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tÇ(ı)ovıa ân[o k<6jui:;?1 rıtv]8apcov(?). Establishment by Aclius Statutus. SF.G VII, no. 2 4 6 , is t o o uncertain to inelude in the list.
G A U I A N I T I S A N D T H E HULEH VALLEY 19.
G. Dalman, "Inschriftcn aus dem Ostjordanland", ZDPV
36 { 1 9 1 3 ) ,
2 4 9 , no. 1. N e a r Kuneitra. A D 2 9 3 / 3 0 5 . Tetrarchs. AıOov SıopıÇovta tcco|i(âv?) Zctpıoûv Kal BepviKnç. Aelius Statutus.
20.
S. Applebaum, B. Isaac and Y. I.andau, "Varia Epigraphica", SCI 4 (1978),
no.
21.
133,
p.
134,110. 2 =
SEG XXVIII, no.
1426 =
AF,
(1984),
903.
Harcd near Kuneitra, A D 2 9 3 / 3 0 5 . Tetrarchs (fragmentary). X(0ov [SlıoptfÇovjTO ÖYpoluç. .J or öpo[vç..]. P. Porat, " A Ne\v Boundary Stone from the Southern G o l a n " , SCI 10 (1989-90),
130.
Southern Golan. A D 2 9 3 / 3 0 5 . Tetrarchs. X(0o(v) öıopîÇovttı £v < o > öpoıç k6(|itiç) KAITAPHAPIBOT. A M f . l A L h M T O r Ke AEEAHIOT Kiıvo(ıxöp
B. W. Bacon, " A Nevv inseription from Upper Galilee", A]A
n
315; J. O f f o r d , PEFQSt ( 1 9 0 8 ) , 2 6 0 ; L. Jalabert, MUSJ 3 ( 1 9 0 8 - 9 ) , 4 0 ; AE (1907), no. 1 4 5 . Upper Huleh Valley, vvest of Banias (Caesarea Philippi). A D 2 9 3 / 3 0 5 . Tetrarchs. X(0ov StopîÇovTa d^poııç â t o ı ı d o u XPH£lMIANOT. Aelius Statutus. (1907),
23(?). S. Applebaum, B. Isaac and Y. Landau, "VariaEpigraphica", SCI 6 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 9 8 , no. 1 = SEG X X X I I , no. 1 4 5 9 . From Golan, exact find-spot not knovvn. Date uncertain. XıOoç [6ı]op(Çco(v) TO ö p ı a xoö Ilavtou KE Tnç nöAetöç. N o t certain vvhether this is Tetrarchic. 24. Y. Aharoni, "Three Nevv Boundary-Stoııes from the Wcstern G o l a n " , 'Atiqot 1 ( 1 9 5 5 ) , p. 1 0 9 , no. 1 = AE ( 1 9 5 6 ) , no. 3 4 = SEG X V I , no. 8 2 2 . Kibbutz Shamir, on the edge of the Golan Hcights, some 2 8 km north of the Sea of Galilee.
l A t o ] ı c X n T i a v ö ç KCXİ
M a ç u ı ı a v ö ç EePPKoıvatdvtıoç, ıcai Ma^ıjııavöç K a ı capeç X(öov SıopıÇovıa âYpoûç KÜ)(^(ÛV) r a X a vıaç K«Î M r / ı p a HTıç O T T i p ı X 0 n v e
C K e t e u a a v <Jpovt(8ı AiA- STato6tou roü öıaannZ5(?). Y. A h a r o n i , pp. 1 0 9 - 1 1 0 , no.
2 =
AR
(1956),
no.
35 =
SEG
XVI,
no. 823. Same area as no.
2 4 . AD
X(8oç 8ıopıÇ(ov ö p ı a
Z93/305?
K
or
Mıynpaunç
K
Ta^avıaç
For r a X a v ı a see nos. Z4 and 3 1 . 26(?). Y. A h a r o n i , p. n o , n o .
3 =
AE
(1956),
no.
36, =
SEG X V I , no.
821.
Northern Huleh Valley, circa
1
km south o f no. z z .
AD
Z93/305?
X(0ov SıopfÇovtcı Majıoıceç KG Be8 A^CÛV. T h e r e is much clcarcr likelihood that nos. z6—z8 belong to the Tetrarchic series than is the case for no. Z5. See no. Z9. Z7.
Y. A h a r o n i , "Tvvo A d d i t i o n a l Boundary-Stones from the Hule Vall e y " , 'Atsqot 2
(1959),
Same area as nos.
1 5 2 , no. 1 3 = SF.G X V I I I , no.
Z 4 - Z 5 . AD
610.
Z93/305?
Xı'0ov SıopıÇovta K<Û{i(tı<;?) Arıpaç kûİ KaTtapI|i|ıyTiIpafir|ç|. Probably the same village as named in no. Z5. See also no. Z9. z8.
Y. A h a r o n i , pp.
153-154,
no.
14 =
SEG XVIII, no. 6 z ı ; cf. X I X , no.
90Z.
Same area as nos.
Z4-Z5
and
Z7. AD
Z93/305?
XÎ8{ov Öılopı'Covl-ra] âypouç [KÖJITK?] Ü I E A Z [Kal] [TIJEPIZHJ:. See nos. Z9 and 30 for the names of the villages. Z9.
Y. A h a r o n i , " T h r e e Nevv Boundary-Stones f r o m the H u l e V a l l e y " , 'Atiqot
3 (1961),
Same area as nos.
1 8 6 , no. 1 5 , PI. X X V I I I . ı = SEG X I X , no.
Z4-Z5
and
Z 7 - Z 8 . AD
AıoKtaiTtavöç KOI MfaÇıjı ıa]vöç K o v ö t d v t ı ç KUİ MaÇtlpıavöç K a ı a n p e ç l X(0ov 8ıopıÇovxa aypouç [K<ûfi]r|Iç] Arçpcıç K£ l î o e a ç arnpıxöfive £KeXe\>oav <>POVT(8I AtX.. Sxaxoî>tou
Z93/305.
901.
TOÛ öıamuıo. 30.
Aharoni, op. cit., 1 8 6 , no. 16, Pl. XXVIII.2 = SEG X I X , no. 902. Same area as above. Almost certainly AD 293/305. Xî8ov SıopîÇovta d y p o u ; KioJuııçI O o e a ç KE üepıoıyç. For Q£EA£ see nos. 2 8 - 2 9 and for n E P I S I E see no. 28. 3 1 (?). Aharoni, op. cit. 1 8 7 , no. 1 7 , Pl. XXVIII.3 = S E G X I X , no. 903. Same arca as abovc. AD 293/305? ?.(0oç SıopıÇcov ö p ı a ıcti>fnnçl TaXavıaç Kai ö(pıa?) 'PajLîiç For l a t a m a see nos. 24-25.
B A T A N A E A
T h e boundaries, if indeed there were clear boundaries, of the area deseribed in antiquity as Batanaea are f a r from clear. İt is used here as an approximate deseription of the area, from \vhich three boundary-markers arc knovvn, which lies between Gaulanitis (the Golan Heights) to the vvest and the İavafield called Trachonitis, or novv Lejja, to the east. Sec also under nos. 33—54. T h c three markers ali come f r o m a region on either side of Sanamayn, o n the present main road betvveen Dcr'a and Damascus. 32. IGR III, no. 1 1 1 2 s OGIS, no. 769. From Agrabc, somc 1 6 km vvest-north-vvcst of Sanamayn. AD 293/ 305-
AeoTUkat rifiûv AıoKXTynavöç MaÇınıavöç Xepaoroi
Kal
Kcovotdvreıoç Kai MaÇınıavöç Kaıaapeç Xı9ov SıopfÇov-ca öpouç pırtpotctûfiı'aç 'AKpdptıç 'AoiXo>v o r n p ı x O rjvaı e»ceX£t)oav , «{»povriöı AOVKIOU K a i Ktivoitopiç
'ALK?lafKiou?l
(KıLV
For the importance of the conccpt of a 'mothcr-villagc' (mĞtrokörnia) sec 3.3 abovc. In this casc also thc placc-name has survived as
Agrabe. There is also another village in the area called Osij. It is probable, but not certain, that two censitores are named. Cf. no. 35 belovv. 33.
IGR III, no. 12.52 = OGIS, no, 6 1 2 (variant readings). From Namar, a village some 15 km south-vvest of Sanamayn, and some 1 0 km south of Agrabe. A D 2 9 3 / 3 0 5 . Line-divisions not indicated. Tetrarchs. Xı0ov SıopıÇovta öpouç KO>HHÇ r a l o l ı n e a ç K a l Nanapıcov (a)xııpx[0]nvaı £KeXev)oav, ({»povtı'St M. 'Apptou paıaoç (sic) TI.K. KTi(v)at:iTOpoç. T h e second village named must be that referred to by Eusebius, Onotn., ed. Klostermaıın, 138: Kai vûv ecm Naftapâ Kanıtı jıeytotıı EV TI^ BatavaujL Both names have survived, the first as 'Jascm', a village to the south-east of Namar. The censitor is identified as a primipilaris (seııior ccnturion).
34.
L. Jalabert and R. Mouterde, "Nouvellcs inseriptions dc Syrie", MUSJ 4 ( i 9 r o ) , 2 0 9 , o n p. 222. From Basir, some 4 km east of Sanamayn. A D 2 9 3 / 3 0 5 . Fragmentary inseription \vith Tetrarchs and 8top[(Çovta Xı]8ov. This is quite possibly the place in Batanaea called Bathyra, vvhere Herod scttled a colony of Babylonian Jevvs as a proteetion against the people of Trachonitis; Josephus, Ant. XVII, 2 , 2 2 1 — 2 2 2 ( 2 3 — 2 8 ) , see 2 . 2 above. T h e place lies about 8 km from the edge of the lava-field.
THE HAURAN 35.
M. Dunand, Syria
7 (1926), 329 =
SEG VII, no. r o 5 5 (incomplete
text). Full text in M . D u n a n d , Le rnusee de Soueida no.
160,
Pl. X X X I I ; cf. L. Robcrt, Hellenica XI-XII
3I2-~3T4-
(1934),
75,
(1960),
From Juneineh, some 5 k m to the east of Maximianopolis/Shaqqa. oi Sccntötaı lîfiûjv AıoK?aycıavoç Kat MalÇluııavöç Kai KtovcrtdvTeıoç Kal Ma^tjııavöç ejtt^aveatatot Katoapeç X(0ov 6loptÇovta (ârcö] Kûtfirıç 'OpeX
MaÇınıavonöX(e
exe-
XE\)OÛV, f < M p o v t [ ( J 8L A O D K ı O U K(LL ' A K O K Î O V KTIVOTTÖptÛV.
T h e earliest evidence (cf. 5.1 above) for the nevv city of Maximia.nopolis. Tvvo censitores are at vvork, and neither vvill be the governor of the province, vvhich vvas almost certainly by novv Arabia rather than Syria Phoenice. T h e same tvvo censitores arc evidently n a n e d in no. 32. 36(?). M . Dunand, "Nouvelles inseriptions du Djebel Druze et du Hauran", RB 4 1 (1932), 5 6 1 , p. 572, no. 109. From Radcime/Rudeimeh, about 5 km vvest-south-vvest of Juneineh (see no. 35). AD 293/305. T h e beginnings (11. 2 - 7 ) of an inseription vvith the names of the Tetrarchs in the nominative, laid out almost exactly as in no. 35. T h e resemblance of f o r m , along vvith its locaöon a short distancc from no. 35, is tlıc only rcason for supposing, as Dunand did, that this is a boundary-marker. 37(?). IGR III, no. 1278. From Suvveida. AD 293/305. Fragmentary inseription vvith the names of Diocictian and M a x imian, and Öpoı Aıov[\)oıâJ8fo^?] on onc side and [öp]oı 'AOetevl<û|v on the other. Athclena is the village Atil in the territory of Kanatha, discussed in 1 1 . 4 above. If 'Dionysias* appears here as the name of Soada, it is the carliest evidence for it. But it is very uncertain vvhether this inseription belongs among those vvhich reflect the vvork of the Tecrarchic censitores.
APPENDIX
b documents erom
the
b a r k o c h b a vvar
A s noted above, there appears t o be no completc hand-list of the novv quite extensive range of documents, in Hebrevv, Aramaic and Greek, from vvithin the area controlled by the rebels. This appendix therefore scts out to provide onc, beginning vvith tcxts vvhich arc clearly dated, and then listing thc others. Ncarly ali the documents, vvhich vvith one exception are vvritten on papyrus, comc from caves on thc sides of vvadis in thc Judacan Desert vvhich run dovvn to the Dead Sea. One m a j ö r group comes from the Wadi Murabba'at, some ı ı km north of Engeddi. T h e caves there vvere first explored clandestincly by the local Bcdouin in 1 9 5 1 , and then by an expcdition lcd by the late R. de Vaux in 1 9 5 2 ; the relevant documents vvere published along vvith other vvritten material from there in Documents from the Judaean Desert II (1961), T h c other majör group comes from thc Nahal Hcvcr, a vvadi vvhich runs into the Dead Sea some 4.5 k m south of Engeddi. A n Israeli expedition, led by the late Y. Yadin in 1960 and 1 9 6 1 , discovered in the same cavc, on thc northern side of thc vvadi and somc 5.5 km from the Dead Sea, both a series of documcnts from the Bar Kochba vvar and the 'arehive of Babatha' from the immediately preceding period: documents in Nabataean, A r amaic and Greek covcring thc years from AD 94 to 1 3 2 (August 19). T h c Grcck, but not thc Nabataean a n d Aramaic, tcxts from this arehive have novv been published by N . Levvis, The Documents from the Bar Kochba Period in the Cave of Letters: Greek Papyri (1989), abbrcviated as P. Yadin. T h e documents from the period of the vvar itself vvere surveyed, and some extracts of preliminary readings printed, in Israel Exploration Journal 11 (i9<>r) and TZ (1962). But until his death in 1984 Prof. Yadin made no further progress vvith publication, and three decades after the initial discovery
the majority have remained unpublished. One papyrus of unknovvn provenancc, found among Prof. Yadin's papers, vvas published in IEJ 36 {1986); see no. 12 belovv. Further eomment on this cxtremcly discreditablc record vvould be superfluous. T h e Aramaic documents, insofar as published, have been included in tvvo separate collcctions, both of vvhich somctimcs give apparcntly independent readings vvhose origin is not made clear. These are the collections by Beycr and by Fitzmyer and Harrington listed belovv. Some vvere also reproduced and discusscd in K o f f m a h n , Doppelurkunden. Since, as mentioned, a number of the documents carry explicit dates, paralleling the datcs by Year O n e and Year Tvvo on the coinage of the revolt (see L. Mildenberg, The Coinage of the Bar Kochba War, 1984, and 3.3 above), it is of some significance to relate these to datings by the Christian cra. For the most detailed discussioıı, mainly relating to later literary sources, see P. Schaefcr, Der Bar Kochba-Anfstand (1981), 10-28. It seerrıs clear that the administration of the short-lived independent state vvill have used a calendar in vvhich the year began in the spring vvith the month Nisan; this vvas the establishcd pattern as refleeted in Jevvish vvorks of this period; see Schürer, HJPI, App. III, " T h e Jevvish Calendar". The four succcssive 'Years' of the 'liberation of Israel' vvill therefore have been counted from Nisan (March/April) to Adar (Fcb./March). Though absolute certainty is not possible, it is most likely that Year One vvas calculatcd from Nisan of AD 132, the year to vvhich Eusebius dates the revolt. See Schürer, HJP I, 542, n . 1 2 6 , and B. Kanael, " N o t e s on the Dates Used during the Bar Kochba Rev o l t " , IEJ 21 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 39 (speculative). In the cataloguc the follovving datingseheme vvill therefore bc adoptcd, though it should be understood as provisional:
Year Year Year Year
One, Nisan-Adar: March/April AD i32-Feb./March 133 Tvvo, Nisan-Adar: March/April AD i33-Feb./March 134 Three, Nisan-Adar: March/April AD i34-Fcb,/March 1 3 5 Four; Nisan-Adar: March/April AD i35-Feb./March 136
O n this vievv the latest explicitly dated document (no. 13), of TiSri 2 1 , Year Four, vvould date to early October 1 3 5 . If that is correct, either the muchquoted statement of the Misbrtah, Ta'atıit 4, 6, that Bethther feli on A b 9 (July) has to be taken as rcflecring a merely symbolic correlation vvith the other four disasters mentioned in the same passage, or the fail of this place did not represent the collapse of ali resistance in the area to the south-east, near the Dead Sea. T h e altcrnative possibility is that Year O n e vvas spring r 3 i - s p r i n g 132. A s such, that vvould mean only that the revolt broke out tvithin that Jevvish
year, vvhich then, taken as a vvhole, counted as 'Year O n e of the Redemption of Israel' (SNT H D ' L G ' L T Y S R ' L ) . But the existcncc of a document (no. i ) dated to the first day of the month Iyyar (April/May) of Year One vvould obligc us to take it that the revolt had bcgun early in AD 1 3 1 — t h o u g h presumably not carlicr than Nisan -(March/April), othcrvvisc spring 130-Spring 1 3 1 might have earned the title Year One. This seems unlikely. So the tradition that the vvar lasted three and a half years (see Schürer, HJP I, 534 and 552) seems to be confirmed: the most reasonablc reconstruction is that it began in Nisan 1 3 2 and cndcd three and a half years later, tovvards the end of 1 3 5 . It should be noted that the latest dated documcnt in the 'archive of Babatha' (P. Yadin, no. 27) dates to August 19, 132, therefore after the probable date of the outbreak of the revolt. But 3t that time Babatha vvas stili living at M a o z a in the district of Z o a r a , in the province of Arabia (see 3.2-3 and 11.4 above). Whocvcr brought the archive to the cave in the Nahal Hever therefore moved only subsequently into the rebel-held zone.
ABBREVİATİONS Aegyptus (1962) = B. Lifshitz, "Papyrus grecs du desert de Juda", Aegyptus 42 (1962), 240. Beyer, AT = K . Beyer, Die aramâisehen Texte vom Toten Meer (1984). D / D II = P. Bcnoit, J. T. Milik and R . dc Vaux, Discoveries in the Jndaean Desert II, Les grottes de Murabba'ât (1961). Fitzmyer, PAT = J. A . Fitzmyer and D. J. Harrington, A Manual ofPalestinian Aramaic Texts (Second Century BC-Second Century AD) (r978). IF.J (1961) = Y. Yadin, " T h e Expedition to the Judaean Desert, 1960: Expedition D " , IEJ 11 (1961), 36, on pp. 40-50. IEJ (1962) = Y. Yadin, " T h e Expcdition to the Judaean Desert, T961: F.xpedition D " , IEJ 1 2 (1962), 227, on pp. 2 4 8 - 2 5 7 . IEJ (1986) = M . Broshi and E. Qimron, " A House Deed Salc from Kefar Baru from the Time of Bar K o c h b a " , IEJ 36 (1986), 20L. IEJ (1990) = A . Kloner, 'T,ead Weights of Bar Kokhba's Administration", IEJ 4 0 (1990), 58. Koffmahn, Doppelurkunden = Fİ. K o f f m a h n , Die Doppelurkunden
aus der Wiiste Juda
(1968).
SB = Sammelbuch (1967)
Griechischer
Urkunden aus Agypten VIII
THE
DOCUMENTS
DATED
D O C U M E N T S
Year One (March/April
132-FebJMarcb
133^
1 . IEJ (1962), p. 249, no. 42. Aramaic; material not stated. Text partially rcportcd. Lcase of land carried out by t w o administrators. Dated 'on the first day of lyyaı; in the first year of the rcdemption of Israel (by PSimeon] bar Kosiba, Princc of Israel' (BHD L ' Y R S N T H D ' L G ' L T Y S R ' L *[L Y D ? S M ' W ] N BR K W S Y B ' NSY* YSR'L). Date: April, 132. 2. D / D II, no. 22, Pis. X X X I I I - X X X I V ; K o f f m a h n ,
Doppelıırkunden,
p. 158. Hebrevv; papyrus. Sale of land, dated ' 1 4 Marhcsvan, Year O n e of the redemption of Israel' (B14 L M R H S W N S N T ' H T L G ' W L T YS|R]'L). Date: Oct./Nov. 132. 3. D / D H, no. 23, Pl. X X X I V ; K o f f m a h n , Doppelurkunden, p. 163; Fitzmyer, PAT, no. 43; Beyer, AT, p. 312. Aramaic; papyrus. Very fragmentary; possibly dccd of sale. Dated ' r o Shebat, Year O n e of thc freedom [ . . . ] ' ( B ı o I.SBT S N T H D ' L H R ( W T YSR'L?1). Date: Jan./Feb. r33 (Beyer, op. cit., suggests possibly Jan./Fcb. AD 67, in the First Revolt). 4. IEJ (1962), 249, no. 4 3 . Aramaic; papyrus. Briefly reported. Receipt by local administrator for 39 denarii paid by Eliezer son of Samuel for land(?) 'vvhich hc Icased from Simeon bar Kosiba' (DY H K R M N S M ' W N BR K W S Y B H ) . Date: stated to bc Year One.
Year Two (March/April
ı$}-Feb./March
134)
5. DJD II, no. 29, Pis. X L I - X L I bis; K o f f m a h n , Doppelurkunden, Hebrevv (vvith Greek signature on verso); papyrus. Deed of sale of vines (?).
p. 1 7 6 .
Dated ' o n 14 Elul, Year Tvvo of the Redemption of Israel' ( B ' R B ' H 'SR L'LWL S N T S T Y M L G ' L T Y^R'L). Date: Aug./Sept. 133.
6. DJD II, no. 24, Pis. X X X V - X X X V H . Hebrevv; papyrus, in a number of fragments. Series of contracts for the lease of parcels of land, some vvith the condition 'until the eve of the remission' (of debts, for the Sabbatical Year)—Frag. B14: ' D SWP 'RB H S M T H . Suggested corrections in fEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , p. 51, and (1962.), pp. 1 5 3 - 2 5 4 . Dated (Frag. B, 1. 1) '20 Shebat Year Tvvo of the Redemption of Israel' ([BJ'SRYN LSBT SfNJT S T Y J M LJG'LT Y S R ' L ) , probably also Frag. B, 1. t , Frag. E, 1. 1 and Frag. F. 1. 1 (ali readings somewhat uncertain). Date: probably Feb. 134.
Year Three (March/April
134-FebJMarch
135)
7. J. T. Milik, " U n contrat juif de l'an 134 apres J.-C.", RB 6ı (1954), 182; Fitzmyer, PAT, no. 51 (vvith subscquent bibliography); Beyer, AT, p. 320. Aramaic; papyrus (exact provenance unknovvn). Sale of house. Dated '20 of either Iyyar or Adar, Year Three of the Freedom of Israel' (B'SRYJNl L ' Y R or L'DR IBeyerl S N T T L T L H R T YSR'L). Date: either April/May 134 or Feb./March 1 3 5 . 8. IEJ (1962), 249, no. 44, Pl. 48c. Hebrevv; papyrus. Described vvith some extracts. Reportcd as distribution of lands leased from the administrator (PRNSW) of Simeon ben Kosiba, Prince of Israel. A t Engeddi ( B ' Y N G D Y ) . Dated 'on 28 Marhesvan, Year Three of Simeon ben Kosiba, Prince of Israel' ( B * S R Y N \ V S M N H L M R H S W N S N T SLWS L S M ' W N B N K W S Y B '
NSY'
YSR'L).
Date: Nov. 134. 9. IEJ (1962), 255, no. 45. Hebrevv; papyrus (34 lines). Described vvith extracts. Sub-lease of land leased from the administrator of Simeon ben Kosiba. Dated 'on 2 Kislcv, Year T h r e e of Simeon ben Kosiba, Prince of Israel, at F.n-Gedi' ( B S N Y M L K S I . W . . . as no. 8 above). Date: Nov. 134. 10. IEJ (1962), 255, no. 46. Hebrevv; papyrus. Described vvith extracts. Acknovvledgment of lease. Dated as no. 9. Date: Nov. 134.
n.
D / D II, no. 25, PI. X X X V I I I ; Koffmahn, Doppelurkunden, mycı^ PAT, no. 44. Aramaic; papyrus (a number of fragments). Deed of sale(?) of land (or 'easement', PAT).
p. 164; Fitz-
Dated ' [ . . . yeajr Three of the Freedom of Jerusalem' ( [ . . . SNJT T L T LI : IRWT YR\VSLM). Frag. 3 has L M R H S ( W N J . Date: March/April i34~Feb./March 1 3 5 . 12. IEJ (1986), 201, Pl. 26B. Aramaic, and apparently Hebrevv; papyrus (exact provenancc unknovvn). Deed of sale of house at Kefar Baru (KPR BRW), vvhich the editors suggest (very improbably) lay east of the Dead Sea in the provincc of Arabia. Dated ' [ . . . Year) Three of the Freedom of Israel, in the days of Simeon ben Kosiba, Prince of Israel' (1.. .SNT] T L T L H R W T YSJRJ'L 'L Y M Y S M ' W N B N K W S B H N S Y Y§R|'|L). Date: March/April i34-Feb./March 1 3 5 . Year Four (March/April 13. DJD II, no. 30, Pis. XLI bis-XU\
t3$~-FebJMarch bis; Koffmahn,
136) Doppelurkunden,
p. 182. I lebrevv; papyrus. Deed of sale of land. Dated (1. 8) 'on 21 Tishri, Year Four of the Redemption of Israel' ( B ' S R Y M W ' H D L T S R Y S N T ' R B ' L G ' W L T YSR'L). Date: Sept./Oct. 1 3 5 .
IJNIJATF.D
I.ETTERS
14. DJD II, no. 42, Pl. XLV. Hebrevv; papyrus. Letter from the administrators of Bet-Masiko ( H P R N S Y N SL B Y T M S K W ) to Yesua ben Galgula, 'chief of the camp' (RWS H M H N Y H ) , confirmirıg ovvnership of a covv. 15. DJD II, no. 43, PI. X L V L Hebrevv; papyrus. Letter of Bar Kochba ( S M ' W N B N K W S B H ) to the same Yesua ben Galgula vvarning him n o t to maltreat the Galileans ( H G L L ' Y M ) vvho are vvith him. 16. DJD II, no. 44, Pl. XLVI. I lebrevv; papyrus.
Letter of $ M ' W N (evidently Bar Kochba) to the same Yesua ben Galgula on delivcry of grain, and requiring observance of Shabat. 1 7 . IEJ (1961), 4 1 , no. 1; fitzmyer, PAT, no. 53; Beyer, AT, p. 3 5 1 . Aramaic; vvritten on vvood. Deseribed vvith extracts. Tuller tcxt, vvhose origin is not stated, in Beyer; loc. cit. Letter of Bar Kochba (SM'\VN BR K W S B H H N S Y 'L YSR'L) to Yehonatan and Masabala, o n confiscation of vvlıeat, and threatening punishment of men of Teqoa and arrest of YS\V BR T D M R Y I I . 18. IEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 42, no. 2; Fitzmyer, PAT, no. 54. Aramaic; papyrus. Brief report of fragmentary letter from Bar Kochba. 19. IEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 42, no. 3; Aegyptus (1962), 240, no. 1; SB, no. 9843. Greek; papyrus. Letter of Soumaios to Iönathes son of Baianos and Masabala (sec no. 17) requiring delivcry of "vvoodcn bars and citrus-trees (branehes?) 'for the laying of citrus-branches of (the) Jevvs', that is, Tabernacles (Josephus, Ant. XIII, 13, 5, 372). T h e vvriter explains that he has vvritten Helinesti (sic) because of the lack either of the 'impulse' ((öpluctv) or the opportunity ([a»J>op]ndç) to write Hebraesti or of a person, Hermas, to d o so. See G. Hovvard and J. C. Sheltoıı, " T h e Bar-Kochba Letters and Palcstinian G r c c k " , IEJ 23 (1973), 1 0 1 ; D. O b b i n k , BASP 28 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 51. 20. IEJ (1961), 43, no. 4; Fitzmyer, PAT, no. 55; Beyer, AT, p. 3 5 1 . Aramaic; papyrus. Short letter, published in full, of Bar Kochba ( S M ' W K BR K W S B H ) to Yehonatan son of Ba'aya (see no. 19), telling him to help one Elisha. 2 1 . IEJ (1961), 44, no. 6 = Aegyptus (1962), 248, no. 2 = SB, no. 9844. Grcck; papyrus. Short letter from A n n a n o s to Iönathes referritıg to help ordered by Simön Chösiba (Z£JKÛV Xcıxnpâ). 22. IEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 44, no. 7. Aramaic; papyrus. Brief report of badly damaged papyrus, evidently containiııg letter from S M ' W N BR IKWSBH]. 23. IEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 44, no. 8; Fitzmyer, PAT, no. 56; Beyer, AT, p. 3 5 1 . Aramaic; papyrus. Letter of Bar Kochba (vvhose name is here spelled S M ' W N BR KSBH) to Yehonatan bar Ba'ayan and Masabala bar Simon (see nos. 1 9 - 2 0 and 25-27) on despateh of Fll'azar. Fmds vvith attestatioıı by seribe: S M ' W N BR Y H W D H K T B H .
24. IEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 4 5 , no. 10; Fitzmycr, PAT, no. 57. Aramaic; papyrus. Four-line letter to Yehonatan and Masabala (nos. 1 9 , 20, 22 abovc), partially reported. 25. IEJ (1961), 46, no. 1 1 ; Fitzmycr, PAT, no. 58; Beyer, AT, p. 352. Aramaic; papyrus. Deseription with extracts of letter of Bar Kochba to Yehonatan and Masabala (nos. 1 9 , 20, 22 abovc and 2 6 - 2 7 belovv), referring to thc 'Romans' ( R H W M ' H ) and ordering the bringing of a person called T Y R S Y S BR T Y N Y N W S . 26. IEJ (1961), 46, no. 12. Hebrevv; papyrus. Deseription, vvith quotation of first four lines, of fourteen-line letter from Bar Kochba ( S M ' W N BR KWSB') reproaching the men of Engeddi and Masabala a n d Yehonatan (nos. 19, 20, 22, 24 abovc and 27 belovv) for indiffcrence. 27. IEJ (1961), 47, no. 14; Fitzmyer, PAT, no. 59; Beyer; AT, p. 352. Aramaic; papyrus. Deseription, vvith quotations, of letter of Bar Kochba to Yehonatan and Masabala—here spelled M$BL' (nos. 19, 20, 22, 24, 25 above). 28. IEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 48, no. 15; Fitzmyer^ PAT, no. 60; Beyer; AT, p. 352. Aramaic; papyrus. Complete(?) text of five-line letter of Bar Kochba to Yehuda bar Menashe ordering the sending of tvvo men and tvvo donkeys to Yehonatan and Masabala for the dclivery of palm-branehes and citrus ( L L B Y N W ' T R G Y N ) vvhile Yehuda should send myrtles and vvillovvs. Note: For other fragmentary texts vvhich may be letters from the Bar Kochba vvar; scc DJD II, nos. 4 5 - 5 2 , and IEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 4 3 - 4 7 , nos. 5, 9 and 1 3 . Lead
Weights
29. /E/(1990), 58. Lead vveight discovered in 1987 at Horvat Alim, some 3 km north of Beth Guvrin (Eicuthcropolis). Side A is inseribed on thc four margins of the reetangular vveight vvith the vvords BNKSB', N$Y, Y S R ' L , W P R N S W and in the interior PRS. Side B has S M ' W N , K W S B \ Y S R ' L and N S Y , Other possibly paraliel vveights are also alluded to in the paper. Note: for a further document of Year Tvvo see M . Broshi and E. Qimron, Eretz Israel 20 (1989), 256, vvith revisions by P. Scgal, Tarbis 60 (1991), 1 1 3 .
APPENDıX c
materıals for the of r o m a n edessa and a d
history osrhoene,
163-337
What fol!ows represents only a selection of the material, designed for the use of anyone approaching the study of this arca from the history of the R o man Empire. I am very grateful to Sebastian Brock for much supplementation and correctiotı, and to Steven Ross, University of California, Berkeley, for corrections.
BIBIJOGRAPHY A . von Gutsclımid, Urttersucbımgen i'tber die Gescbicbte des Königreichs Osroene (Meırt. Acad. inip. Sc. de St Petersbourg, VII ser., 35.1, 1887). R . Duval, Histoire d'Edesse (1892). R . Duval, La litterature syriaquei (1907). A. Baumstark, Gescbicbte der syriseben Literatür {1922). A . R. Bellinger, " T h e Chronology of Edessa", YCS 5 (1935), 142. E. Kirşten, "Edessa", RACIV ( 1 9 5 9 ) , 552ff. J. B. Segal, Edessa:'The Blessed City' (1970). A. H. M . Jones, Cities of the Eastern Roman Provincesz { 1 9 7 1 ) , ch. 9, "Mesopotamia and Armenia". R. Murray, Synıbols of Church and Kingdom: A Study of Early Syriac Tradition (1975). H. J. W. Drijvers, "Hatra, Palmyra und Edessa", ANRW II.8 (1977), 799, on pp. 8<>3ff. S. P. Brock, " A n Introduction to Syriac Studies", in J. H. Eaton (ed.), Horizons in Semitic Studies (T980), 1 . II. J. W. Drijvers, Cults and Beliefs at Edessa (1980).
H. J. W. Drijvers, "Edessa", Theologische
Realenzyklopadie
I X . ı / z (1981),
277.
M . Mundcll Mango, "The Continuity of the Classical Tradition in the Art and Arehitecture of Northern Mesopotamia", in N. Garsoian, T. F. Mathews and R. W. Thomson (eds.), East of Byzantium: Syria and Armenia in the Eormalive Period { 1 9 8 2 } , 1 1 5 . J. Wagner, "Provineia Oshrocnae (sic): Nevv Mesopotamian Finds Illustrating the Military Orgaııisarion under the Severan Dynasty", in S. Mitchell (ed.), Armies and Frontiers in Roman and Byzan t ine Anatolia (BAR Int. Ser. 1 5 6 , 1 9 8 3 ) , 1 0 3 . J. Wagner, Die Römer an Euphrat und Tigris (Die Arıtike Welt, Sondernummer,
1985).
W. Cramcr, "Harran", RAC X V
(1986),
634.
E Millar, "Empire, Community and Culture in the Roman Near East: Greeks, Syrians, Jevvs and Arabs", JJS 3 8 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 4 3 , esp. 1 5 9 - 1 6 2 . D. Fcissel and J. Gascou, "Documents d'archives romains inedits du Moycn Euphrate (ille sieclc apres J.-C.)", CRAI ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 535F. Millar, "The Roman Coloniae of the Near East: A Study of Cultural Relations", in I I. Solin and M . Kajava (eds.), Roman Eastern Policy and Other Studies in Roman History ( 1 9 9 0 ) 7 , esp. pp. 38-39, 4 6 - 5 0 . J. Teixidor, " D e u x documents syriaques du troisieme siecle provenants d u Moyen Euphrate", CRAI ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 4 4 .
DOCUMENTS SYRIAC ıNSCR1PTıONS
(ON STONK ANı)
MOSAIC)
H. J. W. Drijvers, Old-Syriac (Edessean) inseriptions ( 1 9 7 2 ) . Note esp.: 1 . Birecik, AD 6 (trans. Segal, Edessa, p. 23, n.3). 2. Şerrin, AD 73 (trans. Segal, Edessa, p. 23, n.4). 23. Sumatar Harabesi, AD 165: "Ruler of 'Arab". 27. Edessa, Ciıadel (Segal, Edessa, Pl. 29a): M ' N W PŞGRB'. 45. Edessa. Funerary mosaic (Segal, Edessa, Pl. 17a); novv in istanbul m use um. 4 7 . Edessa. Family portrait mosaic (Segal, Edessa, Pl. 1). 48. Edessa. Tripod mosaic (Segal, Edessa, Pl. 3). 4 9 . Edessa. Phoenix mosaic (Segal, Edessa, PI. 4 3 ) ; A D 2 3 5 / 2 3 6 . 50. Edessa. Orpheus mosaic (Scgal, Edessa, Pl. 44); AD 228. 51. Edessa. Funerary couch mosaic (Segal, Edessa, Pl. 2 ) ; ? A D 2 7 7 / 2 7 8 . H. Pognon, İnseriptions semitiques de la Syrie, de la Mesopotamie et de la region de Mossoul ( 1 8 9 7 ) , 1 0 4 (Mar Yakoub, near Edessa; Greek/Syriac bilingual tomb inseription).
J. Leroy, "Mosaiques funeraires d'Edesse", Syria 34 (1957), 306. J. Pirenne, " A u x origincs dc la graphic syriaquc", Syria 4 0 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 101. H. J. W. Drijvers, "Some N e w Syriac inseriptions and Archaeological Finds from Edessa and Sumatar Harabesi", BSOAS 36 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , 1 . N.B. p. 12, Pis. xi-xii, mosaic inseription of AD 2 2 4 . H. J. W. Drijvers, "Ein neuentdecktes edessenisehes Grabmosaik", Antike Welt 1 2 . 3 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 1 7 . II. J. W. Drijvcrs, " A Tomb for thc Life of a King: A Rcccntly Discovered Edessene Mosaic with a Portrait of King Abgar the Great", Le Museon 9 5 . 1 - 2 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 1 6 7 . J. B. Scgal, " A Note on a M o s a i c from Edessa", Syria 60
{1983),
107.
K . Parlasca, " D a s Mosaik von Mas'udije aus dem Jahre 228/229 n. Chr.", Dam. Mitt. 1 (1983), 263 (bilingual, Greck/Syriac mosaic inseription from east bank of Euphrates).
GREEK A N D
IATIN
INSCRTPTIONS
Osrhoene AE
(1984),
no. 9 1 9 : (Kizilburc, betvveen Zeugma and Edessa, A D 1 9 5 ) : ' C . Iulius Pacatianus, proc(urator) Aug(usti), inter provinciam Osrhoenam et regnum Agbari fines posuit'.
AE
(1984),
no. 9 2 0 : (ibid., A D 2 0 5 ) : '(Severus, Caracalla and Geta) viam ab Euphrate usque ad fines rcgni Scpt. Ab(g)ari a novo municrunt per L . Aclium Ianuarium proc. Aug. prov. Osrhoenam (sic)'. Rome
CIL VI, no. 1 7 9 7 = İLS no. 8 5 7 : 'd.m./ Abgar Prahates / filius, rex / principis(?) Orrhenoru/ Hodda coniugi bene / merenti fec.' IGR I, no. 1 7 9 = Morctti, IGUR, no. 1 1 4 2 : "APyapoç . . . tünpov 8' 'Avtcovelvoç eo) 0eto toûtov â S e ^ ö ' oıotv ö ıtpiv BaoıXe\>; "Apyapoç rıv yevetııc;.
SYRIAC
FARCHMKNTS
Contract of sale of AD 1 4 3 , found at Dura (P. Dura, no. 28). A . R. Bellinger and C . B. Welles, " A Third-Century Contract of Sale from Edessa in Osrhoene", V C 5 5 ( 1 9 3 5 ) , 9 3 . C . B. Wcllcs, R . O . Fink and J. F. Gilliam, Excavatiotts at Dura-Europus, Final Report V . ı , The Parchments and Papyri ( 1 9 5 9 ) , no. 2 8 .
556 ]
Apf>endix C J. Goidstein, " T h e Syriac Decd of Salc from Dura-Europos", JNES 25 (1966), 1 . F. Roscnthal (ed.), An Aramaic Handbook Drijvers, Inscriptions, pp. 5 4 - 5 7 (text).
II.ı (1967), 2 5 - 7 (text).
Syriac parchments from Mesopotamia (found as part of archive, vvith Greek papyri, some vvith Syriac subscriptions, from Middle Euphrates; scc Feissel and Gascou, op. cit. above). J. Teixidor; " L e s derniers rois d'Edesse d'apres deux nouveaux documents syriaques", ZPE 7 6 (1989), 219. J. Teixidor, " D e u x documents syriaques du ille siecle apres J.-C. provcnants du M o y e n Euphrate", CRAI (1990), 144. A . Dcc. 18, 240. Acknovvledgmcnt of rcceipt of debt. B. Sept. 1 , 242. I.ease of land (heading only published so far).
GREEK
PAPYRUS
P. O x y . 3053,11. 1 4 - 1 6 (AD 252): purehase of slave in Tripolis, Syria Phoenice: ıtapu Mâpıcou AûpnXto\) Ae. ttov . . . £ıXPavoö 'Oaponvoû SovArçv ovĞjıau BaXaa^u*av y e v e ı Oopoııvrıv Meaonotajnîv.
COİNS E. Babelon, "Numismatique d'Edesse en Mesopotamie", Melanges
Nttmis-
matiques II (1893), 209. G. E Hill, " T h e Mints of R o m a n Arabia and M e s o p o t a m i a " , JRS 6 ( 1 9 r6\, X
35-
G. F. Hill, BMC Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia (1922), lxcivff. H. Geschc, "Kaiscr Gordian mit dem Pfcil in Edessa", Jahrb. f. Num. n. Geldg. 19 (1969)» 4 7 -
IJTERARY SOURCES CONTEMPORARY SYRİAC WORK5 1. Epislle of Mara bar Serapion W. Cureton, Spicilegium Syriacum (1855): text; English trans. pp. 7 0 - 7 6 . Cf. F. Schulthess, " D e r Brief des M a r a bar Sarapion", ZDMG 51 (1897), 365.
K. E. McVey, " A Frcsh Look at the Letter of M a r a bar Serapion to his S o n " , V. Symposium Syriacum 1988 (Or. Cbr. Anal. 236, 1990), 257. 2. Oration of Meliton the Philosopher before Antoninus Caesar Cureton, op. cit.; English trans. pp. 4 1 - 5 1 . J. B. Pitra, Spicilegium Solesmeuse II (1855), xxxviiiff. (Syriac text and Latin translation.) N o subsequeııt edition or detailed treatment. 3. Bardesanes/Bardaisan, Book of the Laıvs of Countries F. N a u , Bardesanes, Liber Legutn Regnorum (Patrologia Syriaca II, 1907), 492-657. E. N a u , Bardesane, le livre des lois des pays?. (1931). H. J. \V. Drijvers, The Book of the Laıvs of Countries: Dialogue on Eate of Bardaisan of Edessa (1965). Text and facing English trans. Extracts in Greek: Eusebius, Praep. Ev. VI, 9, 3 2 — r o , 4.8. Extracts in Latin: Cletn. Recog. IX, 1 9 - 2 9 (GGS, Pseudoklementinetı II, ed. B. Rehm, 1 9 6 5 , pp. 2 7 0 - 3 1 7 ) . Cf. H. J. V/. Drijvers, Bardaisan of Edessa (1966). 4. (?) The Odes ofSolomon J. H. Charlesvvorth, The Odes ofSolomon
(1973); tcxt, trans. and notes.
5. (?) Acts ofThomas A . E. J. Klijn, The Acts ofThomas (1962); discussion and trans. E. Henneckc, Neıv Testament Apocrypba II (1974), 425ff. 6. Martyract of Shmotıa and Guria V. C. Burkitt, Euphemia and the Goth (1913), esp. 9off. (trans.); Syriac text ad fiti., pp. 1 - 2 5 . 7. Martyract of Habib the Deacon P. Bedjan, Açta Martyrum et Sanclorum
I (1890), 144.
Burkitt, op. cit., esp. ı i 2 f f . (trans.); Syriac tcxt ad fin., pp. 26-43. O n these and the martyracts of Sharbil and Barsamya (below), see Susan Ashbrook Harvey, " T h e Edessan Martyrs and Ascetic Tradition", V. Symposium Syriacum [988. (Or. Cbr. Anal. 136, 1990), 1 9 5 .
SYRIAC
CHRONICLES
See esp. S. P. Brock, "Syriac Historical Writing", Journal of the lraqi Academy (Syriac Corporation) 5 (1979-80), 1, repr. in Studies in Syriac Christianity (1992).
i . Chrotıicle of Edessa. Sixth ccntury. Bricf entries covering 1 3 2 H C — A D 540, ali relating to Edessa, beginning (out of order) vvith longer narrative o f flood of AD 201 (English trans. in Segal, Edessa, pp. 24-25). Follovving entries to AD 343 trans. in 12.3 above. L. Hallicr, Untersuchungen Uber die edessenisehe Chronik mit dem syrischetı Text und einer Übersetzung (Texte und Untersuchungen I X , 1892), 84ff. (trans.); i 4 5 f f . (text). I. Guidi, Corpus Serip tor um Christianorum Orientalium I, Scriptores Syri. ı, Chronica Minora (1903, repr. 1960), ı f f . (Syriac tcxt). 1. Guidi, CSCO, Scriptores Syri ser. III.4 (1903), 3ff. (Latin trans,). E Rosenthal (ed.), An Aramaic îlandbook II. 1 (1967), 23-25 (tcxt of flood narrative). English trans. of vvhole chrotıicle by B. H. Covvper, Journ. Sac. Lit. 5 (1864), 28. 2. Ps-Dionysius of Tell-Mahrc, Chronicle. Syriac vvorld-chronicle of circa AD 7 7 5 knovvn from single manuseript (Vat. syr. 162, ninth century). Includcs seattered entries relating to Edessa and its kings. N o complctc translation into any modern languagc. Refcrred to abovc (12.3 and 5) as the Chronicle of Zttqnin. There is, hovvever, a Ercnch translation of the vvhole of the latter part (the sixth century onvvards) by R. Hespel (CSCO 507, Scriptores Syri 213, 1989), and an English translation of cxtracts is in preparation by W. Witakowski. See pp. 5 5 9 - 5 6 2 belovv. J.-B. Chabot, Incerti Auctoris
Chronicon
psettdo-Diottysianum
vulgo dic-
tum I ( C S C O 9 1 , Scriptores Syri 43, 1927). Syriac tcxt, J.-B. C h a b o t , C S C O 1 2 1 , Scriptores Syri 66 (1949). Latin trans. See W. Witakowski, The Syriac Ctnonicle of Pseudo-Diortysius ofTelMahre: A Study in the History of Historiograpby
(1987).
See esp. von Gutschmid, Untersuchungen, abovc; novv in necd of revision in vievv of subsequent documentary discoverics). 3. Elias of Nisibis, Opus Chronologicum
I. Eleventh century. Seattered en-
tries on kings of Edessa. E. W. Brooks, CSCO 62, Scriptores Syri 21 (1910). Syriac text. E. W. Brooks, C S C O 63, Scriptores Syri 23 (1910). Latin trans. 4. Michael the Syrian, Chrotıicle. Tvvelfth century. J. B. C h a b o t , Chronique de Micbel le Syrien I-IV ( 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 1 0 ) ; tcxt and French trans. Christian vvorld-history; Bk. V, 5 (Frcnch trans., pp. 1 1 9 - 1 2 0 ) , has a summary of the history of Edessa from the second century BC to the third century AD. See p. 466 above.
SYRIAC SEMI- O R P S E U D o - m y r o R I C A L
NARRATIVES
1. Martyracts of Sharbil and Barsamya (set under Trajan). W. Cureton, Ancient Syriac Documents ( 1 8 6 4 ) , 4 i f f . (trans.); Syriac text ad fin., 4 i f f . Scc pp. 4 6 4 and 4 8 7 above. 2. Doctrina Addai (expanded version of legend of Jesus and King Abgar, writtcn circa AD 400). G. Phillips, The Doctrine of Addai the Apostle G. Howard, The Teaching of Addai
(1981),
G R E E K A N D LATIN
(1876),
text and trans.
tcxt and trans.
SOURCES
1. Iulius Africanus, Kestoi I, 2 0 , 2 8 - 6 5 (Bardesanes, King Abgar and his son Mannos); scc J.-R. Vicillcfond, Les 'Cestes' de Julius Africanus (1970).
2. Cassius Dio LXXVII, 12, ı a - 1 2 (Caracalla's deposition of a king A b g a r for cruclty, ?AD 2 1 2 , 213). Cassius Dio L X X I X , 16, 2 (a king Abgar's visit to Rome under Septimius Severus). 3. (?)Hippolytus, Refutatio VII, 31 (a referenee to a vvork direeted npöç [B]ap5rı<TidvTiv xöv 'Apuivıov. 4. Herodian III, 9 , 2 (Abgar and Septimius Severus). 5. Porphyry, On the Styx, qu. by Stobaeus, Anth. I, 3, 5 6 (FGrH 719 T i ; Bardesanes and Indian embassy to Caracalla; also de abst. IV, 17). 6. Eusebius, HE I, 13 (Judas Thoınas' despateh of Thaddaios to Edessa; correspondcnce betvveen Jesus and King Abgar as reportedly translated from Syriac arehives at Edessa). Eusebius, HE, IV, 3 0 (Bardesanes). 7 . Epiphanius, Panarion 56 (Bardesanes). 8. So7-omenus, HE III, 1 6 (Bardesanes and his son Harmonios). 9 . Procopius, Bell., II, 1 2 (the legend of Abgar, Augustus and Jesus). 1 0 . Itinerarium Egeriae 1 9 - 2 1 (trans. J. Wi!kinson, Egeria's Travels1 [ 1 9 8 1 ] , 11 sff.; Christian Edessa and Carrhae in thc
380S).
A RECON5TRUCTION OF THE KING-UST OF EDESSA/ORHAI IN TIIE PERİOD OF ROMAN DOMINATION The follovving table presents in summary form a hypothetical list of the later kings of Edessa/Orhai based on that given in the Chronicle ofZuqnin (p.
558 above), but corrccted in the light of contemporary documents and literary evidence. I o w e the English text of the extracts, as so much else, to the kindness of Sebastiaıı Brock. It vvill be seen that the anonymous chronicler of the late cighth ccntury, ofren confusingly referred to as Pseudo-Dionysius of TelMahre, dates {in the relevant seetions) by successive 'years of Abraham'. Exactly vvhat, in terms of the years of the Christian era, hc vvill have meant by this is not perfectly clear, and it is by no means certain that hc vvill have been consistent; or, if he vvere, that the manuseript vvill have reproduced his fıgures accurately. He in fact deploys three different cras (plus occasional refercnccs to others): that of the Crcation, that of Abraham, and the Scleucid era starting from October 31 2 BC (see Witakovvski, Syriac Cbronicle, ıı^ff.). Fortunatcly, hovvevcı^ hc does at the relevant point identify the Nativity as having occurred in year 2015 of Abraham and year 309 'of A l e x a n d e r the Macedonian' (in our terms 4/3 BC). If the chronicler vvas consistent, the first of the entries in the table belovv, given as the year (of Abraham) 1 1 3 0 , should bc the Scleucid year 4 2 4 , or A D I T 2 / 1 1 3 . Ma'nu son of M a ' n u should therefore have reigned, for tvventy-four years, utıtil 136/137, before a tvvo-year rcign of Wa'cl soıı of Sahru, consistently placed by the ehronider in year 2154 (= Seleucid year 448, AD 136/137). Something must have gone vvrong, for vve are told by Cassius Dio that the ruler of Osrhoene during Trajan's Parthian vvar vvas called Abgar (LXVIII, 18, 1; 2 1 , 1). Though ccrtainty is impossible, it is clear from the coins of Wa'el that he vvas a contemporary of Vologacses IV ( 1 4 8 - 1 9 3 ) , and from those of a M a ' n u , or Mannos, that he vvas a contemporary of Marcus Aurelius (scc 12.5 above). T h e simplest hypothesis therefore is that the sequence of kings as given by the chronicler, vvhile rcmarkably accurate in itself, is chronologically displaced: as a sequetıce it is some tvvetıty-six ycars too early. If this hypothesis is applied to the Üst, it becomcs pcrfcctly consistent vvith the contemporary documents. T h e chronology presented belovv, obviously enough, remains hypothetical. T h e 'ycars of Abraham' and their Seleucid cquivalcnts are given on the left side; then the text of cach entry, in Scbastian Brock's translation; then the proposed dates AD; and then key items of contemporary evidence.
Year of
Seleucid
Abraham
Year
2130
424
Chroniclc
T h e year 2 1 3 0 : M a ' n u son of erossed into R o m a n territory
Contcmponry
adding 2 6 years)
Evidcncc
1 3 8/13 9 - 1 6 2 / 1 6 3
Ma'nu
reigned över O r h a i f o r 24 years; and
AD ( c o r r c c t c d b y
hc
(BT
RWMY'). ırs4
448
T h e year 2 1 5 4 : W a ' c l son of Sahru
162/163-164/165
Coins o f W
L
reigned over O r h a i f o r 2 years and after
MLK'
him M a ' n u son of k a t (Ma'nu?) reigned,
VologaesesIV
having returned from R o m a n
vvith
territory,
for 1 2 years.
164/165-176/167
T h e total o f his entire reign w a s
36
Coins of BAZıAEYE
y e a r s , e x c l u d i n g the y e a r s he vvas in
MANNOS
Roman
<X>IAOPSİMA(ıoç)
territory.
vvith M a r c u s Aurelius (161-r8o) 2169
463
Abgar son of M a ' n u reigned over
Orhai
f o r 3 5 y e a r s (strtet a d d i t i o n of 2 6 y e a r s
176/177-211/
(a) C o i n s
2I2(?)
ABrAPOE
ol
here s e e m s t o p r o d u o e o n e year t o o
B A 2 I I A E Y Z vvith
m a n y , s c c belovv).
Commodus (180-192)and Septimius Severus (193-213) ( b ) AE
(»9^4),
n o . 9 1 9 (AD 'regnum
195):
Afcgari';
n o . 9 2 0 (AD 2 0 5 ) : 'fines regni Sept. Ab
Edcss.
1: Seleucid /ear 5 1 3 (AD 2 0 1 / 2 0 2 ) , reign of Scvcrus and
King
A b g a r s a n of Ma'nu 2203
497
. . . And over Orhai A b g a r
Scvcrus
< S W R W S ) r e i g n e d vvith his s o n f o r 1 y e a r and 7
months.
211/212-212/
Coins of
213?
C a r a c a l l a and (Abgar?) lEOTH(poç), BMC p. 9 6
Meso
Year of
Scleucid
Abraham
Year
Chronicle
A n d after h i m M a ' n u his son reigncd f o r
AD ( c o r r c c t c d b y
Contemporary
adding z 6 years)
Evideııcc
212/213-238/239
Syriac Parchment
1 6 years.
A (CRA/ 1991, 144): M a ' n u P S G R Y B ' , son of A b g a r the k i n g
[ N o f u r t h e r entries: r e l a t i n g t o k i n g s )
[ 2 3 9 / 2 4 0 (Sel.
Syriac ?archment
55»)
A : y e a r i of A c l i u s Sepıinıius A b g a r , king)
1 4 0 / 1 4 1 (Sel.
Syriac Parchment
551)
A : year 2 of Aeltus Septimius A b g a r , king, and y e a r ^ of C i o r d i a n III ( 2 5 S - 2 4 4 ) C o i n s of ABrAIÖE B A Z I A H T I and Gordian ııı
Syriac Parchment B shovvs that the Seleucid year 553 (AD 241/242) vvas year 30 of the 'libcration' of the colonia, and P. Dura, no. 28, that Seleucid year 554 (AD 242/243) vvas year 3T. Year T vvas therefore AD 2*2/213, it will have been in this year that a king Abgar vvas deposed by Caracalla, and colonial status given to Edessa/Orhai. Syriac Parchment A shovvs that the king Aelius Septimius Abgar, vvhose first regnal year vvill have been the Seleucid year 5 5 1 , AD 239/240, vvas the son of M a ' n u P S G R Y B ' ('crovvn-prince' or 'heir-apparent'), and that he in turn vvas the son of a king Abgar. T h e tvventy-six years given to M a ' n u by the chronicler therefore fit exactly into 212/213-238/239. His father, ' A b g ı r the king', could have been either the Abgar Severus of 2 1 1 / 2 1 2 - 2 1 2 / 2 1 3 or Abgar 'the Great'. Iulius Africatıus, Kestoi I, 20, 28-65, confirms that a king called A b g a r o s had a son called Mannos, but does not serve to determine vvhich. Since A b g a r 'the Great' began to rule, as it seems, in AD 176/ 1 7 7 , it is perhaps unlikely that a son of his vvas stili 'ruling', as 'crovvnprince', sixty years later. But the question need not be decided.
map s
T h e tvvelve maps which follovv are designed solely to assist comprehension o f the text of the hook. M a p I is a n outline map of the N e a r East, vvith itıdications of the areas covered in the follovving maps. M a p II covcrs most of the Roman Near East, and is intended as a guide to the main sites and most important geographical features, above ali mountain-ranges and rivers. M a p s III—XII cover the various sub-regions of the Roman N e a r East, vvith in some cases smaller or larger degrees of overlap. While every attempt has been made to represent physical features accuratcly, the small scale means that inevitably the maps have something of the character of sketeh-maps. I'hey should give a useful impression of the relationships betvveen individual sites and their geographical coııtexts. But they should not bc used for reading o f f precisc distanccs. Where there are modern place-names vvhich are in general u s e — f o r instance Jerusalem, Tyre or Antioch—these are used. Othervvise ancient names are given in their Latin form and in capitals. N o attempt has been made t o indicate the full complexity of changing official titles, for instance those of places vvhich became Roman coloniae. In some of the many instances vvhere places ehanged their names, both names have been given, vvhere spacc allovvs. Where necessary for elarity, and to make it easier to relate the maps to the text, modern names, in simplified form, have been given in lovver case. It should be cmphasizcd that the maps make no attempt to indicate ali the knovvn ancient sites, stili less to give an impression of overall settlementpatterns, and are designed solely to make it possible to locate, directly or b y reference to other places, ali the sites and regions mentioned in the text.
I
T H K NEAR EAST: AREAS C O V E R E D BY MAPS II-XII
II
T H E R O M A N N E A R EAST: M A I N SITES A N D G E O G R A P H İ C A L FEATURES
III
N O R T H W E y T E R N SYRIA A N D M O U N T A M A N US
IV
T H E P H O E N İ C İ A N C O A S T A N D WESTERN SYRIA P H O E N İ C E
V
T H E C E N T R A L SYRİAN STEPPE, PAI.MYRA A N D T H E EUPHRATES
VI
JUDAEA/SYRİA PALAESTİNA, W E S T E R N ARABİA
VII
S O U T H EASTERN SYRIA P H O E N İ C E , NORTHERN ARABİA
VIII IX
PETRA A N D S O U T H - C E N T R A L ARABİA ARABİA, W I T H S I N A İ , T H E R E D SEA A N D T H E HEDJAZ
X
EASTERN SYRIA, T H E EUPHRATES A N D VVESTERN M E S O P O T A M İ A
XI
C E N T R A L M E S O P O T A M İ A A N D M O N S MASIUS
XII
T H E EASTERN SYRİAN STEPPE A N D T H E M İ D D L E EUPHRATES
THE NEAR
EAST:
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T H E E A S T E R N S Y R İ A N STEPPE A N D THE MİDDLE EUPHRATES
XII
general
A c h i l l c s T a t i u s , Leucippe
and
Ciitophon,
on
s e r i p t i o n f r o m h o n o u r i n g Praefecti
Ptolemais
Adiabene: possibly short-lived Trajanic p r o v incc of 'Assyria', x o i ; kiııgdom, language
orio
Ptaet-
(AD 3 3 6 ) , 2 i o - 2 t x ; m a d e colonia
by
C a r a c a l l a , 1 4 3 , 2 5 8 ; evidence f o r internal funetioning, 2 5 9 - 2 6 0
a n d cultıırc, 4 9 3 - 4 9 4 A c l i a C a p i t o l i n a (Jerusalem): r e f o u n d e d as ( r 3 o s AD), 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 ; C o n s t a n t i n e ' s
colonia
N i g c r , 1 2 0 - 1 2 1 ; m a d e k ö m e in t h e t e r r i t o r y o f L a o d i c e a b y S e v e r u s ( ? ) , 1 2 3 ; in-
Sidon, 2 8 6 A c o . See
ındex
A p a m e a : a t t a c k e d i n C i v i l W a r s ( 4 5 - 4 4 BC), 2 8 ; R o m a n f o r c e s at i n t l ı i r d c e n t u r y , 1 4 6 ,
c h u r c h - b u i l d i n g at, 2 1 5 - 2 1 6 , 3 5 0 ; e x p u l -
1 5 9 ; geographical setting, 2 3 8 ; Semitic lan-
sion of J e w s f r o m territory o f , 3 4 8 - 3 4 9 ;
g u a g e s p o k e n ac ( ? ) , 2 4 J ; v i l l a g e s in t e r r i -
Christian pilgrimagc to, 3 8 5
tory of, 2 5 0 - 2 5 1 ; character o f city, 2 5 6 -
agones,
Greek: prcvalcnce of, 2 3 4 , 2 5 9 ,
523-
2 6 3 ; N u m e n i u s (Nco-Platonist) from, 5 1 8 A p h a c a , destruction by Constantine of cult-
5 2 4 ; i n p r o v i n c c ol A r a b i a , 4 2 5 Agrippa I of Judaea, kingdom of, S9-61,
57-58,
63
centre at, 2 1 5 ' A r a b ' (as ethnic deseription): l e g e n d a r y de-
A g r i p p a II o f J u d a e a : r u l e o v e r C h a l c i s a n d
s c c n t f r o m I s h m a c l a n d H a g a r ; 8, ı x ;
r i g h t t o a p p o i n r H i g h P r i c s t s (AR 5 0 ) , 6 3 ;
P a l m y r e n e s i d e n t i f i e d a s (?), 2 2 1 , 3 3 3 ; N a -
rule o v e r B a t a n a c a a n d n e i g h b o u r i n g d i s -
bataeans charactcriscd as, 4 0 0 ; self-dcscrıp-
t r i c t s (AD 5 3 ) , 6 6 ; o v e r p a r t s o f G a l i l e e a n d
t i o n by m a n f r o m K a n a t h a , 4 1 9 — 4 2 0 ;
P c r a e a (AD 5 4 ) , 66; f o r c e s i n J e w i s h W a r ,
I m r u ' l - q a i s a s ' k i n g o f alt t h e A r a b s ' ( M L K '
7 1 - 7 2 , 75; death, provincialisation o f his
' L ' R B K L H ) (?), 4 3 4 - 4 3 S ! ' A r a b e s ' i n . M e s -
territories ( 9 0 S AD), 9 1 - 9 2
o p o t a m i a , 4 5 6 ; 'rıılcr of A r a b ' , 4 9 5 ; p r o b -
Alcxander, imirarion of by Rmperors,
lems o f ' A r a b ' role in N e a r East,
512-515;
'Arab' anccstors of Palmyrenes, 525 142-143
Allat, temple of at Palmyra, 3 2 6 altars, as eult-objects, 1 2 - 1 3 ,
T
5S~155
A m i d a (Diyarbakır), fortification under C o n stantine, 2 0 9 A m m i a n u s Marccllinus, a c c o u n t o f N e a r Eastern provinces, 2 1 1 - 2 1 2 Antioch: G c r m a n i c u s dies at, 53—54; relations w i t h * n t u s (AD 7 0 ) , 7 9 ; R o m a n c a n a l i z a t i o n a t ( 7 0 S A D ) , 8 6 - 9 0 ; c a r t h q u a k c a t (AIJ 1 1 5 ) , 1 0 4 - 1 0 5 ; as capital o f P e s c c n n i u s
Arabia: formation of province of, 9 2 - 9 7 ;
cen-
sus i n , 9 7 - 9 8 ; f o r t s in i n T e t r a r c h i c p e r i o d , 1 8 4 - 1 8 9 ; s o u t h e r n part transferred to P a laestina, i 9 2 - x 9 3 , 3 8 7 - 4 3 6 ; distinet varie t y o f C h r i s t i a n b c l i c f in ( ? ) , 5 1 9 Arabic language, 4; inseription f r o m O b o d a vvith t w o l i n e s i n , 4 0 2 - 4 0 3 ; i n s e r i p t i o n o f AD 3 2 8 i n f r o m e ı ı - N c m a r a , 4 3 4 - 4 3 5 , 5 X 4 ' A r a b i c u s ' : as victory-ritlc o f S c v c r u s a n d C a r acalla, 1 4 1 ; of Vaballathus, 1 7 1 , 2 2 1 , 333
Aradus, 269-272; Phocnician-Grcck
inserip-
Babylonia: Trajan's invasion of, 1 0 1 ; larabli c h u s , Raltyloniaca,
tion from, 2 7 1 A r a m a i c l a n g u a g e , 5, ı o - ı ı ; used iıı c h u r c h at Scyıhopolis, 1 9 8 - 1 9 9 ; use o f in N e a r Kast, 2 3 2 - 2 3 4 ; transliterated w o r d s fronı f o u n d in N o r t h S y r i a , 2 5 5 ; J e v v i s h A r a m a i c , 3 3 9 - 3 4 0 , 3 5 2 , 3 6 2 ; Jevvish A r a m a i c d o c u m e n t (AD 5 5 / 5 6 ) , 3 6 4 ; H e b r c w a n d A r amaic documents from Masada, 367; Aram a i c in B a b a t h a a r c h i v e , 3 7 t , 4 1 6 - 4 1 7 ; A r a m a i c d o c u m e n t s o f B a r K o c h b a "War, 3 7 3 — 3 7 4 , 5 4 5 - 5 5 2 ; G r c c k / A r a m a i c inseription f r o m Z i p h , 376; A r a m a i c inseription f r o m Beth S h e ' a r i m , 380--381; inseriptions f r o m Palestiniaıı synagogues, 3 8 1 - 3 8 2 , 3 8 4 ; inseriptions from northern H a u r a n and Batanaea, 394-397; Nabataean as b r a n c h o f , 4 0 1 — 4 0 2 ; at D u r a - E u r o p o s , 4 6 8 ; s y n a g o g u e i n s e r i p t i o n s in at
Dura,
4 7 0 - 4 7 1 ; Aramaic/Greek inseription from
on, 489-492; langııagt
a n d c u l t u r e in I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , 4 9 5 - 5 0 3 ; c o n t i n u e d use o f A k k a d i a n in, 4 9 7 - 4 9 8 ; Aramaic of, 498-500 Bactocaccc, temple at o n Jebel Ansnriych, 271-273 Balaneae (Claudia Leucas), public officcs, 260 Balıklı river (tributary o f E u p h r a t e s ) , i m p o r tancc as r o u t e , 440 B a l m a r c o d , cult of at Der cl-Kala near Berytus, 2 8 1 B a m b y c c . See
Hierapolis
B a r d e s a n e s , Bouk
of the Uıu>s of
contemporary Edessa, 4 7 4 - 4 7 6 ; o n 'the books of the Babylonian
Chaldaeans',
495-496 B a r K o c h b a ( B e n K o s i b a ) , İ c a d c r o f J e v v i s h re-
Tigris, 4 9 5 ; use of in Babylonia, 4 9 8 - 5 0 3 ;
v o l t (AD 1 3 2 - 1 3 5 ) , 1 0 6 - 1 0 8 ,
p r e s u m e d l a n g u a g c o f M a n i , 5 0 1 ; distribıı-
545-551
tion of, 5 0 3 - 5 0 4 ; callcd ' l a n g u a g c o f the Suroi'
Countries-.
c v i d c o c e o n spread of Christianity, 4 6 3 ; o a
37İ-J74,
B e l , c u l t o f A p a m e a a n d P a l m y r a , 2 6 3 ; a r Palmyra and Dura, 321; temple of at Palmyra,
in G r c c k , 507
A r c h e l a u s , e t h n a r c h o f j u d a e a (4 B C - A O 6 ) ,
323-324,
517
B e r y t u s : colonia
43"44 A r m e n i a : p o p u l a t i o n o f , IOJ s h o r t - l i v c d p r o v ince o f u n d e r T r a j a n ( a »
115-117),
f o u n d e d ( 1 5 BC), 3 6 , 2 7 9 -
281; Latin culture o f , 5 2 7 - 5 2 8 Beth P h o u r a i a , village near Euphrates: peti-
1 0 0 - 1 0 1 ; R o m a n p r c s c n c c ( ı 6 o s Al» on-
t i o n o f v i l l a g e r s f r o m (AIJ 2 4 5 ) ,
wards), 1 1 3 , 490
c o n n e c t i o n s vvith citics o f
Arsamaia on the Nymphaios, Commagene,
155-156;
Mesopotamia,
4 7 8 - 4 8 1 ; Syriac subscriptions o n G r c c k documents from, 481
foundation of, 441 asccticism, Christian, origins of in N e a r East, 520-521 ' A s s y r i a ' , s o m e t i m e s i d e n t i f i e d vvith A d i a b e n e , p r o b a b l y n o t s h o r t - l i v e d p r o v i n c e und e r T r a j a n (AD 1 1 5 - 1 1 7 ) ,
100-101
' A s s y r i o s A ı s ' : a s s e l f - d e s c r i p t i o n by T a t i a n , 227; 'Assyrius scrıno' (Aramaic?),
B e t h S h e ' a r i m , Jevvish n e c r o p o l i s o f , 3 8 0 - 3 8 1 bctyls (baitulia), 1 3 - 1 5 , 2 5 4 ; represented
on
relicf-carvings and city-coins from province of Arabia, 424 B y b l o s , 2 7 4 - 2 7 8 ; L u c i a n a n d Oration
of
Meli-
ton 011 c u l t o f A d o n i s a t , 2 7 6 - 2 7 7 ; P h i l o of B y b l o s , Pboeııicica,
277-278
1 9 3 - 2 9 4 ; self-description b y I.ucian, 245-246,454-456
C a e s a r e a : m a d e colonia
A t 3 r g a t i s . See ' S y r i a n G o d d e s s ' A u r a n i t i s . See
Hauran
A v i d i u s C a s s i u s , legatus
2 0 i ; scenc o f Jevvish-pagan conflicts, o f Syria, a n d Impe-
3 5 6 - 3 5 7 ; as prcdominantly Grcck city, 377-378
rial p r e t e n d e r (An t 7 5 ) , t 1 5 - 1 1 8
C a n a t h a . See B a a l b e k . See
Baalshamin, temple of at Palmyra,
Kanatha
C a r m e l , M t . , cult o n , 2 6 9 - 2 7 0
Heliopolis 325-326
Babatha: archive of, 19-20, 9 5 - 9 8 ; d o c u mcnts f r o m arehive relating to J u d a e a , 3 7 1 ; Nabataean documents from, 4 0 4 - 4 0 5 ; documcnts from early years of p r o v i n c e of Arabia, 4 ' 5 - 4 ' 7
by Vespasian, 7 3 ;
shovvs g i v e n b e f o r e M a x i m i n u s at, 2 0 0 -
C a r r h a c (Harran): as G r c c k city in P a r t h i a n e m p i r e , 4 4 3 ; e v i d e n e e f o r in t h i r d c e n t u r y , 4 8 0 ; colonia, censitores
480
a t vvork u n d e r Tetrarehy,
195-196,
535-544 census:
i n J u d a e a (AD 6 ) , 4 6 - 4 8 ; i n A r a b i a
(AH 1 0 6 - 1 2 7 ) , der Tctrarchy,
rccalculation o f un-
Chalcis (Qinncsrin),
t a x a t i o n a n d c e n s u s (AI> 2 9 7 ) ,
193-198,
53 5—544; persecution of Christians,
193—198
198-200
238
churchcs: built under C o n s t a n t i n e ,
212—213,
D m c ı r . See
Dumayr 248-249
2 1 5 - 2 1 6 ; c h u r c h h o u s e a t E d e s s a in r e i g n
Doliche (Dülük),
o f A b g a r ( ? ) , 4 7 4 ; c h u r c h b u i l t t h e r e CAD
D o m i t i u s U l p i a n u s . See
312/313), 4 6 5 ; chıırch-housc at D u r a , 4 7 1 ;
Dora (Dor), 267
fourth-century baptistery at Nisibis, 4 8 2
D u n ı a t h a (Javvf): h u m a n sacrificc a n d vvor-
180
Circesium, fortilied by Diocletian, circumcision,
ship o f altar, 1 2 — 1 3 ; R o m a n m i i i t a r y pres-
11-12
ence, 1 3 8 ; earlier N a b a t a e a n presence, 3 9 2
c o i n s , of cities, 2 5 7 colonia
D u m a y r (Dmeir, Thelsea): R o m a n garrison
(foundation of, or granıs of status):
at Berytus by A u g u s t u s , 3 6 , 2 7 9 ; at Ptolem a i s b y C l a u d i u s , 6 5 ; at J e r u s a l e m b y H a drian, 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 , 3 4 8 - 3 4 9 ; by Severus and Caracalla, 1 4 3 - 1 4 4 ; by'Eiagabal', 1 4 7 ; by Scvcrus Alcxandcr, 150; by Philip, 1 5 5 ; to Antioch and Laodicca,
Ulpian
at, 1 3 5 - 1 3 6 ; hcaring about temple of Z e u s before Caracalla, 143, 317—319; Nabataean inseription f r o m , 298—299 Dura-Europos: occupied by Roman
forces
( A D 1 1 6 ) , 1 0 2 ; R o m a n p r e s e n c e ( ı 6 o s AD onvvards), 1 1 4 - 1 1 5 ; R o m a n
forces
< 1 9 0 5 - 2 5 0 5 A » ) , 1 3 1 - 1 3 3 ; in R o m a n
257-258
C o m m a g e n e , k i n g d o m of: made part of provi n c e o f S y r i a (AD 1 7 ) , 5 1 - 5 3 ; A n t i o c h u s I V restored a s k i n g (AD 3 8 ) , 5 3 , 5 9 ; d e p o s e d again by G a i u s , and resrored by C l a u d i u s , 59; C o m m a g e n e conqucrcd by R o m a n forces and m a d e part of province of Syria
pos-
s e s s i o n ( e a r l y 2 5 0 S At»), 1 6 2 ; c a p t u r e b y P e r s i a n s ( 2 5 6 / 2 5 7 AD), 1 6 2 ; P a l m y r e n c ins e r i p t i o n s f r o m , 2 9 8 , 4 5 1 ; in P a r t h i a n p e riod,
4 4 5 - 4 5 2 ; in R o m a n period, 4 6 7 - 4 7 1 ;
Jevvish c o m m u n i t y a t , 4 7 0 ; C h r i s t i a n c o m munity, 4 7 1
(AD 7 2 o r 7 3 ) , 8 1 - 8 2 ; g a r r i s o n a n d r o a d system, 8 2 - 8 3 ; pıocess of provincialisaE d e s s a ( O s r h o c n c ) : k i n g s o f (AD 4 9 ) , 6 6 ;
rion,4Ş1-454 C o n s t a n t i n e (Imp. C a e s a r Flavius Valerius
( 1 1 3 / 1 X 4 - 1 1 6 AD), 1 0 2 ; ( ı 6 o s AD), 1 1 2 -
C o n s t a n t i n u s ) , E m p e r o r , r o l e in r e l a r i o n t o
1 1 3 ; regnum
N e a r East, 2 0 7 - 2 2 2
1 2 5 ; d y n a s t y ( t o AIJ 2 1 2 / 2 1 3 ) , 4 7 3 - 4 7 4 ;
o f A b g a r retained ( 1 9 0 S AD),
position of king and grant of status of
C y r r h u s , remains and history of, 2 2 9
lonia
(AD 2 1 2 / 2 1 3 ) , ' 4 4 ! colonia
dc-
co-
(AD 2 1 2 /
2 1 3 - 2 3 8 / 2 3 9 ) , 1 5 1 ; restoration of dynasty (AD 2 3 9 / 2 4 0 - 7 2 4 1 / 2 4 2 ) ,
Dabbura, Golan, Bct-Midrash at, 3 8 2 Damascus: cxposed to robbers under A u gustus, 3 6 - 3 7 ; under Nabataean control ( l a t e 3 0 S AD) ( ? ) , 5 6 - 5 7 ; R o m a n m i l i r a r y p r e s e n c e in t h i r d c e n t u r y (?),
136-137;
character o f city, 3 r o - 3 1 9 Decapolis: as enelave of provincial territory in e a r l y E m p i r e , 3 8 - 3 9 ; N a b a t a e a n i n f l u e n e e i n ( b e f o r e AD 1 0 6 ) , 3 9 7 - 3 9 8 ; c i t i e s o f i n t h e first c e n t u r y A D , 4 0 8 - 4 1 4 ; c i t i e s o f identifying themselves as belonging t o ' K o i l c - S y r i a ' , 4 2 3 - 4 2 4 ; agönes
in, 4 2 5
Decius (Imp. Caesar C . Mcssius Q u i n t u s Traianus Decius), Emperor, effects of pcrsecution in N e a r East, 1 5 8 D c x a n d r o s , later h o n o u r e d at A p a m e a ,
261
Dido, legend of, 2 6 5 ; at Tyre, 2 9 2 Diocletian (Imp. Caesar C . Aurelius Valerius Diocletiauus), Emperor: accession a n d role in N e a r East, 1 7 6 - 1 7 9 ; fortification o f N e a r Eastern frontier, 1 8 0 - 1 8 9 ; r e f o r m o f
151-152;
colonia
(AI> 2 4 2 a n d 2 4 3 ) , 1 5 2 ; d y n a s t y a n d lonia,
co-
4 7 6 - 4 8 1 ; evidence for before mid-
s c c o n d c e n t u r y , 4 5 6 - 4 6 7 ; in R o m a n p e riod,
4 7 2 - 4 8 8 ; S y r i a c açta
of martyrdoms
at, 4 8 6 - 4 8 8 ; rnaterials f o r history of, 553-562
Eiagabal, deity vvorshipped at Emesa, 1 5 ; orig i n r c f l c c t c d in c u l t o f ' I . H G B I . a t N a z a l a , 3 0 0 - 3 0 1 ; reinterpreted as the S u n ,
303—
3 0 6 , 3 0 8 - 3 0 9 ; v v o r s h i p d i s p l a y e d in R o m e , 3 0 6 - 3 0 8 ; f o r m ' H e l i o g a b a l o s / u s ' not attested before the fourth century, 3 0 4 'Eiagabal', nickname of Emperor, M . Aurelius A n t o n i n u s (Varius A v ı t u s Rassianus), 120,
145-147,303-308
Elchasaitcs, sub-Christian scct, 5 0 0 - 5 0 1 E m e s a : dynasty o f , 3 4 , 3 0 2 - 3 0 3 ; forces of, 7 1 - 7 2 , 7 5 , S 2 ; end of d y n a s t y ( 7 0 S An), 8 4 ; f a m i l y o f Iulia D o m n a f r o m , 1 1 9 — 1 2 0 , 3 0 3 - 3 0 4 ; c o n t c x t o f p r o c l a m a t i o n o f pre-
Emesa (continued)
H a d r i a n (P. A e l i u s H a d r i a n u s , I m p . C a c s a r
tender 'Elagabal', 1 4 5 ; rcsistancc t o Persian
T r a i a n u s H a d r i a n u s ) , E m p e r o r : legatus
f o r c e s (AD 2 5 3 ) , a n d s u p p o r t o f p r e t e n d e r
Syria a n d p r o c l a m a t i o n (AD I 1 7 ) , 1 0 5 ; pres-
'Uranius Antoninus', 1 6 0 - 1 6 1 ,
308-309;
e n c e a n d a c t i v i t y in N e a r E a s t , T 0 5 - 1 0 8
society a n d culture of, 3 0 0 - 3 0 9 ; c u l t o f Elagabal ('LHGBL), 304-308 Roman
control of middle Euphrates under Vespasian, 8 3 - 8 4 ; extension of c o n t r o l ( ı 6 o s AD), 1 1 3 - 1 1 4 ; t h i r d - c e n t u r y p a p y r i f r o m , 1 2 9 - 1 3 1 ; R o m a n forces on,
H a r r a n . See
Carrhac
H a t r a : a t t a c k e d b y T r a j a n (AD 1 1 6 ) , 1 0 2 ; R o -
Euphrates: as b o u n d a r y o f R o m a n a n d Parthian empires, 28, 33, 58; e x t c n t o f
m a n g a r r i s o n a t ( 2 3 0 S A D ) , 1 2 9 ; c a p t u r e Ly S a s a n i d s ( c . AD 2 4 0 ) , 1 5 0 - 1 5 1 ; l a n g u a g e a n d culturc, 4 9 4 - 4 9 5 H a u r a n (Auranitis): divided b c t w c c n H e r o d i a n a n d N a b a t a e a n t e r r i t o r y (23 BC o n -
129-135;
m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s R o m a n ( 2 5 0 S AD), 1 6 3 ; culturc and society of, 4 3 7 - 4 8 8 ; rıamcd
wards), 38, 52, 62, 393; northern part a d d e d t o p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a (AD 3 3 / 3 4 ) , 5 2 ; u n d e r A g r i p p a ı (AD 3 7 - 4 4 ) , 5 2 , 5 7 ; p r o v i n -
in Greek-Syriac mosaic invcripüon, 4 7 2
cial t e r r i t o r y (AD 4 4 - 5 2 ) , 6 2 ; u n d e r
Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea: as source for
A g r i p p a II (AD 5 3 o n v v a r d s ) , 6 3 ; m a d e
history o f N e a r E a s t , 1 7 5 - 1 7 6 ; o n tradi-
p r o v i n c e ( 9 0 S AD), 9 1 - 9 2 ; l i f e o f v i l l a g e s o f
tions a b o u t early Syriac Christianity, 463
in provincial period, 4 2 6 - 4 2 7 H e b r e v v l a n g u a g c : Wisdom siasticus)
G a d a r a : a t t a c h e d t o S y r i a (4 B C ) , 4 3 - 4 4 ; listed a s b e l o n g i n g t o ' D e c a p o l i s ' ,
of Ben
Sira
(Eccle-
vvritten i n (c. 2 0 0 BC), 3 3 9 ; p a r -
t i a l t e x t f o u n d a t M a s a d a , 3 3 9 ; D a n i e l vvr.t-
410
t e n in H e b r e w a n d A r a m a i c , s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC, 3 4 0 ; u s e d a l o ı ı g s i d e A r a m a i c
Gadimathos, king of T h a u o ü e n o i n ' N W H
a n d G r c c k in J e r u s a l e m ( b e f o r e A D 7 0 ) ,
(Tanukh), inseription of at U m m ct-Jimal,
3 5 2 ; H e b r e v v inseription o f H i g h PricsC, 55,
431-43*
3 6 1 - 3 6 2 ; 'Hebrevv dialcct' used by Paul,
Galilee: importance of as reccntly Judaiscd
3 6 4 - 3 6 5 ; Hebrevv and Aramaic
area, 3 4 6 - 3 4 7 ; eradle of ' r a b b i n i c ' Juda-
c o i n s o f first r e v o l t , 3 6 7 ; o f B a r K o c h b a
o f Tyre, 2 9 2 - 2 9 3
W a r , 3 7 2 ; Hebrevv, A r a m a i c a n d G r e e k doc-
G a z a : a t t a c h e d t o S y r i a ( 4 HC), 4 3 - 4 4 :
u m c n t s o f B a r K o c h b a vvar, 3 7 3 - 3 7 4 » 5 4 5 ~
attached t o J u d a e a (probably f r o m 70S A D ) , 9 0 - 9 1 ; a s p o r t r a y e d in J c r o m c , Life
documcnts
f r o m M a s a d a , 3 6 7 ; H e b r e w l e g e n d s 01»
ism. 3 7 7 - 3 8 2 ; border zone with territory
Hilarion,
of
of
385-386
552;
Misbnab
a n d Tosefta
v v r i t t e n in H e -
brevv, 3 7 3 ; H e b r e v v , A r a m a i c a n d G r e e k
G e b e l . Sec Jebel G e r a s a : i n s e r i p t i o n o f R o m a n legatus
at ( A D
inseriptions from Beth She'arim, 3 8 0 - 5 8 1 ;
9 0 / 9 1 ) , 9 2 ; visited by H a d r i a n (AIÎ 1 3 0 ) ,
Hebrevv inseription o f Bet-Midrash f r o m
106; Semitic name of ( G R S W ) , 3 9 8 ;
D a b b u r a , 382; Hebrevv, A r a m a i c a n d
N a b a t a e a n - G r c c k inseription f r o m , 398; de-
G r c c k m o s a i c inseriptions f r o m I l a m m a t h
v e l o p m e n t i n first c e n t u r y AD, 4 1 1 - 4 1 2 ;
Tiberias, 384-385; Hebrevv parchment
agön
from near synagogue o f Dura-Europos,
established there under T r a j a n , 4 2 5
G c r m a n i c i a , w este m C o m m a g e n e ,
228-229
G c r m a n i c u s : i n N e a r E a s t (AD 1 7 — 1 9 ) , 5 3 - 5 4 ; dics in A n t i o c h , 54
4 7 '
Heliopolis (Baalbek): part o f c o l o n i a l territory of Berytus, 36; m a d e separate
colonid
Gindarus (Gendcresse), 231
by Severus, 124; Constantine's measures
G o r d i a n III ( I m p . C a c s a r M . A n t o n i u s G o r d i -
a g a i n s t p a g a n i s m a t , 2 1 7 - 2 1 8 ; c u l t s o f in
a n u s ) , E m p e r o r , c a m p a i g n i n N e a r E a s t (AD 142-244),
153-154
G o s p e l s , a s e v i d e n e e lor first c e n t u r y J u d a e a , 341-343
R o m a n period, 2 8 1 - 2 8 5 Hcrakles, cult of at Tyre, 2 6 4 - 2 6 5 H e r o d the G r e a t : c o n f i r m c d as k i n g of J u d a e a by O c t a v i a n , 3 0 - 3 1 ; given territory in H a u r a n (23 BC), 3 8 ; c o n f l i c t vvith N a b a -
H a d a d (Hadaran): cult of at Hierapolis, 2 4 4 - 2 4 7 ; a t N i h a , 2 8 2 ; a t D a m a s c u s (?}, 313-3x6
t a e a (9 BC), 3 9 - 4 0 ; d e a t h , a n d d i v i s i o n o f k i n g d o m b y A u g u s t u s (4 B C ) , 4 1 - 4 3 ; a n d G r c c k citics, 3 5 3 - 3 5 6
Hierapolis (Bambyce, M a b o g , M a m b o g , M a n H i g h Pricsts, J e w i s h : a p p o i n t e d a n d d i s m i s s e d 45; robes kept by
by praefecti,
praefecti,
45—46; robes rcstored t o J c w i s h c u s t o d y (AD 3 6 ) , 5 5 ; c o n f i r m e d (AD 4 4 ) , 6 2 ; H i g h Priest T h e o p h i l o s , 5 6 ; H i g h Pricsts a p p o i n t e d b y H e r o d o f C h a l c i s (AD 4 4 - 5 0 ) , 6 3 ; b y A g r i p p a 11 (AD 5 0 o n v v a r d s ) , 6 3 ; identity of,
6 ) a n d s u b j e c t c d t o census,
4 4 - 4 8 ; ruled b y
A g r i p p a I (AD 4 1 - 4 4 ) , 5 9 - 6 1 ; m a d e p r o v -
b o g ) , culture and c u h s o f , 1 4 2 - 1 4 7
3 6 1 - 3 6 2
i n c c u n d e r procurator,
6 1 ; history under
(AD 4 4 - 6 6 ) , 6 4 - 6 5 ,
procuratores
6 8 - 6 9 ;
J c w i s h r e v o l t (AD 6 6 ) , 7 0 - 7 9 ; g a r r i s o n e d 76;
by l e g i o n a n d p l a c c d u n d e r legatus,
transformed into 'Syria Palaestine' (i30S AD), 1 0 7 - 1 0 8 ; s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y of,
3 3 7 - 3 7 4
J u l i u s C a e s a r , in S y r i a ( 4 7 BC), 2 7 - 2 8 Justin M a r t y r (Flavius Iustiııus), origin,
H i p p o s : a t r a c h c d t o S y r i a (4 B C ) , 4 3 - 4 4 ; c u l t
2 2 7 - 2 2 8
of D u s a r e s a t , 3 9 7
I a m b l i c h u s , Babyloniaca,
Kadasa/Kydasa (Kadcsh), 2 9 2 - 2 9 3
489-491
I d u m a e a : s i g n i f i c a n c e o f as r c c c n t l y - J u d a i s c d area, 3 4 5 - 3 4 6 ; Jewish communities there in s e c o n d - f o u r t h ccntury, 3 7 6 - 3 7 7 ; G r e e k - A r a m a i c inseription from Z i p h , 3 7 6
K a d m o s , legend o f , 2 6 4 - 2 6 5 ; at Sidon, 2 8 6 ; at Tyre, 2 9 2 Kanatha (Kanotha): A r a m a i c inseriptions f r o m , 3 9 6 ; c o i n s a n d i n s e r i p t i o n s o f a s polis i n s e c o n d c e n t u r y , 4 1 8 ; i n h a b i t a n t o f
I m r u ' l - q a i s , ' K i n g o f all(?) t h e A r a b s ' , i n s e r i p -
S i a ' in t e r r i t o r y o f d e s c r i b c d as ' S c n o s K a -
t i o n o f At» 3 2 8 f r o m c n - N c m a r a , 4 3 4 — 4 3 5
nöthenos', 4 1 9 ; 'dccurio Septimiano(rum)
Ituraca, Ituraeans, and R o m a n provincc, 3S-3
6
>
7 3 "
2
2
7 4 , 3 1 0 - 3 1 1 ,
C a n o t h a ( n o r u m ) ' f r o m village A t h e i l a , 4 1 9 ; 'Arab' from, 4 1 9 - 4 2 0
506
Iulia D o r a n a , o r i g i n s in E m e s a , a n d f a m i l y , 1 1 9 - 1 2 0
Iulius A f r i c a n u s , clıronographer, 3 7 5 ; c v i -
' K o i l e S y r i a ' , as s e l f - i d e n t ı f i c a t i o n f o r c i t i e s o f Decapolis region, 6, 4 2 3 - 4 2 4 K y d a s a . See
Kadasa
dcncc on k i n g d o m of Abgar, Edessa, 4 7 4 - 4 7 5
L a o d i c e a : m a d e metropolis
L . Iulius A g r i p p a , b c n e f a c t o r at A p a m e a , 2 6 1 - 2 6 2
I u l i u s P r i s c u s , praefectus
g a m e s at,
of Mesopotamia,
g e n e r a l c o m m a n d in K a s t , 1 5 5 - 1 5 6
a n d colonia
by
Severus, 1 1 3 , 2 5 8 ; situation o f , 2 3 9 - 2 4 0 ; 2 5 8 - 2 5 9
Latin, currcncy of in N e a r East, 5 2 7 - 5 2 8 I e j a . See T r a c h o n i t i s limestone massif (northern Syria), 251—256
Javvf. See
Dumatha
L u c i a n : o n a c c o u n t s ol V e r u s ' P a r t h i a n W a r ,
Jebel A n s a r i y e h , i m p o r t a n c e o f m o u n t a i n c h a i n , a n d Iimited k n o v v l e d g e o f , 2 3 9 - 2 4 1 Jebel S h e i k h B a r a k a t , t e m p l e o n s u m m i t o f , 2 5 4 - 2 5 6
J e r u s a l e m : u n d e r praefecti,
1 1 2 - 1 1 4 ; On the Syrian Goddess,
o n cults
o f H i e r a p o l i s , 2 4 5 - 2 4 7 ; origins a n d culture, 4 5 4 - 4 5 6 ; o n cult o f A d o n i s at B y b l o s , 2 7 6
4 4 - 4 6 ; Vitcllius*
interventions (AD 3 6 - 3 7 ) , 5 5 - 5 6 ;
confiicts
(AD 5 0 S a n d 6 o s ) , 6 8 - 6 9 ; > n Jevvish R e v o l t , 7 1 - 7 6 ; transformed into 'Colonia Aelia C a p i t o l i n a ' ( 1 3 0 5 AH), 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 ; e x p u l s i o n o f Jevvs f r o m t e r r i t o r y o f , 3 4 8 — 3 4 9 .
See
alsa A e l i a C a p i t o l i n a
Macrinus (Imp. Caesar M . Opellius Macrinus), E m p e r o r , r u l e in N e a r E a s t (AD 2 1 7 / 218),
1 4 4 - 1 4 6
Mani, Manichecs, 5 0 1 - 5 0 3 M a r a b a r S e r a p i o n , Letter
J e w s : a t D u r a - E u r o p o s , 4 7 0 ; in B a b y l o n i a , 4 9 8 - 4 9 9 . See also J u d a e a ; S y r i a - P a l a e s t i n a Josephus: o n origins of ethnic g r o u p s i n Near East, 7 ; o n origins of Arabs, 8; o n Hellenisation o f n o m e n c l a t u t e , 9 ; h i s vvriting o f Jevvish h i s t o r y , 3 3 9 - 3 4 0 J u d a e a : m a d e p r o v i n c e u n d e r praefectus
M a b o g ( M a m b o g , M a n b o g ) . See H i e r a p o l i s
(AD
M a s a d a : o c c u p i e d by sicarii
of, 4 6 0 - 4 6 2 in Jevvish r e v o l t ,
4 7 ; siege a n d R o m a n g a r r i s o n , 7 7 ; Jevvish Aramaic documcnt from, 367 M a x i m i n u s (C. Valerius Galerius M a x i m i n u s ) , E m p e r o r : role in N e a r E a s t , 1 7 9 1 8 0 ; pcrsccution of Christians, 2 0 0 - 2 0 4 ; d e a t h (AD 3 1 3 ) , 2 0 4
Mcdain Salch (Hedjaz), R o m a n military prcscncc,
m y r a , s t a t u s (AD 2 5 0 S ) , 1 5 7 - 1 5 8 ; s t a t u s a n d r o l e (AD 2 5 O S - 2 6 O S ) ,
139
M e l i t o n , S y r i a c Oration
o f : o n c u l t s of H i e r a -
polis, 1 4 3 , M 7; o» cu't of A d o n i s at By-
O r e s a ( T a y i b e h ) : p o s s i b l y l e g i o n a r y p o s t in Tetrarchic period, 1 8 1 - 1 8 2 ;
b l o s , 1 7 6 - 2 7 7 ; vvritten i n E d e s s a ( ? ) ,
Greek-Palmyrene inseription from,
477-478 M e r c u r i u s ( D o m i n u s ) , culc o f : at H e l i o p o l i s , 281; at C h a m ö n (Nebi H a m ) , 2 8 3
297-298 125.
Osrhocnc(a), made province by Severus,
M e s o p o t a m i a : short-lived province o f under T r a j a n (AD 1 1 3 - 1 1 7 ) , 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 ;
161-162,165,
1 6 7 - 1 7 0 ; d e a t h (AD 2 6 7 / 2 6 8 ) , 1 6 9
See also
Edessa
Roman
prcsence ( ı 6 o s A n onvvards), 1 1 3 ; m a d e
P a l e s t i n e . See S y r i a P a l a e s t i n a
province by Severus, 12J—116; garrison of,
Palmyra: part of provincc o f Syria under T ı b e -
128—r 3 0 ; culture a n d s o c i e t y of i n t h i r d
r i u s , 3 4 - 3 5 ; v v i t h i n R o m a n r o a d - s y s r c m un-
and fourth centuries, 4 7 8 - 4 8 8
der Vespasian, 8 3 - 8 4 ; visited by H a d r i a n ,
170, 308, 421
mitrokolöneia,
1 0 6 ; R o m a n forces at, 1 0 8 ,
of the Phaenfsioi, 1 0 9 , 4 2 6
metrokömia,
mountainoııs regions, importancc o t in N e a r East, 1 7 - 1 8 ,
506-507
135;
Palmyrene forces on Euphrates, 1 3 3 - 1 3 5 ; m a d e colonia
by Severus or Caracalla,
1 4 3 - 1 4 4 ; i n t e g r a t e d in F . m p i r c ( 2 5 0 $ A D ) , r 6 4 ~ r 6 5 ; caravan-tradc in mid-third cen-
N a b a t a c a , k i n g d o m of: conflict vvith H e r o d ( 9 B C ) , 3 9 - 4 0 ; in c o n t r o ! o f D a m a s c u s ( l a t e
tury, 1 6 8 ; rise to independent ' e m p i r e ' a n d r e c o n q u c s t (AD 2 6 0 S - 2 7 2 ) , 1 7 1 - 1 7 3 ; m i l i tary o c c u p a t i o n o f under Tetrarehy,
3 0 S AD) (?), 5 6 - 5 7 ; R o m a n c o n q u e s t o f
1 8 1 - 1 8 3 ; villages in territory o f , 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 ;
and crcarion of province of A r a b i a , 9 2 - 9 7 ;
culturc and society, 3 1 9 - 3 3 5 ; P a l m y r e n e
Nabataean region, 3 8 7 - 4 0 0 ;
languagc used by soldiers abroad, 3 2 8 ;
kingdom,
400-408
forces, 3 3 3 - 3 3 4 ; Palmyrene inseriptions
N a b a t a e a n l a n g u a g e ( b r a n c h o f A r a m a i c ) : ins e r i p t i o n in f r o m R u v v w a f a , 1 4 0 ; i n s e r i p tion in f r o m D u m a y r , 2 9 8 - 2 9 9 ,
401-402;
not mcrcly official language, 4 0 2 ;
inseribed
a n d p e r i s h a b l e d o c u m c n t s i n , 4 0 2 - 4 0 5 ; evid e n e e f o r s u r v i v a l o f in p r o v i n c i a [ p e r i o d , 417-431 N a z a l a ( Q a r y a t a y n ) : P a l m y r e n e a n d G r e e k inseriptions f t o m , 2 9 9 ; rclicf r c p r e s e n ı i n g E l a gabal (probably) from, 3 0 0 - 3 0 1 e n - N e m a r a ( N a m a r a ) : R o m a n m i l i t a r y inseriptions at, 1 3 7 ; Arabic inseription of M R ' L Q Y S f r o m (AD 3 2 8 ) ,
434-43S
N e a r E a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s at,
213-215
by Severus, 1 2 6 ;
tioned
(190S
AD), 1 2 4 ; o v e r t h r o v v o f d y n a s t y b y S a s a n ids, 1 4 7 ; P a l m y r e n e r o l e vvithin P a r t h i a n empire, 332 Patriach, Jevvish, 3 8 3 - 3 8 3 Pcrsia: rise o f S a s a n i d d y n a s t y ( 2 2 0 S A D ) , 1 4 7 ; nature of Sasanid challengc to R o m e , 1 4 8 ; c o n f l i c t s w i t h R o m e a n d i n v a s i o n s of e a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s (AD 2 2 0 S - 2 6 0 ) ,
149-173;
(AD 2 8 3 - 2 9 8 ) , 1 7 6 - 1 7 8 ; t r e a t y v v i t h R o m e o v e r (AD 3 X 0 ) , 1 7 9 ; C o n s t a n t i n e ' s r c l a c i o n s 435
colonia, evidenee
f o r c o n t a c t s a t , 4 8 1 ; in f o u r t h c e n t u r y , 4 8 2 nomades:
9 9 - 1 0 5 ; (AD 1 6 1 - 1 6 6 ) , 1 1 1 - 1 1 1 ;
ıox;
4 8 1 ; i m p o r t a n c c a s R o m a n centre in treaty (AD 2 9 8 / 2 9 9 ) , 1 7 9 ; d o c u m e n t a r y
6 6 - 6 8 ; u n d e r T r a j a n (AD 1 1 3 - 1 1 7 ) ,
vvith, 2 0 7 - 2 0 8 ; A p h r a h a t vvriting u n d e r ,
314-315
N i s i b i s : in T r a j a n ' s c a m p a i g n (AD 1 X 6 ) , m a d e colonia
467-468
(AD 2 9 8 / 2 9 9 ) , 1 7 8 - 1 7 9 ; R o m a n v i c t o r y
N i c a c a , C o u n c i l o f (AD 3 2 5 ) , b i s h o p s f r o m Nicotaus of Damascus,
from Dura, 1 1 4 - 1 1 5 , 4 5 1 ,
P a r t h i a : R o m a n c o n f l i c t s vvith (AD 5 4 - 6 3 ) ,
P a l m y r e n e c o n f l i c t s vvith, 3 3 2 ; m e n in i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m H a u r a n ,
430
Numenius, Neo-Platonist from A p a m e a , 5X8
P e s c e n n i u s N i g e r ^ legatus tender, 1 1 8 ,
Petra: u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t of, 4 0 6 - 4 0 7 ; a s G r e e k c i t y in s e c o n d c c n t u r y , 4 X 7 ; l i t t l e
a n d mitrokolönia,
P h a i n ö , I m p e r i a l metalla O b a i s h a t , tribe in H a u r a n region, 3 9 5 , 428-429 O d e n a t h u s (Septimius O d e n a t h u s ) , f r o m Pal-
of Syria, a n d pre-
120-121
me-
421 at, 2 0 1 — 2 0 2
Philip (Imp. C a e s a r M . Iulius Philippus), Emp e r o r : e a m p a i g n s in N e a r E a s t (AD 2 4 4 ) , 1 5 4 ; f o u n d a t i o n of h o m c v i l l a g e a s P h i l -
ippopolis, 1 5 6 ; origins and cthnic identifi-
1 7 7 , 3 9 9 ; rfırcat t o D a m a s c u s u n d e r D i o c l e -
cation, 5 3 0 - 5 3 1
t i a n , 1 8 4 ; a m b ı ı s h o f pca%ants b y (AD 3 3 4 ) ,
Philippopolis, H a u r a n , f o u n d a t i o n as
polis
P h i l o o f B y b l o s , Phoenicica,
277-279
4 8 4 - 4 8 5 ; regldi
l'hocnicia, culturc and society o f , 2 6 4 - 2 9 5 . See also
1 8 5 , 5 3 0 ; at Elusa, 3 8 6 , 399; use of name a n d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n vvith ' I s h m a c l i t e s ' , 3 8 8 ,
b y Philip, : 5 6 , 5 3 1
a n d colonia
Syria Phocnice
' S c c n i t a c ' . See
Phoenician language: Phoenician-Greck
in-
o f Saracenae
gen les
grcet
Julian o n Euphrates, 4 8 4 'Skcnitai'
S c y t h o p o l i s , 6; a p p a r e n t l y transferred f r o m
seription f r o m M a l t a , 2 6 5 ; Phoenician-
S y r i a t o J u d a e a in e a r l y s e c o n d c c n t u r y , 9 6 ;
Greek inseription from Aradus, 2 1 1 ; Phoe-
interpreter from G r e e k into A r a m a i c in
nician inseription from Byblos, 2 7 4 ; Phoenician legends o n coins of Byblos, 2 7 5 ; k n o w ! e d g e o f in Philo o f Bvblos'
Phoenic-
ica, 2 7 8 ; o n c o i n s o f S i d o n , 2 8 6 ; o n c o i n s of Tyre, 2 8 9 - 2 9 0 ; Iimited evidence for, 2 9 3 - 2 9 4 ; r e f e r r e d t o a s Poenııs
sermo
by
o n
Eastern cultures and l a n g u a g e s ,
103-104;
Sclcucia o n the Tigris, m i x c d p o p u l a t i o n , S e l e u c u s I, i m p o r t a n c c o f c i t y f o u n d a t i o n s b y , 'Semitic', 'Semites', 1 1 S c p p h o r i s , p a g a n a n d Jevvish c u l t u r e o f , 369-370
294-295
portoria,
Vespasian, 8 7 - 8 8 ; as naval base,
236-237
Porphyry, from Tyre: on cults at D u m a t h a , 12-13;
378
444-445
s u m m a r y of I a m b l i c h u s *
489-492
Babyloniaca,
ish inhabitants,
Seleucia (Pieria): c u t t ı n g of t u n n e l a t under cult o f Z e u s Kasios, 2 5 7 - 2 5 8
U l p i a n (?), 2 9 3 - 2 9 4 P h o t i u s , Biblıotbeca,
c h u r c h a t , 1 9 8 - 1 9 9 ; a s G r e e k c i t y v v i t h Jevv-
ı ı o - r n
S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s ( I m p . C a e s a r I.. S e p t i m i u s
provinces, Roman: system of, 3 1 - 3 2 ; subdivi-
Severus Pcrtinax), Emperor: origins, carccr
sion o f under Tetrarchy and separatiun of
a n d f a m i l y c o n n c c t i o n s , 1 1 8 - 1 2 0 ; in N e a r
miiitary a n d civilian funetions, 1
9 ° ~
,
174-175,
P t o l e m a i s ( A c o ) , r e f o u n d c d 3S colonia 52-54), 65,
E a s t (AD 1 9 4 - 2 0 2 ) , 1 2 1 - 1 1 6 ; e a s t e r n f r o n tier under,
9 3
(AD
117-141
Severus Alcxandcr (Gcssius Alcxianııs Bassianus, as E m p e r o r Imp. C a e s a r M . Aurelius
267-269
Severus Alexander): o n campaign in N e a r Q a r y a t a y n . See
E a s t (AD 2 3 1 - 1 3 3 ) , 1 4 9 - 1 5 0 ; v i s i t t o P a l -
Nazala
myra, 3 1 7 S h a p u r I, o f P e r s i a : c o n f i i c t s v v i t h R o m e ,
' r a b b i ' , a s title, 3 8 0 R a b b i J u d a h 'the Prince*, 3 8 3
1 5 1 - 1 6 9 passitn;
R h o s u s , letter o f O c t a v i a n to, 29
his Res
Gesiae,
151,
166
S i a ' (I l a u r a n ) , c u l t - c c n t r c : b u i l d i n g s , G r e c k -
R o m a n l a w , r o l e o f in N e a r E a s t e r n p r o v inces, 5 2 8
A r a m a i c i n s e r i p t i o n s , 3 9 4 — 3 9 6 ; in t e r r i t o r y of Kanatha, 4 1 9 Sidon, 1 8 5 - 1 8 8
Safaitic language, graffiti in, 5 1 4
S i n a i : a s s o c i a t i o n vvith ' I s h m a e l i t e s ' a n d ' S a r a
Samaritans: significance of a s separate g r o u p , 3 4 I ; and foundation of Flavia N e a p o l i s , 368-369
388
S i n g a r a , M e s o p o t a m i a : s t a t i u n o f l e g i o n II P a t t h i c a ( f r o m 190S AD), 1 2 6 ; m a d e
Samosata: capital of k i n g d o m of C o m magene, 53, 437; R o m a n occupation
{early
7 0 S AD), 8 2 - 8 3 ; l e g i o n " ı G a l l i c a p o s s i b l y there ( 7 0 S AD), 8 9 ; X V I F l a v i a F i r m a there in sccond century, 1 0 8 ; Lucian f r o m , his origin 3 n d culture, 4 5 4 - 4 5 6 ;
kenoi', 3 8 8 ; N a b a t a e a n inseriptions f r o m ,
112;
renamcd
'Flavia S a m o s a t a ' , p r o b a b l y under Vespasian, 453; 'metropolis of C o m m a g e n e ' , 453
lonia,
probably by Severus,
co-
126
'Skcnitai' ('tcnt-dwcllcts'), term for n o m a d s , 440
'Strata Dioclctiana',
183-184
Suhnch (Suknah), R o m a n auxiliary garrison at (?),
117-118
Sun, vvorship of in Syrian region,
521
Suvveıda: G r e c k - A r a m a i c inseription f r o m ,
' S a r a c e n i ' ( ' S a r a k c n o i ' ) , 4 ; o r i g i n o f n a m e {?),
3 9 4 ; huilding-inscriptions from, 4 1 3 ; m o d -
1 4 0 ; d c f e a t e d b y D i o c l e t i a n (c. AD 2 9 0 ) ,
ern n a m e refleets c o m m u n a l n a m e s ' S o a d e -
Suweida (continued)
T i b e r i a s : Jevvish a n d p a g a n c u l t u r e o f , 3 5 8 -
noi', or 'Soadecncis', 4x4; city-ııamc 'Dion y s i a s ' first a t t e s t e d i n T e t r a r c h i c
period,
414,SÎS-544
H a m m a t h Tihcrias, 384 Tigris: R o m a n occupation of middle-Tigcis
s y ı ı a g o g u e s : in J e r u s a l e m , 3 6 5 ; i n G a l i l e e a n d
Syria: as province u n d e r A u g u s t u s , 3 1 — 3 8 ; division of by Septimius Severus into 'Syria C o e l e ' and 'Syria Phoenice', 1 £ 1 - 1 2 3 S y r i a C o e l e , p r o v i n c e o f (in n o r t h e r n S y r i a ) crcatcd by Septimius Scvcrus,
121-121
by G r c c k cities of Decapolis, 6 , 4 2 3 — 4 2 4 Syria Palaestina (Judaea), province o f crcatcd b y H a d r i a n , 1 0 7 - 1 0 8 ; extension o f under Diocictian to incinde southern ' A r a b i a ' , 192-193,374-386
granted to H e r o d , 37; R o m a n
area of, 3 9 6 ; absorption in province o f of, 426-430 trade: iong-distance, i 5 - r 6 , 309; of Palmyra, 322, 330; through M e s o p o t a m i a , 483—484, 515-516
Nerva Traianus), Fmpcror: acquisition ol
Syria), crcatcd by Septimius S c v c r u s , 296-336.
Phoenicia
S y r i a c C h r i s t i a n i t y , c v i d c n c c f o r in first t w o
A g r i p p a Il's t e r r i t o r i e s , 9 0 - 9 2 , 4 1 2 — 4 1 4 ; o f Arabia, 9 2 - 9 7 ; Parthian War, 9 9 - 1 0 5 ; d e a t h (AD 1 1 7 ) , 1 0 5 tribute, R o m a n , 4 9 - 5 3 , 1 1 0 T y r e : h o n o u r c d a s metropolit
c c n t u r i e s (?), 4 6 2 - 4 6 7 Syriac language: absencc of from 'Syria' wesc o f E u p h r a t e s , 2 4 1 - 2 4 2 ; l a t e r i n s e r i p t i o n s in S y r i a c f r o m this a r e a , 2 4 2 ; l a n g u a g e a n d seripts, 4 5 7 - 4 5 8 ; d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e f o r i n first c c n t u r y AIÎ, 4 5 7 - 4 5 9 ; c v i d c n c c for at Dura-Europos, 468, 4 7 1 ; Syriac parehments of mid-third century, 478—481; Syriac subscriptions on G r c c k
road
through, 109; A r a m a i c inseriptions f r o m
Trajan ( M . Ulpius Traianus, Imp. Cacsar
S y r i a P h o e n i c e , p r o v i n c e o f (in s o u t h e r n
by I.cpcis
M a g n a , 1 r 8 , 2 9 2 ; m a d e colonia
by Scv-
c r u s , 1 1 3 - 1 2 4 , 1 9 1 ; letter of M a x i m i n u s to, 204; cult of Herakles at, 2 6 4 - 1 6 5 ; colonia! f o u n d a t i o n s by, 2 6 5 - 2 6 6 , 2 8 7 - 1 9 5; c o i n s o f , 1 8 8 - 1 8 9 ; Ulpian ( D o m i t i u s U l p anus) f r o m , 2 9 0 - 1 9 1 ; P o r p h y r y f r o m , 294-295
documcnts
f r o m Bcth Phouraia, 4 8 1 Syriac literatüre, 4 5 7 - 4 * 7 ,
128-129, 495 T r a c h o n i t i s (I.cja): r o b b e r s f r o m , 3 6 - 3 7 ;
S y r i a , 9 1 - 9 2 , 4 1 1 - 4 1 4 ; village life in a r e ı
'Syria K o i l e ' , term used as sclf-ıdcntification
1 2 2 - 1 2 3 ; c a s t e m Syria Phoenice,
z o n e (AD 2 9 8 / 2 9 9 ) , 1 7 8 - 1 7 9 ; G r c c k - A r a maic inseription o f R o m a n veteran f r o m ,
G o l a n , 3 8 r — 3 8 5 ; in D u r a - E u r o p o s , 4 7 0
See also
3 5 9 ; m o s a i c i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m s y n a g o g u e of
Ulpian (Domitius Ulpianus), R o m a n
473-47»,
la\vyen
on R o m a n t a x a t i o n in Syria, 1 1 0 ; on
485-488
grants of colonial status by Severus,
'Syrian Goddess* (Atargatis): cult at Hiera-
1 2 3 - 1 2 4 ; o r i g i n s in f a m i l y o f
'Oulpianoi'
polis, 2 4 4 - 2 4 7 ; cult at N i h a , n e a r Heliopo-
f r o m T y r e , 1 9 0 - 2 9 1 ; on T y r e as n c w l y crc-
lis, 2 8 2 ; d i s t i n g u i s h c d f r o m ' V e n ü s H c l i o -
a t c d colonia,
politana', 2 8 2 - 1 8 3 ; a t Edessa, 4 7 5
a n d Poenus
al T a b a r i , History
of Prophets
and
Kings,
as
cvidcncc for Imperial period, 4 3 2 — 4 3 5 T a m u d a c i . See
Thamud
riod, 4 3 1 - 4 3 5 ; allegcd conflicts w i t h Z e n o bia, 4 3 3 - 4 3 5 Oresa
5 1 1 ; mentioncd by Ptolemy, 388 T h e l s e a . See
Dumayr
Septimius Vaballathus Athcnodorus), 334-335,
5 3 , - 5 3 1
V a l c r i a n ( I m p . C a e s a r P. L i c i n i u s V a l c r i a n u s ) , AD), 1 6 3 - 1 6 4 , 1 6 6 ; c a p t u r e b y P e r s i a n s (AD 2 6 0 ) , 1 6 6 ; r e p l y t o p e t i t i o n a b o u t t e r a -
Crcck-
N a b a t a e a n inseription of at Ruvvvvafa (Hedjaz), service in L a t e R o m a n a r m y ,
V a b a l l a t h u s (Imp. C a c s a r L. Iulius A u r e l i u s
E m p e r o r : c a m p a i g n s in N e a r E a s t ( 2 5 0 S
Tarian, origin a n d culturc o f , 2 2 7 , 4 60
Thamud (Tamudaci, Thamudcnoi):
serrao
293-294
Palmyrene pretender, 1 7 1 - 1 7 2 ,
T a n u k h , t r i b e : c v i d c n c c f o r in I m p e r i a l p e -
T a y i b e h . See
2 9 1 ; o n u s e o f Assyrius sermo,
140,
p l c of Z e u s a t B a c t o c a c c c , 2 7 2 V e s p a s i a n (T. Ftavius V e s p a s i a n u s , I m p . C a t s a r V e s p a s i a n u s ) : legatus
i n Je\vish r e v o l t ,
7 1 — 7 3 ; p r o c l a m a t i o n a s E m p e r o r (AD 6 9 ) , 7 3 , 360; reorganisation of eastern frontier.
8o-?o-,
c o n q u e s t o f m o s r o f I d u m a e a (AD
6 8 ) , 3 4 5 ; a r r a n g c m c n t s i n J u d a c a a f t e r revolt, 368; foundation of Flavia N c a p o l i s ,
Z c n o b i a : basilissa
at P a l m y r a , 1 7 1 - 1 7 3 ; al-
Icgcd conflicts w i t h T a n u k h , 4 3 3 - 4 3 5 Z e u g m a (Selcucia) on E u p h r a t e s : m a d e part
368; 'Flavia Samosata*, p r o b a b l y renamcd
of province ( 3 1 ne), 29; n o r m a l erossing o f
under Vespasian, 4 5 3
Euphrates for R o m a n forccs, 66; Icgionary
Via N o v a Traiana, 1 3 8 - 1 3 9
g a r r i s o n [6os AD), 7 5 ; I V S c y t h i c a estab-' l i s h e d t h e r e , 8 3 , 8 9 , 1 0 8 ; stili there i n t h i r d
W a d i Sirhan: R o m a n military prcscncc, S e v e r u s o n v v a r d s {?), 1 3 8 ; u n d e r Tetrarehy, 18$; earlier N a b a t a e a n p r c s c n c c , 39*
c c n t u r y (?), 1 3 0 ; c o i n s 2 3 7 ; agö/ıts 1 5 9 ; city-institutions,
there,
160-161
Z i p h , Idumaea, G r c c k - A r a m a i c inseription from, 376
ı n d e x or
literary
sources
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J o s e p h u s , Ant.
XVII, 2, 1 (17-28): 51
A m m i a n u s X I V , 8, 5 - 1 3 : 1 1 1 - 2 1 2 .
J o s e p h u s , Ant.
XVII, 4, 3 (93-94): 4 5 - 4 ' '
A m m i a n u s X V I I I , 9 , 1: 2 0 9
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Assumption
J o s e p h u s , BJ II, 1 3 , 7 ( 2 6 6 - 2 7 0 ) : 3 5 7
of Moses
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J o s e p h u s , BJ V I , 5 , 4 ( 3 1 2 - 3 1 3 ) : 3 6 0 J o s e p h u s , BJ V I I , 8, r ( 2 5 2 - 2 5 5 ) : 4 7
Chronicle
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Pal. 6 , 1 — 2 : 2 0 0 - 2 0 1
349
llist.
24: 4 5 5
M a r k ' s G o s p e l , 2, 2 3 - 2 6 : 3 4 2 Mishnah,
Aboda
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F c s t u s , Breviarium
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P h o t i u s , Bib.
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Pliny, b l H V, 12/76: 266 P l i n y , NHV,
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H e r o d i a n V, 3 , 6: 3 0 7
S r r a h o , Geog.
I, 2, 3 4 ( 4 1 - 4 2 ) : 1 0
S t r a b o , Geog.
X V I , 1 , 2 7 (340): 4 4 0
S t r a b o , Geog.
X V I , 2, 9 ( 7 5 1 - 7 5 2 ) :
J e r o m e , Life o f M a l c h u s : 4 8 4 - 4 8 5
Strabo,
X V I , 1 , 1 0 ( 7 5 1 - 7 5 } ) : 18
J o s e p h u s , Ant.
I, 5, 5 ( 1 2 1 ) : 9
foog.
239-243
S t r a b o , Geog.
X V I , 1 , 1 8 (755)= 3 5 " 3 ^
J o s e p h u s , Ant. 1 , 6, 2 ( 1 3 0 - 1 3 8 ) : 7
S t r a b o , Geog.
X V I , 1, 20 (756): 36
J o s e p h u s , Ant.
S t r a b o , Geog.
X V I , 2, 2 2 ( 7 5 6 ) : 2 6 5 - 2 6 6
I, 6, 4 ( i 4 3 " « 4 5 > : 7
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DJD
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OGIS,
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P. Cair. Isidor.,
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P. Dura,
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P. Yadin, n o . 1 6 : 9 7 - 9 8 P. Yadin,
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IGLSV,
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VII, no. 3 4 1 : 1
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X V I I , 110. 7 5 9 : 3 > 7 - J « 8
