Guyana: Transport Sector Study Environmental and Social – Cultural Issues Working Paper 11

Final Report: Working Paper 11

GOPA ‹ E & A

Working Paper 11: Environmental and Social – Cultural Issues Contents 1 Background, Objectives of the study and Methodology Applied....................................... 1 2 Overview of the state of environmental and social – cultural situation in Guyana.......... 3 2.1 Environmental situation .................................................................................................... 3 2.1.1 Land-use.................................................................................................................. 3 2.1.2 Forestry ................................................................................................................... 4 2.1.3 Mining..................................................................................................................... 4 2.1.4 Biodiversity............................................................................................................. 6 2.1.5 Freshwater............................................................................................................... 7 2.1.6 Coastal areas ........................................................................................................... 8 2.1.7 Atmosphere............................................................................................................. 9 2.1.8 The Urban Environment ......................................................................................... 9 2.1.9 Natural Disasters................................................................................................... 10 2.2 Social-Cultural Situation................................................................................................. 10 2.2.1 General conditions ................................................................................................ 10 2.2.2 Social –Cultural State in Amerindians Communities ........................................... 13 2.2.3 Access to Resources.............................................................................................. 17 2.2.4 Social Conditions.................................................................................................. 20 2.2.5 Archaeology.......................................................................................................... 22 3 Environmental Policy and its Implementation .................................................................. 25 3.1 National Environmental Policy ....................................................................................... 25 3.2 National Environmental Legislation ............................................................................... 27 3.2.1 Mining................................................................................................................... 28 3.2.2 Forests................................................................................................................... 31 3.2.3 Agriculture ............................................................................................................ 32 3.2.4 Manufacturing Industries ...................................................................................... 35 3.2.5 Issues for the Transport Sector ............................................................................. 35 3.3 International Conventions ............................................................................................... 37 3.4 Institutions and their responsibilities............................................................................... 38 3.4.1 Government Institutions........................................................................................ 38 3.4.2 Other Institutions .................................................................................................. 39 3.4.3 Non-Governmental Organizations ........................................................................ 40 3.5 Instruments...................................................................................................................... 41 3.5.1 Planning instruments/ Controlling Mechanism..................................................... 41 3.6 Public participation ......................................................................................................... 42 3.7 Education ........................................................................................................................ 42 3.8 Weaknesses ..................................................................................................................... 43

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4 Environmental and social cultural problems in the Traffic Sector ................................. 44 4.1 Overview of Transportation trends ................................................................................. 44 4.1.1 Roads .................................................................................................................... 44 4.1.2 Airports ................................................................................................................. 46 4.1.3 Ports and waterways ............................................................................................. 46 4.2 General environmental impacts of different transport activities ..................................... 47 4.2.1 Road Transport ..................................................................................................... 47 4.2.2 Air Transport......................................................................................................... 48 4.2.3 Marine and inland water transport ........................................................................ 48 4.3 Special problems in Guyana............................................................................................ 48 4.3.1 Impacts of road transport ...................................................................................... 49 4.3.2 Impacts of air transport ......................................................................................... 53 4.3.3 Impacts of ports, harbours and waterways............................................................ 54 5 Simplified Risk Assessment (SRA) of planned maintenance / new construction works in the traffic sector (see annex 2) ............................................................................. 57 5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 57 5.2 Sensitive environmental and social –cultural areas (see annex 1) .................................. 58 5.3 Planned maintenance/upgrades and new construction works in the transport sector...... 59 5.4 Identification/ explanation of impact criteria in SRA ..................................................... 60 6 Recommendations ................................................................................................................ 63 6.1 General targets and principles ......................................................................................... 63 6.2 Measures for transport policy.......................................................................................... 63 6.2.1 Rules/requirements of law .................................................................................... 64 6.2.2 Strengthening of National Policy.......................................................................... 65 6.2.3 Rules/requirements of taxes.................................................................................. 65 6.2.4 Rules/requirements of order.................................................................................. 65 6.2.5 Requirements on planning instruments and their implementation........................ 66 6.2.6 Requirements on institutions................................................................................. 67 6.2.7 Strengthening monitoring and laboratory network ............................................... 67 6.2.8 Technical rules/standards...................................................................................... 68 6.2.9 Rules for traffic operations ................................................................................... 69 6.2.10 Rules for transport infrastructure construction and rehabilitation ........................ 69 6.2.11 Requirements in awareness/public participation................................................... 70 6.3 Recommendations in social-cultural issues..................................................................... 71 6.4 Interaction with other sectors .......................................................................................... 72 6.5 Estimated environmental cost ......................................................................................... 73 6.6 Conclusions..................................................................................................................... 73

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Annexes Annex 1:

Areas of biological interest in Guyana...................................................................74

Annex 2:

Table of SRA .........................................................................................................75

Annex 3:

Workshop report ..................................................................................................107

Annex 4:

Persons Consulted................................................................................................110

Annex 5:

List of abbreviations ............................................................................................111

Annex 6:

List of References ................................................................................................114

Tables Table 2-1:

Amerindian Population by Region.........................................................................14

Table 2-2:

Location of Amerindian Peoples ...........................................................................15

Table 2-3:

Number of reported/recorded archaeological sites by region ................................24

Table 4-1:

Annual Registration of New Motor Vehicles ........................................................44

Figures Figure 2-1:

Gold Declaration......................................................................................................5

Figure 2-2:

Diamond Declaration ...............................................................................................5

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Background, Objectives of the study and Methodology Applied

Transport projects are generally intended to improve the economic and social welfare of people. Increased transport capacity (e.g. roads, waterways and rails) and improved facilities can reduce travel times and lower the costs of transport vehicle usage, while inter alia, increasing access to markets, jobs, education, and health services and induce development in previously undeveloped areas. But for all the positive aspects of transport projects, they often bring significant negative externalities that impact on nearby communities and the natural environment. People and properties may be directly in the path of, for example, road works and are affected in a direct or indirect manner by transport projects, through disruption of livelihoods, loss of accustomed travel paths and community linkages, contribution to disproportionate utilization of resources, increases in respiratory problems due to air pollution, and injuries and fatalities from accidents. Disturbances to the natural environment may include soil erosion, changes to stream flow patterns, pollution and interference with animal and plant life. Ironically, developing the transport sector results in both benefits and damages to the existing balance between people and their environment. It is well established that the environmental impact of transport sector can be considerable. As such, adaptation to environmental requirements is an essential item in both national and international long-term policies for the transport infrastructure. Much can be done to avoid, minimize, or mitigate the negative environmental impacts of projects from the transport sector, but essential is the identification of potential impacts early in the planning process and to make provisions for avoiding or at least mitigating these effects where possible. Failure to identify potential impacts often results in delays and cost overruns later on in project development. With reference to the environment in Guyana, the possibility is there to avoid the mistakes made in other places, i.e., Europe and North America, through learning from their experiences. This study shall therefore consider the impacts of transport (operational and planned) infrastructure projects in Guyana, inclusive of: • Air transport sector: airports and aircrafts •

Road transport sector: roads and highways

•

Water transport sector: ports, harbours and inland water transport

The main purposes of this impact study are: • To bring the traffic policy in accordance with the Environmental Protection Act of 1996; •

To ensure that future transport developments and policies are environmentally and socialculturally acceptable;

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•

To provide decision-makers with a basis for assessing the transportation implication; and

•

To provide a basis for developing mitigation measures

This report is based on a combination of methodologies that include: •

Conducting consultation meetings with various stakeholders (see Annex 4);

•

Rapid reconnaissance visits to various sites in Guyana, inclusive of Administrative Regions 3 ,4, 6, 7 and 9 to evaluate some of the challenges and impacts posed by transportation development in Guyana;

•

Review of various studies and reports on the transportation infrastructure in Guyana, such as the Linden to Lethem Environmental Impact Assessment, the National Development Strategy (2000 – 2010), the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, the Environmental Protection Act of 1996 and the draft Air, Hazardous Waste and Noise Regulations of 2000;

•

The hosting of a consultation workshop to receive feedback and improve the quality of the presentation being made; and

•

Receiving guidance from the project Steering Committee.

This report presents a comprehensive compilation of environmental and social-cultural impacts and problems, and posits recommendations on how to treat these. It is intentionally broad-based since it covers several modes of transportation. The study provides mostly national estimates of impacts and not local or technical details. Furthermore, it only attempts to provide a risk assessment of general environmental traffic problems and for nationwide significant investigations. In all other cases, normally Environmental Impact Assessment or special researches are necessary. In summary, the study will not give solutions for all environmental and social-cultural problems with specific reference to the transportation infrastructure in Guyana. It hopefully provides, however, relevant information to find a sustainable way for the existing and future questions in developing the transportation sector. Accordingly therefore, the section provides recommendations on how the identified negative externalities may be mitigated and who should be responsible for implementing these measures.

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2

Overview of the state of environmental and social – cultural situation in Guyana

2.1

Environmental situation

2.1.1

Land-use

Land tenure in Guyana falls into two categories (1) State lands, and (2) Private freehold lands. Furthermore, the Guyanese economy is primarily natural resource-based and is dominated by agriculture, mining, and forestry that account for more than 50 percent of GDP (Ministry of Finance, 2004). In the agricultural sector, rice and sugar are carried out mainly on State-owned lands. However, effective land use planning1 is virtually nonexistent (NDS 2000 – 2010). Land use conflicts remain a reality in Guyana. Furthermore, the fact that most of the land in the country is still under the control of the State, the root cause for these conflicts are issues related to the institutional and legal framework, lack of proper coordination and communication,2 and insufficient resources allocated for this purpose. Within the coastal area, where most agricultural and industrial activities are concentrated, and where there is approximately a 50-50 split between publicly and privately owned lands, land use planning is an even more complicated issue than it is in the hinterland. As such, any future transport policy will need to be cognizant of these issues and be aware of the nuances likely to be aggravated by the development in the land use arena unless effective measures are adumbrated to redress these.3 Based on the evidence it appears that land use planning has never been seriously pursued in Guyana. But as the economy of Guyana develops, and the pressure on resources increases, the need for a national policy and plan on land use become crucial, especially since such a national policy can be a strategy for attaining optimum land use towards national development. Proper land use planning though would face many of the obstacles that hinder land administration in the existing framework, such as a low skills base, the enabling legislative framework to encourage enforcement and sufficient monitoring to foster compliance with the requisite regulations; plus some additional threats.

1 This is a process by which land is put to its most appropriate use and provides a context for resource management, conflict resolution and decision-making at local and regional levels, consistent with national policies and priorities (FAO, 2005) 2 For example, the Guyana Geology and Mines Commission (GGMC), Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC), and Guyana National Energy Authority (GNEA) all have legal mandates for their respective operations, but they all overlap with the Guyana Environmental Protection Agency (GEPA). The National Parks Commission and the GFC both have mandates for national parks, Lands and Surveys and GFC both have regulatory powers for woodcutting; CHPA, GFC, and RDC’s all have mandates for environmental protection and conservation, either sectoral or geographically. 3 The authorities for example need to be aware that transport development is likely to lead to more land use conflicts through the provision of greater accessibility in previously inaccessible areas. Additionally, in the pursuit of rapid wealth accumulation, lands may not be put to their best use unless a policy and regulations are enacted and enforced.

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Furthermore, the absence of a comprehensive land degradation and sustainable land management plan on the occupation and utilization of the land resource, can lead to environmental degradation of the land resource through deforestation, and pollution from waste disposal. It should be noted that Guyana ratified the United Nations Convention to Combat Drought and Desertification (UNCCD) and is now developing its National Action Programme (NAP) that is a prerequisite under the Convention to address land degradation issues. All signatories to this Convention are expected to have their NAPS completed by November 2005. Additionally, the country is one of the small and low-lying states that agreed under the Barbados Plan of Action (BPOA) to address land degradation issues under the Partnership Initiative on Sustainable Land Management (PISLM). Guyana is yet to exploit the advantages to be gained from these arrangements. 2.1.2

Forestry

The total forested area in Guyana stands at approximately 65,000 square miles (169,000 km2) land area, representing just over 75% of the country (ITTO, 2003). Although many of the plant and animals species that abound in Guyana’s forests are as yet unidentified, it is known that the forests are an important reservoir of biodiversity. In addition, the forests provide important services to the country’s inhabitants: they protect the soil from erosion; they regulate and purify the nation’s water supplies; and, perhaps of greatest importance, they ensure environmental stability. In general, it is felt that there are few negative environmental impacts associated with forest operations in Guyana (ITTO, 2003). Negative impacts though, are said to be arising from increased chainsaw logging, especially on wildlife, and this can get worse with increased access into the forest. 2.1.3

Mining

The mining and quarrying sector is dominated by primary production, with little forward or backward integration. The gold mining sector has for the past ten (10) years been dominated by one large mining operation, i.e., Omai Gold Mines Limited (OGML), though lately, the movement of Brazilian miners across the border to the Guyana side has reportedly had some impact on gold declaration (see Figures 2-1 & 2-2), but has also brought with it significant negative environmental impacts, i.e., river and stream siltation, ponding, and increased water pollution, due in large part from the indiscriminate use of mercury and a new method of mining known as ‘carpet’ mining.

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Figure 2-1:

Gold Declaration

500000 450000 400000

ounce

350000 300000 250000 200000 150000 100000 50000 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Year

Figure 2-2:

Diamond Declaration

350000 300000 250000 200000

Carat 150000 100000

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

0

1993

50000

Year

Source: Bank of Guyana Statistical Bulletin (2004)

Of late, the gold market has been under the influences of forces largely external to the business. For example, in 2000 the precious metal was oversold and the only way out was up, even though at that time nobody seemed to know how or why. The subsequent widespread economic slow-

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down and the equity collapse was the why. It encouraged investors to move out of the stock market and into other activities, gold included. More recently the continuing instability in the global stock market and the quagmire resulting from the US’s invasion of Iraq has kept gold prices fairly high. The quarrying sector is, like the gold and diamond mining operations, mainly a primary sector activity, dominated by medium scale operations, i.e., BK International, Mazaruni Granite Company, and Big Hope Mines4. Most of these mines are geared towards supplying the local market and conduct little or no exporting presently. 2.1.4

Biodiversity

Guyana has a number of endemic species that are endangered. For example, the country is estimated to have 6,500 plant species, over 1600 arthropods, 501 marine fish species, and 123 mammals. However, it is believed that many of these are underestimates of what actually exists. Consequently the country has accorded global priority for conservation purposes. The biodiversity also relates to a variety of ecosystems that range from wetlands to mountainous areas. According to the UNEP (1992) report 173 endemic plant species and 10 animal species are present in Guyana. While the level of endemism may not be comparable to other countries of the Amazon region, the regional status of the country’s biodiversity lies in its sharing of many species which, though not endemic to the country are endemic to the region. Some of these are giant representatives of their taxa and include the Anaconda, Arapaima, Capybara, Giant Otter, Giant River Turtle, and the Victoria lily. In recent times trade in wildlife has been said to be on the increase in Guyana (WWF 2005). At present, while there are some moves to regulate the trade in Guyana’s faunal species, there is little regulation of the floral species. It is a distinct possibility that increased access may lead to increased trade in these wild species and therefore it will be necessary for the appropriate legislations to be crafted and issues related to intellectual property rights (IPR's) be accorded greater significance than they currently occupy. These are not only traditional resources, but also have the potential to contribute in an economically significant manner to Guyana’s development thrust. In addition to the characteristics of Guyana’s biodiversity highlighted above another important dimension which is often overlooked is traditional knowledge, particularly as it relates to ethnomedicinal applications. In addition, the indigenous communities of Guyana possess considerable knowledge about natural resources. Guyana is highly dependent on their ecosystem services to support human well-being. These core ecosystem services include agriculture, fisheries, tourism and forestry, all of which incorporate a unique cultural, spiritual and recreational value, which make the country a desirable place to live and visit. The economies, environment and well-being of the peoples of Guyana are interdependent since the country’s future development is projected to be dependent on its natural resources and ecotourism which are largely based on the amenity value of the natural ecosystems. Important ecosystem services such as agriculture, forestry and 4 This is one of the mines that fall under the Baracara management.

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fisheries contribute approximately 35% of GDP, while tourism contributes about 5% of foreign exchange earnings. Apart from its economic role, biodiversity plays an important social role – as informal or “bush” medicine on the coast and as part of the belief and therapeutic systems of Guyana’s indigenous and rural peoples. Biodiversity plays a critical role in food security and is a major influencing factor in culinary practice in Guyana. Guyana is also well known for its cultural diversity. People from the several indigenous cultures, Europe, Africa, India and China are part of the Guyanese nation. Each of these cultures evolved with a close relationship to the natural environment and its biodiversity. These perspectives and traditions generally have a spiritual and moral basis that is actually integrated into religion. They generally stress that actions will be rewarded or punished at the end of a given lifetime and that all forms of life are to be valued (NBAP, 1999). Threats to Guyana’s environment have direct and indirect consequences on human well-being and poverty alleviation. Indeed, since the development of the country’s National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP), biodiversity resources are considered a key factor in shaping sustainable development strategies for the country. The NBAP identified the strategies and policies that would allow the country to safeguard its traditional heritage and natural resources while opening the country to new opportunities offered by international markets. It is believed that certain species of Guyana’s biological resources are being over-harvested, such as mangrove mainly for burning bricks in constructing farm to market roads, agricultural purposes and as fuelwood; and parrots and macaws mainly for economic gains. Other threats have come from, inter alia: (1) industrial pollution, such as cyanide and mercury in Guyana, (2) invasive alien species, (3) poverty, (4) insufficient regional coordination and governance, (5) poor land use planning, and (6) lack of valuation systems for biodiversity. A marked feature of Guyana’s natural ecosystems though is that they are relatively not as degraded as others in the region, due to low population pressure and limited commercial activity, but with reference to the latter, this is changing and is projected to get worse with greater access and less regulations or enforcement of these regulations. 2.1.5

Freshwater

Guyana is rich in renewable water resources. Surface water is a major source of water supply, with approximately 70% of the Capital city’s population fulfilling their freshwater requirements from the East Demerara Water Conservancy (EDWC), aka the Lama Canal. Furthermore, most of the country is entirely dependent on groundwater, largely from the ‘A’ and ‘B’ sand areas. The ‘A’ sands are very rich in iron and the ‘B’ sands contain high levels of hydrogen sulphide; both are treatable by aeration and settlement, sometimes followed by infiltration. In absolute terms, Guyana has sufficient water to meet demand, with the result that people are ignoring coastal and inland aquifer depletion due to possible over extraction in some areas and water contamination in others.

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The major challenges are decreasing per capita water availability due to urban population growth, urban expansion, deforestation and climate change; deteriorating water quality arising from untreated sewage, excessive use of agro-chemicals, and industrial pollution – particularly from the gold, diamond and bauxite mining, and obsolete institutional and legal frameworks. Many of these problems are believed to be exacerbated by the continued concentration of population on the coast often due to the rudimentary nature of the hinterland infrastructure, inclusive of transportation, and the lack of dispersal of the necessary skills. Poor water quality leads to health problems as well as reduction in agricultural production, which means that more food item and agricultural products must be imported. Poor water quality also limits economic development options, a situation which can be potentially disastrous. The widespread invasion of water hyacinths and antelope grass is further cause of deteriorating water quality. The water hyacinths and antelope grass form dense mats that clog water channels, disrupting flow patterns. Decaying vegetation generate bad odour and lead to eutrophication of the water body. 2.1.6

Coastal areas

Guyana’s coast is considered one of the most important areas of the country, from a social, economic, and physical and environmental perspective. The coast occupies approximately 7.5 percent of the total land area of the country and extends along the entire 430km of the Atlantic seaboard. It varies in width from 26km at the northern most extreme in the Barima – Waini Region to 77km further southward in the Kabakaburi area. Extending for as much as 7km inland, much of the coastal plain lies between 0.5m and 1.0m below the mean high tide level. The coast consists of coastal works in the form of dykes, sluices and concrete walls; mud banks, a mangrove belt and sand flats, known collectively as sea defences. These serve to protect the plain from flooding by the sea, as much of the coastal plain lies between 0.5m and 1.0m below the mean high tide level. Complemented by an extensive drainage and irrigation and flood control network, the sea defences serve to make the coast habitable and cultivable. This fertile plain consists of surface clays underlain by clays of the Demerara and Coropina formations. The coast accounts for more than 50 percent of Guyana’s GDP and export earnings through the sale of rice and sugar, two of the country’s major exports, and their supporting activities (Bynoe and Thomas 2003). Additionally, it is the major foci of communication networks and industrial and commercial activities. Further, the coast is home to nearly 90 percent of Guyana’s population, and with the exception of Linden, it accommodates all the major settlement nodes, i.e., Corriverton, Rose Hall, New Amsterdam, and Anna Regina, including the capital city Georgetown. Mainly for these reasons the threat of sea level rise is paramount for Guyana’s economy and demonstrates the need for the development and implementation of appropriate adaptation responses by local stakeholders to meet this challenge. The main immediate threat to Guyana’s coastal resources comes from the absence of a comprehensive integrated framework for policy planning and management of these resources (Guyana’s Integrated Coastal Zone Management Action Plan, 2000). Other key environmental problems facing the coastal and marine areas are related to habitat degradation and conversion to other land uses, indiscriminate waste disposal techniques, pollution produced by human-induced ac-

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tivities and over-exploitation of fisheries resources. Depletion of coastal resources such as fisheries and mangrove has emerged as a critical issue. The underlying causes of these problems are linked to the development of coastal areas for infrastructure, inclusive of transportation, and urbanization, and to the conversion of coastal habitats for uses such as agriculture, housing and aquaculture. These factors have degraded coastal areas, reduced water quality and increased pressures on marine resources. 2.1.7

Atmosphere

Water, air and noise pollution are becoming the most critical environmental issues in the country because of their individual and cumulative impacts on human health and the environment. As indicated elsewhere in this document, most of the mining occurring in the country occurs in the hinterland areas, where the major forms of mining are open pit, riverbed and banks, and blasting. These types of activities often compromise the water quality on which many hinterland communities depend. Further sources of water pollution are from industries within the urban centres that practice little or no water treatment, and from the general populace in the way they dispose of their waste. Further, a rapid increase in the number of vehicles after 1991, with the number of vehicles registered rising from 2,823 vehicles in 1991 to 7,570 in 1996, before tapering off to 5,336 in 2000 have contributed to air pollution in Guyana. Many of these vehicles are reconditioned and remain a cause for concern. Vehicle emissions remain one of the main sources leading to contamination, and contribute to dust, noise and air pollution. As such, it is evident that the transport sector is a major source of pollution in the country. Industries, including bauxite mining, refineries and agriculture, and the municipal sector also contribute to air pollution. Climatic variability and associated floods and El Nino spells result in increased risks to crop failure and therefore reduced food security, as well as higher incidences of malnutrition and disease. 2.1.8

The Urban Environment

Georgetown is the most urbanized centre in the country and is also the capital city. The estimated population in 2002 was 137,330 representing 18.5% of the total population and a population density of 138.5 persons per km2. Although environmental problems are not limited to the capital city, the impact is quite evident there. Urban environmental problems include the concentration of domestic and industrial solid wastes, inappropriate methods for disposing of waste, lack of incinerators to deal with special types of wastes, lack of adequate sewage system and air pollution. Water contamination, flooding and inadequate waste disposal methods are having severe health impacts, particularly for people living in Georgetown. Another major urban environmental issue is flooding due to indiscriminate disposal of waste and clogged drains.

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Natural Disasters

Although climatic variability is a natural phenomenon, the increasing frequency and severity of extreme events can be in part attributed to human activities such as deforestation and inappropriate management of land and water resources. The main hazards are flooding, mercury containing mining tailings, and hazardous chemicals representing the main human-caused disasters. Other human induced disasters are clearing of tropical forests altering the local climate and rainfall patterns, and increasing the risk of droughts and floods. Clearing the vegetation may also increase run-off and soil erosion.

2.2

Social-Cultural Situation

2.2.1

General conditions

Guyana's population is estimated at 765,283 and is made up of five main ethnic groups--East Indian, African, Amerindian, Chinese, and Portuguese. Ninety percent of the inhabitants live on the narrow coastal plain. The following is extracted from the: Programme Support Document (PSD) ‘Strengthening Capacity for the Reduction of Poverty in Guyana’ UNDP/Ministry of Foreign Affairs In Guyana, as in other developing countries, poverty has been closely associated with low and uneven economic growth coupled with unequal income distribution. For the decade following Independence in 1966, Guyana’s economy grew at an average rate of 7.5 percent per annum. This period coincided with macroeconomic stability and improved social conditions. During the next decade and a half (between 1975 and 1990), the economy experienced a precipitous decline resulting in a cumulative 20.8 percent drop in real GDP, which led to a deterioration in the country’s social and physical infrastructure, shortages of commodities, and outward migration of skilled and professional workers. To reverse this decline, the government launched an Economic Recovery Programme (ERP) in 1989 which sought to establish a market-oriented economy. Developed with assistance from the Bretton Woods institutions, the ERP was designed to eliminate macroeconomic imbalances and stimulate economic growth. It incorporated measures to curtail public sector involvement in major economic activities, restore the productive capacity in the traditional sectors and attract private investment in new and liberalized activities. The economy responded positively to these developments, with GDP growing at an average real annual rate of 7.1 percent between 1991 and 1997, internal and external balances were eliminated, and assistance from the donor community facilitated the rehabilitation of economic and social infrastructure. However, since 1998 GDP again contracted (“growth” was -1.3 percent in

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1998, 3 percent in 1999, and –0.8 percent in 2000), highlighting the extremely fragile nature of the economy which remains vulnerable to internal and external shocks. Despite government’s best intentions to support the social sector by increasing expenditure, poverty remains a critical problem. The problems associated with poverty have been assessed in the Household Income and Living Conditions surveys, which report that, in spite of marginal improvements during the 1992 - 2000 period, poverty remains unacceptably high. These surveys, point toward the particularly high incidence of poverty in the hinterland and rural coastal areas, with large pockets of poverty existing in urban locations. Both the NDS and the I-PRSP, which have taken account of these findings, have emphasized the necessity of attaining an equitable geographical distribution of economic activity in an attempt to achieve sustainable social and economic development as the primary means of eradicating poverty. Apart from recognizing the importance of sustained economic growth in alleviating poverty, the Government is also aware of the negative impact of the dearth of individual and institutional capacity at all levels of the economic and social structure in Guyana. This is recognized as one of the primary impediments to progress. The I-PRSP has also singled out weak regulatory and institutional support as one of the key pervasive problems associated with the country’s inability to address the persistent levels of poverty. In this regard, the Government has requested support from the donor community to assist it in transforming this weakness in capacity. The lack of individual and institutional capacity has been identified as a critical problem which limits the private sector’s ability to perform adequately, as well as constraining the Government’s capability to execute and implement development assistance projects. It is a pervasive problem stemming from years of economic decline and social and political instability – conditions which have created a malaise among public and private sector workers in Guyana, and encouraged outward migration of the very trained managers, workers, teachers, and other skilled professionals needed to create a stable institutional environment. Capacity development, therefore, is also critical in addressing poverty alleviation at all levels of Guyanese society. Previous initiatives undertaken by the Government, some with UNDP assistance, attempted to address this problem and identified the following as critical to successful interventions for poverty alleviation: •

strengthened institutional capacity within central government agencies and increased ability to interface with donors and line ministries;

•

the creation of a modern and cost-effective management information system to facilitate aid coordination and management;

•

the need for more qualified staff within both the central government and other agencies to effectively execute and implement programmes and projects;

•

Appropriate structures and procedures within the central agencies that would enable more effective review and updating of the developmental needs of the economy.

•

increased capacity to monitor changes in the international community which can affect both the resource inflows and the development equilibrium of the economy;

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More appropriate operational and financial systems, training programmes and incentive regimes necessary to attract and retain qualified persons; and increasing the Public Sector’s capacity to utilise all the available aid (donor) resources.

Despite progress in some of these areas over the years, capacity problems persist particularly within the Government ministries and agencies that are responsible for co-ordinating international assistance. Similarly, national capacity for the execution, implementation and monitoring of development projects and programmes is severely limited. It is accepted that by building up capacity through upgrading of current staff, improving the capacity of the relevant institutions, and developing appropriate systems, greater efficiency and effectiveness can be achieved in the coordination and utilization of development assistance inflows. Government's strategy in this area focuses on strengthening and increasing institutional capacity for mobilizing inflows and co-ordinating development assistance. It is also important to focus on upgrading the capacity to identify, formulate, execute, implement and monitor development projects. UNDP’s current programme is required to provide support to build capacity in the planning and management of programmes and projects, specifically as these relate to poverty alleviation. There are a number of ministries and agencies addressing policy planning and implementation of programmes to address poverty. The Ministry of Finance allocates the funds and monitors the progress of the anti-poverty interventions; the Office of the President has the expertise and the mandate to plan for PRSP related interventions; the Ministry of Labour, Human Services and Social Security is the nodal agency for services to vulnerable groups such as the aged, youth, orphans, children and the homeless. It is also the parent Ministry for the Women's Affairs' Bureau, which implements and coordinates projects relating to women in development; the Ministry of Amerindian Affairs coordinates projects in the overwhelmingly impoverished Amerindian communities. Other sectoral ministries like Health, Agriculture, Education and Local Government are partners in the implementation of social sector programmes aimed at reducing poverty. In addition the government is committed to satisfying the criteria for converting the IPRSP into a full PRSP, thereby obtaining the accompanying benefits which will emanate from debt relief under the HIPC initiative. The Office of the President has undertaken the role of coordinating the PRSP process, which involves the establishment of a number of donor and inter-governmental coordinating mechanisms. In March 2001 the government formed a High Level Coordination Committee and agreed on a series of thematic working groups to address some of the criteria for PRSP formulation designed to contribute to the formulation of a comprehensive poverty reduction strategy for Guyana, with inputs from civil society, sector specialists, technicians and decision makers. UNDP has been charged with the responsibility for coordinating these thematic groups. The National Programme for poverty reduction is expressed through the (Interim) Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. The strategy expresses the Government’s strong commitment to reduce poverty through accelerated economic growth and improved social conditions. The information and priorities in the PRSP were provided by the National Development Strategy, the Private Sec-

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tor Business Summit Report and a comprehensive public participation plan around the issues in the I-PRSP. The national authorities have aligned the objectives of the Strategy to the International Development Targets and have specifically adopted the goal of halving poverty by the year 2015. The specific goals of the PRSP however, include (i) reducing the proportion of population below the poverty line to 31.5% by 2003; (ii) reducing infant mortality rates to 47 per thousand by 2003; (iii) achieving universal primary education and (iv) eliminating gender disparities in education by 2004. The poverty profile and analyses highlighted the possibilities for the strategy. First, it is clear that economic growth is essential for poverty reduction, but given that per capita income is below US$3 per day, there is the scope for income redistribution as a mechanism for poverty reduction. However, in terms of spatial distribution of resources and assets, there is urgent need for redress, if the rural and interior communities are to be integrated into the overall development framework and the extreme poverty of the Amerindian people reduced. The analyses in the strategy also point to the importance of increasing investments into the social sector, to enable the poor to work and earn. Finally, infrastructure development and maintenance were identified as key to reducing input and distribution costs – including high transportation costs and assisting the poor to become competitive. This participation/consultation process assisted in informing the prioritisation and sequencing of programmes and reallocation of resources freed under the Highly Indebted Poor Country Initiative (HIPC). The public sector investment programmes endorsed by the consultations focused on job creation, the health, water, sanitation, education and housing sectors and an economic infrastructure. This strategy will be revised every three years and will be informed by the NDS. The national programme will be implemented by sector/line Ministries. Co-ordination and overall tracking of the action plan and strategy will be undertaken by a PRS Secretariat. Needless to say, the success of these efforts is very dependent on the capacities of these Ministries. 2.2.2

Social –Cultural State in Amerindians Communities

During 1993 to 1994 the Amerindian Research Unit of the University of Guyana conducted a Social Conditions Study in Guyanese Amerindian Communities. A booklet containing 100 questions and an introduction to the project was sent to Amerindian communities in each of the ten Administrative Regions of Guyana. The aims and objectives of this project were: (a) To collect up-to-date and accurate information on as many Amerindian communities as possible (b) To centralize this information for easy access (c) To identify priorities and set about the task of development in Amerindian communities in a rational way (d) To recruit knowledgeable and responsible members of Amerindian communities to help accumulate information

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(e) To possibly identify leaders and potential leaders in Amerindian communities who could participate in development projects. This data was also utilized in the compilation of Sub-Section II: of the Guyana: Human Development Report 1996 Final Report entitled “The Indigenous Peoples”. Extracts from this Report follow: 2.2.2.1

The Indigenous Peoples

In this sub-section we look in some detail at the situation of the indigenous peoples of Guyana, the Guyanese Amerindians. Their human condition and the social issues they have to deal with illustrate well, how they are positioned in relation to SHD in Guyana. Policy issues will be dealt with as they arise in the discussion. 2.2.2.2

Population Characteristics

Guyanese Amerindians rank as the fourth largest ethnic group, after the East Indian, African and Mixed Guyanese ethnic groups. An estimated 70% of the total Amerindian population live in the regions west of the Essequibo River-Regions 1, 7, 8, and 9 (Table 2-1). They comprise the majority of the populations in Regions 1, 8 and 9 and a significant percentage (one-third) in Region 7. These are the regions that encompass the mineral-rich Guiana Shield which has been the focus of interest in the 1990s for mineral prospecting and forest extractive multinational companies with interests and/or holding companies also in neighbouring Suriname and Venezuela where this shield extends. Table 2-1:

Amerindian Population by Region

Region 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total: Source: HIES, 1993.

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Total 18,590 42,769 91.328 297,162 49.498 142,839 15,342 5,737 15,087 39,106 717,458

Amerindian 14,075 5,728 289 1,467 2,383 2,380 4,614 4,218 12,194 1,511 48,859

% of Total Amerindian Pop. 28.80 11.72 0.32 0.49 4.81 1.66 9.45 8.63 24.95 3.86

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There are 9 surviving Amerindian peoples, distinguished by their use of distinct languages and by their separation by natural environments. Listed below (Table 2-2) are the estimated numbers of each Amerindian people as well as the general environmental niche occupied: Table 2-2: Location of Amerindian Peoples (Guyana Human Development Report, 1996) Amerindian People

Location

Lokono Arawaks

white sand plateaux near the coast; middle river basins below the falls; [Arawaks and Mixed Arawaks comprise and estimated 15,500 persons]

Warau

coastal swamps; [population 5,000]

Karinya (Caribs)

coastal river heads; coastal lowland forests; [population 3,000]

Akawaio/Kapon

lowland and upland forests; the Mazaruni River basin; [population 5,000]

Patamona/Kapon

upland savannah; [population 5,000]

Arekuna/Pemon

upland savannah; [population 500]

Makushi/Pemon

lowland savannah; [population 7,750]

Wapishana

lowland savannah; [population 6,900]

Waiwai

lowland forest; [population 200]

Life expectancy among the Amerindian peoples is a matter of considerable concern. There are only 2,981 Amerindians above 55 years of age. Amerindian birth rates however are the highest of all ethnic groups. This trend is in line with growth rates for other indigenous populations throughout the Americas, reversing the widespread prediction at the beginning of the 20th century that indigenous populations were on their way to extinction. However, it is indicative of another universal phenomenon: that birth rates are highest among the poorest strata of society, where children are often the only form of insurance available and where women have few options to limit childbearing. The average indigenous household is composed of 5.5 persons, somewhat higher than the national average of 4.28 persons. 2.2.2.3

Employment and Income

The HIES (1993) survey data revealed that 75% of the Amerindians are in the self-employed category, with this concentrated in traditional subsistence activities (agriculture, hunting and forestry). Smaller numbers are self-employed in fishing, mining and quarrying, and manufacturing. As indicated in Section I a comparison with the other ethnic groups yields a substantially larger proportion of Amerindians being classified as poor (85%). On the face of it, given their comparatively small numbers, reversing the poverty status of Amerindians would seem a manageable task. In practice, however, Amerindian/hinterland poverty is a complex mix of issues, because of a set of inter-related factors: their dispersed settlement pat-

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terns, the difficult terrain they occupy, the high cost of administration of interior projects in Guyana, the lack of human resource skills both in the Amerindian and in the wider population, and a lobby which while growing, is not yet strong enough. The other – less easily definable – aspect of the problem results from the markedly egalitarian ethos that defines Amerindian social organization, which is now being transformed in a number of ways. Until very recently, most Amerindian communities were essentially lacking in hierarchical distinctions. Few villagers worked outside of the community and those who did generally earned modest wages in timber grants or in other manual jobs. In spite of rapid changes in many areas of the interior, the majority of Amerindians continue however, to operate outside of the cash economy, dependent on a subsistence way of life. Increasingly, indigenous households are suffering now from what has been termed ‘the development paradox’ where the availability of money results in lower nutritional status. Subsistence farming, particularly in coastal settlements and those located near to interior mining and forestry industries, is increasingly under threat from the long periods of absence of able-bodied males engaged in wage labour in resource extractive industries. All Amerindian communities have suffered doubly from the impact of structural adjustment on food prices – increased transportation costs to the interior on top of dramatic increases in the cost of food. The mining industry has also transformed social relationships in many indigenous communities, with a monetary value now placed on early good or service. This new insistence on payment puts the old and the young in particular, who lack the wherewithal, at risk. The expansion of the gold and diamond mining industries which began in the early 1980s has attracted many Amerindian males. Some who worked on their own struck gold while others who hired out their labour or medium or large-scale mining operations were able to earn considerable amounts of cash in relatively short periods of time. At present the Guyana Gold and Diamond Miners Association (GGDMA) estimates that Amerindians make up 50% of their work force. This mining fever extends well beyond the mineral-rich areas, and attracts Amerindian males from all parts of Guyana. The present scale of Amerindian involvement in mining is a contributory factor to the changing dynamics of village life, in particular that aspect in which the younger people often measure status by the possession of consumer goods combined with the de-emphasizing of subsistence agriculture. In general, village life and particularly women and older people have to bear the adverse impacts of mining. The expansion of medium scale prospecting, the technological advances in the industry as well as the provisions of the 1991 Mining Act that have allowed the mining of river banks and the growth of uncontrolled land mining, have resulted in river pollution in many areas, destroying the sources of potable water, increasing water-borne diseases and affecting fish availability. Women and children often have to paddle far distances to get to unpolluted water sources while water- and vector-borne diseases have increased with mining activities.

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As pointed out earlier, involvement in resource extractive industries has aided the commercialization of many aspect of indigenous community life. This has been to the detriment of those families and individuals who do not or cannot participate in its operations. Moreover, the absence of financial institutions on the one hand, and the proliferation of outlets that sell liquor and other consumables, often mean that little of the monies earned by indigenous mining workers is invested or even spent on familial needs. Mining also has had a general inflationary aspect on commercial transactions within Amerindian communities, again jeopardizing the access of the old and the young to services and resources which previously had not passed through a cash nexus. 2.2.3

Access to Resources

2.2.3.1

Land

The majority of the 77 Amerindian communities in Guyana have title to some of their traditional lands, totalling some l6% of the Guyanese national territory. Most of this land is within the tropical Amazonian or savannah ecosystems, and therefore of poor soil quality. Some 20 communities scattered over the entire country, comprising a total estimated population of about five thousand persons, lack any security of tenure. Only one Amerindian community – Orealla – has had a physical survey of its reservation boundaries, because at the time when title was grated in 1976, aerial surveys were done to establish community boundaries. In general, about 90% of the areas granted to Amerindian communities have been demarcated by natural boundaries. At a workshop (February 1996, Paramakatoi) on establishing a National Protected Areas System (NPAS) for Guyana, the President announced to the gathered Amerindian leaders that the Government was actively seeking financial and other resources to demarcate all titled Amerindian lands. One reason for this declaration is that the issue of land security is most acute for those communities, either made accessible to outsiders by the building of roads or affected by the presence of outsiders engaged in resource exploitation in and around them. The problem of resource access has become quite acute and one solution which has been proposed, and which has much merit is that the issue of land title should be approached through the convening of meetings and consultations between the relevant Government (Guyana Lands and Surveys Commission; GGMC, Ministry of Amerindian Affairs) and regional personnel (Land Selection Committee; Regional Democratic Council) along with the communities concerned, which would lead to the granting of communal title to vulnerable communities in the first instance, and others later. It has been recognized that in addition to those communities lacking outright title, other communities face problems of encroachment on their lands by garimpeiro-type mining operations, by forestry operations and from the general lack of regulation by State agencies. The Ministry of Amerindian Affairs has begun to coordinate meetings involving these various, often conflicting, resource use interests, as well as the affected communities. In this instance also the establish-

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ment of standard protocols or procedures, mutually agreed on by indigenous communities and the State, would be another policy recommendation. In some cases, Amerindian leaders of villages which hold title to their communities’ lands have made deals with coastal sawmilling enterprises, and with land and river mining operators for use of these, without adequate consultation or in ignorance of the consequences. Given the weak State presence I much of the interior, Amerindian communities therefore need legal assistance, technical support and training to counter this growing phenomenon. Immediate needs can be addressed by the development, with NGO and/or Government support, of sustainable livelihood alternatives. At present Amerindians are increasingly incorporated into these processes as unskilled labourers, tree spotters, etc., on their own or adjoining lands, or doing manual work for outside companies or individuals. Meanwhile several Amerindian communities face pressure to allow timber companies to log on their lands or suffer unpreventable poaching. 2.2.3.2

Water, Timber, Fish and Mineral Resources

Access to potable water is non-existent in the majority of Amerindian communities. Traditional sources of pure water – creeks and rivers – have increasingly come under threat of pollution from the rapid growth of resource extractive industries referred to above. Hydraulic earthmoving on and near riverbanks by the mining industry has increased water turbidity, which in turn has affected the spawning grounds of many fish species. In Guyana land title rights of Amerindian communities encompass usufruct rights – to fish, farm and hunt on the land – as well as rights to all timber on reserved lands. At present the forestry reserves under the sole control of Amerindian communities are considerable, and if harvested sustainable, could support indigenous people for generations. Guyana has a land area of about 21.5 m. ha., of which over 16 m. ha are forested and of this total, 1.4 m. ha. of mostly forested land is legally under the control of indigenous peoples. In recent times a number of Amerindian village leaders have entered into various contractual arrangements with loggers and saw millers to exploit timber on Amerindian reservations. It does not appear however, that Amerindians have gained very much from this trade which appears to have principally benefited outsiders. Yet there is a threshold of poverty below which the poor become disproportionately destructive, either by directly destroying resources which could nurture them for years or indirectly by giving outsiders access to resources under indigenous control. Amerindian land title does not extend to the rivers that pass through a reservation, although Amerindians have the right to fish in all areas controlled by the State and classed as State Lands. Rights to sub-surface minerals are excluded by title. In practice, however, most of the mining which takes place on titled lands is either illegal (garimpeiro-type operations) or as a result of a private arrangement with a villager or the Captain and Village Council. There is also mining by non-Amerindians on lands, particularly in Regions 1, 7 and 8, claimed by Amerindian communities that lack any form of title. Furthermore, if an Amerindian wishes to engage in mining, then

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according to Guyanese law, that individual must give up the special rights enshrined in law enjoyed as an Amerindian. The Amerindian Bill 2005 (Bill No. 13 of 2005) section 52 states: “An Amerindian who wishes to exercise a traditional mining privilege shall – (a) obtain the consent of the Village council; and (b) comply with any obligations imposed by or under any other written law. An Amerindian who wishes to carry out mining activities which are not covered by a traditional mining privilege shall obtain the permits required by, and comply with the obligations imposed under, any other written law.” The scale of mining in and around Amerindian areas is predicted to increase dramatically over the next few years. Large-scale corporations are now prospecting in Amerindian areas. In addition, over 3,000 prospecting licences have been issued to medium-scale operators to date. Even if we conservatively estimate that only 10% of the prospecting companies go on to mine, the transformation of the interior and its people will be considerable. 2.2.3.3

Capital, Finance and Credit

It is difficult for Amerindians living in reservations to get access to commercial financing for start-up capital. This is because the preferred security demanded by commercial banks is proof of land ownership. Amerindians who mostly have communal title therefore cannot proffer individual titles to land as a condition for getting bank credit. A second major difficulty is posed by the absence of banking facilities in most Amerindian areas of Guyana. This means that indigenous people have no secure and easy way of saving their money, and thus are more tempted to spend it all on consumables sold in interior shops. Development planning by central government, particularly in the area of agriculture, is mandatory if the decline of subsistence farming among Amerindian communities is to be arrested. Agricultural extension workers in the Regions generally suffer from a lack of transportation and supplies necessary for effective work. Planning for the marketing of Amerindian produce in markets in and outside of Guyana is also vital. 2.2.3.4

Non-traditional Agriculture

Most Amerindian households still rely on subsistence agriculture for their basic food. Foodstuff transported to the interior can cost five or more times than in some areas on the coast because of high transportation costs based on the difficulty of access and the small population numbers to be service, as well as the inflationary effect of mining and the monopoly status of the limited number of shopkeepers in these areas. Increasingly, however, non-traditional agriculture is being developed in Amerindian areas. The most important non-traditional crop is heart of palm farming. Basically this is a resource extractive operation mainly situated in Region 1, which started in 1988 and has recently ex-

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panded into the Berbice River (Region 10). One company is engaged in heart of palm canning, and all of its production I exported to Europe and the USA. An estimated 6 million palm trees (Euterpe oloracea) are cut annually in Region 1 on State and Amerindian titled lands under no supervision by the Guyana Forestry Commission or any other body responsible for the long-term sustainability of the palm species. The company maintains that since it is only purchasing palm hearts from independent suppliers, it has no obligations to monitor harvesting methods, to pay royalties on palms cut, or to provide benefits like workers’ compensation to cutters who happen to get injured while engaged in the tree-felling or transporting of palm hearts. The next important non-traditional crop is peanut cultivation. Beginning in the early 1980s, Amerindian farmers, particularly in Regions 1 and 9, took loans to expand into peanut cultivation. For several years the entire crop of Region 9 farmers was bought by Guyana Stores Limited – a Government owned retail establishment. This arrangement was terminated in 1989 and since then, farmers have had to sell to middlemen – large Rupununi peanut producers or truck owners. Import liberalization in 1991 has also allowed unrestricted import of peanuts, resulting in a loss of market share for the local crop. Finally, in Region 1 in particular, villagers supplement their subsistence way of life by growing ground provisions on the riverain clay soils that are first drained. Some market their surplus produce by paddling downriver to the fortnightly market located near to the Region’s administrative centre. In other instances hucksters travel from the coast to the marketing centres to purchase their output. Prices reported in the Amerindian areas for these products have been about onequarter of the prices at urban coastal markets. 2.2.4

Social Conditions

2.2.4.1

Education

The social conditions facing Amerindian communities are below the standards considered acceptable by most Guyanese. In the area of education while only 3% of the Amerindian population was found to be illiterate, close to one-half of that number were between 5 and 9 years old. The majority of the illiterate were female. The Functional Literacy Survey of Out of School Youth (UNICEF, 1995) established a significant relationship between race and achievement in functional literacy, with the Amerindians being the most disadvantaged of all ethnic groups. Some 80% of Amerindians were found to be achieving below an acceptable level of functional literacy, a fact the Report’s authors attributed to the generally poorer quality of education currently available in the interior regions. According to the LSMS survey 0.1% of the interior population has received post-secondary education.

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2.2.4.2

GOPA ‹ E & A

Health

While the national health plan aims at universal health coverage, chronic staff and drugs shortages at district and regional levels limit access to quality health care. In Region 9, for example, only 75 out of 106 positions in the health sector were filled in 1996. With no x-ray technician, the only regional x-ray department has been forced to close. The findings of a 1992 GAHEF Health and Nutrition Survey in all ten Regions of Guyana included the following: •

Those children in the hinterland areas – Regions 7 and 8 – were the ones most affected by respiratory tract infection. Over 50% in Region 8 and more than 30% in Region 7 were affected at the time of the survey

•

The highest percentage of children with diarrhoea at the time of the survey or preceding the survey was found in Region 9.

•

Anaemia remains a persistent health problem particularly among pregnant women.

•

the largest percentage of women whose highest education was at the primary level was from the Amerindian group (85%) as well as the largest percentage of women who reported receiving no education

•

in the measurement of severe malnutrition, Region 8 reported 4.8% with the highest percentage recorded being 5.8%

•

The highest percentage of low birth weights was recorded among Amerindians.

•

50% of the annual malaria cases occur among Amerindians

Of 296 cases of tuberculosis confirmed in 1995, Amerindians accounted for 23.8%. 2.2.4.3

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) and Narcotic Drugs

Nationally the rate of STDs, including AIDS, is high among mining workers whose workplaces are located in the interior. In addition, driven by their poverty and lack of employment opportunities, many Amerindians gravitate towards these locations where there is the possibility of steady or casual employment in the camps as well as in surrounding rum shops, discotheques, etc. Given the lack of effective public education on the life-threatening nature of HIV infection, STDs may well assume urgent proportions among indigenous peoples. As aggressive AIDS public education campaign must target interior as well as coastal populations. While there is little data on the scale of drug cultivation, trafficking and use in Guyana, Amerindian involvement has been reported in many areas. Drug use is also reported in mining areas where Amerindians make up part of many crews.

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2.2.4.4

GOPA ‹ E & A

Water-Borne Diseases

The majority of Amerindian communities depend on nearby creeks and rivers or on shallow ponds dug close to their homes for their water supply. Those communities located close to mining areas increasingly lack a safe source of potable water. An increasing incidence of waterborne diseases and skin rashes has been reported from all interior areas – a development which may or may not be blamed on resource extractive industries. In addition, the majority of interior dwellings have palm-thatched roofs which cannot be adapted effectively for the collection of sterile rainwater. The use of pit latrines is far from universal in Amerindian areas. The number of cases of diarrhoea increases with the rainy season, when the run-off from the ground transfers faecal matter into the river water that is rarely boiled. Many adults also do not know that there can be a connection between diarrhoea and drinking water that is not boiled. Worm infestation is endemic in most interior areas. The extremely low haemoglobin levels found in Amerindian patients referred to the Georgetown Public Hospital are probably as much a symptom of year-round worm infestation and repeated bouts of malaria as of poor nutrition. 2.2.4.5

Institutional Support

Since the introduction of the ERP in 1991, a number of non-governmental and international organizations have focused on projects in Amerindian areas, most notably, the Social Impact Amelioration Programme (SIMAP), and FUTURES Fund. In 1994 UNICEF, in collaboration with the Government of Guyana, launched a Five Year Amazon Programme. This programme focuses on the amelioration of living conditions of indigenous communities through an integrative and participatory process with the communities involved. The UNDP is also involved in several projects in individual Amerindian communities. 2.2.5

Archaeology

Research into the prehistory of Guyana shows an Amerindian presence dating back to more than 11,500 years ago. The archaeology of the island of Guiana (the territory bounded by the Atlantic Ocean and the courses of the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers and their bridging stream the Casiquiare Canal) has been document by the late Dr. Denis Williams in his Prehistoric Guiana 2003. Williams divides this area into – the Western Guiana Littoral, the Eastern Guiana Littoral, the Western Guiana Hinterland and the Eastern Guiana Hinterland. The following cultural sequence was determined by Williams: •

13,000-10,000 b.p. Following on the dry late Pleniglacial, the climate of northern South America became wetter (Van der Hammen 1974; Van der Hammen and Absy 1994). Rivers

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carried increasing amounts of water (cf. Roeleveld 1969). Riverbed fish ponds were submerged. Paleo-Indian tools were deposited at now submerged riverine and estuarine sites. •

10,000-7200 b.p. In the early centuries, Trinidad still formed part of the South American mainland. The littoral lay farther out to sea with rivers cutting through coastal grass savannas (Van der Hammen 1963: Figure 22; 1974: Figure 18). Bones of a late Pleistocene megafuana* in south Trinidad (Natural History Museum Port-of-Spain) suggest that such animals once grazed these now vanished savannas (cf. Harris 1976; Hoffman and Lynch 1990). In the closing years of the period, the sea reached the emergent rocks of the Guiana Shield. In the south-eastern subzone, resulting from the proximity of the Essequibo Delta, the Piraka site was occupied in brackish conditions, +/- 7230 b.p.

•

7200-6000 b.p. A hypersaline environment immediately preceded culmination of the eustatic sea level rise (Roeleveld 1969). The Barabina site, north-western subzone, was occupied, +/-6885 b.p.

•

6000-4000 b.p. Culmination of the eustatic sea level rise +/-6000 b.p. was followed by a relative sea level rise (Brinkman and Pons 1968). A perennial spring permitted exploitation of the then hypersaline Waramuri mudflats, +/-5960 b.p. Development of the canoe triggered regional integration, +/-5250 b.p.

•

4000-3550 b.p. An arid interval supervened (Absy 1982, 1985; Van der Hammen 1974). In the stressed environment, pottery was introduced by pre-horticulturists from the lower Amazon, +/-4000 b.p.

•

3550-2030 b.p. Tectonic subsidence ceased locally in the north-western subzone. Salinity dropped below the critical level for reproduction of economic shellfish species. Subsistence lack stress triggered the shift to food production, +/-3550 b.p.

•

2030-740 b.p. The arid interval ended. Salinity stress survived in coastal areas. Coastal horticulturists colonized the rain forest of the Mazaruni via its dried-out streams, +/-2030 b.p.

(*This type of megafauna in the form of the giant sloth (Megathurium) has since been recovered in the Mazaruni and Cuyuni rivers of Guyana.) Thirteen archaeological site types have so far been recorded for Guyana. (Wishart 2003). These are shell mounds/middens, sites where individual tools/implements are recovered, petroglyph/pictograph sites, rock shelters/caves, chipping stations, rock alignments, habitation mounds and raised fields, ceramic or pottery sites, sites of seashell deposits, quarries, pollen sections, terra preta sites and grinding grooves and surfaces. The number of reported/recorded archaeological sites by region follows:

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Table 2-3: Region 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Number of reported/recorded archaeological sites by region

Name of Region Barima/Waini Pomeroon/Supenaam Essequibo Islands/West Demerara Demerara/Mahaica Mahaica/Berbice East Berbice/Corentyne Cuyuni/Mazaruni Potaro/Siparuni Upper Takatu/Upper Essequibo Upper Demerara/Berbice

Number of reported/recorded sites 68 12 05 17 13 21 43 66 168 22

Wishart, 2003

It is worth noting here that at a recently held EPA Workshop (August 2005) for the presentation of the First Draft of a Policy Document for Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization section 5.1 which dealt with Prior Informed Consent (PIR) states that the informed consent of Amerindian and local communities to any research, development and commercial activities undertaken or premised on their knowledge, resources or lands, must be acquired prior to the initiation of any activity. Further, the culture, traditions, customary laws and other laws of Amerindians must be respected. Access can only be granted if communities are well informed, especially regarding scientific and legal advice, to enable them to participate effectively. Accordingly these communities may wish to seek the support of a mediator or facilitator.

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3

Environmental Policy and its Implementation

3.1

National Environmental Policy

GOPA ‹ E & A

Though Guyana is a sovereign democratic republic and governed by a written Constitution, much of the legal system in the country is English in origin and character, possibly due to the country’s colonial history. Consequently, environmental laws for Guyana are to be found in the Constitution, statutes and subordinate legislation, and the Common Law (Toppin-Allahar, 1993, Bynoe 2001). Apart from these domestic legal statutes, the environment in Guyana is also governed by international agreements to which the country is a signatory. The Constitution of the Cooperative Republic of Guyana makes express provision in respect of the responsibilities of the State and citizens regarding the environment when it states that: “Every citizen has a duty to participate in activities to improve the environment and protect the health of the nation.” (Constitution of the Co-operative Republic of Guyana, Chapter 2 Article 25) Further, the Constitution states that: “In the interest of the present and future generations the State will protect and make rational use of its flora and fauna, and will take all appropriate measures to conserve and improve the environment.” (Constitution of the Cooperative Republic of Guyana, Chapter 2 Article 36) Despite these espousals, there is little or no evidence on the rates of prosecution to test these provisions in the courts of Guyana. This may be attributed to the laws often providing for the Minister/Commissioner to accept compensation if an entity contravenes the environmental stipulations. Given this provision, the slow pace with which such cases are prosecuted within the courts, and entities having to cease operations until such matters are resolved, it is not surprising that many firms opt to pay compensation to the Minister/Commissioner. It does appear, however, that the Government of Guyana endorsed the principles of sustained economic growth and the promotion of environmental protection when it published the details of its policy and actions on the environment in its National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) 2001–2005. Here, unequivocal commitment is given to Sustainable Development, including Sustainable Human Development, as the cornerstone of the country’s socio-economic programme. In particular, the Policy states that the Government of Guyana will endeavour to, among other things: •

Assure all people living in the country the fundamental right to an environment, adequate for their health and well-being;

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•

Achieve a balance between the use and conservation of the nation’s resources to meet the needs of economic development and improve standards of living;

•

Conserve and use the environment and natural resources of Guyana for the benefit of both the present and future generations; and

•

Ensure prior environmental assessment of proposed activities, which may significantly affect the environment; ensure that conservation is treated as an integral part in the planning and implementation of development activities.

The intention is to integrate economic, environmental and social values during planning and distribute benefits equitably across socio-economic strata and gender during implementation. This position is endorsed and reinforced in the National Development Strategy (NDS), which indicates the need for environmental protection to be treated as a cross-sectoral issue in all aspects of the development process. At the national level, Guyana’s major challenges for the attainment of sustainable development are: (a) land use planning (b) establishment of a functional Protected Areas System which is currently being developed by the EPA; (c) modernisation and implementation of the country’s mining legislation; (d) on-going international agencies support for institutional strengthening at the national level (including the Environmental Protection Agency and the Guyana Geology and Mines Commission respectively); (e) greater environmental monitoring and (f) improved maintenance of sea defences, transport networks, and drainage and irrigation infrastructure. Rather than creating a single organisation to address sustainable development issues in Guyana, a number of mechanisms have been established to achieve a similar goal. Chief among these, and at the highest decision making levels, are: (1) the appointment of an Advisor to the Executive President on Sustainable Development; and (2) the establishment of (a) the Guyana Parliamentary Sector Committee on Natural Resources with responsibility for monitoring the operation of spheres of operations of ministries, as well as their administrative structures; and (b) a Cabinet sub-committee on Natural Resources and the Environment which is chaired by the Head of the Presidential Secretariat. The Cabinet sub-committee addresses issues regarding sustainable development, and specifically related to natural resource use, which requires policy decisions. At a lower level, there exists a Natural Resources and Environment Advisory Committee (NREAC). The NREAC is a high-level committee comprising directors of natural resource institutions (for example, forestry, mining, water, agriculture, land use, energy) and the Guyana Environmental Protection Agency. This committee has been tasked with examining environmental and resource policy prior to submission to the Guyana Cabinet for approval. Additionally, Guyana has established (a) the National Biodiversity Advisory Committee whose function is to advise the EPA on issues related to Biodiversity Management and Research; (b) the Integrated Coastal Zone Management Committee with responsibility for the development of an integrated coastal zone management plan and coordinating the activities of the various sectoral agencies with some involvement in management of coastal resources; (c) the National Bio-

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safety Committee to review the Protocol on Bio-safety and develop guidelines, regulations, and recommendations on policy; (d) the National Climate Committee referred to above; and (e) the Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals Board that is tasked with oversight responsibility for the implementation of the Pesticide and Toxic Chemicals Act. At the regional administrative level, there exists the North Rupununi District Development Board (NRDDB) that was legally established as an NGO in 1996, and has since become the ‘voice’ of, and the decision-making mechanism for communities surrounding the Iwokrama International Rainforest Reserve (IIRFR). This NGO also promotes people’s participation and involvement and accesses financial resources for community development.

3.2

National Environmental Legislation

The Environmental Protection Act of 1996 is the primary legislative vehicle for promulgating environmental regulations and coordinating environmental activities on the part of the Guyana Environmental Protection Agency (GEPA). The Act, which brought about the establishment of the GEPA, also provides for this agency to manage, conserve, protect and improve the environment, for the prevention or control of pollution, and for it to assess the impacts of economic development activities on the environment. The agency also has responsibility for national environmental education and awareness and the co-ordination of programmes for coastal zone management, wildlife management and the establishment of a system of protected areas. The GEPA since its formulation has created various mechanisms for actions geared towards environmental protection. These include: •

the establishment of environmental quality standards,

•

mandating that all projects likely to have significant impacts on the environment carry out an environmental impact assessment (EIA),

•

regulating and licensing activities with the potential for pollution,

•

instituting penalties and fines for environmental degradation,5

•

monitoring impacts on the environment emanating from industrial and other activities, and

•

Developing a programme geared towards public awareness and environmental education of the national populace.

Recognising that environmental protection is a multi-disciplinary task the GEPA has established links with sectoral natural resource agencies and to involve other stakeholders and interest 5 These fines range from G$10,000 (US$509) for a person found littering, e.g., approximately 56 percent of the minimum wage, to G$500,000 (US$2,500) for a major environmental accident. All conversion in this research uses the mean exchange rate of US$1 = G$200.

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groups. Accordingly, the GEPA signed Memoranda of Understanding (MOU) with the Guyana Geology and Mines Commission (GGMC), the Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC), the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and the Ministry of Health. Through these MOU's the GEPA has placed the onus for environmental management on the sector agencies. Despite the EP Act was passed in 1996, there are no regulations that have been finalized and implemented. In 2000 a variety of regulations were drafted, inclusive of Management of Hazardous Waste, Air Quality and Noise Pollution. These draft regulations are currently being taken to the society for consultation and implementation. However, there are no environmental regulations with specific reference to the transportation sector in Guyana. 3.2.1

Mining

The mining sector has made significant contributions to Guyana’s economic performance over the years. In recognising the sector’s contribution to the country’s economic development thrust, the Government of Guyana amended its Mining Act in 1989 and more recently in 2005. The amended Mining Act, most recent amendment have been made in light of the growing number of environmental defaulters who contribute to contamination of rivers, creeks and other waterways affecting various life-forms. These laws encompass mercury use, mine reclamation, mine effluents, contingency planning, mine waste and tailings management. The statutes set out by the legislation include compliance with a number of practices, failure of which may result in penalties. These can include denial of license renewal and in other cases the complete ceasing of operations. Furthermore, the law strictly prohibits: • The use of mercury during primary stages of mining operations such as in sluice boxes, hammer mills or ball mills. •

The discharge of amalgamation tailings (black sand or fluids which contain mercury) into water bodies.

•

The discharge of fluids in excess of 30 nephelometric turbidity units NTU or 100 total suspended solids (TSS)

•

The burning of amalgam in open air.

•

Settling ponds less than 20 metres away from rivers or other waterways.

The law also enforces compliance with the following: • All miners must submit an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Environmental Management Plan (EMP) outlining undertaken measures to ensure environmental compliance. •

Waste dumps must be away from surface waters.

•

Sites must be restored following the completion of mining activities. This includes (i) ensuring that mine sites are chemically hazard-free (ii) reclamation plan must be completed

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prior to commencement of mining (iii) site must be restored to visually reproductive state (iv) mine titles must be relinquished once all requirements are met. •

Establish emergency-accident response in the event of tailing dam failures, chemical spills and other possible eventualities.

•

Environmental monitoring must be done to ensure compliance with legislations. In the event that chemical limits are exceeded, all operations must cease until restoration has been completed.

The Act vests all materials in Guyana in the State, but preserves the rights of persons in possession of land grants before 1903 to all base metals, as well as the privileges of Amerindians in relation to prospecting, mining, and quarrying for any mineral. Additionally, the Act provides for a system of mineral agreements and licences for the regulation of prospecting, mining, and quarrying activities; and integrates plans to deal with social and environmental issues arising from mining activities. As such, licensees must put forward work proposals and show technical competence when applying for a mining license. No mining license can be issued unless the GGMC is satisfied that the proposals of the application would ensure the cost efficient and optimal use of the mineral resources concerned. Mining licenses may be granted subject to conditions that include the process used to mine minerals. Further, a performance bond for adherence to these conditions can be required. Also, licensees may only dispose of, stack or dump any mineral or waste product resulting from mining in a manner approved by the GGMC. An important feature of the Act is the power given to the Minister under Section 131, to accept compensation for contravention of the Act in substitution for proceedings in Court. Through the MOU that the GGMC signed with the GEPA, the GGMC is to working to ensure that miners integrate environmental protection in all their mining activities. Currently, largescale mining operations are subject to an EIA as provided for under the Environmental Protection Act. Additionally, the GGMC has recognised that regulating small- and medium-scale mining is also important, if decidedly more difficult. The difficulty arises from the number of such operators, as well as their itinerant nature. To address this issue the GGMC drafted and implemented an Environmental Management Agreement (EMA) for these operations in 1994. The EMA covers all aspects of mining, including the use of equipment, sedimentation control, vegetation removal, storage and disposal of chemicals and fuel handling and uses of mercury. Specifically, it attempts, if somewhat superficially: •

to transfer the responsibility for environmental protection to the miners;

•

to encourage miners to internalise the environmental costs of their activities; and

•

To provide an incentive for miners to seek the most cost effective way of conducting their operations.

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As such it states: “The Miner shall be responsible for all damages to the environment resulting from normal mining activities within the boundaries and confines of the areas stipulated in the Agreement, until formally discharged, in writing, by the Commissioner of all obligations under the Agreement.” Guyana Geology and Mines Commission (Environmental Mining Agreement, 1994)

A significant component of the EMA was the institutionalisation of an environmental bond. This bond is in the form of a fixed sum, i.e., G$200,000 (US$1,000) to be deposited with the GGMC before the miners commence operations. Upon completion of one’s mining activities and to the extent that the GGMC is satisfied that the environment was returned to an acceptable manner and that every effort was taken to minimise environmental damages, the entire bond may be recouped by the miner. If not, a part of, or the entire bond may be used to restore the physical environment. This bond has come under severe scrutiny in recent times and in a study commissioned by the GGMC, it was recommended that the mechanism be revisited6 Currently, the GGMC has ceased applying this bond. Furthermore, with the GEPA involved in setting and levying fines, the operationalisation of a bond being enforced alongside the GEPA’s own penal system requires clarification. These uncertainties can lead to speculation by potential investors with regard to the environmental technology to be adopted. Currently, the GGMC, the GEPA, and the Guyana Gold and Diamond Miners Association (GGDMA) are reviewing the EMA. Also, the GGMC is receiving financial and institutional support from the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) to ensure that gold mining in Guyana is carried out in an environmentally-friendly manner and that the requisite regulatory instruments are internally consistent and externally exhaustive. The Mining Act does not deal with operations for the extraction of water or petroleum. The Petroleum (Exploration and Production) Act, No. 3 of 1986 and the Regulations, No. 5 of 1986 made thereunder, provide the legal regime for the exploitation of hydrocarbon resources. This Act makes provision for petroleum prospecting and petroleum production licenses, and enables: • the making of Regulations in regard of all prospecting and production operations; the conservation and prevention of the waste of petroleum or other natural resources; •

the control of the flow and the prevention of the escape of petroleum, water, gases other than petroleum or other noxious or deleterious matter; and

•

The prevention of the escape of drilling fluid or any other matter; and safety and welfare standards.

6 See Bynoe and Singh, 1997 for a discussion on the issues surrounding the institutionalisation of this bond and why it was not seen as an optimum environmental regulatory instrument.

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The existing regulations impose upon licensees’ obligations in respect of these matters and provide that, where pollution occurs, the licensee shall treat or disperse it in an environmentally acceptable manner. The penalty for contravening these requirements is a fine of up to G$25,000 (US$125) and G$1,000 (US$5) for every day during which the offence continues, or three years imprisonment. 3.2.2

Forests

The Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC) is responsible for the administration and management of the forest resources of Guyana under the Forest Act, Chapter 67:01 Laws of Guyana. According to these Laws, Guyana’s Constitution, the Charter of the United Nations, and international law, their aims include: •

the conservation of the forests of Guyana, including measures to conserve biodiversity, special species and habitats, soil and water resources, and to protect forests against pollution, fires, pests and diseases;

•

the integrated and comprehensive regulation of the multiple and complementary functions and uses of the forests of Guyana, including traditional uses; and

•

The promotion and regulation of local processing activities, including the use of environmentally sound technologies and the facilitation of market access for value-added forest products.

The regulatory powers vested in the Minister via the Act have been used, inter alia, to set girth limits and maximum stump heights for logging operations, and to restrict the exploitation of certain species. Royalties are payable in respect of forest produce harvested, and the Act provides that property in such produce remains vested in the State, until these have been paid. The Act also creates a scheme of forest offences enforceable by forest officers, police constables, Justices of the Peace and District Commissioners. These officials have powers of search and arrest, as well as to hold enquire and receive and record evidence. The Act also sets limits on fines to be imposed. For example, failure to take precautions to avoid unnecessary damage during lawful harvesting of forest produce is punishable by a fine of G$150 (US$0.75), whilst the fine for unlawfully harvesting forest products is, in the first instance, one-sixth the value of the products and seizure of the products harvested. If the offence is committed a second time the offender can have the products seized and charged a minimum of one-third the value of the products harvested, a maximum of five times the value of the products, and/or have his/her agreement with the GFC revoked. While the fines are small, the Act provides for the Minister to accept compensation for contravention of the Act in substitution for proceedings in Court. If a concessionaire has committed any of the aforementioned offences and decides to go to the Courts, that concessionaire has to cease all operations on that concession until the matter is settled. With a judicial system where cases such as these can take as much as five (5) years, concessionaires have often opted to pay

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compensation to the GFC. As such, the GFC have been able to collect compensations of up to G$1,000,000 (US$5,000) on defaulting concessionaires. Operations within the sector are also guided by the Guidelines for Sustainable Management of Natural Tropical Forests of the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). Further, to facilitate it carrying out its mandate effectively and efficiently, the GFC has received technical assistance for the period 1994 - 2003 from the Department for International Development (DFID) of the British Government under a project of Institutional Capacity Strengthening. Additionally, through the Natural Resources and Environmental Advisory Committee the GFC is working with other natural resources agencies to better co-ordinate all planning functions and strategies at a national level. As such, a Code of Practice for responsible forest management was developed and introduced to the industry for voluntary adoption in July 1996. The Commission is also collaborating with the GEPA to implement and maintain strict environmental management and monitoring programmes for the forest resources of Guyana. Accordingly, the GFC established an Environmental Unit in 1995 to perform these functions. 3.2.3

Agriculture

The major pieces of legislation governing operations within the agricultural sector are the Environmental Protection Act of 1996 and the Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals Control Act of 1999.7 Through the EPA, environmental impact assessments (EIA’s) are now mandated for all agricultural projects that are likely to have significant impacts on the environment. Additionally, the Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals Control Act (PTCCA) was prepared to consolidate into one law, regulations addressing the import, manufacture and use of agricultural pesticides. The implementation and enforcement of the EPA in all fields of agriculture, drainage water management, and land-use planning falls to the Environmental Unit of the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA). This Unit is also responsible for the enforcement of the PTCCA in the area of agricultural pesticide management. In an attempt to encourage efficiency and reduce duplication of effort, the MoA has signed MOU’s with the GEPA and the Ministry of Health (MoH).8 These MOU’s outline the powers and responsibilities delegated to the MoA; how each party will interact with the other and what reporting mechanisms are necessary for the exchange of information, addressing of regulatory matters, and enforcing of laws.

7 It is imperative to note that while this Act only legally came into force in 1998, elements were being implemented since 1994. Further, out of the draft Bill of 1994, the Environmental Norms, Standards and Regulations were formulated. 8 The Ministry of Health has authority over environmental health and pollution control, which it exercises through the Guyana Agency for Health Sciences, Education, Environment and Food Policy (GAHEF) that looks mainly at environmental health issues, the Environmental Health Unit and the Regional Health Services. The Ministry receives support from the Pan-American Health Organisation/World Health Organisation (PAHO/WHO) in the form of technical assistance.

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The Environmental Unit of the MoA is coordinating closely its work with the Environmental Quality Control Section (EQCS) of the GEPA, especially in the area of pesticide management. The GEPA’s EQCS has responsibility in four areas. These are: •

EIA process development,

•

setting national environmental quality standards (ambient and point-source emissions standards),

•

licensing and permitting procedures and mechanisms; and

•

Monitoring procedures and mechanisms.

Currently, the MoA in collaboration with the GEPA are establishing national Water Quality Standards (WQS) for the waters of Guyana (rivers, lakes, conservancies, irrigation water supplies, drainage waters, and estuarine and marine waters).9 Such standards shall specify the concentrations of toxic pesticides and non-toxic pollutants that will not result in adverse impacts to aquatic life or cause adverse health effects on humans based on toxicological data, epidemiological studies of human occupational exposures and other relevant data. Baseline or ambient water concentrations are primarily established through extensive, long-term water quality monitoring programmes. Development of a national water quality database, therefore, that includes biological survey results of aquatic life (species diversity, population abundance, etc.) will enable numerical WQS values specific to Guyana to be set. These criteria will serve as the basis for establishing permissible discharge standards for agro-industry ventures that will protect aquatic resources. Additionally, all pesticide manufacturers, packagers and enterprises that process agricultural products (dairies, sugar, refineries, canneries, distilleries, edible oil refineries, meat processing plants, etc.) must apply to the MoA for an Effluent Discharge Permit (EDP). This permit specifies the maximum quantity10 and concentrations of a pesticide and other chemical pollutants known to adversely impact on the environment and/or human health that the manufacturer or agro-industry plant discharge to a water body or to the air. Such maximum pollutant loadings are to be specified by the Ministry based upon factors including: the watershed in which the enterprise is located, ambient water quality, containment loadings originating from point and nonpoint sources, use(s) of the water loading capacity of the water for various pesticides and pollutants, etc. If the concentration of a pollutant in the effluent exceeds the WQS for the water into which it is being discharged, or if the individual loadings of the contaminant from multiple point sources in the watershed exceed the water’s loading capacity for the pollutant, the MoA may restrict the discharge of the pollutant from one or more of the point sources. In such case, the 9 In the interim, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the World Bank standards are being applied. 10 Like the WQS, the maximum residual limits (MRL) are interim measures until national measures are developed and are based on the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and World Bank standards.

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EDP will impose a limit on the daily (or monthly average) discharge quantity for the enterprise. The EDP will also require a permit holder to specify a process wastewater treatment technology11 (e.g., precipitation, activated carbon absorption, hydrolysis, etc.) to pre-treat the effluent prior to discharge, and an effluent monitoring programme to ensure compliance with the EDP’s effluent discharge quality limitations. Enforcement mechanisms available to the Ministry include notice of warning, stop sale/use or removal orders, injunctions and criminal sanctions. Notice of Warning: The Ministry may issue a warning in cases where the violation occurs despite the exercise of due care or did not cause significant health or environmental harm. Factors taken into consideration in issuing a warning is the toxicity of the pesticide, extent and severity of actual or potential harm to humans and the environment, and the firm’s culpability and compliance history. Stop Sale/Use or Removal Orders: The Ministry may issue a Stop Use or Removal Order to any person or firm who owns controls, or has custody of a pesticide that: (i) an inspector has reason to believe on the basis of tests or inspection is in violation of any provision of the Act or its regulations, (ii) has been or is intended to be used, distributed, or sold in violation of the Act or its regulations, or (iii) has a cancelled or suspended registration. After the receipt of one of these a person shall not sell, use or remove the pesticides except in accordance with a Ministry order. Injunction: The Ministry may seek a permanent or preliminary injunction, or temporary restraining order to ensure compliance with the Act. Criminal Proceedings: The Ministry may seek criminal penalties for grave and deliberate violations of the Act, such as unlawful disposal of a pesticide, as well as knowing submission of false information in connection with a pesticide registration that may constitute conspiracy or fraud.

11 These regulations tend to stress the institutionalisation of the Best Management Practices (BMP) for non-point sources of pesticide and chemical pollution, and the use of the Best Practicable Control Technology (BPCT) available for agro-processing industries. Thus, typically they are of the conventional command and control type regulatory policy instruments. Some of the issues involved in using these types of regulatory instruments were discussed earlier in this thesis.

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3.2.4

GOPA ‹ E & A

Manufacturing Industries

The Factories Act Ch. 95:02 of Guyana, the Environmental Protection Act of 1996, the Food and Drugs Act of Guyana, and the Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1998 that replaced major segments of the Factories Act tend to regulate the operations occurring within the agroprocessing, light and heavy manufacturing industries in Guyana. The Factories Act is written as a performance based statute and identifies four areas that are referred to in detail. These areas are: plant maintenance, cleanliness, lighting, and sanitary facilities. Further, the Factories (Safety) Regulations cover machinery, facilities (the building, passageways and stairs), hoists and lifts, and dangerous fumes. It specifies that “every dangerous part of any machinery shall be securely fenced....” and that the “safeguards be of substantial construction, and constantly maintained.” The Factories Act also requires periodic maintenance and inspection of most equipment and facilities. Under the GEPA Act, all industries expected to have significant adverse impacts on the environment are required to carry out EIA’s. Accompanying these EIA’s are plans detailing how the adverse impacts will be avoided or mitigated, what monitoring schedule the entity has or will put in place, and what environmental management plan they have devised. These are then submitted to the GEPA for their comments and possible approval. To the extent that the GEPA is dissatisfied with the measures covered within the project proposal, they can ask the developer to revisit the measures proposed. To the extent that this is not done, the GEPA can withhold permission for a project to continue operations or to begin operations. Apart from the entity conducting monitoring activities; the GEPA also conducts its own independent monitoring to ensure that firms are complying with its stipulations. 3.2.5

Issues for the Transport Sector

Having examined the legislative and institutional framework therefore, the principal issues facing the institutional management framework for transportation in Guyana are: Many pieces of legislation: There are many pieces of legislation governing the management of the environment, but there appears to be little cohesion and rationalization between these. Furthermore, much of the legislation tends to be silent on the occupational health and safety of field staff. The environmental impact of transport sector develop is largely absent from the various legislations. Supervision and coordination: Generally, there is insufficient supervision and coordination of environmental management practices due to insufficiency of human capacity, equipment and laboratory facilities. The fact that many entities are involved in the management of the environment has tended to exacerbate this issue. Such entities are expected to be increasingly challenged with the expansion of the transport infrastructure, particularly in the hinterland areas.

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On the coast, this lack of coordination is often manifested between the Ministry of Public Works and Communications (MPW&C) and the public utilities companies, in particular, the Guyana Telephone and Telegraph Company (GT&T) and the Guyana Water Authority (GWI). This lack of coordination and forward planning has resulted in newly built structures by the MPW&C being broken to install utility accessories. To aggravate the problem, the restoration works carried out by the utilities are of a poor quality, often weakening the existing structure. Multiple overlapping jurisdictions: In many instances there is no single entity responsible for a particular sector. For example, land use planning still falls to a number of entities in Guyana. This has often led to conflicts amongst the resource users. The issue is compounded by the imprecise roles of some entities and their scope of responsibility not always being clearly defined. Regional variations: Guyana has sought since the 1980s to pursue regional development via devolution of authority from the centre to the periphery. However, the demarcation of the regions followed physical geographical features, i.e., rivers, and largely ignored socio-economic and demographic features. Part of the relic of this system therefore has been the fact that there is significant variation among the Regions in environmental management effectiveness. Subsidization: Our enquiry revealed that no one in Guyana pays the economic cost for the transport infrastructure. While this is not an unusual international practice, the volume and extent of subsidization to the sector has often been manifested in financial difficulties to maintain the operational efficiency of the sector. For example, the GOG is hard pressed to maintain the current fleet of publicly owned river plying vessels all of which are in excess of fifty (50) years. Participation: The process of citizen’s participation in the extension, modifications or rehabilitation of the transport infrastructure has often been absent. Admittedly, this is now changing, particularly with regard to those projects that are asked to conduct an environmental impact assessment (EIA). Stakeholders’ participation can be useful source of information and create a sense of ownership. The absence thereof may lead to costly over-runs and an attitude that indicates “the government should do it.” However, it will be important to ensure that the process for participating is properly outlined and managed to ensure it does not on the other side lead to undue delay in project execution. Implementation Issues: As indicated elsewhere in this document, the ability to monitor and audit entities’ compliance with the requisite environmental regulations is severely restricted by a variety of institutional and resource constraints. Furthermore, self-regulation does not appear to be a pervasive management technique locally, possibly due to a non-discriminatory market place. As such, one finds limited implementation of environmental management plans generally and specifically as they relate to development projects in the transport sector. For example, traffic management issues generally in newly constructed or rehabilitated roadways are often treated as peripheral and insignificant by the contractors.

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Non-compliance: In Guyana a general culture of non-compliance with the relevant traffic stipulations is pervasive, thus leading to overloading of vehicles, speeding and relatively high levels of annual per capita road fatalities.

3.3

International Conventions

Guyana participates annually at numerous international flora on environmental and natural resources and climate change. These include: • Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage •

Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)

•

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

•

United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD)

•

United Nations Convention to Combat Drought and Desertification (UNCCD)

•

United Nations Convention on the Laws of the Sea

•

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78)

•

Amazon Cooperation Treaty (TCA)

•

International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA)

•

The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development

•

The Non-legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Development of all types of Forests

•

The Relevant Chapters of Agenda 21 as adopted by the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED)

Other fora in which Guyana participates and for which instruments of ratification are still being awaited include: • The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (RAMSAR) •

Convention for the Production and Development of the Marine Environment in the Wider Caribbean region and its Protocols (Oil Spill)

•

Special Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW)

•

Land Based Source Pollution (LBS)

•

Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal

Many of these Conventions will be relevant for the rehabilitation and development of transportation projects, especially roads, airports and wharves, in Guyana.

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3.4

Institutions and their responsibilities

3.4.1

Government Institutions

GOPA ‹ E & A

At the national level, the Guyana Environmental Protection Agency (GEPA) and the Ministries of Health, Agriculture, and Fisheries, Crops and Livestock and the Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC) and the Guyana Geology and Mines Commission (GGMC) share the main environmental responsibilities. The GEPA responsibilities were identified earlier. It is important to note however, that this entity is also Guyana’s focal point for the elaboration and implementation of the United Nations Biodiversity Convention. However, the Ministry of Health has authority over environmental health and pollution control, which it exercises through its Environmental Health Unit and the Regional Health Services. The Ministry receives support from the Pan-American Health Organisation/World Health Organisation (PAHO/WHO) in the form of technical assistance. The Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Fisheries, Crops and Livestock exercise management responsibility over much of the natural resource base and are responsible for promoting fisheries management, fisheries and aquatic wildlife. Further, the Ministry of Fisheries, Crops and Livestock has responsibility for the conservation, management and development of all fisheries, non-traditional crops and livestock. These responsibilities include capture, processing and trade of fish and fishery product, fishing operations, aquaculture, fisheries research and the integration of fisheries into coastal area management. However, it also has important implication for the conservation of marine turtles. As such, the Ministry recently enacted legislation to institutionalise and regularise the fisheries sector in a more effective manner. The new legislation has mandated that all deep sea fishing vessels, and the drift seines in particular, must be outfitted with Turtle Exclusion Device (TED) to reduce accidental deaths by catches. Hydrometeorology Division has responsibility that includes monitoring of oceanographic elements such as wind and waves, level of sea, sea surface temperature and salinity. It is also Guyana’s focal point for the implementation on the UNFCCC. Sea and River Defence Board has responsibility for maintenance of both the man-made and natural coastal defences including mangroves not under state control that could be adversely affected with the development and construction of more wharves, etc The Guyana Lands and Surveys Commission has responsibility for land management in Guyana that include land regularization, the issuing of land deeds, land management, hydrographical surveys, aerial photography and photo mosaics of the coastline and sea and river defence works, maps production, certification of survey work on sea defence, and survey of land for land use titling purposes. This entity is also Guyana’s focal point for the implementation of the UNCCD.

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Ministry of Public Works and Communication has responsibilities that include, conducting their own environmental assessment of all significant developmental projects being executed through the Ministry, management of harbours, ports, roads, airports and airstrips of Guyana and for river navigation, including marine environmental aspects related to coastal zone management. The Drainage and Irrigation Board that deals with primary drainage and irrigation along the coast; The Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC) is responsible for the administration and management of forest resources of Guyana under the Forest Act Chap. 67:01 Laws of Guyana; The Guyana Geology and Mines Commission (GGMC) regulates large, medium and small scale mining operations, The Guyana National Energy Authority (GNEA) administrates short, medium and long terms technological options for satisfying energy demand; The Guyana Water Incorporated (GWI), which works with regional councils and municipal authorities to provide water supply and sewerage services in Guyana; and The Central Housing and Planning Authority (CH&PA), which exercise development planning and control authority within the built environment The Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development is responsible for managing developments taking place in the regional councils and the municipalities under the Local Government Act The University of Guyana is a source of vital capacity in the area of environmental management, coastal zone management and research. 3.4.2

Other Institutions

Rather than create a single organisation to address sustainable development issues in Guyana, the Government has established a number of mechanisms to achieve a similar goal. Chief among these, and at the highest decision making levels, are: (1) the appointment of an Advisor to the Executive President on Sustainable Development; and (2) the establishment of (a) the Guyana Parliamentary Sector Committee on Natural Resources with responsibility for monitoring the operations of ministries, as well as their administrative structures; and (b) a Cabinet subcommittee on Natural Resources and Environment which is chaired by the Head of the Presidential Secretariat. The Cabinet sub-committee addresses issues regarding sustainable development, and specifically related to natural resources use, which requires policy decisions.

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At a lower level, there exists a Natural Resources and Environment Advisory Committee (NREAC). The NREAC is a high-level committee comprising directors of natural resource institutions (for example, forestry, mining, water, agriculture, land use, energy) and the Guyana Environmental Protection Agency. This committee has been tasked with examining environmental and resource policy prior to submission to the Guyana Cabinet for approval. Additionally, Guyana has established (a) the National Biodiversity Advisory Committee whose function is to advise the EPA on issues related to Biodiversity Management and Research; (b) the Integrated Coastal Zone Management Committee with responsibility for the development of an integrated coastal zone management plan and coordinating the activities of the various sectoral agencies with some involvement in management of coastal resources; (c) the National Biosafety Committee to review the Protocol on Bio-safety and develop guidelines, regulations, and recommendations on policy; (d) the National Climate Committee; and (e) the Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals Board that is tasked with the formulation and implementation of the Pesticide and Toxic Chemicals Act and Regulations for the regulation of pesticide use, pesticide effluent discharge standards, storage, disposal and transportation requirements, among others. 3.4.3

Non-Governmental Organizations

World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF) for the Guiana’s that provide vital technical assistance Conservation International (Guyana) offers support and assistance to encourage the people and government of Guyana to design and implement a Protected Areas System through environmental education, public awareness, enterprise development and scientific research. North Rupununi District Development Board (NRDDB) that ensures issues that are likely to impact on the lives of those in the Rupununi area are included within project preparation. Guyana Marine Turtle Conservation Society (GMTCS) Works with the MFCL on the protection of six (6) species of marine turtles at the Shell Beach area.

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3.5

GOPA ‹ E & A

Instruments

There is an adequate licensing system addressing both environmental, health and safety issues. For example, forest operations seeking to be issued with a Timber Sales Agreement (TSA) must provide an environmental management plan to the GFC. The same applies for mining and any other activity projected to have significant impacts on the environment. Additionally, fees are in operation in some sectors. Failure to comply with the requisite regulations can result in sanctions, such as fines and cease orders. However, the fines are very low and often do not work as deterrents to non-compliance. The opposite is true for cease orders. But there is no criminal liability for environmental infractions. Further, there is need for judges to court dedicated to environmental matters. There is also a green tax on all plastic bottles coming into the country. However, these funds go into the consolidated funds at the Ministry of Finance and have never been used for environmental management matters. Given the current state within the country where solid waste is often indiscriminately disposed of and food boxes and bottles being thrown out of vehicles, increased access to other parts of Guyana through improved transportation networks is likely to transpose this problem from the coast to other areas as well. 3.5.1

Planning instruments/ Controlling Mechanism

The country does not have a land-use policy and/or plan, though it has developed a Land Registry within the Lands and Surveys Commission. This lack of a land use plan has often resulted in land uses conflicts and land not being put to its best use. This lack of land use planning is often visible in conflicts between miners and forest concessionaires, the apparent haphazard urban land uses that have emerged, especially in Georgetown, and the high level of squatting that occurred after 1992. These developments are making it difficult to plan for the transportation sector, when both the resources to execute these plans are in short supply and aggravated by activities occurring in places where they are not designed to be. There are established procedures for applying for an environmental permit. However, procedures for environmental audits are only now being drafted. Compliance obligations are placed on signatory countries to initiate specific measures to enact implementing legislation and regulations, and establish specific enabling administrative institutional arrangements for reporting. However, there are severe constraints to the effective tracking, reporting and updating by agencies and institutions on the Conventions and their obligations because of: •

Fragmented administrative/institutional arrangements

•

Unclear political guidelines and directives

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•

Unclear mechanisms to meet financial obligations under the various Conventions

•

Unclear responsibilities and accountability to monitor satisfy obligations and satisfy national reporting requirements.

3.6

Public participation

The Environmental Protection Act (EPA) has clearly defined procedures by which stakeholders are to be consulted and be allowed to participate in the EIA process. These are in the form of scoping meetings and the presentation of the findings to allow for public objection to the project. However, the EP Act does not make any special provisions for indigenous interests to be addressed, which is in contravention of the Barbados Declaration and Agenda 21. Furthermore, while persons are often told about the application of firms for an environmental permit via the newspapers, many of the communities in which these projects are likely to impact do not purchase nor do they have access to newspapers. Thus, it is necessary for the EPA to find a new way of informing communities to get their involvement at the project identification stage of the EIA process. Additionally, the feedback period of 60 days is seen as too short as often, for the public to provide substantial and informed comments, it is necessary for them to conduct their own research, which often cannot be completed in 60 days. Currently, the same stipulations exist for transportation projects, though the practice appears to be that once it is a development project it is good for society and they should be grateful. This is erroneous since development should be about people and for people.

3.7

Education

Even though it is the most important aspect, environmental education is not adequately applied in Guyana, though there is an Environmental and Public Awareness Division within the EPA, headed by a Director. However, there are several environmental clubs, run at the Secondary School level mainly. At the University of Guyana, one can pursue a Bachelors of Science degree in Environmental Studies.

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3.8

GOPA ‹ E & A

Weaknesses

Several institutions are responsible for different environmental issues in Guyana. These institutions suffer from a number of similar problems, inclusive of: •

Lack of coordination among regulatory agencies, made worse by over-lapping functions on the one hand and fragmentation of responsibilities on other

•

Lack of overall spatial planning, i.e., land use, regional, and urban planning

•

Lack of resources, inclusive of human, financial and equipment

•

Lack of baseline data

•

An inadequate legal environment to encourage compliance

•

Lack of knowledge of alternative technological options and associated costs and impact on the environment

Furthermore, with the volume of transportation projects taking place in the country, it may seem that what should be pursued is not an environmental impact assessment for each project, but rather a strategic environmental assessment of the transport sector programme. This will allow for the easier identification of cumulative and synergistic impacts and may be a better way of utilizing Guyana’s scarce human and financial resources.

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4

Environmental and social cultural problems in the Traffic Sector

4.1

Overview of Transportation Trends

The transport sector consists of a totality of physical facilities, terminals, fleets and ancillary equipment of all the various modes of transport operating in Guyana. Included in the sector are the transport services, transport agencies providing the services, the organisations and people, who plan, build, maintain, and operate the system, and the policies that mould its development.

4.1.1

Roads

The number of new registered motor vehicles between 1995 – 2002 is shown below in Table 41. Table 4-1: Period

Annual Registration of New Motor Vehicles Total

Private Cars

Hire Cars

Lorries

Buses

Station Wagon

Vans

Tractors Trailers Motor Cycles

Others

1995

6,966

1,548

330

796

339

199

355

950

383

1,852

214

1996

7,570

1,934

291

538

775

190

410

837

402

2,060

133

1997

7,009

1,914

340

593

716

129

65

540

318

1,739

655

1998

6,611

2,004

344

722

732

269

75

315

313

1,409

428

1999

5,066

1,408

330

410

676

42

42

284

220

1,177

477

2000

5,336

1,517

342

388

677

48

35

346

194

1,285

504

2001

4,375

1,232

291

338

536

3

45

118

157

1,095

560

4,192 1,264 281 2002 Source: Bureau of Statistics (2003)

427

422

20

42

106

196

1,188

246

An acceleration of car imports occurred from the early 1990s when used and reconditioned motor vehicles (not newer than 5 years) importation was permitted, allowing many agents to be established. Historically, road transportation was essential to link the sugar plantations with each other on the coastal plains close to the Atlantic Ocean and to the capital city of Georgetown and to New Amsterdam. The sugar produced on the plantations was transported along these main roads to Georgetown for export, and imported food items and capital goods reached these scattered plantation settlements via these same roads.

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Today, these coastal roads and others found along the river banks of the major rivers constitute the principal road network radiating from Georgetown to Crabwood Creek in East Berbice and Charity on the Essequibo Coast. Additionally, the Soesdyke/Linden Highway links Georgetown with the bauxite mining town of Linden. Settlements are strung along both sides of the road, which facilitate internal trade among communities and speedier communications. With the development of the Linden to Lethem road, linking Georgetown with Lethem, the population of the overcrowded coastal area will have the option of settling in the hinterland. Likewise, since overland transportation is cheaper than air freight, food and manufactured items will reach interior residents at lower prices. Also, agricultural commodities from the interior will reach and compete in the coastal market. Road transportation has played a crucial role in the early development of Guyana. It continues to chart an integral part in the development process. For the foreseeable future, road transportation will still have to be relied on as a basic factor for promoting and sustaining economic and social development. The main or primary roads comprise approximately 88 percent of the paved main roads or 13 percent of the paved roads network in Guyana. Main roads facilitate movement of goods, services, and passenger traffic, accounting for more than 80 percent of all transportation and about 33 percent of the freight, compared with other modes of transportation, including sea, air, and other land base road network. The main road in Guyana is 270 miles long and runs parallel to the shoreline. It extends from Charity in the North to Moleson Creek in the South. The Essequibo, Demerara and Berbice Rivers punctuate this road. Ferries provide links across these rivers. The Demerara River however, is spanned by a "unifloat bridge," 1.2 miles long, in addition to the speedboat linkage. This pontoon bridge was constructed as a temporary structure more than 27 years ago. Access roads or feeder roads link the main roads with residential and/or agricultural areas that are some distance off the main road. Most access roads are in poor condition. Through the Ministry of Public Works and Communications, SIMAP, Futures Fund and the Basic Needs Trust Fund, the Central Government has targeted several access roads for complete rehabilitation. In Region 4 in particular, many access roads have been rehabilitated. For example, the Buxton access road, Ogle airport road, and Industry access road were all rehabilitated in the late 1990s. However, they are all in different stages of disrepair with some having huge potholes. Outside the existing main roads there are several other interior roads and/or trails which comprise approximately 1,570 miles. Most of those roads are unpaved allowing for rapid deterioration. These roads/trails are found mostly in the hinterlands and riverain areas that are not densely populated compared with the coast land. Important mining and forestry activities, however, are linked by these roads/trails that facilitate communication between mining and forestry communi-

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ties and the more developed coastal areas. These roads/trails network provide one option for communication link between the coast and hinterland communities. 4.1.2

Airports

There is one main airport in the country, i.e., the Cheddi Jagan International Airport (CJIA) Timehri, which is approximately 48 km from the capital city of Georgetown. However, there are a number of airstrips most found in the interior that help to connect these areas with the coast. There is also the Ogle Aerodrome that is approximately 5 km from the capital city and is currently under expansion to convert it into a municipal airport to complement the services offered at the CJIA. This airstrip also serves as an Aerodrome Flight School for trainee pilots and caters exclusively for local flights. The CIJA has an average of 100,000 visitors passing through annually, with an average daily aircraft movement of 10 aircrafts. 4.1.3

Ports and waterways

4.1.3.1

Ports

Five ports serve ocean-going vessels: • Georgetown, for commercial cargo mainly and is located at the mouth of the Demerara River •

Linden, further up the Demerara River and catering for to the needs of the Bauxite Industry

•

Berbice serves mainly as a Bauxite port

•

Kwakwani (Bauxite industry) and is found up the Berbice River

•

Corentyne, mainly for agricultural and commercial cargo

However, only the Georgetown Port has significant installations for loading and unloading of containerized cargo. The GoG has indicated its intention to establish a deep water harbour in the Essequibo River to facilitate vessels with larger capacity than those which currently come into Guyana to ply the route into the country. Most of the ports in Guyana suffer from constant sediment loads, occasioned by erosion of river banks and from land based sources, among other things. 4.1.3.2

Inland Waterways

At present, most transportation on the coast is by road, with the Demerara River being bridged to provide easy access mainly between Regions 3 and 4. However, most of the other rivers, e.g., Essequibo, Pomeroon, Berbice and Corentyne require boat transportation. Currently, govern-

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ment is pursuing plans to bridge the Berbice River, which is expected to act as a boon for the communities east and west of the river. Most of the interior transportation is via waterways, rapids or on foot. Canoe is the preference of boat transportation for the hinterland dwellers, influenced mainly by cost and physical logistical considerations. However, increased mining activity in these waterways are contaminating the water, which is often used for drinking purposes, as well as making water transportation more treacherous. The difficulty in traversing the hinterland makes the cost of living in this part of Guyana higher than on the coast. 4.1.3.3

Railways

There are no commercial railways in the country, but there are some localized railways present in the bauxite mining areas and at some of the sugar estates to facilitate the movement of raw material and finished products respectively, to various holding and/or storage points.

4.2

General environmental impacts of different transport activities

Most environmental burdens are caused by motorized forms of transport and by vehicular traffic in particular. In certain circumstances however, even traditional modes of transportation can result in environmental impacts. Below we present a brief synopsis of some of the most impacts anticipated from the various forms of transportation facilities. 4.2.1

Road Transport

•

Air pollution due to greater emission of oxides of carbon and nitrogen

•

Pollution of surface and ground water due to run-off

•

Modification of water systems due to road building

•

Waste oil pollution

•

Noise and vibration from vehicular traffic

•

Increased risks of road accidents and fatalities

•

Risk of structural failures in old or worn road facilities

•

Destruction of wildlife habitats and the migration of destruction of endangered/endemic/indigenous species

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4.2.2

GOPA ‹ E & A

Air Transport

•

Air pollution

•

Modification of water tables, river courses and field drainage in airport construction

•

Noise around airports

•

Increased risks of fatalities

•

Landscape consumption

4.2.3

Marine and inland water transport

•

Modification of water systems during port construction and canal cutting and/or dredging

•

Land taken for infrastructures; dereliction of obsolete facilities and canals

•

Noise pollution due to loading processes

•

Possible increase in waste in waterways due to indiscriminate dumping or waste oil emitted in the water

•

Increased risk of accidents due to greater frequency of transport and possible size of the transportation vessels

•

Damage and erosion of river banks due to wave action

•

Greater levels of diarrhoea and other water borne diseases from those who use the water ways as their sole source of potable water supply

4.3

Special problems in Guyana

A major challenge for increased transportation facilities in Guyana is the need to enforce the requisite laws to minimize possible negative externalities. The fact that major communities, for example, use the waterways in particular as their only source of potable water supply, it will be necessary to ensure that either alternative be found or that the impacts be minimized.

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4.3.1

Impacts of road transport

4.3.1.1

Urban transportation

For the urban areas the following environmental problems related to transport are identified: • Maintenance: Inadequate maintenance and lack of maintenance, particularly of secondary roads resulting in erosion of roads, vehicle damage and sometimes minor accidents

• Drainage: Inadequate or clogged drainage system resulting in stagnant water on the rods which undermines the asphalt or protective cover of roads. Additionally, after torrential downpours many roads, such as those in the city, are often flooded. Congestion, despite the extending of the city boundaries in the past thirty (30) years. This is due t combination of increased volume of vehicles plying the routes in the city, poor town planning, inclusive insufficient parking, lack of enforcement of the city by-laws, and Insufficient car pooling in some instances. (13)

(13) This must be taken in context and clearly a combination of the culture and economics has forced Guyanese to car-pool to a much farther degree than many other places in the world. However, as standard of livings have increased and with Government’s duty free concession policy to senior public servants, this has given rise to more single person cars traversing the road downpours many roads, such as those in the city. • Energy consumption: Transportation requires huge amounts of energy because it depends heavily on fossil fuel. But motorized vehicles produce more air pollution than any other single human activity. On highly congested streets, such as Regent Street, Avenue of the Republic and Camp Street traffic can be responsible for high levels of ambient carbon monoxide levels. Additionally, the nitrogen oxides, lead and particulate matter all contribute towards being major threats to human health.

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• Noise pollution: Motor engines, speeding, and screeching tires are all major causes of noise pollution. The fact that heavy containerized trucks and speeding drivers are known to use the roads, cause a lot of noise that often the population has to endure. The fact that there are no known noise breaks the situated is exacerbated. Also, the traffic noise is caused by very loud alarm systems and constant hooting of horns to attract commuters’ attention. Guyana is currently seeking to establish its own ambient noise quality. • The space along the roads is a privileged dumping area for scrap and old cars. • Vibrations: There are many historical buildings in Georgetown, many of which are wooden. These buildings include the world famous St. George’s Cathedral and St. Andrew’s Kirk. Some of these buildings are culture monuments and so a part of the cultural heritage of Guyana. However, vibrations from heavy vehicular traffic are likely to affect these structures over time. • Water Pollution: This remains a main issue in Guyana due in large part to the indiscriminate disposal of solid waste, waste oil, vehicle batteries etc., in the water ways. This has often led to high levels of pollution of urban waterways. • Garbage disposal: It seems that the channels along the roads in the towns are privileged garbage deposits. That is also one reason of increased flood risk due to drainage disruption • Traffic lights: Most the traffic signals are not working in the city. This has led to many accidents minor and other fatal at junctures where these lights are situated, i.e., Camp and Regent Streets, Regent Street and Avenue of the Republic, and Garnett and Sheriff Streets. • Road safety and traffic accidents: with improved communications infrastructure, there is likely to be a greater pull to urban areas. This presents the case of increased traffic flow and insensitive road users and those who refuse to comply with road safety regulations. These will increase the risk of accidents and possible threats to life and limb. • Employment creation: Urban transportation however also have positive impacts through the creation of jobs, particularly for those who find it difficult to secure jobs in other sectors, they are able to become taxi drivers, mini-bus conductors, or be employed in the maintenance crews. These are no doubt likely to create positive impacts to combat the threat of poverty.

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• Government and municipal revenues and budgets: Construction and maintenance of the roads within urban centres will have direct impacts on Government and municipal finances. To the extent that expenditure on these items displaces other spending, there will be consequent socio-economic impacts. 4.3.1.2

Rural transport

• Slopes and Erosion: Accelerated soil erosion presents a potential physical risk to any new road development in rural areas, particularly where the natural soil base is of low structural integrity and is likely to fail rapidly following vegetation removal • Water resources: Surface water courses along many rural roads are both receptors and the cause of impacts to engineering design usually • Damage to Sensitive Areas: Many rural areas, such as Kurupukari and Rupununi are extremely important for Guyana’s cultural and archaeological heritage. Several historic sites have been identified within the areas of influence of the Lethem – Linden road, for example the Iwokrama Rainforest Programme and the Annai community. • Social Issues: The construction of workers in camps can result in positive impacts, such as the demand for products and services which can create a short-term market and help to circulate wages. However one will have to guard against the possible negative impacts that may result, such as increase stress on existing supplies (food, fuels, etc) and services causing a rise in the cost of living; as well as encouraging drunkenness and prostitution, over-exploitation of forest and non-timber forest products, and uncontrolled/unregulated hunting • Employment impacts: Construction/rehabilitation of new roads often create short-term opportunities for employment and skills transfer particularly in rural areas where traditional agricultural crops are coming under threat through losing preferential markets. However, these may also exacerbate the problem of male absenteeism, particularly amongst the indigenous population • Traffic accidents: Upgrading and completing new roads are likely to bring highly significant impacts. Serious accidents are likely due to a combination of excessive speeding, visibility impaired by dust, adverse road surfaces, poor vehicle maintenance, driving impaired by drunkenness or drugs, tiredness, poor signage, persons (particularly children) playing along the roadway, and the prevalence of stray and domestic animals on the roads • Increased access. The most insidious of all effects of roads is the access they provide to humans and their tools of destruction. Especially along hinterland roads where humans hunt legally and illegally for animals, which can lead to loss of biodiversity. Due to lack of control these activities often lead to over-hunting of some species • Other consequences of road access include over-collecting of rare plants. There is now a flourishing business in tropical plants, of which most of them are exported. This can lead also to loss of biodiversity and potential revenue unless intellectual property rights are observed and indigenous knowledge preserved

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• Roads bring in commercial, industrial and residential developments. Roads open the way for tourists, hundreds of gold miners and logging companies. Most of them have no permit and use the hit and run technique, which often has a disastrous effect on the ecosystem, soil and water quality. Individuals occupy, legally and illegally, plots of land along the roads for agriculture, destroying the original forest ecosystem by slash and burn method and using pesticides and fertilizers. Another development in recent times has been the opening of recreational areas at creeks, changing the hydrology of water streams. The influx of people to these “clean areas” creates waste problems and degradation of the water quality. These activity forms a big problem especially with the water flow, by changing the flow pattern downstream areas have a lack of water that influences the water quality. For the moment the opening of recreation parks are not obligatory licensed, so people cannot be forbidden to stop these practices • Improved access: A modern and improved transportation network will lead to increased access to local, regional and national markets for agricultural goods and produce from Guyana’s rural and hinterland communities • Pollution: The pollution of surface water courses and the resultant impacts to freshwater fisheries from alluvial gold extraction is likely to rise. Furthermore, the space along the roads is a privileged dumping area for scrap cars and other wastes. This practice is likely to increase in the absence of stringent enforcement of the necessary regulations • Excavation Impact: Sand and gravel take for road maintenance and new construction. Along the roads creating a lot of pits • Tourism: Greater potential for the development of nature-based tourism and indigenous crafts • Social Engineering: Great access can also mean greater integration of rural and hinterland people into the political and social fabric of the country. For example, there is likely to be improved access to medical facilities and personnel, and to educational materials and teachers • Communication focal point: In many rural villages roads offer the place for assemblies. However, drivers ignoring the speed limits thus compromising road safety, increasing noise and air pollution cause deterioration of these communities quality of life • Increased pressure on Amerindian lands including pressure on food supplies, land take, acceleration of the acculturation process, unwanted interactions with workers, absent male syndrome, • Health impacts on workers on indigenous populations including, in particular, the introduction of communicable diseases and malaria • Accelerated development of forestry and mining operations within the interior forest belt • Increased pressure on government decision-making bodies to develop appropriate controls for the economic development of the rural and interior regions • In the Hinterlands there tends to be no effective control of the maintenance work on the roads

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4.3.2

GOPA ‹ E & A

Impacts of air transport

Main impacts from airport operations are: • aircraft noise • emission • landscape consumption 4.3.2.1

International Airport « Cheddi Jagan » and regional airport « Ogle »

Noise The intensity and effects of the noise generated by airport operations are determined by the following factors: • time of takeoffs and landings: normally in the morning and evening • the number of takeoffs • the type of take-off and landing procedures • the type of braking system • the type of aircraft • other noise emissions in the airport operations area • the location of takeoff and landing runways and taxiways In 2004 it was reported that the CJIA had 3,800 international landings and the Ogle aerodrome in 2003 had 7,500 local landings. All of the bigger crafts (B 737, etc) operate out of the CJIA, while those flying out of the Ogle aerodrome are mostly single engine islanders and caravans. What is of importance is the difference in the noise levels between the larger crafts vis-à-vis the smaller airplanes. The area around the “Cheddi Jagan”-airport is lightly populated so people will not be significantly affected by air travel operations. Thus, airport operation account for a small portion of the total environmental impacts, but due to the increase of passenger traffic it is important to note that airport-generated environmental impacts will increase. However, the Ogle aerodrome is nearer the city of Georgetown and in an area surrounded by dense population. Thus, more people are likely to be affected by the noise emanating from the airport aerodrome during its operation. Currently, this aerodrome is under construction to be upgraded to a municipal airport that includes widening and lengthening of the runway. Later, when more and bigger planes commence landing here, the noise pollution level is expected to increase significantly. The noise generated inside the airport by ground traffic is usually negligible because of the extreme spaciousness of the airport installations. The additional noise generated by traffic on the main access roads to airports is normally no higher than that to be expected from general use.

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Emissions Primarily because of the quantity of emissions likely to be produced by aircraft at the CJIA and the air-chemical and meteorological context, it may be assumed that the pollution caused by emissions from the air traffic is low compared with the ground-level sources in the capital city. It has been stated that emissions produced during flights at altitudes of 6,000 – 12,000 meters have additional effects whose damage potential has not yet been fully researched and understood. 4.3.2.2

Airstrips

The Civil Aviation Department is responsible for the airstrips in Guyana. These airstrips have been constructed mainly for accessibility purposes, thus making their maintenance and upkeep a significant economic burden on the central government and regional administrations coffers. There are plans afoot for the privatization of the Ogle Aerodrome. However, the airstrips within the other regions and in the hinterland in particular, are seen as being crucial if they are to aid in the ecotourism drive of the country. But the very need to attract more tourists can also bring visitors that can over-exploit the flora and fauna within the area and the surrounding environment. Other impacts with which hinterland airstrips have been associated are the illegal drug trade, the illegal shipping out of Guyana’s precious minerals, and quite possibly the trafficking in people and ammunition as well, though official statistics are not readily available on these potential impacts. 4.3.3

Impacts of ports, harbours and waterways

There are a number of impacts associated with this activity, inclusive of: • dredging activities to guarantee ease of shipping movements • supplies to ships and waste disposal • ship-to-ship transfers • risk of accidents leading to spillages from ships, i.e., bauxite, oil, etc • refuelling • discharging, lighterage and loading • disposal of refuge, sewage, and wastewater • cleaning of tanks and holds • repairs and maintenance All these activities are generally needed to maintain harbour operations and can have adverse environmental effects on water quality, inclusive of turbidity and salinity. The Transport and Harbours Department has responsibility for harbour management in Guyana. However, due to a lack of personnel, and finance these control activities are not always enforced.

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While the channels are constantly clogged, dredging is not done regularly, due to the large sediment deposits from the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers. This would mean that constant dredging would be a most costly exercise. The main impacts from dredging include those associated with the deposition of the dredged material and impacts on the aquatic ecosystem. The transporting oil vessels used in the bauxite mining industry, pose a serious environmental hazard in terms of water and soil contamination and also carry risks of explosion and fire during transport and transfer, and the risk of leakage and escape of large volumes of this substance. These can have serious effects on those who depend on these rivers and inland waterways for their potable water supply, compromising their health. Further, ecosystems and fisheries resources may be negatively impacted. If shipping traffic is dense and fast-moving, erosion and pooling may be caused by the primary and secondary waves from the swell created by the vessel, particularly on unprotected natural banks, leading to damage and eventually the dislodging of the bank and its vegetation. Also the waves can damage the very sensitive mangrove vegetation. Impacts from harbours in operation occur on waterways during: • Efforts to maintain appropriate water depths through dredging activities to guarantee ease of shipping movements (e.g. Demerara River, Essequibo River) • Supplies to ships and waste disposal (e.g. in the Georgetown –harbour they have no controlled system) • Ship-to-ship transfers (e.g. reloading of bauxite) • Berthing and departure manoeuvres (risk of accident leading to spillages from ships) • Re-fuelling (and deliveries of other supplies) • Oil change, oil collecting and controlled deposit • Discharging, loading and lighterage • Disposal (garbage, sewage, wastewater and refuse) • Cleaning of tanks and holds • Repairs • The spill and dumping of hazardous products/waste on sea, which can contaminate coastal areas (the Caribbean Sea). • Impairment of water ecosystem because of dredging and the pontoon bridge • Goods-traffic through Georgetown produces noise and vibrations. • Damaging of mangroves by waves of vessels moving rapidly in the rivers

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A special problem is crossing of rivers like Demerara River with floating bridges. These kinds of bridges influence the normal hydraulic and sedimentation process of the river. Consequently there are affects to the river ecosystem. The influences are dependent on anchoring the bridge and opening for passage of vessels. Also in connection with the planned Berbice River Crossing it must be clarified how this is likely to influence the river ecosystem (Louis Berger Group, 2004).

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5

Simplified Risk Assessment (SRA) of planned maintenance / new construction works in the traffic sector (see annex 2)

5.1

Introduction

The Simplified Risk Assessment (SRA) is a first step in the environmental and social –cultural planning process to optimize projects. It is only a cursory overview of potential impacts, so it must be treated as a preliminary estimation. The SRA is not to be confused with the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) bound by the EP Act. The assumption is made here that all projects likely to have significant impacts an EIA is obligatory. The questions to be answered are: • What can occur during maintenance, construction and operation of a transport project? • What is the possible intensity of the impacts? • What is to be done to avoid/mitigate the impacts and what volume of expenditure would be necessary? There are four steps to work out: • What kinds of sensitive areas can be touched by the planned project? • What are the planned maintenance/new construction traffic projects? • What are the important effects of the projects? • Evaluation of the risks and the effectiveness of avoiding/mitigation measures We will fill out the following evaluation tables for all bigger planned maintenance/new transport projects in Guyana (see Annex 2) The levels of the SRA on purpose are very simple: • high • medium • low The levels of the possibilities of avoiding/mitigation measures are: • high • medium • low

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5.2

GOPA ‹ E & A

Sensitive environmental and social –cultural areas (see annex 1)

Some 80% of Guyana is still covered in tropical forests. Guyana has a number of areas of biological interest, inclusive of the two designated protected areas, i.e., The Kaieteur National Park and the Iwokrama International Rainforest Programme that have a combined total land area of 750,000 hectares. The other areas are being developed into a system of protected areas and they include: • Shell Beach • Moraballi • Essequibo River Islands • Mabura Hill • Karanambo • The Kanuku Mountains • Mount Roraima • The South Eastern Forests When this system is totally implemented, sites of biological interest in Guyana will be occupying approximately 20% of the total land area in the country. As indicated elsewhere in this paper, Guyana is relatively rich in biological diversity and many areas of the country are of significant scientific interest. Guyana has two legally designated protected areas. They are: • The Kaieteur National Park that is approximately 900,000 acres and is home to the famous Kaieteur Falls; and • The Iwokrama International Rainforest Reserve that occupies approximately 900,000 acres and was intended for research, information gathering on biological diversity and the promotion of sustainable forestry in the tropics. This area which was magnanimously donated to the world community in Kuala Lumpur in 1989, became legally designated in 1992. With regard to archaeological sites, the Amerindian Bill 2005 section 78 Protection of Amerindian artefacts and monuments states that it is an offence to destroy, deface or in any way damage an Amerindian monument.

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5.3

GOPA ‹ E & A

Planned maintenance/upgrades and new construction works in the transport sector

In the first instance one needs to remember that there is a significant difference between maintenance and new construction of traffic projects. In case of maintenance of roads, for example, impacts such as noise, dust, and potential spillages are mostly temporary. Road maintenance would be mainly carried out by hand and most impacts are benign as they tend to include cleaning ditches, culverts, watercourses, and patching holes. The most important problem after maintenance is the possibility of speeding, bringing health concerns as it can disturb the socialcultural life of persons, particularly in the villages. For the most important projects we prepared “Simplified Risk Assessment” SRA. The illustrative list of projects Road projects contains: • Canals 1 & 2 • Linden – Lethem • Crabwood Creek – Orealla • Parika – Makouria • Sheriff Street – Timehri • Patentia – Kamudi • Kwakwani – Ituni • Cawfalls – Wanatoba Falls Airport Upgrading: • Ogle Aerodrome Waterways Dredging: • Demerara River – Georgetown Channel • Demerara River Georgetown to Linden • Bar of the Essequibo River Construction of harbours/stellings: • Georgetown harbour: Reinstallation of 2 Off-shore loading Basins Vreed-en Hoop • Second Basin for Loading Bauxite at Linden –Berbice River • Container terminal Georgetown • Bulk berth terminal Georgetown (dredging to 12 m)

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5.4

GOPA ‹ E & A

Identification/ explanation of impact criteria in SRA

The environmental hazards that might be encountered in the transportation sector operations are set out in the SRA- (see annex 2)As can be seen from the listed items there are links and interactions between them and an event causing a hazard of one type might lead to one or more other hazards. For the SRA the selected criteria are: • Cutting of existing protected areas bounded by law: The existing protected areas do not only have national, but international importance as well. Because of there specific biodiversity and their rareness the rainforests have worldwide importance. Access without controlled scientific research to these nature conservation areas need to be carefully managed. • Cutting of proposed protected areas: For these areas the same conditions have validity as those for protected areas. It makes no sense to declare new nature conservation areas by law, when there are programmes in place to embark on major road development projects because it is very complicated to control those having access to the rainforest. • Uncontrolled access of rainforest with importance for biodiversity: At present there are no by laws with regard to protected areas, particularly with those that have importance for biodiversity. As such, many of these areas can be accessed with roads, making such areas vulnerable to hunting activities and illegal wildlife trapping. • Development of forestry and mining operations: Construction of roads has the objective to develop regions. In cases where there are very sensitive areas in the rainforest it will be important to conserve environmentally and culturally sensitive area. • Access of cultural important areas, villages etc.: there are positive and negative effects: On the one side improvement of living conditions for the indigenous peoples in case of access to regional and national markets, medical facilities and education possibilities, on the other side increased pressure on Amerindians lands including food supplies, land take and acceleration of the acculturation process. • Access of archaeological sites: In Guyana there are to this day 13 declared archaeological sites. They are relicts of Guyana’s history and should be protected. It would need to pay attention that no road or airstrip disturb these national monuments and their surroundings. • Human health and safety: Emissions of fumes, dust and noise are mainly the problem of urban inhabitants. In the rural villages maintenance, upgrading and new construction of roads lead to speeding and more danger for the residents. As the roads are a part of the living space the threats of accidents increase.

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• Impairment of erosion endangered sites: conservation of soil is one of the most important aims for sustainable land use development. Thus every effort should be pursued to reduce degradation and erosion. As such, any upgrading and new construction of roads and airstrips in sensitive sites must be carefully examined and monitored. • Pollution of sites for production of drinking water: Good quality of drinking water is becoming scarcer in the interiors of Guyana. In the Amerindian areas where they depend mainly on surface water heavy metal pollution problem because of gold and diamond mining activities are bringing these water sources under threat. In the coastal zone and around the cities like Georgetown the main threats are from sewage, vehicle oil, and agro-chemical and other land based sources. The inputs in surface and groundwater have to be reduced and conserved as a matter of urgency. • Noise pollution of living areas / villages: There are a lot of causes of noise exposure, but traffic is one of the most important. Operation of traffic (roads, airports, ports) produces a lot of noise. Its time to implement the existing noise levels and realize active or passive noise prevention measures. Normally measures in upgrading and new construction of transport projects create more noise. • Air pollution (including dust) of living areas /villages: Traffic is one of the greatest air polluter (CO, CO2, dust). Guyana in general has good air quality except for the “hot spots” close to busy roads, city centre and during rush hours causing congestion. There exists no results of measurements, but with the traffic increase in the last years in particular has led to more congestion and air pollution. In the rural villages without paved roads dust is a significant source of pollution. Speeding exacerbates this situation. • Waste disposal: Waste disposal is one of the greatest environmental problems in Guyana. The traffic sector takes part on these problems: waste disposal on sea, in rivers and along the roads. There is no working waste disposal concept in the country and so the majority have there own way to dump everywhere. Roadsides, ditches and channels along rods are privileged dumping sites. For maintenance, upgrades and new construction of roads it is necessary to find a way to avoid waste disposal during construction and operation phase. • Dredging material disposal site: The dredged materials are either dumped over board or deposited on land. There are no statistics currently that indicate the chemical composition of this dredged material. Furthermore, there are no known designated deposit sites in the country. • Impairment of landscape aesthetic: A well designed road contributes to improved road security and is an invitation for guests. However, infrastructure projects mostly disturb the landscape aesthetic because little money and time is often spent on creative ideas and designs. • Development of sand and gravel pits: Especially for new construction of airports and roads, but also for upgrading and maintenance a lot of sand and gravel are needed. Therefore a lot of pits – sometimes in sensitive areas – may result.

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• Impairment of river ecosystems: there are several ways in which river ecosystems may be disturbed. These include, water pollution by vessel/boat operations; dredging the rivers, constructing harbours; operation of pontoon bridges during; and waves of fast moving vessels. • Development of new settlements along roads: Normally settlements in Guyana start along roads and so many of the villages are “Road Villages”. There is generally the absence of a master plan, land use plan or concept for village developing. As such, with the upgrading or building of new roads it is necessary to devise a settlement policy and plan. • Dividing villages, changing of road culture: The roads in the villages, especially in the rural areas, are the space where most social-cultural activities occur. Roadsides are the marketplaces, playgrounds and the communication field for old and younger inhabitants alike. Also, it offers pasturage for many livestock such as cows, goats, sheep and dogs. If the roads will be maintained or upgraded the traffic and the speed will be increased and so the villages will be more and more divided into sections, unless mitigating measures are taken to avoid this practice. The possibility also exists for living conditions to become more treacherous as more modern and faster cards are imported. • Cross-over flooded areas: The January 2005 floods showed how important flood/water management is in the country. In this flood management system roads have an important role, because of the urgency and need to reach the sluices, for example, in the shortest possible time. Furthermore, there is no reason why roads are seen as contributing to the problem. This becomes the case when there are design flaws in planning and sufficient culverts and sluices are not built, thus causing some areas to become empoldered. Too often, canals along the road are used as dumping places and this exacerbates flood water management. • Increased fire hazards: Operation of roads in the hinterlands has the potential of posing a significant risk to wildfire populations. Forest fire control and fighting forest fires is very complicated. More traffic in the hinterlands creates more fire hazards.

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6

Recommendations

6.1

General targets and principles

GOPA ‹ E & A

Without doubt the transport sector is not the main cause for environmental problems in Guyana. In the rural areas, especially in the hinterlands mining activities induce a lot of environmental problems that have urgent to be regulated and redeveloped. Integrating environmental considerations into transport policy, plans, programs and projects are needed. Transport and the environment must be included in an integrated national policy, not only looking at economic effects, but the entire gamut of issues so pertinent for an effective transport policy. Environmental and social-cultural issues can be related to traffic congestion, traffic related emissions, tax implementation of protection regulations, reduce fuel consumption, ensure that environmental and social-cultural protection are addressed through appropriate planning procedures, regulatory controls and economic incentives and the introduction of standards generally across the sector. Integration and coherence with other sector policies influencing transport demand, such as fiscal policy, land-use planning policy, employment and industrial policy are paramount. To be effective in the Guyanese context transport policy must satisfy three main requirements: 1. It must ensure that continuity capability exists to support an improved standard of living. This corresponds to the concept of economic and financial sustainability. It must also ensure that costs for developing transport activities have also considered environmental and socialcultural measures and their accompanying costs. 2. It must generate the greatest possible improvement in the general quality of life of the populace, and not merely an increase in traded goods. This relates to the concept of environmental and ecological sustainability. 3. The benefits that transport produce must, as far as practicable, be equitably shared by all sectors of the community. This we term social sustainability.

6.2

Measures for transport policy

Guyana must therefore make transport one of its target sectors because this approach is an efficient way to tackle many of its problems and because of its significant environmental and socialcultural impacts if ignored. To reach transportation sustainability it is necessary that the threats concerning transportation are mitigated, which can be realized through different measures. These measures or management tools enable administrators responsible for environmental and socialcultural protection to apply policy, enforce the law, maintain standards and determine the effect of their actions. Our recommendations are structured under the following headings:

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• Rules/requirements of law • Rules/requirements of order • Rules/requirements of taxes • Requirements on planning instruments • Requirements on institutions • Technical rules/standards • Rules for traffic operations • Rules for transport construction/rehabilitation • Requirements in awareness/public participation 6.2.1

Rules/requirements of law

Integration of regulation from conventions into national regulations/policy e.g. MARPOL convention indicate that dumping on sea is not allowed and countries have to supply waste facilities for ships. By including these rules into its national policy, Guyana will be expected to provide facilities for ships preventing them for dumping their waste on open sea. Implementation and monitoring is important not only the ratification of this Convention Guyana should ratify and implement the Basel Convention that has guidelines concerning the protection of its water and coast against the transporting of hazardous waste and their related consequences. Furthermore, it is imperative that the environmental law is integrated in the traffic law, such that the latter includes a special chapter of environmental effects of traffic and how to manage/mitigate these. Also there must be unambiguous regulations about environmental protection and standards such as, how to dispose of scrap metal and old vehicles, setting of emissions limit and a permitted level of blood alcohol level. Additionally, assessing the environmental impact of interventions in all modes of transport and analysing their cumulative effects need to be given greater priority. There is no comprehensive Spatial Planning Law for integrated sustainable development in Guyana. The country needs a comprehensive land use plan implemented by a single entity to reduce current and future conflicts. Primarily because of transaction costs, institutional gaps and an absence of coordinating mechanisms to bring the various players in the sector together, it is no more advisable to have varied responsibilities being assigned for land utilization.

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6.2.2

GOPA ‹ E & A

Strengthening of National Policy

The regulation to allow imports of used vehicles needs to be updated. It is not economically efficient, given the cost of maintenance and fuel consumption patterns associated with older vehicles in a time of escalating fuel costs, for Guyana to import too many vehicles older than 5 years. Also the technical conditions of imported old cars must be controlled. To complement this recommendation it is necessary that the traffic regulations be updated and their implementation monitored closely. 6.2.3

Rules/requirements of taxes

Lift taxes on heavy Lorries because their increase and e.g. the increasing axle load are the main reason for the bad condition of the roads. Increase the road user taxation and the fuel levy for financing the road maintenance and for general environmental reasons. From an environmental standpoint, road maintenance must be the most important goal in the sector. Start with special tax on engine oil for cars and motorboats to finance a collection and correct deposit of used engine oil 6.2.4

Rules/requirements of order

Enforcement: control and maintenance of rules. Formal enforcement processes must be part of the system used to promote compliance with environmental standards and other obligations. The old penalties must be updated for newer ones and adequate control on the observance of these. Recommendations include: • Penalties for transport sector users: to set and adapt new penalty structure for offenders •

parking conditions/places have to consider also environmental aspects (no parking in sensitive areas)

•

controlling of speed limit by police

•

open fire along roads, especially in the rural country side must be prohibited in the dry season or licensed

•

car washing regulations have to be worked out

•

order for deposit old cars, batteries, tires, wheels on specially designated dumping places, once no recycling system is established

•

controlling and setting up fine rates for road dumping.

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6.2.5

GOPA ‹ E & A

Requirements on planning instruments and their implementation

Working out of a National Transport Plan for Guyana including SEA (Strategic Environmental Assessment) like in EU, where all the necessary projects (new projects, upgrading projects, maintenance projects, bridges, etc) can be evaluated. Based on this evaluation the government can make a priority list. Implementation of the existing traffic management study for Georgetown, especially looking for a bypass or circle way for Georgetown. Setting up of cycle and pedestrian pads on roads with heavy traffic, like the connection to the airport Timehri. Setting up specific regulations to reduce regional transit traffic in trade areas of town centre Closing of certain streets in the town to protect the cultural heritage (e.g. deviation of traffic by St. George’s Cathedral) Prepare and implementation of Drainage Master Plan for Georgetown and its environs Looking for qualified areas and technical solutions suitable for dredged material to be deposited on land nearest by of the dredging area. Create and bring in operation a Spatial Planning Act, including landscape planning and taking into consideration projected urban development In the Environmental Protection Act (Act No.11 of 1996) an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is required for all projects (listed in the Fourth Schedule) which may significantly affect the environment. In the field of transport (3. in the Fourth Schedule) it is necessary to include upgrading and maintenance projects which are relevant for the environment. Also bridge constructions (i.e., Berbice River Crossing) and ferry ports need to be assessed. The procedure is in a large way in consonance with European guidelines (85/337 EG, 97/11 EG). For better praxis and checking, it is advisable to have special EIA guidelines for all of the schedules, inclusive of those in the transport sector. These guidelines should include: •

Information and criteria for screening and scoping contents and procedures

•

Information, criteria and indicators of the importance, sensitivity and endangering of all conservation resources, such as social-cultural and economic effects

•

Procedure and criteria for evaluation purposes

•

Compensation mechanisms for compensation such construction or rehabilitation of infrastructure projects result in negative externalities

•

Procedure for implementation and monitoring of the environmental management plan

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It is also in Guyana’s interest to pursue Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEA) like in EU, for transport policy and program system when these are developed, to provide a general overview of all transport activities in the future. It is necessary to assess all cumulative, secondary environmental and social-cultural affects in context and to find out what are the best transport system alternatives. Integration of SEA in the existing Environmental Protection Act should be treated as a matter of urgency. However, it is recommended that Technical Studies and EIA be worked out separately. It is not neutral enough if one consultant draws up both in a packet. 6.2.6

Requirements on institutions

Effective application of regulations: Means the need for a strong professional traffic management agency with well defined powers and responsibilities. The existing authorities can be in charge of the applications, but inter-agency co-operation should be strengthened. Control of implementation of the standard levels (as far as they exist): for noise, emission, discharge, disposal of vehicles, tires, batteries, used oil etc. 6.2.7

Strengthening monitoring and laboratory network

Government inspectors must have the ability to investigate compliance with environmental standards by taking measurements, requesting information including environmental audits and also for compensation measures at the expense of the target of inspection, and preparing reports. These inspectors can make claims to administrative and judicial authorities in the event of an infringement of environmental law. There will be a need for coordination of monitoring mechanisms and data collection among ministries/entities. The data collected must be compiled in a comparable or compatible and comprehensible or useful manner. Furthermore, samples on emissions and other parameters should be carried out by a certified authority with technical and acceptable methods. Laboratory networks are essential wherever environmental standards are set and procedures put in place to enforce them. It is in the laboratories that inspection and monitoring samples are analysed and it is on the basis of this information that infringement procedures are undertaken. Thus there is the need to strengthen existing laboratory facilities like those at the University of Guyana (UG) and the Institute for Applied Science and Technology (IAST). Set up clear responsibilities and requirements for environmental control in transport development, and for monitoring and reporting on environmental quality. Availability of manpower, experts and implementation resources. There is a necessity to broaden the focus of the courses/studies offered at the University of Guyana to take cognizance of the transport planning and environmental planning to create Guyanese experts. The country will

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then have to seek mechanisms to retain these skills as it is virtually impossible for a country to develop if it is almost totally dependent upon foreign consultants to provide technical advice. 6.2.8

Technical rules/standards

In Guyana there does not exist national standards, inter alia, for noise, for car emissions, and for water pollution load. It is therefore critical that the finalization of the draft EPA regulations on noise, air, noise and hazardous waste be pursued with the utmost dispatch. Global standards dictate that Guyana: •

establish noise levels in the residential areas of 55 dBA during the daytime and 45 dBA at night

•

establish noise levels for inside the minibuses

•

noise abatement measures on busy (crowded) streets in the city have to be developed and implemented

•

regulations and enforcement for advertising measures along the street

•

Integrating national and international environmental standards into transport policy. This will involve updating existing traffic regulations

•

Reducing vehicle emissions by setting and enforcing minimum standards. Can be reached by putting targets for cars, e.g. from 2008 cars without catalytic converters may not be imported.

•

reducing pollution levels and congestion in urban areas through better choice of fuel type and traffic management respectively

•

expansion of the annual car fitness tests by including other parameters such as noise and

•

emissions levels

•

modernising vehicle fleets across all transport modes to take advantage of greater fuel efficiency, reduced emissions and lower noise levels (limits for the age of vehicles)

•

identifying environmental and sustainability indicators and objectives to measure

•

environmental performance by the transport sector and identification of quality and targets

•

setting up of places/facilities where people can deposit used oil, batteries, and wheels

•

databank for different indicators that influence the transportation sector should be

•

established

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6.2.9

GOPA ‹ E & A

Rules for traffic operations

•

Repair the traffic lights in Georgetown because of safety reasons

•

development of over-bridge or under-cross at busy roads for passengers(e.g. the Seawall

•

road and Sheriff Street juncture)

•

improvement of public transport, especially continuous bus connection and ferry service providing good conditions and reasonable prices to the public

•

Drainage of run off water from harbour areas/roads and cleaning the wastewater before draining to the surface water (river). That is very important when oil- or heavy metal products or chemicals are stored, spilled or transported

•

development of rules for the transportation of chemicals (e.g. mercury, cyanide for gold mining)

•

implementation of emergency system for disasters

•

promoting the use of non-motorised transport and assuring the safety of such transport

•

special attention must be paid to transport of dangerous and risky goods by water

•

transport (mainly inland water transport)

•

regulation for reduced vessel speed in sensitive mangrove areas

6.2.10

Rules for transport infrastructure construction and rehabilitation

•

for new roads and upgrading one of the first objectives should be to avoid sensitive areas

•

In the long term perhaps an alternative location for “Ogle airport” could be found, because of environmental and safety reasons since its location is close to built-up areas. The airport area is surrounded by growing up of settlements. The best way is probably to relocate the air traffic to ‘Cheddi Jagan International Airport Timehri.. The upgrading of the road to the centre of Georgetown can be seen as a first step for relocation. Master plan has to avoid new settlements in the near of the airport.

•

when upgrading the existing road or building new roads paved shoulders must be considered and as far as possible be accommodated within the new design

•

the quality of the road construction must be better because there is a relationship between road construction and associated environmental impact

•

preparing and implementing an EIA study for harbour expansion or looking for new container terminal in Georgetown

•

Preparing and implementing EIA studies for planned floating bridges, including special research of changing the water ecosystem, because the river ecosystems represent one of the

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most sensitive sites. Deposition of silt and the fastenings of the bridges influence the hydraulic conditions of the river. 6.2.11

Requirements in awareness/public participation

Education/research The educational process must incorporate the integration of values and development of habits and behaviours which tend to prevent and solve environmental problems. Primary schools are demonstrating increasing interest in boosting environmental awareness and incorporating environmental issues into their school curriculum. Environmental programs in the schools should be revised to assure more effectiveness. Environmental training for public sector officials must be conducted through workshops and seminars related to environmental protection and awareness In general the environmental awareness in Guyana is quite low, but building. Environmental awareness should be the focus of education and training at all levels: policy makers, schools and colleges, workers, managers, etc. Awareness can motivate groups to participate in the process of environmental management. This can be accomplished through formal mechanisms (schools, media campaigns) and informal, targeted approaches (e.g. training for officials/staff charged with supervision of environmental management and monitoring is required: maintenance; development of plans, etc). Training of people who work in harbour area in environmental issues dealing with their job Public awareness campaign To change peoples’ attitude, behaviour: e.g. speeding and aggressive driving, fuel consumption, increase peoples’ awareness concerning the environment, solid waste disposal on roads and including of environmental issues in driving license Increase citizen participation in transport projects Public involvement can be broadened and deepened by encouraging a variety of actors and opening the planning and implementation processes to the general public. There needs to be better mechanisms for public engagement, especially on development projects Increase the contribution of gender In the transport policy decision making and management, maintenance and construction of roads, etc. Success of these measures will be dependent on the government in placing them on a higher policy level. All these recommendations are valid for public and private roads and/or harbours.

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6.3

GOPA ‹ E & A

Recommendations in social-cultural issues

•

Sustained economic growth is the best way to reduce poverty. Good transport infrastructure is one of the most important conditions for economic growth. That means not only transport of heavy goods as timber, bauxite etc. Also it will be lead to increase access to local, regional and national markets for agricultural goods and produce from Guyana’s rural and hinterland communities.

•

Capacity building in traffic planning and management of programmes and projects should be continued to reduce poverty.

•

Positive impacts of the access of the rural transportation as employment in construction/rehabilitation of new roads have to be controlled. It has to be guaranteed that local people find work.

•

On the other hand the better road access of the hinterlands is the reason for the ongoing process of changing cultural history in the Amerindian communities. Observation, awareness and discussions of the development with the indigenous people have to be continued and strengthen.

•

The pressure on Amerindian lands and acceleration of the acculturation has to be controlled with participation of the affected communities.

•

The cultural heritage of Guyana especially of the Amerindians must be protected and considered in all decisions in the transport strategy.

•

The local communities especially Amerindians have to participate in decisions of road construction/rehabilitation projects.

•

The indigenous people/Amerindians should have the right and possibility to determine the right of access to their regions. They should also be in a position to in their own right control legal and illegal activities, e.g. in mining, hunting, collecting protected plants, logging and tourism development.

•

Construction/ rehabilitation of roads must be conducted in such a way that culture, tradition, and land rights of the local communities are respected. There might be a case for enforcement of special speed limits for motorised traffic in some rural areas.

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6.4

GOPA ‹ E & A

Interaction with other sectors

For road planning it is very important that there are good interactions with urban and spatial planning. It seems that cities need a special interaction plan for road and urban development. May be there comes out that some streets are not necessary, they can be closed and the area can be used for e.g. building activities. Traffic can be directed to designate through roads, which have to be upgraded. It is for Guyana very important to establish a cross-section institution or government body with the instrument of overlapping spatial planning because specially in the transport sector the secondary effects of investments e.g. of road construction are often more dangerous for the environment and the culture, the rural nature and inhabitants than the direct ecological effects. In environment-oriented transport planning, a whole series of interactions with other sectors must be taken into account, including in particular the following: • Environmental planning •

National and Regional Planning

•

Town Planning

•

Transport and traffic Planning

•

Industrial Planning (Development)

•

Transport and traffic planning

•

Road building

•

Energy Planning

•

Forestry and agriculture planning

•

Planning of extraction of natural resources

•

Tourism planning

•

Water management Planning

•

Urban Water Supply

•

Wastewater Disposal

•

Solid Waste Disposal

•

Disposal of Hazardous Waste

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6.5

GOPA ‹ E & A

Estimated environmental cost

In general in Europe it is proposed that for new infrastructure investigations 3% of the total investigation amount is needed for environmental requirements. For rehabilitation or maintenance the cost for environmental requirements is about 1 - 2%. This is only an indication for environmental costs and it can be more or less depending on the particular case.

6.6

Conclusions

Even if some of the recommendations are in process of implementation in Guyana, the above measures can be seen as a support of the government policies for a successful implementation of the “Environmental Protection Act”. The government has to set priorities in implementing the recommendation taken into consideration her short, medium and long term planning and availability of resources. Experience shows that road maintenance is a weak area in the transportation sector. Inadequate maintenance or improper practices may lead directly to environmental impact. Management systems and training are necessary in the area of maintenance. Training in monitoring and assessment of transportation projects as far as environmental and social-cultural impacts and the implementation of mitigation measures are concerned is very important. It is necessary to procure equipment, vehicles and to provide operational budgets and to develop defined standards and to create a special monitoring unit. In this case the following short term priorities are defined: •

To integrate minimum qualitative environmental standards for traffic in the “Traffic Act” and also in the “Environmental Protection Act”

•

To upgrade the local environmental expertise, competence and financial resources of the responsible institutions. Guarantee availability of manpower, local experts and implementation resources especially in the “Department of Environment in the Ministry of Public Works and Communications” and the “Environmental Protection Agency”(EPA)

•

The most important and urgent action also from an environmental and social point of view is to assure adequate maintenance and rehabilitation of existing roads. It may be helpful to set priorities for economic, traffic safety, environmental and social-cultural aspects (see annex 2).

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Annex 1:

GOPA ‹ E & A

Areas of biological interest in Guyana

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Annex 2:

Table of SRA

Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts: •

•

•

•

•

• • • •

• •

• • •

Risk level: high, medium low

Canals 1 & 2 20.7 Compensation level: high, medium low

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access of cultural important areas, village etc. Access of archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes Impairment of landscape aesthetic

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• •

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

Impairment of river ecosystem Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

Remarks: These roads pose little threat during their rehabilitation and most of these impacts are expected to be short term. The issues related to protected areas are not relevant to this project since there are no such in the vicinity of these roads

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Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts: •

•

•

•

•

•

• • •

• •

• • • •

Linden – Lethem Risk level: high medium low

Compensation level: high medium low

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access of cultural important areas, village etc. Access of archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes Impairment of landscape aesthetic Impairment of river

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•

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

ecosystem Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

Remarks: The main impacts from this road are likely to affect the health and safety of Guyana’s hinterland dwellers, its biodiversity and its system of protected areas, as well as most of the social threats, such as erosion of culture, the influence of STDs, and alcohol, security and open the opportunities for more illicit drug trafficking. There will be the need for effective and efficient monitoring and security regimes to be established to minimise the identified risks

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Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts: •

•

•

•

•

•

• • •

• •

• • • •

Crabwood Creek – Orealla Risk level: high medium

low

Compensation level: high medium low

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access of cultural important areas, village etc. Access of archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes Impairment of landscape aesthetic Impairment of river

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•

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

ecosystem Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

Remarks: There are no known sensitive areas that are likely to be affected by this development project. Furthermore, most of the impacts are projected to occur during the construction phase. The safety issues are likely to be in consonance with those expressed for other road development projects

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Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts: •

•

•

•

•

•

• • •

• •

• • • •

Parika - Makouria Risk level: high medium low

Compensation level: high medium low

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access of cultural important areas, village etc. Access of archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes Impairment of landscape aesthetic Impairment of river

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•

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

ecosystem Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

Remarks: This project is likely to cut through existing trails, as such; the risks are likely to be at most, those regarded at a medium scale level. Much of the area is already exposed to the influence of human intervention. On a positive note though, it is likely to reduce the cost and time to get to Bartica in Region #7, a proposed hinterland township.

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Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts: •

•

•

•

•

•

• • •

• •

• • • •

Sheriff Street - Timehri Risk level: high medium low

Compensation level: high medium low

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access of cultural important areas, village etc. Access of archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes Impairment of landscape aesthetic Impairment of river

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•

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

ecosystem Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

Remarks: One of the main risks of this road is future usage of the Land of Canaan main façade as a deposition site for garbage. Additionally, with roads going through previously inaccessible areas, this may change the land-use pattern and can in some instances lead to greater run-off given the practice of Guyanese to live along communication routes. Unless drainage canals are widened to accommodate this, the possibility of flooding and compromising the integrity of the road will be issues to be considered. Furthermore, issues of speeding, uncultured use of the roadway and other issues associated with the way roads are used in Guyana will also need to be noted.

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Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts: •

•

•

•

•

• • • •

• •

• • • •

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access of cultural important areas, village etc. Access of archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes Impairment of landscape aesthetic Impairment of river ecosystem

Guyana: Transport Sector Study

Patientia – Kamudi Risk level: high medium low

Compensation level: high medium low X

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•

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

Remarks: Thus far, much of the area designated for this road is largely uninhabited, thus most of the risks are likely to be associated with potential threats to the environmental resources. However, these are still not well known but with an EIA these are likely to come to the fore.

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Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts: •

•

•

•

•

•

• • •

• •

• • • •

Kwakwani - Ituni Risk level: high medium low

Compensation level: high medium low

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access of cultural important areas, village etc. Access of archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes Impairment of landscape aesthetic Impairment of river

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•

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

ecosystem Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

Remarks: There is an existing lateritic surfaced road. As such, most of the risks associated with this project will be based on how persons use the roadway.

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Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts: •

•

•

•

•

• • • •

• •

• • • •

Cowfalls - Wanatoba Falls

Risk level: high medium low

Compensation level: high medium low

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access of cultural important areas, village etc. Access of archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes Impairment of landscape aesthetic Impairment of river

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•

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

ecosystem Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

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AIRPORT UPGRADING Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts: •

•

•

•

•

•

• • •

• •

• • •

Ogle Aerodrome Risk level: high medium low

Compensation level: high medium low

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access to culturally important areas, village etc. Access to archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes Impairment of land-

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• •

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

scape aesthetic Impairment of river ecosystem Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

Remarks: As specified in other parts of this document, the expansion of this aerodrome to a municipal airport is likely to result in larger crafts plying the Ogle route. This will require larger fuel depots, more noise pollution from the larger crafts, and because of the proximity of the airport to settlements, greater possibility for casualties should an accident occur.

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WATERWAYS DREDGING Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts: •

•

•

•

•

•

• • •

• •

• • •

Demerara River –Georgetown Channel Risk level: High medium low

Compensation level: high medium low

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access to culturally important areas, village etc. Access to archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes Impairment of landscape aesthetic

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• •

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

Impairment of river ecosystem Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

Remarks: The Georgetown river channel has already under-gone periodic dredging. Thus, the likelihood is that most of the risks here will be in the low impact category and are associated with increased levels of suspended solids and the impact these can have on the marine ecosystems.

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Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts:

•

•

•

•

•

•

• • •

• •

• • •

Demerara River – from Georgetown to Linden Risk level: high medium low

Compensation level: high medium low

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access to culturally important areas, village etc. Access to archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes Impairment of landscape aesthetic

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• •

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

Impairment of river ecosystem Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

Remarks: Many of the impacts under this project will fall within the medium- and high-risk categories, ranging from polluting river and creek water which many hinterland communities depend on, thus leading to increased water-borne diseases, i.e., typhoid, diarrhoea, skin rashes. Furthermore, increasing the depth is likely to compromise the mangrove forests along the river banks, increasing the rate of erosion and leading to further siltation of the river

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Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts: •

•

•

•

•

• • • •

• •

• • • •

Bar of the Essequibo River Risk level: high medium low

Compensation level: high medium low

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access to culturally important areas, village etc. Access to archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes Impairment of landscape aesthetic Impairment of river ecosystem

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•

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

Remarks: A mixture of risks is associated with this project. These will range from the impairment of the river ecosystems to possible destruction of mangroves along the river’s banks. However, many of these may be minimised based on the depth and method used for dredging the river.

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CONSTRUCTION OF HARBORS/STELLINGS

Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts: •

•

•

•

•

• • • •

• •

• •

Georgetown Harbour: Reinstallation of 2 Off-shore loading Basins Vreed-en-Hoop Risk level: high medium low

Compensation level: high medium low

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access to culturally important areas, village etc. Access to archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes

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• • •

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

Impairment of landscape aesthetic Impairment of river ecosystem Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

Remarks: This area is already the site of significant human activity with the volume of private speedboats plying the route between the Georgetown and Vreed-en-Hoop stelling. As such, the impacts from this project are expected to be low.

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Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts: •

•

•

•

•

•

• • •

• •

• • •

Second Basin for Loading Bauxite at Linden-Demerara River Risk level: high medium low

Compensation level: high medium low

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access to culturally important areas, village etc. Access to archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes Impairment of landscape aesthetic

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• •

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

Impairment of river ecosystem Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

Remarks: This area is already the site of significant human activity with the volume of human activity already being practiced in the area. As such, the impacts from this project are expected to be low

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Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts: •

•

•

•

•

• • • •

• •

• • • •

Container Terminal Georgetown Risk level: high medium low

Compensation level: high medium low

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access to culturally important areas, village etc. Access to archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes Impairment of landscape aesthetic Impairment of river ecosystem

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•

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

Remarks: This area is already the site of significant human activity with the volume of human activity already being practiced in the area. As such, the risks associated with this project are expected to be low

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Project name: Size/ Scope (ha/km): Impacts: •

•

•

•

•

• • • •

• •

• • • •

Bulk berth terminal Georgetown (dredging to 12 m) Risk level: high medium low

Compensation level: high medium low

Cutting of existing “Nature Protected Areas” (National parks etc) bounded by law Cutting of proposed “Nature Protected areas” Uncontrolled access of rainforest areas with importance for biodiversity Development of forestry and mining operations Access to culturally important areas, village etc. Access to archaeological important sites. Human health and safety Impairment of erosion endangered sites Pollution of sites for production of drinking water Noise pollution of living areas/ villages, Air pollution (including dust) in living areas/ villages Waste disposal along the roads Water Pollution of rivers and lakes Impairment of landscape aesthetic Impairment of river ecosystem

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•

•

• • • •

GOPA ‹ E & A

Impairment of mangrove forests along the rivers Development of new settlements along new roads Dividing of villages Changing of roadculture Cross over of frequent flooded areas Increased fire hazards

Remarks: This area is already the site of significant human activity with the volume of human activity already being practiced in the area. As such, the risks associated with this project are expected to be low

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Annex 3: Workshop report

Guyana Transport Sector Study

Environmental and social-cultural issues

Workshop 06.07.2005 at Georgetown Club Report Adrian Hoppenstedt

1. WELCOME and aims to the study: Good morning Ladies and Gentlemen! At first very warm welcome and thank you for your participation in this workshop! My Name is Adrian Hoppenstedt and I come from Hanover/Germany. I am working in a consultancy with tasks in the areas of environmental planning, environmental assessment etc. At this time I am a Professor at the Technical University of Kassel. We, that means the Consulting Company GOPA and the local E&A Consultancy are working on behalf of the European Union to elaborate a “Guyana Transport Sector Study” My contribution - together with Mrs Wishart and Dr Bynoe, our local counterparts – is to answer the environmental and social-cultural questions in the traffic context. So we will provide in the study: •

an overview of the state in environmental and social-cultural issues in Guyana

•

an overview of the environmental policy and its implementation

•

an introduction of environmental and social-cultural problems in the traffic sector with focus on road transport, ports and waterways, airports and airstrips

Then we will conduct a “Simplified Risk Assessment” (SRA) of planned maintenance, rehabilitation / upgrade and new construction projects in the transport sector. • Last not least we will make recommendations for the development of an environmentally and socio-culturally friendly transport policy. In this respect we will also set out priorities concerning the most important steps to be done.

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GOPA ‹ E & A

The workshop for the exchange of information takes place at mid term of our mission, so there will be enough time to include your comments. You are invited to comment today in our “questions and answers session” or also in the next weeks. We have to finish our work by September 2005. You have hopefully received the workshop programme. At first now, it’s a pleasure for me to announce Mrs. Florenda from EPA to give us a short overview of the implementation of the “Environmental Protection Act” especially as far as the planning of roads is concerned. 2. Results of the workshop At first Mrs, Florenda and Mr. Hoppenstedt provided an overview on “Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)”-legislation and –procedures in Guyana and Germany. Relating to legislation and procedures there are a lot of similarities but in the substantial apect of EIA there are differences. One is, that in Guyana EIA also includes economic aspects. On the other hand EIA is more an instrument to optimize a prescribed project and not for looking of alternatives. In Guyana there is an not sufficiently integrated and cross-cutting approach to environmental concept development and spatial and non spatial planning. There is no systematic land use planning. Also the environment responsibilities are divided in different authorities. So there was a long discussion concerning the aims of the new EU Directive for Environmental Strategic Assessment (SEA). The Environmental Protection Agency EPA is very interested in how this new instrument works in Europe. (More information will be provided at the next mission) Together we have in Guyana and also in Europe similar problems in the implementation of EIA results. There is regularly no control during the construction phase and no monitoring what happens in the operation phase. Especially there is no monitoring of realisation of mitigation measures. Although required by law, nobody is prepared to finance a monitoring system. After the lectures a question and answer session was started. The participants wrote on cards what they mean are the most important environmental and social -cultural issues in the context of transport / traffic development. The result were a lot of interesting statements and questions: •

Problems are: Speeding of vehicles; relatively high road fatality rate; poorly maintained side-spaces of inner city roads; absence of traffic signals; a culture of non-following the laws including the traffic laws; congestion in a lot of city streets

•

Illegal logging; illegal mining; increase of crime; destruction of fauna and flora; increase of uncontrolled garbage disposal must be avoided; pollution from mining and logging. Improved accessibility means: opportunities for employment and trade in remote regions; quicker delivery of social service, health, education, water; development of rural regions; development of international transport connection; facilitation of controlled ecotourism.

•

Habitat disruption (land clearing, trail disruption, access to hunting)

•

Contamination of water ways; noise and dust pollution; live style disruption

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•

Increased flood risk due to drainage disruption

•

Waste collection and disposal during road construction; traffic management in construction phase (it means environmental control during construction phase); improvement public consultation; public awareness.

•

Enforcement of environmental regulations

•

River flow disruption resulting from wharfs and bridge construction; air pollution

•

Land use planning is necessary to mitigate road construction effects (for alignment choice); there should be a policy established for regulation of land use.

•

Traffic development reduced journey times from departure to destination; there should be policy established to the regulation of land use.

•

Insufficient maintenance in ports and airports facilities; allowing access to sensitive areas; waste disposal along the roads

•

What transport projects would not require EIA?

•

How are transport projects EIA done if there are no guidelines?

•

How successful has the 28 day public notice decision worked in the context of Guyana?

•

What is the impact of noise on communities close to airports (“Ogle”) and is there any means of measuring this? How does this affect the wildlife in that area?

•

How can the traffic noise in general (alarm systems, horn sounds) be reduced? How can noise levels in minibuses be lowered?

•

Traffic congestion has been a major problem in Guyana. How can we solve this problem especially along the East Bank of Demerara?

•

There is a need to educate the public in the laws and regulations of the transport section

•

Increased flood risk due to drainage disruption; would any attention paid to the clogged drains along the roads due to non degradable items?

•

Has there been any significant impact of unauthorised squatting and transport planning for Guyana? Is squatting an environmental issue relevant to transport?

•

What is the impact on generation of jobs and personal income of affected communities? What is the correlation of improved transport activities and economic development?

•

Traffic development reduced journey times from departure to destination; there should be a policy established for the regulation of land use.

Under moderation of Dr. M. Bynoe and J. Wishart a very lively and sometimes controversial but always constructive discussion of all the listed issues developed. There was of course not enough time to discuss all aspects of environmental and cultural impacts of transport development in Guyana.

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Annex 4:

GOPA ‹ E & A

Persons Consulted

•

Mr. Rawlston Adams, Environmental Officer, Ministry of Public Works and Communication

•

Mrs. Eliza Florenda, Operations Director, Environmental Protection Agency EPA

•

Mr. Fred Fredricks, NGO GASP

•

Mrs. Lucia Hanmer, Country Director, World Bank Guyana Office

•

Dr. David Singh, Executive Director, IWOKRAMA International Rainforest Centre

•

Mrs Jean La Rose, Chief Executive Officer, Amerindian Protection Agency APA

•

Mrs. Carolyn Rodruiges, Minister, Ministry of Amerindian affairs

•

Mr. Doorga Persaud, Executive Director, Environmental Protection Agency EPA

•

Mr. Peter Persaud, NGO - GOIP

•

Mr. Harripersaud Nokta, Minister, Ministry of Local Government

•

Mr. Joseph Singh, Chief Executive Officer, Conservation International Guyana

•

Mrs. Gail Teixeira, Minister, Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports

•

Dr. Patrick Williams, Country Programme Officer, World Wildlife Fund, Guiana’s

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Annex 5:

GOPA ‹ E & A

List of abbreviations

BMP

Best Management Practice

BPCT

Best Practicable Control Technology

BPOA

Barbados Programme of Action

CH&PA

Central Housing and Planning Authority

CIDA

Canadian International Development Agency

CJIA

Cheddi Jagan International Airport

DFID

Department for International Development

EDP

Effluent Discharge permit

EDWC

East Demerara Water Conservancy

EIA

Environmental Impact Assessment

EMA

Environmental Management Agreement

EQCS

Environmental Quality Control Standard

ERP

Economic Recovery Programme

FAO

Food and Agricultural Organisation

GAHEF

Guyana Agency for Health Sciences, Education and Environment and Food Policy

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GEPA

Guyana Environmental Protection Agency

GFC

Guyana Forestry Commission

GGDMA

Guyana Gold and Diamond Miners Association

GGMC

Guyana Geology and Mines Commission

GMTCS

Guyana Marine Turtle Conservation Society

GNEA

Guyana National Energy Authority

GOG

Government of Guyana

GT&T

Guyana Telephone and Telegraph Company

GWI

Guyana Water Incorporated

HIES

Household Income and Expenditure Survey

IAST

Institute of Applied Science and Technology

IICA

Inter American Institution for Cooperation in Agriculture

IIRFR

Iwokrama International Rainforest Reserve

IPR

Intellectual Property Rights

ITTA

International Timber Trade Agreement

ITTO

International Timber Trade Organisation

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LBS

Land Based Sources

LSMS

Living Standard and Measurement Survey

MFCL

Ministry of Fisheries Crops and Livestock

MOA

Ministry of Agriculture

MOH

Ministry of Health

MOU

Memorandum of Understanding

MPW&C

Ministry of Public Works and Communications

MRL

Maximum Residual Limit

NAP

National Action Programme

NBAP

National Biodiversity Action Plan

NDS

National Development Strategy

NDS

National Development Strategy

NEAP

National Environmental Action Plan

NGO

Non Government Organisation

NPAS

National Protected Areas System

NRDDB

North Rupununi District Development Board

NREAC

Natural Resources and Environmental Advisory Committee

OGML

Omai Gold Mines Limited

GOPA ‹ E & A

PAHO/WHO Pan American Health Organisation/World Health Organisation PISLM

Partnership Initiative for Sustainable Land Management

PTCCA

Pesticide and Toxic Chemical Control Act

RDC

Regional Democratic Council

SEA

Strategic Environmental Assessment

SHD

Sustainable Human Development

SIMAP

Social Impact and Amelioration Programme

SPAW

Special Protected Areas and Wildlife

SRA

Simplified Risk Assessment

STDS

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

TCA

Treaty of Amazonian Cooperation

TED

Turtle Exclusive Device

TSA

Timber Sales Agreement

UG

University of Guyana

UNCBD

United Nations Convention on Biodiversity

UNCCD

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification and Drought

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UNCED

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme

UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNICEF

United Nations Children Fund

USA

United States of America

USEPA

United States Environmental Protection Agency

WQS

Water Quality Standard

WWF

World Wild Life Fund for Nature

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Annex 6:

GOPA ‹ E & A

List of References

Bureau of Statistics/UNICEF (2003) Statistical Bulletin Bynoe, M.L. (2001), “The Effects of Environmental Regulatory Policies on the Efficiency of Firms: An Empirical Analysis”, unpublished Ph.D. Thesis submitted for the Doctor of Philosophy in October 2001 at the University of East Anglia, Norwich. Constitution of the Cooperative Republic of Guyana (1980) Environmental Protection Agency (1999) National Biodiversity Action Programme Environmental Protection Agency (2000) National Environmental Action Plan (2001 – 2005) GFC (2001) GFC Social Development Programme Outreach Reports, Unpublished internal reports. GoG (2001) “Guyana Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper.” Government of Guyana (1996) Environmental Protection Act Government of Guyana (2004) Budget Speech International Tropical Timber Organization (2003) “Achieving the ITTO Objective 2000 and Sustainable Forest Management in Guyana” National Development Strategy Secretariat (2000). National development strategy: (2001-2010) a policy framework. Georgetown, Guyana. Thomas C.Y. and Bynoe M. 2003 Impact of Agricultural, Trade and Related Reforms on Food Security, Institute of Development Studies, University of Guyana, paper prepared for FAO Toppin-Allahar, C. (1993), “The Institutional Framework for Environmental Protection within Guyana.” GAHEF, Turkeyen. United Nations Environmental Programme (1992) The Country Study of Biological Diversity, Nairobi World Wildlife Fund for Nature (2005) The Wildlife Trade in Guyana, Project Report

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