives this knowledge via study, observation, and open discussions. The creative person develops imaginative ideas that can be synthesized to achieve effective creativity. The creative person has a “can do” attitude. They approach all problems as opportunities and they look at problems with the idea of what “if’or what will it take to solve the problem. The creative person sets goals and goes about solving each problem or opportunity as it arises using that inner drive and experience to develop the new products, new processes, or the new programs.

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Creative people are the essence of success in the development of new products, new processes, or new programs. Creative people are people who are imbued with confidence, intellect, and the desire to solve problems or tackle challenges. Creative people are people who are dedicated. Creative people are people who are highly motivated. Creative people are people with an open mind, they are people who are receptive to new ideas, they are people who are free of bias or prejudice or misconceptions. Creative pee ple expose themselves to stimuli, data, ideas, and viewpoints. Creative people have the ability to listen and to learn like an apprentice. Creative people have a love for their role in the design and in the development of new products, processes, and programs. Creative people have great confidence in themselves and they should have great competence for doing the job. The creative person does not worry about all the “road blocks” or mental obstacles that many people become bogged down with. These mental blocks to creativity can be classed as perceptual, emotional, or cultural blocks. The perceptual blocks are based on preconceived viewpoints and the inability to see things in a fresh light. They tend to force a person to withhold or change their immediate judgement. The emotional mental blocks to creativity are based on prejudice as in a ‘closed mind’, fear of failure or ridicule, jealousy, over motivation (pressure from time and tension) or negativism. The cultural road blocks are due to apathy, complacency, unwilling to be bothered or those dominated by authority. The following are 17 “Road Blocks” listed by one author: IT WONT WORK

LET’S FORM A COMMITTEE WE’VE NEVER DONE IT BEFORE DONT BE RIDICULOUS IT IS’NT IN THE BUDGET IT’S AGAINST OUR POLICY LET’S SHELVE IT FOR THE TIME BEING

NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

79

WE’RE NOT READY FOR THAT HAS ANYONE ELSE TRIED IT

IT WONT WORK IN OUR DEPARTMENT OUR BUSINESS IS DIFFERENT

LET’S THINK ABOUT IT SOME MORE WE DID ALL RIGHT WITHOUT IT IT’S TOO RADICAL A CHANGE WE CANT PAY FOR THE TOOLS OR CHANGE OVER PARTS

WE DON’T HAVE ENOUGH TIME YOU CAN’T TEACH AN OLD DOG NEW TRICKS. Creative people have positive attitudes toward change and new ideas. They want to make the new idea work. They know that there must be a better way. They want to develop new products. They use the R & D department for what it was meant to be, that is, to solve problems, to contribute to progress, and to develop new produds. Creativity involves questioning, inquiring, “what would happen if”, “why”, “how”, “when”, “where”, and “who”. Creativity starts with defining the need for and the proper statement of the prob lem to arrive at the proper definition of the goal. Brain Storming

One method of developing new ideas is to use the “brain storming” technique wherein all possible ideas are listed regarding the formulation of a new product or new process without judging the ideas in anyway. The quality of the ideas is not important, ita the quantity of ideas that count in brain storming. Parnes gives the following visual representation of the effect of group a p proaches to problem solving: “The configuration in Fig. 7-1 shows

80

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Figure 7 - 1 INDIVIDUAL APPROACH versus GROUP APPROACH TO PROBLEM SOLVING

PERSONS WORKING INDIVIDUALLY

PERSONS WORKING TOGETHER SHOWING SIMILAR AREAS OF EXPERTISE

NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

81

several circles. The three circles to the left represent three separate individuals with varied backgrounds and experiences. Each is naturally different from the other. Now if we look at the three lower circles as they are placed together, you will notice that there is one element common to all three. This is an element of experience or background that all three persons possess. You will notice, however, that there is a large portion of each person’s circle that remains outside of the other two. This represents a tre mendous background that is unique to the other two persons, who have not had the same experience. Also, there are certain areas that are common to person A and person B, but unique to person C, and so on with the other pair. Whenever you put a group of people together, this type of result occurs. Each one in the group brings with him a tremendous background of facts and experiences which no one else in the group possess. It often humbles one to hear ideas that others have developed-ideas that the first person had never conceived”. Remember “NO ONE OF US IS AS SMART AS ALL OF US”. Creating the New Product

The first step in creativity is to gather all the available fads. Fact finding may change any preconceived concepts. The facts come from the literature, from suppliers, from past experience, from the market, or from associations. Fads may ultimately alter the final approach to the problem. Once creative ideas and facts are developed, they need an incubation period. This is often referred to as “sitting on it”. Sitting on it may give greater illumination to the idea before actual work or development begins. Following the incubation period, the creative idea is ready to unfold. Its critical that the creative inspiration be captured and the concept be verified and applied. Thus, its time to get down to work and make up batches of our new product in our test kitchen. Once we have batches with varying styles, flavors, ingredients, etc., its time to make preliminary judgements in house with the R &z D team first. After we have generally agreed upon the base product, it may be time to change the formula, usually with one

82

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

sensitive ingredient at a time followed by laboratory or research taste panels for their appraisal. If everything has been agreed upon, then its time to take the created new product to the consumer. The consumer could care less about the firm’s ability to build sales or volume. The consumer knows what they like and the consumer won’t buy anything else until they sample the product(s). So, let the consumer tell you what they like. If all goes well, the new product can be evaluated by groups of consumers at picnics, church dinners, clubs, schools or in the firm’s sensory evaluation facility. Here again, if all goes well, its time to take the product to the pilot plant and make a test run under controlled conditions. The pilot plant is the place to establish the quality control parameters, the methods for product evaluation, the critical hazards and control points, and the place to establish the specifications. Further the pilot plant products should be shelf life tested and if all goes well, the merchandise can be given to marketing for their testing the market in one or more areas. Marketing should inform the R & D department of any potential problems for further refinements, change in practices or formula or other corrections prior to scaling the product up for manufacture, advertising, and promotion of the new product.

Too many people make a product in volume and then they try and market it without proper testing. This is one of the reasons that many products fail at the market place. The above suggestions should assure greater success and offer the customer products that have been tested with positive indications that a market is awaiting the firm’s new venture item. Launching a New Product

Any successful launch of new products requires a carefully developed plan. After the plan has been approved, then one must work the plan. The following are 12 suggested steps that work 1. Identify the product that is to be developed.

2. Develop the new product in the test kitchen.

NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

83

3. Evaluate the new product by using the in-house panel. 4. Refine the new product based on the taste panel results.

5. Consumer panel evaluate the new product using church groups, clubs, schools, home surveys, etc.

6. Refine the product as indicated by 5 above. 7. Manufacture small lots in the pilot plant under controlled conditions and shelf life test the product. 8. Develop the detailed specifications and quality control practices and evaluation procedures.

9. Develop the label and obtain regulatory approval. 10. Establish price structure, distribution patterns, and any promotion plans. 11. Manufacture the new product on the commercial line and develop inventory, establish sales force, setup advertising and initiate promotional campaign.

12. Follow up sales d a t a a n d consumer acceptance at monthly intervals and thereafter as with other other products on quarterly basis. Figure 7-2 TO FIGHT THE FAT, YOU MUST FIRST FIND THE FAT Okay, now you know how many calories you can spend and how many fat grams you can spend. Let’s take a look at the fat content of some foods.

MEAT, FISH AND POULTRY Broiled porterhouse steak, 3 02. Hot Dogs, 2 average Grilled regular hamburger, 3 02. Batter dipped fish sticb, 3 02. Salami, 3 02. Fried chicken breast, with skin Lean ocean perch, 3 02. Grilled ocean perch, 3 02. Broiled tenderloin steak, 3 02. Grilled lean hamburger, 3 02. Lean ham, 2 02. Broiled chicken breast, no skin

CALORIES 400

320 270 250 200 190 230 190 190 180 170 140

FAT (ws) 36 30 19 18 16 18 12 11 9

I 7 3

84

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Figure 7-2 - Continued

MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS Premium vanilla ice crean, M c. Cream cheese, 1 02. Cheddar cheese, 1 oz. Whole milk, 8 02. Lowfat milk, 8 oz. Partskim mozzarella cheese, 1 oz. Vanilla ice milk, H cup Yogurt, nonfat, 6 oz. Skim milk, 8 oz. GRAIN PRODUCTS Pasta with cream sauce, 1 cup Layer cake, frosted 1 slice Doughnut, 1 plain Croissant, 1 plain Snack crackers, 6 Pasta with tomato sauce, 1 cup Bagel, 1 pain English muffin, 1 plain Angel food cake, 1 slice Rye Krisp or Melba Round, 1

CALORIES 170 100 110 150 120 70 90 150 90

FAT (gms) 12

10 9 8 5 5 3 0 0

400 280 180 170 120 180 120 70 140 20

26 10 9 9 6 4 2 0

SOUPS Cheese, 1 cup Cream of mushroom Bean with bacon Chili with beef Cream of Chicken Split pea Tomato Minestrone Beef Noodle turkey Vegetable Chicken Noodle Black Bean Manhattan Clam Chowder Chicken and rice Gazpacho

230 190 173 170 116 210 208 83 84 77 15 120 80 60 41

15 12 6

SANDWICHES Chicken filet Big Mac Bologna & cheese Tuna Submarine Grilled cheese Chicken club Ham and cheese Bacon, lettuce and tomato Corned beef on rye Roast Beef Tuna salad Egg salad Chicken, lettuce, tomato Turkey breast

CALORIES

Fat (pms)

688 570 470 566 430 479 471 300 340 347 325 340 290 270

40 35 33 28 27 25 24 18

0 0

I 7 5 5 3 3 3 3 2

2 2 0

15 13 13 12 8 7

NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

85

Figure 7-2 - Continued

ON THE SIDE Potato chips, 1 ounce Potato salad Cole slaw

CALORES 140 190 85

EXTRAS Salad dressing, 2 Tbsp Butter or Margarine, 1 Tbsp Vegetable oil, any kind, 1 Tbsp Mayonnaise, 1 Tbsp Peanuts, d q roasted, 1 oz Potato Chips, 1 oz Pretzels, 1 oz

170 102 126 100 164 150 110

FAT (ws) 10 9 9

18 11 14 11 14 10 0

How Do You Measure Up? These charts outline recommended target weight levels for people ages 25-59. Weight is listed in pounds according to frame and height (indoor clothing weighing five Ibs. for men and three Ibs. for women; shoes with I ” heels). WOMEN

MEN Height Feet Inches

5 5

5 5 5

5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II

0 I 2 3 4

Small Frame

Medium Frame

128-134 131-141 130.136 133-143 132-138 135-145 134-140 137-14a 136-142 139-151 138-145 142-154 140-148 145-157 142-151 148-160 144-154 151-163 146-157 154-1615 149-160 157-170 152-164 160-174 155-168 164-178 158-172 167-182 162-176 171-187

Large Frame

138-150 140-153 142-156 144.160 146-164

149-168 151-1112 155-176 158-180 161-184 164-188

16&192 172-197 176-202 181-207

Height

Feet Inches

4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6

10 II

0

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II

0

Small Frame

Medium Frame

Large Frame

102-111 109-121 ii8-131 103-113 111-123 120-134 104-115 113-126 122-137 106-118 115-129 125-140 108-121 118-132 128-143 111-124 121-135 131-147 114-127 124-138 134-151 117-130 127-141 137-155 120133 130-144 140159 123-136 133-147 143-157 126-139 136-150 146163 129-142 139-153 149-170 132-145 142-156 152-173 135-148 145-159 155-176 138-151 14&162 158-179

@Copyright 1983 Metropolitan Lire Insurance Company Source of basic data 1979 Build Study Society of Actuaries and Association ofLife Insurance Medical Directors of Amenca 1980

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

REFERENCES Anon. 1970 The Problem-Solving Process: Incubation. Atlas Chemical Industries, Inc. 9th article in Dream A Little Library series. Block, Robert G. 1979 Ten Commandments for New Product Development. Industrial Research/Devlopment, May issue. Bowen, John S. 1979 21 Questions to Ask Before a Product Launch. Snack Food, March issue. Cooper, Robert G. 1980. How to Identify Potential New Product Winners. Research Management, September issue. Geller, J a y H. The Regulations Affecting Product Devlopmentr Government View. Food Technology, July issue. Gillespie, R. J. 1970. Roadblocks to Creativity. ICI Chemical Industries, Inc., 4th Installment of DDream A Little Library. Gillespie, R. J. 1971. The Problem-Solving Process: Evaluation. Atlas Chemical Industries, Inc. Dream A. Little Library Series No. 11. Goldenfield, Irving. 1977 The Regulations Affecting Product Development-Industry View. Food Technology, July issue. Lauro, Gabriel, 1977 Product Development Today. Food Technology, July issue. Moore, Leo B. 1971. The Problem-Solving Process: Evaluation. Atlas Chemical Industries, Inc. Dream A Little Library 10th Article in a series. Parnes, Sidney J. 1970 The Problem Solving Process: Ideation. Atlas Chemical Industries, Inc. Dream A Little Library 8th article in the Series.

Reiss, Elaine S. 1977. Advertising and Product Devlopment. Food Technology, July issue.

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Chapter 8

PACKAGES AND PACKAGING “We’re dispelling the myths about canned foods, like, for example, that they’re less nutritious than fresh or frozen. A n d . . . we have the research to support that”. Roger Coleman Packaging of food is a major item in terms of actual costs to the food processor. Packaging materials are constantly changing and packaging equipment is generally being upgraded. Further, shipping and handling cases are being improved. Yet, the majority of consumers today would have it no other way as no one really wants to go back in time to the so called “good old cracker barrel days”. Packaging makes the food more convenient and packaging gives the food greater safety assurance from microorganisms, biological and chemical changes, people handling of the food (tamper proofness), and packaging gives packaged foods greater shelf life. Packaging materials are tested for safety and the migration of any food to the packaging materials or vise versa Nevertheless, packaging practices, packaging materials, and packaging equipment are changing. Further, packaging costs are increasing. Some of the changes in packaging costs are brought on by packaging materials; the changes in packaging manufacture (3 piece lead soldered sanitary food can to a 2 piece drawn and ironed container); increasing costs to form, fill and dose; and the tremendous costs of handling through the warehousing distribution system and at the super market level. Perhaps more important is the problem of disposal of packaging materials after using the containers. Some progress has already been made in recycling and some emphasis is being placed on biodegradable containers. The present efforts are not enough to satisfy the existing consumer needs or EPA demands.

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The food industries must constantly look for better ways to package food from a cost saving standpoint, from shelf life improvement standpoint, and from a disposal, recycle or reuse standpoint. With the advent of microwave ovens and the demand for greater convenience, the food processor must evaluate new packaging materials, new methods of packaging food, and new practices in handling packaging materials after use. Packaging Projects

The R & D facility should include packaging as one of its major objectives. The following are some suggested projects that need direct attention of all R & D packaging personnel: 1. An evaluation of new types of packaging materials to enhance shelf life, and recycle or reuse of the used containers. 2. The effects of inks used in label printing on internal product qualities and shelf life.

3. Improvement in convenience and package integrity in terms of handling the packaged food in the home including source reduction. 4. Greater product protection during filling, shipping, and handling through the food chain.

5. Development of shelf life for given products under various climatic conditions including pull dates.

6. Reheating procedures including better use of microwaves. 7. Improved nutrient retention through better packaging materials and systems. 8. Improved sensory properties through better packaging materials and systems. 9. Greater knowledge of product deterioration during shelf life and the safety of the food.

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10. Better education of the consumers relative the advantages of packaging of food including the safety factors.

The above list could be greatly expanded, but these 10 projects should be given serious consideration by all food processors and research should be undertaken by the R & D departments to improve the present system of packaging of foods. Every segment of the food industry is somewhat different in their packaging methods, needs, and requirements. The above projects are very generic and each segment of the food industry should develop specific projects to improve their own packaged products. As an example, within the snack food industry one may ask what is the effect of given seasonings on the shelf life of different snacks? When does the seasoning begin to breakdown or does the seasoning ever develop any different flavors to the product? Does the seasoning have any effect on given packaging materials, and what about the new seasoning and its acceptance by different demographic groups after given shelf life periods? At the present time too many packaging changes are made in the food industry without prior approval of R & D and in the short run increased sales may take place, but in some case8 in the long run good customers may switch brands or produds and be lost to the food h. R & D input is most essential as trial and error practices are not the answers for the future growth of any food hn,particularly when changes are made in packaging materials or systems without prior evaluation. The R & D facility should be equipped with a shelf life room@) for accelerated evaluation of food products packaged under different regimes and stored under different climatic conditions. These climatic conditions should be those typical of the marketing area for the food manufactured by any given food firm. Light is a major problem on the shelf life of many packaged foods. The problem is accentuated today as many supermarkets are open 24 hours a day, seven days a week. The effect of light may be most detrimental to many types of packaging materials to say nothing of the effect of light on the food itself, for example, the on-set of rancidity and the many changes in food colors.

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The R & D personnel should rely heavily on the packaging firms that supply packaging materials to each segment of the food industry. The R & D personnel should seek their assistance and data and they should request that they be kept up-to-date on changes taking place in the industry.

Most importantly, they should request their material safety data sheets and up date information on recycling, biodegradability, and shelf life information per container type for given foods under various climatic and shelf life conditions. Packaging of food is here to stay, but the food firm that does not stay up to date and eliminate those materials from his lines that cause consumer concern relative to environmental factors will find his firm in much jeopardy. The jeopardy may cause switching of brands or cutting out of that product line entirely. There are too many choices in the market place today, and all in the industry must stay up to date with an active R & D program on packages, packaging practices, and product assurance per packaging materials for given products throughout their life cycles.

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Chapter 9

PROPOSALS, PROJECTS, REPORTS, AND REPORTING “The only product of a research laboratory is information” -Hughon

All research should start with a written proposal. The idea for the research project in most cases originates with the R & D manager or his staff. However, when dealing with new products, marketing is a n excellent source. Management may suggest the need for changes in processes, new products, or alternative programs based on their inside information from the competition or information gleaned from meetings or trade publications. Regardless, the research proposal as such is the key to initiating a research project. The research proposal may be only a n idea, but it is the start of what may become a n excellent research project. All proposals regardless of how they were conceived should be looked at from the potential cost in terms of personnel, equipment, use of the facility, and the potential time needed to undertake the development of a project. Proposals are the first step in the development of research projects. The Scientific Method

If the proposal is deemed worthy of an investigation, then a project should be developed using the scientific method of inquiry. The scientific method of inquiry is an orderly system of searching for the truth. There are six basic steps to be followed: Step 1: Identify the problem, that is, why should the work be undertaken and what are the specific objectives to be accomplished. Set up the hypothesis, that is, make all the possible assumptions about the problem. Step 2: Conduct a library search of what has been done in the given subject matter area and determine who did the work. The library search includes a study of all patents as well as the pertinent literature. It has been stated that the amount of

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knowledge present today keeps on doubling every 10 years. Therefore, it behooves the researcher to know the current literature before he undertakes any research work. The documentation of all literature and patents read by citation is most important to any research proposal. A reviewer of the research proposal, if knowledgeable in the area, may find that the researcher has missed pertinent papers or patents in the subject matter area. Step 3: Plan the research approach to be able to solve the problem or answer the specific objectives of the study. This includes the experimental design of the study and answers to the question of how is the work to be accomplished. Step 4: Work the plan, that is collect the facts (data) to answer each objective(s). Step 5: Test the original hypothesis, answer each objective or better still, interpret the data. This usually entails statistics, charting, and graphing, Pareto analysis, Cause and Effect Diagrams, Scatter diagrams (correlations), and development of statistical quality control procedures. Further, step 5 should include your data relative to data found in the literture and how they relate or agree or disagree. This art of any research project is the most difficult to prepare, but it is the significant part of the study as interpretation of your results is fundamental to your knowledge and contribution to the work. Step 6: This is usually in three parts, that is, conclusion from the study, recommendations based on the information generated and may include future work to be undertaken, and a summary of the total work. Each of these parts requires painstaking efforts to make the report worthwhile and effectively cover the research.

Writing a Project Proposal The following is a typical form to be followed in writing a project proposal. Completing this form is most important before ever

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93

starting any research work as many hours can be lost by starting work without proper preparation. 1. Project assigned number: (determine by the Manager or VP or Director)

2. Title of proposal:

3. Investigator(s): 4. Cooperator(s):

5. Probable Duration:

6. Justification: a. Need: b. Benefits expected

7. Previous work and present outlook: 8. Objective(s): 9. Procedure: a. Experimental design, treatments: b. Supplies and needed materials: c. Facilities and unit operations involved including time and a proposed flow chart(s): d. General procedure including description of all operations: e. Measurements to be taken induding instrumentation involved and standardization practices: f. Sampling plan proposed g. Evaluation procedures: h. Statistical plan: 10. Literature cited including all citations and patents reviewed: 11. Budget and source of funds, if known:

a. Preliminary costs: b. Estimated expenditures: 1. Salaries (% of time for each participant): 2. Wages (man days): 3. Travel and subsistence:

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES 4. Overhead (% for facilities, operations,

administration, etc.) : c. Equipment 1. New or leased: 2. Rentals: 3. Operation costs: d. Materials and supplies (detailed costs): e. Contingency: 12. Proposed publication(s) and Patenqs).

The Record Book Should the project proposal be approved and the R 8c D manager allocates proper funding for the work, the next step is to set up the scientific record or data book. Horwitz states that “if there is any deficiency that permeates many of the laboratories..., it is the matter of deficiencies in record keeping”. The records must be kept in bound books provided by management and the books are the property of the firm. The books should have numbered pages and be properly indexed as the work progress. The book should be designed so that a carbon copy is made of each page as the book is used. The carbon copy stays in the book and the original may be removed by the researcher for his further handling. All entries must be made directly in the book with ball point pen and they must be written legibly. Every observation or variable traceable to quantification must be recorded. Record keeping of all observations measurements, and other details are the most important part of any researchers time. This includes all the testing and calibration of the many instruments used by the researcher, the makeup of standard solutions, etc. All calculations, procedures, sketches, drawings, and results of all studies must be carefully recorded, as the work progresses. At the termination of each day’s work the book should be dated, signed, and if any assistance is given an acknowledgement of their contribution or performance. Each page should be witnessed and dated by a co-worker familiar with the on-going work. The book should never be removed from the facility and usually it should be left with the director or manager of the program for his daily review. All the information in the research notebook should be regarded as confidential. The original copies, if removed, make easy writing of the quarterly, annual or final reporta by the researcher.

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Reports Reports should be prepared quarterly, annually along with a final report on all research projects. The report should follow the following format: 1. Title page including investigatods): 2. Letter of presentation-Restating the original assignment and setting forth a n executive summary of the work todate. It should be brief and directly to the point. 3. The table of contents with page numbeds) for each topic in the index along with appendix tables, if any. 4. Introduction to the subject of the research.

5. Purpose of the study with objectives enumerated. 6. Scope of the study including accomplishments to date, direction of present effort, and statistical interpretation of the data and the details of any newly developed techiniques or methods. 7. List of illustrations and tables, including pictures and charts.

8. Summary of work by answering each objective(s) and showing fundamental concepts accomplished by stating fads. 9. Conclusions indicating your principal judgements and the reasoning behind them.

10. Recommendations including further investigation on secondary problems developed in the course of study. 11. References cited. 12. Appendix with the raw tabular data, statistical proce dures, detailed laboratory procedures developed by the investigator(s) unless they are part of the scope of the study.

All research should culminate itself in a published final report or a patent (s).The format for published papers varies with each

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particular journal. Some research journals are most detailed and papers may be rejected if they do not conform to their style. Therefore, before writing a paper for a given journal, one should obtain a copy of the style guide for that journal. When writing for some journals, one should remember that the papers may become the sole property of that journal through their copyright privilege. Most journals require a n abstract of the report. Abstracts are read by busy people and the quality of a n abstract is most important. Abstracts are used for indexing and filing. The abstract should describe and compare some of the key salient points of the work and it should indicate the conclusions and recommendations of the study. It should be as specific as possible and it should be true to the work accomplished. It should be crisp and directly to the point to interest the reader to look up the detailed paper and want to study it further. Reports and reporting are direct means of communicating the written word. They are essential for progress and every firm should encourage their researcher to publish. The publish or perish philosophy of most academic institutions should be a role model for all food firms. The food industry has too many problems facing it and each firm should help the total industry move forward with much greater speed than it is doing at the present time by publicly reporting the contributions of their research entity unless the information is totally proprietary. Research does not cost, it pays and publications and patents are the pay off for many food firms, not just a pay off for the academic world. We all have an obligation to communicate our work to the public and the food industry per se can make a significant contribution to better solving the world food problems by contributing to man’s knowledge and the advancements of food science, technology and processing and preservation as we know it today.

References Gould, Jay R. 1963. Ten Common Weaknesses in Engineering Reports. Chemical Engineering. October 210-214. Horwitz, William. 1978. Good Laboratory Practices in Analytical Chemistry. Analytical Chemistry 50 (6): 521a-524A.

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Chapter 10

HANDLING DATA

“When you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in numbers, you know something about it, and when you cannot measure it, and when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind. It may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thought advanced to a stage of science”. Lord Kelvin 1883. “Statistics are like a bikini: what they reveal is inviting, but what they conceal is striking”. T. F. Lambert Variations

Variations exist naturally. No two machines, no two loads of materials, no two methods, and no two people are alike.Variations exist in all aspects of the food industries, from raw materials to h i s h e d products. (Figure 10-1) Most of us thrive on making decisions based partly on the interpretation of the variation that we encounter. We make these decisions on whether or not we think the variation we observe is indicative of a change or simple random variation that is no different from that which has occurred in the past Our decision to make change is more often than not based on the interpretation of patterns of figures that are available to us. It is most vital that managers, supervisors, leaders, and the line operators understand some of the basic statistical concepts needed to interpret variation patterns. Managers, supervisors, leaders, and line operators need to know whether the patterns of variation that are observed are indicative of a trend or of random variation, that is, similar to what has been observed in the past. This distinction between patterns of variation is necessary to minimize the losses resulting from the misinterpretation of the patterns.

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Figure 10-1 ILLUSTRATION OF SOURCES OF VARIATION

41

Inherent to Method

Different Suppliers Of Materials T

I

T

41

IT

..... ... .... ....... ..

Machine 1 i L

Machine 2

Causes of Variations

The concepts of common and special causes of variation can be used to help minimize these and other losses resulting from misinterpretation of variation. The food industry is generally made up of processes and systems and as a starting point for understanding the concepts of common and special causes of variation, it is useful to understand these differences.

A process can be defined a8 a set of causes and conditions that repeatedly come together to transform inputs into outcomes. The inputs might be people, materials, or methods. The outcomes

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include products, services, behavior, or people. A system is an interdependent group of items, people, or processes with a common purpose. (F’igure 102) Indicators (quality characteristics) of the performance of any process or system can be identified and measured. These quality characteristics might include color, consistency, length, width, temperature, line speed, percentage of rejected materials, etc. Figure 10-2

PROCESS/PRODUCT MODEL

SUPPLIERS

PROCESS

CUSTOMERS

(MATERIALS)

MANPOWER

MEASUREMENTS

Shewhart in a study of processes and systems states that there are two types of causes: (1)Common causes, that is, those causes that are inherently part of the proceas or system hour after hour, day after day, and everyone working in the process. (2) Special causes are not part of the process or system all the time and do not affect everyone, but arise because of specific circumstances. A process or system that has only common causes affecting the outcome is called a stable process or said to be in a statistical control. Thus, in a stable process the cause system for variation remains essentially constant over time. A stable process implies that the variation of the outcome is predictable within statistical established limits.

A process whose outcomes are affected by both common causes and special causes is called an unstable process. It is unstable because the magnitude of variation from one time period to another is unpredictable.

As special causes are identified and removed, the process becomes stable. Deming gives several benefits of a stable process: 1. The process has an identity; its performance is predictable. Therefore, there is rational basis for planning.

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2. Costs and quality are predictable.

3. Productivity is at a maximum and costs at a minimum under the present system. 4. The effect of changes in the process can be measured with greater speed and reliability. In an unstable process it is difficult to separate changes to the process from special causes. Therefore, it is more difficult to know when a change results in improve ments.

There are many applications of the concept of special and common causes in the operation of a process. Decisions are constantly made to adjust equipment, change speeds or flows, to calibrate a measurement device, etc. All these decisions must consider the variation in the appropriate measurements of quality characteristics of the process. Generally there is a s p d c target for a given quality characteristic in a process. Statistical control charts guide or tell the operator when to make adjustments. However, continual adjustments of a stable process, that is, one that is dominated by common causes, will increase variation and usually make the performance of the process worse. A stable process is most often improved through a fundamental change in the process that reduces or removes some of the common causes. Most improvements in quality will require action on the part of management. Some special causes can be improved by the operators or supervisors. Deming states that 94%of the common causes require changes in the process and are the responsibilities of management while most special causes can be corrected by the worker. Managers, supervisors and leaders need to understand variation and how to conduct research to take required action based on the interpretation of the data. Quality Progress, a monthly publication of the American Society of Quality Control has carried many fine articles on the Tools of Quality and how to understand Statistically Designed Experiments. No effort will be made here to cover the full details of these papers, but the researcher should understand the principles of statistics and how to design his or her studies, thus being able to draw sound conclusions.

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The Flow Chart First and foremost, every food researcher should understand the flowchart of a process. This picture of the information will help create an understanding of how food gets from the garden gate (supplier) to the table (customer).Figure 103 is a potato chip process/product improvement model to illustrate the concept of a flow chart, that is, the causes affecting the quality of potato chips.

Burr lists 5 rules for constructing a flow chart: 1. The right people must be involved in making a flow chart, that is, those that actually do the work of the process, the suppliers of the process, the customers of the process, the supervisor of the area within which the process functions and an independent facilitator. 2. All members of the group must participate. The facilitator keeps the group moving without anyone dominating and acts as the secretary of the group.

3. All data must be visible to everyone. 4. Sufficient time must be allotted for completion and rework of the flow chart.

5. Questions are the key to the flow chart, such as: Where does the material, etc. come from? 0 How does the material get to the process? Who makes the decision, if one is necessary and what happens if the decision is “yes” or “no”? Is there anything else at this point? 0 What tests are performed on the product at each part of the process? What tests are performed on the process? What happens if the test is out of tolerance? “Why” questions should not be used as it tends to make team members defensive.

Flow charts are important to line people as well as top management. The flow charts help people who work in the

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Figure 10-3 SIMPLIFIED POTATO CHIP PROCESS WITH VARIABLES

PROCESS

-

PEEL

Efficiency and amount

J

of detects

INSPECT

SLICE

and thickness

Starch removal

COOK-FRY

FILL & SEAL

1

SHIP

Temperature, Oil Adhere

Security of Seal, Net Weight

I(

Shelf

Life-Tlme,Temperatue

&R

HANDLING DATA

103

process to understand the process and they begin to control it, instead of being victims of it. Once people see the process objectively, improvements can be made as people see the big picture and how they fit into the overall process. They visualize their suppliers and customers as a part of that process and this leads directly to improved communication between departments and work areas. All who work on the flow chart become more enthusiastic and they continually provide suggestions for improvements. Process flow charts are valuable tools in training programs for new employees. Lastly, people who work in the process will understand the terminology of the process and that leads to happier employees who can control their own destiny. Any researcher attempting to conduct studies on a given process line should understand each unit operation and its operating parameters before attempting changes on the line.

The Cause and Effect Diagram-CEDAC

The second Tool is the Cause and Effect Diagram (also, known as the fishbone diagram or Ishikawa diagram) with Cards (CEDAC). This tool allows one to gain inside information about a process and the output of same. It is a tool used to represent the relationship between some “effect” and all the possible “caused’ influencing it, that is, how do causes and effeds relate. It should be developed by a team and is an excellent tool to use in brain storming sessions. It focuses the participants on the issues at hand and immediately allows them to sort ideas into useful categories. Generally, the major causes are listed under the four “Ms”: Manpower, Materials, Machines, and Methods. In constructing a cause and effect diagram members of a team should use simple check sheets (see below) to track possible causes and to examine the production process steps closely. In this kind of chart, one can ask “why” and then list the various responses as branches of the major causes (see Figures 10-4a and 10-4b). After all the causes are listed, the team should reach a concensus and then gather data for interpretation.

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Figure 10-4-A CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM- (Fishbone)- CEDAC

MACHINES

MAN

&EFFECT

MATERIALS

METHODS

Figure 10-4-B EXAMPLE OF CEDAC FOR POTATO CHIP MANUFACTURE

MATERIALS Potato\

MANPOWER \

- L

Absenteeism

Peeling, Washing Frying

/

Packaging MACHINES

/

Efficiences

SaiVSeasoning

METHODS

/ Vacuums

HANDLING DATA

105

The Control Chart The control chart is another "Tool" to help understand processes and how they operate. A control chart is simply a run chart with statistically determined upper and lower control limits (DCL's and LCL's) (usually 3 standard deviations) (see Figure 105). The limits are calculated by drawing samples (25 or more) at regular intervals of a given process. Generally five samples are Figure 10-5 AVERAGE-RANGE CHART

Sample No. or Observation

FREQUENCY OF SAMPLE SETS - HOUR, LINE, ETC.

-

1

2

A

18.5

15.2

16.:1 19.1 18.7

15.9 16.8

16.0

16.0 16.1

B

17.0

15.3

14.8 18.4

18.3

15.2 15.8

16.1

16.2 16.0

C

16.5

18.4

14.6 18.6

17.7

14.8 16.4

16.3

16.5 16.0

D

16.8

15.0

15.1 16.1

16.2

14.1

15.8

16.0

16.1 16.1

E

15.0

15.0

15.0 17.5

17.9

15.4

14.9

16.2

16.0

16.2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

TOTAL

83.8

78.9

75.8 89.7

88.8

75.4 79.7

80.6

80.8

8004

X (Average)

16.8

15.8

15.2

17.9

17.8

15.1 15.9

16.1 16.2

16.1

16.2

R (Range)

3.5

3.4

1.7

3.0

2.5

0.3

0.5

0.2

1.8

UCL X

(Upper control limit for average = X

+A2

LCL -

(Lower control limit for average = X - A 2 R

UCL -

(Upper control limit for range) = D 4 R

X

R

1.8

1.9

R

Note: A 2 for five (5) sample numbers in a set is equal to 0.58.

-

XR

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Figure 10-5 AVERAGE-RANGE CHART (Continued)

''

UCLX

X

LCL X

R CHART 4

JCL 3 2

R

1

drawn each hour and the sample average (center line on X bar chart) and range are plotted on X Bar and R charts. The object is to find out if the process is in control, that is, within the upper and lower control limits.Fluctuations of the points on the control chart within the limits results from variation built into the process. These result from common causes within the system and can only be affected by changing the system. However, points outside of the limits come from special causes, that is, not part of the way the process normally operates, or from an unlikely combination of process variables. These special causes must be eliminated before the control chart can be used as a monitoring tool. Once this is done the process would be in control and

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107

continued sampling is done to assure that the process is consistent. The process may not meet specifications as generally specification limits are somewhat narrower than the control limits. One must either improve the process or change the specifications. Specifications are what you think you need, while control limits are what the process can do consistently. The process is said to be “out of control” if: (1) one or more points fall outside of the control limits, or (2) when you divide the control chart into 6 zones (see Figure 10-6) and according to the following, make Figure 10-6 CONTROL CHARTS ILLUSTRATING IN-CONTROL AND OUT-OF-CONTROL SITUATIONS IN-CONTROL Only Common Cause Variability

OUT-OF-CONTROL

-~ ~~

: Special Causes

Common Causes

I1

r

Special Causes

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

adjustments if (a) two points, out of three successive points, on the same side of the center line in Zone A or beyond, (b) four points, out of five successive points, on the same side of the center line in Zone B or beyond, (c) nine successive points on one side of the center line, (d) six consecutive points increasing or decreasing, (e) fourteen points in a row alternating up and down, or (0 fifteen points in a row within center zone above and below the center line. Control charts can only warn of an assignable cause of variation. They are not very good at finding the cause of the variation and they cannot eliminate or control it.

Histograms Another effective tool is the histogram. The histogram is a graphic summary of variations in a set of data. The histogram is a powerful tool for elementary analysis of data and most useful for problem solving. As stated above, variation is everywhere, but variations show patterns or distributions. The histogram gives a picture the distribution, including the center of the distribution, the width of the distribution, and the shape of the distribution. Distributions may be bell shaped, double peaked, plateau, combed, skewed, truncated, isolated-peaked, or edge-peaked (Figure 10-7). One should have 40 or more samples when constructing histograms and the data should be representative of typical and current conditions of the process. Histograms allow one to quantify some aspect of the process, that is managed with facts not opinions. Histograms allow one to have a more realistic view of the ability of the process to produce acceptable results consistently. Histograms set the stage for additional investigative efforts.

The Pareto Chart The Pareto Chart is a special form of vertical bar graph which helps one determine which problems to solve and in what order.

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Figure 10-7 COMMMON HISTOGRAM PATTERNS

Normal-Bell Shaped

Plateau

n

Double Peaked

Comb

Truncated

Skewed To The Right

Peaked-Isolated

Peaked-Edge

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Pareto is a state of nature, that is, the way things happen. It is a way of managing projeds or a way of thinking about projects. The Pareto principle was first defined by Juran in 1950 where he found a “maldistribution of quality losses”. He named the principle after Vilfredo Pareto, a 19th century Italian economist. Pareto found that a large share of the wealth was owned by relatively few people, a maldistribution of wealth. In simplest terms, the Pareto principle suggests that most effects come from relatively few causes. In quantitative terms, 80% of the problems come from 20% of the machines, materials, manpower. Juran calls the 20% of the causes the “vital few” and the rest of the causes the “trivial many” or more correctly the “useful many”. The Pareto principle is one of the most powerful decision tools available. Data can be collected on any aspect of the manufacturing process and charted as shown in Figure 10-8 with the most frequent causes placed on the left and the other causes are added in descending order of occurrence. No one should work on any problem in a food operation until they develop a Pareto diagram. In other words, start to work on the most important problem first, Figure 10-8PARETO CHART

Vital

Few

Contributing Factors/Causes

HANDLING DATA

111

followed by each problem in decreasing order of importance. The Pareto principle describes the way causes occur in nature and human behavior. It can be a very powerful management tool for focusing personnel’s effort on the problems and solutions that have the greatest potential payback. Statistical Design of Experiments

Gunter in an excellent review of statistical design of experiments states that they originated in England by the great British scientist and statistician R. A. Fisher in order to improve agricultural experimentation. The failure of many USA producers can be directly attributed to inadequate research in the design of statistically sound experiments. Statistically designed experiments will help firms stay competitive and apply rapid and continuous improvement in all asp& of new technology. Effective progress requires effective decision making at all levels. Effective decision making requires understanding of the current situation and the likely results of the alternatives under consideration. This, in turn, requires information. Information comes in two forms: Theoretical understanding of underlying issues and empirical understanding based on observations of how nature works. Statistical Process Control (SPC) is valuable precisely because it is a systematic means of capturing and building on information that nature is already making available to us. SPC is concerned with the passive acquisition of knowledge. But many times the information is not already available, for example, new process, new product, new measurement system, new materials,new equipment. In many other situations, the problem is not newness, but unavailability; nature does not want to yield its secrets. Indeed, this is often the case in practical troubleshooting or process optimization situations. SPC might reveal that a problem exists and even show where, when, and how it occurs, but still no one can seem to find out why and what to do. On the other hand, there might be a need to improve, but so many interacting factors or alternatives affect the situation that it seems to be an overwhelming task to figure out a simple, economic, and safe course of action. Thus, it is necessary to experiment, to make a planned change, determine the effect of the changes, and to use this information to determine how nature works. Experiments are used to discover something

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

not known, that is, induce a response from nature. It is from the control over the actions initiated a n d the assumed casual relationship of the response to this action that the power of the experimental (scientific) method derives. One Variable at a Time (OVAT) Experimentation

The simplest, and probably most frequent, example of a n experiment is manipulation of a single factor to see what effect it has on a response of interest. The factor might be discrete (like different raw material suppliers) or different people or different machines in a manufacturing process. In other cases, the factor might be continuous-capable of assuming any value over a wide range of conditions - temperature, pressure, concentration, etc. At any rate one must collect data (measurements) over time to determine variations under all conditions. The data may be plotted to get an idea of predicted response for any given value. However, in industry more often t h a n not interactions are common and one cannot look at one variable at a time (OVAT). Further, OVAT experimentation effectively denies the existence of interactions.

Two Factor Interactions (2FI's) The most common and useful interactions are two-factor interactions (2FI's for short). This would be typical when studying the effect of temperature changes on the color of tomato pulp coming from two different concentrators. One would design the experiment to collect color data from each concentrator at given temperature intervals. The collected data might be plotted showing that the color was similar from each concentrator at any given temperature; however, more likely than not the data would assume drastic differences and could best be shown by plotting the data. Since the temperature effects were continuous, one would expect t h e color d a t a t o be curvature from each of t h e concentrators, indicating interaction. Modern statistical software will show that these data are mathematically straight forward and easily plotted. This kind of experimentation allows one to analyze t h e whole system, that is, look at t h e effect of

HANDLING DATA

113

experimental factor(s) on response(s) of interest simultaneously. First one can determine whether there exists any effect due to the experimental fador(s) on the observed outcome system at a high level of confidence. Secondly, one can examine individual fadors, levels or combinations of factors and/or levels for similarities or differences. Finally, if the investigation has taken place in the region of an “optimum” condition and one has an appropriate number of levels, one can optimize the system. Optimization gives one a solution to a problem which maximizes or minimizes a response in the region of lowest possible variability.

Distributions

Three other tests often used in handling data are the “t” distribution, “ F test, and the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The “t” distribution test is used when samples are small and Sigma is unknown. The “t” distribution resembles the normal curve, except that it is flatter and broader, reflecting the greater variability of small samples. ‘Y’ distribution tables are utilized to determine critical values for comparison to the calculated “t” statistic. The “t” test can be used for one or two tailed teats and it can be conducted based on two small samples. Each sample is averaged and the differences are divided by the pooled standard deviation. This statistic is then compared to the critical value statistic. The “F” test is used to compare two population variances, that is, the precision of multiple manufacturing process/measuring devices. Intuitively one compares 2 population variances using ratios. When the ratio is equal to one, there is little evidence to indicate populations are unequal. A very large or small difference in the ratio would provide evidence that the populations are different. The question then becomes, when do we reject the null hypothesis? To answer this we must first take repeated samples and study the distribution. The “F” test is used by &ding the degrees of freedom in the denominator and the numerator and finding iheir intersection point. If the value is determined to be insignXcant, the variances may be considered equal.

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

114

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) When a process has two or more factors affecting the variability, the interpretation of the relative contribution of each of these factors to the total variability can be made using a statistical technique known as Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Figure 10-9.This statistical technique is based on the fact that the total Figure 10-9 TWO-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Summary of Data

Sum

Sum of Columns

Grand Sum

Analysis of Data

-& Mean Square

Variate i-columns

(No. of Columns -1)

Variate i-rows

(NO. of ROWS-1)

XI2

NO. of C O ~-1 . Y=

(D)

YlZ

NO. of ROWS-1

(NO. Col. -1) E

Error

(No. Rows -1)

Total ~~

~

A. (Grand Sum) /Total Number of Observations =c. B. (Square All Observations and Add) - c. C. ((Sum of Observations in One Column Squared and Added T o Same For Other Columns I No. of Rows)) - c. D. ((Sum of Observations In One Row Squared and Added To Same For Rows)/No. of Columns)) - c. E. (B) - [(C) - (D)1

HANDLING DATA.

115

variance of the process is equal to the sum of the component’s variances if the factors are acting independently. The advantage of the method is that where several factors are involved in a process or in the quality of a product, it is possible to rank their effeds on the total variation in order of magnitude. Thus, the information is useful in the determination as to where to place efforts to reduce variability, for maximum improvement, with a minimum expenditure of time and effort. The interpretation of the statistic is significant if it is equal to or greater than the value from the F-table at the level of significance selected. If the statistic is significant, the least significance difference (LSD)is calculated to determine where the difference among the variants lie. The LSD is the minimum by which the means of any two rows of columns signiscantly differ from each other. If the statistic is not significant at the chosen level the LSD is not calculated. Table 101 provides the reader with some definitions of terms, symbols, and some statistical formulas useful in handling data. Tables 10-2 through 5 are tables used for interpretation of statistical data. The researcher should obtain Stat View and Graphics software or similar programs for use with personal computers (PC’s) or more complicated systems using Main Frame computers. The research must learn to gather data and learn to analyze data for continuous improvements within a given food firm to help them stay competitive. Data and the interpretation of same are major responsibilities of the food researcher. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED 1. Population or Process -All the items about which we wish to make a decision or conclusion. It must be defined. 2. Sample -A portion or subgroup of the defied population or process. 3. Random Sample -Every item in the population or process has an equal chance of being selected. 4. Measures of Central Tendency:

A. Arithmetic mean is the average value of a distribution. The sum of a set of readings or observations divided by the number of observations. B. Median is the reading or observation above and below which an equal number of readings or observations fall. C. Mode is the value that occurs most frequently. (In a normal curve, the mean. median, and mode are the same. This is a way to test for normality in your data.)

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

5. Measures of Dispersion: A. Standard deviation is the width of one zone in the normal distribution curve of individual items. Plus or minus 3 sigmas from the average includes 99.7% of the normal curve.

-t

.-.

99.7%

B. Range is the difference between the highest and lowest values in a set of observations or readings. 6. Frequency Distribution -A tabulation or tally of the number of times a given quality-characteristic measurement occurs within the sample of the product being checked. 7. Histogram -A bar diagram represhting a frequency distribution. The histogram pictorially highlights the center and amount of variation in the sample of data. 8. Pareto -Principle of maldistribution. The causes are never uniformly distributed, rather the causes are always maldistributed in such a way that a small percentage, “the vital few” of the causes always contribute a high percentage of the problems. 01-80-20rule: 80%of the problems are caused by 20% of the issues. 9. Control Chart -A picture/photogrsph of the process, and it should be placed near the machine/ operation. The chart depicts what changes in data occur over time. We must also study the impact of the various factors in the process that change over time. Thus, if the materials/ingredients, operators, or the working methods or equipment were to change during this time, they must be noted on the chart in order to evaluate the effect of such changes on production. Causes of variability: A. Common, Random, or Chance -consists of many individual causes that are inherent to the process. Cannot identify or change. B. Special or Assignable -Consists of one or a few causes. Can be identified and affected by intervention or action. -

10. “t” distribution

=

d sd/Vm

When d = difference between pairs. Sd =d Sum of differences. m = number of observations. The “t” test is used to determine the significance of difference between measures of control technologV of the sample.

HANDLING DATA

117

S2

11. "F" distribution = F = -

S2

Si

=

sun1 of larger number

Sz = sum of smaller number

The "F" test is used to determine the significance of difference among the spread of the samples.

12. The interpretation of the F statistic (ANOVA) is significant if it is equal to or greater than the value from the F-table at the level of significance selected. The level of significance commonly chosen is either 0.01 or 0.05. If F is significant then it can be stated that there exists a real difference within the variant. Significance at the 0.01 level means that the probability of the statement being incorrect is 1 in 100 and for the 0.05 level 1 in 20. The value from the F-table is obtained by reading the degree of freedom of the variant in the rows or columns on the abscissa and the degrees of freedom of the error term on the ordinate. For example if the degrees of freedom of the row value is 9 and the degrees of freedom of the error term is 50, then the F value for 0.05 level is 2.07 and the F value for the 0.01 level is 2.78. (See Tables 6.3 and 6.4). If t h e F statistic is significant the least significant difference (LSD)is calculated to determine where the differences among the variants lie. The LSD is the minimum by which the means of any two rows of columns significantly differ from each other. If the F statistic is not significant a t the chosen level the LSD is not calculated. The least significant difference is calculated as follows.

(

"o.eols.zor rows

)

x Mean square x F b (0.01 or 0.05) of error

(a) Divide by number of rows if LSD for columns is being determined or vice versa. (b) F(O.O1 or 0.05) is obtained from the F table at the level of significance selected in the analysis of variance. F Value is the same as for obtaining the F-value in the analysis of variance.

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

118

Figure 10-1 DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL Symbols

Read

Meaning

m

m

Number of subgroups in a sample

n

Total number of sample units or measurements in a sample n = (m)(ns)

ns

n sub s

Number of sample units or measurements in a subgroup

N

N

Total number of observations

X

X

Value of an individual measurement for a variable

E(S)

sum of

Sum of a series of numbers (E means the sum of several measurements)

Mi

Mi

Median of all the individual measurements in a subgroup

Mi

Mi double bar

Median of all the individual measurements or subgroup medians (Mi) in a sample

Mu

Mu

Arithmatic means of the observations.

X

X bar

Average of all individual measurements in a subgroup

X

X double bar

Arithmetic mean of all the individual measurements in a sample. When the average is calculated for each subgroup in a sample for conventional averages, is also the average of the subgroup averages. An estimate of centered value for the process.

R

Range

R

A range of measurements, the difference between the highest and lowest measurement within a subgroup

R bar

Average range of all the subgroup ranges

s

sigma

Standard deviation of the averages. The width of one zone in the normal distribution curve of individual items called a standard deviation. Plus and minus 3 sigmas from the average includes 99% of the normal curve

s2

s squared

Variance, long term average of the squared deviations from the mean. A measure of dispersion

s x bar

Standard deviation of the averages

X bar prime rnax

A specified maximum lot average value

=

-

-

SX

--I

* X max

-1

- 1

X

mar

adjusted

-1

X '

min

X bar prime max adjusted X bar prime min

X

rnax

plus a sampling allowance

A specified minimum lot average value

HANDLING DATA

119

Table 10-1(Continued) DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL Symbols

-

Read

Meaning -

X'min adjusted

x bar Prime min

1

- 1

X min minus a sampling allowance

adjusted -1

*R

R bar prime

A specified average range value

*R max

R max

A specified maximum range for a subgroup

x

Upper control limit for averages

LCL -

Lower control limit for averages

Upper and lower control limits for averages determine the pattern that sample averages should follow if a constant system of chance is operating. If the averages do not conform to this pattern, there is an assignable cause present

UCL

X

UCL

Upper control limit for ranges

*LRL

Lower reject limit for individual measurements

UPL LPL

Upper process limit Lower process limit

Upper control limit for range sets the pattern within which sample ranges should fall. If the sample ranges do not conform to this pattern, there is an assignable cause present Lowest value an individual measurement may have without causing the production to be rejected for failure to meet prescribed requirements for individual measurements Are the limits for which the process is capable of. (Ideally these limits would fall outside the control limits.)

USL

Upper specification limit

LSL

Lower specification limit

*LRL -

Lower reject limit for subgroup averages or medians

Lowest value the average or median of a subgroup may have without causing the production to be rejected for failure to meet prescribed requirements for subgroup averages.

*LWL

Lower warning limit for individual measurements

This value serves as a warning point that the production may have reached a level where the chances of subsequently fiiding an individual measurement that will fall below the LRL have increased to a degree that the production may be in danger of rejection.

*LWL ;

URL

Lower warning limit for subgroup averages or medians

Upper reject limit for individual measurements

Are the limits defined by research for acceptable product. (Ideally these limits would fall outside the process capability limits.

This value serves as a warning point that the quality of the production may have reached a level where the chances of subsequently finding a subgroup average or median that will fall below LRL I have increased to a degree that the production may be in danger of rejection. The highest value an individual measurement may have without causing the production to be rejected for failure to meet prescribed reauirements for individual measurements.

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Table 10-1(Continued) DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL ~

Symbols

Read

Meaning The highest value the average or median of a subgroup may have without causing the production to be rejected for failure to meet prescribed requirements for individual measurements. This value serves as a warning point that the quality of the production may have reached a level where the chances of subsequently finding an individual measurement that will exceed the URL have increased to a degree that the production may be in danger of rejection.

URLx

Upper reject l i i i t for subgroup averages or medians

UWL

Upper warning limit for individual measurements

UWL,

Upper warning limit for subgroup averages or medians

This value serves as a warning point that the quality of production may have reached a level where the chances of subsequently finding a subgroup average or median that will exceed the URLx have increased to a degree that the production may be in danger of rejection.

Process Capability

This value serves as a guide as to how well the process is in control. It is calculated by dividing the specification width (Upper SpecificationLower Specification) by the natural tolerance (6 sigma). Some users calculate the process capability index by 2A,R (See Table 6.2 for A,) if the process is stable.

CPk

Capability Index

This Index measures the improvement of the process as companies seek greater uniformity around the desired target. It is calculated by dividing the specification width by the process width. The greater the number the better the index.

'These limits and values are to be established and incorporated in the USDA Grade Standards for the various products. These values will be available upon request to: Chief Processed Products, Standardization and Inspection Branch Fruit and Vegetable Division, AMS, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250

HANDLING DATA

121

Table 10-2 FACTORS FOR COMPUTING VARIABLE CONTROL LIMITS

Factors for Sample S i z e n A1

Averages

A2

D3

0 4

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 0.419 0.373 0.337 0.308 0.285 0.266 0.249 0.235 0.223

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.076 0.136 0.184 0.223 0.256 0.284 0.308 0.329 0.348

3.268 2.574 2.282 2.114 2.004 1.924 1.864 1.816 1.777 1.744 1.717 1.692 1.671 1.652

3.760 2.394 1.980 1.596 1.410 1.277 1.175 1.094 1.028 0.973 0.925 0.884 0.848 0.817

Range

Factor for Standard Deviation

or Sigma

Sample Size

d2

n

1.128 1.693 2.059 2.326 2.534 2.704 2.847 2.970 3.078 3.173 3.258 3.336 3.407 3.472

Formulas for computing control limits: For Awmges For Range UCLR = D,a UCL =F+A,E

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Standard Zkuiation or Sigma (8)

R

8 =-

L C L = ~ - A ~ Note:

= the average for a

LCLR = Dg8 set ofX values or the grand average

R = the avera for a set of R values

All factors in R b l e are based on the normal distribution

4

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

122

Table 10-3 1% POINTS FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF F

f l degrees of freedom (for greater mean square) f2 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2

3

4.052 4.999 5.403 98.49 99.00 99:17 34.12 30.82 29.46 21.20 18.00 16.69 16.26 13.27 12.06 13.74 10.92 12.25 9.55 11.26 8.65 10.56 8.02 10.04 7.56

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

100

500

5.625 5.764 5.859 5.928 5.981 6.022 -,.-_ 6.056 -,.- - 6.334 -,- - - 6.361 -,- - 99.25 99.30 9933 99.34 99.36 99.38 99.40 99.49 99.50 28.71 28.24 27.91 27.67 27.49 27.34 27.23 26.23 26.14 15.98 15.52 15.21 14.98 14.80 14.66 14.54 13.57 13.48 11.39 10.97 10.67 10.45 10.27 10.15 10.05 9.13 9.04

9.78 8.45 7.59 6.99 6.55

9.15 7.85 7.01 6.42 5.99

8.75 7.46 6.63 6.06 5.64

8.47 7.19 6.37 5.80 5.39

8.26 7.98 - ~8.10 _. . 7.00 6.84 6.7i 6.19 6.03 5.91 5.62 5.47 5.35 5.21 5.06 4.95

7.87 6.62 5.82 5.26 4.85

6.99 5.75 4.96 4.41 4.01

6.90 5.67 4.88 4.33 3.93

~

11 12 13 14 15

9.65 9.33 9.07 8.86 8.68

7.20 6.93 6.70 6.51 6.36

6.22 5.95 5.74 5.56 5.42

5.67 5.41 5.20 5.03 4.89

5.32 5.06 4.86 4.69 4.56

5.07 4.82 4.62 4.46 4.32

4.88 4.65 4.44 4.28 4.14

4.74 4.50 4.30 4.14 4.00

4.63 4.39 4.19 4.03 3.89

4.54 4.30 4.10 3.94 3.80

3.70 3.46 3.27 3.11 2.97

3.62 3.38 3.18 3.02 2.89

16 17 18 19 20

8.53 8.40 8.28 8.18 8.10

6.23 6.11 6.01 5.93 5.85

5.29 5.18 5.09 5.01 4.94

4.77 4.67 4.58 4.50 4.43

4.44 4.34 4.25 4.17 4.10

4.20 4.10 4.01 3.94 3.87

4.03 3.93 3.85 3.77 3.71

3.89 3.79 3.71 3.63 3.56

3.78 3.68 3.60 3.52 3.45

3.69 3.59 3.51 3.43 3.37

2.86 2.76 2.68 2.60 2.53

2.77 2.67 2.59 2.51 2.44

21 22 23 24 25

8.02 7.94 7.88 7.82 7.77

5.78 5.72 5.66 5.61 5.57

4.87 4.82 4.76 4.72 4.68

4.37 4.31 4.26 4.22 4.18

4.04 3.99 3.94 3.90 3.86

3.81 3.76 3.71 3.67 3.63

3.65 3.59 3.54 3.50 3.46

3.51 3.45 3.41 3.36 3.32

3.40 3.35 3.30 3.25 3.21

3.31 3.26 3.21 3.17 3.13

2.47 3.42 2.37 2.33 2.29

2.38 2.33 2.28 2.23 2.19

30 50 100 200

7.56 7.17 6.90 6.76

5.39 5.06 4.82 4.71

4.51 4.20 3.98 3.88

4.02 3.72 3.51 3.41

3.70 3.41 3.20 3.11

3.47 3.18 2.99 2.90

3.30 3.02 2.82 2.73

3.17 2.88 2.69 2.60

3.06 2.78 2.59 2.50

2.98 2.70 2.51 2.41

2.13 1.82 1.59 1.48

2.03 1.71 1.46 1.33

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123

Table 10-4 5% POINTS FOR THE DISTRIBUTION OF F fl degrees of freedom (for greater mean square)

f2

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 2 3 4 5

161 18.51 10.13 7.71 6.61

6 7 8 9 10

5.99 5.59 5.32 5.12 4.96

5.14 4.74 4.46 4.26 4.10

4.76 4.35 4.07 3.86 3.71

4.53 4.12 3.84 3.63 3.48

4.39 3.97 3.69 3.48 3.33

4.28 3.87 3.58 3.37 3.22

4.21 3.79 3.50 3.29 3.14

4.15 3.73 3.44 3.23 3.07

4.10 3.68 3.39 3.18 3.02

11 12 13 14 15

4.84 4.75 4.67 4.60 4.54

3.98 3.88 3.80 3.74 3.68

3.59 3.49 3.41 3.34 3.29

3.36 3.26 3.18 3.11 3.06

3.20 3.11 3.02 2.96 2.90

3.09 3.00 2.92 2.85 2.79

3.01 2.92 2.84 2.77 2.70

2.95 2.85 2.77 2.70 2.64

16 17 18 19 20

4.49 4.45 4.41 4.38 4.35

3.63 3.59 3.55 3.52 3.49

3.24 3.20 3.16 3.13 3.10

3.01 2.96 2.93 2.90 2.87

2.85 2.81 2.77 2.74 2.71

2.14 2.70 2.66 2.63 2.60

2.66 2.62 2.58 2.55 2.52

21 22 23 24 25

4.32 4.30 4.28 4.26 4.24

3.47 3.44 3.42 3.40 3.38

3.07 3.05 3.03 3.01 2.99

2.84 2.82 2.80 2.78 2.76

2.68 2.66 2.64 2.62 2.60

2.57 2.55 2.53 2.51 2.49

30 50 100 200

4.17 4.03 3.94 3.89

3.32 3.18 3.09 3.04

2.92 2.79 2.70 2.65

2.69 2.56 2.46 2.41

2.53 2.40 2.30 2.26

2.42 2.29 2.19 2.14

200 216 225 230 234 19.00 19.16 19.25 19.30 19.33 9.55 9.28 9.12 9.01 8.94 6.94 6.59 6.39 6.26 6.16 5.79 5.41 5.19 5.05 4.95

7

8

9

10

100500

237 239 241 242 253 19.36 19.37 19.38 19.39 19.49 8.88 8.84 8.81 8.78 8.56 6.09 6.04 6.00 5.96 5.66 4.88 4.82 4.78 4.74 4.40

254 19.50 8.54 5.64 4.37

4.06 3.63 3.34 3.13 2.97

3.71 3.28 2.98 2.76 2.59

3.68 3.24 2.94 2.72 2.55

2.90 2.80 2.72 2.65 2.59

2.86 2.76 2.67 2.60 2.55

2.45 2.35 2.26 2.19 2.12

2.41 2.31 2.22 2.14 2.08

2.59 2.55 2.51 2.48 2.45

2.54 2.50 2.46 2.43 2.40

2.49 2.45 2.41 2.38 2.35

2.07 2.02 1.98 1.94 1.90

2.02 1.97 1.93 1.90 1.85

2.49 2.47 2.45 2.43 2.41

2.42 2.40 2.38 2.36 2.34

2.37 2.35 2.32 2.30 2.28

2.32 2.30 2.28 2.26 2.24

1.87 1.84 1.82 1.80 1.77

1.82 1.80 1.77 1.74 1.72

2.34 2.20 2.10 2.05

2.27 2.13 2.03 1.98

2.21 2.07 1.97 1.92

2.16 2.02 1.92 1.87

1.69 1.52 1.39 1.32

1.64 1.46 1.30 1.22

124

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Table 10-5 THE DISTRIBUTION OF t Probability of a larger Value oft, Sign Ignored

d.f. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 35 40 45 50 60 80 100 200 500 1000 00

0.5 1.000 .816 .765 .741 .727 ,718 .7 11 .706 .703 .700 ,697 .695 .694 ,692 ,691 .690 ,689 ,688 .688 ,687 ,686 .686 .685 .685 .684 584 ,684 ,683 ,683 .683

... ... ... ... ... ...

... ...

...

...

.67449

0.1 6.314 2.920 2.353 2.132 2.015 1.943 1.895 1.860 1.833 1.812 1.796 1.782 1.771 1.761 1.753 1.746 1.740 1.734 1.729 1.725 1.721 1.717 1.714 1.711 1.708 1.706 1.703 1.701 1.699 1.697

... ... ... ...

...

... ...

... ...

...

1.64485

0.05 12.706 4.303 3.182 2.776 2.571 2.441 2.365 2.306 2.262 2.228 2.201 2.179 2.160 2.145 2.131 2.120 2.110 2.101 2.093 2.086 2.080 2.074 2.069 2.064 2.060 2.056 2.052 2.048 2.045 2.042 2.030 2.021 2.014 2.008 2.000 1.990 1.984 1.972 1.965 1.962 1.95996

0.02 31.821 6.965 4.541 3.747 3.365 3.143 2.998 2.896 2.821 2.764 2.718 2.681 2.650 2.624 2.602 2.583 2.567 2.552 2.539 2.528 2.518 2.508 2.500 2.492 2.485 2.479 2.473 2.467 2.462 2.457

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

2.32634

0.01 63.657 9.925 5.841 4.604 4.032 3.707 3.499 3.355 3.250 3.169 3.106 3.055 3.012 2.977 2.947 2.921 2.898 2.878 2.861 2.845 2.831 2.819 2.807 2.797 2.787 2.779 2.771 2.763 2.756 2.750 2.724 2.704 2.690 2.678 2.660 2.638 2.626 2.601 2.568 2.581 2.57582

Reproduced from, Fisher, R. A. Statistical Method for Research Workers. Oliver and Body, Edinburgh, Scotland, and by permission of the author and publishers.

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125

References

Burr, John T. 1990 The Tools of Quality, Part I: Going with the Flow (Chart). Quality Progress, June 5467. Burr, John T. 1990 The Tools of Quality Part VI: Pareto Charts. Quality Progress, November 5961. Gould, Wilbur A. and Ronald W. Gould. 1988. Total Quality Assurance for the Food Industries. CTI Publications, Inc. Baltimore, MD. Gunter, Bert. 1989 Statistically Designed Experiments. Part I: Quality Improvement, the Strategy of Experimentation, and the Road to Hell. Quality Progress, December 63-64. Gunter, Bert. 1990. Statistically Designed Experiments. Part 2 The Universal Structure Underlying Experimentation. Quality Progress, February 87-89. Gunter, Bert. 1989 Statistically Designed Experiments. Part 3 Interaction. Quality Progress,April 7475. Gunter, Bert. 1990 Statistically Designed Experiments. Part 4: Multivariate Optimization. Quality Progress, June, 6869. Gunter, Bert. 1990 Statistically Designed Experiments: Part 5: Robust Process and Product Design and Related Matters. Quality Progress, August 107-108. Juran Institute, Inc. The 1990. The Tools of Quality. Part I V Histograms. Quality Progress, 7578. Nolan, Thomas W. and Lloyd P. Provost. 1990. Understanding Variation. Quality Progress,May 70-78. Sarazan, J. Stephen. 1990 The Tools of Quality. Part I1 Cause and-Effed Diagrams. Quality Progress 5962. Shainin, Peter D. 1990 The Tools of Quality. Part I11 Control Chart. Quality Progress, April 7982.

127

Chapter 11

COMMUNICATING THE R & D EFFORTS “Research does not end until the results are communicated” The purpose of research is to develop new knowledge. This knowledge must be shared through speaking, writing, or with products and services. Research is too costly to keep it in a vacuum. The researcher who learns to impart his or her information is the one who becomes highly visible. Positive visibility leads to greater things including promotions, recognitions, and salary adjustments. Communicating the Results of Research Communicating results, also, implies being a good listener. Listening for suggestions for improvements, constructive criticisms, and inputs to strengthen the efforts. Communicating the results of research is a requirement in an academic institution. It is one of the strong benefits to consider when hiring personnel. Advanced degree candidates have had to learn to write and communicate their results before their faculty and their peers. This requirement is great training and it is an opportunity for the student to learn quickly about communication. Communicating research results should start with record keeping. Bound record keeping books and/or logs are the preferred types. This book should be the record of the daily efforts giving all the information generated from the research including observations and actual numbers. This book should have numbered pages and no pages should be removed. All entries should be in ink with each page dated and signed at the end of the day by the researcher and countersigned by a colleague that has read and understood the recorded information. The notebook is the property of the firm and should be reviewed by peers on a regular basis. The notebook serves as the basis for writing weekly,

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

monthly, quarterly, and annual reports and patents. The notebook is the researchers protection about his or her discoveries, new ideas, and the prevention of duplicate work. The notebook should never leave the premises and when filled should be a part of the firm’s permanent library for future reference. This notebook is the f i s t fundamental in the art of communicating research efforts.

Progress Reports The researcher must learn to prepare progress reports on a regular basis. The reports must be honest, factual, and accurate. Reports must always be on time as scheduled by management. The progress report is a way of giving management the status of the researchers’ efforts and the direction the research is heading. Good progress reports become the basis for the annual report. The annual report summarizes the efforts to-date and provides information to management to make intelligent determinations as to whether to continue the research and/or take other directions. Annual reports are vital to know the current status of the research.

The Scientific Paper Research communication should not stop here. The researcher should learn to write scientific papers for publication in journals, symposia, books, and manuals. The research paper must be “shaped” for each publication and the respective publication will provide details of their style for accepting papers. In addition to the research paper, the researcher should learn to communicate his or her results through slides, video, movies, TV, or audio tapes. They need not be the professional photographer or cinema director, but they must learn to put their information in the form of pictures for all to understand and see. In this modern day and age, a picture is still worth 1000 words. The first requirement in any form of communication is to obtain the attention of the person one is attempting to communicate with. In a written research paper, the first paragraph is most vital. It must set forth enough excitement to want the communicatee to want to go on through the rest of the paper. In many

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129

scientific papers, the abstract will do this if done right. In many reports the executive summary should turn the reader on to want to go into the details. The second part of the report should provide the reader answers

to the following questions: **What was done? **Why was it done? **How was it done? **When was it done? **Where was it done? **Who was involved? Thus, the paper documents the solution to the research objectives. All research papers should include pertinent information about the subject through the review of the literature in the area. This implies that after the work is completed that the research should show how his work has contributed to man’s knowledge and what his or her contributions are in light of other accomplishments. Sometimes, the researcher will find no similar work, but the researcher can draw parallels from similar studies. All research papers should draw conclusions and provide a summary of the effort. Personally, I like concluding Statements that stand on their own, that is, they are statements that need no defending. Many research papers go the final step and make recommendations for further work or other types of studies. This is most helpful to the research director or manager in helping formulate future plans.

Patents The process of innovation is that everybody gains from inventions which are successfully marketed. In addition to the rewards for the inventor, society benefits from the new jobs that are created and the ultimate increase in economic activities. All researchers should have creativity as one of their first attributes as the greatest resource of mankind is creativity. Invention and innovation are the cornerstones to the free enterprise system. We

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

as researchers must learn to question and solve problems, use our creativity, and then communicate our results. One of the major ways to communicate our results is through the use of a patent.

A patent is a grant or agreement between an inventor and the United States Government in which the government grants to the inventor the right to prevent others from making, using, or selling his invention within the United States or its Territories for 17 years. In return for a written disclosure of the invention three types of patents are available: Utility paten& granted for a new, useful, and nonobvious process, machine, manufactured article, composition, or an improvement in any of the above; Design paten& available for the invention of a new, original, and ornamental design for an article of manufacture. A design patent only protects the appearance of an article and not its structure or utilitarian features; and Plant paten& provided to anyone who has invented or discovered and asexually reproduced any distinct and new variety of plant, including cultivated spores, mutants, hybrids, and newly found seedlings, other than a tuber propagated plant or a plant found in an uncultivated state. The basis of the Government’s power to grant patents goes back to the Constitution of the United States, Article 1, Section 8, which reads as follows: “Congress shall have power...to promote the progress of science and usefil arts by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and inventions. ”

A patent includes a specification, claims, and when the nature of the case admits, a drawing. The specification should contain a written description of the invention and of the manner and process of making and using it. It should be stated in such full, clear, and consise terms that any person skilled in the art to which it pertains, can readily understand the inventor’s method for making and using the invention. The claims must be clearly pointed out and specify the subject matter which the inventor regards as his invention. The drawing

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131

serves to facilitate an understanding of the invention and to show the features specified in the claims. A drawing is usually required when an apparatus or machine is involved, although illustrations such as flow sheets in cases of processes and diagramatic views may also be furnished. The system started in 1790 and today some 100,000 patent applications are requested annually with some 5,000,000 U.S. patents already granted. In addition, there are some 16,000,000 foreign patents. In 1988 patent history was made when the Patent and Trademark Office issued the first patent covering an animal, specifically genetically engineered mice for cancer research. Before applying for a patent, the researcher is advised to make a thorough patent search to see if any prior art exists. A Patent Public Search Room is located in Arlington, VA. Patents are arranged in this room according to a classification system of more than 400 classes and 115,000 subclasses. The Index To The US Patent Classifications is an alphabetical list of the subject headings referring to specific classes and subclasses. After finding the proper class and subclass, one can use the Manual of Classification for a detail breakdown of patents. Copies of patents are filed in a Patent and Trademark Depository Library (PTDL). The following is a list of PTDL's and the use of their patent collections are free of charge to the public.

State

- Name of Library

AL Auburn University Libraries Birmingham Public Library

Ak Anchorage: Z. J. Loussac Public Library AZ Tempe: Noble Library, Arizona St. Univ. AR Little Rock Arkansas State Library CA Los Angeles Public Library Sacramento: California State Library San Diego Public Library Sunnyvale Patent Clearinghouse co Denver Public Library CT New Haven: Science Park Library

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

State - Name of Library DE Newark: University of Delaware Library DC Washington: Howard University Libraries FL Fort Lauderdale: Broward County Main Library Miami-Dade Public Library Orlando: Univ. of Central Florida Libraries GA Atlanta: Price Gilbert Memorial Library, Georgia Institute of Technology ID Moscow: University of Idaho Library IL Chicago Public Library Springfield: Illinois State Library IN Indianapolis-Marion County Public Library IA Des Moines: State Library of Iowa KY Louisville Free Public Library LA Baton Rouge: Troy H. Middleton Library, Louisiana State University MD College P a r k Engineering and Physical Sciences Library, Univ. of Maryland MA Amherst: Physical Sciences Library, University of Massachusetts Boston Public Library MI Ann Arbor: Engineering Transportation Library, Univ. of Michigan Detroit Public Library MN Minneapolis Public Library and Information Center MO Kansas City: Linda Hall Library St. Louis Public Library MT Butte: Montana College of Mineral Science and Technology Library NE Lincoln: Engineering Library, Univ. of Nebraska-Lincoln NV Reno: University of Nevada-Reno Library NH Durham: Univ. of New Hampshire Library NJ Newark Public Library Piscataway: Library of Science and Medicine, Rutgers University NM Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico General Library

COMMUNICATING THE R & D EFFORTS

State - Name of Library NY Albany: New York State Library Buffalo and Erie County Public Library New York Public Library (The Research Libraries) NC Raleigh D.H. Hill Library, North Carolina State University OH Cincinnati and Hamilton County, Public Library Cleveland Public Library; Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Libraries Toledo/Lucas County Public Library OK Stillwater: Oklahoma State University Library OR Salem: Oregon State University PA Philadelphia, The Free Library of Pittsburgh, Carnegie Library of University P ar k Pattee Library, Pennsylvania State University RI Providence Public Library SC Charleston: Medical University of South Carolina Library TN Memphis and Shelby County Public Library and Information Center Nashville: Stevenson Science Library, Vanderbilt University TX Austin: McKinney Engineering Library, University of Texas at Austin College Station: Steriling C. Evans Library, Texas A&M University Dallas Public Library Houston: The Fondren Library, Rice University UT Salt Lake City: Marriott Library, University of Utah VA Richmond: Virginia Commonwealth University Library WA Seattle: Engineering Library, University of Washington WI Madison: Kurt F. Wendt Library, University of Wisconsin Madison Milwaukee Public Library

133

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Levy suggests the following patent search steps: Step 1: If you know the PATENT NUMBER, go to the Official Gazette to read a summary of the patent. This publication is available at any of the above-mentioned patent search facilities and in many public library reference rooms. Step 2: If you know the PATENTEE or ASSIGNEE, look a t the Patent/Assignee Index to locate the Patent Number. This is available at any of the patent search facilities. Step 3: If you know the SUBJECT, start with: Index to the U.S. Patent Classification. Step 4: Once you have jotted down the class(es) and subclass(es) out of the INDEX, refer to the MANUAL OF CLASSIFICATION and check this information vis-a-vis the heirarchy to see if they are close to what you need. The MANUAL OF CLASSIFICATION is available at all patent search facilities. Step 5: Using the Class/Subclass numbers you have found, look at the U.S. Patent Classification Subclass and Numeric Listing and copy the patent numbers of patent and begin “pulling shoes”. To pull shoes is to physcially remove patent groupings from the open shelves. Step 6: Then, using the OFFICIAL GAZETTE again, look at the patent summaries of those patents. Step 7: Upon locating the relevant patents, examine the complete patent in person or on microfilm, depending upon where you conduct the search.” If desired to have a copy of the prior art, that is, given patents, they may be ordered from the Patent and Trademark Office, Box 9, Washington, D.C. 20231. The steps in applying for a patent include the following as taken from Levy: 1. Prepare a written document which comprises a specification (description and claims), and an oath or declaration. 2. Develop a drawing in those cases in which a drawing is required; and 3. Establish the correct filing fee- the correct filing fee ranges from $12.00 to $370.00 one should check with PTO at (703-5575168).

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135

Patents are granted to people, not companies; but, the patent may be assigned or sold to a company that funded the work. Some 70% of all the patents granted each year are to independent inventors. The laws of nature, physical phenomena, and abstract ideas are not patentable subject matter. A patent is good for 17 years and can be extended beyond this period only by a special act of Congress. For a patent to be successful, it must serve a market. This may be a new process, a new product, a new method, a new plant cultivar, and/or a new system. Successful patent holders must learn how to market their ideas, that is, they need to find a need and then fulfill that need. One author states that there are primary (age, sex, and race) and secondary (economic) needs. In the food business we know that many products are and probably should continue to be designed and packaged for specific needs, that is, teenagers, Yuppies (Young urban professionals), Dinks (Double income with no kids), mature or seniors, ethnic (both race and religion), and even regional groups. Thus, in the development of new products, new processes, etc., we need to know the intended purpose and market our ideas, our innovations, our creativity, and yes, our inventions to the right market.

Other ways of Communicating Communicating the results of research must, also, be done through disucssions, presentations, and lectures. One on one discussions are great to establish the strengths and weaknesses of the research and the researcher. Give and take sessions brings forth much information that may not at first seem relevant, but the outcome is leads and suggestions for further challenges. Short presentations or seminars are another great way to get the results of research out in the open and to obtain suggestions and positions on the status of the research efforts. These sessions should be formal as far as the presentation is concerned, but most informal in the discussion periods to open the doors for further ramifications of the research directions. Peers are generally good sounding boards and they are quick to suggest other opportunities for further studies or direction changes.

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

The communication of the research to large audiences is a major challenge for most researchers. It is a great way to reach interested parties and to set forth what has been accomplished. It requires maximum preparation and great stamina to put together interesting and challenging presentations. In the end the r e searcher will find this the most rewarding part of his or her research effort. Its not the applause, but the fact that you have communicated your efforts for all to see and for all to take your efforts and build on your contributions for the future of the food industry. Communication of one’s research work is the climax of the research effort. All research should be communicated to everyone interested so that it can be put to use to solve the many problems confronting the food industry. Research that is packed away in Ele drawers is really money and effort poorly utilized.

Reference Anon. Index to the U.S. Patent Classification Manual of Classification. Pattern & Trademark Depository Library Anon. 1989 Policy on Patents and Copyrights. The Ohio State University Handbook. Anon. Patent Manual, Swift & Company Harmon, James V. 1976 Maximizing Patent Opportunities. Cereal Food World. Vol. 21 (5): 220-222 Levy, Richard C. 1991. Inventor’s Desktop Visible Ink Press, Detroit, MI Park, Robert. 1990. Inventor’s Publications, Inc., Crozet, VA.

Handbook.

Companion. Betterway

Saxl, Edwin J. 1 1978. The Significance of a Patent. American Laboratory. pg. 3 1-34, September issue.

137

Chapter 12 COSTS, APPRAISALS, AND PRODUCTIVITY A research program in a firm or institution is responsible for contributing to the success of the business or venture. It is not there just for the glorification of the researcher or for a show place for management. Research programs must contribute to the bottom line the same as any other phase of the business.

Research does cost actual dollars for the facility, the materials, the equipment, the personnel, and the day to day operation. However, this is no way to measure the benefits of research. Research is something you do before you have to do it. It is an investment into the future. As Coach Woody Hayes used to say, what really counts is how we pay forward for the next generation. It is true that many research efforts do not pay off in the short run, but if one looks back over time and studies the fruits of research they can quickly see that man would not be able to feed the world today without this great contribution. Research is necessary and every food i5-m should make appropriate contributions towards research efforts.

Budgets All research programs should work from budgets and they should be held accountable. Researchers should be given budget allocations for their projects and they should carefully monitor their expenditures and stay in line. Every report by a researcher should carry a financial page enumerating his or her expenditures in accordance with the budget. The research leader or manager must equate each project to the whole including the cost of operating the facility and all. Most researchers have not had much training in finances and the use of spread sheets. Most

138

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

computers have software to help the researcher and the leader or manager in this area of operating a research program.

All effective research programs must be organized such that there is an identification of the costs of all research. This includes the design, development, operation, service contributions, and personnel salaries and support. In addition the maintenance of the plant and building, replacement of obsolete equipment and instruments, supplies, and all materials must be accounted for and included in the annual and projected budgets. Too many times budgets do not cover some of the above and the department finds itself using funds for purposes not intended. The objective of such budgetary practice is to quantify the available dollars for the intended use. By clearly identifying and communicating the financial impact of the cost of research, the R & D manager will be able to help top management set clear and concise objectives and develop long range strategies to achieve the firms or business goals enthusiastically. All individuals in the R & D department should be involved in the planning process, goal setting, and the decisions that affect them and their programs. Plans can succeed only if they are communicated effectively and understood by all concerned. Budgets should always be based on the future, not on the past. They should be based on future needs, not on past actuals. Budgets should adequately represent the realities of an effective operation. Personnel should be promoted based on their excellence in accomplishing their objectives, not on seniority, politics,, or gamesmanship.

Appraisals/ Productivity Managers must strive for preventive rather than corrective actions. Managers should set high standards and have great expectations and encourage their subordinates to achieve them. Managers should always be available, that is, maintain an open door policy. Managers should encourage and develop an effective flow of two-way conversations and/or communications. Managers must encourage team-building, but always be on the watch so as not to create provincialism.

COSTS, APPRAISALS, AND PRODUCTIVITY

139

Managers should view their department as a small business. They should always be looking at the department as profit. making enterprise or center. They should strive to provide some value added service to everything that they do. Their customers, the production department, the quality assurance department and/or top management should view this department as a place to buy their services, their research accomplishments, and/or their products for the good of the firm. A good R & D program will not have to sell its product or its service as buyers will be waiting with baited breath for the new method, the new product, the new process, or the new accomplishment. Research does not cost, it pays and it pays extremely well for those who invest in the future.

A “can-do” R & D department has a great attitude and high esprit de corps. The enthusiasm, dedication, and teamwork of the people in this kind of an organization can never be underestimated as key contributors in achieving optimal productivity. The employees will exhibit a genuine sense of commitment and a determination to perform. The employees will have a strong team spirit. They are proud of their contribution to the team and they enjoy their jobs. Team members depend on each other rather than compete with each other and they exhibit strong interpersonal trust. Employees have confidence that top management fully supports them and their efforts. The department exhibits mature confidence in the face of difficult situations and does not panic when given new challenges. Further, a “can-do” department’s people have strong loyalty to the firm and to the objectives of the program. They are champions for the firm and its products. Some people measure R & D productivity by asking how much money was made out of what’s come out of R & D. Other ways include counting up the number of publications, patents, or new products. Unfortunately, none of these approaches are good indications of the the R & D program to the goals of the firm. All measures of the worth of an R & D program should be based on their contribution to the goals of the firm or institution. The return on research dollars comes in many ways: support of existing business: produds, services, line extensions, cost savings in material procurement, production practices, and marketing programs. Secondly, the return on research dollars can be, in part,

140

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

measured by the new products, new processes, and new contributions to keeping the firm on the grow. Finally, the manager of modern R & D programs must learn to prioritize all aspects of the R & D department, they must monitor the customer’s reaction to their staff group’s produds and services, they must monitor the firm’s competitive position and they must increase the productivity of their people and their programs. They should learn not to spend their time firefighting, but to concentrate on the objectives established by top management in concert with the R & D staff. By starting now, one can develop an R & D program that will withstand and lead the firm into the future with a gain in the market share for their products, their services, and their accomplishments. References

Collier, D. W. and R. E. Gee. 1973 A Simple Approach to PostEvaluation of Research. Industrial Research Institute, May 9-115 Gould, Wilbur A. and Ronald W. 1988 Total Quality Assurance for the Food Industries. CTI Publications, Baltimore, MD. Ranftl, Robert M. 1978 R & D Productivity. Published by Robert Matthew Ranftl, Los Angeles, CA, 2nd Edition. Ranftl, Robert M. 1977 Improving R & D Productivity-A Study Program and Its Application. Industrial Research Institute, January 39-44. Young, Barbara J. 1989 Managing Quality in Staff Areas. Quality Progress December 29-34

141

R & D APPENDIX TABLES

Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table

1. Per Capita Consumption of Selected Foods ................. 142 2 . US RDA Nutritional Requirements ......................... 143 3 . Relationship of pH Value to Concentration of Acid or Alkalinity . . 144 4 . Classification of Foods according to pH .................... 144 5 . pH Values for Some Foods ............................

145-146

Moisture Content of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables ........... 147 Water Quality Tolerances .................................. 148 Water Hardness Classification based on Calcium Carbonates .... 149 Composition of Sucrose Solutions .......................... 149 Composition of Salt Solutions .............................. 150 11. Composition of Sodium Hydroxide Solutions ................ 151 12. Canning Water Demand.................................... 152 13. Temperature Conversion Table ......................... 153-162 14. Container Size Conversion-Tin and Glass ...................163 15 . Tyler Standard Screen Scale Sieves ........................ 164 16. Shelf Life in Months for Some Canned Foods .............. 165 17 . Shelf Life in Months for Some Frozen Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166 18. Specific and Latent Heats of Some Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167 19. English and Metric Equivalents ............................ 168 20 . English to Metric Conversion Factors....................... 169 21 . Decimal Equivalents ....................................... 170

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

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RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Table 1 PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION SELECTED FOODS - AVERAGE DURING PAST 20 YEARS 1970-1990 WITH TRENDS INDICATED

FOOD ITEM Total Red Meat (Excluding game) Beef Pork Lamb and Mutton Veal

POUNDS RENDS* > 143.7 > 75.5 > 63.8 < 2.7 < 3.0

Fishery Products

11.8

>

Chicken Turkey Eggs

39.8 8.3 39.1

>> > <

163.9 12.6 5.8 17.9

<< >> <

52.1

>

Total Fruit Processed Fresh

139.6 54.5 85.1

> > -

Total Vegetables Fresh (Commercial) Processed

154.2 97.7 56.5

> >

Fluid Whole Milk Total Cheese Butter Ice Cream Fat & Oils Total Fat Food Content ~

Wheat Flour Sugar Corn Sweetners coffee Soft Drinks TOTAL

*>

=

increasing,

116.0 94.9 26.0 7.6 25.0 1497.2

< = decreasing, - = No

-

-

> < >>> < >>>

significant trend

TABLES

143

Table 2

NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

us. Nutrient and Unit of Measurernemt Protein (optional), gram (9)

RDAl

265 45

Vitamin A, international unit (01) Vitamin C, milligram (mg) Thiamine, milligram (mg) Ribotlavin, milligram (mg) Niacin, milligram (mg) Calcium, gram (9) Iron. milligram (rng) Vitamin D (optional), international unit (U) Vimin international unit (ICI) V i m i n B-6, milligram (mg) Folic acid, milligram (mg) V i m i n B-12,microgram (rncg) ~ o s p h o p r u s gram , (9) Iodine (optional), microgram (mcg) Magnesium, milligram (mg) Zinc, milligram (mg) Copper, milligram (mg) Biotin, milligram (rng) Pantothenic acid, milligram (mg) Potassium, gram (9) Manganese, milligram (mg)

5Ooo 60 1.5 1.7

20 1 18 400

30 2 0.4

6 1 150 400

15 2 0.3 10 (3) (3)

Amount Per 100 Kilocalories

3.25 2.25 250 3 0.075 0.085

1.o 0.05 0.9 20 1.5 0.1 0.02 0.3 0.05 7.5 20 0.75 0.1

0.015 0.5 0.125 0.2

]US. Recommended Daily Allowance (US RDA) for adults and children 4 or more years of age. 2lf the protein efficiency ratio is equal to or better than that of casein, the US. RDA is 45 g. 3No US. RDA has been established for either potassium or manganese; daily dietary intakes of 2.5g. and 4.0 rng., respectively, are based on the 1979 Recommended Dietary Allowances of the Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences - National Research Council

144

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Table 3 RELATIONSHIP OF pH VALUE TO CONCENTRATION OF ACID (H+) OR ALKALINITY (OH-)

pH Value

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12 13 14

Concentration

10,000,000 1,000,000 100,000 10,000 1,000 100

Acidity

10

0 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000

Neutral

Alkalinity

Table 4 pH AND ACIDITY CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS Group No

Acidity Description

PH

~~

I

Non Acid

7.0-5.3

11

L o w Acid

5.3-4.6

111

Acid I

4.6-3.7

IV

Acid I1

3.7 and Below

TABLES

145

Table 5 pH VALUES OF SOME COMMERCIALLY CANNED FOODS pH Values Canned Product Apples Apple cider Applesauce Apricots Apricots, strained Asparagus, green Asparagus, white Aspara us, pureed Beans, faked Beans, green Beans, een, pureed Beans, r m a Beans, lima, pureed Beans, red kidney Beans, and Pork Beans, wax Beans, wax, pureed Beets Beets, pureed Blackberries Blueberries Carrots Carrots, pureed Cherries, black Cherries, red sour Cherries, Royal Ann Cherry 'uice Corn, brine packed Corn, cream style Corn, on cob Cranberry juice Cranberry sauce Figs Gooseberries Grapes, purple Grape juice Grapefruit Grapefruit juice Lemon juice Loganberries Mushrooms Olives, green Olives, ripe Orange juice Peaches Pears, Bartlett Peas, Alaska, (Wisc.) Peas, sweet wrinkled Peas, pureed Pickles, dill Pickles, fresh cucumber

d.K,

Avg.

3.4 3.3 3.6 3.7 4.1 5.5 5.5 5.2 5.9 5.4 5.1 6.2 5.8 5.9 5.6 5.3 5.0 5.4 5.3 3.6 3.4 5.2 5.1 4.0 3.3 3.9 3.4 6.3 6.1 6.1 2.6 2.6 5.0 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.3 2.4 2.9 5.8 3.4 6.9 3.7 3.8 4.1 6.2 6.2 5.9 3.1 4.4

Min.

Max.

3.2 3.3 3.2 3.6 3.8 5.4 5.4 5.0 5.6 5.2 5.0 6.0

3.7 3.5 4.2 3.9 4.3 5.6 5.7 5.3 5.9 5.7 5.2 6.3

5.7 -. .

6.1

5.0 5.2 4.9 5.0 5.0

6.0 5.5 5.1 5.8 5.5 4.1

-

3.2

3.3

-

~~

3.4 6.1 5.9 6.1 2.6 2.4 5.0 2.8 3.1 2.9 3.0 3.0 2.3 2.7 5.8

3.5 3.9 3.4 6.8 6.3 6.1 2.7 2.8 5.0 3.2 3.1 3.7 3.4 3.4 2.6 3.3 5.9

5.9 3.5 3.6 3.6 6.0 5.9 5.8 2.6 4.4

7.3 4.0 4.1 4.7 6.3 6.5 6.0 3.8 4.4

3.8

-

-

146

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Table 5 (Continued)

pH Values Canned Product

Pickles, sour Pickles, sweet Pineapple, crushed Pineapple, sliced Piqeapple tidbits Pineapple juice Plums, reen gage Plums, tictoria Potatoes, sweet Potatoes, white Prunes, fresh prune plums Pumpkin Raspberries, black Raspberries, red Sauerkraut Spaghetti in tomato sauce Spinach Spinach, pureed Strawberries Tomatoes Tomato juice Tomato, pureed

Avg.

Min.

Max.

3.1 2.7 3.4 3.5

3.1 2.5 3.2 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.6 2.8

3.1 3.0 3.5

5.2 5.5 3.7 5.1 3.7

3.1 3.5

4.4 4.3 4.2

5.1 ~~

5.4 2.5 4.8 3.2 2.8 3.4 4.7 5.1 5.2 3.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

3.6 _ .

3.7 3.5 4.0 3.1 5.4 5.6 4.2 5.2 4.1

3.5 3.7

4.6 4.5 4.3

TABLES

147

Table 6 MOISTURE CONTENT IN FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES Product

Average

Maximum

Minimum

Apples Apricots Avocados Blackberries Cherries, sweet Figs Grapefruit Grapes-European Muskmelon Oranges Peaches Pears Prunes (fresh) Rhubarb Watermelons

84.1 85.4 65.4 85.3 80.0 78.0 88.0 81.6 92.8 87.2 86.9 82.7 76.5 94.9 92.1

90.9 91.5 68.4 89.4 83.9 88.0 93.1 87.1 96.5 89.9 90.0 86.1 89.3 96.8 92.9

78.7 81.9 60.9 78.4 74.7 50.0 86.0 74.8 87.5 83.0 81.9 75.9 61.6 92.6 91.3

Artichokes Asparagus Snap Beans Lima Beans Beets Cabbage Carrots Cauliflower Celery, stalks Corn, sweet Cucumber Lettuce Onions Peas, green Potatoes Pumpkin Spinach Tomatoes

83.7 93.0 88.9 66.5 87.6 92.4 88.2 91.7 93.7 73.9 96.1 94.8 89.2 74.3 77.8 90.5 92.7 94.1

85.8 94.4 94.0 71.8 94.1 94.8 91.1 93.8 95.2 86.1 97.3 97.4 92.6 84.1 85.2 94.6 95.0 96.7

81.6 90.8 78.8 58.9 82.3 88.4 83.1 87.6 89.9 61.3 94.7 91.5 80.3 56.7 66.0 84.4 89.4 90.6

Source: Taken in part fmm Joslyn (1950).

148

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Table I WATER QUALITY TOLERANCES

Characteristic

-

Physical Turbidity (Silica scale) Color (Platinum scale) Objectionable Taste & Color

Maximum Limit on ppm

10. 20. 0.0

Chemical Arsenic Barium Cadmium Chromium Copper Iron and Manganese Lead Magnesium Mercury Nitrate (as Nitrogen) Selenium Silver Zinc Chloride Floride Sulfate Phenolic compounds (phenol) Total Solids Normal carbonate alkalinity

0.05 1.O 0.010 0.05 3.0 0.3 0.05 125.0 0.002 10.0

0.01 0.05 15.0 250.0 1.5 250.0 0.001 500.0 120.0

TABLES

149

Table 8 WATER HARDNESS RATINGS Quality

ppm of Calcium Carbonate

Soft Water

less than 50

Slightly Hard Water

50 to 100

Hard Water

100 to 200

Very Hard Water

Greater than 200

Table 9 COMPOSITION OF SUCROSE SUGAR SOLUTIONS AT 20°C (68" F)

Refractive Index

1.333 1.3403 1.3478 1.3557 1.3638 1.3723 1.3811 1.3902

1.4307 1.4418 1.4532 i.4651 .._ 1.4774 1.4901 1.5003

% Sucrose by Wt Degrees Brix 1

Degrees Baume Modulus 145 2

specific Gravity in Air at 20°C (68°F) 3

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.d 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0 60.0 65.0 70.0 75.0 80.0 85.0

0.00 2.79 5.57 8.34 11.10 13.84 16.57 19.28 21.97 24.63 27.28 29.90 32.49 35.04 37.56 40.03 42.47 44.86

1 .ooooo 1.01968 1.04003 1.06111 1.08297 1.10564 1.12913 1.15350 1.17874

1.28908 1.31905 1.34997 1.38187 1.41471 1.44848

Wtper1 US Wtof Gal of Syrup Sugar in in Air at 1 U.S. Gal 2o0c(68°F) of Syrup Ib Ib 4 5

8.322 8.485 8.655 8.830 9.012 9.201 9.396 9.599 9.809 10.027 10.252 10.486 10.727 10.977 11.234 11.499 11.773 12.054

0.000

0.424 0.866 1.325 1.803 2.301 2.820 3.361 3.925 4.513 5.127 5.768 6.438 7.136 7.865 8.626 9.418 10.244

150

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Table 10 BAUME, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, PERCENT SALT, DEGREE SALOMETER AND OUNCES OF SALT RELATIONSHIPS PER GALLON FOR LEVELS OF CONCENTRATION

Baume Reading 60" F

Sp. Gr. 60 "F

0.8 1.8 2.8 3.8 4.8 5.8 6.3 7.7 8.6 9.6 10.6 11.5 12.4 13.3 14.2 15.1 16.0 16.9 17.8 18.7 19.5 20.4 22.2 33.9

1.0053 1.0125 1.0197 1.0268 ~~1.0340 1.0413 1.0486 1.0559 1.0632 . ~-~ 1.0707 1.0782 1.0857 1.0933 1.1009 1.1086 1.1162 1.1241 1.1319 1.1399 1.1478 1.1559 1.1640 1.1804 1.1972 ~~~~

96 of Sodium Chloride

Salometer Reading (0-1009

Oz Salt per Gallon

1 2 3 4

3.8 7.6 11.4 15.1 18.5 22.6 26.4 30.2 34.2 37.7 40.5 45.3 49.1 52.8 56.6 60.4 64.2 68.0 71.7 75.5 79.2 83.0 90.6 100.0

1.35 2.72 4.13 5.56 7.03 8.62 10.05 11.61 13.20 14.83 16.50 18.21 19.95 21.73 23.56 25.43 27.35 29.31 31.32 33.38 35.49 __ 37.66 42.16 48.14

5

6 7 8 9 10 11

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 24 26.5 ~~

~~

TABLES

151

Table 11 SODIUM HYDROXIDE 2os Density of Aqueous Sodium Hydroxide Solutions at ia C. Computed from Values Given in the International Cirtical Tables.

Weight of NaoH in solution expressed in -~ Pounds per Pounds per Gramps per Cubic Foot Liter U.S. Gallon

Degrees

~

Specific Gravity

-

Per Cent NaOH

Baume

Twaddell

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16

1.4 2.9 4.5 6.0 7.4 8.8 10.2 11.6 12.9 14.2 16.8 19.2 21.6

1.90 4.14 6.36 8.54 10.76 12.96 15.16 17.38 19.58 21.78 26.18 30.60 35.02

1.0095 1.0207 1.0318 1.0428 1.0538 1.0648 1.0758 1.0869 1.0979 1.1089 1.1309 1.1530 1.1751

10.10 20.41 30.95 41.71 52.69 63.89 75.31 86.95 98.81 110.9 135.7 161.4 188.0

0.08425 0.1704 0.2583 0.3481 0.4397 0.5332 0.6285 0.7256 0.8246 0.9254 1.133 1.347 1.569

0.6302 1.274 1.932 2.604 3.289 3.989 4.701 5.428 6.169 6.923 8.472 10.08 11.74

1.1072 1.2191 1.2411 1.2629 1.2848

215.5 243.8 273.0 303.1 334.0

1.798 2.035 2.279 2.529 2.788

13.45 15.22 17.05 18.92 20.85

18 20 22 24 26

23.9 26.1 28.2 30.2 32.1

39.44 43.82 48.22 52.58 56.96

1.3064 1.3279 1.3490 1.3696 1.3900 1.4101

365.8 398.4 431.7 465.7 500.4 535.8

3.053 3.325 3.603 3.886 4.176 4.472

22.84 24.87 26.95 29.07 31.24 33.45

28 30 32 34 36 38

34.0 35.8 37.5 39.1 40.1 42.2

61.28 65.58 69.80 73.92 78.00 82.02

1.4300 1.4494 1.4685 1.4873 1.5065 1.5253

572.0 608.7 646.1 684.2 723.1 762.7

4.774 5.080 5.392 5.710 6.035 6.365

35.71 38.00 40.34 42.71 45.14 47.61

40 42 44 46 48 50

43.6 45.0 46.3 47.5 48.8 49.9

86.00 89.88 93.70 97.46 101.30 105.06

152

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Table 12 CANNING WATER DEMAND (Taken from Murray and Peterson) ~~

Product Asparagus Green & Wax Beans Beets Carrots Corn, Cream Style Corn, Cream Style and Whole Kernel Whole Kernel Corn with Peppers Lima Beans Mixed Vegetables Peas Pumpkin Spinach and Greens Tomatoes Apples Apricots Cherries, Sweet Peaches Pears Plums Misc. Fmits Misc. Fruits & Vegetables Baked Beans Hominy Brown Bread Beans, Soaked Dry

~~

Can S u e

~

~

No. 2, 2 Tall, 300 No. 2 No. 2 No. 2 No. 2

65-190 45-55 40-50

12 oz., 303, No. 2

25-82

12 0 2 . No. 2

No. 2 303, No. 2, No. 2T No. 2% No. 2, 2% No. 2% No. 10 No. 2% No. 2% No. 2% No. 2% No. 2% No. 2% 28 oz. 14. oz. No. 10, 2H, 2

No. 2, 2%

~

Gallons Of Water Per Case

40-55 40-50

50-82 40-55 50-60 31-135 60-165 75-260 50-66 75-150 50-150 90-180 30-320 25-180 50-150

50-100 60 85 43 55-70 58 30-123

TABLES

153

Table 13 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION TABLES The column of figures in bold and which is headed "Reading in "F.or "C.to be converted" refers to the temperature either in degrees Fahrenheit or Centigrade which it is desired to convert into the other scale. If converting from Fahrenheit degrees to Centigrade degrees the equivalent temperature will be found in the column headed ""C."while if converting from degrees Centigrade to degrees Fahrenheit. the equivalent temperature will be found in the column headed "OF." This arrangement is very similar to that of Sauveur and Boylston. copyrighted 1920 and is published with their permission.

"F

........

........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........

........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........

........

........

........ ........ ........ ........

........

........

........ ........

Readine in OF . or : C. to be converted

"C.

-458 -456 -454 -452 -450

-272.22 -271.11 -270.00 -268.89 -267.78

-448 -446 -444 -442 -440

-266.67 -265.56 -264.44 -263.33 -262.22

-438 -436 -434 -432 -430

-261.11 -260.00 -258.89 -257.78 -256.67

-428 -426 -424 -422 -420

-255.56 -254.44 -253.33 -252.22 -251.11

-418 -416 -414 -412 -410

-250.00 -248.89 -247.78 -246.67 -245.56

-408 -406 -404 -402 -400

-244.44 -243.44 -242.22 -241.11 -240.00

-398 -396 -394 -392 -390

-238.89 -237.78 -236.67 -235.56 -234.44

"F

Reading in "F. or ;c . to be converted

"C.

........ ........

-388 -386 -384 -382 -380

-233.33 -232.22 -231.1 1 -230.00 -228.89

........

-378 -376 -374 -372 -370

-227.78 -226.67 -225.56 -224.44 -223.33

-368 -366 -364 -362 -360

-222.22 -221.11 -220.00 -218.89 -217.78

-358 -356 -354 -352 -350

-216.67 -215.56 -214.44 -213.33 -212.22

-348 -346 -344 -342 -340

-211.11 -210.00 -208.89 -207.78 -206.67

-338 -336 -334 -332 -330

-205.56 -204.44 -203.33 -202.22 -201.11

-328 -326 -324 -322 -320

-200.00 -198.89 -197.78 -196.67 -195.56

........ ........ ........

........

........ ........ ........ ........

........ ........

........ ........ ........ ........

........ ........ ........

........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........

........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........

RESEARCH 8z DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

154

Table 13 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION TABLES- (Continued) Reading in "F. or "C.to be converted

"C.

-318 -316 -314 -312 -310

-194.44 -193.33 -192.22 -191.11 -190.00

-378.4 -374.8 -3711.2 -367.6 -364.0

-288 -226 -224 -222 -220

-144.44 -143.33 -142.22 -141.11 -140.00

-308 -306 -304 -302 -300

-188.89 -187.78 -186.67 -185.56 -184.44

-360.4 -356.8 -353.2 -349.6 -346.0

-218 -216 -214 -212 -210

-138.89 -137.78 -136.67 -135.56 -134.44

-298 -296 -294 -292 -290

-183.33 -182.22 -181.11 -180.00 -178.89

-342.4 -338.8 -335.2 -331.6 -328.0

-208 -206 -204 -202 -200

-133.33 -132.22 -131.11 -130.00 -128.89

-288 -286 -284 -282 -280

-177.78 -176.67 -175.56 -174.44 -173.33

-324.4 -320.8 -317.2 -313.6 -310.0

-198 -196 -194 -192 -190

-127.78 -126.67 -125.56 -124.44 -123.33

-457.6 -454.0

-278 -276 -274 -272 -270

-172.22 -171.11 -170.00 -168.89 -167.78

-306.4 -320.8 -299.2 -295.6 -292.0

-188 -186 -184 -182 -180

-122.22 -121.11 -120.00 -118.89 -117.78

-450.4 -446.8 -443.2 -439.6 -436.0

-268 -266 -264 -262 -260

-166.67 -165.56 -164.44 -163.33 -162.22

-288.4 -284.8 -281.2 -277.6 -274.0

-178 -176 -174 -172 -170

-116.67 -115.56 -114.44 -113.33 -112.22

-432.4 -428.8 -425.2 -421.6 -418.0

-258 -256 -254 -252 -250

-161.11 -160.00 -158.89 -157.78 -156.67

-270.4 -266.8 -263.2 -259.6 -256.0

-168 -166 -164 -162 -160

-111.11 -110.00 -108.89 -107.78 -106.67

-414.4 -410.8 -407.2 -403.6 -400.0

-248 -246 -244 -242 -240

-155.56 -154.44 -153.33 -152.22 -151.11

-252.4 -248.8 -245.2 -241.6 -238.0

-158 -156 -154 -152 -150

-105.56 -104.44 -103.33 -102.22 -101.1 1

-396.4 -392.8 -389.2 -385.6 -382.0

-238 -236 -234 -232 -230

-150.00 -148.89 -147.78 -146.67 -145.56

-234.4 -230.8 -227.2 -223.6 -220.0

-148 -146 -144 -142 -140

-100.00 -98.89 -97.78 -96.67 -95.56

"F.

........ ........ ........ ........ ........

........ ........

........ ........ ........

........

OF.

Reading in or "C.to be converted

OF.

"C.

TABLES

155

Table 13 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION TABLES- (Continued) "F.

Reading in or "C.to be converted

OF.

"C.

"F.

Reading in or "C.to be converted

OF.

"C.

-216.4 -212.8 -209.2 -205.6 -202.0

-138 -136 -134 -132 -130

-94.44 -93.33 -92.22 -91.11 -90.00

-54.4 -50.8 -47.2 -43.6 -40.0

-48 -46 -44 -42 -40

-44.44 -43.33 -42.22 -41.11 -40.00

-198.4 -194.8 -191.2 -187.6 -184.0

-128 -126 -124 -122 -120

-88.89 -87.78 -86.67 -85.56 -84.44

-36.4 -32.8 -29.2 -25.6 -22.0

-38 -36 -34 -32 -30

-38.89 -37.78 -36.67 -35.56 -34.44

-180.4 -176.8 -173.2 -169.6 -166.0

-118 -116 -114 -112 -110

-83.33 -82.22 -81.11 -80.00 -78.89

-18.4 -14.8 -11.2 -7.6 -4.0

-28 -26 -24 -22 -20

-33.33 -32.22 -31.11 -30.00 -28.89

-162.4 -158.8 -155.2 -151.6 -148.0

-108 -106 -104 -102 -100

-77.78 -76.67 -75.56 -74.44 -73.33

-0.4 4-3.2 +6.8 +10.4 +14.0

-18 -16 -14 -12 -10

-27.78 -26.67 -25.56 -24.44 -23.33

-144.4 -140.8 -137.2 -133.6 -130.0

-98 -96 -94 -92 -90

-72.22 -71.11 -70.00 -68.89 -67.78

+17.6 +19.4 +21.2 +23.0 +24.8

-8 -7 -6 -5 -4

-22.22 -21.67 -21.11 -20.56 -20.00

-126.4 -122.8 -119.2 -155.6 -112.0

-88 -86 -84 -82 -80

-66.67 -65.56 -64.44 -63.33 -62.22

+26.6 +28.4 4-30.2 +32.0 +33.8

-3

+1

-19.44 -18.89 -18.33 -17.78 -17.22

-108.4 -104.8 -101-2 -97.6 -94.0

-78 -76 -74 -72 -70

-61.11 -60.00 -58.89 -57.78 -56.67

+35.6 +37.4 +39.2 4-41.0 +42.8

+2 +3 +4 +5 +6

-16.67 -16.11 -15.56 -15.00 -14.44

-90.4 -86.8 -83.2 -79.6 -76.0

-68 -66 -64 -62 -60

-55.56 -54.44 -53.33 -52.22 -51.11

-4-44.6 +46.4 +48.2 4-50.0 +51.8

+7 +8 +9 +10 +11

-13.89 -13.33 -12.78 -12.22 -11.67

-72.4 -68.8 -65.2 -61.6 -58.0

-58 -56 -54 -52 -50

-50.00 -48.89 -47.78 -46.67 -45.56

4-53.6 +55.4 -67.2 +59.0 +60.8

+12 +13 +14 +15 4-16

-11.11 -10.58 -10.00 -9.44 -8.89

-2 -1

-0

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

156

Table 13 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION T A B L E S (Continued) "F.

Reading in "F. or "C.to be converted

"c.

"F.

Reading in

O F . or %to be

"C.

converted

+62.6 4-64.4 4-66.2 +68.0 4-69.8

+17 4-18 +19 +20 $21

-8.33 -7.78 -7.22 -6.67 -6.11

+143.6 +145.4 4-147.2 +149.0 -I-150.8

+62 +63 +64 +65 4-66

4-16.67 +17.22 4-17.78 +18.33 +18.89

4-71.6 +73.4 4-75.2 $77.0 +78.8

+22 +23 +24 +25 +26

-5.56 -5.00 -4.44 -3.89 -3.33

4-152.6 +154.4 4-156.2 +158.0 $159.8

+67 +68 +69 +70 4-71

4-19.44 +20.00 +20.56 +21.11 +21.67

-I-80.6 4-82.4 4-84.2 +86.0 +87.8

+27 +28 +29 4-30 +3 1

-2.78 -2.22 -1.67 -1.11 -0.56

4-161.6 +163.4 4-165.2 +167.0 +168.8

+72 +73 +74 +75 4-76

+22.22 4-22.78 +23.33 +23.89 +24.44

+89.6 4-91.4 4-93.2 +95.0 +96.8

4-32 +33 +34 +35 4-36

fO.OO +0.56 +1.11 -!-1.67 +2.22

$170.6 +172.4 i-174.2 4-176.0 4-177.8

+77 +78 +79

+81

t25.00 d-25.56 +26.11 4-26.67 +27.22

+98.6 +100.4 +102.2 4-104.0 +105.8

+37 +38 +39 +40 +41

4-2.78 +3.33 +3.89 +4.44 +5.00

i-179.6 +181.4 4-183.2 +185.0 4-186.8

4-82 +83 +84 +85 4786

4-27.78 -I-28.33 +28.89 +29.44 +30.00

4-107.6 4-109.4 +111.2 4-113.0 -I-114.8

+42 +43 +44 +45 +46

+5.56 +6.11 +6.67 +7.22 +7.78

i-188.6 +190.4 +192.2 +194.0 +195.8

+97 4-88 4-89 +90 +9 1

+30.56 +31.11 4-31.67 -I-32.22 4-32.78

+116.6 4-118.4 +120.2 +122.0 4-123.8

+47 +48 +49 +50 +5 1

+8.33 +8.89 +9.44 +10.00 4-10.56

i-197.6 +199.4 +201.2 +203.0 4-204.8

4-92 +93 +94 +95 +96

+33.33 +33.89 +34.44 +35.00 4-35.56

4-125.6 +127.4 +129.2 +131.0 +132.8

4-52 +53 +54 +55 4-56

+11.11 4-11.67 +12.22 4-12-78 4-13.33

4-206.6 +208.4 +210.2 +212.0 $213.8

+97 +98 +99

+lo1

+36.11 +36.67 +37.22 +37.78 +38.33

+134.6 +136.4 +138.2 4-140.0 4-141.8

+57 +58 +59 4-60 +61

+13.89 +14.44 +15.00 4-15.56 +16.11

-I-215.6 +217.4 +219.2 +221.0 +222.8

+lo2 +lo3 +lo4 +lo5 4-106

+38.89 +39.44 +40.00 -I-40.56 +41.11

+80

+loo

TABLES

157

Table 13 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION T A B L E S (Continued) Reading in or "Cto be converted

"C.

4-305.6 +307.4 4-309.2 4-311.0 4-312.8

4-152 4-153 4-154 4-155 4-156

4-66.67 4-67.22 4-67.78 4-68.33 4-68.89

4-44.44 4-45.00 4-45.56 4-46.11 4-46.67

4-314.6 4-316.4 +318.2 4-320.0 4-321.8

+157 4-158 4-159 4-160 4-161

4-69.44 4-70.00 +70.56 4-71.11 4-71.67

4-117 4-118 4-119 4-120 4-121

4-47.22 4-47.78 4-48.33 4-48.89 4-49.44

4-323.6 4-325.4 4-327.2 4-329.0 4-330.8

4-162 4-163 +164 +165 +166

4-72.22 +72.78 4-73.33 4-73.89 4-74.44

4-251.6 +253.4 +255.2 4-257.0 4-258.8

4-122 4-123 +124 4-125 4-126

4-50.00 4-50.56 4-51.11 +51.67 4-52.22

4-332.6 4-334.4 4-336.2 4-338.0 4-339.8

4-167 4-168 4-169 4-170 +171

4-75.00 4-75.56 4-76.11 4-76.67 4-77.22

4-260.6 4-262.4 4-264.2 4-266.0 4-267.8

4-127 4-128 4-129 4-130 4-131

4-52.78 4-53.33 4-53.89 4-54.44 4-55.00

$341.6 4-343.4 4-345.2 +347.0 4-348.8

4-172 +173 4-174 4-175 4-176

4-77.78 +78.33 4-78.89 4-79.44 4-80.00

4-269.6 4-271.4 4-273.2 4-275.0 +276.8

4-132 4-133 4-134 4-135 4-136

4-55.56 4-56.11 4-56.67 4-57.22 4-57.78

4-350.6 4-352.4 4-354.2 4-356.0 4-357.8

4-177 4-178 4-179 4-180 4-181

4-80.56 4-81.11 +81.67 4-82.22 4-82.78

4-278.6 4-280.4 4-282.2 4-284.0 4-285.8

4-137 4-138 4-139 4-140 +I41

4-58.33 4-58.89 4-59.44 4-60.00 4-60.56

4-359.6 4-361.4 4-363.2 4-365.0 +366.8

4-182 4-183 4-184 4-185 4-186

4-83.33 4-83.89 4-84.44 4-85.00 4-85.56

4-287.6 +289.4 4-291.2 4-293.0 4-294.8

4-142 4-143 4-144 4-145 4-146

1-61.11 4-61.67 4-62.22 4-62.78 4-63.33

4-368.6 4-370.4 4-372.2 4-374.0 4-375.8

4-187 4-188 4-189 +190 4-191

4-86.11 4-86.67 4-87.22 4-87.78 4-88.33

4-296.6 4-298.4 4-300.2 4-302.0 +303.8

4-147 4-148 4-149 4-150 4-151

4-63.89 4-64.44 4-65.00 4-65.56 +66.11

4-377.6 4-379.4 4-381.2 4-383.0 4-384.8

4-192 +193 +I94 4-195 4-196

4-88.89 4-89.44 4-90.99 4-90.56 4-91.11

"F.

Reading in "F. or "C.to be converted

4-224.6 4-226.4 4-228.2 4-230.0 4-231.8

4-107 4-108 4-109 4-110 4-111

4-41.67 4-42.22 +42.78 4-43.33 4-43.89

4-233.6 4-235.4 4-237.2 4-239.0 4-240.8

4-112 4-113 +114 4-115 4-116

4-242.6 4-244.4 4-246.2 +248.0 4-249.8

".'

OF.

OF.

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

158

Table 13 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION T A B L E S (Continued) OF.

Reading in O F . or "Cto be converted

"C.

O F .

Reading in or "C.to be converted

"C.

OF.

4-386.6 4-388.4 4-390.2 4-392.0 4-393.8

4-197 4-198 4-199 4-200 4-201

4-91.67 4-92.22 4-92.78 +93.33 4-93.89

4-507.2 4-510.8 4-514.4 4-518.0 +521.6

4-264 4-266 +268 4-270 4-272

4-128.89 4-130.00 4-131.11 4-132.22 4-133.33

+395.6 4-397.4 4-399.2 4-401.0 4-402.8

4-202 4-203 4-204 4-205 4-206

4-94.44 +95.00 4-95.56 +96.11 4-96.67

4-525.2 4-528.8 4-532.4 4-536.0 4-539.6

4-274 4-276 4-278 4-280 4-282

4- 134.4 4 4-135.56 4-136.67 4-137.78 4-138.89

4-404.6 4-406.4 4-408.2 4-410.0 4-411.8

4-207 4-208 4-209 +210 +211

4-97.22 4-97.78 4-98.33 4-98.89 4-99.44

4-543.2 4-546.8 4-550.4 4-554.0 4-557.6

4-284 +286 4-288 4-290 4-292

4-140.00 4-141.11 4-142.22 4-143.33 4-144.44

4-413.6 4-415.4 4-417.2 4-419.0 +420.8

4-212 4-213 +214 4-215 4-216

+100.00 4-100.56 +101.11 4-101.67 4-102.22

4-561.2 +564.8 4-568.4 4-572.0 4-575.6

+294 +296 4-298 4-300 4-302

+145.56 4-146.67 4-147.78 4-148.89 4-150.00

4-422.6 4-424.4 4-426.2 4-428.0 4-431.6

4-217 4-218 4-219 4-220 4-222

4-102.78 4-103.33 +103.89 4-104.44 4-105.56

4-579.2 4-582.8 4-586.4 t590.0 4-593.6

4-304 4-306 4-308 4-310 4-312

4-151.11 4-152.22 4-153.33 4-154.44 4-155.56

4-435.2 4-438.8 4-442.4 4-446.0 4-449.6

4-224 +226 4-228 4-230 4-232

4-106.67 4-107.78 +108.89 +110.00 4-111.11

4-597.2 4-600.8 4-604.4 4-608.0 4-611.6

4-314 4-316 4-318 4-320 4-322

4-156.67 4-157.78 4-158.89 4-160.00 +161.11

4-453.2 4-456.8 4-460.4 4-464.0 4-467.6

4-234 4-236 4-238 4-240 4-242

4-112.22 4-113.33 -I-114.44 4-115.56 4-116.67

+615.2 i-618.8 i-622.4 4-626.0 +629.6

4-324 4-326 4-328 4-330 4-332

4-162.22 4-163.33 4-164.44 4-165.56 4-166.67

4-471.2 4-474.8 4-478.4 4-482.0 4-485.6

4-244 4-246 4-248 4-250 4-252

4-117.78 4-118.89 4-120.00 4-121.11 4-122.22

4-633.2 4-636.8 4-640.4 4-644.0 4-647.6

+334 +336 4-338 4-340 4-342

4-167.78 4-168.89 4-170.00 4-171.11 4-172.22

4-89.2 4-492.8 +496.4 4-500.0 4-503.6

4-254 4-256 4-258 4-260 4-262

4-123.33 4-124.44 4-125.56 4-126.67 4-127.78

4-651.2 4-654.8 4-658.4 4-662.0 4-665.6

4-344 4-346 4-348 4-350 4-352

4-173.33 4-174.44 -I-175.56 4-176.67 4-177.78

TABLES

159

Table 13 TEMPERAT.URE CONVERSION TABLES- (Continued) Reading in or "C.to be converted

Reading in or "C.to be converted

"C.

4-669.2 +672.8 +676.4 4-680.0 +683.6

354 +356 +358 +360 +362

+178.89 +180.00 +181.11 +182.22 -I-183.33

+831.2 4-834.8 4-838.4 +842.0 4-845.6

+444 +446 4-448 +450 +452

+228.89 i-230.00 +231.11 +232.22 4-233.33

+687.2 +690.8 +694.4 +698.0 +701.6

+364 +366 +368 +370 +372

4-184.44 +185.56 4-186.67 +187.78 4-188.89

+849.2 4-852.8 +856.4 +860.0 i-863.6

+454 +456 +458 +460 4-462

4-234.44 4-235.56 +236.67 4-237.78 +238.89

+705.2 +708.8 +712.4 4-716.0 +719.6

+374 +376 +378 +380 4-382

+190.00 +191.11 +192.22 +193.33 4-194.44

+867.2 4-870.8 +874.4 +878.0 +881.6

4-464 +466 +468 +470 +472

+240.00 +241.11 4-242.22 4-243.33 4-244.14

4-723.2 +726.8 +730.4 +734.0 4-737.6

+384 +386 +388 +390 +392

+195.56 4-196.67 +197.78 +198.89 +200.00

i-885.2 +888.8 +892.4 +896.0 +899.6

+474 +476 4-478 +480 +482

-I-245.56 -I-246.67 +247.78 +248.89 +250.00

-I-741.2 +744.8 4-748.4 +752.0 +755.6

+394 +396 +398 4-400 +402

+201.11 +202.22 +203.33 +204.44 4-205.56

+903.2 +906.8 +910.4 +914.0 +917.6

4-484 +486 +488 4-490 +492

-I-251.11 -I-252.22 +253.33 +254.44 +255.56

4-759.2 +762.8 4-766.4 +770.0 +773.6

4-404 +406 +408 +410 4-412

+206.67 4-207.78 +208.89 +210.00 +211.11

4-921.2 +924.8 4-932.0 +935.6

+494 +496 +498 4-500 4-502

4-256.67 4-257.78 +258.89 4-260.00 +261.11

+777.2 +780.8 +784.4 4-788.0 +791.6

+414 +416 4-418 +420 +422

+212.22 4-213.33 4-214.44 i-215.56 4-216.67

+939.2 +942.8 +946.4 +950.0 +953.6

+504 +506 4-508 +510 +512

+262.22 +263.33 4-264.44 4-265.56 i-266.67

4-795.2 4-798.8 +802.4 4-806.0 +809.6

4-424 +426 +428 +430 4-432

4-217.78 4-218.89 +220.00 +221.11 +222.22

+957.2 +960.8 4-964.4 +968.0 4-971.6

4-514 +516 +518 +520 4-522

+267.78 +268.89 4-270.00 +271.11 4-272.22

4-813.2 +816.8 +820.4 +824.0 4-827.6

+434 $436 +438 +440 +442

i-223.33 +224.44 +225.56 4-226.67 +227.78

+975.2 +978.8 +982.4 +986.0 +989.6

+524 +526 +528 +530 +532

+273.33 +274.44 +275.56 +276.67 +277.78

OF.

OF.

OF.

OF.

"C.

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

160

Table 13 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION TABLES- (Continued) "F.

Reading in "F. or "C.to be converted

"C.

OF.

Reading in "F. or "C.to be converted

"C.

+993.2 +996.8 4-1000.4 +1004.0 4-1007.6

+534 +536 4-538 +540 4-542

-I-278.89 +280.00 +281.11 $282.22 4-283.33

+1155.2 4-1158.8 +1162.4 -I-1166.0 4-1163.6

4-624 4-626 +628 +630 +632

+328.89 +330.00 +331.11 +332.22 4-333.33

+1011.2 4-1014.8 4-1022.0 +1025.6

+544 +546 +548 +552

+284.44 +285.56 +286.67 +287.78 +288.89

+1173.2 4-1176.8 4-1180.4 4-1184.0 4-1187.6

+634 4-636 +638 4-640 4-642

+334.44 +335.56 4-336.67 4-337.78 4-338.89

4-1029.2 4-1032.8 4-1036.4 +1040.0 4-1043.6

+554 +556 4-5-58 +560 +562

4-290.00 +291.11 +292.22 +293.33 +294.44

+1191.2 4-1194.8 +1198.4 +1202.0 4-1205.6

+644 4-646 4-648 4-650 4-652

4-340.00 +341.11 f342.22 +343.33 +344.44

4-1047.2 +1050.8 +1054.4 +1058.0 +1061.6

+564 4-566 4-568 4-570 4-572

+295.56 +296.67 +297.78 +298.89 +300.00

4-1209.2 +1212.8 +1216.4 4-1220.0 +1223.6

4-654 4-656 4-658 +660 +662

4-345.56 4-346.67 4-347.78 +348.89 4-350.00

-I-1065.2 +1068.8 4-1072.4 4-1076.0 +1079.6

+574 4-576 4-578 +582

4-301.11 4-302.22 +303.33 4-304.44 +305.56

4-1227.2 +1230.8 4-1234.4 4-1238.0 -I-1241.6

4-664 +666 +668 4-670 +672

+351.11 -I-352.22 +353.33 +354.44 +355.56

4-1083.2 4-1086.8 +1090.4 +1094.0 +1097.6

+584 +586 +588 4-590 +592

4-306.67 4-307.78 +308.89 +310.00 +311.11

4-1245.2 4-1248.8 4-1252.5 4-1256.0 4-1259.6

4-674 f676 +678 4-680 4-682

4-356.67 4-357.78 +358.89 +360.00 4-361.11

+1101.2 -1104.8 4-1108.4 +1112.0 -I-1115.6

+594 4-596 4-598 4-600 +602

4-312.22 4-313.33 4-314.44 4-315.56 +316.67

+1263.2 4-1266.8 4-1270.4 +1274.0 4-1277.6

+684 +686 4-688 4-690 +692

+362.22 4-363.33 4-364.44 4-365.56 4-366.67

4-1119.2 4-1122.8 4-1126.4 +1130.0 +1133.6

+604 4-606 4-608 +610 +612

+3 17.78 +318.89

+320.00 +321.11 4-322.22

4-1281.2 4-1284.8 4-1288.4 4-1292.0 4-1295.6

+694 4-696 4-698 +700 4-702

4-367.78 4-368.89 +370.00 4-371.11 4-372.22

+1137.2 4-1140.8 4-1144.4 +1148.0 4-1151.6

4-614 4-616 4-618 4-620 +622

4-323.33 4-324.44 4-325.56 +326.67 +327.78

-I-1299.2 4-1302.8 4-1306.4 +1310.0 4-1313.6

+704 4-706 4-708 4-710 4-712

+373.33 4-374.44 4-375.56 4-376.67 +377.78

+550

+580

TABLES

161

Table 13 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION TABLES- (Continued) OF.

Reading in "F. or "C.to be converted

"C.

"F.

Reading in "F. or "C.to be converted

"C.

4-1317.2 4-1230.8 4-1324.4 4-1328.0 4-1331.6

4-714 4-716 4-718 4-720 4-722

-I-378.89 4- 380.0 0 4-381.11 4-382.22 4-383.33

4-1479.2 4-1482.8 4-1486.4 4-1490.0 4-1493.6

4-804 4-806 4-808 4-810 4-812

4-428.89 4-430.00 4-431.11 4-432.22 4-433.33

4-1335.2 4-1338.8 4-1342.4 4-1346.0 4-1349.6

4-724 4-726 4-728 4-730 4-732

4-384.44 +385.56 4-386.67 4-387.78 4-388.89

4-1497.2 4-1500.8 4-1504.4 4-1508.0 4-1511.6

4-814 4-816 4-818 4-820 4-822

4-434.44 4-435.56 4-436.67 +437.78 4-438.89

4-1353.2 +1356.8 4-1360.4 4-1364.0 4-1367.6

4-734 4-736 4-738 4-740 4-742

4-390.00 +391.11 4-392.22 4-393.33 4-394.44

4-1515.2 4-1515.8 4-1522.4 4-1526.0 4-1529.6

4-824 +826 4-828 4-830 4-832

4-440.00 4-441.11 4-442.22 4-443.33 4-444.44

4-1371.2 4-1374.8 4-1378.4 4-1382.0 4-1385.6

+744 4-746 +748 4-750 +752

4-395.56 4-396.67 4-397.78 4-398.89 4-400.00

4-1533.2 4-1536.8 4-1540.4 4-1544.0 4-1547.6

4-834 4-836 4-838 4-840 4-842

4-445.56 4-446.67 4-447.78 4-448.89 4-450.00

4-1389.2 4-1392.8 4-1396.4 4-1400.0 4-1403.6

+754 4-756 4-758 +760 4-762

4-401.11 4-402.22 4-403.33 +404.44 4-405.56

-I-1551.2 4-1554.8 4-1558.4 4-1562.0 4-1565.6

4-844 4-846 4-848 4-850 4-852

4-451.11 4-452.22 4-453.33 4- 454.4 4 4-455.56

4-1407.2 4-1410.8 4-1414.4 4-1418.0 4-1421.6

4-764 4-766 +768 +770 3-772

4-406.67 4-407.78 4-408.89 4-410.00 4-411.11

4-1569.2 4-1572.8 4-1576.4 4-1580.0 4-1583.6

4-854 4-856 4-858 4-860 4-862

4-456.67 4-457.78 4-458.89 4-460.00 4-461.11

4-1425.2 4-1428.8 4-1432.4 4-1436.0 4-1439.6

+774 4-776 4-778 4-780 4-782

+412.22 4-413.33 4-414.44 4-415.56 4-416.67

4-1587.2 4-1590.8 4-1594.4 4-1598.0 4-1601.6

4-864 4-866 4-868 4-870 4-872

4-462.22 4-463.33 +464.44 4-465.56 4-466.67

4-1443.2 4-1446.8 4-1450.4 4-1454.0 4-1457.6

4-784 +786 4-788 4-790 4-792

+417.78 4-418.89 4-420.00 4-421.11 -6422.22

4-1605.2 4-1608.8 4-1612.4 4-1616.0 4-1619.6

4-874 4-876 4-878 4-880 4-882

4-467.78 4-468.89 4-470.00 4-471.11 4-472.22

4-1461.2 4-1464.8 4-1468.4 4-1472.0 4-1475.6

4-794 4-796 4-798 4-800 4-802

+423.33 +424.44 t425.56 -I-426.67 4-427.78

4-1623.2 +1626.8 4-1630.4 4-1634.0 4-1637.6

4-884 4-886 4-888 4-890 4-892

4-473.33 4-474.44 4-475.56 4-476.67 4-477.78

162

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Table 13 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION TAl3LES- (Continued) OF.

Reading in or "C.to be converted

"C.

OF.

4-1641.2 4-1644.8 4-1648.4 4-1652.0 4-1655.6

4-894 4-896 4-898 4-900 4-902

4-478.89 4-480.00 4-481.11 4-482.22 4-483.33

4-1659.2 4-1662.8 4-1666.4 4-1670.0 4-1673.6

4-904 4-906 4-908 4-910 4-912

4-484.44 4-485.56 4-486.67 4-487.78 4-488.89

4-1677.2 4-1680.8 4-1684.4 4-1688.0 4-1691.6

4-914 4-916 4-918 4-920 4-922

4-490.00 4-491.11 4-492.22 4-493.33 4-494.44

4-1695.2 4-1698.8 4-1702.4 +1706.0 4-1709.6

4-924 4-926 4-928 4-930 4-932

4-495.56 4-496.67 4-497.78 4-498.89 4-500.00

4-1713.2 4-1716.8 4-1720.4 4-1724.0 4-1727.6

4-934 4-936 4-938 4-940 4-942

4-501.11 4-502.22 4-503.33 4-504.44 4-505.56

4-1731.2 4-1734.8 4-1738.4 +1742.0 4-1745.6

4-944 4-946 4-948 4-950 4-952

4-506.67 4-507.78 4-508.89 4-510.00 4-511.11

TABLES

163

Table 14

CONTAINER SIZE CONVERSION - TIN AND GLASS

Diameter X

Can Name 62 Jitney 211 Baby Food 82 Short No. 1Picnic 211 Cylinder (1219 No.300 No. 300 Cylinder No. 1Tall No.303 No. 2 Vac. (122 Vac) No.2 No.2% No. 3 Vac. No. 3 Cyl. (462) No. 10

Height 202 211 211 211 211 300 300 301 303 307 307 401 404 404 603

162 (No. 303 or 1lb jar) 302 No. 2% 642 1282 (1gal. Jug) 'Avoir of Water at 68T.

VOl. Fill Cubic Inches

X 308 9.42 10.38 x200 12.34 X 300 17.06 X 400 x 414 21.28 X 407 23.71 x 509 30.17 25.99 X 411 x 4 0 6 26.31 x 306 22.90 X 409 32.00 X 411 46.45 x 307 37.19 x 700 80.54 x 700 170.71

Total Capacity'

No. 303 Can Equiv.

No. 2% Can Equiv.

6.00 4.90 7.90 10.90 13.55 15.20 19.40 16.60 16.85 14.70 20.50 29.75 23.85 51.70 109.45

.404 .395 .469 .648 .809 .901 1.147 .988 1.000 .870 1.216 1.765 1.414 3.061 6.488

.229 .223

.266

.062 .061 .072

.367 .455 .511 .651 .561 .566 .493 .689 1.000 .801 1.735 3.673

.125 .139 .177 ,152 .154 .134 .187 .272 .218 .472 1.000

1.063 1.827 4.390 8.780

.602 1.035 2.487 4.973

.164 .282 .677 1.353

GLASS 27.97 48.06 115.20 231.00

No. 10 Can Equiv.

.loo

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

164

Table 15

TYLERSTANDARDSCREENSCALESIEVES The W.S.Tyler Co., Cleveland, Ohio Meshes per Lineal

Sieve Opening

- inch

2.5 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 20 24 28 32 35 42 40 60 65 80 100 115 150 170 200 250 270 325

m.

0.98 1.18 1.38 1.57 1.97 2.36 2.76 3.15 3.54 3.94 4.72 5.51 6.30 7.87 9.45 11.02 12.60 13.78 16.54 18.90 23.62 25.59 31.50 39.37 45.28 59.06 66.93 78.74 98.43 106.3 128.0

- inch

mm.

0.312 0.263 0.221 0.185 0.156 0.131 0.110 0.093 0.078 0.065 0.055 0.046 0.0390 0.0328 0.0276 0.0232 0.0195 0.0164 0.0138 0.0116 0.0097 0.0082 0.0069 0.0058 0.0049 0.0041 0.0035 0.0029 0.0024 0.0021 0.0017

7.92 6.68 5.61 4.70 3.96 3.33 2.79 2.36 1.98 1.65 1.40 1.17 0.991 0.833 0.701 0.589 0.495 0.417 0.351 0.295 0.246 0.208 0.175 0.147 0.124 0.104 0.089 0.074 0.061 0.053 0.043

Wire Diameter

- inch

mm.

0.088 0.070 0.065 0.065 0.044 0.036 0.0328 0.032 0.033 0.035 0.028 0.025 0.0235 0.0172 0.0141 0.0125 0.0118 0.0122 0.0100 0.0092 0.0070 0.0072 0.0056 0.0042 0.0038 0.0026 0.0024 0.0021 0.0016 0.0016 0.0014

2.24 1.78 1.65 1.65 1.12 0.914 0.833 0.813 0.838 0.889 0.711 0.636 0.697 0.437 0.358 0.318 0.300 0.310 0.254 0.234 0.178 0.161 0.142 0.107 0.087 0.066 0.061 0.051 0.041 0.041 0.036

TABLES

165

Table 16 SHELF LIFE IN MONTHS FOR SOME CANNED FOODS

Commodity FRUITS Apples, Sliced Applesauce Apricots Blackberries Cherries, RSP Cherries, Sweet Cranberry Sauce jelly Figs Fruit Cocktail Grapefruit Peaches Pears Pineapple Plums Raisons, (seedless) VEGETABLES Asparagus Beans, (green) Beans, ( h a ) Beans, (wax) Beets

Shelf Life in Months 30 30 24 18 18 18 24 18 24 23 21 27 28 24 24 14

Chili Sauce Corn, (cream) corn, (whole kernel) Mushrooms Okra Peas Pimentos Potatoes, (sweet) Potatoes, (white) Pumpkin Sauerkraut Spinach Tomatoes Tomato Ketchup Tomato Paste

24 24 36 27 17 33 24 33 33 21 17 18 27 24 21 24 14 24 24 14 18

JUICES Apple Citrus Grape Pineapple Tomato

24 27 14 24 20

Carrots

166

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

Table 17

APPROXIMATE STORAGE LIFE OF FROZEN FOODS AT 0 DEGREE F.

Beef Breads (Quick) Baked Breads (Yeast) Baked Cakes Candies Cheese (Hard) Cheese (Soft) Cookies (Baked) Eggs Fish (Fatty) Fish (Lean) Fruits (No sugar) Fruits (Sugared) Ice Cream & Sherbets Lamb Milk Pastry (Unbaked) Pork Poultry Sausage Shellfish Soups and Stews Vegetables (Blanched)

1OMo. 2Mo. 6Mo. 6Mo. 1 Yr. 1 Yr. 4Mo. 6Mo. 8Mo. 8Mo. 1Yr. 1 Yr. 1 MYr. 1 MYr. 1 Yr. 1 OMo. 2Mo. 6Mo. 6Mo. 6Mo. 1 Yr. 6Mo. 1Yr.

TABLES

167

Table 18 SPECIFIC AND LATENT HEATS OF SOME FOODS (B.t.u./lb)

Food Product Asparagus Bacon Green Beans Beef (lean) Beef (fat) Cabbage CarrOts Eggs (crated) Fish Milk Mutton Oysters Peas (green) Poultry Pork Raspbenies Strawberries Veal Water

Before Freezing 0.94 0.50 0.91 0.77 0.60 0.94 0.90 0.76 0.76 0.93 0.81 0.83 0.80 0.79 0.68 0.85 0.92 0.71 1.00

After Freezing 0.48 0.30 0.47 0.40 0.35 0.47 0.46 0.40 0.41 0.49 0.39 0.44 0.42 0.37 0.38 0.45 0.47 0.39 0.53

Latent Heat of h s i o n 134 29 128 100 79 132 126 90 101 124 96 116 108 106 66 122 129 91 144

168

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Table 19 ENGLISH AND METRIC EQUIVALENTS

1 gram 1 oz 1 Kg 1 lb

64.79 mg 1.77 g 0.035 oz 28.35 g 2.205 lb 453.6 g

1 floz 1 ml 1 Tsp 1 Tbsp 1 cup 1L 1 Qt 1 Gal

29.57 L 0.0334 fl oz 4.93 ml 14.79 ml 236.6 ml 1.057 Qt 0.946 L 3.785 L

1 In 1 ft 1 yd 1 cm 1M

2.54 cm 30.45 cm 91.44 M ,3937 in 1.0936 yd

1 grain 1 dram

TABLES

169

Table 20 ENGLISH T O METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS

When You Know

You Can Find

Multiple by

LENGTH

Inches Feet Yards Miles Millimeters Centimeters Meters Kilometers

Millimeters Centimeters Meters Kilometers Inches Inches Yards Miles

25.40 30.48 0.9144 1.6093 0.03937 0.3937 1.094 0.6214

AREA

Square Inches Square Feet Square Yards Square Miles Acres Square Centimeters Square Meters Square Kilometers Hectares

Square Centimeters Square Meters Square Meters Square Kilometers Hectares Square Inches Square Yards Square Miles Acres

6.452 0.0929 0.8361 2.590 0.4047 0.1550 1.196 0.3861 2.471

MASS

Ounces Pounds Short tons Grams Kilograms Metric Tons

Grams Kilograms Metric Tons Ounces Pounds Short Tons

28.349 0.4536 0.90718 0.03527 2.2046 1.103

VOLUME

Ounces Pints Quarts Gallons Milliliters Liters Liters Liters

Millimeters Liters Liters Liters Ounces Pints Quarts Gallons

29.57 0.4732 0.9463 3.785 0.03382 2.113 1.057 0.2642

170

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Table 21

DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS (inches to millimeters)

64ths

Decimals

Millimeters

0.397 0.794 1.191

33/64 17/32 35/64

.5156 .5313 .5469

13.097 13.494 13.891

.0625 .078 1 .0938 .lo94

1.588 1.984 2.381 2.778

9 / 16 37/64 19/32 39/64

.5625 .5781 .5938 .6094

14.288 14.684 15.081 15.478

1/8 9/64 5/32 11/64

.1250 .1406 .1563 .1719

3.175 3.572 3.969 4.366

5/8 41/64 21/32 43/64

.6250 .6406 .6563 .6719

15.875 16.272 16.669 17.066

3/16 13/64 7/32 15/64

.1875 .2301 .2188 .2344

4.763 5.519 5.556 5.953

11/16 45/64 23/32 47/64

.6875 .7031 .7188 .7344

17.463 17.859 18.256 18.653

114 17/64 9/32 19/64

.2500 .2656 .2813 .2969

6.350 6.747 7.144 7.541

3/4 49/64 25/32 51/64

.7500 .7656 .7813 .7969

19.050 19.447 19.844 20.241

5/16 2 1/64 11/32 23/64

.3125 .3281 .3438 .3594

7.938 8.334 8.731 9.128

13/16 53/64 27/32 55/64

-8125 .8281 .8438 .8594

20.638 21.034 21.431 21.828

3/8 25/64 13/32 27/64

.3750 .3906 .4063 .4219

9.525 9.922 10.319 10.716

7/8 57/64 29/32 59/64

.8750 .8906 .9063 .9219

22.225 22.622 23.019 23.416

7/16 29/64 15/32 31/64

.4375 .4531 .4688 .4844

11.113 11.509 11.906 12.303

15/16 61/64 31/32 63/64

.9375 .9531 .9688 .9844

23.813 24.209 24.606 25.003

1/2

.so00

12.700

1

L.0000

25.400

64th~

Decimals

1/64 1/32 3/64

.0156 .0313 .0469

1/16 5/64 3/32 7/64

Millimeters

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES

171

INDEX ANOVA 113, 114 Appert 3 Appraisals 138 Automation 1 Bonaparte 3 Brainstorming 79 Budget 16, 31, 137, 138 Calories 83 CEDAC 103, 104 Chemical laboratory 66 Common cause 98, 100 Communicating 96, 127, 132 Communication 130 Computers 68 Conference/class room 41 Consumer 82 Consumerism 1 Container size 163 Contract research 48 Control chart 105 Control limits 107 Controllers 2 Costs 137 Creative person 77-78 Creativity 79, 81 Data 97 Decimal equivalents 170 Design 37 Design of experiments 111 Development 75 Dinks 131 Distributions 111 Employee 33 English & Metric conv. factors 169 English & Metric equivalents 168 Environment 1 Equipment 51, 54-65 72-73 Evaluation, physical 26 F distributions 122-123 Facility 47 Fat 83 Flow chart 101-102 Food Safety 1

Histograms 108- 109 Hudson 4 Human relations 29, 34 Incubation 81 Indicators 99 Information 7 Interviewing 30, 35 Kettering 3 Labeling 1-2 Labor 1 Layout 37, 51 Leader, R & D 29-30 Leadership 36 Library 1 4 M s of industry 18 Management 12 Manager 14-15, 17, 29, 140 Microbiology 6 1 Mission 12 Moisture 147 New Product 1, 75, 82 Nutritional requirements 143 Office 41 On-line sensors 2 Organization 9, 11, 21-25 OVAT 112 Packages 2, 87 Packaging 87 Packaging projects 88 Pareto Chart 108, 110 Patents 129-131 People 29, 77 Per capita consumption 142 Personnel 32 pH 144-146 Physical Evaluation Lab 62 Pilot Plant 37-39, 45-46, 51-52 58-66 Plans & Goals 31 Policy statement 12 Popcorn manufacture line 70 Potato chip manufacture line 71 Problems 45

172

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES INDEX

Process 1, 98 Productivity 138-139 Programs 137- 138 Progress reports 127 Project 27 Proposals 91-93 Quality 2 R & D classifications 26 R & D Department 13 R & D staff 15 Raw Material 2 Record book 94 Regulations 2 Reports 95 Research & Development 9-10 Research 2-5, 11, 127 Research Objectives 6 RisUBenefit 2 Road blocks 78-79 Salt solutions 150 Scientific Method 4, 91 Scientific paper 128 Screen sizes 164 Sensory evaluation 40, 61 Shelf life canned foods 165 Shop 41 Snap bean line 69 Sodium hydroxide solutions 151 Solid Waste 2 Special cause 98-100 Specific & latent heat 167 Specifications 107 Stable process 99 Staffing 29 Statistical definitions and terms 115-120 Storage Life frozen foods 166 Sugar solutions 149 Supervisors 32 Supply firms 47 System 99

t Distribution 124 Temperature Conversion 153-162 Test Kitchen 67 Time Schedules 27 Tomato 75 Traits 29 Two factor interactions 112 Variable control limit factors 121 Variations 97 Water demand 152 Water hardness 149 Water quality 148 Weight 85 Yuppies 4, 131

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Notes

173

174

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Notes

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Notes

175

176

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES Notes