The Roman Near East: 31 BC-AD 337 (Carl Newell Jackson Lectures)

THE R O M A N NE AR EAST 31 BC - AD 337 • •• F ERG US M I H A R HARVARD UNIVERSITY C A M B R I D G E , PRESS M A S ...

Author: Fergus Millar

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THE R O M A N NE AR EAST 31 BC - AD 337 • ••

F ERG US M I

H A R

HARVARD UNIVERSITY C A M B R I D G E ,

PRESS

M A S S A C H U S E T T S

L O N D O N , E N G L A N D

C o p y r i g h t © 1 9 9 3 by tlıe Prcsidenr and Fcllovvs o f H a ı v a r d C o l l c g e Ali r i g h t s reserved P r i n t e d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m c r i c a F o u n l » printing, 2 0 0 i ' f h i s b o o k has been snpported by a grant frora thc N a t i o n a l Endovvment for thc H u m a n i t i c s , a n independent federal agenıy.

Libtary

of Congress

(ZattiIogirıg-in-Pı/blicalion

Dala

M i Har, F c r g u s . 'Ihe R o m a n N e a r East, 3 1 B.C.-A.D. 3 3 7 / Fergus Millar. p.

cm.

Includes bibliographical rcfcrcnccs and indcx. ıSBN 0 - 6 7 4 - 7 7 8 8 5 - 5 ( c l o t h ) ISBN 0 - 6 7 4 - 7 7 8 8 6 - 3 (pbk.) 1. Middlc F.asr—History—To

611.

2 . R o m c — H i s t o r y — 3 0 B.C. - 4 7 6 A . D . I. T î r l c . Ds62.25.Mj3 919-4—
I99J

For

Susanna

CONTENTS

Preface

xi

Abbreviations

xxi

PROLOGUE: IN SEARCH O F T H E O R I E N T

I. E M P I R E THE BRIDGEHEAP A N O THE DEPENDENT K I N G D O M S , 3 1 BC-AD 74

2

2.1. From t)>e Batlle of Actium the Great

to the Deatb of

Herod

27

2.2. From the Deatb of Herod of Tiberius'

Reigtt

the Great to the F.tıd

43

2.3. From the Reign of Gaius to the of the Jeıvish \Var

Outbreak

56

2.4. The Jeu/ish War and Its Aftermath

70

I M P E R I A L I S M A N D E X P A N S I O N , AD 7 4 - 1 9 5 }.ı.

Vespasian: A Neıv Near Eastern Empire

3.2. Trajan: Fjcpansion and Rearrangement Southern

Near East

3.3. The Roman Presence,

8 80

in the

90 ad i i4-161

3.4. Emperors and Pretenders

99

in the Near East from Lucius

to Septimiııs Severus: 1 'be Conquest

of Mesopotamia

Verıts 111

4.

R O M E A N D M E S O P O T A M I A : F R O M PARTHIA T O PHRSIA

127

4.1. The Severan Near East as a Military Structure

127

4.2. Emperors on Campaigtt, frortt Caracalla to Philip the Arab

141

4.3. Shapur's Inuasions and the Ernpire of Palntyra, ad 252—273

159

5. T H E T E T R A R C H Y A N D C O N S T A N T I N E

174

$.x. The Tetrarchy: Persian Wars and Fortifıed Lines

174

j.2. The Near East in the Tetrarchic Ernpire, ad 284-312 5.3. Licinius and Constantine, a Christianised

ad 313—337: Retrospect

Empire

190 frotn

207

II. R E G I O N S A N D

COMMUNITIES

(,. C O M M U N A L A N D C U L T U R A L I D E N T I T I E S

225

7. T H E T E T R A P O L I S A N D N O R T H E R N SYRIA

236

7. z. The Geographical

Context

7.2. Local Cult-Centres:

23 6

Ilierapolis

and Dol iebe

7.3. Vıllages and Rural Temples 7.4. The Majör Cities: Aparnea

242

250 256

8. T H E P H O E N I C I A N C O A S T A N D ITS H L N T E R L A N D 8.1. History and Geography

264

8.2. Phoenicia: The Southern

Region

8.). The Northern

Coastline

#.5. Sidon and Tyre

267

and Its Hinterland

8.4. The Majör Cities: liyblos

264

and Berytus

270

274

285

9. E A S T E R N S Y R I A P H O E N I C E : M O U N T A I N , OASIS A N D STEPPE

296

9.1. Geographical

Cotmections

296

9.2. Emesa and Elagabal 300 9.3. Damascus and Its Region 310 9.4. Palntyra

319

ıo.

F R O M JUDARA T O SYRIA PALAESTINA io.i

History, Religion and Geograplry

10.2. Judaea before the First Revolt

337 351

10.3. Fronı the First Jeıvish Revolt to the Second 10.4. Syria Palaestina 11.

366

374

A R ABI A

387

I M . Regions and Cultures

387

11.2. The Kingdom

of Nabataea

1 1 . 3 . The Decapolis

in the First Century

11.4.

400

The Neıv Province of Arabia

z 1. j . The Nomadic

Presence

408

414

418

12. T H E EUPHRATES A N D M E S O P O T A M I A 12.1. Geograplry, Cullure and Language 1 2 . 2 . Dura-Europos n.3.

437 437

in the Parthian Period

445

The Middle Euphrates and the Corning of Ronıe

12.4. Roman Dura-Europos

452

467

12. j. Edessa as a Kingdom and Roman Colony until the of the Third Century 12.6. Social and Religious

Middle

472 Currents in the Fourth Century

481

1 3 . E P I L O G U E : E A S T A N D \VEST 1 3 . 1 . East?

489

13.2. West?

523

489

Appendix A . T h e Inscriptioııs of the Tctrarchic Larıd-Surveyors Appendix B. Documcnts fronı the Bar Kochba War

535

545

Appcndix C . Materials for the History of Roman Edessa and Osrhocne, AD 1 6 3 - 3 3 7 Maps

553

563 I. The Near East: Areas Covered by Maps 11-XII

II. The Roman Near East: Main Sites and Features III.

565

Geographical

566

Northıvestern

Syria and Mount Anıanus

IV. The Phoenician

567

Coast and Western Syria Phoenice

V. The Central Syrian Steppe, Palmyra and the Euphrates VI. Judaea/Syria Palaestina, VII. Southeastern

Western Arabia

Syria Phoenice,

Northern

570 Arabia

571

568 569

VIII. IX.

Petra and South-Central

Arabia

572

Arabia, ıvith Sinai, the Red Sea and the Hedjaz

573

X. Eastern Syrta, the Euphrates and Westertı Mesopotamia XI. XII.

Central Mesopotamia

and Mons Masius

575

The Eastern Syrian Steppc and the Middle Euphrates

General Index

577

Index of Literary Sources Index of Documencs

587

586

574 576

PREFACE

T h e subject of this b o o k can h c dcfincd in threc diffcrcnt w a y s : g e o g r a p h i cally, c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y and linguistically. in geographical tcrms I mean b y ' t h c R o m a n N e a r East' ali those a r e a s vvhich lie between the T a u r u s M o u n t a i n s a n d Egypt, and vvhich w e r c , o r c a m e t o bc, undcr R o m a n rule. T h e rcgioıı concerned overlaps the territories of eight modern states: T u r k c y , Iraq, S y r i a , L e b a n o n , Jordan, Israel, E g y p t a n d Saudi A r a b i a . T o the west it is of c o u r s c b o u n d c d by thc M c d i t c r r a n c a n , a n d t o thc north, somcvvhat less clearly, b y M o u n t A m a n u s a n d the foothills o f the Taurus. T o the cast a n d south t h c eventual limits o f R o m a n military o c c u p a t i o n did not correspond vvith a n y ver)' definite geographical boundaries. T h e middlc Euphrates, vvhich f o r l o n g served as a symbolic b o u n d a r y b c t w c c n thc empires of R o m c and of P a r t h i a , ceascd to d o s o in the course of t h e second ccntury. W i t h that great change, t o w h i c h I will c o m e b a c k maııy times, the R o m a n Empire in the east e x p a n d e d dccisivcly beyond thc M c d i t c r r a n c a n seaboard, with c o n s c q u e n c e s o f i m mense significance. B y the end o f the third century R o m a n control e x t e n d e d to, a n d in s o m e not very clear sense b e y o n d , the upper-ıniddle Tigris. In thc s o u t h - w c s t of thc arca, similarly, thc R o m a n military presence has left t r a c c s in part but not ali o f the H e d j a z , thc barren mountain-range running a l o n g the eastern side o f the R e d Sea. W h a t seems to be thc furthermost R o m a n outpost here is M e d a i n Saleh, a little ö v e r 300 km north of M e d i n a . T h c a r c a c o n c e r n c d thus rep resents a largc scction of thc Fcrtilc C r c s c c n t ; its definition as fertile refleets the f a c t that ali o f it shades o f f into w h a t is o f t e n callcd desert, but is in f a c t a t a l m o s t ali points not desert but a flat, largcly dry a n d o f t e n very stony steppe, in p l a c c s c o l o u r c d dark-grey o r b l a c k f r o m thc prcscncc o f v o l c a n i c r o c k . T o emphasise the fact that thc z o n c a l o n g w h o s e ınargins a great üne of R o m a n roads and forts, f r o m the R e d Sea t o

the Tigris, evcntually strecched w a s not a 'desert' o f saııd-dunes, I h a v e conısistently used the w o r d ' s t e p p e ' . H o w w e should understand the mutual relations o f the R o m a n g o v e m r a e n t , the settled p o p u l a t i o n and the p c o p l c s o f the s t e p p e — s k s n i t a i ('tent-dwellcrs'), nomades,

Arabes, o r Saraceni—is

precisely

o n e of the m a j o r p r o b l e m s w h i c h the b o o k attenıpts t o c o n f r o n t . In c h r o n o l o g i c a l terms, as its sub-titie indicates, the b o o k starts f r o m the m o m e n t o f the battlc o f A c t i u m and ends w i t h the death of C o n s t a n t i n e . It might reasonably h a v e begun a little further b a c k , w i t h the arrival o f Porapey's f o r c e s in Syria in the m i d - 6 o s BC. But the c o m p ! e x narrativc o f events in the late Republic w o u ! d h a v e either taken u p t o o m u c h space o r failed to reveal m u c h a b o u t the N e a r E a s t itself, o r m o s t p r o b a b l y both. B u t s o m c evidence, a b o v e ali f r o m S t r a b o ' s Geography,

w h i c h relates to that p e r i o d has

been used. Similarly, it c o u l d h a v e b c e n rcasonable to end w i t h the treaty o f 2 9 8 or 299 w h i c h gave R o m e firm c o n t r o l of the upper-middle Tigris; 01; eveıı nıore reasonably, t o take as the terminal point the m o m e n t w h c n , after the death o f Julian in 3 6 3 , J o v i a n w a s f o r c e d to cede Nisibis and the eastern part o f the M e s o p o t a m i a n shelf to the Persians. A s it is, the b o o k deliberately stops just vvhen t w o related but s e p a r a t e m a j o r developments in rcligious history began; first, the f o r m a l rccognition o f the Christian C h u r c h b y C o n s t a n t i n e , a n d the construction o f churches as visible, public features o f the urban landscapc; and s e c o n d , something of p e r h a p s equal significancc in the c v o l u t i o n o f Christianity: the ascctic m o v e m e n t , w h i c h s o far as the R o m a n N e a r East is cotıcerned began s i m u l t a n e o u s l y in the south-western corner of the region, a r o u n d G a z a , a n d in its north-eastern cortıer, a r o u n d N i s i b i s , both in the early years o f the f o u r t h century. L o n g a g o , I imagined t h a t I might vvrite a social history o f the N e a r East w h i c h w o u ! d c o v e r the vvhole period f r o m A l e x a n d e r to M a h o m c t . But the Hellenistic period has its o w n problems, w h i c h I tricd to e x p l o r e in a c h a p t e r in A . K u h r t and S. S h c r w i n - W h i t e , Hellenism

in the East ( 1 9 8 7 ) . A s f o r the

period o f precisely three c e n n ı r i e s f r o m the d e a t h o f C o n s t a n t i n e to the firit Islamic conquests, that must represent a m a j o r challengc f o r s o m e o n e else. For a b o o k o n these ccnturies vvould h a v e t o embrace the great conflicts vvith Sasanid Persia w h i c h b r o k e o u t again in the sixth century, a n d o f course providcd the c o n t c x t of the Islarnic invasions o f the seventh; late paganisra and the definitive C h r i s t i a n i s a t i o n o f the region; the great C h r i s t o l o g i c a l controversies a n d the flowering of S y r i a c C h r i s t i a n literatüre; the beginnings of Armenian Christian literatüre; p a g a n a n d Christian A n t i o c h as a m a j o r political a n d cultural centrc; J u d a i s m — i n e l u d i n g the c o m p i l a t i o n of the 'Jerusalem' T a l m u d , contacts with B a b y l o n i a , a n d influcncc in the H e d j a z in the time of M a h o m e t ; the Samaritans as an important c o m m u n i t y , c a p a b l e o f m a j o r re-

voltsj a n d thc significant role p l a y e d b y nevvly Christianised A r a b peoples in the unsettled steppe z o n e b e t w e e n R o m e and Persia. It is thus very casy to scc w h y n o such ovcrall history o f the l a t e - R o m a n and early-Byzantine N e a r Kast h a s ever been attempted; w h y o n c n o w d o e s require t o be w r i t t e n ; and w h y it w a s beyond m y p o w e r s at a n y rate t o e m bracc these centurics aloııg vvith the earlier period o f nearly four centuries. Even so, it w a s impossible t o deny myself ali hindsight, o r ali use of the vivid testimony of A m m i a n u s M a r c e l l i n u s , T h e o d o r e t a n d S o z o m c n u s f o r t h c social history of the N e a r East, o r of the Notitia

Dignitaium

f o r the strueture

of the 'desert frontier' as it h a d c v o l v e d by thc end o f the fourth ccntury. Nonetheless there w e r e very g o o d historical and teehnieal rcasons f o r treating thc period f r o m the mid-fırst c e n t u r y BC t o the m i d - f o u r t h century AD as a distinetive phasc. First, f r o m the point o f vicw o f R o m a n Imperıal history, t h c step-by-step advance o f R o m a n direct control demonstrates that, in the N e a r East a t least, the idea that R o m a n imperialism and expansionism died o u t after thc carly Empirc is s i m p l y falsc. M o r e important, however, is thc f a c t that these centuries s a w the m a i n f l o w c r i n g of thc 'cpigraphic h a b i t ' as c x pressed in the N e a r East. It s h o u l d be stressed here that inseriptions represent thc f u n d a m e n t a l material o n w h i c h the b o o k is based. I have o f course used ali the literary evidence that I c o u l d find, a m o n g w h i c h thc \vorks of J o s c p h u s p l a y an important role. I h a v e a l s o tricd to m a k e sense, f o r myself and t h c reader, o f thc c o m p l c x g e o g r a p h y o f thc rcgion, w i t h its very distinetive s u b regions. T h u s , w h i l e the Iong first part is designed t o g i v e a conception o f evolution över time, it is also intended as an introduetion to the g e o g r a p h y o f thc rcgion. T h c various d i f f e r e n t sub-regions and local areas arc then treated in the core of the b o o k , thc even longer second part. T o m a k e e a c h section intelligible b y itself, there has been s o m e deLiberate repetition at p a r ticular points.

In ali this I have o f course a l s o used archaeoiogica! and iconographic c v î dence, t h o u g h w h a t follovvs is in no vvay an a d e q u a t e study o f the p h y s i c a l evidence. T h e b o o k is primarily based o n inseriptions, f o r t w o linked reasons: political struetures, and l a n g u a g c . First, my a p p r o a c h is cssentially a b o u t p o l i tics a n d 'ethnicity'; a b o u t w h a t political f o r m a t i o n s , ineluding the Kmpire itself, vvere present in the r e g i o n , and h o w people identified themselves a n d w h a t e v e r w i d e r political c o m m u n i t y they conceivcd of themselves as b c l o n g ing to. T h c b o o k is thus c o n c e r n e d w i t h 'imagined c o m m u n i t i e s ' in the sense used by Benedict A n d e r s o n . F o r that, inseriptions are all-important. T h e Christian e p i g r a p h y of the late Empire, in G r e e k , m o r e rarely in Syriac a n d (very occasionally) in A r a b i c , refleets a different o u t l o o k a n d a m u c h - c h a n g e d

w o r l d . It is in the first f e w oenturies, as is w e l l k n o w n , that the 'epigraphic habit' does most t o revcal political a n d c o m m u n a l structures. It is this w h i c h then brings me to the third w a y in w h i c h the ' R o m a n N e a r E a s t ' can be defincd: b y l a n g u a g c . T h e ' N e a r E a s t ' is, on this definition, tha: area of the R o m a n Empire w h e r e G r e e k (rather than I-atin) co-existed w i t h a family c>f Scmitic laııguages. T h e r e is no simple w a y o f listing these withouc being misleading. N a b a t a e a n , P a l m y r e n e a n d Syriac are to bc scen as dialeets of A r a m a i c , w r i t t e n in the s a m e alphabet, but \vith slightly different seripts. But that leaves us w i t h o u t a parallel term f o r the A r a m a i c used by J e w s (and p r o b a b l y gentiles) in J u d a e a , o r later 'Syria Palaestina', or that used b y gentiles in the broad z o n e between the Jordan and the steppe, and n o r t h o f the N a b a t a e a n k i n g d o m . G r e e k observers tended t o speak o f ali these laııguages o r dialeets, \vithout distiııction, as 'the languagc of the Suroi\ p e o p l e using it (or them) as s p e a k i n g

and to refer to

Suristi.

T h e n there w a s P h o e n i c i a n , w r i t t e n in the same a l p h a b e t o f t w e n t y - t w o letters, and o n l y very slightly attested, o n coin-legends and a c o u p l e of inseriptions, in our period; a n d Hebrevv, n o r m a l l y written in the square A r a m a i c seript, but f o r w h i c h the aııcieııt 'Palaeo-Hebrevv' seript could be r c - d e p l o y e c f o r nationalistic rcasons. T h e n , o u t in the steppe, but also attested at p l a c c s in the settled z o n e , f o r instance at D u r a and in Palmyrene territory, there are m a n y thousands o f graffiti w r i t t e n in ' S a f a i t i c ' — a mere nickname b o r r o w e c from the v o l c a n i c steppe c a l l e d the S a f a east o f the Jcbel H a u r a n . Finally, there is A r a b i c itself, attested o n only t w o d o c u m e n t s f r o m our p e r i o d — b u t that it is s o attested is stili a f a c t o f the greatest importance. O n e of the prime p u r p o s e s of the b o o k is to use the surviving inseriptions to d r a w a geographical a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l m a p of the placcs a n d times w h e r e a n d w h c n these various l a n g u a g c s o r dialeets are attested, and t o g i v e s o m c initial impression (it c a n n o t be more) of h o w they \vere used and h o w they related to G r e e k . Latin t o o p l a y s a sigııificant p a r t , a b o v e ali (obviously) in military c o n t e x t s a n d in the ' c o l o n i a l ' z o n e of Berytus and the Bekaa Vallcy, T h e reader will also find m a n y instances of h o w the G r e e k actually used in this r c g i o n , aKvays the p r e d o m i n a n t l a n g u a g c , \vas shot t h r o u g h w i t h Latin w o r d s and p r o p e r n a m e s on t h e o n e h a n d , and \vith Semitic w o r d s a n d proper n a m e s o n the other. H o w e v e r limited their content, inseriptions have the o v e r w h e l m i n g advantage for the historian of being tied t o place a n d time: that is, o f being f o u n d (generally speaking) w h e r c they w e r c set up, and o f being either c x p l i c itly dated o r (at worst) b r o a d l y datablc. A g e o g r a p h y o f l a n g u a g c — o r at least of public

l a n g u a g c — i s thus a t t a i n a b l c . But in the N e a r East the c v i d c n c c of

inseriptions is also, now, being ever m o r e fully s u p p l e m c n t e d by d o c u m e n t s o n perishable materials, that is, p a p y r u s o r p a r e h m e n t : the pricclcss c o l l e c t i o n f r o m D u r a - E u r o p o s ; the d o c u m e n t s in H e b r c w , A r a m a i c and G r e e k f r o m the

Judaean Desert, largely bur n o t vvholly relating t o the Bar K o c h b a w a r j the 'archive of B a b a t h a ' , of w h i c h the G r c e k items, sadly w i t h o u t thcir N a b a taean and A r a m a i c c o u n t e r p a r t s , w e r e a d m i r a b l y published in 1 9 8 9 by N a p h tali Levvis; a n d the r c m a r k a b l c G r e e k and Syriac archive o f the third c e n t u r y f r o m the middle Euphrates, stili in the course o f (very rapid) publication b y Javier Teixidor, Deniş Feissel a n d Jean G a s c o u .

H o w t o represent rhis p r o f u s i o n and interplay o f languages (in w h i c h a S y r i a c , N a b a t a e a n o r PaLmyrene text m a y contain a transliteration of a Greek transliteration of a Latin w o r d ) in an English text is an insoluble p r o b l e m , in vvhich true consistency simply c a n n o t b e achieved. T h i s p r o b l e m is paralleled b y t h e equally insoluble p r o b l e m that there is n o agreed transliteration o f m o d e r n A r a b i c placc-namcs. A s f o r the latter, so far as possible I have used the simplified f o r m s which the reader w i l l find on m o d e r n English maps of the N e a r East, sometimes giving variants w h e r e this seems necessary. But this hardly solves the p r o b l e m , since there is n o modern English m a p \vhich gives m o r e than a tiny p r o p o r t i o n o f v i l l a g e names. T h e text of the b o o k tries a b o v e ali to m a k e sense o f w h e r e places a r e in functional relation to each other. T h e m a p s provided in the b o o k f o l l o w a p p r o x i m a t e l y the sequcncc o f r e gions discussed in Part II. T h e y try to set at least a seleetion of the p l a c e s n a m e d i n t o an intelligible g e o g r a p h i c a l context. It should be stressed t h a t there are no cross-references to the maps in the main b o d y o f the text. T h e first m a p covers the \vhole area and indicates the sub-regions t o w h i c h t h e f o l l o w i n g m a p s relate. N o a t t e m p t h a s been m a d e t o list ali the sites w h i c h can be identified o r t o give a consistent picture of vvhat placc-namcs w c r e officially in use a t any o n e m o m e n t ; f o r o n e of the themes of the b o o k İs precisely h o w malleable these n a m e s were. T h e aim is t o p r o v i d e an intelligible guide t o location. T h e m a p s , especially m a p II, are based o n the excellent one in D . L. K c n n e d y a n d D . Riley, Rome's

Desert

Frontier

from

the

Air

(Batsford, 1990), p . 2 5 . M a p I X , vvhich f o r o b v i o u s reasoos of g e o g r a p h y h a s to be o n a smaller scale than the others, is based o n the m a p in G . W. B o w e r s o c k , Roman

Arabia ( 1 9 8 3 ) , f a c i n g p. 1 . 1 am very g r a t e f u l to M r s . A . W i l -

kins of the Institutc o f A r c h a e o l o g y , O x f o r d , f o r d r a w i n g the maps ineluded here.

A s regards the use o f G r e e k in t h e b o o k , s o m e rather s h o r t q u o t a t i o n s in t h e G r e e k a l p h a b c t are given w h e n necessary in the notes. Othcrwi.se e v e r y t h i n g is transliterated, in particular vvith the intention o f r c p r o d u c i n g as a c c u r a t e l y as possible the precise f o r m o f l o c a l rustic G r e e k , whethcr f o r m a l l y ' c o r r e c t ' o r n o t ; and, m o r e i m p o r t a n t , o f shovving the e x a c t spelling of place-names

(often inconsistent in the original) and o f Semitic or Latin ternıs or propcr nanıes in G r e e k transliıeration. T h e l o n g v o w e l s omega a n d ela h a v e hccn indicated as 'ğ' and ' ö \ O u t s i d e q u o t a t i o n s , I h a v e largcly used Latin f o r m s , f o r instance ' A n t i o c h i a ' (or ' A n t i o c h ' ) a n d 'Aurelius'; but in q u o t a t i o n s f r o m G r e e k , ' A n t i o c h e i a ' and ' A u r e l i o s ' . T h e inevitable inconsistency is e m p h a sised by leaving such terms i n vvhatever f o r m they appear w h e n I h a v e ustd published translations. It will do n o harm if this t o o serves t o remind the reader that 'representing' the ancient w o r l d in an English text involves clıoiccs at every level. A s regards ancient Semitic scripts, I h a v e adopted the device o f u s i n g the s a m c Standard transliteration into capitals f o r ali the Semitic l a n g u a g e s inv o l v e d . T h i s m a y sometinıes l o o k o d d , as w i ı h extracts f r o m lıterary t e x t s in Syriac, o r even m o r e so w i t h rabbinic texts in H e b r e w . But it has the practical merit o f a v o i d i n g the presentation of material printed right-to-ieft w i t h i n an English text; and it has the m u c h m o r e important f u n c t i o n of instantly distinguishing transliterations f r o m Semitic tcxts f r o m those f r o m texts in G r e e k ; of e x h i b i t i n g the vvidespread a d o p t i o n of G r e e k (and s o m e Latin) l o a n - w o r d s into these languages; and o f revealing ho\v close, as languages, they a r e to e a c h other.

I should m a k e explicit w h a t w i l l be instantly o b v i o u s t o m a n y rcaders, t h a t I a m n o t a Semitist b y training. A s is clear t h r o u g h o u t , the b o o k represents an e x p e d i t i o n by a Classical a n c i e n t lıistorian into N e a r Eastern

territory.

\Vhethcr this m a k c s it a m o r e o r a less rcprchcnsible c x a m p l e of ' O r i c n t a l i s r a ' in Edvvard Said's sense is not f o r me to say. O n the other hand the d e p l o y m e n t o f Semitic languages here is n o t based o n pure ignorance. I h a v e a reasonable reading knovvledge of Biblical Hcbrcvv, and hence a basic g r a s p of the g r a m mar of the languages c o n c e r n e d , other than A r a b i c . I need the assistance of m o d e r n w o r k s in a p p r o a c h i n g these various texts. But in the case o f w h a t e v e r is q u o t e d , I w o u l d c l a i m to h a v e understood not merely w h a t it m e a n s but w h y it m e a n s it. If the b o o k serves, b y its manifest imperfections, t o g o a d s o m e Semitists into a c q u i r i n g a vvider historical training, or s o m e G r a e c o - R o m a n historians i n t o gaining a vvider linguistic base, s o much the better. M y concern w i t h the N e a r East as it w a s in the Classical period g o e s bac.< s o m e q u a r t e r of a century, a n d should h a v e been given expression in boo.< f o r m long since. But the stimulus to bring it t o vvhatever fruition I could w a s provided b y the very vveleome invitation t o deliver the C a r i Ncvvcil J a c k s o n Icctures at H a r v a r d University, w h i c h I gave in the spring of 1 9 8 7 . T h e hospitality of A l b e r t H c n r i c h s a n d his colleagues in the D e p a r t m e n t of G r e e k and Latin has left the happiest of m e m o r i e s o f the vveek w h i c h m y w i f e and I spent

in C a m b r i d g e . W i t h no disrcspect t o colleagues of my o w n generation, o n e particular privilege of the o c c a s i o n w a s the presence of persons then in retiremcnt: f r o m H a r v a r d itself Sterling D o w , J o h n Finley and M a s o n H a m m o n d ; a n d f r o m outsidc it N a p h t a l i L c w i s and M c y e r R c i n h o l d . A s vvill be o b v i o u s , even a C a m b r i d g c audicnce c o u l d n o t h a v e s u p p o r t c d the ordeal of hcaring the w h o l e text as it n o w is, or anything like it. It h a s taken a n o t h e r five years to deal w i t h the subject in a w a y w h i c h I h o p e is n o t t o o inadequatc; a n d in thc c o u r s e o f that time thc length of thc tcxt has itıcreased far beyond w h a t the benevolent c d i t o r s o f H a r v a r d Univcrsity Press w o u l d h a v e w a n t e d . I can o n l y plead that I think the subject is i m p o r t a n t , and that cveıı n o w thc c h o i c e o f ancient evidence and m o d e r n w o r k s to b e referred to is at ali p o i n t s ruthlessly sclcctivc. T h a t seleetion itself could h a v e been carried o u t , at least b y myself, o n l y \vith the unique resources of the Ashmoleatı Library and its N e a r Eastern w i n g , the G r i f f i t h Institutc; o f t h c O r i e n t a l Institutc just n e x t d o o r ; a n d of t h e Bodleian Library, in particular the Oriental R e a d i n g R o o m . It is a b o v e ali w h e n oııe attempts a topic w h i c h erosses s o m e establislıed boundaries t h a t o n c rcalises just hovv r e m a r k a b l e this c o m b i n a t i o n o f resources is. But m y ' b a s e ' has been, as alvvays, the A s h m o l c a n I.ibrary, and cvcrything is o w e d t o the help o f Brian M c G r e g o r a n d his staff. It w a s thus there that during a sabbatical year in 1 9 9 0 - 9 1 this b o o k w a s at last vvritten. A f t c r p r o m p t a n d hclpful critiqucs from t w o readers a p p o i n t c d b y H a r vard University Press, a final revision w a s carried out in June T992. E v e n those unacquainted w i t h m y haııdvvriting w i l l appreciatc that preparation o f the text w a s an c x t r e m e l y d c n ı a n d i n g task. S o I a m very grateful t o Priscilla L a n g e f o r thc c f n c i c n c y and g o o d h u m o u r vvith \vhich it w a s d o n e .

It wi!l be clcar that s u c h a b o o k , e v e n vvith its m a n y impcrfcctions, vvould have been a great deal w o r s e b u t f o r the guidance of friends and c o l l e a g u e s . M y greatest single academic d e b t is to Sebastiaıı Brock, vvho not only translatcd f o r m c s o m c reconditc Syriac material whcn n o printed h c l p \vas t o h a n d , but ansvvcrcd a l o n g scrics of qucstions, s o m c of them on points s o elementary that he must h a v e felt a m a z e d that a n y o n e could both be p u z z l e d by t h e m and have the temerity to write on these subjects at ali. N o t conterıt vvith that, he kindly rcad thc vvholc of C h a p t c r 1 2 , o n thc Euphrates a n d M e s o p o t a m i a , and saved me f r o m m a n y further errors. M a r t i n

Goodman

also added to his m a n y b u r d e n s as the nevvly appointed R e a d e r in Jevvisiı Studies at O x f o r d University by reading the vvhole text, vvith immense benefit to its clarity and accuracy. O f his prcdecessor, G e z a Vermes, I need o n l y state the o b v i o u s , t h a t this b o o k is in m a n y vvays the inheritor of our tvvo d e c a d e s of joint vvork o n the nevv edition of Schürer's History

of the Jetvish

People;

and f r o m h i m t o o I learned a n immense a m o u n t b o t h during the w r i t i n g of this b o o k and long before.

T h i s is n o t the p l a c e f o r a r e v i e w o f the n a m e s of the great figures, f r o m Ernest R e n a n onvvards, w h o h a v e vvorked o n the history of the N e a r East in the Classical period. But it vvould be improper^ at the m o m e n t of the disapp-carance of the Soviet U n i o n , n o t t o mention M i c h a e l R o s t o v t z e f f ; a p a r t f r o m his y e a r s o f w o r k on D u r a - E u r o p o s , his paper ' L a Syrie r o m a i n e ' in historique

Revue

( 1 9 3 5 ) remains the most brilliant brief portrait of the area. T h e n

there is H c n r i S c y r i g , w h o m I w a s f o r t u n a t e to mcet in Princeton in 1 9 6 8 , and w h o s e w o r k sums up the p r o f o u n d French involvement in the e x p l o r a t i o n o f ancieııt Syria in the tvventieth century. T h i s involvement is refleeted a l s o in t w o m a j ö r rcccnt w o r k s , o f w h i c h the earlier reccivcs very inadcquatc reilection in w h a t f o l l o w s , and t h e later none at ali: J . - M . D e n t z e r and W. O r t h maım (eds.), Archeologie L'Orient d'Auguste

et bistoire

romain: Provinces

de la Syrie II ( 1 9 8 9 ) ; and M . Sartre,

et societes provitıciales

aux Seueres (31 /.-C-235

aprbs J.-C.)

en Mâditerranee

orientale

( 1 9 9 1 ) , an invaluable vvork

w h i c h covers A c h a e a , M a c e d o n i a , Asia M i n ö r and Egypt, as w e l l as the Syrian region (but not as such M e s o p o t a m i a ) . O f c o n t e m p o r a r i c s , I w o u l d particularly like to thank Pcter Fraser; if in reality I h a v e aKvays seen R o m e a n d its E m p i r e f r o m a R o s t o v t z e f f i a n perspeetive, in other w o r d s f r o m the G r e e k East, it is due t o his influence w h e n I w a s at A l i Souls in 1 9 5 8 - 1 9 6 4 . A s f o r o t h e r s on w h o s e geııerous help I h a v e d e p e n d e d , I w o u l d like t o name Jean-Charlcs and Jcaninc Balty, G l c n Bovversock, H a n n a h C o t t o n , H a z e l D o d g e , H a n D r i j v e r s , Deniş Feissel, M i chal G a w l i k o w s k i , D a v i d G r a f , C h r i s H o w g e g o , Ben Isaac, D a v i d Kennedy, N i k o s K o k k i n o s , Sam Lieu, M i c h a e l M a c D o n a l d , D a v i d Pottcr^ Jean-Paul R e y - C o q u a i s , M a u r i c e Sartre a n d Javier Teixidor. H a z e l D o d g e and D a v i d K e n n e d y a l s o provided v a l u a b l e practical guidance before a visit to J o r d a n and Syria in 1 9 8 6 . D u r i n g that visit I h a d very generous assistance f r o m the Syrian A r c h a c o l o g i c a l Scrvicc, a n d in particular f r o m Dr. A d n a n Bounni. It is not fortuitous that the b o o k begins b y implicitly recalling the m a n y hours w h i c h I spent e x a m i n i n g the m a r v e l l o u s collections in the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m in D a m a s c u s , not least the reconstruction there of the s y n a g o g u e at D u r a - E u r o p o s . D u r i n g that trip I also spent a \vonderful day on a t a x i - j o u r n e y f r o m H o m s to the remote site of Baetocaece (which proved e x t r c m e l y difficult t o find), a n d then över the Jebel A n s a r i y c h t o the O r o n t c s Valley a n d A p a m e a , vvhere t h e w e ! c o m e f r o m the Baltys and thcir t e a m rem a i n s an ındelible m e m o r y . In 1 9 8 9 I a l s o h a d the greatest g o o d f o r t u n e in being able to m a k e a carjourney w i t h Chris L i g h t f o o t of the British Institutc in A n k a r a , f r o m A n k a r a

t h r o u g h the T a u r u s to Cilicia, t h e A m a n u s , A ı ı t i o c h , U r f a , N i s i b i s , Aıııida ( D i y a r b a k i r ) , C o m m a g e n e w i t h S a m o s a t a and N e m r u d D a g , and back via M a l a t y a (Melitetıe). If in the c o u r s e of it I gained a deeper understanding o f w h y C a r a c a l l a had needcd t o step aside on the journey from U r f a to visit t h e temple of the M o o n - G o d d e s s a t Carrhae/I Iarran, it w a s stili an a b s o l u t e l y essential and invaluable e x p e r i e n c e , w b i c h w o u l d never have been possible w i t h o u t such expert guidance. I a m very grateful t o the British A c a d e m y a n d the C r a v e n C o m m i t t e e for granes t o assist this journey.

A s o n e w h o has visited Israel m a n y times (ineluding in 1 9 6 9 an a d v c n t u r o u s trip w i t h Z v i Yavetz up t o the s n o w b o u n d peak of M o u n t H e r m o n ) and w h o has a l s o l o o k e d out f r o m ancient G a d a r a ö v e r the Sea o f Galilee, the Plain o f Jczrccl a n d M o u n t Tabor, as w c l l as d o w n the Bekaa Valley from Teli N e b i M e n d (l-aodicea ad I.ibanum, just on the Syrian side of the Syrian-l.ebanese border), it is impossible not to lıope that these years will bring peace, and atı o p e n i n g o f borders, t o ali o f the haunting landscapcs of the N e a r East. B y dovvn-playing, as it explicitly d o e s , the significance, and even the reality, o f a n y coherent ' A r a b ' identity in the period in question, this b o o k might seern to take o n e side in the p r o f o u n d rcligious and comınunal tensions o f the m o d ern vvorld. It does not. Religious affiliations, mythical origins and ethnic identities are lıuman constructs, a n d w e simply falsify history by fathering o n peoples in the past idcntities vvhich they did not construct, or had not y e t constructed, f o r themselves. If a n y t h i n g , this b o o k vvill serve t o suggest hovv nevv, ho\v p r o f o u n d and original and hovv totally u n e x p e c t e d in its effects the messagc o f the Prophet vvas to be; but also, in its appcal t o the O l d T e s t a m c n t , t o the inheritance o f A b r a h a m , H a g a r a n d Ishmael, hovv m u c h İslam vvas t o ovve t o the Judaeo-Christian traditioıı: Say you: *Wc bclicvc in G o d , a n d in that vvhich has been sent dovvn on us and sent dovvn on Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac and Jacob, and the Tribes, and that vvhich vvas giveıı t o M o s e s and Jesus and the Proplıets, of tlıeir Lord; vve make no division bctvvcccı any of them, and to H i m vve surrender'. {Koran, Sura II, trans. A. J. Arberry) At the point vvhere this b o o k s t o p s , i s l a m stili lay threc centuries in the future. But ali three versions o f the R e l i g i o n o f the B o o k vverc f o r m e d in o r o n the borders o f the R o m a n and late-Romaıı N e a r East. Brasenose Oxford

College

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MILLAR

ABBREVIATIONS

AAAS

Annales archeologiqııes

AAES

Publications

arabes syrientıes ( 1 9 6 6 - )

of an Atnerican Arcf)aeological

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Expedi-

Topography and Itinerary

(1914), b y R. Garrett; II, Architecture

and Other

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Arts

InscripInscriptions

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Annales arcbeologiques

ADAJ

Annual of the Department

AR

AnnSe

AHS

J.-M. Dcntzcr and W. Orthmann (cds.), Archeologie

de Syrie ( 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 6 5 } of Antiquities

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American

Anal.

Boll.

Anot.

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Anc. Hist. ANRW

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Analecta Bollandiana:

Archaeology Bruxelles,

Anatolian

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The Ancient

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Aufstieg und Kultur Niedergang Gescbiebte und Roms der im römiscben Spiegel der Welt. ııeueren Forscbutıg

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Sodetedes

Bollandistes Bitli

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İJatıtUjuitS

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Archdologisebe Arcbiu für

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M . Avi-Yonah, Gazetteer

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BA

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Baldus, Uratıius Antoninus

H . R- Baldus, Uranius Antoninus:

Barnes, New

T. D . Barnes, The Nctı> Empire of Diocletian

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BASOR

Bulletin

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BASP

Bulletin of the American Society of

BCH

Bulletin de correspondance

BE

Bulletin

epigraphique,

Con-

Research

I'apyrologists

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Bulletin d'epigraphie

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M . Schvvabe and B. Lifshitz, Beth She'arim II: The Greek inseriptions {1974) K. Bcyer, Die aramaiseben

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A . R . Birley, The African Emperor: Septimius

BMB

Bulletin dtt Musee de

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Beyrouth

G . F. Hill, Catalogue of the Greek C.oins of

Arabia

Mesopotamia

BMC BMC

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Pboenicia

BMC Syria

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Arabia,

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G . F. Hill, Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Palestine in the British Museum ( 1 9 1 4 )

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BMC Roman

Mesopotamia

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G . F. Mili, Catalogue of the Greek Coins of BMC

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H . Matringly, ct al., Coins of the Roman Empire in tbe British Museum (191 o-) W. W r o t h , Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Galatia, Cappadocia, and Syria in the British Museum (1899)

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Landesmuseutns

Bonn un d des Vereins von Altertumsfreunden

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Rheinlande Bowersock, Roman

G . W. Bcnvcrsock, Roman

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BSOAS

Bulletin

C a n t i n e a u , btv.

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CPL

CCID

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Papyrorum Latbıarum

M . H ö r i g and E. Schwerthcim, Corpus Dolicheni Corpus

CPb

Classical

CRAI

Comptes-rendus

CSCO

Corpus Scriptorum Mitt.

Dentzer, Hauran

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Cultus

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Sentiticarunı

Philology

Damaszcner

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Christianorum

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H . Devijver, Prosopographia quae fuerunt

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DJD

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Archeologia in the Judaean

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H . J. W. Drijvers, Old-Syriac

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Oaks

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M . D u n a n d , Le rnusâe de Soueida

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FHG

C . Müllec, T h . Müller et al., Fragmenta Graecorum

Fitzmycı, PAT

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T H E R O M A N NEAR EAST 31 B C - A D •

337

CHAPTER 1

PROLOGUE: IN SEARCH O F T H E O R I E N T

T h c visitor to t h c N a t i o n a l M u s e u m o f D a m a s c u s , c o n f r o n t e d by the p r o d u c t s o f fivc t h o u s a n d y c a r s o f N e a r E a s t e r n h i s t o r y , m i g h t b c f o r g i v e n f o r n o t n o ticing a small s t o n e altar standiııg in a c o r n e r o f the r o o m called the Hali o f D u r a - E u r o p o s . B u t i f t h e v i s i t o r vvere i ı ı t e r e s t e d iti t h e h i s t o r y o f t h i s r e g i o n w h i l c it w a s u n d e r R o m a n r u l e i n t h c c a r l y c e n t u r i e s o f o u r c r a , t h i s a l t a r w o u l d r e p a y h i s o r h e r a t t e n t i o n . T h c a l t a r is i n s e r i b e d o n t h c f r o n t f a c c vvith e i g h t b r i e f l i n e s in G r e e k , v v h i c h n o t o n l y teli u s a g r e a t d e a l a b o u t t h e N e a r E a s t a s it vvas i n t h e p e r i o d o f R o m a n d o m i n a t i o n , b u t a l s o s e r v e t o i l l u s t r a t e hovv a m b i g u o u s m u c h o f o u r e v i d c n c e i s . O u r d i f f i c u l t y i n s t u d y i n g t h c a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t i s n o t o n l y t h a t m o d e r n E u r o p e a n s a p p r o a c h i n g it c a n n o t h e l p d o i n g s o vvith a h o s t o f c o n f u s e d a n d h a l f - f o r m e d p r e c o n c e p t i o ı ı s a b o u t t h c ' O r i c n t ' . N o r is it m c r c l y t h a t t h c c v i d c n c c vvhich vvc h a v e — a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e m a i n s , i n s e r i p t i o n s , p a p y r i , c o i n s , a l l u s i o n s in a n c i e n t l i t e r a r y v v o r k s — is s c a t t e r e d , i n a d e q u a t e a n d o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o r e l a t e t o a n y i n t c l l i g i b l e c o n t c x c . T h e greatest p r o b l e m is p r c c i s c l y t h a t t h c m o r e c x p l i c i t a n d i n f o r m a t i v c a n i t e m o f e v i d e n c e a p p a r e n t l y is, t h e m o r e it is l i k e l y t o e m b o d y i t s ovvn p r e c o n c e p t i o n s . B u t it vvill s t i l i b e v a l u a b l e , p r o v i d e d t h a t w e r e a d it n o t a s a s i m p l e r e p o r t a b o u t t h e s o c i c t y v v h i c h wc a r e t r y i n g t o a p p r o a c h , b u t a s t h c e x p r e s sion o f a v i e w p o i n t o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h a t socicty, vvhether f r o m inside o r outside. It is t i m e to t u r n t o thc little a l t a r f r o m D u r a - E u r o p o s itself, a n d t h e b r i e f d c d i c a t i o n in G r c c k i n s e r i b e d o n i t : T o thc A n c c s t r a l G o d , Z c u s B c t y l o s , o f t h o s e b y t h c O r o n t c s , A u r c l i o s Diphilianos, soldicr o f thc legion IV Scythica Antoniniana, has offcrcd ( t h i s ) in f u l f i l m c n t o f a p r a y c c . 1 X. Dura

Report

I V ( 1 9 3 3 ) , 6 8 , n o . 1 6 8 {Pl. X V , 1); S E G V I I , n o . 3 4 1 : Qp.râ mzıpüKû / A ı i

BF.T6XÜI / TÛV npoç I Û / O p o v q ı Aûp(fiXıoq) / Aı$ıXı<ıvoç 'Avî(o)VElViavflç) / EÎ^âjlEVOÇ / aVE-OnKEV.

i I 1

T h a t the dedication should h a v e been in G r e e k is n o surprise. Hut f o r that very reason w e m a y fail t o underline its significance, f r o m t w o different but related aspeets. If w e think of the cultural and social history o f the N e a r East, G r e e k had been in w i d e s p r e a d and fully established use there since the coııquests b y A l e x a n d e r , the setting-up o f the Sclcucid d y n a s t y there at rhe cnd o f the fourth century BC and t h e extensive f o u n d a t i o n , especially under Seleuc u s I, o f G r e e k cities a n d settlemcnts. 2 D u r a - E u r o p o s itself, situatcd o n a p r o m o n t o r y o v e r l o o k i n g the middle Euphrates f r o m the vvest, had been one o f these settlements. Aurelius Diphilianus, h o w e v c r , does not identify himself as a citizen o f D u r a , but as a soldier in a R o m a n legion, the FV Scythica, w h i c h had been stationed in Syria since the m i d d l e of the first century AD. H i s presence thus rcflccts the iong and g r a d u a i step-by-step extension o f R o m a n direct r u l e in the N e a r East, w h i c h had b c g u n w i t h the arrivai of P o m p e y ' s f o r c e s in the 6os BC, a n d vvas to reach its greatest extension at the end o f the third century AD; f o r tvvo-thirds of a century, until the defeat of Julian in 363, it vvas t o c o v e r not only ail o f n o r t h c r n M c s o p o t a m i a but s o m e territory east o f the l'igris. D u r a itself, after three centuries of P a r t h i a n rule, h a d been c a p t u r e d and garrisoned by the R o m a n s in the 1 6 o s . D i p h i l i a n u s vvili have made his dedication at s o m e point betvveen t h c n a n d the dcstruction of the tovvn b y the forces of the nevv Persian Ernpire i n the 250S. M o s t p r o b a b l y he did s o in the last d e c a d e s o f the tovvn's life, vvheu his legion h a d earned the extra n a m e ' A n t o n i n i a n a ' f r o m o n e of the E m p e r o r s , perhaps M . Aurelius A n t o n i n u s (AD Z I I 2 1 7 ) , f o r vvhom vve tend t o u s e the c o n t e m p o r a r y nickname ' C a r a c a l l a ' . Diphilianus may h a v e ovved the fact that he vvas a R o m a n citizen t o C a r a calla's grant o f R o m a n citizcnship to ali the frcc inhabitants o f the Ernpire. A t ali events his typical R o m a n o - G r e e k n a m e , ' A u r e l i u s D i p h i l i a n u s ' , shovvs that the citizenship vvill n o t h a v e been acquired by him, o r perhaps b y a prerio u s generation o f his family, earlier than the reign o f M a r c u s Aurelius (AD 1 6 1 - 1 8 0 ) . T h e f o r m o f his n a m e is o n l y o n e small sign o f a c o m p I c x r a n g c of R o m a n influences vvhich p r o f o u n d l y affected the social structure, culturc and e c o ı ı o m y o f the N e a r East i n the first f o u r centuries o f R o m a n rule. L o o k e d at f r o m R o m e , the N e a r East gained an ever-increasing significance in terms o f the extension o f territory, the acquisition o f tribute revenue a n d the d e p l o y ment of military f o r c e . At t h e time vvhen Aurelius Diphilianus made his dedication, his l e g i o n , the IV S c y t h i c a , vvas o n e of t w o stationed in this province, novv called Syria C o e l e (northern Syria); there vvas a l s o one in s o u t h c r n Syria, f o r vvhich the R o m a n s h a d r c v i v c d the name 'Syria Phoenice 1 , as vvcll as tvvo in 'Syria Palaestina' (Judaea), o n e in the province o f ' A r a b i a ' and tvvo in the z. Scc now J. D. Grainger,

The Cities

of Seleukid

Syria

(1990J.

ı ı e w l y a c q u i r e d p r o v i ı ı c e o f M e s o p o t a m i a . T o g e t h e r w i t h the t w o s t a t i o ı ı e d t o t h e n o r t h in C a p p a d o c i a , this m e a n t t h a t , o u t o f t h i r t y - t h r c c R o m a n l e g i o n s in a l i , ten w c r e s t a t i o n c d in t h e e a s t . W h e t l ı e r o n e s h o u l d t h i n k o f t h e m as a frontier force deployed for defence, as an occupying army or as an impcrialist f o r c e stili p o i s e d f o r f u r t h e r c o n q ı ı e s t s is a p r o f o u n d q u e s t i o n , r e c e n t l y r a i s e d in c h a l l e n g i ı ı g f o r m , t o w h i c h vve w i l l r e t u r n . 3 S i n c e the p c r s p c c t i v c o f t h i s b o o k c a n n o t in a n y c v e n t fail t o b e a W e s t e r n o n e , the a p p r o a c h a d o p t e d h a s b e e n t o m a k e t h i s s t a r t i n g - p o i n t c x p l i c i t ; t h a t is t o say, t o d e f i n e t h e r e g i o n , o r s e r i e s o f l i n k e d r e g i o n s , w i t h vvhich it w i l l b e c o ı ı c e r n e d as t l ı o s c a r e a s b e t w c e ı ı the T a u r u s M o u ı ı t a i n s a n d the R e d S e a w h i c h \vere p r o g r e s s i v c l y s u b j e c t e d t o R o m a n d i r e c t r u l e . T h a t will s e r v c t o p r o v i d e a c h r o n o l o g i c a l a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l f r a m e v v o r k , t o b e set u p in t h e first p a r t o f the b o o k . B u t a l t h o u g h a n y defınitiotı o f a r e g i o n involves a n e l e m e n t o f a r b i t r a r y d c c i s i o n , s u c h a c h o i c c is n o t m c r c l y a m a t t e r o f c o n v c n i e n c c . T h e r e a r e a l s o o t h e r , n o t w h o l ! y a r b i t r a r y , c r i t e r i a b y w h i c h the a r e a c o n c e r ı ı e d c a n b e d e f ı n e d . O n e is t h a t it is t h a t r e g i o n o f the N e a r E a s t vvhich f r o n t s d i r c c t l y o n the e a s t e r n c o a s t o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . A n o t h e r is t h a t it i s t h e vvestern a n d n o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e Fertile C r e s c e n t , t h e a r e a o f c u l t i v a b l e l a n d c l o s c l y tied t o m o u ı ı t a i n - c h a i n s w h i c h l i n k e d the M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d E g y p t w i t h B a b y l o n i a , I r a n a n d t h e h e a d o f t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . T h e t h i r d is t h a t a s an a r e a o f c u l t i v a b l e l a n d it m e r g e s at ali p o i n t s i n t o vvhat is u s u a l l y c a l l e d d e s e r t , b u t is m o r e p r e c i s e l y a d r y , s t o n y s t e p p e vvith v o l c a n i c o u t c r o p s a n d o n e m o u n t a i n r i d g e , t h a t vvhich s t r e t c h e s f r o m n e a r D a m a s c u s t o t h e n o r t h vvest o f P a l m y r a . O n l y in the f a r s o u t h , vvhere R o m a n - c o n t r o l l c d

territory

e x t e n d e d i n t o the n o r t h e r n H e d j a z , d o vve c o m e a t ali c l o s e t o the true s a n d d e s e r t vvhich h a s s o c a p t i v a t e d t h e E u r o p e a n i m a g i n a t i o n , T h e a r e a vvhere R o m a n f o r c e s e x e r c i s e d c o n t r o l w a s t h e r e f o r e a c u l t i v a b l e a r c o f t e r r i t o r y s t r u c t u r e d b y m o u n t a i n s a n d s h a d i n g o f f i n t o a vvide s t e p p e . W i t h t h e c o n q u c s t s o f t h e ı 6 o s this a r c a , vvhich p r e v i o u s l y s t o p p e d a t t h e u p p e r - m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , c a m e t o e x t e n d dovvn the r i v e r t o the r e g i o n

of

D u r a - E u r o p o s , a n d vvith t h o s e o f the 1 9 0 S c a n ı e t o i n e l u d e t h e C h a b u r R i v e r , vvhich flovvs i n t o t h e E u p h r a t e s f r o m n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a . B o t h r i v e r s , vvhich m i g h t l o o k o n the m a p a s i f t h e y m a r k e d d e f i n a b l e f r o n t i e r s , in f a c t f u n e t i o n e d m o r e as r o u t e s o f c o ı n m u n i c a t i o n , a n d a s a f f o r d i n g narrovv s t r i p s o f c u l t i v a b l e land b i s e e t i n g t h e s t e p p e . T h e a r c a c o n c c r n e d c o u l d alternatively be defined, at least a p p r o x i m a t e l y , a s t h a t p a r t o f t h e N e a r E a s t w h i c h fell t o the I s l a m i c i n v a d e r s o f t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y , vvho n e v e r s u c c e e d e d in o c c u p y i n g p e r m a n e ı ı d y a n y o f A n a t o l i a ö v e r t h e T a u r u s M o u n t a i n s . A r e t r o s p e e t i v e vievv c a n b e lıighly m i s l e a d i n g .

But

3. M y vvholc a p p r o a c h to this a r c a ovves m u c h to the stiınulus o f the w o r k o f Ben Isaac; s e e n o w The

Limits

of Empire:

The

Roman

Army

in the Kast ( 1 9 9 0 ; ı n d e d . , 1 9 9 1 ) .

the f a c t that this vvhole area w a s to b e c o m e , three t o f o u r ccnturics la ter, a p r c d o m i n a n t l y A r a b i c - s p e a k i n g vvorld w h o s e ruling p o p u l a t i o n w e r e follovvers of islam c a n n o t but raise questions a b o u t the R o m a n period itself. First, w h a t w a s the relevance, in military, social, religious o r cultural terms, of relations between t h e generally settled, cultivable arcas controllcd by R o m e , and the inhabitaııts, w h o e v e r they w e r e , of the steppe? A s we will see, R o m a n military installations w e r e placed almost ali a l o n g the edge o f the steppe, and sometimes deep vvithin it, and stili o f f e r highly evocative remains, a b o v e ali vvhen p h o t o g r a p h e d f r o m the a ir.4 But w h e t h e r w e should th.nk of these as representing a 'desert frontier', w h i c h might h a v e to deal w i t h a significant threat f r o m n o m a d i c or migratory pcoplcs, or as policc-posts lining roads is a more difficult queseion. In either event both d o c u m e n t a r y and litcra r y items of evidenee s h o w b e y o n d question that the steppe w a s not uninhabited: n o m a d peoples d w e l t i h c r c w h o m G r a e c o - R o m a n s called Arabes skinitai,

or

or later progressiveLy Saraceni, w h o belonged t o g r o u p s w e m a y as

w e l l cali tribes, w h o might p o s e at least localised tlıreats to the settled p o p u l a tion or to travellers, a n d at least s o m c of w h o m s p o k e a language w h i c h can be called A r a b i c . Within t h e last few years indeed, the earlicst evidenee o f vvritten A r a b i c has m o v e d b a c k f r o m AD 328 (a f a m o u s inseription from snN e m a r a o n the fringc o f the steppe south-cast of Damascus) t o a b o u t AD ı o o , \vhen t w o lines o f verse in A r a b i c appear in the middle of a N a b a t a e a n inseription f r o m the Negev. 5 T h e extensive evidenee novv available raises the qucstioıı o f Iıow f a r the apparent 'frontier' created b y R o m a n forces along the fringe o f the steppe \vas really porous; o f h o w far, in other w o r d s , w e should see the apparer.tly settled region as being o p e n t o n o m a d i c g r o u p s , cithcr m o v i n g a r o u n d wit.ıin it or erossing the 'frontier' itself. M o r e important, h o w far did the inhabitants o f the settled region share a culture o r c u s t o m s , or sets of religious beliefs, w i t h the ' A r a b ' tribes of the marginal zone? H o w far indeed w e r e such ethnic o r 'fribaP groupings divided between n o m a d i c o r pastoral c o m p o ı ı c n t s und settled, agricultural ones, w h i l e stili maintaining a g r o u p identity? M a n y o f these qucstions have also been reassessed in recent years." A r a b i c apart, there is a m p l e evidenee that a ııumber of Semitic l a n g u a g e s 4 . S e e t h e b r i l l i a n t l y s u g g c s t i v e b o o k o f D . K c ı ı n c d y a n d D . R i l c y , Roıne's from

the Air

Deserl

FrorJier

(1989).

5. T h e r e f c r c n c c i s t o II, 4 - 5 o f t h e N a b a t a e a n i n s e r i p t i o n p u b l i s h c d b y A . N c g e v , t h e G ö d " , IEJ

"Obtdas

3 6 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 5 6 ; t h e i n s e r i p t i o n is i n N a b a t a e a n s e r i p t a n d t h e r e m a i n i t ı g f o u r lines

a r e in N a b a t a e a n . B u t t h e s e t w o l i n e s r e p r e s e n t a p e r s o n a l a f f i r m a t i o n b y t h e d e d i c a t o r . S e e

no»

J, A . B e l i a m y , " A r a b i c V e r s e s f r o m t h e F i r s t / S e c o n d C e n t u r y : T h e i n s e r i p t i o n o f ' E n ' A v d a t " , y S S 3 5 ( s 9 9 ° ) » 73*

furthcc ız.2. below.

6. S e e a b o v c a l i D . G r a f , " R o m e a n d the S a t a t e n s : R c a s s c s s i n g t h e N o m a d i c M e n a c c ' , i n T . F a h d ( c d . ) , L'Arabie

preislamique

et son

environnement

historiıjuc

el culturel

(1989), 341.

w e r c s p o k c n , a n d m o s t l y a l s o \vritten, in t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t : A r a m a i c , H e b r e w , P h o e n i c i a n , N a b a t a e a n , P a l m y r c n e a n d S y r i a c , a s well as the l a n g u a g e k n o w n a s 'Safaitic* a t t e s t e d m a i n l y by large n u m b e r s o f graffiti f r o m the o u t e r e d g e s o f t h e s t e p p e r c g i o n . 7 T h a t t o o raises a n i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n : s h o u l d w e see t h e s p e a k e r s o f a II these S e m i t i c l a n g u a g c s as b c i n g united b y s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n l a n g u a g e , t h a t is, by c u s t o m s , bcliefs, religious p r a c t i c e s o r s o m c sense o f m u t u a l i d e n t i t y ? S h o u l d w e , in a w o r d , see t h e m ali a s 'Scmites'? W h i l e there are obvious a n d well-founded reasons for a rcluctancc t o use this t e r m , it w o u l d at Icast be i m p o r t a n t t o kno\v w h e t h e r a n y related t e r m s \vere used in a n t i q u i t y t o d e s e r i b e t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f this region as a g r o u p . I t m i g h t indeed h a v e b e e n s o , f o r r h e c o n c e p t i o n o w c s its origin t o the m y t h i c a l a c c o u n t o f t h c o r i g i n s o f p e o p l e s in G e n e s i s ^ - 1 0 , a n d t h e d e s e r i p t i o n o f c c r tain p e o p l e s a s the d c s c e n d a n t s o f S h e m . I I o w thcıı w a s this g r o u p i n g i n t e r p r e t e d in o u r p e r i o d ? It is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e r e is a n a n s w c r , a n d that it is t o bc f o u n d in t h c Jeıvish

Antiquities

o f J o s e p h u s . T h i s w o r k , w r i t t e n in R o m e

in t h e later first c e n t u r y AD, is o f t h c g r e a t e s t significance, n o t m e r e l y f o r irs a t t e m p t a t a c o n t i n u o u s history o f t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e f r o m t h c C r c a t i o n t o A D 66, b u t a s t h c o n l y surviving h i s t o r y o f a n y N e a r E a s t e r n p e o p l e t o link t h e i r p a s t in t h e a n c i e n t O r i e n t vvith t h e i r p r e s e n t under R o m a n rule, a n d in d o i n g s o t o link the p a s t a n d t h e p r e s e n t o f t h o s e n o n - J c w i s h p e o p l e s vvith vvlıom the Jcvvs h a d h a d c o n t a c t in t h e c o u r s e o f their history. T h i s q u e s t i o n o f a s c r i b e d identity, o f b e l o n g i n g o r n o t t o s o m c identifiable g r o u p

persisting

t h r o u g h time, is o f c r u c i a l i m p o r t a n c e t o vvhat the p o p u l a t i o n o f t h c R o m a n N e a r E a s t 'vvas'. T h e q u c s t i o n is n o t a f a c t u a l o n e , o f a e t u a l b i o l o g i c a l d e s c e n t (vvhich is b o t h vvholly u n a n s v v c r a b l c a n d o f limited i m p o r t a n c e anyvvay), b u t o f identity, o r 'ethnicity'.® It a l s o b r i n g s us b a c k again t o Aurelius D i p h i l i a n u s , t h e soldier d e d i c a t i n g an altar in D u r a - E u r o p o s in thc third c e n t u r y AD. T h e deity t o vvhom he d e d i c a t e d the a l t a r vvas ' t h e a n c e s t r a l g o d , Z e u s B e t y l o s , o f t h o s e b y t h c O r o n t e s ' . T h e o r i g i n a l p u b l i c a t i o n o f f e r s a t r a n s l a t i o n o f the initial vvords vvhich is b o l d t o t h c p o i n t o f e m b o d y i n g a f a r - r c a c h i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : ' t o (his) n a t i o n a l god . . B u t

vvhether D i p h i l i a n u s a c t u a l l y vvas a n a t i v c o f the S y r i a n r e g i o n

w e d o n o t knovv; precisely o n e o f t h e c r u c i a l a m b i g u i t i c s o f this u n u s u a l l y e x p l i c i t d c d i c a t i o n is t h a t vve d o n o t knovv vvhether w e a r e r e a d i n g t h e vvords 7 . F o r t h e besc s u r v e y s s e e R . S c h m i t t , " D i c O s t g r e n z e v o n A r m e n i e n ü b e r M e s o p o t a m i c n , S y r i e n b i s A r a b i e n " , in G . N e u m a n r ı a n d J . U n t c r ı n a n n (cds.), Die Sprachen

im römiseben

Reich

(Bcih. B o n n . J a h r b . 4 0 , 1 9 8 0 ) , 1 8 7 , a n d H . P. R o s c h i n s k i , " S p r a c h e n , S c h r i f t c n u n d I n s c h r i f t c n in N o r d s v c s ı a r a b i c n " , i b i d . r j r . 8. F o r r c c c n t w o r k s o n rhis qucsciı>n, s c c (or c x a m p l c E . G c l l n c r , Nations ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; B . A n d c r s o n , Imagined tions

(1986).

Communities

( 1 9 8 3 ) ; A . D . S m i t h , The

Ethnic

and

Nationalism

Origins

of

Na-

o f an 'ınsider' w h o h a p p e n c d also t o be a R o ı n a n soldier o r o f an outsider p a y i n g h i s r e s p e c t s (as R o m a n s o i d i e r s c a n be f o u n d d o i n g t h r o u g h o u t the p e r i o d ) t o a l o c a l , o r r e g i o n a l , deity. H o w h e a c t u a l l y d e s c r i b c d the d c i t y will c o n c c r n us latcr. F o r t h e m o m e n t it is s i g n i f i c a n t , in e i t h e r c a s e , t h a t h e t h o u g h t o f t h a t d e i t y a s b e i n g the a n c e s t r a l o n e ' o f t h o s e b y the O r o ı ı t e s ' . M a k i ı ı g his d e d i c a t i o n b y t h e b a ı ı k s o f the E u p h r a t e s , d i d he ı n e a n t o distiııg u i s h ' t h o s e b y t h e O r o n t c s * f r o m t h e c o m m u n i t y in w h i c h he n o w f o u n d h i m s e l f ? O r ( a s s e e m s m u c h r n o r e p r o b a b l e ) d i d h e i n t e n d t o use the O r o n r e s , w h i c h flows f r o m t h e B e k a a V a l l e y n o r t h w a r d s b e h i n d a m o u n t a i n - e h a i n , £iıd t h e n t u r n s w e s t t o A n t i o c h a n d t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , a s the g c o g r a p h i c a l s y m bol o f the p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e w h o l e r e g i o n ? If the latter, h e w a s i n d e e d c l a i m i n g a n a n c e s t r a l c u l t c o m m o n t o t h e m ali. S o f a r as \ve k n o w , A u r e l i u s D i p h i l i a n u s t h o u g h t u p this c o n c c p t i o n ı f o r h i m s e l f ; a t a n y r a t e it h a s n o p a r a l l e l in t h e l i t e r a t ü r e o r d o c u m e n t s a v a i l a b l e t o us. N o r i n d e e d c a n w e find a n y s e n s e o f a c o m m o n p a s t u n i t i n g the c o n t e m p o r a r y p o p u l a t i o n s o f the r e g i o n a n d i d e n t i f y i n g t h e m vvith t h e life o f : h e cities o f the a n c i e n t O r i e n t , o r vvith t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e A s s y r i a n , B a b y l o n i a n o r P e r s i a n E m p i r e s . N o r i n d e e d , e x c e p t a m o n g t h e Jevvs, a n d p e r h a p s iıı P h o e n i c i a , c a n vve find, in i n d i v i d u a l a r e a s , a n y s e n s e o f a c o n t i n u i t y l i n k . n g c o m m u n i t i e s t o t h e i r m o r e r e m o t e p a s t . If t h e telis c o v e r i n g t h e r e m a i n s o f a n c i e n t cities w h i c h d o m i n a t e d ( f o r i n s t a n c e ) S a m o s a t a o n the E u p h r a t e s , I ^ o d i c e a a d I . i b a n u m a t t h e m o u t h o f t h e B e k a a V a l i c y o r S c y t h o p o l i s in : h c J e z r e e l Valley p r o v i d e d a s e n s e o f h i s t o r i c i d e n t i t y f o r t h o s e vvho lived t h e r e , o r e v e n p r o v o k e d c u r i o s i t y , t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o shovv it. S o f a r as o u r c v i d e o c e gocs (an i m p o r t a n t qualificatîon), a notcvvorthy ' a m n e s i a ' m a r k e d the historic a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f the i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e N e a r E a s t in this p e r i o d . 9 I f ı h e p a g a n i n h a b i t a n t s o f S c y t h o p o l i s h a d l i s t e n e d a t ali t o their Jevvish n e i g h b o u r s a n d f c l l o v v - i n h a b i t a n t s , t h e y c o u l d l ı a r d l y n o t h a v e knovvn t h a t t h e i r teli w a s t h a t o f t h e a n c i e n t B c t h s h a n , vvhere t h e P h i l i s t i n c s h a d ö n c e h u n g up t h e b o d ies o f S a u l a n d his s o n s : ' o n t h e vvalls o f t h e c i t y o f B e t h s h a n , vvhich is novv c a l l e d S c y t h o p o l i s ' , a s J o s e p h u s r e c o r d e d i t . 1 0 W a s it becattse

o f this n o n -

G r e e k p a s t o r in i g n o r a n c e o f it t h a t the c i t i z e n s o f S c y t h o p o l i s d e s c r i b c d t h e m s e l v e s , in a G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , in t e r m s vvhich c m p h a t i c a l l y a s s e r t e d the G r e e k c h a r a c t e r o f t h e p l a c e ? T h e y a d d r e s s e d the ruling E m p e r o r a s ' l o r d o f t h e N y s a e a n s a l s o c a l l e d S c y t h o p o l i t a n s , ( a c i t y vvhich is) h o l y a n d i n v i o l a t e , ( o n e o f ) t h e G r e e k c i t i e s o f C o c l c S y r i a ' . 1 1 T h e y m i g h t

9 . I h e i K p r e s s i o n i s b o r r o v v e d f r o m W . W i r a k o w s k i , The sius ofTel-Mahre:

A Sludy

1 0 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

in the

History

of Historiography

Syriâc

ChroHİcle

0/

Pieı/dö-Dimy-

(1987), 76.

VI, 14, 8 (374).

1 1 . G . Forster a n d Y. T s a f r i ç " N y s a - S c y t h o p o l i s — A N c w Inscripıion and the Tities o f t h e C i t y o n Its C o i n s " , INJ

9 ( 1 9 8 6 - 8 7 ) , 5 3 . N o t e t h a t t l ı c y >vere u s i ı ı g ' C o e l e S y r i a ' in a w a y w h i c h

d i d n o t a t ali c o t r e s p o n d t o t h e o f f i c i a l d e s i g n a t i o n o f a p r o v i n c e used f r o m the 190S o n w a r d i .

i n d e e d h a v e b e e n a w a r e , f r o m t h e Bible o f their Jevvish n e i g h b o u r s , o f t h e p r e G r e e k p a s t o f the city. If s o , t h c y w e r e corısciously d i s a s s o c i a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s f r o m it. F.qually, it is t h e o r e t i c a l i y

possible, Aurelius Diphilianus might

have

k n o w n f r o m t h e Jevvish c o m m u n i t y of D u r a - E u r o p o s o f a m y t h i c a l p a s t i n vvhich m a n y of the p e o p l e s o f t h e N e a r E a s t a n d b e y o n d b e l o n g e d \vithin a single d e s c e n t - g r o u p . But it is m o r e t h a n unlikcly. A c o m m o n p a s t \vhich h a d t h e N e a r East a s its f o c u s vvas t o b c c o m e p a r t o f a g e n e r a l w o r l d - v i e w o n l y w h e n C h r i s t i a n i t y t r i u m p h e d . F o r t h e m o m e n t it w a s o n l y a J e w , J o s e p h u s (\vriting in G r e e k , in R o m e ) , w h o in setting o u t his v e r s i o n of G e n e s i s 9 - 1 0 c o u l d link S h e m a n d his s o n s t o the prescnt i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e N e a r East a n d its n e i g h b o u r i n g regions: S h e m , the third o f N o a h ' s sotıs, had five sons, w h ö itıhabited Asia as far as the Indian O c e a n , beginning at the Euphrates. Elymus had for his descendants the Elymaeans, ancestors of the Persians. A s s y r a s founded the city of N i n u s , and g i v e his n a m e to his subjects, the Assyrians, \vho rose to the height of prospcrity.

A r p l ı a x a d c s named thosc under his rule

A r p h a x a d a c a n s , the C h a l d a c a n s of today. A r a m u s ruled the A r a m a e a n s , \vhom the G r e e k s term Syrians . . . O f the f o u r sons of A r a m u s , User f o u n d e d Trachonitis a n d D a m a s c u s , situated bctvvecn Palcstine and C o c l c Syria . . . A r p h a x a d c s w a s the father of Selez and he of H e b e ^ after w h o m the Je\vs were originally called Hebrevvs.' 2 F.ven if a n ethnic c a t e g o r i s a t i o n b a s e d o n attributing p e o p l e s to d i f f e r e n t b r a n e h e s o f d e s c e n t f r o m N o a l ı h a d c o m e to be m o r e w i d e l y used in a n t i q u i t y , it w o u l d n o t h a v e d o n e m u c h t o s u g g e s t t o a n y o n e t h a t ' S e m i t e s ' w o u l d b e the right d e s i g n a t i o n f o r ali the p e o p l e s living e i t h e r vvest o r i m m e d i a t e l y e a s t o f the E u p h r a t e s . F o r o n e t h i n g J o s e p h u s h i m s e l f h a d a l r e a d y , earlier in t h e s a m e lx>ok, listed s o m e of t h e n c a r e r n e i g h b o u r s of the Jevvs a m o n g the d e sccndants not o f Shem but o f H a m : T h e clıildren of H a m held t h e countries branchiııg f r o m Syria and the mountaiıı-ranges of A m a n u s a n d Libanus, o c c u p y i n g ali the district in the direetion of the sca and a p p r o p r i a t i n g the rcgion reaching to the ocean . . . C h a n a n a e u s , the fourrh son of H a m , settled in the country novv called Judaea and named it after himself, C h a n a n a e a . . . C h a n a n a e u s also had sons, of vvhom Sidonius b u i h in Phoenicia a city named after him, stili called Sidon by the Greeks, a n d A m a t h u s f o u n d e d Amathus, vvhich the inhabitanrs to this d a y cali A m a t h e , though the M a c e d o n i a n s renamed it Epiphaneia after one of A l c x a n d c r ' s succcssors. 1 3 1 2 . J o s e p h u s , Ani.

I, 6, 4 ( 1 4 3 - 1 4 5 ) .

1 3 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

I, 6, 2 ( 1 3 0 - 1 3 8 ) ; L o c b i r a ı ı s .

Hovvever c o n f u s i n g it m a y be, Josephus' attempr t o offer a c a t c g o r i s a t i o n o f the peoples f o u n d in Genesis in terms o f k n o w n g r o u p s to be f o u n d in the long-sincc Heileniscd N e a r East o f the R o m a n Empire is o f great interest, and w o u l d deserve further s t u d y ; it o w e s m u c h o f course t o the G r e e k tradition o f portraying the 'origins of p e o p l e s ' in terms of descent f r o m m y t h i c a l f o u n d ers, the subject of a justly f a m o u s paper b y Elias Bickerman. 1 4 T h i s f o r m o f c a t c g o r i s a t i o n can a l s o be c x t e n d e d by Josephus t o the A r a b p e o p l e s of the region, f o r he sees them as the descendants o f Ishmael, the son o f A b r a h a m and Hagar. O n c c again he brings his pictııre of their imınediate mythical descendants into relation w i t h peoples currcntly t o be f o u n d in the N e a r East: When the child (rshmael) reached manhood, his mother (Hagar) found him a \vife of that Egyptian race from whieh she herself had originally sprung; and by her tvvelve sons in ali vvere born to Ishmael, Nabaioth(es), Kedar, Abdeel, Massam, M a s m a s , Idum(as), Masnıes, C h o d a m , T h a i m a n , Jetur, Naphais, Kadınas. T h e s e occupied the whole couııtry extending from the Euphrates to the R e d Sca and callcd it Nabatene; and it is these w h o conferred their names o n the Arabian nation and its tribes in honour both of their o w n provvess and of the fame of Abraham. 1 9 Josephus h a s thus both e m b r a c e d ali the A r a b tribes of the steppe and desert b c t w e c n the R e d Sea and the Euphrates in the category o f the d e s c e n d a n t s o f Ishmael, a n d introduccd f o r that region the n a m e ' N a b a t e n e ' , w h i c h is not in the Septuagint text of Genesis 2 5 , a n d w a s the n a m e of the c o n t e m p o rary k i n g d o m w i t h its capiral at Petra. T h e designation of c o n t c m p o r a r y A r a b s as the descendants of Ishmael w a s later to be of m o m e n t o u s sigtıifıcance. F o r by the mid-fifth ccntury S o z o m c n u s , the C h u r c h historian and a native of G a z a , not o n l y repeats the story o f the descent o f Saracen tribes f r o m Ishmael a n d Hagar, b u t claims that s o m e o f them had c o m e t o accept this tradition themselves: ' S o m e o f their tribe a f t c r w a r d s h a p p e n i n g to c o m e in contact w i t h the Je\vs, gathercd f r o m them the facts of their truc origin, returned to their k i n s m e n , and inclined to the H e b r e w c u s t o m s and l a w s \ If there is a n y truth in this, its potential relevance to the origins o f islam is very considcrablc. 1 6 Josephus' aseriptions of e t h n i c identity and relationship are thus highly significant. But w h a t his w o r d s vvill not d o is to o f f e r a n y support at ali for 1 4 . "Origines 1 5 . Ani.

GeHtium",

CPb 4 7 ( 1 9 5 1 ) , 6$.

I, 1 2 , 4 ( 2 2 0 - 1 2 1 ) ; L o e b t r a n s .

1 6 . S o z o m c n u s , H E V I , 3 8 , 1 0 - 1 3 , t r a n s . C . D . H a r t r a n f t in NPNF.

F o r a s t ı i k i n g and

c o n t r o v c r s i a l v i c w o f t h e o r i g i n s o f i s l a m , in w h i c h s e l f - i d e n t i f ı c a t i o n a s ' I s h m a e l i t e s ' o r ' H a g a r ices' p l a y s a c e n t r a l r o l e , s e e P. C r o n e a n d M . C o o k , Hagarism:

The Making

( 1 9 7 7 ) . T h i s p a s s a g c is a l s o h i g h l i g h r c d in M . C o o k , Mubammad,

of the Islamic

^ 9 8 3 ) , Hoff.

Wo-ld

ıhe m o d e r n notion o f 'Semites* as s o m e sort o f racial category e m b r a c i n g the d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n - g r o u p s o f t h e N e a r Kast; f o r t o h i m s o m c o f t h e m descended from H a m . J o s c p h u s is, hovvcvcı^ very c o n s c i o u s o f t h c i m p a c t o f I I c l l c n i s a t i o n o n p l a c c - n a m e s , c t h n i c t e r m i n o l o g y a n d p o l i t i c a l s t r u e t u r e s in t h c N e a r E a s t . H i s s w e e p i n g a n a l y s i s o f t h i s is vvorth q u o t i n g : O f the nations some stili preserve the n a m e s wlıich wcre given them by their founders, s o m c have e h a n g e d them, \vhile yet others have modified them t o make t h e m m o r e intelligible to their neighbours. It is the Greeks w h o are responsible f o r this c h a n g e o f ııomenclature; f o r when in after ages they rose t o power, they appropriatcd even t h c glorics o f t h c past, cmbellishing the nations vvith names vvhich they could understand and imposing on them f o r m s o f g o v e r n m e n t , a s though they vvere descended from themselves. 1 7 J o s e p h u s t h u s o f f e r s h e r e a v i v i d (and it s c c m s u n i q u e ) ' i n s i d c r V vicvv o f t h c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s vvhich h a d o v e r t a k e n t h e region s i n c e t h e c o n q u e s t s b y Alex> a n d e r j u s t ö v e r f o u r c e n t u r i e s previously. B u t h e a l s o , in t h e p a s s a g e q u o t e d earlier, asserts aıı i d e n t i t y o f t h c a n c i c n t c i t y o f H a m a o n t h c O r o n t c s vvith t h c H c l l c n i s t i c f o u n d a t i o n o f E p i p h a n i a , n a m e d a f t e r t h e Seleucid k i n g A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s . 1 8 M o r e i m p o r t a n t stili, h e a p p e a r s t o c l a i m t h a t t h e i n h a b i t a n t s ( b e t t e r ' l o c a l s ' o r even ' n a t i v e s ' — e n c h ö r i o i ) stili used t h c a n c i c n t n a m e f o r i t . If ' l o c a l s ' m c a n s t h c p e o p l e o f t h a t p r c c i s c a r c a , t h a t raises a d i f f e r e n t q u c s t i o n ; for, a s w e vvill see later, t h c O r o n t e s V a l l e y is o n e o f t h e fevv r e g i o n s o f t h e N e a r E a s t w h e r e t h e r e is t o d a t e n o d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e o f t h c usc o f a n y S c m i t i c l a n g u a g e in t h c R o m a n p e r i o d . In t h i s c o n t e x t , the c a t e g o r i s a t i o n o f l a n g u a g e s , t h e u s e o f the t e r m ' S e m i t i c ' is h a r m l e s s a n d u n a v o i d a b l e ; t h c m u t u a l r c s e m b l a ı ı c c s in v o c a b u l a r y and g r a m m a t i c a l f o r m , thc identity of alphabet a n d the similarities o f seript o f ali the l a n g u a g e s c o n c e r n e d a r e u n m i s t a k a b l c ; 1 * a n d t h e c o n t r a s t a n d i n t e r p l a y betvveen t h e m o n o n e hatıd a n d G r e e k ( a n d L a t i n ) o n the o t h e r in t h c N e a r E a s t is o n c o f t h c m o s t c l c a r l y d e f i n a b l e f c a t u r c s o f t h c c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f the p e r i o d . T h e f a c t t h a t the r e g i o n c o n c e r n e d is o n e in vvhich a g r o u p o f S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s vvas in u s e c a n t h e r e f o r e s e r v e a s o n e f u r t h e r n o n - a r b i t r a r y m e a n s o f defining it. B u t even in this r e s p e c t , l a n g u a g e , it s h o u l d b e s t r e s s e d t h a t t h c c u r r c n c y o f this l a n g u a g c - g r o u p r c c c i v c d v e r y littlc a t t e n t i o n f r o m ' i n s i d e r s ' a n d even less f r o m ' o ı ı t s i d e r s ' .

1 7 . Ant.

I, 5, 5 ( i z i ) ; I . o c b t r a n s .

1 8 . S c c G r a i n g e r , o p . cir. ( n . x ) , 1 3 8 - 1 3 9 . 1 9 . F o r t h c S c m i t i c l a n g u a g e s as a g r o u p , n o o v e r a l l h i s t o r y h a s r c p l a c c d E . R c n a n , gtnârale

et systeıne

compare

des langues

semitiquess

Histoire

( 1 8 7 8 ) . But sec, e.g., S. M o s c a t i e t a l . ,

An

J o s e p h u s , w h o , a s vve savv, identifics rhe A r a m a e a n s o f t h e B i b l e a s t h o s e 'vvhom the G r e e k s cali S y r i a n s ' , d o e s , hovvever, ııote t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f lang u a g e a n d seript as betvveen A r a m a i c a n d Hebrevv. Significantly i n d e c d , he a l t e r s a p a s s a g c in his s o u r c e , t h e H c l l e n i s t i c Letter

of Aristeas,

g i v i n g a leg-

e n d a r y a c c o u n t o f the t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e B i b l e i n t o G r e e k in t h e third c e n t u r y BC, t o assert a s m u c h a r e s e m b l a n c e a s a c o n t r a s t betvveen Hebrevv a n d A r a m a i c : 2 0 ' T h e c h a r a c t c r o f t h e i r vvriting s e e m s t o r e s e m b l e t h e distinetive forrn o f t h e S y r i a n letters a n d t h e l a n g u a g e s o u n d s s i m i l a r t o theirs, but it is in fact distinet'. J o s e p h u s o f c o u r s e , f o r a l i t h a t he vvrote his entire surviving vvorks G r e e k a n d vvhile living in R o m e , w a s an ' i n s i d e r ' , f o r vvhom t h e n a t i o n a l trad i t i o n c a r r i e d b y vvriting in Hebrevv a n d A r a m a i c vvas o f c c n t r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . O t h e r s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d — t h a t is, p e r s o n s vvriting in I.atin o r G r e e k f r o m o u t s i d e t h e N e a r E a s t — p a i d very little a t t e n t i o n t o the seripts a n d l a n g u a g e s o f the r e g i o n , a n d h a r d l y h e l p u s t o define in vvhat t e r m s e t h n i c a n d c u l t u r a l g r o u p i n g s t h e r e s h o u l d be identified. T h e r e s e e m s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t o b e n o single a l l u s i o n anyvvhere in C l a s s i c a l l i t e r a t ü r e t o t h e l a n g u a g e a n d s e r i p t o f Palm y r a . B u t D i o d o r u s , in a m u c h - q u o t e d p a s s a g c , a t t r i b u t e s t o t h e N a b a t a c a n s o f the late f o u r t h c e n t u r y BC t h e a b i l i t y t o vvrite a letter 'in S y r i a n c h a r a c t e r s ' , 2 1 as their ( l a t e r ) i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d p a p y r i shovv t h a t they did. M o r e generally, S t r a b o , q u o t i n g a n d a d a p t i n g P o s i d o n i u s , s p e a k s o f the r e s e m b l a n c e in l a n g u a g e , c u l t u r e a n d p h y s i c a l type betvveen A r m e n i a n s (vvhosc then h o m e l a n d l a y n o t in t h e C a u c a s u s b u t j u s t b e y o n d the u p p e r - m i d d l e T ı g r i s ) , S y r i a n s and Arabs: F o r the nation o f the A r m e n i a n s and that of the Syrians and A r a b i a n s betray a elose affinity, n o t only in their language, but in their modc of life and their bodily build, and particularly vvherever they live as e l o s e neighbours . . . Indeed Poseidonius conjectures that the n a m e s o f these n a t i o n s also are a k i n ; for, says he, the people vvhom vve cali Syrians are b y the Syrians themselvcs callcd Arimacans and Arammaeans. 2 2 E v e n t h o u g h S t r a b o (or P o s i d o n i u s ) h e r e c o m e s e l o s e r t h a n o t h e r c o m m e n t a t o r s t o suggesting c o m m o n r a c i a l o r p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t c r i s t i c s f o r a t İ c a s t s o m e o f t h e peoples o f the N e a r E a s t , e n o u g h h a s b e e n said t o i n d i c a t e t h a t any single term used in the m o d e r n vvorld t o d e n o t e t h e m a l i , vvlıether ' S e m i t e s ' o r

iHtrodurtioH lingue

to the Cottıpantive

semitiche:

2 0 . Ant.

Sindi di storia

Grammar lirtguistiaı

X I I , 2 , 1 ( 1 5 ) , a d a p t i n g Lelter

of the Settıitic

languages

( 1 9 6 4 ) , or G . G a r b i n i , l.e

(197a). of Aristeas

2J11.

2 1 . D i o d o r u s X X , 9 6 , 1. 2 2 . S t r a b o , Geog. and K i d d , F.280.

I, 2, 3 4 ( 4 1 - 4 2 ) , L o e b i r a n s . — P o s i d o n i u s , F G r H 8 7 , R ı a ç a = Edclscein

a n y other, w o u l d r e p r e s e n t a purely a r b i t r a r y c h o i c e , vvith n o basis in a n c i e n t terminology." ' S e m i t i c ' in this b o o k vvill be used s o l e l y t o refer t o the f a m i l y o f l a n g u a g e s c o n c e r n c d , vvhosc mutual r e s c m b l a n c e s a r c a m a t t e r o f o b s e r v a b l e f a c t . B u t even if \ve a b a n d o n the use o f r a c i a l t c r m i n o l o g y , t h e q u c s t i o n rcrnains o p e n o f hovv far a n d in vvlıat senses t h e r e vvas a c o m m o n c u l t u r e , p a t t e r n o f reli g i o u s c u s t o m s o r sense o f m u t u a l identity o r r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g t h e p e o p l e s o f t h e N e a r E a s t vvho s p o k c S c m i t i c languages. G i v c n t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i m p o r t a n c e o f l a n g u a g e t o t h e e m e r g e n c e o f n a t i o n a l i s m in the m o d e r n w o r l d , it i s n a t u r a l t h a t vve s h o u l d p o s e the q u e s t i o n , p r o v i d e d t h a t vve r e m a i n avvare t h a t it m a y e m b o d y c o m p l c t c l y i n a p p r o p r i a t e p r e c o n c e p t i o n s . S u c h q u c s t i o n s vvill b e p u r s u c d t h r o u g h o u t this b o o k , a n d c a n n o t b e a n svvered fully a t this p o i n t ( o r i n d e e d , given the limits o f o u r e v i d e n c e , a t a l i ) . But they d o n e e d t o b e posed in a p r e l i m i n a r y vvay, a b o v e ali in the sphere o f religious p r a c t i c e . " T h e R c l i g i o n o f the S e m i t e s ' , o f vvhich Jevvish

cult-

p r a c t i c e s , a s p o r t r a y e d in the O l d T e s t a m e n t , a r e t o be c o n c e i v e d o f as o n c aspect, h a s l o n g been the s u b j e c t o f s c h o l a r l y enquiry. 2 4 E v e n if this vvere c o n c c d c d t o be a l c g i t i m a t c t e r m , i t vvould n o t follovv t h a t c o m m o n c h a r a c t c r i s tics o f religious p r a c t i c e , p e r h a p s vvith a p a r t i c u l a r c o m p a t i b i l i t y vvith Jevvish o b s e r v a n c e s , w e r e stili t o b e f o u n d in this region in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c o r R o m a n I m p e r i a l p e r i o d s . But in f a c t t h e r e a r e s o m e i n d i c a t i o n s , hovvever partial a n d u n s a t i s f a c t o r y , t h a t this vvas i n d e e d t h e c a s e . T a k e f o r c x a m p l c t h e c u s t o m o f c i r c u m c i s i o n . H e r e again J o s c p h u s r e l a t e s Jevvish a n d A r a b p r a c t i c e , a n d p u t s t h e r e s e m b l a n c e in the c o ı ı t e x t o f their s u p p o s e d c o m m o n d e s c e n t . S p e a k i n g o f I s a a c , he says: ' E i g h t days l a t e r they p r o m p t l y c i r c u m c i s c d him; a n d f r o m t h a t d a y forvvard t h e Jevvish p r a c t i c e h a s b e e n t o c i r c u m c i s e s o m a n y d a y s a f t e r birth. T h e A r a b s defer the c e r e m o n y t o t h e thirteentlı year, because I s h m a c l , t h e f o u n d e r o f their r a c c , b o r n o f A b r a h a m ' s c o n c u b i n e , vvas c i r c u m cised a t t h a t a g e \ " J o s e p h u s ' c o m m e n t a b o u t t h e a g e o f c i r c u m c i s i o n a m o n g t h e A r a b s is his ovvn a d d i t i o n t o the B i b l i c a l a c c o u n t , a n d is in t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e . W e h a v e t o t a k e it t h a t he intends t o refer t o t h e c o n t c m p o r a r y vvorld o f t h e first c e n t u r y AD. I f c o n f i r m a t i o n is needed, it is provided b y a n i m p o r t a n t vvork t o vvhich vve vvill r e t u r n , B a r d e s a n e s ' Book Coutıtries,

of the Laıvs

of

vvritten in S y r i a c in t h e first part o f the third century, a n d p e r h a p s

t h e o n l y rival t o J o s c p h u s ' Anliquities

as a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the a n t h r o p o l o g y

o f t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t . G i v i n g i n s t a n c e s o f the fact t h a t c u s t o m s c a n 2 3 . It f o l ! o w s , as w ı l l be d c a r , t h a t I c a n n o t a c c c p t t h e l o g ı c a l basis of a n a p p r o a c h s u c h a s t h a t o f S. M o & c a t i , The Semites and Their

Political

Establishmeııt

in Ancient

History:

An lnquiry

into the SeUlcment

of the

Bedouht

(1959).

2 4 . 1 refer a b o v e ali o f c o u r s e t o t h e c i a s s i c v o l u m e o f W . R o b e r t s o n S ı n i t h , The Religion

the Semites 1 5 . Ant.

(1894). I, i l , 2 ( 2 1 4 ) .

of

c h a n g c , a n d a r e n o t d e t e r m i n e d i m m u t a b l y b y the s t a r s , he s a y s : 2 6 ' R e e e n t l y the R o m a n s h a v e c o n q u e r e d A r a b i a a n d h a v e d o n e a w a y w i t h t h e old Iaws t h e r e used t o be, p a r t i c u l a r l v c i r c u m c i s i o n , w h i e h w a s a c u s t o m t h e y u s e d ' . G i v e n t h a t ' A r a b s ' w e r e t o b c f o u n d in t h e s t e p p e b o r d e r i n g ali o f t h e Fertile C r e s c e n t , it is q u i t e u n e l e a r w h e t h e r he m e a n s t o refer b a c k t o t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f N a b a t a e a in AÜ I O 6 , t o t h e c o n q u e s t o f M e s o p o t a m i a in t h e 1 9 0 S o r t o s o m e o t h e r c v e n t . B u t t h e p o i n t , a n d i t s r e l c v a n c c t o the R o m a n I m p e r i a l period, remains. M o r e essential stili is the q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h e N e a r E a s t e r n region was c h a r a c t e r i s e d in a n y g e n e r a l w a y by the a v o i d a n c e o f i m a g e s , o r t h e w o r s h i p o f c u l t - o b j c c t s w h i e h w e r e d i s t i n e t f r o m the a n t h r o p o m o r p h i e images typical o f G r a e c o - R o m a n anriquity. T he p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t this vvas s o in t h e Hellentstic p e r i o d f o r m e d t h e c o r e o f the r e v o l u t i o n a r y a p p r o a c h t o the crisis o f J u d a ism in the 1 7 0 S a n d ı 6 o s BC, put forvvard b y E l i a s B i c k e r m a n . 2 7 O n this vievv t h e c u l t w h i c h w a s set up in t h e H o l y o f H o l i e s in 1 6 7 BC vvas n o t a n c x a m p l e o f H e l l c n i s a t i o n , that is t o say, an a n t h r o p o m o r p h i e G r e e k c u l t i n s t i t u t e d by A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s . I n s t e a d it w a s a r e f o r m i n g a d o p t i o n o f ' S y r i a n ' c u l t p r a c t i c e s , in w h i c h t h e a l t a r itself b c c a m e t h e o b j e c t o f w o r s h i p . T h i s brillia.it h y p o t h e s i s c a n n o t be p r o v e d , a n d runs c o u n t e r t o the f a c t t h a t o u r best evid e n e e distinguishes a p h a s e o f H e l l c n i s a t i o n vvithin J u d a i s m f r o m a

suc-

c c c d i n g p h a s e o f o v e r t i n t e r v e n t i o n b y t h e Scleucids. 2 8 M o r e p r o b l e m a t i c for B i c k e r m a n ' s vievv, b u t m o r e r e l e v a n t f o r t h e p r e s e n t discussion, is the f a c t that ali the evidenee c i t e d f o r t h e vvorship o f a l t a r s in p a r t i c u l a r o r f o r a n i c o n i c cults in g e n e r a l , usually o f l a r g e s t o n e s , c o m e s n o t f r o m the H e l l e n i s t i c b a t f r o m t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d . 2 9 W e will r e t u r n l a t e r t o the h i l l - t o p t e m p l e s o f the l i m e s t o n e m a s s i f in n o r t h e r n S y r i a , built in the R o m a n E m p i r c , 3 0 vvhtch inc l u d c o n e o f Z e u s B ö m o s , ' Z c u s (the) A l t a r ' , paralleled a few miles avvay by t h e t e m p l e o f ' Z e u s M a d b a c h o s a n d S e l a m a n e s , the A n c e s t r a l G o d s ' ; h e r e the a d j e c t i v e f o r this l o c a l Z e u s c l e a r l y derives f r o m the A r a m a i c r o o t D B K , or Hebrevv Z B K , m e a n i n g ' s a c r i f i c e ' : this Z e u s t o o vvas a ' Z e u s (the) A l t a r ' . T h e o n l y litcrary evidenee vvhich c a n be citcd f o r t h e c o n c e p t o f the a l t a r as itself t h e o b j e c t o f vvorship again c o m e s f r o m t h e Imperial p e r i o d , n a m e l y t h e f a s c i n a t i n g w o r k On Abstinence

z6. The

Book

from

Living

of the Laıvs of Gountries:

Thitıgs vvritteıı by P o r p h y r y , a ııative

Dialogue

on Fate of Bardaisan

of F.dessa,

c d . and

crans. I I . J . W . D r i j v c r s ( 1 9 6 5 ) , 5 6 - 5 7 . S e e f u r t h e r 1 2 . 5 belovv. 2 7 . E . B i c k c r m a n , Der

Gott

der Makkabâer

( 1 9 3 7 ) , csp. 9 o f f .

1 8 . S o F. M i l l a ı , " T h e B a c k g r o u n d t o t h e M a c c a b c a n R e v o l u u o n : R e l l e c t i o n s o n

Manin

H e n g c l ' s ' J u d a i s m a n d H c l l c n i s m " ' , JJS 2 9 ( 1 9 7 8 ) , r . 2 9 . S e c F. M i l l a r , " T h e P r o b l e m o f H e l l e n i s t i c S y r i a " , i n A . K u h r t a n d S . S h e r w i n - W h , t e (eds.)» Hellenism

and the East

30. 7.3 below.

( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 1 0 , o n p. 1 3 1 .

of T y r e , in the later third century. T h e reference in this case is purely incidental, f o r he is in f a c t assenıbling instances of h u m a n sacrifice. But a m o n g these he adds: ' A n d the D o u m a t e ı ı o i of A r a b i a used each year to sacrifice a b o y w h o m they buried beneath an altar, vvhich they trcat as a cult-statue non)\3i

(xoa-

T h e place referred to i s o f great interest f o r other reasons, f o r it is

D u m a t h a , present-day J a w f , at t h e far end o f the W a d i Sirhatı, a w i d e depression w h i c h carries a routc f r o m D a m a s c u s south-cast into thc Empty Q u a r t e r and evcntually t o the Persian G u l f . Scattcred epigraphic evidcncc f r o m there s h o w s it t o h a v e been just w i t h i ı ı the limits of both N a b a t a e a n and later R o m a n control. 3 2 Whethcı^ again, w e should read Porphyry, an important N c o Platonist philosophcr a n d pupil of Plotinus, as an 'insidcr', even as an ' O r i e n tal', w h e n he speaks of c u s t o m s at different locations in the N e a r East is a question t o w h i c h w e will h a v e t o r e t u r n . " It is more than unlikely that h e ever visited D u m a t h a , vvhich lies o v e r 500 k m south-east of D a m a s c u s . N o n e theless it vvas not a vvholly r e m o t e and f a b u l o u s place, but on a route visited b y R o m a n soldiers. It is also n o t i c e a b l e that Porphyry s p e a k s of h u m a n sacrüficc there in thc past tense, but o f thc status o f the altar there as a cult-object in the present. T h e evidence f o r this precise f o r m o f aniconic cult in the N e a r East, w h i l e it exists, is thus very slender a n d hardly o f f e r s m u c h support for B i c k e r m a n ' s typically brilliant hypothesis.

But in a w i d e r f o r m , the use o f a

non-

representational object, usually a large stone, in place of a cult-statue is v e r y well attested, by literary, epigraphic and visual cvidcnce, b o t h o n coins a n d on relicf-carvings. We even g a i n f r o m Hcrennius Philo of B y b l o s , vvriting his Phoenicica

early in the second century AD, a glimpse of hovv such s a c r e d

stones might h a v e been u n d c r s t o o d . For in thc course of his exposition o f Phoenician beliefs he makes the brief statement, \vithout further e l a b o r a t i o n : ' m o r e o v e r T h e o s O u r a n o s t h o u g h t u p baitulia, having devised stones invested vvith life'. 5 4 This allusion, unfortunatcly for us, presumes rather than d o c s m u c h t o illuminatc the role of large stones as cult-objects, vvhich is attested on the c o i n s o f v a r i o u s Phoenician cities, and is knovvn also elsevvhere in the N e a r East. 3 5 Beyond this, the vvord ' S y m b e t y l o s ' o r ' S y m b a i t y l o s ' a p p e a r s o n c c o r tvvice as thc n a m e of a g o d in the G r e e k inseriptions f r o m thc villagcs of the limestone massif in northern Syria, a n d seems to m e a n 'the o n e vvho 3 1 . P o r p h y r y , De abst.

II, 5 6 , 6: KCI AoupaTnvoi 8E xîy, 'ApajJıaç x a t £toç e c a o t o v EÖUOV

tıaı&a, ov \mo pö^ıov eöasıov, oı ^pûvtaı ıi>î ÇOÛVCO.

3 1 . Scc TI.T belovv. 33. Scc 8 . j belovv. 34. Q u o t c d b y E u s c b i u s , Praep. Ev. I, 1 0 , z j = J a c o b y , FOrll

7 9 0 , F , z (23): ^EVÖTIOE ÖEOC;

O v p a v ö ç (Soıııj'.ıa, X(0ou; Ep^v^oı»; tııı^avnoâjiEvoç. O n P h i l o scc f u r t h e r 8.4 b c ! o w . 3 5 . See 8 . 4 , 9 . Z a n d ı r . 4 b c l o w .

shares the betyl', o r cult-object. 3 6 But here immediately, as s o o f t e n in the N e a r East, w e enter the area o f vvhere linguistic, cultural a n d religious speculations interact, a n d the c o n c l u s i o n w h i c h emcrges is ali t o o likely t o reprcsent a b o v e ali the presuppositions of the investigator. Nonetheless, it s e e m s difficult t o set aside the long-established vievv that G r e e k w o r d s ıısing the roat ' b e t y l ' o r 'baityl' reflect v a r i a n t transliterations of the Semitic-language terrn 'betheP ( B T L ) , m e a n i n g ' h o u s e of El (god)'. T h i s conceprion in itself gains s o m e force f r o m the f a c t t h a t the term seems novv t o be attested o n an A r a maic inscription f r o m the R o m a n Impcrial p e r i o d , f o u n d a t the village o f £1M a l in southern Syria, s o m e 4 0 k m south-vvcst o f D a m a s c u s . 3 7 T h e inscription, vvhich dates f r o m 7/6 ac, seems t o record that s o m e o n e 'built a house o f g o d ' ( B N H B Y T ' L H ) , t h a t is, a temple. T h o u g h there vvere Jevvish settlements in this region, b o r d e r i n g on G a u l a n i t i s (the G o l a n Hcights), the conte.nt is surely p a g a n . Hovvever, it is clear that vvhat is referred to here is not a ' b e t y l ' as understood by Philo, and t a k e n as a general c o n c e p t i o n b y m o d e r n s , that is, a stone housing a divinc spirit, but a building, n o d o u b t one of those s m d l rural sanctuaries s o vvell attested ö v e r large parts of the N e a r East. A s so often, if vve try to generalise t o o confidently vvhen c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the intcrmingling of l a n g u a g e s , cultures and forms of religious bclicf ar.d practice vvhich vve encounter in the N e a r East, the evidence vvill not quite fail into the patterns vve vvould like. T h i s is indeed partly because, vvhen a n d if literary o r d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e f r o m the period is particularly c x p l i c i t , or o f f e r s s o m e vvider characteri&ation or interpretarion of the culture o r cultures o f the region, it in itself m a y constitute an observer's interpretarion, n o t a report vvhich can be taken at face valuc. It is precisely f o r these r e a s o n s that the dedication inseribed by Aurelius D i p h i l i a n u s on the iittle altar vvhich he p u t u p at D u r a - E u r o p o s is o f such significance. T h e c o n t c x t is o n e vvhere papyri, parehments and inseriptions m a n u m b e r of different l a n g u a g e s , like the i c o n o g r a p h y , sculpture and architecture o f the tovvn, d e m o n s t r a t e the co-existence of an e x t r a o r d i n a r y v a r i e t y of cultures and religious systems, 3 8 just as tıcvvly discovercd papyri a n d parehments o f the third century, m a i n l y relating t o an area not far u p the E u p h r a t e s f r o m D u r a , also reveal a bilingual vvorld to vvhich until novv vve h a v e hardly had a n y a c c e s s . " T h e r e can b e n o question therefore that Aurelius Diphilianus, in dedicating his altar in G r e e k 'to the Ancestral G o d , Z e u s Betylos, of those by the O r o n t e s ' , vvas m a k i n g an a f f i r m a t i o n vvhich vvas intended t o be 36. IGLSII, no. 376 (Kaff Nako); 383 (Qalota). For a d«ail«i discuMion .w Duya Reprvt IV, 6«>ff. 3 7 . Sec J. N a v e l ı , " A n A r a m a i c Inscriprion f r o m F ! - M a l — a Surviva) o f 'Sclcucid A r a m a k * S c r i p t " , IE) 25 ( 1 9 7 5 ) , 1 1 7 - C f . J. T c i x i d o r , BES (197*»), 3 8 . S c c n ı o r c fıılly 1 2 . 2 a n d 1 2 . 4 b c l o w . 39. Scc csp. 4 . 2 b c l o w .

">7- Scc further I I . I bctow.

s i g n i f i c a n t at the t i m e , a n d d e m a n d s o u r a t t e n t i o n n o w . H e c i e a r l y s a w t h e o b j e c t o f his d e d i c a t i o n b o t h a s i n h e r i t e d f r o m p r e v i o u s g e n c r a t i o n s ( t h o u g h w h e t h e r his a n c e s t o r s o r o t l ı e r s ' is a d i f f e r e n t q u e s t i o n ) a n d as b e i n g w o r s h i p p e d b y the p o p u l a t i o n o f a w i d e r g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n . W e m i g h t c v e n s u p p o s e t h a t h e i n t e n d e d ' t h o s e b y the O r o n t e s ' t o r e f e r t o ali t h e p a g a n i n h a b i t a n t s o f the S y r i a n r e g i o n . I Iovvever, the divitıe a p p e l l a t i o n h e u s c d , ' Z e u s B c t y l o s ' , r e m a i t ı s uxıique i n o u r e v i d e n c e . It d o e s n o t e v e n s e e m c l c a r w h e t h e r ' b e t y l o s ' h e r e is a n a d j e c t i v c ( ' B e t y l i a n Z e u s ' ) o r a n o u n , a s i n ' Z e u s B ö m o s ' . I n the l a t t e r c a s e it w o u l d b e ' Z c u s ( t h e ) B e t y l ' \vhich D i p h i l i a n u s c l a i m s t o h a v e b e e n t h e l o n g - s t a n d i n g o b j e c t o f vvorship o f a vvider p o p u l a t i o n . T h a t in its t u r n may m c a n t h a t h e c o n c e i v e d o f this d e i t y a s b e i n g e m b o d i e d in a s t o n e . F u r t h c r m o r e , as w e \vill see, o n e c o n t c m p o r a r y w r i t c r , t h e h i s t o r i a n H e r o d i a n , c i e a r l y a s s e r t s t h a t t h e s t o n e w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e d the g o d F.lagabal a t E m c s a w a s i m a g i n e d t o h a v e fallen f r o m heaven. H i s w o r d s provide a c l e a r e x a m p l e o f h o w a Classical w r i t e r o f the l m p e r i a l p e r i o d m a y p u t t h a t s a m e d i s t a n c c betvveen h i m s e l f a n d t h e c u s t o m s o f the ' O r i e n t ' a s t h e m o d e r n F . u r o p c a n o b s e r v e r t e n d s t o d o : ' T h e r e vvas n o a e t u a l m a n - m a d e s t a t u e o f t h e g o d , the s o r t G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s put u p ; b u t t h e r e vvas a n e n o r m o u s b l a c k s t o n e , r o u n d e d a t the b a s e a n d c o m i n g t o a p o i n t a t t h e t o p , c o n i c a l in s h a p c a n d b l a c k . T h i s s t o n e i s vvorshipped as t h o u g h it vvere s e n t f r o m h e a v e n ' . 4 0 W h e t h e r the s t o n e a c t u a l l y vvas a m e t e o r i t e vve c a n n o t k n o v v ; vvhat is s i g n i f i c a n t is the c o n c e p t i o n . B u t i t is a h n o s t i n e v i t a b l e t h a t s p c c u l a t i o n s h o u l d l c a d o n e t o t h i n k o f a p o s s i b l e c o n n e c t i o n betvveen the p a t t e r n s o f c u l t - p r a c t i c e visible h e r e a n d the c e n t r a l r o l e vvhich M a h o m e t vvas t o g i v e t o the b l a c k s t o n e built i n t o the K a a b a in t h e nevv c u l t h e i n s r i t u t c d a t M c c c a ; t h i s vvas o n e e l e m e n t vvhich h e t o o k ö v e r f r o m the e x i s t i n g p a g a n vvorship t h e r e . 4 1 E n o u g h h a s b e e n s a i d t o g i v e s o m e i m p r e s s i o ı ı o f the d i v e r s i t y a n d r i c h n e s s o f the e v i d e n c e vvhich is p o t e n t i a l l y a v a i l a b l e f o r a n y a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e o f the N e a r Kast in t h e p e r i o d vvhen R o m a n rule s t e a d ily e x t e n d e d t o r e a c h its f u r t h e s c limits. B u t , vvhile t h e e v i d e n c e is i n d e e d r i c h a n d d i v e r s e , a n d s t e a d i i y b e c o m i n g m o r e s o , it is a l s o v e r y s e a t t e r e d , c a n n o t yield a n y t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g s t a t i s t i c s , o r e v e n o r d e r s o f m a g n i t u d e , a n d a b o v e ali l e a v e s t h e e c o n o m i c b a s i s o f s o c i e t y t h e r e in a l m o s t t o t a l o b s c u r i t y . W h a c , f o r i n s t a n c e , vvas t h e r o l e o f l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e in f o r m i n g N e a r E a s t e r n s o c i e t y in t h i s p e r i o d ? T h e q u c s t i o r t is o f m u c h m o r e t h a n p u r e l y e c o n o m i c s i g n i f i c a n c e . F o r if t h e r e vvere i n d e e d i m p o r t a n t t r a d e - r o u t e s b y l a n d t h r o u g h t h e H e d j a z , a s ( p e r h a p s ) in t h e t i m e o f M a h o m e t ; t h r o u g h t h e \Vadi S i r h a n t o

4 0 . I l c r o d i a ı ı V , 3 , 5 , l . o c b t r a n s . S c c f u r t h e r 9 . 2 bcJovv. 4 1 . S c c n o w t h e h i g h l y s c c p t i c a l a c c o u n t o f t h e o r i g i n s o f i s l a m in M c c c a b y P, C r o n c , can Trade and the Rise of islam

(1987), 192.

Mec-

thc P c r s i a n G u l f ; o r via P a l m y r a t o t h e E u p h r a t e s , o r via the Fertile C r e s c e n t t o t h e T i g r i s , c o n t i n u i n g t o B a b y l o n i a o r C e n t r a l Asia, thcıı \vc m a y h a v e to see the r e g i o n vvhich vvas i n c o r p o r a t e d in t h c R o m a n E m p i r e a s b e l o n g i n g n o t j u s t g e o g r a p h i c a l l y but in s o m c m o r e p r o f o u n d sense t o the ' O r i e n t ' . F o r c x a m p ! c , vverc the Jcvvs o f J u d a e a the o n l y s p e a k e r s o f a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e in t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t vvho m a i n t a i n e d aetive a ı ı d c o n t i n u o u s c o n t a c t s vvith a r e l a t e d c o m m u n i t y in B a b y l o n i a ? M o d e r n vievvs o f t h e e c o n o m y o f t h e a n c i e n t vvorld tend strongly t o nıir.im i s e the d e p e n d e n c e o f a n y c o m m u n i t y on l o n g - d i s t a n c c t r a d e . 4 2 B u t a n c i c n t o b s e r v e r s , f r o m S t r a b o at t h c b e g i n n i n g o f o u r period t o P l i n y the F.lder and t o A m m i a n u s M a r c e l l i n u s in t h e f o u r t h century, s t r o n g l y affirm the i m p o r t a n c e o f l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e o n ali t h e r o u t e s m e n t i o n e d a b o v c , if less clcarly in t h e c a s e o f that t h r o u g h t h e W a d i S i r h a n . S h o u l d vvc t h e n see a t least s o m e o f thc citics o f t h e N e a r E a s t a s striking a n d significant e x c e p t i o n s t o a g e n e r a l rule, a s h a v i n g b e e n , in R o s t o v ı z e f f ' s p h r a s c , ' c a r a v a n c i t i e s ' ? H e used thc t e r m o f Petra, o f D u r a - E u r o p o s , o f J e r a s h ( G e r a s a ) a n d a b o v c ali o f c o u r s e o f P a l m y r a . 4 3 But vvhilc n o o n c c a n d o u b t t h a t ' c a r a v a n s ' (synodiai

in G r e e k )

did g o f r o m P a l m y r a t o t h e e a s t , a s t u d y o f w h a t seems a s if it vvould b e the best e v i d e n c e f o r P a l m y r e n e trade, the bilingual customs-lavv f r o m thc rcign o f H a d r i a n , shovvs t h a t it a c t u a l l y dcals m a i n l y vvith p r o d u e t s c o m i n g i n ı o thc c i t y f r o m its s u r r o u n d i n g territory, vvhich vvas far f r o m being i n e r e d e s e ı t , o r even {as a b o v e ) steppe, b u t ineluded a l a r g e n u m b e r o f s m a l l s e t t l e m e n t s o r vitlages. 4 4 B o t h t h e c u l t u r a l a n d the e c o n o m i c i m p o r t a n c e o f l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e vv:ll h a v e t o be d i s c u s s e d further belovv. S o vvill the c o n t r a s t i n g e l e m e n t in c c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l life m e n t i o n e d a b o v c , t h c s m a l l c r s e t t l e m e n t s a n d villages o f t h c r c g i o n . F o r i f t h e r e is a single feature o f N e a r E a s t e r n s o c i e t y vvhich e m e r g e s m o r e c l e a r l y t h a n a n y o t h e r f r o m the m a s s o f i s o l a t e d a n d c n i g m a t i c i t e m s o f e v i d e n c e — a r c h a e o l o g i c a l (înds, i n s e r i p t i o n s , papyri a n d p a r e h m e n t s , a n d literatüre, vvhether p a g a n , C h r i s t i a n o r Jcvvish, a n d vvhether vvritten :n L a t i n , G r e e k o r a variety o f S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s — i t is the life o f t h e dense netvvork o f villages a n d small s e t t l e m e n t s vvhich c a n b e shovvn t o h a v e c o v c r c d l a r g e p a r t s o f the r e g i o n . T h i s is o f c o u r s e n o t c q u a l l y t r u c o f ali a r c a s . T h e c x t c n t o f s c t t l c m c n t a n d c u l t i v a t i o n a l o n g t h e fringes o f t h e s t e p p e h a s alvvavs been a c u t e l y d e p e n d e n t on p o l i t i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y f a c t o r s ; b u t it is q u i t e c l e a r

4 1 . S e e , a b o v e a l i , M . L F i n l c y , The

Ancient

Economy

( 1 9 7 3 ; ı n d c d . 1 9 8 5 ) — q u a l i f i c d in

P. G a m s e y , K . H o p k i t ı s atıd C . R . W h i t t a k e r (cds.), Trade in the Ancient 4 3 . M . I. R o s t o v t z e / f , Caravan Gnomon

Cities

Economy

(1983).

( 1 9 3 1 ) . N o t e ıhc important rcvicw by D . Schlumbcrger,

1 1 (193 5), 8 1 .

4 4 . J. F. M a t t h c w s , " T h c T a x L a w o f P a l m y r a : E v i d c n c c f o r E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y i n a C i t y of t h c R o m a n F . a s t " , / R S 7 4 ( 1 9 8 4 ) , 1 5 7 , a s t u d y t o w h i c h this b o o k is v e r y m u c h i n d c b t e d .

t h a t the E m p i r e r e p r e s e n t s , in c o m p a r a t i v e t e r m s , a p e r i o d o f t h e v e r y w i d e e x t e n s i o n o f c u l t i v a t i o n , h a r d l y p a r a l l e l e d until t h e p r c s e n t day. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d it h a s n e v e r b e e n s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r l y a e k n o w l e d g e d t h a t w i t h i n the R o m a n N e a r E a s t t h e r e a r e m o u n t a i n o u s a r e a s w h i c h h a v e n e v e r b e e n s e r i o u s l y e x a m i n e d for a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d d o c u m e n t a r y r e m a i n s . O n e , o n t h e n o r t h - e a s t friııge o f t h e r e g i o n , is M o u n t A m a n u s ; h e r e a l m o s t the l a s t v i l l a g e c o m m u n i t y w e c a n e n c o u n t e r in o u r e v i d e n e e is the f o r t i f i e d v i l l a g e c a l l e d P i n d e n i s s u m , svhich C i c c r o s p e n t

fifty-six

d a y s b e s i e g i n g in 5 0 BC. 4 5

S e c o n d , t h e r e is the c h a i n o f m o u n t a i n s b e t w c c n the m i d d l e O r o n t e s V a i l c y and the M e d i t e r r a n e a n , stretchitıg south f r o m A n t i o c h a n d terminating at t h e g a p b e t w e e n E m e s a a n d the s e a f o r m e d b y the river E l e u t h e r o s ( N a h r e l K e b i r ) . T h e s e l i m e s t o n e hills r i s i n g t o s o m e 1 5 0 0 m , the a n e t e n t M o n s B a r g y lus o r p r c s e n t J e b e l A n s a r i y e h , i n h a b i t e d b y an Alavvi p o p u l a t i o n s i n c e t h e M i d d l e Ages, have never been o p e n to archaeological investigation, and r e m a i n an a l m o s t c o m p l c t c b l a n k in t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d s o c i a l m a p o f t h e r e g i o n . 4 6 Yet t h e r e is c u l t i v a b l e l a n d , f o r m e d i n t o s m a l l fields, u p t o t h e v e r y s u m m i t o f the r i d g e ; a n d the g r e a t t e m p l e o f B a e t o c a e c e n e a r the s o u t h e n d o f the c h a i n , a n d lying a t s o m e 1 0 0 0 m a b o v e s e a - l e v e l , itself s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e vvas a s i g n i f i c a n t p o p u l a t i o n h e r e u n d e r the E m p i r e . 4 7 P a r a d o x i c a l l y , in the m u c h h i g h e r M o u n t I . e b a n o n c h a i n , s t r e t e h i n g s o u t h o f t h e E l e u t h e r o s R i v e r a s f a r as t h e L e o n t e s ( L i t a n i ) River, a vvhole series o f r u r a l s a n c t u a r i e s a r e knovvn, t h o u g h n o t the v i l i a g e s vvhich m u s t h a v e b e e n n o t t o o d i s t a n t l y a s s o c i a t e d vvith t h e m . 4 9 B u t a b o v e ali, a t the v e r y h e a r t o f t h e r e g i o n , t h e r e is t h e g r e a t m a s s o f A n t i - L e b a n o n , r e a c h i n g s o m e 2 4 0 0 m , a n d its s o u t h e r n c x t e n s i o n , M o u n t I l e r m o n , vvhich a t t a i n s j u s t ö v e r 2 8 0 0 m. T h e eritire m o u ı ı t a i n - e h a i n e x t e n d s s o m e 2 3 0 k m f r o m t h e n o r t h - e a s t , vvhere it a l m o s t t o u c h c s o n the s t e p p e , t o t h e s o u t h - w e s t , vvhere it r e a c h e s the G o l a n H e i g h t s , t h e headvvaters o f t h e J o r d a n a n d t h e hills o f G a l i l c c ; a n d it is s o m e 3 0 k m vvide betvveen t h e B e k a a V a l l e y a n d D a m a s c u s . I n v c s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e s o u t h - w c s t c r n e n d o f this c h a i n in r e c e n t y e a r s h a v e shovvn the s a m e vvidespread t r a c e s o f c u l t i v a t i o n a n d s c t t l c m e n t a s elsevvhere, n o t t o s p e a k o f o l i v c - p r e s s e s f o u n d a t h e i g h t s o f up t o 1 2 0 0 m . 4 9 O u r l i t e r a r y a n d d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n e e f o r t h e s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f t h e r e g i o n h a r d l y t a k e s us b e y o n d r e f e r e n c e s t o r a i d i n g b y the I t u r a e a n p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e s e m o u n t a i n s in t h e e a r l y R o m a n p e r i o d , a n d

4 5 . C i c c r o , ad fam. X V , 4, 1 0 . 4 6 . F o r a study o f this r e g i o n , see J . Weulersse, Le pays des Alaouiies

İ-II (1940).

4 7 . O n B a e t o c a e c e see further 8.3 b c l o w . 48. See the r e m a r k a b l e s u r v e y b y D . K r e n c k e r a n d W . Z s c h i c t z n ı a n n , R ü n ı i s c h e Tempel

in

Syriert I—II ( 1 9 3 8 ) . N o t c the m a p in v o l . II, ' l a f . 1. In f a c t , vvith the c x c c p t i o n o f B a e t o c a e c e , m o s t o f ı h e t e m p l e s s u r v e y e d lie in the t e r r i t o r y o f p r e s e n t - d a y 1 - c b a n o n , a fevv on A n t i - I . c b a n o n a n d M o u n t I l e r m o n b e i n g just on t h e Syriars side o f the border. 4 9 . S. D a r , a T h e H i s t o r y o f t h e H c r m o n S c t t l c m c n t s " , PF.Q 1 2 0 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 6 .

e x p e d i t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e m u n d e r A u g u s t u s . S 0 B u t h e r e a b o v e ali w e o u g h t t o t h i n k o f b o t h a n i n n e r ' f r o n t i e r ' , p o s s i b l y m o r e real than that vvhich lay a l o a g t h e fringes o f t h e s t e p p e , a n d a m a j o r r c s c r v c o f p o p u l a t i o n vvhosc h i s t o r y a n d c u l t u r e a r e stili virtually u n k n o w n . T h e stress j u s t l a i d o n e x t e n s i v e r u r a l s e t t l e m e n t , vvhich vvould b e v a l i d a l s o o n either side o f the E u p h r a t e s a n d its t r i b u t a r y the C h a b u r , vvhich runs s o u t h f r o m n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a , is i m p o r t a n t f o r several r c a s o n s . O n e is t h a t vve o u g h t t o be o p e n t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e r e g i o n as a w h o l e c o n taitıed a far l a r g e r p o p u l a t i o n than c o m p a r i s o n vvith m o s t m o r e r e c e n t p e r i o d s vvould suggest. S e c o n d , it m e a n s t h a t t h o s e p l a c c s vvhich a n c i e n t e v i d e n c e a n d m o d e r n t r e a t m e n t s label a s ' c i t i e s ' (poleis)

have t o b e seen in the c o n t e x t o f a

netvvork o f o t h e r s e t t l e m e n t s , vvhich in s u m vvill h a v e b e e n far m o r e i m p o r t a n t in t e r m s o f o v e r a l l p o p u l a t i o n , vvhile t a k e n iııdividually t h e y m a y h a v e been i n d i s t i n g u i s h a h l c f r o m s m a l l poleis.

It s h o u l d n o t indeed b e p r e s u m e d in ad-

v a n c e t h a t the distinetion betvveen city (polis)

a n d village (körne) vvas alvvays

entirely elear. T h e fact that J o s e p h u s c a n use polis

o f v a r i o u s s e t t l e m e n t s in

G a l i l e c (for i n s t a n c e G i s c h a l a a n d J o t a p a t a ) vvhich vve vvould n o t Üst a s ' G r e e k c i t i e s ' , a n d c a n even u s e s o m e t i m e s the o n e t e r m a n d s o m e t i m e s t a e o t h e r f o r t h e s a m e p l a c e t h e r e , is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y j u s t c a r e l e s s n e s s . " N o r is it in t h e least c e r t a i n t h a t the vvhote r e g i o n vvas n c a t l y divided u p a m o n g t e r r i t o r i e s (cl)örai)

d e p e n d e n t o n r e c o g n i s e d poleis.

A t the very l e a s t it is c l e a r in s e v e ı a l

r e g i o n s , t h e H a u r a n in s o u t h e r n Syria a b o v e a l i , t h a t villages c o u l d c o ı ı d u c t their ovvn c o m m u n a l lives vvithout a n y a p p a r e n t r c f c r e n c e t o a polis

under

vvhosc a u t h o r i t y t h e y lived. O f c o u r s e in o u r p e r i o d , b e g i n n i n g t h r e e c e n t u r i e s a f t e r t h e c o n q u e s t by A l e x a n d e r , the c e n t r a l role o f cities, vvhether I Iellenistic f o u n d a t i o n s o r a n c i e n t cities (like D a m a s c u s o r T y r e ) vvhich h a d evolved i n t o G r e e k c i t i e s , is u n d e n i a b l e . M o r c o v e r the n u m b e r o f places vvhich ' b e c a m e ' G r e e k c i t i e s in this p e r i o d is c o n s i d e r a b l e ( f o r i n s t a n c e F l a v i a N e a p o l i s , p r e s e n t - d a y N a b l u s ) . S u c h t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s c o n t i n u c t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d . E v e n vvithin t h e few y e a r s c o v e r e d by the i m p o r t a n t nevv G r e e k a n d S y r i a c arehive f r o m t h e m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s r e g i o n , f r o m t h e 1 3 o s t o t h e 250S, the s e t t l e m e n t o f A p p a d a ı ı a turns i n t o a n o t h e r G r e e k c i t y c a l l e d N e a p o l i s , d u l y c q u i p p c d vvith t o w n c o u n c i l l o r s (bouleutai).sl

A fevv d e c a d e s later, u n d e r t h e T e t r a r c h y , the village

o f S a k k a i a in t h e n o r t h e r n I l a u r a n vvas t o e m e r g e a s t h e G r e e k c i t y o f M a x i m i a n o p o l i s , n a m c d a f t e r o n e o f the E m p c r o r s ; a n d later stili, in t h e 320S, the p o r t o f G a z a , M a i o u m a s , vvas t o be m a d e a c i t y vvith t h e title C o n s t a n t i n a . " 50. 2.1 b c l o w . 5 1 . Scc M . G o o d m a n , State and Society

in Roman

(Salilee,

AD

ıjz—ıız

(1983), 27.

5 2 . D . Fcissci a n d J . G a s c o u , " D o c u m c n t s inedits d u M o y c n E u p h r a t e (III' sieclc a p r e s J . - C . r , CRAI

( 1 9 8 9 ) , 535» o » PP- S 4 ' - 5 4 * .

5 3 . E u s c b i u s , VCIV,

3 8 - 3 9 ; S o z o m e n u s , HE V , 3, 6 - 8 .

But the very ease vvith \vhich these transformations could apparently be effected raises a m a j ö r qucstion a b o u t the culture of the region. It is n a t u r a l to think of 'the G r e e k city' as a n alien importation, a f o r m o f c o l o n i s a t i o n and d o m i n a t i o n över a 'native' p o p u l a t i o n ; and indeed there is s o m e truth in this v i c w for the early I l c l l c n i s t i c period. 5 4 But centuries had passed; m a n y villages in the region bore m o r e t h a n a mcre o u t w a r d o r physical resemblance to G r e e k cities. A n d if it is a p p r o p r i a t e to think in terms o f a contrast betvveen ' G r e e k ' o n the o n e hand and ' n a t i v e ' o r 'Semitic' o r ' O r i e n t a l ' elemeııts in the culture a n d social structure o f t h e region on the other, it is by no mcans c l c a r that any such contrast coincides vvith a division betvveen city and country. A s nevvly publishcd docunıents m a k c e v e r cleareı^ the life of villages in this region could bc m a r k c d b y c o m p l e x property-rclations; by privatc legal transactions carried out vvith the use of d o c u n ı e n t s in G r e e k ; and b y direct e x c h a n g e s vvith represcntativcs o f the state. T a k e f o r e x a m p l e the marriagc-contract agreed in AD IZ8 in the village o f M a o z a in the district of Z o a r a , vvhich lies in the deep depression, the W a d i A r a b a h , vvhich e x t e n d s b e y o n d the south end of the D e a d Sea. Both families c o n c e r n c d vvere Jevvish, a n d o n e c a m e from Engcdi in the province of J u d a e a . But M a o z a f o r m e d p a r t o f the nevv p r o v i n c e of A r a b i a , ereated in AD I o 6 b y the a b s o r p t i o n o f the kingdoııı o f N a b a t a e a . T h e marriage-contract c o m e s f r o m the 'archive of B a b a t h a ' , f o u n d in a c a v e in the Judaean Desert and n o w published by Naphtali I-evvis. İt is vvritten in Greek a n d begins in a style vvhich e m p h a t i c a l l y rccalls the attachnıent o f this rural w o r l d to a vvider povverstrueture: In the consulship o f Publius Metilius N e p o s for the ı n d time and Marcus Annius Libo on the nones of April, and by the compute of the nevv province of Arabia year tvventy-third on the fifteenth of month Xandikos, in M a o z a , Z o a r a district, Judah son of F.leazar also knovvn as Khthusion, gave över Shelamzion, his very ovvn daughter, a virgin, to Judah surnamed Cimber son of Ananias son of Somalas, both of the village lln-gcdi in Judaea residing here. 55 Both the families define themselves b y village and province, and o n e b y t h e attachnıent o f their village t o the district o f Z o 3 r a (literally 'around Z o a r a ' ) ; no Greek poleis c o m e itıto the picture at ali. But the f a c t that the people c o n 54. Scc c s p . P. Brianc, " C o l o n i s a t i o n h e l l c n i s t i q u e ct p o p u l a t i o n s i n d i g e n e s : L a p h a s c d ' i n s t a l l a t ı o n " , Kİ 10 (îo ( 1 9 7 8 ) , 5 7 = Rois, Moyen-Oricnt

aııcien

5 5 . N . L c w i s , The

l'ibtıls

et pasteıın;

P.tudes sur les formatloııs

tribııtaires

du

(1982), 227. Documents

from

the Bar-Kocbba

Papyri ( 1 9 8 9 J , n o . 1 8 ( h c n c e f o n v a t d P. Yadin).

Period

in the Cave

of Letlers:

Greek

G . W. Bowen>ock, " T h e Babatha Papyri, M a s a d a

a n d R o m e n , / J M 4 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 3 3 6 , 011 p. 3 3 9 , a r g u c s t h a t t h e t r a n s l i t e r a t c d L a t i n w o r d s h o u l d b c libelhrius,

not

librarins.

c e r n e d c o u l d h a v e the very d e t a i l e d p r o v i s i o n s o f t h c c o ı ı t r a c t set o u t in G r e e k d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t they w e r e fluent G r e e k s p e a k e r s o r w r i t e r s . O n t h e c c n trary, the d o c u m e n t w a s vvritten by a seribe, T h e e n a s s o n o f S i m o n , w h o identifies his r o l e , s o m c w h a t o d d l y , by using the t r a n s l i t e r a t e d L a t i n w o r d

librar-

ius. A n d vvhen t h e p a r t i e s c o m e a t t h e e n d o f t h e d o c u m e n t t o g i v e t h e i r s u b s c r i p t i o n s in their ovvn h a n d s , t h e y d o so in A r a m a i c : ' Y e h u d a h s o n o f E l a z a r K h t h u s i o n : I h a v e g i v e n m y d a u g h t e r S h e l a m z i o n , a virgin, in m a r r i a g c to Yehudah . . ( Y H W D H B R ' L ' Z R K T W S N H Q H T Y T S L M Ş Y N B R T Y BTWLH LYHDH ...). B u t t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e d o c u m e n t m u s t b c t h e visible p r e s e n c e in it o f thc w i d c r R o m a n E m p i r e . I n this c a s c t h e n a m e o f the E m p e r o r h i m s s l f ( H a d r i a n ) d o e s n o t a p p e a r . B u t the ' n e w p r o v i n c e ' o f A r a b i a d o e s . S o d o e s a R o m a n system o f d a t i n g , a n d the n a m e s o f t h e t w o c o n s u l s holding o f f i c e in R o m c . B o t h o f t h c nevv a r e h i v e s , from t h c J u d a e a n D e s e r t a n d f r o m thc m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , g i v e a povverful a n d u n e x p e c t e d i m p r e s s i o n o f the signific a n c e in private life, in r e l a t i v e l y r e m o t e c o u n t r y districts, o f b e l o n g i n g t o the E m p i r e . T h a t f r o m the m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , vvhich i n c o r p o r a t e s s o m c d o c u m e n t s f r o m the cities o f n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a , a l s o refleets a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n vvhich c i t i e s undervvent in this p e r i o d : t h a t is, the rapid s p r e a d , f r o m t h e 1 9 0 S onvvards, o f t h c c o n f e r m c n t o f thc R o m a n s t a t u s o f colorıia,

vvhich vvas n o m e r e title b u t involved thc r e s t r u e t u r i n g o f t h e city

m a g i s t r a c i e s a n d (at least i n p r i n c i p l e ) t h e u s e o f L a t i n in p u b l i c t r a n s a c t i o n s . " In this nevv a r e h i v e , N i s i b i s , C a r r h a e a n d Edcssa in M e s o p o t a m i a ali a p p e a r a s coloniae;

a n d b y t h a t t i m e thc s a m e title h a d been c o n f e r r c d on

J e r u s a l e m (novv A e l i a C a p i t o l i n a ) in J u d a e a (novv Syria P a l a e s t i n a ) a n d on B o s t r a a n d Pctra in A r a b i a . İt vvas a l s o , a l m o s t certainly, e n j o y e d by D u r a E u r o p o s , vvhere Aurelius D i p h i l i a n u s c r c c t e d his a l t a r t o Z c u s B e t y l o s . F o r hovvever e v o c a t i v e , i f b a f f l i n g , is the d e s i g n a t i o n vvhich D i p h i l i a n u s gave t o this deity, the m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t a b o u t his d e d i c a t i o n m a y stili b e t h c very s i m p l e o n e t h a t it r e p r e s e n t s the s c i f - c x p r c s s i o n o f a R o m a n I c g i o n s r y s o l d i e r vvriting in G r e e k . T h e fact t h a t he c o n s t r u e s his ' Z e u s B e t y l o s ' as thc a n c e s t r a l g o d o f t h o s e by t h e O r o n t e s m u s t b e t a k e n , a s vve h a v e s e e n , as refleeting s o m e avvareness o f a distinet c u l t u r e , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f this r e g i o n . W c c a n a l s o a c c c p t t h a t ' B e t y l o s ' is a loan-vvord f r o m A r a m a i c o r o n e o f its dialccts, a n d (less c e r t a i n l y ) t h a t it e m b o d i e s the c o n c e p t o f a n a n i c o n i c c u l t o b j e c t , a ' s t o n e invested vvith spirit', as Philo o f B y b l o s h a d put it. D i d t h a t in its turn reflect a system o f b e l i e f native t o this r e g i o n , vvhich o f f e r e d , a s a c o n t r a s t t o t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y o f g o d s p o r t r a y e d in the c u l t - s t a t u e s o f G r a c c o -

5 6 . F. M i l l a r , " T h c R o m a n Coloniae H . S o l i n a n d M . K a j a v a ( c d s . ) , Roman («990), 7-.

of t h e N e a r E a s t : A S t u d y o f C u l t u r a l R c l a t i o n s " . in l'olicy

in the

East and

Other

Studies

in Roman

History

R o m a n p a g a n i s m , a f u n d a m e n t a l p r e f e r e n c e for m o n o t h e i s m a n d f o r the c o n c e p t i o n o f a s i n g l e d e i t y w h o c o u l d n o t b e r e p r e s e n t e d in h u m a n f o r m ? If s o , it c a n h a v e beeıı n o m o r e t h a n a t e n d e n c y , for the a r r a y o f d i s t i n c t i v e d i v i n e i m a g e s , t o w h i c h w e c a n o f t c n a t t a c h n o m y t h o i o g y , a n d s o m e t i m e s n o t evecı a n a m e , f o r i n s t a n c e at P a l m y r a o r in N a b a t a e a , is p r e c i s e l y o n e o f the m o s t diffıcult p r o b l e m s f o r the r e l i g i o u s h i s t o r y o f t h e r e g i o n . 5 7 B u t it m a y stili b e c l a i m c d , as it h a s b e e n in a m a j ö r m o d e r n w o r k o n the p o p u l a r r e l i g i o n o f the N e a r Kast in t h i s p e r i o d , t h a c t h i s t e n d e n c y t o m o n o t h e i s m m a d e the N e a r E a s t f e r t i l e g r o u n d b o t h for a t t r a c t i o n t o J u d a i s m and f o r the s p r e a d o f C h r i s tianity, a n d later o f i s l a m . 5 8 W c s h o u l d bc v e r y c a r e f u l b e f o r e i m p o r t i n g a n y such presumptions. T h e s p r e a d o f C h r i s t i a n i t y m u s t i n d e e d be t a k e n as the s i n g l e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d e v e l o p m e n t vvhich o c c u r r e d in t h e p e r i o d f r o m t h e r e i g n o f A u g u s t u s t o the d e a t h o f C o n s t a n t i n c . B y t h a t m o m e n t a C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t ü r e in a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e , S y r i a c , h a d b e e n in e x i s t e n c e for a t l e a s t a c e n t u r y . C h u r c h e s h a d b e e n built evcryvvhcre, f r o m M c s o p o t a m i a t o A n t i o c h , T y r c , J c r u s a l c ı t ı o r s o u t h e r n Syria ( w h i l e t h e o n l y k n o w n p r e - C o n s t a n t i n i a n h o u s e - c h u r c h h a d b e e n o b l i t e r a t e d vvhen the P e r s i a n s c a p t u r e d D u r a - E u r o p o s in the 2 5 0 S ) . Pil g r ı m a g e t o B i b l i c a l s i t e s a n d t o the m a g n i f i c e n t n c w c h u r c h e s o f the H o l y L a n d vvas a l r e a d y vvell e s t a b l i s h e d . B u t had

the N e a r E a s t really offered a distinetively favourable cultural

and religious setting for Christianity since the time o f J c s u s ? H a d there been in this r e g i o n g e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s u s i n g A r a m a i c o r a d i a l e c t o f i t ? T h e Jevvish c o m m u n i t y o f D u r a - E u r o p o s h a d c e r t a i n l y u s e d A r a m a i c , a s vveLİ a s G r e e k . B u t had t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y n c a r b y ? E v c n if w c d o n o t t r c a t the q u e s t i o n as a p u r e l y l i n g u i s ı i c o n e , vvas t h e r e , a s s o m a n y m o d e r n b o o k s p r e s u m e , a d i s t i n c t i v e ' S y r i a n ' C h r i s t i a n i t y using G r e e k , vvhich ovvcd its c h a r a e t e r t o its r e g i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t ? If s o , vvhat vvould t h a t m e a n ? O f vvhich o f the m a n y s u b - r e g i o n s o f t h e N e a r E a s t a r e w e t a l k i n g , a n d vvhat a r e the c r i t e ria o f ' S y r i a n ' C h r i s t i a n i t y ? T h e s e q u e s t i o n s vvill h a v e t o b e d i s c u s s e d later, a n d s o m e m a y p r o v e u n a n svverable. B u t i f s u c h issues r e m a i n b a f f l i n g , vvhat is a b u n d a n t l y c l e a r is t h e influence o f the R o m a n E m p i r e , a s m e d i a t e d in the first i n s t a n c c t h r o u g h c o m m o n R o m a n s o l d i e r s l i k e A u r c l i u s D i p h i l i a n u s . It vvould b e i l l e g i t i m a t e , b e c a u s e c i r c u l a r , t o c l a i m t h a t it vvas R o m a n rule vvhich c r e a t e d the u n i t y o f t h e r e g i o n , f r o m the R e d S e a t o t h e T ı g r i s a n d the T a u r u s M o u n t a i n s . F o r t h e 57. Scc n o w the m a j ö r s u r v c y s b y M . Gavvlikovvski, " L e s d i e u x de P a l m y t e " , ANR\V

II.18.4

( 1 9 9 0 ) , 2.605, a n d " L e s dicu.v des N a b a f i e n s " , i b i d . , 2 6 6 0 . 58. J . T e i x i d o r , The Pagan God: Popular

Religion

in the Ancient

Near F.ast ( 1 9 7 7 ) , 1 7 : ' H u t

the incrcasing e m p h a s i s o n s u c h bclicfs is e v i d e n e e o f a trend tovvards m o n o t h e i s m , n a m e l y t o w a r d the c x c l u s i o n o f other g o d s ' c x i s t c n c c . In t h e N e a r E a s t of G r c c o - R o m a n times this t r e n d facilitates t h e s p r e a d o f J u d a i s m , C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d islam*.

( c v c n t u a l ) c x t c n s i o n o f R o m a n n ı l e h a s been t a k e n here a s defining t h e a r e a in q u e s t i o n . B u t w h a t is i n d i s p u t a b l e is t h a t n e a r l y ali the f o r m s o f e x p r e s s i o n o f the c u l t u r e o f this r e g i o n , o r its s u b - r e g i o n s — a r c h i t e c t u r c ; s c u l p t u r c ; vvallp a i n t i n g s ; i n s c r i p t i o n s in G r e e k , L a t i n ( o c c a s i o n a l l y ) a n d a v a r i c t y o f S e m i t i c languages, including A r a b i c — t h e m s e l v e s

came into existence within

the

framevvork o f the R o m a n E m p i r e o r o f its d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m s . S o far a s o j r e v i d e n c e g o c s , the p r e c e d i n g I l e l l c n i s t i c period h a s left us a l m o s t n o t h i n g w h i c h c a n c o u n t as t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f a r e g i o n a l o r l o c a ! p a g a n c u l t u r e . \Vhatever m a y h a v e been t h e c a s e a t the time, t h o s e a s p e c t s o f the local c u l t u r e or c u l t u r c s o f the N e a r E a s t vvhich survivc f o r us t o e n c o u n t e r c a m c i n t o c x : s t e n c e in the R o m a n E m p i r e . T o d a i m t h a t t h e y a c t u a l l y o w e d their e x i s t e n c e , o r their c a p a c i t y t o flourish a n d find s e l f - e x p r e s s i o ı ı , t o R o m a n r u l e vvould oe t o g o f u r t h e r t h a n c a n b e p r o v e d . F o r w c can never knovv vvhat the r e g i o n vvould h a v e been like if R o m a n rule h a d n o t been i m p o s e d . B u t it is suggestive t h a t in t h e later s e c o n d c e n t u r y the b i s h o p M e l i t o o f Sardis acknovvledged t h a t it h a d been b y d i v i n e p r o v i d c n c c t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y , b e g i n n i n g a m o n g barbaroi,

h a d c o i n c i d c d vvith the f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e I m p e r i a l m o n a r e h y

(hasi-

leia) b y A u g u s t u s . S i n c e t h a t t i m e the povver o f t h e E m p i r e h a d grovvıı, a n d Christianity had

flourished

vvith it. 5 9

A t the t i m e o f J c s u s it c o u l d n o t n c c e s s a r i l y h a v e been e x p e c t e d t h a t R o m a n s o l d i e r s a n d officials vvould l c a v c t r a c e s o f their activities d e e p i n t o the H c d j a z , far into the J o r d a n i a n s t e p p e a n d dovvn t h e W a d i S i r h a n a s f a r as Javvf; t h r o u g h the s t e p p e f r o m D a m a s c u s via P a l m y r a t o t h e E u p h r a t e s ; a l o n g the C h a b u r , in n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a a n d o n the T i g r i s , vvhere t h e vvalis o f A m i d a ( D i y a r b a k i r ) , vvhich A m m i a n u s vvas t o deseribe, vvere t o b e c r e a t e d u n d e r C o n s t a n t i n e . 6 0 By t h a t t i m e t h e P a r t h i a n E m p i r e vvhich h a d c o n f r o n t e d R o m e a e r o s s the E u p h r a t e s in the first tvvo cetıturies h a d been r e p l a c e d b y a P c r s i a n E m p i r e in t h e z 2 o s , a n d n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a h a d b e c o m e an e n d lessly c o n t e s t e d b a t t l e g r o u n d b e t w e e n the t w o povvers. R o m a n direct rule h a d been s u b s t i t u t e d f o r a vvhole series o f d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m s , a m o n g t h e m Judaca, Commagcne, Emesa, Nabataca and Osrhoene. B u t it vvas n o t o n l y t h a t t h e E m p e r o r s novv ruled a solid b l o c k o f territory, vvhich e x t e n d e d t o the l i m i t s o f c u l t i v a b l e l a n d a n d s t r e t e h e d a l o n g the e d g e o f t h e steppe c o n t i n u o u s l y ö v e r a distatıce o f s o m e 7 5 0 k m . It vvas a l s o t h a t , vvhether vve c o n c e i v e o f the a r m y in this r e g i o n a s being d e v o t e d p r i m a r i l y ro c o n q u e s t , t o d e f e n c e o r t o o c c u p a t i o n , it represented a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o ı ı of the f o r c e s o f t h e E m p i r e . M o r e significant stili, t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n vvith P a r t h i a a n d then vvith Persia h a d g i v e n the n o r t h e r n p a r t o f this region a p r i m e rele as a field f o r t h e activities o f the R o m a n E m p e r o r s in p e r s o n . A vvhole series 59. Rusebius, HE V, 16, 7 - 8 . 60. Ammianus XVIH, 9, 1.

o f t h i r d - c e n t u r y E m p e r o r s h a d died o r been c a p t u r c d in the N e a r E a s t , o r eıı r o u t e t o o r f r o m it: C a r a c a l l a {2.17}, M a c r i n u s ( 2 1 8 ) , G o r d i a n ( 2 4 4 ) , V a l e r i a n (260), C a r u s (282). It w a s c n t i r e l y a p p r o p r i a t c in s y m b o l i c t c r m s t h a t t h e c n d o f t h e period vvith vvhich vve are c o n c e r n e d s h o u l d be m a r k e d b y the dcath o f C o n s t a n t i n e in 3 3 7 , vvhen p r e p a r i n g for y e t a n o t h e r c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t t h e Persians. O n e effect o f t h a t o b s e s s i o n vvith c a m p a i g n s in the E a s t vvas t h e s t c a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g use o f A ı ı t i o c h a s a n I m p e r i a l r e s i d e n c e a n d m i l i t a r y h e a d q u a r t e r s , a n d its c i e a r l y c s t a b l i s h c d s t a t u s a s a p c r m a n e n t I m p e r i a l c a p i t a l in t h e T c t r a r c h i c p e r i o d . 6 1 W i t h t h e reign o f M a x i m i n u s a s ' C a e s a r ' a n d then ' A u g u s t u s ' in 3 0 6 - 3 1 1 , a n E m p e r o r vvas f o r the first t i m e t o be f o u n d c o n t i n u o u s l y r e s i d c n t in this r e g i o n , a n d visiting n o t o n l y A n t i o c h b u t s o m e o f the o t h e r m a j ö r cities. T h e last p h a s e o f p a g a n I m p e r i a l rule as e x p r e s s e d in t h e N e a r E a s t is aptly s u m m e d up in E u s e b i u s ' vivid p o r t r a i t o f M a x i m i n u s , vvhile present in C a c s a r c a (novv officially a R o m a n colottia)

in AD 3 0 6 / 3 0 7 , presiding in p e r s o n

a t vvild-bcast shovvs ( o n e o f t h e m o s t distinetive o f R o m a n i m p o r t a t i o n s t o the G r e e k E a s t ) , a n d h a v i n g G l ı r i s t i a n m a r t y r s e x e c u t e d in the arena b e f o r e him.* 2 C h r i s t i a n i t y vvas t o t r i u m p h o n l y a fevv ycars later, vvith c h u r c h c s b e i n g built everyvvlıere, a n d J e r u s a l e m (officially A e l i a C a p i t o l i n a , a n o t h e r R o m a n colottia)

b e c o m i n g a r e c o g n i s e d p l a c e o f p i l g r i m a g e . But that itself vvas y e t

a n o t h e r c x p r e s s i o n o f t h e I m p e r i a l vvill, a n d o f t h e povvcr o f the R o m a n s t a t e . If t h e social a n d c u l t u r a l history o f the N e a r E a s t betvveen A u g u s t u s a n d C o n s t a n t i n e c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a t a l i , it is o n l y vvithin the framevvork c r e a t e d b y t h a t I m p e r i a l povvcr. 6ı.

Sec F. M i l l a r , The

Emperor

ERW); T . D . B a r n e s , The New 6 2 . Rusebius, Mart.

in the Romun

Ernpire of Diocletian

Pal. 6—7.

World

( 1 9 7 7 ) , csp. 4 8 - 5 0

and Constantine

(hcnccfonvard

(1982), 65-66.

I

• •• EMPIRE

C H A P T E R

2 T H E B R I D G E H E A D AND T H E DEPENDENT KİNGDOMS, 31 B C - A D 7 4

2.1. F R O M T H E

BATT1.E O F ACT1U.M T O T H E OF IIEROD THE

DEATH

G RE AT

W h e n the n e w s s p r e a d o f t h e v i c t o r y o f A c t i u m in 3 1 BC, w h i c h b r o u g h t t h e R o m a n civil w a r s t o a n end a n d e n a b l e d O c t a v i a n , t h e f u t u r e A u g u s t u s , t o e x c r c i s e e f f e c t i v e s o l e povvcr, R o m e p o s s e s s e d n o m o r e t h a n a b r i d g e h e a d i n the N e a r E a s t . T h e p r o v i n c e o f ' S y r i a 1 h a d b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d b y P o m p c y o n l y t h r e e a n d a h a l f d e c a d e s b e f o r e . 1 B y 58 BC it h a d b e c o m e a c o n s u l a r p r o v i n c e a n d a b a s c f o r a m b i t i o n s for c o t ı q u e s t b o t h s o u t h v v a r d s , t o P t o l e m a i c E g y p t , a n d e a s t w a r d s , t o P a r t h i a , B u t a t t h e s a m c t i m e , e v e n the r e s t r i c t e d t e r r i t o r y \vhich R o m e o c c u p i e d d i r e c t l y — i n e f f e c t the P h o e n i c i a n c o a s t , a l o n g w i t h t h e O r o n t c s V a l l e y a n d n o r t h e r n S y ı i a , the m a i n a r e a o f H e l l e n i s t i c s e t t l e m e n t — h a d b e e n r a v a g e d by l o c a l d y n a s r i c r i v a l r i c s , by w a r s f o u g h t by R o m a n a r m i e s a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r , a n d by a m a j o r P a r t h i a n i n v a s i o n in 4 0 BC. It is n o t n e c e s s a r y t o retail t h e e v e n t s o f t h e s e y e a r s in d e t a i l . I t is e n o u g h t o r e c a l l t h a t e v e n vvithout t h e P a r t h i a n i n v a s i o n (vvhich 110 o n e c o u l d h a v e knovvn vvas t o b e the l a s t vvhich vvould e v e r b e s u c c c s s f u l l y m o u n t c d ) R o m a n c o n t r o l vvas t e n u o u s a n d e r r a t i c , a n d d i d litıle o r n o t h i n g t o r e d u c e the l o n g s t a n d i n g i n s c c u r i t y o f the r e g i o n . T h u s vvhen J u l i u s C a e s a r p a s s e d r a p i d l y t h r o u g h S y r i a in 4 7 BC, o n his vvay f r o m A l c x a n d r i a t o A s i a Minor^ h e c o u l d e x e r c i s e d i p l o m a c y o n l y in s a t i s f y i n g t h e c o m m u n i t i e s a n d d y n a s t s o f t h e r e g i o n a s best h e c o u l d :

1 . F o r a sketeh o f its history s c c S c h ü r c r , HJPI,

z^H.

F o r the s i t u a t i o n o f the r e g i o n in this

p e r i o d , a n d after, s c c the i m p o r t a n t s u r v e y b y J.-P. R e y - C o q u a i s , " S y r i e r o m a i ı ı e d e Pomp6c D i o c l c t i c n " , JRS 68 (ıj>78), 4 4 , t o vvhich this w h o l e b o o k o w e s m u c h .

[ 2-7 1

i

Stopping in almost ali those citics which wcrc of greater prestige, he gave revvards to those w h o desecved it, both individually and collectively, and held jurisdietion and issııed decisions on long-standing controversies. A s for kings, tyrants and dynasts neighbouring on thc provincc, w h o had ali hastened together to him, hc rcccived them into his trust on condition o f proteeting and defending the province, and dismissed them as being n o w the most loyal friends of hinıself and the Roman people. 2 A c o u p l e of years later, in 4 5 a n d 44 BC, Caecilius Bassus, a follovver of P o m pey, had been able t o seize t h c G r c c k city of A p a m c a o n the O r o n t e s and hold out against t w o succcssive R o m a n armies f r o m the C a e s a r i a n side. A s s o often, our best a c c o u n t of the area in the first century BC, and our m o s t vivid impression of the d y n a m i c s o f the highly disturbed p o w c r rclations b c t w c c n different g r o u p s , c o m c s f r o m thc Geography

of Strabo, vvritten in the last p a r t

of Augustus* reign: Caecilius Bassus, with t w o cohorts, caused Apameia to revolt and, t h o u g h besieged by t w o large R o m a n armies, strongly resisted them for so long a time that he did not come under their povver until he voluntarily put himself in their hands upon his o w n terms; for the country supplicd his a r m y vvith provisions, and hc had plenty of allics, I mcan the neighbouring chieftains, vvho possessed strongholds; and a m o n g dıese places vvas Lysias, vvhich is situated above the lake that lies near Apameia, as also Arethusa, belonging to Sampsiceramus and his son iamblichus, chieftains of the tribe of the Emeseni; and at n o great distance, also, vvere Heliopolis and Chalcis, vvhich latter vvas subject to Ptolemaeus the son of Menııaeus, vvho possessed Massyas and the mountainous country of thc Ituracans. A m o n g the allics of Bassus vvas also Alchaedamnus, king of the Rhambaeans, vvho vvere nomads this side of the Euphrates River; and he vvas a friend of the Romans, but upon the belief that he vvas bcing treated unjustly by thc R o m a n governors hc retired to Mesopotamia and then vvent into the service of Bassus as a mercenary.-' In thc Triumviral period vvhich follovvcd, vvhen the N e a r East ali fell under the rule of M a r c u s A n t o n i u s , if R o m a n armies n o longer f o u g h t e a c h o t h e r in the region, m a j ö r local k i n g s , in C o m m a g e n e , in Judaea (vvhere H e r o d vvas formally rccogniscd as k i n g i n 4 0 BC) and in N a b a t a e a , gained considerable povver; thc Parthians invadcd in 40 BC, bcing repelled fully only in 3 7 ; and large parts of thc coast and s o m c o f thc inland territory in thc south vvere granted t o C l c o p a t r a of E g y p t . A t thc time of thc battle of A c t i u m , thc f o r c c s of H e r o d of J u d a c a vvere o n c a m p a i g n , o n A n t o n i u s ' orders, against those of z. j C a c s a r ] , Bell. Alex. 3. S t r a b o , Geog.

6 5 , 4.

X V I , z, TO ( 7 5 1 — 7 5 3 ) , L o c b t r a n s .

M a l i c h u s I o f N a b a t a e a , w h o h a d n o t paid the tribute due for the territory given to Cleopatra."' Nonetheles-s M a l i c h u s had sent f o r c c s t o join A n t o n i u s , as had M i t h r i d a t e s II of C o m m a g e n e , the builder of the last of the series o f great dynastic m o n u m e n t s there. 5 S o m e very i m m e d i a t e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f the victory can be traced in o u r sources. T h e most immediate is t h e letter w h i c h O c t a v i a n w r o t e f r o m E p h e s u s tovvards the end of 3 1 BC in r c s p o n s e t o an cmbassy f r o m the little city o f R h o s u s , situated o n the c o a s t on the northcrn side of the A m a n u s M o u n t a i n s . A c k n o v v l e d g i n g the c r o w n (stephanos)

sent in recognition of his victory, a n d

referring to the merits o f a naval captain (muarehos)

f r o m there n a m c d S c l c u -

c u s , w h o had served vvith him i n his w a r s , O c t a v i a n promises benefits f o r t h e city vvhen he c o m e s to the arca." H e did indeed d o s o very s o o n , as w e vvill see. But the d o c u m e n t , significant o n the o n e hand o f the involvement of s m a l l c r c o m m u n i t i e s also in the civil vvars, and of the nevv relationship to an u n c h a l lenged single ruler, is also i m p o r t a n t in a quite different vvay. For the N e a r East proper, beginning, as defincd here, o n the other side o f the A m a n u s M o u n t a i n s , c a n n o t c o m p a r c vvith Asia M i n ö r f o r the vvcalth of d o c u m e n t s vvhich vvould f r o m novv on illustrate relations betvveen the subject c o m m u n i ties a n d R o m e , o r the Empcror. Thus, if vve can rcconstruct t h e impact of R o m e in the N e a r East, o r t h e role o f the N e a r East vvithin the Empire, it is f r o m a variety of other s o u r c e s , aivvays partial a n d inadcquate. F o r instance o n c of the most crucial steps i n the strategic shape of the E m p i r e in the N e a r East seems a l m o s t certainly t o have been taken as an i m m e d i a t e c o n s e q u c n c c o f A c t i u m . Since 64 BC Seleucia on the Euphrates, the main erossing of the r i v e r — a n d hence knovvn m o r e often as Z e u g m a , 'the b r i d g e ' — h a d been part of the k i n g d o m o f C o m m a g e n e ; one of the sanctuaries o f the r o y a l cult vvas located tlıere. 7 Novv, in spite o f his support of A n t o n i u s , M i t h r i d a t e s II vvas cvidcntly c o n f î r m c d in his kingd o m b y O c t a v i a n — b u t at the price, as it seems, o f yielding Z e u g m a t o R o m e . N o evidenee explicitly says so; but coins of Seleucia/Zcugma under the R o m a n Empire usc an cra g o i n g b a c k precisely to 3 1 BC. 8 If that is s o , then it vvas at this m o m e n t that the m i d d l e Euphrates bccame the accepted b o u n d a r y o f the R o m a n atıd Parthiaıı E m p i r c s , a f a c t repeatedly symbolised in diplo-

4. S c h ü r e r , HJP I, 580. 5. P l u t a r c h , Ani. 6. IGLSIII,

61.

n o . 7 1 8 , iii = R . K . S h c r k , Roman

Documents

(rom the Greek

F-ast ( 1 9 7 1 ) , n o .

5 8 , iii. E v e n t h o u g l ı t h e a r c a ı m m c d i a t e l y n o r t h o f t h e A m a n u s m a y l ı a v e f o r m e d p a r t o f t k e province of Syria, a s argııed by H . Taeuber, " D i e syrîseh-kiliktsehe G r e n » w â h r c n d der Prinzip a r s z e i r " , Tyche

6 ( 1 9 9 ' ) , 2 0 1 , ir is n o t t r e a t e d h e r e as p a r t o f t h e N e a r Kast.

7. S e e t h e s k e t e h - m a p o f the m o n u m e n t s o f t h e r o y a l cult o n p . 1 8 9 o f the f u n d a m e n t a l p a p e r b y J . W a g n c r , " D y n a s t i c u n d I l c r r s c h c r l c u l t in K o m m a g c n e " , 8. S c c J. W a g n c r . Seleukeia

aın F.uphrat/7.eugma

(1976), 64.

ist. Mitt.

33 (1983), 177.

m a t i c meetings in the course o f the first century. But the role o f Z e u g m a as a legionary base c a m e o n l y later. 9 Under A u g u s t u s and Tibcrius the legions of Syria w e r c t o bc disposed intcrnally, as an a r m y o f o c c u p a t i o n . 1 0 It m a y also have been at this m o m e n t that the cult-centre o f D o l i c h e , s o m e 4 0 k m \vest o f Z e u g m a , b e c a m e part of the provincial territory. But f o r th:s period wc h a v e no significant evidence a b o u t it, or a b o u t the largc triangle of fertile land, betvveen the E u p h r a t e s a n d the Taurus, vvhich f o r m e d the kingd o m o f C o m m a g e n e itself. A c o u p l e o f episodes refleeting dynastic strife are n o substitute f o r a social history of this region. 1 1 We can o n l y rccail t h a t it vvas there, flanking the p r o v i n c e p r o p e r o n the north, as other d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m s did t o the south. If the conscqucnces o f A c t i u m f o r the northern part of Syria h a v e t o he d c d u c c d indirectly, the situatîon is quite different f o r the southern part o f the region, a b o v e ali because o f the tvvo m a j ö r lıistorical vvorks o f J o s e p h u s , d:e Jeu/isb War and the Atıliquities.

T h e importance of these vvorks f o r Jevvish

history in the Classical p e r i o d needs n o emphasis. T h e significance of the Atttiquıties

as representing the oııly 'insider's' history o f any N e a r Eastern people

to carry through from the second millennium to the R o m a n Ernpire h a s also already been stressed, as has t h e importance of that narrative f o r our vievv of the n e i g h b o u r i n g peoples. 1 2 T h e s a m e is true, hovvever, o f these tvvo narratives as o f f e r i n g a v i c w of the strueture of the R o m a n Empire in this region a n d of the vvorking of povver-relations, u p t o vvhere the Jeıvisb

War stops, in AD 74.

A g a i n the light east extends f a r outside the arca of Jevvish settlement; if vvhat it primarily illuminates is t h e region o f southern Syria and N a b a t a e a , in the end it returns to C o m m a g e n e , to offer the best available a c c o u n t of the forcible provincialisation o f a d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m . 1 3 It is thus f r o m Josephus t h a t vve knovv that H e r o d reacted to the nevvs of A c t i u m by setting o f f to m e e t O c t a v i a n 011 the island o f R l ı o d e s in 30 BC. L a y i n g aside his r o y a l diadern as a sign o f submission, the king argued that his l o y a l t y t o A n t o n i u s s h o u l d bc construed as a sign o f his prospeetive loyalty to O c t a v i a n . Whether c o n v i n c e d b y these arguments or n o t , O c t a v i a n d u l y assented. 1 4 H e r o d , thus c o n f i r m e d as king, eseorted O c t a v i a n t h r o u g h Syria on his vvay t o Egypt, entertained him lavishly at Ptolcmais a n d p r o v i d c d supplies f o r the erossing of the desert; and on Octavian's return after the c o n q u e s t 9. 2.7 and 3.1 belovv. 10. 2.2 belo\v. TI. For Doliche scc 7.1 belovv. Rpisodcs of dynastic strife: Dio ıJı, 43, T (29 BC); the su sion of Mithridaccs (III) in 10 BC: I.l V, 9, 3. Sec R. O. Sullivan, "The Dynasty of Commagene", ANR\V 11.8 (1977), 7 3 3 . o n p p . 7 7 5 « >2. C h . 1 a b o v e .

13. 3.1 belovv. 1 4 . J o s e p h u s 8/

1 ° , »"3 ( 3 ^ 3 9 3 ) ;

A

"'-

x v

.

6>

6 - 7 («87-193)-

of E g y p t , h e e s c o r t c d h i m n o r t h a s far as A n t i o c h . In betvveen, he h a d b e e n t o see O c t a v i a n in E g y p t , a n d r e c e i v e d a d d i t i o n s t o h i s k i n g d o m in t h e f o r m o f H i p p o s o n the eastern s h o r e o f the S e a o f G a l i l e e ; G a d a r a b e y o n d the J o r d a n ; J e r i c h o in the J o r d a n V a l l e y ; S a m a r i a ; a n d a line o f small places on t h e coast, Straton's Tower, J o p p a and Anthedon.15 W h a t m a t t e r s a b o u t these e x c h a n g e s is n o t t h e e x a c t details, s o m e o f \vhich a r e u n c e r t a i n , b u t the s t r u c t u r e s o f povvcr r e v e a l c d , vvhich shovv a fluc n c y a n d c h a n g e a b l e n e s s vvhich vvas t o c o n t i n u c f o r m a n y d e c a d e s . T h e nevv ruler, O c t a v i a n , o p e r a t e s b y p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t a n d f a v o u r , a r b i t r a r i i y t r a n s f e r ring places f r o m R o m a n d i r c c t rule t o royal c o n t r o l (or, a p p a r c n t l y , in t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e e t i o n , a s vvith Z e u g m a ) . H e c a n m a r c h his f o r c e s t h r o u g h r o y a l territory, t a k i n g t h e land r o u t e t o Egypt a n d b a c k , j u s t a s H e r o d c a n e s c o r t h i m in either d i r e e t i o n t h r o u g h S y r i a , a n d offer lavish e n t e r t a i n m e n t s at P t o l e m a i s , a city vvhich vvas n e v e r u n d e r his c o n t r o l , a n d m u s t t h e r e f o r e h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t o f as p a r t o f t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a . E x a c d y vvhat t h e b o u ı ı d a r i c s o f t h a t p r o v i n c e vvere (if indeed t h e p r o b l e m s h o u l d b e stated in t h o s e t e r m s ) c a n be left aside f o r t h e m o m e n t . ' I o u n d e r s t a n d the n a t u r e o f R o m a n c o n t r o l in the r e g i o n , it is necessary, first, t o r e c a l l t h e w e l l - k n o w n truth t h a t t h e t e r m provitıcia

meant both a sphere of opera-

t i o n a n d a g e o g r a p h i c a l l y d e f i n e d a r e a . S e c o n d , the R o m a n p r e s e n c e in t h e N e a r E a s t a t this m o m e n t c o n s i s t e d o f a single ' p r o v i n c i a ' c a l l e d S y r i a . T h i r d , u n d e r t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a r r a n g c m e n t s m a d c in R o m e in J a n u a r y 2 7 BC Syria b c c a m c vvhat S t r a b o , t h e best c o n t e m p o r a r y vvitness, c a l l e d a p r o v i n c e o f C a e s a r a s o p p o s e d t o a p r o v i n c e o f the R o m a n p e o p l e . T h e difference vvas e s s e n tially that the g o v e r n o r s o f the ' p r o v i n c e s o f C a c s a r ' vvere t o be a p p o i n t e d b y t h e E m p e r o r ( A u g u s t u s , as he h a d novv been officially n a m e d ) , a n d vvere c a l l e d legali, e n v o y s ; in the p r o v i n c c s o f the R o m a n p e o p l e the g o v e r n o r s stili vvere a p p o i n t e d b y the a r c h a i c p r o c c d u r e o f using t h e l o t , a n d vvere c a l l e d proconsules.'6 T h e s e details o f t h e nevv R o m a n s t r u e t u r e a r e o f s o m e i m p o r t a n c c , f o r t h e b r o a d p r i n c i p l c o f the d i s t i n e t i o n vvas in t h e o r y (and largely in p r a c t i c e ) t h a t t h e ' p r o v i n c e s o f C a e s a r ' vvere t h e m i i i t a r y a r e a s . In t e r m s o f t h e vvorkiııgs o f the R o m a n E m p i r e , S y r i a , like a l i the o t h e r p r o v i n c e s s u b s e q u e n d y a c q u i r c d in t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , vvas a m i i i t a r y a r c a , a n d o n e in vvhich a t ali t i m e s c o m p a r a t i v e l y large m i i i t a r y f o r c e s vvere s t a t i o n e d . A s e c o n d c o n s e q u e n c e vvas t h a t ali t h e h i g h e r o f f i c i a l s vvho o p e r a t e d in this r e g i o n vvere t h r o u g h o u t , 1 5 . S c h ü r c r , HJPI,

289.

16. S c c F. M i l i a r , " T h e E m p e r o r , t h e S e n a t e a n d t h e P r o v i n c c s " , JRS

5 6 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 1 5 6 , vvith

s o m e c o r r e c t i o n s a s r e g a r d s t e r m i n o l o g y in " ' S e n a t o r i a l ' P r o v i n c c s : A n Institution3İiscd G h o s t " , Ancient

\Vorld 2 0 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 9 3 . T h e l o n g - c s t a b l i s h c d p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t ' s p h e r e o f o p e r a t i o n ' r e p r e -

s e n t e d t h e o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g o f provincia p r o v i n c i a " , Journal

des savants

is c h a l l e n g e d b y J . - M . B e r t r a n d , " A p r o p o s d u m o t

(1989), 191.

w i t h o u t exception, personal a p p o i n t e e s o f the Emperor, serving untîi recalled. 'AJI the higher officials' raight give a false impression. In fact they vvere very fevv indeed. T h e most i m p o r t a n t vvas thc legatus o f thc p r o v i n c e o f Syria. T h c position vvas held t o bc o f m a j ö r i m p o r t a n c e , and ali holders vvhose careers are knovvn vvere ex-coıısuls, the highest senatorial rank. U n d e r them vvere the senatorial c o m m a n d e r s o f thc legions, also called legali, and i n the cstablishcd Impcrial system n o r m a i l y of ex-practor rank. In thc latter p a r t o f the reign of A u g u s t u s there s e e m to have been three legions in Syria. 1 7 I f we assume (as a guess) a c o m p l e m e n t of five thousand men each, t h a t meant a garrison of fifteen t h o u s a n d citizcn legionarics, vvith an unknovvn number of auxiliaries. T h c significance of these figures lics in the fact that they represent a c o n scious dccision at thc c c n t r c o f povver a b o u t thc a p p o r t i o n m e n t of f o r c c vvithin the Empire. W h a t e v e r else might h a v e occurred b y accident o r oversight, o r as an impcrceptible development t o vvhich no attention vvas paid, the disposition of thc legions bctvveen provinccs vvas a matter of deliberate c h o i c e . It vvas one of the m a t t e r s o n vvhich A u g u s t u s ' successor, Tiberius, regularly coıısulted the Senate; a n d it is Tacitus* a c c o u n t of Tiberius' r e p o r t t o thc Scnatc in AD 13 vvhich reveals that by then thc n u m b e r o f legions in Syria h a d risen to four. 1 8 T h e second level o f significance of suclı figures f o r the legions lics in the fact that they represent a l m o s t thc vvholc o f thc R o m a n prcscncc in thc rcgion. A s elsevvhere in the R o m a n p r o v i n c c s , vvhat vve might bc tempted to think of as civilian administration remained at a very restricted level. O u t s i d e ehe strueture just d e s e r i b e d — a c o n s u l a r legatus of thc province, and three practorian legati o f the legions, vvith under them s i x military tribunes and sixty centurioııs f o r each l e g i o n — t h e o n l y civilian official vvho can be attested f o r this period is a procurator

o f cqucstrian rank vvhose duties vvill h a v e been con-

cerned vvith the raising o f t a x a t i o n a n d the p a y m e n t of the troops. T h e o n l y o n e of these vvhom vve can scc at vvork under A u g u s t u s is thc Sabinus v v h o m Joscphus shovvs intervening «o secure the r o y a l treasures in Jerusalem after thc dcath o f H e r o d in 4 BC. 19 In terms of personnel e m p l o y e d b y the R o m a n state, these legionarics, an unknovvn number of auxiliaries and the officers of each, u n d e r the o v e t a l l c o m m a n d o f the legatus of S y r i a , 1vere the Empire as expressed in this carly 17. Thc number is not certain; but Josephus, BJ II, 3, x (40); 5, x (67); Ant. XVII, 10, 9 that in 4 BC fherc were three in ali. Since his nnrrativc relies ar least in pare on Nicolaus of Damascus, a contemporary vvho vvas closcly involvcd in thc events in qucs:tion, he is likely to bc corrcct. T8. Consultatıon of thc Scnatc: Suctonius, Tib. 30; Tiberius* report of AU 1 3 ; Tacitus, Anıı. IV, 519. Scc below. ( 2 8 6 ) ,FTRRNLYstates

period in the N e a r E a s t . T h e r e is ı ı o t h i n g t o suggest, a n d n o r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e , t h a t there vvas a n y strictly c i v i l i a n a d n ı i n i s t r a t i o n . L e a s t o f ali vvas t h e r e a p y r a m i d o f local R o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s c u l m i n a t i n g in t h e legatııs,

or any

b u r c a u c r a t i c hierarehy. In e s s e n c e , t h e r e f o r e , Syria vvas stili a m i l i t a r y ' p r o v i n c e ' , o r s p h e r e o f o p e r a t i o n s , vvhere t h e R o m a n s t a t e ıvas its m i l i t a r y f o r c e s , vvhose role vvas t o c o n f r o n t P a r t h i a a e r o s s t h e E u p h r a t e s on the o n e h a ı ı d , a n d t o k c c p at least a potential e o n t r o l o f d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m s a n d t o i m p o s e order internally o n the other hand. M i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s vvith P a r t h i a a r e ııot as s u c h tlıe s u b j e c t o f this b o o k . T h e r e l e v a n c c h e r e o f t h e o f t e n - d i s c u s s e d c o n f r o n t a t i o n s vvhich t o o k placc a t intervals över the first tvvo a n d a half c e n t u r i e s o f the E m p i r e is o n l y in t h e c o n c c p t i o n o f vvhere t h e ' e a s t e r n f r o n t i e r ' o f t h e E m p i r e Iay; in the vvay t h a t the R o m a n f o r c c s vverc d i s p o s e d ; a n d in t h e degree t o vvhich R o m e rclicd o ı ı the f o r c e s vvhich c o u l d b e p r o v i d e d by the d e p e n d e n t kings o f t h e r e g i o n . A s f o r t h e frontier, Z e u g m a , t h e m a i n e r o s s i n g o f the E u p h r a t e s , s e e m s t o have passed from C o m m a g e n e t o R o m e immediately after the battle of A c t i u m . T h a t t h e E u p h r a t e s , o r r a t h e r this section o f it, vvas novv c o n c c i v e d o f as t h e s y m b o l i c f r o n t i e r betvvcen R o m e a n d P a r t h i a is m a d e c l c a r b y S t r a b o : ' T h e E u p h r a t e s a n d t h e l a n d b e y o n d it c o n s t i t u t c the b o u n d a r y o f tlıc P a r tlıian e m p i r e . B u t the p a r t s this side o f the river are h e l d b y t h e R o m a n s a n d t h e c h i e f t a i n s (phylarchoi)

o f t h e A r a b i a n s a s far as B a b y l o n i a , s o m e o f t h e s e

c h i e f t a i n s p r e f e r r i n g t o g i v c c a r t o the P a r t h i a n s a n d o t h e r s t o t h e R o m a n s ' . 2 0 T h a t is t o say, vvhere t h e river t r a v e r s e d the Eertile C r e s c e n t t h e r e vvas a c l e a r frontier. B u t in t h e vvidc s t e p p e z o n e t o t h e s o u t h it vvas a m a t t e r o f u t ı s t a b l e a l l i a n c e s a n d d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s . T h e role o f t h e river a s a f r o n t i e r vvas in a n y c a s e clearly s y m b o l i s e d in A D I , w h e n A t ı g u s t u s ' g r a n d s o ı ı , a n d a d o p t e d s o n , G a i u s , m e t P h r a t a c c s , t h e k i n g o f P a r t h i a , on a n island in the E u p h r a t e s , vvatched b y their a r m i e s o n e i t h e r b a n k . 2 1 Iıı this e a r l y period it is i m p o s s i b l e t o s a y vvhere the t h r e e , a n d then f o u r ; l e g i o n s o f Syria vvere r c g u l a r l y s t a t i o n c d , o r even vvhether it is riglıt t o a s s u t n e t h a t e a c h h a d a regular s t a t i o n a n d vvas k e p t t o g e t h e r as a s t r a t c g i c u n i t ; o r indeed t o g a i n a n y i m p r e s s i o n at ali o f lıovv a legion a n d the s u r r o u n d i n g p o p u l a t i o n i n t c r a c t c d in n o r m a l t i m e s . It is o n l y in AD 18/19 t h a t p a s s i n g r e f c r e n c e s in T a c i t u s ' n a r r a t i v e reveal t h e ' w i n t c r - q u a r t e r s ' (hiherııa)

of the

X t h l e g i o n , a t t h e G r e e k city o f C y r r h u s in t h e b r o a d fertile region in t h e n o r t h o f the p r o v i n c c , b o r d e r i n g 011 C o m m a g e n e , a n d on the r o u t e betvveen Antioch a n d Z e u g m a ; a n d a l s o t h a t o f t h e V l t h legion a t L a o d i c e a o n t h e c o a s t . " - It is q u i t e likely that a l e g i o n vvill h a v e been there on a regular b a s i s .

20. S t r a b o , Geog.

X V I , ı,

28 ( 7 4 8 ) .

2 t . V e l l c i u s ı ı , TOI. 2 2 . TacİtUS, Ann.

II, 5 7 , 2; 7% 3 -

B u t t h a t , i f a c c e p t e d , s h o u l d I c a d t o n o p r e s u m p t i o n s a b o u t a n y m o r e precise r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e a c h c i t y a n d ıhe c a m p ; it is o n l y later, a n d o n l y a t certain s p c c i f i c places { B o s t r a , D u r a - E u r o p o s , P a l m y r a ) t h a t w c c a n a c t u a l l y see s u c h a r e l a t i o n s h i p in c o n c r e t e f o r m . T h e s ı a t i o n s , o r c a m p s , o f the o t h e r l e g i o n s in Syria u n d e r A u g u s t u s and T i b e r i u s a r e n o r m a l l y givcn a s A n t i o c h f o r III G a l l i c a a n d R a p h a n e a e in the O r o n t e s Valley f o r X I I F u l m i n a t a . " E v e n if the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e y h a d regular s t a t i o n s is c o r r e c t , t h e e v i d e n c e f o r this period is very slight. B u t , t o put it simply, t h e r e w e r e n o t m a n y o t h e r places w h c r c they c o u l d h a v e b e e n . T h e a r e a directly o c c u p i e d by R o m e c o n s i s t c d o f t h e c o a s t a n d t h e m o u n t a i r . r a n g e s b e h i n d it as far s o u t h as P t o l e m a i s ; t h e hilly b u t fertile r e g i o n s t r e t c h ing f r o m the A m a n u s M o u n t a i n s a c r o s s t o the E u p h r a t e s ; a n d t h e O r o n t e s Valley as far s o u t h a s its s o u r c e in the B e k a a Valley. B u t even in the O r o n t e s Valley, w h e r e t h e t a b l e l a n d t o the east o f t h e river shades o f f g r a d u a l l y into barren s t e p p e , R o m a n direct rule vvas n o t c o n t i ı ı u o u s . F o r a t E m e s a (I l o m s ) t h e Iocal d y n a s t y o f S a m p s i g c r a m u s a n d I a m b l i c h u s , the ' p h y l a r c h o i o f the t r i b e (ethnos)

o f t h e E m i s e n i ' , w h o m vve savv in t h e 40S BC in c o n t r o l a l s o o f

a s m a l l p l a c c c a l l e d A r e t h u s a t o the n o r t h , persisted t h r o u g h m o s t o f t h e first c e n t u r y AD. 2 4 In t h e early y e a r s o f T i b e r i u s a n o t h e r S a m p s i g c r a m u s vvas in povver there, f o r he is n a m e d a l o n g vvith G e r m a n i c u s ( h e n c e in AD 1 8 / 1 9 ) in a P a l m y r e n c inseription f r o m the t e m p l e o f Bel. H e r e he s e e m s t o bc d e s c r i b c d as ' g r e a t k i n g ' , as he is in r e t r o s p e c t in a L a t i n inseription (calling h i m magnus)

rex

put u p a t H e l i o p o l i s t o h o n o u r h i s s o n . "

T h i s dynasty, a n d its f o r c e s , vvill r e a p p c a r sevcral times; b u t its r e l e v a n c e here is t h a t its territory, hovvever r c s t r i c t e d , m u s t h a v e r e p r e s e n t e d a 7.one vvhich the R o m a n f o r c e s d i d n o t o c c u p y , a n d vvhere the R o m a n E m p i r e did n o t raise t a x e s . I Iovv far this t e r r i t o r y s t r e t e h e d t o t h e vvest vve d o n o t knovv; b u t t o t h e e a s t it s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n very e x t e n s i v e . A b o u n d a r y - m a r k e r ins e r i b e d in L a t i n shovvs t h a t o n e p o i n t o n t h e b o u n d a r y betvveen E m e s e n e and P a l m y r e n c t e r r i t o r y vvas Q a s r el H a i r , 6 o k m vvest-south-vvest f r o m P a l m y r a , and some 90 k m south-east from Emesa.26 T h i s b o u n d a r y - m a r k e r is o n e o f several i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t P a l m y r a itself vvas a l s o fırmly vvithin the R o m a n sphere o f i n f l u e n c e . It itself is n o t d a t e d . But a n o t h e r , f o u n d a t K h i r b c t e l - B i l a a s , 7 5 k m north-vvest o f the city, shovvs t h a t the ' b o u n d a r i e s o f the regio Paltnyrena' 2.5. S o , c . g . , J . W a g n c r , Die Römet

an Euphrat

had been cstablished under Creticus und Tigris (Die Anlike

Welt,

SondernuramiT,

1 9 8 5 ) , 16, a n i m p o r t a n t study t o vvhich the vvhole o f this p a r t u f the b o o k i? g r e a d y i n d e b t e d . 2 4 . F o r the d y n a s t y see R. D . S u l l i v a n ,

aThc

D y n a s t y o f E m e s a " , ANRW

II.8 ( 1 9 7 7 ) , 1 9 8

2 5 . J. G a n t i n e a u , " T c x t c s p a l m y r e n i e n s p r o v e n a n t de la fouille d u t e m p l e de B e l " , 1 2 ( 1 9 3 1 ) , " 6 , on p . 1 3 9 , 110. ı 8 , U : ( S M ) S G R M M I . K ( H M Ş M I J K ' R S Y \ İGLS 2 7 6 0 (Heliopolis). 2 6 . AF ( t 9 3 9 ) , n o . 1 8 0 .

Syrtt

V I , no.

S i l a n u s , legatus

o f Syria in AD 1 1 — 1 7 .

TAX_'AW

o f AD 1 3 7 a l s o q u o t c s a

r e g u l a d o n m a d e by G e r m a n i c u s , e v i d e n t l y w h e n in Syria in AD 18/19; t h e s a m e t i m e , as it seems, a legatus

ar >d

a t

o f t h e legion X F r e t c n s i s p u t up a L a t i n

d e d i c a t i o n t o T i b e r i u s , D r u s u s a n d G e r m a n i c u s , f o u n d in the t e m p l e o f B e l . " T h e r e is 110 r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e ı h a t R o m a n t r o o p s w c r e regularly s t a t i o n e d t h e r e a t this c a r l y p e r i o d . B u t t h e city p r o b a b l y paid t r i b u t e , a n d s h o u l d b c seen as part o f t h e E m p i r e . T o r e a c h s o u t h e r n Syria o r J u d a e a , as they on o c c a s i o n did, R o m a n f o r c e s m u s t , a s it s e e m s , c i t h c r h a v e h a d t o m a r c h t h r o u g h the t e r r i t o r y o f t h e k i n g s o f E m e s a o r have taken the c o a s t a l r o u t e t h r o u g h Berytus a n d T y r e t o P t o l e m a i s . T h e r e is n o t h i n g s u r p r i s i n g in t h a t in itself. B u t it d o e s serve t o e m p h a sisc t h a t it vvas o n l y in the n o r t h t h a t R o m a n direct c o n t r o l vvas firmly e s t a b lished. A s s o o n as vve l o o k s o u t h , t o t h e M o u n t I . e b a n o n c h a i n , t h e B e k a a Valley, A t ı t i - L e b a n o n , M o u n t H e r m o n a n d then the t e r r i t o r y t o the s o u t h o f D a m a s c u s , a m u c h m o r e c o m p l c x p i c t u r c o f the i n t c r p l a y o f R o m a n a n d l o c a ! f o r c e s presents itself. T h e r e is n o simple vvay o f r e p r e s e n t i n g this interplay, but the best m a y b e t o o u t l i n e its m a i n features a r c a by a r c a , m o v i n g southvvards. T h e c o n t r a s t betvveen the z o n e o f settled R o m a n c o n t r o l in the valley o f the O r o n t e s o n the o n e h a n d and poliçe o r m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s in the m o u n t a i n o u s t e r r i t o r y on the o t h e r is in f a c t p c r f c c t l y c a u g h t in the f a m o u s L a t i n inseription r e c o r d i n g the c a r e e r o f a n A u g u s t a n m i l i t a r y officer n a m e d Q . A e m i l i u s S e c u n dus. 2 R U n d e r Sulpicius Q u i r i n i u s a s legatus

Caesaris

Syriae, so a r o u n d AD 6 ,

h c h a d c o n d u c t e d a c e n s u s in t h e civitas Af>amena a n d r e c o r d c d 1 1 7 , 0 0 0 p e r sons. L e a v i n g aside this c r u c i a l d a t u m f o r the m o m e n t , vve m a y n o t e t h a t h c a l s o says h c had been sent b y Q u i r i n i u s a g a i n s t the I t u r a e a n s o f M o u n t L e b a n o n a n d h a d c a p t u r e d a castellum

of theirs. Full-scale military operations

vvere t h e r e f o r e stili g o i n g o n in s o u t h e r n Syria in t h e early y e a r s AD, s o m e seventy y c a r s a f t e r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e p r o v i n c e . A further picture o f these I t u r a e a n s o f the m o u n t a i n z o n e , a n d their r e l a t i o n s vvith t h e B e k a a Valley (the M a s s y a s Plain) a n d t h e c o a s t , is p r o v i d e d , a s alvvays, by S t r a b o : After M a c r a s o n e comcs t o t h e Massyas Plain, vvhich contains also some mountainous parts, a m o n g vvhich is Chalcis, the aeropolis, as it vvere, o f the Massyas. T h e beginning o f this plain is the Laodiceia near Libanus. Novv ali the m o u n t a i n o u s p a r t s are held by Ituraeans a n d Arabians, ali o f vvhom are rohbers, but the p e o p l e in the plains are farmers; and vvhen the latter are harassed by the r o b b e r s at different times they requirc different 2 7 . For ıhis e v i d e n c e s c c H . S e y r i g , " L ' i n c o r p o r a t i o n dc Palmyrc â 1'empire r o m a i n * , Syrra 1 } ( « 9 3 1 ) , 2 6 6 ; S t a r c k y a n d G a w l i k o w s k i , Palmyre 28. ILS,

no. 2683.

2 (1985), 37.

kinds o f help. T h e s e r o b b e r s use strongholds as bases o f oper3tion; t h o s e , for examplc, vvho hold L i b a n u s posscss, high up on thc m o u n t a i n , Sinna and B o r r a m a a n d orher fortresses likc them, and, dovvn belovv, Botrys a n d Gigartus and the caves by t h c sea aııd the castle that vvas ereeted on T h e u prosopon. P o m p c y destroyed these placcs; and from them the r o b b e r s overran both Byblus and thc city t h a t c o m e s n c x t after Byhlus, I mean thc city Berytus, vvhich lie betvveen Sidon and T h e u p r o s o p o n . 2 ' L a t e r vve vvili c o m c b a c k briefly t o this r e g i o n a n d t o S t r a b o ' s i d e a t h a t the p o p u l a t i o n o f M o u n t L c b a n o n c o u l d bc classificd as ' I t u r a e a n s a n d A r a b i a n s ' . 3 0 W h a t is c l e a r is t h a t S t r a b o sees s o m e r e i a t i o n s h i p betvveen r a i d ng f r o m t h c m o u n t a i n t o t h e p l a i n a n d t h e c o a s t a n d vvhat he then g o e s o n t o r e c o r d , the f o u n d a t i o n o f a colonia

a t B e r y t u s , vvith a t e r r i t o r y s t r e t e h i n g t o

t h e s o u r e e s o f the O r o n t e s in t h e B e k a a Valiey. H e r e again it will be n e e e s s a r y t o return later t o t h e c o m p I e x c o n s e q u e n c e s o f the s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e v e t e r a n s o f tvvo legions in this a r c a in 15 BC; 31 this c o l o n y , C o l o n i a Iulia A u g u s t a F e l i x B e r y t u s , n o t o n l y vvas t h e s o l e c o l o n i a l s e t t l e m e n t in thc N e a r E a s t u n d e r A u g u s t u s , b u t represented b y far t h e m o s t p r o f o u n d a n d l o n g - l a s t i n g R o m a n , o r L a t i n , i n t r u s i o n into t h c c u l t u r c o f the r c g i o n in the e n t i r c R o m a n period. S t r a b o m o v e s on f r o m t h e r e t o r e c o r d the security s i t u a t i o n o n the s o u t h c r n side o f A ı ı t i - L e b a n o n a n d M o u n t H e r m o n , vvhere lay t h e a n c i e n t c i t y o f Damascus: T h c city o f Damascus is a l s o a ııotevvorthy city, lıaving been, I might a l most say, even the most f a m o u s o f thc citics in that part of thc vvorld in the time o f the Persian e m p i r e ; and above it are situated tvvo T r a c h o n e s , as they are callcd. And t h e n , tovvards the parts inhabited promiscuously by the Arabians and Ituraeans, a r e mountains hard t o pass, in vvhich t h e r e are deep-mouthed caves, o n e o f vvhich can admit as m a n y as f o u r t h o u sand people in times o f incursions, such as are made against the D a m a s ceni from m a n y placcs. F o r thc m o s t p a r t , indccd, thc barbarians have been robbing the ınerchants from Arabia Felix, but this is less the case novv that thc band of robbers under Z e n o d o r u s has been broken up t h r o u g h thc g o o d govcrnmcnt cstablishcd by thc R o m a n s and through the security established by the R o m a n soldiers that are kept in Syria.' 2 It is n o t q u i t c c l c a r c x a c t l y vvhat s u b - r e g i o n s S t r a b o is r e f e r r i n g t o ,

and

vvhether h c is distinguishing t h c slopes o f M o u n t H e r m o n a n d A n t i - L e b a tıon f r o m the very d i s t i n e t i v e z o n e vvhich lies s o u t h - e a s t o f D a m a s c u s , a n d vvas ı«>. Geog.

X V I , 2, 1 8 ( 7 5 5 ) , L o e b t r a n s .

3 0 . 8.3 belovv. 3 1 . 8.4 belovv. 3 2 . S t t a b o , Geog.

X V I , 2, 2 0 <756).

n o r m a l l y c a l l e d T r a c h o ı ı i t i s : n o t a m o u n t a i n at a l i , t h a t i s , b u t a p l a t e o f b r o ken lava, novv knovvn a s t h e l - e j a , lying o n t h c plain a n d m c a s u r i n g s o m e 5 0 k m n o r t h - s o u t h a n d 3 0 k m east-vvest. i t s very b r o k e n t e r r a i n m a d e it a n a t u r a l s t r o n g h o l d , a n d a b a s c f o r r o b b c r y d i r c c t c d t o t h c s u r r o u n d i n g plain s o f the D a m a s c e n e t e r r i t o r y a n d t h e n o r t h e r n H a u r a n ( A u r a n i t i s ) . W h e t h e r S t r a b o , vvho s p e a k s in r a t h e r g e n e r a l t e r m s here, is right t o t h i n k o f t r a d e r s f r o m A r a b i a F e l i x ( t h e Y e m e n ) c o m i n g up by laııd as f a r n o r t h a s this is a n i m p o r t a n t q u c s t i o n . N o r is it c l c a r vvhether h c is right t o s u p p o s e t h a t it h a d been R o m a n s o l d i e r s vvho h a d i m p o s e d o r d e r in this r e g i o n . J o s e p h u s , in his d e t a i l c d a c c o u n t o f H e r o d t h e G r e a t , telis a m o r e c o m p i e x story. A c c o r d i n g t o him thc Z e n o d o r u s referred t o by S t r a b o h a d leascd t e r r i t o r y in this a r e a f r o m C l e o p a t r a , a n d h a d s u b s e q u c n t l y e n c o u r a g e d the i n h a b i t a n t s o f T r a c h o n i t i s in r a i d s on the t e r r i t o r y o f D a m a s c u s . T h e y h a d then c o m plained t o the legatus

of Syria, a n d hc had reported t o Augustus. Acting o n

A u g u s t u s ' i n s t r u e t i o n s , t h e legatus,

V a r r o , ' m a d e an e x p e d i t i o n ' , cleared o u t

thc r o b b e r s a n d d e p o s e d Z e n o d o r u s . A s such, this is a perfect e x a n ı p l e o f t h e e p i s o d i e use o f f o r c e b y t h e R o m a n s in the o u t l y i n g , p e r h a p s i n d c c d g e o g r a p h ically s e p a r a t e , part o f the p r o v i n c e s o u t h o f t h e m a j ö r m o u n t a i n s . T h e s t o r y strongly suggests t h a t n o R o m a n f o r c c s a t ali vvere p c r m a n e n t l y s t a t i o n e d in the D a m a s c u s r e g i o n . İ J T h e a r e a c o n c e r n e d is d e s e r i b e d by J o s e p h u s as T r a c h o n i t i s (the l a v a plate), A u r a n i t i s ( t h c I l a u r a n ) a n d B a t a n c a , vvhich borders o n the H a u r a n t o the north-vvest. A f t e r t h e p o l i c c - a c t i o n by V a r r o , it vvas novv, in 2 3 BC, a d d e d t o H c r o d ' s territory, vvhich a l r e a d y ineluded G a l i l c c a n d , a s vve h a v e s e e ı ı , H i p p o s aııd G a d a r a t o t h c east a n d s o u t h - e a s t o f t h c S e a o f G a l i l c c . T h r e e y e a r s later, a s J o s e p h u s r e c o r d s , A u g u s t u s paid a visit t o S y r i a , in fact in 2 0 BC, a n d is deseribed a s g r a n t i n g t o H e r o d T r a c h o n i t i s ( a g a i n ) , U l a t h a ( t h e a r c a r o u n d L a k e H u l c h ) a n d P a n c a s , vvhich h a d b e l o n g e d t o Z e n o d o r u s a n d lay o n t h e s o u t h e r n s l o p e o f M o u n t H e r m o n a b o v e the G o l a n

Heights."

T h e r e is n o n e e d t o pretend t h a l the details o f ali this a r e elear. But the t o t a l c f f e c t vvas t o bc very i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e h i s t o r y o f t h c districts i m m c d i a t c l y t o the s o u t h o f the m o u n t a i n s f o r m o r e t h a n a century. F o r they vvere t o r e m a i n under the rule o f m e m b e r s o f t h e H e r o d i a t ı d y n a s t y a l m o s t ( t h o u g h n o t q u i t e ) c o n t i n u o u s l y until t h c e n d o f t h e first c e n t u r y AD. D a m a s c u s , o n e o f the m a j ö r c i t i e s o f t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e , vvas thus b o u n d e d b y t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e d y nasty o f E m e s a t o its north on t h e r o u t e a l o n g the e a s t side o f A n t i - L e b a n o n ; b y P a l m y r c n c t e r r i t o r y t o its n o r t h - e a s t ; a n d by H c r o d i a n r o y a l t e r r i t o r y i m mediately t o its s o u t h . O n l y t o t h e vvest (if a t ali) d o e s it a p p e a r from t h e s t o r y o f a b o u n d a r y - d i s p u t e r c c o r d c d by J o s e p h u s t h a t its t c r r i t o r i c s b o r d e r e d t h a t

3 3 . J o s e p h u s , DJ I, 2 0 , 4 ( 3 9 8 - 4 0 0 ) ; Ant.

XV, 10, 1 (343-348).

3 4 . DJ I, 10, 4 ( 3 9 9 - 4 0 0 ) ; in m u c h m o r e d e t a i l , Ant.

X V , xo, 3 ( 3 5 4 - 3 6 4 ) .

o f a n o t h e r c i t y u n d e r R o m a n d i r e c t r u l e , n a m e l y ( a n d very s u r p r i s i n g l y ) S i d o n o n the c o a s t . 3 5 B u t if s o , as a g l a n c e a t t h e m a p w i l i s h o w , t h i s c a n h a v e b e e n o n l y a t s o m e p o i n t o n M o u n t H c r m o n o r a t t h e s o u t h e r n end o f t h e B e k a a V a l l e y , betvveen H e r o d i a n t e r r i t o r y ( i n e l u d i n g P a n c a s ) t o the s o u t h a n d t h e t\vo s m a l l t e t r a r c h i e s o f A b i l a , o n the r o a d b e t w e e n D a m a s c u s a n d t h e B e k a a Valley, a n d C h a l c i s , s o m e v v h e r e in the s o u t h e r n h a l f o f the valley. 3 6 In a real s e n s e , t h e r e f o r e , D a m a s c u s a n d its s u r r o u n d i n g o a s i s , fed by w a t e r r u n n i n g o f f t h e m o u n t a i n s , vvas a n e n e l a v e vvhich R o m e r u l e d in p r i n c i p l e b u t vvhere it s e e m s t o h a v e i n t e r v e n e d o n l y o n o c c a s i o n . F u r t h e r s o u t h the i n t e r p l a y o f povver a n d g e o g r a p h y vvas e q u a l i y c o m p l e x . M e n t i o n h a s b e e n m a d e o f A u r a n i t i s , vvhich A u g u s t u s t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m Z e ı ı o d o r u s t o H c r o d . B u t b e f o r e this, Z c n o d o r u s , a c c o r d i n g t o J o s e p h u s ,

had

l e a s e d it t o ' t h e A r a b s ' , t h a t is t o say, t h e N a b a t a e a n k i n g d o m . T h e a r e a c o n c e r n e d is the n o r t h e r n H a u r a n , b o t h t h e p l a i n ( t h e N u q r a ) a n d t h e hillcountry or Jcbel H a u r a n , m o r e rcccntly called the Jebcl Druse o r J e b e l Arab. If this a r e a vvas i n d e e d e v e r u n d e r N a b a t a e a n r u l e , it vvas t h u s o n l y f o r a fevv y e a r s b e f o r e 23 BC, p e r h a p s 3 0 - 2 3 BC. B u t f r o m then o n it vvas a l m o s t c o n t i n u o u s l y u n d e r the H e r o d i a n k i n g s . T h e p o i n t h a s s o m e

significance,

v/hich vve vvill c o m e t o m u c h later. F o r t h i s r e g i o n , vvith its A r a m a i c i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d m a j ö r c u l t - c e n t r e a t S i a \ a n d t h e tovvn o f K a n a t h a , h a s a q u i t e d i s t a n t h i s t o r y f r o m t h a t o f t h e p r o p e r l y N a b a t a e a n a r c a i m ı n c d i a t e l y t o :he s o u t h , vvith t h e i m p o r t a n t c i t y o f B o s t r a . 3 7 T h e N a b a t a e a n k i n g d o m novv s t r e t e h e d a s f a r n o r t h as B o s t r a . A t

ıhe

same time the Herodian k i n g d o m covcred I d u m a c a , Judaea, S a m a r i a , Galilec, a n d novv a l s o B a t a n e a , A u r a n i t i s a n d T r a c h o n i t i s , as well a s a s t r e t e h o f t e r r i t o r y 011 the e a s t o f the J o r d a n a n d the D e a d S e a , e x t e n d i n g as f a r s o u t h a s ıhe f o r t r e s s o f M a c h a e r u s , a n d knovvn a s P e r a e a . In 2 0 BC A u g u s t u s a l s o a g r e e d t o g i v e this a r e a t o H e r o d ' s b r o t h e r P h e r o r a s as a s e p a r a t e t e t r a r e h y . 3 8 O n e c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e R o m a n r e c o g n i t i o n , a n d in the H e r o d i a n c a s e c x t e n s i o n , o f t h e s e t w o m a j ö r k i n g d o m s vvas t o raise the q u e s t i o ı ı o f t h e r e l a t i o n t o t h e m o f t h e G r e e k c i t i c s o f t h e s o - e a l l e d D e c a p o l i s vvhich h a d g r o w n up in the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . A p a r t f r o m S c y t h o p o l i s , in t h e P l a i n o f J e z r e e l , a l l o f t h e m l a y o n t h e fertile T r a n s j o r d a n i a n p l a t e a u . T h e q u e s t i o n o f the u r b a n c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s e cities a n d o f t h e i r c u l t u r c a n d i d e n t i t y as G r e e k c i t i c s v/ill 3 5 . J o s e p h u s , Ant. X V I I I , 6 , 3 ( 1 5 3 - 1 5 4 ) . 3 6 . F o r t h e s e t c t r a r c h i e s s c c the s k e t e h y details a v a i l a b l e in Schürer, HJPI,

A p p . I.

37. Scc J . S t a r c k y , " L c s i n s e r i p t i o n s n a b a t e e n n e s ct l'histoirc d c la Syrie d u Sud ct d u N o r d d e la J o r d a n i c " , in Dentzcr, Hauran

I . ı , 1 6 7 , and J.-M. Dentzer, " C o n c l u s i o n : D f v e l o p p e m e n t

c t c u l t u r c d e la Syrie du Sud d a n s la p r r i o d c p t e p r o v i n c i a l e ( ı " s. a v a n t J . - C . - ı " s. apr^s J . - C ) " , ibid. I . ı , 3 8 7 . See f u r t h e r ı ı . ı b e l o w . 38. J o s e p h u s , BJ I, 2 4 , 5 (483J; Ant.

X V , 10, 3 (362).

h a v e t o bc c o n s i d e r c d later. 3 9 F o r t h e m o m e n t it is c n o u g h t o r c c a l l t h a t w h c n P o m p c y h a d a c q u i r e d the a r e a f o r R o m e in the 6os, h e h a d m a d e a d e l i b e r a t e p o i n t o f l i b e r a t i n g ali t h o s c c i t i c s in this a r c a vvhich h a d b e e n u n d c r Jevvish rule (follovving c o n q u e s t s b y t h e H a s m o n a e a n s } , a n d h a d m a d e t h e m p a r t o f the p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a / 0 W h e r e t h e ' b o u n d a r i e s ' , i f indeed t h a t t e r m is a p p l i c a b l e , o f t h e N a h a t a c a n k i n g d o m , H e r o d ' s k i n g d o m a n d the p r o v i n c i a l t e r r i t o r y l a y a t s u c c e s s i v e s t a g e s in t h e l a t e r first c e n t u r y BC is o f t e n v e r y o b s c u r e , a n d n o t ali o f the p r o b l e m s need be p u r s u e d h e r e . F o r i ı ı s t a n c e , s h o r t l y b e f o r e A c t i u m H e r o d h a d f o u g h t a b a t t l c a g a i n s t the N a b a t a c a n s n e a r P h i l a d c l p h i a ( A m m a n ) . It is q u i t e u n c e r t a i n w h e t h e r the c i t y vvas t h e n u n d e r his c o n t r o l , o r u n d e r N a b a t a e a n r u l e , o r vvas r e g a r d e d as p a r t o f the p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a , o r vvas e f f c c t i v c l y i s o l a t e d . 4 1 M o r e o v e r , e s p e c i a l l y in vievv o f vvhat vvas t o h a p p e n a f t e r H e r o d ' s d e a t h , it is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n o f vvhether a c i t y b e l o ı ı g e d t o o n e o f the k i n g d o m s o r t o t h e p r o v i n c c a r o s e in a c u t e f o r m a l r e a d y in 2 0 BC. F o r a t the s a m e m o m e n t as o t h e r d e c i s i o n s , a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , vvere b e i n g t a k e n , J o s e p h u s gives a h i g h l y c o l o u r e d r e p o r t o f hovv, vvhen A u g u s t u s v i s i t e d S y r i a in 2 0 BC, the p e o p l e o f G a d a r a m a d e a c c u s a t i o n s a g a i n s t H e r o d , a l l e g i n g a b o v e ali r o b b e r y a n d d e s t r u c t i o n o f t e m p l e s , in t h e h o p e o f g a i n i n g l i b c r a t i o n f r o m his k i n g d o m and a t t a c h ı n c n t t o t h e p r o v i n c e . T h e s c e n c e n d e d vvhen A u g u s t u s ' f a v o u r t o I l c r o d vvas seen t o b c u n e h a n g e d . 4 2 G a d a r a a n d Hippos therefore

remained

vvithin t h e k i n g d o m , a s d i d K a n a t h a

in

the

H a u r a n . B u t a n u m b e r o f cities vvhich vvere n o r m a l l y i n e l u d e d in t h e ( f l u c t u a t i n g ) Üst o f the cities o f t h e D c c a p o l i s — f o r i n s t a n c c S c y t h o p o l i s , P e l l a , A b i l a , Dium, Adraa, Gerasa and Philadelphia—formed a block of R o m a n provincial t e r r i t o r y e n t i r e l y s u r r o u n d e d by the tvvo k i n g d o m s . Hovv, a n d t o vvhat e x t e n t (if i n d e e d a t a l i ) , R o m a n a u t h o r i t y vvas e x c r c i s c d h e r e in t h e e a r l y I m p e r i a l p e r i o d is a m y s t e r y . C e r t a i n l y t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o i n d i c a t e t h a t a n y R o m a n f o r c e s vvere s t a t i o n e d here. T h e c o m p l e x p o l i t i c a l m a p o f this a r e a f o r m s t h e b a c k g r o u n d t o the i m p o r t a n t c h a n g c s in t h e late first a n d c a r l y s e c o n d c e n tury, vvhen b o t h t h e k i n g d o m o f H e r o d ' s g r a n d s o n , A g r i p p a II, a n d t h a t o f the N a b a t a e a n s c a m e u n d e r R o m a n d i r e c t rule. T h e r e l a t i v e vvcakness o f R o m a n c o n t r o l in this vvholc s o u t h e r n a r c a in t h i s p e r i o d vvas t o b e d r a m a t i c a l l y i l l u s t r a t e d in 9 BC, vvhen a w a r b r o k e o u t betvveen t h e tvvo k i n g d o m s . A g a i n vve a r e e n t i r e l y d e p e n d e n t o n the n a r r a t i v e o f J o s e p h u s , b a s e d 011 a m u c h f u l l e r c o n t c m p o r a r y n a r r a t i v e b y N i c o l a u s o f

3 9 . 1 1 . 3 bclo\v. 4 0 . S c h ü r c r , H f P I, 2 4 0 . 4 r - J o s e p h u s , IİJ I, 1 9 , j (380). See f ı ı r ı h e t 1 1 . 3 belovv. 4 2 . Ant.

XV, ıo, 3 (354-359)-

D a m a s c u s , w h o h i m s e l f a c t c d a s H c r o d ' s e n v o y t o dcfcııd his a e t i o n s b e f o r e A u g u s t u s . 4 3 In b r i c f , the c o n û i c t d e v e l o p e d as f o l l o w s : In 12. BC, while H e r o d h a d been a b s e n t , the N a b a t a e a n s h a d e n c o u r a g e d the i n h a b i t a n t s o f T r a c h o n itis, n o w under H e r o d ' s r u l e , t o revert t o b r i g a n d a g e , a n d h a d given a s y l u m t o f o r t y o f their ' b a n d i t - c h i e f s ' (arehilestai).

lising a b a s e p r o v i d e d

for

them in N a b a t a e a n t e r r i t o r y , t h e y r a i d e d n o t o n l y J u d a e a but ' C o e l c S y r i a ' , vvhich in this c a s e m u s t t n e a n t h e D e c a p o l i s . H e r o d c o u l d a n d did repress r e s i s t a n c c in T r a c h o n i t i s , b u t a s r e g a r d s t h o s e o p e r a t i n g f r o m N a b a t a e a n territory, he c o u l d o n l y a p p e a l co ' t h e g o v e r n o r s o f C a e s a r , S a t u r n i n u s a n d Vol u m n i u s ' — i n fact the c o n s u l a r legatus,

Cıı. Sentıus Saturninus, and the

procu-

rator o f the p r o v i n c e . N o q u e s t i o n o f R o m a n m i i i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n s e e m s to h a v e arisen. T h e y m e r e l y d e c i d e d t h a t t h e N a b a t a e a n s should p a y a d e b i dııe t o H e r o d , a n d t h a t refugees 011 b o t h sides s h o u l d b c r e s t o r e d . O n l y vvhen this vvas n o t d o n e did t h e y give H e r o d p e r m i s s i o n t o invade N a b a t a e a . A f t e r a successful i n v a s i o n a n d a m i n ö r b a t t l e , H e r o d settled a c o l o n y o f t h r e e t h o u s a n d I d u m a e a n s t o c o n t r o l T r a c h o n i t i s , aııd vvrote t o the R o m a n o f f i c i a l s c x p l a i n i n g his a e t i o n s . T h e a f f a i r vvas f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d by the death o f O b o d a s , t h e k i n g of N a b a t a e a , a n d the a c c e s s i o ı ı , vvithout A u g u s t u s ' p e r m i s s i o n , o f A r e t a s I V ; as vvill be s c c n later, it s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n in his l o n g reign that the m a j o r n ı o n u m e n t s o f P e t r a vvere b i n i t / " Et is significant f o r t h e vvorkiııgs o f the Imperial system a s it a f f c c t e d d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m s t h a t ali the m a t t e r s in dispute vvcıe d e c i d e d a t a h e a r i n g b e f o r e A u g u s t u s in p e r s o n , a t vvhich N i c o l a u s s p o k e , a c c u s i n g S y l l a e u s , t h e c h i e f m i n i s t e r o f the N a b a t a e a n c o u r t , o f beiııg r e s p o n s i b l e f o r ali the vvrongs d o n e . A u g u s t u s , a f t e r i n t e r r o g a t i n g S y l l a e u s , vvho vvas p r e s e n t , a c c e p t e d the defense o f H e r o d , a n d m o m e n t a r i l y t h o u g h t a l s o o f giviııg h i m A r e t a s ' vvhole k i n g d o m . But he vvas t h e n d e t e r r e d by nevvs o f c o n f l i c r s betvveen H e r o d a n d his s o n s , a c c e p t e d gifts s e n t b y A r e t a s , a n d c o n f i r m e d h i m a s king. T h e s e e p i s o d e s , f o r vvhich vve h a v e vvhat is in effect a c o ı ı t e m p o r a r y , i f of c o u r s c p a r t i a l , a c c o u n t , is i m m c n s e l y revcaling o f vvhat the R o m a n E m p i r e in t h e N e a r E a s t a t this period vvas. Ali d c c i s i o n - m a k i n g depended very i m m e d i a t e l y on r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s m a d e t o t h e E m p e r o r in person in R o m e , a s vvell as on letters a d d r e s s e d t o h i m . P r o b l e m s o f t i m e a n d d i s t a n c e , o f t e n very imp o r t a n t t o t h e role o f the N e a r E a s t vvithin the E m p i r e , d o n o t play a n y visible p a r t . B y c o n t r a s t t h e R o m a n o f f i c i a l s in Syria on t h e o n e h a n d d e p e n d e d closely o n t h e E m p e r o r , a n d o n t h e o t h e r relied e q u a l l y o n p e r s o n a l a n d vvrit-

4 3 . J o s c p h u s , Ant.

X V I , 9 , 1 - 4 ( 2 7 1 - 2 9 9 ) ; 9, 8 9 ( 3 3 5 - 3 5 5 ) . T h c r c is a b r i c f e x c e r p t af

Nicolaus' autobiography,

w r i t t e n i n t h e third p e r s o n , r e f e r r i n g t o these c v e n t s , FCtM

F . i 3 6 ( 5 ) . F o r t h e e p i s o d e s e e G . W . R o v v e r s o c k , Rottum 4 4 . r ı . 2 belovv.

Arabia

(1983), 50-53.

90,

t e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s in e x e r c i s i n g a r a t h e r l i m i t e d influence on events in t h e s o u t h e r n r c g i o n . N o R o m a n f o r c e s vvere i n v o l v e d a t a n y p o i n t . S o m c s i m i l a r f e a t u r e s a r c v i s i b l e a f t e r H e r o d dicd in thc spring o f 4 BC, h a v i n g m a d e a final vvill in vvhich he n a m e d t h r e e o f his s o n s a s his h c i r s : A r c h e l a u s a s k i n g , a n d H e r o d e s A n t i p a s a n d Philip a s t e t r a r e h s . 4 5 A n t i p a s vvas t o rule G a l i l e e a n d Peraea, a n d Philip vvas t o have G a u l a n i t i s , T r a c h o n itis, B a t a n c a a n d thc city o f P a n e a s . T h a t vvas in the e n d hovv t h c t e r r i t o r i c s vvere d i s p o s e d . B u t the m a n n e r in vvhich t h e R o m a n s t a t e novv o p e r a t e d , b o t h in R o m e a n d in the N e a r E a s t , again c a s t s a flood o f light 011 vvhat t y p e o f system t h c E m p i r e at this s t a g e vvas.'4* A g a i n vve c a n d e p e n d b o t h d i r c c t l y a n d indirectly, t h r o u g h J o s e p h u s , o n a c o n t e m p o r a r y n a r r a t i v e b y N i c o l a u s ; in t h e m o d e r n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y o f the R o m a n İ m p e r i a l system a t this f o r m a t i v e s t a g e t h c c o n t e m p o r a r y e v i d c n c c o f N i c o l a u s h a s h a r d l y played thc role t h a t st should. O n l y the b r o a d e s t liııes o f t h e c o m p l e x events vvhich follovved rıeed b e m e n t i o n e d , a n d m a n y vvill b e l o n g r a t h e r t o t h c intcrnal h i s t o r y o f the Jevvish c o m m u n i t y . 4 ' In J u d a e a itself A r c h e l a u s h a d t o cali o u t the entire r o y a l f o r c e s b e f o r e m a n a g i n g t o r e p r e s s a p o p u l a r r e v o l t , prior t o leaving for R o m e t o a r g u c his c l a i m s b e f o r e A u g u s t u s . A t C a c s a r c a , b e f o r e e m b a r k i n g , he e n c o u n tered b o t h S a b i n u s , t h e procurator

o f S y r i a , vvho h a d c o m e t o t a k e p o s s e s s i o n

o f t h e royal t r e a s u r i e s , e v i d e n t l y b c c a u s e H e r o d h a d left vast s u m s t o A u gustus in his vvill, a n d a l s o Q u i n c t i l i u s V a n ı s , t h c legatus

o f S y r i a , t o vvhom

A r c h e l a u s h a d a p p e a l e d , a n d vvho f o r b a d e S a b i n u s t o t a k e över t h e t r e a s u r i e s , a n d returııed t o A n t i o c l ı . T h c initial R o m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n vvas t h u s very l i m ited. O n c e V a r u s had g o n c , S a b i n u s , hovvcvcr, d i s o b e y e d i n s t r u e t i o n s a n d t o o k s t e p s t o possess h i ı n s e l f o f the treasuries ali the s a m e , as vvell a s vvriting to Augustus to m a k e charges against Archelaus. L c t t c r s vvere a l s o sent b y V a r u s t o A u g u s t u s , t o r e p o r t a g e n e r a l u p r i s i n g by t h e J e w s . O n vvhat s e c m s t o h a v e bceıı a s e c o n d visit, he h a d b r o u g l ı t a l e g i o n t o J e r u s a l c n ı , a n d h a d l e f t it t h e r e t o c o l l a b o r a t e vvith t h c royal f o r c e s in r e p r e s s i n g t h c r e v o l t . B u t l c t t c r s f r o m S a b i n u s in J e r u s a l e m r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e f o r c e s t h e r e vvere in d a n g e r o f c o m p l e t e d e s t r u e t i o n . V a r u s ' r e s p o n s e serves t o illustrate b o t h t h e s t r u e t u r e o f R o m a n m i l i t a r y r e s o u r c e s in thc r e g i o n a t this m o m e n t a n d even m o r e c l e a r l y their limits. J o s e p h u s is q u i t e e x plicit in s a y i n g , a s m e n t i o n e d earlier, 4 8 t h a t there vvere o n l y t h r e e legions iıı ali in S y r i a , a n d that the fact t h a t V a r u s b r o u g h t tvvo m o r e vvith h i m m c a n t

4 5 . J o s e p h u s , BJ I, 3 3 , 7 ( 6 6 4 ) ; Ant.

X V I I , 8, 1 ( 1 8 8 - 1 9 0 ) .

4 6 . F o r t h e a v a i l a b l e n a r r a t i v e s s e c N i c o l a u s , F(!rH ( x - x o o ) ; Ani.

XVII, 9 - 1 1

4 7 . 1 0 . 1 - 2 belovv. 4 8 . S e e 11.17 a b o v e .

(206-323).

9 0 , F . i 3 6 ( 8 ) - ( n ) ; J o s e p h u s , B] II, 1—6

that t h e entire lcgioııary g a r r i s o n o f the p r o v i n c e w a s n o w o p e r a t i n g i n j u d a e a . A l o n g vvith these tvvo r e m a i n i n g l e g i o n s he b r o u g h t f o u r alae o f c a v a l ı y ' a n d vvhatever allied f o r c e s k i n g s o r t e t r a r e h s c o u l d p r o v i d e ' . V a r u s e v i d e n t i y passed dovvıı the c o a s t a l r o u t e t o P t o l e m a i s , t h e s o u t h e r n m o s t city o n the c o a s t vvhich vvas stili vvithin t h e p r o v i n c c , vvhere the allied f o r c e s vvere ins t r u c t c d t o gather. F o r as he p a s s e d t h r o u g h the colonia

o f B e r y t u s , the i n h a b -

i t a n t s p r o v i d e d fifteen h u n d r e d soldiers. A s I s a a c h a s rightly a r g u c d , 4 ' this d o c s n o t m c a n t h a t w c s h o u l d see s u c h a colonia

as h a v i n g a l o n g - t e r m mili-

t a r y f u n e t i o n ; it h a d b e e n f o u n d e d o n l y eleven years b e f o r e , vvith tlıc vetcraııs o f tvvo legions, s o at this t i m e it c o u l d stili p r o d u c e t r a i n e d e x - s o ! d i e r s f e r an emergeney. T h i s vvas, hovvevcr, t h e o n l y o c c a s i o n on vvhich the colonia

:s

r c c o r d c d as h a v i n g p e r f o r m e d this f u n e t i o n ; its later m i l i t a r y role vvas t o be q u i t e different, as p r o v i d i n g a loııg series o f individual s o l d i e r s a n d offıcers f o r the R o m a n a r m y . 5 0 O n l y o n e o f t h e d e p e n d e n t k i n g s a n d t e t r a r e h s w h o sent t r o o p s is n a m c d , A r c t a s I V o f N a b a t a e a , vvho sent a c o n s i d e r a b l e f o r c e o f b o t h c a v a l r y a n d infantry. T h e r e v o l t vvas novv repressed vvithout difficultv; b u t V a r u s stili left o n e vvhole legion in J c r u s a l e m , r e t u r n i n g a g a i n t o A n t i o c h . T h o u g h J o s e p h u s d o c s n o t s a y s o , p r e s u m a b l y the third legion r e t u r n e d t o Syria w h e n A r c h e l a u s c a m e b a c k f r o m R o m e , d u l y c o n f ı r m e d as k i n g by Augustus. N o t f o r the last t i m e , an o u t b r c a k o f Jevvish p o p u l a r r e s i s t a n c e h a d d e m o n s t r a t e d j u s t hovv fragile R o m a n m i l i t a r y c o n t r o l o f the N e a r E a s t stili vvas. N o t for t h e last t i m e either, t h e p r o c c s s o f r e s t o r i n g c o n t r o l in o n c r e g i o n vvas a i d c d b y allied royal f o r c e s f r o m a n o t h e r . A c o m b i ı ı a t i o n o f different r o y a l o r p o p u l a r f o r c e s in a c o m m o n e f f o r t against R o m e vvas hardly t o b e f e a r e d — t h o u g h , as vvc vvill see, a legaCus o f Syria vvas later, in t h e 4 0 S AD, t o feci a l a r m a t j u s t s u c h a p r o s p c c t . 5 1 M o r e o v c r , l o o k i n g f a r t h e r a h e a d , vve c a n n o t q u i ı e d i s c o u n t t h e possibility t h a t the a b o r t i v e c o u p d ' e t a t o f a legatus

of Syria,

Avidius C a s s i u s , a native o f C y r r h u s , in A D 1 7 5 h a d s o m e e t h n i c o r r e g i o n a l basis; 5 2 or, m o r e scriously, t h a t the brief e m p i r e o f P a l m y r a in t h e m i d - t h i r d c c n t u r y did n o t dravv on s o m e sense o f r e g i o n a l o r c u l t u r a l identity. 5 3 B u t if f o r t h e m o m e n t , a n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e first c e n t u r y , d e p e n d e n t k i n g s a n d t e t r a r e h s c o u l d be relied u p o n t o use their f o r c e s in s u p p o r t o f R o m e , t h a t d o e s n o t disguise t h e f a c t t h a t t h e legatus

h a d h a d t o c o m m i t his e n t i r e

f o r c e s t o r e p r e s s a p o p u l a r r e v o l t in o n e r e g i o n . H a d t h e r e been s i m u l t a n c o u s l y a t h r e a t f r o m P a r t h i a , o r even d i s t u r b a n c c s in C o m m a g e n e , t h e m i l i t a r y s i t u a t i o n vvould h a v e been ex:tremely p r e c a r i o u s . 4 9 . I s a a c , Limiti,

ch. 7.

50. S c c M i l l a r , " R o m a n Colonûıe16; 5 1 . 1 . 3 belovv. 5 2 . 3 . 4 belovv. $3. 4.3 a n d 9 . 4 belovv.

a n d 8.4 b e ! o w .

T h e c r u c i a l d e c i s i o n s vvere a g a i n t a k e n in R o m e , a n d by t h e device, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f rhe very p e r s o n a l r u l e o f t h e R m p e r o r s , o f a h e a r i n g b e f o r e A u g u s t u s , sittiııg vvith his advisers in a t least tvvo successive s e s s i o n s , o f vvhich t h e s e c o n d vvas held in public a t t h e nevv t e m p l e o f A p o l l o n c x t t o his h o u s c on t h e P a l a t i n e . " H e r e again

the m e d i u m o f p e r s u a s i o n

vvas c o m p e t i n g

speeches b y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f d i f f e r e n t p a r t i e s , a m o n g t h e m N i c o l a u s o f D a m a s c u s h i m s e l f , s p e a k i n g s u c c c s s f u l l y in s u p p o r t o f the c l a i m s o f A r c h c l a u s . W h a t is s t r i k i n g a n d c r u c i a l in this p a r t i c u l a r e p i s o d e is t h e n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t interests m a k i n g c o n f l i c t i n g c l a i m s : n o t o n l y A r c h e l a u s , H e r o d e s A n t i p a s a n d Philip, b u t o t h e r unsarisfied relatives, a Jevvish e m b a s s y o f fifty p e r s o n s a s k i n g for autorıomia,

m e a n i n g t h e e n d o f royal rule, a n d a l s o t h e G r e e k c i t i e s

vvhich h a d been under H e r o d . T h e y d e m a n d e d if p o s s i b l e t o be 'utıder C a e s a r ' , t h a t is, t o bc part o f the p r o v i n c c , o r if n o t t o be under ' t h e y o u n g e r b r o r h e r ' ( a p p a r e n t l y Philip). In h i s Autobiography,

giving m a n y details vvhich

J o s e p h u s o m i t s , N i c o l a u s d e s e r i b e s hovv he d e f e n d e d A r c h e l a u s s u c c e s s f u l l y first a g a i n s t his relatives a n d t h e n a g a i n s t t h e Jcvvs. B u t he a d v i s c d h i m n o t t o resist t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e G r e e k c i t i e s f o r f r e e d o m n o r t o o p p o s e his b r o t h e r . " A u g u s t u s duly avvarded A r c h e l a u s h a l f o f H e r o d ' s k i n g d o m , vvith the title o f e t h n a r c h { p r o m i s i n g t o m a k c h i m a king if hc shovved h i m s e l f vvorthy), a n d m a d e b o t h Philip a n d A n t i p a s t e t r a r c l ı s . N i c o l a u s d o e s n o t m a k e c l e a r vvhich, o r hovv many, G r e e k cities h a d j o i n c d in this c l a i m , a n d a n u m b e r in f a c t r e m a i n e d under H c r o d i a n r u l e . B u t J o s e p h u s d u l y n o t e s {vvithout e x p l a i n i n g hovv o r w h y ) t h a t G a d a r a a n d H i p p o s vvere novv a t t a c h e d t o Syria ( t h u s j o i n ing t h e provincial e n e l a v e o f t h e D e c a p o l i s ) , a s vvas G a z a on the c o a s t . T h e e f f e c t vvas t h e r e f o r e t o p r o d u c e yet a n o t h e r e n e l a v e , vvith n o g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n n e c t i o n t o the rest o f the p r o v i n c e ; a n d also, a s vvill be s e e n , t o o f f e r a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e raising o f t a x c s for R o m c f r o m t h e trade vvhich r c a c h c d G a z a f r o m A r a b i a F e l i x . 5 6 Tvvo small steps h a d thus been t a k e n tovvards t h e e x t e n s i o n o f R o m a n direct rule över the vvlıole o f the N e a r E a s t .

2.2. F R O M T H E DEATH O F HF.ROD THE T O THE END OF TIBERIUS'

GREAT

REIGN

H e r o d ' s d e a t h t h u s led t o a r a d i c a l r e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f the r o y a l territory in t h e s o u t h o f the r e g i o n , vvith t h r e e s e p a r a t e u n i t s , o n e a n c t h n a r c h y a n d tvvo c a l l e d t e t r a r c h i e s , r e p l a c i n g the f o r m e r k i n g d o m . B u t tvvo other, a p p a r e n t l y very miııor, c h a n g e s vvere p e r h a p s o f g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e in the l o n g ruıı. F o r 5 4 . F o r hearings b e f o r e the F m p c r o r , for w h i c h Josephus' narrntivcs providc s o m e o f t h e best e v i d e n c e f r o m ı h e first c e n t u r y , scc M i l l a r , ERW, 55. N i c o l a u s ' a c c o u n t :

FGrll

56. 3 . 1 a n d 1 3 . 1 belovv.

9 0 , F . 1 3 6 (8)—(rr).

passim, and csp. 3 7 j f f .

G a d a r a a n d H i p p o s novv e s c a p e d f r o m H e r o d i a n rule a n d joined rhe e n c i a v e o f provincial c i ı i e s in T r a n s j o r d a n , vvhile G a z a f o r m e d a n o t h e r p r o v i n c i a l enc i a v e o n the c o a s t . T h e c o n s c q u c n c c m u s t h a v e been t h a t these p l a c c s n c w paid t r i b u t e t o R o m e , a n d t h a t R o m a n indirect t a x e s vvere c o l J e c t c d there. B u t t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o suggest t h a t a n y R o m a n f o r c e s vvere s t a t i o n e d in either r e g i o n ; vvhether the legatus

o f S y r i a , o r a n y o t h e r o f f i c i a l , ever visited t h e m

r e m a i n s u n c e r t a i n . In spite o f t h e a p p a r e n t vvcakncss o f R o m a n c o n t r o l here, the c h a n g e s a r e stili very s i g n i f i c a n t . F o r they r e p r e s e n t the first o f a l o n g series o f c x t c n s i o n s o f R o m a n direct rule in t h e N e a r E a s t vvhich vvere t o continue for another three centuries.1 A m u c h m o r e decisive c h a n g e vvas, hovvever, t o o c c u r t e n y e a r s later, in AD 6 , vvith t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f A r c h c l a u s a n d t h e c r c a t i o n o f t h e p r o v i n c e o f J u d a e a . W h e t h e r vve see this c h a n g e from t h e p o i n t o f vievv o f t h e s t r u e t u r e o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e o r o f its e f f e c t s on the Jevvish c o m m u n i t y a n d the T e m p l e , o r o f t h e o r i g i n s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , its s i g n i f i c a n c e c a n h a r d l y be e x a g gerated. It c a m e a b o u t in a m a n ı ı e r vvhich itself is indicative o f t h e vvay t h a t tiıe E m p i r e vvorkcd, as a p c r s o n a l m o n a r e h y o f a strikingly p r i m i t i v e type. P r o v o k e d b y the brutaLity o f t h e r e g i m e , b o t h the Jevvs a n d t h e S a m a r i t a n s (vvhatc v e r o r g a n i s a t i o ı ı they m a y h a v e h a d ) sent e m b a s s i e s t o c o m p l a i n t o Aug u s t u s , vvho d e p o s e d A r c h c l a u s a n d sent h i m into e x i ! c . 2 A s so o f t e n , a f o r m a l h e a r i n g b e f o r e the E m p e r o r , vvhatever delays o r p r o b l e m s o f travel it i n v o l v e d , vvas a s s u m c d t o be the n o r m a l vvay that a p r o b l e m c o u l d b e r e s o l v e d . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e vvas n o t m e r e l y t h a t t h e vvidc a r e a ruled b y A r c h c l a u s ( I d u m a e a , J u d a e a a n d Ş a m a r ia) b e c a m e p r o v i n c i a l territory, b u t t h a t the evid c n c c allovvs us t o follovv the i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a q u i t e nevv t y p e o f p r o v i n c e : that is t o say, a s e c o n d - r a n k p r o v i n c e vvith a u x i l i a r y units b u t n o legions, and g o v e r n e d b y a praefectus

o f equestrian rank, not by a senatör. O t h e r such

p r o v i n c c s vvere f o r m e d , b u t a t i n d e t e r m i n a t e dates, under A u g u s t u s a n d T i b e rius. B u t J u d a e a , vvhether o r n o t it vvas a c t u a l l y the first, is the o n l y o n e vvhere vve c a n see this nevv a s p e c t o f t h e R o m a n I m p e r i a l s t a t e c o m i n g i n t o e x i s t c n c c . M o r c o v e r the G o s p e l s r e f i e c t , i f in a n e r r a t i c vvay, the r o y a l rule o f H e r o d d o w n t o 4 BC, the r e g i m e o f A r c h c l a u s betvveen 4 BC a n d AD 6 , G a l i l c c and P e r a e a as t h e y vvere u n d e r t h e t e t r a r e h y o f H e r o d e s A n t i p a s , t h e t e r r i t o r y o f Philip, a n d a b o v e ali J e r u s a l e m u n d e r R o m a n direct rule. 1 . I a m n o t p e r s u a d c d b y t h e i n t e r e s t i n g s n g g c s t i o n o f G . W . B o v v e r s o c k , Roman (198}).

Araoia

ûtguing, on the basis ö f S t r a b o X V I , 4 , 1 1 (779), of a g a p in coinage of A r e t a s IV

i n 1 0 - 3 BC a n d a l s o s o m e r e p o r t s o f G a i u s C a c s a r ' s a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e E a s t , t h a t N a b a t a e a \»as b r i c f l y a p r o v i n c e i n 3 BG-AI> I . F o r G a i u s ' p o s s i b l e i n v o l v e m e n t i n N a b a t a e a , s c c E E . R o m e r , " G a i u s C a c s a r ' s M i i i t a r y D i p l o m a c y ı n t h e E a s t " , TAPbA 2 . J o s c p h u s , BJ II, 7 , 3 { 1 1 1 - 1 2 3 ) ; Ani. 10.1 below.

109 (1979), 1 9 9 .

X V I I , 1 3 , 2^3 { 3 4 2 - 3 4 4 ) . F o r t h e S a m a r i t a n s « e

T h c s t r u c t u r c o f t h a t rule m a y b c bricfly s k e t c h c d . 3 T h c praefecti

wcrc

a p p o i n t e d a n d dismissed b y t h e E m p e r o r , a n d s t a y e d in office a s long a s h e c h o s c . It s c c m s c l c a r t h a t f r o m t h c b c g i n n i n g their n o r m a l r c s i d c n c c w a s n o t J e r u s a l e m itself b u t t h e city o f C a e s a r e a on the c o a s t , vvhich h a d been r e f o u n d e d vvith t h a t n a m e b y H e r o d . B u t R o m a n t r o o p s vvere s t a t i o n e d , p r o b a b l y p e r m a n c n t l y , in J e r u s a l e m , a n d used b o t h the fortress c a l l c d A n t o n i a n e x t t o the T e m p l e , vvhich H e r o d h a d built, a n d p r o b a b l y a l s o t h e p a l a c e o f H e r o d in the u p p e r city, t h e s o - c a l i e d C i t a d e l . T o o u r knovvledge, d i r e c t g a r r i s o n i n g o f a p r o v i n c i a l c i t y vvas very r a r c in thc early E m p i r e . B u t t h c c x p ! a n a t i o n in this c a s c is n o t in d o u b t , n a m e l y t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f the T e m p l e and the d a n g e r o f m a j ö r d i s o r d e r s a t the main a n n u a l festivals, P a s s o v e r a b o v c ali. T o a very r e m a r k a b l e d e g r e e the e n t i r e s t r u c t u r c o f t h e g o v e r n o r ' s a c t i v i t y vvas d e t e r m i n e d by t h a t o f t h e d y n a s t y vvhich he h a d r e p l a c e d . It is p r o b a b l e that in C a e s a r e a t o o these praefecti

used royal buildings a s their h e a d q u a r t e r s .

At a n y r a t e A c t s r c v c a l s a R o m a n g o v e r n o r o f a fevv d e c a d e s later u s i n g ' t h e praitörion

o f H e r o d e s ' t o d e t a i n a p r i s o n e r in. 4 M o r e i m p o r t a n t , it s e e m s

that a t least s o m c o f t h e a u x i l i a r y u n i t s u n d e r thc praefectus'

c o m m a n d vvere

s i m p l y thc r o y a l units r c c r u i t c d f r o m S c b a s t e a n d C a e s a r e a , the tvvo m a i n cities f o u n d e d by H e r o d . 5 T h i s c a n n o t be quite c c r t a i n , s i n c e t h e direct e v i d e n c e f o r s u c h a t r a n s f e r r e l a t e s t o t h e period a f t e r AD 4 4 . B u t it vvould fit vvith ali thc o t h e r e v i d c n c c . P e r h a p s t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g o f t h e r o l e s inherited by these R o m a n

praefecti

f r o m H e r o d a n d A r c h e l a u s vvas t h c a p p o i n t m c n t a n d dismissal o f t h e I i i g h Pricsts. T h u s ali t h c I-Iigh P r i e s t s vvhom vve see in thc G o s p e l n a r r a t i v e s vvere R o m a n a p p o i n t e e s , c h o s e n f r o m vvithin a restrictcd c i r c l e o f priestly f a m i l i e s , a fact vvhich h a s a c o n s i d e r a b l c beariııg o n t h c politics o f t h c time. 6 B e y o n d t h a t , t h c praefecti

a l s o i n h e r i t e d t h c role o f g u a r d i n g t h c high-pricstly r o b e s ,

as Herod and Archelaus had d o n e before them. Josephus' a c c o u n t rccords a unique e l e m e n t in t h e h i s t o r y o f R o m a n provincial g o v c r n m c n t : After him, vvhen thc R o m a n s t o o k over thc government, they retained c o n trol o f the high priest's vestments and kept them in a stone building, vvhere they vvere under the seal both of the priests and o f the custodians o f thc trcasury and vvhere the vvarden o f the guard lightcd thc l a m p day by day. Seven days before each festival the vestments vvere delivered t o the priests 3 . F o r f u l l d e t a i l s s c c S c h ü r c r , HJP

I, 3 5 7 - 3 8 2 .

4. A c t s 2 3 , 3 5 . 5 . F o r H e r o d "s f o r c c s s c c M . H . G r a c c y , " T h c A r m i e s o f t h c J u d a c a n C l i e n t K i n g s " , i n F r c c m a n a n d K e n n e d y , DRRE Herod

II, 3 1 1 . S e c n o v v I. S h a t z m a n , The

Armies

of the Hasmonaeans

( 1 9 9 1 ) , esp. i 7 o f f .

6. F o r t h e list o f these a p p o i n t e e s s c c S c h ü r c r , HJP II, 2 3 0 . M o r e f u l l y i n 1 0 . 2 belovv.

and

by the vvarden. After they had been purified, the high priest w o r e t h e m ; then after the first day o f t h e festival he put them b a c k again in the building vvhere they were laid avvay before. This was the proccdurc a t the t h r e e festivals each year and on t h e fast day. 7 T h e ' t h r e e festivals' vvere Passovcr, P e n t e c o s t a n d T a b e r n a c l e s , a n d ' t h e fast day,' t h e D a y o f A t o n c m e n t . S o f a r a s w e k n o w , a l t h o u g h individual R o m a n s o l d i e r s c a n b e f o u n d o b s e r v i n g m a n y l o c a l cults t h r o u g h o u t t h e N e a r E a s t , t h e r e is n o parallel t o this d e e p official i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e a n n u a l eyele o f festivals o f a local c o m m u n i t y . If m a n y f e a t u r e s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f J u d a e a a s a R o m a n p r o v i n c e vvere t h u s highly l o c a l i s e d , o n e a t l e a s t vvas n o t : t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f t h e c e n s u s a n d t h e raising o f t r i b u t e . It is i m p o r t a n t t o stress t h a t the t a k i n g o f a c e n s u s o f this t y p c , t h e c o u n t i n g o f a p r o v i n c i a l p o p u l a t i o n a n d the a s s e s s m e n t o f their p r o p e r t y for the p u r p o s e o f t h e p a y m e n t o f t r i b u t e , vvas n o t a l o n g - s t a n d i n g f e a t u r c o f R o m a n g o v e r n m e n t , b u t a n i n n o v a t i o n b y A u g u s t u s . T h e earliest ever a t t e s t e d is t h a t t a k e n by A u g u s t u s in G a u l in 2 7 BC; 8 in G a u l the i m p o s i tion o f t h e c e n s u s vvas t o p r o v o k e d i s t u r b a n c e s a n d r e s i s t a n c e in t h e c o u r s c o f A u g u s t u s ' rcign.* S o it did a l s o in J u d a e a , vvhere religious f a c t o r s a d d e d a m o r e p r o f o u n d m o t i v e for r e s i s t a n c e . It is n o t surprising, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t the m o m e n t vvhen t h e c e n s u s vvas i m p o s e d vvas long t o be r e m e m b e r e d . i t s m o s t f a m o u s refleetion is o f c o u r s e in L u k c ' s G o s p e l : ' I t c a m c t o p a s s in t h o s e d a y s t h a t a n edict vvent o u t f r o m C a e s a r A u g u s t u s , that t h e vvhole vvorld s h o u l d b e r e g i s t e r e d ' . 1 0 G i v e n t h a t s u c h a c e n s u s vvas a n i n n o v a t i o n , L u k e ' s a l l u s i c n t o i t , t h o u g h t o o d r a m a t i c i n i m p l y i n g t h a t a t this m o m e n t t h e r e vvas s i n g l e edietum

a p p l y i n g t o ali p r o v i n c e s , is n o t f u n d a m e n t a l l y m i s l e a d i n g . T h e use

t h a t he m a k e s o f i t — i n o r d e r t o r e c o n s t r u c t hovv J e s u s , a s t h e p r o m i s e d M c s s i a h , vvill h a v e been b o r n in B c t h l c h c m — i s , hovvever, vvholly m i s l e a d i n g a n d u n h i s t o r i c a l . F o r n o R o m a n c e n s u s vvas i m p o s e d in G a l i l e e , vvhere he r e p r e s e n t s J e s u s ' f a m i l y as living, o r c o u l d have b e e n . F o r t h e r e vvas n o m o m e n t in the l i f e t i m c o f J e s u s vvhen R o m a n t r i b u t e vvas raiscd in G a l i l e e , vvhich vvas p a r t o f the t e t r a r e h y o f H e r o d e s A n t i p a s . " T h e c o n t r a s t betvveen G a l i l e e , und e r t h e tetrarehy, a n d J e r u s a l e m , u n d e r R o m a n rule, is vital t o a n y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the G o s p e l s .

7. Josephus, Ant. XVII, 4, 3 (93-94). 8. See F. Millar, "State and Subject: The Impact of Monarchy", in F, Millar and E. Scgıl (eds.), Caesar Augustus! Seven Aspetfs (1984), 37, on p. 43. 9. For the imposition of the census in Gaul, and the resistance vvhich it provoked, see I.ivy, Epit. 134 and Dio UII, 23, S (27 BC); Livy, Epit. 139 (12 UC); Tacitus, Ann. I, 31, 2 (AD 14). ro. Lk 2, 1. ı ı . For an exhaustive analysis of ali the problems relating to the ccnsus and the rcfcrencc 10 it in I.uke, see Schürer, HfP I, 399!!.

L u k e , w h o m s o m e m o d e r n s m a n a g c t o see as a real ' h i s t o r i a n ' , is h a r d l y m o r e succcssful vvlıen he m a k e s G a m a l i e l , addressing the Saııhedrin in (in o u r t e r m s ) t h e 30S, allude first t o T h e u d a s , a p r o p h e t a n d p o p u l a r l e a d e r vvho b e l o n g s in t h e 40S, a n d then t o the c e n s u s : ' A f t e r h i m t h e r e a r o s e J u d a s t h e G a l i l e a n , in t h e days o f the c e n s u s , a n d rouscd u p t h e p e o p l e b e h i n d h i m . H c t o o vvas d e s t r o y e d , a n d ali t h o s e vvho believed in him vvere s e a t t e r e d ' . 1 2 H e r e a g a i n , t h o u g h the c o n t e x t is h o p e l e s s l y c o n f u s e d , c e r t a i n essentials a r e p r e s e r v e d : a b o v e ali the underlying p r e s u m p t i o n that p o p u l a r m o v e m e n t s vvould typically b e o p p o s e d by t h e ruling g r o u p in J e r u s a l e m , a n d b e repressed. S o indeed it h a d been in AD 6 , vvhere J o s e p h u s ' a c c o u ı ı t s , s e a t t e r e d a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s in his tvvo m a j ö r vvorks, p r o v i d e a glimpse o f a c l a s s i c rural r c s i s t a n c e m o v e m e n t , direeted a s m u c h o r m o r e a g a i n s t c o l l a b o r a t o r s a s a g a i n s t t h e o c c u p y i n g povver. J o s e p h u s ' n a r r a t i v e s m a k c c l c a r t h a t a t this m o m e n t o f renevved crisis t h e legatus

o f S y r i a , novv Sulpicius Q u i r i n i u s , again m a r e h e d s o u t h t o i n t e r v e n e

in p e r s o n , a c c o m p a n i e d by C o p o n i u s , vvho vvas t o b e the

first

praefectus.

W h e n t h e c e n s u s vvas i m p o s e d , the Jevvish a u t h o r i r i e s urged c o m p l i a n c e , b u t J u d a s ' t h e G a l i l e a n ' (or ' G a u l a m t e ' ) a n d a p h a r i s e e n a m e d S a d d o k a r g u e d t h a t s u b m i s s i o n vvas a f o r m o f slavery, a n d that H e a v e n vvould assist the

fight

f o r f r e e d o m . 1 3 T h i s is n o t the p l a c e f o r a n a n a l y s i s o f vvhat J o s e p h u s c a l l s t h e ' f o u r t h p h i l o s o p h y ' , vvhich s a w political f r e e d o m a s a religious duty, o r o f his ela im t h a t t h e r e vvas a s e q u e ı ı c e o f events leading f r o m this m o m e n t t o s a c r i l c g i o u s i n t e r n a l strife, t o t h e loss o f divinc f a v o u r a n d t o the d c s t r u c t i o n o f the T e m p l e . It is m o r e i m p o r t a n t , vvhile a n a i y s i n g vvhat E m p i r e m e a n t i n t h e N e a r E a s t , t o turn t o a p a s s a g e later in the Jeıvish

XUar vvhere he m a k e s a

direct link betvveen t h e Sicarii vvho o c c u p i c d M a s a d a d u r i n g the g r e a t r c v o l t a n d the resistatıce in AD 6 , as w e l l a s giving a m o r e c o n c r e t e p i c t u r e t h a n clsevvherc o f vvhat r e s i s t a n c e h a d m e a n t in t e r m s o f i n t e r n a l conflict: T h i s fortress vvas called M a s a d a ; a n d the Sicarii vvho had occupicd it had at their head a m a n o f influence named Eleazar. H e vvas a descendant o f the J u d a s vvho, as vve have prcviously stated, induced multitudes o f Jevvs t o refuse t o enrol themselves, w h c n Quirinius vvas sent as ccnsor t o J u d a c a . F o r in those days the Sicarii clubbed together against those vvho consented t o submit t o R o m e and in every vvay treated them as enemies, plundering their property, rounding up their cattlc, and setting fire t o their habitations; protesting that such persons vvere n o other than aliens, vvho so ignobly sacrificed the hard-vvon liberty of the Jevvs and admitted their prefcrencc for the R o m a n y o k e . " i z . A c t s 5 , 3 7 . F o r t h e r e a l T h e u d a s , a s r e c o r d c d b y J o s e p h u s , s e e Ant. 1 3 . Ant.

X V I I I , 1 , 1 ( 1 - 1 0 ) ; less f u l l y i n B] II, 8 , 1 ( 1 1 7 ) .

ı . \ . B J VII, 8 , 1 ( 2 5 1 - 2 5 5 ) , L o e b trans.

X X , 5, 1 (97-99).

N o t h i n g is said b y J o s e p h u s a b o u t either t h e arrival o f R o m a n f o r c e s f r o m S y r i a o r the r o l e of t h e royal f o r c e s , vvhich (as it s e e m s ) passed directly u n d e r the c o n t r o l o f t h e nevv praefectus.

Ali t h a t is said othervvise o f Q u i r i n i u s ' ae-

t i o n s vvhile in J e r u s a l e m is t h a t he sold o f f t h e p r o p e r t y o f A r c h c l a u s , a n d , b c c a u s c t h e H i g h Pricst J o a z a r h a d been o p p o s c d b y the p e o p l e , d i s m i s s e d h i m a n d a p p o i n t e d A n a n u s ( o r A n n a s ) i n s t e a d . ı s T h i s m a n w a s t o r e m a i ı ı iti o f f i c e f o r s o m e ten y e a r s , a n d o n l y t h r e e brief t e n u r e s s e p a r a t e d his p e r i o d f r o m the long o c c u p a t i o n b y J o s c p h C a i a p h a s , vvho J o h n ' s G o s p c l ( a l o ı ı c ) says vvas his son-in-lavv; a n d J o h n ' s G o s p e l is a l s o a l o n e in r e c o r d i n g t h a t J e s u s vvhen a r r e s t e d vvas t a k e n first t o the h o u s e o f A n n a s a n d then t o t h a t c f his son-in-lavv C a i a p h a s , t h e I l i g h Pricst then in o f f i c e . 1 6 By c o n t r a s t vvith t h e e v e n t s o f 4 BC, the d i s t u r b a n c e s o f AD 6 s e e m t o h a v e represented a m o r e profound and ultimatcly insoluble problem for R o m e . T h e c c n s u s vvas c v i d e n t l y c o r n p l c t c d , hovvcver, a n d t r i b u t e b e g a n t o b e p a i c . T h e f a c t s t h a t this nevv s t r u e t u r e c a m e i n t o b e i n g , that the tvvo a s p c c t s o f it vvere c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d in t h e p o p u l a r i m a g i n a t i o n , a n d t h a t t h e t r i b u t e vvas t h o u g h t o f a s a p a y m e n t ' t o C a e s a r ' are ali reflccted in the different v c r s î o n s o f a d i a l o g u e betvveen J e s u s a n d s o m e P h a r i s e c s a n d '1 l e r o d i a n s ' , vvhich a J t h r e e S y n o p t i c G o s p c l s c o r r c c t l y set in J e r u s a l e m . 1 7 T h e p o i n t o f the d i a l o g u e , a s n c c d n o t b e a r g u e d , is t h a t it vvas i m p o s s i b l e t o g i v c a s t r a i g h t ansvver t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f vvlıether ' t h e c e n s u s ' s h o u l d b e paid o r n o t . F o r t o s a y t h a t it s h o u l d vvould b e t o risk l o s i n g t h e role o f a p o p u l a r religious l e a d e r ; a n d to s a y t h a t it s h o u l d n o t vvould c x p o s e o n e t o a c c u s a t i o n s o f inciting r e v o l t (a c h a r g e vvhich L u k e ' s G o s p e l , t h o u g h n o t t h e o t h e r s , c l a i m s vvas a c t u a l l y b r o u g h t vvhen J e s u s a p p e a r e d b e f o r e Pilate). 1 8 It h a d a p p a r c n t l y been m e r e a c c i d e n t t h a t a c c u s a t i o n s a g a i n s t A r c h c l a u s h a d led t o the p r o v i t ı c i a l i s a t i o n o f J u d a e a a t the t i m e vvhen, as vve savv, Q u i r i nius vvas c o n d u c t i n g a c e n s u s in t h e c x i s t i n g p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a . 1 9 T h a t the i m p a c t o f t a x a t i o n vvas felt ini b o t h p r o v i n c c s is a t t e s t e d b y a p a s s i n g a l l u s i o n in T a c i t u s u n d e r the y c a r AD 1 7 : ' t h e p r o v i n c e s o f Syria a n d J u d a e a , e x h a u s t e d b y i m p o s i t i o n s , petitioned f o r a r e d u e t i o n o f t r i b u t e ' . 2 0 Somevvhat typicalljr, T a c i t u s fails t o s a y hovv, o r b y vvhom o r t o vvhom t h e p e t i t i o n vvas presen ted, o r e v e n vvhether it vvas a c c e p t e d o r r c j c c t e d . G i v e n t h a t o u r e v i d e n c e l a r g e l y c o n s i s t s o f later n a r r a t i v e s , vve c a n n o t c x 1 5 . Ant.

X V I I I , 2, t
16. J n 1 8 , 1 2 - 2 8 . F o r the i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s n a r r a t i v c , a n d a r g u m e n t s t o s u g g c s t t h a t ıt s h o u l d bc p r e f e r r e d t o t h o s e o f t h e S y n o p t i c s , s c c K M i l l a r , " f t e f l e e t i o n s o n tlıc T r i a l s o f J e s u s ' , i n P. R . D a v i e s a n d R . T . W h i t c (cds_), A Tribute

to Ceza

Vertnes

(1990), 3 5 5 .

1 7 . M k 1 2 , 1 3 - 1 7 ; M t t 2 2 , 1 6 - 2 2 ; L k 20, 2 0 - 2 6 ( n o t i d c n r i f y i n g t h e i ı u e r l o c ı ı t o r s ) . 1 8 . L k 2 3 , 2: Toûtov t ü p o j ı t v 8 ı a o t p F $ o v t a TO F.BVOÇ f g ı â v , KCH KFT&vovro K c ı f o a p ı ç ö p o v ç öıöövoı... 19. 2 . t above. 20. T a c i t u s , Atın.

II, 4 2 , 7 .

pect to form a rcal conception o f h o w the direct taxation of Syria and J u d a c a reaily \vorked; or, l o o k i n g at it f r o m outside, ho\v it fitted into ıhe \vidcr framcvvork of the Empire. A s r e g a r d s thc impact o n iııdividuals, thc sccond century provides far better e v i d e n c e , including extremely important nevv p a pyri reflecting the first fevv d e c a d e s o f the p r o v i n c e of A r a b i a , formed in AD ı o 6 , 2 1 S o that aspect may be left aside until later. But the w h o l e p r o b l e m o f the extraction of valuc f r o m a s u b j e c t p o p u l a t i o n , its d e p l o y m e n t w i t h i n t h e region in vvhich it vvas levied as t a x a t i o n , o r its possible e x p o r t either to R o m e or elsevvhere in the Empire, presents fundameııtai difficulties vvhich nccd t o be faced. 2 2 First, vvas R o m a n tribute raised p r e d o m i n a n t l y in c o i n o r in kind? If in kind (as vvas certainly the case at least iti part, as thc arehive f r o m the c a r l y ycars o f the p r o v i n c c o f A r a b i a vvill shovv), hovv did the R o m a n s use vvhat vvas p a i d over? T h e possibilitics a r c : delivering it t o thc units g a r r i s o n i n g t h e provincc f o r immediate c o n s u m p t i o n ; accepting cash in licu; o r c x p o r t i n g it t o R o m e o r elsevvhere. So far a s can bc determined, there is preciscly no evidence even to illustrate a n y of these possibilities. If, hovvever, vve think of the g l o b a l 'profit* gaincd by R o m e f r o m the provinces of thc N e a r East, p e r h a p s predominantly in coin, a serious p r o b l e m arises. Were these provitıces in fact profıtable? T h e issue presents itself b e causc thc p r e d o m i n a n t currcnt m o d e l of hovv thc Empire vvorkcd as a financial system suggests that a surplus of tribute vvas raised in certain rich a n d iiglıtly garrisoııed provitıces; the provincc of ' A s i a ' (vvestern T u r k c y ) , vvhere there vvere no legions and o n l y a fevv auxiliaries, vvould be a prime e x a m p l e . T h i s surplus vvas then c o n t i n u o u s l y transferred, in c a s h (for vve knovv of n o system vvhich could have e f f c c t e d paper transfers), t o R o m e and to the m o r e heavily garrisoned provinces. O n the guess that somc ı o pcrcent o f the overall producı o f the Empire vvas t a k e n in taxation, these m o v c m e n t s of tribute c a s h vvill h a v e been sufficicnt to h a v e had a m a r k e d effect on the e c o n o m y o f t h e Empire, p r o d u c i n g a relatively integrated system in vvhich inflovvs of tribute vvere nıatched b y outflovvs of c a s h in private trade. 2 3 W h c t h c r the effccts o f 2 1 . 3 . 2 belovv. 2 2 . F o r r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e s e c o m p l c x q u c s t i o n s , l o r vvhich t h c c v i d c n c c is v v h o l l y i n n d c q u a t c , s c c P. A . B r u n t , Roman

Impertal

Tbcmes

( 1 9 9 0 ) , c h . 15 a n d a d d c ı ı d a , revisiııg " T h e

K e v c n u c s o f R o m c " , y K . V 7 1 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 1 6 1 ; a n d R . D u n c a n - J o n e s , Structurc man Economy

and Scale

in the

Ro-

( 1 9 9 0 ) , c h . 1 2 , " T a x a t i o n in M o n c y a n d T a x a t i o n i n K i n d " . T h e p a t t e r n o f m i n t -

i n g , in b o t h s i l v e r a n d b r o n 7 x , m a i n l y vvith G r c c k l e g e n d s , b u t s o m c L a t i n , in A n t i o c h i n t h c f ı r s t c c n t ı ı r y o f t h c F.mpirc is e x t r e m c l y c o n ı p l c x . a n d I h a v e lıeen u n a b l e t o dravv f r o m it a n y c l e a r c o n c l u s i o n s a s t o t h c financİ3İ s y s t e m o f t h c p r o v i n c c . S c c novv t h c e s s e n t i a l vvork o f A . B u r n c t r , M . A m a n d r y , a n d P. P. R i p o l l c s , Roman

Provincial

Cninage

1.1—2 ( 1 9 9 2 ) ; o n A n r i o c h , p p .

6o6ff.

2 3 . For this m o d e l s e c K . 1 i o p f c i n s , " T a x c s a n d T r a d e in t h c Ron>3n F . m p i r c " , JRS 7 0 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , r 2 6 . T h e m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t c d d i s c u s s i o n b y R . W . G o l d s m i t h , " A n E s c i m a t c of t h c Sİ7.c a n d S t r u c turc o f t h e N a t i o n a l P r o d u c t o f t h c E a r l y R o m a n E m p i r e " , Revietu

of Inconıe

and

Wealth

30

( 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 6 3 , vvould s u g g e s t a ' n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t ' v v h i c h vvas c o n s i d c r a b l y larger, b u t a s h a r c t a k c j ı

(he circulation of tribute w e r e s o immediate a n d signilicant w i t h i n the overall e c o n o m y can bc, a n d has been, questioned. 2 4 But t\vo m a j ö r p r o b l c m s arise o n a n y interpretation of the systcm. First, if large quantities of c o i n aris.ng f r o m tribute w e r e regıılarly rnoved o u t of these (or a n y other) regions o f rhe Empire, l ı o w w a s this d o n e ? Silver (the R o m a n detıarius)

is the m o s t likcly

m e d i u m . W e should not undcrestimatc the purcly physical p r o b l c m s involved. O n a purcly scheıııatic c a l c u l a t i o n , the entire tribute of the Empire, if moved at o n e m o m e n t in silver, vvould h a v e required ö v e r 1 6 0 0 h e a v y vvaggons and o v e r 6000 draught animals. 3f vvc s u p p o s e , simply for the sake o f argunıent, t h a t in the first century AD the tvvo N e a r E a s t e m provinces o f Syria a n d Judaea provided 1 0 percent o f the tribute revenuc of the Empire, that vvonld h a v e m e a n t , if it vvere ali e x p o r t c d elsevvhere, the use of a total o f o v e r 1 6 0 vvaggons a n d o v e r 600 a n i m a l s . " But of course it vvas not ali e x p o r t e d . O n the contrary, the N e a r E a s t alvvays remained a heavily g a r r i s o n c d area, and the p r o p o r t i o n o f the R o m a n a r m y vvhich vvas required f o r it stcadily inereased. O n the m o d e l proposed a b o v e , it c a n n o t even be q u i t c certaiıı a priori that it vvas not a net tributei m p o r t i n g region. It is not a n impossible notion that the R o m a n E m p i r e expended m o r e there tlıan it raised in revenue. In the only survey o f the provinces and (in outlinc) their 'profitability 1 vvhich vvc h a v e , that by A p p i a n in the preface to his Rotnan History,

the idea that Britain cost m o r e than it c o n -

tributed is clearly expresscd. ? 6 A l t h o u g h n o figures o n vvhich w e can rcly are available, s o m e relevant statements are m a d e by o u r s o u r c e s and at least deserve mention; and s o m e scheıııatic calculations can b e made vvhich can serve to create a framevvork vvithin vvhich vve can pose qucstions. T h e revenue of the E m p i r e under Augustus, f o r e x a m p l e , has been calcuiated at roughly 1 1 2 million silver denariiP

T h e m o d e l discusscd a b o v e vvould givc a rather highcr estimate lor

the period vvith vvhich vve are concerned at this m o m e n t , the early first century AD, namely something over 2 0 0 million denarii.2*

T h a t is quite sufficient to

put s o m e figures vvhich J o s e p h u s gives us f o r Judaea and its s u r r o u n d i n g regions into some sort o f perspeetive. 2 9 A c c o r d i n g ro these figures H e r o d ' s king-

b y Imperial ta v a t i o n w h î c h vvas c o n s i d e r a h l y snıallcr, p r o d u c i ı ı g a m o r e o r less c o m p a r a b l e fhypochctical) t a x - r c v c n u c . 2 4 . Scc D u n c a n - J o n c s , o p . c i l . (11.22), ch. 2, " T r a d c , T a x c s a n d M o n c y " . 2 5 . S e c F. M i l l a r , " L c s e o n g i a i r e s â R o m e et la m o n n a i e " , in A . G i o v a n n i n i (cd.), Nourrir plebe,

aetes du colloque

2 6 . A p p i a n , IIist.

tenu a Genevc Rom.,

praef.

2 7 . T c n n e y F r a n k , Economic

. . . en hommage

â D. van Bercbem

la

( 1 9 y ı ) , 143.

7. Survey

of

the

Roman

Empire

V (1940), 7 (.jjo

million

sestcrccs). 28. H o p k i n s , o p . c i t . (n.23), 1 1 9 . 2 9 . See E. G a b b a , " L e f i n a n z e d e l rc E r o d c " , Clio 1 5 ( J 9 7 9 ) , 6; i d e m , " T h e F i n a n c c s o f King H c r o d " , in A. Kasher, U . R a p p a p o r c , a n d G . F u k s (eds.), Greece

and Rome

in F.retz Israel:

Col-

d o m a t its fullest e x t e n ı h a d p r o v i d e d the k i n g w i t h a r e v e n u c c q u i v a l e n t t o 5.4 m i l l i o n denarii

per annum

{ p l u s vvhatever h a d e a r l i e r b e e n p a i d by G a -

d a r a , H i p p o s a n d G a z a ) . F o r t h e r e v e n u e s of t h e e t h n a r c h y of A r c h e l a u s a n d the tctrarclıies of A n t i p a s a n d P h i l i p , a t the m o m e n t w h e n they r e c e i v e d t h e m in 4 BC, w c r e the e q u i v a l c n t of 3 . 6 m i l l i o n , 1 . 2 m i l l i o n a n d 6 0 0 , 0 0 0

denarii

respectively. 5 " T h e r e is n o s e l f - e v i d e n t w a y of k n o w i n g w h c t h c r t h e R o m a n state w o u l d e x p c c t , o r a c h i e v e , a h i g h e r o r l o w e r r c v e n u e f r o m a g i v e n a r e a than a d y n a s t ruling the s a m e r e g i o n . B u t s o m e increasc o f r e v e n u e is a p p a r c n t . \ V h e n , as w e w i l l see, ali o f H e r o d ' s k i n g d o m w a s bricfly re-unificd u n d e r h i s g r a n d s o n , A g r i p p a ı , in AD 4 1 - 4 4 , his total r e v e n u e s a r e given a s 1 2 m i l lion draehmai,

or

denarii,J1

T h a t r e - u n i f i c a t i o n is itself an e x a ı n p l c o f t h e

flexibility

betvveen d i r c c t

rule a n d d y n a s t i c rule visible d u r i n g the first c c n t u r y , a n d there is n o d o u b t t h a t s u c h c h a n g c s in cithcr d i r c c t i o n did h a v e e f f e c t s o n the t a x a t i o ı ı o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . W e c a n see this in J o s e p h u s ' brief but e x t r e m e l y r e v e a l i n g a c c o u n t o f t h e t a x a t i o n - h i s t o r y of a c o l o n y o f B a b y l o n i a n Jevvs vvhom H e r o d s e t t l e d a t a p l a c c c a l l e d B a t h y r a in B a t a n a e a , o n the e d g c o f T r a c h o n i t i s . T h e c o l o n y vvas led by a Jevv c a l l e d Z a m a r i s , a n d vvas desigııed t o i m p r o v c sccurity i n the area: A n d so his land became very p o p u l o u s because of its immunity from ali t a x a t i o n — a state of things vvhich lasted so fong as Herod lived. But vvhen his son Philip succeeded to the kingship, he subjected them to taxation, though it vvas not m u c h and o n l y for a short time. A g r i p p a the G r e a t , hovvever; and his son of the s a m e name did indeed grind them dovvn and yet vvere unvvilling to take their freedom avvay. A n d the R o m a n s , vvho have succeeded these kings a s rulers, also preserved their status a s free m e n but by the imposition of tribute h a v e completely crusbed them. 3 1 T h e s t o r y c o v e r s a p p r o x i m a t c l y a c e n t u r y , a n d a n t i c i p a t c s e v e n t s t o vvhich vve vvill c o m e , the r u l e o f A g r i p p a I a n d then his son A g r i p p a II, a n d the f i n a l p r o v i n c i a l i s a t i o n of his t e r r i t o r y , vvhich p r e c e d c d b y a fevv y e a r s t h e p r o v i n c i a l i s a t i o n o f N a b a t a e a to t h e s o u t h , a n d is h i g h l y r e l e v a n t to i t . " B u t it a l s o m a n a g e s to o m i t tvvo brief i n t e r l u d e s of R o m a n direct rule: a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f

lected

Essays

L'impero

{ 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 6 0 ; c f . A . G a r a , "II m o n d o g r c c a - o r i c n t a i c " , in M . H . C r a v v f o r d ( e d . ) ,

romano

e le strutture

economiche

e sodali

delle province

(Bibliuteca

di Athenaeum

4,

1 9 8 6 ) , 8 7 , o n p. 9 1 . j o . J o s e p h u s , Ant, 1 0 0 ) . A t 6 0 0 0 dracbmai

X V I I , 1 1 , 4 ( 3 1 8 - 3 2 0 ) . T h e figures a r e g i v e n in t a l e n ı s {600, 2 0 0 , a n d — denarii

t o the taient, these revenues c o m e o u t therefore at a total o f

S-4 m i l l i o n . 3 1 . J o s e p h u s , Ant. 32. Ant.

X I X , 8, 2 ( 3 5 2 ) .

X V I I , 2, 2 ( 2 7 - 2 8 ) , L o c b t r a n s .

33. 3.2 below.

Philip in AD 33/34 his territory had been nıade part of Syria before being g i v e n t o A g r i p p a I in AD 3 7 ; and after the lattcr's death in AD 44 B a t a n a e a and Trachonitis w e r e n o t g i v e n t o A g r i p p a II until AD 5 3 . " O n the first of these occasions, ho\vever, the attachment t o the p r o v i n c e o f Syria s e e m s to h a v e been regarded as t e m p o r a r y ; f o r Joscphus rccords, somcvvhat cnigmarically, t h a t Tiberius ' o r d e r e d , however, that the tributes vvhich vvere collectcd in his (Philip's) f o r m e r tetrarehy should be stored u p ' . " T h e r e seems to b e a c l e a r impiication both that t h e s e revenues vvould othervvisc h a v e been shipped o u t clscvvhcrc a n d that a r o u g h equivalence betvveen R o m a n a n d dynastic tribute revenues could be a s s u m e d . We can indeed see this balatıce being taken into a c c o u n t in R o m e in AD 1 7 , vvhen K i n g A r c h c l a u s of C a p p a d o c i a vvas accuscd in R o m e and c o m m i t t c d suicide, and his k i n g d o m vvas m a d e a provincia;

Tiberius e x p l a i n e d , evidently addressing the Senate, that its reve-

nues vvould allovv the j o o t h - p a r t sales t a x levied clscvvhcrc t o bc r c d u c c d to a i o o t h - p a r t one. 3 6 C a p p a d o c i a vvas a large area, vvhich in the event h a d o n l y an a u x i l i a r y garrison, s o a n e t surplus could be expected; even so, the level of t a x a t i o ı ı vvas somevvhat r c d u c e d , t o m a k e R o m a n direct rule m o r e a c c e p t a b l e to the p o p u l a t i o n . 3 7 If vve may t a k e the attested r o y a l o r dynastic revenues as roughly e q u i v a lent t o vvhat might be e x p e c t e d f r o m R o m a n taxation, s o m e m c a n i n g c a n be given to the available figures. T h e c o s t of vvhole legions is very d i f f i c u l t to calculate, becausc vve c a n n o t construct an a d e q u a t e m o d e l o f the p a y o f the p y r a m i d of ranks betvveen o r d i n a r y footsoldiers and ccnturions. But vve k n c v v that in this period the o r d i n a r y soldicr receivcd 2 2 5 denarii

per year. S o 12

million denarii vvould h a v e p r o v i d e d p a y f o r s o m e t h i n g över fifty thousand R o m a n c o m m o n soldiers, t h a t is, those of s o m e ten legions. 3 9 T h u s vvhatever c a l c u l a t i o n s vve m a k e a b o u t o t h e r expenses, o r the pay of higher ranks (and, later at least, procuratores

vvould receive betvveen 1 5 , 0 0 0 a n d 50,000

denarii

a year, and a coıısular legatus presumably s o m e t h i n g like a proconsul, namely 250,000 denarii),

the total revenues of the Syrian region should h a v e meant

that the area vvas at least self-supporting in terms of Imperial

finance.

But, as has already been indicated, the region continued t h r o u g h m o s t o f the first c e n t u r y to be s u b j c c t to considerable fluetuations betvveen R o m a n and dynastic rule. O n e i m p o r t a n t instance conccrned C o n ı m a g e n e , vvhose king A n t i o c h u s III dicd in AD 1 7 ; Tacitus notes briefly that C o m m a g c n c , like Cilicia, vvhosc king had a l s o died, vvas in turmoil 'because m o s t preferred 34. Tevt to n.4j; and 1.3 bdow. 3 5 . Ant.

X V I I I , 4 , (, { 1 0 8 ) .

3 6 . T a c i t u s , Anıı.

II, 4 1 , 4 .

3 7 . T a c i t u s , Ann.

II, 5 6 , 4 .

38. F o r some uscful calculations scc R. M a c M u l l c n , Uıtomus

43 (1984), 5 7 1 .

u

T h c R o m a n E m p e r o r s ' A r m y Co<sti",

R o m a n , but othcrs royal rule'. A s hc notcs a littlc later, C o m m a g e n e w a s i n f a c t provincialised, t h o u g h this time he says nothing o f the financial a s p e c t . But a contemporary, thc g e o g r a p h e r Strabo, m a k i n g vvhat must h a v e beeıı o n e of the last additions to his v v o r k , attaches to his deseription of this s m a l l but fertile country, vvith its f o r ı i f ı e d r o y a l capital, S a m o s a t a , thc note ' b u t novv it has bccomc a p r o v i n c c ' . " A s such, it t o o sccms to h a v e c o m e under thc legatus of Syria, but only f o r s o m e tvventy years. For in AD 38 G a i u s restored the throne to A n t i o c h u s ' s o n , A n t i o c h u s IV, vvho vvas t o rule until t h c early 70S. W i t h that period, as vvill bc sccn, w c enter a quite nevv phase, vvhen in f o u r and a half decades ali t h e dependent k i n g d o m s vvest o f the E u p h r a t e s vvere sııccessively s w e p t avvay. For the m o m e n t vve arc stili in a phase vvhen kings played a very significant part in thc N e a r East, in terms o f territories and populations ruled, o r o f armies supplied; and also in terms of the c o n t c x t in vvhich thc highcr R o m a n offıcials operating in this arca f u n e t i o n e d . T h e highest of ali these officials vvas G e r m a n i c u s , the nephevv a n d adopted son o f Tiberius, vvho in AD 1 7 - 1 9 vvas invested vvith the rank o f proconsul

and sent to t a k e eharge of ali t h e

eastern provinccs. T h c formal rccord o f his role embodied in the dccrees passed by the Senate after his d e a t h in AD 1 9 in A n t i o c h clearly exprcsscs t h c c o m b i n a t i o n of provinces and k i n g d o m s vvhich made up thc R o m a n E m p i r e in this arca: 'sent as proconsul t o the provinces aeross the sea vvith the fuııction of putting them and the k i n g d o m s o f that rcgion (traetus) in order, i n accordaııce vvith the mandata

o f Tiberius C a c s a r Augustus'. 4 0 H i s missioıı

c m b r a c c d also regions other t h a n the N e a r East as defined here. But thc n a r r a tive of his aetions there c a p t u r e s m a n y features of thc structurc of thc arca a t this m o m e n t . Corning back f r o m A r m e n i a in AD 1 8 , he m e t C a l p u r n i u s Piso, the legatus o f Syria, and a p e r s o n a l enemy, at C y r r h u s , 'the vvinter q u a r t c r s of the X t h legion'. It vvas perhaps there also that 'thc king of the N a b a t a e i ' (Arctas IV), vvho had cvidently travelled north t o p a y his respects, gave a dinner to both, and caused f u r t h e r o f f e n c e b y o f f e r i n g h e a v y gold crovvns t o G e r m a n i c u s and his vvife A g r i p p i n a , a n d lightcr oncs t o Piso and the o t h e r gucsts. 4 1 Mcanvvhile a m b a s s a d o r s f r o m A r t a b a n u s of Parthia arrived to c o n firm the current friendship of the tvvo empires, and o f f e r c d G e r m a n i c u s t h c honour that thc king should m c c t him at thc Euphrates. 4 2 A f t e r a visit t o E g y p t G e r m a n i c u s returned to A n t i o c h , the chief city of Syria, fell ili, a n d temporarily recovered. When prayers vvere o f f c r e d by the city f o r his rccovcry,

3 9 . T a c i t u s , Atın.

ı ı , 4 2 , 7 ; 5 6 , 2 . S t r a b o , Geog.

4 0 . AE ( 1 9 8 4 ) , n o . 5 0 8 , Fr. I ( t h c Tabuta

X V ı , 2, 3 ( 7 4 9 ) .

Siarensis).

Scc n o w W. I x b c k , " D e r l'roconsulat

d e s G e r m a n i c u s u n d d i c A u c t o r i t a s d e s S e n a t s : T a b . Şiar. F r g . I, 2 2 - 2 4 " , Z P E 8 7 ( i 9 9 t ) , ro3> 4 1 . T a c i t u s , Ann. 4 2 . Ann.

D, 57.

ıı, 5 8 ; o n t h c E u p h r a t e s a s t h c s y m b o l i c f r o n t i e r , 2 . 1 a b o v c .

Piso's lictors b r o k e u p t h e c e r e m o n y , w i t h its sacrificial a n i m a l s , t h e a t t e n d a n t s a n d t h e c r o w d in festal e l o t h i n g . T h e s c e n e is a s m a l l r e m i n d e r thac the p r i m a r y c o n t e x t of t h e a c t i v i t y of R o m a n o f ü c i a l s in t h e Rast w a s t h a t o f the c o m m u n a l life of the G r e e k c i t i e s . P i s o then left S y r i a , e m b a r k i n g f r o m Seleucia Pieria o n t h e c o a s t , a n o t h e r of the m a j ö r f o u n d a t i o n s of S e l e u c u s I, and d u e later to p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t in the strueture of t h e E m p i r e in t h e N e a r East.41 W h e n G c r m a n i c u s d i e d , w h e t h e r by p o i s o n or o t h e r w i s e , his b o d y l a y in state in the f o r u m (or rather agora) of A n t i o c h b e f o r e b e i n g c r e m a t e d , w h ı l c P i s o , h e a r i n g t h e n e w s , r u r n e d b a c k to r e g a i n c o n t r o l of S y r i a , c o l l e c t i ı ı g s o n e i r r e g u l a r f o r c e s f r o m deserters ( a p p a r e n t l y f r o m t h e Syrian l e g i o n s ) , c a m p f o l l o w e r s (lixae)

a n d a d e t a e h m e n t o f l c g i o n a r y recruits o n the w a y to S y r i a ,

a n d a l s o w r i t i n g t o the m i n ö r d y n a s t s o f C i l i c i a to s u p p l y forces. O n e o f his f r i e n d s l a n d c d a t L a o d i c c a , a n o t h e r o f S e l e u c u s ' m a j ö r f o u n d a t i o n s , a n d tried t o r e a c h the q u a r t e r s o f t h e V l t h legion, w h i c h w e r e e v i d e n t l y l o c a t e d there. 4 4 T h e mitıor civil w a r vvhich follovved in C i l i c i a need n o t b e d e s e r i b e d lıeıe. It is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o s t r e s s t h e c o m p l c x i t y of the r e l a t i o n s vvhich this o d d e p i s o d e r c v e a l e d , betvveen t h e Imperial h o u s e , vvhich vvas l a t e r t o b e m o r e and m o r e f r c q u c n t l y represented in this r e g i o n , the R o m a n o f f i c i a l s o f the p r o v i n c e , t h e l e g i o n s , the p o p u l a t i o n of A n t i o c h a n d the k i n g s . T h e c a s u a l r e f e r e n c e to deserters f r o m the l e g i o n s vvho c o u l d be f o u n d a n d c o l l e c t e d t o g e t h e r o n the c o a s t of A s i a M i n ö r is a l s o strikiııg. T h e r o l e o f t h e k i n g s vvas to b e c o m e t e m p o r a r i l y m o r e i m p o r t a n t in the f o l l o w i n g y e a r s , a b o v e ali d u r i n g t h e reign of G e r m a n i c u s ' s o n G a i u s ( C a l i g ula) in 3 7 - 4 1 . In 3 3 / 3 4 , it is t r u e , t h e t e t r a r c h Philip h a d d i e d , a n d h i s territory vvas p r o v i s i o n a l l y a d d e d t o S y r i a . 4 5 A l s o in t h e 30S, H e r o d e s A n t i p a s becarnc i n v o l v e d in c o m p l e x d y n a s t i c a n d b o r d e r c o n f l i c t s vvith A r e t a s I V o f N a b a t a c a , vvhich rcsulted in a r e g u l a r vvar, f o u g h t vvithout R o m a n k n o v v l c d g c or p e r m i s s i o n , in vvhich A n t i p a s vvas d e f e a t e d . R o m e b e c a m e i n v o l v e d

only

vvhen H e r o d e s vvrote to T ı b e r i u s (novv o n h i s n o t o r i o u s r e t r e a t in C a p r i ) , and he sent instruetions to L u c i u s Vitellius, t h e legatus

o f S y r i a , t o i n t e r v e n c by

f o r c e a g a i n s t Aretas. 4 f i T h i s i n t e r v e n t i o n vvas ali the m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t in t h a t in tlıese y e a r s the p r i m a r y R o m a n c o n c c r n vvas r e l a t i o n s vvith P a r t h i a . L u c i u s V i t e l l i u s , t h e father of t h e f u t u r e E m p c r o r , h a d been s e n t a s legatus to support

a pretender

to

in AD 3 5 , vvith a m i s s i o n

the Parthian throne, Tiridates. H e

there fore

m a r e h e d vvith a f o r c e of l e g i o n s a n d a u x i l i a r i e s ' t o the b a n k of the E u p h r a t e s ' ,

4 3 . Anıt.

II, 6 9 ; o n S e l e u c i a P i c r î a see 3 . 1 belo\v.

4 4 . Ann.

II, 7 8 - 7 9 -

45. Tcxt t o n.34 above. 4 6 . J o s e p h u s , Ani.

XVIII, 5, 1 ( 1 0 9 - 1 1 5 ) .

prcsumably at Z e u g m a . A b r i d g e o f boats \vas m a d e , and the R o m a n a r m y crossed the river, to be joined b y O r n o s p a d e s , the Parthian c o m m a n d e r o f M c s o p o t a m i a (vvho had carlicr g a i n e d the R o m a t ı citizenship for military service w i t h Tiberius), and tvvo local dynasts, Sinnaccs a n d A b d a g a e s c s . T h e later R o m a n i n v o l v e m e n t in M e s o p o t a m i a vvas thus ciearly foreshadovved. But at this period the Euphrates stili fuııctioned as a frontier, a n d the R o m a n a r m y crossed back into Syria. T i r i d a t c s , hovvcvcr, a d v a n c i n g further in 3 6 , enjoyed s o m e success, vvinning över the G r e e k cities of N i c e p h o r i u m on the Euphrates, A n t h e m u s i a in M e s o p o t a m i a and even Seleucia on the Tigris. B u t hefore long he vvas driven o u t . T h i s brief episode is stili significatıt as a sign of the surviving G r e e k influence in the Parthian Empire, a n d as a foretaste o f later R o m a n ambitions. 4 7 In 36, hovvcvcr, Vitcllius vvas occupied elscvvherc. For in that year, follovving complaints b y the S a m a r i t a n s , he d e p o s e d the long-standing praefectus

of

J u d a e a , Pontius Pilatus, a n d seııt him to Ronıe to statıd trial. O n this o c c a s i o ı ı Vitcllius in fact c a m c to Jcrusalcm in person; vvhilc there he remitted t a x c s , deposed a H i g h Priest, Joseph C a i a p h a s , a n d appointed J o n a t h a n son o f A n anus instead. But, muclı m o r e i m p o r t a n t , he made the diplomatic c o n c e s s i o n of restoring t o Jevvish control the c u s t o d y of the high-pricstly robes, vvhich the praefecti

had retained since the f o r m a t i o n of the p r o v i n c e . " If vve follovv

the a c c o u n t vvhich Josephus g i v e s elsevvhcrc of the s a m e visit, hc made t h e concession o n l y a f t e r vvriting to T i b e r i u s t o ask permission. 4 9 It vvas in the spring o f 37 t h a t Vitellius vvas forced, as mentioned a b o v e , to intervene in the southern r e g i o n again, in order t o take military a c t i o n against Arctas IV. T h e s e measures involved a p p r o x i m a t e l y half the R o m a n forces in Syria, tvvo legions a c c o m p a n i e d by infantry and c a v a l r y auxiliaries. A s vvas e v i d e n d y n o r m a l , they t o o k the coastal route southvvards t o P t o l c mais, and vvould apparently h a v e m a r e h e d through Judaea but f o r entreaties saying that images carried there vvould be a rcligious o f f e n c c . S o the a r m y marehed through the Plain o f Jezreel, intending to eross över t o the T r a n s j o r danian plateau. Meanvvhile Vitellius m a d e a visit t o Jerusaleın t o t a k e p3rt i n a festival, vvhich m u s t h a v e been Passover. For vvhile he vvas there, nevvs c a m c of the death of T i b e r i u s on M a r c h 1 6 , AD 37. O n rcceiving this nevvs, h c a b a n d o n c d the c a m p a i g n a n d returned to A n t i o c h . The intention t o use f o r c e against A r c t a s vvas simply d r o p p e d . 5 0 M a n y different items of evidence f r o m a r o u n d these y e a r s tend to suggcst hovv c o m p a r a t i v c l y tenuous a n d uncertain R o m a n control of the s o u t h e r n

4 7 . F o r L . V i t c l l i u s a n d T i r i d a t c s s c c T a c i t ı ı s , Ann. 4 8 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

X V I I I , 4 , 1 - 3 (8 5 - 9 5 ) .

4 9 . Ant.

XV, 1 1 , 4 (404-405).

5 0 . Ant.

XVIII, 5, 3 ( 1 2 0 - 1 1 5 ) .

VI, 32—37; 41—44.

region w a s , a n d Iıow m u c h ic depended on d i p l o m a c y aııd on the erralic effects of persona! presence. It s h o u l d o f course be strcsscd that the o n l y continu o u s narratives are provided b y Joscphus, and thcrefore tend t o highlight this area; w e h a v e 110 c o m p a r a b l e v i c w o f power-rclations in northern Syria. But, as regards the southern a r e a , it is vvorth noting that I Icrodcs A n t i p a s left his tctrarchy t o a c c o m p a n y Vitcllius t o Jerusalem, an aspect o f the d i p l o m s t i c relations between dynasts a n d governors w h i c h w e can see repeated m s n y times. W h i l e in Jerusalem, Vitcllius a g a i n assumed the povvcrs n o r m a l l y e x e r ciscd by the praefectus,

g r e a t l y his inferior in r a n k , d e p o s i n g o n e H i g b Priest

and a p p o i n t i n g another. T h i s time it w a s J o n a t h a n son of A n a n u s w h o w a s d e p o s e d in his turn as I ligh Pricst, after o n l y a year, to bc replaccd b y his brother T h e o p h i l o s . s l W i t h that n a m e w e reach a m o m e n t w h c n s o m e very different strands in our c o m p l c x and erratic \veb o f evidence intcrscct. For this I ligh Pricst, vvith his G r e e k name transliterated, a p p e a r s o n the nevvly published Hebrevv ossuaryiııscription of his g r a n d d a u g h t e r : T P L O S H K H N H G D L , ' T h e o p h i l o s :hc I ligh Pricst'. 5 2 I lis succcssor, hovvcvcr, vvas to bc appointed b y a Jevvish king, o n e sign of the very rapid c h a n g e s in the shape of the R o m a n N e a r East över the n e x t fevv years.

2.3. F R O M T H E

REIGN OF

OF

THE

GAİUS T O THE

JEVVİSH

OUTBREAK

WAR

T h e accession of G a i u s in M a r c h AD 37 began a series o f changes in the structurc o f R o m a n rule in tlıc N e a r East vvhich were to have important cffects över the follovving decadcs. In essence this period represents the last flovvering of the system o f depcndcnce o n kiııgs a n d dynasts, before its rapid repressıon tovvards the end of the century. In the south the interplay o f events and pcrsonalities again iliustratcs the unstable and vacillatory n a t u r e o f R o m a n c o n t r o l in this period. In the later 30S the regions in southern Syria prcviously rulcd by the tetrareh Philip vvere, as vve savv, p r o v i s i o n a l l y a t t a c h c d t o the provincc. İn the spring o f 3 7 , the R o m a n a r m y dispatclıed t o repress A r e t a s I V of N a b a t a e a vveııt back t o Syria on hearing of tlıc death of T i b e r i u s . A s before, there is n o t h i n g vvhatevet to suggest that a n y R o m a n f o r c e s vvere present in the D e c a p o l i s , in the f o r n e r territories o f Philip, or even in Damascus. İt may even be that in this per:od of f l u x , tovvards the end o f A r e t a s ' l o n g reign* the N a b a t a e a n s gained s o m e measure of control in D a m a s c u s . T h e r e m u s t at least h a v e been s o m e degree 5x.

Ant.

X V I » , 5, 3 (123).

5 1 . D . B a r a g a n d D . F l u s s c r , " T h e O s s u a r y o f Y c h o h a n a h , G r a n d d a u g h t e r of t h e H i g h P r i c s t T h e o p h i l o s " , IF.J 3 6 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 3 9 . S c c f u r r h e r 1 0 . 2 b c l o w .

of povver v a c u u m there. F o r uııless vve reject thc entire narrative of A c t s a n d its a c c o u n t o f the c o n v e r s i o n of Paul, w e have t o accept the surprising i n f o r mation that a H i g h Priest (we d o not knovv vvhich) in Jerusalem could s e n d an emissary t o D a m a s c u s , a city in thc R o m a n p r o v i n c c of Syria, t o arrest Jevvish c o n v e r t s to Christiaııity a n d bring them back to Jerusalem. 1 But vvhile Paul vvas there thc danger in vvhich hc f o u n d himself c a m c not f r o m a n y representatives of the R o m a n state o r even f r o m the city magistrates, but (in the story as told b y A c t s ) f r o m the Jevvish c o m m u n i t y there, after his ovvn conversion, a n d on his ovvn a c c o u n t f r o m 'thc cthnarch of A r c t a s thc k i n g V If t h a t m e a n s that D a m a s c u s vvas ııovv actually under N a b a t a e a n c o n t r o l , the u n n a m e d ethnarch m u s t have been in a position s o m e t h i n g like that of Pheroras, vvhen he vvas made c t h n a r c h o f Peraea in 20 BC, vvhile his brother H e r o d vvas k i n g of Judaea. 3 Bul in fact there is no i n f o r m a t i o n 011 either the f o r m a l or thc aetual circumstances of D a m a s c u s in these ycars, and for that matter vve c a n n o t teli vvhat year is referred to, ex*cept t h a t it c a n n o t be later than AD 40, vvhen A r c tas died, t o be succeeded by his son M a l i c h u s II. H i s rule in N a b a t a e a , a n d that o f his son Rabbcl II, in AD 7 0 - 1 0 6 , vvas to p r o v i d c o n c element of c o n t i nuity, h a ı d l y matehed elsevvhere in the region. Early in his reign G a i u s reversed the temporary attaehment of T r a c h o n i t i s and its n e i g h b o u r i n g regions t o t h c province of Syria, and gave them, in principle, t o a g r a n d s o n of H e r o d , A g r i p p a I, vvho had gained his f a v o u r in the Iast years of Tiberius. A l o n g vvith that vvent thc little-knovvn 'tetrarehy o f Lysanias', locatcd o n A n t i - I x b a n o n , straddling the road betvveen D a m a s c u s and the B e k a a Valley.' 1 A s there vvas a c o m m o n b o u n d a r y betvveen the territory of D a m a s c u s a n d that o f Sidon o n the coast, 5 it sccms clcar that A g r i p p a ' s nevv d o m a i n s represented tvvo g c o g r a p h i c a l l y separate areas. In a n y case it vvas n o t until the a u t u m n o f the year 38 that he c a m c back f r o m R o m e t o begin his rule. A s he passed t h r o u g h A l e x a n d r i a o n his vvay, thc sight o f his b o d y g u a r d , vvith their a r m o u r inlaid in g o l d and silver, is said by Philo, a c o n t e m p o r a r y vvitness, to h a v e a r o u s e d the resentmeııt both o f the city m o b and o f the prefect o f E g y p t , Avillius Flaccus. 6 T h i s vicvv o f thc rclations o f k i n g a n d prefcct is not a triviality, f o r such questions of prestige, precedence

1 . Acts 9, 1 - 2 5 ; 22, 3 - 1 6 ; 26, 1 2 - 2 0 . 2. 2 C o r 1 1 , 32. 3 . 2 . 1 a b o v c . RPC1,

6 6 3 , a c c c p t s clıc vicvv t h a t t h e g a p iıı t h e d a t e d c o i ı ı a g e o f D a m a s c u s

betvveen AD 3 3 / 3 4 a u d 6 5 / 6 6 refleets Î \ ' a b a t a e a n d o ı n i n a t i o n , a t h e o r y v v h i c h r e m a i n s t o

bc

proved. 4 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

X V I I I , 6 , 1 0 ( 2 3 7 ) . For thc fragmcnrnry information avaitable on this

t e t r a r e h y , r e f e r r e d t o b y L k 3 , 1 , s c c Scfoürcr, HJP I, 5 6 9 - 5 7 1 . 5. 2 . 1 a b o v e . 6 . P h i l o , Fbcc.

5/29-35.

a n d d i p l o m a c y w e r e inregral t o the u n s t a b l e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n R o m a n g o v e r n o r s a n d local d y n a s t s . T h e s a m e p o i n t c a n be i i l u s t r a t e d b y c o n t e m p o r a r y e v e n t s else\vherc in the r e g i o n . A t t h e b c g i n n i n g o f G a i u s ' reign H e r o d e s A n t i p a s w a s stili ruling G a l i l e e a n d P c r a e a as t e t r a r c i ı , a n d it s e e m s to h a v e been under G a i u s , in AD 3 7 o r 3 8 , t h a t he t o o k c a r c t o b c prcsent a t a m e e t i n g betvveen Vitellius and A r t a b a n u s of Parthia, w h o h a d just driven o u t the R o m a n - b a c k e d p r e t e n d e r T i r i d a t e s . A s o n earlier o c c a s i o n s , the m e e t i n g t o o k p l a c c o n t h e E u p h r a t e s , e v i d e n t l y at Z e u g m a , a n d b o t h sides w e r e f e a s t e d b y H e r o d e s in a t e n t e r e c t e d o n t h e bridge itself. A c c o r d i n g to J o s e p h u s , he also sent n e w s of these e v e n t s t o the E m p c r o r , f o r c s t a l l i n g t h e m e s s e n g e r s sent by V i t e l l i u s . 7 But p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t s a n d j c a l o u s i c s a f f c c t c d the d y n a s t s as w e l l as R o m a n o f f i c i a l s . A c c o r d i n g to an e l a b o r a t e s t o r y in J o s e p h u s , H e r o d e s A n t i p a s w a s urged by his w i f e H e r o d i a s , A g r i p p a ' s sister, to g o to Italy t o p e t i t i o n G a i u s f o r the s t a t u s of k i n g , to e q ı ı a l his brother-in-la\v. But vvhile he vvas there, letters c a m e to G a i u s f r o m A g r i p p a a l l e g i n g , a m o n g other t h i n g s , t h a t H e r o d e s vvas in l e a g u e vvith A r t a b a n u s o f Parthia a n d h a d vveapons in s t o r c sufficient f o r s e v e n t y t h o u s a n d m e n . H e r o d e s vvas u n a b l e to d e n y this, a n d w a s e x i l e d . H i s t e t r a r e h y vvas a d d e d to the a r e a ruled b y A g r i p p a . " T h e figüre o f s e v e n t y t h o u s a n d m a y s c e m f a n t a s t i c b u t is c o n s i s t e n t vvith the lcvel o f f o r c e s vvhich J o s e p h u s c l a i m s (at o n e p o i n t ) t h a t he later raised in G a l i l e e in t h e Jevvish r e v o l t . 9 It deserves s o m e stress; the R o m a n s vvere a t t e m p t i n g , vvith a d e g r e e of s u c c c s s , to c o n t r o l a densely p o p u l a t e d a r c a a t a r m ' s l e n g t h , f r o m their base in n o r t h e r n S y r i a , t h e fertile region bctvveen t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d the E u p h r a t e s settled in t h e e a r l y Hellenistic p e r i o d — a n d stili, a f t e r a vvhole c e n t u r y , the s a m e a r c a vvhich t h e y h a d o c c u p i e d in t h e 6 o s o f the first c e n t u r y BC. H o v v d i f f i c u l t t h a t c o n t r o l m i g h t b e vvas g r a p h i c a l l y iilustrated in AD 39/ 4 0 , vvhen m a j ö r d i s t u r b a n c e s vvere c r e a t e d in J u d a e a itself, a t this t i m e stili u n d e r direct rule. A c o n f l i c t in J a m n i a bctvveen t h e Jevvish i n h a b i t a n t s a n d s o m e g e n t i l e o n e s v v h o p r o v o k e d t h e m by setting u p a n a l t a r to the E m p c r o r Icd to G a i u s ' o r d e r (in itself entirely u n t y p i c a l of R o m a n attitudes) d u t a s t a t u e o f himself s h o u l d bc set u p in the H o l y of I lolies. T h e o r d e r vven: t o the legatus

of S y r i a , vvho vvas o n c e a g a i n t o t a k e h a l f his l e g i o n a r y f o r c e , that

is, tvvo l e g i o n s , a n d m a r c h s o u t h . B o t h in t h e e a r l y s u m m e r of AD 4 0 a t P t o l e mais (the n o r m a l p o i n t of e n t r y ) a n d a g a i n in t h e a u t u m n a t T i b e r i a s , t h e city f o u n d e d by H e r o d e s A n t i p a s in G a l i l e e , he vvas c o n f r o ı ı t e d by v a s t , n o n -

7 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

X V I I I , 4 , 5 ( 1 0 1 - 1 0 5 ) . Josephus bclievcd that these events took

u n d e r H b c r i u s . F o r t h e ( p r o b a b l e ) c h r o n o l o g y s c c S c h ü r c r , HJP I, 3 5 1 .

8. Ant. XVin, 7 , 1 - 2 (140-254!. 9. 1 . 4 belovv.

plato

violent demonstrations b y the Jevvish p o p u l a t i o n . In the end Petronius, h a v i n g b o u g h t as m u e h time as p o s s i b l e , o p e n l y asked G a i u s by letter t o r e v o k e the order. T h e reply to that is r e c o r d e d to h a v e been a letter o r d e r i n g him t o c o m m i t suicide; but it vvas o v e r t a k e n en route by another in vvhich G a i u s agreed t o a b a n d o n the plan, h a v i n g been persuaded by A g r i p p a I, a l r e a d y back in R o m e at court. In a n y c a s c the murder of G a i u s on January 1 4 , A D 4 1 , brought this vvhole episode t o an end. 1 0 T h e richly c o l o u r e d n a r r a t i v e s of Philo a n d Josephus o n vvhich vve d e p e n d f o r these events do nonetheless servc t o illustrate further the indireetness o f R o m a n c o n t r o l . N o t o n l y did a n y significant effort t o exert force in the s o u t h ern region entail m a r e h i n g a large proportioıı o f the legionary garrison o f Syria dovvn the c o a s t t o P t o l c m a i s and b e y o n d , but ali dccisions ultimately depended on the Kmperor in R o m e , vvho could be reached only b y letter. T h e three m o n t h s it t o o k G a i u s ' letter o r d e r i n g his suicide t o reach Petronius vvere indeed c x c e p t i o n a l . But a h u n d a n t evidence shovvs hovv c o m m u n i c a t i o n s d e pended o n the unreliable sea-route vvhich funetioned counter-clockvvise f r o m R o m e t o A l e x a n d r i a a n d then up the Phoenician coast; it then vvent vvestvvards a l o n g the coast of Asia M i n ö r for the return journey t o southern Italy. T h e cffective integration o f the N e a r East into the Empire vvas not g o i n g i n the end t o depend o n this sea-route, but first o n laııd-communications aeross Asia M i n ö r a n d sccond o n an e v e r m o r e frequent dircct Imperial prcscnce. F o r the m o m e n t , hovvever, the tendeney vvas the o p p o s i t e , a svving b a c k to indirect control through k i n g s . In 37 G a i u s restored the son of A n t i o c h u s III to the throne o f C o m m a g e n e : a R o m a n citizen, like the H e r o d i a n s , hc had as his full n a m e G a i u s Iulius A n t i o c h u s Epiphanes. T h e territory he received ineluded also a large part o f Cİlicia, and Suetonius claims that he vvas a l s o given back reserves of 100 million sesterces,

o r 25 million denarii,

accumu-

lated since the death of his f a t h e r in AD 1 7 . While vve can hardiy t a k e these figures

literally, they suggest o n the face of it that C o m m a g e n e p r o d u c e d a

tax-revenue o f s o m e t h i n g ö v e r o n e million denarii

per ycar. A n t i o c h u s I V

seems t o h a v e been d e p o s e d a g a i n by G a i u s , only t o be restored finally b y C l a u d i u s on his accession in AD 4 1 . " T h e k i n g d o m vvas to play an i m p o r t a n t role until its dcstruction in AD 7 2 . T h e successive phases o f r o y a l rule in Judaea and southern Syria vvere e v e n m o r e c o m p l e x . A s soon as C l a u d i u s c a m e to the throne, he revvarded A g r i p p a I, vvho had been in R o m e a n d h a d hclped in the d r a m a t i c and c o m p l c x p r o c e s s of his accession, b y giving him J u d a e a and Satnaria, thus n o t o n l y r e s t o r i n g the vvhole k i n g d o m as it had been under H e r o d the G r c a t , but giving u p an established R o m a n p r o v i n c e vvhich had had its ovvn g o v e r n o r . indeed, since

1 0 . F o r t h e d e t a i l s , a n d t h e e h r o n o l o g y f o ! l o w e d h e t e , s c c Schtırcr, H J P I , 3 9 4 — 3 9 8 . 1 1 . F o r t h e d e t a i l s s c c PIRz

!, 149.

the tetrarclıy of Lysanias w a s ineluded, the boundaries of A g r i p p a ' s k i n g d o m w e r e wider, itıciuding s o m e (quitc undefinablc) territory o n o r a r o u n d A n : i L e b a n o n . A s a significant e l e m e n t in the strueture o f the R o m a n E m p i r e in the N e a r East, it presents a f e w w e l l - k n o w n but crucial features, w h i c h necd t o be put in c o n t e x t here. First, the a r m e d forccs of the k i n g d o m continue (as it seems) t o illustrate the r e m a r k a b l e ease of the transference, in either direetion, b e t w c c n R o m a n and dynastic rule. A s w e h a v e scetı, it is only a very p r o b a b l e infcrcnce that the units recruited f r o m Sebaste a n d C a e s a r e a h a d passed i n t o R o m a n service on the deposition o f A r c h c l a u s in AD 6. 1 2 But it is beyond question that such units vvere f o u n d in A g r i p p a ' s a r m y in AD 41—44, and that they passed into R o m a n service o n the king's d e a t h . Josephus deseribes vividly h o w the people of Sebaste and Caesarea r e j o i c e d at the king's death, and hovv C l a u d i u s had intended to punish the c a v a l r y ala and the five infantry cohortes

recruited

f r o m these cities by transferring them to Pontus, replacing them f r o m the units (presumably auxiliary units) statioııed in Syria. But they (the units or the cities?) sent an embassy t o C l a u d i u s a n d obtained the cancellation o f the transfer. T h u s , j o s e p h u s clainıs, they vvere able t o contributc t o the conflicts leadiııg up t o the Jevvish revolt, and the transfer t o o k place o n l y under Vcspasian.u S e c o n d , various aspects o f the reign serve to illustrate hovv such kitıgs c o u l d stili attempt t o o p e r a t e an independent foreign policy. A t a local Icvcl vve find the king, as represented in the one chapter of A c t s vvhere he appears, receiving embassies f r o m the Tyrians and Sidonians, vvho h a v e incurred his anger, and vvho bcsccch his f a v o u r bccausc they depend c c o n o m i c a l l y o n the royal territory. 1 4 A glance at the m a p vvill shovv that indeed a large part o f the hinterlaııd of both cities vvas under his rule. W h a t e v e r the nature of the dispute, it is striking that it is c o n d u c t c d vvith n o rcfcrence to the (normally distant) legatus o f Syria. T h e legatus

in fact stili intervened in this southern region o n l y vvhen

f o r c c d b y circumstanccs. O n o c c a s i o n the intervention could be indicect. T h u s , as Josephus also r e c o r d s , vvhen s o m e G r e e k youths set u p a s t a t u e o f the E m p e r o r in a s y n a g o g u c a t D o r a in southern Phoenicia, A g r i p p a v v e n t t o appear b e f o r e Petronius, vvho vvas stili legatus; a n d hc vvrote t o the 'first m e n ' of the city ordering them to haııd över the guilty partics t o a ccnturion, vvho vvould bring them f o r trial b e f o r e himself. T h e implication seems t o be that

i z . Z.Z a b o v e . 1 3 . Ani.

X I X , 9, ı-z

(356-366).

1 4 . A c t s x ı , t o . A g r i p p a a p p e a r s here as ' H e r o d c s ' { 1 1 , 1 ) , a n a m e vvhich n o o t h e r s o u r c e g i v e s h i m . A s a R o m a n c i t i z e n h i s n a m e w a s I u l i u s A g r i p p a . T h e r e is n o d o u b r , h o v v e v e r , o f ıhe identity o f the king concerııcd.

the little t o w n (polis) o f D o r a , lying between Ptolemais and C a e s a r e a , a n d south o f M o u n t C a r m e l , w a s w i t h i n thc b o u n d s o f thc provincc. But A g r i p p a c o u l d stili exercise influence vvith the legatus ö v e r the protection of Jevvish rights

thcrc. 1 5

M o r e a m b i t i o u s plans o n h i s part vvere met vvith a m o r e repressive attîtude. W h e n the king began the construction o f a nevv n o r t h vvall f o r Jerusalem, the nevv legatus o f Syria, D o m i t i u s M a r s u s , vvrote to C l a u d i u s , a n d h e vvrote in turn to A g r i p p a , instrueting İlim t o s t o p the w o r k . 1 6 M o r e signifîcantly, A g r i p p a vvas visited at T i b c r i a s , evidently at his invitation, b y f o u r other kings: tvvo f r o m Asia M i n ö r , C o t y s o f A r m e n i a M i n ö r and Polemo o f Pontus, a n d three f r o m the N e a r East, A n t i o c h u s IV of C o m m a g c n c , S a m p s i g cramus of E m c s a and his ovvn brother H e r o d o f Chaicis. By accident or othervvise, M a r s u s also arrived at Tiberias at this m o m e n t . T h e diplomatic gesture on A g r i p p a ' s part o f taking thc four other kings vvith him in his carriage t o greet M a r s u s o n his a p p r o a c h h a d the opposite effect f r o m that intended: ' T o M a r s u s their c o n c o r d and such a degree o f mutual friendship vvas suspect, f o r he took it that the meeting o f m i n d s of such important dynasts vvas not t o the a d v a n t a g c o f thc R o m a n s ' . S o they vvere ordered to return at o n c e t o their k i n g d o m s . 1 7 W h e n A g r i p p a died in AD 4 4 , his s o n , thc later Agrippa II, vvas at R o m e being brought up at thc c o u r t of C l a u d i u s . A c c o r d i n g t o Josephus, the Emperor's fîrst inclination vvas t o g i v e h i m his father's k i n g d o m . But his f r e e d m e n a n d friends persuaded him that the ' b o y ' (novv sixteen) vvas t o o y o u n g . S o t h c vvholc arca reverted t o bcing a p r o v i n c c , vvith an equestrian official, novv vvith the title procurator,

to g o v e r n it.

\Vhether the motivatioıı r e c o r d e d by Josephus is correct o r n o t , vvhich w c o b v i o u s l y c a n n o t knovv, thc rcsult vvas as hc said. S o far as Judaea vvas c o n cerned, it vvould bc only in tvvo p e r i o d s o f rebellion that in the future the area vvould not be under R o m a n direct rule. A century later, after thc sccond o f those rebellions, the p r o v i n c c vvould bc given a nevv n a m e , 'Syria Palaestitıa*, f r o m vvhich ali rcfcrence to the Jevvish character o f its p o p u l a t i o n vvas lacking; it vvould h a v e a garrison of tvvo R o m a n legions a n d bc thc l o c a t i o n o f tvvo R o m a n coloniae,

C a e s a r e a and A c l i a C a p i t o l i n a (Jerusalem). T h e long lıesita-

tion o f R o m a n rule vvas över, vvith c o n s e q u e n c e s vvhich vvould be felt in full o n l y vvhen the Emperors themselves bccame C h r i s t i a n a n d savv thc c o u n t r y as the H o l y L a n d . A similar hesitation vvas f a r f r o m över, hovvever, as regards the n o r t h -

1 5 . Ant.

X I X , 6, 3 ( 3 0 0 - 3 1 t } . N o r e l i a n c e s h o u l d be p l a c e d o n t h e t c x t o f t h c Icttcr o r e d i c t

of P c t r o n i u s as q u o t c d b y J o s e p h u s . F o r D o r a s c c f u r t h e r 8 . x b e l o w . 1 6 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

X I X , 7, 2 ( 3 2 6 - 3 2 7 ) .

1 7 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

X I X , 8, r ( 3 3 8 - 3 4 1 ) .

easiern regions, aııd indeed p a r t o f Galilee, w h i c h h a d belonged to A g r i p p a ' s k i n g d o m . While ali of Galilee for the m o m e n t became part o f the p r o v i n c e of J u d a e a , w h a t o f B a t a n a c a , T r a c h o n i t i s a n d Auranitis? A s it happens, a c o n v e nient series o f G r e e k and A r a m a i c inseriptions d u l y refleets the changing overlords o f the latter area: a statue-base at Si4 dedicated in G r e e k t o ' K i n g Hero d e s ' (unfortunatcly the statııc itself is missing) is f o l l o w e d b y the d c d i c a t i o n of an altar there in the year 3 3 ' o f the lord Philip' ( I . M R N ' PLPS), and then by the record of the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a gate at H e b r a n in the year 7 of C l a u d i u s C a e s a r ( I . Q L D Y S Q Y S R ) ; b u t then H e r o d i a n rule rcappcars, vvith d a t i n g s by years 1 6 and 2 1 of ' K i n g A g r i p p a , (our?) l o r d ' in a G r e e k inseription f r o m S a n a m a y n . ' 8 T h e north-eastern parts of the k i n g d o m had first, therefore, been made part of a province, a n d prcsumably (though it is novvhcrc explicitiy stated) of Syria rather than J u d a e a , briefly recreating a g e o g r a p h i c a l u n i t y of provincial territory in that a r e a . T h e arrangement did not last long, and reversion to H e r o d i a n rule vvent i n parallcl vvith a series of developments in Judaea vvhich added a unique degree o f c o m p l e x i t y to the strueture of povver there. A g a i n , the history of J u d a e a betvveen AD 44 and 66 is exceptionally w e l l knovvn, for the period is that o f the education a n d early m a n h o o d of J o s e p h u s (born in AD 37/38), vvho b y the end of it vvas a central figüre in the Jevvish ruling elass. C o n s c q u e n t l y o n l y certain features bearing o n the e x e r c i s e of povver there need be isolatcd here. Direct rule of the area f r o m Idumaea in the south to Galilee in the north, and ineluding Pcraea aeross the J o r d a n , reverted, as vve have seen, t o a R o m a n eques,

novv vvith the title procurator.

But vvhen the first o f these, Cuspius Fa-

dus, d e m a n d e d the r e s t o r a t i o n t o h i m of the custody of the high-priestly robes, held b y the earlier praefecti

f r o m AD 6 to 3 6 , " the Jevvish authorities

petitioned him, and also the nevv legatus o f Syria, C a s s i u s L o n g i n u s , f o r the right t o retaitı them. J o s e p h u s notes, in a vvay vvhich vvill novv be familiar, that L o n g i n u s had c o m e t o Jcrusalem vvith a largc force in casc F a d u s ' d e m a n d s p r o v o k e d resistance. In the event, the Jevvish leadcrs vvere allovvcd t o send an embassy to C l a u d i u s in R o m e ; and he, influenced by the y o u n g e r A g r i p p a , vvho vvas in R o m e , by the elder A g r i p p a ' s brother ' K i n g H e r o d ' and by the latter's son A r i s t o b u l u s , agreed t o the request. 2 0 T h e significance of r o y a l d j nasties in this period did not lie only in the extent of ' R o m a n ' territory vvhich they actually ruled, but in t h e decision-making at the centre, vvhere personal influence could p l a y a crucial role. 18. H c r o d : L c Bas-W., nû. 2 J 6 4 t-Onva w v d v 8 p ( a v x a . Philip: RES.

IC,R III, » ö . 1 2 4 3 : IBö|«TtXft H p ^ C t ' O P ö t o û t ö ^ I t t ö f o u

n o . 2 1 1 7 — PAES

IV, p . 7 8 , n o . 1 0 1 . C l a u d i u s : CIS II, n o .

1 7 0 : B Y R H T S R Y S N T SB' L Q ! . D Y S Q Y S R (buildıng o f a g a t e at H e b r a n ) . A g r i p p a : see Schurcr, H / P I , 4 7 3 , " S. 19. 1 . 2 above. t o . Ant. X X , r , ı - ı

(6-T4).

' K i n g I l e r o d ' , as J o s e p h u s g o e s o n to explaiıı, vvas currently the ruler o f Chalcis (an undefinable small territory based in the southern part o f the B e k a a Valley). T h i s t o o w a s a rcsult o f r o y a l influence, f o r A g r i p p a I had a s k c d it o f C l a u d i u s f o r his brother. 2 1 H e r o d n o w asked f o r the f a v o u r vvhich vvas t o produce a crucial a n o m a l y in the f u n c t i o n i n g o f povver in Judaea f o r the tvvo d e c a d e s up to the revolt, n a m e l y that h e should h a v e authority n o t only ö v e r the Tcmplc and its funds but o v c r the selectioıı o f H i g h Priests, a right vvhich he immediately used. 2 2 T h e H i g h Priests vvere thus no longer, as in AD

6-4R.

R o m a n nomiııees; and Judaea experienced the cotıcurrent, and conflicting, cxercisc o f the govcrnor's and a king's povver at the same time. T h e complications thus c r c a t c d incrcased steadily vvith the progressive CJCtension o f the territory and r i g h t s given to A g r i p p a the y o u n g e r . " In AD 50, as it seems, vvhen his unclc d i e d , he vvas given his k i n g d o m of C h a l c i s as vvcll as the 'care of the T c m p l c ' , vvhich vvas evidcntly a c c o m p a n i c d by the right t o depose and appoint the H i g h Priests. C o n s e q u e n t l y six o f the lası seven o f the l o n g linç o f eighty-thrcc H i g h Priests, vvhich Josephus regarded as having been c o n t i n u o u s f r o m the time o f A a r o n , vvere appointees of A g r i p p a II; there remained o n l y the last of ali, a p p o i n t e d as part o f a popular m o v e m e n t d u r i n g the revolt. 2 4 In AD 53 C l a u d i u s took b a c k the small k i n g d o m of C h a l c i s , vvhich pres u m a b l y vvas added to the p r o v i n c e of Syria, and g a v e A g r i p p a the f o r m e r tetrarehy of P h i l i p — t h e ill-defincd n c i g h b o u r i n g districts callcd G a u l a n i t i s , Batanaea, Trachonitis and A u r a n i t i s — a s well as the 'tetrarehy of Lysanias' (based on A b i l a , betvveen D a m a s c u s aııd the B e k a a Valley) a n d 'the f o r m e r tetrarehy of V a r u s ' , vvhich s e e m s t o h a v e been somevvhere in Ituraea. C e r tainty as to the g e o g r a p h y h e r e (vvhich is vvholly unattainable) is less i m p o r t a n t than the visible ease vvith vvhich these areas o f M o u n t L c b a n o n a n d Anti-I.ebanon could bc transferred f r o m o n e dynast to another; as they h a d f r o m the beginning, those high m o u n t a i n o u s areas remained an a n o m a l o u s and ill-controllcd z o n c , of c o n s i d e r a b l c c x t c n t , at the h c a r t of ' R o m a n ' Syria. It is very significant t o o t h a t the extensive districts vvhich lay betvveen M o u ı ı t H e r m o n and D a m a s c u s on the o n e hand and the provincial G r e e k cities o f the Decapolis o n the other n o w passed, f o r at Icast forty ycars, o u t of R o m a n dircct rule. B y the m o m e n t , in the early second century, vvhen these areas, divided betvveen the provinces o f Syria, A r a b i a and J u d a e a , b e c a m e s o l i d l y integrated into the R o m a n provincial systcnı, they had been under R o m a n ovcrall c o n t r o l for more than a century a n d a half, vvhile Auranitis and its

2 1 . Ant.

X I X , 5, I ( 1 7 7 ) .

2 2 . Ant.

X X , 1, 3 (15-16).

2 3 . F o r t h e d e t a i l s s e e S c h ü r c r , HJP I, 4 7 i f f . 2 4 . F o r J o s e p h u s ' s u r v e y , Ant.

X X , ı o , r - 5 ( 2 2 4 - 2 5 1 ) ; s c c S c h ü r c r , HJP II, 227~i3<>.

a t t a c h e d a r e a s h a d been u n d e r H e r o d i a n direct rule a l r n o s t c o n t i n u o u s l y f o r ö v e r a century. W h a t h a s b e e n c a l l e d t h e p r e - p r o v i n c i a l p h a s e in the h i s t o r y o f t h e H a u r a n a n d the o t h e r districts o f p r e s e n t - d a y s o u t h e r n Syria vvas b o t h long and o f considerable significatıce." Iıı n a r r a t i v e terms, hovvever, w e k n o w very littlc o f events h e r e (as in N a b a t a e a ) in t h e s e c o n d half o f the first century. O u r o n l y a v a i l a b l e n a r r a t i v e e v i d e n c e is r e p r e s e n ı e d by t h e t w o m a j o r h i s t o r i c a l vvorks o f J o s e p h u s , vvhich tıaturally c n o u g h t o u c h o n t h e history o f o t h e r g r o u p s o n l y w h c n t h e y b e c a m e i n v o l v e d in s o m e vvay vvith t h e Jevvs. T h u s f o r i n s t a n c e t h e first o f t h e

procura-

h a d t o deal vvith v i o l e n t confiicts betvveen t h e Jevvish i n h a b i t a n t s o f

tores

P e r a e a ( p a r t o f his provincia)

a n d t h o s e o f P h i l a d c l p h i a ( A m m a n ) över t h e

b o u n d a r i e s o f a village c a l l e d Z i a . By luck vve knovv the precise l o c a t i o r . o f this village, vvhich J o s e p h u s s a y s vvas 'full o f vvarlike m e n ' . T h e

Onomasticon

o f E u s e b i u s , a pricelcss s o u r c e f o r t h e s o c i a l g e o g r a p h y o f the r e g i o n , shovvs t h a t it lay fifteeıı R o m a n m i l e s ( s o m e 2 0 k m ) vvest o f P h i l a d e l p h i a , h e n c e on the b o u n d a r y betvveen the p l a t e a u a n d the great d e p r e s s i o n t h r o u g h vvhich t h e J o r d a n r u n s . 2 * T h e e p i s o d e c a n bc secn a s a small f o r e t a s t e o f t h e c o m ı t ı u nal c o n f i i c t s vvhich vvere t o b r e a k o u t iti A D 66 ali r o u n d J u d a e a ; a n d a l s o a s a n o t h e r small i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e vvay in vvhich the d e m o g r a p h y o f t h e region vvas d o m i n a t e d by large villages. M o s t o f t h e c o n f i i c t s vvhich J o s e p h u s deseribes in this period b e l o n g t o the i n t c r n a l history o f the Jevvish c o m m u n i t y , a n d did n o t a f f c c t t h e s t r u e t u r e o f t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t as a vvhole. B u t o n e o f t h e m i n v o l v e d n o t o n l y o p e n confiicts betvveen Jevvs a n d S a m a r i t a n s but the i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e legatus

of

S y r i a , a judicial h c a r i n g b e f o r e C l a u d i u s in R o m e a n d t h e c o ı ı d e m n a ı i o ı ı o f the procurator.

In t h a t sense it illustrates very clearly t h e m e a n s by vvhich a

local c o n f l i c t , o n c e again iııvolving villagcrs f r o m different g r o u p s , c o u l d m a k e its vvay t h r o u g h t h e e n t i r e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g s t r u e t u r e o f the E m p i r e . It may a l s o h a v e p r o v i d e d t h e c o t ı t e x t f o r the c r e a t i o ı ı o f the s e c o n d colonia

Roman

o f tlıc r e g i o n , P t o l e m a i s , vvhich foilovvcd i m m e d i a t c l y after.

I n o u t l i n e , t h e issuc, vvhich s e e m s t o b e l o n g t o AD 5 1 o r 5 2 , a r o s e f r o m c o n f i i c t s betvveen Jevvish t r a v e l l e r s f r o m G a l i l e e , o n their vvay t o J e r u s a l e m f o r a festival, a n d t h e S a m a r i t a n i n h a b i t a n t s o f a village o n t h e b o r d e r betvveen S a m a r i a a n d the Plain o f J e z r c c l . G c t t i n g n o satisfactioıı f r o m the procurator,

Ventidius C u m a n u s , t h e G a l i l c a n Jevvs callcd in a b r i g a n d

from

the m o u n t a i n s a n d s a c k e d v a r i o u s S a m a r i t a n villagcs. C u m a n u s r e a c t c d by d e p l o y i n g a c a v a l r y ala o f S e b a s t e n e s a n d f o u r i n f a n t r y c o h o r r s , the

Samaritans

and

launehing

an

assault

on

arming

t h e Jevvs ( o f G a l i l e e ,

as

seems clear). 25.11.1

below.

2 6 . J o s c p h u s , Ant. X X , 1 , 1 ( 2 - 4 ) ; E u s e b i u s , Onom.

( c d . K l o s t c r m a n n ) 9 4 , 3 ( c a l l i ı ı g it

lıa).

T h e 'leaders o f the S a m a r i t a n s ' ( w h o s e c o m m u ı ı a l structures a r e q u i t e u n knovvn) then w e n t t o a p p e a r b e f o r e t h e legatus

o f Syria, Ummidius Q u a d r a -

t u s , vvho vvas a t t h a t m o m e n t a t T y r e . H a v i n g h c a r d t h e m , Q u a d r a t u s c a m c t o J u d a c a a n d hcld further h e a r i n g s in S a m a r i a a n d a t Lydda ( ' a villagc o f a si/e n o less t h a n t h a t o f a polis',

a s J o s e p h u s d e s c r i b e s it). H a v i n g put v a r i o u s

p e r s o n s t o d e a t h , h e sent t h e l e a d e r s o f b o t h the S a m a r i t a n s a n d thc Jevvs ( t h c H i g h Priest A n a n i a s a n d t h c ' C a p t a i t ı o f the T e m p l e ' , A n a n u s ) t o thc E m p e r o r , a l o n g vvith C u m a n u s h i m s e l f a n d a t r i b ü n e n a m e d Çeler. H e himself visited J e r u s a l e m t o see t h a t ali vvas q u i e t , a n d returned t o A n t i o c h . In R o m e the influence o f A g r i p p a II (vvho vvas stili t h e r e , j u s t b e f o r e t h c d e c i s i v c c x t c n s i o n o f his d o m a i n s ) e n s u r e d t h a t t h e S a m a r i t a n l e a d e r s vvere c o n d e m n e d a n d put t o d e a t h , C u m a n u s exiled a n d Çeler, very r e m a r k ably,

brouglıt

back

to J e r u s a l e m ,

draggcd r o u n d

thc city a n d

publicly

cxccuted.27 A l t h o u g h t h e e p i s o d e i l l u s t r a t e s again the e x t r e m e difficulty vvhich vvas presented b y trying t o keep o r d e r a m o n g t h e very large a r m c d p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e villages, t h e r e is n o t h i n g in J o s e p h u s ' a c c o u n t t o indicate t h a t Q u a d r a t u s b r o u g h t a n y significant f o r c e s vvith h i m f r o m S y r i a . N o legions are kııovvn t o h a v e been s t a t i o n e d a s far s o u t h a s Tyre, a n d h c m a y h a v e b e e n t h e r e o n t h e n o r m a l j u d i c i a l c i r c u i t o f a R o m a n governor. N o n c t h c l e s s , it is c l e a r t h a t P t o l e m a i s vvill o n c c again h a v e been the p o i n t f r o m vvhich a legatus

of Syria

e n t e r e d J u d a c a t o i m p o s e o r d e r ; a n d this fact m a y serve t o c x p l a i n vvhy in t h e last c o u p l e o f y e a r s o f C l a u d i u s ' rcign t h c c i t y vvas r e f o u n d e d as a R o m a n colonia,

vvith the title ' C o l o n i a C l a u d i a Stabilis G e r m a n i c a Helix P t o l e m a i s ' .

T h e very f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e is j u s t e n o u g h t o ı t t a k c it c c r t a i n t h a t v e t e r a n s vvere in f a c t settled there, a n d s c c m t o have c o m c f r o m ali f o u r o f t h e l e g i o n s o f S y r i a . T h c r c f o u n d a t i o n vvas t h e r e f o r e c l e a r l y n o t s i m p l y a g r a n t o f s t a t u s a n d privileges t o an existing city, o f a sort vvhich vvas t o b e c o m c very c o m m o n latcr. 2K i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e is f u r t h e r e m p h a s i s c d b y a L a t i n inseription f r o m AD 5 6 r e c o r d i n g t h c building o f a r o a d a l o n g the c o a s t southvvards ' f r o m A n t i o c h i a t o the nevv colonia

o f Ptolemais'. This inseription, from a point just

s o u t h o f Beirut, is the earliest R o m a n m i l e s t o n e s o far d i s c o v e r e d in t h e N e a r East.29 It c a n n o t bc c l a i m e d t h a t t h i s f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e o n l y colonia

o f thc J u l i o -

C l a u d i a n period in the N e a r E a s t , vvith its e x p l i c i t l y related r o a d , is e n t i r c l y intelligible. But b o t h s e r v e t o s u g g c s t thc i m p o r t a n c c o f c o n c e r n direeted 17. B/II, 12, 3-7

Ant.

1 8 . F o r P ı o l e m a i s a s a colonia

XX,

1-3

(nö-136).

s c c M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae13-26,

and thc very f u î l

d i s c u s s i o n b y S . A p p l c b a u m , " T h c R o m a n C o l o n y o f P t o l e m a i s — ' A k c a n d its T e r r i t o r y " , in h i s Judaca

in Hellenistic

and Roman

Times

(1989), 70.

2 9 . S e c R . G . G o o d c h i l d , " T h c C o a s t - R o a d o f P h o e n i c i a a n d its R o m a n M i l e s t o n e s " , tus 9 ( 1 9 4 8 - 4 9 ) , 9 1 ; T h . B a u z o u , " I x s r o u t c s r o m a i n e s de S y r i c " , i n AHS,

205.

Bery-

southvvards, t o t h e e v e r - t r o u b l e d a r e a o f J u d a e a . T h i s b e c o m e s ali t h e m o r e significant w h e n it is realised that the e a r l y 50S s a w the beginnings o f a m a j ö r c o n f r o n t a t i o n in the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , a c r o s s the o n l y real ' f r o n t i c r ' , the Euphrates. T h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f the e n d l e s s rivalries f o r the P a r t h i a n a n d A r m e ı ı i a n t h r o n e s in this p e r i o d do n o t c o n c c r n us here, e x c e p t a s revealing t h e s t r u e t u r e o f the R o m a n E m p i r e in t h e N e a r E a s t . T h r o u g h o u t , t h e E u p h r a t e s — a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y the m a i n e r o s s i n g at Z e u g m a — c o n t i n u e d t o b e treated a s the b o u n d a r y . S o , in AD 4 9 , the legatus

o f S y r i a , C a s s i u s L o n g i n u s , had e s c o r t e d

a p r e t e n d e r ro t h e P a r t h i a n t h r o n e , M e h e r d a t e s , a s far as Z e u g m a a n d entrusted h i m t o leading P a r t h i a n s a n d ' t h e k i n g o f t h e A r a b s , A c b a r u s ' , v/ho e s c o r t e d h i m t o E d c s s a . 3 0 It vvould b c o v e r a c e n t u r y b e f o r e the little k i n g d o m o f O s r h o e n e , vvhose c a p i t a l vvas a t E d e s s a , e n t e r e d the R o m a n o r b i t , vvhile in the m e a n t i m e giving birth t o a nevv literary l a n g u a g e , S y r i a c . M e h e r d a t e s vvas s o o n d c f c a t c d a n d b e t r a y e d t o the P a r t h i a n king. A q u i t e nevv level o f crisis c a m c by AD 5 4 , a t the b e g i n n i n g o f N c r o ' s r c i g n , vvhen t h e t h r o n e o f A r m e n i a w a s c l a i m e d by T i r i d a t e s , the b r o t h e r o f the k i n g o f P a r t h i a . F o r t h e first time it is p o s s i b l e t o see vvhat r c s o u r c c s t h e R o m a n s h a d in t h e N e a r E a s t a n d h o w t h e y vvould b c disposed. T h e first step vvas t o levy soldiers in the n e i g h b o u r i n g p r o v i n c e s ( e x a c t l y vvhich, T a c i t u s d o e s not say), t o place the legions i n relatioıı t o A r m e n i a a n d t o o r d e r ' t h e longe s t a b l i s h e d k i n g s Agrippa a n d A n t i o c h u s t o send f o r c e s f o r t h e i n v a s i o n o f Partlıia'." Tacitus might have noted that the heart of Antiochus' kingdom vvas C o m m a g e n e , vvhile its c a p i t a l vvas S a m o s a t a , vvhich o v e r l o o k c d P a r t h i a n t e r r i t o r y a c r o s s the E u p h r a t e s . B y c o n t r a s t it vvould h a v e been u n d c r s t a n d a b . c if he h a d felt t h e difficulty, s h a r e d b y m o d e r n s , o f stating vvhat A g r i p p a II's t e r r i t o r y a c t u a l l y c o n s i s t e d o f . A t any r a t e he passes over the f a c t , r e c o r d e d b y J o s e p h u s , t h a t a b o u t novv N c r o a d d e d t o it p a r t o f G a l i l c c , vvith t h e cities o f T i b e r i a s a n d T a r i c h a e a e , a n d o f P e r a e a , vvith A b i l a a n d J u l i a s . " It is, h o w ever, a refleetion o f the very c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t a n d p o p u l a t i o n o f A g r i p p a ' s d o m a i n s t h a t his forces vvere t h o u g h t r e l e v a n t t o o p e r a t i o n s a c r o s s t h e Eup h r a t e s . B r i n g i n g t h e m t o Z e u g m a i n v o l v e d a m a r c h o f s o m e 4 0 0 - 4 5 0 km f r o m his n e a r e s t border. Itı f a c t the a r r a n g e m e ı ı t s novv m a d e , since they p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d A r m e nia, lying b e y o n d t h e u p p e r T i g r i s , foreshadovved t h o s e t h a t vvere t o be m a d e p e r m a n e n t b y V e s p a s i a n in t h e 70S. T h e f o r c e s ' o f t h e E a s t ' (that is, S y r i a ) vvere divided, o n t h e basis t h a t tvvo legions a n d a u x i l i a r i e s r e m a i n e d vvith

30. T a c i t u s , Atın. X I I , 1 1 . 3 t . Ann, X I I I , 7 . 3 2 . J o s e p h u s , B / II, 1 3 , 2 ( 2 5 2 ) ; Ant. Schürcr, HJl'l,

4 7 3

.

X X , 8, 4 ( 1 5 9 ) . F o r r o p o g r a p h i c a l p r o b l e m s scc

U m m i d i u s Q u a d r a t u s in S y r i a , w h i l e t w o , a l o n g w i t h nevvly b r o u g h t a u x i l i a ries a n d t h o s e already t h e r e , vvere put u n d e r D o m i t i u s C o r b u l o in C a p p a d o c i a t o t h e n o r t h . N o t h i n g m o r e is then r e p o r t e d in T a c i t u s ' n a r r a t i v e until A D 5 8 , vvhen C o r b u l o is f o u n d t r a i n i n g his legionaries, long u n a c c u s t o m e d t o discipline, r e c e i v i n g e x t r a r e c r u i t s f r o m G a l a t i a a n d C a p p a d o c i a , a n d a n c x t r a legion ' f r o m G e r m a ı ı y , a l o n g vvith a u x i l i a r y alae a n d cohortesV'3

In fact vvhat

h a p p e n c d vvas t h a t t h e legion I V Scythica vvas m o v e d f r o m M o e s i a (not G e r m a n i a ) , p e r h a p s a l r e a d y a y e a c o r tvvo carlicr, t o Syria ( n o t C a p p a d o c i a ) , vvhere it vvas t o f o r m part o f t h e p e r m a ı ı e n t g a r r i s o n f o r the vvhole o f o u r p e r i o d . 3 4 i t s arrival t h u s m a r k s o n e m o r e small s t a g c in the very slovv e v o l u t i o n o f a n integrated provincial system in t h e N e a r R a s t . I n the e s t a b l i s h e d system o f the eastern frontier, I V S c y t h i c a vvas t o b e the p e r m a n e n t g a r r i s o n o f Z e u g m a on t h e E u p h r a t e s . In AD 6 2 , vvith the arrival o f yet a n o t h e r legion from M o e s i a , t h e

V

M a c c d o ı ı i c a , vvc c a n see a f u r t h e r r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f o r c e s on t h e frontier. F o r a c a m p a i g n in A r m e n i a , C a e s c n n i u s P a e t u s vvas t o have the V M a c c d o n i c a , I V Scythica and X I I Fulminata, a n d auxiliarics from Galatia and C a p p a d o c i a , vvhilc t h e III G a l l i c a , V I F c r r a ı a a n d X F r e t c n s i s , a l o n g vvith n o r m a l a u x i l i a rics s t a t i o n e d in S y r i a , stayed t h e r e vvith C o r b u l o , vvho c o n c e n t r a t c d

on

p r o t e e t i n g tlıc e r o s s i n g at Z e u g m a , a d v a n c i n g o n l y very slovvly, a n d

too

late, t o r c s c u c P a e t u s ' f o r c e i n A r m e n i a f r o m a c c c p t i n g c o n d i t i o n s

and

retreating. 3 1 Finally, in 63, vvhen it b e c a m e c l e a r in R o m e t h a t t h e P a r t h i a n s h a d s u c cessfully o c c u p i c d A r m e n i a , C o r b u l o vvas giveıı c o m m a n d o f ali the f o r c e s o n t h e eastern frontier, vvithout t h e g o v e r n o r s h i p o f a n y p r o v i n c e . 3 6 A f u r t h e r l e g i o n , the X V A p o l l i ı ı a r i s , vvas b r o u g h t f r o m P a n n o n i a . T h e t r a n s f e r o f leg i o n s f r o m t h e D a ı ı u b e , c i t h e r f r o n ı P a n n o n i a o r c a r l i c r from M o e s i a , vvas p r e s u m a b l y carried o u t b y m a r e h i n g t h e m via B y z a n t i u m and a e r o s s A n a t o l i a . I f s o , vve are b e g i n n i n g t o see t h e f u n e t i o n i n g o f tlıc l a ı ı d - r o u t e vvhich vvas vvith t h e passage o f t i m e t o r e p r e s e n t the ı n e a n s by vvhich t h e N e a r E a s t vvas firmly integrated, s o far a s t i m e a n d d i s t a n c e allovved, in t h e m i l i t a r y s t r u e t u r e o f the E m p i r e . Tacitus c o n t i n u c s b y listing ali t h o s e officials o r dynasts vvho vvere p l a c c d u n d e r C o r b u l o ' s o r d e r s : ' I . e t t e r s vvere vvritten t o t h e t e t r a r e h s a n d kings, t o praefecti

a n d procuratores

a n d t o vvhatever praetores

vvere g o v e r n i n g t h e

n e i g h b o u r i n g provitıces instrueting t h e m t o o b e y C o r b u l o ' s o r d e r s ' . 3 7 T h e rc£-

3 3 . Arttı.

XIII, 35.

3 4 . R E X I I , s.V. " L e g j o " , 3 5 . T a c i t u s , Aıttt.

XV,

3 6 . Anı.

XV, 2 4 - 3 1 .

3 7 . Atın.

X V , 2 5 , 6.

i5j8ff.

1—17.

e r e n c e , vvhich is far f r o m c l e a r , m u s t be m a i n l y t o Asia M i n ö r . In t h e N e a r E a s t t h e r e vvere, o f R o m a n o f f i c i a l s , o n l y the legatus

o f Syria a n d the procurator

of

Judaea. T h e l e g i o n s I V a n d X I I vvere left in S y r i a , u n d e r the legatus,

Cestius Gallııs,

vvhile C o r b u l o erossed the E u p h r a t e s f r o n t i e r a t M c l i t e n e in C a p p a d o c i a , ta.
a n d f o r c e s p r o v i d e d b y k i n g s (vvhich

kings is n o t s t a t e d ) . But vvhen it c a m e t o the p o i n t , a d i p l o m a t i c s e t t l e m e n t vvas easily r c a c h c d , by vvhich T i r i d a t c s vvould be king o f A r m c n i a , b u t rccei/e his crovvn f r o m N e r o . In t h i s p e r i o d such large-scale c o n c e ı ı t r a t i o n s o f f o r c e in t h e E a s t vvere n o t i n t e n d e d t o achieve p e r m a n e n t c o n q u c s t , a n d left und i s t u r b e d t h e p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t the f r o n t i e r o f t h e t w o e m p i r e s lay o n the middle E u p h r a t e s . N o s o u r c e o f f e r s any d e s e r i p t i o n o f hovv the l e g i o n s novv based in C a p p a d o c i a a n d o p e r a t i n g in A r m e n i a vvere then r e - g r o u p c d f o r n o r m a l g a r r i s o n duties. W h a t is certain a t l e a s t is t h a t n o n e vvere t o b e p e r m a n e n t l y s t a t i o n e d in C a p p a d o c i a until the 70S, u n d e r Vespasiaıı. N o r vvas a n y l e g i o n s t a t i o n e d in J u d a e a o n a regular basis until a f t e r t h e Jevvish War. S o t h e l e g i o n a r y g a r r i s o n o f t h e N e a r E a s t vvas stili in t h e latter y e a r s o f N e r o confined t o S y r i a . It s e e m s c l e a r t h a t t h e r e vvere a g a i n f o u r l e g i o n s h e r e : the I V S c y t h i c a , vvhich h a d c o m c from M o e s i a a n d novv r e m a i n e d permanently, h a v i n g a l r c a d y been left t h e r e d u r i n g C o r b u l o ' s last c a m p a i g n ; t h e X I I P u l m i n a t a , a l s o left in Syria a t t h a t t i m e ; a n d the VI F e r r a t a a n d X

Eretensis, vvhich h a d been vvith

Corbulo. T h e I I I G a l l i c a , p r c v i o u s l y in S y r i a , vvhich h a d been in A r m c n i a under C o r b u l o , vvas transferred t o M o e s i a tovvards t h e e n d o f N e r o ' s r e i g n , M ı c turning t o Syria o n l y in t h e 70S; vvhere it h a d been in t h e m i d - 6 o s is not knovvn. N o r d o e s there s c c m t o be a n y i n f o r m a t i o n a s t o hovv o r vvhere, vvithin S y r i a , these l e g i o n s vvere d i s p o s e d in the fevv y e a r s betvveen t h e e n d o f C o r b u l o ' s o p e r a t i o n s a n d t h e o u t b r e a k o f the Jevvish War. In t h e first century, b y c o m p a r i s o n vvith later p c r i o d s , d o c u m e n t a r y evid e n c e , f o r t h e a r m y as f o r c i v i l i a n life, is e x t r e m e l y s c a r c e . It is f o r t h a t r e a s o n that in this period a n y c o n c e p t i o n vvhich vve c a n gain o f the s t r u e t u r e o f the E m p i r e in t h e N e a r E a s t is stili hcavily d e p e n d e n t o n t h e a c c i d c n t s o f vvhat s u b j e c t s o r a r e a s a r e t o u c h e d o n by t h e a v a i l a b l e n a r r a t i v e s . O ı ı c e a g a i n , t h e r e f o r e , f o r these y e a r s t h e o n l y vievvpoint vve h a v e is t h a t p r o v i d e d by Josephus. T h e R o m a n p r e o c c u p a t i o n vvith A r m e n i a a n d P a r t h i a m a y perhaps c x plain vvhy, in spite o f e v e r - i n e r e a s i n g unrest a n d violence in J u d a e a , n o interv e n t i o n by the legatus 3 8 . S u c t o n i u s , Vesp.

o f S y r i a o r his f o r c e s is a t t e s t e d b y J o s c p h u s until Pass-

6 ; T a c i t u s , His t. I, 7 9 ; III, 1 4 .

o v c r o f AD 66. T h c c o m p l e x po\vcr-structure o f J u d a c a r e m a i n c d a s d e s e r i b e d e a r l i c r : a procurator

vvith his a u x i l i a r y f o r c c s , l a r g e l y dravvn f r o m t h e g e n t i l e

i n h a b i t a n t s o f C a e s a r e a a n d S e b a s t c ; successivc H i g h Priests, novv a p p o i n t c d by A g r i p p a II, vvhose t e r r i t o r y novv ineluded p a r t o f G a l i l e e a n d Peraea; a n d the k i n g himself, vvho c a m e f r e q u e n t l y t o t h e p r o v i n c e , m a i ı ı t a i n e d a p a l a c e in J e r u s a l e m a n d c o u l d s u m m o n the S a n h e d r i n . 3 9 T h c c o ı n p l c x i t y o f g o v c r n m c n t in these y e a r s is in fact p e r f e c t l y illustratcd by t h e n a r r a t i v e in A c t s o f P a u P s r e t u r n t o J u d a e a in t h c later 50S, a n d h i s e x p e r i e n c e s t h e r e : t h e riot in J e r u s a l e m vvhen he vvas t h o u g h t t o h a v e b r o u g h t a gentile into thc T e m p l e ; his d c t c ı ı t i o n a n d b e a t i n g by t h c ' t r i b ü n e o f t h e c o h o r t ' ; his a p p e a r a n c c b e f o r e t h e S a n h e d r i n , a n d his d e s p a t e h vvich an e s c o r t o f n o less t h a n tvvo-hundred s o l d i e r s t o the procurator

in C a e s a r e a ; then a

trial there, vvith a n a c c u s a t i o n b r o u g h t by t h c I ligh P r i c s t , A n a n i a s , r e p r e sented b y a r h e t o r c a l l c d T c r t u l l u s . T h e tvvo o p p o s e d s p e e c h e s e n c a p s u l a t e in m i n i a t u r e the p o l i t i c s o f j u r i s d i e t i o n in a R o m a n p r o v i n c e . T h e n Paul is d e tained for tvvo y e a r s in t h e 'praitörion procurator

o f H e r o d ' , until ( p r o b a b l y in AD 60) t h e

F c l i x is r c p l a c c d by a n o t h e r , F c s t u s . In a c c o r d a n c e vvith d i p l o m a t i c

c o n v e n t i o n , A g r i p p a I I a n d his s i s t e r B e r e n i c e c o m c t o greet h i m , a n d vvhen they a n d Festus jointly e x a m i n c Paul, thc tvvo royal p e r s o n s m a k e their e n t r y t o thc a u d i e n c c - c h a m b c r 'vvith a g r e a t display (phantasia)\

a n d the h e a r i n g is

joined by R o m a n t r i b u n e s a n d by ' I c a d i n g m e n o f the city ( C a e s a r e a ) ' . B u t Paul h a s a p p e a l e d t o t h e E m p e r o r in R o m e , a n d is sent o f f u n d e r e s c o r t o n the long sea v o y a g c up thc P h o e n i c i a n c o a s t a n d a l o n g t h e s o u t h e r n s h o r e o f Asia M i n ö r , arriving o n l y several m o n t h s later. 4 0 T h c d e p l o y m e n t o f t h e l o c a l a u x i l i a r y f o r c c s in J u d a c a , c s s c n t i a l l y in a poliçe r o l e , is very e v i d e n t in t h c vivid narrative o f A c t s , a s it is in J o s e p h u s ' n a r r a t i v e s o f these years. B u t i t vvas o n l y iti AD 66 that m a j ö r f o r c e s f r o m Syria vvere again d e p l o y e d t h e r e . A s a first s t e p , vve find C c s t i u s G a l l u s , t h e legatus,

visiting J e r u s a l e m a t P a s s o v c r a n d being s u r r o u n d e d b y a vast crovvd

c o m p l a i n i n g o f t h e m i s g o v e r n n ı e n t b y thc then procurator,

Gessius F l o r u s .

G a l l u s s p o k e t o the crovvd, p r o m i s c d t h a t F l o r u s vvould c x c r c i s c m o r e r e straiııt in future a n d returned t o A n t i o c h . 4 1 B u t s u c h d i p l o m a c y h a d n o l o n g t e r m e f f c c t . W h e n G a l l u s r e t u r n e d later in the year, it vvas vvith a vvhole l c g i o n a n d s u b s t a n t i a l o t h e r f o r c e s . B u t b y then the g r e a t revolt vvas u n d e r vvay, a n d R o m e vvas faced vvith s o m e t h i n g a l m o s t u n p a r a l l c l c d in t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e E m p i r e , a full-scalc p o p u l a r r c b c l l i o n . i t s b e g i n n i n g vvas t o b e m a r k e d b y t h c r o u t i n g o f a vvhole iegion b y i r r e g u l a r f o r c e s dravvn f r o m a c i v i l i a n population.

3 9 . F o r A g r i p p a s c c S c h ü r c r , HJP

I, 4 7 1 - 4 8 3 .

40. Acts 21, 1 7 - 1 7 , 1. 4 1 . J o s e p h u s , DJ II, 1 4 , 3 { 2 8 0 - 2 8 1 ) .

2.4.

T H E JEVVİSH WAR A N D ITS

AFTERMATH

It w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e t o e x a g g e r a t e t h e significance, f r o m m a n y different p o i n t s o f vievv, o f t h e g r e a t r e v o l t vvhich b r o k e o u t in J u d a e a in AD 6 6 and did n o t e n d until t h e s u i c i d e o f t h e defeııders o f M a s a d a in 7 4 . W İ t h i n : h e Jevvish c o m m u n i t y it vvas m a r k e d by i n t e r n a l coııflicts o f u n p a r a l l e l c d f e r o c ity, a n d led t o the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the T c m p l c , t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f sacrifice a s a c e n t r a l e l e m e n t in Jevvish religious p r a c t i c e a n d the ending o f the l o n g line o f High Priests. I n t e r m s o f h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , it gave risc t o by far t h e

rnost

i m p o r t a n t h i s t o r i c a l vvorks w r i t t e n in the first c e n t u r y AD, t h e Jeıvisb

\X'ar,

Antiquitics

a n d Autobiograptry

o f J o s e p h u s , a Icadiııg J e r u s a l e m i t e vvho h i m -

s e l f a c t e d a s t h e Jevvish c o n ı m a n d e r in G a l i l c c in 6 6 / 6 7 , vvas c a p t u r e d and s p e n t t h e rest o f his life a s a n I m p e r i a l p r o t e g e in R o m e , vvhere ali o f his vvorks vvere vvritten. T h a t b o t h his ovvn role a n d s t a n d p o i n t a n d his c u r i o u s l y elusive a c c o u n t o f hovv t h e r e v o l t r e a lly s t a r t e d vvere a n d remain a c u t e l y c o n t r o v c r s i a l d o e s n o t alter the fact t h a t t h e Jeıoisb

War o f f e r s t h e fullest a v a i l a b l e a c c o u n t

o f a n y e v e n t in t h e entire R o m a n Hmpire in the first century. 1 A t this p o i n t , hovvevet^ vve m u s t leave a s i d e its s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n ; t y , a n d t o a large d e g r e e a l s o t h e light it tlırovvs on t h e s o c i a l history o f t h e g e n t i l e N e a r E a s t , t o c o n c c n t r a t c v e r y strictly on its r e l e v a n c e t o t h e r e s o u r c e s vvh.ch t h e R o m a n E m p i r e h a d f o r t h e e x e r c i s e o f f o r c e in the N e a r E a s t , a n d the w a y in vvhich t h e y vvere d e p l o y e d . O n l y the b a r e s t o u t l i n c o f the very c o m p e x m i l i t a r y h i s t o r y o f t h e vvar is p o s s i b l e h e r e . It r e m a i n s c u r i o u s t h a t , vvith the e x c e p t i o n o f the u l t i m a t e l y d i s a s t r o u s c a m p a i g n o f C e s t i u s G a l l u s a n d the legion X I I F u l m i t ı a t a in t h e a u t u m n o f 66, n o s t r i c t l y m i l i t a r y s t u d y h a s b e e n d e v o t e d t o this vvar. 2 Y e t it r e p r e s e n t s b y far the b e s t - a t t e s t e d series o f o p e r a t i o n s by the R o m a n a r m y in t h e entire h i s t o r y o f the E m p i r e . A p a r t i a l e x c e p t i o n is p r o v i d e d by studies d e v o t e d t o the siege o f M a s a d a b y t h e R o m a n s . F o r vvith t h a t vve r e a c h vvhat is a l m o s t t h e earliest physical e v i d e n c c f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e R o m a n a r m y in the N e a r E a s t , in the f o r m o f the R o m a n c a m p s a n d s i e g e - m o u n d ; 3 a n d a l s o , e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t , r c c e n t l y r . T o r t h e c o n ı p ! e x i t i c s o f J o s e p h u s ' p e r s o ı ı a l s t a n d p o i n t , i n o t e h e r e o n l y a f e w essen-jal r e c e n t w o r k s : S . J. D . C o h e n , Josephus Historian Jeıvish

and His Society

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in Galilee

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( 1 9 8 3 ) ; M . G o o d m a n , The Ruling

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t ı j (198T), 3 9 ; for A m o r e

g e n e r a l a n a l y s i s o f J o s e p h u s ' e v i d e n c e o n t h e R o m a n a r m y , i d e m , " A s p e c t s o f .1 R o m a n A r m y in \Par a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Dellum

Judaicum

o f J o s e p h u s " , in F r e e m a n a n d K e n n e d y , DRBE,

287.

3 . S e e t h e c l a s s i c p a p e r b y I. A - R i c h m o n d , " T h e R o m a n S i e g e w o r k s o f M a s a d a , i s r a c l " , JRS

5 2 ( 1 9 6 2 ) , 1 4 2 . S e e a l s o K e n n e d y a n d R i l e y , RDF,

traccs of R o m a n siege-works arouııd M a c h a e r u s .

9 5 f f . , i l l u s t r a t i n g a l s o t h e v e r y slight

published d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n e e f r o m M a s a d a e m a n a t i n g f r o m the a r m y d u r ing t h e siege a n d then during i t s o c c u p a t i o n o f the fortress i t s e l f / İn a c u r i o u s w a y , f r o m the p o i n t o f v i e w o f o u r evidenee f r o m the R o m a n N e a r E a s t , t h e e n d o f the Jevvish W a r r e p r e s e n t s t h e m o m e n t vvhen vve lose the o n l y m a j ö r historical n a r r a t i v e s vvritten f r o m inside, t h o s e o f J o s e p h u s , a n d begin t o gairı a steadiiy d e n s e r netvvork o f d o c u m e n t a r y and a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n e e , f o r b o t h m i l i t a r y a n d (in far g r e a t e r d e p t h ) g e n e r a l social history. A f t e r initial c o n f l i c t s in 66 betvveen t h e Jevvish p o p u l a t i o n in J c r u s a l c m a n d the a u x i l i a r y f o r c e s s t a t i o n e d there, o u t s i d c m i l i t a r y intervention b e g a n in a vvay n o t attested b e f o r e , vvith t h e d e s p a t e h b y A g r i p p a II o f 2 0 0 0 c a v a l r y t o J e r u s a l e m (the e q u i v a l e n t , t h a t is, o f f o u r R o m a n c a v a l r y alae),

recruitcd

f r o m A u r a n i t i s , B a t a n a e a a n d T r a c h o n i t i s . 5 But a f t e r t h e R o m a n s o l d i e r s i n J e r u s a l e m had been m a s s a c r c d a n d A g r i p p a ' s f o r c e s h a d vvitlıdravvn, t h e l o n g e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n o f l a r g e - s c a l e i n t e r v e n t i o n from Syria vvas again r e p e a t e d . C c s t i u s G a l l u s , t h e legatus

o f S y r i a , m a r e h e d f r o m A n t i o c h vvith the l e g i o n

X I I F u l m i n a t a , 2 0 0 0 m e n f r o m eaclı o f the o t h e r t h r e e Syriaıı legions, s i x cohortes

o f infantry a n d f o u r alae o f c a v a l r y . H e vvas a c c o m p a n i c d a l s o b y

q u i t e s i g n i f i c a n t royal f o r c e s , vvhich J o s e p h u s gives as follovvs: f r o m AntLoclıus IV o f C o m m a g e n e ,

1 0 0 0 c a v a l r y a n d 3 0 0 0 a r e h e r s on f o o t ; f r o m

A g r i p p a II the s a m e n u ı n b e r o f f o o t s o l d i c r s a n d rather fevver c a v a l r y ; a n d f r o m , S o h a e m u s o f E m e s a r o o o c a v a l r y a n d 3 0 0 0 infantry, m a i n l y a r e h e r s . A t s o m e t h i n g like 1 3 , 0 0 0 m e n iti ali, t h e royal f o r c e s vvere, in n u m b e r s , e q u i v alent t o betvveen tvvo a n d t h r e e l e g i o n s , o r t w e n t y - s i x o f t h e n o r m a l a u x i l i a r y units o f 5 0 0 m e n . G a l l u s a l s o r a i s c d largc irregular f o r c e s (vvhich J o s e p h u s called epikouroi)

f r o m the c i t i e s , itıcluding t h e colonia

o f B e r y t u s , vvho m a d e

u p f o r their lack o f t r a i n i n g by t h e i r h a t r e d o f t h e Jcvvs. 6 T h e a r m y t o o k t h e novv t r a d i t i o n a i r o u t e via P t o l c m a i s a n d C a c s a r e a t o A n t i p a t r i s , I.ydda a n d J e r u s a l e m . T h e r e , vvhile J o s e p h u s c l a i m s that vvith d e t e r m i n a t i o n G a l l u s c o u l d h a v e c a p t u r e d t h e vvhole city, a f t e r s o m e fıghting he e h o s e t o vvithdravv. W h i l c t h e a r m y vvas d o i n g s o , its r e t r e a t vvas f o r c e d i n t o h e a d l o n g flight vvith t h e loss o f 5 3 0 0 infantry (effectively the equivalent o f a vvhole legion) a n d 4 8 0 c a v a l r y (the c q u i v a l e n t o f a vvhole c a v a l r y ala).7 T h e r e is n o o t h e r e x a m p l e o f a c o m p a r a b l e d e f e a t o f R o m a n r e g u l a r f o r c c s b y the p o p u l a t i o n o f a n e s t a b lished p r o v i n c c . N c r o ' s r c a c t i o n vvas t o a p p o i n t o n e e x - c o n s u l , L i c i n i u s M u c i a n u s , a s t h e r e g u l a r legatus

o f Syria a n d a n o t h e r , F l a v i u s V e s p a s i a n u s , t o t a k e c h a r g e o f

4 . S c c n o w I I . M . C o ı t o n a n d J. G c i g c r , Masada 1965,

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Documents

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t h e w a r in J u d a e a . Ö n c e a g a i n t h e m i i i t a r y a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a r r a n g e m e n t s o f a later period w e r e f o r e s h a d o w e d . T h e r e w e r e , h o w e v e r , in t h e vvinter o f AD 66/67,

n o significant R o m a n f o r c e s left in J u d a e a , s o V e s p a s i a n h a d inevi-

t a b l y t o start w i t h t h o s e o f S y r i a . O n c e again, t h e r e f o r e , w c see a legatus

m a r e h i n g south f r o m A n t i o c h t o P t o l c m a i s (novv a R o m a n

Roman colonia)

b e f o r e e n t e r i n g G a l i l e e . G i v e n t h e evident e x t e n t o f the crisis, t h e o c c a s i o n o f f e r s even c l e a r e r e v i d e n c e o f vvhat m i i i t a r y r e s o u r c e s c o u l d b c d e p l o y e d . V e s p a s i a n ' s f o r c e s c o n s i s t e d o f t h r e e vvhole legions. O n e , the X V A p o l l i n a r i s , vvhich h a d e a r l i c r in t h e 6 o s been e n g a g e d in the A r m e n i a n c a m p a i g n , 8 h a d s i n c e been m o v e d t o A l e x a n d r i a a n d vvas novv m a r e h e d f r o m t h e r e t o P t o l e m a i s by V c s p a s i a n ' s s o n T ı t u s . T h e o t h e r s vvere t h e V M a c c d o n i c a , a k o e a r l i c r in A r m c n i a , b u t vvhere it h a d b e e n since is unknovvn; a n d t h e X F r e t e n s i s , a l s o earlier e n g a g e d i n A r m e n i a , b u t f r o m t h e e s t a b l i s h e d g a r r i s o n o f Syria.9 T h e s i g n i f i c a n c c o f tlıese details is t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f f o r c e in t h e N e a r E a s t vvhich they represent. F o r t h r e e o f t h e f o u r l e g i o n s o f Syria r e m a i n e d there, a n d s i x vvhole legions, o u t o f a n Empire-vvide total o f t w e ı ı t y - s i x , vvere novv d i v i d e d betvveen Syria a n d J u d a e a ; t h e r e f o r e just u n d e r a q u a r t c r o f the total. 'ITıe l e g i o n a r y f o r c e s vvere a c c o m p a n i e d

by tvventy-three a u x i l i a r y

co-

hortes a n d s i x alae o f cavalry,. p r e s u m a b l y dravvn largcly f r o m S y r i a . T h e t o t a l is very s u b s t a n t i a l (in p r i n c i p l e , a t full s t r e n g t h , s o m e 1 4 , 5 0 0 m e n ) , b u t a t this p e r i o d vve stili d o n o t have t h e evidence t o identify a n y o f the u n i t s . It is not until t h e later Bos t h a t t h e diplomata

given t o their s o l d i e r s o n diseharge begin

t o detail t h e a u x i l i a r y f o r c e s o f Syria a n d J u d a e a . 1 0 A l o n g vvith these t h e r e vvere f o r c e s p r o v i d e d b y f o u r d e p e n d e n t kitıgs. Ant i o c h u s I V o f C o m m a g e n e , A g r i p p a II a n d S o l ı a e m u s o f E m e s a e a c h s e n t 2 0 0 0 infantry a r e h e r s a n d 1 0 0 0 c a v a l r y , a n d ' t h e A r a b ' M a i c h u s ( M a l c h u s Tl o f N a b a t a e a ) a l s o r o o o cavalry, b u t a s m a n y a s 5 0 0 0 infantry, m a i n l y a r e h e r s , " T h e s e t o t a l l e d s o m e 1 8 , 0 0 0 m e n , r o u g h l y a third o f t h e vvhole f o r c e . T h e Jevvish \Var is n o t a b l e also, i n t h e m i i i t a r y h i s t o r y o f the R o m a n E m p i r e , as beiııg the last m o m e n t o f s i g n i f i c a n t d e p c n d e n c e o n r o y a l f o r c e s . S o s u b s t a n t i a l a d e p l o y m e n t o f f o r c e vvas nccessary, f o r even the m o s t n o r t h e r l y a r e a o f Jevvish s e t t l e m e n t , G a l i l e e , c o n t a i n e d a very large p o p u l a t i o n m a i n l y g r o u p e d in villagcs vvhich vvere easily m a d e d e f e n s i b l e , a n d vvhich e a c h c o n t a i n e d , so J o s c p h u s c l a i m s , a t least 1 5 , 0 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t s . 1 2 T h a t m u s t b e an

8. z . ) a b o v e .

DJ m, 4, ı

(64-65).

1 0 . 3 . 1 belovv. X ı . B / M , 4 , i (68). x*.

BJ

III, 3, 2 <43).

e x a g g e r a t i o n , as is n o d o u b t h i s c l a i m that the a r m y vvhich he, a s the Jevvish c o m m a n d c r in G a l i l c c , raised in 6 6 / 6 7 a m o u n t c d t o 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 men. 1 -' B u t R o m e nonetheless faccd a m a j ö r task. In fact G a l i l c c vvas r e c o n q u e r c d relatively easily in t h e c o u r s e o f 6 7 , a n d J o s e p h u s h i m s e l f s u r r e n d e r e d a t t h e end o f t h e siege o f J o t a p a t a , e n s u r i n g h i s survival a n d his future r o l e a s a h i s t o r i a n by p r o e l a i m i n g t o V e s p a s i a n t h a t thc king vvhom the p e o p l e m i s t a k e n l y believed vvould novv arise in the E a s t vvas V e s p a s i a n himself. In 6 8 t h c R o m a n f o r c c s c f f c c t i v c l y c o m p l e t e d the r e c o n q u e s t o f ali o f P e r a e a a n d J u d a e a , e x c e p t J e r u s a l e m itself, b e f o r e t h e c a m p a i g n vvas halted o n thc nevvs o f the d e a t h o f N e r o o n t h c J u n e 9 . O p c r a t i o n s vvere s u s p e n d c d f o r a l n ı o s t a year, b e f o r e r e s u m i n g in t h e s u m m e r o f 6 9 . A t this stage Jevvish rcsistance vvas a l r e a d y c o n f i n e d o n l y t o J e r u s a l e m itself a n d the a r e a s d o m i n a t e d by t h r e e fortresses built b y H e r o d the G r e a t — H e r o d i u m , M a s a d a a n d Machaerus. It vvas a t this p o i n t , hovvever, t h a t Vespasian vvas b r o u g h t nevvs o f t h e successful c l a i m t o the p o s i t i o n o f E m p e r o r by V i t c l l i u s , a n d , s u p p o r t c d b y Licinius M u c i a n u s in Syria a n d T i b e r i u s Iulius A l c x a n d c r , t h c praefectus

of

E g y p t , d e t e r m i n e d o n a bid f o r povver on his ovvn part. It m a y well be, a s T a c i t u s c l a i m s , t h a t the initial p r o c l a m a t i o n o f Vespasian as E m p e r o r vvas m a d e in E g y p t , on the fırst o f J u l y , 6 9 . 1 4 But it is c e r t a i n , a n d o f s o m e signific a n c e f o r the future, t h a t it vvas a t C a e s a r e a in J u d a e a t h a t Vespasian in p e r s o n vvas first hailed a s E m p e r o r by his t r o o p s . 1 5 C a e s a r e a h a d been his m a i n base t h r o u g h o u t ; a n d this is surely r e l e v a n t t o t h c fact t h a t e a r l y in his reign it gained thc s t a t u s o f colonia,

w i t h the title ' C o l o n i a P r i m a F l a v i a A u g u s t a

C a e s a r e a ' . 1 6 At b o t h a l o c a l a n d a m o r e general level it is significant t o o t h a t t h e earliest d o c u m e n t o f his r e i g n s h o u l d be a m i l e s t o n e ( t h c c a r l i e s t R o m a n m i l e s t o n c f r o m J u d a e a ) put up in his n a m e in t h e J e z r c c l Valley b y U l p i u s T r a i a n u s , t h e legatus

o f X F r e t e n s i s . L a c k i n g t h e full I m p e r i a l t i t u l a t u r c , f o r

vvhich the d e c r e e o f the S e n a t e w a s r c q u i r e d , t h c m i l e s t o n e m u s t d a t e t o t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f 6 9 . It p r o v e s a l s o , vvhat had n o t been knovvn b e f o r e , t h a t T r a i a n u s vvas stili t h e r e t o s u p p o r t V e s p a s i a n ' s c o u p ; a n d it helps t o c x p l a i n b o t h his i m p o r t a n t role as legatus

o f S y r i a a fevv y e a r s later 1 7 a n d hovv his s o n c a m e

t o h a v e the c h a n c e , at t h c end o f thc c e n t u r y , t o b e c o m e E m p e r o r h i m s e l f . "

1 3 . BJII,

20,5(576).

1 4 . T a c i t u s , Hist. 1 5 . T a d t u s , llist.

II, 7 9 , 1 . II, 80, r ; s c c , in g r a p h i c d e t a i l , t h c a c c o u n t , w r î t r e n d u r i n g V e s p a s i a n ' s

r e i g n , in J o s e p h u s , BJ I V , 1 0 , 2 - 6 ( 5 9 2 - 6 2 0 ) . 1 6 . M i l l a r " R o m a n Coloniae",

26-28.

1 7 . 3.T belovv. 1 8 . B . H . I s a a c a n d I. R o l l , " A M i l e s t o n e of AD 6 9 f r o m J u d a c a : T h c E l d c r T r a j a n a n d V e s p a s i a n " , JRS

66 ( 1 9 7 6 ) , 1 5 .

O n a w i d e r b a s i s , the p r o c l a m a t i o n o f V e s p a s i a n m a r k s a significant stage in t h e politieal i n t e g r a t i o n o f the N e a r E a s t in t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , a n d i n the l o n g a n d g r a d u a l p r o c e s s b y vvhich A n t i o c h in p a r t i c u i a r w a s t o c m e r g c a s a s e c o n d a r y Imperial c a p i t a l . P o l i t i e a l i n t e g r a t i o n w a s vital in t h e s h o r t t c r n ı a l s o . F r o m C a e s a r c a V e s p a s i a n travelled north t o Kerytus, 'vvhere m a n y e m bassics from Syria, a n d m a ı ı y also from the other provinces met him, bearing c r o w n s (stepbatıoi) legatus

f r o m cach. city, a n d c o n g r a t u l a t o r y d c c r c c s . M u c i a n u s , the

o f t h e p r o v i n c e , w a s a l s o p r e s e n t , r e p o r t i n g t h e e n t h u s i a s m o f the

different peoples a n d the o a t h s t a k e n in e a c h c i t y ' . 1 9 B e f o r e this M u c i a n u s h a d c o n f i r m c d t h e l o y a l t y o f the S y r i a n l e g i o n s a n d h a d a l s o m a d e sure t o go t o the t h e a t r e in A n t i o c h , ' w h c r e it is their c u s t o m t o h o l d m c c t i n g s ' , a n d t o a d d r e s s t h e people in p a s s a b l y g o o d G r e e k style. H e a l s o appealed t o b o t i ı t h e l e g i o n a r i e s a n d the c i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n , vvith vvhich they had by novv m a n y p e r s o n a l c o n n e c t i o n s , by s u g g e s t i n g t h a t Vitellius i n t e n d e d t o m a k c t h e S y r i a n a n d t h e G e r m a n legions c h a n g e p l a c e s . V e s p a s i a n vvas a l s o s u p p o r t e d by Sohaemus

of Emesa

'vvith

n o inconsiderable

forces'

and

Antiochus

cf

C o m m a g e n e , ' t h e richcst o f t h e d e p e n d e n t k i n g s ' , as vvell a s by A g r i p p a II, vvho h a s t e n e d b a c k f r o m R o m e . A s T a c i t u s deseribes it, a c o u n c i l o f vvar vvas novv held a t B e r y t u s , a t t e n d e d b y M u c i a n u s a n d his o f f i c c r s , seleet e l e m e n t s o f the J u d a e a n a r m y a n d ' t h e k i n g s c o m p e t i n g betvveen t h e m ' . A levy o f s o l d i e r s vvas o r d e r c d , v e t e r a n s r o e r u i t e d , t h e r i c h e s t cities r e q u i r e d t o m a n u f a c t u r e a r m s , a n d a m i n t set u p at A n t i o c h . T ı t u s vvas t o have c l ı a r g e o f J u d a e a , vvhile V e s p a s i a n vvent t o secure E g y p t , a n d M u c i a n u s set o f f tovvards Italy, o v e r l a n d t h r o u g h Asia M i n ö r ; his f o r c e s vvere the V I F e r r a l a a n d d e t a c h m e n t s f r o m the o t h e r l e g i o n s a m o u n t i n g t o thirteen t h o u s a n d m e n . 2 0 J o s e p h u s perfectly e x p r e s s e s a t this p o i n t t h e reas o n s vvhy it vvas this l a n d r o u t c (and n o t , as t h e m a p might suggcst, the interior s e a - r o u t e p r o v i d e d by t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n ) vvhich vvas t o tie t h e N e a r E a s t steadily m o r e c l o s c l y i n t o t h e I m p e r i a l strueture: ' B e i n g vvary o f the s e a v o y age b e c a u s c it vvould b c t h e h c i g h t o f vvinter, h e led t h e a r m y t h r o u g h C a p p a docia and Phrygia'.21 T h e f u r t h e r s t o r y o f t h e c a m p a i g n s vvhich led t o the r e c o g n i t i o n o f Vespasian a s E m p e r o r in t h e vvinter o f 6 9 / 7 0 n e e d n o t c o n c e r n us, e x c e p t t o 110te t h e significant role o f t h e l e g i o n III G a l l i c a . S t a t i o n e d in Syria s i n c e t h e very b e g i n n i n g o f the E m p i r e , a n d then u n d e r C o r b u l o in C a p p a d o c i a a n d A r m e nia, it h a d been t r a n s f e r r e d t o M o e s i a on the lovver D a n u b e a t t h e v e r y end o f N c r o ' s r e i g n . Iıı the c o n f u s i o n o f t h e civil vvar, e l e m e n t s o f this l e g i o n , novv

1 9 . J o s e p h u s , BJ IV, 1 0 , 6 { 6 2 0 - 6 2 1 ) . 2 0 . T a c i t u s , Hist.

II, 8 0 - 8 3 .

2 1 . J o s e p h u s , BJ IV, x ı , 1 ( 6 3 2 J .

a t A q u i l e i a , p e r s u a d c d o t h e r f o r c e s t o s u p p o r t V c s p a s i a n , vvhose m e r i t s t h e y knevv. 22 B u t b e y o n d t h a t w e find in Tacitus' n a r r a t i v e the tertiani

('the men o f

t h e third l e g i o n ' ) , d u r i n g the civil vvar, saluting the rising Sun ' a s is t h e c u s t o m in Syria'. 7 - 3 \Ve s e e m , a s so o f t e t ı , t o be g r a n t e d a g e n e r a l insight from a n o u t s i d e observer. B u t , as vve vvill see, the n o t i o n o f a typical c u s t o m o f S u n vvorship in R o m a n Syria is somevvhat deceptive. 2 * A s so o f t e n , a n o b s e r v e r ' s g e n e r a l i s a t i o n , vvhich might seern t o give a k e y t o vvhat vvas distinetive a b o u t the c u l t u r e o f the r e g i o n , vvill s e c n ı t o o s i m p l e vvhen vve e n c o u n t c r t h e d e t a i l e d evidence a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e a r e a a n d its s u b - r e g i o ı ı s . If t h e successful c o n c l u s i o n o f the R o m a n civil vvar vvas V c s p a s i a n ' s m a j ö r o b j e e t i v e , t h e c a p t u r e o f J e r u s a l e m stili r e m a i n e d an i m m e n s e t a s k , vvhich a b s o r b c d a high p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e total f o r c e s o f the E m p i r e . T h i s r o l e vvas left t o T i t u s , vvho in t h e vvinter o f 6y!jo

marehed back from Alexaııdria along

the c o a s t a n d , o n c e a g a i n , m a d e C a e s a r e a his m a i n basc. 2 5 H i s f o r c c s , l i s t e d by both T a c i t u s a n d j o s e p h u s , 2 6 c o n s i s t c d o f the s a m e legions a s h a d b e e n u n d e r h i s father, the V M a c e d o n i c a , X F r c t c n s i s a n d X V Apollitıaris, as vvell as o n e f u r t h e r legion from S y r i a , the X I I F u l m i n a t a , t h e s a m e o n e vvhich h a d been r o u t e d in 6 6 a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the r e v o l t . A d d e d t o these vvere d e t a c h m e n t s o f the tvvo l e g i o n s s t a t i o n e d in E g y p t , t h e III C y r e n a i c a a n d X X D c i o t a r i a n a , tvventy i n f a n t r y cohorles

a n d e i g h t m o u n t e d alae, as vvell as f o r c c s f r o m

A g r i p p a II, S o h a e m u s o f E m e s a a n d A n t i o c h u s I V o f C o m m a g e n e , a n d ( i n T a c i t u s ' vvords) 'a s t r o n g f o r c c o f A r a b s i m b u e d vvith the h a t r e d o f t h e Jevvs c u s t o m a r y betvveen n e i g h b o u r s ' . J o s e p h u s a d d s t h a t the d c t a c h m e n t s f r o m E g y p t a ı n o u n t e d t o tvvo t h o u s a n d m e n . B u t he a l s o says t h a t t h e g a p s in t h e n u m b e r o f legioııaries vvere m a d e up by 'three t h o u s a n d o f t h e g u a r d s

(phy-

lakes) f r o m the E u p h r a t e s ' . T h e r e f e r e n c e m u s t b e t o l c g i o n a r i c s , a n d if it b o t h is t o b e t a k e n literally a n d is c o r r e c t , it vvould m c a n t h a t a legion m u s t a l r e a d y have b e e n b r o u g h t t o Z e u g m a . O n s o m e vievvs indeed this m a y a l r e a d y h a v e h a p p e n e d u n d e r T i b e r i u s . I f t h a t c a n n o t be p r o v c d , J o s e p h u s c i e a r l y s t a t e s that the X Fretensis h a d been t h e r e b e f o r e j o i n i n g V e s p a s i a n in 6 6 / 6 7 ;

had

p r c s u m a b l y novv been replaced t h e r e b y the IV S c y t h i c a . 2 7 T h r e e t h o u s a n d m e n represented h a l f t h e s t r e n g t h o f a legion. Finally, J o s e p h u s m e n t i o n s

1 i . S u c t o n i ı ı s , Vesp. 23. T a c i t u s , Hist.

6. S c c T a c i t u s , His/. II, 7 4 .

III, 2 4 : ' u n d i q u c c l n m o r , ct o r i e n t c n ı s o l c m (ita in S y r i a c m o s est) t e r t i a n i

salutavere'. 2 4 . S e e H . S c y r i g , " L e c u l t e d u S o l c i l en S y r i e â i ' e p o q u e r o m a i n e " , Syria 4 8 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 3 3 7 , a n d 1 3 . 1 belovv, t c x t t o n . 1 1 7 . 2 5 . J o s e p h u s , BJ IV, I I , 5 ( 6 5 8 - 6 6 3 ) . 2 6 . T a c i t u s , Hist.

V , 1; J o s e p h u s , BJ V , 1 , 6 ( 4 1 - 4 2 ) .

2 7 . S e c \Vagner, R E T , 3 1 , 4 0 . For t h e X F r e t e n s i s o n t h e E u p h r a t e s in t h e 6 o s , s e e J o s e p h u s ,

PJ

VII, t , 3 (17).

again t h a t a large n u m b e r o f irregulars (epikouroi)

c a m c from Syria. Since

these w e r e neither R o m a n n o r royal f o r c e s , they m u s t h a v e b e e n p r o v i d e d , as b e f o r e , b y t h e v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s (but vvhich, is n o t stated). T h e details o f t h e s i c g c o f J e r u s a l e m n c c d n o t c o n c e r n us. W h a t is signific a n t is t h a t it t o o k this v e r y s u b s t a n t i a l f o r c e , r e p r e s e n t i n g r o u g h l y o n e s e v e n t h o f the vvhole I m p e r i a l army, five m o n t h s , from April t o S e p t e m b e r o f AD 7 0 , t o c o m p l e t c t h e c a p t u r c o f the city. N o t h i n g c o u l d h a v e s e r v c d t o eraphasise m o r e c l e a r l y the d e g r e e t o vvhich the c o h e r c n c c o f t h e E m p i r e dep e n d e d on a t least passive a c q u i e s c e n c e by t h e provincial p o p u l a t i o n s , o r at the very least t h e a b s c n c c o f a n y c o h e r e n t l o c a l o r r e g i o n a l

nationalisms

vvhich m i g h t o f f e r a c h a l l e n g e t o R o m e . T h e m o s t inımediate l e s s o n dravvn by R o m e vvas t h a t J e r u s a l e m , even t h o u g h novv largely d e s t r o y e d , rcquired t o b e g a r r i s o n e d . C o n s e q u e n t ! y , the X Eretensis vvas left t h e r e ( t o r e m a i n in fact f o r s o m e tvvo c c n t u r i c s ) a l o n g vvith s o m e c a v a l r y alae a n d i n f a n t r y cohortes.n

T h o u g h J o s e p h u s r e p o r t s this

o n l y as a narrative detail in h i s d e s e r i p t i o n o f T i t u s ' a e t i o n s , it in f a c t repres e n ı e d the first step in a l o n g - t c r m c h a n g e in t h e p o s i t i o n o f J u d a e a vvithin the E m p i r e . Novv t h a t the p r o v i n c e h a d a legion as its g a r r i s o n , it r e q u i r e d a govc r n o r o f s e n a t o r i a l r a n k , a n d the s t a t u s o f e x - p r a e t o r . " H i s dual f u n e t i o n , ss g o v e r n o r o f the p r o v i n c c a n d c o m m a n d c r o f the l e g i o n , is reflccted in the e l a b o r a t e title f o u n d on i n s e r i p t i o n s : leg(atus) et leg(atus)

pr(o)

pr(aetore)

provinciae

Augusti

Iudaeae.

leg(ionis)

X

Fret(ensis)

T h e c h a n g e vvas c l o s e l y ac-

c o m p a n i e d by o t h e r a l t c r a t i o n s in the d i s p o s i t i o n o f f o r c e in t h e east o f the E m p i r e , vvhich vvere i n d e e d t o d o vvith the r o l e o f t h e N e a r E a s t a s a ' f r o n t i e r ' . 3 0 B u t in t h e c a s e o f J u d a e a this vvas u n q u e s t i o ı ı a b l y n o t so. T h e deploym e n t o f inereased force follovved on a m a j o r r c b c l l i o n , a n d t h e p r o v i n c e had n o e x t e r n a l frontier. In J u d a e a a t least the R o m a n g a r r i s o n m u s t be seen ss an army o f occupation. In t h e first fevv y e a r s o f t h e n c w - s t y l c p r o v i n c c it a l s o h a d t o a c t stili a s an army of conquest, f o r m a j o r s t r o n g h o l d s — H e r o d i u m , M a c h a e r u s and M a s a d a — r e m a i n e d in rebel h a n d s . H e r o d i u m a n d M a c h a e r u s vvere t a k e n by L u c i l i u s B a s s u s , t h e first g o v e r n o r sent o u t as s u c h t o the nevv p r o v i n c e . T h e latter, o n its great hill o v e r l o o k i n g t h e D c a d S e a f r o m t h e e a s t , a n d heavily fortified b y H e r o d t h e G r e a t , r e q u i r e d ali t h e t r o o p s f r o m the p r o v i n c e f o r the siege, vvhich ended by surrender. 3 1 S o m e t r a c c s r e m a i n a l s o o f t h e R o m a n

28. Josephus, BJ VII, 1 , 1 (5). 2 9 . F o r t h e k n o \ v n g o v e r n o r s , S c h ü r c r , IIJP

I, 5 1 4 ^ .

30. 3.x below. 3 1 . J o s c p h u s , BJ V I I , 6, 1 - 4 ( 1 - 6 3 - 2 0 9 ) . F o r t h e f o r t r e s s o f M a c h a c r u s scc V. C o r b o , " L a f o r t c z M di M a c h c r o n t c " , SBFLA

2 8 <1978), 2 x 7 .

siege-vvorks, a circumvallation-\vall, s o m e s m a l l s i e g e - c a m p s a n d a n a s s a u l t ramp, never c o m p l e t e d . " T h i s episode h a s o f c o u r s e alvvays b e e n overshadovved, borh in J o s e p h u s ' n a r r a t i v c a n d no\v in the a r c h a e o l o g i c a l rccord, b y t h e s i c g c o f M a s a d a u n d e r the n e x t legatus,

Flavius Silva, i n AD 7 3 o r m o r e p r o b a b l y 74.-" O n c e a g a i n

the siege r e q u i r c d the c o n c e ı ı t r a t i o n o f ali the f o r c e s a v a i l a b l e in the p r o v i n c e ; a n d as is well k n o w n , the circumvallation-vvall, the seven R o m a n s i e g e - c a m p s a n d o t h e r i n s t a l l a t i o n s a n d a b o v e ali the s i e g e - r a m p o n t h e w c s t side o f t h e r o c k r e m a i n clearly visible t o this d a y . " N o n e o f these, hovvever, h a s b e e n c x c a v a t c d . F o r a reflcction o f t h e p r c s e n c c o f the R o m a n a r m y o n this r e t n o t e site beside the D e a d S e a , vve n e c d t o turn t o t h e ncvvly published papyri a n d o t h e r d o c u m e n t s f r o m M a s a d a i t s e l f . " Evidently deposited vvhile a R o m a n g a r r i s o n o c c u p i e d t h e fortress a f t e r t h e suicide o f the d e f e n d e r s , s o m e o f t h e papyri h a d in f a c t been vvritten earlier. T h u s a L a t i n p a p y r u s p r o b a b l y d a t e d t o AD 7 2 preserves t h e p a y - r e c o r d o f a l e g i o n a r y c a v a l r y m a n evidently s e r v i n g in t h e X Fretensis a n d identified a s ' C ( a i u s ) M c s s i u s s o n o f C ( a i u s ) , (of t h e R o m a n tribe) F a b i a , B e r y t i a n ' — h c n c e o n e o f many rccruits to the R o m a n a r m y f r o m this L a t i n - s p e a k i n g colonia.™

A n o t h e r , a list o f medical supplies,

m a y (somevvhat h y p o t h e t i c a l l y ) b e related t o the military hospital nariutn)

(valetudi-

identified a m o n g t h e R o m a n s i c g c - i n s t a l l a t i o n s . 3 7 A g a r r i s o n s e e m s

t o h a v e r e m a i n e d on M a s a d a f o r s o m e decades, until the e a r l y s e c o n d c e n t u r y . F r a g m e n t a r y a s they are, t h e d o c u m e n t s vvhich t h e R o m a n a r m y left t h e r e , f o u n d a l o n g vvith o t h e r s f r o m c a r l i c r p c r i o d s , are vivid refleetions o f a p r e s e n c e vvhich a s t i m e vvent on vvas t o be m o r e a n d m o r e c l e a r l y felt in t h i s r e g i o n . O n e potential f o r m o f c u l t u r a l influence vvas, lıovvever, t o b e n o m o r e thatı a b o r t i v c , t h a t o f L a t i n l i t e r a t ü r e . It is stili c u r i o u s l y c v o c a t i v e t h a t a m o n g the d o c u m e n t s f r o m M a s a d a s h o u l d be a single line o f Vcrgil's Aeneid

(IV, 9),

s y m b o l i c a l l y m a t e h i n g t h a t f r o m a fevv d e c a d e s later found at V i n d o l a n d a in C u m b r i a , at the opposite c o r n e r of the Empire, and some 4000 km distant.38

3 2 . Scc c s p . A . S t r o b c l , " D a s r ö m i s e h e B c l a g c r u n g s w e r k u m M a c h â r u s : T o p o g r a p h i s c h c U a t c r s ı ı c h u n g c n " , ZDPV K i ley, RDF,

9 0 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , 1 2 8 , vvith the f o l d i n g p l a n o p p o s i t e p . >84, a n d K c n n c d y a n d

99-101.

3 3 . J o s e p h u s , B] V I I , 8, 1 - 9 , 2 ( 2 5 1 - 4 0 6 ) . See Schürer, HJP I, 5 x 1 - 5 x 3 . 3 4 . See n . j a b o v e . 3 5 . Scc n . 4 a b o v e . 3 6 . Doc.

Masada,

no. 7 2 2 .

37. Doc. Masada, no. 713. 38. Doc.

Masada,

n o . 7 2 1 (Pl. I). ' I l ı c cdicors d a t e rhc t e x t (not later ı h a n ) AD 7 3 / 7 4 , o n t h e

h y p o t h e s i s (pp. 1 8 - 2 0 ) t h a t ali the v a r i c d matcrİ3İ in t h e ' l o c u s o f the s c r o l l s ' w a s g a t h e r c d t o gether a t t h e initial stage o f the o c c u p a t i o n o f the fortress itself. If this h y p o t h e s i s is c o r r e c t , th-e p a p y r u s b e c o m e s t h e c a r l i c s t w i t n e s s t o t h e t e x t o f the Aeneid.

F o r the line f o u n d in the a u x i l i a r y

T h e a s p e c t o f R o m a n c u l t u r e w h i c h i m p r e s s e d itself o n the i ı ı h a b i t a n t s o f t h e cities o f t h e N e a r E a s t in t h e i m m e d i a t e a f t e r m a t h o f the Jevvish W a r vvas a r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t , a n d less refined, o n e , n a m e l y g l a d i a t o r i a l c o m b a t s

and

vvild-beast shovvs. F o r it vvas in these tvvo f o r m s o f p u b l i c shovv, distinetively Italian a n d in n o vvay ııative t o t h e G r e e k vvorld, that T i t u s m a d e a poiııt o f c e l e b r a t i n g his victory b e f o r e t h e g e n t i l e p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h c r c g i o n . D a n g c r o u s as it h a d been t o the E m p i r e , rhe Jevvish r e v o l t h a d a t n o p o i n t been s u p p o r t e d by t h c ııon-Jevvish p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a , a n d h a d n o t r e p r e sented t o even t h c s m a l l c s t d e g r e c thc b e g i n n i n g o f a general uprising b y thc S e m i t i c - l a n g u a g e p o p u l a t i o n s o f the r e g i o n . O n the c o n t r a r y , t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h c revolt in 6 6 h a d b e e n m a r k e d by fierce c o m m u n a l conflicts betvveen gentiles a n d Jcvvs in a vvhole serics o f N e a r E a s t e r n cities a n d a r c a s : C a e s a r e a first o f ali, a n d then I ' h i l a d e l p h i a , E s b o u s , G e r a s a , Pella, G a d a r a , H i p p o s ar.d G a u l a n i t i s , a s vvell a s in t h e t e r r i t o r y o f T y r e , a n d a t P t o l e m a i s , G a b a in G a l i lcc, Scbastc, Ascalon, A n t h c d o n , G a z a , Scythopolis and Damascus. Josephus n o t e s t h a t o n l y a t A n t i o c h , S ı d o n a n d A p a m e a h a d t h c gentiles r c f u s e d t o kili o r i m p r i s o n a n y o f their Jevvish fellovv-inhabitants. 1 9 S o m e a s p e c t s o f these c o m m u n a l conflicts vvill n c c d c o n s i d e r a t i o n later, n o t lcast because they raise the q u e s t i o n o f the e t h n i c i d c n t i t i c s o f the c i t y — a n d v i l l a g e — p o p u l a t i o n s c o n c e r n e d . 4 0 A t this p o i n t it n e e d o n l y b e stressed that c o l l a b o r a t i o n in the repression o f thc r e v o l t vvas n o t due o n l y t o d e p e n d e n t k i n g s o r o t h e r persotıs in a u t h o r i t y . A s T a c i t u s n o t e d , t h e A r a b f o r c c s vvho served under T i t u s vvere i m b u e d vvith ' t h e h a t r e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f n e i g h b o u r s ' . It vvas t h e r e f o r e n o t s u r p r i s i n g , b u t is stili striking a n d s i g n i f i c a n t , that Titus should have made an empharic point of celcbrating thc victory in a n u m b e r o f different cities in t h e area. It is n o t a b l e t h a t h e began by t a k i n g at lcast s o m c o f his f o r c c s t o t h e m a i n city o f A g r i p p a II's k i n g d o m , C a e s a r e a Philippi, a t t h e f o o t o f M o u n t H e r m o n , f o u n d c d by t h c t e t r a r e h Philip. T h e r e s o m e o f the Jevvish p r i s o n e r s vvere throvvn t o vvild b e a s t s (that is, used f o r the R o m a n speetaele ktıovvn a s vetıatio)

a n d o t h e r s m a d e t o fight e a c h o t h e r like

g l a d i a t o r s . 4 1 H i s n c x t step vvas a l s o o f c o n s i d c r a b l c s y m b o l i c s i g n i f i c a n c e : ' A f t e r this C a e s a r vvent t o B e r y t u s ; this is a colonia

o f t h e R o m a n s in P h o c t ı i -

c i a . H e r e he m a d e a m o r e e x t e n d e d stay, displaying a g r e a t e r l a v i s h n e s s in thc c c l c b r a t i o n o f his f a t h e r ' s birtlıday, b o t h in t h e variety o f shovvs a n d in the a r r a n g e m e n t o f o t h e r e x p e n d i t u r e s . A m a s s o f c a p t i v e s perished in the s a m c

fort at Viııdülanda [Aett. IX, 473), scc A. K. Bowman and J. 0 . Thomas, "Ncw Texrs fro.n Vindolanda", Britannia r 8 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 x 5 , on p. 1 3 0 , no. r (Pl. XVA|. 3 9 . C a e s a r e a : Schllrcr, HJP I, 4<>5ff.; c o m m u n a l h o s t i l i t i c s e l s e v v h e r e : J o s e p h u s , BJ II, ı S , 1 -6

( 4 5 7 - 4 8 6 ) ; D a m a s c u s II, 2 0 , r < 5 5 9 — 5 6 1 ) .

40. 10.1-2 belovv. 4 1 . U t u s * shovvs i n C a e s a r e a P h i l i p p i : BJ V I I , 2, 1 ( 2 3 - 2 4 ) ; 3 , 1 ( 3 7 -38).

m a n n e r as b e f o r e ' . F r o m t h e r e he vvent o n t o A n t i o c h ' p r o v i d i n g lavislı d i s plays in ali t h e cities o f Syria t h r o u g h \vhich h c p a s s c d , a n d using the Jevvish c a p t i v e s t o d e ı n o n s t r a t e their ovvn d e s t r u c t i o n ' . ' ' 2 H e n o d o u b t did so a t A n t i o c h a l s o , t h o u g h J o s e p h u s d o e s n o t c x p l i c i t l y say so. I n s t c a d , h c c o n c e n t r a t e s on tvvo e p i s o d e s . First, he r e c o u n t s T i t u s ' e x c u r s i o n t o Z e u g m a t o r e c e i v c a n e m b a s s y b e a r i n g a gold crovvn f r o m V o l o g a e s e s o f P a r t h i a a n d t o e n t e r t a i n t h e e m i s s a r i e s at a dinner. S e c o ı ı d , a n d in m u c h m o r e detail, he deseribes T i t u s ' r c c e p t i o n by t h e p e o p l e a s hc a p p r o a c h c d A n t i o c h , a n d a p e t i t i o n f o r t h e e x p u l s i o n o f Jevvs from t h e city. A t this he agreed t o do a s M u c i a n u s h a d d o n e earlicr, a n d a d d r c s s t h e a s s e m b l y in tlıc t h e a t r e , but o n c c again o n l y t o r e f u s e the p e t i t i o n . 4 ' It m a y even be, a s is e l a i m e d in t h e s i x t h - c e n t u r y Chronicle

of

the A n t i o c h e n e J o h n M a l a l a s , t h a t V c s p a s i a n set up in A n t i o c h the C h e r u b i m f r o m t h e T c m p l e a n d built a t h e a t r e a t D a p h n e n e a r A n t i o c h vvith the L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n ex praeda

ludaeae,

' f r o m t h e spoils o f J u d a e a ' . 4 4 But vvlıether t h a t

is historical o r n o t , it is c l c a r t h a t e l a b o r a t e steps w c r c t a k e n t o a s s o c i a t c t h e o t h e r c o m m u n i t i e s o f t h e N e a r E a s t vvith the r e p r e s s i o n o f the r e v o l t . T h e p r o l o n g e d displays there thus f o r m e d a sort o f p r e l u d e t o the g r e a t t r i u m p h h e l d in R o m e in 7 1 , a n d stili p o r t r a y e d o n t h e A r c h o f T i t u s t h e r e . 4 4 It vvas in fact the o n l y t r i u m p h ever t o c e l e b r a t c the s u b j u g a t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f an e x i s t i n g p r o v i n c e . 4 2 . J o s e p h u s , BJ V I I , 3 , 1 ( 3 9 - 4 0 ) ; 5, 1 { 9 6 ) , l . o c h traııs.

43. Josephus, HJ VII, 5, 2 ( 1 0 0 - ı ı r ) . 4 4 . M a l a l a s , Cbron.

X , 1 6 0 -26ı.

4 5 . F o r t h e t r i u m p h , J o s e p h u s , DJ V I I , s , 3 - 7 ( 1 2 1 - 1 5 7 ) . F o r t h e a r c h , M . P f a n n e r , Tıtushngen

(1983).

Der

CHAPTER

3 TMPERIALTSM AND EXPANSION, AD 74-195

3.1. VESPAS1AN: A NE W N E A R EASTF.RN

F.Ml'IRE

L o o k e d a t a s a w h o l e , the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the p r o v i n c i a l s y s t c m in t h e N e a r E a s t a n d t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f R o m a n m i i i t a r y d i s p o s i t i o n s there in t h e late first c e n t u r y give e v e r y i m p r e s s i o n o f r e p r e s e n t i n g a n i n t e g r a t e d p l a n , c o n c e i v e d in R o m e a n d t h o u g h t o u t w i t h the aid o f a m a p . J u d a e a , a s vve h a v e seen, b c c a m e a one-lcgion province governed by a senatör o f praetorian rank. C o m m a g e n e c e a s e d t o be a d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m a n d b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a , as {it s e e m s c l e a r ) did the k i n g d o m o f S o h a e m u s o f E m e s a , s t r a d d l i n g the u p p c r O r o n t e s a n d s t r c t c h i n g o u t a c o n s i d c r a b l c d i s t a n c c i n t o the s t e p p e ; a n d P a l m y r a , vvhatever its r e l a t i o n t o t h e p r o v i n c e b e f o r e , vvas ı ı o w c l c a r l y tied vvithin it. B u t , m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f ali, it is n a t u r a l t o see t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s in c o n n c c t i o n vvith t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f C a p p a d o c i a i n t o a m a j o r m i i i t a r y p r o v i n c e , vvith tvvo l e g i o n s s t a t i o n e d a t M e l i t c n e

(Malatya)

a n d a t S a t a l a , a n d a s e n a t o r i a l g o v e r n o r o f e x - c o n s u l s t a t u s . I t vvas a t this m o m e n t , in the 7 0 S , t h a t a f t e r n e a r l y a c e n t u r y a n d a h a l f the R o m a n p r e s e n c e in the N e a r E a s t c e a s e d t o be a b r i d g e h e a d a n d c a m e t o r c s e m b l c a n i n t e g r a t e d provincial and miiitary systcm. It is a t this m o m e n t t o o t h a t d o c u m e n t a r y a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e b e g i n s t o play a f u l l e r p a r t ; t h a t h a s its ovvn d a n g e r s o f c o u r s e , f o r vve c a n n e v e r fully a c c o u n t f o r the l o g i c a l g a p betvveen t h e first a t t e s t a t i o n o f s o m e t h i n g vvhich h a p p e n s , p e r l ı a p s by m e r e a c c i d e n t , t o a p p e a r in o u r e v i d e n c e , a n d the c l a i m t h a t t h a t vvas vvhen the p a t t e r n novv a t t e s t e d first c a m e i n t o e x i s t e n c e . N o n e t h e l e s s t h e c ı ı m u l a t i v e e f f e c t o f ali t h e e v i d e n c e is s u c h a s to m a k e it i m p o s s i b l e t o d e n y a r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a t t h i s s t a g e . W h c t h c r it r e p r e s e n t e d a p l a n , a n d if s o , vvho f o r m e d it, vvhere a n d vvhen, L 80}

is a m o r e difficult q u e s t i o n . T h e m a j o r s t e p , w h i c h S u e t o n i u s a t t r i b u t e s t o V e s p a s i a n , a n d vvhich T a c i t u s a l s o a l l u d e s to, w a s the s t a t i o n i n g o f t w o leg i o n s in C a p p a d o c i a . 1 O n e o f t h e s e vvas a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y t h e X V I

Flavia,

nevvly c r c a t c d a n d n a m c d a f t e r the E m p e r o r , a n d s t a t i o n e d a t S a t a l a , 4 0 k m vvest o f the u p p e r E u p h r a t e s . 2 E x a c t l y hovv s o o n t h e legion vvas raised, a n d vvhere, is n o t knovvn, n o r precisely vvlıen it arrived at S a t a l a ; but it c e r t a i n l y existed by the m i d - 7 0 S . 3 T h e o t h e r legion t o g o t o C a p p a d o c i a vvas the XLI F u l m i n a t a , a t M c l i t e n c ; a n d it vvould b c natural t o s c c b o t h dispositions a s p a r t o f t h e c r e a t i o n , f o r the first t i m e , o f an e x t e n d e d ' E u p h r a t e s f r o n t i e r ' from t h e upper E u p h r a t e s t h r o u g h C o m m a g e n e t o Z e u g m a . But in fact J o s e p h u s a t t r i b u t e s this d i s p l a c e m e n t t o T ı t u s , d i s t r i b u t i n g revvards a n d p u n i s h m e n t s t o his a r m y i m m c d i a t c l y a f t e r t h e e n d o f t h e siege o f J e r u s a l e m in S e p t e m b e r 7 0 , vvhile V e s p a s i a n vvas a l r c a d y in Italy: ' R c c o l l e c t i n g t o o t h a t t h e tvvelfth legion h a d u n d e r t h e c o n ı m a n d o f C'cstius s u c c u m b e d t o t h e Jevvs, h e b a n i s h e d t h e m f r o m Syria a l t o g c t h e r — f o r t h e y h a d previously b e e n q u a r t c r c d a t R a p h a n a e a e — a n d s e n t them t o the district c a l l e d M e l i t c n e , beside the E u p h r a t e s , on the c o n f i n c s o f A r m e n i a a n d C a p p a d o c i a . ' " O n e c o u l d n o t g u e s s f r o m the n a t u r e o f this r e p o r t , f r o m a vvell-placed observer, t h a t the m o v c vvas part o f a m a j o r s t r a t c g i c p l a n ; stili less, o f c o u r s e , t h a t the legion vvas t o s t a y t h e r e f o r several c e n t u r i e s a n d c o n s t r u c t a p e r m a n e n t c a m p vvhich vvould r e ceive a detailcd d e s e r i p t i o n f r o m P r o c o p i u s in the s i x t h c e n t u r y . s N o r vvas t h e central e l e m e n t o f t h e ' E u p h r a t e s f r o n t i e r ' yet in p l a c c , a s C o m m a g e n e vvas stili a d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m . F o r a n a c c o u n t o f hovv it c a m e t o an end, vve a r e again i n d e b t e d t o J o s e p h u s , by novv in R o m e living in a h o u s e provided b y V e s p a s i a n : n o lotıger an eyevvitness o n t h e s p o t , t h e r e f o r e , but e l o s e t o t h e I m p e r i a l c o u r t . H e r e t o o t h e r e is n o t h i n g o n the s u r f a c c o f t h e a c c o u n t t o suggest a n y o v c r a l l p l a n . W h a t e v e r its limits, J o s c p h u s ' n a r r a t i v e r e p r e s e n t s the m o s t detailed d e s e r i p t i o n vve have o f the provitıcialisation o f a d e p e n dent k i n g d o m . In V e s p a s i a n ' s foıırth year, s o 7 2 o r 7 3 , C a e s e n n i u s P a e t u s , the legatus

of

S y r i a , vvrote t o V e s p a s i a n t o s a y t h a t A n t i o c l ı u s IV a n d his s o n E p i p h a n e s h a d c o n n c c t i o ı ı s vvith P a r t h i a , vvhich s h o u l d be forestallcd b e f o r e serious t r o u b l e b e g a n . V e s p a s i a n , t h i n k i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y o f the s t r a t e g i c p o s i ı i o n o f S a m o s a t a on the E u p h r a t e s , gave p e r m i s s i o n t o P a e t u s t o a c t a s he t h o u g h t fit. (We c a n r . S u e t o n i u s , Vesp. 8 ; T a c i t u s , llisl.

II, 8 1 .

2. F o r t h i s a r c a a n d t h e n c w legion s c c T . B . M i ı f o r d , " S o m e I n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e C a p p a d o d a n LİMC$VJRS Sludlen ANR

zu den

64 { 1 9 7 4 ) , 1 6 0 , ört p p . t Ğ ^ f f . ; idtıW, " T h e E u p h r a t e s F r o n t i e r i n C a p p a d o c i a " , Milititrgrenzen

Roms

II < 1 9 7 7 ) , 5 0 1 , a n d " C a p p a d o c i a a n d A r m e n i a

Minör",

W I I . 7 . 2 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , 1 1 6 9 . T h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e l e g i o n b y V e s p a s i a n is r c c o r d e d b y D i o LV, 2 4 , 3 . 3. T c x t t o n . 3 4 b e i o w . 4. J o s c p h u s , BJ V I I , 1 , 3 ( 1 8 ) , L o e b t r a n s . 5. S c c Not.

Dig.,

Or. 3 8 , 4; P r o c o p i u s , Aed.

III, 4 , 1 5 - 1 8 .

assucnc t h a t this e x c h a n g e wiU h a v e t a k e n a t least several w e e k s , d e p c n d i n g a s it will h a v e d o n e on m e s s e n g e r s t r a v e l l i n g in b o t h dirccrions.) 6 Paetus then i n v a d e d , t a k i n g the V I F e r r a t a , s o ı n e cohortes

a n d s o m e alae o f c a v a l r y ; w i t h

t h e m o n c e again w e r e t w o k i n g s vvith their f o r c e s , A r i s t o b u l u s o f C h a l c i s — n o t h e a r d o f b e f o r e , a n d w h o s e k i n g d o m c a n ı ı o t e v e n be securely l o c a t e d 7 — a n d S o h a e m u s o f E m e s a , m a r k i n g the last a p p e a r a n c c o f his dytıasty. T h e r e w a s n o p o p u l a r rcsistancc; b u t A n t i o c h u s ' t w o son s , E p i p h a n e s a n d C a l l i n i cus, led t h e royal f o r c e s in a dravvn a l l - d a y battle witlı t h e R o m a n t r o o p s . R e s i s t a n c e vvas e n d e d o n l y b y A n t i o c h u s ' d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o surretıder. 8 O n c c a g a i n , a s vvith J u d a e a a n d G a l i l e e , vve are c o n c c r n c d vvith a n c x t c n s i v c , very f c r t i l c a r c a vvhich c o u l d s u p p o r t a large p o p u l a t i o n , a n d vvhich represeııted m o r e t h a n a trivial m i l i t a r y p r o b l e m . T h e nevvly a c q u i r e d a r e a vvas also, in m i l i t a r y terms, a geııuine f r o n t i e r z o n e . F o r b o t h sides o f t h e river, C o m m a g e n e , novv R o m a n , vvith its c a p i r a l , S a m o s a t a , right o n the b a n k s o f the river, a n d on t h e o t h e r side O s r h o e n e , vvith its c a p i t a l at E d e s s a , stili u n d e r P a r t h i a n c o n t r o l , vvere p a r t o f t h e Fertile C r e s c e n t a n d t h e l o c a t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t settled p o p u l a t i o n s . It is e v e n p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e earliest e x a m p l e o f S y r i a c l i t e r a t ü r e , t h e Letter

of Mara bar

Serapion,

vvhich refers t o p e o p l e b e i n g driven o u t o f S a m o s a t a b y the R o m a n s , a n d t o o t h e r s g o i n g t o S e l e u c i a ( t h a t is, p e r h a p s , Z e u g m a ) , refleets the m o m e n t o f the R o m a n t a k e o v e r . 9 \Vhat f o r m t h e R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y t o o k is n o t e l e a r . A s J o s e p h u s r e c o r d s , a d e t a e h m e n t vvas sent t o S a m o s a t a d u r i n g the c a m p a i g n . T h e n very s o o t ı after, in 7 3 , a L a t i n inseription f r o m the b a n k o f the E u p h r a t e s a t Ayni, slightly o v e r halfvvay f r o m S a m o s a t a t o Z e u g m a , r e c o r d s t h a t V e s p a s i a n a n d T i t u s h a d h a d c o n s t r u c t e d a n opus cochliae

(a serevv t o raise vvater f r o m

t h e river), in t h e legateship o f M a r i u s C e l s u s . T h e very ruined s c u l p t u r a l repr e s e n t a t i o n o f the p e r s o n i f i e d E u p h r a t e s vvhich a d o r n e d the vvork is a c c o m p a n i e d by a n o t h e r L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n n a m i n g the III G a l l i c a . 1 0 ITıere c a n b e n o d o u b t , t h e r e f o r e , o f t h e R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n o f the right b a n k o f the r i v e r betvveen Z e u g m a a n d S a m o s a t a . T h e r e is a l s o n o d o u b t t h a t a r o a d - s y s t e m vvas c o n s t r u c t c d in t h e interior o f C o m m a g e n e , w c s t o f t h e E u p h r a t e s . F o r o n t h e p e r f e c t l y preserved R o m a n b r i d g c over t h e C h a b i n a s River, r e c o n s t r u c t e d j n 6. S e e 1". M i l l a r , " E m p e r o r s , F r o n t i c r s a n d F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s , 3 1 B C - A D 3 7 8 " , Hritannia

13

(1982), ı. 7 . F o r w h . i t littlc c a n b c c o n j c c t u r c d a b o u t t h i s A r i s t o b u l u s , s c c S c h ü r c r , HJP I, 5 7 3 . 8. J o s e p h u s , HJ V I I , 7 . 1 - 3 9 . S c c T 2.3 helovv. 1 0 . IGLS

I, n o s . 6 5 - 6 6 ( A y n i ) . S e e F. C u m o n t , Etudes

Syriennes

{1966),

j^Sff.; II. l l e l l c n -

kemper, " D e r L i m c s a m n o r d s y r i s c h e n E u p h r a t . Bericht 2u einer a r c h â o l o g i s c h c n l . 3 n d e s ı u f n a h m e " , Sludien

m den Militargrcnzcn

Roms

II ( 1 9 7 7 ) , 4 6 1 , w i t h s k e t e h - m a p o n p. 4 6 2 .

d e r S e p t i m i u s Severus, j u s t e n o u g h o f a f r a g m c n t a r y L a t i n inscription s u r v i v e s t o s h o w t h a t a first bridge vvas b u i l t u n d e r V e s p a s i a n . " B u t vvhether t h e r e vvas i m m e d i a t e l y a litıe o f p o s t s a l o n g t h e E u p h r a t e s , a n d vvhat f o r c e , if any, o c c u picd S a m o s a t a itself, is n o t c l c a r . It m a y b c t h a t a legion, p e r h a p s III G a l l i c a , vvas s t a t i o n e d here a l r e a d y in t h e Flavian p e r i o d , but t h e r e seems t o be n o c o n c r e t e p r o o f . It is r a t h e r m o r e p r o b a b l e , hovvever, t h a t I V S c y t h i c a vvas again s t a t i o n e d at Z e u g m a . 1 ' - I n betvveen, the vvater-lifting serevv installcd a t Ayni suggests a t least a s m a l l f o r t on t h e river. N o r t h o f S a m o s a t a , a t T i l l e , there m a y a l s o h a v e been a n a u x i l i a r y fort as e a r l y as this p e r i o d . u F u r t h e r s o u t h , at Teli el H a j j , L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n s m e n t i o n i n g a C o h o r s S c c u n d a P i a Fidelis a n d the C o h o r s Prima M i l l i a r i a T h r a c u m (attested in Syria betvveen 88 a n d 1 2 4 ) suggcst t h a t t h e r e m a y h a v e been a fort tlıere. 1 4 T h e site lies o n the E u p h r a t e s a l m o s t due s o u t h o f H i e r a p o l i s . Hovv far t o t h e s o u t h R o m a n c o n t r o l e x t e n d e d a t a n y t i m e b e f o r e t h e ı 6 o s is q u i t c u n c c r t a i n , b u t it m u s t h a v e been c o n s i d e r a b l y further than this. F o r , a s h a s alvvays been r e c o g n i s e d , a very i m p o r t a n t clue t o t h e e x t e n s i o n o f R o m a n aetive c o n t r o l in the d i r e e t i o n o f t h e E u p h r a t e s is p r o v i d e d by t h e vvell knovvn m i l e s t o n e e r c c t c d in AD 7 5 a t A r a k ( o r F.rech), s o m e 2 7 k m e a s t - n o r t h c a s t o f P a l m y r a , by M . Ulpius T r a i a n u s , t h e legatus

o f Syria in the m i d 7 0 s . , s

U n l e s s vve a r e t o believe t h a t t h i s r e p r e s e n t s a n a b o r t i v e p r o j c c t , it m u s t refleet the e x i s t e n c e o f a R o m a n r o a d leading in t h e d i r e e t i o n o f O r e s a ( T a y i b e h ) , c o n t i n u i n g either t o t h e E u p h r a t e s in t h e a r e a o f its c o n f l u e n c e vvith t h e B a l i k h , that is, a t Sura o r N i c e p h o r i u m / C a l l i n i c u m , o r e v e n , a l t c r n a t i v c l y o r simultatıeously, castvvards f r o m O r e s a t o t h e c o n f l u e n c e o f t h e Kuphrates a n d t h e C h a b u r a t C i r c c s i u m . At the least, t h e r e f o r e , vve m a y s u p p o s e that R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n novv e x t c n d e d dovvn the E u p h r a t e s t o its c o n f l u e n c e vvith t h e B a l ikh. These considcrations of course presuppose that a R o m a n road marked o u t east o f P a l m y r a vvould n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e g o n e a s far a s t h e E u p h r a t e s , vvhich c a n n o t be q u i t e c c r t a i n . I n this p e r i o d , b e f o r e R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n e x t e n d e d dovvn t o the lovver-middle E u p h r a t e s a n d D u r a - E u r o p o s , t h a t is, f r o m t h e ı 6 o s onvvards, D u r a itself vvas fırmly P a r t h i a n ; b u t P a l m y r e n e o u t p o s t s vvere e s t a b l i s h e d o n the river f u r t h e r dovvn. I n o t h e r vvords vvhat the f a m o u s

1 1 . ICLSI,

n o . 38.

1 1 . H c l l c n k e m p c r , o p . cit. (11.10), 4 ^ 8 - 4 6 9 . 1 3 . S c c J. G . C ı o w a n d D . H . F r e n c h , " N e w R e s e a r c h o n t h e E u p h r a t e s F r o n t i e r " , in W . S, H a n s o ı ı a n d L. J. F. K e p p i c (eds.}, Roman

Frontier

Studies

1 9 7 9 III ( 1 9 8 0 ) , 9 0 3 ; D . H . F r e n c h ,

J. M u o r e a n d I I . F. Rus&ell, " l Î K c a v a t i o n s at Tıllc 1 9 7 9 - 1 9 X 1 " ,

Anjt. Slud.

3 1 (1982), 1 6 1 .

1 4 . P h . B r i d c i and R . A . S t u c k y , " T e l i el H a j j , p l a c c f o t t e d u l i m c i d e l ' E u p h r a t c " , i n J. C . M a r g u e r o n (ed.), Le Moycn 1 5 . AE

Euphrate

(1980), 349.

( > 9 3 3 ) , 110. 2 0 5 : s e e G . W . B o v v e r s o c k , " S y r i a u n d e r V e s p a s i a n " , JRS

1 3 3 ; M . G a w l i k o w s k i , " P a l m y r e c ı l ' E u p h r a t e " , Syria 60 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , 5 3 , o n p. 6 0 .

6}

(1973),

m i l e s t o n e o f U l p i u s T r a i a n u s s h o w s f o r c e r t a i n is t h e firm i n t e g r a t i o n o f P a l m y r a w i t l ı i n t h e p r o v i n c i a l s y s t e m o f S y r i a ; vvhat it t e l i s u s a h o u t t h a t s y s t c m ' s r e l a t i o n t o t h e e a s t e r n s t e p p e a n d t h c E u p h r a t e s is l e s s c l c a r . T h i s p r o c c s s seems t o h a v e been a c c o m p a n i e d b y thc d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f (he d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m o f E m c s a , a n d its i n c o r p o r a t i o n into the p r o v i n c e . T h c e v i d e n c e i s n o m o r e t h a n c i r c u m s t a n t i a l . S o h a c m u s o f E m e s a m a k e s t h c last a p p c a r a n c e i n h i s t o r y b y a n y m e m b e r o f t h e r o y a l d y n a s t y in 7 1 , a s s i s t i ı ı g the R o m a n f o r c e s t o s u p p r e s s t h e d y n a s t y o f C o m m a g e n e . ' 6 T h e n , in 7 8 / 7 9 , a G r e e k e p i t a p h f r o m a f u ı ı e r a r y p y r a m i d a t E m c s a ( f i n a l l y blovvn u p a b o u t 1 9 1 1 t o m a k e vvay f o r a p e t r o l s t o r c ) r c c o r d s a ' G a i o s l o u l i o s S a m s i g e r a m o s ' o f the R o m a n tribe E a b i a , a l s o callcd Seilas, son o f Gaius Iulius Alexion, w h o c o n s t r u c t e d t h e t o m b d u r i n g h i s l i f e t i m e . 1 7 H e m a y b c a r e l a t i v c o f t h c dynasty, a n d t h c t c x t gives t h e i m p r e s s i o n ( t h o u g h n o m o r e t h a n t h a t ) o f reflecting a provincial rather than a royal context; n o dynastic o r other position i s i n d i c a t e d . It t h u s c a n n o t b e p r o v e d a t vvhat m o m e n t t h e d y n a s t y c e a s e d , o r u n d e r vvhat c i r c u m s t a n c c s . C o i n a g e o f E m c s a a s a c i t y , vvith n o k i n g , b e g i n s o n l y u n d e r A n t o n i n u s P i u s . ı s It is, hovvever, s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t in t h e

Parthian

vvar f o u g h t b y T r a j a n in 1 1 4 - 1 1 6 n o R o m a n d e p e n d e n t k i n g s a r e r e c o r d e d a s providing forces. T h c R o m a n E m p i r e in t h c N e a r E a s t h a d b y t h a t t i m e e n t e r e d a q u i t e nevv p h a s e , vvith t h e e n d b o t h o f t h e e x t e n s i v e k i n g d o m o f A g r i p p a II a n d o f N a b a t a e a . It i s t h u s q u i t e l i k e l y t h a t t h c k i n g d o m o f E m c s a h a d

indecd

d i s a p p c a r e d in t h c 7 0 S . I f s o , it vvould a t a n y r a t e fit vvith tvvo o t h e r i t e n ı s o f evidence for the evolution o f R o m a n c o n t r o l in this period. First, the miles t o n e o f U l p i u s T r a i a n u s f r o m a r o a d g o i n g e a s t f r o m P a l m y r a vvould t e n d t o i m p l y t h c m a r k i n g - o u t o f R o m a n r o a d s in t h e a r c a f u r t h e r vvest. \Vhat h a p p e n s t o b c p r e s e r v e d in o u r e v i d e n c c i s o f c o u r s e l a r g e l y a c c i d e n t a l . B u t it d o e s s o h a p p e n t h a t t h e r e is a n o t h e r m i l e s t o n e o f T r a i a n u s , d a t i n g t o 7 5 , f r o m a s i t e c a l l e d Q o r s i , s o m c 7 5 k m s o u t h - c a s t o f A p a m c a in t h c d i r c c t i o n o f P a l myra, T h c milestone might alternatively relate t o a route running north-south t h r o u g h t h e s t e p p e , betvveen C h a l c i s ( o r B e r o e a ) in t h c n o r t h a n d E m e s a t o the south.19 S c c o n d , a l t h o u g h R o m a n f o r c c s w c r c alvvays a b l e t o , a n d d i d , t r a v e r s e t h e 1 6 . T c x t 10 n . 7 a b o v c . 1 7 . IGLSV,

no. 1.2.11. Sec R . D . S u l l i v a n , " T h c D y n a s t y o f E m e s a " , A N ' R V V I I . S ( 1 9 7 7 ) , 1 9 8 .

18. BMC Syria,

137ü.

19. J. Balty and J. C . Balty (cds.), Apamee

de Syrie,

Actes

dıı Cotlague

1972

( 1 9 7 2 ) , 108,

n o . 9 = AE ( 1 9 7 4 ) , n o . 6 5 3 . Q o r s î is deseribed as l y i n g n o r t h east o f S a b b u r a , near vvhich m o d e r n r e c o u s t r u c t i o n s o f the r o a d - n e t v v o r k (not necessarily ' R o m a n roads") shovv thc tvvo routcs m e n t i o n e d as e r o s s i n g . S o R . M o u t e r d c aıtd A . P o i d e b a r d , Le limes 4 7 ; for a m o r e e x t e n s i v e p l a n , D . K c ı ı n e d y and S. G r e g o r y , Sir Aurel ( 1 9 8 5 ) , f o l d i n g m a p ar e n d .

de Chalcis

Stein's

Limes

I (r945), Report

I

territories o f d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m s , t h e n o r m a l r o u t e t h e y h a d t a k e n w h c n intervening in J u d a e a o r N a b a t a e a h a d a l w a y s b e e n , a s w e have seen r e p e a r edly, a l o n g t h e c o a s t t h r o u g h B e r y t u s , T y r e , P t o l e m a i s a n d C a e s a r e a . It c a n n o t be a c o m p l e t e a c c i d e n t t h a t t h r e e o f these p l a c c s w e r e novv coloniae

(and vvere

listed as s u c h by Pliny t h e Elder, vvritiııg in the late 70S). 2 0 If the t e r r i t o r y o f E m e s a vvere novv p r o v i n c i a l , vve vvould c x p e c t inereased official traffic t o h a v e g o n e a l o n g the O r o n t e s Valley, vvhether t o divergc east o f t h e m o u n t a i n m a s s i f t o r c a c h D a m a s c u s o r t o c o n t i n u e dovvn i n t o t h e B e k a a Valley, i n t o t h e i n l a n d t e r r i t o r y o f t h e colonia

of Berytus, around Heliopolis.

It is thus vvholly a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t t h e inseription vvhich gives t h e m o s t vivid a n d detailcd refleetion o f t h e i m p a c t o f R o m a n rule in this a r e a tovvards the e n d o f t h e first century s h o u l d h a v e been put u p a t H a m a / E p i p h a n i a in the reign o f D o m i t i a n (81—96) a n d s h o u l d have t o d o vvith the d e m a n d s o f R o m a n official travellers. E p i p h a n i a , vvhich as vve savv vvill h a v e gained i t s G r e e k n a m e under A n t i o c h u s E p i p h a n e s ( 1 7 5 - 1 6 4 BC), 2 1 a n d in the E m p i r e vvas a very m i n ö r p l a c e ( a polis?)

vvhich never miııted c o i n s , lies o n t h e O r -

o n t e s s o m e 45 k m north o f E m e s a a n d 5 0 k m s o u t h - e a s t o f A p a m e a . 'ITıere under D o m i t i a n an e x t r a c t f r o m t h e I m p e r i a l instruetions (mandata) the procurator

given t o

(financial m a n a g e r ) o f the p r o v i n c e vvas somehovv a c q u i r c d ,

translated i n t o G r e e k a n d put u p in public, in vvhat c o n t c x t is n o t knovvn. W h a t c v e r t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a n s m i s s i o n o f the t e x t , t h e fact o f its h a v i n g b e e n inseribed p u b l i c l y c a n be c o n f i d e ı ı t l y a t t r i b u t e d t o local initiative. H e n c e it i s c e r t a i n t h a t the issucs set o u t in it vvere o f a c u t e local c o n c e r n . T h e t c x t r u n s as f o l l o v v s : " Fronı instruetions o f Inıperator (Dom)itianus Caesar, son o f Augustus, Augustus. T o Claudius A t h e n o d o r u s , p r o c u r a t o r : A m o n g items o f spccial importance that required great attention by my father, the god Vcspasianus, I knovv that he gave great care t o the cities' privileges, Wİth his nıind fixed on them he ordercd t h a t neitlıer by the renting o f beasts o f burden nor by the distress o f lodgtng should the provinces bc burdened, but, nevertheless, by conscious decision o r n o t , deliberate negleet has set in and this order has not been observed, for there remaiııs up t o the present an old and vigorous custom vvhich, little by iittle, vvill progress into lavv if it is not obstructcd by force from gaining strength. I instruct you t o scc t o it that nohody commandeers a b e a s t o f burden unless he has a permit from me. F o r it is most unjust t h a t , either by the favour o r prestige o f certain peûple, requisitiöns shûuld t a k e plâce vvhich nûbüdy but rnysclf can grant. 20. Pliny, NH V, 1 7 / 3 8 ( B e ı y t u s ) ; 1 7 / 7 5 ( P t o l e m a i s ) ; 1 3 / 6 9 ( C a e s a r c a ) . 21. Ch. i above. 2 2 . IGLS

V, n o . 1 9 9 8 , crans. R . K . S h c r k , The

(1988), no. 9 5 .

Roman

Empire:

Augustus

to

Constantine

Therefore, let there be nothing which vvill break my iııstructions and spoil my intent, which is most advantageous t o the cities, for t o hclp the vveakened provinces is just, provinces vvhich vvith difficulty have enough for t h e necessitics of life. I e t no force be used against them c o n t r a r y t o my vvish, and let nobudy c o m m a n d e e r a guide uniess he has a permit from m e , for, vvhen farmers arc torn from their homes, dıc fields vvill remain vvirhout their attention. Y o u , either using your ovvn beasts o f burden o r renting them, vvill act best [

]

T h e r e is, hovvever, yet m o r e striking e v i d e n c e f o r the iııcreased i n v e s t m e n t by t h e R o m a n s t a t e in the N e a r E a s t in this p e r i o d , vvhich h a s t o do vvith. the role o f Seleucia a n d A n t i o c h as t h e a r r i v a l - p o i n t s o f R o m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s b y sea, a n d their i n t e r e o n n e e t i o n vvith l a n d - r o u t e s . " First, a c y l i n d r i c a l stotıc in t h e f o r m o f a m i l e s t o n e , f o u n d j u s t n o r t h - c a s t o f m o d e r n A n t a k y a , n e a r the site o f the h i p p o d r o m c o f R o m a n A n t i o c h , r c c o r d s t h a t under T r a i a n u s as legatus,

in AD 7 5 , a s t r e t e h (duetus)

o f t h r e e R o m a n miles o f vvhat is ae-

seribed as the ' D i p o t a m i a ( e P ) f l u m e n ' , vvith b r i d g e s , had been c o n s t r u c t e d by soldiers o f v a r i o u s units. 2 4 ' D i p o t a m i a { c ? ) f l u m e n ' , a n c x p r c s s i o n

mixing

L a t i n a n d transliterated G r e e k , m u s t m e a n s o m e t h i n g like ' d o u b l e river'. ' I h e o n l y r e a s o n a b l e i n t e r p r e t a r i o n is that o f D . v a n B e r c h e m : the r e f e r e n c e is t o a c a n a l i s a t i o n o f t h e c o m b i n c d c o u r s e o f t h e tvvo rivers, t h e O r o n t e s f r o m the s o u t h a n d the K a r a Su f r o m t h e n o r t h , vvhich m e e t a fevv k i l o m e t r e s a b o v e Antioch. T h e fact t h a t t h e R o m a n a r m y vvas s o heavily involved in t h e vvork profcab l y implies t h a t the c a n a l i s a t i o n served s o m e Imperial p u r p o s e a n d vvas n o t purely for local benefit. It is true t h a t the i n s e r i p t i o n shovvs t h a t ' A n t i o c h e n ses' vvere a l s o involved, b u t vvhether a s c i v i l i a n l a b o u r o r a s soldiers is unclear. Tvvo long a n d i m p o r t a n t G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m A n t i o c h , hovvever, also dated b y the legateship o f T r a i a n u s , shovv t h a t vvork vvas simultaneously* being c a r r i e d o u t o n an e x t e n s i v e vvater-ehannel f o r use by fullers, t h a t i s , for local civilian use. In this i n s t a n c e the l a b o u r - f o r c c vvas sccured by c o r v c e f r o m the different q u a r t c r s o f t h e city, a n d T r a i a n u s is r e c o r d e d as h a v i n g m e r c l y 'supervised' t h e vvork. 2 4

2 3 . W h a t f o ! ! o w s is cnrircly d e p e n d e n t o ı ı d ı c ı ı ı a j o r p a p e r b y D . v a n B c r c h c ı n , " L c p o r t dc Scleucie

dc

Pi&ric cc l ' i n f r a s t r u c t u r c

logisıiquc des

gucrrcs

parrhiqucs",

Bonn.

Jahrb.

r8j

( ' 9 8 5 ) , 472 4 . O n t h e u n i t s c o n c c r n c d , .scc p . 8 9 . T h e L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n , first p u b l i s h c d b y v a n B c r c h r m in M M Î . Helv.

4 0 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , 1 8 5 , i s AE

( 1 9 8 3 ) , n o . 9 2 7 , a s r e v i s e d in v a n B c r c h c m , o p . c i t . , 8 5 — 8 7 .

Translaccd in S h c r k , o p . cit. (n.22), no. 85a. 2 5 . D . Fcisscl, " D e u x listes d e s q u a r t i c r s d ' A n ı i o c h c astrcints a u c r c u s e m e n t d'uıı c a n a l " ,

Syria

62 (1988), 7 7 .

I f it \vas in t h e I m p e r i a l i n t e r e s t t o i n v c s t l a r g e q u a n t i t i c s o f m i l i t a r y l a b o u r i n a c a n a l i s a t i o n o f t h e O r o n t e s a b o v e A n t i o c h , t h i s \vas s ı ı r e l y t o p r o l o n g t h e n a v i g a b i l i t y o f t h e river, p e r h a p s e v e n t o , a n d h e n c e a c r o s s , t h e l a k e o f A n t i o c h (vvhich i s novv d r y ) . S t r a b o in t h e Gcography

already records that o n e

c o u l d travel by b o a t f r o m t h e s e a to A n t i o c h in a day.26 B u t this r o u t e , t h r o u g h a n a r r o v v g o r g c , m u s t alvvays h a v e b e c ı ı d i f f i c u l t ( a n d t o d a y n o t r a f f i c a t a l i u s e s t h e r i v e r ) . H e n c e it is n o s u r p r i s e t o f i n d t h a t P a u s a n i a s r e c o r d s

that

m a j ö r vvorks had been n e e d e d , u n d e r a n Hmperor vvhom h e d o e s n o t n a m e : T h e S y r i a n r i v e r O r o n t e s d o e s n o t flovv t h r o u g h o u t i t s vvhole c o u r s e t o t h e s e a o n level g r o u n d , b u t t u m b l e s o v e r a precipitous ledgc o f r o c k . W i s h i t ı g , t h e n , t h a t s h i p s s h o u l d sail up t h e river f r o m t h e sea t o the city o f A n t i o c h , t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r h a d a n a v i g a b l e c a n a l d u g vvith m u c h l a b o u r a n d a t g r e a t e x p e n s e , a n d into this c a n a l h e d i v e r t e d t h e river.'27 F r o m t h e e v i d e n c e g i v e n c a r l i c r it m u s t b e r e a s o n a b l e t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e H m p e r o r c o n c e r n e d i s V e s p a s i a n , a n d v e r y l i k e l y t h a t m i l i t a r y l a b o u r vvas u s e d o n t h e r i v e r belovv a s vvell a s a b o v e A n t i o c h . T h i s b e c o m e s ali t h e m o r e l i k e l y vvhen vve find m i l i t a r y l a b o u r b e i n g u s e d u n d e r V e s p a s i a n in a c l o s c l y related but separate p r o j c c t at Seleucia, on the coast. O n a small-scale m a p , S e l e u c i a m i g h t l o o k a s if it l a y a l m o s t at t h e m o ı ı t h o f t h e O r o n t e s , a n d vvas l i t e r a l l y a p o r t f o r A n t i o c h , s o m e 2 5 k m i n l a ı ı d u p t h e r i v e r . B u t in f a c t , vvhile the O r o n t e s rcachcs the sea at t h e south end o f the coastal plain, at the f o o t o f M o u n t C a s i u s , S e l e u c i a l i e s a t t h e n o r t h e n d o f t h e s h o r e - l i n e , belovv M o u n t C o r y p h a e u s (a s p u r o f M o u n t A ı n a n u s ) , s o m e 1 0 k m avvay. I t s a r t i f i c i a l h a r b o u r , d u g o u t o f t h e p l a i n , r e m a i n s c i e a r l y v i s i b l e , a s is ( e v e n m o r e s o ) t h e vvell-knovvn c u t t i n g a n d t u n n e l m a d e in t h e s i d e o f M o u n t C o r y p h a e u s u n d e r V e s p a s i a n t o d i v e r t a s t r e a m f r o m t h e p o r t a n d t h u s p r e v e n t it f r o m

being

s i l t e d u p . T h e p r o j c c t vvas a m a j ö r o n e , 1 3 0 0 m in l c n g t h a n d vvith a m a x i m u m depth o f 5 0 m ; a p a r t f r o m the building o f r o a d s a n d frontier installat i o n s , it vvould b e h a r d t o find i n t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e s e x a m p l e s o f c o n s t r u c tion projects u n d e r t a k e n by t h e E m p i r e on a seale c o m p a r a b l e t o those on t h e O r o n t e s a n d a t S e l e u c i a . 2 8 1 - a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n s vvith t h e n a m e s o f V e s p a s i a n a n d T i t u s ( a n d n o d o u b t o r i g i n a l l y D o m i t i a n ) m a k e it c e r t a i n t h a t t h i s v v o r k t o o vvas c a r r i e d o u t b y s o l d i e r s . T h i s is c o ı ı f i r m e d b y G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s , f r o m t h e c a r l i c r p h a s e s o f t h e p r o j c c t , r c c o r d i n g t h a t v v o r k vvas d o n e in s c c t i o n s , in o n e c a s e u n d e r a c e n t u r i o n o f I V S c y t h i c a a n d in a n o t h e r a s h i p - c a p t a i n

16. Ceog. 2 7 . Graec.

(nau-

XVI, 1,7(751}. Descrip.

VIII, 29, 3, ı r a m . J. G . Frazcr.

2 8 . S c c stili t h e c l a s s i c a r t i c l e b y R . M a c M u l l c n , " R o m a n I m p e r i a l B u i l d i n g i n t h e P r o v i n c e s " , HSCPh HSCPh

64 ( 1 9 5 9 ) , 2 0 7 ; S . M i t c h e l l , " I m p e r i a l B u i l d i n g in t h e E a s t e r n R o m a n P r o v i n c e s " ,

91 (1987),

333'

arcbos).

O c h c r i n s e r i p t i o n s r e c o r d f u r t h e r vvork, b y soldiers o f I V S c y t h i c a

a n d X V I Flavia F i r m a , u n d e r A n t o n i n u s Pius in a b o u t 1 4 9 . " B o t h p r o j e c t s , s e p a r a t e b u t c l o s e l y c o m p a r a b l e , thus r e p r e s e n t a q u i t e exc e p t i o n a l i n v e s t m c n t o f e f f o r t a n d l a b o u r by the E m p i r e . T h a t l a b o u r , as n o t e d b e f o r e , w a s largely p r o v i d e d by soldiers. T h e L a t i n inseription o f 7 5 r c c o r d i n g thc c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a dipotamiae

fiuminis

traetus

lists f o u r le-

g i o n s — t h e III G a l l i c a , I V S c y t h i c a , VI F e r r a t a a n d X V I F l a v i a — a n d tvventy i n f a n t r y cohortes.

F r o m j u s t this p e r i o d , because o f t h e d e v e l o p i n g u s e o f

individual b r o n z c diplomata

issucd t o d i s e h a r g e d a u x i l i a r i c s , w e c a n b e g i n t o

h a v e a fuller p i c t u r e o f w h a t these units w e r e . T h e earliest diploma

issued t o

an a u x i l i a r y s o l d i e r f r o m S y r i a d a t e s t o 8 8 , a n d (as they n o r m a l l y d o ) reflccts a m a s s g r a n t o f revvards a f t e r t\vcnty-five o r m o r e y e a r s o f s c r v i c c ( s o g o i n g b a c k t o t h c e a r l y 6os). I n this c a s e t h r e e m o u n t e d alae a n d seventeen i n f a ı u r y cohortes

a r e listed. î 0 A s m o s t a u x i l i a r y units b o r e thc n a m e s o f the e t l ı n i c

g r o u p s f r o m vvhich they vvere o r i g i n a l l y r e c r u i t c d , vve s c e m a t first sight t o b c g r a n t e d a n insight i n t o t h e v a r i c d g e o g r a p h i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f thc a u x i l i a r y p a r t o f t h c R o m a n a r m y : t h e g r o u p s m e n t i o n e d c o m e b o t h f r o m vvithin the N e a r E a s t — A s c a l o n i t e s , S e b a s t e n e s a n d I t u r a e a n s — a n d f r o m far o u t s i d e i t — P a n n o n i a n s , G a u l s , N u m i d i a n s , T h r a c i a n s , B r a c a r a u g u s t a n i f r o m S p a i n and so f o r t h . T h i s i m p r e s s i o n is i n d c c d v a l i d as r e g a r d s the o r i g i n a l raising o f st;ch f o r c e s , a n d h e n c e is o f i m m e n s e value. If w e think o n l y o f units o r i g i n a l l y raised in the N e a r E a s t , diplomata

o f t h e follovving fevv d e c a d c s shovv a

cohors

o f ' D a m a s c c n i ' f r o m vvhich d i s e h a r g e s arc being m a d e in 9 0 ( h e n c e in service b y t h e 6os), a n d o f ' A n t i o c h e n s c s ' in 9 3 , an ala o f I t u r a e a n s in P a n n o n i a in 9 8 , T y r i a n s in M o e s i a I n f e r i o r ( t h c lovvcr D a n u b c ) in 9 9 , a n d , very signific a n t l y , t h c s c c o n d C o h o r s F l a v i a o f C o m m a g e n i a n s in t o o , vvith anotfcer, listed a s ' t h e first', in 1 0 5 . 1 1 R e c r u i t m e n t o f a u x i l i a r i e s h a d t h u s begueı in C o m m a g e n e i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h c fail o f t h c k i n g d o m . A s is vvcll knovvn, hovvcver, it vvould b c q u i t e m i s l e a d i n g t o see t h e e t h ı ı i c n a m e s o f these units a s p r o v i n g t h e c o n t i n u e d e t h ı ı i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e soldiers vvho served in t h e m . T h e individual vvho received the diploma Bithus s o n o f S e u t h u s , a B r e u c a n , vvho t o o k t h c diploma native T h r a c e ; b u t hc h a d b e e n serving in a cohors

o f 8 8 vras

b a c k vvith him t o his

o f Musuiamii, a people

f r o m N o r t h A f r i c a . In o t h e r \vords, the p r e s e n c e o f the v a r i o u s types o f unit o f t h e R o m a n a r m y vvas very i m p o r t a n t a s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o a c o m p l e x p r o c e s s o f mutual c u l t u r a l influcncc, vvhich it vvould be a n over-simplification t o cali ' R o m a n i s a t i o n ' ; b u t thc e t h n i c n a m e s o f the a u x i l i a r y units c o n c e r n e d vvill in

2 9 . T h e i n s e r i p t i o n s a r c IGIS

III, n o s . 1 1 3 1 - 1 1 4 0 , d i s c u s s c d b y v a n B e r c h c m , o p . c i t . , p p .

3 0 . C/Z. X V I , n o . 3 5 . 3 1 . C / L X V I , nos. 36; 3 9 ; 4 5 ; 4 6 ; 50.

m o s t c a s e s g i v c c l c a r evidenee o f the o r i g i n s o f t h e soldiers vvho served i n t h e m o n l y a t t h e m o m e n t o f t h e initial raisiııg o f t h e unit. N o n e t h e l e s s vve vvould h a v e a m u c h c l e a r e r c o n c e p t i o n o f the r e l e v a n c e o f the a r m y t o t h e c u l t u r a l a n d social history o f t h e N e a r E a s t i f vve knevv lıovv t h e alae (at l e a s t three) a n d cohortes

(at least tvventy) o f t h e p r o v i n c e vvere distributed; a n d a t

a m o r e l o c a l level, vvhether t h e y livcd in c a m p s , o r o c c u p i e d parts o f tovvns o r vvere hilletcd o n t h e civilian p o p u l a t i o n . \Ve g a i n a c o m p a r a b l e (and e q u a l l y partial) c o n c e p t i o n o f a u x i l i a r y f o r c e s in J u d a e a f r o m a diploma

o f 8 6 , f o u n d in H u n g a r y , t o vvhich it h a d b e e n

b r o u g h t b a c k by the r e c i p i c n t , a c a v a l r y m a n n a m e d S e u t h e s s o n o f T r a b a î thus, f r o m a n e t h n i c g r o u p c a l l c d the C o l o l e t i c i , vvho vvas serviııg in a

cohors

o f Thracians.- 1 2 T h e list o f un i t s f r o m vvhich d i s e h a r g e s h a d been m a d e i n c l u d e s alae o f G a e t u l i , f r o m N o r t h A f r i c a , a n d o f 'ITıracians; a n d

cohortes

o f l.usitanians, T h r a c i a n s and C a n t a b r i a n s . T h e Sebastenes and Caesarcans, o r i g i n a l l y r a i s e d as local royal f o r c e s , h a d , a s J o s e p h u s n o t e d , evidently b e e n m o v c d clsevvhere b y V e s p a s i a n . " I f vve r e t u r n t o t h e i m p o r t a n t L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n r e c o r d i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the dipotamiae

fluminis

duetus

above Antioch, considcrable importaııce

a t t a c h e s t o the n a m e s o f t h e f o u r legions w h o s e soldiers c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e vvork. T h e date o f t h e i n s e r i p t i o n ( t h o u g h n o t ııecessarily o f ali t h e w o r k ) i s 7 5 . T h e f o u r a r e III G a l l i c a , vvhich m a y a l r e a d y have b e e n a t S a m o s a t a ; I V S c y t h i c a , vvhich vvas p r o b a b l y a l r e a d y a t Z e u g m a ; V I F c r r a t a , vvhich h a d t a k e n part in the c o t ı q u e s t o f C o m m a g e n e , a n d w h o s e regular station is u ı ı knovvn; a n d X V I F l a v i a . A s vve h a v e s e e n , this last legion h a d been e r e a t e d b y V e s p a s i a n ; t h e inseription from A n t i o c h is in f a c t the c a r l i e s t d o c u m e n t a r y evidenee f o r its existeııce. E v c r y t h i n g suggests t h a t it either stili vvas o r a t a n y r a t e until r c c c n t l y stili had been in S y r i a . T h e b u i l d i n g - u p o f C a p p a d o c i a as a tvvo-legion p r o v i n c c u n d e r a c o n s u i a r legatus

vvas t h e r e f o r e , it s e e m s , a p r o -

c e s s c o m p l c t e d o n l y in the m i d - 7 0 S , a n d J o s e p h u s vvas n o t n e c c s s a r i l y vvrong t o see T i t u s ' d e s p a t e h o f X I I E u l m i n a t a t o M c l i t e n e a s an isolated step o f l a t e 7 0 . T h e first c o n s u i a r g o v e r n o r o f C a p p a d o c i a is in fact a t t e s t e d in 7 6 , 3 4 a n d the s e c o n d legion, c e r t a i n l y the X V I F l a v i a , m u s t h a v e arrivcd t h e r e by t h e n . If vve l o o k a t t h e ' e a s t e r n f r o n t i e r ' a s a vvhole, t h e diffusion o f a p e r m a n e n t l e g i o n a r y g a r r i s o n b o t h southvvards t o J u d a e a a n d northvvards t o C a p p a d o c İ 3 vvas t h u s a p r o c c s s vvhich t o o k p l a c e in tvvo stages, b u t s e p a r a t e d by o n l y a fevv years. T h e tvvo s t a g e s t a k e n together, b o t h vvithin t h e reign o f V e s p a s i a n , r e p r e s e n t a c o n s i d e r a b l e c h a n g e in t h e s t r a t e g i c s h a p e o f the E m p i r e . If, alternatively, vve l o o k tovvards the M e d i t e r r a n e a n , t h e reign o f V e s -

31. C / L X V I , no. 33. 33. 1.3 above. 3 4 . B . E . T h o m a s s o n , Laterculı

Praesidum

I (1984), 264.

pasian may a l s o r e p r e s c n t , a s van B e r c h c m sııggescs, ıhe m o m e n t o f tlıc crea t i o n o f the ' S y r i a n fleet' (classis

Syriaca)

a t t e s t e d in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y ; b u t

it c a n n o t b c p r o v e d . 3 5 W h a t is c l e a r is t h a t this p e r i o d , t h e 70S, p r o d u c e s a q u i t e n e w level o f e v i d e n c e o n t h e g r o u n d f o r t h e p r e s e n c e a n d i m p a c t o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e in this r e g i o n . T h i s p r o c e s s is visible from the c o a s t t o t h e E u p h r a t e s , in t h e interior o f C o m m a g e n e , in t h e s t e p p e o n c i t h c r side o f Palm y r a , o n t h e m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , a n d a l s o o f c o u r s e in J u d a e a itself, vvhere a legion novv o c c u p i e d p a r t o f the ruins o f J e r u s a l e m , a n d a d e t a e h m e n t left b e h i n d s o m e o f its d o c u m e n t s on the t o p o f M a s a d a . F r a g ı n e n t a r y as o u r e v i d e n c e is, vve c a n o b s e r v c b o t h a n intcnsification a n d a c o n s i d c r a b l c g e o g r a p h i c a l e x p a n s i o n o f t h e R o m a n p r e s e n c e . A n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f b o t h vvas t h e r e p l a c c m e n t o f r o y a l r u l e (as vvell a s royal t a x a t i o n a n d the m a i n t e n a n c c o f royal f o r c e s ) b y R o m a n p r o v i n c i a l rule. Tvvo further s t a g e s o f this process vvere s o o n t o follovv: the a b s o r p t i o n o f the k i n g d o m o f A g r i p p a II a n d then that of N a b a t a e a .

3.2.

T R A J A N : IN

E X P A N S I O N T H E

A N D

S O U T H E R N

R E A R R A N G E M E N T

N E A R

K A S T

W i t h t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f C o m m a g e n e t h e p r o v i n c c o f Syria h a d r c a c h c d a n a t u ral ' f r o n t i e r ' , in the sense n o t o n l y o f the u p p e r - m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s itself b u t o f the m o u n t a i n s o f t h e K u r d i s h T a u r u s , r o u n d vvhich the E u p h r a t e s svveeps t h r o u g h g o r g e s in a g r e a t cascvvard b e n d betvveen M c l i t e n e a n d S a m o s a t a . N o r o u t e c o u l d follovv t h e river t h r o u g h the g o r g e ; a n d t r o o p s m o v i n g , like X I I E u i m i n a t a in 7 0 o r 7 1 , f r o m Syria t o M e l i t e n e vvill h a v e e r o s s e d the m o u n t a i n s further vvest.' In the s o u t h e r n p a r t o f the p r o v i n c c , tlıc k i n g d o m o f E m e s a , on tlıc u p p e r - m i d d l e O r o n t e s a n d s t r e t e h i n g far o u t into t h e s t e p p e , s e e m s c l e a r l y t o have been a b s o r b e d in the 70S, vvhile R o m a n r o a d s novv e x t e n d e d t o a n d b e y o n d P a l m y r a . O n l y in the far s o u t h did t h e r e r e m a i n a c o m j > l e x p a t t e r n o f royal a n d p r o v i n c i a l territory, s o m e o f the l a t t e r stili f o r m i n g an e n e l a v e g e o g r a p h i c a l l y s e p a r a t e f r o m the rest o f t h e p r o v i n c c . By the rnids e c o n d c e n t u r y G a z a , 011 t h e c o a s t , h a d c e r t a i n l y ceased t o b e a n e n e l a v e s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a , a n d b e c a m e p a r t o f Syria P a l a e s t i n a ( a s J u d a e a vvas by then c a l l e d ) . WU.cn this h a p p e n e d is n o t c e r t a i n ; b u t p r o b a b l y as s o o n a s J u d a e a vvas put u n d e r a s e n a t o r i a l g o v e r n o r in t h e carly 70S, f o r P l i n y

3 5 . S o a l s o M . Reddfc,

Mare Nostrum

(1986),

ı$6(f.

x. S e e ı h e r e m a r k a b l c d e s e r i p t i o n o f t h i s a r c a a n d t h e g o r g e i n T . B . M i t f o r d , " T h e liıtıes t h e K u r d i s h T a u r u s " , in W. S. H a n s o n a n d 1.. J . F. K c p p i c (cds.), Roman III ( 1 9 8 0 1 , 9 1 3 .

Frontier

Studies

in

1979

the Eldcr, vvriting in t h e 70S, d e s e r i b e s the long t r a d e - r o u t e f r o m A r a b i a F c l i x a s e n d i n g in G a z a 'in J u d a e a ' . 2 A far m o r e c o m p ! e x p a t t c r n is p r e s e n t e d b y the c c n t r a l m o u n t a i ı ı r e g i o n o f L e b a n o n , A n t i - L e b a n o n a n d M o u n t H e r m o n , t h e t e r r i t o r i e s t o the s o u t h bclongitıg t o A g r i p p a II ( i n e l u d i n g part o f G a l i l e e a n d P e r a e a ) a n d then N a b a t a e a n territory. T h e a b s o r p t i o n o f Agrippa's territories, \vhatcvcr these p r e cisely w e r e , represented t h e l o g ı c a l p r e i i m i n a r y t o t h e t a k e o v e r o f N a b a t a c a in 1 0 6 , a n d its c o n v e r s i o n into t h e p r o v i n c e o f ' A r a b i a ' . B u t w c c a n n o t s t a t e either e x a c t i y vvhat A g r i p p a ' s t e r r i t o r i e s c o ı ı s i s t e d o f o r \vhether this a b s o r p tion b e l o n g s in t h e 90S under D o m i t i a n o r in 1 0 0 under T r a j a n . 3 It c a n n o t indeed b e c e r t a i n that t h e p r o c c s s t o o k p l a c e ali a t o n c e . In brief, s i n c e 53 A g r i p p a h a d ruled B a t a n a e a , T r a c h o n i t i s a n d A u r a n i t i s ; the ' t e t r a r e h y o f I.ysanias', a p p a r e n t l y based o n A b i l a , on t h e p a s s betvveen D a m a s c u s a n d the B e k a a V a l l e y ; a n d the ' t e r r i t o r y o f V a r u s ' , o f unknovvn l o c a t i o n a n d c x t e n t , b u t a p p a r e n t l y on M o u n t L e b a n o n . N e r o h a d a d d e d c o n s i d e r a b l c p a r t s o f G a l i l e e (vvith t h e cities o f T i b c r i a s a n d T a r i c h c a c ) a n d P e r a e a . A g r i p p a m a y have a l s o h a v e received further t e r r i t o r y under V e s p a s i a n . A t a n y r a t e as T i t u s m a r e h e d b a c k up the c o a s t in the a u t u m n o f 7 0 , he p a s s e d n e a r a tovvn c a l l e d A r c c a o f t h e k i n g d o m o f A g r i p p a , lying betvveen B c r y t u s a n d R a p h a n e a e in t h e O r o n t e s V a l l e y ; this is the s m a l l place Arca o r ' C a e s a r e a ad L i b a n u m ' , at t h e n o r t h end o f M o u n t L e b a n o n vvhence the E t n p c r o r S e v erus A l c x a n d c r vvas later t o c o m e . 4 It thus s e e m s c l e a r t h a t Agrippa's d o m a i n s vvere n o t g e o g r a p h i c a l l y c o n t i n ı ı o u s . AH t h a t is c e r t a i n is t h a t b y t h e t i m e J o s e p h u s vvas c o m i n g t o the e n d o f his Antiquities,

c o m p l e t c d in 9 3 / 9 4 , B a t a n a e a had b e c o m e provincial t e r r i -

tory. F o r vve have a l r e a d y secn J o s e p h u s ' sketeh o f the h i s t o r y o f t h e c o l o n y o f B a b y l o n i a n Jevvs there, settled by H e r o d a n d later u n d e r the t e t r a r c h P h i l i p , A g r i p p a I a n d A g r i p p a II, b u t by novv e r u s h e d by t h e t r i b u t e inıposed b y R o m e . $ J o s e p h u s m i g h t s e e m t o i m p l y t h a t Agrippa vvas novv d e a d . R e l i a n c e h a s o f t e n been p l a c e d o n the s t a t e m e n t in the Bibliotheca

of Photius, compiled

in the niııth c e n t u r y , that A g r i p p a died in the t h i r d y e a r o f T r a j a n , s o 1 0 0 . 6 D o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e , hovvever, m a k e s c l c a r t h a t B a t a n a e a a n d the s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a vvill have b e c o m e provincial just a b o u t the t i m e vvhen J o s e p h u s vvas c o m p l e t i n g his Antiquities 2. P t o l c n ı y , Geog. and Hyzantine

V, 16,6,

Periods{

a n d vvriting tlıe p e n d a n t t o it, his

Autobiogra-

o d . N o b b c . See C . A . M . G l ı ı c k c r , The City of Gaza in the

Roman

1 9 8 7 ) , 4 1 ( w h e r e the w o t d ' n o t ' is e v i d e n t l y a slip), Pliny, NH X I I , 32/64.

3. F o r the e o m p l e x issues i n v o l v e d , see Schürer, HJP 1 , 4 7 1 - 4 8 3 . T h e full e v i d e n c e vvill n o t be citcd lıcre. 4 . J o s e p h u s , BJ V I I , 5, r {97). Sec 3 . 4 a n d 9 . 2 belovv. 5 . J o s e p h u s , Ant. X V I I , 1 , 2 (26-28-), q u o t c d in 2.2 a b o v e . 6. P h o t i u s , Bib.

33.

phy, vvhere indecd he s p e a k s o f A g r i p p a a s n o loııger living. T h e larest knovvn d o c u m e n t o f Agrippa's reign is a G r e e k inseription f r o m S a n a m c i n in B a t a n a e a dated by t h e d o u b l e e r a o f A g r i p p a t o t h c y e a r s 3 7 a n d 3 2 , s o 9 2 / 9 3 . 7 B u t s o m e t h r e e y e a r s later l o c a l d a t i n g s s h o w t h a t r o y a l rule vvas över, s n d t h a t the a r c a vvas p r o v i n c i a l . I n the r e m a r k a b l e c o l l e c t i o n o f a n t i q u i t : c s , l a r g e l y in t h e local basalt, in t h e m u s e u m o f Suvvcida (Soucdias/Dionysias) t h e r e is a n i n s e r i p t i o n c a r v c d on a b a s a l t gravç-stele, a n d d a t e d by the sixt e e n t h y e a r o f D o m i t i a n , 9 6 , * W i t h i n a y e a r o r s o vve have a n o t h e r d a t i n g in G r e e k b y the first y e a r o f N e r v a , 9 6 / 9 7 , f r o m s o u t h c r n T r a c h o n i t i s . 9 W l ı a t e v e r t h c precisc p c r s o n a l history o f A g r i p p a II, t h e r e f o r c , it is indisp u t a b l c that t h c c c n t r a l a r c a o f his k i n g d o m h a d b e c o m e p r o v i n c i a l t e r r i t o r y b e f o r e the e n d o f D o m i t i a n ' s r e i g n . A s m u s t a l r e a d y b e clear, n o t h i n g vvhatsoever is knovvn o f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c c s . But thc m o s t r c a s o n a b l e c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t h c died in a b o u t 9 2 / 9 3 , a n d t h a t his v a r i c d territories b e c a m e p r o v i n c i a l at that moment. T h e s o u t h e r n a r e a vvas in any c a s e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t , f o r it vvas t h a t vvhich b o r d e r e d on N a b a t a e a n territory. In t h c s h o r t t e r m ali o f this rcgion p r e s u m a b l y b c c a m e p a r t o f S y r i a , vvith the e f f e c t that f o r t h c first t i m e the l a ı ı d - a r e a o f the p r o v i n c e vvas c o n t i n u o u s into t h c D e c a p o l i s . It is p e r h a p s r e l e v a n t t h a t an e q u c s t r i a n o f f i c c r is r e c o r d c d b y a n i n s e r i p t i o n a s c x e r c i s i n g s o m c f u n e t i o n s in ' t h c D e c a p o l i s o f S y r i a ' a t s o m e p o i n t u n d e r D o m i t i a n , p r o b a b l y a r o u n d 9 0 ; ' ° a n d t h a t an i n s e r i p t i o n shovvs t h a t t h e s o u t h t h e a t r e a t G c r a s a , o r s o m c o f it, vvas d e d i c a t c d in 9 0 / 9 1 ' i n a c c o r d a n c c vvith a d c c r e c o f L a p p i u s M a x i m u s , legatus

Augusti

pro praetore\n

W h c t h c r this is a n a c c i -

d e n t o f o u r e v i d e n c e o r n o t , n o earlier evidence attests a g o v e r n o r ' s d e c i s i o n in this outlying r e g i o n . G a l i l e e a n d P e r a e a m a y novv h a v e reverted t o J u d a e a ; n o t h i n g is knovvn. F o r a p i c t u r c o f a c o m p l c t c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f this vvhole a r e a , vve have t o avvait the a c q u i s i t i o n o f N a b a t a e a in TO6. A g a i n , n o t h i n g is knovvn o f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . N o c o n f l i c t s vvith R o m e a r e r c c o r d e d in t h e l o n g reign o f thc last k i n g , R a b b e l II, deseribed in N a b a t a e a n d o c u m e n t s as ' h c vvho h a s g î v e n his p e o p l e life a n d d c l i v c r a n c c ' ( D Y

'IIYY

W $ Y Z B ' M H ) . 1 2 H i s reign l a s t e d f r o m 7 0 t o r o 6 , a n d t h c latest r c c o r d o f it 7 . OGIS,

n o . 4 2 6 = IGR

8. M . D u n a n d , Lc Musce 9 . IGR

IH, n o . 1 1 2 7 . de Soueida

( 1 9 3 4 ) , p. 4 9 , n o . 7 5 . S e e t ı . 3 belovv.

III, n o . 1 1 7 6 , f r o m t h e s i t e d e s e r i b e d v a r i o u s l y a s A e r i t a e , ' A h i r c h a n d A r i q a h . S e e ,

e . g . , t h e m a p i n D e n t z e r , Hauran

I . ı , p. 1 3 8 .

10. B. Isaac, "The Decapolis in Syria, a Neglcctcd inseription", ZPE 44 (1981), 67. 1 1 . J. P o u i l l o u x , " D c u x i n s e r i p t i o n s a u rhc.îtrc s u d d e G c r a s a " , SBPI.A

2 7 ( 1 9 7 7 ) , 2 4 6 . See

f u r t h e r i t . 3 belovv. 1 2 . F u l l e r d e t a i l s o n R a b b e l in S c h ü r c i i HJP I , 5 8 4 - 5 8 5 (vvith s o m e e r r o r s ) ; B o v v e r s o c k , Roman

Arabia,

72-75.

c o m e s f r o m his thirty-sixth y e a r , so i m m c d i a t c l y b e f o r e t h e R o m a n

con-

quest.13 Ali t h a t vve knovv o f the m o m e n t o f c o n q u e s t , o r a c q u i s i t i o n , is a s i n g l e s e n t e n c e o f C a s s i u s D i o : " A b o u t this t i m e a l s o P a l m a the g o v e r n o r o f S y r i a s u b j u g a t e d A r a b i a arouııd Petra a n d m a d e it s u b j e c t t o the R o m a n s 1 . 1 4 S p e c u lation o n m o t i v e s , vvhether s i m p l y the o c c a s i o n o f t h e k i n g ' s d e a t h , o r l o c a l d i s p u t e s o r ( i m p r o b a b l y ) a n interest in t r a d e - r o u t c s , is fruitless. T h i s o c c a s i o n , significant t h o u g h it is, c a n c o n t r i b u t e n o t h i n g t o any discussion o f t h e r c a s o n s f o r c o n t i n u e d R o m a n e x p a n s i o n i s m in the N e a r E a s t . Ali t h a t is c e r t a i n is t h a t n o a l l c g c d m o t i v e o f t h e sort c o n c c r n c d in the s u p p r c s s i o n o f C o m m a g e n e — r o y a l c o n n e c t i o n vvith a n e i g h b o u r i n g p o v v e r — c a n have played a n y p a r t . F o r N a b a t a e a b o r d e r e d o n l y o n the s t e p p e , e x c c p t vvhere it e x t e n d e d i n t o the m o u n t a i n - e h a i n o f t h e 3 l e d j a z stretehing dovvn the e a s t c o a s t o f t h e R e d Sea. C o m p l e x a s is the p r o b l e m o f t h e r e l a t i o n s o f the N a b a t a e a n a r c a a n d its p o p u l a t i o n t o the unsettJed p e o p l e s o f the steppe, t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o suggest t h a t a n y large-scale m i l i t a r y threat vvas felt f r o m t h a t directioıı. İf n e i t h e r the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process vvhich lay b e h i n d it n o r t h e c a m paign itself (if t h e r e vvas a n y r e a l c a m p a i g n ) c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d , by c o n t r a s t the multiple e f f e c t s o f the a n n e x a t i o n are very clearly refleeted in o u r e v i denee. In s t r a t e g i c t e r m s vve knovv t h a t , as D i o r e c o r d s , t h e operatiotı vvas c o n d u c t e d f r o m S y r i a , n o t f r o m J u d a e a , a n d b y t h e legatus

o f circa

104/

1 0 5 - 1 0 7 / 1 0 8 , A. C o m e l i t ı s P a l ı n a , vvho duly earned t r i u m p l ı a l ornamenta,

a

statue in t h e F o r u m o f A u g u s t u s in R o m e a n d a s e c o n d c o n s u l a t c in 1 0 9 . ' 5 \Vhat f o r c e s he t o o k f r o m Syria vvc do n o t knovv. Ali t h a t is c l e a r is t h a t as e a r l y a s 1 0 7 a g o v e r n o r o f A r a b i a , C l a u d i u s Severus, vvas a l r e a d y in office. T h e s a m e s t r u e t u r e h a d b e e n c r e a t e d as in J u d a e a , vvlıereby a s e n a t o rial g o v e r n o r o f e x - p r a c t o r r a n k vvas s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e legatus

of

the

p r o v i n c e a n d o f t h e o n e legion vvhich vvas s t a t i o n e d there. T h e legion vvas the III C y r c n a i c a , vvhich h a d b e e n b r o u g h t f r o m E g y p t , reducitıg its l e g i o n ary g a r r i s o n t o o ı ı c . Ali this a n d m o r e a p p e a r s vvith g r e a t elarity in t h e f a m o u s p a p y r u s l e t t e r o f a soldier in III C y r e n a i c a vvritten t o his f a t h e r in Egypt in M a r c h 1 0 7 f r o m B o s t r a , t o vvhich he h a d j u s t b e e n m o v e d . S i n c e he c x p ! a i n s t h a t B o s t r a is a n eight d a y s ' j o u r n e y f r o m Petra, t h e m a j ö r city o f t h e k i n g d o m , it is p r o b a b l e t h a t he h a d previously been s t a t i o n e d tlıere. Strikingly, h e a l s o r e c o r d s t h a t m e r e h a n t s vvere arriving f r o m P e l u s i u m in Egypt every day. T h e d i s t a n c e s vvere c o n s i d e r a b l c : c e r t a i n l y vvcll over 3 0 0 km a l o n g the c o a s t a n d a e r o s s t h e

iy.ll.

J a u s s e n a n d R . S a v i g n a c , Mîssîon

14. D i o L X V I U , 14, s1 5 . IJ.S, n o . 1 0 2 3 .

arcbealogîque

en Atabie

I ( 1 9 1 4 ) , 2 1 7 , no. 3 2 1 .

N e g e v t o Petra, a n d s o m e z6o k m f r o m Petra t o B o s t r a in the s o u t h e r n Hauran. In b o ı h this a n d a later l e t t e r f r o m F e b r u a r y 1 0 8 t h e soldier, Iulius A p o l . i n a r i s , d e s c r i h e s hovv, as a r c s u l t o f p r o m o t i o n , he c a n g o a r o u n d doiııg n o t h ing vvhile o t h e r s toil ali d a y c u t t i n g s t o n e s . 1 6 T h e reference m a y b c t o the m o s t c o n s p i c u o u s l a n d m a r k o f the R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n , t h e V i a N o v a T r a i a n a , vvhich r a n f r o m t h e I l a u r a n dovvıı t o Aila a t t h e h c a d o f t h e R e d S e a : as m i l e s t o n e s o f 1 1 1 — 1 1 7 put it in t r i u m p h a l terms, T r a j a n ' a f t e r A r a b i a had been r e d u c e d t o the f o r m o f a p r o v i n c e o p e n e d a n d paved a nevv r o a d f r o m the b o r d c r s o f Syria t o the R e d S e a t h r o u g h C . C l a u d i u s Severus, legatus gusti pro praetore\

Au-

Rven t h e s e vvords hardly c a p t u r c the d r a m a t i c i m p a c t of

the r o a d as visible f r o m the a i r today, stretehing a l o n g the J o r d a n i a n plain a n d then a e r o s s the g r e a t W a d i M u j i b (tlıc a n c i e n t A r n o n ) , vvhich runs into the D e a d S e a . 1 7 T h e total v o l u m e o f s t o n c - c u t t i n g m u s t h a v e been p r o d i g i o u s . Iulius A p o l l i n a r i s , vvriting f r o m B o s t r a , m a y a l t e r n a t i v c l y have been t a l k ing o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a c a n i p . F o r vvhat seems t o b c b e y o n d q u e s t i o n the o u t l i n c o f a R o m a n c a m p (a r e e t a n g u l a r e n e l o s u r e o f circa 4 6 3 m b y 3 6 3 tn) c a n b e seen f r o m the a i r a t t a c h e d t o t h e n o r t h side o f B o s t r a , vvhosc p l a n as b o t h a N a b a t a e a n a n d a R o m a n provincial tovvn is c l e a r l y visible f r o m the a i r a n d on the g r o u n d . 1 8 If t h i s is c o r r c c t , it is a r a r c c a s e vvhen vve c a n g i v e s o m e m e a n i n g t o the s t a t e m e n t t h a t a legion vvas s t a t i o n e d ' a t ' a p a r t i c u l a r tovvn. S o p r o f o u n d a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the region c o u l d h a r d l y fail t o register vvith the p o p u l a t i o n living t h e r e . In A v d a t in t h e N c g c v s o m e o n e d a t e d a building by ' y e a r tvvo o f t h e p r o v i n c e ' , using t h e G r e e k vvord eparcheia

in

t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n : S N T T R T Y N L H P R K Y ' . 1 9 A y e a r later a t M a d a b a s o m e o n e d a t e d a t o m b in G r e e k ' i n t h e third y e a r o f t h e p r o v i n c e ' , b u t in N a b a t a e a n in a slightly different vvay, 'in the third y e a r o f the p r o v i n c e (i.e., the provincial regime at?) Bostra': B S N T T L T L H P R K B Ş R ' . 2 0 T h e expression may reflect a c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t t h a t vvas vvhere the m a i n R o m a n b a s e vvas. It vvill n o t , hovvever, m e a ı ı that B o s t r a vvas t h e ' c a p i t a l o f t h e p r o v i n c e ' , f o r R o m a n p r o v inccs did n o t have c a p i t a l s . B y 1 1 4 a n i n s e r i p t i o n on a R o m a n a r c h ereeted

r 6 . P. Micb.,

n o s . 4 6 6 ( 1 0 7 } a n d 4 6 5 ( 1 0 8 ) . S c c , f o r t h i s a r e h i v e a n d o t h e r d e t a i l s o f the

carly miiitary o c c u p a t i o n , K . Strobel, " Z u Fragcn der frlihcn Geschichtc der rOmischcn l'rovinz A r a b i a uıtd z u e i n i g e t ı P r o b l c n ı c ı ı d e s I m p e r i u m K o m a n ı ı m 7.11 l l c g i n n d e r 2 . J h . n . C h r . " , 71 (1988),

17.1'. Thotıısen, " D i e rönıisehen Moilensrcine der Provin/cn Syria, A r a b i a und 4 0 ( 1 9 1 7 ) . r . s e c t . \ x ; K c n n c d y a n d R i l c y , RDF,

ZDPV

r 8 . K c n n c d y a n d K i l c y , RDF,

Palattrinr",

85-88.

124-125.

T9. A . N c g c v , " N a b a t a e a n I n s c r i p t ı o n s f r o m ' A v d a t ( O b o d a ) " , ıEJ no.

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ı j ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 1 1 3 , p.

117,

rr. 2 0 . J. T. M i l i k , " N o u v c l l c s i n s e r i p t i o n s n a b a t c c n c s " , Syria

35 ( 1 9 5 8 ) , 2 2 7 , p. 2 4 3 , no. 6.

a t P e t r a ( a s it s e e m s , t h e e a r l i e s t G r c c k m o n u m e n t a l i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m t h e N a batacan region) records Petra as a metropolis {'mother-city')—apparently, for the text has a gap, 'mother-city of Arabia'. T h a t has no significance for t h e m i s d i r e e t e d q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r P e t r a o r B o s t r a vvas ' t h e c a p i t a l ' : t h e g o v e r n o r vvill h a v e g i v e n j u r i s d i e t i o n a t e i t h e r , f o r R o m a n g o v e r n o r s vvere p e r i p a t e t i c , a n d t h e y c e r t a i n l y d i d g i v e j u r i s d i e t i o n at t i m e s a t P e t r a . O n

Novembcr

1 7 , 1 3 0 , o n e o f the d o c u m e n t s in the priceless 'archive o f B a b a t h a '

shovvs

s o m e o n e s u m m o n i n g h e r to a p p e a r before H a t e r i u s N c p o s , the t h e n

legatus,

' a t P e t r a o r elsevvhere i n t h e p r o v i n c e ' . B u t in t h e f o l l o v v i n g y e a r , f a c e d vvith a s u m m o n s by s o m e o n e else to a p p e a r a t P e t r a , s h e issucd a c o u n t c r - s u m m o n s t o h e r o p p o n e n t t o a p p e a r first b e f o r e t h e g o v e r n o r a t R a b b a t h m o a b . * 1 A u x i l i a r y u n i t s vvere a l s o t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e nevv p r o v i n c e . S o t h e A l a v e t e r a n a o f G a e t u l i , vvhich vve savv i n J u d a e a in 8 6 , vvas l a t e r in A r a b i a , a n d i t s c a v a l r y m c n l e f t g r a f f i t i , in h i g h l y c r r a t i c G r e e k , a t M e d a i n S a l e h in t h e H e d jaz, the s o u t h e r n m o s t knovvn R o m a n o u t p o s t , 9 0 0 k m f r o m B o s t r a . " S i m i i a r l y t h e C o h o r s I H i s p a n o r u m a n d C o h o r s I T h e b a e o r u m , r e c o r d e d in 1 0 5 a s having been transferred from E g y p t t o Judaea, m a y have gone on t o Arabia; if s o , then p e r h a p s a c c o m p a n y i n g the legion III C y r e n a i c a . A s f o r o t h e r u n i t s , t h e i r p r e s e n c e is e v e ı ı m o r e s p e c u l a t i v e , o r a t t e s t e d o n l y l a t e r . 7 3 C e r t a i n t y i s n o t e s s e n t i a l , f o r vve c o u l d a s s u m e i n a n y c a s c t h a t a n u m b e r o f a u x i l i a r y u n i t s a r r i v e d ; t h e r o l e o f s o m e o f t h e m in t h e i n s e r i p t i o n s o f t h e l a t e r s e c o n d c e n t u r y a n d a f t e r vvill b e d i s c ı ı s s e d belovv. B u t t h e vvider i s s u e is i m p o r t a n t , f o r it i n v o l v e s t h e p r o b l e m o f vvhat t h e a r m y in t h i s a r e a vvas f o r , a n d i n vvhat s e n s e the outermost area of R o m a n occupation represented a 'frontier'. F o r t h e m o m e n t it is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o s t r e s s t h a t t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f A r a bia involved s o m e reshaping of the provincial strueture s o u t h of M o u n t H e r m o n . F o r a s t a r t , tvvo o r t h r e e c i t i e s o f t h e D e c a p o l i s vvhich h a d b e e n p a r t o f t h e e n e l a v e b e l o n g i n g t o t h e p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a novv f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s in A r a bia: f r o m south to n o r t h , Philadelphia ( A m m a n ) , G c r a s a and possibly raa.z* T h e

nevv o r d e r is p e r f e c t l y e x p r e s s e d

z ı . B o w c r s o c k , Roman

Arabia,

in t h e

dedication

to

Ad-

Trajan

8 4 , n . 2 8 ; AF. ( 1 9 8 2 ) , n o . 9 0 4 . P. Yadın, n o s . Z ) a n d 2 5 . DRBE

2 2 . S c c J. Bovvshcr, " T h e F r o n t i e r P o s t o f M e d a i n S a l e h " , in F r e e m a n a n d K e n n e d y . I, 2 3 . I c a n n o t f o l l o v v t h e vievv t h a t a t l e a s t f o r a t i m e t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e k i n g d o m

(the

Hisma a n d Hedjaz) continucd as a dependent kingdom under Malichus, a son of Rabbel. S o J. \V. E a d i e , " A r t i f a c t s of A n n e x a t i o n : T r a j a n ' s G r a n d S t r a r c g y a n d A r a b i a " , in J. W . K a d i e a n d J. O b c r (eds.), The

C.rafl

of the Ancient

Historian:

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of Cbester

G. Starr

(1985),

401. 1 3 . S e e M . P. S p e t d e l , " T h e R o m a n A r m y i n A r a b i a " , ANRWII.8 7 0 5 a n d 7 1 1 - 7 1 2 ; r e p r i n t r d in S p e i d e l , Roman

Army

Studies

( 1 9 7 7 ) , 6 8 7 , csp. o n p p .

( 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 2 9 . O n the garrison scc

a l s o F. Z a y a d i n c a ı ı d Z . T . Ficına, " K o m a n I n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e Siq at P e t r a " , AD Af

30

(1986), 199. 2 4 . F o r t h e v e r y c o m p l c v issues i n v o l v e d , n o t w o r t h d i s c u s s i n g i n d e t a i l h e r e , s e e M . S a r t r e , Trois

etudes

sur l'Arabie

romaine

( r 9 8 z ) , c h . r, "I.es fronticres d c l ' A r a b i c r o m a i n e " .

from thc North

Gate at G e r a s a , o n thc part of thc 'Antiochenes

by

ıhe

C l ı r y s o r h o a s , t h e f o r m c r G c r a s c n c s , t o t h e i r ovvn s a v i o u r a n d ( ? ) f o u n d c r ' , put u p u n d e r C l a u d i u s S c v c r u s , .stili t h e r e a s legatus

i n 1 1 5 . " A nevv b o u n d a r y

b e t v v e e n ' A r a b i a ' , a s a R o m a n p r o v i n c e , a n d S y r i a t h u s novv r a n c a s t - w e s t through the H a u r a n to the n o r t h o f B o s t r a a n d p r o b a b l y o f A d r a a also. W b a t t h c s i t u a t i o n vvas o n t h c v v e s t e r n c d g c o f t h c J o r d a n i a n p l a t e a u ( f o r i n s t a ı ı c e vvith t h e c i t y o f G a d a r a , f o r m c r l y i n S y r i a o r a l o n g e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e J o r d a n ) is r e m a r k a b l y u n c l e a r . I t h a s t o b e a d m i t t e d t h a t t h i s a r e a m i g h t h a v e b e e n e i t h e r in A r a b i a , o r in J u d a e a o r i n S y r i a ; J u d a c a i s t h c m o s t p r o b a b l e . C e r t a i n l y t h c a r c a o f S c y t h o p o l i s , in t h c P l a i n o f J e z r e e l vvest o f t h e J o r d a n , vvhich h a d b e e n p a r t o f S y r i a , s e e m s novv t o h a v e b e l o n g e d t o J u d a c a ; f o r a n i n s e r i p t i o n a t t e s t s t h e p r e s e n c e t h e r e o f a n ala,

e a r l i e r s t a t i o n c d in S y r i a , v v h i c h b y

1 3 9 a t l c a s t vvas c e r t a i n l y p a r t o f t h c g a r r i s o n o f t h a t p r o v i n c e . 2 6 S i m i l a r l y t h e B a b a t h a a r e h i v e ( o n c e a g a i n ) shovvs t h a t a n o t h e r a u x i l i a r y u n i t v v h i c h h a d e a r l i e r b e e n in S y r i a vvas b y 1 2 4 s t a t i o n e d i n E n g e d d i i n J u d a c a , o n t h e vvest s h o r c o f t h e D e a d S e a . F o r in t h a t y e a r J u d a s s o n o f E l a z a r , a r e s i d e n t o f Engeddi, acknovvlcdged rcccipt o f a loan from M a g o n i u s Valens, centurion o f t h c C o h o r s p r i m a m i l l i a r i a T h r a c u m . W h a t i s m o r e , t h c p r o p e r t y vvhich h e p l e d g e d vvas l o c a t c d t o t h c vvest o f a m i l i t a r y h c a d q u a r t e r s ( p r a e s i d i ı o n , t r a n s l i t e r a t e d in G r e e k ) . T h c i n t e n s i f i e d p r e s e n c e o f t h e R o m a n a r m y c o D İ d not be m o r e clearly illustrated.27 'Arabia', as a province, certainly cxtcnded aeross thc Wadi A r a b a h

into

t h e N e g c v a n d S i n a i , a n d vve h a v e s c e n t h a t at A v d a t ( O b o d a ) p e o p l e b e g a n i m m c d i a t e l y t o d a t e b y t h e nevv p r o v i n c c . S o f a r a s is k n o v v n , ' A r a b i a ' d i d n o t r e a c h t o t h e M c d i t e r r a n e a n , a n d t h e q u c s t i o n o f hovv r e a l a p r c s c n c c R o m e vvas a b l e t o c s t a b l i s h i n e i t h e r t h c s o u t h e r n N e g c v o r t h c v a s t e x p a n s e s o f rhe S i n a i p e n i n s u l a c a n n o t b e a n s v v e r e d . B u t , a s vve vvill see vvhen vve l o o k a t ehe m i l i t a r y s t r u c t u r c o f t h e N e a r E a s t a s it vvas a t t h e e n d o f t h c s c c o n d c c n t u r y , R o m a n o u t p o s t s a r c a t t e s t e d n o t o n l y a t M c d a i n S a l e h in t h e n o r t h e r n H e d j a z b u t a t D u m a t h a (Javvf) i n t h e W a d i S i r h a n . T h e t o t a l a r e a o f t h e nevv cia,

propin-

i f vve t h i n k o f it i n t h e o l d e r s e n s e o f a n a r e a o f m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t y ,

vas

e n o r m o u s , stretehing over hundreds of kilometres. T h c p r c s c n c c o f R o m a n l e g i o n a r y a n d a u x i l i a r y s o l d i e r s vvill h a v e b e e n t h e m o s t immediately perceptible aspect o f t h e arrival o f provincial organisat i o n . i t s c o u n t c r p a r t vvas r h e r a i s i n g o f a u x i l i a r y t r o o p s , p e r h a p s (it is n o t k n o v v n ) b y a r a k e o v e r o f s o n ı e o r ali o f t h e r o y a l f o r c e s . W h a t is c e r t a i ı ı is t h a t N a b a t a e a n t r o o p s e n t e r e d R o m a n service i m m e d i a t e l y as regular a u x i l -

2 5 . C . II. Kracling, Gerasa, City of the Decapolis

( 1 9 3 8 ) , ins. no. 56/37
26. R . L a s t a n d A . Stcin, " A l a A n t İ 3 n a i n S c y t h o p o l i s : A N c w i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m B c r h - S h c a n " , ZPE

8r (1990), 224. 2 7 . /'. Yadin,

no. 1 1 .

i a r y u n i t s . A d i p l o m a o f AD 1 3 9 r e c o r d s men o f the f o u r t h a n d s i x t h c o h o r t s o f P e t r a c a n s being discharged in w h a t w a s b y t h e n c a l l c d S y r i a P a l a e s t i n a ; t h e y s h o u l d thus have e n t e r e d s c r v i c e n o later tlıan 1 1 4 . As a n o t h e r o f 1 5 6 , shovvs, ali these cohortes

diploma,

(at least six, so t h r e e t h o u s a n d m e n ) r a i s c d

in A r a b i a will h a v e b o r n e t h e f o r m a l title ' C o h o r s Ulpia P e t r a e o r u m ' , a f t e r the E m p e r o r U l p i u s T r a i a n u s , u ı ı d e r w h o m their region b e c a m e a p r o v i n c e . " Ali the d i s c h a r g e d a u x i l i a r i c s g a i n e d the R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p , o n l y o n e o f t h e m a n y c o n ı p l e x c h a n g e s in local s o c i e t y vvhich R o m a n rule b r o u g h t , a n d vvhich vvill need t o be c o n s i d e r e d later. A s vve h a v e seen on several o c c a s i o n s , in Syria a n d J u d a e a in AD 6 , a n d i n B a t a n a c a in ( p r o b a b l y ) the e a r l y <>os, t h e m o s t distinctive f e a t u r c o f R o m a n r u l e in a ncvv a r e a vvould be t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f the c c n s u s a n d o f d i r c c t t a x a t i o n . F o r A r a b i a vve do n o t h a v e t o envisage this i m p a c t t h r o u g h n a r r a t i v e r c p o r t s vvritten later, f o r tvvo nevvly published papyri present t h e n a t u r e o f t h e e x c h a n g e s betvveen the settled p o p u l a t i o n a n d the nevv o c c u p y i n g f o r c e s in c o n c r c t e d e t a i l . O n e o f the d o c u m e n t s f o r m s p a r t o f the B a b a t h a a r c h i v e ; t h e o t h e r m a y vvcll have been f o u n d o r i g i n a l l y in t h e s a m e desert a r e a t o the vvest o f t h e D e a d S c a . B o t h r e l a t c t o a small a r e a a l r e a d y m c n t i o n e d , the village o f M a o z a in t h e district o f Z o a r a , lying in t h e great depression s o u t h o f t h e D e a d Sea. L i k e t h e m a r r i a g e - c o n t r a c t q u o t e d m u c l ı e a r l i e r , " tlıcse tvvo p a p y r i illustrate the use o f vvritten d o c u m e n t s in G r e e k in a rural s o c i e t y r e m o t e f r o m a n y tovvn. T h e o n l y tovvn m e n t i o n c d in t h e m is R a b b a t h m o a b o n t h e J o r d a n i a n p l a t e a u , s o m e 3 7 k m avvay as the erovv f l t e s — a n d , m o r e realistLcally, a t a n e l e v a t i o n o f s o m e 1 0 0 0 m higlıer. B o t h d o c u m e n t s (and p r o b a b l y f r a g m e n t s o f a t h i r d ) a r e r e t u r n s o f l a n d f o r t h e c e n s u s o f 1 2 7 u n d e r t h e legatus

Augusti

pro praetore

of Arabia, Titus

A n i n i u s S e x t i u s F l o r e n t i n u s . ' 0 T h e well-preserved d o c u n ı e n t f r o m t h e B a b a t h a a r c h i v e vvill b c used t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e nevv r e l a t i o n s h i p s involved in t h e c e n s u s . T h e r e is n o t h i n g t o i n d i c a t e hovv m a n y p r e v i o u s R o m a n censuses h a d been c o n d u c t e d b e f o r e t h e c u r r e n t y e a r : ' a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o m p u t e o f the nevv p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a y e a r tvvcnty-second'. i f a c c n s u s h a d first been i m p o s e d in (say) 1 0 7 , t h e r e m a y have been a t e n - y c a r eyele, vvith a n intervening o n e in a b o u t 1 1 7 . T h e d o c u ı n e n t b e g i n s vvith t h e a t t e s t a t i o n o f its being a c o p y o f t h a t p o s t e d in the basilica

a t R a b b a t h m o a b . T h e d e c l a r a t i o n itself follovvs,

s t a r t i n g vvith t h e d a t i n g : by I l a d r i a n , the tvvo c o n s u l s a n d t h e year o f t h e p r o v i n c e . T h e n c o m e s B a b a t h a ' s svvorn s t a t e m e n t : 2 8 . C / L X V I , n o . 8 7 |AD 1 3 9 ) ; 1 0 6 (AD 1 5 6 ) . 29. C h . 1 above. 3 0 . (a) P. Yadin,

n o . 1 6 ( q u o t e d i n p a r t b c l o w , I r a n s . N . Levvis); (b> N . L e w i s , " A Jevvish

I , a n d o w n e r in P r o v i n c i a A r a b i a " , SCI g c s t i o n o f A . W a s s c r s t c i n in JQR in P. Yadin,

S/9 ( 1 9 8 5 / 1 9 8 8 ) , J 3 2 . 1 c a ı ı n o t follo\v tlıc interesting s u g -

80 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 9 3 , t h a t t h e c x p r c s s i o n «tifo VPCK; P«ıap%p.îa<; ' A p a p î o ç

n o . r 8 , a l s o used h e t e , r e f e r s t o a p r o v i n c e c a l l c d A r a b i a N o v a in s o u t h e r n P a l c s t i n c ,

As a ccnsus o f Arabia is bciııg conductcd by T î t u s Aninius Scxtius Florentinus, legatus Augusti pro praetore, I, Babtha daughtcr o f S i m o n , of M a o z a in 7-oarcne Jdistrict] o f t h e Petra administrative region, domiciled in m y own private property in t h e said M a o z a , register vvhat I possess (present vvith m c as my guardian being J u d a n e s son of Elazar, o f the village of E n gedi in the district o f J c r i c h o in J u d a e a , domiciled in his ovvn private property in the said M a o z a ) , viz. vvithin the boundaries of M a o z a a date o r c h a r d called Algiphiamma. T h e t e x t c o n t i n u e s vvith m o r e details, s o m e very difficult t o u n d e r s t a n d , bnt e n o u g h t o m a k e clear t h a t e a c h p l o t paid a fixed t a x , c a l c u l a t e d b o t h in p r o d u c e (dates) a n d in c o i n . T h e document concludcs with a rccord of the 'subscriptions' (formal statem e n t s 'vvritten b e l o w ' a d o c u m e n t ) m a d e by B a b a t h a herself a n d t h e fectııs

prae-

alae s t a t i o n e d a t R a b b a t h m o a b . N o t h i n g c o u l d m o r e perfectly e x e m -

plify t h e role o f G r e e k as the c o m m o n l a n g u a g e o f t h e c a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d as t h e m e d i u m o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n betvveen t h e R o m a n E m p i r e a n d its S e m i t i c - l a n g u a g e s u b j e c t s . F o r this p a r a g r a p h t r a n s l a t e s i n t o G r e e k b o t h the o a t h m a d e by B a b a t h a in A r a m a i c a n d the s u b s c r i p t i o n o f the praefectus

:n

Latin: Translation o f subscription: I, B a b t h a daughter o f S i m o n , svvear by the genius o f o u r lord C a c s a r t h a t I have in g o o d faith registered as has been vvritten above. I, J u d a n e s s o n o f Elazar, acted as guardian a n d vvrote f o r her. ISecond handl Translation of subscription o f the prefect: I, Priscus, prefcct o f cavalry, rcceived (this) on the day before the nones o f ü c c c m b c r in the consulship of G a l l i c a n u s a n d Titianus. T o c o m p l e t e o u r i m p r e s s i o n o f the m e e t i n g o f l a n g u a g e s , the d o c u m e n t has o n t h e b a c k the n a m e s o f fıve vvitnesses vvho h a v e signed in N a b a t a e a n ; the first is " A b d u s o n o f M o q i m u , vvitness' ( ' B D W B R M Q Y M W S I İ D ) . As h i n t e d a b o v e , vve c a n n o t p o s s i b l y s a y hovv far dovvn the g r e a t nevv r o a d t o A e l a , o r i n t o the H e d j a z o r i n t o the N e g e v o r Sinai the R o m a n s c o u l d find a n y scttled p o p u l a t i o n , o r b r i n g t h e m vvithin tlıc o p e r a t i o n s o f the c e n s u s . B a t it s h o u l d he stressed t h a t o n l y a series o f a c c i d c n t s , in the a n c i e n t a n d the m o d e r n vvorld, led t o the d i s c o v c r y o f these d o c u m c n t s in rhe ' C a v c o f L c t t e ı s ' on t h e side o f the N a h a l I I c v c r betvveen E n g e d d i a n d M a s a d a . W e c a n c o n n dently a s s u m c t h a t s i m i l a r d e c l a r a t i o n s vvere m a d e ali över the settled a r e a o f t h e f o r m e r k i n g d o m , a t l e a s t f r o m P e t r a iti t h e s o u t h t h r o u g h the D e c a p o l i s a n d the a r e a t o t h e e a s t o f i t s h a d i n g o f f i n t o the steppe, t o B o s t r a a n d the

d i s t i n e t f r o m ' A r a b i a ' ; (c) I I . M . C o t t o n , " F r a g m e n t s o f a D c c l a r a t i o n of L a n d e d P r o p e r t y f r e m t h e P r o v i n c c o f A r a b i a " , ZPE

85 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , Z63.

H a u r a n in t h e n o r t h . 3 1 T h e a r e a o f the N e a r E a s t t o vvhich R o m a n

dircct

rule, R o m a n j u r i s d i e t i o n , a n d t h e R o m a n c e n s u s a n d t a x a t i o n vvere a p p l i e d , vvidening stage b y s t a g e , a n d ı ı e v e r p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e a c c u r a t c l y , vvill a p p r o x i m a t c l y have d o u b l e d s i n c e the battle o f A c t i u m in 3 1 BC. M o r e signific a n t t h a n t h a t , it h a d novv s t r e t e h e d decisively o u t s i d e t h o s e a r e a s — n o r t h e r n S y r i a , the P h o e n i c i a n c o a s t a n d t h e D c c a p o l i s — v v h e r e G r e e k cities vvere, OT s e e m c d t o b c , t h e p r e d o m i n a n t social f o r m . It h a d a t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h o u g h the tvvo p r o c e s s e s are n o t t o b e e q u a t e d , r e m o v e d ali the d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m s vvest o f t h e E u p h r a t e s a n d s u b s t i t u t e d its ovvn t a x - g a t h c r i n g , m i l i t a r y o c c u p a t i o n a n d military c o n s c r i p t i o n . It c o u l d a l s o have been t h o u g h t t o h a v e reached its n a t u r a l g e o g r a p h i c a l l i m i t s : ali o f the m o u n t a i n - e h a i n f r o m t h e T a u r u s t o the n o r t h e r n I l e d j a z , ali o f the c u l t i v a b l c land betvveen t h e m o u n tains a n d the steppe, a n d ali o f the upper-middle E u p h r a t e s f r o m vvhere i t emerges f r o m the T a u r u s g o r g e t o vvhere the Fertile C r e s c e n t s t o p s a n d t h e river turns s o u t l ı - e a s t t h r o u g h t h e steppe. T h e rcign o f T r a j a n t h u s d o e s i n deed r e p r e s e n t a sort o f c u l m i n a t i o n . B u t t h e c a m p a i g n vvhich he fouglıt in the s e c o n d decade o f the s e c o n d century represented not o n l y t h e first in t h e N e a r E a s t in vvhich royal f o r c e s c o u l d play n o p a r t , b u t the first vvhich a reigning E m p e r o r led in p e r s o n , a n d the first vvhich a i m e d a t the p c r m a n e ı ı t occupation of territory across the Euphrates.

3.3. T H E R O M A N

PRESENCE, A D

114-161

W i t h the P a r t h i a n vvar f o u g h t b y T r a j a n in t h e last y c a r s o f his rcign, t h e r e l a t i o n o f the N e a r E a s t t o t h e E m p i r e again e n t e r e d a q u i t e nevv p h a s e , vvhich vvas t o last t o atıd b e y o n d the end o f the P a r t h i a n E m p i r e in the 22.0S, a n d its r e p l a c e m e n t by a nevv P c r s i a n E m p i r e . Its features ineluded R o m a n c a m p a i g n s b e y o n d the E u p h r a t e s , n o t m e r e l y f r o m C a p p a d o c i a i n t o A r m e n i a b u t f r o m Syria i n t o n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a ; the a i m , a c h i c v c d in t h e 190S, t o make northern Mesopotamia into R o m a n provincial territory; and the c o n d u e t o f these c a m p a i g n s b y E m p e r o r s in p e r s o n . T h e eastern vvars o f the 3 s o s a n d 360S, in vvhich A m m i a n u s M a r c e l l u s vvas t o p a r t i c i p a t c as a n o f f i c c r a n d o f vvhich he vvas later t o vvrite t h e history, vvent b a c k , in their c o n t e x t a n d objeetives, t o T r a j a n ' s vvar. It vvas a c o n t i n u i t y o f vvhich A m m i a n u s h i m s e l f vvas fully c o n s c i o u s ; f o r he r e c a l J s T r a j a n ' s siege o f H a t r a , m e n r i o n s the tovvn c a l l e d O z o r g a d a n a on the E u p h r a t e s , vvhere T r a j a n ' s tribunal

vvas stili p o i n t c d

o u t ; a n d r e p r o d u c e s J u l i a n ' s s p c c c h t o his soldiers r e m i n d i n g t h e m o f the v i c tories in M e s o p o t a m i a o f T r a j a n , L u c i u s V e r u s a n d Septimius Severus. 1

3 1 . See further n . ı

belovv.

i . A m m i a n u s X X V , 8, 5 (Hatra); X X I V , 1 , 3 ( O z o g a r d a n a ) ; X X I I I , 3, 1 7 (victories). See a b o v e ali J. M a t t h e w s , The Roman

Empire

of Ammianus

(1989), r 3off. M y v i c w of these events

A s is weii k n o w n , t h e t w o , o r perhaps t h r e e , provinces f o r m c d by T r a j a n a c r o s s thc E u p h r a t e s w c r c i m m e d i a t e l y given u p . B u t if w c t a k e a l o n g e r - t e r m v i e w o f this a b o r t i v e p r o j e c t , it a c q u i r e s a far g r e a t e r significance. E x a c ı l y s u c h a v i e w is p r o v i d e d by t h e Breviarium

o f R u f i u s F e s t u s , a brief s u r v e y o f

R o m a n c x p a n s i o n w r i t t c n in t h c 3 6 0 S , s o m c t h r e e d c c a d c s a f t e r o u r period ends: At last under thc p r i n c i p a t c o f Trajan the diadem vvas taken from thc king o f G r e a t e r Armenia, and through Trajan Armenia, M e s o p o t a m i a , Assyria and Arabia vvere made provinciae

and the eastern frontier vvas established

on thc b a n k s of the Tigris. But Hadrian, vvho succccded T r a j a n , jealous o f Trajan's glory, voluntarily returned Armenia, M e s o p o t a m i a and Assyria, and vvished the Euphrates t o be the boundary betvveen the Persians (sic) and the R o m a n s . But aftervvards under t h e tvvo Antonincs, M a r c u s a n d Verus, also Severus, Pcrtinax (?) and o t h e r R o m a n Emperors, vvho fought vvith varying fortunes against the Persians, M e s o p o t a m i a vvas four times lost a n d four times rccovercd. T h e n in the time o f Dioclctian, after t h c R o m a n s had been dcfcatcd in a first campaign, and in a sccond battlc king Narses vvas vvorsted . . . a n d vvhen peace vvas made M e s o p o t a m i a vvas restored and thc frontier vvas re-formed along thc banks o f thc Tigris, in such a vvay that vve gaincd the overlordship of five peoples settled a c r o s s the Tigris. 2 W h a t m a t t e r s a b o u t this p a s s a g e is n o t t h e details in it, b u t first i t s p e r s p t e tivc a n d s c c o n d its i m p l i c a t i o n for thc c o n t i n u i t y o f R o m a n imperialist a m b i t i o n s in t h e E a s t f r o m T r a j a n onvvards. N o r need the c o n t r o v e r s i a l d e t a i l s o f t h e P a r t h i a n vvar itself b e e x p l o r e d . 3 W h a t m a t t e r s here is d ı a t T r a j a n , h e a r i n g t h a t the P a r t h i a n s h a d crovvncd a king o f A r m e n i a vvithout his c o n s c n t , c a m c t o t h e N e a r E a s t in p e r s o n (the first reigning E m p e r o r t o d o s o s i n c e Augustus), leaving R o m e in a u t u m n 0 3 a n d spending 1 1 4 o n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f A r m e n i a a s a p r o v i n c e . T h c y e a r 1 1 5 s e e m s t o h a v e seen t h c c r c a t i o n o f t h e p r o v i n c e o f ' M e s o p o t a m i a ' , a term vvhich novv (as later u n d e r Severııs) meant the n o r t h - M e s o p o t a m i a n shelf as far as Nisibis and Singara; the frontier m a y perhaps h a v e been e n v i s a g e d as runnitıg dovvn the river C h a b u r f r o m n e a r S i n g a r a t o its c o n f l u e n c e vvith thc E u p h r a t e s . It vvill have been t h e a c q u i sition o f these tvvo nevv p r o v i n c c s a b o u t vvhich T r a j a n sent a ' l a u r c l l e d letter' t o the S e n a t e vvhich arrived in E c b r u a r y 1 1 6 ; f o r c o i n s o f 1 1 6 c c l c b r a t e d 'Ar-

ovves c v c r y t h i n g t o t h c p a p e r b y C . S . I . i g h t f o o t , " T r a j a n ' s P a r t h i a n W a r a n d t h c F o u r t h - C c n t i ı r y Pcrspcctivc",/RS 80 (1990), 1 1 5 . z . S c c J . W . E a d i c , The

Breviarium

of Festus

( 1 9 6 7 ) ; t h c p a s s a g e q u o r c d is s c c t . 1 4 .

} . F o r t h c e h r o n o l o g y I f o l l o v v t h c c o n c l u s i o n s o f F. A . L c p p c ı , Trajan's vvith a d j u s t m e n t s b y L i g h t f o o t , o p . c i t . (n.x).

Parthian

War ( 1 9 4 8 ) ,

m e n i a a n d M e s o p o t a m i a s u b j e c t e d t o t h e povver o f t h e populus

Rontanus\-4

I t vvas p r o b a b l y in t h e s a m e y e a r t h a t t h e k i n g d o m o f A d i a b e n e , i y i n g m a i n l y b e y o n d t h e T i g r i s , vvas c o n q u e r e d ;

if (as is i m p r o b a b l e ) t h e r e e v e r vvas a

s h o r t - I i v c d T r a j a n i c p r o v i n c e o f ' A s s y r i a ' , it vvill h a v e b e e n h e r e . 5

Then,

a f t e r a vvinter ( 1 1 5 / 1 1 6 ) in A n t i o c h m a r k e d b y a g r e a t e a r t h q u a k e , i n T r a j a n m a r c h e d dovvn

the E u p h r a t e s

t o Ctesiphoıı, the Parthian

116

capital,

a n d then to the head o f the Persian Gulf. T h e r e C a s s i u s D i o dcscribcs h i m l o o k i n g l o n g i n g l y a t a m e r c h a n t - s h i p s e t t i n g o f f f o r I n d i a , a n d vvishing t h a t h e vvere a s y o u n g a s A l e x a n d e r . 6 T h i s m o t i v e is b y n o m e a n s i r r e l e v a n t

to

t h e g r o v v i n g I m p e r i a l p r c o c c u p a t i o n vvith t h e E a s t . B u t t h e n a g e n e r a l r c v o l t b r o k c o u t , a n d T r a j a n vvas f o r c c d t o r e t u r n , a n d t o r e c o g n i s c t h e P a r t h i a n d y n a s t y . H e h i m s e l f fell i ü , a n d d i e d , b a c k o n R o m a n t e r r i t o r y , in C i l i c i a in

117. W h a t c v e r e l s e is u n c l c a r a b o u t t h i s p o o r l y r e c o r d e d s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s , i t

i s c e r t a i n t h a t provinciae

o f A r m e n i a a n d M e s o p o t a m i a vvere i n d e e d f o r m e d ,

b e f o r e being given u p by H a d r i a n o n his a c c e s s i o n in 1 1 7 . F o r b o t h a s c n a t o rial g o v e r n o r a n d a procurator t i o n s ; 7 a n d in r ı 6

o f Armenia M a i o r are recorded on

another Latin

inseription, from A r t a x a t a

in

inserip-

Armenia,

shovvs b u i l d i n g b e i n g u n d e r t a k e n b y s o l d i e r s o f t h e l e g i o n I V S c y t h i c a , p r o b a b l y s t a t i o n e d a t Z c u g m a . s A t a b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e at l e a s t o n e R o m a n r o a d vvas b e i n g c o n s t r u c t e d i n M e s o p o t a m i a . F o r a m i l e s t o n e vvhose L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n g i v e s T r a j a n ' s t i t l e s a s o f i r 6 vvas f o u n d 1 5 k m n o r t h - v v e s t o f S i n g a r a , a t a p o i n t vvhere a p a s s l e a d s o v e r t h e J e b e l S i n j a r i n t h e d i r e e t i o n o f N i s i b i s . (Nusaybin).9 T h i s city, vvhich e i g h t d e c a d e s l a t e r vvould find i t s e l f vvith t h e r a n k o f a R o m a n colonia,

played a key p a r t in T r a j a n ' s c a m p a i g n . F o r his r o u t e t o o k

h i m a e r o s s n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a t o the T i g r i s , a n d a b r i d g e o f b o a t s vvas c o n s t r u c t e d b y c u t t i n g v v o o d in t h e f o r e s t s a r o u n d N i s i b i s a n d t r a n s p o r ö n g it ( a b o u t 1 0 0 k m ) t o t h e river o n v v a g g o n s . 1 0 T h e r e f c r c n c c m u s t b c t o t h e f o o t hills o f M o u n t M a s i u s ( t h e T u r A b d i n ) , j u s t belovv vvhich m o d e r n N u s a y b i n

4. BMC

Roman

Empire

III ( 1 9 3 6 ) ,

221-211.

5 . S e c D i o L X V I I 1 , 2 6 , 4 ' , e q u a t i n g A d i a b e n e a n d ' A s s y r i a ' . T h e r e is n o c o n t e m p o r a r y e v i denee f o r a province called Assyria, a n d no source carlicr t h a n the f o u r t h century c l a i m s t h a t there h a d b e e n o n e . S e c , h o w c v c r , A . M a r i c q , " I a p r o v i n c e d ' A s s y r i e c r c c c p a r T r a j a n " , Syria

36

( i 9 5 9 ) . 1 5 4 . i d e n t i f y i n g B a b y l o n i a p r o p e r as t h e p r o v i n c e o f ' A s s y r i a ' . B u t s e e L i g h t f o o t , o p . cit. ( n . ı ) . 6. D i o L X V i l l , 1 9 , 1 . 7 . ILS,

nos. 1 0 4 1 a n d 1 3 3 8 ; see P l l a u m , C a r r i e r e s , n o . 9 5 ( A r m e n i a M a i o r ) .

8. AE ( 1 9 6 8 ) , n o . 5 1 0 . F o r t h e l e g i o n ' s p r o b a b l e s t a t i o n a t this p o i n t , s e e 3 . 1 a b o v e . 9. A E ( 1 9 2 7 ) , n o . r 6 ı . S c c D . O a t c s , Studies (19681,71-72. «o. D i o L X V I I I , 26, 1 - 2 .

in the

Ancienl

History

of Northern

Iraq

lies. A t s o m e p o i n t T r a j a n ' s f o r c e s b e s i e g e d H a t r a , i n t h e s t e p p e w e s t o f t h e Tigris and s o m e ı z o k m s o u t h o f Singara, n o m o r e successfully than Severus l a t e r , a s D i o n o t e s . " B u t i n t h e 2.30S t h i s p l a c e , e n c i r c l i n g i t s f a m o u s t e m p l e o f the S u n , w a s to be the furthcst point t o the south-east o c c u p i e d b y man

Ro-

troops.12

R o m a n f o r c e s a l s o , a s vve h a v e s e e n , a d v a n c e d d o v v n t h e m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , in t h e c a m p a i g n o f ı r 6 . T h e y c c r t a i n l y r e m a i n e d a t D u r a - F . u r o p o s l o n g e n o u g h for t h e legion III C y r e n a i c a t o e r e c t an a r c h in h o n o u r o f t h e E m p e r o r t o t h e n o r t h o f t h e t o v v n . 1 3 T h e y d i d n o t s t a y , hovvever, a n d t h e p l a c e r e v e r t e d t o P a r t h i a n control. O n e citizen o f the p l a c c duly rccorded on a G r e e k inseript i o n hovv h e h a d r e s t o r e d a s h r i n e t h e r e : ' a n d t h e o r i g i n a l d o o r s vvere t a k e n a vvay b y t h e R o m a n s , a n d a f t e r t h e i r d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e c i t y I m a d e anevv o t h e r d o o r s f o r t h e s a m e naos

a t m y ovvn e x p c n s c , a n d o u t e r d o o r s a l s o ' . H i s

i n s e r i p t i o n vvas d a t e d t o t h e S e l e u c i d y e a r 4 2 8 , s o b e t v v e e n O c t o b e r 1 1 6

and

S e p t c m b e r 1 1 7 . 1 4 T h e c v a c u a t i o n n e e d h a v e n o c o n n c c t i o n vvith H a d r i a r ı ' s a b a n d o n m e n t o f t h e p r o v i n c c s o f M e s o p o t a m i a a n d A r m e n i a . F r o m t h e IĞOS o n v v a r d s , vvhen D u r a vvas o c c u p i e d b y t h e R o m a n s , it vvould b e l o n g t o the provincc o f Syria.15 T h e P a r t h i a n vvar vvas o f g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c c a s a d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e c c n tiııued vitality o f R o m a n i m p e r i a l i s m — r e f l e e t e d n o t o n l y in n a r r a t i v e

ac-

c o u n t s b u t in c o n t c n ı p o r a r y d o c u m e ı ı t s — a n d a l s o a s t h e first s i g n o f a s t r a t e g i c c o m m i t m e n t vvhich v v o u l d l a s t f o r c c n t u r i e s , u n t i l t h e I s l a m i c c o n q u e s t s , a n d vvhich m e a n t

that S y r i a c literatüre

vvould e v o l v e

l a r g e l y vvithin

the

b o u n d s o f t h e E m p i r e . It a l s o m e a n t , in t h e s h o r t e r t e r m , a renevval o f r e l a t i o n s vvith d e p e n d e n t , o r p o t e n t i a l i y d e p e n d e n t , k i n g s , o f a t y p e vvhich, w e s t of the Euphrates, had f o r the time being disappeared. W h c n T r a j a n rcachcd A n r i o e h in t h e vvitıter o f 1 1 3 / 1 1 4 , h e vvas g r e e t e d b y a n e m b a s s y f r o m ' A u g a r o s the O s r h o e n i a n ' — t h a t is, A b g a r the k i n g o f E d c s s a — v v h o sent e x p r e s sions o f friendship b u t did n o t a p p e a r himself, in t h e h o p e o f r e m a i n i n g n t u t r a l . It vvas o n l y vvhen h e r e a c h e d E d e s s a i t s e l f t h a t h e m e t A b g a r , a l o n g vvith ' M a n n o s , t h e phylarchos phylarchos

o f t h e n c i g h b o u r i n g part o f A r a b i a , and Sporakes,

o f A n t h e m o u s i a ' . A b g a r laid o n a b a n q u c t f o r t h e E m p e r o r a n d ,

knovving T r a j a n ' s personal t a s t e s , h a d h i s g o o d - l o o k i n g son d a n c e 'in b a r b a r i c f a s h i o n ' d u r i n g t h e m e a l . ' 6 T h e d y n a s t y o f E d e s s a , vvhich vvas t o

figüre

in a

n u m b e r o f l a t e - R o m a n and medieval Syriac chronicles, thus m a k e s a n o t h e r

r ı . Dio LXVIII, 31. i z . 4.1 bclow. 13. Dura Reporls

IV, 5 7 - 6 5 ; V I , 4 8 0 - 4 8 2 .

1 4 . Dura Reporls

VIl/VIII, 1 2 8 - 1 3 4 , n o . 868, trans. C . B. W d l c s .

1 5 . Scc M . I. R o s t o v t z e f f , " K a i s c r T ı a i a ı ı u n d D u r a " , Klio 3 1 ( 1 9 3 8 ) , 2 8 5 . F r o n r o , Hisloriae

1 0 , t h e s o u r c e elosest in t i m e t o the event, c o n f i r m s that H a d r i a n g a v c u p

but d o e s n o t s a y \vhich, o r hovv m a n y . 16. D i o L X V I I I , 18, i ; 2 1 , 1 - 3 .

Princbia provîncae,

of its s p o r a d i c a p p e a r a n c e s in G r a e c o - R o m a n n a r r a t i v e s . It m a y

indeed

b e t h a t \vhen P a r t h i a n c o n t r o l vvas r e s t o r e d , there vvas a n i n t e r r e g n u m f o r a c o u p l e of y e a r s . 1 7 T h c partial n a t u r c of o u r c v i d c n c c f o r these m a j ö r c a m p a i g n s m c a n s t h a t vve c a n n o t assess in detail v v h i c h l e g i o n s f r o m vvhich p r o v i n c c s p a r r i c i p a t c d ; a n d m o r e g e n e r a l l y t h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e m o v e m e n t s a n d n u m b e r s of l e g i o n s in these y e a r s presents c o m p l e x p r o b l e m s vvhich are n o t vvorth e x p l o r i n g here. It is c l c a r a t l c a s t t h a t I V S c y t h i c a , p r o b a b l y f r o m Z c u g m a , vvas in A r m e n i a , a n d t h a t s o m e or ali of III C y r e n a i c a vvas briefly a t D u r a . T h c X V I F l a v i a F i r m a f r o m S a t a l a n a t u r a l l y t o o k p a r t , a s did t h e V I F e r r a t a , p e r h a p s f r o m S a m o s a t a , vvhich is f o u n d o p e r a t i n g in the m o u n t a i n s , e v i d e n t l y in A r m e n i a ; f o r a f r a g m e n t of A r r i a n shovvs its legatus,

Bruttius Praescns, cquipping his

m e n vvith snovvshoes in l o c a l s t y ! e . , H T h e X Fretensis f r o m J e r u s a l e m a l s o t o o k part (there is a s yet n o c o n c r e t e e v i d e n c e o f a Jevvish r e v o l t in J u d a e a , p a r a l l e l t o t h a t in E g y p t , C y r e n e a n d C y p r u s , a t this m o m e n t ) . 1 1 ' M o r e significant is the f a c t t h a t a tribunus

militum

o f the l e g i o n X I C l a u d i a , s t a t i o n e d in M o e s i a

Inferior ( a l o n g the l o w e r D a n u b e ) , led c a v a l r y d e t a c h m e n t s f r o m t h a t p r o v incc a n d D a c i a t o t a k e p a r t in ' t h c P a r t h i a n c x p c d i t i o n , . z o F o r vve b e g i n a t this p o i n t t o h a v e e v i d e n c e o f the i m p o r t a n c e o f the l a n d - r o u t e f r o m t h e B a l k a n s t h r o u g h A s i a M i n ö r via A n c y r a ( A n k a r a ) a n d t h e C i l i c i a n G a t e s t o S y r i a , a n d its role as o n e o f t h c c r u c i a l l i n k s vvhich m a d e thc E m p i r e , f o r ali thc l i m i t a tions i m p o s e d b y space a n d t i m e , a u n i t a r y o r g a n i s m in m i l i t a r y t e r m s . 2 1 F r o m A n c y r a itself a t this time vve h a v e the h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n o f a l o c a l m a g n a t e vvho h a d ' r e c c i v c d ' ( t h a t is, s u p p l i e d ) t h c f o r c c s vvintcriııg in the city a n d h a d 'sent forvvard (vvith s u p p l i e s a g a i n ) those o n their vvay t o t h c vvar a g a i n s t the P a r t h i a n s ' . 2 2 Y e t t h c s c a - r o u t c t o n o r t h e r n S y r i a , t h o u g h it c e r t a i n l y uever c a r r i e d t r o o p s e n m a s s e , n o r c o u l d h a v e , r e m a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t . T r a j a n himself h a d travelled t h r o u g h the p r o v i n c e o f A s i a a n d t h e n L y c i a , a r r i v i n g b y sea at Seleucia. 2 3 It vvas in thc s c c o n d c e n t u r y , if n o t f o r c e r t a i n b e f o r e , t h a t vve c a n s e e S e l c u c i a c m e r g i n g a s a n c s t a b l i s h c d n a v a l basc. T h c L a t i n e p i t a p h s o f o f f i c c r s

1 7 . F o r t h c c i g h t h - c c n t ı ı r y Çhronicle « 8 . UJ>, n o . 1660 P r a e s e n s a s legatus);

of 7.uqnin

scc A p p . C .

( X V I F l a v i a F i r m a ) ; A r r i a n , Parthica, İLS, n o . 1 7 2 6 . S e e R. S y m e , Rottum

19. İLS,

n o . 2 7 2 7 . S c c Schilrcr, HJP I , 4 2 9 - 4 3 4 .

2 0 . İLS,

n o . 2 7 2 3 . S c c R . S a x c r , Uııtersuchungen

serbeeres

von Augustus

bis Diokletiatı

Fr. 8 5 ; AF. ( 1 9 5 0 ) , n o . 66 ( B r u t t i a s

Papers I V ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 3 0 6 - 3 0 7 .

zu der Vexillationen

2 1 . F o r t h c r o a d itself a n d its m i l e s t o n e s , D . I I . F r c n c h , Roman Asia Minör

I. The

Pilgrim's

Road

(«983), 1 3 1 .

2 2 . IGR

III, n o . 1 7 3 = OGIS,

2 3 . D i o I . X V I I I , 1 7 , 3-

Kai-

Roads

and Milestones

of

( 1 9 8 1 ) ; see S. M i t c h e l l , " T h e Balkans, A n a t o l i a , a n d R o m a n

A r m i e s a c r o s s A s i a M i n ö r " , i n S . M i t c h e l l ( e d . ) , Armies Anatolia

des römiscJıen

( 1 9 6 7 ) , 26.

no. 5 44.

and Frontiers

in Roman

and

Byzantine

a n d s a i l o r s , f r o m b o t h the ' S y r i a n fleet' (novv n a m e d as sueh for the first time) a n d t h o s e o f M i s c n u m a n d R a v e n n a , i n s c r i b c d a t S c l c u c i a , rcflect its i m p o r t a n c e in c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d r c p r e s c n t a small island o f R o m a n i s a t i o n , aııd t h e use o f t h e I.atin l a n g u a g e . 2 4 S o vve find a t S e l e u c i a Pieria in 1 6 6 an

optio

o f t h e M t s e n u m fleet m a k i n g a c o n t r a c t , in L a t i n a n d G r e e k , f o r t h e purcha>e f r o m a s a i l o r o f t h e s a m e fleer o f a s l a v e - b o y ' f r o m a c r o s s t h e river [ t r a n s f l u m c a i l c d A b b a o r a l s o E u t y c h e s . 2 5 T h e n , a s in ı i 4 - r ı 6 , R o m a n ar-

iniattunı]',

m i e s vvere o p e r a t i n g b e y o n d t h e r i v e r E u p h r a t e s , c a p t i v e s vvill h a v e been availa b l e in l a r g e r t h a n n o r m a l n u m b e r s , a n d ships f r o m o t h e r fieets vvill have c o m e t o S e l e u c i a . D . van B c r c h c m m a y vvell b c right t o s u g g c s t t h a t vve n c c d t o envisage a netvvork o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d supplies s t r e t e h i n g f r o m the M e d i t e r r a n c a n t h r o u g h S c l c u c i a t o n o r t h e r n Syria a n d the E u p h r a t e s . T h a t vvould e x p l a i n vvhy o n e o f t h e very r a r e L a t i n h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m S y r i a vvas e r e e t e d t o a p r c f e c t o f t h e M i s e n u m fleet, M a r c i u s T u r b o , in about

1 1 4 , precisely a t C y r r h u s , on o n e o f t h e tvvo main r o u t e s

Antioch

Zeugma.26

to

from

W h e t h e r vve vvould t h i n k o f supplies, r a t h e r t h a n

f o r c c s , t r a v c l l i n g o v e r s u c h d i s t a n c c s is u n c c r t a i n ; b u t in later c a m p a i g n s vve d o knovv t h a t supplies vvere shipped f r o m s o u t h e r n Asia M i n ö r t o Syria f o r t h e a r m i e s ; 2 7 a n d , vvhile vve m u s t resist t o o c o n f i d e n t a r e c o ı ı s t r u c t i o n o f a s u p p l y netvvork, a n i n s e r i p t i o n from C a r i a d o e s r c c o r d a n c q u e s t r i a n o f f i c e r vvho h a d been 'in c h a r g e o f supplies in t h e P a r t h i a n vvar on

the

bank o f the Euphrates'.28 I f t h e P a r t h i a n vvar m a r k s a n o t a b l e step in t h e e v o l u t i o n o f the E m p i r e :n the N e a r E a s t , a n d a s i g n i f i c a n t f o r e t a s t e o f future s t r a t e g i c c o m m i t m e n t s , the very f a c t t h a t a reigning E m p e r o r vvas novv resident t h e r e f o r s o m e t h r e e years vvas a l s o i m p o r t a n t . F i r s t , t h e r e vvas the simple f a c t t h a t it vvas p o s s i b l e ; that t h e E m p i r e vvas n o t s u c h t h a t it had t o h c ruied f r o m R o m e , W h a t e v e r an E m p e r o r n e e d e d t o d o by vvay o f t h e c i v i l i a n g o v e r n m e n t o f the E m p i r e c o u l d b e d o n e f r o m his s t o p p i n g - p o i n t s on a j o u r n e y , o r in the intervals o f c a m p a i g n i n g . 2 9 B u t in s o s t a r k a f o r m this t o o vvas a sign o f t h e future r a t h e r t h a n o f established practicc; n o t since Augustus, m o r e than a c e n n ı r y before, had a n y E m p e r o r s p e n t s o l o n g a c o n t i n u o u s period in ( o r b e y o n d } the p r o v i n c e s . W h a t this m e a n t f o r t h e E m p i r e is p e r f e c t l y e x p r e s s e d by D i o in recouııtir.g the c o n s e q u c n c c s o f the g r e a t c a r t h q u a k e vvhich struck A n t i o c h vvhen T r a j a n vvas t h e r e in D e c e m b e r 1 1 5 : 2 4 . IGLS

III, n o s . 1 1 5 5 - 1 1 8 2 .

1 5 . P. Lond, 2 6 . AE PIR2

otk,

n o , 119

* C a v e n a i l l e , GPL,

no. 1 1 0 .

< 1 9 5 5 ) , n o . 2 2 5 ; f o r t h e p r e f e c r , Q . M a r c i u s T u r b o F r o n t o P u b l i c i u s S e v e r u s , «ee

M 2 4 9 . F o r this i n t e t p r e t a t i o n , D . v a n B e t c h c n ı , Bonn.

Jahrb.

185 (1985}, 4 7 , csp. 7 7 f f .

2 7 . 4 . 2 belovv. 1 8 . ILS, n o . 9 4 7 1 ; c f . L . R o b c r c a n d J . R o b c r t , La Carie II ( 1 9 5 4 ) , 1 8 0 , n o . 7 8 . 2 9 . F o r t h i s t h c m c . M i l l a r , ERW,

passim.

W h i l c he w a s staying in A n t i o c h an extraordinary earthquake took place. M a ı ı y cities suffered from it, b u t Antioch vvas the most unfortunatc. F o r as 'I'rajan vvas vvintering there, and m a n y soldiers had gathered there as well as many civilians, whether for judicial hcarings or on cmbassics o r as traders o r o u t o f curiosity, t h e r e w a s n o t a province o r a c o m m u n i t y \vhich rcmained uııharmed, and thus in Antioch the vvhole vvorld under the R o mans suffered disaster. 3 0 T h e slovvly e m e r g i n g r o l e o f A n t i o c h a s a s e c o n d a r y I m p e r i a l ' c a p i t a l ' is vividly c a p t u r e d . T r a j a n e s c a p e d on this o c c a s i o n , t o die o f natural vvhile sailing b a c k

f r o m Syria

a l o n g the C i l i c i a n c o a s t

in August

causes 117.

W h e t h c r he h a d intended it o r n o t , t h e s u c c c s s i o n vvent t o a s o n o f h i s c o u s i n , P. Aelius H a d r i a n u s , vvell placed a s legatus

o f S y r i a , vvho h e a r d t h e

nevvs vvitlıin days a n d p r o e l a i m e d h i m s e l f E m p e r o r 'in A n t i o c h , the m e t r o p olis o f S y r i a ' . 3 1 Setting o f f from there, a n d sending s o m e f o r c e s b e f o r e h i m , h e t o o k the l a n d - r o u t e a e r o s s A s i a M i n ö r , t h r o u g h A n c y r a , l u l i o p o l i s a n d N i c o m c d i a , t o t h e B a l k a n s , a r r i v i n g in R o m e n e a r l y a year a f t e r his p r o c l a m a t i o n , in J u l y

118."

H i s reign, a s is vvell knovvn, vvas t o be unique in t h a t s o m u c h o f it vvas spent otı s y s t e m a t i c j o u r n e y s t h r o u g h t h e p r o v i n c e s , vvith b o t h civilian a n d m i l i t a r y e n d s in vievv. B u t t h e m i l i t a r y aspcct a r o s e largely n o t f r o m the n e c e s sities o f c a m p a i g n s b u t f r o m a desire t o inspect t h e a r m y . T h e fact t h a t h i s j o u r n e y s ineluded the N e a r F a s t is t h u s n o t distinctive in itself. W h a t is distinctive is first t h e strongiy local c o l o u r i n g o f the d o c u m e n t a r y evidenee vvhich h a p p e n s t o refleet his p r e s e n c e t h e r e ; then t h e s e c o n d o f the tvvo g r e a t Jevvish revolts, u n d e r B a r K o k h b a o r B e n K o s i b a , in 1 3 2 - 1 3 5 , a g a i n s t vvhich t h e E m p e r o r t o o k c o m m a n d in p e r s o n ; a n d finally his f o u n d a t i o n o f the last ' r e a l ' colonia

in the history o f R o m e , Aelia C a p i t o l i n a , J e r u s a l e m .

H a d r i a n m a y h a v e been in Syria in 1 2 3 , b u t t h e period vvhen his visit left the c l e a r e s t traces in o u r e v i d e n e e s e e m s t o be f r o m the a u t u m n o f 1 2 9 t o t h e s u m n ı c r o f 1 3 0 . M u c h o f a n y p o s s i b l e r c c o n s t r u c t i o n depends on later s o u r c e s a n d m a y b e left a s i d e . F o r i n s t a n c e the f a c t t h a t t h e r e vvere ' H a d r i a n i c B a t h s ' in A n t i o c h is novv m a d e c e r t a i n b y t h e nevv arclıivc o f t h e third c e n t u r y f r o m the m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s . 3 3 B u t vvhether, as M a l a l a s r e c o r d s in t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y , I l a d r i a n o r d e r e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f these b a t h s h i m s e l f , as vvell a s o f o t h e r j c . D i o LXVIII, 24,

ı-z.

3 1 . D i o L X Î X , 2, 1 . 3 2 . R . H a l f m a n n , Ilitcnı o f H a d r i a n " , ZPE

Pıiııeipum

İ1986), ı 8 8 f f . For rcfinemenıs sec R . Symc, "Journeys

7 3 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 5 9 = Roman

Papers

VI ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 3 4 6 ; T D . B a r n c s , " E m p c r o r s o n

the M o v e " , / R A 2 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 2 4 7 . 3 3 . D . Fcisse! a n d J. G a s c o u , CRAI

( 1 9 8 9 ) , 5 3 5 , n o . 1: a s u b s c r i p t i o n p o s t e d in 2 4 5 , EV z a ı ç

' A S p ı a v a i ç O e p j ı a ı ç . S c c f u r t h e r 4 . 2 beIo%v.

p u b l i c buildings, o r did s o \vhile p r e s c n t in p e r s o n , is q u i t e u n c c r t a i n . 3 4 W h a r m a t t e r s is t h e very vivid d o c u m c n t a r y e v i d e n c e o f his presence in c e r t a i n a r e a s . P e r h a p s the m o s t d i s t i n e t i v e is the earliest d o c u m e n t a r y r e c o r d o f an I m p e r i a l visit t o P a l m y r a , vvhich in this r e i g n gained the G r e e k title ' H a d r î a n c P a l m y r a ' . It c o m e s from a b i l i n g u a l h o n o r i f i c inseription f r o m t h e t e m p l e o f B a ' a l s h a m i n r c c o r d i n g t h a t a m a n c a l l e d M a l e s h a d been s e c r e t a r y

(gratnnıa-

teus) o f the c i t y d u r i n g t h e visit o f H a d r i a n , h a d p r o v i d e d oil f o r s t r a n g e r s a n d citizens a n d h a d seen t o the r e c e p t i o n o f t h e t r o o p s . I n the P a l m y r e n c t e x t H a d r i a n is ' o u r lord H a d r i a n , (the) g o d : [ M R ] N H D R Y [ N ' ] ' L H ' . " T h e inseription dates the d e d i c a t i o n o f the s t a t u e o f M a l e s t o 1 3 0 / 1 3 1 , but d o e s n o t o f c o u r s e serve t o date t h e e x a c t m o m e n t o f the visit. N o n e t h e l e s s it is highly significant t h a t the I m p e r i a l e n t o u r a g c a n d e s e o r t t r o o p s d i d visit Palm y r a a t this t i m e , vvhen it vvas r e a c h i n g the s u m m i t o f its a r c h i t e c t u r a l develo p m e n t ; 011 the o t h e r h a n d t h e r e is n o t h i n g vvhatsoever in the l i t e r a t ü r e o f thi: s e c o n d c c n t u r y t o suggest t h a t t h e c u l t u r e o f P a l m y r a h a d been r e g i s t e r e d as s o m e t h i n g o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t t o intellectual c i r c l e s elsevvhere in the E m p i r e . P r o b a b l y o n the s a m e j o u r n e y H a d r i a n a l s o travelled s o u t h t o t h e p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a . A G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n put up in his h o n o u r by G e r a s a , ' t h e c i t y c f t h e A n t i o c h c n e s by t h e C h r y s o r h o a s , t h e f o r m e r G c r a s e n e s ' , s e e m s t o r e f e r t o t h e vvhole p e r i o d o f h i s stay, a n d t o h i s h a v i n g held j u r i s d i e t i o n vvhile tlıere, a n d d a t e s t o 1 3 0 . It is m a t e h e d b y a L a t i n d e d i c a t i o n on his b e h a l f by s o m e o f his e s e o r t t r o o p s , his ecjuites singulares

vvho h a d vvintcred 'at A n t i o c h i a by

t h e C h r y s o r h o a s , a l s o called G e r a s a , s a c r e d , i n v i o l a t e a n d a u t o n o m o u s ' . T h e t r i u m p h a l a r c h vvhich s t a n d s t o t h e s o u t h o f G e r a s a vvas d e d i c a t e d by the city on b e h a l f o f the E m p e r o r a t t h e s a m e t i m e , 1 3 0 . 3 * I l e r c , t o o , n o E m p e r o r had ever b e e n b e f o r e . It is very likely t h a t t h e E m p e r o r did g i v e j u r i s d i e t i o n vvhile t h e r e , a s C a r a c a l l a vvas later t o d o in A n t i o c h . 5 7 W e vvould h a v e knovvn anyvvay t h a t I l a d r i a n visited A r a b i a , f o r contcrr.p o r a r y c o i n s r e c o r d AUVF.NTUS AUG ARABIAE, a s t h e y do ADVKNTUS AUG ı ı DAEAE. But precise c o n ı ı e c t i o n s betvveen his p r e s e n c e , t h e plan t o f o u n d a nevv colonia

a t J e r u s a l e m , vvith a t e m p l e t o luppiter C a p i t o l i n u s , a n d t h e o u t b r e a k

o f the great revolt in 1 3 2 c a n n o t b c c s t a b l i s h c d . T h e r e is, hovvever, n o g o o d r e a s o n t o disbelieve the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f C a s s i u s D i o ' s a c c o u n t , a c c o r d i n g t o vvhich it vvas this plan, i n v o l v i n g the s e t t l e m e n t o f a g e n t i l e p o p u l a t i o n , vvhich p r o v o k e d r e b e l l i o n (a r e p o r t e d ban o n c i r c u m c i s i o n m a y a l s o h a v e been relc34. F o r h i s a l l e g c d c o n s t r u c t i o n s , s o m e p e r h a p s siıııply d e d u c c d f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t b u i l d i n g s vvere n a m e d a f t e r t h e E m p e r o r (as vvas v e r y c o m m o n t h r o u g h o ı ı t t h e F m p i r e ) , s e e M a l a l a s , Cbron.,

277—278.

3 5 . CVS II, n o . 3 9 5 9 = C a n t i n e a u , Inu. I, n o . 2 = C . D u n a n t , Le sattcluaire a Palnıyre

III: Lcs inseriplions

3 6 . Gerasa,

(«971), n o . 44.

i n s . n o . 3 0 (equites

3 7 . 4.2 bclow.

singulares);

5 8 (arch); 1 4 4 (visit).

de

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vant). According to D i o ,

fighting

did n o t b r e a k o u t w h i l e H a d r i a n vvas in

E g y p t o r again in S y r i a , but o n l y vvhen he vvas far avvay. 38 H a d r i a n c e r t a i n l y visited G a z a in 1 3 0 , vvas in Egypt o v e r the vvinter o f 1 3 0 / 1 3 1 a n d m a y have sailed u p the P h o e n i c i a n c o a s t b e f o r e s p e n d i n g t h e vvinter o f 1 3 1 / 1 3 2 in A t h c n s . S o it is n o t u n r e a s o n a b l e t o r c g a r d t h e plan f o r a nevv colonia,

vvith t h e title ' C o l o n i a Aelia C a p i t o l i n a ' , reflecting the n a m e

o f the E m p e r o r , P. Aeiius H a d r i a n u s , a s a p r o d u c t o f his p e r s o n a l initiative vvhile t h e r e . W h c t h c r it vvas p l a n ı ı e d b e f o r e t h a t c a n n o t b e kııovvn. AH t h a t is c l e a r is t h a t J u d a e a vvas t r a n s f c r r c d f r o m being a o n c - l e g i o n p r o v i n c e , u n d e r a legatus

o f e x - p r a e t o r status, t o being a tvvo-legion p r o v i n c e under an e x -

c o n s u l , n o t a f t e r t h e revolt, a s vve m i g h t e x p e c t , but b e f o r e it. If this c h a n g e did n o t t a k c p l a c c , as h a d been a r g u c d , under T r a j a n , 3 9 it h a d c e r t a i n l y o c c u r r e d b y the 120S, vvhen first t h e legion II T r a i a n a ( b e f o r e g o i n g t o E g y p t ) a n d t h e n , o n a permatıent b a s i s , the VI Kerrata vvere s t a t i o n e d there. At this point n o details o f t h e r e v o l t itself a r e n e c d c d e x c c p t t o e m p h a s i s e t h a t it iasted s o m e t h r e e a n d a h a l f y e a r s , savv t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a r e g u l a r a d m i n i s t r a t i o ı ı in t h e a r e a s free o f R o m a n c o n t r o l a n d again r e q u i r e d a m a j ö r c o n c c n t r a t i o n o f f o r c e by the R o m a n a r m y . T h e c o n t c m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t s vvhich refleet life in t h e Jcvvish-hcld a r e a b e l o n g in t h e s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f J u d a e a ; they s t r o n g l y suggest t h a t t h e r e v o l t b e g a n in the s p r i n g o f 1 3 2 a n d c o n t i n u e d until the a u t u m n o f 1 3 5 . 4 0 E v e n f o r the R o m a n a r m y it is e n o u g h t o r e c a l l t h a t a p a r t f r o m X F r e t c n s i s a n d V I F c r r a t a , III C y r e n a i c a f r o m B o s t r a a n d ( a t least) I V G a l l i c a f r o m Syria t o o k p a r t ; a s the c o n s u i a r legatus

o f Syria left t h e

p r o v i n c e t o c o t ı f r o n t the u p r i s i n g in J u d a e a , p r o b a b l y o t h e r units f r o m S y r i a c a m c t o o . M o r e o v e r , the t r i b ü n e o f a legion in P a n n o n i a vvas a p p o i n t e d b y H a d r i a n t o bring d e t a c h m e n t s f o r the war. 4 1 M o r e significant stili, it c a n b e t a k e n as c e r t a i n t h a t the E m p e r o r t o o k c o m m a n d in p e r s o n , a t least f o r a t i m e ; i n s e r i p t i o n s r c c o r d i n g m i l i t a r y h o n o u r s novv g r a n t e d b y the E m p e r o r deseribe t h e c a m p a i g n a s an expeditio

Iudaica,

o n e on vvhich t h e E m p e r o r

vvas p r e s e n t . 4 2 T h e r e v o l t thus left J u d a e a as a m a j ö r , a n d on the s u r f a c e a highly R o m a n i s e d , e l e m e n t in t h e s t r u e t u r e o f t h e E m p i r e : tvvo coloniae,

Cacs-

a r e a a n d Aelia; a n e x - c o n s u l a s g o v e r n o r vvith tvvo l e g i o n s e a c h u n d e r a p r a e t o r i a n legatus;

a n d a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r o f a u x i l i a r i e s . A diploma

of

139

shovvs t h a t there vvere then at l e a s t t h r e e c a v a l r y alae a n d tvvelve cohortes

in

3 8 . D i o L X I X , 1 1 , 1 - 2 . T h e b a n o n e i r c u m c i s i o n is r e p o r t e d d i r e c t l y o n l y b y H A , v.

Had.

1 4 , 2, g i v e n m o r e w e i g h t b y t h e p e r i n i s s i o n f o r it g r a n t e d by A n t o n i n u s P i u s , as r c c o r d c d

by

M o d c s t ı n u s m Dıg.

in

Roman

Imperial

X L V 1 I I , 8, i r . S c c S c h ü r c r , IIJP

Legislation

I, 5 3 4 - 5 4 3 , a n d A . I.indcr, The

( 1 9 8 7 ) , n o . 1.

3 9 . W . E c k , " Z u m k o n s u l a r e n S t a t u s v o n I u d a c a i m f r i l h c n 2 . J h . " , BASP

21 ( 1 9 8 4 ) , 55.

40. 10.3 below, and f o r a c a t a l o g u c A p p . C . 4 1 . F o r t h e d e t a i l s s c c S c h ü r e r IIJP 4 2 . S o R . S y ı n e , ZPE

fews

I, 5 4 7 , n . 1 5 0 .

7 3 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 6 6 - 1 6 7 = Roman

Papers V I ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 5 5 3 — 5 5 4 .

the p r o v i n c e . 4 3 N o o t h e r p r o v i n c e vvith n o e x t e r n a l f r o n t i e r h a d s o l a r g e a g a r r i s o n . B u t vvhat the diploma

o f 1 3 9 a l s o shovvs is t h a t the n a m e ' I u d a c a ' ,

vvith its e t h n i c . v f e r e n c e , h a d a l r e a d y d i s a p p c a r e d , t o b e replaced by a nevv n a m e , 'Syria Palaestina'. W i t h these c h a n g e s the e v o l u t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h c E m p i r e in thc N e a r E a s t vvest o f thc E u p h r a t e s vvas a l m o s t c o m p l c t e . If \vc l o o k a t it in very local t e r m s , vve c a n see t h a t it c o n s i s t e d o f a s p r e a d o f m a j ö r l e g i o n a r y b a s e s : f r o m S a m o s a t a ( X V I F l a v i a F i r m a ) a n d Z e u g m a ( I V S c y t h i c a ) in the n o r t h o v e r l o o k i n g the E u p h r a t e s , t o the O r o n t e s Valley, vvhere III G a i l i c a s c e m s : o h a v e b e e n a t R a p h a n c a e , t o S y r i a P a l a e s t i n a , vvhere X F r e t e n s i s vvas at A e l i a a n d VI F e r r a t a a t C a p a r c o t n a in the J e z r e e l Valley; a n d İÜ C y r e n a i c a a t B o s t r a in A r a b i a , vvhere, as vve h a v e s c e n , the c a m p is stili visible f r o m the air, a t t a c h e d t o t h c n o r t h side o f t h c city. E v e n here vve are h a r d l y in a p o s i t i o n : o assess the c o m p l e x m u t u a l i n f l u e n c e s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s betvveen the c i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n a n d these large m a s s e s o f s o l d i e r s . Stili less is this t h c c a s c vvith a u x i l i a r y units, vvhose l o n g - t e r m l o c a t i o n s , i f they h a d t h e m , a r e h a r d l y ever knovvn. ö n e p l a c e vvhere a fevv s u c h sidelights a r e a v a i l a b l e , hovvever, is Palm y r a , vvhere thc earliest c v i d c ı ı c e for thc p r c s c n c c o f R o m a n a u x i l i a r y units b e l o n g s t o the middle o f t h c s c c o n d c e n t u r y . Typically, vvhat little vve knovv is a p r o d u c t o f the ' e p i g r a p h i c b a b i t ' , a n d specifically o f the h a b i t o f p u t t i n g up h o n o r i f i c inseriptions. S o G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e t e m p l e o f Bel a t Palm y r a shovv u s thc pracfectus

o f thc Ala H e r c u l i a n a o f T h r a c i a n s , Iulius l u l i a -

n u s , in 1 6 7 ; a n d a r o u n d t h e s a m e p e r i o d a different praefectus, vvho h a d a l s o b c c o m c a t o v v n - c o u n c i l l o r (bouleutes)

V i b i u s Çeler,

o f thc city; h c is deseribed

a s *thc p r e f c c t o f t h c ala ( s t a r i o n e d ) h e r e ' , p r e s u m a b l y the s a m e o n e . " Hovv t h e different u n i t s o f t h e a r m y vvere distributed a c r o s s the l a n d s c a p e , hovv they vvere houscd a n d s u p p l i e d a n d vvhat f u n e t i o n s t h e y p e r f o r m e d , ftır i n s t a n c e as a p o l i c e - f o r c c , in relation t o the civilian p o p u l a t i o n are q u e s t i o n s i m p o s s i b l e t o ansvver in g e n e r a l t e r m s . T h e r e is n o vvay in vvhich the i m p a c t o r presence o f the R o m a n s t a t e in the N e a r E a s t c a n be a d e q u a t e l y assessed. i t s m o r e p r o f o u n d , l o n g e r - t e r m c f f c c t s , f o r i n s t a n c c the s p r e a d o f t h c R o m a n citizenship o r the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f collective idenrities (in vvhat sense did a n y C o m m a g e n i a n o r N a b a t a e a n i d e n t i t y survive the i t n p o s i t i o n o f p r o v i n c i a l s t a t u s ? ) m u s t b c reserved f o r a e l o s e r l o o k a t thc different s u b - r e g i o n s o f t.ıc a r e a . But it is stili rclevant t o pick o u t , b y vvay o f i l l u s t r a t i o n , a fevv f e a t u r e s o f thc p r e s c n c c o f thc R o m a n s t a t e vvhich vve c a n d i s c c r n f r o m o u r s c a t t e r e d cvidcncc. O n e , vvhich c a n n o t h a v e e s c a p e d a n y o n e , vvas the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r o a d s . T h o u g h a r o a d m i g h t b e a n y t h i n g f r o m a fully p a v c d c o n s t r u c t i o n , like the 43. C / L X V I , no. 87. 4 4 . C a n t i u e a u , İni/. I X , 110. zı

(= İLS, n o . 8 8 6 9 ) , n o . 1 3 .

m u c h - p h o t o g r a p h e d section stili visible betvveen A n t i o c h a n d B e r o e a , o r a t r a c k f r o m w h i c h stones h a d b e e n s y s t c m a t i c a l l y c l c a r e d , o r j u s t a t r a c k , m i l c s t o n e s b e a r i n g tlıe n a m e o f t h e E m p e r o r , \vherever they \vere p l a c e d , vvill h a v e been an u n m i s t a k a b l e sign o f t h e I m p e r i a l p r e s e n c e . F o r i n s t a n c e , stili c i e a r l y visible f r o m t h e air a n d from ehe g r o u n d is the r o a d l i n k i n g D a m a s c u s t o B o s t r a c u t , in the middle o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y , directly a c r o s s the L e j a , t h e plate o f b r o k e n v o l c a n i c r o c k k n o w n a s T r a c h o n i t i s , o n c e p a r t o f H e r o d i a n d o m a i n s . 4 5 T h e r o a d is lined vvith vvatch-tovvcrs a n d m i l e s t o n e s , o n e o f vvhich r e c o r d s t h a t in 1 8 5 / 1 8 6 the r o a d vvas r e s t o r e d ' f r o m P h a e n a t o A e r i t a ' , t h a t is, f r o m the n o r t h e r n edge o f t h e r o c k plate a t P h a e n a ( M i s m i y e h ) a l m o s t t o the s o u t h e r n c d g c a t A e r i t a ( A h i r e o r A r i q a h ) . H e r e a G r e e k inseription f r o m a b o v e a surviving gate, d a t i n g t o 1 6 9 / 1 7 0 , p e r f e c t l y exemplifies o n e f o r m o f i n t e r a c t i o n betvveen E m p i r e a n d s u b j e c t s . F o r the g a t e vvas built a t his ovvrı e x p c n s c b y a m a n f r o m A e r i t a vvith a p e r f e c t l y R o m a n n a m e , T . C l a u d i u s M a g n u s , a v e t e r a n ( o u e t r a n o s , t r a n s l i t e r a t e d ) , a n d the vvork vvas s u p e r v i s e d b y a c e n t u r i o n o f III G a l l i c a . T h e s a m e c e n t u r i o n , as vvell as o n e f r o m X V I F l a v i a F i r m a , a p p e a r s e n g a g e d i n building a t P h a e n a . M o s t o f the i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m P h a e n a c o m e f r o m a m o n u m e n t a l c o n s t r u c tion, finally destroyed in 1 8 9 0 , vvhich m a y h a v e been a t e m p l e o r s o m e sor t o f official building. 4 * Its m o s t s t r i k i n g feature is a letter, e n g r a v e d beside t h e m a i n c n t r a n c e , o f Iulius S a t u r n i n u s , legatus o f Syria in 1 8 5 - 1 8 7 : Iulius Saturninus t o the Phaenesians, metrokömia

of T r a c h ö n , greeting. If

anyone imposes himself on you by force, vvhether a soldier o r a private person, send to rac and you •vvill have justice. F o r you do not ovve any contribution to strangers, and having a guest-house you c a n n o t be forced to receive strangers in your houses. Put up this letter o f mine in a prominent place in your metrokömia,

so that no o n e may be able t o excuse

himself on grounds of ignorance. 4 7 T h i s letter thus t a k e s its p l a c e , a l o n g vvith the e x t r a c t f r o m t h e mandata

of

D o m i t i a n f r o m H a m a / E p i p h a n i a , in a l o n g list o f d o c u m e n t s i l l u m i n a t i n g t h e m o s t c o ı ı t c n t i o u s a r c a o f f r i c t i o n betvveen the s t a t e a n d its s u b j e c t s . T h e u s e o f a distinetive local t e r m , metrokömia

( ' m o t h e r - v i l l a g e ' ) , as vvell a s the f a c t

t h a t the legatus addresses this c o m m u n i t y directly, a l s o illustrates the c i t y - l i k e f u n e t i o n o f the m a j ö r villages o f this region. W h e t h c r the e h a n g e vvas f o r g o o d o r ili, n o o n e t h e r e c o u l d m i s t a k c t h e f a c t t h a t since the d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f 4 5 . S c c M . D u n a n d , " L a v o ! c t o m a î n c d u L e d g â " , Mim.

Ac. Ins. 1 3 ( 1 9 3 0 ) , 5 2 1 ; T h . R a u -

z o u , " L e s v o i e s d e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s d a n s Ic H a u r a n â l * c p o q u e r o m a i n e " , D c n ı z c r , Hauran 1 3 7 ; K e n n e d y a n d R i l e y , RDF. 4 6 . le

B a s - W . , n o . 2 4 3 8 ( A e r i t a ) ; IGR

t o r i u m a t M u s m i y c " , DOP

I,

78-79. III, n o s . 1 1 1 3 - 1 1 1 8 ( P h a e n a ) . S e e S . M i l i , " T h e P r a e -

29 (1975), 349.

4 7 . L e B a s - W . , n o . 4 J 5 1 = IGR

III, n o . 1 1 1 9 = OGIS,

n o . 609.

A g r i p p a II s o m e d e c a d e s b e f o r e , they b e l o n g c d to a vvider a n d quite d i f f e r e n t state-system. A s w e h a v e seen in t h e c a s e s b o t h o f t h e c o l o n y of B a b y l o ı ı i a n Jevvs established in B a t a n a e a b y H e r o d t h e G r e a t a n d of the villagers o f M a o z a vvhen N a b a t a e a b e c a m e the p r o v i n c c of A r a b i a , it vvould h a v e b e e n e q u a l l y i m p c s sible t o ignore the i m p o s i t i o n o f R o m a n t a x a t i o n a n d the R o m a n census. 4 8 Y e t , a s elsevvhere in the E m p i r e , o u r d o c u m e n t a t i o n for the N e a r E a s t h a r d l y allovvs us to g a i n a n y c o n c e p t i o n of this p r o c e s s , or e v e n to be sure vvhether direct t a x a t i o n vvas p a i d p r e d o m i n a n t l y in c a s h or in k i n d . 4 9 W h a t vve d o knovv, or a r e told, a b o u t this in o u r s o u r c e s m a n a g e s t o c o m b i n c svveeping a s s e r t i o n s vvith a l a c k of c o n c r e t e d e t a i l . So, f o r i n s t a n c c , A p p i a n , vvritiııg in t h e m i d d l e o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y , m e n t i o n s in p a s s i n g t h a t f o r ' S y r i a n s ' a n d ' C i l i c i a n s ' there is a n a n n u a l t a x , a t i p c r c e n t o f their census-rating. $ 0 T h a t vvould i m p l y a t o t a l v a l u a t i o n of l a n d e d p r o p e r t y , as a basis f o r t h e p a y m e n t ; a n d it a l s o implies a very h i g h levcl o f t a x a t i o n . F o r if vve s u p p o s e t h a t l a n d y i e l d c d 7 p e r c e n t per y e a r o n its c a p i t a l v a l u e , t h e r a t e o f t a x a t i o n vvould h a v e been s o m e t h i n g l i k e 1 5 p e r c e n t o n i n c o m c . But t h e tvvo knovvn census-retur.ıs f r o m J u d a e a shovv n o trace o f a n y s u c h s y s t e m — e a c h piece of p r o p e r t y h a s a c o n v e n t i o n a l rate of t a x a t i o n , in c a s h or k i n d , a t t a c h c d to it. s ı N o r d o vve g a i n a n y c o n c e p t i o n of hovv t a x a t i o n of p r o p e r t y related to t a x a t i o n of indiv i d u a l s , the ' h e a d - t a x ' , or tributum

capitis.

S o the m o s t i m p o r t a n t of t h e R o -

m a n lavvyers of t h e early t h i r d century, U l p i a n , a citizcn of T y r e , vvrites o f the census:

'It is necessary to r e c o r d a p e r s o n ' s a g e in the census-returıı, b e c a u s e

c e r t a i n g r o u p s g a i n e x e m p t i o n b y r e a s o n of a g e ; f o r c x a m p l c in Syria m a l e s a r e l i a b l e to the tributum

capitis

f r o m 1 4 years, f e m a l e s f r o m 1 2 , until the

6 5 t h y e a r ' . W e h a v e to a s s u m e t h a t b o t h a l a n d t a x (tributum

soli)

and a

' h e a d - t a x ' vvere p a y a b l e . F o r the jurist Paulus, a c o n t c m p o r a r y of U l p i a n , n o t e s t h a t vvhen V e s p a s i a n m a d e C a e s a r e a a colonia, tributum

capitis;

he remitted o n l y the

but his s o n T i t u s e x e m p t e d their land (solum)

also.12 Ba-

b a t h a , m a k i n g h e r c e n s u s - r e t u r n in the p r o v i n c c of A r a b i a in 1 2 7 , m a k e s n o r e f e r e n c e to h e r ovvıı a g e , hovvever, o r to a n y o n e else as b e i n g resident o n the properties concerncd.53 In o t h e r vvords the r e a l i t i e s o f the p r o c e s s b y vvhich the R o m a n state lived o f f its s u b j e c t s , in this a s in o t h e r arcas, c s c a p c us. A l m o s t c q u a l l y f r a g m e ı ı t a r y c v i d e n c c s u r v i v e s f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n of t o l l s (portoria) (publicani)

by contractors

on the m a i n routes. T h e c o m p l e x question o f long-distancc trade

48.1.1 and 3.1. 49. See 2.2. 50. Appian, Syr. 50/253. 51. 3.2 above. 52. Dig. L, 15, 3 pr. (Ulpian); I , 15, 8, 7 (Paulus). 53. 3.2 above.

will c o n c e r n us l a t e r ; 5 4 so it is s u f f i c i c n t h e r e t o m e n t i o n the c o l l e c t i o n o f t o l l s a t G a z a on t h e c a r a v a n - t r a d e c o r a i n g up f r o m t h e Y e m e n ( A r a b i a F e l i x ) , a n d t h e l q u a r t e r - c o l l e c t o r ' (tetartânes),

a t t e s t e d ( a g a i n ) 011 an h o n o r i f ı c G r e e k a n d

P a l m y r e n e inseription f r o m the a g o r a a t P a l m y r a put up in 1 6 1 . T h e h o n o r a n d , M a r c u s Aemilius M a r c i a n u s Asclepiades, was a town-councillor o f A n t i o c h , a n d w a s h o n o u r e d by fithe traders w h o had c o m e u p f r o m S p a s i n o u C h a r a x ' a t the h e a d o f t h c P e r s i a n G u l f . It is a c c o m p a n i e d by aııother, o f 1 7 4 , w h i c h h o n o u r s a n o t h e r tetartönes,

a n d is o n e o f t h c very fevv knovvn trilingual

i n s e r i p t i o n s , in L a t i n , G r e e k a n d P a l m y r e n e — b r i e f a s it is, a p e r f e c t e x p r e s s i o n o f the c o m p l c x c u l t u r a l f r a m e v v o r k c r e a t e d b y the e x t e n s i o n o f R o m a n povver i n t o t h e steppe. 5 5 A q u i t c different p c r s p c c t i v c is o f f e r e d by a scene in P h i l o s t r a t u s ' h i s t o r i c a l novel t h e Life of Apollonius

of'lyana,

vvritten in t h c

early third c e n t u r y : vvhen A p o l l o n i u s a n d his party a r e a b o u t t o e r o s s t h e K u p h r a t c s into M e s o p o t a m i a , t h c telönes

(fmblicanus)

stationcd at Z e u g m a

t a k e s them t o a b o a r d o n vvhich Standard c h a r g e s f o r v a r i o u s items a r c listed. 5 6 T h i s vvork, set in t h c later first c e n t u r y , p r o p c r l y t a k e s n o a c c o u n t o f t h e great c h a n g e s a n d u p h e a v a l s vvhich o c c u r r e d in the later s e c o n d c e n t u r y a n d early third. T h e s e events vvere t o give Syria a nevv a n d u n e x p e c t e d c e n t r a l i t y in thc f u n e t i o n i n g o f t h c E m p i r e , a n d t o e x t c n d R o m a n rule b o t h far dovvıı t h e middle E u p h r a t e s a n d a c r o s s n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a t o the T i g r i s .

3.4. F.MPF.RORS A N D P R E T E N D E R S

IN T H E NEAR

F R O M J.UCIUS VF.RUS T O SF.PTIMIÜ.S THE CONQUEST OF

EAST

SF.VERUS:

MESOPOTAMİA

F o r a q u a r t c r o f a c c n t u r y a f t e r t h e end o f thc B a r K o c h b a revolt, 110 signific a n t c h a n g c s t o o k placc in thc s h a p c o f thc F.mpirc in t h c N e a r E a s t . W h c n they did c o m e , it vvas a g a i n t h e result, so o u r R o m a n s o u r c e s r e l a t e , o f P a r thian a m b i t i o n s : 1 for V o l o g a c s e s IV o f P a r t h i a , t a k i n g a d v a n t a g c o f t h e a c c c s s i o n in \6ı

o f tvvo nevv j o i n t E m p e r o r s , M a r c u s Aurelius a n d I.ucius V c r u s ,

installed P a c o r u s , a m e m b e r o f his family, a s k i n g o f A r m e n i a . T h e e a r l y fighting

t o o k p l a c e on the u p p e r E u p h r a t e s a n d i n v o l v e d the d e f e a t a n d SUL-

c i d e o f thc legatus

o f C a p p a d o c i a . T h c s u b s c q u c n t R o m a n r c a c t i o n vvas o f

5 4 . 1 3 . 1 belovv. 5 5 . C a n t i n e a u , f i m X , n o s . 2 9 a n d z 15. A f u r t h e r t r i l i n g u a l i n s e r i p t i o n r e f e r r i n g t o t h c s a m e m a n is p u b l i s h e d b y K h . A l - A s ' a d a n d J . T c i x i d o r , Syria 62 ( 1 9 8 5 ) . J-79> n o . 9. 56. P h i l o s t r a t u s , V. Ap. I, 2 0 . 1 . F o r a d e t a i l e d a n d p c r c e p t i v c a c c o u n t o f t h e s e e v e n t s , o n vvhich I dravv f o r t h o s e d e t a i l s r c l c v a n t t o t h e N e a r E a s t i n t h e s e n s e u s e d h e r e , s e c A . Birley, Marcus

Aurelius:

A

Biograpby1

( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 2 1 - 1 2 6 ; 1 2 8 - 1 3 1 . O n V o l o g a e s e s ( I V ) , s e e novv A . P e n n a c h i c t t i , " L ' i s c r i z i o n e b i l i n g u e g r c c o - p a r t i c a d c I l ' E r a c l e di S e l e u c i a " , Mesopotamia

22 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 6 9 , on p p . 1 8 1 - 1 8 2 .

great significanee f o r the n a t u r e o f the I m p e r i a l system f o r c e n t u r i e s t o c o m e . O n e E m p e r o r , M a r c u s A u r e l î u s , s t a y c d in R o m e , while t h e other, L u c i u s Verus, t r a v c l l e d ( s l o w l y a n d l u x u r i o u s l y , it \vas said) t o A n t i o c h t o c o n d u c t the c a m p a i g n , a p p a r e n d y a r r i v i n g in 1 6 2 o r 1 6 3 . I n the event, vvhen the R o m a n s t o o k t h e initiative, first in 1 6 3 a n d then decisively in 1 6 5 , it p r o v e d p o s s i b l e t o p l a c c a R o m a n n o m i n e e o n the t h r o n c o f A r m e n i a a n d t o m a r c h ali the vvay t o t h e c e n t r e o f the P a r t h i a n E m p i r e , c a p t u r e C t c s i p h o n a n d s a c k the m a j ö r G r e e k city o f Seleucia on the T i g r i s . A s s u c h , these c a m p a i g n s a r e p e r h a p s m o s t significant f o r h a v i n g b e e n the s u b j e c t o f a satire by a n a t i v e o f S a m o s a t a vvith t h e H e l l c n i s e d L a t i n n a m e o f L o u k i a t ı o s , o r L u c i a n , vvhose How

History

Should

Be Wriltcn

mocks pane-

g y r i c a l a n d i l l - i n f o r m e d c o n t c m p o r a r y a c c o u n t s . W h a t it m c a n t t h a t a m a j ö r G r e e k vvriter s h o u l d c o m e f r o m the a n c i e n t c a p i t a l o f C o m m a g e n e m u s t be d i s c u s s c d later. 2 B u t his c o n t e m p r u o u s a n a l y s i s o f the instant histories p r o d u c e d t o c c l c b r a t e the e v e n t , vvritten a l r e a d y in 1 6 6 , is c n o u g h t o c o n f i r m the facts o f fighting in n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a , a r o u n d Edessa a n d N i s i b i s , as •svell as the c u r r e n c y o f f a n t a s t i c r e p o r t s o f h o w t h e third legion (III G a l l i c a ) and s o m e a u x i l i a r i e s , under ' C a s s i u s ' , h a d e v e n e r o s s e d the Indus. 3 D o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n e e shovvs m o v c m c n t s n o t m u c h less r e m a r k a b l e t h a n t h a t : o n e legion vvas m o v e d f r o m B o n n a n d c a m e vvith o t h e r d e t a c h m e n t s t h r o u g h the O r i e n ı t o O s r h o e n e a n d A n t h e m o u s i a , a n d a n o t h e r f r o m the lovver D a n u b e . 4 I n fact the river vvhich Avidius C a s s i u s , t h e legatus

o f III G a l l i c a , vvill have e r o s s e d

vvill have been the T i g r i s ; a n d it vvill have been his a d v a n c e i n t o M c d i a vvhich e a r n e d L u c i u s Verus the title ' M e d i c u s ' . But t h e i m a g e o f A l e x a n d e r vvas not a n u n r c a l o r insignificant e l e m e n t in R o m a n t h i n k i n g a b o u t m i l i t a r y g l o r y iıı the E a s t . W h a t if a n y t h i n g r e a l l y c h a n g e d as a result o f the M e s o p o t a m i a n c a m paign is q u i t c unclear. W h a t s e e m s c e r t a i n a t least is t h a t the king, M a n n u s , o f O s r h o e n e t o o k t h e R o m a n side a n d vvas t e m p o r a r i l y exiled t o R o m a n territory. F o r tvvo y e a r s as it s e e m s ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 6 2 / 1 6 3 - 1 6 4 / 1 6 5 ) , a P a r t h i a n * b a c k e d king ruled t h e r e . T h e c o i n a g e o f E d e s s a in fact b e g i n s vvith issues shovving V o l o g a e s c s I V o n t h e o b v c r s c a n d ' W a e l the king 1 , n a m c d in S y r i a c ( W I . M L K ' ) , o n t h e reverse.. B u t then t h e r e c a m e issues either vvith ' M a ' n u the k i n g ' in S y r i a c (M'NNV M L K ' ) o r vvith m e m b e r s o f t h e A n t o n i n e d y n a s t y on the o b v c r s c , a n d ' K i n g M a n n o s , friend o f R o m a n s ' (Basileus lorötnaios),

r e p o r t by a n c i g h t h - c e n t u r y S y r i a c c h r o n i c l c r — a d m i t t c d l y

1 . S c c H . H o m e y c r , Lukian, and Society

Marınos

Phi-

on t h e reverse. T h e c o i n s , very r e m a r k a b l y , fit e x a c t l y vvith the

in Lucian

3 . L u c i a n , llist.

Wie man Geschichle

scbreiben

placing

these

soll ( 1 9 6 5 ) ; C . P. J o n c s ,

Culturr

<1986), esp. ch. 6 . Sec 12.3 below. 1 5 ( N i s i b i s ) ; 2 2 ( E d e s s a ) ; 3 1 (Indus).

4 . Birley, o p . cî». ( n . ı ) , 1 3 0 ; İLS,

n o . 1 0 9 8 ; CIL

III, n o . 6 1 6 9 .

e v e n t s m o r e t h a n t w o d e c a d e s e a r l i e r — t h a t a k i n g M a ' ı ı u r u l e d f o r tvvelve y e a r s a f t e r b e i n g in c x i l e in R o m a n t e r r i t o r y f o r tvvo. 5 R o m e h a d thus, after an interval o f m o r e than h a l f a century, a c q u i r e d a n o t h e r d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m , a n d o n e o f c o n s i d c r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e in c u l t u r a i a n d r e l i g i o u s h i s t o r y . \ V h c t h e r a n y o f M e s o p o t a m i a vvas novv a c t u a l l y o c c u pied b y R o m a n soldiers r e m a i n s uncertain. Certainly such a n o c c u p a t i o n t o o k p l a c e t o t h e n o r t h , i n A r m e n i a , vvhere a R o m a n n o m i n e e , S o h a e m u s , v v a s i ı ı s t a l l e d a s k i n g , a n d R o m a n f o r c e s vvere l e f t a t a nevvly n a m e d c a p i t a l , K a i n e p o l i s ('nevv c i t y ' ) . Tvvo L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n s d u l y a t t e s t d e t a c h m e n t s o f t h e C a p padocian legions stationed at Kchmiadzin just south of M o u n t Ararat.6 I f this is i n d e e d K a i n e p o l i s ( o r e v e n i f n o t ) , it r e p r e s e n t s a r e m a r k a b l y d e c p p e n e t r a t i o n o f A r m e n i a , f o r it l i e s t h e b e s t p a r t o f 4 0 0 k m e a s t o f S a t a l a . O v e r m o u n t a i n o u s t e r r i t o r y t h i s m u s t h a v e m e a n t a m a r c h o f tvvcnty d a y s o r m o r e . I n t h e l i g h t o f t h a t r e m a r k a b l e e x a n ı p l e o f i m p e r i a l i s m , it m a y s e e m less i m p r o b a b l e t h a t g a r r i s o n s , o r o u t p o s t s , vvere a l s o l e f t in e a s t e r n M e s o p o t a m i a , N i s i b i s . B u t o u r o n l y e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t p o s s i b i l i t y is t h a t in t h e t r o o p s l o y a l t o t h e legatus

at

190S

o f S y r i a , P e s c e n n i u s N i g e r , vvere b e s i e g e d t h e r e b y

t h e A d i a b e n i a n s ( t o t h e e a s t ) a n d t h e O s r h o e n i a n s ( t o t h e vvest). 7 I f t h e r e v v a s a R o m a n p r o t e e t o r a t e o f M e s o p o t a m i a , vve d o n o t k n o v v vvhat f o r m it t o o k ; c e r t a i n l y t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o t h i n k o f a d e p e n d e n t k i n g h a v i n g b e e n s u p ported at Nisibis. I f the situation in t h a t area r e m a i n s o b s c u r e , a c o n s i d e r a b l e a d v a n c e dovvn t h e E u p h r a t e s is quite certain. L u c i a n refers to a b a t t l c n e a r S u r a on the E u p h r a t e s , vvhich m a y h a v e b e e n t h e p o i n t a t vvhich R o m a n c o n t r o l h a d p r e v i o u s l y s t o p p e d . 8 A n o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y , F r o n t o , vvriting t o V e r u s a b o u t t h e g l o r y vvoıı b y h i s c a m p a i g n s , r e f e r s t o t h e s t o r m i n g n o t o n l y o f A r t a x a t a ( i n A r m e n i a ) but o f D a u s a r a a n d N i c c p h o r i u m . 9 H e d o e s n o t n e e d t o say t h a t t h e s e vvere o n t h e E u p h r a t e s , t h a t D a u s a r a in f a c t l a y u p s t r c a m f r o m S u r a o r that N i c e p h o r i u m (also called C a l l i n i c u m ) lay at the confluence o f the B a l i k h and the Euphrates. M o r e

i m p o r t a n t stili, hovvever, L u c i a n s p e a k s

several

t i m e s o f a g r e a t b a t t l c a t E u r o p o s , in vvhich o n e p a n c g y r i c a l h i s t o r i a n c l a i m e d that over seventy thousand m e n had been killed. Another thought that Eur o p o s vvas i n M e s o p o t a m i a . 1 0 B u t e v e n L u c i a n d o e s n o t m a k e c l e a r t h a t t h i s m e a n t a g r e a t e x t e n s i o n o f R o m a n c o n t r o l dovvn t h e r i v e r ( o v e r 2 5 0 k m a s t h e r i v e r r u n s ) , a n d a b o v e ali t h a t it t o o k R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n s o u t h v v a r d s p a s t 5. Scc further 1 2 . 5 belovv, a n d A p p . B. (t. ILS,

nos. 3 9 4 a n d 9 x 1 7 . Scc M , G . A n g c l ı Bcrtıncllı, " I r o m a n ı o l t r c I ' E u p h r a t c n e l II

s e c o l o d . C . " , ANRWII.9

( 1 9 7 6 ) , 3, o n p . 2 7 .

7. Dio L X X V , i , 2-3. 8 . 1 . u c i a n , Hist. 9. F r o n t o , Ad

2 9 . See 3 . 1 a b o v e . Verum

1 0 . 1 . u c i a n , Hist.

Imp.

2, r ( I . o c b cd. II, 1 3 2 ) .

20, 2 4 , 28.

the c o n f l u e n c e of the E u p h r a t e s a n d the C h a b u r at C i r e e s i u m , w h i c h

\vould

later bc hcavily fortified b y D i o c l c t i a n . " T h e R o m a n s h a d thus r c g a i n e d w h a t m a y have b e e n the k e y e l e m e n i

in

t h e ' f r o n t i e r ' o f T r a j a n ' s s h o r t - l i v e d p r o v i n c e o f M e s o p o t a m i a ; 1 2 a n d if t h e r e w e r e n o w s o m e sort of o c c u p a t i o n o f M e s o p o t a m i a , the r o u t e f o l l o v v i n g the C h a b u r u p to the region o f Nisibis m a y have been important. But both

the

l i n e o f t h e E u p h r a t e s a n d t h a t o f t h e C h a b u r vvere in a n y c a s e r o u t e s , n a r r o v v strips of cultivated territory, rather than frontiers. In t e r m s o f a r e a , e v e n a s r e g a r d s t h e z o n c t o t h e vvest o f t h e E u p h r a t e s , this s u b s t a n t i a l a d v a n c e thus a d d e d less to R o m a n territory t h a n a m a p

con-

c e i v e d i n t e r m s o f r e g i o n s b o u n d e d b y ' f r o n t i e r s ' m i g h t s u g g e s t . It d i d

have

t h e q u i t c a c c i d e n t a l e f f e c t o f ı r a n s f o r m i n g t h e v o l u m c a n d n a t u r c o f v v h a t vve novv c a n h o p e to u n d e r s t a n J of the N e a r E a s t u n d e r R o m a n rule. For, a s vve vvill s e e i n m o r e d e t a i l l a t e r , t h e n e v v l y a v a i l a b l e a r e h i v e o f

first,

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d a t i n g betvveen t h e 2 3 0 S a n d 2 5 0 S r e l a t e s p r i m a r i l y t o the life o f t h e v i l l a g e s o n the vvest side o f t h e E u p h r a t e s betvveen the Baliklı a n d just belovv the C h a bur, a r e g i o n o f v v h o s c culture: a n d s o c i a l life v i r t u a l l y n o t h i n g vvas p r c v i o u s l y k n o v v n . ' 3 S e c o n d , vvhat h a s b e e n k n o v v n of it, or o f areas n e a r it, has until recently d e p e n d e d o n the v a s t m a s s o f e v i d e n c e o f ali kinds rcvealed by the c x c a v a t i o n s o f D u r a - E u r o p o s in the 1 9 2 0 S a n d i 9 3 0 s . 1 4 T h i s small

Maccdo-

n i a n s e t t l e m e n t o n its s p u r o v e r l o o k i n g t h e E u p h r a t e s h a d b e e n in P a r t h i a n o c c u p a t i o n s i n c e t h e l a t e r s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC a n d vvas t o r e m a i n i n

Roman

h a t ı d s f r o m t h e ı 6 o s u n t i l its d e s t r u c t i o n b y t h e P c r s i a n s in t h e 2 5 0 S . B e c a u s e t h e a r c h a c o l o g i c a l a n d d o c u m c n t a r y e v i d e n c e f r o m h e r e is v v h o l l y o u t o f p r o p o r t i o n t o t h a t f r o m a n y v v h e r e e l s e ; b e c a u s e it v v a s f o r s o l o n g ' P a r t h i a n ' ; a n d b e c a u s e t h e e v i d e n c e v v a s h e a v i l y o v e r - i n t e r p r e t e d v v h e n first f o u n d a n d n o t a l i b e e n p u b l i s h c d in

final

f o r m e v e n yet, D u r a presents the m o s t

has

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problems f o r any overall interpretation o f the ' R o m a n ' N e a r East. For

the

m o m e n t , hovvever, vvhat c o n c e r n s us is the p r e s e n c e of the R o m a n a r m y there, a n d o n l y i n its first p h a s e , u n t i l t h e m a j o r c h a n g e s o f t h e 1 9 0 S . T h e R o m a n m i i i t a r y p r e s e n c e is i l l u m i n a t e d b y a c o n s i d c r a b l e r a n g c documcnts, both inseribed a n d perishable (parehments a n d papyri), none

of

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latter

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first (the

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d a t i n g t o 3 4 / 3 3 BC a n d

of

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a l m o s t the earliest knovvn) shovvs that there h a d been elose c o n n e c t i o n s a e r o s s « i . 5 . 1 belovv. 1 2 . 3 . 3 above. 1 3 . F o r rhis a r e h i v e , c h . i a b o v e , a n d 4 . 1 a n d 1 2 . 5 belovv. 1 4 . S c c , a s a p r e l i m i n a r y , C . H o p k i n s , The

Discovery

of Duta-F.uropos

(1979).

1 5 . F o r a l i t h a t follovvs s c c J . F. G i l l i a m , " T h e R o m a n A r m y in D u r a " , in C . B. Wcl(cs,T/»e Excaua/ions

at Dura-Europos,

Final

Report

tion, c h . 4 , reprinted iıı J. F. G i l l i a m , Roman

V . ı , The Parehments

and Papyri ( 1 9 5 9 ) , i n t r o d u c -

Army Papers ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 2 0 7 .

rhe s t e p p e t h r o u g h o u t the p e r i o d ; a n d it m a y j u s t be t h a t a m i l i t a r y role o n t h e p a r t o f the P a l m y r e n e s p e r s i s t c d f r o m t h e P a r t h i a n t o the early R o m a n p e r i o d . A t any r a t e o n e P a l m y r e n e d e d i c a t i o n t o Y a r h i b o l from the P a r t h i a n period w a s m a d e by the ' B n e M i t a , the a r c h e r s ' ( B N Y M Y T '

QST)—vvhich

d o e s n o t , hovvcvcr, have t o i m p l y a regular military presence. 1 6 Such a prese n c e is clcarly i m p l i e d b y a P a l m y r e n e inseription o f 1 6 8 / T 6 9 m a d e by a n ' o f f i c e r ' (the G r e e k vvord strategos,

t r a n s l i t e r a t c d a s ' S T R T G ' ) , 'vvho is i n

c o m m a n d o f t h c a r c h e r s vvho a r e a t D u r a ' ( D Y ' L Q S T ' D Y B D W R ' ) , a s vvell as a s c c o n d i n s e r i p t i o n in G r c e l c , o f 1 7 0 / 1 7 1 , n a m i n g a P a l m y r e n e as 'strategos o f t h e a r c h e r s ' . 1 7 N o o t h e r e v i d e n c e o f a P a l m y r e n e military p r e s e n c e r c a p p c a r s until 2 0 8 , vvhen thc uııit c o n c c r n e d vvas a regular R o m a n a u x i l i a r y c o h o r t ; 1 8 s p c c u l a t i o n o n this e a r l y p h a s e can b e taken n o further. A t least b y the reign o f C o m m o d u s ( 1 8 0 - 1 9 1 ) an a u x i l i a r y uııit f r o m the g a r r i s o n o f Syria, the C o h o r s II Ulpia E q u i t a t a , vvhich h a d been involved in o p e r a t i o n s in M e s o p o t a m i a in V c r u s ' P a r t h i a n vvar, 19 h a d m o v e d t o D u r a . Very typically, i n v a r i o u s vvays, the e v i d e n c e c o m e s f r o m an a l t a r d e d i c a t e d in L a t i n t o the G e nius o f D u r a by tvvo decuriotıes T h c cohors

o f the c o h o r t , for thc s a f e t y o f C o m m o d u s . 2 0

vvas stili t h e r e in r 9 4 , a t a t i m e o f civil vvar a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e

c h a n g e s , vvhen a n actuarius

o f t h e c o h o r t vvas, in ali a p p a r e n t i n n o c c n c e , in-

volved in putting up a d e d i c a t i o n ' f o r t h c s a f e t y a n d v i c t o r y ' o f E m p e r o r S c p t i m i u s S e v c r u s a n d his fellovv-consul o f t h e y e a r (and later d e f e a t e d r i v a l ) , Clodius Albinus.21 Hovv this inseription relates t o the r i s c a n d fail o f t h c o t h e r rival E m p e r o r o f t h a t year, P e s c c n n i u s N i g c r , t h e legatus

of Syria itself, is q u i t e unclear. B u t

b e f o r e t h a t vve n e e d t o p u t in c o n t e x t v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f these d e c a d e s , vvhich c l e a r l y illustrate t h e grovving i m p o r t a n c c o f thc N e a r E a s t vvithin t h c I m p c r i a l m i l i t a r y a n d political system. T h e first f o c u s o f a t t e n t i o n m u s t be the personality a n d c a r e e r o f C . Avidius C a s s i u s , vvhom vve have s e e n a s legatus

o f III G a l l i c a vvinning g l o r y i n

V e r u s ' P a r t h i a n vvar. 22 O n t h c s u r f a c c his b a c k g r o u n d a n d very p r o m i n e n t c a r e e r novv present fevv p r o b l e m s . H e c a m e f r o m C y r r h u s in n o r t h e r n S y r i a

1 6 . Dura Reports palmyreniennes 1 7 . Dura

VII/V1II, 2 7 9 , n o . 9 0 9 ^ d u M e s n i l d u B u i s s o n , Inventaire

de Dura-Europos Reports

(}z avant

J.-C. îl 256 apres J.-C.)

des

inseriptions

(1939), no. 33.

VII/VHI, 8 3 - 8 4 , n o s . 8 4 5 - 8 4 6 . T h c P a l m y r e n e o n e is M e s n i l d u B u i s s o n ,

o p . cit. ( n . 1 6 ) , n o . 1 9 . 1 8 . 4 . 1 belovv. 1 9 . İLS,

n o . 2 7 2 4 ; see ü e v i j v e r , PME

2 0 . Dura

Reports

I,

2 1 . Dura

Reports

V , 226, no. 5 6 j .

2 2 . S c c M . I.. A s t a r i t a , Auidio R a n k , A g c a n d Q u a l i t y " , Bonner man Papers

V 1 7 ( M . V a l c r i u s I.ollianus).

42—44.

V (198(1), 6 8 9 .

Cassîo

( 1 9 8 3 ) , a n d a b o v c ali R . S y m c , " A v i d i u s C a s s i u s : H i s

Ilistoria-Augusta

Colloquium

1984/198$

( ' 9 8 7 ) , 207 =

Ro-

a n d vvas t h e s o n o f a v v e l l - k n o v v n o r a t o r , A v i d i u s I I c l i o d o r u s , v v h o w a s epistulis

ab

(in c h a r g e o f l e t t c r s — a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y G r e e k letters) o f H a d r i a n , a n d

later p r e f e c t o f E g y p t . S i n c e , vvhen h e p r o c l a i m e d h i m s e l f E m p e r o r

in

175,

A v i d i u s C a s s i u s vvas t o r e f e r t o A l e x a n d r i a as his ' p a t e r n a l c i t y ' , he vvas a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y b o r n t h e r e vvhilc his f a t h c r vvas i n t h e e n t o u r a g e o f H a d r i a n .

He

h i m s e l f vvill t h e n h a v e c n t e r e d t h e S e n a t e i n t h e m i d - I 5 0 S , a n d v v o u l d ( a s vvas n o r m a l ) h a v e b e e n a n e x - p r a e t o r v v h e n h e c o m m a n d e d III G a l l i c a i n V c r u s ' campaign. S o f a r v v h a t vve s e e is a n e x a m p l e o f t h e c l a s s i c p a t t e r n o f t h e

integration

of the G r e e k u p p e r classes i n t o the higlıest o r d e r s o f the R o m a n s y s t e m . First t h e R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p ; t h e n a c a r e e r , b y t h e f a t h e r , in e q u e s t r i a n p o s t s , g a i n ing a d v a n t a g e also f r o m a r e p u t a t i o n f o r rhetorical skills; then the s o n e n t e r s the Senate. T h i s pattern, vvith m a n y variations, has been m u c h s t u d i e d

and

n e e d s n o c o m m c n t . " B u t it is m u c h less vvell a t t e s t e d f o r t h e N e a r E a s t c h a n f o r A ı ı a t o l i a , e s p e c i a l l y i f v v e l e a v e o u t t h e d i r e c t d e s c e n d a n t s o f k i n g s 011 t h e o n e h a n d , a n d c i t i z c n s o f R o m a n coloniae

o n t h e o t h e r . 2 4 E v e n if t h i s d i s p a r i t y

is a p r o d u e t o f a c o m p a r a b l e d i s p a r i t y i n t h e n u m b e r o f i n s e r i p t i o n s s e t u p in t h e c i t i e s o f t h e tvvo r e g i o n s , a R o m a n s e n a t ö r f r o m C y r r h u s , his

career

in

the

middle

of

the

second

century,

remains

a

beginning

notevvorthy

phenomenon. W h a t f o l l o v v e d h i s s u c c e s s in t h e P a r t h i a n vvar v v a s m o r e n o t e v v o r t h y stili: a suffcct consulship, p e r h a p s already in 1 6 6 , and held in abscnce; a n d v e r y s o o n , p e r h a p s e v e n i m m e d i a t e l y , t h e c o n s u i a r p o s t o f legatus

thsn

of Syria. A

l o n g series o f inseriptions, i n e l u d i n g those f r o m Phaena a n d Aerita

already

m e n t i o n e d , reflect his role there bctvveen 1 6 9 a n d 1 7 5 . Ali deseribe h i m in the n o r m a l t e r m i n o l o g y , legatus hypatikos

Augusti

( t r a n s l a t i n g clarissinıus

pro

praetore,

consuiar is).25

o r in G r e e k ,

lamprotatos

B u t t v v o G r e e k vvriters o f the

first h a l f o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , C a s s i u s D i o a n d P h i l o s t r a t u s , b o t h s t a t e t h a t h e vvas g i v e n a l s o s o m e g e n e r a l c o m m a n d , either o f 'al! o f A s i a ' o r o f ' t h e E a s t ' . " A p a r t f r o m a n c x p e d i t i o n t o c r u s h a r c b e l l i o n i n E g y p t , t h e r e is n o

prec.sc

s e n s e v v h i c h vve c a n a t t a c h t o t h i s . I n 1 7 5 , vvhen it vvas t h o u g h t t h a t M a r c u s A u r e l i u s , novv s o l e

Emperor,

2 3 . T h e c l a s s i c p r e s e n t a t i o n is s t i l i A . S t e i n , " Z u r s o z i a l e n S c c l l u n g d e r p r o v i n z İ 3 İ c n O b r r p r i e s t e r " , E p i t u m b i o n Stvoboda Senatoren

aus dem ösllıchen

( > 9 2 7 ) , 3 1 * . S c c n o w , f o r all ehe e v i d e n e e , H . H a l f m a n n ,

Teil des Imperium

Romanum

Die

(1979).

24. See G . W . Bowcrsock, " R o m a n Scnators from the N e a r East: Syria, Judaea, Arabia, Mesopotamia", in S. Pancicra (cd.), F.pigrafia e ordine senalar in II (1982), 65 ı . 2 5 . F o r t h e f u l l r c f c r e n c c s , B . E . T h o m a s s o n , I^ıterculi ( ' 9 3 7 ) 1 " o . 1 6 7 = C . D u n a n t , I.e sanetuaire

de Baalshaminâ

Praesidum

I (1984), 3 1 2 - 3 1 3 . in A E

Palmyre III, Lesinseriptions

(1971),

n o . 4 8 a , rcapâ ' A o u ı S u p K a a a û p tq> S ı a a i D i o r d ı o ) v>ıta|pxlû>; the last vvord s h o u l d bc ürca(u>cl$. 2 6 . D i o L X X X ı , 3, 1: tf|ç ' A m a ç d n a o ı v ; Eit»tpoxeÛEiv. P h i l o s t r a t u s , V. Soph. & p a v ErtitporcEÛov.

II, 1 , 3 2 : -ö tfjv

a ı ı d vvith o n l y the t h i r t e e n - y e a r - o l d C o m m o d u s left t o succeed h i m , h a d d i e d , Avidius C a s s i u s p r o e l a i m e d h i m s e l f E m p e r o r ; C a s s i u s D i o b c l i c v c d t h a t M a r c u s ' vvife F a u s t i n a e n e o u r a g e d h i m t o d o s o . I n the e v e n t , little is knovvn o f t h e t h r c c - m o n t h ' r c i g n ' o f A v i d i u s c x c c p t t h a t he g a i n c d t h e a l l c g i a n c c o f t h e N e a r E a s t a n d Egypt. It ended vvith his murder, vvhile M a r c u s vvas stili on t h e P a n n o n i a n f r o n t . B u t a l t h o u g h the legatus

of Cappadocia took immediate

c o n t r o l o f S y r i a , M a r c u s stili c a m e in p e r s o n , m a k i n g p e a c e vvith t h e b a r b a r ian tribes b e y o n d t h e D a n u b c , s o m e o f vvhom novv supplicd t r o o p s . M a n y a s p e c t s o f the E m p i r e as it vvas d e v e l o p i n g a r e reflecıed in t h e h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n o f a n e q u e s t r i a n offıcer f r o m P a n n o n i a vvho at this m o m e n t vvas ' p l a c c d in c h a r g e o f c a v a l r y m c n o f the p e o p l e s o f the M a r c o m a n n i , N a r i s t a c a n d Q u a d i on their vvay t o t h e p u n i s h m e n t o f t h e eastern vıprising'. 2 -' M a r c u s , as vve vvould e x p e c t , t o o k t h e e s t a b l i s h e d l a n d - r o u t e t h r o u g h A s i a M i n ö r t o the C i l i c i a n G a t e s . B u t n o c o n t e m p o r a r y evidence, literary o r d o c u m e n t a r y , refleets M a r c u s ' p r e s c n c c in t h e N e a r E a s t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e late b i o g r a p h y o f h i m in the Historia

Augustar

he passed directly o n t o A l e x a n d r i a , vvhere

he s e e m s t o h a v e s p e n t the vvinter o f 1 7 5 / 1 7 6 , a n d visited A n t i o c h o n l y o t ı his return j o u r n e y . But h c p e r h a p s visited Syria in 1 7 5 a n d vvent by land. f r o m t h e r e t o E g y p t . F o r A m m i a n u s r e c o r d s h i m on a j o u r n e y t h r o u g h P a l e s t i n e c o m p l a i n i n g o f t h e t u r b u l e n c e o f the Jevvs: ' O M a r c o m a n n i , O Q u a d i , O S a r m a t a c , a t last I h a v e f o u n d o t h e r s m o r e restless t h a n y o u ! ' . I n t h e i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t t h e r e m a r k is, in a c e r t a i n limited sense, intelligible. W h e t h e r a n y o f the b a r b a r i a n s o l d i e r s a c c o m p a n y i n g h i m o v e r h e a r d it is n o t r c c o r d e d . N o r d o vve ktıovv vvhat d i s t u r b a n c c s a m o n g the Jevvish p o p u l a t i o n o f Syria P a l a e s tina, t h r e e d e c a d e s a f t e r t h e e n d o f t h e B a r K o c h b a vvar, p r o m p t e d this e x c l a m a t i o n — o r vvhy it h a d been in h i s a c c o u n t o f M a r c u s ' reign t h a t A m m i a n u s , in a lost b o o k , h a d first given a n a c c o u n t o f t h e \Vhcther, as t h e Historia

Saraceni.16

c l a i m s , M a r c u s really p r o h i b i t e d aLI

Augusta

shovvs a n d p u b l i c m e e t i n g s a t A n t i o c h as a p u n i s h m e n t , a ı ı d vvhether, as M a lalas might suggcst, t h e r e vvas a r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e g a m e s a t A n t i o c h u n d e r C o m m o d u s , n e e d n o t be d e c i d e d . 2 9 B u t the e p i s o d e m u s t h a v e served t o e m phasise the potential role o f A n t i o c h a s a s e c o n d a r y c a p i t a l city, a n d vvith t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p betvveen t h e legatus,

or self-proelaimed Emperor, and the

p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e m a i n c i t y o f h i s p r o v i n c e . F u r t h e r m o r e , it d o e s a l s o s e e m t o h a v e r a i s e d a vvider q u e s t i o n o f regional identitics a n d r e g i o n a l loyalrics. F o r C a s s i u s D i o , a G r c c k f r o m B i t h y n i a , vvho e n t e r e d t h e S e n a t e in t h e l a t e t 8 o s , b o t h deseribes Avidius C a s s i u s as 'a S y r i a n , f r o m C y r r h u s ' a n d ineludes in his History

a speech o f M a r c u s Aurelius, a d d r e s s c d t o his soldiers, in vvhich

2 7 . AE (195»»), n o . 1 2 4 ; P f l a u m , Carriircs,

no. 1 8 1

bis.

2 8 . A m m i a n u s X X I I , 5 , 4 - 5 * S t e m , GI.AJJ

II, n o .

2 9 . H A , M. Atıl.

283-290.

2 5 , 9 - 1 7 ; M a l a l a s , Cbron.

(jews); X I V , 4 , 2 (Saraccns).

lıe derides the f o r c e s u n d e r C a s s i u s as being ' C i l i c i a n s , S y r i a n s , J c w s

and

E g y p t i a n s ' . M o r e s i g n i f i c a n t , D i o r e c o r d s t h a t it vvas then laid dovvn t h a t no o n e s h o u l d g o v c r n t h e p r o v i n c e f r o m vvhich he h i m s e l f c a m e . 3 0 I f ' S y r i a n ' m e a n s simply ' i n h a b i t a n t o f t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a ' , t h e r e is n o p r o b l e m , t h o u g h t h e r e is very iittle t o suggest t h a t in t h e E m p i r e a p e r s o n ' s p r o v i n c e s e r v c d a s a s o r t o f c t h n i c i t y . \Vc vvould far m o r e naturally s u p p o s e t h a t it vvas a p e r s o n ' s city o r c o m m u n i t y vvhich did t h a t . M o r e o v e r , in vvhat sense a n i n h a b i t a n t o f a G r e e k c i t y in S y r i a , a n d a R o m a n senatör, vvould h a v e a c c e p t e d a d e s e r i p t i o n o f h i m s e l f a s a ' S y r i a n ' is a m a j o r p r o b l e m . S o is the i m p l i c a t i o n o f M a r c u s ' m e a s u r e , t h a t s u c h a n origin vvould have a t t r a c t e d a degree of regional loyalty throughout the province. S u c h r e g i o n a l loyalties p r o v e d in a n y c a s e n o t t o b e a n e c c s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r a legatus

o f Syria t o p r o e l a i m h i m s e l f E m p e r o r , o r t o a t t r a c t vvidcsprcad

s u p p o r t . F o r vvithin tvvo d e c a d e s s u c h a p r o c l a m a t i o n vvas m a d e , in T 9 3 , by P e s c e n n i u s Niger, legatus

s i n c e 1 9 0 o r 1 9 1 . T h e civil vvar vvhich follovved and

P c s c e n n i u s ' d e f c a t by S e p t i m i u s S c v c r u s , E m p e r o r in 1 9 3 - 2 . 1 1 , vvere t o h a v e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n s c q u c n c e s f o r t h e N e a r E a s t — a n d o n e s vvhose o r i g i n s , n a ture a n d e f f e c t s t h e m s e l v e s r a i s e difficult q u e s t i o n s o f hovv c o m m u n a l

and

r e g i o n a l identities vvere u n d e r s t o o d then o r s h o u l d b e a n a l y z e d novv. In this i n s t a n c e t h e vvhole s h a p c o f t h e r e g i o n a n d o f t h e R o m a n p r c s e n c c in it vvas t r a n s f o r m e d b y e x t e r n a l a n d civil vvars, a n d b y d e c i s i o n s m a d e b y a n individual m o n a r c h vvhose r e l a t i o n s t o t h a t region vvere o f the m o s t c o m p l e x kir.d. C e r t a i n a s p c c t s o f S c v c r u s ' b i o g r a p h y a r e t h e r e f o r e essential t o n o t e if these changes are t o be understood.31 S e v e r u s h a d been b o r n in 1 4 5 a t L e p c i s M a g n a in T r i p o l i t a n i a , novv (since i V2.) a R o m a n colonia,

b u t a s a city a d i s t a ı ı t p r o d u e t o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n c o l c n -

i s a t i o n o f N o r t h A f r i c a , a n d stili a r e g i o n vvhere a S e m i n e l a n g u a g c ( N c o P u n i c ) vvas curretıt a l o n g s i d e L a t i n . T h a t the P h o e n i c i a n o r i g i n s o f L e p c i s are relevant t o t h e r e s h a p i n g o f tlıc N e a r E a s t is n o m e r c n o v c l i s t i c fantasy. F o r p e r f e c t l y c l e a r d o c u m c n t a r y e v i d e n c e from this period shovvs that t h e h i s t o r i c role o f T y r e in Phoetıicia a s t h e ' m o t h e r - c i t y ' o f L e p c i s vvas stili p u b l i c l y c e l e b r a t e d . Precisely this is refleeted in a s e c o n d - c e n t u r y d e d i c a t i o n , in L a t i n and G r e e k , put up in T y r e b y t h e colonia

o f Lepcis a n d h o n o u r i n g T y r e a s its

Severus, c o m i n g f r o m a p r o m i n e n t local f a m i l y ineluding R o -

tnetropolis.,2

m a n s e n a t o r s , e n t e r e d the S c n a t e h i m s e l f , a n d in a b o u t 1 8 0 , as a n e x - p r a e t o r , vvas sent t o Syria as legatus

o f t h e legion I V S c y t h i c a a t Z c u g m a . F o r a n y o n e

30. Dio LXXI, 12, 2: Itipoç yev ek tfiç Kvpov f|v, 24-16 (Marcus' speech); 31, r. 3 1 . A s vvill b e o b v i o ı ı s , v v h a t f o l l o v v s d e p e n d s o n A . B i r l c y , The Afriean Severus

Emperor:

Septimius

(1988).

3 2 . S e c J. P. R e y - C o q u a i s , " U n c d o u h l e d c d i c a c e d e L e p c i s M a g n a â T y r " , i n A . (cd.), VAfrica nos. 9 5 8 - 9 5 9 .

Romana

I V ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 5 9 7 , a n d M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae35-36.

AE

Mastno (1987),

vvho has l o o k e d a c r o s s the E u p h r a t e s f r o m the a c r o p o l i s o f Z e u g m a t o t h e rolling, fertile t e r r i t o r y o n t h c o t h e r b a n k , it is h a r d t o reject a l t o g e t h e r a c o n n e c t i o n betvveen this a p p o i n t m e n t a n d S e v e r u s ' later c l a i m t h a t M e s o p o t a m i a , novv c o n q u e r c d , vvould s e r v e a s a bulvvark f o r S y r i a . İn fact vve knovv n o t h i n g o f a n y m i l i t a r y o r o t h e r role o f S e v e r u s a t this t i m e . It vvas o n l y later recorded that before becoming Emperor, hc had consultcd thc oraele of Bel a t A p a m e a o n t h e O r o n t e s ( e v i d e n d y vvhile legatus>, a n d h a d receivcd in rcply tvvo lines o f the Iliad d e s e r i b i n g A g a m e m n o n . T h e a p p e a r a n c e in this m a j ö r G r e e k city o f a g o d vvith a B a b y l o n i a n n a m e is a n o t h e r puzzle, t o vvhich vve vvill r e t u r n . 3 3 B u t f o r t h e m o m e n t , if vve m a y belicve t h c b i o g r a p h y o f S e v e r u s in t h e Historia

Augusta,

it vvas a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f d i v i n e ageney, a h o r o s e o p e ,

vvhich a fevv y e a r s later, vvhile h e vvas legatus

o f L u g d u n e n s i s , persuaded h i m

t o m a n y a l a d y f r o m E m e s a , Iulia D o n m a . 3 , 1 W h e t h e r the s t o r y vvas f i c t i o n o r n o t , t h e m a r r i a g e is a f a c t . O n the s u r f a c e a t lcast, it c o u l d bc sccn a s a m a r r i a g e - c o n n c c t i o n typical a m o n g the p r o v i n cial a r i s t o c r a c i e s vvho h a d risen into t h c h i g h c r r a n k s o f t h c Imperial s c r v i c e . W h e t h e r Iulia D o m n a ' s f a m i l y h a d a n y c o n n e c t i o n vvith t h e d y n a s t y o f E m e s a vvhich h a d c o m e t o a n e n d , a p p a r e n t l y , in the 70S is p u r e s p e c u l a t i o n . It m a y c q u a l l y bc s p e c u l a t i o n vvhen a f o u r t h - c e n t u r y s o u r c e r e c o r d s t h a t t h e f a t h e r o f Iulia D o m n a a n d h e r sister I u l i a M a c s a vvas B a s s i a n u s , p r i c s t o f thc S u n , 'vvhom the P h o e n i c i a n s , f r o m vvhom he s p r a n g , called H e l i o g a b a l u s ' . 3 1 T h a t d e s e r i p t i o n m a s k s p r o f o u ı ı d p r o b l c m s , a s vvill be seen later. If t h e r e is t r u t h in the r e p o r t , B a s s i a n u s m u s t , f r o m the n a m e s o f his d a u g h t e r s , h a v e been a R o m a n c i t i z e n , Iulius B a s s i a n u s ; a n d t h e family's citizenship m u s t indeed h a v e g o n c b a c k t o t h c early first c e n t u r y AD. Iulia D o m n a ' s sister, Iulia M a e s a , m a r r i e d a n ecjues vvho later r o s e t o t h c S c n a t c , t h c Iulius Avitus A l c x i a n u s f r o m E m e s a vvho as legatus

o f R a e t i a a b o u t 2 0 0 vvas t o d e d i c a t e a n a l t a r t o

' h i s a n c e s t r a l Sun G o d E l a g a b a l ' . 3 * B y 1 9 3 he vvill h a v e been settled in h i s c q u e s t r i a n career, a n d it vvas p r o b a b l y Severus vvho made him a s e n a t ö r . T h e i r d a u g h t e r Iulia S o h a e m i a s , p e r h a p s b o r n in t h e e a r l y

T8OS,

vvill h a v e been m a r -

ried a r o u n d 2 0 0 t o S e x t u s V a r i u s M a r c e l l u s , a n e q u e s t r i a n official vvho, a s vve learn f r o m C a s s i u s D i o , vvas f r o m the s a m e p r o v i n c c (the undividcd ' S y r i a ' o f b e f o r e 1 9 4 ) , b c i n g f r o m A p a m e a . It is D i o t o o vvho g o c s o n t o say t h a t M a c sa's o t h e r daughter, Iulia Avita . M a m a e a , vvas m a r r i e d t o G e s s i u s M a r c i a n u s ,

3 3 . D i o L X X V i n , 8, 5 - f î . Scc 7 . 4 belovv.

34. HA, V. Sept. Sev. 3, 6. 35. Epit. de Caes. n , t; 23, 2. j 6 . PIR'

I 1 9 2 . F o r thc i d e n t i f i c a t i o n scc H . - G . P f l a u m , " L a c a r r i c r c d e C . Iulius A v i t u s

A l e x i a n u s , g r a n d ' p e r c d c d c u x c m p c r c u r s " , REL

5 7 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , 298; H . H a l f m a n ı ı , " Z v v c i s y r i s e h e

V c r v v a n d t c d e s s c v c r i s c h c n K a i s c r h a u s c s " , G b i r o n 1 2 { 1 9 8 2 ) , 2>2. For thc vvhole f a m i l y n c x u s , Birley, o p . cir., A p p . 2. T h c f a m i l y is a l s o t r e a t e d , in thc c o n t c x t of thc history o f F m c s a , in 9 . 2 belovv.

a l s o 4a S y r i a n ' , f r o m A r c a ( a l s o c a l l e d C a e s a r c a a d L i h a n u m ) , a n c q u e s t r i a n procurator.*7 T h e sons o f these t w o m a r r i a g e s , b o r n in a b o u t 2 0 3 a n d 2 0 9 , w e r e to be the youthful E m p e r o r s o f 2 1 8 - 2 2 2 , M . Aurelius Aııtoninus, or

'Elagabal',

a n d o f 2 2 2 - 2 3 5 , S c v c r u s A l e x a n d c r . I n i t s e l f it m u s t b c a n o p e n q u c s t i o r . a s to whether these provincial, o r regional, c o n n e c t i o n s had a n y significance. But the fact that a p r o m i n e n t c o n t e m p o r a r y , D i o , stresses t h e m c a n n o t be i g n o r c d . T h e intcgration o f t h e s e p r o d u c t s o f Syrian cities into the c q u e s t r i a n service w o u l d be o f s o m e s i g n i f i c a n c e even w i t h o u t t h e a c c e s s i o n o f S c v c r u s iti 1 9 3 , a n d t h e f u r t h e r p r o m o t i o n s t o t h e S e n a t e \vhich f o l l o w e d . T h e m u r d c r o f C o m m o d u s o n t h e lası night o f 1 9 2 led to the brief regiınes in R o m e o f H e l v i u s P e r t i n a x a n d t h e n D i d i u s J u l i a n u s , e n d e d b y t h e e n t r y o f Septimius Scverus' troops f r o m Pannonia Superior, where he had been

lega-

tus. B u t e v e n b e f o r e h c b e g a n h i s m a r c h , in A p r i l 1 9 3 , h e m a y h a v e h e a r d t h a t P c s c c n n i u s N i g c r h a d p r o e l a i m e d h i m s e l f E m p e r o r in A n t i o c h . I l e r o d i a n ' s History,

\vritten t o w a r d s t h e m i d d l e o f t h e t h i r d c c n t u r y , p r o v i d e s a m o d e l o f

hovv s u c h a p r o c l a m a t i o n , m a d e i n a m a j ö r G r e e k c i t y , vvould t a k e p l a c e . 3 8 N i g c r b e g a n by s u m n ı o n i n g s o m e officers a n d getting them to spread t h e r u moıır o f a possible p r o c l a m a t i o n . P o p u l a r r e s p o n s e s o o n follovvcd: S y r i a n s , b e i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y c r r a t i c p e o p l e , are alvvays r e a d y t o u p s e t e s t a b l i s h e d rule. B u r t h e y a l s o h a d a real a f f e c t i o n f o r N i g e r b e c a u s e h e h a d heen a m î l d g o v e r n o r t o e v e r y o n e , a n d f r c q u e n t l y used t o j o i n in t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e i r f e s t i v a l s . T h e S y r i a n s a r e n a t u r a l l y fond o f h o l i d a y s , vvhich a p p l i c s p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e c i t i z e n s o f A n t i o c h , the largest a n d m o s t f l o u r i s h i n g city. In A n t i o c h they c c l c b r a t e festivals p r a c t ı c a l l y t h e vvhole y e a r r o u n d , either in the c i t y o r in t h e s u r r o u n d i n g d i s t r i c t . B e c a u s e N i g c r h a d given t h e m a s u c c e s s i o n o f shovvs ( a b o u t vvhich they a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y cnthusiastic), and had granted them licence to have feasts and celebrat i o n s , vvhich h c knevv vvere popular, h c vvas o b v i o u s l y r e s p e e t e d . H e i s t h e n r e p r e s e n t e d a s m a k i n g a s p e e c h t o t h e s o l d i e r s , vvith a c i v i l i a n crovvd a l s o present: A f t e r s u c h a s p e e c h t h e e n t i r e a r m y a n d t h e a s s e m b l e d crovvd at o n c e p r o e l a i m e d h i m e m p e r o r a n d h a i l c d him vvith the title o f A u g u s t u s . T h e y a l s o put t h e p u r p l e e l o a k o f a n e m p e r o r o n h i m a n d p r o v i d c d h i m vvith ali t h e o t h e r t o k e n s o f imperial dignity m a d e out o f makeshift materials, including the c a r r y i n g o f fire b e f o r e h i m in p r o c e s s i o n s . A f t e r c o n d u c t i n g h i m t o the t e m p l e s o f A n t i o c h t h e y i n s t a l l c d him c e r c m o n i o u s l y in h i s ovvn h o u s e , 37. Dio LXXVIII, 30, ı»33 8 . H t r o d i a n II, 7 , 7 - 8 , 6, L o e b t r a n s .

w h i c h vvas novv r e g a r d c d a s c h c i m p c r i a l c o u r t a n d n o l o n g e r a p r i v a t e h o u s e . O u t s i d e it vvas d e c o r a t e d vvith ali t h e insignia o f o f f i c e . E m b a s s i e s t h e n c a m e f r o m ali t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g p r o v i n c e s , a s vvell a s m e s s a g e s f r o m ' s a t r a p s ' a n d kitıgs b e y o n d the E u p h r a t e s a n d T i g r i s . i n 1 9 3 / 1 9 4 , h o v v c v c r , S e v c r u s ' f o r c e s m a r e h e d e a s t , vvhilc N i g e r r e m a i n c d inaetive; b o t h the f o r c c s a n d t h e E m p e r o r himself, follovving later, t o o k t h e e s t a b l i s h c d r o u t e t h r o u g h A s i a M i n ö r , a n d b y 1 9 4 S c v e r u s vvas i n c o n t r o l

of

S y r i a . Itı 1 9 5 he vvas c a m p a i g n i n g i n M e s o p o t a m i a (vvhere t h e r e m a y a l r e a d y have been s o m e R o m a n forces),*9 m a r e h i n g back through Asia M i n ö r in e a r l y T 9 6 . After the defeat o f a n o t h e r rival E m p e r o r , C l o d i u s Albinus, the

legatus

o f B r i t a i n , h e s e t o f f in s u m m e r 1 9 7 t o S y r i a ( t h i s t i m e via B r u n d i s i u ı n ) , a n d i n v a d e d P a r t h i a in 1 9 7 / 1 9 8 , c a p t u r i n g C t e s i p h o n ( p e r h a p s in J a n u a r y 1 9 8 ) . In t h e r e s t o f 1 9 8 he s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n i n S y r i a ; a n d t h e n , a p p a r e n t l y in 1 9 9 , t h e r e c a m e a f u r t h e r c x p c d i t i o n , d u r i n g vvhich he f a i l e d t o t a k e H a t r a . A f t e r t h a t h e rettırned, a n d travelled t h r o u g h Syria Palaestina to E g y p t . Hovv l o n g h e s t a y e d t h e r e is u n c e r t a i n ; b u t h e t h e n r e t u r n e d t o S y r i a , vvhere h e a n d h i s s o n (novv c a l l e d M . A u r e l i u s A n t o n i n u s , b e t t e r k n o v v n b y h i s n i c k n a m c C a r a c a l l a ) e n t e r e d o n t h e c o n s u l a t c o f 2 0 2 in A n t i o c h . A f t e r t h a t t h e y m a r e h e d b a c k b y the n o r m a l r o u t e a e r o s s A s i a M i n ö r , passing t h r o u g h A n c y r a

and

Nicaea.40 T h e d e t a i l s o f t h e s e m o v c m c n t s a r e i m p o r t a n t . F o r , first, t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e E m p i r e c o u l d b e a n d vvas c o n d u c t c d b y a n d f r o m t h e E m p c r o r ' s t r a v c l l i n g e n t o u r a g e . S e c o n d , t h e s h e e r s t r e t e h o f t i m e i n v o l v e d is a s i g n o f hovv t h e E m p i r e vvas c v o l v i n g . W h e n S e v e r u s c e l e b r a t e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t e n t h y e a r o f h i s r e i g n i n R o m e in 2 0 2 , h e h ü d s p e n t a t l e a s t h a l f o f it e i t h e r in S y r i a o r on c a m p a i g n s aeross the E u p h r a t e s . T h i r d , t o e n t e r o n a joint c o n s u l a t c i n A n t i o c h vvas d e l i b e r a t e l y t o e m p h a s i s e t h a t t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e R o m a n publica

res

c o u l d b e d e p l o y e d i n t h e E a s t . W i t h i n tvvo d e c a d e s , tvvo d i f f e r e n t p r e -

t e n d e r s a n d tvvo e s t a b l i s h c d E m p e r o r s h a d , f o r v a r y i n g p e r i o d s , r u l e d

from

t h e r e . A n d f o u r t h , it vvas in t h e 1 9 0 S , in t h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e c i v i l vvar, t h a t m a j ö r c h a n g e s t o o k place in the N e a r East, both internally in the shape o f the provinces and externally in the level o f military c o m m i t m e n t . T h e first s t e p vvas t o d i v i d c t h e p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a i n t o tvvo; l o o k i n g

back,

H e r o d i a n vvas l a t e r t o e m p h a s i s e t h a t P e s c c n n i u s N i g e r h a d g o v c r n c d

the

v v h o l e o f S y r i a , a v a s t p r o v i n c e c o v e r i n g P h o e n i c i a a n d ali t h e t e r r i t o r y u p t o t h e E u p h r a t e s . 4 ' T h a t vvas o f c o u r s e t h e p o i n t ; l o o k e d a t f r o m R o m e , it vvas t o o l a r g e . S o t h e r e g i o n novv b c c a m e tvvo p r o v i n c e s : t h e n o r t h e r n h a l f , vvith tvvo l e g i o n s , b e c a m e ( a g a i n s t a l i p r c v i o u s u s a g c ) ' S y r i a C o c l c ' , o r 3 9 . 3.3 above.

4 0 . See H a l f m a n n , Itinera, 4 1 . H e r o d i a n II, 7 , 4 .

2 1 6 - 2 2 1 , and T. D . K a r n e s . J R A 2 (1989), 2 5 5 - 2 5 6 .

'IIollow

S y r i a ' ; 4 ' the s o u t h e r n p a r t , vvith o n e l e g i o n , vvas t o be ' S y r i a P h o c n i c e ' . L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n s Ieave n o d o u b t t h a t this ( n o t ' P h o e n i c i a ' ) vvas its title; b u t ' P h o e niee' (like ' C o e l e ' indeed) is n o t a n o r m a l L a t i n a d j e c t i v e , b u t a straight t r a n s literation f r o m G r e e k . A s s u c h , it is even declined a s in G r e e k . S o m i l e s t o n c s f r o m t h e r o a d t h r o u g h T r a c h o n i t i s , m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , r e c o r d their e s t a b l . s h m c n t by M a n i l i u s Fuscus, t h e first legatus,

describcd as 'pracsidcm Syriac

P h o e n i c e s ' . 4 J T h e use o f this t e r m c a n h a v e been intended o n l y as a h i s t o r i c a l r e m i n i s c e n c e , emplıasising t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e c i t i e s o f P h o e n i c i a . T h i s ncvvly devised p r o v i n c e vvas n o t c o n f i n c d t o a r e a s vvhich a n y o n e vvould previously have t h o u g h t o f a s ' P h o c n i c i a n ' , f o r the ' b o r d c r ' betvveen it a n d Syria C o e l e r a n ali the vvay from the M e d i t e r r a n e a n a e r o s s t o the K u p h r a tes. O n t h e c o a s t t h e city o f A r a d o s a n d its t e r r i t o r y b e l o n g e d t o Syria P h o e n i c c ; so did R a p h a n e a c , t h e c a ı n p o f III G a l l i c a , E m e s a a n d its territory, D a m a s c u s a n d P a l m y r a , vvith its v a s t 7.onc s t r e t e h i n g t o the E u p h r a t e s . But D u r a - E u r o p o s , as a b u n d a n t e v i d e n c e shovvs, b e l o n g e d t o Syria C o e l e . In spite o f the c o n q u e s t o f n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a , the (ııovv) tvvo legions o f Syria C o e l e s c e m t o have r e m a i n e d vvhere t h e y h a d been b e f o r e , o n t h e E u p h r a t e s at S a m o s a t a a n d a t Z e u g m a ; 4 4 if s o , t h e y novv faced p r o v i n c i a l t e r r i t o r y a e r o s s the E u p h r a t e s a n d vvere över 3 0 0 k m f r o m the s o u t h e r n m o s t part o f t h e p r o v i n c c vvhere it r e a c h e d t h e river. T h e r e a s o n for the d i v i s i o n c a n bc r e g a r d e d a s c c r t a i n , n a m e l y t o l i m i t the f o r c e s a v a i l a b l e t o a n y o n e legatus

in t h e N e a r E a s t t o n o t m o r e t h a n

two

legions. T h e legali o f Syria C o e l e , vvith their tvvo r e m a i n i n g l e g i o n s , vvere stili o f c x - c o n s u l r a n k , vvhile t h o s e o f P h o c n i c e vvere o f c x - p r a e t o r status, a s c o m m a n d i n g o n l y o n e legion; t h a t it r e m a i n e d a t R a p h a n e a e in the O r o n t e s Valley, n o t far f r o m E m e s a , is m a d e q u i t e c l e a r by events in the civil vvar o f 2 i 8 . 4 i I n vvhat sense i f at ali Syria P h o e n i c e s h o u l d be t h o u g h t o f a s a frontier

prov-

i n c e r e m a i n s t o b c s c e n vvhen vve l o o k at the c v i d c n c c f o r t h e S e v e r a n f r o n t i e r as a vvhole. B u t c e r t a i n l y m a n y a s p e c t s o f security r e m a i n e d in t h e h a n d s o f the P a l m y r e n e s , vvhose role in the p r o t e e t i o n o f c a r a v a n s g o i n g a e r o s s t h e s t e p p e t o the E u p h r a t e s is b e s t a t t e s t e d in this p e r i o d . T h a t f a c t , a n d t h e relat i o n o f P a l m y r a t o t h e e a r l y g o v e r n o r s o f t h e nevv p r o v i n c c (vvhom they îtill flatteringly c a l l e d bypatikoi—consulares),

is clearly reflected in a bilingual

P a l m y r e n c inseription o f 1 9 8 in h o n o u r o f o n e Aelius B o r a , ' p l a c e d in c h s r g e o f k e e p i n g the p e a c e by t h e bypatikoi

M a n i l i u s F u s c u s ( 1 9 4 - 1 9 7 ? ) a n d Vcni-

4 2 . O n t h i s scc «hc t y p i c a l l y b r i l l i a n t a r t i c l e b y E . B i c k e r m a n , " L a C o e l S - S y r i c : N o t « s d c g e o g r a p h i e h i H o r i q u e " , K B 54 ( 1 9 4 7 ) , 1 5 6 . T h e term had been used, very inconsistcntly, for v a r i o u s r e g i o n s i n southern

Syria, including the B e k a a Valley a n d the D c c a p o l i s . Scc

M . S a r t ı c , " L a S y r i e C r e u s e n ' e x i s t c p a s " , Gfog.

hist.,

4 3 . M . D u n a n d , " I . a v o i e r o m a i n c d u L c d j â " , Mem. 4 4 . S o W a g n c c , RET, 4 5 . 4 . 2 belovv.

6 5 ; b u t c f . 4 . 1 belovv.

also

15. Acad,

Ins. 2 ( 1 9 3 0 ) , 1 , o n p p . 2 2 - 3 7 .

dius R u f u s ( 1 9 8 ? ) a n d by his n a t i v e city, a n d h a v i n g s h o w n g r e a t d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d c o u r a g e a n d h a v i n g a c t e d a s strategos

sevcral tirnes a n d h a v i n g r e -

tained the s a m e c o u r a g e a n d m a n h o o d , a n d h a v i n g been h o n o u r e d f o r t h e s e qualities by l a r h i b o l t h e a n c c s t r a l g o d , a n d by thc g o v e r n o r s a n d by thc dec r c e s o f his native c i t y ' . W h a t this m e a n t is m a d e m o r e e x p l i c i t by a d e c r e e o f thc follovving year, 1 9 9 , h o n o u r i n g s o m e o n e else 'vvho b y his c o n t i n u c d c o m m a n d s a g a i n s t thc n o m a d s h a d c o m e t o t h e aid o f the m e r e h a n t s a n d a f f o r d e d safety t o t h c c a r a v a n s

(synodiai)'.46

If o u r c v i d e n c e w e r e better, w e m i g h t svell think t h a t the m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t feature o f P h o e n i c e a s a p r o v i n c c , p e r h a p s e v e n a s a military c o m m a n d , vvas the tvvo great m o u n t a i n - e h a i n s o f L c b a n o n a n d A n t i - L c b a n o n vvith M o u n t H e r m o n , vvhich o c c u p i e d a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f its vvestern p a r t . T h e p r o p o r t i o n m a y h a v e been m a d e even greater in the early third c e n t u r y by t h e l o s s o f s o m e t e r r i t o r y in t h e H a u r a n a n d T r a c h o n i t i s t o A r a b i a , f o r unknovvn r e a s o n s a n d vvith n o t very c l e a r c o n s e q u e n c e s , e x c e p t t h a t C a n a t h a a n d o t h e r small p l a c c s novv fcll vvithin t h e a r e a o f activity o f the legion III C y r c n a i c a s t a t i o n e d a t Bostra." 47 T h e fact o f the c r e a t i o n o f a nevv p r o v i n c c h a s n a t u r a l l y led h i s t o r i a n s orı thc vain search f o r its ' c a p i t a l ' (Tyre, S i d o n , D a m a s c u s ? ) a n d the s e a t o f i t s g o v e r n o r . That is a m i s a p p l i c d q u c s t i o n . B u t , by c o n t r a s t , vvhat is very vvcLI a t t e s t e d are t h e d r a s t i c c h a n g c s i m p o s e d by S e v e r u s by vvay o f revvard a n d p u n i s h m e n t f o r the different a t t i t u d e s t a k e n by c i t i e s in the civil v v a r . H c r o dian r c c o r d s t h a t vvhile A n t i o c h , as vve h a v e seen, s u p p o r t c d Pescenniııs Niger, L a o d i c e a on the c o a s t s u p p o r t c d Severus, a n d vvas s a c k c d by N i g e r ' s f o r c e s ; similarly Berytus s u p p o r t e d N i g e r , a n d T y r e Severus, a n d Tyre vvas a l s o s a c k c d by N i g e r ' s t r o o p s . H e r o d i a n then c l a i m s t h a t a f t e r S e v e r u s ' v i c t o r y A n t i o c h l o s t t h e f o r m a l s t a t u s o f a city altogether, a n d b e c a m e a v i l l a g e (köme)

in t h e t e r r i t o r y o f L a o d i c c a — v v h i c h if true lasted o n l y a fevv years.

W h a t is c e r t a i n , a n d very vvell a t t e s t e d in v a r i o u s types o f evidence, is t h a t t h c G r e e k title ' m e t r o p o l i s ' ( ' m o t h e r - c i t y ' ) a n d the R o m a n s t a t u s o f colonia

vvere

Iiberally d i s t r i b u t e d by the F.mpcror. T h e c l c a r e s t c a s e is L a o d i c e a , vvhich b e c a m e a m e t r o p o l i s i m m e d i a t e l y in 1 9 4 , a n d a colonia

vvith itts Italicum

in

1 9 8 — ' o n a c c o u n t o f its serviccs in the civil vvar', a s the c o n t e m p o r a r y R o m a n jurist U l p i a n , a native o f T y r e , r e c o r d s . H e is n o t so e x p l i c i t a b o u t his ovvn city, preferring t o s p c a k in g e n e r a l t e r m s o f its loyalty t o the R o m a n state; b u t it c e r t a i n l y vvas f o r t h a t r e a s o n t h a t T y r e a p p e a r c d o n its novv L a t i n c o i n a g e 46. H . Ingholr,

a

D e u x i n s e r i p t i o n s b i l ı n g u c s de P a l m y r c " , Syria 1 3 ( 1 9 3 1 ) , 2 7 8 — SEC

n o s . > 3 8 - 1 3 9 ; t h c s c c o n d = C a n t i n c a u , Inv. Palmyre

X , n o . 4 4 . S c c J. S t a t c k y a n d M .

2 (1985), 78-79.

4 7 . S c c B o v v c r s o c k , Roman

Arabia,

114-113.

4 8 . F o r vvhat f o l l o v v s s c c M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae", 4 9 . H e r o d i a n III, 3 , 3; 6, 9 ( A n t i o c h a s k ö m i : ) .

3xff.

VII,

Gawlikowski,

f r o m Severus' reign as 'Septimia Turus M c t r o p o l i s C o l o n i a ' . Ulpiaıı fclt no c q u a l rcscrvcs a b o u t t h e c a s e o f H c l i o p o l i s , w h i c h since 15 RC h a d been p a r t o f t h e t e r r i t o r y o f the colonia

o f B e r y t u s . Novv, ' o n the o c c a s i o n o f t h e civil

vvar', it gained dıe r a n k o f colonia,

b e c o m i n g the ' C o l o n i a Iulia A u g u s t a F e l i x

H e l i o p o l i s ' . T h i s island o f R o m a n n c s s a n d t h e L a t i n language in t h e N e a r E a s t t h u s b e c a m c tvvo i n d e p e n d e n t c i t i e s , a p u n i s h m e n t (as is c l e a r ) f o r Beryt u s ' s u p p o r t o f Niger. N o s u c h e x p l a n a t i o n is a v a i l a b l e f o r S e v e r u s ' o t h e r g r a n t o f this s t a t u s , t o S e b a s t e ( S a m a r i a ) , f o u n d e d by H e r o d t h e G r e a t — u n less vve use t h e item o f f e r c d b y t h e Historia

Augusta,

that the pcoplc of Flavia

N e a p o l i s , t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g city, had a l s o displeased h i m b y t a k i n g N i g e r ' s side, a n d lost their s t a t u s . 4 0 T h e s e a r b i t r a r y c h a n g e s o f n a m e , o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a t u s (for ali t h e inh a b i t a n t s o f the nevv coloniae

vvill h a v e b e c o m e R o m a n c i t i z e n s ) a n d o f mu-

tual p r e c e d e n c e , a b s ü r d t h o u g h t h e y m a y s e e m , a r e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e signific a n c e . F r o m o n e p o i n t o f vievv t h e y a r e m e r e l y a n o t h e r c x a m p l e o f : h c r e m a r k a b l e m a l l c a b i l i t y o f c o m m u n a l ' i d e n t i t i e s ' in t h e N e a r E a s t ; f r o m another, t h e l o c a ! rivalries vvhich t h e y r e v e a l suggest hovv d u b i o u s any n o t i o n o f a regional

identity o r s o l i d a r i t y vvould be; f r o m yet a n o t h e r , t h e y a r e a c l c a r

refleetion o f the i n t c n s i f i c a t i o n o f the I m p e r i a l p r c s e n c e a n d o f I m p e r i a l a t t e n t i o n in this p e r i o d ; a n d finalty t h e y m a r k t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a p e r i o d w h e n , a t least on the s u r f a c e , the N e a r E a s t b e c a m e ' R o m a n ' in a vvay o f vvhich t h s r e h a d b e e n littlc t r a c c b e f o r e . B u t t h a t p r o c e s s a p p l i e d a l s o — a n d even m o r e s u d d e n l y — t o the nevvly c o n q u e r e d t e r r i t o r y a c r o s s t h e E u p h r a t e s . If t h e level o f R o m a n i n v o l v e m e n t here in t h e p e r i o d f r o m 1 6 5 t o 1 9 5 is u n c e r t a i n , t h e r e c a n bc n o d o u b t a b o u t the d r a s t i c n a t u r c o f t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s vvhich novv t o o k p l a c e . N o r can t h e r e b e any d o u b t a b o u t t h e significance o f this step a s a deliberate p r o d u e t o f R o m a n imperialism. F o r C a s s i u s D i o r e c o r d s b o t h the j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r it o f f c r e d b y Scvcrus a n d his o w n d o u b t s a b o u t t h e l o n g - t e r m s t r a t c g i c c o n s e q u e n c c s : 'Severus . . . used t o say t h a t he h a d gained a very e x t e n s i v e t e r r i t o r y a n d h a d m a d e it a bulvvark f o r Syria. B u t it is d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t h e f a c t s as b e i n g the s o u r c e o f c o n t i n u a l vvars f o r us a n d o f g r e a t e x p c n d i t u r e s . F o r it p r o v i d e s very littlc, a n d c o n s u m e s very m u c h , vvhile vve h a v i n g a d v a n c c d a s far a s t h e n e a r e r o f the M e d e s a n d P a r t h i a n s are alvvays as it vvere

fightingon

their b c h a l f V T h i s p a s s a g c w i l l a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y h a v e been vvritten a f t e r : h c fail o f t h e P a r t h i a n E m p i r e in t h e 2.2.0S a n d the risc o f t h e nevv P c r s i a n dynasty, vvhich o f f e r c d a m u c h m o r e a c r i v c t h r e a t t o R o m e . O n the o t h e r h a n d , vvith tvvo brief c x c c p t i o n s in the 2 5 0 S , ali o f the e n d l e s s R o m a n - P c r s i a n vvars w c r c t o b e f o u g h t e a s t o f t h e E u p h r a t e s , o n vvhat the R o m a n s novv e l a i m e d a s p r o vincial territory. B u t in e s s e n c e D i o vvas c o r r c c t .

50. H A , v. Sepi.

Sea 9 , 5 , a p o s s i b i l i l y r a i s c d in M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

5 1 . Dio L X X V , 3, 2-3.

38.

Nevv evidenee shovvs j u s t hovv quickly at l e a s t p a r t (and p r o b a b l y ali) o f the nevv provincial framevvork w a s e s t a b l i s h c d e a s t o f t h e E u p h r a t e s . F o r a L a t i n inseription d a t i n g t o 1 9 5 , t h e y e a r o f S e v e r u s ' first c a m p a i g n , r e c o r d s hovv C . İulius P a c a t i a n u s , proc(urator)

Aug(usti),

establishcd boundaries be-

tvveen t h e ' p r o v i n c i a O s r h o e n a ' a n d t h e k i n g d o m o f A b g a r . " T h e b o u n d a r y lay a m e r e 4 0 k m vvest o f E d e s s a , a n d nevv light is e a s t o n vvhat vve k n c w already, the fact t h a t the k i n g d o m survived a s an e n e l a v e after t h e R o m a n c o n q u e s t . W e vvill c o m e b a c k l a t e r t o t h e c o m p l c x evidenee f o r Edessa in t h e t i m e o f Abgar, vvhose reign p r o b a b l y lasted f r o m 1 7 7 until 2 1 2 . " F o r t h e m o m e n t it is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e hovv s m a l l t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a o f the k i n g d o m s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n , a n d t h a t it vvas s u r r o u n d e d o r b o r d e r e d b y a nevv R o m a n p r o v i n c e f o r vvhich the n a m e ' O s r h o e n a ' h a d been t a k e n over. T h e r e vvas naturally a p r o v i n c i a l g a r r i s o n , a n d in 1 9 7 vve find a d e t a e h m e n t o f the legion I V S c y t h i c a , f r o m Z e u g m a , building a castellum

in the ı ı o r t h -

vvest o f t h e nevv p r o v i n c e , o n t h e r o u t e a e r o s s it betvveen Z e u g m a a n d S a m o s a t a . Eight y e a r s a f t e r t h a t , in 2.05, vve find a n o t h e r procurator

o f the nevv

p r o v i n c e , L . Aelius I a n u a r i u s , r e c o r d e d on a n o t h e r Latin i n s e r i p t i o n , f r o m t h e s a m e p l a c e as t h e b o u n d a r y - m a r k e r , a s h a v i n g been t h e I m p e r i a l a g e n t f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a r o a d f o r f o r t y - e i g h t R o m a n miles { 7 0 k m ) ' f r o m t h e E u p h r a tes t o the b o u n d a r y o f t h e k i n g d o m o f Septimius A b g a r ' . 5 4 It is thus c e r t a i n t h a t a s e a r l y as 1 9 5 t h e a r c a east o f t h e E u p h r a t e s i n cluded the s m a l l d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m o f A b g a r a n d a m i n ö r p r o v i n c e c a l l e d O s r h o e n a , under a n c q u e s t r i a n procurator.

W i t h i n a fevv y e a r s t h e r e vvas a l s o

a m a j ö r p r o v i n c e further e a s t , c a l l e d M e s o p o t a m i a , vvith tvvo legions; it vvas n o t , a s vvould have b e e n n o r m a l , p l a c e d u n d e r a legatus

o f c x - c o n s u l ranle,

but, like Egypt s i n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g , c a m e under a praefectus

o f equestrian

s t a t u s . T h e e h a n g e c a n h a v e b e e n n o a c c i d e n t , a n d is a n i m p o r t a n t step in t h e e v o l u t i o n o f the Imperial s y s t e m avvay f r o m its r o o t s in t h e R e p u b l i c a n p a s t . J u s t hovv s o o n this m a j ö r nevv p r o v i n c e vvas o r g a n i s e d is n o t q u i t e c e r t a i n , b u t it surely c a n n o t have b e e n later t h a n 1 9 B o r 1 9 9 , d u r i n g S e v e r u s ' s c c o n d period o f c a m p a i g n i n g t h e r e . " A n i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m B i t h y n i a r e c o r d s t h a t T i . C l a u d i u s S u b a t i a n u s A q u i l a , b e f o r e b e i n g prefect o f Egypt (in 2 0 6 - 2 1 1 ) , h a d been ' t h e first p r e f e c t o f M e s o p o t a m i a ' . F o r t h e r e a s o n s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e p o i n t vvas vvorth m a k i n g . E v e n vvith o u r f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n e e , scvcral d i f f e r 5 2 . AF. ( 1 9 8 4 ) , n o . 9 1 9 . T h i s , l i k e t h e f o l l o w i n g i n s e r i p t i o n s , w a s p u h l i s h e d b y J . W a g n e x ; " P r o v i n c i a O s t h o c ı ı a e " (sic), in M i t c h e l l , Armies

and Frontiers,

113.

5 3 . 1 2 . 5 belovv, a n d A p p . C . 5 4 . AE ( 1 9 8 4 ) , n o . 9 1 8 (castellum);

9 2 0 : " ( S e v e r u s , C a r a c a İla a n d G e t a ) v i a m a b E u p h r a t e

u s q u e a d fines r c g n i S c p t . A b < g > a r i a n o v o m u n i e r u n t , p e r

Aclium lanuarıum proc. A u g .

prov. Osrhocnae m.p. X X X X V I I F . 55. For w h a t follovvs scc D . L . K c a n c d y , " H . C l a u d i u s S u b a t i a n u s A q u i l a , 'First Prefect o f M e s o p o t a m i a ' " , ZPE

36 (1979), 255; a n d

ine a n d E a r l y S e v e r a n P e r i o d s " , Antichtbon

uThc

G a r r i s o n i n g of M e s o p o t a m i a i n t h e L a t c A n t o n -

21 (1987), 57.

e n t f e a t u r e s o f the nevv p r o v i n c i a l a n d miiitary s t r u e t u r e a r e clear. F i r s t , Severus c r e a t e d t h r e e nevv l e g i o n s (an inerease o f ı o percent in t h e l c g i o n a r y c s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the F . m p i r c ) , called the I - I I I P a r t h i c a c , o f vvhich I a n d II vvere s t a t i o n e d in M e s o p o t a m i a . F*xactly vvhere I vvas s t a t i o n e d is n o t knovvn; but II P a r t h i c a vvas in the s o u t h - e a s t c o r n e r o f the p r o v i n c e a t S i n g a r a , o n die s o u t h e r n s l o p e s o f t h e J c b c l S i n j a r : 'vvhich legion is a t S i n g a r a in M e s o p o t a m i a b y the river l l g r i s ' , a s a l e g i o n a r y ' s t o m b s t o n e f r o m A p h r o d i s i a s in C a ; i a vvas t o r e c o r d , e x a g g e r a t i n g a little. 5 6 Moreovet^ at least tvvo c i t i e s in the nevv p r o v i n c e found t h e m s e l v e s t r a n s f o r m c d , a l r e a d y in S e v e r u s ' reign, i n t o R o m a n coloniae.

In t h e c a s e s o f N i s i b i s a n d C a r r h a e / H a r r a n ( o n l y 5 0 k m f r o m

E d e s s a but cvidently o u t s i d e the r e m a i ı ı i n g regnum

o f A b g a r ) this is c e r t a i n .

It is q u i t c likely a l s o in tvvo o t h e r c a s e s , R c s h a i n a a n d S i n g a r a , b o t h o f vvhich later in the c e n t u r y h a d titles i n c l u d i n g the vvords ' S e p t i m i a c o l o n i a ' . " M e s o p o t a m i a , vvhose greatest e x t e n s i o n vvas yet t o c o m e , presents t h e elearest p o s siblc c x a m p l c o f c o n t i n u i n g R o m a n m i i i t a r y e x p a n s i o n i s m f r o m t h e later Imperial p e r i o d . B u t f o r a f u l l e r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h a t e x p a n s i o n i s m vve n e e d t o l o o k n o t j u s t a t the c o ı ı t e s t e d f r o n t i e r vvith P a r t h i a , b u t a t the vvhole b o r d e r land o f R o m a n control, f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a t o the R e d Sea, över m u c h o f vvhich R o m a n f o r c e s c o n f r o n t e d n o t t h e a r m y o f a rival k i n g d o m b u t the little-knovvn p e o p l e s o f the s t e p p e . 5 6 . J. R e y n o l d s and M . S p e i d e l , " A V e t e r a n o f I P a r t h i c a f r o m C a r i a n A p h r o d i s i a s " , grapbica

Anatolica

j ( 1 9 8 5 ) , 3 1 = AE

Epi-

( 1 9 8 5 ) , n o . 800. T h e c r e a t i o n o f these t v v o l e g i o n s b y

S c v c r u s , a n d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y vvere s t a t i o n e d i n M e s o p o t a m i a , is r c c o r d c d b y D i o I.V, 2 4 , 4. 5 7 . Millar, " R o m a n

Coloniae38-39.

C H A P T E R

4 ROME AND MESOPOTAMİA: F R O M P A R T H I A T O PERSIA

4 . 1 . T H E S E V E K A N N E A R E A S T AS A MİLİTARY

STRUCTÜRE

T h e m i l i t a r y h i s t o r y o f t h e N e a r E a s t , a s o f any o t h e r r e g i o n , c a n n o t be s e p a rated f r o m its s o c i a l history. F o r a s t a r t , the life o f t h e units o f the R o m a n a r m y , distributed a c r o s s the i m m e n s e l y varied l a n d s c a p e s o f t h e N e a r E a s t , i s itself a n a s p e c t o f s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c history. It is a l s o , in m a n y i m p o r t a n t w a y s , a n a s p e c t o f c u l t u r a l a n d r c l i g i o u s history. T h e soldiers, d r a w n f r o m m a n y different p a r t s o f t h e E m p i r e , m a y often h a v e b r o u g h t their o w n c u l t s vvith t h e m . But vvhat vve a c t u a i l y see m u c h m o r e ciearly, f r o m H a t r a in I r a q t o D u r a - E u r o p o s , o r f r o m D u m a y r betvveen D a m a s c u s a n d P a l m y r a t o t h e g r e a t t e m p l e o f B a e t o c a e c e high up in the m o u n t a i n - r a n g e b e h i n d A r a d o s , i s hovv soldiers o f t h e R o m a n a r m y m a d e d e d i c a t i o n s t o local deities, a n d t h u s (as in so m a n y o t h e r vvays) i n t e g r a t e d themselves i n t o the life o f t h e r e g i o n . T h e a p p r o a c h t o t h e N e a r E a s t a d o p t c d here b e g a n vvith t h e d c d i c a t i o n vvhich a soldier o f I V S c y t h i c a m a d e a t D u r a - E u r o p o s in the first h a l f o f the third century, in h o n o u r o f 4 the a n c e s ı r a l g o d , Z e u s B e t y l o s , o f t h o s e by the O r o n t e s ' . An even m o r e c o m p ! c x c x a m p l c is providcd by the d c d i c a t i o n o f a s t a t u c o f ' I u p p i t c r O p t i m u s M a x i m u s H e l i o p o l i t a n u s ' , m a d e , p r o b a b l y in the s e c o n d half o f t h e s e c o n d century, by S e x t i u s R a s i u s P r o c u l u s , praefectus

o f the C o -

h o r s I I T h r a c u m S y r i a c a . It c o m e s f r o m a p l a c e o f s o m e significance, n a m e i y S u h n e h ( S u k n a h ) , on t h e r o a d n o r t h from P a l m y r a t o S u r a on t h e E u p h r a t e s , a n d vvhere a r o a d m a y h a v e d i v e r g e d east t o r e a c h the river a t C i r c e s i u m . A s it h a p p e n s , this is o n c o f o n l y tvvo e x p l i c i t l y labelled r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e I u p p i t e r o f H c l i o p o l i s . B u t it vvill n o t in fact help vvith the c o n t r o v c r s i a l q u c s I

I 2

7 1

t i o n o f the g o d ' s i c o ı ı o g r a p h y ; f o r P r o c u l u s sinıply used a s t a t u e o f purely P a l m y r e n e local v v o r k n ı a n s h i p . ' B u t d o e s t h c m a k i n g o f a L a t i n d c d i c a t i o n a t this p l a c c h y a R o ı r . a n praefectus

m e a n t h a t his u n i t , w h i c h w e knovv t o h a v e been s t a t i o n e d in

S y r i a , o c c u p i e d a post o n this s t r a t e g i c r o a d ? J A n a c r i a l p h o t o g r a p h reveals a r e e t a n g u l a r s t r u e t u r e o f circa

by 80 m t h e r e , vvhich m a y

have

been a s m a l l a u x i l i a r y f o r t . ' B u t if this a n d perhaps o t h e r f o r t s ,

n o m

ly.ng

vvithin the /.one o f P a l m y r e n e s e t t l e m e n t a n d o c c u p a t i o n in the steppe and a l o n g the E u p h r a t e s , vvere o c c u p i e d by R o m a n units, hovv d i d this m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e vvork in r e l a t i o n t o P a l m y r e n e poliçe activity a n d the p r o t e e t i o n o f c a r a v a n s against t h c n o m a d s ? W a s this r o u t e , g o i n g northvvards, in

fact

a t r a d e - r o u t e a t ali? A s k e t e h o f s o m e o f t h e m o r e salient features o f vvhat little vve knovv o f t h e a r m y in thc d c c a d c s b e f o r e a n d a f t e r AD 2 0 0 vvill o f c o u r s e r e v e a l hovv e r r a t i c o u r e v i d e n c e i s , a n d hovv rarcly vve c a n p r o v c t h a t a m i l i t a r y p r c s c n c c atıyvvhere vvas c o n t i n u o u s ö v e r m o r e t h a n a very s h o r t p e r i o d . B u t vve s h o u l d n o t yield t o o readily t o s c e p t i c i s m . E v e n o u r f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e refleets great c h a n g e s a n d a n c x t c n s i o n o f t h c R o m a n m i l i t a r y p r c s c n c c over vast a r e a s vvhere in the first c e n t u r y AD it had been q u i t e unknovvn. It vvas o f c o u r s e in M e s o p o t a m i a t h a t the c h a n g e s , a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d , had b e e n m o s t d r a m a t i c . If vve c a n n o t b e sure vvhere the l c g i o n III P a r t h i c a vvas s t a t i o n e d , p e r h a p s N i s i b i s , 4 i t is c c r t a i n t h a t I P a r t h i c a vvas a t S i n g a r a , vvhere it stili a p p e a r s in A m m i a n u s ' narrative o f events in 3 6 0 . B y then S i n g a r a vvas a fortified city, d e f e n d e d b o t h by its i n h a b i t a n t s a n d by tvvo o f thc novv s m a l l e r R o m a n legions, b u t t h r o u g h lack o f vvater h a d been c a p t u r e d scveral t i m e s already, a s it vvas again novv. 5 T h c Üne o f the R o m a n f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , o f u n c c r tain d a t e , is stili visible f r o m the a ir/ T h e n o r m a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r o a d s a l s o follovvcd ( b r o a d l y r e p r o d u c i n g thc a b o r t i v e p r o c e s s under T r a j a n a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r ) , a n d a R o m a n m i l e s t o n e o f 2 3 1 / 2 3 2 h a s been f o u n d s o m c 5 k m s o u t h vvest o f S i n g a r a ; 7 given i t s p o s i t i o n , it m i g h t p e r h a p s i n d i c a t e a r o a d leading tovvards the C h a b u r a n d t h e n dovvn t h e E u p h r a t e s . R o m a n o u t p o s t s vvill very p r o b a b l y h a v e c x t e n d e d a l s o t o the T i g r i s ; it vvas p r o b a b l y in t h e early tlıird c e n t u r y t h a t a R o m a n v e t e r a n (buetranos)

put u p beside t h c T i g r i s a bilingual

1. F o r the i n s e r i p t i o n ( A E 1 9 1 1 , n o . 114) a n d the s t a t u e see Y . H a j j a r , la Baalbek

triaded'Htliopolis-

I < 1 9 7 7 ) , 2 1 1 , n o . 1 8 6 a n d Pl. L X X .

ı. T h e u n i t is listed otı a diploma 3. K e n n e d y a n d Riley, KOF, 4 . S o K c n n c d y , Anticbthon

of 1 5 7 , C//. X V I , no. 106.

143-144. 21 (1987), 61.

5 . A m m i a n u s X X , 6, r - 8 . 6. K c n n c d y a n d Riley, RDF,

125-131.

7 . J. N . Ficy, " A R o m a n M i l e s t o n e f r o m S i n j a r " , Sümer 3 4 ( ' 9 5 7 ) . *-94> a n d D . O a t e s , Studies

in thc Ancient

History

8 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , 2 2 9 ; see A . M a r i c q , Syria of Northern

lraq (r9f»8), 7 3 .

d e d i c a t i o n t o Z e u s , in G r e e k a n d A r a m a k . " B u r o u r n ı o s t vivid e v i d e n c e f o r r h c limits o f R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n c o m c s f r o m H a t r a , s o m e 1 1 5 k m s o u t h - e a s t o f S i n g a r a . A l i t h a t vve k n o v v f r o m n a r r a t i v e s o u r c e s is t h a t b o t h T r a j a n a n d S e v e r u s h a d f a i l e d t o c a p t u r e t h i s vvalled c i t y vvith its g r e a t t e m p l e o f the S u n . A n aerial p h o t o g r a p h a g a i n b r i n g s o u t vvith r e m a r k a b l e e l a r i t y the r o u g h l y c i r c u l a r line o f vvalls, the s t r e e t - p l a n a n d t h e o b l o n g e n e l o s u r e o f t h e t e m p l e at t h e c e n t r e . 9 B y the 230S R o m a n f o r c e s vvere t h e r e . A g a i n the e v i d e n c e c o m e s f r o m d e d i c a t i o t ı s , o n e t o t h e l o c a l deity: o f t h r e e L a t i n

inscriptiotıs

f r o m t h e r e , c o n t r a s t i n g vvith a l o n g s e r i e s o f s c v c r a l h u n d r e d A r a m a i c o n e s , 1 0 o n c g i v e s the d a t e 2 3 5 ; o n e is a d e d i c a t i o n t o H e r c u l e s b y a t r i b ü n e o f I P a r t h i c a , a p p a r e n t l y a l s o t r i b ü n e o f C o h o r s I X M a u r o r u m G o r d i a n a ( s o in t h e r e i g n o f G o r d i a n , 2 3 8 - 2 4 4 ) ; a n d o n e , b y t h e s a m e m a n , is t o the ' U t ı c o n q u c r c d S u n G o d ' ( ' D e u s S o l I n v i c t u s ' ) o f H a t r a . 1 1 W h e t h c r this vvas a n allı a n c e o r a n o c c u p a t i o n , a n d vvhen it b e g a n , is n o r knovvn. B u t it is c e r t a i n t h a t H a t r a vvas c a p t u r e d by t h e P e r s i a n s in a b o u t 2 4 0 , a n d it s e e m s n e v e r t o h a v e been retaken.12 H a t r a vvas t h u s a m e r e o u t p o s t , vvhich d i d n o t s t a y l o n g in R o m a n h a n d s . I f t h e r e vvas a ' f r o n t i e r ' o f M e s o p o t a m i a o t h e r t h a n the T i g r i s , it s h o u l d h a v e l a i n a l o n g t h e C h a b u r R i v e r , r u t ı n i n g south-vvest dovvn t o the E u p h r a t e s . B u t t h e r e is n o specific e v i d e n c e , d a t a b l e t o t h i s p e r i o d , t o teli us vvhether t h e r e vvas a l i n e o f f o r t s , o r a r o a d , a l o n g the river. As s o o n as vve c o m e vvithin t h e r a n g e o f the e v i d e n c e p r o v i d e d b y e i t h e r t h e p a p y r i atıd p a r e h m e n t s o f D u r a E u r o p o s o r t h e nevvly a v a i l a b l e o ı ı e s f r o m the m i d d l c E u p h r a t e s , o u r a b i l i t y t o c a t c h a t l e a s t s o m e g l i m p s e s o f the s y s t c m is r e s t o r e d . i n d e e d o n e c o n t r i b u t i o n f r o m t h e nevv d o c u m e n t s is p r e c i s e l y t o s u g g e s t r e g u l a r c o n n e c t i o n s b e tvveen the z o n e o f villages n e a r the m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , a b o v e a n d its c o n f l u c n c e vvith the C h a b u r , a n d t h e c i t i e s o f O s r h o e n c a n d

belovv

Mesopo-

t a m i a : F.dessa, M a r c o p o l i s , N i s i b i s , C a r r h a e , S i n g a r a . ' 3 T o give tvvo p r e c i s e e x a m p l e s , tvvo s e p a r a t e s a l e s o f s l a v e s c o n d u c t e d a t B e t h P h o u r a i a o n

the

E u p h r a t e s r e f e r b a c k t o p r c v i o u s s a l e s o f the s a m e s l a v e s a t N i s i b i s ; a n d in

8. Scc D . L . K c n n c d y , " A L o s t L a t i n inseription f r o m t h e B a n k s o f the T i g r i s ' , 7,PF.

73

( 1 9 8 8 ) , 3 2 5 . T h e rcality of this inseription is d o ı ı b t c d b y C . S. L i g h t f o o t a n d J . F. H c a l e y ,

"A

R o m a n Vctcran on the T i g r i s " , Epig. Anat.

17 (1991),

1, p u b l i s h i ı ı g t h e v e r y significant b î l i n g u a l

inseription, on vvhich see further 1 3 . 1 belovv. 9. K e n ı ı e d y a n d Riley, RDF,

106-107.

10. Scc F. Vattioni, Le iserizioni Edessa",

di Hatra ( 1 9 8 1 ) ; scc 11. J. W . D r i j v c r s , " H a t r a , P a l m y r a a n d

II.8 ( 1 9 7 7 ) , 7 9 9 . A s H a t r a vvas s o brıcfly ıındcr R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n , it w i l l n o r

b c c o n s i d c r c d f u r t h e r in this ehapter. 1 1 . See A . M a r i c q , " L e s d e r n i e r e s annees d ' H a t r a : L'alliancc r o m a i n c " , Syria 3 4 ( 1 9 5 7 ) , 2 8 8 ; AE ( 1 9 5 8 ) , n o s . 2 3 8 - 2 4 0 . 1 2 . 4 . 2 belovv. 1 3 . 4.2 a n d 1 2 . 5 belovv.

o n e o f these cases t h e seller h a d b e e n the w i f e o f a c e n t u r i o n o f t h e l e g i o n I P a r t h i c a . 1 4 A g a i n it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t w e c a n n o w a t least glimpse t h e econ o m i c a n d s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e soldiers i n t o local society. B o t h t h e m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s a n d D u r a lay w i t h i n the nevv p r o v i n c e o f Syria C o e l e , vvhose tvvo legions, t h e X V I E l a v i a F i r m a a n d the I V S c y t h i c a , m a y or m a y n o t h a v e k e p t as their m a i n bases S a m o s a t a a n d Z e u g m a far t o t h e n o r t h . It is n o t knovvn vvhen they m o v c d s o u t h t o t h e s t a t i o n s vvhere they a r e f o u n d at the e n d o f the f o u r t h c e n t u r y : X V I a t S u r a a n d I V a t O r e s a ( T a y i b e h ) on the r o a d t o P a l m y r a . 1 5 N o r i s there a n y i n s c r i p t i o n a l o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evid e n e e f o r the R o m a n posts a l o n g t h e E u p h r a t e s betvveen t h e B a l i k h a n d the C h a b u r , a n d belovv the C h a b u r as far a s D u r a , in t h e third century. B u t t h e r e vvas a line o f p o s t s a b o v e a n d belovv D u r a , even t h o u g h this vvas novv n o r a f r o n t i e r facing hostile t e r r i t o r y . It vvas b o t h a narrovv strip o f c u l t i v a b l c l a n d a n d a n i m p o r t a n t m i l i t a r y a n d c i v i l i a n r o u t e . W h e n t h e Persians i n v a d e d in t h e 250S, t h e y vvere t o m o v e n o t a e r o s s b u t a l o n g it, d e s t r o y i n g a l o n g series o f small places a s t h e y vvent. A l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o e v i d e n e e o n t h e g r o u n d d a t a b l e t o this p e r i o d , the evidenee f r o m the nevv a r c h i v e f r o m t h e middle E u p h r a t e s a n d f r o m the e x t e n sive m i l i t a r y a r e h i v e s f r o m D u r a c a n c o m b i n e t o give a r e a l i m p r e s s i o n o f the m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e . It vvill b e vvorth listiııg a fevv e x a m p l e s . 1 6 F o r

instance

vvc find t h a t a villagcr living at B i r t h a O k b a n o n h a d c o m p l a i n e d (vvithout c f f e c t ) t o a c e n t u r i o n s t a t i o n e d t h e r e , saying t h a t his v i n e y a r d h a d beeıı o c c u p i e d by a neiglıbour. A n o t h e r , f r o m a village c a l l e d M a g d a l a , corr.p l a i n e d in 2 4 3 t o t h e c e n t u r i o n 'in e h a r g e o f p u b l i c o r d e r in S p h o r a o e n c ' a b o u t a m u r d e r a n d r o b b e r y ; vvhen t h e c o m p l a i n t vvas l a i d a t A p p a d a n a , t e s t i m o n y vvas given by a

v e t e r a n a n d a serving soldicr o f X V I

Flavia

F i r m a . B o t h a place c a l l e d B i r t h a a n d o n e c a l l c d M a g d a l a a p p c a r in the Dura

arehives a s p o s t s t o vvhich small d c t a c h m e n t s vvere sent o u t ;

and

B i r t h a O k b a n o n a n d S p h o r a c e n e a p p e a r in t h e Üst o f his c o n q u e s t s in the 250S set up b y the P c r s i a n k i n g S h a p u r I . T h e soldicr o f legion X V I , testifying as a p r i v a t e p e r s o n , is m a t e h e d b y the o n e f r o m the s a m e legion vvith t h e historic n a m e 'Aurelı'us C o r b u l o ' , vvho is r e c o r d e d in a d o c u m c n t o f 2 3 2 as m a k i n g a c o n t r a c t at B e t h P h o ı ı r a i a , a village on t h e E u p h r a t e s in t h e t e r r i t o r y o f A p p a d a n a ; A u r c l i u s C o r b u l o vvas a pilot (gubernator)

in l e g i o n X V I , a n d vvas selling a b o a t (in bad repair)

l o c a t e d o n t h e river. F i n a l l y vvc find a s o l d i c r f r o m a nunıerus

o f Palmyrenes

1 4 . Scc D . Fcissel a n d j . G a s c o u , " D o c u m e n t s r o m a i n s i n f d i t s d u M o y e n - E u p h r a c e (III' ?. a p r e s J . - C . ) " , C R A İ ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 5 5 9 , n o s . 8 a n d 9. Sec m o r e f u l l y 4 . 2 belovv. 1 5 . Not.

Digtt..

Or. 3 3 , 1 8 ( S u r a ) ; 1 3 ( O r c s a ) ,

16. Feissel a n d G a s c o u , o p . c i c . , 5 5 7 - 5 5 8 , n o s . 1 a n d 5 (complaints); 5 5 9 , n o . 1 1 ( s a l e of b o a t j ; 5 6 0 , n o . 1 4 (settlcment o f d e b t ) .

m a k i n g a f o r m a ! a g r e e r a e n t a t A p p a d a n a t o r e g a r d as s e t t l e d a d e b t due t o h i m f r o m a \voman living a t D u s a r i s {perhaps

the p l a c e D a u s a r a far t o t h e

north near Callinicum). T h e s e vievvs o f l o c a l s o c i e t y a n d t h e r o l e ( b o t h o f f i c i a l a n d p r i v a t e ) o f s o l d i e r s vvithin it a r e c l o s e l y p a r a l l c l c d , f o r j u s t t h i s a r c a , b y the d o c u m c n t s f r o m D u r a - E u r o p o s . O n e o f t h e m o s t n o t a b l e d o c u m e n t s f r o m t h e r e is a G r e e k d e c d o f s a l e o f AD 2 2 6 , d r a w ı ı up in t h e w i n t e r - q u a r t e r s

(paracbei-

rnas'ta) o f t h e C o h o r s III A u g u s t a T h r a c u t n a t a v i l l a g e c a l l e d S a c l ı a r e . T h e p u r e h a s e r w a s a v e t e r a n o f t h e s a m e c o h o r t living in t h e a r c a ; a n d the l a n d , c o n s i s t i n g o f v i n e y a r d s a n d o r c h a r d s , \vas b o u n d e d b y the C h a b u r R i v e r o n t h e o n e s i d e a n d a c a n a l o n the o t h e r . F i v e s e r v i n g s o l d i e r s signed a s vvitnesses, f o u r in L a t i n a n d o n e in G r c c k . T h e v i l l a g e o f S a c h a r c m a y h a v e lain s o m e 2.ş k m u p t h e C h a b u r f r o m t h e E u p h r a t e s . B u t t h e d o c u m c n t is b e y o n d p r i c e in r e v e a l i n g t h a t t h e r e w e r e a u x i l i a r y c a m p s o n t h i s r i v e r a l s o , a n d in s a y i n g s o m u c h a b o u t the c c o n o m y o f t h e s t r i p a l o n g the river. 1 7 In s u c h a d o c u m e n t vve see t h e role o f m i l i t a r y u n i t s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s o l d i e r s as it vvere f r o m belovv, f r o m vvithin l o c a l s o c i e t y . T h e m i l i t a r y a r e h i v e s p r o p e r f r o m D u r a o f c o u r s e give a d i f f e r e n t i m p r e s s i o n . B u t t h e y t o o shovv hovv s m a l I d c t a c h m c n t s vvere s t r u n g a l o n g t h e E u p h r a t e s in t h i s p e r i o d , as vvell as illust r a t i n g hovv d e t a c h m e n t s f r o m t h e tvvo l e g i o n s o f t h e p r o v i n c e , I V a n d X V I , c o u l d b e present a s f a r s o u t h a s t h i s . T h e b e s t i m p r e s s i o n o f hovv the r i v e r f u n e t i o n e d a s a r o u t c , l i n c d vvith m i l i t a r y p o s t s , is p r o v i d e d by t h e letter vvhich t h e legatus

o f S y r i a C o e l e , M a r i u s M a x i m u s , vvrote in 2 0 7 o r 2 0 8 a b o u t p r o -

v i s i o n s f o r a P a r t h i a n e n v o y o n his vvay t o o r f r o m t h e c o u r t o f S e v e r u s a n d C a r a c a l l a . I t vvas a d d r e s s e d t o t h e tribuni nutneri,

a n d praefecti

a n d the praepositi

of

a n d e n d e d by listing five p l a c e s o n t h e river, in o r d e r f r o m n o r t h t o

s o u t h : G a z i c a ( n e a r the c o n f l u e n c e vvith the C h a b u r ) , A p p a d a n a , D u r a , E d d a n a a n d B i b l a d a . ' " A p p a d a n a in p a r t i c u l a r a p p e a r s m a n y t i m e s in the D u r a d o c u m c n t s as a p l a c c t o vvhich d e t a c h m e n t s vvere sent, a n d vve c a n a s s u m c t h a t t h e r e vvere m i l i t a r y p o s t s a t ali t h e s e p l a c e s . T h e h i s t o r y o f D u r a a s a g a r r i s o n tovvn f r o m t h e 1 9 0 S t o its e n d in t h e 2 5 0 S is very vvell a t t e s t e d , a n d c a n b e b r i e f l y s u m m a r i s e d h e r e . 1 9 D e t a c h m e n t s o f l e g i o n s I V a n d X V I a r e f o u n d b u i l d i n g a s h r i n e t o M i t h r a s in 2 0 9 , a n d o n e s o f I V a n d III C y r e n a i c a ( f r o m B o s t r a in A r a b i a ) an a m p h i t h e a t r e in 2 1 6 . R e f e r e n c e s t o X V I c o n t i n u e in the 220S, a n d a l m o s t the l a s t d o c u m c n t o f R o m a n D u r a is a G r c c k d i v o r c e - d c c d o f 2 5 4 , i n v o l v i n g a s o l d i e r o f l e g i o n IV, novv c a l l e d I V S c y t h i c a V a l e r i a n a G a l l i e n a . T h r e e y e a r s e a r l i e r tvvo G r e e k

1 7 . P. Dura, n o . 2.6. 18. P. Dura, n o . 6 0 B . Scc M . L . C h a u m o n t , " U n d o c u m e n t m f e o n n u c o n c e r n a n t l ' e n v o i d ' u n a m b a s s a d c u r p a r t h e v e r s S c p t i m c S e v e r e (P. D u r a f l o B ) " , Historia 1 9 . Scc J . F. G i l i i a m , o p . c i t . (3.4, n . 1 5 ) .

36 (1987), 4 1 3 .

d e d i c a t i o n s s h o w t h a t a n a u x i l i a r y unit vvith the title ' C o h o r s II P a p h l a g o n u m G a l l i e n a V o l u s i a n a ' vvas a l s o a t D u r a . 2 0 B u t these passing m e n t i o n s c a n n o t o f c o u r s c bc m a d e i n t o a h i s t o r y o f the g a r r i s o n . T h e s t a b l e e l e m e n t , vvhich is very fully a t t e s t e d , is the X X t h c o h o r t o f P a l m y r e ı ı e s , p e r h a p s r a i s e d first in t h e 1 9 0 S ; vvhether it h a d a n y c o n n e c t i o n vvith the P a l m y r e n e a r c h e r s vvho vvere t h e r e b e f o r e is n o t knovvn. It is first r e c o r d c d a t D u r a in 208, a n d s e e m s t o h a v e been there t o the e n d . O f the vast r a n g e o f detail revealed a b o u t m i l i t a r y life, vve m a y pick o u t , first, t h e h i n t s o f the r a t h e r strikingly d e t a i l e d c o n t r o l e x e r c i s e d by t h e legatus,

from north-

c r n S y r i a , b y letter. O n e d o c u m c n t r c v c a l s s o l d i e r s sent vvith letters ' t o the h e a d q u a r t c r s o f thc g o v e r n o r ' , a n d tvvo o t h e r s c o n t a i n letters o f t h e

legatus,

M a r i u s M a x i m u s , assigning h o r s e s t o individually n a m e d soldiers; o n e is vvritten f r o m H i e r a p o l i s a n d o n e from A n t i o c h . 2 ' S c c o n d , o f s o m c t e n o r praepositi

tribuni

o f t h c c o h o r t vvhose n a m e s a r c knovvn, o n e , Iulius T e r e n t i u s ,

h o l d i n g h i s post in the l a t e 230S, h a s achieved a p a r t i c u l a r f a m e . F o r it is he vvho is r e p r e s e n t e d , a n d n a m e d , in t h e vvell-knovvn vvall-painting f r o m thc t e m p l e o f Bel shovving him l e a d i n g his m e n in a sacrifice t o the Tycf>ai (personified F o r t u n e s ) o f P a l m y r a a n d D u r a a n d t o three o t h e r g o d s vvho m a y be P a l m y r e n e . 2 2 O n c e a g a i n , a m e m b e r o f t h e R o m a n a r m y c a n be s c c n paying his r c s p c c t s t o local deitics. It is c e r t a i n t h a t t h e Iulius T e r e n t i u s vvho is identificd on the m u r a l is a t r i b ü n e o f this c o h o r t , f o r he is n a m e d a l s o in the G r e e k verse e p i t a p h vvhich his vvife put u p t o h i m vvhen he died in b a t t l e . 7 3 T h e o c c a s i o n vvas p e r h a p s the m o m e n t in April 2 3 9 vvhen ' t h e P e r s i a n s d e s c c n d e d u p o n us', as a g r a f f i t o r e c o r d s . 2 * T h i r d , since its e x c a v a t i o n D u r a h a s alvvays b e e n r e g a r d e d as p r o v i d i n g thc m a j ö r c a s c vvhere vve c a n s e e the o c c u p a t i o n o f a vvhole q u a r t e r o f a vvallcd tovvn b y the a r m y , a n d its p h y s i c a l r c c o n s t r u c t i o n t o serve t h e needs o f the a r m y . T h u s o n e b u i l d i n g vvith a n u m b e r o f L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n s is i n t e r p r e t e d as a praetorium

( h e a d q u a r t e r s - b u i l d i n g ) vvith a ' h o u s e o f t h e p r e f e c t ' b e s i d e it;

a n d a b r i c k vvall vvhich c a n b c t r a c e d f o r s o m e d i s t a n c c t h r o u g h thc c i t y is t a k e n t o m a r k the b o u n d a r y o f t h e nevv m i l i t a r y q u a r t e r . " O t h e r b u i l d i n g s

1 0 . P. Dura,

n o . 32; Dura Report

z ı . P. Dura.

n o . 8 z , col. ii, I. 7 ; 5 6 B - C ( M a t i u s M a n m u s ) .

I X . 3 , 1 10-114,

1 1 . Published by F. C u m o n l , Fnuilles

nos. 9 7 1 a n d 9 7 2 .

de Dııra-F.uropos

( 1 9 2 6 ) , 8 9 f f . (vvhere thc t e m p l e is

stili called thc t e m p l e o f t h c P a l m y r e n e g o d s ) ; A . Pcrkins, The Art of Dura-F.uropos and Pl. 1 1 (novv in Y a l c U n i v e r s i t y A r t G a l l c r y ) ; c f . M . A . R . C o l l e d g c , The

(1973), 42ff. Art of

Palmyra

3 4 ( 1 9 4 1 ) , 7 9 ; Dura

Repo'ts

( 1 9 7 0 ) , 1 1 8 - 2 2 9 . Scc further 1 1 . 4 belovv, 1 3 . Scc C . B. W c l l e s , " T h c E p i t a p h o f Julius T e r e n t i u s " , HThR I X . x , 176,

no. 9 3 9 .

2 4 . Dura Reports

IV, n o , n o . 2 3 3 B .

2 5 . Dura Reports

V, 2 0 1 - 2 3 7 .

( b a t h s , t h e M i t h r a e u m , a n a m p h i t h e a t r e ) in w h o s e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o l d i e r s t o o k p a r t a r e a l s o held t o be p a r t o f t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t . M o s t e o n t r o v e r s i a l l y o f a l i , o n e e l a b o r a t e building vvith a p o r t i c o o v e r l o o k i n g t h e E u p h r a t e s h a s b e e n labelled ' t h e P a l a c e o f t h e D u x R i p a c \ B u t t h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f tvvo p a i n t e d i n s e r i p t i o n s in G r e e k f r o m this building, c o m m e m o r a t i n g slaves o f D o n ı i t i u s P o m p e i a n u s , vvho in o n e o f these is c a l l e d dux pae,u

ri-

T h i s identification, and t h e excavators' conception of the miiitary take-

o v e r o f t h e vvhole q u a r t c r , m a y b c c o r r c c t . B u t it is ali very u n c c r t a i n , a n d c a n n o t be used f o r h i s t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s . W h a t is c e r t a i n is (in g e n e r a l ) n o m o r e than t h e c l e a r e v i d e n c e f o r the e l o s e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e a r m y i n t o t h e life o f the tovvn. But a m o r e p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t vvhich these a n d o t h e r d o c u m e n t s d o e s t a b l i s h is t h a t t h e l a t c - R o m a n m i i i t a r y r a n k o f dux, n o t a t e e h n i e a l term i n the H i g h E m p i r e , h a d c o m e i n t o use at D u r a in t h e first h a l f o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y . " B u t dux ripae—'commander in G r e e k a s doux

of the b a n k or frontier' (transliterated

tSs reipes)—appears

o n l y in t h e o n e p a i n t e d i n s e r i p t i o n

just m e n t i o n e d . Until t h e r e is e l e a r e r evidence, t o o m u c h e f f o r t s h o u l d n o t b e devoted t o c o n s t r u c t i n g a p i c t u r e o f h i s r e g i o n a l m i i i t a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s — o r t o a d m i r i n g the i u x u r y o f his r e s i d e n c e . F o r o u r c o n c e p t i o n o f the m i i i t a r y s t r u e t u r e o f the E m p i r e , it vvould b e m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o knovv hovv m u c h f u r t h e r dovvn t h e E u p h r a t e s belovv D u r a R o m a n miiitary o c c u p a t i o n e x t e n d e d , a n d hovv it related t o P a l m y r e n c c o n t r o l . A s vve have s c c n , t h e r e vvere c e r t a i n l y R o m a n o u t p o s t s a t places c a l l e d F.ddana a n d B i b l a d a ; t h e l a t t e r may be the little fort o f the S e v e r a n p e r i o d vvhich l o o k s o u t över the E u p h r a t e s a t E r t a j e , f r o m t h e east b a n k . 2 8 N o t f a r belovv t h a t , vve c o m e t o t h e i s l a n d o f A n a , o r A n a t h a , vvhich J u l i a n vvas t o c a p t u r e f r o m the Persians d u r i n g his invasion o f 3 6 3 . " In t h e l a t e 250S, hovvever, it is listed first by S h a p u r I in h i s r e c o r d o f the places c a p t u r e d in his t h i r d i n v a s i o n , a n d vve vvould thus t a k e it t o h a v e been then a R o m a n o u t p o s t . 3 0 B u t P a l m y r e n c i n s e r i p t i o n s o f 1 3 2 a n d o f a r o u n d 2 0 0 shovv t h a t P a l m y r a k e p t a c a v a l r y f o r c e t h e r e ( o r in the l a t t e r c a s e ' a t G a m l a a n d ' A n a ' ) . M o r e i m p o r t a n t , a n o t h e r P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n , o f AD 2 2 5 , m e n t i o n s a 'strategos

at

' A n a a n d G a m l a ' ( ' S T R T G ' L ' N ' W G M I . ' ) . W h a t is significant a b o u t t h i s inseription is a b o v e ali its l o c a t i o n , a t U m m es S e l a b e i k h , s o m e 1 2 0 k m vvest16. Dura Reports IX.3, The Palace of the Dux Ripae and the Dolichenum (1951): for the inseriptions 3 o f f . , n o s . 9 4 5 (6 A o p m ' o u i n o l p n n t a v o ü ™ ö ö y v o û Kal 5ı 5 o w d ç rqç (Jet*tiç ö p e n ı ö ^ and 946.

17. Gilliam, op. cit. (3.4, n.15), 23, and idem, "The Dux Ripae at Dura"1, TAPhA (194»). 157. 2 8 . K c n n c d y a n d Riiey, RDF, 29. A m m i a n u s X X I V , 1 , 30. 4 . 3 b c l o w .

224~*2j.

6-TO,

71

south-vvest o f P a l m y r a o n t h e r o a d e r o s s i n g the s t e p p e t o the lovvcr-middle Euphrates.31 T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t t h e r e f o r e t h a t even a f t e r R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n ext e n d c d t o this a r c a o f t h e E u p h r a t e s , the P a l m y r c n e s c o n t i n u c d t o c x e reise s o m e m i l i t a r y o r p o l i ç e role o n the r o u t e a e r o s s t h e steppe, a n d o n t h e river itself. Hovv did t h a t relate t o t h e R o m a n p r e s e n c e t h e r e , if a n y ? E q u a l l y sign i f i c a n t ( a n d p e r h a p s m o r e s o t h a n m i g h t a p p e a r a t first sight) is the q u e s t i o n o f vvhether a n y R o m a n t r o o p s s t a t i o n e d on this streteh o f the river b e l o n g c d t o Syria C o e l e (as did t h o s e a t D u r a ) o r t o Syria P h o e n i c e , vvith its o n e legion s o m e 3 0 0 k m avvay a t R a p h a n e a e . T h e f a c t that tlıc P a l m y r c n e s r e t a i n e d a f o r c e a t Aııa even in the 22.0S might suggest t h a t B i b l a d a vvas the last o u t p o s t o f Syria C o e l e , a n d t h a t t h e lovver streteh o f t h e river b e l o n g c d t o Syria P h o e n i c e , a n d vvas militarily d e p e n d e n t on P a l m y r a . 3 2 If s o , t h a t vvould fit perfecrly vvith the discovery o f a P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n o f t h e late s e c o n d c e n t u r y s o m e 2,0 k m s o u t h o f E r t a j e vvhich s e e m s t o say t h a t the person c o m m c m o r a t c d " c a m e t o the limit o f the f r o n t i e r ' in t h e strategia

(B'STRTGNVT) of I a r h a ; . "

Hovvcvcr, a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n e e ( c o i n s , a n d graffiti in G r e e k ) f r o m t h e sett l c m e n t o f K i f r i n , vvhich lies belovv A n a , on t h e left b a n k o f the river, might suggest a R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n t h e r e in t h e first half o f t h e third c e n t u r y . If t h a t is s o , a n d i f Kifrin is t h e p l a c e c a l l e d B e c h u p h r c i n t o vvhich t r o o p s vvere o c c a s i o n a l l y p o s t e d f r o m D u r a , 3 4 then the n o t i o n o f tvvo c l e a r l y distiııguished military/provincial z o n e s is n o t valid. Archaeological evidenee (pottery, Imperial coins and some fragmentary graffiti in P a l m y r e n e , A r a m a i c a n d — a s i n g l e n a m e — L a t i n ) a l s o suggest a R o m a n , o r R o m a n o - P a l m y r e n c , o c c u p a t i o n o f the island o f B i d j a n , 1 5 0 k m dovvnstream f r o m D u r a , in t h e first fevv d e c a d e s o f t h e third c e n t u r y , vvithout allovving a n y g r e a t e r p r e c i s i o n . " B u t , a s vvc vvill see, S h a p u r ' s r c c o r d o f his v i c t o r i c s in the 250S identifies n o p l a c e dovvnstream from A n a , o r A t ı a t h a , a n d t h e r e is n o knovvn e v i d e n e e f o r either a R o m a n o r a P a l m y r e n e m i l i t s r y 3 1 . F o r the P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n s referring t o A n a scc A . N o r t h c d g c , A . B a m b e r a n d M . R o a f , Exctwalions Rume

dans le dtserl

at 'Âna, Qal'a

Island

( 1 9 8 8 ) , 6 - 7 ; for t h e r o a d s c c A . P o i d e b a r d , IA tıace

de Syrie I ( 1 9 3 4 ) , 1 0 5 - 1 1 4 , aııd K e n n e d y a n d Riley, RDF,

de

8o-8r.

3 2 . S o M . G a w l i k o w s k i , " T h e R o m a n Frontier o n the E u p h r a t e s " , Mesopotamia

21 (1987),

7 7 . o n p. 7 8 . 3 3 . J . S t a r c k y , " U n e i n s e r i p t i o n palmyr^nienne t r o u v 6 c p r e s d e l ' F . u p h r a t e " , Syria

40

(«963», 473 4 . S e c , e.g., A . I n v c r n i z z i , " K i f r i n a n d the E u p h r a t e s L i m e s " , in F r e e m a n a n d K c n n c d y , DRRE,

3 5 7 . In P. Dura,

n o . 4 6 , a s o l d i c r m e n t i o n s in a letter that h c has been o n c a m p a i g n t o

Br(XXov
Archeoloçia

f. Or. 29/30 ( 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 0 7 ; " B i j a n in the E u p h r a t e s " ,

p r e s e n c e , f o r i n s t a n c e at H a d i t h a , o r at H i t , tovvards vvhich t h e r o a d f r o m P a l m y r a t h r o u g h U m m es S c l a b c i k h s e e m s t o h a v e led. N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e r e l a t i v e fragility o f the R o m a n h o l d o n this a r e a a n d the i m p o r t a n c e o f P a l m y r a for t h e vvhole c a s t c r n z o n c o f S y r i a P h o c n i c e h a v e a c o n s i d e r a b l e b e a r i n g o n t h e e v e n t s o f the 2 6 o s a n d t h e b r i e f P a l m y r e n e E m p i r e . It is t h u s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e r e is n o t h i n g in o u r e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t the legion III G a l l i c a , o r d e t a c h m e n t s o f it, e i t h c r g u a r d e d the lovverm i d d i c E u p h r a t e s o r p o l i c c d t h e s t e p p e a g a i n s t t h e nomades;

resisting their

a t t a c k s o n c a r a v a n s vvas, a s it s e e m s , a p u r e l y P a l m y r e n e f u n e t i o n . Yet t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s vvas evidently c o m p a t i b l e vvith vvhat s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n a n e s t a b l i s h e d p r e s e n c e o f a u x i l i a r y u n i t s ( p e r h a p s n o t m o r e t h a n o n c at a t i m e ) a t P a l m y r a itself. 3 6 W c h a v e a l r e a d y e n c o u n t e r e d t h e i n s e r i p t i o n in h o n o u r o f V i b i u s Çeler, ' p r e f e c t o f the ala

( s t a t i o n e d ) h e r e ' in t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e

s e c o n d c e n t u r y . " F o r m o s t o f t h e c e n t u r y t h e u n i t s a t t e s t e d vvere ali m o u n t e d alae; o n e , t h e Ala V o c o n t i o r u m , a p p a r e n t l y j u s t a r r i v c d f r o m E g y p t , is f o u n d c o n s t r u c t i n g a campus

( t r a i n i n g - g r o u n d ) in 1 8 3 .

A g a r r i s o n a l s o c o n t i n u e d a f t e r S e v e r u s ' d i v i s i o n o f S y r i a , but in the f o r m o f a part-mounted cohort,

tlıc C o h o r s I Flavia C h a l c i d e n o r u m

cquitata,

vvhich is m e n t i o n e d o n i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e r e in 2 0 6 / 2 0 7 a n d in t h e r e i g n o f P h i l i p ( 2 4 4 - 2 4 9 ) . " T h i s r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n o f the R o m a n m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e , n o t e a s t o f P a l m y r a , b u t s o u t h - w e s t o f it, in t h e d i r e e t i o n o f D a m a s c u s . F o r b e f o r e t h i s p e r i o d the s a m e u n i t is r c c o r d e d o n a L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n o f T62. f o u n d built i n t o t h e vvall o f a s u r v i v i n g R o m a n castellum

at M a q s u r a . 3 9 T h e

l o c a t i o n is i m p o r t a n t , 5 k m t o t h e e a s t o f D u m a y r , t h e site o f a m a j ö r t e m p l e o f Z e u s . D u m a y r i t s e l f lies 4 5 k m e a s t o f D a m a s c u s o n t h e m a i n

route

tovvards P a l m y r a . T h i s vvas vvhere t h e r e vvas t o b e , in the T e t r a r c h i c p e r i o d , t h e m a j ö r R o m a n r o u t e , lined vvith castella

o r g u a r d - p o s t s , c a l l e d the S t r a t a

D i o c l e t i a n a . It is n o t in t h e l e a s t c e r t a i n t h a t vvhat this cohors 1 6 2 vvas p r e c i s e l y the l a r g e castellum

vvas b u i l d i n g in

stili v i s i b l e in t h e m o d e r n p e r i o d . B u t

t h e y vvere c l c a r l y b u i l d i n g s o m e t h i n g , a n d vvith t h a t vve t h e r e f o r e h a v e t h e c a r l i c s t e v i d e n c e f o r this r o u t e a s t h e site o f R o m a n c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m i l i t a r y aetivity. It vvas o f c o u r s e a s i g n , a n d a p r o d u e t , o f the i n t e g r a t i o n o f b o t h P a l m y r a a n d D a m a s c u s i n t o the I m p e r i a l m i l i t a r y s y s t e m ; a n d ( a s vve vvill s e e ) it r e l a t e s a l s o t o the i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e a r e a s o u t h o f D a m a s c u s , e f f e e t i v e l y

36. F o r a s u r v e y o f t h e k n o w n cvidc-ncc s c c 1 1 . S e y r i g , " T c x t c s relatifs » la g a r n i s o n r o m a i n e d c P a i m y r c " , Syria

1 4 ( 1 9 3 3 ) , 1 5 2 , w i c h c o r r e c ı i o u s a n d addiriotts by M . S p e i d e l ,

o u ala V o c o n t i o r u m â P a i m y r c " , Syria

4 9 ( « 9 7 2 I , 4 9 4 — (in E n g l i s h ) Roman

Army

"Numerus Studies

I

("984), Î 7 1 * 37-3-4 above. 3 8 . AE ( 1 9 6 9 - 7 0 ) , n o s . 6 1 0 - 6 1 1 ( 2 0 6 / 2 0 7 ) ; ' 9 3 3 . 3 9 . C İ L III, n o . 6 6 5 8 D o m a s z c v v s k i , Die Prouincia

n

°-

(238/244).

L e B a s - W . , n o . 2 ; 6 2 d . O n ehe castellum, Arabia

R . F.. Brtlnnovv a n d A . v o t ı

III ( 1 9 0 9 ) , 287//.; P o i d c b a r d , Trace,

43.

possible only after the a b s o r p t i o n o f the k i n g d o m o f Agrippa II. A s s o o f t e n , s o it s e e m s , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e R o m a n m i i i t a r y s y s t e m w e n t i n p a r a l e l w i t h civilian d e v e l o p m e n t . T h u s a t t h e m a j o r t e m p l e o f D u m a y r itself, a t an i n d e t e r m i n a t e d a t e i n t h e l a t e r s e c o n d o r t h i r d c e n t u r y , a strator fectus

of a

prae-

o f t h e A l a V o c o n t i o r u m c o n t r i b u t e d t o b u i l d i n g - w o r k o u t o f h i s ov/n

p o c k c t . T h i s w a s , hovvever, a m i x e d c a s e , f o r t h e m a n b e l o n g e d t o t h i s p l a c e , v v h o s c a n c i e n t n a m e vvas T h c l s c a , a n d i d c n t i f i e d h i m s e l f a s a ' T h e l s e e ı ı o s ' . 4 0 In t h i s l o c a l c o n t e x t t h i s vvas n o i n s i g n i f i c a n t c l a i m . F o r t h e t e m p l e o f Z e u s t h e r e vvas a m a j o r l o c a l c e n t r e , a n d vvas t o b c t h e s u b j c c t , i n 2 1 6 , o f a c a s e h e a r d b e f o r e C a r a c a l l a in p e r s o n ; a n d t h e 'metroköme

('mothcr-village*) of

t h e T h e l s e e n o i ' is a c l a s s i c i n s t a n c e o f t h o s e i m p o r t a n t villages vvhich a r e s o characteristic o f the N e a r E a s t , a n d hardly seem to have 'depended' o n any city.41 I f T h e l s e a h a d d e p e n d e d o n a c i t y ( a n d it m a y in t h e o r y h a v e d o n e s o ) , it vvould s u r e l y h a v e b e e n D a m a s c u s . E a r l i e r c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a p p a r e n t i s o l a t i o n f r o m t h e m a i n p a r t o f t h e t h e n s i n g l e p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a , D a m a s c u s vvas n o ; v , a t l e a s t i n s o m e s e n s e , s o l i d l y e m b e d d e d in p r o v i n c i a l t e r r i t o r y , a n d m u s t h a v e b e e n r e l a t i v e l y p r o m i n e n t a m o n g t h e c i t i e s o f S y r i a C o e l e . "1 h e v e r y I i m i t e d e v i d e n c e surviving f r o m this c o n t i n u o u s l y i n h a b i t e d place, hovvever, m a k e s its h i s t o r y as a city in the R o m a n p e r i o d r e m a r k a b l y m y s t c r i o u s ; 4 2 a n d s i n c e a s alvvays s o m u c h o f o u r e v i d e n c e f o r m i i i t a r y a n d f o r c i v i l i a n h i s t o r y d e pends o n honorific or building inseriptions, o u r c o n c e p t i o n o f the

Roman

miiitary p r e s e n c e h e r e is a l s o very Iimited. A s vve h a v e s e e n , t h e S e v e r a n p e r i o d shovvs a t l e a s t t h £ b e g i n n i n g s o f a R o m a n m i i i t a r y p r c s e n c c a l o n g vvhat vvould l a t e r b c t h e ' S t r a t a D i o c l e t i a n a ' l i n k i n g D a m a s c u s t o P a l m y r a a n d t h e F^uphrates. B u t i n g c o g r a p h i c a l t e r m s t h e large oasis o f D a m a s c u s , f o r m e d by t h e r u n - o f f o f rivers f r o m tlıc m o u r ı t a i n m a s s i f b e h i ı ı d , vvas a l s o a f r o n t i e r z o n c ; f o r a s s o o n a s t h e v e r y r i c h o a s i s a r e a s t o p p e d , s o m e 3 0 k m e a s t o f D a m a s c u s , t h e s t e p p e b e g a n . W h a t e v e r reas o n s lay b e h i n d the clearly attested e x t e n s i o n o f R o m a n forts into the steppe b o t h n o r t h - e a s t a n d ( a s vve w i l l s e e ) s o u t h - e a s t o f D a m a s c u s i n t h i s p e r i o d s h o u l d h a v e a p p l i c d t o t h e o a s i s a l s o . B u t s o f a r t h e o n l y c v i d c n c c f o r t h a t is an unpublished Latin inseription from Gaslaniyc, south-east of D a m a s c u s , s h o v v i n g t h e A l a I P a n n o n i o r u m e q u i t a t a e n g a g e d i n b u i l d i n g - v v o r k in the ı 8 o s . 4 J Indccd these rcasons o u g h t t o have applicd m o r e strongly here. F o r if t h e nonıades

o f t h e s t e p p e n c c d c d t o b e v v a t c h c d o r c o n t r o l l e d , s o h a d in the

40. Scc N. Ehrhardt, "Die ala Vocontiorum und dic Daticrung des Tcmpcls ron Dmciı", Z P E 65 (1986), 225. 4 1 . 9.3 bc!ow. 4 2 . 9 . 3 belovv. 4 3 . J.-P. R e y - C ' o q u a i s , JRS 6S ( 1 9 7 8 ) , 68, n . 3 3 2 = AE ( 1 9 7 8 ) , n o . 8 1 8 .

past thc inhabitants of T r a c h o n i t i s to the south o f D a m a s c u s , and a l s o t h c I t u r a e a n s o f rhe m o u n t a i n m a s s î f b e h i n d the city. B u t t h c fact is t h a t vve knovv virtually n o t h i n g o f t h e R o m a n m i l i t a r y s y s t e m , i f t h e r e vvas o n e , in this a r e a in t h c S e v e r a n p e r i o d . It is q u i t e u n c l e a r vvhether m i l i t a r y o b s e r v a t i o n o f the m o u n t a i n m a s s i f , as a şort o f intıcr f r o n tier, vvas stili r e q u i r e d . T h e o n e c c r t a i n aspect o f t h e m i l i t a r y p r c s c n c c is t h c r o a d vvhich novv raıı f r o m D a m a s c u s a c r o s s T r a c h o n i t i s (the L e j j a ) t o B o s t r a , a l r e a d y discusscd." 1 4 W h a t vvould b e significant vvould be t o knovv if in t h i s p e r i o d , a s c e r t a i n l y later u n d e r t h e T e t r a r e h y , t h e r e vvere R o m a n f o r t s o r r o u t e s in the steppe z o n e e a s t o f T r a c h o n i t i s a n d the J e b e l H a u r a n , vvhich l i n k e d up vvith t h c r o a d s a n d f o r t s vvhich vve knovv f o r this period in t h e J o r d a n i a n s t e p p e t o t h c s o u t h . T h c sole c v i d e n c e d a t a b l e ( b r o a d l y ) t o this period is p r o v i d e d by G r e e k a n d L a t i n graffiti vvhich s e e m t o m a k e c l e a r t h a t R o m a n s o l d i e r s a t least visited a small o a s i s in t h e s t e p p e s o m e 5 0 k m e a s t o f the n o r t h e r n J e b e l H a u r a n , a t a p l a c e c a l l e d e n - N a m a r a : the f r a g m e n t a r y i n s e r i p t i o n s t h e r e reveal a dromedarius, darehos),

a n o n - c o m m i s s i o n e d officer

(deka-

a n d a c a v a l r y m a n o f t h e legion III C y r e n a i c a s t a t i o n e d a t B o s t r a . 4 5

It thus s c c m s c l c a r t h a t the s t e p p e z o n e fell vvithin the p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a . lTıis site b c c o m e s o f i m m e n s e i m p o r t a n c e later, b e c a u s e o f t h e i n s e r i p t i o n vvhich a n A r a b k i n g vvas t o p u ı up t h e r e in 3 1 8 * 6 B u t f o r t h e vvhole b o r d e r land o f the steppe, f r o m the D a m a s c u s - P a l m y r a r o u t e in the n o r t h t o t h c s o u t h e r n fringcs o f thc J e b e l H a u r a n , a d i s t a n c e o f s o m e 1 3 0 k m , vve h a v e t o c o n f e s s t h a t t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e a s t o vvhether t h e r e vvere any c s t a b l i s h e d R o m a n f o r t s o r n o t in t h e S e v e r a n p e r i o d . F o r the steppe r e g i o n s o u t h o f t h e J e b e l H a u r a n , hovvever, t h e r e is signific a n t e v i d e n c e . 4 7 T h c fact t h a t it is (as alvvays) f r a g m e n t a r y a n d s u b j e c t t o t h e a c c i d e n t s o f discovery, a n d t h a t it is n e v e r p o s s i b l e in principle t o prove t h a t s o m e t h i n g attested a t a c e r t a i n d a t e first b e g a n a t t h a t d a t e , s h o u l d n o t b l i n d us t o t h c fact t h a t until novv t h e r e h a s been n o e v i d e n c e earlier t h a n the l a t e s e c o n d c e n t u r y f o r a R o m a n m i l i t a r y p r c s c n c c in this r e g i o n . T h e salient i t e m s o f e v i d e n c e m a y be briefly n o t e d . First, a t Q a s r - a l - H a l l a b a t , s o m c 3 0 k m n o r t h - e a s t o f A m m a n , the r e m a i n s o f a R o m a n fort inelude an i n s e r i p t i o n o f 44. 3.3 abovc. 4 5 . L e B a s - W . , n o s . 1 2 6 4 - 1 1 8 5 . S e e P o i d e b a r d , Trace.

61-62.

46. 11.5 belovv. 47. For this region, from vvhich only a fcw salient items of evidence are picked oııt here, see D. L. Kennedy, Archaeological F.splaratınns on the Roman Frontier in North East Jordan (1982); D. L. Kcnncdy and H. I. MacAdam, "Somc Latin inseriptions from thc Azraq Oasis", ZPE 65 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 3 1 ; S . T . Parker^ Romans

and Saracens:

A History

of the Arabian

Frontier

(1986); idem,

"The Roman Limes in Jordan", in A. Hadidi <ed.), Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan

ili (1987J, 1 5 1 .

m

r e c o r d i n g rhat a 4 new f o r t ' (castellum

novum)

h a d b e e n builc b y the sol-

diers o f f o u r a u x i l i a r y c o h o r i s . 4 * M o r e significant stili is t h e c l u s t e r o f evidenee f r o m the a r c a o f t h e A z r a q o a s i s , lying in the true s t e p p e m a d e up o f a vast ficld o f d a r k s t o n e s a n d , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , on t h e r o u t e t o t h e W a d i S i r h a n , leading s o u t h - e a s t i n t o A r a b i a proper. W h e t h e r this w a s , as h a s been suggested, a m a j ö r t r a d e - r o u t e l e a d i n g t o t h e Persian G u l f vvill h a v e t o be discussed laten 4 9 B u t the fact that it vvas a r o u t e is b e y o n d q u e s t i o n , A z r a q lics s o m e 8 0 k m e a s t o f A m m a n , a n d m i l i t a r y o c c u p a t i o n in this a r e a vvas e v e n t u a l l y t o b e significant in r e l a t i o n n o t o n l y t o t h e W a d i S i r h a n b u t t o a R o m a n r o a d leading north tovvards D a m a s c u s . F o r t h e S e v c r a n p e r i o d , hovvcver, vvhat vve knovv f o r c c r t a i ı ı is t h a t t h e r e vvas r o a d building h e r e u n d e r Severus, t h o u g h in vvhat d i r e e t i o n is u n c e r t a i n (the miles t o n e s r e c o r d i n g it a r e n o t in p o s i t i o n ) ; a n d that s o m e 1 4 k m south-vvest o f A z r a q , a t Q a s r el Uvveinid, a d e t a e h m e n t o f III C y r e n a i c a c o n s t r u c t e d a castellum

et praesidium

Sever ianum in 2 0 5 . 3 0

T h i s activity vvould b e o f s o m e interest even i f t h e r e vvere n o p r o b a b l e c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e W a d i S i r h a n . B u t in fact f r o m Javvf, s o m e 4 0 0 k m dovvrı t h e W a d i f r o m A z r a q , t h e r e is a L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n o f a c e n t u r i o n o f III C y r c n a i c a , d e d i c a t e d ' f o r the s a f e t y o f o u r (tvvo) l o r d s t h e A u g u s t i ' t o I u p p i t c r O p t i m u s H a m m o n a n d a deity c a l l e d S a n c t u s S u l m u s . " T h e d a t e s h o u l d certainly b e t h e early part o f the third c e n t u r y . " T h e r e is n o t h i n g t o s h o w vvhether a p e r m a n e n t p o s t vvas e s t a b l i s h c d h e r e ; b u t given t h e vast d i s t a n c c s i n v o l v e d , even o c c a s i o n a l p a t r o l s vvould reflect a R o m a n i n v o l v e m e n t in this a r c a vvhich vvould h a v e b e e n u n i m a g i n a b l e in the first century. D u m a t h a (Javvf) vvas also, it m a y be r c c a l l c d , the place vvhose people, a c c o r d i n g t o P o r phyry, h a d c a r r i e d o u t h u m a n sacrifice a n d stili c o n c e i v e d o f an a l t a r as being itself a n o b j e c t o f vvorship. 5 3 M u c h — i n d e e d e v e r y t h i n g — i s s p c c u l a t i v e a b o u t hovv the R o m a n a r m y o p e r a t e d in s u c h a c o n t e x t , a n d vvhat it vvas intended t o a c h i e v c . B u t vvhat is c e r t a i n is t h a t , a s o n the E u p h r a t e s a n d C h a b u r , it m u s t represent a Üne o f m o v e m e n t t h r o u g h an a r e a , n o t a ' f r o n t i e r ' h e l d a s a line a g a i n s t a p u t a t i v e e n e m y a t t a c k i n g from the s i d e . M u c h the s a m e vvill be true o f the m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e in t h e c e n t r a l a n d s o u t h e r n p a r t o f A r a b i a , vvhere t h e t r a c c a b l e evid e n e e o f the R o m a n a r m y n e v e r a p p e a r s f a r from the Via N o v a T r a i a n a , built in the first fevv y e a r s o f the p r o v i n c c . F r o m B o s t r a the r o a d r a n s o u t h - e a s t t o 4 8 . K e n n e d y , Exploralions,

39, n o . 3.

49.13.T belovv. 5 0 . K c n n c d y , Fjcplnrations,

1 6 9 - 1 7 5 ( m i l c s t o n c s ) ; 1 1 3 tf. ( Q a s r e l Uvveinid).

5 1 . K c n n c d y , F.xplorations,

1 9 0 ; s e e B o v v e r s o c k , Runtan

Arabia.

App. 1.

5 1 . S c c M . S p e i d e l , " T h e R o m a n R o a d t o D u ı r ı a t a (Javvf in S a u d i A r a b i a ) " , Historia (1987), z t 3 . 53. Ch. 1 above.

3ti

A m m a n ( P h i l a d e l p h i a ) a n d t h e n s o u t h a l o n g t h e b o r d e r betvveen t h e c u l t i vated plateau of M o a b and the steppe proper, then t o dcsccnd a steep cscarpm c n t t o r e a c h t h e R e d S e a a t A i l a . I n f a c t , hovvever, t o s a y t h a t i s s i m p l y t o r e p e a t in e f f e c t vvhat i s c l a i m c d o n m i l c s t o n e s o f t h e r e i g n o f T r a j a n , f o u n d ( o n l y ) o n t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e r o a d , betvveen B o s t r a atıd

Philadelphia;

o t h e r m i l e s t o n e s o f l a t e r r e i g n s c a n b e f o u n d in c o n s i d e r a b l c n u m b c r s b o t h i n t h a t a r e a a n d f u r t h e r s o u t h , a s f a r a s P e t r a . B u t f o r t h e s t r e t c h betvveen P e t r a a n d A i l a t h e r e is n o p r c c i s c l y d a t a b l e p h y s i c a l e v i d e n c e , t h o u g h s t r e t c h e s o f t h e r o a d , vvith a s s o c i a t e d s m a l l f o r t s , a r e v i s i b l e . T h o u g h t h e Üne o f t h e r o a d a c r o s s t h e s o u t h e r n d e s e r t , t h e H i s m a , t o A i l a ( A q a b a ) h a s s o m e m i l e s t o n e s , 110 i n s e r i p t i o n s h a v e b e e n r e a d o n t h e s e , n o t h i n g d e f i n i t e c a n b c s a i d o n d a t i n g . W h i l e it n e e d n o t b e d o u b t e d

so

that

T r a j a n ' s V i a N o v a d i d r e a c h A q a b a , vve c a n n o t i d e n t i f y a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n a r o a d , vvith s i d e - r o a d s vvestvvards, a n d vvarch-tovvers. 5 4 W h y it vvas b u i l t a t a l i , v v h e t h e r it h a d s o m e r e l a t i o n t o t r a d e f r o m t h e R e d S e a , a n d hovv o c c u p a t i o n in t h i s a r e a in t h e R o m a n p e r i o d c o m p a r e d vvith t h a t in t h e p r e c e d i n g N a b a t a e a n period a r e ali u n c e r t a i n . W h a t is c e r t a i n , hovvever, i s t h a t a R o m a n o f f i c i a l a n d m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e did n o t s t o p a t A q a b a , b u t follovvcd t h e carlier N a b a t a e a n presence a t l e a s t a s f a r a s M e d a i n S a l e h in t h e n o r t h e r n H e d j a z . 5 5 F o r f r o m t h e r e g i o n o f M e d a i n S a l e h — s o m e 9 0 0 k m f r o m B o s t r a a n d the m a i n c a m p o f t h e legion III C y r c n a i c a — t h e r e a r e g r a f f i t i in a m i x t u r e o f G r e e k a n d L a t i n i n G r e e k t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n (as vvell a s o t h e r N a b a t a e a n o n c s ) , vvhich r e v e a l R o m a n

dromedarii

a n d c a v a l r y m e n o f a n ala o f G a e t u l i ; a n d a r o u g h l y i n s e r i b e d stele

contains a

G r e e k d e d i c a t i o n t o t h e F o r t u n e o f B o s t r a b y a p a i n t e r vvith t h e l e g i o n I f l C y r e n a i c a . 5 6 I t i s vvorth r e f l e e t i n g t h a t t h e m a r c h b a c k t o t h e l e g i o n a r y b a s e at B o s t r a vvould h a v e t a k e n a t l e a s t a m o n t h . A s s o o f t e n , vve d o n o t k n o w hovv p e r m a n e n t t h e R o m a n p r e s e n c c h e r e vvas. C e r t a i n l y t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o s u g g e s t a r e g u l a r m i l i t a r y o c c u p a t i o n ; o n c e a g a i n vve s e e m t o b e c o n c e r n c d vvith a r o u t e , f o r vve knovv f r o m P l i n y t h e E l d e r , vvriting i n t h e 7 0 S , t h a t t h e r e vvas a l a n d - r o u t e f r o m A r a b i a

Fe!ix

( Y e m e n ) vvhich p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h i s a r e a , n e e d i n g s i x t y - f i v e c a m e l - s t a g e s

to

reach Gaza.57

5 4 . For a sceptical v i c w o f the e x t e n t o f the R o m a n m i l i t a r y presence i n the s o u t h e r n a r e a , see J. E a d i c , " T h e E v o l u t i o n o f the R o m a n Frontier in A r a b i a " , in F r e e m a n a n d K e n n e d y , I, 2 4 3 . S c c a l s o I s a a c , Linıils,

DRBE

i22ff.

5 5 . T h e e s s e n t i a l e v i d e n c e h e r e ıs vvell k n o v v n , a n d a g a i n I m c r c l y ptek o u t the s a l ı c n t p o ı n t s . S c c S a r t r e , Trois F.tudes,

3 0 - 3 8 ; B o v v c r s o c k , Roman

Arabia,

95-98.

5 6 . S c c H . S e y r i g , " P o s t c s r o m a i n s s u r la r o u t e dc M e d i n e " , Syria 2 2 ( 1 9 4 1 ) , 1 1 8 : f o r e x a o ı ple oXaKiavöç Z c o u e p o ç EKUVIT^ ÖXE FECOUXÛV. F o r the painter, B o v v e r s o c k , o p . cit., 9 6 — ( 1 9 7 7 ) , n o . 8 3 5 : Tt»xo Bootpcov ' A S p ı a v o ç Çcoypâ^oç o û v X c y . III K u 5 7 . Pliny, NH X I I , 3 2 / 6 4 - 6 5 . See 1 3 . 1 belovv.

AE

W c c a n hardly c x p c c t t o g a i n a n y c l e a r c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e p c o p l e s o f this r e g i o n , o r o f their c u l t u r e a n d s o c i a l s t r u e t u r e . B u t t h e R o m a n s vvere o f c o u r s c avvare o f a large n u m b e r o f different p e o p l e s in the A r a b i a n p e n i n s u l a , f o r i n s t a n c e t h e T a m u d a e i ' o r ' T h a m u d e n o i ' t o vvhom Pliny a n d P t o l e m y refer. 5 8 It c o u l d bc a s s u m e d t h a t t h e legatus

o f A r a b i a vvould h a v e h a d t o c o n d u c t

s o m e d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s vvith s u c h p e o p l e s . B u t it c o u l d h a r d l y h a v e been e x p e c t e d t h a t a t Ruvvvvafa, s o m e 2 0 0 k m north-vvest o f M e d a i n S a l e h , vve s h o u l d h a v e a v a i l a b l e a f o r r n a l r e c o r d o f s u c h r e l a t i o n s , i n s e r i b e d in G r e e k a n d N a b a t a e a n o n a t e m p l e d e d i c a t c d on b e h a l f o f M a r c u s A u r e l i u s a n d L o c i u s V e r u s , in the later r 6 o s . T h e g r o u p vvhich ereeted t h e t e m p l e is d e s c r i b c d in G r e e k a s 4 the etbnos

o f t h e T h a m o u d e n o i ' a n d in N a b a t a e a n as

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T M W D W , p e r h a p s ' c o n f c d e r a t i o n ( o f the) T h a m u d ' . T h e g o v e r n o r , Antistius A d v e n t u s ( ' N T S T Y S ' D W N T S H G M W N ' in N a b a t a e a n ) , is deseribed as h a v ing m a d e p e a c e a m o n g t h e m . " N e i t h e r the i n s e r i p t i o n n o r the t e m p l e t o vvhich it r e f e r s vvill n e c e s s a r i . y i n d i c a t e t h a t c i t h e r o f t h e tvvo g o v e r n o r s vvho are m e n t i o n c d , A d v e n t u s and his a p p a r e n t successor, C l a u d i u s M o d c s t u s , in vvhose t i m e t h e t e m p l e vvas d e d i c a t e d , a c t u a l l y c a m e t o Ruvvvvafa in p e r s o n . N o r is it vvorth askir.g vvhether this p l a c e vvas vvithin the frontiers o f t h e p r o v i n c c ; f o r t h e r e m a y w c l l h a v e been n o s u c h defincd f r o n t i e r . W h a t is c e r t a i n is t h a t this p l a c e , u s e d by t h e T h a m u d t o e r e c t a t e m p l e , vvas vvithin the s p h e r e o f influence b o t h o f the R o m a n g o v e r n o r a n d o f G r a e c o - N a b a t a e a n c u l t u r e . W e a r e n o t , hovvever, yet in the period vvhen i n d e p e n d e n t A r a b tribes h a d t r c a t y - r e l a t i o n s vvith R o m e ; nor, s o far a s is knovvn, h a d units dravvn f r o m these yet e n t e r e d r e g u l a r R o m a n service. It is o n l y in the l a t e f o u r t h c e n t u r y t h a t vve k n o w t h a t the R o m a n a r m y ineluded units o f ' E q u i t e s S a r a c c n i T h a m u d c n i ' . ' 1 0 It h a s even b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e w o r d S R K T , s u p p o s e d t o m e a n ' f e d e r a t i o n ' , is t h e o r i g i n o f t h e t e r m ' S a r a c e n ' itself; t h a t is, t h a t the term vvas b o : rovvcd in G r e e k a n d L a t i n t o refer t o A r a b tribal f e d e r a t i o n s . T h a t seeras f a r - f e t e h e d . 6 1 A s it h a p p e n s , t h e c a r l i e s t a t t e s t e d use o f t h e term c o m e s f r o m P t o l e m y ' s Geography,

o f t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y : here a p e o p l e c a l l e d S a r a -

k e n o i a r e listed i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e t h o s e c a l l e d T h a m u d e n o i . 6 2 B u t n o n e t h e lcss, f o r a vvhole c o m p l e x o f r e a s o n s , the r e l a t i o n s , b o t h political a n d c u l t u r a l , o n d i s p l a y in the bilingual i n s e r i p t i o n o f Ruvvvvafa vvere o f m o m e n t o u s c o n s e q u c n c c f o r the f u t u r c . 5 8 . P i i n y , i\'H V I , 3 2 / 1 5 7 ; P t o l e m y , Ceog.

VI, 7, 21, cd. Nobbc.

59. G . W. B o w e r s o c k , " T h e G r e e k - N a b a t a e a n Bilingual inseription at Ruvvvvafa, Saudi Arab i a " , i n Le monde 6 0 . Not.

Dign.,

grec: Ilommages

â Claire

Preaux

< 1 9 7 5 ) , 5 1 3 = AE ( 1 9 7 7 ) , n o . 8 3 4 .

Or. 2 8 , 1 7 .

6 r . S c c M . P. O ' C o n n o r , " T h e E t y m o l o g y o f Saracen C o n t e x t s " , i n F r e e m a n a n d K e n n e d y , DRBE 6 2 . P t o l e m y , Ceog.

II, 6 0 3 .

VI, 7 , 21, ed. N o b b e .

in A r a m a k ; and Pre-lslamic A r a t i c

N o R o m a n o f the s e c o n d o r t h i r d c e n t u r y , o r i n d e e d f o r l o n g after, vvould h a v e i m a g i n e d t h a t it vvould b e f r o m t h i s d i r e e t i o n t h a t the d o m i n a n c e o f G r a e c o - R o m a n c i v i l i s a t i o n in t h e N e a r E a s t vvould o n e d a y be d e s t r o y e d , a n d b y a m a j ö r i n v a s i o n . C o n t c m p o r a r i e s vvere, hovvcvcr, c o n s c i o u s t h a t I m p e r i a l c x p a n s i o n h a d b r o u g h t t h e m i n t o s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t a c t vvith p e r s o n s vvhom t h e y called Arabs. C o n t e m p o r a r i e s o f Septimius Severus indeed could not h a v e f a i l e d t o b e avvare o f ' A r a b s ' a s p o l i t i c a l o r a e t u a l e n e m i e s . F o r ' A r a b i c u s ' a p p e a r e d a m o n g I m p e r i a l v i c t o r y - t i t l e s , f o r the first t i m e ever^ u n d e r S e v e r u s a n d his s o n C a r a c a l l a : s o f o r i n s c a n c c ' A r a b i c u s A d i a b e n i c u s P a r t h i c u s B r i t a n n i c u s M a x i m u s \ B u t the a l l u s i o n vvas n o t t o a n y f r o n t i e r vvars f o u g h t in vvhat R o m a n s c a l l e d A r a b i a , b u t t o she c o n q u e s t o f M e s o p o t a m i a . H o v v e v e r vve i n t e r p r e t t h c f u n e t i o n o r p u r p o s e o f t h c l o n g line o f R o m a n r o a d s a n d o c c a s i o n a l I c g i o n a r y f o r t r e s s e s , as vvcll a s a u x i l i a r y f o r t s a n d g u a r d - p o s t s , vvhich in t h e S e v e r a n p e r i o d h a s left t r a c e s ö v e r a d i s t a n c e o f s o m e 1 2 5 0 k m f r o m t h e m i d d l e T i g r i s t o A q a b a , a n d vvhether vve vvant t o c a l i it a ' f r o n t i e r ' a t a l i , t h c significant f a c t is t h a t it vvas novv there,

approximatcly covering the limits

o f r e g u l a r l y c u l t i v a b l e l a n d , a n d b r i n g i n g R o m a n f o r c e s a l o n g its vvhole l e n g t h i n t o c o n t a c t vvith n o n - s e d e n t a r y p e o p l e s vvhom t h e y c a l l e d i n d i s c r i m i n a t c l y A r a b s , a n d b e g a n in the s e c o n d a n d t h i r d c c n t u r i e s t o c a l i S a r a c c n s . T o c m p h a s i s c t h c s e a l e a n d ( b y c o m p a r i s o n vvith t h e first c e n t u r y ) the n o v e l t y o f t h i s i n v o l v e m e n t is n e i t h e r t o imply t h a t this ' f r o n t i e r ' h a d b e e n c r e a t e d a s a d e fence against large-scale invasion n o r to suggest that n o m a d i c c o m m u n i t i c s , b r i g a n d s a n d e s s e n t i a l l y u n s u b d u c d p e o p l e s did n o t e x i s t a l s o vvithin t h e p r o v i n c c s . I t is s t r i k i n g , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t S e v e r u s ' c o n t e m p o r a r y U l p i a n d e s e r i b e s P a l m y r a a s ' l o c a t e d n e a r b a r b a r o u s gentes

a n d nationesThe

modern no-

t i o n o f s y m b i o s i s betvveen n o m a d s a n d s e t t l e d p o p u l a t i o n s , vvhile n o d o u b t o b j e c t i v e l y valid for t h e s t e p p e z o n e o f t h e R o m a n N e a r F.ast, vvas n o t s h a r e d b y G r a c c o - R o m a n o b s e r v e r s . T h e t h r e a t o f a p o t e n t i a l i n v a d e r vvas n o t a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r there t o be a m a j ö r a n d c o m p l c x p r o b l e m o f s e c u r i t y , in vvhich m i l i t a r y a n d p o l i ç e f u n e t i o n s m i g h t b c l a r g e l y i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e . B u t in a n y c a s c c o n t i n u e d R o m a n i m p e r i a l i s m in M e s o p o t a m i a vvas s o o n t o b e c o n f r o n t e d vvith just s u c h a p e r c e i v e d t h r e a t .

4.2.

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T h a t t h e t h i r d c c n t u r y vvas a p e r i o d o f i n t e n s e s t r e s s f o r the s t r u e t u r e o f t h e E m p i r e n c c d s n o e m p h a s i s . B u t a s r e g a r d s the h i s t o r y o f the N e a r E a s t , c e r t a i n m o r e specific p o i n t s n e c d t o b c u n d c r l i n e d : t h a t t h e p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t ali m a j ö r c a m p a i g n s s h o u l d b c Icd b y t h c E m p e r o r in p e r s o n vvas b y novv vvell e s t a b 63. Dig.

L, >s, 1 , 5 .

lished; t h a t m a n y o f these e a m p a i g n s b r o u g h t E m p e r o r s to the N e a r E a s t , and t o M e s o p o t a m i a i n p a r t i c u l a r ; a n d t h a t it vvas t h u s in t h i s p e r i o d t h a t t h e effects o f Severus* concjucst o f M e s o p o t a m i a , p r o f o u n d i y altering t h e s t r a t c g i c b a l a n c e o f t h e E m p i r e , first b c c a m e elear. T h i s p h a s e , beginning j u s t after the decisive R o m a n a d v a n c e a e r o s s the E u p h r a t e s , e n d e d vvith a p e a c e i m p o s e d o n P e r s i a vvhich c x t c n d c d

Roman

d o m i n a t i o n a e r o s s t h e T i g r i s . I n betvveen c a m e a s u c c e s s i o n o f e a m p a i g n s , ineluding in the 250S the o n l y m a j ö r I'ersian invasions o f R o m a n

territory

vvest o f t h e E u p h r a t e s b e f o r e t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y . A c o n s i d c r a b l e v a r i e t y o f n a r r a t i v e a c c o u n t s , i n v a r i o u s l a n g u a g e s , o f t e n vvritten m u c h later, m i g h t s e e m to allovv a y e a r - b y - y c a r r c c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e m i l i t a r y h i s t o r y o f t h e a r e a . 1 B u t t h e s p a c e a n d e f f o r t r e q u i r e d vvould be i m m e n s e , a n d t h e r e s u l t s fevv a n d utıc e r t a i n . W h a t f o l l o v v s , in this c h a p t e r a n d t h e n e x t , vvill t h e r e f o r e b e , in n a r r a t i v e t e r m s , a m e r e o u t l i n c , vvhilc a t t e m p t i n g t o m a k c c l e a r , vvhere p o s s î b l e , the significance o f t h e s e events b o t h f o r the evolving strueture o f the E m p i r e a n d f o r t h e N e a r E a s t itself. M o r e i m p o r t a n t , hovvever, it vvill be b a s e d a b o v e ali o n c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t s , m a n y o n l y nevvly a v a i l a b l e , vvhich f o r s o m e d e c a d e s s e r v e t o p u t t h e s c q u e n c c o f e v e n t s in a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t l i g h t . T h a t t h e N e a r E a s t vvas n o v v c e n t r a l t o t h e c o n c e r n s o f E m p e r o r s

(even

indeed crucial to any successful claim to be an E m p e r o r ) must have been clear t o a n y o b s c r v a n t i n h a b i t a n t o f t h e E m p i r e . It vvill a t l e a s t h a v e b e e n k n o v v n i n F . p h e s o s , vvhere a n i n s e r i p t i o n h o n o u r i n g a m a n vvho vvent o n

repeated

e m b a s s i e s t o t h e E m p e r o r s vividly refleets t h e travels a n d e a m p a i g n s o f t h o s e E m p e r o r s in t h e first tvvo d e c a d e s o f t h e c e n t u r y . T h e m a n h o n o u r e d h a d b e e n , o n b e h a l f o f F.phesos, t o the follovving places: R o m e , Britain, U p p e r G e r m a n v , S i r m i u m , N i c o m e d i a , A n t i o c h a n d M e s o p o t a m i a . T h e series begins

under

S e v e r u s a n d C a r a c a l l a i n 2 0 2 - 2 0 8 , a n d e n d s vvith s u c c e s s f u l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s b e f o r e M a c r i n u s a n d h i s s o n D i a d u m c n i a n u s in M e s o p o t a m i a in 2 1 7 / 2 1 8 . 2 S e v e r u s ' l o n g e a m p a i g n s in t h e E a s t h a d t h u s b e e n f o l l o v v e d , a f t e r a s p e l l in R o m e , b y h i s e x p e d i t i o n t o B r i t a i n in 2 0 8 - 2 1 1 , a n d t h e n b y h i s s o n C a r a c a i l a ' s e a m p a i g n s in G e r m a n y

in 2 1 3 . T h e r e a f t e r his m i l i t a r y c o n c e r n s l a y in

the N e a r East. A b u n d a n t c o n t e m p o r a r y evidenee m a k e s perfectly clear that C a r a c a l l a ' s i m i t a t i o n o f A l e x a n d e r vvas n o s u p e r f i c i a l vvhim b u t t h e d e t e r n ı i n i n g f a c t o r i n h i s a e t i o n s a s E m p e r o r . I t is s u r e l y r e l e v a n t a l s o t o h i s h i s t o r i c p r o c l a m a t i o n that the entire p o p u l a t i o n o f the E m p i r e should b e c o m e

Rc-

m a n citizens.3 î . Scc n o w the i n v a l u a b l e c o l l c c t ı û ı ı ö f s o u r c e s in t f â ı U İ a t ı ö n b y M . H . D o d g c o n a n d 5 . N . C . L i c u , The

Roman

Eastern

Frontier

and the Persian

Wars (AD

126-363)

( 1 9 9 1 ) . I h a v e not

been a b l e t o eross-refer t o this w o r k in the c h a p t e r s vvhich follovv. 1 . /. K . Ephesos

III, n o . Soı

(SEG

X V I I , n o . $05).

3, F o r C a r a c a l l a as A l c x a n d c r a n d t h e r c l c v a n c c o f his policy, see most r c c c n t l y K . B o u r a s c l i ı , ö e i a AojpF.â. M e t e r â ; nâvot oriıv x o X m ı c f | v tf|ç S u v a a ı e ı a ç -lûv EcpupaJv Kaı Antoniniana

( 1 9 8 9 ) , 3 8ff.

riıv

Constitutkı

E m u l a t i o n o f A l c x a n d e r i s c c r t a i n l y r c l c v a n t t o t h e f a c t t h a t in 2 1 4 C a r a c a l l a t o o k t h e l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d r o u t e t o S y r i a via A s i a M i n ö r , p a s s i n g t h e vvint e r o f 2 1 4 / 2 1 5 a t N i c o m c d i a , a n d a r r i v i n g a t A n t i o c h in 2 1 5 , a s it is t o h i s visit t o A l e x a n d r i a i n 2 1 5 / 2 1 6 * B u t b y M a y o f 2 1 6 h e vvas b 3 c k in A n t i o c h ; f o r it vvas t h e r e t h a t h e a g r e e d t o h e a r a d i s p u t e a b o u t t h e p r i e s t h o o d

of

t h e t e m p l e o f Z e u s at D u m a y r — t h e e l e a r e s t p r o o f o f ı h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s t e m p l e a n d o f t h e ' m o t h c r - v i l l a g c o f t h e T h e l s e c n o i ' o n t h e r o a d betvveen D a m a s c u s and P a l m y r a . T h e v e r b a t i m report o f the hearing, inseribed o n the vvall o f t h e t e m p l e , m a k e s q u i t e c l e a r t h a t a d v a n t a g e h a d b e e n t a k e n o f t h e E m p e r o r ' s presence to gain direct access to h i m , against the n o r m a l rules.5 In a m o r e t h a n superficial sense t h e R o m a n state had c o m e to the region a n d i n t e g r a t e d it vvith i t s e l f . O f c o u r s e n o t a l i o f t h e c o m p l e x f e a t u r e s o f

that

i n t e g r a t i o n vvere d i s t i ı ı c t i v e t o t h e N e a r E a s t . O t h e r s , hovvever, vvere.

One

p o s s i b l e , b u t ver)' a m b i g u o u s , s i g n o f a n i n t e g r a t i o n betvveen E m p i r e a n d c i t y i n this s p c c i f i c r e g i o n i s t h e a p p e a r a n c e u n d e r C a r a c a l l a , f r o m 2 1 4 o n v v a r d s , a n d again u n d e r M a c r i n u s , o f large n u m b e r s o f silver t e t r a d r a c h m s evidently m i n t e d i n t h e N e a r E a s t a n d c i r c u l a t i n g t h e r e . B u t t h e i d e a t h a t vve c a n i d e n t i f y a l o n g Üst o f c i t i e s — i n M e s o p o t a m i a , S y r i a C o e l e , S y r i a P h o c n i c e a n d S y r i a P a l a c s t i n a — v v h i c h vvere g i v e n t h e h o n o u r { o r b u r d e n ? ) o f p r o d u c i n g t h e s e l a r g e - v 3 İ u e s i l v e r c o i n s is p u r e s p e c u l a t i o n . 6 F o r it d e p e n d s o n n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n r e s e m b l a ı ı c e s betvveen t h e i m a g e s a n d s y m b o l s o n t h e n o r m a l ( i f i n t e r m i t t e n t ) b r o n z c issues o f t h e s e c i t i e s , a n d t h o s e f o u n d o n this s u d d e n flood

o f s i l v e r c o i n s . B u t n o t a s i n g l e c i t y is a c t u a l l y n a m e d o n t h e s e c o i n s . T h e

o n l y l e g e n d s o n t h e m a r e t h e n a n ı e s a n d titles o f t h e tvvo E m p e r o r s , vvritten i n G r e e k . In t h a t s e n s e t h e y d o c x h i b i t , l i k e t h e c o n t i n u o u s p r e s e n c e o f t h e s e tvvo s u c c e s s i v e E m p e r o r s i n t h e N e a r E a s t , a c o m i n g - t o g e t h e r o f I m p e r i a l a n d regional elements. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e f a c t t h a t ali t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e N e a r E a s t vvere novv m a d e R o m a n c i t i z e n s vvas s o m e t h i n g vvhich t h e y s h a r e d vvith t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f a l i t h e o t h e r p r o v i n c e s . 7 \Vhat vvas n o t e q ı ı a l l y c o m m o n t o ali a r e a s vvas t h e g r a n t i n g o f t h e s t a t u s o f R o m a n coloniaCaracalla

follovvcd his f a -

ther's g r a n t s b y giving this status t o A n t i o c h itself, a n d to E m e s a , the n a t i v e c.,ty o f h i s m o t h e r . W h e t h e r it vvas h e o r S e v e r u s vvho m a d e P a l m y r a a

colonia

is n o t clear. B u t t h e g r a n t c e r t a i n l y c a m e n o l a t e r t h a n his r c i g n , a n d t h c r c b y

4 . F o r C a r a c a i l a ' s m o v e m e n t s s e e H . H a l f m a n n , Itinera

Principum

(1986), 223-230.

5. See 4 . 1 a b o v e and 9.3 b c ! o w . F o r a v e r y o v c r - c o n f î d e n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f ' t h e m i n t s ' vvhich p r o d u c c d these c o i n s , w r i t t e ı ı b e f o r e it w a s d e ı n o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e s a m e v v o r k s h o p c o u l d a n d did p r o d u c e c o i n s f o r d i f f e r e n t c i t i e s , see A . R . Bellinger, 'The Syrian Tetradrachms

of Caracalla

and Macrinus

{Numismatic

Stud-

ies 3 , 1 9 4 ° ) 7 . S c c m o s t r c c e n t l y B o u r a s c l i s , o p . cit. (n.3). 8. S c c M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae3

9 f f . T h e n ı e a n i n g o f t h i s c h a n g e in t h e c a s e o f e a c h p l a c e

w i l l b c d i s c u s s c d m o r e f u l l y l a t e r i n this e h a p t e r .

n o t o n l y i n t r o d u c c d a r a d i c a l l y n c w c o n s t i t u t i o n , but grcatly c o m p l i c a t e s any anaiysis o f w h a t t h i r d - c c n t u r y P a l m y r a ' w a s ' , a n d o f the unique r o l e played b y P a l m y r a in t h e 2(>os a n d 2 7 0 S . T h i r d - c e n t u r y P a l m y r a w a s t o b e ' O r i e n t a l ' , ' G r e e k ' a n d ' R o m a n ' a l i at o n c e . S o a l s o vvas E d e s s a in O s r h o e n e , vvhich o n C a r a c a l l a ' s a c c e s s i o n in 2 T I vvas stili t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e l i t t l c k i n g d o m o f A b g a r . H e vvas p r o b a b l y

suc-

c c c d c d b y a n o t h e r k i n g A b g a r i n 2 1 1 o r 2 1 2 , a n d it vvas t h e r e f o r e p r o b a b l y t h i s A b g a r vvho vvas s u ı n m o n e d b y C a r a c a l l a in 2 1 2 o r 2 1 3 a n d d e p o s e d , o n t h e g r o u n d s that he h a d b e e n mistreating his s u b j e c t s in o r d e r t o f o r c c t h e m t o a d o p t R o m a n c u s t o m s . 9 I f h c h a d , h e vvas in a c u r i o u s vvay t o b e j u s t i f i e d a f t e r t h e e v e n t . F o r it i s c e r t a i n t h a t h i s c i t y , novv a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e s u ı r o u n d i n g p r o v i n c e o f O s r h o e n e , a l s o b e c a m e a R o m a n colonia

in 2 1 2 / 2 1 3 .

A s vvill b e a p p a r e n t later, it i s p o s s i b l e f o r u s t o u n d e r s t a n d s o m e t h i n g o f t h e s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t in vvhich this e h a n g e o f s t a t u s vvas i n t r o d u c e d . B u t if vve t h i n k o n l y o f t h e I m p e r i a l a s p e c t , t h e nevvly c o n q u e r e d t e r r i t o r y a c r o s s t h e E u p h r a t e s vvas novv d i v i d c d betvveen tvvo p r o v i n c e s , O s r h o e n e a n d M e s o p o t a m i a ; it h a d tvvo nevv l e g i o n s s t a t i o n e d in it; a n d it c o n t a i n e d five R o m a ! coloniae:

Edessa, Carrhac, Rcshaina, Singara and Nisibis.

C a r a c a l l a ' s c o n c e p t i o n , hovvever, vvent b e y o n d a r e v i t a l i s a t i o n o f R o m a n i m p e r i a l i s m , f o r his e m u l a t i o n o f A l e x a n d e r e x t c n d e d to idcas o f c a s t c r n c o n q u e s t , a n d t o m a r r i a g e vvith t h e d a u g h t c r o f t h e P a r t h i a n k i n g — o r r a t h e r vvitiı t h e d a u g h t e r o f o n e o f t h e t\vo c l a i m a n t s , A r t a b a n u s V. A c a m p a i g n i n 2 1 6 t o o k t h e R o m a n f o r c c s a s f a r a s A r b e l a b e y o n d t h e T i g r i s . T h e vvinter o f 2.16/ 2 1 7 m a y h a v e b e e n s p e n t v v i t h o u t r e t u r n i n g vvest o f t h e E u p h r a t e s ; a t a n y r a t e it vvas vvhen t r a v e l l i n g b e t v v e e n E d e s s a a n d C a r r h a e in A p r i l 2 1 7 t h a t

the

E m p e r o r vvas m u r d e r e d b y a m e m b e r o f h i s e s c o r t , h a v i n g g o t o f f h i s h o r s e t o relieve hinıself.10 T h i s t r i v i a l , e v e n a b s ü r d , e p i s o d e vvas o f m o m c n t o u s c o n s e q u e n c e f o r t h e f u t u r e s t r u e t u r e o f t h e E m p i r e . F o r t h e first t i m e a n E m p e r o r h a d d i e d vvhile vvith h i s t r o o p s o n c a m p a i g n , a n d h a d b e e n r e p l a c e d f r o m vvithin h i s e n t o u r a g e . H i s s u c c e s s o r , r e l u c t a n t l y r e c o g n i s e d b y t h e S e n a t e in R o m e , vvas O p c l l i u s M a c r i n u s , t h e P r a c t o r i a n P r c f e c t , a n d t h e first n o n - s e n a t o r t o

become

E m p e r o r . H i s b r i e f r e i g n in 2 1 7 / 2 1 8 vvas s p e n t e n t i r e l y in t h e N e a r E a s t , a n d m a y serve to iilustrate the progressive d e t a e h m e n t o f the Imperial strueture f r o m its r o o t s in t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e c i t y o f R o m e . In t h i s c a s e , a s vvith P c s c c n n i u s N i g e r , vve a l s o s e e hovv t h e r o l e o f E m p e r o r c o u l d be p l a y e d in a S y r i a n c o n t c x t , p r i m a r i l y A n t i o c h ; b u t a l s o , in t h e v e r y s p e c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e o f t h e o r i g i n s o f C a r a c a l l a ' s m o t h e r , Iulla D o m n a , in E m e s a , hovv r e g i o n a l l o y a l t i c s , p a r d y e m b r a c i n g t h e a r m y a s vvell, c o u l d b r i n g forvvard a s u c c e s s ful r i v a l .

9 . S o D i o L X X V I I , i z , I * - I j . F o r the c o m p l e x issues i n v o l v e d h e r e see 1 2 . 5 belovv. 10. D i o L X X V I 1 I , 5, 4.

A f t e r his p r o c l a m a t i o n M a c r i n u s m a r c h e d b a c k t o w a r d s A n t i o c h ;

Cross-

i n g the E u p h r a t e s at Z e u g m a , h e vvas m e t b y his y o u n g s o n D i a d u m e n i a n u s , b r o u g h t f r o m A n t i o c h , vvho vvas t h e n p r o e l a i m e d a s ' C a c s a r ' b y t h e t r o o p s . O n c e s e c u r e l y in povver, M a c r i n u s r e m a i n c d m a i n l y in A n t i o c h , a n d I I c r o d i a n offers a deseription o f him holding audiences there, and spending m o r e t i m e thaıı h e s h o u l d h a v e at p u b l i c shovvs. 1 1 In 2 1 7 , lıovvevcr, t h e r e vvas 3 c a m p a i g n in M e s o p o t a m i a , f o r A r t a b a n u s d e m a n d e d a R o m a n vvithdravval, a n d d e feated M a c r i n u s ' f o r c e s a t N i s i b i s . B u t p c a c c vvas t h e n m a d e o n p a y m e n t o f a l a r g e s u m by R o m e , a n d M e s o p o t a m i a r e m a i n c d a p r o v i n c e . 1 2 M a c r i n u s ' overthrovv c a m e n o t f r o m a n y m o v e m e n t a t R o m e o r in o n e o f t h c other m a i n military regions, but a s a direct product o f thc elose rclations o f the p r e v i o u s I m p e r i a l h o u s e , a n d t h e a r m y , t o l o c a l s o c i c t y in S y r i a . T h c sistcr-iıı-lavv o f S e p t i t n i u s S e v e r u s , I u l i a M a e s a , h a d n o w r e t u r n e d f r o m c o u r t a n d vvas living n e a r E m e s a a s a w c a l t h y landovvııer. H e r tvvo d a u g h t e r s , I u l i a S o a e m i a s a n d I u l i a M a m a e a , as vve h a v e s c c n , vvere b o t h m a r r i e d t o p r o m i n e n t equites

vvho c a m e f r o m c i t i e s in S y r i a : S e x t u s V a r i u s M a r c c l l u s f r o m

A p a m e a a n d G e s s i u s M a r c i a n u s f r o m A r c a , a l s o c a l l e d C a e s a r e a ad L i b a n u m . 1 3 A s vve h a v e n o t e d b e f o r e , this c o u l d b e s c c n s i m p l y as a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c process o f the integration o f l o c a l landovvning familics into the upper o r d e r s o f the I m p e r i a l s y s t e m . B u t the f a c t t h a t C a r a c a l l a ' s m u r d e r t o o k p l a c e in t h e N e a r E a s t gavc m o r e purcly local factors a greater importance. F o r both the sons o f these marriages, Varius Avitus Bassianus, born a b o u t 2 0 3 , and his younger cousin, Gessius A l c x i a n u s Bassianus, born a b o u t 2 0 9 , served a s priests o f t h c c u l t o f E l a g a b a l a t E m e s a . T h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s c u l t , vvhose o b j c c t vvas t h c l a r g e b l a c k s t o n c p o r t r a y e d o n c o i n s o f t h c c i t y , vvill need t o b e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r , H T h e c r u c i a l f a c t o r in t h i s i n s t a n c e , hovvever, as in s o m a n y o t h e r a t t e s t e d c a s e s , vvas t h a t t h e s o l d i e r s o f t h e l e g i o n III G a l lica, the o n l y l e g i o n in S y r i a P h o c n i c c , s t a t i o n e d a t R a p h a n e a c in t h c O r o n t e s Valley, f r e q u e n t l y v i s i t e d t h e c i t y a n d the t e m p l e — a n d vvere a l s o said t o a d m i r e rhe b e a u t y o f the elder b o y . G i v e n t h a t , a n d t h e c l a i m t h a t h e vvas i n reality an i l l e g i t i m a t e s o n o f C a r a c a l l a , it vvas easy t o p e r s u a d e t h e m t o a d m i t h i m t o t h c c a m p a n d p r o e l a i m h i m E m p e r o r , in M a y 2 1 8 . Officiaiiy, h c a s s u m e d a t o n c c the n a m e ' M . A u r e l i u s A n t o n i n u s ' , borrovved f r o m t h c A n t o n i n e d y n a s t y , a n d used a l s o by ' C a r a c a l l a ' ; b u t p o s t e r i t y vvas t o knovv h i m b y the n i c k n a m e borrovved f r o m d ı e n a m e o f his deity, ' E l a g a b a l ' . 1 5 M a c r i n u s ' r c a c t i o n , a f t e r s o m e delay, vvas t o m o v e s o u t h t o A p a m e a , t h c m a j ö r c i t y in t h a t p a r t o f t h e O r o n t e s V a l l e y vvhich b e l o n g e d t o S y r i a C o e l e , i ı . S o H e r o d i a n V, 2, 3 - 6 . 1 2 . D i o I . X X I X , z6,1-17,

3.

1 3 . For thc family, scc 3.4 a b o v c . 1 4 . H e r o d i a n ' s c l a s s i c d e s e r i p t i o n i s i n V , 3 , z—8. S c c a l r e a d y c h . 1 a b o v c , a n d f u r t h e r 9 . 2 befow. 1 5 . H e r o d i a n V, 3, 9 - 1 2 ; D i o L X X V H I , 30, 2 - 3 3 , 1.

t o p r o c l a i m the youııg D i a d u m e n i a n u s a s ' A u g u s t u s ' , a n d t o c e l e b r a t e the e v e n t by distributing m o n e y t o the s o l d i e r s a n d giving a dinııer t o t h e vvhole p o p u l a t i o n . 1 6 O n c e again a n a p p a r e n t l y trivial detail o f narrative h i s t o r y rcveals i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s o f t h e s t r u c t u r c o f t h c E m p i r e . F i r s t , a s a t A n t i o c h , thc p o p u l a t i o n o f m a j ö r c i t i e s n e e d e d t o b e carefully c u l t i v a t e d . B u t , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , the soldiers c o n c e r n e d are deseribed by D i o as 4 the A l b a n i o i and thc o t h e r s w i n t c r i n g

in t h i s r c g i o n ' . V e r y c o n s i d c r a b l e f o r c e s h a d

been

b r o u g h t by C a r a c a l l a f o r his eastern c a m p a i g n ; l e g i o n a r y d e t a c h m e n t s f r o m A f r i c a , P a n n o n i a , R a e t i a a n d possibly G c r m a n y a r e a t t e s t e d , a s vvell a s at lcast o n c p r a c t o r i a n c o h o r t . 1 7 B u t the significant e l e m e n t is t h e r e f e r e n e e t o ' t h e A l b a n i o i ' . F o r this vvas a vvay o f r e f e r r i n g t o the s e c o n d o f the t h r e e tegiotıes Parthicae

f o r m e d by S e p t i m i u s Severus. \Vlıile l e g i o n s I a n d III vvere sta-

tioned in M e s o p o t a m i a , I I h a d its b a s c a t A l b a , south o f R o m e , a n d vvas thc first legion o f the I m p e r i a l p e r i o d t o be s t a t i o n e d in Italy. W h i l e t h e c o n c e p t o f a m o b i l e s t r a t e g i c reserve is p e r h a p s a n a c h r o n i s t i c , t h e f a c t s shovv c l e a r l y t h a t this legion d i d p a r t i c i p a t e r c p c a t c d l y in d i s t a n t c a m p a i g n s under I m p e rial c o m m a n d . More

i m p o r t a n t stili, hovvever, r e c e n t d i s m a n t l i n g o f a

thlrd-century

tovver in t h e city-vvall o f A p a m e a h a s p r o d u c e d large n u m b e r s o f g r a v e - s i c l a i o f s o l d i e r s o f this l e g i o n , vvhose c c m c t e r y m u s t h a v e been n c a r b y . 1 8 T h e ins e r i p t i o n s novv a v a i l a b l e in f a c t reflect t h r e e s e p a r a t e p e r i o d s o f the p r e s e n c e o f this legion a t A p a m e a : 2 1 5 - 2 1 8 ; 2 3 1 - 2 3 3 u n d e r S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r ; and 2 4 2 — 2 4 4 under G o r d i a n III. M o r c o v c r , gravc-stelai o f a u x i l i a r i c s shovv s o m c o f these units there a t a n o t h e r c r i s i s - p o i n t , 2 5 2 . 1 9 It is p o s s i b l e t o distinguish t h o s e vvhich b e l o n g in this first p e r i o d , f o r the l e g i o n vvas then entitled 'II P a r t h i c a A n t o ı ı i n i a n a ' . It m u s t f o r i n s t a n c c have b e e n d u r i n g t h e lcgioıı's init i a l j o u r n e y t o Syria t h a t o n e o f t h c soldiers dicd at A e g e a e in C i l i c i a a n d vvas buried a t t h e n e x t s t o p p i n g - p o i n t , C a t a b o l o n ; b u t his e p i t a p h vvas put u p by his fellovv-soldiers vvhen t h e l e g i o n r e a c h e d its intended b a s e , A p a m e a . A n o t h e r is r e c o r d e d as h a v i n g died a t I m m a e , a p l a c e on t h e r o a d betvveen A n t i o c h a n d B c r o e a , n o t far f r o m vvhere a r o u t c t u r n s s o u t h d o w n the O r o n t e s . T h i s m u s t b e a r e f e r e n e e t o t h e d e f e a t o f M a c r i n u s in J u n e 2 1 8 b y t h e f o r c e s o f ' E l a g a b a l ' , vvhich D i o says t o o k place n e a r a village in A n t i o c h e n e territory, r 8 o stades ( a b o u t 3 5 k m ) f r o m t h c city. 16. D i o L X X V I I I , 34, 1 - 3 . 1 7 . R E SM " L c g i o " , X I I , 18.

For

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1321-1323. nevv

documents,

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f o r m a l l y published, see J.-C.

Balıy,

" A p a m e e ( 1 9 8 6 ) : N o u v e l l e s d o t ı n e e s s u r l ' a r m e e r o m a i n e d ' O r i e n t et les r a i d s s a s s a n i d e s d u m i l i e u d u III' s i ö c l e " , C R A İ ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 2 1 3 ; " A p a m e a in S y r i a i n t h e S e c o n d a n d T h i r d C e n t u r i e s A D " , J R S 7 8 ( « 9 8 8 ) , 9 1 . A fevv a l r e a d y k n o v v n m i l i t a r y e p i t a p h s f r o m dvc site a r c p u b l i s h e d i n 1GLS

IV, n o s .

1357-1362.

1 9 . 4 . 3 belovv.

T h e nevv E m p e r o r entered A n t i o c h t h e n e x t day, a n d r e m a i n c d t h e r e f o r several m o n t h s b e f o r e t a k i n g t h e novv e s t a b l i s h e d r o u t e a e r o s s Asia M i n ö r t o N i c o m e d i a , vvhere he s p e n t the vvinter o f 2 1 8 / 1 1 9 , a n d then t h r o u g h the B a l k a n s , t o a r r i v e in R o m e in J u l y o r A u g u s t o f 2 1 9 . It vvas five y e a r s s i n c e a rcigning E m p e r o r h a d beeıı s e c n there. T h i s t i m e , hovvevcr, t h e E m p e r o r ' s r e turn h a d a special c h a r a c t e r , f o r every e f f o r t vvas m a d e t o advertise the e x o t i c a n d ' O r i e n t a l ' n a t u r e o f t h e c u l t o f his g o d E l a g a b a l ; if it m a d e a d e e p ( a n d hostilc) i m p r e s s i o n 011 c o n t c m p o r a r i e s , this vvas, f o r m o d e r n o b s c r v e r s , o n l y t o multiply the a m b i g u i t i e s i n v o l v e d in trying t o u n d e r s t a n d religious belief a n d p r a c t i c e in t h e N e a r E a s t . A t a less p r o b l c m a t i c level the i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e betvveen t h e e l e m e n t s o f the R o m a n state present in Syria a n d the d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s vvithin local s o c i e t y h a d been clearly d e m o n s t r a t e d . B u t if ' E l a g a b a l ' c o u l d e x h i b i t h i m s e l f d e l i b c r a t c l y a s an ' O r i e n t a l ' in R o m e , he stili follovved the p r a c t i c e o f C a r a c a l l a a n d S c p t i m i u s S e v e r u s in ' R o m a n i s i ı ı g ' cities in t h e N e a r E a s t : f o r it vvas in h i s reign t h a t the s t a t u s o f colonia

vvas g r a n t e d t o A r c a

o r C a e s a r c a ad L i b a n u m , the h o m e - c i t y o f his uncle b y m a r r i a g e , G e s s i u s M a r c i a n u s ; t o S i d o n , a l s o in S y r i a P h o e n i c e ; a n d t o P e t r a in A r a b i a . 7 0 By novv this vvas hardly m o r e t h a n a m e r c title a m o n g o t h e r s . B u t it vvas a

Roman

title, vvith a long history, a n d t h e s e c o n t i n u e d g r a n t s are thus a n o t h e r sign o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e s in this p e r i o d . W h e n a n E m p e r o r n c x t r e a p p c a r c d in the N e a r E a s t , it vvas in 2 3 1 , a n d m i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s t h e r e h a d b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d . F o r in the 220S t h e P a r t h i a n E m p i r e h a d been overthrovvn a n d r e p l a c e d b y a Persian d y n a s t y f r o m F a r s in p r e s e n t - d a y Iraıı. T h e c o m p l e x b a c k g r o u n d o f the e s t a b l i s h m e n t in povver o f A r d a s h i r I n e e d n o t d e t a i n us. z 1 W h a t m a t t e r e d f o r the provinces o f tlıc R o m a n N e a r E a s t vvas, first, his i m m e d i a t e a t t a c k o n H a t r a , a n d s c c o n d , h i s p r o e l a i m e d a m b i t i o n t o regain t h e entire t e r r i t o r y o f the a n c i e n t Persian d y n a s t y o f t h e A c h a e m e n i d s . T h i s nevv c h a l l e n g e f o r m s p a r t o f t h e deeply pessim i s t i c c o n c l u s i o n o f C a s s i u s D i o ' s Roman

History,

vvhich e n d s in 2 2 9 :

H e vvas indeed a sourcc o f f c a r t o us, mcnacing not only M e s o p o t a m i a and Syria, but threatening to regain cvcryrhing that the ancicnt Persians had occupied, as far as the Hellenic (i.e. Aegean) sea, as being an ancestral possession. N o t that he hiınseif seems so formidable, as that the attitude of our military forces is such that some are liablc t o go over t o him and others are not vvilling t o resist him. F o r they exhibit such luxury, liccnce and ill-discipline that those in M e s o p o t a m i a dared t o kili their governor, Flavius H e r a c l e o . " 20. M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae", 2 1 . Sec R . N . F r y c , The History

50—52. of Ancient

Iran ( 1 9 8 3 } , 2 8 7 f f . F o r the c o m p ! c x n a r r a t i v c

sources in v a r i o u s l a n g u a g e s , m a n y v e r y late, sec D o d g e o n a n d I.icu, o p . cit. ( n . ı ) , «)ff. 2 2 . D i o L X X X , 3, 4 ; see H e r o d i a n V I , 2 , 1 .

T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t t h a t a p r o f o u n d c h a n g e in ı h e n a t u r e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n o n the e a s t e r n f r o n t i e r vvas novv felt in R o m e . E q u a ! l y , vvhatever t h e c o n t c n t o f s ı ı c c e s s i v c t r e a t i e s , it is c l e a r t h a t the S a s a n i d d y n a s t y n c v c r a c c e p t e d t h e İ o s s o f M e s o p o t a m i a ; h c n c c in the r e p e t î t i v e m i i i t a r y h i s t o r y o f the n c x t c e n t u r y a n d a h a l f the s a m e p l a c e - n a m e s r e c u r a g a i n a n d a g a i n , a b o v e ali N i s i b i s , C a r r h a e a n d E d e s s a . B u t t h e r e vvere t o be o n l y tvvo o c c a s i o n s , in 2 5 2 / 2 5 3 a n d 2 6 0 , vvhen P c r s i a n f o r c e s in f a c t e r o s s e d the E u p h r a t e s i n t o S y r i a . As vve vvill s e e , e v e n t h e r e c o r d o f his v i c t o r i e s p u t u p by S h a p u r I , the s e c o n d S a s a n i d k i n g , a f t e r t h e s e i n v a s i o n s m a k e s q u i t e c l e a r t h a t t h e y vvere s i m p l y d e s t r u e t i v e r a i d s . T h o u g h t h e y did e x t e n d i n t o e a s t e r n A n a t o l i a , e v e n as r a i d s t h e y n e v e r a p p r o a c h e d the A c g e a n . A n d e v e n in R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a i t s e l f n o s e c u r e Persian o c c u p a t i o n vvas e v e r e s t a b l i s h e d u n t i l I o v i a n vvas f o r c e d t o g i v e u p N i s i b i s a n d t h e e a s t e r n p a r t o f the M e s o p o t a m i a n s h e l f in 3 6 3 . T h e t r e a t y t h e n m a d e h a d the e f f e c t o f d i v i d i n g in tvvo a l a r g e l y C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n in vvhich S y r i a c w a s the m a i n l a n g u a g c o f l i t e r a r y c x p r e s s i o r . . 2 J B u t t h e a c c e n t u a t e d r i v a l r y betvveen tvvo e m p i r e s vvhich b e g a n i m m e d i a t e l y vvith the a c c e s s i o n o f A r d a s h i r m i g h t h a v e m e a n t s o m e t h i n g o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e , a c o n f l i c t o f l o y a l t i e s for t h e p e o p l e s o f the R o m a n N e a r E a s t itself. F o r i n s t a n c e , a s s p e a k e r s o f a g r o u p o f S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s o f vvhich r e l a t e d d i a l e e t s vvere a l s o used in t h e P e r s i a n E m p i r e , t h e y m i g h t h a v e f e l t the r i s e o f t h e S a s a n i d E m p i r e as a s o u r c e o f p o t e n t i a l l i b e r a t i o n f r o m R o m e , as r e p r e s e n t i n g a c u l t u r e o r t r a d i t i o n vvhich vvas m o r e truly t h e i r s . If s o , t h e n the e v e n t s o f t h e 220S vvould h a v e b e e n o f e v e n m o r e p r o f o u n d s i g n i f i c a n c e for the history of the region. T h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s a r e r a i s e d h e r e o n l y t o stress t h a t , s o f a r as o u r e v i d e n c e c a n teli u s , t h e rise o f t h e S a s a n i d s h a d n o s u c h s i g n i f i c a n c e , e v e n in M e s o p o t a m i a itself, vvhich h a d b e e n until v e r y r c c c n t l y u n d e r P a r t h i a n r u l e . I r a n i a n s s p e a k i n g a n I r a n i a n l a n g u a g e ( P e h l e v i , o r M i d d l e P e r s i a n ) , the S a s a n i d s r u ! e d a m u l t i l i n g u a l a n d m u l t i c u l t u r a l e m p i r e just as did the R o m a n s ; t h e r e i s alm o s t n o t h i n g t o s u g g e s t t h a t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n vvith P e r s i a o r i t s h i s t o r y played a n y p a r t in the m e n t a l i t y o f a n y o n c in t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t ( o n e s e t o f a n e c d o t e s a b o u t a p r o - P e r s i a n f r o m A n t i o c h vvill be m e n t i o n e d l a t e r ) . " T o say t h a t is o f c o u r s e t o l e a v e o p e n t h e q u e s t i o n o f vvhat p a r t vvas p l a y e d by i d e n t i fication

vvith R o m e o r vvith G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r e ; o r i n d e e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f

vvhether vvider p o l i t i c a l l o y a l t i e s , rising a b o v e a t t a e h m e n t t o a c i t y (or, i n the N e a r E a s t , a v i l l a g e ) , vvere a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r a t ali. S o f a r a s vve c a n teli, t h e r e f o r e , the rise o f A r d a s h i r , a n d the c o n t i n u i n g c o n f l i c t betvveen P e r s i a a n d R o m e , vvas o f purely m i i i t a r y i m p o r t a n c c . I t

ı j . Scc J. B. S c g a l , " M e s o p o t a m i a n C o m m u n i t i c s f r o m Julian t o the Rise o f i s l a m " , Brit. Acad.

(1955).

2 4 . 4 . 3 belovv.

Proc.

m e a n t a b o v e ali t h a t M e s o p o t a m i a , a n d t o a l e s s e r c x t c n t t h e E u p h r a t e s V a l ley, b c c a m c a r c p e a t c d b a t t l c g r o u n d . T h a t s a i d , o n l y t h e b r o a d e s t l i n e s o f t h e v e r y c o n f u s e d s e q u e n c e o f t h e s e b a t t l e s vvill b c s e t o u t h e r e ; t h e c m p h a s i s \vill be o n c h a n g e s b r o u g h t a b o u t , a n d o n the o c c a s i o n a l i t e m s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y e v i d e n c e vvhich i l l u m i n a t c t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s . In t h e 22.0S P c r s i a n f o r c c s c c r t a i n l y a t t a c k e d H a t r a a n d f a i l e d t o t a k e i t , t h o u g h v v h e t h e r it vvas t h e n h c l d b y R o m a n o r b y P a r t h i a n f o r c e s i s n o t c l e a r . T h e y a l s o i n v a d e d R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a t o v v a r d s 2 3 0 , b u t t h c r c is n o g o o d e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e y c r o s s e d i n t o S y r i a . A s vvas b y novv e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e s i t u a t i o n d e m a n d c d the intcrvcntion o f the E m p e r o r

in p e r s o n . T h i s vvas novv

the

younger cousin o f 'Elagabal', b r o u g h t up as Gessius Alexianus Bassianus, the s o n o f Gessius M a r c i a n u s f r o m C a e s a r e a a d L i b a n u m and Iulia Avita

Ma-

m a e a f r o m E m e s a . A s E m p e r o r , a f t e r t h e m u r d e r o f h i s c o u s i n in 2 2 2 , h e vvas o f f i c i a l l y c a l l e d M . A u r e l i u s S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r , t h u s c o m b i n i t ı g e l e m e n t s d r a w n f r o m t h e A n t o n i n c a n d S e v e r a n d y n a s t i e s vvith t h e n a m e o f A l e x a n d e r — t h e o n l y t i m e t h a t it vvas e v e r u s e d b y a R o m a n E m p e r o r . W h e n h e m a r e h e d e a s t v v a r d s , c e r t a i n l y in 2 3 1 , h e t o o k t h e n o r m a l r o u t e t h r o u g h t h e B a l k a n s a n d A s i a M i ı ı o r t o A n t i o c h , 2 5 vvhich vvas t h e n h i s m a i n b a s e f o r tvvo y e a r s . W i t h h i m c a m c a t l e a s t p a r t o f t h e l e g i o n II P a r t h i c a f r o m A l b a , novv c a l l e d P a r t h i c a S e v e r i a n a A l e x a n d r i a n a , s o m e o f v v h o s e s o l d i e r s vvere b u r i e d a t A p a m e a . " T h e e f f e c t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l p r e s e n c e vvere

felt

vvidely, a s a l v v a y s . S u p p l i e s f o r t h e a r m y vvere r e q u i s i t i o n e d f r o m a s f a r a v v a y a s P a m p h y l i a , p r e s u m a b l y b e i n g b r o u g h t b y s e a t o S e l e u c i a . 2 7 I t vvas s u r e l y a l s o novv t h a t I u l i a M a m a e a s e n t s o l d i e r s f r o m h e r e s c o r t t o b r i n g t h e g r e a t C h r i s t i a n s e h o l a r O r i g e n ( p r o b a b l y a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d a t C a e s a r e a in P a l e s tine) to e x p o u n d his faith t o h e r at Antioch.28 W e c a n a s s u m e that A n t i o c h acted, as so often before, as a temporary capital, attracting people from ali o v e r t h e E m p i r e . B u t t h e c a m p a i g n s stili a l l o v v c d t h e E m p e r o r t o v i s i t o t h e r p a r t s o f S y r i a , a p r o c e s s v i v i d l y r e f l e e t e d in o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d o c u n ı e n t s o f P a l m y r a a s a R o m a n colonia.

L i k e o t h e r s u c h d o c u m e n t s , it i s b i l i n -

g u a l , i n G r e e k a n d P a l m y r e n e . A s vve vvill s e e m o r e f u l l y l a t e r , P a l m y r a a s a colonia duumviri

h a d a nevv c o n s t i t u t i o n , w i t h a p a i r o f c h i c f a n n u a l m a g i s t r a t e s , c a l l e d in L a t i n o r strategoi

i n G r e e k . O n e o f t h e s e vvas I u l i u s A u r e l i u s Z c n -

o b i u s , a l s o c a l l e d Z a b d i l a s , vvho m a y h a v e b e e n t h e f a t h e r o f Z e n o b i a , a n d vvho is d e s e r i b e d o n a n h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m t h e G r e a t C o l o n n a d e lstrategos

o f t h e colonia

as

during the presencc o f the dcificd A l c x a n d c r C a c s a r '

( ' S T R T G L Q L N Y ' B M Y T W Y T ' D Y ' L H ' 'LKSNDRNVS Q S R ) . 2 9 Severus Al1 5 . H e r o d i a n V I , 4 , 3. 26. Texr to n . 1 9 above.

27. AE (1972), nos. 625-628. 28. Rııscbius, HE V I , 2 1 , 3 - 4 . 2 9 . CIS II, n o . 3 9 3 2 = C a n t i n e a u , hıı>. III, n o . 2 2 .

e x a n d e r s e e m s a t least t o h a v e intended t o visit E g y p t (as C a r a c a l l a had), and it m a y have been in t h a t c o n n e c t i o n t h a t B o s t r a joiııed t h e r a n k s o f N e a r E a s t e r n coloniae.

It novv b c c o m e officially ' C o l o n i a B o s t r a N ( o v a ? ) T r ( a i a n a )

A ( l e x a n d r i n a ? ) ' a s its c o i n s shovv, s o m e t i m e s a l s o calling it b y the G r e e k tide 'metropolisV" T h e m a i n p u r p o s e o f A l e x a n d c r ' s p r e s e n c e vvas, hovvever, a c o u ı ı t c r - a t t a c k a g a i n s t Persia. 3 1 H e r o d i a n ' s v a g u e a c c o u n t m a k e s c l e a r o n l y t h a t the R o m a n f o r c e s vvere divided i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s , vvith o n e e n t e r i n g A r m e n i a , o n e g o i n g s o u t h ( a p p a r e n t l y dovvn t h e E u p h r a t e s tovvards its c o n v e r g e n c e vvith the Tigris) a n d o n e in the c e n t r e c o m m a n d e d b y the E m p e r o r , evidcntly o p e r a ring in t h e c l a s s i c b a t t l e g r o u n d o f n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a . Ali t h a t vve knovv for c e r t a i n is t h a t in 2 3 2 t h e R o m a n s vvere a b l e t o build a r o a d leading f r o m S i n g a r a tovvards C a r r h a e ( s o n e a r l y ali o f R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a , i f l o s t , m u s t h a v e been regaitıed), a n d t h a t by 2 3 5 , the y e a r o f A l e x a n d e r ' s d e a t h , R o m a n f o r c c s vvere a t H a t r a , vvhere t h e y stili vvere ( o r vvere a g a i n ) in t h e first tvvo y e a r s o f G o r d i a n ' s reign ( 2 3 8 - 2 4 0 ) , b e f o r e it vvas finally t a k e n b y S h a p u r 1 in a b o u t 2 4 0 . 3 2 T h e relatively b r i e f c a m p a i g n t h u s s e e m s t o h a v e r e g a i n e d vvhatever t e r r i t o r y R o m e h a d lost, a n d A l e x a n d e r returned t o R o m e in 2 3 3 t o celeb r a t e his v i c t o r y a n d t h e n t o m o v c t o the n o r t h e r n frontier, vvhere he vvas killed b y his ovvn t r o o p s a t M a i n z in 2 3 5 . It is possible, a s S y n c e l l u s r e c o r d s , t h a t t h e Persians c a p t u r e d N i s i b i s a n d C a r r h a e u n d e r M a x i m i ı ı u s ( 2 3 5 - 2 3 8 ) , " b u t t h e first c l e a r e v i d e n c e o f m a j o r confiicts b r e a k i n g o u t c o m e s f r o m 2 3 9 . A s vve h a v e seen, in t h a t y e a r the P e r s i a n s ' d c s c e n d e d ' on D u r a , p e r h a p s t h e o c c a s i o n o f the d e a t h in b a t t l c o f t h e t r i b ü n e o f the X X t h c o h o r t o f P a l m y r e n e s , Iulius T e r e n t i u s . 5 * B u t t h e y c e r t a i n l y d i d n o t o c c u p y t h e m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , vvhich the nevv arehive f r o m t h e r e shovvs vvas R o m a n until t h e m i d - 2 5 0 s . ' 5 T h e m a j o r c o n f i i c t s b e g a n elsevvhere, vvirh the c a p t u r e o f I I a t r a b y Ardashir. F o r t h e novv f a m o u s m i n i a t u r c c o d e x vvith a t c x t i n c o r p o r a t i n g a l a t e r G r e e k version o f M a n i ' s ovvn a c c o u n t o f h i s p r e a c h i n g shovvs t h a t h e d a t e d his cali t o p r e a c h , o n April 1 8 / 1 9 , 2 4 0 , as h a v i n g c o m e in t h e year in vvhich A r d a s h i r s u b j u g a t e d H a t r a , a n d in vvhich his s o n S h a p u r a s s u m c d t h e d i a d e m ; t h e fail o f H a t r a m i g h t t h u s b e l o n g c i t h c r

3 0 . F o r t h e i n t e n d e d visit t o E g y p t , H a l f m a n n , Itinera, loniae",

2 3 2 ; Bostra: Miilar, " R o m a n

Co-

52.

3 1 . H e r o d i a n V I , j , 1 - 6 , 6. 3 2 . S e e A . M a r i c q , " L e s d e r n i e r e s a n n e e s d ' H a t r a " , Syria 3 4 («9S7>>

33. Syncellus, CJıron., 681. For a ver)' detailed account of the events of these years, and the diffictılt s o u r c c s f o r t h e m , s c c X , L o r i o t , " L c s p r c m i c r e s a n n e e s dc la g r a n d c crisc d u Di* sicclc: D c P a v c n c m c n t d c M a x i m i n Ic T h r a c c ( 2 7 5 ) i «975İ» 6 5 7 . 34. 4.1 above. 3 5 . 4 . 1 belovv.

la m o r t d c G o r d i a n

III ( 1 4 4 ) " , ANRW

İL2

t o 2 3 9 / 2 4 0 o r t o 2 4 0 / 2 4 1 . 3 6 W i t h t h a t , s o far a s w c knovv, a very distinctive: local c e n t r e , ruled by a line o f vassal kings under P a r t h i a n suzerainty, r e novvncd f o r its t e m p l e o f t h e S u n , a n d p r o d u c i n g several huııdred A r a m a i c i n s e r i p t i o n s , c a m e t o a n e n d . A t a n y r a t e , vvhen R o m a n f o r c e s r e a c h c d it d u r ing their retreat up t h e T i g r i s in 3 6 3 , it vvas ' a n old tovvn l o c a t e d in t h e m i d d l e o f the desert, a n d long s i n c e d e s e r t e d ' . 3 7 In R o m a n t e r m s , hovvevcr, I l a t r a vvas oııly an o u t p o s t , even if it deserves s o m e n o t e as t h e furthest p o i n t south-castvvard ever c o n t i n u o u s l y o c c u p i c d by R o m a n f o r c e s . A m a j ö r c o n f l i c t did n o t b r e a k o u t until A r d a s h i r h a d d i e d , in 2 4 1 o r 2 4 2 , a n d S h a p u r b e c a m e s o l e k i n g , vvhile 2 4 2 vvas the y e a r in vvhich G o r d i a n III ( 2 3 8 - 2 4 4 ) c a m e t o c a m p a i g n o n t h e eastern f r o n t . In t h e m e a n t i m e s t r a n g e t ı a n s f o r m a t i o n s h a d been t a k i n g p l a c e in E d e s s a , a n d m u s t h a v e h a d s o m e r e l a t i o n t o politieal t e ı ı s i o n s in M e s o p o t a m i a . 3 8 I n 2 1 2 / 2 1 3 , vvith the d e p o s i t i o n o f its k i n g , E d e s s a h a d b e c o m e a colonia,

a n d its c o i n - l e g e n d s

(ali in G r e e k ) shovv t h a t it r e m a i n e d so under t h e follovving reigns, t h o u g h n o c o i n s are knovvn f r o m t h a t o f M a x i m i n u s ( 2 3 5 — 2 3 8 ) . B u t t h e n , u n d e r G o r dian III, the city r e v e r t s t o c a l l i n g itself b y its S y r i a c n a m e , O r h a i ( ' W R H Y ) , a n d a king liııked d i r e c l l y t o t h e previous dyııasty r e a p p e a r s . A s he is des e r i b e d in a d o c u m c n t f r o m the nevv a r c h i v e f r o m the m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , he i s 'Aelius Septimius Abgar, k i n g , s o n o f M a n u P S G R Y B ' ('crovvn-prince'), s o n o f A b g a r , k i n g ' . T h e date is D e c e m b e r 1 8 , 2 4 0 , a n d it is year 2 o f t h e k i n g a n d year 3 o f ' A u t o k r a t o r K a i s a r M a r k o s A n t o n i n o s G o r d i a n o s ' (ali t r a n s l i t e r a t e d i n t o S y r i a c ) . T h e king's first year vvas t h e r e f o r e t h e S c l c u c i d year O c t o ber 2 3 9 - S e p t e m b e r 2 4 0 , a n d his s e c o n d 2 4 0 / 2 4 r . B u t this vvas n o t on t h e f a c e o f it a r e v o l t a g a i n s t R o m e ; f o r G o r d i a n is m e n t i o n e d a l s o in the h e a d i n g o f the d o c u m e n t , a n d in a n y c a s e c o i n s o f Edessa/Orhai shovv ' A b g a r t h e k i n g ' (Abgar basileus) m a n coloniae,

o f f e r i n g G o r d i a n a s t a t u e t t e . At E d e s s a a l o n c , a m o n g ali R o t h e r e h a d e v i d e n t l y been a d y n a s t y in vvaiting s i n c e 2 1 2 / 2 1 3 .

T h e p e r i o d o f t w c n t y - s i x y e a r s is e x a c t l y the l e n g t h o f reign vvhich an e i g h t h c e n t u r y S y r i a c e h r o n i e l e gives t o a k i n g M a n u ; b u t o u r nevv S y r i a c d o c u m e n r m a k e s c l e a r t h a t he h a d n o t in f a c t been a r c i g n i n g king b u t a n ' h c i r - a p p a r e n t ' o r 'crovvn-prince' ( P S G R Y B ' ) . \Ve c a n n o t teli vvhether t h e E m p e r o r h a d a c t u a l l y a p p r o v e d this c h a n g e o r ( m o r e likely) h a d been f o r c e d t o t o l e r a t e a fait a c c o m p l i . If s o , t o l e r a t i o n d i d 3 6 . F o r rhe C o l o g n e M a n i C o d e x , c o n t a i n i n g a G r e e k v e r s i o n vvritten i n t h e f o u r r h o r e a r l y fifth c e n t u r y o f a n o r i g i n a l t h o u g h t t o h a v e b e e n i n e a s t e r n A r a m a i c , s e e L . K o e n e n a ı ı d C . R ö m e r ,

Derkühıer Mani-Kodex The

Cologne

Mani

and in Medieval

Codex

Chinaz

( 1 9 8 5 ) , Fr. 1 8 , a - 6 . S e e t h e t r a n s l a t i o n b y R . C a n ı e r o n a n d A . ( 1 9 7 9 ) . S e e S . N . C . I Jeu, Manichaeism

in ıhe IMter Roman

J.

Dewey, Empire

(1991), j y f f .

3 7 . A m m i a n u s X X V , 8 , 5 , Scc 4 . 1 a b o v e . 3 8 . F o r v v h a t f o l l o v v s scc M i l l a r " R o m a n Coloniae", App. C.

4 6 - 5 0 , and more fully 12.5 belovv a n d

n o t l a s t l o n g . F o r a n o t h e r S y r i a c d o c u m e n t f r o m t h e s a m e a r c h i v c shovvs t h a t b y O c t o b e r 2 4 2 t h e k i n g h a d d i s a p p e a r e d , a n d the l o c a l d a t i n g is g i v e n a s y e a r 3 0 4 o f the l i b e r a t i o n o f A n t o n i n a E d e s s a , the renovvııed C o l o n i a M e t r o p olis Aurclia A l c x a n d r i a ' ( D H R W R ' D ' N T W N Y N ' ' D Y S ' N S Y H T '

QLWNY'

M T R P W I . S ' \ V R I . Y ' ' L K S N D R Y ' ) , j u s t a s it is in t h e f o l l o v v i n g ' y e a r ( 3 1 , t h a t is, A p r i l / M a y 2 4 3 ) in t h e f a m o u s S y r i a c c o n t r a c t o f s a l e f o u n d a t D u r a . T h o u g h S y r i a c is stili used (a n o t a b l e f a c t ) , the p l a c e h a s l o s t its S y r i a c n a m e , O r h a i , a n d the k i n g h a s v a n i s h e d . W c h a v e n o e v i d e n c e as t o hovv t h e s e SJCcessive t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o c c u r r e d ; b u t t h e y m u s t a t l e a s t s u g g e s t t h a t a R o m a n , o r G r a e c o - R o m a n , i d e n t i t y vvas s o m e t h i n g less vvell e s t a b l i s h e d h e r e t h a n vvest o f t h e E u p h r a t e s . A t a n y r a t e , the c o i n s shovv t h a t u n d e r D e c i u s ( 2 4 9 — 2 5 1 ) E d e s s a stili c o u n t e d a s a R o m a n colonia,

a s a l s o ( a s shovvn in d o c -

u m e n t s f r o m t h e nevv a r e h i v e ) did N i s i b i s a n d C a r r h a c . N o t l o n g a f t e r t h a t , hovvever, R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a vvas t o e n d u r e m a j ö r c o n v u l s i o n s , set o u t f o r us m o s t c l e a r l y in t h e t r i l i n g u a l r e c o r d o f his v i c t o r i e s vvhich S h a p u r I h a d c a r v c d a t N a q s h - e R u s t a m n e a r P e r s c p o l i s , the c a p i t a l o f the a n c i e n t Persian dynasty.3,9 T h i s part o f t h c inseription divides into three s e e t i o n s : a c a m p a i g n i n t o B a b y l o n i a b y G o r d i a n I I I , in 2 4 2 - 2 4 4 , a n d his d e a t h a n d r e p l a c c m e n t by P h i l i p ; an i n v a s i o n o f S y r i a a n d C a p p a d o c i a b y S h a p u r , follovving o n a vvrong d o n e by an u n n a m e d R o m a n E m p e r o r , vvhich, as it novv s e e m s , b e l o n g s t o 2 5 2 ; a n d a n i n v a s i o n o f R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a by S h a p u r , evidently in 2 6 0 , in vvhich V a l c r i a n vvas c a p t u r e d , a n d a f t e r vvhich Persian raids spread into Syria, C a p p a d o c i a and Cilicia. S h a p u r t h u s m a k e s n o c l a i m t o a n y m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s in R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a until 2 6 0 , a n d ( a s vve vvill s e c ) n o c l a i m a n y t i m e t o h a v e a d v a n c e d f u r t h e r s o u t h up t h e O r o n t e s t h a n A r e t h u s a . A p a r t f r o m p l a c e s a l o n g the E u p h r a t e s , S y r i a P h o e n i c e , i n e l u d i n g P a l m y r a , as vvell as S y r i a P a l a e s t i n a s n d A r a b i a , r e m a i n c d o u t s i d c t h e s e m a j ö r c o m b a t s . T h a t is n o t t o s a y t h a t e v e n t s , a n d c h a n g e s o f E m p e r o r , a t t h e c e n t r c vvere n o t r e f l e e t e d a t t h e f u r t h e s t c o r n e r s o f the E m p i r e , in t h e N e a r E a s t a s elsevvhere. T h u s in J u n e 2 3 8 , a f t e r the a c c c s s i o n o f G o r d i a n İ Ü , a c e n t u r i o ı ı a t S a k k a i a in the n o r t h e r n

Hauran

e r e e t e d a s t a t u e , m a d e in t h c l o c a l b l a c k b a s a l t , o f the ' G r e a t F o r t u n e o f S a k k a i a ' , d e d i c a t i n g it ' o n b e h a l f o f t h e s a f e t y a n d [ v i c t o r y o f o u r l o r d ? ] t h c E m p e r o r [ M . A n t o n i u s G o r d i a n u s ) A u g u s t u s ' . T h e n a m e o f t h e E m p e r o r vvas s u b s e q u e n t l y erased." 1 0 F o r r h e l o y a l c c n t u r i o n vvas n o t t h e n t o knovv t h a t s i x 3 9 . S e e A . M a r i c q , " R c s G c s t a e D i v i S a p o r i s " , Syria 35 ( » 9 5 8 ) , 2 9 5 ; F.nglish t r a n s l a c i o n in R . N . F r y c , Tbe

History

of Ancient

Iran ( 1 9 8 3 ) , A p p . 4. T h c m o s t dccailcd h i s t o r i e a l s t u d y ,

o n vvhich v v h a t f o l l o w s g r e a d y r c l i c s , is E . K e t t e n h o f e n , D/e ramiseh-persisehen Jabrhuıtderts iseb-römiseben

n. CJır. ( 1 9 8 2 ; h c n c c f o r v v a r d , K e t t e n h o f e n , Kriege). Friedensvertrage

4 0 . M . S a r t r c , " I x dies ( ' 9 8 4 ) . 49-

des

irttperii

Jabrhunderts

n. Chr.

Kriege

S e e a l s o E . W i n t e r , Die

da

3.

sasanid-

(1988).

d c G o r d i a n III: U n e i n s e r i p t i o n i n e d i t e d e S y r i e " , Syria 6 ı

y e a r s l a t e r G o r d i a n vvould be m u r d e r e d o n the E u p h r a t e s , a n d r e p l a c e d b y Iulius P h i l i p p u s , vvho c a m e f r o m a p l a c e a s l ı o r t d i s t a n c e f r o m S a k k a i a , vvhich then b c c a m e a s p l e n d i d nevv tovvn vvith the n a m e ' P h i l i p p o p o l i s ' . I t vvas in 2 4 2 t h a t G o r d i a n I I I s e t o f f o n his expeditio

Orientalis;

the l e r m

is used o n a n i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m M i s e n u m vvhich r e c o r d s t h e p a r t i c İ p a t i o n o f the fleets f r o m M i s e n u m a n d R a v c n n a . B u t t h e E m p e r o r p r o b a b l y t o o k t h e n o r m a l r o u t e t h r o u g h the B a l k a n s a n d A n a t o l i a t o A n t i o c h , a g a i n a c c o m p a nied by a t l e a s t d e t a c h m e n t s o f the l e g i o n II P a r t h i c a , o n c c a g a i n t o be s t a t i o n e d a t A p a m e a . 4 1 W h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e n p r e v a i l e d in t h e N e a r E a s t i s n o t c c r t a i n . W c knovv o n l y t h a t the Persiatıs h a d r a i d c d the D u r a a r c a in 2 3 9 a n d t a k e n H a t r a in a b o u t 2 4 0 . G i v e n t h a t d a t e , t h e c l a i m b y tvvo B y z a n t i n e c h r o n i c l e s t h a t N i s i b i s a n d C a r r h a e h a d b e e n c a p t u r e d by the P e r s i a n s u n d e r M a x i m i n u s ( s o b y 2 3 8 ) , a n d vvere n o t r e t a k e n by G o r d i a n , m u s t b c d u b i o u s . 4 ' At a n y r a t e d o c u m c n t s o f G o r d i a n ' s r c i g n in t h e nevv a r c h i v e f r o m the m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s shovv n o i n t e r r u p t i o n o f R o m a n rule t h e r e in 2 3 9 - 2 4 4 ; 4 3 s o t h e P e r s i a n r a i d o f 2 3 9 h a d n o l a s t i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s in t h a t a r e a . M e s o p o t a m i a p r o p e r , a g a i n s t vvhich the P e r s i a n s vvould n o r m a l l y h a v e a d v a ı ı c e d up t h e T i g r i s , is o f c o u r s c a n o t h e r m a t t e r . B u t it is c l e a r t h a t E d e s s a , o r O r h a i , b o t h as a r e s t o r e d k i n g d o m in 2 3 9 / 2 4 0 a n d 2 4 0 / 2 4 T ( a n d p e r h a p s 2 4 1 / 2 4 2 ? ) a n d o b v i o u s l y as a r e - e s t a b l i s h e d colonia

f r o m 2 4 2 onvvards r e c o g n i s e d the s u z e r -

a i n t y o f G o r d i a n I I I ; s o it vvas t h e r e f o r e n o t u n d e r P e r s i a n c o n t r o l . I t is, hovvever, c l c a r t h a t t h e first o b j c c t i v e o f G o r d i a n ' s c a m p a i g n s vvas M e s o p o t a m i a , and that a battle took place on R o m a n provincial territory, n e a r t h e colonia

o f R e s l ı a i n a , a t vvhich S h a p u r vvas d e f e a t e d . 4 4 I t is t h u s p o s -

sible that Nisibis and C a r r h a e , rcspcctivcly s o m e 1 0 0 k m t o the east and t h e vvest o f R e s h a i n a , h a d b e e n t a k e n b y t h e P e r s i a n s ( b u t p r o b a b l y a f t e r the f a i l o f H a t r a ) , a n d vvere novv r e c o v e r e d . If s o , S i n g a r a is l i k e l y t o h a v e b e e n c a p t u r e d b e f o r e N i s i b i s , b u t m a y a l s o h a v e b e e n r e c o v e r e d at s o m e p o i n t . \Vhat is c e r t a i n is t h a t b o t h C a r r h a e a n d N i s i b i s vvere f u n e t i o n i n g as R o m a n loniae

co-

in the r e i g n o f D e c i u s ( 2 4 9 - 2 5 1 ) / 4 1

G o r d i a n ' s M e s o p o t a m i a n c a m p a i g n m u s t b e l o n g t o 2 4 3 , a n d it vvas c e r t a i n l y in this y e a r t h a t the i n f l u e n t i a l P r a e t o r i a n P r c f c c t T i m c s i t h c u s , his f a t h e r - i n - l a v v — a c c o m p a ı ı y i n g t h e E m p e r o r 011 c a m p a i g n as a P r a e t o r i a n P r e f e c t 4 1 . S e e H a l f m a n n , Itinera,

2 3 3 - 2 3 4 , a n d ILS, n o . 9 2 2 1 . F o r i l P a r t h i c a , 4 . 2 a b o v e .

4 2 . S e e 4 . 1 ( D u r a ) a n d t e x t t o n . 3 6 a b o v e . T h e r e p o r t is, h o w e v c r , a c c c p t e d in t h e i m p o r t a n t n e w s t u d y o f this p e r i o d b y D . S . Potter, Prophecy A llistorıcal te r, Si by İline

CoHtmeHtary

OH the Thirteenth

and History

Sibylline

önde

in the Crisis of the Roman (1990),

189li.

F.mpire:

(Hcnceforvvafd Por-

Oracle.)

4 3 . S e e Feissel a n d G a s c o u , " D o c u m c n t s " , ç j 7 f f . , n o s . 1 6 (circa AD 2 3 9 - 2 4 1 , E u p h r a t e s r e g i o n ) ; 1 4 (AD 2 4 1 , A p p a d a n a ) ; 13 (AD 2 4 3 , B c t h P h o u r a i a ) ; 1 2 (AD 2 4 4 , B c t h P h o u r a i a ) . 44. A m m i a n u s X X I I I , 5, 17. 4$. T e x t to n.52 below.

norraally d i d — d i e d a n d w a s r c p l a c c d b y M . Iulius l'hilippus, a n equesrrian o f f i c c r o r o f f i c i a l f r o m t h e H a u r a n , \ v h o s e p o s t b e f o r e t h a t m o m e n t is n o t knovvn. His brother, C . Iulius Priscus, already held the other of the t w o posts as P r a e t o r i a n Prefect.46 T h e c h o i e e w a s t o h a v e i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s . F o r in t h e f o ! l o w i n g y e a r t h e R o m a n f o r c e s w e n t ö v e r t o t h e o f f e n s i v e a n d r e a c h e d c l o s e t o t h e h e a r t o f Persian t e r r i t o r y b e f o r e b e i n g d e f e a t e d at M i s i k h e o n the E u p h r a t e s , ö v e r 2.00 k m in a s t r a i g h t l i n e f r o m t h e n c a r e s t R o m a n o u t p o s t s o n the m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , a n d n o t far f r o m C t c s i p h o n o n t h e Tigris. H o \ v the a r m y r e a c h e d there, w h e t h e r directly f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a d o w n the C h a b u r o r f r o m S y r i a , is n o t k n o v v n . It i s v v i t h t h i s c a m p a i g n a n d its d e f e a t t h a t S l ı a p u r ' s a c c o u n t o f h i s c o n f i i c t s vvith R o m e o p c n s : W h c n a t first vve h a d b c c o m c c s t a b l i s h e d in the E m p i r e , G o r d i a n C a e s a r raised in a l i o f the R o m a n E m p i r e a f o r c e f r o m the G o t h a n d G e r m a r . r e a l m s a n d m a r c h e d o n B a b y l o n i a [ A s s y r i a ] a g a i n s t t h e E m p i r e o f Irar. a n d a g a i n s t u s . O n t h e b o r d e r of B a b y l o n i a at M i s i k h e , a g r e a t ' f r o n t a l ' b a t t l c o c c u r r c d . G o r d i a n C a e s a r vvas killed a n d t h e R o m a n f o r c e vvas destroyed. A n d the R o m a n s m a d e Philip Caesar. T h e n Philip C a e s a r c a m e t o u s f o r t e r m s , a n d t o r a n s o m their lives, g a v c u s 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 denars,

and

b c c a m c t r i b u t a r y t o u s . A n d f o r t h i s r e a s o n vve h a v e r e n a m e d M i s i k h e Peroz-Shapur.47 Shapur thus omits the carlier phase of Persian initiativc, perhaps because hc w a n t s t o record o n l y events vvhile he vvas sole k i n g . H e a l s o flatly c o n t r a c i c t s t h e R o m a n v e r s i o n o f t h e s e q ı ı e n c c o f e v e n t s v v h i c h led t o t h e p r o c l a m a ı i o n o f P h i l i p a s E m p e r o r . F o r in t h i s v e r s i o n it vvas o n l y a f t e r t h e R o m a n a r m y h a d r c t r c a t c d u p t h e E u p h r a t e s t o n e a r C i r c c s i u m t h a t G o r d i a n vvas a s s s s s i n a t e d , a n d P h i l i p t o o k h i s p l a c e . 4 8 W h a t is c e r t a i n a t l e a s t i s t h a t a t o m b vvas built f o r G o r d i a n at a place c a l l e d Z a i t h a n e a r C i r c e s i u m , vvhere A m m i a n u s savv it d u r i n g J u l i a n ' s e x p e d i t i o n o f ) 6 ) . 4 9 T h i s first p h a s e o f u n s u c c c s s f u l i n v a s i o n s b y b o t h s i d e s vvas f o l l o v v e d , p e r h a p s surprisingly, b y several y e a r s of p e a c e . W h e t h e r or n o t S h a p u r is t r u t h f u l in r e p o r t i n g t h a t P h i l i p a c k n o v v l e d g e d h i s s u z e r a i n t y a n d m a d e a p a y m e n t o f m o n e y a s a s i g n o f t h a t , p e a c e e v i d e n t l y vvas c o n c l u d e d ; a n d P h i l i p d e p a r t e d f o r R o m e , a p p a r e n t l y (as u s u a l ) v i a t h e B a l k a n s . 5 0 P e a c e i n t h i s a r e a i n d e e d s e e m s t o h a v e l a s t e d u n t i l 2.52, 46. PIR 11461

a n d t h e r e f o r e a l s o t h r o u g h the othervvise

(Philippus); 484 (Prisoıs).

4 7 . See 11.39 a b o v e ; t r a n s . F r y e , o p . cit. ( n . 3 9 ) , 3 7 1 . 4 8 . F o r t h e v e r y c o m p i e x n a r r a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s , s e e X . L o r i o t , o p . cit. (n.33 a b o v e ) ,

770li.

49. A m m i a n u s X X U I , 5, 7 . 3 0 . F o r a r e v i s c d e h r o n o l o g y s c c D . E . T r o u r , " V i c t o r i a R c d u x a n d t h e First Y e a r o l t h e R e i g n o f P h i l i p t h e A r a b " , Chirott

19 ( 1 9 8 9 ) ,

xxı.

t r o u b l c d reign o f D e e i u s , vvho iıı 2 $ t vvas t o die in b a t t l e a g a i n s t the G o t h s (vvhether h e vvas t h e first o f ali R o m a n E m p e r o r s t o die in b a t t l e d e p e n d s o n vvhether S h a p u r ' s v e r s i o n o r t h e R o m a n v e r s i o n o f e v e n t s in 2 4 4 is c o r r e c t ) . O u r e v i d e n e e d o e s novv allovv u s t o g a i n s o m e g l i m p s e s o f this p h a s e o f e s t a b l i s h c d R o m a n r u l e in the N e a r E a s t . i n d e e d , s l i g h t as this e v i d e n e e is, i t is e n o u g h t o s u g g e s t t h a t , c o n t r a r y t o vvhat o n e m i g h t s u p p o s e , vvc c o u l d s e e this d c c a d c as r e p r e s e n t i n g the h c i g h t o f o v e r t ' R o m a n i s a t i o n ' in this r e g i o n . It vvas novv, f o r i n s t a n c e , in the r e i g n o f P h i l i p ' t h e A r a b ' , t h a t the last knovvn g r 3 n t s o f t h e s t a t u s o f colonia

vvere m a d e . T h e best-knovvn i n s t a n c e vvas o f

c o u r s c P h i l i p p o p o l i s itself, vvhere the g r a n t o f c o l o n i a ) s t a t u s a c c o m p a n i e d i t s f o u n d a t i o n a s a city. B u t e v e n t h e m o d e s t little g a r r i s o n - t o v v n o f D u r a s e e m s by novv t o h a v e g a i n e d this s t a t u s , as did D a m a s c u s a n d F l a v i a N e a p o l i s . 3 1 I n M e s o p o t a m i a the f a m o u s c o n t r a c t o f s a l e f o u n d in D u r a , d a t i n g t o 2 4 3 , e x presses in S y r i a c the c o l o n i a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e tovvn a t t h a t m o m e n t ; vvhile d o c u m e n t s f r o m the nevv a r c h i v e i n e l u d e , f o r i n s t a n c e , a c o n t r a c t o f sale o f 2 5 0 f r o m C a r r h a e — ' i n Aurelia C a r r h a c C o l o n i a , M c t r o p o l i s o f M e s o p o t a m i a ' — a n o t h e r ^ o f 2 5 1 , r e f e r s b a c k t o a p r e v i o u s c o n t r a c t m a d e at N i s i b i s , a l s o in 2 5 0 — ' i n S e p t i m i a C o l o n i a M e t r o p o l i s N e s i b i s ' . 3 2 T h e first o f the nevv d o c u m e n t s t o b e fully p u b l i s h e d a l s o refleets t h e s a m e s t a t u s as novv e n j o y e d by A n t i o c h , vvhile s h e d d i n g a v i v i d light b o t h o n t h e s t r u e t u r e o f R o m a n g o v e r n m e n t in t h e r e g i o n a n d o n the l i m i t s o f its e f f e c t i v e n e s s . 5 3 T h i s is the p e t i t i o n (libellus)

o f s o m e villagers f r o m B e t h P h o u r a i a , a

v i l l a g e ovvned b y t h e E m p e r o r a n d s i t u a t e d o n the E u p h r a t e s in the r e g i o n o f A p p a d a n a , i t s e l f l o c a t c d , a s vve h a v e s e e n , just belovv the c o n f l u e n c e o f t h e E u p h r a t e s a n d t h e C h a b u r . 5 4 T h e r e p l y 'vvritten u n d e r ' t h e i r p e t i t i o n ( h e ı ı c e c a l l c d subscriptio,

o r in G r e e k trypographe)—and

p e r h a p s a l s o the p e t i t i o n

i t s e l f — h a d b e e n p o s t e d at A n t i o c h in 2 4 5 : ' I n the c o n s u l s h i p o f the E m p e r o r C a e s a r M a r c u s Iulius Philippus Augustus and of Messius Titianus, the 5 t h d a y b e f o r e the K a l e n d s o f S e p t e m b e r , in t h e y e a r 2 9 3 ( o f A n t i o c h ) , t h e 2 8 t h o f the m o n t h L ö o s , at A n t i o c h , colonia

a n d metropolis,

in the H a d r i a n i c

B a t h s ' . A s clscvvherc, t h e vvider s t r u e t u r e o f t h e E m p i r e vvith its u s u a i l y d i s t a n t E m p e r o r , his fellovv-consul h o l d i n g o f f i c c , a n d e v e n t h e R o m a n

calendar-

s y s t e m , a r e ali v i s i b l y p r e s e n t in the d o c u m e n t . T h e p e t i t i o n vvas a d d r c s s e d t o the m o s t s e n i o r R o m a n official in the r e g i o n , Iulius P r i s c u s , t h e b r o t h e r o f the E m p e r o r , h e r e d e s e r i b e d as (eparchos)

o f M e s o p o t a m i a , a n d as ' h o l d i n g the hypateia\

an

praefectus expression

vvhich s e e m s t o i n d i c a t e his o v e r a l i c o m m a n d o f the r e g i o n . T h a t p e a s a n t s 5 1 . M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

52-55.

5 2 . Feissel a n d G a s c o u , " D o c u m c n t s " , 5 5 9 , n o s . r o ( C a r r h a c ) a n d 8 ( N i s i b i s ) . S c c M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

39.

$ 3 . Fcisscl a n d G a s c o u , " D o c u m e n t s " , n o . 1 . 54. 4.1 a b o v e .

f r o m a village in a r e m o r e c o r n c r o f t h c E m p i r e c o u l d a d d r c s s s o h i g h a n official in p e r s o n is a very s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t . N o n e t h c l e s s , the o u t e o m e f r o m their point o f vicvv h a d b e e n , a n d vvas evidently t o r e m a i n , v e r y d i s a p p o i n t i n g : ' H a v i n g , I . o r d , a dispute w i t h o u r fellovv-villagers över l a n d a n d o t h e r m a t ters, vve c a m e up here t o s e e k j u s t i c e b e f o r e y o u r G o o d n e s s , a n d h a v i n g vvaitcd c i g h t m o n t h s . . . ' . E v e n t h e n , hovvcver, t h e c a s e h a d been o n l y h a l f h e a r d , a n d t h e y novv asked f o r o r d e r s t o b e given t o C l a u d i u s A r i s t o n , t h e resident at A p p a d a n a , t o t a k e i m m e d i a t e steps. T h e rcply vvas m i n -

procurator

imal: ' A r i s t o n , vir egregius,

vvill c x a m i n c y o u r p e r i d o n ' . E v e n s o , it is s t r i k i n g

t h a t t h c villagcrs h a d felt a b l e t o refer t o ' t h e I m p e r i a l o r d e r s , vvhich you r e v e r e ' , vvhich allovved the c u r r e n t p o s s e s s o r s o f l a n d in dispute t o r e m a i n in o c c u p a t i o n until t h e c a s e vvas settled. A sense o f b e l o n g i n g t o a w i d c r legal system i n f o r m s t h c vvhole d o c u m e n t , hovvcvcr c r r a t i c its a p p l i c a t i o n m i g h t b e in p r a c t i c e . In a different vvay a sense o f b e l o n g i n g t o t h e vvider Imperial s y s t e m is a l s o e x p r e s s e d very c l e a r l y b y a m a n f r o m t h c colonia

o f Heliopolis, L. Trcborius

S o s s i a n u s , vvho served a s a l e g i o n a r y c e n t u r i o n . " In R o m e , u n d e r G o r d i a n , he m a d e a d e d i c a t i o n t o I u p p i t e r O p t i m u s M a x i m u s H e l i o p o l i t a n u s ,

'conser-

vator o f the i m p e r i u m o f o u r lord, G o r d i a n u s ' . A n d a fevv y e a r s later he put up a L a t i n d e d i c a t i o n t o Iulius P r i s c u s , the b r o t h e r o f t h c E m p e r o r Philip, a t their p l a c e o f o r i g i n , novv a c i t y (and colonia)

vvith t h e n a m e ' P h i l i p p o p c l i s '

o n the north-vvest tip o f the J e b e l H a u r a n , s o m e 8 0 k m s o u t h - s o u t h - e a s t o f D a m a s c u s . T h e s u d d e n c r e a t i o n o f a n e l a b o r a t e nevv G r a c c o - R o m a n city, built in t h e local black b a s a l t a n d n a m e d a f t e r t h e E m p e r o r , vvas a significant m o m e n t in t h e h i s t o r y o f the a r e a , c h a r a c t e r i s e d in g e n e r a l b y large v i l l a g e s . ' 6 In the present c o n t e x t it is r e l e v a n t t h a t S o s s i a n u s deseribed P r i s c u s by a title vvhich s e c m s t o c x p l a i n thc o d d c x p r e s s i o n hypateia 'Praefectus

Praetorio

a n d reetor

Orientis'.

in the p e t i t i o n , n a m e l y

H e must mean some overail c o m -

m a n d o f t h e E a s t , as indeed Z o s i m u s vvas later t o r e c o r d : ' a p p o i n t e d t o n ı l c t h c p r o v i n c c s t h e r e (in t h c E a s t ) ' . 5 7 It s h o u l d p e r h a p s bc n o t e d t h a t this i n s e r i p t i o n s e c m s t o be the first o c c a s i o n on vvhich ' O r i e n s ' is used t o refer t o ' t h e N e a r E a s t ' in t h e s e n s e e m p l o y e d h e r e . Z o s i m u s r e p o r t s t h a t P r i s c u s ' rule vvas o p p r e s s i v e , a n d b o t h h c a n d A u r e lius V i c t o r s a y t h a t s o m c o n c c a l l e d I o t a p i a n u s novv lcd a r e v o l t in t h e E a s t A fevv c o i n s vvith L a t i n legends a n d giving I o t a p i a n u s I m p e r i a l titles a r c c n o u g h t o c o n f i r m that t h e r e really vvas s u c h a s h o r t - l i v e d p r e t e n d e r in Syria. But vve ktıovv effectively n o t h i n g a b o u t h i m . " T h e i n f o r m a t i o n vvould be totally

S s - S c c M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

34.

5 6 . S e e 1 1 . 4 belovv. 5 7 . İLS. n o . 9 0 0 5 ; Z o s i m u s I, 2 0 , z. 5 8 . PIR'

l , 4 9 . S e e P o ı t c r , Sibylline

Oracle,

esp. 1 4 8 - 2 4 9 .

i n s i g n i f i c a n t if it v v e r e n o t f o r t h e r e a l i m p o r t a n c e o f o t h e r N e a r R a s t e r n p r e tenders over the follovving c o u p l e o f decades. For the m o m e n t , hovvever, far f r o m b e i n g in g e n e r a l a p e r i o d o f d i s t u r b a n c c i n t h e N e a r R a s t , t h e l a t e r 2 4 0 S after the defeat a n d d e a t h of G o r d i a n a n d the retreat a n d d c p a r t u r e of P h i l i p m i g h t be s e e n as a p e r i o d o f s o l i d l y e s t a b l i s h e d R o m a n g o v e r n m e n t a n d

of

the c c l e b r a t i o n of the ' R o m a n n e s s ' of the cities a n d of the ruling class o f t h e r e g i o n . S u c h at a n y rate m i g h t vvell b c the i m p r e s s i o n g i v e n by a s t a t u e - b a s e p u t u p at T y r e a b o u t t h i s t i m e a n d i n s e r i b e d in G r e e k a s f o l l o v v s : ' S e p t i m i o s O d a i n a t h o s , lamprotatos,

Septimia

C o l ( o n i a ) T y r o s t h e metropolis'.S9

The

c i t y ' s s e l f - d e s c r i p t i o ı ı , o f c o u r s e , r e f l e e t s its a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e s t a t u s o f under Septimius Scvcrus. G r e e k f o r elarissimus,

The

honorand

is deseribed

colonia

a s lamprotatos,

the

t h a t is t o s a y , t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l s t a t u s - d e s i g n a t i o n o f a

R o m a n senatör. T h e p e r s o n c o n c c r n e d , stili a p p a r e n t l y n o m o r e t h a n a n o t h e r e x a m p ! c o f a local d i g n i t a r y v v h o h a s risen to senatorial r a n k , is S e p t i m i u s O d e n a t h u s f r o m P a l m y r a , v v h i c h i t s e l f v v a s n o v v a n o t h e r R o m a n colonia.

The

d a t e is n o t c e r t a i n , b u t i s p r o b a b l y t h e 2 4 0 S . If s o , t h e r i s c t o p r o m i n c n c c

of

t h e f a m i l y , v v h i c h vvas b r i c f l y t o g i v e P a l m y r a a q u i t e e x c e p t i o n a l r o l e in t h e Empire, vvas not l o n g delayed.

For by 2 5 1 Septimius Airanes (Hairan),

the

s o n ( a s it n o v v s e e m s ) o f O d e n a t h u s , v v a s a l r e a d y a s e n a t ö r h i m s e l f , a n d

had

also gained

the position

of

'exa[rchost]

of

the P a l m y r e n e s '

(or

'head

of

T a d m o r ' i n P a l m y r e n e — R S T D M W R ) . H e is h o n o u r c d a s s u c h b y a s o l d i e r o f t h e l e g i o n III C y r e n a i c a ( e x p r e s s e d i n P a l m y r e n e a s ' v v h o is i n t h e at B o s t r a ' — D B L G Y W N ' D Y

legion

B Ş R ) , a n d v v h o c a l l s h i m h i s patronus.60

The

i m p o r t a n c e o f the f a m i l y vvas p e r h a p s b e g i n n i n g t o be f e l t e v e n b e f o r e

the

m a j ö r P e r s i a n i n v a s i o n o f 2 5 2 . N o n e t h e l e s s , it is n o v v c l e a r t h a t t h e r e is n o r e a s o n to scc the p r o m i n c n c c of S e p t i m i u s O d e n a t h u s , a R o m a n s e n a t ö r f r o m a R o m a n colonia,

as refleeting the importance of an established 'dynasty' a t

P a l m y r a . T h e v v h o l l y e x c e p t i o n a l r o l e vvhich t h e f a m i l y p l a y e d vvas t o b e p r o d u e t of very spccial circumstances, a n d of the provincial

and

a

military

strueture o f t h e r e g i o n , a n d lasted just tvvo d e c a d e s . T h a t already in 2 5 1 Septimius O d e n a t h u s ' son, Septimius Airanes,

had

t h e r a n k o f s e n a t ö r ( a n d h e n c c s h o u l d in p r i n c i p l c h a v e b e e n at l e a s t t v v e n t y f i v c ) a n d t h e p o s i t i o n o f (exarcbos{})

o f the P a l m y r e n e s ' ( R S T D M W R ) ,

and

have been h o n o u r c d by a centurion f r o m another province, suggests a real p r o m i n e n c e of the family. A s it h a p p e n s , his father s e e m s to h a v e h a d

the

s a m e title, as a nevvly p u b l i s h e d i n s e r i p t i o n o f 2 5 2 r c v c a l s . 6 1 B u t vvhat c o u l d s u c h a t i t l e , h e l d i n a R o m a n colonia

by a father a n d s o n vvho vvere

59. F o r t h e h o n o r i f i c inseription f r o m T y r e , scc M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae37, M . Gavvlikovvski, " L c s princcs dc P a i m y r c " , Syria 60. S o G a v v l i k o v v s k i , o p . cit., 2 5 8 - 2 6 0 . 6 1 . Gavvlikovvski, 2 5 7 , n o . 13.

62 (1985), 251.

both

follovving

s e n a r o r s , h a v e m e a n t ? Is it, a s o f t e n s u p p o s c d , a s i g n o f a n e m e r g i n g m i i i t a r y c o m m a n d separate from the R o m a n a r m y proper? Perhaps so. O n the other h a n d t h e t e r m exarcbos

c a n b e u s e d in I m p e r i a l G r e e k t o d e s c r i b e a

Roman

p r i e s t h o o d . " It m i g h t s e e m e q u a l l y likely that a s e n a t ö r f r o m P a l m y r a , vvith his s o n , vvho w a s p e r h a p s r e a l l y o n l y a b o y o f s c n a t o r i a l r a n k h c l d a n o f f i c c o f t h i s t y p e i n h i s n a t i v c colonia,

(ctarissimus),

A m o n g the f u n c t i o n s

per-

f o r m e d b y s e n a t o r s in t h e i r n a t i v e c i t i e s , in t h e G r e e k E a s t a s e l s e w h e r e , p r i e s t h o o d s a r e v e r y p r o m i n e n t . " A s f o r R S , vve vvill s c c l a t e r t h a t i n c o n t c m p o r a r y A r a m a i c it c o u l d b c u s e d i n a p h r a s c v v h o s c G r e e k e q u i v a l e n t m e a n t s i m p l y Mcading citizen'.64 W h a t v v a s r e a l l y i m p l i e d b y t h e t v v o n o t v e r y c o m m o n t e r m s exarchos

a ad

, ncithcr of vvhich h a d a n cstablishcd technical m e a n i n g , t h u s c a n n o t a s c c r t a i n e d . N e i t h e r c a n be u s e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e a n e m e r g i n g

x

independeııt

miiitary role for Palmyra, a vvhole decade before our narrative sources suggcst any such thing. T h e p o v v c r o f e s t a b l i s h e d R o m a n r u l e in t h e N e a r E a s t v v a s , h o v v e v e r , a h o to b e felt in q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t v v a y in these years. F o r u n d e r D e c i u s the q u e s t i o n o f t h e v v o r s h i p o f t h e p a g a n g o d s b e c a m e a n i s s u c in a v v a y t h a t it h a d n e v e r b e e n b e f o r e . I t v v a s h e v v h o i n t h e first v v i n t e r o f h i s r e i g n ( 2 4 9 / 2 5 0 ) i s s u e d a general order, c o m m u n i c a t e d

b y edieta

p o s t e d in t h e p r o v i n c e s , t h a t c v e r y

i n h a b i t a n t o f the E m p i r e s h o u l d sacrifice t o the g o d s , a n d o b t a i n a ccrtificatc o f h a v i n g d o n e so. B u t t h e v e r y full e v i d e n c e a v a i l a b l e f o r elsevvhere f o r the ' D e c i a n p e r s c c u t i o n ' i s m a t e h e d f o r t h e N e a r E a s t o n l y b y a b r i e f r e p o r t by E u s e b i u s (born a b o u t ten y e a r s later) o f the m a r t y r d o m o f A l e x a n d e r , b i s h o p o f J e r u s a l e m ( f o r m a l l y A e l i a C a p i t o l i n a ) ; o f t h e d e a t h in p r i s o n o f

Babylas,

b i s h o p of A n t i o c h ; and of the prolonged torture suffered by O r i g e n , novv l o n g s i n c e r e s i d e n t a t C a e s a r e a in S y r i a P a l a e s t i n a , v v h o d i e d n o t l o n g a f t e r . 6 5 T h e l a c k o f e v i d e n c e is c e r t a i n l y j u s t a n a c c i d e n t ; f o r t h i s , t h e first o f t h e g e n e r a l p e r s e c u t i o n s , vvas felt i n the N e a r E a s t a s elsevvhere. T h u s t h e a u t h o r o f the XIIIth

Sibylline

Oracle,

probably

from

Emesa,

and

vvriting his

pscudo-

p r o p h e t i c n a r r a t i v e o n l y a f c \ v y e a r s later, r c c o r d s o f D e c i u s ' r e i g n : ' i m m c c i a t e l y t h e r e vvill b c s p o l i a t i o n a n d m u r d e r o f t h e f a i t h f u l ' . 6 6 T h e i m p a c t

of

D e c i u s ' edict, o f i m m e n s e significance a s a p r e c u r s o r o f vvhat vvas t o c o m e , v v a s u n m i s t a k a b l e . B u t i t is i m p o r t a n t t o s t r e s s t h a t in m i i i t a r y t e r m s t h e y e a r s u p t o a n d j u s t a f t e r t h e m i d - c e n t u r y vvere o n e s o f p e a c e a n d e s t a b l i s h e d

6 2 . H . J. M a s o n , Greek

Terms for Roman

Inslilutions

Ro-

(1974), 43.

6 3 . See W . E e k , " D i e P r S s e n * s e n a t o r i s e h e r F a m i l i e n i n d e n S t a d t e n d e s ü t ı p e r i u m R o m a n u m bis 7.ura s p â ı e n 3 . J a h r h u n d e r t " , i n W . E c k , H . G a l s t e r e r a n d H . W o l f f (cds.), Studien Sozialgescbicbte

(»980), 1 8 3 .

64. 4.3 bc!ow. 6 5 . E u s e b i u s , HE V I , 3 9 . 66. Sib. Or. X I I I , 8 7 - 8 8 , t r a n s . Poıtcr.

zurantiktn

m a n r u l e in t h e N e a r F a s t , f r o m t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n t o t h e m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s a n d a e r o s s n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a a l m o s t t o t h e T i g r i s . T h e n e x t fevv y e a r s vvould be v e r y different.

4.3. SHAPUR'S INVASIONS A N D THE PAI.MYRA, AD

EMPİRE

OF

252-273

In 252. t h e c i t y o f A p a m e a o n t h e O r o n t e s a g a i n \ v i t n e s s e d a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r o o p s : n o t o n t h i s o c c a s i o n t h e l e g i o n II P a r t h i c a , b u t m o u n t e d

auxiliary

units transferred there f r o m P a n n o n i a . O n e w a s the A l a I U l p i a C o n t a r i o r u m , a s w e k n o \ v f r o m t h e g r a v e - s t e l e o f a sigttifer

w h o died there on April

252,

t h e c o n s u l s h i p o f t h e E m p e r o r s G a l l u s a n d V o l u s i a n u s . A n o t h e r vvas t h e A l a I F l a v i a A u g u s t a B r ı t a n n i c a . A t least ten m e n f r o m these units a r e novv k n o v v n t o have died at A p a m e a in 2 5 2 , e n o u g h to suggest that m a j ö r military conflicts h a d t a k e n p l a c e a l r e a d y in t h a t y e a r . 1 T h i s a n d o t h e r i t e m s o f e v i d e n e e a r e e n o u g h a l s o t o s u p p o r t a r e - d a t i n g t o 2 5 2 , r a t h e r t h a n 2 5 3 , of the s c c o n d o f t h e t h r e e g r e a t c o n f l i c t s d e s e r i b e d b y S h a p u r , v v h i c h vvill t h u s h a v e

begun

i n t h e brief r e i g n o f T r e b o n i a n u s G a l l u s a n d h i s s o n V o l u s i a n u s , i n 2 5 1 - 2 5 3 . 2 T h i s is i n d e e d v v h a t t h e n a r r a t i v c o f Z o s i m u s c l a i m s , v v h i l e Z o n a r a s r e l a t e s t h e i n v a s i o n t o a d i s p u t e o v e r A r m e n i a in t h e s a m e r e i g ı ı . s G a l l u s vvill t h u s h a v e been the u n n a m e d ( b c c a u s c s o short-livcd?) E m p e r o r vvho, a c c o r d i n g t o S h a p u r , ' a g a i n lied a n d d i d v v r o n g vvith r e g a r d t o A r m e n i a ' . S h a p u r ' s a c c o u n t of t h e b a t t l e s then f o u g h t vvhen he i n v a d e d , a n d

the

p l a c c s r a v a g e d , i s a p r i c e l e s s d o c u n ı e n t , e v e n if it i s n o t l a i d o u t i n t h e s o r t o f g e o g r a p h i c a l s e q u e n c e vvhich vvould allovv t r o o p - m o v c m e n t s t o b e f o l l o v v e d vvith c o m p l e t e c o n f i d e n c e o n t h e m a p . 4 B u t t h e b r o a d l i n e s a r e c e r t a i n . F i r s t , it is c l e a r t h a t , u n u s u a l l y , t h e P e r s i a n a d v a n c e v v a s d i r e e t e d u p t h e E u p h r a t e s , a n d vvas a i m e d a t S y r i a , n o t a t R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a . T h e m a j ö r b a t t l e , a t vvhich S h a p u r c l a i m s that a R o m a n f o r c e of s i x t y t h o u s a n d vvas d e s t r o y e d , t o o k p l a c e a t B a r b a l i s s o s , o n t h e E u p h r a t e s a b o v e its c o n f l u e ı ı c e vvith t h e C h a bur. B u t t h e n ( a s s e e m s c l e a r ) t h e k i n g t u r n s t o t h e f o r t s a n d c i t i c s a n d poleis)

(kastelloi

' v v h i c h vve b u r n e d a n d r a v a g e d a n d c a p t u r e d ' . H e b e g i n s v v i t h

A n a t h a , t h e i s l a n d o f A n a o n t h e lovver-middle E u p h r a t e s vvhere there vvas a

1 . F o r ı h e relevanc a r g u r a e n t s , n o t r e p e a t e d h e r e i n d e t a i l , see J . - C . B a l t y , " A p a m f e ( 1 9 8 6 ) " , CRAI

( 1 9 8 7 ) , 2 z 8 i f . , a b b r e v i a t e d in i d e m , " A p a m e a i n S y r i a " , JRS

78 (1988), 1 0 2 - 1 0 3 . Sec

Z o s i m u s I, 2 7 , 2, a n d Z o n a r a s X I I , 2 1 A . 2 . F o r S h a p u r ' s Kes Gestae, Ancient

A. M a r i c q , Syria 35 ( 1 9 5 8 ) , 2 9 5 ; crans. R . N . F r y c , Hislory

of

Iran ( 1 9 8 4 ) , 3 7 i f f .

3 . Z o s i m u s I , 2 7 , 2; Z o n a r a s X I I , r ı . 4. F o r such a ı n a p , m a k i n g a s g o o d a r e c o n s t r u c ı i o n as is p o s s i b l e , s c c K e t t e n h o f e n , map 1.

Kriege,

R o m a n g3rrison;5 then B Y R T ' ' K W P N o r ' R W P N , m e n t i o n e d only in the Part h i a n t e x t , b u t s u r e l y t h e s a m e a s t h e s m a l l p l a c e in t h c r c g i o n o f A p p a d a n a n a m e d B c r t h a O k b a n ö n in t h e n e w a r e h i v e f r o m t h e m i d d l e K u p h r a t e s .

Un-

f o r t u n a t e l y w e h a v e n o e x a c t d a t e f o r t h e p e t i t i o n i n t h i s a r e h i v e in v v h i c h s o m e o n e f r o m ' B e r t h a O k b a n ö n ' c l a i m s t o h a v e fled b e f o r e t h c P e r s i a n s , o n l y t o find t h a t s o m e o n e e l s e h a d t h e n o c c u p i e d his v i n e y a r d a n d r e f u s e d t o g i v e it up. f i N e x t , in S h a p u r ' s a c c o u n t , c o m e s ' B e r t h a A s p ö r a k o u ' , s u r e l y t h e district o n t h e E u p h r a t e s c a l l e d S p h ö r a k e n e , v v h i c h a l s o a p p e a r s in t h e a r e h i v e . 7 T h c littlc p l a c c s v v h i c h l a y a l o n g t h c m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s t h u s b e g i n t o e m e r g e into the light. T h e y h a d n o t b e e n S h a p u r ' s o b j e e t i v e , h o v v e v e r , a n d vve c a n n o t e v e n be c e r t a i n vvhether the ' D o u r a ' a n d ' K o u r k i s i ö n ' m e n t i o n e d quite s e p a r a t c l y in S h a p u r ' s list a r c o r a r c n o t ' t h c ' D u r a a n d C i r c e s i u m o n t h e E u p h r a t e s . W h a t i s c l e a r is t h a t S h a p u r t o o k first S u r a o n t h e E u p h r a t e s , t h e n B a r b a l i s s o s i t s e l f , a ı ı d t h e n a d v a n c e d i n t o R o m a n S y r i a p r o p e r , vvest o f t h e river. T h c

placcs

listed m a k e a c l c a r g e o g r a p h i c a l s c q u c n c c : H i e r a p o l i s , B e r o e a , C h a l c i s , A p a m e a , R a p h a n e a e . T h e g e o g r a p h i c a l picture then b e c o m e s v e r y c o n f u s e d , but t h e list a t a n y r a t e i ı ı c l u d e s A n t i o c h a n d S e l e u c i a , a n d a s c q u e n c c o f p l a c c s in northern Syria a n d C o m m a g e n e , ineluding Z c u g m a , D o l i c h e , G c r m a n i c i a , N i c o p o l i s , G i n d a r u s a n d C y r r h u s . T h e i n v a s i o n thus t o o k the E u p h r a t e s r o a t e u p t o t h e vvestern p a r t o f the Fertile C r e s c e n t , s k i r t i n g r o u n d t h e s t e p p e ; there is n o m e n t i o n of P a l m y r a . A s vve h a v e s e e n , h o v v e v e r , s o m e P e r s i a n f o r c e s m o v e d s o u t h v v a r d s u p : h c O r o n t e s V a l l e y a s f a r a s A p a m e a a n d R a p h a n e a e . A s e p a r a t e b r i e f list s h o v v s that they c o n t i n u c d f u r t h e r s o u t h , t a k i n g three small placcs betvveen A p a m e a a n d E m e s a : 'Sin/ara* (I.arissa), ' C h a m a t h ' ( E p i p h a n i a — ' v v h i c h ' , a s J o s e p h u s h a d s a i d , ' t h e epicbörioi

cali H a m a ' ) and 'Ariste' (Arethusa, vvhich had o n c e

b e e n u n d e r t h e phylarchoi

o f t h e E m e s ö n o i ) . 8 N o c l a i m is m a d e a s t o

any

c o n q u c s t o f E m c s a itself. B u t a c o m b i n a t i o n o f i t e m s o f c v i d c n c c a l l o v v s u s t o a c c c p t t h a t in f a c t t h c P e r s i a n f o r c c s d i d a d v a n c e o n E m e s a , a n d vvere d e feated.9 T h c sixth-century c h r o n i c l c r J o h n M a l a l a s records hovv a priest o f Aphrodite f r o m Emesa, called Sampsigeramus, gathercd a force of peasants t o resist S h a p u r , c n g i n c c r e d h i s d e a t h b y a trick a n d p u t his a r m y to flight. T h e s t o r y m u s t bc at lcast p a r t l y l e g e n d , because S h a p u r did n o t die. B u t a c l o s c l y c o m p a r a b l e p i c t u r e o f l o c a l r c s i s t a n c c t o t h c P e r s i a n s is g i v e n b y a 5. 4 . 1 a b o v c .

6. Scc Feisüel and Gascou, "Documents", 553. no. 2. 7 . Fcissct a n d G a s c o u , o p . c i l . , 5 4 2 - 5 4 3 . 8. S c c 2 . 1 a b o v c . F o r S h a p u r ' s a l l u s i o n s 10 p l ı c c s i n this r c g i o n s c c K e t t e n h o f e n , Kriege. 9. F o r a s u m m a r y o f t h i s c v i d c n c c , d e p e n d i n g c s s e n t i a i l y o n I I . R . B a l d u s , Uranius nus: Miaızpriigung Sibylline

Oracle,

and Gesdıicbtc

68ff. Anlo/ıi-

( 1 9 7 1 ) , s c c M i l l a r , " E m p i r e " , 1 5 8 - 1 5 9 . S e e n o v v a l s o Potter,

c o n t e m p o r a r y vvork, t h e XIIIth

Sibyİline

Oracle.

G i v e n its p s e u d o - p r o p h e t i c

c h a r a c t e r , t h e narrative is o f c o t ı r s e in the f u t u r e tense: "Then there vvill b e a r o u t o f t h e R o m a n s ; b u t i m m c d i a t e l y t h c r e a f t c r a pricst vvill c o m e , t h e last o f a l i , sent f r o m t h e s u n , a p p e a r i n g f r o m S y r i a , and he vvill d o e v c r y t h i n g b y c r a f t ; t h e city o f t h e s u n w i l l a r i s e , and a r o u n d h e r the Persians vvill e t ı d u r e the terrible threaıs of P h o e n i c i a n s ' . 1 0 T h e a n o n y m o u s a u t h o r had by this p o i n t m o v c d o n to t h e brief r c i g n as E m p e r o r of A e m i l i a n u s in 2 5 3 , a n d it is q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e Persian a d v a n c e u p the O r o n t e s t o o k p l a c e then. T h e r e m u s t in a n y c a s e b e s o m e c o n t ı e c t i o n betvveen the resistancc Icd by S a m p s i g c r a m u s , the role of t h e p r i c s t ' s e n t f r o m the s u n ' in leading P h o e n i c i a n s a g a i n s t t h e Persians a n d t h e series o f c o i n s issued b y E m e s a , in b r o n z e , silver a n d g o l d , ali a p p a r e n t l y in 2 5 3 , vvhich n a m e a pretender t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f E m p e r o r : ' A u t o ( k r a t ö r ) S o u l p ( i k i o s ) A n t o n ö n i n o s S e ( b a s t o s ) ' in G r e e k , o r (in t h e f u l l e s t v e r s i o n ) ' L . lul(ius) Aur(eLius) S u l p ( i c i u s ) Ura(nius) A n t o n i n u s ' in L a t i n . B u t vvhether this m a n is to bc idenlified

vvith the pricst (and vvhether there is a n y

c o m ı e c t i o n h e r e vvith Iulia D o m n a ' s f a m i l y , o r e v e n vvith the earlier d y n a s t y o f E m e s a ) is the p u r e s t s p e c u l a t i o n . It d o e s r e m a i n significant t h a t l o c a l resistatıce, b y a city in Syria P h o e n i c e vvhich vvas a l s o a R o m a n colonia,

d i d — a s it

s e e m s i m p o s s i b l e to d e n y — I c a d to a c l a i m to Imperial r a n k b y a local n o t a b l e . E q u a l l y m y s t e r i o u s is the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in the Oracle

of a Syrian v v h o

a c t e d (or, in t h e p s e u d o - p r o p h e c y , vvill act) like a b r i g a n d in Syria a n d C a p p a d o c i a — a p p a r e n t l y under D c c i u s ( 2 4 9 - 2 5 1 ) — b e f o r e f l e e i n g back a c r o s s t h e E u p h r a t e s t o join the P a r t h İ 3 n s . C o r n i n g f r o m a c o n t e m p o r a r y s o u r c e , t h i s a c c o u n t m u s t reflect s o m e r e a l i t y ; b u t vvhether t h e u n n a m c d figüre c a n b c e q u a t e d vvith t h e pro-Pcrsian c i t i z c n of A n t i o c h callcd M a r i a d e s o r C y r i a d e s vvho a p p e a r s in v a r i o u s later a c c o u n t s as a s s o c i a t e d vvith t h e c a p t u r e o f t h e city (but vvhich c a p t u r e ? ) is a g a i n a m a t t e r o f s p e c u l a t i o n . T h e s t o r y d e s e r v e s a m e n t i o n o n l y to rccall t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e Persian c h a l l e n g e to R o m e may h a v e f o u n d s o m e p o p u l a r s u p p o r t in the N e a r E a s t . S o m e lines later, vvhen r e c o u n t i n g the r e i g n o f G a l l u s ( 2 5 1 - 2 5 3 ) , the Oracle

says that 'Syrians

j o i n c d vvith Persians vvill d e s t r o y t h e R o m a n s ' . W h e t h e r t h e a u t h o r m e a n s t o i d e n t i f y these tvvo e p i s o d e s is u n c l e a r . 1 1 M o r e s e r i o u s is t h e q u c s t i o n of vvhether it vvas novv o r a vvhole d c c a d c later t h a t t h e i n d e p e n d e n t m i l i t a r y role o f P a l m y r a u n d e r O d e n a t h u s b e g a n . T h e s o l e e v i d e n c e t h a t it d i d b e g i n novv is p r o v i d e d b y M a l a l a s , c o n t i n u i n g h i s s t o r y of the Persian d e f e a t a t E t n e s a : ' T h e r e c o n f r o n t e d them (as t h e y p a s s e d ) t h r o u g h the limes,

fighting

o n behalf o f the R o m a n s , " E n a t h o s " , king o f t h e

b a r b a r i a n S a r a c e n s , t h e ruler o f t h e A r a b i a n land, v v h o h a d a vvife, Z e n o b i a

10. Or. Sib. XIII, 11. 1 5 0 - 1 5 4 , t r a n s . Potter. « i . Or. Sib.

XIII, 8 9 - 1 0 1 a n d n o - 1 1 2 , w i t h P o t t e ^ o p . c i t . , z68((.

a n d 297—298,

a r g u e s for the ideııtification o f M a r i a d e s , a n d discusses ali the e v i d e n c e in d e t a i l .

who

b y n a m e , t h e S a r a e e n q u e e n . A n d E n a t h o s , k i n g o f the S a r a c e n s , d e s t r o y e d ali the P e r s i a n s in t h e f o r c e s of S h a p u r ' . 1 2 M a l a l a s t a k c s this s t o r y f r o m a h i s t o rian c a l l e d D o m n i n u s , a d d i n g a n o t h e r a c c o u n t f r o m a d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i a n , Phil o s t r a t u s , vvhich taliies v e r y c l o s e l y vvith S h a p u r ' s a c c o u n t o f his third c a m p a i g n (in z 6 o ) — e x c e p t t h a t ' E n a t h o s ' kills Shapur. T h e o d d s a r e v e r y s t r o n g t h a t b o t h s t o r i c s b e l o n g to 2 6 0 a n d after, T h e r e is in a n y C3se n o d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e t h a t O d e n a t h u s t o o k the title of ' k i n g ' a t a n y time u p to his d e a t h in 2 6 7 ; a s vve vvill see, it vvas o n l y p o s t h u m o u s l y t h a t t h e P a l m y r c n e s b e g a n :o cali h i m ' k i n g o f k i n g s ' . B y 2 5 7 / 2 5 8 , a s c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t s shovv, he h a d a d v a n c e d o n l y to t h e p u r e l y R o m a n title of bypatikos,

literally

consularis,

vvhich may m c a n s i m p l y t h a t he vvas t h e then g o v e r n o r o f Syria P h o e n i c e . l î T h e knovvn i n d e p e n d e n t m i i i t a r y r o l e of P a l m y r a vvas o n a n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n vvholly e x c e p t i o n a l a n d s t r i k î n g . B u t it m a y b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t it c a m e o n l y in the 260S, a f t e r e v e n m o r e d r a s t i c e v e n t s than those just m e n t i o n e d . W h a t the c o n s e q u c n c c s o f this first m a j o r Persian raid vvere, a n d hovv s o o n R o m a n c o n t r o l vvas restored a n d vvhere, are q u e s t i o n s vvhich c a n h a r d l y be ansvvered. E v e n D u r a , vvhere there is a m a s s o f e v i d c n c c , presents v e r y c o n p l c x p r o b l e m s . T h e Persians m u s t a t least h a v e m a r e h e d p a s t it in 2 5 2 ; b i t the ' D o u r a ' vvhich S h a p u r c l a i m s t o h a v e r a v a g e d m a y or m a y n o t be this o n e . W h a t is c e r t a i n is t h a t R o m a n a u x i l i a r y f o r c c s vvere stili in o c c u p a t i o n in late s u m m e r 2 5 1 , vvhen t h e C o h o r s II P a p h l a g o n u m G a l l i a n a V o l u s i a n a ( n a m e d a f t e r G a l l u s a n d his s o n V o l u s i a n u s ) vvas t h e r e . ' 4 It vvas a l s o in R o m a n h a n d s in 2 5 4 , for the latest d a t e d d o c u m e n t f r o m t h e city is a G r e e k d i v o r c e - d c c d f o r a soldicr o f the l e g i o n I V S c y t h i c a V a l e r i a n a G a l l i e n a , dravvn u p 'In the c o n s u l s h i p of o u r l o r d s , the E m p e r o r s V a l e r i a n ( f o r the s e c o n d time) a n d G a l lienus, o n the d a y b e f o r e t h e K a l e n d s o f .May [ . . . ] , y e a r 5 6 5 , in t h e

Kolöneia

o f the E u r ö p a i o i of [ S c l c u k o s ] N e i k a t ö r , t h e s a c r e d , i n v i o l a t e a n d a u t o n o m o u s ' . 1 1 N o t h i n g c o u l d m o r e e m p h a t i c a l l y u n d e r l i n e b o t h the Hellenistic p a s t a n d the present R o m a n s t a t u s of t h e city. B u t it seems f r o m g r a f f i t i in Pehlevi t h a t it h a d in fact b e e n in P e r s i a n h a n d s in t h e e a r l y 250S, p e r h a p s 2 5 2 / 2 5 3 . 1 6 Its final c a p t u r e a n d d e s t r u c t i o n s e e m s t o h a v e c o m e in 2 5 6 or 2 5 7 , hence o u t s i d e t h e c o n t e x t of either o f t h e tvvo m a j o r i ı ı v a s i o n s r e c o r d e d b y S h a p u r . 1 7 A similar picture of R o m a n o c c u p a d o n , vvhich m u s t h a v e been i n t e r r u p t e d 1 2 . M a l a l a s 1 9 7 , II. 4 - 1 0 . C f . a l s o the t r a n s l a t i o n b y E. Jeffreys, M . Jeffreys a n d R . S c o t t , The Chtorııcle

of Malalas

(1986), pp. 1 6 1 - 1 6 3 .

1 3 . T e x t l o n . 2 8 belovv.

14. Dura Report IX.3, rıoff., nos. 971-971; Balty, CRAl (1987), 137. 1 5 . P. Dura. n o . 3 2 , scc ch. 6 a n d 1 2 . 4 belovv. 1 6 . S o B a l i y , o p . cit., 2 3 7 - 2 3 8 . 1 7 . F o r a v i g o r o u s crittque o f t h e e v i d e n c e , a r g u i n g against the idea o f a n initial c a p t u r e in 2 5 3 , a n d for a (final) c a p t u r e in 2 5 7 , see D . M a c D o n a l d , " D a t i n g the Fail o f D u r a - E u r o p o s " , Hisloria

35 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 4$.

a t least briefly by S h a p u r ' s i n v a s i o n o f 2 5 2 / 2 5 3 , is p r e s e n t e d b y the nevv a r chive f r o m the m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s a b o v e D u r a . O n e d o c u m c n t r e c o r d s t h e p u r c h a s e o f a f e m a l e slavc a t B c t h P h o u r a i a o n the E u p h r a t e s in J u n e 2 5 2 , in t h e c o n s u l s h i p o f G a l l u s a n d V o l u s i a n u s , T h e Persian a r m y c i t h c r h a d n o t y e t arrived o r h a d a l r e a d y passed by, leaving life t o g o on a s b e f o r e . A t s o m e t i m e a f t e r this, b u t p r e s u m a b l y b e f o r e 2 5 6 / 2 5 7 (the d e s t r u c t i o n o f D u r a ) , o r perhaps b e f o r e 2 6 0 (Shapur's t h i r d i n v a s i o n ) , t h e s a m e purehaser, A b i ( d ) s a m tas s o n o f A b i d i e r d o s , r e a p p e a r s vvith t h e title bouleutes

(tovvn-councillor) o f

N e a p o l i s — i n the interval, it s e e m s , A p p a d a n a h a s b e e n f o r m a l l y r e c o g n i s e d as a polis,

perhaps as a revvard f o r loyalty. A b i ( d ) s a m t a s is a d d r e s s i n g a c o m -

p l a i n t t o Iulius P r o c u l u s , praefectus,

praepositus

praetenturac,

a local m i l i t a r y

official. B u t i f the deduetion t h a t this p e t i t i o n is later t h a n 2 5 2 is c o r r e c t , t h e n this is t h e latest d o c u m c n t f r o m t h e nevv a r c h i v e . 1 8 A n d vvith t h a t o u r evidenee stops, a n d vve h a r d l y h e a r m o r e o f the middle E u p h r a t e s until A m m i a n u s ' a c c o u n t o f J u l i a ı ı ' s m a r c h in 3 6 3 . T h e r e is n o evidenee a t ali a s t o the after-effccts o f the Persian i n v a s i o n (indeed n o evidenee as t o hovv long their o c c u p a t i o n lasted in the v a r i o u s areas it r e a c h e d ) , n o r a s t o the dispositions o f the R o m a n army, o r a n y r e a r r a n g e m e n t vvhich m a y have follovved. W h a t vvc do knovv is t h a t the m i n t i n g o f I m p e r i a l c o i n s b e g a n again a t A n t i o c h in 2 5 3 / 2 5 4 . M o r e o v e r , it is c e r t a i n t h a t t h e nevv E m p e r o r , V a l c r i a n , vvill have arrived in Syria in t h e c o u r s e o f 2 5 4 ; f o r o n J a n u a r y 18, 2 5 5 , h e vvrote a letter f r o m A n t i o c h t o t h e city o f Philadelphia in I^ydia.™ A n t i o c h vvas thus o n c e again serving as an I m p e r i a l ' c a p i t a l ' . Syria tlıerefore a l s o h a d t o dravv r e s o u r c e s f r o m o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e E m p i r e : t h u s in 2 5 3 — 2 5 6 vve find villagcs in Egypt t a k i n g a n o a t h t o the E m p e r o r s Valerian a n d G a l l i e n u s

(his s o n ) t h a t they vvill deliver

thirty-six

p l o u g l ı i n g - o x e n t o S y r i a , 'vvhere ver it m a y b e c o m m a n d e d ' . ' 0 T h e b r o a d relev a n c c t o a r m y supplies is clear, as is the i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t a n e e d f o r supplies f o r m o r e t h a n o n e y e a r is a n t i c i p a t e d . A c c o r d i n g t o Z o s i m u s , V a l e r i a n a n d a nevvly a p p o i n t e d p r a c t o r i a n p r e f e c t a l s o savv t o t h e r e b u i l d i n g o f A n t i o c h , evidently in t h e m i d - 2 5 0 s . 2 1 Hovv l o n g Valerian s t a y e d in the N e a r E a s t is n o t knovvn. Z o s i m u s ' very e p i s o d i c a n d a b b r e v i a t e d ı ı a r r a t i v e vvould suggest t h a t he left o n l y f o r a n a b o r t i v e c a m p a i g n i n t o C a p p a d o c i a , in the f a c c o f S c y t h i a n i n v a s i o n s o f A s i a 1 8 . Feissel a n d G a s c o u , " D o c u m e n t s " , 5 6 8 , n o s . 3 - 4 ( t w o c o p i c s ) , c o m p a r e d w i t h 5 5 9 , n o . 9 (252).

19. Scc Raldus, op. cir. (n.9), 259—261; tlıc letter of Valerian is fîECî XIII, no. 528. For a good survey of the problem, rcvcaling chat the only ccrtain gap in Imperial coin-production at Antioch is in the reign of Aemilianus {253}, coinciding perhaps vvith Shapur's occupation, scc K . W . H a r l , Civic 2 0 . P. Oxy.

Coins

and Civic

no. 3 1 0 9 .

2 1 . Z o s i m u s I, 32, 2.

Politics

in the Roman

East,

AD

180-175

( ' 9 8 7 ) , A p p . 2.

M i n ö r , b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g t o A n t i o c h t o c o n f r o n t S h a p u r ' s i n v a s i o n o f 2-60. T h e r e is indeed n o c c r t a i n p r o o f t h a t V a l e r i a n ever left t h e F.ast in t h e period f r o m 2 5 5 t o 2 6 0 . " H e n c e w e m a y a c c e p t t h a t the reply given by V a l e r i a n t o a l a d y c a l l e d T h e o d o r a , vvhose b i g a m o u s ' h u s b a n d ' vvas trying t o r e c o v e r g i ı t s m a d e t o her, vvas indeed i s s u e d a t A n t i o c h in M a y 2 5 8 . " It vvas surely also vvhile V a l e r i a n vvas in Syria t h a t h c issued, in the n a m e o f h i m s e l f , his son G a l l i e n u s a s j o i n t A u g u s t u s a n d his g r a n d s o n , t h e ' C a e s a r ' S a l o ı ı i n u s , a seriptio

sub-

a b o u t thc privileges o f t h e g r e a t temple o f Z e u s o f B a e t o c a c c c , in the

mountain-rangc behind A r a d o s . 2 4 T h c date must bc 2 5 8 - 2 6 0 , and the nominal i n v o l v e m e n t o f the tvvo o t h e r E m p e r o r s is highly significant. F o r in these y e a r s G a l l i e n u s a n d S a l o n i n u s vvill b o t h h a v e been o n c a m p a i g n in E u r o p e . T h e ' T e t r a r c h i c ' s y s t e m , o f a c o l l e g e o f E m p e r o r s , e a c h o p e r a t i n g in different g e o g r a p h i c a l regioııs, h a d a l r e a d y a r r i v e d . N o n e o f t h e m vvas in R o m e . Valerian's r e s i d c n c c in t h c E a s t vvill a l s o serve t o e x p l a i n vvhy his instruetions t o the S e n a t e in R o m e a b o u t thc p c r s c c u t i o n o f 2 5 8 c a m c in thc f o r m o f a letter. 2 5 T h o u g h , as vve h a v e s e e n , t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence suggests t h a t the life o f R o m a n D u r a e n d e d a b r u p t l y in 2 5 6 o r 2 5 7 , this m u s t h a v e b e e n the rcsult o f a m i n ö r conflict. S h a p u r c l a i m s n o c a m p a i g n betvveen his s c c o n d , in 2 5 2 7 2 5 3 , a n d h i s t h i r d , in 2 6 0 . S o f a r as o u r e v i d e n c e g o e s , t h e r e f o r e , the s e c o n d h a l f o f the 250S vvas a period o f g e n e r a l p e a c e in t h e N e a r E a s t , and o f c s t a b l i s h c d rule, by the s e n i o r A u g u s t u s , f r o m A n t i o c h . T h c m e r e t h r e e m a r t y r d o m s vvhich E u s e b i u s c a n r e c o r d as h a v i n g t a k e n p l a c e a t C a e s a r e a in Palestine u n d e r V a l e r i a n vvill h a v e s e e m e d t o the p a g a n m a j o r i t y t o r e p r e s e n t duc o r d e r r a t h e r t h a n its o p p o s i t c . 2 6 A l m o s t n o e v i d e n c e s u r v i v e s t o i l l u m i n a t e the r e l a t i o n o f t h e cities and c o m m u n i t i c s o f t h e N e a r E a s t t o t h e R o m a n g o v e r n m e n t in this p e r i o d ; the i n s e r i p t i o n s o f this a r c a , n e v e r a s c x t c n s i v c o r detailed as t h o s e o f t h c G r e e k c i t i e s o f Asia M i n ö r , b e c o m e very fevv a t this time. O n e e x c e p t i o n is p r o v i d e d b y the city o f A d r a a in A r a b i a , vvhere a series o f G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s , b e g i n n i n g in thc 250S, shovvs c o n s t r u c t i o n o f vvalls a n d tovvers by t h e 'gift' o f the E m peror, a n d superviscd b y m i l i t a r y p c r s o n n c l . 2 7 A m o r e i m p o r t a n t c x c c p t i o n is p r o v i d e d by P a l m y r a ; a n d it is o n l y a s e e m i n g p a r a d o x t h a t the i n t e g r a t i o n o f

2 2 . Z o s i m u s 1 , 3 6 . N o t e , hovvever, J. R e y n o l d s o n C . R o u c d ı f c , Aphrodisias

in late

Antiquity

( 1 9 8 9 ) , n o . t , a f r a g m e n t a r y letter o f V a l e r i a n a n d G a l l i e n u s a p p a r e n t l y vvritten f r o m C o l o g n e . 1 3 . Cod. Just.

V, 3, 5, a n d I X , 9, 18 { e x t r a c t s f r o m t h e s a m e text): ' A c c e p t a X V id. M a i .

A n t i o e h i a e T u s c o et Ba&so c o n s s ' . 2 4 . IGLS

V I I , n o . 4 0 0 1 . Scc 8 . j belovv.

1 5 . C y p r i a n , Ep. 80. See G . W . C l a r k e , Thc Letters ad

of St. Cyprian

of Carthage

IV ( 1 9 8 } ) ,

loc. 2 6 . E u s e b i u s , HE V I I , 1 2 . 2 7 , H . - G . P f l a u m , " l a fortificat ion d e la ville d ' A d r a h a d ' A r a b i e (259—260 â 2 7 4 - 2 7 5 J d'a-

pres les inseriptions r e c e m m e n t d c c o u v e r t e s ' * , Syria 2 9 { 1 9 5 2 ) , 3 0 7 .

the P a l m y r e n e ruling elass i n t o t h e Imperial system is m o s t ciearly d i s p l a y e d — as a h v a y s , in t h e f o r m o f h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n s — p r e c i s e l y in t h e d e c a d e b e f o r e O d e n a t h u s led its a s c c n t t o i n d e p e n d e n t povvcr. S e p t i m i u s O d e n a t h u s h i m s e l f , already a t t e s t e d as a R o m a n senatör, a p p e a r s in 2 5 7 / 2 5 8 vvith t h e f u r t h e r title hypatikos.

If vve c o u l d a t t a c h a precise m e a n i n g t o this t e r m , it

vvould b c o f c r u c i a l significance. B u t t h e vvord, the Standard G r c c k e q u i v a l e n t o f consularis

(a m a n o f e x - c o n s u l r a n k ) , seems t o have c o m c (like

consularis

itself) a l s o t o m e a n ' g o v e r n o r ' , a n d b y the n o r m a l inflation o f titles c o u l d b e used o f t h e g o v e r n o r o f a o n e - l e g i o n p r o v i n c e like Syria P h o e n i c c ,

even

t h o u g h he vvould not b c a n c x - c o n s u l . 2 $ It is thus possible, b u t n o t c e r t a i n , t h a t vvhen inseriptions f r o m P a l m y r a in 2 5 7 / 2 5 8 cali O d e n a t h u s ( H P T Y K ' ) , he vvas then the legatus

o f Syria

Phoenice.29

hypatikos

If s o , it s h o u l d b e

n o t e d t h a t the rule m a d e a f t e r the p r o c l a m a t i o n o f Avidius C a s s i u s in 1 7 5 h a d been f o r g o t t e n , a n d that h e vvas g o v e r n i n g t h e p r o v i n c e f r o m vvhich h e h i m s e l f c a m e . 1 0 A t any r a t e vvhat is c e r t a i n is t h a t the title is a R o m a n o n e , a n d t h a t n o m o r e is h c a r d o f h i s being exarchos(?)

o r 'head o f Tadmor' ( R S

T 1 ) M W R ) , vvhatever these unusııal titles h a d m e a n t a fevv y e a r s b e f o r e . O n e o f t h e f o u r t r a d c - a s s o c i a t i o n s vvhich put u p h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n s t o him in 257/258

does

indeed

cali

him

'master'

( d e s p o t e s in

Grcck,

P a l m y r e n e ) ; b u t t h e o t h e r t h r e e , in G r e e k only, use patron, I^atin term patronus.

MRN

in

borrovving t h e

T h e i n s e r i p t i o n s are t h u s e v i d e n c e o f a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e -

tvveen O d e n a t h u s a n d t r a d e - a s s o c i a t i o n s in t h e city, b u t n o t o f s o m e ovcraLI d o m i n a t i o n o f the city b y h i m . O d e n a t h u s vvas n o t t h e o n l y P a l m y r e n e t o be h o n o u r e d in R o m a n t e r m s in this p e r i o d . Iıı 2 5 8 / 2 5 9 A u r e l i u s V o r o d e s ( W R W D ) , o f vvhom m o r e belovv, vvas deseribed as hippikos

(that is, eques)

a n d tovvn-councillor, bouleutes

Palmyrene transeription H P K ' W B Y L W T ' T D M R Y ' ) . For a R o m a n

(in

colonia

this m e l a n g e o f l a n g u a g e s vvas o f c o u r s e very distinetive, t h o u g h n o m o r e s o than in t h e coloniae

o f M e s o p o t a m i a . B u t if vve t a k e the d a t e d evidence i n

order, t h e r e is stili n o c o n c r e t e e v i d e n c e o f any distinetive r o l e o n the part o f the city, o r a n y s t a t u s vvithin it on t h e p a r t o f Septimius O d e n a t h u s b e y o n d vvhat vve vvould c x p e c t o f ( a p p a r e n t l y ) t h e o n l y p e r s o n f r o m t h e r e t o rise t o high r a n k in t h e R o m a n Senate. W e c o u l d thus see t h e later 250S also as a period o f e s t a b l i s h e d , o r r c 28. C f . , hovvever, B. R e m y , " T n a « K o ( et consulares nes a u II' et III* s i â c l e s " , Latomus

d a n s les p r o v i n c e s i m p e r i a l e s p r e t o r i e n -

4 5 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 3 1 1 , a r g u i n g that the title vvas u s e d o n l y vvhen t h e

person h a d g a i n e d a coıısulate in a b s c n c e o r heen adleeted înter

consıdares.

1 9 . See M . G a v v l i k o v v s k i , " L e s p r i n c e s d e P a i m y r c " , Syria 6 2 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , 2 5 1 , a n d Potter, line Oraele,

Sibyl-

A p p . 4, " T h e C a r e e r o f O d e n a t h u s " , a n i m p o r t a n t d i s c u s s i o n vvhich t a k e s a d i f f e r e n t

vicvv f r o m that o f f e r c d here: that O d e n a t h u s vvas not a g o v e r n o r , but d i d o c c u p y a f o r m a l p o s i tion o f d o m i n a n c c at I ' a l m y r a . 30. 3.4 a b o v e .

s t o r e d , R o m a n r u l e in t h e N e a r E a s t , m a r k e d a b o v e ail by the a l m o s t c o n t i n u o u s p r e s e n c e o f the s e n i o r A u g u s t u s . A l i this, hovvever^ vvas t o b c v i o l e n t l y d i s t u r b e d by the l a s t o f S h a p u r ' s three i n v a s i o n s , vvhich l c d t o the c a p t u r e o f V a l e r i a n h i m s e l f in M e s o p o t a m i a in 2 6 0 , W e m u s t begin vvith S h a p u r ' s ovvn v e r s i o n : D u r i n g the third invasion, vvhen vve s e t o u t against C a r r h a e and E d e s s a and vvere besieging C a r r h a e and Edessa, Valerianus C a e s a r c a m e a g a i n s t us . . . And beyond C a r r h a e and Edessa there vvas a great b a t ü e betvveen us and Valerianus C a e s a r a n d w c g a i n c d possession o f Valerianus C a e s a r . . . And vve burned and d e v a s t a t e d and t o o k captives from and c o n q u e r e d the province o f Syria a n d the province o f Cilicia and the province o f Cappadocia.3' T h e first o b j e e t i v e h a d t h e r e f o r e b e e n vvestern M e s o p o t a m i a , a n d a f t e r this t h e r e follovvs a l o n g list o f t h e p l a c c s r a v a g e d , c o n f i r m i n g t h a t the i n v a s i o n did r e a c h f a r i n t o C i l i c i a a n d C a p p a d o c i a . O f p l a c e s in S y r i a vvhich a r e , o r m a y bc, m e n t i o n e d , o n l y S a m o s a t a is c e r t a i n . F o r t h e ' A ı ı t i o c h i a ' vvhich S h a p u r n a r r e s is listed a l o n g vvith o t h e r s m a l l p l a c c s in C i l i c i a . If vve t o o k t h i s l i s t a s o u r m a i n g u i d e { a s in p r i n c i p l e w c s h o u l d ) , vve c o u l d n o t b e sure if e v e n C a r r h a e a n d E d e s s a ( o r N i s i b i s , vvhich is n o t m e n t i o n e d ) vvere a c t u a l l y t a k e n ; a n d vve m i g h t reas o n a b l y c o n c l u d e t h a t the P e r s i a n a r m y m o v c d d i r c c t l y vvestvvards f r o m S a m o s a t a t o C i l i c i a , a n d did n o t e n t e r t h e c c n t r a l a r e a o f n o r t h e r n S y r i a a t ali. T h e r e is n o m e n r i o n o f Z e u g m a , C y r r h u s , B e r o e a o r S e l e u c i a . F o r t h e e s t a b l i s h e d n o t i o n o f a s e c o n d c a p t u r e o f A n t i o c h , u n d e r V a l e r i a n , vve a r e e n t i r e l y d e p e n d e n t o n G r e e k a n d L a t i n s o u r c c s o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t ı ı r y a n d later. 3 2 F!ven if vve a c c e p t , a s o n b a l a n c e vve p r o b a b l y s h o u l d , t h a t A n t i o c h vvas c a p t u r e d for a s e c o n d t i m e i n 2 6 0 , t h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n b u t t h a t the w e i g h t o f t h e Persian i n v a s i o n vvas d î r e c t e d

against M e s o p o t a m i a , and then

Com-

m a g e n e , C i l i c i a a n d C a p p a d o c i a . Hovv t h e P e r s i a n a r m y r e a c h e d t h e a r e a o f C a r r h a e a n d N i s i b i s is n o t knovvn (vvhether by the E u p h r a t e s a n d C h a b u r , o r m o r e p r o b a b l y b y t h e T i g r i s ) ; n o r is t h e r e a n y c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n o f vvhat e f f e c t s the i n v a s i o n h a d in e a s t e r n M e s o p o t a m i a . If vve follovv the q u i t c v a r i e d d e l a i l s p r o v i d e d in a series o f m u c h l a t e r n a r r a t i v e s ( a n d vve h a v e ı ı o t h i n g b e t t e r ) , i t is f a r f r o m c e r t a i n e v e n t h a t E d e s s a vvas t a k e n . Tvvo B y z a n t i n c e h r o n i d e r s , Gcorgius Syncellus and Z o n a r a s , record that R o m a n forces under Callistus 3 1 . F o r t h e Res Gestae,

s c c 4 . 2 , n . 3 9 . F o r d i s c u s s i o n s c c a g a i n K c t t c n h o f c n , Kriege,

97H.,

and m a p 3. 32. S o Jeromc,

Chron.,

c d . I lelnı,

p. 2 2 0 ; Z o s i m u s

üi,

32,

j

(a

later s u m m a r y

R o m a n - P a r t h i a n / I ' e r s i a n r e l a t i o n s , i n a d v e r t e n t l y m a k i n g V a l e r i a n ' s c a m p a i j ; n a reaction c a p t u r e o f A n t i o c h ) ; S y n c e l l u s , Chron.

I, p. 7 x 5 ; Z o n a r a s X I I , 23 (the f u l l e s t a c c o u n t , a n d the

o n e vvhich c o r r c s p o n d s best vvith S h a p u r ' s Res GestaeJ. in Potter, Sibylline

Oracle,

337^.

of

t o dıc

T h e q ı ı e s t i o n o f A n t i o c h is w c l l d i s c u s s c d

finally

m o u n t e d a n effective c o u n t e r - a t t a c k in Asia M i n ö r , a n d ı h a ı S h a p u r

t h e n retreated; a n d a n o t h e r says t h a t o n his r e t r e a t S h a p u r bribed t h e R o m a n t r o o p s o c c u p y i n g E d e s s a n o t t o a t t a c k his a r m y . " T h e story, like ali t h e s e a c c o u n t s , m a y b e f a n c i f u l . B u t ît is notevvorthy t h a t even S h a p u r m a k e s n o claim actually to have captured Carrhae or Edessa. I n s o f a r a s vve c a n gain a n y i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e e f f e c t s o f this last P e r s i a n i n v a s i o n , vvhich left m o s t o f t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t vvholly u n t o u c h c d , it is f r o m the e q u a l l y u n r e l i a b l e a c c o u n t s o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f R o m a n povver, i n e x t r i c a b l y c o n f u s e d vvith n a r r a t i v e s o f the r i s e o f O d e ı ı a t h u s o f P a l m y r a , a n d his c o n f r o n t a t i o n vvith tvvo o t h e r R o m a n p r e t e n d e r s , the short-Iived R o m a n E m p e r o r s M a c r i a n u s a n d Q u i e r u s . T h e c o n t e m p o r a r y evidenee, a p a r t f r o m a vaguc a n d allusive fevv lines, a p p a r c n t l y a d d e d o n s u b s c q u e n t l y , a t t h e e n d o f the XIIIth

Sibylline

Oracle,

vvhich refer t o V a l e r i a n , G a l l i e n u s a n d O d e n a -

thus, 3 4 c o n s i s t s a l m o s t entirely o f h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m P a l m y r a . T h e i n e v i t a b l e l i m i t a t i o n s o f such e v i d e n e e shovv u p ali the m o r e c l e a r l y vvhen t h e c r u c i a l items e x p r c s s i n g O d e n a t h u s ' role a n d s t a t u s turn o u t , t h o u g h b r o a d l y c o n t e m p o r a r y , t o be p o s t h u m o u s , put up under t h e m u c h m o r e a m b i t i o u s rule o f his vvidovv Z e n o b i a a n d h i s s o n V a b a l l a t l ı u s a f t e r 2 6 7 . N o n e t h c l c s s it is p o s s i b l e t o set o u t a t least the b r o a d oudirıcs o f the hist o r y o f the N e a r E a s t in the c x c e p t i o n a l period o f tvvelve y e a r s ,

260-272,

during vvhich n o r c c o g n i s c d E m p e r o r c a m e t h e r e ; t h e first vvas t o b e A u r e l i a n , leading the c a m p a i g n vvhich b r o u g h t a b o u t the defeat a n d r e c o n q u e s t o f P a l m y r a in 2 7 2 . T h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e c a p t u r e o f Valerian in 2 6 0 did lead t o a b r i e f u s u r p a t i o n , vvhen M a c r i a n u s , a h i g h e q u e s t r i a n official on

Valerian's

e a m p a i g n s , p r o e l a i m e d a s E m p e r o r s his tvvo s o n s , M a c r i a n u s a n d Q u i c t u s , vvho reigned in i6o/z6t;

t h e y w e r e recognised in Egypt b e f o r e M a c r i a n u s

vvas killed in t h e B a l k a n s , a n d Q u i e t u s vvas killed vvhile being besieged b y O d e n a t h u s in E m e s a . N o e v i d e n e e survives t o illustrate their rule in the N e a r E a s t , vvhere they vvill surely h a v e been r e c o g n i s e d in a t least s o m e p r o v i n c e s . A m o n g these p r o v i n c e s S y r i a P h o e n i c e m a y o r m a y n o t have been iııcluded. F o r it is a t this p o i n t t h a t the i n d e p e n d e n t m i l i t a r y role o f P a l m y r a b e g i n s . W e vvould o f c o u r s e see it in a q u i t e different light if vve c o u l d b e certain t h a t O d e n a t h u s , vvhen deseribed as hypatikos 2 5 8 , h a d in fact been t h e legatus

in a n inseription o f 2 5 7 /

o f the p r o v i n c e , a n d even m o r e so if i n

2 6 0 he stili vvere. İn t h e l o n g list o f p r o v i n c c s from vvhich S h a p u r c l a i m s t h a t V a l e r i a n ' s f o r c e s in 2 6 0 had b e e n dravvn, ali t h o s e o f t h e N e a r E a s t a r e i n c l u d e d : Syria ( C o e l e ) , P h o e n i c e , J u d a e a (as he stili c a l l s it), A r a b i a a n d M e s o p o t a m i a . But vvhatever l c g i o n a r y d e t a c h n ı c n t s o r a u x i l i a r y units h a d served under V a l e r i a n , it is relevant t h a t Syria P h o e n i c e vvas t h e nearest p r o v i n c e

3 3 . SynceJlus, Chron.

I, p. 7 1 6 ; Z o n a r a s X I I , zy, P c t r u s P a t r i c i u s , F t ı ı

3 4 . Sib. Or. X I I I , 1 5 5 - 1 7 3 . S e c P o t c c r , Sibylline

Oracle.

151; 3i8ff.

(FIIG

I V , p. 1 8 7 ) .

vvhich h a d in n o vvay been t o u c h e d by the i n v a s i o n , a n d from vvhich direct routcs Icd a c r o s s thc s t e p p e t o t h c E u p h r a t e s , a n d f r o m t h e r e either n o r t h t o R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a o r s o u t h t o B a b y l o n i a . Active P a l m y r e n e c o n t a c t s vvith B a b y l o n i a c o n t i n u e d until t h i s p e r i o d . T h e latest dated ' c a r a v a n - i n s c r i p t i c n ' (that is, a n h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n f o r s o m e o n e involved in t h c p r o t e e t i o n o f c a r a v a n s ) vvhich a c n ı a l l y n a m e s a d e s t i n a t i o n in Persian territory, V o l o g a e sias, c o m e s f r o m 2 4 7 ; b u t t h e r e is o n e o f 2 5 7 / 2 5 8 , a n d a n o t h e r vvhich seeuıs c e r t a i n l y t o belong t o the 2 6 0 S . 3 5 T h c d a t i n g d e p e n d s o n identifying the h o n o r a n d , S e p t i m [ i u s V o r o d c s | — t h i s p a r t o f t h e n a m e is missing—vvith an imp o r t a n t figüre o f t h e 260S, S e p t i m i u s V o r o d e s , o f vvhom m o r e later, vvho m a y h a v e a d o p t c d t h e n a m e ' S e p t i m i u s ' a n d be in fact t h e s a ı n c a s t h c ' A u r e l i u s V o r o d e s ' vvhom vve savv h o n o u r c d as a hippikos

a n d bouleutes

in 2 5 8 / 2 5 9 . 3 6

In t h e i n s e r i p t i o n ( p r o b a b l y ) o f t h e 260S he is h o n o u r e d as a procurator cenarius

du-

o f the E m p e r o r , as ehe h o l d e r o f a l o n g series o f city offices a n d a s

h a v i n g ' b r o u g h t b a c k t h c c a r a v a n s (sytıodiai)

a t his ovvn c x p c n s e ' . H e m u s t

e i t h e r h a v e p r o v i d e d a n e s c o r t or, p e r h a p s e q u a l l y likely, h a v e paid off p o t e n tial n o m a d raiders. \Ve vvould n o t knovv f r o m this inseription t h a t a n y t h i n g a t ali h a d e h a n g e d as r e g a r d s thc i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h c colonia

o f P a l m y r a into

the R o m a n E m p i r e . W h a t is significant in the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t , hovveveç is t h a t t h e Persian m i l i t a r y a d v a n c e up t h c m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s d o e s n o t s c e m t o h a v e s t o p p e d the c a r a v a n traffic a c r o s s the s t e p p e (vvhich vvould alvvays e n t e r P e r s i a n , a n d earlier P a r t h i a n , territory at s o m e p o i n t ) ; a n d t h a t vvhatever f o r c e s r e m a i n e d in t h e vvestern p a r t o f Syria P h o c n i c c h a d n o t been c o n f r o n t e d by a Persian i n v a s i o n s i n c e 2 5 2 / 2 5 3 . But vvhat is m u c h less c l e a r is hovv easily a n y r e g u l a r R o m a n units c o u l d be, o r n o w vvere, m o v e d a l o n g the r o u t e s ö v e r the s t e p p e t o the E u p h r a t e s . O u r g r e a t e s t p r o b l e m , vvhich s e c m s a t the m o m e n t i n s o l u b l e , is t h u s t o knovv vvhether vve s h o u l d s e e O d e n a t h u s ' a e t i o n s in r e s p o n s e t o V a l e r i a n ' s c a p t u r c a s t h o s e o f a R o m a n g o v e r n o r vvith regular f o r c c s o n the o n e h a n d , o r o f a l o c a l n o t a b l e vvith l o c a l f o r c c s on t h c o t h e r . B u t e v e n in t h c lattcr c a s e it s h o u l d be recalled t h a t P a l m y r a vvas novv, a n d r e m a i n e d , a colonia

under

duumviri/strategoi. T h e initial p h a s e o f t h c r i s e o f O d e n a t h u s t o a m a j ö r role in the N e a r E a s t t o o k t h c f o r m o f a m i l i t a r y r e a c t i o n against t h e r e t r e a t i n g Persian f o r c c s and a g a i n s t t h c u s u r p a t i o n o f M a c r i a n u s a n d Q u i e t u s , a n d vvas follovvcd in 260 o r s o o n a f t e r by r e c o g n i t i o n o f G a l l i e n u s , vvho vvas o c c u p i e d in E u r o p c t h r o u g h o u t his reign, a n d h a d n o c o - E m p c r o r . 3 7 N o c l e a r s e q u e n c e o f events

3 5 . C a n t i n c a u , Inv. III, n o . z ı ( 2 4 7 ) ; *3 ( » S 7 ^ S 8 ) ; 7 U 6 o s ) . 3 6 . Scc a b o v c , p. 1 6 5 . 3 7 . F o r treatmenes o f this c o n t r o v c r s i a l a n d u n c c r t a i n s c q u c n c c o f e v e n t s scc, e.g., F. M i Ilır, " P a u l o f S a m o s a t a , Z c n o b i a a n d A u r c l i a n : T h c C h u r c h , L o c a l C u l t u r c a n d Political A l l e g i a c c e

c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d , b u t vve f i n d i n o u r v a r i e d n a r r a t i v e s t h a t O d e n a t h u s b e sieged Q u i e t u s a r E m e s a , vvhose people then killed h i m ; 3 s that he r c c o v e r c d M e s o p o t a m i a , including the citîes o f Nisibis a n d C a r r h a e (if they had really b e e n t a k e n b y t h e P e r s i a n s , vve d o n o t k n o v v vvhen); a n d t h a t a t s o m e p o i n t h i s f o r c e s a d v a n c e d a s f a r a s C t e s i p h o n , It vvould h e l p if vve h a d a n y c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f R o m a n f o r c e s a t t h i s t i m e . B u t vve d o n o t , a n d o u r h i g h l y c o l o u r c d n a r r a t i v e s t c n d t o s p e a k o f O d e n a t h u s ' ovvn f o r c e s a s b e i n g S y r i a n p e a s a n t s . 1 9 W h a t t h e n vvas t h e r e l a t i o n o f O d e n a t h u s , a n d o f P a l m y r a , t o the R o m a n E m p i r e betvveen 2 6 0 a n d his m u r d e r in 2 6 7 / 2 6 8 ? F i r s t , t h e l i t t l c e v i d e n c e t h a t vve h a v e s h o v v s a n o r m a l r e g i m c in o p e r a t i o n in t h e o t h e r p r o v i n c e s o f t h e N e a r E a s t , A t A d r a a in A r a b i a , f o r i n s t a n c c , t o v v c r s a n d vvalls vvere b u i l t u n d e r s u c c e s s i v e g o v e r n o r s in 2 6 2 / 2 6 3

an
2,63/264, using military

s u p e r v i s o r s , a n d vvere d e d i c a t e d ' o n b e h a l f o f t h e s a f e t y ( a n d v i c t o r y ) o f o u r l o r d I m p e r a t o r G a i l i e n u s A u g u s t u s ' / 0 In S y r i a P a l a c s t i n a , e v e n a f t e r t h e g e n eral edict o f toleration issued b y Gailienus, Eusebius r e p o r t s a n isolated b u t strikitıg c a s c o f a m a r t y r d o m b e f o r e the governor, A c h a e u s ; t h e vietim, a c e n t u r i o n n a m e d M a r i n u s , vvas g i v e n a m a g n i f i c e n t t o m b b y a l o c a l C h r i s t i a n d i g n i t a r y o f s e n a t o r i a l r a n k n a r n e d Astyrius. 4 "' It is p a t e n t t h a t t h i s e p i s o d e b e l o n g s in a n o r m a l p r o v i n c i a l c o n t e x t , g o v e r n e d b y a d i s t a n t E m p e r o r . B u t i n a n y c a s c vve h a r d l y n e c d s u c h i n c i d e n t a l e v i d e n c e . F o r n o r m a l m i n t i n g a t A n t i o c h c o n t i n u e d in t h e n a m e o f G a i l i e n u s u n t i l h i s d e a t h in 2 6 8 , a s it d i d f o r C l a u d i u s G o t h i c u s u n t i l 2 6 9 . It vvas i n t h i s p e r i o d , p r o b a b l y in t h e a u t u m n o f 2 6 8 , t h a t t h e h c r e t i c a l b i s h o p o f A n t i o c h , P a u l o f S a m o s a t a , vvas

finaily

d e p o s e d b y a s y n o d vvhich m e t t h e r e , T h e l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d n o t i o n t h a t P a u l h a d b e e n a protege

o f Z e n o b i a , a n d h a d e v e n s e r v e d a s a ducenarius

under

h e r , h a s n o f o u n d a t i o n . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , o n e o f t h e m i s d c e d s o f vvhich h i s f e l l o v v - b i s h o p s a c c u s e d h i m vvas t h a t o f b e h a v i n g in p u b l i c like a

ducenarius.

T h e p o i n t vvas i n e l u d e d i n t h e l e t t e r s vvhich t h e y s e n t t o D i o n y s i u s , t h e b i s h o p o f A l c x a n d r i a , a n d M a x i m u s , t h e b i s h o p o f Rome.'*2 T h e e p i s o d e refleets n o t P a l m y r e n e povver, b u t e s t a b l i s h e d R o m a n r u l e i n S y r i a C o e l e . T h e s t r u e t u r e o f g o v e r n m e n t i n S y r i a P h o e n i c e vvould b e e v e n m o r e r e l e v a n t , b u t o n t h a t vve h a v e n o e v i d e n c e b e y o n d t h e n a r r a t i v e d e t a i l t h a t O d e n a t h u s b e s i e g e d Q u i e t u s in E m e s a . F o r t h e p o s i t i o n o f O d e n a t h u s h i m s e l f vve

in T h i r d - C c n t u r y S y r i a " , JRS Potter, Sibylline

Oracle,

61 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , x , o n p p . 8ff.; S t a r c k y a n d G a w l i k o w s k i , Paimyrc,

3 8 . P e t r u s P a t r i c i u s , FHC

IV, p . 1 9

Z o n a r a s XII, 2 4 .

3 9 . S o , e . g . , F e s t u s , Brev. 2 3 : ' c o l l e c t a S y r o ı u n ı a g r e s t i u m m a n u ' ; J e r o m c , Chron., p. 2 2 1 : ' c o l l e c t a a g r e s t i u m m a n u ' ; O r o s i u s , Hist. 4 0 . H . - G . P f l a u m , Syria 4 1 . E u s e b i u s , HE

sjff.j

3 4 i f f . a n d A p p . IV.

29 (1952),

ed. Hclnı,

V I I , 2 2 , 1 1 : ' c o l l e c t a agresti m a n u ' .

312-313.

V I I , 1 3 (edict o f t o l e r a t i o n ) ; 1 J - t 6 ( M a r i n u s a n d A s t y r i u s ) .

4 2 . T h e e s s c n t i a l e v i d e n c e is c o n r a i ı ı e d in F.uscbius, H E V I I , 2 7 - 3 0 . F o r t h e c o m p l e x a r g u m e n t s i n v o l v e d scc M i l l a r , o p . cit. ( n . 3 7 ) .

are d e p e n d e n t either o n r e p e a t e d s t a t e m e ı ı t s by t h e l a t c - f o u r t h - c e n t u r y ( a n d a c u t e l y u n r c i i a b l c ) Histaria

Augusta

t h a t he r c c c i v c d t h e imperium

o f the O r i -

e n t , o r even t h e title ' A u g u s t u s * ; on r e p o r t s by t\vo B y z a n t i n e c h r o n i c l e r s that he w a s m a d e strategos

( g e n e r a l o r m i i i t a r y c o m m a n d e r ) o f t h e E a s t ; 4 3 o r on

c o n t e m p o r a r y documents. But the oııly t w o c o n t c m p o r a r y documcnts w h i c h r e c o r d his p o s i t i o n , a n ı i l e s t o n e a n d a s t a t u e - b a s e , b o t h c o m e f r o m the reign o f his w i d o w Z e n o b i a a n d h i s s o n V a b a l l a t h u s , w h e n the entire s i t u a t i o n had c h a n g e d . B o t h cali h i m r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y ' k i n g o f k i n g s ' ( M L K M L K ' ) , vvhile t h e s e c o n d , a s t a t u c - b a s c d c d i c a t c d by tvvo P a l m y r c n e g e n e r a l s in 1 7 T , calls h i m a l s o M T Q N N ' D Y M D N H * K L H , ' r e s t o r e r o f t h e vvhole E a s t ' . 4 4 H o w this vvould h a v e been e x p r e s s e d in L a t i n o r G r e e k is u n c e r t a i n ; n o r is it n c c c s sarily a r c f c r c n c c t o a n e s t a b l i s h e d position

rather than a laudatory ailusion

t o his victories in the early 2 6 0 S . If vve c a n n o t trace a n y c l e a r e v o l u t i o n o f the p o s i t i o n o f O d e n a t h u s h i m self, t h e i n s e r i p t i o n s h o n o u r i n g S e p t i m i u s V o r o d c s do a t least provide s o m e c h e c k . 'ITıey suggest for i n s t a n c e t h a t , unlike E d e s s a in 2 3 9 - 2 4 1 , " P a l m y ı a did n o t c e a s e in the 260S t o c a l i itself a R o m a n colonia. o f a n i n s e r i p t i o n h o n o u r i n g V o r o d c s a s epitropos peror, put up in 2 6 2 b y a strategos

o f the colonia/6

T h i s is c e r t a i n l y true

(procurator)

of the E m -

'llıe strongly R o m a n

o v e r t o n e s c o n t i n u e on a n i n s e r i p t i o n o f 2 6 7 , a g a i n c a l l i n g V o r o d e s

epitropos

o f the E m p e r o r , put up by I u l i u s Aurelius S a l m c s , vvho deseribes h i m s e l f as ' R o m a n equcsi—hippeus

Rötttaiön,

o r H P Q ' . S o m e t h i n g d o e s c h a n g e in this

p e r i o d , hovvever, f o r in this s a m e i n s e r i p t i o n , a n d in o t h e r s , a nevv official title a p p e a r s , ' a r g a p e t ' (argapetds

o r ' R G B T ' ) , a vvord o f I r a m a n origin t a k e n t o

m e a n ' g o v e r n o r (of the c i t y ) ' . 4 7 B u t a b o u t this t i m e , in the u n d a t e d i n s e r i p t i o n m e n t i o n e d earlier, V o r o d e s is also deseribed as 'giver o f j u s t i c e ' , o r ' j u d g e ' (dikeodotes)

o f t h e nıetrokolöneia.

d e n t l y been borrovvcd f r o m metropolis

T h e h y b r i d L a t i n - G r c c k t e r m h a s cvit o i n d i c a t c a colonia

of higher stand-

ing than o t h e r s . 4 3 N o d a t e d i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m P a l m y r a o f 2 6 7 o r b e f o r e vvould lead us t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e c i t y vvas n o t stili fully i n t e g r a t e d in t h e I m p e r i a l systcm. Hovvever, vve n e e d n o t a r g u c avvay the c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n s o f o u r s o u r c c s that a very distinetive a n d u n u s u a l role h a d b e e n a c h i e v e d , in the c o n t e x t of a t least a relativc povver-vacuum in the R o m a n N e a r E a s t . T h e elearest sign 4 3 . S o S y n c e l l u s , Chron.

I, p. 7 1 6 ; Z o n a r a s X I I , 24.

4 4 . CIS II.3, n o . 3 9 7 1 ( m i l e s t o n e ) ; CIS II.3, n o . 3 9 4 6 — C a n t i n e a u , Inv. III, n o . 1 9 ( s t a t u i base). I c a n n o t see vvhat e o n c l u s i o t ı s s h o u l d be dravvn f r o m the v e r y f r a g m e n t a r y h o n o r i f i e ioseription, Inv. III, n o . 1 0 , b e g i n n i n g vvith ı h e vvords l B ] a o ı J j û P a o ı A & u v . 4 5 . 4.2 a b o v e . 4 6 . C a n t i n e a u , Inv. III, n o . 10. 4 7 . C a n t i n e a u , Inv. III, n o . 6 (2^7); c f . n o . 8 ( 2 6 5 ) ; n o . 9 ( 2 6 4 o r 2 6 7 ) . 4 8 . C a n t i n e a u , Inv. III, n o . 7 .

o f this is the f a c t t h a t b o t h O d e n a t h u s ' w i d o w Z e n o b i a a n d his son V a b a l l a t h u s c o u l d r a p i d l y a d v a n c e t o m u c h m o r e e x c e p t i o n a l p o s i t i o n s follovving h i s m u r d e r in 2 6 7 / 2 6 8 , said by o n e s o u r c e t o h a v e o c c u r r e d a t E m e s a . 4 9 B u t h o w i m m e d i a t e an a c q ı ı i s i t i o n o f a n e x c e p t i o n a ! status, a n d w h a t p e r s o n a i s t a t u s , is again u n c e r t a i n . F o r that w e vvould n e e d evidenee d a t a b l e t o the period b c t w e c n 2 6 7 a n d 2 6 9 o r 2 7 0 , vvhen a decisive b r e a k o c c u r r e d a n d P a l m y r e n e f o r c e s a d v a n c e d i n t o n e i g h b o u r i n g R o m a n p r o v i n c e s , possibly first through Arabia t o Egypt, and subsequently t o A n t i o c h , and from there n o r t h w c s t i n t o Asia M i n ö r . V a b a l l a t h u s may have e n j o y e d s o m e f o r m a l R o m a n title f r o m the m o m e n t o f his f a t h e r ' s d c a t h . B u t o u r evidenee is either r e t r o speetive o r n o t dated. S o f o r i n s t a n c e the u n d a t e d bilingual inseription on t h e s t o n c in t h e f o r m o f a m i l e s t o n e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , f r o m vvest o f P a l m y r a o n t h e r o a d t o E m e s a o r D a m a s c u s , calls Z e n o b i a ' q u e c n ' (basilissa),

a n d VabaL-

l a t h u s ' k i n g o f k i n g s ' , a s vvell a s ' P N R T ' D Y M D N H ' K L H — ' e p a n o r t h ö t e s ( t r a n s J i t c r a t c d ) o f the vvhole E a s t ' . 5 0 T h e term s h o u l d b e the e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e I ^ t i n corrector—but

this vvord itself h a d n o prccisely defined a p p l i c a t i o n .

Hovvever, t h e a b s e n c e o f ali s t r i c t l y Imperial titles h e r e d o e s suggest t h a t t h e inseription d a t e s f r o m b e f o r e P a l m y r a ' s e x p a n s i o n . Ali o u r o t h e r e v i d e n e e clearly d o c s c o m e f r o m the period o f t h e g c o g r a p h i c a l e x t c n s i o n o f P a l m y r e n e povver. İ n A r a b i a t h e r e a r e m i l e s t o n e s in L a t i n f r o m a l o n g T r a j a n ' s Via N o v a , betvveen B o s t r a a n d P h i l a d e l p h i a , r e c o r d i n g V a b a l l a t h u s a s (for i n s t a n c e ) ' L . Iulius A u r c l i u s S c p t i m i u s B a b a l l a t h u s A t h c n o d o r u s , R e x , c o ( n ) s ( u l ) , I m p c r a tor, D u x R o m a n o r u m ' . 5 1 A n o t h e r , f r o m the s a m e r o a d , g o e s in f o r a fine display o f I m p e r i a l victory-titlcs: ' l m p ( e r a t o r ) C a e s a r L . Iulius Aurelius S e p t i m ius

Vaballathus

Adiabenicus

Athcnodorus,,

Maximus,

Pcrsicus

Pius F e l i x

Maximus,

Arabicus

Au[gustus)\" These

Maximus,

inseriptions

are

e n o u g h t o i n d i c a t e b e y o n d d o u b t that vvhat vvas novv c l a i m e d vvas the p o s i t i o n o f R o m a n E m p e r o r , a n d n o c o - E m p e r o r is n a m e d . B u t the papyrus d o c u m e n t s refleccing P a l m y r e n e r u l e in E g y p t are d i f f e r e n t : f o r t h e r e Aurelian is n a m e d first a s E m p e r o r , a n d V a b a l l a t h u s follovvs. So vve have t e x t s d a t e d by t h e s e c o n d y e a r o f Aurelian ( 2 7 2 ) a n d t h e fifth y e a r o f V a b a l l a t h u s : 'Iulius A u r c l i u s S e p t i m i u s V a b a l l a t h u s A t h c n o d o r u s , the m o s t i l l u s t r i o u s k i n g , C o n s u l , I m p e r a t o r , S t r a t e g o s o f the R o m a n s ' . " D e t a i l c d c x a m i n a t i o n o f titles vvill n o t in r c a l i t y hclp us, for they vvere 49. S o Z o s i m u s I, j 9 , z. 5 0 . CIS I I . 3 , n o . 3 9 7 r . j r . Scc T h . Rauzou, a n d K c n n c d y , DKUE, 5 2 . ILS,

no.

u

D c u x m i l l i a i r e s incdtts d c V a b a l l a t h cn J o r d a n i c d u N o r d u , ın F r e e m a n

i.

8924.

5 3 . P. O x y . . n o . 1 2 6 4 ; c f . BGU.

n o . 9 4 6 . S e e a b o v e ali «he d o c u m e n t s r e l a t i n g t o t h e c o r n -

d o l e a t O x y r h y n c h u s i n t h e l a t e 2 6 0 S a n d e a r l y 270S p u b l i s h e d by J. R . R e a , Oxyrhynchus X L ( 1 9 7 2 ) ; table of datings by A u r e l i a n and Vaballathus on p . 1 6 .

Papyri

b c i n g m a d e up in a n u n p r c c c d c n t e d a n d fluid s i t u a t i o n . T h e y a r e e n o u g h to suggesr t h a t t h e m i l e s t o n e f r o m vvest o f P a l m y r a s h o u l d be relacively early, for n o I m p e r i a l titles a p p e a r on i t ; t h a t vvith the e x p a n s i o n f r o m 2 6 9 / 2 7 0 onvvards V a b a l l a t h u s began t o c l a i m I m p e r i a l r a n k , in a v a r i e t y o f vvays; that his p u b l i c p o s t u r e vvas t h a t o f c o - K m p e r o r vvith A u r e l i a n ; a n d t h a t e v e n t u a l l y ' A u g u s t u s ' , thc m o s t d i s t i n e t i v e o f I m p e r i a l n a m e s , is used a l s o , as ' A u g u s t a ' c a n bc f o r Z c n o b i a . P a l m y r e n e ' I m p e r i a l ' c o i n a g c s t r u c k a t A n t i o c h telis the s a m e s t o r y : first j o i n t c o i n i n g in the n a m e s o f V a b a l l a t h u s , c a l l i n g h i m s e l f * R e ( x ) , I m ( p e r a t o r ) , D ( u x ) R { o m a n o r u m ) ' , a n d o f A u r e l i a n ; t h e n , a t thc very last m o m e n t , Aurclian's n a m e disappears, a n d the c o i n s n a m e ' l m p ( e r a t o r ) C ( a c s a r ) V h a b a l a t h u s (sic) A u g ( u s t u s ) ' a n d ' Z e n o b i a A u g u s t a ' . 1 4 W h a t this brief a n d v i o l e n t e p i s o d e m e a n t f o r the N e a r E a s t c a n hardly novv be r e c o v e r e d . A m e r e fevv f r a g m e n t s o f c v i d c n c c serve t o rccall its c f f c c t s : f o r i n s t a n c e a t e m p l e o f Z c u s I l a m m o n a t R o s t r a , r e p a i r e d a f t e r being d a m aged b y ' t h e P a l m y r e n e e n e m i e s ' . 5 3 O r , f r o m m o r e than tvvo d e c a d e s later, t h e r e is a s u b s c r i p t o f D i o c l e t i a n a n d M a x i m i a n , a d d r c s s c d t o s o m e o n e c a l l c d A g r i p p a in 2 9 3 , a n d novv preserved in t h e Codex

Justinianus:

' S i n c e y o u say

t h a t y o u r f r e e b o r n relative, m a d e a captive so t o s p e a k d u r i n g the d o m i n a t i o n o f t h e P a l m y r e n e f a c t i o n , h a s been sold, the g o v e r n o r o f thc p r o v i n c c vvill see t o it t h a t his f r e e b o r n s t a t u s is r e s t o r e d t o h i m ' . 5 6 Othervvise, s o m e f e a t u r e s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n e m e r g e f r o m ı h e o n l y relatively s a t i s f a c t o r y a c c o u n t o f A u r e h a n ' s r e c o n q u e s t , t h a t by Z o s i m u s , t h o u g h even here it m u s t bc r c c a l l c d that vvhat vve r c a d is p a r t o f a n o v e r a l l n a r r a t i v e o f Imperial history vvritten in a b o u t AD 5 0 0 . " I n Z o s i m u s ' a c c o u n t , A u r e l i a n b r o u g h t his f o r c c s a l o n g thc n o r m a l r o u t e t h r o u g h Asia M i n ö r , r e t a k i n g A n c y r a a n d T y a n a , a n d d e f e a t e d t h e P a l m y r e n e a r m y n e a r A n t i o c h (other s o u r c e s add t h a t this vvas at I m m a e , precisely vvhere E l a g a b a l ' s f o r c e s h a d d e f e a t e d t h o s e o f M a c r i n u s ) . 5 8 E n t c r i n g A n t i o c h , hc published ediets t o r c a s s u r c t h c p o p u l a t i o n t h a t t h e y vvould n o t b e p u n i s h e d f o r h a v i n g s u p p o r t e d Z e n o b i a . H i s a r m y then m a r e h e d up t h e O r o n t e s Valley via A p a m e a , L a r i s s a a n d A r e t h u s a , a n d e n c o u n t e r e d the P a l m y r e n e f o r c c s again at E m e s a ( g e o g r a p h y t h u s d i c t a t e d a n a l m o s t c x a c t r e p e t i t i o n o f S h a pur's invasion in 2 5 2 / 2 5 3 ) . " Z c n o b i a then r e t r e a t e d t o P a l m y r a , vvhile A u r e lian vvas vvelcomed at E m e s a . T h e Historia

Augusta

a d d s a t this point an î t e m

o f great i m p o r t a n c c , i f t r u c : t h a t Aurelian c e l e b r a t e d his v i c t o r y b y vvorshipping a t the t e m p l e o f E l a g a b a l u s a t E m e s a ; a n d later a l s o , as a m e m o r i a l o f his 54. H. Seyrig, ^Vhabalathus Augusms", Melanges Miihalou>ski (1966), 5 5 . / G / ^ X I I I . ı , no. 9107. 5 6 . CJ V I I , 1 4 , 4 . 5 7 . Z o s i m u s I, 5 0 - 6 0 . 5 8 . I m m a c : Fcsrus, Brev. 24; J c c o m c , Cltron., 59. T e x t t o n n . 8 - 9 a b o v c .

c d . H e l m , p . 2 2 2 . Scc 4 . 2 a b o v c .

v i c t o r y , built his w c l l - k n o w n t c m p l e o f the S u n a t R o m e / 0 R i g h t l y o r vvrongly, t h e r e f o r e , t h e a u t h o r s a y s t h a t t h e t e m p l e o f the S u n - G o d in R o m e \vas a borrovving m a d e b y A u r e l i a n f r o m E m e s a . A u r e l i a n t h e n a d v a n e e d t o P a l m y r a , a n d Z o s i m u s telis a c o l o u r f u l s t o r y o f Z e n o b i a b e i n g p l a c e d o n a c a m e l a n d r e a c h i n g the E u p h r a t e s , in the h o p e o f t a k i n g r e f u g e vvith the P e r s i a n s , b e f o r e b e i n g c a p t u r e d . T h e c i t y vvas t a k e n , a n d a g a r r i s o n left t h e r e . O n h i s vvay b a c k t o F.urope A u r e l i a n h e a r d o f a rcnevved u p r i s i n g in P a l m y r a , vvhich he retıırned to suppress. A c c o r d i n g to Z o s i m u s , the leader o f the revolt first tried t o p e r s u a d e M a r c e l l i n u s , t h e g o v e r n o r o f M e s o p o t a m i a , t o r e v o l t ; i f t h e s t o r y h a s a n y s u b s t a n c c , it s u g g e s t s t h a t n o r m a l R o m a n g o v c r n m c n t h a d b e e n restored there also/1 W h a t this e x t r a o r d i n a r y a n d u n p a r a l l e l e d e p i s o d e m e a n t in t e r m s o f t h e r o l e o f P a l m y r a a s betvveen the E m p i r e a n d P c r s i a , a n d in t e r m s o f its c u l t u r a l a n d e t h n i c i d e n t i t y as a p l a c e o n t h e f r i n g e s o f G r e e k c u l t u r e , vvill n e e d t o b e d i s c u s s c d later. 6 2 I n s t r i c t l y m i l i t a r y t e r m s , a n d in t e r m s o f t h e s t r u e t u r e o f f o r c e in t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t , it is indeed h a r d l y intelligible. F o r vve c a n d i s c c r n n c i t h c r vvhencc the P a l m y r e n e s g a i n e d t h e i r f o r c e s , n o r vvhat R o m a n t r o o p s r e m a i n e d e i t h e r t o j o i n o r t o o p p o s e t h e m , n o r hovv the m a s s o f t h e c i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n r e a c t e d . N o r is t h e r e a n y vvay o f knovving vvhether t h e P a l m y r e n e s t h e m s e l v e s , the o t h e r c o m m u n i t i c s o f t h e N e a r E a s t o r the R o m a n f o r c e s s t a t i o n e d there savv t h i s a s a l o c a l e t h n i c m o v e m e n t a g a i n s t R o m e o r as a b r e a k a v v a y R o m a n r e g i m e r e a c t i n g t o a povvcr v a c u u m a n d t h e P e r s i a n i n v a s i o n . T h e s e P e r s i a n i n v a s i o n s , hovvever b r i e f , vvere a l s o q u i t e e x c e p t i o n a l . It vvould n o t b e until the s i x t h c e n t u r y t h a t P e r s i a n f o r c e s a g a i n c r o s s e d t h e E u p h r a t e s . M e s o p o t a m i a vvould be a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r , a n d vvould r e m a i n a b a t d e g r o u n d . B u t t h e r e a s c l s c v v h c r e the m i l i t a r y s t r u e t u r e o f t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t d o e s n o t b e c o m e ( r e l a t i v e l y ) c l e a r a g a i n until the T e t r a r c h i c p e r i o d . 6 0 . S H A , Aurel.

25, 5-6.

6 1 . Z o s i m u s I, 6 0 , 1 . 6 2 . 9 . 4 belovv.

CHAPTER

S THE TETRARCIIY AND CONSTANTİNE

5.1. T H E TF.TRARCHY: PERSİAN AND FORTIFIED

WARS

LINES

For just ovcr a dccade after Aurelian's reconquest o f Palmyra, we have effectively n o e v i d e n c e a t ali a b o u t t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t . A l m o s t ali t h a t c a n be o f f e r e d is a f e w inseriptions f r o m A r a b i a , o f the 2 7 0 S a n d early z 8 o s , shovving g o v e r n o r s supervising t h e b u i l d i n g o f w a l l s a n d possibly o t h e r s t r u e t u r e s zt A d r a a a n d B o s t r a . But even t h e s e a r e sufficient t o illustrate o n e o f t h e m a j o r c h a n g e s in the s t r u e t u r e o f t h e E m p i r e w h i c h b e g a n step by step in the m i d d l e d e c a d e s o f the third c e n t u r y , a n d vvere t a k e n m u c h further in the p e r i o d o f t h e T c t r a r c h y a n d C o n s t a n t i n e . T h a t is t o say, in b r o a d terms, t h a t t h e I m p e rial s t r u e t u r e m o v e d a l m o s t entireiy avvay f r o m its r o o t s in t h e R e p u b H c a n s y s t e m , based on the S e n a t e a n d t h e h o l d i n g o f m a j o r offices b y s e n a t o r s . T h u s these i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m A r a b i a shovv t h a t t h e g o v e r n o r s , vvho h a d p r e v i o u s l y been s e n a t o r s o f e x - p r a c t o r r a n k , legali

Augusti

novv m e n o f e q u e s t r i a n r a n k vvith the title praeses

(begetnön

pro praetore,

vvere

in G r e e k ) . 1 W h a t

vve c a l i the late E m p i r e is a l r e a d y c o ı n i n g i n t o being. B c y o n d t h a t , in t h e T c t r a r c h i c p e r i o d , f r o m 2 8 4 onvvards, t h e r e c a m e rea r r a n g e m e n t s o f provincial b o u n d a r i e s ; a nevv t a x a t i o n - s y s t e m ; vvhat s e e m s t o h a v e been a m o r e aetive a n d p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e on the p a r t o f g o v e r n m e n t (refleeted in this p e r i o d in a l o n g series o f b o u n d a r y - d e c i s i o n s in the n a m e of the E m p e r o r ) ; t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a nevv t i e r o f r e g i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t , t h e tvvelve 1. SEG

X V I , n o s . 8 x 3 - 8 x 4 ( 1 7 4 / 2 . 7 5 , A d r a a ) , F l a v i u s A c l i a n u s , praeses—tıCrıjıövoç);

XIII.i, n o . 9x08 (278/279, Bostra), A u t Pctrus, w û ( 1 8 1 / 1 8 3 , B o s t r a ) , Acmilı'us A e m i l i a n u s ,

hlgemön.

t

I 7 4 İ

fiıajoımoturau

IGIS

r^ıûvl r^ctı(övoç); 9 1 0 ?

'diocescs*, c a c h e m b r a c i n g a n u n ı b c r o f p r o v i n c e s ; a n d a b o v e ali the f o r m a l i s a t i o n o f the g e o g r a p h i c a l d i v i s i o n o f t h e E m p i r e betvveen (eventually) f o u r E m p e r o r s : tvvo s e n i o r Augusti

a n d tvvo Caesares.

It vvas vvithin t h a t f r a m e -

vvork that t h e r e p e a t c d role o f A n t i o c h a s a n Imperial residence vvas in c f f e c t t r a ı ı s f o r m e d into that o f a r e g u l a r c a p i t a l . It vvas a l s o in this p e r i o d , in 2 9 8 / 2 9 9 , t h a t a t r c a t y vvith Pcrsia g a v e the E m p i r e in t h e N e a r E a s t its g r e a t e s t ever e x t e n s i o n , t o a n d a p p a r e n t l y a e r o s s t h e T i g r i s . M o r e o v e r , virtually ali a l o n g the z o n e betvveen t h e settled a r e a a n d the s t e p p e literary e v i d e n e e , i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d t h e physical r e m a i n s o f R o m a n forts a n d r o a d s c o m b i n e t o p r o v i d e t h e m o s t detailed p i c t u r e vve h a v e f o r a n y period o f a R o m a n ' d e s e r t frontier'. It vvas p e r h a p s m e r c l y a n a c c î d c n t t h a t the m u c h m o r e aetive a n d i n t e r v e n tionist a t t i t u d e o f t h e s t a t e in t h i s period vvas t o b c e x p r e s s e d a l s o in t h e f o r m o f the last g r e a t persecution o f C h r i s t i a n s — a n d t h e n , a f t e r the c o n v e r s i o n o f C o n s t a n t i n c in 3 1 2 , by e q u a l l y aetive s u p p o r t o f C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d v i g o r o u s Imperial e f f o r t s t o e n f o r c e u n i t y in the C h u r c h . T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f i n t e r nal struetures, a n d then the l a t e r p h a s e , a f t e r 3 1 2 , vvill need s e p a r a t e t r e a t m e n t . B u t , b o t h f o r t h e m i l i t a r y a s p e c t (vvhich vvill c o m e first) a n d f o r t h e s e o t h e r s , it is o f p r o f o u n d s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t vve c a n a g a i n rely on the vievv p r o v i d e d b y a c o n t e m p o r a r y , E u s e b i u s , b i s h o p o f C a e s a r e a , vvho vvas b o r n s o o n a f t e r 2 6 0 a n d died in 3 3 9 . * U n l i k e J o s e p h u s , the l a s t ' n a t i v e ' o f this region o n vvhom vvc c o u l d d e p e n d f o r a c o n n e c t e d n a r r a t i v e o f events and an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m f r o m vvithin, E u s e b i u s r e m a i n e d r e s i d e n t t h e r e t h r o u g l ı o u t the entire p e r i o d . O u r best narrative evidenee f o r the e n t i r e h a l f - c e n t u r y o f the T e t r a r e h y a n d C o n s t a n t i n c thus c o m e s f r o m a N e a r E a s t ern perspeetive. E u s e b i u s ' n a r r a t i v e s , in the later b o o k s ( V I I I - X ) o f his siastical

History,

Constantinc,

in the Martyrs

of Palestine

a n d in On the Life of the

EccleBlessed

ali shovv us e v e n t s unfolding a s t h e y vvere secn from t h e vievv-

p o i n t o f C a e s a r e a in P a l e s t i n e . H i s Onomasticon,

a vvork o n p l a c e - n a m c s in

t h e Bible, a l s o h a p p e n s t o give a priceless s n a p s h o t o f s o c i a l s t r u e t u r e s a n d m i l i t a r y d i s p o s i t i o n s a s t h e y vvere in these s a m e p l a c c s tovvards t h e e n d o f t h e third century. 1 It is f r o m this vvork, a n d this a l o n e , t h a t vve knovv t h a t t h e legion X Fretensis (or at least a d e t a c h ı n e n t o f it) h a d a l r e a d y m o v e d dovvn f r o m J e r u s a l e m t o its nevv s t a t i o n a t A i l a a t t h e Iıead o f t h e G u l f o f A q a b a : ' A i l a m : o n the b o r d e r s (of P a l e s t i n e ) , lying n c x t t o the s o u t h e r n desert a n d t h e R e d S e a vvhich is n e x t t o it, s a i l e d b y b o t h t h o s e e r o s s i n g f r o m E g y p t a n d t h o s e f r o m Iııdia. S t a t i o n e d t h e r e is the T e n t h legion (tagrna) o f t h e R o m a n s .

2 . F o r E u s e b i u s , I d e p e n d t h r o u g h o u t o n T . D . B a r n e s , Constantinc

and Eusebius

(1981).

j . F o r t h e w o r k a n d its d a t e scc B a r n e s , o p . cit., ı o 6 f f . T h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e d a t e is c o n t r o v e r sial, b u t I b e l i e v c B a m e s ' s early d a t i n g t o be c o r r e c t . T h e s t r o n g e s t a r g u m e n t f o r s u c h a d a t e Es the a b s e n c e o f a n y refleetion o f esıablished Christianity.

It is novv c a l l e d A i l a ' . 4 T h i s r e g i o n , a s vve vvill see later, vvas novv p a r t o f 'Syria P a l a e s t i n a ' , n o t a s b e f o r e ' A r a b i a ' ; a n d T r a j a n ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n o f his V i a N o v a h a d b e e n follovvcd a t last b y a l a r g c - s c a l c m i l i t a r y i n v e s t m c n t . T h c f a c t that vve h a v e this i n f o r m a t i o n , f r o m this d a t e , is in a sense a c c i d c n t a l . B u t a vvriter f r o m o u t s i d c the r e g i o n , hovvever interested in B i b l i c a l sites, m i g h t n o t h a v e been a b l e t o add this d e t a i l . M o r e o v e r , a f o c u s o n B i b l i c a l sites vvas a relatively nevv f e a t u r c o f C h r i s t i a n i t y i n this p e r i o d , a n d vvas t o b c r c i n f o r c e d on a vast s c a l e by C o n s t a n t i n e . In t h e s e senses, i m p o r t a n t e n o u g h , rhe f a c t t h a t Euseb i u s ' p e r s p e e t i v e on his t i m e is a r e g i o n a l o n e is m o r e than j u s t a n a c c i d e n t o f biography. B u t vvhether t h e r e is m o r e t o it t h a n t h a t , vvhether h c o r a n y o n c else r e p r e s e n t s a distinetive ' S y r i a n ' C h r i s t i a n i t y , is q u i t e a n o t h e r m a t t e r . 5 If t h a t issuc is m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n it m a y s e e m , vve d o h a v e u n a m b i g u o u s t y r e g i o n a l perspeetives on rhe T c t r a r c h i c E m p i r e f r o m r a b b i n i c vvritings o n thc o n e h a n d, 6 a n d f r o m S y r i a c m a r t y r - a c t s , n a r r a t i n g m a r t y r d o m s in E d e s s a , c n t h c o t h e r . 7 W i t h t h e ever d e e p e r i m p l a n t a t i o n o f the R o m a n s t a t e in the N e a r E a s t , it a n d t h e vvorld o f r a b b i n i c l c a r n i n g c o u l d c o m e i n t o very e l o s e c o n c a c t . W i t n e s s t h e r a b b i n i c ruling t h a t a cohen

vvho i n c u r r e d d e f i l e m e n t ( t h r o u g h

c o n t a c t vvith a c o r p s e ) c o u l d b e e x c u s e d because he h a d vvalkcd ö v e r g r a v e s in o r d e r t o see the E m p e r o r D i o c l e t i a n a t T y r e . 8 D i o c l e t i a ı ı h a d b e c o m e E m p e r o r in c i r c u m s t a n c e s vvhich vvere o f great significance a s illustrating t h c c o n t i n u e d r e l e v a n c c o f R o m a n imperialistn in this r e g i o n , a n d thc i m p o r t a n c e o f the N e a r E a s t as a m i l i t a r y z o n e . F o r he had been in the e n t o u r a g e o f t h e E m p e r o r C a r u s a n d his s o n N u m e r i a n u s o n their c a m p a i g n into t h c h c a r t o f t h c Persian E m p i r e in 2,83, vvhen b o t h C t e s i p h o n a n d Seleucia o n t h c Tigris vvere c a p t u r e d . 9 C a r u s s e e m s t o h a v e died t h e r s , a n d by M a r c h 2 8 4 N u m e r i a n u s m a y have been b a c k in S y r i a , a t E m e s a . 1 0 But a f t e r t h a t he t o o k his f o r c c s o n the e s t a b l i s h e d r o u t c a c r o s s Asia M i n ö r . It m u s t h a v e been on that j o u r n e y that h e vvas m u r d e r e d , a n d h i s d e a ı b then c o ı ı c e a l c d d u r i n g s e v c r a l d a y s ' m a r c h . F o r it is certaiıı t h a t it vvas at 4 . E u s e b i u s , Onom., s e c Not.

Dign.,

e d . K l o s t e r m a n n , p. 6 . It w a s t o be there t h r o u g h o u t t h e f o u r t l ı c e n t u t y ,

Or. X X X I V , 3 0 : ' P r a e f c c t u s l e g i o n i s d e c i m a c F r c t e n s i s , A i l a c ' ( u n d e r t h c

Dux

Palacstinac). 5. See 1 3 . 1 belovv. 6. S e c e s p . S . L i e b e r m a n , " P a l e s t i n e in t h e T h i r d a n d F o u r t h C e n t u r i e s " , JQR

36 ( 1 9 4 5 - 4 6 ) ,

3 * 9 : 3 7 ( « 9 4 6 - 4 7 ) , 31 (both, hovvever, highly speculative). 7 . S e e 11.6 8 . Jerusalem

belovv. Talmud,

Berachotb

5H; t r a n s . e d . J . N c u s r e r , Talmud

3, 1 (trans. M . Schvvab,

of the Land

oflsrael

Talmud

de Jerusalem

I [1871i,

I [ 1 9 8 9 ) , t t ş ) . For the i m p a c t o f Dcocfc-

t i a n ' s v i s i t h e r e , a s r e f l e e t e d in t h c T a l m u d , s c c novv a l s o J . C . G r c e n f i e l d , " A n A r a m a i c i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m T y r e f r o m t h e R e i g n o f D i o c l e t i a n P r e s c r v c d in t h c P a l e s t i n i a n T a l m u d " , Atti II. Cong. Studt

Fenici

e Punîci

Int.

II ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 4 9 9 .

9. S H A , Car. 8 , i ; Z o n a r a s X I I , 3 0 . S e e H a l f m a ı ı n , Iliııera,

24i.

1 0 . S o CJ V , 5 2 , 2 (but i n t h c n a m e s o f C a r u s , C a r i n u s — h i s o t h e r s o n — a n d N u m e r i a n u s ) .

N i c o m c d i a , o n N o v c m b c r 2 0 , 2 8 4 , t h a t D i o c l c s , an c q u e s t r i a n officer, vvas p r o e l a i m e d E m p e r o r , s u b s e q u e ı ı t l y t a k i n g the n a m e ' I m p e r a t o r C a e s a r

C.

Aurelius V a l e r i u s D i o c l c t i a n u s ' . It vvas he vvho i n a u g u r a t e d t h e T e t r a r c h i c s y s t e m , t a k i n g first a ' C a e s a r * a n d then a c o - ' A u g u s t u s ' , M a x i m i a n , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y in 2 9 3 , tvvo j u n i o r ' C a e s a r c s ' , C o n s t a n t i u s (the f a t h e r o f C o n s t a n t i n e ) , vvho r e i g n c d in the W e s t under M a x i m i a n , a n d G a l e r i u s , vvho vvas aetive in t h e E a s t u n d e r D i o c l e t i a n himself. T h e fact t h a t the s e n i o r A u g u s t u s t o o k the E a s t a s h i s a r e a is itself a c l c a r itıdication o f the vvay t h a t s t r a t e g i c priorities h a d b e c o m e e s t a b l i s h e d . Kut ' t h e E a s t ' in this sense m c a n s t h e vvhole c a s t c r n h a l f o f the E m p i r e , up t o the D a n t ı b e . In 2 8 7 D i o c l e t i a n achieved s o m e sort o f s u b m i s s i o n f r o m t h e P e r s i a n s , involving t h e sending o f gifts, ineluding a ı ı i m a l s ; b u t vvhether h c himself vvas a c t u a l l y then on c a m p a i g n in the N e a r E a s t is n o t c e r t a i n , It is n o t until 2 9 0 t h a t h c c a n b e shovvn f o r c e r t a i n t o h a v e b e e n in S y r i a , issuing rulings in M a y f r o m A n t i o c h , f r o m E m e s a t o the praeses

of Syria (Phoenice)

a n d p r o b a b l y f r o m I . a o d i c c a . M o r e i m p o r t a n t , a p a n e g y r i s t , addressing M a x imian a t T r i e r in 2 9 1 , alludes briefly t o a r e c e n t v i c t o r y over ' t h e S a r a c e n ' — a s it seems, the first o c c a s i o n on vvhich this vvord vvas ever used t o deseribe a d e f e a t e d Imperial e n e m y : ' I p a s s over t h e S a r a c e n o p p r e s s e d by t h e s h a c k l e s o f c a p t i v i t y ' . H e c i e a r l y m c a n s t o s p e a k o f peoples living n e a r R o m a n S y r i a , f o r later he m a k e s a n o t h e r a l l u s i o n : ' t h a t laurel (vvon) from the c o n q u e r e d nationes

b o r d e r i n g S y r i a ' . 1 1 T h e s p c a k c r p r o b a b l y h a d even less o f a n i d e a

than vve as t o vvhere precisely t h e s e Saraceni

m i g h t h a v e been l o c a t c d . L i k e

ali such terms, it c o u l d b e u s e d o f p e o p l e s vvho might b e f o u n d anyvvhcrc f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a t o Aila on t h e R e d Sea. B u t , given D i o c l e t i a n ' s m o v e m e n t s a n d t h e extensive m i l i t a r y i n v e s t m c n t in vvhat vvas t o be called the S t r a t a D i o c l c t i a ı ı a , r u n n i n g f r o m the H a u r a n t o D a m a s c u s a n d then t h r o u g h P a l m y r a t o the E u p h r a t e s , 1 2 it vvas p r o b a b l y in t h a t a r e a , hence in Syria P h o e n i c e o r the n o r t h e r n part o f A r a b i a , t h a t the a c t i o ı ı t o o k p l a c e . O n e o f t h e very l a s t o l d - s t y l c s e n a t o r i a l legati Augıısti

pro praetore

o f the p r o v i n c e o f Syria P h o e -

n i c e is f o u n d m a k i n g a L a t i n d e d i c a t i o n a t H c J i o p o l i s a b o u t this t i m e t o D i o cletian as ' t h e l i b e r a t o r o f the R o m a n vvorid, the b r a v e s t a n d m o s t dutiful a n d most unconquered'.'3 D u r i n g this period t h e Persian f r o n t vvas q u i e s c e n t , a n d it vvas n o t u n t i l p e r h a p s 2 9 5 , a n d m o r e c e r t a i n l y f r o m 2 9 6 onvvards, that m a j ö r c a m p a i g n s b e g a n a g a i n . 1 4 In brief, G a l e r i u s vvas first d e f e a t e d by t h e Persian king N a r s c s in a b a t t l c in M e s o p o t a m i a ( ' b e t w c c n C a l l i n i c u m a n d C a r r h a e ' , s o a p p a r e n t l y 1 1 . B a r n e s , New

Empire,

5 1 . Patı. III ( 1 1 ) , e d . G n l l c t i c r , 5 , 4 ; 7 , 1 .

1 2 . T e x t t o n n . i î f f . belovv. 1 3 . ICLS

VI, no. 2 7 7 1 .

1 4 . F o r t h e c o m p l e x issues o f I m p e r i a l e h r o n o l o g y in this p e r i o d s c c T . I). B a r n e s , " I m p e r i a l C a m p a i g n s , AD 2 8 5 - 3 1 1 " , Phoenix

30 ( 1 9 7 6 ) , 1 7 4 .

somcvvhcre on t h e river B a l i k h ) . In 2 9 7 he c o l l c c t c d n e w f o r c e s f r o m the Balk a n s , a n d in 2 9 8 f o u g h t a s u c c e s s f u l c a m p a i g n fıırther n o r t h , in A r m e n i a , a n d then m a r c h e d s o u t h a l o n g t h e ' I ı g r i s a s f a r a s C t c s i p h o n (oııce a g a i n ) ,

finally

r e t u r n i n g by t h e r o u t e up t h e E u p h r a t e s . A c c o r d i n g t o A m m i a n u s , vvhen J u l i a n ' s f o r c e s r e a c h e d t h e fortificd p o s t o f A n a t h a (novv P e r s i a n ) in 3 6 3 , t h e y f o u n d a m o n g t h e c a p t i v e s a R o m a n soldier left b e h i n d d u r i n g G a l e r ius' r e t r e a t ; the i m p l i c a t i o ı ı

is c l e a r l y t h a t t h e invasion h a d n o t

t o r e i m p o s e R o m a n c o n t r o l o n t h e lovver-middlc E u p h r a t e s . 1 5

scrvcd

Diocletian's

o c c u p a t i o n o f the E u p h r a t e s s t o p p e d a t C i r c e s i u m , a t its c o n f l u e n c e vvith the Chabur.16 The

major conscquence

o f this v i c t o r y vvas t h e r e c a p t u r c o f

Nisibis

( t h o u g h hovv long it h a d b e e n l o s t s e e m s q u i t e u n c l e a r ) . M o r e i m p o r t a n t stili vvere the t e r m s o f the p e a c e novv i m p o s e d o n N a r s e s , a n d the role o f N i s i b i s as c x p r c s s c d in t h e m . It vvas e i t h e r in 2 9 8 o r 2 9 9 t h a t D i o c l c t i a n j o i n c d G a l e r ius t h e r e a n d sent an e n v o y t o N a r s e s t o d i c t a t e t e r m s . Eive districts, deseribed as I n t e l e n e , S o p h e n e , A r z a n e n e , C a r d u e n e a n d Z a b d i k e n e , vvere t o b e h e l d by the R o m a n s , vvhile t h e T i g r i s vvould b e t h e f r o n t i e r betvveen the tvvo e m p i r e s . 1 7 W h a t this m e a n s is far f r o m c l c a r , f o r these districts lie largely o n t h e far b a n k o f the T i g r i s ; it is possible t h a t in this z o n e a e r o s s t h e river R o m e novv gained s o m e r c c o g n i s c d h e g e m o n y , vvithout m i i i t a r y o c c u p a t i o n . W h a t is i m p o r t a n t , hovvever, is t h a t t h e treaty led t o a firm R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n o f a r e g i o n t o the n o r t h - e a s t o f t h e e x i s t i n g p r o v i n c e o f M e s o p o t a m i a , a l o n g the u p p e r - m i d d l e T i g r i s , vvhere it flovvs first eastvvards b e h i n d the M o n s M a s i u s (the T u r A b d : n ) a n d then s o u t h - e a s t t o enter t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n p l a i n . T h i s streteh vvould ' a t least vvithin a fevv d c c a d e s ) c o n t a i n t h e m a j o r R o m a n s t r o n g h o l d s o f A n ı i d a ( D i y a r b a k i r ) a n d B c z a b d c . 1 5 A l t h o u g h r e p o r t s o f this t r e a t y s p c a k o f R o m e g a i n i n g r e g i o n s ' a e r o s s the T i g r i s ' , 1 9 ' t s e e m s c l e a r t h a t it vvas in fact o n the right b a n k o f the river t h a t t h e R o m a n d e f e n c e s vvould be built. T h e r e vvas t h u s a real e x t e ı ı s i o n o f R o m a n m i i i t a r y o c c u p a t i o n t o the T i g r i s , a n d o n e in vvhich a heavy i n v e s t m e n t vvould be m a d e . I n g e o g r a p h i c a l t e r m s it vvas n o t large; b u t this advatıce i n t o a r e m o t e a n d little-ktıovvn a r e a a l o n g the Tigris deserves s o m e a t t e n t i o n . F o r it vvas yet a n o t h e r step in t h e c o n t i n u i n g

>5. Ammianus XXIV, 1, 10. 16. Text to n . ı j bclow. 17. Petrus Patricius, Fr. 14 (FHG IV, p. T89). Scc F.. Winrer, "On the Rcgulation of the Eastern Frontier of the Koman F.mpirc in 198", in I). H. French and C. S. l.ightfoot (cds.), The Easlern liontier of Ihe Roman Empire II (1989), 555. x8. For this arca see the illuminating discussion by J. Matthcws, The Roman Empire of Ammianus (1989), 4iff. 19. Fcstus, Breu 15: 'Pcrsac . . . Mesopotamian» cum Transtigritanis regionibus reddiderunt'.

forvvard m o v e m e n t o f R o m a n

f o r c e s , vvhich i n t h e N e a r E a s t vvas t o l a s t

b e y o n d o u r p e r i o d . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r a d v a n c e c o u l d be seen a s the p r e l i m İ n a r y t o the p a r t i t i o n o f A r m e n i a , d i r e c t l y a e r o s s the river, in 3 8 7 ; in t h e R o m a n p a r t o f A r m e n i a m a j ö r f o r t i f i c a t i o n s vvere stili b e i n g u n d e r t a k e n i n the sixth century.'0 T h e provisions relating to

N i s i b i s vvere a l s o o f g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e .

Iıı

s p i t e o f r e p o r t e d o b j e e t i o n s by N a r s e s , it vvas laid dovvn t h a t c o m m e r c i a l c x c h a n g e s bctvveen the tvvo e m p i r e s vvould t a k e p l a c e t h e r e . F o r o v e r s i x t y y e a r s , u n t i l it vvas s u r r e n d e r e d a f t e r J u l i a n ' s c a m p a i g n in 3 6 3 , N i s i b i s vvas t o be t h e c o m m e r c i a l a n d m i l i t a r y c e n t r e o f t h e e a s t e r n

part o f

Roman

M e s o p o t a m i a . L i k e E d e s s a , it vvas a l s o t o bc o n e o f t h e m a j ö r c c n t r c s o f C h r i s t i a n S y r i a c l i t e r a t ü r e . T h e g r e a t e s t o f ali S y r i a c vvriters, E p h r e m , vvas b o r n t h e r e a fevv y e a r s a f t e r t h e treaty, a n d left it o n l y vvhen it vvas a b a n d o n e d t o t h e P e r s i a n s in 3 6 3 . D i o c l e t i a n s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n b a s c d l a r g c l y in A n t i o c h in the y e a r s 3 0 0 3 0 2 , vvith a j o u r n e y t o E g y p t , o n vvhich h e t r a v e l l e d t h r o u g h P a l e s t i n e , a n d E u s e b i u s f o r the first t i m e s e t e y e s o n t h e y o u n g C o n s t a n t i n c , vvho vvas in t h e E m p e r o r ' s e n t o u r a g e . 2 1 In 3 0 2 D i o c l c t i a n r e t u r n c d t o his m a i n c a p i t a l , N i c o m c d i a , vvhere the g r e a t p c r s c c u t i o n vvas instituted in F e b r u a r y 3 0 3 . Iıı 3 0 5 , vvith the a b d i c a t i o n o f D i o c l e t i a n a n d M a x i m i a n , G a l c r i u s b c c a m c t h e ' A u g u s t u s ' o f t h e e a s t e r n h a l f o f t h e E m p i r e , r e s i d e n t m a i n l y in the B a l k a n p e n i n s u l a , vvhile his nephevv ( C . G a l e r i u s V a l e r i u s ) M a x i m i n u s b c c a m e t h e ' C a e s a r ' , t h e n b e i n g p r o c l a i n ı e d ' A u g u s t u s ' by h i s t r o o p s in 3 1 0 . As vvas n o t e d b e f o r e , his rule betvveen 3 0 5 a n d 3 1 1 r e p r e s e n t s a n o t a b l e p h a s e in the i n t e g r a t i o n o f the N e a r E a s t

i n t o the I m p e r i a l

s y s t e m . F o r lıc vvas

resident there continuously t h r o u g h o u t that period, perhaps primarily

at

A n t i o c h , b u t a l s o o n o c c a s i o n a t C a e s a r e a in P a l e s t i n e . T h e m i l i t a r y h i s t o r y o f t h e s e y e a r s , i f t h e r e vvas o n e , is c n t i r c l y u n k n o v v n , t h o u g h

a

victory

a g a i n s t the P e r s i a n s is c e l e b r a t e d in 3 1 0 . W i t h the d e a t h o f G a l e r i u s

in

3 1 1 , a q u i t e nevv p l ı a s c o p e n e d , a n d M a x i m i n u s m o v e d r a p i d l y t o s e c u r e N i c o m c d i a , r e t u r n i n g t o A n t i o c h in 3 1 2 , vvhen a c a m p a i g n vvas f o u g h t , f o r unknovvn

r e a s o n s , in A r m e n i a .

İn 3 1 3

he returned

t o the B a l k a ı ı s , vvas

d e f e a t e d b y I . i c i n i u s , t h e n the ^Augustus' o f t h a t a r e a , a n d c o m m i t t c d s u i c i d e a f t e r r e t r e a t i n g t o T a r s o s . W i t h t h a t a g a i n a nevv p h a s e o p e n s . B u t t h e years 3 1 1 a n d 3 1 2 a r e c h i e f l y n o t a b l e a s the last p h a s e o f a e t i v e p e r s e c u t i o n o f the C h r i s t i a n s , renevved e v e n a f t e r G a l e r i u s ' d e a t l ı b e d e d i c t o f t o l e r a t i o n

10. S c c J. D . H o w a r d J o h n s t o n , " P r o c o p i u s , R o m a n D c f c n c c s N ' o n h o f ı h e T a u r u s a n d t h e N c w F o r t r e s s o f C i t h a r i z o n " , iıı D . H . F r e n c h a n d C . S . I . i g h f o o t (eds.), The the Koman

Empire

II ( 1 9 8 9 ) , z o j .

1 1 . Kııscbius, V C I , 1 9 ; B a r n e s , New

Empire,

55.

Eastern

Frontier

of

in 3 1 1 . H o w this p h a s e w o r k e d o u t is c l o s e l y b o u n d u p w i t h the i n t e r p ! a y o f r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the e m p e r o r a n d the stili p a g a n c o m m u n i t i c s o f thc N e a r E a s t , t h c city o f A n t i o c h a b o v c ali. B e f o r e t h a t it will b c n c c c s s a r y t o l o o k a t h o w t h e F.mpire i n the N e a r E a s t , v i e w e d a s a m i l i t a r y struccure, h a d d e v e l o p e d över t h e p r c v i o u s t h r e e d e c a d e s . L a t e r vvriters w c r c in 110 d o u b t that t h c reign o f D i o c l c t i a n h a d seen a m a s s i v c p r o g r a m m e o f f o r t i f i c a t i o n ali a l o n g t h c f r o n t i c r s , ineluding p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e eastern o n e . 2 2 T o Z o s i m u s , writing in a b o u t AD 500, this w a s a valuable m e a s u r e , s u b s e q u e n t l y u n d o n e by C o n s t a n t i n e : ' F o r , as the R o m a n E m pire, e v e r y w h c r c a l o n g its f r o n t i c r s , h a d b y the f o r c s i g h t o f D i o c l e t i a n

...

been e q u i p p e d w i t h c i t i e s a n d f o r t s a n d tovvers, a n d t h c w h o l e a r m y vvas stationed there, passage i n t o it vvas i m p o s s i b i e f o r the b a r b a r i a n s ' . " M a l a l a s , vvriring s o m c d c c a d c s later, s u m s up thc i m p l c m c n t a t i o n o f this o n t h c e a s t e r n f r o n t i e r : ' D i o c l e t i a n a l s o built fortresses o n thc limes f r o m E g y p t t o t h c Persian b o r d e r s , a n d s t a t i o n e d limitanei

in t h e m , a n d he a p p o i n t e d duces

for

e a c h p r o v i n c c , t o bc s t a t i o n e d further b a c k f r o m the fortresses vvith a large f o r c e t o ensure their s e c u r i t y ' . 2 4 W h a t M a l a l a s says is p a r t l y a n a c h r o n i s t i c (the t e r m limitanei

f o r f r o n t i e r t r o o p s belongs later, a n d duces

vvere n o t yet

t o be f o u n d in e a c h p r o v i n c e ) , a n d partly c o n t r a d i c t s the g e n e r a l t h r u s t o f Z o s i m u s ' c o n c e p t i o n . N o n c t h e l e s s they b o t h s h a r e t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f a m a j ö r phase o f f o r t i f i c a t i o n - b u i l d i n g . It is n ı o r e significant t h a t t h e s a m e v i e w is s h a r e d by a m u c h b e t t e r qualified observer, A m ı n i a m ı s M a r c e l l i n u s , vvho v/as b o r n tovvards 3 3 0 in A n t i o c h a n d s e r v c d o n the eastern f r o n t i e r in t h c 350S a n d 360S. T o h i m , D i o c l c t i a n ' s f o r t i f i c a t i o n o f t h c small tovvn o f C i r c e s i u m , on the E u p h r a t e s , vvas p a r t o f a vvider p o l i c y : T h c E m p e r o r (Julian) m a r e h e d at quick step t o Cercusiuın, a very safe a n d skilfully built fortress, vvhose vvalls arc vvashcd by thc A b o r a ( C h a b u r ) a n d Euphrates rivers, vvhich form a kind o f island . . . This place, vvhich vvas formerly small and e x p o s e d t o dangers, Diocletian, alarmed by a recent expcricnce (one of thc Persian invasions o f the mid-third century), c n circled vvith vvalls and lofty tovvers, at the time vvhen hc vvas arranging t h c inner lines of defence on t h e very frontiers o f the barbarians, in order t o prevent thc Persians from overrunning Syria. 2 5 T h c e x p r e s s i o n ' t h c i n n e r l i n e s o f d e f e n c e ' (interiores

should n o t be

litnites)

taken t o i m p l y t h c idca o f a d o u b l c Ene o f f r o n t i e r iııstallations, o u t e r and 2 2 . F o r w h a t follovvs see the e l a s s i c w o r k o f D . v a n B e r c h e m , L'armce tefatme

constünlinienne

de DiocUtien

et b

( 1 9 5 2 ) , e s p . j f f . , a n d t h c uscful r e c e n t s u r v e y b y A . Levviıı, " D a l I ' Eu-

f r a t e al M a r R o s s o : D i o c l c / i a n o , l ' c s e r c i t o c i c o n f i n i t a r d o a n t i c h i " , Athenaeıon 2 3 . Z o s i m u s I, 3 4 , 1. 2 4 . M a l a l a s 308, trans. E. J c f f r e y s , M . J c f f r c y s , a n d M . Scott. 2 5 . A m m i a ı ı u s X X I I I , 5, 1 - 2 , L o e b t r a n s .

78 (1990), 141.

inner. It m c a n s ' t h e b o r d e r - d i s t r i c t s f u r t h e r i n l a n d ' . " B u t A m m i a n u s ' c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e i m p o r t a n c c o f a fortificd frontier, in this c a s e direeted t o d c f e n c e a g a i n s t P c r s i a , is q u i t e elear. S i m i l a r d e f e n c e s , in A m m i a n u s ' vicw, w e r e needed a l s o against o t h e r n e i g h b o u r s : s o h c deseribes A r a b i a a s filled w i t h s t r o n g c a m p s (castra) a n d forts (castella) ' f o r repelling t h e raids o f n c i g h b o u r ing gentes\

a n d a s c o n t a i n i n g m a j ö r c i t i e s — B o s t r a , G e r a s a a n d Philadel-

p h i a — a l i d e f e n d c d by m i g h t y vvalls. 2 7 It is q u i t e likely t h a t this w o r k o f f o r t i f i c a t i o n \vcnt on in t h e c a r l y f o u r t h c e n t u r y a l o n g t h e ııevvly a c q u i r e d streteh o f the T ı g r i s , a t N i s i b i s a f t e r its r e c a p t u r e a n d a t S i n g a r a , \vhere tvvo o f t h e novv sınailer l a t e - R o m a n l e g i o n s , the I F l a v i a a n d (stili) t h e I P a r t h i c a , vvere s t a t i o n e d in 3 6 3 . " B u t t h e r e is n o precise e v i d e n c e until later, u n d e r C o n s t a n t i n e . N o r c a n a n y R o m a n forts o f this period be securely identified atıyvvhere a l o n g the C h a b u r River. But t h e a r e a vvhere t h e r e is a m p l e e v i d e n c e t o illustrate the validity o f later vievvs o f D i o c l e t i a n ' s activity is a l o n g t h e Üne f r o m t h e E u p h r a t e s a t S u r a a c r o s s t h e steppe t o P a l m y r a a n d D a m a s c u s , a n d then s o u t h t o Aila on the G u l f o f A q a b a : ' f r o m E g y p t t o the P e r s i a n f r o n t i e r ' , a s M a l a l a s s a i d . İn r e l a t i o n t o t h a t Üne C i r c e s i u m itself vvas an o u t p o s t , s o m e 1 5 0 k m dovvn t h e river. T h e r e m u s t p r e s u m a b l y h a v e been s o m e R o m a n f o r t s a l o n g this streteh, over vvhich J u l i a n ' s f o r c e s m a r e h e d in 3 6 3 , t h a t is t o say, betvveen C a l l i n i c u m , vvhich A m m i a n u s c a l l s ' a s t r o n g f o r t r e s s a n d m o s t vveleome b e c a u s e o f the vvealth o f supplies o n s a l e ' , a t the c o n f l u e n c e vvith the B a l i k h , a n d C i r c e s i u m , a t the c o n f l u e n c e vvith the C h a b u r . B u t even A m m i a n u s , vvho vvas t h e r e , says n o t h i n g o f this a r e a . T h e great fortress o f Z e n o b i a ( H a l e b i y e h ) o n t h e right b a n k , 5 0 km a b o v e C i r c e s i u m , vvas built o n l y later, by Justinian. 7 - 9 B u t P r o c o p i u s m a y vvell be right in saying that D i o c i c t i a n built t h r e e f o r t s in this r e g i o n , ineluding o n e c a l l e d M a m b r i , n o t far f r o m Z e n o b i a (vvhich h e t h o u g h t h a d been built b y Z e n o b i a o f P a l m y r a , a n d then a b a n d o n e d ) . ' 0 I n c f f c c t , hovvever, t h e military a n d social h i s t o r y o f this s t r e t e h o f t h e river, briefly i l l u m i n a t e d by the nevv d o c u m e n t s o f the 230S t o 250S, r e m a i n s , f o r this p e r i o d , vvholly o b s c u r e . B y c o n t r a s t , t h e r o u t e a c r o s s the s t e p p e from S u r a tovvards D a m a s c u s , lined vvith f o r t s , is very vvell k n o w n . T h e legion X V I F l a v i a F i r m a , o r a s e c t i o n o f i t , m a y a l r e a d y h a v e been a t S u r a , vvhere t h e r o u t e left the E u p h r a t e s , a n d t h e IV S c y t h i c a (or a s e c t i o n ) a t O r e s a ( T a y i b c h ) , vvhere they a r e listed by t h e 2 6 . See B. l s a a c , " T h e M e a n i n g o f ehe T e r m s limes aııd Hmitanei",

JRS 7 8 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 2 5 .

2 7 . A m m i a n u s X I V , 8, 1 3 . 28. A m m i a n u s X X , 6. 2 9 . F o r the f o t t r e s s , a n d this s t r e t e h o f the E u p h r a t e s , see J. L a u f f r a y , Place forte Ju limes oriental

et la Haute-SUsopotamie

Halabryya-Zenobia:

au Vle siöcle I ( 1 9 8 3 ) , vvith the excelleı»t

m a p in fig. x . 30. P r o c o p i u s , Aed. II, 8, 7 - 8 . O n t h i s p i e c c o f h i s t o r i c a l fiction s c c f u r t h e r 1 1 , 5 belovv.

l a t e - f o u r t h - c e n t u r y Notitia

Dignitatum.

D o c u m e n t a r y c v i d c n c c o f the e a r l y

f o u r t h c e n t u r y s u g g c s t s t h a t «he legion I I l l y r i c o r u m vvas a l r e a d y a t P a l m y r a , a n d c o n f i r m s t h a t t h e III G a l l i c a vvas at D a n a b a betvveen P a l m y r a a n d D a m a s cus, t h e s t a t i o n s vvhere the Notitia

locates them.31

F e w p l a c c s shovv t h e i m p a c t o f T c t r a r c h i c m i i i t a r y o c c u p a t i o n m o r e vividly t h a n P a l m y r a . T h e r e c o n q u c s t by A u r c l i a n h a d n o t m e a n t the d e s t r u e t i a n o f the city, t h o u g h it vvas r e d u c e d in size. A nevv, m u c h m o r e r e s t r i c t e d c i r c u i t o f city-vvalls s e e m s t o d a t e f r o m this p e r i o d . A t least s o m e o f its m a j o r t e m p l e s r e m a i n e d , a s t h e g r e a t t e m p l e o f B e l vvith its temenos

stili does. S o a p p a r e n t l y

did t h e t e m p l e o f B a a l s h a m i n . F o r a G r e e k inseription o f AD 3 0 2 f r o m t h e r e shovvs ( ö n c e a g a i n ) a R o m a n s o l d i e r m a k i n g a d e d i c a t i o n t o a local d e i t y ; b u t B a a l s h a m i n h a d b c c o m e a c o l o u r l c s s ' Z c u s t h e H i g h e s t vvho l i s t e n s ' Mypsistos

a n d Epekoos).31

[Zeııs

T h e t e m p l e o f A l l a t , hovvever, a t t h e far e n d o f the

G r e a t C o l o n n a d e f r o m the t e m p l e o f Bel, vvas e n v e l o p e d in a c o m p l e x o f R o m a n miiitary h e a d q u a r t e r s b u i l d i n g s vvhich r o s e up a hill on the vvest o f the city, l o o k e d directly a e r o s s t o the t e m p l e o f Bel a n d vvas s u r r o u n d e d b y an angle o f the nevv v v a l l . " A t t h e highest p o i n t lay the principia, the via praetoria,

e r o s s e d b y t h e via principalis.

f a c i n g dovvn

T h e c o m p l c x vvas c l e a r l y de-

signed as a vvhole, a n d vvas b u i l t in the T e t r a r c h i c p e r i o d , betvveen 2 9 3 3 0 5 . F o r vvithin the principia

and

the highest, a n d focal, p o i n t o f t h e vvhole cn-

s e m b l e is f o r m e d b y t h e ' t e m p l e o f t h e s t a n d a r d s ' , on vvhose lintel a L a t i n inseription p r o u d l y p r o e l a i m e d t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f the vvork: ' T h e R e p a l r e r s o f their vvorld a n d P r o p a g a t o r s o f the h u m a n r a c c , o u r L o r d s D i o c l c t i a n u s a n d M a x i m i a n u s , t h e m o s t u n c o n q u c r c d I m p e r a t o r e s , a n d C o n s t a n t i u s and Maximianus

(i.eGalerius),

f o u n d e d the c a m p (castra),

the m o s t n o b l e C a e s a r e s , h a v e

successfully

u n d e r the c a r e o f S o s s i a n u s I l i c r o c l c s , vir o f the p r o v i n c e , d e v o t e d t o t h e i r numen

per-

feetissimus,

g o v e r n o r (praeses)

and

maiestas\3*

N o o t h e r d o c u m e n t e x p r e s s e s m o r e perfectly t h e t r i u m p h a l i s m o f

the T e t r a r c h i c p e r i o d , vvhen in the E a s t the R o m a n E m p i r e h a d j u s t r e a c h e d its g r c a t e s t - c v e r e x t e n t . T h e builders evidently c o n c e i v e d o f the vvhole c o m p l e x a s b e l o n g i n g t o

3*. Not.

Dign.,

Or. X X X I I I , 2 3 : ' P r a c f c c r o s l e g i o n i s q u a r r a e S c y t l ı i c a e , O r c s a ' ; 28: 'I'rac-

f e e t u s legionis s e x t a e d e c i m a e F l a v i a e F i r m a e , S u r a ' ; X X X I I , 3 0 - 3 1 : ' P r a e f e c t u s legionis p r i u a c I l l y r i c o r u m , P a l m i r a ; P r a c f c c t u s l e g i o n i s tertiae G a l l i c a e , D a n a b a ' . F r o m H c r o d i a n V, 3, 9 , ir is c l e a r chaı the İÜ G a l l i c a h a d b e e n m o v e d f r o m R a p h a n c a e b e f o r e 2 3 8 , a n d ir m a y h a v e b e e n o n e o f the l e g i o n s m o v e d b y S e v e r u s A l c x a n d e r ' t o l o c a t i o n s m o r e s u i t a b l e f o r p r e v e n t i n g t h e raids by b a r b a r i a n s ' , s o H e r o d i a n V I , 4 , 7 . CILIII,

n o . 7$$ ( N i c o p o l i s ) , o f ehe l a t e rhird o r e a r l y f o u r t h

c e n t u r y , shovvs that the l e g i o n w a s a l r e a d y a t D a n a b a . 3 2 . C . D u n a n t , Le sanetuaire

de Baalshamin

3 3 . See M . G a w l i k o w s k i , Palmyre

â Palmyre

VIII, Les principia

(1984), esp. 62ff. 3 4 . CIL

III, n o . 6661

= C a n t i n e a u , Inv. V I , n o . 2.

III, Les inseriptions

de Diocletien,

Temple

( 1 9 7 1 ) , n o . 31. des

Enscigr.es'

t h e c a c e g o r y o f castra, c o n v e n t i o n a l l y t r a n s l a t e d ' c a m p ' ( h e n c e these s t r u e t u r e s a r e o f t e n called t h e c a m p o f D i o c l e t i a n ) . B u t vvhether the f o r c e s novv i n P a l m y r a vvere ali q u a r t c r e d t h e r e o r vvere l o d g e d in t h e city is n o t clear. S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , o u r o n l y d o c u m e n t a r y evidenee t o suggest t h a t t h e L e g i o I Illyric o r u m vvas a l r e a d y s t a t i o n e d t h e r e is i n s e r i p t i o n s recording d c t a c h m c n t s o f it a n d t h e III G a l l i c a o p e r a t i n g j o i n t i y in E g y p t in 3 1 5 / 3 1 6 a n d

But

vve d o n o t knovv hovv large a ' l e g i o n ' o f this period vvas. T l ı c r e c a n h a r d l y h a v e been less than a t h o u s a n d m e n in a n y c a s e , a n d it m o s t likely t h a t t h e castra rcally f u n e t i o n e d a s a h e a d q u a r t e r s , vvhile t h e s o l d i e r s lived in the city. T h e activities o f t h e praeses,

S o s s i a n u s I lierocles, a n d t h e n a m e s o f the T e t -

r a r e h s vvere evident t h e r e t o o . F o r in the s a m e period a G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n r e c o r d s t h a t the D i o c l e t i a n i c B a t l ı (Diokletianon

Balan ton) vvas c o m p l e t e d b y

H i e r o c l e s ' f o r the s a f e t y a n d v i c t o r y o f o u r l o r d s the E m p e r o r s a n d C a e s a r s * ; t h e r c f e r e n c e s e e m s in fact t o b e t o a p o r t i c o , vvith c o l u m n s o f Egyptian r e d g r a n i t e , f r o n t i n g o n the G r e a t C o l o n n a d e . 3 6 It is n o t n c c c s s a r y t o survey a l i o f t h e r e m a r k a b l e line o f forts vvhich novv m a r k e d t h e r o u t e f r o m t h e E u p h r a t e s a t S u r a t o D a m a s c u s . 3 7 Sufficc it t o emphasise that the term 'Strata Diocletiana' appears o n milestones from a series o f stretehes o f the r o a d : betvveen t h e E u p h r a t e s a n d P a l m y r a , betvveen P a l m y r a a n d D a m a s c u s , a n d o n the b r a n c h vvhich left the r o a d n e a r D u m a y r a n d r a n s o u t h alotıg the edge o f the steppe, passing a l o n g the east side o f t h e J e b c l H a u r a n a n d (as vvc vvill s c c ) j o i n i n g the r o u t e t o A z r a q a n d then J a v v f ( D u m a t l ı a ) b e y o n d the end o f t h e \Vadi S i r h a n . 3 8 W h a t m a t t e r s is n o t vvhether vvc c a n d a t e vvhen a r o a d , o r r o u t e , c a m e i n t o use (vvhich vve c a n n o t ) , but t h e c o n c e p t i o n , c l e a r l y visible in tlıc d o c u m e n t s , o f a unified system n a m e d a f t e r t h e E m p e r o r , a c o n c e p t i o n vvhich necessarily i m p o s e d itself on a n y user o f the r o a d . T h e r o u t e vvas lined vvith a vvhole series o f forts, o f vvhich s o m e a r e stili s t a n d i n g a n d o t h e r s visible o n a c r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s . So far a s c a n b c d e t e r mitıed, noııe o f t h e m h a s p r o d u c e d a d a t e d b u i l d i n g - i n s c r i p t i o n . B u t their R o m a n character^ a n d their c o n n e c t i o n vvith the S t r a t a D i o c l e t i a n a , is b e y o n d

3 5 . S c c ILS, n o . 8 8 8 2 , a n d G a \ v l i k o w s k i , o p . c i t . , 6 3 . 3 6 . H . S c y r i g , Syria 1 2 ( 1 9 3 1 ) , 3 2 1 , n o . 4. S c c FL D o d g e , " P a l m y r a a n d t h e R o m a n M a r b l e T r a d e : F.vidcncc f r o m t h e B a t h s o f D i a c l c t i a n " , Levant

20 (1988), 215.

3 7 . S e e R . M o u t c r d c , " I .a S t r a t a D i o c l e t i a n a c t ses b o r n e s m i l l i a i r c s " , MUSJ and 339; M . Dunand,

" A p r o p o s d e la S t r a t a D i o c l e t i a n a " ,

A . P o i d e b a r d , La trace de Rome a b o v e ) ; K e n n e d y a n d R i l e y , RDF,

dans le Dtserl

r j {1930), 2 2 1

RH 4 0 ( 1 9 3 3 ) , 2 2 7 a n d

passirn.

3 8 . F r o m n o r r h o f P a l m y r a , c . g . , O I L III, n o . 6179: f r o m P a l m y r a - D a m a s c u s , c . g . , MUSJ

'strata Diocletiana a Palmyra A r a c h a ' ;

1 5 (1930), 2 2 6 , nos. 7 - 8 . From the braneh-road tovvards

A ? r a q , c . g . , AE ( 1 9 3 1 ) , n o . r o ı ( n e a r S a ' n c h ) . Scc T h . B a u z o u i n Dcntzer^ Hauran (and m a p o n p. 1 3 8 ) .

529;

de Syrie I—II ( 1 9 3 4 ) ; v a n B c r c h e n t , o p . cit. ( n . 2 2

1 . 2 , p. 1 5 3

d o u b t . T h e besr preserved, K h a n al H a l l a b a t , a s m a l l f o r t o f s o m c 4 7 m s q u a r e w i t h c o r n c r t o w c r s > 3 1 k m s o u t h - e a s t o f P a l m y r a , is likely t o b e the p l a c c c a l l e d V e r i a r a c a vvhich is n a m e d on o n e o f the m i l e s t o n e s , a n d vvhich a p p e a r s in t h e Notitia ana.39

as t h e s t a t i o n o f t h c Ala N o v a D i o c l e t i -

Dignitatum

It vvould be c a r r y i n g s c h o l a r l y c a u t i o n t o o far n o t t o see ali this a s an

i n t c g r a t c d system o f the T e t r a r c h i c p e r i o d . B u t t o s a y t h a t i m p l i e s t h a t we have e x t e n s i v e evidence o f a set o f physical s t r u c t u r c s s t r e t c h i n g t h r o u g h the s t e p p e , n o t that vve u n d e r s t a n d e x a c t l y hovv it vvas i n t c n d c d t o vvork, o r vvhether it in fact d i d a c h i c v e its p u r p o s e . A g l a n c e a t the m a p vvould suggest that i f proteetion a g a i n s t S a r a c e n s f r o m t h e s t e p p e vvere the o b j e e t i v e o f this s y s t e m , D a m a s c u s s h o u l d h a v e b e e n its f o c u s , b o t h f r o m its c c n t r a l p o s i t i o n a l o n g t h e S t r a t a D i o c l e t i a n a a n d bec a u s e it vvas the m a j ö r city m o s t e x p o s e d t o t h e steppe z o n e . In f a c t , a s earlier, the n a t u r e o f the R o m a n m i l i t a r y p r e s c n c e in D a m a s c u s a n d its r c g i o n rcm a i n s a mystery. M a l a l a s , s u p p o r t c d by the Notitia,

states that Diocletian

e s t a b l i s h e d an a r m s - f a c t o r y t h e r e , ' h a v i n g in m i n d the raids o f t h e S a r a c e n s ' . M o d e r n studies o f the city a l s o t e n t a t i v e l y suggest, vvithout d i r e c t c v i d c n c c , t h a t a R o m a n c a m p o c c u p i c d thc north-vvest c o r n e r o f the city, in t h e a r e a o f t h e p r e s e n t C i t a d e l . B u t vve h a v e n o better c o n t e m p o r a r y e v i d e n c e o f the R o m a n m i l i t a r y presence in D a m a s c u s t h a n E u s e b i u s ' r e p o r t o f hovv in 3 1 1 / 3 1 2 a 'slratopedarcltes,

vvhom the R o m a n s cali dux\

t o r t u r e d vvomen t h e r e t o give

false e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t t h e C h r i s r i a n s . 4 0 A s f o r t h e S t r a t a D i o c l e t i a n a , a b r a n e h - r o a d m a r k e d by m i l e s t o n e s novv diverted s o u t h f r o m n e a r Dumayı^ t o p a s s a l o n g t h c eastern cdge o f t h e J e b e l I i a u r a n . If this r o a d vvas f i r s t m a r k e d o u t at this t i m e (vvhich c a n n o t be cert a i n ) , t h a t m i g h t help t o e x p l a i n vvhy the p r o m i n e n t village o f S a k k a i a , o n thc n o r t h - e a s t e r n cdge o f thc J e b e l I i a u r a n , 4 1 novv f o u n d itself c l c v a t e d t o the r a n k o f a city vvith thc n a m e ' M a x i m i a n o p o l i s ' . It vvill in f a c t h a v e b e e n n a m e d a f t e r G a l e r i u s a s ' C a e s a r ' in this r e g i o n . F o r h i s full n a m e vvas C . G a l erius Valerius M a x i m i a n u s , a n d literary s o u r c c s o f t e n ( c o n f u s i n g l y ) cali h:m M a x i m i a n u s . T h c p l a c c first a p p e a r s vvith this n a m e on o n e o f t h c n u m e r o u s T e t r a r c h i c b o u n d a r y - r e g u l a t i o n i n s e r i p t i o n s vvhich are s o p r o m i n e n t a f e a t u r e o f the N e a r E a s t in this p e r i o d . 4 2 Half-vvay betvveen the s o u t h e n d o f the J e b e l H a u r a n a n d A z r a q oasis (an a r e a a l r e a d y o c c u p i e d b y the a r m y in t h e S e v e r i n p e r i o d ) , 4 3 t h e r o a d vvas j o i n e d

by

another coming

f r o m B o s t r a in

the

H a u r a n plain. 3 9 . MUS)

15 ( 1 9 3 0 ) , 2 2 6 , n o . 7 ; 1V0/. Dign.,

4 0 . M a l a l a s , Chron.,

3 0 7 - 3 0 8 , see Not.

D . S a c k , " D a m a s k u s , d i e S t a d t intra topedarebes,

41.

Scc

42.

SEG

o r dux, VII, no.

murosDM

E u s e b i u s , HE I X , 5 , 2 .

1055;

43. Scc 4 . 1 abovc.

Or. X X X I I , 3 4 .

Dign.,

scc A p p . A , n o . 35.

Or.

XI, 20; for the hypothctica!

camp,

2 ( 1 9 8 5 ) , 2 0 7 , p l a n o n p. 2 1 0 . F o r t h e stra-

B e f o r e t h a t point, on t h e o u t e r r o a d , t h e r e lies (to t a k e o ı ı l y o n e e x a m p l e ) t h e m a j ö r R o m a n f o r t o f D c i r e l - K a h f , stili s t a n d i n g t o a height o f several m e t r e s vvhen s u r v e y e d in the e a r l y y c a r s o f this c e n t u r y . A L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n n a m i n g the ' A u g u s t i a n d C a e s a r e s ' o f 3 0 6 p r o b a b l y c o m e s f r o m t h e lintel o f a gatevvay. 4 4 It vvill o f c o u r s e s e r v e t o shovv that s o m e c o n s t r u c t i o n t o o k p l a c e t h e r e in t h a t year, n o t t h a t t h e r e vvas n o fort t h e r e previously. B u t c o m b i n e d vvith t h e e v i d e n c e o f o t h e r f o r t s a n d T c t r a r c h i c m i l e s t o n e s in this a r c a , it i s e n o u g h t o c o n f i r m the i m p r e s s i o n o f c o n s i s t e n t activity in t h e b o r d e r - z o n e betvveen cultivated latıd a n d the s t e p p e . Nevv e v i d e n c e , in t h e f o r m o f a I-atin i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m A z r a q , serves b o t h t o shovv hovv t h e r o a d - s y s t e m ali the vvay f r o m B o s t r a t o D u m a t h a vvas e n v i s a g e d a n d t o d e m o n s t r a t e a very surprisiııg level o f m i l i t a r y i n v e s t m e t u lıere: [The E m p e r o r built?] through his very bravc soldiers of the legiotı X I Cl(audia) and VII Cl(audia) a n d I Ital(ica) and IV Fl(avia) and 1 I!l(yric o r u m ) linked by manned posrs (praetensione

coligata) to his soldiers from

the legion III Cyr(enaica). F r o m B o s t r a t o Basicn(s)cs 66 miles, and from Basicn(s)es t o A m a t ( a ) 7 0 a n d from Amata t o D u m a t a 2 0 8 miles.' 11 T h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f these f o u r l e g i o n s b e c o m c s ali the m o r e s u r p r i s i n g vvhen o n e realises that they ( o r d e t a c h m e n t s o f t h e m ) had c o m e f r o m M o e s i a o n t h e D a n u b e . T h e d a t e is a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y the 2 9 0 S , vvhen d e t a c h m e n t s o f t h e s e s a m e legions a r e f o u n d in E g y p t . T h e d i s t a n c e s a n d p l a c e s a r e a l s o significant. T h e total o f 3 4 4

Roman

miles vvould g i v e a d i s t a n c e o f a l m o s t 5 0 0 k m . T h e r e are m a n y puzzles h e r e , n o t the least being e x a c t l y vvhat is m e a n t b y praetensione

coligata:

the refer-

e n c e t o a line o f m a n n e d p o s t s is n o m o r e than a serious h y p o t h e s i s . B u t it is certain that both Bostra and D u m a t ( h ) a are mentioned. H e n c e s o m e military link is being e n v i s a g e d betvveen t h e s e p l a c e s , vvhich are in fact a l m o s t 5 0 0 k m a p a r t . F r o m the intervals g i v e n , it m a y vvell b e t h a t ' B a s i e n s i s ' is t h e n a m e o f A z r a q oasis itself, vvhere t h e i n s e r i p t i o n vvas f o u n d . I f t h a t is s o , it is a l m o s t c e r t a i n t h a t t h e s a m e p l a c e is n a m e d on a very revealing L a t i n inseription o f 3 3 4 , f o u n d r o u g h l y h a l f - w a y betvveen A z r a q a n d B o s t r a : W h e n Vincentius the proteetor,

on duty at 'Basie', savv that m a n y o f the

peasants vvhile carrying vvater f o r their ovvn use had been ambushed 3iıd killed by the Saraccni, h c constructed a watcr-tank from the foundations, in the consulship o f O p t a t u s a n d B a s s u s . " If V i n c c n t i u s , n a m e d a l s o o n a f r a g m e n t a r y L a t i n building-iııscription f r o m A z r a q , d a t i n g t o 3 3 3 , vvas i n d e e d s t a t i o n e d a t Azraq/Basiensis(?), the vvater4 4 . F o r t h e f o r t see PAES

I I A , 1 4 5 ^ . ; f o r t h e i n s e r i p t i o n , PAESIIIA,

126, no. 218.

4 5 . S e e novv M . P. S p e i d e l , " T h e R o m a n R o a d t o D u m a t a (Javvf i n S a u d i A r a b i a ) a n d t h e F r o n t i e r S t r a t e g y o f Praetensione

ColligareHistoria

4 6 . AE ( 1 9 4 8 ) , n o . 1 0 6 ; see K e n n e d y , Explorations.

36 (1987), 213. 1 8 4 , and Speidel, o p . cit., 2 1 7 .

t a n k itself will c l e a r l y have b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d n e a r vvhere the inseription vvas found. ' l l ı e vvider c o n t e x t seems j u s t a b o u t intelligible. T h e r e seem t o h a v e been m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s against ' S a r a c e n s ' , a p p a r e n t l y d a t i n g t o 2.90, a n d p e r h a p s c o v e r i n g m u c h o f the a r c a a l o n g vvhich t h e S t r a t a D i o c l e t i a n a vvould b e c o n s t r u c t e d , a n d even follovving t h e line o f p e n e t r a t i o n into the Wadi S i r h a n . But t h a t a p a r t , the significant d e v e l o p m e ı ı t is m a r k e d by r o a d s a n d forts s t r e t e h ing a l o n g t h e edge o f the s t e p p e , a n d a t c c r t a i n p o i n t s a e r o s s it. İt vvas n o t a ' f r o n t i e r * , least o f ali o n e d e s i g n e d t o repel a m a j ö r i n v a s i o n o r m i g r a t i o r . o f p e o p l e s , vvhich n o o n e c o u l d h a v e e x p e c t e d o r h a d a n y r e a s o n t o e x p e c t . 3 u t it d o e s seem t o h a v e a c c o m p a n i e d a n c x t c n s i o n o f c u l t i v a t i o n i n t o t h e s t e p p e z o n e , a n d t o have been d e s i g n e d against a t t a c k s b y ' S a r a c e n s ' . S i m i l a r f o r t s c e r t a i n l y e x i s t e d f u r t h e r s o u t h n e a r the edge o f t h e J o r d a t ı i a n steppe, a n d c o u l d novv b e f o u n d s o m e d i s t a n c c t o t h e e a s t o f T r a j a n ' s r o a d . 4 7 O n l y a fevv n e e d b e m e n t i o n e d here. O n e is t h e q u i t e l a r g e fort, measuring

some 1 6 0 m

reetangdar

b y 1 4 0 m , a t U m m - e r R e s a s , lying a

fevv

k i l o m e t r e s east o f t h e V i a N o v a , a n d j u s t n o r t h o f t h e \Vadi M u j i b . B y g o o d f o r t u n c an i n s e r i p t i o n o f AD 7 8 5 s e e m s t o give the n a m e o f the place, K a s t r o n M e f a a . It m u s t s u r e l y t h e r e f o r e be the s a m e p l a c e as o n e vvhich E u s e b i u s m e n t i o n s in his Ottomasticon:

' M e p h a a t h : o f the t r i b e o f B e n j a -

m i n ; a n d t h e r e is a n o t h e r b e y o n d t h e J o r d a n , vvhere a g a r r i s o n o f soldiers is p o s t e d beside the desert'. 4 "" A n o t h e r is t h e even b e t t e r preservcd fort c a l l e d Q a s r B s h i r s i t u a t e d s o m e Z5 k m t o the s o u t h - e a s t . B o t h lic t o t h e n o r t h o r east o f the W a d i M u j i b , in a c u l t i v a b l e s e m i - a r i d zone vvell t o the vvest o f t h e present D e s e r t Highvvay f r o m A m m a n t o A q a b a . Q a s r B s h i r is m u c h smaller, an i r r e g u l a r r e c t a n g l e o f 5 0 60 m , a n d s t a n d s t o a h e i g h t o f several m e t r e s . B u t vvhat is i m p o r t a n t is t h a t its L a t i n b u i l d i n g - i n s c r i p t i o n is stili in p l a c e o n t h e lintel o v e r the m a i n ent r a n c e . Fevv d o c u m e n t s p r o e l a i m m o r e c l e a r l y the m e s s a g c t h a t e v e n a snıall o u t p o s t like this is t o b c s e c n a s t h e p r o d u e t o f t h e I m p e r i a l politieal and military system: To our Best and Greatest E m p e r o r s , Gaius Aurclius Valerius Diocletiaııus Pius Felix Invictus Augustus and M a r c u s Aurclius Valerius M a x i m i a n u s 4 7 . F o r t h i s a r c a s c c S . T . P a r k e r , Romans Roman

Frontier

in Central

Jordan

4 8 . See K e n n e d y a n d R i i e y , RDF, m e n t i o n e d in Not.

Dign.,

and Saracens

I - I I ( 1 9 8 7 ) , a n d i d e m (cd.),

İhe

I—II ( 1 9 8 7 ) . 1 8 9 - 1 9 3 . E u s e b i u s , Onanı.,

Or. X X X V I I ,

c d . K l o s r e r m a n n , t î 8 . Al«>

1 9 : ' E q u i t c s P r o m o t i I n d i g c n a c , M c f a ' . Scc, hov,-ever,

Y . Elitzur, " T h e I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f M e f a ' a t i n V i e w o f t h e D i s c o v c r i c s f r o m K h . U m m e r - R e s ı s " , IEJ 3 9 ( 1 9 S 9 ) , 2 6 7 , q u e s t i o n i n g t h e i d c n t i f i c a t i o n . T h i s is n o n c t h e l e s s s c c u r c ; scc M . P i c c i r r i l l o , " L ' i d c n t i f i c a z i o n c s t o r i c a delle r o v i n e di U m m e r - R a s a s — K a s t r o n Mefaa

7» (t99o), 517.

in G i o r d a n i a " ,

Biklica

Pius Fclix Invictus Augustus, a n d Flavius Valerius Constantius and Galerius Valerius M a x i m i a n u s the m o s t noble Gaesars, the castra of the praetoritım

Mobenum

(\vhich) from

the foundations Aurelius

Aselepiades,

praeses of the province of A r a b i a , carricd through to complction. 4 '' W h a t e v e r the precise i n t e n d e d futıction o f a s m a l l fort like this, it is a m e r e o u t p o s t c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e large r e c t a n g u l a r c a m p , o f Z42. m by 1 9 0 m , s i t u a t e d a few k i l o m e t r e s t o the south-vvest, n e a r the h e a d o f the Wadi M u j i b , a n d stili c a l l e d L e j j u n (legio).

N o i n s e r i p t i o n survives t o give a d a t e ,

t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e shovvs t h a t it t o o is T e t r a r c h i c . 5 0 T h e

but

camp

vvould n o t h a v e h e l d a legion o f the earlier size, s o m e 6 0 0 0 m e n ; b u t it i s t h o u g h t that it c o u l d h a v e t a k e n

1 0 0 0 - 1 5 0 0 , quite appropriate for

the

smallcr, o r s u b - d i v i d e d , legions o f t h e l a t e E m p i r e . T h e o d d s are t h a t t h i s is the p l a c e c a l l e d B e t h o r u m , vvhere t h e Notitia

Dignitatum

placcs a legion,

the IV M a r t i a . T h i s nevvly f o r m e d legion vvill h a v e been s t a t i o n e d h e r e İLI the T e t r a r c h i c period. T h e s e a n d o t h e r s m a l l f o r t s lie in the c u l t i v a b l e r e g i o n o f t h e M o a b plateau, d r a i n e d by the ' G r a n d C a n y o n ' o f J o r d a n , the W a d i M u j i b , the a n c i e n t A r n o n , vvhich runs into the D e a d S e a . T h e a r e a , vvith ali these forts, lies vvell vvithin the 2 0 0 - m m - r a i n f a l l limic f o r d r y - f a r m i n g . H e r e again E u s e b i u s shovvs h i m s e l f avvare o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f R o m a n p o s t s . F o r he s p e a k s o f t h e g o r g e c a l l e d A r t ı o n a s , north o f ' A r c o p o l i s o f A r a b i a ' , 4in vvhich m i i i t a r y g a r r i s o n s a r e o n g u a r d o n ali sides, b e c a u s e o f t h e d a n g c r o u s n c s s o f t h e a r c a ' . 5 1 H c c a n h a r d l y b c s p e a k i n g o f the t e r r o r vvhich stili grips t h e m o d e r n t r a v e l l e r vvhose vehicle begins ı h e p r e c i p i t o u s d e s c e n t dovvn t h e King's Highvvay i n t o t h e g o r g e . T h e r e f c r e n c e c a n o n l y b c c i t h c r t o r o b b e r s using h i d c o u t s a l o n g t h e vvadi or, m u c h m o r e p r o b a b l y , t o the possibility o f r a i d s f r o m t h e steppe, o n l y a fevv k i l o m e t r e s a\vay. E v e n further s o u t h , a l o n g T r a j a n ' s r o a d dovvn t o A i l a o n the R e d S e a , t h e r e vvere m i i i t a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n s , f o r i n s t a n c e a t Udruh t o t h e e a s t o f P e t r a (vvhich m a y possibly h a v e been a n o t h e r l e g i o n a r y c a m p ) a n d a t H u n ı e i m a , half-vvay betvveen Petra a n d A i l a . 5 2 N c i t h e r t h e Üne o f the r o a d n o r the f o r t s a s s o c i a t e d vvith it s h o u l d b e t h o u g h t o f as a true frontier. R a t h e r , the r o a d vvas

4 9 . F o r a d e t a i l e d d e s e r i p t i o n see V . A . C l a r k , " T h e R o m a n C a s t e l l u m of Q a s r B s h i r " , i ı ı S . T. Parkem o p . cit. ( n . 4 7 } II, 4 5 7 . T h e b u i l d i n g - i n s c r i p t i o n is CIL

III, n o . 1 4 1 4 9 .

50. S c c J . C . G r o o t , " T h e B a r r a c k s o f c l - L e j j u n " , in P a r k e r , Roman

Frontier

B. d c V r i e s , " T h e F o r t i f i c a t i o n o f c l - l . c j j ı ı n " , i b ı d . , 3 1 1 ; K c n n c d y a n d R ı l c y , RDF, Dign.,

I, 2 6 0 ; a n d 1 3 1 , Scc Woî.

Or. X X X V I I , 2 2 : T r a c f c c t u s l e g i o n i s q u a r t a c M a r t i a c , B c t t h o r o ' .

5 1 . E u s e b i u s , Onomasticon,

e d . Kİ o s t e r m a n n , 1 0 : EV cp K a i «tpoûpıa J i a v t a x o 0 e v ı>uXdnet

o x p o x i ( m i K â 8ıcı w Ç o f k p ö v TOÛ t o n o u 5 2 . F o r U d r u h see A . K i l l i c k , " U d r u h a n d t h e S o u t h e r n F r o n t i e r " , in F r c c n ı a n a n d K c n n c d y , DR BE, 4 3 1 . F o r H u m e i m a , K e n n e d y a n d R i l e y , RDF,

146-148.

a m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d the f o r t s r e p r e s e n t e d esscntially the limits o f p o l i c i n g , f o r vvhich n o I m p e r i a l c m p l o y c c s vvere a v a i i a b i c e x c e p t the a r m y . N o c l e a r distinetion c a n t h u s b c dravvn betvveen f r o n t i e r f u n e t i o n s a n d p o l i ç e o n e s ; a n d a l t h o u g h , as vve h a v e seen, the e v i d e n c e is p e r f c c t l y c l e a r in r e p r e senting R o m a n t r o o p - p l a c e m e n t s on the fringe o f t h c s t e p p e a s b c i n g intended f o r p r o t e e t i o n against ' S a r a c e n s ' , n o n - s e d e n t a r y p o p u l a t i o n s o f a s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r existed a l s o vvithin the ' f r o n t i e r ' , a b o v e ali in t h e N e g c v a n d Sînai. It is t h u s significant f r o m b o t h p o i n t s o f vievv that o u r e v i d e n c e f o r the R o m a n m i l i t a r y p r c s c n c c in this p e r i o d s e c m s t o shovv an inereased level o f ' i n t c r n a l ' policing also. T h e r a n d o m seleetion of allusions to R o m a n military posts (usually c a l l e d phrouria)

p r o v i d e d by E u s e b i u s ' Onomasticon

is p a r t i c u l a r l y

valuable: apart from the 'frontier' installations already mentioned, hc speaks o f p o s t s a t T h a m a r a on t h c r o a d betvveen H c b r o n a n d A i l a ; o n t h e r o a d dovvn f r o m Aelia ( J e r u s a l e m ) t o J e r i c h o ; n e a r Z o a r a , j u s t belovv t h e s o u t h e n d o f the D e a d S e a ; t e n R o m a n miles ( 1 5 k m ) n o r t h o f H c b r o n ; a villagc c a l l e d T h a i m a , a b o u t fifteen R o m a n miles ( 2 2 k m ) f r o m P c t r a (direetion n o t s t a t e d ) ; a n o t h e r in G e b a l e n e (the a r e a n o r t h o f P e t r a ) ; a n d C h e r m e l , ' a very big vilIage' t o t h e s o u t h o f H e b r o n . 5 5 E u s e b i u s vvas o f c o u r s c n o t c o n d u c d n g a survey o f R o m a n m i l i t a r y po>ts, b u t m a k i n g i n c i d e n t a l m e n t i o n o f t h e m in listing B i b l i c a l p l a c e - n a m e s , and r e l a t i n g t h e m t o c o n t e m p o r a r y s e t t l e m e n t s . F o r t h a t very r c a s o n , the s e a t t e r o f R o m a n f o r t s (phrouria)

vvhich hc m e n t i o n s m u s t b e i m p r e s s i v c . O n e a t

Z o a r a s o u t h o f the D e a d S e a (vvhere vve earlier savv s o m e p e r s o n s m a k i n g their c e n s u s - r c t u r n s under H a d r i a n ) 5 4 m a y perhaps b c c s p c c i a l l y significant. F o r it is p o s s i b l e t h a t a R o m a n r o a d vvith f o r t s r a n dovvn the \Vadi A r a b a h , t h e great d e p r e s s i o n vvhich c o ı ı t i n u e s the J o r d a n a n d D e a d S e a v a l l e y s , a s f a r a s A q a b a . E u s e b i u s ' phrourion

at Z o a r a m i g h t be the e n e l o s u r e , 8 4 m s q u a r c

a n d f e d b y an a q u e d u c t , vvhich is visible f r o m t h e a i r a n d is knovvn as Q a s r el F e i f e h . " T h e n 2 5 k m s o u t h o f t h e D e a d S e a is t h e small fort a : el T e l a h , vvith a r e s e r v o i r f e d by an a q u e d u c t a n d (surprisingly) f r o n t i n g a r e g u l a r nctvvork o f ditehes,, i n d i c a t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n ; it m u s t b c t h c c a l l e d T o l o h a , vvhere t h e Notitia

Dignitatum

placc

locates the Ala Constantiana;

similarly, G h a r a n d a l , s o m e 8 0 k m further s o u t h , vvhere there is a n o t h e r small

f o r t , s h o u l d b c ' A r i e l d a ' , vvhere the Notitia

lists t h c C o h o r s

Se-

cunda Galatarum.5* T h e s e o f c o u r s e are in e f f c c t poliçe p o s t s , n o t f r o n t i e r defences. B u t these 5 3 . E u s e b i u s , OHOMĞSUMH,

e d . K l o s t e r m a n n , 8 , 1 4 , 4 1 , j o , 9 6 , 1 4 1 , 1 7 1 . 1 . R o l ) , o p . cit.

{ n . 5 7 , b c l o w ) identifîes T h a m a r a , a d a y ' s j o u r n e y s o u t h o f M a m p s i s , vvith H a z e v a (see his e * c e l lent m a p o n p . 2 5 4 ) . 54. 3.2 above. 5 5 . K e n n e d y a n d R i l e y , RPF,

144-145.

5 6 . K e n n e d y a n d R i l e y , RDF,

205-208.

littlc o u t p o s t s , s i t u a t e d in a d r a m a t i c a n d d e s o l a t e l a n d s c a p c , a r e c v i d c n c c o f the steadily g r o w i n g R o m a n m i l i t a r y i n v e s t m e n t in this s o u t h e r n a r e a l e a d i n g t o Aila a n d the R e d S e a . M o r e o v e r , nevv e v i d e n c e c o n t i n u e s t o a c c u m u l a t c f o r this i n v e s t m e n t , a n d precisely f r o m the T e t r a r c h i c period. T h u s further s o u t h a l o n g the vvadi, a t Y o t v a t a o r G h a d y a n , 4 0 k m n o r t h o f A i l a , a R o m a n f o r t o f s o m e 4 0 k m s q u a r e h a s b e e n e x c a v a t e d . W h a t m a k e s it significant is t h e L a t i n b u i l d i n g - i n s c r i p t i o n found. on t h e site. 5 7 N o t vvholly intclligiblc, it n o n c theless s p e a k s t h e f a m i l i a r l a n g u a g e o f T e t r a r c h i c i m p e r i a l i s m : T o r p e r p e t u a l peace Diocletianus Augus(tus) a n d M a x i m i a n u s Augus(tus) and C o n s t a n t i u s a n d M a x i m i a n u s (i.e., G a l e r i u s ) the m o s t n o b l e C a e s a r s ereeted t h e vving vvith the g a t e (?) b y t h e providentia

o f Priscus, praeses

[of ?]'. W h i c h p r o v i n c e vvill

h a v e been n a m e d vvhere t h e t e x t b r e a k s o f f vvill be discussed l a t e r . " It is n o t q u i t e c l e a r vvhat vvas being b u i l t , o r vvhether the i n s e r i p t i o n d o e s n o t r e f e r r a t h e r t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m c n t o f anı ala (vving) in the sense o f a m o u n t c d u n i t , a t this p o i n t . But t h e m e s s a g e a n d f u n e t i o n o f the inseription a r e c l e a r ; a n d t h e A r a b i c n a m e o f t h e place, ' G h a d y a n ' , vvill reflect t h a t o f t h e knovvn R o m a n site o f Ad D i a n a m . 5 9 Finally, from Aila itself vve novv have f r a g m e n t s o f an official L a t i n inseription, vvhich m a y date t o the s e c o n d o r third decade o f t h e f o u r t h c c n t u r y . 6 0 N o precise c o n c l u s i o n s c a n b c dravvn from it; b u t it is c n o u g h — a l o n g vvith a r e m a r k a b l e d e n s i t y o f o t h e r e v i d e n c e o n t h e g r o u n d — t o m a k e it r e a s o n a b l e t h a t l a t e r n a r r a t i v e s o u r c e s vvere n o t vvrong, a n d t h a t ' f r o m Aila t o t h e P e r s i a n f r o n t i e r ' t h e r e vvas a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d level o f m i l i t a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n in the p e riod o f D i o c i c t i a n . In the c e n t r a l a r e a this direct R o m a n m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e m a y vvell reflect t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f P a l m y r a as a m i l i t a r y povver, e x e r c i s i n g a vvidespread poliçe f u n e t i o n . B u t t h e evidence, o f various k i n d s , o v e r t h e vvhole length o f the ' f r o n t i e r ' is t o o c o n s i s t e n t for us t o d o u b t t h a t , in a vvay n o t a t t e s t e d b e f o r e , this a c t i v i t y refleeted c o n c e r n a b o u t the t h r e a t f r o m t h e ' S a r a c e n s ' . T h i s c o n c l u s i o n vvould be m i s l e a d i n g o n l y if it Icd us t o s u p p o s e that c o ı n p a r a b l c p r o b l e m s o f s e c u r i t y a n d the m i l i t a r y p o l i c i n g o f r o a d s , c a u s c d (in s o m e a r e a s ) b y the p r e s e n c e o f n o n - s e d e n t a r y ' A r a b ' o r ' S a r a c e n ' p o p u l a t i o n s , d i d n o t c x i s t a l s o f a r vvithin t h e ' f r o n t i e r s ' vvhich vve c a n novv dravv o n the m a p . T h e f o r c e o f a rapidly c h a n g i n g R o m a n I m p e r i a l s t a t e vvas felt in this period a l s o vvithin t h e existing p r o v i n c e s . 5 7 . See Z . M c a h e l , " A F o n a t Y o t v a t a f r o m t h e T i m e o f D i o c i c t i a n " , IF,J 3 9 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 2 2 8 ; i. Roll, " A Latin Imperial İnseription f r o m the T i m e o f Diocictian Fouııd at Y o t v a t a " , i b i d . , 2 3 9 . R o l l ' s a r t ı c l c c o n s t i t u t c s a n i m p o r t a n r s u r v e y o f t h e entire T e t r a r c h i c r o a d - a ı ı d - f o r t î f i c a t i o n s y s t e m in t h i s r e g i o n . 58. 5 . 2 below. 5 9 . S o a l r e a d y B o w c r s o c k , Roman

Arabia,

179-181.

60. H . I. M a c A d a m , " F r a g m e n t s o f a L a t i n B u i l d i n g i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m A q a b a , J o r d a n " , 7 9 ( > 9 8 9 ) . 1 6 3 ; AE ( 1 9 8 9 ) , n o . 7 5 0 .

ZPF.

5.2. T H E NEAR EAST IN T H E T E T R A R C H I C AD

EMPİRE,

284-312

T h e line o f forts, m a n y c a r r y i n g g r a n d i o s e i n s e r i p t i o n s in L a t i n , vvhich n o w s t r e t e h e d a l o n g the b o r d e r s o f e u l t i v a b l e l a n d , a n d t h e m i l e s t o n e s o f t h e S t r a t a D i o c l e t i a n a r e m a i n the m o s t o b v i o u s e x p r e s s i o n s in t h e N e a r E a s t o f the ııevv T e t r a r c h i c order. M a n y o t h e r c h a n g e s seem t o h a v e taken p l a c e a l s o : b u t in s o m e c a s c s their d a t i n g a n d r e a l n a t u r c r e m a i n u n c c r t a i n , a n d in o t h e r s t h e r e is n o r e l e v a n t evidenee t o i l l u s t r a t e their a p p l i c a t i o n in this r e g i o n . P r e s u m ably, f o r i n s t a n c e , D i o c l e t i a n ' s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y a m b i t i o u s edietum

o f 3 0 1 , lay-

ing dovvn t h e m a x i m u ı n p r i c e s w h i c h c o u l d b c c h a r g e d for a v a s t r a n g c o f g o o d s a n d scrviccs, w a s a p p l i e d in these p r o v i n c e s . It c e r t a i n l y lists m a n y p r o d u e t s vvhose n a m e s i m p l y t h a t they o r i g i n a t e d f r o m t o w n s in this region. 1 B u t as t o hovv { o r e v e n , s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , vvhether) it a f f e c t e d t h e life o f the N e a r E a s t vve h a v e n o e v i d e n e e a t ali. B y c o n t r a s t , t h e c o u r s e a n d effccts o f t h e last great p e r s e c u t i o n o f the C h r i s t i a n s , betvveen 3 0 3 a n d 3 1 2 , a r e m o r e fully knovvn f o r this region t h a n for a n y o t h e r . M o r c o v e r , o u r e v i d e n e e , a l m o s t ali p r o v i d e d by E u s e b i u s o f C a e s a r e a , m a k e s it p o s s i b l e t o discern a p a r a l l e l d e v e l o p m e n t in the i m p a c t o f the s t a t e on its s u b j e c t s , in t h e f o r m o f the census a n d nevv t y p c s o f d i r c c t t a x a t i o n . T h i s in its turn c a n b c r e l a t e d t o t h e r e m a r k a b l e series o f b o u n d a r y d e c i s i o n s , o f t e n a t t r i b u t e d t o o f f i c i a l s c a l l e d censitores a s ketısilores),

{ t r a n s l i t e r a t e d in G r e e k

vvhich c a n b e f o u n d in various a r e a s o f the N e a r E a s t — a n d

a r e t h e m s e l v e s s o m e o f o u r b e s t evidenee f o r the n a m e s o f c o m m u n i t i e s and the nature o f social formatioııs there.2 T h e s e a n d o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t s in the n a t u r e o f t h e s t a t e a n d its r e l a t i o n s vvith its s u b j e c t s seem t o h a v e t a k e n place vvithin the framevvork o f tvvo o t h e r p r o f o u n d c h a n g e s in the s t r u e t u r e o f the s t a t e , b o t h o f vvhich c u l m i n a t e d in t h e T e t r a r c h i c period, a f t e r a slovv e v o l u t i o n t h r o u g h the third c e n t u r y : the sub-division a n d r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f p r o v i n c e s , a n d t h e progressive ( a n d not easily t r a c e d ) s e p a r a t i o n o f civilian a n d m i l i t a r y f u n e t i o n s . Vievved f r e m R o m e , the l a t t e r vvas o f i m m e n s e significance. F o r the e v o l u t i o n n o t m e r e l y o f s e p a r a t e p o s t s b u t o f vvhole c a r e e r - p a t t c r n s in Imperial service i n t o civil a n d m i l i t a r y m c a n t implicitly t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f t h e p r c c o n c e p t i o n o n vvhich the vvhole h i s t o r y o f R o m e a n d i t s E m p i r e h a d been b a s c d : the unity o f m i l i t a r y a n d g o v e r n n ı c n t a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i c s a n d c a p a c i t i e s o n the part o f m e m b e r s o f the o f f ı c e - h o l d i n g elass. It a c c o m p a n i c d a n o t h e r c h a n g e vvhich r e p r e s e n t e d a

1 . O n t h e p r i c e s e d i c i a n d t h e p r o d u e t s n a m e d in i t , s e e S . L a u f f e r , Diokletians

Preisedikl

( r 9 7 1 ) . F o r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o ı ı o f c p i g r a p h i c c o p i c s , M . H . C r a w f o r d a n d J. R e y n o l d s in JRS ( 1 9 7 5 ) , 1 6 0 , a n d J. R e y n o l d s iıı C . M . R o u e c h e , Apbrodisias 2. T c x t t o n n . ı ı f f . belovv a n d A p p . A .

in iMe

Antiquity

65

(1989), ch. I Î .

p r o f o u n d rupture vvith the R o m a n p a s t , thc loss b o t h o f m i l i t a r y f u n c t i o n s a n d o f m a n y g o v e r n o r s h i p s by r n e m b e r s o f rhe S e n a t e in R o m e . Vievved f r o m belovv, f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h c i n h a b i t a n t o f t h c N e a r Eastern p r o v i n c e s , these c h a n g e s vvere b o t h g r a d u a l a n d p r o b a b l y o f n o very p r o f o u n d significance. T h e y vvere n o t invisible, hovvever: vve have sceıı a l ready hovv inseriptions r e c o r d i n g building a n d o t h e r activitics by g o v e r n o r s o f A r a b i a refleet a e h a n g e o f t i t l e , f r o m the s e n a t o r i a l legatus praeses

Augusti

pro

t o thc n o n - s e n a t o r i a l t e r m , g r a d u a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d f o r ali g o v e r n o r s ,

praetore

(hegemön

in G r e e k ) ; ' a l o n g vvith t h a t c a m e a e h a n g e f r o m thc Stan-

d a r d s e n a t o r i a l s t a t u s - t e r m vir elarissitnus feetissimus

(diasemotatos).

in G r e e k ) t o vir

(lamprotatos

per-

As a l i the p r o v i n c e s o f the N e a r E a s t h a d alvvays

been ' I m p e r i a l ' (that is, their g o v e r n o r s h a d been n o m i n a t e d b y t h e E m p e r o r ) , n o g o v e r n o r s vvith the title ' p r o c o n s u l ' h a d ever served t h e r e . Novv the t i t l e legatus

d i s a p p c a r c d also, b c i n g last a t t e s t e d (in t h e e v i d e n c e vvhich vve h a p -

pen t o h a v e ) on the i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m H e l i o p o l i s in vvhich L . A r t o r i u s P i u s M a x i m u s , v(ir) c(larissimus),

h o n o u r c d D i o c l e t i a n s o m e t i m e betvveen 2 8 5

a n d 2«)7. 4 It is b y n o m e a n s e q u a l l y c e r t a i n t h a t a g e n e r a l division i n t o military a n d civilian f u n c t i o n s h a d already b e e n c a r r i e d o u t by this p e r i o d . I n d c c d , in t h c c a s e o f thc c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h c castra o f t h c praetoriunı Asclepiadcs, praeses

Mobenum

by Aurelius

o f A r a b i a betvveen 293 a n d 3 0 5 , it clearly h a d n o t ; f o r

the building is distinctly m i l i t a r y , but t h c t e r m praeses

v v a s — o r vvas b c c o m -

i n g — t h e regular title for a c i v i l i a n g o v e r n o r . 5 N o n e t h e l e s s , the e m e r g e n c e o f thc L a t i n t e r m dux a s a r e g u l a r e x p r e s s i o n f o r a m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d e r did n o t g o u n n o t i c e d . ( B e f o r e the third c e n t u r y it had n o t been an official t e r m at a l i , b u t is f o u n d a t D u r a - E u r o p o s , a n d h a d t h e r e f o r e c o m e i n t o use by t h e 250S.) 6 F o r , as vve h a v e s c c n , E u s e b i u s talks o f a 'stratopedarehes (literally " c a n i p c o m m a n d e r " ) , vvhom the R o m a n s cali dux\

c o n d u c t i n g c x a m i n a t i o n s at D a -

m a s c u s duriııg t h e p e r s e c u t i o n o f 3 1 1 / 3 1 2 . 7 E u s e b i u s m u s t bc r e f e r r i n g t o t h e s a m e funetion vvhen he s p e a k s o f a n o t h e r stratopedarehes

e x e c u t i ı ı g C h r i s t i a n m a r t y r s vvho vvere a l r e a d y serving

s e n t e n c e s in the c o p p e r mines a t P h a c n o in 3 0 9 / 3 1 0 . In this c a s e , m o r e o v e r , E u s e b i u s d o e s p o r t r a y a d i v i s i o n o f c i v i l i a n a n d m i l i t a r y f u n c t i o n s . F o r it is t h c g o v e r n o r (here c a l l e d archön)

o f tlıe p r o v i n c e vvho c o n s u l t s t h c E m p e r o r

( M a x i m i n u s ) a b o u t the C h r i s t i a n s , a n d t h c stratopedarehes,

o r dux,

explicitly

deseribed as ' p l a c e d in e h a r g e o f thc f o r c c s t h e r e ' , vvho carries o u t the e x e c u -

3. 5 . 1 , tex( t o n.4. 4 . IGLS

VI, no. 2 7 2 1 ; 5 . 1 , tcxt to n . 1 3 .

5. C I I . VI, n o . 1 4 1 4 9 ; 5.x a b o v c . 6. 4 . 1 a b o v c . 7 . E u s e b i u s , HE I X , 5, 2: â r e p o ç oıp«TtonF.8öpx'V;> ö v SOÜKO TO^ıcfıoı t ı p o o o y o p e û o u o ı v .

tions.8 T h e l a t e - R o m a n strueture o f the state w a s visibly e o m i n g into being. T h i s s a m e r e p o r t by E u s e b i u s a l s o implies t h e o n l y m a j ö r r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f provinccs in the N e a r E a s t w h i c h certainly t o o k place u n d e r the Tetrarehy. F o r h e d e s e r i b e s t h e m i n e s a t J ' h a e n o , v v h i c h lie t o t h e e a s t o f t h e W a d i A r a f c a h a n d t o t h e n o r t h o f P e t r a , a s b e i n g i n ' P a l e s t i n c ' . E q u a l l y , E u s e b i u s i n his Onomasticon

s o m e t i m e s cali s Petra a city ' o f A r a b i a ' (its traditional designa-

t i o n ) , a n d s o m e t i m e s a c i t y ' o f P a l e s t i n e ' . ' T h i s a n d l a t e r e v i d e n c e m a k e s it certain that under the Tetrarehy, p r o b a b l y in the 290S, the s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a , ineluding the s o u t h e r n Negev, Sinai a n d the area east of the Wadi

Arabah,

from

Aila

north to roughly a

Üne

from

t h e s o u t h e r n tip o f the D e a d S e a eastvvard i n t o the s t e p p e , b e c a m e p a r t o f the province of Syria Palaestina. T h e c f f e c t — a n d quite possibly the i n t e n t i o n — vvas t o l e a v e in ' A r a b i a ' p a r t o f t h e R o m a n f o r c e s a l o n g t h e e d g e o f t h e s t e p p e z o t ı e , in p a r t i c u l a r t h e l e g i o n İ Ü C y r e n a i c a , s t i l i a t B o s t r a , attd t h e I V M a r t i a a t B e t h o r u m , a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y L c j j u n . B u t U d r u h , i f it vvas a l c g i o n a r y b a s c , vvas novv in ' P a l a e s t i n a ' , a s v v a s t h e l e g i o n X F r e t e n s i s , novv m o v e d f o r v v a r d f r o m A e l i a ( J e r u s a l e m ) t o A i l a o n t h e G u l f o f A q a b a . T h e t r a n s f e r o f this l e g i o n t h u s t o o k p l a c c vvithin t h e novv m u c h - c n l a r g c d p r o v i n c c ( u s u a l l y c a l . c d j u s t P a l a e s t i n a in t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y ) ; a n d t h e f o r c e s s t a t i o n e d a l o n g

the

s t e p p e z o n e vvill h a v e b e e n d i v i d e d r o u g h l y i n h a l f ( o r i n e q u a l t h i r d s , i f vve t h i n k a l s o o f t h o s e a l o n g t h e S t r a t a D i o c l c t i a ı ı a in S y r i a P h o e n i c e ) ; o r f o u r r o u g h l y e q u a l s e g m e n t s , if vve i n e l u d e t h e tvvo l e g i o n s vvhich t h e

into Notılia

records at S u r a and O r e s a , in the p r o v i n c e o f Syria C o e l e . T h i s transfer o f a large territory represents the only certain r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f p r o v i n c c s m a d e a t t h i s t i m e . T h e r e i s n o d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e f r o m this p e r i o d for a p r o v i n c e c a l l e d A u g u s t a L i b a n c n s i s (later t o be d e t a c h e d

from

P h o e n i c e ) o r for a ' E u p h r a t e ı ı s i s ' a l o n g the river a n d c m b r a c i n g C o m m a g e n e , o r p a r t o f i t . 1 0 A s f o r t h e t e r r i t o r y a c r o s s t h e E u p h r a t e s , vve d o n o t eveıı k n o v v v v h e t h e r t h e r e vvas novv o n l y o n e p r o v i n c e , M e s o p o t a m i a , o r a l s o a n o t h e r , O s r h o e n e . W h c n there are c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t s , they s o m e t i m e s rrnke c o n f u s i o n vvorse. T h u s a p a p y r u s r e v e a l s a m a n c a l l i n g h i m s e l f ' A u r e l i u s M a l c h u s f r o m t h e c o n f i n e s o f E l e u t h e r o p o l i s o f t h e N e v v A r a b i a ' , vvho p r e s e m e d a p e t i t i o n t o a g o v e r n o r in E g y p t i n a b o u t 3 1 4 - 3 1 8 . T h e p l a c e m u s t b e ıhe c i t y o f E l e u t h e r o p o l i s in I d u m a c a , s o u t h - v v e s t o f J e r u s a l e m , a n d ( u n t i l novv a t l e a s t ) p a r t o f S y r i a P a l a c s d n a . T h e i d e a t h a t vvhile m u c h o f ' A r a b i a ' b e c a m e part of 'Palaestina', part of 'Palaestina' forıned a short-lived province called 8. Rusebius, MP 1 3 , 1 - 3 . On ehe mines see belovv. 9 . E u s e b i u s , Onom.,

ed. K l o s t e r m a n n , 3 6 , 1 3 ; 1 1 2 , 8; 1 4 4 , 7 (stili listed as o f ' A r a b i a ' ) . F o r

Aila a n d X Fretensis sec a b o v e . See Y. T s a f r i ç " T h e T r a n s f e r o f t h e N e g e v , Sinai a n d S o u c l e r r ı T r a n s j o r d a n f r o m Arabia

t o Palaestifia",

IEJ 3 6 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 7 .

1 0 . F o r t h e s e issues see T . D . Barnes, The (1982), 223-224.

New

Empire

of

Diocletian

and

Constantine

'Nevv A r a b i a ' s e e m s o d d e v e n f o r a n inventive period like t h e T e t r a r c h y . B u t n o better s o l u t i o n h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d , a n d t h e q u c s t i o n m u s t b c left ö p e n . 1 1 W I ı a t is c a l l e d h e r e t h e N e a r E a s t vvill c e r t a i n l y h a v e been in the 290S p a r t o f o n e o f tvvclve vvholly nevv g r o u p i n g s o f p r o v i n c e s knovvn a s diocescs. T h e o n c in q u e s t i o n vvas c a l l e d O r i c n s , b u t e m b o d i e d a m u c h vvider a r c a t h a n ' t h e N e a r E a s t ' in this s e n s e , n a m e l y t h e vvhole region f r o m soutlı-eastern A n a t o l i a r o u n d t h r o u g h Egypt t o L i b y a . A s these ' d i o c e s e s ' e m e r g e i n t o t h e light in t h e c o u r s e o f the f o u r t h century, t h e y a p p e a r a s r e g i o n s e a c h vvith their ovvn c i v i l ian g o v e r n o r , vvith largely j u d i c i a l funetions, n o r m a l l y called the

Vicarins

( m e a n i n g a d e p u t y o f the P r a e t o r i a n Prefects), a n d vvith their ovvn

financial

officials. But t h e r e is 110 e v i d e n c e t o shovv hovv this s u p e r s t r u e t u r e a f f e c t e d the p r o v i n c c s o f the N e a r E a s t in t h e T e t r a r c h i c p e r i o d . I n a n y c a s e t h e a l m o s t continuous

presence there

of

an Augustus

or a

Caesar

vvas far

more

significant. T h a t is n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e vvcight a n d a u t h o r i t y o f t h e Imperial s t a t e vvas n o t felt a s s u c h , o r t h a t being p a r t o f it vvas simply an u n e h a n g i n g a n d a c c e p t e d framevvork f o r o r d i n a r y life. O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e m o s t detailed a n d localised o f p o s s i b l e e v i d e n c e shovvs t h a t the d e m a n d s a n d d e c i s i o n s o f t h e s t a t e in this p r c c i s c period p e n e t r a t e d i n t o the m o s t r e m o t e o f c o u n t r y d i s tricts. T h e e v i d e n c e that vve h a v e s e e m s t o b e a refleetion o f the f u n d a ı n c n t a l r e f o r m o f t a x a t i o t ı vvhich D i o c l e t i a n a n d M a x i m i a n p r o c l a i m e d in 2 9 7 . W e knovv it best f r o m the edict vvhich the P r e f e c t o f Egypt issued in t h a t y e a r : O u r most provident E m p e r o r s , the eternal(?) Diocletian and M a x i m i a n , Augusti, a n d Coııstantius a n d M a x i m i a n , m o s t noble Cacsars, having lcarncd that it has c o m c a h o u t rhat the levies o f the public taxes are being made haphazardly, so that s o m e persons are let off lightly and others overburdened, have decided t o r o o t o u t this m o s t cvil a n d baneful practice for the benent o f their provincials and t o issue a deliverance-bringing rule t o vvhich the taxes shall c o n f o r m . Accordingly, the levy on each aroura according t o classificadon o f the land, and the levy on each hcad o f the peasantry, and from vvhich age t o vvhich, may be accurately(?) knovvn t o ali from the lrecently| issued divine (i.e., Imperial) edict and the sehedule a n nexed thereto, copies of vvhich I have prefaccd for promulgation vvith this edict o f mine. Accordingly, secing that in this, t o o , they have received the greatest bencfacrion, the provincials should make it their business in conformity vvith the divinely issued regulations t o pay their t a x c s vvith ali speed and by n o means vvait f o r the compulsion o f the collector; for it is proper t o fulfil most zcalously and scrupulously ali the royal obligations, and if anyone should be revcaled t o have done othenvise after such 1 1 . See Pl>. M a y c r s o ı ı , "P. O x y . 3 5 7 4 : " E l c u t h c r o p o l i s o f ı h e N c w A r a b i a ' " , ZPE

53

b o u n t y , h c wi.ll r i s k p u n i s h m c n t . T h e m a g i s t r a t e s a n d c o u n c i l p r e s i d e n t s o f every city have been o r d e r e d t o send o u t t o every village and

every

locality a c o p y o f the divine edici t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e schedule, a n d a l s o o f t h i s ( e d i c t ) as vvell, in t h e i n t e r e s t o f h a v i n g t h e m u n i f î c e n c e o f o u r E m p e r ors and C a e s a r s c o m e speediiy t o the knovvledge of ali.12 W h e t h e r t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e E m p i r e r e a l l y s h a r e d t h e vievv t h a t t h e p r o posal to t a x them and their property more cfficicntly represented an a c t of m u n i f î c e n c e (megalodöria)

o n the part o f the E m p e r o r s m a y be d o u b t e d . N o r

d o e s t h e c o m p l e x e v i d e n e e o n l a t e - R o m a n t a x a t i o n r e a l l y allovv u s t o g o m u c h b e y o n d vvhat i s i m p l i c d h e r e : t h a t t h e nevv s y s t e m v v o u l d r e l a t e b o t h t o e a c h h e a d o f p o p u l a t i o n a n d t o e a c h item o f agricultural p r o p e r t y 'in a c c o r d a n : e vvith t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e l a n d ' . W h a t t h i s m e a n t vvas t h a t d i f f e r e n t t y p c s o f lârtd, f r û m v i n e y a r d s t ö p â S t u r c - I â ı l d , v v ö u l d b e â s s i g n e d d i f f e r e n t t a x a t i o n v a l u e s . A s it h a p p e n s , t h e o n l y r e l a t i v e l y c l e a r e x p l a n a t i o n o f hovv t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n vvas m a d e c o m e s f r o m a t e x t p r e s e r v e d i n S y r i a c ; v v h e t h e r t h a t i m p l i e s t h a t t h e s y s t e m v v h i c h it d e s e r i b e s vvas b a s e d o n p r a c t i c c i n t h e S y r i a n r e g i o n ( o r , m o r e p r e c i s c l y , M e s o p o t a m i a ) is n o t c l e a r . A t a n y r a t e t h i s t e x t , p a r t o f the so-called S y r o - R o m a n

L a v v B o o k , c o m p o s e d in G r e e k i n t h e l a t e r

fifth

c e n t u r y a n d a p p a r c n t l y t r a n s l a t e d very s o o n into Syriac, ineludes t h e only a v a i l a b l e d e s e r i p t i o n o f hovv d i f f e r e n t c a t c g o r i c s o f l a n d vvere t o b e a s s e s s e d and then calculated in t e r m s o f a c o m m o n (hcncc the Latin term for this process, T h e iugum

l i s h c d a s i iugum;

vvhich m a k e J.Q plethra,

zo iugera

o f 1 iugum

ot v i n e y a r d vvere e s t a b -

o f s e e d l a n d , vvhich m a k c 4 0 plethra,

provide

. . . S o , t o o , l a n d vvhich is o f p o o r e r q u a l i t y a n d i s

r e c k o n e d a s s e c o n d q u a l i t y : 4 0 iugera, gum;

iugum

vvas m e a s u r e d i n t h e d a y s o f t h e E m p e r o r D i o c l e t i a n a n d b e -

c a t n e fixed. F i v e iugera, antıonas

land-taxation unit, the

iugatio):

vvhich m a k e 8 0 plethra,

p a y 1 iu-

i f , hovvevcr, it is r e c k o n e d o r a s s e s s e d a s t h i r d q u a l i t y , 6 0

m a k i n g 1 2 0 plethra,

provide 1

iugera,

iugum.11

A n y s y s t e m o f l a n d - t a x a t i o n o u g h t in p r i n c i p l c t o h a v e b e e n b a s e d

on

u n a m b i g u o u s i n f o r m a t i o n a s t o t h e o v v n e r s h i p o f t h e l a n d i n q u e s t i o n a n d the b o u n d a r i e s b e t v v e e n d i f f e r e n t p r o p e r t i e s o r d i f f e r e n t c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e r e is a b u n d a n t e v i d e n e e t h r o u g h t h e N e a r E a s t t o shovv t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r e f f o r t w a s 1 2 . A . E . R . B o a k a n d H . C . Y o u t i c , The Archive

of Aurelius

no. 1 , ıraas. N. Leıvis and M . Reinhold, Roman Civilisation'

Optatus

İP. Cair. Isidor.)

(lyfo),

II (1990), 4 1 9 .

13. For the 'Syro-Roman La\v B o o k ' see, e.g., A. Baumstark, Gescbichte der syrisehe» Literatür (1922), 83. T h e translation is raken from N. l.cvvis and M . Reinhold, Roman Citrilisation* II (1990), 4 2 0 , wiıh cxtensive revisions very kindly providcd by Scbastian Brock, using revbed texcs published by E. Sachau, Syrisehe Rechtsbücher I ( 1 9 0 7 ) , and by A. Vööbus, "The SyroRoman Law B o o k " , Papers Est. Theol. Soc. in Exile 36 (1982), 39.

m a d e b y the s t a t e in t h e T e t r a r c h i c period t o clarify these q u e s t i o ı ı s a n d r e c o r d t h e results o n i n s e r i p t i o n s e r e e t e d in situ. T h i s o p e r a t i o n m a y vvell h a v e been c o n d u c t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e vvhole r e g i o n . B u t t h e surviving r e c o r d s vvhich vve h a p p e n t o have c o m e m a i n l y f r o m tvvo a r e a s : f r o m the villages o f t h e l i m e s t o n e m a s s i f betvveen A n t i o c h a n d B e r o e a , a n d f r o m a vvide z o n e f r o m G a l i l e e a c r o s s t h e G o l a n heights ( G a u l a n i t i s ) t o t h e H a u r a n a n d the nevv city o f M a x i m i a n o p o l i s , a n d a s far s o u t h a s S o u e d i a s . It thus involved a t least f o u r p r o v inces: Syria ( C o e l e ) , P a l a e s t i n a , P h o e n i c e a n d A r a b i a . M a n y o f the i n s e r i p t i o n s a r e f r a g m e n t a r y , a n d m o s t i n v o l v e c o m p l e x p r o b l e m s o f t o p o g r a p h y a n d l o c a l n o m e n c l a t u r c . It vvill b e sufficicnt here t o g i v e a fevv e x a m p l e s (a c o m p l e t e c a t a l o g u c is provided l a t e r ) . H M o s t a r e d a t e d m e r e l y b y t h e T e t r a r c h s o f 2 9 3 t o 3 0 5 . B u t t h o s e vvith m o r e precise d a t e s shovv t h a t t h e o p e r a t i o n vvas i n d e e d c o n d u c t e d a t t h e s a m e m o m e n t , 2 9 6 / 2 9 7 , vvhen D i o c i c t i a n a n d M a x i m i a n vvere a n n o u n c i n g their nevv t a x a t i o n - s y s t e m . O n e s u c h t e x t c o m e s f r o m n e a r t h e f a m o u s C h r i s t i a n shrine o f Q a l a a t S e m a n in t h e l i m e s t o n e massif: F o r the safety a n d victory o f o u r Lords Diocletianus and M a x i m i a n u s , the and Constantius a n d M a x i m i a n u s , the most n o b l c

Augusti,

Caesares,

there vvere established the boundaries [of the village) o f the Kaprokeroi, under the supervisiotı of Iulius Sabiııus the most distinguished

(lampro-

(year 3 4 5 , P a n c m o s 8). 1 J

tatos) kensitör

T h e e r a is t h a t o f the city o f A n t i o c h , a n d the y e a r is 2 9 6 / 2 9 7 . I n s c r i p t i o n s refleeting t h e s a m e o p e r a t i o n further s o u t h tend t o a d o p t a different f o r m u l a . T h u s , for e x a m p l e , o n e f o u n d n o r t h o f t h e S e a o f G a l i l e e r e a d s as follovvs: Diocletianus and M a x i m i a n u s , the Augusti, imianus [the Caesares],

(and) Constantius and M a x -

o r d e r c d (this) s t o n e t o be set up, marking the

boundary o f the fields o f the village o f Dera and (those of) Ö s e a , uııder the supervision o f Aelius Statilius the

perfeetissimus.'6

T h e s a m e f o r m u l a is used in a nevvly p u b l i s h e d i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m the s o u t h e r n G o l a n , giving the b o u n d a r i e s o f the köme

o f K a p a r H a r i b o s . 1 7 It a p p e a r s a l s o

1 4 . F o r s u r v c y s o f t h e e v i d e n c e t h e n a v a i l a b l e s c c A . D c l c a g e , l a capitation (1945), I

5

z - I

57î

a

novv k n o v v n s c c A p p

' s o W. Scston,

Diocletien

et la tetrarchic

1

(1946),

374.

Bas-Eıtıpire

For the full list

A.

1 5 . J . J a r r y , " I n s c r i p t i o n s a r a b e s , s y r i a q u e s et g r e c q u e s d u massif d u B c l u s c n S y r i e d u Nord",

Attrtales hlamologtques

7

(1967)

139,

on p .

158,

no.

33

—

AE

(1968),

no.

514;

scc

belovv, A p p . A , n o . r o .

16. SEG

X I X , no.

90

r ; A p p . A , no.

19.

1 7 . P. P o r a t , " A N c w B o u n d a r y S t o n e f r o m t h e S o u t h e r n G o l a n " , SCI A p p . A , no.

21.

TO ( 1 9 8 9 - 9 0 ) , 1 3 0 ;

f u r t h e r e a s t , in the i n s e r i p t i o n r e c o r d i n g a s i m i l a r b o u n d a r y - m a r k e r , w h i c h serves a l s o a s the earliest e v i d e n c e f o r t h e e l e v a t i o n o f S a k k a i a in t h e n o r t h e r n H a u r a n t o b e t h c city o f M a x i m i n i a n o p o l i s : O u r I o r d s Diocletianus a n d M a x i m i a n u s , the Augusti, and M a x i m i a n u s , the m o s t noble Caesares,

and C o n s t a n ı i u s

ordered (this) stone t o bc set

up marking off (thc territory o f thc?) village of the Orcloi (and thc) b o u n d ary o f M a x i m i a n o p o l ( i s ) , under the supervision of I.tıcius and A c a c i u s , kSnsitores.,8 M o r e e x a m p l e s n e e d n o t b e given h e r e . T h e s e i n s e r i p t i o n s , o f vvhich t h e r e m u s t o r i g i n a l l y have been h u n d r e d s (if n o t m o r e ) , are i m p o r t a n t first a s /et f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e o f thc vvay in vvhich thc R m p c r o r s m a d e their n a m e s and their nıeasures literally v i s i b l e even in q u i t e r e m o t e c o u n t r y districts. T h e c o n n e c t i o n vvith the c c n s u s , a n d h e n c e vvith t a x a t i o n , is perfectly c v i d e n t b o t h f r o m thc i n v o l v e m e n t o f s t a t e o f f i c i a l s on s o s y s t c m a t i c a basis a n d from their title, censitor.

I n ali cases t h e b o u n d a r i e s d e t e r m i n e d a r e , hovvever, n o t t h o s e

o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t i c s , b u t o f the t e r r i t o r i e s o f collectivities, vvhether villages o r c i t i c s . T h c i m p l i c a r i o n m u s t bc t h a t villages h a d a c o l l c c t i v c r c s p o n s i b i l i t y at least f o r the l a n d - t a x due f r o m their a r e a (and p e r h a p s f o r t h e

capitatio

a l s o ) . W h e t h e r , if a village lay vvithin the t e r r i t o r y o f a city, s u c h a s A n t i o c h , its t a x - p a y m c n t vvas in s o m c vvay ı n c d i a t e d t h r o u g h t h a t city r e m a i n s uncertain. But o n a n y c o n s t r u c t i o n t h c l o n g list o f v i l l a g c - n a m e s a p p e a r i n g o n these b o u n d a r y - i n s e r i p t i o n s set up b y R o m a n censitores

represents further evidence

o f t h c p r i m a r y r o l e o f villages in t h c s t r u e t u r e o f socicty in this r e g i o n . R e g u l a r t a x a t i o n vvas n o t t h c o n l y f o r m o f p a y m e n t vvhich thc s t a t e might e x a c t f r o m its s u b j e c t s . T h e f a m i l i a r a r e a o f c o n f l i c t represented b y e x a c t i o n s f o r t r a n s p o r t services is refleeted a g a i n in a letter f r o m D i o c l e t i a n a n d M a x imian t o C h a r i s i u s , c v i d c n t l y an official a n d p o s s i b l y thc C h a r i s i u s vvho vvas praeses o f Syria in 2 9 0 : ' L e t n o o n e o f t h e rural plebs, vvhich, s i t u a t e d o u t s i d c the vvalls (of any city), p a y s i t s capitatio

a n d p r o v i d e s the a p p r o p r i a t e

annena

(land t a x ? ) , b c called avvay t o p e r f o r m a n y o t h e r duty n o r be f o r c e d by a rationalis

(financial official) o f o u r s t o u n d e r t a k e the p r o v i s i o n o f m u l e s o r

h o r s e s f o r p u b l i c s e r v i c e ' . 1 9 I n r a t h e r different l a n g u a g e , a n d vvith a c o n c r e t e r e f e r e n e e t o regular t a x a t i o n , the t h o u g h t is precisely t h a t vvhich D o m i t i a n h a d e x p r e s s e d in his mandata

t o a financial official, a n d vvhich thc p u b l i c had

been a b l e t o see on a G r c c k i n s e r i p t i o n a t H a m a . 2 0 If t h e d a t e is indeed a r o u n d 2 9 0 , t h e w o r d capitatio 1 8 . SEG

h a d a l r e a d y c o m e i n t o use f o r vvhat h a d earlier been

V I I , n o . 1 0 5 5 ( i n c o m p i e t e ) . FuU t c x t in M . O u n a n d , Le tnusee

7 5 , n o . 160. A p p . A., no. 35. 1 9 . C o d . Just. X I , 5 s , 1 ; C h a r i s i u s as praeses ı o . 3.1 above.

Syriac

in 1 9 0 , I X , 4 1 , 9 .

du Soueida

(1934),

c a l l e d tributum

capitis;

a n d the use o f annona

(supplies) f o r the o t h e r f o r m

o f o b l i g a t i o n d u e strongly s u g g c s t s t h a t t h e l a n d - t a x w a s p a y a b l e in k i n d . It is indeed c e r t a i n t h a t s o m e d i r e c t t a x a t i o n on t h e l a n d \vas p a y a b l e in k i n d in this period, a n d delivered t o t h e a r m y a n d o f f i c i a l s in the form o f s u p p l i e s . But h o w t h e systeın really \vorked is a q u e s t i o n o f a c u t e c o n t r o v c r s y vvhich vvill n o t b e pursucd here. T h a t the ' r u s t i c p l e b s ' o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e vvas liable f o r b o t h a p e r s o n a l t a x a n d a l a n d - t a x is clear. B u t vvhether vvhat D i o c l e t i a n a n d M a x i m i a n s a y implies t h a t c i t y - p o p u l a t i o n s vvere e x e m p t f r o m b o t h is n o t : f o r the c o n t e x t is t h a t o f the d e m a n d s o f official t r a v e l l e r s , a n d specifically o f t h e p r o v i s i o n o f t r a n s p o r t - a n i m a l s . N o n e t h e l e s s it is q u i t c c l e a r that the q u e s t i o n o f t h e c e n s u s o f c i t y - p o p u l a t i o n s vvas a c o n t r o v c r s i a l o n e a t this p e r i o d , a n d o n e o n vvhich succcssivc E m p e r o r s t o o k different vievvs. 2 ' E u s e b i u s ' a c c o u n t o f t h e s e c o n d p h a s e o f t h e p e r s e c u t i o n , as it vvas c o n d u c t e d in C a e s a r e a in 3 0 5 / 3 0 6 , clearly implies that t h e a u t h o r i t i e s either already h a d , o r c o m p i l e d t h e r e a n d t h e n , lists o f ali the i n h a b i t a n t s o f the city, a n d used these t o c o m p e l u n i v c r s a l sacrifice. 2 2 In o n e version he uses t h e term apographe,

the n o r m a l G r e e k e x -

pression f o r a c e n s u s - r e t u r n (aLready used b y L u k c ' s G o s p e l ) . B u t i f this i s indeed e n o u g h t o shovv t h a t city-dvvellcrs vvere novv l i a b l e t o capitatio,

five

y e a r s later, vvhen M a x i m i n u s vvas c o m p e t i n g f o r povver after the d e 3 t h o f G a l e r i u s in 3 1 1 , t h e s i t u a t i o n s e e m s t o h a v e chaııged. F o r vvhen he arrivcd t o t a k e c o n t r o l in B i t h y n i a , vvhere N i c o m c d i a lay, in t h a t year, he is r e p o r t e d t o h a v e curried p o p u l a r f a v o u r by s u p p r e s s i n g t h e c e n s u s . T h a t p r o b a b l y m e a n s t h e census o f city-dvvellers. F o r E u s e b i u s ' d e s e r i p t i o n o f a general f a m i n e i n t h e sanıe year distinguishcs city-dvvellcrs from t h o s e vvho livcd 'in t h e

fields

a n d villagcs'; a n d he c l a i m s t h a t it vvas the high d c a t h - r a t e a m o n g these

agroi-

koi vvhich m e a n t t h a t the c e n s u s - l i s t s (apographai)

vvere a l m o s t e m p t y . " T h i s

m a y vvell b e t h e real c o t ı t e x t f o r a n Imperial letter preserved (under 3 1 3 ) i n t h e Theodosian

Code

' L e t the plebs

urbana,

a n d a d d r e s s c d t o the praeses

o f Lycia a n d P a m p h y l i a :

as is t h e c u s t o m a l s o in t h e Orientales

n o m e a n s b e enrolled in the c e n s u s e s in r e s p e c t o f its capitatio,

provinciae,

d a n c c vvith this o r d e r o f o u r s l e t it be r e g a r d e d as i m m u n e , a s t h e s a m e urbana

by

b u t in a c c o r plebs

h a d been i m m u n e u n d e r o u r l o r d a n d p a r e n t D i o c l e t i a n u s , the s e n i o r

A u g u s t u s ' . 2 4 T h o u g h c e r t a i n t y is i m p o s s i b l e , the t o n e a n d c o n t e x t o f t h e l e t t e r

n .

F o r t h e s e q u c s t i o n s see T . D . B a r a . e s , The

Neu> Empire

of

Diocletian

and

Constantine

(1981). " 6 < f . 1 2 . Eusebius,

Mart. rai.

4 , S ( l o n g r c c c n s t o n ) : o v o y ı a o n X'^l*îpXülv fon'l âjıoypaı)rjç CKOOTOV

v. T f ı e s l ı o r t r e c e n s i o n r e a d s : x ı ' . t a p X 0 1 • • •

K A T

OÎKOV; K a l Ğ n Ç o ö a r t a p ı o v t E ç â v c e -

y p a 4 « ç trâv ı t o ^ l t â v t n o ı o û v t o . F o r a g e n e r a l c e n s u s u n d e r G a l e r i u s , i n c l u d i n g l a n d a n d r u s t i c a n d c i t y p o p u l a t i o n s , s e e L a c t a n t î u s , de rnort. 2 3 . L a c t a n t i u s , de mort. 2 4 . Cod.

Theod.

pers.

pers.

3 6 , 1 5 E u s e b i u s , HE

23, 1-2.

I X , 8, 5 .

XIII, 10, 2 , f o l l o w i n g the a r g u m e n t s o f B a r n e s , o p . cit., 2 3 2 .

both

\vould fit perfectly t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f a n E m p e r o r ( M a x i m i n u s ) a r r i v i n g (in 3 1 1 ) f r o m the Orientales

provinciae

t o seize p o w e r in Asia M i n ö r , a n d seek-

ing t o win g e n e r a l f a v o u r \vhere it m a t t c r c d , a m o n g t h c u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n vvhom h e vvould directly e n c o u n t e r . It m i g h t , hovvever, belong a y e a r later, in 3 1 2 , in t h e c o n t e x t o f e q u a l l y c o m p l e x c x c h a n g e s betvveen M a x i m i n u s and his s u b j c c t s , o v c r vvhat p o s i t i o n (if a n y ) C h r i s t i a n s vvcrc t o o c c u p y vvithin t h e stili p r e d o m i n a n t l y pagası c o m m u n i t i e s o f these p r o v i n c c s . T o see t h o s e e x c h a ı ı g e s in c o n t e x t , vve n e e d t o g o b a c k t o the h i s t o r y o f t h e p e r s e c u t i o n s in t h c N e a r E a s t , a s t h e y h a d e v o l v e d s i n c e 3 0 3 . " indeed even the p r e l i m i n a r y stage vvhich p r c c e d c d the first g e n e r a l persec u t i o n o r d e r c d by D i o c l e t i a n b e l o n g s in t h e N e a r E a s t . F o r it vvas vvhile he vvas in ' t h c O r i e n t a l r e g i o n ' , a n d b e f o r e m o v i n g t o N i c o m e d i a for t h e vvinter o f 3 0 2 / 3 0 3 , t h a t D i o c l e t i a n f o u n d t h a t a sacrifice vvhich h c vvas c o n d u c t i n g vvas nullified by a Christian sign placed on the a n i m a l s b y o n e o f his a t t e n d a n t s ; a n d in r c a c t i o n t o this he o r d e r e d s a c r i f i c e s o n t h e p a r t o f ali t h o s e serving in t h c p a l a c c , a n d o f ali s o l d i e r s . 2 6 T h e r e c o r d o f t h e s u c c e s s i v e Imperial o r d e r s vvhich follovvcd in thc y e a r s 3 0 3 - 3 1 2 , a n d their e n f o r c e m e n t in Palestine a n d t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g p r o v i n c e s , a s vvitncsscd b y E u s e b i u s in C a e s a r e a , c o n s t i t u t e s the best e v i d e n c e vve have f o r the vvorking o f t h c T c t r a r c h i c s t a t e a n d its r e l a t i o n vvith its s u b j c c t s . O n l y s o m e p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l e v a n t d e t a i l s n e e d be p i c k e d o u t h e r e . T h e e a r l i e r p h a s e s follovvcd thc t e r m s o f I m p e r i a l o r d e r s , in edict o r letter f o r m , issued f r o m Nicomedia, (praeses)

and

their c n f o r c c m c n t

depended

cntirely

on

the

governor

in e a c h p r o v i n c e . T l ı e first edict vvas p o s t e d a t N i c o m e d i a on F e b r u -

a r y 2 4 , 3 0 3 , a n d a c o p y r e a c h e d P a l a e s t i n a in M a r c h o r April. A m o n g o t h e r p r o v i s i o n s it o r d e r e d t h a t c h u r c h e s b e d e s t r o y e d , a n d c o p i e s o f t h e B i b l e b u r n e d . E u s e b i u s n a m e s the praeses

o f P a l a e s t i n a , F l a v i a n u s , in office ar the

t i m e , b u t r e p o r t s n o m e a s u r e s on his p a r t t o e n f o r c e it. 2 7 S o o n a f t e r c a m e o t h e r o r d e r s , first t h a t t h c l e a d e r s o f the C h u r c h be i m p r i s o n e d a n d then t h î t t h e y be c o m p e l l e d t o s a c r i f i c e . 2 8 U n d e r this o r d e r E u s e b i u s r c c o r d s t h a t the first m a r t y r d o m a t C a e s a r e a w a s t h a t o f P r o c o p i u s f r o m S c y t h o p o l i s , on J u n c 7 , 3 0 3 . It is p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t that the long recension o f E u s e b i u s ' tyrs of Palestine

Mor-

(knovvn f r o m a S y r i a c t r a n s l a t i o n c o n t a i n c d in a m a n u s e r i p t

o f AD 4 1 1 ) deseribes hovv P r o c o p i u s o r i g i n a t e d f r o m A e l i a ( J e r u s a l e m ) , but served the c h u r c h a t S c y t h o p o l i s a s a reader, a s a n i n t e r p r e t e r f r o m G r e e k into A r a m a i c ( l . S N ' Y W N Y ' L ' R M Y ' M T R G M ) a n d as a n c x o r c i s t . F o r this passt j . For ihc view thaı Cod. Tbeod. XIII, 1 0 , 2, hdongs in 312, see S. Mitchell, "Maximinııs and ıhe Christians in AD 312: A Ncw Latin inseription", JRS 78 (1988), 105, on which ali of the following discussion of thc persccution hcavily depends. 2 6 . S o L a c t a n t i u s , de mort.

pers.

2 7 . E u s e b i u s , HE V ı ı ı , 2 , 4 ; Mart. 2 8 . HE V ı ı ı , S ; Mart.

Pal., praef.

10. Pal., praef. 2.

1.

ing r c f e r e ı ı c e is tlıe first i n d i c a r i o n w e h a v e t h a t t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y

Greek-

s p e a k i n g c h u r c h e s o f P a l a e s t i n a a l s o h a d m e m b e r s vvho vvere s p c a k c r s o f a Sernitic l a n g u a g e . P r o c o p i u s vvas b r o u g h t f r o m S c y t h o p o l i s t o C a e s a r e a , testificd b e f o r e t h e g o v e r n o r a n d vvas e x c c u t c d . 2 9 E u s e b i u s then gives t h e e x a m p l e s o f Z a c c h a e u s , a d e a c o n from Cîadara (evidently novv part o f P a l a e s t i n a ) , a n d A l p h a e u s , f r o m E l e u t h e r o p o l i s in P a l a e s t i n a , a r e a d e r a n d e x o r c i s t a t C a e s a r e a . 1 0 A brief r e f e r e n c e a l s o c o n f i r m s the e x i s t e n c e o f a s e p a r a t e m i l i t a r y s t r u e t u r e in P a l a e s t i n a , f o r he d e s e r i b e s the stratopedarchös

(that is, dux)

en-

f o r c i n g sacrificc a m o n g the s o l d i e r s . 3 1 Ln t e r m s o f the s t r u e t u r e a n d w o r k i n g o f t h e E m p i r e , the p e r s e c u t i o n i n the N e a r E a s t vvas stili being c o ı ı d u c t e d a t s e c o n d h a ı ı d , t h r o u g h the m e d i u m o f vvritten o r d e r s t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e g o v e r n o r s by the E m p e r o r s . 3 2 T h i s r e m a i n e d t h e c a s e in the s e c o n d y e a r o f the p e r s e c u t i o n , 3 0 4 / 3 0 5 , vvhen U r b a n u s vvas praeses o f P a l a e s t i n a , a n d o r d e r s arrived that t h e vvhole p o p u l a t i o n be c o m p e l l e d t o sacrificc. T h e long r c c c n s i o n o f the Martyrs

again c o n v c -

n i c n t l y serves t o m a r k o u t s o m e o f t h e b o r d e r s o f the p r o v i n c e o f P a l a e s t i n a a s it then vvas, f o r it deseribes t h e m a r t y r d o m o f T ı m o t h e o s f r o m G a z a , in t h e p r e s e n c e o f U r b a n u s , a s t a k i n g p l a c e in t h e c o n t e x t o f a p a g a n festival, i n c l u d ing p l a y s , h o r s e - r a c i n g a n d e x p o s u r e o f vicrims t o vvild beasts. T h e s e t t i n g s e e m s (the m a n u s e r i p t s v a r y ) t o b e G a z a itself. 3 3 B u t e v e n if it vvere in f a c t C a e s a r e a , the c o n t e x t vvould b e the s a m e , f o r b o t h c i t i e s vvere novv

coloniae,

a n d t h e m a s s p u b l i c e n t e r t a i n m e n t s listed represented s o m e o f t h e m o s t d i s tinctive R o m a n i m p o r t s i n t o t h e p o p u l a r c u l t u r e o f t h e G r e e k E a s t . It vvould n o t bc surprising if the praeses

h a d in fact a t t e n d e d public spectacles a t a

m a j ö r city o n the b o r d e r s o f his p r o v i n c e . A s i m i l a r sccne is a l s o r e c o r d e d b y Eusebius a t Tyre ' o f P h o e n i c e ' , vvhich he says he vvitnessed in p e r s o n ; n o g o v e r n o r is e x p l i c i t l y m e n t i o n e d , b u t t h e praeses

o f P h o e n i c e m u s t h a v e been there, f o r ali c x c c u t i o n s a n d m a r t y r d o m s

vvere c o n d u c t c d by g o v e r n o r s . O n c c again t h e c o n t e x t is t h a t o f vvild-beast shovvs (venationes)

b e f o r e a l a r g e crovvd, in a city vvhich h a d f o r a c e n t u r y

b e e n a R o m a n colonia?*

L o o k i n g m o r e vvidely, E u s e b i u s s p e a k s o f m a r t y r -

d o m s in E g y p t , C a p p a d o c i a a n d P o n t o s ; b u t a l s o — v v i t h i n t h e N e a r E a s t — i n 2.9. Mart.

Pal.

1 (long rcccnsion). The

Syriac

tcxt w a s

published

and rranslatcd

by

W . C u r c t o n ( 1 8 6 1 ) . F o r t h e m s o f AD 4 » t , t h e e a r l i c s t d a t e d m s in S y r i a c , s c c a l s o R I . 3 b c l o w . 30. Ibid., 5 b - d . 3 T . HE V n i , 4, 3 - 4 . S e e c h . 1 a b o v e . 3 2 . N o t e , hovvever, t h e p u / z l ı n g a c c o u n t ı n t h e l o n g r c c c n s i o n o f

Mart. Pal.

o f hovv a t t h i s

time R o m a n u s , a deacon and exorcist f r o m Caesarea, w c n t to Antioch, appcarcd before the g o v e r n o r t h e r e , a n d w a s m a r t y r e d \ v h i l c D i o c l e t i a n \vas in t h e c i t y . T h e a t t e s t e d m o v e m e n t s o f Diocletian m a k c this most unlikely; Barnes, 3 3 . Mart.

Pal. 3 , 1 .

3 4 . HE V I I I , 8.

Neu/ Empire,

56.

A r a b i a , at A n t i o c h a n d in M e s o p o t a m i a . G o i n g i n t o r a t h e r m o r e detail, n a t u rally e n o u g h , a s r e g a r d s t h e t ı e i g h b o u r i n g p r o v i n c e , he m e n t i o n s m a r t y r d o m s within t h e p r o v i n c e o f P h o e n i c e o f b i s h o p s a n d priests from T y r e , Sidon a n d Emesa."' 1 H i s a c c o u n t s are n o t a b l e f o r t w o f u n d a m e n t a l a s p e c t s o f t h e R o m a n I m p e r i a l s y s t e m : the c o n d u c t o f t h e i r business by g o v e r n o r s in p u b i i c in the c o n t e x t o f t h e life o f t h e c i t i e s , a n d o f their p u b i i c spectacles a n d c e r e m o n i a l s ; a n d the g r u e s o m c r c p c r t o i r c o f f o r m s o f p h y s i c a l degradatiotı a n d e x c c u t i o n novv d e p l o y e d by the s t a t e . E u s e b i u s ' a c c o u n t a l s o m a k e s c l e a r t h a t a n o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t o f p u n i s h m e n t h a d by novv b e e n a d d e d t o this r e p e r t o i r e : c o n d e m n a t i o n t o the m i n e s . B u t t h a t is best c x a m i n c d in the c o n t c x t o f the m u c h intensified p h a s e vvhich follovved the a p p o i n t m e n t o f M a x i m i n u s as Caesar

in

3 0 5 , a n d his c o n t i n u e d r e s i d e n c e in t h e N e 3 r E a s t . ' 6 In t h e first i n s t a n c e rcncvval o f p e r s e c u t i o n again t o o k the f o r m o f letters d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t the r e g i o n in 3 0 5 / 3 0 6 . T h e i r c o n t c n t vvas t h e s a m e , t h a t ali s h o u l d s a c r i f i c c ; but t h e i r e n f o r c e m e n t vvas t o e m p l o y nevv m e a n s , the i n v o l v e m e n t o f city officials, p r o c l a m a t i o n s by heralds, aetive searehes o f e a c h c i t y - q u a r t e r b y s o l d i e r s a n d (as vve have s c e n ) t h e use o f c e n s u s - l i s t s . ' 7 Tlıc i m p a c t o f M a x i m i n u s ' o r d e r s vvas follovved b y h i s arrival in p e r s o n . E u s e b i u s ' d e s e r i p t i o n o f t h e shovvs given b y the E m p e r o r at C a e s a r e a t o c e l e b r a t e his b i r t h d a y in N o v e m b c r 3 0 6 m i g h t b c t a k e n t o m a r k t h e high point o f the integ r a t i o n o f a N e a r E a s t e r n cicy, a n d R o m a n colonia,

i n t o the p a g a n I m p e r i a l

state: In the fourth year o f the persecution against us, on the tvvelfth day b e f o r e the Kalends o f December, t h a t is, on the tvventieth o f the month Dius, on the day before the S a b b a t h , a thing vvas done in this same C a e s a r e a , in the presence o f the tyrant M a x i m i n himself, vvho vvas lavishing u p o n the multitudcs spectacles iri l ı o n o u r o f his birthday, as it is called, vvhich is truly vvorthy of being p l a c c d on record. Hitherto it vvas the custom t h a t , vvhen emperors vvere present, spectacles on a lavish seale should providc more cxccllent entertainmeots for the speetators than on any other o c c a sion, a n d that nevv and strange shovvs should take the place o f the usual programme. Sometimes it w o u l d bc a n i m a l s brought from India o r Aethiopia o r somevvhere else; o r perhaps m e n vvho amaze and divert the minds o f the o n l o o k e r s by a display o f certain skilful bodily cxcrciscs. O n t h a t occasion also, since the e m p e r o r vvas providing the exhibition, it vvas abso-

3 5 . HE V I I I , 9 , 1 - 1 3 , 4 . 3 6 . I l ı c s i g n i f i c a n e c o f t h e e h a n g e is h c a v i l y c m p h a s i s e d i n Mart. in

HE. 3 7 . Mart.

Pal. 4 , 8.

Pal. 3 , 5 f f . , b u t o b s c u r e d

lutcly nccessary that in s o m e w a y the lavish display should inelude s o m e unusual and extraordinary i t e m . " It might be q u i t e difficult t o f i n d , in the entire literatüre o f the E m p i r e , a passage in vvhich so m a n y d i f f e r e n t s t r a n d s o f c u l t u r a l history c o m e together. F o r a s t a r t t h e r e is t h e d a t i n g - s y s t e m e m p l o y e d , vvhich c o m b i n c s c l c m c n t s f r o m the history o f t h e C h u r c h , t h e R o m a n calendar, the M a c e d o n i a n m o n t h s a n d the Jevvish vveek. T h e n t h e r e is the R o m a n i m p o r t a t i o n o f t h e vvild-beast shovvs, vvith the E m p e r o r a b l e t o p r o v i d c a n i m a l s from far o u t s i d e the E m p i r e . B u t R o m a n as the c o n t e n t o f t h e s h o w is, t h e ideology o f d i s p l a y is e x p l i c i t l y seen a s o n l y a g r a n d e r version o f vvhat vvould be e x p e c t e d in a G r e e k city. T h e vvord t r a n s l a t e d a s 'lavish d i s p l a y ' is philotimiai,

meaniııg at r o o t 'love o f

r c p u t a t i o n ' , novv used c o n c r c t c l y , a n d in the plural, f o r t h e shovvs put o n , a t their ovvn e x p e n s c , by the l c a d ı n g personalities o f G r e e k cities. T h e follovving episode, hovvever, reveals that the R o m a n s t a t e in P a l a e s tina h a d a l s o d e v e l o p e d in q u i t e a different direetion; for it c o n t a i n s t h e e x p l i c i t r e f c r c n c c t o c o n d e m n a t i o n t o h a r d l a b o u r in ' t h e mines (metalla)

first of

c o p p e r a t P h a i n ö o f P a l a i s t i n c ' . 3 9 T h e allusion is a painful r e m i n d e r o f hovv far o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g is Iimited by vvhat o u r s o u r c e s h a p p e n t o b e i n t e r e s t e d in saying. F o r vve have n o e v i d e n c e a t ali a s t o hovv long s u c h mines h a d been in o p e r a t i o n , o r hovv t h e y c a m e t o b e in I m p e r i a l p o s s e s s i o n ; b u t m a n y refereııces in E u s e b i u s shovv t h a t c o n d e m ı ı e d C h r i s t i a n s (and p r c s u m a b l y o t h e r s ) c a r r i e d o u t hard l a b o u r t h e r e , s h a c k l c d , often m u t i l a t e d a n d living u n d e r m i i i t a r y g u a r d . N o n e t h e l e s s , E u s e b i u s ' a c c o u n t shovvs t h a t by 3 0 9 / 3 1 0 t h e c o n f e s s o r s vvorking in the m i n e s h a d achieved a high d e g r e e o f liberty, a n d h a d even c o n s t r u c t c d buildings t o serve as e h u r e h e s . B u t t h e then g o v e r n o r , arriving o n a visit, c o n s u l t e d t h e P^mperor, a n d the s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f t h e m i n e s h a d these C h r i s t i a n s e i t h e r dispersed elsevvhere o r e x e c u t e d by t h e dux.*°

T h e e a r l i c r history o f c o n d e m n a t i o n t o the m i n e s o r q u a r r i e s

the vvord metalla

(for

c o v e r s b o t h ) c a n hardly be vvritten; the i n s t i t u t i o n begins t o

be visible f r o m a b o u t t h e end o f the first century AD. A s r e g a r d s these p a r t i c u lar c o p p c r - m i n e s , l o c a t c d a t F e n a n , e a s t o f t h e \Vadi A r a b a h , betvveen t h e s o u t h end o f t h e D e a d S e a a n d P e t r a , i f t h e y h a d been a t I m p e r i a l d i s p o s i t i o n

j 8. Mart.

Pal. 6, 1 - 2 ( l o n g r e c e n s i o n ) , t r a n s . I-avvlor a n d O u l t o r ı .

39. Mart.

Pal. 7 , 2.

4 c . Mart.

Pal. 1 3 , r - 3 . F o r t h e b a c k g r o u n d scc F. M i l l a r , " C o n d e m n a t i o n t o H a r d L a b o u r

i n t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , f r o m t h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n s t o C ö f l $ r ü n t m e " , PBSR

j i (1984), 124. Kor

d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t s of tlıc v v o r k i n g s a t F e n a n s e c H . D . K i n d , " A n t i k e K u p f e r g e v v i n n i n g Kvvischeıı R o t e m u n d T o t e m M c c r " , ZDPV

81 ( 1 9 6 5 } , 5 6 , a n d A . H a u p i m a n n a n d C . W c i s b e r g e r , " A r c h -

a c o m e t a l l u r g i c a l a n d M i n i n g - a r c h a e o l o g i c a l I n v c s t t g a t i o n s in t h e A r c a o f F c i n a n , W a d i A r a b a h ( J o r d a n ) " , ADA/

3 1 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 4«9-

e a r l i e r (vvhich vve d o n o t knovv), t h e y vvould h a v e been in the p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a . B u t vvith t h c castvvard a n d southvvard e x t e n s i o n o f P a l a e s t i n a t h e y novv f o r m c d p a r t o f t h e m e a n s o f r e p r e s s i o n u n d e r the c o n t r o l o f t h c

praeses

o f that province. In this period a b o v e a l i , a g o v e r n o r in this r c g i o n vvas n o t a free a g e n t , a n d o p e r a t e d under t h c shadovv o f t h e E m p e r o r himself. S o E u s e b i u s c a n rep o r t vvith s o m e s a t i s f a c t i o n t h a t U r b a n u s , stili praeses, high tribunal,

a n d a c c u s t o m e d t o his

t o his e s c o r t o f s o l d i e r s a n d t o s h a r i n g the t a b l e o f ' t h e t y r a n t ' ,

suddenly f o u n d h i m s e l f c o n d c m n c d t o d e a t h b y M a x i m i n u s , vvho d e l i v e r t d the sentcncc at Caesarea.41 W i t h his successor, F i r m i l i a n u s , vve see yet a n o t h e r a s p c c t o f the d e p l o v m e n t o f f o r c e by t h e s t a t e . F o r a t a city vvhich the S y r i a c version o f t h e

Martys

c a l l s 'in S y r i a c L u d , b u t in G r e e k D i o c a c s a r e a ' — a m i s t a k e , f o r t h e c u r r e n t n a m e o f Lydda vvas D i o s p o l i s — h e h e l d a m a s s trial o f three huııdred c o n f e s s o r s sent f r o m E g y p t , c o n d u c t e d in p u b l i c in f r o n t o f t h c largcly Jevvish p o p u l a t i o n o f the tovvn, vvith the h e r a l d c a l l i n g o u t t h c B i b l i c a l n a m e s , like ' E l i j a h ' a n d ' D a n i c l ' , vvhich t h e E g y p t i a n C h r i s t i a ı ı s b o r ç . F i r m i l i a n u s , p e r h a p s o n his n o r m a l j u d i c i a l c i r c u i t , m a y h a v e been unavvare o f t h c c o m p e t i n g c l a i m s t o t h e B i b l i c a l heritagc vvhich these n a m e s r e p r e s e n t e d . B u t f r o m

Eusebius'

C h r i s t i a n vicvv, the p o i n t vvas u n m i s t a k a b l e : ' t h e J e w s vvere greatly a m a z c d , vvhile t h e y themselves vvere d e s p i s e d f o r their vvickedness a n d a p o s t a s y ' . 4 2 T h e last p h a s e o f p e r s e c u t i o n b e f o r e t h c g r e a t c h a n g e s o f 3 1 1 a l s o s a w M a x i m i n u s trying t o bring i n t o cffect b o t h the r e s o u r c e s o f the state a n d t h o s e o f the cities. In 3 0 8 I m p e r i a l orders vvere a g a i n c i r c u l a t e d , c o m m a n d i n g n o t o n l y universal sacrifice b u t t h a t p a g a n t e m p l e s be r e c o n s t r u c t c d , t h a t f o o d on sale in t h c agora bc s p r i n k l c d vvith l i b a t i o n s a n d t h a t sacrifices b e d e m a n d e d o f t h o s e using t h e p u b l i c b a t h s . T h c n o r m a l fcatures o f a n c i e n t city life, l o n g since a p r o b l e m f o r Jevvs, vvere t h u s t o b c invested vvith a n e x p l i c i t religîous m c a n i n g . T h c o r d e r s vvent t o I m p e r i a l officials, t h e praeses a n d dux,

but a l s o

t o t h e m a g i s t r a t e s o f e a c h city. I n listing t h o s e c o n c e r n e d — l o g i s t a i tores), strategoi

(the n o r m a l G r e e k f o r the duumviri

o f a colonia)

and

(curataboul-

arioi (a L a t i n t e r m t r a n s l i t e r a t e d i n t o G r e e k ) — E u s e b i u s m u s t surely b e using thc c x a m p l c o f his ovvn colonia,

C a e s a r e a . 4 3 T h e s e m e a s u r e s h a v e t o be seen

a s a foreshadovving o f t h e m u c h m o r e r a d i c a l a t t e m p t a t a r e v i v a l o f city p a g a n i s m vvhich M a x i m i n u s "vvas t o m a k e in 3 n / 3 1 2 . . It m u s t b c this later s t a g e vvhich E u s e b i u s is referring t o in the

Ecclesiasti-

4 1 . Mart.

Pal. 7 , 7 ( s o m c d e t a i l s o n l y in t h c l o n g r c c c n s i o n ) .

4 2 . Mart.

l'al. 8 ( l o n g r c c c n s i o n ) . S c c A . O p p c n h c i m c r , "Jevvish L y d d a in t h c R o m a n P e r i o d " ,

HUCA

69 (1988), 1 1 5 , o n pp. 1 3 4 - 1 3 5 .

4 3 . Mart.

Pal.

9,1-3.

cal History,

w h c ı ı h c says t h a t a l o n g vvith t e m p l e - b u i l d i n g a n d r c c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

M a x i m i n u s a p p o i n t e d priests in e a c h p l a c e a n d a H i g h Priest for c a c h p r o v i n c e , giving c a c h a military e s c o r t . 4 4 M a x i m i n u s h a d b y then, a f t e r the d e a t h o f G a l e r i u s , t a k e n p o s s e s s i o n o f Asia M i n ö r a n d the T e t r a r c h i c ' c a p i t a l ' , N i c o m e d i a . A c c o r d i n g t o E u s e b i u s , he s u b s c r i b e d t o t h e f o r m a ! c d i c t o f t o l e r a tion issued by G a l e r i u s in 3 u

o n l y t o the e x t e n t o f giving v e r b a l orders t o

g o v e r n o r s , a n d leaving it t o h i s P r a e t o r i a n P r e f e c t t o send r o u ı ı d letters o r d e r ing t h e end o f aetive p e r s e c u t i o n , telling t h e m t o vvrite in turn t o city a n d local officials. A t t h e s a m e p o i n t in 3 1 1 / 3 1 2 M a x i m i n u s , novv in c o n t r o l o f b o t h t h e N e a r E a s t a n d Asia M i n ö r , b e g a n t o reverse the m c a s u r e s o f t o l e r a t i o n f o r C h r i s t i a n s , t a k i n g s t e p s o f s o m e sort t o p r e v e n t their m e e t i n g in their c e m e t e r ics. But t h e fuller e x p r e s s i o n o f his a n t i - C l ı r i s t i a n a t t i t u d e c a m e o n l y a f t e r c x c h a n g c s betvveen himself a n d the c o m m u n i t i e s h c ruled, vvhich a r c s t r i k ingly indicative o f the real n a t u r e o f t h e s t a t e in this p e r i o d . I n t h e vievv o f b o t h the tvvo m a i n C h r i s t i a n vvitnesses o f this p e r i o d , E u s e b i u s a n d L a c t a n tius, M a x i m i n u s vvas r e s p o n s i b l e f o r instigatiııg the p r e s e n t a t i o n t o h i m s e l f o f a n t i - C h r i s r i a n p e t i t i o n s f r o m t h e c i t i e s a n d Icagucs o f t h e s e tvvo r e g i o n s . 4 5 Tvvo o f the m o s t significant p e t i t i o n s vvere presented by the tvvo ' c a p i t a l ' c i t i c s o f t h e r e g i o n s he ruled, N i c o m e d i a a n d A n t i o c h . S o , in a letter o f his vvhich E u s e b i u s q u o t e s , vvritten tovvards the e n d o f 3 1 2 , M a x i m i n u s says t h a t a t s o m e point in t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r , t h u s 3 1 1 , vvhen he arrived in N i c o m e d i a , p e o p l e h a d c o m e b e f o r e h i m b e a r i n g images o f the g o d s a n d r e q u e s t i n g t h a t C h r i s t i a n s b c n o l o n g c r p e r m i t t e d t o live there. But a t t h a t t i m e he h a d t a k e n n o steps, a n d vvould n o t do so until pressed b y f u r t h e r petitions f r o m b o t h N i c o m e d i a and o t h e r cities. P e r h a p s t h e m o s t significant o f these cities vvas A n t i o c h , vvhere t h e citizcns (allcgcdly p r o m p t e d by M a x i m i n u s himself) d e m a n d c d a s an Imperial f a v o u r t h a t C h r i s t i a n s n o longer bc allovved t o live t h e r e . 4 6 T h e m o v e m e n t vvas led, a c c o r d i n g t o E u s e b i u s , b y a citizen o f A n t i o c h c a l l c d T h e o t c c n u s , vvho s y m b o l i s e d the p a g a n rcvival b y ereeting a c u l t s t a t u t e o f Z e u s P h i l i o s , i n s t i t u t i n g an a r r a y o f c c r c m o n i a l s a n d p u r i f i c a t i o n s a n d inventing s u i t a b l e o r a c u l a r r e s p o n s e s t o p l e a s e the E m p e r o r / 7 E u s e b i u s t h o u g h t t h a t T h e o t e c n u s vvas a t t h a t point curator

(logistes)

later states t h a t he o b t a i n e d a g o v e r n o r s h i p (hegemonia)

of Antioch, a n d

f r o m the E m p e r o r —

in fact o f G a l a t i a P r i m a , vvhere h e vvas again aetive in p e r s e c u t i o n . 4 8 T h e iııte-

4 4 . HE V I I I , 1 4 , 8 - 9 .

45. Euscbiuç, HE IX, s; Lactantius, de »ınrt. pers. 36, 3. 4 6 . HE I X , 9 a , 4 - 6 (letter t o S a b i n u s , p r o b a b l y P r a e t o r i a n P r c f c c t ) . 4 7 . HE I X , 2 - 3 . 4 8 . HE I X , 2; 1 1 , 5 - 6 . S . M i t c h e l l , 3 2 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 93,011 pp. 1 0 7 - 1 0 8 .

uThc

L i f e o f S a i n t T h c o d o c u s of A n c y r a " , Anal.

Slud.

g r a t i o n o f city m a g i s t r a c i c s a n d Imperial o f f i c c - h o l d i n g w a s b c c o m i n g steadiîy eloser, a l o n g w i t h the p h y s i c a l presence o f t h e I m p e r i a l c o u r t in these p r o v i n cial cities. T h e c o u r s e o f the p e r s e c u t i o n in these y e a r s \vas t h u s d e t e r m i n c d b y a elose inter-relation betvveen t h e c o u r t a n d the cities; b u t n o t h i n g c l c a r l y distinguishes the p a t t c r n in the N e a r Kastern p r o v i n c e s f r o m t h a t in M a x i m i n u s ' o t h e r a r e a o f c o n t r o l , Asia M i n ö r . E u s e b i u s t e n d s o f c o u r s e t o r e c o r d specific e v e n t s in the N e a r E a s t e n ı p r o v i n c e s : the arrests m a d e by t h e ' s t r a t o d e p a r e h e s w h o m t h e R o m a n s cali dux'

a t D a m a s c u s ' o f P h o c n i c c ' ; m a r t y r d o m s a t Em-

esa, 'a city o f P h o e n i c e ' ( c o n v e n i e n t l y d e m o n s t r a t i n g that n o s e p a r a t e p r o v i n c e o f ' A u g u s t a L i b a n e n s i s ' yet e x i s t e d ) ; a n d the trial a n d m a r t y r d o m o f a m a j ö r t h c o l o g i a n , L u c i a n , a p r c s b y t c r a t A n t i o c h , w h o w a s t a k e n t o Nic o m e d i a f o r t h e p u r p o s e . * 9 B u t vvhen he g e n e r a l i s e s , vvhat he says r e l a t e s t o b o t h r e g i o n s : ' A s priests o f t h e i d o l s in e a c h city, a n d a b o v e t h e m High Priests (ard)iereis),

t h e r e vvere a p p o i n t c d b y M a x i m i n u s h i m s e l f t h o s e vvho h a d p a r -

t i c u l a r l y distinguished t h e m s e l v e s in city a f f a i r s a n d h a d achieved a r e p u t a t i o n in ali these offices. T h e y vvere filled vvith a special zeal in t h e service o f the g o d s they vvorshippcd'. 5 0 T h e last aetive p h a s c o f p e r s e c u t i o n vvas thus a e l e s e a l i i a n c c betvveen city a n d c o u r t , c x p r c s s i n g vahıes vvhich vvere c o m m o n t o the G r a e c o - R o m a n c i t i e s o f a n y r e g i o n . i n d e e d even vvhat m i g h t h a v e s e e m e d o n e o f the m o s t distinetive p r o d u e t s o f this phase, M a x i m i n u s ' letter t o T y r e a b o u t t h a t c i t y ' s a n d his ovvn d e v o t i o n t o t h e g o d s , turns o u t — a s a n e w i n s e r i p t i o n s h o v v s — t o b e a s t a n d a r d letter vvhich M a x i m i n u s addressed a l s o t o c o m m u nities in Asia M i n ö r . E v e n t h e fact t h a t it vvas i n s e r i b e d in L a t i n at T y r e , and then t r a n s l a t c d into G r e e k b y E u s e b i u s for inelusion in his Ecclesiastical tory, p r o v e s n o t t o b e a p r o d u e t o f Tyre's s t a t u s as a colonia;

His-

f o r (surprisingly)

t h e s a m e t e x t , a s sent t o a s m a l l c o m m u t ı i t y in Lycia a n d P a m p h y l i a , is also in L a t i n . 5 1 In t h e m e a n t i m e , hovvever, C o n s t a n t i n e , ruiing in t h e W e s t , h a d d e c l a r e d h i m s e l f pubLicly as a C h r i s t i a n , h a d g a i n e d c o n t r o l o f R o m e in 312. a n d tovvards t h e e n d o f the year m e t a t M i l a n vvith Licinius, then in c o n t r o l o f the B a l k a n r e g i o n ; they a g r e c d o n a p r o c l a m a t i o n o f t o l e r a t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n i : y , a n d r e s t i t u t i o n o f Christian p r o p e r t y . L i c i n i u s invaded M a x i m i n u s ' a r e a in spring 3 1 3 , a n d a final p r o c l a m a t i o n o f toleration b y M a x i m i n u s d i d n o t h i n g t o avert h i s d e f e a t , a n d his s u i c i d e at T a r s o s . T h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f t o l e r a t i o n a n d restitution issued b y L i c i n i u s f r o m N i c o m e d i a in J u n e 3 1 3 , in t h e n a n ı c o f C o n s t a n t i n e a n d himself, vvas the h i s t o r i c d o c u m c n t o f t e n later t o b e la-

49.

HE I X ,

5,

1; 6, 1 ;

50.

HE I X ,

4,

2.

6,

3.

5 1 . S c c M i t c h c l i , o p . cit. ( n . 2 5 a b o v e } .

bclled ' t h e c d i c t o f M i l a n ' . A n e w e r a h a d d a w n c d in the religious a n d c o m m u n a l life o f the E m p i r e , in the N e a r E a s t a s elsevvhere. İn a significant sense vvhat is i m p o r t a n t a b o u t t h e r e c o r d o f t h e N e a r E a s t in t h e T e t r a r c h i c period is precisely t h a t in c u l t u r a l a n d religious t e r m s it vvas n o t distinetive. A p a r t f r o m r a b b i n i c vvorks in A r a m a i c , vvhosc d a t e is o f t e n very u n c e r t a i n , a n d a c o u p l e o f m a r t y r - a c t s in S y r i a c , relating events

at

E d e s s a , o n l y the slightcst o f e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e e x p l i c i t l y reveals t h e p r e s e n c e o f a p o p u l a t i o n , vvithin a n d h e y o n d the ' f r o n t i e r ' , s p c a k i n g S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s . E v e n the G r e e k c u l t u r e o f t h e r e g i o n gives t h e s t r o n g i m p r e s s i o n o f h a v i n g b e c o m e , u n d e r the pressure a n d iııfluence o f t h e state, m o r e truly a G r a e c o R o m a n o n e , in vvhich R o m a n a n d L a t i n e l e m e n t s a r e very p r o m i n e n t . T h e physical r e c o r d o f the R o m a n f o r c e s , ereeting g r a n d i l o q u e n t l ^ t i n inseript i o n s , is m o r e evident thatı ever b e f o r e . E v e n t h e f o r m in vvhich m a n y o f t h e m a r t y r s o f t h e r e g i o n m e t their d e a t h vvas itself a R o m a n i m p o r t a t i o n , t h e vviid-beast shovv: s o f o r i n s t a n c e t h e t h r e e m a r t y r s a t E m e s a in M a x i m i n u s ' last y e a r b e c a m e ' f o o d f o r b e a s t s ' . " W i t h i n p a g a n c u l t u r e o n l y o n e city in t h e region a c t c d a s a m a j o r c c n t r c o f e d u c a t i o n , dravving y o u n g m e n f r o m o t h e r p r o v i n c e s : t h e L a t i n ' i s l a n d ' o f B e r y t u s , vvhere o n e c o u l d follovv l i b e r a l s t u d i e s a n d (in p a r t i c u l a r ) R o m a n lavv. Such y o u n g m e n m i g h t c o m e , like the f u n ı r e m a r t y r A p p h i a n u s , vvho r c c e i v e s a b r i e f b i o g r a p h y f r o m E u s e b i u s , f r o m a p r o m i n e n t family in I.ycia, 4 3 B u t o t h e r s c a m e , for i n s t a n c c , f r o m the p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a , t o d e v o t e t h e m s e l v e s a t B e r y t u s t o liberalia fessio

studia

and the

pro-

iuris.Sİ

O p p o r t u n i t i c s f o r p r e f e r m e n t in the Imperial s e r v i c e vvere ali t h e m o r e o b v i o u s p a r t l y because the R o m a n s t a t e h a d so visibly i m p l a n t e d itself in t h e region a n d h a d e x p a n d e d its f u n e t i o n s there. W e c a t c h an o d d glimpse o f t h a t in E u s e b i u s ' r e p o r t a b o u t D o r o t h e u s , a pricst a t A n t i o c h under the b i s h o p Cyrillus, in 2 8 1 - 3 0 3 : b e c a u s e h e vvas a e u n u c h b y birth, he vvon the f a v o u r o f the E m p e r o r , vvho placed h i m in c h a r g e o f t h e dye-vvorks a t T y r e . s s A s vvith the m i n e s a t P h a e n o , vve h a v e n o e v i d e n c e a s t o hovv l o n g the R o m a n s t a t e h a d o p e r a t e d a n y s u c h c s t a b l i s h m e n t s . B u t o n e such novv e x i s t e d , a n d vvith i t a p o s t f o r t h e E m p e r o r t o c o n f e r a s a favour. M e r e l y being procurator

of a

d ye-vvorks vvas, hovvever, a relaiively m o d e s t office. H i g h e r p o s t s vvere o p e n a l s o , a n d ali the m o r e so a s a r c s u l t o f t h e r e p e a t c d physical p r e s c n c c o f t h e E m p e r o r , his c o u r t a n d his a r m i e s . E v e n s e n a t o r i a l s t a t u s c o u l d b e c o m e q u i t e c o m m o n a m o n g the u p p e r e l a s s e s o f a n I m p e r i a l ' c a p i t a l ' like A n t i o c h . T h a t

5 2 . « E I X , 6, 1 . 5 3 . E u s e b i u s , MarL 5 4 . Cod.

Pal. 4 - 5 .

Jusl. X , 5 0 , ı . S c c M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

5 3 . HE V I I , 3 2 - 3 3 .

1 6 - 1 7 , a n d 8.4 belovv.

a t least is the i m p l i c a t i o n o f a muddled passage in M a l a l a s ' Chronicle,

vvhich

s e e m s b o t h t o coııflate the E m p e r o r s M a x i m i a n u s a n d M a x i m i n u s , in t a l k i n g o f a n E m p e r o r ' s return f r o m a n A r m e n i a n c a m p a i g n ( a p p a r e n t l y M a x i m i nus' c a m p a i g n in 3 1 2 ) , a n d t o c o n f u s e the d i p l o m a t i c g e s t u r e o f e x c h a n g i n g I m p e rial dress f o r t h e r o b e o f a p r e s i d e n t a t t h e c i t y ' s O I y m p i c g a m e s vvith a resi a c t o f a b d i c a t i o n . B u t a t ali events M a l a l a s r c c o r d s hovv b o t h c h i l d r e n and young men of R o m a n senatorial status performed at the games at Antioch i ı f r o n t o f t h e E m p e r o r . W e k n o v v t h a t M a x i m i n u s did fight an A r m e n i a n c a m paign in 3 1 2 , a n d did r e t u r n t o Syria a f t e r it, f o r the vvinter o f 3 1 2 / 3 1 3 . 5 * T h c inereased o p p o r t u n i t i c s f o r civilian a n d m i l i t a r y r a n k in thc I m p e r i a l system m i g h t n o t h a v e c r e a t e d f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m s f o r t h e cities i f the Emperors themselves h a d n o t , precisely in this p e r i o d , m a d e a series o f rulings vvhich p r o f o u n d l y a f f c c t c d t h c t r i p a r t i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f individuals, their cities a n d the s t a t e . 5 7 In e s s e n c e t h e E m p e r o r s c h o s e t o revvard t h o s e in I m p e rial service vvith i m m u n i t y f r o m city o b l i g a t i o n s , n o t as b e f o r e m e r e l y during their service, b u t for life, as a privilegc o f r a n k . It vvas thus these d e c i s i o n s vvhich c r e a t e d the c h a r a c t c r i s t i c t e n s i o n visible in t h c f o u r t h century, vvhereb)' I m p e r i a l service b e c a m e a p r i z e d e s c a p e - r o u t e vvhich t h e E m p e r o r s t h e m s e l v e s m a d e r e p e a t e d e f f o r t s t o c o n t r o l . T h e e f f e c t s h a d been felt i m m e d i a t e l y , hovvever. T h c Codex

o f J u s t i n i a n c o n t a i n s thc f r a g m e n t a r y r e c o r d o f a hearing

b e f o r e D i o c l e t i a n in p e r s o n , in vvhich t h c issue o f r a n k a n d e x e m p t i o n vvas evideııtly raised b y a d e p u t a t i o n f r o m A n t i o c h . T h e tvvo m a i n figures, E i r m i n u s a n d A p o l l i ı ı a r i u s ( p e r h a p s the duovirilstrategoi n a m e d , vvith t h e o t h e r İ c a d i n g citizcns (pritıcipales)

o f the colonia?),

are

in a t t e n d a n c e . It is thus

p r o b a b l e , b u t n o t c e r t a i n , t h a t t h e h e a r i n g t o o k p l a c e in A n t i o c h itself. A speech in G r e e k , o f vvhich o n l y f r a g m e n t a r y t r a c e s r e m a i n , vvas m a d e o n bch a l f o f t h e d e p u t a t i o n b y o n e S a b i n u s . D i o c l c t i a n then replicd: ' T o c c r t a i ı ı r a n k s (dignitates) (munera)

e x c m p t i o n (indulgentia)

f r o m city a n d p e r s o n a l o b l i g a t i o n s

h a s been g r a n t e d b y us: t h a t is, t o t h o s e vvho a r e ex-praefecti

o r ex-

praepositi.

T h e s e t h e r e f o r e vvill not b c s u m m o n e d t o p e r f o r m p e r s o n a l o r city

munera\si

T h c d e p u t a t i o n m u s t h a v e been laying c l a i m t o t h c s c r v i c e s o f citi-

z e n s o f A n t i o c h vvho h a d risen t o these m i l i t a r y r a n k s a n d then r e t i r e d . T h e y received a negative ansvver vvhich, a l o n g vvith s i m i l a r rulings r e l a t i n g t o o t h e r p o s t s a n d r a n k s , vvas d r a m a t i c a l l y t o r e d u c e thc p o o l o f local propcrty-ovvners o n vvhom t h e c i t i e s c o u l d d e p e n d . T h e e l o s e r i n t e g r a t i o n o f s t a t e a n d c i t y — o r t h e c o m p c t i t i o n o f s t a t e a n d city f o r the services o f i n d i v i d u a l s — t h u s had c o n s e q u e n c e s a l m o s t as p r o f o u n d as t h o s e o f the

fluetuating

efforts o f the

$6. Malalas, Cbron. 311, rıff.; scc Eusebius, HE IX, 8, 2; 4 (Armenian vvar). 57. For what follovvs scc F. Millar, "Empire and City, Augustus to jutian: Obligations, Excuscs and Status",/RS 73 (1983), 76. 5 8 . Cod. Just. X , 4 8 , 2 .

s t a t e in first p e r s e c u t i n g t h e C h u r e h a n d t h e n r e s t o r i n g it. T h e C h r i s t i a n i s e d N e a r E a s t vvhich w o u l d r a p i d l y e m e r g e in the f o l I o w i n g d e c a d e s , vvith b i s h o p s p r i v i l c g c d by t h e s u p p o r t o f E m p e r o r s a n d t h e i r offıcials, c h u r c h e s f o r the first t i m e rising a s p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s , a n d A e l i a C a p i t o l i n a t r a n s f o r m c d i n t o a c c n t r c o f C h r i s t i a n p i l g r i m a g e , a d o r n e d with m o n u m e n t s b u i l t by t h e

Emperor,

vvould itself be a f u n e t i o n o f t h e i n e r e a s e d a m b i t i o n s a n d e v e r m o r e v i s i b l e p r e s c ı ı c c o f the I m p e r i a l s t a t e .

5.3. U C 1 N I U S A N D CONSTANTİNE, AD

313-337:

R E T R O S P E C T F R O M A CHRISTIANTSF.D

EMPİRE

T h e r e vvas p e r h a p s n o p e r i o d vvhen the i m p a c t o f the R o m a n s t a t e , o r m o r e p r e c i s e l y o f the vvill o f s u c c e s s i v e E m p e r o r s , vvas felt m o r e a c u r e l y in the N e a r E a s t t h a n in t h e q u a r t e r o f a c e n t u r y vvhich follovved L i c i n i u s ' p r o c l a m a t i o n o f 3 1 3 , in t h e n a m e o f C o n s t a n t i n e a n d h i m s e l f , t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y vvould b e t o l e r a t e d , a n d C h r i s t i a n p r o p e r t y r e s t o r e d . L i c i n i u s ' first s t e p vvas t o c o m e t o Antioch and torture to dearh T h e o t e c n u s , the leader o f the p a g a n revival u n der M a x i m i n u s . ' Yet vvhat vve k n o v v o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f the N e a r E a s t iti this p e r i o d is l a r g c l y c o n f i n c d t o t h e c o n s c q u c n c c s o f t h a t p r o c l a m a t i o n , i t s p a r t i a l r e v e r s a l in the l a t e r y e a r s o f L i c i n i u s a n d its d e c i s i v e r e i n s t a t e m e n t b y C o n s t a n t i n e a f t e r his d e f e a t o f L i c i n i u s in 3 2 4 . Even m o r e c l e a r l y , a s t r i c t l y m i l i t a r y h i s t o r y o f t h e p e r i o d c a n n o t be vvritten. \Vc h a v e n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n Imperial victory titles to suggest that Licinius m a y have fought a c a m p a i g n o n the e a s t e r n f r o n t in 3 1 3 o r 3 1 4 ; 2 f r o m t h e n o n , s o f a r a s vve knovv, t h e r e vvas a s t a n d s t i l l in

fighting

u n t i l n e a r t h e e n d o f C o n s t a n t i n c ' s r e i g n . It vvas

o n l y j u s t b e f o r e his d c a t h t h a t a n i n v a s i o n o f t h e e a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s , o f vvhich vve knovv n o d e t a i l s , vvas r e p o r t e d t o t h e E m p e r o r a t C o n s t a n t i n o p l e ; a n d h e vvas p r e p a r i n g a n e x p e d i t i o n a g a i n s t the P e r s i a n s vvhen he died n e a r N i c o m c d i a in 3 3 7 . L o o k e d a t in a l o n g e r p e r s p e e t i v e , t h a t u n f u l f i l l e d i n t e n t i o n c a n b e s e e n b o t h a s the c u l m i n a t i o n o f a t e n d e n c y vvhich h a d shovvn itself e v e r

more

clearly over the prcccding ccnturies a n d as a foretaste of the repeated e a m p a i g n s a n d m u t u a l i n v a s i o n s vvhich vvere t o m a r k the follovving d e c a d e s . F o r the a c c o u n t in E u s e b i u s s i m p l y p r e s u p p o s e s the l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d rule t h a t m a j ö r e a m p a i g n s r e q u i r e d the p r e s c n c c o f the E m p e r o r in p e r s o n . M o r e o v c r , f o r ali t h e C h r i s t i a n c o l o u r i n g o f h i s d e p i c t i o n o f the r o l e o f E m p e r o r as C o n s t a n t i n c i n t e r p r e t e d it, F l u s e b i u s stili i n c o r p o r a t e s vvithin it o n e o f t h e m o s t vivid o f ali e x p r c s s i o n s o f R o m a n i m p e r i a l i s m , a n d o n e vvhich by i m p l i c a t i o n

x. E u s e b i u s , HE I X , i r , 5 - 6 . 2 . B a r n e s , New

Empire,

81.

e x p r e s s e s a s ciearly as a n y t h i n g else iıı o u r e v i d e n c e t h e I m p e r i a l d a i m t o the heritagc o f Alexander: A b o u t this time a m b a s s a d o r s from the Indians, w h o inhabit the distant regions o f the East, arrived with presents consisting of many varieties o f brilliant precious stones, a n d animals differiııg in species from

those

kıtown t o us. T h e s e offerings they presented t o the emperor, thus a l l o w i n g that his sovercignty c x t e n d c d even t o the indian O c e a n , and that the princes o f their country, \vho rendered homage t o him both by paintings and statues, acktıovvledged his imperial and p a r a m o u n t authority. T h u s the Eastcrn Indians novv submittcd t o his svvay, as the Britons o f the Western O c e a n had done at the c o m m e n c e m e n t o f his reign. B u t ı ı o w o f c o u r s e a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t e l e m e n t c o u l d a l s o enter the l a n g u a g e o f i m p e r i a l d i p l o m a c y . F o r s o m e t i m e e a r l i e r — v v h e n is n o t c l e a r — C o n s t a n t i n e had r c p l i c d t o an e m b a s s y f r o m S h a p u r II ( 5 0 9 - 3 7 4 ) b y vvriting a l e t t e r ir. vvhich he represented himself as the p r o t e e t o r o f t h e C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s ir. P e r s i a . 4 In spring 3 3 7 a f u r t h e r e m b a s s y arrived, on h e a r i n g o f C o n s t a n t i n e ' s p r e p a r a t i o n s for his c a m p a i g n , o f f e r c d t e r m s a n d , i f vve m a y believe E u s e b i u s , had them acceptcd.5 If p e a c e vvas then m a d e , ir vvas n o t t o last l o n g . F o r vvar b r o k e o u t i m m e d i a t e l y after, a n d these e x c h a n g e s vvere in reality t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e r e p e a t c c conflicts vvhich vvere t o d o m i n a t e the m i d d l e d e c a d e s o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , a n d t o f o r m o n e o f the c e n t r a l s u b j e c t s o f A m m i a n u s ' great History.

B u t i f the

a m b i t i o n f o r e a s t e r n c o n q u e s t s vvas s o n ı e t h i n g vvhich vvent b a c k even b e f o r e t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , t o t h e c a m p a i g n s o f L u c u l l u s a n d l ' o m p e y , the m i l i t a r y s t r u e t u r e o f the R o m a n E m p i r e in t h e E a s t , a s A m m i a n u s vvas t o d e s e r i b e it, vvas a l m o s t e x a c t l y t h a t vvhich h a d r e a c h e d its c u l m i n a t i o n in t h e T e t r a r c h i c period. T h a t is t o say, an a r m y s t r e t e h e d o u t , in relatively small units, p e r h a p s n o n e o f m o r e than s o m e fifteen h u n d r e d m e n e a c h , a n d o c c u p y i n g f o r t i f i e c cities, fortresses a n d s m a l l f o r t s on a litıe f r o m t h e T i g r i s t o the R e d S e a at Aila. S o far a s vve knovv, this s y s t e m a l t c r e d very littlc u n d e r the rule o f L i c i n i u s a n d C o n s t a n t i n e . T h e o n l y r e a l c h a n g e s t h a t a r e recorded b e l o n g a t t h e very e n d o f C o n s t a n t i n e ' s reign, in t h e period from 3 3 5 o r 3 3 6 vvhen h i s s o n C o n s t a n t i u s , a s Caesar, vvas in c o m m a n d o f t h e E a s t t o c o n f r o n t Persian r a i d s ; hc s e e m s , as vve vvould c x p c c t , t o h a v e used A n t i o c h a s his c a p i t a l . It vvas f r o m 3 . E u s e b i u s , VC

I V , 5 0 , t r a n s . E . C . R i c h a r d s o n i n Nicene

and Pnst-Niçene

Fathers

s * r . 2..

vol. I (1890). 4. E u s e b i u s , VC IV, 8 - 1 3 . S e e T . D . B a r n e s " C o n s t a n t i n e a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n s of P e r s i a " , / R S

75 (1985), j . E u s e b i u s , V C I V , 5 7 ( c h a p t e r - h e a d i ı ı g ) ; s e e B a r n e s , o p . cit., 1 3 1 .

t h e r e t h a t he rettırned o n h e a r i n g o f the last illness o f C o n s t a n t i n e in t h e spring o f 3 3 7 / It vvas in this c o n t e x t t h a t t h e last a t t e s t e d phase o f t h e f o r t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e f r o n t i e r t o o k place, a l o n g the u p p e r Tigris in the a r e a gained b y t h e t r e a t y o f 2 9 8 o r 2 9 9 . O n e p l a c e c o n c e r n e d vvas t h e h i t h e r t o s m a l l tovvn o f A m i d a , o n the right b a n k o f t h e T i g r i s , a n d ııorth o f t h e Tur A h d i n . A m m i a n u s d e s e r i b e s Constaııtius' measures: This city \vas o n c c very small, but Constanrius, vvhen hc vvas stili a Caesar, in order that the neighbours (accolae)

might have a secure place of refuge,

at the same time that he builı another city called Antoninupolis, surrounded Amida vvith strong vvalls a n d tovvers; and by establishing there an armoury o f mural artillery, he made it a terror to the enemy, and vvished

iı t o be called after his ovvn n a m e . 7 It is very likely t h a t a R o m a n c i r c u i t d o e s indeed underlie the m a s s i v e n ı e d i eval vvalls o f A m i d a ( D i y a r b a k i r ) . B u t there is n o o t h e r e v i d e n c e t h a t it vvas c a l l e d C o n s t a n t i a o r C o n s t a n t i ı ı a . T h a t m a y b e a c o n f u s i o n vvith the o t h e r place vvhich he m e n t i o n s , surely t h e s a m e a s the ' T e l a , f o r m e r l y c a l l e d A n t i p o lis' ( p e r h a p s ' A n t o n i n o p o l i s ' ) , vvhich the s i x t h - c e n t u r y Chronicle

of

Edessa

says vvas built by C o n s t a n t i u s ; b u t vvlıether it vvas a l s o t h e s a m e p l a c e as t h e ' M a x i m i a n o p o l i s o f O s r h o e n c ' w h i c h M a l a l a s says t h a t C o n s t a n t i n e r e b u i l t a n d called C o n s t a n t i n a , vve c a n h a r d l y decide. H T h e p l a c e c o n c e r n e d , p e r h a p s novv called C o n s t a n t i a o r C o n s t a n t i n a , m a y vvell be Viranşehir, 011 t h e r o a d a l o n g t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n shelf f r o m E d e s s a t o N i s i b i s , for a l a t c - R o m a n c i r c u i t o f vvalls is stili visible t h e r e . İn a n y c a s e A m m i a n u s ' vvhole narrative p r e s ents t h e defensive system o f R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a a s d e p e n d i n g on fortifıed cities o r tovvns: A m i d a , B e z a b d c n e a r the T i g r i s , N i s i b i s , S i n g a r a . * B u t A m m i a n u s , a s vve h a v e s c c n , a l s o c o n c e i v e d o f the rest o f the f r o n t i e r — C i r c e s i u m o n t h e E u p h r a t e s , fortified by D i o c l e t i a n , a n d t h e vvalled c i t i e s o f A r a b i a — i n the s a m e t e r m s . 1 0 A m m i a n u s , a R o m a n offıcer a n d a native o f A n t i o c h , b o r n tovvards 3 3 0 , m u s t be o u r best w i t n c s s t o this final s t a g c o f the e v o l u t i o n o f t h e m i i i t a r y s t r u e t u r e o f R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a , b e f o r e t h e loss o f its e a s t e r n s e c t i o n in 3 6 3 . If vve vvere t o d e p e n d on his t e s t i m o n y , vve vvould see C o n s t a n t i u s ' m e a s u r e s a s Caesar

u n d e r his f a t h e r C o n s t a n t i n e n o t as a revcrsal

but as t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f D i o c l c t i a n ' s f o r t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e frontier. So far as t h e N e a r E a s t is c o n c e r n e d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o s u p p o r t t h e hostile g e n e r a l i s a t i o n later m a d e by Z o s i m u s : t h a t C o n s t a n t i n e o v e r 6. Z o n a r a s X I I I , 4 . 7 . A m m i a n u s XVIII, 9, 1, Loeb u a n s . 8. F o r ı h e Chronicle

of Edessa

9. Scc J . M a t t h c v v s , The 1 0 . Scc 5 . 1 a b o v e .

Roman

see r 2.3 a n d A p p . C belovv; M a l a l a s , Chron. Empire

of Ammianus

(1989), csp. 51 ff.

32.3.

t u r n e d D i o c l e t i a u ' s policy o f putting his f o r c e s in fortified cities a l o n g the f r o n t i e r s , a n d vvithdrcvv t h e m into the intcrior. 1 1 T h o u g h t h e earliest d o c u m e n t distinguishing h c t w e c n t r o o p s w h o w e r e comitatenses a r m y ) on t h e o n e h a n d a n d ripenses

(serving in a fîeld-

(frontier-soldiers) on the o t h e r b e l o n g s

t o 3 2 5 , 1 2 there is n o e v i d e n c e t o illustrate a n y c o r r c s p o ı ı d i n g division o f f u n c t i o n on t h e g r o u n d in t h e N e a r E a s t in this p e r i o d . N o r c a n o t h e r g c n e r a l i j a t i o n s m a d e by Z o s i m u s be c o n f i r m e d . F o r i n s t a n c e , on h i s vievv it vvas C o n s t a n t i n e vvho c r e a t e d the r e g i o n a l m i i i t a r y c o m m a n d e r s , militum,

o r equitum

o r peditum

called

nıagistri

( ' m a s t c r o f the soldiers', o r ' o f t h e c a v a l r y '

o r ' o f t h e i n f a n t r y ' ) . B u t n o n c h a p p e n t o b c a t t e s t e d in the E a s t until t h e 3 50S. Z o s i m u s s a w t h a t c h a n g e as a f u n e t i o n o f a n o t h e r , vvhereby t h e P r a e t o r i a n Prefects lost their m i i i t a r y c o m m a n d s (vvhich in fact t h e y h a d n e v e r h a d , in the sense o f c o m m a n d i n g vvhole a r m i e s ) , b c c a m c responsible o n l y f o r t a x a t i o n a n d m i i i t a r y supplies a n d h a d their responsibilities divided on a r e g i o n a l basis. 1 3 B u t again he seems t o be r e t r o j e e t i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s vvhich did in fset c o m e i n t o b c i n g in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , b u t vvere o n l y in their initial s t a g e s u n d e r C o n s t a n t i n e . E v e n a t the e n d o f C o n s t a n t i n e ' s reign o n l y the p r o v i n c e s o f A f r i c a vvere u n d e r a g e n u i n c r e g i o n a l P r a e t o r i a n P r e f e c t . T h e f o u r o t h e r P r a e t o r i a n P r e f e c t s knovvn t o h a v e been in office a t this t i m e s e c m ali t o h a v e been serving vvith o n e o r a n o t h e r o f the E m p e r o r s : vvith C o n s t a n t i n e h i m s e l f as Augustus,

a n d vvith the then Caesares,

Constantius, Con-

s t a n t i n u s , C o n s t a n s a n d D a l m a t i u s . T h e P r a e t o r i a n P r e f e c t vvho vvas w i t h C o n s t a n t i u s in t h e E a s t , a p p a r e n t l y b a s c d a t A n t i o c h , m a y p e r h a p s h a v e b e e n a C h r i s t i a n f r o m C r e t e o f h u m b l e b i r t h , Flavius A b l a b i u s . T h e r e a r e m a n y u n c e r t a i n t i e s . B u t as it l ı a p p e n s , vve k n o w t h a t t h e r e vvere five o f t h e m in 3 3 6 , f o r t h e vvhole g r o u p is r e c o r d e d in a G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n o n a s t a t u e - b a s e f r e m A n t i o c h c r c c t c d in t h a t y e a r a n d r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e Caesar C o n s t a n t i n u s : Papius P a c a t i a n u s ( p r o b a b l y vvith C o n s t a n s ) , F l a v i u s A b l a b i u s , Valerius F e l i x , A n nius T ı b e r i a n u s (the f a t l ı e r o f S a i n t A m b r o s e , then in G a u l vvith t h e

Caesar

C o n s t a n t i n u s ) a n d N c s t o r i u s T i m o n i a n u s . But vvhether it vvas he o r A b l a b i u s vvho vvas serving vvith C o n s t a n t i u s , a n d if s o vvho (if a n y o n e ) vvas vvith C o n stantine himself, remains mysterious.14 In spite, o r perhaps even b e c a u s e , o f s u c h puzzles, this d o c u m e n t is n o t an u n s u i t a b l e s y m b o l o f the s t a g e in the c v o l u t i o n o f the l a t e - R o m a n

systcm

vvhich h a d been r e a c h e d b y 3 3 6 , a s seen f r o m A n t i o c h . F o r i f s o m e o f the details it c o n v e y s r e m a i n u n c l e a r , it stili o f f e r s a s n a p s h o t o f t h e highest level

ı x . Z o s i m u s II, 3 4 .

TI. Cod. Theod. VII, 20, 4. 1 3 . Z o s i m u s II, 3 3 . 1 4 . D . F c i s s c l , " U n c d c d i c a c e c ı ı l ' h o n n c u r d c C o n s t a n l i n II C c s a r cr les p r e f e t s d u p r c t o i r c dc 3 3 6 " , Traı>jux

el memoires

9 ( 1 9 8 5 ) , 4 2 1 . AE ( 1 9 8 5 ) , n o . 8 2 3 ; SEG

X X X V , 110. 1 4 8 4 .

o f t h e l a t e - R o m a n a d m i ı ı i s t r a t i v e h i e r a r c h y at a m o m e n t w l ı e n it w a s stili i n t h e c o u r s e o f f o r m a t i o n ; a n d it r e p r e s e n t s i t s e l f a s t h e p r o d u e t o f a c o l l c g e o f five P r c f c c t s , ali vvith s e n a t o r i a l r a n k , v v i t h o u t m a k i n g it e x p l i c i t t h a t t h e y vvere s c a t t e r e d o v e r t h e d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s o f t h e E m p i r e . B u t in a n o t h e r s e n s e it is a p e r f e c t l y t y p i c a l p r o d u e t o f t h e p u b l i c life o f a G r e e k city, i n b e i n g a s t a t u e - b a s e i n s e r i b e d in G r e e k

and carrying a representation

of a

distant

Emperor. T h o u g h t h e s t r u e t u r e o f t h e E m p i r e vvas t h u s in t h e p r o c c s s o f t r a n s f o r m a tion, t h e pattern o f t h e civil g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e p r o v i n c e s o f the N e a r E a s t , like the m i l i t a r y d i s p o s i t i o n s t h e r e , seems to h a v e r e m a i n e d in t h e f o r m e s t a b l i s h c d b y t h e T e t r a r e h y . A g a i n , vve c a n s e e t h a t s t r u e t u r e , a s it vvas a fevv d e c a d e s l a t e r , in a b r i l l i a n t s k e t e h o f f c r e d b y A m m i a n u s . 1 5 B y t h e n , a n d p e r h a p s a l r e a d y u n d e r C o n s t a n t i n e , O s r h o e n e vvas a p r o v i n c e s e p a r a t e f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a ( b o t h a r r a n g e m e n t s a p p e a r at d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s i n t h e t h i r d c c n t u r y ) ; a n d the n o r t h - e a s t e r n part o f Syria C o e l e , a l o n g the E u p h r a t e s , had b y A m m i a n u s ' t i m e b e c o m e t h e p r o v i n c e o f ' E u p h r a t e n s i s ' , vvhich i n e l u d e d t h e tvvo m a j ö r cities o f H i e r a p o l i s a n d S a m o s a t a . A m m i a n u s ' vivid d e s e r i p t i o n o f t h e e a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s t h e n lists ' S y r i a ' , vvith A n t i o c h a s i t s m o s t f a m o u s c i t y , b u t

also

vvith l . a o d i c e a , A p a m e a a n d S e l c u c i a ( t h u s t h e c i t y f o u n d a t i o n s b y S e l e u c u s N i c a t o r , t o vvhom A m m i a n u s h a s j u s t r e f e r r e d , s t i l i d o m i n a n t i n t h e a r e a ) . N c x t c o m e s tlıc province o f P h o e n i c e 'lying against M o u n t L e b a n o t ı ' , a n d c o n t a i n i n g t h e c i t i e s o f T y r c , S i d o n , B e r y r u s , E m e s a a n d D a m a s c u s (a d i v i s i o n into 'Phoenice'—paradoxically

the eastern p a r t — a n d ' P h o e n i c e I.ibani'

or

' A u g u s t a L i b a n e n s i s ' , p r e s e n t in s o m e lists, is u n k n o v v n t o A m m i a n u s ) . T h e n c o m e s P a l a e s t i n a , vvith C a e s a r e a , E l e u t h c r o p o l i s , N e a p o l i s , A s c a l o n a n d G a z a ( J e r u s a l e m is m e n t i o n e d o n l y a s h a v i n g b e e n t a k e n b y P o m p c y ) ; a n d f i n a l l y A r a b i a , vvith t h e vvalled c i t i e s o f B o s t r a , G e r a s a a n d P h i l a d e l p h i a . T h i s A m m i a n u s vvas t h e Orientis

limes,

to

'the frontier-zonc o f the East', startiııg i n

the n o r t h at M o u n t A m a n u s , stretehing from the E u p h r a t e s t o the n e i g h b o u r h o o d o f t h e N i l e , a n d b o r d e r e d o n o n e s i d e b y t h e Saracenae

gentes

and on

t h e o t h e r b y t h e s e a . T h o u g h , i n t r u e G r a e c o - R o m a n f a s h i o n , h e savv t h e p r e s e n c e o f G r e e k c i t i e s a s t h e p r i m a r y c h a r a c t c r i s t i c o f a n y a r e a , h e vvas n o n e t h e l e s s avvare o f o t h e r a n d o l d e r e l e m e n t s in t h e c u l t u r c o f t h e r e g i o n : h e n o t e s that D a m a s c u s had been ' f o ı u ı d e d in ancient times'. J u s t before, he also gives a vivid g e n e r a l a c c o u n t o f S e l e u c u s ' c i t y - f o u n d a t i o n s a n d their r e l a t i o n the present:

For by t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f t h e great n u m b e r o f m e n vvhom h e ruled for a loııg time i n p c a c e , in p l a c e o f t h e i r rusric dvvellings h c built c i t i c s o f g r e a t s t r c n g t h a n d a b u n d a n t vvcalth; a n d m a n y o f t h e s e , a l t h o u g h they a r c novv c a l l c d b y t h e G r e e k n a m e s vvhich vvere i m p o s e d on t h e m b y t h e vvill o f 1 5 . A m m i a n u s X I V , 8, 5 - 1 3 , L o c b t r a n s .

to

their foutıder, nevertheless have not lost the old appellations in the Assyrian tonguc which thc original scttlers g a v c them. A m m i a n u s ' v i c w vvas, f r o m o u r s t a n d p o i n t , a d o u b l y r e t r o s p e e t i v e o n e , set in his n a r r a t i v e o f t h c 3 5 0 S , b u t vvritten a t least t h r e e d e c a d e s later. C o n temporary evidence for the early decades o f the century can provide n o coıtıp a r a b l c p i c t u r e (and a b o v e a l i t h e regime h e r e o f L i c i n i u s is h a r d l y knovvn at ali). W h a t evidcncc vve h a v e shovvs hovv thc o p e r a t i o n s o f t h c s t a t e vvere inf o r m e d by q u i t e nevv p r i o r i t i e s : hostility t o p a g a n p r a c t i c e , the e n f o r c c m c n t o f C h r i s t i a n m o r a l i t y a n d t h e g l o r i f î c a t i o n o f rhe C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h . O n l y a fevv i l l u s t r a t i o n s vvill bc n c e d c d here; a e l o s e r l o o k a t vvhat the i n n o v a t i o n s a n d conflicts o f C o n s t a n t i n e ' s reign c a n teli us a b o u t t h e c u l t u r e o f the r e g i o n b e f o n g s m u c h later. But fevv i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e region c a n h a / e been left unavvare o f t h e nevv uses t o vvhich t h e a p p a r a t u s o f t h e s t a t e vvas novv b e i n g p u t . S o m e p a g a n s m i g h t s u b s c q u c n t l y h a v e felt t h a t t h e y e n v i e d t h e m a n a n d vvife, f r o m f a m i l i e s vvith m i x e d G r e e k a n d S e m i t i c n a m e s , w h o c r c c t c d an e l a b o r a t e t o m b f o r t h e m s e l v e s a t a village in the l i m e s t o n e m a s s i f , north of Apamea: In year 6 3 6 , 011 the ı ı s t o f Artemisios, Abedrapsos son of Dionysios a n d A m a t h b a b c a daughter o f Eupolcmos, his vvife, finished the t o m b , having shared life chccrfully, and they paid their vovvs t o their anccstral gods. B c o f g o o d eheer, soul; no o n e is i m m o r t a l ! " T h e t o m b vvas c o m p l e t e d in M a y 3 2 5 , t h e y e a r a f t e r C o n s t a n t i n e ' s victory o v e r L i c i n i u s — a n d e x a c t l y a t the m o m e n t vvhen s c v c r a l h u n d r e d b i s h o p s w e r e m e e t i n g for the C o u n c i l o f N i c a e a . W h a t C o n s t a n t i n e ' s t r i u m p h vvas t o m e a n vvas p r o e l a i m e d in the g r e a t e s t detail t h r o u g h o u t the e a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s . A g e n e r a l letter t o the p r o v i n c i a l s , d e c l a r i n g thc E m p e r o r ' s p e r s o n a l m i s s i o n as a C h r i s t i a n , a n d thc r e s t o r a t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n p e r s o n s a n d property, vvas follovvcd by a n o t h e r d e n o u n c i n g the e r r o r s o f idolatry, t h o u g h c o m m a n d i n g m u t u a l t o l e r a n c e . 1 7 T h e r e s o u r c e s o f the s t a t e vvere placed at t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f t h c b i s h o p s f o r the building a n d a d o r n m e n t o f c h u r c h e s : E u s e b i u s himself, a t C a e s a r e a , like o t h e r b i s h o p s , r c c c i v c d a letter instrueting h i m t o d r a w thc ııecessary ı n a t e r i a l s ' f r o m t h e g o v e r n o r s (that is, the praesides) f c c t u r a l s r a f f ' ( t h c officc o f t h e Vicarius

and the prae-

o f O r i c n s ) . I K T h e nevv, tvvo-lcvel srruc-

t u r c o f civilian a d m i n i s t r a t i o n is visible again vvhen E u s e b i u s deseribes hovv C o n s t a n t i n e i n s t r u c t c d M a c a r i u s , t h c b i s h o p o f J e r u s a l e m , t o set a b o u t the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f thc C h u r c h o f t h c I l o l y S c p u l c h r c : ' A n d a s r e g a r d s t h c c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d a d o r n m e n t o f t h c vvalls, bc i n f o r m c d t h a t t h c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y has 16. f G L S I V , n o . 1 4 0 9 , cf. 1 4 1 0 - 1 4 1 1 . 1 7 . E u s e b i u s , V C I I , 24—44; 4 8 — 6 0 . 18. V C ıı,

46.

b e e n e n t r u s t e d by us t o o u r amicus a n d t o t h e praeses

D r a e i l i a n u s , t h e Vicarius

o f the P r e f e c t s ,

o f t h e p r o v i n c e ' . 1 9 D r a e i l i a n u s ' p r e d e c e s s o r vvas p e r h a p s

the M a x i m u s vvho in 3 2 5 r c c c i v e d instruetions o n the c o n d i t i o n s under vvhich tovvn-councillors m i g h t b e aliovvcd t o enter the army, p o s t e d a t A n t i o c h in J u l y o f that y e a r ; 2 0 in the a u t u m n he received a n o t h e r , s u b s t i t u t i n g , as a p u n i s h m e n t f o r c r i m i n a l s , service in the metalla,

instead o f the ' b l o o d y s p e c t a c l e s '

o f being f o r c c d t o fight a s g l a d i a t o r s . T h i s vvas p o s t e d a t Berytus o n the first o f O c t o b e r 3 2 5 . 2 1 T h e m o t i v a t i o n f o r t h e b a n vvas c l c a r l y C h r i s t i a n , a n d in this stili very K o m a n colonia

t h e p r o h i b i t i o n vvill h a v e been

particularly

relevant. E q u a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e , b u t in a q u i t c different vvay, vvere t h e o r d e r s vvhich C o n s t a n t i n e gave t o h a v e t h e p r a c t i c e o f c a s t r a t i o n b a n n e d in M e s o p o t a m i a : a n y slave vvho h a d s u f f e r e d this vvas t o b e c o n f i s c a t e d f r o m his ovvner, a l o n g vvith the p r o p e r t y vvhere it h a d b e e n carried o u t . T h e o r d e r vvas a d d r e s s e d , a t a n unknovvn d a t e , n o t t o a civil g o v e r n o r b u t t o the dux o f M e s o p o t a m i a — a s it h a p p e n s , t h e o n l y dux in o f f i c e in the N e a r Kast in these y c a r s vvho c a n b e idcntificd. 2 2 T h e practice c a n n o t h a v e been vvholly u n r e l a t e d t o that o f selfc a s t r a t i o n , vvhich a king A b g a r h a d b a n n e d in E d e s s a in the S e v e r a n p e r i o d , p e r h a p s a s p a r t o f a p o l i c y o f c o m p c l l i n g his s u b j e c t s t o follovv R o m a n c u s t o m s . 2 3 If s o , C h r i s t i a n a n d t r a d i t i o n a l R o m a n ideals a n d n o r m s f o r o n c e t e n d c d in the s a m e d i r e e t i o n ,

as a p p l i e d t o this p r e d o m i n a n t l y

Syriac-

speakitıg r e g i o n . In g e n e r a l , hovvever, C o n s t a n t i n e ' s C h r i s t i a n i s i n g n ı e a s u r c s a n d legisİ3tion c o n s t i t u t c d a r c v o l u t i o n a r y r c v e r s a l o f t h e previous values a n d o b j e e t i v e s o f the state. T h i s is n o t t h e p l a c e f o r a r e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e vvider i m p a c t on p a g a n s o c i e t y a n d p a g a n cults o f C o n s t a n t i n e ' s Christian m i s s i o n ; m a n y a s p e c ı s o f t h i s — a b o v e ali, the i n t e n d e d s c o p e a n d the a e t u a l effectiveness o f his a t t e s t e d b a n on s a c r i f i c e — r e m a i n in a n y c a s c highly c o n t r o v e r s i a l . N o r is it r e l e v a n t here t o follovv t h e c o m p l e x h i s t o r y o f t h e Arian q u c s t i o n a s it a f f c c t e d t h e c h u r c h e s o f this r e g i o n , o r the a l m o s t e q u a l l y c o m p l e x issues s u r r o u n d i n g t h e b i s h o p r i c o f A n t i o c h . B u t t h r e e a s p e c t s o f the f u n d a m e ı ı t a l l y c h a n g e d n a t u r e o f the r e l a t i o n s o f state a n d s u b j e c t , as t h e y unfolded in this r e g i o n , d o d e serve menıion. T h e first is t h e C o u n c i l o f N i c a e a in 3 2 5 , not o n l y b e c a u s e o f its h i s t o r i c significance, b u t b e c a u s c it follovved s o c l o s c l y o n C o n s t a n t i n e ' s d e f e a t o f I.ici nius, a n d m e a n t the sudden e l e v a t i o n o f a long Üst o f local b i s h o p s t o t h e

1 9 . VC III, 3 0 - 3 2 . 1 0 . Cod.

Tbeod.

XII, 1 , 1 0 .

z ı . Cod.

Tbeod.

X V , 1 , a n d Cod.

2 1 . Cod. Just.

IV, 42, 1.

2 3 . 3.4 a b o v e a n d 1 2 . 5 belovv.

Just.

X I , 4 4 , 1.

v i s i b l e s t a t u s o f I m p e r i a l f a v o u r i t e s . I n v i c w o f t h e c o n f l i c t s v v h i c h h a d alvvays a r i s e n ö v e r t h e d e m a ı ı d s o f o f f i c i a l t r a v e l l e r s , it vvill h a v e b e e n o n e o f t h e m o s t d c e p l y fclt s y m b o l s o f e h a n g e that t h e letter s u m m o n i n g t h e b i s h o p s to N i c a e a g a v c t h e m t h c right t o use t h c I m p e r i a l transport-servicc.24 W c s h o u l d

not

u n d e r e s t i m a t e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s . F o r t h e list o f b i s h o p s vvho c a m e f r o m the N e a r E a s t e r n provinces p r o v i d e s a roll-call o f the u r b a n c o m m u n i t i e s o f t h c r e g i o n (as vvell a s r a i s i n g t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o v v h e t h e r ali t h e p l a c c s n a m e d c a n really have been independent

poleis).

T h e list, t l ı o u g h i n c o m p l e t e a n d s u b j e c t t o m a n y p r o b l e n ı s , m a y n o n e t h e l c s s g i v e a n i m p r e s s i o n o f vvhat t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t 'vvas' in 3 1 5 . T h e f o l lovving p l a c c s vvere r e p r e s e n t e d : 2 5 F r o m Syria C o e l e : A n t i o c h , Seleucia, l a o d i c e a a n d A p a m e a (Seleucus Nicator's four majör foundations); Hierapolis, Saınosata, Neocaesarea (appare n t l y a s m a l l p l a c c o n t h c E u p h r a t e s ) , D o l i c h c a n d Z e u g m a in t h c C o m m a g e n ian region; B a l a n e a e a n d G a b a l a on t h e coast; I.arissa, F.piphania

(Harr.a),

A r e t h u s a a n d R a p h a n e a e ( a p p a r e n t l y novv d e t a c h e d f r o m P l ı o e n i c e ) i n t h e O r o n t e s V a l l e y ; C y r r h u s , G i n d a r u s a n d G e r m a n i c i a in t h c n o r t h , a s vvell a s a n u n i d e n t i f i a b l e p l a c c vvhose n a m e i s t r a n s m i t t e d a s A r b o c a d a m a . F r o m Phoenice: Antaradus, Tripolis, Berytus, Sidon, Tyre and Ptolemais on the c o a s t ; E m e s a in the O r o n t e s Valley; C a e s a r e a P a n e a s a n d D a m a s c u s ; a n d P a l m y r a ( a s vvell a s a n u n i d c n t i f i c d p l a c c g i v e n a s A l a s s i u s ) . F r o m Palaesdna: Jerusalem, Ncapolis, Sebaste, Caesarea, Ascalon, Nicopolis ( E m m a u s ) , Ianınia, E l e u t h e r o p o l i s , M a x i m i a n o p o l i s (the f o r m e r lcgiona r y c a m p o f C a p a r c o t n a ) , L y d d a , A z o t u s a n d G a z a ; J e r i c h o in t h e J o r d a n Valley; Scythopolis, Capitolias and G a d a r a , cities o f thc 'Decapolis';

Zabu-

l o n ( ? } ; a n d , a s a r e f l e e t i o n o f t h e r e c e n t l a r g e s o u t h v v a r d e x p a n s i o n o f rhe province, Aila at the h e a d o f the R e d Sea. From

Arabia:

Philadclphia,

Esbous

(Hcshbon),

Sodom(?),

Bostra,

S o u e d i a s ( D i o n y s i a s ) , a s vvell a s a c o u p l e o f u n i d e n t i f i a b l e p l a c e s . F r o m Osrhoene and M e s o p o t a m i a only Edessa a n d Nisibis seem c e r t a i n — a n d in general ali these lists, r c c o n s t r u c t c d f r o m a varicty o f later s o u r c e s , can b e t a k e n o n l y as r o u g h l y indicative. B u t a s a visible s y m b o l o f the e h a n g e d p r i o r i t i e s o f t h e s t a t e , it i s i m p o s s i b l e t o e x a g g e r a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f rhe s u m m o n i n g o f s c o r e s o f b i s h o p s t o m a k e t h e i r vvay f r o m t h e s e

provinces

a c r o s s A s i a M i n ö r t o N i c a e a , u s i n g o f f i c i a l t r a n s p o r t - s e r v i c e s . A m m i a n u s vvas later to c l a i m that u n d e r C o n s t a n t i u s t h e official transport-system h a d a l m o s t

2 4 . E u s e b i u s , V C III, 6, x ; c f . M i l l a r , ERW,

327 and 59$.

2 5 . F o r this list I h a v e s i m p l y u s e d A . v o n H a r n a c k , Die Mission tentums.\

II ( 1 9 2 4 ) , 66oi(.

und Ausbreitung

( C o e l e S y r i a ) ; ^ f f . ( P h o c n i c c ) ; *>4rff. (Palaestina); 699İİ.

6 7 8 f f . ( O s r h o e n e a n d M e s o p o t a m i a ) . Scc a l s o IX S. W a l l a c e - H a d r i l l , Christian

of Early

Christian

Thought

in the East

Antioch:

des

Chrîs-

(Arahia); A

Sudy

(1982), A p p . I, "Eastern Rcprcscntation at N'icaca" .

b r o k e n d o w n u n d e r the vveight o f s q u a d s o f b i s h o p s h u r r y i n g h i t h e r a n d t h i t h e r t o a t t e n d s y n o d s . 2 6 T h e i m p r e s s i o n m a d e on o b s c r v c r s in 3 2 5 vvill h a v e b e e n j u s t a s povverful. E q u a l l y impressive s y m b o l i c c h a n g e s vvere s h o r t l y t o follovv. O n e vvas t h e u s e o f t h e r e s o u r c c s o f t h e s t a t e t o build c h u r c h e s . W c vvould miss t h e full i m p a c t o f this unless vve realised t h a t , for ali t h e respect paid b y the E m p e r o r s o f the p r e v i o u s t h r e e a n d a h a l f c e n t u r i e s t o the m a j ö r p a g a n s h r i n e s o f t h e p r o v i n c e s , a e t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f nevv t e m p l e s by t h e m — e x c e p t in R o m e its e l f — h a d been a l m o s t u n k n o v v n . 2 7 N a t u r a l l y , even novv c h u r c h e s c o n s t r u c t e d o n I m p e r i a l orders represented o n l y a fevv k e y e l e m e n t s in a vvavc o f c o n s t r u c tion, n o r m a l l y d e p e n d e n t on l o c a l initiative, vvhich h a d b e g u n a l r e a d y in t h e y e a r s follovving the p r o c l a m a t i o n o f t o l e r a t i o n in 3 1 3 . T h u s the s i x t h - c e n t u r y Chronicle

of Edessa

r e p o r t s t h a t in 3 1 2 / 3 1 3 B i s h o p Q o n a built a c h u r c h

there; 2 K a n d t h e m a j ö r l i t e r a r y m o n u m e n t o f this h o p e f u l p h a s e in the e a r l y years under L i c i n i u s is t h e s e r m o n vvhich E u s e b i u s h i m s e l f delivered a t t h e d c d i c a t i o n o f the C h r i s t i a n b a s i l i c a o f T y r c . 2 9 N o n e t h e l c s s , the o r d e r s f r o m C o n s t a n t i n e f o r the r e p a i r o f t h e e x i s t i n g c h u r c h e s a n d if n e c e s s a r y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f nevv o n e s , vvith r e s o u r c e s t o b e provided b y the p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n o r s a n d t h e ' p r e f e c t u r a l s t a f f ' ( o f t h e Vicarius

o f t h e d i o c e s e ) , represented a

quitc nevv p h a s e in t h e n a t u r e o f t h e state. In d e p l o y i n g t h e r e s o u r c e s o f the s t a t e t o advertise his ovvn c o m m i t m e n t t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , C o n s t a n t i n e ' s p r i o r i u e s vvere n a t u r a l l y s h a p e d b y the p o l i t i e a l g e o g r a p h y o f the p a g a n s t a t e itself. A p a r t f r o m his nevv c a p i t a l , C o n s t a n t i n o p l e ( p l a c e d at the c e n t r a l p o i n t o f the r o u t e betvveen t h e D a n u b e a n d t h e E u p h r a t e s ) , his m a j ö r C h r i s t i a n buildings vvere ereeted in R o m e itself a n d in the T e t r a r c h i c c a p i t a l s o f N i c o m e d i a a n d A n t i o c h : in E u s e b i u s ' vvords, ' t h a t m e t r o p o l i s o f t h e E a s t vvhich derived its n a m e f r o m A n t i o c h u s , in vvhich, a s the h e a d o f that p o r t i o n o f the e m p i r e , he c o n s e c r a t e d t o the service o f G o d a c h u r c h o f uııparallclcd size a n d b c a u t y ' . T h i s vvas t h e great O c t a g o n , o r G o l d e n I I o u s c , begun in 3 Z 7 a n d d e d i c a t e d in 3 4 ı . 3 0 B y c o n t r a s t , C o n s t a n t i n e ' s b u i l d i n g in a n d a r o u n d J e r u s a l e m i m p o r t e d a nevv e l e m e n t i n t o I m p e r i a l p r i o r i t i e s . A C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r p l a c c s a n d sites a s b e i n g in t h e m s e l v e s holy, a n d a s vvorthy o b j c c t s o f p i l g r i m age, is a t t e s t e d e v e n in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y ; a n d E u s e b i u s ' ovvn

Ononıasticon

refleets a h e i g h t e n e d interest in t h e h i s t o r i c a l t o p o g r a p h y o f B i b l i c a l h i s t o r y . 2 6 . A m m i a n u s X X I , ı(«, 1 8 . 2 7 . Scc S. M i t c h c l l , " I m p e r i a l B u i l d i n g (1987),

in t h e E a s t e r n R o m a n

P r o v i n c e s " , HSCPb

91

333-

28. Sec 12.3 below. 2 9 . T h e t c x t is r c p r o d u c c d b y E u s e b i u s in HE X , 4. 3 0 . E u s e b i u s V C III, 5 0 ; O r . Triac Seleucus

to the Arab

Conquest

9, 1 5 . S e e G . D o w n c y , A Hislory

(1961), 342ff.

of Antioch

in

Syria,

But Constautine's ambitions and elaborate constructions, at the H o l y Scpule h r e , o n the M o u n t o f O l i v c s a n d a t B e t h l c h c m , g a v e — o r b e g a n t o g i v c — J e r u s a l e m a n d i t s n e i g h b o u r h o o d a c e n t r a l i t y in C h r i s t i a n c o ı ı e e p t i o n s vvhich it h a d n e v e r h a d b e f o r e . J 1 T h e r e c o r d o f h i s j o u r n e y t o a n d f r o m t h e H o l y L a n d in 3 3 3 left by a p i l g r i m f r o m B o r d e a u x r e p r e s e n t s a n c w m o m e n t in C h r i s t i a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d a nc\v p l a c e f o r t h e I l o l y L a n d in t h e c o n c e p t u a l m a p o f the E m p i r e . T h e l o c a l details o f t h a t m a p h a d been m a r k e d o u t b y lavish c o n s t r u c t i o n s ereeted o n the E m p e r o r ' s o r d e r s a n d using the r c s o u r c c s o f t h e state: t h e B o r d e a u x P i l g r i m r e c o r d s the n c w I m p e r i a l b a s i l i c a s vvhich he savv a t t h e I l o l y S c p u i c h r c , t h e M o u n t o f O l i v c s , B e t h l e h e m a n d t h e terebinth a t M a m b r e n e a r H e b r o n . 3 2 T h i s last a l s o represented a n o t h e r very ııovel a s p e c t o f the role a n d arnbit i o n s o f t h e s t a t e : t h e d e l i b e r a t e r e p r e s s i o n o f p a g a n cult-activities a t c e r t a i n s e l e e t e d sites, s o m e t i m e s a c c o m p a n i e d b y the aetual d e s t r u c t i o n o f t e m p l e s . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e H o l y S c p u l c h r e , a t e m p l e o f Venüs vvas d e s t r o y e d t o m a k e vvay f o r the nevv c h u r c h ; a n d it s h o u l d b c stressed j u s t hovv d e l i b e r a t e a n d visible a rcversal o f p r i o r i t i e s this vvas. W h e t h e r o r n o t t r a d i t i o n a c c u r a t e l y recalled t h e l o c a t i o n o f J e s u s ' t o m b , t h e site vvas o n e vvhich h a d d u l y iain o u t s i d c the vvalls o f e a r l y

first-century

J e r u s a l e m , as vvas r e q u i r c d f o r a b u r i a l .

T h e t e m p l e o f V e n ü s vvill h a v e b e e n a f c a t u r e , a l o n g vvith t h e t e m p l e o f C a p i t o l i n e Juppiter, o f the nevv R o m a n colonia

o f A e l i a C a p i t o l i n a , c r e a t e d by

H a d r i a n ; its b o u n d a r i e s e x t e n d e d f u r t h e r n o r t h t h a n t h o s e o f t h e p r e v i o u s city. T h e t e m p l e t h u s d e s t r o y e d vvas t h e r e f o r e n o m e r e local s h r i n e , b u t a R o m a n temple deriving f r o m the last r e a l c o l o n i a l f o u n d a t i o n in t h e h i s t o r y of Rome. R a t h e r different c o n s i d c r a t i o n s a p p l i e d t o t h e o a k , o r t e r e b i n t h , o f M a m b r e n e a r H e b r o n , for it ovved the Imperial a t t e n t i o n given it t o t h e t r a d i t i o n t h a t it vvas t h e r e t h a t G o d h a d first a p p e a r e d t o A b r a l ı a m . B u t t h e site vvas novv, a s C o n s t a n t i n c ' s m o t h e r H c l e n a r e p o r t e d , disfigurcd by p a g a n i d o l s and a n altar. T h e r e m o v a l o f t h e s e , a n d t h e e r c c r i o n o f a c h u r c h , vvas t h u s s i m u l t a tıeously a blovv against i d o l a t r y a n d a C h r i s t i a n d a i m t o the i n h e r i t a n c e o f the O l d T e s t a m e n ı . ' 3 It is a l s o a r e m i n d e r o f hovv c o m p l e x a p a t t e r n o f c o c x i s t e n c c betvveen different r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t i c s m i g h t m a r k this r e g i o n . E u s e b i u s ' Onomasticon

itself h a d identified different villages in P a l a e s t i n a as

b c i n g i n h a b i t e d by either Jevvs, C h r i s t i a n s o r S a m a r i t a n s . But he a l s o n o t e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t n e a r a l a r g e village betvveen J e r u s a l e m a n d D i o s p o l i s t h e r e

3 1 . S c c E . D . H u n t , Holy R W . L . W a l k e r , Holy the Fourth 3 2 . itin.

Century Burdig.

City,

iMnd

Pilgrimage

Holy Places?

iti the Later

Christian

Attitudes

(1990), (CSEL

X X X I X ) , 589-599.

3 3 . Eusebius, V C I I I , 52—53. S e e further I O . I below.

Roman

Empire

to Jerusalem

(1982), esp. clı. 1 ;

and the Holy

Laf d in

h a d b c c n a s p r i n g w i t h a n i d o l b e s i d e it 'vvorshipped b y t h e natives'.- 1 4 The d e l i b c r a t e a c t s o f d e s t r u c t i o n o f p a g a n c u l t - c e n t r e s o r d e r e d b y C o n s t a n t i n e w e r e n o t e o n f i t ı e d t o P a l a e s t i n a a n d t o s i t e s r e n d e r e d s a e r e d by t h e B i b l e . B u t t h o s e t h a t w e k n o w o f w e r e a l m o s t e n t i r e l y r e s t r i c t e d t o the N e a r E a s t as d c f i n e d h e r e ; as s o o f t e n , h o w e v e r , w e c a n n o t teli vvhether o u r knovvledge simply rcflects the limitations o f Eusebius' pcrspective. T h e fact r e m a i n s t h a t h e r e p o r t s n o c a s e f u r t h e r a vvay t h a n A e g e a e in C i l i c i a , o n the o t h e r s i d e o f M o u n t A m a n u s . T h e r e , in a vvay n e v e r p a r a l l c l c d in t h e e a r l i e r h i s t o r y o f the E m p i r e , a d e t a e h m e n t o f s o l d i e r s d e s t r o y e d t h e t e m p l e o f

Asclepius,

'vvhom t h o u s a n d s r e g a r d e d vvith r e v e r e n c e as the p o s s e s s o r o f s a v i n g a n d healing p o v v e r ' . " T h a t a p a r t , t h e o n l y tvvo o t h e r p l a c c s vvhere vve knovv t h a t I m p e r i a l a c t i o n vvas t a k e n a g a i n s t p a g a n s h r i n e s vvere b o t h in P h o e n i c e . T h e first vvas s o m e thing very characteristic o f the N e a r East, a r e m o t e cult-centre at A p h a c a o n M o u n t L e b a n o n . E u s e b i u s ' vvords vividly c v o k e the s p e c i a i f c a t u r c s o f i t s l o c a t i o n : ' T h i s vvas a g r o v c a n d t c m p l c , n o t s i t u a t e d in the m i d s t o f a n y c i t y , n o r in a n y p u b i i c p l a c e , a s f o r s p l e n d o u r o f c f f e c t is g e n e r a l l y the c a s e , b u t apart f r o m the beatetı a n d frequcntcd r o a d , at Aphaca, a part o f the s u m m i t o f M o u n t L e b a n o n , a n d d c d i c a t c d t o t h e foui d e m o n knovvn by the n a m e o f A p h r o d i t e ' . 3 6 T o E u s e b i u s , vvhat a t t r a c t e d C o n s t a n t i n e ' s d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t e m p l e , a g a i n c a r r i e d o u t b y a d e t a e h m e n t o f s o l d i e r s , vvas t h e h o m o s e x u a l i n t e r e o u r s e a n d r i t u a l p r o s t i t u t i o n p r a c t i s c d t h e r e . 1 ü s r e p o r t serves t o r a i s e p r o f o u n d q u c s t i o n s a b o u t t h e r e l i g i o u s c u l t u r e o f t h e r e g i o n . E o r s h o u l d vve see t h i s c u l t - c e n t r e , vvhose r e m a i n s lie h i g h u p o n M o u n t L e b a n o n , a t t h e s o u r c e o f t h e r i v e r A d o n i s ( N a h r i b r a h i m ) , a s a survivitıg ' O r i e n t a P o r S e m i t i c ' h i g h p l a c e ' ? As cveryvvherc, its a r c h i t c c t u r c is o f t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , a n d i t is n e v e r m e n t i o n e d in o u r s o u r c e s until t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y . ' 7 A s vve vvill see in m a n y c o n t e x t s , it is p r e c i s e l y C h r i s t i a n e v i d e n c e vvhich, f o r o b v i o u s r c a s o n s , first g i v e s e x p l i c i t a c c o u n t s o f m a n y a s p e c t s o f s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e in t h i s r e g i o n . P r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e it is C h r i s t i a n , it is n o t t o b c r e a d as e m b o d y i n g m e r e r e p o r t s , b u t as a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e h o s t i l e p a g a n u n i v e r s e o f i d o l s , ' d e m o n s ' , s a c r i f i c c s a n d c u l t - p r a c t i c c s vvith vvhich the C h r i s t i a n s f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s c o n f r o n t e d . O u r d i f f i c u l t y in knovving vvhat p c r s p e c tive t o a d o p t is novvhere e l e a r e r t h a n in the l a s t i n s t a n c e vvhich E u s e b i u s g i v e s , n a m e l y C o n s t a n t i n e ' s r e p r e s s i o n o f vvhat s e e m s a l s o t o b c r c p r c s c n t c d a s r i t u a l prostitution at Hcliopolis: i W c m a y instancc the Phoenician city Heliopolis, in vvhich t h o s e vvho d i g n i f y l i c e n t i o u s p l e a s u r e vvith t h e a p p e l l a t i o n

3 4 . E u s e b i u s , O n t ı m . , c d . K l o s t c r m a n n , 8. 3 5 . E u s e b i u s , VC IIT, 5 6 , rrans. R i c h a r d s o n . 36. V C I 1 I , 55, 2, trans. Richardson. 3 7 . S e e 8.4 b e ! o w .

of

A p h r o d i t e , h a d p e r m i t t e d t h e i r wives a n d d a u g h t c r s t o c o m m i t s h a m c l c s s forn i c a t i o n ' .} B U n l i k c later C h r i s t i a n w r i t c r s , E u s e b i u s d o c s n o t in this c a s e say t h a t f o r c e vvas used, o r a n y t e m p l e d e s t r o y e d . Instead he says t h a t C o n s t a n t i n e vvrote t o the c i t y t o f o r b i d t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f s u c h p r a c t i c e s , a n d built vvhat vvas a p p a r e n t l y the first c h u r c h t h e r e , m a n n e d by a b i s h o p , a p r e s b y t e r und deacons. B u t ' H e l i o p o l i s o f P h o e n i c e ' vvas in f a c t a R o m a n colonia, a n s a s p a r t o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e colonia

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o f B e r y t u s u n d e r A u g u s t u s , and

t r a n s f o r m e d by Septimius S e v e r u s i n t o a n i n d e p e n d e n t c i t y : ' C o l o n i a Iulia A u g u s t a F c l i x I I c l i o p o l i s ' . 3 9 T h e d c i t y t o vvhom E u s e b i u s refers a s ' A p h r o d i t e ' c a n h a r d l y be o t h e r t h a n t h e ' V e n ü s H e l i o p o l i t a n a ' c e l e b r a t e d o n I - a t i n ins e r i p t i o n s from H e l i o p o l i s a n d B e r y t u s , as a r e t h e tvvo o t h e r b e s t - a t t e s t e d gods of Heliopolis, luppitcr O p t i m u s M a x i m u s Hcliopolitanus and Mcrcurius. H a d t h e vvorship o f V e n ü s t h e r e alvvays been s i m p l y a l ^ t i n i s e d e x p r e s s i o n o f a p r c - e x i s t i n g vvorship o f a f e m a l e deity vvith a S e m i t i c n a m e , p e r h a p s A t a r g a t i s ? If s o , h a d a n ' O r i e n t a l ' c u s t o m o f ritual p r o s t i t u t i o n s i m p l y been t a k e n o v e r b y t h e scttlcrs? O r h a d t h e d e s c c n d a n t s o f t h e o r i g i n a l R o m a n v e t e r a n s o n l y g r a d u a l l y s u c c u m b e d t o t h e d e m o r a l i s i n g influences o f t h e i r O r i e n t a l e n v i r o n m e n t , t o t h e point vvhere their c i t y c o u l d b e p e r c e i v e d as ' P h o c n i c i a n ' in m o r e t h a n a purely g e o g r a p h i c a l seıısc? Or^ o n the c o n t r a r y , d i d C o n s t a n t i n e ' s very c i r c u m s p c c t a p p r o a c h in m c r c l y vvriting a letter (pres u m a b l y t o the m a g i s t r a t e s a n d c o u n c i l o f the city) a n d b u i l d i n g a c h u r c h reflect a R o m a n s t a t u s vvhich t h e c i t y stili e m b o d i e d ? E u s e b i u s ' brief a c c o u n t raises in a c u t c f o r m t h e q u e s t i o n o f vvhat ş o r t o f city c a r l y - f o u r t h - c e n t u r y H e l i o p o l i s really vvas. T h a t q u e s t i o n , like m a n y o t h e r s , m u s t r e m a i n f o r t h e m o m e n t

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svvercd; a n d , as vvith m a n y o t h e r s vvhich relate t o t h e c u l t u r c o f t h e N e a r E a s t u n d e r R o m a n rule, vvc m a y h a v e t o a c c e p t t h a t n o u n a m b i g u o u s ansvver is p o s s i b l e . F o r t h e v a l u e o f s u r v e y i n g t h e h i s t o r y o f this r e g i o n , a n d t h e p r o g ı e s sive steps by vvhich it c a m e u n d e r R o m a n d i r e c t rule, d o e s n o t lie in t h e pres u m p t i o n t h a t s u c h a n a p p r o a c h , o r a n y other, vvill n e c c s s a r i l y t a k e u s far in d e t e r m i n i n g vvhether t h e r e w c r c distinetive c o m m o n c h a r a c t c r i s t i c s o f the c i v i l i s a t i o n o f this r e g i o n , a n d if so vvhat t h e s e vvere. R a t h e r , a m i l i t a r y a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l survey, follovving t h e e v o l u t i o n o f R o m a n rule step b y s t e p in c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e q u c n c e , is e s s e n t i a l , first, t o d e f i n i n g the r e g i o n , o r s l o w l y grovving set o f s u b - r e g i o n s , vvith vvhich vve a r e c o n c e r n e d . But s e c o n d , a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t , a m i l i t a r y a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e survey serves n o t t o ansvver b u t t o p o s e in m o r e a c u t e f o r m t h e q u e s t ı o n o f t h e s o c i a l a n d politieal struetures, t h e p a t t e r n s o f r e l i g i o u s beliefs, a n d t h e c o m m u n a l identitics a n d l o y a l -

3 8 . V C III, 5 8 , 1 , t r a n s . R i c h a r d s o n . 3 9 . S e c 3.4 a b o v e a n d 8.4 b e l o v v .

t i e s o f the p o p u l a t i o n , o r p o p u l a t i o n s , vvith vvhich thc R o m a n s t a t e f o u n d itself c o n f r o n t e d . M a n y q u e s t i o n s a b o u t the R o m a n state itself a r e raised b y s u c h a s u r v e y . W h y vvas it t h a t t h i s r c g i o n vvas t h c o b j c c t o f s t c a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g m i l i t a r y i n v e s t m c n t b y thc R o m a n s t a t e , a n d vvas t o b c c o m c b y t h c e n d o f thc p e r i o d the p r i m e a r c a vvhere the l o n g t r a d i t i o n o f R o m a n i m p e r i a l i s m vvas stili a c tive? T h e n o v e l t y o f the I m p e r i a l p e r i o d vvas n o t t h e m e r e f a c t o f

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c a m p a i g n s here. A s f a r a s t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f it vvas c o n c e r n e d , M e s o p o t a m i a a n d the city of Nisibis h a d a l r e a d y been c a p t u r e d by R o m a n forces u n d e r L u c u l l u s in 6 8 B C . B u t C a s s i u s D i o , r c c o r d i n g t h i s i n t h e first l ı a l f o f t h e t h i r d century AD, c a n refiecı a developmeııt of a quite different order, thc loııg-tcrm R o m a n i m p l a n t a t i o n t h e r e : ' t h i s c i t y . . . is n o v v o u r s , a n d h a s t h c s t a t u s o f a colonia

o f o u r s ' . 4 0 E q u a l l y , i t v v a s o n l y f o u r y e a r s tater; in 6 4 B C , t h a t t h e

first

R o m a n p r o - m a g i s t r a t e , A e m i l i u s S c a u r u s , h a d c o m e i n t o c o n t a c t vvith a k i n g A r c t a s o f N a b a t a c a ; a n d a f t e r a f u r t h e r a b o r t i v e c a m p a i g n in 6z,

S c a u r u s vvas

s u b s c q u e n t l y , in 58, to issue c o i n s representing K i n g A r e t a s , quite falsely, a s k n e e l i n g in s u b m i s s i o n . 4 1 T h e s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t v v a s n o t m e r e m i l i t a r y c o n t a c t , b u t r a t h e r t h c p e r i o d o f m o r e t h a n a c c n t u r y vvhich follovvcd, vvhen t h c R o m a n N e a r E a s t r e m a i n c d e s s c n t i a l l y a m e r e b r i d g e h e a d b a s e d o n the tvvo m a i n areas of Hcllenistic city-foundations, northern Syria and the Decapolis;

and

t h e n , b y c o n t r a s t , t h e n e v v p l ı a s c o f c x p a n s i o n v v h i c h b e g a n in t h c l a t e r

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c c n t u r y AD a n d Icd t o t h e c r c a t i o n o f R o m e ' s ' d e s e r t f r o n t i e r ' , f r o m t h e R e d Sea t o the Tigris. R i v a l r y vvith P a r t h i a a n d t h e n S a s a n i d Persia, a n d the m e m o r y o f A l c x a n d e r ' s c o n q u c s t s , vvill c x p l a i n s o m c a s p e c t s o f t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t . D i o ' s

image

of T r a j a n a s t h c o n l y F.mperor e v e r t o reach the s h o r e s of the Persian

Gulf,

l o n g i n g l y vvatehing a slıip s e t t i n g o f f f o r India, r e m a i n s o n e o f the k e y s

to

R o m a n Imperial history. But q u i t e different consideratioııs m u s t have determ i t ı c d t h e R o m a n m i l i t a r y i n v c s t m c n t in v v h a t v v a s t o b c c o m e S y r i a P h o e n i c e , a n d in J u d a e a — l a t e r S y r i a P a l a e s t i n a — a n d A r a b i a . Q u i t e d i f f e r e n t , t h a t i s , unless

vve v v e r e t o t h i n k o f t h e s e r e g i o n s a s i n h a b i t e d b y a n ' O r i e n t a l ' p o p u l a -

t i o n vvhich m i g h t l o o k t o P a r t h i a or Persia a s r c a d i l y as t o R o m e . S u c h a vievv v v o u l d c c r t a i n l y he g r o s s l y m i s l e a d i n g . B u t vve c a n n o t d i s m i s s s o e a s i l y

the

evidence that tradc-routes did lead eastvvards t h r o u g h virtually ali thc a r c a s t o v v h i c h R o m a n m i l i t a r y o c c u p a t i o n vvas e x t c n d e d — d o v v n t h c R e d S e a , a n d t h r o u g h thc H c d j a z , p e r h a p s t h r o u g h the W a d i Sirhan, the route via P a l m y r a to the E u p h r a t e s , the route a c r o s s M e s o p o t a m i a to N i s i b i s a n d b e y o n d . T h a t t h e r e vvas r e g u l a r h u m a n m o v e m e n t betvveen thc R o m a n N e a r E a s t a n d t h c P a r t h i a n a n d t h e n P e r s i a n E m p i r e is b e y o n d q u e s t i o n . B u t v v h e t h e r t h o s e c o n -

4 0 . D i o X X X V I , 6, 2 . 4 1 . F o r ı h c c o i n s , M . H . C r a v v f o r d , Roman

Republican

Coinage

I (1974), 446,110. 4x2.

t a c t s vvere s i g n i f i c a n t f o r c u l t u r e , a t t i t u d e s o r c o m m u n a i i d e n t i t i e s i n t h e R o m a n a r e a i s q u i t e a n o t h e r q u c s t i o n , a s is t h a t o f v v h c t h c r t h e s e t r a d e - r o u t e s vvere t h c m s c l v c s a m o t i v e f o r R o m a n c x p a n s i o n . T h a t t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t c o u l d be l o o k e d at, in m o r e t h a n a

pıtrely

g e o g r a p l ı i c a l s e n s e , as p a r t o f A s i a , o r 'the O r i e n t ' , c a n n o t be d e n i e d .

The

m e r e c u r r e n c y t h e r e o f a g r o u p o f r e l a t e d S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s is s u f f i c i c n t e v i d e n c e o f t h a t . B u t it vvas a l s o a n a r e a o f a l r e a d y l o n g - s t a n d i n g G r e e k

city-

f o u n d a t i o n a n d settlement. T o l o o k at the c u l t u r e o f any oııc o f the

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G r e e k c u l t u r e vvere r o o t c d i n t h e c i v i l i s a t i o n o f this region. A n y n o t i o n o : a c r u d e c o n t r a s t betvveen ' G r e e k ' o n the o n e h a n d a n d ' O r i c n t a l ' o r ' S e m i t i c ' o n the o t h e r m u s t seem vvholly i n a d e q u a t e . T o o m u c h t i m e h a d p a s s e d sir.ee A l c x a n d e r ' s a r r i v a l in 3 3 2 B C . Y e t t h e m i i i t a r y h i s t o r y o f t h e r e g i o n

itself

serves to suggest that this c o n t r a s t is n o t c o m p l e t e l y m e a n i n g l e s s . T h e R o m a n forces here f o u g h t m a n y successive c a m p a i g n s , large and small, in c o n t e x t s o t h e r t h a n r i v a l r y vvith P a r t h i a o r P e r s i a : r c p c a t e d l y in J u d a e a b u t a l s o i n C o m m a g e n e , i n N a b a t a e a in r o 6 , a g a i n s t P a l m y r a a n d

finally,

under

Diode-

t i a n , a g a i n s t the ' S a r a c e n s ' . B u t n o t ı e o f t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s vvas d i r e e t e d a g a i n s t a c o m m u n i t y o r p o l i t i c a l f o r m a t i o n v v h i c h vve v v o u l d b c t e m p t e d t o c h a r a c t o r ise a s u n a m b i g u o u s l y G r e e k . N o n e t l ı e l e s s , a n y a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e c u l t u r e o r c u l t u r e s o f t h e reg i o n in t e r m s o f a s i m p l e c o n t r a s t b e t v v e e n ' G r e e k ' a n d ' O r i c n t a l ' v v o u l d b c i n c v i t a b l y m i s l c a d i n g . T h e r e is littlc o r n o t h i n g t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s u p p o s e d ' O r i e n t a l s ' shared a n y sense o f c o m m o n identity. O n the c o n t r a r y , e v e r y t h i n g s h o v v s t h a t J e v v i s h i d e n t i t y , v v h o s e m a i n t e n a n c e is b e y o n d q u e s t i o n , c o n f l i c t e d r a t h e r t h a n c o h e r c d vvith t h e i d e n t i t i e s o f o t h e r g r o u p s u s i n g S e m i t i c

lan-

g u a g e s . N o r did these o t h e r s shovv a n y t h i n g like the s a m e c a p a c i t y f o r sarvival. W h e t h e r a n y t h i n g distinetive r e m a i n e d o f C o m m a g e n e after the e n d o f t h e d y n a s t y , o f N a b a t a e a a f t e r it vvas m a d e i n t o t h e p r o v i n c c o f A r a b i a , o r o f P a l m y r a a f t e r Aurelian's r e c o n q u e s t is precisely o n e o f the c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n s vve n e e d t o ansvver. E q u a l l y , p e r h a p s e v e n m o r e , p u z z l i n g is v v h a t a p p e a r s t o b c a g r o v v i n g avvarencss, a n d a positivc e n c o u r a g c m c n t

by R o m e , of Phoenician

identity.

'ITıe P h o e n i c i a n c i t i e s r e p r e s e n t t h e o n e c a s e — t h e J e v v s a p a r t — v v h e r e a f f i r m a t i o n o f a p r c - G r c e k i d e n t i t y a n d h i s t o r y i s c l c a r l y v i s i b l e in t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d . B u t vvas it t h i s s e l f - i d c n t i f i c a t i o n , s h a r e d e v e n b y i n l a n d cities

like

E m e s a , D a m a s c u s a n d p e r h a p s P a l m y r a , a s ' P h o e n i c i a n ' v v h i c h İcd S e p t i m i u s Severus t o resurrect ' P h o c n i c e ' as the n a m e of a R o m a n provincc stretehing t o the E u p h r a t e s ? O r vvas t h e s c q u e n c e the r e v e r s e : t h a t it vvas this a r t i f i d a l g c o g r a p h i c a l d i v i s i o n , vvith n o h i s t o r i c a l r o o t s , vvhich p r o v i d e d a c o l l e c t i v e i d e n t i t y v v h i c h h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n l a c k i n g ? S o m e c x p l a n a t i o n is a t a n y r a t e

required as t o vvhy H e l i o d o r u s , a t t h e end o f his novel Aethiopica,

should

have c h o s e n t o identify himself a s 'a P h o e n i c i a n E m e s e n c ' . Y e t t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f p e r s o n a l a n d c o m m u n a l identity d o n o t e n d t h e r e . O n e o f the m o s t distinetive f c a t u r c s o f t h e p e r i o d is t h e w a y in w h i c h m a n y small places f o u n d themselves e l e v a t e d , b y H c r o d i a n k i n g s o r by R o m a n K m p e r o r s , into beiııg G r e e k cities vvith G r e e k — o r L a t i n - G r e e k — n a m e s . B u t t h i s vvas a b o v e ali a feature o f Judaea/Syria Palaestina a n d A r a b i a : in e a c h , f o r i n s t a n c c , t h e r e a p p e a r c d under the T e t r a r e h y a nevv 'city' vvith t h e L a t i n G r e e k n a m e ' M a x i m i a n o p o ! i s \ B u t it vvas n o t a p r o m i n e n t feature o f P h o e nice: its m a j ö r c i t i e s — B e r y t u s , S i d o n , T y r e , P t o l e m a i s , H e l i o p o l i s , E m e s a , D a m a s c u s a n d P a l m y r a — k e p t n a m e s vvhich ovved n o t h i n g t o R o m e . B u t t h e n a g a i n , t h a t is t r u c o n l y if w c k c c p t o the single g e o g r a p h i c a l n a m e used t o l o c a t e t h e m . F o r c v e r y o n e o f t h e s e places in fact b e c a m e in the c o u r s e o f t h e E m p i r e a R o m a n colonia,

a n d H e l i o p o l i s even ovved its status as a city t o

Severus, as it did its full R o m a n n a m e : ' C o l o n i a Iulia A u g u s t a F c l i x H e l i o p o lis'. T h e i m p a c t o f R o m a n m c a s u r e s , g o i n g far b e y o n d the universal g r a n t o f R o m a n c i ı i z e n s h i p b y C a r a c a l l a , is a n i m p o r t a n t further influence o n t h e curiously m a l l e a b l c identirics o f N e a r E a s t e r n c o m m u n i t i c s , a n d o n e vvhosc significance h a s y e t t o b e a s s e s s e d . A b o v e a l i , the m i l i t a r y a n d political h i s t o r y o f the tlıird century, vvhen l o o k e d a t in detail, a t least raises the q u e s t i o n a s t o vvhether t h e ' e m p i r e o f P a l m y r a ' , far from being an A r a b uprising a g a i n s t R o m e , is n o t t o b e c x p l a i n c d a s a m o v e m e n t led b y a R o m a n s e n a t ö r f r o m vvithin a

colonia.

H a d it b e e n consciously

a n " A r a b ' m o v e m e n t , vvhatever t h a t might h a v e

m c a ı ı t , it is h a r d t o i m a g i n c t h a t V a b a l l a t h u s vvould have ineluded in t h e list o f victory-titles vvhich he t o o k a s E m p e r o r the n a m e ' A r a b i c u s ' . 4 ' T h a t vvould n o t o f c o u r s e m e a n that o t h e r s in a n t i q u i t y m i g h t n o t have secn the P a l m y renes themselves a s ' A r a b s ' , o r e v e n t h a t vve s h o u l d n o t . Hovv, a n d vvhether, vve s h o u l d use ' A r a b ' a s a vvay o f c h a r a c t e r i s i n g t h e o r i g i n s a n d true n a t u r e o f a n y settled o r u r b a n g r o u p s i n the R o m a n N e a r E a s t is t h e m o s t t r e a c h c r ous o f ali t h e questioııs vvhich c o n f r o n t us. B u t vvhat d o e s seem c i e a r l y e s t a b lished is t h a t a n c i e n t o b s e r v e r s g e n e r a l l y a s s o c i a t e d t h e term ' A r a b ' n o t vvith a l a n g u a g e o r culture b u t vvith a n u n s e t t l e d vvay o f life, a s they did even m o r e c i e a r l y vvith the w o r d ' S a r a c e n ' . W h a t e v e r else r e m a i n s uncertain a b o u t t h e role o f the E m p i r e a n d its f o r c c s in t h e N e a r E a s t , o n e thing is clear, t h a t t h e long c v o l u t i o n o f R o m a n m i l i t a r y d i s p o s i t i o n s b r o u g h t t h e m everyvvhere i n t o m o r e a n d m o r e direct c o n t a c t vvith the ' S a r a c e n s ' o f the steppe. O n e i n d i c a tion o f this is the c h a n g i n g g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y s h a p c o f Judaea/Syria P a l a e s t i n a . Up t o t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y t h e level o f R o m a n f o r c e s there steadily

4 2 . 4 . } a b o v e , t c x t t o n . 52.

i n c r e a s e d ; a n d it w a s t h e r e a b o v e ali t h a t the R o m a n a r m y c o u l d be s e e n a s a n o c c u p a t i o n f o r c e d i r e c t c d t o t h e c o n t r o l o f a c i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n . S o i t rem a i n c d f o r p e r h a p s a c c n t u r y a n d a h a l f a f t e r t h e end o f the g r e a t r e v o l t u n d e r B a r K o c h b a in the 1 3 0 S . B u t în the T e t r a r c h i c p e r i o d w e find t h a t t h e p r o v i n c e h a s e x p a n d e d t o c o v e r the s o u t h e r n p a r t o f T r a j a n ' s V i a N o v a ; a n d t h e l e g i o n X F r c t e n s i s h a s l e f t J e r u s a l e m a n d m o v c d t o A i l a . M o s t o f the u n i t s , f o r t s and vvalled cities w h i c h n o w c o n s t i t u t e d the R o m a n ' f r o n t i e r ' in t h e N e a r E a s t vvere n o t novv d i s p o s e d s o a s t o c o n f r o n t P e r s i a , but a l o n g the s t e p p e f r o m t h e E u p h r a t e s t o the R e d S e a . T h a t is n o t t o s a y t h a t vvc c a n s i m p l y c h a r a c t c r i s c t h e a r m y as it novv vvas a s a d c f c n c c f o r c e p o s i t i o n e d a g a i n s t

extemal

e n e m i e s . F o r R o m a n g u a r d - p o s t s lined t h e r o a d s vvithin the p r o v i n c e s a l s o ; a n d it is p r e c i s c l y in t h e f o u r t h c c n t u r y t h a t , f r o m S i n a i in the s o u t h t o M e s o p o t a m i a in t h e n o r t h , v i v i d e v i d e n e e shovvs t h a t ' S a r a c e n s ' vvere t o b e f o u n d vvithin the p r o v i n c e s as vvell a s o u t s i d e . W l ı a t l o o k s o n t h e m a p l i k e a ' f r o n tier'

vvas a l s o itself a p o l i c e - s y s t e m p r o t e e t i n g r o a d s . 1 lovv vvc s h o u l d s e e the

t r i p a r t i t e r e l a t i o n s o f t h e R o m a n f o r c e s , t h e s e t t l e d p o p u l a t i o n a n d the ' A r a b s ' o r ' S a r a c e n s ' is p r c c i s e l y t h e m o s t c o m p l e x q u e s t i o n r a i s e d by the m i l i t a r y history o f the N e a r East.

ıı •

•

•

REGıON5 AND COMMUNıTıES

CHAPTER

6 COMMUNAL AND CULTURAL İ D E N T İ T İ E S

A s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c h i s t o r y o f t h e N e a r E a s t in t h e R o m a n p e r i o d c a n n o t b e vvritten. N o n e o f the c o n d i t î o ı ı s f o r s u c h a h i s t o r y a r e p r e s e n t . T h o u g h g o o d d e s e r i p t i o n s o f the g e o l o g y a n d (in v e r y b r o a d t e r m s ) t h e e c o i o g y o f t h e region a r e available,' n o t h i n g i s elearer than the f a c t that in this area a b o v e ali vve c a n n o t s p e a k o f c o n s ı a n t o r e n d u r i n g p a t t e r n s o f s o c i a l a n d c c o n o m i c life. T o t a k e o n l y t h e e r u d e s t a n d m o s t o b v i o u s v a r i a b l e s , the c x t c n t o f c u l t i v a t i o n a l o n g the m a r g i n o f the s t e p p e and the heights reached b y regular settlem e n t in t h e v e r y l a r g e m o u n t a i n o u s z o n e s h a v e b o t h v a r i e d vvidely a c c o r d i n g to political a n d miiitary c i r c u m s t a n c c s . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t factor o f ali h a s been simply the presence o r a h s e n c e o f political stability and o f effective polici n g . E v e n vvithin t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y t h e a r e a u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n a n d n ı a r k e d b y r e g u l a r s e t t l e m e n t h a s e x p a n d c d i m m c n s c l y vvithin t h e m o d e r n s t a t e s o f S y r i a , Israel a n d J o r d a n . C o n d i t i o n s h a v e t h u s c h a n g e d d r a m a t i c a l l y vvithin the period covered b y m o d e r n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and e p i g r a p h i c researehes; a n d p r e c i s e l y t h o s e b o o k s vvhich a r e f u n d a n ı e n t a l t o t h e u t t d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e g i o n i n a n t i q u i t y m a y s e t t h e i r d i s c o v e r i e s in a c o n t c x t vvhich, vvhile v a l i d ö v e r h a l f a c e n t u r y a g o , b c a r s n o r e l a t i o n t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i ı ı g novv. T a k e for instance the vvonderful a c c o u n t o f the antiquitics o f the I l a u r a n c o n t a i n e d in M a u r i c e Dutıand's b o o k o n the m u s e u m at S o u e i d a , published i n 1 9 3 4 — o n e o f the m o s t i m p r e s s i v e presentations o f the art and a r c h a e o l o g y

r. Scc, c.g., J. M. Wagstaff, The Evolution AD

1840

(1985); E. Wirıh, Syriett:

Einc

of Middle Eastern Landscapes:

geograpbisehe

Landeskunde1

An Outline

to

( 1 9 7 1 ) ; D . Baly, " T h e

G c o g r a p h y of Palcstine a n d ı h e l e v a n ı in R e l a t i o n t o Its H i s t o r y " , in W . D . D a v i e s a n d L . F i n kelstein (cds.}, Cambridge

History

w o r k of G . A . Smith, A Historical

ofjudaism

I ( 1 9 8 4 ) , t ; a n d the stili e v o e a t i v e aııd i n f o r m a t i v e

Ceography

of the Holy

r « 5 i

land

(1894).

o f a s u b - r e g i o n f r o m a n y w h c r c in t h c E m p i r e . 2 S o m c things a r c o f c o u r s e u n c h a n g c a b l c , f o r i n s t a n c c t h c b l a c k b a s a l t o f thc r e g i o n , w h i c h w a s p e r f o r c e t h c m e d i u m in w h i c h a s t r i k i n g local v a r i a n t o f G r a e c o - R o m a n sctılpture and a r e h i t e e t u r e h a d t o be e x p r e s s e d . B u t t h e s i t u a t i o n deseribed in D u n a n J ' s p r e f a c e b e l o n g s in a n o t h e r w o r l d : a F r e n c h c o m p a ı ı y e n c a m p c d in t h e R o m a n t h c a t r c o f B o s t r a a n d then a n n i h i l a t e d in t h c D r u s c uprising o f 1 9 1 5 ; t h e m u s e u m b e g i n n i n g life in thac s a m e y e a r as a n o p e n - a i r e ı ı c l o s u r e

outside

S o u e i d a . T h e p h o t o g r a p h s s h o w t h e m u s e u m in a rolling, b a r r e n l a n d s c a p e , vvith a fevv o n e - s t o r e y h o u s e s b e y o n d it. N o t h i n g vvould p r e p a r e t h e r e a d e r f o r t h e s u b s t a n t i a l m o d e r n tovvn o f t o d a y ( n o r f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e J e b e l H a u r a n , entirely i n h a b i t e d b y D r u s e , is novv officially c a l l e d J e b e l A r a b ) . T h o u g h a r c h a e o l o g y , in t h c H a u r a n a b o v c a l i , h a s m a d e i m m e n s e strides s i n c e t h e n , m o d e m h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s have m e a n t t h a t t h e d e t a i l e d arc h a e o l o g y o f { f o r i n s t a n c e ) f a r m i n g , a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y , the m e a ı ı s o f h u m a n s u b s i s t e n c e , thc c x c h a n g e o f f o o d a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d o b j c c t s a n d o f the p r e d ucts o f l o n g c r - d i s t a n c c t r a d e h a s n o t arrived a t anyvvhere n e a r the s t a g e at vvhich a strictly e c o n o m i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the history o f t h e r e g i o n c o u l d b e vvritten. If s t a n d i n g r e m a i n s c a n b e surveyed a n d m a p p e d , s o m c sites c x c a v a t e d , a n d o b j c c t s a n d i n s e r i p t i o n s c o l l e c t c d , t h a t is a s m u c h as c a n y e t b e e x p e c t e d . E v e n in t h o s e r e s p e c t s m a n y o f t h e m o r e m o u n t a i n o u s r e g i o n s rem a i n unknovvn t e r r i t o r y t o h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h , a s d o m a n y a r e a s vvhich lic t o o elose to thc boundarics o f modern states. T h i s b o o k c a n thus m a k e n o p r e t e n c e vvhatsoever t o present a s o c i a l o r e c o n o m i c history o f the r e g i o n . D e s i r a b l e a s s u c h a vvork m i g h t be, it c a n n o t begin f r o m a c o h c r e n t b o d y o f k n o v v l c d g c — o r even a n y s c r i o u s h y p o t h e s e s a b o u t t h e e c o n o m i c h i s t o r y o f the a r e a — o r l o c a t e vvithiıı t h a t the m a j ö r s o c i a l f o r m a t i o n s visible in o u r f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e , t h e n a t u r e o f their c o m m u n a l life, their role vvithin t h c vvider G r c c k - s p e a k i n g vvorld a n d their r c l a t i o n t o the R o m a n E m p i r e . I n s t e a d the b o o k p r e s e n t s a m a p o f s u r f a c e a p p e a r a n c e s , o f c o m m u n a l a n d c u l t u r a l idcntitics as s c c n a n d e x p r e s s c d b y b o t h insiders a n d o u t s i d e r s . T h a t h a s a t least the a d v a n t a g e o f rclying a b o v c ali on e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t s in vvords, preserved o n i n s e r i p t i o n s , in p e r i s h a b l e docuıneııts a n d in literary vvorks, vvhich a t a c e r t a i n , a n d i m p o r t a n t , level c a n n o t be falsified. If, a s we h a v e seen, the latest knovvn d o c u m e n t f r o m D u r a - E u r o p o s p r e s e n t s the p J a c e as ' K o l ö n e i a o f the E u r ö p a i o i o f [ S e l e u k o s J N e i k a t ö r , the s a c r e d a n d i n v i o l a t e a n d a u t o n o m o u s ' , t h a t piece o f s e l f - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n r e m a i n s a h i s t o r i c a l fact even if vve c o u l d p r o v e t h a t t h e p l a c c h a d n o t been f o u n d e d by S c l c u c u s N i c a t o r in thc e a r l y H e l l c n i s r i c p e r i o d , o r vvas n o t enritled t o thc s t a t u s o f

2 . M . D ı ı n n n d , 1.e musee 3 . P.

Dura,

no. 31;

cf.

de Soueida:

İnseriptions

et monuments

4.3 a b o v c and 1 2 . 4 below, tcxt t o n . 1 4 .

figür es ( 1 9 3 4 ) .

colonia.'

Similarly, if H e l i o d o r u s , t h e a u t h o r o f rhe novel Aethiopica,

finishes his w o r k

b y identifying h i m s e l f a s an ' E m e s e n e P h o c n i c i a n ' , w c m a y well w a n t t o disc u s s w h y h c s h o u l d h a v e c h o s e n t o d e s c r i b e h i m s e l f in this vvay; but w e c a n n o t a r g u e a w a y his o w n s e l f - r e p r c s e n t a t i o n , o r p r e s u m e t o p r o v e t h a t t h e p e o p l e o f E m e s a vvere ' r e a l l y ' A r a b s . T h a t is n o t t o say t h a t s u c h self-identifications are n o t liable t o b e c o m pleteiy m i s u n d e r s t o o d in t h e m o d e r n vvorld. T a k e the c a s e o f T a t i a n , the s c c o n d - c e n t u r y a u t h o r o f a c o m p o s i t c version o f ali f o u r G o s p e l s c a l l c d in G r e e k Düıtessaron,

o f vvhich a f r a g m e n t in G r e e k vvas f o u n d a t D u r a - E u r o p o s . 4 H e

a l s o vvrote a n Address

to the Greeks

in vvhich he deseribes h i m s e l f a s ' h e vvho

p h i l o s o p h i s e s in t h e m a n n e r o f b a r b a r i a n s , b o r n in the land o f the

Assyrioı,

e d u c a t e d first o n y o u r p r i n c i p l e s , s e c o n d l y in vvhat I novv p r o f e s s V D o c s h e m c a n t o say that he c a m e in r e a l î t y f r o m ' A s s y r i a ' , t h a t is, f r o m an a r e a ( A d i a bene o r B a b y l o n i a ? ) east o f t h e E u p h r a t e s ? W a s he in origin t h e r e f o r e a S y r i a c o r A r a m a i c - s p e a k i n g ' O r i e n t a l ' f r o m o u t s i d c the R o m a n E m p i r e ? N o t a t a l i . ' A s s y r i a ' a n d ' A s s y r i o i ' vvere c o m ı n o n t e r m s f o r Syria a n d its i n h a b i t a n t s ; * vvhich is vvhy, like s o m a n y o t h e r p e o p l e f r o n ı t h a t a r e a , he had a n a m e vvhich is in o r i g i n L a t i n , vvith a n e x t e n d e d ending, a n d transliterated into G r e e k . A n o t h e r ; closely c o m p a r a b l e , ' A s s y r i a n ' o f the s e c o n d c c n t u r y vvas t h e s a t i r i s t L u c i a n , t h a t is, ' I . o u k i a n o s ' f r o m S a m o s a t a in C o m m a g e n e . 7 T h e c d u c a t i o n vvhich T a t i a n , like L u c i a n , h a d r c c e i v e d in Syria vvas G r e e k , a n d t h e ' b a r b a r ian p h i l o s o p l ı y ' vvhich he p r a c t i s e d vvas Christianity. T h e s e q u c s t i o n s o f p c r s o n a l a n d c o m m u n a l s e l f - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n are c r u c i a l , if o n l y b e c a u s e the relevant n a m e s a n d identities might e h a n g e a n d c v o l v e s o p r o f o u n d l y . T a t i a n vvas a t s o m e p o i n t a pupil, p e r h a p s at R o m e , o f a n o t h e r m a n f r o m a N e a r E a s t e r n p r o v i n c e , vvith a t r a n s l i t e r a t e d L a t i n n a m e , t h a t i s , J u s t i n M a r t y r : or, a s h c p r e s e n t s h i m s e l f iıı t h e Apology

vvhich he addressed

t o A n t o n i n u s Pius, ' I o u s t i n o s , s o n o f P r i s k o s , s o n o f B a k c h e i o s , o f t h o s e f r o m Elavia N e a p o l i s , b e l o n g i n g t o S y r i a P a l a i s t i n c ' . 8 E v e r y e l e m e n t in his s e l f identification is a p r o d u e t o f r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s under t h e E m p i r e : t h e L a t i n n a m e s o f his f a t h e r a n d h i m s e l f , the n a m e o f his city, a n d t h e n a m e o f the p r o v i n c e t o vvhich it b e l o n g e d . T h e village o f ' M a m o r t h a ' o r ' M a b a r t h a ' in S a m a r i a h a d b e c o m e the city o f 'Flavia N e a p o l i s ' in 7 2 / 7 3 , a n d irs G r e e k c o i n a g c had b e g u n u n d e r D o m i t i a n . ( J o s e p h u s had evidently been a n t i c i p a t i n g vvhen h c m e n t i o n e d V e s p a s i a n , o n c a m p a i g n in 6 8 , as passing 4 . P. Dura,

n o . 10.

5 . T a r l a n , Oration

ad Craecos

4 2 . F o r rhc m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a b o u t h i s o r i g i n s scc, c . g . , t h e

e d t t i o n a n d t r a n s l a t i o n b y M . W h i t t a k c r ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p . i x . O n T a t i a n scc f u r t h e r 1 2 . 3 belovv. 6. S e e t h e c i a s s i c a n d o f t e n n c g l c c t c d a r r i d e o f T h . N o l d e k c , " A J ^ r P l O I . I T P I O S . E T P O £ w , Hennes

5 (1871), 443-

7 . >2.4 belovv. 8. J u s t i n , I Apol.

1.

' t h e place called N e a p o l i s , b u t M a b a r t h a by the natives [epichörioi\'.)'

'Syria

P a l a e s t i n a ' h a d r e p l a c e d ' J u d a e a ' as the n a m e o f the p r o v i n c e o n l y a f t e r the Bar K o c h b a war o f 1 3 2 - 1 3 5 . Such a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n r a i s e s in p a r t i c u l a r l y a c u t e f o r m the q u e s t i o n 3 f w h a t s u c h a n instantly c r e a t e d G r e e k city r c a l l y ' w a s ' . J u s t i n is in f a c t unusual a n ı o n g \vriters in G r e e k , w h e t l ı e r p a g a n o r C h r i s t i a n , o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m the N e a r R a s t , in refleeting s o m u c h o f t h e local history, c u l t u r e a n d l a n g u a g e s o f his n a t i v e r e g i o n : the B a r K o c h b a w a r a n d the d e s t r u c t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m ; , the n e f a r i o u s careers o f tvvo m a g i c i a n s o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m S a m a r i t a n villages; the o r i g i n a l I I c b r c v v m e a n i n g s o f vvords like ' J c s u s ' a n d ' I s r a e l ' ; a n d ' t h e langııage o f t h e Suroi',

o r vvhat vve vvould cali A r a m a i c . 1 0 In c o n v e r t i n g t o C h r i s t i a n i t y

J u s t i n h a d o f c o u r s e , like e v e r y o ı ı e else, sitnultaneously e m b r a c e d a historical t r a d i t i o n e n s h r i n c d in t c x t s o r i g i n a l l y vvritten in a S c m i t i c l a n g u a g e ; a n d this vvould h a v e been so i r r e s p e c ı i v e o f h i s local origins. N o n e t l ı e l c s s , as a m a n of p a g a n o r i g i n , borıı p e r h a p s a b o u t AD 1 0 0 , f r o m the r c c c n t l y f o r m e d G r c c k city o f F l a v i a N e a p o l i s , h c is avvarc o f t h r e e s e p a r a t e n o n - G r e e k g r o u p s prese n t in his native r e g i o n : Jevvs, S a m a r i t a n s a n d ' S y r i a n s ' . J u s t i n a n d t h e etty f r o m vvhich he c a m e thus represent a special c a s c . But even in t h e c a s c o f m u c h l o n g e r e s t a b l i s h e d ' G r e e k c i t i c s ' , their n a m e s , c o n s t i t u t i o n s a n d f o r m a l p u b i i c i d e n t i t i c s a s G r e e k cities, vvhile i m p o r t a n t f a c t s in themselves, m u s t leave o p e n t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r a l r o o t s a n d p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y o f their individual c i t i z c n s , a n d their relation t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g vvorld o f villages. E v e n f o r the m o d e s t first s t e p o f surveying the p u b i i c n a r u r c o f the c o m m J nities vve find in the v a r i o u s s u b - r e g i o n s o f t h e N e a r E a s t , t h e e v i d e n c e is o f t e n simply n o n - e x i s t c n t . W c k n o v v f o r i n s t a n c e t h a t a t t h e n o r t h e r n limit o f the r e g i o n , iıı t h e vvestern part o f C o m m a g e n e a n d j u s t belovv t h e T a u r u s M o u n t a i n s , t h e r e vvas a city vvhich t h e g e o g r a p h e r P t o l c m y calls G e r m a n i k e i a ( G e r n ı a n i c i a ) , a n d vvhose c o i n s , 3 İ s o o f t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f the s e c o n d century, label its i n h a b i t a n t s a s ' K a i s a r e i s G e r m a n i k e i s ' . İt is n o r m a l l y l o c a t e d at p r e s e n t d a y M a r a s in s o u t h e r n T u r k c y . Its I . a t i n - G r c c k n a m e h a d c l c a r l y been given t o it t o h o n o u r a m e m b e r o f the i m p e r i a l h o u s e , p e r h a p s G e r m a n i c u s duriug his visit in AD 18/19, vvhen C o m m a g e n e h a d been t e m p o r a r i l y p a r t o f the p r o v i n c c o f Syria. B u t G a i u s (37—41), C l a u d i u s ( 4 1 - 5 4 ) a n d N c r o (54—68) c a c h h a d ' G e r m a n i c u s ' as p a r t o f their full o f l i c i a l n a m e s , a n d t h e city m i g h t e q u a l l y h a v e beeıı a royal f o u n d a t i o n , by t h e last k i n g o f C o m m a g e n e , Anti-

9 . J o s e p h u s , BJ V I I , 8 , ı ( 4 4 9 ) . S e e Pliny, NII

V, 14/69: ' N e a p o l i s , q u a e antça M a m o r t n a

diccbatur...'. 1 0 . 1 Apol.

3 1 ; 4 7 (Bar K o c h b a ) ; 2 6 ( m a g i c i a n f r o m S a m a r i t a n v i l l a g e s ) ; 33 ('Jcsııs');

1 2 5 ( ' I s r a e l ' ) ; Dial. f u r t h e r 1 0 . 3 belovv.

1 0 3 ( ' S a t a n a s ' i n ' t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e Stırof).

Diat.

O n N e a p o l i s a n d J u s t i n see

o c h u s I V (AD 3 8 - 7 2 ) . " I f s o , it vvas a parallel t o t h e sııccessioıı o f royal f o u n d a t i o n s by t h e H e r o d i a n dynasty. In each c a s e b o t h t h e c o ı ı c e p t i o n t h a t vvhat s h o u l d b c c r c a t c d vvas a ' G r e e k c i t y ' a n d t h c Imperial n a m e s used t o d e n o t e the nevv c o m m u n i t y arc s i g n i f i c a n t features o f the social a n d cultural m a p o f the vvhole r e g i o n . But the a l m o s t c o m p l e t c lack o f local evidence (other t h a n a fevv c o i n s ) a n d even o f passiııg allusions in literary s o u r c c s m e a n s t h a t vve c a n n o t a t t a c h a n y real m c a n i n g t o thc c r e a t i o n o f t h c city o f G c r m a n i c i a in its m o r e i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t . 1 2 \Ve are hardly m u c h t h e vviser in l e a r n i n g f r o m b r i e f later q u o t a t i o n s t h a t t h e t h i r d - c e n t u r y R o m a n h i s t o r i a n Asinius Q u a d r a t u s , vvho like C a s s i u s D i o vvrote in G r e e k , r e f e r r e d t o ' G c r m a n i k e i a ' in h i s Parthica,

as h c did t o p l a c c s a n d p e o p l e s in A r m e n i a , t o a village called T a r s a

dovvn the E u p h r a t e s f r o m S a m o s a t a a n d t o ' T h e l a m o u z a ' , a fort o n t h c »iver. 1 1 A t lcast s o m e o f his ' P a r t h i a n l l i s t o r y ' n a r r a t e d t h c vvar f o u g h t b y L u c i u s Verus in t h c ı 6 o s . W c might t h e r e f o r e , if the vvork h a d survivcd, have g a i n e d s o m e e x t r a insight i n t o routes a ı ı d g e o g r a p h y in this little-knovvn a r e a . But i t is n o t utıtil the vvritiııgs o f T h c o d o r c t , b i s h o p o f C y r r h u s in t h c fifth c e n t u r y , t h a t vve c a n find even passing a l l u s i o n s t o places in this r e g i o n vvhich c o m e f r o m s o m e o n e closely involvcd iıı it. E v e n in his c a s e his o n l y a l l u s i o n t o ' G c r m a n i k e i a ' simply r e c o r d s t h a t i t vvas a city on thc b o r d e r s o f C i l i c i a , S y r i a a n d C a p p a d o c i a , vvhose b i s h o p m a n a g e d u n d e r C o n s t a n t i n e t o get h i m s e l f i m p r o p e r l y t r a n s l a t c d t o t h e sec o f A n t i o c h . 1 4 M u c h t h e s a m e indeed a p p l i e s t o C y r r h u s itself, a s u b s t a n t i a l G r e e k c i t y first a t t e s t e d in thc H c l l c n i s d c p e r i o d . N o t o n l y vvas it t h c f o c u s o f a large a n d ferrile a r e a , vvhich h a s never b e e n e x p ! o r e d f o r a n c i e n t r e m a i n s , but, lying o n the river Afrin vvhich runs dovvtı t o t h c plain o f A n t i o c h , it vvas on t h c r o u t e f r o m A n t i o c h t o t h c E u p h r a t e s a t Z e u g m a , a n d rhe s t a t i o n o f a R o m a n legion as early a s the reign o f T i b e r i u s . T h e surviving r e m a i n s — o f vvalls, thc a e r o p o lis, bridges, a t e m p l e a n d tvvo c h u r c h e s , a s vvell as a vast t h e a t r c , 1 1 5 m in d i a m e t e r — m a k e c l e a r t h a t it vvas a c o n s i d c r a b l e u r b a n c e n t r e . But until vve c o m e t o thc vvritings o f T h e o d o r e t himself, vve h a v e virtually n o e v i d e n c e t o i l l u m i ı ı a t c thc s o c i a l history o f i h e city o r t h e very e x t c n s i v c a r c a o f villages attaclıed t o it. 1 5 F o r o u r vvhole p e r i o d , t h e r e f o r e , w c h a v e t o a d m i t that t h e r e

i r . Scc 2.3 -4 a b o v c . i z . O n G e r m a n i k c i a p r o b a b l y rhe m o s t d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t is t h e article i n RE

Supp. I X

^ 9 6 2 ) , c o l s . 7 0 - 7 2 ( u n f o r t t ı n a t c l y m a r k e d by a s u c c c s s i o ı ı o f e l e m e m a r y e r r o r s ) . 1 3 . FGrH

9 7 , F. 1 0 , i r , 1 3 .

1 4 . T h e o d o r e t , H E II, 2 0 . 1 5 . For C y r r h u s s e e E . F r e / o u l s , " R e c h e r c h e s h i s t o r i q u c s et a r c h c o l o g i q u c s sur la ville d c C y r r h u s " , A A S 4/5 ( 1 9 5 4 - 5 5 ) , 8 9 ; " L ' c x p l o r a t i o n a r c h £ o l o g i q u e d e C y r r h u s " , i n J. Balty (ed.J, Apamee

de Syrîe:

Rilan

des recherches

archiologiques,

1965-1968

{1969), 81, wiıh excellcnt

p h o t o g r a p h s o f t h e s i t e a n d t h c remniras; " C y r r h u s e l la C y r r h c s t i q u c j ı ı s q u ' â la fiti d u H a u t * E m p i r e " , ANRW

II.S ( 1 9 7 7 ) , 1 6 4 .

is n o m e a n s o f aecess t o t h e ii fe a n d c u l t u r e o f this n o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e S y r i a n r e g i o n . It is n o t even p o s s i b l c t o s a y vvhat l a n g u a g e , i f any, o t h e r t h a n G r e e k , vvas s p o k e n there, It m u s t be a c c e p t e d t h a t e v e n on t h e m o s t supcrficial levcl the e v i d e n c e o f ali kiııds is i n a d c q u a t c , d i s c o n t i n u o u s a n d very e r r a t i c a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d . I f the vvorks o f J o s e p h u s p r o v i d e a u n i q u e density o f n a r r a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n , n o t ju>t f o r J u d a e a b u t f o r t h e s t ı r r o ı ı n d i n g a r e a a n d even f o r places like A n t i o c h — o r even a b r i c f glimpse o f P a l m y r a — t h e r e is n o c o m p a r a b l e vicvv f r o m any c o n t e m p o r a r y living in the s e c o n d , third o r f o u r t h century. T h e n c a r e s t p a r a l Icl is p r o v i d e d by the vvorks o f E u s e b i u s o f C a e s a r e a . N o r d o vve h a v e any c o n t i n u o u s history o f a n y o n e city until vve c o m e t o t h e Cbronicle

of John

M a l a l a s , vvritten in t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y ; in i n t e n t i o n a Christian vvorld c h r o n içle, it n o n e t h e l e s s c o m e s e l o s e t o b e i n g a history o f his native A n t i o c h . Y e t its a c c o ı ı n t o f this p e r i o d , vvhich c e r t a i n l y c o n t a i n s a m a s s o f v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n , is a l s o riddlcd vvith m i s c o n c c p t i o n s , a b o v e ali a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n o f the city t o the R o m a n state a n d t h e E m p e r o r . A n y a t t e m p t t o grasp t h e n a tu re o f c u l t u r e a n d social f o r m a t i o n s in the r e g i o n has t o d e p e n d largely on r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s by c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , vvhctlıer in l i t e r a t ü r e (and if s o vvhether by o u t s i d e o b s e r v e r s o r b y insiders), in f o r m a l p u b l i c d o c u m c n t s s u c h a s i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d c o i n s (the m o s t d e l i b e r a t e o f ali s y m b o l s o f p u b l i c identity), i n perishable d o c u m e n t s (of vvhich the n u m b e r d i s c o v e r e d is novv r a p i d l y i n e r e a s i n g ) o r a s e m b o d i e d in buildings a n d a r t e f a c t s . It is useless t o coıııplain o f t h e o b v i o u s i n a d c q u a c y o f t h e e v i d e n c e availa b l c . F o r it lies in the n a t u r e o f o u r a c c e s s t o the p a s t (as indeed t o t h e p r e s e n t ) t h a t it is vvholly d e p e n d e n t o n the m e a n s o f i n f o r m a t i o n vvhich h a p p e n to be a v a i l a b l e . Pessimism is in a n y c a s e u n j u s t i f i e d . For, first, t h e e v i d e n c c , t h o u g h grossly i n a d c q u a t e , is n o n e t h e l e s s v e r y c x t e n s i v e in t o t a l v o l u m e . S e c o n d , a vast r a n g e o f e v i d e n c e s e c u r c l y l o c a t e d in s p a c e a n d t i m e is a v a i l a b l e t o us. It c a n chus b e set, vvith ali due c a u t i o n , a g a i n s t the varied a n d impressivc l a n d s c a p c s o f the r e g i o n . I lovvcvcr d e p e n d e n t vve a r e on the a c c i d e n t s o f t h e ' e p i g r a p h i c h a b i t ' , on the interests o f o u r literary s o u r c e s a n d o n t h e f u r t h e r h a z a r d s c f m o d e r n discovery a n d e x c a v a t i o n , it is stili p o s s i b l e b o t h t o c o m p a r e the vario u s s u b - r e g i o n s vvith e a c h o t h e r a n d t o see hovv t h e visible a n d surviving m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f the c u l t u r e o f e a c h c h a n g e ö v e r time. O f c o u r s e vve c a n n o t alW3ys distinguish betvveen a c h a n g e o f interest in o u r s o u r c e s a n d a real c h a n g e in s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e . F o r i n s t a n c e , b i o g r a p h i c a l p o r t r a i t s o f f o u r t h - c e n t u r y C h r i s t i a n h e r m i t s i m m e d i a t e l y t a k e us dovvn t o s o c i a l levels, a n d t o g e o g r a p h ical c o n t e x t s in t h e c o u n t r y s i d e a n d the s t e p p e , vvhich earlı'er literatüre hardly t o u c h e s . W e vvill n o t alvvays b e a b l e t o teli vvhether the s o c i a l p a t t e r n s revealed vvere nevv o r are o n l y novv revealed t o us. H a d there, f o r i n s t a n c e , alvvays been ' S a r a c c n s ' in the Negev, a n d thus vvell vvithin the ' f r o n t i e r ' o f t h e E m p i r e

as it a p p e a r s o n tlıc m a p ? O r h a d the process of 'beduinisation', vvhich Werrıer C a s k e l suggested t o o k place d u r i n g the Imperial period in A r a b i a proper, bey o n d the frontier, 1 6 been m a t c h e d b y a grovvth o f n o m a d i s m vvithin? W e c a n say only that they are visibly present, in a vvay not paralleled before, in the pages o f Jerome's Life o f the h e r m i t H i l a r i o n . 1 7 A t ali events vvc c a n n o t d e n y the significatıce o f the ascetic m o v e m e n t itself, vvhich b e g a n in the first fevv decades of the fourth ccntury a n d represented a revolution in C h r i s t i a n values. "I*he hermits, by the nature o f the symbolic postures vvhich they a d o p t e d , vvere to be f o u n d by the faithful out o n the fringcs o f settled and c u l t i v a t e d land, o n m o u n t a i n s o r o n the e d g e o f tlıc steppe. 1 8 T h u s T i ı e o d o r e t , in deseribing the career o f a hermit of the early fourth ccntury n a m e d Julianus, begins by deseribing the g e o g r a p h y of O s r h o e n e : 'in this p r o v i n c e there are m a n y large and lıeavily p o p u l a t e d cities, and a countryside vvhich is largely iııhabited, but also largely uninhabited and desert'; Julianus c h o s e the edge o f the desert. 1 9 It is o f t e n just such a narrative of the establishment of a lıermit vvhich itself reveals the existcncc o f the large villages vvhich vvere charactcristic o f the vvhole region, and in s o m e cases the significance of the rural cult-centres located near them. For instance, further o n in his a c c o u n t of the hermits o f Syria, T i ı e o d o r e t deseribes ho\v Asterius, a yourıg man of g o o d

family,

f o u n d e d vvhat vvas t o b e c o m c a monastery 'in the countryside round G i n d a r u s — t h i s is a very large v i l l a g e (köme)

placed under the control o f A n t i -

och'. 2 0 T h e place, m o d e r n G e n d e r e s s e , sitııated near the river A f r i n , vvas p r o b ably in origin an early I Icllcnistic scttlcment; but its o n l y carlicr significant mention in our sources c o m e s f r o m Strabo, reflccting the unsettled c o n d i t i o n of the first century BC: to h i m G i n d a r u s vvas a polis, the aeropolis o f the district callcd Cyrrhestice and a n a t u r a l stronghold for robbers. 2 1 T h e large scttlcment (polis o r köme?)

o f G i n d a r u s had thus alvvays been there. T h e c o m -

plete silence a b o u t it is b r o k e n o n l y thanks to the litcrary record of the tvvo great historic changes vvhich m a r k the liıııits of the period studicd here: the

1 6 . Scc W. C a s k e l , " T h e B c d u i n i z a t i o n of A r a b i a " , in W. E. v o n G r ü n c b a u m (cd.), in Islarnic

Csıllural

History

Studies

( 1 9 5 4 ) , 3 f>.

1 7 . J c r o m c , Vita Hilarionis

16 (Vite

dei Santi,

c d . C . M o h r m a n n , IV, 1 9 7 5 ) . Scc 1 0 . 4 a n d

11.4 below. 1 8 . O n t h i s s e c P. B r o w n , " T h e R i s c a n d F u n e t i o n o f t h e I l o l y M a n in L a t e A n t i q u i t y H , 6 1 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 80, a n d Assimilation in Society

u

et resistance

a ta culture greco-romaine

and the Holy in luite

1 9 . T T ı e o d o r e t , Philotheos

Antiquity Historia

Ttâv Ttıç E p f j ı u u KataXap«ûv. 2 0 . T h c o d o r c t II, 9. 2 » . S t r a b o , Gcog.

JRS

T o w n , V i l l a g e a n d I l o l y M a n : T h e c a s c o f S y r i a " , i n D . M . P i p p i d i (cd-J,

X V I , 2, 8 ( 7 5 1 ) .

dans le mondeancien

(1976),

both reprinted

(1982), r 0 3 - 1 6 5 . II, 1—z. T h e l a n g u a g c u s e d is q u i t e p r c c i s c : u r i r n ı ç

ixr/u-

R o m a n impositioıı o f o r d e r o v e r a large p a r t o f t h e w o r l d as k n o w n t o S t r a b o , a n d the beginnings o f t h e m o n a s t i c m o v e m e n t . It is o n l y the l a t t e r vvhich t a k e s u s e l o s e t o t h e rural vvorld o f the N e a r E a s t . T h c o d o r e t again p r o v i d e s vvhat is p e r h a p s o u r o n l y p i c t u r c o f a rural s a n e t u a r y in the t e r r i t o r y o f t h e littlc tovvn o f G a b a l a , vvhich lay o n t h e c o a s t s o m e 3 0 k m south o f L a o d i c e a . S o m e 7 k m f r o m the tovvn vvas a s h r i n e f o r t h e vvorship o f 4 d e m o n s \ vvhom the c o u n t r y - p e o p l c h a d t o a p p e a s e vvith c o n s t a n t sacrifices t o a v o i d h a r m : o t h e m s e l v e s , their asses, m u l e s , c a t t l e , sheep a n d c a m e l s . A h e r m i t n a m e d T h a lelaios then t o o k up his s t a t i o n e x a c t l y t h e r e , nullified the povvcr o f d e m o n s a n d vvas later a s s i s t e d in destroying the temenos

the

a n d s u b s t i t u t i n g for

it a s h r i n e t o s o m e C h r i s t i a n m a r t y r s . 2 2 Hovvever m a n y isolated i n s i g h t s into the life o f t h e r e g i o n vve m a y b e a b l e t o a c c u m u l a t e , vve vvill n o t n e c e s s a r i l y be able t o c o n s t r u c t o u t o f them any m e a n i n g f u l history. M o r c o v e r , it h a s a l r e a d y been c o n c c d e d t h a t a true s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c h i s t o r y o f the r e g i o n is stili vvholly o u t o f r e a c h . But a t a differe n t level t h r e e lines o f a p p r o a c h a r e f c a s i b l e . O n e h a s a l r e a d y been e x p l o i t c d : t o survey t h e p r o g r e s s i v c s t a g e s b y vvhich l a r g e p a r t s o f t h e N e a r E a s t c a m c u n d e r R o m a n direct rule, a n d t o r a i s c s o m e initial q u c s t i o n s a b o u t the n a t u r c o f the R o m a n i m p a c t on t h e m . S e c o n d , t h e r e is t h e q u e s t i o n vvhich ı h e s t o r y o f the i m p o s i t i o n o f R o m a n r u l e itself serves t o raise: the n a t u r e o f t h e differe n t political f o r m a t i o n s a n d s o c i a l g r o u p i n g s vvhich t h e R o m a n s e n c o u n t e r e d . F o r i n s t a n c e , the political m a p o f t h e N e a r E a s t under A u g u s t u s vvas d o m i n a t e d by k i n g d o m s . But b y t h e e a r l y s e c o n d c e n t u r y ali t h o s e vvest o f the E u p h r a t e s h a d d i s a p p c a r c d . W h a t vvas t h e significance o f t h a t dis a p p e a ra nce, a n d did the k i n g d o m s leavc n o legacy b e h i n d t h e m , in t e r m s o f m o n u m e n t s , o f t r a d i t i o n s o r o f g r o u p i d e n t i t i c s o r loyalties vvhich m i g h t b e c a p a b l e o f r e a c t i v a t i o n ? I f , a s seems c l e a r , they left very littlc t r a c e , vvhy vvas t h a t s o , ar.d vvhat o t h e r f o r m s o f c o m m u n a l o r p c r s o n a l i d e n t i t y vvere m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t ? T h i r d , even o u r f r a g m e n t a r y a n d e r r a t i c e v i d e n c e c a n yield s o m e m e a n i n g , o r p o t e n t i a l m e a n i n g , vvhen d i f f e r e n t s u b - r e g i o n s a r e c o m p a r e d . T a k e f o r ins t a n c e t h e linguisric history, o r r a t h e r h i s t o r i e s , o f the r e g i o n , i n v o l v i n g the c o m p l c x i n t e r p l a y o f G r e e k , L a t i n a n d a series o f S e m i t i c languages. As elssvvhere, G r e e k vvords vvere r e a d i l y t r a n s l i t e r a t e d a n d a b s o r b c d i n t o L a t i n , a n d L a t i n into G r c c k . But in tlıc N e a r E a s t vve c a n see hovv L a t i n vvords c o u l d pass t h r o u g h G r e e k t o b c a b s o r b e d by t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n i n t o S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s . S o centurio

c o u l d b e c o m e kenturiötı

in G r c c k , a s in the Nevv T e s t a m e n t

(for i n s t a n c e in M k 1 5 , 3 9 ) , a n d then Q T R Y N ' o r Q T R Y W N ' in Palmyrer.e a n d Q N T R Y N ' in N a b a t a e a n ; " colonia

c o u l d b e c o m e kolöneia

in Greelc,

22. T h e o d o r e t X X V I I I , 1 - 5 . 2 3 . P a l m y r e n e : M . G . Bcrriuelli A n g c l i , Nomenclalıııa semitiche

pubblica

e saca

di Roma nelle

( 1 9 7 0 ) , 1 0 6 ; N a b a t a e a n : CAS I I . 1 , n o . 2 1 7 , c f . B o w e r s o c k , Roman

Aıabia,

57.

epigrafi

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QLNY*

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Hebrevv, Jevvish A r a m a i c ,

Palmyrene

and

Syriac.24 T h e i n t e r p l a y o f l a n g u a g e s c a n a l s o b c vicvvcd f r o m q u i t e d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s . O n e m a j o r q u e s t i o n i s vvhether t h e o r a l use o f a t l e a s t o n e S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e vvas in f a c t c h a r a c t e r i s r i c o f ali t h e s ı ı b - r e g i o n s o f t h e N e a r E a s t vvithout e x c e p t i o n . In m o s t a r e a s it is b e y o n d d o u b t . B u t s o m e q u e s t i o n m u s t p e r s i s t a s r e g a r d s C o m m a g e n e , f r o m G c r m a n i c i a in the vvest t o the E u p h r a t e s in t h e e a s t , a n d o v e r the n o r t h - S y r i a n t e t r a p o l i s , vvith t h e m a j o r e a r l y H e l l e nistic f o u n d a t i o n s o f A n t i o c h , S e l e u c i a , L a o d i c e a a n d A p a m e a . W h a t is c e r t a i n at l e a s t is t h a t t h e s e tvvo a r e a s h a v e n o t s o f a r p r o d u c e d any c x a m p l e s o f formal public inseriptions (for instance, conımunal decrees, s t a t u e - b a s e s , d e d i c a t i o n s o r e p i t a p h s ) in a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e . T h i s f a c t m i g h t b e r e g a r d e d as i n s i g n i f i c a n t (a m e r e p r o d u e t o f a c o n v e n t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n o f G r e e k vvith t h e c p i g r a p h i c h a b i t ) , if it vvere n o t f o r the p r e s e n c e o f such i n s e r i p t i o n s in ali the o t h e r a r e a s ; n o t a b l y in t h e t e r r i t o r y o f P a l m y r a , vvhich d i r e c t l y b o r d e r e d o n t h a t o f A p a m e a . If vve c a n n o t dravv a m a p o f the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s p o k e n l a n g u a g e s , vve c e r t a i n l y c a n dravv p r o v i s i o n a l m a p s o f the d i s r r i b u t i o n o f l a n g u a g e s as i n s e r i b e d . A n y s u c h m a p vvould b e a c o m p l e x o n e , f o r it vvould h a v e t o allovv f o r t h e c o - e x i s t e n c e o f i n s e r i p t i o n s in d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s — f o r e x a m p ! e , G r e e k a n d L a t i n , e s p e c i a l l y in B e r y t u s a n d H e l i o p o l i s , o r G r e e k a n d o n e o r m o r e S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s (as f o r i n s t a n c e in t h e o s s u a r y - i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m J u d a e a ) . B u t i t vvould a l s o h a v e t o r e f l e c t a d i f f e r e n t p h e n o m e n o n , s y s t e m a t i c i n s c r i p t i o n a l b i l i n g u a l i s m , e s p e c i a l l y in P a l m y r a , vvhere a l a r g c p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e i n s e r i p t i o n s a r e in b o t h G r e e k a n d P a l m y r e n e . A fevv P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n s a r e e v e n t r i l i n g u a l , in G r e e k , P a l m y r e n e a n d L a t i n . T h e s m a l l but grovving n u m b e r o f a r c l ı i v e s p r e s e r v e d o n p e r i s h a b l e m a t e r ı als ( p a p y r u s o r p a r e h m e n t ) c a n n o t o f c o u r s c y e t yicld r c s u l t s vvhich c a n b e p l o t t e d o n a l i n g u i s t i c m a p . B u t t h e y d o shovv t h a t G r e e k a n d S y r i a c c o u l d b o t h b e u s e d vvithin t h e s a m e a r e h i v e ; t h a t a s i n g l e a r e h i v e ( t h a t o f B a b a t h a , c o v c r i n g the y e a r s f r o m the 90S t o t h e 1 3 0 S ) c o u l d c o n t a i n d o c u m c n t s in N a b a t a e a n , A r a m a i c a n d G r e e k ; a n d t h a t vvitnesses t o d o c u m e n t s in G r e e k c o u l d a d d their n a m e s in N a b a t a e a n o r A r a m a i c o r S y r i a c . In t h e c a s e o f B a b a t h a vve a r e a t a n i m p o r t a n t m o m e n t o f t r a n s i t i o n , f o r t h e a r e h i v e c o v e r s the last d e c a d e s o f the k i n g d o m o f N a b a t a e a a n d the

first

t h r e e d e c a d e s o f the R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a . T h e r e is a c l e a r p r o g r e s s i o n , f r o m N a b a t a e a n u n d e r the k i n g d o m t o A r a m a i c a n d t h e n ( f o r t h e m a i n t e x t o f e a c h d o c u m e n t ) G r e e k in t h e p r o v i n c i a l p e r i o d . P r e c i s e l y o n e o f the m o r e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n s p r o g r e s s i o n in t i m e : did R o m a n r u l e t e n d t o d e p r e s s ( o r in c e r t a i n a r e a s f o r b i d ? ) t h e p u b l i c o r official use o f S e m i t i c l a n 2 4 . M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

passim.

g u a g e s ? O f d o e s t h a t q u e s t i o t ı itself e m b o d y a n a c h f ö H i s t i c a s s u m p t i o n s a b û u t the n a t u r e a n d a m b i t i o n s o f the state? B u t h e r e a g a i n c o m p a r i s o n s betvveen r e g i o n s a n d a c r o s s t i m e vvill b c suggestivc. Any results o f s u c h a c o m p a r i s o n m u s t , hovvever, be t e n t a t i v c . F o r , first, vve m u s t allovv f o r t h e p r e s c n c e o f o r a l b i l i n g u a l i s m ; that is, t h e use o f d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s in different c o n t e x t s a n d t o different i n t c r l o c u t o r s . S u c h a pattern is p e r f e c t l y c x c m p l i f i e d i n A c t s , vvhen P a u l , a f t e r s p e a k i n g t o t h e R o m a n t r i b ü n e in G r e e k , is r e p r e s e n t e d as t u r n i n g t o address the crovvd 'in t h e Hebrais dialektos\25

It is o ı ı l y u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t vve c a n n o t b c c e r t a i n vvhether

L u k c m c a n s t o r e p r e s e n t h i m as s p e a k i n g in H c b r e v v o r in A r a m a i c { o r even vvhether he vvas fully avvare o f the difference). S e c o n d , a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t , it r e m a i n s t o a s k vvhether the S e m i t i c lang u a g e s e m p l o y e d in t h c E a s t vvere either a n e c e s s a r y o r a sufficient c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f l o c a l c u l t u r e s o r o f distinetive, c o n s c i o u s c t h n i c identities. L a n g u a g e is o n l y o n e a s p e c t o f c u l t u r e . T h e r e a r e m a n y o t h e r q u e s t i o n s t o bc a s k e d a b o u t social a n d p o l i d c a l s t r u e t u r e s , a b o u t citics a n d villages a ı d a b o u t g o d s a n d t e m p l e s in t h e different r e g i o n s o f the N e a r E a s t . B u t h e r e a g a i n , if o u r s c a t t e r e d e v i d e n c e c a n be m a d e significant at a l i , it is o n l y by c o m p a r i s o n betvveen a r c a s . Such a survey a n d c o m p a r i s o n c a n h a r d l y fail t o e m p h a s i s e d i f f e r e n c e s . At t h e s a m e t i m e these d i f f e r e n c e s h a v e t o b e seeıı vvithin the c o n t e x t o f tvvo u n i f y i n g f a c t o r s . O n c is thc p r o g r e s s i v c i m p o s i r i o n o f R o m a n direct rule, milit a r y o c c u p a t i o n a n d t a x a t i o n . H e n c e the survey vvill t a k e t h e d i f f e r e n t subr e g i o n s in r o u g h l y the o r d e r in vvhich t h e y seem t o h a v e been a b s o r b e d into t h e p r o v i n e i a l s y s t e m . S e c o n d , hovvever s t r o n g t h e imprint o f a n y local c u l t u r e m a y h a v e b e e n , the d o m i n a n t f a c t o r is the a b s o r p t i o n o f the region vvithin the vvider G r e e k vvorld. P e r s o n s e d u c a t e d in t h e c o m m o n s t o c k o f G r e e k l i t e r a t ü r e a n d t r a d i t i o n , a n d vvriring in G r e e k , might c o m e from Pctra a n d B o s t r a , f r o m Emmaus/Nicopolis or Flavia Neapolis, f r o m Damascus, Emesa, Tyre, Apam e a , A n t i o c h , S a m o s a t a , C a r r h a e o r N i s i b i s . A n aetual m a p o f t h e o r i g i n s o f knovvn vvriters in G r e e k , vvhether p a g a n o r C h r i s t i a n , vvould o f c o u r s e b e an absurdity. B u t a t t h c level o f a vvider p o p u l a r c u l t u r e a m a p rcally c a n b c dravvn o f t h o s e places vvhich vvere the l o c a t i o n o f the n a m e d agotıes—musical,

recurrent

t h e a t r i c a l a n d a t h l c t i c c o n t e s t s — v v h i c h vvere s o i m p o r t a n t

a feature o f t h e c o m m u n a l l i f e o f G r e e k cities. O n c e again c o m p a r i s o n is significant: t h e y a r e a t t e s t e d a s f a r s o u t h a s G a z a a n d B o s t r a , b u t n o f u r t h e r ; a t D a m a s c u s b u t n o t a t P a l m y r a ; a n d up t o , b u t n o t a c r o s s , the E u p h r a t e s . In t h a t very r e s p e c t , t h e s t a t u s o f t h e p u b l i c c o n t e s t s p u t o n b y its cities, ali o f t h e N e a r E a s t c l e a r l y e n j o y e d n o m o r e t h a n a s e c o n d a r y r a n k vvithin t h c vvider G r e e k vvorld. By c o n t r a s t , hovvever, a s a p c r p e n ı a l m i l i t a r y o r f r o n t i e r z o n e

15. Acts 2 1 , 37-40.

vvithin t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , it vvas o p e n t o a n e x c e p t i o n a l d c g r c e o f R o m a n i s ing influence, f r o m the vvidespread c o n f e r m e n t o f the r a n k o f colonia

to the

p o p u l a r i t y o f g l a d i a t o r i a l a n d vvild-beast shovvs. T h e s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f t h e N e a r E a s t in this period is n o s i m p l e m a t t e r o f a c o n f l i c t betvveen ' C l a s s i c a l ' a n d ' O r i e n t a l ' . The v a r i o u s local c u l tures c o u l d find e x p r e s s i o n in vvays vvhich vvere strikingly different o n e f r o m a n o t h e r . T h e m o s t v i g o r o u s ittıpulse t o u r b a n i s a t i o n a n d the c r e a t i o n a n d a d o r n m c n t o f G r e e k c i t i e s vvas t h a t d u c t o a king o f J u d a e a , a Jcvv by r c l i g i o n , the son o f a n I d u m a e a n f a t h e r a n d a N a b a t a e a n m o t h e r , vvho vvas a l s o a R o m a n citizen. W i t h i n a c e n t u r y , o r a t t h e m o s t tvvo c e n t u r i e s , o f H e r o d ' s d e a t h b o t h p a g a n G r e e k p h i l o s o p h i c a l ideas a n d C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y vvere t o ftnd c x p r c s s i o n in S y r i a c . B u t vvhatever m e t a p h o r vve use for t h e i n t e r p l a y o f c u l tures in this r e g i o n , every a s p e c t o f s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e vvas i n l l u e n c e d b o t h by G r e e k civilisation a n d by the progressive e x t e n s i o n o f R o m a n rule. W h e t ı vve h a v e c x a m i n e d the different s u b - r e g i o n s o f the N e a r E a s t in c o m p a r i s o n vvith e a c h other, it vvill be n e c e s s a r y t o ask vvhether t h e r e g i o n as a vvhole s h o u l d b e seetı as p a r t o f t h e ' O r i e n t ' o r as p a r t o f the vvider G r a e c o - R o m a n vvorld.

CHAPTER

7 THE THTRAPOUS AND N O R T H E R N SYRIA

7.1. T H E G E O G R A P H İ C A L T h e R o m a n provittcia

CONTEXT

o f S y r i a , as it \vas under Augustus, c o n s i s ı e d o f t h r e e

different r e g i o n s , o f vvhich o n e vvas a n e n c l a v e p h y s i c a l l y s e p a r a t e f r o m the o t h e r s . T h e first vvas n o r t h e r n S y r i a , s t r c t c h i n g a c r o s s f r o m the M e d i t e r r a n c a n c o a s t , a n d the tvvo p o r t s o f I . a o d i c e a a n d Seleucia, t h r o u g h A n t i o c h t o the E u p h r a t e s . T h e s e c o n d vvas t h e P h o e n i c i a n c o a s t , vvhich in its n o r t h e r n p a r t b a c k c d i n t o t h e m o u n t a i n - c h a i ı ı novv called t h e J c b c l A n s a r i y c h a n d in the s o u t h o n t o M o u n t I . e b a n o n a n d then t h e hills o f G a l i l e e . Provincial t e r r i t o r y s e e m s indeed t o h a v e e x t e n d e d s o u t h n o t o n l y t o P t o l e m a i s - A k k o but b e y o n d M o u n t C a r m e l t o t h e small tovvn o f D o r a . T h e n , i s o l a t e d b e y o n d A n t i - L e b a n o n vvas the a n c i e n t c i t y o f D a m a s c u s , a n d f u r t h e r s o u t h at least s o m e o f the c i t i e s o f t h e D e c a p o l i s . Ali these regior.s c o u l d b c c h a r a c t c r i s e d in g e n e r a l t e r m s a s a r e a s d o m i n a t c d b y G r e e k cities. B e i n g novv under R o m a n d i r e c t r u l e , they s t r o n g l y c o n t r a s t c d vvith t h e k i n g d o m s o f C o m m a g e n e t o the n o r t h a n d E m e s a on t h e upper O r o n t e s , v a r i o u s d y n a s t i e s vvhosc t e r r i t o r i e s vvere l o c a t e d on a n d a r o u n d M o u n t L e b a n o n and A n t i - L e b a n o n , t h e k i n g d o m o f H e r o d a n d the N a b a t a e a n k i n g d o m vvith its capital a t P e t r a . W h e t h e r t h e r e vvere m o r e p r o f o u n d c o n t r a s t s betvveen these different z o n e s , in l a n g u a g e , c u l t u r e o r e t h n i c identity, r e m a i n s t o be s e c n . As t h e m i l i t a r y e v o l u t i o n o f t h e provincia

shovvs, t h e single R o m a n g o v e r -

n o r o f this e a r l y p e r i o d vvas firmly based in A n t i o c h , a n d his legions vvere ali a l s o g r o u p e d in n o r t h e r n S y r i a . T h e R o m a n p r e s e n c e vvas t h u s s h a p e d b y the m a j ö r city-foundations of Sclcucus Nicator at the end o f the fourth ccntury BC: S c l c u c i a , vvhere S c l c u c u s vvas b u r i c d , L a o d i c c a , A n t i o c h a n d A p a m c a . A n y 12.36 I

a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f S e l e u c u s o n t h e m a p o f this a r e a , vvhere u n d e r t h e P e r s i a n F.mpirc t h e r e s c e m t<» h a v e b e e n n o m a j ö r c i t i c s , h a s t o begin f r o m a c l a s s i c a r t i c l e by H e n r i S e y r i g , p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 7 0 , o n h i s c i t y - f o u n d a t i o n s . ' B c r o e a ( A l c p p o ) is a l s o r c c o r d c d as a f o u n d a t i o n o f S e l e u c u s , a n d t h c m a p o f t h c r c g i o n vvas by novv h c a v i l y m a r k e d by p l a c c s vvhose n a m e s vvere b o r r o v v e d e i t h e r f r o m M a c e d o n i a a n d its e n v i r o n s o r f r o m t h e S e l e u c i d d y n a s t y : s o for i n s t a n c e the ' v e r y l a r g e v i l l a g e ' o f G i n d a r u s in t h c t e r r i t o r y o f A n t i o c h ; 2 C y r r h u s in t h c n o r t h , o n t h c b o r d e r s o f C o m m a g e n e ; S e l e u c i a ( Z c u g m a ) o n t h c E u p h r a t e s , vvith a n o t h e r s m a l l ' A p a m e a ' o p p o s i t c it; o r a l o n g t h c O r o n t e s southvvards f r o m the m a j ö r c i t y o f A p a m e a , Larissa, Epiphania, A r e t h u s a , and beyond Emesa the small city of Laodicea ad Libanum. T i m e and geography are crucial to any consideration of thc nature of these p l a c e s a s t h e y vvere in t h c R o m a n p e r i o d . F i r s t , t h e r e is h a r d l y the s l i g h t e s t e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t in a n y o n e o f these cities t h e r e vvas c o n s c i o u s c o n t i n u ity vvith t h c p o p u l a t i o n s vvhich h a d lived t h e r e b e f o r e t h c M a c c d o n i a n c o n q u e s t . E v e n in rhe c a s e o f the a n c i e n t c i t y o f A l e p p o , vvith its s t r i k i n g n a u ı r a l aeropolis, strategically situated w h e r c a river (the C h a l o s , o r m o d e r n Qvvciq) e r o s s e s a r o u t e f r o m the c o a s t t o the E u p h r a t e s , n o m o r e t h a n a m i n ö r s e t t l e m e n t s c c m s t o h a v e c x i s t c d in t h c A s s y r i a n a n d Persian p e r i o d s . In t e r m s o f its u r b a n c h a r a c t e r , S e l e u c u s ' s e t t l e m e n t t h e r e , novv c a l l e d B e r o c a , s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n a nevv f o u n d a t i o n ; a n d the s t r e e t s o f its c e n t r a l a r e a r e t a i n t o t h i s day t h c c h c q u c r - b o a r d plan i m p o s e d t h e n . 3 O f ali t h c c i t i c s in t h i s r c g i o n o n l y o n e , B a m b y c c / M a n b o g , vvhich h a d c o m c in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d t o be c a l l e d H i e r a p o l i s , a l s o r e t a i ı ı e d a n o n - G r e e k n a m e in c o m m o n use, a n d a n i d e n t i t y vvhich vvas in n o vvay a p r o d u c t o f M a c c d o n i a n s e t t l e m e n t . 4 T h c f a c t t h a t t h c m a j ö r c i t i c s o f t h i s r c g i o n vvere n e a r l y ali e a r l y - H e l lenistic f o u n d a ı i o n s in o r i g i n h a d tvvo o p p o s i t e c o n s e q u e n c e s . O n t h e o n e h a n d , a s G r e e k c i t i e s t h e y c o u l d n e v e r c o m p a r e in a n t i q u i t y , p r e s t i g e o r h i s t o r ical a s s o c i a t i o n s vvith t h o s e o f G r e e c e a n d t h c A c g c a n , o r vvesrern A s i a M i n ö r — o r e v e n , as vve vvill see, vvith t h o s e o f P h o e n i c i a . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , G r e e k a n d M a c e d o n i a n s e t t l e m e n t there vvas, b y A u g u s t u s ' r e i g n , a l r e a d y s o m e t h r e e c e n t u r i e s in t h c p a s t . T h c t i m e vvhich h a d e l a p s e d vvas easily l o n g c n o u g h b o r h f o r the c i t i e s t o h a v e d e v e l o p e d the i n s t i t u t i o n s , c o m m u n a l c e r e m o n i a l s a n d u r b a n f r a m e v v o r k s c h a r a c t c r i s t i c o f the s t a n d a r d ' G r e e k c i t y ' a n d 1 . H . S e y r i g , " S e l e u c u s I c t (a f o n d a r i o n d c la m o n a r c h i c s y r i c n n e " , Syria 4 7 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , 2 9 0 . Kor a f u l l s t u d y o f ali t h c H c l l c n i s t i c f o u n d a ı i o n s in this a r c a s e e J. D . G r a i n g e r , Thc Seleukid

Syria

Citics

of

(1990).

2. C:h. 6 a b o v e . 3 . S e e J. S a u v a g e t , Alep: an milieu

du XIX'

4. 7 . 2 belovv.

sütle

l'isai

sur le divcloppcmenl

(1941), 2xff.; 4off.

d'une

grande

ville syricnne

des

origines

f o r t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e a n d c u s t o m s t o have b e c o m e r o o t e d a l s o in the r u r a a r e a s a r o u n d t h e m . But t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r either o f these d e v e l o p m e n t s h a d in f a c t o c c u r r e d remaitıs t o bc a n s w e r e d . T h e o t h e r c s s c n t i a l f a c t o r is g e o g r a p h y . F o r i n s t a n c e , the visitor t o t h e site o f A p a m e a c a n see a t a single m o m e n t a w h o l e series o f different g e o g r a p h i c a l z o n e s . F i r s t , t h e r e is the c i t y itself, laid o u t o n its plateau o v c r l o o k i n g the O r o n t e s f r o m t h e e a s t , vvithin its n - k m c i r c u i t o f H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n vvalls. B e I o w it is t h e flat, h c a v i l y c u l t i v a t c d valley o f the O r o n t e s . B e y o t ı c t h a t , t o the w e s t , is the m o ı ı n t a i n - c h a i n o f the J e b e l A n s a r i y e h d i v i d i n g the valley f r o m t h e s e a . T o t h e n o r t h lie the s o u t h c r n m o s t o u t c r o p s o f t h e l i m c s t o n e m a s s i f , which s t r e t e h e s n o r t h t o b e y o n d the r o u t e betvveen A n t i o c h and B e r o e a , a n d c a r r i e s t h e r e m a i n s o f i t ı n u m c r a b l e l a t e - R o m a n villages, the best p r e s e r v c d f r o m any\vhere in t h e a n c i e n t vvorld. T o the east a flat, r o l l i n g plain e x t c n d s o u t i n t o the s t e p p e p r o p e r . It is p e r h a p s this d i r e e t i o n w h i c h o f f e r s t h e Ieast-severe p r o b l e m s o f interp r e t a t i o n . F o r in the eyes o f the best o b s e r v e r vve h a v e f o r the A u g u s r a n per i o d , S t r a b o , A p a m e a vvas a f r o n t i e r - z o n e n e x t t o n o m a d i c territory. A s vve savv earlicr, S t r a b o r e c o r d s hovv C a e c i l i u s B a s s u s , vvhen besieged iıı A p a m e a in the 40S DC, h a d been a l l i e d vvith A l c h a e d a m n u s , king o f a n o m a d i c p e o p l e c a l l e d t h e R h a m b a e a n s ; a n d he c o n t i n u e s b y deseribing t h e r e g i o n e a s t o f A p a m e a a s ' t h e P a r o p o t a m i a o f t h e A r a b plrylarchoi\ bclongiııg t o skerıilai

and t h a t t o t h e s o u t h as

f t e n t - d v v c l l c r s ' ) , vvhom he c x p l i c i t l y deseribes as b e i n g

s i m i l a r t o t h o s e in M e s o p o t a m i a . So t o o , in the eyes o f D i o d o r u s , vvriting a fevv d e c a d e s earlier, C h a l c i s ( Q i n n e s r i n ) , t o the nortlı-east o f A p a m e a , vvas s i t u a t e d on the borders o f ' A r a b i a ' , b u t p r o s p c r o u s e n o u g h t o b e c a p a b l e of s u p p o r t i n g a n a r m y . T h i s littlc-knovvn p l a c e lay south-vvest o f B e r o e a 011 the s a m e river Q w e i q (the a n c i e n t C h a l o s , o r p o s s i b l y Belos) vvhich f u r t h e r s o u t h p e t e r s o u t i n t o m a r s h l a n d . 5 T h i s t o o vvas a fertile z o n c , b o r d e r i n g on t h e desert, a n d the l o c a t i o n o f a s m a l l c i t y vvith n o h i s t o r y in o u r period e x c e p t the r e c o r d o f haviııg been t h e ııative city o f l a m b l i c h u s , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t N e o P l a t o n i s ı p h i l o s o p h e r o f t h e first h a l f o f the f o u r t l ı century. 6 W h e n J c r o m c retired t o n e a r t h e r e in the 3 7 0 S t o live t h e life o f a h e r m i t , it vvas stili on the m a r g i n s o f t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e ' S a r a c c n i ' ; a n d a n y c o m m u n i c a t i o n h a d t o be in a ' b a r b a r i a n s p e e c h ' — b y vvhich h e is p r e s u m e d t o nıean S y r i a c . 7 T h a t places like C h a l c i s a n d A p a m e a vvere, in t e r m s o f e c o n o m y a n d s o c i a l j . S t r a b o : 2 . 1 a b o v e ; D i o d o r u s X X X I I I , 4 a . Pliny, NH

V, 23/82, s p e a k s o f ' S c i e u c i a s

...

d u a s , q u n e a d Kuphrateıı et qııae a d Rcltım v o c a t m ı r ' . F o r ı h e sııggesıion that ' B e l o s ' w a s t h e , o r a n , a n c i e n t n a m e o f t h e river, see J . C h . Ralty, " L e Helus dc C h a l c i s ct les l l c u v c s d e B a ' a l d c S y r i c - P a l c s t i n c " , in Archeologie

au l.eı><wt: Recııeil

R. Saidah ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 2 8 7 .

6. F o r t h e remains o f t h e city, n e v e r c . * c a v a t c d , scc P. M o n c c a u v a n d 1.. Hosse, " C h a l c i s ad Bcluın: N o t c s sur l'histoirc e t les r u i n e s dc la v i l l e " , Syria 6 ( 1 9 2 5 ) , 3 3 9 . 7 . J e r o m c , F.p. 5, 1 ; 7 , 1 - 2 ; ı s , 2. Scc J. N . D . Kelly, Jerome

( 1 9 7 5 ) . *»6ff.

s t r u e t u r e s , o u t p o s t s o n the m a r g i n s o f t h e s t e p p e is a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t a b o u t t h e m . B u t , as m o d e r n s u r v e y s h a v e s h o w n , t h e s t e p p e t o o , a s it \vas ( o r b e c a m e ) in t h e R o m a n p e r i o d , vvas a m i x e d z o n e ; b y n o m e a n s a t r u e , e m p t y desert, but erossed by tracks a n d dotted by small settlements.8 T h e date a n d c h a r a c t e r o f m u c h o f vvhat h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d stili r e m a i n s u n c e r t a i n . F o r i n s t a n c e , in t h e m a r g i n a l z o n e n o r t h - e a s t o f H a m a / H p i p h a n i a s u r v e y e d by J e a n L a s s u s , the r e m a i n s s u g g e s t a m u c h d e n s e r p o p u l a t i o n in t h e C h r i s t i a n

fifth

a n d s i x t h c e n t u r i c s t h a n in the f i r s t t h r e e t o four. 9 It is r c a s o n a b l e t o s u p p o s e t h a t s e d e n t a r y o c c u p a t i o n did i n e r e a s e in t h e R o m a n p e r i o d , vvithout e v e r c o m i n g n e a r t o e x c l u d i n g the ' S a r a c e n s ' . T h a t t h e r e f o r e l e a v c s e n t i r e l y o p e n the q u e s t i o n o f the real c h a r a c t c r o f s u c h c i t i e s . Did t h e y r e m a i n b a s t i o n s o f G r e e k l a n g u a g e , c u l t u r e a n d c u s t o m s ? O r vvere t h e y p l a c e s vvithin vvhich, o r vvithin vvhose i m m e d i a t e t e r r i t o r i e s , q u i t c d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s c o - e x i s t c d ? B e f o r e a n ansvver c a r ı b e a t t e m p t e d , vve h a v e t o l o o k tovvards a n o t h e r f a r m o r e m y s t e r i o u s g e o g r a p h i c a l z o n e , a l s o v i s i b l e f r o m A p a m e a , the J e b e l A n s a r i y e h . İt is i m p o r t a n t t o r e c a l l t h a t n o t o n l y the cities a n d s e t t l e m e n t s o f t h e O r o n t e s Valley b u t t h o s e o f the c o a s t vvere d o m i n a t e d by t h i s m o u n t a i n - e h a i n . S o t o o vvas A n t i o c h , vvhere M o u n t S i l p i u s , t h e n o r t h c r n m o s t p o i n t in t h e c h a i n , rises d r a m a t i c a l l y j u s t b e h i n d the c i t y t o t h e s o u t h . A t its s o u t h e r n e n d , in the t e r r i t o r y o f A r a d o s

and

a r o u n d the g r e a t s a ı ı c t u a r y o f Z e u s a t B a e t o c a e c e , a r c a s vvhich vvere t o f o r m p a r t o f ' S y r i a P h o e n i c e ' a n d vvill bc t r e a t e d a l o n g vvith o t h e r

Phoenician

p l a c c s , it is p o s s i b l e t o g a i n s o m e f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n e e a b o u t c u l t u r e a n d s o c i a l s t r u e t u r e s . 1 0 F o r the a r e a in betvveen, hovvcvcr, t h e e v i d e n e e o f l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s , i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d a r c h a c o l o g y c o m b i n c s t o l e a v e an a l m o s t c o m p l e t e blank. Yet this n o r ı h c r n s e c t i o n o f t h e c h a i n vvas settled a n d c u l t i v a t c d , j u s t a s vvas t h e a r e a r o u n d B a e t o c a e c e , s o m e ı o o o m a b o v e s e a - l e v c l . S t r a b o ' s d e s e r i p t i o n m a k e s t h i s q u i t c clear, a s it d o e s a l s o the r e l a t i o n t o the m o u n t a i ı ı c h a i n o f b o t h I ^ ı o d i c e a o n t h e c o a s t and A p a m e a in the O r o n t e s V a l l e y : Then o n c c o m c s t o L a o d i c e i a , situated o n the s e a . It is a city most beautifully built, has a g o o d h a r b o u r , a n d has territory vvhich, besides its other g o o d e r o p s , abouııds in vvinc. Novv this city furnishes the m o s t o f the vvine t o the A l c x a n d r c i a n s , s i n c e t h e vvhole m o u n t a i n t h a t lies a b o v e the city and is possessed by it is c o v e r e d vvith vines a l m o s t as far as tlıe summits. And vvhile the s u m m i t s a r e a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e distancc from L a o d i c c i a ,

8. S c c R . M o u t c r d c a ı ı d A . P o i d t b a r d , Le limes l latife Syrie tomaitıe

9. J . L a s s u s , IttL'entaire archeologiqtte 1 0 . 8.3 b e l o w .

de Chalcis:

Orgaııisation

de la steppe

I—11 ( 1 9 4 5 ) . de la ttgioıı

au ttord est de Hama

I-II (1936).

en

s l o p i n g u p g c n t l y a n d g r a d u a l l y f r o m it, t h e y t o w c r a b o v e A p a m e i a , tending up to a pcrpcndicular

ex-

height."

S t r a b o thus gives a ver)' c l e a r ( a n d c o r r e c t ) i m p r e s s i o n o f hovv t h e m o u n t a i n c h a i n rises g r a d u a l l y f r o m t h e c o a s t , in fact o v e r a d i s t a n c c o f s o m e 3 0 k r a , t o a line o f s u m m i t s o v e r l o o k i n g t h e O r o n t e s Valley, into vvhich it then d r o p s m u c h m o r e sharply. W ı t h o u t a n y a r c h a c o l o g i c a l survey, it is i m p o s s i b l e t o c o n f i r m his vicvv t h a t v i n e s c o u l d b c a n d vvere c u l t i v a t e d up t o o r n e a r the crest itself, vvhich r e a c h e s a m a x i m u m o f s o m e 1 4 0 0 m , s l o p i n g dovvn a t the s o u t h e r n e n d t o vvhere t h e r i v e r E l e u t h c r o s ( N a h r c l - K e b i r ) c u t s a c r o s s betvveen i t a n d the n o r t h e r n f r i n g e s o f M o u n t L e b a n o n . S t r a b o might b e t h o u g h t t o suggest, b u t d o e s n o t c x p i i c i t l y say, t h a t the vvine-producing a r e a s t r e t c h i ı ı g u p b e h i n d L a o d i c e a ali b e l o n g e d t o t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h a t city. İn default o f a n y prccise e v i d e n c e ıt vvould indeed b e n a t u r a l t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e division o f c i t y - t e r r i t o r i e s follovved t h e natural line o f the vvaterslıed. I f s o , vve s h o u l d imagine a n e x t e n s i v e a r c a o f vvine-grovving villages in t h e g r a d u a l l y rising t e r r i t o r y b e h i n d L a o d i c e a ; a c l c a r parallcl is p r o vided b y the t e m p l e o f B a e t o c a e c e a n d its a s s o c i a t e d villages, lying j u s t b e l o w the c r e s t f u r t h e r s o u t h , vvhich c e r t a i n l y b e l o n g e d t o t h e t e r r i t o r y o f A r a d o s , vvhich o c c u p i c d a n island o f f the c o a s t . 1 2 B u t if L a o d i c c a , a s a m a j ö r H e l l e n i s t i c f o u n d a t i o n , possessed a n c x t e n s i v e t e r r i t o r y vvith a rural p o p u l a t i o n living in villages (vvhich itself c a n n o t be cert a i n ) , it is m u c h less c l e a r vvhether the s a m e vvas true o f t h e t h r e e very m i n e r p l a c e s vvhich lay a l o n g the c o a s t betvveen L a o d i c e a a n d A r a d o s , n a m e l y Ç a b a l a , I ' a l t o s a n d B a l a t ı e a e . Ali t h r e e seem t o h a v e f u n e t i o n e d as poleis,

and

m i n t e d c o i n s a t least o c c a s i o n a l l y in the i m p e r i a l p e r i o d ; a n d , as vve vvill see, by a n ali t o o typica! p a r a d o x , a n inseription f r o m B a l a n e a e gives vvhat is perhaps the fullest list o f c i t y - m a g i s t r a c i e s vvhich vve h a p p e n t o h a v e f r o m this vvhole r e g i o n . 1 3 T h a t leaves o p e n t h e q u c s t i o n o f vvhether the entire t e r r i t o r y o f t h e m o u r t a i n - e h a i n vvas, even in p r i n c i p l c , divided betvveen c i t y - t e r r i t o r i e s ; a n d e v e n :f it vvere, vvhether a d e g r e e o f r e a l i n d e p e n d c n c e vvas n o t in p r a c t i c e e n j o y e d by t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h e r e . T h e s a m e m a y vvell h a v e applied o n the e a s t side o f the c h a i n , vvhere it m a y b e t h a t t h e narrovver a n d s t e e p e r m o u n r a i n - s i d e s

be-

l o n g e d t o the territories o f c i t i e s in the O r o n t e s Valley. It is p e r h a p s h e r e t h a t vve should l o o k f o r t h e r u r a l t e m p l e , s i t u a t e d on a hill-slopc (klima)

in the

i t . Strabo, Gt'og. X V I , î , 9 ( 7 5 1 - 7 5 1 ) . r ı . S c c f u r t h e r 8.3 b c l o w . F o r o n c c I w o u l d n o t be t e m p t e d t o s u b s c r i b e t o an i d e a put f o r v v n r d b y Jeaıı Balry, n n m e l y t h e R i ı g g e s ı i o n in " I . ' A p a m g n e a n t i q u e et les l i m i t e s d e la S y r i a Secunda",

Gıiog. admin., 41

o n p p . <»5ff., t h a t B a c t o c n c c c vvas t h e t e m p l e in t h e t e r r i t o r y of

A p a m e a w h c r c B i s h o p M a r c c l l u s v v a s killed i n t h e l a t e f o u r r h c e n t u r y . 1 3 . 7 . 4 belovv.

t e r r i t o r y o f A p a m e a , vvhich B i s h o p M a r c e l l u s o f A p a m e a vvas trying t o d e s t r o y vvhen he vvas a t t a c k e d a n d killed in t h c 3 9 0 8 . " T h c c p i s o d e b c l o n g s in a q u i t e different p h a s e o f the r c l a t i o n s o f tovvn aııd c o u n t r y ; but it is n o t likely t o have been t h e first o c c a s i o n o n vvhich a u t h o r i t i e s f r o m a city m e t v i o l e n t r e s i s t a n c e in this m o u n t a i n o u s a r e a . If this a l m o s t unknovvn a r c a vvere n o t f o r m a l l y divided a m o n g c i t y t c r r i t o r i c s , it is p o s s i b l e t h a t this is vvhere vve s h o u l d l o o k for the ' t e l r a r c h i a ' o f the N a z c r i n i vvhich Pliny t h c F.ldcr says vvas a c r o s s thc river M a r s y a s ( t h c O r o n t e s o r a tributary o f it?) f r o m A p a m e a . 1 1 But if s o , vve have n o c o n c e p t i o n o f t h c s o c i a l s t r u c t u r c o r c u l t u r e o f this p e o p l e , m e n t i o n e d o n l y h e r e . It is b e s t t o a d m i t rhat rhe m o u n t a i n o u s h i n t c r l a n d o f t h c c i t i c s borh o f t h c c o a s t a ı ı d o f the O r o n t e s Valley r e m a i n s stili a n unknovvn q u a n t i t y in a n y m a p o f s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l identities in n o r t h e r n Syria. N o n e t h e l c s s , s o m e a t least o f t h e m o r e than f o r t y villages in t h c t e r r i t o r y o f A p a m e a vvhose n a m e s a r c knovvn m a y h a v e lain on t h e m o u n t a i n - e h a i n . Wc vvill l o o k ar t h e m m o r e c l o s c l y vvhen vve e x a m i n e t h e m o r e i m m e d i a t e s o c i a l a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n t e x t s o f t h c G r e e k citics, So far as o u r e v i d e n c c g o e s , in a l m o s t ali c a s e s ' G r e e k c i t i e s ' is a c o r r c c t a n d a d e q u a t e d e s e r i p t i o n b o t h o f t h e f o r m a ! p u b l i c status a n d c o n s t i t u r i o n s a n d o f t h c s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e m a j ö r u r b a n ceııtres o f n o r t h e r n Syria in t h e K o m a n p e r i o d . T h e r e is a l m o s t n o t h i n g t o suggest t h a t a n y o f t h e m vvere c o n c e i v e d o f by c o n t c m p o r a r i e s a s h a v i n g a h i s t o r i c a l identity vvhich vvent b a c k before Alcxandcr's conqucsts; though, once again, Josephus' c o m m e n t t h a t t h c epichörioi

stili used t h c n a m e *I l a m a ' f o r E p i p h a n i a is a hint that this

q u c s t i o n m a y h a v e been m o r e c o m p l e x than vve realise. 1 6 E q ı ı a l l y u n c e r t a i ı ı a r e t h c i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e r e c e n t l y published bilingual Jevvish inseription

from Jerusalem,

naming

someone as Ariston

in

ossuary-

Grcck

and

' R S T W N ' P M Y — ' t l ı c A p a m e a n ' — i n Hebrcvv; h c c a n hardly b e u n c o n n e c t e d vvith thc ' R S T W N vvho a p p e a r s in thc Mishnah

a s briııgiııg

first-fruits

from

A p a m e a ( M ' P M Y ' ) , identified a s b e i n g 'in S y r i a ' ( B S W R Y ' ) . 1 7 B u t vvhether vve s h o u l d i m a g i n e a n y o t h e r g r o u p s , in A p a m e a o r its territory, as h a v i n g s p o k e n a S c m i t i c l a n g u a g e r e m a i n s unclear. C o n t e m p o r a r i c s d o n o t s e e m in g e n e r a l t o h a v e r e g a r d e d c i t i z c n s o f t h e s e p l a c c s a s m a r k e d by a n y disrinetively ' S y r i a n 1 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r c u l t u r e . W e c a n n o t find in o u r period c o m m e n t s c o m p a r a b l e t o vvhat S o c r a t e s , the C h u r c h l ı i s t o r i a n , says o f S e v e r i a n u s , b i s h o p o f G a b a l a in t h c e a r l y fifth c c n t u r y : ' t h o u g h t h o u g h t t o have had s o m e c d u c a t i o n , h c

1 4 . S o z o m c n u s , HE V I I , ı j , 1 1 - 1 5 . S e e B a l t y i n r ı . ı z a b o v e . 1 5 . Pliny, NH

V, 19/81: ' C o e l e h a b e t A p a m e a m M a r s y a a m n e divisam a

NaTerinorum

cetrarchia'. 16. C h . 1 abovc. >7. T . İlan, " N c w O s s u a r y i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m J e r u s a l e m " , S C I 1 1 ( 1 9 9 1 — 9 2 ) , 1 4 9 , n o . t .

did n o t s p c a k G r c c k e n t i r c l y clearly, b u t e v e n w h e n s p e a k i n g G r e e k s o u n d c d S y r i a n \ ı s W h c t h e r this r c f c r e n c e t o a distinctive ' S y r i a n ' a c c e n t in G r c c k is m e a n t t o i m p l y t h a t S e v e r i a n u s a l s o s p o k e S y r i a c is n o t a t ali clear. In any c a s e , by S e v e r i a n u s ' t i m e w e a r e again in a different c p o c h . F o r p e r h a p s the m o s t c l e a r l y m a r k e d aııd d i s t i n c t i v e fact a b o u t t h e linguistic h i s t o r y a n d linguistic m a p o f t h e N e a r R a s t in the R o m a n period is t h a t , vvhatever l a n g u a g e s o r dialeets m a y have been spoken,

n e i t h e r S y r i a c n o r a n y o t h e r S e m i t i c lan-

g u a g e \vas used o n i n s e r i p t i o n s in n o r t h e r ı ı Syria until the late R o m a n p e r i o d . A s a l a n g u a g c a n d s e r i p t f o r p u b l i c p u r p o s e s , S y r i a c w a s a l r e a d y in use akong t h e E u p h r a t e s a n d in O s r h o e n e . But it s p r e a d w e s t w a r d s o n l y in the f o u r t h c e n t u r y a t tlıc earliest, a n d m o r e c e r t a i n l y in the fiftlı a n d s i x t h . 1 9 It c a ı ı n o t bc s t r e s s e d t o o clearly t h a t f r o m n o r t h e r n S y r i a , the c o r e o f t h e o r i g i n a l R o m a n p r o v i n c e a n d o f t h e e v e n t u a l 'Syria C o e l e ' , n o t a single d o c u m e n t o r c o i n using a n y S e m i t i c l a n g u a g c c a n b e s e c u r c l y d a t e d b e f o r e tlıc d e a t h o f C o n s t a n t i n c . N o t h i n g c o u l d b e m o r e m i s l e a d i n g t h a n the i d e a t h a t ' S y r i a c ' is c h a r a c t c r i s t i c o f the a r e a vvhich t h e R o m a n s c a l l e d ' S y r i a ' . O r s o it s e e m s ; l i k e ali negative g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s , this o n e c o u l d b e upset b y a s i n g l e c o u n t e r - e x a m p l e .

7.2. LOCAI,

CULT-CENTRES:

HIERAPOUS AND

DOLICHE

E v e n if, a s vve h a v e seen, ali t h e p u b l i c d o c u m e n t s o f this r e g i o n a r e in G r e e k { o r L a t i n ) , t h a t d o c s n o t p r o v c t h a t every u r b a n c c n t r e t h e r e vvas u n a m b i g u ously a 'Greek city', o r that questions d o not remain open a b o u t the culture o f e a c h o n e o f t h e m . I n o n e c a s e in p a r t i c u l a r , H i e r a p o l i s , c o ı ı t e m p o r a r i e s c o n c e i v e d o f a city as c x h i b i t i n g a distinerively S y r i a n c h a r a c t c r : ' B a m b y c c vvhich is ( a l s o ) c a l l c d b y a n o t h e r n a m e , H i e r a p o l i s , b u t by the Syri M a b o g ; t h e r e the m o n s t r o u s g o d d e s s A t a r g a t i s is vvorshipped, b u t c a l l e d D e r c e t o by the Grceks'.1 As r e g a r d s t h e identity o f the p l a c e , the f o r m ' B a m b y c e ' is in f a c t n o t very c o m m o n . But t h e S e m i t i c n a m e , in t h e f o r m ' M a b o g ' , ' M a n b o g ' o r ' M a r o b o g ' , vvhich is stili in use ( M a ı ı b i j ) , is vvell a t t e s t e d in c o n t e m p o r a r y s o u r c e s . ' M a n b o g a i o s ' a p p e a r s as a n a m e in G r c c k , a s d o c s t h e a d j c c t i v c M N B G Y T '

1 8 . S o c r a t e s , H E V I , ı ı , 3. 19. E x a m p l e s (not claimed t o be exhaustive) o f relatively early d a t e d S y r i a c inseriptions from w e s t o f t h e E u p h r a t e s i n e l u d e IGLS

II, n o . 3 1 0 ( t r i l i n g u a l v v i t h G r c c k a n d A r a b i c ) , f r o m Z c b c A J

Z a b a d , s o m e 7 0 k m south-east. o f A l c p p o , An 5 t T ; n o . 3 3 7 , AD 508/509, f r o m M e k t e h c h , sorac 4 5 k m s o u t h - s o u t h - e a s t . o f A l c p p o ; I . i t t m a n , PAF,Sl\f

B ( 1 9 3 4 ) , 4 , n o . 4 , AIJ 4 3 3 - 4 3 4 ; 7 , n o . 7 ,

A n 4 7 3 - 4 7 4 { I G L S II, n o . 5 5 3 ) ; 1 0 , n o . n , AH 4 4 1 - 4 4 2 ; 3 9 , n o . 5 0 , A D 4 9 x - 4 9 < > , a l i f r o m tbe limestone massif. I.ittman, 4 A K 5 IV.

Semitic İnseriptions

also f r o m '/cbcd/V.abad, belong to t h e fourth ccntury. 1. Pliny, N H V ,

19/81.

{1904)» 4 7 f f - . a r g u c d that n o s . 2 Z - 2 J ,

in N a b a t a e a n ; 2 a n d a r e m a r k a b l y f r u s t r a t i n g S y r i a c t e x t , The Oratiotı ton the Philosopher,

of

Melr-

a C h r i s t i a n a p o l o g y p e r h a p s vvritten in t h e e a r l y t h i r d

c e n t u r y , briefly t a l k s o f t h e cult o f N e b o a n d H a d a r a n a t M B W G . Alas this t e x t , far f r o m p r o d u c i n g an a u t h c n t i c ' i n s i d c r V v i c w o f a native ' S y r i a n ' c u l t , o f f e r s o n l y f u r t h e r c o n f u s i o n : t h e i m a g c o f N e b o there, it s a y s , vvas really t h a t o f ' O r p h e u s , a ' H ı r a d a n m a g u s " ( ' R P W S M G W S ' T R Q Y ' ) , vvhile H a d a r a n ' s vvas t h a t o f ' Z a r a d u s h t , a P e r s i a n m a g u s ' ( Z R ' D W S T M G W S ' P R S Y ' ) . J T h e passage m a y serve a s a s a l u t a r y vvarning as t o t h e impossibility o f arriving a t a ' t r u e ' definition o f t h e n a t u r e o f N e a r Eastern deities. A l m o s t n o t h i ı ı g r e m a i n s o f t h e city o f M a b o g / H i e r a p o i i s , vvith its t e m p l e of the 'Syrian Goddess', situated some 7 5 km north-cast of Alcppo/Beroea, a n d s o m e 2 4 k m f r o m t h e E u p h r a t e s , vvhich f o r m s a vvide a r c r o u n d it. T h e city vvas thus on o n e o f the main r o u t e s f r o m A n t i o c h , via B e r o e a a n d B a t n a e , t o the E u p h r a t e s , a n d it vvas f r o m t h e r e t h a t t h e E m p e r o r J u l i a n vvrote his l a s t knovvn letter, on his m a r c h i n t o Persian t e r r i t o r y in 3 6 3 . By t h e n it vvas a regular city vvith gates (and h e n c e p r c s u m a b l y vvalls), a n d p o r t i c o e s lining t h e strcets.' 1 ü n c e again vve s h o u l d i m a g i n e it a s a n urban c c n t r c in a c u l t i v a t e d a n d p o p u l a t e d l a n d s c a p c , lying vvell vvitlıin t h e Fertile C r e s c e n t . J u l i a n says n o t h i n g a b o u t the p l a c e ; but he d o e s deseribe the s m a l l s t o p p i n g - p l a c e o f B a t n a e , s o m e 4 0 km t o the vvest, a s lying in a thickly vvoodcd plain vvith g r o v e s o f y o u n g c y p r c s s c s , a n d c o n t a i n i n g a n official r e s t - h o u s e (basileia)

in a riclı

g a r d e n . 1 As vvith s o m a n y o t h e r regioııs, neither literary e v i d e n c e n o r s u r v e y n o r e x c a v a t i o n e n a b l e s us t o g a i n any m o r e precise i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e a r c a . T h e fevv a n d f r a g m e n t a r y G r e e k inseriptions f r o m H i e r a p o l i s are jııst e n o u g h t o c o n f i r m t h a t in t h e I m p e r i a l period the p l a c e h a d t h e b a s i c e l e m e n t s o f a city c o n s t i t u t i o n , a c o u n c i l a n d an a s s e m b l y ( b o u l e a n d dimos).6

But e v e n

the broııze c o i n s vvhich t h e city rnintcd betvveen the reigns o f T r a j a n ( 9 8 — 1 1 7 ) a n d Philip ( 2 4 4 - 2 4 9 ) gave a v e r y special p l a c e t o the g o d d e s s t o vvhom t h e c o m m u n i t y ovved its identity. T h e c o i n s vvere s t a m p e d on t h e o b v e r s e vvith the n a m e o f t h e E m p e r o r and 011 t h e reverse vvith ' O f (the) S y r i a n G o d d e s s o f t h e H i c r o p o l i t a n s ' ; a n d s o m e , t h o u g h n o t a l i , shovv t h e g o d d e s s s e a t e d otı a t h r o n e , vvith a lion s t a n d i n g 011 either side. 7

2 . S c c G . G o o s s c n s , Hierapolis (Petra); i n G r e e k ,

e.g., Le

de

Syrie

( 1 9 4 3 ) , S f f . : in N a b a t a e a n , e . g . , C / S 1, n o .

B a s - W . , 110. 2 5 5 4 - 2 5 5 5

(Halbun, on

Anti-Lebanon,

north

422 of

Damascus). 3 . W . C u r c t o n , Spicilegium

Syriacum

( 1 8 5 5 ) , z ı f f . , in S y r i a c s c c r i o n . T h e p a s s a g e relalinj»

t o M a b o g ıs t r a n s l a t c d o n p p . 4 4 - 4 5 o f t h e E n g l i s h s c c t i o n . ü n this v v o r k s e e b r i e f l y 1 2 . 5 a n d A p p . C belovv. 4. A m m i a n u s X X I I I , ı , 6. 5 . J u l i a n , Ep. 58 ( L o e b ) ; 9 8 (Bide/. C u m o n t ) . (>. S e e IGISI, 7 . BMC X V I I , 14.

Syria,

no. 2 3 1 . I 3 t f f . : 0 E A E E r P l A S lEPOFIOAITON.

For the seated g o d d e s s , e.g., Pl.

T h a t b o t h t h e p l a c e a n d i t s (novv) c h i e f d e i t y w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d in t h i s w a y vvas t h e r c s u l t o f a n e v o l u t i o n vvhich ( f o r o n c e ) c a n b e t r a c e d o v e r c e n t u r i e s . İn e s s c n c e t h e c u l t t h e r e t o o k o n m a n y G r e e k a s p e c t s , vvhile r e m a i n i n g , i n tlıc e y e s o f ali o b s e r v e r s , d i s t i n e t i v e l y e x o t i c a n d n o n - G r e e k ; a n d a f e m a l e d e i t y , A t a r g a t i s , o r ' t h e S y r i a n G o d d e s s ' in G r a e c o - R o m a n t e r m s , c a m e t o b e e m plıasised m o r e and m o r e at the e x p e n s e o f her nıale c o n s o r t , H a d a d . " H e r e , a s e l s e v v h e r e , it is f u t i l c t o t r y t o d e f i n e e x a c t l y vvhat t h e d e i t y , o r h e r c u l t , r e a l l y 'vvas'. İ n a t t c m p t i n g t o d o s o m o d e r n o b s c r v c r s h a v e a p a i n f u l t e n d e n e y t o shovv n o m o r e l o g i c a l s e l f - a v v a r e n e s s t h a n a n c i e n t o n e s , a n d t o f o r g e t t h a t ancicnt

deities 'vvere' vvhatever d i f f e r e n t ü ı i n g s o b s c r v e r s o r

vvorshippers

c h o s e t o r e g a r d r h e m as. T a k e for i n s t a n c e P l u t a r c h , r e c o r d i n g t h e u n f a v o u r a b l e o m e n s vvhich h a d a t t e n d e d C r a s s u s ' i n v a s i o n o f P a r t h i a n t e r r i t o r y i n 5 3 BC. O n e o f C r a s s u s ' e r r o r s h a d b e e n t o r o b t h i s t e m p l e o f i t s t r e a s u r e s : ' A ı ı d t h e first v v a r n i n g s i g n c a m e t o h i m f r o m t h i s v e r y g o d d e s s , v v h o m s o m e c a l i A p h r o d i t e a n d o t h e r s H e r a , vvhile o t h e r s stili r e g a r d h e r a s t h e n a t u r a l c a u s c vvhich s u p p l i e s f r o m m o i s t u r e t h e begiıınings a n d seeds o f c v e r y t h i n g ,

and

points o u t t o m a n k i n d the s o u r c e o f ali blessiııgs.'9 İr i s m o r e t o t h e p o i n t t h a t t h e p l a c e h a d i n d e e d c x i s t e d a s a c u l t - c e n t r e b e f o r e t h e M a c e d o n i a n c o n q u e s t , a n d h a d a c q u i r e d its G r e e k n a m e

('Holy

City') in the Hellenistic p e r i o d . C o i n s f r o m there o f Alexaııder's time n a m e A l c x a n d c r in A r a m a i c ( ' L K S N D R ) a n d shovv a p r i e s t in a c o n i c a l h a t a n d l o n g t u n i c s t a n d i n g a t a n a k a r : h e is n a m e d a s A b d h a d a d f s e r v a n t o f

Hadad'),

' p r i e s t ( a t ) M a n b o g ' ( ' B D H D D K M R M N B G ) , '(vvho) r e s e m b l e s H a d a r a n his lord' ( Z Y Y D M N B H D R N N B ' L I I ) . Strictly speaking, these coins represent t h e l a t e s t e v i d e n c e f r o m t h i s p l a c e vvhich is c x p r c s s e d in a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e , t h o u g h a p a p y r ı ı s o f 1 5 6 BC f r o m K g y p t h a p p e n s t o r c c o r d a s l a v e vvho vvas ' b y r a c c a S y r i a n f r o m B a m b y k e ' , a n d vvho vvas ' t a t t o o e d o n t l ı c vvrist \vith tvvo b a r b a r i a n l e t t e r s ' , c v i d c n t l y A r a m a i c . 1 0 B y t h e s e c o n d c e n n ı r y BC i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m D e l o s shovv t h a t t h e p l a c e h a d a c q u i r e d i t s G r e e k n a m e , H i e r a p o l i s ( o r H i c r o p o l i s , v v h i c h is a l s o u s e d ) , a n d t h a t t h e c u l t vvas ııovv t h o u g l ı t o f a s t h a t o f a d i v i ı ı e c o u p l e , H a d a d a n d A t a r g a t i s . 1 1 İ t vvas i n t h i s H c l l e n i s e d f o r m t h a t t h e c u l t g a i n e d a v v i d c s p r c a d c ı r r e n e y , a n d A t a r g a t i s vvas o f t e n l a b e l l c d , f o r G r a e c o - R o m a n v v o r s h i p p e r s , a s ' t h e S y r i a n G o d d e s s ' , e v e n 011 c o i n s o f t h e c i t y itself. A s vve h a v e s e e n i n the casc o f Plutarch, varying interpretations of her natııre could be offercd. O u r 8. For this process, rapidly summarised here, see Goossens, op. cit. (n.2 above); H. J . W. Drijvers, Culu aııd Heliefs at Fdessa (1980), 8 j f f . ; Millar, "Hcllcni&tic Syria", 1 1 6 - 1 2 7 . 9. Plutarch, Crassus 17 (I.ocb trarıs., kccping Grcck names). r o . P. V.enon, Aegyptus

n o . 1 2 1 ; s c c G . V n g g i , " S i r i a e Siri n r i d o c u m e n t i d c l l T g i t t o g r e c o - r o m a n o " ,

17 ^ 9 3 7 ) , 2 9 . F o r these c a r l y c o i n s s c c H . S e y r i g , " L c m o n n a y a g c d c I l i e r a p o l h dc

Syric â r c p o q u c d , A l e * a n d r c " , RN 1 1 . Ph. B r u n e a u , Rccbcrcbes

13 (1971), 11.

sur les cuUes de Ditos

(1970), 466ff.

c n t i r c c v i d c n c c f o r t h c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the c u l t c o n s i s t s o f r e t r o s p e c t i v e a n a l yses o f s o m e t h i n g c o n c c i v c d o f a s e x o t i c a n d distinctivcly l o c a l . 1 2 If vve vvere t o g r a s p m o r e fully t h c n a t u r e o f the c u l t as it vvas in situ, vve vvould n e e d f a r m o r e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d o t h e r e v i d e n c c f r o m H i e r a p o l i s itself t h a n vve a c t u ally h a v e . But the o n e i m p o r t a n t iteni o f such e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t relate e x p l i c itly t o the vvorslıip o f ' t h e S y r i a n G o d d e s s ' o r o f her c o n s o r t . T h i s is a n e x t r c m c l y s t r i k i n g b a s - r e l i e f s c u l p t u r c in basalt, o f vvhich o n e of thc tvvo surviving p a r t s vvas f o u n d a t M a n b i j , a n d vvhich r e p r e s e n t s a typically ' S y r i a n ' priest, dressed in a long tunic f a l l i n g t o thc a n k l e s , a n d b o u n d b y a girdle; h e is vvcaring a c o n i c a l hat t o p p e d by a c r e s c e n t a n d vvith a t i a r a tied r o u n d i t . T h c figüre is r c p r c s c n t c d in thc a c t o f m a k i n g a l i b a t i o n o n a small altar, a n d a G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n in verse identifics h i m a s a H i g h Priest

(archiereus):

A c h a i o s has p l a c e d here (a p o r t r a i t of) the i n c o m p a r a b l e H i g h Priest A l e x andros, n o b l e in friendship, making a libation vvhile hc prays t o thc blessed gods that they m a y preserve his native city in g o o d

order

(eunomia)." T h e relicf s e e m s t o d a t e t o t h e m i d d l e o f t h e first c e n t u r y u c , a n d t h u s t o b e r o u g h l y c o n t e m p o r a r y b o t h vvith the r o y a l s c u l p t u r e s o f C o m m a g e n e t o t h e n o r t h a n d vvith t h e first i n t r u s i o n on this a r c a b y t h c R o m a n s . T h c ' b l e s s e d g o d s ' vvorshipped by a High P r i e s t a t H i e r a p o l i s vvill surely have been H a d a d a n d A t a r g a t i s . If s o , the relief is sufficicnt t o shovv a t least s o m e e l e m e n t s o f c o ı ı t i n u i t y betvveen t h c cult a s it vvas in thc f o u r t h c c n t u r y a n d vvhat is p o r t r a y e d in t h c f a m o u s a c c o u n t b y L u c i a n o f S a m o s a t a in On the Syrian dess,

God-

vvritten in the m i d d l e o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD. I f n o t h i n g else, t h e

pricstly c o s t u m e o f a long t u n i c a n d c o n i c a l hat h a d survived thc c c n t u r i c s u n e h a n g e d : ' T h e y (the priests) ali vvear vvhite elothing a n d have a p o i n t e d c a p on their h e a d s . A different archiereus

is a p p o i n t e d e a c h year, a n d he a l o n e

vvears purple, a n d (his head) is b o u n d vvith a gold t i a r a . ' 1 4 T h i s is o n l y o n e o f m a n y c o n c r e t c details o f t h e t e m p l e , t h e c u l t a n d t h e priests vvhich I . u c i a n reveals; m o s t c a n n o t be e x p l o r e d h e r e . A t the s a m e t i m e vve s h o u l d n o t f o r g e t the a m b i g u i t i e s i n h e r e n t in this t e x t . O n thc o n c h a n d L u c i a n is p r o d u c i n g a deliberate linguistic p a r o d y o f H e r o d o t u s as a v e h i c l c for this p o r t r a y a l o f a n e x o t i c c u l t for a vvider G r e e k r e a d e r s h i p . O n the o t h e r h a n d he explicitly i d e n tifies himself as a n ' A s s y r i o s ' . T h e r e a d e r vvould n o t , hovvever, knovv f r o m t h a t vvhich L u c i a n ' s h o m c - c i t y vvas, o r even f r o m vvhat rcgion h c c a m e ; it is i z . F o r t h e besc a c c o u n t s e e M . H ö r i g , " D c a S y r i a - A t a r g a t i s " , A \ ' R W n . i 7 . } ( 1 9 8 4 ) , 1 5 3 6 . S e e a l s o H . J. W . D r i j v e r s s.vı " D c a S y r i a " , LIMC

l ü . ı (1986), 355.

T3. S e e R . A . S ı u c k y , " P r £ t r c s s y r i e n s II: H i e r a p o l i s " , Syria 53 ( 1 9 7 6 ) , 1 2 7 . T h e i n s e r i p t i o n is SEC, X X V I , n o . 1 6 3 4 . 1 4 . L u c i a n , de dea Syria 4 2 . S c c e s p . R . A . O d c n , Studies C . P. J o n c s , Culture

and Society

in Lucian

(198(1), 4 ı f f .

in Lucian's

De Syria Dea

<>977};

indeed o n l y in his How

to Wrile

History

t h a t he c o n c r e t e l y identifies S a m o -

s a t a a s his n a t i v c city. T h e q u c s t i o n o f vvhat L u c i a n ' s o r i g i n m c a n t b c l o n g s c l s c w h c r c ; I Î b u t for the r e a d e r o f On

the Syrian

Goddess

vvhat mattezs is

t h a t the a u t h o r is s i m u l t a n e o u s l y representitıg h i m s e l f a s an O r i e n t a l ' i n s i d e r ' ; a d o p t i n g t h e vvell-knovvn p o s e o f the a m a z c d , n a i v c traveller; a n d p u t t i r g a d i s t a n c c bctvveen the c u l t d e s e r i b e d a n d b o t h himself a n d t h e reader. O n l y a fevv p o i n t s f r o m t h i s p o r t r a i t c a n be emplıasised h e r e . L u c i a n duly u n d e r l i n e s the a n t i q u i t y o f t h e c u l t . B u t vvhat he c a n o f f e r b y vvay o f its l c g c n d a r y o r i g i n s is a s e l e e t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v c G r c c k m y t h s : D c u c a l i o n a n d t h e flood; S c m i r a m i s o f B a b y l o n ( a figüre in Greek

s e m i - h i s t o r i c a l vvritiııg a b o u t the

N e a r E a s t ) ; C y b c l e a n d A t t i s ; o r D i o n y s u s . A s f o r the a e t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the t e m p l e , h e a t t r i b u t e s it t o S t r a t o n i c e , ' t h e vvife o f t h e k i n g o f t h e A s s y r i a n s ' (in fact S e l e u c u s N i c a t o r ) , o f vvhom h c relates a s h o r t historical n o v e l l a . B u t t h e t e m p l e vvhich he a c t u a l l y d e s e r i b e s m u s t h a v e been built ( o r r e c o n s t r u c t c d ) in the R o m a n p e r i o d , for it is a R o m a n - s t y l e t e m p l e o n a p o d i u m , r c a c h c d b y s t e p s from t h e f r o n t . 1 * In setting the t e m p l e in c o n t e x t as s o m e t h i n g distinetively ' S y r i a n ' , it is strikiııg t h a t t h e p a r a l l e l c a s e s o f a n c i e n t a n d e x o t i c cults vvhich L u c i a n g : v c s a r e ali in P h o e n i c i a : H e r a k l e s ( M e l q a r t ) a t T y r c ; A s t a r t e ( o r p e r h a p s r a t h e r E u r o p a ) a t S i d o n ; a n unidentificd P h o e n i c i a n ( o r E g y p t i a n ) c u l t a t H e l i o p o l i s ; A p h r o d i t e a n d A d o n i s ( o r p e r h a p s O s i r i s ) a t B y b l o s ; a n d the t e m p l e

of

A p h r o d i t e a t t h e s o u r c e o f t h e river A d o n i s n e a r B y b l o s — i n f a c t t h e s a n e t u a r y a t A p h a c a vvhosc c l o s u r c vvas t o be o r d e r e d by C o n s t a n t i n e . " It is o n l y a s e e m i n g p a r a d o x t h a t it is in g e n e r a l t h o s e sites vvhich h a d a l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d p l a c e , o r image, in G r e e k c u l t u r e vvhich vvere t o b c m o s t c l c a r l y a s s o c i a t c d in t h e R o m a n E m p i r e vvith a n c i c n t cults vvhich had a s t r o n g l y local c o l o u r i n g . 'Ilıe

truly

distinctive

arehiteeture

and

iconography

of

Palmyra,

Dura-

E u r o p o s , the H a u r a n o r N a b a t a e a h a d n o p l a c e in this m e n t a l m a p . L u c i a n d o c s tvvicc stress f r o m hovv m a n y different r e g i o n s o r p e o p l e s , s o m e o u t s i d c the E m p i r e , o f f c r i n g s c a m e t o the t e m p l e : f r o m ' A r a b i a ' , the P h o c n i c i a n s , tlıc B a b y l o n i a n s , C a p p a d o c i a , the C i l i c i a n s a n d the ' A s s y r i o i ' ; a n d l a t e r E g y p t i a n s , M c d c s , A r ı n c n i a n s a n d B a b y l o n i a n s . , s A s vve have s e c n , t h e cults o f ' M a b o g ' a r c in f a c t refleeted in a vvork preserved in S y r i a c and p r o b a b l y vvritten a t E d e s s a ; ' 9 a n d o n e o f t h e m o s t specific c o n f i r m a t i o n s o f t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f H i e r a p o l i s a s r e p o r t e d by L u c i a n c o m e s f r o m

Dura-

Europos.20 F o r a limestone relief found there represents an enthroned male 1 5 . 12.3 bclow. 16. ile dea Syria

14.

1 7 . de dea Syria 3 - 9 ; 5.3 a h o v c . 18. de dea Syria

10; 32.

1 9 . T e x t to n.3 a b o v e , and see f u r t h e r below. 2 0 . S c c İ L S c y r i g , " L c s d i c u x d ' M î c r a p o I i s " , Syria 3 7 ( 1 9 6 0 ) , 2 3 3 .

a n d an e n t h r o n e d f c m a l e deity s e e n f r o m the f r o n t , w i t h o n c i t h e r side o f t h e f o r m e r t w o small kulis, a n d o f t h e l a t t e r t w o s o m e w h a t d i s p i r i t e d - l o o k i n g l i o n s . In h e t w e e n t h e m is r e p r e s e n t e d a pole topped by a c r e s c e n t , vvith t h r e e disks fixed t o its u p p e r p a r t , a n d a b o v e t h e m a c r o s s - b a r , f r o m e a c h e n d o f vvhich tvvo strips o f c l o t h a r e h a n g i n g . T h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e is t o o close f o r these n o t t o be the c u l t itııages f r o m the i n n e r c h a m b e r (thalamos)

of the

t e m p l e a t I l i e r a p o l i s , as L u c i a n d c s c r i b e s t h e m : ' Z c u s * s c a t e d o n bulls a n d ' H e r a ' on lions, a n d in betvveen t h e m a c u l t - o b j c c t (xoatıon) o f o t h e r deities. 2 1 T h e Assyrioi, but cali it semeion.

bearing i m a g c s

L u c i a n s a y s , themselves h a v e n o vvord for i t ,

Well they m i g h t , f o r vvhat t h e o b j e c t represented a t D u r a

m o s t c l o s e l y r e s c m b l c s is in fact a R o m a n m i i i t a r y s t a n d a r d , f o r vvhich G r e e k s used the vvord

semeion.

W h a t L u c i a t ı says m u s t i m p l y t h a t the Assyrioi

o f Hierapolis might have

h a d a n a t i v c vvord f o r this o b j e c t , b u t in fact did n o t . A l t h o u g h t h e r e are n o S e m i t i c - l a n g u a g e i n s e r i p t i o n s o r l i t e r a t ü r e f r o m H i e r a p o l i s in this p e r i o d , vve c o u l d r e a s o n a b l y t a k e vvhat L u c i a n says as a hint t h a t S y r i a c o r A r a m a i c vvas in use. T h e d i v i n c n a m e s 'I l a d a d ' a n d 'Atargatis* m u s t a l s o have p e r s i s t e d , a l t h o u g h L u c i a n s p e a k s o n l y o f ' Z e u s ' a n d ' H e r a ' . But the i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e m a i n c u l t - o b j e c t s o f the c i t y novv ineluded a third e l e m e n t , t h e

semeion,

represented a l s o o n s o m e c o i n s o f t h e city, 2 2 o f a f o r m vvhich c o u l d o n l y h a v e been borrovved in t h e c o n t e x t o f R o m a n m i i i t a r y d o m i n a t i o n . M o r e o v e r , t h e G r e e k t e r m used t o deseribe it e v i d e n t l y passed as a loan-vvord into Syriac/ A r a m a i c . W h a t is m o r e , it gave r i s e t o a nevv myth t h e r e . F o r L u c i a n ' s

semeion

m u s t be the origin o f the f e m a l e deity f r o m M a b o g , ' S i m i the d a u g h t e r o f H a d a d ' ( S Y M Y B R T H D H D D ) , m e n t i o n e d in t h e S y r i a c Oration the Philosopher,

of

Meliton

p r o b a b l y vvritten in the early third c e n t u r y . 2 ' As vvas n o t e d

earlicr, the f a c t o f h a v i n g been w r i t t c n in S y r i a c did n o t n e c c s s a r i l y p r e v e n t C h r i s t i a n a n a l y s e s o f p a g a n c u l t s in Syria f r o m r e p r e s e n t i n g the s a m e c o n c a t e nation o f confused and iııcompatible elements as Lucian himself reveals. N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e G r e e k n a m e vvhich t h e c i t y h a d a c q u i r e d in the H e l l e n i s tic p e r i o d , like the i c o n o g r a p h y o f i t s c o i n s , e x p r e s s e d t h e f a c t t h a t the i d e n t i t y o f t h e p l a c e depended on that o f t h e g o d d e s s vvho steadily b e c a m e its b e s t knovvn deity. It is p e r h a p s S t r a b o , in deseribing the r o u t c f r o m Syria t o B a b y l o n i a , vvho (in spite o f s o m e g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n f u s i o n s ) best c x p r e s s e s t h e i d e n tity o f the p l a c e : ' B a m b y k e , vvhich they a l s o c a l i . . . H i e r a p o l i s , in vvhich t h e y vvorship t h e S y r i a n G o d d e s s , A t a r g a t i s ' . 2 4 2 1 . de dea Syria

31-33.

ı z . Scc H . S e y r i g , " B a s - r e l i e f d e s d i c u x d ' H i f c r a p o l i s " , Syria 4 9 ( 1 9 7 a ) , 1 0 4 . 2 3 . Scc tcxt t o n.3 a b o v e and (briefly) 12,5 and A p p . C bclow. 2 4 . S t r a b o , Ceog.

X V I , 1 , 2 7 ( 7 4 8 ) . In fact Strabo sccms t o b c under the inıprcssion t h a t

H i e r a p o l i s \vas e a s t o f t h e E u p h r a t e s a n d vvas t o bc i d e n t i f i c d vvith E d e s s a . T h i s h o p e l e s s c o n f u sion has been oraitted f r o m the q u o t a t i u n .

N o n e o f the o t h e r c i t i e s o f n o r t h e r n Syria a p p e a r c d in this light t o c o n t e m p o r a r i c s , i f only, a s w e h a v e s c e n , b e c a u s e t h e y w c r e k n o w n t o h a v e b e e n Hcllcnistic foundations. But the point that continuity with a pre-Hellenistic p a s t m i g h t m o s t p r o b a b l y b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y c u l t - p l a c e s , a n d c u l t - p r a c t i c e s , is r e l e v a n t f o r t h e m t o o . T h u s f o r i n s t a n c e o n e o f the very f c w r e f l e e t i o n s o f the l o c a l c u l t u r e o f t h e a r e a r o u n d C y r r h u s is a rclief f r o m K i l i s r e p r e s e n t i n g a p r i e s t in this s a m e c o s t u m e — a c o n i c a l hat a n d l o n g t u n i c — m a k i n g a sacrifice o n an altar. 2 5 H o w w e are t o ı ı n d e r s t a n d the partially surviving r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a n e n o r m o u s bull s t a n d i n g b e f o r e h i m is unclear. B u t a t least t h e p e r s o n a n d his deity a r c idcntificd h y a G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n . As C u m o n t n o t e d , the m i x t u r e o f L a t i n , G r e e k a n d S e m i t i c n a m e s here perfectly m i r r o r s the s o c i a l c v o l u t i o n c h a r a c t c r i s t i c o f t h e R o m a n p e r i o d : t h e deity c o n c c r n e d is t h e god Bel, t h e p r i e s t (hiereus)

is ' G a i u s ' , a n d he lists a l s o his w i f e E m e o u s a n d his

childrcn Antiochos, Epigenes, Diokles, M a r k o s , Petröııios, Gaios, Thedion a n d M a r t h a s . T h e relief a n d its i n s e r i p t i o n a r e a small sign o f a w o r l d t o vvhich vve m i g h t in p r i n c i p l c g a i n m o r e a c c c s s if this large r e g i o n (vvhich lies a l o n g t h e T u r k i s h - S y r i a n b o r d e r ) vvere t o b e ı h o r o u g h l y surveyed. In the a r e a t o the n o r t h o f t h a t , in t h e region vvhich in t h e e a r l i c r first c e n t u r y BC p r o b a b l y f o r m c d p a r t o f the k i n g d o m o f C o m m a g e n e , t h e r e is jost o n e cult-site vvhere t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e local deity shovvs a n u n m i s t a k a b l e d e r i v a t i o n f r o m t h e r e m o t e p r e - H e l l e n i s t i c p a s t . T h i s is D o l i c h e , m o d e r n D ü l ü k , a village a fevv k i l o m e t r e s n o r t h o f G a z i a n t e p . It lies a l m o s t d u e vvest o f Z e u g m a , vvhich, a s vve h a v e s e e n , vvas a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y t a k e n o v e r b y t h e R o m a n s a s part o f t h e p r o v i n c e i m m e d i a t e l y in 3 1 BC.*" T h e region vvhere D o l i c h e lies m a y t h u s a l s o h a v e b e c o m e p r o v i n c i a l a t t h e s a m e t i m e ; its p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l h i s t o r y s h a r e s the c o m p l c t c u n c c r t a i n t y vvhich c h a r a c t c r i s c s a l i o f t h e vvesterly p a r t o f C o m m a g e n e , s t r e t e h i n g u p t o t h e A m a n u s a n d T a u r u s m o u n t a i n s . But it is a t a n y r a t e c e r t a i n t h a t D o l i c h e vvas p r o v i n c i a l by the later 50S AD, w h c n a G r c c k d c d i c a t i o n t h e r e t o ' T h c o s D o l i c h c n o s ' vvas d a t e d by the fourth year of the rule o f N e r o . T h e roughly carved basalt altar o n vvhich t h e i n s e r i p t i o n is c a r v e d a g a i n shovvs a priest in a c o n i c a l h a t a n d l o n g t u n i c ; h c is n a m e d as ' E n n a i o s s o n o f B a r n a n a i o s ' . T h i s i n s e r i b e d relief is e n o u g h a l s o t o shovv t h a t D o l i c h e vvas indeed t h e rural c u l t - c e n t r e f r o m vvhich ( f o r r e a s o n s vvhich s c e m vvholly o b s c u r e ) t h e vvorship o f ' T h e o s D o l i c h e n o s ' , o r in L a t i n f r e q u e n t l y ' I u p p i t e r O p t i m u s M a x i m u s D o l i c h e n u s ' , vvas t o bc s p r e a d , largely as it s e e m s b y soldiers, ali o v e r the E m p i r e . 2 7 A s is alvvays t h e c a s e in s u c h i n s t a n c e s , t h e very f a c t t h a t the deity vvas

2 5 . E. Cumont, Ftudes Syriennes ( 1 9 1 6 ) , 2 5 7 ^ .

26. 2.1 above. 27. Scc J. W3gncr, "Ncuc Dcnkmâlcr aus Doliche", Bonn. Jahrb. 182 (1982), 133; M. Hörig a n d E . S c h w c r t h c i m , Corpus

Cultus

Iovis

Dolicbeni

(CCID)

{ 1 9 8 7 ) , n o . 2 a n d T a f . 1.

t r a n s p o s e d i n t o so m a n y different e ı ı v i r o n m e n t s m a k e s t h e a l r e a d y difficuLt q u e s t i o n o f his ' r c a l ' n a t u r e infinitcly m o r e c o m p l e x . For, a s in the o t h e r c a s e s , his w o r s h i p p e r s c o u l d literally m a k e o f h i m vvhat t h e y vvould. T h u s o n e vvors h i p p c r a t A q u i l c i a a c t u a l l y c o n s t r u c t c d a c o m p o s i t c deity 'Iuppiter 0 ( p t s m u s ) M ( a x i m u s ) D ( o l i c h e n u s ) H c l i o p o l i t ( a n u s ) ' . 2 8 In spite o f ali the c a u t i o n vvhich is c s s e n t i a l , o n e feature o f his i c o n o g r a p h y is u n d e n i a b l e : the c h a r a c t e r istic r e p r c s e n t a t i o n o f t h e ' Z e u s ' o r ' I u p p i t e r ' o f D o l i c h e a s a b e a r d e d m a l e Figüre, vveariııg a hat a n d g i r d l e d tunic, staııding 011 t h e b a c k o f a bull a n d vviclding an a x c in his right h a n d , is f o u n d n o t o n l y on o b j e c t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l period f r o m t h e r e g i o n o f D ü l ü k ( t h o u g h n o n e is e x p l i c i t l y l a b e l l c d ) , but a l s o , vvith m a n y v a r i a t i o n s , o n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e deity (a nuttıbcr o f vvhich are c x p i i c i t l y l a b e l l c d ) t h r o u g h o u t t h e E m p i r e . 2 9 A p a r t i c u l a r l y fine c x a m p l e is t h e r e l i e f - c a r v i n g d c d i c a t e d in AD 1 8 3 t o 'Iuppiter O p t i m u s M a x i m u s D o l i e h e n u s ' a t t h e ' D o l i c h e n u m ' o n the Aventine in R o m e by A q u i l a s o n

of

Barlıadad.'0 W h a t is significant a b o u t this i c o n o g r a p h y is, hovvever, t h e f a c t t h a t it is an u n m i s t a k a b l e borrovving f r o m relief-carviııgs o f a deity f o u n d in the r e g i o n o f G a z i a n t e p a n d d a t i n g t o tlıc n c o - H i t t i t e period ( 1 2 0 0 - 7 0 0 BC). C o m p a r a b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f a deity s t a ı ı d i n g on a bull are knovvn from b o t h C a p p a d o c i a a n d M e s o p o t a m i a , f r o m an even earlier p e r i o d , a r o u n d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the s e c o n d m i l l c n n i u m . 3 ' It c a n n o t be p r o v e d that t h e r e vvas a n a e t u a l c o n tinuity o f c u l t on the site o f D o l i c h e , o r o f bclicfs a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e d e i t y ( t h o u g h c q u a l l y ncither can be disproved). T h e e v i d e n e e , ali f r o m the

first

t h r e e c c n t u r i c s AD, vvould i n d e e d b c c o m p a t i b l e vvith t h e idca t h a t this form o f divine r e p r e s e n t a t i o n vvas literally borrovvcd u n d e r the E m p i r e f r o m s u r v i v i n g I littite reliefs vvhich vvere stili v i s i b l e in t h e a r e a . B e y o n d t h a t , vve c a n n o t g o , j u s t a s vve knovv n o t h i n g o f t h e ş i i r i n e itself, o r o f D o l i c h e , vvlıtch in the s e c o n d c e n t u r y briefly m i n t e d c o i n s vvith the legend ' o f t h e Dolicbaioi\ m u s t h a v e c o u n t e d as a polis?1

and hence

T h e c u l t u r a l a n d religious h i s t o r y o f this r e -

g i o n r e m a i n s t o be e x p l o r e d . 28. H ö ı i g a n d Schvvertheim, o p . c i t . , 290, n o . 4 4 7 . 29. F o r local e x a m p t e s , see H ü r i g a n d Schvvertheim, o p . cit., n o s . 5 - 6 — b u t vvith tvvo

figures

s t a n d i n g o n bulls a n d a t h i r d vviclding t h e a x c ; 8, 9, 1 0 , 1 1 , 18, 1 9 , 2 1 , 2 2 , 28. F o r c.vplicitly labellcd e x a m p ! e s f r o m elscvvhcrc scc, c . g . , n o . 6 2 (Trocsmis), y o ( M o e s i a S u p e r i o r ) , 2 0 1 ( K o m imi, I l u n g a r y ) , 2 0 7 , 2 1 7 , 2 2 2 , 2 4 2 , ete. 3 c . Hörig and Schwcrtheim, no. 3 6 3 , Taf. L X X V . 3 r . F o r the n e o - H i t t i t e reliefs f r o m t h e region o f G a z i a n t e p see I. Tcmi/.soy, Gaziantep

Mııse-

ums ( 1 9 8 9 ) , fıgs. 5 4 - 5 5 (vvhere the d c i t i e s h a v e ali t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t c r i s t i c s m e n t i o n e d , but a r e n o t s t a n d i n g o n bulls). F o r t h e e a r l y p a r a l l c l s f r o m a nıuclı w i d c r a r e a sec Httrig a ı ı d Schvvert h c i m , o p . cit. ( n . 2 7 ) , on n o . 5 (a v o t i v e t r i a n g l e f r o m D ü l ü k ) . W h e t h c r vvc s h o u l d think o f a u n i t a r y c o n c e p t o f a ' w c a t l t e r - g o d ' is a n o t h e r q u c s t i o n . See I I . W . l l a u s s i g , Götler im Vorderen 3 2 . BMC

Orient Syria,

(1965), x35ff. ıt4.

und

Mytbe/1

7. T H E TETRAPOLıS AND N O R T H E R N SYRIA 7.3. VILLAGES A N D RURAL TEMPLES As h a s b c c n strcsscd m a n y t i m e s , w c c a n in fact a s s u m e , in g e n e r a l t e r m s , that ali the m a j ö r c i t i e s vvhich d o m i n a t e a n y m o d e r n m a p o f the R o m a n N e a r E a s t vvere e a c h individually n o m o r e t h a n t h e f o c a l p o i n t , a n d p r o b a b l y the largest s i n g l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p o p u l a t i o n , in a n a r c a filled vvith villages, vvhich m a y o f t e n h a v e been the main s o c i a l units b y vvhich p e o p l e identified t h e m s e l v e s . S o , f o r i n s t a n c c , far avvay in A q u i n c u m ( B u d a p e s t ) , a ' S y r i a n f r o m t h e r e g i o n o f D o l i c l ı e ' r e c o r d s iıı t h e y e a r 2 2 8 the n a m e o f his native village. 1 B u t t h e r e a r c , vvithin n o r t h e r n Syria, o n l y tvvo o v c r l a p p i n g r e g i o n s vvhere vve m a y g a i n a n y i m p r e s s i o n o f this vvorld o f villages: the territory o f A p a m e a , a n d the l i m e s t o n e m a s s i f vvhich lay a t t h e h e a r t o f the region a n d ineluded p a r t s o f t h c t e r r i t o r i e s o f A n t i o c h , A p a m e a , C h a l c i s a n d B c r o c a . T h e b o u n d a r i c s betvveen city territories a r e n o t alvvays clcar, a n d m a y n o t h a v e been very İTIp o r t a n t , given the size a n d relative i n d e p c n d e n c e o f m a n y villages. B u t w c knovv f o r i n s t a n c c f r o m thc E m p e r o r J u l i a n ' s last letter t h a t L i t a r b a e ( T c r i b ) , on t h e r o a d betvveen A n t i o c h a n d B e r o e a , vvas 'a village o f C h a l c i s ' , s o m e 2 0 k m avvay,' vvhile I m m a e ( Y e n i ş e h i r ) a n d G i n d a r u s (Geııderesse on t h e river A f r i n ) vvere in t h c t e r r i t o r y o f A n t i o c h . 3 If vve l o o k first at the t e r r i t o r y o f A p a m e a , t h r e e i m p o r t a n t i t e m s o f evid e n c e staııd o u t . 4 First, the R o m a n c e n s u s o f the civitas d u e t e d a r o u n d AD 6, a l r e a d y r e c o r d e d 1 1 7 , 0 0 0

Apamenorum,

people.5

ccn-

E v e n if (as is n o t

likely) this ineluded every i n h a b i t a n t , free o r slave, o f e i t h e r s e x a n d o f any a g e , a n d h a d s u c c e e d e d in r e a c h i n g every c c n t r e o f h a b i t a t i o n in the territory, it stili implics a very large p o p u l a t i o n liviııg in villages as vvell a s tlıosc living vvithin the vvalls o f t h e city itself. In reality it m u s t i m p l y a t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e t e r r i t o r y o f sevcral l ı u n d r e d t h o u s a n d . S e c o n d , it seems a l m o s t c e r t a i n t h a t thc b o u n d a r i c s o f P a l m y r e n e t e r r i t o r y vvhich s u c c e s s i v e R o m a n g o v e r n o r s m a r k e d o u t a t K h i r b e t e l - B i l a a s vvere t h o s e b o r d e r i n g o n A p a m c a n territ o r y ; 6 i f s o , t h a t t e r r i t o r y s t r e t e h e d s o m e 1 0 0 k m i n t o thc s t e p p e in a s o u t h c a s t c r l y d i r e e t i o n . T h i r d , a c o l l e c t i o n o f the e v i d e n c e f r o m i n s e r i p t i o n s and literary s o u r c c s h a s yielded t h e n a m e s o f ö v e r f o r t y villages o f thc R o m a n I m p e r i a l period. A l m o s t ali o f t h e s e n a m e s a r e S e m i t i c ; t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e G r a e c o - R o m a n influence o n t h e t o p o n y m y o f the N e a r E a s t m a d e o n l y a very 1 . C / L III, n o . 3 4 9 0 . 2. J u l i a n , Ep. 58 ( L o c b ) = 9 8 ( B i d c z / C u m o n t ) . 3. 4 . 1 a n d c h . 6 abovt*. 4 . For thc discussion o f t h e territory o f A p a u ı e a a n d the villages (but i n c v p l i c a b l y v v i r h n o m a p ) , see J. B a l t y a n d J . - C . Balty, " L ' A p a m e n e a n t i q u e e t les l i m i t e s de la S y r i a S c c u n d a " , tldmin.,

41.

5. 2.2 above. 6. 2 . 2 a b o v e .

Geog.

Iimited i m p a c t a t village level. B u t vvhether vve s h o u l d c o n c l u d e t h a t the i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e s e villages c o n t i n u c d t o speak

a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e is q u i t e a n -

o t h e r matter. T h e q u e s t i o n m u s t be left o p e n . It m a y be significant t h a t t h e r e a r e a s yet n o S e m i t i c - l a n g u a g c i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e r e g i o n , vvhile t h e r e a r e several hundred G r e e k ( a n d s o m e L a t i n ) o n c s . 7 A s it h a p p e n s , t h e knovvn n a m e s o f villages hardly d e p e n d on these l o c a l i n s e r i p t i o n s but depeııd a l m o s t entirely either on i n s e r i p t i o n s left b y p e o p l e f r o m A p a m c a n t e r r i t o r y in o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e o r (as so o f t e n ) on later C h r i s t i a n ı ı a r r a t i v e s . T h e s e inseriptions put up in o t h e r provinces a r e , hovvever, e x t r e m e l y significant, precisely because o f their t e n d e n e y t o identify the p e r s o n b y his village. T h e best-knovvn e x a m p l e is a G r e e k inseription f r o m T r i e r vvhich reads: ' H e r e lics Az-izos s o n o f A g r i p ( p ) a , a S y r i a n o f the v i l l a g e (körne) o f t h e K a p r o z a b a d a i o i , iıı the t e r r i t o r y o f A p a m e a ' . 8 ' K a p r o z a b a d a i o i ' clearly i n c o r p o r a t e s b o t h t h e r o o t K P R ( ' v i l l a g e ' ) a n d a n a m e c o g n a t e vvith ' Z e b e d e e ' ; t h e local n a m e t h u s i n e l u d e s tvvo different t e r m s m c a n i n g ' v i l l a g e ' . In m o s t cases ali t h a t vve c a n teli is t h a t the person savv his village as h i s p r i m a r y m e a n s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , even vvhen in far dislatıt parts. B u t o c c a s i o ı ı ally vve c a n c o m e e l o s e r t o a l o c a l i s a t i o n : for i n s t a n c e T h c o d o r e t r c c o r d s t h a t in t h e late f o u r t h c e n t u r y o n e M a r k i a n o s f o u n d e d tvvo m o n a s r c r i c s in ' a v e r y large a n d vvell-populated v i l l a g e ' c a l l e d N i k e r t a s , vvhich vvas s i t u a t e d o n l y 4 - 5 k m f r o m A p a m e a . O n l y l i t e r a r y narratives, ali o f a later period, allovv u s even g l i m p s e s o f the vvay o f life o r the s o c i a l struetures o f these villages: o n e vvas t h a t o f the ' M a r a t o c u p r e n i ' n e a r A p a m e a , vvhom A m m i a n u s deseribes a s n o t e d b r i g a n d s in the 360S.* B u t n o t h i n g e n a b l e s us t o envisage the degree o f s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t o r t h e f u n e t i o n i n g o f local c u l t - c c n t r c s a m o n g the very l a r g e village p o p u l a t i o n s vvhich s u r r o u n d c d A p a m e a . It c a n o n l y be rciterated t h a t a n y c o n c e p t i o n o f vvhat such a c i t y o r c o m ı n u n i t y (the 'civitas o f the A p a m e n i ' , in R o m a n t e r m s ) 'vvas' m u s t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e varied g e o g r a p h i c a l z o n e s , s t r e t e h i n g far o u t i n t o the s t e p p e , h y vvhich it vvas s u r r o u ı ı d e d .

T h e s i t u a t i o n is very different vvith the villages o f t h e l i m e s t o n e m a s s i f , s u r veyed in the great vvork o f G e o r g c s T c h a I e n k o . l u T l ı c m a s s i f e m b r a c c s a series o f m o d e s t l i m e s t o n e r a n g e s , vvith fertile itıterior valleys, s t r e t e h i n g n o r t h 7 . F o r t h e k n o v v n iııscriptiorıs s e e c s p . KUS 8.

IC

XIV, n o . 2 5 5 8 — N . Cauthıer,

I V (15*5 5), n o s .

ıjlı-ıyy?.

Recueıl des inseriptions cbrelıennes de la Gaııle

I (1975!,

n o . 1 0 : " E v O d f i e «futu "AÇıÇoç A y p ı n u £ v p o ç «ca(|irı;) KunpoÇuJkiomoıv, üpo»v 'Anu|ito>v. T h e i n s e r i p t i o n is p r o b a b l y o f t h e f ı f t h c e n t u r y . 9. T l ı e o d o r c t , Hisi.

Relig.

TO. G . T c h a l e n k o , Villages romaine

l-III

(1953-1958).

IV, 5 ; Ep. aniique$

r 19. A m m i a n u s X X V I I I , 1 , 1 1 - 1 4 . de la Syrie dıı Nord:

\.e massif

du He.lus a

l'epocjuc

w a r d s f r o m n e a r A p a m e a a n d rising up t o the east o f t h e O r o n t e s a n d :he plain o f A n t i o c h , t o s h a d e o f f i m p e r c e p t i b l y eastvvards i n t o t h e s t e p p e itself a n d the plains a r o u n d B e r o e a . U n f o r t u n a t c l y f o r present p u r p o s e s , t h e imm e n s e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f this r e g i o n h e l o n g s chiefly t o a later p e r i o d : it lies a b o v e ali in t h e still-standing r e m a i n s o f i t m u m e r a b l e villages o f the late R o m a n p e r i o d , up t o the I s l a m i c c o n q u e s t , a n d in its cetıtral i m p o r t a n c e in the history o f m o n a s t i c i s m , s y m b o l i s c d a b o v e ali by t h e c h u r c h o f Q a l a a t S e m a n , built in the fifth c e n t u r y a r o u n d t h e b a s e o f the pillar o f the f a m o u s h e r m i t Sym e o n Stylites. T h e i n c o m p a r a b l c vvork o f T c h a l c n k o , c a r r i c d o u t a l m o s t s i n g l c - h a n d c d l y , c o n s i s t e d o f a survey, r e c o r d i n g a n d a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t a n d i n g r e m a i n s . It inevit a b l y left essentially u n t o u c h e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f s e t t l e m e n t here, a n d its n a t u r e in the first t h r e e c e n t u r i e s AD. AS f o r this a r c a in t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e t h e d e a t h o f C o n s t a n t i n e , vve h a v e t h r e e m e a n s o f a c c e s s . T h e first is f r o m t h e o n l y e x c a v a t i o n so f a r c a r r i e d o u t a t a n y o f the villages, a t D e h e s o n t h e J e b e l B a r i s h a , a r a n g e vvhich lies a t t h e h c a r t o f t h e m a s s i f , a n d j u s t t o the s o u t h o f the A n t i o c h - B c r o c a r o a d . 1 1 T h e s e e x c a v a t i o n s suggested t h a t t h e r e vvas s o m e h a b i t a t i o n a l r e a d y in the Hcllenistic p e r i o d , a n d m o d e s t c o n s t r u c t i o n in tlıc first t h r e e c e n t u r i e s . B u t m a j ö r e x p a n s i o n b e l o n g e d t o t h e third a n d f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s a n d a f t e r . T h e y a l s o c o n f i r m e d T c h a l e n k o ' s vievv o f the i m p o r t a n c e o f olive-grovving in this r e g i o n (tvvcnty-one presses vvere f o ı . n d a r o u n d t h e village), vvhile m o d i f y i n g it in shovving that a n i ı n a l h u s b a n d r y vvas a l s o praetised. O n this e v i d e n c e t h e villages visible t o d a y a r e likely t o re present a m o r e developed p h a s c t h a n t h o s e o f the earlier p e r i o d . S u c h villages c e r t a i n l y c x î s t e d , hovvever. F o r o u r s e c o n d m e a n s o f a c c e s s is tlıc G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s o f t h e p e r i o d , a n d a b o v e ali t h o s e put up u n d e r the t e t r a r e h y t o m a r k the b o u n d a r i e s betvveen villages. 1 2 ITıose vvhich a r e knovvn c o m e from the J e b e l S e m a n , i n the n o r t h - c a s t o f the r e g i o n . 1 ' T h e y r e c o r d , f o r i n s t a n c e , tlıc village (kömâ)

o f the K a p r o k Ğ r o i ; tlıat o f the K a p r o l i a b o i (the

p r e s e n t - d a y K a f r L a b ) ; the epfoikia?)—estate—of

Z a c r o (probably the mod-

ern B a z i h e r ) ; a n o t h e r vvhere t h e full n a m e is lost; a n d t h e ep(oikîaf)

o f Kaper-

oul.|amis(?). T h e m i s s i n g n a m e m i g h t be t h a t o f K a p e r N a b o u ( m o d e m K a f r N a b o ) , m e n t i o n e d o n a b u i l d i n g - i n s c r i p t i o n o f 1 0 7 / 2 0 8 . i l e r e t o o vve s o m e t i m e s find r.hat tlıc S e m i t i c r o o t K P R h a s b e c o m e a b s o r b e d in a g r o u p - n a m e , a n d t h a t t h e G r c c k vvord kömS

h a s then been a d d e d .

T h e r e is n o n c e d t o a c c u m u l a t e m o r e o f t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m these a n d o t h e r 1 1 . S e e t h e l o n g r e p o r t b y J.-P. S o d i n i , C . T a t e , B. B a v a n t , S . B a v a n t , j . - L . B i s c o p a n d D . O r s s a u d , " D e h e s ( S y r i e d u N o r d } , C a m p a g n c s I—01 ( 1 9 7 6 - 1 9 7 8 ) " , Syria t h i s r e g i o n s e e a l s o I. P e n a , P. C a s t e L l a n o a n d R. F e r n â n d e z , Inventaire ız.

57 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , i - For

du Jebel Harici)a

(19H7).

Scc 5 . x a b o v e , a n d f o r f u l l t c x t s A p p . A .

1 3 . S e e H . S e y r i g , " B o r ı ı e s c a d a s t r a l e s d u G e b e l S i m ' â n B , in T c h a l e c ı k o , o p . cit. III, 6 f f . F o r K a p e r N a b o u , IGLS

II, n o . 3 5 9 .

i n s e r i p t i o n s , a l m o s t ali in G r e e k , witlı o e c a s i o n a l e p i t a p h s in L a t i n . T h e y a r c e n o u g h t o shovv t h a t a rural p o p u l a t i o n vvas t h e r e , in this part o f thc m a s s i f a t lcast, by t h c cııd o f thc t h i r d c c n t u r y , living in p l a c c s typically knovvn a s 'village o f t h c (group n a m e ) ' . T h e a l t e r n a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n , ' e s t a t e o f ' , c l e a r l y s e e m s t o suggest a e t u a l p o s s e s s i o n o f an a r e a b y a landovvner; a n d e x a c t l y this is a t t e s t e d later b y T h e o d o r e t , in r e c o u n t i n g hovv a c i t y - c o u n c i l l o r leutes)

(bou-

o f A n t i o c h c a m c t o a village o f vvhich h c vvas t h c ovvncr (despotes)

to

c o l l e c t t h c r c v c n u c s duc him. 1 " 4 As for t h e c u l t u r e o f this r u r a l a r e a , t h e p e r s o n a l natııcs used shovv t h e s a m e m i x t u r e o f S e m i t i c , G r e e k a n d L a t i n e l e m e n t s a s elsevvhere. A g a i n t h e r e a r e n o S c m i t i c i n s e r i p t i o n s o f t h i s p e r i o d . H e r e , as elsevvhere in n o r t h e r n S y r i a , t h c knovvn S y r i a c i n s e r i p t i o n s a r e ali C h r i s t i a n , a n d b e l o n g in t h c fifth c e n t u r y a n d after. 1 5 B u t the earliest knovvn C h r i s t i a n inseription in G r e e k d a t e s t o 3 4 1 / 3 4 2 a n d cornes f r o m S e r m a d a , a village a t thc s o u t h e n d o f t h c plain o f D a n a : ' O n c is G o d a n d his C h r i s t o s , y e a r 3 9 0 ( o f A n t i o c h ) ' . ' 6 T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f this p r o c l a m a t i o n n e e d hardly b e stressed. But it g a i n s a n e x t r a s i g n i f i c a n c e p r c c i s c l y i n this local c o n t c x t from thc fact t h a t in t h i s small a r c a inseriptions, archaeological remains and Christian narratives c o m bine t o shovv us t h c c o n f l i c t o f p a g a n i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y as vividly as a n y vvlıere in t h e E m p i r e . T h c k e y e l e m e n t s are p r o v i d e d b y a g r o u p o f f o u r Hill t o p t e m p l e s o f thc s c c o n d c c n t u r y vvhich s p a n an a r e a a t t h e h e a r t o f t h e limestoııe m a s s i f , a n d need t o b e c o n s i d c r e d together. 1 7 First, s o m e 6 k m t o the vvest o f S e r m a d a , on a spur o f the J e b e l Barisha o v c r l o o k i n g b o t h t h c p l a i n o f A n t i o c h a n d thc i n t e r i o r p l a i n o f D a n a , t h e r e is rhe vvell-preserved p a g a n t e m p l e a t B u r j B a q i r h a . A G r e e k inseription on thc liııtel o f the g a t e identifıcs thc deity vvorshipped t h e r e , a n d gives t h e d a t e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n : 1 8 T o Z e u s B ö m o s , great, attentivc, Apollonios and Apollophanes and C h a l bion, the s o n s o f M a r i o n , c r c c t c d thc gate, from (the funds o f rhe ?) epoikion o f M c r t h o s , year 2 0 9 , ( m o n t h ) Gorpiaios (AD I 6 J ) . Belovv the temple, o n the n o r t h s l o p e o f the hill, l o o k i n g dovvn t o thc plain o f A n t i o c h , t h e r e lics t h c l a t c - R o m a n village o f B a q i r h a , vvith tvvo c h u r c h e s , o f t h c fifth a n d sixrh c e n t u r i e s . B u t f o r the religious c o n c e p t i o n s d o m i n a n t i n o u r p e r i o d , as vve savv m u c h earlier, t h e c o n c e p t o f a ' Z e u s (the) A l t a r ' m a y 1 4 . T h e o d o r e t , Hisl.

Relig.

X I V , 4.

15. Scc 7 . 1 , n . 1 9 .

16. ICI.SU, no. 5'8. 1 7 . S c c O . C^allot a n d J . M a r c i l l c r - J a u b c r r , " H a u t s - l i c u x d e S y r i c d u N o r d " , in G . ( e d . ) , Temples

et sanctııaires

Roux

(T984), 1 8 5 .

1 8 . / G L S ı ı , n o . 5 6 9 . O n a c o l u m r a o f t h c t e m p l e itself t h e r e is a n o t l ı c r i n s e r i p t i o n , o f AD 2 3 8 ; s c c H . S e y r i g i n T c h a l c n k o , o p . c i c . III, 2 1 , n o . 2 0 . F o r t h c l a t c - K o m a n v i l l a g e s c c Pcrta e t a l . , o p . cit. ( n . ı ı ) , 7 2 .

be o f great significance. 1 9 In i t s local c o n t e x t it c a n be c o m p a r e d t o t h e s e c o n d o f t h e series, the r u i n e d t e m p l e dedicated t o ' Z e u s T o u r b a r a c h o s ' a t S r i r on a n o t h e r spur o f t h e J c b c l B a r i s h a , t o t h e east o f S c r m a d a ; u n p u b l i s h e d inseript i o n s shovv t h a t this b e l o n g s t o t h e first half o f t h e s e c o n d century. T h e n a m e o f t h e deity clearly derives f r o m t h e S e m i t i c r o o t s Ş\VR f r o c k ' ) a n d B R K ( ' b l e s s ' ) . 7 0 T h e n , 23 k m t o t h e n o r t h - e a s t , a t K a l o t a o n t h e J e b e l S e m a n , is a t e m p l e d c d i c a t c d t o tvvo o r m o r e ' a n c e s t r a l g o d s ' . T h e f r a g m e n t a r y inseript i o n shovvs t h a t o n e o f their n a m e s ended in ' - a i t u l o s ' , a n d t h a t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m m e m o r a t e d i n v o l v e d a temple a n d a g o l d e n c u l t - o b j e c t

(xoatıon).

W h a t the deities vvere is p r o b a b l y m a d e c l e a r b y an inseription o f A D 224 f r o m n e a r b y K a f r N a b o , r e c o r d i n g t h e d c d i c a t i o n o f an olive-press t o ' S e i m i o s a n d S y ı ı ı b e t y l o s a n d L e ö n , t h e ancestral g o d s ' . T h e s e c o n d divine n a m e m u s t r c c a l l , if in n o very c l e a r vvay9 tlıc ' Z e u s B c t y l o s , t h e a n c e s t r a l g o d o f t h o s e by t h e O r o n t e s ' , t o vvhom a s o l d i c r m a d e a d c d i c a t i o n a t D u r a - E u r o p o s . 2 1 T h i s temple vvas later r e c o n s t r u c t e d a n d c o n v e r t e d i n t o a c h u r c h . B u t it is in t h e history o f t h e f o u r t h t e m p l e that vve sec m o s t c l e a r l y b o t h the n a t u r e o f local p a g a n cults a n d the C h r i s t i a n c h a l l c n g e t o t h e m . i l e r e vvc a r c c o n c e r n e d vvith t h e o n l y real m o u n t a i n in t h e l i m e s t o n e m a s s i f , J e b e l S h e i k h B a r a kat, s o n ı c 8 7 0 m lıigh a n d d o m i t ı a t i n g the vvhole surrounditıg a r e a . " A l o n g series o f G r c c k i n s e r i p t i o n s , o f vvhich n o t ali h a v e yet been p u b l i s h c d , r c c o r d t h e p r a c t i c e o f a c u l t atıd t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s a n e t u a r y t h e r e , on t h e very s u m mit o f the m o u n t a i n , in the I ı n p e r i a l p e r i o d . W h a t vve a r e c o n c e r n e d vvith here is b y n o m c a n s just a small r u r a l sanetuary, o f a sort typical o f t h e N e a r E a s t , b u t a m a j ö r c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e vvall o f t h e s a n e t u a r y f o r m e d a s q u a r e o f a b o u t 6 8 m , on a partially artificial esplaııade, a n d lined vvith an i n n e r p o r t i c o . A t e m p l e o f perhaps 1 1 m b y 2 0 m o c c u p i c d the c c n t r c o f t h e tenıenos.

In seale

a n d design the vvhole s a n e t u a r y is thus c o ı ı ı p a r a b l e t o t h e g r e a t t e m p l e o f B a e t o c a e c e in t h e hills b e l ı i n d A r a d o s , at a similar height a b o v e s e a - l c v e l . ' 1 T h e f o r t y - s e v e n r e p o r t e d inseriptions, p u b l i s h c d a n d u n p u b l i s h e d , a n d ali in G r e e k , m a k e it c l e a r t h a t t h e t e m p l e vvas c o n s t r u c t e d relatively early, b e g i n n i n g a b o u t AD 8 0 a n d being c o m p l e t e d in the 140S. T h e deities vvorshippcd vvere ' Z e u s M a d b a c h o s a n d S c l a m a n e s , t h e a n c c s t r a l g o d s ' . A s h a s alvvays been r e c o g n i s e d , t h e c x p r c s s i o n ' Z e u s M a d b a c h o s ' m u s t m e a n t h e s a m e a s 19. Ch. 1 above. 1 0 . S e e C a l l o t atıd M a r c i l l e t - J a u b e r t , o p . c i t . , 1 9 1 - 1 9 5 . 11.

C a l l o t a ı ı d M a r c i l l e t - J a u b e c t , o p . cit., > 9 8 - 2 0 0 . T h e i n s e r i p t i o n s m e n t i o n e d a r e IGJ-S

II, n o s . 3 8 3 a ı ı d 3 7 6 . Hor * Z c u s B c t y l o s ' sec c h . t a b o v e . 2 2 . F o r t h e m o s t r e c e n t a c c o u n r s c c C a l l o t a n d M a r c i l l e t - J a u b e r t , o p . cit., 1 8 7 - 1 9 2 n ı c n r i o n i n g (p. 1 8 8 , n. 12) t h i r t y - f o u r u n p u b l i s h e d i n s e r i p t i o n s . T h e i n s e r i p t i o n s s o f a r p u b l i s h c d a r c IGLS

II, n o s . 4 6 5 — 7 4 0 , a n d J. J a r r y , " i n s e r i p t i o n s a r a b e s , s y r i a q u c s ct g r e c q u e s d u mass-if d u

B c l u s e n S y r i e d u N o r d " , Annales 2 3 . See 8.3 b c l o w .

Islaııtologitjtıes

7 (1968), 139, nos. 4 1 - 4 3 .

' Z e u s Bönıos' at Burj B a q i r h a , 17 km away, namely ' Z e u s (ıhe) Altar'. F o r b e h i n d ' M a d b a c h o s ' t h e r e m u s t lie a S e m i t i c r o o t m e a n i n g ' s a c r i f i c e ' ( Z B K in Ilebrevv, D B K in A r a m a i c ) . F r o m t h a t derives M D B K ' ( ' a l t a r ' ) in A r a m a i c (used f o r i n s t a n c e in E z r a 7 , 1 7 ) . ' S e l a m a n e s ' w a s indeed a truly ' a n c e s t r a l ' divine n a m e , f o r it is a t t e s t e d in the s e c o n d m i l l e n n i u m BC, a n d a l s o a p p e a r s (as S L M N ) in a S i d o n i a n i n s e r i p t i o n o f the H c l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . 2 4 T h e site is o f e x c c p t i o n a l interest, w h e t h e r w c a t t e m p t t o l o o k b a c k t o its e a r l i c r history o r f o n v a r d t o the c o n f r o n t a t i o n vvith C h r i s t i a n h e r m e t i s m vvhich t o o k

place

t h e r e in t h e f o u r t h century. L o o k i n g b a c k , vvhat is c e m i n is o n l y t h a t t h e vvorshippers t h e r e r e g a r d e d t h e m s e l v e s as s u b s c r i b i n g t o ' a n c e s t r a l ' cults; t h a t o n e o f the divine n a m e s did h a v e a long h i s t o r y ; a n d t h a t the o t h e r derived f r o m a S e m i t i c r o o t vvhosc m e a n i n g vvas evidently knovvn (since ' Z e u s [ t h e ] A l t a r ' is a t t e s t e d in G r e e k n o t f a r avvay), a n d t h e r e b y p r e s e n t s itself as o n e o f tvvo related local c x a m p l c s o f t l ı c identification o f deity a n d altar. B u t vvhat the a e t u a l p r e h i s t o r y o f the c u l t in this p r i m e e x a m p l e o f a ' H i g h P l a c e ' vvas vve d o n o t knovv. C o n t i n u i t y o f c u l t över c e n t u r i e s is q u i t e p o s s i b l e . E v e n i f t h a t m u s t r e m a i n a m e r e h y p o t h e s i s , o u r e v i d e n c e f r o m this rural a r e a m a k e s it c e r t a i n t h a t t h e H c l l e n i s t i c c i t i e s did n o t vvholly d e t e r m i n c the n a t u r e o f religious p r a c t i c e s even a t the h e a r t o f t h e m o s t H e l l e n i s e d part o f the N e a r E a s t . Yet the expression

given t o this cult iıı a r c h i t e c t u r a l f o r m b e l o n g s , a s

alvvays, t o t h e R o m a n E m p i r e . A s h a s never been d o u b t e d , vve c a n a l s o see this c u l t t h r o u g h C h r i s t i a n e y e s . F o r J e b e l S h e i k h B a r a k a t m u s t b c t h e m o u n t a i n o f vvhich T h e o d o r c t gives s o vivid a d e s e r i p t i o n : 2 5 Lying east o f Antioch and vvest o f B e r o e a , there is a high mountain that rises above tlıe neighbouring m o u n t a i n s and imitates a t its topmost summit the shape o f a c o n c . . . O n its very pcak there is a precinct o f demons m u c h revered by those in the neiglıbourhood . . . At the very skirts o f the mountain there is a large and vvell-populated village vvhich in local spccch (enchörios

they cali T c l e d a . A b o v e the mountain-foot there is

pböne)

a dale, n o t very steep b u t sloping gently tovvards that plain and facing the south vvind. Here o n e

A m m i a n u s built a philosophical

rctrcat

(phrontistirion). It vvill h a v e been in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y t h a t A m m i a n u s e s t a b lished h i m s e l f in his hermit's c e l i on the side o f the m o u n t a i n . B y the t i m e w h c n T h c o d o r c t w r o r e , a c c n t u r y later, t h e r e vvere ı ı ı o n a s t i c c s t a b l i s h m e n t s 1 4 . S e e tlıc c o m m c n t a r y t o IGLS Tcxt-Buok

of North

Semitic

1 5 . T h c o d o r c t , Hisl. Syria by Theodoret

inseriptions

Relig.

of Cyrrhus

II, n o . 4 6 5 . T h e S i d o n i a n i n s e r i p t i o n is G . A . C o o k c , A (1903), no. 7 .

I V , 1 ( a n d 1 3 ) , t r a n s . R . M . P r i c c , A History (1985).

of the Monks

nf

circliııg t h e m o u n t a i n , w h o s e i n h a b i t a ı ı t s , as he s a i d , h y m n e d their M a k e r ' s o m e in G r e e k , o t h e r s in t h e n a t i v e l a n g u a g e * . O n e e a g a i n , the g e o g r a p h y o f rural C h r i s t i a n i t y h a d h e e n d i e t a t c d by the n e c d t o o f f e r a d c l i b e r a t e c h a l l e n g e t o t h e p a g a n c u l t - c c n t r e s ; a n d it is again C h r i s t i a n e v i d e n c e vvhich gives u s o u r best i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e r e v e r e n c e vvhich these c e n t r e s e v o k e d . It is this e v i d e n c e t o o vvhich p e r h a p s s u g g c s t s t h a t t h o u g h G r c c k vvas t h e o n l y lang u a g e t o bc inseribed in this a r e a , S y r i a c o r A r a m a i c h a d f u n e t i o n e d in the e a r l i e r R o m a n K m p i r e as a s p o k e n l a n g u a g e . T h e l a n g u a g e a n d cursive s c ı i p t o f t h o s e later C h r i s t i a n i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m here vvhich a r e iıı a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e c a n be defined a s S y r i a c . B u t vvithout d o c u m c n t s vve c a n n o t knovv hovv the ( h y p o t h c t i c a l ) s p o k e n S c m i t i c l a n g u a g e o f the first fevv c e n t u r i e s ( a n d H e l l e nistic p e r i o d ? ) o u g h t t o be c l a s s i f i c d . F r a g m e ı ı t a r y a s o u r e v i d e n c e is, it is sufficient t o m a k e c l e a r hovv c o m p l e x vvas t h e c u l t u r a l a n d r c l i g i o u s c o n t c x t vvithin vvhich the G r e e k cities o f n o r t h e r n Syria lived. E v e n o f the c i t i e s , o n e , H i e r a p o l i s , h a d a dual identity, b o t h a s the c e n t r e o f the c u l t o f A t a r g a t i s , ' t h e S y r i a n G o d d e s s ' , a n d as a G r c c k city like o t h e r s ; a n d a n o t h e r , D o l i c h c , s e e m s t o have grovvn o u t o f a local cultc e n t r e vvith s o m e very a n c i e n t f c a t u r e s .

7.4. T H E M A J Ö R CİTİES:

APAMEA

A s f o r vvhat it in fact m e a n t t o be a G r e e k city like o t h e r s , o u r f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e h a r d l y allovvs us, in the c a s e o f m o s t o f t h o s e o f n o r t h e r n S y r i a . t o c a t c h m o r e t h a n g l i m p s e s ; a n d n o t h i n g vvill b e gained by l a b o r i o u s l y c o m p i i ing ali t h o s e items o f e v i d e n c e vvhich w e h a p p e ı ı t o h a v e , E v e n the b r o a d criteria f o r vvhat c o n s t i t u t e d a ' G r e e k c i t y ' are n o t entirely u n a m b i g u o u s : o n e o f t h e c e n t r a l t h e m e s o f this b o o k is t h a t the vvhole a r e a vvas m a r k e d by large a g g l o m e r a t i o n s o f p o p u l a t i o n vvhich vve d o n o t alvvays knovv vvhether t o cali ' c i t i e s ' o r n o t . But r e l e v a n t c r i t e r i a f o r defining a ' G r e e k c i t y ' vvould be, f o r i n s t a n c c , t h e c x c l u s i v e use o f G r e e k in p u b i i c a n d c o m m u n a l life; t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u e t u r e o f local s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t , vvith a n assembly, a council a n d annual magistrates; the c a p a c i t y to m i n t coins bearing the n a m e o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ; the p o s s e s s i o n o f a t e r r i t o r y in vvhich t h e r e vvere villages (kömai)

vvhich vvere in s o m e sense d e p e n d e n t on t h e c i t y ; a n d n o s i m i l a r dc-

p e n d e n c e on a n y o t h e r city. T h a t vvas t h e p o i n t o f the s h o r t - l i v e d m e a s u r e by vvhich Septimius S e v e r u s is s a i d t o h a v e p u n i s h e d A n t i o c h f o r i t s s u p p o r t o f P e s c c n n i u s N i g e r in rhe civil vvar o f T 9 3 / 1 9 4 : he is r e c o r d e d by H e r o d i a r . a s h a v i n g d e c l a r e d t h a t A n t i o c h vvould b e c o m e a könıe

in the t e r r i t o r y o f

I-aodicea.1 1 . H e r o d i a n III, 6, 9. C f . 3 . 4 a b o v e . T h i s d e g t a d a t i o n , if h i s t o r i c a l a t a l i , c a n h a v e l a s t e d only a few ycars.

T h c m o s t c x p l i c i t s y m b o l s o f a city's i d e n t i t y a n d s t a t u s w e r e its c o i n s . B u t b e h i n d t h a t s t a t e m e n t lies a m u l t i t u d e o f p r o b l e m s . W h a t is c e r t a i n is t h a t until t h c s c c o n d h a i f o f t h c t h i r d century the vast m a j o r i t y o f the b a s e - m e t a l c o i n a g c in c i r c u l a t i o n in t h c G r c c k E a s t w a s p r o d u c c d in t h c n a m e o f c i t i c s . ' T h e c o i n s usually, t h o u g h n o t a l w a y s , s h o w e d t h e p o r t r a i t a n d title o f t h c reigning E m p e r o r ; a n d they w o u l d typically list o n the reverse the n a m e o f the c o m m u n i t y a n d d i s p l a y s o m e s y m b o l o r s y m b o l s ( o f t e n t e m p l e s o r deities) a s s o c i a t c d vvith it. W h a t a ' m i n t ' a c t u a l i y vvas, hovvever, a n d vvhether vve s h o u l d s p e a k o f p e r m a n e n t entities c a l l e d ' t h c m i n t o f A n t i o c h ' o r

'the

m i n t o f L a o d i c e a ' , is q u i t e u n c e r t a i n . In S y r i a , as in Asia M i n ö r , it is c l e a r b o t h t h a t m i n t i n g ' b y ' a n y o n e city c o u l d bc episodie, a n d t h a t t h c s a m e vvorkshops vvere p r o d u c i n g c o i n s f o r different cities. 1 T h e city o f C h a l c i s , f o r i n s t a n c e , p r o d u c e d c o i n s o n l y betvveen t h e r e i g n s o f T r a j a n a n d A n t o n i n u s Pius, vvith t h e b a r c legend ' O f t h c Flavian C h a l c i d i a n s ' o n t h c r e v e r s e . * T h a t m a y serve t o r e m i n d us t h a t a l t h o u g h vve speak o f places

in vvhose

n a m e s c o i n s vvere p r o d u c e d , t h e c o i n s t h e m s e l v e s a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y n a m e d collectivities o f persons:

' t h c C h a l c i d i a n s ' . W i t h t h a t proviso, thc list o f

c o m m u n i t i e s n a m e d ( s o m e t i m e s o n l y f o r very brief p c r i o d s ) o n c o i n s c a n serve as a m a p o f ' t h e G r e e k

c i t i e s ' o f n o r t h e r n Syria: Z e u g m a on

the

E u p h r a t e s , D o l i c h e a n d G e r m a n i c i a (ali t h r e e a t s o m e point part o f C o m magene); Hierapolis, B e r o c a , Cyrrhus, Chalcis, Antioch, Apamea, Seleucia a n d L a o d i c e a (vvhich o c c a s i o n a l l y a l s o p r o d u c e d silver c o i n s ) ; a n d the t h r e e s m a l l places o n thc c o a s t , G a b a l a , P a l t o s a n d B a l a n e a e . F o r r e a s o n s vvhich a r e n o t c n t i r e l y clear, ali m i n t i n g by G r c c k citics cvcryvvhcrc, t h c N e a r E a s t ineluded, c a m e t o an e n d s o o n a f t e r the m i d d l e o f the third century, a n d vvith

it

both

a

distinetive

art-form

and

a

significant

means

of

self-

representation. In g e n e r a l , t h c s e l f - r c p r c s c n t a t i o n s e m b o d i e d in t h e c o i n s might have b e e n t h o s e o f G r e e k c i t i e s anyvvhere. H i e r a p o l i s o f c o u r s e h a d a different i m a g e , a n d its c o i n s m i g h t represent Z e u s / H a d a d a n d Hera/Atargatis, vvith thc d a r d (simeion)

Stan-

p l a c c d betvveen t h e m . 5 M o r e strikingly, given t h c o r i g i n o f

S c l c u c i a a s an c a r l y - H e l l e n i s t i c f o u n d a t i o n , s o m e o f its c o i n s p o r t r a y e d , a s vvell as the t h u n d e r b o l t vvhich vvas s u p p o s e d t o h a v e indicated t h e site t o S e l e u c u s I, a large s t o n e placed vvithin a four-pillared shrine a n d l a b c l l e d ' Z e u s ı . For thc barc outlinc vvhich follovvs I a m dependent especially on C . J. Hovvgcgo, Imperial

Countermarks:

K . W . H a r l , Civic

Studies

Coins

and

in thc

Cıvıc

Polıtics

Provincial

Coinage

in the Roman

A . B u r n c t t , M . A r a a n d r y a n d P. P. R i p p o l l e s , Roman

Fast,

of the AD

Provincial

Roman

Empire

180-275

( ' 9 8 7 ) . But scc n o w

Coinage

I ( 1 9 9 2 ) , w h i c h vvill

enable the entire s u b j e c t t o be renevved. 3 . S c c K . K r a f t , Das system 4 . BMC

Syria,

5. 7 . 2 a b o v c .

147—14^.

der kaiserzeitlicben

Münzprîigung

Grcck

(1985), and

in Kleinasien

(1972).

K a s i o s ' . It seems c l e a r that t h e r e w a s a shrine o f ' Z e u s K a s i o s ' — t h a t i s , the Z e u s o f M o u n t K a s i o s , \vhich rises t o the s o u t h o f t h e m o u t h o f the O r o n t e s ; the p c a k is c l e a r l y visible f r o m t h e city, vvhich rises up t h e hillside o n the n o r t h e r ı ı side o f t h e p l a i n . B u t vvhether this t o o should be seen as a p r e - G r e e k ' H i g h P l a c e ' ; vvhether t h e s t o n c r e p r e s e n t s t h e m o u n t a i n itself o r is a culto b j e c t like t h a t a t E m e s a ; a n d if s o vvhether vve should c o n c l u d e t h a t i n the s a n e t u a r y t h e r e vvas n o r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l c u l t - s t a t u e o f this Z e u s — a l i this is u n c c r t a i n / T h e evidenee m u s t suggest a t least the possibility t h a t t h e c u l t s o f e v e n a m a j ö r I l e l l e n i s t i c f o u n d a t i o n s u c h a s this e m b o d i e d e l e m e n t s derived from local customs. T h e d e s e r i p t i o n o f t h e c i t i e s o f the N e a r E a s t s i m p l y as ' G r e e k ' h a s t o b c q u a l i f i c d in a n o t h e r vvay a l s o . F o r o n e distinctive f c a t u r c o f t h e N e a r E a s t a s a vvhole vvas t h e t r a n s f o r m a t î o n o f m a n y o f these cities i n t o R o m a n

coloniae,

especially f r o m the reign o f S e v e r u s onvvards. B u t , given hovv e x t e n s i v e this p r o c c s s vvas, it is s t r i k i n g t o vvhat degree it vvas p r i m a r i l y a f e a t u r c o f the e v e n t u a l 'Syria P h o e n i c e ' , r a t h e r t h a n o f the tetrapolis a n d n o r t h e r n Syria. W a s it a sigıı o f their relatively

vvell-grounded identity as G r e e k citics t h a t in

fact o n l y tvvo o f them b c c a m c coloniae, o c h vvas m a d e a colonia

namely Antioch and l ^ o d i c c a ? Anti-

by C a r a c a l l a in 2 1 1 - 2 1 7 , vvith n o r e m i s s i o n o f t r i b -

ute. But the i m p a c t o f the c h a n g e s e e m s t o h a v e been m i n i m a l . A l m o s t

tfıe

o n l y visible signs o f its nevv s t a t u s a r e c o i n s o f t h e p e r i o d 2 1 8 - 2 5 3 , vvith Icge n d s , ali in G r e e k , vvhich r e a d ' o f the metropolis

( a n d ) kolönia

o f the A n t i -

o c l ı e i s ' . T h e r e is n o t h i n g t o shovv t h a t L a t i n - s p e a k i n g , even in p u b l i c life, t o o k r o o t there; a n d it is n o t e v v o r t h y t h a t L i b a n i u s , b o r n in 3 1 4 , b e g i n s his ography

Autobi-

b y fccling it n c c c s s a r y t o c x p l a i n t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t his g r a n d f a t h c r

h a d o n c e m a d e a s p e e c h in L a t i n d i d n o t m e a n

t h a t he h a d

been

an

immigrant.7 R a t h e r c l c a r c r evidenee f o r t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f i d e n t i t y i n v o l v e d c o m e s f r o m L a o d i c e a , vvhich t o o k S e v e r u s ' side in the civil vvar, a n d g a i n e d t h e title o f metropolis

in 1 9 4 a n d o f colonia

in 1 9 8 . F r o m h e r e t h e r e a r e several series

o f c o i n s vvith legends in L a t i n , ending in the m i d - t h i r d c e n t u r y vvith o n e r e a d ing ' o f C o l o n i a L a o d ( i c c a ) m e t r o p o l i s ' . O t h e r c o i n s o f this p e r i o d , e q u a l l y vvith legends in L a t i n , shovv t h a t the cit)' novv c e l e b r a t e d ' C a p i t o l i n e ' g a m e s i m i t a t e d f r o m t h o s e e s t a b l i s h c d a t R o m e b y D o m i t i a n . B u t tlıc ııcvv status a l s o a p p c a r s on an e x a m p l e o f o n e o f the m o s t c l ı a r a c t e r i s t i c types o f d o c u m e n t f r o m the G r e e k E a s t u n d e r R o m a n rule, the r e c o r d o f his victories by a b o x c r ( a n d p a n e r a t i a s t a n d a t h l e t c ) vvho c a m e f r o m l . a o d i c c a , vvhich vvas i n s e r i b e d

6. S c c H . S c y r i g , " A p r o p o s d u c u l t c d c Z e u s â S c l c u c i c " , Syria 2 0 ( 1 9 3 9 ) , 2 9 6 , c x p r c s s i n g m o r e c o n f i d e n c c t h a n I c o u l d s h a r c . S c c n o w Rl'C 7 . S c c M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

I, 6 3 0 - 6 3 1 .

4 1 - 4 2 . S c c 3İso 4 . 2 a b o v e f o r t h e p e t i t i o n p o s t e d i n 245

in ' A n t i o c h ( e i a ) k o l ( ö n i a ) m e t r o p o l i s ' , a t t h e H a d r i a n i c b a t h s .

r h c r c in

A D

ZZI.8

' L a o d i c e a n kolon

T h e m a n is d e s c r i b e d by t h e p s e u d o - G r e e k term ( a n d ) metropoleites\

kolon—

T h e full ü s t o f his victories w o u ! d t a k e

us a l m o s t ali r o u n d the G r e e k vvorld; but as r e g a r d s t h e cities o f n o r t h e r n S y r i a , hc r e c o r d s t h a t in l a o d i c e a , his native city, \vhcn the P y t h i a n festival vvas first i n t r o d u c e d (under C a r a c a l l a ) , he w o n ' t h e o e c u m e n i c a l A n t o ı ı i n i a n tnen's b o x i n g c o n t e s t ' ; he vvas a l s o v i c t o r i o u s in b o x i n g a n d runtıing at L e u c a s ( B a l a n e a e ) , a n d in o t h e r c o n t e s t s a t I l i c r a p o l i s , B c r o e a , Z e u g m a , A p a m c a a n d C h a l c i s . O t h e r c o m p a r a b l e lists o f victories vvould a d d , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e ' P y t h i a n ' , ' O l y m p i a n ' , ' H a d r i a n i c ' and ' C o m m o d e a t ı ' g a m e s a t A n t i o c h ( t h e latter tvvo n a m e d a f t e r t h e E m p c r o r s ) . 9 T h e f a t e o f v a r i o u s r e c u r r e n t eyeles o f g a m e s t h e r e plays a large part in t h e s i x t h - c c n t u r y Chronicle

of John Malalas

as it r e l a t e s t o this p e r i o d . I n t h a t , a s in the i m p o r t a n c e vvhich it a t t a c h e s t o b u i l d i n g , it f a i t h f u l l y refleets t h e v a l u c s o f e a r l y - I m p c r i a l city life. B u t its e v i dence, often c o n f u s c d in detail, vvill n o t b c used f u r t h e r here. It is, hovvever, i m p o s s i b l e t o e x a g g e r a t e the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a t h l e t i c a n d o t h e r c o n t e s t s vvhich vvere so i m p o r t a n t a p a r t o f the c o l l e c t i v c life o f G r e e k c i t i e s in t h i s p e r i o d ; 1 0 ali else a p a r t , by o f f e r i n g the possibility o f prizcs t o the p r o f c s s i o n a l a t h l c t c s a n d a c t o r s vvho t o u r c d these c o n t e s t s , they literally served t o m a k e the cities o f Syria part o f a vvider G r e e k vvorld, vvhich e m b r a c e d Asia M i n ö r , G r e e c e proper a n d the g a m e s o f N a p l c s a n d o f R o m e itself. Y e t in this r c s p e c t , as vve have seen earlier, t h e s t e p p e a n d t h e E u p h r a t e s s e e n ı t o h a v e c o n s t i t u t c d a real frontier. G a m e s vvere h e l d in C h a l c i s , on the b o r d e r vvith t h e s t e p p e , a n d in Z e u g m a l o o k i n g over t h e E u p h r a t e s ; but n o t , s o far as vve knovv, i n P a l m y r a o r a c r o s s the E u p h r a t e s in M e s o p o t a m i a . As for t h e f u n e t i o n i n g o f these c o m m u n i t i e s as G r e e k cities, the lack o f narrative e v i d e n c e a n d t h e relatively small n u m b e r o f p u b i i c i n s e r i p t i o n s ( i n n o vvay c o m p a r a b l e t o t h o s e o f t h e m a j ö r citics o f vvestern Asia M i n ö r ) m e a n t h a t vvhat vve h a p p e n t o knovv is e p i s o d i c a n d c a n lıardly be m a d e t o m a k e sense e x c e p t by u n d e r s t a n d i n g it a s refleeting the Standard institutions o f t h e G r e e k city. A l m o s t n o t h i n g s i g n i f i c a n t , f o r i n s t a n c e , is knovvn o f the p u b i i c life o f L a o d i c e a in the i m p e r i a l p e r i o d . M o r e s e r i o u s stili, the s i l t i n g - u p o f t h e site o f A n t i o c h during the i n t e r v e n i n g c e n t u r i e s m e a t ı s that vve h a v e h a r d l y any e p i g r a p h i c r e c o r d o f the f u n e t i o n i n g o f this m a j ö r city a s it vvas in t h e first fevv c e n t u r i e s AD. AS r e g a r d s c o n t c m p o r a r y evidence, vve a r e left vvith a fevv p a s s i n g a l l u s i o n s in n a r r a t i v e s o u r c e s : M u c i a ı ı u s , t h e legatus 8. 3 . 4 a b o v e ; M i l l a r , o p . c i t . , 3 1 — 3 1 . T h e i n s e r i p t i o n is IGR 126$ - Morctti, uııd kaiserliche 9 . IAG,

IAG,

Politik

o f Syria in

III, n o . 1 0 1 2 = IGlS

n o . 8 5 . F o r tlıc ' C a p i t o l i n c ' g a m e s t h e r e s c c R . ' / i e g l e r ,

IV, n o .

Stâdtisches Prestige

(1985), I47ff.

n o s . 6 5 ; 68; 6 9 ; 8 1 ; 8 6 .

1 0 . S e e e s p . L . R o b e r t , " D e u x c o n c o u r s g r e e s â R o m e " , CRA/ und Pes t im kaiserzeitlicbcn

Kleinasien

( 1 9 7 0 J , 6; M . W ö r r l c ,

Stadt

( 1 9 8 8 ) ; S. M i t c h e l l , "Festivals, G a m e s a n d C i v i c Life iıı

R o m a n A s i a M i n ö r " , JRS 8 0 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 8 3 .

6 9 , g o i n g t o t h e t h e a t r c , 'vvhere it is their e u s t o m t o d e l i b e r a t e ' , t o p e r s u a d e t h e citizcns t o s u p p o r t V e s p a s i a n ; or, from the s a m e years, the e p i s o d c vvhen a r e n e g a d e Jcvv a l s o a d d r c s s e d the p e o p l e in the t h e a t r c , urging them t o c o m pel the o t h e r Jevvs t o follovv p a g a n c u s t o m s . A fire vvhich then b r o k e o u t des t r o y e d a vvhole g r o u p o f t h e p u b l i c buildings c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a G r e e k c i t y : a four-sîded a g o r a , an official building f o r m a g i s t r a t e s , a r e c o r d - o f f i c e a n d s o m e b a s i l i c a s . S u b s e q u e n t ! y T i t u s t o o , a t the r e q u c s t o f t h e boule

and

detnos,

s p o k e in the t h e a t r c . It vvould b c p o s s i b l e t o c o l l e c t f u r t h e r glimpses o f A n t i o c h a s a c i t y ; but it is n o t uııtil t h e m i d d l c o f t h e f o u r t h century t h a t vve czıı e n t e r i n t o its l i f e . " It is ali the m o r e p a r a d o x i c a l t h a t a l m o s t t h e fuliest r e c o r d o f the pııblic offices o f a n y o n e o f rhese c i t i e s s h o u l d c o m e f r o m the little p l a c e c a l l e d B a l a n e a e , s i t u a t e d on the c o a s t , a p p a r e n t l y r e c o g n i s c d as a city i n d e p e n d e n t o f A r a d u s by M a r c u s A n t o n i u s in 3 7 BC, a n d a c q u i r i n g the n a m e ' C l a u d i a I.euc a s ' u n d e r C l a u d i u s — h o v v o r vvhy is n o t knovvn. 1 2 Itı a n y c a s e its c o i n s o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y shovv its i n h a b i t a n t s again as ' B a l a n e ö t a i ' . W c c a n hardly p r e t e n d t o gain m u c h i n s i g h t i n t o vvhat b c i n g a ' B a l a n c ö t c s ' m e a n t . B u t the h a n d f u l o f i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e site shovv t h a t the city did h a v e a c o u n c i l a r d a n a s s e m b l y , vvhich vve find e r c c t i ı ı g s t a t u e s o f b e n e f a c t o r s . E v e n m o r e s t r i k i n g is a very f r a g m e n t a r y i n s e r i p t i o n vvhich shovvs s o m e o n e b c i n g h o n o u r e d for a l m o s t the fuU rangc o f f u n e t i o n s vvhich vvould h a v e been e x p e c t e d o f an o f f i c e - h o l d e r in a m a j o r c i t y : h a v i n g been strategos, a n d archön,

agoratıomos,

dekaprötos

havitıg been o n a n e m b a s s y t o t h e E m p e r o r , a n d h a v i n g pur-

c h a s e d c o r n a t his ovvn e.vpcnsc a n d distribııted it; a s a result he h a d been 'testificd t o ' b e f o r e tlıc E m p e r o r by his city. \Vc should n o t u n d e r e s t i m a t e the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f this s t r u e t u r e o f s e l f - g o v c r n m c n t , even ( o r perhaps e s p e c i a l l y ) a s e x p r e s s c d by very small c o m m u n a l units; n o r s h o u l d vve o v c r l o o k t h e fact t h a t o n e o f its f u n e t i o n s vvas t o e x p r e s s t h e vvill o f the c o m m u n i t y b e f o r e g o v e r n o r s a n d E m p e r o r s — t h e e m b a s s y f r o m a city vvas o n e o f the f u n d a m e a tal i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e . İf vve c a n find these i n s t i t u t i o n s a t vvork in B a l a n e a e , it vvill hardly b c a s u r p r i s c t o find that u n d e r H a d r i a n the 'Seleuciaııs a t Z e u g ı ı ı a ' c o u l d d e s p a t e h a n a m b a s s a d o r t o set up a n h o n o r i f i c s t a t u e o f a R o m a n s e n a t ö r a t P e r g a t n o n ; o r t o c o m c a e r o s s a c c r t a i n Publius, a m a n o f tovvn-councillor r a n k

at

1 1 . S c c 2 . 4 a b o v e ( M u c i a n u s ) ; J o s e p h u s , D] V I I , 3 , 3 - 4 ( 4 3 - 6 2 ) ; 5 , 2 ( I I O - I I I ) . E o r v / h a t c a n bc k n o v v n o f A n t i o c h s c c G . D o w n e y , A lliitory Arab

Q>Hqnest

scc, e . g . , J. H . W . G . L i e b e s c h u e t z , Antioch: man Empire

in Syria from

Seleucus

/ o toe

City and Imperial

Administration

in the Later

R>-

(1972).

1 2 . S e e H . S e y r i g , Syria 2 7 ( 1 9 5 0 ) , 2 2 - 2 4 ; IGLS g r u p p e v o n B a l a n e a - L e u k a s iıı S y r i e n " , ArJ>. IGLS

of Antioch

( 1 9 6 1 ) , chs. J t - u (relying too m u c h on Malalas). For fourrh-eentury A n t i o c h

I V , 4 9 ; see a l s o R . Fleischer, " D i e T y c h c -

Attz. ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 7 0 7 . T l ı c i n s e r i p t i o n s m e n t i o n e d a r e

IV, n o s . 1 3 0 2 - 1 3 0 3 . F o r t h e c o i n s o f tlıc first c c n t ı ı r y s c c RFC

I, 6 3 9 - 6 4 1 .

Z e u g m a , vvho set up as a h e r m i t in t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y . " But t o g a i n a n y real i m p r c s s i o n o f t h c novv lost c i t y life o f this r c g i o n , vve c a n best turn t o a r c m a r k a b l e set o f i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m A p a m e a , the o n l y o n e o f ali these citics vvhere large-scale c x c a v a t i o n h a s b c c n c a r r i e d o u t . 1 4 O n t h c o n e hand t h e city r e m a i n e d vvithin t h c c i r c u i t o f its I lellcnistic vvalls, r e i n f o r c e d in the third ccntury, a n d r e t a i n e d its o r i g i n a l c h e q u e r - b o a r d s t r e e t - p a t t e r n . But vvhat is a c t u a l l y visible o f t h e u r b a n s t r u c n ı r e o f t h e c i t y b e l o n g s t o t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD a n d after, a n d m o r e specifically t o e x t e n s i v e a n d elaborat-e r e - b u i l d i n g a f t e r the g r e a t c a r t h q u a k c o f AD 1 1 5 , vvhich so p r o f o u n d l y a f fectcd Antioch. 1 - 5 It is f r o m this p h a s e t h a t vve h a p p e n t o have s o m c i n s e r i p tions, f r o m t h e b a t h s c o n s t r u c t e d n e a r the G r e a t C o l o n n a d e , vvhich p e r f e c t l y e n c a p s u l a t c the e v o l u t i o n o f a H e l l e n i s t i c - R o m a n city in S y r i a , a n d t h c v a l u e s vvhich i n f o r m e d city life. 1 6 I*hcy refer t o t h c b c n e f a c t i o n s o f a c i t i z c n o f A p a m e a vvho vvas a l s o a R o m a n c i t i z e n , a n d h a d a fully R o m a n n a m e , L . Iulius A g r i p p a . L o o k i n g b a c k över a century, o n e o f the inseriptions r e c o r d s t h a t Agrippa's grcat-grandfathcr, D c x a n d r o s , had bccn rccordcd o n bronzc tablets o n t h e C a p i t o l a t R o m e , a t the i n s t a n c e o f Augustus, a s a friend o f the R o m a n P e o p l e . W h c t h c r o r n o t I ) c x a n d r o s h a d a c t u a l l y been a l o c a l dynast o p e r a t i n g o u t s i d e thc b o u n d s o f a city f r a m e v v o r k , as h a s been suggested, is n o t c c r t a i n . B u t he h a d c l c a r l y fulfillcd s o m c i m p o r t a n t individual role in t h c t r o u b l c d period b e f o r e t h e p r o v i n c e s e t t l e d dovvn under Imperial rule. T h e inseription a l s o , c o n c o r d a n t l y vvith t h a t , r e c o r d s that D e x a ı ı d r o s h a d been t h e first H i g h Priest (archiereus),

c v i d c n t l y o f the p r o v i n c c o f Syria. T h i s is in fact t h c

i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a league (koifion)

first

o f t h e c i t i e s o f Syria h a d c o m e i n t o e x ı s t e n c e

a l r e a d y under A u g u s t u s , a n d h a d p e r f o r m e d the q u i c k l y e s t a b l i s h e d r o l e o f c o ı ı d u c t i n g thc vvorship o f t h c E m p e r o r . N o t h i n g is knovvn o f t h c temple, o r t e m p l e s , o f t h c cult; b u t the g a m e s o f t h c koinon

o f Syria a r e a t t e s t e d in t h c

first ccntury, a n d t o o k place a t A n t i o c h . 1 7 T h e i n s e r i p t i o n says n o t h i n g spccific o f A g r i p p a ' s g r a n d f a t h c r a n d father. B u t hc h i m s e l f is r c v c a l c d as a p c r f e c t e x a m p l e o f rhe city b c n e f a c t o r getes),

(euer-

o f a type vvhich is f a m i l i a r f r o m t h e i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m elsevvhere, b u t

othervvisc n o t vvell a t t e s t e d in S y r i a . H e h a d u n d e r t a k e n a l o n g list o f c i t y

1 3 . S e e G ı r . H a b i c h t , Alterlûmer [1969),

von

Pergamon

n o . 2 1 . r u b l i u s : T h e o d o r e t , His t. Relig.

V I I I . 3 , die

Inschriflcn

des

Ashlepieions

V, i .

14. For a portrayal of Apamea scc J . Balty and J.-C. Balty, " Apamec de Syric archeologie et hiütoirc I: Des origines â la Tetrarchic", ANRW 11.8 (1977I, 103; J.-C. Balty, Guide d'Apanıec ( 1 9 8 1 ) ; idem, "Apamea in Syria in the Second and theThird Centuries A D " , J R S 7 8 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 9 1 . 1 5 . 3.3 a b o v e . 1 6 . F o r t h e s e i n s e r i p t i o n s scc J.-P. K c y - G o q u a i s , " İ n s e r i p t i o n s g r c c q u c s d ' A p a m â e " , i j ( ' 9 7 i ) » 3 9 = AE

1 7 . M o r c t t i , IAG, J. D e i n i n g e r , Die

AAAS

( 1 9 7 6 ) , n o s . 6 7 7 - 6 8 5 ( L . I u l i u s A g r i p p a ) ; 6 8 6 ( I u l i u s l'aris). n o s . 6 2 3 n d 6 7 . F o r t h c v e r y l i t t l c t h a t is k n o v v n o f this

PravinzialUındtage

der

römisehen

Kaiserzeit

(1965), 87-88.

koinon

offices a n d b e n e f a c t i o n s , i n c l u d l n g distriburing g r a i n a n d oil, a n d g o i n g on e m b a s s i e s t o the E m p e r o r a n d the g o v e r n o r s . M o r e o v e r , he h a d c o n s t r u c t e d a c o n s i d c r a b l e n u m b e r o f m i l c s o f a n a q u c d u c t , a n itern vvhich g a i n s in sign i f i c a n c e vvhen it is rcaliscd t h a t the t r a c c s o f t h e city's a q u c d u c t shovv t h a t it s t a r t e d 7 5 k m t o t h e s o u t h - e a s t , in t h e s t e p p e t o the east o f the O r o n t e s . 1 " Al) this he h a d u ı ı d e r t a k c n ân spite o f a g r a n t o f e x e m p t i o n f r o m liturgies (aleitourgesia);

b u t m o s t ı ı o t a b l y h c h a d p u r c h a s e d the site a n d built the

b a t h s , a l o n g vvith a basilica

a n d stoa

in f r o n t o f t h e m , a n d a d o r n e d them

lavishly. It is o f p a r t i c u l a r i n r c r c s t t h a t o n e o f the i n s e r i p t i o n s specifies vvhich figures f r o m G r c c k ı ı ı y t h o l o g y vvere r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e b r o n z c s t a t u e s s e t up in t h e b a t h s : T h e s c u s a n d t h e M i n o t a u r ; A p o l i o ; O l y m p o s (in legend o n e o i t h e earliest

flute-players);

a l s o a s s o c i a t e d vvith

S k y t h e s (a s o n o f H e r a k l e s ) ; a n d M a r s y a s (a satyr,

flute-playing).

W h y prccisely these figures vvere seleeted

f o r a s c u l p t u r a l p r o g r a m m e is n o t o b v i o u s , t h o u g h s o m e c o n n c c t i o n vvith the l e g e n d a r y origins o f G r c c k m u s i c is clcar. It r e m a i n s significant t h a t s c u l p t u r e s o f this s o r t , a l o n g , f o r i n s t a n c e , vvith m o s a i c s vvith m y t h o l o g i c a l s c e n e s , r e p r e sent vchicles by vvhich s o m e o f t h e c o t ı t e n t o f Classical G r c c k c u l t u r e c o u l d b c t r a n s m i t t e d t o a n e n v i r o n m e n t betvveen t h e J e b e l A n s a r i y c h a n d

the

O r o n t e s on t h e o n e side a n d t h e s t e p p e on t h e other. \Vhat p e o p l e c o m i n g in f r o m the villages a r o u ı ı d A p a m e a vvill h a v e m a d e o f s u c h s t a t u e s is n o t rec o r d c d ; n o r do vve knovv if t h e r e vvas a n y a l t c r n a t i v c , n o n - G r e e k , m y t h i c a l h i s t o r y vvhich c o u l d be t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e m b y s o m e o t h e r m e a n s . I f s u c h villagers d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y e n t e r the b a t h s , it is m o r e likely that they vvill s o m e t i m e s have j o i n c d t h e a u d i e n c c in t h e vast t h e a t r e o f A p a m e a ( 1 3 9 m in diameter, p e r h a p s t h e largcst f r o m t h e vvhole a n c i e n t vvorld), vvhere again the c o n t c n t o f t h e vvider G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r c vvill h a v e been transm i t t e d in p o p u l a r f o r m . An h o ı ı o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n put up a t A p a m e a u n d e r H a d r i a n by t h e sacred synodos

('association') o f the actors devoted t o Diony-

sus c e l e b r a t e d Iulius Paris, a citizcn o f ' C l a t ı d i a A p a m e a ' (clearly a title novv e n j o y e d b y his tıaıive city), o f A n t i o c h a n d o f o t h e r cities, a n d ' h o n o u r e d vvith t h e sexviratus colonia

in the kolöneia

B e r y t u s ' (the L a t i n title o f this o f f i c c in the

is given in t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n ) . Iulius P a r i s vvas (literally) ' a n a c t o r of

tragic m o v e m e n t (kinesis)';

in o t h e r vvords he p e r f o r m e d m ı m e s o r ballets,

a e t i n g o u t scenes f r o m G r e e k m y t h o l o g y . 1 9 W e c o u l d leave A p a m e a , a n d t h e c i t i e s o f u o r t h e r n S y r i a , a f t e r sceing these refleetions o f hovv G r e e k c u l t u r c vvas t r a n s m i t t e d here a t a p o p u l a r level, i f it vvere n o t f o r a n o t h e r G r e e k inseription f r o m n e a r the G r e a t C o l o n n a d e , o f vvhich o n l y t h e last fevv vvords survive:

18. See J . - C . Ralty, " P r o b l e m e s d e I ' c a u a A p a m c c d c S y r i e " , i n R l . o u i s , F. M e c r a )

J. Metral (eds.), L'bomme

et l'eau en Meditertanee

19. Rey-Coquais, op. cit., 6}f(.,

et au Proche

no. 10; AF. (1976i,

no.

Orient

686.

IV (1987), 9.

and

(..

on the orders of (the) Greatest G o d , Sacred Belos, Aur(elios) Belios

Philippos, pricst and

succcssor (diadochos)

in Apamca

o f the

Epi-

koureioi. 2 0 T h e i m p o r t a n t N e o - P l a t o n i c p h i l o s o p h e r o f t h e later s e c o n d c e n t u r y , N u m e n ius, c a m e f r o m A p a m e a , a n d t h e m a j ö r N e o - P l a t o n i s t o f t h e early f o u r t h c e n tury, I a m b l i c h u s , f r o m C h a l c i s , a l s o t a u g h t t h e r e . B u t t h e r e h a d been 110 previous c v i d e n c e t o suggcst t h a t a n e s t a b l i s h e d E p i c u r c a n s c h o o l c x i s t c d t h e r e . 2 1 H e r e , hovvever, an a t t a c h n ı e n t t o a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e l e m e n t o f H e l l e n i s t i c c u l ture is visibly c o m b i n e d vvith a n a p p a r e n t l y q u i t e different o n e , the vvorship of Bel. O n e e l e m e n t in t h e m a n ' s c o n ı p o s i t e R o m a n n a m e , vvith L a t i n , G r c c k a n d S e m i t i c e l e m e n t s , is o b v i o u s l y derived from t h e n a m e o f the g o d , B e l . B e s t attested as t h e n a m e o f a s u p r e m e god ( o r c h i e f g o d o f an individual city) i n B a b y l o n i a , Bel vvas a l s o the god o f the m a j ö r t e m p l e o f P a l m y r a , vvhose t e r r i tory b o r d e r e d t h a t o f A p a m e a . 2 2 Hovv a n d vvhen this deity b c c a m c e s t a b l i s h e d in A p a m e a is q u i t e u n c c r t a i n . T y p i c a l l y o f o u r evidence, his role is a t t e s t e d t h e r e — a s a deity vvho g a v c o r a c u l a r r e s p o n s e s ( n o t a b l y t o S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s ) — o n l y in the later s e c o n d a n d c a r l y third c c n t u r i c s . 2 J C a s s i u s D i o , i n r e p o r t i n g t h e o r a c l c given t o S e v e r u s , e x p l i c i t l y e q u a t e s ' B e l o s ' vvith Z e u s , long since r c p r c s c ı ı t c d on t h e c o i n s o f the city. T h e p r e s u m e d site o f the t e m p l e o f Z e u s , n e v e r c x c a v a t c d , o c c u p i e s a large a r e a o f t h e city t o the vvest o f t h e G r e a t C o l o n n a d c . T h e s t o r y o f its eventual d e s t r u c t i o n by B i s h o p M a r c e l l u s in the 3 S o s shovvs t h a t it vvas a m a s s i v e pillared c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the Standard type, s u r r o u n d e d on ali f o u r sides b y a p o r t i c o f o n n i n g a temenos,24

B u t hovv

the deity vvorshipped there c a m c , a t least for a t i m e , t o b e idcntificd vvith B e l represents s i m p l y a n o t h e r q u e s t s o n a b o ı ı t n o n - G r e e k e l e m e n t s in the cults o f the c i t i e s o f n o r t h e r n S y r i a . T h e s e q u e s t i o n s r e m a i n . But it is m o r e sigııifıcant t h a t , I l i c r a p o l i s a p a r t , they r e t a i n e d m o r e ciearly t h a n t h o s e o f a n y o t h e r region o f t h e N e a r Hast t h e i m p r i n t o f e a r l y - H e l I e n i s t i c c o l o ı ı i a l i s m . 2 0 . R c > ' - C o q u a i s , o p . cit., 66li.:

[ . . ] o ı v [ . . ] e i û [Keteûloecoç; 8 e o û p e y u n o t ) ö y i o v Bi)Xou A u p .

H r f t ı o ç « D t t u m o ç l e p e v ; K a l 6 1 0 6 0 x 0 ; c v ' A n u j ı e ı ç ıcıv "EsiKOUpeîttv. 2 t . F o r t h e d i f f i c u l t «juestion o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e l o c a l o r i g i n s o f p h i l o s o p h c r s c o m i n g f r o n ı N e a r E a s t e r n c i t i e s , s c c 1 3 . 1 belovv. 2 2 . 9 . 4 belovv. F o r Bel s c c LIMC

I H . ı ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 9 0 s.v.

"Bel".

2 3 . 3 . 4 a b o v e . S e c J . - C . B a l t y , " l . ' o r a c l c d ' A p a m c e " , Ant. 2 4 . T h c o d o r e t , HE Empire, A D 3 2 0 - 4 3 5 " ,

Class.

5 0 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 5.

V, 2 1 . See G . Fovvden, " B i s h o p s and T e m p l e s in t h e Eastern R o m a n

JThSt

2 9 ( 1 9 7 8 ) , 53-

CHAPTKR

8 THE PHOENİCİAN COAST AND ITS H I N T E R L A N D

8.1. H I S T O R Y A N D

GEOGRAPHY

In t w o different vvays, vvhich m a y n o n e t h e l e s s b e c o n n e c t e d , the c i t i e s o f P h o e n i c i a played a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t r o l e within t h e E m p i r e — a n d

vvithin

G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r e — f r o m t h a t o f the cities in o t h e r r e g i o n s o f t h e N e a r E a s t . Eirst, b o t h in ' r e a l ' h i s t o r y a n d in legend the P h o e n i c i a n s h a d h a d an integral p a r t in G r e e k c u l t u r e f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g . T h e r e vvas t h e l e g e n d o f t h e f o u t ı d a t i o n o f B o e o t i a n T h c b c s b y K a d m o s , t h e s o n o f King Agenor, f r o m T y r e o r S i d o n (vvhich in t h e m o d e r n vvorld h a s even been claiıııed as a lıistorical reality, o b s c u r c d by racial a n d c u l t u r a l prejudice); 1 t h e a s s o c i a t e d s t o r y o f his sister E u r o p a , a n d h e r r a p e by Z e u s ; the r e p c a t c d a p p c a r a n c c o f P h o e n i c i a n s in t h e Odyssey;

t h e a c c e p t a n c c , f r o m H e r o d o t u s onvvards, o f t h e (valid)

t r a d i t i o n o f the derivation o f t h e G r e e k a l p h a b e t f r o m the P h o e n i c i a n otıe; 2 H e r o d o t u s ' identification o f the c h i e f god o f T y r e as I I e r a k l c s ; 3 a n d a b o v e ali tlıc l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d G r e e k h i s t o r i c a i t r a d i t i o n r e c o r d i n g the P h o e n i c i a n c o l o n i s a t i o n o f the vvestern M e d i t e r r a n e a n . 4

i . Scc M . Bcrnal,

Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roats of Greek Civihsation

I (1987).

z. H e r o d o t u s V , 58. T h e d a i e a n d c o ı ı c e x t o f t h e b o r r o w i n g h a v e beerı m u c h d i s p u t e d , and in this c o n t e x t d o n o t m a t t e r . S c c

L.

H . Jcffrey,

The Local Scripts of Archaic Grcccc.

rcv. « I . b y

A . W. J o h n s t o n ( ^ 9 0 ) , e s p . 4 2 5 f f . F o r a r a d i c a l r c a p p r a i s a l o f tlıc e h r o n o l o g y , see n o w P. J a m e s et a l . ,

Centuries nfDarkness

(1991).

Me!qart: Cultes et mythes ile l'Höracles lyrien en Mediterranee (Studia Phoenicia V I I I , 1 9 8 8 ) . 4 . S c c F. B u n n c n s , L'expaıısion phenicienne en Mediterranee, Essai d'interpretation for.de sur une analyse des traditions litteraires ( 1 9 7 9 ) . S e e a l s o M . G r a s , P. R o u i l l a r d a n d J . Tcixi
I 16 4 1

It is i m p o r t a n t t o stress t h a t these t r a d i t i o n s c o n t i n u e d t o be given s u b s t a n c e in c o m m e m o r a t i o n a n d a c t u a l o b s e r v a n c c s t h r o u g h t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . F o r i n s t a n c c , a b o u t 200 BC a m a n f r o m S i d o n w o n the c h a r i o t - r a c e a t N e m e a in G r e e c c . T h e i n s e r i p t i o n r c c o r d i n g his v i c t o r y ends as follovvs: * Y o u were t h e first o f the citizens t o b r i n g b a c k from G r e e c e the g l o r y o f t h e c h a r i o t r a c e t o t h e h o u s e o f the d e s c e n d a ı ı t s o f A g e n o r . T h c s a c r e d t o w n o f C a d m e i a n T h e b e s a l s o r e j o i c e s to see her m o t h e r - c i t y m a d e f a m o u s by her victories'. 5 I n t h c s c c o n d c c n t u r y vve c a n find tvvo b r o t h e r s f r o m T y r e m a k i n g a b i l i n g u a l d e d i c a t i o n on M a l t a t o a deity identified in G r e e k as ' H e r a k l e s

arehegetes'

a n d in P h o e n i c i a n a s ' M e l q a r t , l o r d o f T y r e ' ( M L Q R T B ' L Ş R ) ; 6 a n d a t a b o u t t h c s a m e time, t o bc prccisc in 1 6 z BC, a C a r t h a g i n i a n s h i p vvas o n its vvay t o t a k e first-fruits t o its m o t h e r - c i t y , Tyre. 7 C a r t l ı a g e vvas t o be destroyed by t h e R o m a n s o n l y s i x t e e n years later. i t s r e c o g n i t i o n as t h e m o t h e r - c i t y o f C a r t h a g e , as o f o t h e r citics in N o r t h A f r i c a , vvas o f c o u r s e t o give T y r e , a t s c c o n d h a n d , a place b o t h in t h e real h i s t o r y o f early R o m e a n d ultimately, in Vergil's d e p i c t i o n o f A e n e a s and D i d o , in its l e g e n d a r y origins. 8 T h e s t o r y o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f C a r t h a g c by Elissa, o r D i d o , g o c s b a c k a t lcast t o T i m a c u s in t h c e a r l y I l e l l c n i s t i c p e r i o d ; b u t h e r c o n n e c t i o n vvith A e n e a s m a y be n o e a r l i e r t h a n Vergil himself. 9 T h e r e is in fact n o t h i n g t o shovv that this p a r t i c u l a r litcrary e l a b o r a t i o n o f thc legend ever t o o k r o o t e i t h e r in the h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n s generally a s s o c î ated vvith the cities o f P h o c n i c i a o r in their i m a g e o f t h e m s e l v e s . B u t ali t h e other, a n d earlier, e l e m e n t s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n c l c a r l y did, a n d a b o v c ali t h c h i s t o r i c role o f these c i t i c s in t r a d e a n d c o l o n i s a t i o n . T h i s is f o r i n s t a n c e hovv S t r a b o c h a r a c t e r i s e s T y r e a n d S i d o n in his

Geography:

After Sidon one comes t o Tyre, the largest and oldest city of the Phocnicians, vvhich rivals Sidon, not only in size, but also in its fame and antiquity, as handcd dovvn t o us in numerous myths. Novv although the poets have referred m o r e repeatedly to Sidon than to Tyre ( H o m e r does not even mention Tyre), yet thc c o l o n i c s sent into Libya and Ibcria, as far even as 5. S c c t h c i l l u m i n a t i n g articlc b y F>. R i c k c r m a n , " S u r u n c i n s e r i p t i o n g r c c q u e de Melanges

Dussaud

I ( 1 9 3 9 ) , 9 1 ; i n s e r i p t i o n t r a n s . i n M . M . A u s t i n , The

Hellenistic

Sidon", World

< i 9 8 r ) , n o . 1 2 1 . F o r t h i s a n d w h a t f o l l o w s s e e F. M i l l a r , " T h e Photrtıician C i t i e s : A C a s c - s t u d y o f H e l l e n i s a t i o ı r , Proc. Pbucnicia

Camb.

Philol.

Soc.

209 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , j y . Scc novv also J. D. Grainger,

Hellenistic

(i99r).

6. M . G . G u z z o A m a d a s i , Le iserizioni

fenicie

r j , n o . 1 ; H . D o n n c r a n d W . R ö l l ı g , Kanaanaiscbe (hcnccforvvard D o n n c r and Röllig, 7. Polybius X X X I ,

e puniebe

delle

colonie

und aramîiische

in Occidente

Inschriften

(1967),

(1962), no. 4 7

KAI).

12,11-12.

8. F o r D i d o see W . H . R o s c h c r , Griechisd>e

und römiscbe

Mytbologie

9 . F o r E l i s s a / D i d o as t h c f o u n d e r o f C a r t h a g c , T i m a c u s , l'GrlI J u s t i n X V I I I , 4 - 6 . S e e O . S k u t s c h , The

Annals

of Ennius

( 1 9 8 5 ) , 8.

I ( 1 8 8 4 } , s.v.

"Dido".

5 6 6 , F.82, a n d m o r e f u l l y

outside ıhe Pillars, hymn r a t h e r tlıe praises o f Tyre. A t any rate, both citics have been f a m o u s and illustrious, both in early times a n d at the present time; as to vvhich o f the tvvo o n c might cali the metropolis o f the Phoenicians, there is a dispute in both cities. 1 0 H e g o e s 011 t o speak o f t h e still-flourishing d y e - i n d u s t r y o f Tyre, the traditiotı o f the S i d o n i a n c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a s t r o n o m y a n d a r i t h m e t i c , a n d t h e c u r r c n t p r o m i n e n c e in p h i l o s o p h y o f m e n f r o m b o t h cities. Pliny the Elder, vvriting s o m e d e c a d e s later, e v o k e s the s a m e h i s t o r i c a l nss o c i a t i o n s o f Tyre, if in m o r e p c s s i m i s t i c t e r m s : N e x t Tyre, once an island separated from the mainland by a very d e e p sea-ehannel 7 0 0 yards vvidc, but novv joined t o it by vvorks constructed b y Alexander vvhen besieging the place, and formcrly famous as the

rnorher-

city from vvhich sprang the cities o f Leptis, Utica and the great rival o f R o m c ' s empire in covcting vvorld-sovcrcignty, C a r t h a g c , and also Cadiz, vvhich she founded outside the confincs of the vvorld; but the entire renovvn o f Tyre novv consists in a shell-fish and a purple d y e ! " As vvc h a v e already seen, vvhen the R o m a n E m p e r o r vvas a m a n f r o m L e p t i s , m a r r i e d t o a lady f r o m E m e s a , vvhich c o n t e m p o r a r i e s a l s o t h o u g h t o f a s a P h o e n i c i a n city, these t r a d i r i o n s vvould c o n t r i b u t e t o a p r o f o u n d c h a n g e in t h e m a p o f the R o m a n N e a r E a s t . F o r it vvas he vvho m a d e ' P h o e n i c e ' the name of a R o m a n provincc.12 T h e c c ı ı t r a l a r e a o f P h o e t ı i c i a c o u l d b e defined as the line o f a n c i e n t cities on the c o a s t , b a c k i n g o n t o M o u n t L e b a n o n : f r o m s o u t h t o n o r t h T y r e , S i d o n , Berytus, Byblos a n d Tripolis. Phoenician influcncc and scttlcment had, h o w ever, a t times e x t e n d e d m u c h f u r t h e r n o r t h , even b e y o n d M o u n t A m a n u s , a n d f u r t h e r s o u t h , t o the I d u m a e a ı ı c o a s t . G i v e n this lack o f d e f i n i t i o n , it vvill be s i m p l e s t t o use, in t h e n o r t h » t h e b o u n d a r y o f 'Syria P h o e n i c e ' , a s S c p t i m i j s S e v e r u s e s t a b i i s h e d it, vvhich r a n j u s t s o u t h o f B a l a n c a e . 1 3 T h e r e a r c in aııy case g o o d r e a s o n s f o r t r e a t i n g A r a d u s , on its island o f f the c o a s t , a s p a r t o f P h o c n i c i a , a n d vvith it the g r e a t t e m p l e o f B a e t o c a e c e , high u p belovv the crest o f t h e s o u t h e r n e n d o f t h e J e b e l A n s a r i y e h . ' P h o c n i c i a ' a s used here vvill also e m b r a c e M o u n t L e b a n o n , vvith its s e q u c n c c o f i m p o r t a n t shrines in r e m o t e a n d c l c v a t e d sites, a s vvell a s the B c k a a Valley, vvith I l c l i o p o l i s / B a a l b c k . In spite o f t h e i m p o r t a n t c f f e c t s o f R o m a n c o l o n i a l scttleuıent t h e r e , L u c i a n 10. Slrabo, Geog. XVI, 2, i z (756), Locb trans., vvith onc corrcction. 11. l'liny, NH V, 12/76,1.ocb trans. 12. 3.4 above. 13. itin. Burdig. 582, 7-10: 'Civıtas Balaneas, mil. XIII; finiş Syriac Coelis ct Foenicis; ır.utacio Maraccas, mil. X; mansio Antaradus, mil. XVI'. There arc complieations about this bour.dary, but this is the best evidenee.

(vvriting b e f o r e Severus m a d e ' P h o e n i c e ' an official term) treated H e l i o p o l i s , a l o n g vvith Tyre, Sidoıı a n d B y b l o s , a s a p l a c e vvhere t h e r e vvas a n c x o t i c c u l t o b s e r v e d by ' P h o e n i c i a n s ' . 1 4 F u r t h e r s o u t h a l o n g the c o a s t , in t e r m s b o t h o f hovv

contcmporarics

spoke

and

of

provincial

boundaries,

'Phoenicia'

s t r e t e h e d as far a s t h e little tovvn o f D o r , o r D o r a , o n t h e c o a s t betvveen M o u n t Carmel and Caesarea. O u r survey o f P h o e n i c i a vvill begin in this s o u t h e r n a r e a , up t o P t o l e m a i s (for vvhich r a b b i n i c vvorks stili u s e d its S e m i t i c n a m e , A c o — ' K W ) , a n d vvill then l o o k at the n o r t h e r n r e g i o n , from Aradus t o Berytus a n d H e l i o p o l i s , b e f o r e reachiııg t h e tvvo places vvhich d i s p u t e d the right t o the title ' m e t r o p o l i s of Phoenicia', Tyre and Sidon.

8.2. PHOENİCİA: THE SOUTHERN REGİON A s vve have sccn carlicr, J o s e p h u s 1 s t o r y o f vvhat h a p p e n c d in t h e e a r l y 40S, vvhen s o m e y o u n g p a g a n s in D o r a placed a statue o f C l a u d i u s in the s y n a g o g u e t h e r e , shovvs t h a t the p l a c e , t r a d i t i o n a l l y on the b o r d e r s o f Jevvish t e r r i tory, vvas vvithin the then p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a . Agrippa 1 c o m p l a i n e d t o t h e legatus

o f Syria, P u b l i u s P e t r o n i u s ; a n d he sent a c e n t u r i o n , t o vvhom

the

m a g i s t r a t e s o f the city vvere o r d e r e d t o h a n d over the p e r p e t r a t o r s . 1 it is i n deed a c l a s s i c i n s t a n c e o f hovv R o m a n f o r c c c o u l d bc applicd, if very e p i s o d i cally, in a d i s t a n t s o u t h e r n c o r n c r o f the p r o v i n c c . A fevv y e a r s later its f r o n t i e r situarion g a v e it an e q u a l l y c o n t e n t i o u s r o l e : f o r J o s e p h u s , as c o m m a n d e r o f the Jevvish f o r c e s in G a l i l e e , f o u n d t h a t Cestius G a l l u s h a d t a k e n h o s t a g e s f r o m S c p p l ı o r i s a n d p l a c c d t h e m in D o r a , ' a city o f P h o c n i c c ' ; 2 a g a i n , this t e r m i n o l o g y vvas in c u r r e n t use l o n g b e f o r e S e v e r u s e m p l o y e d it a s the official name of a province. N o t h i n g in t h e m i n i m a l e v i d e n c e a b o u t D o r a goes t o p r o v c t h a t it stili r e t a i n c d a n y distinetively P h o e n i c i a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I n s t e a d , in its official self-image it e x u d e d ali t h e s c l f - i m p o r t a n c c o f a G r e e k city: it ıninted c o i n s betvveen t h e r e i g n s o f N e r o a n d A n t o ı ı i n u s Pius a n d again under E l a g a b a l ; a t their m o s t c x p a n s i v c the legends cali the city ' s a c r c d ' , ' i n v i o l a t c ' , ' a u t o n o m o u s ' a n d 'mistress o f a fleet

(n
If the p u b i i c identity o f the a n c i e n t city o f D o r ( D ' R o r D\VR), vvhich i n the early fifth c e n t u r y E s l ı m u n a z a r , t h e king o f S i d o n , h a d e l a i m e d a s h i s ovvn, 5 vvas novv entirely G r c c k , t h i s vvas ali t h e m o r e true o f A c o , t h e o n l y c i t y 14. 7.2 above. r . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

X I X , 6 , 3 ( 3 0 0 - 3 0 3 J. S e e 1 . 3 a b o v e . F o r t h e little t h a t is k n o \ v n of D o r a ,

s c c S c h ü r c r , H / P II, 1 1 8 - 1 2 0 , a n d Y . M c s h o r e r , " T h e C o i u a g e o f D o r a " , INJ 9 ( 1 9 8 6 - 8 7 ) , E. S t c r n , " T h e \Valls of D o r " , 1EJ 3 8 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 6; scc n o w Rl'C 2 . Vita

8/31.

3. D o n n e r and Röllig, K A I , no. 1 4 .

I, 6 6 0 - 6 6 1 .

S9\

oıı the entire P h o e n i c i a n c o a s t t o h a v e a c q u i r e d a Helleııistic d y n a s t i c n a n . e , P t o l e m a i s . Yet in f a c t a G r e e k vvriter, w h o s e n a m e , ' C l a u d i u s I o l a u s ' , s h o w s t h a t he c a n n o t have b e e n vvriting his Phoenicica

e a r l i c r than t h e I m p e r i a l pe-

riod, r e c o r d e d the P h o e n i c i a n f o u n d a t i o n o f b o t h cities, a n d gave their o r i g n a l n a m e s , as ' A k e ' a n d ' D ö r V T h e fact is s i g n i f i c a n t , f o r the p o s s e s s i o n of a n c i e n t historical a s s o c i a t i o n s is precisely vvhat distinguishes these cities f r o m the H c l l e n i s t i c f o u n d a t i o n s o f n o r t h e r n Syria. V e r y little is knovvn o f t h e s o c i a l history o r even the physical s t r u e t u r e o f G r a c c o - R o m a n P t o l e m a i s . 5 Its c o i n s o f the early R o m a n p e r i o d r e c o r d it t o o as b e i n g ' s a c r e d ' a n d ' i n v i o l a t c ' in t h e c l a s s i c m a n n e r o f G r e e k cirics. B u t , as w c have seen earlicr, it p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e in the s t r a t c g i c s t r u e t u r e o f the R o m a n N e a r E a s t in the first century, a s the last m a j o r city on the r o u t e f r o m t h e p r o v i n c c o f Syria

t o t h e t r o u b l e d a r e a o f J u d a e a . P e r h a p s in

c o n s e q u e n c e , its i n h a b i t a n t s f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s in the early 50S vvith a nevv d e s i g ı ı a t i o n , ' t h e G e r m a n i k e i s ' — o r ' G e r m a n i e i s ' — ' i n P t o l e m a i s ' , evidently borrovvcd f r o m t h e L a t i n ' G c r m a ı ı i c u s ' , o n e o f t h e n a m e s o f C l a u d i u s . But vvithin a y e a r o r tvvo t h e r e c a m e a n o t h e r a n d m o r e radical t r a n s f o r m a t i o n : the s e t t l e m e n t o f L a t i n - s p c a k i n g v e t e r a n s a n d the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n placc into a R o m a n colonia,

o f the

vvith t h e title ' C o l o n i a C l a u d i a Stabilis G c r -

m a n i c a F e l i x P t o l e m a i s ' . 6 It c a n bc t a k e n as c c r t a i n t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l p o p u l a t i o n , b o t h G r e e k a n d (as vvas t o a p p e a r shortly) Jevvish, r e m a i n e d in in 6 6

the p a g a n i n h a b i t a n t s

killed tvvo t l ı o u s a n d Jevvs a ı ı d

sitıı:

imprisoned

many others.7 T h e Standard G r a e c o - R o m a n deities vvho a p p e a r on b o t h t h e p r e - c o l o n i a l a n d the (relatively late) c o l o n i a l c o i n a g e o f P t o l e m a i s reveal n o t h i n g distinctive a b o u t cults o r t e m p l e s t h e r e . B u t as a city o n t h e b o r d e r s o f G a l i l e e i t did a l s o funetion as a s o r t o f f r o n t i e r z o n c betvveen t h e vvorld o f Jevvish villages a n d t h a t o f t h e G r a c c o - R o m a n city. It is in this light that it a p p e a r s in the first m a j o r c o m p i l a t i o n o f r a b b i n i c legal rulings a n d d i s c u s s i o n s , put t o g e t l ı e r not long a f t e r AD 2 0 0 , t h e Misbnah.

H e r e w c h a v e the vvell-knovvn e p i s o d c of

hovv R a b b i G a m a i i e l replied t o a p a g a n critic there: Proklos the son o f Philosophos |or ' t h e philosopher'?J asked R a b b a n G a maiiel in Acre ( ' K W ) vvhile he vvas baıhing in the Bath o f Aphrodite ( ' P R W D Y T Y ) , a n d said t o him, 'It is vvritten in your I.avv, And there shall cleave nought o f the devoted thing t o thine hand. W h y (then] dost t h o u bathe in the Bath o f A p h r o d i t e ? ' H e ansvvercd, ' O n e may not m a k e ansvver in the bath'. And vvhen he c a m e o u t he said, 'I c a m c not vvithin her limits: 4 . J a c o b y , FGrlI

788, F.ı-ı.

5. S c c S c h ü r c r , / f / P II, 1 2 1 - 1 2 5 . 6. 2.3 above. 7 . J o s e p h u s , BJ II, J 8 , S

(477)-

shc c a m c within miııc! T h e y d o not say, " I . e f us m a k e a ballı for Aphrod i t e " , bur " I . e t us make an Aphrodite as an a d o r n m e n t for thc b a t l ı " ' . 8 T h c episode, i f vve regard it as h i s t o r i c a l , should belong a r o u n d the e n d o f t h e first ccntury, vvhen P t o l e m a i s h a d been a colonia

for s o m e d e c a d e s . T y p i c a l

o f t h c linguistic interplay c h a r a c t e r i s i n g t h c p e r i o d , G a m a l i e l ' s q u e s t i o n e r is identified via a Hebrevv t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n o f a G r c c k version o f a L a t i n n a m e ( P r o c l u s o r P r o c u l u s ) . T h e o d d s are s t r o n g t h a t t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n vvill h a v e becıı c o n d u c t e d in G r c c k (the g o d d e s s is ' A p h r o d i t e ' n o t ' V e n ü s ' ) . A s a b u n d a n t c v i d c n c c f r o m t h c firsr c c n t u r y t o t h c fifth shovvs, t h c survıving r a b b i n i c vvritings, in Hebrevv a n d A r a m a i c , represent o n l y o n c side o f a m u l t i l i n g u a l c u l t u r e , in vvhich G r e e k played an i m p o r t a n t p a r t . " W h e t h e r P t o l e m a i s , a s a colonia,

r e m a i n c d t o any s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r e e t r i l i n g u a l , vvith L a t i n in c o n t i n u -

ing use a l s o , is qııitc u n c c r t a i n . T h c f a c t t h a t t h c c o l o n i a l c o i n s o f thc city a r c c o n s i s t c n t l y in Latin until t h c e n d o f the minting in the 2.60S is significant o f its c o n s c i o u s public s t a t u s , b u t is n o t e v i d e n c e for vvhat l a n g u a g e vvas s p o k e n in t h e s t r c e t s . 1 0 A fevv a c c i d c n t a l i t e m s o f e v i d e n c e , ali f r o m t h e p e r i o d o f t h e vvar o f 6 6 - 7 0 , allovv us t o gain s o m e i m p r e s s i o n o f the hiııterland o f P t o l e m a i s . F o r i n s t a n c c C c s t i u s G a l l u s , setring o u t f r o m P t o l e m a i s in 6 6 , a d v a n c c d t o a tovvn ( J o s e p h u s c a l l s it a polis)

called C h a b u l o n on the b o r d e r s betvveen the c i t y ' s

t e r r i t o r y a n d Galilee: he set it o n fire ' a l t h o u g h he a d m i r e d its b e a u t y , vvith i t s h o u s e s built in t h c stylc o f t h o s e a t T y r e , S i d o n a n d B e r y t u s ' . 1 1 T h i s d e s e r i p tion neatly c a t c h c s b o t h the f u n d a m c n t a l f c a t u r c o f t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r c o f t h e N e a r E a s t — t h c lack o f a c l e a r distinetion betvveen ' c i t y ' a n d ' v i l l a g e ' — a n d t h c f a c t t h a t this s o u t l ı c r n a r c a vvas in c u l t u r a l t e r m s vvithin the o r b i t o f t h c m a j ö r P h o e n i c i a n cities. A n o t h e r 'tovvıı' (oppidton)

vvhich o u r s o u r c e s h a p p e n t o revcai is t h a t

vvhich lay on M o u n t C a r m e l betvveen P t o l e m a i s a n d D o r a . It vvill h a v e b c c n t o here t h a t V e s p a s i a n c a m e t o sacrifice in 6 9 a n d r c c e i v c a p r o p h e c y o f h i s future s u c c e s s . T a c i n ı s e x p l a i n s t h a t ' C a r m e l u s ' vvas the n a m e o f b o t h t h e g o d a n d t h c m o u n t a i n ; t h e r e vvas, he says, n o c u l t - s t a t u e o r t e m p l e , b u t o n l y vvors h i p c o n d u c t e d on a n altar. 1 2 W e s c e m vvith this t o gain a brief insight i n t o

8. Mishrtah,

Aboda

Zara 3 , 4, t r a n s . D a n h y .

9. Sec n ı o r c fully 1 0 . 4 belo\v. 10. F o r its c o i n a g e Scc L . K a d m a n , The

Coins

af Akko

Ptolemais

( 1 9 6 1 ) , reviewcd

by

H . Seyrig, " l . c m o n n a y a g c de P t o l e m a i s en P h c n ı c ı e " , RN 4 (1962.),

2 5 . Scc ı w w a l s o Y . M c s h -

orer, The City Coins

1'erıod

RPCI,

of Eretz-Israel

and thc Decapolis

in the Roman

11. J o s e p h u s , BJ II, 1 8 , 9 (504}, L o c b tratıs. See A v i - Y o n a h , Gazetteer, 1 2 . Pliny, Nll Tacitus,

(1985), 1 1 - 1 5 ,

a

"d

658-660. s.ı>. " C h a b u l o n " .

V , 1 7 / 7 5 : ' p r o m u ı ı t u r i u m C a r m e l u s , et in m o n t e o p p i d u m e o d e m n o m i n e " ;

Hist. II, 7 8 .

the f u n c t i o n i n g o f a pagaıı " S e m i t i c ! ligh P l a c e ' , p e r h a p s s h o w i n g a direct c o n t i n u i t y w i t h t h e O l d T e s r a m c n t p e r i o d , a n d the c u l t c o n f r o n t c d b y E l i j a h . E u s e b i u s (a m u c h better p l a c e d o b s e r v e r } o f f c r s a p a r a l l e l case, r e p o r t i n g that M o u n t H e r ı n o n , 'vvhich t h e Phoinikes

cali Saniör',

vvas said t o be r c v c r c d as

s a c r e d by t h e p a g a n s . " B u t in fact e x a c t l y vvhat m o s t c l e a r l y c h a r a c t e r i s e s vvorship a t l o c a t i o n s high u p o n m o u n t a i n s , a s it vvas p r a c t i s c d in t h e N e a r E a s t in t h e R o m a n p e r i o d , vvas the c r e c t i o n o f t e m p l e s in C l a s s i c a l style. M o r e o v e r , a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n e e shovvs t h a t on M o u n t C a r m e l itself culcs t a t u c s vvere n o t unknovvn, o r at least h a d c o m e i n t o use by the end o f the s e c o n d century. F o r t h e f o o t — a l i t h a t r e m a i n s — o f a c o l o s s a l statue (tvvice life-size) f o u n d o n t h e m o u n t a i n b e a r s t h e G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n : ' t o I l e l i o p o l i t a n Z e u s , ( g o d o f ? ) C a r m e l , G . I o u l ( i o s ) E u t y c h a s , kol(ön) c a t o r vvas a citizen o f t h e colonia

Kaisareus\

T h e ded>

o f C a e s a r e a , o f vvhich m o r e belovv. B u t vvhst

is significant is t h a t t h e god ( Z e u s ) o f C a r m e l c a n b e represented in s c u l p t u r c , a n d that he is h e r e ( u n i q u e l y ) identified vvith the f a m o u s Z e u s o f H e l i o p o l i s . 3 4 O n c c again it is futilc t o asle vvhat a n a n c i c n t deity 'really vvas': f o r he vvas vvhatever his vvorshipper s a i d he vvas. But the c h o i c e m a d e by this vvorshipper vvas t o identify h i m vvith the ( b y novv) best-knovvn deity o f t h e c c n t r a l P h o c n i c i a n z o n e . O n c c a g a i n , t h e r e f o r e , this is an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t vve s h o u l d see this c o a s t a l region a s a b o r d e r - z o n e o f ' P h o e n i c i a ' — a s vvell, o f c o u r s e , a s a n a r e a o f citics vvith G r c c k c o n s t i t u t i o n s , a b o r d e r - z o n e (as T y r e a n d S i d o n vvere a l s e ) vvith t h e properly Jevvish a r e a , a n d t h e site o f the s e c o n d R o m a n colonia

of

the N e a r F.ast. Novvlıere in this s o u t h e r n e x t e n s i o n o f ' P h o e n i c i a ' , hovvever, do vvc h a v e a n y p o s i t i v c evidenee f r o m t h e Imperial period o f the c o n t i n u c d use o f the P h o e n i c i a n l a n g u a g e . In t h a t respect t h e r e is a c o n t r a s t , t h o u g h a very slight o n c , if vvc m o v c t o t h e n o r t l ı e r n c o a s t l i n e o f vvhat vvas t o b e ' S y r i a P h o e n i c e ' .

8.3. T H E N O R T H E R N A N D İTS

COASTLİNE

HINTERI.AND

W h a t h a d o ı ı c e been t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p l a c e in the n o r t h e r n part o f P h o c n i c i a vvas t h e island city o f A r a d u s , lying off t h e c o a s t n o r t h o f t h e E l e u t h e r u s R i v e r a n d o f t h e passage i n l a n d t h r o u g h t o E m e s a a n d P a l m y r a . O n c c u n d e r its ovvn kings, a n d a city vvhich h a d m i n t e d its ovvn silver a n d b r o n z e c o i m t h r o u g h t h e H c l l c n i s t i c p e r i o d , using an era b e g i n n i n g in Z 5 9 BC, it seems f r o m t h e very littlc t h a t vve knovv o f it in the Imperial period t o h a v e b e e n of

13. Fuscbius, Onom. 20, 9 - 1 1 . 1 4 . S c c M . A v i - Y o n a h , " M o u n t C a r m e l a n d rhc G o d of B a a l b c k " , IE/ 2 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , 1 1 8 = ( 1 9 5 2 ) , n o . 2 0 6 = Y . I Iajjar^

La İrinde d'lleliopolis-Baalbek

AF.

I ( 1 9 7 7 ) , n o . 2 2 7 a n d Pl. l x x x v i .

m i n ö r i m p o r t a n c e . 1 T h e k n o w n i n s e r i p t i o n s are e n o u g h t o sho\v t h a t it h a d t h e n o r m a l s t r u e t u r e o f a G r e e k city, vvith a c o u n c i l (boule)

and an assembly;

a n d like o t h e r cities it m i n t e d b r o n z e c o i n s , ali vvith G r e e k l e g e n d s , i n t e r m i t tently until t h e reign o f G o r d i a ı ı . It is n o t a b l e , hovvever, t h a t s o m e are a l s o m a r k e d vvith individual P h o e n i c i a n letters. T h e significance o f A r a d u s l i e s in tvvo a s p e e t s . First, it provides the o n l y securely d a t e d P h o c n i c i a n - G r e c k bilingual inseription o f the I m p e r i a l p e r i o d . It d a t e s t o

Z5/Z4

BC,

h e n c e u n d e r A u g u s t u s , a n d is in fact t h e c a r l i c s t knovvn

inseription f r o m the c i t y . ' F r a g m e n t a r y a s the t c x t is, it is e n o u g h t o give t h e y e a r ( 2 3 5 ) , i n d i c a t c d in G r e e k l e t t e r s in b o t h halves o f the t e x t ; t o shovv t h a t s o m e t h i n g vvas being d e d i c a t e d by s o m e o n e a e t i n g a s g y m n a s i a r c h ; a n d t o g i v e the n a m e s o f t h e deities t o vvhom t h e d c d i c a t i o n vvas m a d e : in G r e e k H c r m c s a n d I l e r a k l c s , a n d in P h o c n i c i a n H e r m e s ( t r a n s l i t e r a t e d as T I M ( . . . ] ) a n d M e l q a r t ( M L Q R T ) . It vvould be difficult t o find a d o c u m c n t vvhich in a fevv f r a g m e n t a r y litıes e x h i b i t s m o r e precisely t h e f u s i o n o f G r e e k a n d P h o e n i cian e l e m e n t s . It d o e s , hovvever, servc t o raise a q u c s t i o n c o m m o n t o the vvhole N e a r E a s t , but particularly p r o b l c m a t i c in P h o e n i c i a . D o e s the s u b s e q u e n t a b s e n c e , f r o m t h e knovvn evidence, o f inseribed

t e x ı s in P h o e n i c i a n m e a n t h a t the l a n -

g u a g e vvas n o l o n g e r vvritten, o r even n o l o n g e r s p o k e n ? Ciearly, it c a n

prove

n o such thing. But even if it vvere c e r t a i n that P h o e n i c i a n did indeed die o u t in t h e early E m p i r e , t h e issuc vvould r e m a i n o f hovv e s s e n t i a ! a local l a n g u a g e vvas t o t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f a l o c a l c u l t u r c o r o f i n d i g c n o u s cults. T h i s q u c s t i o n arises a l s o in t h e c a s c o f t h e s e c o n d significant feature o f t h e city, t h e c x i s t e n c e in tlıc m a i ı ı l a n d t e r r i t o r y c o n t r o l l e d by it o f the g r e a t t e m p l e o f B a e t o c a e c c , 3 s i t u a t e d s o m e 3 0 k m i n l a n d , a n d j u s t belovv t h e c r e s t o f t h e J e b e l A n s a r i y e h . As in a l m o s t ali c a s e s , the physical s t r u e t u r e vvhich s u r v i v e s is a p r o d u e t o f the R o m a n E m p i r e . A G r e e k inseription r e c o r d s that a n a r e a beside the t c m p l c vvas pavcd, s t e p s built a n d a b r o n z e a l t a r d e d i c a t e d in AD 1 8 5 / 1 8 6 by a R o m a n c e n t u r i o n , T. Aurelius D e c i m u s , a native o f O e s c u s in M o c s i a I n f e r i o r ; a n o t h e r d e d i c a t i o n vvas m a d e by a s o l d i e r vvho deseribes h i m s e l f as ' h i g h e s t { s u m t n u s — t r a n s l i t e r a t e d in G r c c k as soutnnıos)

ı.

S c c J.-P. R c y - C o q u a i s , Arados

( 1 9 7 4 ) ; i d e m , IGLS 2 . IGLS

V I I , Arados

et sa Peree

et regions

voisines

aux

epoques

grecı/ııe,

romaine

( 1 9 7 0 ) . F o r t h e c o i n s s c c RPCI,

o f t h e ecf-

et

byzantine 641-643.

V I I , n o . 4 0 0 1 . F o r s o m e r e a s o n it is n o t i n e l u d e d in D o n n e r a n d R ö l l i g , KAL

For a

p h o t o g r a p h o f the text a n d a discussiorı o f the Phoeniciatı text, given in Hebrevv c h a r a c t c r s , s e e R. Savignac,

uUne

visite â l ' î l e d e R o u a d " , RB

13 ( 1 9 1 6 ) , 5 ^ 5 o n p p . 5 7 ^ - 5 7 9 .

3 . F o r t h e p h y s i c a l s t r u e t u r e s e e D . K r e n c k e r a n d W . Z s c h i e c f s c h m a n n , Römische Syrien Syria

Tempel

in

I ( 1 9 3 8 ) , 6 J - I O I . F o r its h i s t o r y a n d i n s e r i p t i o n s , H . S e y r i g , " A r a d o s e t B a c t o c a c c i " , 28 < 1 9 5 1 ) , 1 9 i ;

IGLS

III, n o s . 4 0 2 8 - 4 0 4 1 .

C f . A. Baroni,

" I terreni e i p r i v i l e g i

del r e m p i o di Z e u s a B a i t o k a i k c ( I G L S V I I , 4 0 2 8 ) " , i n B . V i r g i l i o ( e d . ) , Studi (»984), 135.

FJlenistici

I

uites singulares'.

O n c c a g a i n t h e d c v o t i o r ı o f R o m a n soldiers t o these N e a r

E a s t e r n s h r i n e s is vvorth n o t i n g . 4 T h e a l t a r s t a n d s beside a s m a l l l o n i c t e m p l e vvithin a v a s t vvalled p r e c i n c t , o f s o m e 1 3 5 m by 8 5 m ; a n i n s e r i p t i o n r e e o r d s t h a t part o f it vvas c o n s t r u c t e d by d e v o t e e s (katochoi)

o f the g o d in AD 22.3/2.24.* T h a t shovvs o n l y o f c o u r s e

the f a m i l i a r p a t t e r n b y vvhich it vvas in t h e R o m a n E m p i r e t h a t a r c l ı i t e c t u r a l e x p r c s s i o n vvas given t o N e a r E a s t e r n cults. B u t in this c a s e vve kııovv, f r o m the m a j o r i n s e r i p t i o n c a r v e d o n t h e vvall beside t h e main g a t e , t h a t t h e sanctııa r y o f Z e u s o f B a e t o c a c c c h a d been in c x i s t c n c c a t least s i n c e the third c e n t u r y BC. 6 F o r it r e e o r d s that K i n g A n t i o c h u s ( p r o b a b l y either I , 2 9 3 - 2 6 1 BC, o r II, 2 6 1 - 2 4 6 ) h a d a l l o c a t e d the r e v e n u e s o f t h e village o f B a e t o c a c c c f o r t h e s u p p o r t o f the cult; h a d i n s t i t u t e d a tvvice-monthly t a x - f r e e m a r k e t t h e r e ; and h a d declared t h a t the village vvould be e x e m p t f r o m the e x a c t i o n s o f official travellers. T h e inseription a l s o r e e o r d s t h a t under A u g u s t u s , in c i r c u m s t a n c e s vvhich a r e n o t m a d e clear, ' t h e c i t y ' (vvhich m u s t be A r a d u s ) h a d sent t o the E m p e r o r a d e c r e e t h a t m a r k e t o f f i c i a l s s h o u l d permit vvithout t a x a t i o r ı t h e t r a n s i t o f g o o d s a n d a n i m a l s d u e f o r s a l e a t t h e tvvice-monthly fair a t B a e t o c a c c c . W h a t ever the n a t u r e o f t h e e x c h a n g e s vvhich lcd t o this d e c r e e a n d its d e s p a t e h , it is o n e o f the very fevv r e f l e e t i o n s o f Imperial d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g in this r e g i o n in t h e first c c n t u r y o f the E m p i r e . T h e d o s s i e r ovved its e x i s c e n c e a s a n i n s e r i p t i o n , hovvever, t o t h e fact that a petition vvas p r e s e n t e d t o V a l e r i a n (and n o m i n a l l y a l s o t o G a l l i e n u s a n d S a l o n i n u s ) in 2 5 8 / 2 5 9 , a n d a b r i e f r e p l y in L a t i n o b t a i n e d , laying dovvn that t h e g o v e r n o r o f the p r o v i n c e vvould s e e t o it t h a t the ' a n c i e n t beneficia

o f the

k i n g s ' vvere t o be preserved a g a i n s t t h e violeııce o f a n adversary. T h e d o s s i e r c o n c l u d c s vvith the r e c o r d in G r e e k o f t h e i n s e r i b i n g o f t h e reply b y t h e b e n e ficia ries: ' T h e katochoi

o f S a c r e d H e a v e n l y (bagios ouranios)

Z e u s put u p the

divine r e s e r i p t , vvorshipped b y ali, (as the r e c o r d ) o f the p i e t y o f the E m p e r o r s tovvards t h e god a n d o f their ( g r a n t o f ) f r e e d o m t o the p l a c e ' . It is impossible t o say e x a c t l y vvhat is n ı e a n r here b y katochoi

('devotees'), cxcept that they

a r e c l e a r l y free p e o p l e vvith c o n t r o l o f their ovvn f u n d s , a n d n o t

'temple

slaves'. N o r c a n vve s a y vvhether t h e c u l t h a d been in e x i s t e n c e b e f o r e the H c l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . T h e n a m e o f t h e p l a c e (variously t r a n s l i t e r a t e d as ' B a i t o k a i k e ' , ' B e t o c h e i c h e i ' a n d s o f o r t h ) s e e m s c e r t a i n l y t o i n c o r p o r a t e the S e m i t i c r o o t B Y T ( ' h o u s e ' ) . B e y o t ı d t h a t ali i n t e r p r e t a t i o ı ı s , i n c l u d i n g , somevvhat imp r o b a b l y , ' h o u s e o f t h e c a s t o r v i n e ' , are m c r c l y s p e c u l a t i v e . 7

4 . IGLS

VII, nos. 4034 a n d 4 0 3 7 .

5 . / G L S V I I , no. 4 0 3 1 . 6. IGLS

VII, no. 4028.

7 . F o r this interpretarion s c c E P i c j k o , " A B r o n z c P l a q u c f o r the G o d o f B a e t o c a c c c " , 30 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 9 7 , on ıGLS

V I I , n o . 4 0 4 1 ; scc SEG

XXXII, no. ^ 4 6 .

Hetyl^s

T h i s p l a c e - n a m e , \vhatever i l s m e a n i n g o r o r i g i n , r e p r e s e n t s the o n l y s p e cifically ' S e m i t i c ' e l e m e n t in t h e e v i d e n c c for t h e c u l t . It is o f c o u r s e o n l y t o bc e x p e c t e d t h a t c x c h a n g e s w i l h rulers will h a v e beeıı c o n d u c t e d in G r e e k o r I.atin. B u t ali t h c d c d i c a t i o n s f r o m t h c site arc a l s o in G r c c k . N o t h i n g vvhatever is k n o w n o f the p r i e s t h o o d o r o f thc form o f t h e c u l t - o b j c c t vvorshipped t h e r e . If m u c h thus r e m a i n s u n c l e a r , w l ı a t is certain is the c o n t i n u i t y o f the c u l t ö v e r ( p r o b a b l y ) s o m c five c c n t u r i e s , its l o c a t i o n in a village c o n t c x t , a n d t h c i m p o r t a n c e o f the t w i c e - m o n t h l y fair held t h e r e . T h e sheer scale o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t o vvhich vve m u s t a d d a s u b s i d i a r y s a n e t u a r y built s o m e 5 0 m f r o m thc north-vvest c o r n c r o f thc temenos,

m u s t give s o m c hint o f thc r e s o u r c e s

a v a i l a b l e in these cultivated l a n d s vvhich rise up g r a d u a l l y from the c o a s t t o the crest o f the J e b e l A n s a r i y e h ( t c r r a c i n g is visible up t o the very t o p o f t h e m o u n t a i ı ı - c h a i n ) . As s u c h , it is m u c h t h c largest o f t h c rural s a n c t u a r i c s vvhose r e m a i n s c a n b c f o u n d high in t h c hills o f vvhat t h c a n c i c n r vvorld regardcd a s P h o e n i c i a . A fevv o t h e r p r o m i n e n t e x a m p l e s , o u t o f many, vvill be m e n t i o n e d belovv. B u t vvhether vve s h o u l d c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e g o d o f B a e t o c a e c e a n d h i s c u l t as ' P h o c n i c i a n ' is a q u c s t i o n vvhich a t t h c m o m e n t vve h a v e n o m c a n s o f ansvvering. N o t h i n g significant is knovvn o f o t h e r s m a l l places lying a l o n g this c o a s t , C a r n e , A n t a r a d u s , M a r a t h u s , S i m y r a , O r t h o s i a , o r even thc city a t t h e n o r t h e r n tip o f M o u n t L e b a n o n , A r c a o r C a e s a r e a I . i b a n i , n o t a b l e o n l y f o r h a v i n g been t h e native city o f a m a n vvith a L a t i n n a m e , Gessius M a r c i a n u s , vvho m a r r i e d a n i c c c o f Iulia D o m n a f r o m E m c s a , a n d vvas thus t o be thc f a t h e r o f the E m p e r o r Severus A l e x a n d c r . A s vve h a v e s c c n , this p l a c e b e c a m e a

colonia

in the reign o f A l e x a n d e r ' s c o u s i n , ' E l a g a b a l ' . 8 E v e n vvhat h a d been a n i m p o r t a n t P h o e n i c i a n city, T r i p o l i s , h a s hardly left a n y distinetive t r a c e in t h c I m p e r i a l p e r i o d . B u t , for i n s t a n c c , a n inseription f r o m A t h c n s , o f t h e reign o f H a d r i a n , shovvs T r i p o l i s vvith b o t h the n o r m a l insıitutions o f a G r e e k city a n d thc a r r a y o f g r a n d i o s e G r e e k cities c h a r a c t e r i s ı i c o f the P h o e n i c i a n c i t i c s o f this period: 'tlıe m a g i s t r a t e s a n d c o u n c i l a n d p e o p l e o f ( t h c city o f thc) T r i p o litai o f P h o i n e i k c , t h c s a c r c d a n d invioiate a n d a u t o n o m o u s a n d mistress o f a fleet'. 9 T h e h i s t o r y o f the h i n t e r l a n d iıı this a r c a , that is t o say, thc n o r t h e r n e n d o f M o u n t L e b a n o n , betvveen thc c o a s t a n d the upper O r o n t e s Valley, is a l m o s t vvholly o b s c u r e . E r o m S t r a b o ' s a c c o u n t it seeıııs t o have been d o m i n a t e d b y I t u r a e a n m o u n t a i n - p e o p l e s in t h e later R e p u b l i c ; a n d a R o m a n officcr, A e m i l ius S c c u n d u s , vvas stili o p e r a r i n g a g a i n s t thc I t u r a e a n s o f M o u n t

Lebanon

tovvards the end o f A u g u s t u s ' r e i g n . ' 0 T l ı e a r e a m a y h a v e b c c n t h c t e r r i t o r y

8. S e e 3.4 a n d 4 . 2 a b o v e . 9 . O G / S , no. 587. 1 0 . 2 . 1 a b o v c . Hor tlıe s i t u a t i o n b e f o r e P o ı ı ı p e y ' s a r r i v a l , S t r a b o , G e o g . X V I , 2, 1 8 ( 7 5 5 ) .

o f the T t u r a e a ı ı A r a b s ' , a s D i o d e s e r i b e s t h e m , g i v e n t o o n e S o a e m u s b y G a i u s in 3 8 , a n d then r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e E m p i r e o n his d e a t h in 4 9 ; but s o m e o f it a t least s e e m s t o h a v e b e l o n g c d t o A g r i p p a I I . " T h e d e t a i l s a r e n o t \vorth p u r s u i n g , I t is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t h e r e t o o vve c a n find r u r a l t e m p l e s a n d s h r i n e s c o n s t r u c t e d in t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d ; i f i n s e r i p t i o n s a r e f o u n d in a s s o c i a t i o n vvith t h e s e t e m p l e s , t h e y a r e again alvvays in G r e e k . 1 2 O n c e m o r e the c x i s t c n c c o f t h e s e r u r a l t e m p l e s i m p l i c s t h a t h e r e t o o t h e r e vvas a v i l l a g e p o p u l a t i o n . B u t the e c o n o m y , s o c i a l s t r u e t u r e a n d c u l t u r e o f this h i n t e r l a ı ı d ali r e m a i n very little knovvn. \Ve m a y n o t e t h a t b o t h S t r a b o a n d C a s s i u s D i o d e s e r i b e a t l e a s t s o m e o f its i n h a b i t a n t s as ' A r a b ' ; b u t vvhat t h e y m c a n t by this r e m a i n s o b s c u r e . N o r c a n vve e v e r b c c c r t a i n vvhether r u r a l t e m p l e s built in C l a s s i c a l f o r m s , vvhose k n o v v n vvorshippers used G r c c k vvhen t h e y p u t up i n s e r i p t i o n s , did o r did n o t e m b o d y o l d e r local t r a d i t i o n s a n d f o r m s o f b e l i e f . İt m u s t n o n e t h e l e s s b c s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t s u c h h y p o t h c t i c a l o l d e r t r a d i t i o n s c o u l d novv b c e x p r c s s e d in G r e e k f o r m s .

8.4.

T H E

M A J Ö R

C İ T İ E S :

B Y B L O S

A N D

B E R Y T U S

T h e a r c a vvhich a b o v e ali d i d r e t a i n , in the e y e s b o t h o f o u t s i d e r s a n d o f its ovvn p e o p l e , a n i d e n t i t y vvhich vvas d i s t i n e t i v e l y ' P h o e n i c i a n ' vvas the l i n e o f c o a s t a l cities f r o ı n B y b l o s s o u t h t h r o u g h B e r y t u s t o S i d o n a n d T y r e , vvith t h e i r h i n t c r l a n d e x t c n d i ı ı g far i n l a n d (in t h e c a s e o f B e r y t u s , c o v e r i n g the n o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e B e k a a V a l l e y ) . B u t e v e n h e r e vvc d o n o t find a n y c c r t a i n e x a m p ! e s in the R o m a n p e r i o d o f i n s e r i p t i o n s p u t up in t h e P h o e n i c i a n l a n g u a g c . T h e o n c p o s s i b l e c x c e p t i o n is an. i n s e r i p t i o n in P h o e n i c i a n f r o m B y b l o s , vvhich may

date

to

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first

century

AD. In

it

someone

callcd

Abdeshmoutı

( ' B D ' S M N ) m a k e s a d e d i c a t î o n ' t o o u r l o r d a n d t o t h e i m a g c (or s t a t u c ) o f Baal ( L ' D N N W L S M L B ' L ) \ It has even been suggestcd that 'our lord' here is a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e E m p e r o r . B c t t e r e v i d e n e e vvould be n e e d e d , a n d it is surp r i s i n g t h a t h e is n o t n a m e d ; b u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y r e m a i n s ö p e n . 1 T h i s is in a n y c a s e a n i n s t a n c e o f a p r i v a t e d e d i c a t i o n o n a s m a l l altar. O n 1 1 . Schürer, HJP I, 5 6 9 - 5 7 0 . i z . Sec, c . g . , K r e n c k e r a ı ı d Z s c h i e t z . s c h ı ı ı a n n , Römiscbe

Tempel

I, 1 0 2 - 1 0 4 (Ret D j a l l u k ,

a l s o k n o w n as M a q a m c r - R a b ; f o r G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m there s c c I I . S c y r i g , " N e m e s i s el l c t e m p l e d e M a q 3 m e r - R a b b " , MUSf

3 7 . I 1 9 6 0 - 6 1 ) , 2 6 1 ) ; 2 0 - 3 4 (a g r o u p of t h r e e t e m p l e s a t

H o s n Sfiri); 8 - 1 9 (Kasr N a ı ı s ) a n d 4 - 7 ( B z i z a ) — b o t h in t h e f o o c h i l l s s o u t h o f T r i p o l i s a n d vvest o f R o t r y s . For t h e i r l o c a t i o n s s e e K r e n c k c r a n d Z s c h i e t z s c h m 3 n n 11, T a f e l I. F o r t h e i n s e r i p t i o n s o f this a r e a s e c c s p . J.-P. R c y - C o q u a i s , " U n c i n s e r i p t i o n d u L i b a n N o r d " , MUSJ

4 7 ( 1 9 7 2 . ) , 87

(on t h e c o n s r r u c r i o n in AD r 8 4 of a r u r a l s a n e t u a r y o n t h e N a h r A b o u M o u s s a , i n l a n d f r o m Tripolis). r . D o n n e r a n d R ö l l i g , KAI,

n o . 1 2 ; f o r t h e s u g g e s t i o n see R . D u s s a u d , " i n s e r i p t i o n p h c n i c -

ienne d e B y b l o s d ' c p o q u e r o m a i n c " , Syria 6 ( 1 9 2 . 5 ) , 2 6 9 .

a n y v i e w thc P h o e n i c i a n citics did n o t p r o d u c c vvhole series o f S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e p u b l i c i n s e r i p t i o n s , t o c o m p a r c vvith t h o s e a t P a l m y r a , o r e v e n vvith t h c e a r l y Imperial i n s e r i p t i o n s (in L a t i n a n d N e o - P u n i c ) f r o m T r i p o l i t a n i a , espccially Lepcis M a g n a . 2 T h e r e are, hovvever, s o m e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t P h o e n i cian vvas stili used a n d u n d e r s t o o d ; a n d t h e r e a r e a c o u p l e o f e x a m p l e s o f i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m this a r e a in S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s o t h e r t h a n P h o e n i c i a n . F r o m S i d o n there is a bilingual d e d i c a t i o n t o D u s a r e s , in G r e e k a n d N a b a t a e a n , d a t i n g t o the fifth y e a r o f A r e t a s IV, so 4 BC. 3 Similarly, f r o m H a r b a t a in t h e n o r t h e r n B e k a a Valley, vvhich m u s t have b c c n in thc t e r r i t o r y o f Berytus a n d then o f H e l i o p o l i s , t h e r e is a s t r a y i n s e r i p t i o n in P a l m y r e n e , o n o n e o f a c a c h e o f P a l m y r e n e s c u l p t u r e s . 4 I n g e n e r a l , hovvever, even central P h o e n i c i a , vvith thc B e k a a Valley, b e l o n g s in t h e z o n e c h a r a c t e r i s e d , in b o t h tovvn a n d c o u n t r y , b y i n s e r i p t i o n s in G r e e k . It t h u s o f f e r s a clear c o n t r a s t b o t h vvith thc P a l m y r e n e zone a n d vvith its ovvn s o u t h e r n h i n t e r l a n d , G a l i l c c , vvhere G r c c k , Hebrevv a n d A r a m a i c c o - e x i s t e d as inseribed l a n g u a g e s . T h c tvvo P h o c n i c i a n citics vvhere t h c ' a m n e s i a ' a b o u t t h e p r e - H e l I e ı ı i s t i c past, vvhich c h a r a c t e r i s e s t h c R o m a n N e a r E a s t a s a vvhole, m o s t c l c a r l y d i d not prevail vvere Sidon a n d T y r e . It vvill b e simplest t o a p p r o a c h t h e m t h r o u g h thc c o n t r a s t i n g identities o f B y b i o s a n d Berytus a s they present t h e m s e l v e s in thc Imperial period. F r o m B y b l o s , as vve savv, t h e r e is a single P h o e n i c i a n inseription vvhich m a y date f r o m the first c e n t u r y AD.* F o r vvhat it is vvorth, this is m a t c l ı e d b y a c o u p l e o f c o i n - t y p c s , p r o b a b l y o f thc late R e p u b l i c r a t h e r than o f A u g u s t u s ' reign, vvhich repeat the P h o c n i c i a n legend s o m e t i m e s used in thc H e l l e n i s t i c period: ' t o ( o r o f ) G B L t h e h o l y ' ( L G B L Q D S T ) . 6 T h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t t h e m o d e r n n a n ı e o f the p l a c c , J b a i l , is inherited f r o m the P h o e n i c i a n n a m e G B L , used f o r i n s t a n c c in a series o f P h o c n i c i a n royal i n s e r i p t i o n s in vvhich t h c c h i c f g o d d e s s is identified as the ' m i s t r e s s ( B ' L T ) o f G B L ' . B u t t h e fluidity o f d i v i n e identities in this a r e a is c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t c d b y t h c f a c t t h a t the i m p o r t a n t i n seription o f K i n g Ychavvmilk o f B y b l o s , o f thc fifth o r f o u r t h c c n t u r y BC, a l -

2. S c c

C,.

(1927-1967)

l x v i delta V i d a a n d M . G . G u z z o A m a d a s i ,

Iscrizioni puniebe della Tripolitania

(1987).

3 . C / S II. 1 , n o . 1 6 0 . 4 . S . R o n z e v a l l e , " N o t c s ct e t u d e s d ' a r c h c o l o g i e o r i e n t a l e " ,

MliSJ 11

(»937-38), 1, 73ff.,

n o . 8 ; J . S t a r c k y , " i n s e r i p t i o n s p a l m y r c n i c n n c s c o n s c r v c c s a u M u s c c d c B c y r o u t h " , BMB ( 1 9 5 5 ) , 29, 011 p. 4 r , n o . 1 0 . S c c M . A . K . C o l l c d g c ,

The Art of Palmyra

T2

(1970), 130.

5. Text to n . t a b o v e . 6.

BMC Phoettîcia, 9 8 - 9 9 ,

n o s . 1 8 - 1 9 ( d a t i n g these c o i n s t o A u g u s t u s ' r e i g n ) . T h e p r e v a i l i n g

v t c w is, hovvever, t h a t t h e y a r c d a t e d b y a I ' o m p c i a n c r a , a n d h e n c e b e l o n g iıı t h c late R c p u b l i c .

Syria 3 r ( i 9 J 4 > . 73~7<>; H . R . B a l d u s , " S y r i a " , in A . M . Bıırnctt a ı ı d The Coinage of the Koman Worlditt the l.ale Repııblic ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 2 1 , o n

Scc H . Seyrig,

M . M. C r a w -

f o r d (cds.),

p. 1 3 4 ;

I, 6 4 7 - 6 4 8 -

Rl'C.

r e a d y represents the ' m i s t r e s s o f G B L ' in E g y p t i a n dress a n d stylc. 7 S o m e c o n tinuity o f c u l t in B y h l o s m u s t b c r c g a r d c d a s c c r t a i n , f o r t h e t e m p l e - a r e a on the a c r o p o l i s o f B y b l o s , w h e r e this stele vvas f o u n d , seems t o h a v e f u n c ı i o n e d as a s a n c t u a r y , o r series o f s a n c t u a r i c s , c o n t i n u o u s l y f r o m the third m i l l c n nium BC t o the R o m a n p e r i o d ; a m a j o r nevv s a n c t u a r y , s u r r o u n d e d b y a p o r t i c o , vvas c o n s t r u c t e d t h e r e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD. S B u t prccise identification o f the divinities vvorshippcd in these t e m p l e s is n o t possible f o r any p e r i o d , a n d c o n t i n u i t y o f cult vvas plainly c o m p a t i b l e vvith the e m e r g e n c e o f nevv c o ı ı c e p t i o n s o f the divinities c o n c e r n e d . In : h e H c l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , a n d a p p a r e n t l y n o t b e f o r e , t h e cults vvhich vvere h e l d t o c h a r a c t e r i s e B y b l o s vvere t h o s e o f A p h r o d i t e a n d Adotıis, s t r o n g l y c o l o u r e d by a s s o c i a t i o ı ı vvith t h o s e o f Tsis a n d O s i r i s . S t r a b o identifies B y b l o s a s ' s a c r e d t o A d o n i s ' ; 5 a n d it is c e r e m o n i a l s c o n n c c t c d vvith the vvorship o f A p h r o d i t e a n d A d o n i s here o f vvhich I . u c i a n o f f e r s a bighly c o l o u r e d a c c o u n t , as o n c o f a series o f P h o e n i c i a n p a r a l l c l s t o the e x o t i c c u l t a t H i e r a p o l i s . 1 0 A c c o r d i n g t o h i m , c e r e m o n i a l s t o m o u r n t h e killiııg o f A d o n i s by a b o a r t o o k p l a c c in t h e t e m p l e o f A p h r o d i t e in B y b l o s , follovvcd by a p r o c e s s i o n t o m a r k h i s resu r r e e t i o n . \Vomcn vvere o b l i g e d , a s a sign o f m o u r n i n g , either t o s h a v c their h e a d s o r t o prostitute t h e m s e l v e s , vvith their p a y m e n t g o i n g t o A p h r o d i t e . S o m e B y b l i a n s , hovvever^ c x p l i c i t l y argued t h a t t h e deity c o n c c r n e d vvas aetually O s i r i s . T h e n a m e ' A d o n i s ' vvas a l s o a t t a c h e d , L u c i a n says, t o a r i v e r in t h e territ o r y o f B y b l o s , vvhich r a n vvith b l o o d e a c h year t o m a r k his m u r d e r ; a n d he reeords t h a t on M o u n t L e b a n o n 3 b o v e B y b l o s t h e r e vvas a n a n c i e n t s a n c t u a r y o f A p h r o d i t e . L u c i a n ' s a c c o u n t is v a g u e ; but he m u s t b e s p c a k i n g o f t h e river novv c a l l e d N a h r i b r a h i m a t vvhose s o u r c c lay the m o u n t a i n - s a n c t u a r y o f A p h a c a ; as vve savv, t h e n o t o r i e t y o f t h e ritual prostitution c o n d u c t e d here vvas s u c h that t h e s a n c t u a r y vvas d e s t r o y e d on the orders o f C o n s t a n t i n e . " L u c i a n m a k e s n o c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n betvveen t h e m y t h o f A d o n i s a n d this site. B u t t h e S y r i a c Oration

of Melitort

the Philosofther

d o c s , t h o u g h substitutiııg

' B a l t h i , q u c e n o f C y p r u s ' , f o r A p h r o d i t e a n d Tamu/, f o r A d o n i s : a t the e n d , the a u t h o r s a y s , ' B a l t h i r e m a i n e d in G e b a l , a n d s h e died in the city o f A p h a c a , vvhere T a m u z is b u r i c d ' . " T h e s e v a r y i n g a c c o u n t s d e m o n s t r a t e painfully t h a t

7 . D o n ı ı c r a ı ı d R ö l l i g , K A I , n o s . 4 - 7 a n d c s p . 1 0 ( t h e i n s e r i p t i o n o f Y c h a w ı n i l k ) . F o r tlıc stele

scc, e . g . , CIS I, Pl. I; J. B. P r i t c h a r d , Ih* Ancient 8. Scc t h e s u r v e y b y B . Soyc/., Byblos

Near

Kast I ( 1 9 5 8 ) , l i g . >30.

et la fete. des Adonies

( 1 9 7 7 ) , 4~5 a n d 1 6 - 2 8 ; this

b o o k is a l s o essenrial f o r v v h a t f o l l o v v s . 9 . Ceog.

X V I , 2, 1 8 ( 7 5 5 ) .

1 0 . L u c i a n , de dea Syria,

6-9.

n . 5.3 a b o v e . 12. S c c W . C u r c t o n , Spicilegium

Syriacum

{ 1 8 5 5 ) , c s p . 4 4 (English t r a n s . ) , a n d 7 . 2 a b o v e ,

otı H i e r a p o l i s . T h e r e is 110 s u b s e q u e n t t c x t o r c o m n ı c n t a r y .

w e c a n n o t r e a c h a 4 t r u c ' a c c o u n t o f vvhat such c c r c m o n i a l s , o r t h e d e i t i c s vvorshipped in t h e m , really 'vvere*. T h e t e m p l e o f t h e 'mistress o f G B L ' .surely vvas o n the a e r o p o l i s o f B y b l o s , a n d the s a m e t e m p l e m a y b e t h a t vvhich L ı ı ciatı a s e r i b e s t o A p h r o d i t e ; b o t h might b e idcntified vvith the f e m a l e deity, n o r m a l l y labelled ' A s t a r t e ' , vvho a p p e a r s on s o m e c o i n s vvith t h e legend ' o f s a c r e d B y b l o s ' , a n d is s o m e t i m e s represented vvithin the c o l u m n s o f a t e m p l e . B u t ali s u c h idcntifications a r e speculative, as is a n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e f a m o ı ı s c o i n o f B y b l o s from the rcign o f M a c r i n u s ( 2 1 7 / 2 1 8 ) , shovving a t a l i c o n i c a l o b j e c t vvithin a r e e t a n g u l a r p r e c i n c t , itself a p p r o a c h e d b y s e p a r a t e flight o f steps, leading t o a s m a l l t e m p l e a p p a r e n t l y a t t a c h c d t o the outer s i d e o f o n c p o r t i c o . 1 3 Is t h e tali c o n e an a n i c o n i c c u l t - o b j e c t , o r even vvhat P l ı i l o o f B y b l o s deseribed a s a ' b e t y P , a ' s t o n e i m b u e d vvith psyehe

(empsycbosyi

O r d o e s the p y r a m i d - s h a p e n o t suggest r a t h e r a t o m b , o f a type vvell a t t e s t e d in the N e a r E a s t — a n d perhaps t h e t o m b o f T a m u z , o r A d o n i s , at A p h a c a ? : f l Such a very distinetive a r c h â t c c t u r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n m u s t be intended t o display s o m e ı h i n g specific t o t h e city. B u t if it is a n a l l u s i o n t o a ' t o m b o f A d o n i s ' , it is n o t e x p l i c i t , a n d vvould b e the o n l y s u c h a l l u s i o n on t h e c o i n s o f the city. A s s o o f t e n , vve c a n n o t press t h e c v i d e n c c t o o far in trying t o m a k e it yield c o h e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n s . We are in s o m e sense on firmer g r o u n d in c o n c e n t r a t i n g on d e d i c a t i o n s o f f e r e d in the t e r r i t o r y o f B y b l o s t o l o c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f Z e u s : t o ' Z e u s in R c s a ' f r o m t h e city itself; o r t o ' Z e u s ( t h e ) hcavenly, highest, Saarnaios, Saamaios

a t t e n t i v e ' a t A b d a t , n o r t h - e a s t o f the city, vvhere

c i e a r l y indicates t h e n a m e o f t h e locality. But it is again s p e c u l a t i o n

t o see these G r c c k d e d i c a t i o n s a s reflectioııs o f a n atıcicnt S e m i t i c B a ' a l , a g o d of storms and mountains.'5 T h e s e f r a g m e n t a r y iterns o f evidence, hovvever e n i g m a t i c , a r e o f c r u c i a l i m p o r t a n c e precisely because t h e y a r e l o c a l i s a b l c e x p r c s s i o n s o f p e r s o n a l o r g r o u p o b s e r v a n c e . But t h e y o f f e r o n l y m o d e s t a s s i s t a n c e vvhen vve t r y t o i n t e r pret t h e o n l y knovvn e x p l i c i t a t t e m p t m a d e in the i m p e r i a l period t o i n t e r p r e t P h o e n i c i a n cults a n d bcliefs f o r a G r e e k a u d i e n c e , t h e Phoenicica

of Philo o f

B y b l o s , a p p a r e n t l y vvritten a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s c c o n d c e n t u r y AD. 16 O n l y a b a r e s t a t e m e n t o f vvhat this c t ı i g m a t i c vvork s e e m s t o a m o u n t t o is p o s s i b l e

1 3 . BMC Cilies:

Phoenicia,

Architecture

1 0 2 , n o . 3 6 ; PL. x i i , 1 3 . S e c M . J. l ' r i c c a n d B . I.. T r e l l , Coins

on the Ancient

Coins

of Greece,

Rome

and Palcstine

and

Their

(1977), 1 5 1 - 1 5 2 and

z71'

fig-

1 4 . S o S o y e z , o p . cit., 4 1 - 4 3 . 1 5 . Kor tlıc c v ı d c n c e a n d t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , S o y c z , o p . cit. ( n . 8 ) , 8 7 . r f>. T h e f r a g m e n t s , a l m o s t ali f r o m E u s e b i u s ' Praeparalio FCrli

R . A . O d e n , Philo cian History gie

Evangelica,

a r e c o l l e c t c d in J a c o b y ,

2 9 0 , w h o s e t e * t is u s e d i n t h e t r a n s l a t i o n s a n d c o m m e n t a r i c s b y I I . W . A t t r i d g e a n d

(1986).

of Byhlos:

of Philo

The Phoenician

of Byblos

Ilistory

( 1 9 8 1 ) , a n d A , I. B a u m g a r t e n , The

( 1 9 8 1 ) . S e e novv a l s o I. S c h i f f m a n , Pböniziscb-Puniscbe

Phoeni-

Mytbola

-

h e r e . Wrirten in G r e e k , it c l a i m s t o b e a t r a n s l a t i o ı ı o f a vvork on t h e P h o e n i cian g o d s by o n c S a n c h u n i a t h o n o f B e r y t u s , d a t i n g f r o m b e f o r e the T r o j a n War. A s such, this c l a i m m u s t b c vvhoJly m i s l e a d i n g , T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , in a vvay f a m i l i a r from both I . u c i a n a n d the S y r i a c Oration

of Mel iton,

is a n e -

l a n g e o f G r e e k a n d ı ı o n - G r e e k e l e m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g in this c a s e E g y p t i a n o n e s ( o r r a t h e r G r e e k versions o f E g y p t i a n o n e s ) . i t s m a i n p r i n c i p l c o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , vvhich is s h a r c d b o t h b y t h e Oration

of Meliton

a n d , significantly, b y

J o s e p h u s vvhen s p e a k i n g o f c h e c h i e f g o d o f D a m a s c u s , ' 7 is t o s e e d e i t i e s a s h a v i n g been in o r i g i n carthly rulcrs o r o t h e r o u t s t a n d i n g individuals. T h e fact t h a t this c o n c e p t i o n is a s s o c i a t c d vvith t h e c a r l y - H c l l e n i s t i c p h i l o s o p h e r Euh e m e r u s vvould n o t o f itself p r o v e a n y t h i n g a b o u t t h e r e a l d a t e o f o r i g i n o f the c o n c e p t i o n s a p p e a r i n g iıı P h i l o . B u t it is in fact i n c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t vvhat P h i l o vvrote ( o r c o p i e d , o r i n t e r p r e t e d ) c o u l d b e c a r l i c r than t h e H c l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d ; a n d it m a y vvell b e o r i g i n a l t o h i m s e l f . T h a t vvould give it, i f a n y t h i n g , a n a d d e d s i g n i f i c a n c c . For, hovvever c o n fused the melange o f t r a d i t i o n s vvhich he b r i n g s t o the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f P h o e n i c i a n deities, his vvork d o c s c o n t a i n a series o f spccific, a n d largely r e l i a b l e , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f P h o e n i c i a n n a m e s a n d c o n c e p t s . T h u s f o r i n s t a n c e he says that 'Bcelsamcn' a m o n g the Plıoenicians means 'lord of Heaven' (B'L S M N ) , a n d is ' Z e u s ' in G r e e k . Lcss c l e a r l y , he s p c a k s o f tvvo deities c a l l e d M i s ö r and S y d y k , t e r m s vvhich he says rnean 'easily s o l v e d ' a n d ' j u s t ' . A l t h o u g h M Y S R a n d Ş D Q in fact b o t h m e a n ' j u s t ' , e v i d e n e e o f t h e s e c o n d m i l l e n n i u m BC f r o m R a s S h a m r a d o c s reveal a g o d vvith t h e d o u b l e n a m e Ş D Q M S R . ' 8 S i g n i f i c a n t in a different vvay is his s t a t e m e n r t h a t a single s o n is 'stili even novv' c a l l e d by the P h o c n i c i a n s ' l e o u d ' ( Y H Y D ) . T h e vvork c a n n o t bc t a k e n as a f a c t u a l r e p o r t o n e s t a b l i s h c d c o m m u n a l belicfs; instead it is a n e r r a t i c , p s c u d o - s c h o l a r l y a t t e m p t t o c o m b i n e m y t h , advcnturous etymologies (often relatlng t o Greek names) a n d aspects o f local history. T h u s f o r i n s t a n c e ' K r o ı ı o s ' is said t o have f o u ı ı d e d the first city, B y b l o s , a n d ( l a t e r ) t o h a v e g i v e n it t o the g o d d c s s ' B a a l t i s ' (a n a m e vvhich m u s t derive f r o m B ' L T G B L ^ , vvhile he gave Berytus t o P o s e i d o n (vvho is i n deed p r o m i n e n t o n the city's c o i n s ) . W h a t P h i l o vvrote is first o f ali a reflecrion o f t h e l o n g - s t a n d i n g p r o m i n e n c c o f P h o e n i c i a n deities in G r c c k c u l t u r c . 3 u t it d o c s reveal g e n u i n e c o n n c c t i o n s betvveen P h o e n i c i a n cults o f a m u c h earlier p e r i o d a n d t h o s e o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e ; a n d it d o e s suggest t h a t a t l e a s t t h e m e a n i n g s o f iııdividual vvords in P h o e n i c i a n vvere stili u n d e r s t o o d . It leaves o p e n the q u e s t i o n o f vvhether P h o e n i c i a n vvas stili s p o k e n , o r vvritten; o r vvhether c o h e r e n t vvorks in P h o e n i c i a n vvere preserved, a n d c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d . A s vvith L u c i a n , a n d i n d e e d t h e Oration

T7. See 9 . 3 b e l o w . 1 8 . See B a u m g a r t c ı ı , o p . c i t . , 1 7 5 .

of Meliton,

it is precisely vvhen

a vvork vvritten in this p e r i o d a p p e a r s t o o f f c r a vvindovv into the m e a n i n g a n d n a t u r e o f ' O r i c n t a l ' cults t h a t it is a t its m o s t d c c c p t i v c . B e r y t u s a p p e a r s in t h e s u r v i v i n g f r a g m e n t s o f I'hilo's Phoenicica

as o n e

P h o e n i c i a n city a m o n g o t h e r s ( t h o s e m e n t i o n e d by n a m e a r e B y b l o s , B e r y t u s , S i d o n a n d T y r e ) ; it lies in the n a t u r e o f t h e vvork t h a t t h e reader vvould find n o a l l u s i o n in it t o t h e f a c t t h a t B e r y t u s h a d for ö v e r a c e n t u r y been a R o m a n colonia.

' I h e f a c t deserves e m p h a s i s , p a r t l y because this s t a t u s vvas t o b c

gained a l s o , in t h e S e v e r a n p e r i o d , b y T y r e a n d S i d o n . But in their c a s e it vvas t o be a m e r c q u c s t i o n o f s t a t u s , a n d a reflection o f the c o m p l c x set o f t r a d i t i o n s vvhich u n i t e d P h o e n i c i a t o t h e P u n i c cities o f N o r t h A f r i c a a n d t o R o m e , a n d c o n t r i b u t e d t o the i n v e n t i o n o f a R o m a n p r o v i n c e c a l l e d Syria P h o e n i c e . In the c a s e o f B e r y t u s , hovvever, t h e status rcflcctcd, a s vve have s e e n , t h e s e t t l e m e n t in r $ BC o f I . a t i n - s p e a k i n g legionaries, s p r e a d över a t e r r i t o r y vvhich ineluded the n o r t h e r n B e k a a Valley on the o t h e r side o f M o u n t L c b a n o n . It is n e c e s s a r y t h e r e f o r e , first, t o sum up t h e p r o f o u n d a n d l o n g - l a s t i n g c o n s c q u e n c c s o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f this uniqııc island o f R o m a n c u l t u r e iti t h e N e a r Kast; s e c o n d , t o a s k vvhat i f a n y t h i n g r e m a i n e d o f t h e G r e e k o r P h o e n i c i a n c u l t u r e o f t h e c i t y a n d its t e r r i t o r y ; a n d t h i r d , in t h e light o f these tvvo issues, t o l o o k a t H e l i o p o l i s a n d the c u l t , vvhich vvas t o b e knovvn t h r o u g h o u t the Kmpire, o f T u p p i t e r O p ı i m u s M a x i m u s H e l i o p o l i t a t ı u s V S o far as its official, p u b l i c i m a g e vvas c o n c e r n e d , t h e ' C o l o n i a Iulia A u g u s t a F e l i x B e r y t u s ' m i n t e d c o i n s vvhich a r e vvithout e x c e p t i o n in Latin untîl the cessation o f c o i n i n g in the 2 5 0 S . T h e ordo

(tovvn-council) o f the city c a n

a l s o b e f o u n d d e d i c a t i n g a s t a t u e vvith a L a t i n inseription a s l a t e as AD 3 4 4 . T h e city h a d t h e n o r m a l c o l o n i a I c o n s t i t u t i o n , vvith a tovvn-council a n d m a g istrates, o f vvhom the m o s t i m p o r t a n t vvere the tvvo a n n u a l duunıviri. vievv t a k e n h e r e , t h a t H e l i o p o l i s did n o t b e c o m e a s e p a r a t e colonia

O n the until t h e

reign o f S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s , 2 0 t h e vvorkings o f this u n a m b i g u o u s l y c o l o n i a l city c o n s t i t u t i o n vvill b c illustrated ( f o r c x a m p l e ) by t h e s t a t u e - b a s c ereeted a t H e l i o p o l i s u n d e r H a d r i a n in h o n o u r o f o n e M . L i c i n n i u s P o m p e n n a P o t i t u s U r b a n u s : he h a d been a t o v v n - c o u n c i l l o r (decurio)y local o f f i c c s — p o n t i f e x , agonotbetes, been p r i c s t (sacerdos)

a n d flatnen

a n d h a d held a series o f tnunerarius;

he h a d a l s o

o f luppiter Optimus M a x i m u s Heliopolitanus, and had

been g r a n t e d the h o n o u r o f the " p u b l i c h o r s e ' by H a d r i a n . 2 1 In c o ı ı ı b i n i n g local vvith I m p e r i a l r a n k , this m a n vvas a l s o very typical o f 1 9 . A l i t h e s e q u c s t i o n s are discus&ed in detail in M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

10-23

ant*

32—34; the treatment there w ı l l merely b c s u m m a t ı s c d here, a n d o n l y o c c a s ı o n a l salıcnt ıtcms o f e v i d e n c e vvill b e c i t e d . See also R . M o u t e r d e , " R e g a r d s sur B c y r o u l h p h c n i c i c n n c , h c l l e n i s t i q u c et r o m a i n c " , MUSJ n o w RPC

40 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , 1 4 5 . F o r the initial settlement see 2.1 a b o v e . For the c o i n s s c c

I, 6 4 8 - 6 5 1 .

20. 3.4 a b o v e . 21. I G I S VI, no. 2791.

t h e I . a t i n - s p c a k i n g ' c o l o n i a l ' p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e a r c a . A long series o f L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n s refleets the role in I m p e r i a l s c r v i c c o f s o l d i e r s a n d c c n t u r i o n s f r o m B e r y t u s . S o m e t i m e s t o o , m e n a r e f o u n d in the h i g h e r o r d e r s , a s e q u c s t r i a n o f f i c c r s , o r even as s e n a t o r s . O n e e x a m p l e is M . S e n t i u s P r o c u l u s , a t o v v n - c o u n c i l l o r a n d duumvir

o f thc colonia

in thc s e c o n d century, vvho also

h a d a n e q u e s t r i a n m i l i t a r y c a r e e r b e f o r e e n t e r i n g the R o m a n S c n a t c . T h c ins e r i p t i o n set up t o h i m in B e r y t u s is a reflection o f the c o n s c i o u s l o y a l i s n ı o f this c o l o n i a l c o m m u n i t y a n d o f t h e c o n t i n u e d use o f L a t i n t h e r e . " It vvas surely this c o n s c i o u s l y ' R o m a n ' c h a r a c t c r o f t h c p l a c c vvhich m e a n t t h a t , a t lcast f r o m t h e earîıer t h i r d c e n t u r y onvvards, it vvas t o t h e r e t h a t y o u n g m e n f r o m v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h c G r c c k E a s t t e n d e d t o gravitate in o r d e r t o s t u d y R o m a n lavv. W e can find e x a m p ! c s , f o r i n s t a n c c , f r o m N e o c a e s a r c a in P o n t u s , f r o m Cilicia a n d from the p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a . W e knovv n o t h i n g o f t h c f o r m a l s t r u c t u r c o f t c a c h i n g there, a ı ı d are hardly entitled t o speak o f a 'Lavv S c h o o l ' . R a t h e r it vvas t h e vvider, ' R o m a n ' c u l t u r a l setting a n d t h e possibility o f instructioıı in R o m a n lavv i n different ' s c h o o l s ' (auditoria)

finding

vvhich a t t r a c t e d

t h e m . T h c c s t a b l i s h m c n t o f a t r a d i t i o n o f R o m a n lavv t e a c h i n g here vvas t o be o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e in the l a t e E m p i r e ; b u t its significance f o r o u r p u r p o s e s lies r a t h e r in thc p a r a d o x t h a t B e r y t u s , as a ' R o m a n ' o r ' L a t i n ' p l a c c , c a m e t o p l a y a r o l e in t h e vvider c u l t u r e o f t h e E m p i r e vvhich c o u l d n o t b e m a t e h e d by a n y o f t h e G r e e k c i t i c s o f t h c N e a r E a s t e r n r c g i o n . T l ı o u g h o f c o u r s e G r e e k s o p h i s t s a n d vvriters c a m e from

m a n y different citics in t h c r c g i o n , until dıe

m i d - f o u r t h c c n t u r y noııe o f these cities b e c a m e a p l a c e to vvhich s t u d c n t s c a m e f r o m o t h e r p r o v i n c c s . Iıı t h e m a p o f the p a g a n G r e e k c u l t u r e o f dıe I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , the N e a r E a s t r e m a i n c d firmly in t h c s c c o n d r a n k . At lcast o n e o f these G r e e k vvriters, H e r m i p p o s , vvho vvrote o n ' S l a v c s w h o distinguishcd themselves in paideia\

c a m e f r o m B e r y t u s itself, o r r a t h e r f r o m

an i n l a n d village in its t e r r i t o r y . T h e i n s c r i p t i o n a l r e c o r d , s c a n t y t h o u g h î t is, d o e s indeed shovv t h a t G r e e k as vvell as L a t i n r e m a i n e d in use. S i n c e t h e r e is n o r c a s o n t o suppose t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s o f the city a n d its t e r r i t o r y h a d been driven o u t , t h a t is n o t surprising. W h a t is s t r i k i n g is m e r e l y t h a t thc ' R o m a n ' , o r c o l o n i a l , c h a r a c t c r o f thc p l a c c a l s o m a i n t a i n e d itself, vvithout t h e r e b e i n g , as in o t h e r coloniae

in the G r e e k E a s t , a s t e a d y reversion t o g e n -

eral use o f G r c c k . i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e c i t y a l s o reflect t h e vvorship t h e r e o f a r c m a r k a b l e r a n g e o f R o m a n dcities: L i b e r Pater, V e n ü s , M c r c u r i u s , A p o l l o , D i a n a , M a r s , P r o s e r p i n a , a n d p e r h a p s C e r e s , a s vvell a s the F o r t u n a a n d G e n i u s o f t h e colonia,

a n d the Fa t a . T h e m o s t surprising i m p o r t a t î o n m u s t b e M a t e r M a t u t a ,

an a n c i e n t deity vvhose t e m p l e vvas t o b e f o u n d in t h e F o r u m B o a r i u m a t 2 2 . R . C a g ı ı a t , " M . S e n t i u s P r o c u i u s de B c y r o u t h " , Syria 7 ( 1 9 2 6 ) , 6 7 ; AF. ( 1 9 2 9 ) , n o . 1 5 0 ; H . D e v i j v e r , P M E II ( 1 9 7 7 ) , S . 2 5 .

R o m e . B u t it is p r c c i s c l y t h e i d e n t i t y o f the o n e knovvn dedicator, a n d t h e p l a c e vvhere the d e d i c a t i o n vvas m a d e , vvhich begins t o raise t h e q u c s t i o n o f vvhat o t h e r e l e m e n t s might h a v e been present in the s o c i a l a n d religious c u l ture o f Berytus a n d its t e r r i t o r y . F o r t h e L a t i n d c d i c a t i o n t o M a t c r M a t u f a vvas m a d e , follovving a n o r a c u l a r r e s p o n s e f r o m I u n o , by a lady c a l l e d F l a v i a N i c o l a i s (also c a l l e d ) S a d d a n e , vvho h a s a G r c e k - S c m i t i c n a m e , a n d m u s t c o m e f r o m a local family vvhich gained t h e R o m a n citizenship in the F l a v i a n p e r i o d . S h c h a s thus a d o p t e d a n i m p o r t e d , a n d distinetively ' R o m a n ' , c u l t . 1 3 W e vvill see s h o r t l y an even c l e a r e r e x a m p l e o f s u c h an i m p o r t a t i o n , in t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f ' M e r c u r i u s D o m i n u s ' a s a deity in a r e m o t e m o u n t a i n v i l l a g e . 2 4 T h e site vvhere F l a v i a N i c o l a i s m a d e h e r d e d i c a t i o n vvas n o t r e m o t e , b u t it vvas a hillside sanetuary, o n t h e slopes o f M o u n t L e b a n o n o v e r l o o k i n g B e r y tus. T h i s is a p l a c e c a l l e d D e r e l - K 3 İ a , vvhere t h e r e is a vvhole series o f d e d i c a tions, in b o t h G r e e k a n d L a t i n , t o a deity c a l l e d ' T h e o s B a l m a r k ö d ' , o r ' Z e u s B a l m a r k ö d ' ; a G r c c k i n s e r i p t i o n addressing h i m as ' l o r d o f d a n c e s ' { ' k o i r a n e kömön')

makes

it c e r t a i n t h a t

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M R Q D , h a d the s a m e m e a n i n g ; f o r the r o o t R Q D m e a n s ' d a n c e ' . A s so o f t e n , t h e r e f o r e , vvc c a n see t h a t t h e m e a n i n g o f a divine n a m e in a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g c vvas knovvn, a n d the n a m e c o u l d be r e p r o d u c e d in t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n in G r e e k . But it is n o t a c c o m p a n i e d by a n y inseribed t e x t s in a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e ; s o vvhether t h e l a n g u a g e in q u e s t i o n r e m a i ı ı e d in use t h e r e is u n c e r t a i n . T h o u g h ali o u r inseribed e v i d e n e e f r o m D e r e l - K a l a , in G r e e k a n d I . a t i n , c o m e s f r o m t h e Imperial p e r i o d , a s do the r e m a i n s o f t h e t e m p l e t h e r e (vvhich m a y be o f t h e first c e n t u r y A D ) , " it is very likely t h a t the c u l t r e p r e s e n t s t h e o b s e r v a n c c b y the Latin- a n d G r e e k - s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n o f the colonia

of a

l o n g - c s t a b l i s h c d local c u l t . I f s o , it is o f s o m e i m p o r t a n c e t h a t i n s e r i p t i o n s q u i t e frequently refer t o the g o d as 'l(uppiter) O ( p t i m u s ) M ( a x i m u s ) B ( a l m a r c o d ) ' , t h u s treating this local deity as in s o m e vvay a n e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t R o m a n deity, l u p p i t e r O p t i m u s M a x i m u s , vvhosc t e m p l e h a d s t o o d o n the C a p i t o l in R o m e since t h e l a t e s i x t h c e n t u r y BC. A s is vvell knovvn, the s a m e a p p e l l a t i o n c a m e i n t o vvidespread use for t h e c h i e f m a l e deity o f H e l i o p o l i s : ' l u p p i t e r O p t i m u s M a x i m u s H e l i o p o l i t a n u s * . It is a n a t u r a ! a s s u m p t i o n t h a t h e r e t o o vvc have a local B a ' a l , vvho h a s b e c o m e e i t h e r ' l u p p i t e r ' o r ' Z e u s H e l i o p o l i t e s ' . H c is o f t e n , though b y n o m e a n s a l vvays, a s s o c i a t e d in i n s e r i p t i o n s vvith tvvo o t h e r R o m a n deities, V e n ü s a n d M e r c u r i u s . l i c n c e t h e r e h a s b e e n a t e m p t a t i o n , vvhich h a s even been i n c o r p o rated i n t o t h e title o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t m o d e r n vvork on the g o d s o f H e liopolis, t o see this g r o u p o f R o m a n deities as r e p r e s e n t i n g a ' S e m i t i c triad",

2 3 . CIL

III, n o .

6680.

2 4 . T c x t t o n . 3 2 belovv. 2 5 . K t e n c k c r a n d Z s c h i c t s c h m a n n , Römische

Teıttpel

I, 1—3.

282 1

8. T H E P H O E N I C I A N C O A S T A N D ı T S

HıNTERLAND

a n d t o a s s c r t t h a t t h e r e is n o d o u b t these n a m e s relate t o ' S e m i t i c ' divine b c i n g s , H a d a d , A t a r g a t i s a n d a m i n ö r m a l e c o n s o r t vvhose native n a m e is unknovvn." But is t h e r e really n o d o u b t ? F i r s t , n o w h e r e in t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y e v i d c n c c is t h e r e any c x p l i c i t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e I u p p i t c r o f H e l i o p o l i s vvith H a d a d , o r o f V e n ü s vvith A t a r g a t i s . T h e r e might h a v e b e e n : for, a s P h i l o o f B y b l o s n o t e d , 'tlıe P h o e n i c i a n s s a y t h a t A s t a r t e is A p h r o d i t e ' . 2 7 T h e d i v i n e n a m e s ' H a d a r a ı ı ' (if n o t precisely ' H a d a d ' ) a n d ' A t a r g a t i s ' , o r ' t h e S y r i a n G o d d e s s ' , d o i n d e e d a p p e a r in this r e g i o n : n o t , hovvever, a t H e l i o p o l i s , b u t at a n o t h e r very interesting local s e t t l e m e n t a n d c u l t - c e n t r e , N i h a , 011 the eastern side o f M o u n t L e b a n o n , a n d s o m e 2.5 k m south-vvest o f H e l i o p o l i s . 2 8 H e r e vve h a v e vvhat s e e m s very c l e a r e v i d e n c e o f L a t i n - s p c a k i n g settlers s u b s c r i b i n g t o : h e c u l t o f a deity vvhom t h e y s a w a s b o t h local a n d ' S y r i a n ' : f o r a L a t i n inseript i o n shovvs a ' p a g u s A u g u s t u s ' (a village, o r a s s o c i a t i o n o f settlers) m a k i n ç a d c d i c a t i o n on b e h a i f o f t h e E m p e r o r t o the ' D c a Suria N i h a t h c ( n a ) ' ; o t h e r i n s e r i p t i o n s revcal H o c h m a c a , a virgin (priestess) o f borh t h e *Deus H a d r a ı ı i s ' a n d t h e ' D e a S y r ( i a ) N i h a t ( e n a ) ' , vvho is deseribed in G r e e k as the ' t h e a A t a r g a t i s ' . T h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t vve a r e c o n f r o n t e d vvith a c u l t vvhich the p o p u l a t i o n living t h e r e in t h e i m p e r i a l p e r i o d c o n s c i o u s l y savv as ' S y r i a n ' is reinf o r c e d b y a relief shovving a priest in a l o n g t u n i c b o u n d b y a girdle, and vvearing a tali c o n i c a l h a t — v e r y s i m i l a r in b r o a d t e r m s t o t h e c o s t u m e of a p r i c s t represented o n a r e l i e f a t I l i e r a p o l i s . 2 9 T h i s m a t e r i a l , a l o n g vvith : h c r e m a i n s o f tvvo s u b s t a n t i a l t c m p l e s a t a n o t h e r s a n e t u a r y ( H o s n N i h a ) f u r t h e r u p t h e valley, is c e r t a i n l y e v i d e n c e o f t h e o b s e r v a n c e o f local c u l t s , o f the e x t r a o r d i n a r y a r c h i t e c t u r a l c a p a c i t i e s o f N e a r E a s t e r n village c o m m u n i t i e s in t h e i m p e r i a l p e r i o d , a n d o f a c o n c e p t i o n o n t h e part o f t h e vvorshippers t h a t t h e c u l t vvas s o m e t h i n g distinetively r e g i o n a l . T h e r e is, hovvever, n o t h i n g distinctivcly ' P h o e n i c i a n ' here; a n d n o c o m p a r a b l e a l l u s i o n s t o H a d a d ( o r H a d a r a n ) o r t o A t a r g a t i s ( o r ' t h e S y r i a n G o d d e s s ' ) a r c knovvn in r e l a t i o n t o Hel i o p o l i s o r its g o d s . O n the c o n t r a r y , a b i l i n g u a l inseription in G r e e k a n d L a t i n f r o m B e r y : u s

2 6 . Y. H a j j a r , La Iriade d'Heliopolis/Baalbek

I—III ( 1 9 7 7 - 1 9 8 5 ) . Scc v o l . II, p . 5 1 1 : *I! n e

f a i t a u c u n d o u t e que c e s d e n o m i n a t i o n s r e c o u v r e n ı d e s entites semitiques a v e c H a d a d , A t a r g ı t i s et un p a r S d r e ınincur doııt o u i g ı ı o r e le n o m iııdigene'. Since I t a k e a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a < h , it is o n l y right t o a c k ı ı o v v l c d g c the c x c e p t i o n a l l e a r n i ı ı g iıı this m a j ö r w o r k . 2 7 . FGrH

7 9 0 F . i o (31).

1 8 . F o r t h e t c m p l e s see K r e ı ı c k e r a n d Z s c h i c t s c h m a n n , Römiscbe

Tempel

1 , 1 0 5 - 1 3 7 . For

N i h a sec a b o v e ali J.-P. R c y - C o q u a i s , " l > c s m o n t a g n e s a u desert: B a c t o c c c c , Ic p a g u s A u g u s t u s d c N i h a , la G h o u t . ı â l'est d c D a m a s " , in F.. Frczouls (cd.), Societes dans

i'Asie

Mineure

et la Syrie helienîstiques

inseriptions o f N i h a a n d H o s n N i h a a r e IGLS 29. 7 . 2 above.

et romaines

tırbaines,

socîetes

rurales

( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 9 1 , o n pp. 1 9 8 - 2 0 7 .

VI, nos. 2 9 2 8 - 2 9 4 8 .

The

shovvs ' t h e a A t a r g a t i s ' i n G r e e k

e q u a t e d vvith * D c a S y r i a ' in L a t i n , vvhile

'Venııs I l e l i o p o l i t a n a ' is m e n t i o n e d scparatcly.*0 T h e explicit evidence t h u s c o u n t s c l e a r l y a g a i n s t a n i d c n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s V e n ı ı s vvith A t a r g a t i s . m u c l ı - c a n v a s s e d n o t i o n o f a t r i a d is a l s o d u h i o u s . W h e n H e l i o p o l i s b e c a m c a s e p a r a t e colonia

The finally

u n d e r S e p t i m i u s S c v c r u s , i t s c o i n s , vvith l e g e n d s

a l m o s t ali in L a t i n , d u l y n a m e ' I . O . M . H ' a n d r e p r e s e n t h i s t e m p l e , vvith a flight o f steps leading to it;31 b u t they give n o hint o f a n y ' t r i a d ' . T h e t e m p l e slıovvn m u s t b e t l ı c f a m o u s m a j o r t e m p l e o f B a a l b e k , vvith s t e p s l e a d i n g t o a h e x a g o n a l f o r c c o u r t , a n d b c h i ı ı d it a n o t h e r v a s t r e e t a n g u l a r f o r e c o u r t vvith a n a l t a r , b e f o r e t h e t e m p l e itself. l u p p i t e r a l s o h a d h i s ovvn sacerdos,

a s vve savv a b o v e . T h e t e m p l e o f V e n ı ı s m a y vvell h a v e b e e n t h e o t h e r

t e m p l e vvhich lies p a r a l l e l t o t h e ttıaiıı o n e , o n i t s s o u t h e r n s i d e . B u t t h a t o f M e r c u r i u s is k n o v v n t o h a v e b e e n o n a d i f f e r e n t s i t e , a s m a l l hill ö v e r a k i l o m e tre to the south. In t h e c a s e o f M e r c u r i u s it is o f s o m e i n t e r e s t t h a t vve s e e t h e o p p o s i t e p r o c e s s t o t h e a d o p t i o n o f ' n a t i v c ' c u l t s b y R o m a n s e t t l c r s , t h a t is, t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f a n i m p o r t e d c o l o n i a l c u l t i n t o a r e m o t e v i l l a g e c o n t e x t . Iı» t h e L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n s o f t h e a r c a , j u s t a s V e n ı ı s is s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d ' V e n ü s d o m i t ı a ' ( ' m i s t r e s s ' ) , M e r c u r i u s c a n a p p e a r a s ' M e r c u r i u s d o m i n u s ' . T h i s is hovv h e i s d e s c r i b c d , in G r e e k t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n , in a n i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m t h e f r i e z e o f a s m a l l t e m p l e a t N e b i H a m , vvhich l i e s in a r e m o t e v a l l e y betvveen t h e f o o t h i l l s o f A n t i - L e b a n o ı ı and the main r a n g c , a n d s o m e 15 k m south o f Baalbek.-'2 T h e i n s e r i p t i o n r e v e a l s b o t h t h a t N e b i H a m , l i k e s o m a n y o t h e r v i l l a g e s in t h e r e g i o n , h a s k e p t its a n c i e n t n a m e a n d that its I m p e r i a l f o r e r u t ı n e r p o s s e s s e d a c o m p l e x political strueture: T o M c r k o u r i o s D ö m i n o s , ( t h e g o d ) o f the village (könte)

C h a m ö n , year

4 8 4 (AD 1 7 2 / 1 7 3 ) , priest T i t o s s o n o f I a u d a , s a c r e d t r e a s u r e r s B a s a s son o f S a a r i t a a n d O u b e s o s , t h e v i l l a g e built ( t h e t e m p l e ) , a n d B c l i a b o s son o f S a p l ı a r a r c c o r d c d ( m e t ? ) t h e c o s t s o f t h e village. l ' h l a k o s (I-'laccus?) (vvas) t h e teehnites

(builder?).

T h e g o d for vvhom t h e y built this t e m p l e under M a r c u s Aurelius can o n l y h a v e derived his n a m e f r o m t h e ' M e r c u r i u s ( d o m i n u s ) ' o f t h e m a j o r cııltc e n t r e o f H e l i o p o l i s , vvhich vvas s t i l i a n o u t l y i ı ı g p a r t o f tlıc c o l o n i a l t e r r i t o r y o f B e r y t u s ; it t o o m a y h a v e b e e n in f o r m a l t e r m s a l>agus.

T h e vast temples

o f H e l i o p o l i s vvere c o n s t r u c t e d — o n vvhose i n i t i a t i v e a n d a t vvhose e x p e n s e vve d o n o t k n o v v — i t i t h e c o ı ı r s e o f tlıc first tvvo c e n t u r i e s , a n d c e r t a i n l y b e f o r e

30. H a j j a r , o p . cit., n o . i l i . 31. BMC

Syria,

290-195.

3 2 . Scc K r c n c k c r a n d Z s c h i c t s c h ı n a n n , Kömische r68.

Ttmpel

1, 1 6 8 - 1 7 1 ; Hajjar, o p . cir., n o .

t h e p l a c e b e c a n ı e a s e p a r a t e colonia.

O v c r t h c s a m e period t h c c u l t o f I u p p i t e r

o f H e l i o p o l i s ( a n d s o m e t i m e s o f V e n ü s a n d M e r c u r i u s ) a l s o s p r e a d t o large p a r t s o f thc N e a r E a s t , a n d t o m a n y o t h e r r e g i o n s o f the E m p i r e . If the n o t i o n o f a ' t r i a d ' is in reality \vithout f o u n d a t i o n , t h a t is n o t t o p r o v e t h a t t h e c o n c e p t i o ı ı o f this ' I u p p i t e r ' , o r ' Z e u s ' , did n o t o w c m u c h t o a n earlier ' B a ' a l ' vvorshippcd o n t h c s a m e site. T h e r e certainly h a d been a cult o f Z e u s t h e r e in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . B u t vvhat vve knovv o f hovv t h e Iuppiter o f H e l i o p o l i s vvas c o n c e i v c d o f is in effcct based o n l y on his c h a r a c t c r istic i c o n o g r a p h y : a god s t a n d i n g e r e c t , vvcaring a high E g y p t i a n - s t y l e h a r !at bos),

(ka-

a n d dressed in a right t u n i c vvhich c o m e s d o w n t o h i s feet a n d is

divided into figured p a n e l s ; his right a r m is r a i s e d a n d b r a n d i s h e s a vvhip, vvhile his left h o l d s a b u n c h o f e a r s o f c o r n ; a n d h c is flanked on e i t h e r side b y a bull. B u t here again t h e r e is a p r o b l e m . O f ali the

figurines,

reliefs o r c o i n s

r e p r e s e n t i n g a d c i t y o f this ( o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y this) type, o n l y tvvo a r c a c t u a l l y l a b c l l e d a s ' I u p p i t e r O p t i m u s M a x i m u s H c l i o p o l i t a n u s ' — a n d o n e o f these is f r o m S u k n c h , e a s t o f P a l m y r a , for vvhich a P a l m y r e n e s c u l p t o r h a d been e m p l o y e d . T h c essential f e a t ı ı r e s o f the i c o n o g r a p h y a r c r e t a i n e d , but t h e s : y l c is P a l m y r e n e . 3 ' T h a t

apart,

t h e r e is p r c c i s c l y o n c a l t a r from

( N î m c s ) , d c d i c a t c d , b y a pritnus

pilus

Nemausus

(senior c e n t u r i o n ) f r o m B e r y t u s . t o

' I . O . M . H e l i o p o l i t a n ( o ) ' , a n d vvith a b a s - r e l i e f i n c o r p o r a t i n g ali thc f e a t u r e s m e n t i o n e d . ' 4 T h a t m o s t i c o n o g r a p l ı i c r c p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f this t y p c , vvhich includc s o m c coins of citics o t h e r than Heliopolis, for instance Ptolemais {but not H e l i o p o l i s itself), c o m e f r o m s o u t h e r n Syria o r P h o e n i c i a is clear. H c n c e t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o d o u b t t h a t this vvas a distinetively r e g i o n a l f o r m o f c u l t i m a g e . B u t it vvould a l s o b c c o m p a t i b l c vvith t h e e v i d e n c e t o s a y t h a t rhis r e g i o n a l f o r m o f c u l t - i m a g e w a s also used t o r e p r e s e n t t h e I u p p i t e r o r Z e u s of Heliopolis. T h e pitfalls in a t t e m p r i n g t o c h a r a c t c r i s c t h e cults o f this r c g i o n a r c thus ali t o o o b v i o u s . It is n o t even c l e a r vvhether a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n its a t t a c h m e ı ı t t o B e r y t u s as t h e territory o f A u g u s t u s ' colonia,

o r its l o c a t i o ı ı vvithin the later

p r o v i n c c o f ' S y r i a P h o e n i c c ' , vvould j u s t i f y o u r t h i n k i n g o f I I c l i o p o l i s a n d t h c B e k a a V a l l e y a s ' P h o c n i c i a n ' a t ali. Y e t vve h a v e already n o t e d t h a t E u s e b i u s s a w t h e c u l t o f ' A p h r o d i t e ' ( V e n ü s ) a t H e l i o p o l i s as o n e o b s e r v e d by ' P h o e n i c i a n s ' , a n d t h a t C o n s t a n t i n e ' s m e a s u r e s vvere direeted a g a i n s t ritual p r o s î i t u t i o n t h e r e . " I n this C h r i s t i a n vievv, the colonia,

I u p p i t e r a n d M e r c u r i u s have

ali v a n i s h e d . Y e t E u s e b i u s vvas a t l e a s t a c o n t e m p o r a r y , living in a n e i g h b o u r -

3 3 . H a j j a r , o p . c i t . , n o . 1 8 6 a n d Pl. I . X X . For this d e d i c a t i o n b y a R o m a n a u x i l i a r y o f f i c c r scc 4 . 1 , tcxt to n.z. 34. Hajjar, o p . cit., no. 283. 3 5 . 5.3 a b o v c .

ing c i t y . B u t t h e o ı ı e - s i d e d n e s s o f e v e n h i s t e s t i m o n y s h o u l d m a k e u s b e w a r e o f b a s i n g i n t c r p r e t a t i o n s o f a n y o f t h e s e c u l t s o n r e t r o s p e c t i v e a n a l y s e s vvritt e n in t h e l a t e E m p i r e . T h e m o s t d u b i o u s o f a l i i s p e r h a p s t h a t o f M a c r o b i u s , vvriting in t h e fifth c e n t u r y , vvho m a n a g e s t o i d e n t i f y t h e g o d o f H e l i o p o l i s a s both luppiter and Apollo/Sol, a t ı d t o g o o n t o state that the 'Assyrii' identify the s u p r c m c g o d as S o l , cali h i m A d a d ( m e a n i n g 'ıınus, u n ı ı s * — h y p o t h e t i c a l l y ' H D , ' H D ) a n d give h i m a c o n s o r t called Adargatis.36 W h a t e v e r t h e startingp o i n t o f o u r a p p r o a c h t o t h e s e c u l t s , it s h o u l d n o t b e t h i s . A s vvas s a i d at t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e m o r e c x p l i c i t o u r e v i d e n e e , t h e m o r e it r e p r e s e n t s a c o n s t r u c t i o n b y t h e o b s e r v c r . İ f vve b e g i n f r o m t h e d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n e e , t h e i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e c o l o n i a 1 t e r r i t o r y , d i v i d c d i n t o t h a t o f tvvo

most coloniae

b y S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s , i s p r e c i s e l y t h a t vvhich m a k e s a c o n t r a s t vvith a l i o t l ı e r r e g i o n s o f t h e N e a r E a s t : t h e c r c a t i o n o f a c o l o n i a l vvorld vvhere L a t i n c o n t i n ued to b e used a n d the m a i n g o d s h a d n a m e s borrovved f r o m the

Roman

pantheon. It t h u s r e m a i n s h i g h l y u n c e r t a i n vvhat, i f a n y t h i n g , r e m a i n e d o f t h e P h o c n i c i a ı ı c u l t u r e o f B e r y t u s a n d i t s h i n t e r l a n d . N o s i m i l a r p r o b l e m a r i s e s vvitlı t h e tvvo c h i e f ( a n d r i v a l ) P h o e n i c i a n c i t i e s , T y r e a n d S i d o n , e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e are n o P h o e n i c i a n inseriptions f r o m either in the Imperial period, and b o t h b c c a m e R o m a n coloniae

under t h e Scvcran dynasty.

8.5

S İ D O N

A N D

TYRF.

S i d o n a n d T y r e f o r m a c l e a r l y diefincd p a i r , b u t a l s o n e e d t o b e t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y , if o n l y b c c a u s c s o m u c h l e s s e v i d e n e e i s a v a i l a b l e f o r S i d o n in t h e I m p e rial p e r i o d . ' T h e r e is a m a r k e d c o n t r a s t vvith t h e H c l l c n i s t i c a g e , vvhen P h o e n i c i a n i n s e r i p t i o n s left b y S i d o n i a n s a b r o a d in t h e G r e e k vvorld a r e vvell a t t e s t e d ; a n d t h e p r o m i n e t ı c e o f t h e c i t y i s r e f l e e t e d in i t e m s o f e v i d e n e e f r o m S h e c h e m in S a m a r i a , l a m n i a o n t h e c o a s t o f P a l e s t i n e a n d I d u m a e a t ı M a r i s a , ali

of

vvhich r e v e a l c o m m u n i t i e s vvho i d e n t i f i e d t h e m s e l v e s a s ' S i d o n i a n s ' . 2 I ı ı t h e R o m a n period the m o s t distinetive surviving tracc o f the public c h a r a c t e r o f S i d o n is p r o v i d c d b y i t s c o i n s . 3 F o r ,

first,

u n t i l t h e 4 0 S ALI, t h e c i t y m i n t e d

c o i n s u n d e r its ovvn n a m e ( s o m e t i m e s in t h e f o r m ' o f S i d o n t h e s a c r c d a n d 36. M a c r o b i u s , Sat. I, 2 3 , 1 0 - 2 1 ; I l a j j a r , o p . cit., n o . 3 3 1 . t . F o r a gcr.cral s u r v e y s c c N\ J i d c j i a n , Sidon n o w RPCI,

through

the

Ages

( 1 9 7 1 } . F o r the c o i n s sec

<51-655.

i . See M i l l a r , " P h o e n i c i a n C i t i e s 1 ' , ^ 0 - 6 1 ; ' S i d o n i a n s ' in S h e c h e m : J o s e p h u s , Ant. ( 2 5 7 - 2 6 4 ) ; ' S i d o n i a n s ' in M a r i s a : OG/S,

n o . 5 9 3 ; ' S i d o n i a n s ' in l a m n i a : B. l s a a c , " A

i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m J a m n i a - o n - r h e Sca: A n t i o c h u s V E u p a t o r and the S i d o n i a n s " , IEJ 4 1

XII, 5, 5 Sclcucid (1991),

132. 3. F o r the pp. 182-199.

prc-colonial coinagc,

HMC

Phoenicia,

158-181;

f o r the c o l o n i a l

coinage,

i n v i o l a t e ' in G r e e k ) \vhich c a r r y n o r e f e r e n c e t o o r r e p r c s e n t a t i o n o f t h e reigning E m p e r o r . F o r t h a t r e a s o n t h e y are labelled by ı ı ı o d e r n s a s

'pscudo-

a u t o n o m o u s ' . S e c o n d , t h e r e a r e b r o n z e c o i n s , a l s o \vith n o r e f l c c t i o n o f t h e E m p e r o r , w i t h t h e P h o e n i c i a n legends ' o f the S i d o n i a n s ' ( L Ş D N M ) o r ' o f Sid o n ' ( L Ş D N ) , w h i c h a p p e a r r h r o u g h o u t t h e first c e n t ı ı r y AD. A v a r i a n t legend is ' o f S i d o n (the) g o d d e s s ' in G r e e k , o r ' o f Sidon (the) g o d d e s s , s a c r e d , inviolate a n d mistress o f a fleet'. A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e r e a r e c o i n s vvhich d o p o r t r a y E m p e r o r s , t h o u g h n o n c are a c t u a l l y n a m e d until T r a j a n . T h e s e c o i n s very c o m m o n l y represent E u r o p a s e a t e d o n a b u l l , a m o t i f w h i c h r e a p p e a r s also a f t e r the city b e c a m e a colonia

under E l a g a b a l , \vith the typically m i ı e d

G r a c c o - L a t i n ritle ' C o l o n i a A u r c l i a P i a M c t r o p o l i s S i d o n ' . C o n c r e t e e v i d e n c e o f t h e official p u b i i c use o f the P h o e n i c i a n l a n g u a g e t h u s dies out in t h e first c e n t u r y . But the rival t r a d i t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h in legend K a d m o s a n d E u r o p a h a d really b e l o n g e d t o S i d o n r a t h e r t h a n T y r e w a s m a i n t a i n c d in t h e R o m a n p e r i o d , a s it h a d been in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c : h e n c e the b e g i n n i n g o f Achilles T a t i u s ' novel Leucippe

and Clitophon

(written in

t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , p r o b a b l y in the s e c o n d c e n t u r y ) , vvith its d e s e r i p t i o n o f t h e cit)' a s ' t h e m o t h e r o f t h e P h o c n i c i a n s ' a n d its p e o p l e a s ' f a t h e r o f the T h e b a n s ' , a n d its r e p o r t o f a t e m p l e o f A s t a r t e t h e r e , a n d o f a p a i n t i ı ı g o f E u r o p a t o be seen in t h e city. L u c i a n , in On

the Syrian

Goddess,

as

usual p r o d u c i n g several a l t e r n a t i v c c x p l a n a t i o n s , r c c o r d s that t h e r e vvas in Sidon a great t e m p l e o f A s t a r t e , o r (as he t h o u g h t ) r a t h e r o f Selene Moon);

(the

but o n e o f the priests t o l d h i m t h a t it vvas really a t e m p l e o f

E u r o p a ; a n d he c o r r c c t l y r e c o r d s t h a t S i d o n i a n c o i n s p o r t r a y e d

Europa

sitting on a b u l l . 4 A s vve h a v e seen, vvhile t h e fact t h a t t h e legend o f K a d m o s a n d E u r o p a f o r m c d a distinetive a s p e c t o f t h e p u b i i c iıııage o f b o t h S i d o n a n d T y r e is s i g n i f i c a n t , it is n o t p o s s i b l e t o c h a r a c t c r i s c this as a P h o e n i c i a n

legend

r a t h e r t h a n as a c o m ı ı ı o ı ı G r e e k o n e vvhich g a v e these P h o e n i c i a n c i t i e s a p a r t i c u l a r m y t h i c a l r o l e . If t h e r e vvere indeed distinetively S i d o n i a n tradit i o n s , beliefs o r cults, vve h a v e virtually n o a c c e s s t o t h e m (the city plays n o p a r t in the surviving f r a g m e n t s o f P h i l o o f B y b l o s ) . A s vvith ali o t h e r cities, hovvever; o u r c o n c e p t i o n o f vvhat S i d o n 'vvas' c a n n o t rest o n l y o n its c c n t r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s (vvhich c o n s i s t e d o f the m a g i s trates, c o u n c i l a n d a s s e m b l y c h a r a c t c r i s t i c o f a n y G r e e k city) a n d

main

c u l t s , but m u s t i f p o s s i b l e t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t its territory. W e c o u l d p r e s u m e in a n y c a s c t h a t this t e r r i t o r y c o v e r e d the streteh o f M o u n t L e b a n o n b e h i n d S i d o n . B u t in fact t h e s u r p r i s i n g i n d i c a t i o n b y J o s e p h u s t h a t S i d o n h a d a common

b o r d e r vvith D a m a s c u s

m a k e s it likely t h a t S i d o n i a n

territory

strerehed a c r o s s the I . e o n t e s ( L i t a n i ) R i v e r a n d the s o u t h e r n end o f the 4. Lucian, Dea Syr. 4.

B e k a a Valley, a n d p e r h a p s as f a r a s s o m e p o i n t o n M o u n t H e r m o n . 3 N o t h ing s e e m s t o be k n o w n o f the i m m e d i a t c h i n t e r l a n d o f Sidoti; b u t o n this v i e w s o m e a t least o f t h e q u i t e large g r o u p o f rural t e m p l e s in t h e s o u t h e r n B e k a a a n d on t h e s o u t h - w e s t e r n s l o p c s o f M o u n t H e r m o n vvill have b e e n in S i d o n i a n

territory. 6 H e r e a g a i n vve find t h a t t h e s e rural

could construct

h i g h - q u a l i t y t e m p l e s in s t o n e , vvorshipped

communities dcitics

idcnrified mainly b y t h e n a m e o f t h e l o c a l i t y itself, h a d q u i t c

often

comple*

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u e t u r e s — a n d c x p r c s s c d t h e m s e l v e s oııly in G r e e k . S o vve find, f o r i n s t a n c e , s o m e o n e d e d i c a t i n g a b r o n z e m o d e l o f a s h i p as a n offering t o the 'theos Z e u s of Baithmare';7 or the 'sacred treasurers' tarniai)

(hiero-

of 'thea Lcukothea (of) R a c h l a ' constructing a temple at a place

vvhich stili h a s t h e s a m e name,. R a h l e , in 2.68/269.* We c a n n o t prcteııd t o u n d e r s t a n d a t ali fully the ı ı a r u r e o f these deities o r t h e s o c i a l s t r u e t u r e s o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s vvhich vvorshipped t h e m . B u t b o t h t h e t e m p l e s t h e m selves a n d t h e i n s e r i p t i o n s s e r v e a s yet further hitıts o f the vitality

and

i n d e p e n d e n c e o f village life, h e r e a s elsevvhere. Yet, t h o u g h p e r s o n a l n a m e s might k e e p a S e m i t i c f o r m , t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o shovv t h a t the local c u l t u r e o f t h e e x t c n s i v c h i n t e r l a n d o f Sidon h a d a n y mcatıs o f e x p r c s s i o n o t h e r t h a n in G r e e k . I f c i r c u m s t a n c e s in the m o d e r n vvorld vvere ever t o allovv i t , it vvould b c o f m o r e than u s u a l interest f o r vvhat r e m a i n s o f the c u l t u r e o f this a r e a t o b e closely surveyed. F o r it vvas somevvhere on t h e b o r d e r betvveen this h i n t e r l a n d a n d t h a t o f T y r e t h a t M a r k ' s G o s p e l ( 7 , 2 6 ) represents J e s u s as e n c o u n t e r i n g ' a G r e e k vvoman, a S y r o - P h o e n i c i a n by b i r t h ' ; vvhether the m e e t i n g is h i s t o r i cal o r n o t , t h e d e s e r i p t i o n h a p p e n s t o fit p e r f e c t l y vvith t h e d o m i n a n t use o f G r e e k , a n d vvith the m e e t i n g o f P h o e n i c i a n a n d m o r e g e n c r a l l y 'Syrian* f e a tures in t h e c u l t u r e o f these villages. B u t , as alvvays, t h e r e a r e a m b i g u i t i c s in t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s u c h l o c a l identities: telling t h e s a m e story, .Vlatthevv ( 1 5 , 2 1 - 2 2 ) deseribes t h e v v o m a n as a ' C a n a a n i t e ' . W h c r c c x a c t l y that b o r d e r lay t h e r e is n o necd t o a s k . B u t t h e pairing o f t h e t w o c i t i e s is m o r e t h a n a m a t t e r o f m e r e g e o g r a p h y ; f o r T y r e , even m o r e than Sidon, occupied a position o f conspicuous independence, and enjoyed a distinetive h i s t o r i c a l identity, vvithin t h e R o m a n E m p i r e . B o t h h a d a c h i e v c d autotıomia

f r o m t h e Seleucids in t h e l a t e s e c o n d c e n -

t u r y BC, a n d t h e c o n t i n u i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e o f that vvas shovvn vvhen

Marcus

A n t o n i u s refused C l e o p a t r a ' s r e q u e s t t o t r a n s f e r the tvvo c i t i e s t o her in t h e 5 . J o s c p h u s , Ant.

X V I I I , 6 , 3 ( 1 5 3 ) - For this deduetion scc Joncs, C E R P 2 , 2 7 0 a n d 287.

f>. Scc a l s o A . A l t , " D I P Z c i t r c c h n ı ı r ı g d e r T c m p c l ı n s c h r i f t c n d e s L-^crnıongcbicts , , , ZDPV

h 2

( 1 9 3 9 I , 2 0 9 . F o r r o u t c s a n d s i t e s i n t h i s h i n t e r l a n d of S i d o n , s c c a l s o M . T a l l o n , " S a n c t u a i r c s e t i t i n e r a i r e s r o m a i n s d u C h o u f e t d u S u d de l a B e q a ' " , M US) 4 3 ( 1 9 ( 1 8 ) , 2 3 1 . 7 . H . S c y r i g , " A n t i q u i t c s d e B c t h - M a r c " , Syria

28 ( 1 9 3 1 ) , 1 0 1 = IGLS

8. L . J a l a b e r t , " i n s e r i p t i o n s g r c c q u c s et l a t i n e s d e S y r i e " , MUSJ no. 68.

VI, no. 2989.

2 { 1 9 0 7 ) , 2 6 5 , o n p. 2 7 3 ,

3 0 S BC, ' k n o w i n g t h a t t h e y w e r e f r e e f r o m t h e t i m e o f t h e i r a ı ı c e s t o r s ' . 9 A s vve vvill s e e , o n e o f T y r c ' s m o s t f a m o u s s o n s , t h c R o m a n j u r i s t U l p i a n , c l a i m c d t h a t h i s c i t y h a d a l s o h a d a t r c a t y (foedus)

vvith R o m e ; a n d a s t r a y i n s e r i p t i o n

o n a m e d a l l i o n f r o m S i d o n , a l s o o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , c a l l s it a n ' a l l y o f t h e R o m a n s ' . 1 0 Cassius D i o claims that Augustus 'enslaved' both cities because o f i n t e r n a l strife;'- 1 b u t v v h a t e v e r he m e a ı ı t ( ı ı e i t h e r s c e m s t o h a v e b e e n a ' i r c e c i t y ' i n t h c f o r m a l s e n s e o f b c i n g c x c m p t f r o m j u r i s d i e t i o n a n d v i s i t s in p e r s o n o n the part o f the g o v e r n o r } , n o long-term effects are knovvn. T y r e a p p e a r s o n formal d o c u m e n t s o f the s e c o n d century a s ' s a c r e d , inviolate, a u t o n o m o u s , m e t r o p o l i s o f P h o e n i c e ( o n c e also, uııdcr T r a j a n , a d d i n g 'and o f the cities o f C o c l c Syria') and other citics, and mistress o f a

fleet'.12

T h c title tends t o lılur

the d i s t i n e t i o n betvveen ' m e t r o p o l i s ' a s a r a n k c l a i m e d b y a city ( p e r h a p s o n l y o n e in e a c h p r o v i n c e b e f o r e H a d r i a n ) a n d ' m e t r o p o l i s ' as m e a n i n g litcrally ' m o t h e r - c i t y ' , a n d t h u s (as h e r e ) a s a h i s t o r i c a l r c m i n i s c c n c c o f

Phoenician

colonisation.13 B o t h t h i s a n d o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e s p e c i a l s t a t u s o f T y r e in t h e E m p i r e a r e d i s p l a y e d m o s t c l e a r l y 011 i t s c o i n s . 1 4 F r o m t h e m o m e n t o f i t s a c q u i s i t i o r . o f autonomia

in 1 2 6 / 1 2 5 B C u n t i l A D 5 8 / 5 9 , t h c c i t y m i n t e d s i l v e r s h e k e l s a n d

h a l f - s h e k e l s ( t e t r a d r a c h m s a n d d i d r a c h m s ) m a r k e d in G r e e k ' o f T y r e , s a c r c d a n d i n v i o l a t e ' . M i n t i n g b y c i t i e s in b a s e m e t a l s vvas o f c o u r s e c o m m o n i n t h e G r c c k E a s t — i n d e e d it f u n c t i o n s a s o n e o f t h e S t a n d a r d s i g n s t h a t a p l a c e vvas a r e c o g n i s c d polis.

B u t m i n t i n g in s i l v e r vvas r a r c , a n d m u s t r e p r e s e n t a n

e x c e p t i o n a l p r i v i l e g e . T h e s e c o i n s a r e a l s o ' p s c u d o - a u t o n o m o u s ' , a n d shovv n o r e f l e e t i o n o f t h e a r r i v a l o f R o m a n r u l e , o r o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f E m p e r o r s . It vvas a l s o t h e s e T y r i a n s h e k e l s vvhich r e m a i n e d t o t h e e n d t h e S t a n d a r d c u r r e n e y in vvhich d u e s t o t h c T e m p l e i n J e r u s a l e m vvere t o b c p a i d ; t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y d i s p l a y e d a l ı e a d o f M e l q a r t a n d a n e a g l e vvas a p p a r e n t l y n o o b j e e t i o n . C l e a r l y m a r k e d as T y r i a n , t h e y n o n e t h e l e s s carried n o P h o e n i c i a n vvriting bey o n d a single letter.

9 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

X V , 4 , t (95).

t o . U l p i a n : t c x t t o n n . ı j f f . belovv. i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m S i d o n : H . S e y r i g , Syria

27 {1950), 249.

I X . D i o U V , 7 , 6. 1 2 . F o r e x a m p l e , Ins.

Didytna,

n o . I 5 r ( a d d i n g 'and o f thc cirics o f C o c l c S y r i a ' ) ;

OCIS,

n o . J 9 5 ( f r o m P u t e o l i , s c c belovv). r j . F o r t h c m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f melropoleis d r i a n a n d M e t r o p o l i s " , Bonner

f r o m H a d r i a n o n v v a r d s s c c G . W. Bovversocfc, " H a -

llîstoria-Augusta-Colloquiuın

1 8 2 - 1 8 3 (1985), 7 5 .

1 4 . F o r ehe silver a n d b r o n z c c o i n a g e o f T y r e in the R o m a n p e r i o d , see BMC

cxxxiv-xlii; 233-353; 255-296; A . Ben-David, jerusalem sisehen

Münz- und WirtscbaftsgescJıichte

N . Jidejian, Tyre through t o m a i n e " , MUSJ

126 a.c-57

und Tyros: Ein Beitrag zıır

Phoemcia

palöitınen-

p.c. (1969). For a general account see

the Ages ( T 9 6 9 ) , a n d for the b e s t analysis, M . C h c h a b , " T y r â l ' c p o q u c

38 ( 1 9 6 2 ) , i r . Scc novv RPC

I, 6 5 5 - 6 5 8 .

T h e m i n t i n g o f T y r i a n silver s t o p p e d in AD 5 8 / 5 9 ; t h e r e is 110 h i s t o r i c a i evidenee as t o hovv o r vvhy. B u t t h e r e m u s t be s o m e c o n n c c t i o n vvith the f a c t that in AD 59/60 t h e r e b e g a n an issuc o f silver t e t r a d r a c h m s ,

apparently

s t r u c k a t A n t i o c h , shovving the h e a d o f the E m p e r o r , b u t a l s o t a k i n g over t h e ' e a g l e ' type shovvn o n the silver c o i n s o f T y r e . In s o m e vvay, t h e r e f o r c , this 'provincial' mint, assumed to b e under R o m a n control, took over the funct i o n s o f T y r i a n m i n t i n g in silver. 1 5 W h e t h e r o r not some actioıı by R o m e actually prevented further minting in silver b y T y r e (the l o n g c s t s e r i e s in silver issued in the n a m e o f a n y p r o v i n cial city in t h e Imperial p e r i o d ) , the b r o n z e c o i n s o f T y r e c o n t i n u e d t o b e resolutely ' T y r i a n ' , a n d t o offer n o refleetion vvhatsoever o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f E m p e r o r s . F r o m t h e later s e c o n d century BC until the m o m e n t in t h e i y o s ( p r o b a b l y 1 9 8 ) vvhen T y r e b c c a m e a colonia,16

they displayed o n l y local t y p e s

( o f t e n M e l q a r t ) , a n d very c o m m o n l y used tlıc P h o e n i c i a n legend L Ş R , ' o f T y r e ' . By t h e 90S AD t h e G r e e k ccrm ' m e t r o p o l i s ' a p p e a r s as vvell. A s vve s a w a b o v e , it is used a l s o in a n i n s e r i p t i o n o f T r a j a n ' s r e i g n . B u t a n e n t r y in a B y z a n t i n e l e x i c o n vvould i m p l y t h a t t h e title vvas f o r m a l l y c o n f i r n ı c d o n l y und e r H a d r i a n : ' P a u l u s , a T y r i a n , a r h e t o r . . . vvho by a n e m b a s s y t o H a d r i a ı ı h a d m a d e his city a m e t r o p o l i s ' . 1 7 T h e r e is n o r e a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n : it vvould fit p c r f c c t l y vvith t h e n a t u r e o f inter-city c o m p e t i t i o n if T y r e h a d first used t h i s title, then h a d it c h a l l c n g c d , a n d then secured it by a n e m b a s s y t o the E m peror. It vvas p e r h a p s on this b a s i s t h a t T y r e s e c u r e d t h e right t o hold ' A c t i a n ' g a m e s (that is, e q u a i in r a n k t o t h o s e a t N i c o p o l i s held t o c o m m e m o r a t c t h e b a t t l e o f A c t i u m ) , in the n a m e o f the koinon

o f P h o e n i c i a , as s o m e s e c o n d -

century coins record.1* T h e importance of the Tyrian bronze coinagc of the second ccntury needs t o be stressed. In this p e r i o d , f r o m vvithin t h e b o u n d s o f t h e e s t a b l i s h e d E m pire, t h e r e vvas o n l y o n e o t h e r c o i t ı a g e vvhich b o t h used a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e a n d did n o t p o r t r a y o r n a m e t h e E m p e r o r — t h e Jevvish c o i n a g c o f t h e B a r K o c h b a r e v o l t . 1 9 T h e c o i n a g c o f T y r e did n o t o f c o u r s e s e r v e t o s y m b o l i s e revolt, o r even a n y real f r e e d o m . B u t it d i d , in a vvholly distinctive vvay, e x press t h e c o n t i n u e d a t t a e h m e n t o f T y r e t o its identity a s a P h o e n i c i a n c i t y vvith a long a n d g l o r i o u s h i s t o r y . İt vvas p r c c i s c l y this vvhich e n a b l e d a n o t h e r 1 5 . For the ncarcst t o a c l e a r a c c o u n t o f this p r o c e s s , scc D . R . W a l k c r , The Me/rolog)1 the Roman Silver Coinagc

af

I ( 1 9 7 6 ) , 6yH. F.vcn this r e m a r k a b l e vvork is nor free f r o m the a l l u s i v e -

ness a n d l a c k o f l o g i c a l elarity vvhich distiııguishcs a l m o s t ali n u m i s m a t i c vvriting. A clcarcr a c c o u n t is n o w a v a i l a b l e in RPCI,

Ğjyff.

1 6 . 3.4 a b o v e . 1 7 . S u d a , s.v. ricıû^oç (cd. A d l c r IV, 1 8 . B M C Phoenicia, 1 9 . r c . 3 belovv.

168.

69).

r h e t o r f r o m T y r e , A d r i a n o s , o n a r r i v i n g in A t h c n s , t o o p c n his first o r a t i o n w i t h t h e vvords ' Ö n c e again l e t t e r s h a v e c o m e from P h o e n i c i a ' . 2 0 T h a t o f c o u r s e vvas a n a l l u s i o n vvhich vvould be instantly intclligible t o zn a u d i e n c e f a m i l i a r vvith Greek

literatüre. O u r p r o b l e m , if vve l o o k f o r e l e m e n t s

in t h e c u l t u r e o f T y r e vvhich vvere n o t simply p a r t o f t h e c o m m o n i n h e r i t a n e e o f G r e e k c u l t u r e , is t h a t t h e y a r e so f r a g m e n t a r y , limited a n d n o n - c o h c r e ı ı t . T h e t h r e e P h o e n i c i a n letters L.ŞR vvhich a p p e a r on the b r o n z e c o i n s o f t h e city are certainly, as a d e l i b e r a t e s y m b o l , very significant. But t h e y are n o t positive e v i d e n c e t h a t P h o e n i c i a n vvas s p o k e n , o r that c o n t i n u o u s t e x t s c o u l d b e vvritten in it. N o r is t h e a p p e a r a n c e (as clscvvhcrc) o f n a m e s o f S e m i t i c o r i g i n (as vvell a s l.arin) in G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s : f o r i n s t a n c e N i k o l a o s s o n o f B a l e d ö o s ( f r o m B ' L Y D * — ' B a ' a l k n o v v s ' ? ) , putting u p an i n s e r i p t i o n in AD 60 t o h o n o u r a n agoratıomos

vvith the R o m a n n a m e G a i u s Iulius C a n d i d u s ; Z o i l o s s o n o f

B o d a s , a s a city a m b a s s a d o r under T r a j a n ; o r D i o d o r o s s o n o f N i t h u m b a l o s ( p r c s u m a b l y f r o m K I N , ' g i v e ' , a n d B ' L ) , m a k i n g a d e d i c a t i o n in 1 8 7 / 1 8 8 t o the ' s a c r e d god H e r a k l e s ' . 2 1 T h a t o f c o u r s c vvas o n e u n d e n i a b l e e l e m e n t o f c o n t i n u i t y ( b u t a l s o or.e a l r e a d y represented in t h e p a g e s o f H e r o d o t u s ) , n a m e l y the c u l t o f H e r a k l e s / M e l q a r t , vvho vvas t h e deity m o s t o f t e n represented on t h e city c o i n s . B u t in its p u b i i c f u n e t i o n i n g T y r e vvas simply a G r e e k city ( a l m o s t ) like a n y o t h e r , as c a n b c seen in t h e f a m o u s G r c c k inseription o f AD 1 7 4 f r o m Puteoli, vvith a letter f r o m the statiön

o f t h e T y r i a n s e s t a b l i s h e d at Puteoli t o the m a g i s t r a t e s ,

c o u n c i l a n d a s s e m b l y o f t h e c i t y , a n d their reply, a s q u o t c d from the akta t h e p r o c c e d i n g s o f t h e boule.

T h e o n l y n o n - G r e e k linguistic influence h e r e is

L a t i n , vvith the L a t i n vvord açta

t r a n s l i t e r a t e d (as vve find a l s o a t P e t r a ) t o

deseribe the p r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e c o u n c i l ; a n d the L a t i n vvords sUitio tionarii

of

a n d sta-

a l s o transliterated t o d e s e r i b e the T y r i a n c l u b - h o u s c a t Puteoli and

t h e resident T y r i a n t r a d e r s vvho used it. 2 2 T h e y e a r 1 7 4 is likely t o have follovved r a t h e r t h a n p r e c e d e d the birth o f o n e o f the tvvo m o s t p r o m i n e n t i n t c l l e c t u a l s p r o d u c c d by T y r e , D o m i t i t s U l p i a n u s , the m a j ö r R o m a n j u r i s t o f t h e C l a s s i c a l p e r i o d . " İt is i m p o r t a n t to s t r e s s , as o n e sign o f t h e c o m p ! e x c u l t u r a l influences o f t h e p e r i o d , t h a t lıe vvill c e r t a i n l y h a v e b e e n b o r n l o n g b e f o r e T y r e vvas m a d e a R o m a n colonia

by

S e v e r u s , a n d t h e r e f o r e in t h e period vvhen T y r e vvas a P h o c n i c i a n - G r e e k city, a n d vvas stili m i n t i n g c o i n s w i t h t h e legend L Ş R . T h e R o m a n n a m e vvhich Ulpian b o r e vvas o n e o f t h e m a n y a d o p t e d by G r e e k families vvhich had ac-

10. 21. (1962), 22. 23.

Philosıratus, VS II, 10. M. Chchab, MUSJ 26 {1944-1946), 60-63; idem, "Tyr â l'cpoquc romaine", MUSJ 38 xx, on p. 17. Sec also C. Borınet, Melqart (1988), 6ıff. OG1S, no. 595. For Ö K T O at Petra, 11.4 bclow. See T. Honore, Ulpian (1982).

q u i r c d the R o m a n citizenship in the c o u r s e o f t h e first t w o c e n t u r i e s . A s e v e r y w h e r e else, these L a t i n n a m e s t o o k r o o t in a n c n t i r c l y G r e e k c o n t e x t . I n t h e c a s e o f this family, t h e Deipnosophistae

o f A t h e n a e u s , w r i t t e n a t the end o f

t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , p o r t r a y s an " O u l p i a n o s ' o f T y r e a s t h e m a i n s p e a k e r . T h e o d d s a r e s t r o n g t h a t this is a m e m b e r o f the s a m e e s t a b l i s h e d f a m i l y ; f o r a c e n t u r y later E u s e b i u s reeords t h a t a n o t h e r ' O u l p i a n o s ' f r o m Tyre died as a C h r i s t i a n m a r t y r in the G r e a t P e r s e c u t i o n . 2 4 'I1ıe ' O u l p i a n o s ' vvho a p p e a r s in t h e pages o f A t h e n a e u s is represented a s a learned d e v o t e e o f G r e e k l i t e r a t ü r e a n d a n c x p c r t in its v o c a b u l a r y , o b j e e t i n g vvhen s o m e o n e uses the L a t i n vvord decocta

(boiled-dovvn vvine); b u t

he is a l s o a d d r c s s e d j o k i n g l y a s a fellovv-citizen o f the vvriters o f

Vboenicica,

S a n c h u n i a t h o n a n d M o c h o s , a n d is c h a r a c t e r i s e d as ' P h o e n i c i a n ' by t h e o t h e r s p e a k e r s ; o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y as i n t r o d u c i n g a ııativc c u s t o m (not e a t i n g fish) f r o m S y r i a , a n a l l u s i o n vvhich Icads t o s o m e far-fetehed discussions o f the e t y m o l o g y o f t h e divine n a m e ' A t a r g a t i s ' . " It lies in t h e n a t u r e o f t h e vvork that vvhat unites t h e speakers is their c o m m o n i m m e r s i o n in G r e e k literatüre; a n d it is vvithin t h a t c o n t e x t that his l o c a l i d e n t i t y a s a ' T y r i a n ' , ' P h o e n i c i a n ' o r ' S y r i a n ' h a s t o b e secn. W h e t h e r t h e U l p i a n , o r ' O u l p i a n o s ' , f r o m T y r e , vvhose vvorks, vvritten in L a t i n , r e p r e s e n t a l m o s t a third o f surviving R o m a n juristic vvriting, a s r e p r o d u c c d in the Digest,

vvas a c n ı a l l y b o r n in T y r e is n o t knovvn a n d is n o t signifi-

c a n t . W h a t is i m p o r t a n t is that h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f coloniae

vvhich e n j o y e d t h e

( f o r m a l e q u i v a l c n c e t o Italian soil f o r t h e t e r r i t o r y ) o p e n s vvith a

ius halicimi

r e s o u n d i n g d c c l a r a t i o n o f the a n t i q u i t y o f T y r e a n d the n a t u r e o f its r e l a t i o n s t o R o m e . As vve have seen earlier, it is in fact q u i t e ccrtaitı that T y r e g a i n e d this s t a t u s as a rcsult o f t a k i n g S e v e r u s ' side in the civil vvar o f 1 9 4 , a n d U l p i a n goes otı t o m a k e this c x p l i c i t in the c a s c o f tvvo o t h e r N e a r E a s t e r n c i t i e s (I Icliopolis a n d I a o d i c e a ) . B u t t h e e l e v a t i o n o f T y r e d e m a n d e d t o b e set in a vvider a n d m o r e c r e d i t a b l e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t : It nccds t o bc undcrstood thac there are certain coloniae Italicum,

eııjoying the ius

for exanıple in Syria Phoenice the most distinguishcd colonia

of

the Tyrians, in vvhich my ovvn origo lies, in a noble setting, o f the most remote antiquity, povverful in vvar, most tenacious of the treaty vvhich it struck vvith R o m e ; for t o it the Deificd Severus and o u r E m p e r o r granted the ius Italicum,

011 a c c o u n t o f its outstanding loyalty t o the res

a n d t o t h e imperium

publica

Komanutn.26

2 4 . E u s e b i u s , A l a r f . Pal. 5, r . 2 5 . A t h e n a e u s , Deipn.

1 2 1 F (decocla);

1 2 6 A (Sanchuniathon and Mochos);

3 4 6 C - E (fish a n d A t a r g a t i s ) t . F o r O u l p i a n o s a s a ' S y r i a n ' , e . g . , 6 6 9 B . 16. Dig.

L , 1 5 , 1 pr.

T75A-xy6A;

It is a n a c c i d e n t , b u t a n a p p r o p r i a t c o n e , t h a t thc c a r l i e s t i n s e r i p t i o n refleeting

thc n c w s t a t u s s h o u l d c o m c f r o m Lepcis M a g n a in T r i p o l i t a n i a , riıc

native city o f Septimius S e v e r u s . A t s o m e t i m e in the s e c o n d c e n t u r y , b ı ı t bef o r e T y r e b e c a m e a colonia,

L e p c i s h a d set u p a t T y r e a s t a t u e p e r s o n i f y i n g

the city, vvith an inseription in L a t i n a n d G r c c k h o n o u r i n g it a s t h c m o t h e r c i t y o f Lepcis. 7 7 Novv, as vve savv earlier, T y r e put up a t L e p c i s a s t a t u e o f S e v e r u s ' s o n G c t a , a n d c a l l c d itself o n t h e inseription ' S e p t i m i a T y r o s C o l o n i a , Metropolis of l'hoenice a n d o t h e r

ciuitates'.2S

I n terms o f its official p u b l i c i m a g e , t h e r e f o r e , t h e g r a n t o f c o l o n i a l s t a t u s t o T y r e f u n e t i o n e d n o t t o r e p l a c c an c x i s t i n g h i s t o r i c a l identity b u t t o ree m p h a s i s e c c r t a i n e l e m e n t s in its legendary p a s t . It is in fact in t h e m a i r l y L a t i n , b u t a l s o G r e e k , c o i n a g e o f t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d , until m i n t i n g c e a s e d in t h e 250S, a n d far m o r e c l e a r l y than in t h e G r e e k c o i n a g e o f t h c p r e c c d h g p e r i o d , t h a t t h c legends vvhich vvere ( o r c o u l d b c ) a s s o c i a t e d vvith T y r e vvere m o s t fully c x p l o i t c d . T h c t h e m e s inelude D i d o supervising t h c b u i l d i n g o f C a r t h a g c (and labelled ' D e i d ö n ' in G r e e k ) ; E u r o p a ( a l s o l a b c l l c d in G r e e k ) ; a n d , m o s t s t r i k i n g l y o f ali, K a d n ı o s o f f e r i n g a papyrus roll t o t h r e e s t a n d h g m a l e figures. I n c a s c a n y o n c m i g h t h a v e missed the a l l u s i o n t o t h c G r c c k s c quisition o f the a l p h a b e t f r o m P h o e n i c i a , h c is labelled in G r e e k , a s a r e they, 'HelIe(nes)'.29 L i k e t h c r e f e r e n c c s t o t h c ' A c t i a n H c r c u l i a n ' g a m e s a n d t o t h e koinon

of

P h o e n i c e vvhich stili a p p e a r o n t h c c o l o n i a l c o i n a g e , these h i s t o r i c allusions represent a public identity

o f t h i r d - c e n t u r y T y r e in vvhich

'Phoenician',

' G r c c k ' a n d ' R o m a n ' c l c m c n t s a r c i n e x t r i c a b l y fused. B u t t h e y novv f o u n d c x p r c s s i o n o n l y in L a t i n o r G r e e k . I n the c o l o n i a l p e r i o d , P h o e n i c i a n c o i n legends finally disappear. T h a t vvould n o t o f itself, hovvever, prove either t h a t thc cults a n d s o c . a l struetures c h a r a c t c r i s t i c o f t h c t e r r i t o r y o f T y r e vvere a l s o so c l e a r l y a b s o r b a d i n t o a vvider c u l t u r c o r t h a t t h e P h o e n i c i a n l a n g u a g e h a d entirely passed out o f use. As everyvvhere else, vve h a v e t o t h i n k o f t h e u r b a n c e n t r c against the b a c k g r o u n d o f a vvorld o f v i l l a g e s , usually i l l u m i n a t c d o ı ı l y by s p o r a d i c arc h a e o l o g i c a i o r c p i g r a p h i c r e m a i n s , o r passing allusions in l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s . T y r i a n territory, f o r i n s t a n c e , s t r e t e h e d i n l a n d at least as f a r a s a p l a c e vvhich J o s e p h u s c a l l s K a d a s a o r K y d a s a , t o the n o r t h o f G i s c h a l a in G a l i l c c : 'a s t r o n g inland village o f the T y r i a n s , alvvays a t feud a n d strife vvith the G a l i l e a n s , h a v i n g its large p o p u l a t i o n a n d s t o u t d e f e n c e s a s r e s o u r c e s b e h i n d it i n its

2 7 . J.-P. Re>'-Coqunis, " U n c d o u b l e d c d i c n c c dc L c p c i s M a g n a â T y r " , in A . M a s t i n o C d . ) , L'Africa

Romana

IV (1986}, 597.

28. IRT, n o . 4 3 7 ; 3.4 a b o v c . 2 9 . B M C Pboenicia.

2 7 7 , n o . 4 0 9 ( D i d o ) ; 290, n o . 4 6 8 ( E u r o p a ) ; 2 9 3 , n o . 488 ( K a d m o s ) .

q u a r r e l w i t h the n a t i o n ' . J e w i s h f o r c e s d u l y a t t a c k e d ' K a d a s a of the T y r i a n s ' w h e n t h e r e v o l t h r o k c o u t in 6
But in fact t h e

p l a c e c a n b c c o n f i d c n t l y identified vvith the a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e m a i n s a t K c d e s h , just o n t h e Isracli s i d e o f the h o r d c r vvith L e b a n o n , a n d o v c r l o o k i n g t h e H u l e h Valley f r o m the e d g e of t h e h i l l s to its vvest. H e r e a g a i n there is a t e m p l e , eııtered t h r o u g h a pillared p o r t i c o , a n d surroıınded b y a large temenos,

of

s o m e 80 m b y 5 5 m , p e r h a p s built in the e a r l y s e c o n d c c n t u r y . G r e e k inseriptions shovv t h a t t h e d e i t y v v o r s h i p p e d there vvas ' T h c o s H a g i o s O u r a n i o s * , 'the H o l y S k y G o d ' , p e r h a p s t o b c identified as B a a l s h a m i n . 3 1 T y r i a n t e r r i t o r y ınust h a v e c o v e r e d a t least a l a r g e part of t h e nortlıern h a l f of the G a l i l e a n hills betvveen the sea, the L e o n t c s (Litani) R i v e r in the n o r t h , a n d t h e H u l e h V a l l e y to the east. B u t there s e e m s t o h a v e been n o detailed s t u d y of t h i s region a s it vvas in the I m p e r i a l p e r i o d {nor, stili less, is o n e likely in t h e f o r e seeable luture) since t h e s u r v e y s by Ertıcst R c n a n a n d o t h e r s vvere m a d e in the last c e n t u r y . 3 İ T h e h i n t e r l a n d of T y r e remains essentially u n k n o v v n . T h e o d d s are s t r o n g , hovvever, t h a t if the remains of l o c a l c u l t - c e n t r e s h a p p e n e d to b e knovvn here as elsevvhere, their inseriptions vvould b e in Greek., e v e n if the n a m e s of deities, o r o f deities n a m e d b y r e l a t i o n t o p l a c c s , c o n taincd Scmitic e l e m e n t s . 'ITıe c o m b i n e d e v i d e n e e of t h e c o i n s f r o m P h o e n i c i a a n d of P h i l o o f B y b l o s p r o v i d e s us vvith n o m o r e t h a n i n d i v i d u a l vvords o r phrases in P h o e n i c i a n ; n o t a s i n g l e c o n n e c t e d s c n t c n c c is a t t e s t e d as h a v i n g been g e n e r a t e d in P h o e n i c i a n a f t e r the o n c P h o e n i c i a n inseription of t h e A u g u s t a n p e r i o d f r o m A r a d u s , a n d t h e o n c p o s s i b l y Imperial o n e f r o m S i d o n . " A s o u r e v i d e n e e novv staııds, t h e r e is a m a r k e d c o n t r a s t , b o t h in t e r m s o f p u b l i c inseriptions a n d in t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of legal d o c u m e n t s in A r a m a i c , Hcbrcvv, N a b a t a e a n a n d S y r i a c , vvith o t h e r r e g i o n s of the N e a r Kast.1'® It rem a i n s of c o u r s e possible t h a t P h o e n i c i a n c o u l d h a v e been used o n p e r i s h a b l e d o c u m e n t s , a n d i m p o s s i b l e to d i s p r o v e that it vvas stili s p o k e n . U l p i a n h i m s e l f may b e r e f e r r i n g t o A r a m a i c a n d P h o c n i c i a n vvhen he discusses vvhether a n obligatio

c o u l d b e c r e a t e d by a v e r b a l e x c h a n g e c o n d u c t e d entirely in G r e e k

(as o p p o s e d to L a t i n ) , o r e v e n in o t h e r l a n g u a g e s , s u c h a s Assyrius

serttıo

or

3 0 . J o s e p h u s , BJ I V , 2, 3 ( 1 0 4 - 1 0 5 ) , L o e b t r a n s . ; II, 1 8 , t ( 4 5 9 ) , a i t a c k in 6 6 . 3 1 . See M . Fischer, A . O v a d i a h a n d I. R o l l , " T h e R o m a n T e m p l e a l K c d e s h , U p p e r G a l i l e e : A P r e l i m i n a r y S t u d y " , Tel Aviv

1 1 ( 1 9 8 4 ) , 146; idem, " T h e Epigraphic Finds from the R o m a n

T e m p l e a t K c d c s h i n t h e U p p c r G a l i l e e " , Tel Aviv

13—14 ( 1 9 8 6 - 8 7 ) , 60. C f . J. M a g n e s s , " S o m e

O b s e r v a t i o n s o n t h e R o m a n T e m p l e at K e d e s h " , IEJ 4 0 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 7 3 ( s p e c u l a t i v e ) . 3 2 . F o r i n s t a n c e , İL. K e n a n , Mission I I . H . K i t c h c n e r , The Survey

of \Vestern

de Phenicie Palestine

3 3 . 8.3 and 8.4 a b o v e . 3 4 . C f . csp. 1 0 . 2 - 3 , " - 1 »

I1

-4

aı

"l

I2»5

( 1 8 6 4 ) , 6 3 2 ^ . Sec a l s o C . R . (k»nder a ı ı d

I, C,alilce

bclow.

(1881).

Poenus

sermo.i$

Assyrius

sermo

c o u l d b e either t h e S y r i a c o f M e s o p o t a ı r . i a

o r O s r h o e n e (recently m a d e i n t o p r o v i n c c s ) o r t h e A r a m a i c o f Syria o r P a l c s tine, o r even A r a b i a ; Poenus

sermo

might m o r e r e a s o n a b l y b e t a k e n a s the

l a n g u a g e o f his n a t i v e P h o e n i c i a t h a n as the N e o - P u n i c o f A f r i c a o r S a r d i n i a . T h e pairing o f the tvvo l a n g u a g e s then r e a d s q u i t e naturally. T h e r e is a t any r a t e novvhcrc else in the s u r v i v i n g c o r p u s o f R o m a n legal vvriting vvhere this possibiiity is r a i s c d . B u t t o t a k e Ulpian's vvords specifically a s a r e f c r c n c c t o tvvo knovvn l a n g u a g e s in c o n t e m p o r a r y use in the N e a r K a s t , vve h a v e t o r e a d i n t o his vvords a n avvareness o f ( h y p o t h e t i c a l ) l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s vvhich m a y be entirely a n a c h r o n i s t i c . We have t o d o the s a m e (or, vvorse, m a k e u s e o f u n e x a m i n e d s t c r e o t y p e s a b o u t t h e ' O r i e n t ' ) t o find a n y t h i n g ' P h o e n i c i a n ' in the o t h e r o f t h e tvvo faı n o u s i n t e l l e c t u a l s vvho c a m e f r o m T y r e , P o r p h y r y the N e o - P l a t o n i s t p h i l o s > p h c r . i 6 B o r n {it s e e m s ) in 2.34, vvhen T y r e h a d been a colonia

f o r over t h r e e

d e c a d e s , he vvrote in G r e e k . T h e r e s e e m s t o be n o t h i n g in ali his vvork :o suggest t h a t the official s t a t u s o f T y r e a s a L a t i n - s p e a k i n g colonia

h a d any

e f f c c t on his l a n g u a g e , c u l t u r e , rarıge o f knovvledge o r o u t l o o k . If any feature o f his local origin vvas s i g n i f i c a n t a t ali, it vvas the P h o e n i c i a n a s p c c t . H e h i m self r e c o r d s t h a t h i s a e t u a l n a m e (for ' P o r p h y r i o s ' — ' p u r p l e ' — v v a s a n i c k t ı a m e ) , t h a t is, ' B a s i l e u s ' ( ' k i n g ' ) , h a d a s its equivalent 'in m y native l a n g u a g e ' t h e n a m e ' M a l c h o s ' . 1 7 B u t a g a i n vve a r e c o n f r c n t e d vvith o n l y a very liuıited r e l a t i o n s h i p t o P h o e n i c i a n , t h e c x p l i c a r i o n o f individual vvords. In his Against

the Christian s atıd elsevvhere he m a d e u s e o f Philo's

Pboe-

B u t t h e fevv r e m a r k s a b o u t P h o e n i c i a n c u s t o m s vvhich he m a k e s in

nicica.

o t h e r vvorks a r e dravvn f r o m Standard G r e e k s o u r c c s , a n d t a k e their p l a c e a l o n g vvith c o m p a r a b l e r e m a r k s a b o u t F.gyptians, C h a l d e a n s , A r a b i a n s o r Hebrevvs. 38 T h e f u t ı d a m e n t a l f a c t is that t h e c u l t u r e t o vvhich P o r p h y r y ' s vvorks a t t a c h themselves is t h e uııivcrsal o n e o f H e l l e n i s m , in vvhich t h e facts o f a m a n ' s local o r i g i n s vvere o f m a r g i n a l significance, a n d refleetions on the cust o m s o f n o n - G r e e k peoples w e r e dravvn n o r m a l l y n o t f r o m o b s e r v a t i o n but f r o m t h e c o m m o ı ı s t o c k o f a l l u s i o n s in G r e e k l i t e r a t ü r e . It r e m a i n s a typical p a r a d o x t h a t vvhile U l p i a n m u s t a l r e a d y (it s e e m s ) h a v e been far a d v a n c c d in

$5. Dig.

X L V , 1 , 1 , 6. C f . X X X J I , 1 1 pr. ( a l s o f r o m U l p i a n ) o n t h e p o s s i b i i i t y o f

missa i n a n y lingua,

3 6 . 1 k n o w o f n o o v e r a l l s r u d y o i P o r p h y r y s i n c c J . B i d c z , Vie de Porphyre, plalonicien

ftdeicom-

even 'Punica vel G a l l i c a n a ' . le philosopbe

tıeo-

^ 9 1 3 ) . Sec A . Smith, " P o r p h y r i a n Studics sincc 1 9 1 3 " , A N R W I I . 3 < > . 2 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 7 1 7 .

3 7 . P o r p h y r y , V. P/of. 1 7 . 3 8 . F o r c x a m p l c , in t h e l.îfe

of Pythagoras

(ed. F_ d e s P l a c c s , 1 9 8 2 ) , 6 ( P y t h a g o r a s I c a r n i r g

m a t h c m a t i c s f r o m F.gyptians, C h a l d e a n s a n d Phocnicians); r r ( f r o m A n t o n i u s D i o g c n e s — I c a r n i n g t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f d r e a m s f r o n ı t h e E g y p t i a n s , A r a b s , C h a l d e a n s a n d H c b r c v v s ) ; On nence

from

Living

Things

Ahsü-

I, 5 6 ( P h o e n i c i a n u s e o f h u m a n sacrilîce in c r i s e s - - f r o ı ı ı P h i l o of

B y b l o s ) ; II, 1 1 ( E g y p t i a n a n d P h o e n i c i a n a b s t i n e n c e f r o m e a t i n g b e c f ) .

t h e study o f R o m a ı ı l a w a t the m o m e n t vvhen his P h o e n i c i a n - G r e c k n a t i v c city b e c a m e a colonia

in 1 9 8 , 3 9 P o r p h y r y , b o r n m o r e than t h r e e d e c a d e s a f t e r

t h a t m o m e n t , r e p r e s e n t s h i m s e l f entirely as o n e G r e e k i n t c l l c c t u a l a m o n g others. i n d e e d , far f r o m representitıg himself as e m b o d y i n g t h e possibility o f m u tual u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d i n f l u e n c e betvveen G r e e k culture a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y ' O r i c n t a l ' l a n g u a g e s a n d c u l t u r e s , P o r p h y r y goes o u t o f his vvay t o d e n y t h a t s u c h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g is p o s s i b l e . F o r i n s t a n c e t h e r e is the passage in Abstinence

from

Living

Things

On

vvhere he s p e a k s o f t h e unintelligibility a n d

r c p u l s i v c n c s s o f o t h e r l a n g u a g e s , i n c l u d i n g t h a t o f t h e S y r i a n s , in the vicvv o f Grceks: For

ncithcr

do

Grceks

understand

the

language

of

Indians,

nor

those

brought up in Attica that o f Scythians o r T h r a c i a n s o r Syrians. But the language o f the one group souııds like the screeching of cranes to the other. Nonetheless, each o f their languages can be incorporated in vvriting and articulated by those others, a s o u r s can by us. But the language of the Syrians for exanıple o r the Persians c a n n o t be articulated o r put into vvriting, just as, for ali men, the language o f animals c a n n o t bc. 4 0 Q u i t e a p a r t f r o m t h e r e c o r d o f h i s c o n q ı ı e s t s in the R o m a n provinces vvhich P o r p h y r y ' s c o n t e m p o r a r y S h a p u r I found it n o t in the l e a s t impossible t o s e t dovvn in parallcl t c x t s vvritten i n P a r t h i a n , M i d d l e Persian a n d G r e e k , 4 1 P o r phyry's vvords shovv a puzzling unavvareness o f the possibility o f l i t e r a t ü r e i n S y r i a c ; yet he h i m s e l f refers t o B a r d c s a n e s {as ' a B a b y l o ı ı i a n ' o f the g e n e r a t i o n b e f o r e his ovvn) in t h e n e x t b o o k o f his On Abstinence.42

Nor, as it s e e m s ,

h a d he e v e r visited a c i t y vvhich. vvas also part o f his ovvn p r o v i n c e o f ' S y r i a P h o c n i c e ' , a n d vvhere G r e e k a n d a dialect o f ' t h e language o f t h e S y r i a n s ' vvere inseribed everyvvherc in p a r a l l c l t e x t s : P a l m y r a . 3 9 . T h e b i o g r a p h y o f U l p i a n is v e r y u n c e r t a i n ; b u t it is k n o \ v n t h a t h e vvas a t s o m e p o i n t t h e I m p e r i a l a libellis

{Dig. X X , 5 , 1 2 , f>r.), a n d I f o n o r c , o p . cit. ( n . 2 3 ) , 2 2 f f . a n d T 9 r f f . , a r g u e s

t h a t his t e n u r e W3S f r o m 2 0 2 t o 2 0 9 . 4 0 . P o r p h y r y , On Abstinence

III, 3 , 4.

41. 4.2-3 above. 4 2 . On Abstinence

IV, 1 7 . O n B a r d c s a n c s sec 1 2 . 5 belovv.

CHAPTER

9 EASTERN SYRİA P H O E N İ C E : M O U N T A İ N , OASIS A N D STEPPE

9.1. G E O G R A P H I C A L

CONNECTıONS

T h e c o a s t a l r e g i o n o f vviıat vvas t o b e c o m e the p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a P h o e n i c e c o n s i s t c d , a s vve h a v e s c c n , o f a l i n ç o f c i t i c s c h a r a c t c r i s c d o n t h e o n e h a n d by a c o m m o n p a s t a s P h o e n i c i a n c o m m u n i t i e s — t r a d i n g c i t i e s a n d i n d e p e n d e n t n a v a l p o v v e r s — b y a c o m m o n l a n g u a g e o f vvhich r a t h e r f a i n t t r a c e s stili r e m a i n c d in t h c I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , a n d a b o v c ali b y a r c c o g n i s c d i d e n t i t y vvithin G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r e . B u t hovv f a r i n l a n d vve s h o u l d t h i n k o f a ' P h o e n i c i a n ' i d e n t i t y as e x t e n d i n g is a n i n s o l u b l e p r o b l e m . T h e q u e s t i o n c a n b e a s k e d as r e g a r d s t h c m o u n t a i n o u s h i n t e r l a n d o f A r a d u s , vvith t h c t e m p l e o f B a e t o c a e c e ; the c h a i n o f M o u n t l e b a n o n , a l s o m a r k e d b y t e m p l e s o n r e m o t e , elevated locations; the Bekaa Valley a n d Heliopolis; and the border-zone

be-

tvveen t h e a r e a s o f Jevvish a n d non-Jevvish s e t t l e m e n t in t h c hills o f n o r t h e n ı Galilec and around M o u n t

C a r m c l . B u t S e v e r u s ' d i v i s i o n o f S y r i a in

194

b o l d l y classified a s p a r t o f ' S y r i a P h o e n i c e ' p l a c e s vvhich 110 o n e until t h e n h a d e v e r t h o u g h t o f as ' P h o e n i c i a n ' . A s r e g a r d s E m e s a 011 tlıe O r o n t e s , t h e r e a r c c o m p l c x q u e s t i o n s , t o vvhich vve vvill r e t u r n . B u t the nevv p r o v i n c c l a b e l l e d a s ' P h o e n i c e ' novv c m b r a c c d a l s o the vvhole o f t h e g r e a t m o u n t a i n - e h a i n o f A n t i - L c b a n o n a n d M o u n t H e r m o n , vvhose i n h a b i t a n t s S t r a b o h a d t h o u g h t o f as ' I t u r a e a n s a n d A r a b s ' ; a n d vvith t h a t it i n e l u d e d t h c r e l a t i v e l y nevv city o f C a e s a r e a Panias o n thc slopes o f M o u n t H e r m o n , founded by the tetrareh Philip, a n d , m u c h m o r e signifîcantly, thc ancient city o f D a m a s c u s .

More

s t r i k i n g l y stili, t h c p r o v i n c c i n e l u d e d P a l m y r a , a n d vvith it a v a s t s t r e t e h of s t e p p e e x t c n d i n g t o the l o v v e r - m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s , belovv D u r a - E u r o p o s . In o n e s e n s e the d i v i s i o n -vvas s i m p l y a m a t t e r o f m i l i t a r y c o n v e n i e n c e : t o divide S y r i a i n t o tvvo s e e t i o n s , o n e o f vvhich, S y r i a P h o e n i c e , vvould h a v e o n l y [ z

9

6 ]

a single l e g i o n — I I I G a l l i c a s t a t i o n e d a t R a p h a n e a e on the O r o n t e s — a n d ( a s it m a y h a v e s c c m e d ) h a d n o s i g n i f i c a n t c x t e r n a l f r o n t i e r . F o r n o m a j ö r R o m a n f o r c e s e v e r seem t o h a v e p a s s e d d i r c c t l y t h r o u g h P a l m y r a t o t h e E u p h r a t e s a n d B a b y l o ı ı i a , a n d n o P a r t h i a n f o r c e s , o r Persian ones, ever t o o k t h a t r o u t e in t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e e t i o n . Ali m a j ö r m i l i t a r y m o v e m e n t s f o l l o w e d the r i v e r s — the E u p h r a t e s , o r E u p h r a t e s a n d C h a b u r , o r t h e T i g r i s . B u t i f ' P h o e n i c e ' h a d been i n t e n d e d t o be a military backvvatcr, vvhile r e ducing t h e legions under t h e c o m m a n d o f the legatus

o f Syria C o e l e t o tvvo,

it did n o t t u r n o u t s o . As vve h a v e seen, b y the early f o u r t h c e n t u r y a r o a d system a n d line o f f o r t s , c x p l i c i t l y identified as the ' S t r a t a D i o c l e t i a n a ' , l i n k e d the E u p h r a t e s t o P a l m y r a , t h e o u t e r edgcs o f the oasis o f D a m a s c u s a n d t h e eastern fringes o f the H a u r a n . T h e s e m i l i t a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n s in ' P h o e n i c e ' t h u s f o r m e d t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f a s y s t e m vvhich s t r e t e h e d f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a t o Aila o n t h e R e d S c a . I lovvever vve interf/ret

its p u r p o s e o r e f f e c t i v e n e s s , a

' d e s e r t f r o n t i e r ' vvas novv there. It vvas there in p a r t because R o m a n c o n t r o l novv r e a c h e d everyvvhere t o t h e b o r d e r s o f the s t e p p e z o n e ; b u t this ' f r o n t i e r ' vvas a l s o a r o a d - s y s t e m a l o n g vvhich rraffic m o v e d betvveen D a m a s c u s a n d N a b a t a c a o r A r a b i a t o t h e s o u t h , a n d f r o m the E u p h r a t e s via P a l m y r a t o D a m a s c u s , as vvell as directly vvestvvards t o E m e s a . T o s p e a k o f the m o v e m e n t s o f t r a d e vvest o r south-vvest f r o m P a l m y r a , hovvcvcr, t h o u g h it n o d o u b t c o r r e s p o n d s t o the facts, is t o g o b e y o n d vvhat o u r evidenee d i r e c t l y telis us. For, as vve vvill see, vvhile vvc have a c o n s i d c r a b l c r a n g e o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t P a l m y r e n e t r a d e eastvvard, t o t h e E u p h r a t e s , B a b y l o n i a , the Persian G u l f a n d even ' S c y t l ı i a ' (north-vvest I n d i a ) , m o v e m e n t s vvest (to E m e s a ) a n d south-vvest ( t o D a m a s c u s ) arc m u c h less vvell a t t e s t e d . N o n e t h e l e s s it is c e r t a i n t h a t a r o u t e d i d r u n betvveen D a m a s c u s a n d P a l m y r a . i t s c o u r s e vvas d e t e r m i n c d by t h a t o f t h e q u i t c high a n d r u g g c d m o u n t a i n - r a n g c ( r i s i n g t o a m a x i m u m o f a b o u t 1 4 0 0 m ) vvhich runs a p p r o x i m a t e l y parallel t o A n t i - L e b a n o n a n d p r o j e c t s north-eastvvards i n t o t h e s t e p p e a l m o s t t o P a l ı n y r a . T h e ' S t r a t a D i o c l e t i a n a ' a n d t h e R o m a n forts r a n a l o n g the s o u t h ern side o f this r a n g e . T h e c x i s t c n c e o f the oasis o f P a l m y r a itself, hovvever, vvas d e t e r m i n e d by t h e r a n g e o f m o u n t a i n s , r e a c h i n g heights o f betvveen 1 0 0 0 a n d 1 4 0 0 m , vvhich r a n a l m o s t directly eastvvards f r o m n e a r E m e s a t o r c a c h its h i g h e s t point s o m e 4 0 k m n o r t h - e a s t o f P a l m y r a . O n c further o u t e r o p , t h e J e b e l a l - B i s h r i , o f s o m e 9 5 0 m in lıeight, rises half-vvay betvveen the end o f this r a n g e a n d the E u p h r a t e s . I t is n o a c c i d e n t t h a t the m o s t n o r t l ı - e a s t e r l y evidenee f o r a P a l m y r e n e p r e s e n c e c o m e s f r o m a p o i n t vvhere a r o u t e r a n bctvveen these tvvo m o u n t a i n s , t o g o northvvards t o m e c t the u p p e r - m i d d l e Euphrates at Callinicum. T h e p l a c e c o n c e r n e d is T a y i b e h , ancient O r e s a , f r o m vvhich t h e r e c a m e a bilingual i n s e r i p t i o n , in G r e e k a n d P a l m y r e n e , novv in the British M u s c u m . Ir

is a d e d i c a t i o n , d a t i n g t o AD 1 3 4 , o n b e h a l f o f H a d r i a n , t o a deity n a m e d as ' Z e u s M c g i s t o s K c r a u n i o s ' ( ' t h u n d c r c r ' ) in G r e e k , a n d a s ' B a ' a i s h a m i n , lord o f the vvorld' ( B ' L S M N M R ' ' I . M ' ) in P a l m y r e n e . In a vvay vvhich perhaps r a t h e r t o o neatly s y m b o l i s e s the unity o f the a r e a u n d e r discussion, a n d its c o n n e c t i n g r o u t e s , t h e d e d i c a t o r n a m e s h i m s e l f a s ' A g a t h a ı ı g e l o s ( ' G T G L S in P a l m y r e n e ) , a n Abileııe o f t h e D c c a p o l i s * . W h a t he is d c d i c a t i n g is c a l l e d a kamara in G r e e k , a p p a r c n t l y a n i c h e f o r a s t a t u e , vvith a bench (kltne) in f r o n t o f it. 1 A t S u k n e h , further s o u t h on t h e s a m e r o a d , a n d s o m e 20 k m n e a r e r t o P a l m y r a , t h e r e vvas d i s c o v e r e d the s t a t u e o f ' I u p p i t e r O p t i m u s M a x i m u s I I e l i o p o l i t a n u s ' , in e n t i r c l y P a l m y r e n c stylc, d c d i c a t e d by a R o m a n a u x i l i a r y officcr, p r o b a b l y in t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e s e c o n d century. 2 B o t h fînds s e e n ı to d e m o n s t r a t e (unless t h e o b j e c t s vvere t r a n s p o r t e d h e r e at a later d a t e ) hovv the e a s t e r n e x t e n s i o n o f tlıe P a l m y r e n e p r e s e n c e s e r v c d t o b r i n g this r e m o t e reg i o n vvithin the o r b i t o f the c u l t u r e ( o r c u l t u r e s ) o f the settled N e a r E a s t a s it vvas vvhen under R o m a n r u l e . T h a t ııeed n o t seem s u r p r i s i n g . F o r vve h a v e a l r e a d y seen hovv a P a l m y r e n e m i i i t a r y p r e s e n c e is a t t e s t e d o n t h e lovvcr-middlc E u p h r a t e s a t G a m l a , a n d at A n a o r A n a t h a , vvhile P a l m y r e n e s o l d i e r s a r e f o u n d a t D u r a - E u r o p o s b e f o r e it p a s s e d i n t o R o m a n h a n d s . 3 P e r h a p s m o r e i m p o r t a n t , the q u i t e e x t e n s i v e series o f P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n s from D u r a b e g i n s vvith vvhat is a l m o s t the c a r l i e s t o f ali s u c h i n s e r i p t i o n s , r c c o r d i n g hovv tvvo P a l m y r c n e s in 34/33 RC dedicated

o u t s i d e t h e city

a temple t o Bel and

Yarhibol

(HYKL'

LBL

W Y R H B W L ) . T h e vvord used h e r e f o r 'temple* ( H Y K L ' ) is o f s o m e signific a n c e ; f o r , as vve vvill see, it a p p e a r s in G r e e k t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n , o u t s i d e the p r o p c r l y P a l m y r e n e z o n c , on t h e i m p o r t a n t t e m p l e a t D u m a y r o n the r o a d f r o m P a l m y r a t o D a m a s c u s . ' 1 It is a n o t h e r sign o f i n t e r e o n n e e t i o n s a l o n g t h e r o u t c vvhich b o r d e r e d the desert t h a t in AD 9 4 , t h e tvventy-fifth y e a r o f t h e last N a b a t a e a n k i n g , R a b b e l I I , m e m b e r s o f the h o u s c h o l d o f s o m e N a b a r a e a n offic e r s (vvith t h e title strategos—'SRTG')

d e d i c a t e d a h e x a g o n a l pillar a t Du-

mayr, vvith a n i n s e r i p t i o n in N a b a t a e a n . 5 Uııless these y e a r s ( a b o u t t h e t i m e o f t h e d e a t h o f A g r i p p a II) vvere m u c h m o r e d i s t u r b e d than vve i m a g i n e , this

1. CIS II.3, no. 3912; cf. OGIS, no. 631, and ICR III, no. 1057 (Grcck tcxl only). It is possible, as claimcd by G. W. Bovvcrsock, "A Ncw Antoninc inseription from the Syrian Desert", Chiron 7 (1976), 349, on p. 3 54, that this inseription (by a slip given 3S 3970) is a stray brought from Palmyra. But in fact- -scc Kcnncdy and Rilcy, RDF. 137—there are traces of at least latcRoman miiitary occupation on the site. 2. 4 . 1 a n d 8.4 a b o v e .

3. 3.4 above. 4. F o r the P a l m y r e n c i n s e r i p t i o n see du M e s n i l d u B u i s s o n , Inventahe râniennes

de Doura-Europos

(}i

at/ant J.-C. a 2 5 6 aptes J.-C.J,

5. CIS IT.r, n o . 1 6 1 ; J. C a n t i n e a u , I.e Nabateen lnoubliable

Petra: Le royaume

nabateen

aux confins

des inseriptions

palmy-

n o . 1 . F o r D u m a y r , 9 . 3 belovv.

II, 1 9 , n o . 8; s c c D . H o m c s - F r c d e r i c q (cd.), dıı desert

(1980), 1 0 7 - 1 0 8 .

vvas n o t a s i g n o f a c t u a l N a b a t a e a n r u l e a t t h i s p l a c e , s i t u a t e d s o m e 4 3 k m n o r t h - w c s t o f D a m a s c u s , b u t o f r e s p e c t beiııg paid a t a m a j ö r l o c a l c u l t c e n t r c . In a n y c a s e o n e N a b a t a e a n ( N B T Y ' ) , a c a v a l r y m a n s e r v i n g ' a t H i r t a a n d t h e c a m p a t ' A n ' a ' , e r e e t e d t w o a l t a r s in P a l m y r a itself i n 1 3 2 . 6 I f t h e z o n e w h e r e a N a b a t a e a n p r e s e n c e vvas v i s i b l e e x t c n d e d t o P a l m y r a itself, that o f the P a l m y r e n e seript and art also stretehed b e y o n d the f o r m a l b o u n d a r i e s o f P a l m y r e n e t e r r i t o r y . A s vve savv, R o m a n g o v e r n o r s p l a c e d t h a t b o u n d a r y , o n a n o t h e r r o a d f r o m P a l m y r a t o D a m a s c u s , o n t h c n o r t h side o f t h e m o u n t a i n - r a n g e , a t t h e p o i n t novv c a l l e d Q a s r el H a i r el G a r b i , 60 k m from Palmyra and 1 5 0 f r o m

Damascus.7

some

Hut i n f a c t vve find t h a t in AL>

1 4 6 fıve P a l m y r e n e b r o t h e r s e r e e t e d vvhat s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n a p o r t i c o a t N a z a l a , s o m c 3 5 k m n c a r c r t o D a m a s c u s , vvith an i n s e r i p t i o n in P a l m y r e n e ' t o t h c g r e a t g o d o f N a z a l a * ( I . ' L H ' R B ' D N Z L Y ) . 8 N a z a l a is t h c m o d e m Q a r yatayn, and like Dumayr, further south and much closer t o D a m a s c u s , it, t o o , e v i d e n t l y h a d an i m p o r t a n t l o c a l c u l t ; a G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m t h e r e r e c o r d s t h a t Z e n o b i o s s o n o f M o s c h o s , ' N a z a l c ı ı o s ' , vvas t h c H i g h P r i e s t

(archiereus).9

T h i s s o u t h c r n m o u n t a i n - r a n g e t h u s allovvcd o n e i t h e r s i d e t h c p o s s i b i l i t y o f s o m c settlement, and therefore of routcs passing through the settlements. A s vvas i n d i c a t e d earlier, it vvas a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s o f s e t t l e m e n t t h a t t h e s m a l l R o m a n m i l i t a r y o u t p o s t s o f t h e l a t e E m p i r e vvere e v e n t u a l l y s t a t i o n e d : N a z a l a vvas t o b e t h e e m p l a c e m e n t o f t h e ' E q u i t c s P r o m o t i I n d i g c n a c ' u n d e r t h c

dux

o f Phoenice.'0 ITıe n o r t h e r n r a n g e h a d a s i m i l a r e f f e c t , in allovving t h e e x i s t e n c c o f a s e a t t e r o f s m a l l s e t t l e m e n t s o c c u p i e d by a p o p u l a t i o n u s i n g P a l m y r e n e , vvhich s t r e t e h e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e t o t h e n o r t h a n d n o r t h - v v e s t o f t h e city. T h c f a m o u s s t u d y o f this r c g i o n by D a n i c l S c h l u m b c r g e r vvas i n s t r u m e n t a l in m a k ing c l e a r t h a t ' P a l m y r a ' c a n n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d s i m p l y as atı i s o l a t e d o a s i s , b u t , like a l m o s t ali o t h e r cities, a s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t point in a terrain o f vill a g e s . " T h e r e i s t h e f u r t h e r c o n s e q u e n c c t h a t vve c a n e n v i s a g c a s u b s t a n t i a l o v e r a l l P a l m y r e n e p o p u l a t i o n , f r o m vvhich t h e P a l m y r e n e u n i t s vvhich s e r v e d in l a r g e p a ı t s o f t h e E m p i r e — a n d p r e s u m a b l y its i n d e p e n d e n t f o r c e s o f t h e 260S a n d e a r l y 2 7 0 S — v v e r e d r a v v n . I t is n o t c v v o r t h y t h a t , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r c s o m c G r c c k inseriptions f r o m t h i s a r c a , t h c v a s t m a j o r i t y c o n t i n u c t o bc in P a l m y r e n e ; G r c c k n e v e r a t t a i n c d h e r e t h c p r o m i n e n t p l a c e vvhich it o c c u p i e d in t h e c i t y o f P a l m y r a itself i n r h e t h i r d c e n t u r y . 1 2 I t s h o u l d b e stressed a l s o 6. CIS H.3, n o . 3 9 7 3 .

7. 2.1 above. 8. CIS II.3, n o . 3 9 1 1 . 9. L e Bas-W., n o . 2 5 7 1 . 10. Not.

Dign,

Or. X X X I I , 23. C f . 5.x a b o v c .

x ı . D . S c h l u m b c r g e r , I.a Palmyrine i t . Schlumberger, o p . cit., 133.

du Nord-Ouest

(1951).

t h a t t h e villages o f t h i s a r e a , t h o u g h it m u s t a h v a y s h a v e b e e n v e r y p o o r c o m p a r e d ( f o r i n s t a n c e ) w i t h G a l i l e e o r t h e H a u r a n , c o u l d stili p r o d u c c m o n u m e n t a l art and pubiic inseriptions, o f t e n direeted t o the w o r s h i p o f dcities n a m e d ( a s s o o f t e n ) a f t e r t h e l o c a l i t y . S o , t o t a k e o n l y o n c i n s t a n c e , t h e r e is t h e d c d i c a t i o n m a d e i n 1 9 1 " t o t h e s p i r i t s o f t h e village o f B e t h - P t s i ' c l , g o d s (who are) g o o d a n d beneficent* ( L G N Y ' D Y Q R Y T * D Y B T P Ş Y ' L ,

'LHY'

T B Y ' \ V S K R Y ' ) . T h e finely c a r v e d r e l i e f a b o v e t h e i n s e r i p t i o n slıovvs s e v e n m a l e d e i t i e s , o f vvhom s i x c a r r y s h i e l d s a n d s p c a r s , a n d o n e f e m a l e d i e t y ; ali a r e h c a v i l y c i a d in l o n g t u n i c s dovvn t o t h e a n k l e s . In o t h e r vvords t h e lang u a g e , a r t a n d f o r m o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e divinities a r e t h o s e o f P a l ı n y r a itself.'3 In this d i r e e t i o n a l s o , t h e z o n e o f P a l m y r e n e l a n g u a g e a n d a r t i s t i c f o r m s m a y h a v e c x t e n d c d b e y o n d t h e f o r m a l b o u n d a r i e s set by R o m e . A s vve s a w earlier, t h e b o u n d a r y vvas e s t a b l i s h e d as e a r l y as AD I 1—17 b y C r c r i c u s S i l a n u s as legatus

o f S y r i a ; ' 4 a t t h e o n e p o i n t vvhere its p r e c i s e l o c a t i o n is k n o v v n , it

s t o o d at K h i r b e t el B i l a a s o n t h e J e b e l B i l a a s , s o m e 7 5 k m nortlı-vvest o f Palm y r a . E p i p h a n i a / H a m a lies a n o t h e r

8 0 k m o r so to t h e ııorth-vvest,

and

E m e s a s o m e 8 0 k m vvest-south-vvest. T o t h e north-vvest t h e r e is o n l y a flattish s t e p p e betvveen t h e s e h i l l s a n d t h e O r o n t e s V a l l e y , an a r e a vvhich s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n s e t t l e d a n d d e v e l o p e d o n l y in t h e l a t e - R o m a n C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d . 1 5 W e s t v v a r d s , hovvever, t h e h i l l s c o n t i n u e u n t i l n e a r E m e s a ; b u t n o d e t a i l e d epig r a p h i c o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l studics s c c m t o have becıı c o n d u c t e d here, a n d the n a t u r e o f s e t t l e m e n t , l a n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e in t h i s a r c a r e m a i n s u n k n o v v ı ı , Eastern

Syria P h o e n i c e ,

hovvever p r o b l e m a t i c its e v e n t u a l

designation

as

' P h o e n i c i a n ' , did n o ı ı e t h e l e s s e x h i b i t s o ı ı ı c d e g r e e o f c o h c r c t ı c e .

9.2.

E M E S A

A N D

E L A C A B A L

T h e d i s c o v e r y vvhich a b o v e a l i o t h e r s Iinks t h e z o n e o f P a l m y r e n e c u l t u r e vvith t h e o r i g i n s a n d n a t u r e o f t h e d i s t i n e t i v e i d e n t i t y o f E m e s a a n d its m o s t f a ı ı ı o t i s d e i t y d o e s n o t c o m e (it s e e m s ) f r o m t h e b o r d e r - z o n e o f t h e tvvo t e r r i t o r i e s d i s c u s s c d a b o v e ; i n s t e a d it i s r e p o r t e d t o h a v e c o m e f r o m t h e p l a c c m e n t i o n e d earlier, N a z a l a ( Q a r y a t a y n ) , o n t h e m o r e n o r t h e r l y o f t h e tvvo r o u t e s betvveen P a l m y r a a n d D a m a s c u s , a n d s o m e 7 5 k m s o u t h - e a s t o f E m e s a . ' I f t h i s i s so, it vvould fit vvith t h e p r e s e n c e o f o t h e r P a l m y r e n e e l e m e n t s t h e r e . W h a t vve a r e c o n c e r n e d vvith is a s m a l l l i m e s t o n e r e l i e f shovving o n t h e vievver's l e f t a s t a n d i n g d e i t y a r m c d vvith a s p c a r a n d svvord a n d c a r r y i n g a r o u n d s h i e l d , 1 3 . For the site, Schlumberger, op. cit., 25; inseription, 1 5 6 , no. 39; relief, Pl. X X I X . 1 . 14. 2.1 above. >5. 7 . 1 above. 1 . J . S t a r c k y , "St£le d ' E l a h a g a b a l " , MUSJ

49 ( 1 9 7 5 - 7 6 ) , 5 0 » -

a n d o n t h e r i g h t a r o c k o r m o u n t a i n vvith an e a g l e vvith o u ı s t r e t c h e d vvings p e r e h e d ı ı p o n it. W e c a n b e c o n f i d e n t t h a t b o t h p a r t s o f t h e r c l i e f r e p r e s e n t deities. F o r

the s t a n d i n g

figıırc

is l a b e l l e d in P a l m y r e n e

iettering

'Arsu'

( ' R S \ V ) ; vve novv knovv t h a t t h e r e vvas a t e m p l e t o ıhis deity a t P a l m y r a i t s e l f . 7 M u c h m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t iıı t h i s c o n t c x t is the o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , f o r t h i s t o o is l a b e l l e d : ' L H ' G B L . T h e first p a r t o f the e x p r e s s i o n m e a n s ' g o d ' , a n d the s e c o n d h a s b e e n t a k e n t o b e a n A r a m a i c t e r m m e a n i n g the s a m e a s ' J e b e P , n a m e i y ' m o u n t a i n ' . T h e tvvo vvords vvould t h e n b e in a p p o s i t i o n , l i k e ' Z e u s B ö m o s ' o r ' Z e u s B e t y l o s ' , aııd r h e m e a n i n g vvould be ' G o d M o u n t a i n ' . 3 B u t vvhether t h e g r a m m a r o r m e a n i n g o f t h e d i v i n c n a m e h a s b e e n c o r r e c t l y i n t e r p r e t e d o r n o t , it is b e y o n d s c r i o u s d o u b t t h a t t h e vvord ' F . l a h a g a b a l ' m u s t lic b e h i n d tlıc d i s t i n c t i v e n a m e o f t h e c h i e f d e i t y o f F.mesa, ' E l a g a b a l ' , o r in l a t e r s o u r c e s ' H e l i o g a b a l o s ' ; his c u l t - i m a g e vvas a l a r g e b l a c k s t o ı ı e , vvhich i t s e l f is r e p r e s e n t e d o n the c a r l i c s t c o i n s o f E m e s a , vvith arı e a g l e d u l y p e r e h e d u p o n it.* T h e s e c o i n s d a t e f r o n ı the r e i g n o f A n t o n i n u s Pius ( T 3 8 — > 6 ı ) , vvhile t h e r e l i e f is p e r h a p s a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r . \Ve c a n n o t o f c o u r s e d c d u c e a n y s i m p l e c h r o ı ı o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s i o n f r o m t h a t . R a t h e r vve ııeed t o l o o k at t h e v e r y s l i g h t , s e a t t e r e d a n d p u z z l i n g i n f o r m a t i o n vve h a v e f o r E m e s a , vvhich e m e r g e s as the base o f a local d y n a s t y o n l y in t h e first c e n t u r y BC, a n d by the f o u r t h c e n t u r y AD vvas r e g a r d e d b y L İ b a n i u s as a city a l r e a d y in s c r i o u s d e c l i n e . 5 S c y r i g savv t h a t d e c l i n e a s a f u n e t i o n o f E m e s a ' s d c p e ı ı d c n c e o n P a l m y r a a n d its l o n g - d i s t a n c c t r a d e ; a n d it is c e r t a i n l y t r u e t h a t t h e p r o m i n e n c e o f t h e tvvo cities follovvs a very s i m i l a r r h y t h m — t h e y b o t h c m e r g e d in the first c e n t u r y BC, a n d tıcither h a d a n y s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e a f t e r t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y AD. B u t it is vvorth r e c a l l i n g the g l i m p s e vvhich ( a s s o o f t e n ) T h e o d o r e t p r o v i d e s o f a l a r g e v i l l a g e o n M o u n t I . c b a n o n i n h a b i t e d b y f r e c p e a s a n t s vvho l i v c d b y s e l l i n g n u t s , a n d f o r vvhich F.mesa vvas t h e n e a r e s t city. 6 In e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l t e r m s ali t h e s e ' c i t i e s ' h a v e t o be seen p r i n ı a r i l y as t h e f o c a l p o i n t s o f a m u c h vvider vvorld o f villages. W h e r c a n d vvhen l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e vvas e v e r s u f f i c i e n t l y i m p o r t a n t t o give a d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r t o a city, o r even d o m i n a t e its h i s t o r y , is a c o m p i c x q u e s t i o n . T h e politieal history o f E m e s a may nonetheless present significant p o i n t s 2. F o r a n inseription referring t o t h e t e m p l e o f A r s u , s c c C . D u n a n t , Baalshamin

ILI, n o . 4 5 .

3. S o S t a r c k y , o p . cit. Scbastiaıı B r o c k suggcsts t o m c that G B L s h o u l d bc a v e r b r a t h e r t h a n , as Starcky t o o k it, a ııoutı (like 'Jebel') m e a n i n g ' m o u n t a i n * . 4. B M C Syruı, 2 3 7 ; (or large-scale r e p r o d u e t i o n s u f c o i n s o f E m e s a { f r o m the reign o f C a r a calla) represenciııg ı h e s t o n c , see M . J . Price a n d B. L . T r c l l , C o i n s and Their

Cities

(1977),

167-170. 5 . F o r the most p c r c c p u v c aııalysis, e m p h a s i s i n g its elose c o n n e c t i o n s (and p e r h a p s e c o n o m i c d e p c n d c n c c ) o n P a l m y r a , scc H . S c y r i g , " C a r a c r c r c s d e l'histoire d ' E m & e " , Syria 3 6 ( 1 9 5 9 ) , 1 8 4 . 6. T h e o d o r e t , llist.

Relig.

XVII, 2 - 3 .

o f c o m p a r i s o n w i t h that o f P a l m y r a . W c h a v e a l r e a d y c n c o u n t c r e d s o m e o f ( h e s c a t l e r e d e v i d e n c e for its dynasts, last h c a r d o f supplying t r o o p s f o r the s u p p r e s s i o n o f C o n ı m a g e n c in a b o u t 7 2 . ' T h e y a r e first referred t o in our surviving c v i d c n c c in a l e t t e r o f C i c e r o f r o m 5 1 BC, w h e n he r e c o r d s that ' l a m b l i c h u s , a phylarchus

o f the A r a b s ' , vvas t h o u g h t t o b c vvell d i s p o s e d to

R o m e in t h e f a c e o f a n e x p e c t c d P a r t h i a n i n v a s i o n . It m a y b c t o t h c s a m e l a m b l i c h u s ( o r m o r e p r o b a b l y t o his s o n a n d g r a n d s o n ) t h a t S t r a b o r e f e r s in s p e a k i n g o f A r e t h u s a on t h c O r o n t e s a s ' b e l o n g i n g t o S a m p s i k e r a m o s and I a m b l i c h o s his s o n , phylarchoi

o f t h e p e o p l e (ethnos)

o f the E m i s e n o i ' . H e

s e e m s t o b e referring t o t h e 40S BC. T h e r e is n o a l l u s i o n h e r e t o a city c a l l e d E m i s a o r E m e s a ( b o t h spellings are used), b u t o n l y t o a p e o p l e o r t r i b e — vvhom S t r a b o s e e m s a p a r a g r a p h l a t e r t o inelude a m o n g t h e skettitai

('fent-

dvvellers') t o thc s o u t h o f A p a m e a , vvho in t e r m s o f political o r g a n i s a t i o n (hegemonîa)

vvere e l o s e r t o t h e S y r i a n s — o n e e x a m p l e beiııg t h e fact t h a t Are-

thusa vvas under S a m p s i k e r a m o s . 8 It h a s t o b c a d m i t t c d t h a t w c knovv n o t h i n g o f the c u l t u r e o r social o r g a n i s a t i o n o f these ' E m i s e n o i ' in t h e first c e n t u r y AD, e x c e p t t h a t the s m a l l G r e e k city o f A r e t h u s a vvas in s o m e vvay d o m i n a t e d by t h e m , a n d t h a t their rulers c o u l d provide a r m i e s o f u p t o s o m c f o u r t h o u s a n d m e n f o r R o m e , a n d t h e m selves g a i n c d the R o m a n c i t i z c n s h i p a n d thc title ' k i n g ' . O n a n inseriptior. f r o m H e l i o p o l i s , ' t h c great k i n g ' (rex magnus)

C . Iulius S o h a c m u s , s o n o f the

g r e a t king S a m p s i g e r a m u s ( n o t a R o m a n citizen evideııtly), is h o n o u r e d as patronus

o f the colonia

(vvhich m u s t b e Berytus) s o m c t i m e in thc first c c n -

tury. 9 T h e f a t h e r vvill surely b c t h c S a m s i g c r a m u s vvho a p p e a r s o n a P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n in vvhich G e r m a n i c u s ( G R M N Q S ) is a l s o n a m e d : t h e f r a g m e n t a r y t e x t h a s ' | S h a m ) a s h g e r a m k i n g fof E m e s a ? ) , h i g h | k i n g ? | ' — | S M | S G R M M L K |HMŞ? M L J K ' RSY'.10 If t h e S e m i t i c n a m e o f t h c p l a c c d i d indeed a p p e a r in this t c x t , it is thc earliest attested use o f it; it r e a p p e a r s in G r e e k in J o s e p h u s ' later r e f c r e n c e s t o the k i n g s . T a k e n together, this seatter o f evidence gives the i m p r e s s i o n of t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f aıı A r a b t r i b e u n d e r a c h i e f vvhose d e s c e n d a n t s a r c r e c o g tıised by R o m e a s kings, a n d g a i n thc R o m a n citizcnship. B u t vve c a n n o t pretend t o knovv a n y t h i n g o f t h c u r b a n h i s t o r y o f their ' c a p i t a i ' in t h c first c e n tury, o r o f the social s t r u c t u r c o r c u l t u r e o f their s u b j c c t s . S i n c e it h a s o f t e n been s u p p o s e d t h a t t h e r e is s o m c p r o v a b l e c o n n e c t i o n betvveen these k i n g s a n d t h c family i n t o vvhich S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s vvas later t o marry, it s h o u l d b c

7 . 2.1 and 2.4 a b o v c . 8. C i c c r o , Fam. X V , 1 , 2 ; S t r a b o , Geog. 9. IGLS

1 0 . J. C a n t î n c a u , 110. 1 8 .

XV, 2, 1 0 - 1 1

(753).

VI, no. 2760. aTextes

p a l m y r c n i e n s d u T e m p l e de B â l " , Syria

12 ( 1 9 3 1 ) , 1 1 6 , o n p. 1 3 9 ,

stressed t h a t t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o shovv e i t h e r that they vvere s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a d y n a s t y o f priests o r even t h a t t h e c u l t o f ' E l a g a b a l ' vvas a l r e a d y o b s c r v e d t h e r e . W h a t s e e m s t o b e the o n l y d a t e d G r e e k inseription f r o m E m e s a o f t h e first c e n t u r y is t h a t f r o m t h e p y r a m i d - t o m b o f C . Iulius S a m s i g c r a m u s , s o n o f C . Iulius A l e x i o . " It vvas put u p in 7 8 / 7 9 , a n d h a s alvvays been t a k e n as t h a t o f a m e m b e r o f t h e ruling d y n a s t y , ereeted a f t e r they h a d c e a s e d t o r u l e . B u t vvhen G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s begin in r a t h e r greater n u m b e r s in t h e s e c o n d c c n t u r y , " t h e y reveal n o t h i n g e i t h e r o f any c e r t a i n d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e d y n a s t y 1 3 o r o f the o p e r a t i o n s o f a n o r m a l city-state. W h c n E m e s a developed t h o s e i n s t i t u t i o n s is n o t knovvn, t h o u g h it c o u l d b e a s s u m e d that it vvas b e f o r e t h e minting of coins began there under Antoninus Pius. But s o m e city-councillors (bouleutai)

o f E m e s a d o a p p e a r briefly in D i o ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e c o u p d ' c t a t

of 2l8.14 I n o t h e r vvords it h a s t o be a d m i t t e d c l e a r l y t h a t vve h a v e n o c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t o f E m e s a as a city o r o f its c u l t u r e o r s o c i a l s t r u e ture, a s a b a c k g r o u n d into vvhich t o set t h e family into vvhich S c p r i m i u s S c v c r u s m a r r i e d . T h e r e is a t a n y r a t e n o knovvn c o n n e c t i o n , either in d e s c e n t o r in local f u n e t i o n , betvveen t h e m a n d the

first-century

dynasty. 1 5 W o r s e s t i l i ,

such i n f o r m a t i o n as vve h a v e o n the earlier m e m b e r s o f the family c o m e s f r o m very b r i c f f o u r t h - c e n t u r y s o u r c c s , r a t h e r than f r o m c o n t c m p o r a r y r e p o r t s . Ali t h a t is c l e a r is t h a t , like t h e family o f Iulius Agrippa in A p a m e a , ' 6 t h i s family h a d gained t h e R o m a n c i ı i z c n s h i p by the e a r l y first c e n t u r y AD, a s the n a m e T u l i u s ' shovvs. S i n c e h i s tvvo d a u g h t c r s vvere b o t h c a l l e d Iulia, t h e ' B a s s i a n u s ' vvho vvas t h e m a t e r n a l g r a n d f a t h c r o f C a r a c a l l a a n d the g r e a r g r a n d f a t h c r o f ' E l a g a b a l ' a n d S e v e r u s A l e x a n d e r vvill h a v e been a 'Iulius B a s s i a n u s ' . It is o n l y a f o u r t h - c e n t u r y L a t i n e p i t o m e vvhich states t h a t he ' h a d been a priest o f the S u n : vvhom t h e Pboenices,

vvhence he c a m e , c a l l e d I l e l i o -

g a b a l u s ' . ' 7 At o n c level at l e a s t , w c are plainly dealing vvith a p r o m i n e n t G r c c k - s p e a k i n g local family, l o n g since R o m a n citizens, o f t h e class vvhose m e m b e r s vvould enter R o m a n I m p e r i a l service. 1 1 . ICI.S

V, no. m ı .

Cf. 3.1 above.

1 2 . T h e i n s e r i p t i o n s a r e c o l l e c t e d i n IGLS

V , Emestne

( 1 9 5 9 ) » vvith M . M o u s s l i . " G r i c -

c h i s c h e I n s c h r i f t e n a u s E m e s a u n d L a o d i c c a a d I . i b a n u m " , Pbilol.

1 2 7 (1983), 254.

1 3 . T h e f a c t t h a t in t h e first c e n t u r y P o l e m o II o f P o n t u s h a d a vvifc c a l l e d I u l i a M a m a c a i s n o t c n o u g h t o c s t a b l i s h t h a t this l a d y b e l o n g e d t o t h e E m c s c n c d y n a s t y , o r t h a t t h e f a m i l y o f t l ı « l a t e r Iulia M a m a c a w c r c t h e i r d r s c c n d a n t s . S c c Rirley, Septimius

Severus,

222, no. 40.

14. D i o I . X X 1 X , 3 r, 3. T J. F o r a g ö ö d e x a m p l e ö f t h e âSSuıttpttörtS â l ı d overtûiKİS vvhich e n l e r m o d e r n d i s c u s s i o n o f d ı c b a c k g r o u n d , s c c t h e n o t e 011 H c r o d i a n V , 3 , 4 in t h e I . o e b t c x t : ' t h e c u l t vvas a d m i n i s t c r c d b y t h e p r i c s t - k i n g s o f t h e p r i n c i p a l i t y ( d c s c e n d c d f r o m tlıc A r a b s h e i k , S a m s i c e r a m u s ) e v e n a f t e r the a b s o r p t i o n o f t h e state into Syria b y D o m i t i a n ' . 16. 7 . 4 above. 1 7 . Epit.

de Caes.

23, 2 .

Iulius B a s s i a n u s will h a r d l y h a v e been b o r n later t h a n t h e 1 3 0 5 . O f his t\vo d a u g h t e r s , p r e s u m a b l y b o r n in the

T 6 O S ,

Iulia D o m n a , as w e s a w earlier,

m a r r i e d S e p t i m i u s Severus, a s e n a t ö r f r o m L e p c i s , in t h e ı 8 o s . H e r sister, Iulia M a e s a , h a d a h u s b a n d w h o t n C a s s i u s D i o c a l l s Avitus, surely C . Iulius Avitus A l e x i a n u s f r o m E m e s a , an e q u e s t r i a n officer a n d procurator

later p r o m o t e d

t o the S e n a t e , a p p a r e n t l y b y S e p t i m i u s Severus. It vvas vvhile legatus

of Raetia

u n d e r S e v e r u s (and h e n c e b e f o r e the rise o f t h e g o d ' E l a g a b a l ' t o g e n e r a l n o t c riety) t h a t he d e d i c a t e d a n a l t a r t o 'his a n c c s t r a l god o f t h e S u n , E l a g a b a l ' . 1 * O f t h e tvvo d a u g h t e r s o f t h i s m a r r i a g e , p r e s u m a b l y b o r n in t h e r 8 o s , Iulia S o h a e m i a s B a s s i a n a m a r r i e d S c x t i u s Varius M a r c c l l u s , a n cquestriatı officer vvith a perfectly R o m a n n a m e , vvho t ı o n e t h c l e s s c a m e f r o m A p a m e a , novv in 'Syria C o c l c ' ; a n d Iulia Avita M a m a c a vvas first m a r r i e d t o a s e n a t ö r w h o reached t h e c o n s u l s h i p , a n d t h e n t o G e s s i u s M a r c i a n u s , an e q u e s t r i a n

procu-

rator f r o m A r c a ( C a e s a r e a a d L i b a n u m ) in P h o e n i c e . 1 9 W h e t h c r by the a c c i d e n t s o f o u r e v i d e n c e o r n o t , t h e p i c t u r e r e v e a l c d is t h a t o f a n i m p o r t a n t local f a m i l y vvith m a r r i a g c - c o n n e c t i o n s t o f a m i l i e s in o t h e r cities in the r e g i o n , a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y o u t s i d c it, a n d a s t r i k i n g l y h i g h level o f i n v o l v e m e n t in R o m a n service, t o vvhich it vvould n o t bc e a s y t o find a n y p a r a l l c l f r o m a n y o t h e r N e a r E a s t e r n city. E r o m o n e point o f vievv vvhat vve s e c is n o t a local ' d y n a s t y ' , b u t a n e x c e p t i o n a l l y high level o f integration into t h e vvider I m p e r i a l s y s t e m . B u t , a s Avitus' d e d i c a t i o n in R a e t i a shovved, they d i d g i v e p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s t o a deity o f m a r k e d l y local c h a r a c t c r , the Sun g o d ' E l a g a b a l u s ' . T h e f o r m in vvhich this d e d i c a t i o n e x p r e s s e s t h e divitte n a m e is o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e . F o r it preserves t h e v e r b a l link vvith the A r a m a i c o r P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n from N a z a l a , ' L I I ' G B L , vvhile a d d i n g the c o n c c p t t h a t this vvas a Sun g o d ( ' D c u s S o l ' ) . It is v e r y significant t h a t vve c a n novv p r o v e t h a t this vvas hovv the deity vvas c o n c e i v e d o f in E m e s a itself (the c o i n s give h i m n o n a m e ) . F o r a G r e e k d e d i c a t i o n f o u n d on the teli o f H o m s (vvhich m a y vvell t h e r e f o r e h a v e been the site o f the t e m p l e ) shovvs a n c x a c t l y parallcl v e r b a l c o m b i n a t i o n : ' t o T h e o s H e l i o s E l a g a b a l o s , M a i d o u m a s son o f G o l a s o s o u t o f g r a t i t u d e d e d i c a t e d (this)'. 2 0 It is essential t o stress t h a t the f o r m o f t h e n a m e by vvhich the tvvo e l e m e n t s vvere c o l l a p s e d into o n e , p r o d u c i n g i I c l i o g a b a l u s ' , is not f o u n d iıı c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c u m c n t s , o r even in the m o r e o r less c o n t e m p o r a r y literary a c c o u n t s by D i o a n d H e r o d i a n , but o n l y iıı fourth-ccn
( 1 9 6 2 ) , no. 2 2 9 ( A u g s b u r g ) : ' D e o p(atriol Soli Ela[gabaloJ C . lul. A v [ i t u s | Alexi[a-

nus] , , . ' . Scc Birlcy, o p . cit. (n.>3), 2 2 3 , no. 4 5 . 1 9 . S c c 3 . 4 a b o v e , w h c r c rlıc c v i d c n c c o n t h e f a m i l y is a l s o t t e a t e d . 2 0 . M o u s s l i , o p . c i t . ( n . 1 2 ) , n o . 2: C-)p9 "IIAûa TîX<ıyo|ky.<ı) M a ı S o u j ı a ç r o A n a o u « a ç âveOn*F.v.

p.û^apur-

T h c r c c a n b c n o d o u b t t h a t this d i v i n e n a m e w a s derived f r o m the S e m i n e ' L H ' G B L , a t t a c h e d , in the o n l y k n o w n e x a m p l c o f its use, t o a large s t o n e , o r j u s t p o s s i b l y a m o u n t a i n , vvith a n eagle p e r e h e d o n it. N o r c a n t h c r c b e a n y d o u b t t h a t t h e i c o n o g r a p h y a l s o vvas t r a n s f e r r e d t o E m e s a , f o r t h e e a r l i c s t c o i n s , o f A n t o n i n u s Pius' reign, shovv j u s t t h a t . I . a t e r c o i n s , o f the c o l o n i a l p e r i o d , shovv the s t o n e r e s t i n g o n a b a s e vvithin a s i x - c o l u m n e d t e m p l e . A d o u b l e shift h a s visibly o c c u r r e d . F i r s t , ali the knovvn i n s e r i p t i o n s o f E m e s a a n d its region a r c in G r e e k . In a vvay vvhich is familiar, a s i n g l e d i v i n e n a m e d e r i v e d f r o m a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g c h a s b e e n r e l o c a t e d in a G r c c k - u s i n g c o n t e x t , vvhich f o r E m c s c n e s e n a t o r s a n d also f o r s o l d i e r s serving a b r o a d b e c o m e s a l s o a Latin-usitıg c o n t e x t . * ' S e c o n d , the c u l t - o b j c c t , a large s t o n e , h a s t a k e n its p l a c e a s the c h i e f c u l t - o b j c c t — s c l c c t c d t o s y m b o l i s c t h e p l a c c o n i t s c o i n s — o f vvhat vvas novv a G r e e k city vvith a r a t h e r c o n s p i c u o u s l y G r a e c o R o m a n g o v c r ı ı i n g elass. In the p r o c e s s , hovvever, t h e s t o n e vvith its eagle h a s c h a n g e d m e a n i n g a n d — r a t h e r i m p r o b a b l y — h a s c o m e t o be i n t e r p r e t e d as a s y m b o l o f t h e S u n ( ' H c l i o s ' ) . İt is very striking t h a t in H e r o d i a n ' s c l a s s i c d e s e r i p t i o n o f tlıc c u l t , the avvkvvardness o f this is c l e a r l y felt. H e r o d i a n is giving the b a c k g r o u n d o f the c o u p d ' e t a t vvhich in 2.18 b r o u g h t t o the t h r o n e the s o n o f Iulia S o h a c m i a s B a s s i a n a , V a r i u s Avitus B a s s i a n u s , then t o b c n i c k n a m e d ' E l a g a b a l u s ' : Both b o y s vvere dedicated t o the service of the sun god vvhom the local inhabitants vvorship under its Phocnician n a m e of Elagabalus. T h c r c vvas a hugc temple built there, richly ornamented vvith gold a n d silver and valuable stones. T h e cult extended not just t o the local inhabitants eitlıer. Satraps o f ali the adjaccnt tcrritorics a n d barbarıan princcs trıcd t o o u t d o cach other in sending costly dcdications t o the god every year. I'hcre vvas no aetual man-nıade statue o f the g o d , the sort Greeks and R o m a n s put up; but there vvas an e n o r m o u s stone, rounded at the base and c o m i n g t o a point on the top, conical in s h a p c and black. 'ITıis s t o n e is vvorshipped as though it vvere sent from heavcn; on it thcrc are s o m e small projccting pieces anıl markings that arc pointed out, tvhicb the people believe are a rougb picture

of the sun, because

ıvould like to

this boıv they see

them.n

H e r o d i a n is c l e a r l y c o r r c c t in s a y i n g t h a t it vvas t h e ' i n s i d e r s ' from E m e s a itself vvho 'savv' t h e s t o n e a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e S u n . But insiders vvithin vvhat culture? H e r o d i a n a l s o deseribes the g r a n d m o t h e r o f t h e nevv E m p e r o r , Iulia M a e s a , a s 4 a P h o e n i c i a n b y r a c e \ a n d takes t h e S c m i t i c l a n g u a g c f r o m vvhich ' t h e local i n h a b i t a n t s ' (epichörioi)

drevv t h e n a m e o f t h e g o d t o b e

P h o c n i c i a n . W e might t a k e this a s a n i n a c c u r a t e a n d c o n f u s e d ' o u t s i d c r ' s ' i m 2 1 . S c c esp. J. F i t z , Les Syriens

a Itılercisa

( 1 9 7 2 ) , csp. 1 7 8 , 1 8 3 , 1 9 3 .

2 2 . H e r o d i a n V , 3 , 2 - 5 , 1 . o c b t r a n s . (ray icalics); c f . c h . 1 a b o v e .

pression o f vvhich g r o u p vvas vvhich in t h e N e a r E a s t . B u t it is n o t . F o r the a u t h o r o f the G r e e k n o v e i

Aithiopica

( p e r h a p s vvritten in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y )

ends by identifying himself a s foliovvs: ' t h c person vvho c o m p o s c d this vvas a Phoenician man, an

Emisenos,

by racc belonging t o those from thc Sun,

Heliodoros thc son of T h e o d o s i o s ' . E m c s a a n d its citizcııs s i m p l y c o u l d n o t have been ' P h o e n i c i a n ' in the sarae sense t h a t thc a n c i e n t citics o f t h c c o a s t vvere, f o r a t the t i m e o f the i ı ı d c p e n d e n t , o r s e m i - i n d e p e n d e n t , e x i s t c n c e o f t h o s e citics, t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o shovv t h a t E m e s a h a d even e x i s t e d . L i k e P a l m y r a , it vvas a r e c e n t f o r m a t i o n , vvhich h a d n o e a r l y history, P h o e n i c i a n o r othervvise. T h e use o f the P h o e n i c i a n lang u a g e might a t s o m c s t a g e h a v e s p r e a d i n l a n d — E m e s a iay o n l y s o m e 7 0 km f r o m t h e c o a s t in a direct l i n e , t h r o u g h t h e H o m s g a p , a n d so s o m c 9 0 k m f r o m either T r i p o l i s o r A r a d u s . B u t t h e r e is a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g in o u r d o c u m e n t a t i o n t o suggest t h a t this vvas s o . O n t h e e v i d e n c e a t o u r d i s p o s a l the c r u c i a l f e a n ı r e o f thc l i n g u i s t i c m a p vvas n o t this, b u t thc linguistic ' f r o n t i e r ' 10 t h e e a s t a n d s o u t h - e a s t o f F^mesa, f r o m b e y o n d vvhich ' L H ' G B I . h a d s o m e h o w c o m e , vve d o n o t k n o w vvhen o r hovv. T h e E m e s e n e soldiers s t a t i o n e d in t ' a n n o n i a vvho vvorshippcd h i m used L a t i n o r G r e e k . 2 3 ( B y c o n t r a s t P a l m y r e n e s o l d i e r s a b r o a d m i g h t t a k e n o t o n l y their g o d s b u t their l a n g u a g e vvith t h e m , s o m e t h i n g vvhich d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e m f r o m ali o t h e r s o l d i e r s in the I m p e r i a l a r m y . ) 2 4 \Vc c a t c h a c u r i o u s g l i m p s e o f this ' f r o n t i e r ' in D i o ' s s t o r y o f the Iulius A l e x a n d c r o f E m c s a vvhose c x c c u t i o n vvas o r d e r e d by

Commodus

{ 1 8 0 - 1 9 2 ) . H a v i n g m a n a g e d t o kili n o t o n l y t h o s e s e n t t o c x c c u t c h i m b u t ali h i s e n e m i e s a m o n g the E m e s e n e s , h e m o u n t e d a h o r s e a n d set o f f t o t h e barbaroit

a n d n c a r l y e s c a p e d . 2 5 I f D i o m e a n t t o imply, by using t h e vvord bar-

baroi,

t h a t A ! e x a n d c r c o u l d h a v e e r o s s e d into an a r e a vvhere a S e m i t i c lan-

g u a g e vvas stili c u r r e n t , h e vvill have b c c n c o r r e c t . It is n o use o u r a s s e r t i ı ı g that t h e E m e s e n e s , o r their l e a d i n g f a m i l i c s , 'vvere' r c a l l y ' A r a b s ' o r ' P h o e n i c i a n s ' o r ' G r e e k s ' . Ali t h r e e d e s e r i p t i o n s arc p o s s i b l e . O n l y tvvo a s p e c t s o f this c o m p l c x q u e s t i o n o f c u l t u r a l identity are c e r t a i n . F i r s t , the d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e so far a v a i l a b l e puts E m c s a a n d its region firnıly in t h e large a r e a vvhere S e m i t i c p e r s o n a l n a m e s vvere c o m m o n , b u t vvhere G r c c k vvas used o n i n s e r i p t i o n s , vvhile S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s vvere n o t . 2 6 S e c o n d , t h e c u l t o f E l a g a b a l , b o t h as o b s c r v c d in its setting a t E m e s a a n d as c x p o r t c d b y t h c y o u n g E m p e r o r t o R o m e , e x h i b i t e d a vvhole r a n g e o f

13. Scc Fitz, loc. a t . (n. * ı ) . 1 4 . 9.4 b e l o w . ı S . Dio LXXII, z6.

14,1-3.

S c c , e . g . , E . N i t t a , " A t u r o p o n o m i c i s e m i r t t i n e l l e i s e r i z i o n i g r e e h e c lacinc d e l l a E m e -

s e n e " , Civiltâ

classica

e cristiana

1 0 (1989), 283.

f e a t u r c s vvhich c o n t e m p o r a r i e s t o o k t o b e ' P h o e n i c i a n ' , ' S y r i a n ' , 'Assyrian*, o r ' b a r b a r i a n ' . H e r o d i a n ' s d e s e r i p t i o n o f the cult c o n t i n u c s : Bassianus, the elder o f the tvvo boys, vvas a priest o f this god (as the elder o f the tvvo he had been put in charge o f the cult). H e used t o appear in public in barbarian clothcs, vvcaring a long-slecved ' c h i t o n ' that hung t o his feet and vvas gold and purple. His legs from the vvaist dovvn t o the tips o f his toes vvere completely covercd similarly vvith garments ornamented vvith gold and purple. O n h i s head he vvore a crovvn o f prccious stones glovving vvith different c o l o u r s . 2 7 In g e n e r a l t e r m s t h e d e s e r i p t i o n o f his c o s t u ı n e fits vvith t h a t knovvn, f r o m b o t h L u c i a n a n d a r c l i c f s c u l p t u r c , a t H i e r a p o l i s , 2 8 as vvcll as a t o c c a s i o n a l other placcs including Niha o n

M o u n t L c b a n o n a n d (011 vvall-paintitıgs)

D u r a - E u r o p o s . T h e distinetive c o n i c a l h a t , hovvever, is n o t d e s c r i b c d . As r c gards the c u l t vvhich ' E i a g a b a l ' deliberately displayed in R o m e in 2 1 9 - 2 2 2 . , D i o r e e o r d s t h e E m p e r o r a s a b s t a i n i n g from p o r k ; h a v i n g h i m s e l f c i r c u m cised, a s b c i n g a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e god (an o p e r a t i o n vvhich h a d t h e r e f o r e n o t been c a r r i e d o u t b e f o r e ) ; as vvcaring t h e ' b a r b a r i c ' dress o f S y r ian priests (and hence b e i n g n i c k n a m e d ' t h e A s s y r i a n ' ) ; a n d a s s i n g i n g b a r b a r ian c h a n t s (ödai) t o the g o d s , a n d m a k i n g c x o t i c sacrifices, including t h o s e o f y o u n g b o y s , in s c c r e t . " T h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t vvhat c o n t e m p o r a r i e s novv 'savv' ( a n d p e r h a p s vvere intended t o s e e ) vvas s o m e t h i n g iııdiscriminately ' O r i e n t a l ' is r e i n f o r c e d b y H e r o d i a n , vvho says t h a t t h e c o s t u m c vvhich the E m p e r o r a f f e c t e d vvas ' s o m e t h i n g betvveen P h o e n i c i a n g a r b a n d the l u x u r i o u s M e d i a n r a i m e n t ' . A p i c t u r e r e p r e s e n t i n g him s a c r i f ı c i n g t o his n a t i v e god vvas sent o n in a d v a n c e , a n d vvhen he r c a c h c d R o m e he a n d s o m e P h o e n i c i a n vvomen c o u l d be s c e n d a n c i n g b e f o r e t h e g o d vvith c y m b a l s a n d d r u m s , vvhile t h e P r a e t o r i a n Prefects a n d o t h e r h i g h officials h a d t o d o n the full-lengtlı P h o e n i c i a n t u n i c vvith long sleeves a n d a purple stripe; H e r o d i a n later also c o n f i r n ı s t h e detail a b o u t a b s t e n t i o n f r o m p o r k . 3 0 M o d e r n a n a l y s c s h a v e t e n d c d (as alvvays) t o r c a d far t o o m u c h i n t o t h e s t e r e o t y p e d c a t e g o r i e s vvhich t h e a d o l e s c e n t E m p c r o r ' s deliberately c x h i b i t i o n i s t b e h a v i o u r e v o k e d in c o n t e m p o r a r y historians. 3 1 B u t c o i n s minted in R o m e in his reign d o duly n a m e h i m ( o c c a s i o n a l l y ) a s 'priest (sacerdos)

of

27. Herodian V, 3, 6, Loeb irans. 28. 7.2 above. 29. Dio LXXIX, 1 1 , 1 - 2 {Boisscvain III, p, 462); 11, î (464). 30. Herodian V, 5, 3--10; 6, 9. 3 1 . S e e , e . g . , R . T u r c a n , Hcliogaba/e

et le sacre

du Soleil

( 1 9 8 5 ) ; Les cultes

orientaux

dans

le monde romain (1989), I79ff. As noted above, there is no contemporary attestation for the form 'Hcliogabalus'.

D c u s S o l E l a g a b ( a l ) ' , a n d p o r t r a y h i m s a c r i f i c i n g w h i l e w e a r i n g a long r o b c , as vvell as displayiııg ( a m o n g m a n y o l h e r r r a d i t i o n a l i m a g e s ) tlıe b l a c k stotıe being c a r r i e d in p r o c e s s i o n o n a v v a g g o n . " Any d i s c u s s i o n s h o u l d t a k e into a c c o u n t t h e c l c a r e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e c u l t vvas a c c o m p a nied b y f e a n ı r c s vvhich d e l i b c r a t e l y a c c e n t u a t c d its ' O r i e n t a l ' , ' S y r i a n * o r ' P h o e n i c i a n ' f e a t u r e s — a n d t h e f a c t that even in E m e s a itself it h a s a l r e a d y b e e n g i v e n a m e a n i n g , in a G r e e k - s p e a k i n g c o n t e x t , t o vvhich n e i t h e r t h e g o d ' s S e m i t i c n a m e nor his c m b o d i m e n t in a b l a c k s t o n e in a n y vvay c o r r e s p o n d c d . T h e r e ıvas n o single m e a n i n g o f t h e c u l t t o vvhich researeh vvill allovv u s t o penetrare. By t h e t i m e t h a t the g o d E l a g a b a l m a d e his b r i e f a p p e a r a n c e a t t h e h e a r t o f t h e E m p i r e , his h o m e - c i t y h a d b e c o m e a R o m a n colonia,

through a grant

o f this s t a t u s b y C a r a c a l l a { 2 . 1 1 — 2 1 7 ) . By this t i m e t h e s t a t u s vvas s o c o m m o n in t h e N e a r E a s t t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r c x p l a n a t i o n is hardly n c c d c d ; b u t it vvas o f c o u r s e the h o m e - c i t y o f C a r a c a l l a ' s mor.her, Iulia D o n m a . It is a small s i g n o f the vvay in vvhich this s t a t u s vvas b e c o m i n g c o m p a t i b l e vvith t h a t o f beitıg a G r c c k city t h a t the ' c o l o t ı i a l ' c o i n s a r e ali in G r e e k : ' E m i s ö ( n ) k o l ö ı ı i a s ' , and then u n d e r the E m p e r o r ' E l a g a b a l ' h i m s e l f ' M c t r o k o l ö n i a s E m i s i ö n ' — t h e hyb r i d G r e e k - L a t i n title metro kolönia

( ' m o t h e r - c o l o n y ' ) a p p e a r s in t h e t h i r d

c e n t u r y as a n a n a l o g y t o ' n ı e t r o p o l i s ' ( ' m o t l ı e r - c i t y ' ) . 3 3 T h e c o n i c a l s t o n e , s o m e t i m e s vvith the eagle, c o n t i n u e d t o b e displayed on t h e c o i n s ; b u t a f t e r t h e fail o f t h e E m p e r o r n o c o i n s a r c knovvn until t h o s e o f t h e n e x t ' E m p e r o r ' from Emesa, Uranius Antoninus. We have already encountered the striking but littlc-understood episode o f 1 5 2 / 2 5 3 vvhen, in t h e f a c e o f S h a p u r ' s i n v a s i o n , a variety o f s o u r c e s — S h a pur's ovvn Re s Gestae;

t h e c o i n s o f a p r e t e n d e r vvith the n a m e L u c i u s Iulius

Aurelius Sulpicius U r a n i u s S c v c r u s A n t o n i n u s ; a c o n t c m p o r a r y p s c u d o - o r a c l c in G r c c k verse, t h e XIII

Sibylline

Oracle;

a n d t h e Cbronicle

of Malalas—

c o m b i n e t o suggest j u s t hovv m u c h vve d o n o t knovv o f s o c i a l s t r u e t u r e s and local p a t r i o t i s m here. W c n e e d n o t c o n s i d c r again the details o f hovv a local f o r c c f r o m E m e s a vvon a v i c t o r y a g a i n s t the P e r s i a n s — o r a t least c o n t r i b u t e d t o the c e r t a i n fact t h a t their f o r c e s a d v a n c e d a s far s o u t h a l o n g t h e O r o n t e s as A r e t h u s a , but n o further. 3 * B u t if it is c o r r e c t , a s it s e e m s t o be, t h a t the XIII

Sibylline

Oracle

vvas b o t h vvritten a t E m e s a a n d o r i g i n a l l y s t o p p e d w i t h

this v i c t o r y , the f o u r lines c o n c e r n i n g it gain a special significance: ' T h e n t h e r e wili be a r o u t o f the R o m a n s ; b u t i m m e d i a t e l y t h e r e a f t e r a priest vvill c o m e ,

3 2 . HMC.

Roman

Empire

V ( 1 9 5 0 ) , e.g., 560, n o . 1 9 7 , black stone carried on w a g g o n ; J62,

n o . 2 0 9 ( P l . 8 9 ) , E m p e r o r s a c r i f i c i n g ; 5 6 4 , n o . 1 2 5 , s a c r i f i c i n g : S A C E R D D E ı S O L I S HIJ\C;AU; no. 273

(Pl. 9 1 , 2), s t o n e c a r r i c d o n

3 3 . M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae", 34. 4.3 a b o v e .

w a g g o n : SANCT DEO

41.

SOLI

KI.AOAUAL.

572,

the last o f ali, seıu f r o m the s u n , appcariııg f r o m Syria, and he will d o everyt h i n g b y c r a f t ; the c i t y o f t h e s u n will a r i s e , a n d a r o u n d h e r t h e P e r s i a n s vvill endure the terrible tlıreats o f P h o e n i c i a n s V 5 T h e coinage o f the pretender, vvith l e g e n d s in b o t h G r e e k a n d L a t i n , n a m e s the colonia

o f E m e s a (and n o

o t h e r c i t y ) , a n d a b o v e ali s o m e o f it p o r t r a y s a g a i n the b l a c k s t o n e in i t s temple.36

The

conception

that

it

represented

the

Sun,

and

the

sclf-

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c i t i z c n s as ' P h o c n i c i a n s ' , stili p e r s i s t e d . B u t t h e r e s t o f vvhat little vve knovv o f it shovvs the c i t y o v e r the n e x t tvvo d e c a d e s vvithin the o r b i t o f P a l m y r a — a n d s i m p l y as o n e s m a l l c i t y o f S y r i a P h o e n i c e a m o n g o t h e r s . 3 7 It s h o u l d n o t be c l a i m e d t h a t the fevv d r a m a t i c m o m e n t s o f its h i s t o r y c a n be p u t i n t o a n y intclligible c o n t e x t o f s o c i a l o r c u l t u r a l history. W e a r e left a l s o vvith the a c u t e p r o b l e m o f vvhether the e a s t e r n t r a d e o f P a l m y r a r e a l l y vvas s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e e v o l u t i o n o f E m e s a i n t o a n o t a b l e c i t y . T h a t e v o l u t i o n , s o f a r a s vve c a n t r a c e it, d o e s follovv the rise o f P a l m y r a , a n d c q u a l l y its b r i e f p e r i o d o f r e l a t i v c p r o m i n e n c e d o e s n o t o u t l a s t t h e fail o f P a l m y r a . As vvc vvill s e e , hovvever, t h e p a r t i c u l a r n a t u r e o f o u r e v i d e n e e a b o u t t h e l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e o f P a l m y r a m e a n s t h a t it h i g h l i g h t s o n l y m o v e m e n t s eastvvard f r o m t h e r e . If g o o d s vvere i n d e e d b r o u g h t b a c k in s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i ties vvestvvards t h r o u g h P a l m y r a , t h e y m u s t h a v e passed (it vvould s e e m ) e i t h e r t h r o u g h E m e s a o r t h r o u g h D a m a s c u s . B u t , if t h r o u g h E m e s a , vvhere n c x t ? T h e r e is n o t h i n g in o u r e v i d e n e e t o s u p p o r t the n o t i o n o f a n e s t a b l i s h e d ı r a d e r o u t e g o i n g dovvn t h e O r o n t e s V a l l e y f r o m E m e s a t o A n t i o c h a n d S e l e u c i a . E q u a l l y , t h e r e is v e r y little t o s u g g e s t t h a t s u c h a r o u t e p a s s e d t h r o u g h the g a p f o r m e d by the E l e u t h e r o s R i v e r ( t h e N a h r el K e b i r ) t o r c a c h t h e n o r t h e r n P h o e n i c i a n c o a s t in t h e a r e a o f A r a d u s o r T r i p o l i s . B u t t h e r e is j u s t o n e i r e m o f e v i d e n e e t o shovv t h a t p r o d u e t s f r o m Iııdia did r e a c h t h e P h o e n i c i a n c o a s t o v e r l a ı ı d . İn t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y G a l e n , t h e f a m o u s m c d i c a l vvriter, vvas o n his vvay b a c k f r o m Syria P a l a e s t i n a , vvhen b y g o o d f o r t u n c h e g o t h o l d o f s o m e I n d i a n lycium

( a s h r u b vvith m e d i c i n a l uses, vvhich vve k n o v v

vvas a l s o i m p o r t e d b y sea f r o m north-vvest I n d i a ) . " Iıı this c a s e the c o n s i g n m e n t h a d r c c e n t l y b e e n i m p o r t e d t o P h o e n i c i a , a n d G a l e n vvas p e r s u a d e d t h a t it vvas g e t ı u i n c p a r t l y b e c a u s e it h a d b e e n b r o u g h t b y c a m c l s . 3 9 O u r e v i d e n e e r e m a i n s vvholly i n a d e q u a t c . B u t it m a y b e t h a t l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e a e r o s s t h e s t e p p e h a d b r o u g h t a b o u t s i g n i f i c a n t e c o n o m i c a n d c u l t u r a l l i n k s betvveen P a l m y r a , E m e s a atıd the a n c i e n t c i t i c s o f t h e P h o e n i c i a n c o a s t .

3 5 . Stb. Or. X I I , II. 1 5 0 - *

t r a n s . l ' o t t c r , Sibylline

Oracle.

For the c o m p o s i t i o n o f the vvork

see P o ı t e r , 1 4 ı f f . 3 6 . S e e B a l d u s , Uranius

Anloninus,

Pis. I V - V , X I I .

37. 4.3 a b o v e . 3 8 . C f . I.. C a s s o n , The

l'eriplus

3 9 . G a l e n , de simplicium GI.AJJ

II, F . 3 8 5 .

Maris

lirylhraei

mediaımentorum

(>989), 1 6 - 6 7 , ete.

lemperametılis,

ed. Kuhıı X I I , 2 1 5 = Stern,

9.3. DAMASCUS AND İTS

REGİON

If a n y t h i n g , even m o r e c o m p l e x p r o b l e m s a t t e n d the history o f D a m a s c u s in t h e R o m a n p e r i o d . Here t o o it is n o t i m p o s s i b l e t h a t a ' t r a d c - r o u t e ' passing vvithin the line o f t h c later ' S t r a t a D i o c l e t i a n a ' vvas a s i g n i f i c a n t factor. G o o d s b r o u g h t t h r o u g h P a l m y r a m a y indeed h a v e been traded there. "I"here is also o n e , t h o u g h o n l y o n e , hint o f a t r a d c - r o u t e r e a c h i n g D a m a s c u s f r o m

the

south. S t r a b o records that A r a b s a n d Ituraeans inhabiting the mountainous a r c a s a r o u n d D a m a s c u s h a d b e e n a t t a c k i n g b o t h t h c p e o p l e o f D a m a s c u s and m e r e h a n t s f r o m A r a b i a F c l i x , until o r d e r vvas r e s t o r e d under A u g u s t u s . 1 But t h a t is a m e r e hint. \Vhat is m o r e i m p o r t a n t is S t r a b o ' s ( a d m i t t e d l y c o n f u s e d ) r e f e r e n e e t o the barbaroi

vvho i n h a b i t e d A n t i - L e b a n o n a n d M o u n t L e b a n o n

b e h i n d thc city, a n d a l s o t h e b r o k e n lava-field o f T r a c h o n i t i s t o its s o u t h . I f a n y vvorthvvhile i n f o r m a t i o n vvere a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e s o c i a l , e c o n o m i c a n d cultural r e l a t i o n s o f D a m a s c u s t o the vast a r e a o f m o u n t a i n b e h i n d , it vvould b e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e . B u t , as it is, the c o m p l e x a n d f r a g m e n t a r y lıiscory o f the d y n a s t i e s f o u n d in this a r e a in t h e e a r l y E m p i r e is n o t vvorth p u r s u i n g further. 2 Ali that is c l c a r is t h a t , a s a t ali p e r i o d s , t h e r e vvas a n e s t a b l i s h c d r o u t e f r o m D a m a s c u s a c r o s s t h c s a d d l e betvveen A n t i - l - e b a n o n a n d M o u n t H e r m o n t o t h e B e k a a Valley, a n d then ö v e r M o u n t L e b a n o n t o B e r y t u s . O n this saddle lay the small city o f A b i l a , a n d the i n t e r a c t i o n betvveen thc E m p i r e a n d this m o u n t a i n c o m m u n i t y is p c r f c c t l y c a u g h t in a L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n c a r v c d on a r o c k - f a c e t h e r e : ' ( M a r c u s Aurelius a n d L u c i u s V e r u s ) b y cutring t h r o u g h t h c m o u n t a i n r e s t o r e d the r o a d b r o k e n b y the f o r c e o f t h e river, t h r o u g h Iulius Verus, legatus

pro praetore

o f the p r o v i n c c o f S y r i a , a t the e x p c n s e o f the

A b i l c n i ' . T h c vvork vvas s u p e r v i s c d by a c e n t u r i o n o f t h c l e g i o n X V I F l a v i a Firma.3 T h e s o c i a l history o f t h e tvvo m o u n t a i n regions o n e i t h e r side o f the r c a d r e m a i n s , like its a r c h a e o l o g y , a n a l m o s t c o m p l e t e b l a n k . T h e L a t i n inseriprions left b y I t u r a c a n s o l d i e r s serving in v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h c E m p i r e in thc first a n d s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s d o shovv the c o n t i n u c d use o f S e m i t i c n a m e s : ' B a r gathes son of Regebalus'; ' T h a e m u s son o f Horatius'; ' M o n i m u s s o n

of

I e r o m b a l u s ' ; ' C a e u s ( P ) a n d Iamliclıus, s o n s o f H a t ı e l u s ' . * B u t u n l i k e P a l m y r e n e s o l d i e r s they n e v e r u s e a S c m i t i c language o r s e r i p t ; a n d o u r s p a r s e c v i d c n c c 011 their h o m e l a n d itself s i m i l a r l y reveals o n l y G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s , a n d (as elsevvhere) o c c a s i o n a l p e r f e c t l y G r e e k t e m p l e s in r e m o t e l o c a t i o n s , 1 . S t r a b o , Geog< X V I , z» 2 0 ( 7 5 6 ) . C f . 2 , 1 a b o v c . 2 . W h a t little is k n o w n is s u m m e d u p in Schürer, HJP I, A p p . I, " I l i s t o r y of C h a l c i s , I t u r ı e a and Abilcnc'1; G . Schmitt, " Z u m Königreich Chalkis", Z D P V 9 8 (1982), 1 1 0 ; W. Schoicr»tf, " D i c Ilurâcr", ibid., 1 2 5 . 3 . İLS,

n o . 5864/a.

4. S c h o t t r o f f , o p . c i t . ( n . 2 ) , i 4 8 t f f .

high up o n the m o u n t a i n . M o s t o f t h e knovvn rural t e m p l e s o f this r e g i o n lie o n t h e vvest side o f M o u n t H e r m o n , a n d p r o b a b l y b e l o n g e d in the t e r r i t o r y o f S i d o n . B u t , f o r i n s t a n c e , the t e m p l e knovvn as K a s r N i m r u d lies in a v a l l e y o n t h e eastern s l o p e o f A n t i - L c b a n o n , s o m e 4 0 k m d u e n o r t h o f D a m a s c u s ; j u s t e n o u g h o f a G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n survives t o shovv t h a t the temple, o r p a r t o f it, vvas d e d i c a t e d b y T a m b l i c h o s son o f B a r i b a o s V It is m a t e h e d by t h e v a s t t e m p l e a t D e r cl A s h a i r a t the n o r t h e r n e n d o f M o u n t H e r m o n , a n d j u s t s o u t h o f the s a d d l e ö v e r vvhich the r o a d p a s s e s . H e r e a n o t h e r G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n r e e o r d s t h a t a b e n c h (diphros)

vvas installcd 'in t h e year 2 4 2 , under B c e l i a b o s ,

a l s o c a l l e d D i o d o t o s , s o n o f A b e d a n o s , high priest o f t h e g o d s o f K i b o r c i a ' . 6 W h a t era is b c i n g used is n o t c e r t a i n ; b u t t h e temple, like so m a n y o t h e r s , vvas c e r t a i n l y c o n s t r u c t c d in t h e I m p e r i a l period. O t ı c e again a p o p u l a t i o n stili ıısing S e m i t i c n a m e s vvould e x p r c s s itself, in vvords o r s t o n c , via t h e m e d i u m o f G r e e k c u l t u r e . T h e c o m p ! e x i t y o f the vvider G r a e c o - R o m a n

influenccs

vvhich c o u l d b e felt i n this r e g i o n is shovvn novvhere m o r e c l e a r l y t h a n in t h e d e d i c a t o r y i n s e r i p t i o n in G r e e k on a n a l t a r f o u n d in the upper valley o f t h e B a r a d a s River; o n t h e p r o b a b l e site o f A b i l a : 'In the y e a r 3 8 1 (AD 6 9 / 7 0 ) , m o n t h D i o s , t o the G r e a t e s t H e l i o p o l i t a n Z e u s , S e l e u k o s s o n o f A b g a r o s , priest o f t h e G o d d e s s R o m a a n d o f t h e Deifıed A u g u s t u s C a e s a r , a n d p r i e s t o f Z e u s a n d A p i s , d c d i c a t c d t h i s f r o m t h e r c s o u r c c s o f himself a n d

his

brother Alexandros\7 It might b e that t h e p r i e s t h o o d o f R o m a a n d A u g u s t u s vvas iti f a c t h e l d n o t a t A b i l a b u t a t D a m a s c u s , s o m e 2 5 k m avvay dovvn this m a j o r r o u t c . A t a n y r a t e , vvhile t h e s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f t h e vvhole m o u n t a i n region r e m a i n s t o b e vvritten, the f u n d a m e n t a l f a c t o r in t h e life o f D a m a s c u s a t ali p e r i o d s vvas (aııd is) t h e river B a r a d a s , vvhich ruııs o f f the s a d d l e atıd p r o v i d e s t h e m a i n s o u r c e o f vvater f o r the city a n d f o r the vvidc oasis vvhich stretclıes beyoııd i t i n t o the steppe. M o r e c l c a r l y e v e n t h a n P a l m y r a , D a m a s c u s ovvcd its c x i s t c n o c t o the r u n - o f f o f vvater f r o m the m o u n t a i n - e h a i n b e h i n d it. T h e vvell-vvatcred o a s i s , vvith a c o n s i d e r a b l c a r e a o f m a r s h l a n d , stretehes o u t in a r a d i u s o f s o m e 3 0 k m b e f o r e t h e dry s t e p p e b e g i n s . 8 C o n t e m p o r a r i e s vvere o f c o u r s e vvell avvare t h a t this vvas a n a n c i e n t city, c o n t i t ı u o u s l y i n h a b i t e d , vvhich ovved its e x i s t e n c e t o t h e rich agricultural r e g i o n vvhich lay b e f o r e i t , a n d n o t t o H e l l e n i s t i c o r R o m a n f o u t ı d a t i o n . B u t in fact n c i t h c r c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n s o f D a m a s c u s a s a city by o u t s i d e r s n o r c x p r c s 5 . K r c n c k c r a n d Z s c h i c t t s c h m a n n , Römische 6 . Ibid. I,

Tcmpel

I, 1 7 8 - 1 8 1 .

256-164.

7 . H a j j a r , Triade

I, 1 7 9 , n o . 1 6 5 .

8 . F o r a n e x c c l l e n t a c c o u n t , o n w h i c h w h a t f o l l o w s d e p e n d s , see J.-P. R e y - C o q u a i s , m o n t a g n e s a u d e s e r t : B a e t o c £ c e , le pagjıs E. F r e t o u l s ( e d . J , Socictcs ct tomaines

urbaines.

societes

(1987), 191,011 pp. 207li.

Augustus rurales

"Des

d e N i h a , L a G h o u t a â l'est de D a ı ı ı a s " , i n dans

l'Asie

Mineure

et la Syrie

hclttnistiques

s i o n s o f its identity b y i n s i d e r s , vvhether in literatüre o r in i n s e r i p t i o n s , a r e a t ali e a s y t o find. By a typical p a r a d o x , t h e very c o n d i t i o n s vvhich h a v e m a d e it t h e oldest c o n t i n u o u s l y i n h a b i t e d city in the vvorld h a v e o p e r a t e d t o o b s c u r e o r d e s t r o y m o s t o f vvhatever i n s c r i p t i o n a l r e c o r d G r a c c o - R o m a n

Damascus

left. F o r s o m e i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f D a m a s c u s as a p r o s p e r o u s o a s i s city vve h a v e t o turn t o a letter p r e s e r v e d vvith t h o s e o f t h e E m p e r o r J u l i a n , but vvhich in fact seems t o h a v e b e e n vvritten in t h e s e c o n d d c c a d c o f t h e f o u r t h century. T h e vvriter is s e n d i n g a p r c s e n t o f figs f r o m D a m a s c u s t o a f r i e n d o f s e n a t o n a ! r a n k c a l l c d S e r a p i o n . Figs o f this q u a l i t y vvould c o m e f r o m n o vvhere e l s e : F o r it vvas fitting, I think, that the city vvhich iti very truth belongs t o Z e u s and is the eye o f the whole E a s t — I mean s a c r c d and most m i g h t y Damascus—vvhich in ali o t h e r rcspccts bcars the palm, for instance, f o r the bcauty o f its shrine.s a n d the size o f its temples and for its exquisitely tempered cliınate and the splendour o f its fountains, the nutnber of its rivers and the fertility of its s o i l — 1 say it is fitting that shc alone s h o u l d keep up her rcputation by t h e possession o f a plant o f this excellence a n d thus e x c i t e an excess o f adrniration, 9 A s o n e o f a q u i t e long list o f C l a s s i c a l r c f c r c n c c s t o the p r o d u e t s o f D a m a s c c n c territory, 1 0 this letter is p e r h a p s m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t f o r the e m p h a s i s vvhich it l a t e r places on the vvidespread e x p o r t o f these f i g s — i n t e r e s t i n g l y

cotnparıng

it, b u t n o t a s s o c i a t i n g ir, vvith t h e o b j e c t s o f l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e f r o m I n d i a , Pcrsia o r E t h i o p i a . B u t it is a l s o i m p o r t a n t — e s p e c i a l l y if vvritten vvithin a fevv y e a r s o f C o n s t a n t i n e ' s v i c t o r y — f o r its stress oıı the c u l t o f Z e u s in the city. T h e t e m p l e o f Z e u s vvas i n d e e d the f o c a l e l e m e n t in t h e plan o f t h e city in the R o m a n p e r i o d . T h e fevv b u t i n v a l u a b l e i n s e r i p t i o n s vvhich refleet t h e s u c c c s sive s t a g e s o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c n o r m o u s temenos

vvithin vvhich the

t e m p l e s t o o d a r e sufficicnt, a s r e - d a t e d b y S e y r i g , t o shovv t h a t building-vvork s t r e t e h e d o v e r a l m o s t the vvhole o f the first c e n t u r y A D . " T h a t h a s tvvo imp o r t a n t c o n s e q u c t ı c c s : first, c o n s t r u c t i o n b e l o n g s t o the period vvhen D a m a s 9.

(Julian], Ep. 80, I . o c b t r a n s . ; Ep. 1 8 0 B i d c z - C n m o n t .

T . D . B a r n e s , " A C o r r e s p o n d e n t o f l a m b l i c h u s " , ORBS

F o r t h e p r o b a b l e c o n t e x t see

19 (1978), 99.

xo. See T. W c b c r , " A A M A Z K H N A . : Landwirtschaftliche P r o d u k t c a u s der O a s e v o n D a m a s k u s im S p i c g c l g r i e c h i s c h e r u n d laceiniscEıer S c h r i f t q u c l [ c n " , ZDPV

105 (1989), 1 5 1 .

11. For the temple and the temenos scc G Watzingcr and K. Wulzingcr, Danıaskns: Die antike

Sladt

( 1 9 2 1 ) , 2 8 f f . (dating t h e inseriptions by a s u p p o s c d P o m p e i a n cra, a n d hcncc much

later); R . D u s s a u d , " L e t e m p l e d e J ü p i t e r D a m a s c c n i e n c t ses t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a u x c p o q u e s e h r e t i e n n e et ı n u s u l m a n e " , Syria 3 ( 1 9 2 2 . ) , 2 1 9 ; H . S e y r i g , " S u r les e r e s de q u e l q u c s villes de S y r i e : D a m a s " , Syria 2 7 { 1 9 5 0 ) , 34 ( d a t i ı ı g b y t h e S e t e u c i d c r a ) .

cus, t h o u g h p a r t o f the p r o v i n c e o f Syria, w a s e f f e c t i v e l y isolated from t h e m a i n b l o c k o f p r o v i n c i a l t e r r i t o r y vvhere t h e l e g i o n s vvere s t a t i o n e d ; a n d s e c o n d , it m a k e s it b r o a d l y c o n t e m p o r a r y , if a little later, vvith the e q u a l l y g r a n d i o s e s a n c t u a r i c s represented b y t h e T e m p l e o f l Ierod in J e r u s a l e m (vvhose p o r t i c o e s vvere n o t c o m p l e t c until t h e 6 o s ) a n d the t c m p l c o f Bel a t P a l m y r a d e d i c a t e d in 32. (and vvhere a g a i n vvork on the p o r t i c o e s c o n t i n u c d i n t o t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y ) . In very b r o a d t e r m s , ali these s a n c t u a r i e s shovv a s i m i l a r plan: a c e n t r a l t e m p l e s u r r o u n d e d by a r e c t a n g u l a r vvalled temenos

vvith i n n e r

p o r t i c o e s . T h a t o f Z e u s a t D a m a s c u s vvas in fact m o r e c o m p l c x , a n d its s h e e r scale deserves e m p h a s i s : b e y o n d the p o r t i c o e d inner peribolos, 1 5 6 m by 9 7 m , t h e r e vvas an e n o r m o u s o u t e r temenos,

itself s o m e

a l s o lined vvith p o r t i -

c o e s , m c a s u r i n g s o m e 3 8 0 m b y 3 1 0 m . İt vvas t h u s larger t h a n that o f t h e Temple, and considerably larger than t h a t of the temple of Bel. Ali r e m a i n s o f the t e m p l e i t s e l f h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d , a n d o n l y t r a c e s o f t h e o u t e r temenos

r e m a i n . But t h e i ı ı n e r peribolos

vvas used f o r the c o n s t r u c t i o n

o f a C h r i s t i a n hasilica under T h c o d o s i u s I ; a n d t h e b a s i l i c a - f o r m vvas r e t a i n c d in t h e great O m m a y a d m o s q u e w h i c h replaced it on t h e s a m e site in AD 7 0 5 . T h e m o s q u e itself o c c u p i e s the s o u t h e r n h a l f o f the s a n e t u a r y , a n d its b e a u t i ful o p e n c o u r t y a r d t h e n o r t h e r n h a l f . T h e s c a l e o f the vvhole c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d its c e n t r a l i t y vvithin the c h e q u e r - b o a r d p a t t c r n o f t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n vvalled city c a n Icave n o d o u b t a s t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f the c u l t in t h e first c e n t u r y AD. 12 B u t , as alvvays in the N e a r E a s t , vve have t o a s k in vvhat t e r m s the vvorshippers o f Z e u s o f D a m a s c u s u n d c r s t o o d their c h i e f deity, a n d vvhether t h e r e vvas indeed any o n e u t ı a m b i g u o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A l t h o u g h , a s is universal, t h e s a n e t u a r y a s knovvn f r o m a r c h a e o l o g y vvas c o n s t r u c t c d in t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , m o d e r n interpreters a r c u n a n i m o u s in a s serting t h a t the Z e u s o f D a m a s c u s (vvho a l s o a p p e a r s o c c a s i o n a l l y on inseript i o n s f r o m elsevvhere as T u p p i t e r O p t i m u s M a x i m u s D a m a s c e n u s ' ) 'vvas' u n ambiguously

the

ancicnt

'1 l a d a d '

of

Damascus.

İn

rcality

no

such

identification c o u l d h a v e been u n a m b i g u o u s t h e n , o r s h o u l d b e seen a s s u c h novv. F i r s t , t h e r e h a v e been f o u n d in D a m a s c u s a n d its t e r r i t o r y n o S e m i t i c l a n g u a g c i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e R o m a n p e r i o d . I f ' I i a d a d ' vvere t o b e used a s t h e n a m e o f a g o d , it c o u l d ( s o i t s e e m s ) o n l y b c in G r e e k o r L a t i n t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n ; a s it h a p p e n s , t h e n e a r e s t e x a m p ! e o f a d e d i c a t i o n in G r e e k t o the ' t h e o s A d a d o s ' c o m e s f r o m T r a c h o n i t i s . Sitıce H a d a d , o f t e n a l o n g vvith A t a r g a t i s , a p p e a r s a s a d i v i n e n a m e in o t h e r p l a c e s , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t

1 1 . For the p l a c e o f the sanetuary " D a m a s k u s , dıe S t a d t intra murt)s™.

w i t h i n the urban framevvork o f the city, see D. S a c U ,

Dam.

Miti.

2 (1985), 207, and plan on p. 210. Whcthcr,

a n d if s o w h c n , t h e a n c i c n t c i t y vvas s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r c b u i l t o n G r a e c o - R o m a n lines is a m a t t e r of speculation.

the d e d i c a t o r conceived o f this particular ' H a d a d ' a s being the Z e u s o f D a m a s c u s — v v h o is i n d e e d r e f e r r e d t o a s s u c h in a d e d i c a t i o n f r o m B o s t r a . 1 3 It i s n o t m e r e l y t h a t i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h c t e m p l e , l i k e t h c s t r i k i n g c a r l y f o u r t h - c e n t u r y letter q u o t e d a b o v e , s p o k e simply o f ' Z e u s ' , o r t h a t p e o p l e elsevvhere m i g h t s p e a k o f Z e u s , o r Iuppiter, ' o f D a m a s c u s ' , vvithout m a k i n g a n y e x p l i c i t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n vvith H a d a d . It is a l s o , m o r e p r o f o u n d l y , t h a t t h e d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e a n d h i s t o r i c a l p c r s p c c r i v c o f t h e c i t y vvere b y novv G r c c k . T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y c l e a r in t h e v v o r k s o f N i c o l a u s o f D a m a s c u s , first o f a l i i n h i s a c c o u n t o f h i s f a t h e r , A t ı t i p a t e r , p r e s u m a b l y b o r n e a r l y i n t h e first c e n t u r y B C . N i c o l a u s s a y s t h a t h e vvas a s k i l l c d o r a t o r , fillcd a l i t h c o f f i c e s (arehai)

in

t h e c i t y a n d r c p r c s c n t c d i t s i n t e r e s t s b e f o r e t h e v a r i o u s d y n a s t s vvho h e l d povver in t h e r e g i o n . N o t h i n g c o u l d e x p r e s s m o r e p l a i n l y t h e i n t e m a l s t r u c ture and values o f a G r e e k c i t y — o r the d i p l o m a t i c m c a ı ı s o f self-preservation o p e n t o it in t h e u n s e t t l e d c o n d i t i o ı ı s o f t h e r e g i o n in t h e m i d d l e o f t h c first c e n t u r y BC. Significantly, A n t i p a t c r ' s s o l e d c a t h b e d a d v i c c t o N i c o l a u s

and

his b r o t h e r P t o l e m a u s h a d b e e n to m a k e a incense-offering to Z e u s . Equa.ly, N i c o l a u s ' a c c o u n t o f h i s ovvn e d u c a t i o n r e a d s a l m o s t l i k e a p a r o d y o f c o n v c n rional matike master

G r c c k values: s e c o n d t o n o n c o f his c o n t c m p o r a r i c s in thc city in a n d poietikc, rhetoric,

gram-

he v v e n t o n t o c o m p o s e t r a g e d i e s a n d c o m e d i e s , a n d t o

music

and

philosophy

before

becoming

a

follovver

of

Aristotle.14 A l t h o u g h t h e v a s t u n i v e r s a l h i s t o r y i n T 4 4 b o o k s vvhich N i c o l a u s vvrote follovvcd H e r o d o t u s in i n e l u d i n g atı a c c o u n t o f the m o n a r c l ı i e s a n d e m p i r e s o f t h e N e a r E a s t , 1 5 t h e r e i s h a r d l y a n y t l ı i n g in vvhat r e m a i n s o f it vvhich bet r a y s l o c a l k n o v v l c d g c o r a r e g i o n a l p e r s p e e t i v e . O n l y t h e l a s t p a r t o f it i s h e a v i l y b i a s c d s o a s t o g i v e a v e r y f u l l a c c o u n t o f H e r o d t h e G r e a t , o n vvhich J o s e p h u s vvas t o dravv. In t h a t s e n s e b o o k s X V - X V I 1 I o f J o s e p h u s '

Anliqıaties

d o r e p r e s e n t , a t s e c o n d h a n d , t h c o n l y a v a i l a b l e c o n t e m p o r a r y vicvv o f t h c A u g u s t a n p e r i o d f r o m a s p e c i f i c p r o v i n c i a l p e r s p e e t i v e . B u t it l a y in t h e n a t u r e o f N i c o l a u s ' e d u c a t i o n a n d c u l t u r e t h a t his History by a G r e e k

m i g h t h a v e b e e n vvritten

b o r n 3 n y w h e r e . S o far as t h e r e m a i n s o f N i c o l a u s '

published

v v o r k s r e p r e s e n t h i m , t h e d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r vvas n o t h i s l o c a l o r i g i n s b u t his p a r r i c i p a r i o n in t h c vvider c u l t u r c o f t h c G r e e k vvorld. T h e r e is i n d e e d

one

l o c a l t r a d i t i o n a b o u t D a m a s c u s vvhich N i c o l a u s h a p p e n s t o p r e s e r v e — t h a t A b r a h a m had rulcd the city b e f o r e m o v i n g o n to C a n a a n , a n d that a village 1 3 . I). Sourdcl, les

cultes du Hauran â l'âpoque

romaine

( « 9 5 2 ) , 41 ( H a d a d ) ; 4 4 ( ' 2 * u s

Damasktnos', Bostra, /GLS X I I I . j , n o . 9 0 1 3 ) . 14. FGrH 9 0 F.131 (Antipatcr); 132 (Nicolaus). For Nicolaus scc B. Z. Wacholdct, NîcoUus of Damascus

(1963).

1 j . So, e.g., F.ı (Semiramis); 2 (Sardanapalos ruling thc Assyrioi); 6 (Achacmcnes as thc son of Pctseus—and named so bccause of his dcsccnı ftom Achaea); 4 4 - 4 7 (kings of Lydta); 66 (Mcdes); 6 7 - 6 8 (Cyrus).

vvas stili p o i n t e d o u t a s his d v v e l l i ı ı g - p l a c e . " ' B u t e v e n this f o u n d a p a r t i a l parallel in t h e u n i v e r s a l h i s t o r y w r i t t e n in L a t i n b y N i c o l a u s ' c o n t e m p o r a r y P o m p e i u s T r o g u s , vvho c a m e f r o m s o u t h e r n G a u l : ' T h e n a m e o f the c i t y vvas g i v e n b y K i n g D a m a s c u s , in h o n o u r o f vvhom t h e S y r i a n s c o n s e c r a t c d t h e s e p u l e h r e o f his vvife A r a t h i s a s a t e m p l e , a n d r e g a r d h e r s i n c e t h e n a s a g o d dess vvorthy o f the m o s t s a c r e d vvorship. A f t e r D a m a s c u s , A z e l u s , a n d t h e n A d o r e s , A b r a h a m a n d Isralıel vvere t h e i r k i n g s ' . 1 7 O u t o f this m o r a s s o f e o n f u sion it c o u l d b e r e a s o n a b l e t o c x t r a c t the i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t a g o d d e s s c a l l e d A r a t h e s vvas stili vvorshipped in D a m a s c u s — a n d t h e n t o use S t r a b o ' s r e p o r t t h a t ' A t h a r a ' vvas a n o t h e r n a m e f o r ' A t a r g a t i s ' . 1 8 I t is a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t i ' o m p c i u s T r o g u s uses t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l c o f i ı ı t e r p r e t a t i o n vvhich vve h a v e m e t b e f o r e : t h a t g o d s o r g o d d e s s e s m a y b c in o r i g i n h u m a n rulers v v o r s h i p p e d after death. W a s t h e r e t h e r e f o r e an i ı ı h c r i t c d cult o f H a d a d / Z e u s , p e r h a p s a l o n g vvith his c o n s o r t A t a r g a t i s , in D a m a s c u s ? O u r b e s t ( a n d i n d e e d o n l y ) e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e c u l t o f Z e u s at D a m a s c u s vvas i n d e e d u n d e r s t o o d a s an a n c i e n t c u l t o f H a d a d is a l s o , a s vvill be s e c n helovv, b a s e d 011 the ' e u l ı e t n e r i s t i c ' p r i n c i p l e j u s t m e n t i o n e d , a n d in b c i n g s o p r o v i d e s a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y e x a m p l e o f l o g i c a l c o n f u s i o n . h o r in f a c t o u r o n l y r e a s o n t o s ı ı p p o s e t h a t H a d a d vvas a n i m p o r t a n t deity in D a m a s c u s e a r l y in the first m i l l e n n i u m BC is d e r i v e d f r o m t l ı c n a m e used b y o n e or m o r e o f its kings: B R H D D o n A r a m a i c inseriptions, o r ' B e n H a d a d ' in II K i n g s 6 - 8 ( B N H D D M L K ' R M ) ; in t h e n a r r a t i v e o f K i n g s h e is s u c c e e d e d by a k i n g ' H a z a e l ' ( H Z H ' L , o r in the A r a m a i c i n s e r i p t i o n s HZ'L).19 T o a d d f u r t h e r c o n f u s i o n t o t h e t r a d i t i o n , the S c p t u a g i n t , vvhich J o s c p h u s u s e d , g i v e s t h e k i n g ' s n a m e as ' A d e r ' ( t h e very e l o s e r e s e m b l a n c e betvveen t h e H e b r e v v l e t t e r s D a l e t h a n d R e s l ı m a y h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o this o d d v a r i a n t ) . At a n y r a t e J o s c p h u s t a k e s it t h a t tlıc k i n g h a d h i m s e l f c o m e a f t e r his d e a t h t o be vvorshipped as a g o d : T h e n he (Azaelos) t o o k över t h e royal povver himself, being a man o f action and in great f a v o u r vvith t h e Syrians and the p e o p l e o f D a m a s c u s , by vvhom A d a d o s and Azaelos vvho rulcd after h i m are to this d a y

honourcd

as gods because o f their b e n e f a c t i o n s a n d the building o f temples vvith 16. K ı ş , quotcd by Joscphus, Ant. I, 7, 2 (163-164J = Stcrn, GI.AJJ I, F.83 (noring that the refcrence to the viltagc may bc due to Josephus). 17. Pompeius Trogus (Justin, Epilotne) X X X V I , 2, 2-3, tratıs. Stern, F.137. 18. Strabo, Geog. XVI, 4, 27 (785). 19. For the relevant Aramaic inseriptions of the ninth ccntury, scc J. C. I- Gibson, Texthoob of Syrian Semitic İnseriptions II (1975), nos. 1—2 and 5. Scc also I. Kph'al and J. Navch, "Hn7.acl"s Booty inseriptions", IEJ 39 (1989), 192, and for the cvidcncc on the kingdom of Damascus, or Aram, H . S. Sadcr, Les etats arameens de Syrie ( 1 9 8 7 ) , ch. 6.

vvhich they adorned the city o f D a m a s c u s . A n d they have proccssions every day in honour o f these kings and glory in their antiquity, not knovving that these kings are rather recent and lived less than eleven hundred years a g o . 2 0 ' A z a e l o s ' as a g o d r e m a i n s a mystery. B u t J o s e p h u s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a n imp o r t a n t c u l t a t D a m a s c u s m a ı ı a g e s t o c o m b i n c (again) typically e u h e m e r i s t i c n o t i o n s vvith G r a c c o - R o m a n ideas a b o u t t h e c c n t r a l i t y o f e u e r g e t i s m , a n d a b r i e f but vivid glimpse o f p o p u l a r religious c e r e m o n i a l s in a m a j ö r city. F o r vvhat it is vvorth, the e v i d e n e e j u s t set o u t is t h e evidenee t h a t t h e m a i n c u i t o f D a m a s c u s , t h a t o f Z e u s , in t h e I m p e r i a l period vvas c o n c e i v c d o f a s b e i n g a n a n c i e n t c u l t o f H a d a d . A fortiori, a n c e s t r a l g o d ' (tbeos

ouranios

t h e r e f o r e , vve c a n n o t knovv i f t h e ' h e a v e n l y

patröos)

t o vvhom an a l t a r vvas d e d i c a t e d in

D a m a s c u s 'vvas', in the d e d i c a n t ' s c o n c e p t i o n , Zcus/I l a d a d o r n o t . 2 1 B e y o n d t h a t vve c a n h a r d l y g o , f o r t h e evidenee is t o o slight. T h e k n o w n i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m D a m a s c u s a n d its o a s i s a r e in G r e e k , t h o u g h , as everyvvhere, revealing p e r s o n a l n a m e s o f S e m i t i c o r i g i n : for i n s t a n c e t h e b a s a l t stele

found

at I l a r r a n el-Avvamid, o n t h e edge o f the o a s i s , r e c o r d i n g t h e m u r d e r in 2 1 4 , a n d the avenging, of ' G o s a m o s son o f M a c h c h a b e l o s ' ; or the limestone sculpture, in strongly P a l m y r e n e s t y l e , o f a reclining deity, p e r h a p s A d o n i s , d e d i c a t e d in the s a m e year by M a a n ö s s o n o f L i b a n o s . 2 2 D i f f e r e n t s p o k e n lang u a g e s a n d different c u l t u r e s s u r c l y i n t e r m i n g l e d in fact in D a m a s c u s , a n d the p r e s e n c e o f the n o m a d s o f t h e desert, o f t h e N a b a t a e a n s — w h o m a y e v e n briefîy h a v e ruled it in t h e l a t e r 3 0 S " — a n d o f the P a l m y r c n e s m u s t h a v e been felt. B u t o u r evidenee reveais o n l y the G r e e k - s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n o f a G r e e k city. i t s c o i n s r e p r e s e n t indisti netive C l a s s i c a l deities (not i n e l u d i n g Z e u s ) , and f r o m t h e reign o f H a d r i a n onvvards c l a i m the s t a t u s o f ' m e t r o p o l i s ' ; vvhen c o l o n i a l s t a t u s arrived, a p p a r c n t l y u n d e r Philip ( 2 4 4 — 2 4 9 ) , t h e c o i n a g c d u l y transfers t o I-atin, s o m e t i m e s vvith ' C O I . ( o n i a ) D A M A S ( c u s ) M H T R ( o p o l i s ) ' , o r m e n t i o n i n g t h e ' O l y m p i a n S c b a s m i a n ' g a m e s heid in t h e c i t y . ' 4 S i n c e the holding o f a t h l e t i c a n d s t a g e c o m p e t i t i o n s vvas o n c o f t h e c c n t r a l f c a t u r c s o f the c o m m u n a l life o f G r e e k c i t i e s in the I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , the c o n t r a s t betvveen D a m a s c u s , vvhere t h e y vvere h e l d , a n d P a l m y r a , vvhere s o far as vve knovv t h e y vvere n o t , again m a r k s a real ' f r o n t i e r ' . But o f c o u r s e a m a p vvhich (like m o s t e x i s t i n g m a p s ) identified o n l y p l a c c s vvhich c o u n t e d as ' c i t i e s ' — a n d vvould thus record n o t h i n g bctvveen D a m a s c u s 2 0 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

IX, 4, 6 ( 9 3 - 9 4 ) , Loeb trans.

2 1 . R M o u t e r d e , Syria 6 ( 1 9 2 5 ) , 3 5 4 , n o . 8 . 2 2 . H . S e y r i g , Syria 2 7 ( 1 9 5 0 ) , 2.38, n o . 4 ; a n d " U n c x - v o t o d a m a s c a i n " , i b i d . , 2 2 9 . 2 3 . 2.3 a b o v e . 1 4 . HMC

Syria, x8zf(.

c u s scc M o r c t t i , IAG,

F o r t h e c n r l i c r c o i n s see RPC!,

6 6 3 - ^ 6 5 . F o r t h e Sebasıtıia

n o . 90 ( A t h c n s , mid-third ccntury); C//. X I V , no. 4 7 4 (Ostia).

at Damas-

a n d P a l m y r a — \ v o u l d vvholly o b s c u r e tlıc r c a l i t y o f s c t t l e m e n t - p a t t e r n s a l o n g t h e t w o routes betvveen these p l a c e s . O u t in t h e oasis o f D a m a s c u s , for i n s t a n c e , the i n s e r i p t i o n s , left m a i n l y by t h e T e t r a r c h i c officials, m a r k i n g o u t b o u n d a r i e s betvveen villages o r o t h e r c o l l e c t i v i t i e s serve t o revcal a vvhole series o f s e t t l e m e n t s (even i f tlıeir n a m e s a r e often very puzzling): t h e T x o I e l o i ' (or ' T o l e l o i ' ) a n d ' D r a s a r m e l o i ' ( o r ' O d r a g a r m e l o i ' ) ; the köme a n d the köme

o f E ı ı a k a s n a ( ? ) ; t h e köme

P a m o i o i ( P ) ; t h e köme

of Bctcomara

o f M e z z e (modern M i z z e ) a n d tlıc

o f (the?) G i n d a r o i ( ? ) . 2 $ T h e details do n o t m a t t e r ; b u t

the fact t h a t it vvas betvveen c o l l e c t i v i t i e s a t this local l e v e l — s o m e o f vvhose n a m e s h a v e persisted t o this d a y — t h a t t h e state c o n d u c t e d this very l a r g c scale o p e r a t i o n o f b o u n d a r y - d i v i s i o n is a r e m i n d e r o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f these u n i t s . O f ali t h e s e t t l e m e n t s a l o n g t h e r o u t e s betvveen D a m a s c u s a n d P a l m y r a , the o n e vvhich h a s left t h e m o s t distinetive e v i d e n c e is t h e p l a c e a p p a r e n t l y c a l l e d T h e l s e a , vvhich o c c u p i c d t h e site o f p r e s e n t - d a y D u m a y r ( o r D m c i r ) , s o m e 4 5 k m n o r t h - c a s t o f D a m a s c u s . A s vve have seen, s o m e 5 k m f r o m h e r e tlıerc vvas e v e n t u a l l y a R o m a n f o r t ; a n d it vvas here a l s o that p e r s o n s a t t a c l ı e d t o tvvo N a b a t a e a n strategoi

put up a n i n s e r i p t i o n in N a b a t a e a n in 5>4-?6 B u t

the significance o f t h e p l a c e lies iti t h e r a t h e r unusual m o n u m e n t a l b u i l d i n g stili s t a n d i n g in D u m a y r , vvhich s e e m s t o have been c o n v e r t e d , p r o b a b l y i n t h e s e c o n d century, t o serve a s a t e m p l e o f Z e u s . 2 7 W h a t vve c a n u ı ı d e r s t a n d a b o u t it is dııe t o the e x t e n s i v c i n s e r i p t i o n s in G r e e k a n d L a t i n put up on t h e t e m p l e . T h e y reveal s o m e t h i n g c l o s e l y c o m p a r a b l e t o vvhat vve savv at B a e t o c a e c c , a n d o f vvhich vve can c a t c l ı a t least glimpses a t m a n y o t h e r m o r e o r less r e m o t e l o c a t i o n s , vvhere t h e r e vvere s o c i a l struetures o f s o m e i m p o r t a n c e a p p a r e n t l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f a n y city. If T h e l s e a indeed lay in the t e r r i t o r y o f a city, it m u s t h a v e been D a m a s c u s . B u t t h e r e is n o t h i n g in the e x t e n s i v c d o c u nıents f r o m t h e r e t o suggcst a f u n c t i o n a l d e p e n d e n c c . By far the best knovvn o f t h e ı n s c r i p t i o n s is a l s o t h e o n e vvhich m o s t c i e a r l y underlines the i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s o r g r o u p s i n v o l v e d . 'Ilıis is the r e c o r d , vvith its p r o t o e o l in L a t i n a n d a e t u a l proccediııgs in G r e e k , o f t l ı c casc a b o u t i m p r o p e r o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e p r i e s t h o o d o f Z e u s , h c a r d by C a r a calla in p e r s o n a t A n t i o c h in z ı 6 . F o r t u n a t e l y for us, t h e a d v o c a t e f o r t h e c o m m u n i t y e x p l a i n c d in detail t o the E m p e r o r vvhat vvas involved in the c a s e : T o the p c a s a n t s , the c a s c i s o v e r m a t t e r s o f p i c t y , t o y o u n o t h i n g is

more

important than picty. So novv t h e y have confidence in the present instance 1 5 . SF.G 1 6 - 1 8 . SEG

V I I , n o s . 1 4 6 - 1 . 1 8 ; MUSJ

1 ( 1 9 0 6 ) , 1 5 0 , n o . 4. M o r e fıılly in A p p . A belovv, n o s .

V I I , n o . 2 4 6 , o f vvhich t h e r c a d i n g is v e r y l i n e e r i n i n , a n d v v h i c h c o n t a i n s n o d a t a b l e

elements, has been omitted f r o m the A p p c n d i x . 26. 4.1 and 9.1 above. 2 7 . See E . B r ü m m e r , " D e r r ö m i s e h e T e m p e l v o n D m c i r " , Dam.

Milt.

2 (1985), 55.

in cngaging in a case before a most pious king a n d judge. There is a f a m o u s temple of Z e u s in their territory, which is visited by people from ali t h c neighbouring regions. T h e y go there, and arrange processions t o it. H e r e is thc first vvrong c o m m i t t e d by our advcrsary. H c cnjoys [immunity from t a x a t i o n and] exemption f r o m liturgics, vvcars a gold crown, cnjoys [preccdencc], has taken thc sceptrc in his hand and has proelaimed himself thc priest o f Z e u s . " T h e p e a s a n t s (geörgoi)

i n v o l v e d in the c a s e seeııı t o be deseribed a s ' G o h a -

r i e n i ' , perhaps m e a n i n g p e o p l e f r o m a p l a c e called G o l ı a r a o r G o a r a . It is t h e r e f o r e n o t c l e a r h o w they r c l a t c t o t h o s e involved in the o t h e r m a j ö r c a s e w h o s e r e c o r d is inseribed on t h e p o d i u m o f t h c t e m p l e . H e r e t o o t h e p r o t o e o l is in L a t i n , vvhile the e x c h a n g e s a r e q u o t e d in G r e e k . 2 9 N e i t h e r t h e d a t e nor t h e i d e n t i t y o f thc p e r s o n s h e a r i n g ı h e c a s e is preserved. W h a t it c o n c e m s is t h c d i s a p p c a r a n c c o f s o m e c u l t - i m a g e s (xoana), (naokoros)

o f vvhich t h c tcmple-vvardım

s t u b b o r n l y d i s e l a i m s ali m e m o r y . T h e a d v o c a t e then p r e s s e s his

q u e s t i o n s a s t o vvhether this d e n i a l c a n be r e g a r d e d as c r c d i b l e : It follovvs that vvhen thc taboıılarios leading men (pröteuontes) thc tıaokoroi,

and the storekeepers and y o u t h e

of the metroköme

of the Thelsefinoi, and y o u

botlı those vvho had dcnıittcd officc and those in office, vvere

present on the o c c a s i o n of thc m o v e m e n t (kcinesis)

o f thc Highcst Z e u s ,

that the d o o r s vvill have been seen open. W h a t sort o f xoana are they? W h c t h e r the r e f e r e n e e t o ' m o v e m e n t ' is simply t o a f o r m a l p r o c e s s i o ı ı , o r (as a t H i e r a p o l i s ) t o t h e c a r r y i n g o f c u l t - s t a t u e s vvhich vvere t h o u g h t t o i m p e l their b e a r e r s by d ı v ı n c povver in o n e d i r c c t i o n o r a n o t h e r , is n o t clcar. A b r i e f a l l u s i o n s u c h as this is e n o u g h t o g i v e a g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n o f thc povver o f t h c g o d (or g o d s ) o f the t e m p l e , b u t n o t t o e x p l a i n thc rituals o r their m e a n i n g f o r p a r t i c i p a n t s . lt is s u f f i c i c n t , hovvever, t o r e v e a l a g a i n a c o m p l c x s t r u c t u r c o f offices a s s o c i a t e d vvith the t e m p l e ( t ı a o k o r o i h o l d i n g o f f i c c in t u r n , p r e s u m a b l y e a c h year, a n d a r e c o r d - k e e p e r vvith a borrovved L a t i n title,

taboularioi);

a n d a b o v c ali a n o t h e r ' m o t h e r - v i l l a g e ' , t h a t o f the ' T h c l s c c n o i ' , vvhose otıtes vvere in c e r e m o n i a l a t t e n d a n c c a t t h e keitıesis

proteu-

o f their Z e u s H y p s i s t o s .

H e r e , on the edge o f t h e s t e p p e , vve a r e stili in a n e n v i r o n m e n t vvhere G r e e k is the l a n g u a g e o f p u b l i c r e c o r d a n d c a n a l s o b e s p o k e n b y t h e p e r s o n s c o n c e r n e d . F o r I . a b e r i a n u s , the R o m a n o f f i c i a l , c o n d u c t i n g t h e e n q u i r y , is a b l e t o c r o s s - q u e s t i o n the naokoros,

vvho vvas called D o r o t h e o s , in G r c c k .

2 8 . First p u b l i s h e d b y P. R o u s s e l a n d F. D c V i s s c h c r , " L c s i n s e r i p t i o n s d u t e m p l e d c D m e i r " , Syria 2 1 ( 1 9 4 1 — 4 3 ) , 1 7 7 ; AE

( 1 9 4 7 ) , n o . 1 8 2 ; SEC

X V I I , n o . 7 5 9 . i m p o r t a n t s u p p l e m e n t s by

N . L c w i s , " C o g n i t i o C a r a e a l l a c dc G o h a r i c n i s " , TAPbA

99 (1968), 255.

1 9 . R o u s s c l a n d d e V i s s c h c r , o p . cit., i 9 4 f f . T h i s p r i t e l e s s t e x t s e c m s n e v e r t o h a v e been r e p r i n t e d o r d i s c u s s e d sitıce.

T h e r e is n o t h i n g t o i n d i c a t e t h e d a t e o r c i r e u m s t a n e e s o f this triaL But o n e further i n s e r i p t i o n , put up in AD 2 4 5 , indicates t h a t s o m e p a r t o f t h e s t r u e t u r e w a s c o m p l e t e d o n l y t h e n : 3 0 ' t h e r e w a s c o n s e c r a t e d a n d c o m p l e t e d the aeicl)alas

naos

under t h o s e a s s o c i a t c d \vith M a r k o s A u r e l i o s A n e a o s s o n o f G a ö r o s

a n d w i t h G a ö r o s s o n o f O a s a i t h o s ( P ) , c o u n e i l l o r (bouleutes), s u r e r s ' . As in the villages o f the H a u r a n , a bouleutes

the sacred t r e a -

m i g h t be u n d e r s t o o d a s

s o m e o n e f r o m t h e city (here p r e s u m a b l y D a m a s c u s ) . T h e S e m i t i c

names

(clearly related t o A r a b i c o n e s ) o f t h e s a c r e d t r e a s u r e r s , howcvcr, p r o b a b l y i n d i c a t e t h a t they a r e o f f i c i a l s o f the local c o m m ı ı n i t y . B u t vvhat vvas it t h a t vvas c o n s e c r a t e d ? N o t , it seems, t h e t e m p l e (naos) o f a deity c a l l e d A e i c l ı a l a . I n s t e a d , the vvord preseııted h e r e must be related t o the A r a m a i c vvord 1 1 Y K L ' (Hebrevv H Y K L ) , m e a n i n g ' t e m p l e ' . T h e G r e e k vvord naos ( ' t e m p l e ' ) a n d t h e P a l m y r e n e H Y K L ' a p p e a r a s e q u i v a l e n t s in bilingual P a l m y r e n e inseriptions. 3 , 1 It is possible that vvhat is m e a n t is s o m e t h i n g like ' t h e (inner) t e m p l e o f t h e sanctuary'. W h a t c v c r the precise e x p l a n a t i o n , this is a n o t h e r c a s e vvhere n o t o n l y S e m i t i c p e r s o n a l n a m e s b u t i n d i v i d u a l S e m i t i c t e r m s a r e used in a G r e e k c o n t e x t , vvhere a local t e m p l e s e e m s t o funetion a s t h e c c n t r a l institution o f i t s l o c a l i t y a n d vvhere a village, o r ' m o t h e r - v i l l a g e ' , h a s i n s t i t u t i o n s vvhich rival in c o m p l e x i t y t h o s e o f a city. T h e e v i d e n c e f r o m D u m a y r , ' t h e m o t h e r - v i l l a g e o f the T h e l s e e n o i ' , r a t h e r t h a n shovving the p c r s i s t e n c c o f i n d i g c n o u s s o c i a l struetures, m i g h t bc t a k e n t o i l l u s t r a t e m o r e c l e a r l y t h e povver o f the m o d e l p r o v i d e d by the G r e e k city, a n d its a p p l i c a t i o n on t h e edge o f t h e steppe.

9.4.

PALMYRA

T o a very significant c x t e n t , vvhat vvas said a b o v e o f t h e ' m o t h e r - v i l l a g e o f t h e T h e l s e e n o i ' — t h a t it shovvs t h e povver o f t h e m o d e l p r o v i d e d b y the G r e e k c i t y — i s true a l s o o f P a l m y r a itself, f o r ali t h a t it vvas s i m u l t a n c o u s l y the m o s t strikiııg e x a m p l c o f t h e f l o u r i s h i n g o f a local c u l t u r c a n d s o c i a l s t r u e t u r e in the R o m a n N e a r E a s t . W h a t folJovvs c a n n o t p r e t e n d t o d o j u s t i c e t o the individuality o f P a l m y r a , o r t o t h e i n n u m e r a b l e q u e s t i o n s it raises: f o r i n s t a n c e the s e d e n t a r i s a t i o n o f n o m a d s , the e x p l i c i t s y n c r c t i s m o f G r e e k a n d S e m i n e d c i t i c s , t h e c v o l u t i o n o f a very d i s t i n e t i v e local a r t a n d a r e h i t e e t u r e , t h e c o n s i s t e n t bilingualism o f its p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e m o n u m e n t s , the u n i q u e d e p l o y m e n t o f m i i i t a r y f o r c e by a p r o v i n c i a l city o r t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f l o n g - d i s t a n c e

3 0 . L e B a s - W . , n o . 1 5 6 2 3 = AAES

III ( 1 9 0 8 ) , 2 8 4 , n o . 3 5 7 = ICR

3 1 . S e e C . - F . J e a n a n d J. H o f t î j z e r , Diclionnaire ( 1 9 6 5 ) , s.v. H Y K L O n e e x a m p ! e is CIS Baalshamin

des

inseriptions

III, n o . 1 0 9 3 . semiliques

de

III, n o . 4 4 ( t h e i n s e r i p t i o n r e c o r d i n g t h e visit o f H a d r i a n , 3.3 a b o v e ) , vvhere

a n d H Y K L ' a p p e a r in the parallcl texts.

l'Ouest

I L 3 , n o . 3 9 5 9 — C a n t i n e a u , Inv. I, n o . 2 — D u n a n t , naos

t r a d e . 1 I n s t e a d it w i l l a t t e m p t m c r e l y t o p i c k o u t s o m e s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t s o f the history, development a n d culturc o f P a l m y r a , t o bring o u t b o t h parallcls a n d c o n t r a s t s betvveen it a n d o t h e r p l a c e s in the N e a r E a s t . Like E m e s a , but entirely unlike D a m a s c u s , Palmyra as an u r b a n centrc vvas a nevv c r e a t i o n , vvhich d i d n o t g o b a c k b e y o n d t h e first c c n t u r y BC. T h e place had certainly c x i s t c d a n d had been referred to c e n n ı r i e s before. But t h e r e is n o t h i n g in t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d t o shovv t h a t t h e r e vvas a n y settled o c c u p a t i o n o f the s i t e t h r o u g h the H c l l c n i s t i c p e r i o d ; a g r a v e l o c a t c d a fevv m e t r e s b e h i n d the s c c o n d - c e n t u r y - A D t e m p l e o f B a a l s h a m i n , a n d d a o n g t o the s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC, is the o n l y knovvn c o n s t r u c t i o n f r o m t h a t p e r i o d . S u g g e s t i o n s o f a p h a s e o f u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t in P a l m y r a b e f o r e t h e d i s t u r b a n c c s o f t h e late H c l l c n i s t i c p e r i o d c a n o n l y be s p e c u l a t i o n . 2 I n s c r i p t i o n a l e v i d e n e e d o e s , hovvever, novv s u g g e s t , b y the r e c o n s t r u c t i o ı ı o f a f a m i l y - t r c c , t h a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e first t e m p l e o f A l l a t vvent b a c k t o t h e e a r l i c r

first

c e n t u r y BC. 3 W e c a n n o t a t a n y r a t e c o n s t r u c t a p i c t u r e o f a P e r s i a n o r e a r l y H e l l e n i s t i c T a d m o r f r o m the f a c t t h a t the C h r o n i c l e r t o o k the c i t y ' T a r r . a r ' vvhich S o l o m o n built t o b e ' T a d m o r in the d e s e r t ' (II C h r o n . 8 , 4 ) . I t is o n l y J o s e p h u s vvho c x p a n d s o n t h i s b r i c f a l l u s i o n t o give o n e o f t h e b e s t p i c t u r e s o f P a l m y r a — b u t a s it vvas in the first c e n t u r y AD: H c ( S o l o m o n ) a d v a n c e d i n t o the desert o f Upper Syria a n d , having t a k e n possession o f it, founded there a very great city at a d i s t a n c e o f tvvo d a y s ' j o u r n e y f r o m U p p e r Syria a n d o n e day's j o u r n e y f r o m the E u p h r a t e s , vvhile f r o m the great B a b y l o n t h e distancc vvas a j o u r n e y o f six days. Novv t h e r e a s o n for founding the c i t y s o f a r from the inhabited parts o f Syria vvas t h a t further d o w n there vvas n o vvater a n yvvhere in the land and t h a t o n l y in this place vvere springs a n d vvells t o bc f o u n d . And so, vvhen he h a d built this city and s u r r o u n d e d it vvith very s t r o n g vvalls, h e n a m e d it T h a d a m o r a , as it is stili called b y the Syrians, vvhile the G r c c k s cali it P a l m y r a . 4 Josephus considcrably

u n d e r e s t i m a t e s the j o u r n e y - t i m e s t o P a l m y r a

from

b o t h vvest a n d e a s t . B u t h e c a t c h e s a c c u r a t e l y the d e p e n d e n c e o f the c i t y o n 1 . T h e c s s c n t i a l m o d e r n w o r k o n P a l m y r a is J . S t a r c k y a n d M . G a w l i k o w s k i ,

Pah'iyre'

( 1 9 8 5 ) . N o t e a l s o H . J. W . D r i j v c r s , " H a t r a , P a l m y r a u n d E d e s s a " , A N R V P I I . 8 ( 1 9 7 7 ) , 7 9 9 , o n p p . 8 3 7 ^ . ; J . T e i x i d o r , Un port

roma in du döşeri: Palmyra

(LY 8 4 ) ; J . F. M a t t h e w s , " T h e T a x L a w

o f P a l m y r a : F.vidcncc f o r E c o n o m i c H i s t o r y in a C i t y o f t h e R o m a n E a s t " , JRS

7 4 (1984),

( a n ı m p o r c a n t arciclc o n v v h i c h v v h a t f o l l o w s dravvs h c a v i l y ) ; M . R u p r e c h t s b e r g e r ( e d . ) , Geschichle,

Kunst

und

M . A . R . C o l l e d g e , The P a l m y r e " , ANRWII.

Kullur Art

der of

syrisehen

Palmyra

Oasenstadt

(1987).

157

Palmyra:

F o r specific aspects

note

( 1 9 7 0 ) ; a l s o novv M . G f l v v l i k o v v s k i , " L e s d i c u y d c

18.4 (1990), 2 6 0 5 .

2 . R . F e l l m a n n , Le sanetuaire

de Baalshamin

â Palmyre

V , die Grabanlage

( 1 9 7 0 ) , r j ı ff.

3 . S e e M . G a v v l i k o v v s k ı , " L e p r e m i e r t e m p l e d ' A l l a t " , i n P. M a t t h i a c , M . v a n L o o n a n d H . W c i s s (eds.), Resurrecting 4. J o s e p h u s , Ani.

(he Past: A Joinl

Tribute

to Adnan

VIII, 6, t ( 1 5 3 . - 1 5 4 ) , L o e b t r a n s .

Bounni

(1990), 101.

its o a s i s a n d the f a c t o f its d u a l n a m e , a s given b y G r e e k s a n d

'Syrians'

( T D M W R o r T D M R in P a l m y r e n e ) . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t he ever \vent t h e r e o r vvas avvare o f iıs distinetive 3rt a n d a r e h i t e e t u r e o r o f t h e fact t h a t , a l o n c o f ali the S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s o f the N e a r E a s t , P a l m y r e n e h a d f o r the p a s t c e n t u r y c o m e t o b e u s e d , in a very G r e e k m a n n e r , f o r a long scries o f pubiic monumental inseriptions. T h e earlier s t a g e s o f u r b a n i s a t i o n o n t h e site c a n n o t be t r a c e d . A s a p l a c e , it first c o m e s vvithin the vicvv o f G r a e c o - R o m a n narrative h i s t o r y vvhen A n t o n i u s ' f o r c e s raidcd it in 4 1 BC. A p p i a n , vvriting tvvo c e n t u r i e s later, deseribes hovv t h e P a l m y r e n e s v a c a t e d the city a n d fled a c r o s s the E u p h r a t e s , p r e p a r i n g t o d e f e n d t h e b a n k vvith their e x p e r t bovvmen (he s e e m s t o i m a g i n e the E u p h r a t e s as being m u c h e l o s e r t h a n it really is, s o m e 2.00 k m ) . H i s a c c o u n t implies n o t h i n g a b o u t vvhether P a l m y r a vvas already vvalled o r n o t . N o r is it evidence as t o vvhether P a l m y r e n e l o n g - d i s t a n c c trade h a d a l r e a d y b e g u n in the first c e n t u r y BC. F o r vvhen h e s p e a k s o f this, it is a c o m m e n t in the p r e s e n t tense: ' f o r being t r a d e r s they b u y I n d i a n a n d A r a b i a n g o o d s f r o m the (territ o r y o f ) the P e r s i a n s , a n d d i s p o s e o f it in t h a t o f the R o m a n s ' . 5 H i s i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t t h e r e vvas a l r e a d y a city (polis) o f P a l m y r a is c e r t a i n l y c o r r c c t . F o r the c a r l i e s t knovvn P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n d a t e s f r o m 44/43 BC a n d r e c o r d s t h e e r e e t i o n o f a s t a t u e b y the priests o f Bel ( K M R Y D Y B L ) , in the year 2.69 ( o f t h e Seleucid e r a , s t a r t i n g f r o m O c t o b c r 3 1 2 BC, vvhich vvas used t h r o u g h o u t P a l m y r e n e h i s t o r y ) . 6 İt c o m c s f r o m the site o f t h e g r e a t t e m ple o f Bel d e d i c a t e d in AD 3 2 , a n d it s e e m s c l e a r t h a t a n earlier temple a l r e a d y o c c u p i e d the site. M o r e o v e r , a s w e savv, as early a s 34/33 BC tvvo P a l m y r e n e s at

Dura-Europos

crccted

a

temple

to

Bel

and

Iarhibol

(HYKL'

LBL

W Y R I I B W L ) . 7 T h e divine n a m e s used a t P a l m y r a are a l r e a d y in e v i d e n c e ( ' B e l ' being a borrovving f r o m B a b y l o n i a ) , a n d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t c m p l e s is already a feature o f society. T h o u g h t h e g r e a t b u l k o f P a l m y r e n e inseriptions b e l o n g later, t h e r e a r e sufficient f r o m t h e c e n t u r y up t o t h e 6 o s AD t o suggest s o m e distinetive f e a t u r e s o f P a l m y r e n e civilisation a t this p e r i o d . T h e c a r l i e s t o f the long series o f s e p u l c h r a l i n s e r i p t i o n s b e l o n g s t o 1 2 BC a n d r e c o r d s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a t o m b ( B T 'ı.M*—'house o f e t e r n i t y ' ) by

MLWK

son of L S M S . 8 Perhaps the

m o s t i m p o r t a n t d o c u m e n t s o f this period are t l ı r c e h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n s o f the 20S A D f o u n d in t h e t e m p l e o f B e l . O n e , d a t i n g t o 2 1 , survives o n l y i n 5. A p p i a n , B C V , 9 / 3 7 - 3 8 .

6. Cantineau, Inv. XI, n o . 100; see I î . ficyng, U. Amy and E. Wıll, l.e temple de Hela Palmyre Ii975).

z l

7-

7 . S c c 3 . 4 a b o v e ; d u M e s n i l d u B u i s s o n , Inventaire,

no. 1 .

8. M . G a v v l i k o v v s k i , " R c c u e i l d ' i n s e r i p t i o n s p a l m y r c n i e n n e s p r o v e n a n t d c f o u i l l e s s y r i c n n c s et p o l o n a i s e s r c c e n ı c s a P a l m y r e " , Mâm. no. 1 6 4 .

prts.

. . . a l'Academie

des Inscriptions

16 (1975), 265,

P a l m y r e n e a n d r e c o r d s the e r e c t i o n o f a statue o f I I S S s o n o f N S ' , s o n o f B W L H ' (also c a l l e d ) H S S , b y t w o P a l m y r e n e t r i b e s , t h e ' s o n s o f K o m a r a ' and t h e ' s o n s o f M a t h r h a b o l ' , ' b c c a u s e he m a d e p e a c e betvveen t h e m ' . ' F i n d i n g an e q u i v a l e n t for social g r o u p i n g s idcntificd in S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s is alvvays p r o b l e m a t i c a n d is liable t o i t ı v o l v c u n j u s t i f i e d p r e s u m p t i o n s . B u t in this c a s e it a t lcast h a s t h c j u s t i f i c a t i o n t h a t t h c s c c o n d o f this g r o u p , a bilingual inseription o f 24 in h o n o u r o f M L K W ( M a l i c h o s ) , this m a n ' s brother^ s p e a k s o f him as b e l o n g i n g t o ' s o n s o f K o m a r a ' ( B N Y K M R ' ) , vvhile using in G r e e k t h c t e r m phyle, vvhich vve n o r m a l l y t r a n s l a t e ' t r i b e ' : ' o f t h c plryle o f t h c C h o m a r c n o i V 0 T h c r e f e r e n e e in the earlier i n s e r i p t i o n t o ' m a k i n g p e a c e betvveen t h e m ' has n a t u r a l l y served t o r e i n f o r c e t h e idea t h a t vve m i g h t see P a l m y r a as a g r o u p i n g o f s e p a r a t e ( A r a b ? ) t r i b e s , vvho o n l y slovvly c o a l e s c e d i n t o a unificd g r o u p vvith a f o r m a l c o n s t i t u t i o n . I n f a c t , vve find a vvhole series o f g r o u p - n a m e s used vvith the e x p r e s s i o n B N Y (literally ' s o n s o f ' ) , a n d vve c a n n o t b e s e r e vvhether ali o f them s h o u l d be labelled ' t r i b e s ' ; m o r e o v e r , it is in o n l y thc s c c o n d ccntury, vvhen P a l m y r a had t h c f o r m a l c o n s t i t u t i o n o f a G r e e k city, t h a t vve find e v i d e n c e o f ' t h e f o u r tribes o f t h e c i t y ' , each (as it s e e m s ) vvith its ovvn s p c c i a l sanetuary. 1 1 T h i s g r o u p o f h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n s o f t h c 20S a l s o p r o v i d e s t h e first d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e f o r tvvo v e r y i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f the city: t r a d e vvith B a b y l o n i a a n d the e v o l u t i o n o f t h e P a l m y r c n e s i n t o a c o l l e c t i v i t y vvith a c o m m u n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n . F i r s t , the P a l m y r e n e t e x t o f t h e i n s e r i p t i o n o f 2 4 r e c o r d s t h a t t h c s t a t u e h a s b c c n ereeted b y 'ali thc m e r e h a n t s vvho are in t h e c i t y o f Bafcyl o n ' < T [ G ] R Y ' K L H W N D Y B M D Y N T B B L ) . It is t h e earliest o f a long series o f inseriptions refleeting P a l m y r e n e t r a d e vvith placcs in t h c P a r t h i a n a n d t h e n rhe Persian F.mpires. T h e i n f o r m a r i o n vvhich these i n s e r i p t i o n s p r o v i d e is pricelcss. B u t it m a y b e yet m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a t they are h o n o r i f i c inscriptîocıs on s t a t u c - b a s e s , a borrovving f r o m a c c n t r a l feature o f t h c life o f thc I l e l l c n i s tic a n d Imperial G r c c k city, namely the p u b l i c e x p r e s s i o n o f h o n o u r f o r a b e n e f a c t o r , o r euergetes.n

Moreover, any discussion o f Palmyrene

long-

d i s t a n c e t r a d e h a s t o be c o n d u c t e d vvith t h e avvareııess t h a t thc entire local c v i d c n c c c o n s i s t s o f d o c u m e n t s o f this very c h a r a c t c r i s r i c c u l t u r a l f o r m , the honorific inseription. In t h e c a s e o f M a l i c h o s , r h e bilingual inseription s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n reinseribed in t h c s c c o n d c c n t u r y , a n d it is n o t i m p o s s i b l e t h a t tvvo o r i g i n a l l y 9. C a m i n c a u , Inv. I X , n o . 1 3 = CIS II.3, n o . 3 9 1 5 ( b u t t h c G r c c k i n s e r i p t i o n p r i n t e d h e c h c l o n g s in f a c t vvith I n u I X , n o , 1 1 , b e l o v v ) . r o . C a n t i n c a u , lnı>. I X , n o . 1 1 . 1 1 . S c c t h c i m p o r t a n t a r t i c l c o f D . S c h l u m b c r g c r , " L c s q u a t r c s tribus d c P a i m y r c " , Syrra 4 7 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , I Z I , w i t h m o d ı f i c a t i o n s by M . G a w l i k o w s k i , Le temple 1 2 . P o r this f u n d a m e n t a ! t h c ı t ı c s c c P. V c y n c , I^ pdin P h . G a u t h i e r , Les cites grea/ues

ct leurs bienfaiteurs

(1985).

palmyrenien et le cirque

( 1 9 7 3 ) , c h . 2. ( 1 9 7 6 J , csp. c h . 2;

s c p a r a t e i n s e r i p t i o n s were c o m b i n e d . F o r the b r i c f G r e e k t c x t identifies a d i f f e r e n t d e d i c a t o r , ' t h e p e o p l e (detnos)

o f the P a l m y r e n e s ' . I f c e r t a i n l y c o n t e m -

p o r a r y , this vvould b e the e a r l i e s t f o r m a l e v i d e n c e o f the P a l m y r e n e s a s a c o l also

honouring

M a l i c h o s , o f 2 5 ; b u t this t i m e t h e r e is a p a r a l l e l P a l m y r e n e

lectivity. T h e y

reappear

again

in t h e

third

inseription

text—GBL

T D M R Y ' . 1 3 U n f o r t u n a t e l y the e t y m o l o g y o f G B L in this sense is unknovvn, a n d the m e a n i n g h a s t o b e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e parallel G r e e k t e r m , dâmos.

But

n o n e t h e l e s s it nıarks a s t a g c in t h e progressive e v o l u t i o n o f P a l m y r a a s a c o m m u n i t y vvith a c o n s t i t u t i o n . T h i s r a p i d e v o l u t i o n , alvvays vvithin G r a e c o R o m a t ı m o d e l s , is p e r h a p s its m o s t significant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . An i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f its e v o l u t i o n in t h e physical s e n s e , a n d o n e vvhich m u s t have been m u c h m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s a t the t i m e , vvas the c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d d e d i c a t i o n o f t h e great t e m p l e o f Bel vvhich stili staııds today. T h e P a l m y r e n e inseription o f 24 r e e o r d s t h a t M L K W ( M a l i c h o s ) h a d aidcd t h e m e r e h a n t s in B a b y l o n 'in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t e m p l e o f B e l ' ( B N Y N ' I ) Y H [ Y | K L ' D Y B L ) . \Vhether it vvas the i n f l u e n c e o f earlier P a l m y r e n e m e r e h a n t s in B a b y l o nia vvhich had led t o the e x i s t c n c c o f a t e m p l e o f Bel (best knovvn a s a B a b y l o n i a n deity) in P a l m y r a b y the m i d d l e o f t h e first c e n t u r y BC vve c a n o n l y g u c s s . But h e r e the c o n ı ı c c t i o n is e v i d e n t , a n d a P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n o f AD 4 5 r e e o r d s t h a t the t e m p l e had been d e d i c a t e d o n t h e s i x t h day o f the m o n t h N i s a n (April), AD 3 2 . I n f a c t , a s the i n s e r i p t i o n s t a t e s , it vvas f o r m a l l y the t e m p l e o f a triad o f m a l e g o d s , Bel, Y a r h i b o l a n d A g l i b o l . N o n e t h e l e s s it m u s t be sign i f i c a n t t h a t t h e s i x t h o f N i s a n vvas the d a y o n vvhich the B a b y l o n i a n A k i t u festival vvas c c l c b r a t c d , d u r i n g vvhich t h e legend o f Bel vvas r c c i t c d . 1 4 W h a t vvas d e d i c a t e d in 3 2 w a s t h e c e n t r a l temple, o r cella,

o f a design

m a r k e d l y different f r o m t h e S t a n d a r d pattcrıı o f G r a e c o - R o m a ı ı

temples.

H e r e the t e m p l e vvas e n t e r e d by s t e p s leading t o a d o o r p l a c c d a s y m m e t r i c a l l y o n the long side; a n d o n c e vvithin the t e m p l e t h e vvorshipper savv, a s the c u l t o b j e c t s , lovv-relicf carvitıgs p l a c c d in high r e r e s s e s a t either e n d . T h e use o f lovv-relief carviııgs, vvith f r o n t a l r e p r c s c n t a t ı o n s o f t h e deity o r dcities c o n c c r n c d , a s o p p o s c d t o a c u l t - s t a t u c in t h e rouııd, vvas a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a n ı r c o f P a l m y r e n e c u l t - p r a c t i c e , p r e s e r v c d a l s o in the s e c o n d - c e n t u r y t e m p l e o f B a a l s h a m i n . T h e tvvo ' c h a p e l s ' a t e i t h e r e n d o f the t e m p l e o f Bel m a y e a c h r e p r e s e n t deliberate r e c r e a t i o n s o f a n o r i g i n a l s a n c t u a r y ( H M N ' ) , a single o b l o n g s t r u e t u r e vvith r e l i c f - c a r v i n g s , vvith a n a l t a r b e f o r e it. I n t h e case o f t h e nevv t e m p l e o f Bel, the altar vvas built o u t s i d e t h e massivc t e m p l e vvhich novv e n e l o s e d t h e tvvo s a n c t u a r i c s . B u t in detail vvhat the P a l m y r e n c i n s e r i p t i o n o f AD 45 m e a n s b y t h e t e m p l e h a v i n g been dedicated 'vvith its s a ı ı c t u a r i e s '

1 3 . C a n t i n e a u , Inv. I X , n o .

12.

T 4 . C a n t i n e a u , Inv. I X , n o . 1 . F o r t h i s i m p o r t a n t p o i n t a b o u t t h e d a t e , s c c I I . J. W . D r i j v c r s , " ' I h e S y r i a n C u l t R e l i e f " , Visible

ReHgıan

7 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 6 9 , o n p. 7 .

( B Q D S \ V H Y ) is n o t k n o v v n . 1 5 T h e v a s t p o r t i c o e d temetıos

standing today,

w i t h sides o f r o u g h l y 2 0 0 m a n d a m o n u m e n t a l gatevvay, vvas c o n s t r u c t e d in the i a t c first a n d s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s . It is significant t h a t the d c d i c a t i o n o f t h e t e m p l e a n d t h e first d o c u m e n t a r y refleetions o f the f o r m a l s t r u e t u r e o f the c o m m u n i t y c o i n c i d e in t i m e , a s vve have seen, vvith t h e c a r l i e s t e v i d e n e e f o r a R o m a n p r e s e n c e a n d R o m a n inf.ue n c c . 1 6 H c n c c it is in this e a r l y period t h a t vve find o n e o f t h e very fevv triling u a l i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m P a l m y r a , the sepulchral i n s e r i p t i o n , d a t i n g t o 5 8 , o f L . S p e d i u s C h r y s a n t h u s , in L a t i n , G r e e k a n d P a l m y r e n e . 1 7 T h e L a t i n a n d G r e e k v e r s i o n s g i v c h i m n o title, b u t t h e P a l m y r e n e c a l l s h i m M K S ' ( ' t a x - g a t h e r e r ' ) . T h e fact t h a t he vvas a R o m a n c i t i z e n , a n d used L a t i n a s vvell a s G r c c k a n d P a l m y r e n e , m a k e s it p o s s i b l e (but not c e r t a i n ) t h a t he vvas a R o m a n canus

publi-

c o l l c c t i n g R o m a n i n d i r e c t t a x e s , r a t h e r t h a n a local c o n t r a c t o r for

city t a x e s . A t a n y r a t e very s h o r t l y a f t e r this vve see t h e first evidenee f o r the c r u c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n vvhich m a d e P a l m y r a , in a c e r t a i n sense, i n t o a G r e e k city like o t h e r s . T h a t is t h e a p p e a r a n c c o f the d o u b l c deliberative s t r u e t u r e o f a G r e e k city, n o t o n l y a n a s s e m b l y (demos) (boulS).

b u t novv, f o r the first t i m e , a c o u n c i l

T h e fact that this s t r u e t u r e derives f r o m that o f s t a n d a r d G r e e k cities

is s i g n a l l e d very c l e a r l y b y t h e straight t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n o f the e x p r e s s i o ı ı for ' c o u n c i l a n d a s s e m b l y ' i n t o P a l m y r e n e : B W L ' W D M S . T h e vvord B W L ' m a k e s vvhat s e e m s t o b e its first a p p e a r a n c e , very a p p r o p r i a t c l y , in a n o t h e r trilingual i n s e r i p t i o n , o f the year 7 4 . " H e r e it is, uniquely, a c c o m p a n i e d by an a t t e m p t a t a L a t i n c q u i v a l e n t , vvhere a g a i n t h e G r e e k ' b o u i e ' is t r a n s l i t e r a t e d : ' b u j l e et c i v i j t a s P a l m y r e n o r u m ' . T h e P a l m y r e n e version a p p c a r s a g a i n , this t i m e a l o n g vvith the t r a n s l i t e r a t e d term f o r ' s e c r e t a r y ' ( g r a m m a t e u s — G R M T W S ) , in a n i n s e r i p t i o n o f 7 5 / 7 6 . " \Vhether t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n influences s o visible h e r e vvere t r a n s m i t t e d in t h e c o n c r c t c f o r m o f R o m a n i n s t r u e t i o n s , o r p e r m i s s i o n , f o r t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r e f o r m o f t h e c i t y is q u i t e u n c e r t a i n . A further t r a n s f o r m a t i o n vvas t o c o m e , f o r vve find t h a t u n d e r H a d r i a n the city h a s been named

after

the

Emperor

'Hadriane

Palmyra'

(HDRYN'

TDMR

in

P a l m y r e n e ) . W e m a y belicve t h e B y z a n t i n c l e x i c o g r a p h e r S t c p h a n u s vvhen he says that this t o o k p l a c e vvhen the c i t y vvas ' r e - f o u n d e d ' b y t h e E m p e r o r . But 1 5 . F o r t h e t e m p l e o f Bel s e e S « y r i g , A m y a ı ı d W i l l , o p . c î t . ( n . 6 ) . F o r t h e c o n c c p t o f the H M N ' scc H . J. W. Drijvers, " A r a m a i c H M N ' and Hebrevv H M N : Their M e a n i n g and R o o c " , JSS

33 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 6 5 . S e e a l s o G a w l i k o w s k i , Temple

palmyrenien,

8 r , w h o takes the phrasc

B Q D 5 W H Y t o ıııean r a t h e r ' d u r i n g their f e s t i v a l * . 16. 2.ı above. 1 7 . C a n t i ı ı e a u , Inv. V I I I , n o . 57 ( / C R III, n o . 1 5 3 9 ; C / S II.3, n o . 4 3 3 5 ) . 1 8 . J. C a n t i n c a u , " T a d m o r c a " , 1 9 . C a n t i ı ı e a u , Inv. X , n o . 3 9 .

Syria

14 (1933). ">9.

P- I 7 4 »

B.

t h e r e is n o hasis f o r t h e m o d e r n n o t i o n t h a t P a l m y r a n o w b e c a m e a free c i t y . " ' I n the f a m o u s bilingual t a x - l a w o f 1 3 7 , knovvn f r o m a n i n s e r i p t i o n in t h e A g o r a , P a l m y r a appears vvith a n extensive set o f G r e e k city-offices, a l m o s t a l i c x p r e s s e d in P a l m y r e n e in t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n : arehontes as a b o v e ; a n d proedroi,

teus,

('RKWNY'); a

gramma-

a t t e s t e d t h r o u g h t h e a b s t r a c t n o u n for t h e i r

o f f i c c , P L H D R W T . B u t the terin dekaprötoi

(the 'first ten m e n ' — l i a b l e f o r

g u a r a n t e e i n g the city's t a x - r e v e n u e ) is t r a n s l a t e d as S R T ' , ' g r o u p o f t e n ' . 2 1 It is in t h e tax-lavv t h a t t h e u n i q u c c h a r a c t e r o f Palmyra/Tadmor, a s a G r e e k city vvhich, u n l i k e ali o t h e r s , vvas bilingual in its p u b i i c i n s e r i p t i o n s , i s m o s t vividly e x p r e s s c d . T h e begitıning o f the h e a d i n g vvhich in the P a l m y r e n e t e x t serves t o i n t r o d u c e t h e d e t a i l e d p r o v i s i o n s perfectly c a t c h e s the vvay iti vvhich t h e language h a s been t r a n s f o r m e d by t h e a d o p t i o n o f G r e e k l o a n vvords—NMWS' D Y M K S ' D Y L M N ' D Y H D R Y N ' T D M R — l i t e r a l l y 'the la w o f t h e t a x - g a t h c r c r o f the m a r k e t o f Hadriantf T a d m o r ' . T h e vvord f o r ' m a r k e t ' is an (NMWS')

borrovving f r o m t h e G r c c k itmen,

comes from

B a r d e s a ı ı e s ' Book

the G r e e k

nomos,

' h a r b o ı ı r ' , vvhile 'lavv'

j u s t a s in the S y r i a c title

of the Latvs of Coutılries—KTB'

DNMWS'

of

D'TROT."

S o far t h e discussion h a s t e n d e d , d e l i b c r a t c l y , t o e m p h a s i s c t h e vvay in vvhich P a l m y r a , f r o m the first m o m e n t t h a t vve c a n see it e m e r g i n g as an u r b a n c e n t r e , evolved step by step tovvards t h e s t r u e t u r e o f a ' n o r m a l ' G r e e k city. T h a t is a n i m p o r t a n t aspect, vvhich needs t o bc stressed; a n d it vvas a c c o m p a nicd by the a d o p t i o n o f loan-vvords a n d b y the intrusion o f G r e e k a n d K a t i n n o m e n c l a t u r e a l o n g s i d e P a l m y r e n e , as vvell as b y the s p r e a d o f the R o m a n citizenship a m o n g individual P a l m y r e n e s . It vvas in the s e c o n d c e n t u r y t o o t h a t t h e G r e a t C o l o n n a d e vvas b u i l t , m a t e h i n g t h a t a t the city o f A p a m e a t o the north-vvest. In the s a m e p e r i o d vve c a n see t h e physical t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f s o m e tcmples, to m a k e them c o n f o r m t o G r a e c o - R o m a n modcls. T h e prime e x a m p l e is t h e t c m p l c o f B a a l s h a m i n , ereeted in the reign o f H a d r i a n on a site a l r e a d y o c c u p i c d b y a series o f c o u r t y a r d s vvhose successive c o n s t r u c t i o n vvetıt b a c k t o the b e g i n n i n g o f the first c e n t u r y BC. T h e t e m p l e represents a c l a s s i c c x a m p ! c o f G r a e c o - R o m a n a r c h i t c c t u r c , vvith a pronaos thian

c o l u m n s . A s its i n s e r i p t i o n s ,

f r o n t e d by s i x C o r i n -

o f vvhich t h e great m a j o r i t y are

iri

P a l m y r e n e , shovv, t h r o u g h o u t t h e period t h e site h a d s e r v c d as a s a n e t u a r y i n 2.0. S t e p h . B y z . j.v.IIa'X|iupa . . . o ( 5 ' a u ' t o i * A 5 p ı a v o x o X î t a ı p c ı c ü v o j ı â o O r ı o a v t ı u K u a ö c î o T t ç TIIÇ JTÖAFOÇ ÛNB TOÜ aûi0K-pd:0pûç. T h e r e is n o t m u c h do c u m e nt a ry r e f l e e t i o n of t h i s , a p a r t f r o m t h e tax-lavv, b u t sec, c . g . , C a n t i n e a u , Inv. X , n o . 3 8 : [ ' A & l p ı a v ö v 1 laApupııvĞv. F o r t h e i d c a t h a t P a l m y r a t h e r c b y h c c a m c a free c i t y , G a v v l i k o v v s k i , Temple 2 1 . N o r decuria.

palmyrimen,

as s u g g e s t c d i n M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

47.

4 3 , vvrongly f o l l o w i n g T e i x i d o r .

T h e e q u i v a l c n c c is q u i t c c l c a r in t h e p r c f a e c o f t h e t a x - ! a w , CIS II.3, 3 9 r 3 (scc belovv). S o , c o r -

rcctly, Matthevvs, JRS 74 (1984), 1 7 4 , 1 1 , 5 . 2 2 . 1 2 . s belovv.

wlıich B a a l s h a m i n vvas vvorshipped a l o n g vvith a series o f distinetively IOCÎI deities: s o f o r i n s t a n c e in 6 3 s o m e o n e b e l o n g i n g t o t h e B N Y M ' Z Y N , the ' t r i b e ' m o s t c l e a r l y a s s o c i a t c d vvith this s a n c t u a r y , dedicated an a l t a r t o B a a l s h a m i n , t o D W R H L W N ( ' h i m [i.e., t h e god| o f R a c h l e ' ? ) , t o R a h i m a n d t o the G o d ( F o r t u n e ) o f Y e d i b e l . 2 3 T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o ı ı o f these a n d t h e l o n g list o f o t h e r deities n a m e d o r r e p r e s e n t e d ar P a l m y r a is, t o s a y the least, h a z a r d o u s , a n d c a n n o t be pursued h e r e . 2 4 İt is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e that a biling u a l inseription o f 130/131 r e e o r d s t h a t t h e t e m p l e itself, o f Z e u s / B a a l s h a m i n , vvas built by M a l c s o n o f Y a r h a i , vvho vvas grammateus

at

the

m o m e n t o f the visit o f the ' g o d H a d r i a n ' . 2 1 'iTıis t e m p l e is t h e p r i m e refleetion a t P a l m y r a o f t h e classicising m o v e m e n t in the c u l t u r e o f t h e G r e e k E a s t a s s o c i a t e d vvith this r e i g n . A somevvhat c o m p a r a b l c d e v e l o p m e n t c a n be seen in t h e c a s e o f t h e s a n c t u a r y o f the g o d d e s s A l l a t , l a t e r e n v e l o p e d in t h e ' c a m p o f D i o c l e t i a n ' , under t h e T e t r a r c h y . İn the s a n c t u a r y , vvhich h a d e x i s t c d since the first c e n t u r y BC, a nevv temple vvas built in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y — a n o m a l o u s l y leaving vvithin it an a l t a r on the s a m e s p o t a s the o r i g i n a l o n e , 3 n d thus b r e a k i n g t h e n o r m a l rule t h a t an a l t a r s t o o d o u t s i d e . Allat c o u l d be identified in P a l m y r a e i t h e r vvith A r t c m i s o r vvith A t h e n a — a s in o t h e r c a s c s it is futilc t o a s k vvhat s u c h a deity really 'vvas'. B u t o n e o f t h e m o s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f P a l m y r e n e art vvas t h a t o f r e p r e s e n t i n g d e i t i e s fully dressed, a n d a r m e d . 2 6 S o , vvhen a suitably c l a s s i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e g o d d e s s vvas s o u g h t f o r this s a n c t u a r y , the c h o i c e vvas m a d e o f a statue o f A t h e n a , h o l d i n g a shield a n d l a n c e — t h e beaııtiful R o m a n c o p y o f a

fifth-cennıry

o r i g i n a l , vvhich novv s t a n d s in t h e m u s e u n

o f Palmyra.77 F r o m o n e point o f vicvv the i n f l u c n c c o f G r a e c o - R o m a n m o d e l s in the e v o l u t i o n o f P a l m y r a is v i s i b l e precisely b e c a u s e there vvas a v i g o r o u s l o c a l c u l t u r e vvithin vvhich it c o u l d b e received a n d e x p r e s s c d . S o , j u s t as P a l m y r a h a d been t r a n s f o r m e d (vvhether by official a c t i o n o r n o t ) i n t o a G r e e k c i t y by the 70S, u n d e r ( p r o b a b l y ) S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s it undervvent a n o t h e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d b c c a m e a R o m a n colonia.

T h i s vvas a real t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , even

if the fact that ali P a l m y r e n e s novv b e c a m e R o m a n citizens did n o t as s u c h , a f t e r t h e u n i v c r s a l g r a n t b y C a r a c a l l a , distinguish them f r o m o t h e r p e o p l e . It is b e c a u s e , in the c a s e o f P a l m y r a , local pride c x p r c s s e d itself so m u c h m o r e 23. D u n a n i , Baalshamin

III, n o . 2 3 .

2 4 . Kor a m a s t c r l y a c c o u n t o f v v h a t c a n bc k n o v v n , o r h a s b e e n s u p p o s c d , s e e M . G a v v l i k o v v s k i , " L e s dieu.v de P a l m y r e " , ANRW

II.18.4 (1990), 2605.

2 5 . CIS II.3, n o . 3 9 5 9 = C a n t i n e a u , Inv. I, n o . 1 = D u n a n t , Baalshamin

III, n o . 4 4 . For

H a d r i a n ' s visit, 3 . 3 a b o v e . 2 6 . S c c csp. 1 1 . S e y r ı g , " L e s d i c u x a r m e s et les A r a b e s e n S y r i e " , Syria 4 7 ( 1 9 7 8 ) , 7 7 . 2 7 . S e e M . G a v v l i k o v v s k i , " L e t c t n p l c d ' A l l a t â P a l m y r e " , Rev. ard>. in n.3 a b o v e . T h e f u l ! r e p o r t o n t h e e x c a v a t i o ı ı s is a v v a i t e d .

1 9 7 7 , 2 5 3 , a n d o p . cit.

fıılly in i n s e r i p t i o n s that w e c a r ı sec t h c individual P a l m y r e n e s o c l e a r l y a s a R o m a n c i t i z e n , a n d his city as a colonia.

A s a colonia,

it n o w h a d t o have a

p a i r o f a n n u a l c h i c f m a g i s t r a t e s , c a l l c d in Latin duumviri. equivalent t e r m in c o m m o n use w a s strategoi,

But in G r e e k t h c

literally ' g e n e r a l s ' ; so it is e i t h e r

this o r its P a l m y r e n e t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n \vhich \vc find in the t h i r d - c e n t u r y inseript i o n s o f t h e city. 2 8 C o n t r a r y t o vvhat might h a v e b e e n e x p e c t e d , L a t i n , n e v e r very c o m m o n , novv d i s a p p c a r s a l t o g c t h e r f r o m t h e inseriptions o f t h e city. T h e ' c o l o n i a l ' c h a r a c t e r o f P a l m y r a is e x p r e s s e d bilingually, in G r e e k a n d P a l m y r e n e . A s vve h a v e a l r e a d y seeıı, t h c p u b l i c use o f P a l m y r e n e p e r s i s t e d t h r o u g h this period a n d i n t o t h a t o f t h e rise o f S e p t i m i u s O d e n a t h u s in t h e 250S a n d 260S, a n d t h c brief P a l m y r e n e ' e m p i r e ' o f Z c n o b i a a n d V a b a l l a t h u s in the l a t e 260S a n d e a r l y 270S. 2 * F o r t h e period b e f o r e t h a t it vvill suffice t o give o n e e x a m p ! e o f hovv t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f P a l m y r a a s a colonia,

a n d its

r c l a t i o n s vvith t h c vvider R o m a n E m p i r e , c o u l d b c a c c o ı n m o d a t c d a n d e x pressed in P a l m y r e n e , W h a t follovvs is a t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h c P a l m y r e n e part o f an h o n o r i f i c inseription put up Ln t h e G r e a t C o l o n n a d e in 1 4 1 / 2 4 3 : Statue o f Iulius Aurelius Z a b d i l a h . . . vvho (vvas) strategos o f thc

colonia

( ' S T R T G L Q L N Y ' ) during thc visit o f thc G o d Alcxandros Kaisar ( Q S R ) , and vvho aidcd vvhen he vvas here Crispinus, hegemon

( F f Y G M W N ' ) , and

vvhen hc brought the legions ( L G Y N Y') here on m a n y occasions; vvho vvas in eharge o f the market ( R B S\VQ) . . . vvho vvas tcsrificd t o by thc god Yarhibol and by Iulius Priscus, the Praetorian Prefect ([RB'l D Y SP'), a n d loved his city. T h c boule

and demos

( B W L ' \VDMS) ereeted this

statue . . . J ü O ı ı c c again it is t h c c u s t o m o f t h e h o n o r i f i c inseription a c c o m p a n y i n g a s t a t u e t o vvhich vve ovve vvhat little vve c a n u n d e r s t a n d . B u t in this c a s e it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t b o t h c i t y - p a t r i o t i s m a n d t h e use o f P a l m y r e n e a n d o f t h e borrovved G r e e k v o c a b u l a r y f o r city i n s t i t u t i o n s h a v e survived t h c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f P a l m y r a i n t o a colonia.

There are m a n y

respects in vvhich

vve c a n

regard

the

P a l m y r e n e / G r e e k / R o m a n city o f t h e period f r o m the 70S t o t h e 270S as r e p r e senting a c o h c r c n t , a n d uniquc, e x a m p l c o f a m i x c d city culturc. T h r e e f u r t h e r f e a u ı r e s o f P a l m y r a n e e d to b e stressed. T h e first is t h a t t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f the l a n g u a g e , art a n d r e l i g i o u s i c o n o g r a p h y o f P a l m y r a vvas not s i m p l y a m a t t e r of o f f i c i a l , c o m m u n a l a c t i o n (as may h a v e been t h e c a s e vvith t h e P h o e n i c i a n legends o n the c o i n s of s c c o n d - c c n t u r y T y r e ) . T h e t o m b s a n d private s c p u l c h r a l inseriptions o f P a l m y r a (in vvhich P a l m y r e n e p r e d o m i n a t e s , 28. Millar, " R o m a n

Coloniae42İ"f.

29. 4.2-3 abovc. 30. CIS Grcck only).

II.3, n o . 3 9 2 2 — C a n t i n c a u , Inv.. III, n o . 2 2 ( O G / S , n o . 6 4 0 ; IGR

III, n o . 1 0 3 3 ,

by c o n i r a s t vvith official i n s e r i p t i o n s ) e x p r e s s it a l s o , a s d o t h e r e m a i n s o f the villagcs in t h e m o u n t a i n o u s r e g i o n t o the north-vvest o f t h e city, a n d t h e evid e n e e left b y P a l m y r e n e s in D u r a - E u r o p o s . B u t b y far t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t evidenee f o r the strength o f P a l m y r e n e local c u l t u r e as a popular

c u l t u r e is

the f a c t t h a t its soldiers, a l o n e o f ali ' n a t i o n a l i t i c s ' vvho c o n t r i b u t c d t o the a u x i l i a r y f o r c e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l army, m i g h t t a k c their l a n g u a g e a n d t h e i r art vvith t h e m . 3 1 T h a t G r e e k a n d L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n s set u p by P a l m y r e n e s a b r o a d i n e l u d e d e d i c a t i o n s t o P a l m y r e n e g o d s — f o r i n s t a n c e M a l a c h b c l , a n d Aglibol a n d Y a r l ı i b o l — i s significant, t h o u g h n o t u n u s u a l . B u t the fact t h a t t h e y are f o u n d u s i n g the P a l m y r e n e l a n g u a g e a b r o a d is. T h u s f o r i n s t a n c e t h e r e i s the relief f r o m R o m e o n vvhich A g l i b o l a n d M a l a c l ı b e l a r e r e p r e s e n t e d , o n e in c o n v e n t i o n a l m i l i t a r y d r e s s a n d the o t h e r in P a l m y r e n e c o s t u m c . T h e G r e e k t e x t identifies t h e d e d i c a t o r a s ' I ( o u l i o s ) A u r ( e l i o s ) H e l i o d ö r o s s o n o f A n u o c h o s , Hadrianos

Palmurenos>—although

f o r m a t i o n o f the colonia.

t h e d a t e is 2 3 6 , long a f t e r

the

B u t the P a l m y r e n e t e x t gives h i m as Y R H Y

son

o f H L Y P Y . 3 2 O r , a t S o u t h S h i e l d s a t the m o u t h o f the river T y n e ,

some

4 0 0 0 k m f r o m P a l m y r a , a P a l m y r e n e , B a r a t e s , put u p an e p i t a p h f o r his C a t u v e l l a u n i a n freedvvoman a n d vvife, R e g i n a . T h e L a t i n t c x t is d o m i n a n t , b u t a version is a d d e d in P a l m y r e n e : R G Y N ' B T H R Y ( ' d a u g h t e r o f f r c c d o m o f ' ) B R ' T ' H B I . ( a l a s ! ) . 3 3 In a m i l i t a r y c o n t e x t P a l m y r e n e tended n a t u rally e n o u g h t o a b s o r b L a t i n loan-vvords ( o r t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n s ) r a t h e r t h a n G r e e k o n e s . S o a P a l m y r e n e soldier in D a c i a t r a n s l i t e r a t e s his r a n k as H P T Y N , a n d o n c in N u m i d i a his unit (centuria) tifies himself a s a ' P a l m y r e n e TDMWRY'

(optio)

as Q T R Y \ H e iden-

a r e h e r ' b o t h in L a t i n a n d in

Palmyrene:

QST'.34

T h e knovvn P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m o u t s i d e the N e a r E a s t a r e not n u m e r o u s . But their i m p o r t a n c e lies in t h e fact t h a t they r e i ı ı f o r c c

the

c o n c l u s i o n vvhich is s u g g e s t e d by t h e e p i t a p h s o f P a l m y r a itself: t h a t the vvritten l a n g u a g e vvas, o r c o u l d b e , a t the disposal o f p e o p l e dovvn t o q u i t e m o d e s t social levels. It d o c s n o t o f c o u r s e follovv t h a t e a c h soldier in a

3 1 . T h e e v i d e n e e is c o l l e c t e d b y J. S t a r c k y a n d M . G a w l i k o w s k i , Palmyre3,4 t i o n s b y P a l m y r e n e s a b r o a d s c c m o s t f u l l y R . T u r c a n , l.es cııltes orientaıcc

ıff. F o r dedic»-

dans le munde

romaın

(1989), r 7 o f f . 3 2 . C V S N . 3 , n o . 3 9 0 2 = M o r e t r i , IGUR

I , n o . 1 1 9 . S c c E . E . S c h n c i d c r , "II s a t u u a r i o d i B?l

e delle d i v i n i t â d i P a l m i r a : C o m m u n i t â e t r a d i z i o n c religiose dei P a l m i r c n i a R o m a " , Ditil, Arcb.

5.1 (1987),

di

69.

3 3 . C / S II.3, n o . 3 9 0 1 = R . B . C o l l i n g w o u d a n d R , \ Y r i g h t ,

Roman İnseriptions of Hritatn

l (1965), no. 1065. 3 4 . D a c i a ( T c m e s v a r ) : C / L III, n o . 7 9 9 9 — C / S II.3, n o . 3 9 0 6 ; N u m i d i a (al K a n t a r a ) : C / L VIII, n o . 2 5 1 5 = C / S II.3, n o . 3 9 0 8 . S e e L. B i a n c h i , " I P a l m i r c n i in D a c i a : C o m m u n i t â c t r a d i n o n i r e l i g i o s e " , Dial.

di Arcb.

5.1 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 87.

P a l m y r e n c unit in Britain, N u m i d i a

or Dacia

w a s literate in

both

Latin

a n d P a l m y r e n e . B u t it d o e s f o l l o v v t h a t s u c h s o l d i e r s c o u l d ( a t l e a s t )

have

a c c c s s t o p e r s o n s vvho c o u l d c o m p o s e

then

have them

b r i e f t e x t s in P a l m y r e n e , a n d

inseribed.

S o f a r , vve h a v e n o e v i d e n c e o f d o c u m e n t s o n p a p y r u s o r p a r e h m e n t vvritten in P a l m y r e n e , a s there a r e i n A r a m a i c , Hebrevv, N a b a t a e a n a n d S y r i a c . B u t t h e p a r a l l c l s vvith t h e s e o t h e r S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s m a k e it iu f a c t e x t r e m e l y ıınlikely

that

legal

documcnts

vvere not

dravvn

up

in P a l m y r e n e ,

or

in

P a l m y r e n e a n d G r e e k . A s s o o f t e n , o u r k n o v v l c d g e is a f u n e t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f our archaeological evidence. I f P a l m y r e n c c o u l d b e v v r i t t e n , a s it vvas, it f o l l o v v s t h a t b o t h it a n d G r e e k m u s t h a v e b e e n t a u g h t i n t h e c i t y . B u t t h e r e o u r e v i d e n c e s t o p s . \Ve d o n o t knovv vvhether t h e r e vvas o r vvas n o t a n y l i t e r a t ü r e in P a l m y r e n e , v v h e t h e r t h e r e vvere t r a d i t i o n s t r a n s m i t t e d o r a l l y , o r v v h e t h e r t h e fevv s c u l p t u r a l r e l i e f s (for instance from the temple o f Bel) apparently represenring events of relig i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e r e f l e c t m y t h s a b o u t t h e P a l m y r e n e g o d s . N o r d o vve k n o v v vvhat p e r f o r m a n c c s ( i f a n y ) , o r i n vvhich l a n g u a g e , vvere p u t o n i n t h e b c a u t i f u l t h e a t r e o f P a l m y r a , b u i l t in t h e S e v e r a n p e r i o d a n d n e v e r c o m p l e t e d .

The

q u i t e e x t e n s i v e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e p l a c e s i n vvhich a t h l e t e s o r a c t o r s o f v a r i o u s t y p e s h a d vvon v i c t o r i c s n e v e r i n e l u d e s P a l m y r a . İ t is e s s e n t i a l t o s t r e s s t h a t i n t h i s s e n s e vve h a v e n o c o m p r e h e n s i o n a t a l i o f t h e c u l t u r e o f P a l m y r a , o r e v e n o f vvhether t h e r e vvas a P a l m y r e n e c u l t u r e in vvhich a n c d u c a t c d P a l m y r e n c vvould h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t u p . Ali t h a t is c l e a r is t h a t t h e r e vvas a d i s t i n e t i v e a r t i s t i c t r a d i t i o n , c x p r e s s c d a b o v e a l i i n f u n e r a r y p o r t r a i t s a n d t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f t h e g o d s , vvhich vvas c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o S t a n d a r d G r e e k p r o v i n c i a l a r t , b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e vvas c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , vvitlı v a r i a t i o n s , o f a 7.one s t r e t e h i n g f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a

( a b o v e ali I l a t r a )

through

D u r a - E u r o p o s a n d P a l m y r a t o t h e H a u r a n . T h e r e is g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t t h a t t h i s a r t , vvith i t s e m p l ı a s i s 011 t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e e l a b o r a t e e l o t h i n g o f b o t h d e i t i e s a n d m o r t a l s a n d i t s f r o n t a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f b o t h t o t h e b e h o l d e r , is i n s o m e s e n s e a f o r e r u n n e r o f B y z a n t i n e a r t . B u t t h e r e is n o n e t h e l e s s

serious

d o u b t a s t o v v h e t h e r it s h o u l d b e l a b e l l e d a s ' P a r t h i a n ' , o r i n d e e d c o n c e i v e d o f a s h a v i n g d e r i v c d from

a n y p a r t i c u l a r a r e a . In t h e e n t i r c z o n e in q u e s t i o n

this distinetive regional a r t c a n n o t be identified b e f o r e the l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e first c e n t u r y B C , o r b e y o n d t h e e n d o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y AD. T h e r e is t h u s n o c o n c r e t c e v i d e n c e f o r t h e i d e a t h a t it a r o s e s o m e v v h e r e e l s e , a n d vvas t h e n b r o u g h t t o P a l m y r a . I t is b e t t e r t o t h i n k o f it a s a p a r a l l e l d e v e l o p m e n t , c o m m o n t o p l a c c s b o t h e a s t a n d vvest o f t h e E u p h r a t e s ; e x p l a i n i n g ıvhy

such a

distinetive regional art m i g h t h a v e arisen is a n o t h e r matter. T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c u s e o f iovv-relief c a r v i n g s , r a t h e r t h a n o f c u l t - s t a t u e s in t h e r o u n d , f o r t h e representation of deities offers a significant c o n t e x t for the deploynıent

of

' f r o n t a l i t y ' in r c l i g i o u s

art,

w h i l e Icaving

thar custom

itself in

need

of

explanation.35 T h i s p r o b l e m , i f p o s e d in t e r m s o f h y p o t h e t i c a l i n f l u e n c e s o n

Palmyra

f r o m w i t h i n the P a r t h i a n E m p i r e , B a b y l o n i a a b o v e a l i , is o n l y m a d e m o r e c o ı n p i e x b o t h b y d ı e very l i m i t e d a n d p r c c i s e c h a r a c t c r o f o u r e v i d e n c e and b y t h c f a c t t h a t it is ali a f u n c t i o n o f the e v o l u t i o n o f the c i t y i t s e l f , vvith its ( l o s t ) p u b l i c s t a t u e s a n d ( s u r v i v i n g ) h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n s . S o for i n s t a n c c t h c c e n t r a l i t y o f the cult o f Bel a t P a l m y r a m a y vvell b e d u e t o B a b y l o n i a n influe n c e . B u t t h c cult vvas a l r e a d y c s t a b l i s h c d a t l c a s t h a l f a c e n t u r y ( a n d p r o b a b l y l o n g e r ) b e f o r e vve h a p p e n t o h a v e e x p l i c i t e v i d e n c e o f t r a d i n g c o n t a c t s vvith Babylonia. O u r c v i d c n c c f o r t h e s e c o n t a c t s is b o t h c x t r e m c l y c v o c a t i v e a n d strikirıg, a n d v e r y l i m i t e d . F o r it is p r o v i d e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y by h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n s , vvhich by t h e i r n a t u r e a l l u d e t o s e r v i c e s vvithin a c o n t c x t vvhich i t s e l f is t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d , a n d vvhich t h u s p r o v i d e o n l y t h e m e r e s t g l i m p s e s o f the vvicier system itself.36 S o f a r a s o u r e v i d e n c e allovvs us t o g r a s p it, t h i s t r a d e h a d n o . c o n n c c t i o n vvith a n y 'silk r o u t e ' a c r o s s c c n t r a l A s i a . I t vvas d i r c c t c d t o t h e lovvcr-middle E u p h r a t e s , vvhere, as vve h a v e s c c n , P a l m y r a m a i n t a i n e d o u t p o s t s in t h e seco n d c e n t u r y , 3 7 a n d t h e n d o w n the r i v e r t o V o l o g a e s i a s , a n d t o S p a s i ı ı o u C h a r a x in the r e g i o n o f M e s e t ı e , o n t h e s h o r e s o f t h e G u l f . E v e n S e l c u c i a on t h c lovvcr-middle T i g r i s is m e n t i o n e d ( a t m o s t ) o n l y o n c e , o n a v e r y f r a g m e n t a r y i n s e r i p t i o n o f AD 1 9 , a n d B a b y l o n ( B B L ) o n l y o n the i n s e r i p t i o n o f 14 m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . 3 8 F r o m t h e h e a d o f the P e r s i a n G u l f , vvhere T r a j a n vvistfully o b s e r v c d a s h i p setting o f f f o r I n d i a , P a l m y r e n e m e r e h a n t s s a i l e d as f a r as ' S c y t h i a ' , t h a t is, north-vvest I n d i a . O n e o f the m a n y i n s e r i p t i o n s o f the m i d s e c o n d c e n t u r y in h o n o u r o f M . U l p i u s I a r a i o s , o r Y R H Y , vvas p u t up by ' t h c m e r e h a n t s vvho h a v e r e t u r n e d f r o m S c y t h i a in t h c s h i p o f O n a i n o s s o n of A d d o u d a n o s ' , b e c a u s e o f the a s s i s t a n c e vvhich h e h a d given t h e ı ı ı . ' 9 T h e fact t h a t P a l m y r e n e m e r e h a n t s w e n t as f a r a s ' S c y t h i a ' is o f s o m e

significance,

3 5 . T h e p r o b l e m \vas p o s e d b y M . R o s t o v t z e f f , " D u r a a n d the P r o b l e m o f P a r t h i a n A r ı " , YCS

j ( 1 9 3 5 ) , 1 5 7 ; f o r the latest o f m a n y s u b s e q u e n t d i s c u s s i o n s , see the v a l u a b l e a r t i c l e s o f

M . P i e t r z y k o v v s k i , " T h e O r i g i n s o f t h e F r o n t a l C o n v e n t i o n i n the A r t s o f rhe N e a r E a s t " , 33 ( 1 9 8 5 ) , 5 5 ; G . l ' l o u g , " E a s t S y r i a n A r t i s t C e n t . B C - m d

C e n t . A D " , Ada

Berytus

Hy/ıerburea

1

( 1 9 8 8 ) , 1 2 9 ; a n d e s p . ( f o r the r e l e v a n c e o f thc use o f l o w - r e l i e f c a r v i n g s ) D r i j v e r s , o p . cit. (11.14). 3 6 . F o r P a l m y r e n e t r a d e w i t h t h c E a s t scc c s p . E. W i l l , " M a r c h a n d s ct clıcfs d c c a r a v a n n c s â P a i m y r e " , Syria

3 4 ( 1 9 5 7 ) , 2 6 2 ; t h c v v o r k s o f J. T e i x i d o r a n d J . F. M a ı t h e w s , n . r a b o v e ; a n d

M . G a w l i k o w $ k i , " I . c c o m m c r c c d c P a i m y r e s u r t e r r e c t s u r c a u " , i n J.-P. S a l l c s (cd.J, et ses mers

bordieres:

Itineraires

et uoyages

(1988},

L'Aıakie

163.

3 7 . 3.3 a b o v c . 3 8 . CIS I I . 3 , n o . 3 9 2 4 = C a n t i n e a u , hıv.

I X , no. 6a (Selcucia); B a b y l o n , tcxt to n . 1 4 a b o v c .

3 9 . C a n t i n c a u , Inv. X , n o . 9 6 . F o r ' S c y t h i a ' , s e e a l s o SEG

VII, no. 1 5 6 .

b e c a u s e t h e y vvill have c n c o u n t e r e d t h e r e o t h e r traders f r o m the G r a e c o R o m a n vvorld, vvho h a d c o m e b y s h i p from the R e d S e a a n d E g y p t . W h a t is m o r e , t h e Periplus

of tl>e Erytbraean

Sea, a n a ı ı o n y m o u s vvork o f AD 4 0 - 7 0

vvhich deseribes this t r a d e , suppl ies vvhat is t o t a l l y l a c k i n g f o r P a l m y r e n e c o m m e r c e — s o m e idea o f t h e p r o d u e t s vvhich might h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t b a c k f r o m Iııdia; m o s t a r e precious s t o n e s , silk o r c o t t o n , o r o t h e r l u x u r y i t e m s s u c h a s s p i c c s o r h e r b s . F o r vvhat it is vvorth, o n e i t e m , lycium, Periplus,

vvhich is listed b y t h e

vvas a l s o , a s vve h a v e s e e n , b r o u g h t by c a m c l t o the P h o e n i c i a n c o a s t ,

c e r t a i n l y t h r o u g h Palmyra.'" 1 O n t h e outvvard j o u r n e y P a l m y r e n e t r a d e r s vvill surely h a v e used b o a t s t o g o dovvn the E u p h r a t e s ; a n d f o r the r e t u r n ( a s M . Gavvlikovvski suggests) t h e r i v e r m a y h a v e been navigable u p s t r e a m a s f a r as H i t . H e n c e the long r o a d ( a p p r o a c h i n g 5 0 0 k m ) , o f vvhich long s t r e t e h e s are stili visible f r o m the air, betvveen H i t a n d P a l m y r a m a y h a v e b e e n used b y m e r e h a n t s d i s e m b a r k i n g a t the h i g h e s t point possible. 4 1 A n y e r o s s i n g o f t h e s t e p p e t o t h e E u p h r a t e s involved a j o u r n e y o f betvveen 2 0 0 k m (directly a c r o s s t o D u r a - E u r o p o s ) a n d n e a r l y 5 0 0 k m t o H i t . S o it is n o surprise t h a t t h e inseriptions r e f e r r i n g t o P a l m y r e n e trade s p e a k r c p c a t c d l y o f synodiai,

' c a r a v a n s * , f o r m e d f o r the journey. U l p i a n , r e c o r d i n g t h a t Pal-

m y r a h a d b e c o m e a colonia, a n d nationes\42

s p e a k s o f it as ' l o c a t e d n e x t t o b a r b a r i a n

gentes

W e h a v e n o m o r e precise a c c o u n t than this o f vvhatever n o -

m a d s o c c u p i c d the vast r e g i o n t o t h e s o u t h - e a s t o f P a l m y r a , but it is e v i d c ı ı t t h a t t h e P a l m y r e n e s , vvhom vve t e n d t o see as sedentarised ' A r a b s ' t h e m s e l v e s , vvill h a v e h a d c o m p l c x d i p l o m a t i c , e c o n o m i c a n d m i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s vvith these o t h e r p e o p l e s . R e l a t i o n s betvveen n o m a d s a n d passing c a r a v a n s did n o t t ı e c e s sarily involve simply a t t a c k a n d d e f e n c c . A m o d e l o f a different r e l a t i o n s h i p is provided by S t r a b o ' s a c c o u n t o f hovv t h e skenitai

of Mesopotamia exacted

lovvcr tolls f r o m travellers t h a n did t h o s e living a l o n g the E u p h r a t e s itself, a n d a l s o p r o v i d e d w a t e r i n g - p l a c e s . 4 J İt m a y t h e r e f o r c have been t h e c a s c t h a t the a s s i s t a n c c f o r vvhich the m e m b e r s o f synodiai

h o n o u r e d the g r e a t m a g -

nates o f P a l m y r a vvas s o m e t i m e s o f a finaııcial o r d i p l o m a t i c n a t u r e , in e n s u r ing the c o o p e r a t i o n o f the s t e p p e p e o p l e s : f o r i n s t a n c c a l m o s t t h e l a t e s t knovvn c a r a v a n - i n s c r i p t i o n , t h a t o f 2 5 7 / 2 5 8 , h o n o u r s A u r e l i o s S a l a m a l l a t h o s

4 0 . S e e rhc c x c c l l e n t e d i t i o ı ı , t r a n s l a t i o n a n d c o m m e n t a r y b y L . C a s s o n , The Erylbraei

Periplus

Maris

( 1 9 8 9 ) . F o r ' S c y t h i a ' , a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e I n d u s p l a i n , see p a r a s . 3 8 a n d 4 1 a n d c o m -

mentary. T h e p r o d u e t s w h i c h arc d e s c r î b e d a s being b r o u g h t f r o m ' S c y t h i a ' t o the R e d S e a a r e ( p . 1 6 ) : c o s t u s , b d c l l i u m , lycium,

n a r d , I n d i n n m y r r h ( w h o s e n a t u r e is p r o b l c m a t i c ) , i n d i g o , t u r -

q u o i s c , lapis l a z u l i , o n y x , p e r h a p s a g a t e , ı v o r y , c o t t o n , c o t t o n g a r m e n t s , sille, C h i n c s c p e l t s a n d p e p p e r . F o r c ı m e l s b r î n g i n g lycium

t o P h o c n i c i a , scc 9 . 2 a b o v e , tcxt to n n . 3 8 - 3 9 .

4 t . F o r t h i s a r c a s c c c s p . M . G a w l i k o w s k i , " P a i m y r c ct ( T ^ p l ^ a t c * , Syria 6 0 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , 53> a n d t h e m a p o n p. 54. 41. Dig.

L, 15, 1, 5.

4 3 . S t r a b o , Geog.

X V ı , 1 , 27. Scc 1 2 . 1 bclow.

M a l £ , a n archemporos

( c h i e f t r a d e r ) , f o r h a v i n g ' b r o u g h t b a c k the synodia

at

n o c o s t ( t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ) , a t his o w n c x p c n s c ' . 4 4 B u t o n c c r t a i n o c c a s i o n s it is q u i t e c l e a r t h a t t h e p r o t e c r i o n o f t h e c a r a v a n s i n v o l v e d a e t u a l

fightiııg:

the e l e a r e s t c a s e s o f a r p u b l i s h e d is t h e i n s e r i p t i o n h o n o u r i n g O g e l o s s o n o f M a k k a i o s in 1 9 9 ' f o r h i s h a v i n g g i v e n s a t i s f a c t i o n t h r o u g h c o n t i n u a l c o m m a n d s a g a i n s t t h e tıornades

a n d h a v i n g p r o v i d e d safety f o r t h e m e r e h a n t s

a n d t h e c a r a v a n s in ali his c a r a v a n - c o m m a n d s (synodiarchiai)\4S

A similar

s i t u a t i o n is c l e a r l y i m p l i e d b y the i n s e r i p t i o n h o n o u r i n g S o a d o s s o n o f B ö l i a d e s in T 3 2 f o r h a v i n g ' s a v c d the sytıodia

which has rccently arrived from

V o l o g a e s i a s f r o m the g r e a t d a n g e r s w h i c h t h r e a t e n e d i t ' ; a n d in f a c t , a n u n p u b l i s h c d i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m t h e t e m p l e o f A l l a t is r e p o r t e d a s r e c o r d i n g t h a t S o a d o s f o u g h t b r a v e l y a g a i n s t a b a n d o f b r i g a n d s vvho vvere t h r e a t e n i n g a caravan.46 T h i s very d i s t i n e t i v e , b u t b y its n a t u r e I i m i t e d , e v i d e n c e is h i g h l y r e v e a l i n g , vvhile i n e v i t a b l y

raising m a n y

problems.

It shovvs

both

that

groups

of

P a l m y r e n e s vvere a c t u a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d in v a r i o u s p l a c e s in the P a r t h i a n E m p i r e , n o t a b l y B a b y l o n , S p a s i n o u C h a r a x a n d V o l o g a e s i a s , a n d t h a t d i p l o m a t i c and political

relations could

be c o ı ı d u c t c d vvith s u c h p l a c e s — o n e

Palmyrene

seems t o have gone on an embassy t o King Vorod ( W R D W M L K ' ) o f Elymais, a n d a n o t h e r s e r v e d as a s a t r a p u n d e r M e e r d a t e s , k i n g o f S p a s i n o u C h a r a x (a r e g i o n vvhich e n j o y e d v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m P a r t h i a ) . 4 7 B u t vvhat o u r e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t allovv us t o g r a s p is vvhat m a y h a v e b e e n

the

c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f r e g u l a r t r a f f i c betvveen B a b y l o n i a , a n d t h e lovver r e a c h e s o f the T i g r i s - E u p h r a t c s , a n d P a l m y r a . W e c a n bc c e r t a i n t h a t a b r a n c h o f A r a m a i c vvas s p o k e n t h e r e b y t h e g e n t i l e a s w c ! l a s b y t h e Jevvish p o p u l a t i o n . B u t vve knovv a l m o s t n o t h i n g o f t h e s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f this r e g i o n ; a n d it is a t l e a s t a s l i k e l y t h a t P a l m y r e n e t r a d e s e r v e d t o r e i n f o r c e G r a e c o - R o m a n i n f l u e n c c s t h e r e , a s t h a t it t r a n s m i t t e d e l e m e n t s o f ' O r i c n t a l ' c u l t u r e t o S y r i a . T h e ( u n a n s v v e r a b l e ) q u e s t i o n o f s u c h m u t u a l i n f l u e n c e s vvill r e c u r later.48 W h a t t h e r e f c r e n c e s t o nomades

a n d ' b r i g a n d s ' d o s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t is t h a t

the P a l m y r e n e s , a s a n u r b a n s o c i e t y vvith a s e d e n t a r y p o p u l a t i o n a t t a c h e d t o it, savv a m a r k e d c o n t r a s t a n d o p p o s i t i o n betvveen t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e p e o p l e s 4 4 . C a n t i n e a u , Inv. III, n o . 1 3 . 4 5 . C a n t i n e a u , Inv. X , n o . 4 4 = SEG 4 6 . D u n a n t , Baalshamin

VII, no. 1 3 9 .

Ol, n o . 4 5 ; f a r the unpublishcd inseription, Gavvlikovvski, o p . ek.

(n.36), 168. 4 7 . C a n t i n e a u , Inv.

X , no. 1 1 4

( V o r o d ) ; 3 8 { s a t r a p ) . S e e novv t h e i n t e r e s t i n g p a p e r by

D . S . Potter; " T h e i n s e r i p t i o n 011 t h e B r o n z e H e r a k l e s f r o m M e ş e n e : V o l o g e s c s I V ' s W a r vvith R o m e a n d t h e D a t e o f T a c i t u s ' Annales",

ZPE

88 ( i 9 9 r ) , 1 7 7 , a r g u i n g t h a t t h e k i n g d o m of

M e ş e n e r e m a i n e d in a l l i a n c e vvith R o m e a f t e r T r a j a n ' s P a r t h i a n vvar. 4 8 . 1 3 . 1 belovv.

o f t h e s t e p p e . We m a y wish t o see t h e m as ' A r a b s ' , a s a n e x a m p l e , in t h e w o r d s o f the title o f R . D u s s a u d ' s m a j ö r vvork, o f t h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f A r a b s i n t o S y r i a ; 4 9 b u t o u r — a d m i t t e d l y v e r y r e s t r i c t e d — e v i d e n e e novvhere s u g g e s t s t h a t e i t h e r t h e y o r c o n t e m p o r a r y o u t s i d e r s savv t h e m in t h e s e t e r m s .

The

P a l m y r e n e s s e e m r a t h e r t o h a v e s e e n t h e m s e l v e s in o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e n o I f t h e y did indeed i d e n t i f y t h e m s e l v e s a s ' A r a b s ' , it vvas a t l e a s t a c u r i -

mades.

o u s o v e r s i g h t t h a t ' A r a b i c u s ' a p p e a r s a m o n g the v i c t o r y - t i t l e s o f V a b a l l a t h u s as E m p e r o r . 5 0 B u t o f c o u r s e t h e s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f t h e vvhole m a r g i n a l z o n e betvveen t h e s t e p p e aııd t h e c u l t i v a b l e land r e m a i n s t o b e vvritten, if it e v e r C3n b e . I t vvas, hovvever, its l o c a t i o ı ı o n t h i s z o n e a n d o n the l i m i t s o f the E m p i r e vvhich g a v e P a l m y r a its p a r t i c u l a r role, u n i q u e a m o n g p r o v i n c i a l c i t i c s , in the e x c r c i s c o f a r m e d f o r c e . It is true t h a t o t h e r G r e e k cities c a n bc f o u n d f r o n ı t i m e t o t i m e e x e r c i s i n g f o r c e a g a i n s t b a n d i t s . B u t vvhat vvas u n i q u e t o P a l m y r a vvas t h e d e p l o y m e n t o f f o r c e a n d ( a s vve savv) the m a i ı ı t c n a n c e o f p o s t s , a l o n g m a j ö r routes, u p to a distance o f several hundred kilometres f r o m the city.51 W c c a n n o t be c e r t a i n t h a t R o m a n f o r c e s , e i t h e r t h o s e s t a t i o n e d a t P a l m y r a o r o n e s d c t a c h c d f o r t h e p u r p o s e , d i d n o t s o m e t i m e s c o l l a b o r a t e in t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f o r d e r a l o n g the t r a d e - r o u t c s : in 1 3 5 a sytıodia,

after returning from

S p a s i n o u C h a r a x , p u t up a s t a t u e o f Iulius M a x i m u s , c e n t u r i o n o f a l e g i o n ( Q T R Y N ' D Y L G Y W N ' in t h e P a l m y r e n e t e x t ) . 5 ? B u t t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o i n d i c a t e t h a t R o m a n f o r c e s r e g u l a r l y g a r r i s o n e d o r p a t r o l l e d this v a s t a r c a . U n f o r t u ı ı a t e l y t h e fevv r e f e r e t ı c e s t o c o n f l i c t s vvith t h e p e o p l e s o f d i e s t e p p e and occasional inseriptions o f P a l m y r e n e officers or soldiers stationed on o r n e a r the E u p h r a t e s give u s n o i d c a a t ali o f the size o r s t r u e t u r e o f P a l m y r e n e f o r c e s . U n l i k e the d e p e n d e n t k i n g s o f t h e first c e n t u r y , the P a l m y r e n e s a r e n e v e r r e c o r d e d as s e n d i n g t h e i r ovvn f o r c e s t o aid t h e R o m a n a r m y . W e h a v e s i m p l y t o a d m i t i g n o r a n c e , vvhile n o t i n g t h a t vve h a v e relatively g o o d e v i d e n e e f o r P a l m y r e n e f o r c c s serving as p a r t o f the R o m a n a r m y in the s e c o n d c e n tury. 5 3 T h e c a r l i e s t e v i d e n e e is tvvo d i s e h a r g e - d i p l o m a s o f n o , o n c g r a n t e d t o a Palmyrene soldier called H a m a s a e u s son of Alapatha, 3nd found at Poroliss u m in D a c i a S u p e r i o r ; a n d a n o t h e r , c o n c e r n e d vvith a unit o f P a l m y r e n e a r -

4 9 . R . D u s s a u d , İm penitration

des Anıbes

en Syrie atHint l'İslam

( 1 9 5 5 ) , c h . 4.

50. 4 . 3 a b o v e . 5 1 . 3.4 a n d 4 . 1 a b o v e . 5 2 . C a n r i n c a u , Inv. X , n o . 8 x . 5 3 . T h e r e is n o satisfaccory ı r e a t m e ı ı t o f ı h e seattered a n d c o n f u s i n g e v i d e n e e f o r P a l m y r e n e unics, knovvn f r o m F g y p t , A f r i c a , D a c i a a n d (ehe C o h o r s X X P a l m y r c n o r u m ) fronı D u r a . See RE X V I I ( 1 9 3 7 ) , 1 5 4 9 - 2 5 5 2 ; F. G i l l i a m iıt Dura Papers

Final

Repnrl

V . ı U 9 5 9 ) , 2<>ff. — Roman

Army

( 1 9 8 6 ) , 2 0 7 f f . ; M . S p c i d c ! , " T h e Risc o f Ethnic U n i t s in t h e R o m a n Imperial A r m y " ,

ANRWIL3

( r 9 7 5 ) , 1 0 2 — Roman

D i p l o m a s " , in M . M . R o x a n , Roman

Army

Studies

Military

I ( 1 9 8 4 ) , 1 1 7 ; J. C . M a n n , " T h e ' P a l m y r e n e '

Diplomas

1978-1984

(1985), 217.

c h e r s i n D a c i a , a n d a l s o f o u n d in R u m a n i a . 5 4 A s w e s a w , P a l m y r e n e s o l d i e r s a n d o t h e r P a l m y r e n e s , \vhen a b r o a d , m i g h t c o n t i n u e t o h a v e t h e i r n a t i v e l a n g u a g e i n s e r i b e d ; 5 3 a n d it is s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t a t s o m c t i m e i n t h c s c c o n d c c n t u r y soldiers f r o m the unit at P o r o l i s s u m p u t up a bilingual inseription in the a g o r a o f P a l m y r a t o t h e i r c o m m a n d e r — ' e p a r c h o s (praefectus)

o f the a r c h e r s

t i o n e d in P a r o l i s s o n (sic) o f U p p e r D a c i a ' . 5 6 T h e praefectus

sta-

is l i k e l y t o h a v e

b e e n a P a l m y r e n e a l s o , a n d t h c i n s e r i p t i o n i s p r c s u m a b l y t h e \vork o f v e t e r a n s f r o m the unit. Such evidence m i g h t p e r h a p s serve to suggest that P a l m y r e n e units elsevvhere in t h c R o m a n a r m y r e t a i n e d b o t h a sense o f l o c a l i d e n t i t y and a e t i v e l i n k s vvith t h e i r n a t i v e c i t y . A P a l m y r e n e unit r e m a i n e d a t P o r o l i s s u m ar least until the reign o f D c c i u s ( 2 4 9 - 2 5 1 ) . " T h e c a r a v a n t r a d e , stili p r e s u m a b l y r e q u i r i n g t h e u s e o f f o r c e , o r a t least t h c e x c r c i s e o f p o l i ç e f u n c t i o n s , c o n t i n u e d until the s a m e p e r i o d . 5 * B u t n e i t h e r o f t h e s e tvvo c o n t r a s t c d a s p c c t s o f t h c m i l i t a r y r o l e o f

Palmyra

a n d its citizens p r o v i d e s a n y t h i n g l i k e a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f S e p t i m i u s O d e n a t h u s in

fighting

a g a i n s t P e r s i a in t h e 2 6 0 S , o r o f t h e ' e m p i r e ' e l a i m e d ,

f o r a fevv y e a r s in t h e l a t e 2 6 0 S a n d e a r l y 2 7 0 S , b y h i s vvidovv Z e n o b i a

and

h i s s o n V a b a l l a t h u s . It is in t h i s c o n t c x t , f o r t h e first t i m e , t h a t vve h e a r o f Palmyrene generals and a Palmyrene army. T h e docuınentary evidence c o m e s f r o m tvvo b i l i n g u a l i n s e r i p t i o n s p l a c c d o n c o l u m n s in t h c G r e a t C o l o n n a d e in 2 7 1 : o n e is a d d r e s s e d p o s ı h u m o u s l y t o O d e n a t h u s , ' K i n g o f K i n g s ' , a n d t h e other to Zcnobia,

'thc m o s t

illustrious and pious Q u c e n ' — i n

Palmyrene

S P T M Y ' B T Z B Y N H Y R T ' \ V Z D Q T ' M L K T ' . T h c tvvo d c d i c a n t s a r c S e p t i m i u s Z a b d a , ' c o m m a n d e r in c h i c f ' , a n d S e p t i m i u s Z a b b a i , ' c o m m a n d e r o f t h c a r m y in T a d m o r ' — S P T M Y W ' ('Scptimioi') Z B D ' R B H Y L ' R B ' W Z B Y HYL' D Y

TDMWR.

RB

W

It m a y b e t h a t t h e b r i e f c l a i m t o e m p i r e b y a ' q u c e n ' a n d h e r s o n

from

P a l m y r a did represent t h e a b o r t i v c assertion o f an ' A r a b ' or 'Syrian' n a t i o n a l i s m , b a s e d o n a c i t y vvhose s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y vvas u n l i k e t h a t o f a n y o t h e r p r o v i n c i a l c o m m u n i t y i n t h c E m p i r e . B u t u n t i l vve h a v e b e t t e r c v i d c n c c , an a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s h a s t o be e n t c r t a ı n e d a l s o g o v e r n o r {consularis

o r hypalikos)

that O d e n a t h u s vvas the

o f h i s ovvn p r o v i n c e , S y r i a P h o e n i c e , a n d

s t e p p e d i n t o a v a c u u m c r e a t e d b y P e r s i a n r a i d s a n d R o m a n c i v i l vvars. A n d t h a t t h e c o u p d ' e t a t o f h i s vvife a n d s o n b e g a n — a s V a b a l l a t h u s ' j.|. C İ L X V I , no. 68; M . M . K o v a n , Roman

Military

Diplomas

'954-1977

successive

(1978), n o . 1 7 .

55. Tcxt to n n . 3 1 - 3 4 abovc. 56. C a n ı i u e a t ı , Inu

X , n o . 7 9 = AE

( 1 9 4 7 ) , n o . 170.

T h c P a l m y r e n e t c x t has r e m a i n e d

unpublished. $7- AE { 1 9 4 4 ) , n o . 5 6 . 5 8 . T h c latest p e r s o n p r a i s c d f o r ' b r i n g i n g b a c k ' synodiai o f thc 260S, C a n t i n c a u , Inu. III, n o . 7 . C f . 4 . 3 a b o v e .

59. Cantincau, Inv. III, nos. 1 9 - 2 0 .

is Septimius V o r o d , a m a j ö r

figüre

titles clcarly s h o v v — a s a c l a i m

t o j o i n t r u l e vvith s u c c c s s i v e

Emperors,

C l a u d i u s a n d A u r e l i a n , f a r avvay in E u r o p c . T h e tvvo r o u t e s vvhich t h e i r s o l d i e r s t o o k , t o o c c u p y E g y p t a n d t o a d v a n c e a c r o s s A s i a M i n ö r , vvere p r e c i s e l y t h o s e vvhich V e s p a s i a n ' s f o r c c s h a d follovved, c x a c t l y tvvo c c n t u r i e s b e f o r e . T h e m o v e m e n t c a m e f r o m a R o m a n colonia p u b l i c l y e m p h a s i s e d their R o m a n r a n k s , as equites s u g g c s t t h a t it vvas n o t a separatist

vvhosc u p p c r c l a s s c s

a n d s e n a t o r s . 'ITıe f a c t s

m o v e m e n t , designed t o detaclı Syria,

o r t h e vvhole N e a r E a s t , f r o m R o m a n r u l e , b u t a n a b o r t i v e c l a i m t o t h e Empire.60 N o n e t h e l e s s , it vvould be p r e m a t ü r e t o c o n c l u d e

firmly

that the

brief

P a l m y r e n e ' e m p i r e ' s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d s o l e l y as a f u n e t i o n o f the s e n a t o r i a l s t a t u s a n d I m p e r i a l a m b i t i o n s o f its l e a d i n g family. F o r it s e e m s t h a t vvith its fail in 2 7 2 t h e r e d i s a p p e a r e d a l s o e v e r y t h i n g t h a t vvetu t o m a k e P a l m y r a distinetive: the P a l m y r e n e l a n g u a g e and art, a n d continued c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d a r c h i t c c t u r a l a d o r n m e n t in P a l m y r e n e stylc. Hut e v e n t h i s c o n c l u s i o n is n o t q u i t e c e r t a i n . 6 1 A s vve h a v e s e e n , the c i t y vvas n o t in f a c t d e s t r o y e d , e v e n i f p a r t o f it, i n e l u d i n g the t c m p l c o f A l l a t (vvhich vvas p r e s e r v c d , vvith s o m e a l t e r a t i o n o f its temenos),

vvas t a k e n o v e r f o r t h e castra o f t h e R o m a n g a r r i s o n . 6 2

T h e G r e a t C o l o n n a d e a n d ( a t l e a s t ) t h e t e m p l e s o f B e l , B a a l s h a m i n and A r s u stili s t o o d . It vvas a t the t e m p l e o f B a a l s h a m i n t h a t a R o m a n optio

princeps

m a d e a d c d i c a t i o n in G r c c k , a d d r e s s c d t o ' Z e u s H y p s i s t o s ' , in 3 0 2 . M o r c o v c r , f o r a t l e a s t a fevv y e a r s , P a l m y r e n e c o n t i n u e d t o b e u s e d for i n s e r i p t i o n s . O n e c o n c e r n i ı ı g t h e ' g u a r d i a n s ' ( M H D M R Y N ) o f t h e t e m p l e o f Bel d a t e s t o M a r c h 2 7 2 , s o j u s t b e f o r e t h e s i e g e by A u r e l i a n : it is vvorth n o t i n g t h a t it is d a t e d b y the p r e s i d e n e y o f a b a n q u c t i n g a s s o c i a t i o n o f H a d d u d a n , a ( R o m a n ) s e n a t ö r (SNQLTYQ',

transliterated

from

the G r e e k sunkletikos).

But a

parallel

P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n , a l s o n a m i n g I i a d u d a n a s a s e n a t ö r , s e e m s t o refer b a c k ro his p r e s i d e n e y in 2 7 2 , a n d c e r t a i n l y n a m e s the m o n t h A b ( A u g u s t ) . I t a l s o r e f e r s t o A u r e l i a n — f ' W ] R L Y N W S Q S R . T h i s i n s e r i p t i o n (vvhose d a t e is m i s s i n g ) s e e m s t h e r e f o r e t o d a t e t o 2 7 3 , a n d m i g h t in p r i n c i p l e b c later. In a n y c a s e , f r a g m e n t a r y as it is, it shovvs t h a t t h e o f f i c i a l s o f the c u l t o f Bel vvere stili f u n e t i o n i n g . 6 ' T h a t is n o t ali. A G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m t h e G r e a t C o l o n n a d e , c l c a r l y d a t e d t o the S c l c u c i d y e a r 5 9 1 , AD 2 7 9 / 2 8 0 , r e c o r d s (if r e s t o r e d by c o m p a r i 6 0 . For ı h c d e t a i l s o f this s c q u c n c c o f e v e n t s , as r c c o v c r a b l c f r o m c o n t c m p o r a r y c v i d c n c c , scc 4 . 3 a h o v c . It s h o ı ı l d h c stressed ı h a r t h e r c c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e s u c c c s s i v e r o l e s a n d s t a t u s e s of O d e n a t h u s s u g g c s r c d h e r e is h y p o t h c t i c a l ; f o r a d i f f e r e n t v i c w s c c Potter, Sibylline

Oraclc,

A p p . IV. 6 1 . It u\ıs s t a t e d m u c h t o o d c l i n i t c l y i n JJS 3 8 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 5 6 . 62. 5.1, tcxt t o n n . 2 6 - 2 7 , a b o v e . 6 3 . See M . G a \ v l i k o \ v s k i , " I n s c r i p t i o n s de P a i m y r c " , Syria temple

palmyrinien

(1973), 76-80.

48 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 407, 4 1 1 - 4 2 1 ;

Le

s o n vvith a p a r a l l e l i n s e r i p t i o n ) t h a t the phyle

o f the M a t h t h a b ö l i o i h a d h o n -

oured s o m e o n e because he h a d paid for the roofing of 'the great basilica of A r c s , the a n c e s t r a l g o d ' — t h a t i s , A r s u ; 6 4 b o t h i n s e r i p t i o n s a r e a c c o m p a n i c d by very f r a g m e n t a r y P a l m y r e n c t c x t s . N o

later Palmyrenc

inseription

is

knovvn a s y e t , a n d G r e e k o n e s a l s o b e c o m e very r a r e . E v e n s o , a p a r t f r o m t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the D i o c l e t i a n i c b a t h s , vve find in 3 2 8 a logistes,

Flavius

D i o g e n c s , c a r r y i n g o u t r e s t o r a t i o n - v v o r k o n t h e G r e a t C o l o n n a d c , 'vvith its d e c o r a t i o n ' / 5 T h e o f f i c e o f logistes

( o r curator),

originally an imperial nomi-

n a t i o n , \vas b y novv a c i t y o f f i c e . P a l m y r a novv h a d a R o m a n g a r r i s o n , attd vvas a m o d e s t p r o v i n c i a l c i t y a m o n g o t h e r s ; b u t a s a polis

( o r colonia,

as

T e t r a r c h i c m i l e s t o n e s c a l i it), it vvas stili f u n e t i o n i n g . W h a t e v e r led t o t h e disa p p e a r a n c c o f P a l m y r e n e a s t h e l a n g u a g e o f p u b l i c i n s e r i p t i o n s , it d o e s n o t s e e m t o h a v e b e e n t h e d e l i b e r a t e a n d i m m e d i a t e R o m a n r e p r e s s i o n o f a dist i n e t i v e e t h n i c identity. 64. K. As'ad and M. Gawlikowski, "Ncw Ilonorifîc inseriptions in the Great Colonnadc of Palmyra", AAAS 36-37 (1986-87), 164, nos. 7 - 8 . 65. Cantineau, Inv. III, no. 178-

CHAPTER

10 F R O M JUDAEA T O SYRİA PALAESTİNA

ıO.ı. HISTORY, RELIGION AND

Gı-OGRAPHY

In t h e c a s e o f P a l m y r a , i n s p i t e o f t h e d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s o f its s o c i a l s t r u e t u r e a r its u r b a n c h a r a c t e r , a n d t h e p u b l i c u s e o f a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e in p a r a l l e l w i t G r c c k , t h e real c o ı ı n c c t i o n betvveen culture a n d politieal a c t i o n r e m a i n s enig m a t i c . It m a y b e t h a t vve s h o u l d s e e P a l m y r a d u r i n g t h e 2 6 0 S a n d e a r l y 2 7 0 S n o t as l e a d i n g an ' A r a b ' e t h n i c m o v e m e n t against R o m e , b u t a s a R o m a n colonia

vvhose l e a d i n g c i t i z c n s vvere s e c k i n g a n I m p e r i a l r o l e f o r t h e m s e l v e s .

N o d o u b t s o f this type c a n be felt in the case o f J u d a e a . T h e e x t c n s i v e e v i d e n e e f o r t h e tvvo g r e a t J e v v i s h r e v o l t s , o f AD 66 a n d 1 3 2 , slıovvs u n a m b i g u o u s l y t h a t b o t h g a v c r i s e t o r e g i m e s vvhich vvere c l e a r l y n a t i o n a l i s t , a n d s o u g h t t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f n a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n s in i n d c p c n d e n c e f r o m R o m e . A f t e r t h e defcat o f the second revolt, in 3 3 5 , the e x p r e s s i o n o f Jevvish identity n e v e r a g a i n , in t h e p e r i o d u p t o 3 3 7 , t o o k t h e f o r m o f a n a r m e d u p r i s i n g .

Nor

i n d e e d vvas it a b l e t o d e p e n d o n a n y v i s i b l e p o l i t i e a l s t r u e t u r e o r o n a n y d i s tinctively Jevvish u r b a n or t e r r i t o r i a l institutions. T h e e m c r g e n c e o f a d y n a s t y o f Jevvish T a t r i a r c h s ' b e c o m e s v i s i b l e t o e x t e r ı ı a l o b s e r v e r s , a n d fiııds r e f l e c t i o n in t h e d o c u m e n t a r y r c c o r d , o n l y i n t h e t h i r d a n d f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s ; a n d i n a n y c a s e t h e real povvers o f t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n r e m a i n v e r y u n c c r t a i n . It i n n o vvay d i s p l a c e d t h e s t r u e t u r e e i t h e r o f R o m a n p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n m e n t o r o f t h e cities o f the region. T h e f a c t t h a t t h c r c vvas a J e v v i s h i d e n t i t y vvhich vvas a b l e t o m a i n t a i n i t s e l f through a series o f very drastic c h a n g e s of politieal s t r u e t u r e — a n d even, a s vve vvill s e e , o f g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n a n d p a t t e r n s o f s e t t l e m e n t — v v a s a f u n e t i o n o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s o m e t h i n g t o vvhich n o n e o f t h e o t h e r e t h n i c g r o u p s in t h e N e a r F a s t p o s s e s s e d a n y e q u i v a l e n t : t h e B i b l e . I 3 3 7

1

It is a t y p i c a l p a r a d o x t h a t it s h o u l d h a v e bcetı J o s e p h u s , vvriting in R o m e in G r e e k a s a p r o t e e t e d f a v o u r i t e o f the F l a v i a ı ı d y n a s t y , w h o g a v e the m o s t v i g o r o u s a n d defiant e x p r e s s i o n o f the m e a n i n g o f the B i b l c f o r Jevvs: O u r b o o k s , those vvhich a r e justly a c c r e d i t e d , a r e but tvvo and tvventy, and c o n t a in the record o f ali time. O f these, five are the b o o k s of M o s c s , c o m p r i s i n g the lavvs and t h e traditional history from rhc birth o f m a n dovvn t o the d e a t h o f the lavvgivcr. T h i s period falls o n l y a little s h o r t o f three thousand years. F r o m the death o f M o s e s until A r t a x e r x e s , vvho succeeded X e r x e s as king o f Persia, the p r o p h e t s s u b s e q u c n t t o M o s c s vvrote the history o f the events of their ovvn times in thirteen b o o k s . T h e remaining four b o o k s c o n t a i n hymns t o G o d and precepts f o r the c o n d u c t o f h u m a n life . . . F r o m A r t a x e r x e s to o u r ovvn time the c o m p l e t e h i s t o r y h a s been vvritten, but has not been d e e m c d vvorrhy o f c q u a l eredit vvith the earlicr reeords, b c c a u s e o f the failure o f the e x a c t succession o f the prophets . . . W e have given practical p r o o f o f o u r revcreıtce for o u r ovvn Scriptures. For, although s u c h long ages h a v e novv passed, no o n c has v e n tured either t o add, o r t o r c m o v c , o r t o altcr a syllabie; and it is a n instinet vvith every Jevv, from the d a y o f his birth, t o regard them as decrees o f G o d , t o abide by t h e m , a n d , i f need be, cheerfully t o die for t h e m . i l m e and again ere novv the sight h a s been vvitnessed of prisoners enduring t o r tures and death in every f o r m in the t h e a t r e s , r a t h e r than utter a s i n g l e vvord against lavvs and t h e allied d o c u m e n t s . . . W h a t G r e e k vvould e n dure as much f o r the s a m e causc? Even to savc the entire collection o f his n a t i o n ' s vvritings from d e s t r u c t i o n h e vvould nor f a c c the smallest personal injury.'

J o s e p h u s thus makes quite explicit the position that the b o o k s o f the Bible c o n s t i t u t e d n o t o n l y t h e s o u r c e o f t h e o l o g i c a l beliefs a n d the r u l e s o f m o r a l a n d s o c i a l c o n d u c t , b u t a n a t i o n a l history. H e is o f c o u r s c avvarc t h a t this h i s t o r y vvas i n c o m p l e t e , b r c a k i n g o f f in the P e r s i a n p e r i o d ; a n d h e c v i d e n t l y did n o t c o u n t a s p a r t o f this c o r p u s o f s p e c i a l l y a u t h o r i t a n v e b o o k s t h e F i r s t B o o k o f M a c c a b e e s , vvhich h e h i m s e l f h a d used in r e - t e l l i n g t h e s t o r y o f the r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e S e l e u c i d s in t h e ı 6 o s , a n d t h e vvars dovvn t o 1 3 5 BC vvhich h a d led t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a n i n d e p e n d e n t Jevvish s t a t e . J o s e p h u s h a d d e p e n d e d o n t h e b o o k s o f the B i b l c t o c o m p o s e a n a r r a t i v e f r o m t h e C r e a t i o n t o the P e r s i a n p e r i o d ; h a d t h e n p u t the F i r s t B o o k o f M a c c a b e e s t o g e t h e r vvith vvhatever o t h e r H e l l e n i s t i c s o u r c e s h e c o u l d find; t h e n used p a r t s o f N i c o l a u s o f D a m a s c u s ' History;

a n d finally d e p l o y e d his ovvn

knovvledge o f e v e n t s f r o m vvithin a g e n e r a t i o n o f his ovvn b i r t h (in AD 3 7 / 3 8 ) .

1. J o s c p h u s , C . Apion.

I, } 8 - . m , I-oeb crans.

T h a t h a d e n a b l e d h i m t o c o m p o s e in his Antiquities

a c o m p l e t e history o f t h e

J e w i s l ı p e o p l e in G r e e k up t o t h e o u t b r e a k o f the r e v o l t in AD 66: T h e present w o r k contains t h c rccordcd history, from man's original creation ııp t o the tvvelfth year o f thc reign o f Ncro, o f thc events that hcfcll us J e w s in F.gypt, in Syria, a n d in Palestine. İt also comprises ali that vve suffered at the hands o f Assyriaııs a n d Babylonians, a n d the harsh treatmenr that vve rcccivcd from t h c Persians and M a c c d o n i a n s and after them the R o m a n s . 2 O f ali the Jevvish vvriting vvhich survives f r o m the R o m a n I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , o n l y J o s e p h u s * Antiquities

e m b o d i e s t h e c o n s c i o u s c o n c e p t i o n o f Jevvish his-

t o r y a n d c x p c r i e n c c as a c o n t i n u i t y f r o m thc C r c a t i o ı ı t o the p r e s e n t . As s u c h , it r e m a i n s isolatedj if it ever b e c a m c knovvn a n d r e a d in J u d a c a , t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e for it. As is vvell knovvn, it vvas t o be C h r i s t i a n vvriters o f the s e c o n d c c n t u r y a n d oııvvards vvho a d o p t e d a n d d e p l o y e d its vievv o f t h e greater a n t i q uity, a n d h c n c c superiority, o f Jevvish t r a d i t i o n a s against t h o s e o f G r c e c c a n d R o m e . O n t h e o t h e r side, m a n u s e r i p t s d i s c o v e r e d in the last half-century r e veal b o t h m a n y a s p e c t s o f Jevvish religious c u l t u r e in the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d vvhich J o s e p h u s ' political n a r r a t i v e incvitably passes over a n d thc c o n t i n u c d r e l e v a n c e o f these in J o s e p h u s ' li ferime. T e x t s o f Biblical b o o k s , a n d c o m m e n taries oıı t h e s e , a l o n g vvith s t r i c t l y seetarian vvorks, vvritten in Hebrevv o r A r a m a i c in t h c I lellcnistic period, vvere stili in use a t Q u m r a n in thc t i m e o f J o s e p h u s . ' Similarly, The

\Visdom

vvritten in Hebrevv

of Ben Sira (Ecdesiasticus),

a r o u n d z o o DC, vvas n e v e r t o f o r m part o f thc Hebrevv Bible, a n d vvas t o survive i n t a c t o n l y in t h c G r c e l c t r a n s l a t i o n m a d e tvvo g c ı ı c r a d o n s later. B u t vve knovv novv t h a t it did c i r c u l a t c in Hebrevv in the period o f J o s e p h u s , f o r the Hebrevv t e x t o f a b o u t five o f the fifty c h a p t e r s o f the b o o k vvas d i s c o v e r e d on M a s a d a / T h o u g h t o o m u c h s h o u l d n o t b e m a d e o f the a c c i d e n t s o f d i s c o v cry, it is stili o f g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c c t h a t the f a m o u s reflcction on thc m a i n

figures

o f B i b l i c a l h i s t o r y ( ' L e t us novv praise f a m o u s m e n . . . ' ) c o u l d be, a n d vvas, r e a d in Hebrevv in J u d a e a in t h e years leading up t o the r e v o l t . In g e n e r a l , so far a s o u r l i m i t e d knovvlcdgc g o c s , n c i t h c r t h o s e l i t e r a r y vvorks c o m p o s e d in Hebrevv o r A r a m a i c in the H e l l e n i s t i c period nor the d r a m a t i c h i s t o r y o f the M a c c a b e a n revolt a n d the H a s ı n o ı ı e a n state, vvhich h a d lasted until t h e R o m a n c o n q u c s t o f the 6 o s BC, c a m c t o b e c e n t r a l t o Jevvish 2 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

X X , 12, 1 ( 2 5 9 - 2 6 0 ) , L o e b trans.

3 . F o r a s u r v e y s e e ( î . V c r m c s , Tire

Dead

Sea Scrolls:

Qumran

in Perspectiıv

(1977); thc

I I c b r e w t c x t s a r c s u r v e y e d by E . T o v , " H c b r e w B i b l i c a l M a n u s e r i p t s f r o m t h e J u d a e a n D e s e n " , JJS 3 9 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 5, a n d t h e A r a m a i c A p o c r y p h a l t e v t s a n d B i b l i c a l v e r s i o n s ( ' t a r g u m s ' ) a r e c o l l e c t e d a n d t r a n s l a t c d in K . Beyer, Die aramdisehen

Texte

vom Tüten

Mecr

(1986), t56(f. (hence-

f o r w a r d Beyer, A T ) . 4 . Y. Y a d i n , The Ben Sira Scroll

from

Masada

( 1 9 6 5 ) ; Schürer, HJP ı H . ı ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 1 9 8 - 1 x 2 -

c o n s c i o u s n e s s in the I m p e r i a l period. A s regards the f o r m c r , the o x c e p t i o n p r o v i n g the rule is t h e b o o k o f D a n i e l , w r i t t c n in Hebrevv w i t h s c c t i o n s in A r a m a i c , vvhich h a d r c a c h c d its c s t a b l i s h e d form in the ı 6 o s . D a n i e l ' s vision o f o n e 'like a son o f m a n ' ( K B R 'N?>) vvas t o provide a c e n t r a l (if e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y e n i g m a t i c ) e l e m e n t in the p r e s e n t a t i o ı ı o f J e s u s in t h e G o s p c l s . 5 B u t it s e e m s q u i t e c e r t a i n t h a t t h e vvork vvas n o t read a s a p r o d u e t o f t h e Hellenisric period o r (in p a r t i c u l a r ) o f t h e M a c c a b e a n r e s i s t a n c c - m o v c m c n t . It presents itself as a set o f stories a n d v i s i o n s set in the B a b y l o n i a n a n d c a r l i c r Persian p e r i o d s , a n d this vvas vvhere J o s e p h u s d u l y p l a c c d it; b u t he a l s o s t r e s s e d his vievv t h a t D a n i e l , a s a p r o p h e t , h a d b e e n a b l e t o s p e a k n o t o n l y o f A n t i o c h u s K p i p h a n e s (as he in fact h a d } b u t also o f t h e c a p t u r e o f J e r u s a l e m a n d the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the T e m p l e by t h e R o m a n s . 6 A s regards t h e key m o m e n t s in t h e history o f the H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , we knovv o n l y t h a t the festival o i H a n u k k a h , m a r k i ı ı g t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f T e m p l e vvorship in 1 6 4 BC, vvas c e l e b r a t e d in t h e Imperial p e r i o d . It a p p c a r s ( a s ta enkainia—the

festival o f rcncvval) in the G o s p e l o f J o h n ( 1 0 , ız);

and Jose-

phus r e c o r d s t h a t it vvas c e l e b r a t e d f o r eight d a y s , a n d vvas c a l l e d L i g h t (phös).7 T h i s festival a l s o a p p c a r s in t h e b r i c f a n d c n i g m a t i c A r a m a i c t e x t , preserved in v a r i o u s v e r s i o n s in medieval m a n u s e r i p t s , the Megillat

Taatıit,

or

' S c r o l l o f F a s t i n g ' . " S o m e v e r s i o n o f it c e r t a i n l y g o e s b a c k t o the first c e n t u r y AÜ; listing the days o n vvhich c c l c b r a t i o n vvas duc, a n d h e n c e f a s t i n g o r m o u r n i n g vvas not in order, i t a l s o i l l u m i n a t e s t h e vvay in vvhich t h e r e c o r d o f past events c o u l d be e m b e d d e d in the a n n u a l c a l e n d a r : ' o n t h e 2.5th ( o f the m o n t h K i s l e v ) the F e a s t o f D e d i c a t i o n (for) e i g h t d a y s ' ( I I N K T ' T M N Y ' Y W M Y N ) . S o m e o f t h e o t h e r e v e n t s c c l e b r a t e d h a d a l s o c e r t a i n l y t a k e n p l a c e in the Hellenistic period:

for

i n s t a n c e the

d a y vvhen

'Antiochus the

king

( ' N T Y W K W S M L K ' ) vvas r e m o v e d f r o m J e r u s a l e m ' . F u r t h e r details a r c n o t r c l c v a n t in this c o n t e x t . İt is e n o u g h t h a t the sense o f h i s t o r y h a v i n g e v o l v e d in a significant vvay c o u l d be r e l a t e d t o the p o s t B i b l i c a l H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d a l s o . B u t b e y o n d q u e s t i o n it vvas the B i b l i c a l period itself vvhich supplied t h e c h i e f f r a m c o f r c f e r c n c c vvithin vvhich c u r r e n t events

5 . D a n i e l 7 , 1 3 . F o r t h e ' S o n o f M a n ' q u c s t i o n s e e , c . g . , G . V e r m c s , A p p . F. in M . B l a c k , A « Aramaic Gospel

Approach

to Gospels

and

Acts1

{1967).

See n o w J. A s h t o n , Understanding

the

Fourth

(1991), 337^-

6. D a n i e l is p r e s e n t e d in J o s c p l u ı s , Ant.

X , T O - I I ( 1 8 6 - 2 8 1 ) . See S c h ü r e r , H / P I I I . 1 ( ı y 8 6 ) ,

2 4 5 - 2 5 0 , a n d cf. novv G . V e r m c s , " l o s c p h i i ü ' T r e a t m c n t o f (he B o o k o f Daniel",//.S' 4 2 ( l y y ı j , J 49*

7 . Ant.

XII, 7, 7 (323-326).

8. F o r a t e x t s e e , c . g . , J. A . F i t z m y e r a n d D . J. H a r r i n g r o n , A Manual Texts

U978), no.

1 5 0 ( h e n c c f o r w a r d F i t z m y e r ; l'AT);

confident identifıcations of the events celebrated).

B c y c r , AT,

of Palestinian

354-358

AraJtuic

(widı very over-

c o u l d b c i n v e s t e d vvith m e a n i n g , o r c o n f l i c t i n g m e a ı ı i n g s . T h e r e w c r e b o u n d t o be c o n f l i c t i n g m e a n i n g s , if o n l y b e c a u s e t h e r e vvere tvvo rival c o m m u n i t i e s vvhich laid c l a i m t o t h e i n h c r i t a n c c o f t h e P c n t a t c u c h : the Jevvs a n d the S a m a r i t a n s . 9 T l ı e rival S a m a r i t a n T e m p l e o n M o u n t G e r i z i m h a d b e e n c o n s t r u c t c d in the l a t e r f o u r t h c e n t u r y DC, a n d h a d b e e n d e s t r o y e d b y J o h n H y r c a n u s in the l a t e r s e c o n d c e n t u r y . Hovv S a m a r i t a n s o f t h a t p e r i o d savv t h e m s e l v e s is e x p r c s s e d m o s t vividly b y tvvo G r c c k i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m D e l o s : 1 0 ' t h e I s r a e l i t e s . . . vvho p a y their t i t h e s t o s a c r e d ( h o l y ) A r g a r i z c i n ' . T h e real h i s t o r y , size a n d s e t t l e m e n t - p a t t e r n s o f the S a m a r i t a n c o n m ı u n i t y in S a m a r i a itself a r e a l i c x t r a o r d i n a r i l y little knovvn. In e v i d e n c e f r o m this p e r i o d vve e n c o u n t e r t h e m o n l y f r o m t h e o u t s i d e , f o r i n s t a n c c in t h e d e s e r i p t i o n in S a i n t J o h n ' s G o s p c l o f hovv J e s u s t a l k e d vvith a S a m a r i t a n vvonıan a t t h e W e l l o f J a c o b : ' O u r f a t h e r s vvorshippcd o n this m o u n t a i n ; b u t y o u s a y t h a t in J e r u s a l e m is the p l a c e vvhere o n e s h o u l d vvorship' ( J n 4 , z o ) . N o t l o n g a f t e r t h e d r a m a t i c d a t e o f this m e c t i n g P o n t i u s P i l a t u s vvas t o s e n d 3 d e t a e h m e n t o f t r o o p s t o m a s s a c r e a crovvd o f S a m a r i t a n s vvho h a d g a t h c r e d a t a village n e a r M o u n t G e r i z i m , in the h o p e o f b e i n g shovvn s a c r e d vessels d e p o s i t e d t h e r e by M o s c s . 1 1 T h r e e d e c a d e s l a t e r , in t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f the J e v v i s h r e v o l t , a l a r g e n u m b e r o f S a m a r i t a n s a g a i n g a t h c r e d o n their holy m o u n t a i n , a n d in the s u m m e r o f AD 6 7 o v e r e l e v e n thousand

vvere s l a u g h t e r e d b y f o r c e s s e n t b y V e s p a s i a n . 1 2 T h c r c a f t c r vve

h a r d l y h e a r o f t h e m a s a g r o u p t a k i n g c o m m u n a l a c t i o n , until the r e p e a t e d S a m a r i t a n r e v o l t s o f t h e l a t e E m p i r e . B u t w c h a v e t o r e c a l l t h a t t h e y vvere there, and that their presence b o t h contributcd another element t o the c o m m u n a l c o n f l i c t s vvhich m a r k e d t h i s r e g i o n , a n d i n f l u c n c e d the p r o c e s s

of

G r c c k c i t y - f o r m a t i o n t a k i n g p l a c e d u r i n g t h e E m p i r e , vvhich vvas a l s o d i s t i n e t i v e o f this a r e a . E v e n vvithin t h e Jevvish c o m m u n i t y p r o p e r , hovvever, c o n f l i c t i n g l e s s o n s c o u l d bc dravvn f r o m t h e m o d e l s p r o v i d e d by B i b l i c a l h i s t o r y . W e h a v e o n l y t o t h i n k o f the d e b a t e vvhich in 66 p r e c c d e d the c c s s a t i o n o f t h e s a c r i f i c c s in t h e T e m p l e o n b e h a l f o f t h e E m p e r o r , a n d t h u s s y m b o l i s e d the o u t b r e a k o f the r e v o l t : 1 3 vvas it o r vvas it n o t l e g i t i m a t e , in t e r m s o f h i s t o r i c a l p r e c e d e n t s , for s a c r i f i c e s t o bc a c c c p t c d f r o m G c n t i l c s ? O r , a g a i n , J o s e p h u s v v a s — s u b s e q u e n t l y a t l e a s t — t o c o m p a r e h i s ovvn r o l e in t r y i n g t o p e r s u a d e t h e d e f e n d e r s o f J e r u s a l e m t o s u r r e n d e r vvith J e r e m i a h ' s vvarnings a g a i n s t r e s i s t a n c e

to

Babylon.14 9. F o r a n i n v a l u a b l e u p - t o - d a t e s u r v e y o f w h a c little c a n be k n o v v n o f t h e S a m a r i t a n s , s c c A . D . C r o v v n (ed.), The Samaritans

(1989).

1 0 . P h . B r u n e a u , " L e s Israelites dc D e l o s et la j u i v e r i e d e l i e n n e n , BCH ı x . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

XVIII, 4 , 1

(85-87).

1 1 . J o s e p h u s , BJ III, 7 , 3 1 { 3 0 7 - 3 > 5 )• 1 3 . J o s e p h u s , BJ II, 17, 1 - 4 ( 4 0 9 - 4 1 7 ) . T 4 . S c c D . D a u b c , " T y p o l o g y in J o s e p h u s " , JJS 3 1 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , 1 8 .

106 (1981), 465.

B u t o f c o u r s e the m o s t p r o f o u n d t e s t i m o n y t o the r o l e o f B i b l i c a l h i s t o r y in the s h a p i n g o f p o p u l a r r e l i g i o u s c o n s c i o u s n e s s is p r o v i d e d by t h e G o s p e l s . F o r , a l t h o u g h w c c a n n o t s t a t e w h c n , w h c r e , by w h o m o r for w h o m a n y o n c o f t h e m vvas vvritten, it is b e y o n d q u c s t i o n t h a t t h e y e m e r g e d o u t o f t h c s a m e vvorld, t h e Jevvish life o f G a l i l e e , J u d a e a a n d J e r u s a l e m i t s e l f , a s d o t h e vvorks o f J o s e p h u s . i n d e e d t h o s e v v o r k s o f J o s e p h u s , vvritten f a r avvay in R o m e b e tvveen t h c 70S a n d the 90S, p r o v i d e t h e e s s e n t i a l s t a r t i n g - p o i n t f o r ali d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e G o s p e l s . F o r t h e y a r e r o o t e d in J o s e p h u s ' e x p e r i e n c c o f a vvorld vvhich h a d by t h e n d i s a p p e a r e d : t h a t o f the s e l f - g o v e r n i n g Jevvish c o m m u n i t y of J e r u s a l e m , thc Temple a n d thc High Priests, the high-pricstly families,

thc

S a n h e d r i n ' , a n d g r e a t crovvd s c o m i n g f o r the m a j ö r f e s t i v a l s . B u t t h e r e w a s a l s o a n o t h e r vvorld vvhich vvas stili t h e r e , b u t f r o m vvhich h e vvas novv c u t o f f : t h a t o f t h c villages a n d s m a l l tovvns o f t h e Jevvish r e g i o n , G a l i l e e a n c its n e i g h b o u r i n g t e r r i t o r i e s a b o v e ali. T h e vvorld vvhich t h c G o s p e l s reflect is p r c c i s e l y t h e s a m e a s t h a t vvhich J o s e p h u s c x p c r i c n c e d , b u t a s it vvas in t h e d c c a d c b e f o r e his b i r t h , vvhen G a l i lee vvas stili p a r t o f t h e t e t r a r e h y o f H e r o d e s A n t i p a s . 1 5 T h e f a c t t h a t t h e y d o g e n u i n e l y reflect t h i s vvorld vvith its s o c i a l d i v i s i o n s a n d its r e l i g i o u s d i s p u t e s , as it vvas in t h c 20S a n d 30S, d o e s n o t m c a n t h a t t h e y vvere vvritten e i t h e r tîıere o r t h e n . B u t t h e y r e m a i n a u t h o r i t a t i v e t e s t i m o n y t o the c o n c e r n s , a n d the h i s t o r i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , o f Jevvish s o c i e t y , in G a l i l e e a n d J e r u s a l e m a b o v e ali, b e f o r e t h c fail o f t h c T e m p l e : It h a p p e n e d that o n the S a b b a t h h e vvas going through the corn-fields, a n d his disciples b e g a n , as t h e y vvent a l o n g , t o p l u c k thc ears o f c o r n ; s o t h e Pharisees said t o hım, ' L o o k , w h y a r c they doing vvhat is not permitted o n the S a b b a t h ? H e said t o t h e m , ' H a v e you never read vvhat David did w h e n he vvas in need and vvas hungry, b o t h h c and his follovvers? Hovv he eııtered the H o u s e o f G o d vvhen A b i a t h a s vvas High Priest and a t e t h c Shcvvbrcad, vvhich n o o n e is allovved t o eat e x c e p t the Priests, and gave it to his companions?1* T h e G o s p e l s p r o v i d e a n e x t r e m e l y vivid, a n d in g e o g r a p h i c a l t e r m s q u i t e c x t c n s i v c , vicvv o f vvhat t h c a r c a o f Jevvish s e t t l e m e n t vvas in J e s u s ' t i m e : J u d a e a itself, t h a t is, the h i l l - c o u n t r y r o u n d J e r u s a l e m ; J e r i c h o a n d t h c J o r d a n Valley, vvhere t h c P c r a e a , r u l c d by I l c r o d c s A n t i p a s , p e r h a p s s t r e t e h e d m o s t o f t h c vvay up t h c very s t e e p o p p o s i t c s i d e o f t h e valley, t o t h c e d g e o f the J o r d a ı ı i a n p l a t e a u ; s o m e o f t h e e a s t e r n side o f the D e a d S e a , a s f a r s o u t h as H e r o d e s ' f o r t r e s s a t M a c h a e r u s , vvhere J o h n the B a p t i s t vvas e x e c u t e d ; and G a l i l e e , s e p a r a t e d f r o m J u d a e a by the a r e a o f S a m a r i t a n s e t t l e m e n t . T h e G o s 1 5 . See 2 . 2 a b o v c . 1 6 . M k 2, 2 3 - 2 6 .

p c l s a l s o f a i t h f u l l y reflect ı l ı e f a c t t h a t t h e r e w a s n o c l e a r b o u n d a r y betvveen Jevvish a n d g e n t i l e s e t t l e m e n t e i t h e r eastvvards, in P c r a c a a n d G a u l a n i t i s , o r in the t e r r i t o r y o f C a e s a r e a P a n i a s , f o u n d e d b y the t e t r a r c h P h i l i p ; o r n o r t h vvestvvards i n t o t h e t e r r i t o r y o f T y r e a n d S i d o n . B u t t h e y m a k e n o m e n t i o n o f the e s t a b l i s h e d G r e e k c i t ) ' o f S c y t h o p o l i s , s i t u a t e d in the P l a i n o f J c z r e e l s o u t h o f G a l i l e e , o r o f t h e nevvly f o u n d e d g e n t i l e c i t y o f S e b a s t e , p l a c e d b y H e r o d o n the s i t e o f the a n c i e n t I s r a e l i t e c a p i t a l o f S a m a r i a ; a n d e v e n t h e m i x e d g e n t i l e a n d Jevvish c i t y o f T i b e r i a s , f o u t ı d e d b y H e r o d c s A n t i p a s o n the s h o r e o f t h e S e a o f G a l i l e e , is o n l y m e n t i o n e d o n c e , as a g c o g r a p h i c a l p o i n t o f r e f e r c n c c ( J n 6 , 2 3 ) . S e p p h o r i s , a l s o vvith a ı n i x e d g e n t i l e a n d Jevvish p o p u l a t i o n , a n d s i t u a t e d o n l y a fevv k i l o m e t ı e s f r o m N a z a r e t h , finds n o m e n t i o n a t a l i . 1 7 As vvas d e m o n s t r a t e d by p o p u l a r r e a c t i o n s o n b o t h sides vvhen t h e Jevvish r e v o l t b r o k e o u t in 6 6 , Jevvish c o m m u n i t i e s vvere a l s o f o u n d in a vvide p e n u m b r a o f c i t i e s a r o u n d J u d a e a , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e o f P h o e n i c i a , as vvell as D a m a s c u s a n d t h e D c c a p o l i s . S o n o p r c c i s c l i m i t s o f Jevvish s e t t l e m e n t c a n be dravvn. N o n e t h e l e s s it is i m p o r t a n t t o s t r e s s t h e s u b s t a n t i a l Jevvish p r e s e n c e in tvvo a r e a s vvhich the G o s p e l n a r r a t i v e s d o n o t t o u c h : the c o a s t a l plain f r o m P t o l e m a i s s o u t h v v a r d s t h r o u g h H e r o d ' s nevv c i t y o f C a e s a r e a a t l e a s t as f a r a s A s c a l o n ; a n d I d u m a e a ( f r o m vvhich, hovvever, follovvers c o m e t o h e a r J e s u s , M k 3 , 8 ) . O c c a s i o n a l o u t b r e a k s o f c o n f l i c t betvveen Jevvs a n d g e n t i l e s , s u c h as vve h a v e a l r e a d y seen a t D o r a ( a p p a r e n t l y the s o u t h e r n m o s t c i t y in the p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a ) , 1 8 o r e v e n r e a l l y m a j o r c o n f i i c t s , s u c h as t h a t in C a e s a r e a in t h e 6 o s AD, 1 9 vvere p e r f e c t l y c o m p a t i b l e vvith c o - e x i s t e n c e in n o r m a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a n d vvith Jevvish p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the p o l i t i c s a n d o f f i c e - h o l d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a ' G r e e k c i t y ' ; t h e r e is n o r c a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t Jevvs a n d g e n t i l e s r e p r e s e n t e d s e p a r a t e c o m m u n i t i e s in a n y f o r m a l o r c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s e n s e . 2 0 In s o m e cities t h e r e m i g h t be a m a j o r i t y o f Jevvs, vvith a g e n t i l e m i n o r i t y . P h i l o , a d i r e c t l y c o n t e m p o r a r y vvitness, r e e o r d s this f o r l a m n i a , i f in v e r y p r e j u d i c i a l t e r m s : ' l a m n i a , o n e o f the l a r g e s t c i t i e s in J u d a e a , h a s a m i x e d p o p u l a t i o n , t h e m a j o r i t y b e i n g Jevvs a n d t h e r e s t g e n t i l e s vvho h a v e vvormed t h e i r vvay in f r o m n e i g h b o u r i n g c o u n t r i e s ' . H e g o e s o n t o r e l a t e hovv t h e g e n t i l e s t h e r e , h e a r i n g o f t h e i m p o r t a n c c vvhich the E m p e r o r G a i u s ( 3 7 - 4 r ) a t t a c h e d t o vvors h i p o f h i m s e l f , e r e e t e d a n a l t a r { t o t h e E m p e r o r , a s is i m p l i e d ) , vvhich the Jevvs t h e n p u l l e d dovvn. 2 1 P h i l o h a s in f a c t a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y r e v e r s e d the h i s t o r y o f t h e b a l a n c e o f p o p u l a t i o n t h e r e . l a m n i a h a d p r o b a b l y h a d n o significant Jcvv17. Scc 10.3 belovv. «8. 8.1 above. 1 9 . i o . i belovv.

10. I vvould not acccpt this presunıption, vvhich lies behind the valuable article of S. Applcbaum, "The Status of Jaffa in the First Century of the Current Era", SCı 8 - 9 (1985-86), r } 8 . 21. Philo, Legatio 30/200-202, trans. E. M. Smallvvood.

ish p o p u l a t i o n until t h e l a t e H e l l e n i s t i e p e r i o d . B u t , a s t h e p l a c e t o w h i c h the f a m o u s r a b b i J o h a n a n ben Z a k k a i w a s r e c o r d c d t o h a v e r e s o r t e d d u r i n g the g r e a t r e v o l t , it w a s , under

its l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d S e m i t i c n a m e

of

Iabneh

( Y B N H ) , t o h a v e a c e n t r a l p l a c e in the t r a d i d o n a l s t o r y o f t h e e m c r g e n c e o f r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m . " O t h e r p l a c e s in the plain a l s o s e e m t o h a v e b e e n p r e d o m i nantly, o r a l m o s t w h o l l y , Je\vish: in a tclling detail, J o s e p h u s r e c o r d s t h a t in t h e a u t u m n o f 66, C e s t i u s G a l l u s w a s a b l e t o t a k e t h e city (polis)

o f Lydda

u n o p p o s e d , b e c a u s e the vvhole p o p u l a t i o n h a d g o n e up t o J e r u s a l e m f o r the fcast o f Tabernacles.23 B u t t h e t e r r i t o r y vvhose p o p u l a t i o n s u b s c r i b e d t o J u d a i s m a n d vvorshipped a t t h e T e m p l e o f J e r u s a l e m novv s t r e t e h e d c o n s i d e r a b l y f a r t h e r s o u t h , n o t o n l y in t h e a r e a vvhere t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n s h a d e s o f f i n t o t h e Negev, b u t dovvn : h c full e x t e n t o f t h e J u d a e a n hills, t o a line r o u g h l y betvveen B e e r s h e v a a n d a p o i n t a fevv k i l o m e t r e s n o r t h o f t h e s o u t h e n d o f the D e a d S e a . A g a i n , precise b o u n d a r i e s c a n n o t b e e s t a b l i s h e d , a n d t h e r e vvere p r o b a b l y n o s u b s t a n t i a l p l a c c s in t h e entire region vvhere t h e p o p u l a t i o n vvas c i t h c r vvholly Jevvish o r vvholly gentile. B u t it is o f t h e g r e a t e s t s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e entire r e l i g i o u s and c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f J u d a e a t h a t t h e r e vvere novv m a j ö r Jevvish c e n t r e s in : h e h i l l - c o u n t r y s o u t h o f J e r u s a l e m : I l e r o d i o n , vvhere I l c r o d c r c a t e d a p a l a c c , vvhich vvould a l s o s e r v e as h i s m o n u m e n t a l t o m b ; F.ngeddi, beside the D e a d S e a ; M a s a d a , H e r o d ' s g r e a t f o r t r e s s a l m o s t a t the s o u t h e n d o f the D e a d S e a ; a n d H e b r o n , vvhere it vvas ( a s it s e e m s ) a g a i n H e r o d vvho built the m o n u m e n tal shrine vvhich e n e l o s e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t o m b s o f the P a t r i a r c h s in t h e C a v e o f M a c h p e l a h . J o s e p h u s lists b o t h H e r o d i o n a n d E n g e d d i as places a f t e r vvhich districts, o r ' t o p a r c h i e s ' , vvere n a m e d ; a n d he lists a n o t h e r ' t o p a r e h y * by the less specific n a m e o f I d u m a e a . 2 4 Its c e n t r a l p o i n t vvas p e r h a p s B a i t o g a bra ( B e t h G u v r i n ) , vvhich u n d e r S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s vvas t o b e c o m e t h e G r e e k city o f E l e u t h e r o p o l i s . T h e c x t c n s i o n o f a s u b s t a n t i a l Jevvish p r c s c n c c i n t o t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n , vvhere t h e r e s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n n o n e in the t i m e o f the M a c c a b e e s in ıhe s e c o n d c e n t u r y DC, h a d b e e n a p r o d u e t o f the e x p a n s i o n o f the H a s m o n e a n s t a t e , a n d then o f t h e rule o f H e r o d t h e G r e a t , a n d vvill have o c c u r r c d by s t a g e s vvhich c a n n o t novv be t r a c e d . B u t t h e c x i s t c n c c o f a large, esscntîally r u r a l , p o p u l a t i o n vvhich s u b s c r i b e d t o J u d a i s m , a n d l o o k e d t o J e r u s a l e m , in b o t h I d u m a e a a n d G a l i l e e vvas a p r o d u e t o f m u c h m o r e specific c i r c u m s t a n c e s in the H e l l e n i s t i e p e r i o d . It is p r o b a b l e in t h e c a s e o f b o t h a r e a s t h a t the c x t e n sion o f J u d a i s m h a d o c c u r r e d n o t by e m i g r a t i o n (vvhich n o d o u b t t o o k p l a c c a l s o ) , b u t b y t h e f o r c i b l c c o n v c r s i o n o f the e x i s r i n g p o p u l a t i o n . I n t h e c a s e o f 22. Scc Schürcr, HJP I, 515-526, and II, 109-110. 23. Josephus, BJ D, 19, 2 (515). 2 4 . J o s e p h u s , BJ III, 3 , 5 ( 5 4 - 5 5 ) -

G a l i l e e this s e e m s to h a v e been c a r r i e d o u t by A r i s t o b u l u s I in 1 0 4 / 1 0 3 BC, a t t h e m o m e n t vvhen hc is c x p l i c i c l y d e s c r i b e d a s a p p l y i n g t h e s a m e p r o c e d u r c to the Ituraeans. 2 4 In the c a s e of I d u m a e a , this h a d a l r e a d y been d o n e b y J o h ı ı H y r c a n u s a f c w y e a r s carlicr, v v h e n he is d e s c r i b e d a s h a v i n g c a p t u r c d t h e tovvns of A d o r a a n d M a r i s a , a n d as h a v i n g c o m p e l l e d the I d u m a e a n s e i t h e r t o u n d e r g o c i r c u m c i s i o n a n d a c c e p t t h e Jevvish lavvs o r to Icavc. 2 6 N a t u r a l l y , vve m u s t allovv f o r m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x l o n g - t e r m p r o c e s s c s , a n d f o r t h e c o n t i n u e d p r e s e n c e of a m i x e d p o p u l a t i o n in t h e s e areas, a s elsevvherc. W h a t r o l e vvas p l a y e d by v o l u n t a r y p r o s c l y t i s m , o v e r a l o n g e r p e r i o d , it is i m p o s s i b l e t o say. W e s h o u l d n o t fail t o g r a s p t h e i m m e n s e historical s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h a t p r o c c s s o f the J u d a i s a t i o n o f t h e s e very large rural p o p u l a t i o n s vvhich is (at least) s y m b o l i s c d b y t h e s e n a r r a t i v e a i l u s i o n s . H e r o d ' s father, A n t i p a t e r , h a d been a n I d u m a c a n Jevv (his m o t h e r c a m e f r o m N a b a t a e a ) . In the great r e v o l t o f 66 ' t h e I d u m a e a n s ' , t h o u g h d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y J o s e p h u s as a s e p a r a t e g r o u p a m o n g the v a r i o u s p a r t i c i p a n t s o n t h e Jevvish side, c o n t r i b u t e d a c o n s i d c r a b l c p r o p o r t i o n of t h e Jevvish f o r c e s b o t h in their ovvn region a n d , f r o m 6 8 011vvards, in J e r u s a l e m . A c c o r d i n g t o J o s e p h u s , a f o r c e of t w e n t y t h o u s a n d m e n vvas c o l l e c t c d in I d u m a e a a n d vvas b r o u g h t to J e r u s a l e m , p l a y i n g a c e n t r a l role f r o m then o n , n o t least i n t h e brutal internal c o n f l i c t s vvhich m a r k e d the resistance. 2 7 Later in the s a m e y e a r V e s p a s i a n m a r e h e d i n t o t h e heart o f I d u m a e a , t o o k tvvo v i l l a g c s , ' B e t o b r i s ' (Beth G u v r i n ? ) a n d

'Caphartoba',

killed, s o J o s e p h u s says, t e n t h o u s a n d of their i n h a b i t a n t s , i m p r i s o n e d o n e t h o u s a n d a n d e x p e l l e d t h e rest, a n d left g a r r i s o n s thcrc. 2 8 F u r t h e r d e t a i l s a r e n o t n c e d e d . It is e n o u g h to r c c a l l t h a t t h e last fortress h e l d by t h e r e s i s t a n c e vvas M a s a d a , in t h e south-east c o r n e r o f I d u m a e a , in territory vvhich tvvo c e n turics earlier h a d been firmly p a g a n . In the n e x t g r e a t r e v o l t , t h e vvar o f ' B a r K o c h b a ' in 1 3 2 - 1 3 5 , a s i m i l a r pattern is e v e n elearer. F r o m t h e little t h a t o u r f r a g m e n t a r y e v i d e n e e allovvs us to s e c ( a n d it h a s t o be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t m o s t of o u r d o c u m e n t s ovve t h e i r s u r v i v a l to h a v i n g been buried i n c a v c s in just this m o u n t a i n o u s area vvest o f the D e a d Sea), t h e region in vvhich the r e b e l state o p e r a t e d vvas t h e s a m e o n e , betvveen t h e D e a d Sea o n t h e e a s t a n d Bcthcr a n d H c r o d i o n to t h e north-vvest of H e b r o n . T h e k n o v v n lıoards o f t h e c o i n s s t r u c k by the rebel state teli t h e s a m e story, a n d in f a c t eluster a r o u n d H e b r o n . 2 9 2 5 . Schürer, HJPI,

217-218.

16. S c h ü r e r , 2 0 7 . F o r a clccaılcd d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s p h a s e , a t t e m p t i n g t o d i s p r o v c t h e e l e m e n t o f coercirtiı, s c c A . K a s h e r \ J e w s , Idumaeans

and Ancient

Arabs

2 7 . J o s e p h u s , BJ IV, 4 , ı - ı ( 2 3 1 - 2 3 5 ) , a n d K a s h e r , o p . cit.,

(1988), ch. 3. zı^ff.

2 8 . BJ I V , 7 , 6 ( 4 4 6 - 4 4 8 ) . 1 9 . L . M i l d e n b c r g , The

Coinagc

of the

Bar Kokbba

a n d finds); 83 ( l o c a l i t i e s m e n t i o n e d i n t h e d o c u m e n t s ) .

\Var ( 1 9 8 4 ) , 5 3 ( m a p o f c o i n h o a r d s

Hovvever d r a s l i c vvere t h c a f t e r - c f f c c t s o f t h c vvar, on v v h i c h — a s r e g a r d s this a r c a — v v e h a v e n o i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e y vvere n o t sufficient t o d i s r u p t the c o n t i n u i t y o f Jevvish r u r a l , o r village, s e t t l e m e n t in I d u m a e a . H e r e t o o w e ovve a series o f vivid i f r a n d o m s n a p s h o t s o f p a t t e r n s o f s e t t l e m e n t t o thc o f E u s e b i u s , refleeting thc s i t u a t i o n a t the end o f t h c third c e n -

Onomasticon

tury. F o r h c happens t o list a series o f places here, e a c h o f vvhich h e deseribes as 'a very large village (kötne)

o f Jevvs': A n a i a , s o u t h o f H e b r o n ; E n g e d d i ; and

E r e m m ö n , T h a l a and I c t t a , a l i l o c a t e d t o the s o u t h o f E l c u t h e r o p o l i s . 3 0 T h c l o n g - t e r m s i g n i f i c a n c c o f ( a p p a r c n t l y ) f o r c c d J u d a i s a t i o n here in the l a t e H e l l e n i s t i c period c a n , hovvever, in n o vvay s t a n d c o m p a r i s o n vvith that in t h c c a s e o f G a l i l e e . F o r it vvas in the (novv) Jevvish villages a n d s m a l l tovvns o f G a l i l e e , vvith their s y n a g o g u e s , t h a t a nevv i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f J u d a i s m a n d t h c m e a n i n g o f B i b l i c a l p r o p h e c y vvas p r e a c h e d by J e s u s o f N a z a r e t h . 3 1 T l ı e f a c t vvas c v i d c n t l y r e g a r d e d b y o b s e r v e r s as p a r a d o x i c a l in m o r e t h a n o n e v v a y — t h e first o f vvhich vvas t h a t G a l i l e e , vvith n o significant B i b l i c a l a s s o c a t i o n s , vvas c n t i r c l y t h c vvrong p l a c c f o r J c s u s t o c o m e f r o m : " ' A n d t h e y s a . d , " S u r e l y the Christos

d o e s n o t c o m e f r o m G a l i l e e ? H a s n o t S c r i p t u r e said that

it is f r o m thc seed o f D a v i d * a n d f r o m B e t h l e h e m , the village vvhere David vvas, t h a t the Christos

comes?*"

I lovvevcr c o m p l c x vvere t h e different a s s o c i a t i o n s o f the idea o f a ı ı o i n t m e n t , a n d hovvever v a r i e d t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f a c o m i ı ı g ' a t ı o i n t e d o n e * , o r M e s s i a h ( M S Y ' ) , it is i n d i s p u t a b l e t h a t the earliest C h r i s t i a n s b o t h relared these c x p c c t a t i o n s t o J c s u s a n d b c l i e v c d , as Paul d i d , t h a t he c a m e ' f r o m dıe sced o f D a v i d ' . 3 3 H e n c e t h e r e a r o s e t h e tvvo c o n t r a d i c t o r y b i r t h - n a r r a t i v e s vvhich the G o s p e l s offer, b o t h d c s i g n e d t o shovv hovv J e s u s vvill n o n e t l ı c l c s s in fact h a v e c o m e f r o m ' B e t h l e h e m o f J u d a c a ' . O n e , t h a t o f L u k c , is a historical impossibility, m a k i n g use o f t h e t r a u m a t i c m e m o r y o f t h e first R o m a n c e n s u s o f J u d a e a in AD 6 . " T l ı e o t h e r , t h a t o f Mattlıevv, m a k e s m o r e plausible u s e o f thc s u c c c s s i o ı ı o f rulers in J u d a c a a n d G a l i l c c in t h c y e a r s c o n c e r n e d ; a n d b o t h provide g e n c a l o g i c s (vvholly d i f f e r e n t ) l i n k i n g J e s u s t o King D a v i d . " T h a t the n o t i o n o f a n o i n t m e ı ı t vvas c e n t r a l t o t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y p e r c e p t i o n o f J e s u s is

3 0 . Oıtom.

16,9

( A n a i a ) ; 8 6 , 2 9 ( E n g e d d i ) ; 8 8 , 1 7 ( E r e m m ö n ) ; 9 8 , 1 6 ( T h a l a ) ; 1 0 S , 8 (lerta).

S e e M . A v i Y o n a l ı , Thc }eu>s uf Palestine

(1976), 16.

3 1 . For s y n a g o g ı ı c s , vvhere p r c a c h i ı ı g , u s u a l l y f o l l o w i n g a r e a d i n g o f t h e Lavv, t a k e s p l a c c o n t h c S a b b a t h , s c c , c . g . , M k 1 , ı r ( C a p c r n a u m ) ; 6, 2 ( N a z a r e t h ) . 3 1 . Jn 7 . 4 » " 4 3 3 3 . Romans

1 , 2 . F o r f h c a n c i e n t c v i d c n c c o n tlıe v a r i c t i c s o f M e s s i a n i c e x p c c t a t i o n , see

Schilrcr, HJP III < 1 9 7 9 ) . 4 R 8 f f . S e c a l s o J . N c u s n c r , W . S . G r c c n a n d E . Frcriclıs (cds.), and Their

Messiabs

at the Turn of the Christian

Judanms

F.ra ( 1 9 8 7 ) .

34. 1.2 abovc. 35. F o r these p o i n t s , F. M i l l a r , " R c f l c c t i o n s o n t h c T r i a l s o f J e s u s " , in P. R . D a v i e s and R . T . W h i t e (cds.), A Tribute

to Geza

Vemıes

(1990), 355.

a l s o u n d e n i a b l e ; f o r vvhy else s h o u l d his f o l l o w e r s h a v e a p p l i e d t o h i m a t e r m m e a n i n g ' h a v i n g b e e n a n o i n t e d w i t h o i P , vvhich h a d n o r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e c x c e p t in this c o n t e x t , a n d n o n e at ali f o r g e n t i l e s ? E q u a l l y c e n t r a l vvas t h e n o t i o n o f k i n g s h i p , vvhich vvas t o a p p e a r in I-atin, G r e e k a n d Hebrevv ( o r A r a m a i c ? ) o n t h e C r o s s : ' K i n g o f t h e Jevvs'. T h a t such a claim could be m a d e on behalf of a m a n from one of the m a n y l a r g e Jevvish villages o f G a l i l e e i s o n e sign o f the m a j o r shift in the r e l i g i o u s g e o g r a p h y o f t h e r e g i o n vvhich h a d t a k e n p l a c e s i n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e first c e n t u r y BC. W h c t h c r this s h i f t h a d b e e n the p r o d u e t p r i m a r i l y o f c m i g r a t i o n o r o f the c o n v e r s i o n , f o r c e d o r otbervvise, o f g e n t i l e s vvill n e v e r b e k n o v v n . B u t a M e s s i a l ı m i g h t p e r h a p s a l m o s t a s easily h a v e a r i s e n in a n y o n e o f t h e o t h e r , r e l a t i v e l y m a r g i n a l , Jevvish z o n e s f r o m vvhich G o s p e l s d e s e r i b e p e o p l e as coming to hear Jesus: not o n l y from Jerusalem and J u d a e a but from Idum a e a a n d a e r o s s t h e J o r d a n a n d ' a b o u t T y r e a n d S i d o n ' ; o r , in a d i f f e r e n t f o r m u l a t i o n , ' f r o m G a l i l e e aııd ( t h e ) D e c a p o l i s and J e r u s a l e m a n d J u d a e a a n d b e y o n d the J o r d a n ' . 3 6 G a l i l e e vvas, hovvever, the m o s t e x t e n s i v e a n d s u r e l y the m o s t h c a v i l y p o p u l a t e d o f the v a r i o u s z o n e s o f l a r g e Jevvish villages vvhich s u r r o u n d c d J u d a e a itself. I t is a l s o by f a r the b e s t k n o v v n , p a r t l y f r o m the v e r y d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t s by J o s e p h u s o f his ovvn r o l e as the Jevvish c o m m a n d e r in G a l i l e e in 6 6 a n d 6 7 . , 7 J o s e p h u s c l a i m s t h a t h e e u r o l l e d in G a l i l e e a n a r m y o f ö v e r

100,000

y o u n g m e n , later m o d i f y i n g t h i s t o say t h a t ö v e r 6 0 , 0 0 0 vvere a c t u a l l y r c a d y for s e r v i c e . " It is n o t n e c c s s a r y t o t a k e these figures l i t e r a l l y ; b u t the i m p r e s sion

of a

dense population,

in

l a r g e villages a n d

small

tovvns,

is

not

mislcading. U n t i l rhe T e m p l e vvas d e s t r o y e d in 7 0 , ali these r e g i o n s , G a l i l e e i n e l u d e d , r e m a i n e d in e l o s e c o n t a c t vvith i t , a n d e ı ı o r m o u s n u t n b e r s m a d e the j o u r n e y up t o J e r u s a l e m for the t h r e e m a j o r festivals, P a s s o v c r , t h e F e a s t o f W c c k s , a n d T a b e r n a c l e s . P a s s o v e r vvas t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t , a n d J o s e p h u s is a b l e t o c l a i m t h a t a c a l c u l a t i o n m a d e ( a p p a r e n t l y ) in 6 6 h a d p r o d u c c d a figüre o f 2 , 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 p a r t i c i p a n t s , a s s u m i n g a n a v e r a g e o f 1 0 p e r s o n s for e a c h a n i ı n a l s a c r i f i c e d . 3 ' W e n e c d n o t c o n c e r n o u r s e l v e s vvith the a c c u r a c y o f the

figures,

vvhich m a y vveli be g r o s s l y e x a g g e r a t e d . I t is e n o u g h t o a s s e r t t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f t h e T e m p l e , t o vvhich l a r g e g r o u p s m a d e t h e i r vvay r c g u l a r l y f r o m G a l i l e e , a s f r o m elsevvhere. 4 0 İ t m a y e v e n b e t h a t t h e n o r m a l q u c s t f o r ' t h e h i s t o r i c a l 36. M k 3, 8; M u

4,15.

3 7 . S c c , c . g . , S . J. D . C ' u h c n , josephus The Historian

and His Sotiety

m Galilee

and Rome

( 1 9 7 9 ) , c h . 6; T. R a j a k ,

Josephus:

( 1 9 8 3 ) , c h . 6.

3 8 . J o s c p h u s , BJ II, 2 0 , 6 <576); 2 0 , 8 { 5 8 3 } . 3 9 . J o s c p h u s , BJ V I , 9, 3 ( 4 2 1 - 4 1 5 ) . 4 0 . F o r c x a m p l c , rhc G . ı l i l e a n p i l g r i m s a r t a c k c d b y S a m a r i t a n s in J o s c p h u s , Ani. 1 (118).

XX,

6,

J e s u s ' , by basing itself o n t h e S y n o p t i c G o s p e l s , in vvhich J e s u s g o e s t o J e r u s a lem o n l y f o r t h e final P a s s o v e r , h a s missed rhe c e n t r a l i t y o f the T e m p l e in G a l i l e a n J u d a i s m ; f o r i f vve vvere t o follovv J o h n ' s G o s p c l , the entire a c c o u n t is p a t t e r n e d a r o u n d j o u r n e y s u p t o t h e T e m p l e f o r succcssive festivals, and m u c h o f J e s u s ' p r e a c h i n g tak.es p l a c e in a n d a r o u n d J e r u s a l e m . 4 1 B u t if t h a t vicvv vvere a c c e p r e d , it vvould o n l y a c c e n t u a t c o u r c o n c c p t i o n o f vvhat m u s t h a v e b e e n the d e v a s t a t i n g e f f e c t s o f the d c s t r u c t i o n 0 6 the T e m p l e in 7 0 , a n d t h e end o f t h e H i g h P r i c s t h o o d , t h e sacrificial c u l t , a n d the m a j ö r festivals a s c o n d u c t e d a t t h e T e m p l e . W e c a n a s s u m e t h a t h o p e s o f their r e s t o r a t i o n persisted; b u t e q u a l l y n o t h i n g suggests t h a t the R o m a n s ever c o n t e m p l a t e d allovving it. R e c o g n i t i o n o f this p r o f o u n d c h a n g e vvould a l s o , hovvever, m a k e m o r e urgent t h e e n q u i r y as t o hovv, a n d t h r o u g h vvhat social institutions

and

means

of

transmission, Judaism

in

fact survived

this

catastrophe. T h e full significance o f t h e J ı ı d a i s a t i o n o f a large p o p u l a t i o n living e i t h e r in villages o r in ' G r e e k ' tovvtıs, vvhich might h a v e e i t h e r a g e n t i l e o r a Jevvish m a j o r i t y , vvas t o be seen o n l y a f t e r t h e d c f c a t o f t h e s e c o n d great r e v o l t . A f t e r t h e first revolt, vvhatever t h e c x t c n t o f d e v a s t a t i o n , o r t h e e f f e c t s o f the prese n c e o f a R o m a n l e g i o n , it s e e m s t h a t s o m e Jevvish p o p u l a t i o n p e r s i s t e d in J e r u s a l e m a n d its n e i g h b o u r h o o d . D i r c c t e v i d e n c e is a l m o s t t o t a l l y l a c k i ı ı g , b u t s u c h a b a c k g r o u n d is i m p l i c d b y t h e f a c t t h a t after 7 0 the C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y o f J e r u s a l e m is r e p o r t e d a s h a v i n g h a d a scries o f b i s h o p s o f Jevvish origin. T h e first gentile b i s h o p is r c c o r d c d o n l y a f t e r the f o u n d a t i o n o f tlıc colonia

of Aclia Capitolina.42

It is p e r h a p s n o t alvvays sufficiently c m p h a s i s c d t h a t it vvas this vvhich w a s the decisive t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n the r c l i g i o u s d e m o g r a p h y o f the H o l y L a n d in the Imperial p e r i o d . It vvas n o t m e r e l y a m a t t e r o f e n o r m o u s c a s u a l t i e s : for vvhat it is w o r t h , C a s s i u s D i o in h i s Roman

History

reports that 5 0 fortresses

a n d 9 8 5 villages vvere d e s t r o y e d , a n d 5 8 0 , 0 0 0 m e n killed in s k i r m i s h e s and battles, as vvell as c o u n t l c s s n u m b e r s b y s t a r v a t i o n , disease a n d fire.41 W h a t vvas t o b c significant vvas n o t t h a t , but the vvholesale r e p l a c c m e ı ı t o f a J c w : s h b y a g e n t i l e p o p u l a t i o n , n o t m e r e l y in t h e city o f J e r u s a l e m itself b u t in its s u r r o u n d i n g t e r r i t o r y . C h r i s t i a n vvriters vvere t o e m p h a s i s e , vvith p r o f o u n d s a t i s f a c t i o n , t h a t novv Jevvs c o u l d n o t even l o o k o n J e r u s a l e m f r o m a f a r . It m a y n o t be a c c i d e n t a l t h a t t h e tvvo knovvn c o n t e m p o r a r y e x p r e s s i o n s o f this v i e w b o t h c o m e f r o m C h r i s t i a n natives o f G r c c k citics in t h e i m m e d i a t e reg i o n : Ariston o f P e l l a , in a d i a l o g u c betvveen a C h r i s t i a n a n d a Jevv; a n d F l a v iııs Iustinus (Justin M a r t y r ) f r o m F l a v i a N e a p o l i s , in a similar vvork, his

4 1 . S o M i l l a r , o p . c i ı . (11.j s a b o v e ) . 4 i . K i s h o p s o f Jevvish o r i g i n : E u s e b i u s , IIE I V , 5 , 2 - 4 ; first g e n t i l e b i s h o p : IV, 6, 4 . 43. D i o L X X I X , 1 4 , 1.

Dia-

the Jeıv.A4 B u t , s o far as o u r c v i d c n c c g o e s , it w a s left t o

logue ıvitb Tryphon

a n o t h e r C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r f r o m the r e g i o n , E u s e b i u s o f C a e s a r e a , vvriting i n t h e early f o u r t h c e n t u r y , t o c x p l o i t t o the full t h e r h c t o r i c a l a n d d o c t r i n a l possibilitics presented by this t r a n s f o r m a t i o n : T h e r e f o r e it says this, '7,ion shall be ploughed as a fieid, and Jerusalem shall be as a storehouse o f f r u i t ' ( M t t 2 7 , 2 5 ) , a prophccy vvhich vvas only fulfillcd after the impious treatment o f our Saviour. Erom that time to this utter desolation has possessed the land; their o n c e famous M o u n t Sion, inslead o f being as o n c e it vvas, the centre of study and education based on the divine prophccies . . . is a R o m a n farm like the rest o f the country, yea vvith ray ovvn eyes I have seen the bulls plovving there, and the sacred site sovvn vvith seed . . . So Aquila says (in his Greek translatioıı of M i c a l ı ) , ' I herefore for your sake the l a n d o f Z ı o n shall bc ploughed, and Jerusalem shall be a quarry of s t o n e ' , f o r being inhabited by men o f foreign race it is even novv like a quarry, ali the inhabitants o f the city choosing stoııes from its ruins . . . And it is sad for the eyes t o s c c stones from the Temple itself, and from its ancient s a n c n ı a r y and holy place, used for the building o f idol temples a n d the theatres for the populace. 4 5 T h e r e is n o precise evidenee for w h e r e the b o u n d a r i e s o f the territory o f A e l i a C a p i t o l i n a novv lay, o r f o r vvhether t h e y c o i n c i d e d e x a c t l y vvith the z o n e vvithin vvhich J e w s c o u l d n o l o n g e r c o m e . It is a r g u e d , hovvever, t h a t r a b b i n i c evidenee reveals, negatively, seventy-five places in J u d a e a vvhich are n o l o n g e r cited as being i n h a b i t e d by Jevvs; 4 6 a n d Tertullian, vvriting at the end o f t h e s e c o n d century, a s s u m e d t h a t t h e z o n e f r o m vvhich Jevvs vvere b a n n e d i n cluded Bethlehem.47 E v e n t h o u g h vve c a n n o t t r a c e e x a c t b o u n d a r i e s , o r b e c e r t a i n hovv c o m pletely the o r i g i n a l e x p u l s i o n s vvere c a r r i c d o u t , vvhether a c c c p t a n c e o f p a g a n i s m ( o r C h r i s t i a n i t y ) m i g h t h a v e e n a b l e d Jevvs t o r e m a i n , o r vvhether e x c l u s i o n c o u l d ever h a v e b e e n r i g o r o u s l y e n f o r c e d , the essential fact is t h a t i n the a r e a routıd J e r u s a l e m a g e n t i l e p o p u l a t i o n had replaced a Jevvish o n e . T h e a r e a from vvhich Jevvs vvere novv in p r i n c i p l e e x c l u d c d represented the h c a r t o f the z o n e o f Jevvish settlement a r o u n d J e r u s a l e m , as it h a d been t h r e e c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e , on t h e eve o f t h e M a c c a b e a n r e v o l t . 4 " T h e m a j ö r c o n s e q u e n c e s o f this vvere tvvo. F i r s t , r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m a s f o r m u l a t c d in the Mishnah

vvas t o b c , like C h r i s t i a n i t y , a p r o d u e t o f t h e Jevvish

4 4 . A r i s t o n o f Pella is c i t e d b y E u s e b i u s , HE IV, read by C e l s u s , s e e O n g e n , C . Celsum 4 5 . E u s e b i u s , Dem.

f o r his Dlalogue

Ev. VIII, 3 , 1 0 - 1 2 , t r a n s . W . J. Eerrar, 'l'he Proof

4 6 . S e c M . A v i - Y o n a h , The Jews of Palestine 4 7 . T e r t u l l i a n , Adv.Jud.

of Papiscus

and

Jason,

I V , 52. O n Flavius Iustinus see c h . 6 a b o v e .

1 3 , 3.

4 8 . F o r t h a t a r c a s c c Schürer, HJPI,

of the Gospel

( 1 9 7 6 ) , 1 6 , a n d m a p , p. 1 7 .

140-142.

(1920).

villages a n d small tovvns o f G a l i l e e — a n d , as w e will see, o f t h e very s i m i l a r z o n e o f villages on the G o l a ı ı , on t h e o t h e r side o f t h e valley. W h y G a l i l e e , s o far as w e knovv, h a d played n o significant p a r t in the B a r K o c h b a revolt, and vvhy t h e Jevvish villages o f t l ı e f o r m c r I d u m a e a n z o n e play o n l y a s m a l l role in r a b b i n i c literatüre, it is n o t possible t o say. But since, as h a s been r e p e a t e d l y emphasiscd,

villages

represented

the

most

important

social

formarion

t h r o u g h o u t the R o m a n N e a r E a s t , G a l i l e e m u s t h a v e a special p l a c c in any c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f vvhat that m i g h t m c a n . F o r vvhile t h e villages o f G a l i l e e and t h e G o l a n vvere never i s o l a t c d , a n d r e m a i n e d in aetive c o n t a c t vvith t h e g e n tile, o r p r e d o m i n a n t l y g e n t i l e , cities a r o u n d t h e m — D a m a s c u s , C a e s a r e a P a n ias, S i d o n , Tyre, P t o l e m a i s , C a e s a r e a , S c y t h o p o l i s — i t vvas c s s c n t i a l l y a village society, using Ilcbrcvv, A r a m a i c a n d G r e e k , vvithin vvhich tlıe lıeritage o f t h e Bible vvas t r a n s f o r m e d b o t h i n t o t h e earliest p r e a c l ı i n g o f ' C h r i s t i a n i t y ' and i n t o the c l a s s i c a l f o n n u l a t i o n o f r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m . T h e s e c o n d c o n s c q u c n c c vvas t h a t vvhen C o n s t a n t i n e c o ı ı q u e r e d the e a s t ern p a r t o f t h e E m p i r e , a n d p r o e l a i m e d t h e r e his m i s s i o n a s a C h r i s t i a n E m peror, a l m o s t ali the m a j o r C h r i s t i a n m o n u m e n t s vvhich he i m m c d i a t e l y built in P a l e s t i n e — i n J e r u s a l e m itself, on the M o u n t o f O l i v c s a n d in B e t h l e l ı e n ı — vvere c o n s t r u c t e d vvithin vvhat vvas novv a pagan e n v i r o n m e n t . But in svveepiııg aside t h e m o n u m e n t s o f p a g a n i s m , C o n s t a n t i n e t o o m i g h t lay c l a i m t o b e h o n o u r i n g t h e sacred sites n o t o n l y o f t h e Nevv T e s t a m e n t b u t o f t h e Olci as vvcll. F o r he h i m s e l f reeords t h a t he h a d learned t h a t the o a k at M a m b r e n e a r H c b r o n , 'vvhere A b r a h a m h a d his dvvelling', vvas defilcd vvith i d o l s a n d a n altar. S o a C h r i s t i a n b a s i l i c a vvas t o b e built t h e r e , vvhich the B o r d e a u x Pilgrim o f 3 3 3 d u l y a d m i r e d . 4 9 T h o u g h c e r t a i n t y is i m p o s s i b l e , the p i l g r i m , in visiring i t , h a d p r o b a b l y a l r e a d y left t h e t e r r i t o r y o f Aelia C a p i t o l i n a ; but it vvas evidently e l o s e e n o u g h t o t h e a r e a o f p a g a n s e t t l e m e n t f o r p a g a n c u l t s t o floıırish t h e r e . A s h o r t d i s t a n c e f u r t h e r o n , the pilgrim c a m e t o H e b r o n itself a n d vvas a b l e t o a d m i r e a purely Jevvish m o n u m e n t , the r e e t a n g u l a r t o m b

(memoria)

m a d e ' o f stotıes o f vvonderful bcauty, in vvhich a r c laid A b r a h a m , I s a a c , J a c o b , S a r a h , R c b c c c a a n d L c a h ' . It vvas, r a t h e r fittingly, the last m o n u m e n t vvhich he s a w . H e vvas p r o b a b l y unavvare that it t o o represented a q u i t e r e c e n t e x pression o f religious i m p e r i a l i s m . F o r a l t h o u g h t h e B o o k o f G e n c s i s d i d i n deed r e c o r d t h a t ali these p e r s o n s h a d been buried in the C a v e o f M a c h p e l a h a t H e b r o n , t h e a r e a itself h a d been r e g a i n e d o n l y b y J u d a s M a c c a b a c u s in the ı 6 o s BC; and t h e r e e t a n g u l a r e n e l o s u r e o f 6 0 m b y 3 3 m , vvhich stili stands, h a d been built by H e r o d the G r e a t n o m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y a f t e r the p o p u l a t i o n o f the a r e a h a d t h e m s e l v e s b e c o m e Jevvish. 5 0 N o C h r i s t i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n vvas t o t a k e p l a c e h e r e until t h e s i x t h century. F o r vvhile pagan t e m p l e s c o u l d

4 9 . C o n s t a n c i n c ' s o r d e r : E u s e b i u s , V C III, 5 1 - 5 3 ; c f . itin. r e m a i n s s c c E . M a d c r , Mambre 5 0 . itin.

Burd.

Burd.

5 9 9 . F o r t h e site a n d iıs

I-II < 1 9 5 7 ) .

5 9 9 . S c c J. J c r c m i a s , Ileiligengraber

in lesu

Umtvelt

(1958), 90-94.

bc svvept avvay w i t h o u t s i g n i f i c a n t r e s i s i a n c e , the r e s i l i e n c e o f a

tradition

b a s e d o n a s a c r e d t c x t w a s a n o t h e r m a t t e r . M a j ö r \vars h a d b e e n f o u g h t b e fore the T e m p l e c o u l d be destroyed, o r J e r u s a l e m convcrtcd into Aelia C a p i t o l i n a ; b u t u n d e r C o n s t a n t i n e t h e s y m b o l i c g e s t u r e s m a d e by t h e nevvly C h r i s t i a n s t a t e w e r c c o n h n c d t o t h o s e a r e a s \vhich it itself, in a n e a r l i e r p h a s e , h a d made pagan. T h u s t h e r e w e r e t w o d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s , the p o w e r o f t r a d i t i o n a n d

the

current facts o f geography and settlement, w h y a Christian basilica was duly built a t B e t h l c h c m , w h e r c J e s u s s h o u l d h a v e b e e n b o r n , a n d it vvas b e l i e v e d t h a t h e h a d b e e n . B u t a t N a z a r e t h , the Jevvish v i l l a g e vvhere he r e a l l y h a d lived, n o C h r i s t i a n b u i l d i n g a p p e a r e d . Itı G a l i l e e t h e c o n v c r t c d Jevv, J o s c p h o f T i b e r i a s , in spite o f I m p e r i a l a u t h o r i z a t i o n , s u c c e e d e d in c o n s t r u c t i n g in h i s n a t i v e c i t y n o m o r e t h a n a s m a l l c h a p e l , in a b a t h - h o u s e vvhich h a d o n c e b e e n a t e m p l e o f H a d r i a n . O t h e r v v i s e h e e f f e c t e d n o e h a n g e in the e x i s t i n g s i t u a t i o n , vvhich vvas t h a t n o C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h c s h a d o b t r u d e d in t h i s a r e a : ' B e c a u s e ' , as K p i p h a n i u s r e l a t e s , ' o f the f a c t t h a t t h e r e a r e n e i t h e r H e l l e n e s n o r Samaritans nor Christians a m o n g them; this state of affairs, that there should bc n o non-Jevv a m o n g t h e m , is m a i n t a i n c d a b o v e ali in T i b e r i a s , in D i o c a e s a r c a vvhich is a l s o c a l l e d S e p p h o r i s , in N a / a r e t h a n d in C a p e r n a u m V Yet the n a m e s in t h i s a c c o u n t t h e m s e l v e s reflect the o t h e r distinetive f e a t u r e o f the h i s t o r y o f J u d a e a , o r ' S y r i a P a l a e s t i n a ' . O n the o n e h a n d this r e g i o n p r o v i d e s by f a r t h e m o s t c i e a r l y d e f i n e d e x a m p l e f r o m t h e vvhole o f t h e R o m a n N e a r E a s t o f the m a i n t e n a n c e o f a local t r a d i t i o n — a r c l i g i o n , c u l t u r e a n d s e t o f rules f o r p e r s o n a l o b s c r v a n c c . B u t it vvas a l s o t h e o n e vvhere first the H e r o d i a n k i n g s a n d t h e n t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r s i n t e r v e n e d m o s t d r a s t i c a l l y , f r o m the b e g i n n i n g o f t h e p e r i o d t o the e n d , t o r e s h a p e s o c i a l s t r u e t u r e s by t h e f o r m a t i o ı ı o f nevv G r a e c o - R o m a n c i t i e s .

10.2. JUDAEA B E F O R E T H E FIRST

RF.VOI.T

T h e d i s c u s s i o n vvhich follovvs vvill m a k e n o a t t e m p t t o r e - t e l l t h e n a r r a t i v e h i s t o r y o f the p r o v i n c e ; the b r o a d l i n e s , as s e e n f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f m i l i tary history and the strueture o f provincial administration, have already b e e n c x a m i n c d . 1 I t vvill, hovvever, t a k e t h e s u c c e s s i v e p e r i o d s s e p a r a t e l y , for, as h a s b e e n s e e n a b o v e , the e f f e c t s o f t h e m a j ö r c r i s e s in the h i s t o r y o f the p r o v i n c e j ı . E p i p h a n i u s , Panarion

3 0 , 4 - 1 2 (the s t o r y o f J o s c p h of T i b e r i a s ) ; t h e q u o t a t i o n is f r o m

30, r r . 1 . P a r t 1 a b o v e , p a s s i m . T h e n a r r a t i v e h i s t o r y o f J u d a e a t o A » 1 3 5 is s e t o u t i n S c h ü r c r ,

HJP

I ( 1 9 7 3 ) . F o r t h e f o l l o w i n g p e r i o d t h e n e a r e s t t o a s a t i s f a c t o r y a c c o u n t is M . A v i - Y o n a h ,

The

Jews ofPalestine

( 1 9 7 6 ) , r e i s s u e d a s The

Jeu/s under

Roman

and Byzantine

ı ı p - t o - d a t c s u r v e y o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g y s e e n o w H . - P . K u h n e n , Paliistina Zeit

{Handbuch

der ArcJjaeologie,

Art and Archaeology

in the Land

Vorderasien of Israel

in

Rule

(1984). For a n griechisch-römischer

II.2, 1 9 9 0 ) . S e e a l s o R . H a c h l i l i , Ancient

(1988).

Jeu/ish

w e r e so d r a s t i c as t o p r o d u c e r a d i c a l c h a n g e s in the c o m m u n a l g e o g r a p h y o f the a r e a . B u t in e a c h period it wiil n o t b e i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o s t a r t f r o m thc m o d e l , o r h y p o t h c s i s , o f a s h a r p c o n t r a s t betvveen G r c c k city ( a n d l a t e r R o m a n colonia)

o n thc o n e h a n d a n d Jevvish c o m m u n i t y on thc o t h e r . T h c ten-

d e n e y o f r e c e n t s e h o l a r s h i p h a s been t o deny, o r a t least t o l i m i t , the signific a n c e o f this c o n t r a s t ; t o a r g u e t h a t the e f f c c t s o f H e l l e n i s m in J u d a e a , a f t e r t h r e e h u n d r e d years, vvere so p r o f o u n d , in l a n g u a g e , c u l t u r e , o u t l o o k , a r e h i t e e t u r e a n d a r t , t h a t t h e J u d a i s m o f J u d a c a should itself b e seen a s ' H e l l e n i s t i c ' , a n d h a r d l y less so t h a n t h a t o f t h e D i a s p o r a . 2 T h e s e a r g u m e n t s c e r t a i n l y c o n t a i n very i m p o r t a n t t r u t h s : n o t m e r e l y t h e physical b u t a l s o t h e c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t o f J u d a c a vvas i a r g c l y i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l c f r o m t h a t o f a n y o t h e r p a r t o f t h c G r c c k vvorld u n d e r t h e E m p i r e . It is a f a c t o f t h e g r e a t e s t i m p o r t a n c e f o r thc carliest h i s t o r y o f C h r i s t i a n i t y t h a t it d e v e l o p e d in a city, J e r u s a l e m , in vvhich G r c c k vvas in c u r r c n t use a l o n g s i d c Hebrevv a n d A r a m a i c . ' It vvas n o t o n l y a m a t t e r o f G r e e k - s p e a k i n g Jevvs from t h e D i a s p o r a ( l i k e Sinıon f r o m C y r e n e o r P a u l f r o m T a r s o s ) vvho vvere settled in J e r u s a l e m . I f t h e t e x t s f o u n d a t Q u m r a n i n e l u d e d , a s t h e y did, a t lcast s o m e o f the b o o k s o f dıe S e p t u a g i n t , vve c a n b e c o n f i d e n t t h a t t h c B i b l e c o u l d be r e a d in G r c c k t r a n s l a t i o n elsevvhere in J u d a e a a l s o . 4 B y c o n t r a s t , a n i m p r e s s i o ı ı o f a vvholesale r e t r e a t f r o m a I l e l l e n i s c d e n v i r o n m e n t m i g h t be c r e a t e d by t h e m a s s i v e Hebrevv t e x t o f the Mishnah,

c o m p i l e d in thc e a r l i e r third c c n t u r y . B u t it is b c l i c d b y

the i n s e r i p t i o n s o f G a l i l e a n s y n a g o g u e s a n d by t h o s e o f t h e n e c r o p o l i s o f Beth S h c a r i m , vvhere m a n y r a b b i s o f t h e third a n d e a r l y f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s vvere b u r icd; in b o t h the s y n a g o g u e s a n d t h c e p i t a p h s G r e e k is frecly used a l o n g vvith Hebrevv a n d A r a m a i c . 5 T h e linguistic h i s t o r y o f t h e a r e a is t h u s highly c o m p l e x , a n d o n e o f : h c p u r p o s e s o f vvhat follovvs is p r e c i s c l y t o b r i n g o u t f r o m t h c m a s s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t a t i o n novv a v a i l a b l e hovv t h e use o f o n e l a n g u a g e o r a n o t h e r might be a m a t t e r o f m e r e c h o i c e , c o n t e x t o r c o n v e n i e n c e . N o n e t h e l e s s , t o stress t h e s e very r e a l c l c m c n t s o f a c o m m o n c u l t u r c , o f c o m p r o m i s e s a n d m u tual influences in daily life, is t o miss p r e c i s c l y vvhat is significant in t h c h i s t o r y o f this a r c a . F o r t h e Jevvs, u n l i k e ali t h e o t h e r g r o u p s in the N e a r E a s t vvhich used a S c m i t i c l a n g u a g e , did h a v e a n a t i o n a l history a n d s a c r e d t e x t in that l a n g u a g e . T h e r e vvere in f a c t i r r c d u c i b l c a r c a s o f c o n f l i c t : vvas it allovvable t o ı . S c c c s p . M . H c n g c l , The

'Hellenization'

af Judaea

in the First Century

b u t c f . L . H . F c l d m a n , " H o w M u c h H e l l e n i s m i n Jevvish P a l e s t i n e ? " , IIUCA } . F o r t h i s i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s e e M . H c n g c l , Detıveen

after Christ

(ıyly);

57 (19S6), 83.

Jesus and Paul ( 1 9 8 3 ) , c s p . c h . 1 .

4. F o r a s u r v e y o f B i b l i c a l a n d A p o c r y p h a l t e x t s in G r e e k f r o m Q u m r a n a n d t h e J u d a c a ı i D e s e r t , s e e J . A . F i t z m y c r , The Dead

Sea ScroUs:

Majör

Publications

ı ı f f . ; S c h ü r e r , HJP III. 1 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 4 8 7 - 4 8 8 . S e e novv E . T o v , The from

Nahal

Hever

(DJD

5. S e e 1 0 . 4 belovv.

VIU, 1990).

and Tuols for Study Greek

Minör

Prophets

(1977), Stroll

v v o r s h i p m o r e t h a n o n e d e i t y o r n o t , a n d vvere p h y s i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s

of

s u c h a d e i t y p c r m i s s i b l c ? A n d , f i n a l l y , t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e a r e a vvas m a r k e d b o t h by c o m m u n a l hostilities o f a s o r t vvhich c a n n o t b e paralleled elsevvhere a n d b y m a j ö r c o n f l i c t s vvith t h e R o m a n s t a t e t o v v h i c h t h e r e is a l s o n o o t h e r p a r a l lel. T h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e c o n f l i c t s b r o k e o u t m u s t c o l o u r a n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

of

t h e s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f t h e r e g i o n . H u t ' J u d a i s m a n d I i ç i l e n i s i n ' m a y b e n o t q u i te t h e r i g h t l a b e l f o r t h e c o n t r a s t s i n v o l v e d ; a t o n e l e v e l it vvas a c o n f l i c t b e t v v e e n Judaism

a n d pagatıism,

and

at

another

betvveen

Empire

and

a daim

to

liberty.6 A l t h o u g h vve vvill b e c o n c c r n c d p r i m a r i l y vvith t h e p e r i o d a f t e r t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f R o m a n d i r e c t r u l e in J u d a e a p r o p e r , in A D 6 , tvvo m a j ö r f e a t u r e s o f the p r e c e d i n g seven d e c a d e s n e e d t o b e stressed. First, t h e initial period R o m a n r u l e , in t h e 6 o s a n d 5 0 S B C , h a d b e e n m a r k e d b y t h e

of

programmatic

r e s t o r a t i o n o f a vvhole series o f G r e e k c i t i c s vvhich h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n u n d e r H a s m o n e a n rule. In J o s e p h u s ' n a r r a t i v e this p r o c e s s t a k e s the f o r m

first

of

the liberation o f these cities f r o m H a s m o n e a n rule by P o m p c y , and then

of

t h e i r r e - b u i l d i n g b y t h e p r o c o n s u l G a b i n i u s i n 5 7 - 5 5 . S i n c c vvc h a v e n o p r e cise archaeological o r other evidenee for their physical character either b e f o r e or after this m o m e n t , a n d n o d o c u m e n t a r y evidenee f o r their o p e r a t i o n

as

G r e e k c i t i e s i n t h i s p e r i o d , it vvill b e e n o u g h t o Üst t h e v a r i o u s c i t i e s m e n t i o n e d in t h e s e c o n t e x t s : R a p h i a , G a z a , A n t h e d o n , Azx>tos, l a m n i a , I o p p c , S t r a t o n o s P u r g o s ( t h e l a t e r C a e s a r e a ) , A p o l l o n i a a n d D o r a , vvhich ali l a y o n t h e c o a s t ; S a m a r i a (a f o r m e r M a c e d o n i a t ı c o l o n y , t h e later S e b a s t e ) ; a n d H i p p o s ,

Ga-

d a r a , D i o n a n d P e l l a , vvhich b e l o n g e d t o t h e ' D e c a p o l i s ' o n t h e o t h e r side o f t h e J o r d a n . H o v v c v c r l i t t l e vvc k n o v v a b o u t t h e i m m e d i a t e c f f c c t s o f t h e s e g c s t u r e s , as

g e s t u r e s t h e y vvere t o b e o f g r e a t

importance.

Roman

rule

vvas

t h e r e b y a s s o c i a t e d vvith t l ı c r i g h t s o f G r e e k c i t i e s ; a n d t h e c i t i e s t h e m s e l v e s , b y a d o p t i n g e r a s , s u b s e q u c n t l y u s e d o n t h e i r c o i n a g c , vvhich vvent b a c k

to

t h i s p e r i o d , c x p l i c i t l y a c k n o v v l e d g e d t h a t t h e i r i d e n t i t y a s G r e e k c i t i e s vvas a funetion o f the steps then t a k e n . 7 T h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e G r e e k c i t i e s vvas t o b e i m p o r t a n t a l s o in t h e c o m p ! e x p o l i t i e a l r e l a t i o n s o f t h e p e r i o d o f I l e r o d t h e G r e a t ( 3 7 - 3 4 B C ) . A S VVC s a v v c a r l i c r , s o m e a t l e a s t o f t h e G r e e k c i t i e s v v h i c h vvere i ı ı c o r p o r a t e d in H e r o d ' s kingdom

made strenuous efforts

to get themselves excluded

from

it

and

6. A s w i l l b c o b v i o u s , a s u r v e y s u c h a s t h i s , a t t e m p t i n g t o s e t ı h e c o m m u n a l h i s t o r y o f t h e r e g i o n into rhc c o n t e x t o f the R o m a n

E m p i r e , a n d co c o m p a r c it t o o t h e r r e g i o n s o f t h e N e a r

E a s t , c a n n o t atrcnıpr a n y significant t h e o l ö g i c a l a n a l y s i i o f the J u d a i s m o f the period. N o t e

for

e x a m p l e P. H a y m a n , " M o n o ı h e i s m — a M i s u s c d W o r d in J e w i s h S t u d i e s " , JJS

(1991), t, and

t h e i m p o r t a n t s t u d y b y E . P. S a n d e r s , Judaism:

CF.

Practice

and

tielief

6j

BCF-66

(1992),

of

vvhich [ h a v e not been able to take full a c c o u n t . 7 . S c h ü r e r , I I J P I , 9 1 - 9 2 . F o r t h e c o i n a g c o f s o m e o f t h e s e p l a c e s in t h e first c c n t u r y o f t h e E m p i r e , s e e n o w RPC

I,

666-677.

a t t a c h e d t o the p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a . I n zo BC an a p p e a l t o A u g u s t u s by G a d a r a vvas uıısucccssful. B u t o n H e r o d ' s d e a t h N i c o l a u s o f D a m a s c u s r c p o r t s that ' t h e G r e e k c i t i e s ' rencvvcd t h a t a p p e a l ; G a z a o n t h e c o a s t a n d G a d a r a and H i p p o s in t h e D e c a p o l i s vvere successful, a n d b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e R o m a n province.8 T h e s e s u c c e s s f u l c f f o r t s , hovvever, m o r e clearly reflect a c o n f l i c t betvveen c i t y i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d the c l a i m s o f r o y a l rule t h a n betvveen 'Hellenism* and ' J u d a i s m ' a s such. For; first, a t t h e s a m e m o m e n t , the Jevvish c o m m u n i t y itself vvas d e m a n d i n g l i b e r a t i o n f r o m royal rule a n d a t t a e h m e n t t o t h e R o r n a n p r o v i n c e , a d e m a n d vvhich vvas satisfied, a s r e g a r d s J u d a e a , S a m a n a a n d I d u m a e a , in AD 6 . B u t s e c o n d , a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t , the c r e a t i o n o f p a g a n G r e e k c i t i e s vvas itself a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f the i d e o l o g y o f H e r o d i a n r u l e . W c n c c d t o see t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f c i r i c s b y H e r o d a n d his s o n s first in the c o n t e x t o f his long list o f b e n e f a c t i o n s t o o t h e r G r e e k cities { a n d the o n e R o m a n

color.ia)

in t h e N e a r E a s t . For, given t h e s i l e n c e o f literary, d o c u m c n t a r y a n d a r c h a e o logical e v i d e n c e a b o u t the p u b l i c o r m o n u m e n t a l c h a r a c t e r o f ' t h e G r e e k c . t y ' in t h e N e a r E a s t in t h e l a t e H e l i e n i s t i c p e r i o d , t h e p r o g r a m m a t i c lists o f p u b l i c buildings given by H e r o d t o t h e c i t i e s o f the a r e a m u s t be t a k e n a s r e p r e s e n t ing a m a j o r nevv p h a s e . So f a r a s o u r e v i d e n c e g o c s , t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e N ^ a r E a s t e r n G r e e k city o f t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , m a r k e d a b o v e ali b y its m o n u m e n tal p u b l i c buildings, begins vvith H e r o d t h e G r e a t : T h u s , he provided g y m n a s i a f o r Tripolis, D a m a s c u s and Ptolemais, a vvall for Byblus, halis, p o r t i c o e s , temples, and ınarket-placcs for Berytus a n d Tyre, theatres for Sidon a n d Damascus, an aqueduct for Laodicca on t h e sea, baths, sumptuous f o u n t a i n s a n d colonııades, admirable alike for their architccturc and their p r o p o r t i o n s , f o r Ascalon . . . And that broad street in Syrian Antioch, o n c e shunned on a c c o u n t o f the mud—vvas it not he vvho paved its tvventy furlongs vvitlı polished marble, and, as a proteetion from the rain, adorncd it vvith a colotınade o f equal length? 9 T h e s a m e v a l u c s vvere a p p l i c d in t h e c r e a t i o n o f a vvhole series o f 'cities' vvithin H e r o d ' s k i n g d o m a n d the d o m a i n s o f h i s s o n s . I n m a n y c a s c s vve knovv n o m o r e t h a n their n a m e s , a n d c a n n o t r e c o n s t r u c t the p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r o r polirical o r g a n i s a t i o n o f s u c h a p l a c e in its e a r l y y e a r s : this is t r u e f o r i n s t a n c e o f A n t l ı e d o n , r e - n a m e d e i t h e r ' A g r i p p i a s ' o r ' A g r i p p e i o n ' in h o n o u r o f Aug u s t u s ' f r i e n d M a r c u s A g r i p p a ; o f A n t i p a t r i s a n d Phasaelis; o f Iulias, lying n o r t h - e a s t o f t h e S e a o f G a l i l e e ; ' I . i v i a s ' o r ' I u l i a s ' , founded by H c r o d c s A n t i p a s a e r o s s t h e J o r d a n f r o m J e r i c h o ; o r E s b o u s o n the J o r d a n i a n p l a t e a u . I n such cases vve c a n n o t even alvvays b e sure vvhether vve s h o u l d c a t e g o r i s e them 8. 2.1 above. 9. J o s c p h u s , BJ I, 2 1 , 1 1

(422-425J.

as ' G r c c k c i t i c s ' a t a l i ; it vvas n o t until t h e e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y t h a t A n t i p a t r i s a n d A n t h e d o n b r i e f l y m i n t e d s o m e c i t y c o i n s ; a n d the o t h e r s n e v e r d i d . 1 0 It is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o c o n c c n t r a t c o n t h e m a j ö r f o u n d a t i o n s vvhich u n a m b i g u o u s l y a l t c r e d the s o c i a l a n d r e l i g i o u s g e o g r a p h y o f the r e g i o n . H e r o d ' s tvvo m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o u n d a t i o n s vvere C a e s a r e a o n the c o a s t , o n the s i t e o f S t r a t o n o s P u r g o s , a n d S c b a s t c o n the site o f S a m a r i a ( a n d itself d i r c c d y o n the site o f Israelite S a m a r i a , d e s t r o y e d by t h e A s s y r i a n s in t h e c i g h t h c c n t u r y ) . I t is n o t n e c e s s a r y t o r e p e a t the vvell-knovvn details f r o m J o s e p h u s ' d e s e r i p tions of both places, o r the partial archacological confirmation available f o r b o t h . " It is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o stress t h a t t h e s e a r e t h e o n l y e x a m p l c s f r o m the e n t i r e N e a r E a s t o f G r e e k c i t i e s nevvly f o u n d e d in the r e i g n o f A u g u s t u s , a n d n a m e d a f t e r t h e E m p e r o r . N o s u c h s t e p s vvere t a k e n in the R o m a n p r o v i n c i a l a r e a , o r in t h e k i n g d o m s o f N a b a t a e a , E m e s a a n d C o m m a g e n e . T h e y b o t h i n v o l v e d the e l a b o r a t i o n o f the full p h y s i c a l s t r u e t u r e o f a G r e e k c i t y ; c a c h vvas s c t t l c d p r c d o m i n a n t l y b y a p a g a n p o p u l a t i o n ; a n d b o t h c o n t a i t ı e d t e m p l e s o f the i m p e r i a l c u l t . T h a t a t C a e s a r e a vvas e v i d e n t l y d e d i c a t e d j o i n t l y t o A u g u s t u s a n d ' R o m a ' , a p e r s o n i f ı c a t i o n o f t h e c i t y : 'It c o n t a i n e d a c o l o s s a l s t a t u c o f t h e e m p e r o r , n o t i n f e r i o r t o the O l y m p i a n Z e u s , vvhich s e r v c d f o r i t s model, and a n o t h e r o f R o m e , rivalling that o f H e r a at Argos'.12 T h e i m p e r i a l n a m e s o f t h e s e tvvo c i t i e s ( a s o f ' T i b e r i a s ' , f o u n d e d in G a l i l e e by I Icrodes Antipas, or 'Caesarea Panias' o r 'Caesarea Philippi', founded b y the terrarch Philip) m a y serve as a hint that the drastic innovations m a d e i n t h i s p e r i o d m e a n t s o m e t h i n g m o r e c o m p ! e x t h a n j u s t the e x t e n s i o n o f ' t h e G r c c k c i t y ' ; a nevvly f o u n d e d , o r r e - f o u n d c d , c i t y o f the i m p e r i a l p e r i o d is b e t t e r s e e n as G r a e c o - R o m a n . It is i m p o r t a n t a l s o n o t t o m i s s t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f J o s e p h u s ' a c c o u n t o f the f o u r - y e a r l y f e s t i v a l vvhich H e r o d i n s t i t u t e d a t C a e s a r e a : ' F o r h c a n n o u n c c d a c o n t c s t in m u s i c a n d a t h l c t i c e x e r c i s c s , a n d h a d p r e p a r e d a g r e a t n u m b e r o f g l a d i a t o r s a n d vvild b e a s t s a n d a l s o h o r s e r a c e s a n d t h e v e r y l a v i s h shovvs t h a t a r e t o be s e e n at R o m e a n d in v a r i o u s o t h e r p l a c e s . ' 1 3 A s J o s e p h u s e x p l i c i t l y i n d i c a t c s , t h e m o d c l s f o r vvhat vvas t o c o n s t i t u t e a festival vvere t a k e n f r o m R o m e a s vvell a s f r o m G r e e c e . G l a d i a t o rial c o m b a t s a n d vvild-beast h u n t s r e p r e s e n t e d s o m e o f t h e relatively fevv R o m a n i m p o r t s i n t o t h e p o p u l a r c u l t u r e o f t h e G r c c k E a s t . T h e r e is n o c e r t a i n c x a m p l c e a r l i e r t h a n H e r o d ' s d e d i c a t o r y festival o f 1 0 BC o f g l a d i a t o r i a l shovvs as b e i n g p 3 r t o f t h e r e p e r t o i r e o f d i s p l a y s in a G r e e k city. 1 4 N o n e t h e l e s s rhe a m b i e n c e vvhich vvas b e i n g i n s t a n d y c r e a t e d vvas p r e d o ı n x o . For a r c c c n t g e n e r a l s u r v e y , i n o o r p o r a t i n g s o m e h a z a r d o u s p r e s u m p t i o n s , s c c Y . M c s h orer, The City

Coins

of Eretz-Israel

and

the Decapolis

(1985).

1 1 . S e e S c h ü r c r HJP II, 1 1 5 - 1 1 8 ( C a e s a r e a ) ; 1 6 0 - 1 6 4 ( S c b a s t c ) . 1 2 . J o s e p h u s , BJ I, 2, 7 ( 4 1 4 } , L o e b t r a n s . 1 3 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

X V I , 5, 1 ( 1 3 7 ) , L o e b trans.

1 4 . S e e stili L . R o b e r t , Les gladiateurs

dans l'Orient

grec ( 1 9 3 7 ) , 2 6 3 f f .

inantly a G r e e k one. T h e theatres vvhich H e r o d built at C a e s a r e a , at Jericho, v v h e r e it l o o k s o u t a l o n g t h c h i p p o d r o m e , a n d ( a l l c g c d l y ) in J e r u s a l e m i t s e l f , v v h e r e n o t h i n g f u r t h e r is h c a r d o f i t , v v e r e a l s o t h c e a r l i e s t e v e r k n o v v n t o h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d in t h e P a l e s t i n i a n a r e a . , s In g e o g r a p h i c a l t e r m s

Caesarea

vvas o f c o u r s c marginal t o t h e a r e a o f Jevvish settlement, a n d but f o r political considerations might have b c c n not m u c h more significant for tensions

be-

tvveen Jevvs a n d p a g a n s t h a n the l o n g list o f G r e e k cities a n d t h e i r territories in v v h i c h m u t u a l c o m m u n a l v i o l e n c e t o o k p l a c e o n t h c o u t b r c a k o f t h c r e v o l t in 6 6 . A s J o s e p h u s lists t h e m , t h e y i n e l u d e P h i l a d c l p h i a , E s b o u s ,

Gerasa,

Pella, S c y t h o p o l i s , G a d a r a , H i p p o s a n d the G a u l a n i t i s ( G o l a n ) , K a d a s a

(the

T y r i a n v i l l a g e m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r ) , 1 6 P t o l e m a i s , G a b a (in s o u t h e r n G a l i l e e ) , Ar.t h e d o n a n d G a z a . In a l i o f t h e s e , J o s e p h u s c l a i m s , v i o l c n c c b e g a n o n t h c Jevvish side. W h e n h e c o m e s to the p a g a n r e a c t i o n , he m e n t i o n s also places further a v v a y : T y r e , S i d o n , A p a m e a a n d A n t i o c h ; later h e r e c o r d s a m a s s a c r e o f 1 0 , 5 0 0 Jevvs in D a m a s c u s , p r o m p t e d p a r t l y b y t h c c o n v e r s i o n o f m a n y g e n t i l e v v o m e n there to Jevvish o b s e r v a n c e s . 1 7 T h e much greater significance of Caesarea as the focus of tensions arose, R o m a n praefecti

first,

pagan-Jevvish

f r o m its role as thc n o r m a l scat of g o v c r n m c n t o f

the

o f t h e first p r o v i n c i a l p e r i o d , t h e n ( t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t ) t h a t o f

A g r i p p a ı i n 4 1 - 4 4 , a n d t h e n t h a t o f t h e procuratores

o f AD 4 4 - 6 6 . H e n c e , a s

the n a r r a t i v e s o f b o t h J o s e p h u s a n d A c t s shovv, r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s b y t h e Jevvish authorities t o the g o v e r n o r s f r e q u e n t l y h a d t o take place there. S e c o n d , c o m m u n a l tensions vvere i m m e a s u r a b l y

vvorsened by the fact that

units

f r o m thc gentile p o p u l a t i o n s of C a e s a r e a a n d Scbastc f o r m c d an

raised

importar.t

p a r t o f H e r o d ' s a r m y , t h e n ( i t s e e m s c e r t a i n ) o f t h e a r m y o f t h e praefecti, that o f Agrippa I and

fiııally

t h a t o f t h e procuratores.

then

Josephus does not make

clear vvhether either thc R o m a n a u x i l i a r y soldicr vvho c a u s c d a riot a n d m a s s a c r e in the T e m p l e o n e P a s s o v e r b y e x h i b i t i n g his private parts to the c r o v v d o r t h e o n e v v h o v v a s e x e c u t e d f o r t e a r i n g u p a s c r o l l o f t h e L a v v v v h i c h he f o u n d in a village in Judaea vvas a native of C a e s a r e a o r Scbastc.18 B u t these i n c i d c n t s o f a b o u t AD 5 0 d e s e r v e m e n t i o n b c c a u s c t h e y h a p p e n t o i l l u s t r a t e b o t h the i m p o r t a n c e o f the Jevvish festivals a n d the m e a n s f o r the transmissioıı o f J u d a i s t n in v i l l a g e c o n t e x t s ; t h e y a l s o s e r v e t o c o n f i r m t h e r e a l i t y o f

the

c o m m u n a l tensions vvhich t h c co-cxistcncc o f J u d a i s m a n d p a g a n i s m e v o k e d . T h a t b o t h g r o u p s v v e r e t o a l a r g e d e g r e e ' h c l l e n i s e d ' vvas i r r e l e v a n t . Finally, s u c h c o m m u n a l c o n f l i c t s c a m e in the early 6 o s to t a k e o n a particu l a r l y a c u t c f o r m in C a e s a r e a : 1 5 . S c c A . S c g a l , " T h e a t r e s in A n c i c n t Palestine d u r i n g thc R o m a n - B y z a n t i n c P e r i o d " , SCI 8-9 (1985-1988), 145. 1 6 . 8.5 a b o v c . 1 7 . J o s e p h u s , BJ II, 1 8 , 1 - 5 ( 4 5 7 - 4 8 0 ) ; 20, 2 < 5 5 9 - 5 6 1 ) . 1 8 . J o s e p h u s , BJ II, 1 2 , 1 - 2 ( 2 2 8 - 2 3 1 ) , a n d Ant.

X X , 5, 3 - 4 ( 1 0 5 - 1 1 7 ) .

Another disturbance o c c u r r e d a t Caesarea, whcre the Jevvish portion o f the population rose against the Syrian inhabitants. T h e y clairaed that the city vvas thcirs on the g r o u n d that its founder, King H e r o d , vvas a Jevv. T h e i r opponents admitted t h e Jevvish origin o f its second founder, but maintained that the city itself belonged t o the Greeks, since Herod vvould never have ereeted the statues a n d temples vvhich hc placcd thcrc had hc destincd it for J e v v s . " T h i s dispute led t o l a r g e - s c a l e s t r e e t - f i g h t i n g , t o a h e a r i n g b e f o r e N e r o in pers o n a t vvhich the G r e e k side g a i n e d the d e c i s i o n , a n d then t o a renevved c o n flict in t h e city. T h e a r g u m e n t w h i c h a r o s e f r o m t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p a g a ı ı t e m p l e s t h e r e vvas very s i g n i f i c a n t . B u t , a s in so m a n y c i t i e s o f t h e N e a r E a s t , these tvvo religious systems h a d u n t i l then c o - c x i s t c d physically. I n t h e c a s e o f C a e s a r e a t h e r e vvas at least o n e s y n a g o g u c , n e x t t o vvhich vvas a p l o t vvhose G r e e k ovvncr h a d long refused t o seli it. Novv he deliberately ( a c c o r d i n g t o J o s e p h u s ) built vvorkshops on i t , leaving o n l y a narrovv e n t r a n c c . A n a t t e m p t t o s t o p the building by v i o l e n c e vvas repressed b y the procurator.

Then on a

S a b b a t h , vvhen the Jevvs g a t h e r e d a t the s y n a g o g u e , a C a e s a r e a n G r e e k c o n s t r u c t e d a m a k e s h i f t altar beside the e n t r a n c e a n d p e r f o r m e d sacrifices on i t . A f t e r f u r t h e r c o m m u n a l v i o l e n c e the Jevvs r c m o v c d ' t h e Lavvs' (a T o r a h s c r o l l p r e s u m a b l y ) a n d retircd f r o m t h e city. 2 0 T h i s i n c i d c n t , vvhich i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d e d the o u t b r e a k o f the revolt in 66,

again illustrates the fact t h a t vvc a r c n o t dcaling vvith a h o m o g e n e o u s

society, but o n e in vvhich t h e r e vvere p r o f o u n d d i f f e r e n c e s in religious s y s t e m s : t h e vvhole c o n c e p t o f ' t h e Lavvs' a s vvritten d o c u m e n t s h o u s e d in t r a n s p o r t a b l e form in a religious building vvas vvholly alien t o p a g a n i s m . N o r vvas it o n e in vvhich these s y s t e m s lived in a s s u r e d m u t u a l t o l e r a n c e . M o s t o f the t i m e o f c o u r s c they did c o - e x i s t . Y e t o p e n c o n f l i c t betvveen t h e tvvo c o m m u n i t i e s m i g h t b r e a k o u t a t any t i m e . B u t vvhich tvvo c o m m u n i t i c s ? It is n o t i c e a b l e t h a t in t h e p a s s a g e j u s t q u o t c d J o s e p h u s deseribes t h e p a g a n side o n c e as ' G r e e k s ' a n d o n c e a s ' S y r i a n s \ T h e r e is n o sense in vvhich vve c a n r e s o l v e this a m b i g u i t y by d e c i d i n g t h a t t h e p a g a n p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h e P a l c s t i n i a n r e g i o n vvere ' r e a l l y ' the o n e o r t h e o t h e r . It d o e s r a i s c t h e q u e s t i o n , hovvever, o f vvhether A r a m a i c ( o r e v e n P h o c n i c i a n ? ) r e m a i n e d in u s e a m o n g t h e pagan p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e c o a s t a l c i t i e s , o r vvhether t h e r e vvas any c o n t i n u i t y o f c u l t - p r a c t i c e o r h i s t o r i c a l i d e n tity vvith the p r e - H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . T h a t ali these p l a c e s novv f u n e t i o n e d p u b licly as G r e e k cities is c c r t a i n . B u t G a z a ( ' Z H ) , A s c a l o n ( ' $ Q L W N ) a n d A z o t u s 1 9 . J o s e p h u s , BJ II, 1 3 , 7 ( 2 6 6 - 2 7 0 ) , L o c b t r a n s . C f . Ant.

X X , S, 7 ( 1 3 3 - 1 3 7 ) .

2 0 . J o s e p h u s , BJ II, 1 4 , 4 ( 2 8 4 - 2 9 2 ) . F o r t h e d i f f i c u l t p r o b l e m o f h o v v J c w s h a d c o m e t o r e g a r d as h o l y t h e a e t u a l s c r o l l s o n v v h i c h B i b l i c a l t e x t s vver e vvritten, scc M . G o o d m a n , " S a c r e d S c r i p t u r e a n d ' D c f i l i n g t h e Haods"JTbSt

4 1 (1990), 99.

( A s h d o d — S S D W D ) h a d aU b e e n m a j ö r Philistinc citics, a n d t h e c u l t o f M a r na s a t G a z a m a y r e p r e s e n t a n e l e m e n t o f c c n t i n u i t y ; s o , m o r e c e r t a m l y , will t h a t o f A s t a r t e ( o r A t a r g a t i s or D c r c c t o ) a t A s c a l o t ı , İ I A s e v e r y w h e r e in the N e a r E a s t , S e m i t i c persunal n a m e s , mıngled i n e x t r i c a b l y w i t h G r c c k a n d L a t i n o n c s , c o n t i n u e d in use a m o n g the gentile p o p u l a t i o n : fcır i n s t a n c c there is t h e soldıer iıı t h e p r a e t o r i a n c o h o r t s ıdentificd in a G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n from R o m e a s ' I a n ı o u r sûıi (if A s a m o s , an A s c a l o t ı i t e in P a l a i s t i n e , h r o t h c r o f A n t ö n i n n s V 1 B u t it is s u r e l y m o r e significant t h a t , l i k e t h c

Phoenician-

G r e e k c i t i e s further n o r t h , b o t h G a z a a n d A s c a l o n , in their p u b l i c sellr e p r e s e n t a t i o n , a s s e r t e d their s t a t u s a s G r e e k c i t i e s a n d their p r i v i l e g c d posititrn vvithin t h e E m p i r e : A s c a l o n h a d t h e f o r m a l s t a t u s o f a frec city, a n d G a z a is d e s e r i b e d in an i n s e r i p t i o n o f AD 2 3 9 a s ' s a c r c d , invicılate a n d a u t o n o m o u s ; . B o t h s e e m to h a v e bccoıric coloniae

ın t h e third c e n t u r y ; 1 ' a n d b o t h b e l o n g in

t h e list u f citics w h i ç h h e l d G r e e k a t h l e t i e f e s t i v a l i . 1 * B u r these p l a c c s wcrz s i t u a t e d in any c a s e in a very distinetive g e o g r a p h i c a l üonc, o n the c o a s t - r o a d f r o m Palestine to E g y p t a n d betvveen t h e s e a a n d rhe steppe, s h a d i n g o f f into t h e d e s e r t , o f thc N e g c v a n d Sinai, A t r a d e - r o u t e r e a c l ı e d G a z a f r o m t h e H c d j a z ; a n d it w a s a s h o r t step f o r s o m e o n e f r o m G a z a t o g o o u t i n t o t h c desert a s a her mi t. 3 7 T h e c u l t u r e a n d religious p r a e t i c e s o f w h a t e v e r p a g a n p o p u l a t i o n was p r e s e n t in the cities a n d villages o f inland Galilee, S a m a n a , J u d a c a a n d Tdum a e a r e m a i n a l m o s t in visible t o us. A s w e w i l l scc, t h t trcatîse in the ' O t ı P a g a n TSbrship 1 (Abodah

Zara)

Mishnait

d o e s p r o v i d e , for a later p e r i o d , some

refleetion o f t h e rural and village p a g a u i s m w h o s e effects o b s c r v a n t J e w s had t o learn t o circumvent. 1 1 5 B u t if t h e r e w e r c rural p a g a n s h r i n e s a n d t e m p l e s in t h i s w i d e r c g i o n , o u r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t rev c a l t h e m , T h e p a g a n cults a n d t h e G r e e k , or G r a c c o - R o m a ı ı , city institutions w h i c h vve c a n see a r e o n l y t h o s e o f t h e cities d e i i b c r a t c l y e r c a t e d vvithin the I m p e r i a l period. In o n e case at l e a s t — t h a t of Tiberias, founded by Herodes A n t i p a s — a n e w city, w i t h a G r e e k c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d n a m e d a f t e r thc r e i g n i n g E m p e r n r , seems n o t to have m a i n t a i n c d itself as a p a g a n c n c l a v c . T h e site, it is true, c o t ı t a î n e d g r a v e s w h i c h p r o d u c e d ritual i m p u r i t y f o r Jevvs, a n d t h e r o y a l palZT. F n r a SUNUN-ıry o f d ı e c v i d e n c e on ıhesc ciıies sse Sehürer, HJP I, 9 8 - 1 0 9 ( ç i t i c i ) ; 3 0 - 3 4 (cults). Scc a l s o J . TeisfiJflr, The Pagatt God

( 1 9 7 7 ) , 94if. I c a n ı ı o ı fiııd ici BMC

Paletline,

lanîi,

aııy cansistcnc c v i d c n c c f o r a d c i t y in A s c a l o n c.ı!led L'haticbaal; 50 H . S e y r i g , Syria 4 7 ( 1 ^ 7 0 ) , 96-37. ı z . / G R I, n o . 1.66 = IGUR

D, n o . j S o .

z j , Millar, " R o m a n Co/omae", j j . 24. M o r c t t i , 1AG, 23- 1 0 . 4 b c l u w . i d . 10.4 b d o w .

no, 7 z ( G a z a ) ; B j (AscaİDrı).

a c e w a s a d o r n e d vvith ' i m a g e s o f a n i m a l s , a l t h o u g h the Lavv f o r b i d s u s t o c r c a t e a n y s u c h t h i n g ' — t h u s J o s c p h u s , r c p o r t i n g t h a t in 6 7 h e h a d h c e n o r d e r e d t o d e s t r o y t h e s e , b u t vvas a n t i c i p a t e d by G a l i l e a n e x t r e m i s t s , vvho a l s o m a s s a c r c d ali t h e G r e e k i n h a b i t a n t s o f the city. 2 7 In t h i s c a s e t h e nevvly c r e a t c d G r e e k city, vvhile r e t a i n i n g its G r e e k c o n s t i t u t i o n , r e m a i n e d , o r p e r h a p s r a t h e r b e c a m e , a p r e d o m i n a n t l y Jevvish tovvn. 2 8 Its c o n v e n t i o n a l G r e e k c o i n a g e vvith r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f deities a n d t e m p l e s s e e m s n o t t o h a v e b e e n n ı i n t e d a f t e r the r e i g n o f G o m m o d u s . 2 9 T h e m o s a i c i n s e r i p t i o n s o f its s y n a g o g u e , d a t i n g t o the l a t e t h i r d o r e a r l y f o u r t h c e n t u r y , in G r e e k , H c b r e w a n d A r a m a i c , r e p r e s e n t p e r h a p s the b e s t s y m b o l o f t h e f a c t t h a t a m i x e d c u l t u r e — b u t n o t a r e a l c o m p r o m i s c betvveen p a g a n i s m a n d J u d a i s m — v v a s p o s s i b l e . 3 0 T h e d i s t i n e t i v e f e a t u r e o f t h e first c c n t u r y a n d t h e first h a l f o f t h e s e c o n d vvas the f a c t t h a t c o n f i i c t s o f r e l i g i o n a n d c o m m u n a l i d e n t i t y h a d led n o t m e r e l y t o o u t b r e a k s o f i n t e r - c o m m u n a l strife in a r e a s o f m i x e d p o p u l a t i o n b u t t o m a j o r Jevvish r e v o l t s a g a i n s t t h e - R o m a n s t a t e . T h e s h c e r s c a l e o f t h e vvar o f 66-74,

a l r e a d y e x a m i n e d , s h o u l d be s t r e s s e d a g a i n . 3 1 F o r it h a s v e r y

s i g n i f i c a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e s t r u e t u r e o f the R o m a n E m p i r e as a vvhole, a n d a l s o in t h e c o n t r a s t vvhich ît o f f e r s t o the relatively e a s y s u p p r e s s i o n o f d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m s (vvhich in the c a s e o f N a b a t a e a o r O s r h o e n e s e e m s t o h a v e i n v o l v e d n o fighting a t a l i ) , o r e v e n t o t h e d e f e a t o f P a l m y r a by A u r e l i a ı ı . T h i s is ı ı o t tlıc p l a c e for a n y detailed r e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f the b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e r e v o l t o f 66, r c c e n t l y t h e o b j e c t o f a povverful s t u d y b y M a r t i n G o o d m a n . 3 2 B u t c e r t a i n v e r y b r o a d f e a t u r e s need t o b e s k e t e h e d in. F i r s t , in s p i t e o f H e r o d ' s m a s s i v e i n v e s t m e n t in the r e - b u i l d i t ı g o f t h e T e m p l e , n e i t h e r h e n o r his s o n A r c h e l a u s ( 4

B C - A D

6) h a d vvon a n y g e n e r a l a c c c p t a n c c a s l e a d c r s

o r r c p r c s c n t a t i v c s o f the Jevvish p e o p l e ; A r c h e l a u s h a d i n d e e d b e e n r e m o v e d b y A u g u s t u s a t t h e j o i n t r e q u e s t o f Jevvs a n d S a m a r i t a n s . A s i n g l e t e s t i m o n y as t o a t t i t u d e s tovvard H e r o d f r o m vvithin t h e Jevvish c o m m u n i t y survives ( i n d i r c c t l y ) f r o m t h e s e y e a r s , a p s e u d o - p r o p b e c y vvritten in H e b r e v v a n d knovvn o n l y in a n e a r l y G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n : And an insolent king sball s u c c e e d t h e m , vvho vvill not be o f the r a c e of the priests, a m a n bold and s h a m e l c s s , and hc shall judgc them a s t h e y 2 7 . F o r t h e g r a v e s , J o s c p h u s , Ant.

X V I I I , 2 , 3 (38); i m a g e s o f a n i m a l s , a n d m a s s a c r c ,

Vira

12/65-67-

28. See S c h ü r e r , H / P II, 1 7 8 - 1 8 2 . 2 9 . B M C Palestine, m a d e a colonia

5 - 1 0 ; b u t c f . M e s h o r c r , City

Coins,

34—35, cİ3İming that T i b c r i a s vvas

ın t h e S e v e r a n p e r i o d , a n d that there a r e colonial coins o f the reign o f F.lagabal.

30. 1 0 . 4 belovv. 3 1 . 2.4 above. 3 2 . M . D . G o o d m a n , The Rome,

AD

66-70

Ruling

Class

of Judaea:

The

Origins

of the Jetvisb

Reı>olt

against

( 1 9 8 7 ) . T h e d e t a i l s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y o f A D 6 - 6 6 a r e s e t o u t in S c h ü r c r ,

H / P I, 3 5 7 - 4 7 0 , a n d a s u r v e y o f v v h a t c a n b c k n o v v n o f Jevvish i n s t i t u t i o n s in II, ı 8 4 f f .

dcscrvc. And he shall cuf o f f their c h i e f men with (he s w o r d , and s h a l l dcstroy them in secret p l a c e s , s o that n o one m a y k n o w vvhere their b o d i c s a r e . . . And h e shall e x e c u t e judgements upon them a s the Hgyprian c x e cuted upon t h e m , during t h i r t y and four ycars, and he shall punish t h e m . 3 3 A l t h o u g h H e r o d ' s g r a n d s o n A g r i p p a I (AD 4 1 - 4 4 ) vvas m o r e s u c c e s s f u l in h a l a n c i n g his r o l e a s a d e p e n d e n t k i n g vvith a n o s t e n t a t i o u s o b s c r v a n c e o f the I.avv, t h e r e is n o t h i n g in the e x t e n s i v e e v i d e n c e o n t h e e v e n t s o f AD 6 t o 7 4 t o s u g g e s t t h a t the m o v e m e n t , o r m o v e m e n t s , vvhich c u l m i n a t e d in r e v o l t aiır.ed a t t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f a m o n a r e h y . O r r a t h e r t h e r e is o n e s u c h h i n t , vvhich J o s e p h u s b r i n g s in o n l y r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y , in l o o k i n g b a c k a t the o m e n s

and

e x p e c t a t i o n s vvhich p r e c e d e d the vvar: But vvhat m o r e tli3n ali else incitcd t h e m t o the vvar vvas an a m b i g u o u s o r a c l e , likevvise f o u n d in their sacred seriptures, t o the cffcct t h a t a t t h a t rime o n c from their c o u n t r y vvould b e c o m e ruler o f the vvorld. T h i s t h e y u n d e r s t o o d t o mean s o m e o n e o f their o w n race, and m a n y o f their vvisc men vvent astray in their inrerpretation o f it. T h e o r a c l e , hovvever, in reality signified the sovereigtıty o f Vespasian, vvho vvas proelaimed Hmperor o n Jevvish soil. 3 4 G i v e n the o d d l y c a s u a l n a t u r e o f this a l l u s i o n , a n d t h e a m b i g u i t y o f o u r evid e n c e , vve c a n n o t seize o n t h i s a s the e s s e n t i a l c l u e t o t h e a i m s o f t h e r e v o l t . W h a t is c e r t a i n , hovvever, is t h a t t h e H e r o d i a n d y n a s t y c o u l d n e v e r h a v e fulfilled t h i s role; f o r i t s c u r r e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , A g r i p p a II, tried t o p r e v e n t the r e v o l t , a n d f o u g h t 011 the R o m a n s i d e vvhen it h a p p e n e d . M o r c o v c r , vvhen an i n d e p e n d e n t Jevvish r e g i m e vvas e s t a b l i s h e d in 66,

it did n o t give rise t o a

k i n g , b u t t o a c o m m u n a l g o v e r n m e n t m a r k e d b y i n c e s s a n t c o n f l i c t betvveen different groups. W h a t is c e r t a i n a l s o is t h a t the c o l l e c t i v c l e a d c r s h i p vvhich h a d r e p l a c e d t h e k i n g s a f t e r AD 6 vvas a l s o first c a u g h t u p in a n d then svvept a s i d e by the r e v o l t . O u r g r e a t e s t v v e a k n e s s in t r y i n g t o a n a l y s e the h i s t o r y o f the Jevvish c o m m u n i t y in the d e c a d e s l e a d i n g u p t o 6 6 is t h a t vve c a n n o t a d c q u a t c l y define e i t h e r the s o c i a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e r u l i n g g r o u p (vvhich, a s s e e n ' f r e m belovv', is d e s e r i b e d in s t r i k i n g l y v a r i a b l e t e r m s in the G o s p e l s a n d A c t s ) o r its f o r m a l s t r u e t u r e . W h a t vvas t h e m e m b e r s h i p o f ' t h e S a n h e d r i n ' , a n d hevv vvere t h e y a p p o i n t e d ? W a s t h e r e i n d e e d ' a ' S a n h e d r i n , vvith a fixed m e m b e r s h i p a t ali, o r d o e s o u r e v i d e n c e r e l a t e t o a c o u n c i l o f a d v i s e r s s u m m o n e d a t 33. T h e Assıınıption grapha

of the Old

of Moses,

Testament

6, 1—6, t r a n s . in R . H . C h a r l e s , Apocrypha

and

Pseudepi-

II {191 3), 4 0 7 l i . S c c S c h ü r c r , HJP Ü I . ı (1986), 2 7 8 - 1 8 8 .

34. J o s e p h u s , DJ V I , 5, 4 (312—313), L o e b t r a n s . F o r t h e v a r i c t i e s o f m c s s i a n i c c x p r c s s i o n a s a t t e s t e d , s e e S c h ü r e r , HJP II, 488İY.

vvill b y the H i g h P r i e s t ? " If it vvas a regular c o u n c i l vvith a lixed t n e m b e r s h i p , hovv closely d i d it r e s e m b l e t h e boule

o f a G r e e k city, a n d should vve i n d e e d

think o f J e r u s a l e m itself as h a v i n g been a s o r t o f G r e e k polis?*6

N o n e o f these

q u e s t i o n s c a n b e ansvvered vvith a n y c e r t a i n t y . W h a t vvc c a n b c c c r t a i n o f is t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f t h e very distinctive office o f H i g h Priest, vvhich has n o knovvn p a r a l i c l in a n y o t h e r c o m m u n i t y ruled by R o m e . It is n o a c c i d e n t t h a t J o s e phus vvas t o c o n c l u d c t h e tvventy b o o k s o f his Aııtiquities

vvith a survey o f t h e

s u c c e s s i o n o f High Priests since A a r o n , a n d the v a r y i n g m e a n s b y vvhich t h e y h a d been a p p o i n t e d . T h e last tvventy-eight H i g h Priests, since t h e b e g i n n i n g o f I I e r o d ' s rule, 1 0 7 y e a r s b e f o r e t h e T e m p l e vvas d e s t r o y e d , h a d been a p p o i n t e d s u c c c s s i v c l y by H e r o d himself, A r c h c l a u s a n d t h e R o m a n s . J o s e p h u s o d d l y o m i t s h e r e t h e c r u c i a l fact t h a t the H i g h Priests o f t h e last period h a d b e e n a p p o i n t e d (and d e p o s e d ) by A g r i p p a I, then by his b r o t h e r H e r o d o f C h a l c i s a n d then b y A g r i p p a II. B u t his s u m m a r y o f t h e p h a s e s i n c c AD 6 is p c r f c c t l y a p t : ' A f t e r the d e a t h o f these k i n g s , t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n b e c a m e a n a r i s t o c r a c y , a n d the H i g h Priests vvere e n t r u s t e d vvith the l e a d e r s h i p o f the t ı a t i o n ' . ' 7 T h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t b e i n g a cohen,

a notional desccndent of Aaron,

vvas a n essential q u a l i f i c a t i o n f o r being H i g h Priest. B u t ali a t t e m p t s t o define the ' a r i s t o c r a c y * , o r 'ruling c l a s s ' , o f

first-century

J u d a e a arc d c f c a t e d by t h e

fact t h a t the o n l y g r o u p vvhich vve c a n a c t u a l l y p e r c c i v c is t h e small n u m b e r o f families f r o m vvhom in p r a c t i c e the High Priests o f this p e r i o d vvere c h o s e n : o f the eighteen H i g h Priests successively a p p o i n t e d a n d dismissed betvveen AD 6 a n d 6 6 , ali b u t tvvo c a m e f r o m f o u r families. J S W c c a n .see f r o m A c t s (4, 6) t h a t s o m e p e o p l e c o u l d be p e r c e i v e d as b e l o n g i n g t o t h e c a t e g o r y o f 'such a s vvere o f high-priestly f a m i l y ' ; a n d J o h n ' s G o s p e l a l s o gives t h e elearest i m p r e s s i o n o f the f a c t t h a t f o r m e r h o l d e r s c o n t i n u e d t o retain the a p p c l l a t i o n ' H i g h P r i e s t ' (arc.hiereus):

f o r in his a c c o u n t o f the e x a m i n a t i o n s o f J e s u s he b o t h

deseribes A n n a s a s ' H i g h Priest* a n d idcntifies h i m as 'father-in-lavv o f G a i a phas vvho vvas High Priest in t h a t y e a r ' ( 4 , 1 2 - 2 4 } . G a i a p h a s vvas in f a c t H i g h P r i e s t f o r the period f r o m a b o u t AD r 8 t o 3 6 ; Anııas o r A n a n u s h a d beeıı H i g h Priest f r o m AD 6 t o a b o u t 1 5 , a n d vvas t o h a v e fıve s o n s vvho h e l d t h e s a m e office. O n e o f these, a p p o i n t e d in 3 7 , had a G r e e k n a m e , T h e o p h i l o s . O n e o f the very fevv d o c u m e n t a r y r e f c r c n c c s t o H i g h Priests c o m e s f r o m t h e H c b r c v v inseription o n t h e o s s u a r y o f T h e o p h i l o s ' g r a n d d a u g h t e r : ' Y e h o h a n a h d a u g h t e r o f Y e h o h a n a n s o n o f T h e o p h i l o s the High Priest' ( B R T P L W S 3 5 . Scc G o o d m a n , Ruling

Class,

1 rıff,

36. See V. A. Tchcrikovcr, "Was Jerusalem a 'Polis'?", İE] »4 3 7 . Josq>lıus, Ant.

X X , 1 0 , r - 4 (21.4-131),

I.oeb trans.

5 8 . F o r discussions o f the d e f i n i t i o n o f this g r o u p scc, c . g . , R. M . S m a l l v v o o d , " H i g h Prie&ls a n d Politics in R o m a n P a l e s t i n e * , JThSt

1 3 ( r 9 6 2 . ) , 1 4 ; J . J c r c m i a s , Jerusalem

Jesus ( 1 9 6 9 ) , i 4 7 f f - , 3 7 7 - 3 7 8 ; Schürer, IIJP II, 2 2 7 f f .

in the Time

of

H K H N H G I 3 L ) . 3 9 A n o t h e r t e x t , w r i t t e n in ink o n a sherd f r o m M a s a d a , may n a m e the A n a n i a s w h o a p p e a r s a s H i g h P r i e s t in A c t s 2 3 - 2 4 , a n d c e r t a i n l y givcs the A r a m a i c version o f t h e title: H j N N Y J I I ( ? ) K I IN* R B ' . 4 0 O u r p r o b l e m , in trying t o u n d c r s t a n d this c c n t r a l institution o f the Jevvish c o m m u n i t y , is t h a t t h e g r o u p o f h o l d e r s c a n b e defined o n l y in a vvay vvh.ch is c i r c u l a r , by t h e fact o f their h a v i n g been a p p o i n t e d b y t h e p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y o f the t i m e , vvhether R o m a n o r H e r o d i a n . N o f o r m a l basis f o r the de l i m i t a t i o n t o very fevv f a m i l i e s f r o m vvithin t h e vvider class o f cohanim

facto c a n be

d i s c e r n e d . T h a t being s o , a n d it a l s o being t h e c a s e t h a t vve see t h e m o n l y in this c o n t c x t a n d c a n n o t t r a c c b a c k their a n c c s t r y t o e a r l i c r p e r i o d s , it is not c l e a r vvhether vve o u g h t t o t a l k o f a 'priestly a r i s t o c r a c y ' o r a 'ruling c l a s s ' ; stili m o r e avvkvvard is the f a c t t h a t vve h a v e even less c o n c e p t i o n o f lıovv any h y p o t h e t i c a l vvider ruling c l a s s o f cohanim—and

others—vvill have

been

m a d e u p . T h e salient p o i n t is t h e a n o m a l o u s c o m b i n a t i o n o f d e p e n d e n c e on political p a t r o n a g e on t h e o n e h a n d vvith c e n t r a l i t y in t h e T e m p l e c u l t 011 the o t h e r . N o n e t h e l e s s vve c a n b e c e r t a i n t h a t t h e c o n n e c t i o n betvveen vvealth and s o c i a l class o n the o n e h a n d a n d t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f the H i g h P r i e s t h o o d on the o t h e r vvas a n issuc in c o n t e m p o r a r y society. J o s e p h u s h i m s e l f deseribes hovv A n a n i a s ' s e r v a n t s , i m i t a t e d by ( o t h e r ) H i g h P r i c s t s , used f o r c c t o t a k e f r o m t h e t h r e s l ı i n g - f l o o r s t h e tithes d u e t o the vvider class o f cohanim*1

More

s i g n i f i c a n t stili is t h e e p i s o d e i n J e r u s a l e m in the vvinter o f 6 7 / 6 8 vvhich m a r k s the first a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e g r o u p vvhom J o s c p h u s c a l l s Z c a l o t s (zclötai);

the

t ı o t i o n , vvidespread in m o d e r n b o o k s , t h a t s u c h a g r o u p vvas aetive in J e s u s ' t i m e , o r vvas involved in t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f M a s a d a , is vvholly m i s l e a d i n g . T h e i r a t t e s t e d role vvas in J e r u s a l e m d u r i n g the vvar, a n d their m o s t i m p o r t a n t s y m b o l i c act vvas t o r e j e c t t h e p r i n c i p l e o f birth a n d a p p o i n t a H i g h P r i e s t by l o t , t h e last ever t o h o l d o f f i c e . 4 2 W h a t e v e r t h e e x p l a n a d o n o f t h e o u t b r e a k o f the r e v o l t in 6 6 , it c a n n o t lic in a n y p r o f o u n d level o f p o p u l a r s u p p o r t on vvhich t h e ' H i g h P r i c s t s ' c o u l d dravv. T h e y d i d n o t inspire t h e r e v o l t , but on t h e c o n t r a r y vvere e n g u l f e d b y a

3 9 . D . B a r a g a n d D . Flusser, " ' I h e O s s u a r y o f Y c h o h a n a h G r a n d d a u g h t e r o f t h e H i g h P r i c s t T h c o p h i l u s " , IEJ 3 6 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 3 9 . C f . 2 . 2 a b o v e . 4 0 . Y . Y a d i ı ı a n d J . N a v c h , Masada

I, The Aramaic

and Hebreu/

O s t r a c a and Jar

inseriptions

( 1 9 8 9 } , n o . 4 6 1 . İt is t h i s A r a m a i c v e r s i o n o f t h e title w h i c h is t r a n s l i t e r a t e d b y J o s c p h u s , III, 7 , 1

Ant.

( 1 5 1 ) : « p ö p x ı p p e î , ö v ( i v a p a f t a ^ ı ı v ftpoofrfopF.ûot>at ( t h e t c x t u a l t r a n s m i s s i o n is c l c a r l y

confused). 4 1 . J o s c p h u s , Ant.

X X , 9, 2 (206-207).

4 2 . S c c J o s c p h u s , DJ I V , 3 , 6 - 8 ( 1 4 7 - 1 6 1 ) ; Ant.

X X , 1 0 , 1 ( 2 2 7 ) . F o r t h e n e c e s s a r y defini-

t i o n s , r e m o v i n g a m a s s o f c o n f u s i o n s , s c c t h e l a t e M . S t e r n , " S i c a r i i a n d Z e a l o t s " , World of the Jeu/ish

People

V I I I ( 1 9 7 7 ) , So-dety

Yonah and Z . Baras, 263.

and Religion

in the Second

Temple

Period,

History

ed. M . Avi-

p o p u l a r m o v e m e n t . T h e h i s t o r y o f t h e p e r i o d — a scries o f m a j ö r d i s t u r b a n c e s a f t e r the d e a t h o f H e r o d , t a k i n g p l a c e b o t h in J e r u s a l e m a n d a l s o in G a l i l e e a n d P e r a e a ; the rise o f t h e sicarii, first in r c s i s t a n c e t o the c e n s u s in AU 6 ; a n d a succession o f m i n ö r p r o p h e t i c l e a d e r s in t h e 50S, c o i n c i d i n g vvith renevved t e r r o r i s m by t h e sicarii—makes

c l e a r t h a t large s e e t i o n s o f the p o p u l a t i o n

c o u l d b e r o u s e d t o v i o l c n c e , o f t e n direeted internally a s m u c h a s against t h e R o m a n s . S i n c c w c d e p e n d for o u r c o n c c p t i o n o f ali this entirely on J o s e p h u s , vve c a n n o t h o p e t o vvrite a n y t h i n g r c s e m b l i n g a s o c i a l o r idcological h i s t o r y o f these m o v e m e n t s . T h e significant f a c t is s i m p l y that t h e r e vvere s u c h movements. W h a t is p o s s i b l e is first t o define the g c o g r a p h i c a l a r e a s f r o m vvhich a Jevvish a r m y in r e v o l t c o u l d r e c r u i t manpovver. W e see it precisely set o u t i n J o s e p h u s ' a c c o u n t o f the first m e a s u r e s t a k e n in 66 t o o r g a n i s e r e s i s t a n c e t o R o m e : 4 3 t h e a r e a s f o r vvhich g e n e r a l s

(slralSgoi)

vvere a p p o i n t e d vvere J e r u s a -

l e m itself, f r o m vvhich C e s t i u s G a l l u s h a d j u s t been driven in d e f e a t ; I d u m a e a ; J e r i c h o ; P e r a e a { s o t h e r e vvere d i f f e r e n t m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d s o n either side o f t h e J o r d a n ) ; T h a m n a , t h a t is, t h e north-vvestern s e c t i o n o f t h e J u d a e a n h i l l s , vvith t h e a d d i t i o n o f I.ydda, E m m a u s a n d I o p p c , thus a n a r c a c x t c n d i n g a c r o s s the plain t o t h e c o a s t ; G o p h n i t i k e a n d A k r a b a t t e n e , n o r t h o f J e r u s a l e m ; a n d the tvvo Galilees ( U p p e r a n d L o w e r ) u n d e r J o s e p h u s h i m s e l f . O f ali these a r e a s , t h e r e a r e o n l y tvvo o f vvhich vve c a n g a i n a n y real i m p r e s s i o n . F i r s t , o b v i o u s l y e n o u g h , is J e r u s a l e m , d o m i n a t e d b y t h e v a s t e s p l a n a d e o f the T e m p l e M o u n t as r e c o n s t r u c t e d b y H e r o d , b u t also vvith f o r t i f i c a rions,

r o y a l p a l a c c s , rich p r i v a t e h o u s e s novv r e v e a l e d b y e x c a v a t i o n s , a n d a

large p o p u l a t i o n regularly svveüed b y e n o r m o u s n u m b e r s c o m i n g f o r t h e m a j ö r festivals. 4 4 T h e n t h e r e is G a l i l e e , vvith its dense netvvork o f large fortified villages, m o r e o r less i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m tovvns o r cities, p o r t r a y e d in t h e G o s p c l s a s it vvas vvhen under H c r o d c s A n t i p a s , a n d a s it vvas in 67 betvveen the lines o f J o s e p h u s ' a c c o u n t in t h e \Var a n d the Life o f the o p e r a t i o n s vvhich he c o n d u c t e d there. 4 5 W h a t vve lack f o r this p e r i o d is a n y t h i n g m o r e than passing allusions t o the Jevvish villages a n d small tovvns o f I d u m a e a , P e r a e a a n d J u d a e a p r o p e r . T h e r e is, hovvever, every r e a s o n t o suppose t h a t t h e s e vvill h a v e c o n t a i n e d s y n a g o g u e s h o u s i n g s c r o l l s o f t h e Lavv, j u s t a s vve see t h e m in G a l i l e e ; t h a t 4 3 . J o s e p h u s , BJ II, 2 0 , 4 ( 5 6 6 - 5 6 8 ) . 4 4 . T h e a c c o u n t b y J. Jcrcmias,

Jentsaleın

in the Time of Jesus ( 1 9 6 9 ) , r e m a i n s c s s e n t i a l , T h e

r e s u l t s o f e x c a v a t ı o n s o v e r t h e last f e w d e c a d e s , b o t h a r o u n d t h e T c m p l c M o u n t a n d ın t h e U p p e r C i t y , a r e a v a i l a b l e o n l y in g e n e r a l , s e m i - p o p u l a r a c c o u n t s : s c c , c . g . , B . M a zar, The of the Lord

( 1 9 7 5 ) ; N . A v i g a d , Discovering

E . P. S a n d e r s , Judaism:

Practice

and Belief,

Jerusalem 63 BCi-66

4 5 . F o r G a l i l e e see, c . g . , S. F r e y n e , Galilee of Second

Temple

Judaism

( 1 9 8 0 ) ; i d e m , Galilee,

from

Mountain

( 1 9 8 0 ) . F o r t h e T e m p l e scc n o w

also

CE ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 4 7 ^ Alexander

the Great

Jesus and the Gospels

to Hadrian:

(«988).

A

Study

p e o p l e f r o m t h e s e a r e a s vvill h a v e a t t e n d e d the m a j ö r f e s t i v a l s in J e r u s a l e m , a s did t h o s e o f G a l i l e e o r ( a s vve savv) a l m o s t t h e vvhole p o p u l a t i o n o f L y d d a at T a b c r n a c l e s in 6 6 ; a n d t h a t the m a i n l a n g u a g c o f daily s p c c c h h e r e vvill have been Aramaic. W h e n c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t a t i o n is s o r a r e (vve h a v e n o r u r a l s y n a g o g u e - i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h i s p e r i o d t o m a t e h t h o s e knovvn f r o m l a t e r ) , vve m u s t use vvhat vve c a n . N o t e n o u g h h a s b e e n m a d e o f the f a c t t h a t o n c A r a m a i c d o c u m e n t f o u n d a m o n g o t h e r s f r o m the B a r K o c h b a p e r i o d in t h e W a d i M u r a b a ' a t in f a c t d a t e s t o a d e c a d e b e f o r e t h e r e v o l t . 4 6 F r a g m e n t a r y a s i t is, the d o c u m e n t is o f g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c c f o r s e v c r a l r c a s o n s . F i r s t , it is s c c u r c l y dated to 55/56, 'the second y e a r o f N e r o Caesar': ( $ N J T T R T Y N

LNRWN

Q S R . S e c o n d , it is a p u r e l y c i v i l d o c u m e n t , a n a c k n o v v l e d g m e n t o f a d e b t : the v a s t m a j o r i t y o f t h e m a n u s e r i p t e v i d e n e e , vvhether t e x t s a n d d o c u m e n t s f r o m the J u d a e a n D e s e r t o r t h e i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m b e f o r e the fail o f t h e T e m p l e , vvhich is vvritten in A r a m a i c b y Jevvs b e l o n g s in s o m e d e g r e c in a r e l i g i o u s c o n t c x t — f o r i n s t a n c e i n s e r i p r i o n s o n o s s u a r i e s . B u t h e r e the p a r t i e s a r e c o m p o s i n g a n d vvitnessing a civil d o c u m e n t in A r a m a i c . Yet, b u t f o r the n a m e o f the E m p e r o r , vve vvould n o t k n o v v t h a t vve vvere in the R o m a n E m p i r e a t ali. T h e t h r e e vvitnesses, J o s e p h , J o n a t h a n a n d a n o t h e r J o s e p l ı , a r e ali J e v v i s h , as a r e the c r e d i t o r a n d d e b t o r : " A b s a l o m , s o n o f H a n i n f r o m Sivvaya ( o r S i n a ) , h a s d e c l a r e d in m y p r e s e n c e t h a t t h e r e is o n a c c o u n t vvith m e , Z e c h a r i a h son o f Y e h o h h a n a n , living a t K S L W N , t h e s u m o f tvventy z u z i n ( Z W Z Y N ) \ Sett l e m e n t vvill b e m a d e e v e n i f it is a s a b b a t i c a l y e a r — ' y e a r o f r e l e a s e ' ( S N T S M T H ) . T h e m e n t i o n o f the c r e d i t o r ' s p l a c e o f r e s i d e n c e is a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t , for t h i s vvill be t h e ' v e r y l a r g e v i l l a g e ' o f C h a s a l ö n , 1 7 k m vvest o f J e r u s a l e m , n e a r t h e e d g e o f the J u d a e a n hills; b u t vvhen E u s e b i u s l a t e r r e f e r r e d t o i t in t h e s e t e r m s it vvas ' i n t h e t e r r i t o r y o f A e l i a ' . 4 7 T h e d o c u m e n t t h u s c o n s t i t u t e s o n e o f t h e v e r y fevv g l i m p s e s vvhich vve c a n g a i n i n t o t h e A r a m a i c - s p e a k i n g ( a n d A r a m a i c - v v r i t i n g ) vvorld o f t h e Jevvish villagcs o f J u d a e a p r o p e r , a s it vvas vvhile the T e m p l e stili s t o o d . I t vvas a l s o , a s it s e e m s , vvritten s h o r t l y b e f o r e a D i a s p o r a Jevv, P a u l o s f roır. T a r s o s , r e t u r n c d f r o m his t h i r d m i s s i o n a r y j o u r n e y , a n d vvas a d v i s e d b y the C h r i s t i a n e l d e r s t o d e m o n s t r a t e his o b s e r v a n c e o f t h e Lavv a n d his r e s p e c t for the T e m p l e . T h e g e s r u r e b a c k f i r e d , f o r P a u l vvas t h e n a c c u s e d b y o t h e r D i a s p o r a Jevvs, f r o m the p r o v i n c e o f A s i a , o f p o l l u t i n g t h e T e m p l e b y i n t r o d u c i n g a g e n t i l e G r e e k . T h e s t o r y , a s it u n f o l d s , p c r f c c t l y i l l u s t r a t e s t h e b i l i n g u a l i s m o f a c i t y vvhich vvas a p l a c e o f p i l g r i m a g c f o r Jevvs f r o m ali o v e r t h e G r e e k s p e a k i n g vvorld, P a u l s p c a k s t o t h e R o m a n t r i b ü n e in G r e e k , a n d r e v c a l s his o r i g i n in T a r s o s . B u t t h e n h c turııs t o t h e crovvd a n d a d d r e s s e s t h e m 'in H e -

4 6 . D / D II, n o . 1 8 = Fircrayer, PAT, 4 7 . E u s e b i u s , Onom.

1 7 Z , 16.

n o . 39 = Bcyer, A T , p . 3 0 6 .

b r c w d i a l e c t ' — b y vvhich, if he u n d e r s t o o d t h e d i s t i n c t i o n a t a l i , rhe a u t h o r o f Acts ought t o have meant Aramaic.48 T h a t t h e f a m o u s inseription o n t h e b o u n d a r y o f the C o u r t o f I s r a e l in t h e ' I c m p l c , vvhich t h r c a t e n c d vvith d e a t h any gentile vvho e n t e r e d , s h o u l d h a v e been in G r e e k vvas o n l y n a t u r a l . 4 9 E q u a l l y , t h c b i l i n g u a l i s m o f Paul himself is m a t e h e d o n t h e o s s u a r y f r o m J e r u s a l e m vvhich c o n t a i n e d the b o n e s o f N i c a n o r f r o m A l e x a n d r i a , vvho ( p e r f e c t l y in t h e style o f a H e l l e n i s t i c

euergetes)

' m a d e the g a t e s ' — s u r e l y ' N i c a n o r ' s G a t e ' in the T e m p l e . T h e A r a m a i c t e x t m e r e l y identifies h i m a n d his o r i g i n : N K N R * L K S \ S 0 T h e single d o c u m e n t vvhich m o s t clearly e x p r e s s e s t h e vvay in vvhich t h e J e r u s a l e m o f the period b e f o r e t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f the T e m p l e vvas, a n d h a d t o b e , o u t v v a r d - l o o k i n g t o t h c G r e c k - s p e a k i n g D i a s p o r a is thc f a m o u s G r c c k i n s e r i p t i o n r e c o r d i n g the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s y n a g o g u e . It t o o illustrates t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f H e l l e n i s t i c e u e r g e t i s m , but d e p l o y e d f o r distinetively Jevvish p u r p o s e s ; a n d it is a l s o very i m p o r t a n t c v i d c n c c f o r t h c role o f t h c s y n a g o g u c in t h e deliberate t r a n s m i s s i o n

o f a 'religion o f the b o o k ' , even vvhen t h e

T e m p l e stili s t o o d : T h c o d o t o s son of Vettcnos, priest (that is, cohen) and arcbisynagögos, of an arcbisynagögos,

g r a n d s o n of an arcbisynagögos,

built thc

son

synagöge

for the reading o f the Lavv a n d the teaching o f the c o m m a n d m e n t s , and thc guest-housc and the r o o m s and the equipment{?) for w3ter, for thc rcception of those vvho rcquirc it from a b r o a d . . . s ı It is thus p o s s i b l e t o see, in very b r o a d terms, s o m e o f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Jevvish identity a n d s o m c o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s vvhich m a d e possible a n a t i o n a l uprising o f a şort vvhich t h e R o m a n E m p i r e n e v e r e n c o u n t e r e d elsevvhere. T h e r e vvas a large rural p o p u l a t i o n living in villages a n d s m a l l tovvns vvhich a l s o h a d s y n a g o g u e s ' f o r t h c r e a d i n g o f the Lavv a n d thc t c a c h i n g o f t h e c o m m a n d m e n t s ' , j u s t as J e s u s e n c o u n t e r e d t h e m in Galilee. T h e r e vvas a single main city vvhich a c t e d as a c e n t r e o f p i l g r i m a g e for ali thc r e g i o n s o f larges c a l c Jevvish rural s e t t l e m e n t , a s vvell a s f r o m o v e r s e a s . T h e r e vvas a l e a d i n g g r o u p in J e r u s a l e m , f r o m vvithin vvhich a m e r e h a n d f u l o f families p r o v i d e d the H i g h Priests. T h e relatively r e c e n t e m e r g e n c e o f this i n - g r o u p a n d its dep c n d c n c c on political p a t r o n a g c

(the n o m i n a t i o n a n d dismissal o f H i g h

Priests by H e r o d i a n kings o r R o m a n praefecti

a n d procuratores)

m a y vvell, a s

M a r t i n G o o d m a n h a s s u g g e s t e d , h a v e m e a n t that it h a d n o real r o o t s in p o p u 4 8 . A c t s x ı , 1 7 - 2 2 , 1 : rfj ' E P p a ı S ı 8IÛXEKT<j>. F o r t h e f u l l e s t s u r v e y o f t h e i n t e r p l a y l a n g u a g e s , a n d t h c c o n f u s i o n in c o n t c m p o r a r y r c f c r c n c c s t o H c b r c w / A r a m a i c , s e c Schûrer, II, 2 0 - 2 8 ; 6 0 - 8 0 . 4 9 . CIJ II, n o . 1 4 0 0 . 5 0 . CIJ II, n o . 1 2 5 6 . 5 1 . CIJ II, n o . 1 4 0 4 .

of HJP

l a r s e n t i m e n t . " B u t it is i m p o r t a n t t o stress t h a t , a s b o t h the G o s p e l n a r r a t i v e s a n d the m i i i t a r y d i s p o s i t i o n s a t the b e g i n n i n g o f the r e v o l t shovv, the highpricstly families a n d ' S a n h e d r i n ' represented n o t j u s t city o f f i c i a l s a n d a city c o u n c i l b u t (at least in a s p i r a t i o n ) a n a t i o n a l leadership. T h i s ruling g r o u p h a d until 66 c o n s i s t e n t l y c o - o p e r a t e d vvith the R o m a n s in the s u p p r e s s i o n o f p o p u l a r leaders, J e s u s a m o n g t h e m . But vvhat J o s e p h u s ' n a r r a t i v e İcavcs vvholly u n c l c a r is hovv it s u d d e n l y c a m e a b o u t in 66 t h a t s o m e o f the ruling g r o u p c a m e o u t on t h e side o f a full-scale i n d e p e n d e n c e m o v e m e n t . O n c e t h e defeat o f C e s t i u s G a l l u s in t h e a u t u m n o f 66 h a d t a k e n p l a c e , t h e rest o f the ruling g r o u p follovvcd, i n c l u d i n g J o s c p h u s himself. 1 0 . 3 . F R O M T H E F I R S T JEVVİSH T O THE

REVOLT

SECOND

J o s c p h u s ' s u b s e q u e n t n a r r a t i v e o f t h e revolt, in t h e War a n d his Life,

notori-

o u s l y reflects t h e a m b i g u i t y o f h i s ovvn p o s i t i o n : h i s u l t i m a t e role a s a p r o t e g e o f the Flavian d y n a s t y ; his p r o f o u n d c o n v i c t i o n t h a t , a s so o f t e n b e f o r e , the foreign v i c t o r vvas t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f G o d ' s intention t o punish the Jevvish p e o p l e f o r their sins; a n d the f a c t t h a t a n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e h a d led n o t t o unity b u t t o b r u t a l itıternal f a c t i o n a l strife, vvhich c o n t i n u e d even during t h e siege o f J e r u s a l e m by T i t u s in 7 0 . T h e c o u r s e o f civil c o n f l i c t vvithin the i n d e p e n d e n t a r e a , a n d a b o v e ali vvithin J e r u s a l e m itself, a l o n g o f c o u r s c vvith R o m a n m i i i t a r y m o v e m c n t s , p r o vides t h e m a i n c o n t e n t o f J o s c p h u s ' a c c o u n t o f t h e vvar. B u t even his n a r r a t i v e m a k e s c l e a r t h a t J u d a e a p r o p e r , n o r t h a n d s o u t h o f J e r u s a l e m , vvas n o t rec a p t u r c d by R o m e until 69; a n d t h a t even then R o m a n f o r c e s p e n e t r a t e d n o farther into Idumaea than H e b r o n . T h e fortresses o f Herodion and M a s a d a , a l o n g vvith M a c h a e r u s on t h e o t h e r side o f t h e D c a d S e a , a n d vvith t h e m p r e s u m a b l y large p a r t s o f t h e h i l l - c o u n t r y o f s o u t h e r n J u d a e a a n d o f I d u m a e a , r e m a i n e d in rebel h a n d s f o r several y e a r s . H e r o d i o n a n d M a c h a e r u s vvere r e t a k e n in the early 70S, in vvhat y e a r is n o t clear, a n d M a s a d a n o t until 7 3 , o r m o r e p r o b a b l y 7 4 . J e r u s a l e m itself vvas thus o u t s i d e o f R o m a n c o n t r o l f o r f o u r y e a r s , a n d t h e a r e a t o i t s s o u t h - e a s t f o r longer. B y its n a t u r e , J o s e p h u s ' n a r r a t i v e is not d e s i g n e d e i t h e r t o e x p l a i n t h e p u b lic ideals a n d o b j e e t i v e s o f t h i s s h o r t - l i v e d i n d e p e n d e n t state o r t o a n a l y s e the vvorkings o f s o c i e t y a n d t h e d e g r e e t o vvhich n o r m a l r o u t i n e s m i g h t h a v e b e e n m a i n t a i n e d u n d e r it. B u t he d o e s n o t e t h a t the d a i l y s a c r i f i c e in t h e T e m p l e c o n t i n u e d until the s e v e m e e n r h o f t h e m o n t h P a n e m o s ( T a m m u z ) in 7 0 , ı h a r i s , until a b o u t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f July. T h e s a m e m o m e n t vvas t o b e r e c o r d e d in t h e Mishnab:

' o n 1 7 T a m m u z the daily offering ( T M Y D ) ceased'.'

5 1 . G o o d m a n , Ruling

Class,

e s p . Pt. I.

1 . J o s c p h u s , B) V I , 1, 1 ( 9 4 ) ; Mishnab,

Taaniı

4, 6.

A l r h o u g h w e c a n t h u s see t h a t an i n d e p e n d e n t Jevvish c o m m u n i t y , even a t ı a b o r t i v e s t a t e , m u s t h a v e e x i s t e d in J e r u s a l e m until 7 0 , a n d in s o u t h e r n J u d a e a a n d I d u m a e a for a few y e a r s longer, w c c o u l d p e r h a p s h a r d l y e x p e c t t o h a v e a c c c s s t o a n y d o c u m e n t a r y refleetions o f its e x i s t e n c e . Yet, a s it s e e m s , w c h a v e . First, the seven h u n d r e d o r so Hebrevv a n d A r a m a i c i n s e r i p t i o n s o n p o r t e r y f o u n d o n M a s a d a p r o b a b l y ali date t o t h e p e r i o d o f o c c u p a t i o n b y the r e s i s t a n c e in 66 t o 7 3 / 7 4 . If t h a t is s o , it is notevvorthy t h a t s o m e o f t h e s e i n s e r i p t i o n s a r e c o n c e r n e d vvith d e s i g n a t i n g p r o d u c e f o r the tithes d u e t o coM'SR

hanim:

KIIN,

'pricst's t i t h e ' ; L Q W D S ' ,

' f o r hallovved t h i n g s ' ;

or

K S R Y N L T H R T M Q D S , 'fit f o r t h e purity o f hallovved t h i n g s ' . 2 M o r e signifıc a ı ı t stili, hovvever, is a deed o f d i v o r c e vvritten in A r a m a i c a n d f o u n d vvith o t h e r d o c u m c n t s in the W a d i M u r a b a ' a t . In it o n e J o s e p h s o n o f N a q s a n , resident a t M a s a d a , r e p u d i a t e s h i s vvifc M a r i a m , d a u g h t e r o f J o n a t h a n , a l s o living there. It is d a t e d ' o n t h e first o f M a r h e s h v v a n , y e a r s i x , a t M a s a d a ' (B'[H]D

LMRIIS[WNJ

S N T S T BMŞD'). Masada

never f o r m e d p a r t

of

t h e 'nevv p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a ' , e s t a b l i s h e d in 1 0 6 . S o in s p i t e o f the e l o s e i n t e r e o n n e e t i o n s betvveen Jevvish families living a r o u n d t h e D e a d S e a o n either side o f t h e provincial ' f r o n t i e r ' , as vve vvill see shortly, this c a n n o t be the era used h e r e . It is a h y p o t h e s i s , b u t an entirely r e a s o n a b l e o n e , t h a t vve h a v e h e r e a u n i q u e gLimpse o f o r d i n a r y life going on vvithin t h e i n d e p e n d e n t Jevvish ' s t a t e ' . T h e date vvill then bc O c t o b e r 7 1 , m o r e t h a n a year a f t e r t h e fail o f the T e m p l e . 3 T h e f a c t t h a t t h e Jevvish s t a t e d i d h a v e its ovvn era is knovvn f r o m the c o i n s vvhich it issued, in silver a n d b r o n z e , d a t e d by Years O n e t o F i v e (if a Y e a r S i x vvas in u s e , t h e dccd o f d i v o r c e is the o n l y e v i d e n c e for it). M o r e i m p o r t a n t a r e t h e e m p h a t i c a l l y n a t i o n a l i s t l e g e n d s , in I'alaeo-Hebrevv seript, vvhich t h e c o i n s display: ' S h e k e l o f I s r a e l ' a n d ' J e r u s a l e m is h o l y ' ( Y R \ V S L M Q D S H ) ; ' F r e e d o m o f Z i o n ' ( H R W T Ş Y W N ) ; ' F o r the R e d e m p r i o n o f Z i o n ' ( L G ' L T Ş Y W N ) . If t h e c a l e n d a r o f t h e Jevvish s t a t e began in the s p r i n g , vvith t h e m o n t h N i s a n , then c o i n i n g m a y h a v e ended in Y e a r F i v e vvhen J e r u s a l e m vvas c a p t u r c d . 4 T h e f a c t t h a t h u n d r e d s o f these c o i n s vvere f o u n d at M a s a d a is t h e best e v i d e n c e f o r a short-livcd s t a t e a n d s o c i e t y o f vvhich J o s e p h u s ' n a r r a t i v e (vvhich f o r ali its a m b i v a l e n c e is by far t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n t e m p o r a r y a c c o u n t o f a n y e v e n t in the h i s t o r y o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e ) refleets o n l y t h e most traumatic moments. A s r e g a r d s the i m m e d i a t e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e revolt, Jevvish e v i d e n c e falls 2 . Y . Y a d ı n a n d J. N a v c h , Masada

L, The

Aramak

and Hebrew

Ostraca

and Jar

Inscriptions

(1989), j * f f . j . DJD

II, n o . « 9 — F i t z m y e r , PAT,

n o . 4 0 — Bcyer, AT, p. 3 0 7 . S e e Y a d i n a n d N a v c h , o p .

cit., 9 - 1 1 . 4. F o r a n e q u a ) l y b r i e f s u m m a r y s c c SchUrcr, HJP I, 6 0 3 - 6 0 6 . M o r e f u l l y in Y . M c s h o r c r , Ancient

Jeu/ish C o i n s II ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 9 6 — 1 3 » , a n d i d e m a p . Y a d i n a n d N a v c h , o p . c i t . , r o ı — 1 1 9 .

silent. \Ve h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n , hovvever, hovv T i t u s c e l e b r a t e d the fail o f J e r u s a l e m b y using c a p t i v c s for g l a d i a t o r i a l displays in a series o f G r e e k c i t i e s i n the r e g i o n . 5 C a e s a r e a vvas revvarded f o r its role as a base, a n d a s t h e p l a c e vvhere V e s p a s i a n vvas first hailed as E m p e r o r in p e r s o n , by b e c o m i n g a R o m a n co? lonia, a p p a r e ı ı d y vvithout t h e a r r i v a l o f nevv s e t d e r s / T h e legion X F r c t e n s i s vvas e s t a b l i s h c d a t J e r u s a l e m , vvhere s o m e h a b i t a t i o n evidently c o n t i n u e d . A p a r t f r o m t e r r i t o r y used f o r the l e g i o n a r y c a m p , a n d t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f eight h u n d r e d veterans n e a r J e r u s a l e m , o t h e r c o n f i s c a t c d land in J u d a e a vvas s o l d . 7 T h e c o n c r e t e a f t e r - e f f c c t s vvere thus p r o f o u n d — a b o v e ali in the e v i d e n t e n d ing o f t h e role o f J e r u s a l e m a s a p l a c e o f r e s o r t f o r the m a j ö r f e s t i v a l s — b j t stili far less d r a s t i c t h a n the vvholesale t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f p a t t e r n s o f settlem e n t vvhich t o o k place in t h e 130S. N o n e t h e l e s s the t o p o g r a p h y o f the r e g i o n d i d shovv s o m e

significant

c h a n g e s , part o f t h a t p r o c e s s o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f c o m t m ı n a l identities vvhich vvent on h e r e t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d , a t a level vvhich d i f f e r e n t i a t e s this a r c a from ali o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e N e a r E a s t . T h e fact t h a t I o p p e novv (as it s e e m s ) b c c a m e 'Flavia Ioppe* vvas p r o b a b l y n o m o r e t h a n the a c q u i s i t i o ı ı o f a n h o n orific title ( a n d in a n y c a s e t h i s title is knovvn o n l y f r o m c o i n s o f 218—2-22); the city h a d a m i x e d Jevvish a n d g e n t i l e p o p u l a t i o n in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y and after. 9 But i f vve knevv m o r e a b o u t it, the f o u n d a t i o n under V e s p a s i a n o f a 'nevv c i t y ' , N e a p o l i s , o n t h e s i t e o f t h e S a m a r i t a n village o f M a b a r t h a o r M a m o r t l ı a , m i g h t vvell s e e m very m u c h m o r e significant than o t h e r c h a n g e s in this p e r i o d . 9 F o r it lay very e l o s e t o the m a i n S a m a r i t a n c e n t r e o f S h e c h e m , a n d t h e f o u n d a t i o n m u s t s u g g e s t t h a t t h e S a m a r i t a n r e v o l t put dovvn in 6 7 h a d been o f s o m e i m p o r t a n c e . T h e c o i n s o f t h e city begin u n d e r D o m i t i a n , a n d shovv that it h a d been f o u n d e d a s e a r l y a s 7 2 / 7 3 , a n d a l s o h a d t h e tit!e ' F l a v i a ' . 1 0 W h a t vvc c a n n o t teli, given a c o m p l c t e l a c k o f e v i d e n e e , is vvhether t h e a p p e a r a n c c o f this nevv G r e e k city m c a n t t h e c r c a t i o n o f a nevv s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l f o r m a t i o n f o r a n existing p o p u l a t i o n , o r t h e i n t r o d u e t i o n o f new s c t t l c r s , o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f b o t h . I n an l ı o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n o f AÜ 1 2 3 / 1 2 4 , set up a t F^phesos, t h e city p r e s e n t s itself as ' t h e c o u n c i l a n d p e o p l e ( b o u l e and denıos)

o f the F l a v i a n N e a p o l i t a n S a m a r i a n s ' . T h e tvvo a m b a s s a d o r s ( t o the

then p r o c o n s u l o f A s i a , a n d f o r m e r legatus

o f J u d a e a ) are c a l l e d P h l a o u i o s

5. 2 . 4 a b o v e . 6. 2-4 a b o v e . 7 . S e c B . I s a a c , " J u d a e a a f t e r AD 7 0 " , JJS 3 5 ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; i d e m , Umits,

348.

8 . 1 0 . 1 3bovc. 9. C h . 6 a b o v e , i n c o n n e c t i o n v/ich F l a v i u s l u s ı i n u s . S e c J o s e p h u s , BJ I V , 8, r ( 4 4 9 ) , and Pliny, NH V 1 3 / 6 9 , b o t h w r i t t e n i n t h e 7 0 S , a n d c a i l i n g t h e p l a c c s i m p l y ' N e a p o l i s . ' 10.

BMC

(1985), 48-49.

Palestine,

4sff.; Y.

M e s h o r c r , City

Coins

of

Eretz-Israel

and

the

DecapoBs

I o u n k o s a n d O u l p i o s P r o k l o s — H e l l e n i s e d L a t i n n a m e s very c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t o f their f a m o u s C h r i s t i a n c o n t e m p o r a r y Flavius I u s t i n u s . " H c , a s w e saw, seems t o identify h i m s e l f a s a g e n t i l e c o n v e r t t o C h r i s t i a n i t y , a n d t o d i s tinguish S a m a r i t a n s (by r e l i g i o n ) as a s e p a r a t c g r o u p . 1 2 E q u a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , w e l l - k n o w n c o i n s o f F l a v i a N c a p o l i s , m i n t c d under A n t o n i n u s Pius a n d later, shovv a t e m p l e on a m o u n t a i n p e a k , vvith a long flight o f steps leading t o i t ; this h a s beeıı iııterpreted a s t h e p a g a n t e m p l e o f Z e u s H y p s i s t o s , said t o h a v e been c o n s t r u c t c d by H a d r i a n , a n d built (it s e e m e d f r o m e x c a v a t i o n s ) on t h e a e t u a l site o f the destroyed S a m a r i t a n t e m p l e . B u t in fact vvhat is portraycci seems t o be t h e lovver p e a k o f M o u n t G e r i z i m , Teli e r - R a s , vvhere the t e m p l e o f the I m p e r i a l period h a d r e c e n t l y been built. T h e S a m a r i t a n c e n t r e , a s nevv c x c a v a t i o n s arc r e p o r t e d t o h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d , had lain on t h c h i g h e r p e a k . l i Hovv vve s h o u l d envisage the r e l a t i o n s o f the f o r m a l l y G r e e k city, vvhich vvas t o b e c o m e a colonia

in 2 4 4 - 2 4 9 , vvith i t s t h e a t r c , h i p p o d r o m e a n d ( l a t e r ? )

a m p h i t h c a t r c , vvith thc c o n t i n u i n g S a m a r i t a n p o p u l a t i o n o f t h c a r c a is stili vvholiy o b s c u r c . It is n o t i m p o s s i b l e t h a t vvithin t h e c o n t c x t o f vvhat vvas in f o r m a l t e r m s a G r e e k city different religious c o n ı m u n i t i e s c o u l d h a v e c o - e x i s t e d successfully. A p a r a l i e l c a s e is o f f c r c d b y S c p p h o r i s in G a l i l e e , vvhich h a d been a d o r n c d b y H e r o d e s A n t i p a s a n d vvhich in 6 7 s c c m s t o h a v e been p r e d o m i n a n t l y Jevvish, b u t n o n e t h e l e s s t o o k t h e R o m a n side. I n 6 8 it issued s o m e

programmatic

c o i n s giving itself thc title ' E i r c n o p o l i s ('city o f p e a c e ' ) N e r o n i a s S c p p h o r ( i s ) ' . İn thc reign o f T r a j a n it vvas a g a i n issuing c o i n s as a G r e e k city, a n d b y t h c reign o f A n t o n i n u s Pius h a d n o t o n l y a c q u i r e d a p a g a n R o m a n - G r e e k n a m e , ' D i o k a i s a r e i a ' ( ' C a e s a r e a o f Z e u s ' ) , b u t vvas deseribing itself on its coiııs a s ' s a c r c d , inviolate a n d a u t o n o m o u s ' ,

in a vvay c h a r a c t c r i s t i c o f t h c

long-

e s t a b l i s h e d c i t i e s o n t h e c o a s t . B y the early third c e n t u r y t h e c o i n s even s p e a k o f f r i e n d s h i p a n d alliance vvith the R o m a n P e o p l e , a c l a i m t o paraliel t h a t vvhich U l p i a n m a d e a t t h c s a m e m o m e n t f o r T y r e — b u t surely vvith n o c o n crete

historical

justification.14

Renevved

excavations

have

also

revealed

s t r o n g l y p a g a n f c a t u r c s tlıerc Ln the s e c o n d a n d third c e n t u r i e s : a t h e a t r e vvhich m a y date b a c k t o the first century, a n d a m o n u m c n t a l b u i l d i n g , a p p a r cntly o f t h c third ccntury, c o n t a i n i n g a b c a u t i f u l m o s a i c vvith s c c n c s f r o m t h c 1 1 . 1 . K . Ephesos. iz.

no. 713.

C h . 6 abovc.

1 3 . F o r t h c c o i n s scc M . J. Pricc a n d B . I.. T r c l l , Coins

and Their

Cities

(1977),

171-175.

For a r e p o r t o f r c c e n t e x c a v a t i o n s s e e K . P u m r a e r , " Ş a m a m a n M a t e r i a l R e m a i n s a n d A r c h a e o l o g y " , in A . I X C r o v v n (cd.), The Samaritans 14.

BMC

Palestine,

(1989I, 1 3 $ , o n pp.

ıff.; Y. Mcshorcr,

N . M . W a g g o n c r (cds.), Greek

Numismatics

r c a d i n g s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . S c c a l s o RPC

"Scpphoris

and Archaeology I, 6 7 1 .

ı6}((.

and R o m e " ,

in O .

Morkholm

and

( 1 9 7 9 ) , 1 5 9 , vvith v e r y s p e c u l a ü v c

m y t h o f D i o n y s o s , in vvhich c h e e p i s o d e s a r e l a b e i i c d in G r e e k . 1 5 B u t a n o t h e r m o s a i c i n s e r i p t i o n , p r o b a b l y o f the earlier f o u r t h c e n t u r y , is in A r a m a i c and n a m e s R a b b i I u d a n . 1 6 W c c o u l d s a f c l y a s s u m e t h a t p a g a n a n d Jevvish c o m m u nities c o - e x i s t e d here. I f K p i p h a n i u s is right in s a y i n g t h a t u n d e r C o n s t a n t i n e t h e Jevvs follovved a p r i n c i p J e o f e x c l u d i n g gentiles f r o m Diocaesarea/Sepp h o r i s (vvhich is far f r o m c e r t a i n ) , this p r c d o m i n a n c c m a y h a v e been very r e c e n t . 1 7 F o r t h e p r e c e d i n g tvvo c e n t u r i e s it is better t o s u p p o s e t h a t the c e n t r a l r o l e o f S e p p l ı o r i s ( Ş Y P W R Y N , vvith v a r i a t i o n s , in r a b b i n i c texts) in t h e hist o r y o f r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m vvas played o u t in t h e c o n t c x t o f a s m a l l city vvhich n o t o n l y c o n t a i n e d gentiles a s vvcll a s Jevvs, b u t h a d a G r e e k c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d issued G r e e k c o i n s . 1 8 In spite o f m a n y a t t e m p t s , a s o c i a l a n d religious h i s t o r y based o n the vast m a s s o f r a b b i n i c literatüre c a n n o t yet b e vvritten, f o r the vvorks t h e m s e l v e s h a v e n o t been s t u d i e d in a vvay vvhich vvould p r o d u c e securely e s t a b l i s h e d t e x t s , let a l o u e a c l e a r c o n c e p t i o n o f the p r o c e s s e s a n d d a t e s o f their c o m p o s : d o n , o r o f t h e h a n d l i n g o f t r a d i r i o n s vvithin e a c h vvork. 1 9 I n s t c a d , vve s h o u l d use as a s t a r t i n g - p o i n t t h e q u i t c c x t e n s i v c e v i d e n c e vve h a v e f r o m s o u r c c s vvhich a r e u n q u e s t i o n a b l y c o n t e m p o r a r y , i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d p e r i s h a b l e d o c u m e n t s a b o v e ali, a s vvell a s t h e side-Iights o n the r e g i o n a v a i l a b l e f r o m C h r i s tian c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , s u c h as J u s t i n , O r i g c n a n d E u s e b i u s . Any s e r i o u s h i s l o r i c a l s t u d y m u s t g o from

there t o confront the complex mass o f

rabbinic

material. T h u s , r a t h e r than r e - c x a m i n c later s t o r i e s a b o u t R a b b i A k i b a a n d his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , if vve vvant s o m e s e c u r e vvay, hovvever Iimited, o f a p p r o a c h i n g the s e c o n d g r e a t r e v o l t , u n d e r B a r K o c h b a , vve s h o u l d a s k vvhat d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e vve h a v e for Jevvish life b e f o r e t h e vvar in t h e r c l c v a n t r e g i o n . F r o m t h e r e vve c o u l d g o on t o the -quitc c x t e n s i v c d o c u m c n t a t i o n e m a n a t i n g f r o m t h e s e c o n d i n d e p e n d e n t Jevvish s t a t e itself. T h e r e g i o n m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d vvas, a s vve savv, the hill-country o f s o u t h e r n J u d a e a a n d o f the f o r m e r I d u m a e a , a n d the a r c a a r o u n d t h e D c a d S e a , f r o m J c r i c h o s o u t h t o M a s a d a . W c vvill l o o k later a t t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a Jevvish f a m i l y living a e r o s s the n o t i o n a l f r o n tier, a t M a o z a in the k i n g d o m o f N a b a t a e a , a n d then the 'nevv p r o v i n c e c f 1 5 . See E. M . M c y e r s , E. N c t z e r and C . L . M e y c r s , " S e p p h o r i s — O r n a m e n t o f Ali G a l i l e e * , BA 4 9 . x ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 4 ; " A r t i s t r y i n S t o n c : T h e M o s a i c s o f A n c i e n t S c p p h o r i s " , BA 5 0 . 4 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 9 7 . 1 6 . F. H ü t t c n m c i s t c r a n d G . R c c g , Die antiken 1 7 . E p i p h a n i u s , Panarion 18. Set,

Synagogen

in Israel I ( 1 9 7 7 ) , 4c>off.

30, 1 1 , 10.

L , I, L c v i n c , The

Rabbinic

Class

of

Roman

Palestinc

in Late

Antitjuify

{1989), passim. 1 9 . S e e n o v v t h e a d m i r a b l y c l e a r g u i d e b y H . L . S t r a c k a n d G . S t e m b e r g e r , Inlroduclion ıhe Talmudand

Midrasb,

tj

t r a n s . M . B o c k m u e h l ( 1 9 9 1 ) , w h i c h m a k e s c l e a r h o v v f u n d a m e n t a l the

p r o b l e m s o f t h e n a t u r e a n d d a t e o f a l i these t e x t s a r e .

A r a b i a ' vvhich s u c c e e d e d it in 1 0 6 . 2 " B u t this s a m e ' a r c h i v e o f B a b a t h a ' h a p p c n s t o c o n t a i n a n u m b e r o f d o c u m c n t s relating t o E n g e d d i , a fertile spot o n the vvestern s h o r e o f t h e D e a d S e a , a n d s i t u a t e d in the p r o v i n c e o f J u d a e a — a n d a b o u t as r e m o t e f r o m the p r c s e n c c o f a n y t h i n g vve vvould cali a ' G r e e k c i t y ' a s it vvould bc possible t o g c t . Yet t h e y illustrate a g a i n the f a c t t h a t t h e Jevvish i n h a b i t a n t s o f this vvorld o f villages c o u l d n o t m e r e l y d e p l o y vvritten d o c u n ı e n t s f o r a variety o f p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , but c o u l d d o so in different l a n g u a g e s . As it h a p p e ı ı s , t h e m a i n t e x t o f e v c r y o n e o f t h e d o c u m c n t s o f t h e c a r l i c r s c c o n d c e n t u r y relating t o E n g e d d i is in G r e e k . 2 ' E n g e d d i indeed h a d b e c o m e a n i m p e r i a l p r o p e r t y : i n a d o c u m e n t dravvn u p in 1 2 4 'in E n g e d d i a village o f the L o r d C a e s a r ' , I o u d a s s o n o f E l a z a r acknovvlcdges a debt duc t o a R o m a n c e n t u r i o n there. P e r h a p s n o t surprisingly, the entire d o c u m e n t is i n G r e e k . B u t in the m a r r i a g e - c o n t r a c t o f 1 2 8 , a l s o in G r e e k , dravvn up a t M a o z a , t h e b r i d e g r o o m , vvho o r i g i n a t e d f r o m E n g e d d i , vvrote his acknovvlc d g m c n t o f t h e dovvry o f 5 0 0 denarii

vvith his o w n h a n d in A r a m a i c . T h e d c e d

o f gift in vvhich a fevv days l a t e r the f a t h e r o f the bride n a m e d her a s heir t o ali his p r o p e r t y in E n g e d d i gives a vivid i m p r e s s i o n o f hovv ' u r b a n ' even s u c h a small placc m i g h t b c , vvith a n a g o r a a n d p e r h a p s a s y n a g o g t ı e ; again tlıc f a t h e r m a k e s an a t t e s t a t i o n in A r a m a i c , a s d o m o s t o f the vvitnesses ( e x c e p t f o r o n e in G r e e k ) . Finally, on A u g u s t 7 , 1 3 1 , t h e y e a r b e f o r e t h e revolt b r o k e o u t , a c o n t r a c t vvas dravvn up i n G r e e k b y vvhich a Jevvish vvoman living in M a o z a vvas t a k e n in m a r r i a g e b y J e s u s s o n o f M e n a c h e m from t h e village o f S o p h p h a t l ı e ' n e a r ( ? ) the city o f L i v i a s o f t h e P [ c r a e a ? ] ' . T h e a r e a t o vvhich this netvvork o f families b e l o n g e d t h u s stretehed from t h e s o u t h e n d o f t h e D e a d S e a t o E n g e d d i , a n d t o the J o r d a n Valley t o the n o r t h . If vve did n o t knovv t h a t a g r e a t r e v o l t vvas t o e r u p t in t h e y e a r a f t e r t h e last o f t h e m vvas dravvn up, t h e s e d o c u m c n t s vvould give the i m p r e s s i o n o f a settled Jevvish s o c i e t y s p r e a d t h r o u g h a series o f villages, in vvhich c o m p l e x d o c u m e n t s vvere dravvn up t o c o v c r n o r m a l family a n d business r e l a t i o n s h i p s . G r e e k vvas the S t a n d a r d l a n g u a g e , vvith A r a m a i c generaily, tlıouglı n o t a l vvays, used for p e r s o n a l a t t e s t a t i o n s . O n e m i g h t s u p p o s e t h a t a p e a c e f u l a c c o m m o d a t i o n h a d b e e n r c a c h c d , vvithin vvhich the n o r m s o f Jevvish life c o u l d hc c x p r c s s e d in t h e d o m i n a n t l a n g u a g e o f culture, p u b i i c life a n d business. T h e s a m e i m p r e s s i o n m i g h t b e c o n v e y e d even m o r e s t r o n g l y by a c l o s c l y c o m p a r a b l e d o c u m e n t vvhich c o m e s f r o m t h e c c n t r a l a r c a o f J u d a e a p r o p e r . 2 2

20. Scc 1 1 . 2 and 1 1 , 4 b d o w . ı ı . P. Yadın

1 1 (AD 1 2 4 J , s c c 3.3 a b o v e ; 1 8 (AD 1 2 8 ) , scc c h . 1 a b o v e ; 1 9 (dced o f g i f t , AIJ

1 2 8 ) ; f o r t h e sante p r o p e r ı i e s , a l s o 2 0 ; $ 7 ( m a r r i a g e c o n t r a c t , AD 1 3 1 ) . 2 1 . DJD

II, n o . 1 1 5 . S e e E . K o f f m a h n , Die

i 2 6 f f . , w i ı h t h e m a p 011 p . 1 3 2 .

Doppelıtrkunden

aus der Wüsle

Juda

(1968),

T h i s is a r e - m a r r i a g e c o n t r a c t , vvritten in G r e e k a n d d a t e d b y t h e c o n s u l s o f 1 2 4 , a n d f o u n d in t h e W a d i M u r a b a ' a t . It vvas dravvn up in ' B a i t o b a i s s a i a . . . o f t h e toparchia

o f H e r o d i o n ' — t h e p l a c e stili called Beit B a s s a , 3 k m n o r t h -

vvest o f H e r o d ' s f o r t r e s s - p a l a c e . T h e b r i d e g r o o m is d e s c r i b e d a s ' o f t h o s e f r o m the village o f G a l o d a o f t h e d i s t r i c t a r o u n d A k r a b a t t a ' , a district in the n o r t h c r n p a r t o f J u d a e a p r o p e r , b o r d e r i n g o n S a m a r i a . B u t h e vvas a c t u a l l y r e s i d e n t in ' t h e village o f B a i t o a r d a o f t h e district a r o u n d G o p h n a ' , thus s o m e 2 0 k m n o r t h o f J e r u s a l e m . It vvas p r e s u m a b l y t h e b r i d c , S a l o m c , d a u g h t c r o f I o a n o s G a i g o u l a , vvho vvas resident n e a r H e r o d i o n . By a s t r o k e o f f o r t u n e this sir.gle G r e e k d o c u m e n t refleets the Jife o f a c i r c l e o f Jevvish c o u n t r y d i s t r i c t s r o u n d J e r u s a l e m , a fevv y e a r s b e f o r e the s e c o n d revolt b r o k e o u t . B o t h H e r o d i o n a n d G o p h n a fell vvithin the a r c a f r o m vvhich Jevvs vvere s o o n t o b e e x c l u d e d ; a n d S a l o m e m u s t h a v e been a relative o f the Y e s h u a s o n o f G a i g o u l a ( Y 5 W ' B N G L G L H ) vvho vvas s o o n t o find h i m s e l f rccciving p e r e m p t o r y lcttcrs in Hebrcvv f r o m t h e İcadcr o f t h e r e v o l t , S M ' W N B N K W S B H , m o r e generally knovvn a s B a r K o c h b a . O n l y t h e m o s t g e n e r a l p o i n t s as r e g a r d s the vvar a n d t h e q u i t e e x t e n s i v c d o c u m e n t a t i o n vvhich s u r v i v e s f r o m it necd b c m a d e h e r e . F i r s t , a s vvc savv carlicr, t h e arrival o f a s e c o n d legion in J u d a e a p r e c e d e d r a t h e r t h a n follov/ed t h e o u t b r e a k o f t h e r e v o l t . " S e c o n d , it novv s e e m s p r o b a b l e t h a t , a s C a s s i u s D i o ' s a c c o u n t implies, H a d r i a n ' s plan f o r a colonia

called Aelia Capitolina

a l s o p r c c c d c d r a t h e r t h a n vvas p r o m p t e d b y the r e v o l t . F o r s o m e o f t h e c c i n s o f t h e revived i n d e p e n d e n t J e w i s h s t a t e h a v e been f o u n d in h o a r d s a l o n g w i t h c o i n s o f the colonia.

A g e n e r a l ban o n c i r c u m c i s i o n vvas a l s o p r o m u l g a t e d ,

a n d m u s t b e relevant. 2 4 N o n a r r a t i v e o f t h e vvar is possible, o r r e q u i r e d . It is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o stress t h a t i t s m e a n i n g f o r t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s vvas again deliberately s y m b o l i s e d b y c o i n s vvith legends in P a l a e o - H e b r e v v s e r i p t o f Years O n e a n d Tvvo, a l o n g vvith o t h e r s vvhich are u n d a t e d . T h e series b e g i n s vvith silver t e t r a d r a c h m s shovving t h e T e m p l e on t h e o b v c r s e , a l o n g vvith the vvord Y R W S L M ; a n d o n t h e reverse a p a l m - b r a n c h a n d citrus-fruit vvith t h e vvords ' Y e a r O n e o f the R e d e m p t i o n o f I s r a e l ' : § N T * H T L G ' L T Y S R ' L . T h e role o f the p e r s o n n a m e d o n o t h e r c o i n s o f Y e a r O n e a s ' E l a z a r t h e priest' is a mystery. B u t t h e İcadcr o f the r e v o l t is n a m e d u n a m b i g u o u s l y a s t h e head o f an i n d e p e n d e n r s t a t e , ' S i m e o n , p r i n c c o f I s r a e l ' : S M ' W N N S Y ' Y S R ' L . W c necd n o t list ali t h e vario u s types a n d legends, c x c c p t t o n o t e t h a t in Y e a r Tvvo, a n d a l s o on u n d a t e d c o i n s , t h e r e a p p e a r t h e vvords ' f o r the f r e e d o m ( L H R W T ) o f I s r a e l ' o r ' o f Jerusalem'.

23. 3.3 above. 1 4 . F o r w h a c is stili t h e m o s t d e t a i l e d s u r v e y o f t h e e v i d e n e e , Schürer, HJPI, P. S c h a c f c r , Der

Bar Kochba-Aufstand

S 3 4 f f . Sec a l s o

( 1 9 8 1 ) . F o r t h e c o i n s o f t h e r e v o l t see i n g r e a t detail

T h e n u m e r o u s d o c u m e n t s ııovv knovvn f r o m vvithin t h e i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e , n o t ali o f t h e m yet fully p u b l i s h e d , teli a s i m i l a r b u t o f c o u r s e m o r e c o m p l e x s t o r y . " First, t h e y provide d a t e s f r o m Y e a r O n e t o Y e a r F o u r . T a k e n a s a series, t h e y c o n f i r m t h a t the vvar vvill have lasted s o m e three a n d a h a l f y e a r s , f r o m the spring o f 132. t o t h e a u t u m n o f 1 3 5 . T h e f o r m u l a e v a r y : in Y e a r s O n e a n d Tvvo it is ' f o r t h e r e d e m p t i o n o f I s r a e l ' ( L G ' L T Y S R ' L ) ; b u t in Y e a r T h r e e it is ' o f $ M ' W N B N K W S B ' N S Y ' Y S R ' L ' , o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y ' o f the f r e e d o m o f Israel', o r ' o f J e r u s a l e m ' , vvith o n c e ' i n the days o f S i m e o n ben K o s b a ' added, T h e o n l y d a t e d d o c u m e n t o f Y e a r F o u r returns t o ' o f the r e d e m p t i o n o f I s r a e l ' . T h e i d e o l o g y o f t h e s t a t e is u n a m b i g u o u s . O f s o m e thirty s u r v i v i n g d o c u m c n t s , t h r e e are in G r e e k a n d t h e rest d i v i d e m o r e o r less c q u a l l y betvveen Hebrevv a n d A r a m a i c . It is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t in a n a t i o n a l i s t r e v o l t G r e e k vvas used less r c a d i l y than it c l e a r l y h a d b e e n a m o n g t h e Jevvish p o p u l a t i o n o f the s a m e r e g i o n b e f o r e h a n d . O n e very sign i f i c a n t letter a c t u a i l y o f f e r s a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f vvhy it is vvritten in G r e e k ( t h e tvvo addressees, I o n a t h a s a n d M a s a b a l a , a p p e a r in o t h e r letters, a n d this o n e vvas f o u n d vvith o t h e r s in the ' C a v e o f L e t t e r s ' in the N a h a l H e v e r ) . U n f o r t u natcly, because o f a g a p in the t e x t , t h e precise n a t u r e o f t h e c x p l a n a t i o n i s u n c e r t a i n : 'It h a s been vvritten in G r e e k because t h e i m p u l s e

(Ihorjman)—or

[ H e r ) m a s (a p e r s o n ) ? — h a s n o t been f o u n d t o vvrite Hebraesti'.26

T h i s vvord

p r o b a b l y d o c s in this c o n t c x t m c a n 'I Icbrevv', n o t ' A r a m a i c ' . F o r t h e fact t h a t a vvhole series o f d o c u m e n t s , o f v a r i o u s types, a r e vvritten in Hebrevv is p e r haps t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t n o v e l t y o f this e v i d e n c e : t h e y inelude tvvo d e e d s o f s a l e o f land, c o n t r a c t s f o r leascs o f land, a n d letters b o t h by B a r K o c h b a h i m self a n d by o t h e r s . C o m p a r i s o n vvith e a r l i e r d o c u m e n t s d o e s suggest t h a t t h e use novv m a d e o f Hebrevv in m u n d a t ı e practical c o n t e x t s vvas a d e l i b e r a t e c h o i c e . B u t t h e fact t h a t it c o u l d bc so used is t h e decisivc d i s p r o o f o f the l o n g held n o t i o n t h a t Hebrevv h a d b y novv b e c o m e a d e a d l a n g u a g e , n o t s p o k e n o r vvritten, a n d used o n l y in r e l i g i o u s c o n t e x t s . T h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e Hebrevv used f o r t h e h u n d r e d s o f p a g e s o f t h e Mishnab,

c o m p i l e d in the earlier t h i r d

c e n t u r y , a n d the t h o u s a n d s o f p a g e s o f the Tosephta

('Addiüon'), probably o f

the late third o r f o u r t h ccntury, is i m m e d i a t e l y r e v e a l e d . 2 7

L M i l d c n b c r g , The

Coinage

of the Bar Kochba

orer, Ancient

Coinage

II ( 1 9 8 2 ) ,

Jeıvish

War ( 1 9 8 4 ) , 9 9 - 1 0 1 , o r m o r e b r i e f l y , I.. M e s h -

ff.

2 5 . S o f a r a s I carı d i s c o v e r , n o p r o v i s i o n a l h a n d list o f s u c h d o c u m c n t s h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d . O n e is t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e d , o n v e r y s u m m a r y l i n e s , in A p p . B. 26. A p p . B , no. r 9 . 2 7 . S e e n o v v M . Bar-Asher, " L ' H e b r e u m i s h n i q u e : £ s q u i s s e d ' u ı ı e d e s e r i p t i o n 1 * , CRAİ

(1990),

1 9 9 . T h e i m m e n s e c o m p ! c x i t i e s o f d a t i n g t h e T o s e f t a , o r its i n d i v i d u a l t r a e t a t e s , a r e d i s c u s s e d i n H . I.. S t r a c k a n d G . S t e m b c r g e r , Introduction

to the Talmud

and Midrash

(1991), ı67ff., con-

c l u d i n g ( p . 1 7 6 ) t h a t final r e d a c t i o n t o o k p l a c e i n t h e late t h i r d o r f o u r t h c e n t u r y .

B o t h iti these vvorks a n d in t h e B a r K o c h b a d o c u m e n t s Ilehrevv vvas o f c o u r s e dcpioyed in c l o s c c o n j u n c t i o n vvith G r c c k , vvith m u c h use o f l o a n vvords. O n t h c b a c k o f o n c o f t h e Hebrevv deeds o f sale t h e seller, K l e o p o s s o n o f E u t r o a p e l o s , signs vvith his ovvn h a n d in G r e e k ; his n a m e a p p e a r s in the b o d y o f the d o c u m e n t a s Q L B W S B R ' W T R P L W S (using t h e A r a m a i c f o r m o f ' s o n o f ' ) . 2 8 S i m i l a r l y , an A r a m a i c letter f r o m B a r K o c h b a uses t h e transliterated G r e e k vvord asphaleia:

B ' S P L Y ' ('vvith a s s u r a n c e ' ) . 2 9

A m i d t h e p r o c e s s e s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a n i n d e p e n d e n t territory, tvvo features c h a r a c t c r i s t i c o f a rcligiously inspircd n a t i o n a l r c b e l l i o n s t a n d o u t : t h e t h r e a t e n i n g t o n e required t o c o m p e l o b e d i e n c e , a n d the r e p e a t e d r e f e r e n c e s t o o b s e r v a n c e o f t h e S a b b a t h a n d t h e festivals, T a b e r ı ı a c l e s in particular. N o r e a l light is east on the c o u r s c o f t h e vvar itself, a n d n o n c o n t h c c l a i m m a d e by J u s t i n M a r t y r ( F l a v i u s I u s t i n u s from F l a v i a N e a p o l i s ) t h a t B a r K o c h b a h a d persecuted C h r i s t i a n s d u r i n g ir. 3 0 T h e r e is, hovvever, n o t h i n g i m p r o b a b l e in t h c idca t h a t t h e r e vvere a l r e a d y C h r i s t i a n s living in t h e a r c a t c m p o r a r i l y und e r B a r K o c h b a ' s c o n t r o l . A n y s u c h r e v o l t vvill c e r t a i n l y h a v e led t o i n t e r n a l d i v i s i o n s a m o n g the civilian p o p u l a t i o n . B e h i n d the brief n a r r a t i v e s o u r c e s , a n d t h c m u l t i l i n g u a l s e a t t e r o f d o c u m e n t s from vvithin t h c a r c a h e l d by t h c r e b e l s , t h e r e lie n o t o n l y a m a j ö r m i l i t a r y h i s t o r y but a s o c i a l a n d r e l i g : o u s crisis vvhich vve c a n a s yet o n l y diınly perceive.

10.4. SYRİA

PAI.AESTINA

T h c r e v o l t vvas e r u s h e d , vvith great civilian c a s u a l t i c s ; ' J u d a c a ' b c c a m e 'Syria P a l a e s t i n a ' u n d e r a c o n s u l a r legatus;

a s e c o n d R o m a n legion b e c a m e a p e r m a -

n e n t f e a t u r e ; a n d J e r u s a l e m a n d its t e r r i t o r y d u l y b e c a m e the colonia

o f Aelia

C a p i t o l i n a , c o n t a i n i n g t e m p l e s o f p a g a n dcitics, i n e l u d i n g V e n ü s a n d C a p i t o l i n e Iuppiter. Very little is knovvn o f the life o f this officially L a t i n - s p e a k i n g c o m m u n i t y , u p t o t h e point vvhen C o n s t a n t i n e intervened t o b u i l d c h u r c h e s in a n d n e a r it. 1 A l m o s t ali t h a t r e m a i n s o f thc colonia

is its u n r e m a r k a b l c

c o i n a g e vvith I.atin l e g e n d s , vvhich c o n t i n u e d vvith intervals until t h c 2 5 0 S - O n t h e o n e side it n a m e s a n d re p r e s e n t s t h e E m p e r o r o r E m p e r o r s , a n d on t h e o t h e r it n a m e s t h e colonia

a n d n o r m a l l y r e p r e s e n t s a d c i t y ( o r the s h e - w o l f

vvith R o m u l u s a n d R e m u s ) . 2 T h c very c o l o u r l c s s n e s s o f the t y p c s m i g h t itself b c t a k e n a s a sign o f hovv c f f e c t i v e l y H a d r i a n h a d i m p o s e d a n alien p r e s e n c e o n thc site o f J e r u s a l e m . 1 8 . A p p . B, no. 5. 29. A p p . B, no. 17. 30. Justin, I ApoL,

31.

1 . F o r A c l i a C a p i t o l i n a s c c M i l l a ç " R o m a n Coloniae",

1 8 - 3 0 . For Constantine's interven-

tion, 5.3 a b o v e . 2. S e c Y . M e s h o r e r , The

Coins

of Aelia

Capitolina

(1989).

T h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e colonia,

a c c o m p a n i e d a s it vvas by the e x c l u s i o n o f

Jevvs f r o m t h e s u r t o u n d i n g territory, m u s t b e seen a s decidedly t h e m o s t f a r r c a c h i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n by t h e E m p i r e in the s o c i a l s t r u e t u r e o f t h e r e g i o n , I t vvas n o t , hovvever, t h e last. A s vve savv, S e p p h o r i s h a d b e c o m e ' D i o c a e s a r e a ' by t h e r e i g n o f A n t o n i n u s P i u s , vvhile under S e p t i m i u s Severus, in

200,

b o t h Lydda ( L o d ) a n d ' B a i t o g a b r a ' ( B e t h G u v r i n ) e m e r g e vvith g r a n d i l o quent G r a e c o - R o m a n titles c o n n c c t i n g t h e m t o t h e S e v e r a n d y n a s t y : ' D i o s p o l i s ' a n d ' E l e u t h e r o p o l i s ' , b o t h entitled T . o u k i a S e p t i m i a S e o u e r i a ' . B o t h a l s o m i n t e d c o i n s vvith G r e e k l e g e n d s a n d p a g a n types. T h e r e s e e m s t o b c n o vvay o f assessing the c o n t e x t o r the c o n s e q u e n c e s o f these cxccpt

t h a t S c v c r u s m a y h a v e travelled

changcs;

t h r o u g h Syria P a l a e s t i n a ,

from

Egypt t o Syria C o e l e , in 2 0 0 / 2 0 1 , a n d t h a t it vvas he t o o vvho m a d e S e b a s t e into a colonia,

vvhich d u l y m i n t e d c o i n s vvith L a t i n legends. 1 W h c t h e r t h e

a m p h i t h c a t r e s e a t i n g s o m e five t h o u s a n d persons, e x c a v a t e d a t E l e u t h e r o p o l i s , vvas built a t this precise m o m e n t is n o t knovvn. 4 But its e x i s t e n c e is a n o t h e r hint t h a t , like so m a n y o t h e r places in t h e N e a r E a s t , this c i t y s h o u l d b c t h o u g h t o f a s G r a e c o - R o m a n , a produet o f t h e i m p e r i a l p e r i o d , rather than as 'Greek'. O n e vvay in vvhich an e x i s t i n g c o m m u n i t y m i g h t gain the s t a t u s o f a c i t y o r a colonia

vvas simply t o a s k f o r it. T h i s vvas t h e c a s e f o r i n s t a n c e vvith

E m m a u s , s i t u a t e d vvhere the J u d a e a n hills meet t h e p l a i n . E u s e b i u s , follovved by J e r o m e , r e c o r d s t h a t u n d e r E l a g a b a l , the C h r i s t i a n e h r o n o g r a p h e r I u l i u s A f r i c a n u s a c t e d as a m b a s s a d o r f o r E m m a u s , a n d o b t a i n c d f o r it t h e s t a t u s o f a city vvith t h e n a m e ' N i c o p o l i s V It is o f s o m e interest f o r t h e c u l t u r e o f P a laestina in this period t h a t this m a n , b o r n p e r h a p s in the ı 8 o s , t h e a u t h o r o f a v a r i e t y o f l e a r n e d vvorks in G r c c k , a n d later a c o r r c s p o n d c n t o f O r i g e n , s e e m s t o have been a native o f A e l i a C a p i t o l i n a . S o he s e e m s t o say h i m s e l f in a f r a g m e n t o f his Kestoi,

p r e s e r v e d o n p a p y r u s : f o r h e refers t o ' t h e a r c h i v e

o f ( o u r ? ) a n c i e n t native c i t y C o l o n i a Aelia C a p i t o l i n a in P a l a e s t i n a ' . 6 \Ve s h o u l d n o t u n d e r e s t i m a t e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f s u c h a e h a n g e o f identity: t o E u s e b i u s in t h e Onomasticon

' E m m a u s . . . is novv N i c o p o l i s o f P a l e s t i n e , a dis-

t i n g u i s h e d c i t y ' , a n d G e z e r c o u t ı t e d a s o n e o f its villages. 7 T h e c o i n s vvhich î t novv issued shovv t h a t it h a d a n c x t e n s i v e i m p e r i a l title: ' M ( a r k i a ) A u ( r e l i a )

3 . M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

38 ( S c b a s t c ) . S c v c r u s ' j o u r n e y is n o t p r c c i s c l y d a t e d , a n d m a y

h a v e b e e n b y s e a , c f . H a l f m a n n , Itinera,

2 2 0 - 2 2 1 . F o r t h e c o i n s s c c B M C Palestine,

xxiii-xxlv

(Diospolis), and lxv-lxvi (Eleutheropolis). 4. A . K l o n e r , " T h e R o m a n A m p h i t h e a t r e a t B c t h G u v r i n : P r e l i m i n a r y R e p o r t " , IEJ

38

( 1 9 8 8 ) , 155 . E u s e b i u s , Chron.

cd. Schocnc, II, 2 2 0 - 2 2 1 .

6. See J . - R . V i e l l e f o n d , L e s 'Cestes'

de Julius

Africanus

rrjç â p x o ( a ç * [ a l t p ( 6 o ç KoX<ı»v((alç [ A ) i X ( a ; Kanu
9 0 , 16; 66, zı

(Gezer).

( 1 9 7 0 ) , 2 8 9 - 2 9 1 : e v t e TOÎÇ öp^CFOıÇ

A n t ö n i n ( i a n a ) N i k o p o l i s ' . 8 T h r e e nevv c i t i c s vvith G r e e k n a m e s h a d b e e n crca t e d in t h e a r c a betvveen A e l i a a n d the c o a s t in t h e e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y , and f o r a b r i c f period ali issucd c o i n s shovving p a g a n deities. T h a t is o f c o u r s e n o t t o s a y t h a t s u c h f o u n d a t i o n s m e a n t radical social a n d c u l t u r a l c h a n g e s c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m c n t o f Aelia. B u t t h e y did, a s E u s e b i u s shovvs, literally c h a ı ı g c t h e m a p o f P a l e s t i n e , a n d t h e y m u s t h a v e m e a n t c h a n g e s in t h e s t r u e t u r e a n d n o m e n c l a t u r e o f local g o v e r n m e n t

and

office-holding. O n e c f f c c t s e e m s t o h a v e been, as vvc h a v e s c c n , t h a t villages m i g h t be d e f i n c d as b e l o n g i n g 'in the t e r r i t o r y ' o f a nevvly f o u n d e d cit)'. An e x a m p l e o f this is Z i p h in I d u m a e a , d e f i n e d b y E u s e b i u s as follovvs: ' o f t h e tribe o f J u d a h . It is novv a kömö

in t h e D a r o m a s in t h e t e r r i t o r y o f E l c u t h c r o p o l i s , n e a r I-Ie-

b r o n , e i g h t ( R o m a n ) miles t o the s o u t h . W h e r e D a v i d h i d ' . 9 T h i s d e f i n i t i o n h a p p e n s t o be o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e , f o r it is f r o m this p l a c e t h a t vve h a v e vvhat s e e m s t o b e the o n l y b i l i n g u a l inseription refleeting (if in a highly p u z zling vvay) t h e politieal s t r u e t u r e o f the region a s it vvas in the third c e n t u r y . 1 0 T h e G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n , o n a n ossuary, is straightforvvard: ' K u n ö r o s s o n o f Diodo|to|s, prötopoleites'

('leading

citizen').

The

Aramaic

parallel

text

r o u g h l y t r a n s l i t e r a t e s his n a m e — Q N R W S B R D Y T V C ' S — b u t t h e n d e s e r i b e s h i m a s R S [ M J R W M o r [ M ] R Y M , It s e e m s q u i t e u n c e r t a i n vvhether t h e seco n d vvord is i n t e n d e d t o s i g n i f y a g r o u p o f p e o p l e ( ' c i t i z e n s ' ) o r a r e g i o n ( ' t h e high l a n d ' , ' D a r o m a s ' , o f t h e H e b r o n a r e a ) . But R S c l e a r l y m e a n s ' h c a d [ o f ] ' a n d refers t o his s t a t u s a s a ' l e a d i n g citizen*; on a n y c o n s t r u c t i o n it h a s s o m e b e a r i n g o n e x a g g e r a t e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f vvhat might have been m e a n t b y R S T D M R in c o n t e m p o r a r y P a l m y r a . 1 1 T h e m o s t likely c o n t e x t here is t h a t the m a n c o n c e r n e d vvas a local landovvncr vvho vvas a m e m b e r o f t h e leading g r o u p ( s o m e t i m e s d e s c r i b e d as pröteuontes)

in the boule

o f Eleutheropolis.

Ali discussions seem t o assurne t h a t h e vvas Jevvish, vvhich is o f c o u r s c p o s s i b l c . But t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o r u l e o u t the possibility t h a t this is a g e n t i l c n o t a b l e b e i n g e n v i s a g e d t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m b o t h o f G r e e k a n d o f the A r a m a i c o f t h e g e n t i l e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e a r e a ; s o m e , but o n l y s o m e , o f t h e villages :n this region vvere vvholly Jevvish. 1 2 T h e r e vvere stili Jevvish c o m m u n i t i c s in this a r e a , but they e x i s t e d i n a c o n t c x t vvhich vvas ever m o r e d o m i n a t e d by cities vvith G r a e c o - R o m a n n a m e s . 8. BMC the

Roman

Palestine, Period

1 5 9 - 1 6 1 ; Y . M e s h o r c r , City-Coins

of Eretz

Israel and the Decapolis

in

( 1 9 8 5 ) , 56. By i m p l i c a t i o n I r e m a i n u n c o n v i n c c d t h a t t h c r c c a n h a v e been

minting by Nicopolis under M a r c u s Aurelius. 9. E u s e b i u s , Onom.

92, 1 5 .

10. L. Y. R a h m a n i , " A Bilingual Ossuary-Inscription f r o m K h i r b e t Z i f " , I E J 22 ( 1 9 7 2 ) , 1 1 3 ; SEC

X X V I , n o . 1 6 8 8 ( G r e e k o n l y ) ; F i t / m y e r , PAT. p p . 2 7 2 ( A 5 3 ) ; Bcyer, AT. p. 3 6 8 . ı x . 4.3 above. 12. r o . ı above.

O n e t r a c e o f arı A r a m a i c - s p e a k i n g Jevvish c o n ı m u ı ı i t y lıerc c o m e s f r o m E s h t e m o n a , s o u t h o f H e b r o n , o n e o f t h e places deseribed by J o s e p h u s as ' a v e r y large kötne

o f loudaioi':

an A r a m a i c inseription vvas put u p in the f o u r t l ı

c c n t u r y t o t h e m e m o r y o f a cohen

c a l l e d E ( ? ) l a z a r a n d his s o n s , vvho h a d

given p a r t o f a s y n a g o g u e ( D K Y R L T B L ' Z R K H N [ ' ] \ V B N W Y . . .). 1 3 S o far as o u r e v i d e n c e g o e s , hovvever, it vvas n o t p r i m a r i l y here but in t h e n o r t h e r n z o ı ı c , a b o v e ali in G a l i l e e a n d the G o l a n , t h a t ' r a b b i n i c ' J u d a i s m d e v e l o p e d . T h i s a r c a t o o vvas e n c i r c l e d by G r c c k citics like P t o l e m a i s , C a e s a r e a , l o p p e , Scythopolis/Beth S h c a n , G a d a r a a n d H i p p o s ; a n d G a l i l c c c o ı t tained G r e e k c i t i e s vvithin it, T i b e r i a s a n d D i o c a e s a r e a / S e p p h o r i s , vvhere it is p r o b a b l e t h a t Jevvish i n f l u c n c c g r a d u a l l y c a m e t o p r e d o m i n a t e . H e r e t o o vve find o n e f u r t h e r c x a m p l e o f thc c m c r g e n c c o f a G r a e c o - R o m a n city. M u c h o f the h i s t o r y o f the r e g i o n is e n c a p s u İ 3 t e d in the f a c t t h a t t h e village o f C a p a r c o t n a (spelled in v a r i o u s vvays), in the valley o f J e z r e e l , first c a m e t o b e knovvn as ' L c g i o ' ( ' L e g e ö n ' in G r c c k ) a f t e r thc legion VI F c r r a t a vvas c s t a b l i s h c d t h e r e u n d e r H a d r i a n , a n d then in t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y a p p e a r s a s ' M a x i m i a n o p o l i s a , a G r a e c o - R o m a n n a m e e v i d e n t l y derived f r o m the full n a m e o f the t e t r a r c h G a l e r i u s (C. G a l c r i u s Valcrius M a x i m i a ı ı u s ) . W c knovv n o t h i n g o f hovv this c a m c a b o u t (and in fact it vvas t h c L a t i n t e r m vvhich vvas t o p a s s into A r a b i c as the p l a c e - n a m e ' L e j j u n ' ) . B u t the m a p h a d c h a n g e d ali the s a m e , as vve see in t h e r e p o r t o f the itıdirect r o u t e by vvhich the B o r d e a u x Pilgrim o f 3 3 3 a p p r o a c h c d J e r u s a l e m : f r o m C a e s a r e a , vvhere t h e r e vvas t h c b a t h o f C o r n c l i u s the centurion;

t o t h c 'civitas

Maximianopolis';

t o the ' c i v i t a s

Stradela'

(Esdraela/Jezreel), vvhere E l i j a h h a d p r o p h e s i e d a n d D a v i d h a d killed G o l i a t h ; a n d then t o S c y t h o p o l i s . 1 4 As M a r t i n G o o d m a n ' s i m p o r t a n t s t u d y h a s shovvn, vve h a v e t o see t h e J u d a i s m o f p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a n c e s vvhich vvas t a u g h t b y t h e r a b b i s as e m e r g i n g , a n d slovvly vvinning a p r e c a r i o u s a u t h o r i t y , in a vvorld o f villages vvhich vvere largcly but n o t vvholly Jevvish, a n d vvere e n c i r c l e d b y G r a e c o - R o m a n c i t i e s vvhere Jevvs vvere in a m i n o r i t y . 1 5 F o r the c u l t u r a l a n d religious h i s t o r y o f S y r i a P a l a e s t i n a , the m o s t significant o f these c i t i e s vvas o f c o u r s e C a e s a r e a , novv a R o m a n colonia

a n d t h e n o r m a l residencc o f thc legatus,

a n d a p l a c c vvhere,

as vve savv earlier, e v e n a T e t r a r c h m i g h t reşide a n d put o n vvild-beast shovvs in R o m a n style. But it vvas a l s o a G r e e k city, a n d d e v e l o p e d i n t o a m a j ö r centre o f Christian seholarship in G r e e k : Origen taught there from thc 2 3 o s t o his d e a t h in the e a r l y 250S; P a m p h i l u s c s t a b l i s h c d his l i b r a r y there; a n d h i s x j . S e e F. H ü t t e ı ı m e i s r c r a n d G . R e e g , Die

anliken

Synagogen

in Israel

I (1977),

117-121;

Beyer, AT, p. 3 6 5 . 1 4 . ilin.

Burd.

5 8 5 - 5 8 6 . See, hovvever, A . Z e r t a l , " T h e R o m a n R o a d C a c s a r c a - G i n a c a n d

t h e L o c a t i o n o f C a p c r c o t a n i " , PEQ

1 2 2 (1990, pub. r992), 2 1 , giving a different v i c w of t h c

topography. 1 5 . M . D . G o o d m a n , State and Subject

in Ronıan

Galilee,

AD

132—212 (1983).

p u p i l E u s e b i u s vvas b i s h o p f r o m a b o u t 3 1 3 u n t i l 335». B u t t h e r e vvas a l s o an i m p o r t a n t Jevvish c o m m u n i t y , vvith vvhich O r i g e n h a d r e g u l a r c o n t a c t , a n d t h e c i t y t h u s r e p r e s e n t e d o n e o f the e s s e n t i a l p o i n t s o f r e f e r e n c e o n the r n a p o f the b i l i n g u a l , o r t r i l i n g u a l , vvorld o f d e v e l o p i n g r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m . N o ref l e c t i o n o f t h a t is m o r e v i v i d t h a n t h e a n e e d o t e in t h e J e r u s a l e m T a l m u d o f hovv R a b b i L e v i vvent t o C a e s a r e a ( Q Y S R Y N ) a n d h e a r d t h e m r e a d i n g the S h e m a ' ( 4 H e a r , O Israel . . . ' ) in G r e e k ( ' L Y N S T Y N J . H e vvas i n d i g n a n t a n d vvanted t o s t o p t h e m . B u t t h e m o r e g e n e r a l vievv vvas t h a t it c o u l d b e r e a d in any language.16 I . e s s s i g n i f i c a n t c o m p r o m i s e s h a d t o b e m a d e ali t h e t i m e . B y i t s g e n t i l e i n h a b i t a n t s S c y t h o p o l i s , f o r i n s t a n c e , vvas p u b l i c l y p r o e l a i m e d a s ' ( o n e ) o f the G r e e k c i t i e s o f C o e l e S y r i a ' . T o Jevvs vvho vvishcd t o o b e y t h e Lavv, it r e p r e s e n t e d a p a r t l y f o r e i g n vvorld, a n d it m i g h t be difficult t o knovv vvhether or vvhen b u s i n e s s c o u l d be d o n e vvith t h e g e n t i l e s t h e r e o r n o t . I n a n y c a s e , for

Mishnab

the c o m p i l e r s o f the

t h e n a m e o f the j ı l a c e vvas n o t ' S c y t h o p o l i s ' ,

b u t , a s it alvvays h a d b e e n , ' B c t h S h c a n ' ( B Y T S ' N o r B Y S ' N ) : ' I f t h e r e vvas an i d o l a t r o u s festival in a c i t y ( ' Y R ) a n d s o m e s h o p s t h e r e i n vvere a d o r n e d a n d o t h e r s n o t a d o r n e d — s u c h a c a s e h a p p e n e d in B e t h S h e a n a n d the S a g e s said: T h o s e that ar e a d o r n e d ar e forbidden and t h o s e that a re n o t a d o r n e d a r e p e r m i t t e d ' . 1 7 S c y t h o p o l i s / B e t h S h e a n vvas c l e a r l y a g e n t i l e , p a g a n city, t h o u g h t h e r e vvere Jevvs vvho vvere r e s i d e n t t h e r e . 1 8 Elsevvhere it m i g h t b e u n c c r t a i n vvhether Jevvs o r g e n t i l e s vvere in t h e m a j o r i t y : ' I f b o t h I s r a c l i t e s ar.d g e n t i l e s dvvelt in a c i t y a n d in it vvas a b a t h - h o u s e vvhich vvas o p e n a n d h e a t e d f o r b a t h i n g o n t h e S a b b a t h , if m o s t ( o f the p e o p l e in the c i t y ) vvere g e n t i l e s ( a n I s r a c l i t c ) m a y b a t h e t h e r e at o n c e ( a f t e r t h e e l o s e o f t h e S a b b a t h ) ;

btıt

if m o s t o f t h e m vvere I s r a e l i t e s , h e m u s t vvait t i m e c n o u g h f o r the vvater t o be heated'.19 The

Mishnab

itself b e l o n g s explicidy to precisely the s a m e bilingual or

t r i l i n g u a l vvorld vvhich the d o c u m e n t s o f t h e p e r i o d u p t o B a r K o c h b a r e v e a l ; f o r i n s t a n c e it a c c e p t s t h a t a v a l i d bili o f d i v o r c e ( G T ) m i g h t b e vvritten in

16. F o r shovvs a t C a e s a r e a , c h . 1 , a n d 5 . 2 a b o v e . S c c , e . g . , L . I. I « v i n c , Caesarea Roman

Rule

( 1 9 7 5 ) ; J. R i n g e l , Cisarie

N . R . M . d c L a n g e , Origen

de Palestme:

and the fews

8 ı f f . ; L . I. L e v i n c , The Rabbinic

Class

1 7 . Mishnah,

Aboda

historitjue

et arch6ologique

( 1 9 7 6 ) ; T. D . B a r a e s , Constantine

of Roman

f r o m t h e J e r u s a l e m T a l m u d is Sofa 7 , 1

Etüde

Palcstine

in Lale Antiquity

and Eusebius

under (1975); (1981),

(1989). T h e passage

(21b).

Z a r a b 1 , 4 ( t r a n s . D a n b y ) . F o r S c y t h o p o l i s as ' o n c o f t h e G r e e k c i t i c j ' ,

ch. 1 above. 1 8 . 1 0 . 2 a b o v e . F o r o s s u a r i c s o f Jevvs f r o m S c y t h o p o l i s i n J e r u s a l e m scc, e . g . , Frey, CIJ

II,

n o s . r j 7 2 - x j 7 4 , ali b i l i n g u a l in C . r c e k a n d H e b r e v v ( e . g . , IIcunaç/PPYS H B § N Y ) . S c c G . F u k s , " T h e J c w s o f H c l l c n i s t i c a n d R o m a n S c y t h o p o l i s " , JJS 33 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 4 0 7 . 1 9 . Mishnah,

Maksbirin

2, 5 , t r a n s . D a n b y .

Hebrevv a n d vvitııessed in G r e e k , o r vice v c r s a . 2 0 M o r e o v e r , m a n y o f the f o r m s o f r c a s o n i n g e m p l o y e d h e r e a n d in later r a b b i ı ı i e t e x t s have e l o s e p a r a l l c l s in G r e e k t h o u g h t a n d G r e e k m e t h o d s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t e x t s . 2 1 B u t t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s d o n o t h i n g s i g n i f i c a n t t o dinıinish t h e p r o f o u n d o r i g i n a l i t y a n d distinetiveness o f this vast w o r k a n d its s u e e e s s o r s — a s e m b o d y i n g arı e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e r c q u i r e d rules o f e o n d u e t in a Jevvish c o n t e x t ; a s a l i t e r a r y e o m p o s i t i o n in a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e , a p p a r e n t l y r e a c h i n g vvritten f o r m in t h e third c e n t u r y ; a n d , in the t r a e t a t e ' S a y i n g s o f the F a t l ı e r s ' , as the c o n s c i o u s cxprcssion of a chain of tradition going back to M o s c s . \Vhether a n d in vvhat vvay a history o f the Jevvish c o m m u n i t y c o u l d o r should b e vvritten by using the v a s t m a s s o f r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t ü r e is a q u e s t i o n vvhich vvill n o t even b e a t t e m p t e d h e r e . Instead, a different q u c s t i o n vvill b e a s k e d : vvhat t r a c c h a s t h e u n i q u e religious a n d social d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e Jevvish c o m m u n i t y in this period left e i t h e r in t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l o r d o c u m e n t a r y r e c o r d o r in a c c o u n t s o r r c f e r c n c c s by o u t s i d e o b s c r v e r s ? F o r i n s t a n c e , a n y series o f m a p s o f p l a c e - n a m e s i n this a r e a in c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e vvould shovv a c o n t i n u i n g s p r e a d o f c i t i e s vvith ı n i x c d G r a e c o - L a t i n n a m e s , a t t h e c x p e n s e o f a s u r r o u n d i n g netvvork o f villages vvith S e m i t i c nantes. S i m i l a r l y , by their n a t u r e , t h e q u i t c l o n g s c r i c s o f inseriptions left in the H u l c h V a l l e y a n d the G o l a n b y t h e kensitores

at vvork u n d e r the T e t r a r e h y refleets just t h e

s a m e m i x t u r e o f village a n d c o m m u n a l n a m e s as vve find in the l i m e s t o n e m a s s i f o f n o r t h e r n Syria o r in t h e H a u r a n . 2 2 W e c o u l d n o t teli f r o m them t h a t this vvorld o f villages vvas Jevvish a t a l i . I f it vvere the c a s e t h a t t h e r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m o f this period h a d left n o t r a c e iıı o u r e v i d e n c e o u t s i d e its ovvn m a s s i v e t e x t s , a s c r i o u s h i s t o r i c a l p r o b l e m vvould arisc. F o r i f vve h a d t o t r e a t this a s a n e x a m p l e o f a local culture, vvhose reality is b e y o n d d o u b t , b u t vvhich is invisible in t h e e x t e r n a l r e c o r d , a m a j ö r q u e s t i o n vvould c o n f r o n t u s a s r e g a r d s ali the o t h e r r e g i o n s o f the N e a r E a s t . M i g h t a pagan 'Syriac', ' A r a b ' o r 'Oricntal' culture and tradition also have been t r a n s m i t t e d t h e r e vvithout l e a v i n g a n y physical t r a c e ? I n fact this p r o b l e m d o e s n o t arise. O n t h e negative side, t h e rural t e m p l e s o f t h e i m p e r i a l p e r i o d , vvhich a r e so f r c q u e n t on M o u n t 1 l e r m o n , a r o u n d t h e B e k a a Valley a n d on M o u n t L e b a n o n , a r e n o t t o b e f o u n d in the n e i g h b o u r i n g h i l l - c o u n t r y o f G a l i l e e . In t h a t s e n s e the temple a t K a d e s h ( K y d a s a o r K a d a s a ) , vvhich J o s e p h u s savv a s a T y r i a n o u t p o s t c o n f r o n d n g the Jevvish a r e a ,

10. Mishnah. Gittin 9, 8. ıx.

See P. S. A l c x a n d c r , " Q u i d A t h c n i s ct H i e r o s o l y m ı ' s ? R a b b i n i c M i d r a s h a n d H c r m e n c ı » -

tics i n t h e G r a c c o - R o m a n W o r l d " , i n P. R . D a v i e s a n d R . T . W h i t e (eds.), A Tribute Vermes:

Essays on Jeu/ish and Christian

22. Scc A p p . A .

literatüre

and History

(1990), 101.

to

Geza

d o e s m a r k a real ' f r o n t i e r ' . " S e c o n d , the e m e r g e n c e o f ' r a b b i ' as a title is very w c l l d o c u m c n t c d i n t h e i n s c r î p t i o n a i r e c o r d . R B m e a n i n g ' m a s t e r ' o r ' l o r d ' is a t t e s t e d in o t h e r S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s o f t h e p e r i o d ; f o r i n s t a n c e vve h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d in P a l m y r a R B $ W K for ' c o n t r o l l e r o f the m a r k e t ' o r R B H Y C for ' c o m m a n d e r o f t h e a r m y ' . 2 4 B u t it vvas o n l y in H e b r e v v a n d J e v v i s h A r a m a i c t h a t t h e f o r m o f a d d r c s s in t h e first p e r s o n , R B Y ( ' m y m a s t e r ' ) , b e c a m c ( l i k e ' m o n s i e u r ' o r ' m o n s i g n o r e ' ) a t i t l e vvhich c o u l d b e u s e d i n t h e t h i r d p e e s o n a n d a t t a c h e d t o s o m e o n e ' s r t a m e . O n c e t h a t u s a g e vvas e s t a b l i s h e d , it c a m e i m m e d i a t c l y i n t o u s e in G r e e k , a n d l a t e r L a t i n , t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n . T h u s e v e n a n e p i g r a p h i s t vvho vvas vvholly u n a v v a r e o f r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m vvould b e c o n f r o n t e d vvith t h i s d i s t i n c t i v e t i t l e a t t a c h e d t o n a m e s , b u t

not

usually a c c o m p a n i e d by t h e indication o f a n y o t h e r office o r f u n e t i o n .

The

p r o b l e m vvould o f t e n r e m a i n , hovvever, o f t r y i n g t o d a t e t h i s u s a g e . F o r i n s t a n c e it a p p e a r s o n t o m b - i n s e r i p t i o n s i n H e b r e v v , G r e e k a n d A r a m a i c f r o m I o p p e ( J a f f a ) ; b u t n o p r e c i s e d a t e c a n b e a t t a c h e d t o a n y o f t h e s e . 2 5 It i s b e s t a t t e s t e d in t h e i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e vvell-knovvn n e c r o p o l i s o f B e t h S h c ' a ı i m , d a t i n g t o t h e t h i r d a n d e a r l i e r f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s , vvhich r e p r e s e n t s t h e m o s t significant archaeological riod.26

a n d d o c u m e n t a r y side-light o n the rabbinic

pe-

Tvvo a s p e c t s o f t h e n e c r o p o l i s a r e o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c c . O n c i s i t s

l o c a t i o n , o n t h e s o u t h e r n , o r south-vvestern, edge o f t h e G a l i l c a n hills, f a c i n g o u t o v e r t h e n o r t h - v v e s t e r n c o r n e r o f t h e P l a i n o f J e z r e e l ; t h e o t h e r is t h a t t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l a n g u a g e o f t h e i n s e r i p t i o n s is G r e e k . ' R a b b i ' ( R B Y i n H e b r e v v ) a p p c a r s in a v a r i e t y o f t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n s in G r e e k : ' r a b b i ' , ' r a b i ' , ' r i b ' , ' r i b b ? o r c o n t r a c t e d a s V . H e r e t o o , Hebrevv, A r a m a i c and G r e e k (and occasionally, in t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n , L a t i n ) f u n e t i o n e d in e l o s e c o n j u n c t i o n . In C a t a c o m b 2 0 , f o r i n s t a n c e , vvc c a n find H e b r e w i n s e r i p t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o a n e x t e n d c d

rabbinic

f a m i l y ('this is the s a r e o p h a g u s o f t h e three s o n s o f R a b b i J u d a n , t h e s o n o f R a b b i M i a s h a ' — R B Y Y W D N B N W $ L R B Y M Y ' S H ) , vvhile in C a t a c o m b 1 a G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n i n c o r p o r a t e s tvvo t r a n s l i t e r a t e d L a t i n vvords ' t o m b ' — a n d palatinos),

(tnemorion—

a s vvell a s u s i n g ' R i b b i ' a s a t i t l e a t t r i b u t e d t o a m a n

vvith a G r e e k n a m e , P a r e g o r i o s . 2 7 H e r e , a s e v e r y v v h e r e i n t h e N e a r E a s t , G r e e k

13. 8 . j above. 2 4 . 9 . 4 a b o v e . See C . F. J e a n a n d J.-J. H o f t i j z e r , Dictionnaire l'Ouest

des inseriptions

stmitiquts

de

1 9 6 5 ) , s.v. R B .

1 5 . S c c , c . g . , F r c y , CIJII,

no. 8 9 2 (Aramaic); 9 0 0 ( G r c e k / H c b r c w bilingual).

26. The inseriptions have nor ali been assembled in cohercnt form, and il is unfortunatethat even vvhere they have been collected, the purely Semitic-language inseriprions have been sepa* r a t e d f r o m the G r c c k a n d b i l i n g u a l ones. B u t s c c B . M a z a r , Betb She'arim

I, Catacombs

( 1 9 7 3 ) , c h . 5 , I I e b r e w a n d P a l m y r e n e inseriptions; M . S c h w a b c a n d B. L i f s h i t z , Beth U , The Greek

inseriptions

( 1 9 7 4 ) ; N . A v i g a d , Beth She'arim

İ D , Catacombs

4, H c b r c w and A r a m a i c inseriptions.

27, Catacomb 20: 01, p. 247, n o . 22; Catacomb 1: II, p. 40, no. 61.

12-23

1-4

She'arim

( 1 9 7 6 ) , ch.

a n d S c m i t i c p e r s o n a l n a m e s m i n g l e ; vvhat is distinetive is t h e c o n t i n u e d u s e o f b o t h Hebrevv a n d A r a m a i c , a n d t h e r e p e a t c d p r e s e n c e o f a u n i q u c p e r s o n a l title. Its m e a n i n g is novvhere e x p l i c i t l y i n d i c a t e d ; b u t its p r e s e n c e is n o n e t h e less t e s t i m o n y t o the i m p o r t a n t r o l e o f r a b b i s , a s t h e Mishnah,

follovvcd b y

s u b s e q u e n t Jevvish literatüre, d i s p l a y s it. S y n a g o g u e s , a s p l a c e s 4 f o r r e a d i n g o f the Lavv a n d the t e a c h i n g o f t h e c o m m a n d m e n t s ' , a r e o f c o u r s e firmly a t t e s t e d b y d o c u n ı e n t a r y e v i d e n c e f r o m b e f o r e the fail o f t h e T e m p l e , b y J o s e p h u s a n d by t h e N e sv T e s t a m e n t ; a n d b u i l d ings vvhich m a y vvell have been s y n a g o g u e s o f t h a t period are knovvn f r o m H e r o d i o n , M a s a d a a n d G a m l a , t h o u g h n o n e is e x p l i c i t l y identified in vvord s a s s u c h . By t h a t test, it vvould h a v e t o b e a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e r e is very little u n a m b i g u o u s d o c u m e n t a r y p r o o f o f t h e c x i s t c n c e o f s y n a g o g u e s in G a l i l e e a n d t h e G o l a n even in t h e r a b b i n i c p e r i o d . E v e n the t h r e e

archisynagögoi

a t t e s t e d at B e t h S h e ' a r i m are a l i identified a s h a v i n g c o m e f r o m elsevvhere: Berytus, Pamphylia and Sidon.28 Yet there are a number o f public buildings o f this p e r i o d f r o m G a l i l e e vvhich a r e c e r t a i n l y n o t t e m p l e s a n d do n o t h a v e a l t a r s o r p a g a n inseriptions, a n d are identified a s Jevvish by the p r e s e n c e o f Jevvish s y m b o l s — a n d a l s o , m o r e significantly, by i n s e r i p t i o n s in s t o n e o r m o saic, vvhich m a y again b c H e b r e w , G r e e k o r A r a m a i c , a n d vvhich usually r e f e r t o the giving o r c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s o m e part o f the building in q u e s t i o n . M o s t a r e thus local o f f - s h o o t s , in a m u l t i l i n g u a i c o n t c x t , o f t h e H c l l e n i s t i c

euerge-

$/<7-inscription. H a r d l y a n y o f t h e buildings i n c o r p o r a t e i n s e r i p t i o n s giving a precise d a t e , a n d n o n e is f o r m a l l y labelled a s a s y n a g o g u e <proseuche, o r m o r e c o m m o n l y in this period synagögc,

in G r e e k ; B T H K N S T in Hebrevv).

T h e e x c e p t i o n a l c a s e is a G r e e k d e d i c a t i o n f r o m Q a s y o n north o f Z e f a t vvhich vvas put up ' f o r t h e s a f e t y ' o f S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s a n d his family. T h e f r a g m e n t a r y t c x t idcntifics t h e d c d i c a n t s a s Ioudaioi, vvhether t h e r e is a reference t o their ' p r a y e r ' (eııche) (lpros]eu<Jje).

b u t Icaves it u n c l e a r or to a

synagogue

T h e i n s e r i p t i o n c o m e s from a p u b l i c building, b u t t h e p r e s e n c e

o f a n c x t c r i o r p o r t i c o m a k e s it u n c c r t a i n vvhether it s h o u l d be classified as a s y n a g o g u e . 2 9 M u c h m o r e c e r t a i n is the building at C h o r a z a i n , 4 k m n o r t h o f C a p e r n a u m , vvhich h a s the e x p e c t e d f o n n o f a s y n a g o g u e , being a n o b l o n g s t r u e t u r e o f s o m e 2 3 m b y 1 7 m , divided by tvvo lines o f pillars a n d vvith b e n e h e s a r o u n d t h e vvalls. It is t h o u g h t t o h a v e been built in the third c e n t u r y , a n d c o n t a i n s a s t o n e chair, p e r h a p s t o b e identified as a 'seat o f M o s e s ' ( M t t 2 3 , 2 ) . O n the seat t h e r e is a n A r a m a i c i n s e r i p t i o n : ' r e n t e m b e r e d ( b e ) f o r g o o d Iudan b a r I s h m a e l vvho m a d e this s t o a ( S T W H ) f r o m his p r o p e r t y . M a y h e h a v e a s h a r e vvith the r i g h t e o u s V 0 T h e borrovving both o f the c o n c e p t i o n o f 2.8. Heth She'arim

II, n o s . 1 C\, 2 0 3 , 2 2 1 .

2 9 . CIJ II, n o . 9 7 2 , H u t t e n m e i s t c r , Synagogen, 3 0 . F o r t h e s y n a g o g u e , F.AF.Hl.

p. 359.

I, s.t'. " C h o r a z a i n " . F o r t h e i n s e r i p t i o n , Beycr, AT, p. 3 8 2 .

Scc L . Y . R a h m a n i , " S t o n e S y n a g o g u e C h a i r s : T h e i r I d e n t i f i c a t i o n , U s e a n d S i g n i f i c a n c e " , IF.J 4 0

building a s a b e n e f a c t i o n a n d o f v o c a b u l a r y is a l s o very c l e a r in t h e A r a m a i c i n s e r i p t i o n on m o s a i c f r o m t h e village o f K a f r K a n n a ( C a n a ) n e a r N a z a r e t h , vvhich p r o b a b l y c o m c s f r o m t h c floor o f a s y n a g o g u e : h e r e o n e I o s c a n d his s o n s a r e r e c o r d e d , p r o b a b l y in the f o u r t h century, a s h a v i n g m a d e a p a n e l ( T B L H — t a b ı ı l a ) o f the m o s a i c : ' m a y t h e r e b e blessing ( B R K T H ) o n t b e m , amen!'3' It is n o t n e c e s s a r y t o list f u r t h e r e x a m p l e s , f o r t h e r e is sufficient e v i d e n c e t h a t m o n u m e n t a l c o m m u n a l buildings f o r Jevvish religious use vvere b c i n g c o n s t r u c t c d in G a l i l e e in the t h i r d a n d f o u r t h c c n t u r i e s , even if in f a c t n o ne is f o r m a l l y identificd, in a n y l a n g u a g e , a s a s y n a g o g u e . S u c h a f o r m a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c a n in fact o n l y b e f o u n d o n t h e o t h e r side o f the S e a o f G a l i l e e , in the G o l a n , a c l o s e l y c o m p a r a b l e a r c a o f village settlem e n t , vvith a m i x c d p o p u l a t i o n o f Jevvs a n d gentiles. 3 2 T h e m o s t s t r i k i n g rem a i n s f r o m this r e g i o n c o m e f r o m D a b b u r a , an a n c i e n t village s o m e 1 7 k m n o r t h o f the n o r t h e r n tip o f t h e S e a o f G a l i l c c , a n d s i t u a t e d o n t h c p l a t e a u a b o v e the H u l e h Valley. O n a r c h i t e c t u r a l f r a g m e n t s h e r e vvere d i s c o v e r e d o n c bilingual G r e e k a n d A r a m a i c b u i l d i n g - i n s c r i p t i o n , t h r e e o t h e r b r i e f A r a n ı a i c i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d a Hebrevv i n s e r i p t i o n o f the greatest i m p o r t a n c e . C a r v c d o n a lintel f r o m a building vvhich itself d o e s n o t survive, it reads ' E l i e z e r ha Q a p par. T h i s is t h e B e t - M i d r a s h vvhich ( b e l o n g s ) t o the R a b b i ' : ' L Y ' Z R H Q P R . Z H B Y T M D R S W S H L R B Y . 3 3 i t s signiftcancc c a n hardly b c c x a g g c r a t c d . F o r this o u g h t b e thc ' L ' Z R I I Q P R vvho is q u o t e d in t h c Mishnah

(and s u b s c -

q u e n t ! y in later r a b b i n i c s o u r c e s ) , a n d b e l o n g e d t o the l a s t g e n e r a t i o n o f »abbis t o b c c i t e d there. 3 4 It g i v e s a g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d s o c i a l c o n t c x t — a village in the G o l a n — f o r a t l c a s t o n c stage o f his c a r e e r ; a n d it d e m o n s t r a t e s f o r t h c first t i m e t h a t the s c h o o l , o r ' b e t - m i d r a s h ' , in vvhich s u c h a r a b b i t a u g h t c o u l d , even in s o m o d e s t a s o c i a l c o n t e x t , bc a m o n u m e n t a l b u i l d i n g p u b l i c l y identificd a s a s c h o o l . V e r y little is really knovvn o f the successive s t a g e s o f e d u c a t i o n in a Jevvish c o n t e x t ; b u t it is evident t h a t a ' b e t - m i d r a s h ' s h o u l d lıave r e p r e s e n t e d s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n r a t h e r than p r i m a r y t r a i n i n g in litcracy, and vvill

have

bccn

devoted

to

thc cxplication

of texts.

At

ali e v e n t s vve

( 1 9 9 0 ) 1 ' 9 1 . F o r t h c v a r i c t i c s o f s y n a g o g u e a r c h i t c c t u r c s c c , c . g . , E . M . M c y e r s a n d J . F, S t r a n g c , Arehaeology,

the Rabbis

and Early

Christianity

(1981), ı-joff.

3 1 . B e y e r ; AT, p. 3 8 9 . 3 2 . S c c , c . g . , D . U r m a n , Thc Golan: Periods

A Profile

of a Region

during

the Roman

and

Byzartine

( 1 9 8 5 ) ; c f . C . M . D a u p h i t ı , " J e u r i s h a n d G e n t i l e C o m m u n i t i e s in t h c R o m a n a n d B y u m -

tine GaulanitisPEQ

1 9 8 2 - 8 3 , 1 2 9 ; C . M . D a u p h ı u a n d J. J. S c h o n f i e l d , " S e t t l e m e n t s o l t h e

R o m a n a n d B y z a n t i n c P e r i o d s o n t h e G o l a n H e i g h t s " , IEJ 3 3 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , 1 8 9 . 3 3 . D . U r m a n , " J e w i s h i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m D a b b u r a i n t h e G o l a n " , IEJ 3 2 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , x 6 ; H a n c n m e i s t e r , Synagogen, 3 4 . Mishnah,

9 1 - 9 5 ; Beyer, AT, Avot,

21—22.

p. 396.

h a v e here a brief g l i m p s e o f t h e s t r u e t u r e s t h r o u g h vvhich the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the B i b l e vvas t r a n s m i t t e d t o this vvorld o f villages; a n d , b e y o n d t h a t , this b r i e f i n s e r i p t i o n s e e m s t o e n j o y t h e distinetion o f being t h e o n l y d o c u m e n t a r y r e f e r e n c c t o a n y f o r m o f c d u c a t i o n a l institution

from t h e e n t i r e

Roman

N e a r East. T h e vvorld o f t h e Mishnah

d o e s a p p e a r here in c o n c r e t e f o r m . T h i s essen-

tial t e x t a l s o c o n t a i n s o n e , b u t o n l y o n e , allusion t o t h e c e n t r a l figüre o f r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m , n o t j u s t a s ' R a b b i ' o r ' R . J u d a h ' b u t as ' R a b b i J u d a h P r i n c e ' . F o r the treatise Avot, Mishnah,

the

vvhich m a y possibly bc later t h a n t h e rest o f t h e

s p e a k s o n c e o f ' R a b b i G a m l i e l , the s o n o f R a b b i J u d a h t h e P r i n c e '

( R B Y G M L Y ' L BN\V S L R B Y Y H W D H H N S Y ' ) . 3 5 T h a t the title vvhich h a d been a d o p t e d by B a r K o c h b a c a m e b a c k i n t o use f o r t h e m e m b e r s o f vvhat b e c a m e a s o r t o f r a b b i n i c d y n a s t y is o f great significance. B u t hovv f a r b a c k c a n vve properly e x t e n d the later r a b b i n i c p i c t u r e , largcly c o ı ı f i r m e d in t h e later f o u r t h c e n t u r y b y R o m a n l e g a l e v i d e n c e , o f a Jevvish N S Y ' o r

Patriarcha

vvielding real a u t h o r i t y , even o u t s i d e P a l e s t i n e , aeting a s a j u d g e , a n d s u r r o u n d e d by a n a l m o s t royal c o u r t ? 3 6 T h e Mishnah

itself gives n o i m p r e s s i o n

o f a n y s u c h official s t a t u s in t h e s c c o n d o r early t h i r d century. 3 7 B u t O r i g c n , vvriting in C a e s a r e a in t h e p e r i o d a f t e r 2 3 0 , d o e s c i e a r l y c o n f i r m t h a t vvhat he c a l l s the Ethnarches

d i d h a v e r e a l povver, a n d c o u l d e v e n o r d e r e x e c u t i o n s ,

vvhich t h e R o m a n s d i d n o t f o r m a l l y p e r m i t , but d i d n o t a c t t o p r e v e n t . 3 8 A s alvvays, hovvever, t h e r e a r e p r o b l e m s o f definition. It is p r o b a b l y right t o s e e the vvell-attested role o f t h e Jevvish Patriarcha

in the f o u r t h c e n t u r y a s c o n t i n -

u o u s vvith t h e p o s i t i o n vvhich O r i g e n here c a l l s t h a t o f Ethnarches.

B u t is i t

then t h e s a m e p o s i t i o n t o vvhich O r i g c n refers vvhen he m e n t i o n s raising a q u e s t i o n a b o u t P s a l m s vvith ' I o u l l o s ( H i l l e l ? ) t h e Patriarches, regarded a m o n g the Jevvs as sophoi'

and one o f those

fvvise'—HKMYM?)?39

T h e r e c a n b c n o c l e a r ansvvcr, a n d vve d o n o t r e a c h a n y c o n s i s t c n t o u t s i d e r ' s d e s e r i p t i o n o f a Patriarches

e x e r c i s i n g povver until vve c o m e t o E p i p h a -

n i u s ' a c c o u n t o f t h e activities o f t h e c o n v e r t e d Jevv J o s e p h o f T i b e r i a s , l a t e

3 5 . Avot

2, 2 .

3 6 . S c c f o r t h e e v i d e n c e , c . g . , J. Justcr, Les juifs

dans

I'Empire

romain

I (1914),

L. I. L c v i n c , " T h e J c w i s h P a t r i a r c h ( N a s i ) in T h i r d C e n t u r y P a l e s r i n e " , ANR\V 6 4 9 ; i d e m , The Ralfhinic

CJass of Roman

Palestine

39iff.;

II.19.2 ( 1 9 7 9 ) ,

( 1 9 8 9 ) , c h . 4; M . D . G o o d m a n , " T h e R o m a n

S t a t e a n d t h e Jc\vish P a t r i a r c h i n t h e T h i r d C e n t u r y " , in L , I. L e v i n e ( e d . ) , Galilee

in Late

Antüf-

uity ( 1 9 9 2 ) , 1 2 7 3 7 . S e e M . D . G o o d m a n , State and Sub/ect 3 8 . O r i g e n , Epistula

ad Africanum

ın Roman

Galilee

{1983), r ı ıff.

2 0 ( 1 4 ) ; s e c M . H a r l a n d N . R . M . d c L a n g c , SC

302

(1983). 4 6 9 f f 3 9 . Selecta i n de Princ.

in Psalmos

>8 {PG

X I I , 1 0 5 6 B). O r i g e n r e f e r s t o t h e r u l e o f t h e ethnarches

also

IV, 1, 3 — b u t Rııfinus' I.atin tradition substitutes 'patriarcha'. For the c o n t e x t o f

t h e s e r c f c r c n c c s s e c N . R . M . dc I . a n g e , Origen

and the Jeıvs ( 1 9 7 6 ) , 2 3 - 2 4 , 3 3 - 3 4 .

in the r e i g n o f C o n s ı a n t i n e a n d u n d e r C o n s t a n t i u s II. 4 0 I n this n a r r a t i v e the Patriarches

o f the t i m e vvas c a l l e d H i l l e l , vvho w a s r e g a r d e d as a d e s c c n d a n t

o f t h e G a m a l i c l o f t h e t i m e o f C h r i s t , a n d vvas s u c c c c d c d by his ovvn s o n , a p p a r e n t l y c a l l c d J u d a h . T h e povvcrs o f t h e Patriarches o u t s i d e P a l e s t i n e , a n d apostoloi

b y novv e x t e n d c d even

c o u l d b e s e n t t o C i l i c i a t o c o l l e c t tithes.

A g a i n vve need n o t p u r s u e the details o f this story, inserted in E p i p l ı a n i u s ' a c c o u n t o f t h e E b i o n i t e s , a n d perhaps less c o n f u s c d a n d f a n t a s t i c t h a n m e s t o f the c o n t e n t o f his c o l l e c t i o n o f heresies. i t s significance lies p e r h a p s m o r e in t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e is s o m e d o c u m e n t a r y a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c o n f ı r m a t i o ı ı o f t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e role o f t h e Patriarc/jai

vvhich it p r e s e n t s . F o r it finds

a n c x t r a o r d i n a r i l y vivid r c f l c c t i o n in t h e f l o o r - m o s a i c s , vvith i n s e r i p t i o n s in Hebrevv, A r a m a i c a n d G r e e k , o f t h e f o u r t h - c e n t u r y s y n a g o g u e f r o m the hot springs near Tiberias, H a m m a t h Tiberias.41 P e r h a p s n o o t h e r p r o d u e t o f the p e r i o d m o r e fully c x h i b i t s t h e c o n f i d e n t e x p r e s s i o n o f Jevvish t r a d i t i o n a n d i d e n t i t y vvithin a m u l t i l i n g u a l c o n t e x t , o r c o m b i n e s t h a t vvith s o m a n y e l e m e n t s o f G r a e c o - R o m a n a r t i s t i c d c c o r a r i o n . T h e m o s a i c o c c u p y i n g t h e c e n t r a l aisle o f the s y n a g o g u e is divided i n t o t h r e e p a n e l s . T h e first is a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a T o r a h s h r i n c flanked by tvvo m e n o r a h s vvith b u r n i n g c a n d l e s . T h e n , r e m a r k a b l y , t h e r e is a c i r c u l a r r e p r e s e n t a tion o f t h e tvvelve sigııs o f t h e z o d i a c , c e n t e r i n g on a p i c t u r e o f the c h a r i o t o f t h e sun vvith I I c l i o s p e r s o n i f i c d : c a c h sign is n a m e d in Hebrevv, f o r i n s t a n c e ' R Y H , t h e l i o n , o r D G Y M ('fishes') f o r Pisces.

T h e y are g r o u p e d i n t o f o u r

s e a s o n s , f o r vvhich the H e b r e v v t e r m T Q W P H is u s e d , a n d t h e y a r e repres e n t e d a s y o u n g vvomen, a l s o identified in Hebrevv by using the Hebrevv names o f four months: Nisan, Tammuz, Tishri, Teveth. T h e third panel c o n t a i n s , betvveen r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f tvvo lions, a series of b r i e f i n s e r i p t i o n s in G r e e k g i v i n g the n a m e s o f b e n e f a c t o r s : M a x i m o s , A b oudemos, Zöilos, Ioullos, Kallinikos, Eiortasis. T h e n a m e of a further bencf a c t o r , S e u e r o s (Severus), c a n b c r e s t o r e d f r o m a n o t h e r , p a r a l l c l , G r c c k ins e r i p t i o n , this t i m e a c c o m p a n i e d by a blessing in A r a m a i c . T h e

Aramaic

r c a d s : ' L e t t h c r c b e p e a c e ( S L M H ) o n a n y o n e vvho h a s c a r r i e d o u t a c o m m a n d m e n t ( M S W T I I ) in r e l a t i o n t o this h o l y place, o r vvill c a r r y o n c o u t . Let t h e r e b e blessings o n him, A m e n , a m e n , sela. A n d f o r m c , a m e n ' . T h e n o t i o n o f the s y n a g o g u e a s a ' h o l y p l a c e ' ( T R H Q D Y $ H in A r a m a i c ) r e c u r s iıı yet a n o t h e r G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n in vvhich a donor, a l s o vvith a t r a n s l i t e r a t e d L a t i n n a m e , ' P r o p h o t o u r o s ' ( ' P r o f u t u r u s ' ) , is d e s c r i b e d a s h a v i n g m a d e ' t h i s stoa of the hagios

topos\

4 0 . E p i p h a n i u s , Panarion

XXX,

4 1 . S c c M . D o l h a n , Hammath Remains

4-12. 'İiherias:

Early Synagogues

aııd the Hellenistic

and

Roman

( 1 9 8 3 ) , c s p . c h . 5. T h e A r a m a i c i n s e r i p t i o n is in B e y c i ; A T , p. 3 8 5 , a n d t h e G r e e k o n e s

a r c d ı s c t m c d in B . L i f s h i t z , " L ' a n c i e n n e s y n a g o g u e d c T i b c r i a d c , s a m o s a i q u c , e t ses inseript i o n s " , JSJ 4 ( 1 9 7 3 ) . 4 3 -

T l ı c b c n e f a c t o r c o ı ı c c r n e d , S e v e r u s , is identified in the tvvo G r e e k inseript i o n s as a 'threptos

(a p e r s o n b r o u g h t up in t h e h o u s e h o l d ) o f the

( m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h c d ) Patriarcha?.

lamprotatoi

If used c o r r e c t l y , t h e t e r m s h o u l d m e a n t h a t

the P a t r i a r c h s novv e n j o y e d s e ı ı a t o r i a l r a n k . A t a n y r a t e t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f them as p e r s o n s o f high p u b l i c s t a t u s , a n d as a d y n a s t y vvith a h o u s e h o l d c o n f c r r i n g s o m e refleeted g l o r y on its m e m b e r s , is c l e a r l y e x p r e s s c d . So o f c o u r s e is the c e n t r a l i t y o f t h e s y n a g o g u e as a ' h o l y p l a c e ' . If this s y n a g o g u e h a s b e e n c o r r e c t l y a t t r i b u t e d t o ehe first part o f t h e f o u r t h century, it p r o v i d e s i n v a l u a b l e c o n f i r m a t i o n t h a t a n i m p o r t a n t local d y n a s t y o f Jevvish

Patriarcbai

vvas novv a rcality. It n c e d s t o b e stressed again hovv p r o f o u n d a series o f c h a n g e s h a d t a k e n p l a c e in the s o c i a l a n d r e l i g i o u s g e o g r a p h y o f Syria P a l a e s t i n a . I n t h e s a m e period t h e R o m a n colonia

o f A e l i a C a p i t o l i n a vvas t a k i n g on t h e a p p c a r a n c e

o f a C h r i s t i a n city. Pilgrims, l i k e t h e o n e vvho c a m e f r o m B o r d e a u x in 3 3 3 , c o u l d o f c o u r s e seek o u t , a n d b e shovvn, sites vvhose a s s o c i a t i o n s vvere vvith the O l d T e s t a m c n t a s vvell as t h e Nevv: the r e m a i n s o f the p a l a c c s o f D a v i d o r S o l o m o n , o r the p l a c e vvhere J a c o b vvrestled vvith the a n g e l . But vvhere t h e T e m p l e h a d been t h e r e vvas n o t h i n g t o be s c e n e x c e p t tvvo s t a t u e s o f H a d r i a n , a n d n e a r t h e m a s t o n e vvith a h o l e in i t , ' t o vvhich Jevvs c o m e e a c h y e a r a n d l a m e n t vvith g r o a n s a n d t e a r t h e i r c l o t h c s a n d r e t i r c ' . 4 2 But it vvas n o t o n l y betvveen J u d a i s m , p a g a n i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y t h a t c o n ı p l e x c o n t r a s t s a n d f o r m s o f a c c o m m o d a t i o n c o u l d b e o b s e r v e d in this p e r i o d . A vvholly nevv e l e m e n t h a d s u d d e n l y e n t e r e d C h r i s t i a n i t y itself, a n d is b e s t displayed in the L a t i n Life o f I l i l a r i o n o f G a z a , c o m p o s e d by J e r o m e s o o n a f t e r his arrival in B e t h l e h e m i n 3 8 6 . 4 : l T h a t this vivid b i o g r a p h i c a l s k e t e h s h o u l d h a v e b e e n vvritten in L a t i n vvas, a s it h a p p e n e d , q u i t e a p p r o p r i a t e . F o r G a z a , a n a n c i e n t Philistinc city l o n g s i n c e H e l l e n i s c d , h a d b e c o m e in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y yet a n o t h e r c x a m p l c o f a p l a c e vvhich e n j o y e d the s t a t u s o f a R o m a n colonia.

Its c o n s t i t u t i o n o u g h t novv t h e r e f o r e t o h a v e b e e n t h a t o f a

vvith a n a n n u a l p a i r o f duumviri,

colonia,

a n d L a t i n o u g h t t o h a v e been t h e l a n g u a g e

o f its p u b l i c life. 4 4 G a z a vvas n o n e t h e l e s s stili a G r a e c o - R o m a n r a t h e r than a fully R o m a n p l a c e , a n d in the first d e c a d e o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y the y o u n g I l i l a r i o n , b o r n perhaps a b o u t 2 9 1 , h a d b e e n s e n t b y his pagan p a r e n t s t o s t u d y in A l e x a n d r i a vvith a grammaticus.

B u t t h e r e , i n s t e a d , he h e a r d o f t h e f a m o u s C h r i s t i a n h e r -

mit S a i n t A n t o n y , a n d r e t u r n e d t o set up a s a lıerınit h i m s e l f , m o v i n g o u t i n t o the r o b b e r - i n f e s t e d desert o u t s i d e G a z a . A vvholly nevv m o d e l o f the p c r f e c t life, m a r k e d by a n e v c r - i n c r c a s i n g level o f s c l f - d e p r i v a t i o n , h a d presented it-

42. itin.

Hurd.

591.

4 3 . T c x t , t ı a n s . a n d c o n ı m . i n C h r . M o h r m a n n (od.), Vite dciSantî 44. Millar, " R o m a n

Coloniae55-56.

IV (1975), 6şff.

s e l f t o the p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e r e g i o n ; C h r i s t i a n s are deseribed as c o m i n g t o s e e k his aid f r o m ali thc c i t i e s o f P a l e s t i n e , s u c h a s E l c u t h c r o p o l i s a n d J e r u s a l e m , f r o m S y r i a , a n d f r o m E g y p t itself. H i s influence vvas a l s o felt in G a 7 a , vvhere, a s a ' R o m a n c i t y ' , t h e c u s t o m vvas novv o b s e r v e d o f c h a r i o t - r a c e s in h o n o u r o f t h e god C o n s u s , t o c o m m e m o r a t e the r a p e o f the S a b i n e vvomen. A C h r i s t i a n , s o J c r o m e r e l a t e s , vvas d u e t o e n t e r a quadriga ovvned b y a p a g a n m a g i s t r a t e (Gazensis

duumvir),

to racc against onc

and persuaded H i l a r i o n to

provide h o l y vvater t o vvard o f f spells. A s a result, t h e C h r i s t i a n c h a r i o t o v e r t o o k its rival s o r a p i d l y t h a t t h e p a g a n driver c o u l d h a r d l y see the b a c k s o f t h c h o r s e s a s t h e y flevv p a s t : ' M a r n a s h a s b e e n c o n q u e r c d b y C h r i s t ! ' 4 5 Q u i t e different c u l t u r e s a n d t r a d i t i o n s t h u s m i n g l e d , o r c o l l i d e d , i n a G r a e c o - R o m a n city in P a l e s t i n e s u c h a s G a z a . O t h e r s vvould b e c o m e visible a s s o o n a s a m e m b e r o f the upper elass o f s u c h a city stepped o u t s i d e the a m b i t o f t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n literary c u l t u r e f o r vvhich his f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n h a d destined h i m . W e c a n n o t teli vvhether s u c h a p e r s o n , in t h e p r e c e d i n g c e n t u r i e s , vvould h a v e been a b l e t o d o as H i l a r i o n did, a n d e x p e l a demorı f r o m a B a c t r i a n c a m c l by s p e a k i n g t o it in A r a m a i c (sermo

Syrus).*6

It m a y

be t h a t , b u t f o r his c h o i c e o f a n a s c e t i c life in the desert, H i l a r i o n vvould n e v s r h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d o r used t h i s l a n g u a g e a t a l i . J e r o m e ' s vivid a n d j o u r n a l i s t i c n a r r a t i v e represents n o n e t h e l e s s t h c first c x p i i c i t t e s t i m o n y t h a t a S e m i t i c lang u a g e vvas the n o r m a l s p e c c h o f thc g e n t i l e p o p u l a t i o n living in a n d a r o u n d this c o a s t a l city in the s o u t h - w e s t c o r n e r o f Syria P a l a e s t i n a . B u t t h a t vvas n o t ali. In J e r o m e ' s d e s e r i p t i o n H i l a r i o n vvas later t o penet r a t e f u r t h e r i n t o t h c d e s e r t , t o t h c city o f E l u s a , o n c c part o f t h e k i n g d o m of N a b a t a e a , a n d novv p o p u l a t e d b y p e o p l e vvhom J e r o m e c a l l s Saraceni.*7

Hovv

vve s h o u l d u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n t e r m i n g l i n g o f c u l t u r e s a n d c t h n i c g r o u p s in thc a r e a vvhich the R o m a n s c a l l e d A r a b i a presents us vvith r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t a n d n o less c o m p l e x p r o b l e m s . 4 5 . J c r o m c , Vita Hilarionis 4 6 . Vita 2 3 ; f o r sermo 4 7 . Vita 2 5 .

Syrus

20. scc also 22.

CHAPTF.R

11 ARABİA

11.1. R E G İ O N S A N D

CULTURES

T h e l a r g e a r e a w h i e h in the s e c o n d a n d t h i r d c e n t u r i e s m a d e u p the R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f ' A r a b i a ' w a s c o m p o s e d o f s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t z o n e s vvith d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i e s . W h a t u n i t c d t h e m vvas a b o v e ali t h e p r e s e n c e o f a s t e p p e , vvhich i n the s o u t h b e c a m e a b a r r e n m o u n t a i n z o n e ( t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e H c d j a z , s t r e t e h i n g dovvn the e a s t c o a s t o f the R e d S e a ) . T h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e a r e a h a d i n d e e d tvvo d i s t i n e t i v e c h a r a c t c r i s t i c s . F i r s t , l i k e t h e vvhole o f t h e e v e n t u a l R o m a n ' f r o n t i e r ' , f r o m the R e d S e a t o M e s o p o t a m i a , it b o r d e r c d o n a s t e p p e vvhose i n h a b i t a n t s vvere n o t u n d e r R o m e ' s m i l i t a r y o r p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l ; b u t h e r e t h e r e vvas a l s o the i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r o f a n inner ' f r o n t i e r ' , vvith a s i m i l a r l y u n s e t t l e d p o p u l a t i o n , t h e d e s e r t a n d m o u n t a i n s o f S i n a i . S e c o n d , the c x i s t c n c c o f N a b a t a e a n a n d t h e n R o m a n p o r t s o n t h e R e d S e a m e a n t t h a t t h e r e vvere i m p o r t a n t c u l t u r a l a n d t r a d i n g c o n t a c t s vvith E g y p t , vvith A r a b i a F e l i x ( t h e Y e m e n ) a n d vvith the I n d i a n O c e a n . It is t e m p t i n g t o t r y t o vvrite a h i s t o r y o f t h e rise a n d fail o f the R e d S e a t r a d e p a s s i n g t h r o u g h the k i n g d o m o f N a b a t a e a a n d the s u b s e q u e n t p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a , as if t h e a c c i d c n t s o f n a r r a t i v e r e f c r c n c e s c o u l d allovv a n y s u c h t h i n g . A l i t h a t n e e d s t o b e s t r e s s e d novv is t h a t t h i s t r a d e n e v e r d i s a p p e a r e d a l t o g e t h e r . E u s e b i u s , in his p r i c e l e s s s e r i e s o f s n a p s h o t s o f P a l e s t i n e a n d A r a b i a a s t h e y vvere in a b o u t AD 3 0 0 , r e f e r s t o A i l a ( A q a b a / E l a t h ) a s ' o n t h e b o r d e r s ( o f P a l e s t i n e , as it novv w a s ) , l y i n g n c x t t o t h e s o u t h e r n desert a n d t o t h e R e d S e a vvhich is beside it, s a i l e d by t h o s e v o y a g i n g f r o m E g y p t a n d t h o s e f r o m I n d i a . T h e t e n t h R o m a n l e g i o n is s t a t i o n e d t h e r e ' . 1

x . E u s e b i u s , Onom.

6, 1 7 . F o r t h e l e g i o n a n d t h e t r a n s f e r o f t h i s part o f ' A r a b i a ' t o ' S y r i a

P a l a e s t i n a ' sec 5 . 1 a n d z a b o v e .

[ 387 İ

T h e f a c t t h a t Sitıai w a s a l s o an i n n e r f r o n t i e r z o n e i n h a b i t e d b y ' S a r a c e n s ' is a l s o reflected in E u s e b i u s . T h e t e r m ' S a r a k e n o i ' h a d , h o w c v c r , b c c n used f o r t h c first t i m e , in the s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l c t o us, b y P t o l c m y in his

Geography,

w r i t t e n in t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y . T h e r e he identifîes ' S a r a k e n o i ' , ' S k e n i t a i ' a n d ' T h a m u d e n o i ' (as well a s ' T h a n o u i t a i ' a n d ' T h a m u d i t a i ' ) as different p e o p l e s living in A r a b i a p r o p e r . B u t he a l s o uses ' S a r a k ö n ö ' o f p a r t o f Sitıai. 2 But to Eusebius of course Sinai had profound historical associations: 'Pharan: it is a city on t h e far side o f A r a b i a , lying n e x t t o the S a r a k e n o i o f t h e desert t h r o u g h vvhich t h e children o f Israel j o u r n e y e d on leaving Sinai. It lies o ı ı the o t h e r side o f A r a b i a tovvard t h e n o r t h ; three d a y s ' j o u r n e y t o thc east lies Aila, vvhere, s o Scriprure s a y s , t h e r e dvvelt I s h m a c l , f r o m vvhom t h c I s h m a c l i t c s d e s c e n d ' . W e h a v e a l r e a d y seen m u c h earlier the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e identificat i o n o f c o n t e m p o r a r y ' A r a b s * a s the d e s c e n d a n t s o f H a g a r a n d I s l ı m a e l . 1 It is thus notcvvorthy that J e r o m e , in his L a t i n version o f thc Onomasticon,

duly

a d d s a n e x p l a n a t i o n a t this p o i n t : ' f r o m vvhom t h e I s h m a e l i t e s d e s c e n d , w h o are novv Saraceni'.4

A n d in f a c t , b e f o r e he vvrote this, t h e first m a j ö r t h r e a t t o

this a r c a f r o m ' S a r a c c n s ' h a d a l r e a d y a r i s e n , in t h c r e v o l t u n d e r ' Q u c e n M a v i a ' in 3 7 8 ; b u t it h a d c o m e , in the first i n s t a n c e , n o t f r o m b e y o n d the line o f R o m a n f o r t s , b u t f r o m vvithin S i n a i . 5 T h e r e h a d b c c n a r e a l N a b a t a e a n p r e s e n c e in s o u t h e r n S i n a i , as t h c d i s c o v ery o f t h o u s a n d s o f N a b a t a e a n graffiti t h e r e a t t e s t s . W c c a n e v e n find h e r e t o o , in t h e Wadi M u k a t e b — ' W a d L o f i n s e r i p t i o n s ' — a refleetion o f the i m p o s i t i o n o f R o m a n r u l e in 1 0 6 : graffiti d a t e d b y year 4 5 a n d y e a r 8 5 ' o f dıe provincc' ( I . H P R K Y ' ) — A D 1 4 9 a n d 1 9 1 — a n d a referenee t o 'three C a e s a r s ' ( T L 1 T Q Y S R Y N ) , apparenrly Severus, Caracalla and Geta.6 But,

beyond

t h a t , the n a t u r e o f s e t t l e m e n t a n d social struetures, a n d the r e l a t i o n t o s u c c e s sivc ruling povvers, thc N a b a t a e a n k i n g d o m a n d then R o m e , c a n h a r d l y bc d e t e r m i n e d for S i n a i . T o envisage the a r e a o f t h e k i n g d o m a n d the p r o v i n c e realistically, vve h a v e t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t the follo vving c l c m e n t s . F i r s t , t h e r e vvas a b a n d o f settled t e r r i t o r y stretehing a c r o s s t h e n o r t h e r n N e g c v a l m o s t t o thc M c d i t c r r a n c a n , b o r d e r i n g o n the s o u t h e r n p a r t o f Judaea/Syria P a l a e s t i n a , a n d i n c o r p o r a t i n g tovvns s u c h a s E l u s a , N e s s a n a , M a m p s i s a n d O b o d a ( A v d a t ) . T h e n , t o g o t o a n o t h e r e x t r e m c , t h e r e vvas t h e barren a n d m o u n t a i n o u s 2 . P t o i e r a y , Geog.

V I , 7 , 2 1 ( ' S k e n i t a i ' , T h a m u d e n o i ' a n d ' S a r a k e n o i ' ) ; V I , 7 , 23 ( ' T h a n o u i -

tai'); V I , 7 , 4 ( ' T h a m u d i t a i ' ) ; V , 1 7 , 3 ( ' S a r a k c n e ' ) . S e e G . W . B o w e r s o c k , " A r a b s a n d S a r a c e n s

in the Historia Augusta", Bonner Historia-Augusta Colloquium 1984/198$ I1987), 71. 3. C h . 1 a b o v e . 4. E u s e b i u s ,

Onom. 166,

1 2 (Eusebius);

167,12

(J«onıe).

5 . S e c m o s t r c c c n t l y Z . R u h i n , " S i n a i in t h c I t i n c r a r i u m F . g c r i a e " , Ani del Convegno zionale

sulla Peregrinatio

Egeriae,

1987

U990),

177.

6. CIS I I . i , n o s . 9 6 3 ( t h r e e C a e s a r s ) , 9 6 4 , 1 3 2 5 .

Jntetna-

z o n e o f t h e n o r t h e r n H e d j a z . B a t here t o o t h e r e w e r e s u b s t a n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t s , a b o v e ali a t H e g r a ( M e d a i n S a l e h ) , m a r k e d b y a l a r g e n u m b e r o f fine r o c k c u t t o m b s o f t h e first c e n t u r y A D , m a n y vvith long i n s e r i p t i o n s in N a b a t a e a n . 7 O n the c o a s t t h e r e vvas a l s o the h a r b o u r o f ' L e u k e K o m c ' , ' t h r o u g h vvhich", as t h e Periplus

of the Erythraean

Sea r e p o r t s , 'there is a vvay i n l a n d up t o

P e t r a , t o M a l i c h u s , king o f the N a b a t a e a n s ' . B e c a u s e o f t h e trade c o m i n g u p f r o m A r a b i a ( F c l i x ) , t h e r e vvas a l s o a c u s t o m s - o f f i c e r , t o c o l l e c t a 2 5 p e r c e n t duty, a n d a ' c o m m a n d e r o f 1 0 0 m e n ' (ekatontarehes)

vvith soldiers. 8 T h e k i n g

vvill b e M a l i c h u s I I , AD 4 0 - 7 0 , a n d t h e c o m m a n d e r vvill n o t have been a R o m a n c e n t u r i o n , b u t a N a b a t a e a n officer. A t H e g r a the e q u i v a l e n t r a n k is e v e n given t h e title centurio,

transliterated into N a b a t a e a n ( Q N T R Y N ' ) , ' L c u k c

K o m c itself vvill b e the N a b a t a e a n s e t t l e m e n t o f A y n u n a , j u s t east o f t h e m o u t h o f the G u l f o f A q a b a . V e r y little h a s b e e n f o u n d o f a n y s e t t l e m e n t on t h e p r e s u m e d l a n d - r o u t c up t h e e a s t side o f t h e G u l f o f A q a b a . ' ° B u t f r o m A i l a northvvards u p the e a s t side o f t h e W a d i A r a b a h , a n d e s p e c i a l l y n o r t h o f the e s c a r p m e n t vvhich rises up from t h e barren plain (the H i s m a ) s t r e t e h i n g dovvn t o Aila, t r a c c s o f s e t t l e m e n t a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y dense. T h e ' K i n g ' s Highvvay', s o o n t o b e m a r k e d o u t a s the V i a N o v a T r a i a n a ' f r o m t h e b o r d e r s o f Syria t o the R e d S e a ' , indicates t h e a p p r o x i m a t e eastern limit o f s u c h settlement as t h e r e vvas. B u t P e t r a , vvhich lies j u s t b e y o n d t h e z o n e o f 2 0 0 - m m a n n u a l r a i n f a l l , vvhich c o v e r s t h e fertile high p l a t e a u o f M o a b , in fact c o m e s — v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y — j u s t vvithin the t i p o f a narrovver z o n e , betvveen t h e W a d i A r a b a h a n d t h e s t e p p e , in vvhich s o m e trees vvill grovv. 11 T h e q u e s t i o n o f the r e l a t i o n o f the steppe a n d its peoples t o the c u l t u r e o f this vvhole a r c a is f u n d a m c n t a l . P e t r a itself, hovvever, is n o t a desert s e t t l e m e n t , b u t a c i t y c a r v e d o u t in a hollovv a m o n g d r a m a t i c s a n d s t o n e o u t c r o p s , vvith springs, a n d vvithin a z o n e vvhere there is v e g e t a t i o n . W h a t c v e r c o n t r i b u t i o n vvas m a d e by l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e t o t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y urban d e v e l o p m e n t o f P e t r a in the first c e n t u r i e s BC a n d AD, it ovved i t s role as a r o y a l city t o t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f inaccessibility a n d defensibility, o n the o n e h a n d , a n d on the o t h e r t o its l o c a t i o n at the limits o f a z o n e vvhere agriculture a n d settlement vvere p o s s i b l e . T h e main a r e a o f N a b a t a e a n settle7 . 1 1 . 2 belovv. 8. Periplus

1 9 , t r a n s l a t e d b y L. C a s s o n , The

Periplus

Maris Erythraei

(1989), with excellent

ineroduetion and commcntary. 9 . CIS I I . ı , n o . J.17. 1 0 . F o r a n i n v a l ı i a b l e s ı ı r v c y o n v v h i c h these r e m a r k s , a n d ali o t h e r s o n t h e v v h o l e N a b a t a e a n z o n e , d e p e n d , s e e R . W e n n i n g , Die nahme

des archâologischen

Nabatder—Denkmdler

Hefundes

und

Ccschichte:

Eine

üestandauf-

( 1 9 8 7 ) , xo7ff. ('Region P: Midian'). I o w e a great deal

t h r o u g h o u t a l s o t o G . W . B o v v e r s o c k , Roman

Arabia

(1983).

ı x . S e e I. K ü n n e a n d M . W a n k e , " P e t r a : I j n d s c h a f t u n d P f l a n ı e n v v e l ı " , in M . L i n d n e r , Petra und das Königreich

der Nabataer$

( 1 9 8 9 ) , 233ff., and m a p on p . 240.

m c n t , a n d t h e c o r e o f t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e , thus lay t o its n o r t h , in t h e f c r t i l c plains o f M o a b , bı'scctcd b y great w a d i s r u n n i n g d o w n t o t h e \Vadi A r a b a h a n d , f u r t h e r n o r t h , t o the D e a d S e a . F r o m a r o u n d Petra northvvards vve are again e n t e r i n g a vvorld o f villages a n d s m a l l tovvns. Tvvo o f the villages n e a r Petra a p p e a r in E u s e b i u s ' Onomasticotı:

T h a i m a , fiftccn R o m a n miles f r o m

P e t r a , vvhere a g a r r i s o n vvas s t a t i o n e d , a n d M a b s a r a , ' a very l a r g e v i l l a g e ' in t h e r e g i o n c a l l e d G e b a l e n e , i n t h e t e r r i t o r y o f P e t r a . 1 2 I n this a r e a it m a y well b e t h a t settlement i n c r e a s e d in density o r e x t e n t vvith the security p r o v i d e d by R o m a n forts. B u t f u r t h e r n o r t h the high p l a t e a u o f M o a b p r o v i d e s a steadily vvidening z o n e o f c u l t i v a b l e l a n d , b e g i n n i n g s o u t h o f t h e s o u t h e r n e n d o f the D e a d Sea a n d stretching up t o M a d a b a . F o r i n s t a n c e , a b o v e t h e W a d i H e s a vvhich o p e n s i n t o t h e W a d i A r a b a h j u s t s o u t h o f t h e D e a d S e a , t h e r e vvas the m a j ö r N a b a t a e a n c u l t - c e n t r e o f K h i r b e t e t - T a n n u r , e s t 3 b l i s h e d in t h e first c e n t u r y BC, a n d u n d e r g o i n g s u c c e s s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t s until t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD. i t s e l a b o r a t c s c u l p t u r e s i n c l u d e r i c h bas-rclicfs o f deities t h o u g h t t o bc H a d a d a n d A t a r g a t i s ; b u t a N a b a t a e a n i n s e r i p t i o n shovvs t h a t t h e ( o r a) deicy vvorshipped t h e r e vvas the I d u m a e a n g o d Q o s . " A fevv k i l o m e t r e s t o the s o u t h , a t e d - D h a r i h on a t r i b u t a r y o f the Wadi H e s a , lie t h e r e m a i n s o f a N a b a t a e a n village, novv u n d e r c x c a v a t i o n , vvith h o u s e s , a c e m e t c r y , a n oilpress ( t h u s c a l l i n g i n t o q u e s t i o n S t r a b o ' s vievv t h a t the N a b a t a e a n s d i d n o t p r o d u c e o l i v c - o i l ) a n d a t e m p l e , p r o b a b l y o f the first c e n t u r y AD, o n a r e m a r k ably l a r g e p l a t f o r m , o f s o m e 1 1 5 m by 4 5 m . 1 4 Altcrnativcly, t o follovv the W a d i H e s a dovvn t o t h e W a d i A r a b a h vvould b e t o c o m e t o t h e r e g i o n o f Z o a r a , j u s t t o t h e s o u t h o f t h e D e a d S e a , a n d t h e village o f M a o z a , vvhere a Jevvish f a m i l y vvas living u n d e r t h e last N a b a t a e a n k i n g , R a b b c l II (AD 7c— 1 0 6 ) , a n d in t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f the p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a . It is the a r c h i v e vvhich they later hid in a cave in t h e N a h a l H e v e r vvhich telis us m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r s o u r c e a b o u t t h e village life o f t h e N a b a t a e a n a r c a . 1 5 T o p e o p l e living in this r e m o t e c o r n e r Petra vvas ' t h e m e t r o p o l i s o f A r a b i a ' ; b u t the nearest polis

vvas R a b b a t h m o b a o r R a b b a t h m o a b a , up o n the

plain o f M o a b . Later, u n d e r S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s , it vvas t o issue c o i n s £s the G r c c k city o f ' A r s a p o l i s ' (also c a l l c d ' A r c o p o l i s ' ) ; o t h e r p l a c e s

from

vvithin t h e f o r m e r N a b a t a e a n k i n g d o m

from

P e t r a , vvere C h a r a c h m o b a

vvhich did

likevvise, a p a r t

( K e r a k ) , M a d a b a , E s b o u s ( H e s b a n — i f it

had

12. Eusebius, Onorn. 96,18; 124, 20. 13. For an evocation of rfıc sile, vvith a ehronology vvhich has since been questioncd, N. Glueck, Deities and Dolphins: The Story of the Nabataeans (1966), For bricf accountı, EAEHl. IV (1978). * 15 2ff.; Wcnning, Nabatöer, 76(f. 14.

S c c F. V i l l e n c u v c ,

"Fouillcs

â Khirbet Edh-Dharih

(1988), 453. 1 5 . S e c 3 . 2 a n d 3 . 3 a b o v e , a n d m o r e f u l l y 1 1 . 4 belovv.

(Jordanic)

1984-1987",

CRAI

been

vvithin

the k i n g d o m ) a n d ,

far t o t h e n o r t h - e a s t ,

in the

southern

Hauran, Bostra."1 T h e p u r p o s e o f e m p h a s i s i n g these g e o g r a p h i c a l p a ı t e r n s is t o m a k e c l e a r t h a t the c e n t r a l z o n e o f t h e N a b a t a e a n k i n g d o m vvhich the R o m a n s t o o k o v e r in 1 0 6 vvas the f e r t i k p l a t e a u s t r e t e h i n g s o u t h f r o m M a d a b a , a f f o r d i n g t h e possibiiity o f settled l ı a b i t a t i o n a b o u t as f a r s o u t h a s P e t r a itself. As f o r t h e plateau o f M o a b proper, it h a r d l y n c e d s t o bc stressed that the s m a l l p l a c e s vvhich c v c n t u a l l y c o u n t c d a s poieis

b e l o n g e d vvithin a vvider z o n e o f villages:

f o r i n s t a n c e ' A g a l l e i m ' , eight R o m a n miles s o u t h o f A r e o p o l i s ( A r s a p o l i s ) , o r ' D a n n e a ' , e i g h t miles t o its n o r t h , o r ' L o u e i t h a ' , betvveen A r e o p o l i s a n d Z o a r a . 1 7 F u r t h e r n o r t h E u s e b i u s r e c o r d s a village c a l l e d K a r a i a t h a , ten R o m a n miles vvest o f M a d a b a , i n h a b i t e d entirely by C h r i s t i a n s . 1 8 T h e r e vvas n o g e o g r a p h i c a l b a r r i e r o r c o n t r a s t betvveen the n o r t h e r n p a r t o f vvhat vvas until 1 0 6 the k i n g d o m o f N a b a t a c a a n d the a r e a o f G r c c k c i t i c s , t h e so-ealled D e c a p o l i s , b e y o n d it. T o t h e vvest t h e J o r d a n Valley, on b o t h sides o f the river; b e l o n g e d t o t h e H e r o d i a n k i n g d o m , as d i d t h e e a s t e r n s h o r e o f the D e a d S e a as far s o u t h a s t h e f o r t r e s s o f M a c h a e r u s ; ali this then p a s s e d t o t h e p r o v i n c e o f J u d a e a o r S y r i a P a l a e s t i n a . W e h a v e a l r e a d y seen hovv i n t h e 40S a v i o l e n t c o n f l i c t b r o k e o u t betvveen the Jevvish villages o f P e r a e a ( t h e a r e a ' a c r o s s t h e r i v e r ' ) a n d the i n h a b i t a n t s o f a village, 'full o f vvarlike m e n ' , c a l l e d Z i a o r M i a in the t e r r i t o r y o f P h i l a d c l p h i a . 1 9 P h i l a d e l p h i a , like the o t h e r G r e e k c i t i e s vvhich clustered in t h i s fertile a r e a , f o r m e d in t h e first c e n t u r y a n e n e l a v e vvhich b e l o n g e d t o t h e p r o v i n c e o f Syria, but vvas physically s e p a r a t e d f r o m it: the o t h e r s vvere G e r a s a , Pclla, D i u m a n d p e r h a p s C a p i t o l i a s (vvhich s e e m s t o have a c q u i r e d this I . a t i n o - G r e e k n a m e , a n d t o h a v e c o m e i n t o e x i s t e n c e as a city o n l y in 98/99);

H i p p o s and G a d a r a , detaclıed from the H e r o -

dian k i n g d o m in 4 BC; a n d A b i l a a n d A d r a a ( D c r a a , on t h e present b o r d e r o f J o r d a n a n d S y r i a ) . T h a t these p l a c e s ovved their special s t a t u s in r e l a t i o n t o t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e t o their c l a i m s t o b e G r e e k c i t i e s o f t h e Hellenistie p e r i o d is c e r t a i n . W h a t is m u c h less c l c a r is first the n a t u r e o f their r e l a t i o n s t o t h e N a b a t a e a n a r c a b e f o r e 1 0 6 , a n d s c c o n d the s o r t o f c o n t r a s t vve s h o u l d s e e betvveen this a r e a a n d t h e s u r r o u n d i n g z o n e s after t h e y h a d ali b e c o m e p r o vincial t e r r i t o r y . S h o u l d vve see these c i t i e s t o o as r e p r e s e n t i n g the

flovvering

of a regional culture under R o m a n proteetion? O r as conscious bastions o f H e l l c n i s m in a n ' A r a b ' vvorld?

1 6 . F o r the c o i n a g e o f ali these p l a c e s sec A . S p i j k e r m a n , The Prouincia

Arabia

1 7 . E u s e b i u s , Onom. x 8 . Onom.

Cam

of the Detapölii

(1978). uz,

19. z.3 above.

15.

3 6 , 1 9 ( A g a l l e i m ) ; 17, 10 ( D a n n e a ) ; zzz,

18 ( L o u e i t h a ) .

and

T h e f o r m t a k e n by N a b a t a e a n s e t t l e m e n t o r c o n t r o l in the m a r g i n a l z o n e o n t h c c d g e o f t h c s t e p p e t o t h c e a s t o f t h c D e c a p o l i s , t h a t is, betvveen the a r e a o f M a d a b a a n d t h a t o f B o s t r a , is q u i t e u n c e r t a i n . T h e knovvn N a b a t a e a n e v i d e n c e is v e r y s p o r a d i c : t h e r e is a N a b a t a e a n t o m b - i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m Q a s r a l - H a l l a b a t o u t iti t h e s t e p p e , vvhere t h e r e vvas l a t e r a R o m a n f o r t ; 2 0 a n d m o r e important, a scatter o f N a b a t a e a n pottery and inseriptions along thc W a d i S i r h a n , c u l m i n a t i n g in s u b s t a n t i a l c v i d c n c c o f a N a b a t a e a n p r e s e n c e a t J a v v f ( D u m a t h a ) s o m e 4 5 0 k m s o u t h - e a s t o f B o s t r a . 2 1 We h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n the s i g n i f i c a n c e vvhich this r e m o t e p l a c e e v e n t u a l l y a t t a i n e d in the s t r u e t u r e o f t h c R o m a n frontier. 2 2 T h a t a N a b a t a e a n p r e s e n c e t h e r e h a d p r e c c d c d a R o m a n o n e is c e r t a i n : t h e m o s t s u b s t a n t i a l i t e m o f e v i d e n c e , a m o n g c o i n s , i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d p o t t e r y , is an i n s e r i p t i o n o f AD 4 4 r e c o r d i n g the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s a n e t u a r y t o ' D u s a r e s t h e g o d o f G a i a vvho is a t [ D u m a j t ' ( L D \ V S R '

'LII

G Y ' ' D Y ( B D W M ] T ) . 2 3 W h c t h c r it c a n r c a l l y be shovvn t h a t t h e r e vvas a m a j ö r trade-route leading t h r o u g h here either t o southern M e s o p o t a m i a o r to the P e r s i a n G u l f is a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n . W h a t is s i g n i f i c a n t in t h e first i n s t a n c c is t h a t J a v v f c a n h a r d l y h a v e b c c n r c a c h e d c x c e p t f r o m t h c o a s i s o f A z r a q , t h a t is, f r o m t h e s t e p p e z o n e e a s t o f P h i l a d e l p h i a . \Ve m u s t a s s u m e , e v e n in ehe a b s e n c e o f d i r e c t e v i d e n c e , t h a t this m a r g i n a l a r c a vvas in s o m e vvay N a b a t a e a n t e r r i t o r y , for it c a n o n l y h a v e b e e n t h r o u g h t h e r e t h a t the N a b a t a e a n s c o u l d h a v e r c a c h e d t h c vvcll-attested n o r t h e r n N a b a t a e a n a r e a vvhich o c c u p i e d t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f the p l a i n o f t h e H a u r a n , a n d o f t h c h i l l - c o u n t r y t o its e a s t ( t h e J e b e l H a u r a n , J e b e l D r u s c o r novv J e b e l A r a b ) . T h c a l t c r n a t i v e vvould b c t o t a k e it t h a t t h c z o n e a l o n g t h c c d g e o f thc s t e p p e vvas u n s e t t l e d a n d ' b e l o n g e d ' n e i t h e r t o the k i n g d o m n o r t o t h e D e c a p o l i s , as a n e n e l a v e o f t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e . A s f o r the s o u t h e r n H a u r a n itself, hovvever, it is c c r t a i n t h a t it w a s N a b a t a e a n t e r r i t o r y . T h i s a r c a vvas d e n s c l y s e t t l e d , m a i n l y in t h e f o r m o f v i l l a g e s , b u t vvith o n c city, B o s t r a . A s e r i e s of N a b a t a e a n i n s e r i p t i o n s d a t e d by k i n g s f r o m A r e t a s III o f t h e first c e n t u r y BC onvvards rnakes c l e a r t h a t t h i s f e r t i l e a r e a vvas e s t a b l i s h e d r o y a l t e r r i t o r y . O r . e e x a m p l e vvill s u f f i c c in t h i s c o n t c x t , a n i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m S a l h a d , e a s t o f B o s t r a , r e c o r d i n g the b u i l d i n g o f a t e m p l e in AD 5 7 : ' T h i s is t h c t e m p l e ( B Y T ' ) vvhich R u h u , son o f M a l i k u , son o f A k i a b u , son o f R u h u ereeted t o Allat their godd e s s vvho is in S a l h a d ( L ' L T ' L H T H M D Y B Ş L H D ) . . . in the m o n t h o f Ab, year 1 7 o f Maliku, king o f the Nabataeans ( M L K N B T W ) , son o f Haretat, k i n g o f t h e N a b a t a e a n s , vvho l o v e s h i s p e o p l e ' . 2 4 2 0 . C a n t i n c a u , RES,

n o . 2 0 3 5 ; K e n n e d y , Explorations,

2 1 . W c n n i n g , Nabatüer,

3 7 , n o . 1 . See 4.1 a b o v e .

114-113.

22. 5.1 above. 2 3 . R . S a v i g n a c a n d J . S c a r c k y , " U n c i n s e r i p t i o n n a b a t e e n n e p r o v e n a n t d u D j o f " , RB ('957İ. '96. 2 4 . CIS II. 1 , n o . 1 8 2 .

£4

A g a i n , t h e r e vvas n o n a i u r a ! f r o n t i e r betvveen this a r e a a n d t h e n o r t h e r n h a l f o f the flat H a u r a n p l a i n ( t h e N u q r a ) o r o f t h e J c b e l H a u r a n t o its e a s t . B u t , a s vve s a w earlier, a real p o l i t i c a l a n d m i i i t a r y f r o n t i e r did e x i s t h e r e in the first c e n t u r y A D . F o r , in t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , the n o r t h e r n a r c a , a f t e r a fevv y e a r s ( 3 0 - 2 3 BC) u n d e r N a b a t a e a n c o n t r o l , vvas c o n t i n u o u s l y u n d e r s u c c e s sive H e r o d i a n k i n g s , u n t i l t h e d e a t h o f A g r i p p a II, e x c e p t f o r a b r i e f spell i n the m i d d l e o f the c e n t u r y . T h u s t e n y e a r s b e f o r e R u h u b u i l t his t e m p l e t o A l l a t , a d i f f e r e n t d a t i n g - s y s t e m vvas in use a t H e b r a n , o n l y s o m e 1 4 k m t o t h e north: 'In the m o n t h Tisri, year seven o f Claudius C a e s a r ( L Q I . D Y S Q Y S R ) . T h i s is t h e g a t e vvhich M a l i k u s o n o f Q a s [ i u ? ] , p r i e s t o f A U a t ( K M R

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made'.25 İt vvas j u s t an a c c i d e n t o f p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y t h a t C l a u d i u s h a p p e n e d t o b e the r u l e r vvho n e e d e d t o be n a m e d at this m o m e n t . T h e s u c c e s s i o n o f H e r o d i a n k i n g s vvho a r e n a m e d o n G r e e k a n d S e m i t i c i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e m a j o r c u l t - s i t e a t S i a ' ııear K a n a t h a ( Q a n a v v a t ) r e p r e s e n t s the e s t a b l i s h e d r u l e r s o f t h i s r e g i o n in t h e first c e n t u r y : H e r o d the G r e a t h i m s e l f ; his s o n t h e t e t r a r c h Philip (year 33

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a n d his

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g r a n d s o n A g r i p p a D. 2 6 A f t e r A g r i p p a ' s d e a t h , this a r e a m u s t briefly h a v e b e e n p a r t o f t h e p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a . B u r in T 0 6 it vvas a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e nevv p r o v i n c e o f ' A r a b i a ' , o f vvhich P e t r a a n d B o s t r a vvere t o b e t h e tvvo c h i e f c i t i e s . T h a t vve m u s t see a c o n s i d c r a b l c d e g r e e o f d i s t i n e t i o n betvveen the d e t e r m i n c d l y ' G r e e k ' c i t i e s o f t h e D c c a p o l i s a n d the N a b a t a e a n z o n e t o t h e i r s o u t h a n d e a s t is c e r t a i n ; i f vve d o u b t e d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s d i s t i n e t i o n in the e y e s o f c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , the i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d c o i n s o f t h e s e cities m a k e it u n a m b i g u o u s . 2 7 I t is m u c h less c l e a r vvhat c o n t r a s t , in t e r m s o f c u l t u r e , l a n g u a g e o r s o c i a l h i s t o r y , vve s h o u l d t h i n k o f a s betvveen the N a b a t a e a n a r e a a n d t h a t vvhich h a d b e e n u n d e r t h e H e r o d i a n k i n g s . It is c e r t a i n l y s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t N a bataean inseriptions tended to n a m e their kings not mcrely for dating p u r p o s e s b u t in l o y a l i s t , e v e n n a t i o n a l i s t , t e r m s . H a r e t a t ( A r e t a s ) ' k i n g o f t h e N a b a t a e a n s , vvho l o v e s his p e o p l e ' , vvas t o b e follovved l a t e r by R a b b e l II ( A D 7 0 - 1 0 6 ) , t h e l a s t o f the d y n a s t y , s o m e t i m e s d e s c r i b c d a s h e 'vvho h a s b r o u g h t life a n d s a l v a t i o n t o his p e o p l e ' ( 1 ) Y ' H Y Y W S Y Z B ' M H ) . 2 * T h e r e is o f c o u r s e n o vvay o f knovving vvhether t h e s e t e r m s vvere s i n c e r e , m e r e l y c o n v e n t i o ı ı a l , o r f o r c e d . W h a t is s i g n i f i c a n t is s i m p l y t h e p u b l i c p r o c l a m a t i o n o f a b c n c f i c c n t relationship o f a king t o 'his' people, 'the N a b a t a e a n s ' ( N B T W ) . Hovvever little else m a y h a v e c h a n g e d vvith the e x t e n s i o n o f p r o v i n c i a l r u l e , this r c l a -

25. CIS ıı. r , n o . 1 7 0 . Scc 2 . 3 a b o v e , t c x t t o n . 18. 2 6 . H e r o d : IGR

ı ı ı , n o . 1 2 4 3 . P h i l i p : RES,

n o . 2 1 1 7 . A g r i p p a ıı: IGR

n o . 1 0 9 1 ( H G R P ' M L K ' ; see J. S ı a r c k y , in Dcııczcr, Hauran.

p. 175).

2 7 . ı r . 4 belovv. 28. Scc, e.g., A . N c g c v , IEJ 13 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 1 1 3 , n o . 1 0 ( f r o m A v d a t ) .

ııı, no. 1 2 4 4 ;

RES,

t i o n s h i p , a n d \viıh it the e x p l i c i t e o n e e p t i o n o f the N B T W a s a p e o p l e , \vould b e a t an e n d . W h e t h e r a n y a t t a e h m e n t t o t h e d y n a s t y l i n g e r e d o n in t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e is a q u e s t i o n t o vvhich vve vvill r e t u r n . 2 9 T h e i r e l o s e g e o g r a p h i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t h e r e f o r e m a s k e d a real d i f f e r e n c e betvveen t h e s o u t h e r n a n d n o r t h e r n h a l v e s o f the H a u r a n in t h e first c e n t u r y . Given the arbitrary nature o f political boundaries, a n d their vulnerability : o c i r c u m s t a n c e , it m i g h t be t h a t vve s h o u l d n o n e t h e l e s s see the vvider c u l t u r e o f the tvvo a r e a s as e f f e c t i v e l y i d e n t i c a l . A n d i n d e e d t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f S e m i t i c - l a n g u a g e i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m the n o r t h e r n z o n e , f r o m K a n a t h a ,

the

s a n e t u a r y o f S i a ' , Suvvcida ( t h e l a t e r D i o n y s i a s ) a n d H e b r a n , vvhich h a v e alvvays, until recently, b e e n c l a s s i f i e d a s ' N a b a t a e a n ' . ' 0 B u t t h e late J e a n S t a r c k y argued that the letter-forms o f these t e x t s are different f r o m those o f Petra, and that they should bc regardcd simply as 'Aramaic' rather than

'Naba-

t a e a n V T h a t vievv vvould c o h e r e vvith the vvider e o n e e p t i o n o f s e e i n g the c u l t u r e o f t h e n o r t h e r n H a u r a n in the ' p r e - p r o v i n c i a l ' p e r i o d a s a n i n d i g e n o u s l o c a l p h e n o m e n o n , o f vvhich t h e m o s t c o n s p i c u o u s f e a t u r e is t h e c u l t - c c n t r e of Baalshamin at Sia' near K a n a t h a . 3 2 It is s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t h e r e , a s in t h e N a b a t a e a n z o n e , t h e earliest m o n u m e n tal c o n s t r u c t i o n s s o f a r a t t e s t e d b e l o n g in t h e first c e n t u r y BC. B u t , by c o m p a r i s o n vvith N a b a t a e a , t h e i n s e r i p t i o n s vvhich a c c o m p a n y t h e m , a n d o n o c c a s i o n s e r v e t o d a t e t h e m precisely, a r e s o m e t i m e s , f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , b i l i n g u a l in G r e e k a n d ( a s vve m a y c a l i it) A r a m a i c . W h a t m a y b e t h e e a r l i e s t knovvn m o n u m e n t f r o m t h e r e g i o n is t h e p y r a m i d - t o m b (novv d e s t r o y e d ) a t Suvveida, e r e e t e d b y a m a n n a m e d O d a i n a t h o s s o n o f A n n e l o s f o r his vvife H a m r e t e . H e r e c o r d s the f a c t in b o t h G r e e k a n d A r a m a i c , in vvhich the t e x t r e a d s 'torr.b o f H a m r a t vvhich h e r h u s b a n d O d e n a t built f o r h e r ' : N P S H D Y H M R T

DY

B N H L H ' D Y N T B ' L H . T h e d a t e is v a r i o u s l y e s t i m a t e d a s e i t h e r e a r l y o r late in the first c e n t u r y BC. 3 3 M u c h m o r e striking a n d i m p o r t a n t are the bilingual building-inscriptions f r o m the m a j ö r c u l t - c e n t r e at S i a ' n e a r K a n a t h a . T h e m a i n b u i l d i n g s , i n c l u d ing a t l e a s t tvvo t e m p l e s , vvere b u i l t o n a series o f a r t i f i c i a l t e r r a c e s o n the s p u r o f a hill o n the vvestern s l o p e s o f the J e b e l H a u r a n . C o n s t r u c t i o n s e e m s t o h a v e t a k e n p l a c c in p h a s e s f r o m t h e late 3 0 S BC t o t h e last q u a r t c r o f t h e first 2 9 . « 1 . 4 belovv. 3 0 . F o r c x a m p l c , i n CIS Cantineau,

Nal>aleen

II. 1 , rıo. 1 6 2 ( S u w c i d a ) ; 1 6 3 - 1 6 8 (Sia 4 ); 1 7 0 - 1 7 2 ( H e b r a n ) , o r

II, p p . 1 1 — 1 6 .

3 1 . J. S t a r c k y , " P e n a e t la N a b a t e n c " , SDD

V I I ( 1 9 6 6 ) , cols. 9 } t > - 9 3 r , a n d his i m p o r t a n t

a r r i d c " I x s i n s e r i p t i o n s n a b a t e e n n e s e t l'histoire dc la S y r i c d u S u d ct d u N o r d d c la J o r d a n i e " , in D c n t z c r , Hauran,

1 6 7 . 1 a m v e r y g r a t e i u ! t o M . C . A . M a c D o n a l d f o r h c l p vvith these q u e s t i o r s .

3 2 . F o r t h i s v i e v v J . - M . Dent7.cr, " D c v e l o p p e m e n t et c u l t u r c d c la S y r i c d u S u d d a n s la p e r i o d c p r e p r o v i n c İ 3 İ c ( 1 " s . a v a m J . - C . - ı " s . a p r e s J . - C . " , i n D e n t z e r , Hauran, 5 3 . CIS I I . x , n o . 1 6 2 .

387.

c c n t u r y AD, vvith s o m e e l e m e n t s b e i n g a d d e d in the s e c o n d c e n t u r y . 3 4 E v e n i f t h e y c a n n o t e a s i i y be r e l a t e d t o p a r t i c u l a r s u r v i v i n g a r c h i t c c t u r a l e l e m e n t s , the building-inscriptions r e m a i n o f exceptional i r a p o r t a n c e . " T h e firmly

earliest

d a t e d i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m t h e site, a n d indeed f r o m the vvhole r e g i o n , r e -

c o r d s c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t i n u i n g f r o m the Seleucid year 2 8 0 to 3 x 1 , that is, f r o m 3 3 / 3 2 t o 2/1 BC. T h e i n s e r i p t i o n is r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m f r a g m e n t s , a n d n o t ali the d e t a i l s a r c c e r t a i n . B u t t h e b u i l d e r is firmly identified as ' M a l i k a t , s o n o f A u s o , s o n o f M o a i e r o ' , a n d t h e deity as B a a l s h a m i n ( B ' [ L ] S M Y N ) ; o n e e l e m e n t o f the c o n s t r u c t i o n is c a l l e d a T Y T R ' (theatron?).

Moreovcr, a long-

knovvn G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n , a l s o v e r y f r a g m e n t a r y , n a m e s t h e s a m e m a n , a n d vvas p u t up b y ' t h e c o m m u n i t y (koinon)

of the Seeienoi'.36 Considerably m o r e

s i g n i f i c a n t is t h e b i l i n g u a l i n s e r i p t i o n r e c o r d i n g f u r t h e r b u i l d i n g by a m e m b e r o f the s a m e f a m i l y , c a l l e d in G r e e k ' M a l e i c h a t h o s s o n o f M o a i e r o s ' , a n d i n A r a m a i c M L Y K T B R M ' Y R W . F o r it e x p l i c i t l y identifies the g r o u p vvhich e r e e t e d a s t a t u e t o h i m : ' t h e t r i b e O b a i s h a t ' ( ' L ' B Y S T ) in A r a m a i c , a n d ' t h e demos

o f the O b a i s e n o i ' in G r e e k . A s s u m i n g t h a t this i n s e r i p t i o n t o o b e l o n g s

in t h e A u g u s t a n p e r i o d , t h i s is t h e e a r l i e s t d o c u m e n t a r y r e f e r e n c e vve h a v e t o a n y o f a l o n g s e r i e s o f ' t r i b e s ' ( o r , t o b c m o r e c a u t i o u s , g r o u p i n g s vvhich s e e m t o be d e f i n e d by r e l a t i o n s h i p s r a t h e r t h a n , like t h e ' S e e i e n o i ' , b y l o c a l i t y ) a t t e s t e d in the H a u r a n a n d in t h e s t e p p e r e g i o n t o its e a s t . A g r o u p i n g , o r t r i b e , identified as the O b e i s h a t ( ' L ' B S T ) a l s o a p p e a r s a c o u p l e o f t i m e s a m o n g t h e t h o u s a n d s o f graffiti in the S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e c a l l c d b y m o d e r n s S a f a i n c ( a f t e r t h e v o l c a n i c r e g i o n c a l l e d the S a f a , e a s t o f the H a u r a n ) . 3 " ' W e vvill n e e d t o r e t u r n l a t e r t o t h e p r o b l e m p o s e d b y the e x i s t e n c e , b e y o n d t h e ' f r o n t i e r ' , o f a s t e p p e p o p u l a t i o n vvhich, q u i t c r c m a r k a b l y , vvas in s o m e s e n s e Iiterate. 3 S F o r the m o m e n t vvhat is s i g n i f i c a n t is t h a t the c u l t - c e n t r e o f S i a ' , a l t h o u g h H e r o d i a n r u l e r s \vere h o n o u r e d t h e r e , d o e s n o t s e e m t o h a v e b e e n in a n y s e n s e a r o y a l c r c a t i o n ; o n the c o n t r a r y , it vvas the p r o d u e t o f l o c a l c o m m u n a l s t r u e t u r e s , in vvhich g r o u p s f r o m t h e s t e p p e t o t h e e a s t in s o m e vvay s h a r e d . \Vhether vve s h o u l d see t h e O b a i s h a t , o r o t h e r ' t r i b e s ' , a s h a v i n g been ' d i m o r p h i c ' — p a r d y n o m a d i c and partly settled—is at the m o m e n t an unansvverable q u e s t i o n . T h e s e l o c a l c o m m u n i t i e s e v i d e n t l y b o t h p o s s e s s e d the vvealth t o c r e a t e a m o n u m e n t a l c u l t - c e n t r e a n d p a r t i c i p a t e d s u f f i c i e n d y in l a t e - H e l l e n i s t i c c u l t u r c t o use G r e e k a r c h i t c c t u r a l f o r m s a n d t o c r c c t s t a t u e s . T h a t r e p r e s e n t i n g 34. For the fullest recent survey see J.-M. Dentzer, "Six campagnes de fouilles â Sia': D6veloppement et culture mdıgene en Syrie mcridıonaIe n , Dam. Mı/t. z (198 5J, ^5. j j . Cantı'neau, Le Nabaleen II, pp. 11-15. 36. Le Bas-W., no. 1367. 37. Sec A. G. Grushevoi, "The Tribe 'Ubaishat in Safaitic, Nabataean and Grcck inseriptions", Herytus 33 (1985), 51. 38. 11.5 belovv.

K i n g H e r o d — v v h i c h alas d o e s n o t s u r v i v e — p u t up ' a t m y ovvn e x p e n s e ' hy ' O b a i s a t o s , s o n o f S a o d o s ' , vvas n o t t h c o n l y o n c ; 1 ' t h e r e vvas a l s o t h e i m a g e ( S L M ' — t h c s a m e w o r d as i n P a l m y r e n e a n d S y r i a c ) o f M a l i k a t , a n d a pers o n i f i e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f r h e p l a c e S i a ' itself ( o r h e r s e l f ) . A s r e g a r d s thc s t a t u e , o n l y a f o o t a n d the lovver d r a p e r i e s o f a female figüre s u r v i v e , b u t a bilingual i n s e r i p t i o n m a k e s t h c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c c r t a i n . I n A r a m a i c it r e a d s sirap l y : 'this is t h e i m a g e o f S e e i a ' ( D ' Ş L M T D Y S * Y 4 W ) . In G r e e k the meanir.g o f the l o c a t i o n o f t h e c u l t - c e n t r e is e x p r e s s e d m o r e vividly: 'Secia c s t a b l i s h c d ö v e r against (the) l a n d ( o f ) A u r a n c i t i s ' . 4 0 O n its t c r r a c e d s p u r o f t h e hillside, Sia* d o e s indeed l o o k o u t ö v e r t h e flat plain o f t h e H a u r a n . A t K a n a t h a itself, t h e n e a r e s t tovvn, a n d at v a r i o u s p o i n t s o n t h c p l a i n , i n e l u d i n g the iava-field o f T r a c h o n i t i s in thc n o r t h , t h e r e a r e a fevv o t h e r Sem i t i c i n s e r i p t i o n s , vvhich o u g h t novv p r o v i s i o n a l l y t o be classified as ' A r a m a i c ' r a t h e r t h a n a s ' N a b a t a e a n ' . 4 1 O n e result o f t h a t classification is t h a t these i n s e r i p t i o n s , m o s t l y f r a g m e n t a r y , c a n b c b r o u g h t i n t o r e l a t i o n vvith thc imp o r t a n t A r a m a i c inseription o f t h c Seleucid year 3 0 5 (8/7 BC) f r o m c l - M a l . F o r this inseription c o m e s f r o m yet a n o t h e r a r e a c o v e r e d by a netvvork of s u b s t a n t i a l a n c i e n t villages, n a m e l y the region e a s t o f the G o l a n H e i g h r s vvhich t h c Israeli a r c h a e o l o g i s t s vvho vvere a b l e t o survey it in N o v e m b e r T 9 7 3 dclicately called N o r t h e r n B a s h a n . 4 2 E l - M a l in fact lies q u i t e elose t o t h e İavafield o f T r a c h o n i t i s (the L e j j a ) a n d o n l y s o m e 1 6 k m n o r t h - e a s t o f S a ı ı a m e i n , the

find-spot

o f thc m o s t n o r t h - e a s t e r l y o f t h c knovvn ' N a b a t a e a n ' inserip-

t i o n s . T h i s rcgion vvas i n d e e d t h c C l a s s i c a l B a t a n a e a , a n d f o r m e d p a r t o f thc d o m a i n o f t h e H e r o d i a n f a m i l y . I n t e r m s o f s e t t l e m e n t , vve c a n s u p p o s e vvith c o n f i d e n c e t h a t t h e r e vvas a netvvork o f villages stretehing f r o m t h c G o l a n ( G a u l a n i t i s ) a c r o s s B a t a n a e a a n d T r a c h o n i t i s t o A u r a n i t i s , a z o n e vvhich w a s under H e r o d i a n rule t h r o u g h m o s t o f t h e first century, a n d vvill h a v e h a d a m i x e d Jevvish a n d gentile p o p u l a t i o n in its n o r t h - e a s t e r n p a r t . T h c A r a m a i c i n s e r i p t i o n o f e l - M a l is c a t e g o r i c a l l y p a g a n : '[In the m o n t h . . . ] , y e a r 3 0 5 , Y Q Y M B R H M L T B R N Ş R M I . K built a " h o u s e o f g o d " ( B Y T ' L H ) ' . 4 3 T h c b a s a l t b l o c k on vvhich the i n s e r i p t i o n is cııt a p p e a r s c l e a r l y t o be p a r t o f a b u i l d i n g ; the B Y T ' L H vvas t h e r e f o r e a temple o r s h r i n e , a n d n o t a 39. C f . 2.1 abovc f o r H e r o d ' s rule here. 4 0 . RES,

n o . 1 0 9 2 ; C a n r i n e a u , l.e NabaUen

İt, 1 4 : E c e t o Kcıtö yf[v A t y a v e l t t ı v i o n i K o t a .

O n t h i s i n s e r i p t i o n scc J. D e n t z e r , " A p r o p o s dtı t e m p l e dit d c "DusarĞs* â Si*", Syria 5 6 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , Î^J4 1 . A g a i n I rcly o n t h c i n v a l u a h l e s u r v e y h y W e n n i n g , t h e a r t i c l c by J . S t a r c k y i n D e n t z e r , Hauran,

Nabatâer,

r e g i o n s C atıd E , a ı ı d on

16 ( n . 3 1 a b o v c ) .

4 2 . G . Bar k a y , Z . H a n , A . K l o n c r , A . M a z a r a n d D . U r m a n , " A r c h a c o l o g i c a l S u r v e y i n thc N o r t h e r n B a s h a n " , IEJ 2 4 ( 1 9 7 4 ) , 1 7 3 , w i t h s k e t e h - m a p o n p. 1 7 4 . 4 3 . J. N a v c h ,

" A n A r a m a i c inseription from E l - M a l — a Sutvival of 'Seleucid

S c r i p t " , IEJ 2 5 ( 1 9 7 5 ) , 116,

Pl. 1 3 A ; F i t / m y e r , PAT,

»o. 1 4 9 .

Aramak*

' b e t y l ' , a s t o n e f u n c r i o n i n g as a c u l t - o b j e c t . 4 4 It is a t e s t i m o n y t o t h e life o f the A r a m a i c - and G r e e k - s p e a k i n g pagan population o f B a t a n a e a w h i c h lived a l m o s t c o n t i n u o u s l y u n d e r the r u l e o f t h e H e r o d i a n f a m i l y u n t i l the d e a t h o f A g r i p p a II, a p p a r e n t l y in the 9 0 S , a n d vvhich t h e n (it s e e m s ) c a m e u n d e r t h e province o f Syria, being joined t o ' A r a b i a ' only under the Tetrarchy.45 P r o v i n c i a l b o u n d a r i e s in t h i s north-vvestern a r e a , e a s t o f the J o r d a n a n d the S e a o f G a l i l e e , vvere a r b i t r a r y a n d l i a b l e t o c h a n g e . It d o e s n o t g r e a t l y m a t t e r , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t in the c a s e o f s e v c r a l o f t h e G r e e k c i r i e s o f the D e c a p o l i s — f o r instance Hippos, G a d a r a , Abila, Capitolias a n d Pella—vve c a n n o t teli f o r c e r t a i n vvhether in the s e c o n d c e n t u r y t h e y vvere p a r t o f S y r i a o r o f J u d a e a / S y r i a P a l a e s t i n a . W h a t i s c l e a r is t h a t the nevv p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a t o o k in P h i l a d e l p h i a ( A m m a n ) , G e r a s a a n d ( a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y ) A d r a a . B u t a l t h o u g h t h e c l a i m t o t h e s t a t u s o f G r e e k c i t y by ali t h e s e p l a c e s in the D e c a p o l i s vvas s t r o n g l y e m p h a s i s c d in c o n t e m p o r a r y c o i n - l e g e t ı d s a n d i n s e r i p t i o n s , t h a t d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t the D e c a p o l i s h a d p r c v i o u s l y b e e n s c a l e d o f f a g a i n s t N a b a taean presence o r influences.46 O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e r e a r e c l e a r t r a c e s o f s u c h i n f l u e n c e s f r o m the p e r i o d vvhen the N a b a t a e a n k i n g d o m stili e x i s t e d , b o t h in s o m e o f the G r e e k c i t i e s vvhich did not b e c o m e p a r t o f t h e nevv p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a a n d in t h o s e vvhich vvere t o bc i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o it. T h e t r a c e s a r e o f v a r i o u s k i n d s : a G r e e k d e d i c a t i o n t o the m o s t t y p i c a l N a b a t a e a n g o d , D u s a r c s , at H i p p o s , o r a f r a g m e n t a r y N a b a t a e a n t o m b - i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m t h e little-knovvn site o f C a p i t o l i a s ( B c i t R a s ) . 4 7 It is o n l y in r e l a t i o n t o t h e tvvo m a j o r cities vvhich vvere t o be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e p r o v i n c e , P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d G e r a s a , t h a t the e v i d e n c e is a l i t t l e m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l . A t P h i l a d e l p h i a t h e r e h a v e b e e n finds o f N a b a t a e a n p o t t e r y a n d o f c o i n s o f A r e t a s I V a n d R a b b e l I I — h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g g i v e n hovv e l o s e it lay t o t h e b o r d e r vvith N a b a t a e a : M a d a b a , s o m e 2 5 k m t o t h e s o u t h - s o u t h vvesr, vvas in N a b a t a e a n t e r r i t o r y . F o r vvhat it is vvorth, a f r a g m e n t a r y b i l i n g u a l i n s e r i p t i o n , in N a b a t a e a n a n d G r e e k , f o u n d a t Z i z i a , e a s t o f M a d a b a , s e e m s t o d e s e r i b e t h e d c d i c a n t ' s f a t h e r as ' f r o m A m m a n ' ( o r ' a n

Ammo-

44. Ch. 1 above. 4 5 . F o r t h e c o m p l c x a n d l a r g e l y i n s o l u b l e p r o b l e m s o f p r o v i n c i a l b o u n d a r i e s in t h i s a r e a , s e e E . K e t t e n h o f e n , " Z u r N o r d g r e n z c d e r P r o v i n c i a A r a b i a e (sic) im 3 . J a h r h u n d c r t n . C h r . " , ZDPV

9 7 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 6i,

vvith m a p o n p . 6 3 .

4 6 . F o r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s s c c D , F. G r a f , " T h e N a b a t a e a n s a n d t h e D e c a p o l i s " , in F r e e m a n a n d K c n n c d y , DRBF,

II ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 7 8 5 ; P.-L. G a r i e r , " P h i l a d c l p h i c ct G e r a s a d u r o y a u m e n a b a t e e n

â la p r o v i n c c d ' A r a b i c " , i n P. L . G a t i c r , B . l l c l l y a n d J.-P. R c y - C o q u 3 İ s ( c d s . } , Geograpbie ıque au Proe/ıe-Orieııt

(1988),

bistor-

139.

4 7 . A . O v a d i a h , " W a s t h e C u l t o f t h e G o d D u s h a r a - D u s a r e s P r a c t i s e d in H i p p o s - S u s i t a ? " , P E Q 1 1 3 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 1 0 1 ; C / S II. 1 , n o . 1 9 4 (Beit R a s ) . F o r v v h a t little is k n o v v n o f t h e site s e c C . J. L e n r e n a n d E. A . K n a u f , " B e i t Ras/Capitolias: A Preliminary E v a l u a ı i o n o f the A r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n d T e x t u a l E v i d e n c e " , Syria 6 4 ( 1 9 8 7 ) ,

zı.

n i t e ' ? ) — ' M N Y ; the s o n h a d c o n s t r u c t e d a şiirine t o a l o c a l Z e u s — ' Z e u s in B c c l p h c g f ö j r ' . 4 8 It is n o t s u r p r i s i n g e i t h e r t h a t c o i n s o f N a b a t a e a n kings- a r c f o u n d a t G e r a s a . B u t in r e l a t i o n t o t h i s c i t y t h e r e is r a t h e r m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t e v i d e n e e . A N a b a t a e a n i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m the S i q a t P e t r a ( t h e d r a m a t i c c a n y o n l e a d i n g i n t o t h e c i t y ) h a p p e n s t o give the S e m i t i c n a m e b o t h o f P e t r a i t s e l f (RQMW—'Reqem')

and o f Gerasa, whcrc the man c o m m c m o r a t e d

had

d i e d — G R S \ V . 4 ' T h e b o r d e r betvveen a d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m a n d t h e n e a r e s t R o m a n p r o v i n c e vvill n e v e r h a v e b e e n in a n y s e n s e a e l o s e d f r o n t i e r ; a n d , as t h e s u b s e q u e n t c o u r s e o f t h e V i a N o v a T r a i a n a vvas t o shovv, t h e n a t u r a l r o u t e f r o m t h e m a i n N a b a t a e a n z o n e t o D a m a s c u s led t h r o u g h

the

Decapolis

( t h o u g h e a s t o f G e r a s a itself)- F r o m G e r a s a t h e r e is o n e d a m a g e d b i l i n g u a l N a b a t a e a n - G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n , a p p a r e n t l y d a t e d by ' y e a r n

of Rabbel

the

k i n g ' , t h a t is, AD 8 I . T h e r e s e e m s t o be a r e f c r e n c c t o a s t a t u c ( D N I I Ş L M ' ) , and the text seems to relate t o the establishment o f a sacred area.50 Beyond t h a t , the e p i g r a p l ı y o f t h e D e c a p o l i s shovvs a m i x t u r e o f S e m i t i c , G r e e k a n d L a t i n p e r s o n a l n a m e s s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o u n d everyvvhere else in t h e N e a r E a s t A s it is n o t p e c u l i a r t o t h e D e c a p o l i s , it vvill n o t serve a s a c l u e t o a n y d i s t i n c t i v e l o c a l c u l t u r e ; a n d in a n y c a s e t h e c o n s c i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e , i f any, o f pers o n a l n a m e s r e m a i n s u n c e r t a i n , a s d o e s the r e l a t i o n o f n o m e n c l a t u r e t o the l a n g u a g e , o r l a n g u a g e s , o f o r d i n a r y life, o r t o vvider c u l t u r a l issues. T h e a r e a vvhich vvas t o b e c o m e t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f ' A r a b i a ' t h u s pres e n t s e x c e p t i o n a I c o m p l e x i t i e s . F i r s t , it vvas m a d e up o f a n u m b e r o f s t r i k i n g l y d i f f e r e n t g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l z o n e s : the n o r t h e r n I l c d j a z a n d t h e R e d S e a c o a s t ; S i n a i ; the s e m i - d e s e r t N e g e v b o r d e r i n g o n s o u t h e r n J u d a e a ; the a r i c p l a i n ( t h e H i s m a ) n o r t h o f t h e p o r t o f A i l a ; t h e ( a s it s e e m s ) t h i n l y s e t t l e d m a r g i n a l z o n e s o u t h o f P e t r a ; t h e c c n t r a l a r e a o f s e t t l e d h a b i t a t i o n , the plat e a u o f M o a b , o f vvhich P e t r a itself s h o u l d b c s e e n a s the s o u t h e r n m o s t e x t e n s i o n ; t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t at l e a s t o f t h e W a d i A r a b a h , r u n n i n g s o u t h f r o m the D e a d S e a ; the D e c a p o l i s ; a n d the H a u r a n p l a i n a n d the J e b e l H a u r a n . A N a b a t a e a n a n d t h e n R o m a n p r e s e n c e vvas a l s o t o be f o u n d f a r d o w n the W a d i S i r h a n . B u t e v e n vvithout t h a t it is p a t e n t t h a t t h e e n t i r e s e t t l e d , o r s e m i s e t t l e d , z o n e h a s t o be seen i ı ı r e l a t i o n t o t h e s t e p p e a n d its p e o p l e s . T h i s c o m p l c x g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d s o c i a l p a t t e r n vvould a l o n c m a k c v e r y difficult a n y c o n f i d e n t c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r c o f the r e g i o n . B u t t h e q u e s t i o n o f its e v o l u t i o n o v e r t i m e a d d s a m u c h m o r e d i f f i c u l t f u r t h e r d i m e n s i o n . W h a t vvas t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e N a b a t a e a n l a n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e a f t e r t h e s u p 4 8 . IGLS

X X I . z , n o . 1 5 4 , sec RES,

no, 1*84,

4 9 . J . S r a r c k y , " N o u v c U c e p i t a p h e n a b a t e e n n e d o n n a n t l e n o m s c m i t i q u c de P e t r a " , RB (»965). 9550. C . B . W e l l e s , i n C . H . K r a e l i n g ( e d . ) , Gerasa.

72

3 7 1 , n o . 1 , vvith r e v i s i o n » b y J . T . M i l i k ,

q u o t e d b y G . W . B o v v e r s o c k , " S y r i a u n d e r V e s p a s i a n " , JRS 6 3 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , 1 3 3 , n . 5 4 .

p r e s s i o n o f t h e k i n g d o m ? A l o n g vvith the s u d d e n a p p c a r a n c e o f b o t h B o s t r a a n d P e t r a a s G r e e k cities ( ' N e a T r a i a n e B o s t r a ' a n d ' H a d r i a n e P e t r a ' ) a n d l a t e r a s R o m a n coloniae,

s h o u l d vve s c c t h e history o f t h e united p r o v i n c e a s

t h a t o f the a d v a n c e o f G r a e c o - R o m a n culture a n d o f G r a e c o - R o m a n c i t y life? By t h e ınid-third century there vvere s o m e f o u r t e e ı ı cities, i n e l u d i n g Philip's nevv f o u n d a t i o n o f P h i l i p p o l i s , vvhich m i n t e d (or h a d at s o m e

moment

m i n t e d ) c o i n s in G r e e k a n d L a t i n . A s vve vvill see, it vvas p e r h a p s even m o r e significant t h a t the villages o f t h e H a u r a n a r c a in the s e c o n d t o f o u r t h c c n t u ries p r o d u c e d a m a s s o f i n s e r i p t i o n s , vvritten in a G r e e k vvhose very i n c o r r e c t ness shovvs t h a t it vvas a l a n g u a g e o f c u r r c n t use, a n d vvhich reveal c o m m u n a l s t r u e t u r e s closely m o d e l l e d on t h o s e o f G r e e k cities- 5 1 Similarly, A i l a o n t h e G u l f o f A q a b a n e v e r s e e m s t o h a v e been c a t e g o r i s e d as a ' c i t y ' , a n d n e v e r m i n t e d c o i n s . But vvhen J e r o m c deseribes H i l a r i o n e t ı c o u n t e r i n g

someone

f r o m t h e r e in the first h a l f o f t h e f o u r t h ccntury, h e identifies h i m a s ' a l c a d i n g m a n , a n d very r i c h , o f the city (urbs) o f A i l a , vvhich is by t h e R e d S e a ' . J e r o m e s e e m s t o h a v e envisaged Aila a s a city like any other. 5 2 O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , vvhen his h e r o H i l a r i o n r e a c h e s El usa, he deseribes t h e p l a c e a s a n ' o p p i d u m s e m i b a r b a r u m ' , a n d s p e a k s o f crovvds o f Saraceni

com-

ing t o vvorship a t the t e m p l e o f V e n ü s t h e r e , a n d greeting H i l a r i o n in a S e m i t i c language ( ' b a r c c h ! ' ) . 5 1 T h a t m i g h t s u g g c s t a m o d e l o f preciscly the o p p o s i t c d e v e l o p m e n t : t h a t i s , the i m p e r i a l p e r i o d a s o n e vvhen G r a e c o - R o m a n u r b a n c u l t u r e vvas o n the r c t r c a t in t h e f a c e o f t h e infiltration o f Saraceni either f r o m the i n n e r unscttlcd z o n e o f Sinai or, m o r e i m p o r t a n t , f r o m b e y o n d t h e ' d e s e r t f r o n t i e r ' . It vvill be recalled t h a t t h e first i m p e r i a l c a m p a i g n r e c o r d e d t o h a v e been c o n d u c t e d against Saraceni

t o o k p l a c e a b o u t ZJJO; a n d , m o r e signifi-

cantly, t h a t the f a c t s o f the d e v e l o p i n g R o m a n m i l i t a r y d i s p o s i t i o n s in t h e N e a r E a s t shovv t h a t by the f o u r t h c e n t u r y t h e m a j o r i t y o f the R o m a n f o r c e s vvere c o m m i t t e d n o t a g a i n s t P e r s i a , b u t a l o n g the edge o f t h e steppe, f r o m t h e Euphrates to the Red Sea.54 T h e s e s t a r k alternatives do n o t o f c o u r s e r e p r e s e n t the o n l y p o s s i b l e m o d els; a s G l e n Bovversock h a s r e c e n t l y a r g u e d , o n e o f the f u n e t i o n s o f G r a e c o R o m a n c u l t u r e in this region m a y precisely have been t o o f f e r a v e h i e l e f o r the e x p r e s s i o n o f an i n d i g e n o u s local culture. 5 5 We c o u l d hardly a s k for a m o r e perfect amalgam of Greek, R o m a n and local elements than t h e g a m e s held a t B o s t r a , a n d r e c o r d e d o n the city's c o l o n i a l c o i n a g e in L a t i n S i . 1 1 . 4 belovv. s i . J d f û m e , V. Hildr.

1 0 , 5 : \-ir p r i ı d â f ı u S et dİtİSSİffllıS u t b i s A i l a e , q u â e m â r i

immioec'. 5 3 . V. Hilar. 2 5 ; c f . 1 0 . 4 a b o v e . 54- S - 1 a b o v e . 5 5 . G . W . B o v v c r s o c k , Hellenism

in late

Antiquity

( 1 9 9 0 ) , c s p . c h . 3.

rubtö

in t h e third c e n t u r y a s the \Actia D u s a r i a o f t h e c o l o n i a m e t r o p o l i s o f the Bostreni'.56 B u t w c k n o w o f these garnes o n l y f r o m the c o i n s , w h i c h s o o n c c a s e d , as did t h o s e o f ali o t h e r citics in t h e G r c c k E a s t . I n t h e m i d - t h i r d c c n t u r y B o s t r a already had a 'episkopos

Christian

bishop, Beryllos, w h o m

Eusebius deseribes

as

o f t h e A r a b s a t B o s t r a ' , a n d vvho h e l d heretical vievvs (essentially

a denial o f t h e p r c - e x i s t c n c c o f C h r i s t J , over vvhich O r i g c n a n d o t h e r s m e t in a s y n o d t o d e b a t e vvith h i m , evidently in G r e e k . 1 7 F u r t h e r q u e s t i o n s a r e thus r a i s e d . W h a t vvould r e m a i n o f the c o m m u n a l c h a r a c t e r o f the cities o f this r e g i o n in the Christian p e r i o d ? A n d did C h r i s t i a n i t y here ovve a n y t h i n g sign i f i c a n t t o i t s local e n v i r o n m e n t ? Hovv s o o n , if a t a l i , vvas it p r e a c h c d h e r e in a n y language o t h e r t h a n G r e e k , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r h a d it yet r e a c h c d t h e Saracetıi o f Sinai o r the steppe? I n this c o n t e x t a s in ali o t h e r s , vve need t o recall t h a t it is m u c h m o r e likely t h a t t h e Saracetıi

vvere i n f l u c n c e d by t h e d o m i n a n t

e l e m e n t s o f the c u l t u r e o f t h e settled z o n e than t h e o t h e r vvay r o u n d . B u t the p r o b l e m r e m a i n s t h a t the q u e s t i o n o f vvhat, in this r e g i o n , t h o s e e l e m e n t s a c t u a l l y vvere is itself o f p a r t i c u l a r c o m p l c x i t y . In f a c t , t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n e e — a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e m a i n s , i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d p e r i s h a b l e d o c u m e n t s in G r e e k , L a t i n , N a b a t a e a n a n d A r a m a i c , a n d a n err a t i c s e a t t e r o f p a g a n a n d C h r i s t i a n literary evidenee—vvill n o t s e r v c , highly suggestive as it i s , t o ansvver the m o s t i m p o r t a n t q u c s t i o n s . AH t h a t c a n bc d o n e is t o o f f e r a fevv p o i n t e r s t o p o s s i b l e ansvvers, a n d (even m o r e ) t o suggest further q u e s t i o n s vvhich n e e d t o b e a s k e d .

11.2. T H E K İ N G D O M O F

NABATAF.A

A n even b r o a d e r a p p r o a c h vvill bc tıeeded in r e g a r d t o the c u l t u r e o f N a b a t a e a a s a k i n g d o m , b e f o r e it vvas a b s o r b c d a s a p r o v i n c e . S o m e essentials c a n , hovvc v e ç be c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d . F i r s t , t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l limits o f the N a b a t a e a n z o n e have a l r e a d y been o u d i n e d . S e c o n d , in the latter part o f the first c c n t u r y BC, D i o d o r u s a n d S t r a b o vvere u n a n i m o u s in c h a r a c t e r i s i n g t h e N a b a t a e a n s a s ' A r a b s ' , a n d a l s o d e s c r i b e d them as i n h a b i t i n g a m a i n l y desert a n d p a r t l y c u l t i v a b l e a r e a , a n d as e x p l o i t i n g the R e d S e a b o t h f o r p i r a c y a n d f o r t r a d e . D i o d o r u s , p e r h a p s b c c a u s c he d e p e n d s o n e a r l y - H e l l c n i s t i c s o u r c e s , e m p h a s ises their n o m a d i c a n d p a s t o r a l vvay o f life, vvith t h e use o f P e t r a as a p l a c e o f r e f u g e ; b u t S t r a b o , m o r e e x p l i c i t l y using c o n t e m p o r a r y i n f o r m a t i o n , s p e a k s o f the r o y a l dynasry, o f P e t r a a s a r e a l city a n d o f the c o n d u c t o f legal a f f a i r s a m o n g rhe P e i r a e a u s . 1 N e i t h e r vvould leave the r e a d e r vvith a n y i m p r e s s i o n o f 5 6 . S e e , c . g . , A . K i m i l e r The Coinagc

of Bostra

(1983), 158-159.

5 7 . E u s e b i u s , HE V ı , 2 0 , I ; 3 3 , 1 - 3 . x. D i o d o r u s II, 4 8 ; III, 4 3 , 4 - 5 ; X I X , 9 4 - 1 0 0 ; S t r a b o , Geog.

X V I , 4 , 1 8 ( 7 7 7 ) and 21 (779I.

O n t h e q u e s t i o n o f ' A r a b ' o r i g i n s , s e e n o w J. F. H c a l e y , **Werc t h e N a b a t a e a n s A r a b s ? " ,

Aran

t h e a r e h i t e e t u r e o f P e t r a o r o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a n extetısive z o n e o f N a b a t a e a n s e t t l e m e n t in M o a b a n d the N e g e v . T h e fact t h a t t h e r e w a s a l o n g - l a s t i n g royal d y n a s t y is o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e . F r o m e x t e r n a l a l l u s i o n s , c o i n s a n d i n s e r i p t i o n s vve c a n t r a c c vvhat s e e m s t o b c a single r o y a l l i n e , o f k i n g s c a l l e d typically A r e t a s ( H R T T ) , O b o d a s ( ' B D T > , M a l i c h u s ( M L K W ) a n d finally R a b b e l ( R B ' L ) , f o r a period o f över tvvo c e n t u ries, f r o m t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC t o AD 1 0 6 . It m u s t b e significant t h a t t h e i r c o i n s begin in the late H c l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d by using G r e e k a n d e m p l ı a s i s i n g a t t a e h m e n t t o G r e e k c u l t u r e — ' o f king A r e t a s , philbellen';

b u t then t h r o u g h -

o u t t h e R o m a n p e r i o d , f r o m t h e l a t e 6 o s BC onvvards, they use o n l y N a b a t a e a n . T h e y thus represent the l o n g e s t a n d m o s t c o n s i s t e n t series o f c o i n s vvith purely S e m i t i c - l a n g u a g e legends f r o m any a r e a ; they a l s o , like the i n s e r i p t i o n s m e n t i o n e d earlier, e m p l ı a s i s e t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e N a b a t a e a n s as a p e o p l e , c a l l i n g ali the k i n g s ' k i n g o f t h e N a b a t a e a n s ' ( M L K N B T W ) , a n d u n d e r A r e tas IV (circa

9 BC—AD 40) a d d i n g p r o g r a m m a t i c c l c m e n t s : 'vvho lovcs h i s

people' ( R H M ' M H ) . 2 L i k e o t h e r d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m s , N a b a t a e a m a i n t a i n e d an a r m y o f a t l e a s t scveral t h o u s a n d . C o n v c n i e n t l y , even o u r very slight s e a t t e r o f e v i d e n c e h a p pens t o revcal N a b a t a e a n m i i i t a r y officials s t a t i o n e d a t a n u m b e r o f p o i n t s o n the o u t e r r e a c h e s o f t h e k i n g d o m : a t M e d a i n Saleh ( H e g r a ) in t h e H e d j a z ; a t L e u k e K o m e on t h e R e d S e a ; a t Javvf ( D u m a t h a ) , far dovvn the W a d i S i r h a n ; a n d a t M a d a b a elose t o t h e b o r d e r vvith the D e c a p o l i s . ı l e r c , in AD 3 7 , A b d o b o d a s ( ' s l a v e o f O b o d a s ' ) the strategos

( ' B D ' B D T ' S R T G ' ) put up a s e p u l c h r a l

inseription t o his father, a l s o a slrategos,

a n d t o a n o t h e r m a n vvho vvas ' c o m -

m a n d e r o f the c a m p a t L a h i t o ' ( R B M S R Y T ' D Y B L H Y T W ) , a p l a c e n e a r M a d a b a . Betvveen t h e m t h e f a t h e r a n d s o n h a d served t h i r t y - s i x y e a r s u n d e r A r e t a s , 'vvlıo loves lıis p e o p l e ' . 3 T h e e v i d e n c e vve h a v e is o f c o u r s e n o t h i n g like sufficient f o r a h i s t o r y o f the N a b a t a e a n army, o r stili less o f the g o v e r n m e n t a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e k i n g d o m . B u t vve c a n p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e r e vvas a s t a n d i n g army, p a r t o f vvhich a t least vvas s t a t i o n e d o n the b o r d e r s . It is a l s o c l e a r t h a t t h e r e vvas a t a x c o l l c c t o r a t L e u k e K o m e , a s t h e Periplus

r e p o r t s . B u t vvhile it vvould be v a l u -

a b l e t o b e able t o visualise vvhat c h a n g e s in sryle o f g o v e r n m e n t vvere b r o u g h t a b o u t vvhen t h e a r e a b e c a m e p r o v i n c i a l , it is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o stress t h a t vve do h a v e just e n o u g h e v i d e n c e t o g l i m p s e t h e vvorkings o f a legal a n d religious s y s t e m , vvhich o p e r a t e d in N a b a t a e a n , a b r a n c h o f A r a m a i c . It is o f t e n a r -

1 . 1 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 38, u n f o r t u n a t c l y b a s e d on «he p r e s u n ı p t i o n that the q u e s t i o n îs c a p a b l c o f a f a c t u a l ansvver. Scc also D . G r a f , " T h e O r i g i n o f (he N a b a t a e a n s " , Aram 1 . 1 - 2 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 4 5 (speculative). 2. Scc Y . M c s h o r c r , Nabataean

Coins

( 1 9 7 5 ) . See novv a l s o K . S c h m i t t - K ö r t e , " N a b a t a e a n

C o i n a g e I " , N C 1 4 9 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 3 3 ; " H " , i 50 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 0 5 ; " İ H " ( f o r t h c o m i n g ) . j . C / S 11.1, n o . 1 9 6 = R E S , n o . 6 7 4 = C a n t i n e a u , / £ Nabateen

II, p . 4 4 .

g u e d , n o t t o s a y asserted, t h a t this vvas m e r e l y a n official l a n g u a g e , used o n l y f o r vvritten d o c u m e n t s , vvhile the p o p u l a t i o n , b c i n g ' A r a b s ' , a c t u a l l y s p o k e a v a r i c t y o f A r a b i c . T h c p r o p o s i t i o n s e e m s s t r a n g c in sevcral w a y s , n o t l e a s t in defining a h y p o t h e t i c a l s p o k e n l a n g u a g e o f the first c e n t u r y AD in t e r m s of a l a n g u a g e o f vvhich vve h a v e n o m o r e t h a n s c a t t e r e d i t e m s o f e v i d e n c e b e f o r e the l a t e s e v e n t h century. M o r e o v e ç the e x i s t e n c e o f literaliy t h o u s a n d s o f graffiti in N a b a t a e a n f r o m Sinai (in q u a n t i t y , t h e s u b s t a n t i a l m a j o r i t y o f N a b a t a e a n i n s e r i p t i o n s ) rules o u t a n y n o t i o n t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e vvas d e p l o y e d o n l y in o f f i c i a l , p u b l i c c o n t e x t s . 4 T h o u g h the relatively e x t e n d e d d o c u m e n t s in N a b a t a e a n t o vvhich vve vvill c o m c s h o r t l y , vvritten b o t h o n s t o n e a n d on perisha b l e d o c u m e n t s , are ali o f a n official o r legal c h a r a c t e r (so far vve h a v e , f o r i n s t a n c e , n o private l e t t e r s in N a b a t a e a n ) , the idea t h a t the l a n g u a g e vvas n o t s i m u l t a n c o u s l y s p o k e n s e c m s perverse a n d is very difficult t o p r o v e . It is ccrt a i n t h a t t h e r e l a t e d d i a l e c t o f A r a m a i c , (using o f c o u r s e the s a m e a l p h a b e t b u t r a t h e r different l e t t e r - f o r m s ) vvhich vvas e m p l o y e d by Jevvs vvas a s p o k e n l a n g u a g e ; a n d i t is highly i m p r o b a b l e t h a t t h c A r a m a i c used b y g e n t i l e s in P a l e s t i n e a n d t h c H a u r a n vvas n o t a l s o s p o k e n . A n y a t t e m p t t o define the l a n g u a g e s p o k e n b y t h e N a b a t a e a n s in t e r m s o f classical A r a b i c m u s t t h u s be h a z a r d o u s . F a r m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t is t h e i m p o r t a n t nevv step t a k e n by A v r a h m N e g e v in b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r , f r o m thc p o i n t o f vievv o f o n o m a s t i c s , t h c N a b a t a e a n i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d graffiti vvith t h e t h o u s a n d s o f ' S a f a i t i c ' graffiti knovvn f r o m b o t h t h e steppe a n d the settled z o n e s . I f the q u e s t i o n o f hovv far different seripts a n d l a n g u a g e s r e p r e s e n t different e t h n i c g r o u p s r e m a i n s o p e n , f o r the first t i m e t h e vvay h a s been c i e a r e d f o r the j o i n t s t u d y o f a vast m a s s o f c o n temporary documentary material.5 N o n e t h e l e s s t h e r e is novv o n c s t r i k i n g a n d c x t r c m e l y i m p o r t a n t bit o f evid e n c e t o shovv t h a t N a b a t a e a n a n d A r a b i c did c o - e x i s t in the p e r i o d o f the k i n g d o m , o r thc early y e a r s o f the p r o v i n c e . T h i s is a r o c k - c u t i n s e r i p t i o n in N a b a t a e a n Icttcring f o u n d n e a r t h c c i t y o f O b o d a (Avdat) in t h c N e g c v . 6 T h c i n s e r i p t i o n is n o t a b l e first o f a l i a s a n o t h e r in a series o f d o c u m e n t s o f t h e cult o f a deified king O b o d a s — ' O b o d a s t h e g o d ' : ' B D T ' L H ' ; it is t o h i m t h a t the d c d i c a n t , G a r m ' a l a h i s o n o f T a y m ' a l a h i , r e c o r d s setting up a s t a t u e , Ş L M { ' ? ) . B u t it is a t this p o i n t t h a t h e gives a n c x p l a n a t i o n in A r a b i c o f w h y he had m a d e t h e d e d i c a t i o n . A n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f these tvvo lines m u s t b e h i g h i y 4 . F o r t h e g r a f f i t i s e e CIS II, n o s . 4 9 0 - 3 1 3 3 ; W c n n i n g , Nabatâer, j . A . N e g e v , Personal

Names

in the Nabataean

Realm

ı88ff.

( Q c d c m 32, 1991). T h i s m a j ö r

will r c q u i r e d e t a i l e d s t u d y . I w o u l d , h o ı v e v e r , stress t h a t e v e n if N a b a t a e a n

inseriptions

fined t o t h e r e l i g i o u s s p h e r e ( p p . 20<jff.), t h i s w a s n o t t r u e o f N a b a t a e a n ıvriting,

are

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f o r legal d o c u m e n t s in t h c B a b a t h a a r e h i v e . 6 . Published

by

A. Negcv,

"Obodas

thc G o d " ,

IEJ

36

(1986),

56; re-examined

J . A . Bellamy, " A r a b i c Vcrses f r o m the First/Second C e n t u r y : T h e inseription o f 'En JSS 3 5 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 7 3 , v v h o s e t r a n s l a t i o n o f II. 4 - $ is u s e d h e r e .

by

'Avdat",

s p e c u l a t i v e , n o t l e a s t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e n o t in S t a n d a r d A r a b i c s e r i p t . B u t t h e l a t e s t s t u d y t a k e s t h e m t o be in v e r s e , a n d t o r e a d a s f o l ! o w s : F o r ( O b o d a s ) vvorks vvichout revvards o r favour; a n d hc, vvhen death t o c l a i m u s , d i d n o t l e t it c l a i m ( u s ) , f o r v v h e n a v v o u n d ( o f o u r s ) he d i d n o t let us

tried

festered

perish.

T h e l i n g u i s t i c a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y o f the r e g i o n is very f a r f r o m b e i n g fully u n d c r s t o o d . B u t it is i m p o r t a n t t o stress t h a t t h e r e a r c e n o u g h c o m p ! e x , i f r e l a t i v e l y b r i e f , d o c u m e n t s in N a b a t a e a n t o shovv t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e a n d s e r i p t c o u l d b e , a n d vvere, d e p l o y e d in o r d i n a r y life, a n d vvere c e r t a i n l y n o t the p r e serve o f s o m e s c r i b a l e l a s s . O n l y a fevv e x a m p l e s n e e d b e g i v e n . O n e c a ı e g o r y is t h e series o f s u b s t a n tial i n s e r i p t i o n s o f the first c e n t u r y AD f r o m the fine r o c k - c u t t o m b s o f M e d a i n S a l e h ( H c g r a ) in t h e I l c d j a z . L i k e c o m p a r a b l e G r e e k t c x t s , t h e y t e n d t o l i s t the i n t e n d e d a n d l e g i t i m a t e o c c u p a n t s o f t h e t o m b , a n d t h e n t o p r o n o u n c e a c u r s e , a n d l a y dovvn a p e n a l t y , o n a n y o n e vvho u s u r p s o r d i s t u r b s it. F o r e x a m p l e o n e o f AD I I e n d s : W h o e v e r acts othervvise than

is v v r i t t e n a b o v e , let h i m b e l i a b l e , in

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o f the s a n e t i t y o f vvhat is ( v v r i t t e n a b o v e ) , t o p a y a total s u m o f 1 0 0 0

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the

( L D W S R ' 'LH') a n d to o u r lord Arctas

k i n g ( H R T T M L K ' ) similarly. In the m o n t h S h e b a t , year r 3 o f Aretas

king

o f the N a b a t a e a n s vvho l o v e s lıis p e o p l e . 7

M o r e c o m p l c x , a ı ı d less f o r m u l a i c , i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m r c l i g i o u s c o n t c x t s a r c not c o m m o n . But o n e from the t c m p l c o f Atargatis o r Al-'Uzza at Petra s e e m s , though unfortunately fragmentary, t o contain rules for offerings (to a deity?) a n d t o priests: ' W h a t c v e r c o m c s t o h i m o f silver o r g o l d o r o f f e r i n g s ( K S P W D I I B W Q R B W N ) . . . and t o the priests, the o t h e r portion

(WLKMRY*

P L G ' ' H R N ' ) . . T h i s t o o is d a t e d t o t h e r e i g n o f A r e t a s . 8 B u t , o b v i o u s l y e n o u g h , vve c o m e e l o s e r t o the a e t i v e use o f the vvritten l a n g u a g e in daily life vvhen vve h a v e a c c c s s t o p e r i s h a b l e d o c u m e n t s . As y e t , t h e s e a r e v e r y fevv; a n d t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t g r o u p , d i s c o v e r e d in 1 9 6 1 , h a s stili n o t b e e n p u b l i s h e d in f u l l . T h e e a r l i e s t ( f o u n d in the e a r l y 50S s o m e v v h e r e in t h e J u d a e a n D e s e r t , a l o n g vvith o t h e r f r a g m e n t a r y d o c u m c n t s in N a b a t a e a n vvhich s c c m n e v e r t o h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d ) is a c o n t r a c t d a t e d t o y e a r 4 o f M a l c h u s , s o AD 4 3 . ' I t is t h u s a fevv y e a r s e a r l i e r t h a n the e q u a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t 7 . CIS II. 1 , n o . 1 9 9 = C a n t i n e a u , Le Nabateen

II, p . 2 8 .

8. P. C . I l a m m o n d , D . J. J o h n s o n 3 n d R . N . J o n c s , " A R c l i g i o - I c g a l N a b a t a e a n i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m t h e A t a r g a r i s / A l - ' U z z a T e m p l e a t P e t r a " , BASOR N c w R e a d i n g o f t h e P e t r a T e m p l e i n s e r i p t i o n " , BASOR

26$ ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 7 7 . S c c a l s o R . N . J o n c s , " A 275 (1989), 41.

9. J. S t a r c k y , " U n c o n t r a t n a b a t e e n s u r p a p y r u s " , RB 6ı

(1954), 161.

a c k n o v v l e d g m e n t o f d e b t in A r a m a i c f r o m J u d a e a . 1 0 T h e c o n t r a c c c o n c c r n s t h e d i v i s i o n o f p r o p e r t y , i n c l u d i n g g a r d e n s a n d 'tvvo s h o p s a n d the r o o m s vvhich t h e y c o n t a i n . . . in t h e s o u k ( a t ) M a h o z ' A g a l t a i n ' ( T R T Y '

H N W

W T W N Y ' D Y G W ' M N H M . . . B $ W Q M H W Z ' G L T Y N ) . T h e parties have N a b a t a e a n n a m e s , t h o u g h o n e is c a l l e d E l e a z a r { a n d s o s e e m s t o b e Jevvish) a n d his f a t h e r is c a l l c d N i k a r c h o s ( N Y Q R K S ) ; a n d a n o t h e r Jevvish p a r t i c i p a n t is t h e vvitness, J o s e p h b a r Y e h u d a , vvhose n a m e a p p e a r s o n the b a c k o f o n e of the fragments. S u b s c q u e n t e x p l o r a t i o n o f a c a v e in t h e N a h a l I l e v c r , a vvadi r u n n i n g dovvn t o t h e D e a d S e a s o u t h o f E n g e d d i , shovved t h i s vvas in f a c t vvhere ıhe N a b a t a e a n d o c u m e n t o f AD 4 3 h a d b e e n f o u n d ; tvvo f u r t h e r f r a g m e n t s o f it vvere d i s c o v e r e d in the s a m e c a v e . " I t m a y t h u s bc r e l a t e d t o t h e m o s t imp o r t a n t find in t h e c a v e , t h e ' a r e h i v e o f B a b a t h a ' , d o c u m e n t s in N a b a t a e a n , A r a m a i c a n d G r e e k e m b o d y i n g t h e c o m p i e x a f f a i r s o f a Jevvish f a m i l y f r o m M a o z a n e a r Z o a r a , a t the s o u t h e n d o f the D e a d S e a , betvveen AD 9 4

and

1 3 2 , a f t e r vvhich t h e y vvere e v i d e n t l y c o n c e a l e d d u r i n g the B a r K o c h b a w a r . Various d o c u m e n t s f r o m this archive have already been m e n t i o n e d , including the c e n s u s - r e t u r n o f 1 2 7 , o n e o f t h e m o s t vivid r e f l e e t i o n s o f vvhat the i m p o s i d o n o f R o m a n p r o v i n c i a l r u l e m e a n t . 1 2 B u t , p o t c n t i a l l y , the g r e a t e s t n o v d t y o f the a r c h i v e is t h e s e r i e s o f d o c u m e n t s in N a b a t a e a n , vvritten in t h e last y e a r s o f the k i n g d o m , u n d e r R a b b e l I I : o n e o f AD 9 4 a n d t h r e e o f 9 9 . 1 3 S i n c e t h e s e h a v e n o t yet b e e n p u b l i s h e d i n f a i l , vve m u s t rely o n p a r t i a l r e p o r t s . It is i m p o r t a n t n o n e t h e l e s s t o stress t h a t t h e s e a r c e x t c n s i v c a n d detailed legal d o c u m e n t s relating t o property transactions. T h e earliest, running to

fifty-tvvo

lines, c o n c e r n s t h e g i v i n g o f a dovvry a n d the c o n s e q u e n t p l e d -

g i n g o f p r o p e r t y : a p r i v a t e d o c u m c n t s u c h a s this, as it t u r n s o u t , vvould a l s o b e d a t e d b y ' R a b b e l t h e k i n g , k i n g o f the N a b a t a e a n s vvho h a s g i v e n life a n d d e l i v e r a n c e t o his p e o p l e ' ( R B ' L M L K ' M L K N B T W

DY

'HYY

W S Y Z B 'MH). T h e n c x t d o c u m e n t , o f 9 9 , is a bili o f sale r e l a t i n g t o a p a l m - g r o v e a t

10. 10.1 above. 1 1 . See N .

w i s , The Documents

from

the Bar Kochba

Papyri ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 3 . D o c u m c n t s c i t e d a s P. Yadin.

Period

in the Cave ofl^etUrs:

Grtek

It is m o r e ı h a n r e g r e t ı a b l e ı h a ı t h o s e r c s p o n s f l ı l e

for the Scmitic-languagc d o c u m e n t s in this r e m a r k a b l e trilingııal archive w c r c not a b l e to m . n c h N a p h t a l i L c w i s i n c o n t r o l o f t h e m a t e r i a l ; t h e S e m i t i c - l a n g u a g e d o c u m c n t s , in N a b a t a e a n * n d A r a m a i c , a w a i t p u b l i c a t i o n in a s c c o n d v o l u m e , in w h i c h t h e d o c u m c n t o f AD 4 3 wi!I a p p c a r a s 110. $ 6. i z . See ch. 1 , and 3 . 2 , 3 . 3 , 1 0 . } . 1 3 . S e e Y . Y a d i n , " E x p e d i t i o n t o t h e J u d a e a n D e s e r t , 1 9 6 1 : E x p e d i r i o n D — t h e C a v e o f the L e t t e r s " , IEJ 1 2 ( 1 9 6 2 ) , 2 2 7 , o n p p . 2 3 8 - 2 4 1 ; a n d , s l i g h t l y m o r e f u l t y , i d e m , " T l ı c N a b a t a e a n K i n g d o m , Provincia A r a b i a , Petra a n d F n - C c d d i in the D o c u m e n t s from N a h a l H e v e r " , Jaarbertcht

ex Oriente

!.ux

1 6 - 1 9 (*9'»5—1*•*»)» " 7 . o " PP- 2 2 9 — 2 3 2 .

Phoer.bt:

M a h o z ' A g a l t a i n ( M a o z a ) , t h e s a m e p l a c e a s in the d o c u m e n t o f AD 4 3 , a n d t h e s a m e p a l m - g r o v e a s l a t e r r e c o r d e d by B a b a t h a in h e r c e n s u s - d e c l a r a t i o n o f 1 2 7 . A t t h i s p o i n t it is b c i n g s o l d by o n c I b n a ' u n t o a m a n \vith a G r e e k n a m e , A r c h e l a o s . T h o u g h t h e d o c u m e n t s , a s r c p o r t c d s o far, d o n o t r e v c a l a n y t h i n g o f t h e r o y a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , the r o y a l p r e s e n c e is v e r y e v i d e n t i n t h e m . T h e p a l m - g r o v e is b o r d e r e d by o n e o w n e d b y ' o u r l o r d R a b b e l

the

k i n g ' , a n d t h c d o c u m e n t e n d s w i t h a p e n a l t y for n o n - c o m p l i a n c e p a y a b l e t o t h c k i n g : ' a n d t o o u r l o r d R a b b e l t h c k i n g likcvvisc' ( L M R N * R B ' L

MLK'

K W T ) . T h e n , in t h e s a m e year, t h e p a l m - g r o v e vvas sold t o S i m e o n , the f a t h e r o f B a b a t h a , h e n c e its a p p e a r a n c e a m o n g h e r p r o p e r t y . It is a g a i n d e f i n e d b y r e f e r e n e e t o n e i g h b o u r i n g p r o p c r t i c s , o f the k i n g a n d o f i n d i v i d u a l

Naba-

t a e a n s , a n d the d a y s a n d h o u r s o f vvater-rights a r e a l s o specified. N o t h i n g h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d o f t h e f o u r t h d o c u m e n t c x c e p t t h a t it t o o is a deed o f s a l e . M u c h m o r e vvill o f c o u r s e b e r e v e a l e d vvhen these d o c u m e n t s a r c f i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d , b u t t h r e e p o i n t s m a y n e e d t o b c s t r e s s e d novv. F i r s t , t h e s e c o m p ! e x and extensive d o c u m e n t s must e a s t further d o u b t on the n o t i o n that N a b a t a e a n vvas n o t t h e , o r a t l e a s t a , l a n g u a g e in c u r r e n t use a m o n g t h e p e o p l e (that they also spoke a language closcly rclatcd to classical Arabic o f course r e m a i n s p o s s i b l e ) . I t is t r u e t h a t the first d o c u m e n t vvas vvritten by a s e r i b e , vvho a l s o s i g n s as a vvitness ( ' R Q B W B R « W T Y S P R ' K T B H ) . B u t b o t h b e f o r e a n d a f t e r 1 0 6 , vvitnesses a r e f o u n d vvriting their a t t e s t a t i o n s in N a b a t a e a n o r A r a m a i c . L i k e P a l m y r e n e , t h e s e vvere t h e r e f o r e l a n g u a g e s in vvhich a t l c a s t a p o r t i o n o f the p o p u l a t i o n vvere t o s o m e d e g r e e l i t e r a t e . S e c o n d , vve s c c t h a t t h i s c o r n c r o f t h c N a b a t a e a n k i n g d o m , i n h a b i t e d b y b o t h N a b a t a e a n s a n d Jevvs, vvas an a r e a o f s e t t l e d c u l t i v a t i o n , vvith e s t a b l i s h e d p r o p e r t y r i g h t s a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l rııles a b o u t a c c e s s t o vvater f o r i r r i g a t i o n . T h e d o c u m e n t s ovve t h e i r s u r v i v a l t o t h c a c c i d c n t o f t h e i r c o n c c a l m e n t d u r i n g t h c B a r K o c h b a vvar. B u t t h e r e is n o o b v i o u s r e a s o n t o t h i n k t h a t t h e vvorld vvhich t h e y r e v e a l vvould n o t h a v e b e e n p a r a l l e l e d o n the p l a t e a u o f M o a b as f a r s o u t h as P e t r a , a n d in the a r c a s o f N a b a t a e a n s e t t l e m e n t a r o u n d B o s t r a a n d in the N e g c v . T h a t vvould n o t m e a n t h a t s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e in t h e s e settled a r e a s vvere n o t i n f l u c n c e d p r o f o u n d l y b y the n e a r b y s t e p p e a n d its p e o p l e s . T h i r d , t h c p r c s c n c c o f t h c k i n g , a n d t h e use o f l o y a l i s t e x p r e s s i o n s t o r e f e r t o h i m ( a n d his f a m i l y ) , is as e v i d e n t h e r e as it is in p u b l i c i n s e r i p t i o n s . P e n a l ties f o r n o n - c o m p l i a n c e , p a y a b l e t o t h e k i n g , a p p e a r h e r e j u s t as t h e y d o o n the t o m b - i n s e r i p t i o n s o f M e d a i n S a l e h . H A l t h o u g h vve c a n b e c e r t a i n t h a t in N a b a t a e a as elsevvhere the p r e d o m i n a n t f o r m o f s e t t l e m e n t vvill h a v e b c c n t h c v i l l a g e , vvith d r a s t i c a l l y v a r y i n g densities o f p o p u l a t i o n , it is s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t c i t i e s , o r a t least tovvns, h a d 1 4 . T e x ( to n.7 a b o v c .

e m e r g e d a l s o . A t M a m p s i s i n t h e e a s t e r n N e g e v , a s u b s t a n t i a l N a b a t a e a n sett l e m e n t u n d e r l i e s t h e r e m a i n s o f t h e tovvn o f t h e p r o v i n c i a l p e r i o d ; b u t t h e c l e a r c s t c x a m p l c f r o m t h i s r e g i o n i s t h e c i t y o f A v d a t ( O b o d a o r E b o d a ] in t h e s o u t h - c e n t r a l N e g e v , vvhere t e r r a c i n g , vvith a t e m p l e b u i l t o n it, s e e m s f r o m associated inseriptions t o h a v e b e e n built during the reign o f A r e t a s I V

[cırca

9

B C - A D

4 0 ) . W h e t h e r o r n o t ( a n d i f s o , vvhen) t h e r e vvere p h a s e s o f

d e s t r u c t i o n i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e tovvn, a c i t y c o n t i n u e d h e r e i n t o t h e B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d , a s t h e r e m a i n s o f its c h u r c h e s a t t e s t . V e r y s i g ı ı i f i c a n t l y , a t ı u m b e r o f N a b a t a e a n i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e last y e a r s o f t h e k i n g d o m , f o u n d in t h e a r e a , a t t e s t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f d a m s . T h i s is a l s o , a s vve w i ! l s c c , o n e p l a c e vvhere inscriptional

evidence

immediately

refleets

the

arrival

of

the

provincial

regime.15 But o f c o u r s e the p r i m e e x a m p l e o f N a b a t a e a n a r c h i t c c t u r c and u r b a n i s m r e m a i n s P e t r a itself. I t is i m p o r t a n t t o s t r e s s t h a t t h e c i t y a s r e v e a l e d b y its r o c k - c u t t o m b s and the results o f relatively Iimited e x c a v a t i o n s (mostly never p u b l i s h e d in f u l l ) is a p r o d u e t o f t h e k i n g d o m . O n l y a v e r y fevv e l e m e n t s , a n d none of the m a j o r fcaturcs, s e e m to date t o the provincial period. inseriptions serving to date either r o c k - c u t features or buildings are rare, but a n itıvaluable s o u r c c o f d a t e d m a t e r i a l f o r s t y l i s t i c c o m p a r i s o n is p r o v i d e d b y t h e i n s e r i b e d r o c k - c u t t o m b s o f M e d a i n S a l e h , vvhich r a n g c f r o m AD I t o 76.16

The main

p h a s e o f e v o l u t i o n at P e t r a , s o f a r a s yet k n o v v n , c l e a r l y b e l o n g s t o t h e e n d o f t h e first c e n t u r y BC, a n d t h e first c e n t u r y AD. A single r o c k - c u t chamber

(triclinium)

banquet:ng

is firmly d a t e d e a r l i e r t h a n t h i s , i n t h e 9 0 S BC. O t h e r v v i s e

the dedication o f a s t a n ı e t o A r e t a s I V

[circa

9 B C - A D 4 0 ) s h o v v s f r o m its

l o c a t i o n t h a t t h e c e n t r a l s a n c t u a r y a r e a vvith t h e o n e s t a n d i n g t e m p l e , t h e s o c a l l c d Q a s r el B i n t , vvas a l r e a d y l a i d o u t . T h e f a m o u s r o c k - c u t f a c a d e a t t h e e n d o f t h e S i q , t h e K h a s n e h , a l s o b e l o n g s t o t h i s p e r i o d , vvhile t h e m a i n t h e a t r c vvas c u t o u t o f t h e r o c k i n t h e first c e n t u r y A D . 1 7 A f u r t h e r c a t a l o g u e i s n o t n c c d e d . T h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l , e p i g r a p h i c a n d s t y l i s t i c e v i d e n c e m a k e s it c e r t a i n t h a t P e t r a , a s a c i t y vvith a r e f i n e d a r e h i t e e t u r e a n d r o c k - c a r v i n g s , h a s t o b c seen, like the t o m b s o f M e d a i n S a l e h , as a local o f f - s h o o t o f l a t e - H e l l e n i s t i c

15. For ıhe city see EAEHL s.t>. "Kboda"; Wenning, Nabatâer, ı j ş f f . For the inseriptions see A. Ncgcv, "Nabataean inseriptions from 'Avdat (Oboda)", IEJ 11 (1961), 117; 13 (1963), 113. Much remains uncertain, and it is impossible to be more specific about the history o f the tovvn in this period. See novv, hovvever, A. Ncgcv, "The Temple of Obodas: F.xcavations at Otoda in July 1 9 8 9 " , IEJ 41 (1991), 6 1 . 16. For the urban evolution o f Petra, I depend cntircly on the magnificcnt study by Judith Mackenzic, The Arehiteeture of Petra (1990), vvhich is also an cxccptional repcrıoire of photographs. Scc also P. C . Hammond, "Nabataean Settlement Pattcrns inside Petra", Anc. Hist. Bull. 5 ( » 9 9 i ) . 36.

17. Scc Mackenzic, op. cit., 33—34.

a r t ; the a u t h o r i t a t i v c r c c c n t s t u d y b y J u d i t h M a c k e n z i e a r g u e s t h a t t h e m o d e l s f o r this a r c h i t e c t u r e w e r e d r a w n f r o m A l e x a n d r i a . It s h o u l d b e s t r c s s c d , first, t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e s o far a v a i l a b l e r e l a t e s m a i n l y t o r o c k - c u t e l e m e n t s , a n d t o t h e s a n e t u a r y a r c a a n d the c e n t r a l c o l o n n a d e d street ( w h i c h m a y b e e a r l y o r l a t e in t h e first c c n t u r y AD). V e r y little is as y e t knovvn o f Petra a s a t o v v n — f o r i n s t a n c e , o f its side-streets o r p r i v a t e h o u s e s . S e c o n d , n e a r l y ali t h e i n s e r i p t i o n s vvhich d a t e f r o m t h e k i n g d o m are, like t h e c o i n s o f the p e r i o d betvveen t h e 6 o s BC a n d AD 1 0 6 , in N a b a t a e a n . G r e e k o r bilingual i n s e r i p t i o n s a r e very r a r e . O n e e x c e p t i o n c o m e s f r o m t h e g o r g e Ieading t o t h e S i q p r o p e r (the ' G a t e o f the S i q ' , B a b el S i q ) , vvhere a N a b a t a e a n inseription r e c o r d s that o n e ' B D M N K W s o n o f ' K Y S ( A c h a i o s ) s o n o f S L Y (Syllaios) s o n o f ' T Y H ( W ) h a s m a d e the t o m b f o r himself a n d his d c s c e n d a n t s under the r u l e o f M N K W . A p o o r l y preserved G r e e k inseription r c p e a t s t h e message: ' A b d m a n c h o s s o n o f A c h a i o s m a d e this mtıemeion

for himself and

his s o n s ' . T h e ruler r e f e r r e d t o m a y b e either M a l i c h u s I o f the mid-first c e n t u r y BC o r M a l i c h u s 11 o f t h e m i d - f i r s t c e n t u r y AD. T h e r e f c r c n c c m a y bc t o the ' O b e l i s k T o m b ' a n d triclinium

vvhich a r e t o b e f o u n d o p p o s i t e , on t h e

o t h e r side o f the g o r g e . 1 8 U n f o r t u n a t e l y w c a r e in n o p o s i t i o n t o knovv vvhether G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s vvere a c o m m o n f e a t u r e o f the c i t y o f P e t r a in t h e royal p e r i o d , o r indeed t o be c e r t a i n vvhether the q u e s t i o n o f l a n g u a g e vvas significant at ali. B u t t h e m o n o l i n g u a l i s m o f the r o y a l c o i n s is suggestive; so a l s o , as vve vvill see, is t h e q u i t e a b r u p t shift avvay f r o m N a b a t a e a n in the ' a r e h i v e o f B a b a t h a ' , a s s o o n as t h e p r o v i n c i a l r e g i m e vvas i m p o s e d . But as r e g a r d s t h e use o r s i g n i f i c a n c e o f G r e e k in the k i n g d o m , o u r e v i d e n c e simply fails us. T h e r e vvas f o r i n s t a n c e a f o r m a l G r e e k inseription o n t h e f a c a d c o f t h e t h e a t r e ; but its f r a g m e n t a r y r e m a i n s d o n o t allovv us t o s a y vvhether it vvas p u t up b e f o r e o r a f t e r ı o 6 . ' 9 W h a t is novv c e r t a i n , hovvever, is t h a t P e t r a , as a c i t y vvith m o n u m e n t a l a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d r o c k - c u t f a c a d e s , b e l o n g s in t h a t p e r i o d in the history o f t h e N e a r Kast vvhen R o m a n d o m i n a t i o n vvas a s s u r c d , b u t R o m a n direct rule vvas either a b s e n t o r stili relatively l i g h t l y i m p o s e d . T h e r o y a l m o n u m e n t s o f C o m m a g e n e b e l o n g in this p e r i o d , if in t h e c a r l i e s t phase o f it; b u t so a l s o do t h e t e m p l e o f Bel a t P a l m y r a , H e r o d ' s T e m p l e in J e r u s a l e m (as vvell a s his o t h e r m a j ö r m o n u m e n t s ) , the t e m p l e o f B a a l s h a m i n a t S i a ' a n d , a s vvill b e s e e n , the t e m p l e o f Z e u s a t G e r a s a . T h e m a j ö r c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f this period vvere s o m e t i m e s royal c r e a t i o n s , as i n C o m m a g e n e o r J u d a e a ; b u t t h e o t h e r s vvere t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f the c u l t u r e o f l o c a l c o m m u n i t i c s , a s in P a l m y r a , S i a ' o r G e r -

1 8 . S e c J. T . M i l i k , " U n e i n s e r i p t i o n h i l i n g u e n a b a t e e n n e et g r c c q u c â P e t r a " , (1976), 143; M a c k e n z i e , o p . cit., 34. 1 9 . S c c P. C . I l a m m o n d , The F.xeaualion

of the Main

Theatre

at re Ira ( 1 9 6 5 ) , 7 1 .

ADA)

a s a . T h u s , t h o u g h it is s u r e l y c e r t a i n t h a t P e t r a ovved its s u d d c n b u r s t o f s p c c t a c u l a r a r c h i t e c t u r a l a c t i v i t y t o its h a v i n g b c c n a r o y a l c a p i t a l , w c c a n n o t b e c c r t a i n w h c t h c r w c s h o u l d s c c t h i s s o l c l y a s t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f the r o y a l \vili o r o f the self-assertion o f a c o m m u n i t y , o r of both. It m a y be s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t n o t h i n g a t P e t r a c a n bc u n a m b i g u o u s l y d a t e d t o t h e r e i g n o f the last k i n g , R a b b e l II (AD 7 0 - 1 0 6 ) . F o r t h e r e a r c s l i g h t i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t it w a s B o s t r a r a t h e r t h a n P e t r a vvhich h e t r e a t e d as his m a i n city. T h e e v i d e n c e is s u g g e s t i v e , i f h a r d l y u n a m b i g u o u s . F i r s t , N a b a t a e a n inseript i o n s m e n t i o n i n g R a b b e l I I t e n d t o c o n c e n t r a t e in t h e N a b a t a e a n z o n e i n t h c s o u t h e r n H a u r a n r a t h e r t h a n elsevvhere. S c c o n d , a s e r i e s o f i n s e r i p t i o n s r e f e r s t o ' D u s h a r a , g o d o f R a b b e l o u r l o r d , vvho is a t B o s t r a ' . It c a n b e o n l y a hyp o t h e s i s t h a t b e h i n d t h e s e a l l u s i o n s lies a s h i f t e i t h e r t o d c p c n d c n c c o n thc a g r i c u l t u r e o f t h i s r e g i o n o r t o t r a d e t h r o u g h the W a d i S i r h a n , a s o p p o s c d t o that through thc R e d Sea.20 N a b a t a e a n B o s t r a , u n l i k e P e t r a , is o v e r l a i d b o t h b y t h e r e m a i n s o f the R o m a n tovvn a n d by a m o d e r n s e t t l e m e n t . T h e r e is n o n e t h e l e s s s u f f i c i e n t cvid c n c c t o shovv t h a t it h a d h a d s o m c m o n u m e n t a l u r b a n f e a t u r e s . T h c e a s t e r n q u a r t c r o f t h c tovvn is p l a n n e d o n a d i f f e r e n t a l i g n m e n t f r o m t h e l a r g e r vveste r n p a r t , vvhich s u r e l y r e p r e s e n t s r h e m a i n a r e a o f the c i t y in the R o m a n per i o d . B u t it r e m a i n s u n c l e a r vvhether the ' N a b a t a e a n A r c h ' , s t a n d i n g a t a p o i n t vvhere t h c tvvo z o n e s m c e t , b e l o n g s t o a vvcstvvard c x p a n s i o n o f t h e city in the late r o y a l p e r i o d o r t o t h e p r o v i n c i a l p e r i o d . 2 1 T h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t N a b a t a e a as a k i n g d o m c o n t a i n c d u r b a n c c n t r c s vvith m o n u m e n t a l b u i l d i n g s w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e d a l o c a l v a r i a n t o f H e l l e n i s t i c a r e h i t e e t u r e . B u t vvhether t h e s e p l a c e s s h o u l d b e seen as cities in t h e o t h e r s e n s e , a s c o m m u n i t i e s vvith a f o r m a l s t r u e t u r e o f s e l f - g o v e r n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d a n n u a l m a g i s t r a t e s , is q u i t e u n k n o v v n . N o s u c h i n s t i t u t i o n s a r c refleeted in N a b a t a e a n i n s e r i p t i o n s ; a n d t h c o n l y c o i n s m i n t e d d u r i n g t h e r o y a l p e r i o d vvere t h o s e vvith l e g e n d s in N a b a t a e a n , issued b y t h e k i n g s t h e m s e l v e s . T h e s u d d e n e m e r g e n c e o f b o t h P e t r a ( a s r e f l e e t e d in t h e ' a r e h i v e o f B a b a t h a ' ) and B o s t r a a s ' G r c c k c i t i e s ' is t h u s o n c o f t h c m o s t m a r k e d c h a n g c s vvhich folIovved t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f p r o v i n c i a l r u l e .

11.3. T I ı E D E C A P O U S ıN T H E F ı R S T C E N T U R Y O n e m a j ö r e f f e c t o f t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f R o m a n r u l e in AD 1 0 6 vvas, as vve h a v e s e e n , t o b r i n g a c o ı ı c r e t e R o m a n p r e s e n c e , in t h c s h a p e o f b o t h a g o v e r n o r 2 0 . S c c J. T . M i l i k , " N o u v c l l e s i n s e r i p t i o n s n a b a t c e t u ı c s " , Syria 3 5 { 1 9 5 8 ) , 2 2 7 ; M . S a r t r e , Bostra

des origines

vincia

Arabia

a l'lstam

{ 1 9 8 5 J, 5 4 f f . ; c f . A . S e g a l , Toıvn

21. J . - M . Dcnr/ct, " I x s sondages dc (1986), 62.

Planning

and Arehiteeture

in

Pro-

(1988), csp. 5^ff. l ' a r c n a h a t e e n ct l ' u r b a n i s m c d c B o s t r a " ,

(2RAI

(vvho m i g h t b c f o u n d a t B o s t r a , a t Petra o r clsevvhere) a n d a legion, t o t h e r e g i o n s o u t h o f D a m a s c u s , vvhere t h e r e h a d been ( s o f a r a s vve c a n teli) e f f e c tively n o n c b e f o r e . 1 B u t t h e p r o v i n c i a l territory h e r e vvill a l r e a d y h a v e p a i d tribute to R o m e . J o s e p h u s ' narrative happens t o reveal that the H a u r a n a n d the o t h e r n e i g h b o u r i n g d i s t r i c t s h a d paid t r i b u t e t o R o m e b o t h in t h e b r i e f interval a f t e r t h e t e t r a r c h P h i l i p ' s d e a t h in AD 34 a n d again a f t e r rhe d e a t h o f A g r i p p a II in the 90S. S o vve o u g h t t o p r e s u m e t h a t the G r e e k cities o f t h e D e c a p o l i s h a d d o n e likevvise, e v e n t h o u g h , t h r o u g h m o s t o f the first c e n t u r y , they represented a p h y s i c a l l y s e p a r a t e e n e l a v e b e l o n g i n g t o t h e p r o v i n c e o f Syria. F o r vvhat it is vvorth, the slight i n s c r i p t i o n a l evidenee f r o m the D e c a polis in t h e first c c n t u r y s e e m s t o c o n t a i n n o rcfiection o f t h e e x i s t e n c c o f t h e legatus

o f S y r i a until a b u i l d i n g - i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m G e r a s a vvhich refers t o L .

C e i o n i u s C o m m o d u s , legatus

i n AD 7 9 - 8 I . 2 N o r d o vve find any b u i l d i n g -

i n s e r i p t i o n s i n v o k i n g t h e n a m e o f t h e E m p e r o r until o n c r e c o r d i n g the d e d i c a t i o n o f the t h e a t r e a t G e r a s a t o D o m i t i a n in AD 90. A s vve savv earlier, t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n s e r i p t i o n r e c o r d s t h a t t h e d e d i c a t i o n vvas 'in a c c o r d a n c e vvith' a d e c r e e o f the legatus

Augusti

pro praetore,

Lappius M a x i m u s , also represents

the earliest r c c o r d o f a d c c i s i o n by a g o v e r n o r o f Syria in this r e g i o n . 3 If t h e c h a n g e vvhich c a m e a b o u t in 1 0 6 h a d been slightly foreshadovved in t h e prec e d i n g d e c a d e s , it m u s t stili h a v e greatly a l t e r c d t h e r e l a t ı o n s h i p o f these c i t i e s to the Empire. T h e e f f e c t m a y h a v e been m o r e p r o f o u n d in the c a s e o f t h o s e cities, P h i l a d e l p h i a , G e r a s a a n d a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y A d r a a , vvhich novv f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s g r o u p c d — a s g e o g r a p h y vvould i n a n y c a s e h a v e s u g g c s t c d — v v i t h t h e f o r m e r N a b a t a e a n territories t o their s o u t h , a n d p e r h a p s t o their e a s t (if t h e r e h a d indeed b e e n N a b a t a e a n o c c u p a t i o n t h e r e a t ali) a n d n o r t h - e a s t , as part o f t h e nevv p r o v i n c e o f ' A r a b i a ' . T h e

very c o m p l e x

qucstion

of mutual

influ-

ences, a n d c o n t r a s t i n g c o m m u n a l a n d p e r s o n a l identities, o v e r the vvhole a r e a vvhich a f t e r 1 0 6 vvas t o be classified as ' A r a b i a ' vvill b e t o u c h e d o n later. It is n o t o f c o u r s e t o be e x p c c t e d t h a t o u r evidenee vvill allovv m o r e t h a n t h e m o s t t e n t a t i v e o f ansvvers. B u t b e f o r e t h a t vve n e e d t o a s k vvhether a n y real c o n t e n t c a n b e given t o t h e d e s e r i p t i o n o f the c i t i e s o f the D e c a p o l i s , especially P h i l a d e l p h i a , G e r a s a a n d A d r a a , as ' G r e e k c i t i e s ' in t h e p e r i o d before 106. V e r y little is knovvn o f t h e a e t u a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f the ' f o u n d a t i o n ' o f a n y o f these places a s G r e e k c i t i e s in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , if indeed a n a e t u a l

1. 3 . 2 a b o v e . 2. C . B. W c l l c s , in C . H . K r a e l i n g (cd.), Gerasa:

City of the Decapolis

( 1 9 3 8 ) , ins. n o . 5 0 ;

f o r the p r o b l e m s a n d suggesced e m e n d a t i o n s o f this v e r y f r 3 g m e n t a r y t c x t , s c c G . W . B o w c r s o c k , " S y r i a u n d e r V e s p a s i a n " , JRS 6 3 { 1 9 7 3 ) , « 3 3 o r 1 3 8 . 3. SEG

X X V ı ı , n o . 1009, c f . I O I O - I O I I . C f . 3.2 a b o v e .

m o m e n t o f f o u n d a t i o n o c c u r r e d ; n o r is t h e r e m u c h a r c h a c o l o g i c a l , a n d e v e n less inscriptional, e v i d e n c e f o r ehem in the H c l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d ; c o n s c q u c n d y the interpretation of the relatively extensive archaeological and inscriptional evidence o f the Imperial p e r i o d leaves r o o m f o r c o n j e c t u r e a b o u t the n a t u r e o f the local

culture.4

true

F o r o u r p u r p o s e s it is ı ı c c c s s a r y o n l y t o r e c a l l t h a t

ali t h o s e p l a c e s w h i c h h a d G r e e k n a m e s vvill h a v e g a i n e d t h e m in t h e H e l l c n i s tic period, and that s o m e — G a d a r a , H i p p o s , D i u m , S c y t h o p o l i s and P e l l a — a r e listed a s h a v i n g b e e n r e - b u i l t , o r l i b e r a t e d f r o m H a s m o n a e a n r u l e , i n : h e early years o f the R o m a n conquest, under Pompcy and Gabinius. Hippos and G a d a r a l a t e r ovved t h e i r d e t a e h m e n t f r o m t h e H e r o d i a n k i n g d o m , a n d t h e i r a t t a e h m e n t to the p r o v i n c e o f Syria, to their status a s G r e e k cities.5 U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o t h i n g is s a i d b y J o s e p h u s a b o u t P h i l a d e l p h i a , G e r a s a o r A d r a a i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e e a r l y r e s t o r a t i o n s ; b u t it is c e r t a i n t h a t a f t e r 4 BC { t h e d e a t h o f H e r o d ) ali t h e s e c i t i e s b e l o n g e d t o t h e p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a . A c o n f u s e d l i s t o f t h e cities o f the D e c a p o l i s p r o v i d e d by Pliny t h e E l d e r s e e m s t o g r o u p t o g e t h e r Damascus, Philadelphia, R h a p h a n a ( ? ) , Scythopolis, Gadara, Hippos, D i u m , Pclla, ' G a l a s a ' (presumably G e r a s a ) a n d C a n a t h a . 6 O f t h e p l a c e s i n t h i s g r o u p vvhich vvere t o b e c o m e p a r t o f ' A r a b i a ' , n o t h i n g is k n o v v n o f A d r a a in t h e first c e n t u r y , a n d a l i t h e ( v e r y s l i g h t ) e v i d e n c e f o : it a s a c i t y b e l o n g s t o t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d c e n t u r i e s . T h e tvvo m a j o r p l a c e s vvere P h i l a d e l p h i a a n d G e r a s a . In t h e c a s c o f P h i l a d e l p h i a o u r b e s t c v i d c n c c f o r its s e l f - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a s a G r e e k c i t y i n t h e first c e n t u r y c o m e s f r o m its c o i n s , s o m e o f vvhich a r e , l i k e t h o s e o f T y r e , ' p s e u d o - a u t o n o m o u s ' — t h a t is t o say, they d o n o t n a m e or p o r t r a y the E m p e r o r . B u t in f a c t the carlicst o f these c o i n s t o c a r r y d a t e s , o f A D 8 0 / 8 1 , a r e c o n t e m p o r a r y vvith o t h e r s vvhich d o n a m e a n d represent T i t u s as E m p e r o r a n d D o m i d a n as ' C a e s a r ' . T h e r e a f r e r ali t h e c o i n s o f t h e c i t y , vvhich s t a r t a g a i n u n d e r H a d r i a n , a c k n o v v l e d g c t h e E m p e r o r i n t h e u s u a l vvay. B u t t h e e a r l i e s t c o i n s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t in v a r i o u s r c s p c c t s : in p o r t r a y i n g a c o n v e n t i o n a l set o f G r e e k d e i t i e s ( D e m e t e r ; P a l l a s A t h e n e , N i k e , H e r a k l c s , a n d t h e T y c h c - F o r t u n e o f t h e c i t y ) , a n d (in o n e c a s e ) in identifying the coin a s being

4of

the Phil(adelpheis) of Koile Syria'.7 T h i s

f o r m o f d e s e r i p t i o n , vvhich n e i t h e r t h e n n o r l a t e r c o r r e s p o n d e d t o a n y o f f i d a l

4 . For a survey o f the data then available see Schürer, H/P II, 1 3 0 - 1 6 0 ; for nevv archacological evidence see R. H. Smith, "'llıc Southern Ixvant in the Hcllcnistic Period", Levant 22 (19Ç0), 123. For an interpretation o f the cvidcncc from the Imperial period scc J. M . C. Bowsher, "Arehiteeture and Religion in the Decapolis: A Numismatic Survey", PEQ 119 (1987), 62. 5. ı . r above. 6. Pliny, NIIV, 16/74. Pliny admits that different accounts of the Decapolis listed different citics. Since there is no reason to think either that there vvas a fbced list or that its members constitutcd some sort of İcague, the problems arc not vvorth pursuing further. 7 . A . S p i j k c r m a n , The Coins

of ıhe Decapolis

and Provincia

Arabia

(1978), 242ff.

R o m a n g e o g r a p h i c a l usage, vvas t o receive f u r t h e r e m p h a s i s in the s e c o n d century. T h e G r e e k inseriptions o f P h i l a d e l p h i a a r c very fe\v, a n d u n f o r t u n a t c l y n o d a t e is a t t a c h e d t o a p o t e n t i a l l y revealing o n e vvhich shovvs the boule demos

o f the c i t y h o n o u r i n g a m a n vvho vvas a gynttıasiarcbos

and

and

bouleutes

a n d ( a p p a r e n t l y ) r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a t e m p l e o f Herakles.® It m a y vvell d a t e t o the first c e n t u r y , a n d vve n c c d n o t seriously d o u b t t h a t Philadelphia then possessed t h e n o r m a l c o n s t i t u t i o n a ) s t r u e t u r e o f a G r e e k c i t j ' . Hovv far its u r b a n f r a m e v v o r k h a d d e v e l o p e d is m o r e difficult t o s a y ; a l i the impressive r e m a i n s o f m o n u m e n t a l buildings, o f vvhich t h e t h e a t r e is t h e most notable, secm t o belong to the second a n d third centuries.9 T h a n k s t o extensive e x c a v a t i o n s a n d a q u i t e rich series o f G r e e k inseript i o n s , a m u c h b e t t e r e o n e e p t i o n c a n be gained o f the urban d e v e l o p m e n t o f G c r a s a in the early E m p i r e . 1 0 B u t o n c c again t h e s c l f - p o r t r a y a l o f the city o n its c o i n s is o f g r e a t significance. C o i n a g e vvas issued bricfly in AD 6 7 / 6 8 , a n d here again ' p s e u d o - a u t o n o m o u s ' c o i n s a n d o t h e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g N e r o

ap-

peared s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h e E m p e r o r is n a m e d in the m o s t m i n i m a l vvay, s i m ply a s N E R ( ö n ) , in s t r o n g c o n t r a s t t o t h e full titles o f t h e later p e r i o d . A r t e m i s is p o r t r a y e d , b u t n o t n a m e d , a l o n g vvith Z e u s a n d T y c l ı e . H e r e t o o , c o i ı ı a g c did n o t re-start until t h e reign o f H a d r i a n ; then a n d aftcrvvards the E m p e r o r vvas h o n o u r c d in t h e usual v v a y . " M o r e i m p o r t a n t , a c o m b i n a t i o n o f e x c a v a tion a n d d a t e d i n s e r i p t i o n s m a k e s it p o s s i b l e t o see hovv s o m e e l e m e n t s in t h e u r b a n m a k e - u p o f G e r a s a e h a n g e d significantly betvveen t h e e a r l y a n d t h e later first c c n t u r y AD. As clscvvhere, vve c a n a s yet have little n o t i o n

of

the urban c h a r a c t e r o f the H e l l e n i s t i e city. B u t in the c a s e o f the first t e m p l e o f O l y m p i a n Z e u s , t h o u g h s o u n d i n g s indicate o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e hill on vvhich it s t a n d s in t h e H e l l e n i s t i e p e r i o d , a brief, r e c e n t l y published inseription r e vcals t h a t the o r i g i n a l c o u r t y a r d , built o n t e r r a c i n g , vvas c o n s t r u c t e d in t h e reign o f T i b e r i u s : ' Y e a r 9 0 (AD 1 7 / 2 8 ) . D i o d o r o s s o n o f Z c b s a o s ( Z c b c d a s ? ) , G e r a s e n e , vvas the a r e h i t e e t ' . 1 2 T h e vaulted cntrance-vvay c o n c c m e d c o u l d n o t h a v e been c o n s t r u c t c d vvithout i t s r e t a i n i n g vvalls; so vve h a v e a c l e a r refleetion o f a m a j ö r p r o j e c t vvhich m i g h t perhaps h a v e been b e g u n in the p r e v i o u s

8. P.-L. C a c i c r , IGI.S

X X I . 2 . Inscriptions

de la Jordanie:

Rigion

centrale

( 1 9 8 6 ) , n o . 29i ' h e

Arabia

( 1 9 8 8 ) , j f f . N o t it»

inseriptions o f A m m a n are nos. 1 0 - 4 7 . 9 . See A . S c g a l , Toıvn

Planning

and

Architecture

in Provincia

RPCI. TÖ. AH c o n s i d e r a r i o n o f t h e c i t y m u s t s t a r t f r o m the m a j ö r w ö r k ö f C . H . K r a e l i n g ( n . z above). 1 1 . S p i j k e r m a n , Coins

of the Decapolis,

r 5 6 f f . ; RPC

1 2 . J. Seigne, " L e sanetuaire d c Z e u s â Jcrash:

I,

fclcmcnts

669. d c c h r o n o l o g i c " , Syria 6 2 ( 1 9 8 5 ) ,

r e i g n , u n d e r A u g u s t u s . W h a t is m o r e , w e a l s o h a v e l o n g c r - k n o v v n i n s e r i p t i o n s w h i e h r e v e a l b o t h t h e o p e r a t i o n o f e u e r g e t i s m h e r e in t h i s e a r l y p e r i o d a n d a n e q u a l l y e a r l y f u n e t i o n i n g o f t h e I m p e r i a l c u l t in t h e c i t y . O n e r e a d s a s f o l l o w s : T o G o o d F o r t u n e . T o O l y m p i a n Z e u s f o r t h e s a f e t y o f t h e Sebastoi i s , Augusti)

a n d t h e h a r m o n y o f t h e demos,

(that

Zabdion son of Aristomachos,

h a v i n g b e e n p r i e s t o f T ı b e r i u s C a e s a r in y e a r 8 5 (AD 2 2 / 2 3 ) , g a v e f r o m h i s ovvn p r o p e r t y f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t e m p l e 1 0 0 0 dracbmai

out

o f piety. I n t h e 40S tvvo f u r t h e r g i f t s a r c r e c o r d e d , c x p l i c i t l y ' f o r t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e t e m p l e o f O l y m p i a n Z e u s ' , m a d e b y tvvo p e r s o n s v v h o a r e e a c h d e s c r i b e d a s h a v i n g b e e n gymnasiarch. T h e y t o o allude t o the ' h a r m o n y o f the people'.13 T h e s e i n s e r i p t i o n s h a v e a v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l c s i g n i f i c a n c c . T h e y shovv t h e w o r k i n g s o f t y p i c a l G r c c k c i t y i n s t i t u d o n s in a vvay v v h i c h i s v e r y r a r e f o r

this

p e r i o d a n y v v h e r e in t h e N e a r E a s t . T h e y s h o v v b e y o n d d o u b t t h a t t h e t e m p l e vvas a l o c a l p r o j e c t , d e s i g n e d a n d p a i d f o r b y l o c a l p e o p l e . T h e y s h o v v a n i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s c d s y m b o l i c l i n k t o t h e E m p e r o r s ( t h e tvvo Augusti far reigned, Augustus and Tıberius). shovv t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y

vvho h a d s o

But, perhaps m o s t significantly,

explicitly chose to characterise

they

'their' Z e u s

as

' O l y m p i a n ' , a c o l o u r l e s s t e r m vvhich c o u l d h a v e b e e n e m p l o y e d a n y v v h e r e i n t h e G r e e k v v o r l d . A s in s o m a n y o t h e r c a s e s , vve c a n n o t b e c e r t a i n t h a t a c u l t o f a specifically local Z e u s ,

o r even ' H a d a d ' o r Baalshamin

('Lord of

H e a v e n s ' ) , h a d n o t p r e c e d c d t h i s c u l t o n t h e s a m e s i t e . B u t vvc c a n o n l y

the know

hovv p e o p l e c h o s e t o identify this c u l t , a t this t i m e . 'ITıis i s n o t t h e p l a c e f o r a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e c i t y : t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e e a r l i e r t e m p l e o f A r t e m i s , f o r v v h i c h g i f t s vvere b e i n g m a d e by AD 79/80; the south t h c a t r c , n c x t t o the temple o f Z e u s , f r o m the s a m e p e r i o d ; o r t h e v v h o l e nevv c i t y l a y - o u t , i m p l i e d b y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

of

the

n o r t h - v v e s t g a t e , a s s o c i a t e d v v i t h a nevv c i t y vvall ( t h e g a t e i s d a t e d , a s vve h a v e s e e n , b y C c i o n i u s C o m m o d u s a s legatus

o f S y r i a in 7 9 / 8 0 ) . T h e f a m o u s o v a l

' f o r u m ' (agora?) also seems t o belong t o this period. T h u s , even if the

most

s p e c t a c u l a r m o n u m e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e l a t e r t e m p l e o f A r t e m i s in i t s v a s t

teme-

tıos r i s i n g u p t o t h e vvest o f t h e c o l o n n a d e d m a i n s t r e c t , b e l o n g ( a s is t y p i c a l ) to the second ccntury, there is ample evidenee that m o n u m e n t a l public bui.di n g b e g a n e a r l y in t h e first c e n t u r y , a n d c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h i t . I f vve n e e d e d any confirmation that

first-century

G e r a s a h a d the n o r m a l institutions o f a

G r e e k city, it is p r o v i d e d by a n i n s e r i p t i o n o f A D 66/67 m e n t i o n i n g a edros,

a dekaprötos

f o r l i f e , arehontes

a n d a grammateus

pro-

(secretary).14

T h e r e is t h u s n o r e a s o n t o d o u b t t h a t t h e p u b l i c c h a r a c t e r o f t h e tvvo m a i n 13. Welles, Gerasa, ias. nos. 2 - 4 . 14. Welles, Gerasa, ins. no. 45.

cities vvhich a f t e r ı o 6 c c a s e d t o be p a r t o f t h e p r o v i n c e o f Syria a n d vvere j o i n e d t o A r a b i a vvas u n a m b i g u o u s l y G r c c k . B u t b e f o r e this a t t a e h m e n t c o u l d t a k e place, c o m p l c x c h a n g e s vvere r e q u i r e d in t h e H a u r a n t o t h e n o r t h . F i r s t (as it s e c m s ) , a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f A g r i p p a II in the 90S his territories m u s t ali have b e c o m e t e m p o r a r i l y p a r t o f S y r i a , briefly c r c a t i n g a single p r o v i n c c f r o m C o m m a g e n e t o the D e c a p o l i s . W e h a v e n o t e d earlier J o s e p h u s ' r e f e r e n e e t o thc i n c r c a s e d R o m a n t a x a t i o ı ı vvhich novv afflicted t h e Jevvish s e t t l e m e n t a t B a t h y r a in B a t a n a e a ; 1 5 thc s a m e vvcight vvas p r e s u m a b l y felt t h r o u g h o u t t h e former royal d o m a i n s . But a m o r e profound shift also sccms t o have been t a k i n g p l a c e . T h i s vvhole region h a d been a bilingual z o n e in vvhich a d i s t i n e tive local c u l t u r e h a d been c x p r e s s e d , m o s t n o t a b l y a t the c u l t - c e n t r e o f S i a c , in b o t h G r c c k a n d A r a m a i c . B u t in t h c s c c o n d c c n t u r y a n d after, t h o u g h G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s e m a n a t i n g f r o m local village c o m m u n i t i c s a r e r e m a r k a b l y f r e q u e n t a n d i n f o r m a t i v e , S e m i t î c - l a n g u a g e i n s e r i p t i o n s seem t o die o u t ( t h e r e arc a t any r a t e n o n e f r o m this a r e a vvhich a r e clearly d a t e d t o the s e c o n d century o r after). W e might t a k e a s a s y m b o l o f t h a t s h i f t t h e inseription on a b a s a l t s t e l e , o f unknovvn p r o v c n a n c c , in t h e m u s e u m a t Suvveida, d a t e d by t h e s i x t c c n t h y e a r o f D o m i t i a n (AD 96). It is as c l e a r an c x a m p l c as a n y o f hovv a l o c a l g r o u p vvhose p e r s o n a l n a m e s vvere ali purely S e m i t i c c o u l d c o m e t o use G r e e k for c o m m u n a l purposes: Z a a m a n c s son of T h a i m o s , N a c h a p h o s son o f Z a a m a n c s , N a c h a p h o s , T h a i m o s , S a m e t h o s , A[m)aiclos, sons o f Z o b a i d o s , S a m c t h o s son o f T h a i m o s , Z a a m a n e s , N a z a p h o s , Z o b a i d o s sons o f A z b o d o s , ali twelve built the t o m b on an cqual basis, and (in o r d e r that) n o o n c else should have a right t o it c x c c p t thc associatcs listed a b o v c . Year 16 o f Domirianus Caesar. 1 6 It is o n l y b y i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t t h i s inseription signals the d i s a p p e a r a n c e

of

A g r i p p a II (and vvith t h a t t h e e n d o f t h e H e r o d i a n d y n a s t y ) , a n d the a r r i v a l o f p r o v i n c i a l s t a t u s , refleeted in t h c m e n t i o n o f t h c E m p e r o r . ' P r o v i n c i a l s t a n ı s ' m e a n t stili, o f c o u r s e , b e i n g p a r t o f S y r i a , a s it m a y h a v e d o n e vvhen C o r n e l i u s P a l m a , the legatus

o f Syria vvho vvas r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e *acquisi-

t i o n ' o f A r a b i a , vvas credited vvith the f o r e t h o u g h t (pronoia)

vvhich led t o t h e

building o f a n a q u c d u c t in t h c H a u r a n . 1 7 T h a t b c i n g s o , it is p r o b a b l y a l s o h c vvho is referred t o as g o v e r n o r în an inseription f r o m Suvveida in vvhich t h e 'city* (polis)

r e c o r d s t h e d e d i c a t i o n o f a temenos

a n d nymphaion

(founıain-

15. ı . t above. 16. M . D u n a n d , Le Muste

ile Soueida

1 7 . D u n a n d , o p . cic., n o . 1 0 1 = SEC

( 1 9 3 4 ) , 110. 7 5 . S e e 3 . 1 a b o v e . V ı ı , n o . 9 6 9 = AE

( 1 9 3 6 ) , n o . 1 4 6 ; L c B a s A V . , nos.

h o u s e ) , f o I l o w i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n a q u e d u c t under T r a j a n . T h a t in itself is a sign o f t h e s u d d e n a p p c a r a n c c o f c i t y - i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d u r b a n

faciiitics

in this p e r i o d ; as s o o f t e n , w c c a n n o t c l e a r l y distinguish the fact f r o m the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the m e d i u m ( G r e e k inseriptions) w h i c h represented it, b o t h t o c o n t e m p o r a r i e s a n d t o o u r s e l v e s . Ali t h a t is c l e a r in this c a s e is that the modern

placc-namc

rcflects

an

ancient c o m m u n a l

name,

'Soadcnoi®

or

' S o a d e e n e i s ' , a n d t h a t it is n o t until the T e t r a r c h i c period t h a t w e h a v e l î r m e v i d e n c e t h a t the polis

had acquired the name ' D i o n y s i a s V 8 But long before

t h a t , this a n d o t h e r p l a c c s h a d been a b s o r b c d into the p r o v i n c c o f ' A r a b i a ' , o r i g i n a l l y f o r m e d in 1 0 6 b y t h e ' a c q u i s i t i o n ' o f t h e k i n g d o m o f N a b a t a e a .

11.4. T H E N E W P R O V İ N C E O F

ARABİA

A s w e s a w earlier, a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g is k n o w n o f the c a m p a i g n o f 1 0 6 , o r o f vvhether t h e r e vvas a n y r e s i s t a n c e , e i t h e r offıcial o r popular. 1 T h e a p p a r e n t l y n o i s e l e s s d i s a p p e a r a n c c o f t h e k i n g d o m , a f t e r n c a r l y t h r e e c e n t u r i c s , deserves e m p h a s i s . F o r b o t h i n s e r i b e d a n d p e r i s h a b l e d o c u m e n t s p r o d u c e d u n d e r it h a d c m p h a s i s e d the n a t u r e o f the N B T W as a ' p e o p l e ' ( * M ) a n d t h e benefic c n c e o f their k i n g s tovvards t h e m . I n rcality, the a r r i v a l o f R o m a n rule m i g h t in p r i n c i p l e h a v e been seen a s a l i b e r a t i o n , a s it vvas by s o m e in J u d a e a in \D 6 , o r h a v e b e e n vievved by t h e p e o p l e vvith indifference, a s J o s e p h u s r e p o r t s o f C o m m a g e n e in t h e e a r l y 7 0 S . B u t vvhatever t h e t r u t h , vvhich vve c a n n o t knovv, vve c a n n o t t a k e as i n s i g n i f i c a n t t h e i m m e d i a t e d i s a p p e a r a n c c o f the e t h n i c i d e n t i t y o f the N B T W ; so far a s vve c a n detertnine f r o m d a t e d d o c u m e n t s , the t e r m s e e m s n o t t o h a v e r e m a i n e d in r e g u l a r use. A single f r a g m e n t a r y i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m E n - N e m a r a , in the s t e p p e east o f t h e J e b e l H a u r a n , ree o r d s a c a v a l r y m a n o f the l e g i o n III C y r e n a i c a vvho vvas ' b y r a c e a

Nabas*.2

W h a t vve find instead is a q u i t c vvidespread a n d i m m e d i a t e use o f a d a t i n g system using the y e a r s o f t h e p r o v i n c c : a t O b o d a in t h e N e g e v a l r e a d y in the y e a r 2 ; a t M a d a b a in M o a b in y e a r 3 . T h e f o r m e r i n s e r i p t i o n is in N a b a t a e a n , a n d t r a n s l i t e r a t e s the S t a n d a r d G r e e k term f o r p r o v i n c e , eparcbeia:

SNT

T R T Y N L H P R K Y ' . T h a t f r o m M a d a b a is b i l i n g u a l , a n d s p e a k s in N a b a t a e a n o f ' y e a r 3 o f t h e p r o v i n c e o f B o s t r a ' S N T T L T I . H P R K ( Y ' ) B Ş R H a n d in G r e e k o f ' t h e third y e a r o f t h e eparcbeia'S

A s p u b l i c d o c u m e n t s , it is n o t t o

be e x p e c t e d that s u c h i n s e r i p t i o n s , brief as they vvere, vvould c a r r y a n y sign o f regret f o r the v a n i s h e d k i n g d o m . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d they c o n s r i t u t e evi18. Le Bas-W., no. 1 3 0 5 n o . 1 2 3 3 ( ' S o a d e n o i ' ) ; IGR

IGR

III, n o .

III, n o . 1 1 7 3 ( a q u e d u c t ) ; L e B a s - W . , n o . 1 3 7 0 = SEG 1 2 7 5 : [E]oaSctt|v]e*ç, A D

1 4 9 ; IGR

Aıov[vmâl5l<x;?I. Tetrarchic; A p p . A , n o . 37. r. 3.2 above. 2 . \c B a s - W . , n o . 2 2 7 1 = IGR I H , n o . 1 2 5 7 : i n n e û ç Kup- y e v o f c l NdJJaç. 3. 3.2 a b o v e .

III, n o

VII,

1 2 7 8 : öx>ı

d c n c e t h a t the u s e o f N a b a t a e a n itself c o n t i n u e d ; it d i d n o t in a n y c a s c l i e vvithin t h e a m b i t i o n s o f a n c i c n t s t a t c s t o i m p o s e , o r t o bar, t h e use o f p a r t i c ı ı lar l a n g u a g e s . N o n c t h c l c s s , o n the v e r y l i m i t c d e v i d e n c e a v a i l a b l e t o u s , t h e r e a r e c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n s b o t h t h a t N a b a t a e a n d i d in f a c t t e n d t o g o o u t o f use a n d t h a t G r e e k , a n d t h e c i t y i n s t i t u t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it, c a m e i n t o m u c h m o r e r e g u lar c u r r e n c y , a n d d i d s o \vithin a fevv y e a r s o f the c s t a b l i s h m c n t o f the p r o v i n c e . T h i s p r o g r e s s i o n is v i s i b l e (or, stili, p a r t i a l l y v i s i b l e ) a b o v e ali in t h e ' a r c h i v e o f B a b a t h a ' , vvhere the c o n t e x t is f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d b y the f a c t t h a t the f a m i l y c o n c e r n e d is Jevvish. S o , a f t e r t h e N a b a t a e a n p r o p e r t y - d o c u m c n t s o f 9 4 a n d t h e n o f 9 9 , u n d e r R a b b c l II, vve c o m c i m m c d i a t c l y t o a b a d l y d a m a g e d d c c d o f d e p o s i t in G r e e k o f ı r o : ' I n t h e c o n s u l s h i p o f M a r c u s S a l v i d i e nus Orfitus and Quintus Peducaeus Priscinus, and of the foundation of the p r o v i n c e y e a r the f i f t h , in M a o z a o f the Z o a r a d i s t r i c t , I J o s c p h s o n o f J o s e p h s u r n a m c d Z a b o u d o s , i n h a b i t a n t o f M a o z a a c k n o v v l e d g e . . .\ 4 T h e t r a n s a c t i o n is a p r i v a t e o n e , betvveen u n c l e a n d nephevv. Yet t h e c o n s u l s h o l d i n g o f f i c e in R o m e c a n b e n a m e d , a p e n a l t y p a y a b l e ' t o C a e s a r ' ( n o t t o t h e k i n g ) i s specified, a n d G r e e k h a s i m p o s e d i t s e l f — e x c e p t t h a t s o m e f r a g m e n t a r y l e t t e r s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g m a y i n d i c a t e t h a t this is a t r a n s l a t i o n , [he]rmelneia\.

If s o ,

vve c a n n o t b e s u r e vvhether t h e t r a n s l a t i o n vvill h a v e b e e n f r o m N a b a t a e a n o r A r a m a i c . F o r t h e r e t h e n follovvs a s e r i c s o f d o c u m c n t s d a t i n g betvveen 1 1 9 a n d t h e e a r l y 1 z o s vvhich a r e vvritten in A r a m a i c . T h a t b r i n g s t h e m i n t o r e l a t i o n s h i p vvith the A r a m a i c d o c u m e n t s f r o m J u d a e a o f b e f o r e a n d d u r i n g t h e first r e v o l t , d i s c u s s c d a b o v e ; a n d o f c o u r s c a l s o vvith t h e A r a m a i c a n d H e b r e v v d o c u m c n t s o f t h e B a r K o c h b a p e r i o d , ali o f vvhich c o m e f r o m the J u d a e a n D e s e r t , a n d s o m e f r o m the s a m e c a v e in t h e N a h a l H e v e r in vvhich the a r c h i v e o f B a b a t h a vvas d e p o s i t e d a f t e r s o m e o r ali o f t h e f a m i l y h a d flcd t h e r e . 5 A t this t i m e , hovvever, the p e r s o n s c o n c e r n e d vvere stili living at M a o z a iıı vvhat h a d h e e n N a b a t a e a n t e r r i t o r y a n d vvas novv p a r t o f ' A r a b i a ' . F o r t h e m N a b a t a e a n m u s t indeed have been a n official language, a n d they reverted f o r a p e r i o d t o A r a m a i c . Hovvever, a s t h e s e d o c u m e n t s , like the N a b a t a e a n o n e s , h a v e n o t b e e n fully p u b l i s h e d , o n l y a fevv p a r t i a l r e f l e e t i o n s c a n be g i v e n h e r e . 6 O n e a t a n y r a t e is an e x t e n s i v e deed o f g i f t o f AD I Z O , in vvhich B a b a t h a ' s f a t h e r g r a n t s ali his p r o p e r t y t o h i s vvifc M i r i a m . As in o t h e r d o c u m e n t s f r o m t h e a r c h i v e , the p r o p c r t i c s c o n c e r n e d a r e p l o t s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d at M a o z a , o r M a o z ' A g a l t a i n , d e f i n e d by r e f e r e n c e t o n e i g h b o u r i n g p r o p e r t i e s a n d vvith vvater-rights c a r e f u l l y s p e c i f i e d ( a c c o r d i n g t o Y a d i n , it is h e r e t h a t the vvord

4 . P. Yadin

5, trans. N . L c w i s .

j . 10.2-3 above. 6. T h c s c d o c u m c n t s a r c r e p o r t e d b y Y a d i n i n IEJ 1 2 ( 1 9 6 2 ) , 2 4 1 - 2 4 6 , a n d i n Phoenix: Orienle

Lux

6 (1959-1966],

232-234.

Ex

' w a d i ' m a k e s its first r e c o r d e d a p p e a r a n c e ) . H e r e t o o a c o m p l c x d a t i n g system i n v o l v i n g the c o ı ı s u l s in R o m e , t h c E m p e r o r ( H a d r i a n ) a n d t h c era (year 1 5 ) o f thc p r o v i n c c is e m p l o y e d . A s so often in S e m i t i c d o c u m e n t s , it is the G r e e k e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e L a t i n t e r m w h i c h is t r a n s l i t e r a t e d , in this c a s e hypatoi,

' c o n s u l s ' ( o r Irypateia,

'consulship'?):

4 in

the c o n s u l s h i p o f L u c i u s

C a t i l i u s S e v e r u s f o r the s e c o n d t i m e a n d o f M a r c u s Aurelius ('L

HPTWT

LYQYS

QTWLYS

SWRS

TNYNWT'

WMRQS

Antoninus' 'WRLYS

*NTWNYNS). F o r s o c i a l history, even t h i s d o c u m e n t vvill b e s u r p a s s e d in i m p o r t a n c e by thc ' m a r r i a g e - c o n t r a c t ' o f B a b a t h a (in f a c t , like o t h e r s u c h ketubot,

a unilat-

c r a l vvritten d e c l a r a t i o n b y t h e b r i d e g r o o m ) , d a t e d s o m e t i m e in t h e e s r l y 1 2 0 S . O n l y a fevv phrases f r o m it have been p u b l i s h e d ; b u t o n e , using vvording a l m o s t identical t o t h a t a t t r i b u t e d t o this period in thc

Mishnah,

graphically

illustrates t h c c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f lives c o n d u c t e d u n d e r a p a r t i c u l a r a n c c s t r a l lavv: ' Y o u vvill b e as a vvife t o me a c c o r d i n g t o t h e lavv o f M o s c s a n d the Jevvs' (|KDY|N M W S H W Y H W D ' Y ) . 7 E v e n in these d o c u m e n t s , vvhich in l a n g u a g e a n d f o r m might h a v e b e e n vvritten in a vvholly Jevvish c o n t e x t in J u d a e a , the f o r m a l r e c o g n i t i o n b o t h o f the E m p i r e a n d its i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d o f t h e p r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a is very p r o m i nent. B u t in thc m i d - i 2 0 s a n o t h e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , o f a m u l t i d i m c n s i o n a l kind, t a k e s p l a c e . A b o v c a l i , f r o m 1 2 4 t o t h e latest i t e m , d a t e d A u g u s t 19, 1 3 2 , the vvhole arehive is in G r e e k , vvith s o m e p e r s o n a l a t t e s t a t i o n s a n d s i g n a t u r e s o f vvitnesses in A r a m a i c . I n p a r t this is b e c a u s c the t r a n s a c t i o n s i n v o l v e d n c c c s s i t a t c d a n i n t c r a c t i o n vvith thc a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h c R o m a n p r o v i n c c . W e h a v e seen a l r e a d y t h c i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e c e n s u s - r e t u r n m a d e b y B a b a t h a in 1 2 7 , vvhich ends by t r a n s l a t i n g i n t o G r e e k b o t h B a b a t h a ' s a t t e s t a t i o n ( f r o m A r a m a i c ) a n d t h c subscriptio

o f the praefectus

equitum

(from Latin). W e have

a l s o l o o k e d a t t h o s e d o c u m c n t s vvhich c o n c e r n places in J u d a e a , i n e l u d i n g a l o a n f r o m a R o m a n c e n t u r i o n s t a t i o n e d a t E n - g e d i . 8 B u t tvvo f u r t h e r a s p c c t s o f t h e arehive deserve e m p h a s i s . O n e is t h a t G r e e k is novv used even t o r e c o r d private t r a n s a c t i o n s vvhich, a t l c a s t a t t h c m o m e n t c o n c e r n e d , involve n o rcc o u r s e t o t h e g o v e r n o r o f A r a b i a o r his officials. T h u s f o r i n s t a n c e in

128

G r e e k is used f o r a n a c k n o v v l e d g m e n t o f a d e p o s i t ; vvhat is m o r e , the d o c u m e n t e n d s by r e c o r d i n g t h a t t h c s t r i c t l y R o m a n p r o c c d u r c o f q u c s t i o n t n d ansvver (a stipulatio)

h a d b e e n used t o c o n f i r m the t r a n s a c t i o n . 9 E q u a l l y sig-

n i f i c a n t is the ' m a r r i a g e - c o n t r a c t ' o f the s a m e year. T h i s o n e is, hovvever, of a q u i t e different f o r m f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s o n e , f o r it r e c o r d s t r a n s a c t i o n s be-

7 . O n Je\vish m a r r i a g e - c o n t r a c t s o f t h i s p e r i o d see L . A r c h e r , Her Price The }ewish

Woman

in Graeco-Roman

8. 3 . 2 a n d 1 0 . 3 a b o v e .

9. P. Yadin, no. 17.

Palestine

(1990), ch. z a n d A p p . r.

Is Beyond

Rubies:

tvveeıı the fatlıer o f the b r i d e a ı ı d t h e b r i d e g r o o m . O n e c h a n g e is e x p l i c i t l y d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g ' i n a c c o r d a n c c w i t h t h e G r c c k c u s t o m ' ; the t e r m s o f t h e a g r e e m e n t a r e in fact s u c h t h a t it c a n b e seen a s a G r e e k , n o t Jevvish, d o c u m e n t . B u t like o t h e r d o c u m e n t s , it a l s o shovvs very c l e a r l y hovv vve a r e c o n f r o n t e d vvith the e m p l o y m e n t o f G r c c k as a n official l a n g u a g e . F o r b o t h t h e f a t h e r a n d t h e b r i d e g r o o m t h e n add a t t e s t a t i o n s in A r a m a i c in their ovvn hatıds, a f t e r vvhich t h e vvords ' I , T h e e n a s , s o n o f S i m o n , librarios,

h a v e vvrit-

ten i t ' follovv in G r c c k , vvith finally t h e n a m e s o f sLx vvitnesses in A r a m a i c (and p e r h a p s o n e in G r e e k ) . 1 0 F r o m the point o f vievv o f t l ı e overall e v o l u t i o n f r o m ' N a b a t a e a ' t o ' A r a b i a ' , hovvever, t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g r e v e l a t i o n o f t h e a r c h i v e is the sudden a p p e a r a n c c o f P e t r a in the guise o f a G r e e k city vvith a c o u n c i l . A s t h e a r c h i v e shovvs, G r e e k b e c o m c s r e l e v a n t n o t o n l y in r e l a t i o n t o R o m a n o f f i c i a l s b u t b e c a u s e t r a n s a c t i o n s involviııg t h e o r p h a n e d s o n o f B a b a t h a are h a n d l e d by this c o u n cil. T h i s b o d y is first m e n t i o n e d in 1 2 4 : 'Verified e x a c t c o p y o f o n e i t e m o f g u a r d i a n s h i p from t h e m i n u t e s (akta)

o f t h e c o u n c i l (boule)

o f Petra t h e

m e t r o p o l i s , m i n u t e s displayed in t h e t e m p l e o f A p h r o d i t e in P e t r a . ' " P e t r a later a p p e a r s , m o r e cxplicitly, a s ' m e t r o p o l i s o f A r a b i a ' . W h i c h o f its t e m p l e s vvas novv identified officially a s t h a t o f A p h r o d i t e is n o t knovvn; Y a d i n ' s s u g gestion t h a t it vvas t h e Q a s r el B i n t itself is n o t i m p o s s i b l e . I n fact t h e t i t l e ' m e t r o p o l i s ' h a d been g r a n t e d i m m e d i a t e l y , a n d a p p e a r s in a G r e e k inseription o f 1 1 4 from the t r i u m p h a l a r c h t h e r e . 1 2 T h e r c l c v a n c e o f t h e B a b a t h a a r c h i v e is t o illustrate, i f t a n g e n t i a l l y , the f a c t t h a t this t r a n s f o r m a t i o n vvas n o m e r e m a t t e r o f f o r m . T h e r e vvas novv a boule,

vvhich c o n d u c t e d its business

in G r c c k . İ l e n c e t h e r e m u s t a l s o have been the n o r m a l a n n u a l m a g i s t r a t e s . (P-ven s o , it is n o t i c e a b l e t h a t this c o p y is vvitnessed b y f o u r p e r s o n s vvriting their n a m e s in N a b a t a e a n , a n d o n e in G r e e k ) . L a t e r p r o c e e d i n g s vvere s i m i larly in G r e e k ; b u t a g a i n the p a r t i c s attest in A r a m a i c o r N a b a t a e a n , i n c l u d i n g o n c o f t h e tvvo p e o p l e a p p o i n t e d b y the boule

as guardians for Babatha's

son.'3 L i k e earlier e v i d e n e e , these a t t e s t a t i o n s a n d s i g n a t u r e s o f vvitnesses a r e e n o u g h t o d i s p o s e c o n c l u s i v c l y o f a n y g e n e r a l n o t i o n t h a t N a b a t a e a n vvas n o t a language in n o r m a l use a m o n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n . I f a f o r m o f A r a b i c vvas a l s o s p o k e n , t h e r e is n o evidenee t h a t it vvas t h e exclusive

language of daily speech.

But i n t o this c o n t c x t t h e r e h a s s u d d c n l y intruded a vvhole c o m p l c x a p p a r a t u s 1 0 . P. Yadin,

n o . 1 8 , s c c a l s o N . L e w i s , R . K a i z o f f a n d J. C . G r c e n f i c l d in IEJ 3 7 ( 1 9 8 7 ) ,

2 1 9 . F o r t h e vıc\v t h a t t h i s ıs m its n a t u r e a C r c c k c o n t r a c t , scc A . W a s s c r s t c ı n , " A C o n t r a c t f r o m t h e P r o v i n c e o f A r a b i a N o v a : N o t e s o n P a p y r u s Y a d i n 1 8 " , JQR Cf. ch. 1 above. i j . P. Yadin,

no.

ii.

T I . See R o v v e r s o c k , Roman r j . P. Yadin, n o . 1 5 .

Arabia,

84-85.

Marrıagc

80 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 9 j .

o f G r e e k c i t y - g o v e r n m e n t , R o m a n o f f i c i a l d o m a n d G r e e k lavv, w i t h e l e m e n t s o f R o m a n iaw. T h e role o f i n t e r p r e t e r s , a n d o f s c r i b c s w h o c o u l d w r i t c l o n g d o c u m e n t s in G r e e k , h a s b e c o m e c r u c i a l . A t the very least the c h a n g e f r o m k i n g d o m t o p r o v i n c e c o m p l e t e l y a l t e ı e d n o t m e r e l y the a e t u a l \videc framevvork o f p o w e r within w h i c h o r d i n a r y p e o p l e livcd, b u t the f o r m s o f a l l u s i o n t o t h a t povver used in d a i l y l i f e — a n d this irrespeetive o f the l a n g u a g e e m p l o y e d . B u t it is a l s o significant t h a t a c l e a r p r o g r e s s i o n f r o m N a b a t a e a n — a n d initially, in the c a s e o f a Jevvish family, f r o m A r a m a i c — t o G r e e k is c l e a r l y visible vvithin a n a r e h i v e o f d o c u m e n t s o f a s i m i l a r type. W h a t a l s o seems

t o b e c l e a r is t h a t the arrival o f provincial rule m e a n t

t h a t a t least s o m e u r b a n c o m m u n i t i c s vvere rc-classificd a s G r e e k c i t i e s a l m o s t i m m e d i a t c l y a f t e r t h e c o n q u c s t , o r a c q u i s i t i o n , o f the nevv p r o v i n c i a l a r e a s . F o r this p r o c e s s is visible b o t h in t h e f o r m e r N a b a t a e a n k i n g d o m a n d i n the f o r m e r d o m a i n s o f A g r i p p a II. P e t r a h a d b e c o m e ' P e t r a m e t r o p o l is' by 1 1 4 , a n d ' H a d r i a n e P e t r a ' by 1 3 1 , vvhen the t e r m a p p e a r s ( p a r a l l e l i n g the s a m e a p p e l l a t i o n f o r P a l m y r a ) in t h e B a b a t h a a r e h i v e . 1 4 Similarly, B o s t r a becaıııe ' N e a T r a i a n e B o s t r a ' , t h e r e f o r e a l r e a d y in T r a j a n ' s reign; a n d , a s vve vvill see, K a n a t h a , previously in A g r i p p a ' s d o m a i n s , is d e s c r i b c d a s a polis

in t h e s a m e

p e r i o d . I n this c a s e , hovvever, t h e r e are s p o r a d i c issues o f c o i n s (vvith the lege n d s ' K a n a t a ' o r ' K a n a t e ı ı ö n ' ) in t h e first century, vvhich imply t h a t it vvas a l r e a d y r e g a r d e d a s a c i t y : in 1 2 4 vve find a G r e e k d e d i c a t i o n t h e r e f o r the s a f e t y o f t h e Kmperor, m a d e b y five m e n vvith S e m i t i c n a m e s , d u r i n g the term as agoranomos

o f s o m e o n e vvith a transliterated R o m a n n a m e , ' M . O u l p i o s

Philippikos'.'5 Equally, R a b b a t h m o b a or ' R a b b a t h m o a b a ' , the later 'Arsap o l i s ' o r ' A r e o p o l i s ' , is d e s c r i b c d as a polis

in t h e B a b a t h a a r e h i v e , a n d evi-

d e n t l y p o s s e s s e d a t least o n e p u b l i c building, a b a s i l i c a . S i n c e it vvas a p l a c e vvhere t h e legatus

o f A r a b i a c o u l d b e e x p e c t e d t o give j u r i s d i e t i o n , vve s h o u l d

p r o b a b l y a s s u m e t h a t t h e R o m a n s d i d indeed r e g a r d it a s a polis.

By contrast

C h a r a c h m o b a ( K e r a k ) , vvhich vvas c o n s i d e r a b l y nearer, d o e s n o t a p p e a r in the a r e h i v e . B u t under E i a g a b a l it t o o issued c o i n s , a s in the s a m e p e r i o d did Rabbathmoba.16 N o t ali the s c a t t e r e d e v i d e n c e o n this p r o c e s s is needed here; b u t it is relev a n t t h a t a G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m t h e Siq a t P e t r a vvas put u p b y a m a n vvho deseribes h i m s e l f as ' p a n e g y r i a r c h e s (president o f a festival) o f (the) noi'.x7

Adrae-

A d r a a t o o m i n t e d c o i n s f r o m the reign o f A n t o n i n u s Pius t o t h a t of

14. P. Yaditt, no. 15,1.11. 1 5 . IGR

III, n o . 1 2 1 4 . F o r t h e f e w c o i n s , RPCI,

T 6. P. Yaditt,

668-669.

n o s . 1 6 a n d 25 ( j u r i s d i e t i o n ) ; S p i j k c r m a n , Coins

of the Decapolis,

108—109;

262—163. 1 7 . F. Z a y a d i n c a n d Z . T . F i e m a , " R o m a n i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e Siq a t P e t r a " , ADA] ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 1 9 9 = SEG

XXXVI,

no. 1388.

30

G a i l i e n u s — w h e n , a s w e savv, i t s w a l l s w e r e b e i n g b u i l t vvith I m p e r i a l h e l p . 1 8 B u t there are m o r e c o m p l e x issues here. F o r b o t h the dedication at Petra a n d s o m e o f the coins represent a 'betyl', a rounded, a n i c o n i c s t o n e evidently p o r t r a y e d a s a n o b j e c t o f v v o r s h i p . A s vve vvill s e e , t h i s f e a t u r e i s k n o v v n e l s e v v h e r c in the area; such coin-types, deliberately e h o s e n , m u s t bc indicarive o f c o n s c i o u s c o m m u n a l i d e n t i t i e s . O t h e r p e r s p e e t i v e s vvere o f c o u r s e o p e n t o t h i r d p a r t i e s : t o E u s e b i u s , A d r a a , ' a f a m o u s c i t y (polis)

o f A r a b i a ' , vvas a l s o t h e

p l a c e 'vvhere O g t h e g i a n t k i n g o f B a s h a n vvas k i l l e d , a n d ali his f o l l o v v e r s ' . 1 9 W e m u s t p r e s u m e t h a t ali t h e s e p l a c e s novv h a d a n n u a l m a g i s t r a t e s , a n d c i t y - c o u n c i l s . O c c a s i o n a l l y t h e r e is c l e a r c o n ü r m a t i o n , a s i n t h e i n s e r i p t i o n m e n t i o n i n g a t o v v n - c o u n c i l l o r f r o m M a d a b a — b o u l e u t i s Madabenön.20

Per-

h a p s m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t a r c t h e tvvo i n s e r i p t i o n s vvhich shovv p c o p l e vvho g i v e themselves a dual i d e n t i t y — f r o m C a n a t h a as their 'city' and from the village, o r s m a l l e r s e t t l e m e n t , f r o m vvhich they c a m e . O n e is the S i t h r o s son o f R a b b c l o s , vvho e v i d e n t l y c a m c f r o m S i a ' a n d c a l l s h i m s e l f a ' S £ n o s K a n ö t h c n o s * , a 'Seenian Kanothian'.21 But m u c h the most remarkable cxprcssion of the d u a l ( o r in s o m e s e n s e t r i p l e ) i d e n t i t i e s t h u s c r e a t e d i s t h e f a m o u s

third-

c e n t u r y i n s e r i p t i o n in G r c c k a n d L a t i n f r o m T r c v o u x i n F r a n c e . 2 2 I t is t h e epitaph

of

a

trader

vvho d i c d

there,

' A t h e i l e n o s ' o r a s c o m i n g f r o m t h e vicus

and

vvho i s d e s e r i b e d

Athelanus.

first

as

an

l h i s m u s t be the presenr-

d a y v i l l a g e o f ' A t i l , a l i t t l e o v e r 3 k m vvest o f Q a t ı a v v a t . B u t t h e d e c e a s e d , T h a i m o s a l s o called lulianos, s o n o f S a a d o s , is a l s o deseribed a s a cirizcn a n d t o v v n - c o u n c i l l o r o f t h e Kanöthaioi,

o r in I ^ t i n 'decurio S e p t i m i a n o ( r u m )

C a n o t h a ( n o r u m ) ' . W e c a n t a k e it t h a t b o t h S i a ' a n d A t h e i l a vvere v i l l a g e s i n the territory o f C a n a t h a : a s a l m o s t cvcryvvhcrc, a 'city' represented

merely

one a g g l o m c r a t i o n m o r e prcstigious t h a n others. Like S i a ' , Atheila could in f a c t b o a s t i t s ovvn t e m p l e s , b u i l t i n t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d c e n t u r i e s . But in G r e e k , t h o u g h n o t in L a t i n , T h a i m o s ' n a t i v e city is deseribed a s being 'in Syria'. G i v e n the d i s t a n t l o c a t i o n o f the inseription, this might

be

m e r e v a g u e n e s s . It vvas stili a c h o i c c , hovvever. A s vvill b e s e e n i n a m o m e n t , s e l f - a s e r i p t i o n t o ' S y r i a ' c i e a r l y c o u l d h a v e r e a l s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r c i t i e s in t h i s region. Alternativcly, a quitc different identity c o u l d b c represented.

Thus

vvhen s o m e o n e e l s e f r o m t h e s a m e tovvn vvas p u t t i n g u p a n e p i t a p h o n t h e i s l a n d o f T l ı a s o s t o h i s s o n , vvho h a d d i e d t h e r e , a l s o i n t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , h e >8. S p i j k c r m a n , Coins 1 9 . E u s e b i u s , Onom.

of the Decapolis.

s S f f . ; cf. 4.3 above.

84, 7 .

20. IGLS

X X I . 2 , n o . 64: irja Z a ı S a X X n ç IlF.1p17F.vouç PoiAF.UTOU.. Mx|SaJİ|nvüW]-

2 1 . SEG

VII, n o . 9 8 9 . F o r the c o m p l c x issues of the c x t c n t of ı h c c i t y ' s territory, s c c

M . S a r t r e , " L e territoire de C a n a t h a " , Syria 58 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 3 4 3 . 2 2 . IGR

I, n o . 2 5 - IG X I V , n o . 25 3 2 -

its t e m p l e s see D . S o u r d e l , Les cultes DcntTer, Hauran,

291.

C İ L XIII, n o . 2 4 4 8 -

du Hauran

ILS, n o . 7 5 2 9 . F o r ' A t i l a n d

( 1 9 5 2 ) , c s p . 1 0 0 . F o r a p h o t o g r a p h of o n c ,

d e s c r i b e d h i m s e l f as aıı ' A r a b o f the city o f S c p t i m i a K a n ö t h a ' . 2 1 T h i s descript i o n is p e r h a p s m o r e c u r i o u s than m i g h t a p p e a r . 'I"he N a b a t a e a n s , so f a r a s o u r e v i d e n e e telis us, h a d n e v e r identified themselves e x p l i c i t l y a s ' A r a b s ' , even t h o u g h o t h e r s h a d . A n d in a n y c a s e C a n o t h a o r C a n a t h a h a d n o t b e e n p a r t o f t h e k i n g d o m a t a n y t i m e a f t e r 23 BC. M o r c o v c r , it s e e m s t o have been o n l y u n d e r S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s , vvhose n a m e vvas n o w a t t a c h e d t o t h a t o f the city, t h a t t h e n o r t h e r n H a u r a n c e a s e d t o be p a r t o f 'Syria P h o e n i c e ' a n d bec o m e p a r t o f ' A r a b i a ' . 7 4 H o v v p e o p l e in this region novv identified t h e m s e l v e s is t h u s a highly c o m p l c x q u e s t i o n . T h e p r e d o m i n a n t f a c t o r in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l a n d c o m m u n a l i d e n t i t i e s m u s t be seen as t h e s p r e a d o f city-statuses a f t e r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f the p r o v i n c e . A p a r t from the c a s e s s i n g l c d o u t i m m c d i a t c l y a b o v e , c o i n s in G r c c k vvere issued a t s o m e point in t h e s c c o n d o r third c e n t u r y a l s o by t h e follovving cities: A b i l a , C a p i t o l i a s , D i u m , K s b o u s , G a d a r a , H i p p o s a n d P e l l a . I n the e a r l y third c e n t u r y P e t r a a n d B o s t r a undervvent a further t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , into R o m a n coloniae,

a n d vvere follovved in t h e 240S b y P h i l i p p o p o l i s , ncvvly

f o u n d e d b y Philip ' t h e A r a b ' . T h e r e r e m a i n e d o n l y the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f S a k kaia into 'Maximianopolis' in the Tetrarchic p e r i o d . " A t o n e level it is p o s s i b l e t o s e e the p r o g r e s s o f ' u r b a n i s a t i o n ' ( t o o allc m b r a c i n g a t e r m ) as o n c vvhich very significantly r c d u c c d the p r e v i o u s l y s t a r k c o n t r a s t s betvveen t h e t h r e e politically s e p a r a t e r e g i o n s o f the first c e n t u r y : t h e D e c a p o l i s , the H e r o d i a n d o m a i n s east o f t h e J o r d a n Valley, a n d N a b a t a e a . Ali vvere novv s t u d d e d vvith cities vvhich it vvould b c better t o d e s e r i b e as ' G r a e c o - R o m a n ' than simply as 'Greek'. T h i s p r o c e s s , hovvever, vvas n o t entirely u n i f o r m in ali a r e a s . T h o s e p l a c e s in t h e N e g e v vvhich vvere in p h y s i c a l t e r m s t o v v n s — E l u s a , O b o d a (Avdat) a n d M a m p s i s — d i d n o t p r o d u c c c o i n s a n d a r c very little knovvn. i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m O b o d a d o , hovvever, e a s t s o m e p a r t i a l light on t h e c u l t u r e o f this r e g i o n in t h e third c e n t u r y , shovving, a s vve vvould c x p e c t (and j u s t a s in the H a u r a n ) , t h a t G r c c k vvas novv a n a t u r a 1 m e d i u m o f p u b l i c e x p r e s s i o n f o r the local popu l a t i o n . 2 6 S o f o r i n s t a n c e t h e r e is t h e e p i t a p h o f a vvoman c a l l e d ' A u r e l i a M o u l c h e , d a u g h t e r o f A b d o m a n c h o s , a l s o c a l l e d A m l a i p l ı o s ' , vvho vvas b o r n in 1 6 0 a n d died in 2 4 1 . O r ; m o r e strikingly, t h e r e a r e several r e f e r e n c e s : o ' Z e u s O b o d a s ' , o f vvhich t h e m o s t r c v c a l i n g is d a t e d t o AD 2 9 3 / 2 9 4 : 2 3 . IGR

I, n o . 839; s c c L . R o b c r t , " L ' e p i t a p h c d ' u n A r a b c â T h a s o s " , Hellenica

II ( 1 9 4 6 ) ,

4 7 : " A p a y r^Aecoç E e j r a ı n a ç KâvoıOa. 2 4 . S e e E. K e t t e n h o f e n ,

MZur

N o r d g r e n z t ' der prouincia

Aıabiae

im 3. J a h r h u n d c r t n . C h r . n ,

Z D P V 9 7 (1981), 62. 2 5 . M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae", 2 6 . See A . N e g e v , The Greek

5 1 - 5 5 . Cf. 4.2 above. İnseriptions

(rom the Negev

( 1 9 8 1 ) , n o . 1 0 (AurCİia M o u l c h f ) ;

n o . 1 3 (and c f . n o s . i d , 3 , 4 a n d 6), w i t h A . N c g c v , IEJ 3 6 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 5 9 - 6 0 ( Z e u s O b o d a s ) ; ' 1 9 3 / 4 C . E . ' h e r e is a s l i p f o r 2 9 3 / 2 9 4 .

T o G o o d Fortune. O Z e u s O b o d a s , help Eircnaios, building the towcr vvith g o o d o m e n s in the year r 8 8 , through O u a e l o s the builder, a Petrean, and Eutyches. T h e reference m i g h t be simply t o a local Z e u s o f (the city o f ) O b o d a . B u t in fact the e v i d e n c e f o r the c u l t o f ' O b o d a s t h e g o d ' , c o n t i n u i n g f r o m the r o y a l t o t h e provincial p e r i o d , is q u i t e c o n s i s t e n t . \Vlıether w e s h o u l d t a k e this a s s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f a l o n g - e s t a b i i s h e d local c u l t is a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n ; b u t it could

b e s e e n as a very r a r c , a l m o s t u n i q u e , i n d i c a t i o n

o f retrospeetive loyalty t o a n a t i o n a l dynasty. It is a t l e a s t very suggestive t h a t in his Arabica,

vvhich seems t o d a t e t o the f o u r t h c e n t u r y AD, a little-knovvn

vvriter n a m e d O u r a n i o s identified the p l a c e O b o d a as 'vvhere O b o d e s , t h e k i n g , vvhom t h e y vvorship a s a g o d , is b u r i e d ' . 2 ' As vvill a p p e a r later, the N a b a t a e a n l a n g u a g e itself r e m a i n e d in u s e a t l e a s t until t h e f o u r t h ccntury, t h o u g h the c v i d c n c c is very c l e a r l y Iimited t o t h e o u t e r fringes o f the f o r m e r N a b a t a e a n z o n e . I n O b o d a itself t h e r e is so f a r n o e x a m p l e later than 12,5. T h e f o r t n e r l y N a b a t a e a n N e g e v c e r t a i n l y r e m a i n e d an a r e a o f e s t a b l i s h e d s e t t l e m e n t , a n d s e e m s if a n y t h i n g t o h a v e d e v e l o p e d further, like the m a r g i n a l s t e p p e z o n e e a s t o f t h e O r o n t e s , in the C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d . But in t e r m s o f G r a e c o - R o m a n , p a g a n u r b a n i s m , it is p r o b a b l y c o r r e c t t o s c c it, in this p e r i o d , a s a backvvater. T h e s a m e s e e m s in g e n e r a l t o b e true o f the vvhole s o u t h e r n region f r o m P e t r a s o u t h t o the R e d S e a , in s p i t e o f t h e d e v e l o p i n g R o m a n m i i i t a r y p r e s e n c e . O n o u r e v i d e n c e Petra, t o o , h a r d l y developed a s a city a f t e r t h e e n d o f t h e m o n a r e h y . If the relatively p l a i n r o c k - c u t t o m b used f o r the R o m a n

lega-

tus o f A r a b i a , S e x t i u s F l o r e n t i n u s , in t h e 12.0S vvas a c t u a l l y c u t in t h a t period r a t h e r than e a r l i c r (vvhich is n o t q u i t e c e r t a i n ) , it vvould c o u n t as o n e o f t h e very fevv d a t a b l e m o n u m e n t s o f G r a c c o - R o m a n Petra. 2 S T h e city s e e m s t o have lived on as a smaİlish p r o v i n c i a l tovvn like a n y other, vvith little d e v e l o p m e n t a n d h e n c e very little t r a c e o f the usual b u i l d i n g - i n s c r i p t i o n s . B u t , f o r i n s t a n c e , o n e o f a n u m b e r o f G r e e k inseriptions o n s t a t u e - b a s e s f r o m the temenos o f t h e Q a s r el B i n t shovvs t h e city, d e s c r i b c d as a mStropolis kolönia,

h o n o u r i n g a procurator

(that i s , in L a t i n , the duumviri

and

o f tvvo E m p e r o r s t h r o u g h the tvvo o f the

metrostrategoi

colonia).19

T h o u g h P e t r a thus r e t a i n e d an h o n o u r e d s t a t u s , it is p e r h a p s n o t m i s l e a d i n g t o t a k e it t h a t t h e m a j o r e v o l u t i o n o f u r b a n life (and u r b a n - s t y l e life c o n d u c t c d in villages) t o o k p l a c e in the m o r e fertile z o n e vvhich s t r e t e h e d 2 7 . FCrH

6 7 5 , F . 1 4 ; f o r d ı c d a t e s e e J. M . I. W e s t , HSCP

78 (1974), 2 8 2 - 2 8 4 . T h e thesis

summarised here seems uufortunatcly t o have remained unpublishcd. 2 8 . F o r t h e v e r y s l i g h t c v i d c n c c o f c o n s t r u c t i o n in t h e R o m a n p e r i o d scc J . M a c k e n z i c , Arehiteeture

of Petra ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 3 8 - 5 6 .

29. Millar, " R o m a n

Coloniae51.

The

n o r t h f r o m t h e W a d i H e s a ( o r f r o m r o u g h l y o p p o s i t e the s o u t h e n d o f thc D e a d S e a ) t h r o u g h M o a b i t i s , A u r a n i t i s , B a t a n a e a (an ill-dcfincd z o n e ) , G a u ianitis, t h c İava-field o f T r a c h o n i t i s t o D a m a s c u s itself. In the z o n e i m m e d i a t e l y s o u t h o f D a m a s c u s , it is t r u e , t h e r e w e r e , even in t h e third c e n t u r y , striiçin g i y fevv places vvhich c o u n t c d as cities: n o n c iııdccd betvveen

Caesarea

P a n i a s a n d D a m a s c u s , b o t h lying a t thc f o o t o f M o u n t H e r m o n , a n d t h e c i t i e s vvhich lay on a line s t r e t e h i n g r o u g h l y f r o m the S e a o f G a l i l e e eastvvards to the n o r t h e r n a n d north-vvestern slopes o f the J e b e l H a u r a n : H i p p o s , A d r a a , Souedias, C a n a t h a , and eventually Philippopolis and M a x i m i a n o p o I i s . But, as w c savv in c o n n c c t i o n vvith Judaea/Syria P a l a e s t i n a , G a u l a n i t i s (the G o l a n ) vvas m a r k e d b y t h e s a m e netvvork o f s u b s t a n t i a l s t o n e - b u i l t villages as B a t a n a e a , T r a c h o n i t i s ( e s p e c i a l l y r o u n d the fringes o f t h e İava-field) a n d

thc

H a u r a n . 3 0 It is p e r h a p s t h c a r c a betvveen T r a c h o n i t i s a n d D a m a s c u s vvhich has f o r s o m c r c a s o n been t h e l c a s t c x p l o r c d . B u t here t o o vve c a n c a t c h g l i m p s e s of a c o n ı p l c x c u l t u r a l a n d r e l i g i o u s h i s t o r y , c o n d u c t e d in village c o ı ı t e x t s . T a k e the village vvhich E u s e b i u s c a l l s C h ö b a , in t h c t e r r i t o r y o f D a m a s c u s , 'in vvhich a r e t h o s e Jevvs vvho belicve in C b r i s t a n d are c a l l e d Ebiönaioi'j*1 the Jevvish ' c i t y ' (polis)

or

o f N i n e u e , vvhich E u s e b i u s l o c a t e s ' a t thc e o r n e r o f

A r a b i a ' — t h a t i s , Navva in B a t a n a e a , vvest o f T r a c h o n i t i s ; 3 2 o r thc kötne

of

L c b a b a (the m o d e r n D c i r A l i , betvveen t h e İava-field a n d D a m a s c u s ) , vvhere in 3 1 8 / 3 1 9 a sunagöge

( c h u r c h ? ) vvas ereeted b y follovvers o f t h e M a r c i o n i t e

heresy. 3 3 O t h e r villages in this period vvere stili firmly p a g a n . A t t h c site o f thc m o d e r n village o f D c i r el L e b c n , on t h c s o u t h e r n c d g e o f t h e İ a v a - f i e l d , a t e m p l e vvas ereeted in AD 3 2 0 t o ' t h e lord a n d u n c o n q u e r e d Sun G o d A u m o s ' by tvvo m e n vvhose s e l f - d e s e r i p t i o n p e r h a p s illustrates m o r e vividly t h a n any o t h e r d o c u m e n t t h c social a n d c u l t u r a l c o m p l e x i t y o f this r c g i o n : ' K a s s i ( o ) s Malichathos

o f the

kötne

of

Reimea

(and

the)

C h a s e t e n o i , a n d I ' a u l o s M a x i m i n o s o f t h e kötne

tribe

(phyle)

of

(the)

M e r d o c h a ( a n d the) trifce

(phyle) o f (the) A u d ö n o i ' . 3 4 T h i s seatter o f r o u g h l y c o n t c m p o r a r y c v i d c n c c f r o m t h c n o r t h e r n z o n e vvill b e e n o u g h t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e f a c t s b o t h that a netvvork o f villages e x i s t e d h e r e a s elsevvhere a n d t h a t t h e varied c u r r e n t s o f c o m p e t i n g religious systcrr.s vvere felt here a s t h e y vvere i n cities. B u t vve s h o u l d n o t pass över, a s b e i n g a l m o s t t o o o b v i o u s , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e activities o f this netvvork o f villages vvere novv given publicity in G r c c k i n s e r i p t i o n s . In t h c e n t i r e a r c a f r o m the s o u t h e r n 30. F o r i h c G o l a n , 1 0 . 4 a n d 1 1 . 1 a b o v c . 3 1 . Eusebius,

Onom. 1 7 2 , 1 . It i s not vvorth p u r s u i n g h e r e t h c c o n f u s i n g C h r i s t i a n r c f e r c n c c s

t o 'Ebionitcs' o r to C h o b a / K o c h b a . 3 2 . E u s e b i u s , Onom.

1 3 6 , 1 : s e p i TTJV yıovîav

T«1Ç ' A p a j i ı a ç . Scc Dcntzcr, Hauran,

415.

3 3 . L c Bas-W., n o . 2 5 5 8 , 3 4 . Lc Bas-W., n o . 2 3 9 3 (= OGIS, Hauran

â l'epoque

romaine

(1952),

n o . 6 1 9 ) , c f . 2 3 9 4 - 2 3 9 5 . Scc D . S o u r d e l , Les cultcâ 54li.

dn

p a r t o f the t e r r i t o r y o f D a m a s c u s t o the n o r t h e r n H a u r a n , n o t a single i n s e r i p t i o n is knovvn f r o m the H e l l e n i s t i e period- T h e earliest knovvn i n s e r i p t i o n s a r c the G r e e k - A r a m a i c ( P ) b i l i n g u a l s o f the first c e n t u r y BC f r o m S i a ' a n d S u vveida. B u t b y the e a r l y f o u r t h c c n t u r y t h e p u b i i c use o f S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s h a d e f f e c t i v e l y d i s a p p e a r e d . G r e e k vvas novv t h e c o m m o n l a n g u a g e o f p u b i i c e x p r e s s i o n used by these village p o p u l a t i o n s . T h e s a m e is true o f t h e c c n t r a l a r e a , f r o m the n o r t h e r n H a u r a n s o u t h t o M o a b , vvhere this s a m e dense netvvork o f villages vvas a l s o m a r k e d , in v a r y i n g degrees, by places vvith t h e s t a t u s o f polis.

Five issues n e e d t o b e t o u c h e d o n

here, but n o m o r e than s k e t e h e d , f o r this is o n e o f t h e m o s t intensively a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y s t u d i e d rcgiotıs o f t h e a n c i c n t vvorld: t h e vvay in vvhich m a n y o f these c i t i e s , in their c o i n s a n d i n s e r i p t i o n s , s c e m e x p l i c i t l y t o have d i s a s s o c i ated t h e m s e l v e s f r o m their ' A r a b i a n ' e n v i r o n m e n t ; tlıc o p p o s i t e tendeney, b y vvhich s o m e o f t h e m d c l i b c r a t c l y displayed 011 their c o i n a g e a n a t t a e h m e n t t o a n i c o n i c ( A r a b ? ) c u l t s ; t h e role here o f G r c c k - s t y l e g a m e s a n d festivals; t h e r e l a t i o n o f city a n d village, o r r a t h e r the a p p a r e n t i n d e p e n d e n c e o f v i l l a g e s ; a n d finally, a s a m a j ö r q u e s t i o n vvhich needs t o be treated separately, the i n t e r play betvveen t h e setded p o p u l a t i o n a n d the tribai g r o u p s vvhich i n h a b i t e d t h e steppe t o t h e e a s t . A s r e g a r d s the first issue, vve savv m u c h earlier hovv S c y t h o p o l i s , s i t u a t e d a c r o s s t h e J o r d a n in the Plain o f J c z r c e l , m i g h t deseribe itself p r o g r a m m a t i cally as ' o n e o f t h e G r e e k cites o f K o i l e S y r i a ' . 3 1 T h i s very v a g u e g e o g r a p h i c a l term h a d indeed h a d n o very p r e c i s e a p p l i c a t i o n ( e x c e p t t h a t it vvas alvvays used o f t h e s o u t h e r n a r e a a r o u n d M o u n t L e b a n o n a n d A n t i - L c b a n o n ) until Septimius S e v e r u s , vvith r e m a r k a b l e perversity, c h o s e it a s t h e official n a m e o f the northern

h a l f o f Syria a s a s e p a r a t e p r o v i n c e . 3 6 T h e cities o f the D e c a p o l i s ,

hovvever, shovved a very d e t e r m i n e d a t t a e h m e n t t o this e x p r c s s i o n . 3 7 T h u s a n inseription f r o m P h i l a d e l p h i a o f AD 1 8 9 / 1 9 0 deseribes it a s ' t h e city o f t h e Philadelpheis in K o i l e S y r i a ' . 3 8 T h e s a m e term is used on t h e c o i n s o f PhiladeLp h i a f r o m the first c e n t u r y AD t h r o u g h t o t h e last knovvn c o i n s o f the city, issucd under ' E l a g a b a l ' ( 1 1 8 — 2 2 . 2 ) — t h u s a f t e r t h e c r e a t i o n o f S e v e r u s ' nevv p r o v i n c e , far t o the n o r t h . İt is a l s o used o n t h e c o i n s o f A b i l a , f r o m M a r c u s Aurelius t o E l a g a b a l , on t h e s h o r t - l i v e d c o i n a g e o f D i u m under E l a g a b a l , o n s o m e o f t h o s e o f G a d a r a from M a r c u s Aurelius t o E l a g a b a l , a n d o n t h o s e o f Pclla under C a r a c a l l a a n d E l a g a b a l . 3 9 T o vvhatever R o m a n provincia

these

35. C h . 1 a b o v e . 36. 3.4 above. 3 7 . T h e p o i n t is m e r e l y s k e t e h e d h c / e ; it «"ili bc ehe s u b j e c t o f a d e t a i l c d s t u d y b y A l l a S t e i o of Tcl-Aviv University. 3 8 . IGLS

X X I . 2 , no. 23.

3 9 . S p i j k c r m a n , Coins

of the Decapolis.

i 2 6 f f . ( G a d a r a ) ; 2 i o f f . (Pclla).

ı+zif.

(Philadelphia); 48ff. (Abila); n 6 f f . (Dium);

citics ( o t h e r t h a n P h i l a d c l p h i a ) b e l o n g c d at successive stages, vvhich is n o t alvvays clear, it vvas o f c o u r s e c e r t a i n l y n o t S e v e r u s ' ' K o i l e S y r i a ' . I n ali c a s e s t h e u s e o f this t e r m m u s t i m p l y s o m e c o n s c i o u s a s s e r t i o n o f a n i d e n t i t y vvhich preceded t h e r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f 1 0 6 . It is surely significant t h a t n o s u c h e l a m ı is m a d e by p l a c c s vvhich h a d been u n d e r either t h e N a b a t a e a n kings o r the later Hcrods. B y c o n t r a s t , t h e r e are e l e m e n t s in the c i t y - c o i n a g e o f the r e g i o n vvhich reflect c e r t a i n s t r a n d s f r o m vvithin N a b a t a e a n religious i c o n o g r a p h y / 0 N a b a t a e a n art h a d c c r t a i n l y n o t r c j e c t e d s y s t c m a t i c a l l y ali use o f r e p r e s c n t a t i o r . a l m o t i f s ; a c o u n t e r - e x a m p l e i s p r o v i d e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , by t h e s t a t u a r y vvhich a d o r ı ı e d the f a c a d e o f t h e K h a s n e h . B u t its i c o n o g r a p h i c a l r e p e r t o i r e h a d inc l u d c d lovv-rclief c a r v i n g s o f n o n - r c p r e s c n t a t i o n a l stelai, vvhich in N a b a t a e a n i n s e r i p t i o n s are l a b e l l c d M S B (Hebrevv M S B H ) , N Ş B o r N Ş B H ; o r s i m i l a r l y lovv-relicf p o r t r a y a l s o f the r o u n d e d o r o b l o n g o b j e c t s c o n v e n t i o n a l l y c a l l e d ' b e t y l s ' . A s vve h a v e s e e n , C l a s s i c a l vvriters vvere avvare o f the use o f a n i c o r . i c c u l t - o b j e c t s in this r e g i o n ; ic vvas spccifically r e p o r t e d t h a t a t P e t r a ' T h e u s A r e s ' ( D u s a r e s ) vvas vvorshipped in the f o r m o f a s q u a r e b l a c k s t o n e . 4 1 M o r e over, as vvas a l s o n o t e d earlier, the G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n o f a panegyriarches

from

A d r a a , set u p in the S i q a t P e t r a , is a c c o m p a n i c d b y a lovv-rclief c a r v i n g o f a r o u n d e d ( n o r o b l o n g ) c u l t - o b j e c t . W h a t s e e m s t o be j u s t rhe s a m e c u l t - o b j e c t a p p c a r s on s o m e c o i n s o f A d r a a , e x p l i c i t l y identified a s ' D o u s a r e s , g o d o f t h e A d r a e n o i ' . 4 2 C o m p a r a b l c , t h o u g h n o t i d e n t i c a l , r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a p p c a r on c o i n s o f B o s t r a , C h a r a c h m o b a a n d M a d a b a (ali o f c o u r s e f o r m e r l y vvithin t h e N a b a t a e a n k i n g d o m ) . B u t in ali cases these coin-series a l s o u s e Standard G r a e c o - R o m a n a n t h r o p o m o r p h i e portrayals o f deities—and, paradoxicaliy, t h e c o i n a g e o f Petra uses t h e s e consistently. In o t h e r vvords, in a m a n n e r c o m p a r a b l e t o the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f ' E l a g a b a l ' a s a b l a c k s t o n e a t E m e s a , this vvas o n c s t r a n d in the religious a n d a r t i s t i c c u l t u r e o f t h e r e g i o n , a n d o n e vvhich it p r o v e d p o s s i b l e t o c o m b i n c vvith the m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l divine images vvhich t h e cities a l s o used o n their c o i n a g e . W h a t is m o r e , vvhatever o u t s i d e o b s e r v ers m i g h t s u p p o s e a b o u t the o b j e c t s vvorshipped by ' A r a b s ' , the c o i n a g e o f B o s t r a u n d e r C o m m o d u s c o u l d use a r c p r c s c n t a t i o n a l büst o f D u s a r e s , labelled ' D o u s a r e s o f t h e B o s t r e n o i ' . 4 3 T h e use o f a n i c o n i c images vvas c e r t a i n l y a distinctive a n d significant e l e m e n t in the p u b l i c a r t o f the c i t i e s o f t h i s reg i o n ; but it vvas n o t a d h e r e d t o rigidly. W h a t e v e r t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f this r e g i o n a l f o r m o f c u l t - o b j e c t , it is c l e a r

4 0 . F o r v v h a t f o l ! o w s s e e t h e v e r y s u g g c s t i v c s t u d y b y J. P a t r i c h , The Formalion taean Art: l'rohibition

of a Craven

tmage

among

the Nabataeans

41. C h . 1 above. 4 2 . P a t r i c h , o p . cit., 4 3 . S p i j k e r m a n , Coins

70ü. of the Decapolis,

74-75.

(1990).

of

Naia-

t h a t it c o - e x i s t e d vvith the h o l d i n g o f G r e e k g a m e s in m a n y o f t h e cities. A s m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e , it is o n e sign o f t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f very distinetive l o c a l c l c m e n t s vvith a r e m a r k a b l e m a l l e a b i l i t y o f c o m m u n a l identities t h a t it i s ( o n l y ) t h e legends o n the t h i r d - c e n t u r y c o i n s o f B o s t r a as a colonia

vvhich t e l i

u s t h a t t h e c i t y novv held g a m e s entitled ' A c t i a D u s a r i a ' . B u t vve hardly n c e d in a n y c a s e t o rely o n s u c h t a n g e n t i a l e v i d e n c e . A e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s o f B o s t r a shovv vvith p c r f e c t c l a r i t y t h e h i p p o d r o m e laid o u t t o t h e s o u t h o f the c i t y ; a n d its t h e a t r c , o f the s e c o n d c c n t u r y , used a s a fortress in t h e m e d i e v a l p e r i o d , r e m a i n s the best preserved f r o m t h e entire R o m a n E m p i r e . 4 4 S i m i l a r a t h l e t i c a n d t h e a t r i c a l festivals vvere c e r t a i n l y held a t G e r a s a , vvhere t h e r e vvere tvvo t h c a t r c s a n d a h i p p o d r o m e ; a m u c h - q u o t c d G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n o f t h e vvorld-vvide a s s o c i a t i o n o f a c t o r s reflects t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t t h e r e o f a n a n n u a l festival (agön)

f o r the s a f e t y o f t h e E m p e r o r T r a j a n . A t h -

letic festivals t o o k place a l s o a t S c y t h o p o l i s a n d P h i l a d e l p h i a ; b u t n o t , so f a r as vve knovv, a t Petra o r anyvvhere else e x c e p t (eventually) B o s t r a f r o m vvithin t h e f o r m e r k i n g d o m . 4 5 Hovvever, t h a t m a y b e m e r e l y a sign o f o u r i g n o r a n c e : as vvith t h e t h e a t r c a t P a l m y r a , vvhat use vvas m a d e o f t h e tvvo t h e a t r c s a t P e t r a in t h e s e c o n d a n d third c e n t u r i e s r e m a i n s a mystery. P o o r a s o u r e v i d e n c e i s , it i s p e r h a p s n o t vvrong t o s u p p o s e t h a t at t h e level o f city Üfe s o m e tension c o n t i n u e d t o b e felt betvveen s t a ı ı d a r d G r a e c o R o m a n c u s t o m s a n d o t h e r s , vvhether vve l a b e l t h e m ' A r a b ' o r n o t . If vve vvere t o follovv t h e l a t e - f o u r t h - c e n t u r y a c c o u n t o f E p i p h a n i u s ( o n e o f t h e m o s t u n r c l i a b l e a n d f a n t a s t i c o f vvriters), the c u l t o f a g o d d e s s c o n c e i v e d o f as a virgin vvas c o n d u c t c d in t h e ' A r a b d i a l c c t ' a t b o t h P e t r a a n d E l u s a , a n d c m b r a c e d h e r s o n ' D o u s a r e s ' , ' t h a t is, t h e o n l y s o n o f the l o r d ' . 4 * B u t , as is o b v i o u s , h e is s e e k i n g alleged p a g a n m o d e l s f o r the birth o f J e s u s . W e d o n o t knovv vvhether ' A r a b ' c l c m e n t s h a d i n fact b c c o m c p r e d o m i n a n t in f o u r t h - c e n t u r y P e t r a . I n E l u s a , in spite o f J e r o m c ' s report o f hovv H i l a r i o n e n c o u n t e r e d t h e r e Saraceni s p e a k i n g a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e , t h e r e is q u i t e c l e a r e v i d e n c e t h a t G r e e k c u l t u r e persisted in the l a t e E m p i r e . 4 7 P a r a d o x i c a l l y , it vvas a t t h e level o f village life t h a t t h e ' H e l l e n i s a t i o n ' b r o u g h t a b o u t b y R o m a n rule h a d the m o s t p r o f o u n d e f f e c t s . ' H e l l e n i s a t i o n ' is, hovvever, n o t q u i t e t h e right vvord, a l t h o u g h it d o e s fit t h e e x c l u s i v e use o f Greek

in

local

documents

of

the

second

4 4 . F o r t h e a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h scc S e g a l , Toıvn RDF,

ccntury

Planning,

1 1 4 ; f o r t h e t h e a t r c s e e I I . Fin s e n , Le leve du theâtre 4 5 . W c l l c s , ı n Gerasa,

fig.

and

onvvards,

and

109, and K c n n c d y and Rilcy,

romain

a Bostra,

ıns. n o . 1 9 1 . F o r t h e o t h e r c ı t ı c s M o r e n ı , IAG,

Syrie

(1971).

nos. 7 1 , 85.

4 6 . E p i p h a n i u s , Part. 5 1 , 2 2 , 9 - 1 1 . 4 7 . 1 0 . 4 a b o v e . See Ph. M a y c r s o t ı , " T h e C i t y o f Elusa i n t h e L i t c r a r y S o u r c c s o f t h e F o u r t h — S i x t h C e n t u r i e s " , I E ) 3 3 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , 2 4 7 . A s a G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n r e e o r d s , t h e r e vvas a t h e a t r c t h e r e in t h e fifth c c n t u r y . S e e A . N e g e v , Greek

İnseriptions

from

the

J. B i n g e n , " S u r u n c d c d i c a c c p r o t o b y z a o t i n e d ' E l u s a ( N e g e v ) " , ZPE

Negev

(1981), no. 25, and

53 (1983), 123.

the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f q u i t e e l a b o r a t e a n d r i c h l y d e c o r a t e d p u b i i c b u i l d i n g s and t e m p l e s in a n d by villages.

But t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f L a t i n p e r s o n a l

names

a n d t h e e x t c n s i v c rcflection i n the inseriptions o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f l o c a l s vvho vvere v e t e r a n s o f the R o m a n a r m y m e a n s t h a t ' G r a e c o - R o m a n ' , if t h e r e vvere a n a p p r o p r i a t e a b s t r a c t n o u n f o r t h e p r o c e s s , vvould be a b e t t e r d e s e r i p t i o n . T h e villages o f t h e H a u r a n a n d the n e i g h b o u r i ı ı g a r e a s h a v e been i n t e n sively studied, largely t h r o u g h their i n s e r i p t i o n s , a n d o n l y a fevv g e n e r a l p o i n t s n e e d b e m a d e h e r e / * F i r s t , it is t h e h i i l - c o u n t r y o f the J e b e l H a u r a n a n d t h e fringcs o f t h e lava-ficld o f T r a c h o n i t i s vvhich h a v e provided the g r e a t est d e n s i t y o f inseriptions. R e l a t i v c l y littlc is knovvn o f village life in t h e plain (the N u q r a ) betvveen B o s t r a a n d A d r a a . S e c o n d , tovvn-councillors

(bouleutai)

o f t h e c i t i e s o f the region d o a p p e a r in the i n s e r i p t i o n s . B u t t h e y do s o a s individuals, p e r f o r m i n g local f u n e t i o n s . It vvould be virtually i m p o s s i b l e t o guess f r o m t h e i n s e r i b e d r e c o r d s o f building p r o j e c t s a n d o t h e r a c t i v i t i c s und e r t a k e n by village c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t they vvere s u b j e c t t o a n y c o n t r o l by cities; a n d though s o m e m u s t in fact (like S i a ' a n d A t h e i l a m e n t i o n e d a b o v e ) h a v e l a i n in t h e city t e r r i t o r i e s , it is b y n o m c a n s c e r t a i n t h a t t h e y ali did. S o m e o f the villages o f the l a v a - f i e l d laid c l a i m t o t h e s u p e r i o r title o f

metrokömia,

' m o t h c r - v i l l a g e ' , t h o u g h this d o e s n o t necessarily i m p l y any r e c o g n i s e d f o r m a l s t a t u s . B u t vve h a v e seen e a r l i e r hovv Iulius S a t u r n i n u s , a s legatus

o f S y r i a in

t h e ı 8 o s , a d d r e s s e d t o t h e ' P h a e n e s i o i , m e t r o k ö m i a o f T r a c h ö n ' a letter a b o u t c x a c t i o n s by official t r a v e l l e r s , vvhich vvas then i n s e r i b e d o n a n e l a b o r a t e p u b iic b u i l d i n g t h e r e , novv d e s t r o y e d . 4 9 O u t o f the large e r o p o f t h o s e distinetively r e g i o n a l d o c u m c n t s , it m a y b e sufficient t o q u o t e a c o u p l e o f e x a m p l e s o f i n s e r i p t i o n s reflccting t h e c o m m u nal f u n e t i o n i n g o f these villages. O n e , f r o m K e f r - L a h a , illustrates hovv c o n s c i o u s villagers in these r e m o t e localitics m i g h t h c o f the vvider f r a m e v v o r k o f t h e E m p i r e . It vvas put up ' f o r t h e s a f e t y ' o f M a x i m i n u s ( 2 3 5 - 2 3 8 ) a n d his s o n , a n d m e n t i o n s the legatus

o f t h e p r o v i n c e a n d even t h e c o n s u l s o f 2 3 ^ . It

r e c o r d s t h a t the villagers (könıetai)

e s t a b l i s h e d s o m e t h i n g (evidently a p u b i i c

building) o u t o f their ovvn f u n d s , f o r t h e p u b i i c b e n e f i t , a n d ( a l s o ) by the

4 8 . See, c . g . , G . M . H a r p c r , " V i l l a g e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h e R o m a n P r o v i n c e o f S y r i a " ,

YCS

1 ( 1 9 2 8 ) , 1 0 5 ; R V i l l e n e u v e , " I . ' c c o n o m i e r u r a l e et la v i c d e s c a m p a g n c s d a n s l e H a u r a n a n l i ç u c ( 1 " sidclc av. J . - C . - V H ' s i c c l e a p . J . - C . ) : U n e a p p r o c h e " , i n D e n t / e r , Hauran,

63; M . Sartre,

p c u p l c m e n ı c t l e d e v e l o p p e m e n t d u H a u r a n a n t i q u e â la l u m i e r e d e s i n s e r i p t i o n s " , i b ı d . ,

1I9;

H . I . M a c A d a m , " E p i g r a p h y a n d V i l l a g e L i f e in S o u t h e r n S y r i a d u r i n g t h e R o m a n a n d E a r l y Byzantine Pcriods", of Arabia:

The

Berytus 31 (1983), 103;

Northern

Sector

idem,

Studies m the History of the Roman Province

( 1 9 8 6 ) ; M . S a r t r e , " V i l l c s ct v i l l a g e s d u H a u r a n ( S y r i c ) d u I " a u

V I ' s i e c l e " , in F r e z o u l s ( e d . ) , Sociâtts

urbaines,

239 (on w h i c h w h a t f o l ! o w s mostly depenes).

Scc n o w a l s o D . F. G r a f , " T h e S y r i a n H a u r a n " , / R A 5 ( 1 9 9 2 ) , 4 5 0 . 4 9 . 3-3 a h o v e .

g e n e r o s i t y o f s c v c r a l p e o p l e vvith t r a n s l i t e r a t e d L a t i n n a m e s , e a c h d e s e r i b e d a s ouetranos.

T h e p r o j e c t w a s c a r r i e d o u t in the strategeia,

evidently a local

o f f i c e , o f a n o t h e r m a n \vith a L a t i n n a m e , O u l p i o s S k a u r i a n o s . 5 0 C o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t i n u e d in t h e s e villages i n t o the f o u r t h century. A t t h c site o f thc m o d e r n D r u s e village o f O r m a n n e a r S a l h a d , a n d s o m e 2 7 k m e a s t o f B o s t r a , a b a s i l i c a a n d g a t e w c r e e r e e t e d in AD 3 3 0 by a g r o u p o f ' s u p e r v i sors* (pronoetai)

vvhose n a m e s p c r f e c t l y illustrate thc vvay in vvhich p r o j e c t s

like this vvere t h e vvork o f l o c a l g r o u p s e x p o s e d t o vvider influences: B o c t h o s s o n o f P r o k l o s , N e s t o r s o n o l S a d d a t h o s , Azizos s o n o f O u l p i a n o s

and

T h i c m o s son o f A s m a t h o s . 5 1 It s e e m s b e y o n d d o u b t t h a t the netvvork o f s u b s t a n t i a l villages, built in t h e very distinetive local b İ 3 c k b a s a l t , vvhich c a m e t o c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e İ a v a field a n d the J c b c l H a u r a n a s the I m p e r i a l p e r i o d p r o g r e s s e d , represented t h e i r a t t r a c t i o n t o a G r a c c o - R o m a n u r b a n , o r s u b - u r b a n , stylc o f life a n d c o m m u nal o r g a n i s a t i o n . W h a t e v e r t h e s p o k e n l a n g u a g e , o r languages, o f these v i l lages m a y h a v e b e e n , their p u b l i c vvritten l a n g u a g e vvas G r e e k . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n raises a d i f f i c u l t q u e s t i o n : h a d A r a m a i c a n d N a b a t a e a n in f a c t died o u t in this a r e a ? \Ve have n o t e d earlier t h c o n l y knovvn p e r i s h a b l e d o c u m e n t s in N a b a t a e a n , a n d t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t o suggest t h a t t h e r e vvas ever a N a b a t a e a n literatüre, a n y m o r e t h a n t h e r e vvas a P a l m y r e n e o n e . B u t a s e a t t e r o f N a b a t a e a n i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m thc s c c o n d , third a n d f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s , m a i n l y f r o m the o u t e r fringes o f the f o r m e r N a b a t a e a n a r e a (Sinai a n d t h e H e d j a z ) , is e n o u g h t o d e n ı o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e vvas stili knovvn, a n d c o u l d b c vvritten. 5 2 T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f that fact f o r t h e c u l t u r e o f the r e g i o n a s a vvhole r e m a i n s q u i t c u n c l c a r . E x c c p t f o r the Jevvish A r a m a i c i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m n e i g h b o u r i n g G a u l a n i t i s , t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o shovv t h a t t h e local A r a m a i c vvas stili vvritten in t h e n o r t h e r n r e g i o n . I n o t h e r vvords t h e e x c e p t i o n a l l y c o m p l e x linguistic h i s t o r y o f t h c v a r i o u s a r c a s vvhich b c c a m c p a r t o f R o m a n A r a b i a , the H a u r a n a b o v e ali, leaves m a n y i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s u n a n s w e r e d , S J

50. Le Bas-W., n o . 2 3 9 9 . 5 1 . L e B a s - W . , n o . 2 0 4 4 = FAES

Uf, no. 7 0 1 .

3 2 . F o r ı h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , e . g . , C I S I I . ı , n o . 1 3 2 5 ( y e a r 4 3 o f t h e p r o v i n c e , AD 1 5 0 / 1 5 1 ) ; 1 6 4 ( y e a r 8 5 , 1 9 0 / 1 9 1 ) , b o t h f r o m S i n a i ; f o r t h e t h i r d c c n t u r y s c c A . N c g c v , IEJ 17 ( 1 9 6 7 ) , 2 5 0 ^ . (Sinai); f o r t h e f o u r t h c c n t u r y s c c , e . g . , CIS R . S a v i g n a c , Mission

archeologique

en Arabie

II.1, no. 333 (year 200), and A . Jausscn

t h c H e d j a z , AD 3 0 5 / 3 0 6 a n d 3 0 6 / 3 0 7 ; R . Sriehl, a n d H . E . Stier ( c d s . ) , Beilrdge

zur Ailen

and

II ( 1 9 1 4 ) , n o . 3 8 6 ( y e a r 2 0 1 ) , b o t h f r o m cl-'F.la i n U

Geschichte

A N e w N a b a t a e a n inseription", in R . Stiehi und deren

Nacbleben

II ( 1 9 7 0 ) , 8 7 ( y e a r

2 5 1 , AD 3 5 6 / 3 5 7 ) , a p p a t e n t l y f r o m H e g r a ( M e d a i n S a l e h ) ; tvvo p e r s o n s a r e r e f e r r e d t o as R Y S H G R ' a n d R Y § T Y M ' rcspcctivcJy. 5 3 . F o r a n c x p l o r a t i o n o f t h i s c o m p l c . v q u e s t i o n s c c R . C o n t i n i , "II H a w r 3 n I p o t c s i d i s t o r i a l i n g u i s t i c a " , Felix

Raı/ejına,

ser. 4 , 1—2 ( » 9 8 7 ) , 2 5 .

prcislamico:

But t h e fact o f the c o n t i n u e d use o f N a b a t a e a n on t h e o u t e r limits o f the p r o v i n c i a l a r c a r a i s e s s p e c i f i c p r o b l c m s a b o u t t h e c o n n c c t i o n s betvveen the settled z o n e a n d t h e s t e p p e .

11.5. T H E N O M A D İ C

PRESENCE

T w o f e a t u r e s o f t h e e p i g r a p h y o f the H a u r a n a r e a in the p r o v i n c i a l p e r i o d a r e o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e . B o t h b e a r o n the s a m e f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n , t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c o n ı ı c c t i o n l>ctween t h e settled p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e p e o p l e s o f t h e s t e p p e t o t h e e a s t . It s h o u l d be s t r e s s e d t h a t , a s alvvays, o u r knovvledge is vvholly d e p e n d e n t o n the s t r u e t u r e o f o u r evidenee: in this c a s e the fact t h a t building in e x t r e m e l y d u r a b l e b a s a l t d i d t a k e place in this a r e a a n d vvas a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f t h e ' c p i g r a p h i c h a b i t ' .

The

s a m e q u e s t i o n arises in p r i n c i p l e a l o n g the vvhole o f the ' d e s e r t f r o n t i e r , f r o m A i l a t o t h e T i g r i s . B u t elsevvhere vve h a v e h a r d l y a n y c o m p a r a b l e evidenee. T h e first f e a t u r c o f these i n s e r i p t i o n s is t h a t s o m e o f them shovv tvvo differe n t f o r m s o f c o m m u n a l identity, b y l o c a l i t y (village) a n d b y g r o u p , o f t e n explicitly d e s c r i b e d as ' t r i b e ' (plryle).

A s vve savv earlier, ' t r i b a l ' g r o u p i n g s are

p r e s e n t f r o m t h e very b e g i n n i n g o f the i n s e r i b e d r e c o r d , in the f o r m o f the t r i b e O b a i s h a t ( ' I . ' B Y S T ) c o n n e c t e d vvith t h e building o f a t e m p l e a t S i a ' ; it is s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t this g r o u p i n g is a l s o n a m e d in s o m e S a f a i t i c graffiti f r o m the s t e p p e t o t h e e a s t . 1 A l t h o u g l ı , f o r t h e r e a s o n s g i v e n , a l m o s t ali o u r e v i d e n e e on ' t r i b a l ' g r o u p i n g s p r c s e n t in b o t h t h e p r o v i n c i a l a r c a a n d the s t e p p e c o m e s f r o m the H a u r a n , o n e r e l e v a n t d o c u m e n t c o m e s f r o m M a d a b a , t h e bilingual i n s e r i p t i o n d a t e d by y e a r 3 o f the p r o v i n c e . 2 T h e p e r s o n r e c o r d e d h e r e as c o n s t r u c t i n g a t o m b for his s o n is identified in t h e N a b a t a e a n t e x t as ' A b g a r vvho is c a l l e d E i s i o n s o n o f M n ' t f r o m the t r i b e ' A m r a t ' ( ' B G R D Y

MTQR'

' Y S Y W N B R M N T D Y M N ' L ' M R T ) . T h i s a f f i l i a t i o n , vvhich is passed o v e r in silence in t h e G r e e k t e x t y is, hovvever, f o u n d a l s o in t h e s a m e f o r m ('L ' M R T ) in S a f a i t i c graffiti f r o m Q a s r B u r q u , j u s t o v e r 1 0 0 k m east o f the H a u r a n , a t a p o i n t in t h e r o c k y b a s a l t s t e p p e vvhere vvater c o l l e c t s , 3 a s vvdl as at o t h e r sites. Tvvo f u r t h e r graffiti c o m e f r o m the a r e a o f the R o m a n fort a t D c i r el K a h f on the R o m a n f r o n t i e r r o a d leading s o u t h f r o m t h e eastern fringe o f the H a u r a n . 4 G i v e n «he identity o f t h e t e r m s u s e d , vve h a v e t o a s s u r r e t h a t t h e d o c u m e n t s r e f e r t o t h e s a m e g r o u p . F u r t h e r t n o r e , as J . T . M i l i k has 1 . 1 1 . 1 above. 2 . P u b l i s h c d b y J. T . M i l i k , Syria

35 ( 1 9 5 8 ) , 1 4 3 , n o . 6 {IGLS

X X I . ı , no. 118); for

ûe

S a f a i t i c m a t e r i a ! s e c J. T . M i l i k , " L a t t i b u d e s B a n i ' A m r a t e n J o r d a n i e de l ' £ p o q u e g r c c t ı u c ct r o m a i n e " , A D A / 24 {1980), 4 1 , 3 . S e e K c n n c d y a n d Riley, R D F » 7 1 - 7 3 . 4 . See 5.1 a b o v e , text to n . 4 4 .

suggcsted, this m a y p e r h a p s b e the s a m e g r o u p a s ' t h e s o n s o f l a m b r i f r o m M a d a b a ' vvith vvhom J o n a t h a n M a c c a b a e u s h a d c o m e i n t o c o n f l i c t in the s e c o n d c c n t u r y BC. 5 I f vve find t h a t p e r s o n s f r o m t h e s t e p p e a n d o t h e r s a t M a d a b a identified themselves as b e l o n g i n g t o the s a m e tribal g r o u p i n g , it d o e s n o t follovv t h a t vve h a v e t o think o f a n o m a d i c p e o p l e passing in a n d o u t o f t h e a r e a o f s e t t l c d a g r i c u l t u r c . It m a y bc t h a t this i s an e x a m p l e o f the vvcll-attestcd p h e n o m e n o n o f ' d i m o r p h i s m ' , vvhereby b o t h styles o f life vvere follovved b y p e o p l e vvho n o n e t h e l e s s savv t h e m s e l v e s as s h a r i n g a c o m m o n ' t r i b a l ' identity. 6 B o t h p o s s i bilities, vvhich a r e n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e , h a v e t o be b o r n c in m i n d in c o n s i d ering t h e c x t e n s i v e reflcction o f ' t r i b a l ' o r g r o u p a t t a c h m e n t s

from

the

Hauran.7 Tvvo further e x a m p l c s m a y s u f f i c e t o illustrate the r o l e o f ' t r i b e s ' in this a r e a (vve have a l r e a d y e t ı c o u n t e r e d a m a n f r o m D c i r e l - L e b c n , identified b o t h b y his village a n d by his tribe, " t h e plryl/e] o f t h e A u d e n o i ' ) . 8 O n e is a b r i e f G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m a t e m p l e a t H e b r a n : ' ( T l ı e ) phy(le) noi ( h o n o u r s ) Aur. A n t ö n i o s S a b e i n o s , ouetranos,

o f (the) M o z a i c d c -

t h e patron,

out of grati-

tude, y e a r 1 0 9 ' (AD 2 1 5 / 2 . 1 6 ) . ' T h e i n s e r i p t i o n is notevvorthy n o t o n l y f o r illustrating the role o f R o m a n v e t e r a n s in local society, b u t f o r britıging t o g e t h e r tvvo t r a n s l i t e r a t e d L a t i n t e r m s vvith a S e m i t i c ' t r i b a l ' n a m e , ali t r a n s p o s e d i n t o G r e e k . N o t h i n g else is knovvn o f this tribe, unless it is t o be i d e n t i fied vvith t h e ' L M S ' Y D W r e f e r r e d t o in a N a b a t a e a n i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m B o s t r a . I n m a n y o t h e r c a s e s vve c a n n o t teli vvhether a S e m i t i c g r o u p - n a m e vvhich a p pears vvithout t h e term phyle is i n t e n d e d t o refer t o a ' t r i b e ' o r t o a c o m m u n i t y defined by its village. T h i s is t h e case, f o r i n s t a n c e , vvith a brief G r e e k inseription f r o m t h e village o f R a m a : ' T o O d a i n a t h o s s o n o f S a o u a d o s , f o r m c r l y strategos

o f (the) A o u i d e n o i , a n d f o r m e r l y plrylarchos,

T h o m a l e c h e his vvifc

a n d S a o u d o s (sic) h i s f a t h e r set u p (this)'. 1 0 Is the first p o s t , as strategos,

that

o f a n o t h e r village official vvho h a d held a n a n n u a l office, o r t h a t o f the c h i e f o f t h e ' t r i b e ' o f ' A o u i d e n o i ? A n d if s o , hovv d o e s it relate t o t h e s e c o n d p o s t ,

5 . 1 Macc. 9 , 36: ot v i o İ l a p P p ı

f

K

Mrç5a(ta.

6 . S c c , e.g., F. M . D o n n c r , The Early Islamic

Conquests

( 1 9 8 1 ) , c h . 1.

7 . For t e c e ı u studies o f this c v i d c n c c s c c , e . g . , M . S a ı t ı c , " T r i b u s et e l a n s d a n s le H a u r a n a n t i q u e B , Syria 59 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 7 7 ; H . I. M a c A d a m , Studies Arabia laınique

in the History

of the Rotnan

Province

( 1 9 8 6 ) , t o ı f f . ; a l s o D . G r a f , " R o m e a n d the S a r a c e n s " , in T . F a h d
historique

et culturel

of

preis-

( ^ 8 9 ) , on pp. 3s8ff.

8 . 1 r . 4 , tcxt to n.34. For the A u d e n o i , M a c A d a m , o p . d t . (n.7), 1 2 1 , and G r a f , op. cit. (n.7), 3 6 1 - 3 6 3 , vvho identifies t h e m w i c h the eribe ' A v v i d h , k n o w n f r o m Safaitic graffiti. 9. Le B a s - W . , n o . 2 1 8 7 , a l s o for the- N a b a t a e a n inseription. 10. L e Bas-W., n o . 2 2 3 6 ; M a c A d a m , 1 3 2 . For t h e r e a d i n g $uXapxnc"»vtı, vvhich is h y p o t l ı c t i c a l but c o n v i n c i n g , scc C h . C l c r m o n t - G a n n e a u , RAO t a k e s this as a f u r t h e r refcrence t o the "Avvidh.

3 ( 1 9 0 3 ) , 1 4 7 - 1 4 8 . G r a f , loc. cit. (n.8),

' p h y l a r c h o s ' ? T h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f the G r a e c o - R o m a n h o n o r i f i c i n s e r i p t i o n t e n d t o m e a n t h a t f o r us t h e e n t i r e b a e k g r o u n d r e m a i n s o b s c u r c . O n either i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h i s d o c u m e n t has t o b e seen as c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to a brief series o f inseriptions, ali in G r e e k , h o n o u r i n g i n d i v i d u a l s as 'strategos o f the nomades',

o r ' o f the c a m p s o f the nomades';

( a d v o c a t e ) o f t h e nomades\

a n o t h e r is c a l l e d ' s y n d i k o s

A l i c o m e , significantly, f r o m t h e e a s t e r n s l o p e s o f

t h e J e b e l H a u r a n . O n e a t l e a s t is early, f o r it d a t e s t o t h e reign o f A g r i p p a İL A n o t h e r s h o u l d b e o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y , f o r the epitaph is t h a t o f ' A d r i a n o s a l s o called S o a i d o s (son o f ?) M a l e c h o s , ethnarcbos,

strategos

It

nomadön\u

is q u i t c c l e a r from t h e n a m e s o f t h e individuals, vvhere t h e y survive, t h a t t h e y a r e l o c a l m e n . B u t t h e i n s e r i p t i o n s wil) n o t teli us vvhether these a r e r o y a l o : p r o v i n c i a l officials a p p o i n t e d

from

outside to control

the nomades,

or

vvhether these titles a r e G r c c k vvays o f e x p r c s s i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f a t r i b a l ' c h i e f ' . Ali t h a t is c c r t a i n , in e i t h e r c a s e , is t h a t the i n s e r i p t i o n s reflect an a r e a o f c o n t a c t a n d i n t e r e h a n g e betvveen the G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r e o f t h e s e t t l e c r e g i o n a n d the c o m m u n a l s t r u e t u r e s o f the n o n ı a d s . B o t h in the r e f e r e n c e to a syndikos (etbnos)'

a n d in a n o t h e r i n s e r i p t i o n in vvhich ' t h e nomades h o n o u r a R o m a n legatus,

of the province

a d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p is c l e a r l y im-

plied. 1 2 T h e r e is n o t h i n g in these d o c u m e n t s , hovvever, t o suggest a n y parallel t o t h e f o r m a l a l l i a n c e s o f t h e l a t e E m p i r e vvith m a j ö r ' S a r a c c n ' t r i b a l g r o u p i n g s . T h e c o n t e x t is a local o n c . W h a t e v e r t h e real n a t u r e o f these c o n t a c t s , they m u s t h a v e ovved their vvider c o n t e x t t o the s i m u l t a n e o u s e x t e n s i o n eastvvards o f settled h a b i t a t i o r . a n d o f R o m a n forts, l i n k e d b y a r o a d r u n n i n g dovvn t h e e a s t side o f the J e b e . H a u r a n . A n e x a t n p l e o f b o t h p r o c e s s c s is the a n c i e n t village o n a site novv c a l l e d D i y a t h e h o n the e a s t e r n flank o f the J e b e l , vvhere in t h e third a n d f o u r t h c c n t u r i e s , a s it seems, t h e r e grevv up a s e t t l e m e n t o f over ı o o lıouses, i m m e d i ately n e x t t o a R o m a n castellum,

a n d vvith a c c e s s t o a vvadi f o r the vvater

needed f o r c u l t i v a t i o n . It m a y be t h a t h e r e , as p e r h a p s elsevvhere, t h e e x t e n s i o n o f c u l t i v a t i o n a n d s e t t l e m e n t f u n e t i o n e d r a t h e r t o e x c l u d e the

nomades

than t o p r o d u c e a n e c o n o m i c o r s o c i a l ' s y m b i o s i s ' . 1 3 It v v o u l d b e a b s ü r d t o p r e t e n d

that o u r limited evidenee allovvs confident

ansvvcrs t o these vvider q u e s t i o n s . B u t the e x t e n s i o n of the area o f settled tation, and

the grovvth of

individual settlements,

is an

t r . L c B a s - W . , n o . z ı ı z ( A g r i p p a il); 1 1 9 6 ( A d r i a n o s ) ; PAES mades);

AAES

I U , n o . 3 8 3 (syndikos).

S c c e s p . M . S a r t r e , Trois

undcııiable

habi-

fact,

nö-

III, n o . 7 5 1 ( c a m p s o f «oeludes

sur l'Arabie

romaine

( 1 9 8 1 ) , m f f , : " L c s n o m a d e s c t l ' E m p i r c e n A r a b i c " . S c c novv a l s o Ph. M a y e r s o n , " T h e U s e o l t h e T e r m Phylarchos

i n t h e R o m a n - B y z a n t î n e E a s t " , ZPE

i z . LC B a s - W . , n o . 2 Z 0 3 : o i oıtö fcövou; vojıöörov

88 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 2 9 1 .

(sicf.

1 3 . S o F. V i l l e n e u v e , " C i t a d i n s , v i l l a g c o i s , n o m a d e s : I x c a s d e la provincia aprĞs J . - C . ) " , DHA

15 (1989). " 9 -

Arabia

(IIC-IV' s.

vvhere b e t t e r exemplified t h a n a c the r e m a r k a b i e site o f U n u n e l - J i m a l , vvhose black b a s a l t h o u s e s o f t h e late R o m a n period stili s t a n d in t h c plain 2 5 k m south-south-vvest o f B o s t r a , a n d a s h o r t d i s t a n c e e a s t o f the V i a N o v a T r a i a n a betvveen B o s t r a a n d P h i l a d e l p h i a . 1 4 It t h u s lies 011 a d r y b u t c u l t i v a b l c p l a i n , roughly a t t h c limit o f t h c 2 0 0 - m m - r a i n f a l l z o n e , a n d vvell vvithin t h e e v e n t u a l netvvork o f R o m a n forts, a l o n g t h e r o a d s t o A z r a q o a s i s . T h e r e h a d been s o m e N a b a t a e a n settlement here, t h o u g h (as it s e e m s ) o n a site slightly t o t h e e a s t ; the knovvn N a b a t a e a n i n s e r i p t i o n s o f this a r c a lie vvithin the m a r g i n a l z o n e vvhich in s o m c s e n s e c o n n e c t c d thc c c n t r a l N a b a t a e a n a r e a vvith the s o u t h e r n H a u r a n a r o u n d B o s t r a . F o r a t U m m al Q u t t a i n (el Q o t t c i n ) , s o m e 2 5 km t o t h c east o f U m m e l - J i m a l , t h e r e is a c o n s i d e r a b l c series o f i n s e r i p t i o n s : nine N a b a t a e a n , o n e N a b a t a c a t ı - G r e e k b i l i n g u a l , tvventy-threc G r c c k a n d s i x [ . a t i n ( c x p l a i n c d b y t h e p r c s c n c c o f t h c R o m a n f o r t ) . O n e o f t h e N a b a t a e a n i n s e r i p t i o n s is d a t e d t o y e a r 2 3 o f R a b b e l ( I I ) . H e r e , t o o , G r c c k c a m e t o b e a d o p t e d f o r p u b l i c use by a p o p u l a t i o n vvith purcly S c m i t i c n a m e s , c l o s c l y r e l a t e d t o l a t e r A r a b i c o n c s . F o r i n s t a n c c b u i l d ing vvas u n d e r t a k e n t h e r e in AD 2 6 5 / 2 6 6 b y ' A b d a l a ( s o n ) o f A b d o s ( a n d ) Saeios (son) o f S a d a l l o s ' . " At U m m e l - J i m a l t h e r e s e c m s t o h a v e b c c n a R o m a n f o r t in thc s c c o n d c e n t u r y , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y a l a r g e r castellum,

probably o f the Tetrarchic pe-

riod, a r o u n d vvhich t h e s u b s e q u e n t s e t t l e m e n t m a y vvell h a v e grovvn u p . B u t thc fact t h a t it vvas n o t o n thc m a r g i ı ı o f the o c c u p i e d zone but vvell vvithin it gives ali t h e g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h c m o s t f a m o u s inseription f r o m t h c s i t e , the bilingual epitaph o f the t u t o r o f an A r a b k i n g . 1 6 T h e G r e e k t e x t r e a d s : ' T h i s Ls the g r a v e - m o n u m e ı ı t (slele) o f P h e r o s ( s o n ) o f S o l l e o s , t u t o r (trof/heus)

of G a d i m a t h o s , king of (thc) T h a n o u e n o i ' . T h c

paraliel t e x t is vvritten in N a b a t a e a n , b u t in a m o r e cursive f o r m t h a n Standard N a b a t a e a n , t h a t is t o say, o n e in vvhich m o r e o f the letters a r e j o i n e d . It r e a d s : ' T h i s is t h c t o m b ( N P S W ) o f P I I R W B R SLY, m a s t e r ( R B W ) o f G a d i m a t , king o f T a n u k h ( G D Y M T M I . K T N W H ) \ N c i t l ı e r version o f t h e t e x t is d a t e d . N o r , strictly s p e a k i n g , d o e s it i n d i c a t e vvhere G a d i m a t h a d b c c n ruling vvhen (at s o m c t i m e in t h c p a s t ? ) P h e r o s h a d b e e n his tropheus,

o r R B . Ali t h a t it m a k e s c l e a r is t h a t P h e r o s vvas b u r i c d

h e r e . It thus m o r e c l e a r l y s u g g e s t s t h e e x t e n s i o n o f G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r e t o an A r a b c o u r t t h a n it d o e s t h c a c t i v i t y o f a p e o p l e c a l l e d T a n u k h vvithin t h e 1 4 . Sec c s p . B. D c Vries, " U m m el-Jimal in ı h c First T h r e e C e n t u r i e s A D " , in F r e e m a n a n d Kennedy,

DRBE, 2 2 7 ; W e n n i n g , Nabatder, 4 8 - 5 1 ; K e n n e d y a n d Riley, RDF, T 8 J - 1 8 4 .

1 5 . H . I. M a c A d a m a n d D . F. G r a f , " i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m thc S o u t h e r n H a u r a n S u r v e y " , 3 3 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 1 7 " , n o . 7 . N a b a t a e a n i n s e r i p t i o n s listed by W c n n i n g , Nabariier, 16. PAES

III, n o . 2 3 8 ; PAES

B o v v c r s o c k , Roman

Arabia.

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jr.

I V A , n o . 4 1 (the fullest d i s c u s s i o n , b y E. L i t t m a n n ) . See a l s o

>32ff.

p r o v i n c i a l z o n e , o r c v c n n e a r it. 1 7 But d o w c k n o w vvho t h e T a n u k h vvere, o r vvhat r o l e vvas played b y G a d i m a t a n d w h c n ? T h e ' T h a n o u e n o i ' o f t h e G r e e k t c x t might b e identifiable vvith the T h a n o u i t a i ' vvhom P t o l e m y , in the secor.d c c n t u r y , places somevvhere in central A r a b i a . B u t t h a t h a r d l y h e l p s . 1 8 If vve c a n c l a i m t o knovv a n y m o r e t h a n this, it c a n o n l y b c on t h e b a s i s o f t h e History

of Frophets

and

Kings,

a universal h i s t o r y vvritten in A r a b i c hy

a l - T a b a r i (AD 8 3 9 - 9 1 3 ) a n d u s i n g s o m e earlier A r a b i c h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e eighth a n d ninth c c n t u r i e s . 1 9 T h i s v a s t vvork begins vvith B i b l i c a l history, c o v e r s the interval betvveen t h a t a n d t h e rise o f i s l a m as best it c a n , b r i n g i n g in a l s o the h i s t o r y o f I r a n , a n d then g o e s in great detail over the life o f M u h a m m a d and t h e s u b s e q u e n t history o f i s l a m , t e r m i n a t i n g in AD 9 1 5 . Such a vvork, novv b e i n g t r a n s l a t e d in its e n d r e t y f o r t h e first t i m e , c a n n o t fail t o b e o f the g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t in itself. A b o v e ali else, as r e g a r d s t h e preI s l a m i c period (vvhich o c c u p i e s less t h a n a tvventieth o f t h e vvhole), it illu»t r a t e s hovv the s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n o f i s l a m vvas r o o t e d in the Bible, a fact o f unl i m i t e d s i g n i f i c a n c e vvhich h a d its d i s t a n t origin in o u r p e r i o d , vvhen J o s e p h u s identified c o n t e m p o r a r y A r a b s as t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f I s h m a e l a n d H a g a r . * 0 B u t t h e n o t i o n t h a t vve have h e r e a r e l i a b l e history

o f t h e N e a r E a s t in the

i m p e r i a l p e r i o d , t o a c t a s a f o i l t o C l a s s i c a l a c c o u n t s , o r t o t h e Res Gestae

of

S h a p u r I, vvill n o t s t a n d u p t o a m o m e n t ' s inspection o f the t e x t . A c o n f u s e d c o m p i l a t i o n o f diverse e l e m e n t s f r o m earlier history, heavily e m b r o i d e r e d vvith l e g e n d , the vvork h a s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d in t h e light o f c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t s , vvhere a v a i l a b l e , r a t h e r than being used a s a framevvork f o r t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . It is a sign o f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c allusiveness vvhich m a r k s t h e historical s t u d y o f t h e N e a r E a s t ( a n d is c q u a l l y true o f the t r e a t m e n t o f the S y r i a c s o u r c e s d i s c u s s e d belovv) t h a t n o d i s c u s s i o n o f the r e l a t i o n o f A r a b p e o p l e s t o t h e E m p i r e begins vvith a n y a t t e m p t t o set o u t vvhat the a v a i l a b l e A r a b i c n a r r a t i v e s a r e , o r vvhat is k n o w n o f their a u t h o r s ' s o u r c e s , m e t h o d s o r h i s t o r ; cal o u t l o o k . 1 7 . F o r rhc H e l l e n i s t i e o v e r t o n e s . t o t h i s i n s e r i p t i o n s c c M . Sarrrc, " L c t r o p h c u s d c G a d h i m a r , r o i d c T a n u k h : U n e s u r v i v a n c c e n A r a h i e d ' u n e i n s t i t u t i o n h c l l e n i s t i q u e " , SBPLA 1 8 . P t o l e m y , Geog.

29 (1979), 253.

VI, 7, 23, ed. N o b b e .

1 9 . For a partial translation a n d c o m m c n t a r y f o r the scctioııs relating to this p e r i o d , s e t the c l a s s i c s t u d y o f T h . N ö l d e k e , Geschichte

der Perser

uıtd Araber

zur Zeît

der Sassaniden

(1879».

F o r a n i n v a l u a b l e F.nglish t r a n s l a t i o n n o w in p r o g r e s s , s c c t h e a n n o t a t e d v e r s i o n b e i n g p r o d u c c d b y F. R o s c n t h a l 3 n d o t h e r s , p u b l i s h e d b y S t a t e U n i v c r s i t y o f N e v v Y o r k Press s i n c c 1 9 8 5 . T h e first p a r t o f t h e p e r i o d w i t h v v h i c h vve a r c c o n c e r n e d is c o v e r c d b y The The

Ancient

Kingdoms

a c c o u n t o f a l - T a b a r i a n d h i s History rafıhy'

History

of al-Tabaıl

IV,

( 1 9 8 7 ) , t r a n s . M . P c r l m a n ı ı . T h e n e v t v o l u m e is stili a t v a i t e d . N o ciear e m e r g e s f r o m F. R o s c n t h a l , A Hislory

(x 9 6 8 ) . A b r i e f a n d f a c t u a l a c c o u n t is g i v e n i n F. S c 2 g i n , Geschichte

of Müslim des arabisciıen

HistoriogScbrifı-

tunts I ( 1 9 6 7 ) , } i } f f . F o r a l - T a b a r i ' s m o s t r e l e v a n t s o u r c c , H i s h a m a l K a l b i , s c c S e z g i n , o p . c i t , 286ff. 20. C h . « a b o v e a n d 1 3 . 1 belovv.

Such a t r e a t m e n t c a n n o t b e supplied h e r e . It vvill b e c n o u g h t o n o t e t h a t a l - T a b a r i , in t h e r e l e v a n t p a r t o f his History,

supplies first a l e g e n d a r y a c c o u n t

o f the Jevvs, aııd then an a c c o u n t o f the P e r s i a n s a n d (vvith e x t r e m e v a g u e n e s s ) t h e P a r t h i a n s , b e f o r e stories a b o u t M a r y a n d J e s u s , a n d a brief t a b u l a t i o n o f the R o m a n K m p e r o r s . A f t e r t h a t he c o m e s t o t h e h i s t o r y o f a g r o u p o f A r a b tribes settled in n o r t h - e a s t A r a b i a ( b r o a d l y south-vvestern I r a q ) , vvho ' b e c a m e allies knovvn a s a l - T a n u k h , vvhich m e a n s " a b o d c " ' . T h e y vvere j o i n c d , s o m e t i m c (it s e e m s t o b c implied) in the long p e r i o d betvveen A l e x a n d e r a n d t h e rise o f the S a s a n i d s , b y o n e J a d h i m a h a n d h i s follovvers. J a d h i m a h b e c a m e a m a j o r ruler, stili in I r a q . O n e o f his f e a t s is r c c o r d e d a s a s u c c e s s f u l c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t ' A m r b . Z a r i b , ' t h e ruler o f t h e A r a b s in t h e J a z i r a h a n d the f r i n g e s o f S y r i a ' , a f t e r vvhose d e a t h the l a t t e r ' s d a u g h t e r a l - Z a b b a reigned in his p l a c e . She h a d a f o r t r e s s o n the vvestem b a n k o f t h e E u p h r a t e s (cvidcntly t h e B y z a n tine fortress called Z c n o b i a , o f vvhich t h e r e a r e e x t e n s i v e r e m a i n s ) , 2 1 a n d vvould a l s o g o t o T a d m o r ( P a l m y r a ) . In s h o r t , this figüre c l e a r l y derives f r o m the h i s t o r i c a l Z e n o b i a , seen in a h i s t o r i c a l v a c u u m vvithout either her h u s b a n d Septimius O d e n a t h u s o r h e r son V a b a l l a t h u s , n o t t o s p c a k o f t h e R o m a n a n d S a s a n i d E m p i r e s . A f t e r l o n g e x c h a n g e s a l - ' / a b b a is said t o h a v e been killed b y J a d h i m a h ' s ııephevv, ' A m r i b n ' A d i , vvhose m o s t r e m o t e n a m e d a n c e s t o r vvas ' L a k h m ' ( h c n c c t h e a p p c l l a t i o n ' L a k h m i d ' f o r his dynasty, vvhich r u l c d f r o m a l - H i r a in I r a q ) , a n d vvho is c l a i m e d t o have died a t the age o f 1 2 0 . It is surely best t o c o n f e s s t h a t vve lack the m e a n s t o d e c i d c vvhether a n y o f this c a n b e given a real h i s t o r i c a l framevvork. T h e p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e inseription f r o m U n u n e l - J i m a l c a n be d a t e d on the basis t h a t this J a d h i m a h / G D Y M T / G a d i m a t h o s vvas a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f Z c n o b i a m u s t in itself b c b a s c less. N o n e t h e l e s s , f r o m S t r a b o onvvards, t o A m m i a n u s ' a c c o u n t o f J u l i a n ' s Persian e x p e d i t i o n , it is c l e a r t h a t t h e r e alvvays vvere ' A r a b ' tribal g r o u p s in the s t e p p e a n d desert z o n e 011 e i t h e r side o f t h e E u p h r a t e s . B u t f o r t h e m o m e n t vve m u s t b c c o n t c n t t o knovv o n l y vvhat the inseription telis us: that t h e r e vvas indeed a k i n g o f a p e o p l e c a l l e d T h a n o u e n o i o r T a n u k h , vvho vvas c a l l e d G a d i m a t , a n d vvho h a d a t e a c h e r vvith the G r e e k title Iropheus.

Morcovcr,

the developed f o r m o f the N a b a t a e a n s e r i p t ( a n d p e r h a p s t h e relatively l a t e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e tovvn itself) m i g h t in f a c t suggest t h a t the third c e n t u r y is t h e right c o n t e x t . B u t vvhether the e v e n t u a l burial o f P h c r o s a t U m m

el-Jimal

implies that t h e T a n u k h a s a g r o u p h a d m o v e d f r o m the lovver E u p h r a t e s a r e a , either o c c a s i o n a l l y o r p e r m a n e n t l y , t o o p e r a t e on the b o r d e r s o f R o m a ı ı ' A r a b i a ' is q u i t e u n c e r t a i n . If t h e r e is a n y e v i d e n c e t h a t the A r a b s o f the s t e p p e

2 1 . F o r she site a n d its g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n t c x t s c c J. L a u l f r a y , / l a l a b i y y a - Z e n o b i a : Place du limes

oriental

et la Haute-Mesopotamic

f o r t h e n a m e until P r o c o p i u s , Aed.

II,

forte

au VI' s i e c l e I < 1 9 8 } ) . T h e r e s e e m s t o be n o e v i d e n c e 1 5 - 1 9 , 1 , vvhich is a l s o t h e o n l y e v i d e n c e t h a t a n y t h i n g

vvas b u i l t h e r e b y Z c n o b i a . H e r P a l m y r e n e n a m e vvas B T Z B Y , 9 . 4 a b o v e .

z o n e w e r e by novv a s i g n i f i c a n t sîralegic

t h r e a t , it is t h e c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t

' S a r a c e n s ' o f a b o u t 2 9 0 . 2 2 R a t h e r than add t o s p e c u l a t i o n o n t h e l e g e n d a r y h i s t o r y o f t h e c o n f e d e r a t i o n c a l l e d T a n u k h , it m i g h t be b e t t e r t o n o t e the c o n t i n u e d possibility o f u s i n g N a b a t a e a n h e r e , in paraliel vvith G r e e k , just a s — i n another border-area o f the N a b a t a e a n z o n e — i n the second-century i n s e r i p t i o n o f thc T h a m u d a t Ruvvvvafa in t h e H e d j a z . 2 3 N o n e t h e l e s s , even a s c e p t i c a l a p p r o a c h s u c h a s this h a s t o acknovvledge the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e f a m o u s d o c u m e n t vvith vvhich thc inseription o f P h e r o s h a s alvvays been p a i r c d , t h c e p i t a p h o f a n o t h e r A r a b k i n g , vvho died in the reign o f Constantine. 2 '* H e r e a g a i n the e x a c t p l a c e is i m p o r t a n t , a s is the d a t e , vvhich in this c a s e is given e x p l i c i d y : y e a r 2 2 3 (of the p r o v i n c c o f A r a b i a ) , on t h e s e v e n t h o f thc m o n t h K i s l c v , t h e r e f o r e AD 3 2 8 / 3 2 9 . T h e p l a c e is cnN c m a r a , a small site in t h e s t e p p e s o m e 3 0 k m e a s t o f t h e edge o f t h e J e b e l H a u r a n , vvhere t h e r e are t r a c e s o f a R o m a n o u t p o s t a n d a s c a t t e r o f f r a g m e n tary R o m a n m i l i t a r y i n s e r i p t i o n s . T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t o shovv t h a t thc site vvas in m i l i t a r y o c c u p a t i o n u n d e r C o n s t a n t i n e . B u t it lay n o t far o u t s i d e the a r e a c o v e r e d b y t h e e x t e n s i o n o f the S t r a t a D i o c l e t i a n a southvvards f r o m the D a m a s c u s - P a l m y r a route, to reach Azraq.2S T h i s p l a c e t h u s b e İ o n g c d on t h e o u t e r fringes o f t h e p r o v i n c i a l

area,

t h o u g h m u c h m o r e m a r g i n a l l y so t h a n U m m e l - J i m a l . T h e seript o f t h e ins e r i p t i o n is a l s o significant: b a s i c a l l y N a b a t a e a n , b u t in a m o r e c u r s i v c f o r m , t e n d i n g tovvards classical A r a b i c seript, t h a n in t h e i n s e r i p t i o n o f G a d i m a t . T h e language,

it is u n i v e r s a l l y a g r e e d , is A r a b i c . B u t t h e r e t h e p r o b l e m s b e g i n .

T h e r e is n o a g r c c m e n t even o n vvhat t h c c o r r c c t t r a n s e r i p t i o n o f thc individual letters is, let a l o n e on thc meaning

o f t h e vvhole t e x t . T h e n o r m a l vievv is t h a t

t h e t e x t b e g i n s ' T l ı i s is the t o m b o f I m r u ' l - q a i s s o n o f ' A m r u , K i n g o f a l i the Arabs' ( T Y N P S M R ' L Q Y S B R ' M R W M L K 'L ' R B K L H ) . But K L H , meaning ' a l i ' , h a s been q u c s t i o n e d in t h c latest r e a d i n g . As for t h e rest o f t h e t c x t , virtually n o t h i n g is c e r t a i n e x c e p t t h a t a n e x t e n s i v e a r e a o f r u l e is c l a i m e d f o r this k i n g , a p p a r e n t l y e x ı e n d â n g t o t h c s o u t h e r n H e d j a z ( N a j r a n ) , a n d t h a t there is a r e f e r e n e e t o thc R o m a n s . T h i s rext t o o g a i n s a g r e a t l y i n e r e a s e d p o t e n t i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e f r o m its p o s sible c o n f i r m a t i o n o f s o m e e l e m e n t s in a l - T a b a r i ' s n a r r a t i v e . In t h e

Historj

t h c nephevv o f J a d h i m a , ' A m r ibn ' A d i , is s u c c c c d c d by his s o n , I m r u ' l - q a i s , vvho vvas a S a s a n i d vassal a n d c o n v e r t c d t o C h r i s t i a n i t y . A l - T a b a r i c i t e s H i s 22. 5.2 abovc.

23. 4.1 above. 2 4 . RES,

n o . 4 8 3 ; C a n t i n c a u , Le nabaleen

II, 4 9 . Scc B o w c r s o c k , Roman

Arabia,

i 3 8 f f . Fo.*

drastically d i f f e r e n t r c a d i n g s o f the c e x t s c c , e.g., A . F. L . B e e s t o n , " N e m a r a a n d F a w " , 4 2 ( « 9 7 9 ) , 1 , a n d J. A . Bellamy, " A (1985), 31. 25. 5.2 above.

N"ew R e a d i n g o f thc N a m j r a h i n s e r i p t i o n " , JAOS

BSOAS ıoj

h a m a l - K a l b i ( d i e d AD 8 1 9 ) a s h i s a u t h o r i t y f o r die s t a t e m e n t t h a t hc r u l e d for 1 1 4 years, under a succcssion o f Persian kings, from S h a p u r I ( 2 4 0 - 2 7 2 . ) t o V a r a h r a n ( p e r h a p s II, 2 7 6 - 2 9 3 ) . " A s u c c e s s i o n o f tvvo rulers, f a t h e r a n d son, with the names ' M R W a n d M R

' L Q Y S is i n d e e d c o n f ı r m c d by t h e i n -

s e r i p t i o n . B u t the d a t e s s i m p l y d o n o t fit vvith the e v i d e n e e o f t h e i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m e n - N e m a r a ; a n d n e i t h e r o f the tvvo i n s e r i p t i o n s vvould o f itself s u g g e s t a n y r o l e f o r e i t h e r k i n g vvithin t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a ruled by P e r s i a . M o r e over, l a t e r A r a b i c t r a d i t i o ı ı i t s e l f r e v e a l s an a p p a r e n t i n t e r r e g n u m in t h e f o u r t h c c n t u r y , b e f o r e t h e L a k h m i d k i n g s ruling f r o m a l - H i r a c o m e fully i n t o t h e light o f h i s t o r y in the fifth c e n t u r y . 2 7 N o r e l i a b l e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n is t h u s p o s s i b l e . B u t t h e s e tvvo i n s e r i p t i o n s m a k e it f e a s i b l e t o s u p p o s e t h a t i f t h c r c had been a real 'pre-history' o f t h e L a k h m i d s , they m a y have begun a s a m i n ö r d y n a s t y in the s t e p p e z o n e o n t h e e d g e o f R o m a n A r a b i a , p r o b a b l y in a c o n d i t i o n o f s o m e d e p e n d e n c e o n R o m e , a n d o n l y later, in the c o u r s e o f the f o u r t h c e n t u r y , ı n o v e d a e r o s s i n t o the b o r d e r - l a n d o f S a s a n i d t e r r i t o r y . If A m r t ı , o r ' A m r i b n ' A d i , e v e r r e a l l y c o n f r o n t c d Z e n o b i a , vvhich m a y be p u r e f a n t a s y , ît m u s t h a v e b e e n a l m o s t s i x t y y e a r s b e f o r e his s o n ' s d e a t h ; a n d (if it h a p p e n e d a t a l i ) it vvill a s p r o b a b l y h a v e b e e n vvhen V a b a l l a t h u s ' f o r c e s

marehed

t h r o u g h A r a b i a o n t h e vvay t o E g y p t a s in a raid c o n d u c t e d , f r o m the o p p o s i t e d i r e e t i o n , f r o m the K u p h r a t e s . B u t s i n c e in a n y c a s e h e did not kili Z e n o b i a (vvho d i e d in R o m e ) , the vvhole s t o r y is l e g e n d . It is b e t t e r h e r e t o a d m i t o u r i g n o r a n c c . O n a n y c o n s t r u c t i o n o u r e v i d e n e e , t a k e n c o l l c c t i v e l y , suggests the p o s s i b i l i t y o f m o v e m e n t betvveen the s t e p p e east o f the J e b e l H a u r a n and t h e margiııal /onc south o f the middle E u p h r a t e s , vvhere a l - H i r a lay. W h e t h e r s u c h m o v e m e n t s vvill h a v e p a s s e d b y the W a d i S i r h a n a n d t h e d i s t a n t N a b a t a e a n a n d R o m a n o u t p o s t o f Javvf, vve c a n n o t teli. N o r d o vve knovv vvhether, a l t e r n a t i v e l y , m o v e m e n t vvas p o s s i b l e , o r n o r m a l , for n o m a d i c g r o u p s traveLling f u r t h e r n o r t h e a s t v v a r d s , o u t s i d e t h e l i n e of the R o m a n frontier zone, f r o m R o m a n Arabia to the Euphrates. T h e social h i s t o r y o f t h e s t e p p e , o r d e s e r t , r e m a i n s t o be vvritten. W h a t is c e r t a i n is t h a t t h i s ' d e s e r t f r o n t i e r ' , in t h e s e n s e o f r o a d s a n d a c h a i n o f f o r t s , novv e x i s t e d ; a n d a l s o t h a t the i n h a b i t a n t s o f the E m p i r e h a d c o m e , b y the t h i r d a n d f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s , t o use the vvord ' S a r a c e n ' for a n y g r o u p s in the s t e p p e vvho led a n u n s e t t l e d life a ı ı d m i g h t b c r e g a r d c d a s a l o c a l t h r e a t . T h i s c o n f r o ı ı t a t i o n , vvhich c o n t c m p o r a r i c s d o n o t s e e m t o h a v e p e r c e i v e d a s ' s y m b i o t i c ' , vvas t h e p r o d u e t o f a l o n g s t e p - b y - s t e p a d v a n c e o f the R o m a n m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e a n d o f a settled p o p u l a t i o n i n t o t h e e d g e o f t h e steppe. N o t only a long history o f progressivc military advance but a social

26. Scc Nötdckc, Geschichte (n.19 above), 46-47, on the first Imru'i-qais. Later bearers of the same name appcar in the narrative on pp. 78-79. 27. See I. Shahid in Ene. İslam1 V (1986), 632, s.v. "Lakhmids".

a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y is e n c a p s u l a t e d in the L a t i n inseription o f AD 3 3 4 , f o u n d half-vvay betvveen B o s t r a a n d the o a s i s o f A z r a q , vvhich r e e o r d s hovv a

protec-

tor built a r c s c r v o i r so t h a t t h e p c a s a n t s , vvhile c o l l e c t i n g vvater, vvould n o t b e e x p o s e d t o a m b u s h b y t h e Saraceni.1*

T h e s a m e term vvas b y novv u s e d for

a n y u n s e t t l e d p e o p l e s , f r o m S i n a i t o the N e g e v , t o t h e S y r i a n s t e p p e , t h e Euphrates and R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a . 28. 5 . 1 a b o v e .

CHAPTER

12 T H E EUPHRATES AND MESOPOTAMİA

12.1. G E O G R A P H Y ,

CULTURE AND

LANGUAGE

F r o m t h e beginning o f fhe i m p e r i a l p e r i o d the R o m a n presence in t h e N e a r E a s t e x t e n d e d as far as Seleucia o n the E u p h r a t e s , m o r e o f t e n c a l l c d Z e u g m a , ' t h e b r i d g c ' , w h e r c t h e r i v e r n o v v m a r k e d t h e b o r d e r betvveen t h e R o m a n a n d t h e P a r t h i a n E m p i r e s . 1 I t vvas o n l y b y s u c c e s s i v e s t a g e s t h a t t h a t p r e s e n c e vvas g r e a t l y e x t e n d e d . F i r s t it c a m e t o r e a c h f u r t h e r a l o n g t h e river, b o t h n o r t h a n d t h e n south. T o the n o r t h , the c o n q u e s t o f C o m m a g e n e in the early 70S m e a n t t h a t R o m e novv o c c u p i e d d i r e c t l y a l i o f t h e c u l t i v a b l e a r e a o f n o r t h e r n S y r i a u p t o t h e T a u r u s M o u n t a i n s . A s f a r a s t h e h i n t e r l a n d , s t r e t e h i n g vvest t o t h e borders o f Cilicia a n d the m e e t i n g - p o i n t o f the T a u r u s a n d M o u n t

Amanus,

i s c o n c c r n c d , s o l i t t l c is k n o v v n t h a t n o t h i n g m o r e n c e d , o r c a n , b e s a i d . B u t t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e k i n g d o m , S a m o s a t a , l a y d i r e c t l y o n t h e E u p h r a t e s . In o n e d i r e e t i o n , f r o m t h e teli, o r a e r o p o l i s , o f S a m o s a t a o n e c o u l d l o o k n o r t h v v a r d s a c r o s s t h e f e r t i l e p l a i n vvhere a s u c c e s s i o n o f r o y a l m o n u m e n t s vvere e r c c t e d i n t h e first c e n t u r y B C , t o t h e m o u n t a i n o u s s k y l i n e vvhere t h e a r t i f i c i a l r o y a l t u m u l u s o n t h e s u m m i t o f N e m r u d D a g , a t a h e i g h t o f o v e r 2 0 0 0 m , vvas v i s i b l e 6 0 k m avvay. In t h e o t h e r d i r e e t i o n , o n e c o u l d l o o k a c r o s s t h e r i v e r t o t h e r o l l i n g , a n d a l s o f e r t i l e , p l a i n o f O s r h o e n e , a s m a l l k i n g d o m vvhich u n t i l t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y vvas p a r t o f t h e P a r t h i a n E m p i r e . It i s n o t e n t i r e l y surprising that the last k i n g o f C o m m a g e n e , A n t i o c h u s IV, c o u l d b c a c c u s e d o f dubious loyalty t o R o m e . 2 S o u t h v v a r d s , o r s o u t h - e a s t v v a r d s , dovvn t h e E u p h r a t e s , R o m a n x. 2.1 a b o v e . 2. 3 , 1 a b o v e .

control

m a y h a v e e x t e n d e d in t h e l a t e r first c e n t u r y t o the c o n f l u e n c e vvith t h e r i v e r B a l i k h ( B i l e c h a ) , vvhich r a n s o u t h f r o m the M e s o p o t a m i a n s h e l f , in the a r c a vvhere l a y t h e cities o f E d e s s a , the c a p i t a l o f O s r h o c n c , a n d C a r r h a e . B u t it vvas o n l y in the ı 6 o s t h a t R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n vvas c a r r i e d a l o n g d i s t a n c e f u r t h e r s o u t h , p a s t the c o n f l u e n c e vvith the C h a b u r ( A b o u r a s ) , t o i n c l u d e : h e s m a l l M a c e d o n i a ı ı s e t t l e m e n t o f D u r a - E u r o p o s , vvhich f o r the b e s t p a r t o f t h r e e c e n t u r i e s h a d b e e n a P a r t h i a n o u t p o s t . * E x c a v a t i o n s there betvveen : h c F i r s t a n d S e c o n d \Vorld W a r s h a v e p r o d u c e d a m a s s o f e v i d e n c e , stili f a r f r o m fully d i g e s t e d , vvhich f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f the R o m a n E m p i r e h a s g i v e n it a l m o s t t o o g r e a t a n i m p o r t a n c e . F o r it lasted a s a ' R o m a n ' p l a c c f o r less t h a n a c e n t u r y , until its c o m p l c t e d e s t r u c t i o n b y the P e r s i a n s in t h e 2 5 0 S . W h e n J u l i a n ' s a r m y m a r c h e d p a s t it in 3 6 3 , it vvas a ' d e s e r t e d tovvn in P e r s i a n t e r r i t o r y ' . 4 R o m a n t e r r i t o r y novv s t o p p c d a t t h e c o n f l u e n c e o f t h e C h a b u r

and

E u p h r a t e s , vvhere D i o c l e t i a n h a d built t h e f o r t r e s s o f C i r c c s i u m . L o n g b e f o r e t h a t , hovvever, R o m a n c o n t r o l h a d c x t c n d e d a e r o s s t h e E u p h r a t e s , t o c o v e r t h e vvhole o f t h e s h e l f vvhich lies betvveen t h e T a u r u s M o u n t a i n s a n d t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n plain p r o p e r , finally t o r e a c h t h e T i g r i s . S o u t h o f t h e s h e l f , o r o f t h e J c b e l S i n j a r vvhich m a r k s i t s s o u t h e r n c d g c in t h e e a s t , it vvas o n l y f o r a b r i e f p e r i o d in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y t h a t R o m a n f o r c e s f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s s t a t i o n e d a t the c i t y o f H a t r a , t h e c a p i t a l o f a s m a l l k i n g d o m vvhich h a d f o r m e d p a r t o f t h e P a r t h i a n E m p i r e . S o f a r a s vve knovv, H a t r a vvas n e v e r t o b e R o m a n a g a i n a f t e r its c a p t u r e by S h a p u r I in a b o u t 2 4 0 . 4 A s r c g a r d s t h e e a s t e r n p a r t o f t h e shelf, lying s o u t h o f M o n s M a s i u s , a n o u t l y i n g s p u r o f the T a u r u s { t h e T u r A b d i n , l a t e r t o b e the h e a r t l a n d o f S y r i a c m o n a s t i c i s m ) , a n d i n c l u d i n g the c i t y o f N i s i b i s , R o m a n d o m i n a n c e vvas t o be ens h r i n e d in the t r e a t y vvith P e r s i a in 2 9 8 o r 2 9 9 , o n l y t o b e s u r r e n d e r e d f o r e v e r a f t e r t h e d e f e a t a n d d e a t h o f J u l i a n in 3 6 3 . T h e r e a f t e r , the z o n e vvhere S y r i a c C h r i s r i a n i t y flourislıed vvas t o b e d i v i d e d , vvest o f N i s i b i s , by t h e f r o n t i e r betvveen t h e tvvo e m p i r e s . Betvveen the tvvo t r e a t i c s , o f 2 9 8 / 2 9 9 a n d 3 6 3 , hovvever, the R o m a n m i i i t a r y p r e s e n c e h a d a l s o e x t e n d e d n o r t h o f M o n s M a s i u s t o t a k e in a n e v e n less k n o v v n a r e a : the p l a i n betvveen the m o u n t a i n a n d the T i g r i s , a l o n g t h e s t r e t e h vvhere t h e river, o n l e a v i n g the m a i n T a u r u s r a n g e , t u m s a l m o s t d u e e a s t , b e f o r e svvinging s o u t h r o u n d the e n d o f M o n s M a s . u s p a s t t h e e v e n t u a l R o m a n f o r r o f B e z a b d e t o e n t e r the n o r t h - e a s t c o r n e r o f the M e s o p o t a m i a n p l a i n . It vvas o n t h i s s t r e t e h o f t h e T i g r i s , j u s t b e f o r e it t u r n s e a s t , t h a t in t h e 3 3 0 S C o n s t a n t i u s , a s ' C a e s a r ' u n d e r his f a t h e r C o n s t a n t i n e , vvas t o f o r t i f y t h e c i t y o f A m i d a ( D i y a r b a k i r ) . 6 V i r t u a l l y n o t h i n g is k n o v v n , as

3. 3.4 a b o v e . 4 . A m m i a n u s X X I I I , 5, 8. 3. 4.2 a b o v e . 6. A m m i a n u s X V I I I , 9 , 1 - 2 . C f . 5.3 a b o v e .

r e g a r d s this p e r i o d , o f the c u l t u r e , l a n g u a g e o r s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f this p l a i n o ı ı t h e right b a n k o f the T i g r i s , l o o k i n g a c r o s s the river t o w h a t w a s then t h e k i n g d o m o f ' A r m e n i a ' , w i t h its c a p i t a l a t T i g r a n o c e r t a . 7 It w a s in a m o n a s t e r y n e a r h e r e t h a t in t h e l a t e eighth c e n t u r y a n unknovvn m o n k c o m p o s c d a vvorld c h r o n i c l e in S y r i a c vvhich, a m o n g m u c h else, p r o v i d e s the fullest r e c o r d o f t h e r o y a l d y n a s t y vvhich r u l c d in E d e s s a f r o m thc s c c o n d c c n t u r y BC t o t h c t h i r d c c n t u r y AD. S T h r e e different f e a t u r e s s e r v e t o define t h e a r e a vvith vvhich this c h a p t e r ı s c o n c e r n e d . O n e is o f c o u r s e g e o g r a p h y : t h e region is s h a p e d t o the n o r t h b y t h e T a u r u s a n d its s p u r s , t o t h e e a s t a n d vvest by thc T i g r i s a n d E u p h r a t e s , a n d (equally i m p o r t a n t ) by t h c tvvo m a j ö r t r i b u t a r i c s vvhich run o f f t h c n o r t h M c s o p o t a m i a n s h e l f t o j o i n the F . u p h r a t e s , t h a t is, the B a l i k h a n d t h e C h a b u r . T h e a r e a o f n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a vvhich b e c a m e R o m a n under S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s in the 1 9 0 S is r o u g h l y d e f ı n e d by t h e edge o f t h e shelf, o r b y thc l i m i t s o f l o o - r a m a n n u a l r a i n f a l l . T h e m a j ö r citics o f R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a iic a l o n g t h e b o r d e r s o f the s h e l f a n d c l u s t e r r o u n d the u p p e r r e a c h e s o f t h e s t r e a m s vvhich feed i n t o the tvvo m a j ö r t r i b u t a r i e s : E d e s s a a n d C a r r h a e b e l o n g in t h e a r e a o f the s c a t t e r e d headvvaters o f the B a l i k h , a n d C o n s t a n t i n a (if it vvas s i t u a t e d a t m o d e r n V i r a n ş e h i r ) , R c s h a i n a , N i s i b i s a n d a l s o S i n g a r a , lying o n t h e s o u t h e r n side o f t h e J e b e l Sinjar, in t h o s e o f t h e C h a b u r . As vve h a v e seen in l o o k i n g a t t h e m i l i t a r y c v o l u t i o n o f this a r e a , these rivers h a v e t o b e u n d e r s t o o d n o t as f r o n t i e r s m a r k i n g o f f b l o c k s o f territory, but first as p r o v i d i n g strips o f c u l t i v a b l e l a n d , a n d s c c o n d as o f f e r i n g r o u t e s t h r o u g h thc uncultivable s t e p p e o n either side. In c o n s e q u e n c e the issue o f r c l a t i o n s betvveen the settled p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e p e o p l e s o f the s t e p p e presented itself here in j u s t the s a m e t e r m s as it did elsevvhere. ' T h c s a m e t e r m s ' in this c o n t c x t is m e a n t litcrally: thc s a m e shifting

vocabulary—'Arabes',

' s k e n i t a i ' ('tent-dvvellers') a n d ' S a r a c e n s ' — i s used here a s elsevvhere. T h e p r e s e n c e o f these p e o p l e s is refleeted in literary s o u r c e s a n d d o c u m e n t s f r o m vvithin b o t h the R o m a n a n d the P a r t h i a n a n d then thc P e r s i a n E m p i r e s , f r o m S t r a b o ' s Geography

t o A m m i a n u s ' vivid a c c o u n t o f J u l i a n ' s

dcalings vvith t h c c h i c f s o f the Saraceni,

o r J e r o m e ' s p e r h a p s t o o vivid r e p o r t

o f S a r a c e n b a n d i t s infesting the r o a d betvveen B e r o e a in Syria a n d E d e s s a in M e s o p o t a m i a . 9 U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e a c c o u n t vvhich S t r a b o , a t the b e g i n n i n g o f 7 . T h a t T ı g r a n o c c r t a l a y in this r c g i o n , n o r t h o f this streteh o f the ' l i g r i s ( a n d not in vvhat w a s t o b c R o m a n M e s o p o t a m i a ) , is c c r r a i n . See R . S y r a e , " ' I l g r a n o c e r t a : A P r o b l e m M i s c o n -

ceived", in S. Mitchell (ed.), Armies and Frontiers in Roman and Byzantine Anatolia (1983), 6 T — R . S y m e , Roman

Papcrs

I V ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 145* F o r d i s c u s s i o n of thc prccisc l o c a t i o n of thc site,

vvhich clearly l a y in this a r c a , sec T. A . Sinclair, Eastern ical Survey III ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 3 J 7 f f , 8. Sec f u r t h e r 1 1 . 3 a n d A p p . C belovv. 9. x ı . 6 belovv.

Turkey: An Architectural

and

Archaeolog-

o u r p e r i o d , gives o f the r o u t e then t a k e n b y t r a d e r s betvveen n o r t h e r n Syria a n d B a b y l o n i a is filled vvith c r r o r s . But it is a t l e a s t e l e a r t h a t h c m c a n s t o say t h a t they did n o t follovv the vvhole c o u r s c o f t h e E u p h r a t e s , b u t c r o s s e d over it, a n d o n l y then travelled southvvards, leaving the r i v e r a c o n s i d c r a b l e d:st a n c e t o their right. T h e r e a s o n h e gives, r i g h t l y o r vvrongly, is t h a t the

skerıitai

living further east vvere less e x p l o i t a t i v e a ı ı d m o r e h e l p f u l than t h o s e a l o n g the E u p h r a t e s : ' I h c S c c n i t a c are pcaccful, a n d moderate tovvards travellers in the e x a c t i o n o f tribute, and on this a c c o u n t merehants avoid the land along the river a n d risk a journey through the desert, leaving the river on the right f o r approximatcIy a three d a y s ' journey. F o r the chicftains vvho livc a l o n g the river on both sides o c c u p y country vvhich, though n o t rich in rcsourccs, is less resourceless than that o f others, and are each investcd vvith their o w n particular d o m a i n s a n d e x a c t a tribute o f n o moderate a m o u n t . ' 0 T h e c r u c i a l f a c t o r vvhich S t r a b o failed t o m a k e c l e a r is revealed b y his p r o b a b l e c o n t e m p o r a r y I s i d o r u s o f C h a r a x , vvhose Parthian

Stations

traces

the s a m e r o u t e in m o r e d c t a i l . " T h e r a t i o n a l e f o r this r o u t e vvas t h a t travellers vvould e r o s s o v e r f r o m Z e u g m a t o t h e hcadvvatcrs o f the B a l i k h , a n d then travel dovvn it t o vvhere it j o i n e d t h e E u p h r a t e s . A c o m p a r a b l e r o u t e , t h o u g h s t a r t i n g further s o u t h , f r o m H i e r a p o l i s , vvas t o b e follovved by J u l i a n ' s a r m y in 3 6 3 . E i t h e r r o u t e vvas a c t u a l l y s h o r t e r t h a n follovving the bend o f the Euphrates. I s i d o r u s ' a c c o u n t , brief a s it i s , serves t o i n t r o d u c e t h e s e c o n d significant feature o f t h e s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f this r e g i o n : like m o s t o t h e r p a r t s o f the N e a r E a s t , it h a d been p r o f o u n d l y a f f c c t c d b y H e l l e n i s t i e s c t t l c m c n t , vvhich in Isid o r u s ' vievv h a d begun vvith A l e x a n d e r himself. T h u s in I s i d o r u s ' i t i n e r a r y vve find the follovving places listed, vvhich e i t h e r h a v e G r e e k n a m e s o r a r e e x p l i c itly d c s i g n a t e d as G r e e k f o u n d a t i o n s : A p a m e a , j u s t a c r o s s the river f r o m Z e u g m a ; C h a r a x Sidou, '(callcd) Anthemousia

by t h e G r e c k s ' ; I c h n a i , a

G r e e k city, a f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e M a c e d o n i a n s , o n the river B a l i k h ; N i k e p h ı ı r i o n , b y t h e E u p h r a t e s , a G r e e k city, a f o u n d a t i o n o f K i n g A l e x a n d e r ; a n d then ' D o u r a , a c i t y o f N i c a n o r ( p r o p e r l y N i c a t o r ) , a f o u n d a t i o n o f the M a c e d o n i a n s ; b y the G r e e k s it is c a l l c d F.uröpos'. T h e r e is n o n e c d t o p u r s u c t h e s c a n t y c v i d c n c c o n t h e a e t u a l h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c c s o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f these cities, o r o f o t h e r little-knovvn places vvith G r e e k n a m e s s e a t t e r e d f u r t h e r up t h e E u p h r a t e s . It may, hovvever, be 1 0 . S t r a b o , Geog. 1 1 . T c x t in C .

X V I , 1 , 2 7 {340). M i i l l c r , Geographi

Graeci

Minores

I ( 1 8 5 5 ) , 2 4 4 - 2 . 5 4 ; FGrH,

no.

7&ı;

M . - L . C h a u m o n t , " I . a r o u t e r o y a l e d e s P a r t h e s d e Z e u g m a â S c l e u c i e d u T i g r e d ' a p r c s l'itinfcra.re d ' I s i d o r c d c G h 3 r a x " , Syria

6ı

( 1 9 8 4 ) , 6 3 . See esp. M . G u w I i k o w s k i , " L a r o u t e d e P E u p h r a t e

d ' I s i d o r c a J u l i c n " , i n G e o g . Hist.,

77.

r c l c v a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e e r e a t i o ı ı o f places w i t h G r e e k o r M a c e d o n i a n l o c a l n a m e s , o r d y n a s t i c n a m e s , h a d b e e n a t r a d i t i o n vvhich pcrsistcd t h r o u g h t h e vvhole H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . A s it h a p p e n s , p e r h a p s the m o s t p e r f e c t e x p r e s s i o n o f t h a t ideal c o m e s f r o m o n c o f t h e i m m e n s e r o y a l i n s e r i p t i o n s o f C o m m a g e n e , put up in t h e mid-fîrst c e n t u r y BC. İn t h e i n s e r i p t i o n vvhich h c o r dered t o b e put u p a t A r s a m e i a o n t h e N y m p h a i o s — a river vvhich j o i n s t h e E u p h r a t e s a b o v e S a m o s a t a — A n t i o c h u s I (circa

6 9 - 3 6 BC) recalled hovv h i s

a n c e s t o r A r s a m c s h a d c x p l o i t c d t h e potentialities o f t h e site, a s a d d l c betvveen tvvo p e a k s : This Arsameia vvhich in the hollovv betvveen tvvo breasts gives forth the spring N y m p h a i o s of cternal vvaters, my ancestor Arsames founded as a city. As it lay by nature on tvvo rocky hills, a n d a s h c pcrccivcd a godgiven flow of nourishing vvater pouring forth into a deep cleft, he r o o k advantage o f the site, vvalled the double summit on either side, establishcd a city around them, and callcd it Arsameia after himself. By inereasing the impregnability o f the fortifications by his ovvn care a n d provision hc crcated an unassailable base for his native land. 1 2 B e h i n d the flovvery aıtd p o c t i c d i c t i o n A n t i o c h u s m a n a g e s t o c x p r e s s r a t h e r a c c u r a t c l y the m i l i t a r y c h a r a c t e r o f e a r l y - H e l l e n i s t i c c i t y - f o u n d a t i o n s , a n d o f H e l l e n i s t i c m o n a r e h y in g e n e r a l . H e later c l a i m s t o h a v e a d d e d t o the f o r t i f i c a t i o n s h i m s e l f , a s vvell as (a nevv m o t i f ) a d o r n i n g the city. T h e m o n u m e n t s o f the cult o f his royal a n c e s t o r s , m o s t n o t a b l y t h e great series o f s t a t u e s a r o u n d t h e s u m m i t o f N e m r u d D a g , vvere a l s o his vvork. A city s u c h as t h i s , o r a n o t h e r ' A r s a m e i a ' vvhich lay directly o n t h e E u p h r a t e s , a t G e r g e r in t h e n o r t h - e a s t c o r n c r o f the k i n g d o m , v v a s — l i k e t h e c i t i e s later f o u n d e d b y the H e r o d i a n d y n a s t y — a t r i b u t e t o the i d e a o f t h e G r e e k city. It vvas surely n o t , a s t h e earliest H e l l e n i s t i c f o u n d a t i o n s u n d e r Alexandcr and Seleucus I had been, a colonial implantation of a

Greek-

s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n in a ' b a r b a r i a n ' l a ı ı d s c a p e . Seleucia/Zeugma, vvhich i n the m i d d l e o f the first c e n t u r y h a d been c o n t r o l l c d by t h e k i n g s o f C o m m a g e n e , until the R o m a n s t o o k it over, 1 1 h a d , hovvever, o n c e been s u c h a s e t t l e m e n t . S o , as I s i d o r u s believed, had o t h e r p l a c e s o n the r o u t e t o B a b y l o n i a , i n c l u d i n g * D o u r a vvhich the G r e e k s cali E u r ö p o s ' . T o the very e n d , a s vve vvill see, t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f D u r a b y S e l e u c u s I N i c a t o r vvas t o b e f o r m a l l y r e called there.14 ı ı . F. K . D ö r n e t a n d T h . Cîoell, Arsameia t r a n s l a r i o n ) , II.

am Nymphaios

{196}),

3 6 (text a n d

German

H e r e , as in alt r c f c r e t ı c e s t o C o m m a g e n e , I o w e e v c r y t h i n g t o t h e t l a s s i c

articlc of J. Wagncr, " D y n a s t i c und Hcrrscherkult in K o m m a g c n c : Forschungsgeschichte ncucrc Fundc",

İst. Mitt.

1 3 . 2.1 above. 1 4 . 1 2 . 4 belovv.

33 {1983),

177.

und

B y t h a t t i m e , a s it s e e m s , D u r a a l s o e n j o y e d t h e s t a t u s o f a R o m a n

colonia.

In q u i t c a s i g n i f i c a n t s e n s e t h e R o m a n m i i i t a r y o c c u p a t i o n , o r g a n i s a t i o n a n d (in f o r m a l t e r m s ) ' c o l o n i s i n g ' o f t h i s r e g i o n vvas t o b e a r e - e n a c t m e n t o f t h e e a r l y - H e l l e n i s t i c o c c u p a t i o n . F o r o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f vvhat t h i s R o m a n occ u p a t i o n m e a n t f o r t h e r e g i o n , it vvould t h e r e f o r e in p r i n c i p l e b c i m p o r t a n t t o h a v e s o m e c o n c c p t i o n o f hovv p r o f o u n d t h e i m p a c t o f G r e e k s e t t l e m e n t h a d b e e n , a n d hovv f a r a n y o f t h e c i t i e s o n t h e E u p h r a t e s o r i n M e s o p o t a m i a stili f u n e t i o n e d , a n d stili savv t h e m s e l v e s , a s G r e e k c i t i e s . I s i d o r u s ' Stations,

Parthian

vvritten vvhile t h e a r c a vvas stili p a r t o f t h e P a r t h i a n E m p i r e , g i v e s a

s t r o n g i m p r e s s i o n o f idcntifiably ' G r e e k ' cities interspersed

among

other

p l a c e s vvith n o n - G r e e k n a m e s ; v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t i y , i n vievv o f vvhat vve h a v e s e e n o f settlement patterns elsevvhere in the N e a r E a s t , he gives several o f these other places the label ' k ö m o p o l i s ' , 'village-city'. In f a c t it h a s t o be a d m i t î e d t h a t vve h a v e a l m o s t n o s i g n i f i c a n t e v i d e n c e o n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a n y o f t h e ' G r e e k ' c i t i e s o f t h e r e g i o n a s t h e y vvere i n tlıe c o u p l e o f centuries before the definitive R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n . T h e o n e e x c e p t i o n i s D u r a , t h e o n l y p l a c c f r o m vvhich t h e r e is a r c h a c o l o g i c a l a n d d o c u m e n tary evidence f r o m both b e f o r e a n d after the R o m a n c o n q u e s t . Elsevvhere, a m a j o r H e l l e n i s t i c s e t t l e m e n t o n t h e E u p h r a t e s a t J e b e l K h a l i d i s in t h e c o ı ı r s e o f e x c a v a t i o n ; b u t it s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n c n t i r e l y a b a n d o n c d b e f o r e t h e R o m a n p e r i o d . F r o m the rest o f the area there a r e o n l y a scatter o f d o c u m e n t a r y i t e m s o f e v i d e n c e f r o m b e f o r e t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y — t h o u g h , a s vve vvill s e e , o f i m m e n s e s i g n i f i c a n c e — a n d o n l y l a t e r S y r i a c c h r o n i c l c s t o o f f e r s o m e c o n c c p t i o n o f i n t e r n a l h i s t o r y , o f E d e s s a at l e a s t . T h e r e is n o l i t e r a r y e v i d e n c e i n G r e e k f r o m vvithin t h i s vvhole r e g i o n u n t i l t h e p r o v i n c i a l p e r i o d . T h e o n e i t e m t h a t vve h a v e is a g a i n i n S y r i a c . It i s a l i t o o t y p i c a l o f t h e b i a s a f o u r e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e fevv s n a p s h o t s vve h a v e o f t h e c i t i c s h e r e d e r i v e f r o m G r e e k n a r r a t i v e s vvritten i n t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d a n d d e s e r i b i n g t h e c a m p a i g n s f o u g h t b y t h e R o m a n s h e r e in t h e l a t e R e p u b l i c . T h e s e , m o r e o v e r , h a v e a n o t a b l e tendeııcy to e m p h a s i s e the self-identification o f the G r e e k cities o f the P a r t h i a n E m p i r e as ' G r e e k ' , a n d their c o n s c q u e n t vveleome a n d a s s i s t a n c c f o r R o m a n armies. T h e real history and the r e m a r k a b l y flexible and c o n f u s e d n o m e n c l a t u ı e , b o t h G r e e k and n o n - G r e e k , o f these places are matters of great compIexity, a n d a r e n o t vvorth p u r s u i n g h e r e . ' 6 T h e c o m p l i c a t i o n s i n v o l v e d c a n be iElus-

1 5 . For an inlerim s u m m a r y see G . W. C l a r k e , " A u s t r a l i a n Classical Studies and M e d i l c r t a -

nean Archaeology", în R. Sinclair (cd.), Past, Preseni and Puture: Ancient World Studies in Avsiralia

( 1 9 9 0 ) , i ; o r P. C o n ı ı o r , " A

Forıifıcd M a c c d o n i a n M i i i t a r y Settlement at Jcbcl K h a l i d ,

N o r t h S y r i a , E x c a v a t i o n $ ^ 8 6 ^ 9 8 7 " , in A . M . T a m i s ( c d . ) , Macedonian 16. S c c , as a l v v a y s , l o n e s , CF.RP\

Hellenism

c h . 9, " M e s o p o t a m i a a n d A r m c n i a " .

<1990),

t r a t c d f r o m a B y z a n t i n e d i c t i o n a r y o f p l a c e - ı ı a m e s : t h e third o f t e n d i f f e r e n t places c a l l e d A n t i o c h i a w a s t h a t ' o f M e s o p o t a m i a , c a l l e d " M y g d o n i a " , vvhich is c a l l e d by t h c ııativcs " N a s i b i s " , vvhence t h e r e c a m e A p o l l o p l ı a n e s t h e S t o i c p h i l o s o p h e r , a " N a s i b c n o s " , a n d P h a r n o u c h o s vvho vvrote a Persian

History;

vvhich is a l s o called " N e s i b i s " a n d " N i s i b i s " ' . 1 7 B u t t o S t r a b o ' N i s i b i s ' vvas a l s o c a l l e d ' A n t i o c h e i a in M y g d o n i a ' , t h a t is, it l a y in t h e t e r r i t o r y o f a p e o p l e vvhom the M a c e d o n i a n s h a d l a b e l l e d ' M y g d o n e s ' . 1 8 T o save even f u r t h e r c o n fusion, it vvill be c a l l e d ' N i s i b i s ' here; but b o t h its c o i n s a n d o n c o f thc nevvly discovered G r e e k papyri o f the n ı i d - t h i r d c e n t u r y in fact cali it ' N e s i b i s ' . T h c G r c c k n a m e s o f s u c h places vvere usually either d y n a s t i c , like ' A n t i o c h i a ' , o r borrovved from p l a c e - n a m c s in M a c e d o n i a itself. T h c p l a c c vvhich c o n t i n u e d t o be called in S y r i a c ' O r h a i ' h a d b o t h types o f G r e e k n a m e , ' E d e s s a ' a n d ' A n t i o c h i a ( o n t h e ) C a l l i r h o e ' . B u t f o r t h e q u e s t i o n o f vvhat this identity a s a G r c c k o r M a c c d o n i a n s e t t l e m e n t m i g h t have m e a n t in the P a r t h i a n p e r i o d vve are d e p e n d e n t , a s m e n t i o n e d , o n n a r r a t i v e s vvritten under t h e R o m a n E m p i r e . T h u s it is c l a i m e d b y C a s s i u s D i o t h a t in 6 5 BC the

legatus

o f Pompcy, A f r a n i u s , m a r e h i n g b a c k t o Syria t h r o u g h M e s o p o t a m i a , vvould h a v e been t o t a l l y lost if ' t h c K a r r a i o i , being settlers o f the M a c c d o n i a n s a n d living

there',

had

not

rescued

him.

There

had

indeed

been

an

early-

M a c e d o n i a n s e t t l e m e n t t h e r e ; y e t C a r r h a e , the a n c i e n t city o f H a r r a n , vvith its f a m o u s t e m p l e o f t h c M o o n - g o d d e s s , vvas preciscly o n c o f t h c p l a c c s vvhere the q u e s t i o n o f c u l t u r a l a n d e t h n i c i d e n t i t y arises m o s t acutely. 1 9 I.ater D i o r e p o r t s m o r e p r o g r a m m a t i c a l l y t h a t vvhen C r a s s u s iııvaded P a r t h i a n t e r r i t o r y in 5 4 BC, h c q u i c k l y c a p t u r e d v a r i o u s G r c c k citics, ineluding N i k c p h o r i o n : ' f o r m a n y settlers, ( d e s c e n d a n t s ) o f the M a c e d o n i a n s a n d thc o t h e r G r e e k s vvho h a d c a m p a i g n e d vvith t h e m , held dovvn by f o r c c a n d h a v i n g high h o p e s o f the R o m a n s as being p h i l h e l l e n e s , e h a n g e d sides n o t unvvillingly'. 2 0 A s i m i lar set o f a t t i t u d e s is implied vvhen Plutarch deseribes hovv in 5 3 BC, vvhen C r a s s u s vvas d e f e a t e d a n d killed n e a r C a r r h a e , help vvas o f f e r c d t o his s o n b y 'tvvo G r e e k s f r o m a m o n g t h o s e vvho livcd n c a r b y in C a r r h a e , H i e r o n y m o s a n d N i k o m a c h o s ' ; t h e y urged h i m t o flee t o I c h n a i , a polis

vvhich h a d t a k e n

the R o m a n side. z ı It vvould be a m i s t a k e , hovvever, t o build t o o m u c h o n t h e o v e r t o n e s o f passing r e f c r e n c c s in these later G r c c k n a r r a t i v e s . N i s i b i s , a s w c savv, h a d a l s o been a M a c c d o n i a n s e t t l e m e n t , a s ' A n t i o c h i a in M y g d o n i a ' . B u t vvhen D i o deseribes hovv L u c u l l u s besieged a n d t o o k it in 6 8 , he c h a r a c t e r i s e s 1 7 . S t c p h a n u s B y z n n t i n ı ı s , F.lhnica, r 8 . S t r a b o , Geog.

s.v. ' A v t ı ö ^ f ıo.

X V I , 1 , ı j ( 7 4 7 ) ; c f . X I , 1 4 , j ( $ a 7 ) , a n d P l u t a r c h , Lıicullus

32.

1 9 . D i o X X X V I I , 5 , 5 ; D i o d o r u s X I X , 9 1 ( M a c c d o n i a n s e t t l e r s a l r e a d y there i n 3 1 ı BC). S e e W . C r a m c r , RAC

X I I I (198*1), cots. 6 3 4 - 6 5 0 .

20. D i o X I . , 1 3 , 1 . 2 r . P l u t a r c h , Crassus

25.

its i n h a b i t a t ı t s a s barbaroi;

s o vvhen h c a d d s t h a t ' i t is novv (in t h e third c e n -

t u r y ) o u r s a n d is classificd a s a c o l o n y o f o u r s ' , he misses t h e significant trutlı t h a t this vvas in fact a s e c o n d vvestern ' c o l o n i s a t i o n ' . 2 2 N o n e o f this e v i d e n c e t h e r e f o r e telis u s a n y t h i n g in detail a b o u t t h e c o m m u n a l s t r u e t u r e s o r a b o u t t h e c u l t u r e ( o r cultures) o f these c i t i e s u n d e r P a r t h i a n rule. B u t t h e vvay in vvhich I s i d o r u s in his Parthian

c h o o s e s to

Stations

c h a r a c t e r i s e e a c h p l a c e o n t h e i t i n e r a r y is c l e a r e v i d e n c c t h a t the q u e s t i o n o f being a ' G r e e k c i t y ' o r n o t vvas a significant o n c t o c o n t e m p o r a r i e s - — - o r a t l e a s t t o o t h e r G r e e k s . It is s u r e l y r e l e v a n t t h a t I s i d o r u s h i m s e l f c a m e f r o m a n o t h e r s m a l l G r e e k c i t y u n d e r P a r t h i a n rule, S p a s i n o u C h a r a x in M e ş e n e o n t h e s h o r c s o f the Persian G u l f . 2 3 A n y o f these places m i g h t have c o n t i n u e d t o c o n d u c t themselves p u b l i c l y a s G r e e k c i t i e s , a n d t o be t r e a t e d as s u c h b y the P a r t h i a n k i n g s . T h a t this p o s s i b i i i t y vvas a real o n e is m a d e c c r t a i n b y the letter in G r e e k vvritten in AD 2 1 by A r t a b a n u s III o f P a r t h i a , a n d f o u n d o n a n i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m S u s a . 2 4 P e r h a p s surprisingly, t h e k i n g , in addressing

this

G r e e k city in p r e s e n t - d a y I r a n , d o e s n o t use its f o r m a l title, ' S e l e u c i a on the E u l a e u s ' ; instead he vvrites t o ' A n t i o c h u s a n d P h r a a t c s , b e i n g the a n d t h e polis'.

arehontes,

B u t t h e b o d y o f the letter leaves n o d o u b t t h a t this is a G r e e k

city vvith fixcd rules g o v e r n i n g the h o l d i n g o f m a g i s t r a c i e s , vvhose h o l d e r s vvere c x p e c t c d t o c o n t r i b u t e o u t o f their ovvn p o c k c t s , a n d vvould r c c c i v c app r o p r i a t e h o n o u r s in r e t u r n . W h e n t h e n e e d a r o s e , the city vvould s e n d a n e m b a s s y (presbeia),

p r e s u m a b l y t o the k i n g . It is somevvhat p a r a d o x i c a l t h a t

this place, t h e a n c i c n t P e r s i a n c a p i t a l o f S u s a , lying belovv t h e s o u t h e r n Z a g r o s M o u n t a i n s a n d s o m e 1 2 0 0 k m f r o m the M e d i t e r r a t ı e a n , s h o u l d pres e m a m o r e c i e a r l y defined irnage a s a ' G r e e k c i t y ' than a n y o f t h o s e o n the E u p h r a t e s o r in n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a vvhich vvere t o b e c o m e p a r t o f the R o m a n Empire. In a n y c a s c , a ' G r e e k c i t y ' vvithin the P a r t h i a n E m p i r e m i g h t h a v e a p o p u lation vvhich vvas c l c a r l y d i v i d c d a l o n g e t h n i c , c u l t u r a l o r linguistic l i n e s , a s h a s been c o m m o n in t h e N e a r E a s t in m o r e r e c e n t p e r i o d s — b u t is not c i e a r l y visible in the c i t i e s vvest o f the E u p h r a t e s , e x c e p t in J u d a e a a n d its s u r r o u n d i n g r e g i o n . But p r e c i s e l y t h e r e , as vve h a v e seen, J o s e p h u s s o m e t i m e s h e s i t a t e s betvveen deseribing r h e gentile p o p u l a t i o n a s ' G r e e k s ' o r a s 'Syriarıs'. In t h e c a s e o f the o t h e r m a j ö r c i t y c a l l e d S e l e u c i a a n d lying vvithin the P a r t h i a n E m p i r e , h o v v e v e r — t h a t is, S e l e u c i a o n the T i g r i s — h e h a s n o s u c h h e s i t a t i o n : 'At Seleucia life is m a r k e d b y g e n e r a l s t r i f e a n d d i s c o r d betvveen the G r e e k s a n d t h e S y r i a n s , in vvhich t h e G r e e k s h a v e t h e upper h a n d . Novv vvhen the

22. D i o X X X V I , 6 , 2. 23. See S. A . N o d e l m a n ,

" A I'relimioary History of M e ş e n e " ,

w r o n g i y a r g u i n g , hovvever, f o r a later 2 4 . C . B . W e l ! e s , Royal

first-ccntury

Correspondence

Berytus

13 ( 1 9 6 0 ) , 83,

date for Isidorus.

in the Hellenistie

Period

{ 1 9 3 4 ) , no. 7 $ .

Jevvs c a m e t o live in t h e city t h e r e vvas c o n t i n u i n g strife, a n d the S y r i a n s g o t t h e upper h a n d b y c o m i n g t o t e r m s vvith t h e J e v v s ' . " It is o f s o m e s i g n i f i c a n c c t h a t , j u s t as ' A s s y r i a n ' c a n be used o f p e o p l e living in R o m a n S y r i a , ' S y r i a n ' c a n b e used o f the n o n - G r e e k i n h a b i t a n t s o f P a r t h i a n B a b y l o n i a . W c have t o a s s u m c , f o r l a c k o f a n y o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n , t h a t t h e m o s t p r o b a b l e principle o f division vvas linguistic: t h a t t h e o p p o n c n t s o f t h e (generally) d o m i n a n t G r e e k s o f S e l e u c i a on t h e Tigris vvere s p e a k e r s o f a d i a l c c t o f A r a m a i c . S i m i l a r d i v i s i o n s may t h e r e f o r e h a v e e x i s t e d a l s o in t h o s e cities vvhich did e v e n t u a l l y c o m e to form part o f the R o m a n Empire. W h e t h e r o r n o t l a n g u a g e in fact f u n e t i o n e d , in t h e a r c a vvhich p r o g r e s sivcly fcll under R o m a n c o n t r o l , as t h e basis o f i n t e r n a l c o m m u n a l

divi-

s i o n s — a n d even p e r h a p s o f vvider politieal l o y a l t i e s — i t is t h e a p p e a r a n c c o f a nevv vvritten l a n g u a g e , S y r i a c , vvhich provides t h e last o f t h e t h r e e f c a t u r c s vvhich define the a r e a c o n c e r n e d . L i t e r a r y a n d d o c u m e n t a r y evidenee, s o m e very r e c c n t a n d stili in the c o u r s e o f p u b l i c a t i o n , shovvs t h a t t h e e m e r g e n c e o f this dialect o f A r a m a i c , vvith i t s distinetive seript, vvas s o m e t h i n g c o m m o n nor o n l y t o E d e s s a b u t t o the vvhole M e s o p o t a m i a n shelf u p t o a n d a e r o s s t h e T i g r i s — a n d a l s o , as vvas n o t knovvn so clearly before, t o the m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s a s far s o u t h as D u r a - E u r o p o s . F o r m a n y r e a s o n s it vvill bc a t D u r a t h a t o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the c u l t u r e o f t h e r e g i o n begins.

12.2. D U R A - E U R O P O S

IN T H E P A R T H İ A N

PERİOD

A s vvas m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , it is o n l y at D u r a - E u r o p o s t h a t vve h a v e a c c e s s t o c o n t e m p o r a r y evidenee t o test a n y h y p o t h e s i s a b o u t t h e life o f G r e e k s e t d e m e n t s under P a r t h i a n r u l e . B u t even here t h e difficulties are a c u t e , p e r h a p s m o r e s o t h a n is generally a d m i t t e d . F o r t h e e x c a v a t i o n s o f t h e 1 9 2 0 S a n d 1 9 3 0 S vvere foliovvcd ali t o o r a p i d l y by p u b l i c a t i o n s o f f e r i n g very d e t a i l c d , o f t e n b o l d , r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f the history, physical s t r u e ture, religion a n d c u l t u r e o f the city, then by s o m e b u t n o t ali o f the i n t e n d e d Final Reports,

o f vvhich s o m e a r c o f t h e h i g h e s t quality, on p a r t i c u l a r b u i l d -

ings a n d b o d i e s o f m a t e r i a l . T h e s e h a v e ineluded a c l a s s i c v o l u m e on r h e p a r e h m e n t s a n d p a p y r i (in G r e e k , L a t i n , A r a m a i c , Hebrevv a n d M i d d l e P e r s i a n ) , b u t n o n e o n the large n u m b e r o f i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d graffiti, in a s t r i k i n g varicty o f l a n g u a g e s : t o bc p r e c i s c , G r e e k , L a t i n , A r a m a i c , S y r i a c , P a l m y r e n e , M i d d l e Persian a n d S a f a i t i c . 1 W i t h o u t a full s t u d y o f these, rhe p a r t i c u l a r q u e s t i o n s vvhich are raised in t h i s b o o k c o n c e r n i n g c o m m u n a l a n d p e r s o n a l identity, o r ' e t h n i c i t y ' , c a n o n l y be s k e t e h e d . It is an e q u a l l y serious p r o b l e m , 2$. J o s e p h u s , Ant.

X V I I I , 9, 9 ( 3 7 4 ) , L o e b rrans.

x. ' I h e best s k e t e h o f this profusionı o f l a n g u a g e s r e m a i n s G . D . K i l p a t r i c k , " D u r a - E u r o p o s : T h e P a r e h m e n t s a n d P a p y r i " , GRBS

5 <1964), 2 1 5 .

hovvever, t h a t the e n t i r c r a n g e o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s o f buildings, r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f building-histories a n d i ı ı t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f the e v o l u t i o n o f the city as a vvhole really n e e d t o b c critically revievved, r a t h e r t h a n taken a s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e fevv g e n e r a l p o r t r a y a l s o f t h e cit)' vvhich have so far been p u b l i s h e d . 2 I n very b r o a d lines t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o d o u b t t h a t this s e t t l e m e n t , situated o n cliffs o v e r l o o k i n g t h e E u p h r a t e s f r o m t h e vvest, vvas e s t a b l i s h e d b y S e l e u c u s I, a n d vvill have i n v o l v e d the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l o t s (kleroi)

o f land to

individual M a c e d o n i a n a n d G r e e k settlers, m o s t p r o b a b l y d i s e h a r g e d soldiers. Such kleroi

a r e m e n d o n c d in t h e o n l y significant d o c u m e n t s u r v i v i n g

f r o m p r e - P a r t h i a n D u r a , a deed o f sale o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC; a n d a G r e e k p a r e h m e n t vvritten in G r e e k in t h e last d e c a d e s o f t h e c i t y ' s e x i s t e n c e stili c o n t a i n s a c o p y o f p r o v i s i o n s a b o u t s u c c e s s i o n , a n d t h e u l t i m a t e possibility o f property reverting t o being 'royal'.3 F r o m beginning to end Dura retained essentially i t s o r i g i n a l g r i d d e d l a y - o u t vvithin a n irregular p o l y g o n o f vvalls vvhosc l o n g e s t side did n o t e x c e e d ı o o o m. T h e r e vvas a n agora, b u t n o t h e a ı r e o r a n y o t h e r building f o r p u b l i c e n t e r t a i n m e n t . T h e p e r i o d o f P a r t h i a n dornin a t i o n , f r o m t h e end o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC onvvards, s e e m s t o h a v e seen the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n u m b e r o f t e m p l e s , d e d i c a t e d t o deities vvith b o t h G r e e k and non-Greek names (Atargatis, Bel, Adonis, Aphlad, Zeus T h e o s , A z ı a n a t h k o n a , Z e u s M e g i s t o s ) ; t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c plan is o f a distinetive local type, a m o d e s t c c n t r a l t e m p l e in a c o u r t y a r d lined vvith s m a l l r o o ı n s vvhich s o m e times f u n e t i o n e d as s u b s i d i a r y shrines. T h e a b s c n c c o f c o l o n n a d e s a n d o f G r e e k - s t y l e m a s o n r y , a n d t h e c o n c e a l m e n t o f t h e shrines vvithin their c o u r t y a r d s , h a s Icd t h e e x c a v a t o r s t o see the origin o f this type o f s a n c t u a r y in Babylonia. T h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o q u e s t i o n this vievv, vvhich o b v i o u s l y fits vvith t h e role o f D u r a for ö v e r tvvo a n d a h a l f c e n t u r i e s a s a f r o n t i e r tovvn in t h e P a r t h i a n E m p i r e . It vvas n o t , hovvever, in a n y real s e n s e a ' P a r t h i a n ' tovvn. T h e r e is n o t h i n g vvhatever t o suggest «hat t h e r e vvas a n y i n t r o d u e t i o n o f P a r t h i a n settlers, o r a n y large-scale i m m i g r a t i o n f r o m o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e P a r t h i a n E m p i r e ( a n y s u c h p o i n t h a s t o be m a d e vvith d e l i b e r a t e v a g u e n e s s , f o r even less is u n d e r s t o o d o f t h e e t h n i c o r linguisric c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e P a r t h i a n vvorld t h a n o f the R o m a n N e a r E a s t ) . \Vhile o u r e v i d e n c e is vvholly i n a d e q u a t c , vvhat wc have is c o m p a t i b l e vvith the g r a d u a l a n d p a r t i a l a d j u s t m e n t o f a H e l l e n i s t i c settlement t o its local e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d t o the influence o f t r a d e r s a n d o t h e r s f r o m b o t h east a n d vvest. O u r c o n c e p t i o n s o f a n y s o c i a l o r c u l t u r a l

2 . S e e a b o v e ali M . I. R o s t o v î y e f f , Dura-F.uropos Dura-Europos

( 1 9 7 3 ) ; C . H o p k i n s , The

Discovery

evolution

and Its Art ( 1 9 3 8 ) ; A . P c r k i n s , The Art of Dura-F.uropos

of

( 1 9 7 9 ) . For the hcginnioRs

o f a c r i t i c a l r c v i c s v o f t h e c x c a v a t i o n s a n d t h e r c s u l t s t o b c d c d u c c d f r o m t h e m , see t h e p a p e r s in Syria 63 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , ı f f , a n d 65 ( 1 9 8 8 ) , 2 5 9 f f . 3 . P. Dura,

nos. 1 j (second ccntury) and 12.

o f D u r a is c o m p l i c a t e d by the f a c t , f o r w h i c h t h e r e s e e m s n o o b v i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n , t h a t inseriptions, i n e l u d i n g t h o s e serving t o date buildings, began on a significant seale c x a c t l y in the s a m e p e r i o d , the later first c c n t u r y BC, a s in t h e R o m a n provincial area. S o for instance the Palmyrene inseription dated t o t h e Seleucid y e a r 2 7 9 (34/33 BC), a n d r e c o r d i n g t h e d e d i c a t i o n o f a t e m p l e ( H Y K L ' ) t o Bel a n d I a r h i b o l , is s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o n e o f the earliest P a l m y r e n e t c x t s a n d o n c o f t h c earliest i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m D u r a in a n y l a n g u a g e . 4 B o t h t h e inseriptions a n d t h e very i m p o r t a n t series o f legal d o c u m e n t s dravvn up in the P a r t h i a n p e r i o d shovv t h a t G r e e k c o n t i n u e d t o be b o t h t h e S t a n d a r d language o f thc p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h c official l a n g u a g e n o t o n l y o f the city g o v e r n m e n t b u t o f t h e I ' a r t h i a n royal a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . O f f i c i a l s w i t h the G r e e k titles strategos 'strategos

a n d epistates

( ' g e n e r a l ' ) a n d epistates o f thc polis',

( ' o v e r s e e r ' ) , o r in full f o r m

a r c a t t e s t e d ( p e r h a p s ) in thc later

first

c e n t u r y BC, t h r o u g h o u t thc firsr a n d s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s AD, a n d even i n t o t h e e a r l y R o m a n p e r i o d , a l t h o u g h t h e f u n e t i o n o f epistates

is very r a r e in t h e

E m p i r e . 5 T h e vvorkings o f t h e G r e e k a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f P a r t h i a n D u r a a r c r e fleeted, f o r i n s t a n c c , in a l o n g G r c c k d e c d o f gift o f AD 8 7 a n d a m u t u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f 8 5 - 8 9 . * B u t a l m o s t e v e r y t h i n g a b o u t the w i d e r f r a m c w o r k , b o t h o f g o v e r n m e n t a n d o f society, w i t h i n w h i c h the city then livcd is e x p r c s s c d in a G r c c k l o a n - c o n t r a c t o f AD 1 2 ı . T h c t c x t begins: In the reign o f the King o f kings Arsakes, benefactor (euergetes), ifest (epiphanes)

just, man-

a n d philhellene, year 3 6 8 as the king o f kings reekons

(thc Parthian cra), but by t h c former (Seleucid) rcckoning [ 4 3 2 ] , on thc 2 6 t h o f thc month Daisios, ın the village (köme) around

Iarda, in ıhe term

Paliga o f the district

o f offtce o f M£tolbaissa$

...

garrison-

c o m m 3 n d e r ( ? ) and o n c o f t h c First and M o s t I l o n o u r c d Friends and o f thc Bodyguards (of the king), the eunuch Phraates, arkapates,

one of

the household o f M a n e s o s s o n o f Phraates . . . tax-collector, strategos

of

M e s o p o t a m i a and P a r a p o t a m i a ('the district along thc river') and Arabarehes,

made a loan t o Barlaas son of T h a t h a i o s son o f Ablaios, o n e ot

t h o s e from . . . village (komi)

.. .7

T h e titles o f t h c k i n g a n d o f his l o c a l c o m m a n d c r p e r f c c t l y c x p r c s s o n e a s p e c t o f the Parthian regime, as one late-Hellenistic monarehy a m o n g others. B u t , e x c e p t f o r the I r a n i a n w o r d arkapates

(the s a m e t e r m vvhich a p p e a r s a s arga-

pet in P a l m y r a ) , 8 a n d s o m e I r a n i a n p e r s o n a l n a m e s , w c a r c in a s o c i a l l a n d 4. 9 . 4 a b o v e . 5. S c c R . N . F r y e , J. F. C i i l l i a m , H . Europos", Y C S 1 4 (195$), 117» 6. P. Dura,

nos. 18—19.

7 . P. Dura,

no. 20.

8. 4 . 3 a b o v e .

Inglıolt a ı ı d C . B . W c l l c s , " i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m D u r a -

PP- 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 .

s c a p e very s i m i l a r t o t h a t vvhich vve e n c o u n t e r e d in R o m a n A r a b i a . H e r e , hovvever, the polis

in q u e s t i o n is n o t so m u c h s u r r o u n d e d b y villages a s situ-

a t e d a t a c e n t r a l point in a l i n e o f villages s t r c t c h i n g a l o n g t h e E u p h r a t e s . T h e village c a l l e d P a l i g a , vvhere t h i s G r e e k d o c u m e n t vvas dravvn up, is s u r e l y the köme

c a l l e d Phaliga by I s i d o r u s , lying s o m e 7 0 k m up the river, j u s t a b o v e its

c o n f l u e n c e vvith t h e C h a b u r . B e y o n d t h e z o n e o f villages, a s in R o m a n A r a b i a , lay the steppe. E v e n the o f f i c e o f Arabarcbes, 4of

' r u l e r o f t h e A r a b s ' (or p e r h a p s

t h e ' A r a b ' , the steppe), s e e m s closely s i m i l a r t o the 'strategos o f t h e

no-

madesy a t t e s t e d in the H a u r a n ; a n d a s i m i l a r o f f i c e a p p e a r s in S y r i a c a t E d e s s a in t h e P a r t h i a n p e r i o d . 9 T h e avvareness o f being on the edge o f tlıc s t e p p e is indeed c u r i o u s l y refleeted in a G r e e k l o a n - a g r e e m e ı ı t o f 1 3 4 , d e s e r i b e d as h z v ing been dravvn up 'in F . u r o p o s by A r a b i a ' . 1 0 I n s o f a r as i n s e r i p t i o n s a n d graffiti are a n y g u i d e , G r e e k r e m a i n e d t h e n o r m a l language o f daily use in D u r a t h r o u g h o u t t h e P a r t h i a n period. T h e q u e s t i o n is o f c o u r s c c o m p l i c a t c d b o t h by the s y s t c m a t i c u n c c r t a i n t y a s t o vvhether p e o p l e m a y n o t h a v e s p o k e n o n e l a n g u a g e a n d used a n o t h e r f o r p u b i i c , vvritt e n d o c u m e n t s , a n d furdıer b y the f a c t t h a t t h e vast m a j o r i t y o f t h e inseript i o n s , as vvell a s p a r e h m e n t s a n d p a p y r i , date t o t h e R o m a n p e r i o d . W h a t d o e s seem c e r t a i n , hovvever, i s t h a t t h e r e vvas n o c o n s i s t e n t use o f A r a m a i c in p u b i i c d o c u m e n t s t o rival the role o f P a l m y r e n e a t P a l m y r a ; indeed the e x c e p t i o n p r o v i n g t h e rule o f t h e p u b i i c d o m i n a n c e o f G r c c k is t h a t t h o s e inseript i o n s a n d graffiti from D u r a vvhich are in a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e are m o s t l y in P a l m y r e n e , put up by P a l m y r e n e visitors o r s o l d i e r s ; like t h o s e f r o m P a l m y r a itself, t h e y a r c q u i t c o f t e n b i l i n g u a l vvith G r c c k . " O n the o t h e r h a n d the p r e s e n c e o f long series o f graffiti in G r e e k , for i n s t a n c e in t h e ' T e m p l e o f B e l ' ( f o r m e r l y labelled the ' T e m p l e o f t h e P a l m y r e n e G o d s ' } , is s u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e f o r t h e vievv t h a t G r e e k r e m a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t a s p o k e n l a n g u a g e , a n d p o s s i b l y the m a i n o n e in use in the city. 1 2 It vvill b e n o s u r p r i s e t o find t h a t G r e e k c o u l d b e used b o t h by p e o p l e vvith G r e e k n a m e s a n d b y t h o s e vvith S e m i t i c n a m e s : for i n s t a n c e in the g r o u p o f i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m t h e ' T e m p l e o f Artemis* d a t i n g t o t h e y e a r s b e f o r e a n d a f t e r the t u r n o f t h e e r a s , a n d giving the n a m e s o f vvomen: ' ( o f ) I [ m ] a b o u a d a u g h t e r o f Sal a m n e s , the d a u g h t e r o f B ö l o o b a s s a r o s a n d ( o f ) [ M ? ] C k a t n a n a i a d a u g h t e r o f P ( ? ) a p i o s t h e vvife o f Z e b i d a d a d o s , y e a r 3 0 6 (716 B C ) ' — o n c o f t h e earliest knovvn i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m D u r a . 1 * As clsevvherc, it is a l s o h i g h l y significant t h a t G r e e k c o u l d be u s e d in 9. T 1.5 belovv. 1 0 . P. Dura,

n o . zz: EV E û p ı a f t p t f l x p ö ç

i r . S e c d u M c & n i l d u B u i s s o n , Inventaire ()z

avant J.-C.

â 2j6

apres J.-C,.)

1 1 . S e e F. C u m o n t , Fouilles

Apapıa. des inseriptions

palınyreniennes

(J939). de Dâura-Europos

( 1 9 1 6 ) , 3 69H.

1 3 . C u m o n t , o p . c i t . , 4 1 1 , n o . 5 7 (cf. n o s . 5 8 - 6 8 ) .

de

Doura-Europos

i n s e r i p t i o n s r e c o r d i n g t h e vvorship o f deities o f a strictly local c h a r a c t e r , b y p e o p l e vvith S e m i t i c n a m e s . Tvvo vvell-knovvn e x a m p l c s from t h e first a n d s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s AD vvill sufficc. T h e first is i n s e r i b e d on a seulpted panel r e p r e s e n t i n g a priest in a c o n i c a l h a t a n d long tıınic dovvn t o his calves, vvho i s m a k i n g a sacrifice t o a b e a r d e d deity in full a r m o u r , vvho is s t a n d i n g o n tvvo griffins a n d c a r r y i n g a s t a f f in h i s left h a n d . T h e G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n leaves n o doubt about the idcntification: This foundation o f the sanetuary o f Aphlad, called god of the village (köme) o f Anath on the Euphrates, Adadiabos, the son o f Z a b d i b ö l o s the son o f Sillos, ereeted as his vovv on behalf o f the safety o f himself, his children and ali his house. 1 4 F o r t u n a t e l y w e a r e a l s o left in n o d o u b t as t o t h e d a t e . F o r a n a c c o m p a n y i n g i n s e r i b e d b l o c k gives the S e l c u c i d year 3 6 5 , A D 5 3 / 5 4 , a n d n a m e s a g r o u p o f m e n vvho d e d i c a t e d a n andrön

( w h a t e v e r that m i g h t b c in this c o n t e x t ) t o t h e

god ' A p a l a d o s ' . T h e i r n a m e s a r e B a r i b a g n a i o s s o n o f R a c h i p n a i o s ; N a b o u s a p d o s son o f A b e m m e s ; S a b d i s a m s o s s o n o f Z a b d i b ö l o s ; N a b o u d a r a o s s o n o f Phalazzacheis; Abouis son o f Zabidadados; Salamis son o f eheis; R o u m c s s o n o f O c h a n o u ( - o s ? ) ; N a b o u a z z a ı ı e s s o n o f

Phalazza-

Rachipnaios;

T h e o g e n e s (the o n l y G r e e k n a m e ) s o n o f Z a b i d a d a d o s ; A d a d i a d b o s s o n o f Zabdibölos

(the

dedicator

of

tlıc c a r v e d

relief);

and

Addaios

son

of

Phalazacheis. A g a i n , vve s c c D u r a a s a f o c a l p o i n t in a long line o f villages s t r c t c h i ı ı g a l o n g t h e E u p h r a t e s ; f o r ' A n a t h ' is t h e p l a c e called A n a o r A n a t h a , 8 0 k m d o w n t h e riveı; discussed e a r l i e r in c o ı ı n e c t i o n vvith P a l m y r e n e a n d R o m a n military o u t p o s t s . 1 5 It is n o t c e r t a i n vvhether the g r o u p o f d e d i c a n t s ali c a m e f r o m there. B u t vvhat is s i g n i f i c a n t is t h a t t h e y c o u l d a n d d i d put up a visual r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f their local deity, vvith an a c c o m p a n y i n g G r e e k i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , vvithin a G r c c k city. A s vvith the d o c u m e n t dravvn up in G r e e k in t h e village o f P ( h ) a l i g a , 7 0 k m o n t h e o t h e r side o f D u r a , it is p r o b a b l e t h a t G r e e k vvas a l s o u s e d , a t least a s a n official l a n g u a g e , at A n a t l ı ( a ) itself. A different f o r m o f c x p r c s s i o n o f a local c u l t is p r o v i d e d by a G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m the t e m p l e o f t h e g o d d c s s ' A z z a n a t h k o n a ' . i l e r e a t least t h e i d c n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e deity vvorshipped in t h e t e m p l e s e e m s s c c u r c , f o r t h i s d i v i n e n a m e a l r e a d y a p p e a r s on a G r e e k inseription from this building d a t i n g t o the Seleucid y e a r 3 4 5 (AD 32/33). İ n t h e m i d d l e o f the s e c o n d c e n n ı r y , j u s t b e f o r e the final R o m a n a c q u i s i t i o n o f D u r a , the c u l t vvas stili being p r a c t i s e d , b u t t h e d e i t y h a d a c q u i r c d a G r e e k d i v i n e n a m e a s vvell:

1 4 . Dura ReportV is n o . 4 1 8 . 15. 4.1 above.

( 1 9 3 4 ) , uz,

n o . 4 1 6 , t r a n s . C . H o p k i n s . ITıc a c c o m p a n y i n g i n s e r i p t i o n

In the year 4 7 3 (AD I 6 1 / 1 6 2 ) , in the m o n t h Dios, B a r n a b o u s son o f Z a b i d konos the son o f R a e i b c l o s ereeted a room (oikos) in the (temple?) t o t h e goddess Artemis, called A z z a n a t h k o n a , by his o\vn expenditure, for t h e safety o f himself and his children. 1 * S p e c u l a t i o n on t h e e t y m o l o g y o f t h e n a m e ' A z z a n a t h k o n a ' is futile, a n d in any c a s e \vould n o t necessarily teli us h o w the deity \vas u n d c r s t o o d b y her local w o r s h i p p c r s in t h e first a n d s e c o n d c e n t u r i c s . I f t h e r e is a c l u c , it i s the relief s c u l p t u r e f r o m t h e t e m p l e shovving a h e a v i l y r o b e d g o d d e s s s e a t e d betvveen tvvo bulls, in a m a n n e r n o t u n l i k e the A t a r g a t i s o f H i e r a p o l i s . B u t , u n l i k e A p h l a d , the deity on t h i s relief is n o t e x p l i c i d y l a b c l l c d . 1 7 T h e t e m p l e a r e h i t e e t u r e , t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f deities, t h e n a m e s o f deities a n d the S e m i t i c - G r e e k n o m e n c l a t u r e o f the p o p u l a t i o n o f b o t h t h e city and the villages vvhich stretehed u p a n d dovvn the E u p h r a t e s o n either side o f it ali i n d i c a t e hovv a G r c e k - s p c a k i n g M a c c d o n i a n colony, o r i g i n a l l y s c t t l c d m o r e t h a n f o u r a n d a h a l f c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e the final R o m a n c o n q u e s t , c o u l d g i v e e x p r e s s i o n t o the c u l t u r e o f its local e n v i r o n m e n t . S o far a s vve c a n d e t e r m i n c , t h e c u l t u r e o f D u r a i n t h e P a r t h i a n period is best s c c n a s t h a t o f the focal p o i n t of-a settled z o n e a l o n g t h e E u p h r a t e s . There m u s t a l s o h a v e been c o n t a c t s vvith t h e nomades

o f t h e s t e p p e , against vvhom the

Palmyrenes

f o u g h t t o p r o t e c t their c a r a v a n s ; b u t the o n l y c o t ı c r c t e t r a c c o f these is a s m a l l s e a t t e r o f ' S a f a i t i c ' graffiti. 1 8 W h a t is c l e a r t h r o u g h o u t is t h a t t h e p u b l i c c h a r a c t e r o f t h e c i t y c o n t i n u e d t o b e d e t e r m i n e d b y its o r i g i n s as a M a c e d o n i a n c o l o n y . T h e religious i c o n o g r a p h y o f b o t h ' P a r t h i a n ' a n d ' R o m a n ' D u r a shovvcd indeed very c l e a r r e s e m b l a n c e s t o t h a t o f H a t r a , in t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n s t e p p e 2 0 0 k m t o t h e n o r t h e a s t , a n d o f P a l m y r a . B u t t h e r e vvas t o b e n o parallel vvhatsoever t o t h e l o n g series o f A r a m a i c i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m s c c o n d - c e n t u r y H a t r a , 1 9 o r e v e n t o the p u b l i c bilingualism o f P a l m y r a , vvhich p e r s i s t e d even a f t e r it b e c a m e a R o m a n colonia.20

N o r d o vve find a n y parallel t o the S y r i a c e p i t a p h s o f E d e s s a a n d its

r e g i o n , t h o u g h it t o o h a d , a s vve h a v e seen, a H e l l e n i s t i c n a m e (or r a t h e r rwo a l t c r n a r i v c H c l l e n i s t i c n a m e s ) . B u t the g c o g r a p h i c a l s p r e a d o f t h e v v r i t i ı ı g o f S y r i a c a n d its r e l e v a n c e t o t h e c u l t u r e o f D u r a is a t o p i c vvhich h a s y e t t o b e discussed.

1 6 . Dura Report

W, 1 7 7 , n o . 5 0 4 ( i n s e r i p t i o n o f AD 3 2 / 3 3 ) ; 1 4 2 , n o . 4 5 3 (AD 1 6 1 / 1 6 2 } .

1 7 . Dura

V, 1 7 2 - 1 7 6 , a n d Pl. X I V , f o r the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f A t a r g a t i s o f H i e r a p c l i s ,

Report

7.2 above. 1 8 . F o r S a f a i t i c i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m D u r a see Dura 19.

See

H.

J.

W.

Drijvers,

"Hatra,

Report

Palmyra

und

II, 1 7 2 - 1 7 7 . Edessa:

Die

Stâdte

der

syriich-

m e s o p o t a m i s e h e n W û s t e i n politiseher, k u l t u r g e s c h ı c h t l i c h e r und r e l i o n s g e s c h i c h t l i c h c r B c d e u t u n g " , A N R W I I . 8 ( 1 9 7 7 ) , 7 9 9 ; V. V a n i o n i , l.e iserizioni 20. 9 . 4 above.

di Hatra

(1981).

S i n c e , as vvill b e s e e n , t h e r e a r c S c m i t i c - l a n g u a g c d o c u m e n t s o f v a r i o u s t y p c s f r o m R o m a n D u r a , it is i m p o r t a n t t o stress t h a t , the fevv S a f a i t i c g r a f f i t i a p a r t , the

only

c o m m o n S e m i t i c - l a n g u a g c i n s e r i p t i o n s o r graffiti f r o m P a r -

t h i a n D u r a a r c P a l m y r e n e o n e s , b e g i n n i n g vvith t h a t o f 3 4 / 3 3 BC, a n d in f a c t c o n t i n u i n g into t h c R o m a n p e r i o d . A particularly notable g r o u p o f three P a l m y r e n e i n s e r i p t i o n s b e l o n g s t o t h c latest p e r i o d o f P a r t h i a n D u r a , v v h e n — in a c o n t e x t vvhich is n o t e n t i r e l y c l e a r — P a l m y r e n e a r c h e r s vvere s t a t i o n e d in t h c city. 2 1 T h e s e i n s e r i p t i o n s s e r v e t o i d e n t i f y t h e t h r e e figures r e p r e s e n t e d o n a d e e p l y c a r v e d r e l i e f f r o m t h e ' T e m p l e o f t h c G a d d c ' . O n t h c vievver's left is the P a l m y r e n e d o n o r , l a b e l l e d ' i m a g e ( Ş I . M ) o f H a i r a n s o n o f M a l i k u s o n o f N ş o r ' , m a k i n g a n o f f e r i n g o n a s m a l l a l t a r . O n t h e right is a s t a n d i n g

figüre

in a r m o u r , h o l d i n g a s t a f f in his left h a n d , a n d p l a c i n g a crovvn o n the c e n t r a l figüre vvith his r i g h t . H e is d u l y identified a s t h e f o u n d e r o f D u r a , S e l e u c u s N i c a t o r ( S L W Q W S N Y Q T R ) . I n the c e n t r e is the b e a r d e d figüre, s e a t e d o n a thronc, o f thc Fortune (Tychc, o r Gad) o f Dura { G D ' D Y D W R ' ) , made by H a i r a n in t h e y e a r 4 7 0 (AD 1 5 8 / 1 5 9 ) . " A n i c o n o g r a p h i c style c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t in use a t P a l m y r a ( n o t t o s a y c x a m p l c s o f P a l m y r e n e a r t as s u c h ) vvas t h u s a v a i l a b l e at D u r a . B u t if a c o m p a r a b l c local d i a l e c t o f A r a m a i c vvas in u s e , it vvas n o t d e p l o y e d in p u b l i c . N o r , e q u a l l y , vvas ' P a r t h i a n ' D u r a in a n y real s e n s e P a r t h i a n . T h e v i s i b l e I r a n i a n i n f l u e n c c s a r c m i n i m a l , a n d the P a r t h i a n d y n a s t y e x p r e s s e d i t s e l f t h e r e a s a l a t e - H e l l e n i s t i c k i n g d o m . N o n e t h c l e s s , as w c h a v e s c c n , t h c d o m i n a n c e o f t h e P a r t h i a n E m p i r e vvas c l e a r l y e x p r e s s e d t h e r e . S o e v e n if, a s it s e e m s , a f t e r t h c R o m a n c o n q u c s t t h e ' R o m a n ' g a r r i s o n c o n t i n u e d a t first t o bc a P a l m y r e n e o n e , the f a c t o f i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o a nevv, m u c h vvider a n d q u i t c d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l s t r u e t u r e m u s t h a v e b e e n as e v i d e n t in daily life in D u r a a s it h a d b c c n in A r a b i a . B u t t h a t r e c o g n i t i o n c o u l d be c o m b i n e d vvith a r e a s s e r t i o n o f the i d e n t i t y o f D u r a a s a H e l l e n i s t i c f o u n d a t i o n , a s is a p p a r e n t in a G r e e k deed o f s a l e b e l o n g i n g t o the s p r i t ı g o f AD 1 8 0 : In the c o n s u l s h i p of Bruttius Praesens for the s e c o n d time and o f Julius V e r u s for the s e c o n d time, in t h e tvventieth year of t h e p r i n c i p a t c of Imper a t o r C a e s a r M a r c u s Aurelius A n t o n i n u s and the fourrh o f his son Impcrat o r C a e s a r L u c i u s Aurelius C o m m o d o s , Augusti, and 4 9 1 o f the former reekoning (the Seleucid era), o n the fourth of the m o n t h Peritius, in E u r o p o s tovvard Arabia. In t h c y e a r vvhen Lysanias, son of Z c n o d o t u s and grandson o f H c l i o d o r u s , vvas priest o f Z e u s ; T h e o d o r u s , son o f A t h c n o d o tus and grandson o f A r t e m i d o r u s , vvas priest o f A p o l l o ; H e l i o d o r u s , son 2 1 . 3.3 a b o v c . i i . Dura

Repurt

V I I - V I I I , 2 5 8 - 2 6 0 and Pl. X X X I I I (thc rclicf); 2 7 7 , no. 9 0 7 (ihc inserip-

tions). O t h e r related relicfs and inseriptions a c c o m p a n y this one. See du M e s n i l du Inventaire,

nos. 28-32.

Buisson,

o f Dioclcs and grandson o f Heliodorus, vvas priest o f the Ancestors; a n d Danyraus, son o f Seleucus and grandson o f Danymus, vvas priest o f King Seleucus Nicator. 'Ilıere h a s been sold by Lysias, son o f Lysias, g r a n d s o n o f Heliodorus the great-grandson o f Aristonicus, a citizen o f E u r o p o s b u t resident in the village o f N a b a g a t h o f the hyparchy around G a b a l e i n , his slave named Achabus, a b o u t tvventy years old, a n d thcrc has been s o l d similarly the half-share belonging t o him o f the vineyard vvhich is in t h e 'epiphyteutic' lands a r o u n d the same N a b a g a t h . .

P

W c c a n n o t in f a c t be c e r t a i n vvhether these cit)' cults r e p r e s e n t e l e m e n t s o f c o n t i n u i t y vvhich h a p p e n n o t ali t o be a t t e s t e d in P a r t h i a n D u r a , o r vvhether R o m a n rule vvas a c c o m p a n i e d by t h e i n s t i t u t i o n , o r r c - i n s t i t u t i o n , o f pricsth o o d s serving t o r e c a l l t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p a s t . B u t o t h e r f o r m s o f c o n t i n u i t y arc very c v i d e n t . It is a l s o s t r i k i n g t h a t a citizen o f E u r o p o s ( ' E u r ö p a i o s ' ) c o u l d b e resident in a village (kömö)

vvhich vvas s o d i s t a n t . F o r Isidorus telis us

vvhere N a b a g a t h vvas: it vvas a ' v i l l a g e - c i t y ' (körnopolis)

n e a r P ( h ) a i i g a , but

a p p a r e n t l y on the left b a n k o f t h e E u p h r a t e s , f o r ' t h e river A b o u r a s ( C h a b u r ) flovvs p a s t i t , vvhich j o i ı ı s t h e E u p h r a t e s ' . It vvill thus h a v e been s o m e 6 0 k m f r o m D u r a ; vve e n c o u n t e r e d c a r l i e r a n o t h e r d c c d o f sale f r o m D u r a vvhich reveals vineyards a n d o r c h a r d s beside the C h a b u r . 2 4 B u t b e f o r e vve l o o k m e r e c l o s e l y a t t h e ncvvly ' R o m a n ' a r e a o f t h e E u p h r a t e s , t h e C h a b u r a n d n o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a created by t h e absorption of C o m m a g e n e by Vespasian

and

then b y the c o n q u e s t s o f S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s , vve need t o l o o k a t o t h e r a s p c c t s o f its history b e f o r e it vvas a b s o r b e d by R o m e .

12.3. T H E M İ D D L E EUPHRATES A N D COMING

OF

THE

ROME

In s o m e p a r t s o f the E u p h r a t e s r e g i o n , s u c h as C o m m a g e n e , n o t h i n g

ap-

p r o a c h i n g a n ansvver t o q u e s t i o n s a b o u t local c u l t u r e is p o s s i b l e . It is true t h a t t h e very distinctive e v i d e n e e p r e s e n t e d by the l o n g G r e e k i n s e r i p t i o n s , a n d b y the s c u l p t u r e s a n d reliefs o f t h e royal d y n a s t i c c u l t , c o n s c i o u s l y identifies t h e d y n a s t y as e m b o d y i n g b o t h G r e e k a n d P e r s i a n t r a d i t i o n s . 1 B u t this m a t e r i a l is e x c l u s i v e l y r o y a l , aııd in any c a s e n o n e o f it p o s t d a t e s t h e t h i r d q u a r t c r o f the first c e n t u r y BC. T h e sole i n d i c a t i o n vve h a v e t h a t t h e d y n a s t y o f the first c e n t u r y A D h a d a n y r o o t s in p o p u l a r l o y a l t y is J o s e p h u s ' r e p o r t t h a t in AD 1 7 , vvhen A n t i o c h u s III died, the 'povverful' vvanted t h e k i n g d o m t o be m a d e p r o v i n c i a l , b u t t h e m a s s o f p e o p l e preferred ' t o b e ruled by k i n g s a c c o r d i n g t o their ancestral c u s t o m * . Y e t vvhen R o m a n f o r c e s m a r e h e d in in 2 3 . P. Dura,

no. 25.

2 4 . P. Dura,

n o . 2 6 (AD 2 2 7 ) ; 4 . 1 a b o v e .

1. See t h e m a j ö r paper by Wagtıcr, 1 2 . 2 , n . 1 2 , a b o v e .

t h e e a r l y 70S, t h o u g h t h e r o y a l a r m y resisted q u i t e effecdvely, the p o p u l a t i o n r e m a i n e d passive. 2 S i n c c w c have h a r d l y any l o c a l e v i d e n c e f r o m either b e f o r e o r a f t e r t h e R o m a n a c q u i s i t i o n o f C o m m a g e n e , a fortiori

w c h a v e n o w a y o f assessing

w h a t the c h a n g e f r o m royal t o i m p e r i a l rule will h a v e m e a n t . M o r e o v e r , t h e o n e p l a c e in t h e i n t e r i o r o f C o m m a g e n e f r o m w h i c h w e d o h a v e s o m e very distinetive local e v i d e n c e , D o l i c h e , on t h e s o u t h e r n edge o f the r e g i o n , s e e m s t o have been i n c o r p o r a t e d into t h e p r o v i n c c o f Syria by the m i d d l e o f the first c e n t u r y ; p e r h a p s indeed a l r e a d y f r o m 3 1 BC, a t the s a m e t i m e a s Z e u g m a , vvhich lies s o m e 4 0 km t o its c a s t - s o u t h - e a s t . 3 U n d e r A n t i o c h u s I {circa 6 9 - 3 6 BC), it h a d c c r t a i n l y b e l o n g e d t o t h e k i n g d o m , as a f r a g m e n t a r y i n s c r i p u o n o f his c u l t - r e g u l a t i o n s shovvs. 4 Elscvvhere, a p a r t f r o m the g r e a t m o n u m e n t s a n d i n s e r i p t i o n s o f t h e r o y a l a n c c s t r a l c u l t , t h e a r c h a c o l o g i c a l a n d e p i g r a p h i c r e c o r d o f C o m m a g e n e is a l m o s t a b l a n k . P e r h a p s o u r s o l e significant refleetion o f t h e s o c i a l history o f this period is a nevvly published G r e e k t o m b - i n s e r i p t i o n from the h e a r t o f t h e k i n g d o m , a village novv c a l l c d S o f r a z K o y , s o m e 45 k m vvcst-north-vvcst o f S a m o s a t a . 5 T h e builder o f the t o m b , a m a n vvith a I.atin n a m e , ' M a r k e l l o s ' " , r e c o r d s seven g e n e r a t i o n s o f h i s f a m i l y : his g r e a t - g r e a t - g r a n d f a t h e r

Anti-

o c h o s ; his g r e a t - g r a n d f a t h e r M ı t h r i d a t e s , a royal official (monokritös),

and

his vvife I . a o d i k e ; his g r a n d f a t h e r , a p p a r e n t l y c a l l e d T a k i t o s ( T a c i t u s ) , a n d t h e latter's vvife A p s e b i s , the d a u g h t e r o f A n t a s ; his f a t h e r S a k e r d ö s , a n d his vvife, a n o t h e r LaodikĞ; then his ovvn g e n e r a t i o n , includiııg his sisters L a o d i k e a n d A p s e b i s , a n d his vvife M a r k c l l e ; his ovvn s o n , a n o t h e r ' S a k e r d ö s ' , a n d h i s gran d daughter, a n o t h e r ' M a r k e l l e ' . T h e g e n e a l o g y s e e m s t o c o v e r r o u g h l y t h e period f r o m the earlier first c e n t u r y BC t o the later first c e n t u r y A D — t h o u g h vvhether t h e inseription itself b e l o n g s b e f o r e o r a f t e r t h e c o n q u c s t is u n c c r t a i n . O n a n y d a t i n g it d e m o n s t r a t e s a r e m a r k a b l e c o m b i n a t i o n o f typical H e l l e n i s tie d y n a s t i c n a m e s vvith a n e a r l y i n t r o d u e t i o n o f L a t i n p e r s o n a l n a m e s . It m a y n o t bc m e r c s p e c u l a t i o n t o s c c t h i s in r e l a t i o n t o t h e p r e p a r e d n e s s o f the 'povverfuP in AD 1 7 t o a c c e p t p r o v i n c i a l r u l e . T h a t a p a r t , vve h a v e o n l y t h e m o s t slight a n d superficial i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e c o m m u ı ı a l s t r u e t u r e s vvhich m a r k e d the provincial period. U n d e r t h e F l a v i a n s — a n d p r o b a b l y under V e s p a s i a n h i m s e l f — S a m o s a t a , the royal c a p i t a l , b e c a m e 'Flavia S a m o s a t a ' , a n d f r o m H a d r i a n ' s rcign onvvards issued c o i n s inseribed ' o f t h e Flavian S a m o s a t e a n s , m e t r o p o l i s o f C o m m a g e n e ' . 6 N o o t h e r 1 . J o s e p h u s , Ant.

XVIII, i,

5

(53J; B / V I I , 7 , T - J

(219-243).

3. 7 . 2 3 b o v c . 4 . S c c J. W a g n e r , " N e u c D c t ı k m â l c r a u s D o l i c h c " , Bonn.

Jahrb.

82 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 3, on p p .

ı6ıff.

5. G . S c h m i t z , S . Ş a h i n a n d J . W a g n « r , " E i n G r a b a i t a r m i t c i n c r g e n c a l o g i s c h c n I n s c h r i l t a u s K o m m a g c n e " , Efıig. 6. BMC

Syria,

Anat.

1 1 (1988), 8 1 .

1x7-123.

c i t y f r o m vvithin t h e fitıal b o r d e r s o f t h e k i n g d o m d i d s o . It is thus n o t c e r t a i n vvhich ( a p a r t from S a m o s a t a ) vvere the ' f o u r cıvitates

o f C o m m a g e n e ' vvhich

h o n o u r c d Septimius S c v c r u s on a L a t i n i n s e r i p t i o n put up on t h e c o i u m n s e r e e t e d on t h e stili p e r f e c t l y p r e s e r v e d R o m a n bridge ö v e r the river C h a b i n a s . v T h i s rich a n d beautiful r e g i o n o c c u p i e s the angle betvveen the E u p h r a t e s a n d t h e T a u r u s M o u n t a i n s , vvhere the t u m u l u s o n t h e s u m m i t o f N c m r u d D a g is c l e a r l y visible on t h e h o r i z o n f r o m S a m o s a t a . W h e t h e r t h e p o p u l a t i o n as a vvhole regretted the r o y a l d y n a s t y , vve c a n n o t knovv. B u t since the g r e a t m o n u m e n t s o n N e m r u d D a g a n d elsevvhere a r e stili t o b e s c e n today, t h e y m u s t h a v e been f c a t u r c s o f the l a n d s c a p c then t o o . E q u a l l y , t h o u g h w c h a v e hardly a t r a c e here o f t h e e p i g r a p h i c , d o c u m e n t a r y o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e for village life vvhich is s o a b u n d a n t in o t h e r a r e a s , this t o o m u s t h a v e b e e n a vvorld o f villages; if a n y t h i n g , they s h o u l d h a v e been m o r e p r o s p c r o u s t h a n elsevvhere. P e r h a p s o u r sole e p i g r a p h i c t r a c e o f s u c h a village c o m m u n i t y is t h e f r a g m e ı ı t a r y T e t r a r c h i c i n s e r i p t i o n r e c o r d i n g t h e b o u n d a r y betvveen a village, o r v i l l a g e - c o m m u n i t y , c a l l e d A r d o u l a o r A r d o u l o i a n d s o m e o t h e r c o m m u n i t y vvhose n a m e c a n n o t b c r c a d . 8 B u t betvveen them these rvvo f a c t s — t h e stili visible r e m i n d e r s o f a r o y a l dynasty, a n d the u n q u e s t i o ı ı a b l e e x i s t e n c c o f a large village p o p u l a t i o n — c o m b i n e vvith a third t o r a i s c real q u c s t i o n s a b o u t the c u l t u r e o f this r e g i o n a s part o f the R o m a n E m p i r e . T h e third f a c t is s i m p l y t h a t the vvhole a r e a l o o k e d directly a e r o s s the E u p h r a t e s t o O s r h o e n e . It vvas p e r h a p s less signific a n t ( e x c e p t t o t h e final R o m a n suspicioııs o f A n t i o c h u s IV) t h a t O s r h o c n e vvas p a r t o f the P a r t h i a n E m p i r e until the r 6 o s , a s t h a t b e f o r e a n d a f t e r that date it vvas the b i r t h p l a c e o f the S y r i a c l a n g u a g e , seript a n d l i t e r a t ü r e . T h a t b e i n g s o , can it h a v e been t h e c a s e t h a t s o m e dialect o f A r a m a i c vvas n o t s p o k e n a l s o in C o m m a g e n e ? T h e questiotı presents itself vvith p a r t i c u l a r urgeney, o f c o u r s e , b e c a u s e o f vvhat is said o f himself a n d h i s b a c k g r o u n d b y L u c i a n ( L o u k i a n o s ) o f S a m o s a t a . 9 As vve have s e e n , he i n t r o d u c c s h i s f a m o u s a c c o u n t — a p a r o d y o f Her o d o t u s — o f the ' S y r i a n G o d d e s s ' a t H i e r a p o l i s b o t h b y identifying h e r as ' t h e A s s y r i a n H e r a ' a n d b y s a y i n g o f h i m s e l f , ' I vvrite being an A s s y r i a n ' . ' 9 Elsevvhere, vvriting o f h i m s e l f in the third p e r s o n , he deseribes h i m s e l f a s 4 still b a r b a r o u s in s p c c c h a n d a l m o s t vvcaring a j a c k c t (katıdys)

in t h e A s s y r i a n

stylc'. i l e m i g h t a t t h e s a m e poiııt h a v e vvritten ' S y r i a n ' — a n d indeed d o e s so in the s a m e d i a l o g u e , a n d elsevvhere; t h e o n e term vvas simply a m o r e a f f e c t e d

7 . IGISI, 8. IGLS

n o s . 42—44. I, n o . 59. F r o m A t y ı ı t a s - q a l e , s o m e 4 0 k m n o r t h - v v e s t o f tlıe c o n f l u e n c e o f t h e river

M a r s y a s a n d t h e E u p h r a t e s . S e e A p p . A , n o . r , belovv. 9 . F o r t h e best a c c o u n t s c c C . P. J o n c s , Culture 1 0 . L u c i a n , de dea Syr. 1 . C f . 7 . 2 . a b o v e .

and Sodety

in Lucian

(1986).

v e r s i o n o f rhe o t h e r . " N o n e o f t h e s e brief a l l u s i o n s \vould give us a n y idea o f e x a c t l y vvhere he c a m e f r o m . O n e o t h e r r e m a r k t a k e s us further, w h e n he c a l l s h i m s e l f ' a S y r i a n , o n c o f t h o s e f r o m t h c b a n k s o f t h e E u p h r a t e s ' . , 2 B u t it is o n l y in o n e single p l a c e that h e n a m e s h i s native city. T h e c o n t e x t is signific a n t , f o r it is his satirical a c c o u n t , entitled How

to \Vrite History,

of the ab-

surdly i n a c c u r a t c a n d ovcrblo\vn \vorks vvritten t o r e c o r d a n d c e l e b r a t e t h e P a r t h i a n vvar f o u g h t b y I.ucius V e r u s in ı6z—166."

S o m c o f these vvriters h a d

n o t t h e r e m o t e s t n o t i o n o f the g e o g r a p h y o f the a r e a : O n e man, for example, vvho bad never m e t a Syrian nor even heard as they say 'barber-shop gossip' about s u c h things, assembled his facts so carelessly that vvhen speaking of Europus hc said: 'Europus is situated in M e s o p o t a m i a , tvvo d a y s ' j o u r n e y from the Euphrates; it vvas colonised by men o f Edessa'. Even this vvas not enough for him: my ovvn birthplace, S a m o s a t a , this fine vvriter in t h c same b o o k lifted, aeropolis, vvalls and ali, a n d rransplanred to M e s o p o t a m i a , so as t o surround it by both

rivers,

vvhich passed elose t o it on either side and almost touched the vvalls. 14 T h e a e r o p o l i s (in fact a n a n c i e n t teli) a n d vvalls o f S a m o s a t a a r e visible s t i l i , o r vvill b e until t h e E u p h r a t e s d a m drovvns t h e m forever. T h i s is n o t q u i t e L u c i a n ' s o n l y allusioıı t o his c i t y ; b u t his essay ' P r a i s e o f O n e ' s P a t r i s ' is vvholly g e n e r a l , a n d might h a v e r e l â t e d t o a n y city. \Ve c a n n o t in f a c t e x p e c t t h a t a s o p h i s t i c a t e d G r e e k vvriter o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD vvould ever offer us an a n a l y s i s o f t h e l o c a l c u l t u r e o f his h o m e r c g i o n . F o r p r c c i s e l y the n a t u r e ( a n d , in a sense, t h c p u r p o s e ) o f t h c G r c c k c u l t u r c o f this period vvas t h a t it w a s n o t regional; the style, v o c a b u l a r y , literary f o r m s a n d c o n v e n t i o n s o f a l l u s i o n ( t o t h e c o m m o n s t o c k o f m y t h o l o g y , t o A r c h a i c a n d C l a s s i c a l l i t e r a t ü r e a n d t o C l a s s i c a l history) vvhich defined i t m a d e it a c o m m o n , s u p r a - r c g i o n a l c u l t u r c . T h c r e a d e r o f t h c vast m a j o r i t y o f L u c i a n ' s vvorks vvould b e vvholly u n a b l e t o teli f r o m vvhat p a r t o f the G r e e k vvorld he c a m e . E v e n in On the Syrian Goddess,

vvhere hc begins b y c l a i m i n g t o b e ' A s s y r -

i a n ' like t h c g o d d e s s herself, he a c t u a l l y a d o p t s the literary s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e b e m u s e d stranger, vvitnessing a n e x o t i c c u l t f r o m the o u t s i d e . It is thus o n l y vvhen l o c a l knovvledge b e c o m e s r e l e v a n t t o R o m a n c a m p a i g n s t h a t h c m a k e s a specific p o i n t o f his o r i g i n in S a m o s a t a . T h c other, o b l i q u c , a l l u s i o n s t o h i s being a ' S y r i a n ' o r a n ' A s s y r i a n ' c o n t a i n b y i m p l i c a t i o n a c o n c e a l e d a p o l o g i a . F o r they stress t h e d i s t a n c e , literal a n d 11. 12. 13. 14.

figurative,

Bisaccus. 27 ('Assyrian'); 14; 25-34; lıd. 19. Pise. 19: Itipoç . . . «öv 'EıiF.utıpnuSıcov. Cf. 3.4 ahovc. Ilist. 24, Locb trans.

vvhich he h a d n e e d e d t o

travel in a t t a i n i n g the paideia

vvhich m a d e h i m an a c c o m p l i s h c d vvritcr.

T h e u n f o r t u n a t c c f f c c t o f these allusive a n d dcfcnsive r c f c r e n c e s , a s reg a r d s o u r knovvicdge o f his b a c k g r o u n d , is t h a t vvc c a n n o t teli, e i t h e r f r o m r e m a r k s a b o u t being ' A s s y r i a n ' o r ' S y r i a n ' o r f r o m t h e o n e r e f l e c t i o n o f his h a v i n g been ' b a r b a r o u s in s p e e c h ' , vvhether he is r c f e r r i n g t o a stili u n p o l i s h e d s t y l c o f G r e e k o r t o h i s h a v i n g , in y o u t h , s p o k e n a d i a l c c t o f A r a m a i c . A t c r a c tive as it m i g h t be t o think o f the G r e e k o f the m o s t a c c o m p l i s h e d o f s e c o n d ceııtury vvriters as a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e , l a b o r i o u s l y a c q u i r e d , the first possibility is m o r e likely. W c stili d o n o t ktıoıu

vvhether L u c i a n , o r a n y o n c else in S a m o -

s a t a , o r in C o m m a g e n e g e n e r a l l y , s p o k e a d i a l c c t o f A r a m a i c . T h a t possibility m u s t , hovvever, r e m a i n o p e n , f o r even vvithout the d o c u m e n t a r y evidenee novv a v a i l a b l e vve c o u l d be sure t h a t s o m e S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e , a n d perhaps m o r e t h a n o n e , vvas s p o k e n on t h e o t h e r side o f the E u p h r a t e s . A s vve savv earlier, S t r a b o , in p a r t d e p e n d i n g o n P o s i d o n i u s , s p e a k s o f the affinity o f c u s t o m s a n d l a n g u a g e betvveen the ' A r m e n i o i ' , ' S y r i a n s ' (or 'Arim a i o i ' o r ' A r a m m a i o i ' ) a n d ' A r a b e s ' , a n d n o t e s t h a t it vvas in M e s o p o t a m i a t h a t t h e y lived in t h e e l o s e s t c o n j u n c t i o n . , s Pliny t h e Eldcr a l s o gives a c l e a r i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e a r c a , e m p h a s i s i n g b o t h its ' A r a b ' c h a r a c t e r a n d the p r e s e n c e in it o f cities vvith G r e e k n a m e s . T h e E u p h r a t e s , he s a y s , o n c e it h a s b r o k e n t h r o u g h the T a u r u s , f o r m s t h e b o u n d a r y betvveen C o m m a g e n e o n t h e right b a n k a n d ' A r a b i a ' on the l e f t , n a m e l y the district called ' t h a t o f t h e O r r o e i ' ( t r a n s l i t e r a t i n g a G r e e k genitive plural vvhich c o m e s e l o s e t o the S y r i a c n a m e o f E d e s s a , O r h a i — ' W R H Y ) . H e then c o n t i n u e s : T h e ' A r a b i a ' mentioned a b o v e contains the oppida

Edessa, vvhich vvas

o n c e said to be 'Anriochia', called ' C a l l i f h o e ' feom its spring, (and) C a r rhac, famous for the disaster o f Crassus. N c x t comes the praefcctura

of

M e s o p o t a m i a vvhich ovves its origin t o the 'Assyrii', in vvhich are the oppida Anthemusia a n d N i c e p h o r i u m . T h e n the 'Arabes' vvho are called 'Practavi'; their capital is S i n g a r a . " A s vvill be seen, Pliny here c o v e r s s o m e o f t h e s a m e g r o u n d a s Isidorus, t h o u g h n o t in t h e m o r e precise f o r m o f a n i t i n e r a r y vvith d i s t a n c e s , o r vvith a n y avvareness o f the rivers, the E u p h r a t e s a p a r t . W e vvould gaili f r o m h i m a clear, a n d f o r vvhat follovvs q u i t e s i g n i f i c a n t , i m p r e s s i o n o f the variety n o t o n l y o f p e o p l e s but o f p o l i t i e a l units (ali, t h o u g h he d o e s n o t say s o , u n d e r P a r t h i a n suzerainty). W e vvould n o t , hovvever, gain a n y i m p r e s s i o n t h a t a t E d e s s a , in the ' A r a b i a ' o f the ' O r r o e i ' , t h e r e vvas a stable d y n a s t y o f ' p h y l a r c h s ' o r ki ngs, o f t e n vvith the n a m e ' A b g a r ( o s ) ' o r ' M a n n o s ' , vvhom l a t e r S y r i a c s o u r c e s re15. C h . x above. 16. P l i n y , NH

V 20/8s; ı r / 8 6 .

c o r d , a n d w h o a p p e a r f r o m t i m e t o t i m e in G r a e c o - R o m a n n a r r a t i v e s o f t h e confiicts betvveen R o m e a n d P a r t h i a . 1 7 But n o n e o f these n a r r a t i v e s givcs a n y c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n o f hovv far t h e t e r r i t o r y o f these k i n g s e x t e n d e d . l'liny's i m pression o f a n u m b e r o f s e p a r a t e t e r r i t o r i e s s e e m s indeed t o b c c o r r e c t . F o r vvhen T r a j a n a d v a n c e d i n t o M e s o p o t a m i a , C a s s i u s D i o r e p o r t s t h a t he c n countered not only

4Augaros'

{earlier called the ' O r r o e n o s ' ) at Edessa, b u t

a l s o e n v o y s f r o m ' M a n n o s , t h e ruler o f the n e i g h b o u r i n g part o f A r a b i a * ; n o n e , hovvever, vvere s e n t b y S p o r a k e s , t h e phylarchos

of Arıthemousia.18

T h i s is n o need t o go in v a i n pursuit o f the q u e s t i o n o f e x a c t l y vvhat t h e s e v a r i o u s political regimes a m o u n t e d t o ; they vvill in a n y c a s e 110 d o u b t h a v e been fluid a n d c h a n g e a b l e . B u t i t is i m p o r t a n t t o stress t h a t vve h a v e 110 r e a s o t ı t o think t h a t the rule o f the k i n g s o f E d e s s a , the place vvith w h i c h t h e birth o f S y r i a c literatüre is m o s t closely a s s o c i a t e d , e x t e n d e d ö v e r ali o f north-vvestern M e s o p o t a m i a , o r t o the entire left b a n k o f the E u p h r a t e s betvveen Z e u g m a a n d the m o u t h o f the B a l i k h . T h i s u n c c r t a i n t y h a s t o bc b o r n c in m i n d vvhen vve l o o k a t the tiny s c a t t e r o f e v i d e n c e vvhich attests the use o f t h e S y r i a c l a n g u a g e a n d s e r i p t in the first c e n t u r y AD. T h e earliest knovvn t e x t , b y a c o n s i d c r a b l c m a r g i n , is a n inseription f r o m a very significant l o c a t i o n , the m o d e r n B i r e c i k on the left b a n k o f t h e E u p h r a tes, lying a fevv k i l o m e t r e s s o u t h o f Z e u g m a , a n d vvhere the m o d e r n r o a d t o U r f a (Edessa) e r o s s e s the river. It is defincd a s ' S y r i a c ' b y its use o f t h e r o u n d c d s e m i - c u r s i v e seript knovvn a s

'Estrangela'

(from the Greek

'strongylos*,

' r o u n d e d ' ) , vvhich b e a r s s o m e r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e seript o f P a l m y r e n e inseript i o n s . 1 9 (As vve vvill see, t h e s e tvvo seripts vvere t o m e e t a t D u r a . ) E s t r a n g e l a vvas the s e r i p t in vvhich ali the e a r l i e r S y r i a c m a n u s e r i p t s vvere t o b c vvritten, f r o m t h e earliest knovvn literary m a n u s e r i p t , c o p i e d at E d e s s a in AD 4 1 r , u n t i l the ciglıth c c n t u r y . A f t e r t h a t it vvas g r a d u a l l y r e p l a c c d a s the m o s t c o m m o n seript b y t h a t called ' S e r t a ' , m o r e cursive a n d c l o s c r t o A r a b i c . 2 0 It is somevvhat typical o f the m a n y b a r r i e r s vvhich present t h e m s e l v e s in a n y a t t e m p t t o g r a s p t h e e v i d e n c e for the earlier s t a g e s o f S y r i a c c u l t u r e t h a t t h e Standard editiosı o f the first S y r i a c p a r e h m e n t o f t h e third c c n t u r y t o b c p u b l i s h e d — i t s e l f vvritt e n in a cursive s e r i p t vvhich m o r e c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e s E s t r a n g e l a — p r e s e n t s t h e t e x t in Serta, thus obscuriııg t h e f a c t t h a t tlıere is s o m e r e l a t i o n s h i p betvveen its seript a n d t h a t o f c o n t e m p o r a r y S y r i a c (and P a l m y r e n e ) m o n u m e n t a l i n 1 7 . F o r e x a m p l e , P l u t a r c h , Crassus

2 1 - 2 2 (öû>xjpyoç 'Apâ{kı>v, ' A p ı â y v r » ; Övojıa), a p p a r c n t l y

t h e s a m e a s t h e A v y a p o ı ; ö ' O p p o t ı v o ; o f D i o X L , 2 0 , 1 , t h e b e t r a y e r o f C r a s s u s i n 53 BC; T a c i t u s , AHH. X I I , 1 2 ( ' r e x q u c A r a b u m A c b a r u s * , AD 4 9 ) . 18. D i o L X V I I I , 18 ( A u g a r o s the • O r r o e n o s ' ) ; 2 1 , 1 - 2 2 , x. 1 9 . S c c J. P i r c n n c , " A u x o r i g i n e s d c la g r a p h i e s y r i a q u e " , Syria 4 0 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , ı o ı , vvith m u c h comparative material, and rather vvide-ranging speculations. 2 0 . S e e W . H . I'. H a t c h , An Albüm

of Dated

Syriac

Manuseripts

(1946).

s c r i p t i o n s . 2 1 In v i e w o f t h e a l l u s i v c n e s s a n d l a c k o f u p - t o - d a t e a i d s vvhich c h a r a c t e r i s e e a r l y S y r i a c s t u d i e s , a b a s i c g u i d e t o t h e m a t e r i a l a n d its b i b l i o g r a p h y is offered at t h e e n d o f this v o l u m c . 2 2 G i v e n its h i s t o r i c s i g n i f i c a n c e , a s t h e first e v i d e n c e f o r a s e r i p t , o r f a n i l y o f s e r i p t s , a n d l a n g u a g e vvhich p e r s i s t t o this d a y , t h e e a r l i e s t o f t h e k n o v v n Syriac inseriptions deserves translation: In t h e m o n t h o f A d a r o f t h e year 3 1 7 I , Z R B Y N B R ' B [ G R ? J , r u l e r o f Birtha ( S L Y T D B Y R T ' ) , t u t o r ( f o s t e r - f a t h e r ? ) o f ' W Y D N T [ B R ]

M

W

B R M * N W , m a d e this t o m b ( B Y T Q B W [ R ' | ) f o r m y s e l f aııd f o r H W Y \ mistress o f m y h o u s e , a n d f o r m y c h i l d r e n . . . e v e r y m a n ( K L ' N $ ) vvho vvill e n t e r . . . a n d s h a l l s e e a n d give p r a i s e . . . H S Y s c u l p t o r ( G I . P ' ) a n d SLW[K?1 ( S e l e u k o s ? ) . . The

inseription thus records that a t o m b

f o r h i m s e l f a n d his f a m i l y vvas

e r e e t e d in A D 6; a s a t P a l m y r a , in M e s o p o t a m i a d a t i n g b y t h e S c l e u c i d e r s o f a u t u m n 3 1 2 vvas S t a n d a r d . T h e p e r s o n c o n c e r n e d vvas a n i m p o r t a n t figüre

lccal

vvho i s in c o m m a n d o f B i r t h a ( l i t e r a l l y ' f o r t r e s s ' ) , t h a t i s , p r e s u m a b l y ,

o f t h e p l a c c o n t h e site o f B i r e c i k . T h o u g h h c h a s a l s o b e e n t u t o r ( M R B Y f S 1 ' ) o f s o m e o n e vvhose f a t h e r a n d g r a n d f a t h e r w e r c b o t h c a l l e d M a ' n u ( M a n n o s ) , a c o m m o n n a m e i n t h e r o y a l d y n a s t y o f E d e s s a , t h e r e i s 110 e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e to a n y c u r r e n t king. It r e m a i n s very p r o b a b l e , n o n e t h e l e s s , t h a t this is n o t a n i n d e p e n d e n t l o c a l ruler, b u t a n o f f i c i a l o f t h e k i n g d o m . W e savv e a r l i e r hovv in A D 4 9 , a c c o r d i n g to T a c i t u s , 'the k i n g o f the A r a b s , A c b a r u s ' , met the Part h i a n p r e t e n d e r M e h e r d a t e s at Z e u g m a a n d t o o k h i m t o e n j o y t h e d e l i g h t s o f Edessa,24 If, a s is n o t quite c e r t a i n , t h e earliest S y r i a c d o c u m e n t a l r e a d y reflects the political s t r u e t u r e o f t h e k i n g d o m o f Edessa, this is less c l e a r in the c a s e o f t h e n c x t i n t i m e , vvhich d a t e s t o t h e S e l c u c i d y e a r 3 8 5 , A D 7 3 / 7 4 . " T h i s c o r a e s f r o m a fine s t o n e - b u i l t t o v v e r - t o m b s i t u a t e d a t a p l a c c c a l l e d Ş e r r i n , a p p r o x i m a t e l y o p p o s i t e the a n c i e n t H i e r a p o l i s , o n the o t h e r side o f the E u p h r a t e s , 2 1 . P. Dura,

n o . 2 8 , a n d Pis. L X I X a n d L X X I . First e d i t e d ( a l s o in S e r t a ) b y C h . C . T o r r e y ,

" A S y r i a c P a r c h m c n t f r o m Edessa o f t h e Y e a r 2 4 3 " , Z e i t s e h r . f. Semilistik p r i n t e d in E s t r a n g e l a i n H . J. W . D r i j v c r s , Old-Syriac

(Edessean)

Inscriptions

1 0 ( 1 9 3 5 ) , 3 3 . It is (1972), 54—57

22. App. C. 2 3 . D r i j v c r s , Inscriptions,

n o . 1 ; t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m J. B . S e g a l , Edessa,

'the Blessed

Gty'

(1970), 23, n.3. A p h o t o g r a p h o f a s q u e e z e o f the texr in A . M a r i c q , " L a pius aucicnne inseript i o n s y r i a q u e ; C e l l e de B i r e c i k " , Syria

3 9 ( 1 9 6 ı } , 8 8 , Pl. III ( a n d o f t h a t f r o m S e t r i n , d i s c u s s c d

belovv, P l . I V ) . 2 4 . T a c i t u s , Ann.

X I I , 1 2 , 4; 2 . 3 a b o v e .

2 5 . D r i j v c r s , Inscriptions,

n o . 2 ; t r a n s l a t c d i n S e g a ) , Edessa,

t o m b in P i r c n n c , o p . cit., Syria 4 0 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 1 1 0 .

23, n.4. A p h o t o g r a p h o f t h e

and thus s o m e 7 0 k m t o the soııth o f Birecik. F r o m thc discussion above o f t h e v a r i o u s m i n ö r political s t r u c t u r e s a t t e s t e d in w e s t e r n M e s o p o t a m i a , t h i s a r e a is m o r e likely t h a n n o t t o h a v e b c c n o u t s i d c t h c k i n g d o m o f E d e s s a . B u t , a l t h o u g h E d e s s a is t h e p l a c e m o s t c l o s c l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h c e a r l y s t a g e s o f S y r i a c l i t e r a t ü r e , t h e r e is n o o b v i o u s o r ı ı e c e s s a r y c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e c n p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s (vvhich in a n y c a s e vvere ali t l ı o s c o f l o c a l d y ı ı a s t s u n d e r P a r t h i a n s u z e r a i n t y ) a n d t h e a r e a s vvhere p a r t i c u l a r d i a l c c t s o r s e r i p t s vvere i n u s e . T h e i n s e r i p t i o n is a g a i n o f a c o m m o n t y p e , r e c o r d i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a t o m b ( N P S ' ) b y s o m e o n e f o r h i m s e l f a ı ı d his s o n s , a n d c u r s i n g a n y o n e vvho d i s t u r b s it. T h i s m a n a l s o h a s a c h a r a c t c r i s t i c E d e s s a n n a m e , M a ' n u s o n o f M a ' n u , a n d is d e s e r i b e d as Q S Y S ' (priest?) a n d B D R D N H Y , vvhose m e a n i n g is u n k n o v v n . W h e n ali allovvances a r e m a d e f o r t h c a c c i d c n t s o f d i s c o v c r y (in a regiosı betvveen the E u p h r a t e s a n d the B a l i k h vvhich h a s b e e n v e r y little c x p l o r c d ) , i t is s u r e l y n o t e n t i r c l y a c c i d c n t a l t h a t t h e s e tvvo

first-century

Syriac inseriptions

b e l o n g vvithin t h e s a m e p e r i o d as t h c o t h e r e a r l i e r series o f i n s e r i p t i o n s in Semitic languages, from P a l m y r a a n d Petra, and happen to m a t e h almost cx> actly thc timc-sprcad of the dated N a b a t a e a n toınb-inscriptions of M e d a i n S a l e h . T h e y a r e , in o t h e r vvords, a f u n e t i o n o f b u i l d i n g activity, ali c o n d u c t e d in s u b - H e l l e n i s t i c style. B u t t h e f a c t t h a t S y r i a c h a d a f u t u r e as a l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e , vvhich P a l m y r e n e a n d N a b a t a e a n did n o t , c a n n o t b u t g i v e t h e s e tvvo i s o l a r e d i n s e r i p t i o n s s o m c c x t r a s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e y a l s o s e r v e , hovvever, t o r a i s e o t h e r q u e s t i o n s . W h e n did l i t e r a r y c o m p o s i t i o n in S y r i a c b e g i n , a n d vvas it in f a c t a s s o c i a t e d vvith E d e s s a in p a r t i c u l a r ? N e a r l y ali the e a r l i e r S y r i a c l i t e r a t ü r e , l i k e the c o i n s o f the E d e s s e n e k i n g s , and the v a s t m a j o r i t y o f t h e d a t e d i n s e r i p t i o n s , b e l o n g s t o t h c p e r i o d a f t e r E d e s s a h a d p a s s e d i n t o R o m a n d o m i n a t i o n in the ı 6 o s , a n d t h e n u n d e r d i r e c t p r o v i n c i a l rule in 1 1 2 / 2 1 3 . S i n c e it vvas a l s o in the ı 6 o s t h a t D u r a

became

' R o m a n ' , t h i s r e p r e s e n t s a d i f f e r e n t p h a s e in t h e h i s t o r y o f t h c r c g i o n , vvithin vvhich b o t h p l a c c s vvill b e t r e a t e d in p a r a l i e l . B u t d o vve h a v e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e l i t e r a t ü r e o r h i s t o r y o f t h c r c g i o n e a s t o f t h c E u p h r a t e s b e f o r e it c a m e u t ı d c r R o m e ? T h e q u e s t i o n h a s t o b e a p p r o a c h e d in tvvo q u i t e d i f f e r e n t vvays. F i r s t , a g a i n , is t h e r e a n y l i t e r a t ü r e vvhich itself derives f r o m t h i s a r e a in this p e r i o d ? A n d s c c o r t d , is a n y real c v i d c n c e a b o u t it t o be derived f r o m l a t e r n a r r a t i v e s , vvhether in S y r i a c o r in G r c c k ? T h e r e is n o knovvn l i t e r a t ü r e in G r e e k f r o m vvithin this r c g i o n b e f o r e t h c ı 6 o s , a n y m o r e t h a n t h e r e is f r o m P a l m y r a o r N a b a t a e a / A r a b i a . T h e r e m i g h t h a v e b e e n . I s i d o r u s o f C h a r a x , a s vve savv, c a m e f r o m a G r e e k c i t y in M e ş e n e o n t h e s h o r e s o f t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . G r e e k s c u l p t u r e vvas a l s o t o be s e e n t h e r e . A n a l r e a d y f a m o u s , nevvly p u b l i s h e d b i l i n g u a l i n s e r i p t i o n o f V o l o g a e s e s I V o f P a r t h i a , in G r e e k a n d P a r t h i a n , o n a s t a t u e o f H e r a k l e s r e c o r d s hovv h e

b r o u g h t this s t a t u e a s b o o t y w h e n h c r c c o n q u c r c d M e ş e n e in t h e m i d - s e e o u d c c n t u r y . 2 6 G r e e k w r i t i n g m i g h t we!I h a v e e m a n a t e d f r o m D u r a , N i k e p h o r i o n , A n t h e m o u s i a , C a r r h a e , N i s i b i s o r E d e s s a . i n d e e d , as w e s a w earlier, it has o f t e n been believed t h a t the m a j ö r Christian G r e e k vvriter o f the m i d - s c c o n d century, T a t i a n o s , a c t u a l l y c a m c f r o m vvithin t h e P a r t h i a n E m p i r e . B u t the evidenee is s i m p l y that a t t h e end o f his Address b o r n in t h e l a n d o f the Assyrioi,

h c deseribes

to the Greeks,

h i m s e l f as (novv) ' p h i i o s o p h i s i n g in the style o f barbaroi

( t h a t is, C h r i s t i a n s ) ,

b u t first e d u c a t c d in y o u r ( t h a t is, the p a g a n )

m a n n e r * . In reality he n o m o r e c a m e f r o m ' A s s y r i a ' ( A d i a b e n e o n t h e T i g r i s , o r B a b y l o n i a ? ) t h a n did that o t h e r ' A s s y r i a n ' vvith a L a t i n n a m e , L o u k i a n o s f r o m S a m o s a t a . T h e point is o f s o m e s i g n i f i c a n c c , f o r tvvo r c a s o n s . F i r s t , the h a r m o n y o f t h e F o u r G o s p e l s vvhich Tatian c o m p o s e d , the Diatessarotı,

was

m u c h used a n d c o m m e n t e d o n later, in a S y r i a c version, b y S y r i a c C h r i s t i a n vvriters; E p h r e m , b o r n in N i s i b i s in the e a r l y f o u r t h ccntury, vvrote a c o m m c n t a r y o n it. 2 7 B u t the G r e e k title o f the vvork suggests t h a t he vvrote i t , o r c o m posed it, in G r e e k . T h e d e d u e t i o n is surely m a d e m o r e p r o b a b l e b y t h e fact t h a t a f r a g m e n t o f it in G r e e k vvas discovercd a t D u r a ; it is t h u s o n e o f the very fevv a n c i e n t literary t e x t s vvhich date t o vvithin a c e n t u r y o f the t i m e of c o m p o s i t i o n . 2 8 S e c o n d , a s vvill b e seen, t h e e a r l y h i s t o r y o f S y r i a c - s p e a k i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y a t Edessa is i m m e r s e d in legend. N o n c t h e l c s s , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n in p r i n c i p l c vvhy vvc s h o u l d n o t h a v e testim o n y in G r e e k f r o m east o f t h e E u p h r a t e s , vvritten b e f o r e the last part o f the s e c o n d century, even i f T a t i a n o s ' Address

is n o t in f a c t a n e x a m p l c o f it. T h e r e

s e e m s , hovvever, t o b e n o n e a v a i l a b l c . B u t t h e r e is a b r i c f t c x t in S y r i a c , of e x c e p t i o n a l interest, vvhich m a y p o s s i b l y derive f r o m this p l a c e a n d t i m e . T h i s is t h e Letter

of Mara bar Serapioıt

('GRT

D M R ' B R S R P Y W N ) a d d r e s s e d 'to

m y s o n S c r a p i o n ' ( L S R P Y W N B R Y S I . M ) . It is knovvn f r o m a single m a n n seript, vvhich a l s o c o n t a i n s t h e Book Meliton

the Philosopher

t h e Oration

of the Laws ofCountries,

of

a n d o t h e r t e x t s , a n d vvas vvritten in t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y

2 6 . F o r ı h e s t a t u e see W. I. A l - S a l i h i , " T h e W e a r y H e r c u l e s o f M e ş e n e " , Mesopolamra

22

( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 5 9 , a n d f o r t h e i n s e r i p t i o n F. A . P e n n a c h i c t t i , " L ' i s c r i z i o n c bilingue g r c c o - p a r t i c a

ddP

E r a c t e di S e l c u c i a " , ibid., 1 6 9 . 2 7 . O n Tatianos, sec bricfly c h . 6 a h o v c . T o his n e a r - c o n t c m p o r a r y C l c m c n t o f A l c x a n d r i a , T a t i a n vvas a E û p o ç , vvhich o f c o u r s e l e a v e s t h e q u e s t i o n o f h i s g e o g r a p h i c a l o r i g i n s o p e n ,

Strom.

III, 1 2 , 8 1 . It is o n l y t h e u n r e l i a b l e a n d f a n c i f u l E p i p h a n i u s , Panar. X L V I ( a n d c f . Anaceph.

3,

4 6 ) , i n t h e l a t e f o u r t h c c n t u r y , vvho d e d u c e s f r o m vvhat T a t i a n s a y s o f h i m s e l f t h a t h e c a m c f r o m M e s o p o t a m i a . F o r t h e c u r r e n c y o f t h e Diatessaron Syriaca1

in S y r i a c s e e I . Ort'ız de U r b i n a ,

e r s e n , The Diatessaron 2 8 . P. Dura,

and Ephrem

Syrus as Sources

of Romanos

ıhe Melodist

Teslaments:

( 1 9 8 5 ) , c h . 2.

n o . 1 0 . N o t e , h o w c v e r , t h a t W . L . P c t c r s c n , " N e v v E v i d e n e e f o r t h e Q u c s t i o n of

t h e O r i g i n a l 1 - a n g u a g c o f t h e D i a t e s s a r o n " , i n W . S c h r a g c (cd.), Studieu Neuen

Patroîoğa

( 1 9 6 5 ) , 3 s f f . a n d 6 1 - 6 3 ( E p h r e m ' s c o m m e n t a r y ) . F o r a f u l l d i s c u s s i o n s c c W . L . Pet-

Festschrift

H. Greuen

zum

Texl

und Ethik

{1986), 3 2 5 , argues strongly f o r a Syriac original.

des

in F.strangela; t h c Letter h a s b c c n published o n l y o n c e , in 1 8 5 5 , in S e r t a . 2 9 N o precise d a t e o r p l a c e o f o r i g i n o f the Letter

can be determined. N o r

c a n it b c cjuitc c c r t a i n t h a t a l i t e r a r y c o m p o s i t i o n s u c h a s this, e a s t in t h e f o r m o f a letter o f c o n s o i a t i o n , a c t u a l l y did arise f r o m a c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n . T h e o n l y c o n t e x t vvhich is presented

in the d o c u m e n t is that a t s o m e p o i n t frietıds

o f thc f a t h e r a n d s o n h a d been driveıı o u t o f S a m o s a t a ( S M Y S T ) , h a d b e e n u n a b l e t o r e t u r n a n d h a d been o n their vvay t o S e l c u c i a ( S L W Q Y ' ) , vvhere t h e vvriter h a d g o n e t o m e e t t h e m . T h e r e f e r e n e e m i g h t be t o S e l e u c i a / Z e u g m a , b u t m o r e p r o b a b l y t o S c l c u c i a in B a b y l o n i a . L a t e r it t u r n s o u t t h a t it is t h c R o m a n s vvho h a d a c t c d so a s t o b a r p e o p l e (vvho novv s e c m t o inelude t h e vvriter) f r o m their c o u n t r y ; b u t it is stili t o b e h o p e d t h a t t h e y vvill act justly. S e a r c h i n g in i n c o m p i e t e n a r r a t i v e s o u r c e s f o r s u i t a b l e c o n t e x t s f o r e n i g m a t i c i t e m s o f e v i d e n c e is a n o t o r i o u s l y t r c a c h c r o u s p r o c c s s . N o n c t h c l c s s it is o b v i o u s t h a t if t h e r e is a n a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t e x t , it is t h e e a r l y 70S, vvhen R o m e first gained c o n t r o l o f S a m o s a t a , a n d t h e s o n s o f A n t i o c h u s I V o f C o ı n m a g e n e fled t o V o l o g a c s e s o f P a r t h i a , o n l y t o b e b r o u g h t b a c k in h o n o u r a b l e style by a R o m a n military m i s s i o n . 3 0 B u t even s o it h a s t o b e a d m i t t e d t h a t the letter c o n t a i n s n o r e f e r e n e e t o a c o n q u e s t b y a r m e d f o r c e . ö t h e r v v i s e a n y n u m b e r o f r e l e v a n t episodes m a y have o c c u r r c d vvithout ever b c i n g r e c o r d c d in surviving n a r r a t i v e s . It d o e s , hovvever, s e e m i m p r o b a b l e t h a t the e p i s o d e c o u l d h a v e belonged a f t e r t h e m i d - ı 6 o s , vvhen O s r h o e n e b e c a m e a R o m a n d e p e n d e n t k i n g d o m , o r c e r t a i n l y a f t e r t h c 19OS, vvhen M e s o p o t a m i a vvas a hcavily g a r r i s o n e d p r o v i n c e . 3 1 I f b y a n y c h a n c e this t e x t d o e s reflect a real s i t u a t i o n , specifically the a b s o r p t i o n o f C o m m a g e n e in a b o u t 7 2 , vve stili have n o e x p l i c i t i n d i c a t i o n o f vvhere thc vvriter vvas, c x c c p t t h a t hc refers t o his h a v i n g g o n e t o meet t h e e x i l e s betvveen S a m o s a t a a n d S e l c u c i a . T h i s specific c o n t e x t m i g h t , hovvever, a l s o give e x t r a significance t o o n e o f t h e vvriter's refleetions: ' F o r vvhat a d v a n tagc d i d t h c A t h c n i a n s gain b y thc m u r d e r o f S o c r a t c s , the r c c o m p c n s c o f vvhich t h e y received in f a m i n e a n d pestilence? O r the p e o p l e o f S a m o s by t h e b u r n i n g o f P y t h a g o r a s , b e c a u s e in o n e h o u r their vvhole c o u n t r y vvas e n t i r e l y c o v e r e d vvith s a n d ? O r the Jevvs by thc d e a t h o f their vvisc k i n g , b e c a u s e f r o m t h a t s a m e t i m e their k i n g d o m vvas t a k e n a w a y ? \ C o u l d this be t h e e a r l i e s t 2 9 . W . C u r c t o n , Spicilegiurıt

Syriacıtın

( 1 8 5 5 ) , p p . 43—48
T h c M S is B . M . A d d . 1 4 . 6 5 8 , s c c W . W r i g h t , Catalogue

of the Syriac MSS

in the British

Museum

III ( 1 8 7 1 ) , 1 1 S 4 f f . T h c o n l y s y s t e m a t i c r e - e x a m i n a ı i o n is b y F. S c h u i t h e s s , " D t c Brief d e s M a t a b a r S a r a p i o n " , ZDMG

51 ( 1 8 9 7 ) , 3 6 5 , w i t h discussion and G e r m a n translation, to w h i c h thc

t r e a t m e n t in t h i s d i s c u s s i o n o w c s m u c h . See n o v v K . E. M c V e y , " A F t e s h L o o k at t h e L e t t e r o f M a r a b a r S e r a p i o n t o H i s S o n " , V Symposium

Syriacum

( O r . Chr. Anal.

236, 1990), 257, vvho

r e g a r d s it a s a later C h r i s t i a n c o m p o s i t i o n taking u p thc stancc o f a p a g a n obscrvcr. 30. 3.1 a b o v c . 3 r. 3.4 and 4 . 1 abovc.

C h r i s t i a n e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e i d e a t h a t t h e c r u s h i ı ı g o f the Jevvish revolt a n d the d c s t r u c t i o n o f the T e m p l e i n 7 0 s h o u l d be seen as divine p u n i s h m e n t

for

the C r u c i f i x i o n ? It seems p r o b a b l y n o t ; f o r t h e vvriter g o e s o n t o s a y t h a t ' t h e vvise k i n g stili lives in reality b e c a u s e o f the lavvs vvhich he p r o m u l g a t e d ' . T h e r e f e r e n c c might p e r h a p s b e t o S o l o m o n a n d t o t h e s u b s e q u e t ı t fail o f the n o r t h e r n k i n g d o m . B u t if s o , t h e a p p a r c n t i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t the Jevvs vvere r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s d e a t h is puzzling. İt r e m a i n s possible t h a t , r a t h e r than being a n e x p r c s s i o n o f e a r l y S y r i a c C h r i s t i a n i t y , the Letter

is a prime e.vample

o f hovv t h e h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p c c t i v c o f e d u c a t e d p e o p l e in the N e a r E a s t vvas d e t e r m i n e d b y G r e e k t r a d i t i o n , t o vvhich e v e n t u a l l y B i b l i c a l h i s t o r y

was

a d d e d . T h e t e x t d o e s n o t n a m e C h r i s t , b u t , a p a r t f r o m t h e passage q u o t e d , it refers clscvvhcrc t o D a r i u s , P o l y c r a t e s , Achillcs, A g a m c m n o n , P r i a m , A r c h i m e d e s , S o c r a t e s , P y t h a g o r a s a n d P a l a m e d e s . In o t h e r vvords it shovvs t h e a b sorption of c o m m o n p l a c e Greek learning and moralising, of a Stoic colo u r i n g , vvithin a S y r i a c - s p e a k i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . O r rather, t h e e n v i r o n m e n t c o n c e r n e d vvill surely h a v e b e e n bilingual. T h e c o n c r c t c i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f this b e f o r e the R o m a n period a r e a l m o s t n o n - e x i s t e n t . B u t , f o r vvhat it is vvorth, t h e r e is o n e c x a m p l e o f a b i l i n g u a l t o m b i n s e r i p t i o n , vvhich m a y date t o the early s e c o n d century, f r o m M a r Y a k o u b n e a r E d e s s a . 3 2 T h i s t o o c o m e s f r o m a tovver-tomb, a n d r e e o r d s s i m p l y t h e n a m e o f the d e c e a s e d , A m a s s a m s e s t h e vvife o f S a r e d o s s o n o f M a n n o s , vvhich a p p e a r s in S y r i a c in tvvo fortns: ' M S M S ' T T H o r ' N T T D S R D W B R M ' N W . B o t h t h e tovvcr, vvhich s e e m s t o b e o f t h e later first c e n t u r y AD, a n d t h e seript, vvhich m a y be e a r l y s e c o n d , shovv s i g n s o f r e l a d o n s h i p t o vvhat vvould be f o u n d at P a l m y r a at these dates. T h e r e is o f c o u r s e n o t h i n g surprising in t h e idea t h a t vvestern M e s o p o t a m i a vvas a b i l i n g u a l , a n d b i c u l t u r a l , z o n e , l i k e the t e r r i t o r y o f P a l m y r a , o r t h a t the l a n g u a g e a n d seript vvhich vvere t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d a s S y r i a c h a d n o t yet fully a t t a î n e d their classical f o r m s . T h e Letter

of Mara bar Seraftion

does seem (possibly) to date t o the y o s

a n d , vvhatever i t s d a t e , i l l u s t r a t e s the f u n d a m e n t a l

importance o f

Greek

t h o u g h t in the e v o l u t i o n o f S y r i a c l i t e r a t ü r e . It is p r o b a b l y n o t , hovvever, cvid c n c c f o r e a r l y S y r i a c C h r i s t i a n i t y . Is t h e r e s u c h e v i d e n c e ? O r , t o put it in o t h e r t e r m s , did C h r i s t i a n i t y f u n e t i o n a s a n o t h e r e l e m e n t in t h e c u l t u r e o f this r e g i o n vvhich vvas i m p o c t e d f r o m further vvest? T h e q u e s t i o n is d o u b l y i m p o r t a n t , f o r it involves t h e issuc o f vvhether t h e r e is a n y h i s t o r i c a l c o ı ı t c n t in c e r t a i n later G r e e k a n d S y r i a c t r a d i t i o n s a b o u t p r e - R o m a n O s r h o e n e . 3 3 32. H. Pngnnn, Insfrıpliom serniıiques de la Syrie, de la Mcsopotamic et de la legion de Mcssoul

( 1 8 9 7 ) , 1 0 4 , n o s . 5 7 - 5 8 . F o r c o n s i d c r a c i o n o f ı h e d a t e o f t h e to\ver a n d t h e i n s e r i p t i o n

scc P i r c n n c , o p . cit. ( n . 2 3 ) , 1 0 9 — r r 5 ( w i t h a p h o t o j j r a p h o f t h e t o w e r o n p. 1 1 0 ) . 3 3 . F o r a l i t h e d i s c u s s i o n vvhich f o l l o v v s I a m d e p e n d e n t o n t h e p a p e r b y S . B r o c k , " E u s e b i u s a n d S y r i a c C h r i s t i a n i t y " , in H . W . A t t r i d g c a n d G . H a t a ( « İ s . ) , Eusebius, İSm (1992.), 2 1 2 .

Christianity

and

fuda-

It s h o u l d be m a d e clcar, first, t h a t \vhat is at s t a k e is t h e q u e s t i o n o f a C h r i s t i a n i t y t r a n s m i t t e d a n d , in c o m m u n a l t e r m s , o r g a n i s e d via the u s e o f a S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e : in o t h e r \vords, o f an e a r l y S y r i a c c h u r c h . S e c o n d , h e r e a s elscvvhcre, it is virtually i m p o s s i b l e t o p r o v e a n e g a t i v e ; it is h a r d l y c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t w c c o u l d prove

t h a t t h e r e vvas 110 S y r i a c c h u r c h east o f t h e K u p h r a t e s

in the first c c n t u r y o r t h e early s e c o n d . T h i r d , b y the t i m e w e a r r i v e a t t h e m a j ö r S y r i a c vvork, T b e Book

of the Laws of the Countries,

'of' Bardesancs

(that is, in vvhich he a p p e a r s as t h e m a i n s p e a k e r in t h e d i a l o g u e ) , vvritten in the e a r l y third century, t h e s p r e a d o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , e a s t o f t h e E u p h r a t e s a s elsevvhere, c a n s i m p l y b e a s s u m e d as the c o n c l u s i v c item o f e v i d e n c e f o r tlıc v a r i a b i l i t y o f h u m a n c u s t o m s : ' W h a t shall vve say o f the nevv p e o p l e o f u s C h r i s t i a n s ( K R S T Y N ' ) , t h a t t h e M e s s i a h h a s c a u s e d t o arise in every p l a c e . . . T h o s e vvho live in M e d i a d o n o t flec avvay f r o m their d e a d . . . t h o s e vvho live in E d e s s a ( ' \ V R H Y ) d o n o t kili their vvives o r sisters vvho h a v e c o m m i t t e d a d u l t c r y . . . a n d t h o s e vvho live in H a t r a d o n o t s t o n e thieves'. 3 4 W h e t h e r vve c a n t r a c e the early e v o l u t i o n o f a n ' e a s t e r n ' C h r i s t i a n i t y is t o o c o m p l e x a questiotı f o r novv. But vvhat is c e r t a i n is t h a t by t h e e n d o f t h e third c c n t u r y i t vvas c l a i m e d t h a t t h e king A b g a r vvho h a d been ruling in O s r h o e n e a t the t i m e o f C h r i s t h a d been a c o n v e r t F o r E u s e b i u s in his Ecclesiastical

History

vvas

a b l e t o q u o t e extensive d o c u m e n t s , t r a n s l a t e d f r o m ' t h e language o f t h e S u r o i ' , a n d preserved in t h e a r e h i v e s at F^dessa: a letter o f A b g a r t o J e s u s , vvith J e s u s ' r c p l y ; a n d a l o n g e r n a r r a t i v e , a l s o t r a n s l a t e d f r o m S y r i a c , o f hovv, a f t e r the C r u c i f i x i o n , J u d a s T h o m a s sent the a p o s t l e T l ı a d d a i o s t o Abgar, a n d o f hovv he h e a l e d A b g a r a n d p r e a c h e d the g o s p e l . " I.atcr, p r o b a b l y in t h e early fifth c c n t u r y , t h e s t o r y vvas m u c h m o r e fully e m b r o i d e r e d a n d t o o k t h e f o r m o f a vvonderful C h r i s t i a n h i s t o r i c a l n o v e l , t h e Teaching

of Addai

(that is, ' T h a d d a i o s ' ) , preserved in a S y r i a c m a n u s e r i p t o f

a b o u t AD 500. 3 6 A s e v i d e n c e f o r the i n v e n t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n , a n d ( s o m e t h i n g o f considerable importance) the continued rclcvance of the memory of the kings o f E d e s s a l o n g a f t e r the d y n a s t y h a d c e a s e d , b o t h t e x t s a r e o f g r e a t signific a n c e . As t o the l a t t c r a s p e c t , t h e r e is a l s o independent c o ı ı f i r m a t i o n . W h e n t h e vvestern p i l g r i m 'F'geria' v i s i t e d E d e s s a in t h e 380S, s h c vvas shovvn A b g a r ' s p a l a c e , vvith the king's p o r t r a i t a n d t h a t o f his s o n ' M a g n u s ' , a n d vvas g i v e n a c o p y o f Abgar's letter a n d J e s u s ' r e p l y . " B u t n e i t h c r t e x t c a n teli us a n y t h i n g o f

first-ccntury

Edessa, and both leave

entirely o p e n t h e q u e s t i o n o f vvhen C h r i s t i a n i t y vvas first p r e a c h e d t h e r e . T h e 3 4 . T r a n s . M. J. W . D r i j v c r s , The Book san of Edessa

(1965),

of the Laıvs of Countries:

Dialogue

on Fate

ofBardai-

S'j-6'.

35. Eusebius, H E I, 1 3 . 3 6 . F o r a t c x ı a n d f a c i n g t r a n s l a t i o n o f this splendid a n d h i g h l y r e a d a b l e w o r k , scc G . H o v v a r d , The Teaching

of Addai

(1981).

3 7 . F.gcria, İtin. 1 8 - 1 9 ; s c c J . W i l k i n s o n , Egeria's

Travels to the Holy Land1

(1981), ı i 3 f f .

dynasty unquestionably remaincd pagan throughout thc p r e - R o m a n period, a n d a l m o s t c c r t a i n l y d u r i n g i t a l s o . S i m i l a r p r o b l e m s a t t e n d the t w o entirely s p u r i o u s S y r i a c m a r t y r - a c t s , o f S h a r b i l a n d o f t h e b i s h o p B a r s a m y a , vvhich vvill also, p r o b a b l y , have b e e n vvritten in t h e early fifth century. T h e y o w c their f o r m t o t h c (rclativcly) a u t h c n t i c m a r t y r - a c t s o f thc T e t r a r c h i c p c r i c d , discussed belovv, b u t othervvise a l s o b e l o n g t o the c a t e g o r y o f t h e e v o c a t i v e h i s t o r i c a l novel. But n o n e t h e l e s s t h e y t o o a t t e s t t o a sense o f h i s t o r y in C h r i s tian E d e s s a . T h c Acts of Sharbil

begins:

In year 15 o f Autokrator T r a i a n o s Kaisar, and in year 3 o f the kingship o f King Abgar the Seveııth, and in year 4 1 6 o f the kingship o f Alexaııdros, king o f thc G r e e k s

(MUC

DYWNY')

and in thc

pricsthood

( K W M R W T H ) o f Sharbil a n d Barsamya, T r a i a n o s Kaisar gave orders t o the governors ( H G M W N ' — f r o m the Greek hegetnött) o f the coutıtries o f his dominions, that sacrificcs and libations should bc incrcascd in ali t h c cities o f their administration . . ,3H T h c c o n t c x t is q u i t c u n h i s t o r i c a l : T r a j a ı ı g a v c n o g e n e r a l o r d e r f o r sacrifice, a n d in a n y c a s e n e i t h e r in A D 1 0 4 / 1 0 5 { b y the Seleucid y e a r ) n o r in ı J 2 / r i 3 (by his r e g n a l y e a r ) vvas he i n c o n t r o l o f vvhat t h e t e x t c a l l s ' E d e s s a o f the Parthians* ( ' D S ' D P R T W Y ' ) . B u t t h c v o c a b u l a r y d o e s reflect t h a t o f p a g a n E d e s s a , a n d it m a y b e t h a t r h e d o c u m e n t c o u l d p r o p e r l y be used (as it h a s b e e n ) in r c c o n s t r u c t i n g vvhat the p a g a n city h a d been like, a n d vvhat g o d s vvere vvorshipped there. W h a t is certaitı is t h a t t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f C h r i s t i a n E d e s s a , c e n t u r i c s a f t e r the d y n a s t y h a d d i s a p p e a r e d , c o n t i n u e d t o give that d y n a s t y a central p l a c e . I n this vvay t h c kings vvere t o e n j o y a n after-life vvhich m a k e s an e x t r a o r d i n a r y c o n t r a s t vvith the c o m p l e t e d i s a p p e a r a n c e , as r e g a r d s l o c a l t r a d i t i o n s , o f their c o u n t e r p a r t s in C o m m a g e n e o r N a b a t a c a o r J u d a c a 1a fevv passing T a l m u d i c r c f c r c n c c s t o t h c H a s m o n a c a n s a n d I l e r o d i a n s h a r d : y c o n s t i t u t e a n e x c e p t i o n ) . T h a t p r o m i n e n c e vvas m a i n t a i n e d vvhen C h r i s t i a n S y r i a c vvriters c a m e t o c o m p o s e h i s t o r i c a l vvorks. T h r e e o u t o f a n u m b e r of S y r i a c c h r o n i c l c s o f the B y z a n t i n e a n d m c d i c v a l p e r i o d s deserve a brief m e n tion h e r e , precisely b e c a u s e t h e y p r o v i d e a p i c t u r e o f the d y n a s t y o f b e f o r e the r 6 o s . 1 9 T h e first is t h e Chrotticle

of Edessa,

vvritten in a b o u t AD 5 4 0 ,

vvhich begins, o u t o f c h r o n o l o g i c a l order, vvith a vivid a c c o u n t o f a f l o o d in t h c S c l c u c i d y e a r 5 1 3 (AD z o ı / z o z ) , t o vvhich w c vvill c o m c , a n d then c o n t i n ucs vvith thc follovving set o f c n t r i c s . T o a v o i d u n n e c e s s a r y division, t h e q u o t a -

3 8 . W . C u r c t o ı ı , Ancient

Syriac

Documents

(1864), 4 i f f .

3 9 . F o r a s u r v e y s e e (as a l w a y s ) S . B r o c k , " S y r i a c H i s t o r i c a l W r i t i n g : A S u r v e y o f t h c M a i ı ı S o u r c e s " , Journal Studies

in Syriac

of the lraqi Christianity

Academy (1992).

(Syriac

Corporation)

j ( 1 9 7 9 - 8 0 ) , 1 , r e p e in B r o c i ,

tion will include ali t h o s e dovvn t o t h e 340S AD. AS r e m a i n e d t h e g e n e r a l r u l e in S y r i a c literatüre a s vvell as d o c u m e n t s , the t e x t uses the S e l e u c i d e r a b e g i n ning in O c t o b c r 3 1 2 BC: In the year 180 ( 1 3 3 / 1 3 2 BC) t h e kings began t o reign in O r h a i . In the year 2 6 6 (47/46 BC) C a e s a r Augustus reigned. İn the year 309 (4/3 BC) our L o r d vvas born. In the year 400 (AD 88/89) K i n g Abgar built a funerary tower (NPS*) in h o n o u r of his death. In the year 449 (AD 1 3 7 / 1 3 8 ) M a r c i o n left the eatholic church. [ . . . ] Caesar Lucius ( L W Q Y S Q S R ) , hovvcvcç in c o l l a b o r a n o n vvith his brother subjected the Parthiatıs t o the R o m a n s in the fifth year o f his rule (AD

165/166?).

O n I a m m u z 11 in the year 4 6 5 ( J u ' y

I I

ı * 5 4 ) Bardesanes ( B R D Y S N )

vvas born. In the year 5 1 7 (AD 205/206) A b g a r built the palaecs ( B Y R T ' ) in his city. In the year 5 5 1 (AD 239/240) M a n i vvas born. In the year 6 1 4 (AD 302/303) the vvalls o f Orhai collapsed for the second time in the days of King Diocletian ( D Y Q L Y T Y N \ V S M L K ' ) . In the year 624 (AD 3 1 2 / 3 1 3 ) Bishop Q o n a laid the foundation o f the church o f O r h a i . His succcssor Sa'd built and completed it. In the year 635 (AD 323/324) the koimeterion

o f Orhai vvas built, in the

days o f the bishop Aitallaha, a year before the great synod in N i c a c a . In the year 636 (AD 324/325) Aitallaha became bishop o f Orhai. H e built the koimeterion

and the east side o f the church.

In the next year there gathercd a t N i c a e a the synod o f 3 1 8 bishops. In the year 6 3 9 (AD 327/328) building a n d additions t o o k place in the church of O r h a i . in the year 649 (AD 337/338) there died M a r Y a q o b . bishop o f Nisibis (NŞYBYN). In the year 6 5 7

(AD

3 4 4 ^ 3 4 5 )

A b r a h a m bec3ine bishop in Orhai. H e built

tlıe chapel o f the confessors. In tlıc year 660 (AD 347/348) C o n s t a n t i u s the son o f Constantine built the city o f Amida ( ' M D M D Y N T " ) . In the year 661 (AD 348/34 9) C o n s t a n t i u s also built the city o f T L ' (Telia?), vvhich vvas previously called Antipolis ( ' N T Y P W L Y S , Antoninopolis?).*" 1 A s vvill b e s e c n , the e m p h a s i s is h e a v i l y C h r i s t i a n (and t h e c h r o n i c l e r h a s c o n fused the y e a r o f M a n i ' s birth w i t h t h a t o f his first p r c a c h i n g ) . Tvvo o f t h e

4 0 . Full r e l c r c n c c s in A p p . C . T h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f f c r e d h e r e o w e s m u c h t o the G e r m a n t r a n s l a tion o f L . H a l l i e r ( 1 8 9 1 ) .

k i n g s a p p e a r in it, b o t h in q u i t c a p p r o p r i a t e t e r m s . O n e king A b g a r b u i l d s a futıerary tovver ( N P S ' ) in the g e n e r a l p e r i o d in w h i e h these b e g a n a l s o in Palm y r a ; a n d the m o s t f a m o u s o f t h e kings, A b g a r t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y o f S e v e r u s , builds a p a l a c e ( B Y R T * ) . B u t a l t h o u g h t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e d y n a s t y is rec o r d e d , n o t h i n g is said o f its e n d . F o r that w e have t o turn t o the m a j ö r S y r i a c w o r l d - c h r o n i c l c o f a b o u t AI> 7 7 5 , p r o b a b l y w r i t t c n a t Z u q n i n n e a r Arnida, often u n h e l p f u l l y d e s c r i b e d a s being the vvork o f ' P s - D i o n y s i u s o f Tel!M a h r e ' , a n d n e v e r fully t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a n y E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e ; t o save, o r at least l i m i t , c o n f u s i o n , it will b c r e f e r r e d t o here a s the Chrotıicle

of

Zuqnin

H e r e the entries detailing vvhat is evidently i n t e n d c d t o b c a c o m p l c t c list c f the kings a r e scattered a m o n g o t h e r m a t e r i a l . It vvill suffice t o n o t e t h a t the a u t h o r c l a i m s that the d y n a s t y b e g a n in the ' y e a r o f A b r a h a m ' 1 8 8 0 o r the ı 6 ı s t O l y m p i a d ( 1 3 6 - 1 3 3 BC), a n d eııded in the z ^ y t h O l y m p i a d (AD 2 . 1 7 2 2 0 ) . As vvill be seen later, s o m e sense c a n be m a d e o f t h e e n t r i e s from the ı 6 o s onvvards, by c o r r e l a t i n g them vvith c o n t e m p o r a r y e v i d e n e e . A s f o r t h s e a r l i e r e n t r i e s , o f t e n full o f c i r c u m s t a n t i a l detail, ali t h a t n e e d b e ı ı o t e d is that the a n o n y m o u s a u t h o r b o t h belicvcd t h a t he h a d a c o m p l c t c a c c o u n t o f the kings t o lıand a n d felt t h a t t h e individual reigns deserved a p l a c e in his u n i v e r sal c h r o n i c l c . Finally, t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n in a S y r i a c c o n t c x t , a n d the lastiııg c e n t r a l i t y vvithin it o f the d y n a s t y o f E d e s s a , is shovvn novvhere b e t t e r t h a n in t h e f a c t t h a t the m o s t c o h e r e n t a c c o u n t o f the k i n g s is given in a single p a r a g r a p b b y t h e Chronicle vvith the Chrotıicle

o f M i c h a c I the S y r i a n (AD I 126—I 199). H c a g r e e »

of Edessa

in d a t i n g t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e d y n a s t y t o rhe

Seleucid y e a r 1 8 0 ( 1 3 3 / 1 3 2 BC); b u t he a l s o o f f e r s a h i s t o r i c a l e x p l a n a r i o n , n a m e l y its h a v i n g derived f r o m the d e c l i n e o f t h e G r c c k a n d t h e rise o f the ' A r a m a e a n ' e l e m e n t t h e r e . O n h i s vievv the k i n g s ruled f o r 3 8 6 y e a r s , failing under R o m a n c o n t r o l in rhe Seleucid y e a r 4 7 7 (AD 1 6 5 / 1 6 6 ) , a n d e n d i n g in t h e fifth y e a r o f rhe E m p e r o r Philip, y e a r 5 6 0 (AD 148/Z49).4'

As vve vvill see

later, unless t h e r e vvas a s e c o n d r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e d y n a s t y in t h e m i d - t h i r d century, this m u s t b e vvrong, as the c o n t e m p o r a r y p a r e h m e n t s shovv. It rem a i n s s t r i k i n g t h a t M i c h a e l s p e a k s o f the a r e a as B Y T N H R Y N , literally 'betvveen t h e rivers', c x a c t l y t h e c x p r e s s i o n used in t h e nevvly p u b l i s h e d S y r i a c p a r e h m e n t o f AD 2 4 0 . ^ In a n y c a s e , vvhatever m i n ö r e r r o r s o r d i s p l a c e m e n t s m a y b e f o u n d in their n a r r a t i v e s , ali t h r e e vvriters preserve c l e a r r e f l e c t î o n s 4 1 . F o r d e t a i l s s c c A p p . C . I a m c x t t c m c l y g r a t e f u l t o S e b a s t i a n ttrock l o r p r o v i d i n g a t r a n s l a t i o n o f t l ı c r c l c v a n t .vcctions o f t h i s a n d o t h e r S y r i a c c h r o n i c l c a , i n c l u d i n g t h e c x t r a c t froır, M i c h a e l the Syrian. 4 1 . T c x t a n d F ı c n c h t r a n s l a t i o n in J . - B . C h a b o t , Chrvnique 1 9 2 4 ) . T h e r c l e v a n t c x r r a c t is V , 5 . 43. 1 2 . 5 beiow.

de Michel

lc Syrien I - V ( 1 9 0 T -

of the moment in the ı 6 o s

when F.dessa/Orhai passed

under

Roman

domination. 12.4. RÜMAıN D U R A - E U R O P O S As already indicated, it w a s in the r6os, with the Parthian w a r of Lucius Verus, that contemporary evidence for Edessa becomes relatively fuller. But this vvas also the moment vvhen Dura passed under Roman rule, and the evidcncc from there, though it includcs no more than fragments of literary vvorks, is considerably more detailed, and much more varied in character and in language, than that from Mesopotamia. Partly for that reason, partly because the life of Dura endcd abruptly in dıe 2 5 0 S and partly because the evidence novv available shovvs that Syriac documents vvere knovvn also at Dura, and elsevvhere on the middle Euphrates, vve vvill turn back to 'Roman' Dura first, before moving again to Osrhoene. A s vve savv carlicr, Dura continued to be garrisoned by Palmyrene arehers, apparently not yet as part of the regular Roman auxiliary forces, until the ı8os or 190S, from vvhich time onvvards both other Roman auxiliary units and legionary detachments (vexillationes) arc attested; from 2.08 onvvards the vast bulk of the extensive surviving military arehives in Latin concern the (novv regular) Tvventietlı Cohort of Palmyrenes. T h e presence of a substantial Roman force, vvith other detachments stationed up and dovvn the river, is the first and most obvious of the n c w circumstances vvhich made Dura 'Roman'. From 1 9 4 onvvards Dura, and the outposts dependent on it, formed an outlying part of Severus' nevv province of 'Syria Coclc'. 1 The sccond very general impression (it can hardly be more than that) left by the evidence vvhich vve happen to have is of a much more marked intermingling of different elements, în language, personal ııomcnclature, art and rcligion, than is apparent from the relatively scanty remains of Parthian Dura. 2 A s regards language, vvhile Greek remains Standard, Latin of course novv appears in large quantitics, not only in military arehives proper but, for instance, in an inseribed dcdication to the 'Genius of Dura' and 'for the safety of Commodus Augustus', put u p by tvvo decuriotıes of the Cohors II Ulpia Paphlagonum Equitata. 3 Palmyrene also continued in pubiic use, as in a Grcck/Palmyrcne bilingual inseription of A D 1 2 8 / 2 2 9 to the goddess Nemesis 1 . 3.4 a n ı l 4 . 1 â b o v e . 2 . T h e bese s t u d y r e m a i n s C . B . W e l l e s , " T h e P o p u l a t i o n o f R o m a n D u r a " , i n P. R . C o l e m a a N o r t o n ( e d . ) , Studies

in Roman

<1965), 279. 3 . Dura

Report

I, 4 1 , n o . 1 .

Economic

and

Social

History

in Honor

of A.

C.

Johnson

( L N M S Y S in Palmyrene). 4 M o r e significant is the fact that Aramaic appears for the first time. T h e extremely important Aramaic inseriptions of thc thirdccntury synagogue vvill bc mentioned belovv. But there is also an cnigmatic fragment in Aramaic of vvhat appears to be a letter, also of thc early third century; this too may, hovvever, be Jevvish.5 M o r e significant, there is a Greek dccd of sale of the same period in vvhich thc seller acknovvicdges rcccipt in Aramaic: 'Zebida, and [I have received?] the price, detıarii 5 f . . .?|\ 6 S o far, it has been only in Judaea and Arabia that vve have encountered contexts in vvhich documents vvere dravvn up in Greek, but in vvhich personal attestations could be entered in Semitic languages. M o r e significant stili, there is evidence that Syriac vvas in use. T h e famous Syriac dccd of sale of 243 had in fact been dravvn up in Edessa, and full consideration of it belongs in that contcxt. But it is stili notevvorthy that it had been in thc possession of someone in Dura vvhen thc city vvas destroyed in ıhe next decadc; similar coıısiderations apply to the tvvo nevvly discovered Syriac documents from further up thc Euphrates. T h e dccd of sale is not, hovvever, the only trace of Syriac at D u r a . Tvvo such items are inseriptions on porrable objccts, a silver vase and a fragment of pottery. 7 But one is a public document, a votivc stele from thc 'Temple of Hadad and Atargatis'. 8 T h c tcxt may date to the end of the second century. T h e dedicator seems to be called 'Vologacjes son of Sclcukos' ( W L G S BR S L Q ) and to deseribe himself as 'pupil of Rama' ( T L M D ' D R M ' ) ; hc ends '(may he bc) remembercd before god' ( D K Y R Q D M 'LH'). Given the public context in a pagan temple, the temptation to see this as a Christian text has to be resisccd. Roman Dura did, hovvever, exhibit an extraordinary varicty of different cults, co-existing in elose conjunction, ineluding thc only knovvn Christian house-church of before AD 3 1 2 . Apart from the unique evidence provided by thc altar vvhich a soldicr of I V Scythica ehose to dcdicate to 'Zeus Betylos of those vvho dvvell by thc Orontes', 9 it is conspicuous that local dcitics from elsevvhere in the Roman N e a r East vvere vvidely vvorshipped there, and that (as it seems) their importation vvas due to the army. For examp!e, a tribüne makes a dcdication to thc Palmyrene god, Iarhibol; a legatus (and others) to Atargatis; and the freedman of a centurion in charge of vexillationes to 4I(up4. Dura

Report

5 . P. Dura,

I, 4 8 a n d 6 2 ; d u M c s n i l d u B u i s s o n , Inventaire,

no. 1 2 .

n o . 1 5 i ; see J. T. M i l i k , " P a r c h e m i n j u d e o - a r a m f e n d e D o ı ı r a - E u r o p o s , a n 200

a p . J . - C . ' * , Syria 43 ( 1 9 6 8 ) , 9 7 ( s p c c u l a t i v c ) .

6. P. Dura, no. ı z , fr. d., I. 3: [,. .JZBYD' W[QB]L(?)T(?) [D]MWH DNR' HMS[...). 7 . Dura

Report

I V , 1 7 8 — 1 9 1 ; D r i j v c r s , inseriptions,

8. Dura

Report

İ Ü , 6 8 - 7 1 ; D r i j v c r s , inseriptions,

B r o c k f o r c o m m e n t s o n this t c x t . 9. C h . r a h o v c .

pp. 5 0 - 5 1 . no. 63. I a m very grateful to Sebastian

pitcr) O(ptimus) M(aximus) D(olichenus)' in AD 21 ı . ' ° Just before that, the temple o f ' D e u s Sol Invietus Mithras' had been restored, as a Latin inseription records, by vexilIationes of the legions IV Scythica and X V I Flavia Firma. But the shrine of Mithras seems to have begun its existence, in a private house, in the ı 6 o s ; and the earliest record of it is a bilingual inseription put up by a Palmyrene officer in AD I 68/169. 1 1 O f ali the reflecıions of a complex set of cults, and of a highly distinetive artistic repertoire, vvhich the Roman army left at Dura, the most striking must bc the famous painting from the T c m p l c of Bel' shovving Iulius Tercntius, vvhom vve encoııntered earlier as tribunus of the Cohors X X of Palmyrenes, and vvho may have died during a Persian raid in 239. 1 2 This much-reproduced fresco shovvs Tcrentius, vvith a la rge group of soldiers behind him, and accompanicd by a standard-bcarer, making a sacrificc on a small altar. Hc is named in Latin, as 'Iul. Tcrentius trib. 1 , and one of the soldiers, in Greek, as 'Themes son of M o k i m o s , priest'. Five deities are symbolically represented. Three statues of male gods, or possibly deificd Empcrors, in armour and placed on pedestals, are not identified; but the tvvo statues of seated female deities placed in front of them are: they are the Tyche (Fortune) of Dura and that of Palmyra, both here labelled in Greek. 1 3 It is striking that this fresco, onc of the prime examples of partial frontality in Duran art, is in intention the representation of a Roman military unit celebrating jointly, in Latin and Greek, the 'Fortuııes' of the tvvo cities, of vvhich onc, Palmyra, vvas certainly a R o m a n colonia and the other almost certainly vvas. For, as vve have seen, the Hellenistie past of Dura vvas heavily emphasised in the early years of the Roman occupation, and continued to bc so in the last years, vvhen the city unqucstionably vvas a colonia: in the Greek divorce-deed of a Roman soldier dravvn up in 254 the city appears as the 'Kolöneia of the Euröpaioi of Seleukos Nikatör, the sacred, inviolate and autonomous'. 1 4 It cannot bc stressed too strongly that, for ali its distinetive regional architecture and art-forms—partial ly paralleled in both Palmyra and O s r h o e n e — as a community Dura alvvays remained a Greek, or in the end a Graccor o . Dura

Report

ı ı , 90, no. 3 (larhibol); ııı, 4 3 , n o . 1 4 5 (Atargatis); ı X , «07, n o . 9 7 0

M . H ö r i g a n d E . S c h v / c r t h e i m , Corpus

Cultus

Iovis

Dolicheni

=

( 1 9 8 7 ) , n o . 3 2 (cf. n o . 3 3 , AD

250/251). For Z e u s of Doliche sec 7 . 2 a b o v e . 11.

Dura Report

VII—VIII, 8 j f f . ; d u M c s n i l d u B u i s s o n , Inventaire,

n o . «9.

12. 4.1 above. 1 3 . F o r t h e s c e n e , in w h a t vvas p r e v i o u s l y l a b e l l e d t h e T e m p l e o f t h e P a l m y r e n e G o d s ' , s e e K C u m o n t , Fouiltes

de Doura-F.uropos,

S9H. A . P e r k i n s , Art of Dura-Europos,

4zff. T h e frcsco

is n o v v i n t h e Y a l c U n i v e r s i t y A r t G a l l c r y . A s m a l l m o n o e h r o m e r e p r o d u e t i o n i n S . B . M a t h e s o n , Dura-Europos:

The Ancient

City and the Yale Collection

1 4 . 1 2 . 2 (early y c a r s ) a n d 4 . 3 ( d i v o r c c d c e d ) .

(1982), 23.

Roman, city. The traces of the use there of Semitic languages (Palmyrene above ali) a ı ı d — i n tiny s c r a p s — o f Iranian languages d o not serve to refute this proposition. O n our evidenee, Palmyra, vvhich vvas a recent grovvth and vvas not a Hellenistic foundation, vvas the only publicly bilingual cit)' in the Roman N e a r East. But this aspect of the public life of Dura throvvs into sharper rclief the remarkablc evidenee relating to the Jevvish community there, as it vvas in the third century; 1 5 and it will also serve to raise questions about the Christian community. T h e significarıce of the remains of the Jevvish community lies first of ali in the vvcll-knovvn series of frescoes depicting Biblical sccnes from the synagogue. Even though the deity is himself of course not portrayed directly, the use of figurativc art in this context naturally raises majör questions about the religious convcntions of this community. In the vvider contcxt of the Roman N e a r East, hovvever, their greatest signiücance is quite different: not religious but historical. For, apart from scenes from Greek mythology (and frescoes from the church-housc at Dura, mentioned belovv), these Biblical frescoes are the only visual representations from the entire region vvhich explicitly portray events vvhich occurred before the Hellenistic period: the Exodus and the Crossing of the Red Sea; Elijah on Mount Carmel; Samucl anointing David; or Solomon receiving the Queen of Sheba (he is identified in Greek as Slemötı, strikingly refleeting a Syriac vocalisation of the name). T h e 'amnesia' vvhich so strongly marked the outlook of those vvho lived in this region vvas not shared by this remote Jevvish community. What is more, the historical lessons to be imparted by the paintings vvere reinforced by labclling some of the key figures, either in Greek or in Araır.aic, and sometimes by stating vvhat it is that they vvere portrayed as doing: for example 'Moses, vvhen he vvent out from Egypt and parted the vvaters' (MSH K D N P Q M N [MN] M Ş R Y M W B Z ' L'MH). It is equally significant, in the absence of public inseriptions in Aramaic put up in Dura by gentiles, that the completion of the final version of the synagogue—created by the intcrnal conversion of a private house—vvas recorded in a formal inseription in Aramaic, painted on tvvo ceiliııg-tiles. This vvas not a public inseription, in the sense of having been visible to passers-by. But it vvas an official document, in the main place of communal resort: T h i s h o u s e vvas built in t h e y e a r year of Philippos

556, this c o r r e s p o n d i n g

to the

. . ) Kaisar, in the eldership ( B Q S Y S W T H )

p r i e s t ( K H N H ) , s o n o f Y e d a ' y a t h e arehon

('RKWN).

of

second Samucl,

..

1 5 . S c c A . R . B c l l i n g c r , F. E . B r o w n , A . P c r k i n s a n d C . B . W e l l e s (eds.), Dura Final V l i r . r , The

Synagogue1

Reporl

( 1 9 7 9 ) ; f o r a b r i c f s u m m a r y scc S c h ü r e r , HJP O I . ı ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 1 0 - 1 2 . N o t

a l i the details are mentioned here.

T h e year is thus AD 2.44/245, little more than a decade before the destruction of the city. One of the painted Greek inseriptions from inside tlıc synagogue repcats the information relating to Samuel: 'Samouel son of Eiddeos, presbyteros of the Jcws, founded (it)'. These and other texts, including a number of graffiti in either Greek o r Aramaic, suggest that the comnvunity, both as a group and as individuals, w a s bilingual (or even trilingual, since there are a fcw brief Iranian texts). İt seems, hovvever, that Hebrevv vvas retaincd for iiturgical purposes: a Hebrevv prayer for use after meals is preserved on seraps of parehment found near the synagogue. 16 T h a t must give extra significance to the communal use of Aramaic and Greek by the Jevvs in other contexts. There is a elose parallel to vvhat vve knovv of Jevvish communities of the same general period in Palestinc, for instance at Tiberias. 17 But no other fully bilingual Jevvish community is knovvn from atıyvvhere else, outside Palestine, vvithin the Roman Empire. O n a much more modest scale than the synagogue, another private house vvas converted for use as a Christian church. 18 Tvvo features are of particular relevatıce. O n e is again the use o f narrative art, this time to represent scenes both from the Nevv Testament, for instance the healing of the paralytic, and Christ vvalking on the vvater, a n d from the O l d , for instancc David and Goliath. T h e second is the presence of brief painted or seratehed inseriptions, nearly ali in Greek. Here too, for instance, tvvo Old Testament figures are labelled in Greek, 'Daouid' and 'Goliod' (reflccting the spelling found in Syriac bibles). Several inseriptions invoke the name of Christos, and one proclaims 'One G o d in Heaven*. ö n e also supplies a date, the Seleucid year 544, AD 232/233. Slight as the evidence is, it combines vvith the discovery of a fragment of Tatian's Diatessaron in Greek to suggest strongly that this vvas a Christian community vvhich, like others, rcad the Old and Nevv Testaments in Greek. İf there vvas an Aramaic-using Christian community (as opposed to a community vvhich might provide an oral translation into Aramaic of a liturgy iıı Greek, as in Palestine in the early fourth ccntury), 1 9 there is no contemporary evidence for it at Dura, or anyvvhere else. T h e question remains open. But one graffito from the courtyard of tlıe Christian building reveals another possibility: it is unmistakably a Syriac alphabet, vvritten in Estrangela, and from right to left. 20 It is cnough to suggest that, in a Christian contcxt as in others, thirdcentury Dura vvas a meeting-point of Greek and Syriac. ıf». P. Dura,

n o . 10.

1 7 . 10.4 a b o v e . 1 8 . C . H . K r a e l i r ı g , Dura

Final

Report

tions a r e o n p p . 8 7 ( 1 . 1 9 . C f . 5.2. a b o v e , tcxt t o n. 29. 2 0 . K r a e l i n g , o p . cit., 9 1 , n o . 3 .

V I I I . z , The

Christian

Building

( 1 9 6 7 ) . T h e inserip-

12.5. EDESSA AS A K İ N G D O M A N D ROA1AN

COLONY

UNTİL THE MİDDLE OF THE T H İ R D CENTURY T h e intermingling of Greek and Syriac vvas also characteristic, as vve can novv dimly bcgin ro perceive, of the Euphrates zone as a vvhole. For instance, at a placc callcd El Mas'udiye, o n the east bank of the Euphrates opposite Hierapolis and somevvhat to the south of Şerrin (thc site of rhe Syriac inseription of A D 7 3 / 7 4 ) , there vvas discovered a mosaic vvith an inseription in Greek and Syriac, vvhich secms to be dated to the Seleucid year 5 3 9 , A D 2 2 8 / 1 2 9 . ' The mosaic represents a bcarucd male figüre vvcaring a crovvn of roses, seated betvveen tvvo female figures rhought to represent 'Syria' and 'Mesopotamia'. T h c identification of the male figüre at any rate is not in doubt, for it is the 'king' river Euphrates: 'Basilcus Potamos Euphrates' in Greek, vvith P R T M L K ' vvritten vertically in Syriac belovv. It is by no mcans ccrtain that thc domains of the dynasty of Osrhoene had ever stretehed so far south-vvest as this; but at this moment, at any rate, the kingdom vvas no loııger in existence, and thc vvhole area vvas provincial territory. T h c use of Syriac vvas a regional phenomenon, vvhich vvas n o t a funetion of any particular political struccure. As thc evidence from Dura, attached to Syria Coele and situated on the «rest bank of the river, shovvs, people living along thc middle Euphrates vvere in connection vvith Palmyra, across the steppe to the vvest; vvith northern Syria, vvhere thc governor of the province vvas normally to be found; and vvith Mesopotamia, vvhich they vvill have rcached either by going up thc Chabur past the site of the later fortress o f Circesium, or up the Balikh, vvhich joincd thc Euphrates at Nicephorium. T h e same connections are vividly illustrated, as vve vvill scc later, in thc nevv arehive of documents in Grcck and Syriac, dating betvveen the 2 2 0 S and the 2 5 0 S , vvhich come from the area around thc confluence of the Chabur and the Euphrates. But first vve need to look at vvhat vve knovv of thc last decades of the dynasty of Osrhoene, from the Parthian vvar of Lucius Verus in the ı 6 o s to the deposition of King Abgar in 2 1 2 / 2 1 3 by Caracalla, and the conferment on Edessa of the status of a Roman colonia. For, in spite of thc cautioıı exprcssed above, it is above ali to Edessa that the evidence for a culture expresscd in Syriac rclatcs. It vvas not, hovvcvc^ a 'native' culrure, but a nevv phenomenon of the Imperial period; to adapt Danicl Schlumberger's phrase about the art of vvestern and ccntral Asia, it vvas 'a non-Mediterranean desccndant of Grcck culturc'. 2 Contemporary documcnts relating to Osrhoene novv allovv a hyporhetical

x . F o r r c c e n t t r e a t m e n t s o f t h e m o s a i c ( n o w lost) s e c J. B a l t y , " L a m o s a i q u e a u P r o c b e O r i e n t 1 " , Â N R W I L ı x . 2 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 34.7, o n p p . 3 6 9 - 3 7 0 , a n d PI. X ü . ı ; K . P a r l a s c a , v o n M a s ' u d i y e a u s d e m J a h r c 22.8/229

C h r . " , Dam.

Mili.

uDas

Mosıik

1 (1983), 263.

2 . D . S c h l u m b c r g e r , " D e s c c n d a n t s n o n - M e d i t e r r a n e e n s dc l ' a r t g r e e " , Syria 3 7 ( 1 9 6 0 ) ,

iji.

rcconstruction of the succession of kings w h o ruled as allies and dependents of Rome; vvhile the details need not bc argucd here (and hardly mattcr), it is novv clcar that tlıe Syriac Cbronicle of Zuqnin of the eighth century prcserves real information, but has piaced each king of this later period some tvvcntysix years too early. 3 Hypotlıetically, therefore, it vvill have been in 162/163-164/165 that Wael son of Sahru 'reigncd över O r h a i for tvvo years', as the Cbronicle reeords. i l e duly appears on coins as W ' L M l . K ' , vvith Vologacses IV of Parthia portrayed on the obverse. After him King M a ' n u 'returncd from Roman territory, and ruled for tvvelve more years' (after tvventy-four previously). This second period vvill be 164/165—>"76/177, and it vvill bc he vvho is named on coins as either M ' N W M L K ' or in Greek as 'Basileus M a n n o s Philorömaios'; M a r c u s Aurelius, Lucius Verus and C o m m o d u s are also duly represented on his coins. Then came the bcst-knovvn king of Osrhoene, Abgar son of Ma'nu, vvho, a s the Cbronicle reeords, ruled f o r thirty-five years, so perhaps 1 7 6 / 1 7 7 - 2 1 1 / 212. He appears on coins along vvith Commodus as ' B G R M L K ' or ' A b g a r o s Basileus', and along vvith Septimius Scvcrus, in Greek only, vvith various versions of a Roman name: 'Bas(ileus) L(oukios) Ail(ios) Sep(timios) Abgaros'. Then, according to the Cbronicle, 'Abgar Severus' ruled for one year and seven months. This seems to fit vvith the report that Caracalla deposed a king Abgar for cruelty to his subjects, and also vvith the fact that 2127213 w a s t o be counted as the first year of the 'liberation' of Edessa. His rule vvas therefore in 2 1 1 / 2 1 2 to 2 1 2 / 2 1 3 / It vvas thus the long-Iasting (Septimius) Abgar son of M a ' n u , sometimes called Abgar the Great, vvhose kingdom had its boundaries defined under Scvcrus in 1 9 5 , and vvho made a notoriously grand display vvhen visiring Severus in Rome. 1 Secn from vvithin, it vvas he vvho vvas ruling 'in the year 513 in the reign of Severus and the reign o f King Abgar son of M a ' n u ' , thus AD 201/ 202, vvhen the river Daisan ovcrflovved its banks and a great flood ensucd. T h e detailed account of this vvhich forms the first, and much the longest, entry in the sixth-century Cbronicle of Edessa has ali the style of an eyevvitness narrative, and claims to be the vvork of contemporary seribes. ' O u r lord K i n g Abgar' ( M R N ' B G R M L K ' ) took steps to countcract the effccts of the flood, later re-built his palaces and granted a five-year remission of taxes. His nobles also built themselves nevv reşidences in the neighbourhood of the palace. In a more literal sense of 'seen', it is surely this King Abgar vvhose portrait occupies the centrc of a splendid nevv funerary mosaic from Edessa, first published in 1 9 8 1 . T h e four corners of the mosaic are occupied by portraits o f 3 . F o r f u r t h e r det3İls s e e A p p . C . 4. C f . 4 . 1 a b o v e . 5. 3.4 a b o v e ; D i o L X X I X , 1 6 , 2.

the dcdicator, B R S M Y ' BR 'j§DW, and of other ıncmbers of his family, cach named. The central figüre, the büst of a beardcd man in a hcavy eloak and flat cap, is duly identified as *BGR BR M ' N W ; and a text of the dedication is set out belovv the portrait: I, BRSMY' BR 'SDW, made for myself this house of eternity (BYT ' L M ' ) , aııd for my children and my brother, for the life of 'BGR, my lord and bcncfactor (MRY W'BD T B T Y ) . 6 In spite of some doubts (since the term 'king' is not used), this should bc accepted as a contemporary portrait of A b g a r ; the dedicator vvill be a noble of the type mentioned in the narrative of the flood. If this narrative is indeed essentially contemporary, as seems to be the case, there are tvvo important consequences. One is that onc of the buildings ccstroyed by the flood is described as the 'temple of the church of the Christians' (HYKL 5 D ' D T ' D K R S T Y N ' ) . If this is not a later insertion (as is possible), the reference should be to a house-church of the type knovvn at Dura; as vve savv earlier, the sixth-ceııtury Chrotıicle of Edessa itself attributes the laying o f the foundations of 'the' church at Edessa to 3127313, exactly vvhen vve vvould expect it. 7 Provisionally, then, this account is evidenee of the cxistcncc o f a Christian community at Edessa to parallel that at Dura. Second, the narrative of the flood is itself a povverful and vivid piece of vvriting. As such, it belongs vvith a contemporary vvork, the most important produet of early Syriac literatüre, the Book of the Laws of Countr'ıes (KTB' D N M W S ' D ' T R W T ' ) . In fact the vvord translated as 'lavvs', transliterated from the Greek nomos, vvould be better translated as 'customs'. In strueture also the vvork is a pure borrovving from the Grcck dialoguc ('A fevv days ago vvc vvent to visit our brother Shamashgeram, vvhen Bardaisan [ B R D Y Ş N ) camc and found us there . . . ' ) , and it takes the form of a discussion in vvhich Bardaisan demonstrates by reference to the variety of human customs in each area (and the maintenance of the same customs in different areas, as by the Jevvs) that human conduct is not and cannot be determined by the stars. İt is thus that hc arrives finally at the proof of this offered by 'the nevv people of us Christians', in a passage quoted earlier. 8 We knovv that Bardaisan, or in Greek Bardesancs, belongcd in the time of King Abgar, for the Christian scholar Iulius Africanus, a native of Palestine, 6. S c c I I . J. W. D r i j v e r s , " E i n n e u c n t d c c k t c s c d c s s c n i s c h c s G r a b m o s a i k " , Antike ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 1 7 ; m o r e f u l l y in " A T o m b f o r t h e L i f e o f t h e K i n g : A R e c e n r l y - d i s c o v c r e d M o s a i c w i t h a P o r t r a i t o f K i n g A b g a r t h e G r e a t " , Le Museon

Welt

ız 3

Edessene

9 3 . 1 - 2 (1982), 167. Some doubts

i n J . B . S c g a l , " A N o t e o n a M o s a i c f r o m E d e s s a " , Syria 60 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , 1 0 7 . 7 . $.3 a b o v e . 8 . 1 2 . 3 a b o v e . E d . a n d t r a n s . H . J . W. D r i j v e r s , 'Ihe Book on Fate of Bardaisan

of Edessa

{

)

-

of the Laws ofCountries:

Dialogue

encouııtered 'Bardesanes the Parthian' at the court of King Abgaros and his son Mannos. 9 By the early fourth century Bardesanes, 'a Syrian by birth, but w l ı o attaitıed to the summit of Chaldaean (astrological) learning', is named as the author of the dialoguc b y Eusebius, w h o quotes a large streteh of it in Grcck, \vithout, hovvever, saying explicitly that this is a translation. Yet in his Ecclesiastical History Eusebius had stated that Bardesanes' many \vorks had been vvritten in 'the language o f the Suroi\ and then been translated into Grcck by his follovvers. 10 There is no doubt that Bardesanes, vvhether literally the author of the dialogue or not, vvas a knovvn personality at Edessa. Much of the thought in the vvork can bc paralleled elsevvhere; but in terms of the examplcs of different customs vvhich it quotes, it is a unique vievv of the vvorld as seen from the eastern fringes of the Empire. We have already encountcrcd his obscrvation about Christians in Mcdia, Edessa ('\VRHY) and Hatra, vvho did not follovv the prevailing customs there, vvhich he had earlier listed, and vvhich vvere therefore not determined by the stars. Though not ali of his cxamplcs belong in the N e a r East, some vvhich d o arc particularly pointed: 'Rcccntly the R o mans have conquercd Arabia and done a vvay vvith ali the customs there used to bc, particularly circumcision'." As noted earlier, by 'Arabia' (*RB) Bardesanes might have meant anyvvhcre from the Red Sea to Mesopotamia itself. A series of Syriac tomb-inseriptions from Osrhoene, of vvhich tvvo date to AD 164/165, shovvs local officials, presumably under the kings, vvith the title 'ruler of Arab' (SLYT' D ' R B ) . As in the Hauran, these vvere probably military officials vvhosc role vvas to control the nomads on the fringe of the settlcd zone. 1 2 Bardesanes' ntost-quoted local reference, hovvever, is one on vvhich t o o much has been built: İ n Syria and Edessa (BSWRY W B ' W R H Y ) there vvas a custom of self-emasculation in honour of T R ' T ' (Atargatis), but vvhen K i n g Abgar H Y M N he ordered that every man vvho cmasculated himself have his hand chopped off. And from that day to this no one emasculates himself in the territory of Edessa ( B T R ' D ' W R H Y ) ' . 1 3 The vvord H Y M N , vvhich mcans 'believed', has often been taken as cvidcncc that Abgar converted to Christianity; and this convcrsion has then been interpreted as the origin of the legend that the carlicr Abgar, the contemporary of Jesus, had bcctı the first royal 9 . A f r i c a n u s , Kestui

1 , 1 0 ; cf. 10.4 a b o v e .

1 0 . E u s e b i u s , Praep.

Ev. V I , 9 , 3 2 t o 1 0 , 4 8 . F o r o t h e r s o u r c e s s e e H . J. W . D r i j v e r s ,

san of Edessa

Bardai-

(1966).

n . T r a n s . D r i j v c r s , o p . cit., 5 7 . 1 2 . D r i j v e r s , Inscriptions,

n o s . 5 , 7 , 9, 1 0 ? ( u n d a t e d ) ; 1 6 , 23 ( 1 6 4 / 1 6 5 ) . F o r t h e H a u r a u s e c

11.5 above. 1 3 . Based o n Drijvers' trans., o p . c i t . (n.8), 5 9 . Scc B r o c k , o p . cit., 1 2 . 3 , n . 3 3 , f o r the c o r recl interpretation.

convert. But in fact Bardcsancs takes Christianity as a separate and unconnected source of changing customs; and above ail Eusebius, in quoting this passage in Greek translation, sees no allusion to Christianity, but simply vvrites, 'at a single moment King A b g a r ordered . . .\ 1 4 There is thus no g o o d cvidcncc that thc kings of Edessa vvere ever Christian. If vve need a context f o r the order vvhich Abgar gave, it can be supplied by Dio's report that Caracalla's reason, or pretext, for deposing a king Abgar vvas that hc had bccn ınistreating his subjccts in thc effort to make them conform to Roman customs. 1 5 T h a t Abgar, if vve follovv the eighth-century Chronicle of Zuqnitı, will have been Abgar Severus, the son of Abgar 'tlıe Great'; and on the recoıısrruction given above the date vvill have been 2 1 2 / 1 1 3 . ^ut thc proccss of forced Romanisation might vvell have started under the father. The question of vvhich King Abgar is referred to by Bardesanes need not be decided. What is certain is that 212/213 vvas to bc counted later as year r 'of thc liberation' ( D H R W R ' ) of Edessa, and prcsumably therefore of its nevv status as a coloniaHor; as vve novv knovv from contemporary Syriac documents, the Seleucid year 5 5 3 ( A D 2 4 1 / 2 4 2 ) couııtcd as year 3 0 of the liberation, and year 5 5 4 ( A D 2 4 2 / 2 4 3 ) as year 3 1 . Year r vvas therefore the Seleucid year 5 2 4 ( 2 1 2 / 2 1 3 ) . We vvill come in a moment to the documents of tlıe early 2 4 0 S vvhich embody these dates, and vvhich give the full titles of the city, as a colonia, in that period. For thc moment it need mcrcly bc noted that colonial status (as vvell as 'liberation') did go back at least to the reign of Elagabal ( A D 2 1 8 - 2 2 2 ) ; for coins of Edessa as a colonia start then (or possibly under Caracalla), and continue to that of Gordian. But then a striking and unique ehange follovvs: coins appear reprcsentng and naming thc Emperor Gordian along vvith a king Abgar; 'Abgaros Basileus\ Moreover, a ncwly published Syriac documcnt of the Seleucid year 552 ( A D 2 4 0 / 2 4 1 ) shovvs that this year counted as year 2 of this king, vvhose full name, in Latin form, vvas 'Aclius Septimius Abgarus' ( ' L Y W S S P T M Y W S ' B G R M L K ' ) . His year i had therefore been z ^ / z ^ o . 1 7 We vvill come back later to the question of vvhat Edessa/'Orhai vvas like under its restored dynasty. But the other revelation of the nevv document is in somc vvays even more significant. For it shovvs that the father of thc restored king Abgar had been a M a ' n u vvith the title PSGRYB', 'crovvn prince'. The vvord is used in this sense in yet another vvonderful Christian historical novel vvritten in Syriac, the Acts of Thontas; but it also appears on a Syriac inserip-

1 4 . E u s e b i u s , Vraep. Ev, V I , 4 4 : jjtg ponfı o paotAEÛ^ " A f l y a p o ç e k ^ a e v k t e . . . 15. Dio LXXVII, 12, ı ' - ı 2 . 1 6 . F o r t h i s a n d vvhat f o l I o w s s e e M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae", g i v e n , i n c o r r c c t l y , as 2 x 3 / 2 1 4 ) . 1 7 . See belovv, tex« t o n . 2 2 .

4 6 - 5 0 (vvhere the first year is

tion from the citadel of Edessa naming 'Salmath, the queen, daughter o f M a ' n u the crovvn prince' ( § L M T M L K T BRT M ' N W PŞGRYB'); 1 8 the inseription is thus a reflcction of the continued importancc of the royal family in 'colonial' Edessa. For the nevv Syriac document shovvs also that Ma'nu the 'crown prince' had been the son of 'Abgar the king'. He vvas therefore (it seems) either the son or perhaps the brother of the Abgar (Severus) deposed in 2127213. These details vvould hardly matter if, first, they did nor happen to confirm that the Cbronicle of Zucjnin vvas, up to a point, riglıt in saying that after 'Abgar Severus' there had been a twenty-six-year reign of 'Ma'nu son of A b gar'. Placing the reign t o o early, the author in fact associated its end, very reasonably, vvith fighting in Mesopotamia under Caracalla ('Antoninos') and Macrinus (AD 2 1 7 / 2 1 8 ) . But in fact, as is novv clear, the twenty-six years vviil have been zız/zı3— 2 3 8 / 2 3 9 . \Vhat role vvas played in Edessa in this period by M a ' n u as 'king-in-vvaiting' vve cannot teli—indeed vve d o not knovv vvhether he vvas allovved to live there at ali: tvvo sons of a 'former king Abgaros' are knovvn to have lived in Rome, vvhere one dicd. 19 But it is to this first 'colonial' period of Edessa that tvvo of the most striking of the mosaics of Edessa are dated. Both shovv in an cxtraordinarily cxplicit vvay the representation of Greek culture in a Syriacspeaking environment. T h e first is the mosaic on the floor of a tomb, constructed in the Seleucid year 5 3 9 ( A D 2 2 7 / 2 2 8 ) , vvhich represents Orphcus scated under a tree and playing his lyrc to birds and animals around him. In case the identification might be in doubt, a label is attached in Syriac: 'RPWS. T h e second dates to the year 5 4 7 ( A D 2 3 5 / 2 3 6 ) , and shovvs a large bird standing on a tomb in a grovc of trees. Again it is identified: PNKS (phoenix). A number of other mosaics, none, hovvever, precisely dated, represent the richly robed members of vvhat seem to be Edessene leading farnilies. 20 Though tlıc use of pagan motifs, for instance a funerary couch or a tripod, vvould n o t provc that the persons concerned vvere pagan, there is nothing at ali to shovv the influence of Christianity. But even in vvhat vvas officially a colonia, minting Greek coins, very distinetive local art, dress and language flourished. It seems certain that Edessa remained predominantly a pagan city throughout our period. But Christianity vvas already established there, as vve have scen; and a Christian apology preserved only in the same Syriac manuseript as the Bardesanes dialogue, the Oration of Meliton the Philosopher ( M ' M R '

18. Drijvcrs, İnseriptions, no. 27. 19. IGR I, no. 179 = Moreni, IGUR, no. 1142. 20. Orphcus: Scgal, Edessa, l'l. 44; Drijvcrs, İnseriptions, no. 50; Phoeni*: Segai, Pl. 45; Drijvcrs, no. 49. Scc J. Lcroy, "Mosaiqucs funfrraires d'Hdessc", Syria 34 (1957), 306; J. Bally, ANRW İI.12.2 (1981), 387-390.

D M Y L Y T W N PYLSWP'), may have bceıı \vritten originally in Syriac, and may cmanace from Edessa (or even from Hierapolis, to which it also refers); if so, the 'Antoninos Kaisar' to w h o m the heading says that it \vas addrcsscd may have been either M a r c u s Aurelius or Caracalla (both ' M . Aurelius Antoninus') during his campaigns in 216 and 2 1 7 . But if it really \vas so addressed, then it must of course have been in a Greek version. However, until this negleeted vvork, published tvvice in 1 8 5 5 , has been analysed more carcfully, it must bc left aside. 21 T h e recent publication o f authentic documentary evidence means in any casc that vve can concentrate on that. T h e first revelation of the nevvly published Syriac document from the period of the restored monarehy, already referred to above, is that not only the political framevvork but the nature and even the name of the city have changed. It also gives a glinıpse of other places in the area: Itı the moııth Kanun of the former year 552, in the year 3 of Autokratoı Kaisar Markos Antoninos Gordianos, Fortunate and Victorious, in year 2 of TAVS SPTMYWS 'BGR M L K ' BR M ' N W PŞGRYB' BR 'BGR M L K ' vvho is honoured vvith the H P T V (bypateia—a 'consular' rank) in 'RI1Y (sic), the fortress city, mother of ali the cities of Mesopotamia ( D B Y T NHRYN—literally 4of betvveen the rivers'), this document vvas vvritten in HYKL' KRK' H D T ' D Ş Y D ' of Abgar the king . . . » O n c of the partics is callcd Bagcshu son of Abgar son of Shamishu, f r o m the village ( Q R Y T ' ) of Mihru; his attestation is vvritten for him because he can neither read nor vvrite. The other is Worod son of Nisharyahab, residen: at Karka, but a native of a place callcd B Y T P W R Y N . It is this fact vvhich explains vvhy this contract vvas f o u n d in the nevv archive of mainly Greek documents vvhich largely relate t o places on the Euphrates. For, as vve have seen briefly earlier, 'Beth Phouraia' (spelled in its Greek form in a variety of vvays) vvas a village on the Euphrates above Dura, not far from its confluence vvith the Clıabur. 23 A hint of hovv these places vvere linked in practice is provided a . T e x t {in S c r t a ) iıı C u r e t o ı ı , Spicilegium Text

and Latin translation

Syriacum

( 1 8 5 5 ) , zıi(.

a l s o i n J. B . P i t r a , Spicilegium

(at end); translation, 4 ı f f .

Solesmensc

II ( 1 8 5 5 ) ,

xxx:iiff.

J . - M . V e r m a n d e r , " L a p a r u t i o n d e l ' o u v r a g e d e C e l s e et la d a t a t i o n d c q u c l q u c s a p o l o g i c s ™ , Reme

des

tludes

Augııstinicnnes

18

(1971),

2.7, otı

pp. 3 3 - 3 6 ,

argucs

t h a t the

addressee

| ' N T W N Y W S Q S R ) is M a r c u s A u r e l i u s , a n d t h e d a t e 1 6 9 . It is v e r y b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d in H . J. W . D r i j v e r s , Cults

and Beliefs

at Edessa

( 1 9 8 0 ) , 3 5 - 3 6 . S e c 7 . 2 a n d 8.4 a b o v e f o r v v h a t it r e p o r t s o f

c u l t s in H i e r a p o l i s a n d in B y b l o s . 22. A p r e t i m i n a r y p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e h e a d i n g in J. T e i x i d o r , " I « s d e n ı i c r s r o i s d ' E d c s s e d ' a prds d c u x n o u v c a u * d o c u m c n t s s y r i a q u c s n , Y.PE 7 6 ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 2 1 9 ; full t c x t i n J. T c i x i d o r , " D : u x documcnts syriaqucsdu l l l c s i c c l c p r o v e n a n t d u moyen Euphratc", C K A / ( 1990), 1 4 4 , docun.cnt A . P h o t o g r a p h o n p. 1 4 5 . 2 3 . 4 . x a b o v e . T h e G r c c k d o c u m c n t s , o f vvhich o n l y n o . 1 h a s b e e n f u l l y p u b l i s h e d (v»ith a d m i r a b l e s p c c d ) s o far, vvill bc r e f e r r e d t o belovv a s in t h e lise in D . Fcissel a n d J. G a s c o u ,

by the fact that K R K ' H DT ' D Ş Y D ' , 'the nevv Karka of Şayda', must be the place vvhich Isidorus refers to a s lying on the route betvveen the Euphrates at Zeugma and the hcadvvatcrs of the Balikh: 'Charaka Sidou, (called) by the Greeks Anthemousia'. 'I he place vvas 'ncw', presumably, bccausc Syriac speakers could novv revert to using its Semitic name. If it vvas really vvithin the domains of the restored monarehy, these must have been extended vvest since Severus' reign. 24 These Syriac speakers vvere also Syriac vvriters. For although the vvhole document vvas vvritten by a seribe, five vvitnesses added their names on the back iıı Syriac. T h e use of the language, hovvever, vvas to survive the abrupt ending of the kingdom and the restoration of colonial status to vvhat vvas novv called, even in Syriac, Edessa: this must have occurred betvveen December o f AD 240 and the date of the next Syriac document, also from the nevv archive, Septembcr 24Z. 25 It is dated by year 5 of Gordian, by the consuls of 242 and (as mentioned above) by year 30 of the liberation of 'the illustrious Antonina Edessa colonia metropolis Aurelia Alexandria' ( ' N T W N Y N ' ' D Y S ' N Ş Y H T ' Q L W N Y ' MTRPNVLS ' W R L Y ' ' L K S N D R Y ' ) . This document too, hovvever, vvas not vvritten at Edessa, b u t at a place called Marcopolis Thcra ( ? ) — M R Q P W L S T R ' — v v h i c h turns out to have its ovvn local officials: 4in tlıc priesthood ( K M R W T ) of M a r k o s Aurclios ' N T ' I I Y W R W S son of Aggai, and in the arehonship ( ' R K W N W T ' ) of M a r k o s Aurelios Alcxandros son of SWBS and of B R ' T ' BR S L M S Y N ' . Once again Worod fronı Beth Phouraia on the Euphrates is involved, İcasing some land to a ııative of Marcopolis. 'Marcopolis', it seems, vvas in fact yet another name for Charaka Sidou/Anthemousia, and may have come into use before the brief royal restoration. But novv at any rate a Greck/Syriac polis vvith a Latin/Grcck name is funetioning thcrc; in this region city-formation continued to the end of the period. T h e same context—the restored colonial status of Edessa under R o m a n r u l e — i s also revealed in the famous Syriac bili of sale of 243, found at Dura but vvritten, in this casc, in Edessa itself. 26 One copy vvas to be entercd in the arehives ( B ' R K Y \ V N — a r c h e i o n ) of the city. Various features of this document are vvorth emphasis. First, there is in this case no internal evidenee to suggest vvlıy it vvill subsequcntly have been taken, in the course of the ncxt " D o c u m c n t s d ' a r c h ı v c s r o m a i n s i n e d i t s d u M o y c n - E u p h r a t c (III' s i c c l c a p r e s J . - C . ) " ,

CRA/

(1989), 535. 24. C f . 3.4 a h o v c . 2 j . T h e first n i n e lines o f this d i f f ı c u l t t c x t a r e p u b l i s h c d b y T e i x i d o r as d o c u m e n t B in C R A / ( 1 9 9 0 ) , i 5 4 f f . In I.4 T c i x i d o r r e a d s B ' M R W T % ' i n t h e r e s i d e n e y ' , s u r e l y w r o n g l y , as S c b a s t i a n B r o c k k i n d l y c o n f i r m s . F o r this vvas o r i g i n a l l y r c a d in P. Dura, B K M R W T ' , ' i n t h e p r i e s t h o o d ' , b y J. G o l d s t e i n i n JNES

n o . 1 8 , 1-4, b u t c o r r e c t c d t o

25 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , i . T c i x i d o r u n f o r t u n a t c l y

p u r s u e s t h e idea o f a R o m a n ' r e s i d e n t ' o f f i c i a l b e i n g p o s t e d t o t h e t o v v n . 2 6 . P. Dura, 4.2 above.

n o . 2 8 ; J. G o l d s t e i n , / N E S 2 5 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 1 ; D r i j v e r s , inseriptions,

pp. 54-57. C f .

decade, to Dura. Sccond, thc charactcr of Edessa as a colonia is shown not only in its title but in the use of the transliterated Greek term strategia (B'STRTGVPT')—the normal equivaleııt f o r duumviratus—for its t w o anr.ual magistrates, thus exactly as at Palmyra in thc same period. As at Palmyra, one of these is a Roman eques, a rank signified by transliterating the Greek vvords hippeus, 'horseman' (HPWS), and römaios (RHMWS). Third, onc of the vvitnesses sigııs in Greek, and another, on thc back, in both languages. He in fact is onc of the tvvo strategoi, Marcus Aurelius Abgar, and signs as ' W R L S 'BGR S T R T G S H D (vvitness) in Syriac, and as 'Abgaros' in Grcck. Formal proof of basic literacy in both seripts is rare. T h c other vvitnesses sign their names in Syriac. But thc seller in thc contract (for the purehase of a female slavc) does not, because she is illiterate. Her husband therefore vvrites her attestation for her. Like everyone concerned, hc is a Roman citizcn vvith thc nomen 'Aurelius': 'I, 'WRLS HPSY BR S M S Y H B , F.desscne ('DYSY') of the tvvelfth tribe ( P Y L Y S — f r o m the Greek phyles), declare that I have vvritten on behalf of ' W R L Y ' M T R ' T ' , m y vvife, in the subscription because she has not the capacity to vvrite'. Like thc other Syriac documcnts, hovvever, this one also takes us outside Edessa itself. For the purehaser comes from Carrhae/Harran—novv, a s vve savv earlier, another R o m a n colonia—and duly has a full Roman name: L\VQS ' W R L S T Y R W BR B R B ' S M N H R N Y ' — ' L u c i u s Aurelius Tıro . . . Harranian'. Slight as it is, this glimpse of someone from this ancient city represents almost our only evidence for it in the Imperial period, betvveen thc first ccntury BC, vvhen its people arc reported to have regarded themselves stili as Maccdonian settlers, and thc late Empire, vvhen thc famous temple of the Moon-goddess (vvhich Caracalla had been on his vvay to visit vvhen murdercd in 2.17) vvas stili open, and thc population vvas stili firmly pagan. 2 7 But here as elsevvhere in Roman Mesopotamia of the third ccntury, brief snapshots are also available (or soon vvill be) from the nevv arehive from the middle Euphrates. T h e fact that this is so İs itself an indication of the links betvveen :hc tvvo arcas. 28 So, for instance, one of rhe nevv documents is a Greek contract of sale dravvn up at Carrhae ('Aurelia Carrhae colonia, metropolis of Mesopotamia') in AD 2 5 0 . T h c seller, Aurelios Barbesumcs from Carrhae, belonging to the tribe 'Antöııiane', makes his attestation in Syriac, as d o thc vvitnesses. T h e purehaser of the mare in questioıı comes from Beth Phouraia on the Euphrates. 2 7 . See W . C r a m c r , " H a r r a n " , RAC

X I I I ( 1 9 8 6 ) , 6 3 4 ; f o r t h e s i t e , vvith its c i r c u i t o f vvalls,

see S. I . l o y d a n d W . B r i ç e , " H a r r a n " , Anat.

Stud.

1 (1951), 77.

2 8 . A s n o t e d a h o v c , I d e p e n d o n t h c list g i v e n b y F c i s s c l a n d G a s c o u , C R A İ ( 1 9 8 9 ) , j . 5 7 f f . In t h e o r d e r a s m e n t i o n e d belovv: n o . 1 0 ( C a r r h a e ) ; n o s . 8—9 ( N i s i b i s ) ; 6 - 7 ( M a r c o p o l i s ) ; 1 2 (Beth P h o u r a i a ) ; 3 - 4 ( p e t i t i o n o f bouleutes

of N c a p o l i s ) .

T h e economic contacts made in daily life there prove to have stretched even as far as Nisibis. A contract for the sale of a slave at Beth Phouraia in 251 refers back to a previous contract, dra\vn up in the colonia of Nisibis in 250, for the sale of the same slave to a man named Absalmas son of Abdrodakos; he comes from the village of Beathagae in the territory of 'Theganaba", in an arca called Abourene. This must mcan the area round the Chabur River, probably its upper reaches. A similar slave-sale of the ncxt year shovvs a nativc of another village in Abourene, resident at Beth Phouraia, rc-sclling a slave vvhom he had bought at Nisibis from the vvife of a ccnturion. Here, f o r the first time, vve come aeross a subscription in Syriac vvritten at Beth Phouraia, vvest of the Euphrates. Similarly, from the vvestern p a r t of Mesopotamia there are tvvo copies of another contract for the sale o f a slave dravvn up in 249 at the place novv called Marcopolis. Again, vvhile the document is in Greek, the subscriptions are in Syriac, including a declaration by Aurelius Kozas on behalf of his sister Matthabeine, vvho is illiterate. Finally, it is striking that some Greek documents dravvn up at Beth Phouraia, and vvith no apparent involvement of people from Mesopotamia, also contain subscriptions in Syriac. One of these is a document of a different şort, a petition addressed to a Roman praefectus. The vvriter is Aurelius Abdsautas son of Abidierdos, a bouleutes of Neapolis (as it seems, literally a 'nevv city" crcatcd out of the tovvn of Appadana on the Euphrates north of Dura), but resident in Beth Phouraia. Even he, vvhose nevv rank might seem a prime example of the stili aetive influence of GraecoRoman models of urban life, a n d vvho is addressing a Roman official, nonetheless makes his subscription in Syriac. Even this one arehive of the midthird ccntury must mcan that the earlier history of the diffusion and use of Syriac has to be entirely re-considered. In political terms, as vve savv earlier, the nevv arehive, vvith its dated documcnts, provides conclusive evidcnce that in the middle of the third century ali of Mesopotamia, from Marcopolis eastvvards to Carrhae and Nisibis, vvas in Roman hands. Like Palmyra, the vvhole region from the Euphrates to the Tigris vvas novv 'Roman', 'Greek' and 'Syrian' at the same time. 12.6. S O C İ A L A N D RELİGİOUS CURRENT.S IN T H E F O U R T H C E N T U R Y After the middle of the third ccntury our evidence for the vvhole area shaped by the Euphrates, by the tvvo rivers running into it from the Mesopotamian shelf, the Balikh and the Chabur, and by the Tigris, of vvhich a long streteh bccamc 'Roman' under the treaty of 298/299, is virtually non-existent f o r some dccades. .Even taking a longer vievv, vve knovv very little indeed either of the eastern

part of vvhat bccamc Roman Mesopotamia, of the earlier social history of the Tur Abdın (Mons Masius) o r of the plain to the north of it around Amida, vvhich vvas to be fortified by Constantius in the 3 3 0 S . 1 This latter area vvas to be the heartland of Syriac monasticism, vvhose last remııants stili peısist there. 2 Even of Nisibis, vvhich vvas clearly the central place in the eastern part of the Mesopotamian shelf, vve have only scraps of cxternal information from the Parthian and earlier Roman periods. 3 The cffect of our ignorancc is above ali that vvc can supply no significant context or background against vvhich to set the vvrirings of the greatest figüre in early Syriac Christianity, Kphrem, born at Nisibis in the early years o f the fourth century. 4 We can take it as certain, hovvever, that both as a GraecoRoman city, a colonia, vvith a city-council as normal, and as a Christian community, Nisibis continued to be a bilingual, not to say trilingual, place. T h e earliest survivitıg Christian monument of the region is a baptistry at Nisibis dated by the Grcck building-inscription of the bishop Vologaeses and the presbyter Akepsumas to AD 359.* T h e social strueture, the languages and the art and arehiteeture of the vvhole region, of vvhich part, the middle Euphrates, had been under Roman rule from the r6os and the rest from the r<>os, ali remain mysterious, t o be glimpsed only in scattered items of internal and external evidenee. T h e villages vvhich certainly lined the rivers and covered the fertilc area of the northMesopotamian shelf arc as yet in most cases not even names. But the nevv archive is sufficient to shovv, vvhat vve could not have presumed, that daily ife there involved the use of legal documents vvritten in both Greek and S y r i a c — and the latter on the vvestern bank of the Euphrates, as vvell as in Mesopotamia. Even the cities remain hardly more than names, at least until vve encounter Ammianus' eye-vvitness narrative of events in the mid-fourth century. But again the nevv archive shovvs hovv real vvere the changes of identity brought 1 . F o r t h e final s t a g e s o f t h e R o m a n a d v a n c e i n t o t h i s a r c a , 5.3 a h o v c . 2. F o r a n e x t r e m e l y i n r c r c s t i n g a c c o u n t , u n f o r t u n a t c l y a c c o m p a n i c d b y a q u i t c r c m a r k a b l y u n i n t e l l i g i b l e m a p ( p p . x x i - x j : i i ) , se-e A . P a l m e ^ Monk Early

History

of Tur 'Abd'tn

and Mason

on the 'Vigris Frontier:

The

(1990).

3. S e e , e . g , , N . P i g u l e v s k a y a , L e s villes

de l'etat

iranien

aux

epacfues

partbe

et

sassaıade

( 1 9 6 3 ) , c h . 4, " N i s i b c , ville f r o n t i e r e " , 4. O n E p h r c m , v v h o m I m e r c l y m e n t i o r ı , n o t b e i n g in a p o s i t i o n t o s a y m o r e , see, IL M u r r a y , Syrnbols

of Church

and

Kingdom:

K . E . M c V e y a n d J . M e y e r d o r f f , Ephrem S . B r o c k , The Luminûus

A Study

the Syrian:

Eye: The Spiritual

World

m Early

Hymns

Vision

ofSl.

Syriac

Tradition

eg.,

(197$), »9ff.;

( 1 9 8 9 ) , introd. and trans. C f . also Ephrem

(1985).

5. F o r t h e ' o r d o et p o p u l u s ' t h e r e , A m m i a n u s X X V , 9 , 2 . F o r t h e b a p t i s t e r y o f M a r Y a k c ı ı p s e e , e . g . , M . M . M a n g o , " The C o n t i n u i t y o f t h e C l a s s i c a l T r a d i t i o n i n t h e A r t a n d A r c h i t c c t n r c o f N o r t h e r n M e s o p o t a m i a " , in N . G a r s o i a n , T . E M a t t h c v v s a n d R. W . T h o m s o n (eds.), East Byzantium:

Syria and Armenia

in the Formative

F i c t i o n — t h e T h i r d S i c g e o f N i s i b i s " , llistoria

Period

of

( 1 9 8 2 ) , x ı 5 ; C . S . L i g h t f o o t , " F a c t s and

32 (1988), xo$, o n pp. 1 0 9 - 1 1 0 .

abouc by rhc confcrmcnt of the title colonia, as vvell as illustrating both the police-functions of the army and the economic exchanges betvveen soldier and civilian. 6 Yet a further—and stili more mysterious—element in an already complex social and cultural pattern vvill have been created by trade passing through this part of the Fertile Crcscent. O u r earlier sources, Strabo and Isidorus, speak of trade going across the Euphrates and then dovvn the Balikh and dovvnstream along the Euphrates to Babylonia. Another of the documents in the nevv archive shovvs Worod of Bcth Phouraia advising his son Nisraios about hiring pack-camels for the transport of goods from Bcroea (Alcppo) t o Zeugma. 7 They might perhaps have then gone on to the middle Euphrates, vvhere Beth Phouraia lay. But it may be that later the main direetion of longdistance trade changed: not dovvn the Euphrates but across the Fertile Crcscent aııd then dovvn tlıe Tigris. Ammianus records that vvhen Julian reached Carrhae, tvvo roads to Persia lay öpen—eastvvard by Adiabene and the Tigris, or south via the Euphrates." But it is possible that a trade-route novv led not dovvn the Tigris to Babylonia a n d the Gulf but directly eastvvards to central Asia. Any such conclusion vvould, hovvever, bc too much to build on a scatter of literary refcrences, though these are certainly suggestive. There is, first, the role of Nisibis as a centrc f o r commercial exchanges, as laid dovvn in the treaty of 298/299. Then there is the deseription in the Expositio totius mimdi, vvritten in the mid-fourth century, of the vvealth vvhich Nisibis and Edessa (or Amida?) gained from trade vvith Persia, and from the re-sale of goods to the rest of the Roman vvorld. 9 But above ali there is Ammianus' account of Batnac, a tovvn situated near the hcadvvaters of the Balikh, in the area vvhich Isidorus had called Barane: The tovvn of Batne, founded in Anthemusia in early times by a band of Macedonians, is separated by a short space from the river Euphrates; it is fillcd vvith vvcalthy traders vvhen, at the ycarly festival, near the beginning of the month of September, a great crovvd of every condition garhers for the faic, to traffıc in tlıc vvares sent from Itıdia and China, and in other articlcs that are rcgularly brought there in great abundancc by land and sea.10 Whether there vvas really a profound ehange in the direetion of trade remains uncertain, for this district had alvvays, as vve have seen, been on the 6. 4 . 1 a n d 1 2 . 5 a b o v e . 7 . CRAI

<1989), 560, n o .

16.

8. A m m i a n u s X X I U , 3 , 1 . F o r A m m i a n u s ' a c c o u n t o f t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n r e g i o n , see a b o v e ali J. M a t t h c w s , The

Rottum

World

9 . T r e a t y : 3 . 1 a b o v e ; Iixpositio

of Ammianus totius

10. A m m i a n u s X I V , 3, 3 , 1 - o e b trans.

mundiet

(1989), esp. chs. 4 and 8. gentium

2 1 , e d . J. R o u g e ( S C n o . 1 2 4 , 1 9 6 6 ) .

favourcd road which lcd via the Balikh d o w n the Euphrates. Ammianus' typically vivid narrative at this point is perhaps more significant in rcvcaling how ali these places lay close to barren steppe, and were exposcd to the raids of the Saraceni w h o lived there. Eor in this year (AD 3 5 4 ) a daring Persian rai d along the southern cdgc of Roman Mesopotamia had been directed through the steppe ('per solitudines') and had crossed the narrovv fertile strip on eirher side of the Chabur ('Aboraeque amnis herbidas ripas'); the Persian forces vvere then joincd by the Saraceni, of w h o m Ammianus gives a highly coloured, if conventional, account. In his vicvv ali the unsettled peoples, praetising no agriculture, and using horses and camels, from the Nile to 'Assyria' had the same customs." IIc later returns to their daııgcrous and unstable diplomatic and miiitary relations vvith the Empire several times, in the course of narrating Julian's march into Persia—first vvhen the reguli of the Saracenae getıtes came to grcet the Emperor at Callinicum, vvhere the Balikh flovvs into the Euphrates. 12 K o t much had changed since Strabo's time cxcept that Roman forccs vvere novv present on this 'desert frontier'; and novv, for the first time, vve see these getıtes playing that miiitary role in relation to Rome vvhich vvas to bc so important in later centuries. There is no contradiction betvveen deseribing the line of Roman forts and roads along the cdgc of the steppe as a 'frontier' and admitting that Saraceni vvere to be found inside that line as vvell as outside it. Those vvho came to grcet Julian al Callinicum m a y have come either from the east or from the vvest of the Euphrates, that is, from the large spacc betvveen Palmyra and its territory to the south, and Chalcis, Beroea and Hierapolis to the north. Ordinary travellers in this area never ceased to be in danger of their attacks. This fact provides the contcxt for tlıc brilliantly evocative Life of the hermit M a l chus by Jerome, vvritten in the early 3 9 0 S and set in the first half of the fourth century. Its hero, vvhose story is narrated by himself in the first persoıı, as allegcdly told to Jerome m a n y years before, came from a family of farmers at Nisibis. Determining to be a monk, but unable to go east 'because of the Persians and the Roman frontier' (the story is set before 3 6 3 ) , he instead vvsnt wcst to the desert of Chalcis. But then, vvanting to see his parents, he began to travel east again: Lying near the public highvvay from Beroea to Edessa, there is a desert through vvhich nomad Saracens are alvvays vvandering back and forth. For this reason, travellers along the vvay group together and, by mutual aid, 1 1 . A m m i a n u s X I V , 4. S e c c s p . B. S h a w , " E a ı e r s o f F l c s l ı , D r i n k c r s o f M i l k : T h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n I d c o l o g y o f t l ı c P a s t o r a l N o m a d " , Ancient

Society

Anccnt

1 3 - 1 4 (1982-83), j.

1 2 . A m m i a n u s X X I I I , 3 , 8; c f . , e . g . , X X I V , 1 , r o ; 2 , 4: ' M a l c c h u s P o d o s a c i s n o m i n c , p h y l a r c h u s S a r a c c n o r u m A s s a n i t a r u m ' , p e r h a p s t h e e a r l i e s t r c f c r c n c e t o t h e G h a s s a n i d s ; s e e A'iatt h e w s , o p . cit. (n.8), 3 5 2 .

decrease the danger of surprise attack. There were in my company men, vvomcn, old men, young people, children, numbering in ali about seventy. Suddenly, Jshmaelites, riding upon horscs and canıcls, descended upon us in a startling attack, vvith their long hair flying from under their hcadbands. They vvorc eloaks över their half-naked bodies, and broad boots. Quivers hung from their shouldcrs; their unstrung bows dangled at their sides; they carried long spears, for they had not comc for battle but for plundcr.13 T h e rest of the tale, his captivity and eventual escape, need not concern us. W h a t matters is the vivid portrait of the Saraceni. Jerome does not trouble t o indicatc prccisc dates and places, and it is not even clear vvhether this dramatic episode is supposed to have occurrcd vvest or east of the Euphrates. It does not matter, for the vvhole route vvas similarly exposcd. For ali its stercotypical and ovcr-dramatised eiements, the story is a genuine refleetion of social contrasts and conflicts along thc cdgc of thc steppe. Nonetheless, although this factor remained constant, very profound changes had occurred in the four centuries since Crassus had met his famous disaster outside Carrhae in 53 BC. There vvas thc definite exteıısion of R o m a n rule, even if in the mid-third century it vvithdrevv again from Dura and thc middle Euphrates belovv thc Chabur, and in the mid-fourth from Nisibis and eastern Mesopotamia; thc presence of Roman governors and soldiers, aeting under the orders of distant Emperors; the re-enaetment of thc earlier I lellcnistic process of city-formation, not only creating nevv Greek cities, like Marcopolis, Ncapolis or Antininopolis (later Constantia), but making Roman coloniae of Dura, Carrhae, Rheshaina, Singara, Nisibis and Edessa; the spread of Christianity; and the emergence of Syriac as a literary language. W h y this emergence should have coincidcd quite closely vvith the spread of Roman rule, it is impossible to say; no such development took placc in the case of either Nabataean or Palmyrene. But Syriac vvas in any case not confincd to thc arca rulcd by R o m e . T h c tvventy-three surviving homilies o f Aphrahat, dating to An 336/337 and 343/344, vvere vvritten outside thc Empire, under Sasanid rule. 14 T h e emergence both of a Syriac-speaking church and of Syriac as a language in vvhich Christian theology could be expressed vvas therefore a phenomenon vvhich vvas not dependent on the existence o f the Empire; nor on the other hand did the influence of this Graeco-Roman empire serve to suppress it. T h e contrast vvith Nabataean and Palmyrene remains to be explained. 1 3 . J e r o m e , V. Malchi ( c d . ) , Early

Christian

{PL X X I I I , c o l s . 5 5 - 6 » . ) , 4. T r a n s . M . L . E w a l d in R. J. D e f c r r a r i

Biographies

1 4 . 1 . P a r i s o t , Apbraatis

( 1 9 5 1 ) , ı S ı f f . S c c J, N'. D . K e l l y , Jerome

Sapientis

Persae

1 9 0 7 ) ; sec A . V ö ö b u s , " A p h r a h a t " , Jahrb.

Demonstrationes, f. Ant.

Patrologia

(i97S). 7 1 - ? * Syriaca

I.ı—2 (1904.-

u. CJtr. 3 ( 1 9 6 0 ) , 1 5 1 ; I. O r t i z d c U r b i n a ,

The fact that Syriac vvas a living language in vvhich not only theological discjuisitions but rcal-iifc narratives could bc vrritten does, hovvever, mcan that vve can see the Roman Empire of the early fourth century, and the city of Edessa, not only through Greek and Latin sources, but through the medium of tvvo brilliant Christian historical narratives composcd in Syriac, the martyracts of Shmona and Guria and of Habib the deacon, set in the Great Persecution. 15 These texts, cach knovvn only from a single late manuseript, are certainly not documentary records of events; hence they vvere not used earlier in the deseription of the effects of the Great Persecution in the Near East. 16 But they arc, on the other hand, not pure historical fictions like the Syriac martyr-acts of Sharbil and Barsamya, set under Trajan. 1 7 T h e three martyrs arc named as such by Ephrem, and are also listed in a calendar of martyrs at Edessa vvhich is containcd in the carliest Syriac literary manuseript, of A D 4 1 ı . ' 8 There can be no certainty that the surviving manuseripts of these martyr-acts themselves accurately represent vvhat vvas originally vvritten. But it does seem that vvhat vve have goes back to narratives, vvith strongly marked novelistic and didactıc elements, vvhich vvere vvritten in Edessa in the fourth century, and d o genuinely reflect the historical circumstances of the Great Persecution, the life of the city, the country-districts ( Q W R Y ' ) around it, or an individual village {QRYT*), and even the institutions of Edessa as a colonia. Thus the Marlyrdom of Shmona and Guria begins: i n the year 6 1 8 of the kingdom of Alcxander, the Macedonian king ( M L K ' M ' Q D W N Y ' ) . . . in the magistracy ('STR'RYGWT', a s in the Syriac contracts) of A b a and of Abgar son of Z ' o r a , in the days of Q o n a bishop of Edessa ('PSQWP' D ' W R H Y ) , the vvickcd Diocictian had made a persecution'. T h e Seleucid year 6 1 8 vvas AD 3 0 6 / 3 0 7 , vvhen Diocletian had already abdicated. But the sequcncc of persecutions had been initiated by h i m in 3 0 3 , and general orders f o r sacrifice vvere being cnforced in the N e a r East in these y e a r s . " T h e vvriter's perception of exactly vvhich Emperor had been in povver vvhen is vague, just as it is in the account (presented as being b y the same hand) of the martyrdom of Habib. Here the year given is 6 2 0 , 3 0 8 / 3 0 9 , but the persecuting Emperor is narned (vvrongly) as Licinius ( L Y Q N S M L K ' ) , vvhile rumours are spreading that Con-

Patrologia 75

Syriaca1

(1965), 4 6 - 5 1 ; H D . Barnes, " C o n s t a n t i n e and the Christians of P e r s i a " , / R 5

(«985).

i j. Scc for tcKts and translations F. C. Burkitt, Euphmtia Martyrdom

of the Confessors

of Edessa

16. 5.2 above. 17. 12.3 above. 1 8 . S e e B r o c k , o p . cit. in 1 2 . 3 , n . 3 3 . 19. 5.2 above.

(1913).

and the Goth,

wilh

the Acts

of

stantine, in the vvest, is not persecuting, and is about to march against hin». T h e vvider circumstances are hopelessly confused, refiecting (if anything) the relations of Constantinc, Maxentius and Licinius in 3 1 2 / 3 1 3 . But here too the office of the tvvo chief magistrates of the city is correctly called ' S T R G T Y G W T ' (the strategia or duumviratus of a colonia); and the governor ( 1 1 G M W N ' — h e g e m ö n , the normal Grcck for praeses) is portrayed exercising povver in the city attended by his staff (TKS'—taxis) or officiales ( ' W P Y Q Y N ) . It is indeed precisely the fact that the narrarive is shot through vvith Greek and Latin loan-vvords that shovvs that this is the language of e v cryday life in a city under R o m a n rule: the govcrnor's court of justicc ( B Y T D Y N ' ) may also be called a Ü Y Q S T R Y N (dikasterion); there he sits on his B ' M (bSma—tribunal) in the B S L Y Q ' near the baths (BL'NY—balaneia). We thus scc, in narrative form, something of the integration of tvvo—and up t o a point three—languages vvhich is also visible in the public inseriptions of Palmyra. T h e purpose of the narrative, hovvever, is to display not accommodation and integration but the unyielding opposition of Christian principles and Christian tradition to the demands of the pagan state. Perhaps surprisiııgly, ncither martyr-act has anything much to say of the pagan cults of the city. For an evocation of those vve have to turn, unfortunately, to the fictional marryracts of Slıarbil and Barsamya, set under Trajan: The vvhole city vvas assembled together near the great altar vvhich is in the middle of the city opposite the office of records, ali the gods having been brought together, and then been decorated, and set up in honour, both Nebu and Bel together vviıh their eompatıions. And ali the high-priests vvere offering svveet incensc and libations, and the odour of the sacrificcs vvas diffusing itself, and sheep and oxen vvere being slaughtered, and the voice of the harp and the tabor vvas lıeard in the vvhole of the city.70 But vvhether a valid reconstruction of the paganism of Kdessa can be based on this and other later Syriac sources is a question vvhich must be left aside here. 21 It is more important to stress that in the rclatively authentic martyracts of the Great Persecution a ringing appeal is made to the historical inherirance of the Bible. Shmona, suspended head dovvn by his torturers, invokes the G o d of Abraham, Joseph, M o s e s , Jephthah, David, Daniel, Simon, Paul and Stephen. Yet it is precisely this vvhich serves to recall the paradox presented by the historical culture of the N e a r F.ast in this period, T h e martyr 2 0 . For ı h e A c t s o f S l ı a r b i l a n d B a r s a m y a s c c 1 2 . 3 a b o v e . T r a n s . W . C u r e t o n , Ancient Documents

Syriac

{1864), 4 1 .

2 1 . S c c t h e c x t r c m c l y i n t e r e s t i n g b o o k o f H . J. W . D r i j v e r s , Cults

and

Reliefs

at

Fdessa

(1980), vvhich nonetheless seems to d e p e n d to a hazardous degree o n later Syriac Christiajı vvorks.

makcs an appeal, in Syriac, t o the central figures in a national tradition first set out in another Semitic language, Hebrevv. But vvhat he says could ha»c been said, and vvas, just as vvell by contemporaries speaking in Greek, o r :n Latin. What, if anything, the historical perspeetive of Syriac-speaking Christians the Roman Empire vvas to ovve to traditions from outside Greek culture is stili mysterious. But it vvould not at any rate bc any sense of the history of the period before Alexander other than that derived from the Biblc. N o r vvas the communal reaction of Christians in Edessa to the restitution ordercd by Constantine and Licinius visibly different from that anyvvhere elss: as the sixth-century Cbronicle of Edessa reeords, from AD 3 r z/3 T 3 onvvards they built a church, a cemetery and a chapel to the memory of the confeîsors. 22 But by novv the story o f Abraham as told in Genesis could be exploited to give Carrhae a place in religious history to vvhich Edessa could lay no claim. When the vvestern pilgrim Egeria visited Carrhae iti the 3 8 0 S , she vvas shovvn a church outside the city vvhich stood 011 tlıc site of Abraham's house, and the vvell from vvhich Rebecca had dravvn vvater. T h e vvell vvhere Jacob had vvatered the animals fed by Rachel lay further outside the city, but could bc visited, vvhereas Ur of the Chaldees lay ten days' journey avvay, beyond Nisibis and the Persian frontier." M o s t of the population of Carrhae itself vvas stili pagan; for the Christians, hovvever, the place had novv accjuired a spccial role in the earliest history of their faith. In a very similar vvay, a s vve have seen, some of the Saraceni vvhom Christians had long been accustomed to label Mshmaelites' vvould themselves begin to acknovvlcdgc their desccnt from Hagar and Abraham. 2 4 22.12.3

above.

2 3 . Ilinerarium

Egeriae

1 0 - 2 1 ; c f . P. M a r a v a l (cd.), Egârie.

1 9 8 2 ) , z ı f f . ; J. W i l k i ı ı s o n , Egeria's

Travels'

24. C h . x a b o v e a n d 1 3 . 1 belovv.

(1981), U 7 f f .

journal

de

voyage

(SC

296,

CHAPTER

13 e p i l o g u e: e a s t a n d vvest

13.1. EAST? If anything is clcar about the social history of the N e a r East, it is the importance for it of the step-by-step advancc of thc Roman army; and fcw reflections of that are more vivid and illuminating than vvhat is said of himself by thc author of a Grcck novel vvritten in the middle of the second ccntury. T o be precise, vvhat vve knovv of this self-deseription comes from the summary of the novel, entitled Babylottiaca, vvhich Photius ineluded in his compcndium of Greek literatüre, the Bibliotheca ('Library'), in the ninth century. 1 From thc summary it seems that it vvas in an aside or parenthesis in the middle of the novel that the author, lamblichus, vvent into somc detail about himself and the historical circumstances under vvhich he vvas vvriting. T h e occasion seems to have arisen from his account of different typcs of magic, ineluding thc employment of a vcntriloquist 'vvhom rhe Greeks cali "Euryclcs" vvhile the Babylonians use the term " S a k c h o u r a " \ It vvas at that point that the author identified himself: The vvriter (Photius vvrites) says that he himself is a Babylonian, has studicd magic and also Helienic paideia, and is flourishitıg in the time of Soaimos thc Achacmenid and Arsacid, vvho is a king and desccndant of kings, but is also a member of the Scnatc in Rome, and consul, and then again king of Greater Armenia. It is in his time that he says that he himself x . P h o t i u s , Bib. 9 4 , c d . R . l f c n r y II ( 1 9 6 0 ) , 3 4 f f . ; f o r t h c c o m p l c t c f r a g m e n t s o f t h c niaca scc t h c T c u b n c r c d . b y R . H c r c h c r , lamblichi

Babyloniacorum

l a t c d w i t h a n i n t r o d u e t i o n i n B . P. R c a r d o n ( c d . ) , Collected S c c T . H â j - g , Thc

Novel

in Antiquity

(1983), csp. 32-34.

Ancient

Reiiquiae Greek

Babyla-

( 1 9 6 0 ) . It is t r a n s -

Novels

(1989), 7S3ft.

is flourishing. Hc statcs ıhar Antoninus is ruling the Romans, and whcn Antoninus, hc says, sent Verus, his fellow-F.mperor, brother and son-inlavv, to fight against Vologaeses the Parthian, hc himself predieted the war, both that it vvould take place and hovv it vvould end. Also that Vologaeses fled beyond the Euphrates and l'igris, vvhile the land of the Parthians became subject to the Romans. These vvords must thus have been vvritten after the end of the Parthian vvar fought by Lucius Verus in ı6z~ı66, and perhaps after Verus' death in r 6 9 , since Marcus Aurelius seems to have been represented as the sole current Emperor. Taken literally, Iamblichus' picture of the effects of the Roman victory gives a more definite conception of the subjugation even of Mesopotamia, let alone of the rest of the Parthian Empire, than other evidence vvould suggest. But this vvas at any rate certainly the moment when Dura came under Roman occupation, vvhen the kingdom of Osrhoene acknovvledged Roman sovereignty and perhaps vvhen Roman forces came to be stationed in Nisibis. 2 A s vve savv also, this vvas the moment vvhen Roman forces advanced, for a time, far beyond the upper Euphrates. A pro-Roman king, Sohaemus, v/as indeed installed in Armenia in 1 6 4 , only to be driven out again in 1 7 2 , and restored by Roman forces.' But vvho this Sohaemus vvas, and vvhere he came from, is a mystery. T h e mere coincidcnce of the name is certainly not enough to prove that he vvas a member of the dynasty vvhich had ceased to rule in Emesa in the 7 0 S . 4 What matters about this passage is the vividness and detail of its refleetion of miiitary history and successive political regiınes in the N e a r East. But although the author vvho is here portraying himself is not a character in the novel (vvhich is told in the third person), vve should bc careful before assuming that it is literally a report about a *real* Iamblichus. It is pcrfectly possible that vvhoever vvrote the vvork has constructed this authorial persotıa. That vvould not matter for historical purposes; it vvould bc cqually significant if a real historical setting—as this i s — h a d been deployed in order to give substance to a fictional narrator. In any case Photius' brief summary of the novel, originally of coıısiderable leııgth, may vvell have been t o o brief here, and have amalgamated tvvo perz. S e e 3 . 4 a b o v e . 3 . D i o I . X X I , 1 , 3 . S e e 3 . 4 a b o v e , a n d M . - L . C h n u m o u t , " I . ' A r m e n i e e n i r e R o m e et I ' l t a n I " , ANRW

n . 9 . r ( I 9 7 6 ) , 7 1 , o n pp. r49H.

4. H i s o r i g i n in E m e s a is, h o v v e v e r , a s s u m e d b y G . W . B o v v e r s o e k , " R o m a n S e n a t o r s f r o m t h e N e a r E a s t : S y r i a , J u d a e a , A r a b i a , M e s o p o t a m i a " , in S . P a n c i c r a (cd.), Epigraphia senalorioII

e

ordue

( 1 9 8 2 ) , 6 5 1 , o n p . 665, s u g g c s t i n g t h a t t h e r c f e r c n c c t o h i s h a v i n g b e e n a n ' A c h a c n ı c -

n i d a n d A r s a c i d ' is a g l o s s .

sons, vvhether real or fictional. For a note inserted in the margin by the seribe vvho vvrote the oldest manuseript of the Btbliotbeca, of the early tenth century, claims that Iamblichus had not been by origin a Babylonian himself, but vvas a Syrian vvho had absorbed Babylonian Iearning. T h e unknovvn author of the marginal note must implicitly be claiming to have r e 3 d the relevant passage more carefully than Photius had. If he had indeed done so, vvhat i a m b l i c h u s ' had vvritten of himself had n o t only made even more extensive use of the military history of the second century than Photius reveals, but had made claims of far-reaching significance about the culture of the Near East in this period. What the marginal note contaiııs needs to be set out iıı full: This Iamblichus vvas a Syrian by race on both his father's and his mother's side, a Syrian not in the sense of the Greeks vvho have scttlcd in Syria, but of the native oncs, famıhar vvith the Syrian language and living by their customs. Until, as he says, a Babylonian tutor (tropheus) took clıarge of him, and taught him the Babylonian language and customs and stories, of vvhich (he says) one is the tale vvhich he is novv vvriting dovvn. The Babylonian had been taken prisoner at the time vvhen Trajan invaded Babylon, and vvas sold to the Syrian by the dealers in spoils. He vvas skilled in barbarian Iearning, to the extent of having been one of the royal sccrctarics vvhile in his native land. As for Iamblichus himself, vvho kııevv his native Syrian language, and subsequently learned also the Babylonian language, he says that he aftervvards, by application and use, acquircd Greek also, to the cxtcnt of bccoming a skilled rhetor.5 This note could indeed deriye from a eloser and less hurried reading o f the original novel than Photius' summary did. For the historical framevvork vvhich it presents is, in broad terms, perfectly appropriate: a Babylonian sold as a captive after Trajan's campaign of 1 1 6 , and then entcritıg the service of a family in Syria; and his pupil using vvhat he had learned of Babylonia t o vvrite a novel in Greek in the aftermath of Verus' Parthian vvar of 1 6 2 - 1 6 6 . But again vve have to bc carcful about taking ali this too literally. For a start, the novel itself, as the summary shovvs, is in no vvay derived from any rccognisably Babylonian, or A k k a d i a n , tradition, but is a typical Greek romance set in cxotic forcigtı parts and involving a beautiful young married couple callcd Rhodanes and Sinonis, a lustful king of Babylon callcd Garmos and a priestess of Aplırodite vvith three daughters callcd Euphrates, Tigris and Mesopotamia. Since the claim that the novel is 'a Babylonian tale', acquired from a native, is itself fictional, it is perfectly possible that the alleged infornıant is also 5 . 1 a ı n v e r y g r a t e f u l t o N i g c l W i l s o n f o r g u i d a n c e on this m a n ı ı s c r i p t , a n d f o r s u p p l v i n g ine w i t h a p h o t o s t a t o f the r e l e v a n t p a g e .

a construct. But this does not necessarily rcmove the significance of the claim for our understanding of the culture of the Roman N e a r East. For, as the evidenee for long-distance trade through Palmyra and Mesopotamia shovvs, movement around the Fertile Crescent vvas coııstant. A t a number of different levels the qucstion thus arises of hovv important the contacts and exchaııges thus created vvill have been. Should vve, that is to say, see the area of the N e a r East vvhich came to be ruled b y Rome as having been more truly a part of the 'Orient' than of the Graeco-Romaıı vvorld? A s vvill quickly become clear, our evidenee allovvs no more than the construction of broad framevvorks and the deteetion of a fevv hints at complex social and cultural connections. A s for tlıc broad framevvork, it is important to stress first that travel round the Fertile Crescent proper vvill normally have passed through the Tetrapolis and northern Syria, vvhich, vvith the notable exception of Hierapolis/Manbog, vvas the most Helienised part of the Roman Near East. It is vvorth recalling that I.ucian, in his account of the 'Syrian Goddess' at Hierapolis, says that offerings came to the temple frem the Babylonians, as vvell as from Arabia, and the Phocnicians, C a p p a d o cians, Cilicians and 'Assyrians'. 6 \Vhether the social and cultural character of the emplıatically Greek places further vvest, like Beroea, Antioch, Seleucia or Laodicea, ovved anything to travellers or settlcrs from east of tiıe Euphrates is much more difficult to say. We are reduced to slight and ambiguous items of evidenee, such as Plutarch's report that vvhen Antonias during his campaign in Parthia in the 30S BC nceded someone vvho could speak Partbisti or Suristi, the person vvho came forvvard vvas Alexander; a citizen of Antioch. 7 If vvc are to make even the most rudimcntary sense of the possible significance of contacts beyond the Euphrates, a number of distinetions of place and time need to be made. First, there is the central part of the Fertile Crescent, the Mesopotamian shelf, from vvhich a number of tributarics run into the rivers Balikh and Chabur, vvhich themselves join the Euphrates. This vvas the arca of previous Macedonian settlement vvhere Syriac emerged as a vvritten language, and as a vehicle for literatüre, in the coursc of the first tlırec centuries. Ruled by a number of minör dynastics under Parthian sovcrcignty, it vvas this region vvhich fell under R o m a n dominance (as Iamblichus records) in the r6os, to become the province of 'Mesopotamia' in the 190S. Though ali such gencralisations arc rash, it seems from our evidenee that vve should see both the pagan and the Christian culture of this arca, as cxpresscd in Syriac, as derivatives ~A Greek culture, and not as a source of influcncc on the culture 6. L u c i a n , dea Syr. 1 0 . S e e 7 . 2 a b o v e . 7 . P l u t a r c h , Ani.

4 6 , 2.

of Syria proper. A b o v e ali, the notion that there vvas a 'Syrian' culture, cmbracing equally the zone of Syriac literatüre and Roman Syria, goes beyond our evidence. 8 To the east of this area, sometimes invaded by Roman forces but never actually made into a provincc, lay thc kingdom of Adiabcnc.' Although thc main territory of the kingdom lay on the east side of thc Tigris, in the ancient region of Assyria, in the course o f the first century its kings had been granted by the Parthians control of Nisibis and Singara, and may lıavc ruled Hatra a s vvell. T h c kingdom vvas subjugatcd by Trajan; and if (as is very improbable) he did briefly create a province o f ' A s s y r i a ' , it might perhaps have been here. 1 0 But it is notevvorthy that in the 190S the Adiabenians tried to retake Nisibis and vvere defeated by Septimius Severus, vvhose victory-titles ineluded ' A r a b icus', 'Adiabenicus' and 'Parthicus M a x i m u s ' . " T h e relevance of this kingdom is tvvofold; first, at least some of the territory vvhich it acquired vvest of the Tigris vvas to form part of thc hcavily garrisoncd Roman provincc of Mesopotamia; and second, this too vvas an area vvhere Aramaic, and in the Christian period Syriac, vvas spoken. T h e concrete evidence for vvhatever Scmitic language vvas spoken here in thc period before thc cstablishment of Christianity is admittedly minimal. There appear to be no local documents, and the only (perhaps) relevant item is the inseription on the sareophagus from thc 'Tombs of thc Kings' in Jerusalem vvith thc name of a qucen (given in tvvo forms, as Ş D N M L K T ' and as Ş D H M L K T ' ) . 1 2 She has frequently been taken to be the queen Helcna o f Adiabetıe vvho vvas buricd there in about AD 60 after she and her son Izatcs had convcrtcd to Judaism. According to the vvcll-knovvn story told by Josephus in the Antiquities, Izates h a d first been converted by a Jevvish merehant vvhile staying at the court of another dynast under Parthian sovcrcignty, thc king of Spasinou Charax (Meşene on thc Persian Gulf). After that evidence, such as it is, vve encounter no further produets of the language or culture of this region until vve come to the Homilies of Aphraat, 8. S c c c h s . 7 a n d 1 2 a b o v c . I c a n n o t s h a r e t h c p r e s u m p t i o n s a h o u t a c o m m o n 'Syrian* c u l t u r c c x p r c s s c d f o r i n s t a n c c in JI. D r i j v c r s , " S y r i a n C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d J u d a i s m " , in J. L i c u , J. N o r t h a n d T . R a j a k (cds.), The Jew$ among

the l'agans

and Christians

in the Roman

Empire

(1992), 124.

9. S e e t h e s u g g e s t i v e p a p e r , vvith v e r y s p e c u l a t i v c e l e m e n ts, b y J . T e i x i d o r , " T h e K i n g d o m o f A d i a b e n c a n d H a t r a " , Berytus

17 ( 1 9 6 7 - 6 8 ) , 1.

1 0 . 3 . 3 a b o v c , b a s e d , h o v v e v e r , o n C . S . L i g h t f o o t in JRS

8 0 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 1 5 , vvho r c j c c t s t h i s

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n (as a l s o , c o r r c c r l y , t h c h i s r o r i c i r y o f t h c p r o v i n c e ) . 1 1 . See D i o L X X V , 1 , 1 - 3 ; 3, 2. 1 2 . T h e i n s e r i p t i o n is CIS I I . 1 , n o . 2 5 6 = Frey, CIJ II, n o s . 1 3 8 8 = F i t z m y c r , PAT,

no. 1 3 2 ;

sec J . P i r e n n e , " A u x o r i g i n e s dc la g r a p h i c s y r i a q u c " , Syria 4 0 ( 1 9 6 7 ) , r o ı . T h c s t o r y o f H e l c n a a n d l ? a t e s is t o l d in Ant.

X X , 2, 1 - 4 , 3 < 1 7 - 9 6 ) .

vvritten in Syriac at the very end of our period. 1 3 From our perspective it is \vorth recording also that the Syriac-speaking Christian inhabitants of vvhat had been ancient Assyria apparently did not suffer from the historical 'aninesia' to vvhich reference has been made several times. For the Syriac Chronick of Karka de bet Selok (present-day Kirkuk), vvritten in about the sixth or scvcnth ccntury, begins vvith the foundation of the city by an Assyrian king, mentions further building by Seleucus and goes on to speak of martyrdoms under the Sasanids. 14 A s for the Near East of the Roman Imperial period, there is nothing to suggest that Adiabeııe had as yet acquired any significance vvithin the varied currcnts of cultural influences. Graeco-Roman vvriters might, hovvever, recall that Nineveh had once been here; or, more vividly, that in this area there lay Gaugamela, vvhere Alexander had dcfcatcd Darius of Persia. 15 A s vve have seen, Hatra, lying in Mesopotamia aeross the Tigris from Adiabene, attractcd more attention from Gracco-Roman vvriters. If it had bccr. under Adiabene in the first century, it seems certainly to have been a separate sub-Partlıian 'state', vvith its ovvn kings, in the second. Both Trajan and Septimius Scvcrus besieged and failcd to take it; Roman troops vvere briefly stationed there in the 2 . 3 0 S ; and in about 2 . 4 0 Shapur I capturcd it, apparently bringing its existence to an end. 1 6 Its relevance to the qucstions being pursued here is thrcefold. First, it offers yet another cxample, like Hierapolis or Carrhae/Harran, of a city best knovvn for its temple, that of the Sun ('Deus Sol', to the Roman soldiers stationed there). Second, as already mentioned, it has produccd över three hundred Aramaic inseriptions, ali apparently of the second century AD; at least this far round the Fertile Crescent, therefore, vve find, if not a uniform linguisüc zone, at any rate one marked by one o f a family of closely related languages and seripts. To say that is of course to leave open the question of vvhether these related languages vvere in fact mutually intelligiblc, either vvlıcn vvritten (in the same alphabet of tvvcnty-tvvo letters, and in a variety of different but related seripts) or vvhen spoken; and, more important, vvhether, even if they vvere mutually intelligible, this fact had any

1 3 . Scc « 2 . 6 a b o v e . A c c o r d i n g t o J . Neusııer, Aphrahat c o m p o s e d his Homilies

and Judaistıt

(1971), 4, Aphrahat

near p r e s e n ı - d a y M o s u l ; if s o , in a region just t o the n o r t h o f A d i a b e n e

proper. 1 4 . F o r this Cbronicle sassanide

s c c N . P i g u l c v s k a y a , Les villes de l'etal

iranien aux epoques

Doll. 82 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , 1 8 9 , a n d briefly S. B r o c k , " S y r i a c H i s t o r i c a l \ffrmng>',Joıırnalnfthe emy

(Syriac Corporation)

Christianity

parlhe

( 1 9 6 3 ) , c h . 3; J . M . Fiey, " V c r s la rehabilitation d c l ' h i s t o i r e dc K a r k a Bet S l ö h " , 5 ( 1 9 7 9 - 8 0 ) , 1 , o n p p . 4 3 - 6 0 , reprinted in B r o c k , Studies

(1991).

1 5 . S c c , e.g., S t r a b o , Geog.

X V I , 1 , 2 - 3 (737).

16. See 3 . 3 , 4 . 1 a n d 4 . 2 a b o v e .

el

Anal.

traqi

Acad-

in

Syriac

significance for cultural exchanges, political attitudcs or pcrceived identities. Third, Iiatra too, like many places lying along the Fertile Crescent, w a s thought of as being situated either in or next to 'Arabia'. Hence the kings w h o ruled there might take the title 'King of 'Arab' ( M L K ' D Y 'RB) or ' K i n g of the Arabs' ( M L K ' D ' R B Y ' ) . 1 7 Unfortunatcly, this leaves open a crucial ambiguity in hovv vve should understand the term. Does the title present the king as ruling a territory (and a people?) vvhich itself is identified as 'Arab'? O r is the implication that a king ruliug from a city in the midst of the steppe has the povvcr to control a hostilc ncighbouring territory characteriscd as being 'Arab'? The parallels from Dura and from Kdessa, vvhere there vvere officials called 'ruler of A r a b ' ( S L Y T D'RB), vvould tend to support the second interpretation. 18 But the use of the cxprcssion 'King of the Arabs' more rcadily suggests the first. If so, this seems to be the carliest documentary evidence f o r a ruler vvho identifies himself as an 'Arab'. O u r evidence for culture and language in the central part of the Fertile Crcscent, the arca vvhich vvas to bccome the Roman province of Mesopotamia, is also very poor, until vve come to the earliest Syriac literatüre. But that lends ali the more significance t o the rccent publication of the brief bilingual inseription mentioned earlier, vvhich comes from the north-east corner of the region, at the point vvhere the Tigris turns south, to flovv past the eastern end of the Tur Abdin (Mons Masius). Probably belonging to the earlier third century, it is a dedication by a Roman ouetranos to Z e u s Olympios, perhaps rcproduced as I . M R L H ' , 'to the lord of the gods', in Aramaic. 1 9 It is a sign of vvhat remains to be discovercd about a remote corner of the Empire, very little explored in modern times, aııd very little ııoticed in antiquity. If northern Mesopotamia a n d the middle Tigris region had no very ciearly defined cultural identity in the eyes of outsiders, the same vvas not true of Babylonia proper. But it is precisely here that vve encountcr the most profound difficultics of ali. For the 'Babylonia' vvhich presented itself to the minds of obscrvers vvriting in Greek or Latin (and, as vve vvill see, in Syriac) vvas the timeless, abstract vvorld of astronomical and astrological Iearning, of 'Chaldacans' skilled in disccrning the decrces of fate. As such they belonged vvith other mystcrious groups or castes possessed of some form of 'Oriental' Iearning, like the Brahmins or Egyptians. We can see this, for instance, in the Syriac 1 7 . S c c H . J . W . D r i j v c r s , " H a t r a , P a l m y r a u n d E d e s s a " , ANR\V F o r M L K ' D Y 'RIJ s c c F. V a t t i o n i , Le iserizioni

de Hatra

U.8 < 1 9 7 7 ) , 7 9 9 , PP- 8 * o f f .

(1981), nos. 193, 1 9 5 - 1 9 9 , 1 3 1

(MLK'

D ' R B ) . F o r M L K ' D ' R B Y * , tıo. 1 8 7 . 18. Scc 4.2 a b o v e . 1 9 . S c c C . S . I . i g h t f o o t a n d J . F. H e a l e y , " A R o n ı a n V e t e r a n o n t h e T i g r i s " , Epig. ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 1 , a n d 4 . 1 a b o v e . F o r t h e site, C . S . I . i g h t f o o t , " " T î l l i — a L a t e R o m a n Equitcs t h e T i g r i s " , in F r e c m a n a n d K e n n e d y , DRDE,

5 0 9 , vvith s k e t e h - m a p o n p. 5 1 0 .

Anat.

17

Fort o n

Book of the Latvs of Countries, discussed earlier. In Osrhoene, if anyvvhere, thcrc ought to have been aetual contact vvith a living culturc and set of beliefs in Babylonia. But it vvas not so: Bardaisan said then: 'Have you read the books of the Babylonian Chaldaeans (KTB' D K L D Y ' DBBBL—'the Chaldacans vvho (are| in BabyJon'), in vvhich it is described vvhat influence the stars in their consteilatioııs exercise upon the horoseopes of men? And the books of the Egyptians, in vvhich ali the different chings that may befall people are deseribed?' Avvida replicd: 'I have read books on the Chaldacan doctrine, but I do not knovv vvhich are Babylonian and vvhich are Egyptian'. 20 T o Porphyry, vvriting a generation or tvvo lateç Bardcsancs himself has become 'a Babylonian man', vvhether bccausc hc came from east of the Euphrates or vvas credited vvith a knovvlcdge of astrology, or both. 21 Porphyry's ovvn Life ofPythagoras is the classic representation of a Greek intellectual (of the remote past) gathering vvisdom frorn a variety of Oriental sources. 22 Similarly, 'Chaldacan' oraclcs (vvritten in Greek) vvere to play a large part in the NeoPlatonic philosophy of the bettcr-knovvn Iamblichus, the philosopher from Chalcis, of the first half of the fourth century. But they vvere—or vvere said to b e — t h e vvork of tvvo persons callcd Ioulianos, a father and son vvho lived in Rome in the second century. 21 It is of course impossible to prove that the culturc of the Graeco-Roman vvorld in the Imperial period did not derive anything from aetive contact vvith a living culturc, or culturcs, in Babylonia; indeed tvvo linked examples of suca a borrovving are mentioned belovv. But several points need to bc made. First recent studies have tended ever more clearly to see the 'Oriental' cults o f the Roman Empire, for instance Mithraism, as internal constructs vvhich cannot be shovvn to have ovved anything to supposed origins in the East. 24 Seconc, the (perhaps fictional) representation of personal contact vvith a Icarned Baby-

2 0 . T r a n s . I I . J . W. D r i j v e r s , The

Dook

nf the Latvs of Countries

(«965), 3 9 - 4 1 .

2 1 . P o r p h y r y , de abst. IV, 1 7 : a v î ı p BaJJufoûvıoç. 2 2 . S c c E . d e s P l a c e s ( c d . ) , Porphyre,

Vie de Pythagore

( 1 9 8 2 ) ; see, e.g., sect. 6 , o r 1 1 ( f r o n

Antonius Diogcnes). 2 3 . S e e H . L e v y , Chaldacan Later Roman mentory

Empire

Oracles

and Theurgy:

Mysticism,

( 1 9 5 6 ) . R . M a j e r c i k , The Chaldaean

Oracles:

( 1 9 8 9 ) , vvith t h e v a l u a b l e r e v i e v v b y D a v i d P o t t e r i n }RS

Magic Text,

and

Platonism

Translation

and

in

the

C.om-

81 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 2 2 5 , « p r e s s i n »

s c e p t i c i s ı n as t o t h e a l l e g e d d a t e a n d o r i g i n . 2 4 . S c c e s p . D . U l a n s e y , The

Origins

crirical r e v i c w h y N . M . S w e r d i o w , Class.

of the Mithraic Philo!.

a t t i t u d e s t o v v a r d ' O r i e n t a l r e l i g i o n s ' , s e c J. M . e p o q u c " , Pallas 3 $ ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 9 5 .

Mystcries

(1989). But note, e.g., th;

8 6 ( T 9 9 1 ) , 4 8 . F o r a s u r v e y o f t h e e v o l u t i o n of Paillicr, " L e s r e l i g ı o n s o r i e n t a l e s ,

troisi^rae

lonian offcrcd by thc novelist lamblichus seems to be the only such narrative account vvhich vve have from this period. In the story as reported by the marginal note to Photius' Bibliotheca (though not in Photius' ovvn summary of the novel), the vvriter has actually lcarncd 'the Babylonian language' and Babylonian stories. By implication, if both versions arc taken together, he also acquircd a knovvledge of Babylonian magic. But vvhat, in thc sccond century AD, vvas 'tlıe Babylonian language'? A n d vvhat if anything is knovvn of thc social and cultural history of this region, vvhich had been under Parthian rule since the middle of thc sccond ccntury BC, and before that had been under the Seleucids? A s vve savv earlier, one componcnt of the social structurc of the area vvas the coııtinuing presence o f Greek cities, notably Selcucia, vvhere Josephus claims that there vvas systematic conflict betvveen the 'Greeks' and the 'Syrians', in vvhich thc Jevvs took the Syrian side. 25 T h e city vvas sacked by the forces of Lucius Verus in the r<>os, perhaps in spite of having vveleomed them as friends. Ammianus at any rate confirms that a statue of A p o l l o 'Comaeus' vvas taken from there a n d placcd in the temple of A p o l l o on the Palatine." But even if vve could understand more of thc survival of Greek culture here, or the conflicts of ethnic groups, Seleucia lay in the northern part of Babylonia proper, vvhere the tvvo great rivers converge most closely. It vvas in this northern sector also that there grevv up the nevv Parthian foundations, Ctesiphon, in the middle of the first ccntury AD, a n d Vologacsias, somevvhere on the Euphrates, tovvards the end of the century. But vvhat of Babylon itself, situated on thc Euphrates to the south o f Seleucia, or of the vvhole plain stretehing dovvn tovvards the Gulf? Thc painful ansvver seems to bc that for the first three centuries AD almost nothing at ali is knovvn of this area. Take for instance the question of language. Thc author of the marginal note to Photius (and lıence probably lamblichus himself) clearly distinguishes betvveen thc 'Syrian' and the 'Babylonian' languages. His account o f learning the latter can hardly be meant as a referenee to the acquisitioıı of another branch of Aramaic, presumably vvritten in the same alphabet (as thc various branehes vvere), but in a somevvhat different seript. He must surely intend to imply that vvhat vvas learned vvas vvhat moderns cali Akkadian, also a Semitic language, but vvritten in cuneîform. Thcrc is pcrfcctly clear, and inereasing, evidence for the coııtinuing produetion of cuneiform tablcts through thc Hellenistic period, and indeed into the first century AD.27 But if it is a historical reality (and not a piecc of fiction,

2 5 . See 1 2 . 1 a b o v e . 16. S H A , v. Veri 8, 1 - 4 ; A m m i a n u s X X ı ı ı , 6, 2 3 - 2 4 . 2 7 . S e e , c . g . , B . F u u c k , Uruk zur Seieukidenzeit

( 1 9 8 4 ) , o r S. S h c r w i n - W h i t c , "Seleucid B a b -

y l o n i a : A C a s e S t u d y f o r t h e I n s t a l l a t i o n a n d D c v c l o p m e n t o f G r c c k R u l e " , in A . K u h r t a n d S .

13.

4*8 I

Eı'ıLOGUK

as it may bc) that a captivc taken by Trajan's army could stili be learned in Akkadian, ali presumptions about the culture of the area vvill need to be revised. T h e question of the survival of Akkadian in Babylonia, a n d — i f it did surv i v c — o f its role and significancc, thus remains cntircly open. As for other languages vvhich one vvould presume vvere current there, there seems to be almost tıo documentary evidence at ali from Babylonia itself. T h e obvious candidates are Parthian (an Iranian language vvritten in Aramaic seript), Greek and some branch of Aramaic. Greek is of course attested, as vve have seen, for Seleucia itself; for the other Seleucia, the ancient Susa on the river Eulaeus, to the east; and f o r Meşene (Spasinou Charax). 2 8 Both Greek and Parthian, funetioning as Imperial languages, vvere used on the inseription cn the statue of Herakles vvhich Vologaeses IV captured from Meşene iti tlıe middle of the second century and brought to Seleucia. 2 ' T h e normal assumprion, vvhich is no doubt corrcct, is that the prcvailing language vvas a branch of Aramaic. But of this too there is almost no documentary evidence from the period before the death of Constantine. Tlıe sole exceptiotı is provided by tlıe regal coinage of Characcnc, vvhere from the late first century BC onvvards Aramaic countermarks supplement the Greek legends vvith the names of the kings; and then from the early second century AD onvvards each king ( M L K ' ) is named in Aramaic. 3 0 \Ve have thus simply to take it that the 'Syrians' in Seleucia of vvhom Josephus speaks vvere defiııed as such by their use of Aramaic. Beyond that it has to be admittcd that ali our other evidence for the region is indirect and transmitted by Jevvish sources, first Joscphus himself, and then the Babyloniatı Talmud, vvhose compilation m a y not have been complete until the sixth ccntury AD." Joscphus' narrative of the fortunes of the Jevvs in Babylonia in tlıe middle of the first century AD shovvs that the later Talmudic ccntrc of Nchardea, on the Euphrates due vvest of Seleucia, vvas already a favoured location of Jevvish settlement; and also that large numbers of Jevvs vvould regularly make the pilgrimage from there to Jerusalem (via the Euphrates, Palmyra and

S h c r w i n - W h i t c , Hellenism

in the F.ast ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 . T h e l a t e s t d a t e d c u n c i f o r m t a b l e t c o m e s

A D 7 4 / 5 . S e e J . O e l s n e r , Materialicn Zeit

zur babylonisehen

Gesellschaft

und Kultur

in

fron

hellenistiseher

(1986), 54. 28. 1 2 . r a b o v e . 1 9 . 12.3 a b o v e , texı to ti.16. 3 0 . S e e BMC

Arabia,

o f C h a r a c c n e " , Berytus

p p . c x c i v f f . a n d 2 8 9 ( 1 . ; s e e S. A . N o d c l r a a n , " A P r e l i m i n a r y H i s t o r y

1 3 (1960), 83. C f . Oeliner, o p . cit., 24$ff.

3 1 . F o r a n o r i e n t a t i o n o n w h a t c a n bc k n o \ v n o f t h e c o m p i l a t i o n of t h i s i m p o r t a n t , if h i g h ! r c n i g m a t i c , v v o r k , scc H . I.. S t r a c k a n d G . S t e m b c r g c r , lntroduction (1991), 208ff.

to the Talmud

and

Midrasb

Damascus?), as vvell as sending offerings to the Temple, But the elose connections vvhich alvvays cxistcd betvveen the Jevvish communitics of Babylonia and those of Judaea are vvell knovvn, and the evidence does not need be rehearscd in detail here, There vvas certainly continual movement betvveen the tvvo, a s vvell as cases of migration from one arca to the other. 32 A notable nevv item of evidence for this movement is provided by the Aramaic inseription from Jerusalem of a cohen (KHN') from there vvho vvent into exile in Babylonia (GL' LBBL), and later returned; vvhy this funerary inseription, probably of the late first century BC or first century AD, should have been vvritten in PaleoHebrevv seript is a matter of speculation. 3 ' Only a fevv points need bc made in this conncction. The first is that the Jevvish community in Babylonia must have read the Bible in Hebrevv; but as to hovv much more vvidely they could or did use Hebrevv, there is no evidence to parallcl the novv cxtensive evidence from Judaea, vvhich proves conclusively that there it vvas not a 'dead language'. 14 By the time of the evolution o f the Babylonian Talmud, hovvever, rabbinic discussiotı vvas conducted almost entirely in Aramaic, even though it related, section by section, to the tcxt of the Mishnah, vvhich itself is in Hebrevv. Aramaic versions of the Bible, the Targums, vvere also in regular use. It is thus highly probable—and seems aLvvays to have been assumed—that the first version of Josephus' Jeıvish War had been in Aramaic rather than in Hebrevv. His brief report of it at the beginning of his surviving Jeıvish War in Grcck is itself not cxplicit on this p o i n t — he proposed novv to offer his account of the vvar to those under Roman rule, 'translating into the Greek language vvhat I had previously sent to the barbaroi (non-Grcck-spcakcrs) of the interior, having composed it in my native language'. What Josephus says is unambiguous, hovvever, in making clear that his ıntended original audience had been people living beyond the bounds o f the Roman F.mpirc. Hc might have meant to indicatc only Jevvs living there, and indeed goes on to say that vvhen the revolt broke out, those involved had hoped that Jevvs living beyond the Euphrates vvould join in. But in fact vvhat he subsequently says about the Greek version makes it quite certain that this Aramaic vvork had been intended both for Jevvs and f o r gentiles: 1 thought it monstrous, therefore, to allovv the truth in affairs of such moment to go astray, and that vvhile Parthiaııs and Babylonians and the most 3 2 . J o s e p h u s ' n a r r a t i v e is Ant. Jeıvs

in Babylonia

Babylonia

Judaica

B a b y l o n i a " , JAOS

X V I I I , 9 , 1 - 9 ( 3 1 0 - 3 7 9 } - S c c J . N c u s n c r , A History

of

the

I—V ( 1 9 6 5 — 1 9 7 0 ) ; a n d a b o v e a l i , f o r t h e T a l m u d i c p e r i o d , A . O p p c n h c i m c j " , in the Talmudic

Period

( 1 9 8 3 ) . See a l s o D . G o o d b l a t t , " J o s e p h u s o n l'arthiası

1 0 7 (1987), 305.

3 3 . S e e E , S . R o s c n t h a l , " T h e G i v ' a t h a M i v t a r i n s e r i p t i o n " , IEJ 2 3 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , 7 2 a n d Pl. 1 9 ; J. N a v e h , " A n A r a m a i c T o m b i n s e r i p t i o n W r i t t c n in P a l c o T l e b r o v S e r i p t " , ibid.. PAT, n o . 6 8 . 34. C h . 1 0 above.

82; Fitzmyer,

rcmotc tribes of Arabia with our countrymen beyond the Euphrates and the inhabitants of Adiabene were, through my assiduity, accurately acquainted with the origin of the war, the various phases of calamity through vvhich it passed and its conclusion, the Greeks and such Romans as vvere not engaged in thc contest should remain in ignorance of these matters. 35 T h e first version of the vvork must therefore have been vvritten in an Aramaic vvhich vvas intelligible t o both the Jevvish and the non-Jevvish inhabitants of the area beyond the Euphrates. Hovv vve should understand this in relation to north-vvestern Mesopotamia, vvhere the earliest knovvn literary composition in Syriac may perhaps date to exactly the same period, the 70S AD, is quite unclear. Some conception of vvhat Josephus' Jeıoish \Var in Aramaic vvas like vvould be invaluablc. A s it is, this lost vvork represents the only k n o w n secular composition in Aramaic, from either side of the Euphrates, in the first three centuries. Aramaic-speaking Babylonia has left no documcnts and no literatüre vvhich might allovv it to 'speak' to us f o r itself. There is a striking contrast not only vvith Judaea but vvith Nabataea and Palmyra, as vvell as vvith Osrhoene and its neighbouring arcas. Nonethclcss, the implication of vvhat Josephus says is that there vvas a potentially unified Aramaic-reading public on either side of the Euphrates. It should bc stressed, hovvever, that if the Aramaic version of the Jevvish War ever did get into circulation beyond the borders of the Empire, it vvill have been an example of information and conceptions of the meaning of events bcing transmitted from the Roman Near East to the rcgion under Parthian, and later Persian, control. Is there evidence of significant influences travelling the other vvay? T h e available instatıces are fevv, and inevitably ambiguous. O n e such case is the spread of the Judaising sect of the 'Elchasaites', ineluded by Hippolytus in his Refutation of Ali Heresies, vvritten in R o m e in the early third ccntury. 36 Christian accounts of heresies are notoriously confused and difficult to relate to any determinable time, place or social context, and it vvould hardly be vvorth noting this example if it vvere not f o r its relevance to the majör religious movement vvhich rcally did begin in Babylonia, and vvhich spread rapidly to the Empire: Manichaeism. According to Hippolytus, a man from Apamea in Syria named Alcibiadcs had arrivcd in Rome bearing a book obtained from 'the Seres of Parthia' and containing a rcvclation originally made in the third year of Trajan to someone callcd Elchasai. The text, vouchsafed by an enormous angcl, preseribed baptism for thc remission of sins, vvhile also enjoining reverence for Jerusalem, thc practice of cir3 5 . J o s e p h u s , BJ I, x , 3 - 6 ( x - 2 . ) , L o c b t r a n s . 3 6 . H i p p o l y t u s , Ref. I X , 1 3 .

cumcision and the observance of the Sabbath. T h e story clearly suggcsts a transmission of the bclicfs of a Judaising sect from the Parthian domains to Syria and tlıen to Rome. But it vvould not be worth our attention if the miniature Greek codex of the fifth ccntury vvith materials about Mani (and extracts from his ovvn preaching) did not rcport that Mani's ovvn father had belongcd to this S 3 m e sect. 37 According to a tenth-century Arabic account, Mani vvas born in southern Babylonia in 2 1 6 , just 3fter his father had joined a baptising sect. T h e nevv codex shovvs that this vvas in fact the very sect vvhich regarded 'Alchasaios' as its founder, vvhich follovved a relatively self-denying (though not rigorously ascetic) pattern of life, and seems to have observed the Jevvish Sabbath. T h e codcx further records that it vvas in 240, the first year of Shapur I, and the same year in vvhich the Persians captured Hatra, that Mani had his ovvn revelation, broke vvith ehe Elchasaitcs and moved vvith his follovvers to Ctcsiphon. Whether there ever vvas a historical person called F.lchasai or Alchasaios must remain uncertain. Ali that is clear is that Mani vvas brought up in a contcxt in southern Babylonia in vvhich both Jevvish and Christian belicfs and vvorks vvere familiar. İn that sense the Eichasaite movement, as practised there, also represented the effect of influences spreading from vvithin the R o man Empire. But in vvhat language did the sect funetion? By the time that the 'Book of F.lchasai' arrived in R o m e , brought by somconc from Apamea, it vvill certainly have been in Greek. Equally, vvhen Eusebius reports that the heretical doctrincs of the 'barhanan' vvhose follovvers vvere called ' M a n ichaioi', vvere spreading from the Persian Empire to the Roman area in the 2 8 0 S , he must be implying that transmission had taken place in Greek." 1 It seems, hovvever, to be universally agrccd among modern seholars that the original language of Mani's preaching vvill have been an eastern dialect of Aramaic. 3 9 In this context, vvhere it vvould be absürd to claim either to sunimarisc the original dualistic a n d ascetic message or to rctracc the steps b y vvhich it came to bc prcached in the Roman Empire, it can only be stressed that vve have absolutely no direct evidenee about this original preaching: there are no documents emanating from Mani's lifetime atıd originally vvritten iıı Aramaic vvithin the Persian Empire. If vve have any hint of hovv Manichaeism 3 7 . F o r the e v i d e n e e , very r o u g h l y s u m m a r i s e d h e r e , s c c S. N . C . l . i c u , Manichaeism Later Roman

Empire

and Medieval

China2

in

the

( 1 9 9 1 ) , 3 3 fi. (on b o l h the E l c h a s a i t c s a n d the b i o g r a -

p h y o f M a n i ) . O n the C o l o g n e M a n i C o d e x s c c 4 . 2 a b o v e . T h e best i n t r o d u e t i o n t o the i s s u e s atıd the c o n t e v t remains A . H e t t f k h s , " T h e C o l ö g n e M a n i C o d e x R c c o n s i d e t c d " , HSCPb

83

(«979)>3J938. E u s e b i u s , HE IV, 3 1 . 3 9 . Scc c s p . M . L i d z b a r s k i , " W a r u r r ı s c h r i c b M a n i a r a m a i s c h ? " , in G . W i d e n g t e n (cd.), Der Manicbaismus

( 1 9 7 7 ) , 2 4 9 , a n d F. R o s c n t h a l , " l ) i c S p r a c h c M a n i s " , i b i d . , 233-

actually reached Roman territory, it is the allusion in the M a n i C o d e x :o a letter vvhich Mani sent to Edessa. 40 A s vve have seen, it is beyond qucs:ion that a Syriac-speaking Christianity already cxistcd there; but how elose, in language or seript, the Aramaic dialect used by Mani vvas to the Syriac of Edessa is a matter of pure speculation. T h e earliest body of Babylonian Aramaic vvhich vve can encounter is the Jevvish Aramaic of the Babylonian Talmud. It is of course of considcrablc significance that Manichaeism vvas one of the hcresics vvhich are most prominent in the vvorks of Ephrem, vvritten in Syriac in the fourth century. 41 But that does not teli us anything about language or modes of coınmunication in the third century. For by the fourth century, and indeed by the end of the third, Manichaeism had spread throcghout the Greek-speaking parts of the Empire, and even into Latin-speaking Roman Africa. It vvould bc satisfying if w c could use Epiphanius' claim in his vvork on heresies, the Panariotı, that Manichaeism vvas first brought vvest of the Euphrates by a vetcraıı returning from Mesopotamia to near Elcutheropolis. O r stili more if wc could rcly on his complcx and detailed narrative of the social background of Mani's life, vvhich seems to bear no relation to most of the other evidence, and involves movements betvveen Roman Arabia, 'Sarak£ııia', tlıc Red Sea, Egypt and the trade-routes from Babylonia to India. Unfortunately this version of events vvas derived by Ephiphanius from a vvork vvhich vvas itself a historical fiction, vvritten in Greek probably tovvards the micdle of the fourth ccntury, the Açta Arcfıelai. From our point of vievv it is a pity that it is not veridical, for it also reeords a long (and fictionai) disputarion betvveen Mani in person and Archelaus, the bishop of a city called Carchai (Carrhae?) in Roman Mesopotamia. 4 7 T h e cold reality is that vve cannot rcconstruct any of the aetual steps by vvhich Mani's doctrines came to be current in Roman territory. Ali that can be stressed here 3re tvvo essential points. First, as Peter Brovvn argued before the Mani C o d c x vvas knovvn, Manichaeism vvas not, as Dioclctian and Maximian vvere to cali it, 'Persian', but vvas in social and cultv.ral terms a produet of the Aramaic-speaking Fertile Crcscent. 43 T o say that is not of course to claim that Mani's doctrine of Light and Darkness vvas not 4 0 . Cotogne

Mani

Codex

6 4 , 2—7,

4 1 . S c c , e . g . , U c u , o p . cit. ( n . 3 7 } , 1 3 j f f . 4 1 . F . p i p h a n i u s , ranarion,

6 6 . S c c H c g c m o ı ı i u s , Açta

Archetai

6 2 - 6 4 ( G C S X V I , 1 9 0 6 ) ; the

vvork is p r e s e r v e d i n a L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n . 4 3 . P. B r o v v n , " T h e D ı f f u s i o n o f M a n i c h a e i s m i n t h e R o m a n E m p i r e " , / R S 59 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , 92. — Relıgion

and Saciety

in the Age of St. Augustine

( 1 9 7 2 ) , 94. Scc also U c u , op. cit. (n.37), Toff.

B o t h u s e t h e e v i d e n c e m o r e c o n f i d e n t l y t h a n I vvould be i n c l i n e d t o d o . T h e s a m e is t r u c o f L . K o e n e n , " M a n i c h â i s c h e M i s s i o n u n d K l ö s t e r i n A g y p t e ı ı " , i n G . Grinin», H . H e i n e n E . W i n t c r (eds.), Das törniscb-byıantmisehe

Âgyptcn

(1983), 93.

and

profoundly influenced by vvhat vve labcl as Iranian 'dualism'. Second, like the doctrines o f ' E l c h a s a i ' — a n d later islam—Manichaeism vvas an adaptation o f Jevvish and Christian beliefs and traditions: Mani proclaimed himself as 'the apostle of Jesus C h r i s t V 4 A t a certain level irs evolution and spread is thus testimony to the cultural unity of the Fertile Crescent. A t another, hovvever, the very rapidity of its spread clsevvhere illustrates, just as had the early history of Christianity itself, the fact that religious ideas and systems are not t o be fully explained in terms of social and cultural contexts. Manichaeism thus cxhibits both hovv Judaeo-Christian influences spread east into Babylonia, and hovv a version of them could bc transmitted back iıı the reverse direetion. But in speaking of a degree of cultural unity marking the Fertile Crescent, vve may be going beyond the evidence, and have also not yet considercd the full implications of vvhat vve are told about the 'author' o f the Babyloniaca. For the anonymous marginal note is not only the onc text vvhich claims an aetive process of contact vvith Babylonian Iearning on the part of someone living in the R o m a n Empire. It is also the only text vvhich claims that in the Roman Near East of the second ccntury there vvas a vvhole elass of persons vvho vvere distinguished by language and culture from Greeks living in Syria, and vvho could be deseribed as 'Syrians'. T h e implications of this claim, if it is taken literally, arc very considcrablc. It does not seem that the early-tenth-century vvriter has been influenced by tlıc fact, obviously long since vvell knovvn, that there had been a long series of Christian vvriters in Syriac from the third ccntury onvvards. I i e does seem to be intending to convey vvhat he found in the second-century text of Iamblichus' novel. Nor does it matter if vvhat had been represented there had itself been a historical fiction. For the section of the ııovcl vvhere the vvriter turns aside to spcak about himself carrics the same implication, vvhether this is a literal report or a fiction related to current circumstances. That is to say, 'Iamblichus', a person of Syrian dcsccnt on both sides, acquired his Babylonian tropheus soon after Trajan's Parthian vvar, in a period vvhen Rome vvas not in established control of any territories east of the Euphrates. The vvriter thereforc represents himself as living vvest of the Euphrates. We arc thus presented vvith a difficult choicc. For the studies of the different regions of the Roman Ne3r East contained in this book lıave revealed a fairly clear, and certainly significant, linguistic 'frontier'. Aramaic, or versions of it {ineluding Syriac), can bc shovvıı to have been in use in various areas: along the middle Euphrates, ineluding Dura (but this zone also vvas not yet in Roman hands in the n o s ) ; in Palmyra; in Judaea/Syria Palaestina (but much more clcarly among Jevvs than among non-Jevvs); and in the province of Arabia (but only rather tenuously and in marginal areas at any time later 4 4 . F o r rhis i m p o r t a n t p o i n t .scc U c u , o p . cit. ( n . 3 7 ) , 5 ı f f .

than the initial few years after the conquest of Nabataea). In any case the clearly stated contrast betvveen thc 'Greeks vvho have settled in Syria' and real Syrians, defined by dcscent, culturc and language, most naturally points to northern Syria. It vvould be possible to think also of the Decapolis, vvhere the borders betvveen Roman ' A r a b i a ' and 'Syria' moved progressively northvvards, and the cities shovved a very clear tendeney to emphasise officîally either that they vvere Grcck or that they belonged to Syria (rather thar. to Arabia or Syria Palaestina), or b o t h . " Ethnic and cultural labels vvere alvvays used very looseiy, a n d it may be significant that Eusebius vvas later to say that Petra 'is (stili?) called " R c k e m " among the Assyrians'/* But is he reflecting current usage, or just rephrasing a similar point made earlier by Josephus? 47 Unlcss vve rcjcct thc evidence of thc Babyloniaca altogether, vve have to accept that it potentially exposes a dimension of the culture of the Rornan N e a r East of vvhich our other evidence gives no hint. Given the detailed vvay in vvhich thc historical framevvork of thc author's life and vvriting is set out, hc can hardly mcan to refer, in speaking of an inherited 'Syrian' culture, to Nabataea and its very recent transformation into 'Arabia'. He therefore ır.ust be implying that he came f r o m vvithin the cstablishcd arca of Roman rule, and most probably from the stili unificd Roman province of Syria. But in that area there vvas only one place vvhere a Semitic language vvas used regularly in public in paraliel vvith Greek, namely Palmyra. We have therefore to conciude either that lamblichus is referring to the 'Syrian' culturc of Palmyra, and thus to a tradition and pattern of education there to vvhich othervvise vve have no access at ali, or that some or ali of those cities vvhere the documentary evidence is entirely in Greek nonetheless, in reality, exhibitcd a dual culturc. T h a t vvould have rather different implications in the case of an ancient, contînuously settled city like Damascus (vvhere admittedly the documentary evider.ee, ali in Grcck, is very slight); 48 of a placc vvhich evolved as a 'Grcck' city only in the Roman period, like Emesa; but above ali, if it vvere true, of the majör Hellenistic foundations, vvhether in northern Syria or in the Decapolis. In the case of ali those areas it is important to stress that the documentary evideııcc carrics quitc the opposite implication: that thc visible, communal life not only of aetual cities but also of villages vvas conducted consistently in Greek. Deities, places and individuals might ali bear Semitic names. But the language of communal life, as cxpressed in vvritten form, dovvn to village level, vvas Grcck. What is more, there is nothing vvhatsocvcr to imply the existcncc of altcr-

45. Scc 1 1 . 4 a b o v c . 4 6 . E u s e b i u s , Onom., 4 7 . J o s e p h u s , Ant. 48. 9.3 a b o v c .

cd. Klostcrmann, 142.

IV, 7 , 1 ( 1 6 1 ) .

nativc 'native' struetures which maintaincd themselves either within cities vvhich vvere predominantly Greek or in rural contexts. We might be tempted to suppose that a 'Syrian' identity vvill best have been preserved in the context of 'native' temples and cults, perhaps attended by a traditional or hereditary priesthood. But no dynasties of 'Syrian' priests are traccable at ali; and in the most remote of rural, or mountain-top, locations the temples vvhich vvc can find are built in Graeco-Roman style and are marked by Greek inseriptions.' 11 ' In the N e a r East only Palmyra provides a (very parcial) parallel to the persistence of Egyptian temples, vvith distinctive forms of priesthood, and vvhich in the Imperial period vvere stili constructed in Egyptian style, and stili used the Egyptian languagc, vvritten in hieroglyphics. 5 0 T h e only priesthood knovvn from the Near East under Roman rule vvhich represented both an aetual and a conscious inheritancc from a distant, preHellenistic past vvas the Jevvish High Priesthood in Jerusalem, vvhich vvas also a form of communal politieal leadcrship. But, as vve have seen, its holders in the first century vvere nominated and dismissed either by Roman governors or by kings vvho vvere members of the Herodian dynasty; 1 1 and in any case the office disappeared forever vvith the destruction of the Temple in 70. There vvas certainly some real continuity of cult, of historical tradition and possibly of language in the main cities of Phoenicia; but here the elements of Phocnician culture and tradition vvere interpreted vvithin the institutions of vvhat vvere by novv Greek cities, of vvhich the majority also became R o m a n coloniae. There is nothing in the evidenee from any of them to suggest that separate, identifiably 'Phocnician' institutions persisted vvithin them. In aııy case self-identification as 'Phoenician' (by people using Greek) is a clearly marked phenomenon; vvc can be confidcııt that Tamblichus', in speaking o f himself as a 'Syrian', did not mean to say that he came from one of the Phoenician cities or that his native language vvas Phoenician. He might have come from Commagene, vvhere the deseription of his ovvn intellectual progress by Lucian of Samosata could be read as meaning that he had begun not vvith a relatively unsophisticated level of Greek, but vvith Aramaic as his first language. 5 2 Alternatively, vve can see very clear elements of continuity of cult both at Doliche and at Hierapolis. Again, in both cases, the traditional cults vvere interpreted vvithin the funetioning of vvhat becamc 49. See, e.g., 7.3; 8.3-5; 9 3

a b o v c

-

5 0 . S e e c s p . A . K . B o v v m a n , Egypt after the Fharaohs, Ihe Arab

Conquest

7 3 2 BC-AD

642: From Alexander

to

( 1 9 8 6 ) , c h . 6. S o f a r a s I aııı a w a r e , t h e r e h a s b e e n n o d e t a i l e d r c c c n t scu<£y

o f ı h e f u n e t i o n i n g o f t h e E g y p t i a n t e m p l e s as t h e y vvere i n t h e R o m a n p e r i o d . T h e s t a n d a r d v v o r k , W. O t t o , Priester

und

Grcck documentation. 51. 10.2 abovc. 52. 12.3 abovc.

Tempel

im hellenistisclıen

Agypten

( 1 9 0 5 ) , rclies ııı a n y c a s e s o l e l y

on

Grcck cities, and \vcre rcflectcd locally in inseriptions vvritten in G r c c k . " Is it then possible that an cducated elass, vvhich vvas consciously 'Syrian' in language and culture, nonetheless persisted vvithin the (as it seems) profoundly Hellenised vvorld of Syria proper or the Decapolis, vvithout leaving any tracc in the form either of social or political insritutions, of documcnts on stone or perishable materials, or of a literatüre? T h e possible model f o r such a survival, the evolution of 'rabbinic' Judaism after the destruction of the Temple at the end of the High Pricsthood, vvill not vvork. For although this deveiopment took placc in the contcxt of an ever denser netvvork of 'Grcck cities' (and Roman coloniae), vvhich seem to dominate the map of Syria Palaestina, it has left very clear traces: not only its ovvn literatüre, beginning vvith dıe Mishnah, but reports and rcactions by outside obscrvers, archacologicaİ remains, and inseriptions in Hebrevv, Aramaic and Greek. 54 T h e possibiiity of a pagan 'Syrian* culture of this period, persisting vvithin an apparently Hellenised vvorld, cannot be dismissed; but it remains profoundly enigmatic. A n alternative hypothesis might perhaps be found in the facts of geography. Might such a culture have survived in the more mountainous zones? In certain areas the implications of the evidence vvould go against this. What vve knovv of the limestone massif of northern Syria (hardly a mountainous zone in any case), o f Bactocaece high up at the southern end o f tiıe Jebel Ansariych, of Mount Lebanon and the fringes of Anti-Lebanon and M o u n t Hermon ali suggests a profound penetration of the Greek language and of Greek (or rather Romano-Greek) architecture. But there d o remain very large mountainous zones of vvhich effectively nothing at ali is knovvn: ali the northern part of the Jebel Ansariych, and the main areas of the AntiLebanon and Hermon ranges. There is every reason to suppose that the vast majority of the Jebel Ansariyeh vvas cultivated and inhabited. Hovv high up on Anti-Lebanon and Hermon habitation reached is as yet unknovvn; but surveys of its southern fringes shovv that even olivc-presses can be found a t up to 1500 m. 55 That possibiiity vvould bring us back to the Ituraeans—or rather, in Strabo's terms, 'Ituraeans and Arabs'—against vvhom the Romans vvere stili mounting expedittons under Augustus, and vvho later provided a substantial number of colıorts for the Roman army. 56 N o more can be said, exce?t

5 3 . 7 . 2 a b o v e . T h e r e is a p o s s i b l e h i n i o f t h e use o f A r a m a i c a t H i e r a p o l i s in v v h a t L u c i a n s a y s (dea Syria

3 3 ) o f t h e n o n - r c p r e s e n t a t i o n a l zoanon

t h e r e : K a X e £ i a ı 5E onjırçıov K a l \>K a ü r â v

' A o a u p ı ' u v . OÜSE TI o ö v o j ı a i o t o v aiırtj) £ 9 c v t o . B u t t h e r e f e r e n c e may

b e t o t h e a b s c n c c n o t o f an

a p p r o p r i a t e n o u n in A r a m a i c , b u t o f a p r o p e r n a m e in G r e e k . 54. 10.4 above. 35. Ch.

ı , text t o n . 4 9 . Sec n o w S. D a r a n d N . K o k k i n o s , " T h e G r c c k Inscriptions f r o m

S e t ı a i m 011 M o u n t H e r m o n " , PHQ

» 1 4 ( 1 9 9 2 ) , 9 . Sena im lies a t a h e i g h t o f 1 x 4 0 ı n .

5 6 . S e e 1 . 1 , t e x t t o n . 2 9 , a n d 8 . 3 a b o v e . S t r a b o ' s d e s e r i p r i o n is in

Ceog. X V I ,

2 , r 8 a n d 20

( 7 5 5 - 7 5 6 ) . I h c l a t e s t c a t a l o g u c o f t h e c o h o r r s is E . D a b r o w a , " C o h o r r c s I t u r a e o r u m " , ZPE (1986), 2 2 1 .

63

that the 'internal frontier' reprcscnted by these two great mountain-ranges, betvveen them occupying a considerable proportion of the land-mass of the Roman Near East, remains a complete mystery. Wc can certainly not assert confidently that a 'Syrian' society did not persist in either of these two zones. T h c only placc \vhere w c knovv that a bilingual pagan culturc flourishecl throughout thc first three centuries w a s Palmyra. It is not impossiblc that w c should imagine 'lamblichus' as coıning from there. It is hardly significant tlıat this Greek name happens not to be attested there; a number of others are. 7 7 W h a t \vould bc more interesting, if (hypothctically) truc of Palmyra, is lamblichus' picture of an inherited 'Syrian' culture, in relation to which Greek culture might, for an individual, be a subsequent acquisition. For the persistent (though not univcrsal) bilinguality of thc inseriptions from Palmyra, in which thc Greek text often seems primary, necessarily gives the impression of a unified culture. The inseriptions might tend to suggest that, if there ever had been a literatüre written in Palmyra, it vvould have bccn, like most Syriac literatüre, both pagan (thc Letter of Mara bar Seraftion) and Christian, a derivative of Greek literatüre. But in fact there is no evidence either of a Palmyrene literatüre or of any Grcck literatüre vvritten by anyonc vvho camc from Palmyra. One further possibility remains, though this too is a pure hypothesis, and onc vvhich presents many probleıııs. But it is also a hypothesis vvhich takes u s back to thc most important of ali qucstions in thc culnıral history of thc N e a r East. A 'Syrian' vvho represented himself as brought up in the Syrian language and customs might have come from the vast area of marginal land betvveen the settled zone and thc steppe. Palmyra vvas, it is truc, thc only place vvhich, in its cvolution from the first century BC to the third century AD, presents a fully tangible Graeco-Syrian or Graeco-Aramaic culture. It may be nccessary to recall here that vvhat vve cali 'Aramaic' vvas in Grcck 'thc language of the Suroi*; and that the Greek for 'in Aramaic' is Suristi: thus vvhen Josephus speaks of the Greek and the Scmitic names of this city, he says, 'it is stili called thus {'Thadamora') among the Suroi, vvhile the Greeks cali it Palmyra*. Similarly, hc says of thc kingdom of Agrippa 11, 'a mixed population of Ioudaioi and Suroi inhabit it'. JS By analogy, therefore, other groups living on thc margins of thc steppe might have identified their ovvn language and culturc as 'Syrian'. What other term vvould have bccn used in Greek by the tribe of Thamud to deseribe the Nabataean language, vvhich they used, in paraliel vvith Greek, to record their cstablishment of a temple at Ruwvvafa in thc northern Hedjaz, in the sccond

5 7 . S c c J. K . S t a r k , Personal

Names

5 8 . O n P a l m y r a , J o s e p h u s , Ant.

i n . 3* 5 <S7>- N o t e d ı a t J o s e p h u s , Ant. o f II K i n g s 1 8 , 2 6 , as o v p ı o r f .

in the Palmyrene

inseriptions

(1971), 131.

VIl", 6, 1 ( 1 3 4 ) , c f . 9 . 4 a b o v e . F o r A g r i p p a IPs k i n g d o m , BJ X , 1 , ı (8), f o l l o v v i n g t h c L X X , r e p r o d u c e s t h e ' R M Y T

half of the secoııd century? 59 Nabataean and Greek were similarly the two languages used, probably a ccntury later, to record the burial at U m m el Jinıal of the tropheus, or R B , of the Arab king Gadimat. 60 Although Nabataean too has left no literatüre, complex legal texts could be vvritten in it, and it is not in the least impossible that it functioned. for nomadic groups on the fringes of Roman 'Arabia' as a primary language of culture, vvith Greek being something vvhich one might acquire subscquently from a tropheus. But these examples are recalled only as models for a pat tem of linguistic and cultural relationships vvhich might have been found ar.yvvhere along the edge of the steppe. İt remains far more likely that the g t o graphical context evoked by Iamblichus' self-reference is northern Syria, vvhich in any casc vvould be the area under Roman rule first rcachcd by Roman forces, and slave-traders, returning from Trajan's Parthian vvar. Wc may recall the slave-boy named A b b a , and described as 'from aeross the river (Euphrates)', vvho vvas sold at Seleucia Pieria in 166, at the end of another Parthian vvar.61 But of course slaves could bc re-sold and then taken to different regions: one example is the 'Balsamea, by race an Osrhoenian Mesopotamian', sold at 'Aurelia TripoEis of Phoenice' in the early 2 . 5 0 S and re-sold üıe ncxt year at Oxyrhynchus in Egypt. 62 But if Iamblichus, as a 'Syrian' by descent and culture, did come from northern Syria, it is quite possible that his origin lay in the area of steppe boundcd by the Orontes Valley in the vvest, vvith Apamea, Hama/Epiphania and Emesa; by the mountain-ehain leading to Palmyra in the south; b y the Euphrates in the east; and by the Fertile Crescent, vvith Chalcis, Beroea and Hierapolis, in the north. It vvas here that in the first ccntury BC, as vve szvv earlier, Alchaidamnos, 'the king of the tıomades on this side of the Euphrates', operated, at one point helping Bassus vvhen besieged in Apamea, after earlier thinking himself vvronged by the (Roman) governors and retiring into Mesop o t a m i a . " In the second ccntury this large arca vvas ceasing to bc an open frontier zone: in the 70S a R o m a n road already stretehed east of Palmyra, presumably to reach the Euphrates either at its confluence vvith the Chabur or more probably at that, further upstrcam, vvith the Balikh; and, vvhatever uncertainties there are about the prcvious period, in the ı 6 o s Roman control came to extend ali the vvay dovvn the river to D u r a . " T h e Roman posts along the river vvould certainly not have prevented ali movement by nomads aeross it; but nonetheless vve could properly regard the north-Syrian steppe a s an 59- 4 - 1 .

n-59-

60. r ı . 5 a b o v e . 6ı.

3 . 4 a b o v e . R . C a v c n a i l c , C o r p u s Papyrotum

onc trausfluminianum, nomine A b b a n 6 2 . P. Oxy.,

Lalinarum

...'.

110. 3 0 3 5 .

6 3 . S t r a b o , Geog. 64. 3.4 a b o v e .

X V I , 2, 1 0 ( 7 J 3 ) ; c f . c h . r a b o v e .

( 1 9 5 8 ) , n o . 1 2 0 : ' p u e r u m , nati-

area which was stcadily becoming another 'inncr' frontier zone, inhabited but perhaps mostly not settled, surrounded by Roman forces but not (it seems) directly occupied by them. To say that, howcver, is to contradict the vicvvs o f the authors of the main (aııd indeed only) historical study of this region in the Roman period, Mouterde and Poidcbard, w h o bclicved that this area vvas fortified by the Romans in the course of the second and third centuries. 61 Yet there seems to be no clear archaeological or (more important) documentary evidenee to confırm military occupation in this period, in clear contrast to the Euphrates itself and to the Strata Diocletiana leading from Sura to Palmyra, Damascus and beyond. It is not until the Notitia Dignitatum of the early fifth century that vve have a clear picture of military posts dotted aeross the heart of this area. 66 Stili, vve should n o t underestimate the possibilities of habitation, and even cultivation, at least in the vvestern part of this region: the limirs of zoo-mm annual precipitatioıı streteh some 130 km to the east of Apamea and over 100 km to the east of Emesa. 67 There is no qııestion that there vvas regular habitation over much of this zone by the late-Roman Christian period. It is only necessary to mention, by vvay of cxample, the majör Christian sites of Qasr Ibn Wardan a n d Scrgiopolis/Resafa. 63 Moreover, if vve look back to the period before 3 3 7 , there are occasional dated inseriptions, even from the very heart of the zone, vvhich seem to shovv that there vvas already settled habitation at some p l a c c s — b u t they are ali in Greek. 6 9 Perhaps the most striking evidenee is provided by a group of Greek inseriptions from et-Touba, situated on a hill rising above an extensive area of salt tnarshes, and lying some 60 km south-east of Bcroca. They date to betvveen the Seleucid years 638 and 665, AD 326/317 and 352/353, and record the construction of a grain-store (transliterating the Latin borreum) and courtyard by a local dignitary vvith a Latin name, 'Aurclios Beİlichos son of Liouianos'. But these inseriptions also invoke the Christian God. 7 0 Tvvo separate developments at the end of our period vvere giving rise to a nevv phase in the history of Syria.

6 5 . S o R . M o u t e r d e a n d A . P o i d c b a r d , Le limes Haute

Syrie romaine

66. Sec Not.

de C h a l e i s : Organisatiort

de la steppe

e/ı

I ( 1 9 4 5 ) , csp. 1 3 6 .

Digıt..

Or. X X X I I I , Dux

Syriae, vvith t h e m a i n m a p i n M o u t e r d e a n d P o i d c b a r d ,

o p . cit. 6 7 . S c c M o u t e r d e a n d P o i d c b a r d , o p . c i t . , m a p II ( o p p o s i t e p . 1 5 ) . 6 8 . S c c J . L a s s u s , Sanctuaires

chrelîens

de la Syrie

(1947).

69. S c c , e . g . , M o u t e r d e a n d P o i d c b a r d , o p . c i t . , p. 1 8 4 ( S a b b o u r a , s o m e 80 k m s o u t h - e a s t o f A p a m e a , a n e p i t a p h o f t h e S c l c u c i d y e a r $ 2 1 , AIJ 1 0 9 / 2 1 0 ) ; p. 1 8 7 (F.l-Bab, 4 1 k m s o u t h - e a s t o f B c r o c a , y e a r 5 3 5 , AD 2 2 3 / 2 2 4 ) ; p . 2 1 6 ( Ş e y h H i l l a l , r o o k m e a s t - s o u t h - c a s t o f A p a m e a , t h e lintel o f a b u i l d i n g d c d i c a t e d i n t h e y e a r 5 4 1 , AD 2 2 9 / 2 3 0 , b y three m e n w i t h l ü t i n n a m e s , 'Maternos', 'Pappos' and 'Markos'). 7 0 . T h e i n s e r i p t i o n s a r e IGLS P o i d c b a r d , o p . cit., p p . 1 9 9 - 2 0 1 .

II, n o s . 3 0 4 - 3 0 6 , r e l o c a t e d ( f r o m Z c b c d ) by M o u t e r d e a n d

In other vvords this large a n d mysterious zone, vvhich might have revealed 'Syrians' clinging to an inherited culturc, vvhile either choosing or not choosing to acquire a Greek education also, does not do so. There are no pagan documents from here in Semitic languages, except the Palmyrene ones of the zone north-vvest of the city; ît should, hovvever, be noted that from this arca there are also a fevv examplcs of the 'Safaitic' graffiti of vvhich far larger numbers are knovvn from the zone east of the Hauran. 7 1 We should not forget that it vvould never have been expected, until the nevv arehive shovved it, :hat Greek documents dravvn up on the middle Euphrates around its confluence vvith the Chabur, in the third century, vvould have subscriptions vvritten in Syriac. 72 But even these documents represent a bilingual vvorld in vvhich the dominant element for official purposes is Greek. We could nonetheless assume that vvhen someone, as Jerome vvas to d o , ventured into the marginal zone near Chalcis to try the Life of a hermit, communicating in a 'barbarous' language vvould become necessary. 7J But that is by no means the same a s the claimed 'Syrian' culture of someone vvhose family could buy a Babylor.ian tropheus, and vvho could later acquire a Grcck literary education. Wherc, if anyvvhere, in the landscape and social strueture of second-century Syria vve should locate an apparently upper-class, and consciously 'Syrian', family remains vvholly unccrtain. But it is surely significant that vvhile in Edessa aııd Nisibis a society vvhich vvas already literate in Syriac immediately gave risc to a Christian Syriac literatüre, no such development is found in this period anyvvhere vvest of thc Euphrates. T h e tentative conclusion must be that vvhile the vvhole Fertile Crescent, both 'Roman' and non-Roman, did in some sense exhibit a common culrure, to vvhich thc use of related dialeets of Aramaic contributcd, as did thc prcsence of 'Greek cities', the significance of this for Syria proper remains very problematic. For preciscly here, vvhere the cultural itıfluence of contact vvith thc East, crcatcd by movement round thc Fertile Crcsccnt, should have bsen most visible, vve find the most firmly 'Greek' part of the N e a r East. If thc Fertile Crescent vvas a heavily frequented route for traffic in both direetiens, there vvas also a sense in vvhich the Euphrates remaincd a real frontier, even after the Roman conquest of Mesopotamia. Moreover, in terms of influcnccs, pagan, Jevvish and Christian, there are elearer indications that Mesopotamia and Babylonia vvere affected by various currcnts and changcs in thc Roman Near East than the other vvay round. Al! such conclusions must in any casc bc hesitant. Before vve look furtner

7 1 . S c c 9 . 4 a b o v c , b a s e d o n D . S c h l u m b e r g c r , La Palmyrene

du Nord-Ouesl

( 1 9 5 1 ) ; t h c ten

k n o v v n S a f a i t i c g r a f f i t i a r e listed o n p p . 1 3 3 - 1 3 4 . F o r ' S a f a i t i c ' s e e belovv, t e x t t o t ı n . 8 8 - 8 5 1 . 72. 12.5 abovc. 7 3 . 7.1 above.

at the culture of the Roman N e a r East itself, there is another possible external factor to take into account: the peoples of the steppe zone, or rather zones. There are various sides to this question, often confused by uncxamined presuppositions. T h e first is the miiitary aspect. A s has been shown in great detail, the gradual evolution of R o m a n miiitary dispositioııs över more than three centuries led progressively to a situation whcre the majority of the R o man forces in the N e a r East vvere deployed not on a frontier vvith Persia but along the edge of the steppe. A p a r t from the loss of Nisibis and the 'Transtigritane provinces' in 363, the pattern shovvn in the Notitia Dignitatum closely mirrors that already arrived at in the period of the Tetrarchy and C o n stantine. If vve count in terms o f legions, and from south to north, vve find the follovving: X Fretensis at Aila; IV Martia at Betthorum (almost certainly Lejjun); III Cyrcnaica at Bostra; III Gallica at Danaba; I Illyricorum at Palmyra; IV Scythica at Oresa; X V I Flavia Firma at Sura; then the first legion on the frontier vvith Persia, IV Parthica at Circesiuın (vvith possibly another missing from the tcxt); and finally tvvo in Mesopotamia, I Parthica 'Nisibena', novv at Constantia (almost certainly Viranşehir), and II Parthica at 'Cefa'. T h e 'desert frontier' vvas therefore, as the facts shovv beyond ali doubt, at least as important a factor in the developed miiitary strueture of the R o m a n N e a r East as rivalry vvith Persia. Moreover, the Notitia Dignitatum also gives a vivid impression of the integration into the Roman army of forces dravvn from the steppe peoples: Icaving aside units of 'Equites Promoti Indigenae' or 'Equitcs Sagittarii Indigenae', vvhose ethnic composition is unclear, there are 'Equites Saraceni', for instance at Thelsea (Dumayr betvveen Damascus and Palmyra), or 'Equites Thamudeni Illyriciani' in Palaestina. A s vve have seen, fourth-century evidence in particular, both literary and documentary, is unanimous in regarding the 'Saraceni' as a threat to order, vvhich might cqually affcct cultivators in the area south of the Hauran o r travellers on the road from Beroea to Edessa. 74 But to say that the 'desert frontier' vvas a real one, to vvhich very considerable resourccs of manpovver and physical construction vvere devoted, is not to say that anyone could have anticipated, or had any reason to anticipate, large-scale invasions from beyond that frontier. Hovv that iti fact came about in the seventh ccntury remains very difficult to explain. 7 5 Was the relation betvveen the Empire and its settled subjects, 011 the one hand, and the nomads of the steppe, on the other, simply an adversarial one, involving the more or less successful imposition of policing and order? Or, on the contrary, vvas the 'Arab' element fundametıtal to the nature of society in 7 4 . ı r . j a ı ı d 11.6

above.

7 5 . F o r t h e best a c c o u n t s c c F. M . D o n n e r , The

Early

Islam'tc Conquests

(1981).

the whole region? If there were no majör invasions whieh in any w a y foreshadovved the Islamie conquests, was there nonetheless a steady penetration of groups vvho should be identified as 'Arab' into the settled zone? T h e significance of this question for modern cotıceptioııs of the arca as it vvas in the Roman period can hardly be ovcrestimated. For the notion that Roman Syria as a vvhole vvas essentially ' A r a b ' has even been incorporated into the title of a recent book. 7 f i Equally, the notion of a consistent penetration of ' A r a b s ' into the settled zone 'before i s l a m ' is of course the topic of a majör snıdy by Rene Dussaud. 7 7 But the very title already reveals the presuppositions being deployed. Tlıe problems of logic and evidence in these vicvvs arc very considcrablc. First, 'before islam' the criteria for idcntifying 'Arabs' are even more uncertain than after, 'ITıey certainly cannot depend, for most of the period in question, on any attested self-definition by the groups concerned. A s vve have seen, local documentary rcferences, from the Hauran, Dura, Osrhoene or Hatra, to people occupying positions of authority in relation to Arabes, or 'RB, generally seem to imply relations of control of a hostile element or area, rather than statements of identity vvith the group in question. 78 Nothing in the extensive epigraphic cvidence f r o m Palmyra or Nabataea suggests that either 'people' identified itself as ' A r a b ' ; Nabataean documents for the period of the kingdom d o stress the beneficence of the king tovvards 'his people' ( ' M i l ) — but the ethnic identity elaimed is consistcntly N B T W . When vve do come across someone identifying himself (in Greek) as an 'Araps', it is a century after the end of the kingdom, and the person concerned comes from Kanatha, vvhich had not been part of it for the last ccntury before provincial rule w a s imposed. 79 These questions of nomenclature may seem trivial; but they arc not. For it vvas, and could only be, in w o r d s that ethnic identities, vvhether elaimed by insiders or attributed by outsiders, vvere expressed. Pagan vvriters, in Greek or Latin, had a variety of expressions for the peoples of the steppe: notnades (also used in a Greek inseription from Palmyra to deseribe the attackers of a caravan); 80 skenitai ('tent-dvvellers'); 'Arabes'; and from the second ccntury onvvards Sarakenoi or Saraceni. When they used the term ' A r a b ' , as Greek vvriters h a d from the fifth century BC onvvards, it vvas a loose term related either to the equally loose geographical term 'Arabia' or

7 6 . R . Farioli C a m p a n a t i (ed.), 7 7 . R . D u s s a u d , La pfnitration

La Siria araba da Roma a Bisanzio des Arabes

78. See a b o v e , text to n ı ı . 1 7 - 1 8 . 79. 1 1 . \ above. 80. 9 . 4 , t c x c t o 11,45.

en Syrie avant

l'Islam

(1989).

(1955).

to a charactcristic vvay of life. 81 Nabataeans, the inhabitants of Trachonitis, Ituraeans, as vvell as Osrhoenians or other inhabitants of Mesopotamia, and also the people of Hatra might on occasion bc deseribed by other people as 'Arabs'; so might the unscttlcd inhabitants of thc eastern desert of Egypt, betvveen the Nile a n d the Red Sea, an area vvhich could also be called Arabia. T h e use of this or other terms vvas a matter of choice, or of shifting fashion. We can see just such a shift, paraliel to that occurring in the Near East, in a report by Dionysius, bishop o f Alexandria: in the persecution under Decius in 250/251 many Egyptian Christians, he says, had fled to 'the Arabian mountain' and vvere enslavcd by 'thc barbarian Sarakenoi'. 82 There vvas 110 rcason, hovvever, for Greek or Roman observers to go further, or to artempt to attribute to ali the different groups vvhom one might cali Arabs a real ethnic unity, or descent from a common ancestor. This idca vvas to bc supplicd by Josephus, the first person to identify contemporary Arabs unambiguously as the dcscendants of Hagar and Ishmael. From then on the notion vvas to be adoptcd by Christian observers; and, as vve have seen, it vvas to form a crucial element in Christian conceptions of 'Ishmaelite' readiness to convert to Christianity, as the true inheritance o f A b r a h a m . " N o m a d raiders on the road betvveen Bcroca and Edessa in the fourth ccntury could then also be seen b y Jerome as 'Ishmaelites'. 84 But, more important, 'ITıeodoret's account of the recruitment of ascetics in Syria in the fourth and fifth centuries makes perfcctly clcar that hc savv Grcck-speakcrs, 'Syrians' and thc barbaroi of thc desert vvho claimed to descend f r o m Ishmael, as three distinet groups. We m a y note particularly Theodoret's deseription of a convert called A b b a , 'vvho descended from thc Ishmaelite stock, but vvas not expclled from thc housc o f Abraham like his ancestor, but rather shared vvith Isaac in his ancestral inheritance'. 81 T h e notion of a common gcncalogy of thc peoples of thc steppe vvas thus itself an attribution by outsiders, and one vvhose historical significance it vvould be hard to cxaggerate. But it vvas also one vvhich vvas nccessarily foreign to Greek and Roman pagan observers, and vvhich could only arisc from an interpretation of Gcnesis, vvhether Jevvish or Christian. A s f o r the peoples 81. Scc thc typicaliy mastcrly and cconomical articlc of T. Nöldcke, "Arabia, Arabians", Bibiica I (1899), 272. 82. Eusebius, HE VI, 42, 4. 83. Ch. 1 above. These proposiûons art* evplored more fully in F. Millar; "Hagar, Ishmael, Josephus and thc Origins of islam",//S 44 (1993), 23. 84.11.6 abovc, tcxt to n.13. 85. Syriac (Aramaic?) spcakcrs as opposcd to Greek: Theodoret, Hist. Relig. V, 6; XIV, z. Dcscendants of Ishmael: VI, 4; XXVI, 13; and csp. IV, 12 (Abba). Ene.

of (he steppe themselves, there is no clear indication even that they identified themselves collectively as 'Arabs'. The earliest unambiguous cxprcssion of this idca 'from within' seems to bc the Arabic epitaph of Imru 'l-qais ar enNemara in 328, where he is described as 'king of ali the Arabs': M L K ' L 'RB K L H . * ' If the evolution of a conscious ' A r a b ' identity was something vvhich took place only gradually, under the influence of both Graeco-Roman and JevvishChristian conceptions, that is not of course to deny the real importance o f the peoples of the steppe, or the fact that one of the Semitic languages used by them, even at this time, vvas closely related to the classical Arabic of the Islamic period; an even earlier attestation, as vve have seen, is offered by tvvo lines of a Nabataean inseription from O b o d a in the Negev, perhaps of about A D ı O O . 9 7 But that is hovv the status of 'Arabic' in this period has to be expressed. Other Semitic languages arc far better attested on the margitıs of the steppe: Nabataean itself (cspccially in the form of thousands of graffiti from Sinai); Aramaic in the Auranitis, Trachonitis and Batanaea; Palmyrene; Syriac; and the Aramaic of the inseriptions of Hatra. More significant stili, thousands of graffiti in yet another Semitic language, labellcd by moderns 'Safaitic' from the volcanic arca called the Safa, east of the Jebel Hauran, attest that there vvas a population out in the steppe vvhich vvas to some degrec literate. It also seems, as noted carlicr, that they might share 'tribal' idcntitics vvith people living in the settled zone of Auranitis and Moabitis. 8 8 This language too is related to Arabic proper, but is not to be identified vvith it. Hovv vve are to understand the remarkable fact of literacy in this zone, or the social patterns dimly reveaıed in these brief and allusive texts, is a problem vvhich will not be attempted h e r e . " Moreovcr, over the vvhole Arabian peninsula, far beyond the area of Roman control, a number of other Semitic languages, more or less closely related

8 6 . S e c 1 1 . 5 a b o v e . A s is i u ı p l i e d , t h e r e c e n t r e - r e a d i ı ı g vvhich v v o u l d r e m o v e t h e w o r d ' a l i ' ( K L I I ) s e e m s t o t u n c o u n t e r t o t h e e x t r a v a g a n t c l a i m s m a d e in t h e t c x t , a n d is t h e r e f o r t i g norcd here. 87. Ch. x a n d 1 1 . 1 abovc. 8 8 . 1 1 . 1 and 1 1 . 5 abovc. 8 9 . F o r S a f a i t i c s c c E . L i t t m a n n , Thamüd

und

Safâ

( 1 9 4 0 ) ; CIS

V ( 1 9 5 0 ) , and cf.,

r.g.,

R . S c h m i t t , " D i e O s t g r c n z e v o n A r m e n i c n über M c s p o t a m i c n , S y r i e n , bis A r a b i e n " , i n G . N c u m a n n a n d J . U n t c r m a n n (eds.), Die incomplctc); Dictionary

scc

also M . G

Sprachen

A. Macdonald,

im römiseben

s.v.

Rcicb

{ 1 9 8 0 ) , 1 8 7 , e s p . 1 9 8 (»ery

"Safaitic (Inscripiions)", in the

Anchor FibU

III ( 1 9 9 2 ) , 4 1 8 . I a m v e r y g r a t e f u l t o M r . M a c d o n a l d f o r h i s a s s i s t a n c e . T h e

reosr

c o m p r c h e n s i v c s u r v e y o f l i n g u i s t i c r e l a t i o n s i n t h e H a u r a n a n d n e i g h b o u r i n g a r c a s is n o v v t h e i n v a l u a b l e arricle o f R . C o m i n i , "II H a v v r â n p r e i s l a m i c o : Ipotcsi d i s t o r i a i i n g u i s t i c a " , Felix vettna,

ser. 4 , 1 / 2 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 2 4 .

Ra-

to classical Arabic, are also attested on inseriptions. 90 By whar stages Arabic proper came to be the dominant language of the N e a r East, and the only sacred language of İslam, is a question vvhich belongs in quitc a different coııtext. T h e fact that there are a couple of attestations of it already iıı our period is ccrtainly very significant; but it vvould be an anachrotıistic distortion to give it t o o prominent a place in our conccptions of the earlier Imperial period. Tvvo final qucstions nccd to be raiscd about the steppe peoples and the 'desert frontier'. First, to vvhat extent vvere there tradc-routcs aeross the steppe (and the true desert) in the vast zone south of Palmyra? If there vvere any, they vvould represent further litıks betvveen the Roman N e a r East a n d Babylonia and the Persian Gulf, and ones vvhich vvere independent of the Fertile Crescent. 'ITıe clear evidence for both a Nabataean and then a R o m a n miiitary presence far d o w n the Wadi Sirhan must strongly suggest that this vvas a frcqucntcd trade r o u t c . " Dumatha (Javvf), the furthest point vvhich vve knovv Nabataean and Roman forces to have reached, seems indeed to be mentioned in a passage of Pliny's Natural History, vvhich speaks of travel betvveen G a z a , Petra and Characene at the head of the Persian Gulf; hovvever, Pliny's ideas of distances and locations here are completely confused; but by much interpretation a route via Dumatha to the Gulf can (perhaps) also be discerncd in another passage of Pliny. 92 This route vvould have involved a passage of some 500 km from Philadelphia or Bostra via Azraq Oasis (Basiensis?) to Dumatha, and then nearly another 500 km to the nearest point on the Euphrates, before the descent to the Gulf. It is hardly possible to imagine that it can have borne constant traffic. But, as alvvays, firm negative conclusions cannot be justified. One reason f o r caution is that Pliny the Elder givcs a much elearer deseription of a route from Thomna in Arabia Fclix (the Yemen) t o Gaza in Judaea, covcred by camels in sixty-five stages; Pliny's figüre for the distaııce is unclear, but even as the erovv flies it vvould have been very much loııger than the route through Dumatha to the Euphrates, in fact vvell över 2000 km. , J This route, it is true, vvill have led through the mountainous and (by comparison) vvell-vvatered region of the Hedjaz, passing the area of the later cities of Mecca and Medinalı, as vvell as, further north, the Nabataean

9 0 . For t h e s e l a n g u a g e s s e e t h e s u r v e y b y J . R y c k m a n s , " A l p h a b c t s , S c r i p t s a n d L a n g u a g e s in P r e - I s l a m i c A r a b i a n K p i g r a p h i c a l E v i c i c n c c " , in A . A . T. a l - A n s a r y (cd.), Studies of Arabia

II, Pre-Islamic

9 T . S e e 5.T a n d t r . ı 9 2 . P l i n y , NH

Arabia

History

above.

VI, 32/144—146; V I , 3 2 / 1 5 7 — 1 5 9 , o n w h i c h scc D . l'otcs, " T r a n s - A r a b i a n

R o u t c s o f t l ı c P r e - I s l a m i c P e r i o d " , i n J . F. S a l l c s ( c d . ) , L'Arabie et voyages

in the

(1984), 73,

(1988), 127.

9 3 . Pliny, N H X I I , 3 2 / 6 4 - 6 5 .

et ses tners bordieres

I,

Itineraires

and then Roman outpost of Medain Saleh. 94 But its existence must mean that we cannot altogethcr discount the fcasibility of a regular trade-route through the Wadi Sirhan and Dumatha to the Gulf. One further chatınel of possible mutual influences, cutting across the arc of the Fertile Crescent, thus has to bc taken into account in any assessment of the culture of the Roman N e a r F.ast. A s should by novv be obvious, hovvever, such an overall assessment vvould be prematüre. The evidence simply does not allovv confidcnt generaiisations, and least of ali negative conclusions. Nonetheless a fevv general propositions may be offered, vvhich may at Least have the merit of raising doubts about the assumptions relating to 'tlıe Orient' vvhich inform many modern approachcs—above ali, paradoxically, approaches to both pagan and Christian authors vvriting in Greek and living in vvhat is often, in modern b o o k s , called 'Syria', vvithout regard either to Roman provincial names or to the diversity of the regional cultures of the Roman N e a r F.ast. Take for instance the proposition that the 'Chaldaean Oracles' compcsed in the second ccntury AD vvere by their nature likely to attract Iamblichus— not the novelist, but the m a j ö r Nco-Platonist philosopher of the first half of the fourth century. 95 For they vvere 'half-Oriental and half-Hellenic'; and he vvas a citizen of Chalcis, the Greek city on the border of the steppe in northern Syria. But, as vve have seen above, the 'Chaldaean Oracles' vvere not a procuct of contemporary Babylonia; o n the contrary, they vvere vvritten in Greek, and perhaps in Rome. Their 'Chaldaean' character is a projection onto an iıııaginary 'Orient' generated from vvithin Greek, or Graeco-Roman, culture. The 'Babylonian' vvorld created by the other Iamblichus, the novelist, is another such projection. That is not to deny vvhat is certain, that there vvas indeed constant traffic, via the Euphrates and Tigris, betvveen the Roman Near East atıd Parthian and then Persian Babylonia. But if vve think of contemporary, real-life contacts, there is far elearer evidence for influences emanating from vvithin the area progressively occupied by Rome than in the reverse direetion. This is true vvhether vve think of the continuing effects of IIellenistic colonisation, of the remarkable impact in Mesopotamia of Roman (nominal) 'colonisation', of Greek influences on early Syriac literatüre, of the importance of Jerusalem and the Temple f o r the majör Jevvish community of Babylonia, of the spread of Judaising sccts or of the preaching of Christianity. Even Manichacism, vvhich Diocletian and Maximiatı vvere to dctıounce as 'Persian', vvas itself in large measure a produet of these influences. 9 ' 1

9 4 . Scc 5.1 and 1 1 . 2 above. 9 5 . S o E . d e s P l a c e s , Jamblique,

Us

Mysiires

hcllcniquc, ce gcnre d'ecrits devaiı seduire Jambliquc'. 9 6 . S e c a b o v e , cexr t o n n . 3 7 - 4 4 .

d'hgypte

(1966), ı j :

'Mi-oricntal,

mi-

T o make these general points is not of course to asscrt that we know that contact with thc non-Roman 'Oricnt' had no significant influence in the R o man N e a r East. It is simply to ask what precisely such influences will have bccn, ho\v they wcrc transmittcd and in w h a t language. O n c prccise examplc (even if we cannot trace the process of transmission) vvould bc thc ccntrality at Palmyra of the cult of a Babylonian god, Bel, vvith the further dimension that the Z e u s vvorshipped in the neighbouring Greek city of Apamea came to bc conccived of as 'Zeus Belios\ 9 7 So should vve take that as a hint that the culture of the apparently ' G r c c k ' cities of the Roman provinces vvas itself 'half-Oriental', and therefore, among other things, systcmatically open to the attraction of Chaldaean, or supposedly Chaldaean, vvritings? Just w h a t is implicd in such a claim has to be set out fully. For it presumes that there vvas a 'non-Greek' mentality, common to both the Roman and thc non-Roman parts of the Fertile Crescent, and that this presumcd cultural framevvork vvas sufficiently povvcrful to cxcrt a profound influence also on the nature of the thought embodied in vvorks vvritten in Greek by people from this region. It necds to bc recalled that thc seareh for a 'Syrian' tradition and cducation, prompted by vvhat seems to have been said of himself by lamblichus, the sccond-century novclist, has Icad novvhere—except perhaps to Palmyra. If vve think of a 'culture' in the full sense, as a tradition, an educational system, a set of customs and above ali a collective understanding of the past, then vve can find in the Roman Near East only tvvo established cultures: Greek a n d Jevvish. Christianity, as expressed in vvorks vvritten in Grcck, vvas of course able to deploy systems of allusion and comparison to both traditions. In d o i n g so Christian vvriters vvere of course above ali making the Old Testament central to the historical consciousness of non-Jcvvs. But they vvere also in practicc paying tribute to the great vvorks of Josephus, vvritten in Greek in Rome: the Antiquities and the Against Apiotı. But this vvas (and is) true of Christianity as a vvhole, vvithout regard to rcgion. It is surely an accident, rather than a significant feature of a 'regional" Christian culture and outlook, that the earliest knovvn Christian vvork to take över, for the benefit of Christianity, Josephus' demonstration of thc superior antiquity of Jevvish tradition should have been vvritten by a second-century bishop of Antioch, Theophilus: 'It is obvious hovv our sacred vvritings are proved to be more ancient and more truc than the vvritings of Greeks and Egyptians or any other historiographers'.* 8 T h e fact that these vvere tvvo radically different historical cultures and systems of belief is not 3ffected by the fact that the Old Testament itself had l o n g 9 7 . 9.4 and 7 . 4 a b o v c . 9 8 . S c c T h e o p h i l u s , Ad Autolycum,

m,

26.

c d . a n d crans. R . M . C r a n c ( 1 9 7 0 ) ; q u o t a t i o n f r o m

been available in Greek, or that Judaism, even as practiscd in the H o l y Land, \vas a bilingual or even triiingual affair, in which Grcck vvas very rcadily used, even for the epitaphs of Galilean rabbis. v9 It cannot rherefore properly be claimed that, because Numenius, a Neo-PIatonist of the later second ccntury from Apamea, rcfers to M o s e s and the Exodus, he had some acquaintance vvith a Semitic literatüre—or properly implied that this might have vvider implications for his knovvledge or understanding of other 'Oriental' traditions. 100 Unfortuııatcly, for this vievv, Numenius' appcal to the 'peoples of g o o d rcputation' vvas too all-embracing: after Plato and Pythagoras onc should look to the Brahmins, the Jevvs, the M a g i and the Egyptians.' 01 These traditional sources of eıılightenment, ali of them 'Oriental', again represented inherited images vvithin Grcck culturc. It is surely not to be supposed that Numenius is claiming aetual direct acquaintance vvith vvritings in ali f o u r of the quite distinet languages vvhich might theoretically have been concerned. In any casc vvhat is conspicuously lacking is an allusion to vvisdom embodied in a non-Jevvish Semitic literatüre, current or previously current, in the N e a r East. So far as our knovvledge goes, there vvas only one such literatüre, though it is just possible that in Numenius' lifetimc Phoenician vvas stili used more vvidely than on the coins of Tyre. 1 0 2 T h e one clear exception vvas Syriac: but so far as vve knovv, it vvas not, until later, current vvest of the Euphrates; and it too evolvcd as a 'non-Mcditerranean dcsccndant of Grcck culture'. There are therefore profound conceptual problems, to give only one instance, in the claim that the origin of Numenius' doctrine of tvvo distinet souls (psyehai) vvas 'Oriental'. 1 0 3 T o vvhich 'Orient' is rcfcrcncc being made? Prccisely comparable problems arise vvith the Christian theological literatüre of the N e a r East. Here again, only some very general propositions can bc establishcd. First, vvhile vvc need n o t doubt that Christianity vvas in fact preached in the Parthian Empire, in particular in Babylonia, our evidenee for this in the first tvvo centurics remains indirect, f o r instance tlıc reactions to Christianity of the 'Elchasaitc' sect mentioned above. A s vvc savv carlicr, Tatian, f o r ali that he deseribes himself as an 'Assyrian', did not come from the Parthian Empire, ,tM and there is indeed no surviviııg Christian literatüre vvritten outside the area of Roman domination before the fourth ccntury. Before that time the only 'eastern Christianity' vvhich vve can actually encounter is that of Osrhoene, beginning vvith Bardcsanes, vvho also confirms that Christianity had 9 9 . S c c c h . TO a b o v c . IÖÖ. S o E . d e s P l a c e s ,

Numenius, FragmeHts ( 1 9 7 3 ) ,

tures, d o n e d ' u n c l i t t c r a t u r c s c m i t i q u c \ 1 0 1 . D e s P l a c e s , £r. ı a . 102. 8.4-5 abovc. 1 0 3 . S o D e s P l a c c s , o p . cit., 2 2 . 104. Ch. 6 above.

Î T : ' u n e c e r t a i n e c o n n a i s s a n c e d e s ECRI-

ııovv spread to Hatra, Mcdia a n d Parthia. 105 But the idea that the kings of Orhai ever converted to Christianity—vvhether the A b g a r vvho vvas a contemporary of Jesus or Abgar 'the Great' vvho vvas a contemporary of Septimius Severus—is a myth, ancient or modern. 10 ' 1 If the kingdom, and the subsequent colonia, remained pagan, the evolution of a Christian literatüre in Syriac is of immense significance. But it vvas a phenomenon vvhich belonged east of the Euphrates, and vve cannot rcad back from vvhat vve see in Syriac vvritings t o vvhat vvill have been the case in Syria. Take for instance an cxtremely important vvork preserved in Syriac, the ehureh-order knovvn as the Didascalia. T h e Syriac tcxt seems to have been translated in the fourth century, from a Greek original vvritten in the third, or at any rate in a period vvhen pagatıism vvas stili dominant and persecution vvas stili possiblc. But there arc no grounds vvhatsoevcr for the universal assumption that the Greek original must have refleeted the vvorkings of the Church in Syria, or in some subregion of it. 107 Such an assumption rests on quiıe unsound foundations. Should vve suppose that there vvas a 'Syrian' Christianity, or conccivc of the tlıeological presuppositions or doctrines of Christian vvriters in Greek vvho originated from Syria (Coele or Phoenice), from Judaca/Syria Palaestina (like Justin Martyr, Iulius Africanus or Eusebius) or f r o m Roman Arabia citlıer as shovving a common, 'regional' character or as exhibiting contrasting, 'sub-regional' mentalities? A n d in either case are vve entitled to relate these characteristics to the vvider, ncccssarily pagan, bclief-systems of tlıc region or sub-region in question? Was there, to givc a precise examplc, something 'Arabian' (or even ' N a bataean'?) in the doctrine propagated by the bishop Bcryllus of Bostra in the mid-third ccntury vvhich denied both the pre-cxistcnce of Christ before his earthly life and his independent divinity? O r in the other heresy then current in Arabia, that the soul perished vvith the body, to be revived only at the Resurrection?' 08 Any such claim vvould seem to presuppose a far more profound understanding of the culture and social history of the Roman provincc of Arabia than vve actually possess. It vvould also run counter to the obvious fact that the infınite varietics of early Christian bclief and practice knevv no regional boundaries. Tvvo examplcs vvill suffice. T h e earliest set of thcological propositions emanating unquestionably from a bishop in Syria 1 0 5 . 1 1 . 3 above. 106. 11.3 and 12.5 above. 1 0 7 . F o r a t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e S y r i a c t e x t , vvith a v e r y c l e a r a n d h e l p f u l i n t r o d u e t i o n , s e e R . H . C o n n o l l y , Didascalia

Apostolorum

( 1 9 2 9 ) . Tlıe place a n d d a t e o f the G r e e k original a r e

d i s e u s s c d o n p p . I x x x v î i f f . N o t c p. I x x x i x : ' 1 . . . v v o u l d l o c a t c tlıc Didascalia,

roughly speaking,

b e t v v e e n A n t i o c h a n d E d e s s a : y e t vvirhoııt c x c l u d i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f lovvcr S y r i a ( ? ) , o r e v e n Palestine'. 1 0 8 . E u s e b i u s , HE V I , 33 a n d 3 7 .

13.

EPILOGUE

which wc can cncountcr arc contained in the letters of Ignatius of Antioch in the early second century. 109 Are they evidence (for instance) for Judaising tcndencies in the Antiochene church? Perhaps so; but they arc actually addressed to five churches in the Roman province of Asia, and to the church in Rome. Convcrsely, some decades later one of the most influential of Christian heresies was preached in Rome by Marcion, vvho came from Sinope in Pontus. His vievvs vvere to receive much attctıtion in the vvorks of Ephrem; and vve savv earlier hovv a church of Marcionites is attested by an inseription of the early fourth century from a village betvveen D a m a s c j s and the Hauran. 1 1 0 If vve are not carcful, vvhat arc simply vvesternising prcjudiccs may cnt?r modern interpretations of the cvolution of Christianity in the Roman Near East: 'The further east, the less susceptible vvould theological thinking have been to Hcllenising influence, and it is probable that primitivc Syrian thinking spread as far vvest as the Syrian-spcaking environs of Antioch i t s e l f ' . 1 " In fact the reference here is to the ascetic movement of the fourth and fiftlı centurits. Did this too, in the form it t o o k in northern Syria and Mesopotamia, ovve some profound debt to indigcnous traditions? 112 W h a t c o n n e c t i o n , f o r instance, is to be seen betvveen I.ucian's deseription in On the Syrian Goddess of the tvvo pillars in the temple at Hierapolis on vvhich a man vvould remain for seven days, offering prayers, and the most dramatic of ali displays of sclfdeprivation, by the famous ascetic Simeon Stylites, vvho remained on his columtı for seven vvhole years? O u r detailed eoneeption of the ascctics vvho funcrioncd both east and vvest of the Euphrates is a funetion of the existence of a local account, the Religious History of Theodoret, bishop of Cyrrhus, vvritten tovvards the middle of the fifth century. Time is also significant—the movement deseribed by Theodoret had begun about the beginning of the fourth century, vvith Iakobos of Nisibis; but the particular form of demonstrative piety devised by Simeon belongs more than a vvhole century later, in AD 4 zı419. Morcover, if vve may believe Jerome, asceticism in the N e a r East also had an independent (but almost simultancous) origin in the model provided by Saint Antony in Egypt and imported by Hilarion of Gaza in the first decade of the c e n t u r y . m Thus, though the relation of hermits to their local context, and specifically to rural pagan sanctuaries, is often brought out very vividly

1 0 9 . T h e y a r c m o s t e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e i n t h e L o e b Apostolic

Fathers

I, ı 6 $ f f .

1 1 0 . 1 1 . 4 above. 1 1 1 . S o D . S . W a l k c e - H a d r i l l , Christian

Antioch:

A Study

of Early Christian

Thought

in

tbt

East ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 9 1 (in f a c t a s c h o l a r l y a n d s t i m u l a t i n g vvork f r o m vvhich t h e r e is m u c h t o b e l e a r n e d , hovvever q u e s t i o n a b l e s o m e o f its p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s ) . 1 1 2 . S e e a l s o S . P. B r o c k , " E a r l y S y r i a n A s c e t i c i s m " , Numen tives on Iuıte Antiquity 1 1 3 . 10.4 above.

(1984), no. z.

2 0 ( T 9 7 3 ) , 1 = Syriac

Perspeı-

in our sourccs,"' 1 vvhether vve should understand thc spiritual origins of this extremely important, indeed revolutionary, movement in terms of a regional culnıre (and if so vvhich) is a quite different question. T o go 'in search of the Orienı', in comparing social aııd political struetures and thc currency of different languages and seripts in the various sub-regions of thc Roman Near East of the first fevv centurics of the Christian era, is certainly to bring out many features vvhich distinguish this large area from other parts of the Classical vvorld. A b o v c ali, Syriac vvas the only language vvhich emerged for the first time in this period, developed as a vehiele for literatüre, both pagan and Christian, 3nd has remained a Christian language to this day. But it is surely significant that this development began vvlıilc Mesopotamia vvas not yet rulcd by R o m e , and vvas to persist on both sides of the cventual frontier betvveen R o m e and Persia. Elsevvhere, the cffects of R o m a n rule vvere of a curiously ambiguous charaeter. Oıı thc one hand, the early period, vvhen Roman dominance vvas assurcd, but Roman direct rule vvas relatively limited, savv a remarkable flovvering of local arclıitecturc and forms of monumental display, from thc royal monumeııts of Commagenc, to Palmyra, Damascus, the kingdom of H e r o d , the I lauran and Nabataea. Subscquently ali these very distinetive architcctural forms either came to a halt, as in Commagene, Petra or Palmyra, o r suffered aetual destruction, like the Temple in Jerusalem. Commagenc, Petra and Palmyra vvere ali areas vvhere force vvas used by R o m e to suppress political formations vvhich vvere in different w a y s expressions of some itıdependcnt identity. Över the centuries concerned, the effect of Roman rule vvas to produce a stcadily more uniform vvorld of Graeco-Roman cities. T h e history of language is closely comparable (not of course by pure accident, since much of our evidence f o r the expression of local identities comcs from inseriptions, ineluding building-inscriptions)- By thc moment of the conversion of Constantine in 3 ı ı , there vvas almost no place vvest of the Euphrates vvhere texts vvere being publicly inseribed in any language other than Greek or Latin. O n c isolated, if extremcly significant, exccption is provided by the Arabic inseription of an Arab king from En-Nemara; another is a fevv Nabataean texts f r o m the outer fringes of Arabia; and the third is the continued use of both Hebrevv and Aramaic in the epitaphs, mosaics and building-inscriptions from thc Jevvish areas of Syria Palaestina. This last cxccption is of course the majör one, the only historical and religious culture native to this region vvhich, in spite of the violent repression of tvvo great revolts, vvas to survive as a rcligion of the book. Based on texts of vvhich most had been composed before Alexander's conquests, vvere vvritten in a Scmitic language, and expressed conceptions of a single deity vvhich vvere 114. Scc c s p . c h . 6 ahovc.

wholly at variancc with the anthropomorphie cults of Greek paganısın, Judaism cannot but be seen in sharp contrast to Graeco-Roman culturc. But vvhether 'Oriental' is an appropriate label for a bclief-system vvhich cvolved in the first range of hills to the east of the Mediterrancan is again an open qucstion. It vvould, hovvever, be carrying scepticism too far to deny ali coııncction bctvveen the aniconic sacrificial cult of the Temple in Jerusalem and the clear literary, epigraphic and iconographic evidenee for non-representational objects of vvorship at a number of places in Roman Syria and A r a b i a . " 5 We can allovv also for the distinctive role of bas-relicf carvings of deities (as opposcd to statues in the round) funetioning as objects of vvorship, above ali at Palmyra; and the prevalence, never complete, of frontality in this context may be seen as an important clue to the distiııctivencss of the art of Palmyra, £nd of Dura. 1 1 6 By contrast, hardly anything in the extensive evidenee for the identity of local deities as understood by their vvorshippers, or for the iconography of deities or the dccoration o f temples, gives any support to the idea that rhe vvorship of the Sun vvas, as Tacitus supposed, charactcristic of 'Syrians*; stili less vvould it shovv, as moderns have supposed, that there vvas a tendency to syneretise other deities vvith Helios, or Sol, or even that there vvas a general 'solar theology'. T h e best-attested cult of the Sun, at Hatra, is irrelevant in the context of Syria proper in the first century AD. A s for Syria proper, if ' L H ' G B L had already, by the later first century, been interpreted as 'Helios' by the Greck-spcaking inhabitants of Emesa, that might cxplain Tacitus' generalisation. But the idea of a general 'native' cult of the Sun in Syria is not supported by the evidenee." 7 Noncthclcss, the vast varicty of divine names and forms of devotion revealed by dedications in Greek vvill also serve to remind us of hovv dangcrous any generalisations about the ınentality of the population of the Roman N e a r East vvould bc. What, for instance, d o vve makc of a Greek dcdication from the southern Hauran: ' A u s o s (and) Obaidos his son, the tvvo made this gift to Ilaalges and his atıgelos Idarouma'?" B Once again vve have here a local, or rather regional, divine name; f o r 'Ilaalges' is a transliteration of the Nabataean ' L H G Y " , the god of the placc near Petra knovvn in Greek as 'Gaia'. The original Nabataean version is also attested far avvay from there, at the d i s u n t 1 1 5 . C h . 1 a n d 7 . 3 , 8.4, 9 . 2 , r ı .4 a b o v c . 1 1 6 . 9.4 a n d 1 2 . 4 a b o v c . r 17. Tacitus,

Hist.

İ Ü , 2 4 - 2 5 ; s e c 2 . 4 a b o v e . G i v e n t h e v e r y a m b i g u o u s s t a t u s o f rhe c u l t o f

' E l a g a b a l ' a t E m e s a , I vvould b c e v e n m o r e s c c p t i c a l t h a n I I . - S c y r i g in his m a s t c r l y s u r v e y " L c c u l t e d u Solcil en S y r i e â i ' c p o q u e r o m a i n c " , Syria 48 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 3 J71 1 8 . J . T. M i l i k , Dedicaces â Vâpoque ( 1 9 9 0 J , 30.

romaine

faites

par des dieux

(Palmyra,

Hatra,

Tyr) et les thiascs

( 1 9 7 2 ) , 4 2 8 a n d Pl. X V . 1 ; G . W . B o v v e r s o c k , Hetlenism

in Lute

semitiques Anlit/uity

outpost of Dumatha. 1 1 9 The sccondary divine name is also Semitic in origin, incorporating the roots 'hand' ( Y D ) and 'rise' or 'be raised' ( R M H ) . Hut w h a t will have been meant by saying that the one supernatural being w a s the angelos of the other? As regards the personal beliefs of the population of the Near East, quesrions are more appropriate than prematüre ansvvcrs.

13.2.

VVEST?

To pursuc the questions raised b y the inseribed dedications put up by private persons in the Near East, though salutary in shovving hovv enigmatic they are, is to run the risk of missing the most significant point about them: that they are inseriptions, and that they are nearly ali in Greek. One specific example is the dedication from the southern Hauran discussed above. C u t in the black basalt of the area in the second or third century, and hcııce a local cxprcssion of the 'epigraphic habit', it t o o is in Greek. If there is a single conclusion vvhich cmerges from the mass of enigmatic items of evidence from the region, it is that the Greek language, Greek social struetures and Greek framcvvorks for the construction and vvorship of deities penetrated to the most remote o f rural contexts. Greek might tlıereby, as in the example just quoted, come to provide the means of expression of a cult originally conducted in a Semitic language. But it could of course also serve to transmit to this region a vvhole historical culture and mythology vvhich had originally been foreign to it. Eevv examplcs of the transmission o f the standard elements of Greek mythology into a local environment are more perfcct than the carved lintel, also in black basalt, preserved in the museum at Suvveida: it represents the judgmetıt o f Paris, and the figures portrayed are duly labelled in Greek—Paris, Hermes, Aphrodite, Athena, I icra and Z e u s . ' T h e same process of transmission could be illustrated from the long series of mosaics vvith mythological scenes knovvn from the Near Eastern provinces; the best knovvn are those of Antioch, but perhaps greater significance attaches to those from Philippopolis, the n e w foundation by Philip 'the A r a b ' (244-249), vvhere the mosaics make a striking impression, surrounded as they 3re by the black basalt vvalls of the buildings put up in the nevv city of the mid-third century and aftervvards. One may note above ali the supremely elegant portrayal of Artcmis bathing, surpriscd by Actaeon. 2 At the level of mass popular culture, the most important influence from the vvider Greek vvorld may have been cxerciscd by the festivals or competi= tions

(agönes)

involving

both

athlctics

and

stage-performanccs

(and

hcncc

1 1 9 . S c c 1 1 . r , t c x t 10 n . 2 3 . 1 . M . D u ı ı a n d , Le musee

de Soueida

(1934), no. 1.

2 . S e e t h e s u r v e y by J. Balty, " L a m o s a i q u e a u P r o c h e - O r i c n t I " , ANRW

H.12.2 (1981), 347.

reprcsentations of Greek mytlıs) and attested a l m o s t — b u t not q u i t c — a l i över thc rcgion: for cxampic at Antioch, Z c u g m a , Damascus, Berytus, Tyre, Neapolis, Caesarea, Gerasa, Philadelphia, Bostra and Gaza. But, as noted earlier, they secm not to have taken root in the outer reaches of the Roman N e a r East—across the Euphrates, at Palmyra or at Petra. It is casy to apprcciatc thc stili visible evidence of Greek mass enterrainm e n t — t h e vast theatres of Cyrrhus or Apamea, the still-standing theatre of Bostra, or its circus, clearly visible from the air. But it is much harder to grasp thc more private proccss vvhich must have been fundamental to thc culturc of the region, the teaching of vvritten Greek to children. A s everyvvhere, vve begin to catch glimpses of the educational process only in its upper reachcs, a s in Eusebius' passing allusion to someone callcd Malchion vvho in thc later third century vvas in charge of sophistic education in the Greek schools (paideuteria) at Antioch.' Even such a n allusion hardly makes clear vvhat age-group, or vvhat level of education, vvas concerned. In most cascs either vve sec thc local produets of vvhat must have been a very vvidcspread process of the diffusion of Greek, as represented in thousands of local inseriptions and some perishable documents, or vve encounter the individual sophists or vvriters vvho contributed to thc univcrsal literary and rhctorical culturc of thc vvider Grcck vvorld. A catalogue of these vvould serve no purpose, for it vvas precisely one of the defining features of the vvider Greek culture that a man vvho made a name for himself vvithin it might c o m c 'from' anyvvhere. But one significant example is the Heliodorus vvhom Philostratus calls simply 'the Arabian*, and vvho therefore came from the Roman province of Arabia. 4 Sent to G a u l to appear before thc Emperor (Caracalla, cvidently in 213), he not only gained revvards from him, but seizcd the opportunity to invite the Emperor to assign him a theme for an impromptu oration. T h e topic given vvas 'Demosthenes, having lost the thread of his oration before Philip, and accuscd of covvardice'. It could be assumed by both parties that this episodc from fourth-ccntury Greek history vvas familiar. Five hundred years earlier, vvhen Seleucus I had been spreading Greek colonies över much of thc Fertile Crescent, it is very likely that there had bccn a large-seale immigration by Greek-speakers from Greece itself, the Aegean and Macedonia, as surely happened in Egypt also. There may even have been some immigration during the Hellenistic period, for instance vvhen the Greek cities of the Decapolis, most of vvhich vvere eventually to form part of Roman Arabia, came into existence. But, paradoxically, vvhile the full cxprcssion of Greek city culture in the N e a r East vvas a featurc not of the Hcllcnistic but of the Roman period, there is nothing vvhatsoevcr to suggest that this w a s 3 . E u s e b i u s , HE V I I , 2 9 , 2 . 4. P h i l o s t r a t u s , Vîr. Soph.

II, 3 2 -

achieved by further immigration or scttlcment from the rest of the G r e e k vvorld. It vvas not that, but the adoption of the norms of Greek city-culture by both dependent kings and local coınmunities vvhich progressively transformed not only cities, old and nevv, but a vast netvvork of villages into urban, or sub-urban, communities using Greek. T h e effect vvas to be most striking in tvvo areas elose to the steppe, Palmyra and the Hauran. In the case of Palmyra it is very likely that the anccstors of those vvho crcated this vvholly nevv city, from the first century BC onvvards, vvould have been labelled by GraecoRoman observers as 'Arabs'; indeed vve surely meet just these atıcestors in the ten thousand 'Arabs and some o f those ncighbouring on them', commanded by one '/Cabdibelos', vvhom Polybius deseribes as fighting under Antiochus III at the battlc of Raphia in Z17 BC. This name vvas to be quite common in Palmyrene inseriptions. 5 But the Palmyrenes of the imperial period never seem to have identified themselves as 'Arabs'; the significant fact about them is not that, but their progressive approximation to Graeco-Roman models, first a s a 'Greek city' and then as a Roman colonia, statuses utıiquely combincd vvith the continued pubiic use of their dialcct of Aramaic. Similarly, the long development vvhich produced an 'Arab' vvho could e x ploit before a Roman Emperor tlıc vvell-knovvn theme of Demosthenes' failure of nerve before Philip vvas brought about neither by Grcck immigration into the zone betvveen the Jordan Valley and the steppe nor by the 'penetration' of Arabs into this area. It vvas a process of acculturation by a settled population, vvhich is symbolised by the urbanisatioıı of Petra, and simultancously by the crcation of a monumental cult-ccntre at Sia' and the bilingual inseriptions, in Greek and Aramaic, vvhich accompanied it. By the early third century, vvheıı Heliodorus appeared before Caracalla, the novv unified zone of Roman Arabia vvas a netvvork of Greek cities, vvhosc status vvas indicatcd by their minting coins vvith Greek legends, and vvhich vvere embedded in a dense netvvork of villages, stretehing from Damascus soutlıvvards to around Petra. T h e most significant development lay in fact at the village level: that throughout this area almost the only vvritten language in pubiic use vvas novv Greek. But among the rustic Greek inseriptions of the Hauran arca vve find a considerablc number in vvhich individuals are designated by transliterated Latin terms, ouetranos f v e t e r a n ' ) or ouetranikos ('of veteran status'). Corning from a nıral environment near the margitıs of the steppe, these inseriptions may serve to remind us that in searehing, as vve must, for the various forms of local languages, belicfs, cult-forms, iconography, perhaps even local literatüre and historical traditions, vve are in danger of overlooking the obvious. For by far the most profound a n d all-pcrvasive of ali external cultural influences in the N e a r East in the first fevv centuries vvas the Roman Empire itself. 5. P o l y b i u s V , 7 9 , 8. F o r ı h c n a m e , in v a r i o u s f o r m s , S t a r k , o p . cit., 1 3 . 1 , n . 5 7 , ı 6 f f .

In the earliest phase of development its influenee vvas, it is true, at best indirect. In a vvay vvhich is by no means easy to cxplain, most of the major royal monuments of Commagene, put up under Antiochus I {circa 69-36 ı»c); the earliest knovvn public inseription from Palmyra (and the earliest Palmyrenc inseription from Dura, recording the building of a temple); as vvell as the earliest knovvn phase of the sanctuary at Sia' in the Hauran, ali date to shortly before rather than after the moment vvhen a secure Roman domination, no longcr marked by internal confiicts, had been achieved by the battle of Actium. But the existence of the established Roman monarehy must have been relevant to the phase of extravagant urban construction and monumental building vvhich then took place in both the Herodian and the Nabataean kingdoms; it vvas paraileled, vvhere vve can trace it, by large-scale projects in Greek cities, such as Damascus a n d Gerasa. A s noted earlier, Josephus' list of the buildings donated by Herod to cities outside his kingdom can be taken to mark the first phase in the evolution of the monumental 'Greek city' in the Near Kast: Tripolis, Damascus, Ptolemais, Byblos, Berytus, Tyre, Sidon, Laodicea, Ascalon, Antioch. W h a t Josephus vvas to vvrite later, in the Antiquities, of Herod's gift to Antioch perfectly expresses the ideal: 'And for the Antioehenes, vvho inhabit the greatest city in Syria, vvhich has a street running through it lengthvvise, he adorned this street vvith colonnades on either side, and paved the open part of the road vvith polished stone, thereby contributing greatly to the appearance of the city and to the conveııience of its inhabitants.' 6 It is not incorrcct to deseribe these places—the colonia of Berynıs a p a r t — a s 'Greek cities'. But as physical struetures, vvith monumental buildings including 'Roman' tlıeatres, baths, basilicas and occasionally amphitheatres, and vvith the use of R o m a n techniqucs of construction, they vvould be better describcd as 'Graeco-Roman'. 7 T h e Imperial period marked a nevv phase in urbanism, in vvhich Greek and Roman elements vvere fused. The influenee of the Empire vvent far beyond the direct cffccts of taxation anci miiitary occupation. It vvas only very gradualty, step by step över several centuries, that the Roman miiitary presence ceased to represent esscntially a potential application of force, vvhich could be deployed from northern Syria in emergencies, and evolved into a general policing funetion, vvhich extended in very visible form to the vvhole 'desert frontier', from Aila to the Tigris. By the moment of the treaty vvhich Diocletian made vvith the Persian king in 298 or 299, the population of the vvhole area directly ruled by Rome, betvveen the Taurus

6. J o s e p h u s , BJl,

2 1 , 1 1 ( 4 2 2 - 4 2 5 ) , c f . 1 0 . 2 , t c x ( t o n . 9 , a b o v e ; I . o c b t r a n s . f r o m Ant.

XVI,

S. 3 ( 1 4 8 ) . 7 . For a valuable survey scc H . D o d g c , " T h e Architcctural Impact of R o m e in the E a s c " , in M . H e n i g ( c d . ) , Arehiteeture

and Arcl>itectural

Sculpture

in the Roman

Empire

(1990), 108.

Mountains and the Red Sea, must have numbered at least several millions. 8 But even in relation to so large a population, the scale of the Roman military presence vvas significant. By the third ccntury, if vve assume that the number of auxiliaries vvas roughly equal to that of legionaries, there vvill have been something approaching 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 soldiers in the Near Eastern provinces; perhaps therefore approximatcly onc for every hundred civilians. In sheer scale, and in the fact that the deployment of the army vvas a process vvhose effccts vvere continually renevved, by the movement of units, b y rccruitment and by diseharge, the Roman army must represent by far the most substantial of ali non-local infiucnccs on the N e a r East. Morcover, along vvith the importation of legionaries and auxiliary troops from other parts o f the Roman vvorld, vve have to take into account local recruitment into the army, follovved by the diseharge, and re-settlement vvithin local society, of the ouetranoi vvhom vve can encounter from the Tigris to the Hauran. Here again, if vve think of possible 'Romanisation', as opposed to 'Hellcnisation', there is nothing to suggest that incorporation into the Roman Empire vvas accompanied by any significant immigration by Latin-speaking civilians. T h e only iong-standing 'island' of Romanism in the N e a r East vvas the colonia of Berytus, crcated by the settlement of veterans under Augustus; its inland territory stretehed over into the Bekaa Valley, later to be split off as the colonia of Heliopolis. These tvvo linked areas vvere the only ones vvhere Latin remained in general use, and even here alvvays in combination vvith Grcck. Outside these zones, individual Latin vvords, from official or military contexts, entered the Greek of everyday life and passed into Hebrevv, Nabataean, Palmyrene and Syriac; royal and Imperial foundations spread Latin-dcrivcd city names aeross the map; and I-atin personal names passed inro very conımon use in Greek, vvhether or not the individuals concerned had gaincd the Roman citizenship. 9 But thcrc is nothing t o suggest that outside Berytus and Heliopolis Latin ever became a, let alone the, normal language of daily speech. N o r did it ever supplaııt Greek as the literary language of rhe Near East. T h e Res Gestae of Ammianus Marccllinus, a native of Antioch born about AD 3 3 0 , seems to represent the earliest knovvn literary vvork vvritten in Latin by someone from the Near East. But the very substantial literary evidenee for the fourth-century Antioch of Libanius and John Chrysostom serves to shovv just hovv surprising and cxccptional this vvill have been. There are, hovvever, tvvo linked exceptions to the general absence of any profound Romanisation. First, it is clear, as already noted, that Berytus remained consciously a place of Latin and Roman culture. It vvas thus there 8. F o r s o m e o b s e r v a t i o n s see Fİ C u r n o n t , " T h e P o p u l a t i o n o f S y r i a " , JRS 9.

S e e J.-P.

Kcy-Coquais,

D . M . P i p p i d i ( c d . ) , Acies

uOnomastiquc

du VII' Congrds

et

ini. d'tpigr.

lıistoire

de

la

Syrie

gr. el lal. ( 1 9 7 9 ) ,

24 (1934), 187.

grcco-romaine", 171.

iıı

that Valerius Probus, the m a j ö r Latin grammarian of the first century AD, vvas able to read older Latin vvorks vvhich had fallcn out of favour in Rome. 1 0 Sccond, there vvas Roman jurisprudcnce, taught abovc ali in Berytus itself. Access to Roman jurisdietion, hovvever crratic or dilatory, became a crucial issue in the practical affairs of ordinary people vvithin a Roman province, even those living in remote rural locations; vve have seen thc process of going to scck justicc from Roman officials vividly refleeted in both of the tvvo new arehives, that of Babatha's family from the south end of the Dead Sea, and that of the third century f r o m the middle Euphrates." Hovv far thc principlcs of Roman lavv, as opposcd t o the jurisdietion of Roman courts, or the forms of Roman procedure, came to affect the lives of individuals is a problem vvhich arises throughout the Empire, and is too complex to embark on here. 2 But thc 'arehive of Babatha' shovvs that even vvithin a fevv years of the crcation of the province of Arabia the specifically Roman procedure of verbal question-and-ansvver (stipulatio) had come into use, even among non-citizens. 3 Even more rcmarkably, thc arehive contains three tcxts of a Grcck translation of verbal fomtulae knovvn f r o m the praetor's edict. 14 Neither this nor any other evidence, hovvever, can make it seem any the less surprising that the majör exponcnt of classical R o m a n jurisprudcnce should have been Domitius Ulpianus, vvho came from a knovvn family of Greek-speaking ' O u l p i a n o i ' in the ancicnt Phocnician-Greek city of Tyre. H e vvas certainly born long before his native city became a R o m a n colonia, probably in 1 9 8 . 1 5 Roman lavv could certainly become, as a rival to Greek rhetoric, a ski 11 to vvhich young men could aspire. T h e tension betvveen the obligations of Greek city life and thc attractions of R o m a n lavv as the key to a future career is visible in the reseript vvhich Diocletian and Maximian addressed to 'Severinus and other scholastici Arabi?: 'Since you affirm that you are devoting yoursclvcs to liberalia stndia, espccially vvith regard to thc professio iuris, by residing in the civitas Berytorunı of thc provincc of Phocnicc, vve have decidcd that it is in the interest both of the public benefit and of your future advancement that each of you should not, up to your Z5th year, bc called avvay from your studies'." 5 T h e population of the N e a r East had long since been integrated vvithin the 1 0 . S u e t o ı ı i u s , De gram.

2 4 ; scc M i l l a r , " R o m a n Coloniae",

16.

1 1 . Scc 3 . 2 - 3 ; 4 . 2 a b o v c . 1 2 . S c c H . G a l s t e r c r , " R o m a n L a v v in t h c P r o v i n c c s : S o m e P r o b l e m s o f T r a n s m i s s i o n " , ia M . H . C r a w f o r d fed.),

L'lmpero Romano e If strutlure eeonomithe e soeLıli delle provina

(1986), 13. 1 3 . 1 1 . 4 , text to n.9, above. 1 4 . P. Yadin, n o s . 2 8 - 3 0 . 1 5 . 3 . 4 a n d 8.5 a b o v e . ı 6 . C / X , 50, 1.

vvider Imperial system, in vvhich individuals might enter the Roman army a s common soldiers, or people of more prominent birth enlist directly as centurions; and in vvhich the Roman citizenship, beginning vvith kings and dynasts in the late Republic and Augustan period, slovvly spread, to be capped by Caracalla's 'divine gift' of the universal citizenship in the second decade o f the third ccntury- In that period too, under the Severan dynasty and after, there came that remarkable tide of Imperial grants of the status of colonia, vvhich vvas no mere matter of nomenclature or formal status and embraced a large proportion of precisely those places vvhich cxhibitcd the most strongly marked regional or local character: for instance Emesa, Sidon, Tyre, Petra, Bostra, Damascus, Palmyra and the cities of the nevvly conquered area across the Euphrates, Edessa, Carrhae, Reshaina, Nisibis and Singara. Thus it vvas that the formal, pubiic refleetion of Roman imperialism, and its capacity t o offer citizenship and status to subject populations, is visible novvhcrc more vividly than in the documents o f the Syriac-speaking area. When a deed o f sale vvas dravvn up in the colonia of Edessa in 2 4 3 , the holder of the priesthood ( K M R W T ' ) vvas a man vvith a classically Romano-Greek name, ' M a r k o s Aurclios Antiochos' ( M R Q W S ' W R I . Y W S ' N T Y W K S ) , vvho vvas also a Roman eques. But to indicate this it vvas necessary to transliterate tvvo Greek vvords into Syriac: H P W S R H M W S (hippeus römaios).17 Marcus Aurelius Antiochus vvas onc of a quite small number of R o m a n equites vvho are knovvn to have come from the N e a r Eastern provinces; vvhen the careers of such men are knovvn, it is very often as a produet of honorific inseriptions from their home tovvns, a feature of imperial urban life vvhich vvas relatively little developed in this region. 18 But among such inseriptions those from Berytus and Heliopolis stand out, as do those from P a l m y r a — a s a direct refleetion of the unique bilingual version of the 'epigraphic habit' vvhich prevailed there; so Greek terms for Roman ranks appear there too in Semitic transliteration (vvith kratistos epitropos doukenarios appearing as QRTS'["WS ' P T R P ' D Q N R ' } . Some other men from the Near East, but surely fevver, rose into the Roman Senate itself, the earliest knovvn dating to the later first ccntury. Here again our vievv of them is sometimes ovved to cityinscnptions of the type familiar from many parts of the Empire. 19 O u r most consistent evidence, hovvever, again comes from Palmyra, and relates to Septimius Odenathus, the husband of Zenobia, and his son, Septimius Airanes. Here too, therefore, in the 2 . 5 0 S , vve are able to see their Roman rank as ex-

1 7 . P. Dura,

n o . 28; 1 2 . 5 a b o v e .

1 8 . S c c H . Devijver^ " E q u e s t r i a n O f f i c e r s f r o ı n t h e E a s t " , in F t e e m a n a n d K e n n e d y , 1 , 1 0 9 , o n p p . 1 7 9 f f . ; equiles

DRBE

in third-century Palmyra, 4.3 a b o v e .

1 9 . Scc G . W . Bovversock, " R o m a n Senators f r o m the N e a r East: S y r i a , J u d a e a , A r a b i a , M e s o p o t a m i a " , i n S . P a n c i e r a ( e d . ) , Epigrafuı

e ordme

seruıtorio

II ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 6 5 1 .

pressed in Greek terms, and in Greek either transliterated or translated into Palmyrene: t/ir clarissimus (senatör) has hccome laınprotatos synkletikos cr S N Q L T Y Q ' NHYR'.20 Senators from cities in the Near East come most clearly into our vic»v vvhen they appear in narrative sources as making claims to the rank of Emperor. T h a t in its turn, hovvever, vvas an effect of the centrality of the Near East, northern Syria above ali, in the miiitary strueture of the Empire. This vvas the case vvith Avidius Cassius, from Cyrrhus, vvhosc attempted coup took place, perhaps by a misunderstanding, vvhen he vvas the consular legatus of Syria in 175. Later coups d'etat involving men from this region arose from a further conscqucnce of the grovving centrality of the N e a r East. After almost one and a half centuries vvhen no ruling Emperor ever came there, from Trajan onvvards the N e a r East became one of the priınary fields for campaigns led by Emperors in person. Imperial campaigns vvere of course only an intermittent, and in a sense superficial, aspect of a much vvider process of m u t u d contact, integration and conflict betvveen the apparatus of the state a n d the communal struetures of the region. We should certainly attach more importancc to the gradual expansion of direct miiitary occupation by the army, its diffusion in the form of the small police-posts along roads, so vividly refleeted in Eusebius' catalogue of places mentioned in the Bible, and the cxtension of miiitary occupation to the margins of the steppe. In that contcxt a vast, longterm process of change is symbolised by the Latin inseription of AD 334 from the steppe south of the I lauran, in vvhich a proteetor named Vincentius reeords his construction of a cistcrn, designed to reduce the danger to peasants sceking vvater from raids by the Saraceni But these Imperial campaigns did refleet a fundamental shift in the strategic shape of the Empire; and for our purposes they also on occasion led to consequcnces vvhich throvv into sharp relief the profound nature of the problems vvlıich confront us in assessiııg ethnic or cultural identities, or the relation of these to political aetion. In 244, for instance, Gordian III vvas killed during a campaign on the Euphrates, and vvas supplanted as Emperor by his Praetorian Prefect, M . Iulius Philippus, or Philip 'the Arab'. Narrative sources of the fourth ccnturr and later do indeed cali him a n Arab, or Trachonite Arab, a refleetion of the fact that hc came from an arca at the northern tip of the Jcbel Hauran, just south of the edgc of the lava-field knovvn as 'Trachonitis'. But the source vvhich is by far the elosest in time, the Thirteentb Sibyİline Oracle, deseribes him as 'appearing from Syria'. 7 2 This area had not been part of the kingdom

2 0 . C a n t i n e a u , Inv. II!, n o . 1 9 ; 4 . 3 a b o v e . xı.

TI.s above.

zı.

F o r t h e s o u r c e s s e e PIR* I, 4 6 1 . ' A r a b s ' : S H A , v. (Jord.

V ı e t o r , Caes.

29; 'Arabs Trachonites': Auceliut

2 8 , j ; ' A p p e a r i n g f r o m S y r i a ' : Sib. Or. X I I I , a , s e c P o t t e n SybiUine

Oracle,

ad

lor.

of Nabataea; the documents from this region in the first century had iııdced ineluded some inseriptions in Aramaic, and Josephus had characterised its pagan inhabitants as Suroi.23 In the second century and after, howcver, ali the inseriptions from the settled zone are in Greek. When Iulius Philippus and his brother Iulius Priscus were born, perhaps around AD 200, their native district may (but it is not ccrtain) have ccascd to bc part of 'Syria Phoenicc', and beetı joined to 'Arabia'. 2 ' 1 T o sketeh tbat background is to stress that vve must lcavc entirely open the question of vvhat ethnic deseription vve ought to give to the tvvo Greck-spcaking (and surcly also Latin-speakiııg) sons of a local Roman citizen, Iulius Marinus, vvho both novv entered the Imperial service. It is clearly, in any case, more significant that both vvill have risen though equcstrian military and civilian careers—and that Philippus' most notable monument vvas to be the foundation at his presumed birthplacc of a nevv Grcekcity-cum-Roman-co/o«/a, named after himself, l'hilippopolis. It vvas merc chance vvhich allovved him to risc from Praetorian Prefect to Emperor; and the city vvhich he founded remains the most complete expression of the export to the edge of the steppe of the Gracco-Roman ideal of a city. But, vvith an indeterminacy typical of our sources, the author of the Oracle vvritten a decade later did then clıoose to refer to Philippopolis and Bostra a s 'ciries of the Arabs': 'Novv be adorncd, citics of the Arabs, vvith temples and stadia and agoras and paved streets . . . Bostra and Philippopolis'." By contrast, there had been significant purely regional elements in the coup vvhich in 218 had made an Emperor of the adolcscent Varius Avitus Bassianus; for its success partly depended on the prestige of rhe deity in Emesa vvhose priest he vvas, Elagabal. But his mother came from a local family vvhich must have enjoyed the Roman citizcnship since the first ccntury, and vvhich had made a marriage-connection vvith the Severi from Lepcis in Tripolitania, vvhile his father vvas a Roman egues from the Greek city of Apamea. The cult of Elagabal, vvhose 'Oriental' fcaturcs he vvas to flaunt so deliberatcly in Rome, vvas understood, even in Emesa itself, to be a cult of the Sun; that itself, hovvever, refleeted not a general 'Syrian' vvorship of the Sun, but a Greek interpretation of a Semitic term, ' L H ' G B L , the first half of vvhich sounded somevvhat like 'Helios'. Ear from being authentically 'Syrian', the cult vvhich the juvenile Emperor displayed in Rome vvas a typically Greek construction of a genuinely local cult vvhose real origins vvere unknovvn a n d of no interest. 26 T h e brief military domination of Palmyr3, too, might be better understood

2 3 . 1 ı . ı a n d 1 3 . 1 , t e x r t o 11.58, a b o v c . 2 4 . F o r d i f f e r e n t r e c o ı ı s t r u c t i o n s o f «bc s t a g e s o f t h e n o r t h v v a r d m o v e m e n t o f t h e b o r d e r o f A r a b i a , s c c F_ K e t i e n h o f c n , Z D P V 9 7 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 6 2 , a n d B o v v e r s o c k , Roman 2 5 . Sib.

Or. XIII,

26. 9.2 a b o v c .

64-66.

Arabia.

ııyff.

in terms not of presumed ' A r a b ' origins, but of the Greek and Roman modcls towards vvhich it stcadily progrcsscd ovcr thrcc ccnturics, taking thc form of a Greek city vvith the normal institutions, then of a Greek city named (as so often) after the Emperor, 'Hadriane Palmyra', and then of a Roman colonia. In conscqucnce, the forces vvhich 'Vaballathus Augustus', prcciscly like Flavius Vespasianus tvvo centuries before, sent into Egypt and across Asia Minör might better be seen as symboiising a claim to the Empire as a vvhole, rather than as a rejection of it, or as reflecring a separatist movement based on cthnic or regional loyaltics. In other vvords, if vve seek to knovv vvho the inhabitants of the Roman N e a r East in these centuries really 'vvere', and vvhat identity cities and c o r ı munitics there attributcd to themselves, vve must be content after ali wi:h ambiguous ansvvers. T h i s study began vvith thc dcdication vvhich a R o m a n soldier at Dura-Europos made in Greek to 'the ancestral god, Z e u s Betylcs, of those by thc Orontes', a n d vvith the multiple ambiguities vvhich sprang from this charactcrisation of a regional dcity. S o it is only appropriate that it should end vvith the equally complex issues raised by Byzantine summaries of a Greek novel vvritten in the second century, the Babyloniaca of lamblichus. Was there stili a living Babylonian culturc, from vvhich Icarning in the magical arts could be derived? Should vve see the vvhole Fertile Crescent, from Babylonia to the Mcditerranean, as the home of a unified 'Semitic', 'Syrian' or 'Aramaic' culture? Was there a vvhole elass of persons in Roman Syria vvho defincd themselves as 'Syrian' by descent and culture, and vievved Greek culture as something vvhich they might or might not acquire? Was the 'Soaimos' w h o according to lamblichus vvas a Roman senatör and consul, and ccrtainly became king of Armenia, really a descendant of the earlier local dynasty at Emesa? T h e only unambiguous feature of the tvvo surviving summaries of vvhat lamblichus had said about himself is that they both reflect the author's avvarsness of the continued claims of Roman impcrialism: thc Parthian vvar fought by Trajan, and that of the ı 6 o s under Lucius Verus, vvhen 'the land o f the Parthians became subject to the Romans'. lamblichus vvas of course exaggerating. But this vvas in fact thc moment vvhen Dura became Roman, and vvhen Osrhoene, the birthplacc of Syriac literatüre, became a Roman dependeney. He had thus caught the crucial moment in the evolution of the Roman Empire in the N e a r East.

APPENDICES MAPS INDICES

APPENDIX

a t h e ı n s c r ı p t ı o n s OV t h e tetrarchic

eand-surveyors

T h e inseriptions of the Tetrarchic land-surveyors have never been collected in full, and represeııt important evidence both for the vvorking of the Tetrarchic state at the most local level and for local toponomy, communal nomenclanırc and forms of land-ovvnership. They divide into three main groups: ( i ) from the limestone massif of northern Syria; (2) from the Huleh Valley (the upper part of the Jordan valley) and the Golan Hcights (Gaulanitis); and (3) the plain to the east of Gaulanitis, ancient Batanaea. There is also one important one (no. 35), and possibly a second (no. 36), from the Hauran (Auratıitis). In broad terms of funetion and character, they represent a single group, though vvith marked variations în the verbal formulac employed. A s indicated above ( 5 . 2 ) , the ercction o f these inseriptions clearly refleets the Tetrarchic taxation-rcform of AD 2 9 7 , and several of them are explicitly dated to this year. T h e attempt by W. G o f f a r t , Caput and Colonale ( 1 9 7 4 ) , 4 4 a n d 1 2 9 - 1 3 0 , to deny any coıınection betvveen this proccss and the reform of taxation is not convincing. But ît must certainly be admitted that the precise connection betvveen these inseriptions marking out boundaries, on the one hand, and the forms of taxation on the other, is obscure. The inseriprions vvill be presented in the order indicated above, vvhich in Roman terms means taking in sequence the provinciae of Syria Coele, Syria Phoenice, Syria Palaestina (probably) and Arabia. Whethcr any come from Syria Palaestina remains unccrtain, because ali of the knovvn markers come from the east side of the Huleh Valley (or actually on the Golan Heights), and none from Galilee proper or Judaea. In any case vve d o not knovv exacdy vvhere the 'borders' betvveen Syria Phoenice, Arabia and Syria Palaesdna lay in the Tetrarchic period. Discussion of the provincial boundaries has

been greatly confused by the use of a seventh-century manuseript, the s o ealled Laterculus Verotıensis, with a Üst of the provinces bclievcd to go back to the Tetrarchic period. But, as noted above, there is no contemporary evidence f o r a province called either 'Arabia Augusta Libanensis' (so W. Seston, Diocletien et la Tetrarcljie I, 1948, 374ff.) or 'Augusta Libanensis.' For a properly cautious discussion of the latter, also questioning vvhether in principle the operations of censitores coincided vvith provincial boundaries, see A. Alt, "Augusta Libanensis", ZDPV 7 1 (1955), 173. Ali that is clcar is that the same censitor, Aelius Statutus, is attested at vvork in the area around Damascus (nos. 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 8 ) , in Gaulanitis (nos. 19, 24, 29) and in the Huleh Valley (no. 22). It should probably be assumcd that a similar operation vvas conducted everyvvhere in the Near East, and perhaps throughout the Empire. T h e texts of the inseriptions appear to suggest that they themselves vvere put up by the censitores. If that is so, the erratic survival of documents of this sort is dııe to subsequent conditions, rather than (as is often the case vvith inseription») to choices made at the time by interested parties. T h e fullest discussion of these inseriptions to date is A. Deleagc, La capitation du Bas-Empire ( 1 9 4 5 ) , i 5 2 f f . ; note also especially H . Seyrig, "Bornes cadastrales du Gebel S i m ' â n " , in G. Tchalenko, Villages antiques de la Syrie duNord III (1958), 6ff. It has not seemed vvorthvvlıile to reproduce ali the texts, often fragmentary, from the printed editions, especially in the abscnce of dircct vvork on the stones themselves. So most vvill merely be listed, vvith salient details noted. But a fevv more complete texts vvill be given as illustrations.

C O M M A G E N E , NEAR D O M C H E ı(?). IGR III, no. 1002 = IGLS I, no. 59. AD 293/305. Side 1 . Dating by Tctrarchs of AD 293/305, follovved by 'Apöoûtaııv ea(?) töuç öpoı>ç. Side 2. Same text, more vvorn, vvith E A A A K A f . . ] in I. 8. T H E U M E S T O N E MASSİF Note the map of the locations of these inseriptions in T c h a l e n k o , Villages Antiques III, p. 5 1 , fig. t . A l i the knovvn oncs from the limestone massif come from an area south of Brad in the Jebel Seman, and some 30 km north-vvest of Aleppo (sec the fold-out maps in the same volume). 2.

Seyrig in Tchalenko, o p . cit., p. 7 , no. 8 = SEG X X , no. 335; cf. BE (1959), no. 459.

Burq Ileidar. AD 297. Ereeted ûrcep oo>uıp(0aç tcai (Sıaluovry; of the Tetrarchs. Establishment of öpjot] Ktojırıç Kcmpoıoıpûiv, eıtî 'Iou(X(ou) l a p ı v o v t o ö \ajıJtpotâtou Kr\vae(Top[oçl. T h c dating, year 345 of the cra of Antioch, in the month Pancmos, can be restored by thc paraliel with nos. 3 - 6 and 9 beIow. 3.

4.

Seyrig, p. 8, no. 8a = SEG X X , no. 336. K a f r Lab. AD 297. Names of Tetrarchs missing; öpoı [KIOHÎ\Ç Kartplo^ıafkov, under Iulius Sabinus, kensitör. Dating as etouç e^ıt' (345), üavıuıou f\. Seyrig, p. 8, no. 8b = SEG X X , no. 337, noting tvvo further texts, not published. K a f r Lab. AD 297. This relatively complete text is vvorth giving in full as an example of the nature and lay-out of this visible cxprcssion of thc Tetrarchic state in a rural locality. vrefep oo>TT|pı'aç KOÎ

veiKnç

T Û V t a ı p t t û v IÎMÛV

AıotcXr|Tiavoi) Kat MaÇıjuavoö töiv Eepaarcov K(ai) K
K(al) MaÇmıavoü E7cuî>[avJeotâtûiv Kecâptov. öpoı dveoTdOıjaav KMjıfjç Kaırpo\ıa(kı>v eni lotitâou ZaPıvov [TOJÖ Âaurtpotaroi) Ktivavtopoç 8TODÇ £ f i t ' , I l a v ^ n o u v .

5.

6.

Seyrig, p. 9, no. 8c = SEG X X , no. 338. Kafr Lab. AD 297. Same text as above, more damaged. Seyrig, p. 9, no. 8 s SEG X X , no. 339. Baziher, AD 297. Tetrarchs, as above. EstabJishnıent of öpoı ârc(oiKiaç) Zaepouç, stouç e|»x' (345), Aeaıov eı, 6(1 â ) Zaflıvou XQ|nrpo[tdTOul Kivavtopoç

N o t e that the m o d e r n name of the village derives from the substitution of the term beth ('house'} for e n o u a o v or e n o u d a , attached to Zcıepo\>; 7.

Scyrig, p. 10, no. 8e = SEG X X , no. 340. Betvveen K a f r N a b o and Brad.

AD

293/305.

Fragmentary reference to Tetrarehs, as above. â[veoTd]örıaa[v öpoı KctJ>cpo[...]. The names o f both o f the modern villages are attested on local inseriptions. IGLS

II„ no. 3 5 9 (Brad) has ev Kaîrepvafiou, and no.

530 has Kcntpo(k«pa5. 8.

Seyrig, p. 10, no. 8f = SEG X X , n o . 3 4 1 . Near Kafr Nabo.

AD

2.93/305.

Fragmentary f o r m u la for victory o f Tetrarehs. 9.

Seyrig, p. 1 1 , no. 9 = SEG

X X , no. 342.

Ferkan, AD 297, Tetrarehs. öpoı erc(oudou) Kcmepovl.]aytGtoç. N a m e o f Sabinus(?) as Knvoıtopo; missing. Year 345, m o n t h L ö o s . ro.

J. Jarry, "inseriptions arabes, syriaques et grccques du Massif d u Bclus en Syrie d u N o r d " , Annales p.

158,

no.

33

lslamologiques

and PI. XLII = AE

(1968),

no.

7 (1967),

139,

514.

N e a r Kbcsin, in the area o f Kafr L a b . Tetrarehs. F.stablishment of öpoı ftcconTtel Kanpoıcnvcov by Iulius Sabinus. Year 3 4 5 , P a n e m o s . 11.

Jarry, p.

159,

no.

34

and PI. X L I I = AE

(1968),

no.

515.

N e a r Kbcsin. AD 297. Tetrarehs. Establishment of [öpoı k]û)u[i|ç Ka7tpo]xepK£û>v by Iulius Sabinus. Year 345, Panemos. T2.

Jarry, p.

160,

no.

35 =

AE

no.

(1968),

516.

Burj A b d a l o u , on the route betvveen ı)eir Seman and river Afrin. AD 293/305.

Tetrarehs. öpoı K P O N E A , rest illegible. D a t e unccrtain. N E A R J I S I I R ES S I I O Ü H U R , I N T H E N O R T H E R N O R O N T E S VAI.I.UY 13.

M . Adunolfi, " U n a iserizione greca inedita e la 'capitatio' di Dioclezia n o " , Oriens Antiquus

4

(1965),

N e a r the N a h r e l - A b y a d , a tributary o f the Orontes. vnep oomıpıaç 14.

Jarry, p.

160,

K E VIKTIÇ

no.

36 =

AD

293/305.

o f the Tetrarehs. âvecrccîötıoav öfploı e.nf. ..].

AE

no.

(1968),

M e s m e s a n , near Jishr es Shoghur.

AD

Tetrarehs. öpoı Kcmlp olueta^f. - -1-

517. 293/305.

T E R R İ T O R Y O F EMESA i5(?). IGLS V, no. 2560 = AE {1947), no. 146. Zaidal, 5 k m east of Emesa/Homs. A D Z ^ L ^ O ^ F ) . [ûnep otûnıplınç K O L V I ( K ) H Ç T < e Ç ? > a p K t o < u > .

R E G İ O N OE DAMASCUS For a sketeh-map vvith the location of the then knovvn houndary-markers in this area, as vvell as the Golan Heights, the Huleh Valley and the Hauran, see 'Atiqot 1 (1955), 1 1 3 . 16.

R . Mouterde, MUSJ 16 (1932), 2 3 4 - 2 3 5 = SEG VII, no. 248 = Ah (1933), no. 145. Daraya, circa 8 k m south-vvest of Damascus. AD 293/305. A s the formula used in this provincc vvas different, the full text and lay-out of this relatively vvell-preserved example is given: Ai0K:Xrıx£iavöç x a i MaÇeifiıavöç Zep. KCiİ KûlVaTCÎVTlÇ xat MaÇeıjnavöç Kcnocıpeç A((0Jov StopıÇovta âypo\x; K<ÜJIT)Ç MF.Ç^RYÇ K < Û

FIAMOIQN ötıipr/Bf|vaı e Kete uca v ^povriöı AiAıou LıaToûtoi) TOÛ 5ıacnınoxdxo\>. The modern village of M e z z e is situated 3 - 4 km to the north-east of the find-spot of the boundary-marker. 17.

Mouterde, p. 235 = SEG VII, 110. 247 = AE (1933), no. 144. Betvveen Jisrin and Saqba in the oasis of Damascus, some 8 km east of the city. AD 293/305. Same formula and reference to Aclius Statutus (named on seven markers; see PLRE I "Statutus": nos. 16, 1 7 , 18, 19, 22, 24, 29). X(6ov 8ıop{Çovxa rîypoûç Kcbtırjç BETOX(or E) MA PAL K E KÖ^ıTıÇ ENA A I O (or ENAKAENAE).

18.

L. Jalabert, "Aclius Statutus, govcrncur de Phenicie (ca. 293-305)", MUSJ 3 (1908-9), 3 1 3 , p. 3 1 7 ; cf. 4 ( 1 9 r o ) , 223; AE (1908), no. 1 95-

Jermana, south-east of Damascus. AD 293/305.

Tetrarchs. [M6o]v 8ıo
tÇ(ı)ovıa ân[o k<6jui:;?1 rıtv]8apcov(?). Establishment by Aclius Statutus. SF.G VII, no. 2 4 6 , is t o o uncertain to inelude in the list.

G A U I A N I T I S A N D T H E HULEH VALLEY 19.

G. Dalman, "Inschriftcn aus dem Ostjordanland", ZDPV

36 { 1 9 1 3 ) ,

2 4 9 , no. 1. N e a r Kuneitra. A D 2 9 3 / 3 0 5 . Tetrarchs. AıOov SıopıÇovta tcco|i(âv?) Zctpıoûv Kal BepviKnç. Aelius Statutus.

20.

S. Applebaum, B. Isaac and Y. I.andau, "Varia Epigraphica", SCI 4 (1978),

no.

21.

133,

p.

134,110. 2 =

SEG XXVIII, no.

1426 =

AF,

(1984),

903.

Harcd near Kuneitra, A D 2 9 3 / 3 0 5 . Tetrarchs (fragmentary). X(0ov [SlıoptfÇovjTO ÖYpoluç. .J or öpo[vç..]. P. Porat, " A Ne\v Boundary Stone from the Southern G o l a n " , SCI 10 (1989-90),

130.

Southern Golan. A D 2 9 3 / 3 0 5 . Tetrarchs. X(0o(v) öıopîÇovttı £v < o > öpoıç k6(|itiç) KAITAPHAPIBOT. A M f . l A L h M T O r Ke AEEAHIOT Kiıvo(ıxöp
B. W. Bacon, " A Nevv inseription from Upper Galilee", A]A

n

315; J. O f f o r d , PEFQSt ( 1 9 0 8 ) , 2 6 0 ; L. Jalabert, MUSJ 3 ( 1 9 0 8 - 9 ) , 4 0 ; AE (1907), no. 1 4 5 . Upper Huleh Valley, vvest of Banias (Caesarea Philippi). A D 2 9 3 / 3 0 5 . Tetrarchs. X(0ov StopîÇovTa d^poııç â t o ı ı d o u XPH£lMIANOT. Aelius Statutus. (1907),

23(?). S. Applebaum, B. Isaac and Y. Landau, "VariaEpigraphica", SCI 6 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 9 8 , no. 1 = SEG X X X I I , no. 1 4 5 9 . From Golan, exact find-spot not knovvn. Date uncertain. XıOoç [6ı]op(Çco(v) TO ö p ı a xoö Ilavtou KE Tnç nöAetöç. N o t certain vvhether this is Tetrarchic. 24. Y. Aharoni, "Three Nevv Boundary-Stoııes from the Wcstern G o l a n " , 'Atiqot 1 ( 1 9 5 5 ) , p. 1 0 9 , no. 1 = AE ( 1 9 5 6 ) , no. 3 4 = SEG X V I , no. 8 2 2 . Kibbutz Shamir, on the edge of the Golan Hcights, some 2 8 km north of the Sea of Galilee.

l A t o ] ı c X n T i a v ö ç KCXİ

M a ç u ı ı a v ö ç EePPKoıvatdvtıoç, ıcai Ma^ıjııavöç K a ı capeç X(öov SıopıÇovıa âYpoûç KÜ)(^(ÛV) r a X a vıaç K«Î M r / ı p a HTıç O T T i p ı X 0 n v e

C K e t e u a a v <Jpovt(8ı AiA- STato6tou roü öıaannZ5(?). Y. A h a r o n i , pp. 1 0 9 - 1 1 0 , no.

2 =

AR

(1956),

no.

35 =

SEG

XVI,

no. 823. Same area as no.

2 4 . AD

X(8oç 8ıopıÇ(ov ö p ı a

Z93/305?

K
or

Mıynpaunç

K
Ta^avıaç

For r a X a v ı a see nos. Z4 and 3 1 . 26(?). Y. A h a r o n i , p. n o , n o .

3 =

AE

(1956),

no.

36, =

SEG X V I , no.

821.

Northern Huleh Valley, circa

1

km south o f no. z z .

AD

Z93/305?

X(0ov SıopfÇovtcı Majıoıceç KG Be8 A^CÛV. T h e r e is much clcarcr likelihood that nos. z6—z8 belong to the Tetrarchic series than is the case for no. Z5. See no. Z9. Z7.

Y. A h a r o n i , "Tvvo A d d i t i o n a l Boundary-Stones from the Hule Vall e y " , 'Atsqot 2

(1959),

Same area as nos.

1 5 2 , no. 1 3 = SF.G X V I I I , no.

Z 4 - Z 5 . AD

610.

Z93/305?

Xı'0ov SıopıÇovta K<Û{i(tı<;?) Arıpaç kûİ KaTtapI|i|ıyTiIpafir|ç|. Probably the same village as named in no. Z5. See also no. Z9. z8.

Y. A h a r o n i , pp.

153-154,

no.

14 =

SEG XVIII, no. 6 z ı ; cf. X I X , no.

90Z.

Same area as nos.

Z4-Z5

and

Z7. AD

Z93/305?

XÎ8{ov Öılopı'Covl-ra] âypouç [KÖJITK?] Ü I E A Z [Kal] [TIJEPIZHJ:. See nos. Z9 and 30 for the names of the villages. Z9.

Y. A h a r o n i , " T h r e e Nevv Boundary-Stones f r o m the H u l e V a l l e y " , 'Atiqot

3 (1961),

Same area as nos.

1 8 6 , no. 1 5 , PI. X X V I I I . ı = SEG X I X , no.

Z4-Z5

and

Z 7 - Z 8 . AD

AıoKtaiTtavöç KOI MfaÇıjı ıa]vöç K o v ö t d v t ı ç KUİ MaÇtlpıavöç K a ı a n p e ç l X(0ov 8ıopıÇovxa aypouç [K<ûfi]r|Iç] Arçpcıç K£ l î o e a ç arnpıxöfive £KeXe\>oav <>POVT(8I AtX.. Sxaxoî>tou

Z93/305.

901.

TOÛ öıamuıo. 30.

Aharoni, op. cit., 1 8 6 , no. 16, Pl. XXVIII.2 = SEG X I X , no. 902. Same area as above. Almost certainly AD 293/305. Xî8ov SıopîÇovta d y p o u ; KioJuııçI O o e a ç KE üepıoıyç. For Q£EA£ see nos. 2 8 - 2 9 and for n E P I S I E see no. 28. 3 1 (?). Aharoni, op. cit. 1 8 7 , no. 1 7 , Pl. XXVIII.3 = S E G X I X , no. 903. Same arca as abovc. AD 293/305? ?.(0oç SıopıÇcov ö p ı a ıcti>fnnçl TaXavıaç Kai ö(pıa?) 'PajLîiç For l a t a m a see nos. 24-25.

B A T A N A E A

T h e boundaries, if indeed there were clear boundaries, of the area deseribed in antiquity as Batanaea are f a r from clear. İt is used here as an approximate deseription of the area, from \vhich three boundary-markers arc knovvn, which lies between Gaulanitis (the Golan Heights) to the vvest and the İavafield called Trachonitis, or novv Lejja, to the east. Sec also under nos. 33—54. T h c three markers ali come f r o m a region on either side of Sanamayn, o n the present main road betvveen Dcr'a and Damascus. 32. IGR III, no. 1 1 1 2 s OGIS, no. 769. From Agrabc, somc 1 6 km vvest-north-vvcst of Sanamayn. AD 293/ 305-

AeoTUkat rifiûv AıoKXTynavöç MaÇınıavöç Xepaoroi

Kal

Kcovotdvreıoç Kai MaÇınıavöç Kaıaapeç Xı9ov SıopfÇov-ca öpouç pırtpotctûfiı'aç 'AKpdptıç 'AoiXo>v o r n p ı x O rjvaı e»ceX£t)oav , «{»povriöı AOVKIOU K a i Ktivoitopiç

'ALK?lafKiou?l

(KıLV?).

For the importance of the conccpt of a 'mothcr-villagc' (mĞtrokörnia) sec 3.3 abovc. In this casc also thc placc-name has survived as

Agrabe. There is also another village in the area called Osij. It is probable, but not certain, that two censitores are named. Cf. no. 35 belovv. 33.

IGR III, no. 12.52 = OGIS, no, 6 1 2 (variant readings). From Namar, a village some 15 km south-vvest of Sanamayn, and some 1 0 km south of Agrabe. A D 2 9 3 / 3 0 5 . Line-divisions not indicated. Tetrarchs. Xı0ov SıopıÇovta öpouç KO>HHÇ r a l o l ı n e a ç K a l Nanapıcov (a)xııpx[0]nvaı £KeXev)oav, ({»povtı'St M. 'Apptou paıaoç (sic) TI.K. KTi(v)at:iTOpoç. T h e second village named must be that referred to by Eusebius, Onotn., ed. Klostermaıın, 138: Kai vûv ecm Naftapâ Kanıtı jıeytotıı EV TI^ BatavaujL Both names have survived, the first as 'Jascm', a village to the south-east of Namar. The censitor is identified as a primipilaris (seııior ccnturion).

34.

L. Jalabert and R. Mouterde, "Nouvellcs inseriptions dc Syrie", MUSJ 4 ( i 9 r o ) , 2 0 9 , o n p. 222. From Basir, some 4 km east of Sanamayn. A D 2 9 3 / 3 0 5 . Fragmentary inseription \vith Tetrarchs and 8top[(Çovta Xı]8ov. This is quite possibly the place in Batanaea called Bathyra, vvhere Herod scttled a colony of Babylonian Jevvs as a proteetion against the people of Trachonitis; Josephus, Ant. XVII, 2 , 2 2 1 — 2 2 2 ( 2 3 — 2 8 ) , see 2 . 2 above. T h e place lies about 8 km from the edge of the lava-field.

THE HAURAN 35.

M. Dunand, Syria

7 (1926), 329 =

SEG VII, no. r o 5 5 (incomplete

text). Full text in M . D u n a n d , Le rnusee de Soueida no.

160,

Pl. X X X I I ; cf. L. Robcrt, Hellenica XI-XII

3I2-~3T4-

(1934),

75,

(1960),

From Juneineh, some 5 k m to the east of Maximianopolis/Shaqqa. oi Sccntötaı lîfiûjv AıoK?aycıavoç Kat MalÇluııavöç Kai KtovcrtdvTeıoç Kal Ma^tjııavöç ejtt^aveatatot Katoapeç X(0ov 6loptÇovta (ârcö] Kûtfirıç 'OpeX
MaÇınıavonöX(e
exe-

XE\)OÛV, f < M p o v t [ ( J 8L A O D K ı O U K(LL ' A K O K Î O V KTIVOTTÖptÛV.

T h e earliest evidence (cf. 5.1 above) for the nevv city of Maximia.nopolis. Tvvo censitores are at vvork, and neither vvill be the governor of the province, vvhich vvas almost certainly by novv Arabia rather than Syria Phoenice. T h e same tvvo censitores arc evidently n a n e d in no. 32. 36(?). M . Dunand, "Nouvelles inseriptions du Djebel Druze et du Hauran", RB 4 1 (1932), 5 6 1 , p. 572, no. 109. From Radcime/Rudeimeh, about 5 km vvest-south-vvest of Juneineh (see no. 35). AD 293/305. T h e beginnings (11. 2 - 7 ) of an inseription vvith the names of the Tetrarchs in the nominative, laid out almost exactly as in no. 35. T h e resemblance of f o r m , along vvith its locaöon a short distancc from no. 35, is tlıc only rcason for supposing, as Dunand did, that this is a boundary-marker. 37(?). IGR III, no. 1278. From Suvveida. AD 293/305. Fragmentary inseription vvith the names of Diocictian and M a x imian, and Öpoı Aıov[\)oıâJ8fo^?] on onc side and [öp]oı 'AOetevl<û|v on the other. Athclena is the village Atil in the territory of Kanatha, discussed in 1 1 . 4 above. If 'Dionysias* appears here as the name of Soada, it is the carliest evidence for it. But it is very uncertain vvhether this inseription belongs among those vvhich reflect the vvork of the Tecrarchic censitores.

APPENDIX

b documents erom

the

b a r k o c h b a vvar

A s noted above, there appears t o be no completc hand-list of the novv quite extensive range of documents, in Hebrevv, Aramaic and Greek, from vvithin the area controlled by the rebels. This appendix therefore scts out to provide onc, beginning vvith tcxts vvhich arc clearly dated, and then listing thc others. Ncarly ali the documents, vvhich vvith one exception are vvritten on papyrus, comc from caves on thc sides of vvadis in thc Judacan Desert vvhich run dovvn to the Dead Sea. One m a j ö r group comes from the Wadi Murabba'at, some ı ı km north of Engeddi. T h e caves there vvere first explored clandestincly by the local Bcdouin in 1 9 5 1 , and then by an expcdition lcd by the late R. de Vaux in 1 9 5 2 ; the relevant documents vvere published along vvith other vvritten material from there in Documents from the Judaean Desert II (1961), T h c other majör group comes from thc Nahal Hcvcr, a vvadi vvhich runs into the Dead Sea some 4.5 k m south of Engeddi. A n Israeli expedition, led by the late Y. Yadin in 1960 and 1 9 6 1 , discovered in the same cavc, on thc northern side of thc vvadi and somc 5.5 km from the Dead Sea, both a series of documcnts from the Bar Kochba vvar and the 'arehive of Babatha' from the immediately preceding period: documents in Nabataean, A r amaic and Greek covcring thc years from AD 94 to 1 3 2 (August 19). T h c Grcck, but not thc Nabataean a n d Aramaic, tcxts from this arehive have novv been published by N . Levvis, The Documents from the Bar Kochba Period in the Cave of Letters: Greek Papyri (1989), abbrcviated as P. Yadin. T h e documents from the period of the vvar itself vvere surveyed, and some extracts of preliminary readings printed, in Israel Exploration Journal 11 (i9<>r) and TZ (1962). But until his death in 1984 Prof. Yadin made no further progress vvith publication, and three decades after the initial discovery

the majority have remained unpublished. One papyrus of unknovvn provenancc, found among Prof. Yadin's papers, vvas published in IEJ 36 {1986); see no. 12 belovv. Further eomment on this cxtremcly discreditablc record vvould be superfluous. T h e Aramaic documents, insofar as published, have been included in tvvo separate collcctions, both of vvhich somctimcs give apparcntly independent readings vvhose origin is not made clear. These are the collections by Beycr and by Fitzmyer and Harrington listed belovv. Some vvere also reproduced and discusscd in K o f f m a h n , Doppelurkunden. Since, as mentioned, a number of the documents carry explicit dates, paralleling the datcs by Year O n e and Year Tvvo on the coinage of the revolt (see L. Mildenberg, The Coinage of the Bar Kochba War, 1984, and 3.3 above), it is of some significance to relate these to datings by the Christian cra. For the most detailed discussioıı, mainly relating to later literary sources, see P. Schaefcr, Der Bar Kochba-Anfstand (1981), 10-28. It seerrıs clear that the administration of the short-lived independent state vvill have used a calendar in vvhich the year began in the spring vvith the month Nisan; this vvas the establishcd pattern as refleeted in Jevvish vvorks of this period; see Schürer, HJPI, App. III, " T h e Jevvish Calendar". The four succcssive 'Years' of the 'liberation of Israel' vvill therefore have been counted from Nisan (March/April) to Adar (Fcb./March). Though absolute certainty is not possible, it is most likely that Year One vvas calculatcd from Nisan of AD 132, the year to vvhich Eusebius dates the revolt. See Schürer, HJP I, 542, n . 1 2 6 , and B. Kanael, " N o t e s on the Dates Used during the Bar Kochba Rev o l t " , IEJ 21 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , 39 (speculative). In the cataloguc the follovving datingseheme vvill therefore bc adoptcd, though it should be understood as provisional:

Year Year Year Year

One, Nisan-Adar: March/April AD i32-Feb./March 133 Tvvo, Nisan-Adar: March/April AD i33-Feb./March 134 Three, Nisan-Adar: March/April AD i34-Fcb,/March 1 3 5 Four; Nisan-Adar: March/April AD i35-Feb./March 136

O n this vievv the latest explicitly dated document (no. 13), of TiSri 2 1 , Year Four, vvould date to early October 1 3 5 . If that is correct, either the muchquoted statement of the Misbrtah, Ta'atıit 4, 6, that Bethther feli on A b 9 (July) has to be taken as rcflecring a merely symbolic correlation vvith the other four disasters mentioned in the same passage, or the fail of this place did not represent the collapse of ali resistance in the area to the south-east, near the Dead Sea. T h e altcrnative possibility is that Year O n e vvas spring r 3 i - s p r i n g 132. A s such, that vvould mean only that the revolt broke out tvithin that Jevvish

year, vvhich then, taken as a vvhole, counted as 'Year O n e of the Redemption of Israel' (SNT H D ' L G ' L T Y S R ' L ) . But the existcncc of a document (no. i ) dated to the first day of the month Iyyar (April/May) of Year One vvould obligc us to take it that the revolt had bcgun early in AD 1 3 1 — t h o u g h presumably not carlicr than Nisan -(March/April), othcrvvisc spring 130-Spring 1 3 1 might have earned the title Year One. This seems unlikely. So the tradition that the vvar lasted three and a half years (see Schürer, HJP I, 534 and 552) seems to be confirmed: the most reasonablc reconstruction is that it began in Nisan 1 3 2 and cndcd three and a half years later, tovvards the end of 1 3 5 . It should be noted that the latest dated documcnt in the 'archive of Babatha' (P. Yadin, no. 27) dates to August 19, 132, therefore after the probable date of the outbreak of the revolt. But 3t that time Babatha vvas stili living at M a o z a in the district of Z o a r a , in the province of Arabia (see 3.2-3 and 11.4 above). Whocvcr brought the archive to the cave in the Nahal Hever therefore moved only subsequently into the rebel-held zone.

ABBREVİATİONS Aegyptus (1962) = B. Lifshitz, "Papyrus grecs du desert de Juda", Aegyptus 42 (1962), 240. Beyer, AT = K . Beyer, Die aramâisehen Texte vom Toten Meer (1984). D / D II = P. Bcnoit, J. T. Milik and R . dc Vaux, Discoveries in the Jndaean Desert II, Les grottes de Murabba'ât (1961). Fitzmyer, PAT = J. A . Fitzmyer and D. J. Harrington, A Manual ofPalestinian Aramaic Texts (Second Century BC-Second Century AD) (r978). IF.J (1961) = Y. Yadin, " T h e Expedition to the Judaean Desert, 1960: Expedition D " , IEJ 11 (1961), 36, on pp. 40-50. IEJ (1962) = Y. Yadin, " T h e Expcdition to the Judaean Desert, T961: F.xpedition D " , IEJ 1 2 (1962), 227, on pp. 2 4 8 - 2 5 7 . IEJ (1986) = M . Broshi and E. Qimron, " A House Deed Salc from Kefar Baru from the Time of Bar K o c h b a " , IEJ 36 (1986), 20L. IEJ (1990) = A . Kloner, 'T,ead Weights of Bar Kokhba's Administration", IEJ 4 0 (1990), 58. Koffmahn, Doppelurkunden = Fİ. K o f f m a h n , Die Doppelurkunden

aus der Wiiste Juda

(1968).

SB = Sammelbuch (1967)

Griechischer

Urkunden aus Agypten VIII

THE

DOCUMENTS

DATED

D O C U M E N T S

Year One (March/April

132-FebJMarcb

133^

1 . IEJ (1962), p. 249, no. 42. Aramaic; material not stated. Text partially rcportcd. Lcase of land carried out by t w o administrators. Dated 'on the first day of lyyaı; in the first year of the rcdemption of Israel (by PSimeon] bar Kosiba, Princc of Israel' (BHD L ' Y R S N T H D ' L G ' L T Y S R ' L *[L Y D ? S M ' W ] N BR K W S Y B ' NSY* YSR'L). Date: April, 132. 2. D / D II, no. 22, Pis. X X X I I I - X X X I V ; K o f f m a h n ,

Doppelıırkunden,

p. 158. Hebrevv; papyrus. Sale of land, dated ' 1 4 Marhcsvan, Year O n e of the redemption of Israel' (B14 L M R H S W N S N T ' H T L G ' W L T YS|R]'L). Date: Oct./Nov. 132. 3. D / D H, no. 23, Pl. X X X I V ; K o f f m a h n , Doppelurkunden, p. 163; Fitzmyer, PAT, no. 43; Beyer, AT, p. 312. Aramaic; papyrus. Very fragmentary; possibly dccd of sale. Dated ' r o Shebat, Year O n e of thc freedom [ . . . ] ' ( B ı o I.SBT S N T H D ' L H R ( W T YSR'L?1). Date: Jan./Feb. r33 (Beyer, op. cit., suggests possibly Jan./Fcb. AD 67, in the First Revolt). 4. IEJ (1962), 249, no. 4 3 . Aramaic; papyrus. Briefly reported. Receipt by local administrator for 39 denarii paid by Eliezer son of Samuel for land(?) 'vvhich hc Icased from Simeon bar Kosiba' (DY H K R M N S M ' W N BR K W S Y B H ) . Date: stated to bc Year One.

Year Two (March/April

ı$}-Feb./March

134)

5. DJD II, no. 29, Pis. X L I - X L I bis; K o f f m a h n , Doppelurkunden, Hebrevv (vvith Greek signature on verso); papyrus. Deed of sale of vines (?).

p. 1 7 6 .

Dated ' o n 14 Elul, Year Tvvo of the Redemption of Israel' ( B ' R B ' H 'SR L'LWL S N T S T Y M L G ' L T Y^R'L). Date: Aug./Sept. 133.

6. DJD II, no. 24, Pis. X X X V - X X X V H . Hebrevv; papyrus, in a number of fragments. Series of contracts for the lease of parcels of land, some vvith the condition 'until the eve of the remission' (of debts, for the Sabbatical Year)—Frag. B14: ' D SWP 'RB H S M T H . Suggested corrections in fEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , p. 51, and (1962.), pp. 1 5 3 - 2 5 4 . Dated (Frag. B, 1. 1) '20 Shebat Year Tvvo of the Redemption of Israel' ([BJ'SRYN LSBT SfNJT S T Y J M LJG'LT Y S R ' L ) , probably also Frag. B, 1. t , Frag. E, 1. 1 and Frag. F. 1. 1 (ali readings somewhat uncertain). Date: probably Feb. 134.

Year Three (March/April

134-FebJMarch

135)

7. J. T. Milik, " U n contrat juif de l'an 134 apres J.-C.", RB 6ı (1954), 182; Fitzmyer, PAT, no. 51 (vvith subscquent bibliography); Beyer, AT, p. 320. Aramaic; papyrus (exact provenance unknovvn). Sale of house. Dated '20 of either Iyyar or Adar, Year Three of the Freedom of Israel' (B'SRYJNl L ' Y R or L'DR IBeyerl S N T T L T L H R T YSR'L). Date: either April/May 134 or Feb./March 1 3 5 . 8. IEJ (1962), 249, no. 44, Pl. 48c. Hebrevv; papyrus. Described vvith some extracts. Reportcd as distribution of lands leased from the administrator (PRNSW) of Simeon ben Kosiba, Prince of Israel. A t Engeddi ( B ' Y N G D Y ) . Dated 'on 28 Marhesvan, Year Three of Simeon ben Kosiba, Prince of Israel' ( B * S R Y N \ V S M N H L M R H S W N S N T SLWS L S M ' W N B N K W S Y B '

NSY'

YSR'L).

Date: Nov. 134. 9. IEJ (1962), 255, no. 45. Hebrevv; papyrus (34 lines). Described vvith extracts. Sub-lease of land leased from the administrator of Simeon ben Kosiba. Dated 'on 2 Kislcv, Year T h r e e of Simeon ben Kosiba, Prince of Israel, at F.n-Gedi' ( B S N Y M L K S I . W . . . as no. 8 above). Date: Nov. 134. 10. IEJ (1962), 255, no. 46. Hebrevv; papyrus. Described vvith extracts. Acknovvledgment of lease. Dated as no. 9. Date: Nov. 134.

n.

D / D II, no. 25, PI. X X X V I I I ; Koffmahn, Doppelurkunden, mycı^ PAT, no. 44. Aramaic; papyrus (a number of fragments). Deed of sale(?) of land (or 'easement', PAT).

p. 164; Fitz-

Dated ' [ . . . yeajr Three of the Freedom of Jerusalem' ( [ . . . SNJT T L T LI : IRWT YR\VSLM). Frag. 3 has L M R H S ( W N J . Date: March/April i34~Feb./March 1 3 5 . 12. IEJ (1986), 201, Pl. 26B. Aramaic, and apparently Hebrevv; papyrus (exact provenancc unknovvn). Deed of sale of house at Kefar Baru (KPR BRW), vvhich the editors suggest (very improbably) lay east of the Dead Sea in the provincc of Arabia. Dated ' [ . . . Year) Three of the Freedom of Israel, in the days of Simeon ben Kosiba, Prince of Israel' (1.. .SNT] T L T L H R W T YSJRJ'L 'L Y M Y S M ' W N B N K W S B H N S Y Y§R|'|L). Date: March/April i34-Feb./March 1 3 5 . Year Four (March/April 13. DJD II, no. 30, Pis. XLI bis-XU\

t3$~-FebJMarch bis; Koffmahn,

136) Doppelurkunden,

p. 182. I lebrevv; papyrus. Deed of sale of land. Dated (1. 8) 'on 21 Tishri, Year Four of the Redemption of Israel' ( B ' S R Y M W ' H D L T S R Y S N T ' R B ' L G ' W L T YSR'L). Date: Sept./Oct. 1 3 5 .

IJNIJATF.D

I.ETTERS

14. DJD II, no. 42, Pl. XLV. Hebrevv; papyrus. Letter from the administrators of Bet-Masiko ( H P R N S Y N SL B Y T M S K W ) to Yesua ben Galgula, 'chief of the camp' (RWS H M H N Y H ) , confirmirıg ovvnership of a covv. 15. DJD II, no. 43, PI. X L V L Hebrevv; papyrus. Letter of Bar Kochba ( S M ' W N B N K W S B H ) to the same Yesua ben Galgula vvarning him n o t to maltreat the Galileans ( H G L L ' Y M ) vvho are vvith him. 16. DJD II, no. 44, Pl. XLVI. I lebrevv; papyrus.

Letter of $ M ' W N (evidently Bar Kochba) to the same Yesua ben Galgula on delivcry of grain, and requiring observance of Shabat. 1 7 . IEJ (1961), 4 1 , no. 1; fitzmyer, PAT, no. 53; Beyer, AT, p. 3 5 1 . Aramaic; vvritten on vvood. Deseribed vvith extracts. Tuller tcxt, vvhose origin is not stated, in Beyer; loc. cit. Letter of Bar Kochba (SM'\VN BR K W S B H H N S Y 'L YSR'L) to Yehonatan and Masabala, o n confiscation of vvlıeat, and threatening punishment of men of Teqoa and arrest of YS\V BR T D M R Y I I . 18. IEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 42, no. 2; Fitzmyer, PAT, no. 54. Aramaic; papyrus. Brief report of fragmentary letter from Bar Kochba. 19. IEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 42, no. 3; Aegyptus (1962), 240, no. 1; SB, no. 9843. Greek; papyrus. Letter of Soumaios to Iönathes son of Baianos and Masabala (sec no. 17) requiring delivcry of "vvoodcn bars and citrus-trees (branehes?) 'for the laying of citrus-branches of (the) Jevvs', that is, Tabernacles (Josephus, Ant. XIII, 13, 5, 372). T h e vvriter explains that he has vvritten Helinesti (sic) because of the lack either of the 'impulse' ((öpluctv) or the opportunity ([a»J>op]ndç) to write Hebraesti or of a person, Hermas, to d o so. See G. Hovvard and J. C. Sheltoıı, " T h e Bar-Kochba Letters and Palcstinian G r c c k " , IEJ 23 (1973), 1 0 1 ; D. O b b i n k , BASP 28 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 51. 20. IEJ (1961), 43, no. 4; Fitzmyer, PAT, no. 55; Beyer, AT, p. 3 5 1 . Aramaic; papyrus. Short letter, published in full, of Bar Kochba ( S M ' W K BR K W S B H ) to Yehonatan son of Ba'aya (see no. 19), telling him to help one Elisha. 2 1 . IEJ (1961), 44, no. 6 = Aegyptus (1962), 248, no. 2 = SB, no. 9844. Grcck; papyrus. Short letter from A n n a n o s to Iönathes referritıg to help ordered by Simön Chösiba (Z£JKÛV Xcıxnpâ). 22. IEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 44, no. 7. Aramaic; papyrus. Brief report of badly damaged papyrus, evidently containiııg letter from S M ' W N BR IKWSBH]. 23. IEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 44, no. 8; Fitzmyer, PAT, no. 56; Beyer, AT, p. 3 5 1 . Aramaic; papyrus. Letter of Bar Kochba (vvhose name is here spelled S M ' W N BR KSBH) to Yehonatan bar Ba'ayan and Masabala bar Simon (see nos. 1 9 - 2 0 and 25-27) on despateh of Fll'azar. Fmds vvith attestatioıı by seribe: S M ' W N BR Y H W D H K T B H .

24. IEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 4 5 , no. 10; Fitzmycr, PAT, no. 57. Aramaic; papyrus. Four-line letter to Yehonatan and Masabala (nos. 1 9 , 20, 22 abovc), partially reported. 25. IEJ (1961), 46, no. 1 1 ; Fitzmycr, PAT, no. 58; Beyer, AT, p. 352. Aramaic; papyrus. Deseription with extracts of letter of Bar Kochba to Yehonatan and Masabala (nos. 1 9 , 20, 22 abovc and 2 6 - 2 7 belovv), referring to thc 'Romans' ( R H W M ' H ) and ordering the bringing of a person called T Y R S Y S BR T Y N Y N W S . 26. IEJ (1961), 46, no. 12. Hebrevv; papyrus. Deseription, vvith quotation of first four lines, of fourteen-line letter from Bar Kochba ( S M ' W N BR KWSB') reproaching the men of Engeddi and Masabala a n d Yehonatan (nos. 19, 20, 22, 24 abovc and 27 belovv) for indiffcrence. 27. IEJ (1961), 47, no. 14; Fitzmyer, PAT, no. 59; Beyer; AT, p. 352. Aramaic; papyrus. Deseription, vvith quotations, of letter of Bar Kochba to Yehonatan and Masabala—here spelled M$BL' (nos. 19, 20, 22, 24, 25 above). 28. IEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 48, no. 15; Fitzmyer^ PAT, no. 60; Beyer; AT, p. 352. Aramaic; papyrus. Complete(?) text of five-line letter of Bar Kochba to Yehuda bar Menashe ordering the sending of tvvo men and tvvo donkeys to Yehonatan and Masabala for the dclivery of palm-branehes and citrus ( L L B Y N W ' T R G Y N ) vvhile Yehuda should send myrtles and vvillovvs. Note: For other fragmentary texts vvhich may be letters from the Bar Kochba vvar; scc DJD II, nos. 4 5 - 5 2 , and IEJ ( 1 9 6 1 ) , 4 3 - 4 7 , nos. 5, 9 and 1 3 . Lead

Weights

29. /E/(1990), 58. Lead vveight discovered in 1987 at Horvat Alim, some 3 km north of Beth Guvrin (Eicuthcropolis). Side A is inseribed on thc four margins of the reetangular vveight vvith the vvords BNKSB', N$Y, Y S R ' L , W P R N S W and in the interior PRS. Side B has S M ' W N , K W S B \ Y S R ' L and N S Y , Other possibly paraliel vveights are also alluded to in the paper. Note: for a further document of Year Tvvo see M . Broshi and E. Qimron, Eretz Israel 20 (1989), 256, vvith revisions by P. Scgal, Tarbis 60 (1991), 1 1 3 .

APPENDıX c

materıals for the of r o m a n edessa and a d

history osrhoene,

163-337

What fol!ows represents only a selection of the material, designed for the use of anyone approaching the study of this arca from the history of the R o man Empire. I am very grateful to Sebastian Brock for much supplementation and correctiotı, and to Steven Ross, University of California, Berkeley, for corrections.

BIBIJOGRAPHY A . von Gutsclımid, Urttersucbımgen i'tber die Gescbicbte des Königreichs Osroene (Meırt. Acad. inip. Sc. de St Petersbourg, VII ser., 35.1, 1887). R . Duval, Histoire d'Edesse (1892). R . Duval, La litterature syriaquei (1907). A. Baumstark, Gescbicbte der syriseben Literatür {1922). A . R. Bellinger, " T h e Chronology of Edessa", YCS 5 (1935), 142. E. Kirşten, "Edessa", RACIV ( 1 9 5 9 ) , 552ff. J. B. Segal, Edessa:'The Blessed City' (1970). A. H. M . Jones, Cities of the Eastern Roman Provincesz { 1 9 7 1 ) , ch. 9, "Mesopotamia and Armenia". R. Murray, Synıbols of Church and Kingdom: A Study of Early Syriac Tradition (1975). H. J. W. Drijvers, "Hatra, Palmyra und Edessa", ANRW II.8 (1977), 799, on pp. 8<>3ff. S. P. Brock, " A n Introduction to Syriac Studies", in J. H. Eaton (ed.), Horizons in Semitic Studies (T980), 1 . II. J. W. Drijvers, Cults and Beliefs at Edessa (1980).

H. J. W. Drijvers, "Edessa", Theologische

Realenzyklopadie

I X . ı / z (1981),

277.

M . Mundcll Mango, "The Continuity of the Classical Tradition in the Art and Arehitecture of Northern Mesopotamia", in N. Garsoian, T. F. Mathews and R. W. Thomson (eds.), East of Byzantium: Syria and Armenia in the Eormalive Period { 1 9 8 2 } , 1 1 5 . J. Wagner, "Provineia Oshrocnae (sic): Nevv Mesopotamian Finds Illustrating the Military Orgaııisarion under the Severan Dynasty", in S. Mitchell (ed.), Armies and Frontiers in Roman and Byzan t ine Anatolia (BAR Int. Ser. 1 5 6 , 1 9 8 3 ) , 1 0 3 . J. Wagner, Die Römer an Euphrat und Tigris (Die Arıtike Welt, Sondernummer,

1985).

W. Cramcr, "Harran", RAC X V

(1986),

634.

E Millar, "Empire, Community and Culture in the Roman Near East: Greeks, Syrians, Jevvs and Arabs", JJS 3 8 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 4 3 , esp. 1 5 9 - 1 6 2 . D. Fcissel and J. Gascou, "Documents d'archives romains inedits du Moycn Euphrate (ille sieclc apres J.-C.)", CRAI ( 1 9 8 9 ) , 535F. Millar, "The Roman Coloniae of the Near East: A Study of Cultural Relations", in I I. Solin and M . Kajava (eds.), Roman Eastern Policy and Other Studies in Roman History ( 1 9 9 0 ) 7 , esp. pp. 38-39, 4 6 - 5 0 . J. Teixidor, " D e u x documents syriaques du troisieme siecle provenants d u Moyen Euphrate", CRAI ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 1 4 4 .

DOCUMENTS SYRIAC ıNSCR1PTıONS

(ON STONK ANı)

MOSAIC)

H. J. W. Drijvers, Old-Syriac (Edessean) inseriptions ( 1 9 7 2 ) . Note esp.: 1 . Birecik, AD 6 (trans. Segal, Edessa, p. 23, n.3). 2. Şerrin, AD 73 (trans. Segal, Edessa, p. 23, n.4). 23. Sumatar Harabesi, AD 165: "Ruler of 'Arab". 27. Edessa, Ciıadel (Segal, Edessa, Pl. 29a): M ' N W PŞGRB'. 45. Edessa. Funerary mosaic (Segal, Edessa, Pl. 17a); novv in istanbul m use um. 4 7 . Edessa. Family portrait mosaic (Segal, Edessa, Pl. 1). 48. Edessa. Tripod mosaic (Segal, Edessa, Pl. 3). 4 9 . Edessa. Phoenix mosaic (Segal, Edessa, PI. 4 3 ) ; A D 2 3 5 / 2 3 6 . 50. Edessa. Orpheus mosaic (Scgal, Edessa, Pl. 44); AD 228. 51. Edessa. Funerary couch mosaic (Segal, Edessa, Pl. 2 ) ; ? A D 2 7 7 / 2 7 8 . H. Pognon, İnseriptions semitiques de la Syrie, de la Mesopotamie et de la region de Mossoul ( 1 8 9 7 ) , 1 0 4 (Mar Yakoub, near Edessa; Greek/Syriac bilingual tomb inseription).

J. Leroy, "Mosaiques funeraires d'Edesse", Syria 34 (1957), 306. J. Pirenne, " A u x origincs dc la graphic syriaquc", Syria 4 0 ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 101. H. J. W. Drijvers, "Some N e w Syriac inseriptions and Archaeological Finds from Edessa and Sumatar Harabesi", BSOAS 36 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , 1 . N.B. p. 12, Pis. xi-xii, mosaic inseription of AD 2 2 4 . H. J. W. Drijvers, "Ein neuentdecktes edessenisehes Grabmosaik", Antike Welt 1 2 . 3 ( 1 9 8 1 ) , 1 7 . II. J. W. Drijvcrs, " A Tomb for thc Life of a King: A Rcccntly Discovered Edessene Mosaic with a Portrait of King Abgar the Great", Le Museon 9 5 . 1 - 2 ( 1 9 8 2 ) , 1 6 7 . J. B. Scgal, " A Note on a M o s a i c from Edessa", Syria 60

{1983),

107.

K . Parlasca, " D a s Mosaik von Mas'udije aus dem Jahre 228/229 n. Chr.", Dam. Mitt. 1 (1983), 263 (bilingual, Greck/Syriac mosaic inseription from east bank of Euphrates).

GREEK A N D

IATIN

INSCRTPTIONS

Osrhoene AE

(1984),

no. 9 1 9 : (Kizilburc, betvveen Zeugma and Edessa, A D 1 9 5 ) : ' C . Iulius Pacatianus, proc(urator) Aug(usti), inter provinciam Osrhoenam et regnum Agbari fines posuit'.

AE

(1984),

no. 9 2 0 : (ibid., A D 2 0 5 ) : '(Severus, Caracalla and Geta) viam ab Euphrate usque ad fines rcgni Scpt. Ab(g)ari a novo municrunt per L . Aclium Ianuarium proc. Aug. prov. Osrhoenam (sic)'. Rome

CIL VI, no. 1 7 9 7 = İLS no. 8 5 7 : 'd.m./ Abgar Prahates / filius, rex / principis(?) Orrhenoru/ Hodda coniugi bene / merenti fec.' IGR I, no. 1 7 9 = Morctti, IGUR, no. 1 1 4 2 : "APyapoç . . . tünpov 8' 'Avtcovelvoç eo) 0eto toûtov â S e ^ ö ' oıotv ö ıtpiv BaoıXe\>; "Apyapoç rıv yevetııc;.

SYRIAC

FARCHMKNTS

Contract of sale of AD 1 4 3 , found at Dura (P. Dura, no. 28). A . R. Bellinger and C . B. Welles, " A Third-Century Contract of Sale from Edessa in Osrhoene", V C 5 5 ( 1 9 3 5 ) , 9 3 . C . B. Wcllcs, R . O . Fink and J. F. Gilliam, Excavatiotts at Dura-Europus, Final Report V . ı , The Parchments and Papyri ( 1 9 5 9 ) , no. 2 8 .

556 ]

Apf>endix C J. Goidstein, " T h e Syriac Decd of Salc from Dura-Europos", JNES 25 (1966), 1 . F. Roscnthal (ed.), An Aramaic Handbook Drijvers, Inscriptions, pp. 5 4 - 5 7 (text).

II.ı (1967), 2 5 - 7 (text).

Syriac parchments from Mesopotamia (found as part of archive, vvith Greek papyri, some vvith Syriac subscriptions, from Middle Euphrates; scc Feissel and Gascou, op. cit. above). J. Teixidor; " L e s derniers rois d'Edesse d'apres deux nouveaux documents syriaques", ZPE 7 6 (1989), 219. J. Teixidor, " D e u x documents syriaques du ille siecle apres J.-C. provcnants du M o y e n Euphrate", CRAI (1990), 144. A . Dcc. 18, 240. Acknovvledgmcnt of rcceipt of debt. B. Sept. 1 , 242. I.ease of land (heading only published so far).

GREEK

PAPYRUS

P. O x y . 3053,11. 1 4 - 1 6 (AD 252): purehase of slave in Tripolis, Syria Phoenice: ıtapu Mâpıcou AûpnXto\) Ae. ttov . . . £ıXPavoö 'Oaponvoû SovArçv ovĞjıau BaXaa^u*av y e v e ı Oopoııvrıv Meaonotajnîv.

COİNS E. Babelon, "Numismatique d'Edesse en Mesopotamie", Melanges

Nttmis-

matiques II (1893), 209. G. E Hill, " T h e Mints of R o m a n Arabia and M e s o p o t a m i a " , JRS 6 ( 1 9 r6\, X

35-

G. F. Hill, BMC Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia (1922), lxcivff. H. Geschc, "Kaiscr Gordian mit dem Pfcil in Edessa", Jahrb. f. Num. n. Geldg. 19 (1969)» 4 7 -

IJTERARY SOURCES CONTEMPORARY SYRİAC WORK5 1. Epislle of Mara bar Serapion W. Cureton, Spicilegium Syriacum (1855): text; English trans. pp. 7 0 - 7 6 . Cf. F. Schulthess, " D e r Brief des M a r a bar Sarapion", ZDMG 51 (1897), 365.

K. E. McVey, " A Frcsh Look at the Letter of M a r a bar Serapion to his S o n " , V. Symposium Syriacum 1988 (Or. Cbr. Anal. 236, 1990), 257. 2. Oration of Meliton the Philosopher before Antoninus Caesar Cureton, op. cit.; English trans. pp. 4 1 - 5 1 . J. B. Pitra, Spicilegium Solesmeuse II (1855), xxxviiiff. (Syriac text and Latin translation.) N o subsequeııt edition or detailed treatment. 3. Bardesanes/Bardaisan, Book of the Laıvs of Countries F. N a u , Bardesanes, Liber Legutn Regnorum (Patrologia Syriaca II, 1907), 492-657. E. N a u , Bardesane, le livre des lois des pays?. (1931). H. J. \V. Drijvers, The Book of the Laıvs of Countries: Dialogue on Eate of Bardaisan of Edessa (1965). Text and facing English trans. Extracts in Greek: Eusebius, Praep. Ev. VI, 9, 3 2 — r o , 4.8. Extracts in Latin: Cletn. Recog. IX, 1 9 - 2 9 (GGS, Pseudoklementinetı II, ed. B. Rehm, 1 9 6 5 , pp. 2 7 0 - 3 1 7 ) . Cf. H. J. V/. Drijvers, Bardaisan of Edessa (1966). 4. (?) The Odes ofSolomon J. H. Charlesvvorth, The Odes ofSolomon

(1973); tcxt, trans. and notes.

5. (?) Acts ofThomas A . E. J. Klijn, The Acts ofThomas (1962); discussion and trans. E. Henneckc, Neıv Testament Apocrypba II (1974), 425ff. 6. Martyract of Shmotıa and Guria V. C. Burkitt, Euphemia and the Goth (1913), esp. 9off. (trans.); Syriac text ad fiti., pp. 1 - 2 5 . 7. Martyract of Habib the Deacon P. Bedjan, Açta Martyrum et Sanclorum

I (1890), 144.

Burkitt, op. cit., esp. ı i 2 f f . (trans.); Syriac tcxt ad fin., pp. 26-43. O n these and the martyracts of Sharbil and Barsamya (below), see Susan Ashbrook Harvey, " T h e Edessan Martyrs and Ascetic Tradition", V. Symposium Syriacum [988. (Or. Cbr. Anal. 136, 1990), 1 9 5 .

SYRIAC

CHRONICLES

See esp. S. P. Brock, "Syriac Historical Writing", Journal of the lraqi Academy (Syriac Corporation) 5 (1979-80), 1, repr. in Studies in Syriac Christianity (1992).

i . Chrotıicle of Edessa. Sixth ccntury. Bricf entries covering 1 3 2 H C — A D 540, ali relating to Edessa, beginning (out of order) vvith longer narrative o f flood of AD 201 (English trans. in Segal, Edessa, pp. 24-25). Follovving entries to AD 343 trans. in 12.3 above. L. Hallicr, Untersuchungen Uber die edessenisehe Chronik mit dem syrischetı Text und einer Übersetzung (Texte und Untersuchungen I X , 1892), 84ff. (trans.); i 4 5 f f . (text). I. Guidi, Corpus Serip tor um Christianorum Orientalium I, Scriptores Syri. ı, Chronica Minora (1903, repr. 1960), ı f f . (Syriac tcxt). 1. Guidi, CSCO, Scriptores Syri ser. III.4 (1903), 3ff. (Latin trans,). E Rosenthal (ed.), An Aramaic îlandbook II. 1 (1967), 23-25 (tcxt of flood narrative). English trans. of vvhole chrotıicle by B. H. Covvper, Journ. Sac. Lit. 5 (1864), 28. 2. Ps-Dionysius of Tell-Mahrc, Chronicle. Syriac vvorld-chronicle of circa AD 7 7 5 knovvn from single manuseript (Vat. syr. 162, ninth century). Includcs seattered entries relating to Edessa and its kings. N o complctc translation into any modern languagc. Refcrred to abovc (12.3 and 5) as the Chronicle of Zttqnin. There is, hovvever, a Ercnch translation of the vvhole of the latter part (the sixth century onvvards) by R. Hespel (CSCO 507, Scriptores Syri 213, 1989), and an English translation of cxtracts is in preparation by W. Witakowski. See pp. 5 5 9 - 5 6 2 belovv. J.-B. Chabot, Incerti Auctoris

Chronicon

psettdo-Diottysianum

vulgo dic-

tum I ( C S C O 9 1 , Scriptores Syri 43, 1927). Syriac tcxt, J.-B. C h a b o t , C S C O 1 2 1 , Scriptores Syri 66 (1949). Latin trans. See W. Witakowski, The Syriac Ctnonicle of Pseudo-Diortysius ofTelMahre: A Study in the History of Historiograpby

(1987).

See esp. von Gutschmid, Untersuchungen, abovc; novv in necd of revision in vievv of subsequent documentary discoverics). 3. Elias of Nisibis, Opus Chronologicum

I. Eleventh century. Seattered en-

tries on kings of Edessa. E. W. Brooks, CSCO 62, Scriptores Syri 21 (1910). Syriac text. E. W. Brooks, C S C O 63, Scriptores Syri 23 (1910). Latin trans. 4. Michael the Syrian, Chrotıicle. Tvvelfth century. J. B. C h a b o t , Chronique de Micbel le Syrien I-IV ( 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 1 0 ) ; tcxt and French trans. Christian vvorld-history; Bk. V, 5 (Frcnch trans., pp. 1 1 9 - 1 2 0 ) , has a summary of the history of Edessa from the second century BC to the third century AD. See p. 466 above.

SYRIAC SEMI- O R P S E U D o - m y r o R I C A L

NARRATIVES

1. Martyracts of Sharbil and Barsamya (set under Trajan). W. Cureton, Ancient Syriac Documents ( 1 8 6 4 ) , 4 i f f . (trans.); Syriac text ad fin., 4 i f f . Scc pp. 4 6 4 and 4 8 7 above. 2. Doctrina Addai (expanded version of legend of Jesus and King Abgar, writtcn circa AD 400). G. Phillips, The Doctrine of Addai the Apostle G. Howard, The Teaching of Addai

(1981),

G R E E K A N D LATIN

(1876),

text and trans.

tcxt and trans.

SOURCES

1. Iulius Africanus, Kestoi I, 2 0 , 2 8 - 6 5 (Bardesanes, King Abgar and his son Mannos); scc J.-R. Vicillcfond, Les 'Cestes' de Julius Africanus (1970).

2. Cassius Dio LXXVII, 12, ı a - 1 2 (Caracalla's deposition of a king A b g a r for cruclty, ?AD 2 1 2 , 213). Cassius Dio L X X I X , 16, 2 (a king Abgar's visit to Rome under Septimius Severus). 3. (?)Hippolytus, Refutatio VII, 31 (a referenee to a vvork direeted npöç [B]ap5rı<TidvTiv xöv 'Apuivıov. 4. Herodian III, 9 , 2 (Abgar and Septimius Severus). 5. Porphyry, On the Styx, qu. by Stobaeus, Anth. I, 3, 5 6 (FGrH 719 T i ; Bardesanes and Indian embassy to Caracalla; also de abst. IV, 17). 6. Eusebius, HE I, 13 (Judas Thoınas' despateh of Thaddaios to Edessa; correspondcnce betvveen Jesus and King Abgar as reportedly translated from Syriac arehives at Edessa). Eusebius, HE, IV, 3 0 (Bardesanes). 7 . Epiphanius, Panarion 56 (Bardesanes). 8. So7-omenus, HE III, 1 6 (Bardesanes and his son Harmonios). 9 . Procopius, Bell., II, 1 2 (the legend of Abgar, Augustus and Jesus). 1 0 . Itinerarium Egeriae 1 9 - 2 1 (trans. J. Wi!kinson, Egeria's Travels1 [ 1 9 8 1 ] , 11 sff.; Christian Edessa and Carrhae in thc

380S).

A RECON5TRUCTION OF THE KING-UST OF EDESSA/ORHAI IN TIIE PERİOD OF ROMAN DOMINATION The follovving table presents in summary form a hypothetical list of the later kings of Edessa/Orhai based on that given in the Chronicle ofZuqnin (p.

558 above), but corrccted in the light of contemporary documents and literary evidence. I o w e the English text of the extracts, as so much else, to the kindness of Sebastiaıı Brock. It vvill be seen that the anonymous chronicler of the late cighth ccntury, ofren confusingly referred to as Pseudo-Dionysius of TelMahre, dates {in the relevant seetions) by successive 'years of Abraham'. Exactly vvhat, in terms of the years of the Christian era, hc vvill have meant by this is not perfectly clear, and it is by no means certain that hc vvill have been consistent; or, if he vvere, that the manuseript vvill have reproduced his fıgures accurately. He in fact deploys three different cras (plus occasional refercnccs to others): that of the Crcation, that of Abraham, and the Scleucid era starting from October 31 2 BC (see Witakovvski, Syriac Cbronicle, ıı^ff.). Fortunatcly, hovvevcı^ hc does at the relevant point identify the Nativity as having occurred in year 2015 of Abraham and year 309 'of A l e x a n d e r the Macedonian' (in our terms 4/3 BC). If the chronicler vvas consistent, the first of the entries in the table belovv, given as the year (of Abraham) 1 1 3 0 , should bc the Scleucid year 4 2 4 , or A D I T 2 / 1 1 3 . Ma'nu son of M a ' n u should therefore have reigned, for tvventy-four years, utıtil 136/137, before a tvvo-year rcign of Wa'cl soıı of Sahru, consistently placed by the ehronider in year 2154 (= Seleucid year 448, AD 136/137). Something must have gone vvrong, for vve are told by Cassius Dio that the ruler of Osrhoene during Trajan's Parthian vvar vvas called Abgar (LXVIII, 18, 1; 2 1 , 1). Though ccrtainty is impossible, it is clear from the coins of Wa'el that he vvas a contemporary of Vologacses IV ( 1 4 8 - 1 9 3 ) , and from those of a M a ' n u , or Mannos, that he vvas a contemporary of Marcus Aurelius (scc 12.5 above). T h e simplest hypothesis therefore is that the sequence of kings as given by the chronicler, vvhile rcmarkably accurate in itself, is chronologically displaced: as a sequetıce it is some tvvetıty-six ycars too early. If this hypothesis is applied to the Üst, it becomcs pcrfcctly consistent vvith the contemporary documents. T h e chronology presented belovv, obviously enough, remains hypothetical. T h e 'ycars of Abraham' and their Seleucid cquivalcnts are given on the left side; then the text of cach entry, in Scbastian Brock's translation; then the proposed dates AD; and then key items of contemporary evidence.

Year of

Seleucid

Abraham

Year

2130

424

Chroniclc

T h e year 2 1 3 0 : M a ' n u son of erossed into R o m a n territory

Contcmponry

adding 2 6 years)

Evidcncc

1 3 8/13 9 - 1 6 2 / 1 6 3

Ma'nu

reigned över O r h a i f o r 24 years; and

AD ( c o r r c c t c d b y

hc

(BT

RWMY'). ırs4

448

T h e year 2 1 5 4 : W a ' c l son of Sahru

162/163-164/165

Coins o f W

L

reigned over O r h a i f o r 2 years and after

MLK'

him M a ' n u son of k a t (Ma'nu?) reigned,

VologaesesIV

having returned from R o m a n

vvith

territory,

for 1 2 years.

164/165-176/167

T h e total o f his entire reign w a s

36

Coins of BAZıAEYE

y e a r s , e x c l u d i n g the y e a r s he vvas in

MANNOS

Roman

<X>IAOPSİMA(ıoç)

territory.

vvith M a r c u s Aurelius (161-r8o) 2169

463

Abgar son of M a ' n u reigned over

Orhai

f o r 3 5 y e a r s (strtet a d d i t i o n of 2 6 y e a r s

176/177-211/

(a) C o i n s

2I2(?)

ABrAPOE

ol

here s e e m s t o p r o d u o e o n e year t o o

B A 2 I I A E Y Z vvith

m a n y , s c c belovv).

Commodus (180-192)and Septimius Severus (193-213) ( b ) AE

(»9^4),

n o . 9 1 9 (AD 'regnum

195):

Afcgari';

n o . 9 2 0 (AD 2 0 5 ) : 'fines regni Sept. Ab
Edcss.

1: Seleucid /ear 5 1 3 (AD 2 0 1 / 2 0 2 ) , reign of Scvcrus and

King

A b g a r s a n of Ma'nu 2203

497

. . . And over Orhai A b g a r

Scvcrus

< S W R W S ) r e i g n e d vvith his s o n f o r 1 y e a r and 7

months.

211/212-212/

Coins of

213?

C a r a c a l l a and (Abgar?) lEOTH(poç), BMC p. 9 6

Meso

Year of

Scleucid

Abraham

Year

Chronicle

A n d after h i m M a ' n u his son reigncd f o r

AD ( c o r r c c t c d b y

Contemporary

adding z 6 years)

Evideııcc

212/213-238/239

Syriac Parchment

1 6 years.

A (CRA/ 1991, 144): M a ' n u P S G R Y B ' , son of A b g a r the k i n g

[ N o f u r t h e r entries: r e l a t i n g t o k i n g s )

[ 2 3 9 / 2 4 0 (Sel.

Syriac ?archment

55»)

A : y e a r i of A c l i u s Sepıinıius A b g a r , king)

1 4 0 / 1 4 1 (Sel.

Syriac Parchment

551)

A : year 2 of Aeltus Septimius A b g a r , king, and y e a r ^ of C i o r d i a n III ( 2 5 S - 2 4 4 ) C o i n s of ABrAIÖE B A Z I A H T I and Gordian ııı

Syriac Parchment B shovvs that the Seleucid year 553 (AD 241/242) vvas year 30 of the 'libcration' of the colonia, and P. Dura, no. 28, that Seleucid year 554 (AD 242/243) vvas year 3T. Year T vvas therefore AD 2*2/213, it will have been in this year that a king Abgar vvas deposed by Caracalla, and colonial status given to Edessa/Orhai. Syriac Parchment A shovvs that the king Aelius Septimius Abgar, vvhose first regnal year vvill have been the Seleucid year 5 5 1 , AD 239/240, vvas the son of M a ' n u P S G R Y B ' ('crovvn-prince' or 'heir-apparent'), and that he in turn vvas the son of a king Abgar. T h e tvventy-six years given to M a ' n u by the chronicler therefore fit exactly into 212/213-238/239. His father, ' A b g ı r the king', could have been either the Abgar Severus of 2 1 1 / 2 1 2 - 2 1 2 / 2 1 3 or Abgar 'the Great'. Iulius Africatıus, Kestoi I, 20, 28-65, confirms that a king called A b g a r o s had a son called Mannos, but does not serve to determine vvhich. Since A b g a r 'the Great' began to rule, as it seems, in AD 176/ 1 7 7 , it is perhaps unlikely that a son of his vvas stili 'ruling', as 'crovvnprince', sixty years later. But the question need not be decided.

map s

T h e tvvelve maps which follovv are designed solely to assist comprehension o f the text of the hook. M a p I is a n outline map of the N e a r East, vvith itıdications of the areas covered in the follovving maps. M a p II covcrs most of the Roman Near East, and is intended as a guide to the main sites and most important geographical features, above ali mountain-ranges and rivers. M a p s III—XII cover the various sub-regions of the Roman N e a r East, vvith in some cases smaller or larger degrees of overlap. While every attempt has been made to represent physical features accuratcly, the small scale means that inevitably the maps have something of the character of sketeh-maps. I'hey should give a useful impression of the relationships betvveen individual sites and their geographical coııtexts. But they should not bc used for reading o f f precisc distanccs. Where there are modern place-names vvhich are in general u s e — f o r instance Jerusalem, Tyre or Antioch—these are used. Othervvise ancient names are given in their Latin form and in capitals. N o attempt has been made t o indicate the full complexity of changing official titles, for instance those of places vvhich became Roman coloniae. In some of the many instances vvhere places ehanged their names, both names have been given, vvhere spacc allovvs. Where necessary for elarity, and to make it easier to relate the maps to the text, modern names, in simplified form, have been given in lovver case. It should be cmphasizcd that the maps make no attempt to indicate ali the knovvn ancient sites, stili less to give an impression of overall settlementpatterns, and are designed solely to make it possible to locate, directly or b y reference to other places, ali the sites and regions mentioned in the text.

I

T H K NEAR EAST: AREAS C O V E R E D BY MAPS II-XII

II

T H E R O M A N N E A R EAST: M A I N SITES A N D G E O G R A P H İ C A L FEATURES

III

N O R T H W E y T E R N SYRIA A N D M O U N T A M A N US

IV

T H E P H O E N İ C İ A N C O A S T A N D WESTERN SYRIA P H O E N İ C E

V

T H E C E N T R A L SYRİAN STEPPE, PAI.MYRA A N D T H E EUPHRATES

VI

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ABOURENE?

100 k m s

T H E E A S T E R N S Y R İ A N STEPPE A N D THE MİDDLE EUPHRATES

XII

general

A c h i l l c s T a t i u s , Leucippe

and

Ciitophon,

on

s e r i p t i o n f r o m h o n o u r i n g Praefecti

Ptolemais

Adiabene: possibly short-lived Trajanic p r o v incc of 'Assyria', x o i ; kiııgdom, language

orio

Ptaet-

(AD 3 3 6 ) , 2 i o - 2 t x ; m a d e colonia

by

C a r a c a l l a , 1 4 3 , 2 5 8 ; evidence f o r internal funetioning, 2 5 9 - 2 6 0

a n d cultıırc, 4 9 3 - 4 9 4 A c l i a C a p i t o l i n a (Jerusalem): r e f o u n d e d as ( r 3 o s AD), 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 ; C o n s t a n t i n e ' s

colonia

N i g c r , 1 2 0 - 1 2 1 ; m a d e k ö m e in t h e t e r r i t o r y o f L a o d i c e a b y S e v e r u s ( ? ) , 1 2 3 ; in-

Sidon, 2 8 6 A c o . See

ındex

A p a m e a : a t t a c k e d i n C i v i l W a r s ( 4 5 - 4 4 BC), 2 8 ; R o m a n f o r c e s at i n t l ı i r d c e n t u r y , 1 4 6 ,

c h u r c h - b u i l d i n g at, 2 1 5 - 2 1 6 , 3 5 0 ; e x p u l -

1 5 9 ; geographical setting, 2 3 8 ; Semitic lan-

sion of J e w s f r o m territory o f , 3 4 8 - 3 4 9 ;

g u a g e s p o k e n ac ( ? ) , 2 4 J ; v i l l a g e s in t e r r i -

Christian pilgrimagc to, 3 8 5

tory of, 2 5 0 - 2 5 1 ; character o f city, 2 5 6 -

agones,

Greek: prcvalcnce of, 2 3 4 , 2 5 9 ,

523-

2 6 3 ; N u m e n i u s (Nco-Platonist) from, 5 1 8 A p h a c a , destruction by Constantine of cult-

5 2 4 ; i n p r o v i n c c ol A r a b i a , 4 2 5 Agrippa I of Judaea, kingdom of, S9-61,

57-58,

63

centre at, 2 1 5 ' A r a b ' (as ethnic deseription): l e g e n d a r y de-

A g r i p p a II o f J u d a e a : r u l e o v e r C h a l c i s a n d

s c c n t f r o m I s h m a c l a n d H a g a r ; 8, ı x ;

r i g h t t o a p p o i n r H i g h P r i c s t s (AR 5 0 ) , 6 3 ;

P a l m y r e n e s i d e n t i f i e d a s (?), 2 2 1 , 3 3 3 ; N a -

rule o v e r B a t a n a c a a n d n e i g h b o u r i n g d i s -

bataeans charactcriscd as, 4 0 0 ; self-dcscrıp-

t r i c t s (AD 5 3 ) , 6 6 ; o v e r p a r t s o f G a l i l e e a n d

t i o n by m a n f r o m K a n a t h a , 4 1 9 — 4 2 0 ;

P c r a e a (AD 5 4 ) , 66; f o r c e s i n J e w i s h W a r ,

I m r u ' l - q a i s a s ' k i n g o f alt t h e A r a b s ' ( M L K '

7 1 - 7 2 , 75; death, provincialisation o f his

' L ' R B K L H ) (?), 4 3 4 - 4 3 S ! ' A r a b e s ' i n . M e s -

territories ( 9 0 S AD), 9 1 - 9 2

o p o t a m i a , 4 5 6 ; 'rıılcr of A r a b ' , 4 9 5 ; p r o b -

Alcxander, imirarion of by Rmperors,

lems o f ' A r a b ' role in N e a r East,

512-515;

'Arab' anccstors of Palmyrenes, 525 142-143

Allat, temple of at Palmyra, 3 2 6 altars, as eult-objects, 1 2 - 1 3 ,

T

5S~155

A m i d a (Diyarbakır), fortification under C o n stantine, 2 0 9 A m m i a n u s Marccllinus, a c c o u n t o f N e a r Eastern provinces, 2 1 1 - 2 1 2 Antioch: G c r m a n i c u s dies at, 53—54; relations w i t h * n t u s (AD 7 0 ) , 7 9 ; R o m a n c a n a l i z a t i o n a t ( 7 0 S A D ) , 8 6 - 9 0 ; c a r t h q u a k c a t (AIJ 1 1 5 ) , 1 0 4 - 1 0 5 ; as capital o f P e s c c n n i u s

Arabia: formation of province of, 9 2 - 9 7 ;

cen-

sus i n , 9 7 - 9 8 ; f o r t s in i n T e t r a r c h i c p e r i o d , 1 8 4 - 1 8 9 ; s o u t h e r n part transferred to P a laestina, i 9 2 - x 9 3 , 3 8 7 - 4 3 6 ; distinet varie t y o f C h r i s t i a n b c l i c f in ( ? ) , 5 1 9 Arabic language, 4; inseription f r o m O b o d a vvith t w o l i n e s i n , 4 0 2 - 4 0 3 ; i n s e r i p t i o n o f AD 3 2 8 i n f r o m e ı ı - N c m a r a , 4 3 4 - 4 3 5 , 5 X 4 ' A r a b i c u s ' : as victory-ritlc o f S c v c r u s a n d C a r acalla, 1 4 1 ; of Vaballathus, 1 7 1 , 2 2 1 , 333

Aradus, 269-272; Phocnician-Grcck

inserip-

Babylonia: Trajan's invasion of, 1 0 1 ; larabli c h u s , Raltyloniaca,

tion from, 2 7 1 A r a m a i c l a n g u a g e , 5, ı o - ı ı ; used iıı c h u r c h at Scyıhopolis, 1 9 8 - 1 9 9 ; use o f in N e a r Kast, 2 3 2 - 2 3 4 ; transliterated w o r d s fronı f o u n d in N o r t h S y r i a , 2 5 5 ; J e v v i s h A r a m a i c , 3 3 9 - 3 4 0 , 3 5 2 , 3 6 2 ; Jevvish A r a m a i c d o c u m e n t (AD 5 5 / 5 6 ) , 3 6 4 ; H e b r c w a n d A r amaic documents from Masada, 367; Aram a i c in B a b a t h a a r c h i v e , 3 7 t , 4 1 6 - 4 1 7 ; A r a m a i c d o c u m e n t s o f B a r K o c h b a "War, 3 7 3 — 3 7 4 , 5 4 5 - 5 5 2 ; G r c c k / A r a m a i c inseription f r o m Z i p h , 376; A r a m a i c inseription f r o m Beth S h e ' a r i m , 380--381; inseriptions f r o m Palestiniaıı synagogues, 3 8 1 - 3 8 2 , 3 8 4 ; inseriptions from northern H a u r a n and Batanaea, 394-397; Nabataean as b r a n c h o f , 4 0 1 — 4 0 2 ; at D u r a - E u r o p o s , 4 6 8 ; s y n a g o g u e i n s e r i p t i o n s in at

Dura,

4 7 0 - 4 7 1 ; Aramaic/Greek inseription from

on, 489-492; langııagt

a n d c u l t u r e in I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , 4 9 5 - 5 0 3 ; c o n t i n u e d use o f A k k a d i a n in, 4 9 7 - 4 9 8 ; Aramaic of, 498-500 Bactocaccc, temple at o n Jebel Ansnriych, 271-273 Balaneae (Claudia Leucas), public officcs, 260 Balıklı river (tributary o f E u p h r a t e s ) , i m p o r tancc as r o u t e , 440 B a l m a r c o d , cult of at Der cl-Kala near Berytus, 2 8 1 B a m b y c c . See

Hierapolis

B a r d e s a n e s , Bouk

of the Uıu>s of

contemporary Edessa, 4 7 4 - 4 7 6 ; o n 'the books of the Babylonian

Chaldaeans',

495-496 B a r K o c h b a ( B e n K o s i b a ) , İ c a d c r o f J e v v i s h re-

Tigris, 4 9 5 ; use of in Babylonia, 4 9 8 - 5 0 3 ;

v o l t (AD 1 3 2 - 1 3 5 ) , 1 0 6 - 1 0 8 ,

p r e s u m e d l a n g u a g c o f M a n i , 5 0 1 ; distribıı-

545-551

tion of, 5 0 3 - 5 0 4 ; callcd ' l a n g u a g c o f the Suroi'

Countries-.

c v i d c o c e o n spread of Christianity, 4 6 3 ; o a

37İ-J74,

B e l , c u l t o f A p a m e a a n d P a l m y r a , 2 6 3 ; a r Palmyra and Dura, 321; temple of at Palmyra,

in G r c c k , 507

A r c h e l a u s , e t h n a r c h o f j u d a e a (4 B C - A O 6 ) ,

323-324,

517

B e r y t u s : colonia

43"44 A r m e n i a : p o p u l a t i o n o f , IOJ s h o r t - l i v c d p r o v ince o f u n d e r T r a j a n ( a »

115-117),

f o u n d e d ( 1 5 BC), 3 6 , 2 7 9 -

281; Latin culture o f , 5 2 7 - 5 2 8 Beth P h o u r a i a , village near Euphrates: peti-

1 0 0 - 1 0 1 ; R o m a n p r c s c n c c ( ı 6 o s Al» on-

t i o n o f v i l l a g e r s f r o m (AIJ 2 4 5 ) ,

wards), 1 1 3 , 490

c o n n e c t i o n s vvith citics o f

Arsamaia on the Nymphaios, Commagene,

155-156;

Mesopotamia,

4 7 8 - 4 8 1 ; Syriac subscriptions o n G r c c k documents from, 481

foundation of, 441 asccticism, Christian, origins of in N e a r East, 520-521 ' A s s y r i a ' , s o m e t i m e s i d e n t i f i e d vvith A d i a b e n e , p r o b a b l y n o t s h o r t - l i v e d p r o v i n c e und e r T r a j a n (AD 1 1 5 - 1 1 7 ) ,

100-101

' A s s y r i o s A ı s ' : a s s e l f - d e s c r i p t i o n by T a t i a n , 227; 'Assyrius scrıno' (Aramaic?),

B e t h S h e ' a r i m , Jevvish n e c r o p o l i s o f , 3 8 0 - 3 8 1 bctyls (baitulia), 1 3 - 1 5 , 2 5 4 ; represented

on

relicf-carvings and city-coins from province of Arabia, 424 B y b l o s , 2 7 4 - 2 7 8 ; L u c i a n a n d Oration

of

Meli-

ton 011 c u l t o f A d o n i s a t , 2 7 6 - 2 7 7 ; P h i l o of B y b l o s , Pboeııicica,

277-278

1 9 3 - 2 9 4 ; self-description b y I.ucian, 245-246,454-456

C a e s a r e a : m a d e colonia

A t 3 r g a t i s . See ' S y r i a n G o d d e s s ' A u r a n i t i s . See

Hauran

A v i d i u s C a s s i u s , legatus

2 0 i ; scenc o f Jevvish-pagan conflicts, o f Syria, a n d Impe-

3 5 6 - 3 5 7 ; as prcdominantly Grcck city, 377-378

rial p r e t e n d e r (An t 7 5 ) , t 1 5 - 1 1 8

C a n a t h a . See B a a l b e k . See

Baalshamin, temple of at Palmyra,

Kanatha

C a r m e l , M t . , cult o n , 2 6 9 - 2 7 0

Heliopolis 325-326

Babatha: archive of, 19-20, 9 5 - 9 8 ; d o c u mcnts f r o m arehive relating to J u d a e a , 3 7 1 ; Nabataean documents from, 4 0 4 - 4 0 5 ; documcnts from early years of p r o v i n c e of Arabia, 4 ' 5 - 4 ' 7

by Vespasian, 7 3 ;

shovvs g i v e n b e f o r e M a x i m i n u s at, 2 0 0 -

C a r r h a c (Harran): as G r c c k city in P a r t h i a n e m p i r e , 4 4 3 ; e v i d e n e e f o r in t h i r d c e n t u r y , 4 8 0 ; colonia, censitores

480

a t vvork u n d e r Tetrarehy,

195-196,

535-544 census:

i n J u d a e a (AD 6 ) , 4 6 - 4 8 ; i n A r a b i a

(AH 1 0 6 - 1 2 7 ) , der Tctrarchy,

rccalculation o f un-

Chalcis (Qinncsrin),

t a x a t i o n a n d c e n s u s (AI> 2 9 7 ) ,

193-198,

53 5—544; persecution of Christians,

193—198

198-200

238

churchcs: built under C o n s t a n t i n e ,

212—213,

D m c ı r . See

Dumayr 248-249

2 1 5 - 2 1 6 ; c h u r c h h o u s e a t E d e s s a in r e i g n

Doliche (Dülük),

o f A b g a r ( ? ) , 4 7 4 ; c h u r c h b u i l t t h e r e CAD

D o m i t i u s U l p i a n u s . See

312/313), 4 6 5 ; chıırch-housc at D u r a , 4 7 1 ;

Dora (Dor), 267

fourth-century baptistery at Nisibis, 4 8 2

D u n ı a t h a (Javvf): h u m a n sacrificc a n d vvor-

180

Circesium, fortilied by Diocletian, circumcision,

ship o f altar, 1 2 — 1 3 ; R o m a n m i i i t a r y pres-

11-12

ence, 1 3 8 ; earlier N a b a t a e a n presence, 3 9 2

c o i n s , of cities, 2 5 7 colonia

D u m a y r (Dmeir, Thelsea): R o m a n garrison

(foundation of, or granıs of status):

at Berytus by A u g u s t u s , 3 6 , 2 7 9 ; at Ptolem a i s b y C l a u d i u s , 6 5 ; at J e r u s a l e m b y H a drian, 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 , 3 4 8 - 3 4 9 ; by Severus and Caracalla, 1 4 3 - 1 4 4 ; by'Eiagabal', 1 4 7 ; by Scvcrus Alcxandcr, 150; by Philip, 1 5 5 ; to Antioch and Laodicca,

Ulpian

at, 1 3 5 - 1 3 6 ; hcaring about temple of Z e u s before Caracalla, 143, 317—319; Nabataean inseription f r o m , 298—299 Dura-Europos: occupied by Roman

forces

( A D 1 1 6 ) , 1 0 2 ; R o m a n p r e s e n c e ( ı 6 o s AD onvvards), 1 1 4 - 1 1 5 ; R o m a n

forces

< 1 9 0 5 - 2 5 0 5 A » ) , 1 3 1 - 1 3 3 ; in R o m a n

257-258

C o m m a g e n e , k i n g d o m of: made part of provi n c e o f S y r i a (AD 1 7 ) , 5 1 - 5 3 ; A n t i o c h u s I V restored a s k i n g (AD 3 8 ) , 5 3 , 5 9 ; d e p o s e d again by G a i u s , and resrored by C l a u d i u s , 59; C o m m a g e n e conqucrcd by R o m a n forces and m a d e part of province of Syria

pos-

s e s s i o n ( e a r l y 2 5 0 S At»), 1 6 2 ; c a p t u r e b y P e r s i a n s ( 2 5 6 / 2 5 7 AD), 1 6 2 ; P a l m y r e n c ins e r i p t i o n s f r o m , 2 9 8 , 4 5 1 ; in P a r t h i a n p e riod,

4 4 5 - 4 5 2 ; in R o m a n period, 4 6 7 - 4 7 1 ;

Jevvish c o m m u n i t y a t , 4 7 0 ; C h r i s t i a n c o m munity, 4 7 1

(AD 7 2 o r 7 3 ) , 8 1 - 8 2 ; g a r r i s o n a n d r o a d system, 8 2 - 8 3 ; pıocess of provincialisaE d e s s a ( O s r h o c n c ) : k i n g s o f (AD 4 9 ) , 6 6 ;

rion,4Ş1-454 C o n s t a n t i n e (Imp. C a e s a r Flavius Valerius

( 1 1 3 / 1 X 4 - 1 1 6 AD), 1 0 2 ; ( ı 6 o s AD), 1 1 2 -

C o n s t a n t i n u s ) , E m p e r o r , r o l e in r e l a r i o n t o

1 1 3 ; regnum

N e a r East, 2 0 7 - 2 2 2

1 2 5 ; d y n a s t y ( t o AIJ 2 1 2 / 2 1 3 ) , 4 7 3 - 4 7 4 ;

o f A b g a r retained ( 1 9 0 S AD),

position of king and grant of status of

C y r r h u s , remains and history of, 2 2 9

lonia

(AD 2 1 2 / 2 1 3 ) , ' 4 4 ! colonia

dc-

co-

(AD 2 1 2 /

2 1 3 - 2 3 8 / 2 3 9 ) , 1 5 1 ; restoration of dynasty (AD 2 3 9 / 2 4 0 - 7 2 4 1 / 2 4 2 ) ,

Dabbura, Golan, Bct-Midrash at, 3 8 2 Damascus: cxposed to robbers under A u gustus, 3 6 - 3 7 ; under Nabataean control ( l a t e 3 0 S AD) ( ? ) , 5 6 - 5 7 ; R o m a n m i l i r a r y p r e s e n c e in t h i r d c e n t u r y (?),

136-137;

character o f city, 3 r o - 3 1 9 Decapolis: as enelave of provincial territory in e a r l y E m p i r e , 3 8 - 3 9 ; N a b a t a e a n i n f l u e n e e i n ( b e f o r e AD 1 0 6 ) , 3 9 7 - 3 9 8 ; c i t i e s o f i n t h e first c e n t u r y A D , 4 0 8 - 4 1 4 ; c i t i e s o f identifying themselves as belonging t o ' K o i l c - S y r i a ' , 4 2 3 - 4 2 4 ; agönes

in, 4 2 5

Decius (Imp. Caesar C . Mcssius Q u i n t u s Traianus Decius), Emperor, effects of pcrsecution in N e a r East, 1 5 8 D c x a n d r o s , later h o n o u r e d at A p a m e a ,

261

Dido, legend of, 2 6 5 ; at Tyre, 2 9 2 Diocletian (Imp. Caesar C . Aurelius Valerius Diocletiauus), Emperor: accession a n d role in N e a r East, 1 7 6 - 1 7 9 ; fortification o f N e a r Eastern frontier, 1 8 0 - 1 8 9 ; r e f o r m o f

151-152;

colonia

(AI> 2 4 2 a n d 2 4 3 ) , 1 5 2 ; d y n a s t y a n d lonia,

co-

4 7 6 - 4 8 1 ; evidence for before mid-

s c c o n d c e n t u r y , 4 5 6 - 4 6 7 ; in R o m a n p e riod,

4 7 2 - 4 8 8 ; S y r i a c açta

of martyrdoms

at, 4 8 6 - 4 8 8 ; rnaterials f o r history of, 553-562

Eiagabal, deity vvorshipped at Emesa, 1 5 ; orig i n r c f l c c t c d in c u l t o f ' I . H G B I . a t N a z a l a , 3 0 0 - 3 0 1 ; reinterpreted as the S u n ,

303—

3 0 6 , 3 0 8 - 3 0 9 ; v v o r s h i p d i s p l a y e d in R o m e , 3 0 6 - 3 0 8 ; f o r m ' H e l i o g a b a l o s / u s ' not attested before the fourth century, 3 0 4 'Eiagabal', nickname of Emperor, M . Aurelius A n t o n i n u s (Varius A v ı t u s Rassianus), 120,

145-147,303-308

Elchasaitcs, sub-Christian scct, 5 0 0 - 5 0 1 E m e s a : dynasty o f , 3 4 , 3 0 2 - 3 0 3 ; forces of, 7 1 - 7 2 , 7 5 , S 2 ; end of d y n a s t y ( 7 0 S An), 8 4 ; f a m i l y o f Iulia D o m n a f r o m , 1 1 9 — 1 2 0 , 3 0 3 - 3 0 4 ; c o n t c x t o f p r o c l a m a t i o n o f pre-

Emesa (continued)

H a d r i a n (P. A e l i u s H a d r i a n u s , I m p . C a c s a r

tender 'Elagabal', 1 4 5 ; rcsistancc t o Persian

T r a i a n u s H a d r i a n u s ) , E m p e r o r : legatus

f o r c e s (AD 2 5 3 ) , a n d s u p p o r t o f p r e t e n d e r

Syria a n d p r o c l a m a t i o n (AD I 1 7 ) , 1 0 5 ; pres-

'Uranius Antoninus', 1 6 0 - 1 6 1 ,

308-309;

e n c e a n d a c t i v i t y in N e a r E a s t , T 0 5 - 1 0 8

society a n d culture of, 3 0 0 - 3 0 9 ; c u l t o f Elagabal ('LHGBL), 304-308 Roman

control of middle Euphrates under Vespasian, 8 3 - 8 4 ; extension of c o n t r o l ( ı 6 o s AD), 1 1 3 - 1 1 4 ; t h i r d - c e n t u r y p a p y r i f r o m , 1 2 9 - 1 3 1 ; R o m a n forces on,

H a r r a n . See

Carrhac

H a t r a : a t t a c k e d b y T r a j a n (AD 1 1 6 ) , 1 0 2 ; R o -

Euphrates: as b o u n d a r y o f R o m a n a n d Parthian empires, 28, 33, 58; e x t c n t o f

m a n g a r r i s o n a t ( 2 3 0 S A D ) , 1 2 9 ; c a p t u r e Ly S a s a n i d s ( c . AD 2 4 0 ) , 1 5 0 - 1 5 1 ; l a n g u a g e a n d culturc, 4 9 4 - 4 9 5 H a u r a n (Auranitis): divided b c t w c c n H e r o d i a n a n d N a b a t a e a n t e r r i t o r y (23 BC o n -

129-135;

m i d d l e E u p h r a t e s R o m a n ( 2 5 0 S AD), 1 6 3 ; culturc and society of, 4 3 7 - 4 8 8 ; rıamcd

wards), 38, 52, 62, 393; northern part a d d e d t o p r o v i n c e o f S y r i a (AD 3 3 / 3 4 ) , 5 2 ; u n d e r A g r i p p a ı (AD 3 7 - 4 4 ) , 5 2 , 5 7 ; p r o v i n -

in Greek-Syriac mosaic invcripüon, 4 7 2

cial t e r r i t o r y (AD 4 4 - 5 2 ) , 6 2 ; u n d e r

Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea: as source for

A g r i p p a II (AD 5 3 o n v v a r d s ) , 6 3 ; m a d e

history o f N e a r E a s t , 1 7 5 - 1 7 6 ; o n tradi-

p r o v i n c e ( 9 0 S AD), 9 1 - 9 2 ; l i f e o f v i l l a g e s o f

tions a b o u t early Syriac Christianity, 463

in provincial period, 4 2 6 - 4 2 7 H e b r e v v l a n g u a g c : Wisdom siasticus)

G a d a r a : a t t a c h e d t o S y r i a (4 B C ) , 4 3 - 4 4 ; listed a s b e l o n g i n g t o ' D e c a p o l i s ' ,

of Ben

Sira

(Eccle-

vvritten i n (c. 2 0 0 BC), 3 3 9 ; p a r -

t i a l t e x t f o u n d a t M a s a d a , 3 3 9 ; D a n i e l vvr.t-

410

t e n in H e b r e w a n d A r a m a i c , s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC, 3 4 0 ; u s e d a l o ı ı g s i d e A r a m a i c

Gadimathos, king of T h a u o ü e n o i n ' N W H

a n d G r c c k in J e r u s a l e m ( b e f o r e A D 7 0 ) ,

(Tanukh), inseription of at U m m ct-Jimal,

3 5 2 ; H e b r e v v inseription o f H i g h PricsC, 55,

431-43*

3 6 1 - 3 6 2 ; 'Hebrevv dialcct' used by Paul,

Galilee: importance of as reccntly Judaiscd

3 6 4 - 3 6 5 ; Hebrevv and Aramaic

area, 3 4 6 - 3 4 7 ; eradle of ' r a b b i n i c ' Juda-

c o i n s o f first r e v o l t , 3 6 7 ; o f B a r K o c h b a

o f Tyre, 2 9 2 - 2 9 3

W a r , 3 7 2 ; Hebrevv, A r a m a i c a n d G r e e k doc-

G a z a : a t t a c h e d t o S y r i a ( 4 HC), 4 3 - 4 4 :

u m c n t s o f B a r K o c h b a vvar, 3 7 3 - 3 7 4 » 5 4 5 ~

attached t o J u d a e a (probably f r o m 70S A D ) , 9 0 - 9 1 ; a s p o r t r a y e d in J c r o m c , Life

documcnts

f r o m M a s a d a , 3 6 7 ; H e b r e w l e g e n d s 01»

ism. 3 7 7 - 3 8 2 ; border zone with territory

Hilarion,

of

of

385-386

552;

Misbnab

a n d Tosefta

v v r i t t e n in H e -

brevv, 3 7 3 ; H e b r e v v , A r a m a i c a n d G r e e k

G e b e l . Sec Jebel G e r a s a : i n s e r i p t i o n o f R o m a n legatus

at ( A D

inseriptions from Beth She'arim, 3 8 0 - 5 8 1 ;

9 0 / 9 1 ) , 9 2 ; visited by H a d r i a n (AIÎ 1 3 0 ) ,

Hebrevv inseription o f Bet-Midrash f r o m

106; Semitic name of ( G R S W ) , 3 9 8 ;

D a b b u r a , 382; Hebrevv, A r a m a i c a n d

N a b a t a e a n - G r c c k inseription f r o m , 398; de-

G r c c k m o s a i c inseriptions f r o m I l a m m a t h

v e l o p m e n t i n first c e n t u r y AD, 4 1 1 - 4 1 2 ;

Tiberias, 384-385; Hebrevv parchment

agön

from near synagogue o f Dura-Europos,

established there under T r a j a n , 4 2 5

G c r m a n i c i a , w este m C o m m a g e n e ,

228-229

G c r m a n i c u s : i n N e a r E a s t (AD 1 7 — 1 9 ) , 5 3 - 5 4 ; dics in A n t i o c h , 54

4 7 '

Heliopolis (Baalbek): part o f c o l o n i a l territory of Berytus, 36; m a d e separate

colonid

Gindarus (Gendcresse), 231

by Severus, 124; Constantine's measures

G o r d i a n III ( I m p . C a c s a r M . A n t o n i u s G o r d i -

a g a i n s t p a g a n i s m a t , 2 1 7 - 2 1 8 ; c u l t s o f in

a n u s ) , E m p e r o r , c a m p a i g n i n N e a r E a s t (AD 142-244),

153-154

G o s p e l s , a s e v i d e n e e lor first c e n t u r y J u d a e a , 341-343

R o m a n period, 2 8 1 - 2 8 5 Hcrakles, cult of at Tyre, 2 6 4 - 2 6 5 H e r o d the G r e a t : c o n f i r m c d as k i n g of J u d a e a by O c t a v i a n , 3 0 - 3 1 ; given territory in H a u r a n (23 BC), 3 8 ; c o n f l i c t vvith N a b a -

H a d a d (Hadaran): cult of at Hierapolis, 2 4 4 - 2 4 7 ; a t N i h a , 2 8 2 ; a t D a m a s c u s (?}, 313-3x6

t a e a (9 BC), 3 9 - 4 0 ; d e a t h , a n d d i v i s i o n o f k i n g d o m b y A u g u s t u s (4 B C ) , 4 1 - 4 3 ; a n d G r c c k citics, 3 5 3 - 3 5 6

Hierapolis (Bambyce, M a b o g , M a m b o g , M a n H i g h Pricsts, J e w i s h : a p p o i n t e d a n d d i s m i s s e d 45; robes kept by

by praefecti,

praefecti,

45—46; robes rcstored t o J c w i s h c u s t o d y (AD 3 6 ) , 5 5 ; c o n f i r m e d (AD 4 4 ) , 6 2 ; H i g h Priest T h e o p h i l o s , 5 6 ; H i g h Pricsts a p p o i n t e d b y H e r o d o f C h a l c i s (AD 4 4 - 5 0 ) , 6 3 ; b y A g r i p p a 11 (AD 5 0 o n v v a r d s ) , 6 3 ; identity of,

6 ) a n d s u b j e c t c d t o census,

4 4 - 4 8 ; ruled b y

A g r i p p a I (AD 4 1 - 4 4 ) , 5 9 - 6 1 ; m a d e p r o v -

b o g ) , culture and c u h s o f , 1 4 2 - 1 4 7

3 6 1 - 3 6 2

i n c c u n d e r procurator,

6 1 ; history under

(AD 4 4 - 6 6 ) , 6 4 - 6 5 ,

procuratores

6 8 - 6 9 ;

J c w i s h r e v o l t (AD 6 6 ) , 7 0 - 7 9 ; g a r r i s o n e d 76;

by l e g i o n a n d p l a c c d u n d e r legatus,

transformed into 'Syria Palaestine' (i30S AD), 1 0 7 - 1 0 8 ; s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l h i s t o r y of,

3 3 7 - 3 7 4

J u l i u s C a e s a r , in S y r i a ( 4 7 BC), 2 7 - 2 8 Justin M a r t y r (Flavius Iustiııus), origin,

H i p p o s : a t r a c h c d t o S y r i a (4 B C ) , 4 3 - 4 4 ; c u l t

2 2 7 - 2 2 8

of D u s a r e s a t , 3 9 7

I a m b l i c h u s , Babyloniaca,

Kadasa/Kydasa (Kadcsh), 2 9 2 - 2 9 3

489-491

I d u m a e a : s i g n i f i c a n c e o f as r c c c n t l y - J u d a i s c d area, 3 4 5 - 3 4 6 ; Jewish communities there in s e c o n d - f o u r t h ccntury, 3 7 6 - 3 7 7 ; G r e e k - A r a m a i c inseription from Z i p h , 3 7 6

K a d m o s , legend o f , 2 6 4 - 2 6 5 ; at Sidon, 2 8 6 ; at Tyre, 2 9 2 Kanatha (Kanotha): A r a m a i c inseriptions f r o m , 3 9 6 ; c o i n s a n d i n s e r i p t i o n s o f a s polis i n s e c o n d c e n t u r y , 4 1 8 ; i n h a b i t a n t o f

I m r u ' l - q a i s , ' K i n g o f all(?) t h e A r a b s ' , i n s e r i p -

S i a ' in t e r r i t o r y o f d e s c r i b c d as ' S c n o s K a -

t i o n o f At» 3 2 8 f r o m c n - N c m a r a , 4 3 4 — 4 3 5

nöthenos', 4 1 9 ; 'dccurio Septimiano(rum)

Ituraca, Ituraeans, and R o m a n provincc, 3S-3

6

>

7 3 "

2

2

7 4 , 3 1 0 - 3 1 1 ,

C a n o t h a ( n o r u m ) ' f r o m village A t h e i l a , 4 1 9 ; 'Arab' from, 4 1 9 - 4 2 0

506

Iulia D o r a n a , o r i g i n s in E m e s a , a n d f a m i l y , 1 1 9 - 1 2 0

Iulius A f r i c a n u s , clıronographer, 3 7 5 ; c v i -

' K o i l e S y r i a ' , as s e l f - i d e n t ı f i c a t i o n f o r c i t i e s o f Decapolis region, 6, 4 2 3 - 4 2 4 K y d a s a . See

Kadasa

dcncc on k i n g d o m of Abgar, Edessa, 4 7 4 - 4 7 5

L a o d i c e a : m a d e metropolis

L . Iulius A g r i p p a , b c n e f a c t o r at A p a m e a , 2 6 1 - 2 6 2

I u l i u s P r i s c u s , praefectus

g a m e s at,

of Mesopotamia,

g e n e r a l c o m m a n d in K a s t , 1 5 5 - 1 5 6

a n d colonia

by

Severus, 1 1 3 , 2 5 8 ; situation o f , 2 3 9 - 2 4 0 ; 2 5 8 - 2 5 9

Latin, currcncy of in N e a r East, 5 2 7 - 5 2 8 I e j a . See T r a c h o n i t i s limestone massif (northern Syria), 251—256

Javvf. See

Dumatha

L u c i a n : o n a c c o u n t s ol V e r u s ' P a r t h i a n W a r ,

Jebel A n s a r i y e h , i m p o r t a n c e o f m o u n t a i n c h a i n , a n d Iimited k n o v v l e d g e o f , 2 3 9 - 2 4 1 Jebel S h e i k h B a r a k a t , t e m p l e o n s u m m i t o f , 2 5 4 - 2 5 6

J e r u s a l e m : u n d e r praefecti,

1 1 2 - 1 1 4 ; On the Syrian Goddess,

o n cults

o f H i e r a p o l i s , 2 4 5 - 2 4 7 ; origins a n d culture, 4 5 4 - 4 5 6 ; o n cult o f A d o n i s at B y b l o s , 2 7 6

4 4 - 4 6 ; Vitcllius*

interventions (AD 3 6 - 3 7 ) , 5 5 - 5 6 ;

confiicts

(AD 5 0 S a n d 6 o s ) , 6 8 - 6 9 ; > n Jevvish R e v o l t , 7 1 - 7 6 ; transformed into 'Colonia Aelia C a p i t o l i n a ' ( 1 3 0 5 AH), 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 ; e x p u l s i o n o f Jevvs f r o m t e r r i t o r y o f , 3 4 8 — 3 4 9 .

See

alsa A e l i a C a p i t o l i n a

Macrinus (Imp. Caesar M . Opellius Macrinus), E m p e r o r , r u l e in N e a r E a s t (AD 2 1 7 / 218),

1 4 4 - 1 4 6

Mani, Manichecs, 5 0 1 - 5 0 3 M a r a b a r S e r a p i o n , Letter

J e w s : a t D u r a - E u r o p o s , 4 7 0 ; in B a b y l o n i a , 4 9 8 - 4 9 9 . See also J u d a e a ; S y r i a - P a l a e s t i n a Josephus: o n origins of ethnic g r o u p s i n Near East, 7 ; o n origins of Arabs, 8; o n Hellenisation o f n o m e n c l a t u t e , 9 ; h i s vvriting o f Jevvish h i s t o r y , 3 3 9 - 3 4 0 J u d a e a : m a d e p r o v i n c e u n d e r praefectus

M a b o g ( M a m b o g , M a n b o g ) . See H i e r a p o l i s

(AD

M a s a d a : o c c u p i e d by sicarii

of, 4 6 0 - 4 6 2 in Jevvish r e v o l t ,

4 7 ; siege a n d R o m a n g a r r i s o n , 7 7 ; Jevvish Aramaic documcnt from, 367 M a x i m i n u s (C. Valerius Galerius M a x i m i n u s ) , E m p e r o r : role in N e a r E a s t , 1 7 9 1 8 0 ; pcrsccution of Christians, 2 0 0 - 2 0 4 ; d e a t h (AD 3 1 3 ) , 2 0 4

Mcdain Salch (Hedjaz), R o m a n military prcscncc,

m y r a , s t a t u s (AD 2 5 0 S ) , 1 5 7 - 1 5 8 ; s t a t u s a n d r o l e (AD 2 5 O S - 2 6 O S ) ,

139

M e l i t o n , S y r i a c Oration

o f : o n c u l t s of H i e r a -

polis, 1 4 3 , M 7; o» cu't of A d o n i s at By-

O r e s a ( T a y i b e h ) : p o s s i b l y l e g i o n a r y p o s t in Tetrarchic period, 1 8 1 - 1 8 2 ;

b l o s , 1 7 6 - 2 7 7 ; vvritten i n E d e s s a ( ? ) ,

Greek-Palmyrene inseription from,

477-478 M e r c u r i u s ( D o m i n u s ) , culc o f : at H e l i o p o l i s , 281; at C h a m ö n (Nebi H a m ) , 2 8 3

297-298 125.

Osrhocnc(a), made province by Severus,

M e s o p o t a m i a : short-lived province o f under T r a j a n (AD 1 1 3 - 1 1 7 ) , 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 ;

161-162,165,

1 6 7 - 1 7 0 ; d e a t h (AD 2 6 7 / 2 6 8 ) , 1 6 9

See also

Edessa

Roman

prcsence ( ı 6 o s A n onvvards), 1 1 3 ; m a d e

P a l e s t i n e . See S y r i a P a l a e s t i n a

province by Severus, 12J—116; garrison of,

Palmyra: part of provincc o f Syria under T ı b e -

128—r 3 0 ; culture a n d s o c i e t y of i n t h i r d

r i u s , 3 4 - 3 5 ; v v i t h i n R o m a n r o a d - s y s r c m un-

and fourth centuries, 4 7 8 - 4 8 8

der Vespasian, 8 3 - 8 4 ; visited by H a d r i a n ,

170, 308, 421

mitrokolöneia,

1 0 6 ; R o m a n forces at, 1 0 8 ,

of the Phaenfsioi, 1 0 9 , 4 2 6

metrokömia,

mountainoııs regions, importancc o t in N e a r East, 1 7 - 1 8 ,

506-507

135;

Palmyrene forces on Euphrates, 1 3 3 - 1 3 5 ; m a d e colonia

by Severus or Caracalla,

1 4 3 - 1 4 4 ; i n t e g r a t e d in F . m p i r c ( 2 5 0 $ A D ) , r 6 4 ~ r 6 5 ; caravan-tradc in mid-third cen-

N a b a t a c a , k i n g d o m of: conflict vvith H e r o d ( 9 B C ) , 3 9 - 4 0 ; in c o n t r o ! o f D a m a s c u s ( l a t e

tury, 1 6 8 ; rise to independent ' e m p i r e ' a n d r e c o n q u c s t (AD 2 6 0 S - 2 7 2 ) , 1 7 1 - 1 7 3 ; m i l i tary o c c u p a t i o n o f under Tetrarehy,

3 0 S AD) (?), 5 6 - 5 7 ; R o m a n c o n q u e s t o f

1 8 1 - 1 8 3 ; villages in territory o f , 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 ;

and crcarion of province of A r a b i a , 9 2 - 9 7 ;

culturc and society, 3 1 9 - 3 3 5 ; P a l m y r e n e

Nabataean region, 3 8 7 - 4 0 0 ;

languagc used by soldiers abroad, 3 2 8 ;

kingdom,

400-408

forces, 3 3 3 - 3 3 4 ; Palmyrene inseriptions

N a b a t a e a n l a n g u a g e ( b r a n c h o f A r a m a i c ) : ins e r i p t i o n in f r o m R u v v w a f a , 1 4 0 ; i n s e r i p tion in f r o m D u m a y r , 2 9 8 - 2 9 9 ,

401-402;

not mcrcly official language, 4 0 2 ;

inseribed

a n d p e r i s h a b l e d o c u m c n t s i n , 4 0 2 - 4 0 5 ; evid e n e e f o r s u r v i v a l o f in p r o v i n c i a [ p e r i o d , 417-431 N a z a l a ( Q a r y a t a y n ) : P a l m y r e n e a n d G r e e k inseriptions f t o m , 2 9 9 ; rclicf r c p r e s e n ı i n g E l a gabal (probably) from, 3 0 0 - 3 0 1 e n - N e m a r a ( N a m a r a ) : R o m a n m i l i t a r y inseriptions at, 1 3 7 ; Arabic inseription of M R ' L Q Y S f r o m (AD 3 2 8 ) ,

434-43S

N e a r E a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s at,

213-215

by Severus, 1 2 6 ;

tioned

(190S

AD), 1 2 4 ; o v e r t h r o v v o f d y n a s t y b y S a s a n ids, 1 4 7 ; P a l m y r e n e r o l e vvithin P a r t h i a n empire, 332 Patriach, Jevvish, 3 8 3 - 3 8 3 Pcrsia: rise o f S a s a n i d d y n a s t y ( 2 2 0 S A D ) , 1 4 7 ; nature of Sasanid challengc to R o m e , 1 4 8 ; c o n f l i c t s w i t h R o m e a n d i n v a s i o n s of e a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s (AD 2 2 0 S - 2 6 0 ) ,

149-173;

(AD 2 8 3 - 2 9 8 ) , 1 7 6 - 1 7 8 ; t r e a t y v v i t h R o m e o v e r (AD 3 X 0 ) , 1 7 9 ; C o n s t a n t i n e ' s r c l a c i o n s 435

colonia, evidenee

f o r c o n t a c t s a t , 4 8 1 ; in f o u r t h c e n t u r y , 4 8 2 nomades:

9 9 - 1 0 5 ; (AD 1 6 1 - 1 6 6 ) , 1 1 1 - 1 1 1 ;

ıox;

4 8 1 ; i m p o r t a n c c a s R o m a n centre in treaty (AD 2 9 8 / 2 9 9 ) , 1 7 9 ; d o c u m e n t a r y

6 6 - 6 8 ; u n d e r T r a j a n (AD 1 1 3 - 1 1 7 ) ,

vvith, 2 0 7 - 2 0 8 ; A p h r a h a t vvriting u n d e r ,

314-315

N i s i b i s : in T r a j a n ' s c a m p a i g n (AD 1 X 6 ) , m a d e colonia

467-468

(AD 2 9 8 / 2 9 9 ) , 1 7 8 - 1 7 9 ; R o m a n v i c t o r y

N i c a c a , C o u n c i l o f (AD 3 2 5 ) , b i s h o p s f r o m Nicotaus of Damascus,

from Dura, 1 1 4 - 1 1 5 , 4 5 1 ,

P a r t h i a : R o m a n c o n f l i c t s vvith (AD 5 4 - 6 3 ) ,

P a l m y r e n e c o n f l i c t s vvith, 3 3 2 ; m e n in i n s e r i p t i o n s f r o m H a u r a n ,

430

Numenius, Neo-Platonist from A p a m e a , 5X8

P e s c e n n i u s N i g e r ^ legatus tender, 1 1 8 ,

Petra: u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t of, 4 0 6 - 4 0 7 ; a s G r e e k c i t y in s e c o n d c c n t u r y , 4 X 7 ; l i t t l e
a n d mitrokolönia,

P h a i n ö , I m p e r i a l metalla O b a i s h a t , tribe in H a u r a n region, 3 9 5 , 428-429 O d e n a t h u s (Septimius O d e n a t h u s ) , f r o m Pal-

of Syria, a n d pre-

120-121

me-

421 at, 2 0 1 — 2 0 2

Philip (Imp. C a e s a r M . Iulius Philippus), Emp e r o r : e a m p a i g n s in N e a r E a s t (AD 2 4 4 ) , 1 5 4 ; f o u n d a t i o n of h o m c v i l l a g e a s P h i l -

ippopolis, 1 5 6 ; origins and cthnic identifi-

1 7 7 , 3 9 9 ; rfırcat t o D a m a s c u s u n d e r D i o c l e -

cation, 5 3 0 - 5 3 1

t i a n , 1 8 4 ; a m b ı ı s h o f pca%ants b y (AD 3 3 4 ) ,

Philippopolis, H a u r a n , f o u n d a t i o n as

polis

P h i l o o f B y b l o s , Phoenicica,

277-279

4 8 4 - 4 8 5 ; regldi

l'hocnicia, culturc and society o f , 2 6 4 - 2 9 5 . See also

1 8 5 , 5 3 0 ; at Elusa, 3 8 6 , 399; use of name a n d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n vvith ' I s h m a c l i t e s ' , 3 8 8 ,

b y Philip, : 5 6 , 5 3 1

a n d colonia

Syria Phocnice

' S c c n i t a c ' . See

Phoenician language: Phoenician-Greck

in-

o f Saracenae

gen les

grcet

Julian o n Euphrates, 4 8 4 'Skcnitai'

S c y t h o p o l i s , 6; a p p a r e n t l y transferred f r o m

seription f r o m M a l t a , 2 6 5 ; Phoenician-

S y r i a t o J u d a e a in e a r l y s e c o n d c c n t u r y , 9 6 ;

Greek inseription from Aradus, 2 1 1 ; Phoe-

interpreter from G r e e k into A r a m a i c in

nician inseription from Byblos, 2 7 4 ; Phoenician legends o n coins of Byblos, 2 7 5 ; k n o w ! e d g e o f in Philo o f Bvblos'

Phoenic-

ica, 2 7 8 ; o n c o i n s o f S i d o n , 2 8 6 ; o n c o i n s of Tyre, 2 8 9 - 2 9 0 ; Iimited evidence for, 2 9 3 - 2 9 4 ; r e f e r r e d t o a s Poenııs

sermo

by

o n

Eastern cultures and l a n g u a g e s ,

103-104;

Sclcucia o n the Tigris, m i x c d p o p u l a t i o n , S e l e u c u s I, i m p o r t a n c c o f c i t y f o u n d a t i o n s b y , 'Semitic', 'Semites', 1 1 S c p p h o r i s , p a g a n a n d Jevvish c u l t u r e o f , 369-370

294-295

portoria,

Vespasian, 8 7 - 8 8 ; as naval base,

236-237

Porphyry, from Tyre: on cults at D u m a t h a , 12-13;

378

444-445

s u m m a r y of I a m b l i c h u s *

489-492

Babyloniaca,

ish inhabitants,

Seleucia (Pieria): c u t t ı n g of t u n n e l a t under cult o f Z e u s Kasios, 2 5 7 - 2 5 8

U l p i a n (?), 2 9 3 - 2 9 4 P h o t i u s , Biblıotbeca,

c h u r c h a t , 1 9 8 - 1 9 9 ; a s G r e e k c i t y v v i t h Jevv-

ı ı o - r n

S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s ( I m p . C a e s a r I.. S e p t i m i u s

provinces, Roman: system of, 3 1 - 3 2 ; subdivi-

Severus Pcrtinax), Emperor: origins, carccr

sion o f under Tetrarchy and separatiun of

a n d f a m i l y c o n n c c t i o n s , 1 1 8 - 1 2 0 ; in N e a r

miiitary a n d civilian funetions, 1

9 ° ~

,

174-175,

P t o l e m a i s ( A c o ) , r e f o u n d c d 3S colonia 52-54), 65,

E a s t (AD 1 9 4 - 2 0 2 ) , 1 2 1 - 1 1 6 ; e a s t e r n f r o n tier under,

9 3

(AD

117-141

Severus Alcxandcr (Gcssius Alcxianııs Bassianus, as E m p e r o r Imp. C a e s a r M . Aurelius

267-269

Severus Alexander): o n campaign in N e a r Q a r y a t a y n . See

E a s t (AD 2 3 1 - 1 3 3 ) , 1 4 9 - 1 5 0 ; v i s i t t o P a l -

Nazala

myra, 3 1 7 S h a p u r I, o f P e r s i a : c o n f i i c t s v v i t h R o m e ,

' r a b b i ' , a s title, 3 8 0 R a b b i J u d a h 'the Prince*, 3 8 3

1 5 1 - 1 6 9 passitn;

R h o s u s , letter o f O c t a v i a n to, 29

his Res

Gesiae,

151,

166

S i a ' (I l a u r a n ) , c u l t - c c n t r c : b u i l d i n g s , G r e c k -

R o m a n l a w , r o l e o f in N e a r E a s t e r n p r o v inces, 5 2 8

A r a m a i c i n s e r i p t i o n s , 3 9 4 — 3 9 6 ; in t e r r i t o r y of Kanatha, 4 1 9 Sidon, 1 8 5 - 1 8 8

Safaitic language, graffiti in, 5 1 4

S i n a i : a s s o c i a t i o n vvith ' I s h m a e l i t e s ' a n d ' S a r a

Samaritans: significance of a s separate g r o u p , 3 4 I ; and foundation of Flavia N e a p o l i s , 368-369

388

S i n g a r a , M e s o p o t a m i a : s t a t i u n o f l e g i o n II P a t t h i c a ( f r o m 190S AD), 1 2 6 ; m a d e

Samosata: capital of k i n g d o m of C o m magene, 53, 437; R o m a n occupation

{early

7 0 S AD), 8 2 - 8 3 ; l e g i o n " ı G a l l i c a p o s s i b l y there ( 7 0 S AD), 8 9 ; X V I F l a v i a F i r m a there in sccond century, 1 0 8 ; Lucian f r o m , his origin 3 n d culture, 4 5 4 - 4 5 6 ;

kenoi', 3 8 8 ; N a b a t a e a n inseriptions f r o m ,

112;

renamcd

'Flavia S a m o s a t a ' , p r o b a b l y under Vespasian, 453; 'metropolis of C o m m a g e n e ' , 453

lonia,

probably by Severus,

co-

126

'Skcnitai' ('tcnt-dwcllcts'), term for n o m a d s , 440

'Strata Dioclctiana',

183-184

Suhnch (Suknah), R o m a n auxiliary garrison at (?),

117-118

Sun, vvorship of in Syrian region,

521

Suvveıda: G r e c k - A r a m a i c inseription f r o m ,

' S a r a c e n i ' ( ' S a r a k c n o i ' ) , 4 ; o r i g i n o f n a m e {?),

3 9 4 ; huilding-inscriptions from, 4 1 3 ; m o d -

1 4 0 ; d c f e a t e d b y D i o c l e t i a n (c. AD 2 9 0 ) ,

ern n a m e refleets c o m m u n a l n a m e s ' S o a d e -

Suweida (continued)

T i b e r i a s : Jevvish a n d p a g a n c u l t u r e o f , 3 5 8 -

noi', or 'Soadecncis', 4x4; city-ııamc 'Dion y s i a s ' first a t t e s t e d i n T e t r a r c h i c

period,

414,SÎS-544

H a m m a t h Tihcrias, 384 Tigris: R o m a n occupation of middle-Tigcis

s y ı ı a g o g u e s : in J e r u s a l e m , 3 6 5 ; i n G a l i l e e a n d

Syria: as province u n d e r A u g u s t u s , 3 1 — 3 8 ; division of by Septimius Severus into 'Syria C o e l e ' and 'Syria Phoenice', 1 £ 1 - 1 2 3 S y r i a C o e l e , p r o v i n c e o f (in n o r t h e r n S y r i a ) crcatcd by Septimius Scvcrus,

121-121

by G r c c k cities of Decapolis, 6 , 4 2 3 — 4 2 4 Syria Palaestina (Judaea), province o f crcatcd b y H a d r i a n , 1 0 7 - 1 0 8 ; extension o f under Diocictian to incinde southern ' A r a b i a ' , 192-193,374-386

granted to H e r o d , 37; R o m a n

area of, 3 9 6 ; absorption in province o f of, 426-430 trade: iong-distance, i 5 - r 6 , 309; of Palmyra, 322, 330; through M e s o p o t a m i a , 483—484, 515-516

Nerva Traianus), Fmpcror: acquisition ol

Syria), crcatcd by Septimius S c v c r u s , 296-336.

Phoenicia

S y r i a c C h r i s t i a n i t y , c v i d c n c c f o r in first t w o

A g r i p p a Il's t e r r i t o r i e s , 9 0 - 9 2 , 4 1 2 — 4 1 4 ; o f Arabia, 9 2 - 9 7 ; Parthian War, 9 9 - 1 0 5 ; d e a t h (AD 1 1 7 ) , 1 0 5 tribute, R o m a n , 4 9 - 5 3 , 1 1 0 T y r e : h o n o u r c d a s metropolit

c c n t u r i e s (?), 4 6 2 - 4 6 7 Syriac language: absencc of from 'Syria' wesc o f E u p h r a t e s , 2 4 1 - 2 4 2 ; l a t e r i n s e r i p t i o n s in S y r i a c f r o m this a r e a , 2 4 2 ; l a n g u a g e a n d seripts, 4 5 7 - 4 5 8 ; d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e f o r i n first c c n t u r y AIÎ, 4 5 7 - 4 5 9 ; c v i d c n c c for at Dura-Europos, 468, 4 7 1 ; Syriac parehments of mid-third century, 478—481; Syriac subscriptions on G r c c k

road

through, 109; A r a m a i c inseriptions f r o m

Trajan ( M . Ulpius Traianus, Imp. Cacsar

S y r i a P h o e n i c e , p r o v i n c e o f (in s o u t h e r n

by I.cpcis

M a g n a , 1 r 8 , 2 9 2 ; m a d e colonia

by Scv-

c r u s , 1 1 3 - 1 2 4 , 1 9 1 ; letter of M a x i m i n u s to, 204; cult of Herakles at, 2 6 4 - 1 6 5 ; colonia! f o u n d a t i o n s by, 2 6 5 - 2 6 6 , 2 8 7 - 1 9 5; c o i n s o f , 1 8 8 - 1 8 9 ; Ulpian ( D o m i t i u s U l p anus) f r o m , 2 9 0 - 1 9 1 ; P o r p h y r y f r o m , 294-295

documcnts

f r o m Bcth Phouraia, 4 8 1 Syriac literatüre, 4 5 7 - 4 * 7 ,

128-129, 495 T r a c h o n i t i s (I.cja): r o b b e r s f r o m , 3 6 - 3 7 ;

S y r i a , 9 1 - 9 2 , 4 1 1 - 4 1 4 ; village life in a r e ı

'Syria K o i l e ' , term used as sclf-ıdcntification

1 2 2 - 1 2 3 ; c a s t e m Syria Phoenice,

z o n e (AD 2 9 8 / 2 9 9 ) , 1 7 8 - 1 7 9 ; G r c c k - A r a maic inseription o f R o m a n veteran f r o m ,

G o l a n , 3 8 r — 3 8 5 ; in D u r a - E u r o p o s , 4 7 0

See also

3 5 9 ; m o s a i c i n s e r i p t i o n f r o m s y n a g o g u e of

Ulpian (Domitius Ulpianus), R o m a n

473-47»,

la\vyen

on R o m a n t a x a t i o n in Syria, 1 1 0 ; on

485-488

grants of colonial status by Severus,

'Syrian Goddess* (Atargatis): cult at Hiera-

1 2 3 - 1 2 4 ; o r i g i n s in f a m i l y o f

'Oulpianoi'

polis, 2 4 4 - 2 4 7 ; cult at N i h a , n e a r Heliopo-

f r o m T y r e , 1 9 0 - 2 9 1 ; on T y r e as n c w l y crc-

lis, 2 8 2 ; d i s t i n g u i s h c d f r o m ' V e n ü s H c l i o -

a t c d colonia,

politana', 2 8 2 - 1 8 3 ; a t Edessa, 4 7 5

a n d Poenus

al T a b a r i , History

of Prophets

and

Kings,

as

cvidcncc for Imperial period, 4 3 2 — 4 3 5 T a m u d a c i . See

Thamud

riod, 4 3 1 - 4 3 5 ; allegcd conflicts w i t h Z e n o bia, 4 3 3 - 4 3 5 Oresa

5 1 1 ; mentioncd by Ptolemy, 388 T h e l s e a . See

Dumayr

Septimius Vaballathus Athcnodorus), 334-335,

5 3 , - 5 3 1

V a l c r i a n ( I m p . C a e s a r P. L i c i n i u s V a l c r i a n u s ) , AD), 1 6 3 - 1 6 4 , 1 6 6 ; c a p t u r e b y P e r s i a n s (AD 2 6 0 ) , 1 6 6 ; r e p l y t o p e t i t i o n a b o u t t e r a -

Crcck-

N a b a t a e a n inseription of at Ruvvvvafa (Hedjaz), service in L a t e R o m a n a r m y ,

V a b a l l a t h u s (Imp. C a c s a r L. Iulius A u r e l i u s

E m p e r o r : c a m p a i g n s in N e a r E a s t ( 2 5 0 S

Tarian, origin a n d culturc o f , 2 2 7 , 4 60

Thamud (Tamudaci, Thamudcnoi):

serrao

293-294

Palmyrene pretender, 1 7 1 - 1 7 2 ,

T a n u k h , t r i b e : c v i d c n c c f o r in I m p e r i a l p e -

T a y i b e h . See

2 9 1 ; o n u s e o f Assyrius sermo,

140,

p l c of Z e u s a t B a c t o c a c c c , 2 7 2 V e s p a s i a n (T. Ftavius V e s p a s i a n u s , I m p . C a t s a r V e s p a s i a n u s ) : legatus

i n Je\vish r e v o l t ,

7 1 — 7 3 ; p r o c l a m a t i o n a s E m p e r o r (AD 6 9 ) , 7 3 , 360; reorganisation of eastern frontier.

8o-?o-,

c o n q u e s t o f m o s r o f I d u m a e a (AD

6 8 ) , 3 4 5 ; a r r a n g c m c n t s i n J u d a c a a f t e r revolt, 368; foundation of Flavia N c a p o l i s ,

Z c n o b i a : basilissa

at P a l m y r a , 1 7 1 - 1 7 3 ; al-

Icgcd conflicts w i t h T a n u k h , 4 3 3 - 4 3 5 Z e u g m a (Selcucia) on E u p h r a t e s : m a d e part

368; 'Flavia Samosata*, p r o b a b l y renamcd

of province ( 3 1 ne), 29; n o r m a l erossing o f

under Vespasian, 4 5 3

Euphrates for R o m a n forccs, 66; Icgionary

Via N o v a Traiana, 1 3 8 - 1 3 9

g a r r i s o n [6os AD), 7 5 ; I V S c y t h i c a estab-' l i s h e d t h e r e , 8 3 , 8 9 , 1 0 8 ; stili there i n t h i r d

W a d i Sirhan: R o m a n military prcscncc, S e v e r u s o n v v a r d s {?), 1 3 8 ; u n d e r Tetrarehy, 18$; earlier N a b a t a e a n p r c s c n c c , 39*

c c n t u r y (?), 1 3 0 ; c o i n s 2 3 7 ; agö/ıts 1 5 9 ; city-institutions,

there,

160-161

Z i p h , Idumaea, G r c c k - A r a m a i c inseription from, 376

ı n d e x or

literary

sources

A m m i a n u s X I V , 3 , 3: 4 8 3

J o s e p h u s , Ant.

XVII, 2, 1 (17-28): 51

A m m i a n u s X I V , 8, 5 - 1 3 : 1 1 1 - 2 1 2 .

J o s e p h u s , Ant.

XVII, 4, 3 (93-94): 4 5 - 4 ' '

A m m i a n u s X V I I I , 9 , 1: 2 0 9

J o s e p h u s , BJ I, 1 , 3 - 6 ( ı - ı ) : 4 9 9 - 5 0 0

A m m i a n u s X X I I I , 5 , 1—2: x 8 o

J o s e p h u s , BJ I, 2 1 , n

Assumption

J o s e p h u s , BJ II, 1 3 , 7 ( 2 6 6 - 2 7 0 ) : 3 5 7

of Moses

6, 2 - 6 : 3 5 9 - 3 6 0

(422-425): 354, 526

J o s e p h u s , BJ V I , 5 , 4 ( 3 1 2 - 3 1 3 ) : 3 6 0 J o s e p h u s , BJ V I I , 8, r ( 2 5 2 - 2 5 5 ) : 4 7

Chronicle

of Edessa:

465

J o s e p h u s , C. Apion.

I, 3 8 - 4 4 : 3 3 8

IJuIian), Ep. 8 0 ( L o e b ) : 3 x 2 Dig.

L , 1 5 , 1 pr. ( U l p i a n j : 2 9 1

D i o L X V I I I , 24, r - 2 : 105 Dio L X X X , 3 , 4 : 147

Lucian,

E u s e b i u s , Dem.

Ev. VIII, 3 , 1 0 - n :

E u s e b i u s , Mart.

Pal. 6 , 1 — 2 : 2 0 0 - 2 0 1

349

llist.

24: 4 5 5

M a r k ' s G o s p e l , 2, 2 3 - 2 6 : 3 4 2 Mishnah,

Aboda

Zara 3 , 4 : 2 6 8 - 2 6 9

E u s e b i u s , V C I V , 5 0 : 208

F c s t u s , Breviarium

14: 100

P h o t i u s , Bib.

94: 4 8 9 - 4 9 1

Pliny, b l H V, 12/76: 266 P l i n y , NHV,

20/85: 4 5 6

H e r o d i a n II, 7 , 7 - 8 , 6: 1 2 0 - 1 2 1 H e r o d i a n V , 3, 2 - 5 : 3 0 5 H e r o d i a n V , 3, 5: 1 5

S o z o m c n u s , İ / E V I , 38: 1 0 - 1 3 , 8

H e r o d i a n V, 3 , 6: 3 0 7

S r r a h o , Geog.

I, 2, 3 4 ( 4 1 - 4 2 ) : 1 0

S t r a b o , Geog.

X V I , 1 , 2 7 (340): 4 4 0

S t r a b o , Geog.

X V I , 2, 9 ( 7 5 1 - 7 5 2 ) :

J e r o m e , Life o f M a l c h u s : 4 8 4 - 4 8 5

Strabo,

X V I , 1 , 1 0 ( 7 5 1 - 7 5 } ) : 18

J o s e p h u s , Ant.

I, 5, 5 ( 1 2 1 ) : 9

foog.

239-243

S t r a b o , Geog.

X V I , 1 , 1 8 (755)= 3 5 " 3 ^

J o s e p h u s , Ant. 1 , 6, 2 ( 1 3 0 - 1 3 8 ) : 7

S t r a b o , Geog.

X V I , 1, 20 (756): 36

J o s e p h u s , Ant.

S t r a b o , Geog.

X V I , 2, 2 2 ( 7 5 6 ) : 2 6 5 - 2 6 6

I, 6, 4 ( i 4 3 " « 4 5 > : 7

J o s e p h u s , AM/. I, 1 2 , 4 ( 2 2 0 - 2 2 1 ) : S J o s e p h u s , Ant.

VIII, 6 , 1 ( 1 5 3 — 1 5 4 ) : 3 2 0

J o s e p h u s , Ant.

I X , 4 , 6 (9 3 - 9 4 ) : 3 1 5 - 3 1 6

T h e o d o r e t , H / i f . Relig.

IV, r : 2 5 5

ındex of

(1947), no. 182: 3 1 7 - 3 1 8

documents

IGR

III, n o . 1 1 1 9 : 1 0 9

AE ( 1 9 4 8 ) , n o . ı o 6 : 1 8 5 Le Bas-W., n o . 4 5 5 1 : 109 B e y e r AT, p . 3 0 6 : 364 CIJ IF, n o . t 4 0 4 : 3 6 5 C/L III, n o . 1 4 1 4 9 : 1 8 6 - 1 8 7 DJD

II, n o . 1 8 : 3 6 4

DJD

II, n o . r r 5 : 3 7 r ~ 3 7 *

OGIS,

n o . 609: 1 0 9

P. Cair. Isidor.,

no. 1 : 1 9 3 - 1 9 4

P. Dura,

n o . 20: 4 4 7

P. Dura,

no. 25: 4 5 1 - 4 5 2

P. Dura,

n o . 28: 4 7 9 - 4 8 0

P. Yadin, n o . 1 6 : 9 7 - 9 8 P. Yadin,

no. 18: 19

F i t z m y c r , PAT, n o . 3 9 : 3 6 4

IGLSV,

no. 1998: 8 5 - 8 6

SEG

VII, no. 3 4 1 : 1

SEG

X V I I , 110. 7 5 9 : 3 > 7 - J « 8

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