Education and Training in Food Science

EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FOOD SCIENCE A Changing Scene

ELLIS HORWOOD SERIES IN FOOD SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY Editor-in-Chief? 1. D. MORTON, Professor and formerly Head of Department of Food and Nutritional Science, King's College, London. Series Editors: D. H. WATSON, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, and M. J. LEWIS, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Reading. TRADITIONAL FERMENTED FOODS FOOD MICROBIOLOGY: Volumes 1 and 2 FOOD MACHINERY: For the Production of Cereal Foods, Snack Fonds and Confectionery Dennis and Stringer CHILLED FOODS A Comprehensive Guide Fellows FOOD PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY: Principles and Practice Girard TECHNOLOGY OF MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS Grandison and Lewir SEPARATION PROCESSES: Principles and Applications DAIRY TECHNOLOGY Grandison, Lewis and Wilhey MICROBIOLOGY OF CHILLED AND FROZEN FOODS Harrigan FOOD IRRADIATION: Molecular and Medical Implications Henderson and Crootveld EPIDEMIOLOGY O F DIET AND CANCER Hill PRACTICAL PROPERTIES OF FOOD AND FOOD PROCESSING SYSTEMS Lewis EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FOOD SCIENCE: A Changing Scene Morton and Lcngcs Niran,jan and dc Alwis FOOD PROCESS MODELLING: Relating Food Process Design, Food Safety and Quality Watson SAFETY OF CHEMICALS IN FOOD FOOD CONTAINER CORROSION Wiere. Jackron. Wicse and Dab'I\ Ali and Rohinron Bourgeois. Mesclc and Zucca Cheng

EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FOOD SCIENCE A Changing Scene

Editors: I. D. MORTON, Professor and formerly Head of Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, King’s College, University of London, and J. LENGES, Professor, C.E.R.I.A. (Centre of Education and Training for Food and Chemical Industries) and U.L.B. (Free University of Brussels), Brussels, Belgium

T h e European Federation of Food Science and Technology

S E R V I N G E V E R Y C O U N T R Y OF THE E U R O P E A N C O N T I N E N T

ELLIS HORWOOD NEW YORK

LONDON TORONTO SYDNEY TOKYO SINGAPORE

First published in 1992 by ELLIS HORWOOD LIMITED Market Cross House, Cooper Street, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 IEB, England A division of

Simon & Schuster International Group A Paramount Communications Company

0Ellis Honvood Limited, 1992 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission, in writing, of the publisher Printed and bound in Great Britain by Bookcraft, Midsomer Norton British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A Catalogue Record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN G13-802273-9 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Available from the publisher

Table of contents Part 1 The present picture

1. A view from the European Commission on the education, training and qualification of food scientists, engineers and technologists for industry and trade in the twenty-first century F. Rexen, Directorate General for Research and Technological Development, Commission of the European Communities 2. A view from industry in the field of education, training and qualification C. Dennis, Campden Food & Drink Research Association, Chipping Campden 3. A comparative study of the patterns in education of food technologists in the Eastern European countries A. Rutkowski and S. Gwiazda, Agricultural University of Warsaw 4. A comparative study of the patterns in some European Community countries G. Campbell-Platt and I. D. Morton, University of Reading 5 . Food science education in the United States R. P. Singh, University of California Part 2 The way forward

6. University education in food technology: the various philosophies P. Walstra, WageningenAgricultural University 7. Higher education in food chemistry A. Ruiter, University of Utrecht 8. Craft and technician training in the field of food processing in Germany K. Gierschner and R. Valet, Hohenheim University 9. Training in the food processing industry in France J. -R. Geoffroy, CPCZA

1

3

8

18 31 38 47

49

55 70 85

vi Table of contents

Part 3 Training for developing countries

95

97 10. Provision of education and research for overseas students V . N . Wade, The Scottish Agricultural College-Auchincruive 11. Aims, target group and curriculum of the international course on 107 quality assurance and marketing in food processing D. H . Bruinsma, P. Naber and F. van der Haar, International Agricultural Centre, Wageningen Part 4 European collaboration

12. European networks: ERASMUS, COMETT, TEMPUS and FLAIR A. G. Medina, E S B Catholic University 13. An ERASMUS scheme for European food engineers P. J. Vallence, University of Reading and E. Dumoulin, E N S I A 14. The European consortium for continuing education in advanced meat science and technology (ECCEAMST): incentives and intentions F. J . M . Smulders, University of Utrecht 15. A consortium of European food education and training enterprises P. J. Barlow and P. J . Warren, Humberside Polytechnic 16. Education in dairy science provided by the European Alliance of Dairy Teachers P. van Assche, C T L , Ghent Part 5 International trade and consumer protection

17. The Official Food Chemist in Germany-duties and education W. Baltes, Berlin Technical University 18. Retailing, catering and food processing needs B. Hallstrom, Lund University 19. The needs of the European consumer W. Feldheim, Christian Albrecht University 20. A course in Food Science and Society G. Meerdink, M . A. J. S. van Boekel and A. H . E. van Hengel, Wageningen Agricultural University 21. Scientists for international trade and consumer protection: Legal requirements A. Gerard, Free University of Brussels Part 6 The future

115

117 125

130 132 136

139

141 149 156 160

166

173

22. Training of craftsmen, technicians, analysts and technologists: pros175 pects for the future C. Cantarelli, University of Milan 184 23. Engineers’ and managers’ training: a challenge for the future J. J. Bimbenet, E N S I A

Table of contents vii

Poster session 1: National and specific patterns 1. Education and employment of mechanical and chemical engineers with a specialism in food engineering T. J. R. Cooper and T. R. A. Magee, The Queen’s University of Belfast 2. Higher education in the context of lifelong education P. A. Biacs, Central Food Research Institute, Budapest 3. Development of students’ creativity-the heuristic scenario B. Segal, University of Galati 4. Education and training in food science and technology at the South Bank Polytechnic, London-past, present and future D. Man, South Bank Polytechnic, London 5. The food engineer’s education in Hungary at the University of Horticulture and Food Industries, Budapest A. S. Szabo, University of Horticulture and Food Industry, Budapest 6. An example of an interactive training course using a microcomputer network J. M . Sieffermann and I. Bardot, ENSIA, Massy 7. An example of integrated education in food science and technology J. Lenges, L. Deweghe, P. Dysseler and A. Masson, CERIA, Brussels 8. Education of food scientists, engineers and technologists at the Prague Institute of Chemical Technology in the food chemistry and technology branch P. Kadlec, J. Pokorn);, J. CepiZka and J. Kcis, Institute of Chemical Technology, Prague 9. Food science and technology education and training in Scotland V . N. Wade, The Scottish Agricultural College-Auchincruive 10. Curricula and standard programmes for home economists and nutrition scientists in Germany V. Schneider, Technische Universitat Miinchen 11. A university education in applied biochemistry and biotechnology J. Kris; Institute of Chemical Technology, Prague 12. Basic experiments on transport phenomena and fluid mechanics J . C. Oliveira, F. R. Oliveira and C. L. Silva, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Oporto 13. Simple but effective computer-based training for the food sector S. J. Fallows, T. King, University of Bradford 14. Nutrition, consumers and European food law S. J. Fallows, University of Bradford 15. FISEC-an European network of food industry students Paul0 Valentim, College of Biotechnology, Oporto

189

191 192 193

194 195 196 198

200

201 202 204 205

206 208 209

viii Table of contents

Poster session 2: International collaboration 16. Development of a centre of excellence in food processing and preservation: a cooperative agreement between South Bank Polytechnic, London, and Yaba College of Technology, Lagos P. A. Burns, South Bank Polytechnic, London 17. An example of ERASMUS collaboration in the field of Food Science, Technology and Engineering E. Dumoulin, ENSIA, Massy, P. Vallance, University of Reading and J. Lenges, CERIA, Brussels 18. Management in the education of food engineers and technologists in Europe B. Colas and R. Treillon, ENSIA, Massy 19. Pan-European food education P. J. Barlow and P. J. Warren, Humberside Polytechnic 20. EURO HPLC-A COMETT training programme for industry in Advanced High Performance Liquid Chromatography J. A. GrifJith and J. Power, Regional Technical College, Waterford 21. International Course in Food Science and Nutrition H. Henderickx and A. Huyghebaert, University of Ghent 22. The preservation of the European food industry G. Hayes, Manchester Polytechnic 23. Scope and activities of the Food Processing Section within the international commission of agricultural engineering (CIGR) J. de Baerdemaeker, L. Lucas and J. Schmekel, International Commission of Agricultural Engineering 24. Collaborative research training in taught courses J. Lamb, D. S. Robinson and M . A. Holden, Leeds University

21 1

213 214

215 217

219 22 1 223 225 227

EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FOOD SCIENCE A Changing Scene

ELLIS HORWOOD SERIES IN FOOD SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY Editor-in-Chief? 1. D. MORTON, Professor and formerly Head of Department of Food and Nutritional Science, King's College, London. Series Editors: D. H. WATSON, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, and M. J. LEWIS, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Reading. TRADITIONAL FERMENTED FOODS FOOD MICROBIOLOGY: Volumes 1 and 2 FOOD MACHINERY: For the Production of Cereal Foods, Snack Fonds and Confectionery Dennis and Stringer CHILLED FOODS A Comprehensive Guide Fellows FOOD PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY: Principles and Practice Girard TECHNOLOGY OF MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS Grandison and Lewir SEPARATION PROCESSES: Principles and Applications DAIRY TECHNOLOGY Grandison, Lewis and Wilhey MICROBIOLOGY OF CHILLED AND FROZEN FOODS Harrigan FOOD IRRADIATION: Molecular and Medical Implications Henderson and Crootveld EPIDEMIOLOGY O F DIET AND CANCER Hill PRACTICAL PROPERTIES OF FOOD AND FOOD PROCESSING SYSTEMS Lewis EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FOOD SCIENCE: A Changing Scene Morton and Lcngcs Niran,jan and dc Alwis FOOD PROCESS MODELLING: Relating Food Process Design, Food Safety and Quality Watson SAFETY OF CHEMICALS IN FOOD FOOD CONTAINER CORROSION Wiere. Jackron. Wicse and Dab'I\ Ali and Rohinron Bourgeois. Mesclc and Zucca Cheng

EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FOOD SCIENCE A Changing Scene

Editors: I. D. MORTON, Professor and formerly Head of Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, King’s College, University of London, and J. LENGES, Professor, C.E.R.I.A. (Centre of Education and Training for Food and Chemical Industries) and U.L.B. (Free University of Brussels), Brussels, Belgium

T h e European Federation of Food Science and Technology

S E R V I N G E V E R Y C O U N T R Y OF THE E U R O P E A N C O N T I N E N T

ELLIS HORWOOD NEW YORK

LONDON TORONTO SYDNEY TOKYO SINGAPORE

First published in 1992 by ELLIS HORWOOD LIMITED Market Cross House, Cooper Street, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 IEB, England A division of

Simon & Schuster International Group A Paramount Communications Company

0Ellis Honvood Limited, 1992 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission, in writing, of the publisher Printed and bound in Great Britain by Bookcraft, Midsomer Norton British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A Catalogue Record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN G13-802273-9 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Available from the publisher

Table of contents Part 1 The present picture

1. A view from the European Commission on the education, training and qualification of food scientists, engineers and technologists for industry and trade in the twenty-first century F. Rexen, Directorate General for Research and Technological Development, Commission of the European Communities 2. A view from industry in the field of education, training and qualification C. Dennis, Campden Food & Drink Research Association, Chipping Campden 3. A comparative study of the patterns in education of food technologists in the Eastern European countries A. Rutkowski and S. Gwiazda, Agricultural University of Warsaw 4. A comparative study of the patterns in some European Community countries G. Campbell-Platt and I. D. Morton, University of Reading 5 . Food science education in the United States R. P. Singh, University of California Part 2 The way forward

6. University education in food technology: the various philosophies P. Walstra, WageningenAgricultural University 7. Higher education in food chemistry A. Ruiter, University of Utrecht 8. Craft and technician training in the field of food processing in Germany K. Gierschner and R. Valet, Hohenheim University 9. Training in the food processing industry in France J. -R. Geoffroy, CPCZA

1

3

8

18 31 38 47

49

55 70 85

vi Table of contents

Part 3 Training for developing countries

95

97 10. Provision of education and research for overseas students V . N . Wade, The Scottish Agricultural College-Auchincruive 11. Aims, target group and curriculum of the international course on 107 quality assurance and marketing in food processing D. H . Bruinsma, P. Naber and F. van der Haar, International Agricultural Centre, Wageningen Part 4 European collaboration

12. European networks: ERASMUS, COMETT, TEMPUS and FLAIR A. G. Medina, E S B Catholic University 13. An ERASMUS scheme for European food engineers P. J. Vallence, University of Reading and E. Dumoulin, E N S I A 14. The European consortium for continuing education in advanced meat science and technology (ECCEAMST): incentives and intentions F. J . M . Smulders, University of Utrecht 15. A consortium of European food education and training enterprises P. J. Barlow and P. J . Warren, Humberside Polytechnic 16. Education in dairy science provided by the European Alliance of Dairy Teachers P. van Assche, C T L , Ghent Part 5 International trade and consumer protection

17. The Official Food Chemist in Germany-duties and education W. Baltes, Berlin Technical University 18. Retailing, catering and food processing needs B. Hallstrom, Lund University 19. The needs of the European consumer W. Feldheim, Christian Albrecht University 20. A course in Food Science and Society G. Meerdink, M . A. J. S. van Boekel and A. H . E. van Hengel, Wageningen Agricultural University 21. Scientists for international trade and consumer protection: Legal requirements A. Gerard, Free University of Brussels Part 6 The future

115

117 125

130 132 136

139

141 149 156 160

166

173

22. Training of craftsmen, technicians, analysts and technologists: pros175 pects for the future C. Cantarelli, University of Milan 184 23. Engineers’ and managers’ training: a challenge for the future J. J. Bimbenet, E N S I A

Table of contents vii

Poster session 1: National and specific patterns 1. Education and employment of mechanical and chemical engineers with a specialism in food engineering T. J. R. Cooper and T. R. A. Magee, The Queen’s University of Belfast 2. Higher education in the context of lifelong education P. A. Biacs, Central Food Research Institute, Budapest 3. Development of students’ creativity-the heuristic scenario B. Segal, University of Galati 4. Education and training in food science and technology at the South Bank Polytechnic, London-past, present and future D. Man, South Bank Polytechnic, London 5. The food engineer’s education in Hungary at the University of Horticulture and Food Industries, Budapest A. S. Szabo, University of Horticulture and Food Industry, Budapest 6. An example of an interactive training course using a microcomputer network J. M . Sieffermann and I. Bardot, ENSIA, Massy 7. An example of integrated education in food science and technology J. Lenges, L. Deweghe, P. Dysseler and A. Masson, CERIA, Brussels 8. Education of food scientists, engineers and technologists at the Prague Institute of Chemical Technology in the food chemistry and technology branch P. Kadlec, J. Pokorn);, J. CepiZka and J. Kcis, Institute of Chemical Technology, Prague 9. Food science and technology education and training in Scotland V . N. Wade, The Scottish Agricultural College-Auchincruive 10. Curricula and standard programmes for home economists and nutrition scientists in Germany V. Schneider, Technische Universitat Miinchen 11. A university education in applied biochemistry and biotechnology J. Kris; Institute of Chemical Technology, Prague 12. Basic experiments on transport phenomena and fluid mechanics J . C. Oliveira, F. R. Oliveira and C. L. Silva, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Oporto 13. Simple but effective computer-based training for the food sector S. J. Fallows, T. King, University of Bradford 14. Nutrition, consumers and European food law S. J. Fallows, University of Bradford 15. FISEC-an European network of food industry students Paul0 Valentim, College of Biotechnology, Oporto

189

191 192 193

194 195 196 198

200

201 202 204 205

206 208 209

viii Table of contents

Poster session 2: International collaboration 16. Development of a centre of excellence in food processing and preservation: a cooperative agreement between South Bank Polytechnic, London, and Yaba College of Technology, Lagos P. A. Burns, South Bank Polytechnic, London 17. An example of ERASMUS collaboration in the field of Food Science, Technology and Engineering E. Dumoulin, ENSIA, Massy, P. Vallance, University of Reading and J. Lenges, CERIA, Brussels 18. Management in the education of food engineers and technologists in Europe B. Colas and R. Treillon, ENSIA, Massy 19. Pan-European food education P. J. Barlow and P. J. Warren, Humberside Polytechnic 20. EURO HPLC-A COMETT training programme for industry in Advanced High Performance Liquid Chromatography J. A. GrifJith and J. Power, Regional Technical College, Waterford 21. International Course in Food Science and Nutrition H. Henderickx and A. Huyghebaert, University of Ghent 22. The preservation of the European food industry G. Hayes, Manchester Polytechnic 23. Scope and activities of the Food Processing Section within the international commission of agricultural engineering (CIGR) J. de Baerdemaeker, L. Lucas and J. Schmekel, International Commission of Agricultural Engineering 24. Collaborative research training in taught courses J. Lamb, D. S. Robinson and M . A. Holden, Leeds University

21 1

213 214

215 217

219 22 1 223 225 227

1 A view from the European Commission on the education, training and qualification of food scientists, engineers and technologists for industry and trade in the twenty-first century Finn Rexen Head of Division for Agro-Industrial Research, Directorate General for Research and Technological Development, Commission of the European Communities

It is particularly appropriate to start this book with a Community perspective of this subject, because the approach of the single European market of 1992 makes education and training a priority concern for the European Community and its Member States. The theme, and indeed the timing, of this conference is also particularly apt, coinciding as it does with the intense discussions, within the European Institutions, of the specific research and development (R&D) programmes implementing the third framework programme adopted by Council last year. The selection of the themes for action under the third framework programme has met six major concerns:

- the strengthening of the scientific and technological basis for European industry and increasing the industrial competitiveness by a coherent and effective Community research and development policy, - the removal of all non-tariff barriers to trade among Member States, by strengthening pre-normative research to harmonize norms and standards, - the reduction of the gap between richer and poorer areas, a process broadly known as ‘cohesion’, - the protection of the environment and the improvement of quality of life, - the modification of attitudes in industrial operators in the direction of more trans-national activities, - the need to introduce a European dimension into the training of scientific and technological development staff.

4 The present picture

[Pt. 1

These are all complementary and essential elements in preparing the Community for its role in the twenty-first century. It is clear that education and training becomes more crucial than ever for the future development of the Community. On this subject there are also two important reports issued by IRDAC, the Advisory body to the Commission on industrial R&D policies, in February of this year (1991): ‘Skill shortages in Europe’ and ‘School and Industry’. These documents consider the evolution of education and training in Europe in the coming years. One of the conclusions reached is that European competitiveness will be threatened if more attention is not paid to education and training. Why? There are two basic reasons for this: the pace of technological change and current demographic trends. ‘Education and training’, IRDAC says, ‘must be considered as strategic weapons in Europe’s competitiveness’. The basic factor, it maintains, is that competitiveness depends not only on creating and applying new knowledge to innovate the product and the manufacturing process but on achieving this faster than the competitors. Thus, the length of the time elapsing between research output and its application by industry must decrease as much as possible. This accelerated technology transfer would be aided by collaborative working between industry and academia and by the movement of researchers from academia to industry. There can be no doubt that in this increasingly competitive world where the operations of manufacturing, services and government are becoming more knowledge-intensive, the winners will be those whose workforces are the best educated and trained at all levels. Certainly, in the European Community the challenges of the integrated market will be best met by those organizations whose workforces have the highest levels of professional education, coupled with entrepreneurial leadership, to exploit and manage rapid technological change. An improved industrial managementespecially in small and medium-sized enterprises-also becomes vital for a wider understanding of the need to introduce new technology to develop products and production methods, and to improve quality as well as productivity. The information revolution, characterized by ever more powerful devices for storing, manipulating and retrieving knowledge, and controlling production processes, is rendering much previous education and training obsolete, or simply irrelevant. It is therefore necessary to develop and adopt systems of continuing education and training to update existing staff: if, as appears likely, the numbers of young people emerging with new knowledge from initial education and training are inadequate, the need for continuing education and training will intensify, particularly for upgrading as well as updating the workforce. The food industry in Europe is accorded special attention by its citizens for several reasons: although declining in relative terms, it remains a very large sector in the economy; it has a vital relationship with health; food production and processing are the most important activities in many rural areas of the Community; and finally, food expenditure is a major part of our household budgets. But since the last decade, under the impact of advanced technologies, we are seeing a profound restructuring taking place in the food industry. Overall, the food industry

Ch. 11

A view from the European Commission 5

is now composed of a small number of very large companies; however, the majority of enterprises are still small and medium-sized. And in Europe, small and mediumsized food enterprises, with limited resources for financing the cost of technological adjustment, are now particularly vulnerable. By these technological developments I mean process automation, biotechnology , process design, food irradiation, new packaging materials, just to mention a few. What should be the aim for training in the food industry? I think we would have to have different targets for the different operators involved in production, preparation, processing and distribution of food, because all these steps influence the safety and the quality of the product which is being produced. I would also like to speak about research: what are the needs of the food industry? what are the trends? and what are the areas where scientists are really required in the food sector? Industry needs biotechnologists and food engineers: these must be trained in modern and advanced techniques on the microbiological aspects of food and the toxicological aspects as well. For example: look at the increasing demand from consumers for ‘fresh’ products, very gently processed products, ‘minimal’ processed food. There is a whole new world of microbiology associated with these new processes which has to be developed so that consumption of ‘fresh’ food does not lead to greater risks to consumers. To do this, the new biotechnologies will have to assume greater importance, to permit more gentle processing while, at the same time, maintaining the safety and the improved nutritional value of the food. A factor which should be taken into account is the nutritional dimension of food: there should be a new relationship between food processors and medical groups, where medical views on diets are substantiated. What I am referring to is the kind of statement every one of us might happen to hear now and then about what one should, or should not, eat in his diet. In fact, statements such as ’Stop eating fats’ or ‘Stop eating high cholesterol foods’ or ‘Halve your intake of dairy products’, sometimes ill-founded, all could seriously hamper certain sectors of the food industry. A quantitative experimental basis to counteract these recommendations will have to be supplied. It is my feeling that up to now we have, to a great extent, relied on American studies; but are they entirely applicable to the European situation? Another point which I would like to mention is the possible development and application of new packaging techniques for food preservation and storage. Long shelf-life products are a trend for both processors and distributors in the food industry. However, the consumer will have to be assured that the food with long shelf-life contained in the new packages is still going to be safe, wholesome and nutritious. There will be a need for indicators to this end, ranging from colour codes to windows in the flexible packages. I would also like to mention ‘on-line’ sensors: these are now available in the electronic and telecommunication industry, but how about having on-line sensors also when processing biological material, for instance in the food industry? Processing technologies along the food chain have also brought up more scientific questions; especially on the compositional aspects, the structural changes which

6 The present picture

[Pt. 1

food components, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, undergo at each level of treatment, at each step of the food processing chain. Another point, which I feel will be more and more important, is that industry will have to commit significant resources to the element of food choice amongst consumers. I am sure there will be different combinations between Greece and Portugal, Denmark and France, even between Ireland and Scotland. This is a kind of research, distant from market research, which focuses on the determinants of food choice in different population groups. Right now everybody thinks it is somebody else’s job. But with the internal market of 1992 it will become very important to know what are the stimulants and what are the inhibitory factors in the consumer’s choice of food. I have just mentioned a few examples of present and future needs, but the point I would really like to make is that there are not many places where this work can be carried out. There are only a few centres of excellence, and these are primarily located in the big countries of the European Community. But we need to create networks, to enlarge and multiply their numbers if we want to tackle all the territories of the Community and, in particular, reach the small and medium-sized enterprises which are, as I mentioned earlier, the most abundant, and which are very important, in our view, because of specific benefits such as rural employment and wealth and regional diversity of food which their activities entail. Small firms are disadvantaged in their ability to carry out the technology transfer and the scientific and market research necessary for survival in an increasingly sciencebased and competitive industry. Small and medium-sized enterprises which cannot afford a research department have to rely on links with university and other research institutions; but most of all, they need specific technical assistance. They need special training to learn and apply the new technologies; they need special trainers for industrial operators, to point out hazards, to illustrate dangers and how to combat and prevent them, in the interest of safer, better quality and more nutritious food. There is an aspect of education that should not be forgotten, namely the consumer aspect. A continuing dialogue between producers and consumers is essential. There is a clear message for all food scientists and technologists: a major initiative is required to explain your technologies and sciences to the final users of the product, the consumer, in a form that is simple, understandable, and, may I say, digestible. This is not an easy task, it will require much thought and a lot of effort. However, if we can achieve it, the rewards to society will be very great indeed. The Commission of the European Communities has been acting on the question of training for a long time. But the question of the link between academia and industry, and of fostering greater industrial exposure in this field, can be traced back to 1987, when the ECLAIR and FLAIR programmes were proposed for the agro-food sector. In that year, another programme was proposed, COMETT, which was specifically targeted at technological training in cooperation between industry and university. Now COMETT, which includes a series of projects in the agro-food sector, and ECLAIR and FLAIR, which include training activities but

Ch. 11

A view from the European Commission 7

are mainly devoted to scientific research and development projects, are well under way and have been very successful. But what about the future? A key idea is that European R&D efforts should be accompanied by related training measures. This is why in the Third Framework programme, which I have briefly illustrated earlier, training has been envisaged in a number of different ways. First, there will be the Human Capital and Mobility programme, to which a very important effort, of over 500 million ecus, will be devoted. This programme aims at training about 5000 researchers in five years and at creating networks of centres of excellence. It will be running in parallel to the second phase of the COMETT programme, recently revised. But in the third framework programme, we have also proposed a specific line for the agriculture and agro-industrial sector which will include food. I would like to explain a little more about this programme. In fact, in the very large effort of simplifying the panorama of Community research, the Commission has regrouped into one programme all the existing activities relating to research in agriculture, agro-industry, biomass, wood, fisheries and food. To this programme will be devoted 333 million ecus in four years. For food, the intentions are clearly stated in the framework programmes: agro-food research, already begun under the second framework programme with FLAIR, will be amplified, particularly as regards: definition and satisfaction of nutritional needs, toxicology and food hygiene, new technologies for agro-food processing. Training activities will be coupled to this programme and among other benefits, will enable students and researchers to work in close connection with the scientific projects endorsed. These will consist of collaborative research, among public and private partners, of different Member States of the Community. As in the past, special attention will be devoted to small and medium-sized enterprises during project selection. In conclusion, Mr Chairman, ladies and gentlemen, I would like to thank you for the opportunity of addressing the opening session of this conference. I have touched on a number of aspects which I feel are important from the European perspective, particularly as regards the development of the European food industry in the coming years. Training will be a vital component of this development. I am sure you will discuss some of these aspects in more detail during this conference and I look forward to a very successful outcome to your deliberations.

A view from industry in the field of education, training and qualification Colin Dennis Director-General, Campden Food & Drink Research Association, Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire, UK

By way of introduction I feel that it is appropriate for me to emphasize the economic importance of the food and drink industry in the E C economy. The food and drink industry is one of the leading industries in the Community (see Table l ) , employing some 2.2 million people and with a production of 331.3 billion ecus in 1988. Production followed a positive trend during the 1980s, growing by 21% between 1985 and 1988. Although the European Community was the world’s largest producer in 1980, the situation changed, and in 1985 the USA was the leader with 392.8 billion ecus. Japan also experienced strong growth through the 1980s but is still far behind the EC, with a production of 182.3 billion ecus in 1988. The major E C producers of food and drink are also the largest consumer markets (see Table 2). Employment in the food and drink sector accounted for 2.1% of the total EC employment in 1988, with the four largest contributors to employment being the United Kingdom, Germany, France and Spain (see Table 2). The share of the food and drink sector in total employment is higher in smaller countries like Ireland, the Netherlands, Denmark and Spain. With a population of 320 million consumers, the EC is a vast and varied market for the food and drink industry. Food and drink is the largest single item of household expenditure on goods and services. In 1985, it represented 25.9% of total European household budgets. However, it varies widely from country to country: 40.3% in Greece, 39.7% in Portugal and 30.7% in Belgium, while in France it was only 16.6%. The European food and drink industry is made up of a mixture of firms and sectors with very different structural and operational characteristics. This variety is due to the diversity of market demand, market size and the technologies and

Ch. 21

A view from industry 9

Table 1. Output and employment in European industry

Building and civil engineering Food and drink Chemicals Motor vehicles and accessories Mechanical engineering Electrical engineering Manufacture of metal articles Production and preliminary processing of metals Textiles Processing of rubbers and plastics

output (million ecus)

Employment (1000s)

412 331 264 207 191 188 146 126 84 81

8447 2208 1678 1815 2344 2391 2123 920 1548 987

traditions particular to each country and each sector. In general, the food and drink industry remains highly fragmented in Italy, Spain and Portugal and is more concentrated in Northern Europe. However, this concentration process is already well under way in Southern Europe, but it often comes from outside. The low degree of concentration of the Mediterranean food and industry places these countries at a disadvantage as giant groups are built in the UK, France and Germany. Structural change in the European food and drink industry is now in full force. Companies are changing hands and new alliances are being forged at a Table 2. Production and employment in the food and drink industry

Belgium, Luxembourg Denmark F.R. of Germany Greece Spain France Ireland Italy Netherlands Portugal United Kingdom

Production

Employment

("/.I

("/.I

4 3.5 18.5 1 10 21 2.5 13.5 5 1 20

3 3 19 2.5 15 15 2 9 6 3.5 22

10 The present picture

[Pt. 1

record rate. Two kinds of groups have developed: conglomerates (e.g. Hillsdown Holdings, Hanson) and more orientated and specialized groups (e.g. BSN, Philip Morris, Grand Metropolitan Foods). They are raising astronomical sums to buy subsidiaries, while they auction off some of their unwanted plants. The market must now be considered on a world scale, as internationalization has become an essential part of the industry’s strategy. Recently the pace of mergers and acquisitions has accelerated with over 400 in the food and drink sector in the last two years. A few examples are: Philip Morris bought General Foods, Cadbury Schweppes acquired Chocolat Poulain and Basset Foods, Seagram bought Martell, United Biscuits acquired Ross Youngs, Buitoni was sold to Nest16 as well as Rowntree, BSN bought H P and Lea & Perrins while Pillsbury was bought by Grand Metropolitan. Two types of strategies are adopted by most European food producers. The first one is to focus activities around one main product, as many companies in the drinks industry have done. The second one is to try to expand the company’s share of the market through acquisition, whatever the product. This strategy is more expensive but explains the high level of mergers which have taken place in recent years. Although there is a definite move towards centralization of product lines, diversification remains an important target. Industrial, financial and commercial links between companies enable them to take advantage of economies of scale and of a better knowledge of foreign markets. Slow growth in consumer expenditure on food has led firms wishing to sustain their growth rates to diversify and specialize in products now preferred by the consumer, such as prepared dishes, snacks, diet products and chilled and other convenience foods. Retailers are now occupying a key role in the food and drink sector. They have direct contact with the consumer and are able to adapt their behaviour quickly to market needs and play an important role in consumer information, in advertising and in the marketing of food and drinks. A phenomenon which worries many food and drink manufacturers is the growing strength of retailers own brands (e.g. Carrefour in France, FDB in Denmark, Ahold in the Netherlands, Tesco and Sainsbury’s in the UK). The general development in food and drink consumption is towards more elaborate and complex products with a higher technological and service element. The three dominant forces driving demand in the food markets are: 1. Higher quality or perceived higher quality products (e.g. natural, light products such as low fat milk, high fibre products, products with fewer additives, environmentally friendly products). 2. Products having greater convenience (ready meals, microwaveable products, chilled products, snack products). 3 . Greater variety of products (exotic foods, ethnic foods, fresh and organic products).

Consumer choice is expected to increase within each Member State as consumer habits internationalize. Restructuring of the food and drink industry and consumer awareness and demands are only some of the factors which will affect the skills required by

Ch. 21

A view from industry 11

employers in the food and drink industry in the 1990s and beyond and thus have impact on the education and training requirements. The major challenges which face the food and drink industry and which will have a profound impact upon education, training and qualification requirements are:

1. Demographic changes. 2. Consumer awareness and demands, especially in relation to safety and quality aspects. 3. New legislation. 4. Application of new technologies. 5 . Increased international competition and restructuring of the industry in relation to the Single European Market. Not only will these have a major impact on the food and drink industry, including the whole of the food chain (see Fig. l ) , they will also influence the education and training requirements for the legislators and enforcers of the adopted legislation, as well as impacting on the need to educate and inform consumers. All of these need to be given full consideration by education and training establishments and organizations. The major demographic change in the 1990s will be a decreasing number of 16 to 24 year olds and an increasing number of 35 to 54 year olds, while the number over retirement age is not expected to rise significantly until the next century. These changes will influence the availability of qualified staff, the way new skills are introduced as well as the products and services required from the food and drink industry. Employers will not be able to rely on a flow of young recruits to provide new skills, and an increased participation of young people in full-time education will defer entry into the labour force. This will increase the need to retrain and update the skills of the existing workforce and to ensure greater efficiency by changes in working practices. Part of the increased consumer awareness relates to environmental issues and the concerns may be summarized as the inheritance we were leaving to our children,

I

I

B~ ";k"

+

,I

INGREDIENT MANUFACTURERS

I

PRIMARY PRODUCERS

t AGROCHEMICAL COMPANIES

r

.c MANUFACTURERS 4

PACKAGING & EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

Fig. 1. The food chain.

I R ETA1LERS

DISTRIBUTION

-

-

12 The present picture

[Pt. 1

Table 3. New technologies for the food and drink industry ~~~~~

~

Information technology-interactive databases, mathematical modelling, simulation -artificial intelligence - expert system, neural networks and hybrids New materials -ingredients -plant and machinery -packaging -raw materials and ingredients Biotechnology -processes -analytical techniques -process control strategies Sensor technology

health and longevity issues and issues relating to the way in which people are going to spend their increased leisure time. The food and drink industry will certainly not be immune from the human impact on the environment, especially in relation to air and water pollution and the concern about solid waste. These factors also have important implications for the skills and knowledge base required by the food and drink industry. The application of new technologies, as summarized in Table 3, in the food and drink industry will probably have a greater influence on the skill requirements than any of the other factors mentioned. The adoption of new technology is not just the investment in plant and equipment and the associated assessment on financial return, it also involves changes in management attitudes and has organizational, employment and skill implications. Above all, adoption of new technologies requires adequate education, training and qualification of the total workforce (see How to invest in new technology in the Food and Drink Manufacturing Industry, National Economic Development Council, 1990). The basic skill and knowledge requirements will depend on the sector of the industry (e.g. manufacturing, retailing, catering) and specific job responsibility (e.g. research, development, quality assurance and control, production), but in the technical or scientific areas they are likely be those listed in Table 4.For example, it is more likely that the basic sciences will be required for research-based responsibilities while more applied and vocationally orientated disciplines will be required in, 'say, production, development and quality assurance roles. As food processing has become more complex and highly automated, there has been a definite trend towards more highly skilled workers (e.g. technicians and engineers with electrical, electronic and electromechanical skills). There has also been a trend towards a dual operator maintenance role and more fluid boundaries between occupations. The future will undoubtedly require much greater emphasis on multi-skilling, team working, just-in-time and right-first-time manufacturing techniques. Success in meeting these challenges will require a suitably skilled and motivated workforce,

A view from industry 13

Ch. 21

Table 4. Skill and personnel requirements in the food and drink industry

Biological science: Chemical and physical science: Engineering science: Food’science and technology: Information technology: Others:

Microbiologists, cell biologists, geneticists, toxicologists, molecular biologists, biotechnologists Chemists, biochemists, physicists, mathematicians, computer scientists, material scientists Process, chemical, electrical, electronic, mechanical engineers Food science and nutrition, food technologists, packaging technologists, home economists Computer scientists, systems analysts Languages, food law i

new working patterns and practices and greater use of highly qualified and trained staff. Commercial, consumer and regulatory pressures have already increased the emphasis on quality assurance and total quality management (TQM) systems rather than relying on quality control. That is, ‘designing quality’ is now an essential part of modern food manufacturing and retailing systems. The quality assurance philosophy is ‘right first time, prevention not detection, everyone’s responsibility, topdown commitment and customer focus’. The success of a quality management programme is therefore dependent upon: 1. Knowing what the customer requires. 2. Assessing whether the procedures and systems which deliver the product or service are effective. 3. Identifying points of interaction between job responsibilities and encouraging cooperation towards the common goal of quality. 4. Establishing methods by which conformance or non-conformance to requirements can be measured (see Fig. 2). Internationally recognized quality management systems (IS0 9000, EN 29000, BS 5750 standards) are being increasingly adopted by the food, drink and associated industries as clear evidence of a ‘visible’ quality system which also has the advantage of forming part of a due diligence defence against new legislation in being able to demonstrate that all reasonable precautions have been taken to prevent the occurrence of defects. I S 0 9000, EN 29000, BS 5750 standards are essentially the same and ensure the establishment, documentation and maintenance of an effective quality system which will assure the consumers that the manufacturer is committed to producing desirable quality against previously agreed specifications. The considerable amount of documentation required to comply with any one of these Standards also provides management with the necessary reassurance.

14 The present picture

[Pt. 1

COMMITMENT

c

MEASUREMENT

t CUSTOMER

Fig. 2. The route to quality.

In general, the Standards define the requirements for a quality system as one that should enable the company to offer goods that have a well-defined purpose, fufil customer expectations and fulfil statutory requirements. Recognition is also given to the link between quality and profitability. The first requirement of the Standards is that the company issue a quality policy statement which defines the company’s objectives and commitment to quality and its implementation at all levels of the organization. A quality manual is also required which includes the policy, procedures and specifications for all aspects from raw material to final product. The manual therefore provides a permanent reference for the quality system. Production of the manual therefore requires a quality plan for every operation and manufacturing process with a clear definition of the key control points. Such a quality plan must also cover the purchase of raw materials and other supplies. Documented systems must also exist for monitoring and controlling production batches and for product recall. The Standards also recognize that no quality system is infallible and that if goods are produced that do not conform to the specification set, then the following action should be taken:

1. Isolate and identify suspect material. 2. Review if and how it can be used. 3. Dispose of material as soon as possible. 4. Take action to prevent recurrence of the fault Adequate training is a fundamental part of the Standards, which also require records of all staff training to be documented. Registration under a Standard is subject to third party inspection, and maintenance of the Standard is checked by subsequent surveillance. Regular internal auditing is also required by trained personnel.

Ch. 21

A view from industry 15

Rather than view training as a tool to be introduced on an ad hoc basis, as required, companies which have been most successful in TQM have generated a culture of constant learning within their organizations which is harmoniously programmed into the company’s quality strategy. Such forward-looking companies have recognized the value of each and every person’s contribution to the organization’s economic success. Each individual has a contribution to make to the company’s commercial aims and objectives, and in order to maximize that contribution each individual must be equipped with both the required knowledge and expertise to perform competently as well as the understanding of his or her role within the wider context of the company’s quality structure. This ethos requires the company to view training as an integral part of its overall business strategy. The following advantages and benefits are those perceived and indeed realized by companies which are BS 575O/ISO 9000 accredited: 1. A quality system is designed to achieve customer’s and consumer’s satisfaction by maintaining and continually seeking to improve quality performance by the establishment of clear quality objectives against specifications. 2. Quality is controlled at the point of production, ensuring that the selection of raw materials, processing and packaging are all carried out accurately. 3. Assessment, registration and reassessment provide discipline and motivation for everyone in the operation to create and maintain quality consciousness at all levels. 4. There is a clear demonstration of commitment to quality to customers and the ability to supply their quality needs because of full control of the manufacturing and distribution process. 5. Costs of implementation can be quickly recovered by improvements in operating practices. 6. The system provides a discipline for maintaining up-to-date procedures and checking and confirming that these are adhered to. 7. Improved position in the market place is achieved. 8. Overall costs are reduced from reduced scrap and rework, increased efficiency and productivity, staff savings (transferring responsibility for quality from quality control staff to production staff) and reduced product ‘giveaway’. 9. There are fewer customer complaints. The approach of production staff checking their own work is a good principle since they are usually positioned where critical operations are being done. One company has reported a 55% fall in consumer complaints over a five-year period. 10. Improved communication means that the quality of performance is improved within each activity and the coordination between different activities also improves, which creates an environment for problem solving.

To date in the UK, BS 5750 accreditation has resulted in increased sales in 65%, increased exports in 47%, reduced costs in 64% and increased profits in 59% of the companies. One of the most significant Directives in relation to the food and drink industry in the developing European legislation is that of the Official Control of Foodstuffs

16 The present picture

[Pt. 1

(89/397/EC). The major objective of this Directive is to protect consumers from risks to public health and from misleading advertising, labelling and presentation. The essential feature is that control will be at the point of production rather than at the point of sale as with current and previous legislation. The link to effective quality management systems is therefore obvious. The Directive requires that its measures are fully implemented by June 1991 and in the UK the requirements of the Directive are incorporated in the Food Safety Act 1990. The implications of the Directive are far reaching and have implications for training requirements of both industry personnel and those from the enforcement authorities. Designated officials will have the powers to: inspect any point of the production process, inspect all documentation, assess and sample any products and/or materials, inspect support processes (cleaning, maintenancelengineering schedules), review staff hygiene and interview any members of the staff. These powers have further implications for the inspector. For example: 1. Sampling-what samples, where should they be taken from, how many samples should be taken and at what frequency and how should the sampling be done? 2. Coordinated programme-each authority has to report to the E C by 16th October 1991 the details of the programme of inspection for its area of control. 3. Resources-who will undertake the inspection, what will the extent of their territory be, what official laboratories will be designated for analysis and will they require to be accredited? These all mean that a substantial training programme for inspectors is likely to be necessary in view of the diversity and complexity of food processing operations. They will require an adequate knowledge of different food processing operations and the function of the appropriate equipment, together with sampling and analytical techniques. For industry, more than ever before, the requirements of the Official Control of Foodstuffs Directive demands that the food manufacturer and distributor knows, understands and can control all aspects of the operation from ingredients and packaging supply right through production and distribution to the point of sale. These demands mean that the manufacturer must have in place an effective supplier assessment scheme, specifications and a system check for all products, processes and routines as emphasized above. Many aspects of the food and drink industry are changing and will continue to change: These include business strategy and culture, changes in response to increased scientific and technical knowledge, the demand of the market place arising from greater consumer awareness of food and environmental issues, as well as legislative aspects and the introduction of new technology. The pace of change as new legislation is implemented and new techniques and equipment become available means that there must be a continued awareness of the need for training, retraining and updating within a group of people. It is through good interactive teamwork that food processes can be successfully managed and controlled to ensure safe quality products. This management and control cannot be a static concept, but needs to change in response to changing conditions

Ch. 21

A view from industry 17

if consistent safety and quality is to be provided to increasingly discerning consumers in a Single European Market. To meet this challenge, management and workforce have to understand and welcome change, and this will only be achieved via effective education, training and qualification which is rewarded by employers. I firmly believe that this will require an increased emphasis on vocational training, with the development of associated occupational standards, ensuring that training is part of the overall business strategy. People are the most valuable resource a company has and the only resource whose quality can develop continuously. Effective training is likely to lead to an increased retention of staff and therefore reduction in staff turnover, greater versatility and flexibility in the workforce, personal development and innovation, improvement in attitudes, relationship and commitment, which in turn will give continuing development and improvement in performance. For those who consider training expensive, the following example illustrates the dangers of ignorance! A company which had been canning acid fruit or nut products with high sugar levels failed to appreciate the need to give a full botulism process (Fo > 3.0) to a highacid, high-water-activity product. This resulted in the survival and growth in the product (hazelnut puree) of Clostridium botulinum with the associated toxin production. The hazelnut puree was subsequently used to manufacture hazelnut yoghurt which on consumption caused the worst case of botulism from product manufactured in the United Kingdom, with 1 death and 26 illnesses.

A comparative study of the patterns in education of food technologists in the Eastern European countries Antoni Rutkowski and Stanidaw Gwiazda Department of Food Technology, Agricultural University of Warsaw (SGGW), Warsaw, Poland 1.

INTRODUCTION

Food Science and Technology belongs to those fields of study which are closely related to the environment and the conditions of its development. Therefore the development of Food Science and Technology depends on the natural conditions, the nutritional habits and the level of economic activity specific to each country. These factors play a crucial role in education programmes, since the principal objective is to utilize, in practice, the theoretically correct methods learned at the university. In Eastern European countries (Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the former German Democratic Republic, Hungary, Poland and Romania), the period after World War I1 was devoted to reconstruction and recovery from war damage in agriculture and the food industry (1944-1949). Then followed an intensive period of establishing the centrally planned economy of the Socialist State (1950-1960). After the 1950s, food processing was handled by State or semi-cooperative industry. Only a very marginal part of food production for the local market was manufactured by small privately owned processing units. The establishment and expansion of education capacities in food science and technology was closely integrated with the above processes. When discussing this whole period, it is necessary to take into account three points:

1. Between World Wars I and 11, except for in the Soviet Union, education for rural and food industries was part of the agricultural programmes at the This chapter is based on patterns and materials kindly submitted by universities of Eastern European countries in 1989-1990. Data from the former German Democratic Republic is also included.

Ch. 31

Technologists in the Eastern European countries 19

university. In this period, university research was concerned, above all, with technical microbiology for the dairy and fermentation industry. Small industry and handicraft plants did not carry out their own research studies. 2. During World War I1 (1939-1945) the staff and laboratories of many universities were destroyed. 3. Reconstruction of laboratories and staff after war damage, as well as the setting up of new units, came during the difficult years of 1950-1956, a time when Eastern European countries were cut off by the ‘Iron Curtain’ from advances in food science and technology. There are now a large number of institutions of university rank in Eastern European countries exclusively devoted to teaching food science and technology (Table 1). Each of these is generally limited to a relatively narrow range of academic discipline. There are also other institutions of higher education with specialist faculties. These are: - multidisciplinary universities - technical universities and schools - agricultural universities.

of engineering

Specific programmes for food technology education are present in the European part of the Soviet Union, where, apart from food technology faculties at agricultural and technical universities, ten food technology universities were established, some of them highly specialized (dairy and meat-Moscow, fish processingKaliningrad, refrigeration-Leningrad) . Various kinds of specialists are trained in these establishments. A similar food technology university was also established in Bulgaria (Plovdiv). (See Fig. 1) In Eastern European countries, employment of highly educated personnel in the food industry is estimated to be in the range of 4-7% of total staff. Of course, the relative employment of graduate and undergraduate students differs in particular branches. In Poland, employment of highly educated personnel in descending numerical order is: dairy technologists, meat technologists, fruit and vegetable technologists, cereal technologists and bakery technologists. Recent events (since 1990) in Eastern European countries and the Soviet Union indicate fundamental changes. They offer more opportunity for individual initiative in the food economy and stimulate an aspiration to create a free-market system. Without doubt, these changes will cause a major reconstruction of the research and education organization, and, in the near future, new programmes in the education of food technologists. 2. OUTLINE OF EDUCATION IN FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN EASTERN EUROPE

Development of education programmes was of great importance for State authorities in countries with centrally planned economies. In these countries, governments covered education expenses completely and considered that these expenses

Romania

Poland

Universitatea din Galati

KCrteszi Cs Elelmiszeripari Egyetem, Budapest Akademia Rolnicza: Krakow, Olsztyn, Poznan, Szczecin, Warsaw, Wroctaw

-

-

Bulgaria

Hungary

Agricultural University

University (multidisciplinary)

Country

Budapest1 Muszaki Egyetem Politechnika Lodi

-

Technical University

-

Vissch Institut PO Chranitelna i Vkusova Prom yschlenost Plovdiv

Food Technology University

Table 1. The names and types of Eastern European university-level institutions teaching food science and technology

Rumbold Universitat, Berlin

Selskochoziaistvienna Akademia, Tartu Selskochoziestvienny Institut, Omsk and Erevan

Technische Universitat Dresden

Politechniczeski Institut, Voronezh, Ulan-Ude, Kemerovo

Vysoka skola ChemickoTechnologicka, Prague and Bratislava

"Extramural, bfish-processing technology, "refrigeration technology, ddairy and meat technology.

Former German Democratic Republic

Soviet Union

Czechoslovakia

Moscow", Kaliningrad", Leningrad", Odessa", Moscow"

Astrakhan",

Institut Pischtschevoi Promyschlennosti: Kiev, Moscow, Krasnodar, Odessa Moscow"

22 The present picture

[Pt. 1

Fig. 1. Distribution of university-level establishment teaching food technology in Eastern Europe. 0 Food technology university; specialist food technology faculty at a multidisciplinary university, A technical university, 0 agricultural university; f food technology college. (PL = Poland, SU = Soviet Union, CS = Czechoslovakia, H = Hungary, R = Romania, BG = Bulgaria.)

would be paid back, effectively, through employment of university graduates in State enterprises in accordance with the profile of completed university studies. In the organization of university education in the field of food technology, two principal concepts exist:

- the so-called ‘biological’. This is found in agricultural universities, which consider that raw materials and their changes are the principal factors in processing. This direction is highly linked to a branch system of industrial plants (e.g. dairy, wine making, processing of meat, fruit and vegetables, oils). University graduates educated according to this concept are specialists in particular branches and are readily employed by smaller industrial plants with narrow production profiles. - the so-called ‘technical’. This comes from technical universities where attaching equal importance to the unit operations taking place in both raw materials and processing is the basic premise. University graduates educated according to this concept have a broader training and are better suited to jobs in multifunctional, large industrial plants.

Of course, the academic programme must be adapted to the technical level and processing methods relevant to local conditions. In Eastern Europe, specialized, branch-type food processing factories tend to prevail and this affects the approach to education.

Ch. 31

Technologists in the Eastern European countries 23

In Eastern European countries, food science and technology is taught by special faculties as well as at independent instituteshniversities (USSR, Bulgaria). Moreover, in several agricultural and in some technical universities there are general or specialized departments in this area (e.g. Department of Technology and Hygiene of Meat in the Veterinary Faculty, Department of Technology of Fruit and Vegetables in the Horticulture Faculty). This arrangement supplements the education programmes of these faculties. Eastern European countries, as well as the food technologists in each country, have opinions on the construction of food technology teaching programmes. In fact, the construction of a study programme in this area has several difficulties. The multidisciplinary character of food technology requires the application of various pure and applied sciences. On the one hand, there are the basic sciences such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and, on the other, the applied sciences such as microbiology and hygiene, human nutrition, chemical-, mechanical- and electrical-engineering, information technology, economics and management, etc., as well as several technological subjects. For this kind of education, very expensive laboratory instruments and pilot-plant equipment is essential. These are imported, primarily to Eastern Europe on hard currency payment. The lack of this equipment at universities necessitates special training programmes in the food industry factories.

3. UNDERGRADUATE STUDIES

The undergraduate programme (‘engineer’ corresponding to BSc) in Eastern European countries has been developed for two systems: (1) as a part of university intra- and extramural study, and (2) to be conducted in undergraduate schools (colleges) (Halberstadt, Greitzt, Oranienburg in Germany, Cieszyn in Poland, Seged in Hungary). These studies provide the necessary background for employment as technologists in food-processing factories. In both cases, the main goal of the courses is education of professional personnel to the high level needed for management in food factories. Compared with Western European countries where undergraduate study is popular, these in the East are less developed. The curriculum of intramural undergraduate studies in separate colleges comprises 7-8 semesters; more than half the courses are technical and food technology subjects; and the syllabus of the basic subjects is professionally orientated. The undergraduates in these studies are highly regarded by industry (e.g. dairy, brewing). Unfortunately, this type of education has declined in favour of graduate education. Combining the undergraduate (3-year) and graduate (5-year) programmes into one curriculum is a rather controversial system. The main difficulties lie in the separation between the university and college type curricula. The first 3 semesters consist of general and some basic subjects; semesters 4,5 and 6 include technical subjects and branch technology (food machinery and engineering, heat and cooling preservation, dairy, meat, wine processing, etc.). Semester 7 covers industrial training, including preparation of a project on a chosen industrial problem, which is

24 The present picture

[Pt. 1

defended viva voce before a panel. This pattern of undergraduate courses is carried out in several countries. Such combined courses have been abandoned in some countries (Poland, Romania), because the undergraduates did not acquire a satisfactory professional education. It should be added, too, that many of the undergraduates were not good enough to qualify for the second-step studies-the graduate courses. The extramural (5 years) study at undergraduate level is organized in all Eastern European countries by the faculties of food technology on a different set-up. In substance, the students for this type of study are enrolled from the former pupils of secondary (mainly technical) schools after several years employment at a technical position in the food industry. This teaching system is based on self-education together with periodic (monthly, bimonthly) sessions at the university to listen to selected lectures, to participate in laboratory training and seminars, and to have the progress in their education supervised. When the course is completed, the students must pass their final examination as a viva before a panel. This kind of study is most developed in the Soviet Union where about half of all specialists trained for the food industry are part-time and extramural students. Worth noting is the Soviet Union’s special All-Union Extramural Institute (University) of Food Industry in Moscow, with the following faculties: Food Production, Technology, Engineering, Fisheries and Fish Processing, Economics and Management. 4.

GRADUATE STUDIES

The university graduate pattern of studies (corresponding to the MSc) has a duration of five regular school years and is commonly used in Eastern European countries for the education of food technologists. In these countries where small and medium-scale factories prevail for the manufacture of diversified food products in various forms, food technologists are expected to be adept in all methods of processing and have a working knowledge of all types of food commodities. In contrast, in the Soviet Union, the centrally planned economy favoured highly specialized industry branches and a strong tendency for highly specialized technical universitieshnstitutes (e.g., meat and dairy technology-Moscow, refrigeration technology-Leningrad and Odessa). Comparative study of these programmes shows that the curricula in the food technology faculties are virtually the same. During the first 3 semesters the students learn general sciences. Next, in semesters 4 to 6, basic and technical engineering subjects. In semesters 7 and 8, the programme is diversified according to the interest of the particular student and consists of food technology-oriented subjects, plus seminars and practical laboratory studies, where some courses of general professional and basic sciences are continued. Semesters 9 and 10 consist of seminars and thesis research. Detailed comparison between the patterns of Eastern European food technology graduate curricula is difficult, because of differences in the terminology used in the various subjects of study (Table 2). The general scheme of graduate curricula in all countries in the first two years is directed to general education subjects including

Ch. 31

Technologists in the Eastern European countries 25

the natural sciences (mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, etc.). These subjects are taught to a greater extent in the ‘technical’ schools (1200-1500 h), compared with the ‘biological’ schools (800-900 h). Both types of university should provide students with a solid background for the applied science and professional courses in food technology. In the second and third years of study the basic subjects of applied science predominate (450-600 h), e.g., food chemistry and analysis, food microbiology and hygiene, general food technology, as well as food economics and management. The third and fourth years of the curriculum include technical subjects (500-700 h) such as machinery, automatization, industrial design, energy Table 2. Examples of professional curricula in food science and technology in different types of Eastern European university-level schools. (5 years study corresponds to ca 4000-4200 teaching hours)

Course type General

Basic

Engineering & technical

Food technology

Food technology faculties at universities Berlin 818 674 517 Galati 966 588 658 Food technology faculties at agricultural universities Budapest 943 880 473 Warsaw 795 555 600 Food technology faculties at technical universities Lodz 1515 510 810 Prague 1455 510 705 Food technology universities Kiev 1377 686 475 Moscow 1306 469 452 Plovdiv 1285 435 1020

Total

776 1182

2785 3394

1282 1230

3578 3180

975 925

3810 3585

399 510 735

2937 2737 3475

General courses: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry (inorganic, organic, analytical, etc.), Biochemistry, Biology. Basic courses: Agriculture, Microbiology, Hygiene, Biotechnology, General food technology, Food chemistry, Nutrition, Food economy/Marketing, Business/Production management. Technical engineering courses: Machinery, Technical equipment, Automation, Industrial design, Energy management, Environmental techniques, Calculation, Information- and Computer techniques and programming. Food technology courses: Engineering and machinery, Unit operations in food processing, Branch food technology, Quality control, Food analysis. Not included in the above curricula arc: Political and social sciences (such as Marxist philosophy), Political economy, Dialectical materialism (200-300 h), Physical training (150-250 h), Foreign languages (150-250 h), Defence service, etc.

26 The present picture

[Pt. 1

management, computer technique. The fourth and fifth years are designed to include food technology courses, such as food engineering and quality control, and selected branch technologies such as bakery, dairy, brewing, wine making, meat processing, etc. These courses have more time in the ‘biological’ (over 1400 h) than in the ‘technical’ (below 900 h) oriented programmes. Students enrolling for intramural studies are not required (except for the Technical University, Dresden) to have had work training in food industry plants. For matriculation candidates from secondary schools, a certificate and good results in the entrance exams (mainly chemistry or physics and mathematics) are required. The practical knowledge of industrial processing and the principles of factory management are introduced in a proper sequence of practical training in the curriculum (Table 3 ) . In all Eastern European countries, state-owned factories provide the facilities for practical training under the supervision of their technical staff. The training scheme introduced as an integral part of academic curricula is different, but the general concept includes two or three short-term training sessions conducted during the summer vacations. These amount to 8-12 weeks and are used as a supplement to the lecture programme. The first training session is usually manual work in a food processing factory; the second and third sessions are as technicians on the processing line. Some universities introduce into the curricula, during the final year of study, a practical semester (12-15 weeks), often combined with the preparation of the diploma thesis. In all the countries, theses come at the end of graduate courses. Theses are prepared as research projects during the fifth year of study under scientific guidance Table 3. Time given to practical training and to preparation of thesis in university-level food technology curricula (weeks)

Food Technology Faculties University of Berlin University of Galati Agricultural University, Budapest Agricultural University, Tartu Agricultural University, Warsaw Technical University, Eodz Technical University, Prague Food Technology Universities Kiev Moscow Plovdiv

Short-course practical training

Preparation of thesis

15 18 20 26 9 8 10

10 25 8 14 30 30 30

24 20 19

15 12 11

Ch. 31

Technologists in the Eastern European countries 27

from a professor of one of the branch technology courses. Theses are defended viva voce before a panel. In graduate courses there is a tendency to teach the technological subjects based on the scientific background. Basic sciences should be oriented towards food. The orientation of sciences such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc., to the field of food science requires a tremendous effort. Nonetheless, technological progress is proceeding rapidly, and sophisticated modern methods replace simple means of food processing. As an expression of the progressive re-evaluation of the study curriculum, the introduction of such courses as bioengineering operations, computer techniques, food marketing and business management, environment protection, etc. , can be mentioned. These subjects have now partially replaced Marxist-oriented political and social science subjects. Accordingly, to educate students in this area properly, university food technology faculties should be supported by a good, specialized library, well-equipped laboratories and pilot plant.‘ The student population is interested in this programme of study and is willing to undertake the courses appropriate for their future employment in food science and technology. Therefore, it was of interest to poll students for their opinions regarding study patterns. The poll, last year, of students in food technology faculties in Poland was rather unexpected and was very critical of the programme used in 1983 (Table 4). The results of this poll were taken into account in revising the programme for future years. Graduate diplomas were, in centrally planned economy countries, a qualification for leading professional, production and managerial positions. The education capacity of universities (ratio of graduated to enrolled 70435%) was calculated in accordance with the plan for food industry plants as well as the administration of the food economy. In this calculation, the personal interests and material conditions of graduates were not taken into account. As a result a larger number of food technologists graduated every year compared to the Western European systems. This planning system failed, only a part of food technology graduates being employed in agreement with their education pattern. Table 4. Results of fifth year students’ survey (field: food technology, Polish Agricultural Universities, 1983). Question: Do you think you are well prepared to act professionally?

Answer

I am well prepared Theory good, practical preparation not so good Not prepared professionally

n = 507 Average

n=5 Depends on faculty

(”/.I

(Yo)

3.9 72.0 7.1

2.6- 5.3 65.6-86.0 3.5- 9.9

28 The present picture

5.

[Pt. 1

COMPLEMENTARY PROGRAMMES IN FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Programmes for agricultural and horticultural graduates having a biological background are supplemented, in many agricultural universities, by department lectures focused on the nutritional value of agricultural products and on storing and preservation techniques, as well as providing outlines of processing technology of vegetable products. Such departments are located at the agricultural colleges (Kecskemet (Hungary)) or the universities (Lublin (Poland), Halle and Leipzig (Germany)). The education of veterinarians qualified for the hygiene checking of animal products (meat, dairy, fish) consists of curriculum lectures on animal food hygiene and technology. Departments covering this field of study have been set up in veterinary faculties or universities in all Eastern European countries (Warsaw, Poznan, Lublin, Olsztyn (Poland), Budapest (Hungary), Brno (Czechoslovakia), Omsk (Soviet Union)). Some of these may later be developed into separate food technology faculties, e.g. the Meat and Milk Technology Department of the Veterinary Faculty of the Tartu Agricultural University (Estonia) , where the curriculum consists of 672 h devoted to techniques and engineering, 518 h to food technology, and 26 weeks to technological training. Another group of departments belonging to the area of food science are the departments of food hygiene (bromatology) situated at medical universities, the majority being in the faculty of pharmacy. The teaching and research activity of these units includes food control and hygiene. Major linkage in research and teaching of food technology exists between faculties of home economics (e.g. Agricultural University of Warsaw), and departments of commodities sciences in the economics and commerce universities. Several of these cover the areas of food quality, storage and technology (Poznan and Wrodaw, Poland) as well as the catering industry and trade (Budapest, Hungary, and in the Soviet Union at Donezk, Kiev, Leningrad, MOSCOW, Voronezh).

6.

EDUCATION OF FOOD SCIENTISTS

The doctorate (PhD) in food science and also the Candidate of Science degree (CdSc) exist in all Eastern European countries, a pre-requisite for leading research positions as well as for a college or university teaching career. The CdSc degree is also recommended for those people who hope to have top management positions in administration and/or in large-sized food companies. Training of university staff or research staff is based on individual programmes. In general, it is recommended that young Fellows of the faculty spend a minimum of a year at departments of food science and technology abroad (mainly USA, Canada, France, Germany), where they can take some courses and do some research work. This research could later be included in a PhD or DSc thesis,

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Technologists in the Eastern European countries 29

completed in their mother university after returning to the country. However, under the very limited exchange programmes between Western and Eastern European countries and owing to difficulties in obtaining leave abroad, such a PhD preparation has, in practice, occurred only occasionally. All universities and some institutes offer postgraduate courses in food science and technology as a successive further training programme based on fundamental education. The best graduate students may obtain the PhD degree in this way, supported by a fellowship corresponding to the salary of a scientific assistant. Usually the universities offer two types of doctoral studies: 3-year full-time courses, and 4-year courses for workers employed in various institutions. During this time the students attend lectures, practical laboratory sessions and seminars, and they also consult professors on matters concerning their doctoral dissertations. Doctorate degrees are, however, obtained primarily by individual study as a result of professional activity in a research institute or at the university. In this case, preparation of theses requires usually more than 5 years. The requirement to obtain the PhD degree is a research thesis, prepared independently under the supervision of a professor. After exams on the basic subjects, the thesis is defended before Faculty Council members, reviewers and other participants in the discussion. The doctorate of science (DSc) or the doctor habilitated degree (Dr. hab.) is the highest degree and permits one to use the title of ‘Professor’. This degree is given by the Faculty Council to a scientist who has a PhD degree; has done research work and published his own dissertation; shows proof of scientific achievements; and has passed the examination (colloqium) for habilitation. Usually, the DSc degree, is awarded only after 5 to 10 additional years of research activity, after the gaining of the PhD. LITERATURE 1. Hollo, J. and Biacs, P.: Comparative Study of the Patterns of the East European Countries, Proc. Int. Symp. Management Training in Food Industries, Higher Education in Food Science and Technology in Europe, p. 1-1, 2-19, Brussels 1979. 2. Jakubczyk, T. and Imbs, B.: Training needs in Food Science and Technology in Poland (in press 1990). 3. Kisza, J.: Ksztakcenie kadr dla przemyslzl spozywczego (Staff Training for the Food Industry), Przemysk Sponiywczy, 44, 210-212, 1990. 4. Rutkowski, A,: Research Management for the Food Industry in Poland’s Centrally Planned Economy, Research Management for Food Industries, IDRC-MR 75e, pp. 86-95, Ottawa 1983. 5. Rutkowsi, A. and Pisula, A , : Scope of Industrial Training in University Curricula of Food Science, Proc. Znt. Symp. Management Training in Food Industries, Higher Education in Food Science Europe, p. VI-4, 1-6, Brussels 1979. 6. Sikorski, Z. and Rutkowski, A,: Research Management for the Food Industry in Poland, Proc. 7th World Congress Food Sci. Technol., pp. 211-216, Singapore 1987.

MATERIALS SUBMITTED BY CORRESPONDENCE Bulgaria

- Higher Institute of Food and Flavour Industries, Boul. Maritza, 4002 Plovdiv

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Czechoslovakia Chemical Technology, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, Suchbatarova 5, 16628 Prague 6

- Institute of Germany

- Humboldt-Universitat zu Berlin, Section Nahrungsfutterwirtschaft und Lebensmitteltechnologie, Invalidenstr.42, 1040 Berlin

- Technische Universitat Dresden, Section Verarbeitungs und Verfahrenstechnik, Mommsenstr.13, 8027 Dresden

Hungary

- University

of Horticulture and Food Industry, Institute of Food Technology. Menesi ut 43-45, Budapest XI - University of Technical Sciences, Institute of Agricultural Chemical Technology, Gellert Ter 4, 1521 Budapest

Poland

- Polytechnical University, Faculty of Food Chemistry, ul. Stefanowskiego 4/10, 90-924 t 6 d i

- Agricultural University, Faculty of Food Technology, ul. Rakowiecka 8, Warsaw

Romania University of Galati, Faculty of Food Industry and Fishing Technology, Str. Bakescu 59-61 , Galati

-

USSR

- Estonian Agricultural University, Department of Meat and Milk Technology, Leningradi Rd 84405, 202400 Tartu

- Technological Institute of Food Technology, Vladimirskaia 68, 252601 Kiev-17 - Moskov Institute of Applied Biotechnology, ul. Talalichina 33, 109818 Moscow

A comparative study of the patterns in some European Community countries Geoffrey Campbell-Platt and Ian Morton University of Reading, UK Food science and technology as a scientific discipline is a relatively new subject. It was not until the early 1950s that the subject developed in the United States of America, often from Schools of Dairy Technology, Home Economics and similar departments. In the countries within the European Community, the training of food scientists and technologists is similar. However, in Europe, food chemistry was already well established. In Britain, Liebig was one of the early food chemists when he was working there in the mid-1840s. In Germany, Konig. may be seen as the founder of food chemistry. Food chemistry is now taught in 15 universities in the former Federal Republic of Germany, whilst food science is taught in only three universities. In Germany, the individual states require food chemists to perform public food control analysis (Baltes, 1992) in a similar way to the requirement for public analysts in Britain. 1. BACKGROUND PREPARATION NEEDED FOR FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Students, before entering on the university course, are expected to have studied chemistry, physics, mathematics and biology, or at least three of them, with chemistry being compulsory. Higher education institutes regard a knowledge of chemistry as the basis for food science and technology. The other science subjects are required in support. A sound basis of mathematics, statistics and physics is required, while for food technology an introduction to the principles of engineering is essential. The standard at entry into the university differs from country to country. Britain, with the General Certificate of Education (Advanced Level), is perhaps the most specialized: school students from the age of 16 study only these science subjects before taking the examinations at the age of 18 to 19. Scotland has

32 The present picture

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a wider choice of subjects for the Higher School Certificate, and on the Continent it is wider again. For the Abitur in Germany, students study 8 to 10 subjects for examination at 18 to 19 years of age. In France, the students have similar subjects for the Baccalaurkat. Much has been written about the differing standards at entrance to the university, but by the time the university course of study is finished, the standards appear remarkably similar (Morton, 1985).

2. THE PRESENT SITUATION

All Member States offer higher education in food science and technology, except Luxembourg. Most major centres for this higher education are listed in Table 1. As can be seen, there are relatively few centres in each country. The outline content of some of these courses in different countries is given in Tables 2 to 5 . The United Kingdom is alone in having a three-year degree course; but then a masters degree in Britain can be equated with the diploma and similar qualifications on the Continent. Discussions have shown that the doctorate levels are very similar (Morton, 1985). This makes the need for a move towards mutual recognition of qualifications at university level in food science and technology all the more important. There are also, in the UK, several 4-year sandwich courses, in which periods of 12-18 months are spent during the course in training placements in the food industry. These courses are often modelled on the 4-year food technology degree at Reading University, which was developed jointly with industry at the National College of Food Technology, then at Weybridge. 3. THEFUTURE Food science and technology are international subjects-food knows no boundaries. In times of peace, we willingly eat and enjoy food from many different parts of the world. In times of crisis such as war, famine or disaster, our survival may depend on good preservation of our stocks of food. 3.1 Communication and language Food scientists and technologists need to be able to communicate. While people should be able to speak and understand more than one language, English is becoming established as the major international language for business and scientific communication. The common use of good, clear English will help speed the rate of harmonization and development. Internationally, major nations such as Japan and China are encouraging their people to speak and use English to help improve cooperation and collaboration. The new European and International food student organization (FISEC) is using English as its main language, while socially the students try to communicate in various European languages. Both the European Federation of Food Science and Technology (EFFoST) and the International Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFoST) have adopted English as their working language for meetings and publications.

The patterns in some European Community countries 33

Ch. 41

Table 1. Some major centres for higher education in food science and technology in the European Community Country Belgium

Denmark

France

Germany

Greece Ireland Italy

Netherlands Portugal

Spain UK

Place Brussels Gembloux Ghent Leuven Louvain-le-Neuve Copenhagen LYWbY Dijon Montpellier Nancy Nantes Paris-Massy Berlin Karlsruhe Miinchen-Weihenstephan Stuttgart Athens Cork Dublin Catania Foggia Milano Parma Potenza Salerno Udine Wageningen Faro Lisbon Oporto Madrid Belfast Glasgow Grimsby Guildford Leeds London Manchester Nottingham Oxford Reading

Organization CERIA Free University State University State University Catholic University Catholic University Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University Technical University ENSBANA SIARC, ISIM (USTL) ENSAIA ENITIAA ENSIA Technical University University Technical University Hohenheim University University College University College

Universita degli Studi

Universita degli Studi Agricultural University Polytechnic of Algarve Technical University ESB, Catholic University Universidad Complutense de Madrid Queens University Strathclyde University Humberside Polytechnic Surrey University University Polytechnic South Bank Polytechnic University Polytechnic University

[Pt. 1

34 The present picture

Table 2. France: Content outline of ENSIA course

Baccalaureate 2nd Year

3rd Year

Biological Sciences Biochemical Sciences Engineering Physics Food and Analytical Chemistry Statistics and Applied Mathematics Food Processing Economics, Marketing, Food Law Communication Skills Specialization Biotechnology, Microbiology Food Engineering Industrial Management Nutrition and Food Food Science and Technology

Industrial Project

Table 3. Germany: Outline of courses at Hohenheim, Karlsruhe, Munich and Berlin" technical universities for degrees in food and nutritional science and food technology

Semester 4 Semesters 5 and 6 Semesters 7 and 8 Semester 9 Semesters 10-12

Same courses as Chemistry students plus an examination in Botany Food Science, Engineering Design Food Chemistry, Meat Technology Advanced Food Science Advanced Food Chemistry Toxicology, Microbiology Botanical Microscopy To complete their studies

"Berlin: Postgraduate only up to 1991; now also undergraduate.

The patterns in some European Community countries 35

Ch. 41

Table 4. Netherlands (Wageningen): Content outline of 4-year course

1st course: Trimester of teaching: 2nd year and succeeding years:

Basic Sciences Three 12-week block teaching followed by 4 weeks of examination Initially an introduction to later courses and help in the choice of courses to be taken

4 possibilities for major studies: Process Engineering linked with Management Studies Food Science Dairy Science and Technology Dairy Management There is also a free study option based on Food Technology including Toxicology and Management Studies

Table 5. UK: Content outline of 3-year course at universities and polytechnics

Subjects taken in 1st year

Subjects taken in 2nd year

Subjects taken in 3rd year

Chemistry Biochemistry Physiology Quantitative methods Introductory Food Science Food Chemistry Microbiology Mathematics - Statistics Nutrition Food Processing Management Food Chemistry and Analysis Food Processing and Engineering Food Microbiology Quality Assurance Research Project Management

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All students and practising professional food scientists and technologists should aim to speak several languages, with English always being one of them, to ensure that they can share their knowledge and experience for the successful future development of food science and technology internationally in the next century. 3.2 Information There is an ever increasing amount of literature becoming available in food science and technology, with the majority being published in English. Our knowledge base needs to be monitored and developed through universities and research institutes. A very significant recent development is the production of the Food Science & Technology Abstracts on CD-Rom. These have been produced in monthly paper copy for many years by the International Food Information Service (IFIS), supported by Germany, Netherlands, UK and USA. The production of all these abstracts on compact disc provides a very powerful information tool for food scientists and technologists in the future.

3.3 Food Industry Students European Council (FISEC) Of even greater importance than the provision of information, is the attitude and interest of people. The food science and technology students of today across Europe have come together to form FISEC, to work for a better future. The students have used the student exchange ERASMUS programme to work together to form the first subject-student body. Already, two European student conferences have been held (in Paris in 1989 and Reading in 1990), and the third FISEC conference is scheduled for Wageningen, The Netherlands, in June 1991. After this track record of three successful conventions, FISEC should be the first European student organization to be officially recognized by the European Commission and to attract funding. This will be a major achievement for an important and secure future for food science and technology in Europe. The students do not intend to stop there, but have formed a truly international student body in food science and technology.

3.4 Future students In most countries, the awareness of food science and technology as a subject of study in higher education is still low. Much effort is needed by the food industries and by those involved in food science and technology higher education today, to go out into schools and colleges, to inform bright young people about the important challenges and opportunities to the area and enrol them as the students of the future. One useful initiative has been the sixth form introductory course offered for the past five years by the University of Reading (Campbell-Platt, 1989). This allows potential students to be sponsored by the food industry for a one-week industrial course at the University to discover through lectures, demonstrations, project work and industrial visits what is on offer in higher educational university courses. It is particularly important, in running these courses, to have potential students and recent graduates involved whom young people can relate to, to enable them to gain

Ch. 41

The patterns in some European Community countries 37

a true insight into what is involved. This initiative has been followed by other higher education institutes and is an important part of developing future food scientists and technologists for the European food industry in the next century.

REFERENCES Bakes, W. (1992) This volume. pp. 141-148. Campbell-Platt, G. (1989) Educational Transfer in Food Technology. In: Spedding, C. R . W. (ed.) The Human Food Chain. pp. 113-124. London: Elsevier Applied Science. Morton, I. D. (1985) Food Science and Technology Training in selected EEC Universities. Contract No. SSV-84-460-UK Wedzicha, B. L. (1990) CRAC Degree Course Guide, Food Science & Technology in UK Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges, London: Hobsons Publishing plc.

5 Food science education in the United States R. Paul Singh Department of Agricultural Engineering, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, USA ABSTRACT Food science education in the United States has been markedly influenced by guidelines developed by the Institute of Food Technologists. The most recent guidelines suggested as ‘minimum standards’ in 1977 are followed by several institutions offering food science curricula in the US. These guidelines identify five core areas, namely, food chemistry, food microbiology, food processing, food engineering, and food analysis. These courses are supplemented with a number of prerequisite courses relevant to each area, and other required and elective courses. The intent of the ‘minimum standards’ is to provide a broad educational experience to a student enrolled in the food science major. Along with the suggested courses, the available resources, faculty and number of students enrolled in the food science major play an important role in the quality of educational offering. Recently, the Educational Committee of the Institute of Food Technologists has taken an aggressive role in surveying the industry and academia for suggestions to modify the ‘minimum standards’. The initial results of the survey reveal important changes that are necessary in the current curricula to meet new challenges for educating the future students in food science.

INTRODUCTION In the United States, food science education is generally under the purview of food science departments in a number of academic institutions. Prior to 1950, mostly there were commodity-oriented departments such as departments of meat science, poultry science, dairy science or horticultural science. During the 1950s and 1960s, many of these commodity-oriented departments were combined o r converted into food science and nutrition departments. The primary motivation for such conversion was to organize administrative units that emphasized background sciences

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Food science education in the United States 39

and principles. During the last 30 years, there has been a considerable increase in the number of departments offering food science programmes. According to Fennema (1989), there are 69 US universities offering food science programmes. These departments graduate on the average 1300 Bachelors of Science, 350 Masters of Science, and 150 PhDs annually. ROLE OF THE INSTITUTE OF FOOD TECHNOLOGISTS (IFT) IN FOOD SCIENCE EDUCATION Education in the food science area has been considerably influenced by the recommendations developed by the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), a professional society with membership from industry, academia, and government organizations. In early years, the pioneering members of this Institute recognized that there should be certain recommendations regarding food science education that should be followed by any academic institution offering food science curricula. Such recommendations, representing a consensus view of what should be included in an undergraduate programme, were suggested as a core of the food science curriculum. The IFT Committee on Education and Curricula, under the leadership of Professor Stewart, issued a report in 1944 noting the following eight items that merit consideration in a food science curriculum:

0 0

0

0

0

Students in food science should acquire basic courses in chemistry, physics, mathematics, microbiology, and biological chemistry. Students should receive in-depth training in basic sciences and additional limited knowledge of the application of basic science to technology. Specialized training should be provided toward the end of a college programme. Principles of chemical and mechanical engineering should be included. Auxiliary subjects in the curricula should include business, law, accounting, statistics, personnel relations, English, report writing, record keeping, and geographical agriculture. Probably it is not desirable for all students to receive the same training. Some might specialize in the sanitary aspects of food technology, others in the biochemical, the physical, the organic, or the engineering, but all should have a knowledge of the field as a whole to enable them to understand the literature and language of the whole field. Practical experience by working in food processing plants should be included during summer vacations. This curricula would probably span five years of college work. All students should have a knowledge of the field as a whole to enable them to understand the literature and language of the whole field. Specialization in specific areas may differ among students.

An important milestone in food science curricula development was the publication of Minimum Standards by I F T in 1977 (Anonymous, 1977). These standards form the basis used by the IFI' Committee on Education to grant IFI' accreditation to food science programmes offered by different universities. Programmes that are

40 The present picture

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accredited must be renewed once every five years to be reaccredited. While IFT accreditation is not mandatory, it does assure the employer that a student graduating from an accredited programme has received food science education that meets certain minimum standards. The salient features of these minimum standards are as follows. 0

0

The BSc degree programme should span 120 semester units or 180 quarter units. (A semester is a 15-week session, while a quarter is a 10-week session. One unit of a course is equivalent to one hour of lecture per week or, in the case of a laboratory course, three hours of laboratory work per week. Thus, a typical three-unit lecture course offered in a quarter system is equivalent to three hours of lecture per week for the 10-week session. A course that includes two units of lecture and one unit of laboratory is equivalent to two hours of lecture per week and three hours of laboratory work per week for the 10-week duration.) Courses in food science should stress principles and they should be rigorous. Core Courses serve as the basis for students’ preparation in food sciences. The required core courses, devoting a minimum of 24 semester units or 36 quarter units, in food science and technology are as follows.

Food Chemistry A course in food chemistry (including lecture and laboratory) must be taken by a student after taking four courses in chemistry, including organic chemistry and biochemistry. This core course should include elements of basic composition of foods, structure and properties of foods, and chemistry of changes occurring during food processing. Food Analysis The core course in food analysis should follow four courses in chemistry and one course in food chemistry. This core course should include both lecture and laboratory experience and emphasize principles and methods. The quantitative aspects of physical and chemical analysis of foods should be emphasized with a presentation of standards and regulations important to food processing. Food Microbiology This core course should have a prerequisite of one course of general microbiology. Lecture and laboratory experience are necessary. The course content should include relationship of habitat to occurrence of microorganisms of foods; public health and sanitation bacteriology; physical, chemical and biological destruction of microorganisms; microbiological examination of foods and microbiology of food spoilage. Food Engineering The core course in food engineering should have as a prerequisite one course in physics and two courses in mathematics. Both lecture and laboratory experience should be included. The course should emphasize engineering concepts and unit operations, fluid mechanics, transfer and rate processes, and process control instrumentation. Food Processing There should be two core courses in food processing, including both lectures and laboratory experience. These core courses should include general characteristics of raw food material; harvesting, assembling and receiving raw materials; methods of food preservation; processing objectives; packaging; and utilities such as water, waste disposal and sanitation.

Ch. 51 0

0

Food science education in the United States 41

A list of other required courses includes the following: Chemistry Including two courses in general chemistry and two courses in organic chemistry-biochemistry . Biological Sciences One course in general biology and one course in general microbiology. Nutrition One course in elements of nutrition. Mathematics College algebra, trigonometry, calculus and two courses in college mathematics. Statistics One course. Physics One course in general principles of physics. Communications In both the written and the spoken word. Humanities and Social Sciences About four courses. A list of other courses in food science and technology include the following areas: food laws and regulations, sensory analysis, toxicology, and quality assurance. In addition to the above requirements of courses, the minimum standards also suggest the following items appropriate to administrative and physical setup: - The instructional programme in food science should be administered by an independent administrative unit. - The faculty directly involved in this curricula should be competent and diverse. The minimum faculty size is recommended to be four. - The faculty should have a specialization in the field of courses. - The faculty should have adequate time for teaching. - Teaching laboratories, should be up-to-date to conduct chemistry, microbiology, and engineering experiments. - There should be appropriate facilities available, such as a food processing pilot plant and an adequate library. -

0

Students are admitted to the food science curricula on the basis of their academic achievements in high school course work, as well as their scores in special examinations such as SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test). For postgraduate programmes, many universities require scores on G R E (Graduate Record Examination). Several improvements have taken place in teaching food science curricula during the last twenty years. New books have appeared for use both as text and reference material for teaching these courses. As noted by Fennema (1989), no minimum standards exist for postgraduate programmes. Today, the challenge faced by many institutions is to provide state-of-the-art facilities, equipment and instrumentation in the era of fiscal restraint.

RESULTS OF A SURVEY ON FOOD SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES Recently, there have been renewed efforts to examine the food science curricula as offered by US universities and to seek improvements or modifications as appropriate. During 1990, the IFT Education Committee conducted a comprehensive survey.

42 The present picture

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The IFT Committee on Education published a survey form in the February 1990 issue of Food Technology. It received responses from 245 respondents. In addition, the committee received responses from 46 food science and technology departments and 11 divisions and specialized technology groups of IFT. While the detailed results of this survey will be published in the near future, following are some of the key observations based partially on a guest editorial written by Professor L. D. Satterlee, Chair of the Committee on Education (Satterlee, 1990). A majority of respondents (83%) indicated that the core courses (food chemistry, food analysis, food microbiology, food engineering and food processing) are adequately educating students for the profession of food science. The affirmative responses were high for food chemistry, food microbiology and food analysis: 83%, go%, and 8O%, respectively. However, only 70% of the respondents voted ‘yes’ to the same question for the core course in food processing and 65% for the course in food engineering. These somewhat lower affirmative responses for food engineering and food processing may be attributed to the fact that these courses represent unique content often taught as stand-alone topics towards the end of a student’s programme. The respondents were mostly divided in response to the question, ‘Could any core courses be modified to better educate the students to the needs and problems that arise on job?’ Perhaps the most satisfaction was expressed for food microbiology (34 yes, 52 no). In response to whether the levels of chemistry, microbiology, statistics, mathematics and engineering in core courses need any improvement, the responses were mainly directed toward modifications of food engineering and food processing courses. A significantly large proportion of respondents (85%) indicated in the negative when asked if any core courses should be eliminated from the list of five required core courses. Among additional courses that may be considered as core courses, the respondents suggested the following: sensory evaluation, food packaging, food law , product development, statistical quality control, biotechnology, food toxicology, sanitation with HAACP, ingredient technology and process modelling. In response to the other required courses, when respondents were asked whether these courses provide food science and technology students with sufficient breadth and depth, chemistry and biological sciences received high affirmative responses (83 yes). Needs for improvements were indicated for courses in statistics, nutrition and mathematics (59, 64, and 71 yes, respectively). Respondents indicated that while principles of chemistry and bioscience are well integrated into core courses, areas that need improvements are statistics and mathematics. Suggested new courses that may be added to the list of other required courses are biotechnology, biochemistry, sensory analysis, experimental design, analytical chemistry, mathematics, computer science, ethics, physical chemistry, technical writing and marketing. In order to increase critical thinking and creativity, the two desirable attributes, the respondents suggest that undergraduates should be involved in research, laboratory experience, industrial work experience, essay examinations, problem-solving solutions in the classroom, special problem courses,

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Food science education in the United States 43

courses that critique the scientific literature, liberal arts courses, changing teaching and examination styles, foreign languages and product development courses. The survey resulted in several additional comments related to the undergraduate programme, indicating that the curriculum ‘should have increased emphasis on science’, ‘faculty need to be educated in methods of teaching creativekritical thinking skills in their classrooms’, and ‘emphasis must be placed on incorporating statistics into many food science courses.’ FOOD PROCESSORS’ ASSESSMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMMES

Recently, a private organization, namely Technomic Inc., conducted a review of the formal education, training and focus of food scientists entering the US food processing industry. A recent report (Anonymous, 1991) contains results of a survey done at six leading food industries in the United States and four major universities offering food science programmes. The focus of the survey was to define the food processors’ assessments of how well the food scientists entering the marketplace compare with those who received education in other related disciplines. The purpose of this survey was to provide the findings to the academia so that some of the conclusions can be used in improving the food science education in the country. Following are some of the key issues reported. It was found that the key driving forces of technical activity in the food industry include the consumer demand for healthy and/or reduced-calorie foods, consumer demand for convenience, and the increasing competition in different markets. These forces have led to a variety of technical activities, such as removal of fats or use of fat substitutes, use of microwave technologies, improved packaging materials and an increasing emphasis to improve the efficiency of food processing, as well as improvements in quality of processed foods. Critical skills for an employee working in a modern food industry include those that allow one to design products at bench scale, as well as knowledge of issues relevant to scale-up designs. In addition, one needs the skills on manufacturing processes that yield products of consistent quality, and an in-depth knowledge of some of the basic disciplines. In the area of product development, some of the key skills that are necessary are obtained from subjects such as physical chemistry, experimental design, statistics, analytical chemistry, laboratory experience, biochemistry, flavour chemistry, rheology, and microbiology. In the area of process development, the important skills come from knowledge of unit operations, process optimization control and design, transport phenomena, diffusion, food chemistry, and food safety and sanitation. In addition to these technical skills, there are also needs that are non-technical, including abilities in the areas of problem solving, communication to manage processes, and creativity. In the area of product development, typically, employees hired for jobs hold either MS or PhD degrees, since it is generally found that graduates with BS degrees do not have enough laboratory experience. The performance of these individuals hired in the product development area depends very much on the

44 The present picture

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background of the individual, for example those who have obtained postgraduate degrees from reputable schools generally perform better. Their performance, of course, is also tied with their own individual drive and ambition. When food scientists are compared with chemical engineers, it is found that food scientists have generally limited experience in experimental design and statistics, that food scientists have more of a ‘science mindset’ compared to chemical engineers’ ‘build-and-solve mindset’. It is found that the engineer mindset is better in making or improving products. It is also found that the food scientists have difficulty in learning process development, whereas the chemical engineers find it easier to learn product or prototype development. Some of the key strengths of food scientists are the general knowledge of food and food processing, which mostly the chemical engineers or chemists lack. The improvements suggested by the food processors in the food science educational programmes include the following items: 0

0

increased emphasis on experimental design and statistics; more chemistry of food; enough food engineering to understand food processing; a curricula that will provide experience on problem solving; more internships and cooperative programmes with industry; more course work that improves on students’ communication abilities.

The food science admission departments have difficulty recruiting students from high schools because most high school counsellors, and even teachers, have little or no knowledge of the food science area. Within the universities, the image of food science suffers when compared with engineering curricula. Perhaps the earlier ties between the departments of food science and home economics may have led to some of this confusion. The food science programmes, in general, are small compared to engineering programmes across the country. In most major universities, the engineering programmes have much larger enrollments compared to the food science programmes. There is also a consensus that the graduates entering food science programmes are not usually the brightest among undergraduate students. Students with superior educational backgrounds are lured more into other disciplines, such as engineering. As a result, within the universities there often is more transfer of students from engineering, microbiology and nutrition majors into food science rather than from food science into other engineering programmes. Often the Bachelor of Food Science programme offered by food science departments is considered to be less rigorous than the engineering programmes. This is evident when one considers the credit hours required for graduation in food science and compares them with those required for an engineering degree. There has been an emergence of food engineering programmes throughout the country in major US universities. These programmes are jointly offered through food science and agricultural engineering programmes. The success of such curricula is yet to be seen.

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The graduates from food science programmes often find positions in quality assurance and production/operation management positions. Very few are hired for product development programmes. In contrast, the MS and PhD graduates are often hired into academia, regulatory agencies, and product development positions within the industry. There is a general perception in the universities that, while there is a growing marketplace for the Masters and PhD graduates, this demand is fairly flat for BS students. As indicated previously, the preceding comments are reviewed from the Technomic report (Anonymous, 1991). These observations clearly indicate that while, in general, the food science educational programmes offered in the United States are well received, there are several recommendations that can further improve these programmes for the future students pursuing degrees in food science. REFERENCES Anonymous (1977) IFT undergraduate curriculum minimum standards-1977 revision. Food Technology, 31(10), 60-61. Anonymous (1991) An assessment of the formal education, training, and focus of food scientists entering the U. S . food processing industry, Technomic Inc. Fennema, 0 . (1989) Educational programmes in food science: A continuing struggle for legitimacy, respect, and recognition. Food Technology, 43(9), 170-182. Satterlee, L. D. (1990) The undergraduate education of food scientists/technologists. Guest Editorial, Food Technology, 44(8), 10. Stewart, G. F. (1947) Instruction of food technology in the universities and colleges of the United States, Food Technology, 1, 299.

University education in food technology: the various philosophies Pieter Walstra Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands

1. PREAMBLE In this chapter, Food Technology is considered to encompass food science (i.e. the physics, chemistry and microbiology of foods) and food process engineering. Some people may be of the opinion that university education in such a field is not needed at all, since chemists, engineers, etc. (and possibly nutritionists, economists, marketing specialists, etc.) could jointly develop the manufacture, characterization and quality control of foods. This philosophy is not that of the author: although it would be foolish not to use the services of pure chemists, engineers etc. in the development of the field, an education based on an integrated knowledge of the underlying disciplines as specifically applied to food and food manufacture is clearly more efficient in providing the food industry with people for the tasks mentioned above. Another preliminary issue is the relation between food technology and nutrition. There is a tendency, especially among laymen, to consider them as closely related, if not essentially identical fields. Both fields are indeed concerned with food and there is even some overlap, especially where it concerns food composition and sensory evaluation. Moreover, food technologists should know something about nutrition and about the effects of processing on the nutritional properties of foods. But the two fields are based on different disciplines. Modern nutrition is primarily based on (human) physiology, and further on epidemiology and to some extent social sciences. Food technology is based on quite other disciplines (see below). Moreover, the approach is rather different: food technologists want to use their science to make things, nutritionists to convince people.

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2. QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED The two essential questions concerning university education in food technology are, in the author’s opinion: (i) What skills and knowledge should the graduate have? (ii) How can these be achieved?

Of course, the answer to these questions depends to a large degree on a number of boundary conditions, such as:

- the extent, kind and diversity of the demand for graduates; - the existing educational system, including the preparatory training of the students;

- the money that can be spent on the education; - the availability of teachers of sufficient quality; -

the possibilities for the teachers to combine educational activities with doing research.

For a true university education, in which the students are confronted with the newest and most advanced developments in the field, a research environment is a prerequisite. Moreover, if well organized, the combination of teaching and research leads to mutual enhancement and is therefore decidedly more efficient than doing these things separately. We will now first consider question (i), thereby coming to some conclusions.

3. TYPES OF EDUCATION Some of the philosophies about the skills that university graduates in food science and technology should acquire are as follows: (1) The graduate should know how to analyse for the composition of food and how to control food quality, including safety and wholesomeness. This leads to a strong emphasis on analytical chemistry and microbiology. Modern variants also stress nutritional and toxicological aspects. This type of education was originally developed to train specialized analysts for food inspection services, etc. Since analytical chemistry as a general discipline is making way for specialization in specific analytical techniques of considerable sophistication, the need for the training of food analysts has greatly diminished. It is more efficient to have food scientists/technologists who cooperate, where needed, with analytical specialists, toxicologists, etc.

(2) The graduate should know how to run a dairy, brewery, canned-products line or other manufacturing plant. This implies a broad education, in that many aspects are involved, but specialization in the technology of only one commodity. Although an education of this type may certainly be needed, according to the development of the particular food industry in the country, it is more appropriate

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for a college education. At the university level it is possible to work on a higher level of abstraction and that is usually more efficient. Moreover, the implied broadness of the course (including, for instance, management, book-keeping, machinery, organization of the industry) leaves little room for acquiring in-depth knowledge.

(3) The graduate should be able to design processes as they are applied during food manufacture. This is essentially food engineering, and the emphasis in the curriculum is on mathematics, systems engineering, process engineering and some mechanical engineering. Such graduates may be usefully employed. A disadvantage of the education is, however, that it is rather one-sided. Food technology ought to be an integration of the disciplines of food science and engineering and of product properties. Educating pure food engineers distracts from that integration and, what is perhaps more dangerous, the presence of such programmes tends to lead to the development of other one-sided programmes, namely in food science only. The latter, with very little or at most an easy form of process engineering, tends to produce graduates lacking important skills. It appears better to educate people that are skilled in food science as well as process engineering, and to let them cooperate with more specialized chemical engineers where needed. (4) The graduate should know and understand what foods are, how they can be manufactured and what changes can occur in them during processing and storage. This implies a strong emphasis on the scientific disciplines involved, in food science as well as in process engineering.

The rationale for this type of education is that there is a great number of professions in which all or most of the skills acquired are needed, although other elements of these professions may vary considerably. One may think of activities like process management, process development, product development, troubleshooting, quality control, food inspection and many others. Because of this variety in the kinds of jobs, some specialization in the education is needed, i.e. various options should be available. Basing the education on disciplines, rather than on commodities as in (2), is increasingly feasible, because of the progress made in the development of the disciplines involved. What is most specific for a certain commodity is often the physical aspects: microstructure, colloidal and surface phenomena, polymer physics, rheology, etc. Over the last decade, considerable progress has been made in this field, briefly called food physics. The knowledge gained in this way can be applied in a general way, as has been the case for, say, food chemistry for a long time.

(5) The graduate should be able to apply general knowledge on food properties and processing in order to manage food manufacture and handling, etc. This comes down to a ‘weak’ version .of (4), supplemented by education in economics, marketing, systems handling etc.

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There is an obvious need for people who combine food technological, commercial and management skills. Again and again, one sees curriculum outlines aimed at producing such graduates and the programmes often look impressive, on paper. In the author’s opinion, however, it is not possible, in one undergraduate programme, to train students so as to acquire all the skills needed: the implied broadness also implies considerable shallowness. In other words, the graduates may know many things, but nothing well. It is much better to have an undergraduate curriculum like (4) and for some graduates a postgraduate education in, for instance, business administration. 4. SUBJECTS TO BE TAUGHT

It will be clear by now that the author’s preference is for type (4), although not without some additional prerequisites. Before going further into other aspects of question (ii)-how can the goals be achieved?-it will be useful to give a brief outline of the subjects to be taught. They will be classified into basics (needed as a basis for the next group), food technology (the core of the education), and supporting subjects (needed when food technology is applied in practice). Only the bare minimum will be outlined. Basics: - mathematics: calculus, statistics, computer science - physics: natural phenomena, e.g. material properties, transport phenomena - chemistry: physical, organic and biological - biology: cell biology, microbiology.

Food technology:

- food process engineering - food physics - food chemistry, including biochemistry -

food microbiology some kind of integrating course(s).

Supporting subjects:

- human nutrition - toxicology - sensory evaluation

- economics - the fundamentals of some kind of management. 5. INTEGRATION In addition to courses based on disciplines, an integrative approach is needed. Teaching food science based on disciplines, i.e. at a fairly high level of abstraction, is very efficient for intelligent students, but one should not count on even those students being able to integrate all by themselves the knowledge gained into a

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fabric that may be truly called food technology. Specific courses have to be developed to that end. Sometimes ‘food processing’ courses are meant to provide the integration, but in practice these courses all too often teach ‘the tricks of trade’ rather than solid principles; occasionally, they are even offered instead of real food engineering. Commodity-oriented courses, which may be useful anyway because of a local demand, can very well be used to achieve integration, if they do indeed proceed from the disciplinary food courses taught beforehand. Another way is to teach ‘fabricated foods’: these products become ever more important and their development clearly asks for a combined application of food engineering, food chemistry, food physics and, most of all, food microbiology. It is also a suitable topic for teaching mathematical modelling. 6.

SPECIALIZATION

Besides acquiring knowledge and skills in all the mentioned areas, some in-depth training is needed. Because of the great number of core subjects in the curriculum, this can only be done via specialization, which is anyway desirable on other grounds: there is usually quite a spread in the demand for graduates and, more importantly, there is a spread in capabilities and interests of the students. Specialization can be in any of the food-oriented disciplines mentioned, or even in parts or combinations of them, for instance food fermentation or food hygiene. Specialization in a commodity is another possibility, provided that the subject has been studied in sufficient depth. 7.

CURRICULUM ORGANIZATION

Basically, there are two philosophies about the order in which courses should be offered to the student: (a) Start with basic sciences and end with the most applied subjects. The rationale is that one can only fully understand, say, food microbiology if one knows about general microbiology, which in turn needs biochemistry as a prerequisite, and so on. Moreover, (some of) the basic courses are needed by a greater number of students than the more applied ones are. Altogether, this order is considered to be the most efficient one. That is, however, a typical teachercentered approach, and it is questionable whether it is the most effective one. For one thing, the student may have forgotten what he learned in basic sciences by the time he needs it for the applied subjects. (b) Start with courses directly related to the future work of the student, i.e. foodoriented subjects, and let the student later on study the basic sciences needed for a better understanding of the applied subjects. This is a typical student-oriented approach, aimed at motivating the student. It is the way in which a researcher staring in a new area usually learns, but it is rather inefficient when simultaneously teaching a great number of students.

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In practice, it is often best to develop hybrid forms. For instance, a brief and general introduction into food technology, then some basic sciences, then introductory courses in the various food technological disciplines; and subsequently specialization, involving both advanced food-oriented and related advanced basic subjects. Naturally, the optimum will greatly depend on the educational system in general and on the local possibilities. A variant of (a) is a study of a few years in, say, chemical engineering, followed by a short but intensive study in food technology. If the number of graduates needed is relatively small, this may be a reasonable alternative, because otherwise the education may be too expensive. A variant of (b) is an undergraduate programme of, for instance, three years that does not go very deep into basic sciences, followed by a more advanced postgraduate programme for a limited number of students. This type is common in several countries. 8. RESEARCH TRAINING?

An important question is whether the student should do a substantial research project for his first degree. This would not be in order to make him or her a research worker: for that end, a postgraduate education is needed. But there are other reasons for incorporating research in undergraduate programmes: (i) The food industry becomes organized into larger units, more complex, less commodity-oriented, and makes more and more complicated fabricated foods. The use of sophisticated methods of manufacture, process control and food analysis increases. These trends imply that an ever increasing use is made of the results of research, often fairly advanced research. It therefore becomes more and more necessary for the food technologists in the industry to communicate with research workers on something like a comparable level. This is very difficult if they themselves have not learned the rudiments of research. (ii) A university graduate should have learned how to tackle a problem in depth, how to organize the results obtained in a systematic way, and how to present this clearly in a report. Although there are also other means to this end, the performing of and reporting about a research project is a very efficient way of doing it. In the author’s experience it is, moreover, very motivating for students and teachers alike. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am greatly indebted to several of my Dutch colleagues and to Professor Owen Fennema of the University of Wisconsin for fruitful discussions. The latter’s article on ‘Educational programmes in food science’ in the September 1989 issue (p. 170) of Food Technology is very enlightening.

7 Higher education in food chemistry A. Ruiter Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of the Science of Food of Animal Origin, Chair of Food Chemistry, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands

IMPORTANCE OF FOOD CHEMISTRY Before I give some information on higher education in food chemistry in Europe I think it would be useful to start by defining the field and the tasks of this discipline. Food chemistry is an important part of what is often described as ‘food science’ and which is also called ‘bromatology’ in some countries. As brorna is Greek for ‘food’, this term can be considered equivalent to ‘food science’. Food science also comprises food physics, food microbiology, food hygiene, the knowledge and history of commodities, etc. Food technology, as a rule, is mentioned separately; the usual term is thus ‘food science and technology’. Nutrition science is in many ways related to food science but does not belong to this discipline. Concentrating first on food science, we can see that many areas in this field are of particular importance [ 11; these can be enumerated as follows: 1. The study of the properties of both raw and prepared foodstuffs. 2. The study of the composition of foodstuffs and the properties of their individual components. 3. The study of the changes in composition and properties during manufacturing, preparation and storage; the development of methods for measuring these changes and of procedures to delay or to prevent unwanted changes. 4. The assessment of quality, wholesomeness and safety of foodstuffs (this also comprises the content of nutrients and the organoleptic properties). 5. The recognition of harmful organisms and components in foodstuffs and, where possible, the development of methods to prevent or eliminate these. 6. The development of methods of analysis for establishing the composition of foodstuffs and for the determination of harmful or otherwise undesirable components in foodstuffs. 7. The development, in cooperation with lawyers and others, of adequate food laws, designed to protect public health and to promote fairness in trade.

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It is obvious that chemistry is a very important tool for all these areas, particularly for the items indicated by the numbers 2, 3 and 6. For this reason, any curriculum for food scientists and technologists should embrace an education in chemistry. It must be emphasized that, on the other hand, curricula in food chemistry should contain courses in other fields having relevance to food science and technology.

HIGHER EDUCATION IN FOOD CHEMISTRY There are several possibilities for higher education in food chemistry in Europe. First, there are complete university programmes for training as a food chemist. This is particularly the case in Germany. Complete curricula in food chemistry are taught at fourteen German universities, resulting in the official certificate of Gesetzficher Lebensmittefchemiker (Official Food Chemist). Food inspection in Germany has been in the hands of such official food chemists since 1894. In his chapter, Professor Baltes discusses these curricula in some detail. (See Chapter 17.) Secondly, there are many curricula in food technology, which include a more or less thorough training in food chemistry. As food technology can be defined as ‘the application of scientific methods to develop or improve procedures for the manufacturing of foodstuffs of desired quality, and of techniques to establish and to maintain this quality’ [2], it is obvious that these curricula also need to include some education in food chemistry. Thirdly, there are programmes in food chemistry in curricula of the agricultural sciences. Fourthly, there are curricula in chemistry and pharmacy in which a choice can be made for a course in food chemistry. This enables chemists to have a better start if they are subsequently engaged in chemical research, or other chemical work, in the areas of food or foodstuffs. A comparable argument holds for pharmacists; moreover, it should be borne in mind that an important part of their education is analytical chemistry. Finally, most veterinary educations allow the students to become acquainted with problems of chemical food hygiene. This may sometimes include a short course in food chemistry and/or in chemical analysis of foods of animal origin.

FOOD CHEMISTRY CURRICULA IN EUROPEAN UNIVERSITIES It was at one of the meetings of the Working Party on Food Chemistryt in Vienna that food curricula in Europe were discussed, and the question arose as to which +The Working Party on Food Chemistry (WPFC) is one of the working parties belonging to the Federation of European Chemical Societies (FECS). At the moment, most European countries have delegates in this Working Party, which meets every year in September. An important activity of the WPFC, which was founded in 1977, is the organization of international symposia on food chemistry. These include the Euro Food Chem conferences and, mostly in cooperation with other working parties or societies, other conferences which sometimes have an interdisciplinary character.

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universities in Europe had curricula in food chemistry, and how these curricula were built up. As could be expected, it was not so simple to obtain a more or less complete overview of the European situation. One of the tasks is collecting data on these curricula, trying to gain an insight into the situation, thereby gradually to complete the information. It is this task I am now involved in. Of even more importance is the task of finding answers to questions concerning the type of knowledge of food chemistry wanted by industry, by trade, by governments andin general-by all institutions performing any work with respect to food or foodstuffs, and the desired extent of that knowledge. Ample discussion and more knowledge of the situation and the background are required before systematic answers can be provided. First, let us face the different situations in those European countries on which I received information, thanks to the cooperation within the WPFC. The sequence is rather arbitrary. Germany The existence, in Germany [3], of complete curricula in Food Chemistry has been mentioned already. There is a two-year basic programme which is in general identical with the overall basic programme in chemistry but also includes botany. The main programme (again two years) stresses chemistry and the analysis and technology of food, drinking-water, cosmetics and articles of use. These topics are covered by means of lectures and extensive practical work. The study is completed by a practical year which has to be spent in an official food chemistry laboratory. About 200 students are educated each year at fourteen universities. There are no postdoctoral courses for food chemists and no part-time training in food chemistry. One university contains an institute in which teachers involved in professional training courses are taught food chemistry. Food Technology curricula exist at two universities (Karlsruhe, Hohenheim) and at two technical universities (Berlin, Munich). Such curricula are completely separate from those in food chemistry but, in fact, include some food chemistry. In the former German Democratic Republic, only two universities had curricula in Food Chemistry, i.e., the Humboldt University at Berlin and the Technical University of Dresden. The numbers of students were not very large. Food technology was taught at four universities. Students at faculties of veterinary medicine are taught some basic and some practical knowledge which enables them to judge unprepared food of animal origin. These programmes include food hygiene but not food chemistry. Switzerland In Switzerland [4], the five-year curriculum of the Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule in Zurich (ETH, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology) fulfils an integral part in the education of food scientists. The total annual intake is about 120 students. Under a special ordinance (first version in 1919) Switzerland defined the position of Official Food Chemist, which to an extent is comparable to the Official Food Chemist in Germany.

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The Federal Diploma of Food Chemist, which may lead to a position as an Official Food Chemist, is issued on the basis of an examination. The condition one has to fulfil in order to qualify for the examination itself is one of the following: a PhD degree, a diploma in chemistry or a diploma in food engineering from a Swiss university; - a Federal Pharmacist’s Diploma; - a Diploma in Agricultural and Food Sciences from the ETH and a pass certificate in physics, botany and hydrogeology, if these subjects have not been included in that diploma. -

Furthermore a candidate should have attended some courses and lectures on the relevant subjects. In addition to that, he or she should have worked for a period of at least two years in one of the official food analytical laboratories in Switzerland. It is worth mentioning that attending the above-mentioned courses and lectures is usually allowed during the practical stage of attendance at one of the food analytical laboratories. The final examination comprises theoretical examinations on the main subjects, i.e., food technology, food analysis, toxicological analysis, bacteriology, hygiene and knowledge of the legal requirements concerning food. In addition to this, there is also a practical examination in an official food laboratory (preferably the one where the candidate is already working). Four Swiss universities (Basle, Berne, Geneva, Lausanne) teach food chemistry to students in chemistry and related disciplines which can become a part of the diploma. It should be noted that this overall situation is considered by many persons to be unsatisfactory due to its complexity and length. The suggestion has been made to create a curriculum in food chemistry at the ETH which would directly lead to the Federal Diploma. The Faculty of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Berne has a course in meat analysis and hygiene of food of animal origin, whilst that at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Zurich deals with hygiene only. Both courses are part of the Diploma in Veterinary Medicine.

Austria The only curriculum in food chemistry in Austria is offered by the General University of Vienna. During the first half of this study (2V2 years), which leads to an MSc degree, analytical, inorganic, organic, biological and physical chemistry are taught. The second half comprises food chemistry, food technology, botany, microbiology, nutrition and toxicology. A t the Technical University of Vienna a five-year curricula in Technical Chemistry exists, in which four branches can be distinguished, i.e., inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, chemical engineering, biochemistry and food chemistry. The first part (2% years) is a joint programme in which basic science and some technical topics are taught. For the biochemistry and food chemistry branch, the programme of the next 1M years contains basic chemistry, microbiology, chemistry and technology of natural substances, food chemistry and biotechnology. One semester

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is for exercises and attending lectures at choice; the last semester consists of performing an investigation or part of an investigation (Diplorn-Arbeit). In addition, the Agricultural University in Vienna offers a five-year curriculum in Food and Biotechnology. This includes one-year lectures and one-year laboratory exercises in general chemistry and in food chemistry. During the study the students have to work for six months in food or biotechnological industries or in government food control laboratories, usually during the summer holidays. The curriculum is completed by performing an investigation (Diplorn-Arbeit). Both at the Technical and at the Agricultural University the degree of Diploma Engineer can be obtained. The Faculty of Veterinary Medicine at this university, according to statute law, has a postgraduate course in food hygiene [ 5 ] .

Czechoslovakia In Czechoslovakia [6], food chemistry as well as food technology can be studied at the Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology of the Prague Institute of Chemical Technology and at the Chemical Faculty of the Polytechnical University at Bratislava. Five years of study is necessary to obtain the degree of Chemical Engineer. During the first 2% years, general chemistry, biology and engineering are taught. The second (equal) period is devoted to food science in general and to one of the following specializations:

- food chemistry and analysis - enzyme engineering - fermentation chemistry and bioengineering - sugar chemistry and technology - food preservation and meat technology

- milk and fat technology. Food hygiene can be studied at the Veterinary Schools in Brno and in KoSice. A course in food chemistry is obligatory for students who choose the specialism of food hygiene, but is also open to other students of veterinary medicine. Postgraduate studies in food chemistry are held at the Institute of Chemical Technology in Prague, and at the Faculty of Chemistry in the Slovak Polytechnical University in Bratislava. The goal of these postdoctoral studies is to deliver graduates with improved qualifications able to regulate food. Hungary Hungary [7] has full curricula in Food Technology at the Technical University of Budapest, the University of Horticulture and Food Industry, also in Budapest, and the College of Food Industry in Szeged. At the universities, three-year curricula (engineering degree) and five-year curricula (diploma engineer degree) are organized. In Szeged, only the three-year curriculum exists. The engineering degree is more practical, whilst the diploma degree is more theoretical and less specialized.

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Food chemistry is generally one of the topics and includes lectures, laboratory practice and industrial practice. Courses in food chemistry are taught at some faculties of chemistry (Debrecen, Godo116), but no special chairs in food chemistry exist. A course in food science is obligatory for some groups in Animal Science and for Veterinary Medicine as far as it concerns students engaged in food veterinary control. Postgraduate training in food chemistry is given in Budapest and at the Agricultural University in Keszthely. There are short courses (1 to 3 months) and special courses (1 to 2 years) leading to a certificate. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom there are about forty first-degree courses in Food Science and/or Technology at universities and at institutes belonging to the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA) [8]. These lead, in three or four years, to a BSc degree. One can distinguish between a ‘pass’ degree (usually three years) and an ‘honours’ degree (usually four years). There is not one uniform course but a variety of programmes differing from one university (or institute) to the other. Courses with the title ‘Food Science’ (about one-third of the total number) are aimed at providing a balanced coverage of the discipline and involve a smaller contribution from technological aspects, allowing greater emphasis on fundamental scientific issues. As for a UK food science education, the course in Food Science at the University of Leeds may serve as an example. It is one of the last that has a four-year curriculum. The first year’s programme includes lectures and practical work on physics, organic chemistry, biophysics, biochemistry, food biochemistry and food technology. Furthermore, lectures on mathematics are given. In the second year, physical chemistry and general microbiology are introduced. Food science is extended to food quality and nutrition, food physics and food engineering, food colloids, texture and rheology , and legislation, statistics and computing. Food microbiology is taught in the third year in connection with the general microbiology course given previously. During this year, food science includes chemistry and biochemistry of the major food components, principles of food processing operations, interactions of food components, and food analysis. The last year is devoted to processing and storage of the major food commodities and to multiple options on various advanced topics. Finally, a research project and a team project should be carried out. In addition to the BSc degree, MSc courses in Food Science can be followed, even when the BSc degree obtained is not in this field. (A relation with food science, however, is desirable.) MSc courses with respect to food science, as a rule, are rather specialized and are in many cases devoted to some peculiar commodities. Several food chemistry courses exist. An MSc course usually takes 18 months. As interest in MSc courses is great, it is not always easy to obtain a place in such a course.

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No food science is included in the curricula of faculties of Veterinary Medicine 191. Ireland In Ireland [lo], food chemistry is available as a subject only at University College, Cork. Recently (1990), University College, Dublin, introduced general food science as an option within their Agricultural Science programe. The Veterinary Faculty of this university also includes some aspects of food science in their programme. One course in Cork leads to a single-subject BSc honours degree in food chemistry. In the first year, chemistry, physics, mathematics and biology are taught. In the second and third years, food chemistry is the main theme with biochemistry also obligatory. In the third year, students may choose one of the following: chemistry, microbiology or nutrition, as their subsidiary subject. The fourth year is devoted to food chemistry only. Food chemistry is taught as the main subject in a BSc pass degree programme. The first two years are as for the honours programme; the third year contains food chemistry plus two of the following: biochemistry, microbiology, nutrition, chemistry or mathematics. Finally, food chemistry is part of a four-year course in Food Science and Technology, but the total time devoted to food chemistry may exceed that of the BSc pass degree programme.

France In France [ll], food science is considered to be a specialized field that can be studied after a general education only. This general education takes a period of four years at a university or by means of the particular French system of ‘Grandes Ecoles’. The specialized training in food science consists of a one-year course. There are several food science courses in France, mostly taught by a Grande Ecole associated with a university. The relative importance of the food chemistry part varies from course to course. Another option leads to an MSc degree in which training in food chemistry is often more prominent. It is more difficult to participate in these degree courses because of selection criteria. The courses can be followed at four institutes in Paris, i.e.:

- INA

P-G (Institut National Agronomique Paris-Grignon), which has a very marked orientation for food chemistry; - ISAA (Institut SupCrieur de 1’Agro-Alimentaire); - ENGREF (Ecole Nationale du Genie Rural d’Eaux et de ForCts); - ENSV (Ecole Nationale des Services VCttrinaires). As in the United Kingdom, no courses in food science exist at faculties of Veterinary Medicine [9]. Finally, it has to be mentioned that courses in food analysis can be followed in some of the French faculties of Pharmacy.

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Italy Four universities in Italy [12], i.e., in Milan, Udine, Naples and Campobasso, have full curricula in Food Science and Technology (five years). These curricula contain many elements of food chemistry such as chemical analysis of food, biochemistry of food, additives and residues in food, fermentation chemistry and flavour chemistry, but do not have a special course in food chemistry. Chairs in Food Chemistry are attached to the faculty of Pharmacy at twelve universities. In Milan, such a chair is attached to the Faculty of Agriculture. The courses (on a semester base from 1991 on) vary from university to university but in most cases cover a systematic description of food products. The course is obligatory for the curricula in Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology and facultative for the curricula in Chemistry and in Pharmacy. It is also offered to students in Biology and to students in other faculties (though rarely attended by this category). Postgraduate training in food chemistry and technology is offered at the universities of Parma and Bologna. The purpose of these two-year courses is to provide professional qualifications for advanced food technologists to be employed in the food industry. The faculties of Agriculture at the universities of Milan, Udine and Bologna have three-year postgraduate courses in food biotechnology leading to a PhD degree, whilst the Faculty of Medicine in Rome offers a three-year course in food science which is directed towards nutrition. In one of the faculties of Veterinary Medicine (Perugia), an optional course in chemical analysis of food of animal origin exists. Spain U p to the present time, there have been no complete curricula for Food Science and Technology in Spain [13]. For students who have graduated in chemistry, biology, pharmacy, veterinary medicine or at a polytechnical university, a course in food technology can be followed which, after ten months, leads to a diploma. Since 1985, postgraduates can receive an MSc degree in Food Technology and Engineering in Valencia. Recently, courses in food technology have been introduced in some Spanish faculties of Chemistry. Food chemistry is now included. As in Italy, several chairs in Food Chemistry exist at faculties of Pharmacy [14]. In all faculties of veterinary medicine, the science and technology of foods of animal origin is taught. Murcia has a course in bromatology, and Barcelona offers an optional course on chemical analysis of foods of animal origin [9]. The Netherlands In the Netherlands, food chemistry can be studied at the Agricultural University in Wageningen. The undergraduate stage lasts at least four years and leads to an MSc in food engineering. The second stage may be research training culminating in a PhD (again four years). In the first year, the students take courses in basic disciplines such as physics, general and physical chemistry, mathematics and statistics, cell biology, economics

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and an introductory course in food and nutrition. After this, they have to choose from one of the four major programmes, i.e., food science, food process engineering, dairy science and a free orientation. In all programmes the students have to take a series of basic courses in food technology (introduction to processing engineering, food process engineering, introduction to food chemistry, introduction to food physics, introduction to food microbiology and hygiene, human nutrition, food toxicology) and a differentiation programme (in total two years of study). In food science, five subjects are treated, i.e., food chemistry, food microbiology, food physics, quality assurance and food fermentation. Basic courses and differentiation take another two years. The last year includes advanced courses in food technology subjects plus some other courses, a training period in industry and a research project of five months. At the University of Utrecht a chair in Food Chemistry is attached to the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. The contribution to the veterinary education is in the fields of meat chemistry and chemical food hygiene (contaminants and veterinary drug residues in food of animal origin). Over the past few years, food chemistry has been taught, also from this chair, within the Faculty of Pharmacy. Students of various disciplines can take a five-month research training in food chemistry.

Belgium In Belgium [14], no food chemistry is incorporated in any chemical curriculum except in Antwerp, where food chemistry is one of the options. All students in Pharmaceutical Sciences have to follow courses in food chemistry, with an emphasis on adulterations and their detection. The tendency is, however, to stress biomedical aspects at the expense of analytical aspects. In the faculties of Agricultural Science, degrees in Agricultural Science and also in ‘Chemistry and Agricultural Industry’ can be obtained. In both, food chemistry is taught. The same holds for a postgraduate course in bioindustrial sciences. The curricula of the faculties of Veterinary Medicine (Ghent, Likge) contain obligatory courses on the chemical analysis of food of animal origin. For those veterinarians who want to become licensed in Veterinary Food Inspection there are additional courses in food chemistry. In Antwerp there is an optional course with respect to xenobiotics in foods for students in chemistry.

Denmark In Denmark [15], the Agricultural University at Frederiksberg has specializations in Dairy Science and in Food Science (general). At the present time these two studies are formally completely separate but with several courses in common. Approximately 60% of the bachelor degree studies are spent on specified mandatory courses. The subjects are basic sciences with emphasis on chemistry, and basic food science courses including nutrition and microbiology but not food technology. The rest comprises a bachelor degree project and coursework chosen by the student.

64 The way forward

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According to the new plans there will be one bachelor degree in Food Science (3 years) followed by two different master degrees (2 years). A t the Technical University in Copenhagen (Lyngby), chemical engineers may specialize in food science. During the five-year curriculum, approximately one year of courses in various branches of food science can be followed. Norway The most relevant education in food chemistry and technology in Norway [16] is also at the Agricultural University (As). A student can choose food technology, industrial food economy, dairy chemistry and technology, and dairy technology. The five-year courses lead to the equivalent of an MSc degree. T r o m s ~has a course in fishery science which includes fish chemistry. At the University of Oslo, food and biological science is taught as a postdoctoral course. The veterinary education, also at Oslo, contains a course in food hygiene which also includes chemical hygiene. Sweden In Sweden [17], all students in chemistry can choose food chemistry, food technology or nutrition as part of their study. Food science is taught, as one of the courses in applied chemistry, at the University of Lund, where biochemistry takes an important place in this curriculum. A t the Chalmers University of Technology, Goteborg, a department of food science exists. This is part of the Chemistry Department and of one of the departments of Technical Chemistry. The Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, has a Department of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, and a Department of Food Chemistry and Milk Products. Finally, the National Food Administration at Uppsala teaches selected courses for the Uppsala and Stockholm Universities in nutrition and toxicology for medical students. Food chemistry is included as well. Finland It is interesting to note that in Finland [18] two full curricula in Food Chemistry exist, i.e., at Helsinki and at Turku. The former curriculum belongs to the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, whilst the latter is incorporated in the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences. In these curricula more than 40% is devoted to food chemistry. In Turku there is also a strong emphasis on general chemistry and on biochemistry, whilst in Helsinki the education includes more of other branches of food science. The length of both curricula is 160 study weeks, which means 4% to 5 years of study. However, there is a continuous demand from the Ministry of Education to shorten the curricula to four years. In both universities, short courses in food chemistry are given as well. There are plans for postdoctoral training in food chemistry at both universities.

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Higher education in food chemistry 65

The Technical University of Helsinki and the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry at the University of Helsinki have chairs in food chemistry with their own curricula. They also give some short courses in food chemistry. STRUCTURE OF CURRICULA AND COURSES IN FOOD CHEMISTRY

As is mentioned earlier, this overview is not-although I have tried-complete, and for several European countries information is completely lacking. Nevertheless, the available data provide a rough indication of the unstructured situation regarding education and training in food chemistry. Obviously the source of this lack of structure lies in the absence of consensus or even consultation within Europe concerning these curricula. In contrast to this, a well-defined structure in food chemistry education has existed for almost a hundred years in Germany. Whether a comparable situation in Europe is reached will depend on our ability to arrive at a collective description of our wishes and to know in what way these wishes can be realized. We have, therefore, to consult with the food industries which need food chemists, with institutes working in food research, with government services involved in food control, food production and foodstuffs and with other scientists performing research on foodstuffs. Before we commence such a journey, we ought to have a clear idea about the structure of curricula and courses in food chemistry. I can give you but a few headlines. It is obvious, however, that a complete food chemistry programme has to start with a thorough training in the fundamentals of chemistry, that is, teaching the students to understand chemical structure and chemical reactivity. This means study of fundamental organic as well as inorganic chemistry, which must go further than teaching reaction mechanisms only. Chemical reactions usually take place in heterogeneous systems (such as foodstuffs), and are influenced by this heterogeneity. This is one of the reasons why physical chemistry merits an important place in the basic education. It needs no further explanation to show that biochemistry should be taught as well. A sound base has to be laid from the beginning with respect to a knowledge of and experience in analytical chemistry. This holds, to a certain extent, for any chemist, but is especially true for the food chemist because of the essential role of the chemical analysis in food science. As for the training in analytical chemistry, it is not only the knowledge and performance of modern analytical methods that has to be taught, but also the organization of analytical centres for the examination of foodstuffs and how to guarantee the quality of analysis. It should also be stressed that, in Europe, there is a strong tendency towards quality control of analysis. Starting from the German example (but without losing sight of other systems) I would suggest the following scheme:

- a thorough training in general chemistry during the first two years, completed -

by courses in physics, mathematics, statistics and biology; food chemistry in the next two years: application of acquired chemical know-

66 The way forward

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ledge to complicated systems such as food and raw materials, and the preparation of foodstuffs. Complementary courses to be given in other relevant fields such as food technology, biotechnology , food microbiology, food physics, food toxicology, nutrition, botany, microscopy, sensoric analysis, knowledge of commodities, and food legislation. It would be very useful for two groups of food, e.g., one from plant and one from animal origin, to be considered in detail, as examples. In the course of all four years the student should be trained in analytical chemistry. The analytical education should be extended from simple methods (but with a thorough consideration of basic principles and measurements) to exercises in modern techniques in the field of mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier transformation infrared spectrometry, etc. For this purpose, short courses would have to be incorporated in the curriculum. In addition, screening methods and the application of a variety of probes deserve attention as well.

FOOD PRODUCTION

FOOD HANDLING AND STORAGE

CONSUMER

Fig. 1. The relative importance of the study of chemistry for people in various disciplines.

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Higher education in food chemistry 67

In the fifth and final year, a research project should be performed (at least half a year) and an extended essay should be written. In this way, food chemists can be educated. With regard to the production and handling of food, however, there is also a need for other people who have received higher education in a variety of disciplines. This is summarized in the next scheme (Fig. 1). HIGHER EDUCATION REQUIRED IN DISCIPLINES RELATED TO THE PRODUCTION AND HANDLING OF FOOD The position for food scientists (other than food chemists) and food technologists will be clear. They all will be faced with chemical problems and, for that reason, should have knowledge of both basic and food chemistry. So, these disciplines should be present in their curriculum as well. Next, the basic scientists. For a number of reasons, fundamental research on food and foodstuffs is necessary. It is obvious that this research can be done by food chemists as far as it concerns chemical problems. It has to be stated, however, that food or food components are not fundamentally different from other natural compounds. Therefore a thorough training in food chemistry is not always necessary for these workers. Moreover, pharmacists, biologists and others can be involved in this research as well, depending on the problem under consideration. Of course, an introduction in food chemistry is useful. For many other tasks, however, a thorough education in food chemistry is obligatory. As is indicated in the scheme, chemical problems with respect to food and foodstuffs are present within a large area and need to be solved by welleducated people. It is a great pity that not all faculties of Chemistry are aware of the necessity for having good education and training programmes in food chemistry. It does not need much explanation that nutritionists should be taught food chemistry. I only want to stress, amongst other aspects, the many reactions in food that will influence the nutritional value. Agricultural engineers are closely involved in the production of raw materials with respect to food preparation and therefore should have some knowledge of food science. Although they have to concentrate their attention primarily on their own discipline, they also have to cooperate with food scientists and food technologists. For a fruitful cooperation they should know, in general terms, how their colleagues are involved in the extended food chain. For this reason, food science and technology have to be taught, to some extent, to students in agriculture, but without the necessity of going into all chemical details. Veterinarians involved in animal production and veterinary hygiene should be taught some food chemistry as well, preferably within the context of a food hygiene course. Like the agricultural engineers, they also have to cooperate with food scientists and food technologists, and the same arguments apply. Finally, the ‘white’ areas in the scheme (Fig. 1).These represent the many nonscientific workers in the field of food production and food handling, who play a number of essential roles not discussed in this overview.

68 The way forward

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It holds true that good cooperation is based, on the one hand, on a good division of tasks and, on the other, on mutual knowledge of the different fields. It should be emphasized that the success of food science is, for a considerable part, based upon close cooperation (and perhaps integration) with other disciplines such as basic sciences, analytical chemistry, technology, nutrition science and even medical disciplines. IMPROVEMENTS IN INFORMATION AND STUDENT EXCHANGE

I am unable to answer the question how many people who receive a higher education or training in food chemistry we need in Europe and how many students should get their diploma every year. For a country like The Netherlands it may be a number in the region of 15 to 20 (based upon 300 to 350 food chemists actively working in the field). Of course we have to think about this during all our discussions with respect to this field. Our first priority, however, is to ensure a good education in food chemistry, throughout Europe in the near future. This, obviously, demands a network of contacts between universities and institutes that have courses or complete curricula in Food Chemistry in their programme. The establishment of such an information network will be the second phase in my inventory. Important questions will be: What practical training, courses etc. are given? How is the theoretical education composed? Which books are used and which syllabi? Which lectures are given? - What are the demands in the examinations? -

The third phase comprises a search for possibilities for student exchange and for teachers to benefit from specialities which are not available in all curricula and for broadening general knowledge. It should be stressed that it is not necessary to make education and training as equal as possible. Some uniformity is, however, very useful. CONCLUSION For the moment I must refrain from going into more detail. It is important to realize that this overview does not pretend to be much more than a first exploration. Further work regarding this matter needs many additional contributions. It should prove very valuable if there is a growing cooperation between food chemists involved in higher education. REFERENCES [l] 0. Hogl, Aufgaben und Probleme der Lebensmittelwissenschaft. In: J . Schormiiller Hundbuch der Lebensmittelchemie, Band I: Die Bestandteile der Lebensmittel, pp. 76-99. Springer-Verlag, Berlin/ Heidelberflew York (1965).

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Higher education in food chemistry 69

12) P. Walstra and A. Prins, Inaugural lecture, Agricultural University, Wageningen (1978). [3) H.-P. Thier, personal communication. [4] R. Battaglia, personal communication. [5] P. B. Czedik-Eysenberg and W. Pfannhauser, personal communications. [6] J. Davidek, personal communication. [7] R. Lisztity, personal communication. (81 B. L. Wedzicha, Food Science & Technology with Hotels, Catering and Tourism in UK universities, polytechnics and colleges-Degree course guide 1990191 ; G . R. Fenwick, personal communication. [9] Association europCenne des ttablissements d’enseignement vbtbinarie (A.E.E.E.V.), CurriculaDocument rCalisC avec I’aide de la Commission des CommunautCs EuropCennes dans le cadre du programme ERASMUS, 1989. [lo] P. F. Fox, personal communication. [ 111 Ch. Ducauze, personal communication. [121 R. Marchelli, personal communication. [13] C. Benedito de Barbier, personal communication. [14] H. Deelstra, personal communication. [15] I. Skovgaard, personal communication. [16] H. Russwurm jr., personal communication. [17] L. Reio, personal communication. [18] P. Linko, personal communication.

Craft and technician training in the field of food processing in Germany K. Gierschner and Regine Valet Institute of Food Technology at the Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany 1. INTRODUCTION Craft and technician training in the field of food processing is very different in the various countries of Europe. The occupations resulting from the different courses of training are hardly comparable to each other. That is the reason why the ‘European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training’ (CEDEFOP) in Berlin is preparing a list for ‘Comparability of Vocational Training Qualifications’, after the Council of Ministers in Brussels had made the ‘Decision of 16 July 1985 on the comparability of vocational training qualifications between the Member States of the European Community’ and after the last session of the Council of Ministers concerning this had taken place on 26 November 1990. It is very difficult to give an overview of the great number of special foodorientated vocational training possibilities in the 12 Member States and not possible for the other European countries. In addition, it is impossible to translate the description of the corresponding occupations from one language to another, in this instance into English. Therefore this paper illustrates the craft and technician training in the field of food processing only in the (former) Federal Republic of Germany. First, it must be pointed out that in accordance with the constitution of the Federal Republic every State in Germany has its own Minister of Culture, Education, and Church Affairs. That means that the regulations for education can differ somewhat from State to State. In this respect the situation in Germany is a little bit similar to that of the whole of Europe. The training systems in Germany run partly parallel or they are based on each other, and so it is not very easy to gain an insight into these systems. University and college courses for studies as ‘food technologists’ were established in the Federal Republic of Germany at the end of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. One decade later, the training for ‘food technicians’ was introduced; and

Training in the field of food processing in Germany 71

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in 1984 the training of ‘skilled workers for food processing’ or ‘food processors’ was started. The training in both of these last-named occupations has become necessary in order to ensure that the high nutritional quality and hygienic standard of food as well as the efficient processing of food with highly mechanized systems achieved by the successful work of food scientists and engineers can be maintained now and in the future. While the high degree of mechanization in food factories such as those for the production of canned food or beverages led to an enormous increase in the output of processed food and also in the size of firms, in the traditional baker’s and butcher’s trades the transition to large-scale production and large-sized enterprises has remained slight. Also in some special food areas, such as brewery and winemaking, the situation is similar. In any case, in the baker’s and butcher’s trades a typical apprenticeship training exists which later can be completed to become a master. But, furthermore, in Germany there are apprenticeships for food production on an industrial scale which lead to qualification as a ‘skilled worker for food processing’ (or ‘food processor’), industrial master, or food technician. 2. OCCUPATIONS BASED ON APPRENTICESHIP IN THE FIELD OF FOOD PROCESSING

Normally after completing the nine years of school, young people can begin a vocational training. In Fig. 1 some examples of occupations based on apprenticeship are shown. These occupations have to be differentiated between those which come from trades (nowadays these can also be found in the industry) and those which are exclusively oriented to the demands of industrial production. The training in all the occupations cited is carried out through the so-called dual system. 2.1 Characteristics of the dual system Vocational training in the Federal Republic of Germany is characterized by the combination of practical and theoretical training in the dual system (see Fig. 2). OCCUPATIONS ARISING FROM TRADES

- Baker - BrewedMaltster - Distiller - Butcher - Pastry cook

- Dairy craftsman - Miller INDUSTRY

- Skilled worker for food processing - Skilled worker for fruit juice processing - Skilled worker for confectionary processing Fig. 1. Examples of occupations based on apprenticeship.

72 The way forward

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THE VOCATIONAL TRAINING IS CARRIED OUT IN A DUAL SYSTEM: Combination of theoretical and practical training in a vocational school and in a workshop or factory TASKS OF THE TRAINING IN THE VOCATIONAL SCHOOL:

- t o impart the theoretical knowledge concerning the special subjects - t o broaden the general education TASKS OF THE TRAINING IN THE FACTORY:

- to impart practical skill and experience

- learning at real processes

CARRYING OUT OF THE TEACHING IN THE VOCATIONAL SCHOOL:

- during the whole training period:

1.5 days per week

or - in a block: 12 weeks per year LENGTH OF T H E TRAINING: 3 years in general INTERMEDIATE AND F I N A L EXAMINATIONS:

- Examination of the practical skill (samples of work)

and knowledge acquired in the workshop or factory as well as the subjects taught in the vocational school (written) - Leaving certificate of the vocational school - Certificate of the trade corporation Fig. 2. Characterization of the vocational training system in Germany.

This means the apprentice or trainee learns his occupation by a combination of practical training in a workshop or factory, together with theoretical and practical instruction in vocational schools. The tasks of the vocational schools mainly lie in teaching special knowledge as well as in broadening and deepening the general education, while the training within a workshop or a factory aims at imparting practical skills and experience. In order to d o this the workshop o r factory needs a master or a technician, authorized to teach, as well as the necessary equipment. The teaching in the vocational school is carried out either as 1.5 days per week (about 12 lesson hours) or as a block of 10-12 weeks per year during the whole training period. The vocational training comprises a basic course in the first year and two vocational courses (I and 11) in the second and third years. For some occupations within the occupational field of so-called nutrition or food and home economics (e.g. cook, butcher, baker, pastry cook), the same general subjects are taught in the basic course. In the vocational courses I and I1 (second and third-years of the training) specialization follows and the training is differentiated according to the requirements of the special occupation. In order to coordinate the training in the workshops or factories and in the local vocational school, the factory and the school have obligatory programmes, in which the time and contents of the training are harmonized. The basis for the coordination is the training regulations for the respective occupation, issued by the

Training in the field of food processing in Germany 73

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appropriate State Ministers in agreement with the Federal Minister of Education and Science. The training in the factory is regulated by a plan called Ausbildungsruhmenplun (i.e. skeleton plan of training), while another Ruhmenlehrplun (i.e. skeleton curriculum) issued by the standing Committee of the Ministers and Senators of Education regulates the occupation-oriented teaching in the vocational school. The curriculum for the general education in the vocational school (German language, religious instruction, social studies, economic studies) is issued by each of the States of the Federal Republic of Germany. The vocational training is normally completed after 3 years. The written and practical intermediate and final examinations cover the practical skills and knowledge taught in the workshop or factory as well as the subjects taught in the vocational school. A leaving certificate of the vocational school as well as a certificate of the trade corporation (Gesellenbrief) is granted. 2.2 Examples of occupations based on apprenticeship in the field of food processing 2.2.1 An example of a trade-oriented occupation: baker The training to become a baker is carried out mostly in workshops, that is, in bakeries. However it is also possible to do the training in a big bakery in the industry. In this case, it is not the trade corporation, but the Chamber of Industry and Commerce, which is responsible for supervising the examinations. The job outline based on the regulation concerning the vocational training for bakers-as an example for the food trade in general-shows that the aim of the minimum number of subjects required is strongly practically-oriented, as listed in the lower part of Fig. 3. That means that great importance is attached to manual THE MINIMUM NUMBER OF SUBJECTS REQUIRED ARE: 1. Safety provisions, prevention of accidents, environment protection and efficient use of energy 2. Carrying out of hygienic measures 3. Regulations for food, trade and vocation 4. Knowledge of the training workshop 5. Operation and maintenance of equipment, apparatus and machines 6. Storage and assessment of raw materials and additives, intermediate products, finished products and packaging materials

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Production of rye and wheat bread Production of special bread Production of rolls and biscuits Production of baked goods and pastry from yeast, short and puff pastry Production of fillings and use of fruits Production of toppings Building up and decoration of tarts and desserts Production and usage of mixtures Producton of Nuremberg gingerbread Knowledge of ice cream production

Fig. 3. Regulation concerning the vocational training for bakers.

[Pt. 2

74 The way forward

skills, but also to the knowledge of the work routine and working techniques which are necessary for the production of different types of bread, many kinds of cakes and pastries, etc. Additionally, the training includes the more general aspects (see the upper part of Fig. 3) such as assessment and selection of the appropriate raw materials, knowledge of the function and maintenance of the equipment in the plant, and also the safety provision standards, environment protection, efficient use of energy, and last but not least, knowledge of the regulations for food, trade and vocation. The teaching curriculum in the vocational school takes into account the aims of the training stated above (see Fig. 4).

Trade apprenticeship: Baker SUBJECTS Mathematics Physicslc hemist rylBiolog y - Physical fundamentals - Chemical fundamentals - Biological fundamentals Dietetics - Nutrients - Physiology of nutrition - Preservation of the nutritional value Business management Organization of work

HOURS IN THE 1st TRAINING YEAR

80 80 25 40 16

80 35 25 20 40 40

Sum of lessons (hours)

SUBJECTS

1. 2. 3. 4.

Wheat flour and production of yeast-risen pastry Production of baked goods from yeast doughs Rye flour and processing of bread and baked goods Trade regulations

320

HOURS IN THE 2nd 3rd TRAINING YEARS 120 40 100 20

1. Production of whole flour and special bread 2. Production of baked goods from yeast dough 3. Production of baked goods and pastry from puff, short and Nuremberg gingerbread pastry 4. Production and usage of mixtures 5. Production of fillings and toppings, and usage for tarts and desserts 6. Trade and food regulations

40

40 40

60 60 40 ~~~

Sum of lessons (hours)

280

Fig. 4. Example of a teaching curriculum in the vocational school.

280

Training in the field of food processing in Germany 75

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2.2.2 An example of an indushially oriented occupation: skilled worker for food processing (food processor) This is a relatively new occupation. The regulation for the training of skilled workers for food processing (or food processors) was published in October 1984. Due to the greatly increased industrialization of food production there was a need for the necessary personnel to carry out the modern technical processes in the industries. For this purpose the training takes into account, first of all, the operation and monitoring of the production, the control of the processing steps, the production of finished products according to given recipes, the carrying out of hygienic measures, the quality control of raw materials, intermediate and finished products, the storage and packaging of goods, and so on (see the job outline in Fig. 5 taken from the regulations for the training of skilled workers for food processing or food processors). The training in the vocational school is carried out in blocks of 12 weeks training per year. At the moment there are 10 such schools for the whole (former) Federal Republic of Germany. The special importance of this occupation requires a separate curriculum also in the basic course. The teaching in the vocational school includes, apart from general subjects such as religious instruction, German language, social studies, and economic studies, particular technical subjects such as product technology, technical mechanics, processing technology, and practical training in special food technologies, as well as also some optional subjects (e.g. computer technology). An example of the teaching in the vocational schools of skilled workers for food processing or food processors is cited in Fig. 6. In this figure the subjects and contents as hours per week are shown as carried out in the Johann-Jakob-WidrnannSchool in Heilbronn, Germany. The experiences with the apprentices or with those who have finished this training in the industry are very good. In comparison to other occupations the apprentices are highly motivated. On the one hand, this is due to the strict selection

THE MINIMUM NUMBER OF SUBJECTS REQUIRED ARE: 1. Safety provisions, prevention of accidents, environment protection and efficient use of energy 2. Carrying out of hygienic measures 3. Knowledge of the training factory 4. Designing and organizing of the places of work 5. Assessment of goods 6. Making available materials 7. Storage of goods 8. Operation and maintenance of equipment, apparatus and machines 9. Processing of raw materials and additives as well as intermediate products 10. Regulation and controlling of process steps 11. Use of packaging materials and packaging of goods

Fig. 5. Regulation concerning the vocational training for skilled workers for food processing.

76 The way forward

[Pt. 2 Number of hours per week

Product technology Prevention of accidents in food industry Fundamentals of physics Fundamentals of wholesome nutrition Fundamentals of chemistry Physiological and technological importance of food components Fundamentals of food preservation Biochemistry of food Knowledge of raw materials and (food) merchandise Process technology Standardization, standardized machine elements, flow sheets

Basic course (1st year)

Vocational course I (2nd year)

4

-

4

-

-

Vocational course II (3rd year)

3 2 4

3 -

-

-

4

4

Processes in food industry Knowledge of electricity and mechanical engineering Materials and packaging materials Packaging techniques

-

2 -

5

Technical mathematics Practical training in technology Computer technology Religious education German language Social studies Economic studies

3 2.5 3 3 3 3 3

3 2.5 3 3 3 3 3

3 2.5 3 3 3 3 3

33.5

33.5

33.5

Sum of lessons per week

-

4

Fig. 6. Subjects in the vocational training of skilled workers for food processing.

of the young persons to be trained by the industry, and, on the other hand, to a good educational background. One remarkable feature of food processors is their flexibility, that is, they can be employed at different places in the production line, and also in quality control and product development, formulation of recipes and so on. The wide training allows them to become easily acquainted with other branches. The permission to train apprentices is given to the factory by the Chamber of Industry and Commerce. It is only granted when the factory offers a versatile production programme. In order to enhance their flexibility there is an exchange programme for the apprentices between factories operating in different branches.

Training in the field of food processing in Germany 77

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In the autumn of 1989,447 male and 188 female (a total of 635) apprentices were registered in the 10 appropriate schools in the Federal Republic of Germany. Since the beginning of training in 1980, a total of more than 1500 food processors have been trained. There is also similar training with a strong industrial orientation in the field of fruit juice production for skilled workers in fruit juice processing (fruit juice processor) as well as in confectionary production (confectionary processor). The theoretical training for fruit juice processors takes place centrally for the whole of the Federal Republic of Germany in Geisenheim for 10 weeks a year as a block. In the case of confectionary processors the training is done in the ‘Central Vocational School for Confectionary’ in Solingen-Grafrath (Federal Republic of Germany) for 12 weeks a year. 3. MASTER COURSES 3.1 Characteristics of masters in special trades Further advancement possibilities for those who have completed one of the abovementioned training programmes-especially with a view to setting up a workshop of their own-is to attend a master’s school and to pass the master’s examination (see Fig. 7). The qualification demanded for the admission is a final examination in an appropriate occupation together with several years of practice in the occupation. According to the regulation of the master’s examination, the aim of this examination is to find out whether the candidate is capable of running a workshop on his own and training apprentices in accordance with the regulations. This is the reason why in the master’s examination not only skill and specialized knowledge are AIMS OF THE EXAMINATION: It has to be established whether the candidate is capable

- of running a trade workshop on his own

- of training apprentices in accordance with the rules - of carrying out his work in a masterly manner and whether he possesses theoretical knowledge in his trade as well as in special economics, regulations and education PREREQUISITES FOR ADMISSION:

- Final examination in an appropriate apprenticeship - Occupation in the appropriate trade for several years STRUCTURE OF THE EXAMINATION: Part I: Part II: Part 111: Part IV:

Practical examination Examination of the theoretical knowledge in the special trade Examination in special economics and regulations Examination in special occupational and educational theory

Fig. 7. Examination for masters in special trades,

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tested, but also knowledge of economics and the regulations and occupationallyand educationally-oriented theory. Depending on the occupation and the school, the master courses last for different periods. Normally they take one year full-time or two years part-time training. The examination is held by the Committee for the Masters’ Examination of the Trade Corporation. 3.2 Qualified industrial master: in the field of food processing With respect to the training of a master we present briefly an example of an outline plan for master of industry in the field of food processing. The curriculum in Fig. 8 shows the importance placed on general as well as special subjects in addition to occupational and educational theory. The examination is held by an appropriate Committee of the Chamber of Industry and Commerce. LESSONS (hours) GENERAL PART:

220

- Fundamentals in cost management - Fundamentals i n legal aspects - Basic elements of team work i n the factory SPECIAL PART:

90 50 80 560

- Fundamentals in mathematics and science - Technical communication - Food science

130 50 80 80 80 80 60

- Operating technique

- Production technique - Plant supervision

- Safety provisions and environment protection OCCUPATIONAL AND SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL THEORY:

- Fundamentals of the job training - Planning and realization of training - Youth-related aspects of training - Legal aspects of training

120 12 60 30 18

Fig. 8. Subjects of the master course for the industrial master in the field of food processing.

4.

TRAINING FOR THE JOB ‘TECHNICIAN’

Characteristics of the training at schools for technicians According to the Decree of the Ministry of Culture and Education in BadenWiirttemberg for the training and examination at the schools for technicians published in February 1983, a training period of 2 years in the consolidated and extended knowledge of the subject area should enable the technicians to accomplish technical tasks more or less on their own within limited working fields. The general part of the education in these schools is to prepare the technicians for their 4.1

Training in the field of food processing in Germany 79

Ch. 81 AIMS OF THE TRAINING:

By deepening and enlarging his knowledge the technician should be enabled

- to accomplish technical tasks more or less on his own within limited working fields

- to act as a lower-level manager and co-worker in the apprentices’ training PREREQUISITES FOR ADMISSION:

- Final examination in an appropriate apprenticeship - Occupation in the appropriate trade for several years FINAL TITLE: ’State-certified technician‘ with the addition of the name of the chosen subject area

LENGTH OF THE TRAINING: 2 years full-time

Fig. 9. Training at schools for technicians.

tasks as lower level managers and co-workers in the apprentices’ training (see Fig. 9). The prerequisites for admission to schools for technicians are the leaving examination (after 9 years at school), final examination in an appropriate apprenticeship, and an appropriate vocational practice for several years. The technician education lasts for 2 years full-time or 4 years part-time. At the same time, within the final examination, the qualification for training can be obtained by taking the optional course in occupational and educational theory. The occupation title is ‘state-certified technician’ with the addition of the name of the chosen subject area. 4.2 Schools for technicians in the field of food processing with the subject areas offered in Germany In Fig. 10 the appropriate schools for technicians are listed. We want to present the training at the school for technicians in Neumunster as an example. 4.2.1 Training at the school for technicians in thefield of food processing in Neumiinster (FRG) The training at this school is in the following subject areas: preservation techniques, meat product techniques, and milk and dairy techniques. Fig. 11shows that a big part of the fundamental subjects is taught together for all the subject areas. Subjects like product technology, business managementkalculation, practical training in product technology, practical training in quality assurance and some additional subjects are taught with particular reference to the chosen subject area. Furthermore, there is the possibility of taking optional subjects such as practical training in electronic data processing. Those who want to obtain a training certificate have to attend classes in occupational and educational theory. The special subjects within the training of technicians are listed in detail in Fig. 12.

[Pt. 2

80 The way forward

Staatliche Fachschule fur Lebensmitteltechnik, Berlin

- bakery techniques - meat techniques Deutsche Mullerschule, Braunschweig

- milling techniques Staatlich anerkannte Grafelfing

- brewery

Fach-

und

Techniker-Lehranstalt

(Doemens-Schule).

- production - filling - control

Fachschule fur Technik, Gelnhausen

- milk and dairy techniques Staatliche Technikerschule fur Landwirtschaft, Kempten

- milk and dairy techniques Staatliche Fachscule fur Lebensmitteltechnik, Kulmbach

- meat techniques - food processing techniques Fachschule fur Lebensmitteltechnik, Neumunster

- preservation techniques - milk and dairy techniques

- meat techniques

Staatliche Lehr- und Versuchsanstalt fur Wein- und Obstbau: Staatliche Fachschule fur Wein- und Obstbau, Weinsberg

- fruit growing and processing

- viticulture and cellar techniques Bayerische Landesanstalt fur Weinbau und Gartenbau m i t staatlicher Technikerschule fur Landwirtschaft, Fachrichtung Gartenbau und Weinbau, Veitshochheim

- viticulture and cellar techniques Landes- Lehr- und Versuchsanstalt fur Landwirtschaft, Weinbau und Gartenbau: Technikerschule fur Weinbau und Kellerwirtschaft, Bad Kreuznach

- viticulture and cellar techniques Fig. 10. Schools in the former FRG for technicians in the field of food processing together with the subject areas offered.

Training in the field of food processing in Germany 81

Ch. 81

SUBJECT AREAS 0

PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES MEAT PRODUCT TECHNIQUES MILK AND DAIRY TECHNIQUES

INSTRUCTION FOR ALL SUBJECT AREAS

- German language

- English language - Socialleconomic studies - Mathematics

- Physics

- Chemistry

- General mechanical engineering - Technical drawing - Fundamentals of electronic data processing - Fundamentals of heat preservation - Dietetics - Microbiology/hygiene - Quality assurance - Packaging techniques SPECIAL INSTRUCTION ACCORDING TO THE CHOSEN SUBJECT AREA

- Product technology - Business managemenVCost calculation - Practical training in product technology - Practical training in quality assurance ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTION FOR: 0

0

PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES

- Preservation processes

- Special mechanical engineering MEAT PRODUCT TECHNIQUES - Preservation processes

- Meat product techniques

MILK AND DAIRY TECHNIQUES

- Dairy techniques

OPTIONAL SUBJECTS

- Practical training in electronic data processing - Electronic data processing concerning the subject - Optimization of energy costs REQUIRED FOR OBTAINING A TRAINING CERTIFICATE

- Occupational and educational theory Fig. 11. Training at the school for technicians in the field of food processing, Neurniinster (FRG).

82 The way forward

[Pt. 2 GENERAL SUBJECTS

Dietetics

Packaging techniques

Quality assurance

- Nutrients and their

- Properties and use of

- Microbiology

tin, glass and plastic packaging Control of packaging materials - Sealing techniques and control of the seals - Load during transport and sterilization

- Statistical methods

properties

- Loss and retention

of

nutrients

- Energy and nutrient requirements - Special diets - Catering systems

-

PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES Economics/Business management

Preservation procedures

Dairy techniques

- Processing

-

- Human work in the factory

- Planning and

(heating, freezing, acidifying, food preservatives etc.) Changes in foodstuffs caused by preservation

organization

- Calculation

Preservation machines

Meat product technology

- Machines and

- Machines and -

-

apparatus in the production of meat and meat products Filling and sealing techniques Apparatus for cooking and preservation of meat products Energy techniques

Product technology

Product technology

- Products from fruit

- Structure and quality

and vegetables

- Pickled products

of meat

- Importance of some

- Meat products

- Fish, delicatessen products

- Readyto-serve meals, -

baby food Dairy products

MILK AND DAIRY TECHNIQUES

- Preservation process

economics

apparatus in fruit, vegetable, meat and fish processing - Filling machines - Sealing machines - Sterilization, pasteurization, deep freezing, drying apparatus - Labelling and packaging machines

control

MEAT PRODUCT TECHNIQUES

- Fundamentals of

- Commercial law - Economic policy

- Plant sanitation - Food regulations - Sensory quality

-

-

meat components in the production of meat products Production of cooked and raw sausage Ready-to-serve meatbased meals

(homogenization, filtration, separation, pasteurization, condensation etc.) - Energy techniques - Water supply and sewage techniques - Transportation and storage techniques - Automation Product technology

- Milk production - Milk as a raw material -

(chemical, physical, microbial data) Milk products (definitions, data, process technology)

Business management/ Calculation Business and company systems - Planning and organization within the company - Calculation - Sales planning - Administration and staff management - Accountancy -

Ch. 81

Training in the field of food processing in Germany 83 GENERAL SUBJECTS

Technological practical training

Technological practical training

Technological practical training

- Unit operations in

- Unit operations of

- Milk processing

food processing - Product development and quality control - Optimization of processing technology - Resolution of tech nological problems

-

meat processing Production and development of meat products Optimization of processing technology Sensory and analytical control of meat products

techniques

- Development of milk products

- Check up and -

optimization of company data Quality control Packaging control

Fig. 12. Central topics in the technician training (School for technicians in the field of food processing, Neumiinster, FRG).

SUMMARY Until the middle of the 1970s the German Government strongly supported the education of academic professions in general and also that of food scientists and food technologists. These efforts led to an enormous innovation push in the development of novel products and methods in food processing. To put these developments into practice, great skill and firm knowledge is demanded of the technical personnel. Without this, there is the risk that the technological progress cannot be realized now or in the future. This was the reason why great efforts were made and why appropriate regulations were issued in order to improve entirely the training of technical personnel. Because of the great differences in the descriptions of the occupations and in the traditions of vocational training among the several European countries, it is impossible to present all these possibilities in this paper. Fortunately the ‘European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training’ in Berlin has assumed the difficult task of finding out the comparability of vocational training qualifications between the Member States of the European Community. This paper only presents the craft and technician training in the Federal Republic of Germany, but as there are also some slight differences in the training between the several Federal States, it is a good example for the whole EC. This paper deals with the trade- and industry-orientated training possibilities based on an apprenticeship and on training at special schools for technicians. It is shown that there is a dual system for the training of apprentices for bakers, butchers, etc., as well as for skilled workers in the field of food processing or food processors. Additionally the way the training courses are run is demonstrated. Furthermore the training conditions for a master in a special trade and for the industrial master are considered. Last but not least, the education at schools for technicians is described on the basis of examples in detail.

84 The way forward

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The training for occupations in special food trades such as baker, butcher etc. and the appropriate masters are more product-oriented. The training for occupations in the food industry such as skilled workers for food processing (or food processors), industrial masters and food technicians are more oriented to process engineering. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We want to thank very cordially the following institutions and persons who have supported us in preparing this paper: Ministries of Education of all States of the former FRG, the Vocational School ‘Johann-Jacob-Widmann-Schule’, Heilbronn (especially Dip1.-LM-Technol. M. Eifried), all Schools for Technicians of the former FRG, the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Mrs Brigitte Linshoft-Stiller), Berlin, and others. In addition, we thank Mrs Astereda Mnkeni, MSc, for her help in the translation of the manuscript into English and Mrs Ingrid Schurmann for typing the text and the tables.

Training in the food processing industry in France Jean-Robert Geoffroy Food Executives Training Centre, CPCIA, Paris, France INTRODUCTION In the course of this chapter, we shall examine the following points:

- the main characteristics of employment in the food industry, which will allow us to appreciate better the training needs

- the state of personnel training (training for workers, supervisors and executives), the needs of the personnel and the characteristics of this training

- the mechanisms and the organization of in-service training in France - the training activities proposed by APRIA through its two training

centres:

APRIA Formation and CPCIA. The analysis carried out in this chapter concerns mainly France. However, in a number of ways it is also directly applicable to other European countries. 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF EMPLOYMENT IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY It is useful to study the characteristics of employment in the food industry in order to explain the particular situation of this economic sector in relation to other sectors and to understand how training in this area has fallen behind. According to the statistics, there are in France around 48 000 food establishments employing 536 000 persons. However, this classification is not entirely convincing insofar as it also takes into account all bakeries and pastry shops. It is thus preferable to retain figures which are closer to the reality of the industry: about 7000 establishments employing 393 000 persons. An analysis of the evolution of employment in the food industry reveals a rather unusual situation in industry as a whole, since the number of jobs in firms working in this areas has increased since 1973 (date of the first oil crisis), whereas the whole of industry has lost two million jobs.

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A graph of the changes since 1984 brings out another tendency: a steady decline in employment of about 1% each year in the food industry. However, within this sector, the overall tendency contains a number of striking differences: - Areas

in which jobs have been lost and in which jobs continue to be lost: Milk 0 Grain processing 0 Beverages 0 Miscellaneous food industries (other food industries: sugar, baby food, chocolate, etc.) - Areas in which the number of jobs has increased: Meat 0 Bakery and pastries 0

To take only some of the more striking examples:

- Jobs lost between 1977 and 1986: 0 Dairy industry - 6300 0 Brewing industry - 3600 Sugar refining - 6700 0 Milling - 4700 - Jobs created between 1977 and 1986: 0

Poultry slaughtering+ 10 700

The French food industry is characterized by the presence of a high proportion of small and medium-sized businesses (two persons out of three work in companies employing fewer than 500 persons). Here too, however, there are differences according to which sector of the food industry is considered. Developments in the employment pattern in the food industry result from various factors:

- The food industry was not seriously affected by the 1973 oil crisis because of the continued high level of demand and its own capacity to adapt, especially to energy-saving measures - Just as in other industries, however, the food industry has had to strive for gains in productivity, i.e., to automate and to rationalize production. For the most dynamic areas of the industry, this has resulted in a decrease in employment (milk, beverages, grain processing) The food industry is presently undergoing a significant transformation. With a turnover of 610 billion francs, it is becoming an industry in the full sense of the word, and it is in fact the leading industry sector in France. This transformation can be seen in the following areas:

- restructurization and concentration of the firms - modernization (automation) - increased sophistication of marketing - diversification of the lines of products (adaptation to the market) - adaptation to international regulations and policies.

Ch. 91

Training in the food processing industry in France 87

The main consequence of these developments is a decrease in the number of jobs, approximately 1% per year.

2. PERSONNEL TRAINING A quantitative study of the development of employment does not allow us to dispense with a closer analysis of the structure of employment and training. 2.1 Qualification The distribution of salaries according to qualification is as follows: - unskilled workers - skilled workers - office staff - supervisors, technicians - executives

- managers

27.3% 40.1% 12.0% 6.2% 6.2% 1.O%

The ratio of worker qualification (number of skilled workers : number of unskilled laborers) is 1.47 as opposed to 1.72 for industry as a whole. The only exceptions to this ratio are in the dairy industry and in the bakery-pastry sectors. It should be noted, however, that the rates of qualification are rising steadily (due to the sharp decrease in jobs for unskilled workers). The ratio of managerial staff also represents a feature specific to the food industry: 7.7% as against 9.6% for industry as a whole. The food industry thus reveals a certain deficit in managerial staff as well as in supervisors. But here a distinction must be made:

- sectors which have a ‘good’ ratio of managerial staff: beverages, grain processing, miscellaneous food industries

- sectors which have a low ratio of managerial staff: canning, meat, milk, bakery - pastry. The food industry appears determined to overcome its deficit in highly qualified personnel: researchers, high-level technicians, engineers, technical salesmen. This can be seen in the fact that, in 1989, the industry hired 3600 executives (an increase of 26%), making it France’s leading recruiter of executives. The figures for 1990 should confirm this tendency. 2.2 Basic education and in-service training The training of employees must be considered from two points of view:

- basic education - in-service training. The level of basic training in the food industry is rather low compared with industry as a whole:

88 The way forward

- no diploma: - baccalaureat (= A-levels): - higher education:

[Pt. 2 60.3% against 53.7% 6.3% against 8.6% 3.2% against 5.3%

Needless to say, the situation is improving as a result of the present hiring practices and the loss of jobs for unskilled workers. But the efforts to be made are still considerable. In-service training is now engaged in by all companies working in the food industry. However, their commitment in this area remains limited: for the whole sphere of economic activities, the percentage of the wage bill which is devoted to training comes to 2.25%, while in the food industry the figures are as follows (from a study carried out in 1985): 1.71% 1.70% 1.55% 1.48% 1.28% 1.25% 1.15%

- Beverages - Miscellaneous

food industries - Grain processing - Milk - Meat - Canning - Bakery - pastry

Basic education in the food industry still remains at too low a level, and in-service training in several sectors is inadequate. In conclusion, the job profile in the food industry can be summarized as follows: a young population (23% are below the age of 25), relatively unskilled; a higher proportion of women than in industry as a whole (34% as against 29%), rural in localization and in origin, a rather low average renumeration, a high rate of employee turnover, under-managed and poorly trained.

2.3 Mechanisms of in-service training Although some efforts in the area of in-service training did begin to take shape prior to 1968, they were restricted to private initiatives void of any regulatory framework. In 1968, the French Government estimated that in-service professional training was necessary for the development of the country’s economic activities. For this reason, it decided that companies would be under the legal requirement to devote at least 1.2% of their wage bill to training. This requirement acted as a powerful stimulus to the development of in-service training. Various types of training exist: - long-term training (lasting from one week - short-term training (one to five days)

up to as much as a year)

- inter-company training: employees coming from different companies are grouped together for a given course of training

- intra-company training, in which the employees are trained at the place of their professional activity.

Ch. 91

Training in the food processing industry in France 89

Long-term training is generally undertaken by public or private educational establishments on their own premises, using their own teaching materials and teaching staff. Short-term training is offered by educational establishments, research centres, professional associations or private companies. 2.4 Characteristics of in-service training Jobs for unskilled and for semi-skilled workers are on the way out. Hence, the necessity for reconversion and for specific training courses in fields with a stronger potential, such as supervisor, operator, maintenance and unkeep worker, refrigeration specialist, as well as jobs in the commercial field. The training courses which need to be set up are thus of the long-term variety: they involve improving the level in mathematics, physics, biology, chemistry, electronics, French, etc. In addition to this training in basic subjects, the courses given most frequently lie in the areas of hygiene, cleaning, disinfection, the chemistry of food products and quality. Ideally, these courses are given on-site in the company or in the nearby vicinity. They are taught either by outside organizations or by the managerial staff. The training courses concern, or should concern, tens of thousands of persons. However, these courses are long-term and difficult to set up (owing to the disruption caused to production and to the lack of motivation among the personnel concerned) as well as costly. For the managerial staff the problem is quite different. In general, their level of basic education is well adapted and at a good level, and they are also regularly enrolled in in-service training courses (it is difficult, however, to have accurate figures on this matter). Executives train more and with better results than unskilled or semi-skilled workers. The reasons for this are the following: -

executives are highly motivated

- they are in a position to travel - they keep themselves informed - they need to communicate -

they have a greater autonomy of decision.

Basic education courses, which tend to be on a long-term basis, are undertaken for the following two reasons: in order to offset a lack of general knowledge. Rather frequent during the 1970s, this case has become progressively rarer due to the higher level of general education of persons hired in recent years. - in order to prepare for reconversion (to data-processing, automation, marketing, etc.). -

Executives in the food industry usually seek out inter-company training courses of a high level which are short-term and which are related to a specific problem.

90 The way forward

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Moreover, they are sensitive to innovation, i.e., to new, even avant-garde, subjects. 3. THE ANSWERS PROVIDED BY APRIA

APRIA (Association pour la Promotion Industrie Agriculture, or Association for the Promotion of the Agricultural and Food Industry) provides numerous service activities in the area of agrofood.

- scientific and technical documentation (the CDIUPA data bank) - economic and statistical documentation -

publication

- promotion symposia, exhibitions, competitions - studies and audits - regulation -

discussion groups (clubs for industry managers) in-service training.

For training purposes, APRIA has two training centres at its disposal: APRIA Formation and CPCIA. 3.1 APRIA Formation This centre is for workers and supervisors in the food industry. It provides basic training both on an inter- and on an intra-company basis in the following areas:

- the biochemistry of foodstuffs - the microbiology of foodstuffs - hygiene and cleaning - automation. In all of our undertakings at APRIA Formation, we seek to preserve and to promote the characteristic features of the food industry. In order to progress and to serve better both the requirements of manufacturers and the highly specific needs of the relatively unqualified personnel working in the food industry, we have designed, in conjunction with GENESIE, a company specialized in the use of computers for educational purposes, a computer-assisted learning program entitled ‘HYGIENE +’. This is a program which can be used on micro-computers by individuals who need not have a knowledge of computers. It is thus perfectly adapted to persons having a limited basic education (the user is required only to be able to read on the screen). The program allows the user to work at his own pace and to make mistakes without the fear of being judged; in addition, the program is user-friendly and enjoyable to work with.

3.2 The training programmes at CPCIA The CPCIA (Centre de Perfectionnement des Cadres des Industries Agricoles et Alimentuires, or Food Executives Training Centre) was set up in 1967 to provide professional training for executives working in the area of food products.

Ch. 91

Training in the food processing industry in France 91

In the beginning, the training given in this centre was derived directly from courses given in engineering schools. Since then, however, we have diversified our activities. The CPCIA presently offers some sixty vocational training courses. These courses are short-term (2, 3, 4 or 5 days) and are organized on an inter-company basis:

- standard courses of a general nature, repeated regularly, e.g.: cleaning and disinfection workshop management 0 additives and auxiliary products used in manufacturing 0 regulation 0 the biochemistry of foodstuffs 0 sensory evaluation. - courses devoted to specific subjects (one-off operations), e.g.: 0 natural flavours 0 prepared meals in Europe 0 low-fat products 0 nutritional and health claims 0 succeeding in Asian markets. 0

Our courses are generally taught by a variety of teachers so as to have the best specialist in each discipline. These teachers come from institutions of higher education, from public or private research organizations and from professional organizations, as well as from consulting firms and from industry. The subjects most favoured by the CPCIA are of a scientific and technical nature. However, we have also found it important to diversify our activities while at the same time preserving their relevance to the food industry by organizing courses on marketing, on regulation, on management, etc. The CPCIA is not the only food training centre in France, even though it can be considered to be the most important one. This all goes to show that training in this sector of industry has undergone considerable growth. In order to increase our competence and our effectiveness, we have sought to develop alliances and to organize training courses in collaboration with other organizations such as ADRIA Quimper, ESACG in Bordeaux, IGIA (Institut de Gestion Internationale Agro-Afirnentaire, or Institute for International Food Management), etc. To summarize, then, CPCIA’s vocation is to respond to the needs of executives for training in the food industry by promoting activities at a high level which are both relevant and innovative (50% of the courses given each year are new), but which are also open to other European countries (foreign lecturers and participants are invited, and simultaneous translation is provided when necessary). CONCLUSION

Training in the area of food processing is in keeping with the overall image of this industry, that is to say, it is in a state of profound transformation: restructurization,

92 The way forward

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concentration, an opening up to foreign markets, increased efforts in the area of research. All of this is resulting in new needs being placed on training, needs which must be met energetically and with clearsightedness. However, in making this analysis, it is essential to avoid the risks of overgeneralization. We have seen, for example, that there exist sharp distinctions between large industrial groups and small and medium-sized businesses. It is up to those of us working in educational establishments to meet the challenges arising in this branch of activity, for the essential goal of our mission as well as that of the companies is ‘the investment in men and women,’ i.e. in human resources. The fact is that in-service training is an indispensable asset both for employees and for companies. This is so for the employee as regards:

- the up-dating of his knowledge - the enhancement of his experience and potential -

promotion

- improved possibilities for mobility. And it is so for the company as regards:

- increased profitability of the staff -

social advancement a source of innovation.

In today’s world, it is imperative that training for the management of the food industry in the European context becomes a subject for reflection and discussion.

APPENDIX Financing of in-service training

- National Employment Fund -

European Social Fund Insurance Fund for Training

Agreement on the development of training Goal: to develop training in the food industry Areas of study: 0 scientific and technical knowledge 0 quality (hygiene and security) 0 new techniques in commercialization and sales - Implementation: agreement at the regional level between the state and the company under the auspices of AGEFAFORIA - Financial aid granted by the state: 18 million francs -

Ch. 91

Training in the food processing industry in France 93

Training courses at the CPCIA the applications of radiation in the food industry - the setting up of an expert system - immunology in the food industry - follow-up on microbiological quality - fibres and related substances - surimi - microcomputing - food for infancy and adolescence - refrigeration - working with marketing - systems of aseptic packaging - ultra-clean workshop - substitute products - protein analysis by electrophoresis - spices and seasonings - algae - biotechnologies and their regulation - flavouring - farm-produce and cholesterol - new electrical techniques - corrosion of materials - analysis of productivity - partnerships between private groups and cooperatives - the behaviour of aromas in their application to foodstuffs - aromas, regulation and control.

-

10 Provision of education and research for overseas students V. N. Wade Department of Food Science & Technology, The Scottish Agricultural CollegeAuchincruive near Ayr, Ayrshire, Scotland 1. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

The progressive development of education and the intellectual and practical skills that emanate from it has invariably been stimulated by the historical flow of people and their ideas across national frontiers. Many of the early European universities emerged at a time of social, political and intellectual turmoil in which the first breaches in the feudal system became apparent with urbanization and the spectacular development of cities. Some of these cities, particularly in Italy, were organized into Communes which gave rise to a new social class. Similarly, international trade and contacts with other civilizations upset old customs and ways of thinking, resulting in a first Renaissance. Byzantium and the Arab-Islamic world helped Europe to rediscover whole elements of its own culture in certain neglected Greek and Latin works, as well as introducing new ideas from other civilizations. A significant feature of the early European universities at the end of the eleventh and the beginning of the twelfth centuries was their autonomy in relation to the local religious and civil authorities. These first ‘grundes e‘coles’ were usually recognized and protected by the authority of the Pope or the Holy Roman Emperor or, sometimes, both. This protection by a ‘universal authority’ facilitated the development of the studiurn generule, in which the noun studium refers to the teaching and research activities of the school, whilst the adjective generule indicates that the school could award the licentiu ubique docendi, which conferred the right to teach in all of Western Christendom (Thorens, 1988). Proceeding to our own times, the world has now more than 60 million students enrolled in over 13000 institutions in higher education. We are unlikely, in the short term, to see the re-emergence of a twentieth-century equivalent of the licentiu

98 Training for developing countries

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ubique docendi within the higher education institutions of the European Community. However, the strong drives to discuss and establish mutual recognition and agreement of equivalences of educational qualifications indicates that the desire of academics to interact with their colleagues in the European Community is as strong as it ever was. 2. CONTEMPORARY FACTORS The ERASMUS programme was adopted by the Council of European Communities on 15 April 1987, with the principal objective of substantially increasing the number of students undertaking an integrated period of study in another Member State. Other objectives of ERASMUS include increased cooperation between higher education institutions in the European Community, including teaching staff mobility (Smith, 1988). Several developments grew out of the ERASMUS programme. These include the European University Network, which encompasses inter-university agreements permitting students to undertake a period of study of up to one year in another Member State for which they will receive full academic credit from their home university (Neave, 1988). The COMEIT programme has extended inter-European Community Cooperation into the fields of skills training, student placements in industry and university/ industrial enterprise linkages (Sellar, 1988). Underlying the activities of the COMETT programme is the recognition of the need to meet the wider policy objectives of establishing the internal market of the European Community by the end of 1992 and preparing a European-level response to the competitive challenge of the world marketplace (Sutherland, 1988). The ERASMUS and COMETT initiatives have been supplemented by the recent introduction of the LINGUA programme to enrich the learning of foreign languages in establishments providing professional, vocational and technical education. This Action IV programme provides financial support for the setting up of a joint educational project between establishments in the Member States and for the subsequent exchange of young people. Grants of up to 75% of travel costs may be paid to institutes which are disadvantaged as a result of their geographical location within a Member State. There was an early recognition (Berchem, 1989) that perestroika in the Soviet Union and similar developments in a number of other socialist countries have led to a perhaps unprecedented willingness on the part of Eastern European universities to become involved in the network of European higher education cooperation. This response to the emergence of a wider Europe has been manifested in many ways, one of which has been the TEMPUS programme, specifically linking partner European Community higher education institutions with those in (for the time being), Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. My own department of Food Science and Technology has joined forces with the Food Economics Department of University College Cork to provide a programme to improve the expertise of staff members of the Agricultural University of Poznan (Food Technology Department) and the Agricutural University of Krakow (Animal Production Department) in the

Provision of education and research for overseas students 99

Ch. 101

field of milk production, manufacturing and marketing. This type of cooperation in training and research is repeated many times over by other higher education institutions throughout the European Community (Luttikholt, 1988; Sessions, 1988). The detailed results of this cooperation in the fields of food science, engineering and technology are reported in other chapters. 3. ASSISTING OVERSEAS COUNTRIES

The various initiatives discussed so far have been or are concerned with actions within and between Member States of the European Community. However most Member States have a matrix of organizations that can facilitate the education and training of non-EC overseas students in the national higher education sector. These organizations will have developed virtually independently within the boundaries of each Member State and their structure and function will be specific to the social, cultural and political bias of the Member States in question. However, as an example, it is useful to consider the system that exists within the United Kingdom for the purpose of encouraging the education and training of overseas students at British institutions of higher education, together with related activities. The British Council is the principal organization for bringing to the United Kingdom young people of promise and for exporting skills, advice and cultural values to other parts of the world. The British Council receives funds from the United Kingdom government, but it is also highly skilled at putting its money to work by attracting matching funds or sponsorship from a variety of sources. During the 1988/89 financial year the total receipts of the British Council were 2321 million, which represented an increase of 4% in real terms on the previous year. The relative contributions of the various sources of funding are summarized in Table 1 (British Council, 1990). It will be seen that an important function of the British Council is in acting as an agency on behalf of other organizations funded by the United Kingdom government for overseas activities. Significant expenditure (2157 million) on technical Table 1. Funding of the British Council, financial year 1989/90 Source Overseas Development Administration Agency Government grants Revenue Other agency Foreign and Commonwealth Office

Percentage 36 34 17 8 5

100 Data compiled from British Council Annual Report and Accounts 1989/90.

100 Training for developing countries

[Pt. 3

assistance, education aid and sponsorship programmes was handled on behalf of the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) and the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. On the income side, government grants amounted to i l l 0 million; revenue earning generated f55 million, of which approximately 56% came from the teaching of English and f2.5 million came from business sponsorship. The total number of employees reached 5978 in 1988/9, representing an increase of 5% in staff-most of whom were taken on overseas. New offices were opened in the Republic of Ireland, C6te d’Ivoire, Mozambique and Namibia. Regional offices were reopened in Jamaica and Malta and a new regional office was opened for South China, based initially in Hong Kong. Recently, Eastern and Central Europe have emerged high on the funding provisions of the British Council, with almost one quarter of the f 6 million grant increase for 1988/9being allocated to programmes to stimulate intellectual encounter with the West to focus on assisting market and financial development training ahead of economic reform. The British Council was to the forefront in planning for the United Kingdom government’s ‘Know-How Fund’ for Eastern Europe. A number of initiatives were rapidly implemented, including sector surveys; study tours; visits to the United Kingdom; consultancies by British specialists; the design of scholarship programmes; industrial attachments and courses in the United Kingdom. The author was privileged to participate in this process in a small way by means of a British Council scholarship to survey the dairy industry in the Czech Republic (Wade, 1990). The British Council is represented in 104 countries and regions of the world. The Council runs 30 projects for a range of overseas clients funded variously by the World Bank, the EC, IADB, UNDP and the Asian Development Bank, to a total value of f27.7 million. The distribution of expenditure in 1989/90is shown in Tables 2 and 3. Various international agencies exist for promoting assistance to developing countries. Probably the most relevant body is the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. Although much of its work is concerned with agricultural and rural developments, F A 0 has supported specific training for the food industry. One excellent example is the F A 0 training school at Alexandria in Egypt. This school trains operatives and managers for the dairy industries throughout the Middle East. F A 0 has sometimes sponsored the technical training of individuals when this has been part of a broader programme of FAO-funded development. To a lesser extent, the World Health Organization can be involved in supporting the training of personnel for the food industry. Finally, we must not forget the policies of the overseas countries themselves in providing funds for training their students abroad. Indeed, a desirable objective is for the principal sources of funding to come from the overseas countries, with the receiving countries and international organizations providing only supporting funding. International indebtedness and foreign currency problems are no doubt an obstacle for overseas developing countries in their desire to train their students abroad. One approach that has been adopted in the United Kingdom to reduce the cost of training for overseas postgraduate students is the ‘Channel System’. A

Provision of education and research for overseas students 101

Ch. 101

Table 2. Regional British Council expenditure for 1988190 Region Africa Asia, Pacific Western Europe South Asia Middle East and North Africa Americas Eastern Europe

Percentage of expenditure 29 18 17 15 10 7 4

100

Total expenditure = f325 million Data compiled from British Council Annual Report and Accounts 1989/90.

United Kingdom university makes an agreement with an overseas university whereby a postgraduate student registered at the overseas university carried out part of the research programme in the United Kingdom. In practice the literature survey and preliminary experimental work can be carried out at the overseas university followed by more detailed experimental work, processing of results and, sometimes, writing up at the United Kingdom university. In this way, the time Table 3. Purpose of British Council expenditure 1989190” Purpose Interchange of people Libraries, books and information English language and literature Science and education Arts

Percentage of expenditure 59 14 12 10 5 100

Total expenditure = 325 million aData compiled from British Council Annual Report and Accounts 1989190.

[Pt. 3

102 Training for developing countries

spent in the United Kingdom by a postgraduate is reduced from 3 to 4 years to 1 to 2 years. 4. STUDENT MOBILITY As previously indicated, financial considerations play an important part in influencing the movement of students from one country to another. The principal costs are those of tuition fees, maintenance and travel. The Member States of the European Community do not have a uniform policy in relation to the charging of tuition fees either for national students, students from other EC Member States or for students from outside the EC. The situation is summarized in Table 4 (Mohr, 1990). The proportion of foreign students in the student populations of the Member States is also very variable, ranging from an estimate of 1.0 to 12.5% across all disciplines for the years 1989 and 1990 (Table 5 ) . This variability will also continue Table 4. Higher education tuition fee policy in the European Community

Member State Belgium Denmark Germanya Franceb Portugal Spain Luxembourg The Netherlands Greecec AE1 TE1 United Kingdom Ireland Italy J : Yes

X:

No

National students

Other E C students

Foreign students

d

d+

X

X X

X

J \i

i X

i

d

J

X

X

J

d+ J+ J

\i

J J+: Additional fee possible

"Fees charged in some private Germany H.E. institutions. bPrincipally registration, health, insurance, social security and student union fees. 'Some foreign students and foreign students of Greek origin are exempt from fees. Information compiled from: Higher Education in the European Community. The Student Handbook. Dr Brigitte Mohr (ed.) 6th edn, 1990. Kogan Page.

Ch. 101

Provision of education and research for overseas students 103

Table 5. Estimated proportion of foreign higher education students (EC and nonEC) in Member States of the European Community E C Member State

Percentage of Foreign students

Belgium Denmark Germany France Greece Ireland Italy Luxembourg Portugal Spain The Netherlands United Kingdom

8.8 3.2 5.9 12.5 1.0 (5)" 3.9 (2.9)b 2.1 Insufficient data 1.9 2.8 2.0 9.4

"5% is the maximum quota, including students of

Greek origin. bThe lower figure excludes the Royal College of Surgeons which has 70% foreign students. Data compiled from: Higher Education in the European Community 1989 and 1990 editions.

from subject to subject. The division of foreign students between those from other E C Member States and from outside the European Community appears to be less variable. Of the foreign students in Italy, 51.3% were from outside the European Community whereas for Portugal the corresponding proportion was 92.5% (Table 6). Frequently the proportion of non-EC students is influenced by former colonial links, such as the proportion of Latin American students that study in Portugal and the high proportion of students from former colonies that study in the United Kingdom.

5. FACILITIES FOR OVERSEAS STUDENTS In order to obtain an indication of the range of policies for providing food science, food technology and related education and research, a questionnaire was circulated to 106 higher education institutions within the European Community. The first circulation was made in November 1990 and reminders were sent out in January 1991. Hence the findings of the survey relate to the 1990/91academic year.

104 Training for developing countries

[Pt. 3

Table 6. Estimated proportion of non-EC higher education students in Member States of the European Community

Member State Belgium Denmark Germany France Greece Ireland Italy Luxembourg Portugal Spain The Netherlands United Kingdom ~~

Total student population

Number of foreign students

254 329 87 000 1 470500 989 461 115 908 56 911 1086501 > 426 119 778 903 166 383 290 613 000

22 255 2 800 86 700 123 978

Percentage of foreign students of Non-EC origin

52.0 79.8 77.6 85.4 Insufficient data 2 207 62.4 23 264 51.3 Insufficient data 2 333 92.5 24 883 68.0 7 777 57.1 57 410 84.7

~

Data compiled from: Higher Education in rhe European Community 1989 and 1990 editions.

A total of 52 responses to the questionnaire were received and a further 9 institutions explained that they either did not offer food courses or that the courses offered were not relevant to the format of the questionnaire. There were 700 undergraduate and 6522 postgraduate students studying in the 52 institutions responding to the survey. The majority (76.5%) of undergraduate students came from other Member States with much smaller proportions coming from Africa (9.6%) and Asia (7.9%). The picture was somewhat different for postgraduate students. In the first place, the number of postgraduate students was over nine times the number of undergraduate students and their origins were different. Although the majority (64.0%) of postgraduate students were still from other Member States, a significant proportion (32.5%) were from other European countries outside the European Community. The proportion of postgraduate students from Africa and Asia dropped to 1.1% in each case, as shown in Table 7. There was evidence that quotas were operated for the intake of foreign students. This was more pronounced in the case of undergraduate students, where 26.7% of the institutions had quotas for students from the European Community and 33.3% for undergraduates from outside the European Community. Quotas appeared to be more relaxed for postgraduate students, with only 16.7% of institutions operating quotas for European Community postgraduates and 17.1% for postgraduates from outside the European Community. Most institutions (77.8%) charged undergraduate students from other Member States the same tuition fee as the home-based students. Although this policy was maintained by 61.1% of the institutions also in the case of undergraduates from

Ch. 101

Provision of education and research for overseas students 105

Table 7. Estimate, according to origin, of students studying food science/technology in the European Community Origin European Community Europe (outside EC) North, South and Central America Africa Asia Australia and Pacific Islands Other

Undergraduate

Postgraduate

("/.I

("/.I

76.5 1.1 1.9 9.6 7.9 0 3.0 100.0

64.0 32.5 0.8 1.1 1.1 Negligible 0.5 100.0

700.0

6522.0

Total number Data compiled from 52 institutions

outside the European Community, the proportion charging an increased tuition fee rose from 6.7% for EC undergraduates to 33.3% for non-EC undergraduates. A similar situation applied for postgraduate students, though one institution recorded that they charged smaller tuition fees for some postgraduate students from outside the European Community. Approximately 40% of the institutions gave assistance to both undergraduate and postgraduate foreign students in finding accommodation, and approximately 35% of the institutions responded that they sometimes provided this service. Just under 30% of the institutions provided accommodation for foreign undergraduate and postgraduate students, though approximately 23% sometimes made such accommodation available. Of the institutions providing accommodation for foreign students, over 96% charged the standard accommodation fee to undergraduate and postgraduate students from other Member States. A smaller proportion (ca 10%) charged increased accommodation fees to undergraduate and postgraduate students from outside the European Community. Only about 20 to 25% of institutions definitely provided language tuition for foreign students with approximately 10 to 15% of the institutions sometimes providing this service. Between 50 to 60% of the institutions designated a member of staff to supervise the academic progress of foreign students with, approximately, a further 7% sometimes making such an appointment. Provision for non-academic welfare counselling was less prominent, with only 36 to 37% of institutions responding in the affirmative and a further 11 to 12% indicating that they sometimes provided for such counselling. Approximately one-third of the institutions routinely provide guidance on further studies or research work for foreign students who have already studied at

106 Training for developing countries

[Pt. 3

the institution, and between 28 to 37% of the institutions sometimes give this advice. Careers guidance was not offered routinely to foreign students who had completed a course at an institution. Only approximately 15% of the institutions committed themselves to offering this service, but slightly over 30% indicated that they sometimes gave this advice. Finally, the survey seemed to indicate that foreign postgraduate students were more likely than undergraduates to come to study at an institution as a result of contacts established abroad. It is to be hoped that the tremendous enthusiasm and positive developments in inter-European Community cooperation in higher education will not lead us into paying insufficient attention to the provision of food science and technology education for overseas students from outside the European Community. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank those institutions who responded to the survey. Appreciation is expressed to Carol McInnes and Karen Porte for typing the manuscript and to Hazel Innes for compiling the results of the survey. REFERENCES Berchem, T. (1989) Higher Education Co-operation between EEC and Non-EEC Institutions in the Perspective of Post-1992 Europe. European Journal of Education, 24(4), 365-370. British Council (1990) The annual report and accounts 1989/90. The British Council, 10 Spring Gardens, London SWlA 2BN. Luttikholt, H. (1989) Sources of Support for Higher Education and Research in 1988. Western European Education, 21, Jan/Feb. 76099. Mohr, B. (ed.) (1990) Higher Education in the European Community. The Student Handbook. 6th Edn, Kogan Page. Neave, G. (1988) Cross-National Collaboration in Higher Education: new initiatives in European Community policy. Compare, 18(1), 53-61. Sellar, F. K. (1988) HE-industry collaboration in the EEC. Industry and Higher Education. March 1988. 9-19. Sessions, T. (1988) Research Funding: Possibilities from the European Community. Teaching News (Birmingham). December. 7-11. Smith, A. (1988) The ERASMUS Programme of the European Community-Some Implications for International Exchange and Community-Some Implications for International Exchange and Cooperation. Higher Education Policy, 1(4), 1. 51-52. Sutherland, P. (1988) The COMETT programme. Working for Cooperation. Zndustry and Higher Education. September 1988. 165-169. Thorens, J. (1988) Ninth Centenary of the University of Bologna and the University of Today. Higher Education Policy, 1(4), 43-45. Wade, V. N. (1990) Unpublished report to The British Council on The Dairy Industry in Czechoslovakia.

Aims, target group and curriculum of the International Course on Quality Assurance and Marketing in Food Processing D. H. Bruinsma, P. Naber and F. van der Haar International Agricultural Centre, Wageningen, The Netherlands 1. INTRODUCTION The International Agricultural Centre (IAC), Wageningen, The Netherlands, is a foundation attached to the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries. IAC provides advisory and training services in the framework of the Dutch programme for international development cooperation in agriculture and rural development. IAC’s training services are aimed at the dissemination of technical knowledge, skills and motivation, through making resources available from a great variety of institutions and individuals active in the areas of education, research and extension inside and outside The Netherlands. Training inputs are coordinated and implemented by IAC’s own diversified professional staff. Expertise of IAC staff covers the range of agricultural or rural development specializations and includes nutrition and food technology. Although the backbone of IAC training services is made up of regular, residential courses that are held on a yearly basis in The Netherlands, an increasing part of IAC’s activities is being directed at support to designing and implementing training courses abroad as an extension of the Wageningen-based programmes. 2.

BACKGROUND

In 1980 and 1981, the International Agricultural Centre (IAC) at Wageningen was the host institute to two successive International Courses on Rural Food Technology, which had a major focus on the choice of technology for food processing in developing countries. Because applications for training in food technology continued to be received, IAC started in 1987 a process of investigating the various

108 Training for developing countries

[Pt. 3

policy options for organizing a new international course on food processing. From the outset, the development of a worldwide network of training courses was included as a specific aim in order to foster the transfer of training capacity. This chapter deals with this process and reports on the results obtained thus far.

3.

METHODOLOGY

For the planning process, IAC opted for the following sequence of activities: (1) First, a desk study was made of training courses available on the subject of food processing. This inventory was updated throughout the process; (2) Next, personal interviews were held with a number of professionals and trainers in food processing in order to sharpen the main findings with regard to choices of target groups, themes for training, choice of product groups, training locations, assistance required, and technical and financial sources of support available; (3) Thereafter, a questionnaire was designed and administered to obtain advice from a range of food technology experts in advisory and implementing functions, employed in multilateral, international, national and local organizations; (4) Finally, an international expert consultation was held at IAC, with participation of trainers, food technologists, multilateral organizations, IUFoST, potential donors and technical support organizations. The aim of this consultation was to discuss specifically the need for training as assessed in the previous stages, identify better the target group(s), suggest theme(s) and subject matter for the training curriculum, and lay the foundation for the future network of training courses. On the basis of the results obtained, IAC designed a curriculum and announced the first step in realizing the worldwide network of training courses: the 1st International Course on Food Processing, to be held in Wageningen, AugustNovember, 1991.

4. RESULTS 4.1 Personal interviews These were held in the fall of 1988. Training institutes visited in Europe included the various centres in Montpellier (France), and in Chatham, London, Reading, Culham and Slough (UK). Contacts were also made and interviews held at F A 0 (Rome), at UNIDO (Vienna) and at ILO (Geneva). The interviews provided valuable insights into practical details of various existent courses, and of expertise and support available in Western European countries and multilateral organizations. The interviews also contributed to a more complete list of institutions for cooperation (see also later).

Ch. 111

International Course on Quality Assurance and Marketing 109

4.2 Questionnaire The questionnaire was sent in July 1989 to 114 addresses: in Africa (22), the Americas (28), Asia (30), Europe (32) and Australia (2). The response rate was 30% (Table 1). The majority of respondents (79%) expressed agreement with IAC’s policy choice of worldwide networking in contrast to yearly central courses only; with the priority for training of professionals who hold advisory and consultancy functions (79%); and with the theme of quality assurance and marketing (91YO). Two-thirds of the respondents had a preference for orienting the training towards modernizing the intermediate-level processing enterprises, both for local and export markets. As to product orientation, cereals, roots and tubers, and pulses were mentioned most frequently. Regarding the longer-term view of the networking, i.e. the development of training; courses in developing countries, the responses were evenly divided. Choices between regional or national training locations; betweetl training courses or training seminars; between quality assurance for local production or for export; and between targeting towards the professional or the consultant/adviser received each more or less equal support in terms of numbers of votes. The responses also contributed to a complete list of institutes eligible for future cooperation with the worldwide network of food processing courses (Fig. 1). 4.3 Expert consultation The international expert consultation was held at IAC in May, 1990. Participant groups consisted of one core team of international experts in the field of food processing, and three subgroups of resource persons, i . e. international support organizations, Dutch government officials, and Dutch professionals from associated institutions. With each group, the core team and IAC staff held sessions on

Fig. 1. Institutions for cooperation.

110 Training for developing countries

[Pt. 3

Table 1. Questionnaire results

Number of responses

1. The need for training a. Course in Wageningen b. Network of courses in Wageningen and abroad

7 27

2. Course in Wageningen a. Target group Consultants/Advisers Other b. Course theme Quality assurance/marketing Other c. Emphasis Export Local, large-scale Modernize intermediate level No emphasis

27 7 30 4 14 7 17 8

3. Courses in developing countries a. Location National Regional b. Activity 1. Courses 2. Seminars b. 1.1. Course theme: Quality assurance/marketing for export for local production b. 1.2.Target group: Consultants/advisers 1. Medium level 2. Professionals 2.1. Trainers/teachers 2.2. Researchers 2.3. Managers 2.4. Other b.2.1.Seminar theme: Quality assurance/marketing for export for local production b.2.2. Target group: Consultants/advisers 1. Medium level 2. Professionals 2.1.Trainerdteachers 2.2. Researchers 2.3. Managers 2.4. Politicians 2.5. Other Number of questionnaires sent out: 114. Response rate: 34 (30%)

14 26 20 22 20 24 16 17 11 16 15 4 16 18 8 16 7 9 17 12 2

Ch. 111

International Course on Quality Assurance and Marketing

111

their particular subjects of experience and/or expertise. The result was a further sharpening of definitions about the course theme, professional contents, target group, organization, curriculum, duration, fellowship support and worldwide networking. An important ancillary result of this wider consultation was that participants, by being included in this way in the process of design, more clearly committed themselves to the future realization of the plans.

5. DISCUSSION

5.1 General Many developing countries lack an adequate number of food processing technologists with technical or academic degrees. Also, training in food processing is often largely theory-oriented, without much opportunity for practical product and process assignments which would strengthen the capability of graduates to apply their knowledge in practice. Priorities for training assistance should, therefore, be directed at both the setting up and strengthening of local training, and at providing practice-oriented, postgraduate training opportunities of short duration for graduates after a few years of working experience. Recognizing these different needs, IAC decided to follow the policy of combining the implementation of a postgraduate training course in The Netherlands with follow-up of assistance to graduates, on an institutional basis, in order to strengthen local training in the Third World. 5.2 Strategy By combining international postgraduate training in IAC and partner institutions in Western Europe with assistance to the development of a workforce for local training, IAC aims at building a global network of assistance for professional training in food processing technology at the graduate and postgraduate level. Programme development will proceed in two phases: first, the realization of a series of courses of three months’ duration at IAC on a yearly basis in order to train the trainers; second, the follow-up organization and assistance to training courses at the regional and/or national level. IAC anticipates that a minimum of five international courses will have to be held centrally before an adequate number of trainers has been reached for the start of a worldwide network of food processing courses. 5.3 Target group This choice for ‘training-cum-networking’ implies that the target group for training at IAC is primarily composed of graduates who hold key training and advisory positions in their home countries. Participants in the international courses will be selected especially from industrial advisory services, traders’ and manufacturers’ service organizations, industrial development and information centres, and training and research institutes. In short, the target group for initial training consists of professionals who hold a key advisory and/or consulting function. Ancillary requirements will be that participants hold a BSc or BA degree and have at least

112 Training for developing countries

[Pt. 3

five years of working experience. Finally, priority will be given to applicants who are associated with or employed by institutes in the Third World which qualify as a sound location for a future regional or national follow-up course.

5.4 Professional subject matter Whatever the level of scale or sophistication, food enterprises produce for a consumer market. The inventory of training needs made by IAC has pointed to a strong priority requirement in many developing countries for strengthening smalland medium-scale industrial consultancies on the subjects of quality assurance and marketing, particularly in relation to each other. This orientation also fits in well with the expertise available in institutions for university training and (semi)governmental and industrial research in The Netherlands. 5.5

Curriculum development

5.5 .I Objectives The course aims at broadening the participants’ views on the problems of small-and medium-scale food processing, at upgrading their knowledge of the analysis of these problems and the selection of appropriate technology, and at imparting techniques for implementation while focusing on quality assurance and marketing. After completion of the course, participants will have acquired adequate:

knowledge on: 1. The structure of agro-industry ; 2. Major aspects of food processing; 3. Information sources for techniques and equipment, quality standards and legislation ; 4. Food quality in relation to technology; 5 . Market structure and marketing policy; 6. Consumer behaviour; 7. Communication and extension methods.

skills to: 1. Analyse problems of food processing enterprises; 2. Gather various technological details for alternative solutions; 3. Solve problems and select appropriate technology; 4. Establish and monitor product specifications; 5 . Make cost calculations; 6. Plan, design and implement training programmes; 7. Relate newly gained knowledge to a specific problem or product that is of importance to participants’ work. motivation to: 1. Apply newly gained knowledge and skills in advisory work for food processing enterprises;

Ch. 101

International Course on Quality Assurance and Marketing 113

2 . Set up training programmes for the sector, applying newly gained knowledge and skills; 3. Promote quality assurance as a tool for good manufacturing practice and for successful marketing. 5.5.2 Training approach The programme will feature various educational methods, including lectures, workshops, individual presentations and group assignments. Much of the information provided will be highlighted during case information from the field. Subjects taught will be illustrated by excursions, work visits and laboratory work. Through practical assignments, participants will learn from the experience of industries and institutes in The Netherlands. 5.5.3 Modules

The curriculum includes three major technical modules, defined as follows: (1) Technology, including raw material supply; postharvest systems; choice of technology, process and equipment; product development; organization of production. ( 2 ) Quality assurance, including the appropriate procedures in raw material purchase, processing and marketing; food standards and legislation; food hygiene and toxicology; monitoring of product specifications; relation to choice of technology. ( 3 ) Marketing, including channels for distribution; pricing and cost calculation; product policy, product mix and consumer behaviour; local, national and international markets and regulations for quality and marketing. These modules will be sandwiched by two introductory modules on the assessment and analysis of problems in food processing enterprises and on technology information management, and by a final module specifically designed to strengthen the training and consultancy skills of participants. In addition, a course module is also included for product-specific assignments in relation to the participants’ field of work. 6. CONCLUSION

The International Course on Food Processing at Wageningen will be forming the nucleus for the development of the worldwide network for training in food processing. In implementation, IAC would be grateful for the collaboration of other interested international training centres. Although IAC expect the nucleus to grow only slowly, the network could be expanding fast. It is this worldwide network with its ramifications into regions and nations which will contribute to the improvement of food security, through strengthening one of its weaker links: the food processing enterprises.

12 European Networks: ERASMUS, COMMETT, TEMPUS and FLAIR August0 G. Medina Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Cat6lica Portuguesa, Oporto, Portugal

In today’s modern world the development of networks is being seen by scientists and engineers as a fundamental tool of cooperation and progress. Within the EC, different very successful schemes aiming at the development, through cooperation, of European institutions (universities and enterprises) have been introduced in recent years. They cover the major areas of science, technology and engineering. Each of the different programmes, with already familiar names, like ERASMUS, COMMETT, TEMPUS, SPRINT, FLAIR, ECLAIR, etc, has its own specific objectives and group targets; however they all have in common the concept of network, and their success is ultimately related to the strength of the links established among the different partners. Food science, food technology and food engineering are key areas for the development of Europe and their importance is certainly recognized in the different educational and research initiatives. In the present chapter the major opportunities to be opened up during the 1990s to European food scientists, food technologists and food engineers, based on the concept of network, are reviewed. The areas of education and training, research and development, technology transfer and interaction between university and industry are illustrated, in the context of both EC and non-EC collaboration. The challenges of modern life raise important global issues, suggesting also the need for collaboration between Europe and t h w t of the world. The needs and opportunities for transcontinental networks involving namely the USA, Japan and Third World countries must be discussed.

118 European collaboration

[Pt. 4

OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF NETWORKS WITHIN THE AGRO·FOOD SECTOR

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY

SCIENTIFIC AFFAIRS DIVISION OF NATO ERASMUS COMETT TEMPUS FLAIR ECLAIR SPRINT

SCIENCE EUROTECNET

COUNCIL OF EUROPE

EUROPEAN SCIENCE FOUNDATION PROGRAMMES IN HlGHER EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

NSF· NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION (USA)

JICA - JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY (JAPAN) RESEARCH PROJECTS

OTHERS

IUFoST, EFFoST, FISEC CLUB DES EUROMEfROPOLES

European Networks 119

Ch. 121

THE ACRO FOOD SECTOR WITHIN ERASMUS AND COMETT

ERASMUS

- ICP'S

* EXCHANGE OF STUDENTS * EXCHANGE OF TEACHING STAFF * CURRICULUMDEVELOPMEh'T

* INTENSIVE COURSES

:P C 0049190 T.E.I. Thedonikir. Greece &lc Nationdc dcs Ingtnicurr d u Tmvaux Agricoks. B d e p u x . Frn"CC

bole Nariode d a lngtnieurs d a Tmvaur Apicolea. Dijon. FR"CC.

:P C OOJ2190 T.E.I. Athman, Athma. Greece Fachhochrhvlc Wicsbadcn. Germany Univenidad dc C6doba. Spin Univenitt dc Bourgopc. Dijon. France Universirt dc Rcim Champagne - Adsnne. France :P NL 0193/90 Wagcningco Agricultural Univcnity. Netherlands Univenity of Rrsding. United Kingdom.

'P P 0063190

Lwlr Superior de Biotecnologk Pono, Panugal C E R N Brnuelr. Belgium Technirche Univcnilal Mmehea. Ocmvay hole N a d o ~ l cSuphiesrr des Ladultrici Agriala 81 A h m t a i n Msl~y.FMCC UnivaritA dcgli rhldi di Milnoo, IulL Univenily College, Cork, h b d Wagcninpn Ag~iciculllmlUnivcniiy. N c l h u h d . University of Reading. U d k d Kingdom.

P U K 007U90 Humbcnide College of Higher Education. Hull. United Kingdom Fashhochwhule Lippc. h p .Gmnsny Univcnidd dc Barcelona. Spin Univmidad Aut6ooma dc Bucclona. Spin T.E.I. Arhinon. Athim. Grrsu; T.E.I. Thcssalonikir. Greece hrrituto Politknico dc Fuo, Pntugal. P F 0048/90 Inrtihlt National Polytaiiquc dc Lomine. Nancy. France

Hcnor-Wan Unwmiw. Edinbwh. United Kinndom.

120

European collaboration

Portugal - AGROF - Association for the development of Agro-food industries France - COMAGRO Netherlands - ECCEAMST - European Consortium for Continuing Education in Advanced Meat Science and Technology Greece - AGRO UETP

Total number of sectorial UETP's (inc. EFTA Countries) = 52 Total number of UETP's (inc. EFTA countries) = 158

UNIVERSITY EXCHANGE TRAINING PARTNERSHIP

[Pt. 4

European Networks 121

Ch. 121 JANUARY 1988 - Meeting in Porto ERASMUS APPLICATION 1988/89 NOVEMBER 1988 - Meeting in Paris ERASMUS APPLICATION 1989/90 APRIL 1989 - Meeting in Reading FLAIR APPLICATION

Ra \

SEPTEMBER 1989 - Meeting in Milan ERASMUS APPLICATION 1990/91 C O M E T APPLICATION

ERASMUS

1998189

SEPTEMBER 1990 - Meeting in Porto ERASMUS APPLICATION 1991/92 TEMPUS APPLICATION

UK - University of Reading P - Escola Superior de Biotecnologia IRL - University College Cork Industrial Partners

TEMPUS MAY 1990 Erasmus Partners

H -Technical University of Budapest H - University of Horticulture and Food Industry PL - Agricultural University of Warsaw Erasmus Partners and DK - Danisco AIS E - John Harvey S.A. F - Institut Universitaire de Technologie F - CRITT - La Rochelle

F - CLEXTRAL

I - NUOVO CRAl

I - Universita di Salermo

[Pt. 4

122 European collaboration

.. -

D - Technische Universitat Munchen DK - Technical University of Denmark DK - Danisco A/S E -John Harvey S.A. F - lnstitut Universitaire de Technologie

.

F - INNOVIA

AN INTEGRATED APPROACH INVOLVING ERASMUS / COMETT / TEMPUS / FLAIR

European Networks 123

Ch. 121

u 1 Exchange of Students

Exchange of Staff

I

I Training of Technical Staff Improvement of Links Between University and Industry

4 Development of Research

I/ Working Parties

D Joint Research Projects

AN INTEGRATEDAPPROACH INVOLVING ERASMUS / COMETT / TEMPUS / FLAIR: MAIN GOALS

124 European collaboration

[Pt. 4

c Development of Management Skills

Marketing and Business Management

Development of Unlverslty Industry Interfaces

.

4

-

D University Enterprise Collaboration

AN INTEGRATED APPROACH INVOLVING ERASMUS I COMETT I TEMPUS I F U R : KEY AREAS OF ACTIVITY

An ERASMUS scheme for European food engineers P. J. Vallance University of Reading, UK Elisabeth Dumoulin ENSIA, Massy, France

This chapter describes one particular ERASMUS scheme started at the initiative of Professor A. G. Medina. OBJECTIVES AND DIFFICULTIES

The purpose of the scheme was to bring together the leading institutions in the education of food scientists and technologists in Europe, in an inter-community partnership (ICP). It was started in 1988 with five partners, became seven in 1989 and eight in 1990; and we hope, if the proposal is approved, to become nine in 1991. If we get approval this year, it will be for a further 3 years. The objectives were three-fold:

1. To arrange for the movement of students between the partner institutions. 2. To enable academic staff from one institution to deliver specialized courses at other institutions, where the expertise was unavailable. (This funding was only available for the first and third years of the scheme.) 3. To compare teaching in specific areas of food engineering courses and to see whether there was some material which it was felt should be present in all food engineering courses. The initial areas selected for this purpose for study by Working Parties were: Transport Phenomena and Unit Operations, and Management. Unfortunately this was funded only for the first year. The group had also hoped to obtain support to establish an European MSc, drawing on the expertise of several institutions; but unfortunately this project was not approved.

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One of the problems was finding out what was being taught at the different institutions, and the pattern of higher education in the different countries. The partners found more difficulty in reaching their objectives than had seemed likely when the scheme was first established. These difficulties arose largely from differences in the educational system. These educational differences included:

1. The age of entry into the collaborating institutions. 2. The background of the student at entry. 3. The duration of the course. 4. Differences in educational philosophy, for example whether underlying principles were taught, or whether there was a link to specific commodities; whether the course was industry-oriented or largely academic, and so on. 5 . The proportion devoted to the specific components of the course and the details of the syllabus. 6. The extent to which the course was entirely under the control of the department, or whether substantial components were delivered by other institutions or departments, and in this case the degree of control of the customer over the supplier! 7. Teaching methods. 8. Requirement for industrial training or experience.

EXCHANGE OF STUDENTS Each institution therefore had to decide how best to release students from its own institution to: (a) meet the requirements of the course; (b) allow the receiving institution to fit the student into their own internal arrangements. In practice, some students secured industrial training in the host country, some attended appropriate courses, and others carried out research projects; but whatever the form of participation, the students were supervised by the host institution and the student’s experience was recognized by the institution with whom the student was registered, for academic credit. (A prerequisite to qualify for the ERASMUS support.) The first two years of the scheme showed a student participation at about the 10% level; in other words, about 10% of the students would have the opportunity of spending part of their course in another European country. In the first year, 26 students moved for periods of between 3 months and 1 year, and the following year this increased to 35. We would confidently expect a further increase in 1990/91. It did seem, however, that English-speaking countries tended to attract the most applicants, and that those students were perhaps, on the whole, more reluctant to go to Europe.

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An ERASMUS scheme for European food engineers

127

STAFF EXCHANGE Because the funding was intermittent, staff exchange has not proved as successful as had been hoped. Nevertheless, a limited amount of exchange has proved possible, with staff from the United Kingdom and Ireland offering courses in Oporto and in Paris. We have each asked our colleagues whether they are prepared to offer courses in other institutions, and if so, in which country, and this information will be made available to all participating institutions. The main problem is to be able to release staff at a time when the receiving institutions can accept them. Staff are usually only able to go in vacation periods, and it may be that the students in the receiving institution are also on vacation at that time. THE WORKING PARTIES Unfortunately this particular activity received funding only for the very first year; but both the Working Parties found themselves following similar paths. First, there was the attempt mentioned earlier, to understand the educational system of the other participating countries. This meant following compulsory education from 5 or 6 years of age, right through to the school leaving certificate (or the equivalent), and then grappling with the intricacies of the different courses themselves. In some countries there was open entry into higher education, and in others it was extremely selective. The next problem was to find out whether various parts of the curricula had any degree of congruence. Transport Phenomena and Unit Operations This group, under Elisabeth Dumoulin, was, on the whole, more successful than the group of P. J. Vallance, in the sense that there seemed to be more common ground amongst people teaching this part of the food engineering courses, than in the area covered by the second group. Dr Dumoulin persuaded the collaborators in all the nine institutions to provide her with information. Management The Management Working Party encountered more difficulty in interpreting the content of the various curricula, though an attempt was made to simplify the topics dealt with and arrive at an analysis, and then a further attempt was made to simplify and reduce the topics to just five: Economics, Marketing, Accounting, Operations Management and Human Resource Management. As all members of this Working Party were involved in management teaching, it is perhaps not surprising it was considered this element should be included in all food engineering courses, and that the emphasis between the various parts of the course should be roughly equal. All were also strongly in favour of an industrial training component.

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Conclusions and the Future

What have been the gains? Undoubtedly the people who have gained the most from this collaboration have been the students. The opportunity to work or study in another country has produced immeasurable benefits to all the students who have taken part. They have not only gained technical knowledge, but also improved their language competence and had the opportunity of experiencing another culture in some depth. They are being encouraged to think of themselves as Europeans rather than French, Irish, Danish or English. The level of exchange will surely increase, but there are difficulties:

1. It is not always easy to fit the students into other institutions in some appropriate way. New courses may have to be devised in the future which make this possibility stronger. 2. Language problems. The Anglo-Saxons are notorious for their failure to learn other languages, the Dutch equally notorious for being able to speak everyone else’s! English does seem to be a popular choice and this means that students are more willing to come to English-speaking countries than to other places in Europe. Somehow this must be changed. 3. Accommodation and integration is difficult for a foreign student visiting a country for the first time. We were fortunate that our institution has student accommodation and tries hard to give preference to overseas students under the ERASMUS scheme. That may not be the situation in educational institutions elsewhere in Europe, where traditionally students study locally. 4. Industrial organizations are, on the whole, reluctant to take overseas students, particularly if they have to be paid. They may also be reluctant to receive a student unless he or she is very competent in the language of the receiving country. 5 . The staff exchanges have been limited but may increase as knowledge of one another’s institutions increases. The members of the main organizing committee have certainly expanded their knowledge of European food engineering education, but with nine different systems to compare, it is very easy to become confused. Our contacts have led to collaboration in other ways: in research projects (for example, FLAIR), with industry (COMEIT), and, we hope, with Eastern Europe (TEMPUS). Furthermore, the students have formed their own links, and have held student conventions in Paris at ENSIA-Massy in 1989 and in Reading at the University in 1990, with another scheduled for Wageningen in June 1991. They have funded each convention by securing industrial sponsorship, so as to limit the costs to individual student delegates. Anyone who attended either of the first two conventions would agree that they have been a tremendous success. The students have formed their own Food Industry Students European Council (FISEC), and are confident of becoming the first student European professional body to secure European Commission recognition. The requirement for this was 3 years’ success-

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An ERASMUS scheme for European food engineers 129

ful operation, and the convention this year (1991) at Wageningen, The Netherlands, will complete that process. This Council’s office will be located in Brussels, and I would like to take this opportunity of paying tribute to Ludovic Blonde, the ENSIA-Massy student whose idea it was and who was largely instrumental in finding support for the first convention. Unfortunately, he was killed in a car accident shortly before the Second European Convention of FISEC. The European Commission should be congratulated on its imagination in devising this scheme and widening the horizons of so many of us, both students and staff.

14 The European Consortium for Continuing Education in Advanced Meat Science and Technology (ECCEAMST): incentives and intentions Frans J. M. Srnulders Department of the Science of Food of Animal Origin, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands

In 1989 a selected group of meat scientists from several European countries convened in Paris to discuss options for cooperation supported by financial aid from the European Community. A major conclusion of that gathering was that: ‘. . . the case of meat has not been well presented’, implying that the scientific community has failed to convince the European authorities of the necessity to invest in meat science and technology. In overviewing the possibilities it was also recognized that a more intense transnational collaboration would be an essential first step towards achieving this goal. The same scientific community is largely responsible for training a new generation of meat scientists for a unified Europe. Also, it is recognized that there is great need for qualified personnel to help the European meat enterprises innovate through introduction of advanced technologies. As the EC’s COMETT-2 programme is aiming at just that, representatives from several EC countries convened in Utrecht in 1990 to discuss the desirability of creating a network of universities and enterprises dedicated to training students, graduates and mid-career personnel. It was agreed to bring into being ECCEAMST, the European Consortium for Continuing Education in Advanced Meat Science and Technology. ECCEAMST was fortunate enough to receive EC support and is now operating as a COMETT (COMmunity programme for Education and Training in Technology)-UETP (University Enterprise Training Partnership). ECCEAMST brings together more than 120 partners from universities and enterprises from all twelve EC member countries. In addition, partners from four EFTA countries

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(Austria, Finland, Norway, Sweden) have joined. The introduction of advanced technologies into the European meat industry, an industry composed largely of small and medium-sized enterprises relying on rather traditional methods of processing, is stimulated through transnational exchange programmes and intensive courses. The pan-european character of the network and the well-balanced partnership present excellent opportunities for analysing the training needs as well as the major strengths and voids of education in meat science and technology all over Europe. A survey programme has been initiated that will eventually lead to the development of a mutually recognized and certified module of courses in advanced meat science and technology. This module will be taught over several years and will be hosted by different partner countries. Awaiting the final design of this curriculum, brush-up courses on selected topics are being given in several areas of Europe where the partnership considered this opportune. In January of 1991 ECCEAMST was officially introduced to present and future partners during the International Symposium, ‘The European Meat Industry in the 1990s: Advanced Technologies, Product Quality and Consumer Acceptability’, held at Utrecht, The Netherlands. This gathering set the stage for future activities and identified common areas of interest. The first two years will be dedicated to execute the survey programme, and to devise courses whenever necessary to bridge the knowledge gap between distinct areas in Europe. In the spring of 1991 two intensive courses are being taught in Valencia, Spain, viz. : ‘Advanced Biotechnology and the Genetic Manipulation of Microbial Cultures for Meat Processing’ (2930 April), and ‘Advanced Muscle Enzymology and Integrated Systems Analysis in the Meat Industry’ (2-3 May). Intensive courses on Advanced Packaging Technologies and Total Quality Management are scheduled to be held in 1992 in Italy and Portugal, respectively. The contents of all courses are published in typeset, edited books (in English with summaries in French, German and Spanish) which are disseminated through the partnership. In addition, a Quarterly Newsletter with relevant information on exchange options and course activities is issued by ECCEAMST. ECCEAMST is managed by a board of National Representatives representing the partnership in their respective countries. At least twice a year this ‘parliament’ discusses the policies to be followed and reviews the current and completed actions of ECCEAMST. The directives of this parliament are executed by a four-person management team, headquartered at the University of Utrecht. It is the aim of ECCEAMST to include as many interested parties as possible to support the aforementioned policies. Through contributions from the partners (a system for co-financing is in development) as well as through soliciting of other funding, ECCEAMST hopes to be self-supporting within a 4-year period.

15 A consortium of European food education and training enterprises P. J. Barlow and P. J. Warren School of Food and Fisheries Studies, Humberside Polytechnic, Grimsby, UK

In order for Europeans to enjoy the great variety of foods and the high quality of foods that are now demanded, it requires a large and complex industry working hard to meet the demands of the 320 million customers of Europe. The European consumer has become very sophisticated in hidher taste for food and the industry needs constantly to be developing and expanding its range of products. This creates a demand for a well-trained and qualified workforce and management structure. It was with this in mind that the consortium described below was developed. The UETP has been formed between five food technology/science teaching universities and twelve food industry partners from the UK, Greece, Portugal and Germany with the aim of ‘re-inforcing’ advanced training in food technology and the development of highly skilled human resources within the framework of the European food industry. The UETP is known as the Consortium of European Food Education and Training Enterprises (CEFETE). This consortium was born out of an earlier association of European food universities who came together in an effort to complement each other in areas of expertise in food science and technology. The necessity for the creation of this food education and training consortium was brought about by recognition of the fact that Europe’s food industry is in the midst of great change and expansion. In an industry traditionally based on craft skills, the introduction of new technology, processes and work methods is demanding a new breed of manager and technician, technically competent in the skills appropriate to the application and management of these new advanced technologies. Europe-wide, the food and drinks industry employs over two million people and is one of the Community’s largest industrial sectors. If one also counts the agricultural industry (which in terms of people employed is about three times the size of the food manufacturing industry) then it will be seen that food in Europe is very big business. The utilization of the basic

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European food educations and training enterprises 133

agricultural products by the food industry has necessitated great changes within the industry. Its science and technology base has developed dramatically over the last 20-30 years. With the advent of the single European market it was anticipated that there would be an increased need for transfer of this advanced technology across regional boundaries within the EC, in order to build a highly trained, mobile workforce capable of improving the competitiveness of one of Europe’s major industries. The consortium described in this paper is coordinated by the School of Food and Fisheries Studies at Humberside Polytechnic, whose well-developed links with industry in the UK provided a model on which these planned European activities could be based. The specific objectives of the UETP are: (a) To improve the contribution of advanced-level food technology training, at the various levels concerned, to the economic and social development of the European food manufacturing industry. (b) To implement the joint development of training programmes and the exchange of experience through the creation of a transnational network of food technology university departments and food manufacturers, so optimizing the use of training resources. (c) To respond to the specific skill requirements of small and medium-sized food manufacturers with regard to training in advanced food technology. (d) To promote equal opportunities for men and women in initial and continuing training in advanced food technology. (e) To provide a European dimension to initial and continuing training in advanced food technology, its application and transfer. (f) To identify training needs in advanced food technology and to resolve them in liaison with members of the UETP and with other relevant bodies in the field. (g) To assist in and facilitate the development and exploitation of projects within the other strands of COMETT I1 and other related EC initiatives such as ERASMUS in advanced food technology training.

In terms of translating these objectives into targets and outputs, the UETP decided to concentrate its resources on a number of very specific areas for development. These may be summarized as follows: (a) To undertake a training-needs analysis and to study the training requirements in the food manufacturing sector. A pilot study carried out in the UK was used as a basis by the consortium to identify priority areas for training. (b) To develop, during the first year of operation of the consortium, two advancedlevel crash training courses (of approximately 30 hours duration) in food safety for food manufacturing enterprises (particularly SMEs) to be delivered in the local language in the UK, Germany, Portugal and Greece. (c) The provision of a period of industrial placement for undergraduate and graduate students of member universities of the consortium is seen as an important part of their course philosophy. Thus, a priority area in the initial

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years of operation of the consortium was to create a pool of food industry placements for students across the EC. Having given the background to the consortium and its aims and objectives within the COMETT programme, it is appropriate to discuss some of the difficulties that have been experienced and some of the successes of operating the scheme over the past twelve months. The major difficulties that this consortium experienced in the initial stages of its development have been the considerable differences in relationships between higher education and the food industry in the different European countries represented in the consortium. For example, in the UK, institutions involved in higher education have been encouraged politically to form closer links with the industry and, in the case of Humberside Polytechnic, 20% of the net income of the School of Food and Fisheries derives from such collaborative work. This contrasts with countries in Southern Europe where links between industry and higher education are only just beginning to evolve and the nature of this relationship is inherently different from that in the UK. Further differences are apparent in the structures of the food industry in different European countries with a greater predo,minance of small to medium-sized enterprises in countries outside Northern Europe. This poses particular difficulties in the attitude of companies towards investing in training. The smaller companies find great difficulty in releasing staff and there are fewer opportunities for in-house training of the type that would be possible with larger companies. Often in small companies, training is not seen as being particularly important or cost-effective, and yet often these are the very companies that would benefit the most from such training. Other differences also exist in terms of companies’ expectations of the services provided by higher education. In the UK and Germany it is common practice for higher educational institutions to charge companies at a consultancy rate for training services; however, in Southern Europe this procedure does not yet seem to be well established. This poses obvious difficulties where training initiatives should ideally be self-sustaining in terms of funding after initial pump-priming through schemes such as COMETT. These types of problems translate into other areas within the consortium’s objectives, for example, industrial placements of students. Great differences have been noted in approach with regard to, for example, payment of students in different countries, where this is either not commonly accepted practice or in some case said to be illegal. A further major difficulty is the question of language. With English being the most commonly accepted European language there is a great desire in all European countries to send students to England. There are also great difficulties in encouraging students from other countries to learn the ‘minority’ European languages, such as Greek and Portuguese, to a level which will allow them to live and work for any extended period in these countries. This leads to difficulties in ensuring the reciprocation of placements within the consortium. However, despite all these problems, the good working relationships and collaboration between members of the consortium have permitted a base for discussion

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Ch. 151

Table 1. Food programme student exchanges within Europe UK UK UK UK Germany Greece Portugal

to to to to to to to

Germany Portugal Spain Greece UK UK UK

6 1 4 1 4 5 5

which has been able to resolve many of these issues; for example, where companies do not pay an adequate wage to students, institutions have been able to provide subsidized or even free accommodation and food for the duration of the placement. Support from academic staff in terms of local language tuition is also proving successful. Thus a number of students have been able to participate in panEuropean industrial placements since the setting up of the scheme (see Table 1). In conclusion, the consortium has a clear vision of what it would wish to achieve in terms of pan-European collaboration between European food education institutions and the food industry and, whilst many of these aspirations have not yet been fully achieved, the consortium is confident that sufficiently good progress is being made to warrant continued collaboration in order to work towards the aim of reenforcing ‘advanced training in food technology and the development of a highly skilled human resource within the framework of the European food industry’. Finally, we would like to acknowledge the contribution made by the two European community funds which have supported these projects and enabled the consortium to operate, namely the ERASMUS and COMETT funds.

16 Education in Dairy Science provided by the European Alliance of Dairy Teachers P. van Assche CTL, Ghent, Belgium

By virtue of its turnover and the number of people employed, the dairy industry of the 12 countries of the European Community represents an important part of their food production. The performance and progress of any enterprise depends largely on the qualities of men. Their up-to-date knowledge, their creativity, their ability to adapt in order to modernize and their aptitude to communicate are professional qualities which are acquired and developed while at school and/or at university. Now, the dairy industry is evolving; first it was mechanized, now it is automatized and computerized. Introducing our students to the latest techniques of production, to the most modern uses of milk and its substances, showing them how to manufacture new products demands that our teaching methods and syllabuses be continually brought up-to date. Therefore it seem appropriate to offer schools, institutes and faculties of agricultural science and dairy industries in the EC, an opportunity to meet in order to improve their students’ training and adapt it to the current changes. As a result, the European Alliance of Dairy Teachers (Europel) was born out of the favourable responses that about 40 schools, institutes, faculties or colleges of dairy science and industries in the EC returned to a meeting proposal sent to them at the end of 1988 with a view to improving their students’ training and adapting it to our changing times. The first Europel sittings were held in the ‘Ecole Nationale des Industrie du Lait et des Viandes’ in La Roche sur Foron (France) from 25 to 27 April 1990. About 50 persons were present, representing 28 establishments from 11 countries-only Portugal was not represented. The objective of Europel is to offer any teacher in the field of the dairy industries and sciences the possibility to perfect his trade and to introduce his students to the Community, to encourage them to discover the diversity of Europe, in order to

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appreciate better that diversity and to preserve it, an exciting task that requires time. The teaching is based on the publications of research workers, gets strength from a relationship with the professionals and fulfilment through the training courses offered by the enterprises to the student. The student as well as the professional will benefit from this. It must be recognized that training time and working time are less clearly separated than in the past; they are in fact interdependent. Therefore Europel will aim at linking scientists, teachers, students and manufacturers in common undertakings to ensure better training. The vocation of Europel is to serve the dairy industry (which is, naturally, its support and its centre of gravity) and to contribute to the realization of the magic circle: Research-Training-Production Towards this end, a number of commissions have been created, three of which are particularly important since they share the following aims:

- to find out the content of dairy training in the EC, in regard of the educational system of each country (= ‘inventarisation’).

- from these data, to draw up a comparative picture of our students’ curricula and competences, a picture which will be an accurate description of dairy teaching in the 12 E C Member States. The first of these three commissions is in charge of higher education (universities, colleges, institutes). The second is concerned with educational levels 4 and 5. It will rely on research by Mr. Schoner, who is in charge of this subject in the F14 Commission of the International Dairy Federation. The third commission is in charge of further and continuous training. As a result of these three working groups, an E C Dairy teaching blue book will be published. It will facilitate mutual recognition of training and therefore student exchanges and staff movement. However, the members of Europel wish to go one step further, and they propose, working from this comparative picture, to create more harmony in the present training schemes. Indeed, we can reasonably expect that more similarities in the structures of our teaching systems will make students’ movements easier and surely simplify the problems of employment for industrialists too. A word of warning here. I mentioned harmonization. Harmonization does not mean standardization. Other commissions are responsible for setting up student exchanges, for preparing programmes of training sessions in firms or for looking into the possibilities of producing and distributing teaching media. All Europel participants stressed the necessity of knowing the establishments and their teaching staff better. We must not only make a list of addresses and of possibilities offered by training centres concerning school subjects, pedagogical methods or other such things; we must also know the competency and specializations of establishments and their staff, and the services they can offer to their fellow

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European partners, to highlight their ‘complementarities’ and thus facilitate their interconnection. The first session of Europel, held in France in 1990, was made possible by the valuable help of the European Community Commission within the ERASMUS programme. Professor G. Kalantzopoulos (Greece) was elected chairman, Professor J. Mathieu (France) secretary and Professor P. Van Assche (Belgium) treasurer of Europel. The next meeting will be held in Athens, at the end of 1991. Europel will certainly reach fulfilment if it is granted time. Provided we are patient and consistent, this European Alliance of Dairy Teachers will be an efficient tool at the service of the European Community Dairy Industry, a model of cooperation, indeed a kind of modern trade-guild.

17 The Official Food Chemist in Germanyduties and education W. Baltes Institut fur Lebensmittelchemie, Berlin Technical University

The quality of food contributes essentially to people’s health. Most foodstuffs are mass-produced articles which can easily be adulterated. Therefore, control of food of inferior value or of spoiled products has always been important. It is evident that the first law in history (Hammurapi, 2 0 0 0 ~ was ~ ) a food law. It is carved into a stone monument exhibited in the Louvre in Paris. Authorities for food control existed in ancient Rome as well as in antique Athens. In Rome there was the Curu Orbis, which controlled the market. In Athens this duty was probably done by physicians and pharmacists. The Roman Curu Orbis, a hygiene police force controlling the public baths, taverns and markets, was subordinated to the Cura Annonae which was responsible for the distribution of wheat and oil, free of charge, to the people. And control was necessary: Apicius described the adulteration of semolina by chalk. When the Roman Emperor Augustus bought a chalk hill in order to erect a house he had to pay 5000 sesterces as compensation to the town of Naples every year. The necessity for using chemical methods in food control became clear in the case of proving the presence of lead in wine. It is well known that lead acetate has a sweet taste. This chemical compound is formed when wine is stored in leaden vessels such as were often used up to the late Middle Ages. At the German Reichstag in 1485, about 17000 litres of wine were consumed. Perhaps this excess produced some negative effects; in any case, at the next Reichstag, two laws relating to treatment with sulfur dioxide and lead acetate were passed. The first analytical method to test for lead in wine was the ‘toilet test’: the expert left a clothes rag which had been soaked with wine for some time hanging up near the toilet (which, at this time, was really a latrine); when lead was present in the wine, the hydrogen sulfide coming from the latrine coloured the rag black because of the formation of lead sulphide.

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About this time, German towns like Nuremberg appointed Guilds to check the food. People had realized that commercial experts were especially qualified to discover food frauds. The punishments were very drastic: the cutting off of hands or ears, burning, or ‘Schupfen’ (which means throwing persons guilty of the distribution of underweight bread into the local drain). On the other hand, a great many adulterations could not be discovered by legal examination. In these cases, physicians or pharmacists were engaged to check food and to watch over public hygiene. In the 18th century, chemists were engaged more and more to check food. For this purpose, a great many public laboratories were founded, e.g. in Bonn (1855). Munster (1871), Leipzig (1875), Hamburg (1878). The well-known private laboratory of R. Fresenius was founded in 1848. At this time a great many food adulterations and their analysis were known: heavy metals in flour; copper acetate in cucumbers; the colouring of sausages with cochineal, fuchsine or carmine; the preserving of minced meat by means of sulphur dioxide or nitrite. Veternarians did not contribute to these investigations; their responsibilities were limited to meat inspection against trichinas. Many people died due to trichinosis in the last century. The first food law for the whole of Germany, in 1879, prescribes the chemical and technological examination and assessment of foodstuffs, semi-luxury foods (e.g. alcoholic and tobacco products) and of articles of consumption like washing agents, cosmetics, articles of food packaging, tableware, cutlery and cooking pots. For the examination of these products, a special occupational group was founded, and their obligations as well as their education was regulated by law (1894). This occupational group was named ‘food chemists’ and the title was protected by law. Nevertheless, the food chemists did not receive a diploma like the Diplomchemiker: the exam they had to pass was a governmental one. The reason for this regulation may have been the realization that this group should be trained especially for practical requirements and duties, a training which could not be imparted by the universities. Therefore the decree relating to the education and examination of food chemists (Staatliche Ausbildungs und Prufungsordnung fur Lebensmittelchemiker von 1894) made the governmental laboratories responsible for the education as well as the examination of students. Fig. 1 shows schematically the education of food chemists in Germany during the time from 1894 to about 1965. Prerequisites for undertaking this education were: a full education in pharmacy or chemistry or a successful study of 2 years in chemistry and the Pre-diploma (which corresponds to the BSc in the UK). Pharmacists were able to begin the study of food chemistry immediately after their university exams because of their training in botany. Chemists had missed this education and therefore had to make good this gap by a course of 1semester. Because of the great demand by industry for chemists before World War 11, few of them chose this occupation. Therefore we find mostly pharmacists among the older food chemists. Since World War 11, production, industrial manufacture and distribution of food and articles of daily consumption have developed very quickly. This process has been accompanied by the multiple use of numerous compounds with special chemical, physical and microbiological properties, by the world-wide application of

The Official Food Chemist in Germany-duties and education

Ch. 17]

Completion of Pharmacy Study Apotheker

4 Semesters study of Chemistry Chemie- Vordiplom corresponding to SSc

143

8 Semesters study of Chemistry Diplomchemiker corresponding to MSc

Governmental Food Control Laboratory Job training for 18 months in: Chemistry; technology; food control; analysis and assessment of drinking-water, foodstuffs, semi-luxury foods and articles of consumption; food law; food toxicology; microbiology; microscopical analysis of food

Stsetlicb gepriifter Lebensmittelchemiker

Fig. 1. Schematic overview of the education of German food chemists in accordance with the 'old' regulation of 1894.

pesticides, herbicides and mineral fertilizers and by growing environmental problems. In addition, people have become more critical and aware of the problems in food. The citizen of today expects, besides a sufficient supply of food of high quality, that the risks for his health are detected very early and in time. Last but not least, he asks for a reliable product design and labelling which enables him to make an objective assessment of his food. These requirements made necessary a revision of the food chemist's education and employment. Today, food chemists are responsible for food and products of daily use from their development and manufacture to their distribution and arrival in the consumer's kitchen. Therefore food chemists are engaged in the following duties: health protection, environmental protection, protection of consumers against economic damage by deception and fraud. Last but not least, education, i.e. the examination and training of all occupational groups working in the field of consumer protection, is an important duty of the food chemist.

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Food chemists are employed in public administration, in governmental laboratories, in consumer organizations, research institutes and universities, in independent laboratories and in development-, research- and contfol-departments in industry. In this sense they carry a high degree of responsibility for public welfare. Therefore the title ‘Food Chemist’ in Germany is still protected by law. In governmental laboratories, food chemists investigate food and products in daily use by employing chemical, physical, microbiological and sensoric methods, and they assess their results in relation to the food laws. These investigations can be extended to drinking, bath and waste water, to environmental problems in the air, to garbage and its disposal, and to inquiries about chemical compounds which could damage human health. Also, samples of animal origin should be investigated by food chemists when chemical problems or methods are essential in their solution. Employees in public food control are also authorized to enter premises in which foodstuffs are produced or stored and to take samples for investigations. It can be assumed that food chemists of governmental laboratories will also control industrial quality-control laboratories in future. In every case, partnership and cooperation between governmental control laboratories and other food control facilities will be of advantage. Food chemists working in public administration assist in the preparation of legal and administrative regulations and draw up legal opinions for the administrative bodies, departments of public prosecution and courts of justice. Food chemistry can also be an independent profession. In Germany there exist more than 50 private laboratories which are responsible for the food quality control for industries which do not possess their own control facilities. They are often competent in import control analysis. Their owners are mostly food chemists who are also competent as ‘counter-sample’ expertst. They have been sworn in as public experts. Since 1965 the education of food chemistry students has been regulated by governmental laws published separately by each state of the Federal Republic of Germany. These laws concerning the study and examination of food chemists are almost identical. The structure is as follows:

1. Preliminary studies of not less than 4 semesters with an intermediate test: Vordiplorn. This test corresponds to the BSc (Bachelor of Science) in UK or USA. 2. Main studies of not less than 4 semesters with an additional semester for the First State Examination (Sraatspriifung 1 . Teil bzw. Teil A ) . This exam corresponds to the MSc (Master of Science) in UK or USA. In Germany it has a status equal to the title ‘Diploma Chemist’ (Diplomchemiker) even though no special thesis is required. The reasoning behind this regulation (as previously discussed) is in the importance of the practical examination. 3. The third part of the education is work experience as a pupil assistant in a governmental laboratory for one year. This training is then completed by the ?When a food sample is confiscated, the person accused can request a ‘counter-sample’ for assessment by an organization he himself has confidence in. This organization is normally an independent laboratory.

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The Official Food Chemist in Germany-duties

and education 145

Second State Examination. Only then does the food chemist have the qualification to practice his job. Food chemistry can be studied at 16 universities in Germany: University of Berlin Technical University of Berlin University of Bonn University of Braunschweig Technical University of Dresden University of Erlangen-Nurnberg University of Frankfurt am Main University of Hamburg

University of Kaiserslautern University of Karlsruhe University of Munich Technical University of Munich University of Miinster University of Stuttgart University of Wurzburg University of Wuppertal

About 50 governmental laboratories are licensed to train students during the third part of their education. The contents of the studies are mostly identical or at least similar. The preliminary studies are mostly identical to the corresponding studies of the chemists with an emphasis on inorganic, analytical, organic and physical chemistry, plus special introductory lectures in mathematics and physics. The only differences are the additional lectures and courses in botany or biology. As an example, the curriculum of the Technical University of Berlin is demonstrated in Table 1, which also supplies information on the time spent on each subject. The lectures and exercises in mathematics, physics and general chemistry are introductions to the natural sciences. The mathematical training is thorough and is found by some students to be very hard. On the other hand, this knowledge is essential to understand thermodynamics and statistics. The lectures on inorganic, organic and, of course, analytical chemistry are accompanied by practical courses which aim to impart some skill in carrying out experiments. The aim of the main studies in the curriculum of Food Chemistry is to impart knowledge about the special chemistry, technology and analytical methods for water, foodstuffs, semi-luxury products and articles of daily use, about the packaging materials and cosmetics used, and about their changes during manufacture, storage and transportation. The main course lectures are supplemented by special courses in biochemistry, nutrition, chemical toxicology, hygiene and microbiology. The practical courses in food analysis are particularly thorough. It is well known that foodstuffs are mostly mixtures of different groups, the separation of which requires special knowledge. These exercises for the analysis of pesticide residues, contaminants, mycotoxins or other dangerous compounds in food make use of modern methods such as capillary GC with special detectors (e.g. ECD, MS or NIMS). The practical analytical exercises listed in Table 2 deal with:

I:

Introduction to the special food chemical methods for fats, proteins and carbohydrates and to various foodstuffs such as water, butter, margarine, bread, cake, candy, chocolate, honey, noodles, meat and meat products. 11: Instruction in the methods for GC and other chromatographic procedures, electrophoresis, disc electrophoresis, isotachophoresis and immunology com-

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146 International trade and consumer protection

Table 1. Curriculum of Food Chemistry-preliminary Subject

Details

studies

Semester 1

2

3

2+2

2+2

2+2

4

4 1 AF

4

~

Mathematics

LE + EX

Physics

LE PR

General Chemistry

LE PR

Inorganic Chemistry

LE + SE PR

3+3 2 AF

Analytical Chemistry

LE + SE PR

2+1 1 AF

Organic Chemistry

LE PR

Physical Chemistry

LE + SE PR

Botany

LE PR

+ SE

+ SE

4+4 3 AF

2+1

4+8 4 AF 4+6 3 AF 2 Practical exercises (compact study course during the holidays)

LE = lecture; EX = Exercise; SE = seminar; PR = practical studies; AF = afternoon (12.00-18.00).

Numbers in table denote duration (hours) of lecture/demonstration/seminar.

bined with the analysis of meat (determination of the species of animal) and foreign protein in foods, vitamins, food additives, and the GC of fats, fatty acids and sugars. 111: In this course, toxicological analyses are performed. Beginning with preserving agents and other food additives a great many of the pesticides and contaminants are determined by the use of GC, capillary GC, GC/MS, AAS and other methods. The analytical background to these exercises is the introduction into the methods of AAS, capillary GC, reverse phase chromatography, MS and NIMS coupled with data systems. IV: This is a short course on the enzymatic analysis of food ingredients supplemented with the isolation and characterization of an enzyme. V: The last practical course deals with the analysis of plastics, packaging materials, cosmetics, washing agents and detergents by different chromatographic methods, GC and IR.

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Table 2. Curriculum for Food Chemistry-main

and education 147

studies

~~

Subject

Details 5

Food chemistry I, 11, I11 Biochemistry of foodstuffs and nutrition I, I1 Food analysis I, 11, I11 Products of daily use I, 11, I11 Chemical toxicology I, I1 Food law Microbiology for food chemists Food hygiene Microscopy of foodstuffs I, I1 Colloquium Excursion Practical exercises in food analysis I, 11,111, IV, v Accompanying seminar Microbiological exercises Microscopic food analysis Optional subject

LE LE LE LE LE LE LE LE LE

3 3 2

2

Semester 6 7 3 3

3

2 1

2 1

8

1

2 2

2 2

1 1

1

co

1

EX PR

1 7-8 weekslsemester; every day 8.00-18.00 3 3 3 4 5 2 2 2

SE PR PR

LE = lecture; CO = colloquium (series of lectures); EX = excursion to selected food industries; PR = practical exercises; SE = seminar. Numbers in table denote duration (hours) of lecture/demonstration/seminar.

It is clear that thorough instruction in the theory of chemical analysis is extremely important. Therefore these courses contain also exercises about recovery, statistics, GLP and, last but not least, trouble-shooting in instrumental methods. Conducting these courses is very expensive and requires a large staff. A great many of the instruments used in the courses are research instruments which are held in readiness when courses take place. We expect our students to be capable of solving without help food chemical problems, especially analytical questions, including the necessary separations and trace analytical methods. Students have to demonstrate their practical knowledge during the First State Examination which, among other things, contains two analytical problems, one about the composition and one about the toxic components respectively in a foodstuff. They have five days in which to complete the solution of each problem. The practical examination is finished by two microscopic analyses, one of a part of a plant, and one of a flour or mixture of spices, etc., which have to be described and identified. Analyses of this type require a good memory for the shapes of cells or cell fragments. An oral examination of about 1.5 hours on the chemistry of water, food, semi-luxury foods and articles of daily life with special regard to toxicology,

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technology and analytical problems as well as botany and the microbiology of food completes the examination. This ‘First State Examination’ enables the candidate to be employed as a pupil assistant in a governmental laboratory in order to learn the legal assessment of food and the problems of preventive consumer protection. This job is comparable to the employment of a civil service probationer, having passed his First State Examination. Our candidate now earns between DM 600 and 1200 per month. During this one-year period he is trained to decide independently on questions of product assessment and analysis. This phase ends with the Second State Examination for Food Chemists. It consists of the analysis and assessment of one sample each of water, a foodstuff and an article of daily life together with an oral examination about the food laws. While in the First Examination chemical and analytical knowledge were the first priority, now the qualification to assess food and to deliver an opinion predominates. About 50% of food chemists work subsequently on a thesis for the degree Dr rer. nat. (Doctor rerum nuturuliurn). This concentration and focusing on a scientific theme is very useful. This is borne out by the fact that my co-workers have mostly found a good position before their final examination. Indeed, the regulation of the State Examination is not very flexible, even though it depends on the goodwill of the members of 17 federal states. Nevertheless, there are many ideas on how to modify the education and examination of food chemists in order to take into account developments in food technology and trade. As an example, the substitution of the practical part of the exam by a diploma thesis is under discussion. The effect of this arrangement would be a growing scientific independence. Discussions concerning this point have been accelerated by the fact that, in the former GDR, food chemists finished their studies with the title ‘Diploma Food Chemist’ (Diplom-LebensmitteEchemiker). These titles are preserved by the decree of unification between the FRG and GDR. In any case, more and more universities demand a scientific thesis taking several months without bestowing a special title. It can be assumed that the title Diplom will also be used for all German food chemists in the near future despite the fact that they will not be able to do a job in preventive consumer protection before finishing the second part of the State Examination.

18 Retailing, catering and food processing needs B. Hallstrom Lund University, Sweden ABSTRACT

In order to understand the needs for academic-level staff in the food system, this chapter first tries to investigate today’s tendencies in this system in Europe. With reference to the FAST publications structural changes, some technical developments and consumer attitudes are discussed. The food system in Europe will in the future be much more internationally integrated and this will influence the development of all elements of the food chain and require new and different roles for many of tomorrow’s food technologists. An outline diagram of the food chain is given and the elements of this chain are defined: production, processing, distribution and catering. The food chain is, however, not an isolated system, and its interactions with other industries and activities in society are demonstrated. The corresponding contacts and cooperation for these interactions also require food technologists with special knowledge. In conclusion, there is a need to integrate several new subjects into the curricula of the universities teaching food technology students, in order for them to meet the needs of tomorrow, or maybe already today. But the students’ programmes are already full and this results in a dilemma: it is not possible to add more courses if we do not take away something else.

1. INTRODUCTION

In order to give a background to the needs for academic-level staff in the system, it is important to try to define the food chain and its elements and also to try to investigate the trends and influences in this system in Europe. This is shown in outline in Fig. 1. The future of the food chain in Europe-as well as in other parts of the world-will depend on several factors, which are more or less difficult to predict. Some of these are:

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Technical development

Structural changes

[Pt. 5 Consumer attitudes

The FOOD CHAIN Production - -..... Processing - -..... Distribution -----. Consumption

Fig.!.

• Structural changes of the food chain • Technical developments • Consumer attitudes. These problems are discussed in detail in the FAST publications and they are only summarized here to the extent they are important in this context. 2.

STRUCTURAL CHANGES

The FAST programme summarizes expected structural changes in Europe under the heading 'The Future of the Food System'. Of these, the following are of interest for this topic: -

-

-

The food chain is expected to become more concentrated. Even if there are major variations between countries and between product sectors the general trend is obvious. The situation is similar at all stages of the food chain: production units are increasing in size, food processing plants are becoming larger, concentration in retailing is expected to increase, distribution companies will increase in size. Increased integration and cooperation is expected to take place, e.g. primary producers-food processors, units of ownership in agriculture, multinational companies, food processors-retailers. International flows in the food chain both within and outside the European Community are increasing. All elements of the food chain are facing the requirements of environmental protection. This is a very strong influence which will need the utmost consideration from management.

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Retailing, catering and food processing needs 151

3. TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENTS The single most pronounced development trend is the increasing use of process automation. The computer can be used for several purposes in small-scale as well as in large-scale manufacturing, in packaging, in stores and in distribution. Automation and robots provide several possibilities for improving working conditions. There is a great interest in processes to increase the keeping quality, e.g. asgppfic processing. Increased international trade calls for product stability; and here, not only aseptic processing is of interest, but also processes and especially packaging which can present a ‘fresh’ product for from a few days to some weeks after production and processing. ‘Fresh’ products from refrigeration will, it is expected, increase, and increased food industry/packaging/refrigeration cooperation will probably lead to interesting developments. Food irradiation is on the threshold of introduction and in spite of general public suspicion, the advantages of this process will slowly lead to more p oducts on the market. The influence of the new, iotechnofogy in production and processing is tending to come much later than expected. Plant protection agents and breeding for meat production are biotechnology areas which have already been introduced. The food chain produces a large amount of waste materials, which because of the organic content brings problems. These problems, however, may often find interesting solutions. Here again, biotechnology is involved. The packaging is another environmental problem of today’s food chain.

1

4. CONSUMER ATTITUDES There is today an increased consumer consciousness of the health aspects of food. This leads to a growing concern about the nutritional value of food, the food origin and composition, the processing conditions, the packaging and labelling, etc. It is up to the different parts of the food chain to present serious information to the consumers on these matters. There are also other tendencies in our eating habits which are of importance for processing, packaging and distribution, such as:

- more prepared and part-prepared foods - more convenience foods - more food to be microwaved - more ‘light’ food - growing interest in price-product quality-service - demand for ‘fresh’ products.

relationships

5 THE ELEMENTS OF THE FOOD CHAIN A simplified diagram of the main elements of the food chain is given in Fig. 2, and these elements are expanded upon in the next four subheadings.

152 International trade and consumer protection

Primary food producers

[Pt. 5

Final consumers

Processing

Distribution

Fig. 2.

5.1 Production This element of the food chain is not considered in this chapter, but it must be emphasized that there is an increasing cooperation and need for cooperation with the subsequent steps of the chain. There is need for increased knowledge about each others' problems, and in order to meet this, the processing industries need people with food raw material knowledge. In most cases, food technology training does not consider this sufficiently, at least not at technical universities. Optimization of production-processing is at the present time considered only in a few areas of the food industry. 5.2 Food processing This is very diversified, but may be roughly divided into three groups: primary processing, secondary processing, an the manufacturing of prepared and convenience foods. Primary processing covers those industries close to the producers, processing the raw materials to bulk products like flour, sugar and oil, or preserving the commodities in or near the fresh form, e.g. bottling, canning and freezing of vegetables and fruit. In this sector the need for raw material knowledge is especially pronounced. Secondary processing is exemplified by breakfast cereals, biscuits, chocolate and sugar confectionaries and other uses of the semi-raw materials from primary processing. Manufacturing of prepared and convenience foods is a fast-growing sector of this industry, involving the attempt to transfer kitchen technique into industrial methods. This type of industry is, so far, suffering the most from the lack of trained technologists and engineers. 5.3 Distribution This is here defined as the activities covering wholesale and retail and also all kinds of transportaion and storage between the producer and the consumer. This chain

Ch. 181

Retailing, catering and food processing needs 153

has to work under conditions specified with regard to the individual foodstuffs, and it is of the utmost importance that the conditions defined really are under control. Here we find the weakest points in the food chain, often resulting in quality degradation. Some examples are given in order to demonstrate the different products and problems involved.

- Bulk products which have long keeping quality like sugar and flour: no temperature requirements are normally specified but humidity should be within defined limits; - Refrigerated products: storage normally is not a problem but transport may be problematic especially the interfaces between the different parts of the chain; - Chilled products: require strict temperature control during transport and storage and, furthermore, the total life time is limited; - Sterile products with prolonged keeping quality: normally not a problem; - Products like fresh fruit and vegetables: require special atmosphere. Planning, organizing, supervising and controlling these parts of the chain requires a fundamental knowledge of the microbiology and the chemistry of foodstuffs, as well as of hygiene.

5.4 Catering Today, catering represents 15-20% of total food consumption in Europe, but the structure is very diversified in all respects: size, technology, organization, etc. Catering is growing faster than other elements of the food chain and is probably lacking technical and technological development more than any other element. 5.5 The environment of the food system The interfaces of the food chain to other industries and activities in society are demonstrated in Fig. 3. Even though these activities are not further discussed in this chapter, the corresponding contacts and cooperation do require special food technology knowledge. 6.

EXAMPLES OF EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Food-oriented curricula at most universities have an educational programme which normally includes: - food chemistry - microbiology - biochemistry

- nutrition - food technology -,food engineering.

Normally there are also possibilities for the student interested in one of these subjects to deepen hidher knowledge in that field by further studies leading to a higher degree, and to a special position in the food system or at a university.

[Pt. 5

154 International trade and consumer protection ' I

Machinery Packaging equipment Vehicles etc

consumers

Y

Water Energy Packaging materials Chemicals

Waste Environmental disturbances etc

Fig 3

As will be seen from the previous discussion, there is however also a need for additional knowledge (and application of the knowledge from the basic studies) to enable the individual students to fit into the different specialized positions of the future food system in Europe. Some examples of these necessary additional topics are (where such courses are not already included in the syllabus of the university):

raw materials and product characteristics production planning, organization, management distribution, logistics, marketing packaging hygiene environmental protection, waste management economics. CONCLUSION

There is however a dilemma. The students' programmes are already full; it is not possible to add more courses within the time specified without taking away

Retailing, catering and food processing needs 155

Ch. 181

University curriculum in Food Science &Technology 4-5 years

Doctorate studies 3-5 years

Short courses in specialized subjects

University curriculum in non-food subjects

Short courses in food subjects

something else. And we are reluctant to do this. One possibility, therefore, is to arrange courses for the students after their main course examinations, either in connection with the previous studies or for students who have already found a position in the food system and then can recognize hidher further needs. All types of courses cannot be arranged at all universities. But courses could be arranged by international cooperation, each university having its own speciality and the ability to arrange a course in its own way. It must be added that there is also a need for non-food students to have access to courses in food subjects. This could be arranged in a similar way, with courses at special universities. See Fig. 4. Finally, it should be pointed out that there are major differences between the food systems in the different countries in Europe and between courses in different universities; therefore, what is presented in this chapter may not be applicable in all cases. LITERATURE

The FAST I1 Programme: European Futures, Summaries. J. A . Dawson, S. A. Shaw, S. Burt and J. Rona: Structural Change and public policy in the European Food Industry. Part I, F O P no. 115 F A S T , Brussels 1986.

19 The needs of the European consumer Walter Feldheim Institute of Human Nutrition and Food Science, Christian Albrecht University, Kiel, Germany According to a marketing study performed by agencies in Spain, Italy, France, Great Britain and Germany, the uniform European consumer is still unborn. Differences in consumer behaviour and needs in the different European countries can be expected to continue in the future, protected by national attitudes and languages. This is quite normal and is seen, for example, between the French- and the Anglo-Saxon Canadians, or between the English- and Spanish-speaking populations in California. But, in all the countries of the European Community, there have been great changes in consumer habits and a disintegration of the traditional consumer structures. Instead of the uniform behaviour of consumers as groups in relation to their yesterday’s experience, we have today the more individual ways of the single consumer. People now enjoy experiments with the unknown. The frequency of this change is linked to the percentage of the different age groups in a country. The population of Europe will amount to 362 million in the year 2025, but the growth is coming mainly from increase of population in the Mediterranean areas. Here, the younger part of the population is increasing rapidly, while in countries like Switzerland and Germany with low birthrates, the percentage of elderly people is increasing. As a result of these opposite trends in the development of age groups in the Member Countries, quite different patterns of consumer behaviour may be observed in the future. Of course, there are already today some transnational consumer groups which act in a similar way and exist in many of the European countries. The members of these groups belong to different age classes: 1.

2.

‘Fans for Europe’, mainly in the age group 20-40 years, with a high income, and a high education level. ‘People looking for new frontiers’, mainly of the age group 45-60 years, with high aspirations, sufficient money and high professional level.

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The needs of the European consumer 157

People of the age group 55-64 years, looking for new activities after they have finished their first professional career. 4/5. The ‘active sixties and seventies’, interested in health and nutrition problems and fitness activities.

3.

This is a vivid picture of very different lifestyles with different needs-causing distinct reactions in the market and requiring distinct marketing strategies. The share of these groups is about 8-10% in Europe, covering 7-12% of the age groups, but their consumption power is substantial, due to their high income. Members of these groups could act as trend-setters for the other consumers. It is clear, that the general needs of the consumer are concerned with the safety of foods and food processing, food control, the use of additives and other topics. The consumer expects that the most recent results in food science and food technology will be considered. The best proposals of the consumer organizations and the strongest state legislation in favour of the consumer for protection should be discussed and recommended as guidelines for the European states. Let me now approach this topic from a different point of view. To exist, every human body has needs for energy, water and different nutrients such as vitamins, minerals and trace elements. The amounts necessary depend on age, height and weight, occupation, biological situation-and not on nationality. These wellknown facts have been verified by numerous scientific experiments. The nutritional needs are nearly the same in all regions of Europe. Independent of the profession-whether a person is a busdriver, or a farmer, or a surgeon-a certain amount of energy is required for the performance of this work in addition to the basal energy needs. But this energy may be derived from ham and eggs in the UK, from noodles and spaghetti in Italy, from cheese, baguette and red wine in France; it is not necessary to devise a standard European food conception to cover these needs. On the contrary, the surplus of energy foods in a particular country may equally be used by the consumers of other countries. The recipe books of countries will be enriched by the dishes of their neighbours, enlarging and improving the quality of the national dishes. Better understanding between Europeans, achieved by means of youth travels, student exchange, partnerships between communities and other factors, is an effective tool in the promotion of this development. But with respect to nutritional problems, the different European countries have something in common. Most of the heavy mechanical labouring work of yesterday is done now by engines and will be done tomorrow by computers or robots-but the amount of energy daily consumed now by the working person is still the same as for yesterday’s need. In Germany, with an average general daily energy intake recommendation of 10 MJ (2500 kcal) per head, the daily consumption is 13 MJ (over 3000 kcal) and more, per head. This value has remained nearly constant during the last 10 years and has not been influenced by all the enlightenment campaigns of the consumer organizations. The informed consumer knows very well what he is doing, but the availability of foodstuffs from all parts of the world at any time of the year is too great a temptation. This leads to overnutrition and overweight, both of which affect the health of a high percentage of the German

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population. In Germany, a high percentage of the population is suffering from modern diseases resulting from overeating, and the Secretaries of State or Ministers for Health have to provide large amounts of money to repair the damage, as manifested in the form of coronary heart disease, high blood pressure, constipation, gout, diabetes, etc. The problems are quite similar at least in the well-off countries of Europe; the others will be confronted with the same situation later. There is an urgent demand for help. Of course, nearly every consumer with a weight problem has tried at least once to lose weight. Following special dietary directions he has been successful, but usually only for a short time. After returning to the previous eating habits the former weight is soon reached again. The reasons for that behaviour are that the consumer is rating the pleasure of eating higher than the health value of a foodstuff or dish. Food restriction causes hunger, and foodstuffs with a lower fat and cholesterol level in comparison to the usual food often show reduced flavour and taste. Therefore, there exists a need for all European countries to solve this problem using new methods with the target of improving the health prospects of the consumer and saving the money of the Secretary of State for Health. The European food technologists have been asked to react in this direction. With the help of modern food technology it seems possible to solve this problem. On the other hand, it is not easy to change the behaviour of the consumer, so that he/she values health higher than pleasure and eats less food. For success in this problem, it seems necessary to produce foodstuffs and dishes with the same texture, flavour and taste and the old foodstuffs but with a lower energy value. The objective in mind is to provide the consumers with all the pleasure of eating plus the advantages of a high health value in the diet. The dream of a fat man with a weight problem is to eat very rich dishes and to lose body weight at the same time. As an example for this, we must consider the possibility of reducing the energy value of a foodstuff as in the use of higher extraction flours in breadmaking. By increasing the relative dietary fibre and water content of the bread, the energy content is reduced. Within certain limits of exchange, the taste and structure are not influenced, and in addition the higher intake of fibre does prevent constipation. The introduction of carbohydrates with a low digestibility such as polydextrose or other filling agents is another method for energy reduction. We are here just at the beginning of a promising new area. So far as lipids are concerned, it is not easy to reduce the fat content without influencing the texture, taste and flavour. Full-fat cheese tastes better than a similar low-fat product. By removing the fat, most of the fat-soluble constituents of the material are extracted. Here perhaps special methods for fractionation must be developed. Another important limitation is the lesser efficiency of flavour components with lower fat content. Therefore, new ideas for lipids with lower digestibility must be searched for. First steps have been made already. Perhaps the use of an emulsifier may compensate for the disadvantages of fat reduction. The use of protein-based substances instead of fat has been discussed.

Ch. 191

The needs of the European consumer 159

It could be that some consumer groups resist the use of this concept, because they prefer organic, natural-grown, low-processed products. Here, there is a need for better education procedures for the consumers in the field of nutrition, especially concerning the energy value of foodstuffs. It is difficult to translate the scientific results of research, couched in such terms as ‘nutrient density’, into the simple language of the consumer. We have developed a new system of key numbers for foods and dishes, giving the consumer advice about energy, fat calories, proteins, vitamins, dietary fibre and minerals in the diet. With the help of this system, it seems possible to control the energy intake of every consumer on a selfchosen diet in an easy way. The balance could be set up by simple calculation procedures or by computer methods. In conclusion, the needs of the European consumer in the field of nutrition are the well-known, unsolved old problems of the consumers of the different nations at a higher level. There is much to be done by the food scientist and technologist, sufficient work for the younger generations: development of new foods with low energy and/or improvement of the education methods of the consumers-these are the main points. To solve these problems, better cooperation between the nutritionists-knowing the problems very well-and the food scientists and technologists-having the tools to create the new foodstuffs-is essential.

20 A course in Food Science and Society G. Meerdink, M. A. J. S. van Boekel and A. H. E. van Hengel? Department of Food Science and tDepartment of Philosophy, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands ABSTRACT The desirability of many new developments in the production of food is questioned by the public many times. Food scientists and universities play an active role in both the introduction of new technologies and products and in the discussions about the desirability of these developments. In the Food Science curricula, however, very little or no time is spent on training students in analysing and judging such developments. The course in Food Science and Society, developed at the Agricultural University in Wageningen, is an attempt to fill this gap. The course introduces students to the philosophy of science, of technology and of society. All these three elements are considered necessary to enable students to judge actual developments in food science. A specific problem is treated by the students in a case study. The course is an integral part of the Food Science curriculum at Wageningen and is well appreciated by students. 1. INTRODUCTION

The production of food is a subject of on-going interest to the public and politicians. The introduction of new products and processes, improved insights into the relationship between food and health, introduction of biotechnological principles in production processes, higher quality demands of the consumers, the use of non-traditional ingredients in traditional products, changing national and international (EC) legislation etc. , all have become part of a widespread public 'debate between the many different participants involved (industry, consumers, (non-) governmental organizations, political parties, farmers and scientists). All these participants have different (usually conflicting) interests and opinions about the desirability of specific new developments and they advocate alternative solutions to the problems.

Ch. 201

A course in Food Science and Society 161

Universities and scientists play an important role in the introduction of new processes and products, particularly in exploring the scientific possibilities and backgrounds of these processes and products, as well as in the public discussions about the desirability of new developments. One of the traditional tasks of scientists and universities is to give a critical and independent analysis and judgement, in terms of desirability, improvement and progress, of problems and developments in the production of food. This process results in a selection of problems which have to be tackled and/or developments which have to be supported. Such an analysis always forms, implicitly or explicitly, the background to existing research programmes at universities. In the scientific education of food science students, very little or no attention is paid to this analysis and judgement process as such. Students are not trained in this important aspect of their professional life; yet, during their professional career (and personal life) most of them will be involved in (public) discussions about new developments. The reasons for this omission in many Food Science curricula are multiple. An important reason, we think, is that many of the scientists involved in the development of new processes and products are convinced of the ‘unproblematical’ character of the developments and that public discussions mostly lack the knowledge on the matter in question. Also, we frequently encounter the idea that a rational discussion about these questions is impossible and that no positive results or scientifically valuable ideas can arise from such a discussion. Others defend the point of view that food science is an ‘exact’ science, like chemistry and physics, and may not be mixed up with ‘politics’, at least not at a university and in the training of food science students. Another important point is that the scientific staff themselves barely had any ‘training’ in this subject. In the Food Science curriculum at Wageningen Agricultural University, a course in Food Science and Society was introduced a few years ago, as a joint project of the departments of Food Science and Philosophy. This course was the result of a long-lasting discussion between students and the scientific staff about the need for and the content of such a course. In this chapter we now more precisely discuss the aim, the content and the organization of this course. This will include some basic viewpoints of our own on the relationship between food science and society. Also some of the experiences we had in teaching and developing this (really new) course will be discussed.

2. AIM OF THE COURSE AND SOME IDEAS ABOUT FOOD SCIENCE AS A TECHNOLOGICAL SCIENCE

The starting-point of the course in Food Science and Society is that a food scientist should have the competency to:

- analyse and judge developments in the production of food: the developments have to be justified using some global criterion like ‘progress’. Questions to be answered are: Is that what we want? Who will benefit fro‘m this developmentand who will be disadvantaged?

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to give these judgements a rational structure: the judgements should be based on valid reasoning and argument. Although this is difficult, universities and scientists have the task of developing rational evaluations and criteria for judging developments in the food production area. to give these judgements a criticial character: the judgements must specify which problems have still to be solved, which problems are unsatisfactorily solved, in which areas progress should be made or what is already satisfactorily solved. This critical character is a basic value for both science and our society; it is related to the generally accepted idea that real improvement both in science and our society is only possible by applying rational knowledge. Food science, being one of the technological sciences, is considered to occupy an intermediate position between society and the academic sciences, such as chemistry, biology and physics. The food scientist operates as an intermediary between social needs and problems in relation to food and food production on the one hand, and scientific knowledge on the other. A crucial point in the case is that it is not a priori given what exactly the social needs and problems are and what the scientific possiblities are. Both questions are open to discussion and research. They need interpretation and judgement. The results of this discussion determine in the end how a social need is met. The food scientist as a technological scientist is engaged in a bargaining process between social needs and material possibilities. Food science is often compared with the academic sciences, because of the practical use it makes of the results and methods which are used in those sciences, but it is not an academic science itself. There are profound differences between them. One of the differences is that the object of the academic sciences is nature as it is, while the study object of technological sciences (and food science among them) is a human productive practice, interacting in ‘man-made’ nature. Food science studies human activities, processes and products created by man, related to the production and distribution of food. Academic sciences try to explain and understand nature for its own sake. Food science tries to develop new or to improve existing processes and products, based on ideas about the undesirability of the existing situation or to cope with future developments. Food science contributes to the change of existing practices in food production. The wishes, possibilities and justifications for further ‘change’ are in principle not given by ‘nature’, but are a result of a trade-off in economic, social, political, ethical etc. arguments; it interprets abstract notions as progress, improvement and desirability in practical (food-related) terms. This interpretation is open to criticism as opposed to nature itself, which is studied by the academic sciences. Linked to these ideas is the concept of technology as a social construction; the introduction of new technologies can only be successful if it is accompanied by social change. In the food science literature and research, and Food Science curricula, attention is mostly limited to the physical (and economical aspects) of food production, and almost no research is done and no training is given in answering the questions posed above.

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Perhaps one of the reasons that food science research and training is limited to the physical aspects of the production of food lies in the widespread conviction that discussion about social needs and problems related to the production of food has a strong subjective basis and that rational argument and criticism is impossible; whereas, in contrast, the idea exists that the physical phenomena studied have an objective and measurable basis and that therefore rational discussions are possible. Recent work in the philosophy of science (for example by Thomas Kuhn) elucidates, however, that this so-called value-free, objective knowledge is also actually based on ‘agreements’, consensus between large groups of scientists, and therefore has only an inter-subjective character. As a result, scientific knowledge is, while used in practical contexts, not intrinsically superior in comparison to other forms of knowledge, as has been thought for a long time. On the other hand, some philosophers, like Jurgen Habermas, argue that also in the area of normative discussions about social needs, problems and the justification of solutions, rational and valid argumentation and reasoning is indeed possible. Also in the normative basis of society, a broad background consensus can be found, and rational argument and the development of new consensus takes place, in a way comparable to the build-up of knowledge of physical phenomena. This means that rational argument and criticism is in principle possible concerning developments in food science, and also that development of rational criteria for judging these developments is necessary, and should belong to the area of food science; because without explicit reference to rational interpretations of values like progress and development of social desirability, food science cannot claim to enhance the rationality of (the material reproduction of) society. The problem we face is, however, that there is no easy list of ‘criteria’ to judge scientific developments available, only some very general ideas. As a consequence, the course is open-ended: there are no ‘exact’ answers-only a method of approach for these matters can be offered and inculcated. 3. THEORETICAL PART OF THE COURSE IN FOOD SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

In the theoretical part of the course, three topics are treated, namely: philosophy of science, philosophy of society and philosophy of technology. All these three elements are necessary ingredients to a course in food science and technology, with the aims as formulated in the previous section. In the science part, questions such as ‘What is science?’ and, ‘Is scientific knowledge superior to other forms of knowledge?’ are raised [l].The standard view of science (Wiener Kreis), the socalled empirical cycle, is discussed, including the criticism of this standard view, as formulated by Popper and Kuhn. Also the ideas of Habermas [2] about science and the possibility of rational discussions about (social) values, standards and aims are included. In the philosophy of technology, questions are answered such as, ‘What is technology?’ ‘What are the differences between the technological and academic

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sciences?’ and ‘Is it possible to criticize technology?’[3]. Attention is paid to the problem of the origin of technological change: is it an autonomous process? or is technology a social construction? Special attention is paid to food science and the ancient and modern developments in food production. The production of food takes place in a social context. It is therefore necessary to have an appropriate ‘model’ of society, or a social philosophy, to analyse and critically judge the impact of technological developments on science and vice versa. Based on this model, some general criteria for evaluating technological changes are developed. In this part of the course, extensive use is made of the concepts like system, lifeworld, power, communication and rationality, developed by Jurgen Habermas on the structure of our modern western society and its development[2]. 4. ORGANIZATION OF THE COURSE The course consists of two parts: a theoretical part with a content as discussed earlier, and a case study. The theoretical part is studied and discussed in several workshops, and some lectures are given to introduce and to stress the connection between the different parts. For the discussion, lecture notes are available. The workshops are not only intended to improve the understanding of students of the theories presented, but also to confront their already existing, but unspoken, ideas about science, technology, society, and the relations between them with ideas discussed in the lecture notes. In the case study, a group of students work on a specific actual development in food science, the production of food, or external developments which may influence the way how or what kind of food is produced. Examples are: the introduction of genetically modified microorganisms in food production processes, the use of non-traditional ingredients in traditional products (for example: the use of vegetable oils or proteins in dairy products), the relation between food and health and the development of new ‘healthy’ products and the introduction of ‘new’ preservation techniques like irradiation. In such a case study, the emphasis does not lie on the technological aspects of the development under study; instead, students have to draw up points such as who are involved in or affected by this development, which interests are involved, who will or will not benefit, and, even more important, which opinions or ideas are used to judge whether such a development is desirable or not. Finally, students have to analyse, discuss and judge the legitimacy of the opinions and ideas expressed. Information about these aspects of development in food production are often not found in the ‘real’ food science literature, and so other sources of information must then be used: newspapers, magazines and interviews with the different persons involved. The aim of the case study is to show students that also in the area of food production many developments exist which have in principle a ‘problematical’ character and that rational discussion about the desirability of these matters is possible. Another aim is, of course, to train and show students that the theoretical notions discussed in the workshops can be used in analysing practical issues.

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The course is given to 3rd or 4th year undergraduate students in Food Science. The course is optional, but is followed by about 60% of all our students. The size of the course is equivalent to 3 weeks’ study (120 hours).

5. EXPERIENCES AND CONCLUSIONS The course has been developed over the last five years and is to our knowledge unique. Consequently, many of the materials and methods used have had to be developed from scratch. In particular, the combination of a theoretical part and a case study related to food production has been shown to be very fruitful. Students in general appreciate this course, especially because its approach to problems in food production is quite different from the normal approach. Also, it gives them a better insight into the study they are following and its relationship to developments in society. On the other hand, reading, understanding and applying philosophical texts and ways of thinking is not so easy as the students had often expected at the beginning of the course; they underestimated the time it takes to really understand these matters. In this ‘respect, this course is found to be difficult and complex. The course, as it is now, gives students a good idea of the position of science and technology in society in a ‘theoretical’ sense together with the relation between these theoretical notions and the developments in food science; it also trains students how to judge them. One of the problems we encounter is that there does not exist any such subject as an elaborate philosophy of food science, to give a background for the rational analysis and critical evaluation of actual developments in food science and production. Such a philosophy has yet to be developed and it would be very useful if research in that area could be taken up by food science departments. REFERENCES [l]A. F. Chalmers, Whar is this thing called Science?, Open University Press, Milton Keynes, 1978. [2] J. Habermas, Technology and Science as ‘Ideology’, in: Toward a Rational Society, Beacon Press, Boston, 1970. [3] D. McKenzie and J. Wajcman (eds), The Social Shaping of Technology, Open University Press, Milton Keynes, 1985.

21 Scientists for international trade and consumer protection: Legal requirements Alain Gerard Food Law Research Centre, Institute for European Studies, UniversitC Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium 1.

GENERAL ASPECTS OF A MODERN FOOD LAW

Legal requirements arising from food law have developed considerably since the end of the 1950s (a result, in part of the influence of the 1958 Food Additives Amendment Act in the United States). It is clear that such evolution characterizes mainly the legislation of industrial countries with a market economy system, by virtue of their wide scientific and technological development. The said legal rules have naturally to be taken into account in the education and training of all those who are involved in the manufacturing, processing and trading of food products, in accordance with efficient consumer protection conditions as to the nature and composition of the food products and as to their appropriate labelling. Although food law is now considered as a specific sector of law, we must recognize that it has still only a very small place in the educational programmes of universities or technical institutes. This is mainly due to its interdisciplinary character which has as a result the prevention of universities and other educational institutions in dedicating a substantial part of their teaching to food legislation. It cannot be denied, however, that lawyers could hardly proceed in an autonomous way since they have to refer to objective data provided by scientists to draft legislation dealing with such matters as the composition of a food and the prevention of harmful effects. Lawyers therefore need the assistance of scientific or technical experts, who must consider several avenues (e.g., nutrition chemistry, toxicology, food technology, economic and social implications) to draft efficient regulations and to ascertain, when appropriate, that a manufacturer or a trader has not complied with the existing provisions. On the other hand, scientists and technologists need lawyers’ cooperation when they have to design and establish a system of regulation likely to comply both with

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the basic legal requirements that govern human activities and with the technical needs and methods of food control. This is particularly relevant for public authorities who are in charge of food control. Another main characteristic of food law in the last decade of this century results from the trend in development of international trade by harmonizing legal requirements and defining standards likely to be applicable in a large variety of States. This mainly applies, of course, within the European Community, although many efforts have been made towards the elaborating of worldwide international food standards utilizing the framework of the Joint FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission. This type of evolution must be considered carefully, since it tends to modify considerably the future of food law by making the strictly national aspects less predominant than in former times. Thus it appears that food law is tending, relatively, to a kind of international levelling, taking into account the manufacturer’s or the trader’s interest whenever they are expecting enlarged markets, but also the consumer’s interest in so far that he may benefit from a wider choice of products. 2.

CHANGING NEEDS CALLING FOR CONSTANT ADAPTATION

Food law has therefore to face up to a growing complexity in its attempt to fulfill its general objectives of consumer protection and fair trading of food products in a defined market. The efficiency of the consumer protection is not only conditioned by the practical means that are made available (in terms of trained personnel, laboratories, etc.) but also by the fitness of the legislation to achieve its particular objectives. This implies an improved contribution of food scientists and technologists to the preparation and to the implementation of the regulations, as well as a better acquaintance by lawyers with all the specific problems involved. Since we are living in a very rapidly changing world, there is a call, however, for repeated adaptations of food regulations. On the other hand, there is a natural tendency for all legal systems to keep a certain degree of continuity. Obviously these two conflicting requirements tend to oppose each other. Although the static character of regulations has its merit in maintaining a certain beneficial steadiness, it can at the same time shackle progress and create a need for constant adaptation. What should therefore be aimed for, is a good balance between those two trends, which can be achieved by adapting the structures and processes for the elaboration of the regulations, both at the national and at the international level. Adaptation, however, does not mean that food legislation cannot anticipate future evolution. On the contrary, a juridical structure aimed at prevention is essential for ensuring consumer protection. If we take as an example the regulation on the use of food additives, it is clear that such a regulation cannot be restricted to simply correcting harmful effects, which was still the case during the first half of this century. Today, the ‘positive list’ system is widely considered as the most efficient one for the prevention of health hazards and, therefore, it has been adopted expressly as the basis of the EC

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harmonized rules concerning additives. On the other hand, a coherent effort in drafting preventative regulations must define reasonable priorities and aim at the best use of available means to satisfy the most urgent safety requirements. (This is of course a matter depending on the health policy, to be dealt with by scientific experts). If the positive list principle appears as the most appropriate to regulate those categories of added substances intended to fulfill a specific function in a given type of product, it is clear that a legal definition of the additive must determine the limits of the field of application of the law (even if such definition may be not exactly coincident with the nutritional or chemical concepts). This can create some difficulties at the level of the implementation of the law, particularly when harmonized rules have to be elaborated in an international context, in that a given substance added to food may be legally considered as an additive, and ruled as such, in one country, while in another country it is simply considered as a food ingredient (the EC case being, here again, specially relevant). Additionally, consideration must be given to the fact that the said system of regulation can be less convenient for preventing health hazards likely to result from the presence in food of other substances, such as certain types of contaminants, which can raise practical difficulties in their identification or evaluation. In such a case the positive list system may be restricted to defined contaminants (e.g. pesticide residues), while others may be controlled under appropriate limits of concentration of specific residues or by means of legally defined manufacturing or processing methods for those products that are usually affected. Processing aids, which are used in foods for technological reasons although they have no role to play in the finished products, may also in certain cases be unlikely to be regulated like food additives and should probably be subject to partial positive lists restricted to specific categories of them according to the health hazard priorities. Others could be managed under recommended manufacturing practices or under specific limitations of their residues. Viewing the forthcoming development of the food industry, we must also take into account the growing demand for non-traditional food products (novel foods), that will result in a need to prevent all obstacles to industrial innovation which are not reasonably justified by basic requirements for ensuring health protection and fair trading of products. Qualified scientists and specialized lawyers will therefore have to collaborate to adapt current regulations and to establish a good balance between food control and economic development without being prejudicial to consumer interests. As you may know, the international aspect of this problem has led the European Commission to prepare a proposal for a directive (still under consideration) concerning novel food ingredients and novel food processes. t tIt may be mentioned that the 8th International Congress of the European Food Law Association, organized in Luxembourg in October 1990, jointly with the European Commission, has been devoted to Food Law and Novel Foods. The papers of that congress will be available in the course of 1991, to be published in Spain by the international review Alimentalex (c/o ‘Alimentaria’, Sandoval 12, E-28010Madrid).

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3. THE TEACHING OF FOOD LAW IN A FEW WESTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

A few years ago a tentative inquiry concerning the teaching or training in the field of food law was undertaken by the European Food Law Association. Replies to a questionnaire were received from administrative correspondents or qualified experts in France, the United Kingdom, the Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, Spain and Switzerland. Although they showed a rather diverse situation, certain general conclusions may be reached. These can be outlined as follows: (a) In universities and higher education institutions some limited information on legal requirements relating to food may be included in curricula devoted to pharmacology, veterinary sciences, agronomy, nutrition or dietetics etc. without forming a course for the specific teaching of food law, and this was apparent in practically all the countries involved in the inquiry. There are, however, some university departments or high schools that specialize in the training for food science and technology (e.g. the ENSIA in Massy, Douai or Nancy in France, the University of Reading in the UK), and here food standards and some relevant aspects of food legislation are considered. Subsequent to our inquiry, the Institute for analytical chemistry and quality control of the University of Aix-Marseille 111, in France, has developed a programme in which the teaching of food law occupies a more substantial part. However, the academic teaching of food law in law schools or law faculties is still exceptional, even though programmes concerning the distribution and consumption law are being developed in France, mainly in the Universities of Dijon and of Montpellier. In fact, these programmes include only very limited aspects of food law. This aspect appears thus not to be systematically considered, in any European countries, for the training of specialized lawyers, even as an optional subject. (b) Regarding the training in food law by professional institutes: some specialized training programmes do grant a certified qualification to certain kinds of officers involved in food control: this is particularly characteristic for countries like the United Kingdom, France, the Federal Republic of Germany and Switzerland. In the UK, two training institutes interested in public food control, namely the Institute of Trading Standards Administration and the Institute of Environmental Health Officers, have established specialized programmes of seminars and courses in the related field, where the basic features of the national food law are considered. In France, the Service de la Repression des Fraudes has a Training and Documentation Centre intended for inspectors, based in Montpellier. Practical training, with limited food legislation developments, is also organized by public inspection services in the German states and by the Federal Public Health Office in Switzerland; but in many other countries the training of food inspectors seems to be restricted to their own professional background, completed by subsequent practice. Industrial scientists and technologists are usually trained in specialized high schools, as the ENSIA in

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France (already mentioned) and the CERIA in Belgium (although this latter country was not included in our comparison inquiry). (c) There are also other sources of teaching or training that result mostly from private initiatives. Some are devoted specifically to food law aspects, as are the seminars or conferences organized occasionally by national sections of EFLA (European Food Law Association) established in certain countries (Spain, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, The Netherlands and the Federal Republic of Germany). Information on food legislation is also included in training programmes organized either by educational institutions (e.g. ISTA in the Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers, Paris) or by professional associations of the food industry (e.g. the APRIA, Paris). In the United Kingdom, special mention must be made of the ‘Mastership in Food Control’ initiated and sponsored by the Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST) which provides food scientists and technologists with a postgraduate qualification, including the legal requirements concerning the manufacture and handling of food. The situation appears thus to be more favourable in a few countries like France and the United Kingdom, and it seems to have not been substantially modified since the inquiry, even if some progress has been made in countries like Italy, where food law aspects tend to be included more in certain academic programmes (e.g. in the Universities of Parma and Milano). Concerning Belgium, we must mention the training activity of CERIA, a higher education institution specialized in food sciences and technology. However, food law as such does not represent a substantial part of its programmes. A t the academic level, we can mention that too little effort has been made to improve the teaching of food law. It should be noted, however, that a small course on food legislation is delivered (on an optional basis) by the Faculty of Sciences and the Public Health School in the Free University of Brussels. The Food Law Research Centre of the Institute for European Studies, belonging to the same University, has developed (over more than 25 years) interdisciplinary research activities in food law, considered mainly from the viewpoint of European integration. These have resulted in a number of publications or reports and in occasional symposia or seminars devoted to specific European topics. The Faculty of Law of the Catholic University of Louvain-la-Neuve has developed in the last few years research activities and publications in the field of consumer protection law, but with very limited reference to specific food law aspects (as is the case in France). In the Catholic University of Leuven the main health aspects of food law are considered within a general course relating to nutrition and food chemistry. Occasional references to legal requirements concerning food are also generally included in other courses delivered by various Belgian universities in the fields of medicine, veterinary sciences, agronomy, pharmacology or bromatology , as already seen in other European countries.

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SUGGESTED ADVANCES IN THE IMMEDIATE FUTURE

A global view concerning the information and teaching in food law leads us to conclude that it remains quite unsatisfactory in Western Europe. Food standards can no longer be regarded by scientists and technologists as a part of a catalogue of technical requirements: they must be considered in the perspective of the implementation of a body of legal rules, based on scientific knowledge and practical needs (that are subject to constant change), but also aimed at the needs of social requirements (the consumer protection) and affected by international implications (mainly in the E C context). To review all the related educational programmes of universities and high schools would probably represent a too global and complex undertaking to allow us to improve the situation within a short period of time. I think, however, that a possible remedy, at least as a first step, could be found in the institution of shortterm programmes devoted to all food law aspects, including the non-juridical data which are directly related. Such programmes should result in a certificate complementary to the basic university or technical background of the candidate and should be made available to food scientists, engineers or technologists and even to lawyers. Among other research activities, the Food Law Research Centre of the Free University of Brussels is at present involved in the preparation of such a project, which is expected to be finalized and implemented jointly with the University of Aix-Marseille I11 in France (provided that appropriate funding will have been raised). The project could also be open to the scientific cooperation of other universities and would hopefully be sponsored by public or private institutions that are interested in developing the knowledge and training in food law within the new European context. This project should comply, however, with the following general requirements: 1. The project should be adopted and implemented under independent scientific control (e.g. a board composed of qualified representatives of the interested universities or scientific institutions) to ensure its independence regarding any private interest and to allow the granting of a diploma or certificate likely to be widely recognized, hopefully by universities and authorities belonging to several countries.

2. The courses and seminars could be hosted by participating universities and would be organized to take place within a limited period of time. They should certainly not exceed one semester. 3. The structure of the programmes should be characterized by a certain degree of flexibility and diversity to make them available for various categories of attendants (scientists, food technologists, public inspectors, lawyers etc.). As far as possible, they should be also available to interested specialists coming from Eastern Europe and to candidates working in developing countries (in these latter cases the attendance could be combined with training terms organized within the framework of technical assistance programmes).

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4. Since European integration will more and more affect the development of food law, all aspects of E C legal requirements relating to foodstuffs (free circulation, safety and labelling rules, agricultural policy, commercial relations with foreign countries) and their implementation at the national levei must constitute a substantial part of the programmes. They should be discussed in depth with cindidates having a juridical background. It can be observed that these EC advances are becoming a matter of major interest for other countries (mainly the Eastern European countries).

5. The above-described project is primarily intended for implementation in French, but it could also be envisaged as a pattern for similar initiatives to be implemented in English or other languages. The cooperation of scientists and technologists involved in the manufacture, handling, trade or inspection of foodstuffs is essential to define accurately the basic needs that should be covered by such intended educational programmes and to take into account the results of similar experiments or achievements in other countries. I therefore will be very grateful to any scientists or technologists who provide the Food Law Research Centre with appropriate information, suggestions and possible proposals for scientific contributions.

22 Training of craftsmen, technicians, analysts and technologists: prospects for the future Corrado Cantarelli Dipartimento Scienze e Tecnologie Alimentari e Microbiologiche, University of Milan, Italy 1. INTRODUCTION

Returning to the subject of training in the food industry twelve years after the first meeting held in the CERIA Centre has made it possible to take a comparative look at a brief, but intense, period of change. Furthermore, the training scenario to be expected in the near future can be based on interpolation of data presented at that meeting [1,2], integrated with some updated observations. Economic and technological evolution in the food industry has resulted in an increase in company size and a change from lesser to greater capital intensity; these trends involve primary agricultural production as well as distribution. It would therefore be useful to point them out; indeed, it seems clear that these trends will have a direct impact on the future of technical training. They are summarized below: (A) The changing roles of agriculture and the food processing industry. The food processing industry has reached a level of economic importahce and management capability that highly affects agricultural production. Food industries tend to possess and promote innovations and manage technical and financial assistance for both primary production and the final goods distribution. In addition, the situation will probably shift further, with distribution assuming a predominant role over production itself. More and more distributors have become involved in the management aspects of food processing. In fact, it is quite evident that for the majority of food industries, marketing tends to determine even research and development (R&D) policies. Therefore, it seems clear that food processing requires personnel with more and different skills as a result of increasing innovations and the growing link with distribution.

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(B) Another change now in progress concerns variations in the relationship between the primary and secondary transformation industries with a shift from a product- to a market-orientation in search of increased added value (although the risks increase as well). This trend results in concentration and increasing process automation in the primary transformation industry. On the other hand, the secondary transformation industry is increasing its reliance on the growing number of ingredients and semi-manufactured goods. Process lines are becoming segmented into phases that are physically and temporally separate. These technological trends mean that technicians must have appropriate training, orientated to the increasing need for job flexibility. (C) Scale economies seem to be enjoying success in the food industry as in other transformation industries. Some data taken from Brioschi’s study [3] illustrate this. Unfortunately, the trend towards concentration and the attempt to maximize profits in the short-term have led to a change of the roles in the food industry management. Economy and finance specialists dominate when it comes to company decision-making, and this occurs at the expense of the ‘technological centrality’ of production. In terms of management, the technologist’s role has shrunk as that of economics-oriented management has increased. In fact, there is a tendency to consider food in the same way as other divisions of the transformation industry. This tendency can be risky, however, in terms of the quality of a food product and its image, with consequences that may prove to be negative in the medium-term [4]. There have been signs of a change, however, since competition has been having more and more of an effect on intrinsic quality, innovation and quality control. Therefore, we may assume that interest in up-to-date, skilled personnel will increase after a temporary decline.

(D) The slogan ‘smallis beautiful‘ seems to have been adopted by various segments of the food production industry. In fact, production ‘niches’ with real or presumed characteristics and with hedonistic or health-oriented overtones are becoming increasingly important. Currently, this type of production is, in many cases, in the hands of managers with a low technical profile. Therefore, it seems clear that small factories and handcraft businesses must employ people who are capable of dealing with machinery manufacturers and suppliers of ingredients, semi-manufactured goods and additives. Indeed, in many cases, these manufacturers and suppliers end up providing technical assistance. Therefore, in addition to more widespread training, the creation of assistance facilities similar to the ‘Extension Service’ that exists in agriculture is needed in this field as well. Training specifically oriented to this kind of activity will be required. (E) Globalization: there has been a gradual shift away from compartmentalization, which was one of the characteristic constraints of the food industry. This compartmentalization consisted of many product subsectors, each of which was highly specific in terms of technology and market-orientation. This spe-

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cificity tended to block the ‘cross fertilization’ that led to progress in other industrial sectors, such as chemistry and mechanics [ 5 ] . A more extensive basic education will be required, to ensure flexibility in terms of participation in various kinds of processes. (F) The evolution of educational facilities rarely keeps up with technological developments and the new jobs created by them. Instead, there is an increase in service jobs connected with the greater mechanization and automation of operations and a decrease in the demand for food-specific skills as a result of process standardization in terms of recipes or formulations and the availability of ready-to-use ingredients and semi-finished products. Mechanics, electricians and electronic technicians increasingly tend to fill intermediate-level slots in the food industry [6]. The process specialist has moved up to a higher position than that previously held by the production-line foreman, who received empirical training as an apprentice. The repetition of operations and the ‘depersonalization’ of the production line have led to the alienation of traditional craftsmen, whose professional training (often highly developed and specialized) was received ‘on-the-job’.

2. FUTURE PROSPECTS This brief analysis of the evolution that will occur in the food industry makes it possible to identify some points of specific interest with regard to future developments in the field of training. These comments on the future of training concern secondary education. Future prospects are largely based on the conclusions of an analysis conducted at the end of the 1970s, which only a few people may have had the opportunity to read and which are summarized below. First, it should be noted that the interaction between secondary and higher education has changed considerably. In fact, opportunities for moving on to progressively higher educational levels will be significantly greater than they were in the past. In addition, the request for personnel with middle-to-higher level skills is increasing, while middle-to-lower level workers are in less demand owing to the mechanization and automation of operations. In every country, the minimum school-leaving age has been raised, and there is greater horizontal (as opposed to vertical) mobility, that is, greater possibility of moving from one type of school to another. This basically requires an overall vision of the problem of training with consideration of the various interconnections within the system. Placement With regard to the possibility of professional employment, it should be stressed again that the increasing majority of personnel working in industrial food produc-

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tion are assigned to facilities, and their role tends to be more qualified than that of food technicians. This situation implicitly leads to a request for increased skill on the part of food technicians so that they can conduct a dialogue with other personnel. In addition, more specific training must be provided with at least two different orientations, that is, process management and quality control. Some of the most important employment outlets for trained personnel are the specific centres (generally semi-public or industrially organized) involved in technical assistance, demonstrations and continuous training at various levels. These centres work mainly with small factories and handcraft businesses. Another important outlet concerns continuous technological education, which is a primary need for the survival of the modern food industry, considering the intensity of innovation in many of its areas of production.

3. EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS

Various general aspects connected with the regulation of educational institutions are discussed below. School-leaving age An extension of the present course length can be foreseen at all educational levels. This change will provide more opportunities for young people to fulfill their potential; moreover, it will be a basis for expansion of the service sector. On the other hand, it will cause a reduction in the number of school-leavers who formerly entered the craft industries, with an adverse effect on apprenticeship arrangements, while encouraging young people to continue full-time schooling. While this may be seen as positive in terms of general progress, problems of employment will arise. There are plenty of opportunities for graduates from colleges, polytechnic institutes and the like, but there are probably fewer for those who have received higher degrees. Mobility and transfers between schools A tendency towards increasing mobility is to be expected. This will result in a ‘dilution’ of vocational training even in institutions that are involved in this area. The reduction in the types of secondary schools in favour of a more comprehensive system could mean that secondary education in the sciences and related subjects would become more widespread. It could also promote vocational studies, but in fact this trend could have the reverse effect. Aggregation or segregation? In some countries there has been a trend in favour of an aggregation of education in the so-called area of ‘applied biology’, i.e. agriculture, veterinary medicine and food science. Another kind of aggregation is that of food processing with catering and hotel management.

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Despite some common basic knowledge, the technological content of food processing is quite specific. The interconnections only concern supplies from primary production for transformation and distribution. The range of many different subsectors of food processing is large enough to be covered by vocationally specific courses; it seems hard to include further extensions to the ancillary sectors. The specificity of vocational education could be affected by this tendency, and will result in a ‘dilution’ of training. Content of the curricula About twelve years ago, at the conclusion of the previous meeting, Professor Leniger [7] talked about a trend towards ‘general’ education in the food industry. In fact, a general curriculum is recommended for higher educational levels, while commodity-oriented training may be preferable at the craft or technical level. His philosphy was that the higher the educational level the more attention should be paid to general aspects. Colleges and polytechnic institutes should offer mixed curricula with various, specific orientations (practical curricula), while universities should provide general courses (of a more theoretical nature). In any case, this trend has been confirmed by the conversion of high-level, commodity-based, training centres, (for milk, beer, sugar and other industries, such as the Hochschulen, Colleges, Ecoles Nationales Supkrieures) into university departments, which took place during the 1960s in various European countries and in the United States. This change in level legitimized the extension of the curricula to the whole food industry, which had previously been seen as a specialized segment. At the same time, new university departments were established in the food sciences and technology and/or biotechnology. This represented a vertical shift and posed again the problem of course content in secondary education [8]. In terms of professional schools, there has been a trend towards homogenization of the education provided. This has resulted in many cases in the disappearance of vocational and professional schools, which have turned into ‘general’ high schools. On the whole, the intermediate segment of professional training is being more or less phased out, despite the survival of excellent examples of training centres. Much of their merit is due to professional associations in various industries which are interested in maintaining a source of specialized technicians for the food industry. For instance, we quote two examples: CERIA [9] and the French centre ENSMIC [lo], which offer vocational curricula at different levels for cereal processing and baking. See Table 1. This problem was also examined in our comparative survey, which proposed:

(a) an increase in general educational subjects and a postponement of the teaching of vocational subjects until later years; (b) an increase in scientific subjects (chemistry, physics, biology); (c) the inclusion of a wider range of subjects with a further reduction in vocational subjects in order to improve the standard education level of students who later undertake technical education.

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180 The future

Table 1. Two examples of vocational and technical curricula in the cereal and baking sector ENSMIC Paris Certificate:

Hourdweek Basic Sciencesa Economicsb Technology“ Practical training Otherd

CERIA-IPIAT Brussels

Brevet Technic.

Brevet Techn.Sup.

DegrC Profess.

DegrC Qualific.

35/39 27%‘ 16% 27 % 9% 21Yo

36/37 29 yo 12% 27 yo 23yo 9yo

34/38 9yo

36/38 18% 3% 13% 32% 34%

-

18% 49 yo 24%

“Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology. bManagement, Law, Information Science. “General Machinery and Technology. “Languages, Sociology, Report writing. “Percentage of course hours.

More widespread, in-depth teaching of the natural sciences and mathematics can be of great benefit to industries like the food industry which require new employees with a more consistent knowledge of the basic sciences. On the other hand, such changes in curricula can lead to the kind of reduction in vocational studies that discourages interest in vocational subjects and/or postpones the start of these programmes. This problem goes beyond the food industry; it concerns all industries which involve handcraft or other manual operations. It must be stressed here that old-fashioned educational philosophies and ‘learning by doing’ must be re-examined. Education: what and how to teach A logical sequence for education in the food industry has been skilfully drawn up by Professor Hallstrom [ 111. Referring to this rational flow sheet of the flux of knowledge, which is valid for every educational level, an analysis of curricula and educational content at different schools shows that there is room for modification based on sequence criteria and in tune with technological innovations. A recent meeting with several of our colleagues decided us to formulate a curriculum for secondary education. The aim is to provide sufficient knowledge to develop capability and critical sense:

- to interpret operations and effects of treatments on product behaviour; - to explain the role and behaviour of the ingredients; -

to learn ‘how-to-do’ on process lines;

Ch. 221

Training: prospects for the future 181

- to learn process and product nomenclature; - to understand quality criteria (including nutritional aspects) and the means for their evaluation. This curriculum begins with basic training in:

- mathematics, principles of statistics and information science; - principles of physics and applied physics; - general and organic chemistry; - cell

biology.

Vocational aspects are then added to the educational basis provided by these components. Indeed, by this point students would have gained a basic set of references by which to logically understand formulations and operations and explain the function of the production line and the logic of automated operations. The effectiveness of this sequence should be clear to all of us who have had teaching experience. Table 2 shows an example of such a sequence-the curriculum of a new centre established in Sion, Switzerland (Ecole d’lnghieurs du Valais) [121. The problems involved in the achievement of educational effectiveness include the availability of teachers who themselves have had this type of training. The ‘learning by doing’ method is certainly more effective when it is based on a rational explanation of empirical practices. Unfortunately, only a minority of the teachers who have had an effective basic education are really capable of a ‘hands-on’ approach to a food process. From another point of view also, the insertion of teachers working in the industry into the various levels of the educational process is becoming increasingly important, since these teachers can provide students with concepts based on what is actually ‘needed’ and on practical work organization. However, teachers with industrial experience must also have a firm grasp of basic theory. This problem may be solved by the increasing presence, in the educational system, of industry personnel who themselves have higher education. Students from intermediate, university-level or para-university-level schools could become teachers after experience in the industrial sector. Continuing education is the other side of the training problem at professional and secondary levels, and the requirements in this case are similar to those that apply to university educators. Teaching staff always require additional training ‘in the field’. This already takes place in courses sponsored by machinery manufacturers and semi-finished product and additive producers. This type of training should also be extended beyond its market-orientation to the setting-up of centres specifically created for this activity and publicly financed as part of an assistance policy designed to help handcraft businesses and small factories. The availability of educational aids continues to be essential. These include:

- audio-visual equipment and other software systems; - exemplary pilot plants;

[Pt. 6

182 The future

Table 2. An example of an up-to-date curriculum for technicians: the Food Technology curriculum (6 semesters) at the Ecole d’Ing6nieurs du Valais, Sion, Switzerland Percentage of course hours (practical in brackets) General learning Report writing, communication, languages Industrial management and Law Agricultural production Drawing Basic sciences Mathematics, Statistics, Information science Physics Chemistry (general and organic) and Biochemistry Microbiology (general) Nutrition

11.6 7.4 0.8

(0.8) 14.2 4.1 6.7 1.7 0.8

(1.6) (2.5) (3.3)

Technology Food microbiology and Biotechnology Unit operations Food technology Process engineering and regulation Conditioning Environment Product development

4.2 1.7 1.7 6.6 0.8 0.8 0.8

(3.3) (1.7) (0.8) (10.0)

Analytical Chemical, instrumental and sensory analysis Quality assurance

5.0 0.8

(2.5)

Project

3.3

For conciseness, this list is an adaptation of the actual programme and some courses have been telescoped.

- practical training as apprentices at factories and handcraft businesses, with the assistance of tutors. 4.

CONCLUSION

Our previous survey on the structure and content of different levels of educational centres in EC countries provided us with a quite heterogeneous picture in terms of school enrolment, curricula and professional content.

Ch. 221

Training: prospects for the future 183

At levels B and C, although more than 450 centres were analysed, the survey is out-of-date because many different initiatives have been undertaken in all countries during the last ten years. Food is becoming a popular study subject because of both public and industrial organizations, and it is included in many short courses up to graduation. In the future, a reduction in the number of and a standardization of degrees is to be expected. The major changes that will take place will concern, in my opinion: the reinforcement of basic education; increased skills in applied physics, in order to provide personnel for process mechanization and automation; - greater consciousness about quality problems, even from a nutritional point of view, and knowledge about the methodology involved in process and product quality control, following an intense development.

-

In the future, products will have improved quality, easier and more appropriate uses and clear-cut information on these aspects. Thus, the food industry should offer new and more interesting jobs for skilled and adequately trained personnel at the secondary level. Simultaneously, the role of technical assistance centres and quality control laboratories will expand; these centres will be expected to help spread innovations and provide background support for the food production system.

REFERENCES [l] F. Aylward and C. Cantarelli, Education and training in relation to the food and associated industries in the European Economic Community-Vol. 1, C.E.C. Brussels, Nov. 1978. [2] C. Cantarelli, Rev. Ferm. Znd. A h . 35(3) 1979. [3] F. Brioschi and M. G. Colombo, The Connection between Size of Firm and Profitability in the Light of Different Performance Indexes: the Case of the Italian Food Industry. Dipt. Elettronica, Politecnico di Milano, 1985. [4] A. Gilardoni, Ind. Alim. 22(449) 1983. [5] H. A. C. Thijssen and S . Bruin, ‘The Need for Technological Development in the Food Industry’, in Progress in Food Engineering (C. Cantarelli and C. Pen (eds)), Forster Verlag, Kusnacht, 1983. [6] J. Cordier, Etude des Besoins en Formation Professionelle Continue de la Maitrise et de la SousMaitrise des Industries Agricoles et Alimentaires, APECITA, Pans, 1976. [7] H. C. Leniger, Conclusions of Int. Symp. ‘Management Training in Food Industries-Higher Education in Food Science and Technology in Europe’, CERIA, Brussels, 1979. [8] C. Cantarelli, La formazione universitaria per il settore alimentar., Quad. Educaz. Permanente, Univ. Milano, 1989. [9] CERIA, Institut Provincial des Industries Alimentaires et du Tourisme, Programmes d’Etude, Brussels 1991. [lo] ENSMIC, Formations Dispens6es dans I’Etablissement, Paris, 1987. [ l l ] S. Bruin, B. Hallstrom and R. Jowitt, J . Food Engin. 3(205) 1984. [12] J. C. Villetaz, Ecole d’Ing6nieurs du Valais, Dept. Agro-Alimentaire et Biotechnologie, Sion, 1991.

23 Engineers’ and managers’ training: a challenge for the future J. J. Bimbenet ENSIA, Massy, France 1. TRENDS IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT 1.1 The food industry is more and more integrated in the industrial world Whereas food processing used to be, around 50 years ago, mostly a local-scale activity, the food industry (hereinafter referred to as FI) is now considered by financial people as one of the leading sectors of industry. Itsfinancial integration in chemical, cosmetic, tobacco, pharmaceutical, etc. industries is growing. Although FI has many specific features, its technology is similar to that of other industrial sectors of processing and manufacturing industries. Equipment builders know that the machines developed for one application are very often used also for others. As a result, technological transfer is very active between FI and other industrial sectors (examples: extrusion-cooking from plastics; irradiation from medicine and the nuclear industry; microwaves from electronics; hygienic operations from pharmacy; jet-cutting from aeronautics; robotization and flexible manufacturing from mechanics; flow-sheeting from petroleum; etc.). 1.2 Methods in FI are becoming more complex Product quality and cost competition require more precise process control and less human intervention. Automatization is becoming a necessity, including the cases where flexibility is obtained by sequences of discontinuous operations. Processes themselves have become as complex and sophisticated as in other sectors: advanced separation techniques, ‘intelligent’ sensors, robots, ‘just-in-time’ logistics management, etc. The biological aspects also become complex: ultra-clean plants, model control of fermentors, immunological tests, use of molecular engineering and genetics engineering in research, etc. Marketing itself has also become sophisticated, using various media and psychological and sociological data.

Ch. 231

Engineers’ and managers’ training: a challenge 185

All this means that:

- self-made men will have more difficulty keeping pace with progress - a scientific training is more and more important - a growing number of graduates will be employed in research and development (R & D) positions. 1.3 FI is ever closer to consumers As time progresses, FI is becoming more and more consumer-oriented. Food quality has become a strategic matter. New products show the permanent adaptation of firms to the desires of their customers. These products, in which components of various origins are mixed fruit + additives, cereal meat + vegetable spices, etc.) (examples: dairy break the traditional lines starting from agricultural products (dairy, meat industry, cereal industry, etc.). More and more food firms are organized according to types of markets: fresh products, drinks, baby-foods, catering, etc., without consideration of the origins of these products. In this context, the relationship between FI and distribution chains has become strategic (with the exception of those firms which have integrated production and distribution).

+

+

+

1.4 FI is more and more concerned about its relationship with society Keeping in mind the above considerations, FI as a whole has to improve its image to society. Although only industrialization can feed growing urban populations who have a large variety of tastes, needs and money, ‘industriallyprocessed food’ is a negative concept for many. The myth of ‘natural food’ persists very strongly in people’s minds. Surprisingly, the ‘advanced technology’ image created by advances in biotechnology is favourably accepted. The need of convenience foods also conflicts with the reluctance to accept industrial food. In the huge majority of cases, FI provides the consumer with a safe product. A wide choice of food quality is available and the qualitykost ratio is generally acceptable. Therefore, it seems that FI has much to do to restore its image. More generally, FI must be conscious of its growing responsibility towards society, through concern for: - public

health

- quality of life (via food) - environment: solid, liquid and gaseous wastes, C 0 2 (therefore: consideration of type of energy supply), propellant gases, packaging, etc. FI of industrialized countries must also take on the challenge of helping (or at least not preventing) the development of the Third World. This responsiblity involves product importation, technology exchanges and marketing policies as well.

186 The future

[Pt. 6

THE CHALLENGE: TRAINING ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS FOR THE FUTURE 2.

The needs are:

- for a general view of FI it is necessary to keep a balance between the three fields of knowledge that Professor Leniger defined in the Symposium of 1979: 0 the product (from raw material to the consumer) 0 the process (from basic phenomena to the plant) 0 the management (of people, money and information) and adding to them the problem of training in communication; - broadening the scientific training of graduates in such fields as: modern biology, robotics, advanced computing (examples: image processing, neuronal networks), sociology, etc. to master the rapid changes of FI in these directions; - going beyond scientific knowledge, each graduate should be able to solve problems by a scientific and by a creative approach: this means making more room in the curricula for problem solving, research and industrial periods; - training of engineers and managers 0 for more and more various functions: R & D, production, management, marketing, etc., 0 for various sectors: food industry itself, but also engineering firms, equipment builders, additives producers, consulting firms, etc. 0 for various sizes of firm: from a small firm needing a multifunctional graduate to an international firm requiring a food aroma specialist for its R & D laboratory. - by opening the minds in the direction of: 0 industry, agriculture, the whole food system, trade, law, finance and society in general 0 a more and more international world, which means greater knowledge of languages and people. 3.

WHAT CURRICULA TO FACE THIS CHALLENGE?

It is quite obviously impossible to master all the above knowledge and know-how in 3 to 5 years of a higher education curriculum. It is therefore necessary to distinguish (although no clear separation can be made) between types of curricula: ‘generalists’ of FI: these concentrate on a common core (product-processmanagement); they may however provide more advanced training (as an option) in one or several fields as a last part of their curricula (examples: packaging, food law, logistics) - ‘specialists’ of FI: these are without this common core, but concentrate on one field traditionally, it could be a commodity like the dairy or cereal industry. (As stated above (section 1.3.), I personally do not think this corresponds to the future needs of FI)

-

Ch. 231

Engineers’ and managers’ training: a challenge 187

it may, for modern needs, be food science, food engineering, food marketing, etc. and lead to a further specialization as a final part of the curricula. - curricula which may start from more general bases before a food orientation is adopted: biochemistry or agronomy, then food science; mechanical or chemical engineering, then food engineering; marketing, then food marketing, etc. 0

Actually, FI employs many engineers and managers with very little or no training in FI. They are chosen for their competence in microbiology, nutrition, hygiene, agronomy, mechanical engineering, automatics, marketing, communication, finance, etc. These individuals would probably be more efficient with some training in FI, either at the end of their curriculum, after graduation, or in continuing education. Taking into account the rapid evolution of FI, continuing education for all engineers and managers seems to me necessary, whatever the initial training. The Fig. 1 illustrates these ideas.

Food industry, university, etc.

A

education

A

Periods in industry and research MSc Mastere etc.

Specializations - options 3-5 years

Food industry common core

’Generalist‘ curricula

‘Specialist’ curricula

tTt

t

Fig. 1.

188 The future

[Pt. 6

CONCLUSIONS Student exchanges between institutions of the same, or different, countries may help to solve at least three problems: in the future, engineers and managers will have more international careers. Several months of study abroad will improve their command of a foreign language and help them to understand other people’s ways of thinking; where students wish to devote the last year(s) of a curriculum to a high-level option or specialization, there is more chance of finding a particular option in a pool of institutions of different countries than in one institution; when we discuss teaching with foreign colleagues, we realize that we speak of the same courses and training methods, but in different educational systems. This makes mutual understanding difficult. Exchanges (of students, but also of professors) would help this understanding and stimulate progress. Each of these reasons underlines the importance of exchanges. Whereas on the professional level, mutual recognition of different diplomas is necessary, on the level of student exchanges, only mutual recognition of different curricula is necessary. This means that one year spent in a foreign institution by a student is recognized by my institution as equivalent to one year spent by the student in my institution. This is already admitted in certain cases: generalization of this recognition would be a significant step forward. Can we further dream of a European Institute of Food Science, Technology and Management?

Poster session 1 191

1. Education and employment of mechanical and chemical engineers with a specialism in food engineering T. J. R. Cooper and T. R. A. Magee School of Mechanical and Process Engineering, The Queen’s University of Belfast, Belfast, UK

Northern Ireland, with a turnover of food products in excess of 1.5 million per year, employs some 20000 workers in 200 processing plants. Five years ago there were only 6 graduate engineers engaged in the province’s food processing industry, allied services and organizations. The need for more engineers had been evident for some time but attracted particular attention when it was highlighted in a Governmentspocsored report published in 1983. The paper describes how the Queen’s University of Belfast responded to the challenge and records progress to date.

192 Poster session 1

2. Higher Education in the context of lifelong education Peter A. Biacs Central Food Research Institute, Budapest, Hungary

Education is a characteristic of living, and not just a consequence of schooling, and the requirements of the contemporary world strengthen links between education and life. This is why appropriate opportunities should be available for all during their whole life. Periods of study and gainful employment can be suitably interspaced throughout the life span, to the advantage of both individual and society. As regards the linkage between school and post-school education, refresher courses, further training, renewal of knowledge by upgrading study as part of recurrent education, the concept of lifelong education is of particular relevance. Advances in science and technology are combining with the requirements of lifelong education to make the function of in-service training and further training in higher education more important than ever before. It seems essential to establish a close complementary relationship between initial training and the training made necessary later in life by the changing needs of society. Recent years have shown the emergence of new trends and activities in universities and colleges in the dissemination of all forms of culture among the general public, particularly by means of adult education; and, more recently, cultural activities carried out by the mass media have played a part in this dissemination. Harmonizing the professionalization of higher education and its cultural role, both for individuals and for society, will no doubt be one of the major issues in the years ahead.

Poster session 1 193

3. Development of students’ creativity-the heuristic scenario Brad Segal

University of Galati, Romania The twenty-first century will see a triple crisis: of raw materials, of energy, and of the environment and food products pollution. The problem looks dramatic for food industry specialists. To solve this multiple crisis a leading part must be to develop the native creativity of youth. In consequence, education must change from ‘learning for repeating’, to ‘teaming for making’. For the development of students’ creativity in the General Technology of Food Industry course in the University of Galati a method known as the ‘scenario euristique’ or (‘heuristic scenario’) (1981) was developed, which aims to project new technologies on the basis of directed questions, appealing to the basic knowledge of students. The next conditions which are needed for the heuristic scenario in technology engineering are: to involve questions in logical order, to encourage formative thinking in the creative process. The questions must appeal, especially, and be based on the prior stored knowledge: to allow the maximum development of creative imagination using many kinds of methods: adaptation, modification, addition, multiplication, substitutions, associations, transpositions, identification etc; to stimulate the students willing to take an active part in questions asked in discussion; to develop the preoccupation of extending knowledge by supplementary information and documentation. Of particular importance has been the creation of a proper discussion atmosphere, and this must be relaxed, friendly, agreeable. The student must be convinced that he has the full liberty to think, including the right ‘of error’, that permits the exposition of any idea conditioned by justification and support.

194 Poster session 1

#.Education and training in Food Science and Technology at the South Bank Polytechnic, London-past, and future

present

Dominic Man Food Science Division, Department of Biotechnology, South Bank Polytechnic, London, UK

Food Science and Technology has been an important subject of study at South Bank Polytechnic for nearly half a century. The subject grew originally from the teaching of baking technology and chemistry. The polytechnic was among one of the first few institutions of tertiary education in the United Kingdom to offer a single honours degree in Food Science. A major feature of the course from the beginning has been the constant support given by the food industry, which comes in various forms. Good contact, too, is regularly maintained with the UK Institute of Food Science and Technology through the interests of staff and students. Other main features of the course are also briefly described. Today, courses in Food Science and in Food Technology are the responsibility of the Food Science Division, one of the three divisions within the multidisciplinary Department of Biotechnology, South Bank Polytechnic. These courses range from diploma through degree to postgraduate level. Although the main courses are fulltime, part-time courses are being developed to cater for increasing demands by students from industry. Changes in the market place, developments in food manufacture and in legislation, the coming of the single European Market and many other factors have created a very competitive and increasingly science-based food industry. These, together with the latest education reforms in the UK, have meant that, more than ever, food courses have to be constantly updated and developed to remain attractive to young people and useful to industry. Recent course revisions and developments aimed at fulfilling these needs are outlined and some of the interesting proposals for future consideration are highlighted. The Food Science Division is confident that the high-quality courses it offers will remain valued by the industry and it looks forward to continuing its contributions in the education and training of food scientists and technologists for industry and trade in the twenty-first century.

Poster session 1 195

5. The food engineer’s education in Hungary at the University of Horticulture and Food Industry, Budapest A. S. Szabo Food Faculty, Department of Food Chemistry and Nutrition Science, Institute of Chemistry, University of Horticulture and Food Industry, Budapest, Hungary

The task of the Food Industry Faculty of the University of Horticulture and Food Industry in Budapest is to educate engineers of three different levels (three-year and five-year undergraduate courses and several postgraduate courses) and to carry out R&D works for the food industry, as well. Food technologies included in the teaching programme: canning and refrigeration , processing of livestock products, oenology , brewing, distilling, soft drink production, bakery, processing of cereal grains and industrial plants (e.g. tobacco, sugarbeet). Various basic subjects, such as chemistry, microbiology, physics, mechanics, economics, serve to substantiate and complement the technological topics. In addition to the theoretical lectures, the practical training is of great importance helped by the training workshop of the Faculty. In line with the international tendency in higher education of food engineers the importance of a more general, comprehensive education in unit operations is emphasized compared to that of a technological character. The main reason behind such a decision is that the engineer-first of all-has to answer the question ‘Why’, and, knowing the right answer, it is then possible to find a good solution also to the problem of ‘how’.

196 Poster session 1

6. An example of an interactive training course using a microcomputer network J. M. Sieffermann and I. Bardot ENSIA, Massy, France

The Objective

Realization

The pedagogical project concerns supervised practical work dealing with multidimensional statistical analysis applied to sensory analysis data. However, most of the students are unfamiliar with computer systems and statistical software. In order for the students to take advantage of the course, it is necessary to get them to a sufficient level very quickly. This course is essential to the realization of the year-long course project.

The implementation described above allows:

Other possibilities

- File transfers: the configuration provides fast file-transfer capabilities. Any combination of data files can be sent directly to another user over the network.

- Access security: any Macintosh can be restricted to screen sharing and file transfers by creating passwords. The teacher’s computer has access to both view and control capabilities while students’ computers have access to only the viewing capabilities.

- The

demonstration of the Macintosh Operation System basic operations. This is carried out by the simultaneous access of all students’ computers to the teacher’s computer. All students observe in real-time on their computers the teacher’s screen manipulations. - the demonstration of the statistical software, which is done in the same fashion. In addition, the teacher can observe and control students’ computers. This observation is discreet and does not disturb students’ work.

Poster session 1 197

Materials and methods

Conclusion

The following used:

The network system provides efficient on-screen presentations. It allows a reduction of software demonstration time and thus gives the students more time for critical analysis of their results.

systems were

- The temporary networking of different Apple Macintosh computers. These computers belong to different school laboratories.

- The use of a commercial soft-

‘Pros’ are:

- the ease of software demonstrations

ware package, Timbuktu. This is a‘screen sharing’ utility. It allows the sharing of Macintosh screens across networks.

- the flexibility of use - the low cost of installation (=

The practical work took place in 2 parts, each lasting 4 hours, and concerned 18 students.

- the additional time for instal-

The following materials were used:

- 7 different

Apple Macintosh Mac SE, computers (Mac Mac SE/30, Mac 11), - 1 Appletalk network (20 metres long, 8 Appletalk connectors), - 1 Apple Imagewriter I1 printer (with an Appletalk card), - 7 copies of Timbuktu (one for each computer), - 7 copies of the statistical software.

+,

US $900)

‘Cons’ are: lation and configuration of hardware and software (1.5 hour)

198 Poster session 1

7. An example of integrated education in Food Science and Technology J. Lenges, L. Deweghe, P. Dysseler? and A. Masson? Experimental and Analytical Station and tInstitut Meurice, CERIA-COOVI, Brussels, Belgium

CERIA-COOVI (Centre d’Enseignement et de Recherches des Industries Alimentaires et Chimiques-Centrum voor Onderricht en Opzoekingen der Voedings en Chemische Industrieen) is one of the most important campuses of the Province of Brabant and was founded in 1949. The aim of this Centre was and still is to apply its scientific know-how to the chemical, food and fermentation industry. In addition to the research laboratories (providing facilities for fundamental and applied research and technical advice and trouble-shooting), five schools belong to this Centre: -

the French and the Dutch Schools for Chemistry, ITPDCP and PHITS

- the French and the Dutch Schools for Food Industries and Tourism, IPIAT and PIVIT

- the French School for Industrial Engineers, Institut Meurice. Overall, these schools provide an education at secondary level (12-18 years) as well as a higher education of a short type (graduate) and an education on university level (both of them from 18 years, after finishing the secondary level). The first course at secondary level (12-13 years) is in both the French and the Dutch Schools for Chemistry. After one year, a first choice has to be made: technical or professional training, chemistry or food. In the food section, in the second- and third-level courses, the following specializations exist on a technical level as well as on a professional level: butcherymeat products, bakery-confectionary, hotel work with a choice between kitchen and restaurant possible in the third-level course. All of these options are in both the French and the Dutch Schools for Food Industries and Tourism. In the chemical section, the French and the Dutch Schools for Chemistry supply education for technicians in chemistry and in biochemistry with the options of food chemistry and host(ess)-tourism. Moreover, IPIAT and PIVIT provide higher education in hotel management, public relations and tourism (graduates). The French section of dietetics exists within IPIAT whereas the Dutch one belongs to PHITS, which also provides an education for the graduate in pharmaceutical and biological techniques. The Institut Meurice (French School) supplies education at a university level (starting from 18 years, after finishing the secondary level) for the industrial engineer with a specialization in biochemistry-options: biochemical industries and food industries.

Poster session 1 199

In collaboration with the Free University of Brussels (ULB), industrial engineers who have finished their studies can receive the degree of Engineer in Chemistry and Food Industries after two further years of education or upon presenting a doctorate (after 4 years of study) to the ULB or to the Catholic University of Louvain-LaNeuve (UCL). With all these courses, conducted on these different educational levels, in an integrated way, CERIA-COOVI occupies a remarkable position not only in Belgium but even in Europe.

200 Poster session 1

8. Education of food scientists, engineers and technologists, at the Prague Institute of Chemical Technology in the food chemistry and technology branch Pave1 Kadlec, Jan Pokorny, Jaroslav Cepifka and Jan KaS Institute of Chemical Technology, Prague, Czechoslovakia

The Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology at the Prague Institute of Chemical Technology carries out education of students for graduate and postgraduate study in two branches: food chemistry and technology, and applied biochemistry and biotechnology. In this poster the basic information about the study programme in the food chemistry and technology branch is given. During the lst, 2nd and 3rd years, the programme consists of basic subjects, like mathematics, physics, biology, general and inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, physical chemistry, chemical engineering, biochemistry, microbiology and others. Following these basic subjects, there are in the 2nd, 3rd and 4th years other subjects. Some of them are compulsory (food chemistry, foods, food analysis, economy and control) and some of them are optional. The subjects of specialization (4th and 5th years) are all optional and allow graduates either to become high specialists in one technology or specialists with a broad profile of one of the following specializations:

(1) chemistry and technology of carbohydrates, (2) milk and fat technology, (3) food preservation and meat technology, (4) food chemistry and analysis. The graduates of Faculty (Ing.) can continue in postgraduate study. This postgraduate study (Dr or PhD) takes three years and is finished by rigorous examinations and defence of the dissertation work.

Poster session 1 201

9. Food Science and Technology education and training in Scotland V. N. Wade Department of Food Science and Technology, The Scottish Agricultural CollegeAuchincruive, near Ayr, Ayrshire, Scotland

Food studies at University level have a well established tradition in Scotland. The first degree in Food Science in the United Kingdom was developed at the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow. Recently, a changing emphasis has seen a development of this degree into a BSc in Applied Microbiology and Food Science. A well established Diploma in Brewing and MSc in Brewing are offered at the Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh, and a Diploma and MSc ic Biotechnology are planned to start in October 1991. More recently, graduate studies have developed at Queen Margaret College, Edinburgh, in Applied Food Science with Marketing. This degree differs somewhat from those at other Scottish universities in that it is validated by a United Kingdom organization known as the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA). A Diploma and MSc in Poultry Science at the University of Glasgow is taught jointly with The Scottish Agricultural College-Auchincruive. Postgraduate research studies in Poultry Science and Food Science and Technology (with particular reference to Dairy Science and Technology) are also offered at The Scottish Agricultural College-Auchincruive. Various vocational courses in food science and technology at the Higher National Diploma (2 year) and Certificate (1 year) level are offered by a range of institutions. These courses are validated by the Scottish Vocational Education Council (SCOTVEC) and have been designed to be achieved by a process of studentcentred study and continuous assessment. The basic building blocks of these courses are ‘modules’ in the case of Certificate-level courses and ‘units’ in the case of Higher National Diploma courses. Both modules and units are normally of 40 hours’ duration but multiples of these are possible.

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10. Curricula and standard programmes for home economists and nutrition scientists in Germany V. Schneider Technische Universitat Munchen, Germany

Home economists and nutrition scientists (DipLoec.troph.) are qualified in the fields Of:

- Human nutrition - Diet in health and disease (including prevention) - Clinical dietetics - Biochemistry, physiology and pathology - Food science, law and management - Business methods and marketing - Social economy of private and institutional establishments. This interdisciplinary qualification can be obtained at the universities of Bonn, GieSen, Kiel, Munchen-Weihenstephan and Stuttgart-Hohenheim and leads to the title Diplom-Oecotrophologelin (home economist and nutrition scientist). Home economists and nutrition scientists work in the following fields:

Consumer counselling

- public health and nutrition service - household management and financial affairs - energy support and household appliances Public education

- primary and secondary schools - special schools e.g. for technical, social education) - institutions for continued education - training within companies Research and teaching

- universities

- institutions for research and development - industry Management in institutional establishments

- canteens and students’ restaurants - hospitals and residences - catering

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Product development and marketing

- nutrition and consumer services - food industry - energy companies and local utilities - industry for household appliances - pharmaceutical industry Administration and organization - authorities - associations and societies - Public health - industry Information, documentation and public relations Institutions related to developing countries

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11. A university education in Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology Jan KaS Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Prague, Czechoslovakia The Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology is one of four faculties of the Institute of Chemical Technology in Prague (Technical Chemical University). It educates all types of food scientists, engineers and technologists for the Czech Republic. Recently a new conception in education has been proposed. Instead of six specialized branches of food technology, two main groups of technologies have been selected. The first group, called ‘Food chemistry and technology’ will include carbohydrate chemistry and technology, all types of canning and freezing technologies (vegetables, fruits, meat, poultry, fish etc.), dairy and fat technologies, packaging and food analysis. The curriculum of this educational programme is presented here by Professor Kadlec (Poster 8). The second group of technologies, called ‘Applied biochemistry and biotechnology’ include all types of fermentations (beer, alcoholic beverages, vitamins, organic acids, antibiotics, enzymes etc.), modern food technologies utilizing enzymes and microorganisms, modern separation techniques etc. The general intention is to give students a broader background, making it possible for them to adapt easily to change their future jobs. The students will start with broad general chemical education (as at the other chemical faculties) enlarged with biology, microbiology and biochemistry. Then they will be educated in one of the two specialization groups, and finally during their last term working on the diploma work they will adopt a narrow specialization. The study is scheduled to cover 5 years and its optimization is proposed to be achieved within the framework of the TEMPUS project.

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12. Basic experiments on transport phenomena and fluid mechanics Jorge C. Oliveira, Fernanda R. Oliveira and Cristina L. Silva Escola Superior de Biotecnologia (College of Biotechnology), Portuguese Catholic University, Oporto, Portugal

This communication shows some experiments on basic engineering aspects that can be easy and inexpensive to assemble. Another important characteristic is that running times are short with 1-2 hours being sufficient. Three experiments on heat transfer, two on mass transfer and three on fluid mechanics are described. The heat transfer experiments can be fully monitored by a microcomputer, simultaneously. These experiments have proved very popular with the students, giving them a chance to test basic engineering principles. The authors have found that a good knowledge of the basic phenomena usually helps the students significantly when they analyse the unit operations experiments. However, experimental work on basic principles is usually neglected, since most universities will choose to invest in unit operations equipment. In this communication, details can be found about the equipment needed, cost of setting up the experiment (running costs are very low) and calculations and discussions that the students can do. It can be seen that in some cases it is possible to use fairly simple data with fairly complex analysis. Software was developed for the students to deal with too complex situations.

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13. Simple but effective computer-based training for the food sector Stephen J. Fallows and ?Terry King Food Policy Research Unit and ?ELF Project, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire. UK

Computer-based training (CBT) is recognized as an efficient route to solving the training needs of industry and commerce whilst computer-assisted learning (CAL) is the parallel development of computer use in education. The demand for trained personnel in the food industries is increasing rapidly (the UK, for instance, is proposing a legal requirement of hygiene training for all food handlers, in the interests of food safety). The simultaneous (although unrelated) increase in the usage of microcomputers is creating a significant opportunity for the use of CBT and CAL. To date, this opportunity has not been followed through into practice and there remains considerable unfulfilled potential. Conventionally, both CBT and CAL have been expensive to implement, requiring the skills of specialist computer personnel together with high levels of expensive equipment. Such considerations present few problems for the larger companies (in the food sector or elsewhere) but serve to exclude this new approach from smaller food companies and from the less endowed educational establishments. Since the food industry includes many small and medium-size enterprises whose training needs are considerable, this results in a substantial loss of opportunity. The Electronic Learning-package Factory (ELF) at the University of Bradford had addressed the CBT/CAL needs of those who may not have the access to specialist computer personnel nor the substantial budgets required to purchase and operate professional-level CBTKAL preparation software (authoring systems) nor access to the most sophisticated microcomputer systems. Following on from this needs assessment, ELF has developed a simple but effective authority system designed to be used by busy professionals such as lecturers, training or other managerial staff. The system ‘ELFsoft’ is designed to present textual and graphical materials to students or trainees using an IBM PC compatible microcomputer. For those wishing to present only the text, the most basic PC system with monochrome monitor will suffice, whilst for graphical presentation a faster (286 or 386) processor is preferable and a colour (VGA) monitor is required. In addition to merely presenting information, the system allows for testing of students or trainees using several question styles. The use of a hypertext system permits the provision of additional explanations as required. ELFsoft is designed to require no prior experience of CBT/CAL systems and can permit the rapid and hence relatively inexpensive production of materials which

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may be used for in-factory training or more formally in a classroom with trainees or students. Support from the UK Department of Employment, Training Agency, is acknowledged.

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14. Nutrition, consumers and European food law Stephen J. Fallows Food Policy Research Unit, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire, UK

Nutritional and other issues relating to the supply of safe and wholesome foods to consumers have been given a great deal of attention in recent years. This has particularly been the case in the United Kingdom where the 1980s saw a procession of concerns which included diet and cardiovascular disease, safety in the use of food additives, product contamination and the steady increase in the reported incidence of microbiological disease of food-borne origin. The scientist’s analysis of these concerns, including due consideration of the appropriate scientific literature, leads to a hierarchy of concern which roughly approximates to the reverse of that which will be suggested by the typical consumer. For instance, the science-based nature of the food additives industry and the resultant controls on use may have led to safe usage, but this is not the view held by many consumers who have sought to restrict additive usage still further. The problem is compounded by the fact that many consumers consider additive usage as leading to reduced quality. In many instances this view has also been held by legislators, whb have sought to prevent the inclusion of additive in many food items. This matter has raised issues at the European Community level, as the legitimate controls differ from Member State to Member State, and these have now to be reconciled as the single market programme proceeds. The concept of mutual acceptance is inevitably causing concern amongst consumers, who believe that standards will fall. To cite a specific example, it will be extremely difficult for legislators to convince UK consumers that cyclamates, banned for over 20 years, are safe enough to be allowed by the proposed sweeteners directive, especialy when the UK Committee on Toxicity has recently advised continuance of the prohibition. On some other instances, too, consumer views match those of the government’s advisors. Both groups are sceptical of the broad health risks linked to sugar, although all accept that reduced sugar consumption may lead to dental benefits. The European Community has set out its directive on nutritional labelling and measures relating to claims about the nutritional efficacy of particular foods, and these are likely to evolve along the lines of the guidelines prepared in the United Kingdom. It is essential when such controls are considered and implemented that the requirements for consumer education be given a clear priority in order that consumer judgements are not clouded by the almost inevitable overstatements made by marketing professionals in the food industry. Avoidance of consumer confusion is not a straightforward issue, but it is one of increasing importance as the European Community develops its single internal market.

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15. FISEC-A students

European network of food industry

Paulo Valentim Chairman of FISEC, International Relationships Office, College of Biotechnology, Oporto, Portugal

FISEC-Food Industry Students European Council-is an European, non-profitmaking, apolitical and independent association of food industry students, founded on the concepts of mutual respect of civilizations and equality of people without any form of social, religious, racial, national or sexual discrimination. The object of FISEC is to represent all its members with different national and international authorities, to encourage exchange of ideas about their future profession among food industry students, to promote exchanges of European food industry students, to communicate with European industrialists and to improve educational conditions for European food industry students. All these aims can be summarized in a single idea: FISEC wants to have an active role on the formation of better European food technologists. Several European food schools were organized on an ERASMUS network when, in May 1989, the so-called Europe Circle of ENSIA (a French student association, in Massy, near Paris) decided to organize the 1st Food Industry Students European Conference. Approximately 150 students of several European schools attended that meeting and it was so successful that three more schools proposed themselves to organize the same meeting in the next years. University of Reading (United Kingdom) in 1990, University of Wageningen (The Netherlands) in 1991 and CERIA (Brussels, Belgium) in 1992. However, the 1st Conference had created a feeling that an European cooperation between students was possible and needed and so, the student associations from both the College of Biotechnology (Oporto, Portugal) and from ENSIA, decided to work together in the creation of an European association. The Portuguese students invited the Fr.ench students to attend a meeting in Portugal in order to work on a proposal of statutes, and because they couldn’t come, the Portuguese students went to Paris, in January 1990, where the proposal for statutes was written. Plans for the next months were established and several activities were thought of for the future of the association. On 13 April 1990, Ludovic Blonde, the chief organizer of the 1st Conference and one of the authors of the proposal of statutes, died in a car accident; but he had already invited some European schools to attend a meeting in Oporto, in order to discuss the statutes and to found the association, as previously planned in Paris. On 5 May 1990, after a day and a half of discussions and slight changes of the statutes, FISEC was created in Oporto by students of six schools from five EC countries: University of Reading (UK), University of Wageningen (The Netherlands), ENSIA and ENSBANA (both from France), University of Milan (Italy),

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and College of Biotechnology (Portugal). By this time it had been decided to hold the first General Assembly (GA) at the University of Reading (in July 1990) and to publish the first Euro Food Student Journal (EFSJ), which was Portugal’s responsibility. At the first GA, three more European food schools were admitted to FISEC: University of Hohenheim and University of Munich (both from Germany) and CERIA (from Belgium), making FISEC the representative of nine schools from EC countries. In September 1990, the Administration Board (AB) met in Massy, to decide the activities for 1991, according to FISEC aims, which are: (1) Organization of local seminars about food industry in all member schools. (2) Organization of a common holiday time to promote friendship links among food industry students. (3) Continuation of the EFSJ publication. However, the main priority of FISEC is to create a functional structure that will allow a better functioning in the coming years. This way, FISEC can have a legal position in Brussels, and FISEC is also promoting the creation of student associations in schools where little or no tradition exists in this field. Because FISEC is an European association, expansion of FISEC’s membership is also seen as a priority. Lots of schools have been contacted and it is expected that there will be significant growth of FISEC by the next General Assembly not only from other EC countries but also from Eastern European and Nordic ones. Because FISEC wants to promote a better training for food technologists and because the food industry is more and more a global subject, FISEC is jointly promoting, with the Institute of Food Technologists Student Association (from USA), the foundation of a world federation of food science and technology students. Both associations met at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and in Chicago (USA), in March 1991, where a proposal of statutes were written and a schedule of work was established. It is expected that the International Federation of Food Science and Technology Students will be created within the next two years. FISEC is the students’ answer to the great dynamic force that is driving the whole food industry, as well as being an answer to the deep changes that Europe is facing with introduction of its single market. European students want to have an active role in their own training and they are refusing to be mere onlookers of all the important challenges that the food industry is facing. European students want to have cooperation relationships with all the sectors involved in these challenges and they want to avoid the traditional claimant role that students associations still are obliged to have in some countries (e.g.) Tianamen Square or events in Romania. The response of some partners, namely the universities and some EC organizations, in the construction of the ‘Food Europe’ has been encouraging and this is an obvious proof that the food industry is preparing well for the years ahead.

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16. Development of a centre of excellent in food processing and preservation: a cooperative agreement between South Bank Polytechnic, London, and Yaba College of Technology, Lagos P. A. Burns Head of Food Science Division, Department of Biotechnology, South Bank Polytechnic, London, UK The Lome Convention, an agreement between African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) States and the European Community (EC) and ,itsMember States, provides for cooperation between ACP and EC training and research establishments. A particular agreement under the Training and Research Programme (TARP) has been made between the EC and the Federal Republic of Nigeria; its objective is to provide support for the efforts of the government in development and improvement of its education, training and research institutions in areas of priority for Nigeria. One such area is Food Technology, and a subprogramme of the TARP has as its objective the establishment of a Food Processing Centre at Yaba College of Technology, Lagos (YCT), which is Nigeria’s oldest institution of higher education. YCT has requested the Department of Biotechnology, South Bank Polytechnic (SBP) to partner it in implementation of the programme. The purpose of the programme, for which the EC is providing 950 000 ecus and the Nigerian government 1375 000 Naira, is to establish a food processing facility, together with appropriate support facilities, suitable for training of students of Food Technology at Higher National Diploma level. This programme has several aspects, as follows: (i) provision of the necessary infrastructural facilities at YCT (ii) selection, installation and commissioning of equipment at YCT (iii) training of YCT staff in the operation, application and maintenance of the equipment (iv) development of library facilities (v) exchange of staff between the two institutions To date, an exploratory visit to Lagos has taken place, resulting in the production of a full report on existing facilities and recommendations for development of the necessary infrastructure; an initial batch of urgently required equipment has been purchased and will shortly arrive at YCT. Three YCT staff have spent periods of training at SBP, and a member of SBP staff will spend the period April-August 1991 in Lagos; further exchanges of both types will occur later in 1991 and also in 1992. By the end of 1992, YCT should have a first-class food processing facility, well suited to the needs of its students and capable of making a valuable contribution to the development of education in Food Technology in Nigeria.

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17. An example of ERASMUS collaboration in the field of Food Science, Technoogy and Engineering Elisabeth Dumoulin ENSIA, Massy, France P. Vallance University of Reading, UK J. Lenges CERIA, Brussels, Belgium

ERASMUS 1988-1991: Working Group on Transport Phenomena-Unit Operations Under the auspices of the EC ERASMUS programme, schools of Food Science/ Technology/Engineering in nine European countries: BELGIUM FRANCE HOLLAND ITALY UNITED KINGDOM DENMARK GERMANY IRELAND PORTUGAL

CERIA Brussels (J. Lenges) ENSIA Massy (E. Dumoulin, J. J. Bimbenet) Agricultural University of Wageningen (G. Meerdink) University of Milan (C. Peri, C. Pompei) University of Reading (M. Lewis) Technical University of Denmark (K. Poulsen) Technical University of Munich (K. Guthy) UCC Cork (D. MacCarthy) ESB Porto (A. Medina, J. & F. Oliveira)

Formed a Working Group on (A) Transport Phenomena and (B) Unit Operations, with the following objectives: 1. To examine and compare the organization and content of courses in each college 2. To consider if a common curriculum could be prepared, which would need educational requirements, and would facilitate exchange of students 3. To exchange information on textbooks, lecture notes, laboratory work and pilot-plant equipment. The lecturing time devoted to Transport Phenomena and Unit Operations varies greatly between colleges. Amount of homework and tutorials also varies.

The pilot-plant equipment (and background knowledge) of our institutions represents a huge potential for education of the students, for research development (undergraduates and postgraduates) and for development of research programmes (e.g. EC FLAIR programme: Drying).

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18. Management in the education of food engineers and technologists in Europe B. Colas and R. Treillon ENSIA, Massy, France

In 1988 a grant was provided by the European Commission to set up an intercommunity partnership (ICP). During the first year of this ICP, five founder members (now nine) set up two Working Parties, the first in Engineering and the second in Management, and it is the second being described here. The objectives were: 1. To compare existing syllabuses to ascertain the degree of congruence. 2. To see if it were possible to identify certain agreed core material. 3. To examine the scope for further collaboration in teaching, teaching methods, materials, etc.

Unfortunately, only four institutions were able to play an active part, and the grant was only available for the first year. This limited further collaboration, but certain factors did emerge. Constraints There appear to be significant differences in:

1. Educational system of each country. 2. The duration of the course. 3. The basic philosophy of the management/economics component. 4. The proportion of time allocated to this component. 5 . Course content. 6. The responsibility for the design and delivery of the course material. 7. Teaching methods. 8. The need for, and duration of, industrial experience. The Working Party therefore attempted to decide: 1, The relative weighting and content which should be included in the training of a food engineer. 2. Whether there was any existing material which could be used by all institutions. 3. Whether industrial training should be compulsory. The Working Party concluded that: 1. There should be a management component in all European Food Engineering courses. 2. That this should be included at about the level of about 10-15% of the total curriculum.

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3. That the management syllabus should be divided roughly equally between the following topics. (a) Economics, i.e. elements of some or all of the following: micro/macro economics; management economics; the business environment. (b) Marketing. (c) Accounting, to embrace elements of all or some of: financial accounting; management accounting; financial management. (d) Operations management. (e) Human resource management. (Notes: It was assumed that quantitative methods appropriate to a study of management would also be included in the curriculum, although not necessarily in the management component. Personal skills development was also vital for food engineers, but might again be achieved through teaching methods in other parts of the course, e.g. in group or syndicate working, report writing, presentations, etc.) 4. That industrial experience was important for an appreciation, not only of management theory and practice, but also for other topics included in a food engineering course. It should therefore be incorporated in all food engineering courses at a minimum level of 12 weeks.

The members of the Working Party agreed to exchange teaching material as appropriate, particularly on general matters concerned with the European food industry. Roland Treillon, of ENSIA, Massy, agreed to make available a business game used at his institution and a grant was subsequently obtained to translate the instructions into English, so that other institutions might be able to use it. This translation has now been completed, and it is hoped to encourage other institutions t o incorporate it into their teaching, so that at some stage it would be possible to arrange an international competition between students of various European institutions, on an annual basis.

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19. Pan-European food education P. J. Barlow and P. J. Warren School of Food and Fisheries Studies, Humberside Polytechnic, Grimsby, UK

A consortium of seven European food universities from the UK, Greece, Spain, Portugal and Germany was formed in 1989 to collaborate in the teaching of Food Science and Technology on a pan-European basis. The aim of the consortium is to provide for the movement of students between institutions offering complementary expertise in this subject area, thus allowing students to study areas relevant to their own degree programmes, not currently available at their own institution. The specific objectives of the consortium are:

- to promote staff and student exchange between institutions - to seek to develop common curricula for their degree and graduate programmes - to award joint degrees in Food Science and Technology - to collaborate in research and other scholarly activities The consortiunl has been successful in obtaining ERASMUS funding for the academic year 1990/91to support student mobility. Thus, currently, the consortium is able to offer to a limited number of its members’ students the opportunity to attend a full-time course, working on their undergraduate studies or a Master’s thesis, or alternatively to choose to undertake a six-month secondment in a food company in the host country, arranged and supervised by the host university, when this is an integral part of the student’s course of study, and for which full credit may be given. ERASMUS funding is also available to support teaching staff mobility and an intensive programme between consortium members. It is planned that over the next three years the Consortium will: expand its membership to include at least one French-speaking university and one partner from Hungary; - develop a new, common course in the field of food technology to meet the needs of the European food industry, and for which joint degrees will be awarded. -

The latter development will provide European students with the opportunity to undertake a fully recognized period of study of up to one year in at least two universties within the consortium. Further intensive programmes are planned to be held each year at different European universities within the consortium, which will provide further opportunities for 100-150 students to undertake a one-week programme of lectures, seminars, practical classes, industrial study visits and social/cultural experiences. ERASMUS funding is being sought to support these developments in 19911994.

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The consortium has received two COMEIT I1 awards for 1990/91 to support industrial placement experience for students in Europe, and to develop two advanced-level short courses for European SME’s in the monitoring and control of food safety.

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20. ‘EURO HPLC’-a COMETT training programme for industry in Advanced High Performance Liquid Chromatography J. A. Griffith and J. Power Regional Technical College, Waterford, Ireland Advanced High Performance Liquid Chromatography is the most important analytical technique available to technical personnel in the biotechnology, agro-food, pharmaceutical and chemical sectors of industry. Rapid advances are now taking place in the technology of liquid chromatography, related method development and evaluation, and the application of computer simulation techniques and expert systems. In 1988 the EURO HPLC training programme was devised to ensure that industries in EC countries had efficient and immediate access-to information and training relating to these advances. The programme was supported by COMETT (European Community programme on cooperation between universities and industry regarding training in the field of technology) with industries and centres of expertise in Ireland, Portugal, France, Denmark, Spain and the United Kingdom involved. The targets set out for this programme were:

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To disseminate new information and research results relating to HLPC technology to a wide range of small and medium-sized industries, with particular emphasis on the needs of the peripheral regions. To establish a network of industries and centres of expertise working together to achieve the above. To investigate the most suitable methods for ensuring that this information is disseminated efficiently. To respond quickly and flexibly to new or changing training needs.

In the initial phase of the programme three short intensive training courses (5 days’ duration) were designed and run in Lisbon (October 1989), Waterford (June 1990), Montpellier (October 1990) with the following topic range: 0

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HPLC method development, validation and optimization HPLC diode array detectors, use and evaluation of instrumentation Trends in new detection techniques and stationery phases Chiral separation by HPLC, developments in preparative HPLC Automated sample pretreatment in HPLC analysis, trace analysis Supercritical fluid chromatography: comparative evaluation with HPLC Expert systems and computer simulation in HPLC HPLC-MS: developments and applications.

In 1990 the programme was supported under COMElT 2 for a further three years. Participation in the programme was extended to Greece, The Netherlands

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and EFTA countries, with the possibility of a link-up with Hungary. In addition to further courses (Aarhus, April 1991, and Madrid, September 1991), extensive training materials and software training packages are being developed based on hypermedia and interactive video systems. These will be available from mid-1992 for dissemination and use in future courses.

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21. International Course in Food Science and Nutrition H. Henderickx and A. Huyghebaert University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium

COURSE THEME: Multidisciplinary approach to nutrition problems in development OBJECTIVE LEVEL LANGUAGE PERIOD PREREQUISITES

To teach participants with different educational and professional backgrounds a common language in nutrition Postgraduate diploma course Alternatively English or French Nine months: October-July : Minimum a BSc or equivalent in nutrition, food technology, agriculture, medicine, veterinary medicine, pharmacy, economics, sociology or home economics, with a preference for participants with a minimum 5 years’ field experience in a developing country.

COURSE PROGRAMME 1991-1892: Multidisciplinary approach to nutrition problems in development. 1. Lectures and exercises: About 60% of the programme will embrace lectures and exercises to provide participants with up-to-date scientificinformation and practical skills on the theme of the course. The subprogramme of lectures and exercises is divided into six parts: Part I:

Part 11: Part 111: Part IV: Part V: Part VI:

Basic instruction in food and nutrition science plus application. (a) Physiology and biochemistry of nutrition, assessment of nutritional status; dietary assessment, dietary standards. (b) Infant and child growth and development. (c) Breastfeeding, weaning, etc. Epidemiology, statistics and the use of PC (DOS, Wordperfect, Lotus, SPSS). Food technology and microbiology. Basic principles, applications, laboratory work plus visits. Food production, marketing and consumption analysis. Economical, geographical, agricultural and sociological aspects. Nutrition planning and surveillance. Actions for a better nutritional status. National and international policies, economic and agricultural development , primary health care, nutrition education, feeding programmes.

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2. Groupprojects: A group project involves 4 to 5 participants working together on an applied scientific problem. The aim of this exercise is to train the participants in special skills, such as working in a (multidisciplinary) team, formulating study objectives, collecting data, analysing results, etc.

3. Excursions: Visits will be made to institutions, factories, etc. where work is done in the field of food and nutrition. 4. Individual presentation: Each participant has to give a presentation on the nutrition problems of hidher country and on a specific topic in the field of food science and nutrition. The topic should preferably be based on hidher own professional experience and/or be related to the theme of the course. Participants are required to collect and bring relevant documentation of the presentation from their home country.

5. Research project: Each participant has to present a personal research work, realized during hidher stay in Belgium. The theme of this work should be in relation to one of the course topics. It can be a practical work, a literature study o r a combination of both. The students are allowed to bring the data of certain research work done in their country. 6. DiplomdExamination: The diploma of the International Course in Food Science and Nutrition will be awarded to those who have actively and regularly participated in the lectures, discussions, practical work, seminars and tests and whose research project and oral examination have satisfied the examining board. A certificate of attendance may be given to those participants who have completed the course, but did not meet the diploma requirements.

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22. The Preservation of the European food industry G . Hayes Manchester Polytechnic, Manchester, UK

The need for properly trained managers in the European food sector will become increasingly significant, as we approach the turn of the century. Modern food managers will be required to implement effective quality improvement programmes, in order to maintain the competitive edge of their respective organizations in the face of fierce competition from both the Japanese and North American food companies. Indeed, the Japanese nation have a headstart with regard to Total Quality Management (TQM) and quality improvement programmes, since their food industry has never been handicapped by phenomena such as:

1. lack of a coherent manufacturing strategy by successive governments 2. low status of manufacturers compared to other disciplines 3. the subordination of the ‘wealth-creators’ by the ‘wealth-measurers’, in European society 4. low market-awareness of Euro food management 5 . polarized workforce in Western society; low quality motivation of the workforce 6. high resistance to change ingrained in the culture and attitudes of Europeans 7. the single-discipline graduate syndrome. There is today an urgent need for a unified and coherent strategy towards the assurance of the quality of food products manufactured and marketed in Europe, and for the supply of management personnel skilled in modern total quality techniques. Before 1992, a common TQM syllabus needs to be agreed and established across the commmunity, thereby ensuring that properly trained graduates will become available to the rapidly developing food sector. The establishment of a TQM graduate training programme demands the support and cooperation of governments, industry and academics across the European continent. The aims of the proposed programme of study would be:

1. to establish food quality equivalence across the E C 2. to maximize the resources within the Community towards food quality 3. to monitor and review developments in food science, technology and engineering, with particular emphasis on the needs of the consumers 4. to maintain the competitive edge of food organizations within the EC. It is proposed that the following strategy would be required to achieve the aims listed:

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1. Through the executive committee of EFFoST, agree with governments, industry and academics, the structure of the graduate training programme, from undergraduate to postgraduate level, available on a modular basis, at selected universities and polytechnics across Europe. 2. Establish a range of open/distance learning packages in TQM, including: Open-university television modules Industry-based TQM modules Videos, radio, microcomputer self-learning software Summer-schools in TQM training. 3. The publication of an annual Euro TQM training report aimed at keeping managers in the food sector aware of state-of-the-art techniques. 4. Ongoing collaborative research programmes between industry, government and academics, across the community. 5. Free exchange of both academic staff and students; the encouragement of joint degree programmes. 6. The creation of a ‘quality culture’ throughout the E C by means of a coherent policy by governments, industrialists and academics towards quality improvement.

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23. Scope and activities of the Food Processing Section within the international Commission of Agricultural Engineering (CIGR) J. De Baerdemaeker, L. Lucas and J. Schmekel International Commission of Agricultural Engineering

CIGR unites research workers, academics, engineers and technologists worldwide. The aims are to promote the worldwide exchange of scientific information and to contribute in defining world policies in the field of agricultural engineering. Special attention is paid to assisting young engineers and professionals. The activities of CIGR are covered by six technical sections: 0

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Land and water use Farm buildings, equipment, structures and environment Equipment engineering for plant production (in the open and protected) Rural electricity and other energy resources Management and ergonomics Processing

The ‘Processing’section (Section 6) involves the application of scientific disciplines for the determination of the properties and possibilities of raw materials (food, feed, fibre, others), quality needs for final products, processing technologies, industrial engineering and processing management. The processing section was established in 1989 and extends the CIGR activities as a link for research and training between agricultural production and subsequent handling, storage and processing. Activities of Section 6

1. International Seminar ‘On-farm Processing’, Paris, France, 7-8 March, 1991. Marketing: marketing channels, product-soil environment relation, label of origin, product and plant certification. Products: technology and processing. Milk products, wine, fruits and vegetables, cooked dishes, meat, fish, other products such as honey, aromatic plants, animal feed etc. 2. International Seminar of the 3rd and 6th Technical Sections of CIGR. ‘Use of on-machine Vision Systems for the Agricultural and Bio-industries.’ Montpellier, France, 3-6 September, 1991. Sorting, recognition, localization of agricultural or food objects Real-time implementation (fast algorithms, specific hardware) Multisensing for on-line control in the food industry.

226 Poster session 2

3. International Congress on Treatment and Re-utilization of Food Farm Effluents and their Sludges. Bari, Italy, Autumn 1992. Treatment of oil farm effluents Treatment of dairy, oenological and other farms effluents Removal and re-utlization systems of sludges and by-products. 4. Seminar ‘Use of Artificial Intelligence Systems on equipment for agricultural and bio-industries’ (Sections 3 and 6). France, Autumn 1993. 5 . World Congress on Agricultural Engineering and European Agricultural Engineering. Milan, Italy, August 1994. Cooperative links already exist with the International Dairy Federation (IDF), International Society of Horticulture Science (ISHS), and Commission Internationale des Industries Agricoles et Alimentaires (CIIA). Other collaborative links are invited. For further information contact: CIGR-General Secretariat Van Gansberghelaan 115 B-9820 Merelbeke Belgium

Section Processing-CIGR Prof. J. De Baerdemaeker K. U. Leuven Kardinaal Mercierlaan 92 3001 Leuven Belgium

Poster session 2 227

24. Collaborative research training in taught courses J. Lamb, D. S. Robinson and M. A. Holden Procter Department of Food Science, Leeds University, Leeds, UK

The Food Science Department of Leeds University is the coordinator of an ERASMUS-supported scheme currently associated with universities in France (Dijon, Nantes). The Netherlands (Wageningen) and Ireland (Cork). This scheme is designed to provide training in laboratory-based project work within the taught courses of the institutions. This training is mostly concerned with students taking a first degree in food science. However, it also provides opportunities for students taking taught courses at postgraduate level. In the current academic session (1990-91) (the first year of the scheme) ten students are undertaking their project training in collaborating institutions. Students carry out their experimental investigations on jointly agreed topics, formulated so as to be fully integrated with their course of study. Particular emphasis is placed on fitting the students into subject areas in which there is a strong current research activity in both the home and host institutions. This aims to ensure that students can settle rapidly into their work programme and also has the benefit of developing collaborative research between the institutions. Undergraduate students from Leeds on the ERASMUS interchange undertake their project work in the second half of the penultimate year of their four-year scheme of study. The first two and a half years of the Leeds course is identical for all students, except that those students who have expressed an interest in undertaking project work abroad receive language training from their second year onwards. When the students return to Leeds in their final year they take a modified course combining major elements of the home-based scheme of study. In this way the Food Science Department at Leeds seeks to ensure maximum flexibility for students in selecting the scheme they wish to pursue. With students on the one-year MSc course in Food Science the project work which forms part of the course can be undertaken either at Leeds or abroad. The opportunities in the scope of the project work are, however, different from those for undergraduates, since Leeds MSc students generally have a first degree in a basic chemical of biological science. In addition to the collaboration through ERASMUS, the Food Science Department at Leeds offers postgraduate research training in a wide range of food science, technology and engineering topics. Many of our research students hold non-UK first degrees. Hence we are experienced in dealing with the common social and academic problems of settling into a foreign environment. We hope to see a continuing development of such postgraduate work undertaken by students from other European Community countries.

Index ACTION IV, 98 advanced high performance liquid chromatography, 219 APRIA, 90 APRIA Formation, 90 Association for the Promotion of the Agricultural and Food Industry (APRIA), 90 Association pour la Promotion Industrie Agriculture (APRIA), 90 Ausbildungsrahrnenplan,73 Austria, food science education in, 58-59 Belgium food law education in, 170 food science education in, 63,180,197-198 biotechnology, 151 British Council, 99-100,101 bromatology, 55 CDIUPA data bank, 90 CEDEFOP, 70,83 CEFETE, 132 Centre de Perfectionnement des Cadres des Industries Agricoles et Alimentaires (CPCIA), 90-91.93 Channelsystem, 100-102 CIGR, 225-226 cohesion, 3 COME'IT, 6,7,98,117-124,128,130,218,219 Commission of Agricultural Engineers (CIGR), 225-226 Community Programme for Education and Training in Technology,see COMElT computer-assisted learning (CAL), 206 computer-based training (CBT), 205-206 conglomeration, 10 Consortium of European Food Education and Training Enterprises (CEFETE), 132 consumers

awareness of health aspects of food, 151 nutritional needs, 5,156-159,208 protection, 166-172 CPCIA, 90-91,93 Cura Annonue, 141 Cura Orbis, 141 Czechoslovakia,food science education in, 59, 200.204 demographic changes, 11,156 Denmark, food science education in, 63-64 diversification,10 dual system, German, 71-72 Eastern Europe, education of food technologists in, 18-29 EC higher education centres, 33 see also individual countries ECCEAMST, 130-131 ECLAIR, 6 EFFoST, 32,224 Electronic Learning Factory (ELF), 206 environmental issues, 11-12 ERASMUS, 36,98,117-124,125,128,209,214, 217,227 EURO HPLC, 219-220 European Alliance of Dairy Teachers (Europel), 136-138 European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (CEDEFOP), 70,83 European Consortium for Continuing Education in Advanced Meat Science and Technology (ECCEAMST), 130- 131 European Federation of Food Science and Technology (EFFoST), 32,224 European Food Law Association survey, 169-170 European University Network, 98 Europel, 136-138

230 Index FAO, 100 FAST programme, 150 FECS, 56 Federal Diploma of Food Chemist, 58 Federation-of European Chemical Societies (FECS). 56 Finland, food science education in, 64-65 FISEC, 32,36,128-129,209-210 FLAIR, 6,7,117-124,128 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 100 food chain, 11,149-150,151-153 Food Executives Training Council (CPCIA), 9091,93 Food Industry Students European Council, see FISEC Food Science & Technology Abstracts, 36 France food law education in, 169,170 food processing industry, training in, 85-93 food science education in, 32,34,61,180 Germ any craft and technician training in, 70-84 food law training in, 169 food science education in, 31,32,34,56,57, 202-203 Gesellenbrief, 73 Gesetzlicher Lebensmittelchemiker, see Official Food Chemist grandes kcoles, 61,97 heuristic scenario, 193 Human Capital and Mobility programme, 7 Hungary, food science educaiionin, 59-60,175 HYGIENE +, 90 IAC, 107-113 IFIS, 36 IFT, 39-41 accreditation, 39-40 Committee on Education and Curricula, 39 survey, 42,43 guidelines, 36 Minimum Standards, 39-41 Institute of Food Technologists, see, IFT Institute of Food Technologists Student Association, 210 interactive training, 196-197 International Agricultural Centre (IAC), 107-113 International Course in Food Science and Nutrition, 221-222 International Food Information Service (IFIS), 36 International Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFoST), 32 IRDAC, 4 Ireland, food science education in, 61 irradiation, 151,164

Italy, 62 IUFoST, 32 Joint F A O N H O Codex Alimentarius Commission, 167 Konig, 31 licentia ubique docendi, 97-98 Liebig, 31 LINGUA, 98 Lome Convention, 213

master courses, German, 77-78 Mastership in Food Control, 170 Netherlands, The, food science education in, 35, 62-63 networks, 117-124 new technologies, 12 Norway, food science education in, 64 Official Control of Foodstuffs Directive, 15-16 Official Food Chemist, German, 56,57,141-148 Swiss, 57-58 on-line sensors, 5 own brands. 10 packaging, 5,15 ‘positive list’ system, 167-168 process automation, 151 quality assurance, 13 quality management standards, 13-14 systems, 13 quality manual, 14 quality plan, 14 quality policy statment, 14 Rahmenlehrplan, 73 Schupfen, 142 Scotland, food science education in, 31-32,201 second framework programme, 7 Spain, food science education in, 62 Studium generale, 97 Sweden, food science education in, 64 Switzerland food law education in, 169 food science education in, 57-58,182

Technomic Inc. survey, 43-45 TEMPUS, 98,117-124,128,204 third framework programme, 37 ‘toilet test’, 141 total quality management (TQM), 13,223-224

Index 231 United Kingdom education-industry links, 134 food law education in, 169 food science education in, 31,32,35,60-61, 194 see also Scotland

United States, food science education in, 35 Wqrking Party on Food Chemistry (WPFC), 5657

2

ADDENDUM

IFST is the examining body for the GraduateDiploma in Food Science &Technology (a degree level qualification) and the Mastership in Food Control (the senior qualification for those responsible for the quality assurance function). IFST publishes careers information and where possible provides individual advice to students and teachers Conferences and meetings IFST organizes a full programme of conferences, symposia and meetings both nationally and locally. Subject groups Members have the opportunity to meet with other members who share a common subject interest, to discuss specific technical aspects, problems and new developments. There are groups in Microbiology & Food Hygiene, Food Control, Research, Food Additives, Catering Technology and Appropriate Food Technology. Publications IFST publishes techcal guidelines covering a range of current issues, e.g. good manufacturing practice and chilled foods. Food Science & Technology Today (quarterly) is the informationjournal of the IFST, containing news, technical articles, reviews, forthcoming events and information of interest to food scientists and technologists. The International Journal of Food Science & Technology is the bi-monthly international forum for original researchpapers. Stronglyscience-based,it is of wide interest to all involved in food science and technology. For further information contact:

The Executive Secretary IFST 5 Cambridge Court 210 Shepherds Bush Road London W6 7NL England Tel: 071-603 6316

ADDENDUM TIlE INSTITUTE OF FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY: ITS ROLE AS TIlE PROFESSIONAL QUALIFYING BODY FOR FOOD SOENTISTS AND TECHNOLOGISTS The Institute of Food Science & Technology (IFST) is the professional qualifying body for food scientists and technologists in the UK. Food science and technology is multi-disciplinary and members of IFST hold qualifications not only in food science and technology but also in a variety of related sciences. Their backgrounds include food and drink manufacturing and retailing, universities, polytechnics, research establishments, consultancy, food law enforcement and government. Members are admitted in their individual capacities to one of five grades of membership: Fellows (designated FIFST); Members (designated MIFST); Licentiates; Students and Affiliates. All are bound by IFST's Code of Professional Conduct.

IFST's primary objectives These are: • encouraging the application of science and technology in improving our understanding of food in all its aspects; • encouraging technological innovation and its responsible application in order to meet consumer requirements for a wholesome, nutritious, safe, varied and attractive diet; • promoting a wider public understanding of food science and technology; • improving professional technical standards and practices in the public interest.

Training and examinations In Autumn 1991, IFST will launch its Post-Graduate Diploma in Food Control - a major initiative in continuing professional development. Candidates will follow a programme of counselled and assessed experience covering six modules, supported by short courses, in-company training schemes and planned private study.