VOLUMES
1- 4
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of
World Cities
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of
World Cities VOLUME
1
Atlanta, Georgia to Denver, Colorado
Edited by Jill Copolla and Susan Bevan Gall
J U N I O R WO R L D M A R K E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F W O R L D C I T I E S
U•X•L Staff Allison McNeill, U•X•L Senior Editor Carol DeKane Nagel, U•X•L Managing Editor Thomas L. Romig, U•X•L Publisher Dorothy Maki, Manufacturing Manager Evi Seoud, Assistant Production Manager Rita Wimberley, Senior Buyer Pamela A.E. Galbreath, Art Director This publication is a creative work copyrighted by U•X•L and fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair competition, and other applicable laws. The authors and editors of this work have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination, expression, arrangement, and classification of the information. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. Copyright © 2000 U•X•L An imprint of the Gale Group All rights reserved including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form.
Printed in United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Cover photos (top to bottom): Paris, France: Louvre (EPD/Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp) Monrovia, Liberia: Redemption Day Celebration (EPD/Homer Sykes; Woodfin Camp) Tokyo, Japan: Kids with skateboards (EPD/Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp) Lima, Peru: Market (EPD/Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp) Washington, DC: Lincoln Memorial (EPD/Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp)
Susan Bevan Gall and Jill Marie Coppola, Editors Timothy L. Gall, Executive Editor Mary Francis Sugar, Eleftherios E. Netos, Jennifer Wallace, James C. Woodring, Associate Editors Bridgette M. Nadzam, Graphics and Page Layout Gregory M. Hurst, Editorial Assistant Magellan Geographix, Cartographers
Contributors Olufemi A. Akinola, Ph.D. W.E.B. DuBois Institute, Harvard University Cynthia Andrews. Researcher/Writer, Suttons Bay, Michigan Mike Cikraji. Researcher/Writer, Bay Village, Ohio Patricia Hale. Researcher/Writer, West Hartford, Connecticut Bruce Heilman. University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Jim Henry. Researcher/Writer, Chicago, Illinois William Hodgson. Researcher/Writer, Vancouver, British Columbia Dave Hribar. Researcher/Writer, Avon Lake, Ohio Ignacio Lobos. Journalist, Honolulu, Hawaii Deryck O. Lodrick, Ph.D. Visiting Scholar, Center for South Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley Lupa Ramadhani. University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Gail Rosewater. Researcher/Writer, Cleveland, Ohio Carmen Urdaneta, M.A. Researcher/Writer, Boston, Massachusetts Jeffrey Vance. Researcher/Writer, Brighton, Massachusetts Rosalie Wieder. Researcher/Writer, Cleveland, Ohio Steven Wolinetz, Ph.D. Memorial University, St. John’s Newfoundland
CONTENTS C I T Y F I N D E R TA B L E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii R E A D E R ’S G U I D E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix ATLANTA, GEORGIA ................................................................ 1 B A N G K O K , T H A I L A N D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 B E I J I N G , C H I N A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 B E R L I N , G E R M A N Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 B O S T O N , M A S S A C H U S E T T S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 B R U S S E L S , B E L G I U M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 B U E N O S A I R E S , A R G E N T I N A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 C A I R O , E G Y P T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 C A R A C A S , V E N E Z U E L A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 C H I C A G O , I L L I N O I S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 C L E V E L A N D , O H I O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 D A L L A S , T E X A S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 D E N V E R, C O L O R A D O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 G L O S S A R Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
vii
C I T Y F I N D E R TA B L E Volume number appears in brackets []
Toronto, Ontario .......................[4]151 Vancouver, British Columbia......[4]169
Africa
Mexico
Cairo, Egypt .............................[1]115 Johannesburg, South Africa ......[2]123 Lagos, Nigeria ...........................[2]139 Monrovia, Liberia........................[3]69 Nairobi, Kenya ..........................[3]115
Mexico City, Mexico....................[3]19
United States Atlanta, Georgia ...........................[1]1 Boston, Massachusetts .................[1]65 Chicago, Illinois ........................[1]145 Cleveland, Ohio ........................[1]161 Dallas, Texas .............................[1]177 Denver, Colorado.......................[1]191 Detroit, Michigan ..........................[2]1 Honolulu, Hawaii ........................[2]39 Houston, Texas ............................[2]57 Indianapolis, Indiana ..................[2]77 Los Angeles, California ..............[2]189 Miami, Florida.............................[3]37 Minneapolis, Minnesota .............[3]53 Nashville, Tennessee ..................[3]137 New Orleans, Louisiana.............[3]153 New York, New York ................[3]173 Phoenix, Arizona .........................[4]19 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania .............[4]1 San Francisco, California .............[4]85 Seattle, Washington....................[4]101 Washington, D.C..........................[4]18
Asia Bangkok, Thailand ......................[1]17 Beijing, China ..............................[1]33 Hong Kong, China.......................[2]21 Istanbul, Turkey ..........................[2]93 Jerusalem, Israel.........................[2]107 Manila, Philippines .......................[3]1 Mumbai (Bombay), India.............[3]99 Sydney, Australia .......................[4]117 Tokyo, Japan ............................[4]133
Europe Berlin, Germany...........................[1]49 Brussels, Belgium ........................[1]83 Istanbul, Turkey...........................[2]93 London, United Kingdom .........[2]169 Madrid, Spain ...........................[2]205 Paris, France ..............................[3]195 Prague, Czech Republic ...............[4]35 Rome, Italy ..................................[4]63
South America Buenos Aires, Argentina...............[1]97 Caracas, Venezuela ...................[1]131 Lima, Peru ................................[2]155 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ..................[4]49
North America Canada Montréal, Québec .......................[3]83
viii
R E A D E R ’S G U I D E this Reader’s Guide, all of whom offered substantive insights that were instrumental to the creation of this work. The editors are extremely grateful for the time and effort these distinguished reviewers devoted to improving the quality of this work. Sixteen researchers, many of whom live in the city they profiled, are listed on the staff page. Their well-researched profiles give users of Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities an opportunity to compare the history and contemporary life in 50 of the world’s greatest cities—from the ancient cities of Cairo, Egypt and Istanbul, Turkey, to the fast-growing modern metropolitan communities of Lagos, Nigeria; Sydney, Australia; and Seattle, Washington.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities presents profiles of 50 major cities from around the world, arranged alphabetically in four volumes. Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities is a new reference work organized under the Worldmark design. The Worldmark design assembles facts and data about each city in a common structure. Every profile contains a map, showing the city and its location. The challenging task of selecting the cities to be profiled in this first edition of Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities was accomplished with input from librarian advisors. From a list of over 100 candidate cities, 50 were selected to represent the continents and cultures of the world, with an emphasis on cities of the United States. Twenty-five cities from North America (including 21 U.S. cities) are profiled, 9 cities from Asia, 7 cities from Europe, 5 cities from Africa, and 4 from South America fill the four volumes. Profiles present text and graphical elements, including photographs, with the needs and interests of student researchers in mind. Recognition must be given to the many tourist bureaus, convention centers, city government press offices, and graphic agencies that contributed the data and photographs that comprise this encyclopedia. This edition also benefits from the work of the reviewers listed at the end of
Sources Due to the broad scope of this encyclopedia many sources were consulted in compiling the information and statistics presented in these volumes. Of primary importance were the official web sites posted by many of the cities’ government offices and tourist/convention bureaus on the World Wide Web. Also instrumental in the development of this publication was the web site of the U.S. Bureau of the Census, available at http://www.census.gov/. Finally, many fact sheets, booklets, and statistical abstracts were used to update
ix
READER’S GUIDE data not collected by federal or city governments. Profile Features The structure of the Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities entries—22 numbered headings—allows students to compare two or more cities in a variety of ways. Each city profile begins with the city name, state or province (where applicable), country, and continent. A city fact box provides information including dates founded and incorporated, city location, official city motto and flower, time zone, ethnic composition, city elevation, latitude and longitude, coastline (where applicable), climate information, annual mean temperature, seasonal average snowfall (where applicable), average annual precipitation, form of government, system of weights and measures used, monetary units, telephone area codes, and city postal codes. Where available, a picture of both the city seal and the city flag, with description, appear. With regard to the time zone, the standard time is given by time zone in relation to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). The world is divided into 24 time zones, each one hour apart. The Greenwich meridian, which is 0 degrees, passes through Greenwich, England, a suburb of London. Greenwich is at the center of the initial time zone, known as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). All times given are converted from noon in this zone. The time reported for the city is the official time zone. Also provided in each article is a Population Profile box comparing the city proper with its greater metropolitan
x
area, including suburbs (where available), and lists facts such as population, racial breakdown, and nicknames. Profiles also include a City Fact Comparison box, comparing daily costs of visiting the city with costs for visiting representative cities elsewhere in the world (Cairo, Egypt; Rome, Italy; and Beijing, China). City maps, locator maps, and photos complement the entries. The body of each city’s profile is arranged in 22 numbered headings as follows: 1
INTRODUCTION. The city’s location
is described. City features are outlined, sometimes citing key facts from city history and major attractions. 2
GETTING THERE. Information is pro-
vided on major highways offering access into and around the city, as well as information on bus and railroad service, airports, and shipping. 3
GETTING AROUND. Information is
outlined on means of transportation within a city, including bus and commuter rail service; some entries include transportation modes that will be less familiar to many student researchers, such as the three-wheeled tuk-tuk of Bangkok, Thailand. Both commuter and sightseeing transportation methods are included. 4
PEOPLE. A population count is pro-
vided for the city proper and its metropolitan area, along with an ethnic/racial breakdown of the populace. For many cities, population growth patterns, languages, and religions are also discussed 5 NEIGHBORHOODS. Location, characteristics, and attractions of city historic
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
READER’S GUIDE and ethnic neighborhoods, and business and cultural districts are described. 6 HISTORY. City history is detailed from its founding to the present. 7
GOVERNMENT. Style of government
is described, and elected offices are listed, along with a description of each office and length of an elected term. 8 PUBLIC SAFETY. Police, fire, and ambulatory services are outlined, as well as any special city safety projects. Crime rate statistics are also listed. 9 ECONOMY. This section presents the key elements of the economy. Major industries and employment figures are also summarized.
Topography, climate, and flora and fauna are described, as well as any environmental concerns, programs, or clean-up efforts. 10
ENVIRONMENT.
11 SHOPPING. Popular shopping districts and venues are described, as well as any specialty items for which the city is renowned. 12 EDUCATION. Information about public education and key universities and technical institutes is detailed. 13 HEALTH CARE. Hospitals and other health services are described. Alternative or non-Western health care practices are described in some city profiles. 14
MEDIA. City newspapers, magazines,
television, and radio stations are listed. Where applicable, government influence on media is discussed.
15 SPORTS. Professional and amateur sports—from auto racing and rodeo to cricket and baseball—sports venues, and championships held are listed. Annual sporting events, major international tournaments, and popular recreational sports are also described. 16 PARKS AND RECREATION. Popular recreational activities and city pastimes, from strolling in a city park to playing polo, and the venues where they can be enjoyed, are detailed. 17 PERFORMING ARTS. Performing arts offered in the city are described, as well as the theaters and performing arts halls where they are offered. Notable annual events are listed. 18 LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS. Notable libraries and descriptions of their holdings are described. Major museums, with information about their collections, are listed. 19
TOURISM. The importance of tourism
to the city is summarized, along with factors affecting the tourism industry. Key tourist attractions are listed. 20
HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS. Annu-
ally celebrated holidays and events are listed. 21
F A M O U S C I T I Z E N S . Famous peo-
ple who were born or lived in the city are listed, along with birth and death dates and short biographical descriptions. Bibliographic listings are provided at the end of each profile as a guide for accessing further information. Included are Web sites, 22
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
FOR
FURTHER
STUDY.
xi
READER’S GUIDE government offices, tourist and convention bureaus, major city publications, and books about the city and its history. Because some terms used in this encyclopedia will be new to students, each volume includes a glossary. A keyword index to all four volumes appears in Volume 4. Acknowledgments The editors are indebted to the following reviewers, without whom Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities would not have been possible. The individuals listed below were consulted on the content and structure of this encyclopedia. Their insights, opinions, and suggestions led to many enhancements and improvements in the presentation of the material. Ken Cornwell, Library Media Specialist, Northeast High School, Lincoln, Nebraska
xii
Cindy Doll, Librarian, Columbus Metropolitan Library, Columbus, Ohio Marilyn Eanes, School Library Media Specialist, Hopewell Middle School, Round Rock, Texas Jane Thomas, Library Manager, McNeil High School, Austin, Texas Glenda Willnerd, School Librarian, Lincoln High School, Lincoln, Nebraska Comments and Suggestions We welcome your comments on the Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities, as well as your suggestions for cities to be included in future editions. Please write: Editors, Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities, U•X•L, 27500 Drake Road, Farmington Hills, Michigan 48331– 3535; call toll-free: 1-800-877-4253; or send e-mail via www.galegroup.com.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Atlanta Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America, North America Founded: 1837; Incorporated: 1847 Location: Northwestern Georgia, United States, North America Motto: “Wisdom, justice, and moderation” (state motto) Flag: City seal in yellow on blue field. Flower: Cherokee rose (state flower) Time Zone: 7 AM Eastern Standard Time (EST) = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: White 30%, Black 67.1%, Other 2.9% Elevation: 320 m (1,050 ft) Latitude and Longitude: 33º74'N, 84º38'W Coastline: None Climate: Moderate temperatures, with highly changeable weather patterns; natural barriers protect the city from very severe cold; snowfall is infrequent. Annual Mean Temperature: 17.9ºC (64.2ºF); January 5.8ºC (42.4ºF); July 25.5ºC (78.0ºF) Seasonal Average Snowfall: 5 cm (2 in); Average Annual Precipitation (total of rainfall and melted snow): 123.4 cm (48.6 in) Government: Mayor-council Weights and Measures: Standard U.S. Monetary Units: Standard U.S. Telephone Area Codes: 404, 678, 770 Postal Codes: 30301–94, 31101–56
1
Introduction
Originating as a rail terminus in the nineteenth century and becoming an airline hub in the twentieth, Atlanta is a “city on the move” in more ways than one. Located in northwestern Georgia, Atlanta combines the local color of its Southern heritage with the progressive spirit that enabled it to rebuild from the fires of war, triumph over racial intolerance, and become a thriving, cosmopolitan business and cultural center. The city’s attractions were spotlighted when it won the coveted honor of hosting the 1996 Olympic Games, which provided yet another opportunity for Atlanta to display its
energy and its courage in overcoming adversity, when the Games were completed as planned in spite of the bombings in Centennial Olympic Park. 2
Getting There
Atlanta is the capital of Georgia and its largest city, as well as the seat of Fulton County. It is located south of the Appalachian Mountains in northwestern Georgia. Highways North-south highways providing access to Atlanta include I-85, which connects the city to Greenville, South
1
Atlanta
Atlanta Population Profile City Proper Population: 396,000 Area: 341.4 sq km (131.8 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 30% white; 67.1% black; 2.9% other Nicknames: City of Trees, Capital of the New South
Metropolitan Area Population: 2,689,000 Area: 15,866 sq km (6,126 sq mi) World population rank1: 113 Percentage of total US population2: 1% Average yearly growth rate: 0.7% Ethnic composition: 71.4% white; 25.8% black; and 2.6% Asian/Pacific Islander ——— 1. The Atlanta metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of the total population of the United States living in the Atlanta metropolitan area.
Carolina; Charlotte, North Carolina; and Montgomery, Alabama; and I-75, which extends northward to Chattanooga and Knoxville, Tennessee, and south to Florida. The major east-west expressway is I-20 (the West Expressway), which leads to Birmingham, Alabama; Jackson, Mississippi; and westward to Texas and beyond. All of the preceding interstate highways intersect with I-285, known locally as “the Perimeter,” which rings the city. Bus and Railroad Service Greyhound offers bus service to Atlanta. While slower than other modes of travel, it provides a unique way to experience the local color of the South.
2
The Amtrak-operated Crescent, running north-south, connects Atlanta with points along the eastern seaboard. Airports As one of the nation’s major airline hubs, Hartsfield International Airport, located about 16 kilometers (10 miles) outside downtown Atlanta, is one of the world’s busiest airports, carrying 68 million passengers per year and providing nonstop service to 186 cities in the United States. The airport is home to Delta Airlines, which offers more than 500 flights a day from Hartsfield. A new concourse—the nation’s largest— opened in 1994 for international travel, and further major improvements were made the following year, including a new central atrium linking the major terminals. Shipping Although it is an inland city, Atlanta is a thriving shipping center, with Hartsfield International Airport accounting for the largest volume of goods shipped. A Foreign Trade Zone near the airport makes Atlanta an especially attractive destination for international shippers. The city is also served by the CSX and Norfolk Southern rail lines, as well as hundreds of motor freight carriers. 3
Getting Around
Rather than a grid pattern, Atlanta was originally laid out with its streets converging on a central downtown area (Five Points). The city’s growth has
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Atlanta
complicated this pattern with the addition of new streets—several dozen of which include the name “Peachtree”— and interstate highways cutting through the city. For visitors (and even, at times, natives), navigating the city’s streets can be a challenge.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Bus and commuter rail service Atlanta boasts one of the nation’s cutting-edge rapid transit systems, known as MARTA (Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority). The system operates 240 electric rail cars
3
Atlanta
Atlanta skyline. (Timothy Eagan: Woodfin Camp)
over 62.7 kilometers (39 miles) of track. Lines running north-south and eastwest converge at the Five Points Station in the heart of the city. Bus service is coordinated with the rapid-transit schedule; some 150 bus routes cover a total of 2,413 kilometers (1,500 miles). Sightseeing Guided sightseeing tours are offered by several tour lines. A variety of specialty tours are offered as well, including a walking tour sponsored by the Atlanta Preservation Center, a tour of the Fox Theatre District, the Historic Downtown Tour focusing on architecture, the Sweet Auburn/MLK District
4
Tour focusing on black history, and a tour of the neighborhood that served as the setting for the play and film Driving Miss Daisy. 4
People
In 1990, the population of Atlanta was 394,000, with the following racial composition: 30 percent white and 67.1 percent black, with other groups each accounting for percentages of less than one percent. Hispanics (an ethnic rather than a racial designation) accounted for 1.9 percent of the population. The 1994 population estimate was 396,000. The population of the Atlanta Primary Metropolitan Statistical
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Atlanta Area was estimated at 3,627,184 as of 1997. The region’s racial composition was listed by the U.S. Census Bureau in 1996 as 71.4 percent white; 25.8 percent black; and 2.6 percent Asian/ Pacific Islander. Hispanics accounted for three percent of the metropolitan area population. 5
Neighborhoods
Downtown Atlanta is the city’s business and financial center. Its landmarks include the Peachtree Center hotel, convention, and office complex; the Underground Atlanta shopping facility; Georgia State University; Centennial Olympic Park (developed for the 1996 Olympics); the Georgia World Congress Center; and the Georgia Dome athletic facility. The traditionally black neighborhood of Sweet Auburn, home of Martin Luther King, Jr., draws large numbers of visitors every year. The National Park Service has accorded park status to the district in honor of Dr. King, whose boyhood home and church are located here. The Midtown area, north of downtown, is home to some of Atlanta’s bestknown cultural institutions, including the renowned Fox Theatre, Woodruff Arts Center, where the Atlanta Symphony performs, the Hugh Museum of Art, and the Alliance Theatre. Also located here are Piedmont Park and the Atlanta Botanical Garden. Buckhead is an upscale district located about ten kilometers (six miles)
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
north of downtown Atlanta, home to elegant mansions, exclusive shops and boutiques, and fine restaurants. The Atlanta History Center is located here. The Virginia-Highland neighborhood is Atlanta’s Greenwich Village, featuring a colorful mix of bookstores, sidewalk cafes, art galleries, bistros, ethnic restaurants, and eclectic shops that draw the culturally sophisticated to this part of town. Against a gracious setting that includes a number of Victorian homes, Little Five Points serves as a center for youthful Generation X- and Y-ers to display the latest in offbeat youth culture trends. The suburb of Decatur, founded in 1823, is known for its many festivals and other annual events, as well as the impressive Farmers Market. 6
History
Atlanta’s origin as a railroad settlement was evident in its original name— Terminus—when founded as a village in 1837. It was to this spot that the Western & Atlantic railroad was to run southward from the Tennessee state line, and from here that it would connect with other parts of the state. Reinforcing the white settlers’ hold on the area was an edict forcing 17,000 Cherokee and Creek Indians hundreds of miles westward, on the route that became known as the “Trail of Tears.” The town was renamed Marthasville in 1843, Atlanta two years later, and incorporated in 1848. By the start of the
5
Atlanta cal center during the conflict, a fact that also made it an attractive target for Union forces. In the summer of 1864 Confederate forces under the command of General William Tecumseh Sherman laid siege to the city, which was first occupied and then virtually burned to the ground by Union troops. Military occupation by Union soldiers continued until 1876, but the city began energetically rebuilding. The railroads were repaired, and new homes, businesses, and cultural and educational institutions sprang up. In 1877 Atlanta became the permanent capital of Georgia; in 1888 it adopted as its official symbol a phoenix rising from the ashes, as the city itself had done. In the last two decades of the twentieth century, the city’s population more than doubled, to 90,000.
The Phoenix was adopted as the symbol of Atlanta after the Civil War. (Al Stephenson: Woodfin Camp)
Civil War (1861–65), Atlanta was a bustling commercial center. In 1861, after vigorous public debate, Atlanta decided to become one of the 11 states seceding from the Union over the issue of slavery, even making a bid to become the capital of the Confederacy—an honor that ultimately went to Richmond, Virginia. The rail links that had allowed the city to rise to prominence before the war made it a vital supply depot and medi-
6
The city continued its rapid growth in the early twentieth century, its population reaching 155,000 by 1910 and continuing to rise in spite of a second catastrophic fire in 1917. The city’s black population grew rapidly, and the early years of the century were marred by the racial intolerance common throughout the South. In 1900 Atlanta professor W. E. B. du Bois founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), still the nation’s leading advocacy institution for blacks. Following race riots in the early 1900s, the black business community formed its own successful enclave on Auburn Street, where it thrived. Eventually, Atlanta became a center of black higher education, characterized by long-time mayor William
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Atlanta
City Fact Comparison Atlanta (United States)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
2,689,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1837
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$93
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$36
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$22
$14
$15
$16
$131
$173
$246
$207
1
13
20
11
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
Atlanta Journal- Akhbar El Yom/ Constitution Al Akhbar 303,698
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1868
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
Hartsfield as a city “too busy to hate.” With the rise to prominence of Martin Luther King, Jr., Atlanta became a hub of the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s. Atlanta, begun as a rail terminus, continued its tradition of transportation leadership with the completion of its first airport in 1929 and its rapid rise to become one of the nation’s major air transport centers. Improved facilities followed in rapid succession in 1961, 1977, and 1980, the year the new Hartsfield International Airport opened. “Whether you’re going to heaven or
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
hell,” it has been said, “you’ll have to change planes in Atlanta.” In the post-war decades Atlanta has become an increasingly cosmopolitan city, drawing a growing number of international travelers with such facilities as a 4,500-seat civic center, a 16,000-seat coliseum, and a 232,250square-meter (two-and-a-half-millionsquare-foot) convention center. The city acquired three major-league sports teams in the 1960s. In 1988, Atlanta gained international attention when it hosted the Democratic National Convention. The global spotlight shone even more brightly on the city in the
7
Atlanta 1990s, as it prepared for the 1996 Olympics, transforming its landscape with the construction of the Olympic Village. The Games drew 11,000 athletes from 197 different countries—a record for the modern Olympics. They were marred by a bombing in Centennial Olympic Park that killed two people and injured more than 100, but the Games went on as scheduled. Crowds soon flocked back to the park, and the focus returned to the athletes themselves, whose triumphs ultimately provided the main drama of the Games and left the city with indelible positive images of the long-planned event. 7
Government
Atlanta’s municipal government vests executive power in its mayor; the legislative function is carried out by an 18-member council, whose members are elected both by individual districts and citywide. Atlanta is also the capital of Georgia and home to its 56-member state senate and 180-member house of representatives and its governor. 8
Public Safety
With more than 2,300 employees, the Atlanta Police Department is Georgia’s largest law enforcement agency. It has declared as its major public safety priorities youth-related crime, domestic violence, and the perception of crime in Atlanta. In 1995, violent crimes reported to police (per 100,000 population) totaled 3,646 and included 45 murders, 109 rapes, 1,300 robberies, and 2,191 aggra-
8
vated assaults. Property crimes totaled 13,421 and included 2,892 burglaries, 8,463 cases of larceny/theft, and 2,065 motor vehicle thefts. 9
Economy
Atlanta has a thriving economy and is known for its pro-business climate, the result of a combination of factors, including its excellent infrastructure and status as an airline hub, and the welcoming attitude of the city and its residents toward outsiders. Major corporations headquartered in Atlanta include BellSouth Corporation, Coca-Cola, the United Parcel System, Delta Air Lines, Pacific Corporation, and Home Depot. In addition, several hundred of the nation’s top companies have branch offices in Atlanta. Atlanta’s most famous businessman is broadcasting mogul Ted Turner, founder of the Cable News Network (CNN) and owner of the Atlanta Braves and Atlanta Hawks sports teams. 10
Environment
For a major urban area, Atlanta has an unusual degree of tree cover, and the city works hard to keep it that way. A government permit is required to cut down a tree, and all trees that are removed must be replaced by a variety of shade trees. Trees Atlanta, a nonprofit organization dedicated to tree conservation, planted more than 12,000 trees in the 1990s.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Atlanta antique stores (for which Bennett Street is known), and galleries, as well as two major shopping malls, both located at the intersection of Peachtree and Lenox roads. Attracting 14 million visitors annually, Lenox Square is Atlanta’s oldest and largest shopping mall. It is anchored by major retailers, including Neiman Marcus, Macy’s, and Atlantabased Rich’s, and boasts some 200 specialty stores of all kinds. Nearby is the upscale Phipps Plaza, home to Lord & Taylor and Saks Fifth Avenue, as well as such famous brand name stores as Tiffany and Gucci. Other popular malls in the Atlanta area include Perimeter and the Galleria. Stone Mountain Village, just outside Stone Mountain Park, features antiques, crafts, and collectibles in an old-time village setting with historic buildings. 12 Stairway descending to Underground Atlanta, one of the city’s most famous shopping centers. (S. Moore: Woodfin Camp)
11
Shopping
Atlanta is considered the shopping capital of the southeastern United States, famed both for the number and variety of retailers in the region. In the heart of the city is Underground Atlanta, with both underground and above-ground shopping thoroughfares. The wealthy Buckhead neighborhood is considered a “must” for shoppers, with a variety of specialty stores, boutiques,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Education
Atlanta’s public school system enrolled 60,064 students in a total of 99 schools in the fall of 1996 and employed 3,605 classroom teachers, with a student/teacher ratio of 16.7 to one. During the 1995–96 school year, 2,054 students graduated from high schools in the city. In the 1994–95 school year, revenues from state, local, and federal sources totaled $499,845,000, and expenditures totaled $416,105, or $6,986 per pupil. In the 1990s public education in Atlanta received a boost with the inauguration of the Georgia Lottery for Education. Among the activities it has helped fund are a prekindergarten pro-
9
Atlanta gram, the HOPE scholarship program, and new educational technology, as well as centers to train school personnel in using it. Atlanta’s public school system has been widely praised for its Magnet School Program, which offers concentrated courses of study to students interested in particular career areas, including communications, performing arts, information processing, and the hospitality industry. Located in downtown Atlanta, Georgia State University is the state’s second-largest institution of higher learning. The university enrolls more than 20,000 students, who take courses offered by 50 academic departments. Emory University is a noted private university situated on a 255-hectare (631acre) campus in Atlanta. It underwent major physical improvement and expansion in the 1990s thanks to a $105 million gift from the Emily and Ernest Woodruff Fund. A unique academic presence in Atlanta is Atlanta University Center, a consortium of six traditionally black colleges in the area. The six colleges, which share some facilities, but remain independent entities, are Clark Atlanta University, Interdenominational Theological Center, Morehouse College, Morehouse School of Medicine, Morris Brown College, and Spelman College. Other colleges and universities in the Atlanta area include the Atlanta College of Art, Atlanta Metropolitan College, DeKalb College, the DeVry Institute of Technology, Georgia Institute of Technology, and Oglethorpe University.
10
13
Health Care
Home to many first-rate health care professionals and facilities, Atlanta offers its residents the highest quality of care. Both Emory University and the Morehouse School of Medicine train future doctors, and the Emory University Health Care System—comprising Emory University Hospital, Crawford Long Hospital, the Emory Clinic, and other affiliates—is the city’s largest healthcare institution. In 1998, Emory University Hospital had 513 staffed beds, employed 1,220 personnel, and recorded 20,336 admissions and 72,898 outpatient visits. Egleston Children’s Health Care System is a major referral center for the Southeast, treating more than 100,000 children every year. In 1995 the Atlanta metropolitan area had 43 community hospitals, with a total of 9,706 beds and 5,755 officebased physicians. 14
Media
As home to the Turner Broadcasting System, the Weather Channel, 11 television stations, and both a morning and afternoon major daily newspaper, Atlanta is a major media outlet. Turner Broadcasting operates CNN, the first round-the-clock all-news network, begun in 1980 by media magnate Ted Turner, as well as other networks and a number of subsidiaries. The company also owns the rights to thousands of film and TV titles, including Gone with the Wind, the classic film written by Atlantan Margaret Mitchell. In addition to 11 major local television stations,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Atlanta Atlanta has dozens of AM and FM radio stations running the gamut from National Public Radio (NPR) to countryand-western. Atlanta’s major newspaper is a daily that appears weekday mornings as The Atlanta Constitution and afternoons as the Atlanta Journal. Combined editions of the two papers appear over the weekend. In 1998 daily circulation was reported as 353,770 mornings, 123,220 evenings, and 677,019 for the combined paper on Sundays. Other Atlanta dailies are the African-American newspaper the Atlanta Daily World, the Daily Report, a paper for the business and legal communities, and the Marietta Daily Journal, which focuses on local coverage of Cobb County. General-interest periodicals published in Atlanta include the monthly Atlanta Magazine, the bi-monthly Atlanta Now, published by the Atlanta Convention and Visitors Bureau, the Atlanta Tribune, a newsmagazine that focuses on African Americans, and the monthly Guide to Georgia, which lists upcoming events in Atlanta and elsewhere in the state. Special-interest periodicals include the quarterly Popcorn, focusing on glamour and entertainment; Poets, Artists, and Madmen, which covers the arts; and Art Papers, a bimonthly that is the most influential art publication in the Southeast. 15
Sports
Atlanta fields major-league teams in baseball, basketball, football, and hockey. The Atlanta Braves baseball
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
franchise, owned by Ted Turner, was dubbed the “team of the ‘90s,” competing in the World Series four times in the decade and winning the championship in 1995. Turner Field, the Braves’ home since 1997, was modified from a structure originally built for the 1996 Olympic Games. The Atlanta Hawks NBA basketball team, also owned by Turner, moved to a new home downtown in Philips Arena in the fall of 1999. The NFL’s Atlanta Falcons play home games in the Georgia Dome. A new NHL hockey team, the Atlanta Thrashers, began play in Philips Arena in the fall of 1999. Auto racing can be seen at Road Atlanta, a 45-minute drive north from downtown and one of the region’s best auto-racing venues. 16
Parks and Recreation
At 75 hectares (185 acres), Piedmont Park is Atlanta’s largest park. The tree-filled park is a favorite with walkers, who can enjoy a six-kilometer (four-mile) loop trail over its somewhat hilly terrain. There is also a paved fivekilometer (three-mile) jogging path and trails for cycling and skating, as well as ball fields frequently used for baseball and football. Home to the annual Arts Festival of Atlanta and many other fairs and festivals, Piedmont Park is also the location of the Atlanta Botanical Garden and a regular venue for summertime Atlanta Symphony Orchestra concerts. Other Atlanta parks include Chastain Park and Grant Park.
11
Atlanta The Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area extends along the Chattahoochee River shoreline. It is graced with scenic views and abundant plant and animal life and also offers 113 kilometers (70 miles) of trails. The Chattahoochee Nature Center offers both woodland and wetland trails. Other parks in the Greater Atlanta area include Panola Mountain State Conservation Park, Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park, and Sweetwater Creek State Park. Atlanta has a number of municipal golf courses, and several privately owned courses are also open to the public. The Atlanta area also offers facilities for horseback riding, field hockey, ice skating, racquetball, tennis, and other popular recreational activities. 17
Performing Arts
The Atlanta Symphony Orchestra, which rose to prominence under the direction of famed American choral and orchestral conductor Robert Shaw, performs in Woodruff Arts Center under the direction of its current music director, Yoel Levi. Also performing a regular season of classical music are the Atlanta Chamber Players, whose repertoire ranges from the classics to contemporary pieces specially commissioned by the ensemble. The Atlanta Opera, directed by William Fred Scott, stages four productions annually at the Fox Theatre, attracting top guest soloists from across the country. In 1998, the Opera had 6,822 seasonal subscribers and a budget of $4.96 million. The
12
company’s educational and outreach division, the Atlanta Opera Studio, performs throughout the state, staging comic and one-act operas. Atlanta’s main theater group—and the major theatrical group in the Southeast—is the Alliance Theatre Company, which performs at the Woodruff Arts Center, staging approximately ten plays per year. Special performances for children are staged by the Alliance Children’s Theatre. Other Atlanta theater companies include Actor’s Express, Horizon Theatre Company, Neighborhood Playhouse, Theatrical Outfit, Theatre Gael, and Theatre in the Square. First founded in 1929 as the Dorothy Alexander Dance Concert Group, the Atlanta Ballet is the oldest continuously performing ballet troupe in the nation. In addition to a six-productions annual series, the company offers a performance of The Nutcracker every year. In addition to the Woodruff Arts Center and the Fox Theatre, other venues for local and touring performers include the Atlanta Civic Center and Variety Playhouse. Outdoor theaters include Chastain Park Amphitheatre and the Coca-Cola Lakewood Amphitheatre. 18
Libraries and Museums
Founded in 1901, the Atlanta-Fulton Public Library System serves 780,694 people, with an annual circulation of 3,102,081. Its book holdings total approximately 426,248 volumes.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Atlanta The library system also operates 32 neighborhood branches. The areas in which it holds special collections include African American Culture & History, Genealogy, and Margaret Mitchell. Atlanta’s High Museum of Art is housed in a modern award-winning building designed by architect Richard Meier and completed in 1983. The building features a series of ramps that curve along the building’s front wall and an elevator that goes to the very top. The museum maintains some 10,000 artworks in its permanent collection, ranging from primitive to classical to contemporary, and regularly features traveling exhibitions. A separate collection, housed in the GeorgiaPacific Center, features folk art and photography.
MARCH
Atlanta Home Show St. Patrick’s Day Celebration APRIL
Atlanta Dogwood Festival Atlanta Steeplechase Fat Tuesday Jazz & Heritage Crawfish Festival Inman Park Spring Festival & Tour of Homes PGA BellSouth Classic APRIL-MAY
Atlanta Renaissance Festival MAY
Atlanta Caribbean Folk Festival Atlanta Jazz Festival Springfest Festival Taste of the South Festival LATE MAY-EARLY JUNE
Spring Boat Show JUNE
Atlanta Film & Video Festival Stone Mountain Village Arts & Crafts Festival JUNE-AUGUST
Georgia Shakespeare Festival JULY
19
To u r i s m
Atlanta’s cosmopolitan reputation and thriving business activity bring many visitors to the city, and tourism received a major boost from the 1996 Olympics. In 1995 approximately 495,000 foreign travelers visited the city, ranking it twelfth nationally in this category. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY
Atlanta Boat Show Atlanta Garden & Patio Show National King Week Peach Bowl
National Black Arts Festival Thunder Over Atlanta Fireworks LATE AUGUST-SEPTEMBER
Montreux Atlanta International Music Festival SEPTEMBER
Arts Festival of Atlanta Atlanta Greek Festival Roswell Arts Festival Yellow Daisy Festival OCTOBER
Scottish Festival & Highland Games Tour of Southern Ghosts Fright Fest NOVEMBER
Atlanta Christmas Show Peachtree International Film Festival NOVEMBER-DECEMBER
Art of the Season Holiday Celebration
FEBRUARY
DECEMBER
Southeastern Flower Show
CNN Center Tuba Christmas
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
13
Atlanta
The Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site includes his tomb as well as his birthplace and church. (S. Moore: Woodfin Camp)
Festival of Trees First Night Atlanta New Year’s Eve Peach Drop
21
Famous Citizens
Henry Louis “Hank” Aaron (b. 1934), black baseball great who broke Babe Ruth’s home run record in 1974. Henry W. Grady (1850–89), editor of the Atlanta Constitution during the post-Civil War period who worked to reconstruct Atlanta as a modern metropolis.
14
Joel Chandler Harris (1848–1908), author famous for his children’s tales of B’rer Rabbit. Robert Tyre “Bobby” Jones (1902–71), golfer who founded the Masters Tournament and compiled a golfing record unsurpassed in the history of the game. Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929–1968), civil rights leader and Nobel Prizewinning champion of social progress through nonviolent resistance.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Atlanta Margaret Mitchell (1900–49), onetime reporter famous as the author of Gone with the Wind.
Atlanta Planning and Development Dept. 55 Trinity Ave. SW, Suite 1450 Atlanta, GA 30335 (404) 330-6070
John C. Portman (b. 1924), architect who pioneered the atrium-lobby in hotel design and designed many major Atlanta buildings in the 1960s.
Mayor’s Office 55 Trinity Ave. SW, Suite 2400 Atlanta, GA 30335 (404) 330-6100
Robert Edward “Ted” Turner (b. 1938), media and entertainment mogul who founded the Cable News Network (CNN) and owns the Atlanta Braves and the Atlanta Hawks. Alfred Uhry (b. 1936), prize-winning playwright and author of numerous award-winning dramas, including Driving Miss Daisy. Robert W. Woodruff (1889–1985), CocaCola Company president known for his outstanding civic leadership. 22
For Further Study
Websites Atlanta.TheLinks.com [Online] Available http:// www.atlanta.thelinks.com/ (accessed October 15, 1999). DigitalCity WebGuide Atlanta. [Online] Available http://www.webguide.digitalcity.com/ atlanta (accessed October 15, 1999). Excite Travel, Inc. [Online] Available http:// www.city.net/countries/united_states/ georgia/atlanta (accessed October 15, 1999). Info Atlanta. [Online] Available http:// www.travel.to/atlanta (accessed October 15, 1999).
Government Offices Atlanta City Hall 55 Trinity Ave. SW Atlanta, GA 30335 (404) 330-6000
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Atlanta Convention and Visitors’ Bureau 233 Peachtree St. NE, Suite 100 Atlanta, GA 30303 (404) 521-6600
Publications Atlanta Constitution/Journal P.O. Box 4689 Atlanta, GA 30302 Atlanta Magazine 1330 Peachtree St. NE, Suite 450 Atlanta, GA 30309
Books Allen, Frederick. Atlanta Rising: The Invention of an International City, 1946–1996. Atlanta, GA: Longstreet Press, 1996. Clayton, Sarah Conley. Requiem for a Lost City: A Memoir of Civil War Atlanta and the Old South. Ed. Robert Scott Davis, Jr. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1999. David, Harold E. Henry Grady’s New South: Atlanta, A Brave and Beautiful City. University of Alabama Press, 1990. Davis, Ren, and Helen Davis. Atlanta Walks: A Guide to Walking, Running, and Bicycling Historic and Scenic Atlanta. Atlanta: Peachtree Publishers, 1993. Garrison, Webb B. Atlanta and the War. Nashville: Rutledge Hill Press, 1995. Gournay, Isabelle. AIA Guide to the Architecture of Atlanta. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1993. Knorr, Rosanne. Kidding Around Atlanta. J. Muir, 1997. Kuhn, Clifford M. Living Atlanta, An Oral History of the City, 1914–1948. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990. McCarley, J. Britt. The Atlanta Campaign: A Civil War Driving Tour of Atlanta Area Battlefields. Atlanta: Cherokee Publishing Co., 1984. Mitchell, Margaret. Gone With the Wind. New
15
Atlanta York: Macmillan, 1936. [Fiction] Pomerantz, Gary. Where Peachtree Meets Sweet Auburn: The Saga of Two Families and the Making of Atlanta. New York: Scribner, 1996. Shavin, Norman, and Bruce Galphin. Atlanta:
16
Triumph of a People. Atlanta: Capricorn Corp., 1985. Thompson, Joseph F., and Robert Isbell. Atlanta: A City of Neighborhoods. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1994.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Bangkok Bangkok, Thailand, Asia Founded: c. 1769 Location: Located in the Chao Phraya River basin, Thailand, in a region often called the “Rice Bowl of Asia” Time Zone: 7 p.m. = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: Thai, 90%; Chinese, 9%; other, 1% Latitude and Longitude: 13°45’N, 100°30’E Coastline: Gulf of Thailand Climate: Subtropical. Bangkok is hot all year, with temperatures ranging from an average of 25°C (77°F) in December to 30°C (86°F) in April. Bangkok has three distinct seasons: the hot season (March through May), the rainy season (June through October), and the cool season (November through February). Annual Mean Temperature: 28°C (82°F) Average Annual Rainfall: 150 cm (59 in) Government: Thailand is a constitutional monarchy. The city of Bangkok is designated as a province and governed by an elected governor. Weights and Measures: Metric Monetary Units: The baht is Thailand’s basic unit of currency. In 1999, the exchange rate was approximately 40 Thai baht to one U.S. dollar. Telephone Area Code: 02; 66 (Thailand country code)
1
Introduction
Bangkok has been Thailand’s dominant city since the eighteenth century. Established as the capital in 1767 after the fall of the ancient city of Ayutthaya, Bangkok is located on one of southeastern Asia’s most important rivers, the Chao Phraya. In the 1980s and 1990s, Bangkok underwent rapid modernization, growing to approximately ten million people, making this the only major city in a country of villages and small towns. Bangkok’s ancient palaces and Buddhist temples contrast with high rises and traffic jams. Dense air pollution blankets the city. In fact, police
directing traffic are required to wear masks. Still, despite modern problems, Bangkok is a major tourist destination, drawing millions of visitors each year. 2
Getting There
Bangkok is located in central Thailand along the Chao Phraya River. Most visitors to Thailand travel by air though travelers in neighboring countries can reach Bangkok by bus, rail, or boat. Bus and Railroad Service Traveling by bus into Thailand is not common for foreigners, though
17
Bangkok
Bangkok Population Profile Population: 7,221,000 Area: More than 2,300 sq km (900 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 90% Thai; 9% Chinese; 1% other World population rank1: 28 Percentage of Thailand population2: 12% Average yearly growth rate: 2.0% Nicknames: Venice of Asia, City of Angels, Divine City ——— 1. Bangkok’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of Thailand’s total population living in the Bangkok metropolitan area.
buses do enter the country from Malaysia, Laos, and Cambodia. Due to past conflicts, much of Thailand’s border with Myanmar (formerly Burma) is mined and unsafe for travelers. The Hualamphong Railway Station on Rama IV Road is the city’s main rail station, serving most long-distance routes. The Bangkok Noi, across the river from the Grand Palace, is used for shorter trips outside of the city. Airports Bangkok International Airport is the major gateway to all of Thailand. Located about 24 kilometers (15 miles) north of Bangkok, the airport is served by more than 35 airlines. Northwest Airlines is the U.S. carrier with the most frequent flights while Thailand’s major airline is Thai Airways International, with flights to many international cities. Since the airport is located outside of the city, visitors traveling to Bangkok
18
must arrange transportation into Bangkok. Buses, taxis, hotel minibuses, and a riverboat shuttle all connect the airport with downtown. Flight times from some major U.S. cities include New York, 22 hours; Chicago, 20 hours; and San Francisco, 17 hours. Shipping Bangkok is Thailand’s major port, handling nearly all of the country’s exports and receiving over 70 percent of its imports. The Chao Phraya River connects the city to the Gulf of Thailand, 27 kilometers (17 miles) downstream. 3
Getting Around
Originally, Bangkok’s transportation system was based on the Chao Phraya River and a series of canals. With the advent of the automobile, however, many of the canals have been filled in to make way for roads, and water travel is most common on the Chao Phraya. Finding your way around Bangkok is a challenge. Bangkok is not a planned city, and its growth has often been chaotic. The city sprawls alongside the Chao Phraya River, with roads and alleys spiraling off in every direction. Rama I Road goes through the center of town. Further along, Rama I turns into Sukhumvit Road, an area with many hotels, restaurants, and bars. Most visitors to the city travel by taxi, river taxi, or tuk-tuk (cheap open-air, threewheeled taxis).
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Bangkok
Bus and Commuter Rail Service Buses in Bangkok are cheap and convenient, with many routes and frequent stops. For a fare of less than 20 baht (less than 50 cents), riders can take an air-conditioned bus to popular desti-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
nations. For less than 20 cents, riders can take the more frequent, non-airconditioned buses to just about anywhere in the city, though these buses tend to be crowded and very hot. Buses operate from 5:00 AM until 11:00 PM, and though the routes are confusing,
19
Bangkok maps are available from most street-side book vendors. An elevated rail system was projected to begin operation in early 2000. A subway system is also underway, though its construction is progressing slowly. Boats Water travel was once the main means of transportation in this city of rivers and canals. River taxis and ferries are still one of Bangkok’s most popular means of travel although they are losing out to automobiles. Commuter boats run several routes along and across the Chao Phraya. The main jetty stops are located at the Oriental Hotel, the Royal Orchid Sheraton, the River City Shopping Center, and the Grand Palace. The fare is reasonable at about 15 baht (25 cents), depending on distance. For more leisurely sightseeing trips, long-tailed boats can be rented by the hour for about 400 baht (ten dollars). Taxis and Tuk-tuks In 1993 meters were installed in all city taxis, although most drivers refuse to use them. Drivers almost always charge much higher fares than the meters would tally, but taxis are relatively cheap by Western standards. A tuk-tuk is a colorful threewheeled vehicle. Passengers ride in an open-air compartment that offers little protection in an accident. Tuk-tuks are the cheapest—and most dangerous— way to travel within the city. Tuk-tuk
20
drivers weave in and out of dense traffic. Despite the hazards, a ride in a tuktuk may be the most convenient way to travel for a short trip or during rush hour. 4
People
Thailand is one of the most racially homogenous countries in Asia, with more than 80 percent of its population being native Thai. The major minority group is Chinese, comprising ten to 14 percent, while all other ethnic groups combined, including Malays, Indians, Burmese, Vietnamese, Cambodians, and Europeans, account for approximately five percent. In Bangkok these numbers are even more extreme, with native Thais making up as much as 90 percent of the population. The Chinese are again the largest minority group, at about nine percent, and they are the most integrated of the non-Thai populations. Intermarriage between Chinese and Thai is common and accepted, and the Chinese population has a long and historic presence in Bangkok. Because of restrictive foreign immigration quotas adopted after World War II (1939–45), Bangkok’s population is becoming less, not more, diverse. Bangkok is a rapidly expanding city, with the population growing from approximately five million in the early 1990s to more than ten million at the beginning of the twenty-first century. The population is overwhelmingly young, with as many as half of
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Bangkok
City Fact Comparison Indicator
Bangkok (Thailand)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
7,221,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
c. 1769
753 BC
723 BC
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$125
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$59
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$15
$14
$15
$16
$199
$173
$246
$207
37
13
20
11
Thai Rath
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
700,000
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1958
1944
1976
1948
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established 1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
Bangkok’s residents under the age of 20. Females slightly outnumber males. The main language of Thailand is Thai (or Tai). In Bangkok and the southern regions of the country, a dialect of Thai is spoken that is faster and more abbreviated than other Thai dialects. English is the secondary language of the country’s educated and elite, and English is spoken much more commonly in Bangkok than other regions of the country. Buddhism is considered the country’s official religion, and Bangkok is Thailand’s Buddhist center, home to many of the country’s most famous
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
temples, called wats. Buddhism is also the city’s largest religion, with close to 95 percent of all citizens being Buddhist. Four percent of Bangkok’s population is Muslim while Christians, Hindus, Confucians, and Sikhs account for less than one percent. 5
Neighborhoods
While Bangkok as a whole is confusing—sprawling for over 2,331 square kilometers (900 square miles)—the city can be broken down into several major and distinct neighborhoods. Old Bangkok, on the west side of the Chao Phraya River, is the original site of the
21
Bangkok
City of Bangkok on the Chao Phraya River. (Robert Frerck: Woodfin Camp)
capital. Old Royal City is on the east side of the river and contains the major tourist attractions, including the Grand Palace, the Wat Pho Temple, and the National Museum. Southeast of Old Royal City is Sam Peng. Sam Peng has a large foreign population, including many Chinese merchants. Further east, Chinatown is another district with a large Chinese population. Chinatown offers many small shops and ethnic restaurants, as well as hotels catering to Chinese businessmen. South of Chinatown is Silom. Silom is the center of the city’s financial district, and many of Bangkok’s most expensive hotels are
22
located there. Sukhumvit, which used to be considered the outskirts of the city, is northeast of Silom. Sukhumvit is a major tourist area, with many hotels, restaurants, and bars. Sukhumvit is also noted as having the city’s best nightlife. Houses consist mostly of one- or two-story wooden structures built closely together. Most of these homes are overcrowded, and the shortage of housing gets worse every year. Government housing programs barely address this shortage. Some government-sponsored concrete high-rises have been constructed, but the demand for hous-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Bangkok ing continues to grow faster than new housing can be built. To make matters worse, real estate developers focus only on providing homes for middle- and upper-income residents. Squatters occupy unused public land, a practice permitted by the government. 6
History
Since the late 1700s, Bangkok has been Thailand’s largest and most important city. In 1767, after the Burmese sacked and burned Ayutthaya, the ancient capital of Siam (now named Thailand), the capital was moved down the Chao Phraya River to Thon Buri or Old Bangkok, on the west bank of the river. In 1782 King Rama I (1737–1809; r. 1782–1809), upon ascending to the throne, moved the capital to a village across the river. This move was strategic, putting the wide Chao Phraya River between the capital and the ofteninvading Burmese. The village across the river was then composed mostly of Chinese traders and was known as Bangkok, which translates as "Village of Wild Plums." Rama I wanted his new capital to equal the splendor of Ayutthaya, which had served as the country’s capital for more than 400 years. By the end of his reign, Bangkok was a thriving city, and King Rama I had established a walled palace complex, the Grand Palace, and a major Buddhist temple, the Wat Phra Kaeo. To fortify the new capital, Rama I ordered the construction of a sevenkilometer-long (four-and-a-half-milelong), three-meter-high (ten-foot-high)
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
wall along the river, which further protected the city from invasion. During the reigns of King Rama II (1768–1824; r. 1809–1824) and Rama III (r. 1824–1851), many of the city’s Buddhist monasteries (called wats) were constructed. In addition to their religious functions, the wats served as centers of learning, medicine, and recreation. Major temples included the Wat Arun, the Wat Yan Nawa, and the Wat Pho. During this period, however, the rest of the city was neglected. The kings built few other major public buildings and almost no paved roads. Average citizens relied on a series of interconnected canals (khlongs) for transportation. Until the reign of Rama V (1853– 1910; r. 1868–1910) public works were not a priority. The king foresaw the importance of the automobile and established a system of roadways and bridges. In addition, Rama V instituted a post and telegraph service, an electric tram service, and the State Railway. Much of Thailand’s history has been a battle for sovereignty, and while the country has suffered through many invasions, Thailand boasts that it is one of the few countries in Asia never conquered and colonized. This point is debatable. During World War II (1939– 45), though Thailand was technically allied with the Japanese, troops from Japan controlled much of Thailand and were concentrated in Bangkok. In the past 20 years, Bangkok has expanded rapidly. During the Vietnam War era, American soldiers used the city
23
Bangkok
During the reign of King Rama II (1768–1824; r. 1809–1824) and Rama III (r. 1824–1851), many citizens relied on canals for transportation due to a lack of roads in the city. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
as a rest-and-relaxation destination. The city then had a population of 1.5 million, a population that has since ballooned to approximately ten million. The increase in population means congestion and pollution in the city. Air pollution in Bangkok is perhaps the worst in the world, and the overcrowding and lack of planning have impacted everything from transportation to drinking water to housing. In the 1990s, Bangkok had close to one million registered motor vehicles, along with an ever-expanding superhighway system. Most of Bangkok’s canals were filled in and paved over to make new roads. This replacement caused parts of the city to sink, and annual flooding has become a problem.
24
Despite modern problems, however, the city retains much of its ancient charm. Bangkok’s colorful markets, historic buildings, and ornate temples attract millions of tourists each year. 7
Government
Thailand is a constitutional monarchy. King Bhumibol Adulyadej (b. 1946) formally rules over a highly centralized government, but real decisionmaking power in governmental affairs rests with the prime minister. The king signed a new constitution on October 11, 1997. The city of Bangkok has provincial status, meaning it is run by an elected governor instead of a mayor. Up until
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Bangkok 1985, Bangkok's governor and assemblymen were appointed by the central government. However, starting in November 1985, elections were instituted for the first time. 8
Public Safety
Bangkok is one of the world’s most populated and crowded cities, and like most major cities, Bangkok has problems with crime. As Bangkok’s population grew in the latter half of the twentieth century, so too did its crime rate. The number of murders, assaults, thefts, and armed robberies all increased. Smuggling is widespread in Bangkok, with drugs, endangered animal products, and stolen antiques all passing through the city. International pressure has been exerted to urge Thailand to deal with two major criminal problems: child prostitution and the opium drug trade. With prostitution having a semi-legal status in Thailand, advocacy groups have been formed to address childhood prostitution and pornography. As for opium, rural Thailand is one of the world’s major growers of poppies, used to make opium, and many nations have been pressuring Thailand to more aggressively combat the drug trade. The Bangkok Metropolitan Police are responsible for providing law enforcement services for the city and its suburbs. The urban police force is operated by an appointed commissioner.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
9
Economy
Bangkok is the center of Thailand’s economy and the country’s principal port. Bangkok is the country’s financial center, home to over one-third of Thailand’s banks, as well as the Bangkok Stock Exchange. Thailand’s basic unit of currency is the baht, with the exchange rate at approximately 40 baht per U.S.$1. Most of the factories in Bangkok are small, many of them family-owned. Food processing, textiles, and the production of building materials are the chief manufacturing enterprises. Other industries include cement, electronics, petroleum refining, and tourism. Bangkok is a major regional city, but it has begun seeking foreign investment in an effort to increase its importance internationally. Recent events, however, have undermined this effort. Bangkok’s crime rate remains high, with foreigners often the targets of violence, and widespread corruption continues to plague many business ventures. To make matters worse, the country is suffering through a severe and lingering recession. In the mid1990s, the Thai economy virtually collapsed, with exports drying up and many banks hurt by bad loans and uncollected debt. Thailand’s collapse helped trigger a financial crisis that engulfed nearly all of Asia. In August 1997, the Thai government applied for and received IMF loans. (The IMF, International Monetary Fund, is an organization that promotes worldwide economic stability.) In return for $14
25
Bangkok billion of assistance, the country agreed to a series of banking and market reforms. 10
Environment
Being an urban area, Bangkok has few natural resources, with most of its land devoted to development. The Kingdom of Thailand, however, has many natural resources. Its major resources are tin, rubber, natural gas, tungsten, tantalum, timber, lead, fish, gypsum, lignite, and fluorite. Elephants receive considerable attention in Bangkok. Although it is technically illegal to bring elephants into the city, more are showing up on Bangkok’s city streets. Because the elephants’ natural habitat is being destroyed by development, handlers bring their animals into Bangkok to beg for food. Elephants are popular with tourists but unpopular with city drivers. Many elephants are involved in traffic accidents on Bangkok’s overcrowded streets. 11
Shopping
Bangkok has many colorful and crowded markets. Booths sell everything from fake Rolex watches to designer clothing. Bangkok's most popular exports are silks, jewelry, celadon pottery, lacquerware, masks, carvings, and antiques—all of which are relatively cheap by Western standards. Bangkok’s largest market is the open-air Weekend Market at Chatuchak Park. The Weekend Market is an
26
authentic Asian-style bazaar. Silom Road has both booths and shops and is crowded almost every night. Throughout Bangkok there are many malls and chain stores. Haggling is common in the traditional Thai markets. 12
Education
Because of its large school-age population, Bangkok’s schools are grossly overcrowded. With too few teachers and schools, education in the city varies greatly, with the standard of education often depending on a student’s social class. Children of upper-class parents usually attend private schools, many of which focus on English-language instruction. Poorer students often attend schools associated with Buddhist temples. Education is compulsory for children from the ages of seven to 14. Bangkok is home to the majority of Thailand’s universities. However, in Thailand a Western education is highly prized, and students who can afford to study abroad usually do. The overall literacy rate of the country approaches 95 percent. 13
Health Care
Public health in Thailand improved greatly in the second half of the twentieth century. In the late 1990s the life expectancy for men was 65 years; for women it was 73 years. In 1960 the life expectancy for both men and women had been only 51 years. Much of this increase was due to a successful struggle against malaria, which had once been the number one cause of
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Bangkok
Damonen Saduak floating market. (A. Ramey: Woodfin Camp)
illness and death. Citizens in Bangkok receive the best health care of anyone in Thailand. This is simply due to the fact that a disproportionate number of health care facilities are concentrated in the Bangkok area. Of major concern to health officials is the issue of drinking water. Bangkok has the highest access to safe drinking water of any region in the country, but fully 40 percent of Bangkok’s residents have little access to uncontaminated public water, forcing many of the city’s poor to drink from rainwater pooled in shallow wells or
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
collected from roof drainage. Others resort to drinking from the polluted rivers and canals. Reported cases of AIDS were on the rise at the end of the twentieth century. Much of this rise was blamed on the fact that prostitution is accepted and widespread in Bangkok. 14
Media
Thailand’s constitution guarantees freedom of the press, and most outside observers agree that the Thai press enjoys a reasonable amount of freedom.
27
Bangkok Nevertheless, writers and reporters exercise a degree of self-censorship, due to unwritten but very real government constraints. Criticism of the monarchy is especially frowned upon. The majority of Thailand’s newspapers are based in Bangkok; most of these are independent and privately owned. The Thai Rath and the Daily News have the largest readerships. Government agencies, including the Thai News Agency, issue many of their own reports. The Office of the Prime Minister controls radio and television broadcasting. Hours, content, and programs all must be approved by government officials. The National Broadcasting Services of Thailand (NBT) is the official government broadcasting station, focusing on local and international news. By the 1980s television had become Bangkok’s dominant news medium, with nine out of ten households owning at least one television set. Computer and internet use are still mostly confined to the upper classes. 15
Sports
Thailand’s national sport is Thai Boxing. Thai boxing combines traditional boxing with martial arts. Matches in Bangkok draw huge crowds, and betting is common in the stands. Besides boxing, Bangkok offers horseracing enthusiasts two tracks with races every Sunday. Soccer is growing in popularity, and Bangkok’s National Stadium is host to many important matches.
28
16
Parks and Recreation
Lumphini Park Lumphini Park is Bangkok’s most popular and oldest park. Lumphini is one of the few green spaces in this congested city. Restaurants and bars line the north side of the park, and, although not legal within city limits, elephant trainers often bring their elephants into the park and offer tourists rides for a modest fee. King Rama IX Royal Park This park opened in 1987 to commemorate the King Rama IX’s sixtieth birthday. The park contains a public park, a water park, and botanical gardens. Samphran Elephant Grounds & Zoo Located on the outskirts of Bangkok, this is the best place in Thailand to see elephants. Shows reenact eighteenth-century Thai battles, with the elephants clad in armor. Elephants also perform in a circus and in polo matches. Massage Massage is one of Bangkok’s most popular pastimes. In Thailand, and much of Asia, massage is considered a component of good health. Massage schools and businesses can be found all over the city.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Bangkok 17
Performing Arts
Classical Thai dance is Bangkok’s performing art of note. Traditional dance blends a series of controlled gestures and movements with drama. The dancers wear elaborate costumes and masks, and performances are accompanied by woodwind and percussion instruments. 18
Libraries and Museums
The National Museum The National Museum is considered to be Southeast Asia’s largest and most comprehensive museum. Founded in 1782, the museum’s several buildings house artifacts representing more than 10,000 years of history. The museum gives visitors a thorough overview of Thai history and culture. The Grand Palace The Grand Palace was founded in 1782 when Bangkok was made the nation’s capital. It is still surrounded by high white walls that were originally used for protection. This is Thailand’s most frequented tourist site. The Palace consists of more than 100 elaborately decorated buildings. Within the Palace grounds is the Wat Phra Kaeo temple, considered one of the most beautiful temples in Thailand. The Wat Pho The Wat Pho is one of Bangkok’s oldest and largest temples. It is located just south of the Grand Palace. The
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
temple houses the gigantic 35-meterlong (115-foot-long) gold Reclining Buddha. The Wat Pho also served as Thailand’s first university. The Pasteur Institute The Pasteur Institute is also known as The Snake Farm. The Red Cross runs this farm as a center for snake venom collection. Handlers milk poison from cobras, black mambas, pit vipers, and other dangerous snakes, and then the venom is used to make an antidote for people bitten by poisonous snakes. National Theatre Thailand's National Theatre is located on Na Phra Lan Road next to the National Museum. Thai Classical dramas and other types of international arts are periodically staged here. Current programs can be checked at the theatre on weekdays between 8:30 AM and 4:30 PM. Special exhibition shows of Thai classical dancing and music are held on the last Friday and Saturday of each month. Royal Ceremonial Barges The King’s royal ceremonial barges are housed in a shed on the west side of the Chao Phraya River, across from the Grand Palace compound. Dating from the early part of the twentieth century, the barges were carved to look like mythical creatures. They are considered a national treasure.
29
Bangkok
Elephant sculptures flanking a shrine at the base of a large, gilded Phra Si Ranta Chedi, one of the most prominent buildings in the Wat Phra Kaeo complex. (Lindsay Hebberd; Woodfin Camp)
National Art Gallery This gallery exhibits both modern and traditional Thai art, and it also schedules rotating and traveling exhibitions. 19
To u r i s m
Thailand is one of Southeast Asia’s major tourist destinations, and almost all visitors to Thailand pass through Bangkok. In the 1990s, an estimated six to seven million tourists visited Bangkok each year. While Bangkok is famous for its food and wild nightlife, it is probably best known for its history.
30
Historic buildings and temples are scattered throughout the city. The Grand Palace is considered one of Thailand’s most important tourist sites. The Grand Palace dates back to 1782, established when King Rama I moved the capital to Bangkok. Bangkok’s famous temples include the Wat Pho and the Wat Traimitr. The Wat Pho temple is home to the 35-meter-long (151-foot-long) Reclining Buddha, and the Wat Traimitr temple houses the world’s largest solidgold Buddha, weighing five metric tons (five-and-a-half tons) and standing three meters (ten feet) high. The Royal Ceremonial Barges are another popular
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Bangkok history, respected for his skills as a musician and composer, also well known as a painter, sculpture, and photographer.
attraction. These elaborately decorated, intricately carved longboats take the form of mythical creatures and are only used by the king on special occasions. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY-FEBRUARY Chinese New Year (a two-day holiday based on a lunar calendar)
FEBRUARY Magha Puja (a Buddhist Holiday commemorating the day when 1,250 Buddhist disciples spontaneously heard Buddha preach the cardinal doctrine)
APRIL Songkran (the Thai New Year, celebrated by setting birds and fish free)
MAY Coronation Day
JULY-AUGUST Visakha Puja (celebrated on the full moon of the sixth lunar month, commemorating Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, and death. Monk’s lead candlelight processions around temples.)
AUGUST
Queen Sirikit (b. 1932), wife of King Bhumibol Adulyadej, activist for rural women, the conservation of natural resources, and protection of forestlands and endangered animals. Jim Thompson (b. 1906), an American who moved to Bangkok after World War II, credited with reviving Thailand’s silk industry, mysteriously disappeared into the Malaysian jungles in 1967. Mai Charoenpura (b. 1969), model and actress, as well as one of Thailand’s most popular singers. Venerable P. A. Payutto, Thailand's foremost Buddhist scholar and author, most famous for his book Buddhadhamma (1995).
Queen’s Birthday (August 12)
NOVEMBER Loi Krathong (a time of atonement, celebrated to honor water spirits. After sunset people make their way to a body of water and float candles on small lotus-shaped boats.)
DECEMBER King’s Birthday (December 5; Thailand’s Royal Elite Guards lead a colorful procession.) Constitution Day
21
Famous Citizens
Bhumibol Adulyadej (b. 1927), highly respected King of Thailand (r. 1946–), born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, considered the embodiment of religion, culture, and
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
22
For Further Study
Websites Bangkok.com. [Online] Available http:// www.bangkok.com (accessed October 12, 1999). Bangkok, Thailand. [Online] Available http:// bangkok.thailandtoday.com/index.shtml (accessed April 14, 2000). CIA, the World Factbook 1999, Thailand. [Online] Available http://www.odci.gov/cia/ publications/factbook/th.html (accessed October 12, 1999). Thailand the Big Picture. [Online] Available http://www.nectec.or.th/ (accessed October 12, 1999). Thailand Travel Information Center. [Online] Available http://www.thaiinfo.com/ (accessed October 12, 1999).
31
Bangkok Government Offices Tourist Police Unico House Ploenchit Soi Lang Suan Bangkok Phone: (02) 221–6209 United States Embassy 95 Wireless Road Bangkok Phone: (02) 252–5040 Tourist Authority of Thailand 372 Bamrung Muang Rd. Pom Prap, 10100 Bangkok Phone: (02) 226–0060
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Tourism Authority of Thailand offices in the United States: East Coast: 5 World Trade Center, Suite 3443 New York, NY 10048 Phone: (212) 432–0433 Midwest: 303 E. Wacker Dr., Suite 400 Chicago, IL 60601 Phone: (312) 819-3990 West: 3440 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 1100
32
Los Angeles, CA 90010 Phone: (213) 382–2353
Publications Bangkok’s two major English-language daily newspapers are both available online: The Bangkok Post. [Online] Available http:// www.bangkokpost.com.net/ (accessed October 12, 1999). The Nation. [Online] Available http:// www.nationmultimedia.com/ (accessed October 12, 1999).
Books Bailey, Donna. Thailand. Austin, TX: SteckVaughn, 1992. Buckley, Michael. Bangkok Handbook. 2nd ed. Chico, CA: Moon Publications, 1995. Cooper, Robert and Nanthapa Cooper. Culture Shock!: Thailand & How to Survive It. Portland, OR: Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company, 1991. Hoskin, John. Bangkok. Lincolnwood, IL: Passport Books, 1991. McNair, Sylvia. Bangkok. New York: Children's Press, 1999. Ringis, Rita. Elephants of Thailand in Myth, Art, and Reality. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1996. Segaller, Denis, Thai Ways. Bangkok: Bangkok Post Books, 1998. Wyatt, David, Thailand: A Short History. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Beijing Beijing, Hebei Province, People’s Republic of China, Asia Founded: c. 723 B.C.; First Known as Beijing: 1421 Location: North China Plain Time Zone: 8 PM Chinese time=noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: Han, 96.2% Elevation: 30–40 m (100–130 ft) Latitude and Longitude: 39º55'N, 166º25'E Coastline: None Climate: Continental monsoon climate in a temperate zone, with long winters and hot, rainy summers Annual Mean Temperature: 12ºC (53ºF); January –4ºC (24ºF); July 26ºC (79ºF) Average Annual Precipitation: 635 mm (25 in) Government: Centrally administered by the national government Weights and Measures: Metric system, with some use of traditional Chinese units Monetary Units: Yuan (also called kuai); Monetary system called Renminbi (“people’s currency”) (abbreviation: Rmb) Telephone Area Codes: 10 (Beijing area code); 86 (China country code)
1
Introduction
Located on the North China Plain in the north-central part of the country, Beijing (also known as Peking) is the capital of the People’s Republic of China and its second-largest city. As the political and cultural center of one of the world’s largest and oldest countries almost continuously for nearly 800 years, Beijing has had a colorful and fascinating history, from its days as the aristocratic imperial “center of the world” to revolution, foreign occupation, and civil war in the twentieth century. During the last two decades of the twentieth century, Beijing was transformed yet again, as the economic liberalization and modernization of the post-Mao Zedong era turned the for-
merly austere Communist capital into a bustling commercial metropolis and tourist center and home to a thriving consumer economy. (Mao Zedong, 1893–1976, was the founder of the People’s Republic of China and ruled from 1949 to 1959, but he remained chairman of the politburo until his death.) 2
Getting There
Beijing is situated in the southern part of the North China Plain, with the Taihang and Yanshan mountains to the north and west and a flat plain to the southeast, leading to the Bohai Sea, where the five rivers that run through the city come together and empty out. About two-thirds of the city’s total land area is hilly.
33
Beijing
Beijing Population Profile City Proper Population: 6–8 million Area: 750 sq km (290 sq mi) Nicknames: The Celestial City, The Northern Capital, The Center of the World
Metropolitan Area Population: 12,033,000 Description: Beijing Administrative Zone, which includes the city and its outskirt Area: 16,800 sq km (6,486 sq mi) World population rank1: 12 Percentage of national population2: 0.9% Average yearly growth rate: 1.3% Ethnic composition: 96.2% Han; 3.8% Manchu, Mongolian, Hui, and 52 other groups ——— 1. The Beijing metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of China’s total population living in the Beijing metropolitan area.
Highways Highways radiate outward in all directions from Beijing: northeast to Chengdo; eastward to Tangshan; southeast to Tanggu and Tianjin; southward to Hengshui, Baoding, and Shijiazhuang; southwest to Laiyuan; and northwest to Zhangliahou. Bus and Railroad Service Trains are the most commonly used mode of passenger transportation in China, and Beijing is the nation’s rail hub, serving as the terminus for many rail lines. Service is provided between Beijing and all Chinese provinces
34
except Tibet. Beijing has four main train stations, of which the largest is the recently built West station in the southwest part of the city. Nearly every city in China, as well as many towns, can be reached from Beijing by train. Long-distance bus service is used primarily to travel between Beijing and its suburbs, or to nearby cities. However, some bus lines travel as far as Shanghai or Qungdao. Airports Beijing Capital Airport, located about 30 kilometers (19 miles) northwest of the central city, is China’s major international airport. Its domestic and international terminals are located in the same building, with a new international terminal under construction. Scheduled flights connect Beijing with Shanghai, Canton, and all other major Chinese cities and tourist sites. There are direct flights to many international capitals, including New York, Los Angeles, London, Paris, Rome, Tokyo, and Berlin. Nanyuan Airport, south of Beijing, is used for domestic flights. 3
Getting Around
Beijing’s central city retains its carefully planned historic layout, arranged around a central north-south axis seven-and-a-half kilometers (five miles) long that passes through the city’s entire central core, from the Bell Tower and Drum Tower in the north, through the Forbidden City at the center, to the site of the former Yung-ting Gate in the south. This central core is
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Beijing
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
35
Beijing actually the remnant of two adjoining walled cities, whose outlines are retained although their walls are long gone—a roughly square-shaped “inner” city to the north and a rectangular “outer” city to the south. Bus and Commuter Rail Service Buses are the most popular means of transportation in Beijing. The city has over 200 bus and trolley routes, and the buses are always packed. They run every five to ten minutes, from 5:00 or 5:30 in the morning until 10:00 or 11:00 at night. Tickets, which are inexpensive, are purchased after the passenger has boarded the bus, and the fare varies according to the distance traveled. Minibuses are also available, primarily for traveling to tourist attractions or railway stations. Beijing has two subway lines, the east-west First Line, which runs from the western suburb of Xidan to the center of the city (and is slated to be extended to the eastern suburbs), and the Circle Line, which follows a circular route that corresponds to the former location of Beijing’s original city walls. The subway is faster and less crowded than the bus lines but does not travel to all spots in the city. Taxicabs have become increasingly popular in the past decade, and it is now easy to hail one of the many cabs that cruise the city streets and offer a convenient but relatively inexpensive alternative to the bus or subway.
36
Sightseeing Organized tours are offered by China’s tourism agencies, of which the two major ones are the China International Travel Service (CITS) and the China Travel Service (CTS). CITS offers a variety of “Dragon Tours,” which include such attractions as the Great Wall, Tiananmen Square, the Forbidden City, the Summer Palace, the Beijing Zoo, and rickshaw rides. 4
People
Beijing grew rapidly in the twentieth century, especially after the Communist revolution of 1949. Today the Beijing metropolitan area has a population of more than 12 million people. Between six and eight million live in the city proper, and the rest in the surrounding area. The population of the central city has also been expanded by the presence of more than three million transient workers from other areas. Officially, 56 different ethnic groups are recognized in Beijing; however, an overwhelming majority of the population (96.2 percent) belongs to the Han ethnic group. The remainder are divided among the 55 other ethnicities, of which the most populous are the Manchus, Hui, and Mongolians. Several ethnic groups live in their own neighborhoods, with special facilities for observing their traditional cultural practices.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Beijing
City Fact Comparison Beijing (China)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
New York (United States)
Population of urban area1
12,033,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
16,626,000
Date the city was founded
723 BC
753 BC
1613
Indicator
AD
969
2
Daily costs to visit the city Hotel (single occupancy)
$129
$193
$172
$198
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$62
$56
$59
$44
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$16
$14
$15
$26
$207
$173
$246
$244
11
13
20
10
Renmin Ribao
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
The Wall Street Journal
3,000,000
1,159,339
754,930
1,740,450
1948
1944
1976
1889
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established 1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
5
Neighborhoods
Greater Beijing is a vast metropolitan area of 16,800 square kilometers (6,486 square miles), first carved out under an imperial government centuries ago. Its unity has been preserved by the People’s Republic, and today it is divided into ten districts (ch’u) and eight counties (hsien), which can be delineated into three concentric areas. The central one is the Old City, encompassing four of the ch’u; this is the area originally enclosed by the city walls. It is further divided into the Inner and Outer Cities, two adjacent areas with the Outer City to the south. At the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
heart of the Inner City lies the Forbidden City, a historic district that is the former home of China’s emperors. The Outer City consists mostly of residential and commercial areas and parks. Encircling the central city is the zone of inner suburbs that accounts for five of the remaining ch’u. It is home to government buildings, schools, factories, and workers’ residences, and its outer belt is cultivated to provide the city with a local supply of fresh produce. The Beijing and Qinghua universities lie in the northwest suburbs of this region.
37
Beijing
Tiananmen Square. (Timothy Eagan; Woodfin Camp)
Beijing’s outermost, or far suburban, zone is made up of the one remaining ch’u and the eight hsien, or rural counties. This district consists largely of farmland and supplies the city with agricultural products, as well as coal, lumber, water, and other basic necessities. Its residential areas are primarily country towns. 6
History
The Beijing area is known to have been inhabited by prehistoric humans (Homo erectus pekinensis, or Beijing man) approximately 500,000 years ago. The
38
earliest recorded settlement, in what is now southwest Beijing, dates back to around 1045 B.C. By 453–221 B.C. (the “Warring States” period), the site was home to a city called Ji, which was the capital of the Yan Kingdom. In 1215, the city at the site of present-day Beijing was torched by the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan (1162–1227), who built a new city called Dadu (“Great Capital”), or Khanbaliq. Later in the thirteenth century, under the rule of Kublai Khan (1215– 1294), it became the capital of a vast empire, and it has been China’s
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Beijing national capital almost continuously ever since. It was renamed Beiping (“Northern Peace”) at the beginning of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). In 1421, the third Ming emperor, Yongle, made the city his capital, and it assumed its present name of Beijing (“Northern Capital”). It was during this period that the present grid pattern of the central city was established, arranged around a north-south axis centering on the Imperial Palace. The city’s design followed the traditional architectural principles of feng shui, a system of using space in a way intended to achieve maximum harmony between the human and natural worlds. In 1553 walls went up around the “outer city” to the south, enclosing suburbs that had grown up adjacent to the original city. Under the Qing dynasty of the Manchus (1644–1911), Beijing underwent substantial renovation and expansion although the basic character of the city during the Ming period was largely preserved. The last century of Manchu rule was a period of foreign encroachment from without and political instability within. The city of Beijing was captured by French and British forces during the second Opium War (1858– 60), and the Summer Palaces were burned down. Foreign forces attacked the city during the Boxer Rebellion (1898–1900) at the turn of the twentieth century, destroying many of its artistic and historical treasures. Beijing remained at the center of Chinese history following the 1911 revolution that ended Chinese imperial rule and placed
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
the nationalist Kuomintang in power. At the conclusion of World War I (1914–18), it was the site of a historic demonstration in Tiananmen Square, opposing Chinese capitulation to the terms of the Versailles Treaty (signed in 1919, the Versailles Treaty officially ended World War I). Military and political developments in the second quarter of the twentieth century affected the status of Beijing. Fighting to regain control of the country from the warlords who had seized power shortly after the revolution of 1911, the Kuomintang (the Chinese Nationalist Party), under Chiang Kaishek, moved its capital to Nanjing in 1928 and renamed Beijing, calling it Beiping (“Northern Peace” instead of “Northern Capital”). In 1937 the Japanese seized control of the city when they invaded China, and it remained under occupation until the end of World War II (1939–45), with Chungking serving as the temporary Nationalist capital during the bitter warfare of that period. Beijing was retaken and held by the Kuomintang during the ensuing civil war, but the city finally fell to the Communists under the leadership of Mao Zedong (1893–1976) in January, 1949, and became the capital of the People’s Republic of China the following October, regaining its former name and its position as the nation’s political, cultural, and financial hub. Under Mao’s leadership, the city underwent modernization, as streets were widened, vestiges of imperial rule were demolished, and technical advisers from the Union of Soviet Socialist
39
Beijing
The Summer Palace, featuring traditional Chinese gardening, was burned down by the allied forces of Great Britain and France in the second Opium War (1858–60). (Mike Yamashita; Woodfin Camp)
Republics (U.S.S.R.) introduced examples of Soviet-style architecture. From 1966 to the late 1970s, life in Beijing, as elsewhere in China, was dramatically affected by the Cultural Revolution. Beijing’s Tiananmen Square was the site of the 1976 demonstration, honoring deceased political leader Zhou Enlai, that marked the beginning of the end for this disastrous campaign of political repression. For the final time in the twentieth century, Beijing’s Tiananmen Square became the stage for a major political
40
event, as the student-led pro-democracy movement was crushed there in the spring of 1989, accentuating the disparity between the country’s economic reforms and its continuing level of political repression. Although China’s human rights record continues to draw criticism from abroad and dissent at home, the economic liberalization of the past two decades has changed the face of its capital, with the construction of skyscrapers, the proliferation of the services and conveniences that characterize a modern consumer economy, and the exponential growth of tourism.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Beijing 7
Government
Although it has its own elected and appointed government officials, Beijing is one of three municipalities in China (the other two are Tientsin and Shanghai) that are ultimately under the control of the national government rather than the surrounding province (in the case of Beijing, this is Hebei Province). For administrative purposes, the urban and suburban parts of Beijing are divided into ten districts (ch’n; four urban and six suburban), and the surrounding rural areas of the municipality are divided into eight counties (hsien). The major governing body at the municipal level is the People’s Congress of Beijing Municipality, which has budget, taxation, and administrative responsibilities. Its members also elect the officials of the executive branch. Known as the Beijing People’s Government, it consists of a mayor, several vice mayors, and the heads of various bureaus. Each district has its own mayor, and within each district some civic duties are assumed at the neighborhood level as well. As China’s national capital, Beijing is also home to almost all major government institutions, including the National People’s Congress and the State Council. 8
Public Safety
Violent crime is relatively rare in Beijing, but petty theft is common. Pickpockets like to target crowds, espe-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
cially crowds of tourists, and grab bags and wallets, or use knives or razors to slit open bags and steal their contents. Most crimes are handled by the Public Security Bureau, which apprehends, prosecutes, and sentences criminals. Beijing’s districts have their own police jurisdictions, with a number of substations, or precincts, to each district. Crimes involving illegal drugs are prosecuted harshly. 9
Economy
Since the Communist revolution of 1949, Beijing has become one of the nation’s industrial centers. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Chinese government funded major development of heavy industry in the city, led by the modernization of the Shih-ching-shan Iron and Steel Works, which is now one of the country’s major steel-producing facilities. Today Beijing ranks second only to Shanghai in industrialization, with highly developed machinery, textile, and petrochemical sectors. Agriculture also plays a significant role in Beijing’s economy, with a large farming belt on the city’s periphery serving to reduce its dependence on food supplies shipped in from the Yangtze Valley. Beijing has a rapidly growing service sector, consisting mostly of government agencies. The People’s Bank of China, the major institution in China’s centralized banking system, has its head office in central Beijing, which is also home to a variety of specialized banks, including the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China and the
41
Beijing Agricultural Bank of China. Other financial institutions in the city include major insurance companies, credit cooperatives, securities firms, and investment companies. Wholesale and retail commerce and tourism also play a major role in the city’s economy. The free-market economic reforms of the 1990s created an economic boom for Beijing with the influx of foreign capital and technology. 10
Environment
Like other cities throughout the world, Beijing has paid an environmental price for its twentieth-century economic and technological progress. The heavy industrialization introduced in the 1950s brought with it air pollution, which the government has addressed by relocating factories to the outskirts of the municipality and using natural gas instead of coal as a heating fuel. However, the growing number of motor vehicles in the city has created a new threat to Beijing’s air quality. In response, the government has undertaken highway improvement programs in an effort to relieve traffic congestion, but the new roads have quickly become crowded as cars and taxis replace bicycles and buses. Growing consumer affluence and the corresponding increase in the use of modern appliances and other conveniences have led to increased energy use, as well as waste from disposable packaging.
42
11
Shopping
Beijing’s main shopping thoroughfare, Wangfujing Market Street, attracts some 100,000 customers every day. Anchored by the Beijing Department Store, its mostly state-operated retailers include other department stores, bookshops and other specialty stores, as well as the Dong’an Mall. Major additions and renovations are slated for completion around 2000. Although renovated in the 1980s, Liulichang Street still has the appearance of a market street from the Qing Dynasty. Its shops are known for their selection of antiques, rare books, calligraphy, and arts and crafts. In the Qianmen district south of Tiananmen Square, street vendors sell foods, traditional Chinese medicine, and a colorful variety of consumer goods, from bamboo streamers to suitcases. Traditional markets, such as the Hongqiao Market and the Guanyuan Market, offer an eclectic selection of goods, ranging from food to furniture to songbirds. Another traditional shopping venue is the temple fair. Traditionally these fairs, featuring vendors and entertainment, were held at Beijing’s temples during various religious festivals. The custom has been revived, but only during the Spring Festival. Among the most popular items sought by visitors to China are antiques, carpets, silk products, furniture, jewelry, paintings, calligraphy, and porcelain.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Beijing 12
Education
The educational system in Beijing, as elsewhere in China, consists of six years of universal primary education and six years of secondary education. In addition, both the government and a number of private groups operate nurseries and kindergartens for younger children to make it easier for their mothers to work. The early years of primary education emphasize reading, writing, and arithmetic, with history, geography, and science added in the later years. There are three types of secondary schools: general middle schools, which offer college-preparatory courses; normal schools, which prepare students to attend teacher training colleges; and vocational and technical schools. As home to both Beijing University and Qinghua University, Beijing is an important center for higher education in China. Beijing University, founded in 1898, was relocated from its original site in the central city to a new campus that has been significantly expanded to accommodate one of China’s largest universities. With six schools, 31 departments, and 44 research centers, Qinghua University is China’s premier technical institute and one of the country’s major centers for scientific and technical research and development. The northwestern edge of the city, home to both Beijing University and Qinghua University, has become a major educational and research district that is also home to the People’s University of China, the Central Institute of Nationalities, the Beijing Normal
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
College, the Beijing Medical College, and the Central Conservatory of Music, as well as institutes specializing in aeronautics, petroleum production, forestry, agriculture, and other fields. 13
Health Care
Medical education and practice in China combines Western medicine with traditional Chinese practices, notably the use of herbal medicine and acupuncture. Beijing’s largest hospital is Capital Hospital, founded in 1921 as Beijing Union Hospital. Today it combines a general hospital with pediatric and gynecological clinics. Many hospitals have been built in Beijing since 1949; a large number are affiliated with medical schools as clinical teaching institutions. The city’s major pediatric facility is the new Beijing Children’s Hospital, located near the site of the Fuhsing Gate. Beijing has a number of specialty hospitals, including facilities devoted to orthopedic, chest, plastic, and traumarelated surgery. 14
Media
Two daily national newspapers are published in Beijing: Renmin Ribao (People’s Daily), the official newspaper of the Chinese Communist Party, which had a 1998 circulation of approximately three million, and Gongren Ribao (Worker’s Daily), which had a 1998 circulation of approximately 2.5 million. Other major daily papers published in the capital (with 1998 circulation figures) are Nongmin Ribao (Peasant’s Daily;
43
Beijing one million); Zhongguo Qingnian Bao (China Youth News; one million); Beijing Ribao (Beijing Daily; 700,000); Beijing Wanbao (Beijing Evening News; 800,000); and Guangming Ribao (Guangming Daily; 950,000). China Daily is an English-language newspaper published by the Chinese government (1998 circulation 150,000), and the Economic Daily is a daily business paper. Radio broadcasts are under the control of the Central People’s Broadcasting Station (CPBS). Programs are aired in the official Chinese dialect of putonghua, as well as local dialects and minority ethnic languages. Two television stations (CCTV 1 and 2) are operated by Chinese Central Television, and three more are operated by Beijing Television (BTV). 15
Sports
Located in the eastern part of the city, the Beijing Workers’ Stadium is China’s largest sports facility, seating 80,000 for soccer (the country’s most popular sport) and track and field events. Facilities for table tennis and other indoor games are available at the capital Gymnasium in western Beijing, which also accommodates an indoor ice rink for hockey and figure skating. The indoor sport of basketball has become quite popular among the Chinese in the winter months, and the country now has two professional basketball leagues. Martial arts retain their traditional popularity, with demonstrations provided at the Asian Games Village. Beijing also has a golf course and a race-
44
track, where spectators can place bets although other types of gambling are illegal in China. 16
Parks and Recreation
Beijing’s history as a gracious imperial city can be seen in its parks and outdoor recreational areas, which are more numerous than those in most other Chinese cities. The most centrally located is Chung-shan Park, adjacent to the west wall of Tiananmen Square. With pavilions, kiosks, and other structures scattered amid pools, flower gardens, willow trees, and bamboo, the park constitutes a characteristic Chinese garden landscape that includes a pavilion built over a lotus pond. This park is also the site of an ancient altar and the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall (formerly a religious shrine), which is over 500 years old—Beijing’s oldest wooden building. Ching-shan Park, also called Meishan (or Coal Hill) Park, extends over an artificial hill north of the Forbidden City. The park, which affords a dramatic view of the city, is also home to the educational and recreational facilities of the Beijing Children’s Palace, located at its northern end. Half of Pei Hai Park’s 71 hectares (176 acres) consist of water, making this park a favorite with rowers in summer and ice skaters in winter. A number of cultural and educational facilities, including the Beijing Library, are located within its boundaries. The Summer Palace is the largest park on the outskirts of the city. K’unming Lake occupies four-fifths of the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Beijing
A giant panda bear naps in the Beijing Zoological Gardens, China’s largest zoo. (Israel Talby; Woodfin Camp)
park’s 324 hectares (800 acres), with the rest consisting of artificial landscaping. There are more than 100 buildings in the park, as well as elaborate covered promenades connecting its lakefront sites. The Beijing Zoological Gardens at the western edge of the city is China’s largest zoo and is home to animals from all over China and the world. The zoo is especially famous for its giant panda bears. Popular outdoor activities in Beijing include tennis, golf, miniature golf, badminton, squash, horseback riding, kite flying, martial arts, swim-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
ming, and the contemporary sport of paintball. 17
Performing Arts
Beijing has traditionally been the cultural and educational capital of China, a legacy that dates back to the Ming dynasty. The political upheavals of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries led to a decline in the traditional Chinese arts, which reached a low point during the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s. Since the late 1970s, however, government support for the arts has revived, and Beijing has
45
Beijing become an active venue for both traditional Chinese and Western performing arts. Classical concerts by both Chinese and foreign artists can be heard at the Beijing Concert Hall, and the capital has its own symphony orchestra. The Central Ballet of China performs both foreign and Chinese works on several different stages. Chinese folk dance is performed by the Oriental Song and Dance Ensemble. The traditional Beijing Opera was revived in the 1990s although it has been popular primarily among China’s older residents. There are more than 25 theaters in Beijing, and theatrical presentations range from the works of British playwright William Shakespeare (1564– 1616) to American dramatist Arthur Miller (b. 1915) to contemporary avant garde Chinese works. The major theatrical venues are the Capital Theater and the Central Academy of Drama Experimental Theatre. The traditional performing arts of puppetry and acrobatics remain very popular. 18
Libraries and Museums
The Beijing Library, located within Pei Hai Park, is home to the history collections of China’s National Library, including material from imperial libraries dating back to the Sung, Ming, and Ch’ing dynasties. The collections include ancient books and manuscripts, maps, and rubbings from historic inscriptions. Since the late 1980s, the library’s modern holdings have been
46
housed in a new building at the western edge of the city. Beijing’s largest collection of artistic treasures—including stone and ivory carvings, enamel work, metal work, embroidery, and porcelain—is housed in the Palace Museum, located within the Imperial Palace. The original decor of many of the rooms has been preserved, constituting an additional artistic and historic attraction. The artifacts in the Museum of Chinese History, located adjacent to Tiananmen Square, chart the progress of Chinese history over the past 4,000 years, from its ancient civilizations through its dynastic periods. Its collection includes thousands of artworks, relics, and scientific inventions. Located in one of its wings is the Museum of the Chinese Revolution, which traces the history of the Chinese Communist Party from its origins through the revolutionary and civil war periods leading up to 1949. The China National Art Gallery displays traditional calligraphy and watercolors, as well as temporary exhibits of works by contemporary Chinese artists. Beijing also has museums devoted to military history, imperial archives, and natural history, as well as the China’s first planetarium, with an adjacent observatory and meteorological station. The former residence of acclaimed author Lu Xun (1881–1936) has been turned into a museum, displaying photographs and documents related to his life.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Beijing
To u r i s m
19
In recent decades, Beijing’s tourist industry has grown rapidly to become an important sector of the city’s economy, thanks to the historical and cultural attractions of the central city itself and those found in outlying areas, such as the Great Wall, the tombs containing the remains of 13 of the 16 Ming emperors, and the sites where Beijing man and other prehistoric human remains have been found. The influx of visitors has spurred new hotel construction and the renovation of existing facilities. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY–FEBRUARY Spring Festival (celebrated in many Asian nations as Lunar New Year, and known in the United States as Chinese New Year)
MARCH International Working Women’s Day
APRIL
The Great Wall is one of China’s greatest tourist attractions. (Mike Yamashita; Woodfin Camp)
Qingming
MAY
OCTOBER
International Labor Day Youth Day
National Day
JUNE
21
International Children’s Day
JULY Anniversary of the Founding of the Chinese Communist Party
JULY-AUGUST Dragon Boat Festival
AUGUST Anniversary of the People’s Liberation Army
SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER Mid-Autumn Festival
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Famous Citizens
Cao Zhan (1715–1763), author of China’s most famous novel, Dream of the Red Chamber. Deng Xiaoping (1904–1997), political leader. Ding Ling (1904–1986), short story writer. Lao She (1899–1966), satirical novelist.
47
Beijing Li Dazhou (1888–1927), co-founder of the Chinese Communist Party. Lu Xun (1881–1936), author. Mao Zedong (1893–1976), Chinese Communist leader. Zhang Tianyi (b. 1907), short story writer and novelist. Zhang Yimou (b. 1950), film director. Zhou Enlai (1898–1976), Chinese premier. Zhou Zuoren (1885–1996), essayist and scholar. 22
For Further Study
Websites Beijing Centre for Planning, “”Beijing Window.” [Online] Available http://www.china.org.cn/ AcrossCountry/Beijing_w/beijing/ indexe.htm (accessed April 14, 2000). China Travel System [Online] Available http:// www.beijing.chinats.com (accessed December 30, 1999). Excite Travel, “Destination: China.” [Online] Available http://www.excite.cm/travel/ countries/china/beijing (accessed December 30, 1999).
Government Offices Ministry of Supervision 4 Zaojunmiao Haidian Qu Beijing 100081 State Development and Planning Commission 38 Yuetannan Jie Xicheng Qu Beijing 100824
Tourist and Convention Bureaus China International Travel Service (CITS) 103 Fu Xing Men Nei Dajie Beijing 100800
48
China Travel Service (CTS) Beijing Tourist Building 28 Jianguomenwai Dajie, 100022 State Bureau of Tourism Jie 3 Jian Guo Men Nei Dajie Beijing 100740
Publications China Daily 15 Huixin Dongjie Chaoyang District, 100029 Gongren Ribao Liupukeng Andingmen Wai Nongmin Ribao 61 Guxing Lu Renmin Ribao 2 Jin Tai Xi Lu
Books Baldwin, Robert F. Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Beijing. Illustrations by Ray Webb. Minneapolis: Runestone Press, 1999. Cohn, Don, and Zhang Jingqing Beijingwalks. New York: H. Holt, 1992. Elder, Chris, ed. Old Peking: City of the Ruler of the World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Lin, Yutang. Imperial Peking. New York: Crown Publishers, 1961. Lindesay, William, and Wu Qi. Beijing. Lincolnwood, IL: Passport Books, 1997. Meyer, Jeffrey F. The Dragons of Tiananmen: Beijing as a Sacred City. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1991. Salisbury, Harrison Evans. Tiananmen Diary: Thirteen Days in June. Boston: Little, Brown, 1989. Shi, Tianjian. Political Participation in Beijing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997. Sit, Victor F.S. Beijing: The Nature and Planning of a Chinese Capital City. New York: Wiley, 1995. Strand, David. Rickshaw Beijing: City People and Politics in the 1920s. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Berlin Berlin, Germany, Europe Founded: October 28, 1237 Location: Europe, northeastern Germany, on the River Spree Flag: A white field with a red stripe on top and bottom; the Berlin bear rests in the center. Time Zone: 1 PM = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: 23% of the foreign residents in Germany live in Hamburg and Berlin, including a large population of Turkish immigrants. Elevation: 34 meters above sea level. Berlin lies on a huge plain in the northeast corner of Germany, comprising 833 square kilometers. Latitude and Longitude: 52°31’ N, 13°25’ E Coastline: None Climate: Mild summers and wet winters. Annual Mean Temperature: 47°F (8°C); in January: 31°F (-1°C); in July: 66°F (19°C). It either rains or snows in Berlin during 91 days of the year. Its placement on the European continent, with the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Baltic Sea above, make the city subject to the prevailing winds from across the water, carrying moisture to the land. Average Annual Precipitation: 23 inches Government: A parliament, senate and mayor Weights and Measures: Metric Monetary Units: 1 deutsch mark = 100 pfennige Telephone Area Code: Germany country code: 49; Berlin code: 30 Postal Codes: 10000–12527, 12531–14199
1
Introduction
The political home of Germany’s Federal Government and the educational center of Germany, Berlin is the nation’s capital and busiest city. Although major reconstruction projects have helped make Berlin an attractive, modern city, the shadows of World War II (1939–45) and the Berlin Wall still darken its recent history. This is the seat of German power, where Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) gained control in 1933 by marching through the Brandenburg Gate and taking over parliament in the
Reichtags building. After World War II, Berlin turned into a Cold War battleground, separated into a Soviet-influenced East and an American-influenced West by the Berlin Wall in 1966. But, there are startling contrasts to war in Berlin, such as the intellectual and scientific blossoming of the Enlightenment during the 1700s and “golden” 1920s of the twentieth century. Always a cultural center, Berlin has continued this tradition with many museums and theaters, while Berlin’s trade associations employ the majority of the work-
49
Berlin where transportation lines lead directly into all sections of the continent.
Berlin Population Profile Population: 3,337,000 Area: 883 sq km (340 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 95.1% German; 2.3% Turkish; 0.7% Italian; 0.4% Greek; 0.4Polish; 1.1% other Area: Area within city limits, including the western Kurfürstendamm and the eastern Alexanderplatz, plus Spandau, Marzahn, Hellersdorf, Grunewald, Frohnau, and Westend World population rank1: 85 Percentage of total country population2: 4.0% Average yearly growth rate: 0.1% Nicknames: Divided City; Venice of the North; the name Berlin means “bog” in Slavic, so called because of the swamps surrounding the city. ——— 1. The Berlin metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of Germany’s total population living in the Berlin metropolitan area.
force with apprenticeships permanent jobs. 2
and
Getting There
Berlin is located in the northeastern corner of Germany on the banks of the river Spree. On the South Bank, along the Strasse des 17 Juni, monuments like the Berlin Zoo, Tiergarten, Brandenburg Gate, Reichstag, and Schloss Bellevue draw tourists. Numerous transportation projects are currently under way, modernizing and extending the existing system, and connecting the former East and West Berlin into one community. The city is also seen as something of a gateway between Eastern and Western Europe,
50
Highways Berlin’s urban motorway is the A100, while the six-lane A113 travels along the Teltow Canal. Bus and Railroad Service High speed trains, such as the Inter City Express (ICE) and the Euro City (EC) operate to and from Berlin, but in 2005 the Transrapid magnetic levitation train will make travel even faster between Hamburg and Berlin (the two largest cities in Germany). There have been some problems finding funds to install the Transrapid, which have delayed the opening. Lehrter Bahnhof is the major train station in Berlin, which is located in the government precinct, right next to the Chancellery. From this train station, a passenger will be able travel directly to any location on the continent. Airports The Tegel airport is the main international airport in western Berlin, closely followed by Shonefeld in the east. These airports will soon be complemented by the new Berlin-Brandenburg International Airport (BBI), slated for completion in 2007. Major airlines, such as Air France, Austrian Airlines, British Airways, Delta, KLM, Lufthansa, and Pan Am, operate in Berlin.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Berlin
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
51
Berlin 3
Getting Around
The city of Greater Berlin was laid out in its present form in 1920, divided down the middle into North and South banks by the river Spree, and into Eastern and Western sections by the former Berlin wall. Some major roads that run through the city are the Strasse des 17 Juni, Kurfurstendamm, Potsdamer, Friedrich, and Unter den Linden. These roads are lined with historical buildings and cultural venues that are easily accessible by the underground railways. Bus and Commuter Rail Service The Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe (BVG—Berlin Public Transportation) in Berlin has attempted to lessen noise, pollution, and traffic by strengthening the public transportation service. Bus service is less convenient than using the trams (which run mostly in eastern Berlin) and quick underground railways. The suburban railway network, “Sbahn” and “U-bahn,” consists of 300 kilometers (186 miles) of track which runs around in circles under the city. The U5 travels from east to west while the U6 travels north to south.
River. Potsdamer Platz, in the center of the city, holds the State Library, National Gallery, and Philharmonic Concert Hall. Tour boats travel on the many lakes and canals around the city. 4
The population of Berlin in 1999 amounted to more than 4.3 million, but this figure has been declining since the 1970s, in part because the birthrate is one of the lowest in the world. Only ten-and-a-half births occur per 1,000 inhabitants during a given year. However, an increasing number of foreigners have been settling in Berlin due to recently loosened immigration laws and easier citizenship requirements. Nearly 500,000 foreigners live in what has been called the most international city in Germany, including Turks, Russians, Poles, and others. Despite the mixture of cultures the official language of the people is High German, which came into common usage after Martin Luther’s translation of the bible in the sixteenth century. There is also a residual split between East Germans, or “Ossis,” and West Germans, who are called “Wessis.”
Sightseeing Many of Berlin’s sights are within walking distance of the public transportation system, including the boulevard Unter den Linden which starts at Brandenburg Gate, continuing to the river, with the Tiergarten nearby. Museum Island is a popular place to view the extensive art collections of Berlin, which is actually located in the Spree
52
People
5
Neighborhoods
The center of Berlin is marked by the Reichstag, or Deutscher BundestagPlenarbereich Reichstagsgebäude (German Federal Assembly-Plenary Area, Imperial Assembly Building), which was renamed to symbolize a break with the city’s Nazi history. The Brandenburg Tor, or Gate, is the doorway from West
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Berlin
City Fact Comparison Berlin (Germany)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
3,337,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
28 October 1237
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$118
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$66
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$16
$14
$15
$16
$200
$173
$246
$207
8
13
20
11
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
Akhbar El Yom/ Berliner Zeitung Al Akhbar 370,000
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1877
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
to East, where the Berlin Wall crossed the city center before it was destroyed in November 1989. The eastern and western portions of the city differ greatly, with the western Kurfürstendamm, or Ku’damm, commercial center sporting all of the nicest shops and cafés while the eastern Alexanderplatz has been described as “depressing.” This should change soon because the greatest building activity in Germany is taking place in Berlin, improving the infrastructure that will link both sides of the city together again. Much of the population lives in the suburbs. Spandau, in the west of Berlin, is home to one of Berlin’s largest residential devel-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
opments, Wasserstadt Oberhavel on the banks of the Havel. Biesdorf-Süd, between Marzahn and Hellersdorf, houses 500,000 residents on the edge of the former East Berlin. The nicer neighborhoods lie around the lakes in the west, including the Grunewald, Frohnau, and Westend communities. The majority of Berliners rent housing and enjoy the idea of a local community, or the Kiez. Although Berlin has always been a popular place to live, more people are emigrating to nearby towns and cities than are moving into the capital city. The government has embarked upon a complete restructuring of surrounding communities
53
Berlin century or more of separation, the administrations of these two towns merged in 1307 to fight against robber barons. These “noblemen” acted more like pirates, demanding huge tributes and terrorizing the populace, but without an army the citizens of Berlin could not fight back. By the year 1411, the town had asked the Holy Roman Emperor for protection, bringing in Fredrich von Hohenzollern, Burggraf of Nuremberg and his army. The Hohenzollerns ruled Berlin and most of Germany for centuries, conquering Prussia in 1640 and founding the German Reich in 1871. Traditionally the capital city and royal residence of the Hohenzollerns, Friedrich Wilhelm chose Berlin as his seat of power in the newly founded Prussia. Eight Friedrich Wilhelms followed his example, building the military and economic strength of Germany from Berlin. The changing skyline of Berlin. The reunification of Communist Germany has prompted rapid modernization. (Bernard Boutrit; Woodfin Camp)
designed to help draw back residents; it is expected to show results by the year 2010. 6
History
In 1237, the fishing community of Colln was first registered as a town located on the south bank of the Spree River. After 1244, opposite this settlement on the north bank, lay the larger merchant town of Berlin. Following a
54
The Industrial Revolution (c. 1750) brought new factories and an influx of settlers to the city from the surrounding countryside. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the city’s population reached more than four million, attracting both industry and culture. By 1871, Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898) and Wilhelm I (1797– 1888) succeeded where others had failed by bringing together Denmark, Austria, France, Prussia, and the German states into one empire, with Berlin as the capital. This was the first time that the German states were truly unified, but the German empire, which extended across Europe and into the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Berlin
German cathedral, opera house, and French cathedral, the centerpiece of Frederick the Great. (Bernard Boutrit; Woodfin Camp)
colonies, still posed a military challenge. The shock of losing World War I (1914–18) caused riots in Berlin against the traditional imperial system, which was replaced by a democratic constitution in Weimar, in 1919. This political instability was accentuated by the economic problems, or Great Depression, of the “golden” 1920s, but Berlin seemed to flower under pressure. Ironically, the city bloomed into the most popular gathering place for avant-garde artists, like Fritz Lang, Klaus Mann, and
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Bertolt Brecht. In 1933, Hitler ended the party by marching thousands of troops into Berlin and imposing military rule. The 1936 Olympic games in Berlin were sadly overshadowed by war preparations. When Hitler annexed Austria and part of Czechoslovakia in 1938, he also ordered the destruction of Jewish buildings in Berlin called Reichskristallnacht, or the night of the broken glass. The Nazis systematically killed approximately 50,000 Jews in concentration camps until World War II ended in 1945. Only two-and-a-half million of
55
Berlin Berlin’s four million inhabitants were left after the fighting ended. Berlin was divided into four parts at first, with the Soviet Union, United States, Britain, and France overseeing the reconstruction. By 1948, the United States had claimed West Germany, and the Soviet Union had assumed control of East Germany, but Berlin’s location in the east caused problems. The democracies wanted to keep some hold on Berlin (the traditional power seat), so they proceeded to airlift food into the starved Soviet city. In 1961, the Soviets built a wall dividing the city in half, which remained until 1989. At this point, the western capital moved to Bonn while the Soviet occupiers stayed in Berlin. This artificial separation made reunification a happy occasion, but difficult economically and socially. In 1994, the last foreign troops left Berlin, signaling the end to 50 years of occupation and allowing the German government’s homecoming to Berlin in 1999. 7
Government
The city-state of Berlin’s political system consists of the mayor, the House of Representatives, or city Parliament, which is elected for four-year terms with a minimum of 150 representatives and public meetings, and the Senate. There are ten ministerial portfolios. The constitution written in 1950 for western Berlin has applied to eastern Berlin as well since 1991. The city is also the Federal Capital of Germany, with all major governmental offices located on the banks of the river Spree.
56
8
Public Safety
The police force in Berlin consists of the general police for petty crimes, criminal police for serious crimes, alert forces for large-scale problems, and the river police. The Federal Criminal Police Office (BKA), which deals with criminals that operate across state boundaries, has one of its bases in Berlin and is also the national center for Interpol. The border patrol also operates along the Polish border, which lies only 100 kilometers (62 miles) away from Berlin. 9
Economy
Berlin began as a fishing and trading community, selling primarily rye and timber. This role in trade grew larger through the centuries as a disciplined military force protected foreign tradesmen and helped collect customs tariffs. The 1830s brought the Industrial Revolution to Berlin, which hastily built factories to produce machine tools, dyes, medicines, and electrical goods. AEG and Siemens had an early start in Berlin, fueling participation in both World Wars. The Great Depression brought economic chaos, but success in the arts, especially in film production. Although Berlin was devastated by the time World War II was over, major reconstruction projects funded by the victors helped to keep the economy going. Berlin continues to deal with ongoing reintegration of the West with the East, as well as an economy that is shifting from the processing to the service sector. Many companies relocated from
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Berlin
The Brandenburg Gate is the doorway from West to East, and signifies the difference between the western commercial center sporting all of the nicest shops and cafés and the eastern side described as “depressing.” (Bernard Boutrit; Woodfin Camp)
Berlin during the uncertain years after the war, but now Daimler-Benz, Sony, IBM-Germany, and German Rail have headquarters along the Spree. Berlin is one of Germany’s largest banking centers, the world’s leading conference center, the seat of Federal Government, and the largest university city in Germany (147,000 students) with three major universities. Half of the 1.6 million workers are in the service sector, and about 13 percent of the workforce is unemployed, but recent restructuring aims to lower this figure. Also, projects
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
with the rest of the European Union, including monetary unification, have played an important role in stabilizing the Berlin economy. 10
Environment
The Social Democrat-Green Party coalition in Germany’s federal government gave environmentalists a strong say in policymaking at the end of the twentieth century. As the twenty-first century begins, the Federal Environmental Agency in Berlin hopes to pro-
57
Berlin mote the efficient use of energy, to close substance cycles, and reverse land depletion trends, but the biggest problem comes from eastern industry. Lignite was the main source of energy in the former GDR, satisfying 70 percent of the east’s requirement, leading to massive pollution throughout Germany. Lignite is still the principal domestic source of energy, with reserves reaching 43 billion tons in the Rhineland. The alternative, nuclear power, has gained ridicule from environmentalists who see nuclear power plants as more of a danger than a viable resource. A number of rivers and lakes flow in and around Berlin, which are as polluted as the streets of the city. The administration’s energy policy hopes to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 25 percent between 1990 and 2010, in part by building new, energy-efficient flats and limiting industrial pollutants. By 1995, carbon dioxide levels were down by ten percent. The Berlin Solar Campaign also hopes to bring solar energy, which can be used without creating harmful emissions, into widespread use. In recent years, flooding in Germany resulting from alternating El Niño and La Nina weather patterns and stimulated by global warming has washed away topsoil and endangered lives. It is hoped that with replanting and other soil conservation measures the land and forests will remain an important resource for generations to come. 11
Shopping
At the trendy Prenzlauer Berg, art galleries, cafés, and restaurants line the
58
street. A large, new shopping mall has been built at Potsdamer Platz, a startling contrast to the eastern Alexanderplatz, which has barely been renovated since Soviet occupation. The Kurfürstendamm, or Ku’damm, is a threeand-a-half-kilometer (two-mile) strip of shops, movie theaters, bars, and cafés, including 6,500 pubs and restaurants. Ku’damm and Tauentzienstrasse in the West are the main shopping centers, along with Friedrichstrasse in the East. Shop hours are normally 9:30 AM to 8:00 PM Monday through Friday and 9:00 AM to 4:00 PM Saturday. Most shops are closed on Sunday, but more and more stores are opening their doors to customers all week long. Business is booming in the newly renovated capital of Germany, drawing customers and holiday travelers from around the world. A visitor can get a three-day pass on the underground in order to visit all the shopping centers without missing a store. 12
Education
Compulsory schooling begins for Berlin students at age seven and lasts for nine or ten years. Most children are tested at age ten for aptitude and then placed in a Hauptshule or Realshule for vocational trades, a Gymnasium for academics, or a comprehensive Gesamtschule, which teaches all trades. Those from the Gymnasium finish school with their abitur exams while children from the Realschule continue on to technical school, or Fachobershule, and polytechnic university, or Fachhochschule. Education through post-graduate work is free
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Berlin for all, including foreigners. There are three major universities in Berlin: Freie Universität Berlin with 61,000 students, Technische Universität Berlin with 38,000 students, and Humbolt Universität zu Berlin with 19,000 students. There are numerous other colleges that cater to more particular professions and trades. The guild system, which began during the middle ages in Germany, continues to some extent through the educational system which is geared towards satisfying the business community’s needs with apprenticeship and internship requirements in many fields. Berlin is also home to a large number of foreign students that come to the international city to learn the German language, as well as about the clash between western and eastern culture and the two world wars that took place largely on German and French soil. 13
Health Care
Everyone in Germany is entitled to health care, with benefits programs divided into two categories. Statutory insurance provides virtually free choice of doctors (on a quarterly basis), unlimited visits and checkups, prescription drug coverage with a co-payment, comprehensive dental visits, vision and hearing aids, mental health visits, monthly home allowances for the chronically ill, liberal maternity benefits, and disability pay. The government receives funds to pay for health care from employee taxes and public and private donations, but much of the money comes from government coffers. Partly as a result of comprehensive
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
health care and the social welfare system, the German government’s debt has risen substantially. 14
Media
Die Welt is the only national German daily to move its headquarters from Bonn to Berlin and to add expanded coverage of the city. There are nearly 1,200 accredited correspondents in Bonn and Berlin, working for the following newspapers and magazines. The B.Z. has the largest circulation of the city with 298,500; the Berliner Zeitung comes next with 216,600; and the Berliner Morgenpost, Tagesspiegel, and Tages Zeitung also have extensive circulations. Magazines such as Der Spiegel and Focus are popular, but American and other European magazines can be found on most store shelves as well. 15
Sports
The Berlin New Year Run brings athletes out of doors for one of the largest sports events in the city. The Berliner SV 1892 rugby club, the Berlin Cricket Club—the Refugees—and ALBA Berlin basketball team—Albatros—comprise the major sports clubs. 16
Parks and Recreation
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Prussian Kings and German Emperors of the House of Hohenzollern transformed the Havel landscape into a series of parks, beginning a great tradition of German respect for nature. The
59
Berlin
The National Theater is located in Academy Square in East Berlin, the music capital of Germany. (Sepp Seitz; Woodfin Camp)
center of these public works was in Potsdam, but this extended towards the Berlin royal palace and winter residence that were both destroyed during World War II. On King’s Road to Berlin, Glienicke Palace’s gardens contain a landscaped park, and Babelsberg Palace’s gothic buildings are surrounded by manicured land. In the center of Berlin, Unter den Linden is a nice boulevard to promenade, leading to the Zoologischer Garten and Tiergarten, which is a protected woodland. On Museum Island, a number of gardens also surround the museum district, making the island an
60
attractive place to visit. The lakes and rivers throughout the city lend the opportunity to sightsee by boat and to enjoy nature and the great outdoors. 17
Performing Arts
Berlin is the music capital of Germany, named so because of the many opera houses and orchestras. There are three opera houses and five other orchestras, including the top-rated Deutsche Staatsoper Unter den Linden with international music director Daniel Barenboim and the Philhar-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Berlin monic Hall, the Deutsche Oper Berlin, and the Komische Oper. The Musical Theatre Berlin, Theater des Westens, Friei Volksbühne Berlin, and Theater am Kurfürstendamm put on plays and musicals. To get a taste of cabaret-style entertainment, a visitor can go to Bar Jeder Vernunft-Spiegelpalast, the Wintergarten, and Chamäleon Variete. The Berlin Festival, Film Festival, and Theater make the city a gathering place for young artists in the progressive cultural scene. The nightlife is scattered with small club gatherings that feature live music, electronic music, and theatrical productions. On just about every street corner in the arts districts, street performers can be seen juggling, dancing, singing, painting, or playing an instrument. 18
Libraries and Museums
The Berlin Central and Regional Library is a fusion of the American House Library and the Berlin State Library which took place in 1995. The new Bundestag Library supports governmental officials. For business reference, the Science and Technology Center Berlin Adlershof (WISTA) contains a wealth of products and services in information technology in an integrated technology park just southeast of Berlin. For tourists, the New National Gallery contains works by Hals, Rembrandt, and Vermeer, as well as twentieth-century German art, especially Berlin portraits and cityscapes by Geroge Grosz and Otto Dix. The Pergamonmuseum contains classical artifacts
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
and antiquities, such as Islamic art, a Pergamon Altar (160 B.C.), and a Babylonian Throne Room, located on Museum Island in the middle of the river Spree with the Bodemuseum. Finally, the Bauhaus Archive Design Museum holds works from the Bauhaus period, which lasted from 1919 to 1933. A three-day pass to these museums and more can be purchased from the German tourism board. 19
To u r i s m
More than six million tourists visit Berlin every year, making it one of the most popular cities in Europe. Volker Hassemer, managing director of the city’s marketing agency, claims that “If you want to see the past, go to Rome. If you want to see the future, come to Berlin.” The city is undergoing massive reconstruction, with some of the most advanced architecture in the world. Hanover Expo 2000 set out to prove to the world that Germany has not only recovered from World War II but thrived on foreign investment and European protection. Nevertheless, many tourists still come to see historical monuments, including Haus am Checkpoint Charlie, the Berlin Wall memorial, the Fernsehturm (TV tower) which gives a spectacular view of the city, the Reichtags building, and Brandenburg Gate. A number of companies offer walking tours of the city, as well as boating excursions on the river Spree.
61
Berlin 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY Berlin New Year’s Run Unter den Linden
FEBRUARY Berlinale Annual International Film Festival
JULY Love Parade (techno and rave party with a procession through Berlin)
OCTOBER Jazz Festival Berlin Deutschland Festival (street procession Unter den Linden with presentations by German states)
NOVEMBER International Riding and Jumping Tournament in the Deutschlandhalle Anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall “NovaEuropa—New Europe” Festival (European dance festival)
21
Famous Citizens
Otto Hahn (1879–1968), physical chemist, discovered the radioactive protactinium in Berlin with Lisa Meitner. Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859), baron, naturalist, and traveler.
Party, first woman named as senior member of the Bundestag. Max Planck (1858–1947), theoretical physicist, formulator of the quantum theory. Rudolf Schoenheimer (1898–1941), biochemist. Louise Schroder (1887–1957), committed socialist, first woman to be called “Mother of Berlin” in the late 1940s. 22
For Further Study
Websites Berlin Central and Regional Library. [Online] Available http://www.zlb.de/ (accessed April 14, 2000). Berlin website with links. [Online] Available http://www.berlin.de/ (accessed November 30, 1999). Senate Department of Construction, Housing and Transport, Berlin, Germany. [Online] Available http://www.bau.berlin.de/verkehr/ berlinetwork (accessed April 14, 2000). The Week in Germany. [Online] Available http:// www.germany.info.org/ (accessed April 14, 2000).
Government Offices
Karl Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767– 1835), statesman and philologist, founder of the Friedrich Wilhelm (now Humboldt) University of Berlin.
Senatskanzlei Berliner Rathaus 10173 Berlin Tel. (030)90260 Fax (030)90262013
Helen Lange (1848–1930), founder of the German Women’s Teacher’s Association in Berlin in 1889.
Tourist and Convention Bureaus
Marie-Elizabeth Luders (1888–1966), first woman named as honorary president of the Federal Democratic
62
German National Tourist Office 122 East 42nd St. Chanin Building, 52nd Floor New York, NY 10168–0072 USA Tel. (212)661–7200 Fax (212)661–7174
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Berlin
The Berlin Wall crossed the city center before it was destroyed in November 1989. (Bernard Boutrit; Woodfin Camp)
Publications Berliner Morgenpost Axel-Springer-Str. 65 D-10888 Berlin Tel. (030) 25910 Fax (030) 2516071 [Online] Available http://www.berlinermorgenpost.de/ (Accessed April 14, 2000).
Books Gumbel, Andrew. Berlin. London: Cadogan Books, 1991. The Heads of Government of the 16 Constituent
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
States in Germany. Bonn, Germany: Inter Nations Press, 1999. Koppler, Dr. Arno and Stefan Reichart, eds. Facts About Germany. Frankfurt am Main: German Societats Verlag, 1996. Larsson, Mans O., ed. Let’s Go Germany. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999. Merkl, Peter H. The Federal Republic of Germany at Fifty: The End of a Century of Turmoil. New York: NYU Press, 1999. Solsten, Eric, ed. Germany: A Country Study. 3rd ed. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1995.
63
Boston Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America, North America Founded: 1630; Incorporated: 1822 Location: Eastern Massachusetts on the Atlantic coast; United States, North America Flag: Adopted in 1917, the flag features the city seal in white with a creamy beige border on a dark blue field. Time Zone: 7 am Eastern Standard Time (EST) = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: White 63%; Black 26%; Hispanic origin (of any race) 11% (numbering 34,200 in 1990) Elevation: 6.1 m (20 ft) above sea level. Much of Boston’s once-hilly peninsula at the head of Massachusetts Bay was leveled to fill in the tidal flats of the Back Bay. Now the city lies mostly on gently rolling terrain. Latitude and Longitude: 42º35'N, 71º06'W Climate: Generally mild summers and cold, damp winters. The city’s climate is influenced by the Atlantic Ocean, which moderates winter cold, increases fog and humidity, and makes Boston one of the country’s windiest cities. With frequent spring and summer showers and regular snowfall in the winter, Boston is also one of the wettest cities in the country. Annual Mean Temperature: January –1ºC (30ºF); July 23ºC (74ºF). Seasonal Average Snowfall: Over 101.6 cm (40 in) Average Annual Precipitation (total of rainfall and melted snow): 1,120 mm (44 in) Government: Mayor and nine-member city council Weights and Measures: Standard U.S. Monetary Units: Standard U.S. Telephone Area Codes: 617, 781 Postal Codes: 02101–02125; 02127–28; 02133–63; 02199; 02201–22
1
Introduction
The historic city of Boston is located in New England, on the Atlantic coastline of Massachusetts. One of the first European settlements in North America, the city has been called the “Cradle of the American Revolution.” The home of Paul Revere, Boston was also the site of the Boston Tea Party and the Battle of Bunker Hill. In the nineteenth century, it became a major center for the abolitionist movement, as well as the focal point for an unprece-
dented flowering of American culture. For most of its history, Boston has been a major maritime and commercial center. The decades following World War II have seen the growth of the service and financial sectors and the tourist industry. Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M.I.T.) head the long list of colleges and universities that have made Boston “the college capital of the United States.” By drawing an educated work force to the city, these schools helped make the Boston area one of the nation’s leading
65
Boston centers for research-based high-technology industries. 2
Boston Population Profile
Getting There
Boston is located on an extension of Massachusetts Bay and runs along the Charles River, which divides it from Cambridge to the north, the location of the area’s two most prestigious institutions of higher learning—Harvard University and M.I.T. Major neighborhoods and other well-known parts of the city include the waterfront, the North End, the West End, Beacon Hill, Charlestown, the financial district, Downtown Crossing, Back Bay, the theater district, Chinatown, South Boston, and the South End. Highways
City Proper Population: 574,283 (1990 Census) Area: 125 sq km (48.4 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 63% white; 26% black
Metropolitan Area Population: 5,690,000 (1990 Census) Description: Five-city New England County Metropolitan Area (Boston-WorcesterLawrence-Lowell-Brockton), including all or part of seven counties in Massachusetts and one in New Hampshire Area: 16,800 sq km (6,450 sq mi) World population rank1: 102 Percentage of total US population2: 1.1% Average yearly growth rate: 0.5% Ethnic composition: 91% 2hite; 6% black; 3% other ——— 1. The Boston metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of the total US population living in the Boston metropolitan area.
Three major interstate highways lead to and from Boston: I-95 runs northward along the Atlantic coastline in New Hampshire and Maine, and south to Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York and beyond; the Massachusetts Turnpike (I-90) runs westward from Boston through Massachusetts and connects with the New York State Thruway; and I-93 extends northward (the Northeast Expressway) to Canada and southward (the Southeast Expressway) toward Cape Cod.
Atlantic Avenue. Travel times to Boston via Greyhound are four to five hours from New York; 11 hours from Washington, D.C.; and 24 to 27 hours from Chicago. Amtrak passenger trains arrive and depart from South Station and Back Bay Station. Express trains travel between New York and Boston in four hours.
Bus and Railroad Service
Airports
Buslines serving Boston include Greyhound, Bonanza, American Eagle, Concord Trailways, and Peter Pan. Boston’s main bus station is the South Station Transportation Center at 700
Major domestic airlines running flights to and from Boston’s Logan International Airport include American, Continental, Delta, Northwest, and TWA. Many international airlines also
66
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Boston
fly directly into Logan, which is five kilometers (three miles) northeast of downtown Boston. Shipping With 40 kilometers (25 miles) of
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
docking area, Boston’s outstanding natural harbor is the largest port in New England, handling over 18 million metric tons (20 million tons) of freight annually. Port operations are managed by the Massachusetts Port Authority.
67
Boston 3
Getting Around
Many of Boston’s major roads— including Beacon Street, Storrow Memorial Drive, Commonwealth Avenue, Marlborough Street, and Boylston Street—converge at the Boston Common, the famous park near the center of the city. The major arteries of Charles Street and Atlantic Avenue form a semicircle bordering the city’s wharves. Bus and Commuter Rail Service The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA, known locally as “the T”) operates buses, subway trains, and trolleys throughout Greater Boston, as well as running two ferry systems. Boston’s subway system, the nation’s oldest, was completed in 1897. The subway lines are color-coded Red, Green, Blue, and Orange, and cars run from 5:15 AM until after midnight. A separate Purple Line, providing commuter rail service to the suburbs and beyond, extends as far as Providence, Rhode Island. The 85-cent fare is paid by purchasing a token. Trains are labeled “inbound” or “outbound,” referring to their direction in relation to the Part Street station. Buses operated by the MBTA provide service across the city and to the suburbs; fares are 60 cents. Sightseeing Walking tours to Boston’s compact historic sites are very popular. The bestknown route is the Freedom Trail, which connects 16 historic sites in a space of less than five kilometers (three
68
miles). Several companies offer hourand-a-half to two-hour trolley tours. One-hour and hour-and a-half cruises of Boston’s harbor are offered by Boston Harbor Cruises, Massachusetts Bay Lines, and the Charles River Boat Company, and longer cruises in the surrounding waters are also available. 4
People
In 1996 Boston ranked twenty-second in population among cities in the United States, with a population of 558,394, down 2.8 percent since the 1990 census when its residents numbered 574,283 (48 percent male, 52 percent female). The 1997 population for Boston’s five-city New England County Metropolitan Area (NECMA), spanning both Massachusetts and New Hampshire, was 5.83 million, up from 5.69 million as of the 1990 census. Boston’s population is projected to pass 600,000 by 2010 when a population of 6.5 million is projected for the NECMA. Boston’s original settlers were mostly of English origin and formed the basis of the city’s old aristocracy, known as the “Boston Brahmins.” By the middle of the nineteenth century, the first waves of Irish immigration began, made up largely of peasants fleeing the potato famine in that country. The Irish eventually became one of the city’s major ethnic groups and gained a dominant position in its political life. The first Irish mayor of Boston was elected in 1885. In 1960 the scion of two prominent Boston Irish political families—John Fitzgerald Kennedy
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Boston
City Fact Comparison Boston (United States)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
2,915,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1630
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$192
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$44
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$26
$14
$15
$16
$238
$173
$246
$207
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
3
13
20
11
The Boston Globe
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
470,825
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1872
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
(1917–1963)—was elected president of the United States. In spite of the city’s original Puritan roots, nineteenth-century waves of Irish, Italian, and FrenchCanadian immigration made Boston a strongly Catholic city. Today more than half the city’s population is Catholic— the third-largest percentage of any city in the United States. Escaped slaves arrived in Boston during the Civil War era via the Underground Railroad. In the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, Boston’s Hispanic and Asian American populations grew. Many immigrants are drawn to the region by
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
its educational institutions and hightechnology jobs. Boston is also home to a sizable Jewish community, which accounts for the single largest distinct religious denomination after the Catholics. Two other religions have their headquarters in Boston: the Unitarian-Universalist Association and the First Church of Christ, Scientist, founded in the city in 1894 by Mary Baker Eddy (1821–1910). An imposing modern Christian Science complex, including a school, library, and worship facilities, was completed in the early 1970s.
69
Boston
Boston skyline along the Charles River. (Nubar Alexanian; Woodfin Camp)
5
Neighborhoods
Housing in Boston is notoriously expensive, particularly in the wake of a real estate boom that began in the 1980s, the effects of which have been felt as far away as Providence, Rhode Island. More than 60 percent of the city’s residents live in apartments. As of the 1990 census, Boston had 250,000 housing units, with the lowest vacancy rate in the country (four-and-a-half percent). The median value of an owneroccupied home in 1990 was $161,400 (compared with the national average of roughly $100,000); median monthly rent was $546. Boston’s rich ethnic mix is reflected in the composition of several of its bestknown neighborhoods. Beacon Hill has traditionally been known as the home of the Boston Brahmin elite. The major
70
Irish population centers are Charlestown and South Boston (“Southie”). The North End is heavily Italian, and primarily black neighborhoods include Roxbury, Mattapan, and Codman Square. In recent years, sizable Hispanic populations have grown up in Jamaica Plain and Dudley. The Boston Redevelopment Authority, established in 1957 by Mayor John B. Hynes, oversaw the development of the $150 million, 13hectare (31-acre) Prudential Plaza, a shopping, residential, and hotel complex crowned by Prudential Tower, the 52-story building that gave the city a new skyline and was its tallest building until the completion of the John Hancock Tower in the 1970s. In the 1960s, the rundown Scollay Square area was razed to make way for Government Center, a complex of federal and state
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Boston office buildings. Development of Boston’s waterfront since the 1970s has seen the conversion of existing buildings into apartments and the erection of new high-rises. 6
History
The city of Boston was founded in 1630 by the Puritans, three years after the landing at Plymouth Rock. It was named for the town in Lincolnshire, England, from which some of the first settlers had come. Within the first decade, it was already flourishing: the nation’s first school (1635) and first post office (1639) were founded, as well as Harvard University (1636), then called Harvard College and established for the training of future ministers. Within ten years, the population reached 16,000. With its excellent natural harbor, Boston became a center for shipping, shipbuilding, and other maritime occupations. In 1684 the British revoked the charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (of which Boston was already the capital), and the city came under direct British rule. In the following decades and throughout the eighteenth century tensions between Bostonians and their rulers—like tensions elsewhere in the colonies—grew. Known as the “Birthplace of the American Revolution,” Boston was the site of the Boston Massacre (1770), the Boston Tea Party (1773), and the Battle of Bunker Hill (1775). In the first half of the nineteenth century, shipping declined in impor-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
tance as manufacturing grew. The first railroad connected Boston with inland areas of Massachusetts by the late 1830s. As home to William Lloyd Garrison’s antislavery newspaper, The Liberator, during the same period, Boston became known as a center of the abolitionist movement, as well as the site of a great intellectual flowering that came to include such eminent figures as Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804–1864), Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862), Louisa May Alcott (1832–1888), and Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809–1894). The city’s new industrial base was assured of a steady supply of labor as new immigrants began arriving from Ireland by mid-century. Nearly 243 hectares (600 acres) were added to Boston with the reclamation of the Back Bay’s lowlands between 1857 and 1894. In addition, Boston annexed the nearby towns of Roxbury, Dorchester, Charlestown, Brighton, and West Roxbury. Major cultural and scientific institutions founded in the following the Civil War included Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts General Hospital, the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the Boston Symphony Orchestra, and the New England Conservatory of Music. The decline of Boston’s industrial base in the early twentieth century was hastened by the Great Depression of the 1930s, although wartime mobilization the following decade brought with it a temporary reprieve. After World War II (1939–45), however, New England’s traditional manufacturing
71
Boston
Surviving the War of 1812, the USS Constitution, also known as “Old Ironsides,” rests in the Boston Harbor. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
industries—textiles, shoes, and glass— once again weakened, as did its shipping industry. However, its colleges and universities brought new life to the city as thousands of students enrolled on the G.I. Bill. (In its original version, signed into law in 1944, the G.I. Bill entitled anyone with 90 days of service in the U.S. military to one year of higher education. Each additional month of active duty earned a month of schooling, up to a maximum of 48 months.) In the post-war decades, Bos-
72
ton grew into a major financial and commercial center. A construction boom beginning in the late 1950s changed the city’s skyline with the completion of the Prudential Center in 1959. In 1962 Scollay Square was torn down to make way for the new Government Center complex, and the restored Faneuil Hall Marketplace opened in 1976. Racial tensions erupted into violence in the mid-seventies with the advent of court-ordered busing to
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Boston desegregate the public schools, and whites organized a boycott of the schools. By the 1990s, “white flight” had given Boston a disproportionately large black population (25 percent) while many whites had moved to suburbs surrounding the city. In the 1980s and 1990s Boston became one of the country’s foremost centers for high technology, with research-based firms clustered in a band along Route 128, which encircles the city. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a number of businesses left Boston and relocated to surrounding areas of Massachusetts and other states, driven out by high taxes and lease rates and a general downturn in the region’s economy as the country slipped into recession and unemployment rose. However, the city effectively confronted its fiscal problems, and by 1993 a recovery was under way. In the same year, Thomas Menino became Boston’s first ItalianAmerican mayor. In 1988 a massive highway construction project was approved to relocate the city’s Central Artery (I-93) underground, reclaim the land above it, and link the Massachusetts Turnpike to Logan International Airport. The expected completion date was 2004. 7
Government
Boston has a mayor-council form of government, with a nine-member council elected at large and a strong executive branch. The mayor is elected to a four-year term; council and school committee members are elected for two
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
years. Municipal elections, held in November of odd-numbered years, are nonpartisan. Boston has traditionally been a strongly Democratic city. 8
Public Safety
Established in 1838, Boston has the oldest police department in the United States. The city comprises 11 police districts. Boston has a relatively high crime rate. In 1995, the FBI crime index figure for Boston was 9,492, with the following breakdown into specific categories (all figures are per 100,000 population): all violent crimes, 1,737; murder, 17.4; rape, 68.8; robbery, 182.3; aggravated assault, 998.2; all property crimes, 7,755; burglary, 1,211; larceny, 4,721; and motor vehicle theft, 1,822. In 1997 the police department moved into a new state-of-the-art headquarters at One Schroeder Plaza. 9
Economy
After its founding in 1630, Boston’s economy was initially based on shipping and shipbuilding, which retained their central position until the nineteenth century when they were eclipsed by manufacturing, which was fueled by technological advances, the development of railroads, and a steady supply of immigrant labor. Boston’s traditional industries started to decline in the twentieth century, especially during the Great Depression of the 1930s. However, there was an upsurge in industrial demand during World War II.
73
Boston Since then new industries have helped keep Boston’s economy strong, as well as spur growth in the service sector. The area circling the city along Route 128 has seen a proliferation of new research-based firms, becoming one of the nation’s leading high-technology centers, with the nation’s second-highest number of biotechnology firms. Boston has also grown into one of the country’s leading banking, insurance, and investment centers. The largest employment sectors are service industries (especially health care), government (Boston’s local government had a work force of 22,000 in 1995), and the financial sector. In 1996 Boston’s labor force numbered 288,267, and unemployment stood at four-anda-half percent. The Boston area is considered a leading manufacturing center, especially in electronics and computers. Other manufacturing industries in the region include machinery, motor vehicles and other transport equipment, ships, apparel, cameras, printing and publishing, chemicals, shoes, books, and textiles. Since the 1980s Boston has become known for its research-based high-tech industries, although these are largely located outside city limits along Route 128, which circles the city. Major companies headquartered in the Boston area include Raytheon, Gillette, Fidelity Investments, and Digital Equipment Corporation.
74
10
Environment
Located on the Shawmut Peninsula, at the mouths of the Charles and Mystic Rivers, Boston has an excellent natural harbor that has played a decisive role in its history as a shipping and shipbuilding center, and its access to the Atlantic Coast has contributed to the cosmopolitan character of the city. Once the maritime capital of the nation, Boston today remains its leading fishing port, with more than 907,200 kilograms (two million pounds) of fish caught in the surrounding waters annually. At the time the city was founded, Boston’s hilly peninsula was almost entirely surrounded by water and connected to the mainland by only a narrow strip of land. The area today known as Back Bay was composed of marshes and mud flats that were covered by water during high tide. In the early nineteenth century a dam was constructed there to generate power for the new mills that were being built. By the 1830s, the portion of the Back Bay just west of the Boston Common was filled in to create the land for the 10-hectare (24-acre) Public Garden. In the latter part of the century, additional land from the peninsula was leveled to fill in and reclaim more of the marshlands, adding significantly to the original area of the city. In the 1880s a master plan for a network of city parks was laid out by esteemed landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted (1822–1903). A large open park called the Fenway was created,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Boston linking the Boston Common and Public Garden with Franklin Park. The Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain, affiliated with Harvard University, was part of the network as well. 11
Shopping
Boston’s traditional retail district is located in Downtown Crossing, in the heart of the city on the narrow thoroughfares of Washington, Summer, and Winter streets, which have been turned into a pedestrian mall. The most famous landmark here is the teeming and chaotic Filene’s Basement—literally the lower level(s) of Filene’s department store, where a wide variety of merchandise undergoes a series of markdowns the longer it remains on the shelves. Today the most popular shopping district is Back Bay, which combines high-quality national retail establishments like Neiman Marcus, Lord & Taylor, and Saks Fifth Avenue with the trendy, upscale boutiques for which Newbury Street, in particular, is famous. Also found in this neighborhood are bookstores, coffee shops, galleries, and a variety of specialty stores, as well as numerous restaurants. Other distinctive shopping destinations are the restored Faneuil Hall marketplace and Harvard Square in Cambridge. 12
Education
Home of the nation’s first school and first university (both established in the 1630s), Boston is renowned as an educational mecca. There are more than a dozen four-year institutions of
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
higher learning within the city proper and many more in the surrounding area. Colleges and universities within Boston itself include Boston University, Northeastern University, the New England Conservatory of Music, Simmons College, and a branch of the University of Massachusetts, and Harvard’s medical school. Across the Charles River in Cambridge are the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M.I.T.) and Harvard University. Other wellknown institutions of higher education in the region include Tufts University, Boston College, Brandeis University, and Wellesley College. Boston Latin School, opened in 1635, is the oldest public school in the United States. In 1998, the Boston School District was comprised of 129 elementary, middle, and high schools (72 elementary schools, 20 middle schools, seven K–8 schools, and 18 high schools), with a pupil/staff ratio of approximately 13 to 1. As of fiscal year 1999, public school enrollment was 63,000; the racial and ethnic breakdown was 49 percent black, 26 percent Hispanic, 15 percent white, and 9 percent Asian. Private and parochial schools enrolled 15,400 students. Boston was the first major city to provide Internet access to all public school students. The public school system employed 4,534 teachers, 536 administrators, and 450 support personnel. The Boston school system’s NetYear project was launched in 1996, with the goal of providing one computer for every four students by 2001.
75
Boston patient-care physicians in 1995 was 18,449. Well-known medical facilities include Massachusetts General Hospital, New England Medical Center, the Dana Farber Cancer Institute, and New England Deaconess Hospital. In 1997 Massachusetts General Hospital had 819 beds. It recorded 34,908 admissions and 657,777 outpatient visits, and employed a work force of 10,902. Hospital expenditures for the year totaled $705 million. The health-care industry is one of the city’s top employers. 14
Harvard University is one of the many colleges that make Boston the “College Capital of the World.” (Susan Lapides; Woodfin Camp)
Boston has two major daily newspapers: the Boston Globe and the Boston Herald. The Christian Science Monitor, a national newspaper that appears daily on weekdays, is also published in Boston. Well-known magazines published in Boston include Boston Magazine and The Atlantic. The city has nine television stations, including affiliates of the four major commercial networks and the Public Broadcasting System (PBS). PBS station WGBH is recognized nationally as a leading outlet for educational and cultural programming. 15
13
Health Care
With world-class research institutions and more than a dozen teaching hospitals in the region, Boston is known for pioneering medical advances and quality health care. The number of
76
Media
Sports
Boston has professional major league baseball (the Red Sox, American League), football (the New England Patriots), basketball (the Celtics), and hockey (the Bruins). The Red Sox won their only World Series in 1918. Between 1918 and 1986, they played in four more World Series contests, losing all of them in the seventh game.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Boston
Opening day at Fenway Park, home of the Boston Red Sox. (Paula Lerner; Woodfin Camp)
Boston’s major sports venues are Fenway Park, home of the Red Sox, and Fleet Center, site of the Celtics’ and the Bruins’ games. The Patriots play at Foxboro Stadium. Horse racing takes place at Suffolk Downs. Greyhound racing at Wonderland Park is also a popular sport. Boston is also famous as the site of the Boston Marathon, held annually on the third Monday in April. 16
Parks and Recreation
Boston’s best-known park is the 19hectare (48-acre) Boston Common, located in the heart of the city, along
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
with the 10-hectare (24-acre) Public Garden. The land for the Common was purchased by the city in 1634 from a property owner for $150. Today’s visitors to the Common jog, skate, or play frisbee on a historic site that has, in its time, served as a pasture, execution and drill ground, and football field. Also within the city limits, located in the Back Bay, are the Back Bay Fens, which extend from Beacon Street to Brookline Avenue, and the Esplanade along the Charles River, site of the summer Boston Pops concerts, which take place in the Hatch Shell. Other notable parks in the Boston area include Harvard’s 90hectare (223-acre) Arnold Arboretum
77
Boston and Franklin Park and Zoological Garden, covering 213 hectares (527 acres). 17
Performing Arts
In addition to its historic attractions, Boston boasts numerous cultural attractions. The Boston Symphony Orchestra (BSO), founded in 1881, is considered one of the country’s top orchestras. During the regular season, it performs in Symphony Hall. In the summer the BSO is in residence at the Tanglewood Festival in the Berkshires, a popular destination for Bostonians, who can also hear concerts by the Boston Pops at the Hatch Shell on the banks of the Charles River in Back Bay. Boston is also a thriving concert venue for recitals and chamber music concerts by top-notch local performers and major touring artists, and is noted for its active early-music scene. The New England Conservatory’s Jordan Hall, noted for its exceptional acoustics—and completely renovated in the early 1990s—is the scene of numerous student and faculty concerts and recitals, as well as performances by other artists. Boston is also home to three opera companies and the Boston Ballet, the fourth-largest ballet company in the nation. In addition, the city has several professional theater troupes, including the American Repertory Theater, the Huntington Theater Company, and the Boston Shakespeare Company.
78
18
Libraries and Museums
The reference and research collections at the Boston Public Library are ranked third in the country, following only those of the New York and Los Angeles public libraries. The library, founded in 1852, employs a staff of 489 and circulates some 2.4 million items annually. Its book collection includes 6.7 million volumes. The library’s main building in Copley Square is an architectural landmark. Built in Italian Renaissance style in 1895, it boasts murals by John Singer Sargent (1856– 1925) and other beautiful works of art, as well as a picturesque courtyard. A modern atrium-centered addition, the McKim building, was completed in 1972 and provides a dramatic contrast to the original building. The John F. Kennedy Library holds the presidential papers of the late president. The Museum of Fine Arts is one of the finest in the country; many rank it second only to New York’s Metropolitan Museum. Built in 1909, it added the new West Wing, designed by renowned architect I. M. Pei (b. 1917), in 1981. The museum is especially noted for its Asian and Old Kingdom Egyptian collections, but there are many masterpieces by European and American painters as well, including a 1796 portrait of George Washington by Gilbert Stuart (1755–1828). Boston’s other museums include the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, the Museum of Contemporary Art, Harvard’s Fogg Art Museum, and the Science Museum.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Boston 19
To u r i s m
Boston has a combination of attractions that make it one of the nation’s most popular tourist destinations. More than ten million people visit the city annually. In 1995 Boston attracted 970,000 foreign visitors, ranking tenth among the nation’s cities in this category. Boston’s most famous tourist attractions are its historic sites, many of which can be found on the Freedom Trail, covering some four kilometers (two-and-a-half miles) of downtown Boston. It begins at the Boston Common, a large park in the heart of the city, which also offers the legendary Swan Boat rides on an artificial pond. Among the historic sites included on the trail are the State House, the Park Street Church, the Old South Meeting House, the Old State House, Paul Revere’s house, the Old North Church, and the Bunker Hill Monument. The Black Heritage Trail, another popular walking tour, celebrates Boston’s history as a center of the abolitionist movement and includes stops on the Underground Railroad and abolitionist meeting places. Other popular Boston tourist sites include the restored Faneuil Hall marketplace; the redeveloped waterfront; the 226-meter-high (740foot-high) observation deck of the John Hancock Building, Boston’s tallest structure; and Harvard Square in Cambridge. Convention facilities in Boston include the John B. Hynes Veterans Convention Center, the World Trade Center, and the Bayside Exposition Center.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY Chinese New Year celebration featuring parade and fireworks (Chinatown) Boston Wine Festival
FEBRUARY Black History Month Beanpot Hockey Tournament
FEBRUARY-MARCH International Cultural Festival
MARCH New England Spring Flower Show St. Patrick’s Day Celebration
APRIL Boston Marathon Red Sox opening day Patriots Day
APRIL-OCTOBER Boston Pops Concerts in the Hatch Shell
MAY Boston Kite Festival Lilac Sunday (Arnold Arboretum) Street Performers Festival (Faneuil Hall Marketplace)
JUNE Art Newbury Street Boston Globe Jazz & Blues Festival
JULY Boston Harborfest Central Square World’s Fair
AUGUST Heritage Days Italian-American Feasts
SEPTEMBER Boston Film Festival Cambridge River Festival
OCTOBER Columbus Day Parade Head of the Charles Regatta Harvard Square Oktoberfest
NOVEMBER Christmas Crafts Show
79
Boston DECEMBER Boston Common Tree Lighting Boston Tea Party Reenactment First Night Boston
21
Famous Citizens
Samuel Adams (1722–1803), Revolutionary War leader. Larry Bird (b. 1956), star player for the Boston Celtics. Louis D. Brandeis (1856–1942), first Jew appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court. Charles Bulfinch (1763–1844), architect of numerous Boston landmarks. William Ellery Channing (1780–1842), founder of American Unitarian Association. Julia Child (b. 1912), culinary expert and television personality. John Singleton Copley (1738–1815), first great North American portrait painter. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887), tenacious investigative reporter. Mary Baker Eddy (1821–1910), founder of the Christian Science church. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), writer, philosopher, and leading Transcendentalist. Arthur Fiedler (1894–1979), Boston Pops conductor and organizer of the Esplanade concerts. William Lloyd Garrison (1805–1879), abolitionist writer and editor.
80
Paul Revere, Revolutionary War hero, rode from Boston to Lexington to warn the countryside that the British were on the march. (Susan Lapides, Woodfin Camp)
John Hancock (1737–1793), first signer of the Declaration of Independence. John F. Kennedy (1917–1963), president of the United States (1960–1963). Malcolm X (1925–1965), Black Muslim leader. Cotton Mather (1663–1728), Congregational clergyman known for sermons.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Boston Frederick Law Olmsted (1822–1903), landscape architect who planned Boston’s park network. Paul Revere (1735–1818), Revolutionary War era patriot. Ted Williams (b. 1918), Red Sox baseball hero. 22
For Further Study
Websites Excite Travel. About Boston. [Online] Available http://www.city.net/countries/ united_states/massachusetts/boston. (accessed October 14, 1999). Greater Boston Convention & Visitors Bureau. Welcome to Boston USA. [Online] Available http://www.bostonusa.com. (accessed October 14, 1999). Massachusetts Office of Travel and Tourism. Massachusetts: Take a Real Vacation. [Online] Available http://www.mass-vacation.com. (accessed October 14, 1999). Massachusetts Port Authority. Mass port. [Online] Available http://www.massport.com. (accessed October 14, 1999
Government Offices Boston Redevelopment Authority Boston City Hall, Ninth Floor Boston, MA 02201 (617) 722-4300 Mayor’s Office City of Boston One City Hall Square Boston, MA 02108 (617) 725-3914
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Greater Boston Convention and Visitors Bureau P.O. Box 990468 Prudential Tower, Suite 400 Boston, MA 02199 (617) 536-4100; (888) SEE-BOSTON Massachusetts Office of Travel and Tourism 100 Cambridge St., 13th Floor Boston, MA 02202
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
(800) 227-6277; (617) 727-6525
Other Resources The Bostonian Society 200 Washington St. Old State House Boston, MA 02110 (617) 242-5610 Boston Public Library 666 Boylston St. Boston, MA 02117 (617) 536-5400 Greater Boston Chamber of Commerce 125 High St. Boston, MA 02110 (617) 426-1250
Publications Boston Business Journal 200 High St. Boston, MA 02110 The Boston Globe P.O. Box 2378 Boston, MA 02110 Boston Herald P.O. Box 2096 Boston, MA 02106 Boston Magazine 300 Massachusetts Avenue Horticulture Hall Boston, MA 02115
Books Appleberg, Marilyn J. I Love Boston Guide. Illustrations by Albert Pfeiffer. 3rd ed. New York: Collier Books, 1993. Campbell, Robert. Cityscapes of Boston: An American City Through Time. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1992. Formisano, Ronald P. Boston Against Busing: Race, Class, and Ethnicity in the 1960s and 1970s. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991. Frost, Jack. Boston's Freedom Trail: A Souvenir Guide. 2nd ed. Chester, CT: Globe Pequot Press, 1986. Harris, Patricia, and David Lyon. Boston. 2nd ed. Oakland, CA: Compass American Guides, 1999. Hitzemann, Marietta, and Ed Golden. New-
81
Boston comer's Handbook for Boston. 2nd ed. Chicago: First Books, 1998. Kennedy, Lawrence W. Planning the City Upon a Hill: Boston Since 1630. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992. Lukas, J. Anthony. Common Ground. 1st ed. New York: Knopf, 1985. Meerwood, Anne. Frommer’s Irreverent Guide to Boston. New York: Macmillan, 1999. Moore, Barbara W. and Gail Weesner. Back Bay: A Living Portrait. Boston : Century Hill Press, 1995. Morris, Jerry. The Boston Globe Guide to Boston. 4th ed. Old Saybrook, CT: Globe Pequot Press, 1999. O'Connor, Thomas H. Boston Catholics: A History
82
of the Church and its People. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998. O'Connor, Thomas H. South Boston, My Home Town: The History of an Ethnic Neighborhood. Boston: Quinlan Press, c. 1988. Waldstein, Mark. Mr. Cheap's Boston. Holbrook: Adams Pub., 1995. Wilson, Susan. Boston Sites and Insights. Boston: Beacon Press, 1994.
Videorecordings Boston: The Way It Was. Produced and written by Lorie Conway. Boston: WGBH Educational Foundation, 1995.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Brussels Brussels, Belgium, Europe Founded: 979 Location: Europe, central Belgium, around the river Senne Motto: “L’Union fait la force–Eendracht maakt macht.” (Unity is powerful.) Flag: Yellow marsh iris on a field of blue. Flower: Yellow (or golden) marsh iris (Iris pseudocorus) Time Zone: 1 PM = noon GMT Ethnic Composition: 55% Flemish (Dutch), 33% French (Walloons), 12% Germans and others Elevation: Sea level Latitude and Longitude: 50° 50’ N, 4° 00’ E Coastline: None Climate: Moderate temperatures year-round with little snow in the winters, predictable rainfall and mild summers Annual Mean Temperature: 10° C (50° F), ranging from 3° C (37° F) in January to 18° C (64° F) in July. Average Annual Precipitation: 70 cm (28 in) Government: Mayor, congress, and district representatives under a constitutional monarchy Weights and Measures: Metric Monetary Units: Belgian franc (BFr) Telephone Area Codes: 02 Postal Codes: B-1000, B-1020
1
Introduction
Brussels lies in the center of Belgium, with the Senne, a small stream splitting neatly in two around the city center. A popular convention and tourist center, the city is world-renowned for its fine beer, divine chocolate, and Belgian lace. Known as the “Capital of Europe,” Brussels hosts the European Union Commission, as well as NATO headquarters, and is regarded as the international meeting hub of the twenty-first century.
2
Getting There
Getting to Brussels is fairly easy due to the advanced state of the city’s transportation systems and city planning. Access to the Brussels Capital Region, the Grand Place center of town, and the many museums and shops in the Sablon district is provided by numerous routes that are vital to commerce and tourism. Highways The total area of Brussels highway system covers 430 kilometers (267
83
Brussels
Brussels Population Profile City Proper Population: 951,580 Ethnic composition: 55% Flemish (Dutch); 33% French (Walloons); 12% German and other Nicknames: City of Beer, Capital of Europe, Company Town (for the European government)
Metropolitan Area Population: 1,122,000 World population rank1: 330 Percentage of national population2: 11.0% Average yearly growth rate: less than 0.1% ——— 1. The Brussels metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of Belgium’s total population living in the Brussels metropolitan area.
miles) of paved roads. Brussels Ring Road leads to Brussels International Airport, surrounding the Inner Brussels Ring Road which links to the three major train stations. From Brussels, the E40 leads east to Liège and Köln, and west to London. The E19 takes vehicles north to Antwerp and Amsterdam, south to Mons and Paris, while the E411 goes south to Namur and Luxembourg. Brussels roads are known for their foggy conditions, resulting from their proximity to the English Channel and North Sea. Bus and Railroad Service There are three main train stations that carry passengers into the city, the North, Central, and Midi (South) sta-
84
tions. The southern station receives the Thalys train from Paris and the Eurostar from London. Belgian Railways (SNCB/ NMBS) services trains to and from Brugge, Ghent, Antwerp, Liège, Amsterdam, and Cologne, among other cities. Charter buses and coaches from tour operators also carry passengers into Brussels, such as “De Lijn” buses and “TEC.” An airport express runs to and from Antwerp every hour. Airports Brussels National Airport is actually located in Zaventem, a close suburb of Brussels. Belgavia and Sabena are the main flight operators, but Air Canada, British Airways, Delta, KLM, Virgin Atlantic, Finnair, Quantas, Singapore Airlines, United Airlines, and Varig also fly into Brussels. 3
Getting Around
The streets of Brussels have grown out of the haphazard planning of the middle ages, making navigation in the city somewhat like traveling a maze. Tourists will need to find a street map in order to successfully get around in Brussels on their own, or find a reliable tour guide. Bus and Commuter Rail Service Trains, buses, and the Metro can all be accessed with one ticket at 55 BFr for one hour. The city also provides day cards, ten-drive or five-drive tickets at a reasonable price. The metro is considered very safe and efficient with 58 stations. Five-hundred buses traverse the city, as do 15 tramlines.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Brussels
Taxis In order to get a taxi, tourists must go to a taxi stand instead of attempting
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
to flag one down. Taxis come in all different colors and brands, but a lighted sign on top says “Brussels Gewest-TaxiRégion de Bruxelles,” and there should
85
Brussels be a yellow and blue license emblem. A taxi from the airport to the city center is 1,000 BFr (about $30).
lecht, St.-Gilles, Ixelles, Etterbeek, Woluwe-St.-Lambert, Woluwe-St.-Pierre, Andeghem, Watermael-Boitsfort, Veele, and Forest.
Sightseeing The Tourist Information Office is located in the right wing of Town Hall, a fifteenth-century structure which towers over the Grand Place town square. Many tours and excursions depart nearby, including De Boeck tours, which have a combined walking/ luxury coach tour of the capital. 4
People
The population of Brussels numbers 951,580, most of whom speak French. While the southern Walloons are French speakers, the northern Flemish peoples speak Dutch. A small German enclave also exists in Liège. About one-third of the Brussels populace is made up of foreigners, many of whom work at the European Union and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) headquarters. The majority of Brussels inhabitants are Roman Catholic; however, there is also an active Jewish community, and Turkish migratory workers, who are Muslim, have a sizable community as well. Tensions between the more affluent Flemish and the poorer Walloons have existed for centuries. 5
Neighborhoods
The Brussels Capital Region is made up of 19 communes: Bruxelles, Jette, Ganshoren, Berchem-St.-Agathe, Koekelberg, Schaerbeek, Evere, St.-JosseTen-Noode, Molenbeek-St. Jean, Ander-
86
The “petit ring” of the city is divided between the Upper and Lower sections, the more expensive areas being higher up, except for the Grand Place, which lies for the most part in the Lower town. The Gare du Midi area houses mostly immigrants and is more economically depressed than the Gare du Nord area that is still somewhat troubled. Once in the heart of the city, the scenery completely changes, with most of the government buildings and nice shops. The main town square in the historical city center is called Grand Place, featuring city hall, Hotel de Ville, most administrative offices, and some shops. The Cinquantenaire district, on the edge of the city center, showcases the Triumphal Arch, museums and art nouveau houses, and the European Union Commission, Parliament, and Council of Ministers. To the east of city center, Royal Square houses the royal residency and Parliament, with a number of gardens and pleasant vistas. The Anderlecht area, west of the center, is well known for its soccer team but is otherwise seen as an industrial, drab neighborhood. The Heysel district and Sablon district to the south contain antique dealers and markets, and the fashionable neighborhood of Grand Sablon Square lies in the heart of the Sablon district.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Brussels
City Fact Comparison Indicator
Brussels (Belgium)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
1,122,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
979
753 BC
723 BC
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$123
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$59
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$15
$14
$15
$16
$197
$173
$246
$207
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
8
13
20
11
De Nieuwe Gazet
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
307,512
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1897
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
6
History
At the end of the sixth century, the Preacher Saint Gorik built a chapel on a small island formed by the two arms of the river Senne, creating the first building known to have been built in Brussels. Later, in A.D. 977, the first written record of Brussels declared Charles of France to be the legal owner of LowLorraine, including the island of SaintGorik, on which he built a fortress. But Brussels was not officially founded until 979, after Lambert of Leuven inherited the land from Charles. During the next three centuries, the city grew as a trading post and popular resting spot on
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
the way to the channel ports, and the marshland surrounding the city slowly dried, opening up more land for habitation. The increased population put stress on the social system of guilds and noblemen, resulting in peasant uprisings that were quickly stifled during the thirteenth century. In 1402, construction on Grand Place began after 50 years of recession, and in 1430 Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy became the Duke of Brabant through marriage to Margaret, an heiress of the former ruler of Brussels, Duchess Joan. This period of relative calm was marked by a flowering of the arts and commerce in Brussels. The period of calm was shattered,
87
Brussels city. Alva triumphed, only to be replaced by Isabella and Archduke Albert of Austria. Another plague outbreak, with losses comparable to the first, occurred in 1578, before Albert came into power in 1596. In 1695, Brussels was attacked by French King Louis XIV and his army, led by field marshal Villeroi, which destroyed more than 4,000 houses and Grand Place through fire and looting. The Royal Palace was burned down in 1731, and the French captured Brussels in 1746. This occupation lasted for about a century, until the Belgian revolution freed 138,000 Brussels citizens in 1830. On July 21, 1831, Leopold I became Belgium’s first King, and the country rebuilt.
The Grand Place with the Hotel de Ville (City Hall) expresses traditional Flemish architectural design in the heart of Brussels. (Christophe Gruner; Woodfin Camp)
however, when a plague killed about half of the city’s 60,000 inhabitants in 1489. In 1507, Margaret of Austria was appointed General Governor of the Netherlands, and growth resumed in Brussels for a good 50 years. The intrigues of Emporer Charles V and his successor Philip II brought revolution back to Brussels, as those sympathetic to William of Orange, supervisor of Holland (and champion of Charles V), fought against those who followed the Duke of Alva (favorite of William of Orange) in a battle for power over the
88
During World War I (1914–18), Brussels was an occupied city, but German troops did not incur much damage. The Germans returned during World War II (1939–45), resulting in Belgium’s split into two semi-independent regions, the Flanders and Walloon Provinces, while the Brussels district had its own government. The Universal Exhibition took place in Brussels in 1958, and in 1970 construction of the Berlaymont building, house of the European government, began. The European Union and NATO moved their headquarters to Brussels, turning the city into quite an international meeting place for the twenty-first century. 7
Government
Brussels, the capital of Belgium, has an independent congress, mayor, and
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Brussels administration, all of which are elected by the people. On June 18, 1989, the citizens of Brussels elected their regional representatives directly for the first time because the Region of Brussels Capital is considered an autonomous region from the rest of the country of Belgium, which is a constitutional monarchy. On July 14, 1993, the Belgian parliament approved the creation of a federal state of Belgium, which amended the Constitution and Devolution Acts to give the regions (including Brussels) more political power. 8
Public Safety
The Brussels Fire Brigade employs 925 professional firemen, serving in more than nine fire stations. A fleet of 150 units is available to help with road accidents, and there are at least 40 ambulances, five with intensive care surgeons. The emergency number is 100; the police can be reached at 101. Each year the city responds to more than 30,000 calls. 9
Economy
Brussels has a well-developed infrastructure that is supported by about 2,000 foreign companies, including 1,400 U.S. companies and more than 1,000 international associations. The Belgian capital sports the world’s second-largest congressional center, where numerous conferences for business are held each year. About 60 foreign banks operate in Brussels, making the city the seventh-largest financial market in the world. Despite the international links,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
the Brussels economy is actually based on small, private enterprises that service the European Community. About three-quarters of trade occurs with other European Union countries, and there is a large public debt due to social welfare programs. Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita stands at $23,400 annually for Brussels citizens, which is mostly service-based, but about onequarter of wages are for industrial labor. Unemployment has held steady at around 14 percent, along with most of the rest of Europe, but the administration has launched extensive workincentive programs. As the capital of Europe, Brussels also experiences special treatment at the hands of European bureaucrats in the allocation of funding, since most fonctionnaires (officials) live in and around the city. In January 1999, the Euro came into common usage in non-cash transactions, and in 2002 the coins and bills will start circulating, replacing the Belgian franc and furthering the transition to a truly European economy. 10
Environment
The Meuse River provides drinking water to Brussels, as does the Scheldt River, but these two principal rivers have been polluted by steel production wastes that need to be filtered before consumption. Other rivers and tributaries are polluted by animal wastes and fertilizers from agricultural activity. Industry in the Brussels environs has caused acid rain to fall throughout the city and to drift over Europe, killing trees and plants and damaging monu-
89
Brussels
Although the king reigns but does not govern, Brussels, the capital of Europe, is comparable to Washington D.C. in that it is the center of political decisions and global weight. (Homer Sykes; Woodfin Camp)
ments and other buildings. Flooding is a threat to reclaimed forestland, but a series of dikes that hold back the ocean protect the land from the majority of flood damage. As one of the Low Countries, much of the land is at or below sea level, causing the need for reclamation projects. Natural resources include coal and natural gas, which are the source of much of the country’s pollution problems. Alternative sources of energy are being tested, including solar power and nuclear energy. The Center for Economic and Social Studies on the Environment, located in Brussels, was
90
created in 1972 by the United Nations to conduct research on sustainable development and to compile an environmental metadatabase to take a holistic approach to environmental troubleshooting. While the research that the center does has global ramifications, local applications of new environmental policies are common. The Exporec 2000, European Recycling Exhibition, was held in Brussels, April 21–28, 2000, and showcased the many ways that products from industrial production and general use may be reused
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Brussels instead of merely thrown away to damage the environment. 11
Shopping
There are three main shopping districts: Blvd. Adolf Max & Rue Nuve; Place Stephanie & Ave. Louise; and around Grand Sablon. Some of the popular souvenirs to bring home from Brussels are the famous fruit beers that often come with a matching glass, Sablon lace, Godiva chocolate, and comic strips like Tintin. Most supermarkets are on the outskirts of the city and in the suburbs, but there are two supermarkets near the Stock Exchange Building. Sunday is traditionally market day when Grand Place holds a bird market, and Sablon Square holds an antiques market (Saturday 9:00 AM to 6:00 PM, Sunday 9:00 AM to 3:00 PM). Every day of the week there is a flea market at the “Place du Jeu de balles” near the Palace of Justice. Near Place Bara and Slaughterhouse in the suburb of Anderlecht there are food markets. Chocolates can be found in shops by the name of Godiva, Wittamer, Neuhaus and Corne. The Galeries Royales Saint-Hubert was Europe’s first shopping mall, built in 1847, located on the Rue d’Arenberg. The famous Sablon lace comes from the Maison Antoine Old Brussels Lace Shop in Grand Place. 12
Education
The Brussels school system teaches approximately 35,000 students who live in the Brussels Capital Region. Schooling is compulsory from six to 15
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
years of age, while nearly all children start with nursery and kindergarten. This system is fairly successful, considering the virtually nonexistent illiteracy rate among Brussels adults, which is practically unheard of, even in other advanced societies. Classes are taught in French, Dutch, and German, and some schools teach a combination of these languages in order to prepare students for the international European business scene. Both public “official” schools and private “free” schools (Catholic) are financed by the Brussels government, which has come under scrutiny from those who advocate the separation of church and state, religious and secular lives. The government has recently started an Internet system called BRUNETTE (Brussels Network for Telematics in Education), connecting all schools to the Internet with advanced technology. Brussels has been a major center of learning since the Middle Ages and hosts eight major universities and numerous technical and vocational colleges. The Free University of Brussels was originally created to alleviate the Catholic rule over education in the country. It is separated into two almost completely different institutions, one French-speaking and the other Dutchspeaking. The constitution guarantees the freedom of choice of education, which draws foreign students seeking refuge from educational, political, and religious persecution in their own homelands.
91
Brussels 13
Health Care
The IRIS network of Brussels (Interhospitalière Régionale des Infrastructures de Soins) offers nine public hospitals, basic medical care, and specialists who are available to all citizens. University hospitals also provide a number of services while teaching new doctors and nurses the trade. Modern medical, psychological, and geriatric care is available from state-run hospitals, clinics, and private doctors. About 95 percent of the Brussels population are covered by the state health plan. The twentieth International Symposium on Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine was held in Brussels March 21–24, 2000, helping to update the techniques used by Brussels practitioners in emergency situations. 14
Media
The Brussels media is composed of three major French newspapers: Le Soir, La Libre Belgique, and La Derniere Heure; three major Dutch newspapers: De Standaard, De Morgen, and Het Laatste Nieuws; and one English weekly: The Bulletin. Most Brussels citizens get cable, which provides 40 channels: six of which are French (France), five Belgian Flemish, five Belgian French, three Dutch (Holland), two local Brussels (Dutch/French), two German, BBCI and BBC2, CNN, NBC Superchannel, Euronews, and a channel each from Italy, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Morocco, and Turkey, among others.
92
The Palais des Boux-Arts hosts many dance and musical concerts and recitals by world-renowned performers and conductors throughout the year. (Christophe Gruner; Woodfin Camp)
15
Sports
Brussels holds an annual 20-kilometer (12-mile) half-marathon every year on the streets of the city. The most popular sports are bicycling and soccer (also called football, but very different from American football). The Red Devils are Belgium’s national soccer team, run by the Royal Belgium Football Association.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Brussels 16
Parks and Recreation
Along the Bois de la Cambre, a visitor can stroll along the banks of the river, row on the river, bicycle, go horseback riding, roller-skating, or play miniature golf. The Park of Brussels also is a pleasant place to visit. On the Arcades of Cinquantenaire, Jabel Park was built to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the Belgium Kingdom. La MiniEurope lies in the Laeken district, complete with a miniature Eiffel Tower, leaning Tower of Pisa, and other well-known monuments, in a theme park perfect for family vacations. In the same district is the Atomium, a large structure simulating the make-up of an atom, built for the 1958 World’s Fair held in Brussels. In Tervuren, there are acres of green land in the Forêt de Soignes and the Parc de Tervuren, making this the most popular destination for outdoors recreation. About 15 percent of Brussels is given over to parks and wildlife, which is a large amount considering the dense population of the city and suburbs. 17
Performing Arts
The Théatre Royal de la Monnaie, open since 1700 and supported by the Belgian government and Brussels City government, houses the Opera of Brussels and the Royal Ballet Company, putting on numerous shows every year. Other theaters include the Kaaitheater, the Royal Flemish Theater, and the Theater Factory Europe. The Palais des
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Beaux-Arts holds a wide range of dance and musical concerts and recitals by world-renowned performers yearround, and the Brussels Chamber Music Ensemble Oxalays performs classical music. One specialty of Brussels is the Toone Theater, or Theatre Toone VII, which is held in a pub built in 1696 near Grand Place. On the first floor, marionettes perform classical operas and Brussels folk stories in French, Dutch, and English; the second floor houses the actual pub. Every summer, the Festival of Flanders features concerts, theater, and dance performances in Brussels and other Belgian cities. Brussels has also hosted the Queen Elisabeth International Music Competition since 1951, offering support to young pianists, violinists, and composers. 18
Libraries and Museums
Brussels has a wealth of museums that cover topics ranging from antiquities to comic strips. The Cinquantenaire Museum of Classical Art and History, founded in 1835 and moved to Cinquantenaire Park in 1889, contains artwork from all over the world, from prehistoric times to the present. Brussels City Museum, located in the King’s House on the Market Place of Brussels, opened in 1884. It showcases artwork specifically about the city of Brussels, featuring wall tapestries and the 600costume wardrobe of Manneken Pis. The Museum of Modern Art and Natural Sciences Museum also have
93
Brussels
The collection of the Museum of Modern Art displays pieces of many Brussels-inspired artists. (Christophe Gruner; Woodfin Camp)
extensive collections. Victor Horta House focuses on one of the founders of the art nouveau style, and the Belgian Comic Strip Centre houses the largest collection of comic strips in the world, including Belgium’s Tintin. The Royal Library, or Bibliotheque Royal Albert I, located near the central train station, provides citizens with reading and reference material. The library holds nearly everything published in Belgium and much of what is printed in Europe. 19
To u r i s m
Whether shopping and sightseeing in Grand Place, Sablon Square, or the Heysel district, tourists get a grand taste of the good life in Brussels. The city’s cuisine is one of the finest in the world, and the numerous chocolate shops
94
make divine desserts. Known for its beer, Brussels is also a fine place to socialize in the pubs and take in a marionette play. Tourists from all over Europe come to Brussels because of its international ranking as a convention center and the capital of Europe. The museums and parks are top-notch and deserve as much time as possible from curious tourists. The comic strip museum, beer museum, and city museum offer rare glimpses into the private lives of Belgians and promise to entertain visitors. Although the weather is not always sunny, it is usually mild, allowing for comfortable sightseeing throughout the year. With the welldeveloped transportation, there is no reason that a traveler should pass up the opportunity to visit Brussels. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY Brussels Annual International Motor Show
FEBRUARY Brussels Cartoon and Animated Film Festival (from the end of February until the middle of March)
MARCH International Symposium on Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine
APRIL The Music and Light Show at Grand Place (from April through September)
MAY The 20km Annual Marathon Brussels Art Festival
JUNE Ommegang (Thousands parade on the streets in colorful costumes to commemorate the welcome of Charles V to the city.)
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Brussels JULY The Festival of Flanders
AUGUST The Ivo Van Damme Memorial
21
Famous Citizens
Albert II (b. 1934), King of Belgium (r. 1993–present), brother of King Baudouin I.
Tel.: (02)504–02–76 Fax: (02)513–07–50 Centre Administratif (CA) 6 Boulevard Anspach 1000 Bruxelles Ville de Bruxelles City Hall (Hôtel de Ville, HV) Grand Place 1000 Bruxelles Tel.: (02)512–75–54
Baudouin I (1930–1993), King of Belgium (r. 1951–1993).
Mayor—Mr. François-Xavier de Donnea Tel.: (02)279–50–10 Fax: (02)279–50–21
Victor Horta (1861–1947), architect.
Tourist and Convention Bureaus
Georges Rémi (1907–1983), creator of Tintin. Antoine Joseph Sax (known as Adolphe Sax, 1814–1894), inventor of the saxophone. Jean-Claude Van Damme (b. 1960), movie star and karate expert, nicknamed “the muscles from Brussels.” 22
For Further Study
Websites Brussels Online. [Online] Available http:// www.brussels-online.be/ (accessed December 20, 1999). City of Brussels. [Online] Available http:// www.brussels.be/ (accessed December 20, 1999). Irisnet. [Online] Available http:// bruxelles.irisnet.be/index.html (accessed December 20, 1999). Timeout.com. [Online] Available http:// www.timeout.com/brussels/ (accessed December 20, 1999).
Atomium Blvd. Du Centenaire B-1020 Bruxelles Tel.: (02)477–09–77 Fax: (02)477–83–98 e-mail:
[email protected] Brussels Exhibition Center Place de Belgique B-1020 Bruxelles Tel.: (02)474–82–77 Fax: (02)474–83–90 e-mail:
[email protected] Tourist Office (Tourist Information Brussels) Hôtel de Ville Grand Place B-1000 Bruxelles Tel.: (02)513–89–40 Fax: (02)514–45–38 e-mail:
[email protected]
Publications Le Soir Rue Royale 120-1000 Bruxelles Belgique Tel.: (32)2–225–54–32 e-mail:
[email protected] La Libre Belgique. [Online] Available http:// www.lalibrebelgique.com (accessed December 20, 1999).
Government Offices Brussels Congress Rue du Marché-aux-Herbes 61 1000 Brussels
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Books Deprez, Kas and Louis Vos, eds. Nationalism in Belgium: Shifting Identities, 1780–1995. New
95
Brussels York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1998. Ephrem et. al. Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium: A Guide to the Collections of Ancient Art and Modern Art. Brussels: Alice Editions, 1996.
96
Roberts-Jones, Philippe, ed. Brussels: Fin de Siècle. Köln: Taschen, 1999. Swimberghe, Piet and Jan Verlinde, eds. Brussels: The Art of Living. New York, NY: Stewart, Tabor and Chang, 1998.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Buenos Aires Buenos Aires, Argentina, South America Founded: 1536 Location: On the western bank of the Río de la Plata estuary across from Uruguay, 150 miles inland from the Atlantic Ocean, Argentina, South America. Flag: A black eagle with a red beak, wearing a crown and holding a red cross, on a white field. Time Zone: 9 AM = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: 75% Spanish or Italian descent. Latitude and Longitude: 34º36’S, 58º28’W Coastline: 20 kilometers (12 mi)along the Río de La Plata. Climate: Hot, humid summers. The winter months of June to August are mild but humid. Frosts occur from May to September, but snow is extremely rare. Annual Mean Temperature: Overall 60ºF (16ºC); summer (December–February) 83ºF (28ºC); winter (June–Aug) 52ºF (11ºC). Average Annual Precipitation: 43.2 inches (1,096 mm) Government: Elected mayor and legislature, but Federal government makes major decisions affecting the capital city. Weights And Measures: Metric Monetary Units: The peso (on par with the U.S. dollar). U.S. dollar is widely accepted. Telephone Area Codes: Argentina country code: (54); Buenos Aires: (1). Postal Codes: The Correo Argentino, the privatized postal service, created a 4-letter, 4-number code.
1
Introduction
Early in the twentieth century, Buenos Aires, the city of fair winds, became one of the world’s great cities. By the tens of thousands, European immigrants sailed across the Atlantic to the “Paris of Latin America” looking for a better life. Money seemed no object in those days. Fueled by the great agricultural wealth that came from the heartland of the nation, great new buildings and monuments were the order of the day. In 1908, a grand opera house opened its doors to world acclaim and became a symbol of Buenos Aires'
wealth and sophistication. By 1913, the city had Latin America's first underground metro system in operation. The city continued growing through two world wars and a global economic crisis in the 1930s. The city's residents, known as Porteños, or people of the port, were confident and brash. To the people of neighboring countries, the Porteños were arrogant and aloof. The dapper Carlos Gardel epitomized the Porteño during the height of his musical and acting career early in the century. Supremely confident, always well
97
Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires Population Profile City Proper Population: 3,040,000 Area: 200 sq km (77 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 75% Spanish or Italian ancestry; 25% other, including Russian Jews, English, French, German, Lebanese, and Syrian Nicknames: Inhabitants are known as Porteños (port dwellers or people of the port)
Metropolitan Area Population: 12,431,000 Description: Greater Buenos Aires Metropolitan area (city and 22 suburbs) Area: 3,680 sq km (1,420 sq mi) World population rank1: 10 Percentage of national population2: 34% Average yearly growth rate: 1.0% ——— 1. The Buenos Aires metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of Argentina’s total population living in the Buenos Aires metropolitan area.
dressed and neatly groomed, Gardel was an ambassador to the Tango, a melancholic music that grew out of the fringes of Buenos Aires. By the end of the twentieth century, Buenos Aires had managed to retain if not its confidence at least its arrogance as it literally fell apart. In the 1990s, the Porteño media were busy reporting stories about decaying buildings that dropped balconies onto the street like rotten apples falling off trees, the heavy pollution that tainted the city's buenos aires, corruption and police brutality, the proliferation of rats and
98
feral cats, and countless other problems. Economists and historians are still trying to figure out what went wrong in Argentina. Once the seventh-wealthiest country in the world, it quickly dropped to seventy-seventh by the 1960s. The blame is often placed on the economic policies of former President Juan Domingo Perón, who created the nation's most powerful political movement in the 1950s and attempted to industrialize the nation at the cost of agriculture. Just as devastating to the nation was the brutal military dictatorship of 1976–83, which ruled with an iron fist from the capital city of Buenos Aires. Thousands of Argentineans were killed, and thousands who were arrested were never seen again. In the capital's main Plaza de Mayo, a square in front of the government palace, each Thursday a group of mothers remind the nation of sons and daughters not yet found. Yet, despite all its problems, Buenos Aires retains much of its old charm. Some of its neighborhoods have not changed at all in the past 100 years and remain a living example of the city's golden age. Millions of people visit Buenos Aires each year. They come to experience the tango, eat at renowned and expensive restaurants, shop at sophisticated boutiques, and visit dozens of museums. Slowly, the city is transforming itself, starting with its longneglected waterfront. More people are riding the improved subway, which saw declining numbers for decades. Porteños go on, sipping thick espressos
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Buenos Aires
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
99
Buenos Aires and mate, a national drink made from a herb. During long sobremesas, the customary after-meal conversations, they continue to discuss politics and other issues of importance. 2
Getting There
Buenos Aires is located on the west bank of the Río de la Plata, at the northeastern edge of the Pampa, a flat plain of rich soil that is to Argentina what the Midwest is to the United States. The Río de la Plata is an estuary of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers that come together to form a broad, shallow, and muddy marine inlet between Uruguay and Argentina. Highways The national highway system is centered in the city, radiating from there to all of Argentina and neighboring countries. All distances on the national highway system are measured from a 0-kilometer marker located in a small square across from the National Congress building. From there, national highways 1, 2, and 3 (which runs to Tierra del Fuego) serve the southern part of the country. Highways 5 and 7 serve the western part of the country, and highways 8 and 9 serve the north. Bus, Railroad, and River Service Three major bus terminals offer daily national and international travel, with departures to dozens of Argentinean cities, and the neighboring countries of Chile, Bolivia, Uruguay, Brazil, and Paraguay. Unlike the United
100
States, dozens of bus companies compete for business in Argentina. At bus terminals in Buenos Aires, each company has a desk like an airline ticket counter. Buses have replaced inter-city trains and only the Roca line within Buenos Aires province maintains service. Three companies provide boat and ferry service to the Uruguayan cities of Colonia and Montevideo across the Río de la Plata. Aliscafos has fast hydrofoils. Ferrylineas has hydrofoils and ferries. Buquebus offers a ferry-bus combination to Colonia and Montevideo. Airports Ezeiza International Airport, 30 kilometers (19 miles) southwest of downtown Buenos Aires, has national and international service, with direct flights to selected cities in the United States. Aerolineas Argentinas, with 150 international and 350 domestic flights per week, is the largest carrier at Ezeiza. Aeroparque Jorge Newbery, five minutes north of the downtown area, serves as a regional airport, with some international departures. Shipping The Port of Buenos Aires is the largest in South America and the economic engine of the country. It handles 96 percent of the nation's container traffic and 40 percent of all international transactions measured in U.S. dollars. In 1998, it handled nearly eight million metric tons (nine million tons) of cargo. Sixty maritime companies work out of five terminals handling more than 70 vessels per week. The port has a
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Buenos Aires
City Fact Comparison Buenos Aires (Argentina)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
12,431,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1536
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$235
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$72
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$18
$14
$15
$16
$325
$173
$246
$207
28
13
20
11
Clarin
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
700,000
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1945
1944
1976
1948
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established 1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
grain terminal that can handle 170,000 metric tons (187,340 tons). A narrow channel that leads from the port to the mouth of the Atlantic is constantly being dredged to keep the heavy traffic flowing. The port is old, and most of its decaying facilities have not been replaced. Thousands of trucks coming in and out of the port each week contribute to Buenos Aires' critical traffic problem. Five railroad lines serve the port. 3
Getting Around
Central Buenos Aires is built on a grid parallel to the Río de la Plata. The Plaza de Mayo is a large open square
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
near the waterfront. From here, Buenos Aires grew outward in a semicircle. Rivadavia Avenue, which begins at Plaza de Mayo, continues westward for about 40 kilometers (25 miles). Bus and Commuter Rail Service Private companies operate the bus system. The fleet serves 299 lines covering 24,135 kilometers (15,000 miles) of roads. The private Subterraneos de Buenos Aires, a subway in operation since 1913, has five underground lines and 63 stations, covering 36.5 kilometers (23 miles) of the city. A light rail line travels 7.4 kilometers (five miles) with 13 stops. Six commuter trains covering
101
Buenos Aires 965 kilometers (600 miles) serve Buenos Aires and its suburbs. According to 1988 figures, 73.3 percent of passengers rode buses and trolleys, 16.6 percent rode the metropolitan rail, and ten percent rode the subway. At the same time, nearly one million passenger vehicles crowded the streets. Sightseeing Many companies offer sightseeing tours in Buenos Aires and the surrounding areas. A train that caters to tourists departs from the Retiro station in Buenos Aires to the northern suburb of Tigre. There are daily departures to the Uruguayan cities of Colonia and Montevideo. 4
People
According to Argentina's National Institute of Statistics and Census, the population of Buenos Aires stood at 3.04 million people (1.65 million women and 1.38 million men) in 1998. The greater metropolitan area had 13.9 million people, making it one of the largest urban concentrations in the world. The densely populated city has 15,201 inhabitants per square kilometer. Nearly 11 percent of the city's residents are foreigners. In the year 2000, 16.8 percent of residents were over the age of 65, and 17.5 percent were under the age of 14. Most Porteños are the descendants of immigrants from Spain and Italy who came to Argentina in large numbers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, long after the con-
102
quering Spaniards pushed off the indigenous people from the area. Many other Europeans have settled in Buenos Aires, including Germans, British, and Jews from central and Eastern Europe. More than 400,000 Jews live in the city, one of the largest Jewish communities in the world. In the 1990s, Buenos Aires was the focus of anti-Semitism. An explosion killed 29 people at the Israeli Embassy in 1992, and another bomb destroyed a Jewish cultural center in Buenos Aires, killing 87 people. Non-European immigration historically was not welcomed, but there are many people from the Middle East, including Syria and Lebanon. They are collectively known as turcos (Turks). The term sometimes is used in a derogatory manner. Despite their small numbers, some have risen to national prominence, including President Carlos Menem, who is of Syrian ancestry. In the 1930s, large numbers of poor immigrants from Northern Argentina moved to Buenos Aires looking for work. The newcomers were mostly Mestizo (mixed Indian and European). Today, Mestizos make up about onethird of the population of the city, and many of them remain in poverty. Some live in the villas miserias (villages of misery), shantytowns in the outskirts of the city, and in crowded conditions near the heart of the city. In more recent years, many Bolivians, Peruvians, Paraguayans, and Uruguayans have moved to Buenos Aires. The national language is Spanish, but many other languages are spoken in
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires skyline. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
the city, including Italian, German, and English. One of the oldest English-language newspapers in the Americas, The Buenos Aires Herald, has been in circulation since 1876. A colorful slang known as Lunfardo is spoken in the city's slums and waterfront neighborhoods. Argentineans and neighboring Chileans often refer to the Spanish language as Castellano (Castilian). 5
Neighborhoods
The capital city is divided into 48 barrios, or neighborhoods. Most are working-class barrios, while others resemble the rich enclaves of Los Ange-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
les and New York City. Buenos Aires developed outward from the Plaza de Mayo, the historic square that is surrounded by the presidential palace known as the Casa Rosada (pink house), the colonial Town Hall (cabildo), and the Metropolitan Cathedral. As the city grew, it turned its back on its working waterfront, physically and metaphorically. The Casa Rosada looked toward the Pampas, not the Río de la Plata. By the 1990s, city officials shifted gears and developed a plan to revive the waterfront. Millions of dollars were pumped into the new waterfront neighborhood of Puerto Madero.
103
Buenos Aires A marina was built, and expensive restaurants and shops opened in the old brick warehouses. The latest census showed a few hundred people lived in the neighborhood. West of Puerto Madero, in an area generally known as the centro (downtown), buildings date to the nineteenth century. To the south, in the barrio San Telmo, visitors can still see many buildings from the colonial era. The barrio was once a fashionable address, where the wealthier Porteños settled in large homes. In the nineteenth century, the elite abandoned San Telmo to escape yellow fever and moved further inland and north of the centro. They settled in barrios known as Palermo, Recoleta, and Retiro, today home to middle and upper-class Porteños. San Telmo declined for many decades, and many homes became conventillos, cramped and unkempt living quarters for poor immigrants. Today, San Telmo is considered an artist's quarter, with low rents, and many antique stores and restaurants. Some areas have been restored and gentrified. South of San Telmo is the famous and colorful barrio of La Boca (mouth), a mostly working class neighborhood that got its start at the mouth of the Riachuelo River. Originally, Italian immigrants settled in La Boca. They worked in the neighborhood's meat salting plants, which brought prosperity to Buenos Aires in the nineteenth century. Tourists flock to Caminito, a pedestrian walkway named after a famous tango, an Argentinean form of
104
ballroom dancing that got its start on the fringes of Buenos Aires in the late 1880s. Caminito is flanked by modest homes brightly painted in an array of colors. During the day, artists sell their work, and couples show their tango steps to tourists. North of Plaza de Mayo, the city opens up into large avenues, pedestrian walkways, and large parks. The cultural and business center of the nation is here. Avenida Santa Fe, lined by expensive restaurants and boutiques, is typical of the Barrio Norte, which includes the neighborhoods of Recoleta, Palermo, and Retiro, among others. Recoleta has remained a chic address, even for the dead. Some of the wealthiest and most famous Argentineans, including the cultural icon Eva Perón, are buried at the Cementerio de la Recoleta in the heart of the neighborhood. Detached single-family homes are quite rare in Buenos Aires. Traditionally, families lived in row houses with interior patios or gardens. As the population grew more rapidly, two- and threestory buildings separated by a common wall were built. These buildings were known as petit hotels. In the twentieth century, detached high-rise apartment buildings began to dominate the landscape. In the Barrio Norte, these buildings stretch for many blocks. Some of them take up a whole block. According to government figures, about five percent of the population lives in substandard housing. In metropolitan Buenos Aires, the typical living unit in the villas miserias is a corrugated metal shack.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Buenos Aires 6
History
In 1536, the Spaniard Pedro de Mendoza—under orders by the Spanish kingdom to establish a settlement—and 1,600 of his men camped on a bluff overlooking the Río de la Plata. To the west, and stretching as far as the eye could see, lay the Pampa, a flat plain of rich soil. Relations with the Querandí (an indigenous people who populated this part of the continent) quickly deteriorated, and the Spaniards were forced to leave five years later. More than four decades would pass before the Spaniards attempted to settle the area again. In 1580, Juan de Garay (c. 1528– 1583) and 300 people settled at the mouth of the Río Riachuelo and reestablished the city of Buenos Aires. They discovered that cattle and horses brought by Mendoza’s men had multiplied and spread across the Pampa, easing their attempts to settle the area. In time, the domestication of wild horses and cattle and life in the vast Pampa would have a profound impact on the culture of Argentina and Buenos Aires' rise to power. For 200 years, Buenos Aires remained a sleepy, isolated town, governed by the Viceroyalty of Peru. (A viceroyalty is a province ruled by a governor in the name of the Spanish King.) Buenos Aires' growth was hampered by Spain's rigid trade regulations, which allowed only certain ports to handle goods destined for Spain. Any goods from Argentina traveled over vast distances by land to the Peruvian port of Callao, where they were shipped to
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Panama and then transferred to ships going to Spain. The great distance between Lima and Buenos Aires helped Porteños establish their own distinct identity. The isolation and vastness of the Pampa gave rise to a unique culture as well. The Pampa became synonymous with the Gaucho, the celebrated Argentinean cowboy whose image was resurrected as a symbol of national identity. By the early eighteenth century, the fertile and well-irrigated land west and north of Buenos Aires was producing thousands of tons of cereal and dried beef and thousands of cattle hides. Financed by British capital, smugglers exported the goods through the Port of Buenos Aires to markets in Brazil and the Caribbean Islands, much to the consternation of Spain, which could not stop the illegal trade. In 1776, the Spanish kingdom named Buenos Aires the capital of the new Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Many factors led to that decision. Chief among them was the growing economic importance of Buenos Aires and the entire region. Spain also sought to deflate British influence and collect more taxes from the growing commerce. The British, of course, would not give up so easily on Buenos Aires. British troops attempted to invade the city in 1806 and 1807 but were soundly defeated by local forces. Already infused with a strong sense of self-identity, the victories over the British boosted Argentine nationalism among Porteños. By 1808, when French commander Napo-
105
Buenos Aires leon Bonaparte’s forces invaded Spain, the citizens of Buenos Aires began to question their allegiance to the Spanish kingdom. Two years later, in May of 1810, Buenos Aires severed its ties with Spain. But the surrounding provinces did not follow suit until 1816, when they declared their independence and named Buenos Aires the new capital of the United Provinces of Río de la Plata. By then, Buenos Aires had become a dominant force in the region, and neighboring provinces attempted to curve its power. Following a long period of unrest and a power struggle, Buenos Aires emerged even stronger and was named the federal capital of Argentina in 1880. Heavy British investment had sustained growth in the region during this time, and by the late 1880s, Buenos Aires was becoming one of the wealthiest and most important cities in the world. Porteños began to call their city the Paris of South America and embarked on an ambitious construction program. Beautiful mansions and buildings, wide avenues, expensive hotels, and restaurants became permanent fixtures in the city's landscape. The Teatro Colón, an architectural jewel used for ballet, opera, and classical music, opened in 1908 to world acclaim. With massive immigration from Spain and Italy to keep the factories and farms spinning around the clock, the city's population grew from about 90,000 people in 1851 to 1.3 million people by 1910. By the beginning of World War I (1914–18), Argentina had become one of the world's top exporters
106
of agricultural products, with most of it channeled through the Port of Buenos Aires. Yet, few benefited from the wealth. Large numbers of newcomers were forced into substandard housing. Workers could barely feed their families on low wages. Social unrest in the city reached a boiling point in 1919, when the army attacked metalworkers on strike. The suppression of the workers came to be known as La Semana Trágica (The Tragic Week). Buenos Aires kept on growing rapidly. By the 1930s, the city embarked on a modernization project, tearing down colonial neighborhoods and narrow streets and replacing them with modern buildings and wide avenues. Suburban communities and Buenos Aires grew closer to each other, becoming a massive metropolis after World War II (1939–45). The mid-twentieth century also marked a dramatic shift in migration. By 1930, international immigration came to a halt. The new migrants were mostly mestizos from northern Argentina. They poured into the city by the thousands. Unable to find suitable housing, they settled in the villas miserias around the city. The centralization of jobs, goods, and services in Buenos Aires brought prosperity to the city at the cost of other cities, where growth simply stopped. In time, it also hurt Buenos Aires. Buenos Aires today is a tired but proud city. It is obsessed with trying to fix its decaying infrastructure, to alleviate its heavy pollution, and to deal with massive poverty and chronic unem-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Buenos Aires D.C., Buenos Aires has a voting member in Congress. Until 1996, the president appointed the mayor of Buenos Aires, and the elected city council had negligible power. By law, the president and congress controlled any legislation that affected the city. But constitutional reforms allowed Fernando de la Rúa to become the city's first elected mayor in 1996. In 1999, he was considered a top contender for the presidency. The city council was replaced with an elected 60-member Poder Legislativo (legislative power). The members are elected by proportional representation to four-year terms. City officials, including the mayor, are allowed to run for two consecutive terms but must sit out for a full term before running for office again. The design of the Palacio Del Congresso is similar to the U.S. capitol but unlike Washington, D.C. it has a voting member in Congress. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
ployment. Argentine officials have attempted to decentralize government by moving the federal city to other regions of Argentina; however, their attempts have not been successful. 7
Government
Like Washington, D.C., Buenos Aires is a federal district. It is home to the President of the Republic and National Congress. Unlike Washington,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
8
Public Safety
Statistics from the Buenos Aires government show a sharp increase in crime between 1991 and 1996. Crimes reported to police increased from 42,796 in 1991 to 126,920 in 1996. Homicides rose from 19 to 177 during the same period. Of great concern to the Buenos Aires population are crimes committed by police. In 1998, the United Nations Committee Against Torture reported its concerns over growing police brutality in Buenos Aires and the rest of the nation. Amnesty International, a London-based human rights organization, also noted police obstruction to prevent investigations of police brutality, the atrocious treatment of
107
Buenos Aires prisoners, media.
and
attacks
against
the
Between 1976 and 1983, Argentina was ruled from Buenos Aires by a brutal dictatorship responsible for the murder of thousands of Argentineans, many of them in the capital city, where the police and military acted as a repressive force. As many as 9,000 Argentineans are among the "disappeared," people whose bodies have not been found. In recent years, Buenos Aires' new government has attempted to curb police abuses such as bribery and brutality by decriminalizing some activities, including prostitution and public drunkenness. 9
Economy
Throughout its history, the city has depended on its port, the largest in South America, for much of its economic activity. Argentina is heavily dependent on the export of its agricultural products, and most of it is processed and shipped from Buenos Aires. The intense trade helped Buenos Aires develop a diversified economy, and by the twentieth century the city was the nation's center of banking and finance. The city itself was unable to absorb the massive growth in trade-related and new industries during the twentieth century. Most of those jobs went to the suburbs, where about half of the nation's manufacturing jobs are located. Avellaneda, just south of the Federal District, is an important industrial center.
108
While most workers are engaged in food processing, including grains, meat, and fish, others assemble cars, refine oil, or work in other factories. In the city, the workforce numbers about 1.4 million people, with about 36 percent involved in services, 18 percent in trade, 17 percent in manufacturing, and about 12 percent in finance, insurance, and real estate. As part of its economic plan, Argentina privatized many public assets during the 1990s, including many enterprises that affect the city. Some of the most important former public services that been sold or licensed to private companies include the phone company ENTel, the national airline Aerolineas Argentinas, the petroleum enterprise YPF, the mail system, and public transportation, including the underground metro service and regional commuter rail service. 10
Environment
The Riachuelo River is the most visible example of Buenos Aires' environmental problems. The river is littered with rusted ships, many of them barely floating on water that is heavily saturated with oil. The sediments are even a worse problem, with untold concentrations of heavy metals and chemical pollutants. The Río de la Plata also is heavily contaminated. Cleaning the waterways remains one of the city's most pressing problems. With hundreds of thousands of cars, buses, and trucks on the roads, the air is heavily polluted.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Buenos Aires
Tren de la Costa shopping mall and amusement park. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
The city also has reported serious problems with feral (wild) cats and mice. 11
Shopping
Buenos Aires is famous for its leather and woolen goods. Leather jackets, saddles, boots, and many other items are sold at many expensive shops in the northern barrios of the city. Some downtown streets lined by shops have been closed to automobiles and turned into pedestrian malls. Buenos Aires is a well-read city, and hundreds of bookstores offer books in many languages. Expensive shops and malls similar to those in the United States are
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
found throughout the city and the metropolitan area. 12
Education
Porteños are among the best-educated people in the world, with high literacy rates and school completion rates. The world-renowned University of Buenos Aires (1821) had more than 180,000 students enrolled in 1997. Its faculty members have earned Nobel Prizes in science and medical fields. In the Spanish-speaking world, Buenos Aires is a publishing powerhouse and home to important literary figures. In 1997, 664,273 students attended primary and secondary school. Most pri-
109
Buenos Aires 13
Health Care
In 1995, Buenos Aires had more than 1,000 medical facilities, including 181 hospitals. More than 23,000 hospital beds are available at private and public hospitals. Many Argentineans come to Buenos Aires for special care not available in other parts of the country. The city has seven physicians per 1,000 residents. 14
Cleaning up the rivers is one environmental issue that Buenos Aires is trying to address. Here, an old ship sits in the renovated river front of the Puerto Madero area. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
mary and secondary schools are public, including special national high schools that function as college preparatory schools. The Roman Catholic Church also operates many private institutions, including two universities: Salvador University and Roman Catholic University. Other important institutions of higher learning are the private University of Belgrano, the National Conservatory of Music, and the National School of Fine Arts.
110
Media
Buenos Aires is Argentina's media capital, with 49 book publishers, 29 periodicals, 14 daily newspapers, 12 foreign press offices, six television stations, and three news agencies. Newspapers in Buenos Aires have clearly defined political leanings, with some of them claiming a centrist position. The tabloid Clarín, with a daily circulation of 600,000 and more than one million on Sundays, is the world's largest Spanishlanguage newspaper. La Nación (1870) is one of the oldest and most respected newspapers in Latin America. The English-language Buenos Aires Herald has been publishing daily since 1876. Pagina 12 is a left-leaning newspaper known for its investigative pieces. 15
Sports
Buenos Aires and the greater metropolitan area are home to some of the most celebrated professional soccer teams in the world. Many of the top clubs got their start in Buenos Aires before moving to the suburbs. Eight of the 20 first-division teams are in the capital city, while five are in the sub-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Buenos Aires urbs. Among the best-known teams are Boca Juniors, which plays at the famous La Bombonera stadium, and its archrival River Plate, which plays in the wealthy northern barrio of Nuñez. Independiente's home is just south of La Boca in the suburb of Avellaneda. Other well-known teams include Racing Club and San Lorenzo. The national team won the World Cup in Greater Buenos Aires in 1978 when the country hosted the event. Porteños are not limited to soccer. The country's long history and attachment to horses continue to fuel great interest in polo, horse racing and pato (duck), a game similar to polo that owes its root to Gaucho culture. Pato was once a violent game played with a real duck encased in a leather bag. Serious injuries were common. But the game has mellowed, and pato players now use a ball with handles instead of a real duck. Many other sports are popular in the city, including tennis, boxing, and basketball. 16
Parks and Recreation
The city has many parks and plazas, and they are quite busy on weekends when Porteños traditionally go out for a stroll. One of the city's largest parks is in Palermo. Within its grounds are a horse racing arena, polo fields, tennis courts, and bicycle and pedestrian paths. Nearby Plaza Alemania is a favorite hangout for young skateboarders. During the dictatorship years of 1976 to 1983, the military filled a large
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
area in the Río de la Plata just east of the port as part of a plan to create a satellite city. The city never materialized, but birds and other wildlife took over the area. Today, it is known as Reserva Ecológica Costanera Sur, an ecological reserve popular with birdwatchers. 17
Performing Arts
The Teatro Colón is a beautiful building and symbolic of the importance given to the performing arts. The theater is home to the country's national ballet and national symphony. In recent years, Porteños have revived and firmly embraced the tango as a symbol of Porteño life. The old tango and the modern, sometimes experimental, tango are performed throughout the city, in important venues, seedy cafes, and often on the streets. Much like New York City, Buenos Aires has a lively theater culture, especially during the winter season when dozens of new plays open to the public. One of the main venues is the San Martin Municipal Theater, which has three main auditoriums and several smaller ones. Porteños are fond of peñas, a performance where folk songs and dances are accompanied by a hearty Argentinean meal. 18
Libraries and Museums
Buenos Aires is home to the National Library and dozens of public and private museums, some operated
111
Buenos Aires
The Colón Theater Opera House is the home to Argentina’s national ballet and symphony. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
by the municipal government. Several museums are devoted to the history of the city and its residents. They include the Mitre Museum, dedicated to one of Argentina's earliest presidents, Bartolomé Mitre (president 1862–68); Museo de la Ciudad (the City Museum), and a museum dedicated to the economic history of the city and province of Buenos Aires. The Museo del Cine (the Cinema Museum) focuses on the long, and sometimes glorious, history of Argentine cinema. The National Historical Museum offers a portrait of the country, and the National Museum of Theater
112
traces the history of Argentine theater. The National Museum of Fine Arts has the works of many of the world's greatest masters. The collection includes works by Argentinean painters and sculptors. 19
To u r i s m
Buenos Aires is a popular tourist destination, with more than ten million visitors annually. Most visitors are from Argentina and neighboring countries, but large numbers of visitors come from the United States and Europe. Tourism
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Buenos Aires is important to the city’s economy. During the summer of 1997–98 (December through March), two-and-a-half million visitors spent more than $900 million. The city has a wide variety of accommodations, from luxury hotels to simple rooms in private homes. In 1997, there were a total of 1,228 places to stay, with more than 84,000 beds. The city has much to offer visitors, from fine dining to sports and cultural activities. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY Año Nuevo (New Year’s Day, January 1)
MARCH-APRIL Viernes Santo (Good Friday)
MAY Día del Trabajador (Labor Day, May 1) Revolucíon de Mayo (May Revolution, May 25)
Luis Maria Drago (1859–1921), statesman who became a respected member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague, Netherlands, best known for the international law called the Drago Doctrine (1907). Alberto Evaristo Ginastera (1916–83), twentieth-century composer of opera known for combining nationalistic musical idioms with twentieth-century techniques. While the following notable citizens may not have been born in Buenos Aires, they are closely identified with the city: Former President Juan Domingo Perón (1895–1974), and his first wife, Eva Perón (1919–1952), both considered to be political and cultural icons of the nation.
JUNE Día de las Malvinas (Day of the Falkland Islands, June 10) Día de la Bandera (Flag Day, June 20)
Tango singer and actor Carlos Gardel (1890–1935).
JULY Independence Day (July 9)
AUGUST Día de San Martín (commemoration of San Martín’s death)
OCTOBER Día de la Raza (Columbus Day, Oct. 12)
21
Famous Citizens
Jorge Luis Borges (1899–1986), one of the most important writers in Latin American and world literature. Manuel Puig (1932–90), novelist, internationally known for his novel Kiss of the Spider Woman (1976).
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
22
For Further Study
Websites Buenos Aires Herald (English-language). [Online] Availablehttp://www.bueonosairesherald.com (accessed April 17, 2000). Columbus World Travel Guide. “Buenos Aires.” [Online] Available http://www.travelguides.com/data/arg/arg140.asp (accessed April 17, 2000).
Government Offices Argentinean Embassy 1600 New Hampshire Ave. Washington D.C. 20009 Phone: 202 238–6460
113
Buenos Aires U.S. Consulates: 5550 Wilshire Blvd. Suite 210 Los Angeles. CA 90036 Phone: 213 954–9155 205 N. Michigan Ave. Suite 4209 Chicago, IL. 60601 Phone: 312 819–2610
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Direccion General de Turismo de la Municipalidad de Buenos Aires (tourism offices for the city of Buenos Aires) Centro Cultural San Martin Sarmiento 1551 Montserrat, Buenos Aires Phone: 54–1–4476–3612 Direccion Nacional de Turismo (National Tourism Office) Ave. Santa Fe 883 Retiro, Buenos Aires Phone: 54–1–4312–2232
Books Adelman, Jeremy. Republic of Capital: Buenos Aires and the Legal Transformation of the
114
Atlantic World. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. APA Publications. Inside Guides: Buenos Aires. Singapore: Hoyer Press, 1998. Baily, Samuel L.and Franco Ramella (eds.). One Family, Two Worlds: An Italian Family's Correspondence Across the Atlantic: 1901–22. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1988. Bernhardson, Wayne. Buenos Aires, From Worldclass Opera to Tango Lessons. Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet, 1999. France, Miranda. Bad Times in Buenos Aires: A Writer's Adventures in Argentina. New Jersey: Ecco Press, 1999. Reid, George Andrews. The Afro-Argentines of Buenos Aires: 1800–1900. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980. Ross, Stanley R.and Thomas F. McGann (eds.) Buenos Aires: 400 Years. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982. Scobie, James R. Buenos Aires: Plaza to Suburb, 1870–1910. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974. Sofer, Eugene F. From Pale to Pampa. A Social History of the Jews of Buenos Aires. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1982. Shumway, Nicolas. The Invention of Argentina. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cairo Cairo, Egypt, Africa Founded: A.D. 969 Location: Near the head of the Nile River delta, Egypt; northeastern Africa Time Zone: 2 PM Cairo time = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Elevation: 194 m (636 ft) Latitude and Longitude: 43º40'N, 79º22'W Coastline: (Greater Cairo) approximately 27 km (17 mi) Climate: Desert climate, with hot summers and mild winters; rain is rare, and hamsin dust storms can occur in the spring. Annual Mean Temperature: January -4ºC (24ºF); July 21.7ºC (71ºF) Seasonal Average Snowfall: 141 cm (55.5 in) Average Annual Precipitation (total of rainfall and melted snow): 81.3 cm (32 in) Government: governor-council Weights and Measures: Metric Monetary Units: Egyptian pounds Telephone Area Codes: 20 (Egypt), 02 (Cairo)
1
Introduction
Located on the banks of the Nile River, Cairo is Africa’s largest city, as well as the largest city in the Arab world. In the course of its thousandyear history it has been the capital of the great Egyptian dynasties of the Middle Ages, a British colonial enclave, and a modern industrialized city. Today it is a teeming, vibrant national capital with one of the world’s highest population densities per square mile. Even as the city struggles with the social and environmental effects of overcrowding, it dominates Egypt politically, economically, and culturally and remains a prime tourist destination in spite of a campaign of terrorist activity by Islamic
extremists seeking to destabilize the country’s government. 2
Getting There
Cairo, the largest city in Africa, is located on the Nile River, 160 kilometers (100 miles) inland from the Mediterranean Sea and 135 kilometers (80 miles) west of the Red Sea. Highways Cairo is connected by highway with all other major cities in Egypt. The Desert Road links Cairo and Alexandria; there are main roads connecting Cairo with Ismailiyyah and Luxor. In addition, there is the Red Sea Highway, completed in the early 1990s. Roads connect Cairo with Libya to the west
115
Cairo
Cairo Population Profile
Alexandria, and buses run between Cairo and all major towns. Airports
City Proper Population: 9,690,000 Area: 20 sq km (7.7 sq mi) Nicknames: Mother of the World, The WellGuarded
Metropolitan Area Population: 12,000,000 Description: Central Cairo, Giza, Shubra alKhaymah, and parts of Giza and Qalyubiyah provinces Area: 215 sq km (83 sq mi) World population rank1: 17 Percentage of national population2: 16% Average yearly growth rate: 2.1% ——— 1. The Cairo metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of Egypt’s total population living in the Cairo metropolitan area.
and Israel to the east (however, special permission must be obtained to enter Egypt from Israel in a private vehicle). Bus and Railroad Service Rail service is available between Cairo and all areas of the Nile River Valley. An air-conditioned nonstop express train, the turbino, makes three trips daily between Cairo and Alexandria. Cairo’s main railway station is located at Maydan Ramsis. Several bus companies offer inter-city bus service between Cairo and Alexandria, the Nile Valley, the Red Sea, Sinai Peninsula, the Suez Canal, and other destinations. There is nonstop bus service between Cairo and
116
Cairo International Airport, an important connecting point between Europe, Asia, and Africa, offers regular service by most major airlines. EgyptAir offers both domestic flights to Luxor, Aswan, and Hurghada and international service. Shipping Although it is located on the Nile River, Cairo is not one of Egypt’s major shipping cities, all of which have ports on the Mediterranean (Alexandria, Suez, and Port Said). 3
Getting Around
Greater Cairo is spread out over both banks of the Nile River, which runs north-south through the center of the city. The neighborhoods of Gizah, Aguza, Mohandisin are on the west bank, the districts of Gazirah and Geziret Al-Rawdah on islands in the river, and the major urban center on the east bank, together with a number of suburbs. Downtown Cairo’s streets and avenues are laid out around a series of traffic circles—Maydan Talaat Harb, Maydan Orabi, Maydan Mustafa Kamel, and, at the heart of the city, Maydan Tahrir. Bus and Commuter Rail Service Packed buses offer local service in Cairo, stopping at the Maydan Tahrir, the Maydan Ataba and Opera Square, the Pyramids Road, Ramses Station, and
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cairo
the Citadel. Minibuses offer more reliable and somewhat more expensive service. Also available are privately owned and operated 12-seat taxis. Cairo’s commuter rail service, the Metro, runs both above- and underground. The trains are clean; service is efficient; and fares are reasonable. Sightseeing Organized tours to Cairo’s major tourist attractions, such as the Giza and
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Saqqara pyramids and the Sphinx, are offered by hotels, private guides, and travel agencies. 4
People
More than one-quarter of all Egyptians live in Cairo. The population of the city proper stood at 9,690,000 in 1998 while the population of the greater metropolitan area has been variously estimated between 12 and 18 mil-
117
Cairo lion. The city’s population is more homogenous today than during the colonial period when large numbers of Europeans lived in Cairo. Today about 95 percent of the city’s residents were born in Egypt, and 90 percent are Muslims. Cairo’s population also includes significant numbers of people from other African countries, especially Sudan (Sudanese are thought to number about 400,000). About 20,000 African Muslims from other countries are students at Al-Azhar University. Even more are refugees who fled their homelands. 5
Neighborhoods
Downtown Cairo, whose center is the plaza of Maydan Tahrir, is a bustling district of shops, restaurants, hotels, and other commercial establishments, as well as museums, gardens, and art galleries. It also affords a scenic view of the Nile River. To the east of central Cairo is the walled medieval section of the city known as Islamic Cairo, which includes poorer residential districts, historic architecture dating back over a thousand years, and the bustling Khan Khalili marketplace. Its main street, Shar’a Mu’iz, is lined with buildings from several eras of Egyptian history, including those of the early dynasties before the Ottoman Era. Garden City, south of Maydan Tahrir, is an upscale district with expensive homes and numerous embassies. To the east is the area dominated by the Citadel, a medieval fortress that was
118
home to Egypt’s rulers for some 700 years. In the vicinity are three mosques and several museums. Northeast of Cairo’s central and historic districts is the wealthy residential suburb of Heliopolis, home to Egypt’s former president Gamal Abdel Nasser. Although named for an ancient Egyptian city, Heliopolis was actually planned and laid out with reference to European models and is more spacious than other parts of Cairo. (Egyptians generally call the suburb Masr alGedida, or New Cairo). Many members of the professional classes live in the neighborhood, which has a large Christian minority. The exclusive residential suburb of Zamalek—Cairo’s wealthiest neighborhood—is located on the island of Gazirah, occupying the northern twothirds of the island; the remainder is the site of private sports clubs and parks. The newer suburbs of Duqqi, Mohandisin, Aguza, Gizah, and Imbabah are located on the west bank of the Nile, opposite the older part of the city. 6
History
The first settlement in the region of present-day Cairo was al-Fustat, founded in A.D. 641 as a military encampment by the Arabic commander 'Amr ibn al-'As. Under the dynasties that ruled Egypt over the following centuries, the town grew into a major port city. In A.D. 969 Jawhar, the leader of an Islamic sect called the Fatimids,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cairo
City Fact Comparison Cairo (Egypt)
New York (United States)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
10,772,000
16,626,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
AD 969
1613
753 BC
723 BC
$193
$198
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$56
$44
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$14
$26
$15
$16
$173
$244
$246
$207
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
13
10
20
11
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
The Wall Street Journal
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
1,159,339
1,740,450
754,930
3,000,000
1944
1889
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
founded a new city near al-Fustat, initially naming it al-Mansuriyah (its name was later changed to al-Qahirah, or Cairo). When the Fatimids became the rulers of Egypt, founding a dynasty that lasted for two centuries, Cairo became their capital. When Saladin, a Sunni Muslim, defeated the Crusaders and founded the Ayyubid dynasty in the twelfth century, he retained Cairo as his capital, and it became the center of a vast empire. (AlFustat, however, was burned down as part of the “scorched earth” strategy that defeated the Crusaders.) In the thirteenth century, the Ayyubids were
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
eclipsed by Turkish military conquerors known as the Mamluks, who ruled Egypt from A.D. 1260 to 1516. During the first hundred years of Mamluk rule, Cairo experienced its most illustrious period. Al-Azhar University, which had been founded in the tenth century, became the foremost center of learning in the Islamic world, and Cairo played a key role in the east-west spice trade. Most of its greatest buildings were constructed during this period. Starting in the second half of the fourteenth century, Cairo experienced a decline, beginning with the scourge of the Black Death (1348) and other epi-
119
Cairo
Cairo skyline along the Nile River. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
demics. By the end of the fifteenth century, new trade routes had broken the city’s monopoly on the spice trade, and in 1517 the Ottoman sultan Selim I (r. 1512–20) conquered Egypt, defeating the Mamluk forces at Ar Raydaniyah, outside Cairo, and the city came under Turkish rule. Under the Ottomans, Cairo was reduced to a provincial capital, and by the end of the eighteenth century, its population had declined to under 300,000. The city was occupied by Napoleon’s troops between 1798 and 1801 but then returned to Turkish rule. The modernization of Egypt and its capital began under Mehemet ’Ali (c.
120
1769–1849), often called the “father of modern Egypt,” who ruled the country for nearly half a century beginning in 1805, modernizing and strengthening it, and expanding its borders. Modernization of Cairo began in 1830, but the period of greatest progress occurred during the reign of Ismail Pasha (r. 1863-79). Pasha undertook a major modernization of the city modeled on the renovation of Paris under Napoleon III (1808–1873). To the west of the older, medieval part of Cairo (now called Islamic Cairo), a newer section of the city boasted wide avenues laid out around circular plazas in the style of a
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cairo European city. The development of this area was also influenced by the growth of French and British colonial power in Egypt. The advent of the twentieth century saw advances in bridge building and flood control, which encouraged riverfront development. By 1927, Cairo’s population had reached one million. In the first half of the century, Cairo was dominated by foreign influences. During World War I (1914–18), it became the center for British military operations in the region, and British troops were headquartered in the city. The British military presence in Egypt was curtailed in the 1920s, but the country was reoccupied by British forces during World War II (1939– 1945). With the Egyptian Revolution in 1952, the colonial presence in Cairo— and throughout the country—came to an end. Since then, large numbers of Egyptians from other parts of the country have migrated to the capital, and the government has worked to accommodate a rapidly growing urban population by creating new, planned suburbs, including Nasr City, Muqattam City, and Engineers’ City. In recent decades, Cairo has become the nation’s industrial, commercial, and cultural center, as well as the seat of its government. 7
Government
Cairo has only had a municipal government since 1950, and Egypt’s
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
central government plays a large role in administering the capital, controlling its budget and spending programs. The city’s municipal government consists of a governor, who is appointed by the president of Egypt, and a council called the Popular Assembly, which includes both appointed and elected members. Only the elected members can vote. 8
Public Safety
Although Cairo is notorious for government corruption, it is known as a safe city with a much lower incidence of violent crime than most major Western cities. Petty theft—especially pickpocketing—is known to occur, and in recent years there have been some reports of armed robbery and sales of hard drugs. However, the major form of violence to which Cairo has been subjected is terrorism. In 1992 Islamic extremists began a campaign of terrorism aimed at overthrowing the secular government of President Hosni Mubarak. Within the first four years, 920 people had died, including 25 foreign visitors. Terrorism persisted in the latter part of the 1990s in spite of a government crackdown on extremist groups. 9
Economy
Cairo is the economic center of Egypt, with two-thirds of the country’s gross national product generated in the greater metropolitan area. Industrialization, which began in the nineteenth
121
Cairo century, grew rapidly following the 1952 revolution and revolved primarily around textiles (based on Egypt’s traditional economic mainstay, long-staple cotton) and food processing. Other industries include iron and steel production and consumer goods. Today the majority of Cairo’s work force is employed in service sector jobs, especially in government, financial services, and commerce. The tourism industry is a major source of revenue for the country, along with weapons sales, petroleum, and Suez Canal tariffs (following nationalization of the canal on July 26, 1956). Foreign aid from other countries is also an important source of income. Although government agricultural subsidies, cheap public transportation, and low-cost medical care help keep Cairo’s cost of living relatively low, the average Cairene still struggle to make ends meet, often holding down two or more jobs, or going overseas to find work and send money home. The poorest are forced to send their children to work as early as eight or nine years of age, often in “sweatshops” producing manufactured goods. 10
Environment
Industrial and vehicular emissions combine to give Cairo a serious air pollution problem. Thousands of old vehicles crowd the city streets without government regulation of emission levels, and the city’s factories create additional environmental hazards. Levels of both lead and particulate emissions far exceed internationally acceptable stan-
122
dards. In the 1990s the Egyptian government began a serious effort to improve the city’s air quality, with legislation requiring air filters in factories as well as an air-quality-improvement project, the Cairo Air Improvement Project (CAIP), designed to reduce pollution from lead and particulates. CAIP’s goals included development of a vehicle emission testing and certification program; increasing the use of compressed natural gas a fuel in municipal buses; the upgrading and relocation of secondary lead smelters; and air quality monitoring and analysis. 11
Shopping
Cairo’s most famous shopping venue is the Khan al-Khalili Bazaar, a large open-air market located amid medieval ruins. Featured among its wares is the handiwork of local craftsmen working in gold, silver, copper, brass, ivory, and leather, as well as such items as carpets and perfumes. The Tentmakers’ Bazaar (Khiyamiyyah) in the old part of the city is known for its appliqué. In both the Khan al-Khalili and the myriad of other bazaars in the city, bargaining is a universal practice, for both tourists and locals alike. Other items available in the city’s bazaars and boutiques include handwoven rugs, ceramics, glassware, inlaid boxes, handwoven goods made from rattan and palm fiber, antiques, and a variety of clothing. A number of artisans sell high-quality crafts at their own shops or galleries.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cairo
The Khan al-Khalili Bazaar, Cairo’s most famous shopping venue, features handiwork, carpets, perfumes, fruits and grains. (Adam Woolfitt; Woodfin Camp)
12
Education
Primary education is free and compulsory in Cairo, as elsewhere in Egypt, and university tuition has been free since 1962. In the 1990s, Egypt’s first lady, Suzanne Mubarak, spearheaded a program to improve literacy that included the creation of new public libraries; the “Reading for All” program to make inexpensive juvenile books
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
available to children throughout the country; and a series of international book fairs. The Children’s Cultural Center was officially opened by Mrs. Mubarak in Heliopolis in 1997. Founded in the tenth century, AlAzhar University, the premier center of religious instruction in the Islamic world, is said to be the oldest continuously operating university in the world.
123
Cairo
Al-Azhar University is said to be the world’s oldest operating university. Post-secondary education has been free in Egypt since 1962. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
Cairo University, founded in 1908, produces the country’s largest number of college graduates and college-educated professionals. It has about 155,000 students and 3,158 faculty members, operates some 100 research institutes and offers programs in agriculture, medicine, nursing, economics, political science, the arts, and other fields. Most facilities of the university’s main campus are located to the southeast of downtown Cairo, and it operates branches in Al Fayyum and Bani Suwayf, as well as Khartoum (Sudan).
124
Cairo’s third major institution of higher learning is Ain Shams University. Located in the heart of the city, it enrolls approximately 100,000 undergraduates and 30,000 graduate students and has a faculty of 3,700. 13
Health Care
Cairo is Egypt’s major center for health care. It has the greatest concentration of medical facilities in the country, including government hospitals, such as Qasr al-Ayni and Dimardash; smaller private hospitals, such as the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cairo Anglo-American Hospital; and facilities affiliated with university medical programs. There are also hospitals and clinics for the treatment of specific types of problems, including several that specialize in eye disorders. 14
Media
Cairo is the only city in Egypt with daily newspapers, of which it has four (all distributed nationally). The oldest and best known is Al-Ahram, founded in 1876 in Alexandria. Others include Al-Alam al-Yom, a newer and livelier paper with a strong business focus, and a local edition of the Arabic world daily, Al-Hayat. Daily newspapers are also published in English (The Egyptian Gazette) and French (Le Progrès Egyptien and Le Journal d’Égypte). Two Englishlanguage weeklies also appear: AlAhram Weekly and Middle East Times. A monthly magazine, Egypt Today, features general-interest articles and events listings and is affiliated with two other monthlies, Sports & Fitness and Business Today. Three government-operated television stations broadcast in Arabic and are supplemented by at least a halfdozen private stations, and satellite and cable TV are also available at some locations. Both AM and FM radio stations are in operation throughout the week. 15
Sports
Soccer is Cairo’s (and Egypt’s) most popular sport, boasting players of international stature. Matches are played every weekend to sell-out crowds, and
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
the city’s residents eagerly follow games by its two leading teams, Zamalek and Ahli. The soccer season runs from September to May, and matches are held in Cairo Stadium. Horse racing can be seen at the Heliopolis Hippodrome. Every year the city hosts the Cairo Classic, a running and cycling event. 16
Parks and Recreation
The Zoological Garden (Hadiiqat al-Hayawaan), located in the southern suburb of Giza, is over 100 years old. When it was founded in 1891, it contained the private menagerie of Egyptian ruler Khedive Ismail, and for years it was one of the world’s premier zoos. Although the zoological garden no longer serves as a noteworthy botanical or zoological attraction, it remains a popular recreation area for local residents, who use it for sports, picnics, and other activities. There are several parks, as well as sporting clubs, located in the southern part of the island of Gazirah, whose northern section is occupied by the suburb of Zamalek. With their warm climate, Cairo residents enjoy spending their leisure time in outdoor activities, from strolling and window shopping to swimming and picnicking in open areas surrounding the city. The best venues for participant sports are the city’s exclusive sports clubs, made up of middle- and upperclass Cairenes. The most prestigious is the Gazirah Sporting club, which offers facilities for basketball, squash, and ten-
125
Cairo nis, as well as a golf course, two swimming pools, a running track, and a croquet lawn. Skeet shooting is offered at the neighboring Shooting Club in Dokki. Cairo also has a rugby club, yacht clubs, and a diving club. 17
Performing Arts
The new Cairo Opera House (National Cultural Centre), rebuilt in the 1980s after the nineteenth-century original was destroyed by fire in 1971, is the city’s principal performing-arts venue. The Cairo Opera House presents touring theater and ballet troupes and musical groups, as well as local performers, including the Cairo Opera Ballet Company and the Cairo Orchestra. Located in the parklike setting of the Gazirah Exhibition Grounds on the island of Gazirah, the opera house complex includes an open-air theater and amphitheater, as well as two indoor halls (a main one and a smaller one). A newer facility, the 2,500-seat Cairo International Conference Centre in the suburb of Madinat Nasr, was a gift from the Chinese in 1991. It opened the following year with a performance by the Grigorovich Ballet of Russia’s Bolshoi Theatre. Popular performance sites in Islamic Cairo, especially during the holiday period of Ramadan, are the House of Zeinab Khatoun and the Al-Ghouri complex. Plays and recitals are also presented at the Ewart Hall and Wallace Theater on the campus of American University in Cairo.
126
Cairo is a center of legitimate Arabic theater, although performances are subject to government censorship. Both ballet and modern dance are exceptionally popular in Cairo, whose ballet company (the Cairo Ballet) was founded in 1960 with help from the Soviet Union, which sent its own dance teachers to help train the members of the company. However with the expulsion of Soviet advisers from Egypt in 1972, the Russian presence at the ballet ended. The quality of the troupe is subsequently said to have declined, and in 1991 it was bolstered by the addition of dancers from Russia and Italy. Cairo is the film capital of the Arabic world, although its film industry has declined since its heyday in the 1940s and 1950s, thanks to strict censorship and economic factors. However, Cairo’s residents are avid filmgoers and flock to both Egyptian and foreign movies. The Cairo Puppet Theater performs at the Ezbekiyya Gardens north of Ataba from October through May. 18
Libraries and Museums
The Greater Cairo Library, housed in a restored villa in Zamalek, is over 100 years old. Its holdings include books in Arabic, German, French, and English. A research library, its collection contains only non-circulating items, but its operating hours are extensive. It has good collections in the areas of art and science, as well as international periodicals. Included in its map collec-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cairo grams for children and has a high-tech multimedia auditorium. The newer El Mustaqbal Library has only non-circulating materials. English-language books are available in libraries at the British Council and the American Cultural Centre. Cairo University has a central library, additional libraries for various disciplines, and some 100 scientific research centers.
Tutankhamun’s (d. c. 1340 B.C.) death mask, along with his tomb and other artifacts are on display in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. (GN/Mairani; Woodfin Camp)
tion are hand-drawn maps of Cairo dating back to 1480. The Mubarak Library is located in Giza. Opened in 1995, it provides a popular library of circulating materials, with a large collection of books, magazines, newspapers, CDs, cassettes, and videos. Special services include story hours and puppet shows for preschoolers. There are also two libraries in the suburb of Heliopolis. The older Heliopolis Public Library offers organized pro-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cairo’s cultural legacy is evident in its rich and varied museum collections. The Egyptian Museum at Maydan Tahrir houses the city’s premier collection of over 100,000 artifacts from nearly every period of Egyptian history. The museum’s neoclassical building, which dates from 1902, has received updated security and lighting following a daring 1996 robbery attempt, and there has long been talk of building a new facility that can more adequately house the museum’s voluminous holdings. Among these holdings are the treasures of Tutankhamun (d. c. 1340 B.C.), a royal mummy room, artifacts from the Old and Middle kingdoms, jewelry rooms, and animal mummies. The Coptic Museum, located in Misr al-Qadimah, displays items from the pre-Islamic period, including textiles, stones, and religious icons. A church on the museum grounds, popularly known as the Hanging Church, is said to date back to the fourth century A.D. and is thought to be the earliest place of Christian worship in Cairo. The renovated Museum of Islamic Art, in Bab Zuweyla, houses brass, wood, glass, inlaid items, textiles, carpets, and fountains from the Mamluk and Ottoman
127
Cairo tral to the local economy. Roughly onethird of Egypt’s hotels (including three Hilton hotels) are located in the city, and souvenir shops and restaurants cater to travelers and locals alike. In the 1990s, Egypt’s $4.1 billion dollar per year tourist industry was threatened by terrorist attacks by Muslim extremists seeking to overthrow the secular government of Hosni Mubarak. In 1996 terrorists killed 18 members of a Greek tour group as they left a hotel on the outskirts of the city, bound for the Pyramids. The following year, nine German tourists were killed in an assault on a tour bus in front of the Egyptian Museum. In 1996, visitors to Egypt numbered 3,895,942. Tourists can find the Giza Pyramids grazing the skyline in the outskirts of the city. (Barry Iverson; Woodfin Camp)
eras, as well as Mamluk Korans and illuminated manuscripts. Other museums in Cairo include the War Museum, the Egyptian National Railways Museum, the Museum of Modern Art, and National Military Museum, as well as a post office Museum, an agricultural museum, and a carriage museum. 19
To u r i s m
Popular for its warm climate and famous as the home of King Tutankhamun's treasures, Cairo is Egypt’s most popular tourist city, and tourism is cen-
128
20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY New Year’s Day Cairo Book Fair
APRIL Sinai Liberation Day Images Festival of Independent Film and Video
MAY May Day
JULY Revolution Day
SEPTEMBER Experimental Theatre Festival
OCTOBER National Day Pharaohs’ Rally
NOVEMBER Arabic Music Festival
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cairo DECEMBER Cairo International Film Festival
21
Famous Citizens
Auguste Mariette (1821–1881), Frenchborn archaeologist. Saad Zaghlul (1857–1927), early nationalist leader. Taha Husayn (1889–1973), controversial historian. Naguib Mahfouz (b. 1911), Nobel Prizewinning novelist.
Embassy of the United States of America 5 Latin America Street Garden City Cairo, Egypt
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Egyptian Ministry of Tourism Misr Travel Tower Abbassia Square Cairo, Egypt Tourist Friends Association 33 Qasr el-Nil, 9th Floor Cairo, Egypt
Publications
Abbas al-Aqqad (1889–1964), poet.
Al Ahram Sharia al-Galaa Post No.11511 Cairo, Egypt
Tawfiq al-Hakim (1898–1987), playwright and leading figure in modern Egyptian literature.
Al Hayat 1 Latin America St. Garden City Cairo, Egypt
Yusuf Idris (1927–1991), groundbreaking playwright and short-story writer.
Egyptian Gazette 24-26 Sharia Zakaria Ahmed St. Al Tahir Cairo, Egypt
King Faruk (1920–1965), Egypt’s last ruling monarch.
Books
22
For Further Study
Websites Egypt World Wide Web Index. [Online] Available http://www.pharos.bu.edu/Egypt/ Home.html (accessed October 7, 1999). Egyptian Ministry of Tourism. [Online] Available http://interoz.com/Egypt (accessed October 7, 1999). Middle East Times. [Online] Available http:// www.metimes.com (accessed October 7, 1999).
Government Offices Cairo Chamber of Commerce 4 Maydan Falaki Bab al-Luq Cairo, Egypt
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Abu Lughod, Janet. Cairo: 1001 Years of the City Victorious. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971. Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P. The Beauty of Cairo: A Historical Guide to the Chief Islamic and Coptic Monuments. London: East-West Publications, 1981. Gaston, Wiet. Cairo: City of Art and Commerce. Trans. Seymour Feiler. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1964. Ghosh, Amitav. In an Antique Land. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993. Raafat, Samir. Maadi 1904–1962: Society and History in a Cairo Suburb. Cairo: Palm Press, 1994. Roberts, Paul William. River in the Desert: Modern Travels in Ancient Egypt. New York: Random House, 1993. Rodenbeck, Max. Cairo: The City Victorious. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999. Stewart, Desmond. Cairo: 5500 Years. New York: Crowell, 1968.
129
Cairo Wikan, Unni. Tomorrow, God-willing: Self-made Destinies in Cairo. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. Williams, Caroline. Islamic Monuments in Cairo: A Practical Guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1993.
130
Videorecordings Egypt 1 [videorecording] : Cairo & the Pyramids. Derry, NH: Chip Taylor Communications, 1991. 1 videocassette (16 min.): sd., col.; 1/2 in. “Exploring the World” series. Travel magazine.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Caracas Caracas, Venezuela, South America Founded: July 25, 1567 Location: North-central Venezuela, South America Flag: Coat of arms on a deep red field. Time Zone: 8 AM = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: 80% mestizos (of mixed European, Indian and African ancestry), 20% white, 8% black, and 2% Indian Latitude and Longitude: 10° 30’N, 66° 56’W Coastline: On the coast, approximately 25 km from the port of La Guaira Climate: Subtropical Annual Mean Temperature: From 10° to 25° C (50° to 70° F) Government: Federal Republic. Caracas is ruled as a federal district; it is the center of all government in Venezuela and hosts the executive, judicial and legislative branches of government. Weights and Measures: Metric system Monetary Units: The bolivar, a paper currency of 100 centimos Telephone Area Codes: 58 (Venezuela country code); 02 (Caracas city code) Postal Codes: None
1
Introduction
Located in the central north region of Venezuela, Caracas is a sophisticated, cosmopolitan city with a fast-growing population. The words of Simón Bolívar, liberator of the country, after the 1812 earthquake, appropriately describe the plight of this Venezuelan capital: “If nature opposes us, we will fight against it and force it to obey.” When Diego de Losada founded the city, he believed he had found the ideal location—a city in a valley with agricultural potential, warm days, cool nights, and proximity to a port. He could not have imagined the incredible growth the city has experienced in the last few decades. Modern-day Caracas is indeed a city in a
valley, but one that is surrounded by shantytowns covering the hillsides in every direction. It is a city continually fighting pollution, traffic, and crime spurred by urbanization and mismanagement. Despite its problems, Caracas’s traditional charm, coupled with its reputation as one of Latin America’s most modern capitals, has for years drawn visitors from all over the world to its wonderful restaurants, museums, and nightlife. 2
Getting There
Most people entering Venezuela do so via Caracas.
131
Caracas
Caracas Population Profile Population: 3,153,000 Area: 1,930 sq km (740 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 80% mestizos (of mixed European, Indian and African ancestry); 20% white, 8% black, and 2% Indian World population rank1: 92 Percentage of national population2: 13.1% Average yearly growth rate: 1.0% Nicknames: The City of Eternal Spring ——— 1. The Caracas metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of Venezuela’s total population living in the Caracas metropolitan area.
Bus Few foreigners arrive in Caracas by bus, but buses run daily from most Venezuelan cities and cover the entire country. The inexpensive buses arrive at the noisy, dirty and dangerous terminal of Nuevo Circo, located in the Caracas city center. Airports The Simón Bolívar International Airport of Maiquetía is located near the port of La Guiara on the Caribbean coast, approximately 25 kilometers (16 miles) from the Caracas city center. A highway connects the airport with the city. The airport has two terminals: one for national flights (daily to Maracaibo, Mérida, and other major Venezuelan cities), and another for international flights. There are daily flights from Miami (approximately a two-and-a-
132
half-hour flight) and New York (approximately a six-and-a-half-hour flight) and many major European cities. The most common U.S. airline with the most routes to Caracas is American Airlines, and the Venezuelan national airlines of Avensa and Aeropostal also offer direct service from Miami. The Maiquetía airport also offers service to most Latin American capitals. There is a frequent bus service from the airport to the city center; travelers may also take taxis or arrange for hotel pick-ups. Shipping The port of La Guiara is one of the busiest ports in the country, but passenger service is not available. However, several Caribbean cruise lines do make common one-day stops in the Caracas area. 3
Getting Around
Bus and Commuter Rail Service The French-built Caracas metro, completed in 1983, is clean, efficient, and safe. It is by far the best way to get around the city and is organized into two lines. Line 1 travels east-west, and Line 2 travels from the city center southwest toward the zoo and the suburb of Caricuao. A Metrobus is also available for the suburbs not covered by the metro lines. The metro is open from 5:30 AM to 11:00 PM, and fare is typically a maximum of 50 cents (in US currency). For routes not covered by the metro, the Caracas bus network is
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Caracas
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
133
Caracas extensive in the city and surrounding areas. Most buses in the city are smaller buses, known as carritos. Inexpensive though they may be, the buses are often a difficult way to travel as they are overcrowded and frequently get caught in daily traffic jams, making them a slow means of transport. Sightseeing The city offers a variety of good museums, excellent restaurants, and a lively night life. Sightseers may begin their tour of the city at Plaza Bolivar, the heart of the city center. The Catedral, Palacio de Gobierno and Palacio Municipal are located on the sides of the plaza. In the city center is the Capitolio Nacional and the Casa Natal de Bolívar, where the famous liberator Simón Bolívar was born. 4
People
Caracas is a city of migrants and immigrants from all over the world; its people are mestizos, coupled with immigrants from Italy, Portugal, and many Latin American countries. The breakdown of the Venezuelan population is approximately 80 percent mestizos (of mixed European, Indian and African ancestry), 20 percent white, eight percent black, and two percent Indian. Caraqueños (the people of Caracas) reflect the same breakdown and are proud of their modern, cosmopolitan city. They too reflect the sophistication and modernity for which their city is known. Since Caracas is the business and political capital of the country, people generally dress up more than in
134
the smaller cities. The people of Caracas also present contrasting images—while on one hand the city is full of many (often wealthy) professionals, it is a also a city surrounded by slums and a poverty-stricken, struggling lower class. Many rural people emigrate here for work, and the class differences of rich and poor are clear to most visitors upon looking up the hillsides at the slums that occupy them. 5
Neighborhoods
Caracas covers 20 kilometers (12 miles) along the valley in an east-west direction. The city center is made up of skyscrapers from the neighborhoods of El Silencio to Chacao, areas crammed with banks, offices, shops, restaurants, and public buildings. The historic quarter is west of the city center, and to the east the district Los Caobos is known for its museums. The Sabana Grande neighborhood is a pedestrian mall, filled with shops and restaurants. To the east of the city center are the commercial districts of Chacao and Chacaíto. South of these areas lie El Rosal and Las Mercedes with many well-known restaurants. The wealthy residential neighborhoods are the Caracas Country Club and Altamira, located to the north. The Parque Nacional El Ávila to the north is uninhabited. Because it did not have the riches or sophisticated native populations of other Latin American countries, Caraqueños did not have strong ties to the old colonial buildings and way of life. They actually embraced modernity,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Caracas
City Fact Comparison Caracas (Venezuela)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
3,153,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
25 July 1567
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$164
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$71
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$18
$14
$15
$16
$253
$173
$246
$207
16
13
20
11
Meridiano
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
300,000
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1969
1944
1976
1948
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established 1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
much more so than their counterparts across the continent. Therefore, colonial Caracas exists only in a small area of town around the deteriorating La Pastora neighborhood and Plaza Bolivar, downtown in the city center. 6
History
Discovered by Francisco Fajardo from the nearby Margarita Island in 1560, the valley that is now Caracas was originally inhabited by the fierce Toromaima Indian tribe. Fajardo founded the first settlement, named San Francisco, and began his subsequent attempts to drive out the indige-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
nous population. The native peoples prevailed; however, in 1561 the founder of the Venezuelan city of Mérida, Juan Rodríguez Suárez, revived the city, after the indigenous tribes had destroyed it, and named it Villa de San Francisco. In 1567, the governor of the province of Venezuela ordered a complete conquest of the valley, and Captain Diego de Losada finally defeated the tribe and re-established the settlement on July 25 of the same year under the name Santiago de León de Caracas. In 1577, the governor Juan de Pimentel nominated the town to become the administrative center of the Province of
135
Caracas
Caracas is nestled in a valley of the foothills of the Andes Mountains. (Gary Braasch; Woodfin Camp)
Venezuela; thus, Caracas became the third and final capital of Venezuela. In 1578, 60 families lived in the 25-block city. Caracas was never a popular city— it lacked the gold and riches of other cities in Peru and Mexico and was well known for pirate attacks, plagues, and other catastrophes. In 1595, the first pirate attack burned the city to the ground, and after persistent reconstruction, it was destroyed by an earthquake in 1641 that claimed the lives of approximately 500 citizens. Things improved in the eighteenth century: the Universidad Real y Pontificia de Caracas (now called the Univer-
136
sidad Central de Venezuela) was founded in 1725. In 1728, the trading company Real Compañía Guipuzcoana, made up of 700 captains and merchants from the Basque region of Spain, was established. The trading company dominated trade between Spain and the colony and made significant economic contributions to Caracas, though many of its citizens complained of corruption. It was no surprise then when, in 1749, Juan Francisco de León began a riot against the company that would become known as the first open protest to lead into the independence movement. Francisco de
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Caracas Miranda (b. 1750) is largely credited for paving the way to the independence movement, and Simón Bolívar (1783– 1830) for actually achieving it. However, the independence struggle was not easy. In 1810, a group of Caraqueños formed a coup to take over the government, denouncing the Spanish governor’s authority. The clash continued until July 5, 1811, when Venezuela finally declared its independence from Spain. Although independence was won, struggles of a different sort continued. In 1812, an earthquake struck and killed 10,000 people—destroying much of the city. The church took the opportunity to claim the disaster as a punishment from God for rebelling against the Spanish Crown. Simón Bolívar’s victory at the Battle of Carabobo in 1821 again established the independence of Venezuela, though Spain did not recognize it as a country until 1845. In the first part of the twenieth century, Caracas grew modestly and was not known for much. It was not until oil was discovered in the Maracaibo basin in 1914, and the oil boom of the 1970s hit, that the population of Caracas exploded—going from 350,000 in 1950 to five or six million today. Thanks to the oil money, Caracas became a modern, booming capital. Though remnants of the old colonial town are difficult to imagine (most colonial buildings were destroyed during modernization), its architecture is well known on the continent, and skyscrapers abound.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Venezuela has one of the oldest democracies in South America. Here, school children march on the National Capital during “a week of our own rights.” (Gary Braasch; Woodfin Camp)
7
Government
Venezuela has one of the longestrunning democracies in Latin America. It is a federal republic with a National Congress. It recently passed a new Constitution that dissolved the traditional two-house Congress into one and made provisions to allow two consecutive
137
Caracas terms for the president. Venezuela’s government has survived numerous coup attempts, including the 1992 golpe de estado led by now-President Hugo Chávez. Chávez is the first president of late who is not of one of the traditional Venezuelan parties: Acción Democrática and the Social Christian COPEI. During the coup attempt in 1992, more than 20 lives were lost in Caracas. The federal district of Caracas is the center of all government and houses the executive, judicial, and legislative branches of government. It is ruled as a federal district. 8
Public Safety
Caracas is an increasingly dangerous city, largely because of the incredible growth of its poor neighborhoods and the many citizens who live below the poverty level. The unstable economy and political situation are blamed for the growing disparity between rich and poor. Though most violent crimes occur in the poor neighborhoods, they have also spread to the wealthier areas. The historic quarter is dangerous after dark, and visitors and citizens alike are advised not to carry expensive jewelry, watches, or cameras. Armed robberies do occur. People who drive cars are continually advised to lock their car doors as car-jackings are fairly common occurrences. 9
Economy
Venezuela’s economy is almost exclusively based on oil. Discovered in 1914, oil turned Venezuela into one of
138
Latin America’s richest countries, and it still accounts for more than 20 percent of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP). The big oil boom came during the 1970s, transforming the country virtually overnight. Though the main oil deposits are located in the Maracaibo basin, Caracas has benefited tremendously from the revenue generated from oil; its modern architecture and its status as the center of political, scientific, and cultural Venezuela is due largely to oil revenue. Caracas is the main business center in the country, as well as the center of all business sectors—agriculture, oil, electricity—even though most of the resources come from different parts of the country. The recent transfer of power in the country’s largest oil company has added to the economic uncertainty of the oilproducing nation, and economists are watching the markets, business sector, and political situation in Caracas closely. 10
Environment
Venezuela offers a variety of natural habitats: from the Amazon Rain Forest to the plains of Coro (los llanos), from the idyllic beaches on the islands to the Andes mountains, and from Angel Falls to the cities. Caracas has been blessed with an ideal location in a valley, warm days and cool nights, and proximity to the beaches. The Guiare River flows through the city (though difficult to see through the skyscrapers). Though its lush surroundings, good climate, and palm trees make it beautiful, Caracas suffers from severe environ-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Caracas
Caracas’s modern architecture and it’s status as the center of political, scientific, and cultural Venezuela is due largely to oil revenue. (Mireille Vautier; Woodfin Camp)
mental problems that are worsening because of rapid urbanization. The city in the valley is surrounded by hillsides that are covered in rachos, makeshift housing and slums where poverty, crime, and desperation prevail. Caraqueños’ reputation for loving their cars is also catching up with them. Traffic and pollution are at all-time highs, and government plans to help quell them have thus far been unsuccessful. Caraqueños and other Venezuelans are feeling the pain of environmental
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
degradation more than ever. In December 1999, excessive rains caused devastating flooding across the northern coast of Venezuela. The area around Caracas was devastated, and between 30,000 and 50,000 people perished; the exact figure is still unknown. Many environmental experts are particularly concerned because the rapid deforestation of the mountains around the Caracas valley resulted in the earth being incapable of absorbing the rainwater. Further, much of the makeshift housing that was unregulated by the government simply could not withstand the
139
Caracas rains. Looking to the future, the government will likely have to develop more successful measures of protecting the environment of Caracas, as well as its citizens. 11
Shopping
Shoppers will be delighted in Caracas only if they are not expecting the large, inexpensive Indian markets typical of many Latin American cities. The well-known Sabana Grande, a one-mile boulevard where no cars are allowed, extends beyond Plaza Venezuela. It is known for its upscale boutiques, shoe stores, perfume shops, and bookstores. The many outdoor cafes also give Sabana Grande a European feel. This is not a typical Latin American market place with inexpensive handicrafts; it is the typical Caracas-sophisticated and trendy shopping experience. The Artesanía Venezolana store is well known for its excellent selection of local handicrafts. The Central Comercial Ciudad Tamanaco (CCCT) is the continent’s largest shopping mall and has one of Caracas’s best collections of boutiques. This mall also includes bistros and movie theaters. The older shopping mall of Paseo Las Mercedes, located in the wealthy Las Mercedes neighborhood, has a variety of stores and an excellent bookstore. For those desiring the more traditional markets, Caracas is not the best city, but there are still several. The Mercado Coche, near the Nuevo Circo bus terminal is the most centrally located.
140
The Mercado Guiacaipuro is more colorful and located on Avenida Andrés Bello. The flea market of Mercado de la Pulgas is open weekends in the parking lot of the Universidad Central de Venezuela’s baseball stadium. Finally, the Mercado Chino is a unique market that attracts Chinese who come to buy and sell Chinese vegetables and other food not available elsewhere. It is located near the metro stop Chacaíto. 12
Education
The Venezuelan educational system improved with the oil boom of the 1970s. Today there is a compulsory (required) six-year primary education, and the literacy rate is 91 percent. This high rate is due to the economic prosperity provided by the oil industry. However, since the more difficult economic situation of the 1980s and 1990s, cuts in education have affected many schools. In Caracas, like other Venezuelan cities, children may go to private primary (compulsory), secondary, and professional schools. Public schools in Caracas tend to be less well kept and supplied than the private, tuition based schools. In order to continue after bachiller, or high school, students must achieve certain scores on collegeentrance exams. Once passing, they may attend any of the public or private institutions across the country. Caracas hosts the country’s largest and oldest university. The Universidad Central de Caracas was founded in 1785 and has approximately 70,000 students. It offers
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Caracas a variety of disciplines, including medicine, law, journalism, and engineering. Another large university located in Caracas is the private Universidad Católica Andrés Bello, named after the famous educator of liberator Simón Bolívar. 13
Health Care
Caracas has the typical private and public health care system of the rest of the country. There are many farmacias (pharmacies) across the city, and in most neighborhoods there is one that is de turno, or open late into the night. Most medicines are available over the counter. There are several private clinics and hospitals available to visitors in Caracas and though sanitary conditions are better than many Latin American countries, they are not what many Westerners are used to in the United States or Europe. It is generally safe to drink the water out of the faucet in Caracas, but it is not recommended to eat at the many outside food stands, and it is recommended to avoid salads and uncooked meats. 14
Media
Caracas has two of the best and largest newspapers in Venezuela. El Universal and El Nacional are both sold countrywide and cover national and international topics, business and economics, culture, and sports. The Daily Journal is an English-language newspaper published in Caracas that also covers national and international affairs and society and culture. Most of the almost 20 radio stations in the city
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
cover imported pop and rock music, but several also cover classical and jazz, the best of which is La Emisora Cultural on 97.7 FM. There are three private television stations (Radio Caracas la Televisión, Venevisión, and Televén) and one public station (Venezolana de Televisión) that are run out of Caracas and broadcast countrywide. They all feature the general film, music, sports, and cultural programming. Telenovelas, or soap operas, dominate prime-time programming; Venezuela is famous for its telenovelas, which are popular all over Latin America. 15
Sports
Locally called béisbol, baseball is the sport of choice for Venezuelans, including the Caraqueños. Two of the national teams are from Caracas: the Leones and Tiburones. Visitors to the city from mid-October to January will find it easy to get tickets to see one of the local teams play. Many Caraqueños also enjoy spending a day at the local horse track of La Rinconada. The track was once considered one of the best in Latin America, and though cutbacks have decreased its notoriety, it is a good, large track with stables for 2,000 horses and seats for 48,000 fans. 16
Parks and Recreation
Parque del Este (at Parque del Este metro stop) is the largest city park, and its cactus garden is a good place for walks. One of the city’s two zoos, the Parque Zoológico El Pinar is located in
141
Caracas the southwestern part of the city. Also located in the southwestern part of the city, the bigger and better Parque Zoológico de Caricuao is more recommended and has hundreds of animals in their native habitats. East of Parque Central (located in the heart of the city), visitors may find the Parque Los Caobos, named so because of its many mahogany trees. This is where bicyclers, mimes and puppeteers, and families gather throughout the week. The Jardín Botánico is a nice relaxing place to rest amidst tropical trees and flowers, though its proximity to the highway can make it a bit noisy. Finally, the Avila National Park is located on top of Mount Avila on the city’s north side, but it can be difficult to reach. 17
Performing Arts
Caracas has its share of good theaters; most are open Wednesday through Sunday though some only offer performances on weekends. The Ateneo theater is known to have interesting performances and houses Rajatabla, one of the country’s well-known theater groups. Every April, Caracas hosts an International Theater Festival, which is an excellent choice for visitors wishing to see some of Latin America’s best theater. The Complejo Cultural Teresa Carreño hosts many concerts and ballets and attracts foreign performers as well as locals. The Aula Magna in the Universidad Central de Venezuela is a recommended performing arts hall with excellent acoustics. This is where the Symphony Orchestra of Caracas performs (usually on Sundays) and
142
where many cultural activities are also performed. For filmgoers, Caracas also has more than 50 cinema theaters, but productions tend to be the imports from the United States. 18
Libraries and Museums
Caracas has the best museums in Venezuela, several of which are well known on the continent. The Galería de Arte Nacional is located opposite Museum de Ciencias Naturales (natural science) and displays 400 works of art from four centuries of Venezuela’s disciplines. The Museo de Bellas Artes is located next to it and features temporary exhibitions. A well-known Venezuelan architect, Carlos Raúl Villanueva, designed both. The Museo Criollo is on the ground floor of the Palacio Municipal (across from Plaza Bolivar in the city center) and houses items related to the city’s history and works of local artist Raúl Santana. The Museo Bolivariano, just south of Plaza Bolívar, is located in a colonial house, and it hosts independence documents, weapons, and several portraits of liberator Bolivar. The Museo Fundación John Boulton is in the same area in Torre El Chorro on the eleventh floor. This museum has a collection of historic objects collected by the Bolivar family, including colonial furniture and Bolivar memorabilia. In the suburb of San Bernardino in the colonial mansion of Quinta de Anauco, visitors will find well-recommended Museo de Arte Colonial, which
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Caracas has a variety of works of art and furniture and offers tours in English. The lovely environment is a restored coffee hacienda and contains slave quarters now dedicated to a library on colonial art and history. In the modern heart of the city, the Museo de Arte Contemporáneo is located in Parque Central. This museum of contemporary art is the best of its kind in the country and also said by many to be the best on the continent. In its 16 halls, famous Venezuelan artists, such as Armando Reverón, Francisco Narváez, Jacobo Borges, and Alejandro Otero, display their works. International artists on display include Chagall, Picasso, Leger, and Miró. The museum also features a collection of approximately 100 engravings by Picasso. Finally, the Museo de los Niños (Children’s Museum) is also located in Parque Central and provides interesting visits for kids and adults alike. 19
To u r i s m
Caracas is no stranger to tourism. As the gateway to the continent, the capital city draws tourists heading to Venezuela’s idyllic beaches, to the forests and waterfalls of Parque Nacional de Canaima, as well as many business travelers. There are several tourist offices available throughout the city. The city offers tourists a variety of good museums, excellent restaurants, and a lively night life. Visitors may begin the tour of the city at Plaza Bolivar, the heart of the city center. The Catedral, Palacio de Gobierno and Palacio Municipal are
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Visitors may start their tour of Caracas in Plaza Bolivar, the heart of the city center. (Gary Braasch; Woodfin Camp)
located on the sides of the plaza. In the city center, one may also find the Capitolio Nacional and the Casa Natal de Bolívar, where the famous liberator Simón Bolívar was born. (See also Libraries and Museums above). 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY New Year’s Day
FEBRUARY-MARCH Carnaval (the Monday and Tuesday before Ash Wednesday)
143
Caracas MARCH-APRIL
Government Offices
Semana Santa Maundy Thursday and Good Friday
United States Embassy in Venezuela Avenida Francisco de Miranda, La Floresta Caracas (58 02) 285–2222
APRIL Declaration of Independence Festival Internacional de Teatro (even years)
MAY Labor Day Vélorio de Cruz de Mayo
Tourist and Convention Bureaus
JUNE Battle of Carabobo
JULY Independence Day Bolivar’s birthday
OCTOBER Discovery of America
21
Embassy of Venezuela-United States 1099 30th Street, NW Washington, DC 20007 (202) 342–2214
Famous Citizens
Simón Bolívar (1783–1830), Caracas’s most famous citizen, known as “El Libertador,” the liberator of what is today Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Francisco Miranda (b. 1750), largely credited for paving the way to the independence movement, the mentor under whom Simón Bolívar began his military career.
Corporación de Turismo (Corporturismo) Torre Oeste, Parque Central Piso 37 Caracas (58 02) 507–8815/507–8829 Fairmont International Plaza Venezuela, Sabana Grande Caracas (58 02) 782–8433/781–7091 South American Explorers Club 126 Indian Creek Road Ithaca, NY 14850 (607) 277–0488 Venezuelan Tourist Association (VTA) PO Box 3010 Sausalito, VA 94966 (415) 332–2720
Publications El Universal (newspaper) El Nacional (newspaper) The Daily Journal (English-language newspaper)
Books 22
For Further Study
Websites CIA World Factbook. [Online] Available http:// www.cia.gov/publications/factbook/ country.html (Accessed January 10, 2000.) Library of Congress Country Study-Venezuela. [Online] Available http://www.llcweb2.gov (Accessed January 10, 2000.) Lonely Planet Guides. [Online] Available http:// www.lonelyplanet.com/dest/sam/ven.htm (Accessed January 10, 2000.)
144
Dempsey, Mary; and Ann Kelosh. Insight Guides Venezuela. APA Publications, 1995. Fisher, Wenzel, and Willy Haas. Impressions of Venezuela. Caracas, Venezuela: Distribuidora Santiage C.A., 1992. Grayson, Richard. I Survived Caracas Traffic: Stories from the Me Decades. Avisson Press, Inc., 1996. Lombardi, John. Venezuela: the Search for Order, the Dream of Progress. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982. Marquez, Patricia. The Street is My Home. Stanford University Press, 1999.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Chicago Chicago, Illinois, United States of America, North America Founded: 1830; Incorporated: 1837 Location: Northeast Illinois, Lake Michigan coast, United States, North America Motto: “I will” in Latin Flag: Two blue stripes representing Lake Michigan and the Chicago River, and four sixpointed red stars representing events in Chicago history, all on a white field. Flower: Violet (state flower) Time Zone: 6 AM Central Standard Time (CST) = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: White 56.9%; Black 39.1% Elevation: 181 m (595 ft) Latitude and Longitude: 41º88'N, 87º65'W Coastline: 40 km (25 mi) Climate: Continental climate; cold winters, with heavy snowfall from cold fronts off Lake Michigan, and hot summers Annual Mean Temperature: 9.5ºC (49.2ºF); January -4.3ºC (24.3ºF); July 23.7ºC (74.7ºF) Seasonal Average Snowfall: 102 cm (40 in) Average Annual Precipitation (total of rainfall and melted snow): 86 cm (34 in). Government: Mayor-council Weights and Measures: Standard U.S. Monetary Units: Standard U.S. Telephone Area Codes: 312, 630, 708, 773, 847 Postal Codes: 60601-64
1
Introduction
Long the United States’s secondlargest city (now its third-largest), Chicago is the only Midwestern metropolis to rank with the great cities of the nation’s east and west coasts. Its nickname, “the Windy City,” though thought by many to refer to a climate influenced by the city’s location on the southwest shore of Lake Michigan, actually has its origin in the civic pride that has inspired its citizens to boastfulness for generations. The “City of Big Shoulders” and “Hog Butcher to the World”—in the words of poet Carl
Sandburg, one of its most famous sons—Chicago has undergone important changes in the latter half of the twentieth century, most notably its population shrinkage in the face of growing suburbanization. Nevertheless, the legendary city of skyscrapers— still home to the world’s tallest building—remains a vital commercial, intellectual, and cultural center. 2
Getting There
Chicago, the seat of Cook County, is located in northeastern Illinois, on the southeastern shore of Lake Michi-
145
Chicago gan and at the junction of the lake and the Chicago River.
Chicago Population Profile
Highways Chicago is accessible by several interstate highways. The city is approached from the northwest by I-94, which merges with the John F. Kennedy Expressway and the Dan Ryan Expressway, traversing the city north-south before turning into the Calumet Expressway heading south out of (or into) the city. To the west, I-294 rings much of the Greater Chicago area, turning into the Tri-State Tollway further south and intersecting I-290, which runs east-west, becoming the Dwight D. Eisenhower Expressway into the heart of the city. I-55 leads to Chicago from the southwest, turning into the Adlai E. Stevenson Expressway.
City Proper Population: 2,732,000 Area: 591 sq km (228 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 56.9% white, 39.1% black, 3.7% Asian/Pacific Islander Nicknames: The Windy City, The Second City, The City of Broad Shoulders
Metropolitan Area Population: 6,945,000 Area: 13,118 sq km (5,065 sq mi) World population rank1: 29 Percentage of national population2: 2.5% Average yearly growth rate: 0.3% Ethnic composition: 76% white; 19.5% black; and 4.3% Asian/Pacific Islander ——— 1. The Chicago metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of the total US population living in the Chicago metropolitan area.
Bus and Railroad Service Chicago is an Amtrak hub, servicing travelers from the renovated Union Station. The Greyhound station, on West Harrison Street, is slightly to the southwest of downtown. Airports More than 66 million passengers a year arrive at and depart from O’Hare International Airport, on more than 880,000 flights annually. Located 27 kilometers (17 miles) outside downtown Chicago, O’Hare is said to be the busiest airport in the world. As a hub for both American and United Airlines, it offers nonstop service to most major destinations in the United States, and
146
many foreign cities as well. Also servicing the Windy City is Midway Airport. Shipping Its central location and Great Lakes coastline have always made Chicago an important shipping center, especially since the 1959 opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean. Some 750 motor freight carriers ship over 45 million metric tons (50 million tons) of ground freight to and from the city every year; another 36 million metric tons (40 million tons) are handled by rail. More than one million metric tons
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Chicago
(1.1 million tons) per year are shipped through Chicago’s airports. 3
Getting Around
Downtown Chicago is laid out in a grid pattern, with State Street (north-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
south) and Madison (east-west) as the main points of reference. Lake Shore Drive borders the Lake Michigan shoreline, and Grant Park extends along much of the coast. The Chicago River, running east-west, divides the North Side from the central Loop section, and
147
Chicago the north and south branches of the river run northwest to south, further demarcating parts of the city. Bus and Commuter Rail Service The Chicago Transit Authority (CTA) runs the city’s bus and rail service, offering access to both Chicago and its suburbs. The CTA operates over 1,000 rapid transit, or El, cars over five rail lines whose routes are designated by different colors. The CTA also operates numerous bus routes, with most buses running at intervals of every five to 20 minutes daily and many running at night. Sightseeing Several walking tours of downtown Chicago landmarks are available, including a taped, self-guided tour put together by the Chicago Office of Tourism. The Friends of the Chicago River offers walking tours along the river and boat cruises along the shoreline as well. Sightseeing tours of the downtown area are also offered on both regular and double-decker buses and open-air trolleys. In addition, a variety of tours and cruises on Lake Michigan are available. 4
People
Chicago is the third most populous city in the United States, surpassed only by New York and Los Angeles. In 1990, the population of Chicago was 2,784,000, with the following racial composition: 56.9 percent white, 39.1 percent black, 3.7 percent Asian/Pacific Islander, 0.3 percent American Indian.
148
Hispanics (an ethnic rather than a racial designation) accounted for 19.6 percent of the population. The 1994 population estimate for Chicago was 2,732,000. The population of Chicago’s Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area was estimated at 7,773,896 as of 1997. The region’s racial composition was listed by the U.S. Census Bureau in 1996 as 76 percent white; 19.5 percent black; and 4.3 percent Asian/Pacific Islander. 5
Neighborhoods
The heart of Chicago is the rectangular downtown section known as the Loop, extending southward from the Chicago River and east from its south branch, and encircled by the elevated train route with the same name. Although most of the retailers have departed from legendary State Street, the Loop is still a bustling commercial center filled with corporate and government offices. Its La Salle Street has been called “the Wall Street of the Midwest.” The South Side, the area south of the Loop, has seen considerable redevelopment. Today it is home to a number of communities, including Hyde Park, Morgan Park, and Beverly. The area to the west of the Loop has traditionally been an industrial district, although many of its businesses have relocated in recent times. It is also home to an Italian community and the site of the historic Hull House, where Nobel Prize winner Jane Addams ministered to the needs of the city’s workingclass poor at the turn of the century. The West Side Medical Center, with
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Chicago
City Fact Comparison Chicago (United States)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
6,945,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1830
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$130
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$44
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$26
$14
$15
$16
$176
$173
$246
$207
5
13
20
11
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
Akhbar El Yom/ Chicago Tribune Al Akhbar 673,508
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1847
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
seven hospitals and two medical schools, is the largest medical complex in the world.
North Michigan Avenue, also known as the Magnificent Mile, home to pricey retailers, hotels, and restaurants.
Chicago’s North Side, to the north and northwest of the Chicago River, is a mostly residential area. The part nearest to the Loop has undergone a renaissance since the 1980s, as artists and other city trendsetters set up lofts in a former industrial and warehouse district that has drawn comparisons to New York’s SoHo neighborhood. Today known as River North, it has become an increasingly upscale locale of galleries, studios, and clubs. Another successfully redeveloped area north of the Loop is
A less heartening part of Chicago’s North Side is the Cabrini-Green public housing project to the northwest of the River North district. Further to the north of the city, beginning with the Mid-North Side to the west of shorefront Lincoln Park, are upscale residential neighborhoods, including Edgebrook and Sauganash. To the southeast is an industrial area traversed by the Chicago skyway. To the southwest are Bridgeport and Chinatown.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
149
Chicago Chicago is the center of an eightcounty metropolitan area extending about 65 kilometers (40 or so miles) from the city, to the north, west, and south. Its suburbs include such wealthy communities as Oak Park, Evanston, Skokie, and Lake Forest. Some nearby towns in Indiana, including Gary and Hammond, have also become de facto suburbs of Chicago. 6
History
The first Europeans to arrive at the site of present-day Chicago were French explorer Louis Joliet and Father Jacques Marquette in 1673. Over a century later, in 1783, Jean Baptiste Point du Sable became the first permanent resident of European descent in the area when he established a fur-trading post there. Early in its history, the settlement endured the massacre of 53 Americans when 500 Potawatomi warriors stormed Fort Dearborn, which had been built to protect the settlers, during the War of 1812. (The fort was rebuilt by 1816.) The first major spur to the growth of the town was the building of the Illinois & Michigan Canal linking the Great Lakes with the Mississippi River basin. Planned in 1830, the canal wasn’t completed until 1848, although a speculative land boom was already underway in the 1830s, and the population surged upward. The city was incorporated and held its first mayoral election in 1837. By 1848, when the canal was completed, the first railroad arrived in the city, and Chicago became the rail hub
150
of the growing nation and a marketing center for farm produce and livestock, as well as the center of the meatpacking industry and home to the country’s first financial exchange, the Chicago Board of Trade. By mid-century, the arrival of Irish, German, and Scandinavian immigrants was providing a labor force to spur the growth in industry, and the Irish established one of the city’s first ethnic communities in Bridgeport. The city’s population grew from 4,470 in 1840 to 28,000 in 1850, and then to 110,000 by the following decade. By 1890 it passed the one-million mark to become the nation’s second-largest metropolis after New York. In 1860 Chicago hosted the Republican Convention that nominated Abraham Lincoln for the presidency, and the city played a vital role in the Civil War by serving as the primary supplier of beef to the Union soldiers. In the postwar era, Chicago became the country’s major lumber market as well as its grain-handling capital, as well as a manufacturing center for farm machinery. While the city’s upper classes enjoyed unprecedented wealth, its thousands of working-class residents suffered the overcrowded and unsanitary conditions common to the urban poor of the industrial age. Jane Addams’s Hull House became famous for its efforts to improve conditions for immigrant tenement dwellers on the city’s West Side. Eventually sanitary conditions became so lethal that the course of the Chicago River was reversed at the turn of the century to keep its sewageand industrial waste-laden waters from
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Chicago further polluting Lake Michigan and to end recurring outbreaks of waterborne infectious diseases. Although the Great Fire of October 8, 1871, devastated the city, killing between 250 and 300 people and destroying more than 17,000 buildings, Chicago’s economic base—its stockyards, freight yards, and industrial area—were spared, enabling the city to rebuild rapidly. Much of the city was restored within a year, and Chicago continued to grow. In 1893, in the face of a nationwide economic depression, the city hosted the World’s Columbian Exposition, which attracted some 21 million visitors. The 1890s was also the decade when Chicago became famous as the home of a new form of architecture that was to transform America’s urban landscape—the skyscraper. During this period, the city’s wealth also financed the creation of major cultural institutions such as the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and the Art Institute. By the late nineteenth century, Chicago was already notorious for its political corruption, and reform efforts were implemented by the 1890s. However, the city reputation as the vice capital of the nation was renewed with the rise of mobsters Al Capone, John Dillinger, and their cohorts in the 1920s and 1930s. Chicagoans suffered keenly from the Great Depression but, like other areas of the country, recovered during World War II (1939–1945), becoming one of the nation’s top centers for defense-related production, as well as the site of its first controlled nuclear reaction, overseen by Enrico
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Fermi at the University of Chicago in 1942. A major development of the postwar era has been the suburbanization of the city, whose population, which accounted for roughly two-thirds of the metropolitan area in 1950, shrank to only one-third by 1990, and Los Angeles replaced Chicago as the nation’s second most populous city. Chicago’s racial balance has also changed during this period, with blacks becoming the major ethnic group in an increasingly segregated city, and suburban sprawl has replaced formerly populated areas in the heart of the city with teeming expressways. The first postwar decades were the Daley era (1955–1976), when Mayor Richard J. Daley oversaw a period of robust expansion and modernization that included the construction of O’Hare International Airport and the world’s tallest building, the Sears Tower. However, it was also during the Daley years that the disturbances at the 1968 Democratic convention etched themselves indelibly on the consciousness of the nation. Since then Chicago has had a woman mayor (Jane Byrne, 1979– 1983) and its first black mayor (Harold Washington, 1983–1987), as well as its first female black senator (Carol Moseley-Braun, 1992–). The Daley name regained its prominence in city politics in the 1990s with the election of Richard M. Daley to the post of mayor.
151
Chicago 7
Government
Chicago’s municipal government operates under a 1971 charter, providing for a mayor-council form of government. The city’s mayor and the 50 alderman who make up the council are all elected for four-year terms. 8
Public Safety
The Chicago Police Department is the second-largest municipal police force in the United States. In 1997 the department employed 13,466 sworn officers, 2,060 civilian employees, as well as 1,000 crossing guards. In 1995, violent crimes reported to police (per 100,000 population) included 30 murders, 1,094 robberies, and 1,426 aggravated assaults. Property crimes totaled 7,198 and included 1,463 burglaries, 4,418 cases of larceny/theft, and 1,316 motor vehicle thefts. 9
Economy
Chicago has long been one of the country’s major manufacturing and distribution centers. Important manufacturing industries include steel, telecommunications equipment, automobile accessories, agricultural equipment, scientific instruments, diesel engines, consumer electronics, paint, and food products. The city’s central location, inland port, and rail accessibility made it a major market for Midwest farmers by the nineteenth century, and it remains a significant transport center today. Retailing is another dominant sector in the economy of Chicago, which is home to thousands of whole-
152
salers and retailers, including such retail giants as Sears, Marshall Field, and Montgomery Ward. Home to the Midwest Stock Exchange, the Chicago Board of Trade (the nation’s oldest financial exchange), and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, Chicago is one of the top financial centers in the United States. Its LaSalle Street is considered the Wall Street of the Midwest. The city is also a publishing powerhouse, ranked second only to New York, and a leader in industrial research and biotechnology. Chicago’s largest employers include Jewel Food Stores, Motorola, Advocate Health Care, Ameritech, and First Chicago Corporation. 10
Environment
Two bodies of water have been central to the history and development of the city of Chicago—the Chicago River and Lake Michigan, the third largest of the Great Lakes and the only one completely within the United States. The southwestern shore borders an urban area that includes not only Chicago, but also Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Gary, Indiana. The concentration of industrialization has led to growing pollution problems. The Chicago River formerly flowed into Lake Michigan, but its course was reversed, because of pollution, in 1900. In the waning years of the twentieth century, significant efforts were made to clean up the river, which had suffered from the effects of unhampered industrialization since the nineteenth
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Chicago century. The Chicago River became a repository of refuse from the slaughterhouse industry and other forms of industrial pollution. By 1999, over 50 species of fish—including salmon, carp, and perch—returned to the river’s waters, and the Friends of the Chicago River began to lead walking tours along the riverfront. Encircling the city along its northern, western and southern boundaries, the Cook County Forest Preserves cover 66,746 acres, providing woodlands, open spaces, and recreational facilities. About five percent of the preserves belong to the Illinois Nature Preserve system, which protects the natural habitats of endangered species and other animals. 11
Shopping
Although many of the major retailers have left Chicago’s central Loop district, the city still offers abundant and varied shopping outlets. Today its premier shopping area is the “Magnificent Mile” on North Michigan Avenue, stretching north of the Chicago River to Oak Street. Its multi-story shopping complexes boast such top-notch department stores as Saks Fifth Avenue, Neiman-Marcus, Lord & Taylor, and Marshall Field’s, as well as upscale retailers including Louis Vuitton, Tiffany, Cartier, Brooks Brothers, and Gucci. Further north is the ArmitageHalsted-Webster shopping area. In contrast to the exclusive shops found in these shopping districts, Chicago is also the home of the world’s largest whole-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Chicago’s shopping districts range from exclusive fashion boutiques to stores such as Merchandise Mart, the world’s largest wholesale store. (Peter J. Schulz; City of Chicago)
sale store, Merchandise Mart on North Orleans Street. The waterfront North Pier Mall offers a shopping complex in a renovated warehouse. Another interesting shopping district is the Andersonville area on the North Side, whose specialty stores include a feminist bookstore (Women and Children First), an apothecary shop stocked with fragrances and other personal-care products, a store featuring American-made crafts, a Swedish bakery, and a canine deli bakery (Fido’s Food Fair).
153
Chicago 12
Education
As of 1995, 84 percent of Chicago metropolitan area residents had completed high school; 31 percent of males and 26 percent of females had completed a bachelor’s degree. The Chicago Public Schools District, the state’s largest, operated 567 schools in the fall of 1996 when it enrolled 408,201 students. Close to 90 percent were minority students, mostly black (54 percent) and Hispanic (32 percent). The system employed 23,433 teachers, with a pupil/teacher ratio of 20 to one; support staff totaled 27,827. The school district has won national attention for its Stephen Decatur Classical School, an elementary school for gifted students, and also operates the Chicago High School for Agricultural Sciences, which is located on a farm within the city boundaries. Chicago also has over 200 parochial schools and more than 100 secular private schools. The University of Chicago, founded in 1891 and endowed by John D. Rockefeller, has a national reputation for excellence, in both the sciences and the humanities. Its research facilities include the Enrico Fermi Institute and the Argonne National Laboratory. The University of Illinois at Chicago offers bachelor’s, master’s, doctoral, and professional degrees to some 25,000 students. Chicago is also home to three Catholic universities: DePaul, Loyola, and Saint Xavier. The city has a variety of other institutions of higher learning, including Chicago City-Wide Colleges, Roosevelt University, the Illinois Insti-
154
tute of Technology, the Scholl College of Podiatric Medicine, Vandercook College of Music, and the prestigious Art Institute of Chicago. 13
Health Care
Chicago—the site of prime-time television’s most famous medical drama of the 1990s, ER—is also a top healthcare center in real life. The city has a total of more than 60 hospitals. Its University of Chicago Hospitals are renowned both for their treatment and research facilities. Among these facilities are Wyler Children’s Hospital, Chicago Lying-in Hospital, and Bernard Mitchell Hospital. In 1998 the hospital system logged 23,470 admissions and 428,396 outpatient visits and employed 1,593 people. Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke’s Medical Center is affiliated with Rush Medical College and Rush School Nursing. The Chicago area’s major public health facility is Cook County Hospital. Other hospitals include Chicago Memorial Hospital, Edgewater Hospital, Grant Hospital, Holy Cross Hospital, John F. Kennedy Medical Center, Roseland Community Hospital, South Chicago Community hospital, and Weiss Memorial Hospital. 14
Media
Chicago has two major daily newspapers, both published in the morning—the Chicago Tribune (daily circulation 584,097, Sundays 1,019,458) and the Chicago Sun-Times (daily circulation 332,047, Sundays 411,334). The Chicago Daily Defender is
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Chicago a well-known daily newspaper serving the black community, and there are many more newspapers published for the city’s various racial and ethnic populations. Crain’s Chicago Business is produced by the Crain media chain; The Reader is an alternative weekly that circulates primarily on the North Side, and Streetwise is published for the benefit of Chicago’s homeless. Chicago Monthly magazine contains feature articles and dining and entertainment information, and the bimonthly Chicago Life also covers the metropolitan area. In addition to local publications, Chicago—as one of the country’s major publishing centers—is the source of hundreds of nationally distributed newspapers and magazines, including Ebony, American Libraries, and Jet, as well as a number of scholarly journals published at the University of Chicago. All the major television networks have affiliated stations in Chicago, which has a total of about 20 commercial, public television, and cable stations, as well as some 60 AM and FM radio stations. A major regional broadcast center, Chicago is also home to the Oprah Winfrey show and to Winfrey’s production company, Harpo Productions. 15
Sports
Chicago’s long history as an avid sports town had its nadir in baseball’s infamous “Black Sox” scandal of 1919, when members of the White Sox baseball team were bribed to lose the World
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Series championship, and its crowning glory in the 1990s, when superstar Michael Jordan led the Chicago Bulls to six National Basketball Association (NBA) championships in eight years under the stewardship of coach Phil Jackson. Chicago is also home to two major-league baseball teams—the National League’s Chicago Cubs, who play at Wrigley Field, and the American League’s White Sox, whose home games take place at Comiskey Park. The Chicago Bears of the National Football League (NFL) play at Soldier Field, and Chicago is also home to the Chicago Black Hawks of the National Hockey League (NHL). Horse racing takes place at Arlington International Racecourse, Balmoral Park Racetrack, Hawthorne Downs Racetrack, Maywood Park Racetrack, and other venues, and auto racing can be seen at the Santa Fe Speedway. 16
Parks and Recreation
Chicago has 2,954 hectares (7,300 acres) of parkland. Its largest and bestknown park is Grant Park, extending along Lake Michigan at the city’s eastern edge, and encompassing within its boundaries Soldier Field, the Art Institute of Chicago, and the Field Museum of Natural History. The second-largest park is the 242-hectare (598-acre) lakefront Burnham Park. Of Chicago’s inland parks, the largest is Washington Park. Lincoln Park, on the North Side, extends from Lake Michigan to Clark Street.
155
Chicago
Comiskey Park is the home of the Chicago White Sox of the American League. (Javet M. Kimble; City of Chicago)
In addition to parks located within city limits, Chicagoans also enjoy the Cook County Forest Preserves that ring the city, offering open space, as well as 13 golf courses and driving ranges, swimming pools, bicycle paths, picnic areas, and over 30 fishing lakes and ponds. The Shedd Aquarium’s 170,000square-foot Oceanarium is the world’s largest indoor marine mammal exhibit. One of the last free zoos in the United States, the privately managed Lincoln Park Zoo houses over 1,000 animals and receives support from the Chicago Park District.
156
Chicago has over 24 kilometers (15 miles) of swimming beaches and 29 kilometers (18 miles) of lakefront bicycle paths. Other popular participant sports include canoeing, fishing, golf, tennis, cross-country skiing, ice skating, and toboganning. 17
Performing Arts
Chicago is renowned for its theater tradition. Stage performances draw around three million attendees annually. Among the two best-known theatrical organizations in the city are the Goodman Theater, its oldest resident troupe; Steppenwolf Theater Company,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Chicago associated with playwright David Mamet; and the famed improvisational group Second City, training ground for many talented comic performers who have since gone on to achieve nationwide success in film and television. Other theater groups include the Court Theatre, the Pegasus Players, Victory Gardens, and Wisdom Bridge. Touring performances of Broadway productions can be seen at the Schubert Theatre. The Chicago Symphony, one of the best in the nation, performs from fall through spring at Orchestra Hall on Michigan Avenue and at the Ravinia Festival on the North Shore in the summer months. Chicago has two opera companies, Lyric Opera of Chicago, which performs operas in their original languages with supertitles displayed above the stage, and Chicago Opera Theater, which performs in English. Chicago’s resident ballet troupe is Ballet Chicago, founded in 1988. Hubbard Street Dance Chicago stages contemporary dance performances. Known as “the Blues Capital of the World,” Chicago has been a prime venue for blues clubs and performers since the 1930s, and this tradition is vibrantly renewed every spring at the lakefront Chicago Blues Festival, which draws crowds of as many as 400,000 during its three days. 18
Libraries and Museums
Founded in 1872, the Chicago Public Library serves over two-and-a-half million people, with an annual circula-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
tion of 8,305,158. Its book holdings total nearly six-and-a-half million volumes while its non-book holdings comprise some four-and-a-half million items. The library operates the central Harold Washington Library Center, 77 neighborhood branches, and two regional libraries. Special collections include the Chicago Theater Collection, the Chicago Blues Archives, an early American newspaper collection, and many others. Besides its public library, Chicago is also home to a number of university and government libraries, as well as private libraries run by historical and cultural societies, private corporations, medical facilities, and other groups. The main library of the University of Chicago, serving some 10,000 students and over 1,000 faculty members, maintains a collection of over six million books, more than 20,000 compact disks, and other materials. The university’s libraries house special collections in modern poetry, anatomical illustration, English Bibles, and numerous other areas. The university’s Newberry Library also houses a wellknown research collection. The Art Institute of Chicago is one of the country’s premier art museums. It houses more than 300,000 artworks, cared for by ten curatorial departments. It has one of the world’s great collections of Impressionist art, as well as outstanding collections of twentiethcentury art and Japanese woodblock prints. Its print and drawing collections is also one of the nation’s finest. With a collection of over 16 million items, the Field Museum of Natural History ranks
157
Chicago plays folk art from many countries; the Museum of Broadcast Communications; and the Museum of Science and Industry. Among the city’s many museums dedicated to the heritage of specific racial and ethnic groups are the Du Sable Museum of African American History, the Mexican Fine Arts Center Museum, the Spertus Museum of Judaica, the Swedish American Museum Center, and the Ukrainian National Museum.
To u r i s m
19
Chicago is a popular tourist destination for both domestic and overseas visitors. In 1995 approximately twoand-a-half million foreign travelers visited the city, ranking it ninth nationally in this category. In August 1999, the city expected to attract $192.7 million in convention business. The Navy Pier hosts “Pier Walk,” the world’s largest outdoor sculpture exhibition starting in the spring and running through the fall annually. (Willy Schmidt; City of Chicago)
20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY Chicago Boat, Sports, and RV Show
FEBRUARY
as one of the world’s great natural history museums. Chicago has over 40 other museums of all kinds, including the Museum of Contemporary Art and the Museum of Contemporary Photography; Chicago Academy of Sciences, featuring lively inter-active exhibits; the hands-on Chicago Children’s Museum; the Chicago Historical Society museum; the International Museum of Surgical Sciences; the May Weber Museum of Cultural Arts, which dis-
158
Chicago Auto Show Chinese New Year Parade Navy Pier County Fair Winter Break 3 on 3 Basketball Tournament Azalea and Camellia Show
MARCH Chicago Flower and Garden Show Maple Syrup Festival St. Patrick’s Day Celebration & Fireworks South Side Irish St. Patrick’s Day Parade
APRIL Chicago Latino Festival
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Chicago MAY Wright Plus House Walk Printer’s Row Book Fair
JUNE Chicago Blues Festival Chicago Country Music Festival Chicago Gospel Festival 57th Street Air Fair Boulevard-Lakefront Bicycle Tour Andersonville Midsommarfest
MID-JUNE TO MID-AUGUST Grant Park Music Festival
LATE JUNE-EARLY JULY Taste of Chicago
JULY
Hillary Rodham Clinton (b. 1947), First Lady of the United States. Jesse Jackson (b. 1941), African-American civil rights leader. Walter Elias (Walt) Disney (1901–1966), animator and filmmaker. Jack Benny (1894–1974), comedian. Saul Bellow, Nobel Prize-winning author. John Dos Passos (1896–1970), author.
Fiesta de Hemingway Venetian Night Lakefront fireworks (July 3) Chicago to Mackinac Island Boat Race World’s Largest Block Party Newberry Library Book Fair
Jane Addams (1860–1935), founder of Hull House.
AUGUST
David Mamet (b. 1947), playwright.
Chicago Air & Water Show Latin Music Festival Chicago Triathlon
Benny Goodman (1909–1986), clarinetist.
Michael Jordan (b. 1963), basketball superstar.
LATE AUGUST-SEPTEMBER Chicago Jazz Festival
OCTOBER Berghoff Oktoberfest Chicago International Film Festival LaSalle Banks Chicago Marathon
NOVEMBER Ski Snowmobile & Winter Sports Show Magnificent Mile Lights Festival
DECEMBER Chicago Park District Winter Festival Flower Show
21
Famous Citizens
Famous citizens who were born in Chicago include: Mayor Richard J. Daley (1902–1976).
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
22
For Further Study
Websites Chicago City Net. [Online] Available http:// www.city.net/countries/united_states/ illinois/chicago. (accessed October 11, 1999). Chicago City Page. [Online] Available http:// www.chicago.thelinks.com (accessed October 11, 1999). Chicago Home Page. [Online] Available http:// www.city-life.com/chicago. (accessed October 11, 1999). City Insights Chicago. [Online] Available http:// www.cityinsights.com/chicago.htm. (accessed October 11, 1999).
159
Chicago Government Offices Chicago City Hall 121 N. La Salle St. Chicago, IL 60602 (312) 744-0000 Chicago Office of Tourism 78 E. Washington St. Chicago, IL 60602 (312) 744-2359 Mayor’s Office 121 N. La Salle St. Rm. 507 Chicago, IL 60602 (312) 744-3300
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Chicago Convention and Tourism Bureau 2301 S. Lake Shore Dr. Chicago, IL 60616 (312) 567-8500
Publications Chicago Magazine 500 N. Dearborn Ave. Suite 1200 Chicago, IL 60610 Chicago Sun-Times 401 N. Wabash Ave. Chicago, IL 60611 Chicago Tribune 435 N. Michigan Ave. Chicago, IL 60611 Crain’s Chicago Business 740 N. Rush St. Chicago, IL 60611
Books Abrams, Isabel S. The Nature of Chicago: A Comprehensive Guide to Natural Sites In and Around the City. Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 1997. Addams, Jane. Twenty Years at Hull-House. New York: Macmillan, 1910. Bellow, Saul. Humboldt’s Gift. New York: Viking, 1975. [Fiction]
160
Crimi, Carolyn. Kidding Around Chicago: What to Do, Where to Go, and How to Have Fun in Chicago. Santa Fe, N.M.: John Muir Publications, 1998 Dale, Alzina Stone. Mystery Reader's Walking Guide, Chicago. Lincolnwood, Ill.: Passport Books, 1995. Farber, David. Chicago ‘68. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. Figliulo, Susan. Romantic Days and Nights in Chicago: Romantic Diversions in and Around the City. 2nd ed. Old Saybrook, Conn.: Globe Pequot Press, 1999. Granger, Bill, and Lori Granger. Fighting Jane: Mayor Jane Byrne and the Chicago Machine. New York: Dial Press, 1980. Hayner, Don, and Tom McNamee. Metro Chicago Almanac. Chicago: Chicago Sun-Times, 1991. Hayner, Don, and Tom McNamee. Streetwise Chicago, A History of Chicago Street Names. Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1988. Liebling, A. J. Chicago: The Second City. Drawings by Steinberg. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1952. Miller, Ross. American Apocolypse: The Great Fire and the Myth of Chicago. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. Rowe, Mike. Chicago Blues: The City and the Music. New York: Da Capo Press, 1975. Royko, Mike. Boss: Richard J. Daley and His Era. Chicago: Dutton, 1971. Saliga, Pauline A., ed. The Sky's the Limit: A Century of Chicago Skyscrapers. New York: Rizzoli, 1990. Sandburg, Carl. Chicago Poems. New York: Holt, 1916. Terkel, Studs. Division Street: America. New York: Pantheon, 1967. Uhl, Michael. Frommer's Memorable Walks in Chicago. New York: Macmillan USA, 1998.
Videorecordings Chicago: One Magnificent City. San Ramon, CA: International Video Network, 1991.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cleveland Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America, North America Founded: 1796; Incorporated: 1836 Location: Northeastern Ohio on the southern shore of Lake Erie, United States, North America Motto: Progress and Prosperity Flag: Red left panel, white center panel with emblem, and blue right panel. Flower: Carnation Time Zone: 7 AM Eastern Standard Time (EST) = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: City—49% white; 47% black; 5% Hispanic origin (of any race); 21.7% of Cleveland’s European Americans were of German ancestry; Irish, 12.5%; English, 9.1%; Italian, 7.1%; Polish, 6.1%; Slovak, 4.2%; French, 2.8%; Hungarian, 2.4%; Yugoslav, 1.6%; Scottish/Irish, 1.6%; Russian, 1.2%; Czech, 1.5%; and Dutch, 1.5%. Elevation: 201 meters (660 feet) above sea level. Most of the city is on a level plain 18–24 meters (60–80 feet) above Lake Erie; an abrupt ridge rises 150 meters (500 feet) above the shore on the eastern edge of the city along its border with the community of Cleveland Heights. Latitude and Longitude: 41º30’N, 81º70’W Coastline: 22 kilometers (14 miles) on the southern shore of Lake Erie. Climate: Hot, humid summers and cold, snowy winters. The climate is influenced by Lake Erie, which moderates both summer heat and winter cold. Annual Mean Temperature: 10ºC (50ºF); January –3ºC (27ºF); July 23ºC (73ºF). Seasonal Average Snowfall: 52 inches (132 cm); western suburbs, 45 inches (112 cm); eastern suburbs, 90 inches per year (230 cm). Average Annual Precipitation (rainfall and melted snow): 32 inches (81 cm). Government: Mayor and 21-member City Council Weights and Measures: Standard US Monetary Units: Standard US Telephone Area Codes: 216 in the city; 440 and 330 in suburban areas Postal Codes: 44101–44115; 44117, 44119–44122; 44126–44129; 44134, 44135, 44144
1
Introduction
Once renowned for the 1972 Cuyahoga River fire and identified as part of the “Rust Belt,” Cleveland is no stranger to disaster and hardship. However, in the 1990s the city once called the “Mistake on the Lake” earned a welldeserved new nickname—the “Come-
back City.” As a result of a downtown rehabilitation program, Cleveland entered the twenty-first century as a proud host to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum, the Great Lakes Science Center, the Gateway sports complex, comprised of Jacobs Field, home baseball park for the Cleveland Indians, and Gund Arena, home court for the
161
Cleveland
Cleveland Population Profile
ufacturing sector suffered a downturn in the 1980s, The Flats area was redeveloped into an entertainment district with restaurants and nightclubs.
City Proper Population: 505,616 Area: 200 sq km (77 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 49% white; 47% black; 4% other Nicknames: Mistake on the Lake (1960s and 1970s), Comeback City (1980s and 1990s)
Metropolitan Area Population: 2,900,000 Description: Includes Cuyahoga County (where Cleveland is located), neighboring Lorain, Medina, Summit, Portage, Geauga, and Lake Counties; and outlying Ashtabula County Area: 9,360 sq km (3,613 sq mi) World population rank1: 192 Percentage of national population2: 0.6% Average yearly growth rate: 0.4% Ethnic composition: 72% white; 25% black; 3% other ——— 1. The Cleveland metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of the total US population living in the Cleveland metropolitan area.
men’s and women’s basketball teams, the Cleveland Cavaliers and Cleveland Rockers, and a new home football stadium for the new Cleveland Browns team. 2
Getting There
Cleveland is located on the southern shore of Lake Erie, one of the five Great Lakes. The Cuyahoga River divides the city into an east side and west side. The area along the Cuyahoga River is known as The Flats. The Flats area was once the site of steel mills and other factories; when Cleveland’s man-
162
Highways Three major interstate highways intersect in the downtown area: I-71 and I-77 run north-south connecting Cleveland with the Ohio cities of Columbus and Akron, respectively. I-90 runs east-west, linking Cleveland to Erie, Pennsylvania to the east and Toledo, Ohio, and Chicago, Illinois, to the west. I-480 connects the eastern and western suburbs on a route south of the city; I-271 runs east of the city on a north-south route; and I-490 connects I-90, I-71, and I-77 away from their downtown merges. Bus and Railroad Service Greyhound Bus Lines provides daily service into downtown Cleveland, and to many cities in the Greater Cleveland area. Amtrak passenger rail service to points east and west is provided by the train called the Lakeshore Limited. The Capital Limited train travels to Washington, D.C. via Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Airports The largest airports serving the area are Cleveland Hopkins International Airport (served by 14 air carriers providing 11.5 million passenger arrivals/ departures in 1996), Burke Lakefront Airport (commuter air service provided 219,512 arrivals/departures in 1996), and the Cuyahoga County Airport (pro-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cleveland
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
163
Cleveland viding business and general aviation services). Continental Airlines has the largest number of flights with over 300 daily departures. Shipping The Port of Cleveland, declared a foreign trade zone in 1990, is the largest overseas general cargo port on Lake Erie and is the third largest on the Great Lakes. Ships from the Atlantic Ocean enter the Great Lakes via the St. Lawrence Seaway, which opened in 1959. The port handles about 13 million metric tons (14 million tons) of cargo annually. 3
Getting Around
Many of Cleveland’s major roads were laid out along the paths of dried out creek beds or trails used by displaced Native Americans. City streets branch out from Public Square. Cleveland’s tallest buildings surround Public Square. The streets that run west from Public Square all feature large bridges over the Cuyahoga River. There are 13 bridges in The Flats area, directly to the west of Public Square. West of the Cuyahoga River lies the neighborhood known as Ohio City, incorporated into the city of Cleveland in 1852.
downtown area. In 1988, Cleveland became the first city in the United States to have commuter rail service from downtown to the airport when RTA connected Public Square to Hopkins Airport. There is a loop bus route (fare is 50 cents) serving the downtown area from 6 AM to 6:30 PM. In 1996, commuter rail service was extended to the newly developed waterfront area. The RTA operates 102 bus lines, 72 of which reach downtown. Sightseeing The Cuyahoga Valley Scenic Railroad operates a 90-minute round trip through the Cuyahoga National Recreation Area to the south of the city of Cleveland. Sightseeing cruises on the Cuyahoga River and Lake Erie are operated during the summer months, and dozens of marinas serve pleasure boaters of the area. A fleet of trolley cars known as Lolly the Trolley provide sightseeing tours. 4
People
Bus and Commuter Rail Service
In 1990, the population of the city of Cleveland was 505,616 (47 percent male, 53 percent female). The total population of the Cleveland Metropolitan Statistical Area is 2.9 million, making it the fourteenth-largest metropolitan area in the United States.
Within the area, Cleveland’s Regional Transit Authority (RTA) serves 59 million passengers annually. Its rail line consists of 54 kilometers (34 miles) of track connecting the closest suburbs with Public Square in the center of the
Cleveland has a rich ethnic mix, with a population representing 60 ethnic groups from all continents. The city has the largest mix of Eastern Europeans of any city in the United States and has the largest concentrations of Slo-
164
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cleveland
The Cleveland, Ohio skyline. (EPD Photos)
vaks (Slovakia), Slovenes (Slovenia), and Hungarians (Hungary). There are also large German, Irish, Polish, Italian, Czech, Croat, Russian, Puerto Rican, and Ukrainian communities. In recent years, Asians have also settled in the area, primarily Asian Indians, Filipinos, Koreans, and Chinese. More than 60 languages are spoken in Cleveland. In 1994, languages other than English spoken at home (by percentage of households) included Spanish or Spanish Creole (24.1 percent), German (11.7 percent), Italian (9.8 percent), Polish (7.9 percent), South Slavic (7.8 percent), other Slavic (seven percent), French or French Creole (6.4 percent), Hungarian (6.1 percent), Arabic
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
(3.4 percent), Greek (2.7 percent), Chinese (2.3 percent), Indic (2.3 percent), Korean (1.2 percent), and Japanese (one percent). An estimated 40 percent of the metropolitan area’s regular worshippers attend Catholic churches. The following denominations have significant membership among Clevelanders: Catholic (Roman and Eastern Orthodox), 534,785 members; Southern Baptist, 117,282; American Baptist, 28,176; United Methodist, 33,607; United Church of Christ, 21,146; and Jewish, 50,500. There are also significant numbers of other Protestant denominations, Muslims, Buddhists, and Hindus.
165
Cleveland 5
Neighborhoods
Little Italy, located on the city’s eastern border with Cleveland Heights, is a thriving Italian neighborhood that in recent years has become an arts center. On the near east side, just to the north of midtown, is a small Chinatown. On the northeast side is the Slavic Village, and to the east is Hough, a largely African American neighborhood that was the site of violent riots during the Civil Rights movements of the 1960s and 1970s. The Van Sweringen brothers, real estate developers, purchased from a community of Shakers (the devout religious sect) a large tract of land about 16 kilometers (ten miles) east of Public Square. This land became the community of Shaker Heights, the first planned suburban community in the nation. To lure Cleveland’s new and growing middle and upper classes into their community, the Van Sweringens bought a rail line and converted it to a commuter rail connecting their land with a downtown station they built. In 1996, the city received grants and loans of $22.6 million from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development to help build 400 new homes and renovate 65 homes in the Central neighborhood, a residential, industrial sector just east of the downtown. In 1994, the cost of housing in Cleveland was the second lowest among large cities in the country. In the greater Cleveland area, the average price for a single family home in 1994 was $104,400, compared to $161,600
166
nationally. Among the 18 largest U.S. metropolitan areas, Cleveland residents also had the lowest average mortgage payments. In 1989, the Northeast Ohio Coalition for the Homeless was established to provide housing for the estimated 12,000 homeless people in the greater Cleveland area. 6
History
In 1682, King Charles II of England ceded a large tract of land west of Pennsylvania to the colony of Connecticut that became known as the Western Reserve. In 1796, Moses Cleaveland, an executive with the Connecticut Land Company, was sent to survey the reserve with the possibility of developing it. Cleaveland arrived at the mouth of the Cuyahoga River, where it empties into Lake Erie, and recognized that it would make an excellent site for a port. He laid out a plan for a small village, named the town after himself and returned to Connecticut, never again to set foot in the city that bore his name. (The “a” was dropped from the city name somewhere along the way. Popular stories hold that a newspaper writer either ran out of space or “a”s, thereby changing the name of the city permanently.) The area turned out to be inhospitable, mainly because the Cuyahoga River was a nesting ground for mosquitoes and frequently flooded. By 1800, only seven people lived in the town Cleaveland had laid out. In 1803, Ohio became a state, the first state that never
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cleveland
City Fact Comparison Cleveland (United States)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
1,724,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1796
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$86
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$40
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$24
$14
$15
$16
$128
$173
$246
$207
1
13
20
11
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
Akhbar El Yom/ The Plain Dealer Al Akhbar 382,933
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1842
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
had been a colony. Growth was slow until the digging of the first stages of the Erie Canal in 1827, which opened the tiny frontier town to commerce. By 1850, the city had grown to 30 times its 1820 population. By 1860, it had become a well-established haven for new immigrants, and half its population that year was foreign born. During and following the Civil War (1861–65), Cleveland became a prosperous industrial city due to the discovery of large iron ore deposits and the establishment of the Standard Oil Company by John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937), soon to become the richest man in the world. Steel, shipping, and coal companies
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
also flourished and created a class of rich merchants who built up the city with their wealth. The Great Depression of the 1930s devastated the Cleveland economy, but World War II (1939–45) revived industry, and Cleveland companies recruited new workers to fill its expanded industrial capacity from among southern blacks and white Appalachians. The middle class, however, began moving out of the city into suburbs, as was the pattern nationally, and the inner city of Cleveland began to decline. By the 1960s, much of the city had sunk into poverty, and in 1966 the primarily
167
Cleveland
Cleveland’s “Rapid” links the downtown area with the airport, the eastside suburbs, and the westside suburbs. (EPD Photos)
black neighborhood of Hough erupted in riots that made national headlines. Three years later, the Cuyahoga River, saturated with a century of industrial pollutants, caught on fire. The image of a burning river, broadcast around the world, became an image that the city of Cleveland would find difficult to shake. Its reputation was further tarnished during the 1970s when it suffered a devastating fiscal crisis causing it to declare bankruptcy in 1976.
168
Beginning in the 1979, with the election of George Voinovich as mayor, Cleveland’s business and civic leaders began revitalizing the downtown area, hoping to reverse the now decades-long population flight. In 1985 Standard Oil of Ohio built a new corporate headquarters building on Public Square. (The building is now known as the BP Building, after British Petroleum, the company that bought Standard Oil.). Other new buildings soon followed and The Flats area along the Cuyahoga River—the site of the river fire—was redeveloped as a district of restaurants and bars. When Michael R. White was elected mayor in 1989, the downtown rehabilitation continued. Notable is the construction of a downtown sports complex called Gateway, comprised of Jacobs Field, a baseball park for the Cleveland Indians, and Gund Arena, home court for the men’s women’s basketball teams, the Cleveland Cavaliers and Cleveland Rockers. Development along the lakeshore included the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum designed by I. M. Pei (1917–), the Great Lakes Science Center, and a new home football stadium for the new Cleveland Browns team in 1999. 7
Government
The city’s chief executive is the mayor, elected to four-year terms on a non-partisan ballot. Michael R. White (Democrat) was elected mayor in 1989, reelected in 1993 and again in 1997. The legislature is a City Council; its 21 members are also elected on a non-partisan ballot to four-year terms. (Until
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cleveland 1980, the mayoral and council terms were two years.) 8
Public Safety
In 1996, Cleveland had six police districts with 1,791 sworn officers; 26 fire stations with 957 uniformed fire fighters; and 18 Emergency Medical Services (EMS) ambulances with 224 uniformed employees. In 1994, there were 137 homicides; 751 rapes; 3,924 robberies; 2,947 aggravated assaults; 8,008 burglaries; 12,931 larcenies; 9,062 auto thefts; and 801 cases of arson. 9
Economy
Historically, Cleveland was a major industrial and manufacturing center. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, however, the local economy suffered, leaving Cleveland and many other midwestern cities, in an economic recession. During the 1980s, Cleveland lost 11.9 percent of its population when workers moved to take new jobs in the south and west. (During this period industrialized cities of the Midwest and Northeast were labeled the Rust Belt, and their counterparts in the South and Southwest, the Sun Belt.) Beginning in the late 1980s and continuing into the 1990s, however, Cleveland made the transition from an industrial economy to a services-based economy. In 1995, in fact, 28.8 percent of the workforce in the Cleveland metropolitan area was engaged in services, compared to 20.6 percent in manufacturing. Wholesale and retail trade employed 23.6 percent
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
that year and 12.8 percent worked for local, state, and federal government. In 1995, Cleveland was home to 95 companies with revenues exceeding $100 million. Among the largest employers in the area (1994) were the U.S. government (18,500); Ford Motor Company (10,896 employees); Catholic Diocese of Cleveland (10,000); Cleveland Clinic Foundation (9,900); Cleveland Board of Education (9,673); Cuyahoga County Government (9,232); MetroHealth System (8,328); City of Cleveland (8,226); University Hospitals (7,640); State of Ohio (7,630); LTV Steel Company (7,500); Riser Foods (6,500); First National Supermarkets (6,451); Centerior Energy (6,200); Goodyear Tire and Rubber (5,937); and Ameritech (5,309). 10
Environment
Cleveland’s most vital natural resource is Lake Erie, the fourth-largest lake in the United States and the twelfth-largest lake in the world. It is 388 kilometers (241 miles) wide and contains 500 trillion liters (132 trillion gallons) of water. The cities that grew up around Lake Erie—Cleveland, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; and Buffalo, New York—all spewed pollutants into Lake Erie from the early 1900s. In the late 1800s, vast deposits of salt were discovered beneath the lake, and the commercial enterprises continue to extract salt from mines about two-and-a-half kilometers (one-and-a-half miles) beneath the surface of Lake Erie. In 1970, pollution was so heavy that the governor of
169
Cleveland Ohio suspended fishing on Lake Erie because of mercury contamination of fish. Since then, environmental laws and downturn in industrial activity along the river have resulted in improved health of the river and Lake Erie ecosystems. In the 1990s, fishing was a favorite pastime. Fishers on Lake Erie catch as many fish as fishers on the other four Great Lakes combined. The Cuyahoga River was one of the most polluted rivers in the country and actually burned in 1952, when a huge fire caused $1.5 million in damage, and again in 1969. The Cuyahoga River fire of June 22, 1969, elicited national headlines and created a national image of Cleveland as a polluted industrial wasteland. 11
Shopping
Clevelanders employed in retail and wholesale trade number 261,500. In the 1980s and 1990s, two major malls—Tower City Center and The Galleria at Erieview—opened in the business district, combining to contain approximately 160 popular specialty shops and restaurants. In total, there are over 625 retail outlets in the downtown section of Cleveland. Another downtown indoor shopping area is The Arcade, built in downtown Cleveland in 1890. It was the first indoor shopping mall in the United States. On the near west side of Cleveland, the Ohio City neighborhood is home to beautifully renovated Victorian houses, restaurants, coffee houses, and the historic West Side Market, an enclosed pro-
170
duce, meat, and bakery market. It is the largest covered farmer’s market in the United States. Almost every suburban community in the Cleveland area has a shopping strip or indoor mall. 12
Education
In the 1993–94 school year, Cleveland Public Schools enrolled 73,633 students, with a per-pupil expenditure of $6,017. Fifty percent of the system’s students fail to graduate high school, but 51 percent of those who graduate go on to college. Students enrolled in suburban school systems demonstrate higher average graduation rates. Cuyahoga County has 33 public school systems and 22 private schools. Public/private partnerships in education include Project SMART (School of Manufacturing and Automotive Related Technologies), which helps students learn real-world skills for existing industrial jobs. It is administered by the Cleveland Public Schools, Cleveland State University, and the non-profit group Cleveland Education Partners. The 22 universities and colleges (five public, 17 private) in greater Cleveland include Cleveland State University, Case Western Reserve University, John Carroll University, and Oberlin College. Enrollment at colleges and universities in the metropolitan area is 143,000. 13
Health Care
Cleveland is home to some of the finest medical facilities in the country,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cleveland including the Cleveland Clinic (which pioneered open heart surgery and organ transplants), University Hospitals (affiliated with Case Western Reserve University), St. Vincent Charity Hospital (pioneered development of heart-lung machines), and Metropolitan General Hospital (specializing in burn treatment). The health care industry employs 125,000 workers (11 percent of the workforce) and generates $9 billion for the local economy. The Cleveland area has 9,000 physicians and 22,000 professional health care workers.
stations, including six college radio stations. The top ten radio stations reach an average adult audience of 344,197 daily. The Plain Dealer, Cleveland’s principal daily newspaper and Ohio’s largest daily newspaper, has a circulation of 1,002,892. Cleveland Magazine and Northern Ohio Live, regional arts and entertainment magazines, have a combined circulation of 241,000; a weekly newspaper reporting on the business community is Crain’s Cleveland Business.
The city of Cleveland’s Department of Public Health employs 320 people and has an operating budget of $24 million. In 1995, the department provided flu shots to 2,500 senior citizens, tested 5,000 adults for HIV/AIDS, screened 42,855 children for lead poisoning, and increased the number of patients served at health centers from 23,728 to 36,938. The infant mortality rate in inner-city neighborhoods served by the Department was 16.3 per 1,000 live births in 1993.
Cleveland has professional major league baseball (the Indians), men’s basketball (the Cavaliers), women’s basketball (the Rockers), hockey (the Lumberjacks), and indoor soccer (the Crunch) teams. Cleveland’s National Football League team, the Browns, was relocated in 1996 to Baltimore, Maryland, where the name was changed to the Ravens. Cleveland kept the rights to their NFL team name (Browns), and a new Browns team began playing in Cleveland in 1999.
14
Media
The Cleveland Designated Market Area (CDMA) comprises 1.47 million households, the fourteenth-largest media market in the U.S. (CDMA is defined as all counties in which Cleveland television stations receive a majority of total viewing hours.) Cleveland has network affiliate television broadcasters for ABC, CBS, NBC, and Fox. There are over 100 media companies in the area, and 25 AM and 34 FM radio
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
15
Sports
The Indians won the World Series in 1920 and 1948. In 1995 and 1997, the Indians won the American League pennant, but lost in the World Series to the Atlanta Braves (1995) and the Florida Marlins (1997). Gund Arena, home to professional men’s and women’s basketball, professional hockey, and the site of numerous concerts and special events, opened in August 1994; it is one of the first buildings designed to comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act, with 200
171
Cleveland seats for the disabled. There are 3,300 parking places at the arena, more than 10,000 parking spaces within a tenminute walk. About one hour west of Cleveland in Sandusky lies Cedar Point amusement park. To the southeast, in Aurora, Six Flags Ohio (formerly Geauga Lake) amusement park and Sea World of Ohio are popular summer attractions. 16
Parks and Recreation
The Cleveland Metroparks system, known as “The Emerald Necklace,” consists of 19,000 acres of parks that surround the city. The system includes 12 separate reservations and the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, all within 15 minutes of downtown. Parks within the city of Cleveland itself have 163 tennis courts, 41 swimming pools, and 156 baseball diamonds. There are six separate park facilities on the shore of Lake Erie in the greater Cleveland area. In the city itself, the largest is Edgewater Park, which has 274 meters (900 feet) of beach. There are over 200 public and private golf courses and 35 bike trails in the area. The 32,000-acre Cuyahoga National Recreation Area covers 35 kilometers (22 miles) of the Cuyahoga River was established in 1974, and features hiking and nature programs. About 32 kilometers (20 miles) east of the city is The Holden Arboretum, one of the world’s largest museums of trees and shrubs.
172
17
Performing Arts
Cleveland is host to a thriving music, theater, and film community. The Cleveland Orchestra (TCO), founded in 1918, is considered one of the finest orchestras in the world. TCO performs during the concert season at Severance Hall, which opened in 1931, and during the summer at Blossom Music Center. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum, designed by I. M. Pei (1917–), opened on the lakeshore in downtown in 1994. The Polka Hall of Fame, located in Euclid, celebrates Polka Month (November) each year with an induction ceremony and a weekend-long program of concerts and events. The Cleveland Play House, the oldest repertory theater in the United States, operates three stages in a large theater complex. Karamu (Swahili for “a place of joyful gathering”) House is the oldest U.S. theater producing plays written by African Americans. In the downtown business district, the Playhouse Square area includes four theaters: the Ohio, home to the Great Lakes Theatre Festival; the State, home to Cleveland Opera and Cleveland Ballet; the Palace, home to large touring Broadway shows; and the Allen. There are 175 movie theaters in the greater Cleveland area. The Cleveland International Film Festival, held each spring, is nationally renowned. 18
Libraries and Museums
The Cleveland Public Library is the second largest municipal library in the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cleveland
Cleveland’s science museum (left) shares the lakefront with the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (right) in downtown Cleveland. (EPD Photos)
United States. It was the first library in the country to allow users to take the books off the shelves themselves (without asking a librarian for help). In 1997, the main branch of the Cleveland Public Library opened the Louis Stokes Wing, a 48,865-square-meter (526,000square-foot) building.
Downtown Cleveland features the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum; the Great Lakes Science Center and Cleveland Clinic Omnimax Theatre; the William G. Mather Museum, a 188-meter (618-foot) ore freighter; and the USS Cod, a World War II submarine.
The 29-branch Cuyahoga County Public Library has the seventh-highest circulation rate in the United States. The Cleveland Area Metropolitan Library System (CAMLS) is a consortium of 77 public, academic, hospital, corporate, and school libraries.
University Circle is a 500-acre area on Cleveland’s east side, six kilometers (four miles) east of Public Square. A Loop Bus provides transportation between the points of interest in University Circle, including Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland Children’s Museum, Cleveland Health
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
173
Cleveland Museum, Cleveland Institute of Art, Cleveland Institute of Music, the Cleveland Museum of Art, Severance Hall (home of the Cleveland Orchestra), the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, the Dittrick Museum of Medical History, the Temple Museum, Western Reserve Historical Society, and Crawford Auto-Aviation Museum. The Cleveland Museum of Art holds one of the world’s finest collections, consisting of more than 30,000 works produced over 5,000 years of world history. Founded in 1916, the collection is housed in a beaux-arts building designed by the Cleveland architectural firm of Hubbell and Benes and is situated on a 15-acre public park designed by the renowned Olmsted Brothers firm. Highlights of the museum’s collection include Van Gogh’s Poplars at Saint-Remy, Picasso’s La Vie and Harlequin with Violin, Michaelangelo’s The Crucifixion of St. Anthony and Degas’ The Dancers. The Cleveland Center for Contemporary Art is housed in a former Sears & Roebuck store adjacent to the Cleveland Play House. South of Cleveland in Canton, Ohio, is the Pro Football Hall of Fame, where memorabilia of professional football and its players is displayed. Between Cleveland and Akron, Hale Farm and Village depicts nineteenthcentury rural life in Northeast Ohio.
million domestic visitors. Five-hundred-thousand visitors toured the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum, one of the city’s largest national and international draws since its opening in 1994. For conventions, the downtown offers the Cleveland Convention Center, the Clarion Hotel and Conference Center, and the I-X Center. 20
Holidays and Festivals
MARCH St. Patrick’s Day Parade Buzzard Day, Cleveland Metroparks Hinckley Reservation, celebrating annual migration of the turkey vulture
APRIL Cleveland International Film Festival Tri-C Jazz Fest, Cuyahoga County Community College Revco-Cleveland Marathon and 10-K race
APRIL-MAY I-X Indoor Amusement Park with ten-story ferris wheel
JUNE Parade the Circle Celebration, University Circle, first Saturday in June Summer Art Walk, Little Italy
JULY Cleveland Orchestra Concert on Public Square
AUGUST Feast of the Assumption, Little Italy Twins Day Festival, Twinsburg, southwest of Cleveland
SEPTEMBER National Air Show, Burke Lakefront Airport
19
To u r i s m
In 1995, Cleveland had 12,621 hotel rooms and attracted some seven
174
OCTOBER Sweetest Day (October 10) was first celebrated in Cleveland Columbus Day Parade
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Cleveland election to become the first black mayor of a major U.S. city.
NOVEMBER Polka Festival Weekend (Thanksgiving Weekend) and Polka Hall of Fame induction
Famous citizens born in the Cleveland area include:
Toni Morrison (b. 1931), born in Cleveland-area community of Lorain, winner of the 1988 Pulitzer Prize for literature and the 1993 Nobel Prize for literature.
Charles Brush (1849–1929), inventor of the arc light.
Famous citizens who resided in Cleveland include:
Hart Crane (1899–1932), modernist lyrical poet.
John D. Rockefeller (b. New York, 1839– 1937), founder of Standard Oil of Ohio, richest man in the world and philanthropist.
21
Famous Citizens
Jesse Owens (1913–80), Olympic athlete, set a world record for the 100yard dash when he was a senior at East Tech High. Adella Prentiss Hughes (1869–1950), founder and first manager of the Cleveland Orchestra. Bob Hope (b. 1903), actor and vaudevillian. Jerry Siegel and Joe Schuster, creators of Superman, the comic book hero, while students at Glenville High in 1933. Dorothy Fuldheim (1893–1989), the first woman television news anchor, beginning in 1947. Alan Freed (1922–65), radio disc jockey who coined the term “rock and roll”. Paul Brown (1908–91), coach of Cleveland Browns football team. Carl B. Stokes (1927–96), grandson of a s l a v e w h o d e f e a t e d S e t h Taf t , grandson of President William H. Taft, in the November 13, 1967,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
George Szell (b. Hungary, 1897–1970), internationally renowned conductor and music director of the Cleveland Orchestra. Elliot Ness (1903–57), famed crime fighter, stationed in Cleveland 1934–1942. 22
For Further Study
Websites City of Cleveland Home Page. [Online] Available http://www.cleveland.oh.us (accessed on January 15, 2000). Crain’s Cleveland Business. [Online] Available www.crainscleveland.com (accessed on January 15, 2000). Homepage maintained by local newspaper and television station. [Online] Available www.cleveland.com (accessed on January 15, 2000).
Government Offices City Hall 601 Lakeside Avenue Cleveland, OH 44114 (216) 664–2000 Community Relations Board (216) 664–3290
175
Cleveland Mayor’s Office 601 Lakeside Avenue Suite 202 Cleveland, OH 44114 (216) 664–2220
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Convention and Visitors Bureau of Greater Cleveland 50 Public Square, Suite 3100 Cleveland, Ohio 44113 (800) 321–1001 (216) 621–4110 Greater Cleveland Growth Association 200 Tower City Center, 50 Public Square Cleveland, Ohio 44113 (216) 621–3300 The New Cleveland Campaign 1809 East Ninth Street, Suite 1020 Cleveland, Ohio 44113 (216) 574–8940
Publications Call and Post (African American newspaper) 1949 East 105th St. Cleveland, OH 44115
Books African American Heritage Trail of Cleveland Tour Guide. Cleveland: National Association of Black Journalists, Cleveland Chapter, 199?. Cameron, Patience. Cleveland on Foot: A Guide to Walking and Hiking in Cleveland and Vicinity. Cleveland: Gray & Co., 1995. Cleveland, A City Built on Strong Neighborhoods: A Comprehensive Guide to the City’s Thirty-six Neighborhoods. Cleveland: LIVE Pub., 1996. Cleveland Fact Book. Cleveland: Greater Cleveland Growth Association, 1997. A Galaxy of Cleveland’s Black Stars, 1796–1996: A Bicentennial Activity Book for Children, Ages 7– 12. Cleveland: New Day Press, 1996. Grabowski, John J. Sports in Cleveland: An Illustrated History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992. Johnston, Christopher. ed. Best Things in Life: 236 Favorite Things about Cleveland (by Clevelanders). Cleveland: Gray & Co., 1994. Peacock, Nancy. Kidding Around Cleveland: A Funfilled, Fact-Packed Travel and Activity Book. Sante Fe, New Mexico: J. Muir Publications, 1997. Springstubb, Tricia. Cleveland for Kids. Cleveland: The Cleveland Arts Consortium, 1993.
Cleveland Magazine 1422 Euclid Avenue, Suite 730 Cleveland, Ohio 44115
Van Tassel, David D., and John J. Grabowski, ed. The Dictionary of Cleveland Biography. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996.
Crain’s Cleveland Business 700 West St. Clair Ave., Suite 310 Cleveland, OH 44113–1230
Van Tassel, David D., and John J. Grabowski, ed. The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. 2nd ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996.
Northern Ohio Live 11320 Juniper Road Cleveland, Ohio 44106 Nueves Horizontes magazine (serving the Hispanic community) 2012 West 25th Street, Suite 717 Cleveland, Ohio 44113 The Plain Dealer 1801 Superior Avenue Cleveland, Ohio 44114 (216) 999–5000
176
Stoffel, Jennifer, and Stephen Phillips. Cleveland Discovery Guide: Greater Cleveland’s Best Family Recreation. Cleveland: Gray & Co., 1994. Wickham, Gertrude Van Rensselaer. The Pioneer Families of Cleveland 1796–1840. Salem, Massachusetts: Higginson Book Co., 1993.
Videorecordings Cleveland Neighborhood Development Corporation. Cleveland Neighborhoods: Weaving the Fabric of the City. Cleveland, OH: The Corporation, [199–?]. One 15-minute videocassette.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Dallas Dallas, Texas, United States of America, North America Founded: 1841 Location: North-central Texas; southern United States, North America Slogan: “Dallas, the Texas Star” Flag: White star with yellow emblem centered over stripes of red, white, and blue (top to bottom). Flower: Bluebonnet (Texas state flower) Time Zone: 6 AM Central Standard Time (CST) = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: White 65%; Black 14%; Hispanic origin (of any race) 17%; other, including Native Americans and Asian/Pacific Islanders, 21%. Elevation: 150–250 m (500–800 ft) above sea level Latitude and Longitude: 32º50'N, 96º50'W Climate: Hot, humid summers and mild winters. Annual Mean Temperature: January 1ºC (34ºF); July 37ºC (98ºF) Average Annual Precipitation: Snowfall is rare; precipitation is 750 mm (29.5 in). Government: Council-manager, with an 11-member council, 8 of whom are elected from single-member districts; the remaining 2 and the mayor are chosen by voters in a nonpartisan election. Weights and Measures: Standard U.S. Monetary Units: Standard U.S. Telephone Area Codes: 214 and 972 Postal Codes: 75201–75398
1
Introduction
Dallas is located on the rolling prairies of northeast Texas, where the three branches of the Trinity River merge. It is the second-largest city in Texas and the eighth-largest city in the United States. Founded in 1841 by John Neely Bryan, who chose the site along the river for his trading post, Dallas grew slowly at first. However, significant expansion occurred during the Civil War years (1861–65), when Dallas was used as a supply depot for Confederate troops. In 1872 the Texas Central Railroad was routed through town, and a
year later the Texas Pacific Railroad arrived. The 1930 oil strike in east Texas caused a boom in the Dallas economy, with the city becoming a financial and freight center serving the oil wells. Dallas entered the twenty-first century a center for banking, oil, cotton, and high technology, as well as a rapidly expanding city, both in terms of population and economy. 2
Getting There
Highways Several major highways lead into Dallas. Interstate-20 runs east to west. I-
177
Dallas
Dallas Population Profile City Proper Population: 1,068,880 Area: 980 sq km (378 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 65% white; 14% black; 17% Hispanic descent, any race; remainder Native American and Asian or Pacific Islander descent Nicknames: Big D
Metropolitan Area Population: 3,912,000 Description: Includes Dallas and suburbs (the area known as DFW Metroplex also includes Forth Worth, Arlington, and suburbs) Area: 16,800 sq km (6,490 sq mi) World population rank1: 62 Percentage of national population2: 1.4% Average yearly growth rate: 1.6% ——— 1. The Dallas metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of the total US population living in the Dallas metropolitan area.
30 runs from the northeast into the city. Running northeast to southwest is I-35, the major route from Dallas to Austin and San Antonio. I-45 runs from Dallas southeast to Houston. US 75 (North Central Expressway) comes into Dallas from the North. I-635 forms a loop around Dallas and the neighboring cities of Arlington and Fort Worth. Driving time to Houston is three hours and 40 minutes, while it takes four-anda-half hours to drive to San Antonio. Bus and Railroad Service Both buses and passenger trains serve Dallas. The Greyhound bus sta-
178
tion is located downtown at 205 S. Lamar Street, and in addition to Greyhound, several other smaller bus lines run out of this location, including El Conejo and Euro-Coach. Trains arrive at Amtrak’s Union Station, 400 S. Houston Street. Airports Dallas has two airports: DallasForth Worth International Airport (DFW) and the smaller Love Field, which offers commuter transit. DFW is located 29 kilometers (18 miles) northwest of downtown. Transportation to and from the airport is available by bus, airport shuttle, rental car, or taxi. Most major domestic airlines fly into Dallas, including American, Continental, Delta, and TWA. Regional airlines include America West, Atlantic Southeast, Southwest, and Sun Country. Several international airlines also service Dallas, such as Aeromexico, British Airways, Japan Airlines, and Korean Air. Flight times from major U.S. cities are as follows: New York, four hours; Chicago, two-and-a-half hours; Los Angeles, three hours. 3
Getting Around
Major highways converge in the center of the city, just east of the Trinity River, forming a loose, lopsided rectangle. Due to rapid expansion in the latter half of the twentieth century, roads sprawl haphazardly in many directions, making it difficult to tell Dallas proper from surrounding suburbs and cities.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Dallas
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
179
Dallas
City Fact Comparison Dallas (United States)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
3,912,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1841
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$89
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$44
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$26
$14
$15
$16
$135
$173
$246
$207
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper
1
13
20
11
The Dallas Morning News
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
479,863
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1885
1944
1976
1948
Date largest newspaper was established 1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
Streets do not form a traditional grid, making travel confusing. The main roads downtown are Main Street, Elm Street, and Commerce Street. Buses and Commuter Rail Service Dallas Area Rapid Transit System (DART) offers bus and light rail transportation to the city and 12 surrounding suburban communities. DART provides 130 bus routes, while the light rail services major sites, with free parking at most rail terminals. A trolley line circulates downtown. Fares for DART range from 50 cents to two dollars.
180
Walking Because of urban and suburban sprawl, Dallas is not a city well suited for pedestrians. However, tourists can and do take walking tours downtown and in the historic West End. In most other areas, people either drive or take public transportation. 4
People
Prior to the Civil War, Dallas’ peak population was only 430 people. However, by 1990 it was the second-largest city in Texas and the eighth-largest city in the United States. Estimates for 1999 put the population at 1,068,800, while
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Dallas the total population of the Dallas-Fort Worth region is estimated at just under five million. In 1997 whites were the ethnic majority at 65 percent. Those of Hispanic descent made up 17 percent of the population, while African Americans accounted for 14 percent. The remaining population is made up of Native Americans and a growing number of immigrants from Asia and Europe. 5
Neighborhoods
A sprawling megalopolis, Dallas is often lumped together with neighboring Fort Worth and Arlington, the entire area called the DFW Metroplex by residents. These three separate cities blend seamlessly together and, along with several suburbs, form one large metropolis. Each neighborhood in Dallas has its own flavor. The West End Historic District is a preservation area, with buildings from the early 1900s transformed into retail spaces. Another historic area is the Swiss Avenue District, where over 200 houses have been preserved, the houses representing Georgian, Prairie, and Spanish architectural styles. The Dallas downtown area combines historic buildings with a modern skyline. The downtown skyline is a cluster of buildings designed by some of the twentieth century’s most prominent architects, such as I. M. Pei (b. 1917) and Frank Lloyd Wright (1867– 1959). Architect William D. Cook came up with the layout plans for the upscale
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
suburb of Highland Park, which is located just north of downtown. One of the most popular and upscale neighborhoods in Dallas is the newly renovated warehouse district of Deep Ellum, which was the center of the city’s African American population for much of the twentieth century. Only three blocks from downtown, this neighborhood represents a shift in Dallas’ city expansion, with suburban growth slowing and more people moving back into the central city. Dallas, along with its surrounding communities, is home to 45 colleges and universities. Neighborhoods catering to students surround Southern Methodist University, located directly north of Highland Park, and the University of Texas at Dallas, at the northernmost edge of the city. 6
History
In 1841 John Neely Bryan settled at a site where the Trinity River’s three branches merged. Bryan noticed that the river’s main branch was narrower at this point than at any other place for miles, making it an ideal place for a trading post. By 1842 a few more settlers arrived and Bryan’s encampment was called Peter’s Colony. In 1845 the name was changed to honor U.S. Vice President George Mifflin Dallas (1792–1864). Dallas was incorporated as a town in 1856 and as a city in 1871. The settlement grew slowly until the Civil War, when it served as a sup-
181
Dallas
Dallas’s central business district is the heart of the city. (Dallas Convention & Visitors Bureau)
ply depot for Confederate troops. In 1872 the Texas Central Railroad was lured to Dallas through bribes and land gifts. The following year, the Texas Pacific Railroad was routed into town, making Dallas the major distribution center of the southwest. Cotton, wheat, and wool all came into Dallas to be exported by rail. Between 1872 and 1886 the population expanded from 6,000 to 36,000. Cotton growing in north Texas made Dallas one of the world’s largest inland cotton markets, and by 1900 Dallas had become the regional financial center servicing Texas’ cotton farmers. The next boom for Dallas came in 1930 with the east Texas oil strike. The city’s financial institutions began ser-
182
vicing the region’s oil magnates, and many of Dallas’ citizens became rich off of petroleum-related enterprises. The 1930s also made outlaw robbers Clyde Barrow and Bonnie Parker an infamous part of Dallas’ history. Both lived in the city as children, and they were working in Dallas in January of 1930 when they met. After several of their escapades, Bonnie and Clyde were nearly captured in Dallas in 1933. They were ambushed by Dallas police but escaped with only minor injuries. A fire and flooding both influenced the city’s development. In 1860 a fire destroyed much of the downtown business district. By 1908 frequent flooding of the Trinity River forced city leaders to consider redesigning the city. Planning engineer George Kessler developed a
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Dallas city plan that included widening the Trinity River, moving railroad tracks outside of the city, and widening city streets. At the time, these plans were considered radical; however, Kessler’s ideas were slowly carried out over many years. Perhaps Dallas will always best be known for one dark moment in American history. On November 22, 1963, President John F. Kennedy (president 1961–63; 1917–1963) was assassinated as his motorcade passed by Dealy Plaza in downtown Dallas. Riding in an open limousine, President Kennedy was shot twice, once in the head and once in the neck. He was pronounced dead upon arriving at Parkland Memorial Hospital. Texas Governor Connally, riding with Kennedy, was also shot, though not fatally. After the shots, a reporter looked up at surrounding buildings and saw a rifle being drawn back into a sixth-floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Lee Harvey Oswald was accused of the killing. Oswald himself was shot only two days later in the basement of a Dallas police station by Jack Ruby. A presidential commission headed by Earl Warren, U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice, ruled that Oswald acted alone and was not part of a conspiracy, as many believed. Skeptics dispute the Warren Report, though conclusive evidence has yet to be uncovered implicating anyone other than Oswald. The controversy and mystique surrounding the Kennedy assassination draw many tourists to both Dealy Plaza and the Texas School Book Depository. Dedicated in June 1970, the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
John F. Kennedy Memorial, designed as a place for remembrance and meditation, is located at the corner of Main and Market Streets. Dallas’ image was tarnished by the Kennedy assassination, and the city worked hard to rebuild its reputation. In 1973 the Dallas-Fort Worth Airport opened, and in 1984 Dallas hosted the Republican National Convention. From 1980 to 1982 the television drama Dallas was the top-rated series in the United States. In 1998 the city suffered through a severe drought and heat wave. Temperatures of at least 56°C (100°F) held for 29 consecutive days, causing widespread crop damage and more than 100 deaths. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Dallas is still a center for traditional businesses, including the cotton and petroleum industries. It is also a center for women’s fashions, and it is a regional hub for financial and insurance institutions. High-tech industry has been growing in Dallas and is projected to be a major growth industry in coming years. 7
Government
In 1931 Dallas adopted a city council-city manager style of government. The city is run by a city manager who is appointed by an elected mayor and an elected city council. The city manager is not a politician and is charged with the responsibility of handling administrative matters for the city. The mayor is
183
Dallas elected to a four-year term, while the ten city council members are elected for two-year terms. The mayor may serve two terms, and the council members may serve four terms. 8
Public Safety
As of 1997, the city of Dallas had 2,872 uniformed police officers working out of six full-service police stations. Fifty-five fire stations and 1,544 firefighters served the city as well. In 1998 the crime rate in Dallas was significantly above the national average. The property crime rate was 5,470 per 100,000 people, and the violent crime rate was 717.6 per 100,000. According to a 1999 Money magazine survey of 300 major cities, Dallas ranked at numbers 222 and 221 respectively in these two crime categories.
petroleum companies. Dallas is home to more petroleum company headquarters than any other city. Dallas is a major international cotton market, and the city has more than 250 insurance company headquarters. About 20 percent of Dallas area workers are employed in manufacturing industries. Twenty percent work in the service sector, while close to 30 percent work in retail. After World War II (1939–45), Dallas became one of the country’s largest manufacturers of aircraft and missile parts. In the 1950s, Texas Instruments, the company that created the integrated circuit computer chip and the hand-held calculator, pioneered Dallas’ high-tech movement, a trend that continues into the twenty-first century. 10
9
Economy
In 1999 the Dallas economy was especially strong, in keeping with a robust U.S. economy. The unemployment rate was a low three percent, and job growth from 1998 to 1999 stood at 3.8 percent, well above the national average. The Dallas economy is projected to grow nearly 20 percent by the year 2010. Dallas is a regional financial center, serving the American southwest. As such, it is home to the Eleventh District Federal Reserve Bank. Although the Texas oil boom slowed in the latter half of the twentieth century, The city continues to serve as a corporate center for
184
Environment
Situated on the rolling prairies of northeast Texas, along the Trinity River, the altitude of Dallas ranges from 137 to 229 meters (450 to 750 feet) above sea level. Historically, the Dallas area has been plagued by floods and drought due to its location in a region between lush and rainy Louisiana and the desert of west Texas; wet and dry years often alternate. Though droughts have hit the city as recently as 1998, city officials combated the flood problem early in the twentieth century by straightening and widening the channel of the Trinity River. The Trinity River, as many highly trafficked bodies of waters, was polluted
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Dallas for much of the twentieth century, though clean-up efforts and a lessening of water-borne shipping have improved the river’s water quality. In 1998 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) gave the Dallas watershed a high rating, well above the national average; however, the air quality was not as good, ranking below the national average. In September 1995, the EPA made Dallas a pilot city for its Brownfields National Partnership grant program. (Brownfields are abandoned and contaminated industrial sites.) The program allotted nearly $53 million towards the cleanup and redevelopment of blighted areas in Dallas. Dallas has a Sunbelt climate, with hot summers and mild winters. Average highs in July are close to 53°C (96°F), while average lows in January only dip to 19°C (34°F). It rarely snows in Dallas. Annual average rainfall is 81 centimeters (32 inches). Dallas’ Sunbelt climate offers an average of 237 sunny days per year. 11
Shopping
Dallas is said to have more per capita retail space that any other city in America, and its 630 shopping centers lend credence to this claim. The city’s most popular store is the downtown Neiman-Marcus on Main Street. The Dallas Galleria is a major shopping mall, with more than 160 stores and an ice skating rink. In the West End, a cracker factory has been converted into the West End
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
The Texas Rangers brings exciting Major League Baseball to the ballpark in Arlington. (Dallas Convention & Visitors Bureau)
Marketplace, a collection of specialty shops. To the north of the West End is the Quadrangle, a cluster of upscale shops. Art galleries and antique shops are concentrated on Coit Road. The Farmers Market is located at 1010 South Pearl Street. The city is probably best known for its cotton products, especially women’s clothing. Cotton dresses can be purchased at bargain prices in area stores. Dallas is becoming a high-tech center,
185
Dallas and the Infomart complex has offices and showrooms for many high-tech information companies. 12
Education
There are 40 public school districts in the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex and more than 250 private and parochial schools in the area. The Dallas Independent School District is the tenth-largest school district in the United States, with 220 schools and 157,000 students. The Dallas Independent School District has ten magnet high schools, two secondary special education schools, and five secondary alternative schools. Until the 1880s Dallas schools were private. In 1877 Dallas voters turned down a proposal to levy taxes to form a public school system. It wasn’t until 1881 that the tax levy was passed, and in 1884 the first Dallas public schools opened.
las County. These community colleges enroll nearly 100,000 students each semester. 13
Health Care
There are 37 general hospitals in Dallas, the major hospitals being Baylor University Medical Center, Methodist Medical Center, and St. Paul Medical Center. Other health services include the Dallas Homeless Outreach Medical Services, which offers mobile medical care to the underprivileged and homeless, and the Parkland Health and Hospital System, which provides a network of neighborhood-based health centers. LocalSource Dallas (www.localsource.com) offers free referrals to area doctors. Dallas residents interested in alternatives to Western medicine have access to acupuncturists, holistic healers, and message therapists.
Dallas and its nearby communities are home to 45 colleges and universities, which attract more than 250,000 students to the area each year. Public universities in the Dallas area include the University of North Texas, the University of Texas at Dallas, and Texas Women’s University. Private colleges and universities include the Dallas Baptist College, Southern Methodist University, Texas Christian University, and Texas Wesleyan University.
The Dallas Morning News is the city’s daily general newspaper. The Dallas Observer and the Dallas Times are weekly papers covering news, features, and entertainment. The Daily Commercial Record covers legal and business news, while the Dallas Business Journal provides business coverage.
Dallas has a large community college enrollment. The Dallas County Community College District consists of seven colleges located throughout Dal-
Television stations include the following: 4 (FOX), 5 (NBC), 8 (ABC), 11 (CBS), 13 (PBS), 21 (UPN), 27 and 39 (independent), and 68 (public access).
186
14
Media
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Dallas
Historic Fair Park is the home of the annual Southwestern Bell Cotton Bowl Classic football game. (Dallas Convention & Visitors Bureau)
A variety of commercial radio stations serve the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex, broadcasting everything from rock to classical to sports to talk shows. Dallas’ public radio station is KERA 90.1 FM. 15
Sports
Dallas has six professional sports teams, including baseball’s Texas Rangers who play in Arlington. The city’s professional football team, the Cowboys, have won five Super Bowl titles. Dallas’ professional hockey team, the Stars, won the Stanley Cup in the 1998–
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
1999 season. Also playing are the Mavericks, a professional basketball team, and two pro soccer teams, the Burn, an outdoor team, and the Sidekicks, an indoor team. The Mesquite Championship Rodeo has weekly competitions from April through September. Dallas hosts college football’s Cotton Bowl on New Year’s Day. 16
Parks and Recreation
Dallas has 336 parks, with parkland covering over 50,000 acres. Dallas resi-
187
Dallas dents have access to 50 reservoirs and lakes for fishing, swimming, sailing, and boating. White Rock Lake is Dallas’ version of New York’s Central Park. White Rock, in the center of the city, is a favorite for jogging, biking, fishing, and sailing. Dallas has over 805 kilometers (500 miles) of bike trails in parks and bike lanes along city streets. Many city parks also have public golf courses. Other participant sports offered in the city include horseback riding, ice-skating, swimming, sailing, and tennis. Six Flags Over Texas is one of the country’s oldest and biggest amusement parks. Located just west of Dallas in Arlington, only a 20-minute drive from downtown Dallas, Six Flags has more than 100 rides, shows, and attractions and is home to Mr. Freeze, the tallest and fastest roller coaster in Texas (as of 1999). 17
Performing Arts
Dallas is home to several performing arts organizations. Plays are staged at the Dallas Theater Center, housed in a building designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. Two symphonies perform regularly, the Mesquite Symphony Orchestra and the celebrated Dallas Symphony Orchestra, which performs downtown in Mortin H. Meyerson Hall. Dallas also has a ballet, several summer musical festivals, an African-American dance theater, a Shakespeare festival, and several community theater groups. The Deep Ellum neighborhood, a renovated warehouse district just east of downtown, has long been Dallas’ unof-
188
ficial music center. In the early 1900s, Deep Ellum was the center of the city’s African-American community, and in the 1920s and 1930s famous blues musicians often played in area clubs. Leadbelly and Blind Lemon Jefferson both performed in many of Deep Ellum’s clubs. In the 1990s, Deep Ellum attracted bands that performed a variety of musical styles, including rock, jazz, alternative, Latin, and country. 18
Libraries and Museums
Dallas has 23 city libraries housing over seven million volumes of books. The main branch of the library is the J. Erik Jonsson Central Library at 1515 Young Street. A good place to learn about Dallas’ history is the G. B. Dealy Library. Maintained by the Dallas Historical Society, the G. B. Dealy Library collects materials documenting Dallas’ past. The Dallas Museum of Art displays works ranging from pre-Columbian to contemporary. The Dallas Aquarium houses nearly 400 species of aquatic animals. The Dallas Zoo keeps its animals in areas meant to recreate natural habitats. The Sixth Floor Museum, the John F. Kennedy Memorial, and the Conspiracy Museum all explore the life of President John F. Kennedy and his eventual assassination in Dallas. The Sixth Floor Museum is in the former Texas School Book Depository, the site from where Lee Harvey Oswald shot President Kennedy.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Dallas 19
To u r i s m
Hot, muggy summers and cool, rainy winters make spring and fall the best times to visit the city. Dallas has plenty of restaurants—four times more restaurants per capita than New York City. Local cuisines include southwestern, Tex-Mex, and Texas-style steakhouses. Dallas restaurants vary from cheap hole-in-the-wall diners to fourstar restaurants, of which Dallas has six. Popular dining locations are Restaurant Row, Uptown, and the West End. Dallas is also considered one of Texas’ premiere night spots. Each night, up to 110 musical acts perform around the city. Although the music ranges from jazz and blues to rock and alternative, tourists tend to favor the many country and western bars around the city. Many fine hotels service downtown Dallas, but when staying downtown, even the more run-of-the-mill motels tend to charge high prices. For more affordable lodging, it is necessary to stay outside of the city limits. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY New Year’s Day Cotton Bowl
MARCH Dallas Blooms, held in the Dallas Arboretum and Botanical Garden
MAY Memorial Day weekend’s Artfest
JULY AND AUGUST Shakespeare Festival in Samuel Grand Park
SEPTEMBER Dallas Airshow at Love Field
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Big Tex greets over 3 million visitors to the State Fair of Texas each year. (Dallas Convention & Visitors Bureau)
OCTOBER Texas State Fair Cityfest
LATE OCTOBER—EARLY NOVEMBER Autumn at the Arboretum
DECEMBER Cotton Bowl pre-game parade and celebration
21
Famous Citizens
John H. Holliday (d. 1887), better known as “Doc” Holliday, gun-
189
Dallas fighter and gambler, a once-practicing dentist in Dallas. Blind Lemon Jefferson (1897–1929), blues musician who earned his fame playing in the Deep Ellum neighborhood of Dallas, the bestselling black blues singer in the United States for three years in the 1920s. Clyde Barrow (1909–1934) and Bonnie Parker (1911–1934), outlaws. Harry Hines, millionaire who made his fortune in oil, served as Texas Highway Commission Chairman from 1935 to 1941. Annette Strauss, Dallas’ first woman mayor, elected in 1987. 22
For Further Study
Dallas, TX 75201 (214) 670–4607. Dallas Mayor’s Office 1500 Marilla, Room 5EN Dallas, TX 75201 (214) 670–4054 Dallas Parks and Recreation 1500 Marilla, Room 6FN Dallas, TX 75201 (214) 670–4071 Dallas Police Department 2014 Main Street Dallas, TX 75201 (214) 670–3698
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Dallas Convention and Visitors Bureau 1201 Elm Street, Suite 2000 Dallas, TX 75270 (214) 571–1000 Dallas Visitor Information Center 100 Houston Street Dallas, TX 75202 (214) 571–1300
Websites
Publications
Areaguide Dallas. [Online] Available http:// www.dallas.areaguides.net (accessed January 15, 2000). City of Dallas official website.[Online] Available http:// www.ci.dallas.tx.us/ (accessed January 15, 2000). Dallas Chamber of Commerce. [Online] Available http://www.dallaschamber.org (accessed January 15, 2000). Dallas Convention and Visitors Bureau. [Online] Available http:// www.dallascvb.com (accessed January 15, 2000). LocalSource Dallas. [Online] Available http:// www.local-source.com (accessed January 15, 2000). Virtual Relocation: Dallas. [Online] Available http://www.virtualrelocation.com/usa/ Texas/Cities/Dallas/ (accessed January 15, 2000).
Daily Commercial Record 706 Main Street Dallas, Texas 75202 Phone: (214) 741–6366
Government Offices Dallas Fire Department 1500 Marilla, Room 7A South
190
Dallas Business Journal 10670 North Central Expressway, Suite 710 Dallas, TX 75231 Phone: (214) 696–5959 Dallas Morning News 508 Young Street Dallas, TX 75202 Phone: (214) 977–8222 The Dallas Observer P.O. Box 190289 Dallas, TX 75219 Phone: (214) 757–9000 Dallas Times 200 W Jefferson Blvd. Dallas, TX 75208 Phone: (214) 943–7445
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Denver Denver, Colorado, United States of America, North America Founded: 1858; Incorporated: 1861 Location: North-central Colorado near the foothills of the Rocky Mountains Motto: Nil sine numine (Nothing without providence; state motto) Flower: Rocky Mountain columbine (state flower) Time Zone: 5 AM Mountain Standard Time (EST) = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: White 83.6%, Black 12.8%, American Indian 1.2%, Asian/ Pacific Islander 2.4% Elevation: 1,609 meters (5,280 feet) above sea level Latitude and Longitude: 39º66'N, 104º83'W Coastline: None Climate: Mild, dry, arid climate; mild winters and comfortable summers with low humidity Annual Mean Temperature: 10ºC (50ºF); January –1ºC (30ºF); August 22ºC (72ºF) Seasonal Average Snowfall: 152 cm (60 in) Average Annual Precipitation (total of rainfall and melted snow): 39.4 cm (15.5 in). Government: Mayor-council Weights and Measures: Standard U.S. Monetary Units: Standard U.S. Telephone Area Codes: 303, 720 Postal Codes: 80201–14, 80216–25, 80227, 80229, 80231, 80233–95
1
Introduction
From a nineteenth-century gold and silver boomtown frequented by gamblers and gunmen, Denver, the capital of Colorado, has evolved into a major Western commercial and population center, the largest city in a 965kilometer (600-mile) radius. Today Denver is known as much for the cultural sophistication, business savvy, and new skyline of its flourishing downtown as for the majestic mountain backdrop that borders the city and provides a picturesque view and abundant recre-
ational opportunities for residents and visitors alike. 2
Getting There
Located 1.6 kilometers (one mile) above sea level, Denver is situated on the high rolling plains of north-central Colorado, at the junction of the South Platte River and Cherry Creek and near the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains and the Continental Divide. Although generally regarded as a Western city, it is only 557 kilometers (346 miles) west of the exact center of the continental United States and is more
191
Denver centrally located than any other major U.S. city except Kansas City, Missouri.
Denver Population Profile
Highways Denver is accessible by I-25 (State Route 87), running north-south, and I70, running east-west. Merging with I25 north of the city is I-76, which runs northeast to southwest to the east of the city; I-225 connects I-25 and I-70. Together with State Route 470, I-225 and I-70 form a loop around the city. Bus and Railroad Service Amtrak trains stop at Denver’s Union Station three times daily on its major east-west route from Chicago to Los Angeles. Greyhound provides all long-distance bus service to Denver. The city is a major inter-city busline hub, with more than 60 arrivals and departures daily.
City Proper Population: 510,000 Area: 397 sq km (153.3 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 83.6% white; 12.8% black; 1.2% Native American; 2.4% Asian/Pacific Islander Nicknames: The Mile High City, The Queen City of the Plains, The City of Silver and Gold
Metropolitan Area Population: 1,901,156 Description: Area within city limits, plus the suburbs of Arvada, Northglenn, Westminster, Thornton, Aurora, Golden, Lakewood, Wheat Ridge, Cherry Hills, Greenwood Villages, Littleton, and Englewood Area: 9,741 sq km (3,761 sq mi) World population rank1: 199 Percentage of national population2: 0.6% Average yearly growth rate: 1.0% Ethnic composition: 90.1% white; 6.2% black; 2.9% Asian/Pacific Islander ——— 1. The Denver metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of the total US population living in the Denver metropolitan area.
Airports Denver International Airport, which opened in 1995, covers 137 square kilometers (53 square miles) and has five full-service runways. The airport, which served over 37 million passengers in 1999 and has a maximum capacity of 110 million passengers, is the second-largest hub nationwide for United Airlines. With “peaks” designed to represent the Rocky Mountains, the airport’s main terminal building has become one of Denver’s most prominent architectural landmarks.
192
Shipping Thanks to its central location, Denver is a major commercial hub for ground transportation, serving four major rail carriers and more than 160 trucking companies, as well as air cargo carriers. It is estimated that more than 30 million people receive goods transported through Denver by air, rail, or truck every year. With its designation as a Free Trade Zone, the city is also a busy import and export center.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Denver
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
193
Denver 3
Getting Around
Downtown Denver is laid out in a grid pattern and bordered on the south by Colfax Avenue (the major east-west thoroughfare) and on the east by Broadway, running north-south. The downtown area is easy to negotiate. It is possible to walk from one end to the other in about a half-hour, and the mountains on the western horizon make it easy to get one’s bearings at all times. In the part of the city outside the immediate downtown area (which has its own grid pattern), avenues run from east to west while streets run northsouth. Bus and Commuter Rail Service Denver’s Regional Transportation District (RTD) runs bus routes that carry passengers to every part of the urban area between the hours of 5:30 AM and 10:30 PM. The main bus station is located at Broadway and Colfax, next door to the Civic Center. The RTD also operates a light rail system along a limited route. The Cultural Connection Trolley (which is actually a bus) covers a downtown loop route that takes in many of the city’s major cultural attractions. Sightseeing Gray Line Tours operates out of the city’s main bus terminal at 19th Street and Arapahoe Street and offers sightseeing tours of Denver and the surrounding area. Half- and full-day scenic and historic tours are offered by Best Mountain Tours and Discover Colorado
194
Tours. There is also a special tour available of the area’s brewpubs. 4
People
Denver is the nation’s twentieth most populous city. In 1990, the population of Denver was 468,000, of which 12.8 percent was black, 1.2 percent American Indian, and 2.4 percent Asian. Hispanics (both white and black) accounted for 23 percent of the population. As part of a larger statewide population boom, the city’s population has increased by 23 percent in the past decade; the current population is estimated at 510,000. The population of the Denver Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area was estimated at 1,901,156 in 1997. The region’s racial composition was listed by the U.S. Census Bureau in 1996 as 90.1 percent white; 6.2 percent black; 2.9 percent Asian/Pacific Islander. The percentage of residents of Hispanic origin (an ethnic rather than a racial designation) was 14.2 percent. The median age of Denver’s residents is 32.9, slightly lower than the U.S. median age of 33.2. However, the age group that really stands out is the baby boomer generation: Denver has a greater percentage of boomers among its population than any other major U.S. city—32.8 percent (compared with 31.5 percent for its nearest competitor, Seattle).
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Denver
City Fact Comparison Denver (United States)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
1,687,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1858
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$83
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$40
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$24
$14
$15
$16
$125
$173
$246
$207
2
13
20
11
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
Akhbar El Yom/ The Denver Post Al Akhbar 341,554
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1892
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
5
Neighborhoods
Downtown Denver is divided into four main districts. To the south lies the Civic Center Park area. The park, which is the locale for Denver’s major annual festivities, is surrounded by museums and government buildings, and the state capitol building is located on a nearby hilltop. The heart of Denver’s business and theater districts is the 16th Street Mall, a mile-long pedestrian-only thoroughfare located a block away from Civic Center Park. A series of parks and shops line the mall, including Denver Pavilions, a recently completed entertain-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
ment complex whose attractions include a Hard Rock Cafe and 15 movie houses. The historic center of the city is the LoDo (short for Lower Downtown) district, a formerly run-down 26-block area where Victorian and late nineteenthcentury buildings have been restored and converted into retail and dining establishments, galleries, and lofts. This revitalization was spurred by the 1995 completion of Coors Field, the new home of the Colorado Rockies baseball team, which brought crowds into the area and motivated entrepreneurs to develop it. Today the district is home to
195
Denver
The majestic Rocky Mountains border Denver’s skyline. (Denver Metro Convention & Visitors Bureau)
more than 40 art galleries, 80 sports bars, and numerous shops and restaurants. To the northwest lies South Platte Valley, located on land reclaimed from a floodplain. It is home to an amusement park, a world-class aquarium, a children’s museum, and the new Pepsi Center sports arena. In addition to the existing downtown districts, a new area called Commons Park is being planned northwest of Union Station, as well as further development in the Golden Triangle south of Civic Center Park.
196
The metropolitan area spreads out in all directions from downtown Denver. To the north are the residential suburbs of Arvada, Northglenn, Westminster, and Thornton; Aurora is situated to the east; the western suburbs include Golden, Lakewood, and Wheat Ridge; and the southern suburbs include Cherry Hills, Greenwood Villages, Littleton, and Englewood. 6
History
Permanent settlement of Denver began in 1858 when gold was discovered in small deposits along the South Platte River, near its junction with Cherry Creek. The area attracted pros-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Denver pectors disappointed with the yields at Pike’s Peak, as well as gold-seekers newly arrived from the East. By 1867, Denver (named for an early territorial governor, James Denver) had been designated as a territorial capital. The city’s early years were marked by misfortunes that included two major fires, flooding, Indian attacks, and invasion by Confederate forces from Texas during the Civil War (1861–65). Denver also acquired a rather unsavory reputation as new gold discoveries drew a variety of colorful characters to the growing boomtown. However, by 1880, as gold discoveries were waning, gold was replaced by silver as the area’s primary source of wealth, and Denver’s growth accelerated. The city rebounded from a depression caused by a drop in silver prices in 1893 to become a bustling cosmopolitan center by the late nineteenth century, graced by parks, statues, mansions, and such landmarks as the Tabor Opera House, built by silver baron Horace Tabor. Approximately 30,000 trees were planted along the city’s boulevards, and 20,000 acres of land were acquired for its mountain park system. Denver’s rapid development and newfound sophistication led to the nickname “Queen City of the Plains.” In the early twentieth century, infrastructure improvements continued, and in 1928, with the opening of the Moffat Tunnel through the Rocky Mountains, the railroad provided a direct connection to the West Coast, spurring additional growth. (The transcontinental line of the Union Pacific
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Railroad had bypassed Colorado in the nineteenth century, but Denver built a rail line to meet the Union Pacific at Cheyenne, Wyoming.) With a direct link to the West, Denver became a hub for the nation’s rail lines and growing highway system. By World War II, the establishment of government agencies including the U.S. Mint and the Bureau of Land Management helped spur a new surge in population, which continued through the 1950s, as the city’s climate and recreational opportunities sparked a building boom. Movement to the suburbs resulted in a drop in population in the 1960s, and the energy crisis of the 1970s also slowed the city’s growth. However, urban renewal and a new construction boom, beginning in the late 1970s and continuing through the 1980s and 1990s, have changed the face of the city, giving it a modern, vibrant downtown with 16 skyscrapers constructed during the last decade alone. Denver’s downtown is now the nation’s tenth largest, and its population is double what it was in 1960. Major improvements continued in the 1990s with the construction of Coors Field, one of the country’s top baseball stadiums, and the large, modern Denver International Airport, both of which opened in 1995. The city continues to grow and modernize, with major development planned for the Commons Park area northwest of Union Station—including a series of pedestrian bridges over the South Platte River—and further development in the Golden Triangle district south of Civic Center Park. A major
197
Denver enlargement of the city’s convention center is planned as well. 7
Government
Denver’s government administers both the city and county of Denver under a strong mayor, elected to a fouryear term, and a council whose 13 members are also elected for four years. 8
Public Safety
Denver is known for its clean, safe downtown area. The Denver Police Department, whose operations are organized into six districts, is the largest in the state of Colorado. In 1995, Denver police received reports of 861 violent crimes per 100,000 population, including 16 murders, 63 rapes, and 279 robberies. Property crimes reported numbered 6,012 and included 1,465 burglaries and 1,036 motor vehicle thefts. 9
Economy
After taking steps in the 1980s to reduce its dependence on the energy sector by diversification, Denver has thrived in the 1990s as a center for commerce and finance, a transportation hub, and a manufacturing center. It is home to major companies in fields including telecommunications and air transport as well as numerous government agencies and is also the major research center for alternative energy sources between the east and west coasts.
198
The city has a well-educated work force and a low unemployment rate. Its standard of living is above the national average, and housing and health care costs are high (although utility costs and commercial lease rates are low compared to other parts of the country). The service sector employs the greatest number of people, followed by wholesale and retail trade, government, manufacturing, transportation and public utilities, and financial services. Goods manufactured in the Denver area include mining and farm machinery, fabricated metals, chemicals, scientific instruments, transportation equipment, rubber goods, feed and flour, luggage, and western clothing. 10
Environment
In spite of its association with the Rocky Mountains, Denver is actually built on a high plain and is one of the flattest cities in the United States. The two outstanding features of Denver’s environment are its proximity to the mountains and its altitude. The most prominent peak visible from the city is Mount Evans, at 4,346 meters (14,260 feet). On clear days, Pike’s Peak (97 kilometers/60 miles to the south) and Long’s Peak (80 kilometers/50 miles northwest) can also be seen. Denver’s altitude, which averages 1.6 kilometers (one mile) above sea level, ensures its residents a low level of air pollution and skies that appear bluer (also due to lower levels of water vapor). Water in Denver boils at 112°C (202°F) rather than the standard 118°C
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Denver (212°F), making a challenge out of cooking, or even brewing a good cup of coffee. On the other hand, the altitude lends itself to beer brewing, for which the city is famous.
United States, and the chain of multistory Gart Brothers sporting goods stores.
Denver also receives nearly 25 percent more ultraviolet radiation than cities at sea level, making it important for its residents to receive adequate protection from the sun.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the Denver metropolitan area ranks first in the United States in terms of education, with the highest percentage of both high school and college graduates (92 percent and 35 percent respectively, compared to national averages of 82 percent and 23 percent).
11
Shopping
Downtown Denver’s premier shopping venue is the 16th Street Mall, a lively and crowded mile-long pedestrian thoroughfare that is home to a wide variety of retail outlets. Most recently, it was expanded to include Denver Pavilions, a retail and entertainment complex that opened in the fall of 1998 and includes a Virgin Records Megastore, a Hard Rock Cafe, and a Barnes and Noble Superstore. The Tabor Center, at one end of the mall, is the locale for upscale retailers such as Brooks Brothers. Other downtown malls include Larimer Square, Writer Square, and Cherry Creek Mall, home to exclusive stores including Saks Fifth Avenue, Neiman-Marcus, and Abercrombie and Fitch. The recently opened Park Meadows shopping complex, which includes Nordstrom, Dillard’s, and Foley’s, was designed to resemble a ski lodge and boasts a huge fireplace at the center of its main court. Notable Denver retailers include the three-story Tattered Cover Bookstore, which stakes a claim to be the largest independent bookstore in the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
12
Education
The Denver County School District operates 118 schools. In the fall of 1996, 66,331 students were enrolled in the system, which employed 3,198 classroom teachers and 7,117 staff personnel. The Denver metropolitan area is home to 14 four-year colleges, including the University of Denver, the University of Colorado at Denver, and Metropolitan State University. There are also eight two-year and community colleges and over 90 technical and vocational schools in the area, as well as the nontraditional Denver Free University. 13
Health Care
Denver’s fresh mountain air has long given it a reputation as a healthy place to live or spend time. The traditional association between mountains and the treatment of lung disorders provided the initial impetus for the founding of the National Jewish Hospital, today an internationally acclaimed center for research in and treatment of
199
Denver respiratory diseases as well as allergic and immunological problems. In the 1990s Denver acquired a new claim to fame as a healthy place when a nationwide survey found that its residents are, on average, the thinnest in the United States, with fewer than 20 percent suffering from obesity, as compared with the national average of 50 percent. This finding has been attributed to the active lifestyle encouraged by the city’s weather and location. Considered the premier medical center of the Rocky Mountain region, Denver boasts over 20 major hospitals known for their research and treatment facilities, including Denver General Hospital, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, AMC Cancer Research Center, Rose Medical Center, Colorado Psychiatric Hospital, and Fitzsimmons Army Medical Center. 14
Media
Denver has two major daily newspapers, both published in the morning. Known for its in-depth reporting and quality columns, The Denver Post is widely regarded as Colorado’s top newspaper, as well as one of the best in the western part of the country. In the fall of 1998 it had a weekday circulation of 341,554 and a Sunday circulation of 484,657. The Denver Rocky Mountain News is older and more conservative than the Post. Founded in 1859, it is Colorado’s oldest newspaper. Its fall 1998 circulation was 331,978 weekdays and 432,931 on Sunday.
200
Westword is Denver’s lively and sometimes controversial news and arts weekly. It is especially known for its comprehensive entertainment listings and its annual “Best of Denver” survey, published in June, which rates restaurants and a wide variety of other businesses and services. The Denver Business Journal is a business weekly, and numerous smaller neighborhood weeklies are published as well. Periodicals covering the Denver area include Colorado Country Life, Colorado Outdoors, Colorado Legionnaire, Colorado Rancher, and Farmer. The three major commercial networks and public television have affiliates in Denver, which has a total of nine major television stations as well as cable channels. Broadcasts by more than 45 AM and FM radio stations are received in the city and surrounding area. 15
Sports
Thanks to its pro sports facilities and opportunities for participant sports, Denver was named “Best Sports City” by The Sporting News in 1997. With major league teams in all professional sports, Denver has seen the approval and/or completion of three new major sports venues in the 1990s. Coors Field, the home of baseball’s National League Colorado Rockies (which began playing in Denver in 1993 in Mile High Stadium), opened in 1995 and hosted the all-star game in 1998. Acclaimed as one of the nation’s top new ball fields, it has also been the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Denver
Coors Field, the new home of the Colorado Rockies baseball team, was completed in 1995. (Denver Metro Convention & Visitors Bureau)
Parks and Recreation
centerpiece for the transformation of the LoDo (lower downtown) area.
16
The 20,000-seat Pepsi Center, which opened in the fall of 1999, is the new home of the Denver Nuggets of the National Basketball Association and the National Hockey League’s Colorado Avalanche, which won the 1996 Stanley Cup. A new $360 million football stadium to be built adjacent to the old Mile High Stadium is slated for completion in 2001 when it will become the home of Denver’s 1998 and 1999 Super Bowl champions, the Denver Broncos.
Public land open to all types of recreation accounts for roughly half the state of Colorado, which is home to two national parks, 11 national forests, 30 state parks, and three national recreation areas. Nearly 100 hiking, cycling, horseback riding, and ski trails operated by the Colorado State Trails Program pass through the Denver metropolitan area. The metro area also boasts over 200 parks with facilities for activities including picnicking, cycling, tennis, and swimming. Popular and accessible
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
201
Denver ing. The high-profile ski resorts of Vail, Aspen, and Breckenridge are easily accessible from the city, as well as lesser-known facilities that also offer world-class skiing, such as Arapahoe Basin. Between December and April, the Ski Train carries passengers from Union Station to Winter Park Ski Resort via the Moffat Tunnel through the mountains for a weekend of skiing. Bicycling is one of the most popular recreational activities in Denver, which has more than 724 kilometers (450 miles) of paved bicycle paths, including two that wind through the downtown area along the South Platte River and Cherry Creek. Another major outdoor activity is golfing, and there are more than 70 golf courses in Denver, as well as over 143 public tennis courts. Punting (riding in a boat resembling a gondola) is available on Cherry Creek. Not only does Denver’s prime location near the Rockies provide unlimited recreational activity, but the city also boasts over 200 parks, including the popular Botanic Gardens. (Denver Metro Convention & Visitors Bureau)
parks include City Park (also the location of the Denver Zoo and the Natural History Museum), Denver Botanic Gardens, Bear Creek Lake State Park, Cherry Creek Lake State Recreation Area, and Chatfield Lake State Recreation Area. Denver’s location near the Rocky Mountains makes skiing a prime recreational activity; numerous slopes can be reached in less than two hours of driv-
202
Elitch Gardens and Amusement Park, which moved to a new site near Coors Field in 1995, offers 32 rides (including whitewater rafting), miniature golf, and other attractions. Lakeside Amusement Park is located just west of the city. 17
Performing Arts
With a total seating capacity of 10,800, the Denver Performing Arts Complex, home to the Denver Symphony Orchestra, the Colorado Ballet, and the Denver Theater Company, is the nation’s second-largest performing arts complex, surpassed only by Lincoln Center in New York City. The center’s
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Denver facilities, which occupy four city blocks, include the Auditorium Theatre, Boettcher Concert Hall (the nation’s first symphony-hall-in-the-round), and the Temple Buell Theater (a 2,800-seat venue for Broadway theater productions), as well as the world’s first laboratory for the study of the human voice. The Denver Center Theater Company, which is the leading repertory theater in the West, won the 1998 Tony award for best regional theater. The troupe produces 12 plays every season, on four different stages. The Changing Scene Theater supports up-and-coming talent by producing only world premieres. Since 1968, some 300 productions have been staged at the 76-seat facility, and some have gone on to successful runs in New York, Los Angeles, and other cities. The theater has won grant support from such sources as the National Endowment for the Arts and the Rockefeller Foundation. Besides the Performing Arts Complex, Denver has some 30 other theaters, as well as over 100 movie houses. The Lower Downtown area (LoDo) has become a thriving center for popular entertainment, including jazz, comedy, and dance. 18
Libraries and Museums
The Denver Public Library operates a central library downtown and 22 neighborhood branches. With a total of 1,882,487 book and government docu-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
ment volumes and over five million items altogether, the library serves a population of over half a million and employs a staff of 453. Its special collections cover subject areas including Western history, fine printing, mountaineering, aeronautics, Napoleon, and folk music. The main library is housed in a new $64 million building completed in 1995. Its interior includes a three-story atrium, and the Western History Room has a rotunda that measures 24 meters (80 feet) in diameter and affords an outstanding view of the Rocky Mountains. Denver is home to a variety of museums, with collections in areas ranging from art to history to horticulture. The Denver Art Museum houses the world’s premier collection of American Indian art, including artworks from all tribes. The facility, which celebrated its one-hundredth anniversary in 1993, is the largest art museum between Kansas City and the West Coast. Many of its holdings are exhibited in a way that highlights connections between different cultures and societies. The Black American West Museum and Heritage Center explores the role African Americans played in settling the West. Other museums with Western themes are Buffalo Bill’s Grave and Museum, the Colorado History Museum, and the Museum of Western Art, which features works by artists including Georgia O’Keefe (1887–1986) and Frederic Remington(1861–1909). The Molly Brown House and Museum celebrates the life of this early feminist and heroine of the Titanic disaster. The museum is housed
203
Denver in a restored Victorian mansion that Brown purchased with her husband in 1894. The Denver Museum of Natural History is the nation’s fourth-largest natural history museum and displays 80 dioramas portraying animals from all over the world. It also has a notable dinosaur collection, a planetarium, and an IMAX theater. The Children’s Museum of Denver is an interactive museum that offers a wide array of activities, including a computer lab and a grocery store. Denver’s other museums include the Museo de las Americas (which focuses on Latin American history and culture), the Forney Transportation Museum, and the Mizel Museum of Judaica. More than ten billion coins are struck at the U.S. Mint every year, and the basement has the second-largest storehouse of gold bullion in the nation after Fort Knox. The U.S. Mint has several public displays, including a real gold bar, and offers 30-minute tours that describe the coin-production process.
ballroom. Altogether, 29,000 hotel rooms.
Denver
has
In late 1999 Denver voters approved a construction project that will double the size of the Colorado Convention Center by 2003, adding new exhibit and meeting space, a new ballroom, a new 5,000-seat auditorium, and a parking garage. The expansion will make the convention center the sixth largest west of the Mississippi and the fifteenth largest in the country. Plans were also announced for major hotel expansion, with a 1,100room Marriott hotel to be built across the street from the convention center and a new 659-room Hilton hotel to go up at the site of the Denver Executive Tower Hotel. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY Denver Boat Show National Western Stock Show & Rodeo Blossoms of Lights Winterfest Weekends
FEBRUARY Denver Auto Show
19
To u r i s m
After an economic slowdown in the late 1980s, Denver had its highest hotel occupancy rate in eight years in 1997. The city has 5,200 hotel rooms within walking distance of the $125 million Colorado Convention Center. Opened in June 1990, the convention center has 9,300 square meters (100,000 square feet) of meeting space and a 3,255 square-meter (35,000 square-foot)
204
FEBRUARY-MARCH Buffalo Bill’s Birthday Celebration
MARCH Denver March Pow Wow St. Patrick’s Day Parade
APRIL Rocky Mountain Children’s Book Festival
JUNE Bethesda Dutch Festival Capitol Hill People’s Fair Cherry Blossom Festival Greek Festival
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Denver International Buskerfest Juneteenth Festival
JUNE-AUGUST Renaissance Festival Summer Nights
JULY Cherry Creek Arts Festival Colorado Indian Market & Western Art Roundup Independence Day Celebration Winter Park Jazz Festival
JULY-AUGUST Theater in the Park
AUGUST-SEPTEMBER
Bandleader Paul Whiteman (1890– 1967). Former U.S. Senator Alan K. Simpson (b. 1931). Actors Ward Bond (1903–1960), Douglas Fairbanks, Sr. (1883–1939), and Pat Hingle (b. 1923). Actress Barbara Rush (b. 1927). Comedian and actor Tim Allen (b. 1953).
Colorado State Fair
SEPTEMBER Festival of Mountain & Plain: A Taste of Colorado
22
OCTOBER
Websites
Boo at the Zoo Colorado Performing Arts Festival Denver International Film Festival Great American Beer Festival Oktoberfest Spirits of the Past
NOVEMBER Rocky Mountain Book Festival
NOVEMBER-DECEMBER Radio City Christmas Spectacular World’s Largest Christmas Lighting Display Winterfest Weekends
DECEMBER First Night Colorado Parade of Lights Wild Lights Blossoms of Lights
Famous Citizens
For Further Study
Denver City Net. [Online] Available http:// city.net/countries/united_states/colorado/ denver (accessed November 29, 1999). Denver City Pages. [Online] Available http:// denver.thelinks.com/ (accessed November 29, 1999). Denver Metro Convention and Visitors Bureau site. [Online] Available http:// www.denver.rog/media/releases (accessed November 29, 1999). Denver Online. [Online] Available http:// www.denveronline.com (accessed November 29, 1999).
Government Offices Denver City Hall 1437 Bannock St. Denver, CO 80202 (303) 640–5555
Famous natives and residents of Denver include:
Denver County 1437Bannock St. Denver, CO 80202 (303) 640–2628
Feminist and Titanic heroine (“the unsinkable”) Molly Brown (1867– 1932).
Mayor’s Office 1437 Bannock St., Rm. 350 Denver, CO 80202 (303) 640–2721
21
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
205
Denver Tourist and Convention Bureaus Colorado Convention Center 700 14th St. Denver, CO 80202 (303) 640–8799 Denver Metro Convention & Visitors Bureau 1555 California St., Suite 300 Denver, CO 80202 (303) 892–1112
Publications Denver Business Journal 1700 Broadway Denver, CO 80290 Denver Post 1560 Broadway Denver, CO 80202 Rocky Mountain News 400 W. Colfax Ave. Denver, CO 80204
Books Alley, Jean, and Hartley Alley. Colorado Cycling Guide. Boulder: Pruett Publishing, 1990.
206
Caruso, Laura, and Robert Ebisch. 1st ed. The Insiders' Guide to Denver. Boulder: Boulder Publishing Co. ,1997. Denver: A Picture Book to Remember Her By. New York: Crescent Books, 1987. Green, Stewart M. Walking Denver. Helena, MT: Falcon Pub., 1998. Halls, Kelly Milner. Kids Go! Denver: A FunPacked, Fact-Filled, Travel and Activity Book. Santa Fe, NM: John Muir Publications, 1996. Hornby, William H. Voice of Empire : A Centennial Sketch of The Denver Post. Denver: Colorado Historical Society, 1992. Iversen, Kristen. Molly Brown: Unraveling the Myth. Foreword by Muffet Brown. Boulder: Johnson Books, 1999. Leonard, Stephen, and Thomas J. Noel. Denver: Mining Camp to Metropolis. 1st ed. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado, 1990. Ludmer, Larry. Colorado Guide. New York: Open Road Publishing, 1998. Mar, M. Elaine. Paper Daughter: A Memoir. 1st ed. New York: HarperCollins, 1999. Noel, Thomas J. Denver Landmarks and Historic District: A Pictorial Guide. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado, 1996.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Glossary ABOLITIONIST: Person or organization that opposes slavery. When slavery was legal, abolitionists fought to have laws created to make keeping slaves illegal. ADMINISTRATION: Government officials and the policies by which they govern. AIR POLLUTION: Harmful chemicals discharged into the air, making it unclean and sometimes unsafe. ALLIES: Groups or persons who are united in a common purpose. Typically used to describe nations that have joined together to fight a common enemy in war. In World War I, the term Allies described the nations that fought against Germany and its allies. In World War II, Allies described the United Kingdom, United States, the USSR and their allies, who fought against the Axis Powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan. AMALGAM: A mixture of different things. ANCHORAGE: Settling or staying in place by means of holding on to something. ANNEXATION: The act of adding on a smaller thing to a larger thing. ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURE: The temperature that falls at the middle of the range of high and low temperatures for the entire year. ANTI-SEMITISM: Fear or hatred of Jews. APARTHEID: The past governmental policy in the Republic of South Africa of separating the races in society. ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS: Relics and artifacts left by past cultures. BOROUGH: District or large section of a city, especially New York, New York. BUDDHISM: A religious system common in India and eastern Asia. Founded by and based upon the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, Buddhism asserts that suffering is an inescapable part of life. Deliverance can only be achieved through the practice of charity, temperance, justice, honesty, and truth. CABARET: A restaurant or nightclub with short musical performances with singing and dancing as entertainment. CADENCE: Any rhythmic flow of sound or measured movement to a rhythm or beat. CANTON: A territory or small division or state within a country. COMMUNISM: A form of government whose system requires common ownership of property for the use of all citizens. All profits are to be equally dis-
tributed and prices on goods and services are usually set by the state. Also, communism refers directly to the official doctrine of the former U.S.S.R. COSMOPOLITAN: Containing elements of all or many parts of the world. COUT D’ÉTAT OR COUP: A sudden, violent overthrow of a government or its leader. CULTURE: The ideas and typical habits of a group of people. DAILY CIRCULATION: Number of newspapers or other publications that are distributed each day. DIALECT: One of a number of regional or related modes of speech regarded as descending from a common origin. DIVERSITY: Variety; a mixture of different or dissimilar elements, items, or people. ENDEMIC: Anything that is peculiar to and characteristic of a locality or region. ENTREPRENEUR: Someone who starts and operates a small business. ETHNIC: Referring to a group of people with the same cultural heritage. FEDERAL: Pertaining to a union of states whose governments are subordinate to a central government. FEZ: A cone-shaped felt hat with no brim and a flat top, from which a long tassel hangs; the national headdress for men in Turkey. FUNICULAR: Hanging from or worked by pulling up and lowering of ropes or cables. GLOBAL ECONOMY: Relating to the economic situation (management of wealth and resources) of the whole world as a single community. GOLD RUSH: Describes people traveling in a hurry to a place where gold was discovered. GREENWICH MEAN TIME (GMT): Mean solar time of the meridian at Greenwich, England, used as the basis for standard time throughout most of the world. The world is divided into 24 time zones, and all are related to the prime, or Greenwich mean, zone. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP): A measure of the market value of all goods and services produced within the boundaries of a nation, regardless of asset ownership. Unlike gross national product, GDP excludes receipts from that nation’s business operations in foreign countries. GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT (GNP): A measure of the market value of goods and services produced by the labor and property of a nation. Includes receipts from that nation’s business operation in foreign countries
207
GLOSSARY HERESY: An opinion believed to contradict a basic
NATIONALIST: Person or government policy that
law of a religion. INDIGENOUS: People, plants, and animals that lived in a place from ancient times. Also called native people, plants, and animals. INHABITED: Lived in. INQUISITION: A general tribunal, or court, established in the thirteenth century for the discovery and suppression of heresy and the punishment of those who were guilty of heresy (called heretics). ISLAM: The religious system of Mohammed, practiced by Muslims and based on a belief in Allah as the supreme being and Muhammad as his prophet. The spelling variations, Moslim and Mohammed, are also used. Islam also refers to those nations in which it is the primary religion. LABYRINTHINE: Curving in an intricate or confusing pattern; curvy, like a snake. MAGNATE: Important person, or person with special influence. MELANESIAN: The native or original inhabitants of islands in the Pacific Ocean south of the equator, including the Fiji Islands. METRO: Short form of metropolitan, usually used with a city name. For example, metro Detroit describes the city of Detroit and its surrounding area. METROPOLIS: Large city or center of population. METROPOLITAN: Term used to describe a city and its area of influence. For example, “metropolitan Detroit” refers to the city of Detroit and its surrounding area.
puts the needs and interests of the country first over the needs and interests of the other countries or international groups. PER CAPITA: Literally, per person; for each person counted. PHILANTHROPIST: Person who gives large sums of his or her own money to benefit community organizations or institutions. POLYNESIAN: The native or original inhabitants of islands in the Pacific Ocean, including Hawaii, Samoa, Tonga, Tahiti, and New Zealand. PRE-COLUMBIAN: Refers to the time in the history of North and South America before the arrival of Europeans (before 1492). Named for the first European to reach the Western hemisphere, Christopher Columbus. PROGRESSIVE: Person or government that is open to new ideas and willing to move forward or change habits or practices. PROTESTANT: A member or an adherent of one of those Christian bodies which descended from the Reformation of the sixteenth century. Originally applied to those who opposed or protested the Roman Catholic Church. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH: The designation of the church of which the pope or Bishop of Rome is the head, and that holds him as the successor of St. Peter and heir of his spiritual authority, privileges, and gifts. RURAL: Describes landscape of the countryside, with large areas of open space and few roads and buildings covering the land. SOUTHEAST ASIA: The region in Asia that consists of the Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam. SUBURB: Community on the edge of a large city where people live. People who live in a suburb usually travel to the city to work. SULTAN: A king of a Muslim (Islamic) state. TREATY: A negotiated agreement between two governments. URBAN: City landscape, with streets and buildings covering most of the area. VISIONARY: Person who can imagine positive changes and can explain the possible results to others. XENOPHOBIA: Fear or intense dislike of people from other places. ZENITH: The high point.
METROPOLITAN STATISTICAL AREA (MSA): Official term used by government agencies to define the city and its surrounding communities. The MSA describes the area included when gathering and reporting statistics. MILITARY COUP: A sudden, violent overthrow of a government by military forces. MILLENNIUM: 1,000 years. Also used to refer to the one-thousandth anniversary of an event. MISSIONARIES: People who travel to, and often live in, another area for the purpose of teaching the inhabitants there their religious beliefs. MOBILITY: The freedom and ability to move from one area or region to another. MOSQUE: An Islam place of worship and the organization with which it is connected. MUSLIM: Name used to describe people who observe the religious rules of Islam.
208
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of
World Cities
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of
World Cities VOLUME
2
Detroit, Michigan to Madrid, Spain
Edited by Jill Copolla and Susan Bevan Gall
J U N I O R WO R L D M A R K E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F W O R L D C I T I E S
U•X•L Staff Allison McNeill, U•X•L Senior Editor Carol DeKane Nagel, U•X•L Managing Editor Thomas L. Romig, U•X•L Publisher Dorothy Maki, Manufacturing Manager Evi Seoud, Assistant Production Manager Rita Wimberley, Senior Buyer Pamela A.E. Galbreath, Art Director This publication is a creative work copyrighted by U•X•L and fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair competition, and other applicable laws. The authors and editors of this work have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination, expression, arrangement, and classification of the information. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. Copyright © 2000 U•X•L An imprint of the Gale Group All rights reserved including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form.
Printed in United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Cover photos (top to bottom): Paris, France: Louvre (EPD/Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp) Monrovia, Liberia: Redemption Day Celebration (EPD/Homer Sykes; Woodfin Camp) Tokyo, Japan: Kids with skateboards (EPD/Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp) Lima, Peru: Market (EPD/Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp) Washington, DC: Lincoln Memorial (EPD/Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp)
Susan Bevan Gall and Jill Marie Coppola, Editors Timothy L. Gall, Executive Editor Mary Francis Sugar, Eleftherios E. Netos, Jennifer Wallace, James C. Woodring, Associate Editors Bridgette M. Nadzam, Graphics and Page Layout Gregory M. Hurst, Editorial Assistant Magellan Geographix, Cartographers
Contributors Olufemi A. Akinola, Ph.D. W.E.B. DuBois Institute, Harvard University Cynthia Andrews. Researcher/Writer, Suttons Bay, Michigan Mike Cikraji. Researcher/Writer, Bay Village, Ohio Patricia Hale. Researcher/Writer, West Hartford, Connecticut Bruce Heilman. University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Jim Henry. Researcher/Writer, Chicago, Illinois William Hodgson. Researcher/Writer, Vancouver, British Columbia Dave Hribar. Researcher/Writer, Avon Lake, Ohio Ignacio Lobos. Journalist, Honolulu, Hawaii Deryck O. Lodrick, Ph.D. Visiting Scholar, Center for South Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley Lupa Ramadhani. University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Gail Rosewater. Researcher/Writer, Cleveland, Ohio Carmen Urdaneta, M.A. Researcher/Writer, Boston, Massachusetts Jeffrey Vance. Researcher/Writer, Brighton, Massachusetts Rosalie Wieder. Researcher/Writer, Cleveland, Ohio Steven Wolinetz, Ph.D. Memorial University, St. John’s Newfoundland
CONTENTS C I T Y F I N D E R TA B L E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii R E A D E R ’S G U I D E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix DETROIT, MICHIGAN ............................................................... 1 H O N G K O N G , C H I N A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 H O N O L U L U , H A W A I I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 H O U S T O N , TE X A S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 I N D I A N A P O L I S , I N D I A N A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 I S T A N B U L , TU R K E Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 J E R U S A L E M , I S R A E L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 J O H A N N E S B U R G , S O U T H A F R I C A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 L A G O S , N I G E R I A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 L I M A , P E R U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 L O N D O N , E N G L A N D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 L O S A N G E L E S , C A L I F O R N I A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 M A D R I D , S P A I N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 G L O S S A R Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
vii
C I T Y F I N D E R TA B L E Volume number appears in brackets []
Toronto, Ontario .......................[4]151 Vancouver, British Columbia......[4]169
Africa
Mexico
Cairo, Egypt .............................[1]115 Johannesburg, South Africa ......[2]123 Lagos, Nigeria ...........................[2]139 Monrovia, Liberia........................[3]69 Nairobi, Kenya ..........................[3]115
Mexico City, Mexico....................[3]19
United States Atlanta, Georgia ...........................[1]1 Boston, Massachusetts .................[1]65 Chicago, Illinois ........................[1]145 Cleveland, Ohio ........................[1]161 Dallas, Texas .............................[1]177 Denver, Colorado.......................[1]191 Detroit, Michigan ..........................[2]1 Honolulu, Hawaii ........................[2]39 Houston, Texas ............................[2]57 Indianapolis, Indiana ..................[2]77 Los Angeles, California ..............[2]189 Miami, Florida.............................[3]37 Minneapolis, Minnesota .............[3]53 Nashville, Tennessee ..................[3]137 New Orleans, Louisiana.............[3]153 New York, New York ................[3]173 Phoenix, Arizona .........................[4]19 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania .............[4]1 San Francisco, California .............[4]85 Seattle, Washington....................[4]101 Washington, D.C..........................[4]18
Asia Bangkok, Thailand ......................[1]17 Beijing, China ..............................[1]33 Hong Kong, China.......................[2]21 Istanbul, Turkey ..........................[2]93 Jerusalem, Israel.........................[2]107 Manila, Philippines .......................[3]1 Mumbai (Bombay), India.............[3]99 Sydney, Australia .......................[4]117 Tokyo, Japan ............................[4]133
Europe Berlin, Germany...........................[1]49 Brussels, Belgium ........................[1]83 Istanbul, Turkey...........................[2]93 London, United Kingdom .........[2]169 Madrid, Spain ...........................[2]205 Paris, France ..............................[3]195 Prague, Czech Republic ...............[4]35 Rome, Italy ..................................[4]63
South America Buenos Aires, Argentina...............[1]97 Caracas, Venezuela ...................[1]131 Lima, Peru ................................[2]155 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ..................[4]49
North America Canada Montréal, Québec .......................[3]83
viii
R E A D E R ’S G U I D E this Reader’s Guide, all of whom offered substantive insights that were instrumental to the creation of this work. The editors are extremely grateful for the time and effort these distinguished reviewers devoted to improving the quality of this work. Sixteen researchers, many of whom live in the city they profiled, are listed on the staff page. Their well-researched profiles give users of Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities an opportunity to compare the history and contemporary life in 50 of the world’s greatest cities—from the ancient cities of Cairo, Egypt and Istanbul, Turkey, to the fast-growing modern metropolitan communities of Lagos, Nigeria; Sydney, Australia; and Seattle, Washington.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities presents profiles of 50 major cities from around the world, arranged alphabetically in four volumes. Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities is a new reference work organized under the Worldmark design. The Worldmark design assembles facts and data about each city in a common structure. Every profile contains a map, showing the city and its location. The challenging task of selecting the cities to be profiled in this first edition of Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities was accomplished with input from librarian advisors. From a list of over 100 candidate cities, 50 were selected to represent the continents and cultures of the world, with an emphasis on cities of the United States. Twenty-five cities from North America (including 21 U.S. cities) are profiled, 9 cities from Asia, 7 cities from Europe, 5 cities from Africa, and 4 from South America fill the four volumes. Profiles present text and graphical elements, including photographs, with the needs and interests of student researchers in mind. Recognition must be given to the many tourist bureaus, convention centers, city government press offices, and graphic agencies that contributed the data and photographs that comprise this encyclopedia. This edition also benefits from the work of the reviewers listed at the end of
Sources Due to the broad scope of this encyclopedia many sources were consulted in compiling the information and statistics presented in these volumes. Of primary importance were the official web sites posted by many of the cities’ government offices and tourist/convention bureaus on the World Wide Web. Also instrumental in the development of this publication was the web site of the U.S. Bureau of the Census, available at http://www.census.gov/. Finally, many fact sheets, booklets, and statistical abstracts were used to update
ix
READER’S GUIDE data not collected by federal or city governments. Profile Features The structure of the Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities entries—22 numbered headings—allows students to compare two or more cities in a variety of ways. Each city profile begins with the city name, state or province (where applicable), country, and continent. A city fact box provides information including dates founded and incorporated, city location, official city motto and flower, time zone, ethnic composition, city elevation, latitude and longitude, coastline (where applicable), climate information, annual mean temperature, seasonal average snowfall (where applicable), average annual precipitation, form of government, system of weights and measures used, monetary units, telephone area codes, and city postal codes. Where available, a picture of both the city seal and the city flag, with description, appear. With regard to the time zone, the standard time is given by time zone in relation to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). The world is divided into 24 time zones, each one hour apart. The Greenwich meridian, which is 0 degrees, passes through Greenwich, England, a suburb of London. Greenwich is at the center of the initial time zone, known as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). All times given are converted from noon in this zone. The time reported for the city is the official time zone. Also provided in each article is a Population Profile box comparing the city proper with its greater metropolitan
x
area, including suburbs (where available), and lists facts such as population, racial breakdown, and nicknames. Profiles also include a City Fact Comparison box, comparing daily costs of visiting the city with costs for visiting representative cities elsewhere in the world (Cairo, Egypt; Rome, Italy; and Beijing, China). City maps, locator maps, and photos complement the entries. The body of each city’s profile is arranged in 22 numbered headings as follows: 1
INTRODUCTION. The city’s location
is described. City features are outlined, sometimes citing key facts from city history and major attractions. 2
GETTING THERE. Information is pro-
vided on major highways offering access into and around the city, as well as information on bus and railroad service, airports, and shipping. 3
GETTING AROUND. Information is
outlined on means of transportation within a city, including bus and commuter rail service; some entries include transportation modes that will be less familiar to many student researchers, such as the three-wheeled tuk-tuk of Bangkok, Thailand. Both commuter and sightseeing transportation methods are included. 4
PEOPLE. A population count is pro-
vided for the city proper and its metropolitan area, along with an ethnic/racial breakdown of the populace. For many cities, population growth patterns, languages, and religions are also discussed 5 NEIGHBORHOODS. Location, characteristics, and attractions of city historic
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
READER’S GUIDE and ethnic neighborhoods, and business and cultural districts are described. 6 HISTORY. City history is detailed from its founding to the present. 7
GOVERNMENT. Style of government
is described, and elected offices are listed, along with a description of each office and length of an elected term. 8 PUBLIC SAFETY. Police, fire, and ambulatory services are outlined, as well as any special city safety projects. Crime rate statistics are also listed. 9 ECONOMY. This section presents the key elements of the economy. Major industries and employment figures are also summarized.
Topography, climate, and flora and fauna are described, as well as any environmental concerns, programs, or clean-up efforts. 10
ENVIRONMENT.
11 SHOPPING. Popular shopping districts and venues are described, as well as any specialty items for which the city is renowned. 12 EDUCATION. Information about public education and key universities and technical institutes is detailed. 13 HEALTH CARE. Hospitals and other health services are described. Alternative or non-Western health care practices are described in some city profiles. 14
MEDIA. City newspapers, magazines,
television, and radio stations are listed. Where applicable, government influence on media is discussed.
15 SPORTS. Professional and amateur sports—from auto racing and rodeo to cricket and baseball—sports venues, and championships held are listed. Annual sporting events, major international tournaments, and popular recreational sports are also described. 16 PARKS AND RECREATION. Popular recreational activities and city pastimes, from strolling in a city park to playing polo, and the venues where they can be enjoyed, are detailed. 17 PERFORMING ARTS. Performing arts offered in the city are described, as well as the theaters and performing arts halls where they are offered. Notable annual events are listed. 18 LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS. Notable libraries and descriptions of their holdings are described. Major museums, with information about their collections, are listed. 19
TOURISM. The importance of tourism
to the city is summarized, along with factors affecting the tourism industry. Key tourist attractions are listed. 20
HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS. Annu-
ally celebrated holidays and events are listed. 21
F A M O U S C I T I Z E N S . Famous peo-
ple who were born or lived in the city are listed, along with birth and death dates and short biographical descriptions. Bibliographic listings are provided at the end of each profile as a guide for accessing further information. Included are Web sites, 22
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
FOR
FURTHER
STUDY.
xi
READER’S GUIDE government offices, tourist and convention bureaus, major city publications, and books about the city and its history. Because some terms used in this encyclopedia will be new to students, each volume includes a glossary. A keyword index to all four volumes appears in Volume 4. Acknowledgments The editors are indebted to the following reviewers, without whom Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities would not have been possible. The individuals listed below were consulted on the content and structure of this encyclopedia. Their insights, opinions, and suggestions led to many enhancements and improvements in the presentation of the material. Ken Cornwell, Library Media Specialist, Northeast High School, Lincoln, Nebraska
xii
Cindy Doll, Librarian, Columbus Metropolitan Library, Columbus, Ohio Marilyn Eanes, School Library Media Specialist, Hopewell Middle School, Round Rock, Texas Jane Thomas, Library Manager, McNeil High School, Austin, Texas Glenda Willnerd, School Librarian, Lincoln High School, Lincoln, Nebraska Comments and Suggestions We welcome your comments on the Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities, as well as your suggestions for cities to be included in future editions. Please write: Editors, Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities, U•X•L, 27500 Drake Road, Farmington Hills, Michigan 48331– 3535; call toll-free: 1-800-877-4253; or send e-mail via www.galegroup.com.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Detroit Detroit, Michigan, United States of America, North America Founded: 1701; Incorporated: 1802 (Village), 1815 (City) Location: Southeastern border of Michigan, where the Detroit River separates the United States and Canada. Because of a bend in the river, Detroit is directly north of Windsor, Ontario. Motto: “Resurget Cineribus” (It shall rise again from the ashes) and “Speramus Meliora” (We hope for better things) Flower: Apple Blossom (Pyrus coronaria) Time Zone: 7 AM Eastern Standard Time (EST) = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: White 21.6%, Black 75.7%, American Indian, Eskimo, Aleut 0.4%, Asian and Pacific Islander 0.8%, Other 1.5% (1990 Census) Elevation: 585 feet above sea level Coastline: Michigan has 3,288 miles of shoreline. Climate: Winters are cold; summers are hot and humid. Annual Mean Temperature: 48.6°F; January, 28.1°F; July 72.3°F Annual Precipitation: 30.97 in (787 mm) Government: Mayor-council Weights and Measures: Standard U.S. Monetary Unit: Standard U.S. Telephone Area Codes: 313, 810, 248, 734 Postal Codes: 48201–48240, 48242–48244
1
Introduction
The metropolitan city of Detroit is a combination of old and new and often is associated with adjectives like dynamic, bustling, and progressive. A history peppered with ethnic richness grants Detroit an edge. It is a strong city, thriving with people, and a genuine delight for the senses. Art makes a statement—whether it is music from an area pub, aromas from street vendors, or vivid murals and architecture. Economically, Detroit has come a long way from the fur trapping days of French soldiers, traders, and missionaries. The vision of its founder, Antoine
de la Mothe Cadillac, was for this fort on the strait to grow into a thriving trade center. What he could not have known is that not only would the trading post succeed, but the settlement would eventually become the anchor of a tri-county area with more than four million culturally diverse people. 2
Getting There
Located in Southeastern Michigan, Detroit is the largest city in the state. It is a well-designed city. Transportation flows smoothly, like the spokes of the wheel it represents. The street signs are generally visible; entrance and exit ramps are clearly identified, and moni-
1
Detroit Airports
Detroit Population Profile City Proper Population: 1,514,000 Area: 360.6 sq km (138.7 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 21.6% white;75.7% black; 0.4% American Indian, Eskimo, Aleut; 0.8%, Asian and Pacific Islander; 1.5% other Nicknames: Arsenal of Democracy, The Motor City, Motown
Metropolitan Area Population: 3,785,000 Description: City and suburbs in three-county area World population rank1: 66 Percentage of national population2: 1.4% Average yearly growth rate: 0.3% ——— 1. The Detroit metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of the total US population living in the Detroit metropolitan area.
tored parking is available. None of this should be a surprise in the automobile capital of the world. Highways Served by several interstate highways and a number of additional limited-access expressways, Detroit’s freeway system, designed in the 1950s, is one of the most efficient in the country. Networks of six-lane freeways weave across city boundaries. Drivers can access the city from either north or south on Interstate-75 or US-10; east and westbound expressways include Interstates 696, 96, and 94.
2
Detroit is also home to two major airports: Wayne County Metropolitan Airport and City Airport. Wayne County Airport is a regional center for Northwest Airlines and is the world’s 14th busiest airport. Located 29 kilometers (18 miles) southwest of downtown, it is a major international business and leisure travel hub with 1,200 scheduled departures and landings per day. Geographically, Detroit is about a 90minute or less flight to over 60 percent of the United States. A $1.6 billion expansion project that began in 1996 includes new construction and improvements to the three existing terminals. The scheduled project completion year is 2001. All major domestic airline carriers and three international carriers offer service from this locale. Detroit City Airport is located about 16 kilometers (ten miles) from downtown and offers both private and commercial passenger service. 3
Getting Around
The early 1900s found the first mile of concrete pavement in the United States on Woodward Avenue, and the tide of transportation has moved forward ever since. The main arteries that frame and connect the city include the famous avenues of Woodward, Jefferson, Michigan, Grand River, and Gratiot. One of the better-known boulevards is named after Rosa Parks, a civil rights activist who settled in Detroit. With industrial-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Detroit
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
3
Detroit ization exploding, the late 1920s found tunnel and bridge access, commencing with the opening of the Detroit-Windsor Tunnel and the Ambassador Bridge. Easy mobility has always been a priority for the city’s visionaries. Public transportation by taxi, bus, train, and trolley is readily available. Bus and Commuter Rail Service The Detroit Department of Transportation (DDOT) has distinctive green and yellow bus stations and runs a prompt schedule on a fixed route. Most routes operate during the day and evenings until 1 AM. The fare is $1.25; transfers are 25 cents. Tickets can be purchased at Comerica Bank branches. The Downtown Detroit Trolley operates authentic trolley cars, manufactured from 1895 through the 1920s, along Jefferson Avenue and Washington Boulevard, between the Renaissance Center and Grand Circus Park. Correct change is required for the 50cent fare. The People Mover is transportation by monorail on an elevated track that encompasses a three-mile radius. Another economic 50-cent fare allows a bird’s-eye view of the city. Normal business hours are Monday through Thursday, 7 AM–11 PM, Friday and Saturday until midnight, and Sunday until 8 PM. Token machines are at every station, but hours of operation may change. The buses for Suburban Mobility Authority for Regional Transportation (SMART), located at 660 Woodward Avenue, run a flexible agenda and vari-
4
ous routes between Detroit and its surrounding suburbs to accommodate the lifestyles of its passengers. Whether heading to the office, shopping malls, or major attractions, SMART transports for $1.50 fare. Customer Service is open from 6:30 AM until 6 PM. Sightseeing A vacation means sights, sounds, and flavors. Visitors can have it all by sightseeing on foot. Enjoy a coney dog, a walk through Hart Plaza, and a visit to “The Fist,” Robert Graham’s 7-meter (24-foot) sculpture commemorating Detroit boxer Joe Louis at Woodward and Jefferson Avenue. Take a city bus down Woodward to the Campus Martius area and view the figure of “Emancipation," modeled after Sojourner Truth, the nineteenth-century abolitionist and feminist who is rumored to have lived in the area at the time. The outdoor plazas and sidewalks invite bicycles and roller blades, and summer months find the streets filled with people and activity. 4
People
Detroit is defined by its people. A culturally diverse population, the city’s character has been defined and redefined by wave after wave of immigrants from all over the world, many of whom arrived with hope for a new and better life. The reality, however, is that some ethnic minority groups and illegal immigrants are among the city’s less privileged people, living in deprived inner-city neighborhoods.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Detroit
City Fact Comparison Detroit (United States)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
3,785,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1701
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$109
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$44
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$26
$14
$15
$16
$155
$173
$246
$207
2
13
20
11
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
The Detroit Free Akhbar El Yom/ Press Al Akhbar 278,286
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1831
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
The latest figures indicate Detroit’s current population is approximately one million. Included in that figure is a spectrum of personalities. In 1834, the first Roman Catholic Bishop of the Detroit Diocese arrived, Bishop Frederick Rese. A century later, the city’s first policewoman was appointed; Gar Wood won the international prize for unlimited powerboat racing; and in 1937, Joe Louis emerged as the heavyweight boxing champion of the world. The early 1960s found newly elected Mayor Jerome P. Cavanaugh changing Detroit’s image. A favorite of the national press and Democratic administration in Washington, D.C., Mayor Cavanaugh
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
aided Detroit on the road to racial peace. Shrewd political moves brought an acknowledged and successful administration to its peak. In response, federal assistance, in the amount of $360 million, began pouring into the city. Civil rights activist Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., debuted his “I Have a Dream" speech on the streets of Detroit in 1963. Currently, the professionals who reside or work in Detroit demonstrate community ideals. At a grass roots level, many citizens are involved in civic affairs, local sports, or social activities. With culture, education, and growing
5
Detroit
Detroit lies directly north of Windsor, Ontario, separated by the Detroit River. (Dale Fisher; Metropolitan Detroit Convention & Visitors Bureau)
prosperity, employment is at an all time high. 5
Neighborhoods
Detroit neighborhoods are evolving. Mayor Albert Cobo began a slum clearance in the 1950s that led to private development of cleared lands. His administration had direct bearing upon future urban development. The 1960s endured public housing changes and a shocking crime wave that proved painful, indeed. But, Mayor Jerome P. Cavanaugh brought economic growth and prosperity to a formerly distressed city. In the 1970s Coleman Young promoted the city as a model of social
6
progress. Today, median housing value is $69,260, and owner-occupied (single family) housing is approximately 70 percent, one of the highest in the country. Still prospering, the locals and immigrants who continue to migrate into the Detroit area keep the economic structure developing. Greektown is admirably well known, and metro Detroit has a significant Polish influence. The enclave city of Hamtramck is known for authentic cuisine, as well as a visit from Pope John Paul II in 1987. To the west, Dearborn is home to the largest Arabic community in the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Detroit world outside the Middle East. On the east side, small Italian neighborhood markets have evolved into major building and manufacturing companies. Not far from historic Tiger Stadium is Mexicantown, where a growing number of Hispanic communities are flourishing. Oakland County is home to a steadily expanding number of Russian Jewish immigrants, while the Metropolitan Airport area and southern Wayne County are attracting Japanese families. Further south, along the Detroit River from Wyandotte to Grosse Ile, are communities rich in Hungarian and Polish traditions. Suitably, the distinct mix of people make metro Detroit a cosmopolitan map of the world. 6
History
Historically, the Civic Center in downtown Detroit started as a fur trading post and grew into a frontier military station. Cadillac Square was formed with 1-meter (3-foot) flagstones before it was paved, and the marketplace sold produce and goods, much like the Eastern Market today.
the American Flag was raised over Fort Pontchartrain. A devastating fire swept Detroit in 1805 that destroyed each one of its 200 structures and left only a stone warehouse standing. Following the War of 1812, the development of the steamboat, and the opening of the Erie Canal, Detroit began to experience dramatic growth again and finally was incorporated as a city in 1815. By the time Michigan was admitted to the Union as the twenty-sixth state in 1837, Detroit had become a significant station on the Underground Railroad. The Underground Railroad was a secret system that helped fugitive slaves reach freedom in the northern states and Canada. Eight years later, the city was honored to hold President Andrew Jackson’s funeral.
The city of Detroit was founded on July 24, 1701, by Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac. With a pledge of patriotism, he demonstrated community ideals and the courage to foster them.
With the dawning of the Industrial Age, new products surfaced, and the manufacture of stove and kitchen ranges became Detroit’s leading industry. Tastefully complimenting the ranges, additional consumable products emerged, like Vernors Ginger Ale, Stroh’s Beer, and the famous Sanders candy, cakes, and ice cream. Having all the goods, Detroit needed a place to promote their treats, and the Detroit Metro Convention and Visitors Bureau was born, the world’s first such organization.
In the middle 1700s, Detroit was turned over to the British as a spoil of the French and Indian War (1755– 1763), but by 1796, George Washington forced the British out of the city and
With the population rapidly multiplying, communities and businesses were prospering. Ford Motor Company was established, and the introduction of the assembly line revolutionized the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
7
Detroit auto industry. Detroit put America on wheels. The daily wage paid five dollars. The year was 1921, and the Detroit Times newspaper was purchased by William Randolph Hearst. Making headlines was nothing new to Detroit. The following decade brought with it the retirement of baseball’s great Ty Cobb, the grand opening of the Detroit Institute of Arts, and the unveiling of the Ambassador Bridge. The bridge connected Detroit to Canada and was hailed as the longest international suspension span in the world. Complementing the bridge, travelers could also gain international entry to Canada via the new Windsor Tunnel. Business for Detroit merchants boomed until the Great Depression, which temporarily slowed the city’s progress. But in the world of sports, there was no depression. Detroit teams were still making headlines. In 1935, the Tigers captured the World Series; the Lions were National Football League champions; and the Red Wings won hockey’s Stanley Cup. Detroit was riding high, and the world was still watching. In 1937, Mr. Joe Louis Barrow (Joe Lewis), the Brown Bomber, won the world’s heavyweight boxing championship. On the eve of World War II (1939–1945), Joe Louis was a good guy to have on your side. During World War II, Detroit played a key role as the nation’s “Arsenal of Democracy.” Economic growth during the mid 1940s placed Detroit at the forefront of the nation’s industrial fields, including salt products, electric
8
refrigeration, seeds, adding machines, stove manufacturing, and of course, automobiles. In turn, the city engineers designed a massive freeway system to transport the fruits of the automobile industry. However, for progress there was a price. Many public housing units were destroyed in order to accommodate the planned freeway expansion. Public housing residents were evicted and offered no plan for relocation. The city of Detroit did not comply with the Federal Housing Act 048, which required alternative housing for dislocated renters. In effect, the city created 17,000 refugees and wide distrust for local government. Thereafter, the city’s middleincome population began to shift to more suburban locales, and the nation’s first shopping mall opened in Southfield in 1954. Northland Mall was the harbinger of the new suburban lifestyle. The following decade, Detroit recovered under Mayor Jerome P. Cavanaugh’s administration. The formerly distressed city became a model of social progress. In July 1963, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., led a massive civil rights movement in Detroit; still, Detroit was not an island unto itself. The riots in July 1967 shattered the city like a terrifying earthquake. The shock was to prove painful, indeed. On the heels of freedom and turmoil, Berry Gordy created the Motown Sound and taught the nation—and indeed the world—a new way to sing. By the year’s end, New Detroit was founded.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Detroit
The Henry Ford Museum chronicles a changing Detroit. (Mark J. Arpin; Metropolitan Detroit Convention & Visitors Bureau)
Billed as the United States’ first “urban coalition,” New Detroit organized to improve education, employment, housing, and economic
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
development. With strong leadership and community support, New Detroit set a new pace for the city. Soon afterwards, business leaders founded Detroit
9
Detroit Renaissance to help formulate the city’s economic future. In 1971, Henry Ford II, head of Detroit Renaissance, Inc., announced plans for the construction of the largest privately financed project in the world—The Renaissance Center. Celebrated in rebirth, Detroit’s renaissance was an attempt to protect the value of existing investments and future profit opportunities in the downtown hub. The city’s first black mayor, Coleman Young, took office in 1974 to build Detroit’s assets. Mayor Young sought to improve racial equality in city government and increase solidarity among African-American residents. He served an unprecedented five terms. With the 1980s, the revival continued. Detroit hosted the thirty-second Republican National Convention at the new Joe Louis Arena. The Millender Center and Greektown’s Trappers Alley Marketplace opened. Complementing new business, the Detroit People Mover provided another source of downtown transportation—a monorail. Expansion of the $225 million Cobo Conference/ Exhibition Center was completed, and sports enthusiasts were thrilled. Detroit hosted the first Grand Prix on the city streets, and Super Bowl XVI played to a sold out crowd at the Pontiac Silverdome. Sparky Anderson and the affable Detroit Tigers captured the 1984 World Series, and the Pistons secured consecutive NBA championship titles in 1989 and 1990. Metro Detroit’s prosperity continued in the 1990s. Chosen as a site for World Cup Soccer in 1994, the Silver-
10
dome earned the unique opportunity to host the first indoor soccer championship in World Cup history. The American automobile industry and the Metropolitan Convention and Visitor’s Bureau celebrated their Centennial, and the decade ended with another blockbuster season in sports. The Detroit Red Wings won back-to-back National Hockey League Stanley Cup Championships and kept Lord Stanley’s cup for two years, 1997 and 1998. 7
Government
The Detroit city mayor and ninemember city council are elected members and serve a four-year term of office. The charter rules under a mayor-council form of government. Aided by a chief administrative staff, the mayor collaborates in the performance of duties. Citizen bureaus include organizations dedicated to improving and maintaining the business and civic community of Detroit; for example, Southeast Michigan Council of Governments (SEMCOG) is a voluntary association of more than 130 local governments designed as a regional planning and intergovernmental coordination agency. 8
Public Safety
As the city council conducts hearings for the new budget, commitment to improving public safety remains an important issue. Following the scandal with city police chief William Hart, who was convicted and sent to prison for stealing drug money, and accusa-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Detroit tions of police racism, the city departments are undergoing a healthy purge and continually integrating means for securing new equipment and more recruits. Additional coalitions have formed, like the Detroit Economic Growth Corporation, dedicated to serving the disadvantaged. A public corporation endowed with the power to establish project areas where jobs are at stake, they acquire properties, issue taxes, and enjoy strong support from citizens in the community. 9
Economy
Detroit is well positioned to benefit from the trends currently shaping the nation. A tight labor market, combined with the area’s low unemployment rate of 2.8 percent, reflect the larger prosperity of the country. Welfare statistics have fallen to the lowest level since 1970, and city officials feel there are almost more jobs than can be filled, particularly in the field of engineering. Detroit has a large skilled labor force, which is supported by both industrial and public technical centers. Wayne State University, the University of Detroit-Mercy, and the Detroit College of Law are located in the region; technical and community colleges are numerous and include Henry Ford, Highland Park, and Wayne County Community Colleges, among others. The quality of life is very different from the image of living in a Rust-Belt city. Recreational activities, like golf, skiing, tennis, and sailing, abound in the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
region. Detroit is home to a renowned symphony, the renovated Opera Hall, several museums, major sports teams, and four-star dining establishments. The vibrant growing economy is shifting from sole reliance on the automotive industry to a diversified high-tech and commercial base. Recently named the largest metropolitan exporting center in the country, Detroit exports over $27 billion of industrial goods to countries around the globe. An increase in the available number of high-skilled jobs has made employee turnover an issue of concern. To entice commitment from employees, local employers are offering higher salaries, stock options, and training programs. In return, the managers are sharpening their listening and social skills, making Detroit the perfect vehicle for business success. Excellent transportation and communication links make it easy for multinationals to stay connected. Throughout the 1990s, the business climate improved dramatically as a result of state and city regulatory and administrative reforms aimed at attracting and retaining businesses; this includes a competitive tax system, which rewards new investment and profitable companies. A diversified marketplace, many of the world’s innovative companies are based in Detroit or its metropolitan area. Among others it is home to Better Made potato chips, Duraliner truck beds, Falcon golf clubs, Faygo beverages, Jiffy mixes, Kowalski sausage, Lionel trains, Sanders ice cream, Shedd’s spread, and Vlassic foods. Com-
11
Detroit puware, the world’s eighth largest software company, is currently developing a massive, 130,060 square-meter (1.4 million square-foot) building and adjacent parking structure that accommodates 3,000 cars. Mexicantown Community Development Corporation has announced plans for an $8 million International Welcome Center and Mercado in Detroit’s Hispanic neighborhood. Free enterprise has always played a dominant role in Detroit’s economy, but recently some residents rejected the idea of building a casino. Prosperity in the Canadian casinos prompted a change of heart, and the Motor City skyline has shifted. Two new casinos, MGM Grand and Motor City opened in 1999. Atwater and Greek Town casinos were scheduled to open in 2000 on Detroit’s waterfront. The value of commercial real estate in the city is prime. The last vacant piece of Stroh River Place, a large brick structure within a historic mixed-use development along the Detroit River, will be converted into luxury loft condominiums. Earlier in the twentieth century, the 14,864 square-meter (160,000 square-foot) structure served as the headquarters for Parke Davis Pharmaceutical Company. The building will undergo a $15 million renovation and is the last building to be redeveloped by the Stroh Brewing Company. The complex, located south of East Jefferson, includes offices, loft apartments, stores, and restaurants. The lofts will be priced from $140,000 and are joined by several neighboring developments,
12
including a $40 million headquarters for the United Auto Workers-General Motors (UAW-GM) Human Resource Center, expected to open in 2001. Finally, Detroit remains the U.S. headquarters for General Motors, Ford Motor Company, Daimler-Chrysler, Mazda, and Volkswagen. With recent efforts by automotive companies to take a more global approach toward business, Detroit’s economy should remain on the cutting edge. 10
Environment
Air pollution is a point of great concern for the Motor City. Like other major cities, Detroit’s air is contaminated daily by human activities, such as driving cars, burning fuel, and industrial manufacturing. The Detroit region is surrounded by hundreds of lakes and miles of rivers and streams. Most are working or recreational bodies of water. Some watershed areas have previously been plagued with environmental degradation, like Zug Island, Metropolitan Beach Parkway, and the Detroit River. The state, U.S. Federal, and Canadian governments have identified the Detroit River as an international area of concern. The river’s environmental problems and ecological impairments stem from urban growth and industrial development. Since the late 1800s, 95 percent of the Detroit River’s original wetland habitat has been lost through urban and industrial development. Areas of the Detroit River have sediments contaminated with high concentrations of
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Detroit metals and organic compounds, a legacy of industry and a naive understanding of the ecosystem. Although industrial history has played a significant role in the river’s problems, the environmental degradation continues. Municipal and industrial discharges, poor land-use practices, combined sewer overflows, urban and agricultural runoff, and contaminants from air deposition continue. Plans to address the environmental concerns and improve the overall quality of the ecosystem have been developed and implemented by several different conservancy organizations in and around the Detroit area. A plan with priority action is to protect the remaining fish and wildlife habitat in the Detroit River watershed. 11
Shopping
The ethnic diversity of the Detroit community makes shopping in the city a global experience. Unusual and unique shops are scattered everywhere, but premier shopping can be found to the west at Maple and Woodward in Birmingham or Big Beaver Road in Troy at the Somerset Mall. All corporateowned stores, like Neiman Marcus, Hugo Boss, and Saks Fifth Avenue, are connected by a pedestrian overpass that offers a bird’s-eye view of the surrounding area. To satisfy a taste for the alternative, shoppers should head for Royal Oak, where boutiques are nonpareil; cuisine is trendy; and the streets are energetic.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Home, garden, and food shoppers will be thrilled at the Eastern Market, located at 2934 Russell. There, weekends explode with activity as vegetable farmers, flower growers, honey collectors, plant vendors, and orchard owners display their fresh wares, and city dwellers arrive in droves. The most ardent shoppers at this market, which dates back to the late 1800s, arrive in the pre-dawn hours to get prime selections. Bargain seekers arrive in late afternoon when vendor prices are reduced to sell. In addition to Saturday vendors who sell goods both inside and out, there are also supreme wholesale stores. Restaurants, pubs, and specialty shops extend for several blocks in and around this no-pretense-permitted market. The Central Market, for example, holds fresh meat and fish counters; Rafal’s aromatic spice shop sells only spices, coffee, and sauces, and R. Hirt, Jr., boasts blue ribbon cheeses. A must stop on Monroe Street in Greektown is Astoria Pastry shop, where rows of treats beckon to be tasted. Across the street is a used music and book store, where coffee house aromas linger closeby. Winding back toward the river, the Renaissance Center’s unmistakable cluster of glass towers caters to both the practical and the prosperous. With restaurants, stores, theater, shops, a hotel, and occasional access to the People Mover, the “Ren Cen” offers a variety of stores and personal services.
13
Detroit At 10125 Jefferson Avenue is Pewabic Pottery, now listed as National Historic Landmark. Pewabic tiles grace everything from fireplaces to lobbies in many of Detroit’s historic homes. The pottery studio, founded in 1903 by Mary Chase Perry Stratton, moved in 1907 to its present address. A Tudor mansion, the shop operates as a nonprofit arts center and museum. Visitors can learn about the pottery process through a self-guided tour and view both antique and contemporary displays of pieces designed and executed by Stratton and her earliest students. Many of the Pewabic art pieces, which include tiles, candlesticks, and vases, are available for purchase. Finally, there are the outdoor strip malls and several indoor shopping malls in the suburban areas outside Detroit. Most are within a 40-minute ride of the city. Hours and locations are listed in the local yellow page directory. 12
Education
A rich resource of which Detroit is proud is the wide array of educational services and schools available. Anyone can improve skills, learn new technology, and earn degrees or certification in a variety of fields, all within a short radius of the city. Dog grooming, court reporting, beauty, seminary, x-ray technology, modeling, and flying are only a few of the many fields in which certification is available. Two public schools of higher education include Wayne County Community College and Wayne State University (WSU).
14
Of the nation’s 3,600 accredited colleges and universities, the top classifications must annually award 50 or more doctoral degrees. Wayne State awarded 239 in 1998. Rated in the country’s top three percent, WSU is located in the heart of the University Cultural Center and has branch extension centers throughout the metropolitan area. The university offers over 5,500 courses, 128 bachelor programs, 61 doctoral programs, and 30 certification specialist and professional programs. Additionally, there are several privately funded institutions that join the ranks of higher education. Among these are Detroit College of Business, Detroit College of Law (Michigan State Campus), University of Detroit Mercy, and Marygrove College. 13
Health Care
Many of Detroit’s medical care facilities are considered outstanding. Children’s Hospital is no exception. Nationally recognized for exceptional care and facilities, the hospital continues to provide top-notch service for children’s health care needs. Joined by Detroit Receiving, Harper Hospital, Huron Valley-Sinai, Hutzel, Sinai-Grace, the Rehabilitation Institute of Michigan, the International Center, Karmanos Cancer Institute, and the Kresge Eye Institute, patients are afforded the most recent developments in medical procedures. In addition, The Detroit Medical Center (DMC), also located downtown, is the regulating center for
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Detroit (United Paramount) and WTVS (PBS), Detroit’s own stations. Fox2-WJBK and WB20 (Warner Brothers) keep viewers up to date with news and information.
The Detroit Red Wings won back-to-back National Hockey League Stanley Cup Championships and kept Lord Stanley’s cup for two years, 1997 and 1998. (Mark Hicks; Metropolitan Convention & Visitors Bureau)
seven hospitals, 3,000 doctors, two nursing centers, 100 primary care physicians, and both teaching and clinical research for Wayne State University. Detroit is headquarters to Blue CrossBlue Shield of Michigan, one of the nations largest health care providers. Also making headlines is DMC’s Huron Valley-Sinai hospital. They welcomed the first millennium baby in the United States, Bella Rose, born on January 1, 2000, at the stroke of midnight. 14
Media
Like most progressive centers, Detroit has a good amount of media resources. Supplementing the three top television stations, WDIV (NBC), WXYZ (ABC), and WWJ-TV (CBS), is UPN 50
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
In print are the city’s two major newspapers: the Detroit News and the Detroit Free Press. These two publications share production facilities but are each printed daily and cover both local and national news. The Free Press is the morning edition, and the News hits stands in the afternoon. Sunday’s paper is a combined effort, and this system works well. The Observer and Eccentric newspapers produce geographic editions, focusing on local suburban news. Covering alternative and funk is the Metro Times, which discusses music, dining, and shopping. Business headlines in and around the metro area can be found in the Detroit Legal News, the Detroit Journal, or Crain’s Detroit Business. For listening pleasure, there are an abundance of radio stations that play a diverse mix of country, rock, jazz, soul and motown, classical, and offbeat music 24 hours a day. Listeners who enjoy talk radio can tune in to AM stations WJR-760, which covers topics of public interest, or WWJ-950 radio, the first commercial radio station in America, which encourages a reader forum to exchange ideas. 15
Sports
Detroit sports bring only one word to mind—championship. In addition to optimal convention facilities and festivals, sporting arenas like the Palace of
15
Detroit Auburn Hills, Joe Louis Arena, and the new multi-plex Comerica Park are second to none. Detroit is a huge sports town with loyal fans who won’t hesitate to prove their dedication. The Motor City boasts a long history of sports legends. A sculpture memorializing boxer Joe Louis, designed by Edward N. Hamilton, is located in Cobo Convention Center’s main entrance. Also in the Center is memorabilia on Louis’s life and career. Boxing victors Thomas Hearns and Michael Moorer also hail from Motown, as do National Football League Hall of Famer Lem Barney and basketball superstars Dave Bing and Chris Webber. In addition to producing sports superstars, the past two decades have produced a series of victories for professional sports teams in Detroit. Tiger baseball at Tiger Stadium, Pistons basketball at the Palace of Auburn Hills, and Red Wing Hockey at Joe Louis Arena, all have captured world championship titles. The Tigers started the 2000 season in their new digs at Comerica Park, a $285 million arena. Blending innovation, show business, and sports tradition, Comerica Park seats 40,000 fans. The stadium also hosts a 60-passenger ferris wheel on site. The sport park’s turn-of-the-century theme is underscored with the 12-passenger ferris wheel cars designed like baseballs. In keeping with respect for the game, Comerica Park houses the largest scoreboard in baseball history. Complementing its world-class sports teams, Detroit has most recently
16
introduced the Detroit Shock, playing for the Women’s National Basketball Association; the Vipers, playing for the International Hockey League; and the Detroit Rockers, playing soccer. 16
Parks and Recreation
Detroit parks are hot spots for recreation. There are hundreds of lakes in the region and miles of rivers and streams. Michigan claims more registered boaters than any other state and boasts about 230 public and private golf courses, not to mention dozens of downhill ski runs and cross-county trails within easy driving distance. In the city, Chene Park winds gently along the waterfront, landscaped and inviting. Summertime brings a mix of open-air concerts, festivals, and people. Belle Isle is an island park, spread over 397 hectares (982 acres) in the Detroit River. Native Americans called the island “Mah-nah-be-zee,” or Swan Island. French settlers called it Isle St. Claire. During the eighteenth century, farmers used the island as a safe haven for animals; thus, it also became known as Hog Island. However, it was renamed Belle Isle, which translates as beautiful island, and by 1845, it was a popular picnic spot for city residents. The City of Detroit purchased Belle Isle for $200,000 in 1879 and designated it as a park in 1881. The original park, designed by Frederick L. Olmsted (1822–1903), featured only recreational canals; however, in the early 1900s, the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Detroit city built Lake Takoma, Lake Okonoka, and some other canals. Historically, walkways along the water, ornate bridges, and covered bandstands were popular attractions. Canoeing was an important recreational activity for island visitors. In the 1930s, the Civilian Work Authority (CWA) labored with shovels, wheel barrows, and small tractors to create more canals and lakes on the island. Belle Isle supports over three kilometers (two miles) of canals and four lakes, ranging from 7 to 17 hectares (18 to 43 acres). However, some years of neglect have resulted in stagnant water, excessive weed growth, and poor aesthetic character. Today, Belle Isle is one of the most used parks in the city of Detroit. It provides many of its four million annual visitors opportunities to participate in a variety of recreational experiences within a unique natural environment. Recognizing the value of this resource, the City of Detroit Recreation Department has committed to restoring basic water recreational activities, which have historically been part of the Belle Isle experience. Boating enthusiasts can find worthy marinas in the area. Information on docking facilities at Erma Henderson, Grayhaven, Riverside, and St. Aubin can be obtained by phoning the supervisor. Several area recreation centers offer the opportunity for fitness, swimming, and ice skating for youth and seniors alike.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
17
Performing Arts
World renowned for its musical history, Detroit frequently jives with live performances at a variety of downtown venues. National tours of Broadway productions include stops at four Detroit locales: Fox Theatre at 2211 Woodward Avenue; Fisher Theatre at 3011 W. Grand Boulevard; Masonic Temple and Detroit Music Hall at 350 Madison. Most venues have been architecturally preserved and are an important part of Detroit’s performance art history. Other local professional theatre companies include Second City Comedy Troupe at 2305 Woodward; Attic Theatre; Chene Park Music Theatre at 2600 E. Atwater; Detroit Actors Guild; Detroit Opera House at 1526 Broadway; Detroit Repertory Theatre; Gem Theatre at 333 Madison; Hartland Theatre Company; Harmonie Park Playhouse at 230 E. Grand River; Jewish Ensemble Theatre; 1515 Broadway at 1515 Broadway; and Wayne State Theatre. 18
Libraries and Museums
The Detroit Public Library is an independent municipal corporation governed by a seven-member Detroit Library Commission. In addition to the main locale, there are 24 branch libraries, a Municipal Reference Library, Special Collections, and a bookmobile service for seniors and shut-ins. Library revenues originate from resources that include money from the
17
Detroit state equity grant, penal fines, the single business tax reimbursement, the city general fund, state air, and the city of Detroit property taxes. The Main Library receives funding as a state of Michigan resource.
including faces of celebrated people tucked into the scenes.
The Detroit Public Library, in association with Highland Park’s McGregor Public Library, forms the Detroit Associated Libraries (DAL), one of 16 public library cooperatives in Michigan. The Detroit Public Library is also a member of DALNET, the Detroit Area Library Network, an organization of southeastern Michigan libraries who share the costs and benefits of automation.
Music plus museum equals Motown—Berry Gordy’s love child that changed the voice of America was founded on the streets of Detroit in 1959. The museum memorializes the sights and sounds of artists who graced that period.
Detroit is also home to many legendary museums and celebrated galleries. Indeed rated as world class, the Detroit Institute of Arts (DIA) is the country’s fifth-largest fine arts museum. Erected in 1885, the striking building houses “The Thinker," a famous outdoor sculpture by Auguste Rodin (1840– 1917). Locals are proud, and visitors are surprised by the museum’s treasures. Included galleries are those of Italian Renaissance Art, the works of notable African-American artists, a rare armor collection, and the masterworks of luminaries Van Gogh, Rembrandt, and Warhol. Making a statement is Mexican muralist Diego Rivera’s “Detroit Industry." Frescos in the museum’s central courtyard, the dramatic mural pays tribute to the good and evil of American industrialization. A guidebook helps mural viewers discover hidden symbols,
18
Galleries featuring Ancient Art, Islamic, and the audio phone tour of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries are only a few of the unique exhibits.
Greenfield Village is living history at its best. Authentic representation of eighteenth-, nineteenth-, and early twentieth-century America, museum presenters are dressed in period clothing and encourage visitor participation with chores like dishwashing and candle making. Other noteworthy historical properties in the Detroit area include the Detroit Historical Museum, the Museum of African American History, the Detroit Garden Center, the Gospel Music Hall of Fame, the Detroit Hydroplane Museum, the Detroit Science Center, Graystone Jazz Museum, the Heidelberg Project, and Hitsville USA/ Motown Historical Museum. 19
To u r i s m
Detroit has a reputation that beckons loudly, and it is becoming a popular tourist destination. With great enthusiasm, visitors are flocking to the Motor City. In fact, the Detroit metropolitan area (Wayne, Oakland, and
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Detroit Macomb counties combined) drew more than 16 million visitors last year. The Detroit Metro Convention and Visitors Bureau is a non-profit organization that promotes Detroit as a destination for meetings, conventions, trade shows, and visitors. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY Dr. Martin Luther King Holiday North American International Auto Show
FEBRUARY African American Heritage Month Motown Historical Museum Artist Tribute
MARCH Annual St. Patrick’s Pub Crawl Oscar Night—Detroit Institute of Arts
NOVEMBER Thanksgiving Parade
21
Famous Citizens
The Motor City is well known for its automotive legends and musicians. The following people also call Detroit their hometown: Charles Lindbergh (1902–74), airmail pilot who achieved worldwide fame by making the first non-stop solo transatlantic flight. Ralph J. Bunche (1904–71), diplomat, United Nations mediator, winner of the 1950 Nobel Peace Prize. Francis Ford Coppola (b. 1939), film director and producer.
APRIL NAACP Freedom Fund Dinner Detroit Tigers Baseball Opening Day
MAY Eastern Market Flower Day Bal African—black tie hosted by Detroit Institute of Arts
JUNE Detroit Grand Prix Henry Ford Museum/Greenfield Village—Celebration of Emancipation Village Art Festival—Grosse Pointe
JULY International Freedom Festival and Fireworks Afro-American Music Festival—Metropolitan Arts Complex
AUGUST African World Festival—Hart Plaza
SEPTEMBER
Ed McMahon (b. 1923), television personality. Singers Diana Ross (b. 1944), William “Smokey” Robinson (b. 1940), and Bob Seger (b. 1945). Singer-actresses Madonna (Madonna Louise Ciccone, b.1959) and Della Reese (b. 1932). Actors George C. Scott (1927–99) and Tom Selleck (b. 1945). Robin Williams (b. 1952), actor and comedian. Sports figures who had notable careers in Detroit include:
Montreaux Detroit Jazz Festival—Hart Plaza
OCTOBER Ancestors Day Oktoberfest
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Joe Louis (Joseph Louis Barrow, b. Alabama, 1914–81), heavyweight boxing champion from 1937 to 1949.
19
Detroit Baseball Hall of Famer Al Kaline (b. Maryland, 1934), a Detroit Tigers star. 22
For Further Study
Websites Detroit Net. [Online] Available http://detroit.net (accessed February 7, 2000). Detroit Institute of Arts. [Online] Available http://dia.org (accessed February 7, 2000). Metro Guide. [Online] Available http:// metroguide.com (accessed February 7, 2000). Visit Detroit. [Online] Available http:// visitdetroit.com (accessed February 7, 2000).
Government Offices Detroit City Clerk 200 City County Building (313) 224-3270 Detroit City Council 1340 City County Building (313) 224-3443 Detroit Mayor’s Office (Dennis Archer) 2 Woodward Avenue (313) 224-3400 Detroit Port Authority 8109 E. Jefferson (313) 331-3842 Ombudsman Office 114 City County Building (313) 224-6000
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Cobo Hall Conference Center 1 Washington Boulevard (313) 877-8111
20
Detroit Chamber of Commerce 1 Woodward Avenue, Suite 1700 Detroit, Michigan 49232 (313) 964-4000 Metropolitan Detroit Convention and Visitors Bureau 211 W. Fort Street, Suite 100 Detroit, Michigan 48226 (313) 202-1952
Publications Crain’s Business 1400 Woodbridge Detroit, MI (888) 909-9111 Detroit News/Free Press 615 W. Lafayette Detroit, MI 48226 (313) 222-6400 Metro Times 733 St. Antoine Detroit, MI (313)961-4060 Michigan Chronicle 479 Ledyard Detroit, MI 48201 (313) 963-5522 Observer and Eccentric Newspapers 805 E. Maple Birmingham, MI (248) 644-1100
Books Beasley, Norman and George W. Stark. Made in Detroit. New York: Putnam’s Sons, 1957. Henrickson, Wilma Wood. Detroit Perspectives, Crossroads and Turning Points. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991. Stark, George W. City of Destiny. Detroit: ArnoldPowers, Inc., 1943.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Hong Kong Hong Kong, Special Administrative Region of China, Asia Founded: Inhabited since prehistoric times, though the earliest modern people lived there by the 2nd millennium B.C. Modern Hong Kong dates back to the British presence, formalized in 1898. Location: Southeastern China, in eastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and China’s Guangdong Province Flag: Red field with a white Hong Kong orchid featuring red stars on each of its five petals. Motto: “A Future of Excellence and Prosperity for All” Flower: The Hong Kong orchid, Bauhinia blakeana. Time Zone: Eight hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT plus eight hours) Ethnic Composition: Chinese, 98%; non-Chinese Asian (mostly Japanese, Indian, Pakistani, Singaporean), 1%; non-Asian (mostly from UK, Canada, Australia, US, New Zealand), 1% Elevation: Victoria Peak on Hong Kong Island rises to 550 m (1,810 ft); Tai Mo Shan on Lantau Island reaches 957 m (3,140 ft) Latitude and Longitude: 22º15´N, 114º10´E Coastline: 733 km (458 mi) Climate: Subtropical, with monsoons between May and August; cool and humid in winter, hot and rainy from spring through summer, warm and sunny in fall. Annual Mean Temperature: 22.2°C (72°F); 15°C (59°F) in February; 27.8°C (82°F) in July Seasonal Average Precipitation: 2,220 mm (88 in) Government: Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China, with a chief executive appointed by Beijing and a legislature combining elected and appointed officials Weights and Measures: Metric Monetary Units: Hong Kong dollar (HK$), with an exchange rate of HK$7.8 to US$1 (December 1999) Telephone Area Codes: 852
1
Introduction
With its spacious harbor offering deepwater anchorage and its prime location on the edge of the teeming continent of Asia, Hong Kong has long been a major center for trade, finance, and small manufacturing. Hong Kong’s commercial importance has ensured its prominence in the global economy as well as in the economy of Asia, a position Hong Kong acquired after the
establishment of British hegemony over the region in the nineteenth century, when Hong Kong was transformed from a minor coastal town into a center of British influence in East Asia. Hong Kong’s prosperity has continued since the return of the territory to China by the British in 1997. Today Hong Kong stands as a bustling metropolis of almost seven million people, a city centered around an island of gleaming skyscrapers reminiscent of Manhattan and
21
Hong Kong
Hong Kong Population Profile Population: 6,097,000 Area: 1,092 sq km (420 sq mi) Description: Special Administrative Region (SAR) by the Chinese government, including harbor, Kowloon Peninsula, New Territories, Stonecutters Island, Lantau Island, Hong Kong Island, and more than 230 smaller islands Ethnic composition: 98% Chinese; 1% nonChinese Asian (Japanese, Indian, Pakistani, Singaporean); 1% non-Asian (mostly from UK, Canada, Australia, US, New Zealand) World population rank1: 35 Percentage of national population2: 0.5% Average yearly growth rate: 3% Nicknames: The Fragrant Harbor ——— 1. The Hong Kong metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of China’s total population living in the Hong Kong metropolitan area.
offering the world a lively and fascinating amalgam of the cultures of East and West. 2
Getting There
Highways Surface access for automobiles, trucks and buses is by three routes between Hong Kong and mainland China. Two bridges at Man Kam To handle traffic to and from China, and a new link was completed in 1985 at Sha Tau Kok. A third connection is at Lok Ma Chau, where a road linked to the New Territories Circular Road (NTCR) was finished in 1989.
22
Due to Hong Kong’s high population density and limited area, there are legal restrictions on the number of vehicles allowed in the city. Even so, about half a million motor vehicles drive Hong Kong’s 1,740 kilometers (1,081 miles) of roads. The highway system centers on the NTCR, which rings the city center. A network of bridges and tunnels provides rail and road connections among the various parts of Hong Kong that are separated by water; one of these is the Tsing Ma Bridge, which is among the longest suspension bridges in the world and links Kowloon with Lantau. Bus and Railroad Service After the repatriation of Hong Kong in 1997, train service was inaugurated between Kowloon and the cities of Beijing and Shanghai. The BeijingKowloon train stops en route at seven intermediate stations. The ShanghaiKowloon train runs every other day and requires 29 hours each way. Airports Air access to the city was improved in 1998 when the Hong Kong International Airport began operating on Chek Lap Kok Island and replaced the old airport at Kai Tak. The new airport is connected to the urban areas of Hong Kong by means of a high-speed rail link; travelers going into Hong Kong can make the 23-minute trip downtown by means of the Airport Express train, from which transfers can be made to shuttle buses and Mass Transit Railway (MTR) trains. The MTR itself can be
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Hong Kong
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
23
Hong Kong reached by a shuttle bus from the airport, and a number of shuttles connect the airport directly to destinations throughout the city. Shipping Access to Hong Kong, the “fragrant harbor,” is readily available by sea for both passenger and freight traffic. A ferry service runs from Tuen Mun to Chek Lap Kok Ferry Pier, from which a shuttle accesses the airport. 3
Getting Around
Bus and Commuter Rail Service Most of the populace uses public transportation, the cheapest and most efficient means of getting around in crowded Hong Kong. Buses are the most readily available and the most used form of public transport and incorporate a minibus service as well. A rapid transit system, the Mass Transit Railway (MTR), connects the main districts of Hong Kong Island and Kowloon with areas as far away as Tsuen Wan in the New Territories. The Kowloon Canton Railway (KCR) runs between Kowloon and Lo Wu, on the border of Hong Kong and mainland China. In the New Territories, the Light Rail Transit (LRT) connects Tuen Mun with Yuen Long. On Hong Kong Island, there is a funicular that connects the Central District with Victoria Peak, and a tram that runs along the island’s northern side. Numerous ferry and hovercraft ply the waters among Hong Kong’s numerous islands and link them with Kowloon and the New Territories.
24
Sightseeing Access to various parts of the city is convenient and relatively inexpensive by both train and bus. Travel within the region is also easily accomplished by means of the train systems and the local buses, and water travel on the different ferries is also cheap and widely used. Sightseers can experience something of traditional Chinese culture in places like the Kam Tin Walled Village (Kut Hing Wei) in the New Territories, the Po Lin Monastery on Lantau Island, or the scenic beauty of the outer islands. Soon both Hong Kong natives and travelers will be able to visit Hong Kong Disneyland, scheduled to open on Penny’s Bay in 2005. 4
People
Hong Kong’s ethnic composition is almost wholly Chinese, from Guangdong province and Hong Kong itself; some ten percent come mostly from Fukien, Chekiang, Shanghai, Kiangsu, and Taiwan. Non-Chinese constitute only about two percent; about half of these are Asians (mostly from Japan, India, Pakistan, and Singapore), and the remainder are mostly British, Americans, Australians, Canadians, and New Zealanders. English and Cantonese remain official languages, with the latter more widely spoken. The use of Mandarin is increasing and will be required in schools. Dialects such as Siyi, Chaochow, Hakka, Hoklo, and Tanka are also used in their respective communities.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Hong Kong
City Fact Comparison Hong Kong (China)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
6,097,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1898
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$180
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$92
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$23
$14
$15
$16
$295
$173
$246
$207
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
87
13
20
11
Oriental Daily News
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
600,000
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1969
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism are the predominant religions in Hong Kong. About ten percent of the population is Christian, with a small number of Hindus, Jews, Sikhs, and Muslims. 5
Neighborhoods
Hong Kong Island is what is typically considered Hong Kong, with crowds pursuing business and pleasure among skyscrapers and elegant department stores and restaurants. The island’s Central District, on the north side, is the hub of the Hong Kong good life. To the east of Central is an entertainment district called Wanchai. Fur-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
ther on is Causeway Bay, another area of hotels, restaurants, department stores, and boutiques. The south of Hong Kong Island is mostly residential, with high-rise luxury apartment buildings. Near Aberdeen, also in the south, are two aquatic centers, Ocean Park and Water World. The theme established by Hong Kong Island’s Central District is continued in Kowloon’s Tsim Sha Tsui district. The area also boasts a number of museums, the Hong Kong Coliseum, and the Jamia Masjid Islamic Center. In the New Territories north of the Kowloon hills, one encounters small to
25
Hong Kong
Aberdeen Harbor, Hong Kong. (Israel Talby; Woodfin Camp)
medium-sized rural settlements. Towns and villages in the low-lying areas are generally inhabited by Cantonese; settlements in the valleys and foothills are usually populated by the Hakka people. Among the latter are some traditional fortress-like walled villages, such as Kut Hing Wei. The Temple of 10,000 Buddhas is one of several beautiful temples in the New Territories. Much of Kowloon and the New Territories are comprised of crowded shanty towns. In contrast to both the luxury of Hong Kong Island and Tsim Sha Tsui and the squalor of the shanties, the outlying islands offer scenic natural beauty. Lantau Island, larger than Hong Kong
26
but with 20,000 people, is rustic enough to be the site of the impressive Buddhist monastery of Po Lin, as well as a Trappist monastery. Lantau’s beaches offer an impression of the beauty of the beaches on many of the other of Hong Kong’s 230-plus islands. Hong Kong also has a small and shrinking population of Tanka, fisherfolk who live on boats in fishing towns, such as Aberdeen, Shau Kei Wan, and Cheung Chau. 6
History
Recently discovered artifacts dating back to Neolithic times indicate that
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Hong Kong Hong Kong has been inhabited for millennia; the earliest modern peoples are thought to have come there from North China in the second millennium B.C. China claimed Hong Kong and its environs about 2,000 years ago, during the Han Dynasty. The Cantonese and later the Hakka settled in the area around the fourteenth century. With its mountainous terrain and lack of fertile soil and fresh water, it was natural that Hong Kong early on became an economic center. With trade came trouble; imperial records mention troops assigned to the area to guard the pearls harvested by the Tanka, while the other two trades plied in Hong Kong appear to have been fishing and opium traffic. The Manchus wiped out the piracy that became rampant by temporarily evacuating Hong Kong in the seventeenth century. The British, expanding into Asia in the early nineteenth century, recognized the value and strategic importance of Hong Kong’s deepwater harbor and began to use it by 1821 to anchor opium-carrying vessels. China’s rulers, concerned about the effect of opium on the county’s populace, eventually sought to prevent the importation of opium. British resistance to Chinese Imperial control resulted in the first Opium War (1839–42), in consequence of which, Britain gained control of Hong Kong Island. The conflict continued, and less than two decades later the second Opium War erupted (1856–60), after which Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island were ceded to the British by the Convention of Peking
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
(1860). Hong Kong’s 235 outlying islands and the New Territories were later leased to Britain for 99 years by the terms of the Convention of 1898. Hong Kong’s previously small population had grown to 120,000 by 1861 and to more than 300,000 at the turn of the century. Subsequent relations between China and Britain were largely antagonistic for the next few decades. Burgeoning Chinese nationalism nurtured a concomitant xenophobia, and Hong Kong became a refuge for political refugees from mainland China after the Chinese Republic was established in 1912. From 1925 to 1927, the Chinese denied British ships access to ports in southern China. In the face of growing hostilities between China and Japan, beginning with Japan’s occupation of Manchuria in 1932 and culminating in the Sino-Japanese War in 1937, China looked to Europe for military supplies and support, and Anglo-Chinese diplomatic relations improved. Hundreds of thousands of Chinese fled to Hong Kong as a result of Japan’s invasion of China. Britain strengthened the colony's defenses, but they proved inadequate, and the Japanese took Hong Kong in December, 1941, during World War II (1939–1945). Britain regained control after Japan’s surrender in 1945, by which time Hong Kong’s population had dropped to 650,000 from its prewar peak of 1.6 million. Hong Kong’s postwar economic recovery proceeded only gradually. A large influx of refugees from the mainland after the Communists took power in Beijing in 1949 added substantially
27
Hong Kong to Hong Kong’s population and labor force, but the city’s economy was hampered by a U.S. ban on trade with Communist China in 1950. Hong Kong eventually underwent an economic boom by the 1960s, due primarily to heavy foreign investment encouraged by liberal tax policies. Political stability was tested by Communist-inspired riots in 1967, but Hong Kong weathered the storm, and more refugees came from the mainland in the 1970s. However, economic and other ties between Hong Kong and the mainland improved throughout the 1970s and 1980s. On July 1, 1997, Hong Kong was returned to Chinese sovereignty by Britain according to a 1984 agreement which refined the stipulations of the Convention of 1898. A committee appointed by China from among Hong Kong’s civic leaders had designated Tung Chee-hua as Hong Kong’s chief executive, and the former British colony became a Special Administrative Region (SAR) under the direct control of China’s central committee. Although the 1984 agreement guaranteed the survival of the established legal, social, and economic systems of Hong Kong for the next 50 years, an interim legislative council had already approved restrictions on political rights in Hong Kong before the Chinese resumed control in 1997. Hong Kong’s economy suffered along with others in Asia in the subsequent economic recession that affected the region. In the legislative elections in May 1998, most of the open seats were won by pro-democracy candidates.
28
7
Government
The government of Hong Kong is formulated after the provisions of the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR), enacted by China’s National People’s Congress in 1990. The Basic Law ensures “one country, two systems,” according to which principle Hong Kong retains its capitalist economy and a large degree of political autonomy while remaining part of China, which provides for Hong Kong’s foreign policy and defense. The previous law code remains in place and is generally that of Britain. A five-member Court of Final Appeal is the highest court, followed by a High Court, which is in turn followed by district, magistrate, and special courts. The chief legislative body is the 60member Legislative Council, 20 of which are directly elected. Executive authority rests with the chief executive, who is directly responsible to Beijing and serves a five-year term. While all these positions were initially appointed by the 400-member Provisional, the positions are to be filled by direct elections by the year 2007. 8
Public Safety
The Commissioner of Police, who is directly responsible to the Chief Executive of the HKSAR, is the commander of the Hong Kong Police Force. The commissioner is assisted by two deputy commissioners, one for operations and one for management.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Hong Kong
Exports of goods and services constitute for the majority of Hong Kong’s economy. (John Blaustein; Woodfin Camp)
The Hong Kong Police Department consists of the Operations Wing and the Support Wing and is divided into six regions: Hong Kong Island, Kowloon East, Kowloon West, New Territories North, New Territories South, and Marine. Force Headquarters consists of five departments: Operations; Crime and Security; Personnel and Training; Management Services; and Finance, Administration and Planning (FAP). In 1998, Hong Kong had an overall crime rate of 1,076 incidents per
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
100,000 people, and a violent crime rate of 220 per 100,000. 9
Economy
In 1998, Hong Kong had an estimated labor force of over 3.3 million. The labor force can be roughly divided into manufacturing (28 percent), services (46 percent) finance (9 percent) communications and transportation (4.5 percent), construction (2.5 percent), and other (ten percent). With exports valuing some $181 billion, primarily in textiles, electronics, and small manufacturing, Hong Kong’s gross
29
Hong Kong domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $175.2 billion. Inflation stood at slightly less than three percent, and unemployment just under five percent. Imports (primarily in the form of food, raw materials, petroleum, and unfinished manufactured products) amounted to $199 billion. While exports of goods and services accounts for the bulk of Hong Kong’s economy, tourism constitutes seven percent of the GDP. Cinematic production is also a significant part in the region’s economy. Hong Kong’s primary trading partners are mainland China and Japan for import sources and the U.S., China, Britain, Canada, Germany, and Japan as export markets. With scarce natural resources, Hong Kong imports much of its food. Water is also largely brought in from the Chinese mainland. Only 12 percent of the land is arable, and of that only half is actually cultivated, mostly in the New Territories. Vegetables are the primary crops. Fishing remains a major industry, with an annual harvest of almost 200,000 metric tons of fish. Two percent of the land is under fish ponds. 10
Environment
Consisting of over 200 islands and a peninsula on the southeast coast of China on the South China Sea and covering a total land area of 1,092 square kilometers (422 square miles), Hong Kong is situated around an outstanding harbor offering 60 square kilometers (23 square miles) of deepwater anchorage. The Sham Chun River defines the
30
border with Guangdong Province, and part of Hong Kong is situated in the Zhu Jiang (Pearl River) delta. On the peninsula are Kowloon and the New Territories. Two of the larger islands are Hong Kong Island and Lantau Island, and there are over 230 smaller outlying islands. Much of the terrain is hilly, with the highest peaks being Tai Mo Shan on Lantau at 957 meters (3,140 feet) and Victoria Peak on Hong Kong Island at 550 meters (1,810 feet). Fifty percent of the region is sparse grass and shrub on poor soil. Seven percent is arable land, although about 40 percent of that lies fallow or uncultivated; one percent is under permanent cultivation; meadows and pastures constitute another one percent; forest and woodland, 12 percent; and two percent is under fish ponds. With annual monsoons—winds from the southwest bearing warm, moist air from the equator—Hong Kong’s climate is subtropical, despite its location within the tropics, and has a rainy season from May through August. Temperatures average 22.2°C (72°F), with a low of 15°C (59°F) in February and a high of 27.8°C (82°F) in July. Average rainfall is about 222 centimeters (88 inches). The climate encourages the lush vegetation found in areas that are not urbanized or barren; much of the extant forest is the result of forestation programs since World War II. 11
Shopping
Hong Kong is well known throughout the world as a shopper’s paradise,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Hong Kong
Locals and tourists engage in the hustle-bustle of Hong Kong’s busy shopping district in Kowloon. (Kim Newton; Woodfin Camp)
and stores and shops of various kinds can be found on almost every corner. The highest concentrations of places to shop, however, are in the Central District, Causeway Bay, and Stanley on Hong Kong Island, and Tsim Sha Tsui, Mongkok, and Yaumati on Kowloon. Department stores include both indigenous Hong Kong stores and stores from abroad. The former are the most prominent in the Central District, among them Wing On, Dragon Seed, and Lane Crawford. Elsewhere one can find the British store Marks & Spenser and Japanese stores like Seibu, Isetan, and Mistukoshi. Hong Kong also fea-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
tures a number of large malls that offer a concentration of fine stores, quality restaurants, and upscale boutiques. Also found throughout the region are Chinese product emporia specializing in Chinese goods such as clothing, silks, embroidery, jade, and cloisonné. There are several shopping lanes and street bazaars around Hong Kong, among them East and West Li Yuen Streets, Pottinger Street, Man Wah Lane, and Jardine’s Crescent. 12
Education
Schools are divided into primary, junior secondary, and senior secondary
31
Hong Kong levels, with examinations for passage between each. Education through the junior secondary level (for children between the ages of six and 15) is mandatory. About 60 percent of all these schools are private; 30 percent receive some form of government subsidy; and the rest are public. Nearly all of Hong Kong's people have at least a primary school education. Enrollment in the primary schools in mid-1990s totaled about 470,000 while total enrollment in secondary and vocational schools came to around 520,000. Colleges and universities in Hong Kong are generally small; the University of Hong Kong (founded 1911) and the Chinese University of Hong Kong (1963), for example, have a combined enrollment of around 14,000. These two schools, together with Hong Kong Polytechnic (1972) and Hong Kong Baptist College (1956), are the main institutions of higher education. There are also students at numerous other schools for vocational, technical, and industrial instruction. The City University of Hong Kong is a new school that opened in 1984, representative of recent efforts to expand the size and the number of institutions for post-secondary education in Hong Kong. Thousands of students also go abroad to pursue their studies. 13
Health Care
Improving health indices and a steady decline in major communicable diseases point to a continued increase
32
in public health, attributable for the most part to efforts to educate the public (such as an anti-smoking campaign) and programs to make preventive medicine and personal health services readily available. Cancer, heart disease, and stroke are the usual causes of death. Moreover, the Hong Kong public generally enjoys a relatively high quality of life. Life expectancy is just under 77 years for men and slightly above 82 for women. A growing elderly population has become an increasing concern. Hospitals, like the schools, are either private, partly subsidized, or public. Among the region’s many hospitals are St. John’s and Ruttonjee on Hong Kong Island, Queen Mary and Hong Kong Buddhist Hospitals in Kowloon, and Caritas and Tai Po Hospitals in the New Territories. Social welfare programs are mostly limited to emergency relief, with some provision for old age and disabilities. Hospital services are supplemented by specialized clinics and clinics in outlying areas, some of them on boats, in an effort to provide all citizens of Hong Kong with access to health care. 14
Media
Hong Kong’s international commercial importance and strategic location make it a natural communications center. Hong Kong is thus a base of operations for East and Southeast Asian bureaus for a number of news services. Printing and publishing are also significant industries in Hong Kong, and the city has several dozen newspapers and
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Hong Kong even more periodicals in Chinese and other languages. Among the newspapers are the Hong Kong Daily News, the Sing Tao Daily, and the South China Morning Post. Several television and radio companies serve Hong Kong, among which are Asia Television, Metro Broadcast Corporation, and Hong Kong Commercial Broadcasting. 15
Sports
Hong Kong has two particularly impressive sports venues, the Queen Elizabeth Stadium and the Hong Kong Coliseum, one of Asia’s largest indoor stadiums, at which it is able to host international sporting events. Among such events held in the city are the Hong Kong Marathon, the Hong Kong Open Golf Championship, the International Dragon Boat Races, Hong Kong Sevens for rugby, and tournaments of various sports. Horse racing is a Hong Kong passion and can be experienced at two courses, Happy Valley on Hong Kong Island and Shatin in the New Territories. Many clubs around Hong Kong offer excellent facilities where members can play everything from cricket to hockey and tennis. 16
Parks and Recreation
Some 40 percent of Hong Kong’s land is devoted to its park system, and its 21 parks scattered throughout Hong Kong and Lantau Islands and the New Territories are well used by the citizens. Tai Chi, hiking, bicycling, kite flying, and picnicking are popular activities for
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
which the ultra-urban people of Hong Kong resort to the wooded areas surrounding the city. Hong Kong’s waterfront setting also provides ample opportunity for aquatic recreation, such as pleasure sailing, waterskiing, and canoeing, and the city has several boating clubs. Organized recreation is also available at community centers. Among the larger parks are Hong Kong Park in the Central District, which has a Museum of Tea Ware, a greenhouse, an aviary, gardens, and sports facilities. Victoria Park is built on reclaimed land in Causeway Bay and is a typical urban park. Behind the old Governor’s House are the Zoological and Botanical Gardens, which have beautiful manicured gardens, a small zoo, and an aviary. In the New Territories, the MacLehose Trail is a 100-kilometer (60-mile) parkway linking eight separate parks and offering dramatic scenery and coastal views. 17
Performing Arts
Venues for the performing arts in Hong Kong include City Hall (for classical music, theater, and film), the Hong Kong Arts Centre, the Fringe Club (mostly for contemporary and avant garde) in Central District. Queen Elizabeth Stadium (for ballet and pop and orchestra concerts) and the Hong Kong Academy for the Performing Arts (with two theaters for dramatic performances and classical and modern dance) are in Wanchai. The Hong Kong Stadium in Happy Valley is used for pop concerts,
33
Hong Kong
Visiting troupes of the Bejing Opera perform in Shouson Theater. (Mike Yamashita; Woodfin Camp)
as is the Hong Kong Coliseum in Kowloon. Performance groups include the Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra, which performs in City Hall; the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra, playing traditional Chinese music; some ten troupes performing Cantonese opera; and visiting troupes from the mainland that perform Peking opera. The Hong Kong Dance Company performs Chinese dance and contemporary choreography on Chinese themes. The Hong Kong Ballet performs traditional and contemporary Western pieces while the City Contemporary Dance Company
34
performs more innovative works. The Fringe Club presents drama of various sorts in English and Cantonese, and the Zumi Icosahedron is an avant garde drama and dance troupe. 18
Libraries and Museums
The major higher educational institutions, such as the University of Hong Kong and the Chinese University of Hong Kong, have fairly comprehensive libraries. The city also operates a system of 25 public libraries, including two mobile library units.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Hong Kong Several of the region’s museums are located in Kowloon. Among these are the Hong Kong History Museum in Kowloon Park, the Space Museum by the waterfront, the Hong Kong Museum of Art, and the Science Museum. Also in Kowloon is Young’s Wax Museum, with figures of personages from Chinese history, such as Confucius and Sun Yat-sen. The Lei Cheng Uk Museum is a burial vault from the Han Dynasty (c. A.D. 25–220). The Sung Dynasty Wax Museum depicts life in a Sung Dynasty village, from about A.D. 960 to 1280. On Hong Kong Island, the Fung Ping Shan Museum, operated by the University of Hong Kong, has a large collection of Chinese and Nestorian antiquities. The Museum of Chinese Historical Relics is located in Wanchai. And the Museum of Tea Ware can be found in Hong Kong Park. 19
To u r i s m
Some three million tourists visit Hong Kong each year, and the tourist industry accounts for seven percent of Hong Kong’s gross national product (GNP). Almost all visitors from abroad need both passport and visa to enter the region. Package tours by which travelers arrive by air or sea are readily available with a variety of options, and both government-run tourist bureaus and private tourist organizations have a wealth of information and services to offer. Access to various parts of the city from the airport is convenient and relatively inexpensive by both train and
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
bus. Travel within the region is easily accomplished by means of the train systems and the local buses, and water travel on the different ferries is also cheap and widely used. Tourists can experience the ultra-modern in Hong Kong’s abundant department stores, boutiques, and malls, or experience something of traditional Chinese culture in places like the Kam Tin Walled Village (Kut Hing Wei) in the New Territories, the Po Lin Monastery on Lantau Island, or the scenic beauty of the outer islands. Soon tourists will also be able to visit Hong Kong Disneyland, scheduled to open on Penny’s Bay in 2005. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY-FEBRUARY Lunar New Year Birthday of Che Kung Hong Kong Arts Festival Hong Kong City Festival
FEBRUARY Yuen Siu (Spring Lantern Festival)
APRIL Ching Ming (Rembrance of Ancestors) Birthday of Tin Hau Hong Kong International Film Festival
APRIL/MAY Cheung Chau Bun
MAY Birthday of the Buddha Birthday of Tam Kung
JUNE Dragon Boat Festival (Tuen Ng) Birthday of Kwan Tai
JULY Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Establishment Day
35
Hong Kong
A festival follows the International Dragon Boat Races held every June. Because of Hong Kong’s sports facilities, the city can provide for events like these. (Kim Newton; Woodfin Camp)
AUGUST Maidens (Seven Sisters) Festival Yue Lan (Hungry Ghost) Festival
SEPTEMBER Mid-Autumn Festival Monkey God Festival Chinese Opera Fortnight
SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER Birthday of Confucius Chung Yeung
OCTOBER National Day
OCTOBER/NOVEMBER Festival of Asian Arts
36
21
Famous Citizens
William Alison Anders (b. 1933), American astronaut on Apollo 8. Jackie Chan (b. 1954), actor. Marguerite Higgins (1920–1966), Pulitzer Prize-winning writer (Korean and Vietnam Wars). Bruce Lee (1940–1973), actor and martial arts master. Joan Lorring (b. 1926), actress, best known for her starring role in The Corn Is Green, 1949. Daniel C. Tsang, American librarian and co-founder of AWARE.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Hong Kong Kitty Tsui, writer, best known for Breathless, 1995, and Words of a Woman Who Breathes Fire. Lin Yutang (1895–1976), writer and philologist. 22
For Further Study
Websites CIA World Factbook (Hong Kong). [Online] Available http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ hk.html (accessed December 9, 1999). Daily information bulletin for weather, news and major speeches by government officials. [Online] Available http://www.info.gov.hk/ isd/news/ (accessed December 9, 1999). Hong Kong government. [Online] Available http://www.info.gov.hk/hkfacts/facts_e.htm (accessed December 9, 1999). Hong Kong government. [Online] Available http://www.info.gov.hk/orgindex.htm (accessed December 9, 1999). Hong Kong government Works Bureau and the Planning, Environment and Lands Bureau. [Online] Available http:// www.wpelb.gov.hk/ (accessed December 9, 1999). Hong Kong Travel Association. [Online] Available www.hkta.org (accessed December 9, 1999). Official website of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region [Online] Available government.http://info.gov.hk/ (accessed December 9, 1999). PBS: Hong Kong: Lives in Transition. [Online] Available http://www.pbs.org/pov/ hongkong/ (accessed December 9, 1999).
Government Offices Central Government Offices Lower Albert Road Hong Kong Office of the Ombudsman 31/F Gateway Tower 1 25 Canton Road Tsimshatsui, Kowloon Hong Kong
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Hong Kong Tourist Association 548 Fifth Avenue New York, NY 10036 (212) 947-5008 Hong Kong Tourist Association 35/F Jardine House 1 Connaught Place Central Hong Kong
Publications Government Publications Centre G/F, Low Block, Queensway Government Offices 66 Queensway, Hong Kong Publications Unit, Census and Statistics Department 19/F, Wanchai Tower, 12 Harbour Road Wan Chai, Hong Kong
Books Cameron, Nigel. An Illustrated History of Hong Kong. Oxford, 1991. Chan, Ming K., ed. The Challenge of Hong Kong's Reintegration with China. (Hsiang-kang hui kuei Chung-kuo chih t`iao chan / Ch`en Mingch`iu pien chu.) Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1997. Cheng, Joseph Y. S., and Sonny S. H. Lo. From Colony to SAR : Hong Kong's Challenges Ahead. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1995. Dimbleby, Jonathan. The Last Governor: Chris Patten & the Handover of Hong Kong. London: Little, Brown, 1997. Elegant, Robert. Hong Kong. Time-Life, 1977. Fosh, Patricia, ed., et al. Hong Kong Management and Labour: Continuity and Change. New York: Routledge, 1999. Hsiung, James C., ed. Hong Kong the Super Paradox : Life After Return to China. New York, N.Y.: St. Martin's Press, 1999. Leung, Beatrice, and Joseph Cheng. Hong Kong SAR: In Pursuit of Domestic and International Order. Sha Tin, N.T., Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1997. Lo, C. P. Hong Kong. NY: Belhaven Press, 1992. McGurn, William. Perfidious Albion: The Abandonment of Hong Kong, 1997. Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1992. Morris, Jan. Hong Kong. Random, 1988, 1989. Patten, Christopher. East and West: China, Power, and the Future of Asia. Random House/Times Books, 1998.
37
Hong Kong Pang-kwong, Li, ed. Political Order and Power Transition in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1997. Rafferty, Kevin. City on the Rocks: Hong Kong's Uncertain Future. Viking, 1990. Rioni, S. G., ed. Politics and Economics of Hong Kong. Commack, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers, 1997. Scott, Ian, ed. Institutional Change and the Political Transition in Hong Kong. New York: St.
38
Martin's Press, 1998. Segal, Gerald. The Fate of Hong Kong. New York: St. Martin's, 1993. So, Alvin Y. Hong Kong's Embattled Democracy : a Societal Analysis. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999. Warner, John. Fragrant Harbour: Early Photographs of Hong Kong. Hippocrene, 3rd ed., 1980. Welsh, Frank. A Borrowed Place: The History of Hong Kong. Kodansha, 1993.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Honolulu Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America Founded: In 1850, Kamehameha III proclaimed Honolulu the capital city of the independent Kingdom of Hawaii. Under US control, the county of Oahu was established on July 1, 1905. Two years later, it was renamed the city and county of Honolulu. A city charter was adopted when Hawaii became a state in 1959. Location: Southern shore of Oahu, one of eight major islands in the state of Hawaii, in the northern Pacific Ocean, 2,390 miles from California, and 3,850 miles from Japan Flag: Honolulu does not fly a city flag. Motto: Ua mau ke ea o ka aina i ka pono (state motto, attributed to King Kamehameha III, meaning “The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness.”) Island Flower: Ilima Time Zone: Hawaii is located in its own time zone, called Hawaiian Standard Time. The state does not observe Daylight Savings Time. Noon in Hawaii = 2 PM on the US West Coast/5 PM on the US East Coast (Standard Time, November through August). During mainland Daylight Savings (April–October), there is a three hour difference with the West Coast and a six hour difference with the East Coast. Ethnic Composition: 24% Caucasian; 21% Japanese; 17% mixed ancestry, other than part-Hawaiian; 16% part-Hawaiian; 7% Filipino; 6% Chinese, 1% pure Hawaiian Latitude and Longitude: 21°18’25 N, 157°51’30 W Coastline: Southern shore of the island of Oahu Climate: Typically warm and sunny throughout the year, with slight temperature variations; nearly constant trade winds moderate heat and humidity. Kona weather, with warmer winds from the south, brings higher temperatures and humidity. Winter months are wetter, and sometimes stormier, but rainbows quickly follow the rains. Annual Mean Temperature: Summer highs range from 85 to 87°F (29.4–30.6°C); night lows average 70 to 74°F (21.1–23.3°C). In the winter, daytime highs range from 70 to 74°F (21.1–23.3°C); night lows average 65 to 69°F (C18.3–20.6°C). Average Annual Precipitation: Varies dramatically in different parts of the city. The waterfront district of Waikiki only averages about 25 inches of rain, but the Lyon Arboretum in the upper Manoa Valley, about 5 miles to the north, averages 158 inches. Government: Mayor and nine-member city council. Weights and Measures: Standard US Telephone Area Code: 808 in the city and county of Honolulu
1
Introduction
Aptly named “The Gathering Place,” Oahu is the hub of the Hawaiian Islands, and Honolulu is the heartbeat of Oahu. Most of Honolulu is settled in a narrow shoulder on the south shore
of Oahu, nestled between mountains and the Pacific Ocean, and surrounded by fields of sugarcane and pineapple, ranch lands, and farms. One of the most ethnically diverse cities in the United States, more than 75 percent of the state’s multicultural population
39
Honolulu
Honolulu Population Profile Population: 377,050 Area: 1,540 sq km (594 sq mi–Oahu) Ethnic composition: 24% Caucasian; 21% Japanese; 17% mixed ancestry, other than part-Hawaiian; 16% part-Hawaiian; 7% Filipino; 6% Chinese, 1% pure Hawaiian World population rank1: unranked Percentage of national population2: <1% Nickname: The Gathering Place ——— 1. The Honolulu metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of the total US population living in the Honolulu metropolitan area.
reside there. The economic and entertainment capital of Hawaii, Honolulu is a sophisticated metropolis with a plethora of activities, attractions, and events; however, the city also enjoys a tropical atmosphere and magnificent natural beauty. Much of Hawaii’s culture is preserved in Honolulu, in its many museums, churches, national memorials and monuments, and the Iolani Palace, the only royal palace in the United States. Perhaps all of these are reasons why 70,000 travelers from around the world visit the island each day.
the city is compact and easy to navigate, the private automobile remains a predominant mode of transport, often clogging the freeways during rush hour. The city has experimented with water transport with little success. Mayor Jeremy Harris’ proposed light-rail system has not been well received. Airports Located in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, Honolulu did not become a popular tourist destination until the airplane age. Today, most people who come to Oahu arrive at the Honolulu International Airport. Before 1932, the airport was named after Commander John Rodgers. He made the first flight from the mainland United States to Hawaii in 1925. It is possible to get to Hawaii by cruise ship and travel to the other islands by cruise ship, but the bulk of inter-island travel is serviced by airlines. Hawaiian Airlines has daily flights to Seattle, San Francisco and Los Angeles. The smaller Aloha Airlines also serves the West Coast. All major U.S. airlines fly to the islands. Japanese airlines have daily service to Honolulu and neighboring islands. Honolulu is a hub for many Pacific Islands. Shipping
2
Getting There
Highways The island of Oahu has two major freeways that are part of the national highway system: H-1 and H-2. While
40
Honolulu is located at the crossroads of transpacific cargo carriers, and its port has extensive shipping facilities. The port also serves local industries, including pineapple canneries, sugar refineries, and clothing factories.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Honolulu
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
41
Honolulu 3
Getting Around
Bus and Commuter Rail Service Oahu Transit Services operates a successful public bus service. The American Public Transit Association named “The Bus” America’s Best Transit System in 1994–1995. “The Bus” transports 260,000 people over 60,000 miles each day. Buses, many of them equipped with bicycle racks, travel throughout the island. With 1,350 employees, “The Bus” is one of Oahu's largest employers. Sightseeing Honolulu ranks first in tourist arrivals, and some of the state's most visited attractions are within its boundaries. In Oahu, most visitors head for the Waikiki district of Honolulu. Other popular spots in and around the city include the USS Arizona Memorial and Visitors Center in Pearl Harbor; Punchbowl Crater, home of the National Memorial Cemetery; the retired battleship USS Missouri; the Queen Emma Summer Palace; and Iolani Palace, the only royal palace in the United States. 4
People
Honolulu is one of the most diversified cities in America. About 24 percent of residents are Caucasian; 21 percent are Japanese; 17 percent are mixed ancestry, other than part-Hawaiian; 16 percent are part-Hawaiian; seven percent are Filipino, six percent are Chinese; and about one percent are pure Hawaiian. There are many small Pacific and Asian minorities. According to the
42
1990 U.S. Census, in the city and county of Honolulu, 264,372 people were white; 195,149 were of Japanese ancestry; 120,029 were Filipino; 63,265 were Chinese; 91,967 were Hawaiian; 25,875 were black; 3,532 were Native American; and 72,042 were of other heritage. Early Hawaiians worshipped many ancestral gods and spirits. They made daily offerings to Pele, goddess of the volcano. They also made offerings to Ku, the god of war, and Lono, the god of fertility. Today, many Hawaiians hold on to their beliefs. Others have accepted Christianity or other religions. The remains of heiau, places of worship for early Hawaiians, are found throughout Oahu. The Catholic Church, with some 200,000 members, is the largest congregation in the state. Buddhists are second, with more than 85,000 members. There are Jewish, Hindu, and Muslim houses of worship as well. English and Hawaiian are the official languages. Hawaiian, a melodious language, is a Polynesian dialect. It has only 12 letters: the vowels a, e, i, o, u, and the consonants h, k, l, m, n, p and w. In order to clarify pronunciation, a glottal stop (‘) or ‘okina—similar to the sound between the oh's in the English oh-oh—is used in the Hawaiian language. The state's name often is spelled Hawai‘i. About 85 percent of all place names in Hawaii are in Hawaiian. Many Hawaiian phrases and words, as well as words from immigrant groups, have been incorporated into everyday usage. Some common Hawaiian words include aloha (a word of many meanings that
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Honolulu
City Fact Comparison Honolulu (United States)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
377,050
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1850
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$112
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$52
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$13
$14
$15
$16
$177
$173
$246
$207
Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
2
13
20
11
The Honolulu Advertiser
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
102,358
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1856
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
expresses love, affection, compassion, grace and charity. It is often used as a greeting), and mahalo (thanks). Pidgin, a simplified form of English, is still used in the islands. It was developed by Hawaii's many immigrant groups to communicate with one another. Modern pidgin has been defined as local slang and has come under attack by some educators who believe it is keeping children from speaking proper English. Others defend pidgin as a cultural treasure unique to Hawaii. Pidgin is not easy to pick up. It has a cadence of its own, double meanings, and borrowed words from many
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
languages. Some examples include talk story: to have a conversation, to gossip; ono grinds: good food (or broke da mouth, for delicious); brah: brother or friend; I am pau: I am done, finished; and Pau Hana: quitting time. Japanese and other Asian languages also are widely spoken. 5
Neighborhoods
One of the world's most famous neighborhoods is Waikiki, on the southern shores of the island of Oahu. Separated from the rest of Honolulu by the Ala Wai Canal, Waikiki truly seems to be a city of its own. With about 25,000 residents and thousands of daily
43
Honolulu
Honolulu is on the island of Oahu, one of the eight major islands of Hawaii. (Ignacio Lobos; EPD Photos)
visitors, Waikiki never seems to sleep. It has more than 400 restaurants and well over 300 bars and clubs. Yet, remarkably, Waikiki architecture, except for a few buildings, is quite unremarkable. Most are large concrete monoliths with little visual interest. North of the city is the neighborhood of Makiki, one of the most densely populated areas in the city. Makiki Heights, which as the name implies, climbs up the hills that buttress the northern end of the city, is one of the most exclusive neighborhoods in Honolulu. Just to the east is Manoa Valley, where beautiful residential homes are surrounded by lush green hills on three sides. It is also one of the rainiest areas in the city. One of the most typi-
44
cal buildings in the city is the “walk up,” a two, three, or four-story building without elevators. Because of its benign weather, more than 80 percent of households do not use heating or air conditioners. 6
History
Archaeological evidence suggests that the first settlers to the Hawaiian Islands arrived from the Marquesas sometime between 500 and 750. Settlers from Tahiti arrived sometime in 1000 and may have enslaved the Marquesans, forcing them to build temples and work in the fields.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Honolulu The British explorer Captain James Cook (1728–79) was the first known Westerner to sight the island of Oahu, on January 18, 1778. He was killed in a fight with Hawaiians when he returned to the islands a year later. Many Westerners would soon come to the islands, some with the idea of conquest in mind. By the late eighteenth century, powerful Hawaiian rulers battled for control of the archipelago. In 1795, King Kamehameha the Great (c. 1758– 1819; r. 1792–1819), who controlled the Big Island of Hawaii, captured Maui and Molokai and set his eyes on Oahu. Kamehameha's large fleet of battle canoes landed in present-day Waikiki. His soldiers moved across the valley and into the mountains pursuing Kalanikupule, the king of Oahu. Kamehameha had quite an advantage. Among his troops were several Western sharpshooters with firearms. With superior firepower, they forced Kalanikupule's troops high into the valley. In the final battle, hundreds of Oahuans were forced to jump to their deaths from the Nuuanu Pali (cliffs). After his victory, Kamehameha united the islands under one kingdom. During the time of the Kamehameha's invasion, Honolulu was little more than a village of small huts near the water. In 1793, Captain William Brown directed his English frigate Butterworth into what is now known as Honolulu Harbor. He named it Fair Heaven, but it came to be known as Brown’s Harbor. It is not clear how the harbor came to be known as Honolulu, which means protected bay. But it was
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
clear to sailors that the bay offered a perfect place to set anchor. As more ships came, Honolulu began to grow. By 1809, King Kamehameha moved his residence from Waikiki to Honolulu to tighten his control on the valuable sandalwood trade. By the 1820s, whaling ships began to stop in Honolulu. Their crews were a rough crowd. Taverns and brothels soon followed to serve their needs. Not far behind were Christian missionaries who traveled to the islands to convert the Hawaiians. The missionaries exerted enormous influence. By the mid-1800s, they managed to convince the Hawaiian royalty to prosecute drunken sailors and curb the growing prostitution trade. Most whaling boats abandoned Honolulu for the safer confines of Lahaina on Maui. The sons of these original missionaries would in time become businessmen who wielded enormous power in the islands. They came to control most of the land, and operated large and profitable sugar plantations. Westerners also brought many diseases that decimated the native Hawaiian population. Faced with a worker shortage, the plantation owners brought thousands of Japanese, Chinese, Portuguese, Filipinos, and Koreans to work the land. Hawaii had become a desirable place to outsiders. In 1843, the British held the island for five months before leaving. The French followed in 1849. The Hawaiians got their kingdom back but could not stop the steady flow of foreigners coming to the islands. By 1893, the Hawaiian kingdom was once again under siege by outsiders. White
45
Honolulu
Sugar plantations, which were established by wealthy businessmen in the 1800s, attract groups of school children and tourists. Today, sugarcane is a staple crop of Hawaii. (Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp)
planters and businessmen plotted with the United States Minister to Hawaii, John L. Stevens, to overthrow the Hawaiian monarchy. Queen Lili'uokalani (1838–1917; r. 1891– 1894), who had recently succeeded her brother, Kalakaua, was pushing for democratic reforms when she was forced to relinquish her authority. But the queen did not cede her powers to the provisional government that had just overthrown her. She ceded it to the United States with the hope that it would “undo the action of its representatives and reinstate me in the authority which I claim as the constitutional sovereign of the Hawaiian Islands.”
46
U.S. President Grover Cleveland (1837–1908; president 1885–89; 1893– 97) agreed the overthrow of Queen Lili'uokalani had been illegal. “By an act of war, committed with the participation of a diplomatic representative of the United States,” Cleveland wrote, “and without authority of Congress, the Government of a feeble but friendly and confiding people has been overthrown. A substantial wrong has thus been done which a due regard for our national character as well as the rights of the injured people requires we should endeavor to repair.” Cleveland ordered the lowering of the U.S. flag, but the provisional government refused. Hawaiians, greatly
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Honolulu outnumbered and without weapons to defend themselves, were no longer in control of their own destiny. The provisional government in Honolulu systematically tightened its control of the islands, even imprisoning Queen Lili'uokalani for several months. By 1898, Hawaiians could only watch as the United States finally annexed the islands. “Because of the overthrow and annexation, Hawaiian control and Hawaiian citizenship were replaced with American control and American citizenship. We suffered a unilateral redefinition of our homeland and our people, a displacement and a dispossession in our own country,” wrote Haunani-Kay Trask, professor of Hawaiian Studies at the University of Hawaii. Today, many of the remaining Hawaiians are among the poorest residents on the islands. For the United States, the Territory of Hawaii—especially Honolulu— became a key military post. Large installations were built, including bases inside Diamond Head, an extinct volcano and important Honolulu landmark. Massive guns pointed out to sea. Through the early 1900s, the military presence grew steadily. “A day that will live in infamy,” President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882– 1945; president 1933–45) told Americans on December 7, 1941, after 360 Japanese aircraft dropped bombs on Pearl Harbor, just west of Honolulu, and other military bases throughout the island of Oahu. A 798-kilogram (1,760-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
pound) armor-piercing bomb slammed through the deck of the USS Arizona and ignited its forward ammunition magazine. The massive explosion at about 8:10 AM was heard in Honolulu. In less than nine minutes, the ship sank with its crew. The loss of the Arizona symbolized the beginning of World War II (1939–45) for Americans; the explosion that instantly galvanized public opinion in favor of the war effort. Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, who planned the attack on Pearl Harbor even though he opposed going to war against the United States, said he feared that Japan “had awakened a sleeping giant and filled him with a terrible resolve.” In all, 2,341 military personnel and 54 civilians were killed. More than 50 of the bombs that fell on Honolulu were American Navy anti-aircraft shells that missed their targets. The Japanese destroyed eight battleships, three destroyers, and 188 planes, bombing several military targets throughout the island. The Japanese lost 64 men, 29 aircraft, and five midget submarines. In the middle of the Pacific, Honolulu played a crucial role in the war against Japan. More than one million soldiers passed through the city on their way to battles in the Pacific. Thousands who died in the war were buried in a cemetery in Honolulu. Its residents lived under martial law for more than three years, the only place in the United States subjected to such measures.
47
Honolulu
Pearl Harbor, a key military post for the United States, was bombed by the Japanese on December 7, 1941. (Gerd Ludwig; Woodfin Camp)
In many ways, the World War II effort demanded more from civilians living in the territory of Hawaii than anywhere else in the United States. In Honolulu, military authorities declared martial law and suspended civil liberties the day of the attack. Civilian authorities expected martial law to last only a few months, but for the next three years, Honolulu and the islands became virtual armed military camps. During the war, as much as one-third of the island of Oahu was occupied by military forces. The lives of regular citizens were drastically altered by the war. Japanese immigrants and their American-born second generation in Hawaii immediately came under suspicion, and their loyalties were questioned. They exceeded 40 percent of the population,
48
with 124,000 American citizens and 45,000 immigrants. The military forced Americans of Japanese ancestry who worked at military bases to wear a black-bordered badge to indicate their ethic origin. Their banks, Shinto shrines, department stores, and language schools were confiscated and 1,875 Japanese Americans were arrested and sent to relocation or internment camps on the mainland. “Speak American” posters could be seen throughout Honolulu, one of the most ethnically diverse areas of the United States. While Japanese Americans were singled out, the war and martial law affected the entire population. Everyone was required to carry a gas mask at all times. The beautiful beaches of Waikiki were covered with barbed wire. Curfews and blackouts forced
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Honolulu everyone indoors by 6:00 PM. Every citizen in the islands was fingerprinted, the first mass fingerprinting of civilians in U.S. history. Phone calls and mail were censored, and the military issued dollar bills—with a Hawaii imprint—that could only be used on the islands. Hawaii residents didn't complain much about their plight and were often eager to prove their loyalty. More than 40,000 volunteered to serve in the armed forces. Among them were Americans of Japanese Ancestry (AJA) who joined the all-AJA 100th Infantry Battalion and the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, one of the most highly decorated units in the war. The years 1941 through 1945 would forever alter the character of Honolulu and the Hawaiian Islands. On August 21, 1959, Hawaii became the fiftieth state of the United States. Most people celebrated, but for many native Hawaiians, becoming a state was just another blow against dreams of sovereignty. In 1993, in a joint resolution, Congress formally apologized to the Hawaiian people for the illegal overthrow of Queen Lili'uokalani. Many native Hawaiians continue to press for some type of sovereignty. Status as a new state, the tourism hype, romantic and often inaccurate Hollywood movies about Hawaii, and the selling of the Hawaiian culture soon turned the islands into a major travel destination for Americans. Honolulu’s Waikiki District, which in the early twentieth century was mostly wetlands
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
and fertile agricultural land, came to host more than 30,000 hotel rooms by the 1990s. On a typical day, Waikiki, which has a population of about 25,000 people, hosts thousands of visitors. Honolulu felt the growing pressures. Uncontrolled growth littered the city with ugly buildings. Rents went up, and many Honolulu residents soon were unable to afford to buy their own homes. Tourism brought jobs, but mostly low-paying jobs. By the 1990s, Hawaii, and Honolulu became heavily dependent on tourism, especially Japanese tourism. By 1999, the Asian economic downturn affected Honolulu, due to the steady erosion of Asian visitors in the previous two years. 7
Government
Oahu is incorporated as the city and county of Honolulu. The mayor is elected to a four-year term, but cannot serve for more than two consecutive terms. The mayor appoints a managing director to run several city departments. The Council has nine members, each elected to a four-year term. Like the mayor, council members cannot serve for more than two consecutive terms. 8
Public Safety
Honolulu ranks as one of the safest cities in America, with low crime rates. The Police Department reported an 11 percent drop in overall crime in 1998, the lowest in ten years. Police officials believe greater efforts at community policing have decreased overall crime.
49
Honolulu Hawaii were in an economic downturn. Hawaii is highly dependent on Japanese tourism, but the Asian economic crisis cut into the number of visitors. Honolulu is located at the crossroads of transpacific cargo carriers, and its port has extensive shipping facilities. The port also serves local industries, including pineapple canneries, sugar refineries, and clothing factories. 10 Sealife Park provides educational programs for students of all ages. (Mike Yamashita; Woodfin Camp)
During 1998, 47,453 crimes were reported in Honolulu, a decrease of 11 percent from 1997. In 1995, 67,000 crimes were reported. Violent crime was down by 11 percent in 1998, and property crime had a similar drop. The largest decrease came in larceny-theft. Tourists are often targeted by petty larceny. Rental cars are particularly vulnerable. 9
Economy
Tourism is the most important industry in Hawaii, especially in Honolulu, which is the leading economic center of the state. Tourism brings between $8 billion and $9 billion to the state each year, or about 55 percent of all income. The military contributes about 19 percent while services and merchandise contribute about 26 percent. During 1998–99, while the mainland United States was thriving economically, Honolulu and the rest of
50
Environment
With close to 900,000 residents in less than 1,554 square kilometers (600 square miles), Oahu, once a pristine island, has suffered much environmental degradation. Sugar plantations and other agricultural activities have added to pollution problems. There is little air pollution, but the island remains sensitive to water pollution. Some of its beaches are in danger of erosion. However, the endangered green turtle has shown signs of recovery in Hawaii. 11
Shopping
Because it is highly dependent on tourism, Oahu offers a great deal of shopping, from giant malls to small kitsch souvenir shops. Many tourists take home Hawaiian shirts, even surfboards made locally. Flower leis are also very popular. 12
Education
There are four major colleges in Oahu. The University of Hawaii has its main campus in the Manoa Valley in Honolulu. A branch of UH, as it is
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Honolulu known locally, is located in West Oahu. The East-West Center, established in 1960 to promote technical and cultural exchange between the United States and Asian countries, is located at the UH Manoa Campus. Chaminade University was established in 1950, and Hawaii Pacific University, which attracts students from throughout the world, was established in 1953. UH's three campuses and seven community colleges have a total enrollment of about 50,000 undergraduate and graduate students. UH offers degrees in more than 80 programs, including oceanography, tropical agriculture, and Hawaiian studies. Kapiolani Community College in Honolulu is renowned for its culinary school. Also in Oahu is the Hawaii Campus of Brigham Young University. 13
Health Care
Hawaii ranks first in the United States in life expectancy, with about 76 years for men and 81 years for women. They are considered among the healthiest in the world. The state has 240 doctors and 82 dentists for every 100,000 people. In Oahu, there are 11 major hospitals. While heart disease and cancer are leading causes of death in Hawaii, sunburn is one of the most common ailments. 14
Media
Two daily newspapers, The Honolulu Advertiser, and The Star-Bulletin, serve Honolulu. There are several weeklies, including some that cater to immi-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
grant communities. The major networks, ABC, CBS, NBC, and FOX, have local affiliates. Oceanic Cable offers dozens of channels to subscribers. Major West Coast newspapers often reach Honolulu readers on the day of publication, and The New York Times offers home delivery. 15
Sports
There are no professional sports teams in Hawaii, but in Honolulu, the University of Hawaii provides plenty of action. Women’s and men’s NCAA volleyball is quite popular, with some of the more competitive matches played in front of sell-out crowds. The Wahine (women) have won several national titles. The university football team had a rough decade in the 1990s but finished the 1999 season with a winning record. Water sports rule in Hawaii, especially in Oahu, which has nearly 600 surfing sites, including the famous Banzai Pipeline. North Shore, about a halfhour's drive north of Honolulu, is host to some of the most important surfing and body board events in the world. During the winter, waves reach six to nine meters (20 to 30 feet) in height, with some breaks as high as 12 meters (40 feet). Summer is the best time to surf on the south shore. Outrigger canoe racing is one of the fastest growing sports in the islands. In January 2000, public school authorities were considering making it an official sport.
51
Honolulu 16
Parks and Recreation
Oahu has more than 60 beach parks, including the large Ala Moana, just west of Waikiki. Beach parks are popular with Oahu families. During weekends at Ala Moana, many people arrive at the break of dawn to reserve some of the more popular spots. Large extended families spend the entire day at the park, cooking, and playing games. Kapiolani Park, home to the city's zoo, also is a popular park. A large section is dedicated to sports fields, including soccer, rugby and softball. There is plenty of hiking in the nearby mountains, with trails that lead to waterfalls and gorgeous views of Honolulu. Diamond Head, an extinct volcano, offers one of the most popular walks in the city. 17
Performing Arts
Honolulu has a lively, albeit modest, performing arts scene. Diamond Head Theater has been staging Broadway shows, revivals, and musicals for 84 years. Kumu Kahua Theater promotes Hawaii's cultural heritage. The Hawaii Theater, with seating for 1,400 people, hosts many community gatherings and performances. The John F. Kennedy Theater at the University of Hawaii is home to the department of theater and art. The Neal S. Blaisdell Center is home to the Honolulu Symphony Orchestra. The Royal Hawaiian Band, founded in 1836 by order of King Kamehameha III, is the only full-time municipal band in the United States.
52
18
Libraries and Museums
The Bishop Museum and Planetarium holds more than 20 million artifacts from Hawaiian and Polynesian history, the world’s largest collection. The Honolulu Academy of Arts has exhibits on Western and Asian art. It is home to the Kress Collection of Italian Renaissance paintings. The Contemporary Museum has many important art pieces. The Hawaii Maritime Center features Pacific maritime history. The Mission Houses Museum displays the history of early missionary settlements in Hawaii. The Judiciary History Center, located in the historic Ali'iolani Hale, has exhibits on nineteenth-century legal and judicial processes that shaped the Kingdom of Hawaii and the islands' territorial years. The U.S. Army Museum of Hawaii, located at Fort DeRussy on the western end of Waikiki, focuses on the history of the army in Hawaii. The Honolulu Library is located downtown and has several branches throughout Oahu. 19
To u r i s m
Tourism is the most important source of income in Hawaii. Honolulu and other communities have developed a sophisticated travel industry to care for visitors. Honolulu ranks first in tourist arrivals. Some of the state's most visited attractions are within its boundaries. In Oahu, most of the tourism activity is centered in the Waikiki district of Honolulu. With more than 30,000 hotel rooms, luxury resorts,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Honolulu expensive international restaurants and shops, and beautiful beaches, Waikiki attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors each year. In Honolulu, and nearby, the most visited sites have military connections. The USS Arizona Memorial and Visitors Center in Pearl Harbor ranks first among visitors, while Punchbowl Crater, home of the National Memorial Cemetery and final resting place for 34,000 veterans of World War II and the Korean (1950–53) and Vietnam (1945– 1973) wars, is a close second. The retired battleship USS Missouri was brought to Pearl Harbor in 1998 and has become a major visitor attraction. The Queen Emma Summer Palace also is a favorite destination. Iolani Palace, the only royal palace in the United States, was built in 1882. It is located in downtown Honolulu. 20
Holidays and Festivals
Tourism is the most important industry in Honolulu, bringing in between $8 and $9 billion annually. Waikiki Beach is just one of the many beaches that attracts tourists. (Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp)
JANUARY New Year's Day Martin Luther King's Day Chinese New Year (January or March)
FEBRUARY Presidents Day
FEBRUARY-MARCH Cherry Blossom Festival
MARCH
MAY Lei Day (May 1) Japanese Boy's Day (May 5) Memorial Day
JUNE King Kamehameha Day (June 11)
Japanese Girl's Day (March 3) Prince Jonah Kuhio Kalanianaole Day (March 26)
JULY
MARCH-APRIL
Admission Day (anniversary of Hawaiian statehood) Samoan Flag Day Obon (Japanese festival that honors deceased ancestors)
Good Friday (the Friday before Easter)
APRIL Buddha's Birthday (April 8) Father Damien Day (April 15)
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Independence Day (July 4)
AUGUST
53
Honolulu SEPTEMBER Labor Day
SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER Aloha Week
OCTOBER Columbus Day
NOVEMBER General Election Day Veterans Day (November 11)
DECEMBER Pearl Harbor Day (December 7)
21
Famous Citizens
Princess Ka'iulani (1875–99), next in line to be queen until the overthrow ended her dreams, the Princess traveled to Washington D.C. to convince U.S. officials to restore sovereignty to Hawaii. Queen Emma (1836–85), known for her charitable causes, one of Hawaii’s most remarkable queens, founded hospitals and schools. Queen Lili'uokalani (1838–1917), last Hawaiian monarch, overthrown in 1893. 22
For Further Study
Websites Arizona Memorial Museum Association. [Online] Available http://members.aol.com/ azmemph/index.htm (accessed January 25, 2000). Contemporary Museum of Art. [Online] Available http://www.tcmhi.org (accessed January 25, 2000). The Hawaii Opera. [Online] Available http:// www.hawaiiopera.com (accessed January 25, 2000). Hawaii Theater. [Online] Available http:// www.hawaiitheater.com (accessed January 25, 2000). The Honolulu Academy of Arts. [Online] Avail-
54
able http://www.honoluluacademy.org (accessed January 25, 2000). Japanese Cultural Center of Hawaii. [Online] Available http://www.jcch.com (accessed January 25, 2000). Kapiolani Community College. [Online] Available http://www.kcc.hawaii.edu (accessed January 25, 2000). Oahu Transit Services, Inc. [Online] Available http://www.thebus.org (accessed January 25, 2000). State Museum of Natural History. [Online] Available http://www.bishop.hawaii.org (accessed January 25, 2000). University of Hawaii, Manoa Campus. [Online] Available http://www.hawaii.edu (accessed January 25, 2000).
Government Offices City and County of Honolulu Mayor’s Office 530 S. King Street Honolulu, HI 96813 (808) 523-4141 Fax 527-5552 Internet page for the City and County of Honolulu. [Online] Available http:// www.cchnl.oceanic.com (accessed January 25, 2000). Hawaii State Judiciary. [Online] Available http:// www.state.hi.us/jud (accessed January 25, 2000). The Honolulu Police Department. [Online] Available http://www.honolulupd.org (accessed January 25, 2000).
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Hawaii Visitors and Convention Center. [Online] Available http://www.gohawaii.com/hokeo/ index.html (accessed January 25, 2000).
Publications Honolulu Advertiser. [Online] Available http:// www.honoluluadvertiser.com (accessed January 25, 2000). Star Bulletin. [Online] Available http:// www.starbulletin.com (accessed January 25, 2000). Honolulu Weekly. [Online] Available http:// www.honoluluweekly.com (accessed January 25, 2000). Honolulu’s business weekly. [Online] Available http://www.amcity.com/pacific/ (accessed
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Honolulu January 25, 2000). Downtown Planet. [Online] Available http:// www.downtownplanet.com (accessed January 25, 2000). Hawaii Public Television. [Online] Available http://www.khet.org (accessed January 25, 2000).
Books Allen, Helena G. The Betrayal of Lili'uokalani: Last Queen of Hawaii. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1990. Ambrose, Greg. Surfer's Guide to Hawaii: Hawaii Gets All the Breaks. Honolulu: Bess Press, 1991. Grant, Glen, Douglas Peebles (photographer). From the Skies of Paradise, Oahu. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1992.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Kanahele, George S. Emma: Hawaii's Remarkable Queen. Honolulu: The Queen Emma Foundation, 1999. Kanahele, George S. Hawaiian Music and Musicians: An Illustrated History. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1979. Kawena Pukui, Mary, Samuel H. Elbert, and Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1996. Kent, Joel K. Hawaii: Islands under the Influence. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993. Linnéa, Sharon. Princess Ka'iulani: Hope of a Nation, Heart of a People. Grand Rapids, Michigan; Cambridge: Eerdmans Books for Young Readers, 1999. Trask, Haunani-Kay. From A Native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawai‘i. Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1999.
55
Houston Houston, Texas, United States of America, North America Founded: August 30, 1836 Location: Eastern Texas, Galveston Bay coastal prairie, United States, North America Flower: Bluebonnet (Texas state flower) Time Zone: 6 AM Central Standard Time (CST) = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: 64.7% White, 19.2% Black, 0.3% American Indian, 3.9% Asian, 22.9% Hispanic, 11.9% Other Elevation: 41 feet (12m) Latitude and Longitude: 29°46’N, 95°W Coastline: 51 mi (82 km) northwest of the Gulf of Mexico Climate: Maritime climate, tropical almost year round. Hot, humid summers and very mild winters. Annual Mean Temperature: 48°F (9°C) in January to 88°F (31°C) in August Seasonal Average Snowfall: Almost nonexistent Average Annual Precipitation: 45 in (1,145 mm) Government: Mayor-council Weights and Measures: Standard US Monetary Units: Standard US Telephone Area Codes: 713, 281 Postal Codes: 77002, 77336, 77338, 77339, 77346, 77357, 77365, 77373, 77375, 77388, 77396, 77401, 77429, 77447, 77449, 77450, 77469, 77478, 77484, 77489, 77493, 77504, 77506, 77520, 77530, 77532, 77536, 77546, 77547, 77571, 77573, 77587, 77598
1
Introduction
Houston, also known as the Bayou City, is located near the Gulf of Mexico on the coastal prairie of Galveston Bay in eastern Texas. For its city population, it is the largest in the Southern and Southwestern United States, and the fourth largest in the nation. Texas’ largest entertainment complex, the Bayou Place, is located in Houston. Finished in 1997, Bayou Place is the cornerstone of urban renewal in the 1990s, costing in excess of $23 million, with the massive size of 150,000 square feet. Yet, Bayou
Place is only one part of a revitalization and diversification project for a city that reached depression levels just a decade ago. 2
Getting There
Highways Two major interstate highways intersect in the downtown area: I-10 and I-45. Other important highways include I-90 and US-59, which converge on Houston from the north-east. US290 approaches the city from the northwest and State Highway 288 from the
57
Houston
Houston Population Profile City Proper Population: 1,702,086 Area: 1,600 sq km (617.5 sq mi) Nicknames: The Bayou City, The Real Texas
Metropolitan Area Population: 3,365,000 Description: Designated as a Primary Statistical Area (PMSA) by the U.S. government Area: 4,920 sq km (1,900 sq mi) World population rank1: 82 Percentage of national population2: 1.2% Average yearly growth rate: 1.2% Ethnic composition: 64.7% white; 19.2% black; 0.3% American Indian; 3.9% Asian; 22.9% Hispanic; 11.9% other ——— 1. The Houston metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of the United States’ total population living in the Houston metropolitan area.
south. While State Highway 8 forms an outer ring around the city, I-610 raps around the center of Houston, delineating its own neighborhood, the Inner Loop. As of the year 2000, the total highway system contains 16 freeways and toll roads. Bus and Railroad Service The Metropolitan Transit Authority (METRO) operates Houston’s bus transit service. Its extensive system, with more than 900 buses that run more than 100 routes, operates in the inner city and most surrounding areas. METRO also has taken on community responsibili-
58
ties by providing curb-to-curb service for elderly and disabled commuters, and coordinating carpooling among drivers. Railroad service is limited, but passenger service, via AMTRAK, is accessible along the New Orleans to Los Angeles route. Greyhound Bus Lines service is also available. Airports Houston has the fourth-largest airport system in the United States and the sixth largest in the world, with approximately 2,000 flights entering the city daily. The city has two major international airports and several other regional air facilities. The George Bush Intercontinental Airport (on the north side of the city) and the William P. Hobby Airport (located southeast of downtown) provide passenger service by all major international and domestic carriers. The METRO bus system offers express transportation to most Houston sites of interest from both airports. Shipping The Port of Houston serves 200 steamship lines while it connects Houston to 250 ports worldwide. Ships enter the 84-kilometer (52-mile) inland Houston Ship Channel through Galveston Bay on the Gulf of Mexico to reach the port’s 100 wharves. The port itself is second nationally in foreign tonnage and third in total tonnage handled. As foreign trade makes up the majority of its cargo, it is within the largest Foreign Trade Zone in the United States. More
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Houston
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
59
Houston than half of the port's export tonnage includes agricultural products. It is the number-one wheat exporter in the world and is also strong in rice and cattle exporting. Other exports include plastic materials, organic chemicals, petroleum products, fertilizers, and machinery. The Port of Houston is an essential U.S. distribution point, linked to 22,526 kilometers (14,000 miles) of commercially sailable intracoastal channels. 3
Getting Around
Houston’s transit system, METRO, has made great strides in the world’s largest network of transitways. However, automobiles still cause traffic headaches in Houston travel. METRO’s efforts have been accelerated by long traffic delays, especially during the morning and afternoon rush hours. Houston boasts the third-largest taxi cab fleet in the United States, with more than 2,000 vehicles in operation. Bus and Commuter Rail Service The METRO bus system is affordable and reliable. Riders can travel at a low one-way local fare, and the on-time performance record stands at 95.3 percent. The system is flexible and offers express service to the downtown shopping area and to several major medical, business, and shopping centers in the area. METRO also offers a new trolley system that provides free transportation within the downtown area.
60
Sightseeing Several driving and walking tours of the Houston area are available through the Greater Houston Convention and Visitors Bureau. Tours are also available through Tourworks Houston and Old Town Spring Tours. Churches may be toured by special appointment. Whether walking or driving, visitors will want to be sure to see Houston Museum of Natural Science, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, and the Houston Zoological Gardens, all located in the picturesque Museum District. Moody Gardens, Space Center Houston, and Sam Houston Park are also main sites of interest. Gourmet dining can be found in the Montrose area, known for some of Houston’s finest restaurants. Sightseers may also want to check out Enron Field, the home of the Houston Astros baseball team. 4
People
Houston is the fourth most populous city in the United States. In 1995, city of Houston population statistics registered at 1,702,086. In the metropolitan area, the population count stood at 3,710,844. Home to 68 international consular offices and more than 100 different nationalities, Dallas Morning News’ Texas Almanac lists the Houston metropolitan area racial composition as 64.7 percent White, 19.2 percent Black, 3.9 percent Asian, 0.3 percent American Indian, and 11.9 percent other; regardless of race, 22.9 percent of the total population were Hispanic, an ethnic rather than racial distinction.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Houston
City Fact Comparison Houston (United States)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
3,365,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1836
753 BC
723 BC
$172
$129
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$72
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$40
$56
$59
$62
$2
$14
$15
$16
$114
$173
$246
$207
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.) Total daily costs
$193
Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
1
13
20
11
Houston Chronicle
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
550,763
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1901
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
5
Neighborhoods
Houston is basically divided into four major areas: Inner Loop, North Houston, Northeast Houston, and South Houston. Each area is representative of the city’s diverse population and living styles. Neighborhoods are grouped into one of these areas according to geographic location. The Inner Loop The Inner Loop is a miniature version of the greater Houston area. It is easily noticeable as I-610 defines the area’s boundaries. Housing in the neighborhoods of the Inner Loop is
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
diverse, ranging from apartment buildings and small houses to mansions, condominiums, and townhomes. The River Oaks neighborhood is by far the most exclusive in the Houston area. Situated south of Memorial Park, River Oaks was founded by Mike and Will Hogg, the sons of James Hogg, former Texas governor. The neighborhood has abundant white-columned mansions, complete with painstakingly tended gardens and even separate maids’ quarters. This neighborhood is in fact so exclusive that deed restrictions on houses forbid the use of “For Sale” signs. In this neighborhood, houses are sold starting at $400,000. To
61
Houston labeled it one of the most marvelous streets in the country. North Houston North Houston has more defining characteristics than other areas, with its older smaller neighborhoods completed in the 1930s and 1940s. Where young people once left the area in droves, now many professional couples are attracted by the relatively easy downtown commute and the many tree-lined streets. This area symbolizes neighborhood renewal, not through new concrete and steel but through housing renovation in the old neighborhoods.
keep up the prestige, the neighborhood’s streets are named after notable golf and country clubs from across the country.
The Woodlands neighborhoods are appropriately named, with a quiet and spacious atmosphere complete with an abundance of greenery. Housing in the Woodlands, though almost all constructed in the 1970s, is characterized by the use of brick, and some of the houses have up to two acres of land. There is also a 1,000-acre Research Forest set aside especially for nonprofit and academic research institutes and industry.
The South Main neighborhood’s most notable institution is the Texas Medical Center, which keeps 51,000 Houstonians employed in 41 different departments. A smaller division of South Main is Boulevard Oaks. Appropriately named, the section has gained notoriety for its beautiful old oak trees, originally planted in magnificent geometric patterns along the streets. One particular street became internationally recognized when The New York Times
The small town of Conroe is situated about 56 kilometers (35 miles) from Houston. In the late 1800s, Isaac Conroe built a sawmill in the area, and it was consequently named after him. By 1903 the town became the county seat, and by 1930s Conroe became emblematic of Texas itself. It was during this time that oilman George Strake unearthed “black gold,” the discovery that really put Conroe on the map. Conroe is notable for its many available
Houston skyline. (Mike Yamashita; Woodfin Camp)
62
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Houston country properties. Some plots are so large (24 to 40 hectares/60 to 100 acres or more) that horses and other livestock are permitted.
many residents to work in the Texas City area. Today, South Houston is one of the quickest expanding areas in the entire region.
Northeast Houston
Clear Lake is home to the third largest boating center in the United States, the NASA Johnson Space Center, various computer and petrochemical industries, and Hobby Airport is only a few miles away. Originally an agricultural and fishing locale, the federal government’s decision to locate NASA’s Space Center in Clear Lake helped its development tremendously. Twentyseven percent of the area’s population is employed by aerospace-related companies, and recreation and tourism account for more than 25 percent of the work force. Space Center Houston opened in October 1992. Situated on a 16-hectare (40-acre) visitor center, the $70 million complex depicts the history and future of manned space flight through a visual timeline. Walt Disney created various programs and hands-on exhibits for Space Center Houston, including Imagineering, which allows visitors to experience the inner workings of the manned space program. New housing construction is constant in Clear Lake. Waiting lists have been established because of the extreme shortage of homes and apartments, and occupancy rates are close to 100 percent.
Northeast Houston allows for small-town rural living only minutes away from the big city. It is especially attractive for its recreation areas, including Lake Houston and several golf courses. Known as Hunter’s Paradise to early settlers, Humble (pronounced “Umble”) was named after P. S. Humble, a settler who in the mid-1800s operated a ferry across the San Jacinto River. Though there is spacious, rural living in Humble, it is only minutes away from Houston by way of Highway 59. The George Bush Intercontinental Airport employs a large number of Humble residents. Sitting on heavily wooded territory ten kilometers (six miles) east of Humble is Atascocita. Coming from the Spanish word for “obstruction,” Atascocita was once employed as a stronghold of the Spanish government against the French. The area is characterized by both large country-club homes and meticulously planned subdivisions, offering smaller houses. South Houston The south Houston area is located along I-45, nicknamed the “Gulf Freeway.” This area developed around rice farms, orange and fig orchards. In the 1930s, oil field development allowed
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Southwest Houston The southwest area of Houston (encompassing part of Harris and all of Fort Bend County) is one of the most expansive areas. Home to several manu-
63
Houston facturing and electronic firms, Fort Bend is notable as one of the fastestgrowing regions in the country. Between 1980 and 1990, the population of the county increased more than 50 percent. In fact, the county was ranked with the top ten fastest growing counties in America in 1994. The communities of Alief and Sharpstown experienced major growth spurts in the 1960s and 1970s. Brick tract homes are prevalent in the area, being small and mid-sized, but the importance of the area is its plurality. In the Alief-Sharpstown area, many cultural and ethnic influences are evident, including African American, Asian, and Hispanic communities. Imperial Sugar, the state’s oldest company, is located in an area appropriately named Sugar Land. Still in operation, the sugar refinery is located in the city’s old business district. Residents of Sugar Land are recreation-oriented with three highly ranked golf courses. The George Observatory, the largest publicly used observatory, is located nearby, along with Brazos Bend State Park. First Colony was the first Anglo settlement in what was once Hispanic Texas, hence its name. Led by William B. Travis early in the 1830s, 300 colonists settled north of what is now Richmond, on the banks of the Brazos River. The area’s fertile soil was historically the basis of sugar cane, cattle, and rice cultivation. Today, First Colony is representative of the growth of greater Houston. Many of the homes in the master-
64
planned community are new, most of them less than ten years old. 6
History
In the 1820s, American settlers began driving into Texas. At the time, it was in the best interest of Texas territory owner, the newly independent Mexico, to allow these American immigrants to settle. In 1824, a New Yorker named John Richardson Harris (d. 1829) established the town of Harrisburg, today within the corporate limits of southeastern Houston. Harris was looking for a waterway location, easily reachable by ocean and land traffic. He established his claim at the confluence of Buffalo and Bray’s Bayous, a prime navigational area. By 1826 the settlement became a lively naval trading post, but by 1829 Harris had died of yellow fever, and his heirs quickly became deeply embroiled in litigation over the prosperous estate. The brothers Augustus C. and John K. Allen, themselves New Yorkers, arrived in Texas in 1832 and quickly took interest in the Harrisburg estate. However, the immense cost for the land and the legal fight over the Harrisburg property at the time stifled the Allen brothers’ plans. In the 1830s, American immigrants changed their names to “Texicans,” yet quickly began to feel oppressed by Mexican forces. The Texicans, feeling abused by the dictates of Mexico City, simultaneously declared Texas an independent republic and at war with the government of Santa Anna in 1836. During the Texas revolution, the Allen
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Houston brothers served as supply agents for the Texan cause, and Harrisburg temporarily held the Texan government. Yet when Santa Anna (1797–1876), the socalled “Napoleon of the West,” reached Harrisburg, he entered a flaming hulk. The residents of Harrisburg evacuated and torched their town after hearing the news that Santa Anna was approaching. The angry Mexicans then finished the job. The complete destruction of Harrisburg was a sad development for many residents, especially the Harris family, but to the Allen brothers it was a new opportunity. Immediately planning another town nearby, the Allens decided on a site at the head of tide on Buffalo Bayou. They knew that pioneer Texans needed outside supplies and that the easiest way to get them was by water. Though other waterways in the region were rather shallow and often congested with debris, Buffalo Bayou was wide and clear. It had substantial banks and was deeper than the others. Yet, the Buffalo Bayou was on a desolate stretch of prairie; alligators slithered through the bayous; Indians stalked the woods; mud and mosquitoes were a constant nuisance; and yellow fever menaced the populous. To smite the obstacles in their path, the brothers named the town for Sam Houston and even prematurely planned a capital and congressional building. Sam Houston, the first president of the Republic of Texas, moved his capital from Columbia to Houston. In 1837, Houston was incorporated with a population of 1,200, and the capital remained there until Austin
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Sam Houston (1793–1863), for whom the city was named, was the first president of the Republic of Texas. (Leo Touchet; Woodfin Camp)
became Texas’ permanent seat of government in 1839. As a result of substantial pressure by Texans, the Republic officially disbanded and became the twenty-eighth state of the United States in July, 1845. Houston grew as a settlement despite the numerous problems that emerged. Rainfall was heavy, and drainage was poor. Fires and floods ravaged the city, and differing epidemics scourged the populous. From the late 1830s to the late 1850s, the railroad became important both as a means of
65
Houston travel for Houstonians and for shipment of goods. The Civil War (1861–65) was at first a benefit to Houston. The flour mill continued to produce; cartridges were manufactured at the court house; and there was considerable local production of drugs, leather goods, candles, and printer’s ink. However, in the end, the Civil War was devastating to the city, not just in the amount of human lives lost from Houston, but in the destruction of railroads. One railroad did manage to avoid destruction, the Houston and Texas Central, which the military preserved for their exclusive use. After the Civil War, Houston continued to grow through the expansion of commerce. Manufacturing (particularly by means of lumber taken from surrounding forests) was important, but like elsewhere on the frontier, it took a backseat to other commercial activity. By 1870, Houston had 9,000 citizens, which marked it as the third-largest city in Texas. At that time, Houston was primarily a distribution center with inadequate means of transportation. Therefore, attempts were made in the following decades to deepen the Houston waterway in order to allow for bigger ships to reach port, yet this had varying success. The discovery of oil in 1901 at Spindletop, near Houston, helped Houston’s economy by acting as a catalyst for the eventual construction of oil refineries, pipe lines, and a large petrochemical industry. Reshaping the Buffalo Bayou into a shipping channel helped shipping to grow immensely as it hastened to suit the dissemination of
66
oil and oil products between 1915 and 1929. Houston’s rapid growth during these years changed the physical characteristics and architecture to suit the growth of manufacturing. By the 1930s this partnership allowed Houston to surpass San Antonio’s population and become the largest city in the then-largest state in America. Despite the American Depression in the 1930s (and afterwards), transportation facilities in Houston continued to improve. The most dramatic transportation improvement had to do with air travel. Following World War II (1939–45), the petrochemical industry in Houston grew even more. A major development for the city had to do with a choice by the federal government. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) chose to place their new Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston in 1961. As the United States entered into a space race with the Soviet Union, Houston found itself the home of famous astronauts and engineers, world-famous surgeons and the Astros baseball team. The first word in a message sent from the moon gave the city recognition as it echoed across the globe: “Houston, Tranquillity Base here, the Eagle has landed.” Scientific advances introduced new methods of transportation in Houston, but they also destroyed old methods as well. The old Union Station in Houston ushered in and out approximately 40 trains a day in the 1950s. By the late 1960s, the passenger trains numbered only about three a day in Houston. Air
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Houston travel, busses, and automobiles replaced the old train system. The Arab Oil Embargo of 1973 troubled many Americans at the gas pumps, where lines were long, and gasoline prices skyrocketed. Yet, for Houston this event was a miracle. With the sharp rise in oil prices, stock prices doubled and tripled, dumping massive amounts of capital into Houston. Skyscrapers designed by world-class architects dramatically changed Houston’s skyline and became monuments to Houston’s investment in “black gold.” In 1983 alone, 155 office buildings were completed. Industrial workers flocked to Houston to be a part of this massive growth as companies expanded. In many ways Houston became a oneindustry town. By the late 1980s, the chemical industry produced about 50 percent of the total United States output. Yet with the major energy companies placing their headquarters in Houston, and thousands of energyrelated businesses in the area, the city was set for a decline. During the 1980s, the city reached depression levels as the economy continued to spiral downward. The answer lay in diversification. Shifting away from reinvestments in the oil market, Houston revitalized in the 1990s with capital in its entertainment, recreation, medical, and aerospace industries. In the late 1990s, Houston gained recognition not only as the capital of the international energy industry, but also as home of the world’s largest medical center. It has become one of the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
country’s premier visual, architectural, multicultural, and performing arts centers. It has greatly expanded its shopping areas and malls as well. Most important, however, has been Houston’s urban growth and population surge. In 1995, the population had reached 3,710,844, the nation’s fourthlargest city in metropolitan polls. 7
Government
Houston is the official seat of Harris County, operating under a mayorcouncil form of government. In 1992, the total number of City employees was 21,045. 8
Public Safety
Several public safety programs operate out of Houston’s City Hall. The Office for Public Safety and Drug Policy employs the Office of Anti-Gang Activities, responsible for developing city initiatives to reduce gang and youth violence. Houston Crackdown coordinates and supports community volunteer projects in alcohol and drug abuse. The Mayor’s Office administers the Crime Victims’ Assistance Program, referring crime victims to legal and counseling services. In the year 2000, the City of Houston began sponsoring a new non-emergency service number: 3– 1–1. The 3–1–1 program is designed to handle service requests, such as pothole repairs, and alleviate 9–1–1 non-emergency calls.
67
Houston
Houston is an international and corporate business center, boasting 15 Fortune 500 companies, as well as a leading city in energy, medical and technical, and chemical industries. (Dan Budnik; Woodfin Camp)
9
Economy
Since the economic recession of the 1980s, Houston has been one of the nation’s leaders in high-growth private enterprise. A major international and corporate business center, there are 15 Fortune 500 companies located there.
68
Although energy has been the primary growth catalyst in Houston’s economy since oil was discovered in 1901, the Houston of the 1990s is a city no longer dependent on the energy industry. Over 220,000 jobs were lost during the economic recession of the 1980s.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Houston However, even during the recession’s oil and gas crisis, energy technology, expertise, and resources stayed in the area. Houston remained a leading city in energy production and home to more than 5,000 energy-related companies. Today it is the home of major U.S. energy firms in every sector of the energy business. Yet, even with all the expertise and resources in the energy field, Houston has managed to diversify its economy enough to break its total dependence the energy industry and branch out to other fields. Houston has taken center stage as the primary player in manned spaceflight with NASA’s Johnson Space Center. Originally opened in 1962, the $761 million complex became the national focal point for manned space flight. Today, the complex remains a crucial center of technological development, pumping almost $3.7 million per working day into the economy of Houston, and employing nearly 17,000 people. High-technology and medicine companies have also grown as Houston has climbed out of its recession. A $25 million Institute of Biosciences and Technology was constructed by Texas A & M University, and the Texas Center for Superconductivity at the University of Houston was constructed out of state funds. The Texas Medical Center also ranks Houston as a prime location for the development of modern high-technology medicine in the United States. The Center has 39 institutions that occupy over 223 hectares (550 acres) and employ more than 50,000 people. Houston’s total health employment
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
exceeds 100,000. The development of high technology and medicine have strengthened Houston’s economy and made it a national leader in these fields as well. Houston has emerged as a world leader in the chemical industry. Over 45 percent of the basic chemicals that are used by downstream chemical ventures are manufactured in Houston. Approximately 80 inorganic (most notably, about half of the nation’s synthetic rubber) and 300 organic products are produced near Houston. Home to four of the nation’s ten major liquid gas pipelines, the world’s most developed pipeline network with specialty and derivative chemicals, Houston is a major manufacturing center. In terms of tonnage handled, the Port of Houston is the eighth largest in the world. Served by hundreds of different steamship lines, Houston is connected to 250 ports worldwide. Boasting the largest Foreign Trade Zone in the United States, the Port of Houston owes more than half of its cargo to foreign trade. More than half of the Port’s export tonnage can be attributed to agricultural products. 10
Environment
Houston is situated in the Texas Coastal Plains region, which rises from sea level to about 305 meters (1,001 feet). Near the Gulf Coast, these lands are marshy; however, as they stretch inland, they become flat, low prairies and at Houston form a fertile crescent
69
Houston that is well suited to farming and grazing for fine-breed cattle. An inland port city, Houston is linked to the Gulf of Mexico, 82 kilometers (51 miles) southeast, by the Houston Ship Channel and Intracoastal Waterway at Galveston. Access to water transportation, raw materials, and natural gas and oil reserves have made the Coastal Plains the most densely populated part of the state and the center of Texas industry, with Houston as the hub. Within Houston city limits, the Mayor’s Office of Environmental Policy employs the Brownfields Program. This program is designed to facilitate reuse of eligible properties identified as Houston “brownfields,” including abandoned, idled, or under-used industrial or commercial properties with environmental contamination. Qualifying sites are chosen based on which will generate the greatest potential employment opportunities and most evident community benefits. 11
Shopping
With a wide variety of malls and specialty stores, shopping in Houston can be an overwhelming experience. A little planning is necessary to determine which shopping area is best suited for any given shopping spree. The center of the city’s downtown shopping district is Foley’s, the oldest department store in Houston. A wellnoted shopping area, the Post Oak Galleria is for the posh shopper. The High-
70
land Village Shopping Center is also distinguished in nature, though it is still expanding. A well-rounded retail area is Rice Village, which offers over 325 stores, ranging from national chains to more quaint local businesses. Houston’s oldest shopping district is River Oaks Shopping Center, which has more than 65 shops. A particularly strong market is antiques and collectibles. Designer showrooms and antique stores characterize the Upper Kirby District, noted for its Gallery Row, which is a focal point for many local Houston artists. Another area for antique dealers is Houston Heights Antiques Co-op, though the Antique Center of Texas is much larger. For more of an open-air experience in shopping, there is the Old Town Spring and Galveston’s Strand that offer not only antiques but art galleries and smaller shops. In addition to these shopping centers, the Houston area has over 30 different malls. The Bayou City definitely offers one of the largest concentrations of shopping areas in the country. 12
Education
The nation’s largest school district, the Houston Independent School District, covers 808 square kilometers (312 square miles) and encompasses 230 different schools. With 10,000 teachers on the job, total enrollment in 1992 stood at 194,512, and more than 8,000 students were reported to graduate annu-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Houston ally. Specially developed programs are available. The district offers gifted, multilingual, pre-kindergarten, special needs, and vocational occupational programs. There are also more than 300 private schools in the community as well. One of America’s leading collegiate academic centers, Houston boasted 230,000 college students in 1992. There are more than 30 universities, private, junior, and public colleges. The largest school is the University of Houston while the oldest is Rice University. Another major academic center is Texas Southern University. Noteworthy medical training programs are offered at the University of Texas Health Science Center and the Baylor College of Medicine. 13
Health Care
Houston is home to the world’s largest medical complex. There are 51 hospitals in a city noted as a world leader in medicine. At the Texas Medical Center alone, there are more than 3.5 million patients treated by a staff of over 50,000. Within the Center itself, there are 41 major organizations. Seventy health organizations operate ambulances while sharing four helicopters for emergency transportation. Houston’s medical community is widely known for its contributions in the areas of cancer research and therapy, trauma and cardiac care, and innovative medical treatment. Its most widely known institutions include St. Luke’s Episcopal Hospital, Shriners Hospital for Crippled Children, Veterans
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Affairs Medical Center, and Texas Children’s hospital. 14
Media
Television stations serving the Houston area (excluding cable television programming) include three network affiliates, five independents, and the nation’s first public broadcasting television station. The city has over 50 AM and FM radio stations that broadcast everything from the news to blues. Houston has two primary daily papers, the Houston Post and the Houston Chronicle. Other noteworthy newspapers are the Houston Press and the Houston Business Journal Weekly. 15
Sports
Houston’s professional baseball team, the National League Astros, and their professional NFL football team, the Oilers, both play in the Astrodome. The National Basketball Association’s Houston Rockets play at the Summit. Houston’s collegiate teams also field most major sports. Professional golf plays to spectators of the Houston Open, and professional tennis can be seen at the Virginia Slims Tennis Tournament. Gulf Greyhound Park, the world’s largest pari-mutuel greyhound racetrack, and the Sam Houston Race Park for horseracing are available for racing fans as well. 16
Parks and Recreation
Houston hosts a vast parks system. Hermann Park encompasses the Hous-
71
Houston
The Astrodome was built to accommodate Houston’s professional baseball team, the National League Astros, and its pro-NFL football team, the Oilers. (Leo Touchet; Woodfin Camp)
ton Zoo, a children’s zoo, a planetarium, a natural science museum, a garden center, and an IMAX Theater. Memorial Park offers herb gardens, an arboretum, and a botanical hall. Sam Houston Park, with six historical buildings, is located downtown, and Tranquility Park is located in the Houston Civic Center. The Harris County Park system includes the Mercer Arboretum and Bay Area Park, and Armand Bayou Park and Nature Center, offering a wilderness preserve and farm. 17
Performing Arts
Houston lore says that in June 1838 the city’s first theatrical performance was given amidst a true-to-life drama. Then-President Sam Houston
72
was late to the performance, and in his absence the town gamblers took his seats. After ignoring an appeal to vacate the seats, the sheriff entered with soldiers who lined up against a wall. The gamblers quickly lined up on the other side. President Houston arrived in time to halt the showdown by giving an executive order for the soldiers to lower their arms. The gamblers then exited, giving a dramatic flare to the first theater performance of Houston. Houston’s performing arts scene has been growing steadily since the 1950s, centered in the Theater District where musical theater, opera, music, dramatic theater and ballet coexist. Musical theater especially draws large crowds in the city. There are two
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Houston notable organizations that host musicals in the District. The Theater Under the Stars produces popular musicals. The Houston Broadway Series, a division of Pace Concerts, shows a selection of the best hits on Broadway each season, including musicals, plays, and solo performances. The Houston Grand Opera offers classical opera pieces so often that it is not unusual to catch two different operas in the same weekend. Both classical and modern music are also popular in the Houston arts scene. Da Camera of Houston is acclaimed for its classical music and unconventional performances, but for mainstream music lovers it also features string ensembles, solo recitals, and jazz groups. The Houston Symphony is renowned for superb concerts of contemporary and classical music. The Society for the Performing Arts’ productions do not easily fit into the classification of theater alone. For instance, the Houston Ballet boasts a permanent company as part of the Society. The Alley Theatre won the 1996 Special Tony Award for outstanding regional theater and attracts an everincreasing crowd. The Ensemble Theatre, the oldest and largest professional African-American theater in the southwest, moved into their remodeled theater in 1997. The Ensemble is noted for their diverse selection of historical and contemporary works. Mixing of dance, music, theater, and more, the Society brings an eclectic accent to Houston’s performing arts scene.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
18
Libraries and Museums
There are more than 3.4 million books in collection at the two main library systems in Houston, which together comprise 52 branches. The Houston Public Library system consists of 33 branches and the Clayton Library for Genealogical Research. In addition to its downtown library, it boasts a 30,936 square-meter (333,000 squarefoot) facility, housing over two million volumes. An additional 23 branches and two bookmobiles make up the Harris County Public Library system. There are other specialized libraries in Houston as well, ranging from medical to legal subjects. As for museums, the list of specialized museums in Houston’s Museum District continues to grow. Of importance is the Holocaust Museum Houston, which continues to educate people in the Houston area about the European pogrom. Another notable museum is the Houston Museum of Natural Science, which houses a museum, IMAX Theater, planetarium, butterfly tropical rainforest, a satellite facility, and a Challenger Center. Built in homage of the city’s health industry, the Museum of Health and Medical Science features an interactive walking tour through a huge-sized body. Handson learning is encouraged for both educational and entertainment purposes. The facility holds two theaters as well.
73
Houston flight program, and home to the twotime world champion Houston Rockets. With more than 38,000 hotel rooms around the city, accommodations can be found to meet any budget or interest. Special packages are available for almost any penchant—recreation, relaxation, romance, entertainment, special events, sports, or family vacation. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY Confederate Heroes Day Martin Luther King, Jr. Day Houston-Tenneco Marathon
FEBRUARY The Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo Mardi Gras! Galveston Whether it is touring the wildlife preserves, shopping at Post Oak Galleria, or just taking a relaxing drive through Houston’s posh neighborhoods, Houston is a city for everyone. (Leo Touchet; Woodfin Camp)
MARCH Texas Independence Day St. Patrick’s Day Parade Fotofest
APRIL
19
To u r i s m
San Jacinto Day Houston International Festival
MAY
The largest city in Texas, as well as the fourth-largest city in the United States, Houston is a popular tourist destination for both foreign and domestic visitors. Offering something for everyone, the Bayou City hosts wildlife preserves, the world’s richest rodeo, leading fine and performing arts institutions. It is the capital of the international energy industry, home to the world’s largest medical center, headquarters for America’s manned space
74
Cinco De Mayo Celebration
JUNE Emancipation Day/Juneteenth Celebration
JULY Independence Day/Freedom Festival
AUGUST Lyndon B. Johnson’s Birthday Houston International Jazz Festival Justin World Bull Riding Championship
SEPTEMBER Fiestas Patrias
MID-SEPTEMBER TO NOVEMBER Oktoberfest
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Houston OCTOBER Greek Festival Texas Renaissance Festival.
William Marsh Rice (b. Massachusetts, 1816–1900), businessman, established Rice Institute.
NOVEMBER Thanksgiving Day/Bank United’s and Foley’s Thanksgiving Day Parades Mayor’s Downtown Houston Holiday Celebration
DECEMBER Christmas Boat Lane Parade
21
Famous Citizens
Augustus C. (1806–1864) and John K. (1810–1838) Allen, founders of the city of Houston. Monroe D. Anderson (b. Tennessee, 1873–1929), founder of Anderson, Clayton and Company in 1904, which became one of the world’s biggest cotton brokerage firms by 1930.
22
For Further Study
Websites Houston Real Estate Information. [Online] Available at http://houstontexashomes.com/ neighborhoods (accessed on January 5, 2000). Houston’s history. [Online] Available at www.texasbest.com/houston/history.html (accessed on January 5, 2000). Visitor Information. [Online] Available at www.ci.houston.tx.us (accessed on January 5, 2000).
Government Offices Houston City Hall 901 Bagby St. Houston, Texas 77002 (713) 247–2200
William L. Clayton (b. Mississippi, 1880–1966), founder of Anderson, Clayton and Company.
Mayor’s Office 901 Bagby St. City Hall, 3rd Floor Houston, Texas 77002 (713) 247–2200
Hugh Roy Cullen (1881–1857), oil contractor, benefactor of the University of Houston.
Tourist and Convention Bureaus
Joseph S. Cullinan (b. Pennsylvania, (c. 1861–c. 1937), founder of the Texas Company and anti-Ku Klux Klanner. Ltn. Richard “Dick” William Dowling (b. Ireland, 1838–1867), Civil War hero. Sam Houston (1793–1863), famous general, noted as victor of San Jacinto battle, first President of Texas Republic, had city and monument named after him.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Greater Houston Convention Bureau 801 Congress Houston, Texas 77002 (713) 227–3100
and
Visitors
Harris County Historical Society, P.O. Box 27143, Houston, TX 77027 (713) 655–1912
Publications Official Guide to Houston, Fall 1997 Published by the Greater Houston Convention and Visitors Bureau 801 Congress Houston, Texas 77002 (713) 227–3100
75
Houston Books McComb, David G. Houston: the Bayou City. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1969. McMurtrey, Larry. Terms of Endearment. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1975. Schmittroth, Linda and Mary Kay Rosteck, eds. Cities of the United States, 2nd ed. Detroit,
76
MI: Gale Research, 1994. Texas: A Guide to the Lone Star State. New York: Hastings House Publishers, 1947. Winningham, Geoff & Reinert, Alan. A Place of Dreams: Houston, An American City. Houston, TX: Rice University Press, 1986.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Indianapolis Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America, North America Founded: 1816; Incorporated: 1847 Location: Central Indiana, United States, North America Motto: Crossroads of America (state motto) Flag: Blue field with white cross; in the center, a white star on a red circle represent the center of the city. Flower: Peony (state flower) Time Zone: 7 AM Eastern Standard Time (EST) = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: White 77%, Black 21%, Hispanic origin 1% Elevation: 219 m (717 ft) above sea level. The city is situated on level to gently rolling terrain. Latitude and Longitude: 39º71'N, 86º09'W Coastline: None Climate: Temperate continental climate with precipitation evenly distributed throughout the year. Warm summers and cold winters that can be affected by blasts of polar air from the north. Annual Mean Temperature: 11°C (52°F); January –2ºC (28ºF); July 24ºC (75ºF) Seasonal Average Snowfall: 58 cm (23 in); Average Annual Precipitation (rainfall and melted snow): 101.3 cm (39.9 in) Government: Mayor and 29-member council Weights and Measures: Standard U.S. Monetary Units: Standard U.S. Telephone Area Codes: 317 Postal Codes: 46201–46290
1
Introduction
Indianapolis, the capital of Indiana, is the twelfth-largest city in the United States. Located on land set aside for a state capital in the early nineteenth century, it was modeled after Washington D.C., with streets radiating outward from the seat of government. Although it is not located on a navigable body of water, the city’s central location—in relation to the state and to much of the country—has made it an important transport and distribution center since the nineteenth century. Since the 1970s Indianapolis has estab-
lished a reputation as a sports center by constructing major athletic and visitor facilities and energetically promoting itself as a venue for a wide variety of amateur sporting events. However, its most famous athletic event remains the Indianapolis 500 motor race, held annually at the Indianapolis Speedway. 2
Getting There
Indianapolis is located east of the White River in central Indiana. It is the largest city in the United States that is not situated on the banks of a navigable body of water. Its major thoroughfare is
77
Indianapolis Bus and Railroad Service
Indianapolis Population Profile City Proper Population: 813,670 Area: 1,043 sq km (402.8 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 77% white; 21% black Nicknames: City of Churches, Crossroads of America
Indiana is served by the Greyhound and Trailways bus lines. Both the bus station and the Amtrak train station are located in the renovated Union Station downtown on S. Illinois Street. Amtrak service is provided to Washington, D.C. and Chicago, with three weekly departures to each city.
Metropolitan Area Population: 1,002,000 Description: Nine-county area including Boone, Hendricks, Morgan, Hamilton, Marion, Johnson, Madison, Hancock, and Shelby counties Area: 8,000 sq km (3,089 sq mi) World population rank1: 364 Percentage of national population2: 0.4% Average yearly growth rate: 0.9% Ethnic composition: 85.2% white, 13.5% black, 1% Asian or Pacific Islander ——— 1. The Indianapolis metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of the United States’ total population living in the Indianapolis metropolitan area.
Airports Nearly eight million passengers a year use Indianapolis International Airport, which is located seven miles southwest of downtown Indianapolis. It is the largest U.S. airport managed by a private firm (the same company that runs London’s Heathrow and Gatwick airports). Serving 18 airlines, it offers more than 175 daily departures to 76 different destinations. It is also a package-sorting hub for FedEx and a U.S. Postal Service hub as well. 3
Washington Street (I-40), which runs east-west through the city, as part of a larger grid pattern that governs the layout of the city’s streets. Highways The Indianapolis metropolitan area is ringed by I-465, which has junctions with the three major highways that pass through the city: I-70 (east-west), I69 (intersects from the northwest), and I-65 (northwest to southeast). Indianapolis has more interstate highways junctions than any other metropolitan area in the United States.
78
Getting Around
The layout of Indianapolis, the nation’s twelfth-largest city, is a grid pattern modeled on that of Washington D.C. Its major thoroughfares intersect at the Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument, in the heart of the city. The major eastwest artery is Washington Street (I-40). The primary north-south road is Meridian Street, which is a major commercial center. Bus and Commuter Rail Service The Indiana Public Transportation Corporation (METRO) operates 138 city buses and provides service to the dis-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Indianapolis
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
79
Indianapolis abled through the Metro Transit Open Door program. The base fare for local mass transit is 75 cents. Sightseeing Walking tours are offered of the Mile Square area in the heart of downtown Indianapolis. 4
People
According to U.S. Census Bureau 1997 estimates, Indianapolis has a population of 813,670, up 2.1 percent since 1990 when its population was 731,327 (47 percent male, 53 percent female). The total population of the ninecounty Indianapolis Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) is 1.5 million, up from 1.38 million in 1990. It is the thirty-first largest metropolitan area in the United States, and Indianapolis is the twelfth-largest city. In 1990, the population of Indianapolis was 77.1 percent white; 21.1 percent African-American; 1.1 percent Hispanic; 0.2 percent American Indian; and 0.4 percent other. The city’s African-American community is the sixth largest in the Midwest and the sixteenth largest in the country. Indianapolis has historically been home to members of a variety of religions. Although the majority of its residents today are either Catholics or Protestants, over 100 different religious denominations are represented among the city’s population, including religions such as Zen Buddhism that are outside the mainstream of Western reli-
80
gion. The following denominations have significant membership among residents of Indianapolis: Catholic, 84,033 members; Black Baptist, 56,403; United Methodist, 37,027; Christian Church (disciples), 20,596; Presbyterian, 17,990, and American Baptist, 11,483. There are also significant numbers of other Protestant denominations, as well as a Jewish population of 6,379. Altogether, Indianapolis has about 1,100 religious congregations. In addition, a variety of religious organizations, including the Church Federation of Indianapolis and the Islamic Society of North America, are located in the city. 5
Neighborhoods
Beginning in the 1970s there was a resurgence of interest in older residential districts in the central city, leading to the revitalization of neighborhoods such as Lockerbie Square, Woodruff Place, Old Northside, and Herron-Morton. With its cobblestone streets, Lockerbie Square, once home to poet James Whitcomb Riley (1849–1916), is regarded as an outstanding example of Victorian renovation. The Midtown area boasts fountains, bridges, walkways, and new residential and commercial construction in the hearth of the city. Chatham Arch has become an increasingly popular area for residential renovation. Other city neighborhoods include historic Fletcher Place and Fountain Square, University Heights, surrounding the University of Indianapolis, Homecroft, and the Old Northside, as well as the exclusive Meridan-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Indianapolis
City Fact Comparison Indianapolis (United States)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
1,002,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1816
753 BC
723 BC
$172
$129
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$65
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$40
$56
$59
$62
$2
$14
$15
$16
$107
$173
$246
$207
1
13
20
11
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.) Total daily costs
$193
Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
The Indianapolis Akhbar El Yom/ Star/News Al Akhbar 230,223
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1869
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
Kessler neighborhood. Suburban areas include Carmel, which is north of the city, and Greenwood, to the south. Since the 1970s, urban renewal projects, including the City-County Building and Riley Center, have significantly improved the quality of life in Indianapolis. There are over 300 registered neighborhood organizations in Indianapolis, including the Front Porch Alliance, which supports communityoriented efforts by churches, neighborhood associations, and other groups. In 1990 Indianapolis had a total of 319,980 housing units, and the average cost of a single-family dwelling was
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
$82,864. By the beginning of 1999, this figure had risen to $125,307. 6
History
Like Washington, D.C., on which it was modeled, Indianapolis is a city deliberately planned as a capital. In 1820 the state legislature of Indiana selected ten commissioners to choose a site for the state capital, which was established at the site of a small, recently formed settlement called Fall Creek, chosen for its location at virtually the exact center of the state. Ten square kilometers (four square miles) were allocated for the new capital although only two-and-a-half square
81
Indianapolis
The streets of Indianapolis were planned to branch out from a central circle, which features the Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Monument. (Sandy Felsenthal; Woodfin Camp)
kilometers (one square mile) were initially plotted. The city was designed by Alexander Ralston, who had assisted Pierre L’Enfant (1754–1825) in the plans for the nation’s capital, and the new city was similarly designed as a grid of streets radiating outward from a central circle in which the seat of government was to be situated. The name “Indianapolis” (Indiana plus polis, the Greek word for “city”) was chosen in 1821. It took a while until the city grew significantly, at least partly because it was not situated near a navigable body
82
of water—the nearby White River was too shallow for navigation. However, with the construction of the National Road (today I-40) through the city in 1830 and the completion of the Central Canal in 1839, industrial activity increased, and the arrival of the first rail lines in 1847 provided access to the Ohio River, eventually turning Indianapolis into a commercial center. By mid-century, immigration, especially by Germans, increased the city’s population to 18,611 by the beginning of the Civil War.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Indianapolis During the last two decades of the nineteenth century, the city underwent significant development that included the construction of Union Station and a new statehouse, as well as the introduction of paved streets and, in 1881, electric street lights (among the first in any American city). In the 1890s an enduring link between Indianapolis and the automobile was forged with the development by Charles H. Black of the first gasoline-powered auto. By 1911 the first car race was held at the Indianapolis Speedway. By 1920 Indianapolis had become an important industrial city, with a population of 300,000. However, the 1920s were marred by the rise to prominence of the Ku Klux Klan in the city’s political and social life, but the Klan’s power had declined by the 1930s. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the Public Works Administration oversaw the construction of Lockfield Gardens, one of the nation’s first public housing developments. Indianapolis’s central location and extensive transportation network made it a center for troop transport during World War II (1939–45), as well as a hub of wartime manufacturing. In the 1950s and 1960s, however, rail traffic declined and the city stagnated. A major revitalization effort was begun in 1970 with the administrative reorganization that merged some functions of the municipal government with those of the Marion County government to create a unique governmental entity known as UniGov, which has furthered the growth of the city and enhanced its national reputation. Soon afterwards,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
the city adopted a strategy of achieving growth by promoting itself as a center for sporting events, beginning with the construction of the Market Square Arena home of the Indiana Pacers since 1974. The focus on sports continued during the 16-year tenure (1976–82) of Mayor William H. Hudnut, under whose leadership Indianapolis spent more than $126 million on construction athletic facilities, aided by the Lilly Endowment and other private donors. A highlight of this effort was the creation of a new 61,000-seat football stadium. The city’s development efforts, which continued into the 1990s, have also included the ambitious Circle Centre project, a $300 million urban mall with over 100 retail outlets. 7
Government
In 1970 Indianapolis’s city and county governments merged to form a distinctive governmental system known as UniGov. Executive power is wielded by the mayor, who is elected to a four-year term and heads an administration consisting of six departments. He governs in conjunction with a 29member City-County Council also elected to four-year terms, either by district or at large. In 1995, Indianapolis’s government employed 12,000 persons. 8
Public Safety
In 1996, 60,404 crimes were reported to police in the Indianapolis Metropolitan Statistical Area, of which 12 percent were violent crimes. In 1997
83
Indianapolis answering a total of 49,212 calls, of which 13,408 were fire calls. The department operated 25 engines and had a budget of $46.7 million. 9
Indianapolis’s economic development is aided by its growing popularity for sporting events, including the Indy 500 motor race. (Sandy Felsenthal; Woodfin Camp)
Indianapolis ranked fortieth nationwide—between Boston, Massachusetts, and Arlington, Texas—in the number of crimes committed per 100,000 population. The Indianapolis Police Department jurisdiction is divided into five districts: north, east, south, west, and downtown. The department employs approximately 1,025 sworn officers and 290 civilian personnel. The average length of service for sworn officers is 14 years. The police department’s general fund for 1999 was $82.7 million. As of November 1998, the activities of Crime Stoppers of Central Indiana had led to the arrest of 1,317 felons. The Indianapolis Fire Department served a population of 350,000 in 1997,
84
Economy
Government, industry, and services are all components of the Indianapolis economy. Manufacturing was the dominant sector until the 1980s, when it was surpassed by services and retail trade. Indianapolis’s manufacturing industries include food and food products, paper, chemicals, printing and publishing, petroleum, plastics, bricks, apparel, fabricated metal products, machinery, transportation equipment, medical and optical products, and electronics. At the end of 1996, manufacturing employed 126,100 people in Indianapolis. Top companies with corporate headquarters in the city include Eli Lilly and Company (pharmaceutical manufacturer), Allied Gas and Turbine, Allison Transmissions, and the Associated Group (an insurance firm that has been recommended as one of the top companies nationwide in which to invest). Although Indianapolis is the largest major city in the United States not situated near a navigable body of water, it is still a major transport center because of its geographically central location. Five railroads, four interstate highways, and an international airport provide shipping services, and shipping costs are among the lowest in the nation. The city’s employment picture is bright, with the number of workers
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Indianapolis employed having increased without interruption since the mid-1980s. At the beginning of 1999 its labor force totaled 835,990, and unemployment stood at 2.7 percent. Major employment sectors at the end of 1996 were (in descending order) wholesale and retail trade, services, manufacturing, government, and finance, insurance, and real estate. The top employers (with number of people employed) were local government (62,700), state government (28,800), U.S. government (18,200), Indiana University-Purdue University at Indianapolis (8,250), and Eli Lilly and Company (7,500). The private and public sectors have cooperated to keep the city’s economy strong by fostering new development. The Indianapolis Economic Development Corporation (IEDC) was formed in 1983. Revitalization of the city’s downtown, guided by the Regional Center Plan, has benefited from public and private expenditures of over $4 billion since 1990. One of its major achievements was the construction of the new $319.5 million Circle Centre Mall, which opened in 1995. 10
Environment
Although the site for Indianapolis was chosen deliberately for its proximity to the White River, it turned out that the river was too shallow to support navigation for most of the year. Thus Indianapolis became the world’s largest city not situated on a navigable waterway, and development of the city was forced to focus on its major remaining
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
asset—its central location, which prompted the growth of highways and railroads that ultimately made the city “the Crossroads of America.” Today, the White River anchors the 101-hectare (250-acre) White River State Park located near the heart of the city. 11
Shopping
In 1995 the $319.5 million Circle Centre Mall opened in downtown Indianapolis. Skywalks connect it to the city’s major convention center. Other shopping facilities include the Castleton Square Mall, the Glendale Shopping Center, the Indianapolis Downtown Antique Mall, Keystone at the Crossing, Lafayette Square Mall, and Washington Square Mall. There are also stores at Union Station and, reachable on U.S. Highway 31, the Greenwood Park Mall. 12
Education
In the 1995–96 school year, the Indianapolis Public Schools enrolled 44,896 pupils and employed 2,491 teachers, with a pupil/teacher ratio of 18 to one. There were a total of 97 schools in the school system. There are 19 institutions of higher learning in Indianapolis, ranging from two-year colleges and technical schools to private and public four-year universities. The largest is Indiana University-Purdue University at Indianapolis, which offers associate, undergraduate, and graduate degree programs, and enrolled 26,336 students in the fall of 1998. Private four-year institutions (with fall 1998 enrollment figures) include Butler Uni-
85
Indianapolis versity (4,126) and the University of Indianapolis (3,414). Other institutions of higher education (with 1998 enrollment figures) include IVY Tech State College (7,116), Marian College (1,229), and Martin University (590). 13
Health Care
Indianapolis is home to the country’s second-largest medical school and its largest school of nursing, as well as one of its most prestigious pediatric hospitals. The affiliated Indiana University Medical Center is the nation’s largest university medical center, comprising three hospitals and some 90 clinics, many offering services based on cutting-edge medical technology. Some of the world’s leading athletes have been treated for orthopedic injuries at Methodist Hospital, the state’s largest medical facility. Among the city’s other hospitals are St. Vincent’s Hospital and Health Care Center, a specialized surgical facility, and the Winona Memorial Hospital, which has a sleep disorders clinic. There are almost 3,000 practicing physicians in the city. The American College of Sports Medicine also has its headquarters in Indianapolis. 14
Media
Indianapolis has two daily newspapers: the Indianapolis Star, a morning paper published seven days a week, and the Indianapolis News, an afternoon daily. The Star has a weekday and Saturday circulation of 230,223 and a Sunday circulation of 391,496. The circulation of the Indianapolis News is
86
35,602. The Indianapolis Business Journal, published weekly, is a tabloid-sized business journal with a circulation of about 17,000. Indianapolis Monthly is a popular and respected general-interest magazine that publishes annual “Best and Worst” and restaurant issues. Indianapolis has network-affiliate television network broadcasters for ABC, CBS, NBC, Fox, and PBS. There are a total of 19 radio stations, including both AM and FM stations. 15
Sports
Through promotion efforts and construction of new facilities since the 1980s, Indianapolis has earned a place as a major venue for amateur sports events and sports-related activities. Major league sports teams in Indianapolis include the National Football League’s Indianapolis Colts and the National Basketball Association’s Indiana Pacers. The Colts play at the 60,500-seat RCA Dome (formerly the Hoosier Dome); the Pacers play at the Market Square Arena. In the minor leagues, baseball is represented by the Triple-A Indianapolis Indians, who play at the new Victory Field stadium in White River State Park, which seats 13,500. The Indianapolis Ice play minor-league hockey at Market Square Arena. The best-known sporting event hosted in Indianapolis is the Indianapolis 500-Mile Race (popularly known as the “Indianapolis 500”), which takes place annually on Memorial Day weekend at the Indianapolis Motor Speed-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Indianapolis
The RCA dome, formerly known as the Hoosier dome, is the home to the National Football League’s Indianapolis Colts. (Sandy Felsenthal; Woodfin Camp)
way, attracting over 350,000 visitors and drawing professional race car drivers from around the world. Indianapolis hosted the Pan American Games in 1987 and the National Collegiate Athletic Association’s Division I Men’s Basketball Championship (the “Final Four”) in 1991, 1997, and 2000. 16
Parks and Recreation
The entrance to the 101-hectare (250-acre) White River State Park lies on West Washington Street, near the heart
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
of downtown Indianapolis. It is home to the Indianapolis Zoo, the Eiteljorg Museum of American Indian and Western Art, a new IMAX 3-D theater, and Victory Field baseball park. Indianapolis’ largest park (and one of the largest municipal parks in the country) is Eagle Creek Park, which covers 1,538 hectares (3,800 acres) and boasts a newly renovated nature center, more than 16 kilometers (ten miles) of trails, and a marina that offers sailing, canoeing, kayaking, and other water sports. There is also a one-hectare (three-acre) beach and a half-hectare (one-acre) ecology pond. Garfield Park, established in the
87
Indianapolis 1860s, is the city’s oldest park. It houses the Garfield Park Conservatory, which has a wide-ranging collection of rare plants and tropical birds, and also has sunken gardens and an amphitheater. Other city parks include Holliday Park, Ellenberger Park, Broad Ripple Park, Riverside Park, and Marott Park. Altogether, Indianapolis has almost 140 parks. 17
Performing Arts
The Indianapolis Symphony Orchestra, founded in 1930 and currently directed by Raymond Leppard, has been ranked by the New York Times as one of the nation’s ten best orchestras. It performs in the renovated Circle Theatre and at other venues throughout the state. Indianapolis is also home to an opera company, ballet and contemporary dance companies, and the state’s only repertory theater. Artsgarden, a glass-domed performance and exhibition space in the heart of the city was completed in 1995. Connected to the major convention center and the RCA Dome by skywalks, the facilities hosts over 300 events annually. 18
Libraries and Museums
The Indianapolis-Marion County Public Library has its main building downtown and 21 neighborhood branches throughout the city. Founded in 1873, the library has a staff of 460 and an annual circulation of 8.4 million items. Its holdings include 1.7 million
88
The Children’s Museum, the largest in the world, has a multitude of interactive exhibits. (Sandy Felsenthal; Woodfin Camp)
book volumes, over 45,000 compact discs, and 100 CD-ROM titles. Among the areas in which it has special collections are early children’s literature, first editions of Indiana authors, and James Whitcomb Riley. Altogether, Indianapolis is home to about 80 public and private libraries, including several university collections, as well as the Indiana State Library. The collection of the Indiana University-Purdue University at Indianapolis Library comprises over 360,000 volumes. There are also
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Indianapolis numerous private and government research institutions throughout the city, including the Hudson Institute, which conducts research on public policy. The Indianapolis Museum of Art is considered one of the outstanding art museums in the Midwest. Situated in a picturesque park that includes a botanical garden, it is noted for its Chinese and Neoimpressionist collections, as well as the country’s most extensive collection of paintings by nineteenthcentury British artist J. M. W. Turner (1775–1851). Other noteworthy museums include the Children’s Museum (the world’s largest children’s museum), which provides a multitude of handson science exhibits; the Eiteljorg Museum of American Indian and Western Art; the Indiana State Museum, which focuses on the history of the state; a sports museum; and the Indianapolis Motor Speedway and Hall of Fame Museum. 19
To u r i s m
Since the 1980s, Indianapolis has actively promoted tourism by marketing itself as a center for amateur sporting events, building new sports facilities, and expanding its hotel facilities. In addition to the time-honored Indianapolis 500, held annually at the Indianapolis Speedway, the city has hosted the Pan American Games (1987) and the NCAA Final Four (1991 and 1997). Downtown Indianapolis has 19 hotels with over 4,000 hotel rooms; the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
greater metropolitan area has 153 hotels with approximately 20,000 rooms. The major convention center is the Indiana Convention Center & RCA Dome. In 1995 Indianapolis attracted over one million convention delegates. 20
Holidays and Festivals
MARCH St. Patrick’s Day Parade
APRIL Hoosier Horse Fair & Expo
MAY Broad Ripple Art Fair Indianapolis 500 auto race and the 500 Festival
JUNE Middle Eastern Festival Indian Market Indy Jazz Fest Italian Festival Midsummer Fest Strawberry Festival Talbott Street Art Fair
JULY Fourth Fest Circlefest Indiana Black Expo
AUGUST Africafest Indiana Avenue Jazz Festival Indiana State Fair Brickyard 400 auto race
SEPTEMBER Greek Festival Heartland Film Festival Massachusetts Avenue Fall Festival Penrod Arts Fair Hoosier Storytelling Festival Oktoberfest
OCTOBER Circle City Classic
NOVEMBER Celebration of Lights
89
Indianapolis 21
Famous Citizens
Benjamin Harrison (1833–1901), twenty-third president of the United States. David Letterman (b. 1947), television personality. Eli Lilly (1885–1977), businessman and philanthropist. Steve McQueen (1930–80), actor. Jane Pauley (b. 1950), television news anchor. James Whitcomb Riley (1849–1916), writer known as “the poet of the common people”. Wilma Rudolph (b. 1940), track star. Booth Tarkington (1869–1946), novelist and dramatist. Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. (b. 1922), satirical novelist. 22
For Further Study
Websites Office of the Mayor. [Online] Available http:// www.ci.indianapolis.in.us/mayor. (accessed October 14, 1999). Official Website of the City of Indianapolis and Marion County, Indiana. [Online] Available http://www.ci.indianapolis.in.us. (accessed October 14, 1999).
Government Offices City Hall 200 E. Washington St. Indianapolis, IN 46204 (317) 327-4348 Indianapolis Planning Division 200 E. Washington St. Indianapolis, IN 46204 (317) 327-5151
90
Mayor’s Office 200 E. Washington St. Indianapolis, IN 46204 (317) 327-3601
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Indiana Convention Center & RCA Dome 100 S. Capitol Ave. Indianapolis, IN 46225 (317) 262-3410 Indianapolis Chamber of Commerce 320 N Meridian St. Suite 200 Indianapolis, IN 46204 (317) 464-2200 Indianapolis Convention and Visitors Association 200 S. Capitol Ave. 1 RCA Dome Indianapolis, IN 46225 (317) 639-4282
Publications Indianapolis Business Journal 41 E. Washington St., Suite 200 Indianapolis, IN 46204 Indianapolis Monthly 950 N. Meridian St. Suite 1200 Indianapolis, IN 46204 Indianapolis News 307 N. Pennsylvania St. Indianapolis, IN 46204 (317) 633-1038 Indianapolis Star 307 N. Pennsylvania St. Indianapolis, IN 46204 (317) 633-1240
Books Berry, S. L., and Jolene Phelps Ketzenberger. The Insiders’ Guide to Greater Indianapolis. Indianapolis: Insiders’ Publishing, 1997. Bodenhamer, David J., and Robert G. Barrows, ed. The Encyclopedia of Indianapolis. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994. Bowers, Claude Gernade. Ed. Holman Hamilton and Gayle Thornbrough. Indianapolis in the "Gay Nineties": High School Diaries of Claude G. Bowers. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1964. Cameron, Layne Scott. Kidding Around Indianapolis: What to Do, Where to Go, and How to Have
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Indianapolis Fun in Indianapolis. Santa Fe, NM: John Muir Publications, 1997. Cathcart, Charlotte. Indianapolis from Our Old Corner. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1965. City-smart Guidebook. Indianapolis. Santa Fe, NM: John Muir Publications, 1997. Goldsmith, Stephen. The Twenty-first Century City: Resurrecting Urban America. Washing-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
ton, D.C.: Regnery Pub.,1997. Jones, Darryl. Indianapolis. [photographs]. Text by Howard Caldwell. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. Kriplen, Nancy, and Margaret Winter. Exploring Indianapolis. 3rd. ed. Indianapolis: Lexicon, 1982. Leary, Ed. Indianapolis: The Story of a City. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1971.
91
Istanbul Istanbul, Turkey, Europe and Asia Founded: Ottoman Turks captured present-day Istanbul (formerly known as Constantinople and before that as Byzantium) in 1453. Location: Istanbul, Turkey, is the only city in the world that sits on two continents: Europe and Asia. The city lies on both sides of the Bosporus channel and the Sea of Marmara, which connect the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. On the European side of the Bosporus, old Istanbul developed on the western side of the narrow Golden Horn, a canal about 4 miles in length that empties into the Bosporus. Flag: White emblem on a red field. Time Zone: 3 PM = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: About 99% of Istanbul residents are Muslim Turks, two-thirds of them Sunni. The rest are Alevi, a sect similar to Shiism. Christian and Jewish minorities continue to shrink in numbers. Elevation: Approximately 600m (2,000 ft) above sea level Climate: Istanbul has a Mediterranean climate with cool, wet winters and dry, hot summers. The prevailing northeast winds, or poyraz, come from the Black Sea, sometimes bringing extreme cold to the city. At times, the cold winds have frozen the Golden Horn and the Bosporus. Temperature: Temperatures average about 40.5° F (4.7°C) in January and about 73°F (22.8°C) in July. Average Annual Precipitation: About 31.5 inches, with most falling in the winter Government: A mayor appointed by the President of the Republic Weights and Measures: Standard metric Monetary Units: The Turkish lira. It comes in notes of 50,000; 100,000; 500,000; 1,000,000 and 5,000,000. Coins come in denominations of 5,000; 10,000; 25,000 and 50,000. Telephone Area Codes: 90 (Turkey country code); 212, 216 (Istanbul city codes)
1
Introduction
Inhabited for more than 2,500 years, the old walled city of Istanbul was one of the most coveted places in the world. To resist invaders, its inhabitants built massive walls, 5 meters (16 feet) deep and 9 meters (30 feet) in height. Yet, the walls were more like an invitation, a signal that something worth taking hid within its walls.
Formerly known as Constantinople, and before that as Byzantium, Istanbul was founded at a crossroad between Europe and Asia, Christianity and Islam. It was the capital city of the Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman Empires and briefly the capital city of the Turkish Republic, each opening the city's doors to friends and firmly shutting them to enemies. The city was
93
Istanbul
Istanbul Population Profile City Proper Population: 5,000,000 Area: 1,991 sq km (769 sq mi ) Ethnic composition: About 99% of Istanbul residents are Muslim Turks, two-thirds of them Sunni. The rest are Alevi, a sect similar to Shiism. Christian and Jewish minorities continue to shrink in numbers. Nicknames: The ancient name of Byzantium is believed to come from its founder, Byzas. Constantine I named it New Rome before naming it after himself: Constantinople. The name Istanbul is derived from the Greek term stin poli, meaning "to the city" or "in the city.'' Used for many centuries, it did not officially become the name of the city until 1930.
Metropolitan Area Population: 9,413,000 Area: 2,204 sq mi (5,712 sq km) World population rank1: 23 Percentage of national population2: 14.3% Average yearly growth rate: 3.5% ——— 1. The Istanbul metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of Turkey’s total population living in the Istanbul metropolitan area.
and other buildings. So did the Ottoman Empire, which captured the city in 1453 and proceeded to cover the city with palaces, mosques, and water fountains. Their efforts stood in stark contrast with those who were left outside the walls. Those who penetrated its walls by force took great pleasure in tearing the city down, stealing its treasures and hauling anything that could be carried back home across long distances. What man could not destroy, nature took away. Dozens of earthquakes have shaken the city throughout its history, turning buildings to dust. Like many cities in the world, Istanbul long ago lived its golden era. Today, it is poverty, pollution, and social problems that besiege the city. Yet, Istanbul retains its exuberance, its charm, and its place in history. 2
Getting There
Because of its location, Istanbul functions as the crossroads between Europe and Asia. Highways
attacked more than 60 times. In ancient times, the Greeks, Athenians, Persians, and Spartans fought to capture it; so did the Gauls and the Macedonians. The Romans finally took it and renamed it after Constantine the Great, who declared it the new capital of a united Roman Empire. Something about this city by the water compelled its leaders to spare no efforts in aggrandizing it. The Byzantine Empire spent countless fortunes building palaces, churches,
94
A major highway connects Bulgaria to Turkey. Bus and Railroad Service One of the best means of travel is by inter-city bus. Esenler and Harem are the two main bus stations. The best of the companies offer comfortable, quality transportation, an excellent and cheap alternative to flying. Many buses are double deckered, and all are non-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Istanbul
smoking and offer tea and snack service. The railroad is slower but can be fun, especially in a first class compartment. The Sirkeci train station serves Europe while Haydarpasa Station serves parts of Asia and the Middle East. Trains
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
run between Ankara and Istanbul, Istanbul and Izmir, and reservations are required. Airports Ataturk International Airport has daily service to just about every part of
95
Istanbul
City Fact Comparison Istanbul (Turkey)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
9,413,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1453
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$159
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$78
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$19
$14
$15
$16
$256
$173
$246
$207
22
13
20
11
Sabah
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
722,950
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1985
1944
1976
1948
Total daily costs Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established 1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
the world. The Havas bus service has frequently scheduled trips between the airport and the city. The service between terminals is free. Metered taxis are also available to get to the city. Shipping As Byzantium, present-day Istanbul was built along the Golden Horn, which provided the best natural harbor in the region. The Golden Horn inlet provides a safe harbor next to the city, not far from the Bosporus, a major maritime route connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.
96
3
Getting Around
Bus and Commuter Rail Service Public buses are the main mode of transportation in Istanbul, carrying about 1.5 million passengers per day. The city’s dolmus (public shared taxis) carry thousands of passengers each day. There are many taxis and thousands of private automobiles. There is also sea bus service between the Asian and European sides, as well as regional train service. The city is in the midst of expanding a limited underground metro service.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Istanbul Sightseeing Istanbul is a city with great architectural heritage. Visitors travel from around the world to see Turkish palaces, mosques, museums, monuments, and water fountains. Some of the most popular ones include the Ayasofya Museum, the Kariye Museum, the Cinili Kosk, the Ibrahim Palace Museum, the Museum of Turkish Carpets, and the Mosaic Museum. Many of the mosques and other historic landmarks were even added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List in 1985. Many people also come to Istanbul to purchase the country's famous carpets, tiles, and ceramics. 4
People
During the 1990s, Istanbul grew at a rate of about 3.8 percent annually. Most of the migrants came from the countryside, moving into shantytowns known as gecekondus (literally “set down by night”). About 99 percent of Istanbul residents are Muslim Turks, two-thirds of them Sunni. The rest are Alevi, a sect similar to Shiism. Christian and Jewish minorities continue to shrink in numbers. The dominant language is Turkish although some minorities do speak other languages. 5
Neighborhoods
In a traditional sense, Istanbul is not a city of neighborhoods. With nearly 3,000 years of continuous habitation, the only constant has been people's desire to live there. Wars, invasions, occupations, and the systematic destruction of the city, as well as
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
plagues, devastating earthquakes, and fires, have forced residents to rebuild Istanbul many times over. Somehow, through all the remarkable changes, the remains of ancient buildings and monuments still stand today. Old Istanbul remains a walled city. A close inspection of the walls explains how the city remained invulnerable to so many attacks. In some places, the walls are 9 meters (30 feet) high and 5 meters (16 feet) thick, with 18-meter (60-foot) towers every 55 meters (180 feet). Two bridges cross over the Golden Horn and connect old Istanbul with Beyoglu, which is characterized as “modern Istanbul.” Since the eleventh century, Beyoglu has been considered the foreign quarter. This area is made up mostly of post-nineteenth-century buildings. Earthquakes, fires, and warfare just about destroyed everything before that date. Beyoglu is divided into two sections: the lower Galata waterfront and the Pera Plateau, home to consulates and Turkish government offices, as well as many of the city’s largest hotels and best restaurants. The city reaches across the Bosporus to its Asian side with two bridges, one completed in 1973 and the other in 1988. Housing is a problem in Istanbul; occupancy rates hover at about 13 persons per unit. As migrants, especially from the Asian side of Istanbul, have moved into the city, large shantytowns have appeared throughout the metropolitan area.
97
Istanbul 6
History
Archaeological remains show that people have inhabited the immediate area of present-day Istanbul for tens of thousands of years. A large population lived in the area around 5,000 B.C. Greeks from Miletus and Megara began to settle along the coasts of Bosporus and the Black Sea during the latter part of the eighth century B.C. According to legend, the colony of Byzantium was founded in 660 B.C. by a Megarian named Byzas. The colony was named after him. Because of its strategic position, Byzantium didn't take long to establish its economic dominance over the region, inviting unwanted attention. Byzantium was built along the Golden Horn, which provided the best natural harbor in the region. Fish were abundant, and the fertile surrounding countryside was suitable for agriculture. The Golden Horn inlet provided a safe harbor next to the city, not far from the Bosporus, a major maritime route connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Greeks, Athenians, Persians, and Spartans fought over the city early on. Even the Gauls attacked Byzantium in the third century B.C. In 202 B.C. Byzantium, besieged by Macedonians, asked Rome for protection. By 73 B.C. the city had become part of a Roman province. In A.D. 196, Byzantium found itself on the wrong side of an internal Roman power struggle and paid dearly. Roman emperor Septimus Severus (146–211; r.
98
193–211) massacred its residents and destroyed most of the city. He rebuilt Byzantium, which continued to prosper despite serious attacks, civil wars, and rebellions that broke out in the Roman Empire over many decades. On September 18, 324, Constantine I (c. 274–337; r. 306–337) defeated rival emperor Licinius and united the vast Roman Empire under his leadership. On May 11, 330, Byzantium officially became the capital of the empire, which stretched over three continents. Briefly known as New Rome, the city was renamed Constantinople in honor of Constantine, the first Roman ruler to adopt Christianity. Constantinople became one of the world’s wealthiest and most powerful cities of its time. Until the eleventh century, it was virtually untouchable, dictating Christian religious doctrine and controlling vast amounts of wealth. No longer did all roads lead to Rome. They led to Constantinople, the meeting point between East and West. With the death of Theodosius in 395, the Roman Empire was split into East and West. Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, which came to be known as the Byzantine Empire. The city developed into the center of the Greek Orthodox Christian world. With vast amounts of wealth at its disposal, the Byzantine Empire transformed Constantinople into a beautiful city. Some of the best architects of the time designed its churches and palaces. Artists and sculptors left their mark
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Istanbul
Istanbul rests on two continents, Asia and Europe, and is divided by the Bosporus Channel. Pictured is a view of the Golden Horn and the Bosporus towards Galata and Beyoglu areas, with the Yeni Mosque in the foreground. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
throughout the city. The hippodrome could sit more than 100,000 people. The Haghia Sophia, today a museum, was one of the largest churches of its time. As the city grew, its nearly impenetrable protective walls were built further out. During the reign of Byzantine emperor Justinian (527–565), more than 500,000 people lived in Constantinople. Justinian oversaw the construction of some of the city’s most spectacular buildings, including the Haghia Sophia. Under his rule, the city reached its zenith.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
The accumulation of wealth continued to attract enemies. In 542, a plague devastated the population, killing three out of five inhabitants, and marked the beginning of the city's decline. Its enemies besieged the weakened city but could not penetrate its walls. Between the seventh and eleventh centuries, Russians, Persian Sassanids, Avars, Muslim Arabs, and Bulgars attacked the city. During the Fourth Crusade (a series of religious wars between Western European Christians and Muslims for control of the Holy Land), the Latins
99
Istanbul ulation shrank to 50,000, and its people were constantly on the brink of famine. In the distance, the advancing troops of the Ottoman Empire moved closer and closer. The Ottoman Turks attacked Constantinople for the first time in 1396. Ottoman is the Western derivative for the followers of Osman (1259–1326), a Sunni Muslim warrior who led raids on Christian Byzantine enclaves in western Anatolia (the Asian side of present-day Turkey).
Eating rooms were decorated with ornate tiles to entice the Sultan to eat. This is the fruit room from the Topkapi Palace. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
(Roman Catholics) broke through the walls and seized the city in 1204. They held it until 1261, when Byzantine troops recaptured the city. Under Latin rule, the city was plundered and ruined. The invaders stole most of the city's precious religious and civic symbols, melted its bronze statues for coin, and took just about anything of value that could be carried away. Constantinople would never recover from the destruction, even after the much smaller and weakened Byzantine Empire regained control. The city’s pop-
100
The Ottomans built a fort on the Asian side of the Bosporus to prevent aid from reaching Constantinople. Yet the city would not fall for several decades. By 1452, under leader Mehmed II (r. 1451–1481), the Ottomans tightened the noose, building a second fortress on the European side of the Bosporus. Mehmed commissioned the manufacture of large cannons to bombard the city’s powerful walls. In March of 1453, Ottoman troops attacked the city by land and water. A massive chain prevented enemy ships from entering the Golden Horn. But Mehmed rolled his fleet by land on top of logs from the Bosporus into the Golden Horn. On May 29, Mehmed entered the city and prayed in the church of Haghia Sophia. It was a symbolic gesture that signaled the end of Constantinople’s Christian era and the beginning of Muslim rule. The Haghia Sophia was immediately turned into a Muslim temple. The city had been nearly abandoned during Mehmed’s siege. He
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Istanbul began to repopulate it by moving people into the city from other communities. In 1457, Constantinople, known by now as Istanbul, became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Within a few years, the city was repopulated by more than 50,000 people.
approval of the ruling class. Sultans and government officials adopted the dress of Western diplomats, replacing their traditional clothes with Western pants and jackets. The fez replaced the turban. With European investment, Istanbul continued to modernize.
During the rule of Suleyman the Magnificent (r. 1520–66), Ottoman Istanbul reached its zenith. The magnificent buildings of architect Mimar Sinan (c. 1489–1587) defined this period. As chief architect of the Ottoman Empire, Sinan is credited with more than 300 buildings. He designed palaces, mosques, tombs, and government buildings. With his buildings and the contributions of others, the city embraced a distinct Ottoman identity. For a while, it was the center of Islam.
By the 1870s, Europeans were building a railroad to connect the continent with Istanbul. Modernization had come at a high price, and the empire was heavily indebted to European powers. In the meantime, many young Ottomans sought to limit the powers of the sultan and his western-style administration. The power struggles of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries would mark the end of the Ottoman Empire and the beginning of the Turkish Republic.
By the nineteenth century, moderate sultans opened the doors to the West and sought better relations. Muslim Turks, Orthodox Greeks, Christians, Armenians, Jews, and many Europeans populated Istanbul. Yet, not all was well within the Ottoman Empire. Many non-Turkish people were in open revolt. The Greeks declared their independence in 1829, and soon others followed. The Europeans invested heavily in the Ottoman Empire. They openly sought to exert influence while secretly desiring the empire's territories and its wealth. British, French, and Germans were involved in just about every aspect of Ottoman society. Foreign experts were reshaping the Ottoman Army and government administration with the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
In 1908, a group known as the Young Turks forced Sultan Abd alHamid to restore the constitution and parliament. Al-Hamid attempted a counterrevolution in 1909, dissolving Congress and arresting many Young Turks. But allies of the young revolutionaries marched from Macedonia into Istanbul and dethroned the sultan. The Young Turks, who ruled until 1918, introduced many social changes, including Western-style elections and broader women’s rights. During World War I (1914–18), the Ottomans aligned themselves with the Central Powers (the German and Austro-Hungarian empires). Istanbul was blockaded. At the end of the war, British, French, and Italian soldiers occupied Istanbul until 1923.
101
Istanbul The nationalist Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–1938) and his Turkish troops fought European intervention from 1918 until 1923 when hostilities ended with the Treaty of Lausanne. Atatürk abolished the sultanate and moved the capital city to Ankara. Turkey remained neutral during World War II (1939–45) and later became an ally of Western nations and member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). During the twentieth century, Istanbul lost more than just its status as capital of empires. As it grew, large historic parts of the city were demolished to make space for highways and new buildings. Today, Istanbul struggles to retain its heritage as the portal between two worlds. Many of its buildings have been declared world heritage treasures by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 7
Government
The mayor governs the city and the province of Istanbul. The president of the republic appoints the mayor. The municipality of Istanbul, which was organized by Constantine I into 14 districts in imitation of Rome, is currently divided into 12 districts (kazas). The Turkish Minister of the Interior appoints the heads of the kazas. The municipal government distributes funds to each of the districts for transportation, water, roads, and other services. A metropolitan municipality handles planning for the region.
102
The Spice Bazaar is one way to appreciate the best spices from Europe and Asia. (Adam Woolfitt; Woodfin Camp)
8
Public Safety
The city has the typical problems of a large metropolis, but it is generally considered safe. Tourists are most likely to be affected only by petty crime. 9
Economy
Istanbul remains one of the most important commercial centers in the country. About 36 percent of exports and 40 percent of imports pass through Istanbul. It is an industrial city, accounting for 45 percent of national production and about the same percentage of jobs. Its factories produce textiles, oil products, rubber, metals, leather, chemicals, glass, electronics, and automobiles. The city is a banking and insurance center.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Istanbul 10
Environment
Air and water pollution are serious problems in Istanbul. Many beach resorts do not allow swimming because of pollution. Many of the shantytowns lack adequate sanitation facilities and clean water. Water and sewage treatment facilities have not kept up pace with the growing population. During the summer, Istanbul has experienced severe water shortages. 11
Shopping
Istanbul, at the crossroads of two continents, seems like it was made for shopping. The city has many colorful bazaars, including the historic "Kapali Carsi," or covered Bazaar, in the old city. It has more than 4,000 shops, and each trade has its own section. Turkish arts and crafts, carpets, and jewelry are found there, among thousands of other items. The Spice Bazaar is filled with the smells of cinnamon, mint, thyme, and hundreds of other spices and herbs. Istanbul also has many modern shops and malls. 12
Education
The city has 3,500 primary and secondary schools. The national literacy rate is about 70 percent, with a much higher percentage in the city. Theodosius II (401–450) founded the first University of Istanbul in A.D. 425. It was succeeded by Istanbul University in 1453. There are two other major universities in the city. Among foreign institutions are The American Robert College
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
for boys (1863) and the American College for girls (1871). 13
Health Care
The city has 90 public and private hospitals serving the Istanbul metropolitan area. The government subsidizes health care. The are only two doctors per 1,000 persons, and many hospitals and clinics lack adequate personnel and equipment. Istanbul is home to the country's two medical schools. 14
Media
Istanbul has 17 daily and 13 weekly newspapers, as well as dozens of periodicals. The city is also served by television and radio. It is home of Turkish cinema and a major book publishing center. The press has been largely uncensored. 15
Sports
Sports are important in Istanbul, and soccer is the most important of all. The city has three major soccer stadiums and several professional teams in the area. Wrestling and sailing are also popular. The city has golf, tennis, and many other sports facilities. 16
Parks and Recreation
The city has many public parks, including Yildiz Park and the Gulhane Park at Topkapi, home of the Istanbul Zoo. A park was developed on the site of the Byzantine Hippodrome. It displays the remains of the ancient
103
Istanbul
A lute player in traditional costume. (R & S Michaud)
horseracing venue. Turkish men are known for spending their leisure time at coffeehouses (kiraathane), where many customers still smoke water pipes (hookahs). Both men and women enjoy the public steam baths (haman), but there are separate facilities for each gender. 17
Performing Arts
Ballet, opera, and theater presentations are held at the 1,300-seat AKM Grand Hall. The Istanbul State Symphony Orchestra, Istanbul Modern Folk Music Ensemble, Istanbul State Classi-
104
cal Turkish Music Choir, and the Istanbul Historical Turkish Music Ensemble perform in the city. The International Arts and Cultural Festival is held each year in June and July. 18
Libraries and Museums
The city has exceptional museums. Among them is the Ayasofya (Saint Sophia) Museum. The ancient basilica was built by Constantine the Great (c. 274–337) and reconstructed by Justinian (c. 482–527) in the sixth century. Architecturally, it is considered one of
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Istanbul the most important buildings in the world. Its decorations include fine Byzantine mosaics. The Kariye Museum, built as a church in the eleventh century, is decorated with fourteenth-century frescoes and mosaics on a gold background. The Archaeological Museum has a rich collection of antiquities, including the Alexander Sarcophagus. It has displays on the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Hatti, and Hittite civilizations. The Cinili Kosk (The Museum of Turkish Ceramics) was built in the fifteenth century and contains Iznik tiles from the sixteenth century, as well as examples of Seljuk and Ottoman tiles and ceramics. The Ibrahim Palace Museum (The Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art) was built as a private residence in 1524. The museum has many Turkish and Persian miniatures, Seljuk tiles, and antique carpets. The Museum of Fine Arts has paintings and sculptures from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Among others are the Museum of Turkish Carpets, the Mosaic Museum, and the City Museum, which covers the Ottoman period to the present. The city has many public and private libraries, including the Köprülü Library (1677), which has books more than 1,000 years old. 19
To u r i s m
Istanbul is one of the great architectural and cultural cities of the world. Turkish palaces, mosques, museums, monuments, and hundreds of water fountains help tell the story of this old city. Many of the mosques and other
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
historic landmarks were added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List in 1985. Many people come to Istanbul to purchase the country’s famous carpets, tiles, and ceramics. 20
Holidays and Festivals
The Turkish people observe many religious festivals, including the end of Ramazan (called Ramadan in Arab countries). Muslim religious holidays are based on the lunar calendar and shift about ten days backward each year. JANUARY New Year’s Day
APRIL National Independence and Children’s Day
MAY Ataturk’s Commemoration Day
AUGUST Zafer Bayram, or Victory Day
OCTOBER Cumhuriyet Bayram, or Republic Day
NOVEMBER Anniversary of Atatürk's death
21
Famous Citizens
Anna Comnena (1083–c. 1148), Byzantine princess, daughter of Emperor Alexius I Comnenus, and historian, whose Alexiad is considered an important historical document. Constantine the Great (c. 274–337), founder of Constantinople and first Roman ruler to convert to Christianity.
105
Istanbul Bulent Ecevit (b. 1925) poet, political leader, and national hero, Turkish Prime Minister (1974 and 1978– 79). Pasha Enver (1881–1922), one of the main leaders of the Young Turks Revolution of 1908 and nationalist leader who directed Turkish war efforts during World War I. Mimar Sinan (c. 1489–1588), great architect of the early Ottoman Empire, credited with more than 300 buildings in Istanbul. 22
For Further Study
Websites Istanbul City Guide. [Online] Available http:// www.istanbulcityguide.com (accessed February 7, 2000). Ministry of Culture. [Online] Available http:// www.kultur.gov.tr/english/main-e.html (accessed February 7, 2000). Structural analysis of the Hagia Sophia Museum [Online] Available http://www.princeton.edu/ ~asce/const_95/const.html (accessed February 7, 2000).
Government Offices Embassy of Turkey 1714 Massachusetts Washington D.C. 20036 Government of Turkey [Online] Available http:// www.turkey-web.com/government (accessed February 7, 2000).
106
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Ismet Inonu Bul 5 Bah Celievler Ankara, Turkey
Publications Aksam Gazetesi newspaper [Online] Available http://www.aksam.com.tr (accessed February 7, 2000). Fanatik (sports Internet site from Istanbul). [Online] Available http://www.fanatik.com.tr (accessed February 7, 2000). Milliyet Gazetesi newspaper [Online] Available http://www.milliyet.com.tr/englishindex.html (accessed February 7, 2000). Turkish Daily News. [Online] Available http:// www.turkishdailynews.com (accessed February 7, 2000).
Books Clari, Robert de. The Conquest of Constantinople. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997. Kagitcibasi, Cigdem, ed. Sex Roles, Family, and Community in Turkey. Bloomington: Indiana University Press Turkish Studies, 1982. Lewis, Bernard. Istanbul: And the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994. Mansel, Philip. Constantinople: City of the World's Desire: 1453–1924. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998. Queller, Donald E. with Thomas F. Madden. The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997. Tapper, Richard, ed. Islam in Modern Turkey: Religion, Politics, and Literature in a Secular State. London: Tauris, 1991. Treadgold, Warren. Byzantium and its Army: 284– 1081. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1997. Whittow, Mark. The Making of Byzantium: 600– 1025. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Jerusalem Jerusalem, Israel, Middle East Founded: c. 4000 bc Location: The Judaean hills, about 30 km (20 mi) from the Jordan River Flag: Blue horizontal stripes on a white field, with a blue and yellow emblem in the center. Time Zone: 2 PM = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: 70% Jewish; 30% Arab Elevation: 757 meters (2,484 feet) above sea level Latitude and Longitude: 31º47’N, 35º15’E Climate: Subtropical, semiarid; warm, dry summers; cool, rainy winters Annual Mean Temperature: January 9ºC (48ºF); July 23ºC (73ºF) Average Annual Precipitation: 500 mm (20 in) Government: Mayor-council Weights and Measures: Metric system Monetary Units: New Israeli Shekel (NIS) Telephone Area Codes: 02 (Jerusalem area code); 972 (country code for Israel) Postal Codes: 9000 and up
1
Introduction
Located east of the Jordan River in the Judaean Hills, Jerusalem is the capital of Israel and its largest city in terms of both geographical area and population size. A holy city for three of the world’s major religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—Jerusalem has a long and tumultuous history, during which it has been home to people of many nationalities and faiths. Reunified since 1967, Jerusalem is really three cities in one: the historic walled Old City that is home to its holy places, the modern urban center to the west, and the Arab district to the east. In addition to being Israel’s spiritual, political, and administrative capital, Jerusalem is also
a leader in education and health care, and its religious, historical, and cultural attractions make it the country’s premier tourist destination. 2
Getting There
Jerusalem lies 48 kilometers (30 miles) east of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered on the north, south, and east by the West Bank of the Jordan River, occupied by Israel since the Six Day War in 1967. Israel’s border with Jordan is 40 kilometers (25 miles) east of the city. Highways Route 60, the main north-south highway, cuts through the middle of
107
Jerusalem Airports
Jerusalem Population Profile Population: 3,738,500 Area: 109 sq km (42 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 70% Jewish; 30% Arab World population rank1: approx. 68 Percentage of national population2: n.a. Average yearly growth rate: n.a (Tel Aviv 1.98%) Nicknames: The Holy City ——— 1. The Jerusalem metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas.
Ben Gurion International Airport is located 50 km (12 mi) west of Jerusalem along Route 1 leading to Tel Aviv. Of the approximately 5 million passengers who use the airport every year, more than 40 percent travel on flights operated by El Al, Israel’s national airline. Shipping Jerusalem is not a port city.
2. The percent of Israel’s total population living in the Jerusalem metropolitan area.
3
Jerusalem, leading to Nablus to the north and Hebron and Beersheba to the south. The major east-west highway, Route 1, leads northwest to Tel Aviv and eastward to Jordan, first intersecting with Route 90, which in turn leads north to Jericho and beyond to Tiberias and the Sea of Galilee. The Allon Road traverses the Judaean Desert, leading to Israeli settlements on the West Bank. Bus and Railroad Service Intercity buses from points throughout Israel, including Ben Gurion International Airport, arrive and depart from the Egged Central Bus Station on Jaffa Road. There is also bus service to Cairo, Egypt, and Amman, Jordan. There are separate bus stations for destinations within jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority. There is train service to Tel Aviv, continuing to Haifa, leaving from the train station in Remez Square.
108
Getting Around
The modern municipality of Jerusalem, as defined by its post-1967 borders, lies between Mount Scopus and the Mount of Olives to the east, Hadassah Medical Center to the west, and past Jerusalem’s municipal airport to the north. Within these boundaries is the historic, walled Old City, which forms a rough quadrilateral measuring about 900 meters (3,000 feet) on each side. Seven gates lead to the twisting, narrow streets of the Old City, which is divided into Christian, Jewish, Muslim, and Armenian quarters. To the west, the Jaffa Gate provides the main access to the modern Jerusalem, while the Damascus Gate is the main entryway to the Arab enclave of East Jerusalem. Bus and Commuter Rail Service The Egged Bus Cooperative, which offers inter-city bus transportation, also provides transportation within Jerusalem itself. Bus service is frequent, punctual, and reasonably priced, with a flat fare for all local bus rides, no matter
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Jerusalem
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
109
Jerusalem how short or long. Private Arab companies provide service to the West Bank. There is no real commuter rail service, but shared taxis called sheruts, which seat up to seven passengers, are a popular mode of transport in the city. Sightseeing Egged, which provides most of the city’s public transportation, offers an introductory tour of Jerusalem that takes in 36 major tourist sites and allows visitors to embark at any of them and board another bus later at no extra charge. Egged also offers half-day bus tours of the Old City and of the Yad Vashem Holocaust memorial. Walking tours are a popular way to see many of Jerusalem’s historic sites. Tours of both the Old City and the newer part of Jerusalem are offered by Zion Walking Tours. Archaeological Seminars walking tours focus on the historical periods of the first and second temples, and the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel (SPNI) offers tours of the Old City as well as nature hikes in the nearby countryside. 4
People
Jerusalem is one of Israel’s most populous city, and its population continues to grow rapidly thanks to a high birth rate and the arrival of new immigrants, many of them from the former Soviet republics. Since 1986, the city’s population has grown by 28 percent, with peripheral neighborhoods, such as Manchat and Pisgat Ze’ev, recording the greatest increases. At the end of 1996,
110
Jerusalem’s population was 602,100, and it is expected to reach 650,000 by 2000. As of 1996, Jews accounted for 70 percent of the city’s inhabitants, with Arabs making up the rest. Of the city’s Arabs, 92 percent were Muslim and eight percent Christian. Because of Jerusalem’s large non-Jewish and Orthodox Jewish populations—both of which tend to have large families— young people account for an unusually large percentage of the city’s population: in 1996, 44 percent of the population was aged zero to 19 (including 13 percent aged zero to four) while only eight percent were senior citizens. 5
Neighborhoods
Jerusalem consists of three main areas. The city’s great holy and historic sites are found in the walled Old City, home to the Muslim Dome of the Rock, the Christian Church of the Sepulchre, and the Western Wall of the Jewish Temple. To the west lies the modern, predominantly Jewish city of Jerusalem, also called the New City, the political and administrative capital of Israel. To the east of the Old City lies East Jerusalem, the Palestinian part of the city, which was cut off from the rest of Jerusalem between Israeli independence in 1948 and the Six Day War in 1967. The former dividing line, known as the Green Line, is now called HaShalom Road. Besides hotels and restaurants, East Jerusalem, whose main streets are Nablus Road and Salah ad-Din Street, is home to many retailers and other small
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Jerusalem
City Fact Comparison Jerusalem (Israel)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
3,738,500
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
c. 4000 BC
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$184
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$76
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$19
$14
$15
$16
$279
$173
$246
$207
14
13
20
11
Largest newspaper
Al-Quds
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
Circulation of largest newspaper
40,000
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1932
1944
1976
1948
Total daily costs Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city
Date largest newspaper was established 1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
businesses. Further east is the Mount of Olives. To the north lie Mount Scopus, the main campus of Hebrew University, and Hadassah Hospital. The heart of the New City is the triangle formed by King George V Street, Jaffa Road, and Ben Yehuda Street, the site of numerous hotels, restaurants, and cafes, and the popular gathering place Zion Square. Just to the north lies Mea She’arim (“One Hundred Gates”), home to Jerusalem’s ultra-orthodox community (or, as they are known in Israel, “Haredim”), whose distinctive appearance and way of life evokes the vanished world of their Eastern Euro-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
pean forebears in the days before World War II (1939–45). The district of Giv’at Ram to the west is home to several notable landmarks, including the Israel Museum, the Knesset (parliament building), and the Supreme Court. In an area further to the west are Yad Vashem, Israel’s Holocaust memorial and museum; the tomb of Israel’s founding father Theodore Herzl (1860–1904); the famous Chagall stained-glass windows of the Hadassah Medical Center; and Ein Kerem, a former Arab village that was the birthplace of John the Baptist (fl. c. 27).
111
Jerusalem
A view of Jerusalem’s Old City Walls from Mount Olive. (A. Ramey; Woodfin Camp)
Among the city’s residential districts outside the downtown area are Yemin Moshe (the first settlement developed outside the city walls in the nineteenth century), Talbiye, Rehavia, Bet ha-Kerem, and the “German Colony,” built by the German Templars in the nineteenth century. Arab neighborhoods outside the Old City include ashShaykh Jarrah, Wadi al-Joz, Bayt Hanina, Bayt Safafa, and the American Colony. 6
History
With a history extending over some 4,000 years, Jerusalem has been
112
inhabited longer than almost any other city in the world and has had a long succession of rulers. Its first recorded connection with the Biblical kingdom of Israel occurs in the middle of the second millennium B.C. Around 1000 B.C., King David (c. 1013–c. 973 B.C.) made it the capital of a united Israel. It also became the spiritual center of the Jewish nation when David’s successor, King Solomon, built the First Temple 50 years later. Within the next thousand years, the city was conquered and destroyed by the Babylonians (586 B.C.) and the Romans (A.D. 70), who rebuilt it yet once more under the name of Aelia Capitolina in A.D. 130.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Jerusalem After a period of Byzantine rule, Jerusalem was conquered by Muslims in the seventh century and remained part of the Islamic world for more than 1,000 years, with an interruption of about a century after it was captured by Crusaders in 1099. Four hundred years of rule by the Ottoman Empire began in 1517 and included the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent (1538–1566), who oversaw major rebuilding of the city. After his reign, however, the condition of Jerusalem declined, and it gradually fell into a state of neglect. A revival of European interest in the Middle East in the late eighteenth century led to the building of consulates and other public buildings. The Crimean War (1853–56) in the mid-nineteenth century also led to some new interest in the region and more development. This period also saw the beginning of new settlement by European Jews, beginning with the purchase of land outside the city walls in 1855 by Sir Moses Montefiore. By 1900 there were 60 Jewish settlements surrounding the old city. With the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in World War I (1914–18), Jerusalem was captured by British forces under the command of Gen. Edmund Allenby (1861–1936) and, together with the rest of Palestine, placed under British mandate by the League of Nations. During this period, Jewish immigration to the city increased, resulting in escalating tensions with Palestine’s Arab neighbors. In its 1947 partition plan for Palestine, the United Nations proposed turning
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Tower of David. (Chuck Fisherman; Woodfin Camp)
Jerusalem into an internationally administered city, but Arab forces rejected the plan and laid siege to the city. The British left Palestine on May 14, 1948, and the state of Israel was proclaimed. The following year, Jerusalem was declared its capital, and it became the seat of the Knesset (the Israeli parliament). The Old City and East Jerusalem, occupied by Arab forces during the Israeli-Arab war that followed the proclamation of Israel’s independence, remained under Arab control until
113
Jerusalem 1967, and East Jerusalem was declared the second capital of Jordan. In the 1967 Six Day War, Israeli forces annexed the Old City, and all of Jerusalem was placed under Israeli rule. Since that time, extensive preservation and restoration have been carried out in the Old City while the newer part of the city has been expanded by the addition of new housing developments. This expansion has made Jerusalem Israel’s largest city. In 1980 the Israeli government confirmed the official status of Jerusalem as the nation’s capital. 7
Government
As the capital of the state of Israel, Jerusalem is the seat of its government and home to all government institutions, including the parliament, or Knesset, and the Supreme Court. At the local level, Jerusalem is governed by a mayor and city council whose members are elected to four-year terms. Although Palestinian Arabs living in East Jerusalem have the right to vote in Israeli elections, they have refused to do so in accord with their refusal to recognize the legitimacy of the Israeli government. 8
Public Safety
In spite of the ever-present threat of terrorism due to Arab-Israeli tensions, Jerusalem is statistically safer than virtually any large city in the United States and many elsewhere in the world. In 1997, the city had a total of 22 deaths from terrorism and 16 non-terrorist-related murders. The
114
streets of western Jerusalem are generally populated and safe at night. It is a common observation, applicable both in Jerusalem and other Israeli cities, that traffic congestion and aggressive driving are a greater threat to the personal safety of both drivers and pedestrians than street crime. 9
Economy
As the political, religious, and scholarly capital of Israel, Jerusalem’s economy is based on service industries, including government, education, religion, and tourism, with manufacturing playing a relatively small role. Preservation of the city’s historic character has also prevented the establishment of large-scale industry in the city and the surrounding area. In 1996 Jerusalem’s civilian work force numbered 188,500, of whom twothirds were employed in service-sector jobs. Jerusalem has a highly educated work force, bolstered by an influx of well-educated immigrants. But due in part to the number of Orthodox Jewish and Muslim families with singleincome households, the percentage of Jerusalem’s overall population in the labor force is relatively low compared to Israel’s other major cities of Tel Aviv and Haifa. In addition to the smaller work force, the economic status of Jerusalem’s residents is further lowered by the fact that the public-service jobs held by many residents pay less than jobs in such fields as manufacturing, commerce, and financial services. The average monthly salary for wage-earn-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Jerusalem
The Shrine of the Book with the Israeli parliament, the Knesset, in the background. (A. Ramey; Woodfin Camp)
ing families in Jerusalem is significantly lower than that of families in Tel Aviv and Haifa. Jerusalem also has a higher incidence of poverty than the two other major cities. In 1996 as many as 21 percent of the city’s families lived below the poverty line, including 40 percent of the city’s children. In the 1990s, the number of families receiving public assistance rose steadily, reaching 32,600 households by 1996. 10
Environment
Jerusalem lies on the watershed between the hills and desert of Judaea.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
It has varied vegetation with as many as 1,000 different plant species. About 70 bird species are present year round, as well as 150 types of migratory fowl. The shoreline of the nearby mineral-rich Dead Sea, located in the Syrian-African Rift Valley, is the lowest point on earth. 11
Shopping
Jerusalem offers two distinctly different types of shopping venues: modern malls and department stores in the western part of the city and the Arab markets of the Old City. In the west, the major downtown shopping area is the central triangle formed by King George,
115
Jerusalem Ben Yehuda, and Jaffa streets, home to two urban shopping malls and the city’s major department store, Hamashbir. The most upscale shopping, including most commercial art galleries, is found on King David Street, and the Nahalat Shiv’a neighborhood is known for its selection of arts and crafts. Further afield, there is Jerusalem’s largest suburban shopping center, the air-conditioned Kanyon Mall in the Malkah district. The most colorful shopping experience to be found in Jerusalem, however, is afforded by the crowded, bustling market stalls (or suks) of the Old City, where haggling with merchants is the rule and can reduce the initial asking price of an item by over one-half. A large selection of souvenirs is available for visitors of all religions, including many items that incorporate olive wood, silver, and turquoise. Ceramics are another of the many specialty items available in the market stalls. 12
Education
As Israel’s center of scholarship and religion, Jerusalem has a highly educated population, even exceeding the relatively high national average of the nation as a whole. Approximately 36 percent of the population over the age of 15 have had over 13 years of education, and 19 percent have had more than 16 years. (Among the Jewish population, these figures rise to 45 percent and 24 percent respectively.) Given Jerusalem’s high number of large families, the city has an unusually
116
large population of school-aged children, numbering some 160,000. Of these, 65,000 are ultra-Orthodox children whose education is overseen by a separate Ultra-Orthodox Educational Department, and 24,000 are Arabs. Education for non-Orthodox or Modern Orthodox Jews is administered by the Jerusalem Education Authority. The following combined school enrollment was recorded in 1997: kindergarten, 25,427; primary education, 64,278; high school, 42,699; Arab students at all levels, 24,272; total, 159,403. Hebrew University, founded in 1925, is Israel’s most prestigious postsecondary institution. Almost 23,000 full-time students are enrolled at its regular campuses at Mount Scopus and Giv’at Ram, its medical school at Ein Kerem, and its agricultural college at Rehovot. The university, which has 1,400 senior faculty members, is the site of nearly 40 percent of all civilian research carried out in Israel. Other colleges in Jerusalem include the Bezalel Academy of Arts and Design, Hebrew Union College, and the Rubin Academy of Music. Al-Quds University, a national Arabic Palestinian university, is the only Arab University in Jerusalem. It was originally established in 1984 by the merger of four colleges in Jerusalem and its suburbs. 13
Health Care
Jerusalem’s best-known health care institution is the Hadassah Medical Organization, which operates hospitals at Ein Kerem and Mount Scopus. The
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Jerusalem 700-bed Ein Kerem Hospital is known for pioneering work with in vitro fertilization, bone marrow transplantation, laser surgery, gene therapy, and other areas. With 300 beds, the Hadassah Hospital at Mount Scopus serves the Jewish and Arab population of northern and eastern Jerusalem, providing facilities which include a physical rehabilitation center, a neonatal intensive care unit, and a hospice to care for the terminally ill. In 1998, the two hospitals recorded a combined total of 72,893 hospitalization, 250,952 outpatient visits, 22,068 major surgeries, and 114,992 emergency room admissions. Other hospitals in Jerusalem include Sha’are Tzedeq, which specializes in meeting the needs of Orthodox Jewish patients; Biqur Holim; alMaqasid al-Khayriyah, a Muslim hospital; St. John’s Ophthalmic Hospital; and Ezrat Hashim, a psychiatric facility. The Magen David Adom (“red star of David”) and the Red Crescent, counterparts of the Red Cross, provide supplementary emergency services to the city. 14
Media
Only one daily newspaper for the Jewish community is published in Jerusalem—the English-language Jerusalem Post (published every day except Saturday). This traditionally left-wing paper, founded in 1932 by the Jewish labor movement, has favored the right politically since its purchase in 1990 by the Canadian-based Hollinger media franchise. The bi-weekly Jerusalem Report provides in-depth English-lan-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
guage coverage of local, national, and regional events. The free monthly publication Your Jerusalem provides helpful entertainment listings and restaurant reviews for both visitors and residents. Several Palestinian publications, both dailies and weeklies, originate in Jerusalem, including the weekly Biladi, which is sold in East Jerusalem and the Old City. Jerusalem is home to the headquarters of the Israel Broadcasting Association, which operates two public television stations. There are also two Arabic-language television stations, an independent commercial station, and over 50 cable channels available. National Radio 1 broadcasts news bulletins and current affairs programming. Radio programs from the British Broadcasting Company (BBC) and the Voice of America are also available. 15
Sports
Sport is a somewhat problematic issue in Jerusalem, where the high-profile ultra-Orthodox community opposes it as a secular pursuit. However, construction of Israel’s national soccer stadium—the Teddy Stadium, named for former Jerusalem mayor Teddy Kollek (b. 1911)—was finally completed in 1992 despite ultra-Orthodox opposition. It is located in the Jerusalem suburb of Malkah. For those who are sports fans, the two favorites are soccer and basketball. The city’s premier soccer team is Betar Jerusalem, which won its league’s championship in 1993 and 1997 and competed for the European
117
Jerusalem of the Cross. Directly opposite the Knesset is the Wohl Rose Garden, containing some 650 varieties of roses. Liberty Bell Park, which contains an exact replica of the U.S. Liberty Bell in Philadelphia, is a popular site for recreational activities and also has an amphitheater.
Dome of the Rock of Jerusalem. (Nathan Benn; Woodfin Camp)
Cup. The city’s basketball team is Hapoel Jerusalem, which plays home games in the Goldberg Sports Hall at the Teddy Stadium. 16
Parks and Recreation
Jerusalem’s parks, gardens, forests, and other cultivated open areas are maintained by the Jerusalem Foundation, founded in 1966. The city’s largest parks are Independence Park (Gan Ha’Atzmaut), centrally located in the downtown area of west Jerusalem, and Sacher Park, located further west, near the Knesset. Sacher Park is connected with a wooded area known as the Valley
118
Southeast of the city, the Haas Sherover Promenade, between Abu Tor and East Talpiot, offers a dramatic view of the Old City and the Judaean Desert. Jerusalem Forest to the west has been planted with trees (said to number six million) in memory of the Jewish victims of the Holocaust. Another forest at the outskirts of the city is Nahal Sorek, located beyond Ein Kerem. Its caves contain interesting stalactite and stalagmite formations. Wadi Qelt, located to the east between Jerusalem and Jericho, is a desert gorge with a nature reserve, spring, waterfall, and aqueduct. It is also the site of the picturesque St. George’s Monastery, which is built into the side of a cliff. Wadi Qelt and Nahal Sorek are popular hiking spots. Popular recreational activities include soccer, hiking, and bicycling. Jerusalem also has both open-air and indoor swimming pools and a skating rink with artificial ice made of silicon. Sports programs are run by the city, the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA), and neighborhood sports clubs. The YMCA has a soccer field that can seat as many as 10,000 spectators.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Jerusalem 17
Performing Arts
The Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra performs regularly at the Henry Crown Theater, part of the Jerusalem Centre for the Performing Arts (which also includes the Jerusalem Theater and the Rebecca Crown Theater). In the summer months, the modern Sultan’s Pool Amphitheatre, near Yemin Moshe, with a view of the Old City walls is a dramatic venue for both classical and popular concerts. Classical, jazz, and folk music concerts are performed at the Gerard Bakhar Theater. Concerts are also presented at area universities and at the Israel Museum. Jerusalem does not have a resident theater company, but audiences can attend performances by troupes from Tel Aviv (the Habimah and Carmeri Theater Companies) and by the Haifa Municipal Theater Company. The annual Israel Festival in May and June brings performances by additional groups from many parts of the world, and experimental theater can be seen regularly at the Khan Theatre. Musical theater, often in English, is featured at Tzavta. The Train Theatre is a railroad carriage that has been converted to a puppet theater. The Bat Dor and Inbal dance companies perform frequently in Jerusalem, as does the Israel Opera. Arabic theater and dancing is presented at the Al-Masrah Centre for Palestinian Culture and Art and the AlKasaba Theatre.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
18
Libraries and Museums
With some 2,500,000 volumes, the Jewish National and University Library is the largest in the country and has the world’s premier collection of Judaica. It also has excellent collections in archaeology and Oriental studies. Jerusalem’s other major libraries are the library of the Knesset, the State Archives, and the Municipal Library, which has multiple branches. The Israel Museum, located in Jerusalem, is the country’s national museum. Its holdings include some of the Dead Sea Scrolls, an extensive collection of archaeological artifacts from the Middle East, Jewish ritual art, Jewish ethnography, and sculpture. Archaeological exhibits are also found in the Rockefeller Museum, the Bible Lands Museum, and the Citadel Museum of the History of Jerusalem. Museums focusing on Arabic art, culture, and history include the Islamic Museum, the Islamic Art Museum, the L. A. Mayer Memorial Institute for Islamic Art, and the Palestinian Arab Folklore Centre. Specialized museums include Ammunition Hill Museum, commemorating the 1967 Six Day War; the Armenian Art and History Museum in the Armenian Quarter of the Old City; the Bloomfield Science Museum; the Burnt house of Kathros, the reconstructed home of a Jewish family during the era of the Second Temple; and the Second Temple model, a scale model of Jerusalem before the destruction of the Second Temple.
119
Jerusalem
Jerusalem’s historic and religious sites, like these remains of a synagogue, make it Israel’s top tourist destination. (Israel Talby; Woodfin Camp)
Yad Vashem, in the Ein Kerem district, is both a museum of the Holocaust and a memorial to those who perished in it. The Historical Museum portion documents the Holocaust from the rise of Nazism through World War II. The Hall of Members Cemetery contains ashes brought from Europe’s concentration camps, an eternal flame, and pillars symbolizing the chimneys of the crematoria in which the bodies of victims were incinerated. Also included in Yad Vashem are the Garden of Righteous Gentiles and a Children’s Memorial.
120
19
To u r i s m
With its religious and historic sites, cultural attractions, and picturesque mountain setting, Jerusalem is Israel’s foremost tourist destination, drawing one-and-a-half million visitors a year, or roughly 70 percent of all persons who visit Israel. In the same year, Jerusalem’s hotels employed 6,151 workers and welcomed 970,000 guests. The city has 65 hotels, with a combined total of 8,046 rooms. About 38 percent of travelers to Jerusalem come from the Americas, and 43 percent come from Europe.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Jerusalem Jerusalem is also Israel’s most popular site for international conferences, hosting about 50 percent of all such events. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY-FEBRUARY Tu B’Shvat
DECEMBER Liturgica
21
Famous Citizens
S. Y. Agnon (1887–1970), fiction writer. Yehuda Amichai (b. 1924), poet. Aharon Appelfeld (b. 1932), novelist.
Jerusalem Musical Encounters
David Ben-Gurion (1886–1973), Israel’s first prime minister.
FEBRUARY-MARCH
David Grossman (b. 1954), novelist.
FEBRUARY
Purim
MARCH International Festival of Poets International Judaica Fair
MARCH-APRIL Pesach (Passover)
APRIL-MAY Independence Day Lag Ba-Omer
MAY-JUNE Israel Festival Jerusalem Liberation Day Shavuot
JULY International Film Festival
JULY-AUGUST Tish B’Av
AUGUST Jerusalem International Puppet Theatre Festival
SEPTEMBER Early Music Workshop
SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER Rosh Hashanah Yom Kippur Succot Simchat Torah
OCTOBER Jerusalem Marathon
NOVEMBER-DECEMBER Chanukah
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Teddy Kollek (b. 1911), longtime mayor. Gershom Scholem (1897–1982), historian of mysticism. Chaim Weizmann (1874–1952), early Zionist leader and first president of Israel. Avraham B. Yehoshua (b. 1936), novelist and playwright. 22
For Further Study
Websites Focus on Israel. [Online] Available http:// www.focusmm.com.au/israel/is_anamn.htm (accessed December 30, 1999). Israel Tourist Information. [Online] Available http://www.infotour.co.il (accessed December 30, 1999). Jerusalem Post online. [Online] Available http:// www.jpost.co.il/ (accessed December 30, 1999). Jerusalem website. [Online] Available http:// www.huji.ac.il/jerusalem.html (accessed December 30, 1999). Ministry of Tourism. [Online] Available http:// www.israel-mfa.gov.il/sites.html (accessed December 30, 1999). Municipality of Jerusalem Website. [Online] Available http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/ (accessed December 30, 1999).
121
Jerusalem Government Offices Ministry of Economy and Planning P.O. Box 292 3 Rehov Kaplan Kiryat Ben-Gurion Jerusalem 91131 Office of the Prime Minister P.O. Box 187 3 Rehov Kaplan Kiryat Ben-Gurion Jerusalem 91919
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Ministry of Tourism 24 Rehov King George Jerusalem 91009 02-675-4910 Tourist Information 17 Rehov Jaffa Jerusalem 02-628-0382
Publications Al Quds P. O. Box 19788 Jerusalem The Jerusalem Post The Jerusalem Post Building P.O. Box 81 Jerusalem 91000
Books Ben-Dov, M. Jerusalem, Man and Stone: An Archeologist's Personal View of His City. Translation from the Hebrew, Yael Guiladi. Tel-Aviv : Modan, 1990.
122
Benvenisti, Meron. City of Stone: The Hidden History of Jerusalem. Translated by Maxine Kaufman Nunn. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Dumper, Michael. The Politics of Jerusalem Since 1967. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996. Elon, Amos. Jerusalem: Battlegrounds of Memory. New York: Kodansha International, 1995. Elon, Amos. Jerusalem: City of Mirrors. 1st ed. Boston: Little, Brown, 1989. King, Anthony. Jerusalem Revealed. Cambridgeshire, England: Boxer Publishing, 1997. Kroyanker, David. Jerusalem Architecture. Introduction by Teddy Kollek. New York: Vendome Press, 1994. Nellhaus, Arlynn. Into the Heart of Jerusalem: A Traveler's Guide to Visits, Celebrations, and Sojourns. Santa Fe, NM: John Muir, 1999. Romann, Michael, and Alex Weingrod. Living Together Separately: Arabs and Jews in Contemporary Jerusalem. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991. Rosovsky, Nitza, ed. City of the Great King: Jerusalem from David to the Present. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996.
Videorecordings Jerusalem [videorecording] with Martin Gilbert. New York: A&E Home Video, 1996. 2 videocassettes (ca. 150 min.): sd. col.; 1/2 in. Produced by Krosney Productions for the History Channel. v. 1. From a dream to destruction. v. 2. Pilgrims and Conquerors. Jerusalem 3000 [videorecording]. Yoram Globus presents Jerusalem 3000. Burbank, California: Warner Home Video, 1998.1 videocassette (30 min.): sd., col. ; 1/2 in.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Johannesburg Johannesburg, South Africa, Africa Founded: 1886; Incorporated: 1928 Location: On the Highveld in the South African interior Time Zone: 2 PM in South Africa = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: 70% black; 25% white; 5% Indian or mixed race Elevation: 5,700 to 5,930 feet (1,740 to 1,810 meters) Latitude and Longitude: 26º10’S, 28º2’E Climate: Temperate, with mild summers and winters Annual Mean Temperature: 15.5 ºC (59.9ºF); January 24ºC (75ºF); July 13ºC (55ºF) Seasonal Average Snowfall: N.A. Average Annual Precipitation (rainfall): 700 mm (28 in) Government: Municipal and local councils Weights and Measures: Metric system Monetary Units: The rand Telephone Area Codes: 11 (Johannesburg); 27 (South Africa)
1
Introduction
Located in north-central South Africa, Johannesburg is the country’s largest and fastest-growing city, with sprawling suburbs fanning out from the central city to cover an area of 1,100 square kilometers (424.7 square miles). The nickname “eGoli” (“city of gold”) evokes Johannesburg’s origin as a mining town in the late nineteenth century. Today, it is still the capital of South African mining and commerce and home to the headquarters of the country’s mining companies and major financial institutions, as well as headquarters to a variety of multinational corporations and transportation hub of southern Africa.
Johannesburg is also a city built on a history of racial division that achieved its most dramatic form in the twentieth century policy of strict separation known as apartheid. This legacy is apparent in the racial divide between its various districts and suburbs, ranging from the teeming streets of Soweto to the posh mansions of the northern suburbs. The political changes of the 1990s can be seen most readily in the central city, which has become a bustling multicultural area where thousands of street traders earn their living in the shadow of the city’s giant skyscrapers, and a blend of African and European languages evokes the city’s unique cultural and social history.
123
Johannesburg
Johannesburg Population Profile Population: 2,412,000 Area: 1,100 sq km ( 424.7 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 70% black; 25% white; 5% Indian or mixed race World population rank1: 126 Percentage of national population2: 5.2% Average yearly growth rate: 2.1% Nicknames: Jo’burg; Jozi; eGoli (City of Gold); Africa’s Manhattan ——— 1. The Johannesburg metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of South Africa’s total population living in the Johannesburg metropolitan area.
2
Getting There
Situated on the interior South African plateau known as the Highveld, Johannesburg stretches across a series of ridges called the Witwatersrand, or “Rand.” Located near the center of South Africa and at the heart of a vast developed area in Gauteng Province, Johannesburg is a transportation hub for the region and the country as a whole. The closest major city is Pretoria to the northeast. Highways The Johannesburg area has a welldeveloped highway system that carries thousands of commuters between the city and its suburbs every day. The major north-south route, N1, becomes M1 when it reaches the metropolitan area, while N1 becomes part of an urban highway (the Eastern and Western Bypass) ringing the city. Also leading north out of the city, R28 joins N1
124
leading to Pretoria and beyond. A number of highways radiate outward from Johannesburg to the east, south, and west, including N12 and N17 (east), N3, R26, N1 and R29 (both leading to Soweto from the south), and N14 to the west. Bus and Railroad Service Inter-city bus service is provided by Greyhound, Intercape, and Translux, all of which arrive at and depart from the Rotunda, which also serves as the city’s rail terminal. Airports Direct flights to cities in Europe, Asia, Australia, and the Western Hemisphere, as well as service to destinations throughout southern Africa are available at Johannesburg (formerly Jan Smuts) International Airport, South Africa’s largest international airport. It is located around 20 kilometers (12.4 miles) east of the city. International air traffic to Johannesburg has increased greatly since the lifting of foreign embargoes against South Africa in early 1990s, and major renovations of the airport are underway. 3
Getting Around
Greater Johannesburg consists of over 500 suburbs fanning out, mostly northward, from the central city over an area more than 518 square kilometers (200 square miles).
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Johannesburg
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
125
Johannesburg Bus and Commuter Rail Service Double-decker buses are operated by the municipal transportation system, with most routes originating from the main bus terminal in Venderbijl Square. Buses run within the city and between the city and suburbs but usually not from one suburb to another. Since it is intended primarily for commuters, bus service is provided mostly during the work week, with few routes and infrequent runs offered during the weekend. Many blacks use minibuses, called “kombi-taxes,” operated by privately owned black companies. Sightseeing Bus and minibus tours of Johannesburg, Soweto, Gold Reef City, and area parks are available. There are also tours of the Parktown mansions. Specialty tours include balloon tours over the Magaliesberg Mountains and informative tours of Johannesburg mines. 4
People
Johannesburg is a multicultural and multiethnic city. Racially, its population is approximately 70 percent black and 25 percent white, with the remainder Indian or of mixed racial background. However, there is great diversity within each racial group. Virtually every ethnic and linguistic group in southern Africa is represented among Johannesburg’s black population, and the white population, although primarily of English or Afrikaans origin, also includes Greeks, Portuguese, Italians, Russians, Poles, Lebanese, and other
126
groups. A dozen or more languages are spoken in the city on a daily basis. In 1995 Greater Johannesburg had a population of approximately 4.5 million. Its average population density was the highest in South Africa. 5
Neighborhoods
Central Johannesburg is laid out in a rectangular grid pattern with narrow streets dating back to the city’s early history, although today they are lined with office towers that turn many of them into virtual canyons and have inspired the nickname “Africa’s Manhattan.” The central city today is primarily a business district devoted to the financial and mining industries and government. Located in this district are the Magistrates Court, the Gauteng Legislature, the public library and main post office, the Johannesburg Stock Exchange, and the 50-story Carleton Centre with an observatory that affords an excellent view of the city. A variety of small shops and street traders provides a traditional atmosphere at odds with the city’s skyscrapers. The Newtown district just west of the city is home to a number of cultural institutions, including several museums. The northern neighborhood of Braamfontein is home to the University of the Witwatersrand. When first built, each of Johannesburg’s suburbs and townships was racially restricted under the apartheid system as spelled out in the Group Areas Act. The Group Areas Act was nullified in 1991, but Johannesburg’s
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Johannesburg
City Fact Comparison Johannesburg (South Africa)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
2,412,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1886
753 BC
723 BC
$172
$129
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$64
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$34
$56
$59
$62
$9
$14
$15
$16
$107
$173
$246
$207
11
13
20
11
Sunday Times
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
567,934
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1906
1944
1976
1948
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.) Total daily costs
$193
Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established 1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
neighborhoods remain largely segregated racially, with most blacks living in townships close to the central city. The two most populous are Soweto, with a population of at least one-and-ahalf million, and Alexandra, with about half a million. Living conditions in the townships range from middle-class enclaves to squatters’ camps with no plumbing or electricity. Black migrant workers still live in hostels on the outskirts of the townships.
The inner-city suburbs of Joubert Park, Hillbrow, and Berea are formerly white areas that blacks began moving into when apartheid began to crumble in the 1980s and 1990s. Today they are mostly black and house many immigrants from other parts of Africa, especially the Congo and Nigeria. The suburbs of Yeoville and Observatory, formerly Jewish and Portuguese neighborhoods, are multiracial areas with a colorful street scene.
Most of the city’s mixed-race population is clustered in townships west of the central city while the Indian population lives in the township of Lenasia.
Johannesburg’s western suburbs, including Briston and Melville, are home to middle-class whites while the northern suburbs, such as Parktown
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
127
Johannesburg
Johannesburg is South Africa’s largest city. (Martti Kainulainen; Woodfin Camp)
and Houghton, are elite enclaves with posh homes. 6
History
Settlement of Johannesburg began in 1886, when gold was discovered in the Witwatersrand by an Australian prospector named George Harrison. The discovery spurred a feverish gold rush as fortune hunters from all over the world descended on the area. Blacks from all parts of southern Africa came to work the gold fields either permanently or temporarily as contract laborers. The government of the Transvaal, then a Boer republic, established a city at the site, and in the space of three
128
years it became the largest settlement in South Africa. By the 1890s, several large mining companies had taken control of the area’s gold mines, creating huge fortunes for their owners. Tensions between the mine barons, the Englishspeaking newcomers to the area, and the Transvaal’s Boer government—fed by British colonial aspirations in the region—led to the Anglo-Boer War of 1899–1901. By its end, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State were under British control. At the start of the twentieth century, the population of Johannesburg had reached 100,000. Early in the century, the British colonial government
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Johannesburg began forcibly relocating blacks from the central city to areas on its outskirts, inaugurating the principle of racial separation that became entrenched in the administration of the city and eventually led to the system known as apartheid. The substandard conditions in which most of the city’s black majority lived led to protests and strikes, including a 1920 strike by 70,000 black mine workers. There was agitation among Johannesburg’s white miners as well, culminating in the general strike and “Rand Revolt” of 1922, in which over 200 people died. The growth of manufacturing in the 1930s and 1940s brought an even greater influx of blacks into the city, especially during World War II (1939– 45), when many white workers were serving in the military. The city’s black population doubled, with many of the new arrivals crowded into squatters’ camps. The beginnings of a black nationalist consciousness that arose during this period led to a white backlash in the 1950s when the conservative National Party came to power and implemented the policy of apartheid, banning all black opposition movements. Beginning in the 1960s, hundreds of thousands of blacks were relocated from Johannesburg to remote “homelands,” and their movements were regulated by strict enforcement of pass laws. The milestone event in the black resistance movement that eventually overthrew apartheid and white dominance came on June 16, 1976, when South African police opened fire on a
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
student protest in the black township of Soweto. The shooting sparked a months-long popular uprising that spread to dozens of other cities in South Africa, and unrest continued through the 1980s, with massive violence erupting in Johannesburg’s black townships again in 1984. Black militancy, combined with the effects of international sanctions, finally toppled the apartheid system in the early 1990s and led to South Africa’s first democratic elections in 1994. With the removal of discriminatory laws, Johannesburg’s black townships have slowly been integrated into the city’s municipal government, and blacks have moved into formerly white districts in the central city and inner suburbs. The city still faces many challenges, including a serious crime problem and de facto segregation as many whites retreat to the northern suburbs. 7
Government
Greater Johannesburg has a multilevel system of popularly elected local government that has been in place since November 1955 and has extended the boundaries of municipal government to include the surrounding black townships in the political process. At the highest level, there is the Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Board, a metropolitan council that oversees the distribution of municipal resources. Next there are four local councils that handle city services within their communities. The local councils are divided into wards, each of which has its own
129
Johannesburg
A blend of traditional and modern architecture, a result of Johannesburg’s economic development. (P. Guerrini; Woodfin Camp)
elected representative. In addition to voting for individual representatives from their wards, residents also vote for the party of their choice in elections for both the local and municipal councils. Johannesburg is also the legislative capital of Gauteng Province (formerly called the Pretoria-Witwatersrand-Vaal triangle). 8
Public Safety
Violent crime is enough of a serious problem in Johannesburg, particularly in the downtown area, that many
130
businesses have relocated to northern suburbs such as Rosebank and Sandton. Muggings and car-jackings are common occurrences in the central city, and travelers are routinely warned to exercise caution, whether walking, using public transportation, or driving. The government tourism office advises motorists to know their routes in advance, keep their doors and windows locked, lock valuables in the trunk, and park in well-lit areas. Traffic control is handled by local police forces. Other aspects of public
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Johannesburg safety are under the jurisdiction of the South African Police Services. 9
Economy
Johannesburg is South Africa’s major commercial, financial, and industrial center. It is home to the South African stock exchange, the leading banks, the country’s mining companies, the Chamber of Mines, and the government regulatory agency in charge of mining. South Africa’s major insurance, retail, engineering, and construction companies are also located in the city. Johannesburg is also a major manufacturing center whose factories produce a wide range of goods from steel to textiles. The city is also home to some 10,000 to 12,000 street traders whose operations in the central business district bring in an annual combined revenue of some 500 million rand. 10
Environment
The central city and some of the suburban areas suffer from a variety of environmental problems. These include water pollution from industrial effluents and sewer blockages, air pollution from industry and vehicle emissions, dust from mine sites, litter from the many street traders in the downtown area, and excess refuse caused by overcrowding (which also results in noise pollution). Soweto and the surrounding area have poor air quality due to the burning of coal and high levels of water pollution. Other than Soweto, the greatest environmental problems are
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Drums and hides for sale by a street vendor. (P. Guerrini; Woodfin Camp)
found in Alexandra, the Klip River area, Roodepoort, Orange Farm, and Poortje. 11
Shopping
Offering a great variety of consumer goods in its shops and malls, Johannesburg is one of the major retail centers in southern Africa and attracts shoppers from throughout the region. The thousands of informal street traders who operate in the central business district every day generate an estimated annual turnover of about 500 million rand. Greater Johannesburg is home to some 20 shopping malls. Among its more popular malls are the Carlton Centre, the Smal Street Mall, and the upscale Hyde Park Mall. Further afield
131
Johannesburg are the Randburg Waterfront, a shopping center built around an artificial lake; the Rosebank shopping complex, which is a series of interconnected malls; and the huge Sandton City Shopping Centre. The city’s shops, galleries, street vendors, and flea markets make it the country’s premier shopping destination for arts and crafts, including wood carvings, jewelry, beadwork, and such traditional items as fertility dolls. Among the better-known crafts shops are Art Africa; Diagonal Street, which has a large selection of Sotho blankets; Jacana; Mai Mai Bazaar, which sells Zulu crafts, foods, and other items; and Zebra Crossing. A large array of crafts can also be found at the Rosebank Rooftop Market. A good selection of recordings of African music can be found in numerous small shops in the central business district. 12
Education
Although the legal framework for racial segregation has been dismantled, primary and secondary schools in Johannesburg, as elsewhere in South Africa, remain largely segregated in practice. Johannesburg is home to two universities. The University of Witwatersrand, originally founded in 1896 as the South African School of Mines, is the country’s largest English-speaking university, granting degrees in architecture, art, business, education, engineer-
132
ing, law, medicine, and dentistry. The university has a staff of about 4,000, including 1,250 faculty members, and enrolls around 18,000 students, conferring 4,500 degrees each year. Its main campus, at Milner Park, covers 68 hectares (168 acres). Rand Afrikaans University (RAU), founded in 1968, offers degree programs to Afrikaans speakers. Soweto is home to a branch of Vista University. Johannesburg also has several technical and teachers’ training colleges. 13
Health Care
Decades of apartheid have left a legacy of substandard health conditions in Johannesburg’s black townships, where the incidence of infant mortality is significantly higher than that for the city’s white communities, and tuberculosis remains endemic. Located in the center of Johannesburg, Johannesburg Hospital, a State Health Service Hospital operated by the Gauteng Provincial Administration, is a multidisciplinary teaching hospital affiliated with the University of the Witwatersrand Medical School. The hospital has approximately 1,200 teaching beds in all areas of medicine. Its Level I trauma center, staffed in conjunction with the Department of Surgery of the University of the Witwatersrand, is the only comprehensive unit of its kind in South Africa and receives patients from throughout Gauteng Province, neighboring provinces, and neighboring states. The unit provides all levels of trauma care, from
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Johannesburg treatment of minor injuries to major traumas, and its staff has full 24-hour-aday access to diagnostic, laboratory, and therapeutic support facilities. Approximately 20,000 trauma patients per year are seen in the center, and some 1,500 major resuscitations are performed annually. Besides Johannesburg Hospital, other publicly operated hospitals include the J. G. Strijdom Hospital, the Hillbrow Hospital, and Baragwanath Hospital in Soweto. The city’s premier private health care facility is Morningside Clinic. Millpark Hospital is another private facility. 14
Media
Home to daily newspapers, major weeklies, and the country’s national television broadcasting service, Johannesburg is a major media center. The Johannesburg Star (circulation 206,000), an evening paper published seven days a week, is the major English-language daily. The Sowetan (circulation 225,000), South Africa’s top-selling daily newspaper, is targeted primarily to a black audience and is available throughout the country. The most authoritative news source is the Weekly Mail & Guardian (circulation 30,000). It is affiliated with and draws most of its international coverage from London’s Guardian newspaper. Business Day (circulation 41,000), also published in Johannesburg, is South Africa’s major business daily. The Citizen is a conservative English-language daily. Afrikaans newspapers include Beeld and Rapport.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
The government-supported South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) operates three public television channels. One broadcasts mostly in English while the other two divide their time among South Africa’s remaining ten official languages. News and sports programming and movies are available to viewers who subscribe to the M-Net satellite television service. The SABC also offers both AM and FM radio programming. Voice of America Englishlanguage broadcasts can also be heard in Johannesburg. As part of a nationwide telecommunications expansion, licenses for over 30 new radio stations were granted for Gauteng Province in 1995, most of them in Johannesburg. Notable for their quality musical and/or public affairs programming are Johannesburg’s Greek and Portuguese stations and stations in the black townships of Soweto and Alexandra. 15
Sports
With the end of apartheid, South Africa returned to international sports competition in the 1990s, most notably in the 1992 and 1996 Olympic Games. South Africa also hosted (and won) the 1995 Rugby Union World Cup tournament, giving the sport—traditionally considered a largely Afrikaaner pastime—a major boost in popularity. In Johannesburg. Rugby Union is played at Ellis Park in Doornfontein east of the central city. The main stadium there can accommodate as many as 100,000 fans. The South Africa Open tennis tournament also takes place there.
133
Johannesburg The Johannesburg area has two venues for soccer, the favorite spectator sport of black South Africans: Rand Stadium near Turffontein; and Soccer City, on Soweto Road, which can hold 130,000 spectators. The Johannesburg area is home to two of the nation’s top local soccer teams, the Orlando Pirates (popularly known as the Bucs) and the Kaiser Chiefs. The traditionally white, English sport of cricket has attracted new fans through programs to promote the sport in the black townships. Wanderers in Melrose North is a top-notch cricket grounds; Elhak Ovel, a newer cricket site, is located in Soweto. Auto racing takes place at Kyalami between Johannesburg and Pretoria, and Turffontein is the area’s premier horseracing venue, with events scheduled nearly every week. 16
Parks and Recreation
Greater Johannesburg has more than 600 parks and green spaces, mostly in suburban areas. The Braamfontein Spruit Trail, which winds for about 25 kilometers (15 miles) through Johannesburg, Randburg, and Sandton, links a number of municipal parks in the region, including the 100-hectare (250-acre) Florence Bloom Bird Sanctuary, which encompasses two dams and has special areas provided for bird watchers. Other self-guided walking trails include the Bloubos Trail, the Parktown Urban Walk, the Sandspruit Trail, and the Randlords Heritage Trail, which includes views of the mansions
134
built by Johannesburg’s early gold barons. The 60-hectare (148-acre) Johannesburg Botanical Garden in Roosevelt Park extension includes rose and bonsai gardens, pools, and fountains. Over 3,000 species of mammals, birds, and reptiles are on view at the Johannesburg Zoological Gardens, where large animals including lions, tigers, giraffes, and elephants are enclosed in areas surrounded by moats rather than locked behind bars. The zoo also contains a lake, with a playground area and rowboat rentals. Snakes, reptiles, and fish can be seen at Johannesburg’s Aquarium and Reptile Park. De Wildt Cheetah Research Centre at Silkaatsnek, where cheetahs and hyenas are bred, is north of Johannesburg and open to the public, with two-hour guided tours available weekends. The Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve, located on the Nigel/Kliprivier Road 40 kilometers (25 miles) from Johannesburg, is the most extensive nature reserve in Gauteng Province. It contains vegetation typical of the Highveld, as well as many bird and other wildlife species, and has hiking trails and facilities for picnicking and camping, as well as an educational center. Of archaeological interest are the Sterkfontein Caves and the Kromdraai Caves near the town of Krugersdorp west of the city. The nearby Rhino Nature Reserve has white rhinos, wildebeest, hartebeest, giraffes, and antelopes. The northern suburbs of Johannesburg have many parks and other open areas suitable for picnicking, bird watching, and other outdoor activities.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Johannesburg South Africans participate avidly in outdoor pursuits, including such sports as soccer, rugby, and cricket, as well as hiking, rock climbing, horseback riding, bird watching, canoeing and rafting, flying and other aerial sports, such as gliding and hot air ballooning. 17
Performing Arts
Johannesburg offers a variety of resources for those interested in the performing arts. The National Symphony Orchestra performs regularly at Linder Auditorium in Parktown. Mainstream musical theater and opera is staged at the 1,100-seat Civic Theatre in Braamfontein, the city’s premier theatrical venue, which encompasses four stages. Experimental and ethnically oriented theater is offered at a variety of venues by small, innovative troupes. Johannesburg’s other well-known multi-stage theater complex is the Johannesburg Market Theatre, located in the city’s former produce market. It has three stages, and is the city’s traditional home for protest theater. Alternative theater is offered at the Windybrow Theatre. Leaders on the city’s dance scene are the Dance Factory and the Moving into Dance Academy, where many choreographers are trained. Johannesburg is South Africa’s premier locale for popular entertainment. Jazz, blues, and rock music are offered by both local groups and touring performers from all over the world. Major venues for large concerts are the Standard Bank Arena in Ellis Park and the FNB Stadium.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
“Bula Africa” Zulu dance troupe performs outside of Market Theatre. (Jason Laure; Woodfin Camp)
18
Libraries and Museums
The Johannesburg Public Library, founded in 1889, has a wide network of branch libraries. Johannesburg has a diverse selection of museums and galleries. Established in the early twentieth century, the Johannesburg Art Gallery, in downtown Joubert Park, has South Africa’s most extensive collection of paintings by the European Impressionists. In recent years representation of African artists has grown, and today its gardens are enhanced by the work of South African sculptors while local artists receive exposure in temporary exhibits. Commercial galleries, such as the Everard Read Gallery in Rosebank, also display a wide variety of works by
135
Johannesburg African artists, ranging from landscapes to traditional tribal art. Museum Africa, which dates back to the 1930s, has an outstanding section focusing on the history of Johannesburg, including such displays as reconstructed squatters’ shacks and homemade weapons. The museum’s other collections encompass geology, rock art, and the Bensusan Museum of Photography. Temporary exhibits are also displayed. The South African Transport Museum houses vintage steam engines and automobiles, ox wagons, and other items. Visitors to the South Africa Breweries Museum, in the Newtown district, explore the history of brewing, including the brewing of European ale and lager beer. The South Africa Museum of Military History displays weapons and war memorabilia dating back to the days of the Boer War (1899–1902). The Madiba Freedom Museum is dedicated to the life of national hero Nelson Mandela (b. 1918), affectionately nicknamed Madiba by his countrymen. Mandela’s hero status is based on his position as a black nationalist leader, joint recipient of the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize, and South Africa’s first black president (1994–99). The Workers’ Museum, located in a converted compound that once housed utility employees, is a national monument. Other museums in the Johannesburg area specialize in Africana, banking, archaeology, Judaica, and costumes.
136
To u r i s m
19
As elsewhere in South Africa, Johannesburg has seen a dramatic rise in tourism since the end of apartheid, with the greatest number of tourists coming from Great Britain. With the variety of cultural and recreational attractions in the city and its environs, tourism is expected to play an important role in its economic future.
20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY-FEBRUARY Chinese New Year
FEBRUARY Castle Cup Cricket Final Botanical Gardens Autumn Show
FEBRUARY-MARCH FNB Vita Dance Umbrella
MARCH Human Rights Day Benson and Hedges Cricket Final Windybrow Theatre Festival
MARCH-APRIL Rand Easter Show
APRIL Family Day Constitution Day
MAY Workers’ Day
AUGUST Women’s Day
SEPTEMBER Guinness Jo’burg Jazz Festival Heritage Day
SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER Arts Alive Festival
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Johannesburg OCTOBER Currie Cup rugby final Johannesburg Biennale art exhibition
Virtual Africa. [Online] Available http:// www.africa.com/docs/satravel.htm (accessed December 30, 1999).
NOVEMBER SA Formula 1 Grand Prix
Government Offices
DECEMBER
Most government offices are located in the capital city of Pretoria.
Day of Reconciliation Day of Goodwill
21
Famous Citizens
Nadine Gordimer (b. 1923), Nobel Prize-winning novelist. Miriam Makeba (b. 1932), internationally acclaimed vocalist. Nelson Mandela (b. 1918), black nationalist leader, joint recipient of the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize, and South Africa’s first black president (1994–99). Cecil Skotnes (b. 1926), painter and printmaker. Oliver Tambo (b. 1917), political leader and president-in-exile of the African National Congress. Desmond Tutu (b. 1931), religious and political leader.
22
For Further Study
Websites Mail & Guardian home page. [Online] Available http://www. mg.co/za/mg (accessed December 30, 1999). TimeOut Johannesburg. [Online] Available http://www.timeout.com/johannesburg (accessed December 30, 1999). Tourism Board website. [Online] Available http:// africa.com/satour (accessed December 30, 1999).
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Johannesburg Metropolitan Tourism Association 011–337–6650 South African Tourist Corporation (main office) 442 Rigel Ave. South Erasmusrand 0181 Pretoria, South Africa
Publications Business Day 4 Beirman Place P.O. Box 1138 The Sowetan 61 Commando Rd. Industria West P.O. Box 6663 The Star 47 Sauer St. P.O. Box 1014 Weekly Mail and Guardian 139 Smit St. Baamfontein P.O. Box 32362
Books Chipkin, Clive M. Johannesburg Style: Architecture & Society, 1880s–1960s. Johannesburg: Thorold's Africana Books, 1993. Kallaway, Peter, and Patrick Pearson. Johannesburg : Images and Continuities: A History of Working Class Life through Pictures, 1885– 1935. Braamfontein, South Africa: Ravan Press, 1986. McCrea, Barbara, Tony Pinchuck, and Greg Mthembu-Salter. South Africa, Lesotho & Swaziland. Rough Guides. London: Penguin, 1997. Paton, Alan. Cry, the Beloved Country. New York: Scribner's, 1948. Schadeberg, Jurgen. Sof'town Blues : Images from
137
Johannesburg the Black '50s. Hurlyvale, South Africa: African Book Centre, 1994. Sepamla, Sydney Sipho. A Ride on the Whirlwind: A Novel. New York: Readers International, 1984. Themba, Can. The Will to Die. Ed. Donald Stuart and Roy Holland. London: Heinemann, 1972. Thompson, Leonard Monteath. A History of
138
South Africa. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995.
Videorecordings Johannesburg [videorecording]. Super cities. Johannesburg. San Ramon, California: International Video Network, 1995. 1 videocassette (30 min.): sd., col.; 1/2 in.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Lagos Lagos City, Lagos State, Nigeria, Africa Founded: As “Oko” (farmland), precise date unknown; later corrupted as “Èkó.” Christened Lagos, probably after lagoon, by Portuguese traders sometime after the mid-15th century. Incorporated: October 1, 1963. Location: Lagos State, Southwest Nigeria, Africa Time Zone: Noon = 11:00 AM GMT = 6:00 AM US Eastern Standard Time Ethnic Composition: About two-thirds Yorùbá; remainder mixed from within Nigeria and outside Elevation: Generally at or below sea level, some parts already under threat Coastline: 100 miles Climate: Tropical; rainy season May through October; dry season November through April Annual Mean Temperature: 70–79ºF [23–26ºC] minimum and 78–90ºF [28–32ºC] maximum Government: City-state; town clerk-city council; appointed administrators Weights and Measures: Standard metric Monetary Units: Standard Nigerian Naira equals 100 Kobo; 100 Naira = US$ 1.00 as of January 2000 Telephone Area Codes: 234
1
Introduction
Also known as “Èkó” in popular contexts, Lagos has been Nigeria’s premier city since at least 1861. Its role as entrêpot (distribution center) to the West African coast assured by geography, Lagos attracted Portuguese traders and had become a major center for the slave trade by early seventeenth century. From 1851, the British bombarded the city, seeking to expel Portuguese slave dealers, abolish the slave trade altogether, and establish legitimate trade in its place. In the process, the British set up their own colonial admin-
istration and finally annexed the city in 1861. The former city-state would soon become a bridgehead to the conquest of the territories that became Nigeria. In 1914, Lagos was named Nigeria’s political capital, retaining that status until 1991 when Abuja formally became Nigeria’s new federal capital territory. It has since remained Nigeria’s capital, except in name. Lagos is Nigeria’s most cosmopolitan city; it is probably also the most over-populated. At the first census in 1871, the city was home to just over 28,000 people; by 1952, the population
139
Lagos
Lagos Population Profile City Proper Population: 1,200,000 Area: 69.7 sq km (27 sq mi) Ethnic composition: About 67% Yorùbá; remainder cosmopolitan, including from outside Nigeria Nicknames: “Èkó ar’omi sa l’egbelegbe” Èkó, The Island City; “Èkó ilé ogbón” Fountain of Common Sense; Gateway to the Federal Republic of Nigeria; Center of Excellence
Metropolitan Area Population: 13,488,000 Description: Èbúté Métta, Surùlérè, Àpápá, Yábã, Mushin, Oshòdì, Ìkejà, Bàrígà Area: 264.18 sq km (102 sq mi) World population rank1: 7 Percentage of national population2: 10.5% Average yearly growth rate: 5.4% Ethnic composition: 70–80% Yorùbá; 15% Nigerians; remainder non-Africans ——— 1. The Lagos metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of Nigeria’s total population living in the Lagos metropolitan area.
stood at over 252,000. In the 1970s, estimates ranged widely from near 600,000 to 1,500,000. These figures are not necessarily accurate, but they do suggest that Lagos is a city of immigrants. From early settlers through slave raiders to colonial officials, the city and its mainland towns had always been a place to move to in search of improved life chances, political power, better living standards, and exposure to the economic opportunities offered by the larger world. One of the city’s aliases, “Èkó ilé ogbón,” reflects these themes. It
140
translates literally to “Ékó fountain of common sense,” but the metaphorical point is that doom awaits the visitor to the city who is not streetwise or the new migrant slow to adjust to urban and competitive lifestyles in greater Lagos. 2
Getting There
Lagos can be reached by air, water, and land transport. However, Nigeria’s railroad system, built from the mid1880s onwards, has not been expanded substantially since. The passenger-carrying ocean liner is no longer popular either. The two best ways to reach Lagos are thus by air and by road. Highways Three main bridges connect the city with the mainland. The first is the Carter Bridge, built in 1901. Èkó and Third Mainland bridges have been constructed only since the 1970s. All three provide easy and relatively fast access to the island. In general Lagos has by far the highest road density in Nigeria. Bus and Railroad Service There are no train services in the city, the closest train station being at Ìddó, on the bridgehead to the island. The automobile is thus the best means by which to get to the city. There are traffic tailbacks, or “go slow” in Nigerian popular language, in part because large numbers of people and vehicles compete for space. In the city some major streets are estimated to take up to 15,000 pedestrians and 7,500 vehicles
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Lagos
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
141
Lagos per hour. Commercial vehicles, both buses and taxicabs, are available in reasonable number—many in bad shape physically. Parking space can be difficult to find. Airports The Lagos airport lies northwest of the city. Also known as the Murtala Muhammed Airport, it is also a major hub for flights within West Africa and between the sub-region and Europe. Cargo traffic averaged nearly 725,760 metric tons (800,000 tons) per month in January–March 1980. In the same months during 1983, over half of all outbound passengers in Nigeria’s airports (total 498,313) used the Lagos airport. Its average monthly share of inbound passengers (monthly average 190,000) was about 47 percent. In 1986, about 1.1 million international passengers used the Lagos airport; this was 85 percent of the total for all three international airports. The figures for domestic passengers are 2.7 million, or 72 percent of the total. The Lagos airport is thus Nigeria’s busiest point for international and local air travel. Shipping For long until the eighteenth century, the Lagos creek system provided the only outlet to sea-borne trade on the African West Coast. By 1907, construction work on moles for the Àpápá harbor had begun using rock brought in by rail from Abéòkúta. Its extension to the northern city of Kano in 1912
142
assured Lagos’ long-term role as important entrêpot to Nigeria. Lagos ports handle for four-fifths of Nigeria’s imports and 70 percent of exports. The Àpápá port is estimated to be the fifth busiest in West Africa. 3
Getting Around
Lagos City is a picturesque mix of the modern and the traditional, with skyscrapers and glass houses sitting alongside old residential buildings. Construction activity makes parts of the city seem rather poorly planned physically. Bus and Commuter Rail Service Mini- and midi-buses, as well as larger lorries (motortrucks), known as molue, are the most widely used means of transport. The Lagos City Council owned stock in a private transport company until 1974 when the Lagos State Transport Corporation took over its operations. Despite large-scale public investment, commercial vehicles have been and remain largely privately owned. In the late 1970s, according to survey estimates, about 53 percent of all workers depended on the bus to get to their workplaces; one-fifth or 20 percent commuted by private automobile; another 20 percent walked to work while less than one percent traveled to work by train or water transport. The number of private cars has increased over time; in 1960, 8,800 licensed cars existed in the city; between 1970 and 1974, over 42,000 cars were registered. In 1985, nearly 20,000 minibuses, 6,000
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Lagos
City Fact Comparison Lagos (Nigeria)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
13,488,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
c. 1450
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$232
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$57
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$14
$14
$15
$16
$303
$173
$246
$207
Total daily costs Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
8
13
20
11
Daily Times/ Sunday Times/ Evening Times
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
400,000
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1925
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
midi-buses, and 30,000 taxis were estimated to run in metropolitan Lagos.
and Àpápá and from Victoria Island to Tarkwa Bay.
Bulk goods—industrial material, foodstuff, and export produce—have traditionally been transported by truck and train; in recent times, the railways have all but paled into insignificance in its share of business in this sector. Still, the trains have often provided very cheap, alternative transport for people commuting to Àpápá and Yábã from high-density residential areas, such as Mushin, Oshòdì, Ìkejà, and Agége. A metro conceived in the 1980s has yet to be built. Ferries run between Marina
Sightseeing
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Organized commercial sightseeing tours of the city are rare, yet the island is full of historical sites. A major monument is the Iga Ìdúngànràn, official residence of the Oba of Lagos on Upper King Street. Another is The Old Secretariat, built in 1906 to house colonial offices. It still stands a short distance from the Lagos Island Hospital. On the Marina stands NITEL House, Africa’s tallest building and
143
Lagos home to some magnificent sculpture. Not far off is the State House where colonial governors lived until 1960. The General Post Office building and the Anglican Church, built in the eighteenth century, are worth seeing too. The NEPA building has a bronze statue of Shàngó, god of thunder, before it. The Elder Dempster building, originally the main office block for the passenger and freight steamship service to London and the West African coast, also stands on the Marina.
between non-Yorùbá speaking Nigerians, Africans, and non-African residents. The Yorùbás are also the majority group in Greater Lagos though longterm residence and the urge to partake in available economic opportunities may have encouraged assimilation on the part of non-Yorùbá immigrants. Ajégúnlè near Àpápá is the only mainland town in Greater Lagos where ethnic Yorùbás are a numerical minority.
The Tafawa Balewa Square now stands where once was the racecourse. Nearby are King’s College and old Supreme Court buildings. There is also Lagos City Hall, seat of the island’s local government. Nearly every street on the island symbolizes history; the interested sightseer cannot want for insights on life past.
The original settlement comprised what is now known as the City and Ìkòyí, both archipelagos divided by a man-made canal. They are bordered to the north by Èbúté Métta, Yábã, and Surulere, three mainland suburbs that are home to railway workshops and Army Ordinance Depot, as well as more recently built edifices, such as the University of Lagos and various private industrial and commercial establishments.
On the mainland, the National Theatre, main venue of the Second World Black and African Festival held in 1977, stands out among many other monuments. An exhibition on Nigeria’s political history runs permanently. 4
People
The city’s population estimates range from over 500,000 to 1,500,000; the number for Greater Lagos is estimated at 6,000,000 (1990). Population densities can also be as high as 20,000 per square mile in some places. Over two-thirds or 70 percent of the city’s population are Yorùbá-speaking, with the remainder divided
144
5
Neighborhoods
What is now Greater Lagos used to be part of Western Region of Nigeria. Among the towns are the high-brow residential areas, like Surulere and Ìkejà, as well as densely populated Mushin, Agége, Oshòdì, and Ajégúnlè. 6
History
Lagos was settled at various times by hunters and fishermen from the Àwórì sub-nationality. Originally based in Iseri on the Ògùn River about 20 miles from the island, the initial wave of settlers led by Arómiré (“the one that becomes personable at the sight of a
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Lagos
Lagos rests on the Gulf of Guinea. (Betty Press; Woodfin Camp)
river”), established a presence in Ìddó and Èbúté Métta. Arómiré also grew vegetables, especially pepper, on a site where Iga Ìdúngànràn, the palace or official residence of the Oba of Lagos now stands. Iga Ìdúngànràn is an Àwórì term meaning house on pepper farm. The palace is thus not only an important symbol of the historical traditions of Lagos; its name also helps keep alive the site’s association with vegetable farming by Arómiré, the city’s first settler. From these bases the Àwórì settlers moved further south, towards the creeks and the sea. One major reason why they moved was because their increasing population created the need for more space. Another was safety and security. Yorùbáland, of which Lagos
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
was a part, had become embroiled in the long-running wars involving ethnic groups, communities, chiefdoms, kingdoms, and other political units of the time. The island settlements faced war from the Ègbás and the Ìjèbús, both Yorùbá-speaking nationalities. The ancient Benin Empire, in present-day Edo State of Nigeria also invaded the island around the year 1600. There are conflicting accounts of the latter episode. Some have argued that the Binis actually founded the Lagos monarchy or system of rulership, apparently in the image of Benin’s. Ashipa, the first Oba of Lagos, was a Yorùbá chief but not a Lagosian. It is known also that between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, the Benin Empire
145
Lagos extended as far as Porto-Novo, west of Lagos. The Oba of Benin did appoint viceroys or representatives on the island and approved all appointees to the office of Oba of Lagos. In return, Lagos Obas paid tribute to Oba of Benin in recognition of the latter’s superior status. Other historians have insisted that the Oba of Benin waged war on the island for the same reasons wars were then prevalent. One of these was the desire by reigning monarchs to expand control over weaker, less populous peoples or neighboring communities, kingdoms, and empires. Another reason concerned the new trans-Atlantic slave trade. For those who participated in the trade as middlemen, warfare did provide a quick and sure supply of war captives who could then be sold as slaves and shipped to the New World. By an estimate, some 500,000 people may have been sold as indentured slaves and shipped from Lagos to the Americas and the Carribean, in particular Bahia, Cuba, and St. Helena. Anyway, for Arómiré and early settlers of the island, moving further south away from the mainland towards the sea was a mechanism to escape the wars that ravaged Yorùbáland from the seventeenth century. The wars and the disruptions associated with them were to become a justification for imposing British colonial control first on the island and later on what is now Nigeria. From the mid-nineteenth century, freed Yorùbá slaves started returning to Lagos in waves first from Brazil and then from Sierra Leone. In 1847, Oba
146
Kòsókó of Lagos sent his close friend and adviser Chief Oshòdì Tápà to South America to invite slaves with Yorùbá ancestry to return home. The trip yielded results in 1851 when 130 expatriates arrived in Lagos. By 1861 when Lagos formally became a British colony, the number of returnees had risen to about 3,000. The Brazilian expatriates brought with them skills in masonry, carpentry, and tailoring, a strong Catholic faith, and extensive Portuguese cultural traits. Sierra Leonean expatriates, or Saros, mainly of Ègbá origins in present-day Abéòkúta in Ògùn State of Nigeria, started returning to Lagos in trickles about 1838. The reigning Oba Kòsókó did very little to make them feel welcome, so it was not until 1852 after Oba Kòsókó had been deposed by the British and replaced by Oba Akíntóyè, that Saros returned to Lagos in large numbers. They numbered about 2,500 by 1861 and were granted land in a district on the island still known as Saro Town. With their longer association with English missionaries, Sierra Leonean returnees appeared to enjoy higher standards of material comfort than Lagos indigenes. The Saros were devout Protestants and better educated in the formal sense too. These attributes were to stand them in good stead to play a leading role in the cultural life of Lagos; they also helped infuse their fatherland with a love of education. Their efforts were to help create a class of literate indigenes who led the fight for human dignity under British colonial rule and
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Lagos set the stage for the nationalist struggle that led to Nigeria’s independence in 1960. These main groups have since been joined by a more heterogeneous mix of immigrants from far and near. The Vaughan family has American ancestry while the Bickersteth family originated from Porto-Novo in present-day Benin Republic. Lagos is also home to people with Ghanaian ancestry. A much larger number have moved south over the years from other parts of Nigeria—for example, from the Nupe and Benin areas in addition to Yorùbá migrants, especially from Ìjèbú, Ègbá, and Badagry areas. 7
Government
The earliest attempt at modern formal government in the city occurred in 1899 with the establishment of a Sanitary Board. In 1917, a Townships Ordinance (or Law) established First, Second, and Third Class Townships. Lagos became a First Class Township and remained Nigeria’s only such township for a long time. By 1950, after a series of extensions to the powers of the Township, the Lagos Local Government Ordinance created a fully elected Council, making Lagos a self-governing municipality with its own mayor. The office of mayor was abolished in 1953, and traditional members or chiefs were brought on board. In 1959, on the eve of Nigeria’s independence, Lagos City was designated a Federal Territory administered by a Council comprising
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
elected representatives, as well as traditional chiefs appointed by government. Since the 1960s, the fortunes of city government had changed along with Nigeria’s political climate; its administrative system has thus varied from elected council through sole administrators appointed by military governments. 8
Public Safety
Crime is endemic in Lagos. Property crimes, including armed burglaries and car theft, have been particularly high, fueled as much by large-scale unemployment as by wide disparities in income and life chances. Financial fraud is also rampant, the most recent variant being advance fee fraud, the practice of obtaining money by deception and/or false pretense, popularly known as “419” after the relevant section of Nigeria’s penal code. Traffic accidents are rife too, reflecting competition for space by people and vehicles, as well as disrepair in the latter. Crime statistics are wide of the mark: many incidents go unreported or become tangled in influence peddling and corruption networks. There are plans to increase the number of policemen and improve law enforcement generally in and around greater Lagos. 9
Economy
Lagos is Nigeria’s single-largest commercial center. Once described as an outpost of the industrialized West in
147
Lagos In 1862, commercial exports from Lagos stood at £78,000 and imports at £62,000; by 1900 both had risen to £830,000 and £885,000 respectively. By 1975, about 55 percent of Nigeria’s industrial establishments were based in Lagos; these accounted for over twothirds of industrial output. At present Lagos State, of which the city is now part, is Nigeria’s smallest, occupying just 0.4 percent of the country’s land surface. Yet, Lagos State is also Nigeria’s most populous. It is perhaps also the only one state capable of generating enough internal revenue to sustain its operations. The city forms the nucleus of this affluence, home to most banks and other financial institutions, including the Stock Exchange. Lagos was established as a fishing resort, where fishermen rested and made repairs between trips. Today, fishing still contributes to the economy. (Betty Press; Woodfin Camp)
tropical Africa, it has a history of economic well being and relative affluence. The city and its neighborhoods had long attracted upwardly mobile and ambitious people from across the world. As gateway to western sea-borne commerce, and latterly to Nigeria, Lagos had started as fishing resort where fishermen from neighboring areas mended their equipment and rested between fishing expeditions. The fifteenth century brought with it contact with Portuguese traders, and Lagos soon became a major market and depot for slave shipment to South America.
148
10
Environment
The city lay on a tapestry of islands, lagoons, and creeks interspersed by mangrove. Much of its land surface is barely above sea level; since 1989, parts of Victoria Island had been under threat from a rising tide. Land has been reclaimed to build a road on the Marina, as well as make the Five Cowries Island more functional; the flyovers between Ìkòyí and the island also stand on once-swampy terrain. Air pollution is endemic. Local historian Kunle Akinsemoyin has remarked that in present-day Lagos, “walking is … a dangerous hazard, cycling a perilous venture, for the motor car, particularly the lorries have grabbed the monopoly of roads from the cyclists.” This reflects several fac-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Lagos
Street markets are popular in Lagos. Here, a vendor takes a rest from the busy shopping day. (Betty Press; Woodfin Camp)
tors, including overpopulation, weak physical planning enforcement, and emissions by vehicles and industrial plants. Sewage disposal has been long problematic. The Lagos lagoon has long served as dump for refuse and untreated sewage; it is thus extremely polluted. Greater Lagos is bordered to the east, west, and north by other towns in Lagos State. Of the 3,577 square kilometers (1,381 square miles) land surface in Lagos State, lagoons constitute about 790 square kilometers (305 square miles) or 22 percent of the total. Much
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
of the state’s land surface is just over five meters (15 feet) above sea level. 11
Shopping
Lagos is renowned as much for row after row of shops as for its irrepressible street vendors. From dwellings through workshops to road shoulders and space between vehicles in “go slow,” hardly a square yard of space knowingly goes to waste without being put to some commercial use. The Jànkara market offers new or second-hand clothing, jewelry, musical
149
Lagos instruments, and hardware; the Ìsàlè Èkó market is known for food items while the Balógun market specializes in imported and African clothing material. The Bar Beach market on Ahmadu Bello Road offers food products and handicraft, such as baskets, leather, and batik. Other markets in the city include the Ògógóró market, named after local gin, the main commodity on offer, and the Èbúté Èrò, Ìta Fãjì, and Sandgrouse markets. The Fálomo shopping center in Ìkòyí is on Awolowo Road. On the mainland the Téjúosó market in Surulere offers a variety of goods, as do other markets in Àpápá and Mushin, among others. In all cases, traders are eager to cut deals on prices; a consumer can buy cheap or dear depending on the state of business, the trader’s mood, or time of day. 12
Education
Education is traditionally regarded as a means of social mobility, so most parents are willing to invest heavily in children’s schooling. Much of the responsibility for providing education rests with the public sector; a large and largely uncontrolled private educational sector has thrived also, suggesting some dissatisfaction with public sector facilities and enabling the rich and powerful to get more value for their money. Islamic education had been available since the early nineteenth century. The first secondary school is the CMS Grammar School, founded in 1859 by Rev. T. B. Macauley, a Sierra Leonean
150
expatriate. Known subsequently as Anglican Boys Grammar School, the school still operates today in Bàríga, one of the several outlying towns around Lagos. In 1960, the city had 112 primary schools and 20 secondary schools. Two years later, 124 primary schools on the island enrolled an estimated 96,152 pupils, divided roughly equally between boys and girls. Fifty secondary schools also catered to about 10,000 students, one-third of them female. Enrollment in all formal educational institutions, including the University of Lagos, totaled 108,140; just over half (52 percent) were male while 48 percent were female. The economic boom of the 1970s and elected civilian government from 1979 brought with them substantial expansion in educational facilities and access. In 1981, about 125,000 pupils, or one-fifth of the population, were enrolled in the city’s primary schools; secondary schools on the island also catered to about 26,000 or less than five percent of the population. By 1989, 877 government-owned primary schools in the metropolitan area employed 15,000 teachers; 342 secondary schools had nearly 12,000 teachers. Adult education programs also ran in the rural areas. The sex ratio has been nearly balanced over the years, though more males than females enter higher institutions, including universities. The literacy rate is estimated at 20 percent in greater Lagos. Figures for the city may well be double.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Lagos 13
Health Care
Up until the early twentieth century, the city featured among West Africa’s “white man’s grave,” with malaria and yellow fever as main killer diseases. Sanitary conditions were among the worst in the sub-region too. Sewage treatment has remained a problem while malaria and yellow fever are under control. Present-day Lagos now boasts excellent health facilities, including numerous state-of-the-art private hospitals and maternity centers, the University of Lagos Teaching Hospital Medical School, a Dental School, an Institute for Child Health, and an orthopedic hospital at Igbobi. In 1988, 14 primary health clinics existed in the city; greater Lagos had an additional 60. The Lagos Island and Ìkejà general hospitals each had between 21,000 and 35,000 outpatients per month in 1989. Outpatients at health centers in Àpápá and Èbúté Métta stood at between 8,000 and 14,000 each month over the same period. The large numbers are as much indicative of the general population’s health as the popular response to subsidized health programs in the 1980s. By far the best-known hospital is the private Èkó Hospital on Mobolaji Bank-Anthony (formerly Airport) Road in Maryland, Ìkejà. 14
Media
Lagos Times was first published in 1880, starting a tradition of active and diverse debate in the mass media. The Lagos Daily News became the first daily in 1920 and ran until 1936, providing
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
with the West African Pilot an urban perspective on Nigeria’s campaign for independence. Today Greater Lagos is home to numerous newspapers and magazines, most privately owned and retaining their editorial independence against the odds. Among government-owned newspapers are the Daily Times and the Lagos Horizon, owned by the Federal Government and Lagos State Government respectively. Older privately owned dailies include the Punch, Guardian, Concord, and Vanguard; all four also publish during weekends. The Post Express and P.M. News (an evening paper) were established in the late 1990s. The list of weekly news and lifestyle magazines published in greater Lagos include Newswatch, African Guardian, African Concord, Tempo, ThisWeek, and Tell. In turn, titles such as Quality and Lagos Life are devoted to soft human stories, gossip, and lifestyles. Private radio and television stations have been in operation since 1993. At least nine television channels and several radio stations are received with varying clarity in the city and metropolitan Lagos. Some private TV channels are seen to compete effectively with government-owned stations and are relied upon to furnish views not necessarily reflecting official preferences. 15
Sports
Football (known as soccer in the United States) was introduced in the 1930s and ping pong in 1949. The first
151
Lagos
Lagos National Theatre. (Betty Press; Woodfin Camp)
sports stadium was built in 1930 and six years later named after King George V; between 1963 and 1973, it became known as the Lagos City Stadium. The Onikan Stadium, which replaced it, was opened for football and cultural activities in the 1980s. The Racecourse at Tafawa Balewa Square is underutilized. The National Stadium was built in 1976 in Surulere on the Mainland; its sitting capacity is estimated at between 80,000 and 100,000. Smaller facilities are scattered around Greater Lagos, for example in Agége and in premises owned by large commercial ventures. In the city, as elsewhere, the average secondary school is almost certain to have some
152
facilities for athletics and at least football, the game Nigerians love above anything else. Lagos has been the main venue for several sports fiestas, among them the Second All African Games held in 1972 and the African Cup of Nations Cup tournament, co-hosted with Ghana and concluded in February 2000. 16
Parks and Recreation
The city is well built up, so open space is a rarity. In 1976, according to some estimates, open space amounted to only three percent of the city’s land
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Lagos surface, which translates to 0.01 hectare (0.02 acre) for each 1,000 people. A lot of recreation does take place on land not allocated for such purposes; social gatherings or parties also provide opportunities for recreation. 17
Performing Arts
The Yoruba tradition of the traveling theatre, or Alárìnjo, dates back to the sixteenth century, with groups providing live drama, entertainment, satire, and mild social commentary. The English language theatre boasts wellknown names like Nobel laureate Wole Soyinka, Femi Osofisan, and John Pepper Clark. The Lagos State Government runs a Cultural Standing Troupe, and amateur groups exist in several parts of the city. The Pec Repertoire Theatre is a professional company founded by writer John Pepper Clark. The typical state function or communal gathering often includes some dance and drama by children, women, or other social groups. As an art form, however, critical drama, especially satire, has often caused the odd inconvenience to politically insecure administrations. 18
Libraries and Museums
In 1962, the central library boasted over 7,500 adult members and about 12,000 children subscribers. The Yábã branch had about 1,950 adults and 1,500 children on its membership. The National Library is on Broad Street; the City also runs its own library. The British Council and the United States Infor-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
mation Service also offer library services from bases on the island. The National Museum is on Awolowo Road. The Onikan National Museum east of Tafawa Balewa Square is home to a variety of local art treasures and handicraft, including the Benin bronzes, the Ife and Owo terracotta busts, and the Igbo-Ukwe bronze castings. 19
To u r i s m
Tourism is not particularly developed in Lagos, yet the city’s history resonates in its diverse architecture and in the names given to streets, communities, and districts. For example, Oke Faji, Popo Aguda, Campos Square, Pedro, and Martin Streets are steeped in Brazilian traditions, having been settled originally by Brazilian immigrants who started returning in the 1850s. Saro Town was land assigned by the Oba of Lagos to Sierra Leonean expatriates after the 1850s. The Shitta-Bey Mosque and the Holy Cathedral Church, both in central Lagos, also bear testimony to Brazilian architectural influence. 20
Holidays and Festivals
In Lagos, as elsewhere in Yorùbáland, religious festivals including masquerade displays are occasions to commemorate the passing of the great and the good, cement relations between generations, and offer prayers for social peace and the well being of individuals.
153
Lagos News, the first daily newspaper from 1920 to 1936.
FEBRUARY Àdìmú Òrìsà or Èyò masquerade display
JULY Festivals to honor Olókun, goddess of the sea (heavily patronized by fishing families)
SEPTEMBER Ìgunnukó masquerades (a tradition among the Nupe)
21
Famous Citizens
Alhaji H. P. Adebola (1920–82), a foremost trade unionist and railway worker. Felá Anikulapo-Kuti (1938–97), internationally renowned musician who used his Afro-beat music—a blend of African rhythm, Western instruments, and popular language—to campaign against official corruption and dictatorship at home and for respect for Africa abroad. Nnamdi Azikwe (b. 1904), politician who took a leading role in the Nige rian n atio nal i st m ov em en t, founded a series of newspapers, and became the first president of the Nigerian republic. Alhaji Lateef Jakande, the first elected Governor of Lagos State, serving from 1979 to 1983. Herbert Macauley (1864–1946), leading member of the Saro élite and major leader of Nigeria’s independence movement who ran the Lagos Daily
154
Oba Adeyinka Oyekan II (b. 1911), the eighteenth Oba of Lagos. Madam Efunroye Tinubu (1807–85), an Ègbá slave trader whose influence meant trouble for the reigning Oba of Lagos. 22
For Further Study
Books Amman, Richard. Lagos Walking Tours. Port-Harcourt: Riverside Communications, 1994. Barnes, Sandra. Patrons and Power: Creating a Political Community in Metropolitan Lagos. 1986. Fagbamiye, E. O. ed. Educational Development in Lagos State. Lagos: Okanlawon Publishers, 1990. Lierberman, Irving. A Survey of the Lagos City Library. Lagos: Lagos City Council, 1964. Odumosu, O. Assessing the Quality of Working Life: Case of Lagos and Ibadan Cities. Ibadan: Nigerian Institute for Economic and Social Research, 1996. Olajumoke, Remi. The Spring of a Monarch: The Epic Struggle of Oba Adeyinka Oyekan II of Lagos. Lagos: Lawebod (Nig.) Ltd., 1990. Olomu, Olukayode A. Lagos State: The Cornerstone of Nigeria’s Economic Development. Lagos: International Management and Research Institute Limited, 1983. Olowu, Dele. Lagos State: Governance, society and Economy. Lagos: Malthouse Press, 1990. Onikoyi, Agboola A. The History of Lagos. Published by author, 1975. Peil, Margaret. Lagos: The City is the People. London: Belhaven Press, 1991. Shitta-Bey, S. A. The Origin and Birth of Lagos State. Lagos: Maybao Enterprises, 1979. Watson, G. D. A Human Geography of Nigeria. London: Longman, 1960.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Lima Lima, Peru, South America Founded: Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro founded the city in 1535 Location: On southern bank of the Río Rímac (Rimac River), bounded by the Pacific Ocean on the west and the foot of the Andes Mountains on the east, in the coastal zone of central Peru, South America. Time Zone: Four hours behind Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Daylight Savings Time is observed from January to April. Ethnic Composition: 15% white, 37% mestizo (Indian-European mix), 45% indigenous people of Peru, and small numbers of Asians and blacks Elevation: 154 meters (about 500 feet) Latitude and Longitude: 12º0'S, 77º2'W Climate: The cool offshore Peru Current (also known as the Humboldt Current) affects the climate of the city all year long. From April to December, a cool air mass off the Pacific shrouds Lima with garúa, a dense sea mist that blots the sun and rusts exposed metal. During the summer months of January through March, Lima gets more sunshine, but humidity becomes unbearable. Humidity is high for most of the year, remaining well above 60 percent. Temperature: Winter temperature ranges from 60º to 64ºF (16º to 18ºC); summer temperature ranges from 70º to 80ºF (21º to 27ºC). Average Annual Precipitation: About 2 inches (50 mm) per year. Rain is often the result of condensation of the garúa. Government: Mayor and district council. As the nation's capital, Lima is home to the President of the Republic and Congress. Weights and Measures: Metric system Monetary Units: The Nuevo Sol (about 3.5 soles per US dollar in January 2000). Notes come in denominations of 10, 20, 50, and 100 soles. Coins come in denominations of 1, 5, 10, and 50 centimos, and 1 sol. The US dollar is widely accepted and openly traded. Telephone Area Codes: 51 (country); 14 (city)
1
Introduction
On its worst days, when the misty air hangs thick with fumes from hundreds of thousands of cars, trucks, and buses, Lima easily earns the moniker of La Horrible, as it is called by many of its citizens. Built to rule vast expanses of
South America more than 500 years ago, Lima no longer seems capable of even controlling its own destiny. Most of its seven million people live in poverty, barely scratching a living to feed large families. Cholera outbreaks have been common in the past few years, and the city has been the target of polit-
155
Lima
Lima Population Profile Population: 7,443,000 Area: 3,900 sq km (1,506 sq mi ) Ethnic composition: Approximately 15% white; 37% mestizo (Indian-European mix); 45% indigenous people of Peru; and small numbers of Asians and blacks World population rank1: 26 Percentage of national population2: 29.0% Average yearly growth rate: 2.2% Nicknames: The name of the city is a corruption of the Quechua Indian name Rímac, which means “Talker.” Many residents informally call the city el pulpo (octopus) for its tremendous size. Its residents are known as Limeños. ——— 1. The Lima metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of Peru’s total population living in the Lima metropolitan area.
Pacific on the west and the rising Andes Mountains to the east. And yet, Limeños, as citizens of this city are known, are generally hospitable and charitable, even friendly to strangers. Hundreds of thousands of them came to Lima with virtually nothing to their names. Here, they built homes and families, and despite long odds, survived and even prospered. Many Peruvians continue to pour into the city looking for those same opportunities. Perhaps sensing that they have something at stake, the city's leaders have finally begun to rebuild old Lima, scrubbing its old buildings and reclaiming its streets. 2
Getting There
Highways ical assassinations, bombings, and statesponsored terrorism. Dubbed the City of Kings by its founder, the illiterate Francisco Pizarro (c. 1478–1541), Lima has struggled to maintain its dignity. It is not a pretty city, despite the tremendous amount of wealth that was originally spent to build it in the middle of a barren coastal desert. Even nature seems to have conspired against Lima. Three major earthquakes have leveled large parts of the city. For most of the year, a thick mist known as garúa envelops the city, slowly rusting away all exposed metal. With less than five centimeters (two inches) of rain a year, there are hardly any trees. The same monotonous barren landscape surrounds the city, stretching to the waters of the
156
The Pan-American Highway crosses through Lima. Buses take about 24 hours to reach both the Ecuadorian and Chilean borders. Bus and Railroad Service Regional buses and trains depart from Lima to all corners of the country. The Central Railway of Peru has the highest standard-gauge railway in the world. From Lima, it climbs the Andes to La Oroya. The city is connected to the port of Callao by the oldest railway line (1851) in South America. Airports The Jorge Chávez International Airport is about 13 kilometers (eight miles) from the heart of the city, in the munic-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Lima
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
157
Lima ipal district of Callao. Several airlines, including major U.S. carriers, travel to Lima daily. Shipping Callao, located in the Lima metropolitan area, is home to the nation's most important port. Three floating docks have lifting capacities between 1,724 and 4,082 metric tons (1,900 and 4,500 tons). It also hosts more than 40 workshops for marine and industrial repair work. 3
Getting Around
Bus and Commuter Rail Service Lima is a megalopolis that is difficult to navigate. The city only has one highway and has not invested in largescale transportation systems, like underground metro or light rail. There are dozens of bus lines that connect different parts of the city, but buses are often crowded and uncomfortable. Roads are often clogged with traffic. Sightseeing While in Lima, visitors will want to see the Church and monastery of San Francisco, the Palacio De Gobiernor, San Martin Square, and the Gold Museum of Peru. Other sites rich in Peruvian history and culture include the Rafael Larco Herrera Museum, the National Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology, the National Museum of the Republic, the Museum of Peruvian Culture, and the Museum of the Inquisition. Parque Central is a relaxing out-
158
door spot for visitors in the suburb of Miraflores. 4
People
Race and class define Peruvians. Limeños are deeply divided across class lines. About 15 percent of the nation's citizens are white, 37 percent are mestizo (Indian-European mix), and 45 percent are indigenous people of Peru. There are small numbers of Asians and blacks. One notable Asian is President Alberto Fujimori, of Japanese descent. Lima's racial breakdown resembles national characteristics. Nearly 30 percent of the country’s 25 million people live in the Lima metropolitan area, which has a density of 2,614 people per square kilometer. Between 1993 and 1998, the city's population grew by 2.1 percent annually. About 43 percent of the population are under the age of 20, and nearly 50 percent are between the ages of 20 and 60. Infant mortality is among the highest in the Americas at 57.5 deaths per 1,000 live births. In the last decade, more poor Indian immigrants have poured into the city looking for work. Class is directly tied to race. Most wealthy Limeños are white while some of the poorest people in the city are native Peruvians. Most Limeños are Roman Catholic, and many of the city's most important festivals are tied to religious activities. Spanish and Quechua, the language of the Incas, are the most widely spoken languages among Limeños. Quechua is mostly spoken throughout the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Lima
City Fact Comparison Lima (Peru)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
7,443,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1535
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$125
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$63
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$16
$14
$15
$16
$204
$173
$246
$207
Total daily costs Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
37
13
20
11
La Cronica/La Nueva Cronica
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
208,000
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1912
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
Andes and by some people in Lima; however, Spanish is the dominant language. Some migrants to the city speak Aymara, the second most important indigenous language in Peru. 5
Neighborhoods
Lima has been shaped and reshaped by major earthquakes that have nearly leveled the city. The city suffered major earthquakes in 1687, 1746, and 1970. Only a few buildings survived the 1746 earthquake. In more modern times, Lima has experienced relentless growth, with neighborhood communities sprouting almost overnight. From 1940 to 1980, more than
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
two million people moved into the city. But there were no homes for them. They built hundreds of thousands of shantytowns around the original city limits. The dwellings were made from just about any scrap material the squatters could find: cardboard, discarded wood, stones; sheets of tin for the roof were held down by old tires, bricks, and the weight of rocks. The shantytowns came to be known as barriadas, and later as pueblos jovenes, the young towns. In time, many of these young towns received basic services like water and electricity. Concrete or brick replaced the cardboard walls, and the shantytowns became established neigh-
159
Lima
A view of Lima from San Martin Square. (Katsuyoshi Tanaka; Woodfin Camp)
borhoods. Yet, thousands of people who live in some of the poorest shantytowns only have the thin walls of cardboard to protect them from the elements. The poor neighborhoods stand in stark contrast with the more affluent neighborhoods of Miraflores and other wealthy suburban neighborhoods along the coast south of Lima's central area. Here, visitors could easily believe that nothing is wrong with Peru. Affluent Peruvians drink coffee and chat with friends at sidewalk cafes; the streets are free of trash; and many buildings are new. Mansions, luxury apartment buildings, and small homes with manicured gardens are found throughout the Miraflores area. Stores offer just about anything that could be bought somewhere else in the world. In many ways, it is a segregated world. Here, the rich seek protection from the masses.
160
As Lima grew, the heart of the city was practically abandoned. At one time, central Lima was a prestigious address, with splendid mansions and imposing government buildings and churches. Colonial Lima was built with Peru’s own gold and silver, and no efforts were spared for the “City of Kings.” Today, little of that splendor remains. In a slow process, the government is trying to recover the heart of the city and make it more than just a passing point for Limeños. 6
History
The Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro (c.1478–1541) arrived in what is now Peru under propitious circumstances. The flourishing Inca Empire, which dominated an area that extended from Quito in present-day Ecuador to central Chile (4,023 kilometers/2,500 miles in length and 805 kilo-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Lima meters/500 miles wide) had been weakened by internal conflict. The halfbrothers Huáscar and Atahualpa had waged a bitter struggle for the throne. When Pizarro arrived in Peru accompanied by 180 heavily armed men and 30 horses in l531, Atahualpa had gained the upper hand and ruled the empire, one of the most developed in preColumbian times in the Americas. On November 15, 1532, Pizarro arrived in Cajamarca, Atahualpa’s summer residence in the northern highlands of Peru. The next day, Pizarro took Atahualpa hostage. The Incas had never seen horses or experienced the wrath of modern weapons. With the element of surprise on their side, the Spanish shattered Inca resistance. While they would continue to resist the Spaniards for many years, the Incas never recovered from that first battle. After taking Cuzco in southern Peru, Pizarro began to consolidate his empire. In the arid coastal region, where people had been living for thousands of years, he founded the city of Lima on January 6, 1535. Because it was the day of the Epiphany (Christian holiday commemorating both the revealing of Jesus as the Christ to the Gentiles in the persons of the Magi and the baptism of Jesus), he named it the “City of Kings,” but the name never stuck. The city was in a convenient place, adjacent to a major river that provided plenty of fresh water and only a few kilometers from the Pacific Coast, where the Spaniards would develop the Port of Callao. The port became a major point of trans-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro (c.1478– 1541) conquered the Incas and was the founder of Lima. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
fer of wealth generated in South America. Pizarro never got to enjoy the wealth he had stolen from the Incas. Nor did he spend much time in his new city. The greedy conquistadors began to fight among themselves. Pizarro and Diego de Almagro (1475–1538), a former partner in the conquest, went to
161
Lima war. Almagro was captured and executed, and Pizarro was murdered in his Lima palace in 1541. The kingdom of Spain designated Lima the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1542, but several years would go by before it could reassert its authority. From here, the Spaniards ruled vast areas of South America. For the next three centuries, Lima boomed as the center of government, commerce, and culture. It was the seat of the audiencia, the high court, and the headquarters for the Inquisition. The monarchs, through their delegates, and the Catholic Church were firmly in control. For most of its colonial history, Lima was a small and conservative town, confined within its protective walls. An earthquake devastated Lima in 1746. Yet, with the wealth generated by thousands of indigenous people who mined for silver and gold under horrible work conditions, the Spanish rebuilt the city with more exquisite architecture. By the early 1800s, Lima was losing its influence. As other regions grew in importance, their residents began to resent Spain's rule and rigid trade regulations, which forced all trade to go through the port of Callao. Goods from Buenos Aires traveled over vast distances by land to get to Lima, where they were shipped to Panama, and then transferred to ships going to Spain. Santiago, in present-day Chile, and Buenos Aires were developing societies quite distinct from Lima. It was only a matter of time before they would seek their independence.
162
When Napoleon Bonaparte’s (1769–1821; French general) forces invaded Spain in 1808, the Spanish colonies in the Americas took advantage of the favorable political turn and sought independence. Conservative Lima remained loyal to Spain, but its subordinate regions did not. Unlike other parts of South America, insurrection in Peru did not come from within its borders. In 1821, the Argentinean General Jóse de San Martín invaded Lima and forced the city's royalist troops to retreat into the mountains. The other great South American liberator, Simón Bolívar, moved in from the north to finish the job. Peru became the last mainland colony to declare its independence in July 1821. Lima later became the capital city of Peru. While it would continue to grow, it never attained the power and wealth it enjoyed during its colonial era. In the War of the Pacific (1879–83), Limeños endured another invasion, this time by Chilean soldiers who occupied the city for two years. The Peruvian government was forced into the highlands and was allowed to return only after signing a treaty favorable to Chile. Like many other cities, the development of modern Lima is traced to the construction of railroads and roads that made it easier for people to move around the growing capital. The first train line between Lima and Callao was built in 1851. Other lines going south followed, allowing the more wealthy Limeños to move along the coast. Here, they built the wealthier communities of Miraflores and Barranco. The new roads also made it easier for people from the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Lima
Palacio de Gobiernor is the home and office of Peru’s president. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
highlands to move to the city for work. After World War II (1939–45), thousands of Peruvians were moving into the city each year, leading to the construction of shantytowns throughout the city. By the 1980s, Lima mirrored the nation's massive social problems. Crushing poverty, and injustice opened the way to several leftist guerrilla movements, chief among them Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path), and Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA). While most guerilla activity took place well beyond Lima, the city was the target of assassinations, bombings, and state-sponsored violence. In 1996, the MRTA shocked the world by taking over the Japanese ambassador's
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
residence, along with 72 hostages. Government troops liberated the hostages and killed all the guerrilla members in April 1997. While Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori has declared victory against the guerrillas, he has done little for the country’s poor. Lima has become the center of constant protests against the government. 7
Government
The provinces of Lima and Callao, each with its own government, make up the Lima metropolitan area. There are 45 municipal districts, including the capital district of Lima, within the metropolitan area. Each district is adminis-
163
Lima tratively autonomous, with a mayor and city council. Each district generates revenues, such as property taxes, to provide services to its citizens. The arrangement has created huge inequalities in the metropolitan area. Wealthy neighborhoods like Miraflores provide relatively good services to its citizens. But some of the pueblos jovenes (young towns) cannot even raise enough revenue to provide bare necessities, like paved roads and water. The unwieldy arrangement makes regional planning difficult. Any action requires negotiated decisions among districts. A Metropolitan Council for Greater Lima, made up of district mayors, was supposed to facilitate regional cooperation. But local districts do not want to give up their autonomy. Leaders have called for greater intervention from the national government, but that is unlikely. 8
Public Safety
Violent crimes that include carjackings, assault, and armed robbery are common in Lima. Sometimes, people are kidnapped and forced to withdraw money from automatic teller machines before they are released. Thieves posing as taxi drivers prey on passengers, often in stolen vehicles. To curb crime, the government authorized military court trials for kidnappers and armed gang members in 1998. Tourists are particularly vulnerable. The theft of luggage and travel documents, including passports, is common at the international airport.
164
Peru’s human rights record has improved, with a sharp decrease in the numbers of political disappearances and extra-judicial killings by government forces. Yet, international human rights groups continue to monitor the delicate political situation in Peru. The U.S. government remained concerned about reports of torture, arbitrary detentions, lack of due process, and Peru's reluctance to punish government and military officials accused of abuses. In June of 1999, members of the U.S. House of Representatives said they were concerned at the “erosion of democracy and the rule of law” in Peru. 9
Economy
Lima is the leading industrial, financial, and retail center in the nation. With nearly 30 percent of the country's population, the city dictates the national economy and accounts for more than two-thirds of the nation’s gross domestic product (GDP). Most of the country's imports and exports pass through the port of Callao. Almost all of the country's heavy industry is located in and around Lima. Despite its economic importance, Lima is not flushed with jobs. The national government has been a traditional leading employer, but the privatization of state companies left thousands of people out of work during the mid-1990s. The city suffers from severe unemployment and underemployment, and many people who work just barely manage to feed their families. Lima's economy grew rapidly during the mid 1990s, but a severe two-year recession that started in
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Lima 1997 left one out of two Peruvians living in poverty. 10
Environment
Lima is a grimy, noisy, and polluted city. The garúa doesn't help. The mist and low clouds trap pollution, and Limeños often can taste the fumes in the air. The city’s infrastructure has been overwhelmed by the rapid growth. Hundreds of thousands of people don't have access to basic services like electricity, water, and adequate sanitation. Wastewater goes straight into the Pacific without treatment. Cholera epidemics have been common in Lima for several years. While the government has identified pollution as one of its national priorities, it lacks the money for any major fixes in the foreseeable future. 11
13
Health Care
Health is a matter of class. Wealthier residents can afford good health care, and many of them often travel abroad for treatment. Millions of Limeños have little access to health care. There are 119 hospitals in the metropolitan area, with 2.7 physicians per 1,000 residents. Unhealthy conditions have led to cholera outbreaks. Tuberculosis is common among the poorest Limeños.
Shopping
Lima is not known for its shopping scene. The city’s wealthier neighborhoods and districts have the same types of stores found in the United States, including modern shopping malls. 12
ing University. The city has several private universities. Among them are the University of Lima, Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, Ricardo Palma University, University of San Martín de Porres, Women’s University of the Sacred Heart, and University of the Pacific. A university degree remains out of reach for most young Limeños.
Education
Most children attend school in Lima, but illiteracy rates have remained high. About 52 percent of students are in primary schools, and 33 percent attend secondary schools. Lima is home to some fine universities, including the National University of San Marcos, the oldest university in the Americas (1551), La Molina National Agrarian University, and the National Engineer-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
14
Media
Under the Fujimori regime, freedom of the press has been curtailed. The U.S. State Department in 1999 concluded the Peruvian government infringed on press freedom by harassing and intimidating journalists. Several international journalism organizations have condemned Fujimori’s systematic attacks on the press. Despite government pressure, several newspapers in Lima continue to report government misdeeds. The city is home to the nation's most influential newspapers, including El Comercio, La República, and Gestion. Twenty-five newspapers, including ten dailies, are
165
Lima
A room from the Museum of the Inquisition. (Enrique Shore; Woodfin Camp)
published in Lima. El Comercio is considered one of the best newspapers in Latin America and has often taken a critical view of the Fujimori regime. The city also has a lively, but untrustworthy, tabloid press that caters to lowerincome residents. Caretas, a weekly newsmagazine, is widely respected and read. El Peruano is the official newspaper of record. Lima has eight non-cable television channels, including the government-owned channel seven, and cable television, which is out of the reach of most poor Limeños. Prices for cable television are comparable to those in the United States. Radio remains an important medium of communication.
166
15
Sports
Soccer (futból) is by far the most popular sport in Lima. Professional teams are closely followed by Limeños, especially the home teams of Alianza Lima and Universitaria. The game transcends class, and neighborhood matches are found in just about any available open space. 16
Parks and Recreation
Lima is not conducive to outdoor activities. While the suburb of Miraflores does host Parque Central, Lima generally has few parks or open spaces.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Lima The beaches off the coast are very popular and often crowded, but the coastline is heavily polluted by untreated sewage that flows untreated from the large megalopolis. Despite health warnings, many people still surf and play in the water. 17
Performing Arts
The symphony plays at the Lima’s municipal theater, which also hosts ballet, opera, and theater performances. The city also has many peñas, nightclubs that feature folk music. 18
Libraries and Museums
The library of the church and monastery of San Francisco is renowned for its collection of historical documents, including antique texts that date to the time of the Spanish conquest of Peru. The city has many museums. Among them is the Gold Museum of Peru, which has a large collection of preColumbian gold pieces. The Rafael Larco Herrera Museum has a large collection of pre-Columbian pottery, textiles, gold pieces, and many other items of historical importance. The National Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology traces the pre-history of the country through the arrival of the Spaniards. The city has several art and history museums. They include the National Museum of the Republic, the Museum of Peruvian Culture, and the Museum of the Inquisition.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
19
To u r i s m
While Peru's social problems have hampered tourism, thousands of people still come to this fascinating South American country. Lima is an important port of call. In 1998, 819,530 visitors from other nations came to Peru, and about 483,000 of them stopped in Lima. The average visitor to Peru stays 13.5 days, and spends about $1,100. In 1998, tourists spent more than $900 million. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY New Year’s Day
JULY Independence Day
OCTOBER Lord of the Earthquakes
21
Famous Citizens
Saint Martin de Porres (1579–1639), Peruvian Dominican friar, canonized in 1962 by Pope John XXIII. Saint Rose of Lima (1586–1617), Roman Catholic nun, canonized by Pope Clement X in 1671, the first nativeborn saint of the Americas. Javier Pérez de Cuellar (b. 1920), Peruvian diplomat and fifth secretary general of the United Nations (1982–1991), negotiated an end to the Iran-Iraq war (1980–88) and ran unsuccessfully for the presidency of Peru in 1995.
167
Lima Alberto Fujimori (b. 1938), of Japanese descent, became President of Peru in 1990. Francisco Pizarro (1476–1541), Spaniard who defeated the Incas and founded Lima. Meredith Monk (b. 1942), born in Lima, raised in Connecticut, she is known for her pioneering multimedia performance pieces. Isabel Allende (b. 1942), born in Lima, the daughter of a diplomat, she is one of the most successful female Latin American writers, renowned worldwide. 22
For Further Study
Websites University of Texas’ Latin American Network Information Center. [Online] Available http://www.lanic.utexas.edu (accessed February 1, 2000). Peru’s Chamber of Commerce. [Online] Available http://www.camaralima.org.pe (accessed February 1, 2000). Peru’s National Institute of Statistics and Information. [Online] Available http:// www.inet.gov.pe (accessed February 1, 2000).
Government Offices Peruvian Embassy 1700 Massachusetts Ave. NW. Washington D.C. 20008
168
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Camara Nacional del Turismo Santander 170, Lima 18, Peru [Online] Available http://www.si.com.pe/ CANATUR/index.html (accessed February 1, 2000).
Publications La Republica. [Online] Available http://www.larepublica.com.pe (accessed February 1, 2000). El Comercio. [Online] Available http:// www.elcomercioperu.com (accessed February 1, 2000). Gestion. [Online] Available http:// www.gestion.com.pe (accessed February 1, 2000).
Books Andrien, Kenneth J. Crisis and Decline: The Viceroyalty of Peru in the Seventeenth Century. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1985. Cameron, Ian. The Kingdom of the Sun God: A History of the Andes and Their People. New York: Facts on File, 1990. Dietz, Henry A. Poverty and Problem-Solving under Military Rule: The Urban Poor in Lima, Peru. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980. Lobo, Susan. A House of My Own: Social Organization in the Squatter Settlements of Lima, Peru. Tempe: University of Arizona Press, 1982. Starn, Orin, Robin Kirk, & Carlos I. Degregori (eds). The Peru Reader. Duke University Press, 1995. Stern, Steve J. Peru's Indian Peoples and the Challenge of Spanish Conquest. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1999. Wachtel, Nathan. The Vision of the Vanquished: The Spanish Conquest of Peru Through Indian Eyes. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1977.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
London London, England, United Kingdom, Europe Founded: 1st century A.D. Location: Southeastern England on the Thames River Motto: “God save the Queen.” Time Zone: Greenwich Mean Time (GMT); 1 late October) = noon GMT
PM
British Summer Time (late March-
Elevation: 5 m (16 ft) Latitude and Longitude: 40º45'N, 73º59'W Climate: Mild winters and temperate summers Annual Mean Temperature: 11ºC (52.0ºF); January 5.5ºC (42ºF); July 18ºC (65ºF) Seasonal Average Snowfall: 20 days of snow, no accumulation; Average Annual Precipitation (total of rainfall and melted snow): 101.6 cm (40 in) Government: Mayor-council Weights and Measures: Metric system Monetary Units: Decimal system based on the pound sterling, a paper currency of 100 pence Telephone Area Codes: 20, followed by 7 or 8 depending on location; (UK Code, 44) Postal Codes: Letter for general area (E = East; EC = East Central; N = North; NW = Northwest; SE = Southeast; SW = Southwest; W = West; WC = West Central); numbers for specific district
1
Introduction
London, the capital of Great Britain, is also one of the world’s capitals of finance, fashion, arts and entertainment. The city has a recorded history dating back to Roman times and encompassing the lives of such illustrious political figures as William the Conqueror, Thomas à Becket, and Queen Elizabeth I, as well as those of William Shakespeare, John Milton, and the other authors who created one of the world’s great bodies of literature. Formerly the heart of a vast empire, Lon-
don was also a center of the Industrial Revolution (c. 1750) and a showcase for both the material progress and the dire social ills it created. In the twentieth century, the city has rebuilt and renewed itself following the devastating bombing attacks of World War II (1939– 1945) and discovered a new identity as a post-imperial, multi-ethnic metropolis. It enters a new century (and the third millennium of its history) reinvigorated by a booming economy, as well as the inauguration of a new form of local government.
169
London
London Population Profile City Proper Population: 3,900 Area: 2.7 sq km (1 sq mi) Nicknames: The Square Mile, The City
Metropolitan Area Population: 7,640,000 Description: Consists of 33 boroughs Area: 1,579 sq km (610 sq mi) World population rank1: 25 Percentage of national population2: 13.1% Average yearly growth rate: 0% ——— 1. The London metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of England’s total population living in the London metropolitan area.
in France and Belgium. London’s train stations provide direct connections to the city’s buses and Underground. The Chunnel train runs between Paris and London’s Waterloo station. Airports Located 24 kilometers (15 miles) from the center of London, Heathrow Airport is one of the busiest in the world. Gatwick, which is about 40 kilometers (25 miles) south of the city, is less heavily used, but traffic there is growing steadily. Smaller airports are Stansted, used primarily for travel to and from the European continent, and London City Airport, which is popular with business travelers from elsewhere in Britain and from northern Europe. Shipping
2
Getting There
Located in southeastern England, London is approximately 80 kilometers (50 miles) upstream from the Thames River’s estuary on the North Sea. Highways Various highways lead into London from all directions, like the spokes of a wheel, intersecting with highway M25, which rings the Greater London area, and, farther in, with highways A205 and 406, which circle the central part of the city. Bus and Railroad Service Eurostar trains provide service between London and six destinations
170
Historically, London’s location on the Thames and its proximity to both the English Channel and the North Sea—as well as its position as the center of an international empire—made it one of the world’s great trading centers. Until World War II the Port of London was the busiest in the world. Since the late 1960s, however, London’s shipping traffic has declined dramatically due to competition, labor problems, and changes in the shipping industry itself. In 2000, the Port of London accounted for only eight percent of Britain’s total shipping traffic. London’s port is administered by the Port of London Authority (PLA), which handles environmental and navigation issues for the part of the Thames
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
London
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
171
London that falls Through its dles a full shipped to world. 3
under its jurisdiction. 86 terminals, the port hanrange of cargo, which is destinations all over the
Getting Around
London can be divided into three concentric districts that reflect the city’s growth over time. At the core is the historic City of London, which covers only 2.6 square kilometers (one square mile). It forms part of a larger surrounding area known as Inner London, which was developed between the late eighteenth and early twentieth centuries. Inner London is surrounded by the remaining outer boroughs, consisting of residential suburbs built in the first half of the twentieth century, which complete the greater metropolitan area. The major means of orientation in Inner London is the Thames River, which divides the city into north and south. (Most important points in the city are on the northern bank.) Another major point of reference is the contrast between east and west: the wealthier and more prestigious parts of the city lie toward the west while the East End is a working-class manufacturing and shipping district. Bus and Commuter Rail Service Bus and rail services are operated by London Transport throughout the Greater London area. A fleet of about 5,400 buses covers 700 routes which encompass 140 bus stations and stands and some 10,000 bus shelters. The city’s
172
underground trains (known simply as the Underground or “the Tube”) service over 260 stations; 500 trains make over 2.5 million passenger journeys daily. The £3.2 billion Jubilee Line Extension, opened in November 1999, runs between Green Park and Waterloo. It is the single largest expansion of the underground system in 25 years. Sightseeing A number of bus tours are available, including the hour-and-a-half Original London Sightseeing Tour aboard an old-fashioned double-decker bus. Harrods department store operates its own double-decker bus tours, and Big Bus Company, Ltd. runs two-hour tours in the summertime, covering 18 popular tourist attractions. Companies offering walking tours include the Original London Walks, Discovery Walks, Guided Walks in London, and John Wittich. The Port of London, an increasingly popular cruise ship destination, has four cruise ship moorings, at Tower Bridge, Greenwich, West India Dock, and Tilbury. Tours are also offered on London’s canals. 4
People
In 1992, the population of the City of London, the central downtown part of the city, was estimated at 3,900. The surrounding area of Inner London, consisting of the City of London and 13 boroughs of Greater London, had an estimated population of 2,632,100. Altogether, the population of the 33
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
London
City Fact Comparison London (England)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
7,640,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1st century AD
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$219
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$79
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$20
$14
$15
$16
$318
$173
$246
$207
Total daily costs Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
21
13
20
11
News of the World
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
4,316,825
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1843
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
boroughs of the Greater London metropolitan area was estimated at 6,904,600. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, London’s immigrant communities were mostly small and self-contained, giving it a less cosmopolitan flavor than other comparable cities. Nineteenth-century immigrant groups included Italians, French, Chinese, Germans, Scandinavians, Irish, and, in the last decades of the century, Polish and Russian Jews. (More Jewish immigrants from both Eastern and Western Europe followed in the years before and after World War II.)
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Since the influx of immigrants from Britain’s former colonies that began in the 1950s, London’s population has steadily grown even more diverse. The new immigrants include West Indians, East Indians, Bangladeshis, and people from a variety of African nations. When the 1991 census was taken, one child of every three born in London was born to an immigrant mother. In 2000, nearly one-quarter of the city’s population was born overseas. However, much of the ethnic diversity of Greater London is concentrated in its western boroughs while those to the east are home primarily to British-born whites.
173
London
A view of London from the London Bridge. (Jonathan Blair; Woodfin Camp)
5
Neighborhoods
Because London developed in a random fashion rather than according to a plan, it is actually a cluster of distinct neighborhoods rather than a unified metropolis. Outside the older, original part of the city, London’s various neighborhoods retain some features of the individual villages they once were before they were incorporated into the expanding capital. Each has its own character, with its own distinct combination of residents, building styles, and local businesses, and each inspires a strong feeling of attachment among its
174
residents. However, there also tends to be diversity within these neighborhoods, thanks to London’s multi-ethnic population and the presence of public rental housing in most parts of the city, assuring some diversity in income level in most areas. London’s oldest district is “the City,” the part that corresponds to the original walled city (Londinium) built by the Romans in the first century A.D. and still occupies its original area of roughly 2.6 square kilometers (one square mile). Today it is home to London’s major financial institutions,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
London including the Bank of England and the London Stock Exchange, and is full of hustle and bustle during weekdays. However, only a fraction of the City’s busy work force actually lives there, so it is all but deserted on weekends. Located along the Thames in the western part of London, and to the east of St. James’s Park, Westminster is the political heart of London, home of the British parliament and the prime minister’s residence at Number 10 Downing Street. It is also the location of one of the world’s great religious structures, Westminster Abbey. Westminster has more historic buildings and fewer commercial sites than any other part of London and also encompasses the area known as Victoria, which gets its name from the Victoria Station stop on the Underground. Located in the fashionable West End, St. James’ and Mayfair are the wealthiest and most aristocratic parts of central London. The elite Mayfair district is the site of fashionable homes, luxury hotels, and exclusive shops while St. James’ is the home of Buckingham Palace and the last bastion of that traditional hallmark of British privilege, the all-male gentleman’s club. To the north is Marylebone, home of the famous Madame Toussaud’s waxworks. To the west, south of Hyde Park, is Knightsbridge, where the popular Harrod’s department store is located; it is one of London’s most fashionable residential and shopping districts. Further south lie aristocratic Belgravia and stylish Chelsea.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
To the north, the cosmopolitan neighborhood of Soho has been rescued from its one-time decline into a redlight district, although the famed Carnaby Street has never recaptured the glory of the 1960s when it was the heart of swinging London. With its great cultural diversity, this district boasts a large number and variety of ethnic eateries. Bloomsbury, a great literary and artistic center in the early twentieth century, is still the academic heart of London, as the location of the University of London and other colleges. Holborn, home to the Royal Courts of Justice, was historically—and still is—the city’s primary legal center. East of the City of London lie the neighborhoods of the East End, including Bow, Poplar, West Ham, Stepney, Canning Town, and others. This has traditionally been the poorest part of the city. Heavily bombed during World War II, the East End has undergone large-scale urban renewal, but the large immigrant populations attracted to the area’s low rents over the generations have left it a multicultural melting pot. 6
History
The Romans, who invaded Britain in A.D. 43, first founded London (which they called Londinium) at the site of the present-day City of London (the oldest, walled part or the “square mile”) on the northern bank of the Thames River. Although burned down in a rebellion a scant 17 years later, the city was soon rebuilt and had become a flourishing trading center by A.D. 100.
175
London
Hyde Park is surrounded by London’s fashionable, stylish, and aristocratic neighborhoods. (Adam Woolfitt; Woodfin Camp)
By the middle of the third century, Londinium was the largest city in Britain, with a population of as many as 50,000 inhabitants, and its boundaries corresponded to those of today’s historic central core. In the fifth century, the Romans, under siege by Germanic invaders, vacated Londinium, and the city entered a long period of decay and neglect. Following a Danish invasion in 878, King Alfred of Wessex (849–899) retook and began rebuilding the city, which expanded northward and became known as Londontown. South-
176
wark, on the south bank of the Thames, also grew and prospered, and Westminster, upstream from London and at that time an island surrounded by marshland, underwent development when King Edward the Confessor (c. 1003– 1066) built a royal palace there following his accession in 1042. This was the beginning of Westminster’s history as home to royalty and center of government. It was in Westminster Abbey that William, Duke of Normandy (1027– 1087), was crowned king of England following the Norman Conquest in 1066. To win the cooperation of London’s political leaders and wealthy mer-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
London chants, he granted the city special powers through a charter. By the end of the twelfth century, London had a population of around 40,000 and had elected its first mayor. In the fourteenth century, disaster struck, in the form of the Black Death, which spread to London via ships traveling from Europe and ultimately killed about one-third of England’s population. Over the next three centuries, London was to undergo several recurrences of the epidemic. The inception of the Tudor dynasty in 1485 brought the city further growth and prosperity, peaking with the reign of Elizabeth I in the sixteenth century, by which time London was the center of a global empire and one of the foremost cities of Europe. In the meantime, the population outside the city walls had grown dramatically, reaching 200,000 by the year 1600. Decrees were issued to slow further growth, limiting London to a “Green Belt” surrounding the outer city. The restrictions caused overcrowding in the central city, contributing to a new outbreak of plague in 1665. The following year, roughly twothirds of the city (by now the world’s largest) was burned down in the Great Fire. A massive rebuilding effort restored the city, with brick and stone replacing its original wooden buildings. A new grid-based plan for the city by architect Sir Christopher Wren was not adopted, however, and London’s layout essentially retained its original patterns. London grew rapidly in the eighteenth
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
century, with a steadily expanding population and new streets and neighborhoods. Its first squares, including Covent Garden and Leicester Square, added new elegance to the fashionable parts of town. However, many in the oldest districts lived in dire poverty, and crime and rioting were commonplace. In the nineteenth century, the Industrial Revolution caused further deterioration in living conditions for many Londoners, polluting their air and worsening the already existing pollution of the Thames. Yet, London remained the largest and wealthiest city in the world and the center of a vast empire, and the Great Exhibition of 1851, held in the Crystal Palace constructed in Hyde Park, celebrated the city’s achievements. The two world wars of the twentieth century brought air raids to London; those of World War II left the city decimated and necessitated large-scale rebuilding. A major postwar development was the exodus of many Londoners to the suburbs. The drive to attract immigrant labor from Britain’s former Third World colonies turned London into a multi-ethnic city but also led to racial tensions. Recent decades brought the “Swinging 60s,” when London became the world’s capital of popular culture; the economic crises of the 1970s; and the Thatcher Era of the 1980s, when the Greater London Council (GLC) was abolished, leaving the city with no metropolitan government. As the twentieth century drew to a close, London was on
177
London the eve of a new era in local government as its citizens prepared to elect a mayor and council. 7
Government
2000, mayoral elections scheduled for 1999 drew a colorful roster of contenders, including actress Glenda Jackson and novelist and political conservative Jeffrey Archer.
Public Safety
The City of London has had its own local government—one of the world’s oldest—since the Middle Ages. Even though it is now part of a much larger urban entity, the city has remained an autonomous jurisdiction with a Lord Mayor, a City Corporation, and, among other powers, jurisdiction over its own police force. The surrounding area of Greater London has been politically fragmented for most of its history. In 1965 more than 100 local councils were merged into 33 boroughs (one of which was the City of London), and the Greater London Council (GLC) was established to serve as the elected government of the greater metropolitan area. In 1986 the conservative national government led by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher (b. 1925) abolished the left-leaning (and, by many accounts, ineffective) GLC, leaving the individual borough councils as virtually the sole governing authority for Greater London.
London’s Metropolitan Police District, first established in 1829, is responsible for an area of 2,035 square kilometers (786 square miles), which includes the entire metropolitan area and some of its environs. The City of London, however, has always retained its own police force in addition to the Metropolitan Police, and the two law enforcement organizations operate in tandem in the “square mile” at the center of London. Separate forces are also maintained by the Royal Parks Constabulary and the British Transport Police. Violent crime remains relatively rare in London, which is safer than many major cities in Europe and the United States. Although the regular police forces still do not carry guns, special “armed response units” now patrol the streets around the clock.
In a May 1998 referendum sponsored by the British labor government elected in 1997, London’s citizens voted for a restoration of government at the metropolitan level with the establishment of a mayor-council government to consist of a strong mayor directly elected by the voters and a 25-member assembly. With the new government slated to take office in the autumn of
London was historically a shipping and manufacturing city. However, both of these sectors have declined sharply since the 1960s. Over a million manufacturing jobs were lost between 1960 and 1990 as traditional craft-based manufacturing waned and newer growth industries relocated to areas outside both London and other major cities, aided by government incentives
178
8
9
Economy
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
London
A clock tower—popularly known as “Big Ben”—dominates the British parliament building on the banks of the Thames River in Westminster. (Karen Kasmauski; Woodfin Camp)
to attract industry to high-unemployment regions. Manufacturing has been eclipsed by financial services, in which London has become both a national and a world leader. In 1990, business and financial services accounted for one in six jobs. London laid claim to one-third of all British employment in this sector—reportedly the world’s largest concentration of such jobs in one metropolitan center. International banking, commodities, securities trading, and reinsurance services have crowded into modern office towers in the historic “square mile” of the City of London, providing new opportunities
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
for commercial development, subject to the space limitations of the district. By the end of the 1990s, the recession of the early part of the decade was over; tourism was booming; and major public works projects were under way, spurred by the approach of a new millennium. 10
Environment
The industrial revolution brought both air and water pollution to London as early as the nineteenth century. The term “smog” was coined at the turn of the twentieth century to describe the mix of smoke from coal fires with Lon-
179
London don’s characteristic fog. The heavily industrialized East End suffered the worst pollution of all. In the mid-twentieth century, the British government began to take action, passing the Clean Air Acts of 1956 and 1968, which outlawed coal burning. However, London’s air is still polluted by carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, benzines, and other chemicals, and motor vehicle fumes remain a problem, endangering the health of London’s residents and even causing deterioration of the city’s buildings. Heavy smog was responsible for the deaths of over 160 people in 1992. Industrialization and unregulated sewage disposal also compromised the condition of London’s lifeline, the Thames River, which was so polluted by the mid-nineteenth century that its smell wafted through the halls of Parliament. Tighter pollution controls since the 1960s have improved the water quality of the river, and there has been an upsurge in the river’s stock of fish and other forms of aquatic life. Another danger associated with the Thames is the likelihood of flooding, which posed serious threats to the population in 1928 and 1953. Authorized in the 1970s, the Thames Barrier, consisting of ten steel gates, was completed in 1982 at a cost of £500 million. 11
Shopping
Shopping is one of the favorite activities in London for residents and visitors alike. Besides Harrod’s, wellknown department stores in London
180
include Marks & Spencer, Selfridges, and Liberty. The West End is home to the greatest number of high-profile shops and department stores, many found in such key venues as Oxford Street and Bond Street. Another popular shopping spot there is the glass-roofed Burlington Arcade, which features a wide selection of shops and boutiques. Soho and Covent Garden both provide ample shopping opportunities, as does Knightsbridge, home of the famous Harrod’s department store. Kensington High Street is popular with devotees of youth culture while Kensington Church Street is known for its selection of antique shops. London’s open markets are legendary. The most famous is Covent Garden Market has crafts, antiques, and other specialty shops. The suburb of Greenwich is known for its flea and craft markets, which brim with customers every Sunday. Portobello Market in Notting Hill is another well-known venue for antiques. Charing Cross Road (made famous by 84 Charing Cross Road, a well-known book by Helene Hanff) is the city’s major booksellers’ district and includes a number of antiquarian book dealers. Other areas where London presents special shopping opportunities include designer clothing, china, and glass collectibles.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
London 12
Education
The 33 boroughs of Greater London are responsible for operating their own school systems, which are attended by nine out of ten children in London. The rest are enrolled in private schools. Among the most prestigious (with dates of founding) are St. Paul’s School (1509), Harrow School (1572), Dulwich College (1618), and the City of London School (1834). London’s 12 universities enroll more than 110,000 full-time and 50,000 part-time students. The University of London consists of some three dozen separate institutions located throughout the metropolitan area, including Goldsmiths’ College, Imperial College, King’s College, and the famous London School of Economics. Among London’s other universities are City University, Guildhall University, South Bank University, University of East London, and University of Westminster. 13
Health Care
In London, as elsewhere in Britain, both British residents and nationals of other EU countries receive free medical treatment under the National Health Service (NHS). Other visitors are covered for emergency care only. London’s oldest hospital, St. Bartholomew’s, was founded in 1123; other historic hospitals are St. Thomas’s (1213), Guy’s (1725), St. George’s (1733), and the London Hospital (1740). Among the city’s other health-care facilities are Chelsea and Westminster Hospital,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Middlesex Hospital, Royal Free Hospital, St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, St. Mary’s Hospital, University College Hospital, Great Ormond Street Children’s Hospital, and Moorfields Eye Hospital. 14
Media
The newspapers available in London are mostly national publications. At the upper end of the respectability spectrum are the daily “broadsheets” (with circulation figures from 1998): the Daily Telegraph (1,047,861), the Times of London (766,999), the Independent (223,110), and the Guardian (393,856). All have Sunday editions except the Guardian, whose publishers put out the Observer on Sundays. The “middle-brow” publications are the Daily Mail, the market leader (2,387,867), and the Daily Express (1,118,981). At the bottom rung are the infamous tabloids, which cater to the universal taste for celebrity gossip, photographs by the paparazzi, and sensationalism of all kinds. Britain’s leading tabloid is The Sun, which sells some seven million copies daily. Its major competitors are the Daily Star and the Mirror. London’s only local daily paper is the Evening Standard, which resembles a local counterpart, the Daily Mail. More than 6,500 professional and popular magazines are available in London, one of the world’s publishing capitals. Women’s magazines are the biggest sellers. Fashion magazines, men’s magazines, and sports magazines are popular as well. International politics and busi-
181
London ness are covered by The Economist. Other serious publications include The Spectator, the New Statesman, and Prospect. BBC-operated BBC1 and BBC2 provide London’s most-watched television programming. BBC2 is the more creative and offbeat of the two. Independent channels include ITV, Channel 4, and Channel 5. A wide gamut of FM stations broadcasts radio programming of all kinds. 15
Sports
In London, as elsewhere throughout Britain, soccer (called football) tops the list of popular sports for both spectators and participants. Amateur games can be found in parks and other green spaces throughout the city. The game is played professionally from August until May. The sport is organized within individual boroughs rather than citywide, giving London 13 teams, each of which is closely associated with a particular locality rather than the city itself. It is common for crowds of up to 15,000 to attend regular-season games, rising to between 30,000 and 40,000 for playoffs. In summertime, cricket is popular. There are almost 1,000 clubs, and amateur games abound. Spring brings the annual boat race between the rival universities of Oxford and Cambridge. London draws the international attention of the sports world every June when the Wimbledon matches are held, and horse racing remains a popular spectator sport although Londoners must travel to such venues as Epsom
182
Downs and Ascot as the city’s last racecourse closed in 1970. Other spectator sports include greyhound racing, hockey, and auto racing. Both forms of rugby—rugby league and rugby union—are played in London, whose rugby league team is the London Broncos. The American games of basketball and baseball are growing in popularity. 16
Parks and Recreation
London is famed for the network of parks, squares, and commons found throughout the city. Two of the best known are Grosvenors Square and Trafalgar Square, the latter a major landmark and popular venue for street performers. London’s most famous city parks, all located in the West End, are St. James’s Park (the oldest one); Buckingham Palace Gardens, adjacent to the royal residence; Green Park; Hyde Park, the largest at 248 hectares (615 acres), and famed for its “soapbox” for public speakers; Kensington Gardens; and Regent’s Park, site of the Zoological Gardens and Regent’s Canal. Other green spaces include Chelsea Physic Garden, where medicinal herbs and other plants have been grown since the seventeenth century; Kew Gardens, famous for its trees and hothouses; the Hill Gardens; Kenwood; and Battersea Park on the south bank of the Thames. 17
Performing Arts
London, where the plays of William Shakespeare were written and staged, is still the undisputed theater
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
London
Double-decker buses line Trafalgar Square, a major landmark and popular location for street performers. (Mike Yamashita; Woodfin Camp)
capital of the world. It is home to both venerable traditional companies and cutting-edge experimental troupes. The major established theaters are the Barbican Theatre, home of the Royal Shakespeare Company; the Royal Court Theatre, which produced the plays of London’s “angry young men” in the 1950s; the Royal National Theatre, which stages productions in three theaters; the historic Drury Lane Theater, which has stood since 1812; and, since 1997, the Globe Theatre, a replica of the Elizabethan theatre where William Shakespeare’s plays were performed
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
that stands at the exact site of the original. “Fringe” theater groups present first-rate productions of alternative theater, revivals, musicals, and other contemporary works at the ICA Theatre, the Almeida Theatre (also the site of an annual festival of contemporary music), the Young Vic, and the King’s Head. London is also one of the world’s foremost centers for classical music, supporting no fewer than five major symphony orchestras: the London Symphony, the Royal Philharmonic, the Philharmonic Orchestra, the BBC Sym-
183
London phony, and the BBC Philharmonic. In addition, the city is home to distinguished choral groups, early music ensembles, and chamber groups. These include the English Chamber Orchestra, the London Sinfonietta, and the Academy of St. Martin in the Fields. One of the world’s most famous concert halls is located in Royal Albert Hall, which hosts concerts by a variety of famous figures in the worlds of both classical and popular music, as well as a century-old London musical tradition known as “the Proms,” a series of orchestra concerts presented every summer. Two of London’s most famous theaters have undergone major improvements in the 1990s. The Sadler’s Wells Theatre, a hundred-year-old-building that is home to opera and dance concerts, was demolished (except for its original facade) and reopened as a redesigned modern facility in 1998. During the same period, the world-famous Royal Opera House in Covent Garden closed for 30 months for a $360 million renovation, reopening in late 1999 with a new foyer, as well as new backstage facilities, new rehearsal rooms, and a studio theater. Royal Opera and Royal Ballet both perform at the facility, whose new rehearsal studios will now make it the permanent home of the Ballet, which formerly rehearsed in other quarters.
184
Derrick Coyle, raven master. (Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp)
18
Libraries and Museums
London’s premier library is the British Library, whose collection encompasses some 12 million items, including books, manuscripts, and other materials. Formerly housed in the British Museum, it moved to a newly designed building in St. Pancras in 1996. Among the treasured artifacts contained in the library are two copies of the 1215 Magna Carta, a Gutenberg Bible, an early-fifteenth-century copy of The Canterbury Tales, and letters, journals, and early editions of famous British literary figures including William Shakespeare.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
London With over six million visitors a year, the British Museum is London’s most popular tourist attraction. From ancient Egyptian statues to the Elgin Marbles to an extensive collection of Japanese prints, the breadth of the museum’s collection, begun in 1753, is virtually unrivaled. Its present building was designed in 1847. London’s other major museums include the National Gallery, containing Western art from the Middle Ages to the present; the Tate Gallery, specializing in British art; and the Victoria and Albert Museum, devoted to the decorative arts. The Saatchi Gallery is known for its outstanding collection of contemporary (and sometimes controversial) art. The Museum of London traces the city’s history; William Hogarth’s satirical series The Rake’s Progress is housed in Sir John Sloane’s Museum; and the National Portrait Gallery features portraits of famous people in British history. Among London’s multitude of other museums are the Design Museum, which focuses on modern design; the Imperial War Museum; the Institute of Contemporary Arts; the Jewish Museum; the London Transport Museum; the popular Museum of the Moving Image, which chronicles the history of movies and television; the Natural History Museum; the Royal Academy of Arts; the Science Museum; and the Theatre Museum.
world’s great tourist centers. Over ten million people visit the city annually. Collectively, visitors to London spend over 100 million nights annually in the city’s hotels, and more than 200,000 people are directly employed by the tourist industry while tourism indirectly creates employment for many more. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY London Parade London International Boat Show London Contemporary Art Fair Charles I Commemoration
FEBRUARY Chinese New Year Great Spitalfields Pancake Race
MARCH St. David’s Day Chelsea Antiques Fair
APRIL Easter Parade Harness Horse Parade Boat Race, Putney to Mortlake London Marathon The Queen’s Birthday
APRIL-OCTOBER National Gardens Scheme
MAY Shakespeare Under the Stars May Fayre and Puppet Festival FA Cup Final Royal Windsor Horse Show Chelsea Flower Show
MAY-AUGUST Glyndebourne Festival Opera Season
19
To u r i s m
London’s historic and cultural attractions have made it one of the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
JUNE Vodafone Derby Stakes Grosvenor House Art and Antique Fair Royal Academy’s Summer Exhibition Royal Ascot Week
185
London Trooping the Colour Lawn Tennis Championships (Wimbledon)
William Shakespeare (1564–1616), playwright and poet.
JULY
Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658), soldier and statesman, lord protector of England.
City of London Festival Hampton Court Palace Flower Show Royal Tournament
JULY-SEPTEMBER Kenwood Lakeside Concerts Henry Wood Promenade Concerts at Royal Albert Hall (“the Proms”)
AUGUST Notting Hill Carnival
SEPTEMBER Chelsea Antiques Fair Horse of the Year Show
OCTOBER Opening of Parliament
NOVEMBER Guy Fawkes Night Lord Mayor’s Procession and Show
DECEMBER Caroling Under the Norwegian Christmas Tree Watch Night
21
Famous Citizens
Thomas à Becket (1118–1170), saint and martyr, archbishop of Canterbury. Poet Geoffrey Chaucer (1343–1400), author of The Canterbury Tales.
Poet John Milton (1608–1674), author of Paradise Lost. John Dryden (1631–1700), poet and literary critic. Samuel Pepys (1633–1703), diarist. Henry Purcell (1659–1695), composer. Sir Christopher Wren (1632–1723), architect. Alexander Pope (1688–1744), poet and satirist. William Hogarth (1697–1764), painter and engraver. Samuel Johnson (1709–84), essayist, critic, and lexicographer. Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723–92), portrait painter. James Boswell (1740–95), diarist and biographer of Johnson. William Blake (1757–1827), poet.
Thomas More (1477–1535), statesman and author of Utopia.
Joseph Turner (1775–1851), painter, master of landscape art and watercolour.
King Henry VIII (1491–1547), Tudor king and founder of the Church of England.
William Makepeace Thackeray (1811– 1863), novelist.
Queen Elizabeth I (1533–1603). Francis Bacon (1561–1626), writer and philosopher.
186
Charles Dickens (1812–1870), novelist. Poets Robert Browning (1812–1889) and Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806–1861).
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
London Queen Victoria (1819–1901). William Gilbert (1836–1911), librettist. Arthur Sullivan (1842–1900), composer. Winston Churchill (1874–1965), prime minister during World War II. Virginia Woolf (1882–1941), novelist. T. S. Eliot (b. United States, 1888–1965), American-born British poet, critic, and dramatist. Charlie Chaplin (1889–1977), screen actor. Alfred Hitchcock (1889–1980), movie director. Margaret Thatcher (b. 1925), prime minister. Queen Elizabeth II (b. 1926), ascended to the throne in 1952. 22
For Further Study
Websites Digital City: London. [Online] Available http:// london.digitalcity.com (accessed December 20, 1999). London official internet site. [Online] Available http://www.LondonTown.com (accessed December 20, 1999). This is London. [Online] Available http:// www.thisislondon.com (accessed December 20, 1999). Time Out London. [Online] Available http:// www.timeout.com/london (accessed December 20, 1999). UK for Visitors. [Online] Available http:// gouk.miningco.com (accessed December 20, 1999).
Government Offices Prime Minister’s Office 10 Downing St. London SW1A 2AA
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Home Office 50 Queen Anne’s Gate London SW1H 9AT Lord Chancellor’s Department House of Lords London SW1A 0PW
Tourist and Convention Bureaus British Tourist Authority Thames Tower Black’s Rd. London W6 9EL United Kingdom British Visitor Centre 1 Regent St. Piccadilly Circus London SW1Y 4PQ
Publications The Daily Telegraph 1 Canada Sq., Canary Wharf London, E14 5DT The Guardian 119 Farrington Rd. London, EC1R 3ER The Sun Virginia St. London E1 9XJ The Times Virginia St. London, E1 9XT
Books Bradley, Simon and Nikolaus Pevsner. London: The City Churches. London: Penguin Books, 1998. Butler, Brian. London for Free: Hundreds of Free Things to Do in London. 3rd rev. ed. Memphis, TN: Mustang Publishing, 1997. Clout, Hugh, ed. The Times London History Atlas. New York: HarperCollins, 1991. Collin, Francesca. The Arts & Entertainment in London. New York: Sterling Publishing, 1997. Davies, Andrew. Literary London. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988. Duncan, Andrew. Walking London: Thirty Original Walks in and around London. Lincolnwood, IL: Passport Books, 1994. Edel, Leon. Bloomsbury: A House of Lions. 1st ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1979.
187
London Hall, Peter. London 2001. Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989. Hendershott, Barbara Sloan, and Alzina Stone Dale. Mystery Reader's Walking Guide, London. 2nd ed. Lincolnwood, IL: Passport Books, 1996. Howes, Karen. Living in London. Photographs by Simon Upton. London: Thames & Hudson, 1999. Kureishi, Hanif. London Kills Me: Three Screenplays and Four Essays. New York: Penguin Books, 1992.
188
Lain, Larry, and Michael Lain. London for Families. New York: Interlink Books, 1997. Parnell, Geoffrey. Book of the Tower of London. London: B.T. Batsford, 1993. Porter, Roy. London: A Social History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994. Weinreb, Ben, and Christopher Hibbert. London Encyclopaedia. Rev. ed. London: MacMillan, 1993. Young, Ken, and Patricia L. Garside. Metropolitan London, Politics and Urban Change, 1837– 1981. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1982.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Los Angeles Los Angeles, California, United States of America, North America Founded: 1781; Incorporated: 1850 Location: Pacific Coast of southern California, United States, North America Time Zone: 4 AM Pacific Standard Time (PST) = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Flag: Adopted in 1931, flag features the city seal centered on three panels (left to right): green symbolizing olive trees, yellow symbolizing orange groves, and red symbolizing grape vineyards. Ethnic Composition: White, 75.7%; Black, 14%; Asian/Pacific Islander, 9.8% (1990) Elevation: Sea level to 1,548 m (5,080 ft) above sea level Latitude and Longitude: 34º05'N, 118º24'W Climate: Mild temperatures year round, many sunny afternoons Annual Mean Temperature: 18.7ºC (65.3ºF); January 12.6ºC (54.5ºF); July 20.3ºC (68.5ºF) Average Annual Precipitation (rainfall): 37.6 cm (14.8 in) Government: Mayor-council Weights and Measures: Standard U.S. Monetary Units: Standard U.S. Telephone Area Codes: 213 (downtown), 323, 310, 562, 626 Postal Codes: 90001–68; 90070–99; 90101
1
Introduction
Located on Southern California’s Pacific coast, Los Angeles has long been known as a city of dreams, a place for the dispossessed or disillusioned to start over and rebuild their lives. In the course of the twentieth century it grew to be the second-largest city in the United States and the hub of a fivecounty metropolitan area. A tourist magnet known for its sunny climate, beautiful beaches, and entertainment industry, Los Angeles in recent decades has experienced the downside of urban expansion, with its well-publicized air pollution, traffic congestion, and racial and ethnic tensions. Yet the city remains a colorful, thriving metropolis
working to overcome the problems of suburban sprawl as it heads into a new century. 2
Getting There
Los Angeles is located in southern California, on the Pacific Coast, with the Santa Monica Mountains to the north and the San Gabriel Mountains to the east. Highways Los Angeles is known for its crowded, labyrinthine freeway system, which offers access to the city through multiple north-south and east-west routes. The major north-south high-
189
Los Angeles Bus and Railroad Service
Los Angeles Population Profile City Proper Population: 3,449,000 Area: 1,215 sq km (469.3 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 75.7% white; 14% black; 9.8% Asian/Pacific Islander Nicknames: Tinseltown (Hollywood)
Metropolitan Area Population: 13,129,000 Description: Los Angeles-Long Beach PMSA Area: 10,515 sq km (4,060 sq mi) World population rank1: 8 Percentage of national population2: 4.7% Average yearly growth rate: 1.1% Ethnic composition: 75.2% white; 11.2% black; and 12.9% Asian/Pacific Islander ——— 1. The Los Angeles metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of the United States’ total population living in the Los Angeles metropolitan area.
ways are I-5 (the Golden State and Santa Ana freeways), I-15 (which extends from the Canadian border to San Diego), US Highway 101 (the Ventura and Hollywood freeways), extending south along the Pacific coast from Washington State, and State Highway 1 (the Pacific Coast Highway), stretching along the coast from San Diego to San Francisco and beyond. East-west freeways include I-8, which runs between California and Arizona, I-10 (the San Bernardino and Santa Monica freeways), which traverses the country between Santa Monica and Jacksonville, Florida, and I-40, stretching from California to Tennessee.
190
Amtrak provides service from Union Station in downtown Los Angeles. The Sunset Limited travels crosscountry between Los Angeles and New Orleans; the Coast Starlight, as its name suggests, follows a coastal route from southern California to Seattle; the San Diegan runs from Los Angeles to San Diego. Airports Los Angeles International Airport, known locally as LAX, is located on the west side of the city. With flights to over 60 major cities, it is the world’s third-busiest airport when it comes to passenger service. Shipping Due in large part to trade with the countries of the Pacific Rim, the Los Angeles/Long Beach Port System is the country’s top-ranked shipping port in terms of both volume and value of goods handled. The Los Angeles International Airport (LAX) is a top shipping facility for air cargo. As the point of termination for several major rail lines, Los Angeles is also a busy rail freight center, and the city is also served by all major interstate trucking companies. 3
Getting Around
What most people refer to when they say “Los Angeles” is more a sprawling collection of suburbs than a single city laid out according to an orderly plan. Nevertheless, Los Angeles does have a downtown, an area largely
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Los Angeles
bounded by the Harbor Freeway, the Santa Monica Freeway, and Alameda street, with numbered streets running northwest to southeast, with several
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
avenues running in the perpendicular direction. Located in this district are the Los Angeles City Hall, the Convention Center, the Los Angeles County Court,
191
Los Angeles
City Fact Comparison Los Angeles (United States)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
13,129,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1781
753 BC
723 BC
$172
$129
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$99
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$44
$56
$59
$62
$2
$14
$15
$16
$145
$173
$246
$207
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.) Total daily costs
$193
Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper
5
13
20
11
Los Angeles Times
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
1,067,540
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1881
1944
1976
1948
Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established 1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
the Civic Centre, and the Museum of Contemporary Art.
including a subway system that was launched in 1993.
Bus and Commuter Rail Service
Sightseeing
Due to the sprawling layout of Greater Los Angeles, the city is widely known for its extensive freeway system and dependence on automobiles, rather than for its use of public transportation. However, the California Metropolitan Transit Agency (called the MTA) does run local and express buses, including a shuttle service from downtown called the Downtown Area Short Hop (DASH). L.A.’s MetroRail, largely used by commuters from the more distant suburbs, operates three color-coded rail lines,
Several companies offer bus tours of Los Angeles that include attractions such as the city’s film studios, Sunset Strip, Hollywood, and homes of movie stars; a helicopter tour is also available. Special “theme” tours include a 3 A.M. insomniac’s tour that takes in the Los Angeles Times building and the produce markets and Grave Line Tours, which takes visitors to sites associated with the deaths (by foul play and otherwise) of famous Hollywood stars. There are also separate tours of individual attractions,
192
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Los Angeles including movie and television studios and the Los Angeles Times. 4
People
Los Angeles is the second most populous city in the United States, surpassed only by New York. In 1990, the population of Chicago was 3,486,000, with the following racial composition: 75.7 percent white, 14 percent black, 9.8 percent Asian/Pacific Islander, 0.5 percent American Indian. Hispanics (an ethnic rather than a racial designation) accounted for 39.9 percent of the population. The 1994 population estimate for Chicago was 3,449,000. The population of the Los Angeles Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area was estimated at 9,145,219 as of 1997. The region’s racial composition was listed by the U.S. Census Bureau in 1996 as 75.2 percent white; 12.9 percent Asian/Pacific Islander; and 11.2 percent black (1996). Hispanics accounted for 43 percent of the metropolitan area population. 5
Neighborhoods
Downtown Los Angeles—home to the city’s Chinatown, Koreatown, and Little Tokyo, as well as its barrios (Hispanic neighborhoods), and the predominantly black South-Central neighborhood—is known for its ethnically diverse population. Also located in the downtown area are the El Pueblo de Los Angeles Historic District and a modern commercial and civic center complete with modern high-rise buildings. Hollywood, famed as the capital of the movie industry, has declined from
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
its peak glamour days, especially around the fabled Hollywood and Sunset boulevards, but it is still the site of such show business shrines as the Walk of Fame, the trendy Melrose Avenue shopping district, and the Mid-Wilshire neighborhood of residential and commercial buildings. The area known as the Westside, located between Hollywood and the coast, is a more upscale area and home to such glamorous neighborhoods as Beverly Hills, Bel Air, and Brentwood. It is also the site of the famous Rodeo Drive shopping area. One of the most attractive and popular parts of greater Los Angeles is the coastal area, which stretches from Malibu in the north to the Palos Verdes Peninsula and encompasses over 97 kilometers (60 miles) of beachfront property. Besides Malibu, well-known communities here include Santa Monica, known for its Bohemian atmosphere; Venice, whose famous Ocean Front Walk is the place where skaters and others come to see and be seen; Marina del Rey, known for its excellent small-craft harbor; and Redondo Beach. Also located near the coast is the Los Angeles International Airport. The remaining region is the San Fernando Valley (“the Valley”), home of the infamous “Valley Girl” image and slang popularized in the 1980s. Universal Studios is located here, in Universal City, and Burbank is nearby. 6
History
The area of present-day Los Angeles was first explored and settled by the
193
Los Angeles
Los Angeles is the second-largest city in the United States. (Michelle & Tom Grimm; Los Angeles Convention & Visitors Bureau)
Spanish in the eighteenth century. The city, originally called El Pueblo de Nuestra Senora la Reina de los Angeles (“the pueblo of our lady the queen of angels”), was founded in 1781. Over the next century, Los Angeles was successively under Spanish, Mexican, and American rule. Spanish rule ended in 1821 when Mexico achieved independence, and the young town, then a provincial outpost, came under its jurisdiction. Growing trade with the United States, as well as such marine enterprises as seal hunting and whaling, made Los Angeles California’s largest town by the 1840s.
194
In the wake of the Mexican-American War of 1846, Los Angeles, along with the rest of California, became U.S. territory, and California was admitted to the United States as the thirty-first state in 1850. The most significant milestone in the development of Los Angeles was the city’s selection as the rail terminus for southern California. Rail linkage with San Francisco, completed in 1876, was followed by a population boom, as thousands flocked to the region, drawn by its temperate climate, unspoiled landscape, and available property, as well as cheap transcontinental fares
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Los Angeles resulting from rail price wars. A realestate boom rapidly drove up the price of land, but it had collapsed by 1887, destroying the hopes of speculators. However, the city continued to thrive, its economy spurred by the discovery of oil in 1892 and the development of agriculture. Its population grew to 50,000 by 1890 and then doubled to 102,000 by the turn of the century. The film industry came to Los Angeles in the early twentieth century, with the opening of the first movie theater in 1902 and the establishment of Hollywood’s first film studio in 1911. The first feature-length movie was directed by Cecil B. DeMille in 1913; the now world-famous “Hollywood” sign was erected in 1923; and the Academy Awards were inaugurated in 1929. The city’s growing reputation as “Tinseltown” added yet another dream for newcomers to pursue by going west. The film industry continued to thrive during the 1930s, supplying relief from the woes of the Depression, which also brought a new wave of arrivals to the region, fleeing the dust bowls of the Midwest and seeking to rebuilt their lives. Major infrastructure projects assured a continued supply of water to desert-bound Los Angeles, in some cases triggering bitter and lasting disputes over the rights to water channeled to the region from further north. A new era—the era of the automobile—opened for Los Angeles with the completion in 1940 of the Arroyo Seco Parkway, which laid the groundwork for the sprawling mass of freeways, and the car culture, that were to become an
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
indelible part of the city’s image and lifestyle. The growing dominance of the automobile and the spread of the defense-related manufacturing plants during World War II (1939–45) both helped trigger the suburban growth that was to change the physical landscape of L.A. in the postwar decades. Another development of the 1950s— the growth of television—at first was feared as a threat to the movie industry but proved an economic boon as the city became the headquarters of the popular new medium, as well as the growing recording industry, reinforcing its status as the entertainment capital of the world. By the 1960s the golden image of Los Angeles had began to unravel, as unchecked urban sprawl led to environmental and social problems. Smog and pollution from automobiles and industry were recognized as serious threats to the quality of life in the area, and urban violence erupted in the black Watts neighborhood in August 1965. As the decade neared its end, the assassination of senator and presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy (1925–1968) at the Ambassador Hotel following the 1968 Democratic primary election linked Los Angeles with yet more violence. Strict air pollution guidelines were instituted in the 1970s, together with attempts to reduce pollution from autos by improving public transportation over the following decades, including the inauguration of a subway system in the early 1990s. In the 1970s and 1980s Southern California became a hub of the human potential and New Age
195
Los Angeles movements, adding yet another facet— otherworldly eccentricity—to its multifaceted image. At the same time, the region’s economy thrived as the real estate, finance, and entertainment industries soared. The 1990s in Los Angeles were marked by economic recession and recovery, and a series of sensationalistic events highlighting racial divisions in both the city itself and in the nation as a whole. First came the 1991 videotaping of four white police officers beating black motorist Rodney King, the 1992 Simi Valley trial in which the policemen were acquitted, and the ensuing three days of rioting and looting that left 50 persons dead and caused an estimated $1 billion in property damage. The 1994 Brentwood murder of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman was followed by the 1996 trial of former football star and actor O. J. Simpson, who was tried for and acquitted of the murders. Physically, the city was shaken by the 1994 the Northridge earthquake, measuring 6.8 on the Richter scale, that has required a major rebuilding effort. 7
Government
The Los Angeles municipal government is headed by a mayor and a 15member council, both elected to fouryear terms. Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, which is under the jurisdiction of a board of supervisors consisting of five members. A number of its districts, however, are selfgoverning.
196
8
Public Safety
In 1995, violent crimes reported to police (per 100,000 population) totaled over 2,000 and included 25 murders, 840 robberies, and 1,123 aggravated assaults. Property crimes totaled 5,645 and included 1,192 burglaries, 3,120 cases of larceny/theft, and 1,333 motor vehicle thefts. 9
Economy
Los Angeles is the seat of the topranked manufacturing county in the nation, producing a diverse array of items including aircraft and aircraft equipment, games and toys, gas transmissions and distribution equipment, guided missiles, space vehicles and propulsion units, and women’s apparel. Service is the major employment sector, employing roughly one-third of the county’s nonagricultural wage and salary workers. In 1998 the top employers in the county were county government, the Los Angeles Unified School District, the U.S. government, UCLA, and the U.S. Postal Service. The economy of the city of Los Angeles is highly diversified, with strong sectors in services, wholesale and retail trade, manufacturing, government, financial service industries, transportation, utilities, and construction. The entertainment and tourism industries also contribute significantly to the economy. The trade volume of its busy port is the highest in the nation and one of the highest in the world.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Los Angeles The Los Angeles economy took a downturn—together with the rest of California—in the early 1990s but rebounded later in the decade. 10
Environment
A booming population has brought nationwide recognition to Los Angeles and the surrounding area, but it has also brought increasing environmental problems, including water shortages and pollution and air pollution. The infamous L.A. smog was sighted by farmers as early as 1940. In 1990 the city was forced to impose water rationing on its residents for the first time, and it was expected to spend billions of dollars during the decade on pollution controls to comply with federal air quality standards. The many rare wildlife species found within 161 kilometers (100 miles) of the Los Angeles metropolitan area include the California condor, one of the world’s rarest birds, and the gray whale, whose annual southward migration to Baja, California, carries it to within 0.8 kilometer (0.5 mile) of L.A.’s Pacific coastline, drawing numerous observers, either in their own as part of organized whale watches. Southern California’s best-known physical feature is probably the San Andreas fault, only one of the geological faults in the state. 11
Shopping
The best-known shopping district in Los Angeles is glamorous Rodeo
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Drive in Beverly Hills. Now augmented by the addition of a cobble-stoned walkway called Two Rodeo, or Via Rodeo, the area boasts shops sporting exclusive names, including Chanel, Armani, Ungaro, Christian Dior, Cartier, and Tiffany. Beverly Hills is also home to upscale retailers Neiman-Marcus, Saks Fifth Avenue, and Barneys New York, all located nearby on Wilshire Boulevard. Other shopping venues include Melrose Avenue, the Westside Pavilion, Montana Avenue (in Santa Monica), and Abbot Kinney Boulevard (in Venice). Chinatown also offers a varied and colorful shopping experience that encompasses ethnic foods, clothing, and household items. A popular shopping destination in the district is the Chungking Mall. Popular malls in the greater Los Angeles area include the Citadel Outlet Collection, Century City, Beverly Center, and Topanga Plaza. 12
Education
The Los Angeles Unified School District, serving a population of more than four million, is overseen by a seven-member elected school board. In the fall of 1998, the district enrolled a total of 607,143 students in grades K12—the second-largest enrollment of any district in the country, second only to New York City. The Los Angeles system operated 420 elementary schools, 72 middle schools, and 49 senior high schools. The district’s adult community schools, children’s centers, and occupational and skills centers enrolled an additional 913,119. The district
197
Los Angeles
Rodeo Drive is the most glamorous shopping district in Los Angeles. (Michelle & Tom Grimm; Los Angeles Convention & Visitors Bureau)
employed 67,169 persons, including teachers, support staff, and other certified personnel. It is the second-largest employer in Los Angeles County.
sities, including Loyola Marymount University, the California Institute of Technology (Cal Tech), Pepperdine University, and Claremont College.
The two largest institutions of higher education in Los Angeles are the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and the University of Southern California (USC), respected as major research centers (and known locally as sports rivals). In addition to these two universities, the Los Angeles area is home to multiple campuses of both the University of California and the California State University systems, as well as a number of private colleges and univer-
13
198
Health Care
The premier hospital in the Los Angeles area is Los Angeles County/ University of Southern California Medical Center, which includes General Hospital and Women’s and Children’s Hospital. In 1998 the complex had a total of 1,330 staffed beds; 45,979 patients were admitted, and 744,933 were seen on an outpatient basis. The centrally located Cedars-Sinai Medical
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Los Angeles Center also has an outstanding reputation.
azines published in Los Angeles is Bon Appetit.
In 1995 the Los Angeles-Long Beach metropolitan area had 114 community hospitals, with a total of 25,546 beds and 16,681 office-based physicians. The greater Los Angeles area, including Orange County, had 260 hospitals altogether in the mid-1990s, but this number was expected to decline with the growing trend toward hospital mergers. According to some reports, as many as one-third of the region’s hospitals would close in the coming years or become part of large multi-hospital networks.
All the major television networks have affiliated stations in Chicago, which has a total of seven commercial and public television stations, as well as some 30 AM and FM radio stations.
14
Media
Since 1989 Los Angeles has had only one daily newspaper, the Los Angeles Times (circulation 991,480 weekdays and 1,361,202 Sundays), which has a distinguished history and a reputation as one of the leading newspapers in the nation. A number of regions in the metropolitan area have their own dailies, including the Daily News (San Fernando Valley), the News Pilot (San Pedro), the Daily Breeze (Torrance), the Evening Outlook (Santa Monica), and the Press Telegram (Long Beach). Two free alternative weeklies—the LA Weekly and New Times—cover entertainment and other topics of interest to L.A. locals. Weeklies are also published for the business community and the area’s many ethnic communities. The area’s two monthly magazines are the older Los Angeles Magazine and its younger rival, Buzz. Among the nationally distributed mag-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
15
Sports
Major league teams in most professional sports play in the Los Angeles area, although football fans have been without a home team since the Los Angeles Rams and Raiders departed for other cities in the mid-1990s. In baseball, the National League’s Los Angeles Dodgers play at Dodger Stadium, and the American League’s Anaheim Angels play at Anaheim Stadium. (Southern Californians can also attend games of the San Diego Padres.) Los Angeles has two NBA teams, the championshipwinning Lakers, who play home games at the Staples Center, and the Clippers, who play at the Los Angeles Sports Arena. Professional hockey is represented by the NHL’s Los Angeles Kings, who play at the Staples Center, and the Disney-owned Mighty Ducks, who play at Arrowhead Pond. College-level sports are also popular, as fans follow the fortunes of the UCLA and USC teams, who field Division I NCAA teams in all major sports. Horse racing is held at Hollywood Park Racetrack and the Santa Anita Racetrack.
199
Los Angeles
On New Year’s Day each year visitors travel to Pasadena, a Los Angeles suburb, to watch both the Tournament of Roses parade and football game, which is played in the Rose Bowl stadium. (Michelle & Tom Grimm; Los Angeles Convention & Visitors Bureau)
16
Parks and Recreation
Los Angeles’s warm weather and sunny climate encourage a wide range of athletic activities, especially water sports—including swimming, surfing, and boating—at its miles of municipal beaches along the Pacific coast. The city’s parks offer golf courses, tennis courts, swimming pools, ball fields, and other facilities. At more than 1,619 hectares (4,000 acres), Griffith Park is one of the nation’s (and the world’s) largest municipal parks. It is home to the
200
famed Griffith Observatory and Planetarium, the 46-hectare (113-acre) Los Angeles Zoo, and the Ferndall Nature Museum, as well as a bird sanctuary, a transportation museum (Travel Town), and the Autry Museum of Western Heritage. For recreational purposes, the park also boasts an 85-kilometer (53-mile) bridle trail, picknicking and swimming facilities, a golf course, and bicycle rentals. Hancock Park, near Wilshire Boulevard, is famed for its La Brea Tar Pits, ponds containing subterranean tar in which prehistoric mammoths, mastodons, bears, and other mammals were
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Los Angeles entombed, and their skeletons preserved for posterity. Today, life-size fiberglass replicas of mammoths, placed in the pond, can be seen not only from the park but also from Wilshire Boulevard, forming a startling contrast to its stores and restaurants. Other Los Angeles-area parks include the 243-hectare (600-acre) Elysian Park, the 13-hectare (32-acre) Westlake Park, and the Lincoln, Exposition, Echo, and Arroyo Seco parks. In addition to its other parks, Los Angeles is home to the world-famous theme park, Disneyland, located in Anaheim. 17
Performing Arts
Although Los Angeles is best known as the world capital of television and motion-picture production, the traditional performing arts are also well represented. The Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra, under the direction of Finnish-born music director Esa-Pekka Salonen, performs at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion during its regular season and at the Hollywood Bowl in the summer. The L.A. Opera is known for its innovative interpretations of operatic classics, and the Los Angeles Master Chorale performs at the Music Center during the concert season. Popular venues for theatrical performances are the Ahmanson Theatre, the Henry Fonda Theatre, and the Center Theatre Group at the Mark Taper Forum. Los Angeles residents can attend a variety of performances in music, theater, and dance by touring artists at the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Los Angeles’s favorable weather conditions promote outdoor recreational activities, especially swimming and boating. (Michelle & Tom Grimm; Los Angeles Convention & Visitors Bureau)
UCLA Center for the Performing Arts. In addition, New York’s Joffrey Ballet maintains an office and a regular performance schedule in the city. 18
Libraries and Museums
Founded in 1872, the Los Angeles Public Library System serves close to 3.7 million people, with an annual circulation of 10,964,844. Its book holdings total approximately 5.8 million volumes. The library moved into a new central building downtown in 1993 after its former home was destroyed by fire; the new building is the third-largest library in the country. The library
201
Los Angeles Armand Hammer Museum of Art, attached to the offices of Occidental Petroleum and founded by the company’s CEO, has been praised for the quality of its visiting and contemporary exhibits.
Life-size replicas of prehistoric mammals may be seen at La Brea Tar Pits. (Michelle & Tom Grimm; Los Angeles Convention & Visitors Bureau)
system also operates 67 neighborhood branches. The areas in which it holds special collections include California in Fiction, Film Study, Fiction By and About Blacks, Japanese Prints, Orchestral Scores and Parts, Rare Books, and Automotive Repair Manuals. The leading art museum in the Los Angeles area is the new J. Paul Getty Museum, which opened in 1997 in a building designed by Richard Meier. The museum, which houses the art collection of the famous tycoon, is noted for its antiquities, paintings, illuminated manuscripts, and contemporary collections. The Museum of Contemporary Art is devoted to art since 1940; the
202
Los Angeles is also home to a number of specialty museums. The West Coast branch of New York’s Museum of Television and Radio is located in Beverly Hills, where visitors can view episodes of classic programs from the early days of television. The Museum of Tolerance, located in the Simon Wiesenthal Center, is an educational museum dedicated to exposing the evils of prejudice and encouraging openmindedness toward all groups. Other museums in the region include the Hollywood Entertainment Museum, the Museum of Miniatures, the Petersen Automotive Museum, the California African-American Museum, the Autry Museum of Western Heritage (located in Griffith Park), the Japanese-American National Museum, and the Los Angeles Children’s Museum. 19
To u r i s m
The California climate and the glamour associated with the motionpicture and television industries, as well as Disneyland, make Los Angeles one of the nation’s top tourist destinations. In 1995 approximately more than three million foreign travelers visited the city, ranking it second nationally in this category.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Los Angeles 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY Martin Luther King Celebration & Parade Tournament of Roses Parade & Rose Bowl
FEBRUARY Chinese New Year’s Parade in Chinatown Golden Dragon Parade
MARCH Academy Awards City of Los Angeles Marathon Grammy Awards Los Angeles Bach Festival
MARCH-APRIL Crystal Cathedral Glory of Easter
SEPTEMBER Koreatown Multi-Cultural Festival Los Angeles City’s Birthday Celebration
SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER Alpine Village Oktoberfest Los Angeles County Fair
OCTOBER Los Angeles International Film Festival South Bay Greek Festival
NOVEMBER Hollywood Christmas Parade Intertribal Marketplace
DECEMBER Christmas Boat Parade Griffith Park Light Festival Las Posadas Candlelight Procession
APRIL LA Fiesta Broadway
APRIL-JUNE Renaissance Pleasure Faire
MAY Cinco de Mayo Celebrations Fiesta de las Artes
LATE MAY-EARLY JUNE
21
Famous Citizens
Well-known Los Angeles natives include: Choreographer and director Busby Berkeley (1895–1972).
Spring Boat Show
Child actor Jackie Coogan (1914–1984).
JUNE
Actor Jackie Cooper (b. 1921).
Concours on Rodeo Great American Irish Fair & Music Festival Los Angeles Gay & Lesbian Pride Celebration Mariachi USA Festival Playboy Jazz Festival
Figure skater Linda Fratianne (b. 1960). Academy Award-winning actress Jodie Foster (b. 1962).
JULY
Ballerina Cynthia Gregory (b. 1946).
Los Angeles Classic Jazz Festival Lotus Festival Malibu Art Festival
Actor Dustin Hoffman (b. 1937).
JULY-AUGUST
Sculptor Isamu Noguchi (1904–88).
California Plaza’s Moonlight Concerts
MID-JULY TO MID-SEPTEMBER Page Museum’s Fossil Excavation at La Brea Tar Pits
AUGUST Nisei Week Japanese Festival
LATE AUGUST-SEPTEMBER African Marketplace & Cultural Faire
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Actress Marilyn Monroe (1926–62). Conductor Leonard Slatkin (b. 1944). Baseball players Duke Snyder (b. 1926) and Darryl Strawberry (b. 1962). Famous residents include countless film stars and directors, of whom some of the earliest were:
203
Los Angeles Cecil B. DeMille (1881–1959). Douglas Fairbanks, Sr. (1883–1939). Mary Pickford (1893–1979). 22
For Further Study
Websites CityView Los Angeles. [Online] Available http:// www.cityview.com/losangeles (accessed October 14, 1999). LA Directory. [Online] Available http:// www.ladir.com/ (accessed October 14, 1999). Los Angeles City Net. [Online] Available http:// www.city.net/countries/united_states/california/los_angeles (accessed October 14, 1999). LosAngeles.TheLinks.com. [Online] Available http://www.losangeles.thelinks.com/. (accessed October 14, 1999).
Government Offices Los Angeles City Hall 200 N. Spring St. Los Angeles, CA 90012 (213) 485-2121 Los Angeles Planning Dept. 221 N. Figueroa St., Rm. 1600 Los Angeles, CA 90012 (213) 580-1168 Mayor’s Office 200 N Main St., Rm. 800 Los Angeles, CA 90012 (213) 485-2489
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Los Angeles Convention and Visitors Bureau 633 W. 5th St., Suite 6000 Los Angeles, CA 90071 (213) 624-7300
Publications Los Angeles Business Journal 5700 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 170 Los Angeles, CA 90036 Los Angeles Magazine 11100 Santa Monica Blvd., 7th Fl. Los Angeles, CA 90025
204
Los Angeles Times Times Mirror Square Los Angeles, CA 90053
Books Abelmann, Nancy, and John Lie. Blue Dreams: Korean Americans and the Los Angeles Riots. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995. Anderson, Donald A. Los Angeles: Realm of Possibility: A Contemporary Portrait. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, 1991. Brook, Stephen. L.A. Days, L.A. Nights. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993. Cannon, Lou. Official Negligence: How Rodney King and the Riots Changed Los Angeles and the LAPD. New York: New York Times Books, 1997. Cini, Zelda, Bob Crane, Peter Brown. Hollywood, Land & Legend. Westport, CN: Arlington House, 1980. Davis, Mike. Ecology of Fear: Los Angeles and the Imagination of Disaster. New York: Metropolitan Books, 1998. Kaplan, Sam Hall. L. A. Lost & Found: An Architectural History of Los Angeles. New York: Crown, 1987. Loh, Sandra Tsing. Depth Takes a Holiday: Essays from Lesser Los Angeles. New York: Riverhead Books, 1996. Martinez, Rubin. The Other Side: Notes from the new L.A., Mexico City, and Beyond. New York: Vintage Books, 1993. Miller, John. Los Angeles Stories: Great Writers on the City. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1991. Rieff, David. Los Angeles: Capital of the Third World. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991. Sonenshein, Raphael. Politics in Black and White: Race and Power in Los Angeles. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993. Thompson, Frank T. Los Angeles Uncovered. Plano, TX: Seaside Press, 1996. Thorpe, Edward. Chandlertown: The Los Angeles of Philip Marlowe. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1983.
Videorecordings Los Angeles, Hollywood & Southern California. [videorecording] Finley-Holiday Film Corporation. Whittier, CA: Finley-Holiday Film Corp., 1993. 1 videocassette (40 min.)
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Madrid Madrid, Spain, Europe Founded: Castilians defeated the Moors and captured Madrid in 1083. Philip II made Madrid the capital of Spain in 1561. Location: Province of Madrid, near the geographic center of the Iberian Peninsula. It lies on top of a sand and clay plateau known as the Meseta (from the Spanish word mesa, or table). Time Zone: Spain is one hour ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Daylight Savings Time is observed late March to late October. Elevation: At 2,100 ft (635 m) above sea level, Madrid is one of the highest capitals in Europe. Latitude and Longitude: 40º26'N, 3º42'W. Madrid shares roughly the same latitude as New York City, New York, and Salt Lake City, Utah. Climate: Winters are cold, but mostly dry. Night temperatures often fall below 32 ° F, and snow occasionally falls on the city. Spring is warmer and pleasant although night temperatures remain low. Summer is often divided into two smaller seasons. Early summer is quite pleasant, but late summer in July and August is often unbearably hot. Autumn is a little wetter but more pleasant than summer. Temperature: January is typically the coldest month, and temperatures range from 35 to 47°F (2 to 9°C). July: 63–87°F (17–31°C); September 57–77°F (14–25°C). Average Annual Precipitation: 16.5 inches (419.1 mm) Government: Mayor and city council Weights and Measures: Metric Monetary Units: The peseta (about 125 pesetas per one US dollar). Notes come in denominations of 1,000, 2,000, 5,000, and 10,000 pesetas. Coins come in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, and 500 pesetas. Telephone Area Codes: Spain Country Code: 34; Madrid City Code: 91
1
Introduction
It is a balmy July night in Madrid, and the narrow colonial sidewalks of the Chueca neighborhood are crowded with fashionably dressed Madrileños. Many of them patiently wait in line to get a table at some of the better restaurants and tapas bars in the cosmopolitan neighborhood. In any other place, one might expect this pulsating scene during the early hours of the evening. But this is Madrid, and it is well past
midnight. Madrileños, as its citizens are called, are just getting started. Madrid has it all backwards, or so it seems. Between noon and 4:00 PM, the citizens of this sprawling city go home for a long lunch and a nap. Most shops close, and the city calms down a bit. These are the habits expected from smaller towns, sleepy provinces that have not been touched by modernization. Yet, the ways of a modern world, with longer working hours, and less lei-
205
Madrid
Madrid Population Profile City Proper Population: 2,900,000 Area: 606 sq km (234 sq mi) Nicknames: Los Madriles (many Madrids) for its distinct neighborhoods. The people are called "Madrileños.'' Traditionally, Madrileños have also been called gatos, for cats. The nickname may have been coined during the Middle Ages to describe troops who scaled castle walls with the dexterity of cats.
Metropolitan Area Population: 4,072,000 Description: Province of Madrid Area: 1,942 sq km (750 sq mi) World population rank1: 58 Percentage of national population2: 10.2% Average yearly growth rate: 0% Ethnic composition: ——— 1. The Madrid metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of Spain’s total population living in the Madrid metropolitan area.
sure time, have encroached on Madrid. Until recently, the entire city shut down during the afternoon. Residents returned to work at 4:00 PM, and stayed at their jobs until about 8:00 PM. After work, many of them retired to restaurants, coffee shops, and tapas bars for long conversations with friends and family. Today more and more stores and businesses stay open all day, and fewer people have time for long lunches, even less a quick nap. The city's night life, which made it famous around the world, has suffered a bit from Spain's attempts to catch up economically with its European neighbors.
206
Yet, Madrileños don't give up easily. On any given night, especially on weekends, the streets continue to fill with late night revelers. Madrileños, much like the citizens of many other capital cities, have been accused of snobbery. It is perhaps the weight of history that sustains this perceived aloofness. Madrid was once at the center of an empire that stretched over large parts of the globe. In the heart of Spain, it remained the center of cultural and political life for many centuries. The city was actually founded by the Moors, who traveled across the Mediterranean from North Africa to conquer the Iberian Peninsula. During the Christian Reconquest, Madrid fell to a Castilian king, but it would not be named the capital city of Spain until 1561. Madrid suffered through all the ups and downs of an empire, including the occupation of the city by the French in the early 1800s. By the 1930s, Madrid was under heavy artillery fire, its citizens trying to defend the Republic after getting rid of the monarchy. Madrid eventually fell to the pro-monarchy forces (1939). From here, one of the most notorious dictators of the twentieth century, Francisco Franco, would rule the nation with a tight fist for more than three decades. Franco died in 1975, and the nation entered a new era. And so did conservative Madrid, which woke from a long slumber. Culturally repressed by a conservative leader, Spain flourished under democracy. From its cinema to
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Madrid
literature, music, and art, Spaniards made headlines throughout the world. Madrileños knew they would not be left behind. 2
Getting There
Highways Six major highways lead to all corners of the country.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Bus and Railroad Service There are two main train stations in the city: Chamartín and Atocha. Trains from the north arrive at Chamartín, while trains from the south, east, and west arrive at Atocha. The station is also the terminus for the high-speed AVE trains, which travel south to Cordova and Sevilla. The railways in Spain are operated by the state-owned RENFE.
207
Madrid Buses depart for destinations throughout Spain from two main stations in the Madrid area. Airports All domestic and international flights arrive at the Barajas International Airport. 3
Getting Around
Bus and Commuter Rail Service Madrid’s Metro system is made up of ten lines. It is cheap and efficient but not the best way to get around in the summer months when the tunnels become unbearably hot. The metro operates from 6 AM to 1:30 AM. Madrid has an extensive bus system with more than 150 lines. Buses stop operating at 1 AM. Taxis and buses known as buhos (owls) operate during the late night hours. There are 20 buho bus lines. The Cercanías trains (greater Madrid light railway) serve the outskirts of Madrid and towns nearby. In Madrid the railway stations are underground, but they go above ground on the outskirts of the city. The modern trains are comfortable. They are equipped with heat and air conditioning. Prices vary on distance traveled. Sightseeing Tourists and Madrileños alike use the Cercanias trains to visit the picturesque towns of Toledo, Segovia, Avila, El Escorial, and Aranjuez. World-class museums, bullfights, and flamenco dancing are also popular attractions.
208
4
People
Madrid was one of the fastest growing cities in Spain after World War II (1939–45), but growth leveled off by the late twentieth century. Population figures, which showed a small decline in the early 1990s, are expected to remain stable for the next 20 years. The city's population density is 13,419 per square mile). About 23 percent of residents are under the age of 20, while 11.3 percent are over the age of 60. Madrid is mostly inhabited by Castilians, people who have lived in Spain's central meseta for many centuries. Castilians are overwhelmingly Catholic and generally conservative. Spaniards from other parts of the country also live in Madrid, including Andalucians, Gallegos, Catalonians, and Valencians. There are small numbers of migrants from Northern Africa and political refugees from Latin America and the Middle East. The city is overwhelmingly Catholic, and many of the city’s holidays and celebrations are religious. Castilian (castellano) is the official language of Spain. In other countries, castilian is known as Spanish. 5
Neighborhoods
Madrid is often called Los Madriles because of its distinctive neighborhoods. La Puerta del Sol (Door of the Sun) is the heart of the city, a large crescent-shaped plaza that is the starting point for all roads in Spain. Eight roads converge there in a massive junction
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Madrid
City Fact Comparison Madrid (Spain)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
4,072,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1083
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$119
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$55
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$14
$14
$15
$16
$188
$173
$246
$207
11
13
20
11
Marca
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
474,405
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
n.a.
1944
1976
1948
Total daily costs Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established 1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
surrounded by shops, restaurants, and apartment buildings. Some of Madrid's most important streets begin there, meandering their way through colonial neighborhoods before ending in the far reaches of suburbia. Some of Madrid's most fascinating neighborhoods are clustered near La Puerta del Sol. Lavapiés is one of the oldest, and poorest, neighborhoods. It is often said that Lavapiés is the most representative neighborhood of the city, the most “Madrileño.” Residents like to bring chairs out on the sidewalk and sit for hours into the night, sharing stories with neighbors. The neighborhood has many restaurants, small shops, and
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
markets, and has a lively art scene. Atocha lies next to Lavapiés. It is home to the Reina Sofía museum (Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía), and the bustling Atocha train station. Many art galleries are located here. Closer to the heart of the city is cosmopolitan Chueca, which remains one of the most important meeting places for Madrileños who enjoy nightlife. Chueca is a hive of activity, especially during weekend nights. Large numbers of people take over sidewalks and streets, and restaurants are full at midnight. Residents party well into the dawn hours. Nearby is the more sedate Huertas neighborhood, which also
209
Madrid
Madrid skyline. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
attracts its share of night owls. Huertas has many small restaurants and pubs, old mansions, hotels, and crowded streets. Paseo del Prado, home to the Prado Museum, is an upper-class neighborhood defined by the large mansions along the streets. Salamanca, north of the Parque Retiro, is a wealthy and conservative enclave. Many of the city's expensive boutiques are here. Even with 1.2 million housing units and low occupancy rates, Madrid suffers from inadequate housing. Most Madrileños live in apartments because they can't afford to buy homes. Espe-
210
cially in the old neighborhoods, apartments are small and lack basic necessities like heat. In the summer, cramped quarters become hot. In some of the poorer neighborhoods, people are forced to share communal baths. 6
History
People have lived in Spain's central meseta for thousands of years. In the late ninth century, with the arrival of the Moors from Northern Africa, an Arab town began to take shape in what is now modern Madrid. The Moors built a castle (alcazar) on a hill overlooking the Manzanares River to protect their
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Madrid newly acquired territories. Residents followed the military and settled in the area. The Moors developed an intricate irrigation system, and agriculture bloomed. During the early stages of the Christian “Reconquest” of the Iberian Peninsula, Madrid was attacked by King Ramiro II of León in 932. The Moors restored the town but remained under siege. In a final assault in 1083, Alfonso VI of Castile and León captured Madrid. The town was now under Castilian and Christian control. Many Moors continued to live there until the final purge of Muslims and Jews from Spain in 1492. The town's Arab-Muslim character slowly faded over time. Madrid, which had been of marginal importance under the Moors, became home to many Castilian kings and grew in importance. By 1309, the Cortes (parliament) was operating within the city. Madrid was already a large town when Philip II (1527–1598) made it the capital of Spain in 1561. Now at the center of Spanish power, Madrid began to grow rapidly. By the 1650s, more than 100,000 people lived in Madrid. Architecture flourished under the Habsburg monarchs, who directed the construction of many important structures that remain to this day. The Plaza Mayor, a huge square surrounded by five-story houses, was built between 1617 and 1619. It became the center of life for early Madrileños. Bullfights were held on the plaza, as well as trials and executions of the Inquisition (a general tribunal established in the thirteenth century for the discovery and suppres-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
An artist displays his work in the historical Plaza Mayor. The square, built between 1617 and 1619, was the site of bullfights, trials, and executions. (Ignacio Lobos; EPD Photos)
sion of heresy and the punishment of heretics). The city continued to grow and prosper under the Bourbon Kings, especially King Charles III (1759–1788). Charles was not too fond of the city. He considered it dangerous and dirty and came close to moving the capital to Sevilla or Valencia. Yet despite his reservations, Charles stayed and passed laws to force citizens to clean up, inside and outside their homes. Acting much like a city planner, he engineered Madrid's continued growth and development. His contributions to Madrid would earn him the title of mayor-king. Madrid's tranquility was shattered during the Napoleonic Wars when French troops occupied the city, and Napoleon Bonaparte's brother Joseph
211
Madrid (1822–1891) was installed on the throne. On May 2, 1808, the War of Independence began as Spaniards rose against the unpopular Joseph and fought French troops in bloody skirmishes. The date is remembered as a national holiday, but France continued to rule Spain until the war ended in 1814 with the victory of the Spanish army and guerillas, aided by British troops. Ferdinand VII (1788–1833), who had been imprisoned by Napoleon, returned to Madrid in 1814 and began to redevelop the city. By the 1850s, major projects ensured the city's continued growth. More than 31 kilometers (50 miles) of new canals brought fresh water into the city. In 1851, the first train departed from Atocha station on its way to Aranjuez. In 1861, the Castro Plan, more commonly known as the Ensanche (the widening), was formally adopted to guide the city's growth. The modern plan established areas for hospitals, cemeteries, hospices, and even jails. It assigned certain areas as working-class neighborhoods and protected the richer enclaves from undesirable urban uses. Yet despite the plan, Madrid was unable to prevent poor areas from developing outside planned zones. During this time, there were no major industries in Madrid, and workers spent most of their meager earnings on food. The bulk of the population lived in substandard housing, many without water and sewage facilities. By the beginning of the twentieth century, nearly 600,000 people called Madrid home. Beautiful palaces, gar-
212
dens, museums, and imposing government buildings dotted the city. In 1919 the city inaugurated the underground metro's first line. At the time, the service offered first and second-class tickets, a symbol of class differences in prosperous Madrid. By 1930, nearly one million people had moved into the city. The 1930s were difficult years for Madrid and Spain. The nation was deeply divided by political ideology. Many Spaniards didn't want a monarchy and sought a more democratic form of government. Fascism in Europe was on the rise, and the Soviet Union sought to influence other nations with its Communist ideology. In 1931, Spain became a Republic; soon after that, the nation was divided by civil war. Fascists, the military, the Catholic Church and its conservative devotees championed the return of the monarchy. Collectively, these groups came to be known as Nationalists. A coalition of leftist parties that had narrowly won the 1936 elections and politically moderate Spaniards supported the continuation of the Republic. In 1936, civil war broke out. Francisco Franco, who had become a general at age 33, led the Nationalist forces. The Republicans could not muster a united front. Epic battles were waged in Madrid during the civil war. The Republican government moved to Valencia, fearing that Madrid would crumble quickly to the Nationalist forces. But Madrid held up, despite heavy damage from constant aerial and artillery bombardments. With help from Nazi leader Adolph Hitler (1889–1945) and the Ital-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Madrid ian fascist Benito Mussolini (1883– 1945), Franco's troops defeated the Republican forces in a final battle in Madrid on March 28, 1939. Franco declared Spain a monarchy in 1947, but he remained the country's dictatorial leader until his death in 1975. Under Franco, Madrid's position as the seat of power was further solidified. Franco quickly set to rebuilding Madrid while he ignored other regions of the country. With the region established as a growing industrial center, the city continued to grow rapidly, swallowing many of its own suburbs. By 1951, Madrid covered 205 square kilometers (79 square miles). The Urban Plan of 1963 directed growth to other municipalities in the metropolitan area, turning some of them into bedroom communities. During the 1960s, the automobile became a major mode of transportation, choking the streets and the air. Franco's death in 1975 brought profound changes to Spain and Madrid. With King Juan Carlos (1938–) leading the way, Spain embarked on a democratization process that affected every institution in the country. Free from the conservative constraints of a dictatorship, Madrid became a more cosmopolitan city during the 1980s and 1990s. Its elected leaders began to pay more attention to the environment and passed laws to protect the city's architectural treasures, air, and water.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
7
Government
The government is made up of a mayor and 52-member city council (known as the Pleno or plenary). City Hall is located in the Plaza de la Villa in the colonial section of Madrid. The mayor and city council members represent three parties: Partido Popular (Popular Party), Partido Socialista Obrero Español (Spanish Socialist Workers Party), and "Izquierda Unida" (United Left). The conservative Popular Party won a majority for the 1999–2003 term and controls the Governing Committee. 8
Public Safety
Madrid is mostly a safe city although it shares the same social problems as other cities of its size. Madrileños have no problems staying out at all hours of the night, most without facing any problems. Some areas of the city, however, are notorious for prostitution and drug deals. Purse snatchers and pickpockets prey on tourists in crowded areas. 9
Economy
Madrid is Spain's second largest industrial center after Barcelona. It manufactures aircraft, electrical equipment, agricultural machinery, and leather goods. The city is the center of national government, finance, and insurance, and the nation's transportation hub. It is also one of the most important publishing centers of Spanish language materials in the world. Tourism is an important element of the
213
Madrid
National Palace of Madrid. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
economy. Wheat, vines, and olives are some of the agricultural products grown in the province of Madrid. 10
Environment
Reducing pollution and noise are two of the most important tasks identified by the government. The city has an extensive network of mobile laboratories and technicians who constantly monitor the environment. Two leading monitoring agencies include the Center for Acoustic Studies and the Ecological Patrol. The city has a formal plan to clear the air, protect open spaces, and
214
restore historic buildings damaged by carbon particles. According to government figures, sulfur dioxide emissions were reduced by 3,174 metric tons (3,500 tons) and suspended particles by 727 metric tons (800 tons) annually between 1993 and 1999. The city uses seven treatment facilities to purify more than 16,000 liters (60,600 gallons) per second of wastewater. More than 907 metric tons (1,000 tons) of dregs per day are treated for agriculture and other uses. Gas (methane and carbon dioxide) obtained from the dregs is used to produce electricity to operate the wastewater treatment facilities.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Madrid 11
Shopping
Madrid’s shopping is more sedate and traditional than other European cities. Small boutiques and specialized stores command a major presence in the city. Small food stores, where expensive hams and olive oils from the region are featured, are found throughout the city. El Corte Inglés is just about the only department store similar to those found in the United States. 12
Education
Madrid is one of the most important centers of education in the country and home to some of its most prestigious universities. Among them are the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (Open University). 13
Health Care
While Madrid has 56 hospitals and approximately five physicians per 1,000 residents, health care lags behind other major European cities. Many hospitals lack adequate staff and equipment. Madrileños suffer from an abnormally high rate of respiratory problems caused by pollution. 14
Media
Madrid is a major publishing center in the Spanish-speaking world. More than 30 publishers are located in the city, which is served by several daily and weekly newspapers, as well as dozens of magazines. El País, with a Sunday
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
circulation of more than 1.2 million readers, is considered one of the world's best newspapers. It is published daily in some Latin American countries, and its weekly international edition is available in many countries of the world. 15
Sports
Real Madrid’s soccer (futból) club is considered one the world's most accomplished teams of the twentieth century. Its games against its nemesis, Barcelona, often sell out the 125,000-seat Santiago Bernabéu stadium in the northern end of the city. Madrileños also enjoy bullfighting, and many other sports, including basketball, cycling (although not so much in the crowded city), horseback riding, tennis, and golf. 16
Parks and Recreation
With water fountains, lagoons, playing fields, and plenty of seating areas, the sprawling 350-acre Retiro is one of the city’s favorite parks. The city has more than 40 parks, gardens, and many small plazas. Madrileños enjoy taking long walks and meeting friends at cafes or pubs. An important ingredient of city life is the Sunday afternoon stroll (paseo) in parks or neighborhood streets. 17
Performing Arts
From flamenco dancing to bullfighting (considered an art form by aficionados), Madrid has much to offer. Bullfights in Madrid are held at Las Ventas bullring, considered the mecca
215
Madrid of bullfighting. Fans of flamenco often go to the small clubs of Lavapiés, where performances often don’t get under way until well past midnight. 18
Libraries and Museums
Madrid is home to the prestigious National Library (Biblioteca Nacional) and the Library of the Royal Palace, which has a recognized historic collection. Madrid has a long literary tradition. Each year, thousands of people attend the Madrid Feria del Libro (book fair), one of many events that continue to thrive in the city’s lively literary scene. The city is also well known for its used bookshops. Some of the world’s most important museums are in Madrid. Foremost among these is the Prado Museum, which opened in 1819. The museum's thousands of paintings were collected by the Spanish monarchy and the Catholic Church over several centuries. About 1,500 paintings can be shown at a time. Some of Spain’s most renowned painters are represented at the Prado, including Velázquez, Goya, El Greco, Zurbarán, Ribera, and Murillo, and many other Europeans, like Rembrandt, Rubens, Botticelli, Rafael, and Tintoretto.
19
Picasso’s Guernica, which had been housed in New York City, is now at the Reina Sofía museum, home of Spain’s modern art. Works by Miró, Oteiza, and Julio González are part of the permanent collection.
Spain is one of the most visited countries in Europe, both for its attractions and low prices. Madrid, the hub of national transportation, is a starting point for many visitors. It is a lively city, full of cafes, pubs, clubs, and res-
216
A teenage boy performs stunts on his skateboard in one of Madrid’s many plazas. (Ignacio Lobos; EPD Photos)
To u r i s m
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Madrid taurants. Madrileños often party through the night and sometimes right past breakfast. World-class museums, cultural activities, festivals, and spectator sports can easily keep tourists busy for days. Many important towns are within easy reach, including Segovia, Chinchón, Avila, Aranjuez, and Alcalá de Henares, the birth place of Miguel Cervantes, author of Don Quixote. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY
New Year’s Day Epiphany
MARCH Feast of St. Joseph
APRIL Good Friday
MAY
al drama with hundreds of plays to his name. Pedro Calderón de la Barca y Henao (1600–1681), Spanish dramatist and poet, the last prominent writer of the golden age of Spanish literature. Jose Echegaray y Eizaguirre (1832– 1916), Spanish playwright, statesman, and co-winner of the Nobel Prize in literature in 1904. José Ortega y Gasset (1883–1955), writer and philosopher known for his humanistic criticism of modern civilization, whose articles, lectures, and essays on philosophy and political discourse led to the fall of the Spanish monarchy in 1931.
Labor Day Feast of the Community of Madrid Day of St. Isidro, the Patron Saint of Madrid
Plácido Domingo (b. 1941), great tenor.
AUGUST
Julio Iglesias (b.1943), internationally renowned singer.
Assumption
OCTOBER National Day
NOVEMBER All Saints’ Day Almudena
DECEMBER Constitution Day Feast of the Immaculate Conception
21
Famous Citizens
Lope de Vega (1562–1635), playwright and poet of the Golden Age of Spanish literature (sixteenth and seventeenth centuries), considered the founder of the Spanish nation-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Carmen Maura (b. 1946), 1990 Felix Award (Spain’s equivalent of the Oscar) winner for best actress and owner of a small art gallery in Madrid. Because of its historic preeminence in national culture, politics and society, Madrid has always attracted some of Spain's most brilliant people. Most of Spain's authors and painters have studied or lived in Madrid for part or most of their lives. The city has also attracted literary figures from other nations, including:
217
Madrid American author Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961), who lived and worked in Madrid for a short time. Spanish poet and writer Federico García Lorca (1898–1936), who studied in Madrid and spent most of his time in the city between 1919 and 1934, and Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1547–1616), author of the epic Don Quixote, who is considered the greatest Spanish author. 22
For Further Study
Websites Madrid’s Underground Metro. [Online] Available http://www.metromadrid.es (accessed January 29, 2000). National Library. [Online] Available http:// www.bns.es (accessed January 29, 2000). National System of Spanish Railways. [Online] Available http://www.renfe.es (accessed January 29, 2000). Postal Service. [Online] Available http:// www.correos.es (accessed January 29, 2000). Prado Museum. [Online] Available http:// www.museoprado.mcu.es (accessed January 29, 2000). The Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum. [Online] Available http://www.offcampus.es/ museo.thyssen-bornemisza (accessed January 29, 2000).
Government Offices Spanish Embassy 2700 15th St. NW. Washington D.C. 20009 Community of Madrid. [Online] Available http:/
218
www.comadrid.es 2000).
(accessed
January
29,
Municipality of Madrid. [Online] Available http://www.munimadrid.es (accessed January 29, 2000). National Statistical Office. [Online] Available http://www.ine.es (accessed January 29, 2000).
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Instituto de turismo de España José Lázaro Galdeano 6 28017, Madrid, España
Publications El Pais. [Online] Available http://www.elpais.es (accessed January 29, 2000). Madrid Daily. [Online] Available http:// www.labanguardia.es (accessed January 29, 2000). The Broadsheet. [Online] Available http:// thebroadsheet.com (accessed January 29, 2000). El Mundo. [Online] Available http:// www.elmundo.es (accessed January 29, 2000).
Books Besas, Peter. Behind the Spanish lens: Spanish cinema under fascism and democracy. Denver, Colorado: Arden Press, 1985. Carr, Raymond. Modern Spain, 1875–1980. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980. Cross, Esther and Wilbur Cross. Spain. Enchantment of the World Series. Chicago: Children's Press, 1994. Kent, Deborah. Madrid. Chicago: Children's Press, 1999. Pérez-Díaz, V. M. The Return of Civil Society: The emergence of Democratic Spain. Harvard University Press, 1993.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Glossary ABOLITIONIST: Person or organization that opposes slavery. When slavery was legal, abolitionists fought to have laws created to make keeping slaves illegal. ADMINISTRATION: Government officials and the policies by which they govern. AIR POLLUTION: Harmful chemicals discharged into the air, making it unclean and sometimes unsafe. ALLIES: Groups or persons who are united in a common purpose. Typically used to describe nations that have joined together to fight a common enemy in war. In World War I, the term Allies described the nations that fought against Germany and its allies. In World War II, Allies described the United Kingdom, United States, the USSR and their allies, who fought against the Axis Powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan. AMALGAM: A mixture of different things. ANCHORAGE: Settling or staying in place by means of holding on to something. ANNEXATION: The act of adding on a smaller thing to a larger thing. ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURE: The temperature that falls at the middle of the range of high and low temperatures for the entire year. ANTI-SEMITISM: Fear or hatred of Jews. APARTHEID: The past governmental policy in the Republic of South Africa of separating the races in society. ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS: Relics and artifacts left by past cultures. BOROUGH: District or large section of a city, especially New York, New York. BUDDHISM: A religious system common in India and eastern Asia. Founded by and based upon the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, Buddhism asserts that suffering is an inescapable part of life. Deliverance can only be achieved through the practice of charity, temperance, justice, honesty, and truth. CABARET: A restaurant or nightclub with short musical performances with singing and dancing as entertainment. CADENCE: Any rhythmic flow of sound or measured movement to a rhythm or beat. CANTON: A territory or small division or state within a country. COMMUNISM: A form of government whose system requires common ownership of property for the use of all citizens. All profits are to be equally dis-
tributed and prices on goods and services are usually set by the state. Also, communism refers directly to the official doctrine of the former U.S.S.R. COSMOPOLITAN: Containing elements of all or many parts of the world. COUT D’ÉTAT OR COUP: A sudden, violent overthrow of a government or its leader. CULTURE: The ideas and typical habits of a group of people. DAILY CIRCULATION: Number of newspapers or other publications that are distributed each day. DIALECT: One of a number of regional or related modes of speech regarded as descending from a common origin. DIVERSITY: Variety; a mixture of different or dissimilar elements, items, or people. ENDEMIC: Anything that is peculiar to and characteristic of a locality or region. ENTREPRENEUR: Someone who starts and operates a small business. ETHNIC: Referring to a group of people with the same cultural heritage. FEDERAL: Pertaining to a union of states whose governments are subordinate to a central government. FEZ: A cone-shaped felt hat with no brim and a flat top, from which a long tassel hangs; the national headdress for men in Turkey. FUNICULAR: Hanging from or worked by pulling up and lowering of ropes or cables. GLOBAL ECONOMY: Relating to the economic situation (management of wealth and resources) of the whole world as a single community. GOLD RUSH: Describes people traveling in a hurry to a place where gold was discovered. GREENWICH MEAN TIME (GMT): Mean solar time of the meridian at Greenwich, England, used as the basis for standard time throughout most of the world. The world is divided into 24 time zones, and all are related to the prime, or Greenwich mean, zone. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP): A measure of the market value of all goods and services produced within the boundaries of a nation, regardless of asset ownership. Unlike gross national product, GDP excludes receipts from that nation’s business operations in foreign countries. GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT (GNP): A measure of the market value of goods and services produced by the labor and property of a nation. Includes receipts from that nation’s business operation in foreign countries
219
GLOSSARY HERESY: An opinion believed to contradict a basic
NATIONALIST: Person or government policy that
law of a religion. INDIGENOUS: People, plants, and animals that lived in a place from ancient times. Also called native people, plants, and animals. INHABITED: Lived in. INQUISITION: A general tribunal, or court, established in the thirteenth century for the discovery and suppression of heresy and the punishment of those who were guilty of heresy (called heretics). ISLAM: The religious system of Mohammed, practiced by Muslims and based on a belief in Allah as the supreme being and Muhammad as his prophet. The spelling variations, Moslim and Mohammed, are also used. Islam also refers to those nations in which it is the primary religion. LABYRINTHINE: Curving in an intricate or confusing pattern; curvy, like a snake. MAGNATE: Important person, or person with special influence. MELANESIAN: The native or original inhabitants of islands in the Pacific Ocean south of the equator, including the Fiji Islands. METRO: Short form of metropolitan, usually used with a city name. For example, metro Detroit describes the city of Detroit and its surrounding area. METROPOLIS: Large city or center of population. METROPOLITAN: Term used to describe a city and its area of influence. For example, “metropolitan Detroit” refers to the city of Detroit and its surrounding area.
puts the needs and interests of the country first over the needs and interests of the other countries or international groups. PER CAPITA: Literally, per person; for each person counted. PHILANTHROPIST: Person who gives large sums of his or her own money to benefit community organizations or institutions. POLYNESIAN: The native or original inhabitants of islands in the Pacific Ocean, including Hawaii, Samoa, Tonga, Tahiti, and New Zealand. PRE-COLUMBIAN: Refers to the time in the history of North and South America before the arrival of Europeans (before 1492). Named for the first European to reach the Western hemisphere, Christopher Columbus. PROGRESSIVE: Person or government that is open to new ideas and willing to move forward or change habits or practices. PROTESTANT: A member or an adherent of one of those Christian bodies which descended from the Reformation of the sixteenth century. Originally applied to those who opposed or protested the Roman Catholic Church. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH: The designation of the church of which the pope or Bishop of Rome is the head, and that holds him as the successor of St. Peter and heir of his spiritual authority, privileges, and gifts. RURAL: Describes landscape of the countryside, with large areas of open space and few roads and buildings covering the land. SOUTHEAST ASIA: The region in Asia that consists of Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam. SUBURB: Community on the edge of a large city where people live. People who live in a suburb usually travel to the city to work. SULTAN: A king of a Muslim (Islamic) state. TREATY: A negotiated agreement between two governments. URBAN: City landscape, with streets and buildings covering most of the area. VISIONARY: Person who can imagine positive changes and can explain the possible results to others. XENOPHOBIA: Fear or intense dislike of people from other places. ZENITH: The high point.
METROPOLITAN STATISTICAL AREA (MSA): Official term used by government agencies to define the city and its surrounding communities. The MSA describes the area included when gathering and reporting statistics. MILITARY COUP: A sudden, violent overthrow of a government by military forces. MILLENNIUM: 1,000 years. Also used to refer to the one-thousandth anniversary of an event. MISSIONARIES: People who travel to, and often live in, another area for the purpose of teaching the inhabitants there their religious beliefs. MOBILITY: The freedom and ability to move from one area or region to another. MOSQUE: An Islam place of worship and the organization with which it is connected. MUSLIM: Name used to describe people who observe the religious rules of Islam.
220
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of
World Cities
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of
World Cities VOLUME
3
Manilla, Philippines to Paris France
Edited by Jill Copolla and Susan Bevan Gall
J U N I O R WO R L D M A R K E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F W O R L D C I T I E S
U•X•L Staff Allison McNeill, U•X•L Senior Editor Carol DeKane Nagel, U•X•L Managing Editor Thomas L. Romig, U•X•L Publisher Dorothy Maki, Manufacturing Manager Evi Seoud, Assistant Production Manager Rita Wimberley, Senior Buyer Pamela A.E. Galbreath, Art Director This publication is a creative work copyrighted by U•X•L and fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair competition, and other applicable laws. The authors and editors of this work have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination, expression, arrangement, and classification of the information. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. Copyright © 2000 U•X•L An imprint of the Gale Group All rights reserved including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form.
Printed in United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Cover photos (top to bottom): Paris, France: Louvre (EPD/Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp) Monrovia, Liberia: Redemption Day Celebration (EPD/Homer Sykes; Woodfin Camp) Tokyo, Japan: Kids with skateboards (EPD/Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp) Lima, Peru: Market (EPD/Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp) Washington, DC: Lincoln Memorial (EPD/Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp)
Susan Bevan Gall and Jill Marie Coppola, Editors Timothy L. Gall, Executive Editor Mary Francis Sugar, Eleftherios E. Netos, Jennifer Wallace, James C. Woodring, Associate Editors Bridgette M. Nadzam, Graphics and Page Layout Gregory M. Hurst, Editorial Assistant Magellan Geographix, Cartographers
Contributors Olufemi A. Akinola, Ph.D. W.E.B. DuBois Institute, Harvard University Cynthia Andrews. Researcher/Writer, Suttons Bay, Michigan Mike Cikraji. Researcher/Writer, Bay Village, Ohio Patricia Hale. Researcher/Writer, West Hartford, Connecticut Bruce Heilman. University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Jim Henry. Researcher/Writer, Chicago, Illinois William Hodgson. Researcher/Writer, Vancouver, British Columbia Dave Hribar. Researcher/Writer, Avon Lake, Ohio Ignacio Lobos. Journalist, Honolulu, Hawaii Deryck O. Lodrick, Ph.D. Visiting Scholar, Center for South Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley Lupa Ramadhani. University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Gail Rosewater. Researcher/Writer, Cleveland, Ohio Carmen Urdaneta, M.A. Researcher/Writer, Boston, Massachusetts Jeffrey Vance. Researcher/Writer, Brighton, Massachusetts Rosalie Wieder. Researcher/Writer, Cleveland, Ohio Steven Wolinetz, Ph.D. Memorial University, St. John’s Newfoundland
CONTENTS C I T Y F I N D E R TA B L E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii R E A D E R ’S G U I D E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix MANILA, PHILIPPINES ............................................................. 1 M E X I C O C I T Y, M E X I C O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 M I A M I , F L O R I D A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 M I N N E A P O L I S , M I N N E S O T A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 M O N R O V I A , L I B E R I A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 M O N T R É A L , Q U É B E C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 M U M B A I ( B O M B A Y ) , I N D I A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 N A I R O B I , K E N Y A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 N A S H V I L L E , TE N N E S S E E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 N E W O R L E A N S , L O U I S I A N A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 N E W YO R K , N E W YO R K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 P A R I S , F R A N C E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 G L O S S A R Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
vii
C I T Y F I N D E R TA B L E Volume number appears in brackets []
Toronto, Ontario .......................[4]151 Vancouver, British Columbia......[4]169
Africa
Mexico
Cairo, Egypt .............................[1]115 Johannesburg, South Africa ......[2]123 Lagos, Nigeria ...........................[2]139 Monrovia, Liberia........................[3]69 Nairobi, Kenya ..........................[3]115
Mexico City, Mexico....................[3]19
United States Atlanta, Georgia ...........................[1]1 Boston, Massachusetts .................[1]65 Chicago, Illinois ........................[1]145 Cleveland, Ohio ........................[1]161 Dallas, Texas .............................[1]177 Denver, Colorado.......................[1]191 Detroit, Michigan ..........................[2]1 Honolulu, Hawaii ........................[2]39 Houston, Texas ............................[2]57 Indianapolis, Indiana ..................[2]77 Los Angeles, California ..............[2]189 Miami, Florida.............................[3]37 Minneapolis, Minnesota .............[3]53 Nashville, Tennessee ..................[3]137 New Orleans, Louisiana.............[3]153 New York, New York ................[3]173 Phoenix, Arizona .........................[4]19 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania .............[4]1 San Francisco, California .............[4]85 Seattle, Washington....................[4]101 Washington, D.C..........................[4]18
Asia Bangkok, Thailand ......................[1]17 Beijing, China ..............................[1]33 Hong Kong, China.......................[2]21 Istanbul, Turkey ..........................[2]93 Jerusalem, Israel.........................[2]107 Manila, Philippines .......................[3]1 Mumbai (Bombay), India.............[3]99 Sydney, Australia .......................[4]117 Tokyo, Japan ............................[4]133
Europe Berlin, Germany...........................[1]49 Brussels, Belgium ........................[1]83 Istanbul, Turkey...........................[2]93 London, United Kingdom .........[2]169 Madrid, Spain ...........................[2]205 Paris, France ..............................[3]195 Prague, Czech Republic ...............[4]35 Rome, Italy ..................................[4]63
South America Buenos Aires, Argentina...............[1]97 Caracas, Venezuela ...................[1]131 Lima, Peru ................................[2]155 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ..................[4]49
North America Canada Montréal, Québec .......................[3]83
viii
R E A D E R ’S G U I D E this Reader’s Guide, all of whom offered substantive insights that were instrumental to the creation of this work. The editors are extremely grateful for the time and effort these distinguished reviewers devoted to improving the quality of this work. Sixteen researchers, many of whom live in the city they profiled, are listed on the staff page. Their well-researched profiles give users of Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities an opportunity to compare the history and contemporary life in 50 of the world’s greatest cities—from the ancient cities of Cairo, Egypt and Istanbul, Turkey, to the fast-growing modern metropolitan communities of Lagos, Nigeria; Sydney, Australia; and Seattle, Washington.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities presents profiles of 50 major cities from around the world, arranged alphabetically in four volumes. Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities is a new reference work organized under the Worldmark design. The Worldmark design assembles facts and data about each city in a common structure. Every profile contains a map, showing the city and its location. The challenging task of selecting the cities to be profiled in this first edition of Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities was accomplished with input from librarian advisors. From a list of over 100 candidate cities, 50 were selected to represent the continents and cultures of the world, with an emphasis on cities of the United States. Twenty-five cities from North America (including 21 U.S. cities) are profiled, 9 cities from Asia, 7 cities from Europe, 5 cities from Africa, and 4 from South America fill the four volumes. Profiles present text and graphical elements, including photographs, with the needs and interests of student researchers in mind. Recognition must be given to the many tourist bureaus, convention centers, city government press offices, and graphic agencies that contributed the data and photographs that comprise this encyclopedia. This edition also benefits from the work of the reviewers listed at the end of
Sources Due to the broad scope of this encyclopedia many sources were consulted in compiling the information and statistics presented in these volumes. Of primary importance were the official web sites posted by many of the cities’ government offices and tourist/convention bureaus on the World Wide Web. Also instrumental in the development of this publication was the web site of the U.S. Bureau of the Census, available at http://www.census.gov/. Finally, many fact sheets, booklets, and statistical abstracts were used to update
ix
READER’S GUIDE data not collected by federal or city governments. Profile Features The structure of the Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities entries—22 numbered headings—allows students to compare two or more cities in a variety of ways. Each city profile begins with the city name, state or province (where applicable), country, and continent. A city fact box provides information including dates founded and incorporated, city location, official city motto and flower, time zone, ethnic composition, city elevation, latitude and longitude, coastline (where applicable), climate information, annual mean temperature, seasonal average snowfall (where applicable), average annual precipitation, form of government, system of weights and measures used, monetary units, telephone area codes, and city postal codes. Where available, a picture of both the city seal and the city flag, with description, appear. With regard to the time zone, the standard time is given by time zone in relation to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). The world is divided into 24 time zones, each one hour apart. The Greenwich meridian, which is 0 degrees, passes through Greenwich, England, a suburb of London. Greenwich is at the center of the initial time zone, known as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). All times given are converted from noon in this zone. The time reported for the city is the official time zone. Also provided in each article is a Population Profile box comparing the city proper with its greater metropolitan
x
area, including suburbs (where available), and lists facts such as population, racial breakdown, and nicknames. Profiles also include a City Fact Comparison box, comparing daily costs of visiting the city with costs for visiting representative cities elsewhere in the world (Cairo, Egypt; Rome, Italy; and Beijing, China). City maps, locator maps, and photos complement the entries. The body of each city’s profile is arranged in 22 numbered headings as follows: 1
INTRODUCTION. The city’s location
is described. City features are outlined, sometimes citing key facts from city history and major attractions. 2
GETTING THERE. Information is pro-
vided on major highways offering access into and around the city, as well as information on bus and railroad service, airports, and shipping. 3
GETTING AROUND. Information is
outlined on means of transportation within a city, including bus and commuter rail service; some entries include transportation modes that will be less familiar to many student researchers, such as the three-wheeled tuk-tuk of Bangkok, Thailand. Both commuter and sightseeing transportation methods are included. 4
PEOPLE. A population count is pro-
vided for the city proper and its metropolitan area, along with an ethnic/racial breakdown of the populace. For many cities, population growth patterns, languages, and religions are also discussed 5 NEIGHBORHOODS. Location, characteristics, and attractions of city historic
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
READER’S GUIDE and ethnic neighborhoods, and business and cultural districts are described. 6 HISTORY. City history is detailed from its founding to the present. 7
GOVERNMENT. Style of government
is described, and elected offices are listed, along with a description of each office and length of an elected term. 8 PUBLIC SAFETY. Police, fire, and ambulatory services are outlined, as well as any special city safety projects. Crime rate statistics are also listed. 9 ECONOMY. This section presents the key elements of the economy. Major industries and employment figures are also summarized.
Topography, climate, and flora and fauna are described, as well as any environmental concerns, programs, or clean-up efforts. 10
ENVIRONMENT.
11 SHOPPING. Popular shopping districts and venues are described, as well as any specialty items for which the city is renowned. 12 EDUCATION. Information about public education and key universities and technical institutes is detailed. 13 HEALTH CARE. Hospitals and other health services are described. Alternative or non-Western health care practices are described in some city profiles. 14
MEDIA. City newspapers, magazines,
television, and radio stations are listed. Where applicable, government influence on media is discussed.
15 SPORTS. Professional and amateur sports—from auto racing and rodeo to cricket and baseball—sports venues, and championships held are listed. Annual sporting events, major international tournaments, and popular recreational sports are also described. 16 PARKS AND RECREATION. Popular recreational activities and city pastimes, from strolling in a city park to playing polo, and the venues where they can be enjoyed, are detailed. 17 PERFORMING ARTS. Performing arts offered in the city are described, as well as the theaters and performing arts halls where they are offered. Notable annual events are listed. 18 LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS. Notable libraries and descriptions of their holdings are described. Major museums, with information about their collections, are listed. 19
TOURISM. The importance of tourism
to the city is summarized, along with factors affecting the tourism industry. Key tourist attractions are listed. 20
HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS. Annu-
ally celebrated holidays and events are listed. 21
F A M O U S C I T I Z E N S . Famous peo-
ple who were born or lived in the city are listed, along with birth and death dates and short biographical descriptions. Bibliographic listings are provided at the end of each profile as a guide for accessing further information. Included are Web sites, 22
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
FOR
FURTHER
STUDY.
xi
READER’S GUIDE government offices, tourist and convention bureaus, major city publications, and books about the city and its history. Because some terms used in this encyclopedia will be new to students, each volume includes a glossary. A keyword index to all four volumes appears in Volume 4. Acknowledgments The editors are indebted to the following reviewers, without whom Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities would not have been possible. The individuals listed below were consulted on the content and structure of this encyclopedia. Their insights, opinions, and suggestions led to many enhancements and improvements in the presentation of the material. Ken Cornwell, Library Media Specialist, Northeast High School, Lincoln, Nebraska
xii
Cindy Doll, Librarian, Columbus Metropolitan Library, Columbus, Ohio Marilyn Eanes, School Library Media Specialist, Hopewell Middle School, Round Rock, Texas Jane Thomas, Library Manager, McNeil High School, Austin, Texas Glenda Willnerd, School Librarian, Lincoln High School, Lincoln, Nebraska Comments and Suggestions We welcome your comments on the Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities, as well as your suggestions for cities to be included in future editions. Please write: Editors, Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities, U•X•L, 27500 Drake Road, Farmington Hills, Michigan 48331– 3535; call toll-free: 1-800-877-4253; or send e-mail via www.galegroup.com.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Manila Manila, Luzon, the Philippines, Asia Founded: 1571; Combined into metropolitan Manila: 1975 Location: Eastern shore of Manila Bay in Southwestern Luzon, the Philippines, Southeast Asia Time Zone: 8 PM in Manila = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: Mostly Tagalog group, with approximately 6% Chinese Elevation: 51 feet Latitude and Longitude: 14º50'N, 121ºE Coastline: Manila sits in the coastal lowlands of Manila Bay, and is divided into southern and northern districts by the Pasig River. Climate: warm and humid most of the year. Rainy season is May through November. Annual Mean Temperature: 25ºC (77ºF); May average daily high 35ºC (95ºF) Average Annual Precipitation: 81.3 inches (208.5 cm), falling mostly between May and November Government: Mayor, Vice-Mayor, 36 elected Councilors Weights and Measures: Metric System Monetary Units: Philippine Peso (P) = 100 centavos Telephone Area Codes: 02 (city code for Manila); 63 (country code for the Philippines) Postal Codes: Rarely used in the Philippines
1
Introduction
Manila, also known as the Pearl of the Orient, is located in Southern Luzon, the largest of the more than 7,000 islands that make up the nation known as the Philippines. The city flanks Manila Bay, and is divided into northern and southern sections by the Pasig River. Manila serves not only as the country’s capitol, but also as its financial, publishing, and business center. The citizens of the city speak Tagalog, but most are also fluent in English, which is the language of instruction in the public schools. Manila contains
many of the country’s largest and most prestigious universities and is also home to the National Library. It was the central location of the nation’s battles for independence, first from Spain and later from the United States. Colonized by the Spanish and later governed by the Americans, Manila shows the signs of foreign influence in the widespread Roman Catholicism and the modeling of its schools upon the American educational system. Despite these influences, Manila and its citizens demonstrate a character and vitality uniquely their own.
1
Manila
Manila Population Profile City Proper Population: 1,876,194 Area: 38.3 sq km (14.94 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 94% Christian Malay; 6% Chinese Nicknames: The Pearl of the Orient
Metropolitan Area Population: 7,832,000 Description: Includes Manila, plus seven other cities and nine towns Area: 636 sq km (248.04 sq mi) World population rank1: approx. 25 Percentage of national population2: 24.6% Average yearly growth rate: 3.1% Nicknames: Metro Manila ——— 1. The Manila metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of the Philippines’s total population living in the Manila metropolitan area.
2
Getting There
Metropolitan Manila is located in the southern region of Luzon, the largest island in the Philippines, an archipelago nation comprised of more than 7,000 islands in the southwest Pacific Ocean between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer. Manila sits in the coastal lowlands of Manila Bay and is divided into southern and northern districts by the Pasig River. Highways The major routes into Manila are Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (ESDA), the South Super Highway, the C-5
2
Highway, and the ESDA-North Diversion link. Bus and Railroad Service Good public transportation is available in Manila. Several major bus companies provide transportation into the city from the outlying areas; bus terminals are located throughout the Metro area. Those closest to downtown Manila are at Plaza Lawton (also known as Liwasang Bonifacio) and in Pasay City, on the ESDA near Taft Avenue. There are train depots in Paco and Makati districts, and commuter trains running north-south during rush hours. Airports Manila is the main entry point into the Philippines for international travelers. International flights and many domestic flights land at Ninoy Aquino International Airport in Paranaque, which is on the southern edge of Metropolitan Manila. Manila Domestic Airport also services domestic flights within the Philippines. Limousine services, public buses, taxis, hotel shuttles, and car rental firms service both airports. Carriers with service to Ninoy Aquino International Airport include Northwest, China Airlines, Cathay Pacific, Japan Airlines, Korean Air, Malaysian Airlines, Singapore Airlines, Thai Airways, and PAL (Philippine Air Lines), the national carrier of the Philippines.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Manila
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
3
Manila Shipping
Sightseeing
Although Manila is a major Asian seaport, international travel to Manila by boat is very difficult to arrange. Regular passenger boat service exists between Manila and other Philippine ports.
Hotels and travel agencies in Manila offer sightseeing trips by bus. A refitted tanker called the Tennessee Walker provides nightly dinner cruises of Manila Bay. The Department of Tourism can provide English, Spanish, Japanese-speaking guides, as well as guides in other languages.
3
Getting Around
A wide range of public transportation crosses the metro area every day. The most uniquely Philippine mode of travel is the jeepney. Each of these jeepminivan hybrids is uniquely painted and decorated by its owner. Jeepneys provide cheap transportation (fares average P5 to P10) for the short haul, while buses might be more comfortable for longer trips across town. Motorcycles and bicycles with sidecars (called “tricycles” and “pedicabs,” respectively) carry passengers on narrow city streets and alleyways for a charge of a few pesos. Taxicabs are used in the business districts, while in other neighborhoods, including Chinatown and Intramuros, horse-drawn carriages carry both goods and passengers. Bus and Commuter Rail Service The Light Rail Transit provides safe, fast transportation on an elevated railway. It has a limited number of stops, running from Caloocan City south to Baclaran in Pasay City. Currently most stops are in Manila, but more stations are under construction. The Light Rail runs between 4 AM and 9 PM at a fare of P5.
4
4
People
In 1990, the population of the city of Manila was 1,876,194, while the population of the area known as Metro Manila was 7,832,000. Approximately 94 percent of Manila's population is of Malay-Indonesian descent, often infused with Spanish, Chinese, American, and European blood. Of the remainder of the population, between five and six percent are Chinese; this portion of the population includes many of Manila’s wealthiest families and businessmen. Because interracial marriage is common in the Philippines, many Manila residents can be described as Mestizos, the product of marriage between Filipinos and Caucasians or Chinese and non-Chinese. Tagalog is the main language of Manila. Part of the Malay-Polynesian group of languages, it contains words borrowed from many sources including Spanish, Arabic, Chinese, and Sanskrit. Because more than 70 dialects are spoken in the Philippines, the country has been working toward developing a true national language. The language, called Filipino, is based most heavily on Tagalog. A small percentage of the popula-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Manila
City Fact Comparison Manila (Philippines)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
7,832,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1571
753 BC
723 BC
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$134
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$48
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$12
$14
$15
$16
$194
$173
$246
$207
38
13
20
11
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
Total daily costs Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
People’s Bagong Akhbar El Yom/ Taliba Al Akhbar 508,000
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
n.a.
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
tion—mainly the upper class—claims Spanish as its mother tongue. English is widely spoken and is generally the language of business and politics. English is also the language of instruction in the public schools, although a move to replace English with Filipino in the schools was backed by the Ramos government (1992–98). 5
Neighborhoods
Metro Manila is a conglomeration of 17 municipalities, with neighborhoods ranging from the historic sights of Intramuros to sophisticated business centers in Makati to the squatter shantytowns of Tondo.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Rizal Park is at the city’s physical center. To the north of the park is Intramuros, an old, walled city built by the Spanish. Although Intramuros was heavily damaged during World War II (1939–45), it is being restored and is an area of great cultural and historical interest. To the south of Rizal Park are Ermita and Malate, areas that previously housed Manila’s middle and upper classes, but that now form the tourist belt. These areas are home to many hotels and restaurants, as well as to Manila’s vibrant nightlife. Manila’s business center is Makati, a modern showplace of shopping centers and skyscrapers. Residential dis-
5
Manila
Manila, nicknamed the Pearl of the Orient, rests on the Manila Bay. (Mike Yamashita; Woodfin Camp)
tricts, home to wealthy Filipinos and foreign residents, surround the business hub. Forbes Park is Makati’s most exclusive address, housing millionaires behind locked gates and under the protection of private security forces. Many embassies, consulates, polo clubs, and golf clubs also claim Makati addresses. In contrast to Makati is Tondo, a slum area near the Tayuman train station, where an estimated 180,000 of Manila's citizens live in subsistence conditions.
ing small shops. It is located partly in Santa Cruz and partly in Binondo.
Manila’s Chinatown is a longestablished, lively area of restaurants, mah jong clubs, teahouses, and intrigu-
Paranaque and Las Pinas are both old salt-making towns, each known for their distinctive churches. The Las Pinas
6
Each of the other towns that make up Metro Manila has its own character. A government center and home to the main campus of the University of the Philippines, Quezon City also contains many elegant residential neighborhoods. Cubao is Quezon City’s commercial center, and houses the Araneta Coliseum, the site of sporting events.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Manila Church houses a world-famous organ made of bamboo. At Paranaque’s Church of Our Lady of Perpetual Help, the novenas held each Wednesday attract large crowds and turn the neighborhood into an informal marketplace of merchandise and food vendors. Malabon’s fame also stems from religious roots, for each year on Good Friday, this fishing village is transformed by parades of masked devotees whipping themselves over the shoulders as a demonstration of their religious ardor. 6
History
The city of Manila was established in 1571 when the Spanish conquistador Miguel Lopez de Legaspi arrived and made it the capitol of the colony “Felipinas.” At the time of Legaspi’s arrival, Manila was a walled Moslem settlement ruled by the Rajah Sulayman, who collected duties from the traders from neighboring island countries who wanted to travel up the Pasig River. Sulayman resisted the intrusion of the Spanish and fled across the river to the area known today as Tondo. When Sulayman’s men met Legaspi's forces at the Battle of Bangkusay Channel on June 3, 1571, they faced the muskets and cannons of the Spanish with only spears and arrows. The Moslems were defeated, and Sulayman himself lost his life during the battle. Although the Chinese invaded Manila in 1574 and the Dutch in the mid-seventeenth century, the Spanish retained control of Manila for 327 years, except for a brief interlude in
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
1762 (during the Seven Years’ War) when the British occupied the city. When the Seven Years’ War ended, Manila was once again under the rule of Spain as a condition of the 1763 Treaty of Paris. The Spanish brought Roman Catholicism to Manila, founding many churches, convents, and schools. This influence remains to this day, as the Philippines is the only Asian country in which Christianity is the predominant faith. The citizens of Manila chafed under the yoke of Spanish domination. The seeds of revolution germinated in 1886 with the publication of Dr. Jose Rizal’s book Noli Me Tangere (Touch Me Not), a novel critical of the way the Spanish friars were governing the Philippines. The Spanish condemned Noli Me Tangere, and Rizal was exiled to Hong Kong. In 1892 he returned to Manila to found La Liga Filipina, a nationalistic organization. Later that year in the Tondo section of Manila, Andres Bonifacio founded the Katipunan, a secret organization devoted to attaining Filipino freedom from Spain. The Spanish discovered the Katipunan in August of 1896 and banished hundreds of Filipinos. Many others were killed. Within ten days, the Katipunan Revolt began, with an open declaration of war against Spain. Jose Rizal became a martyr of the revolution when the Spanish executed him by firing squad on December 30, 1896, in Bagumbayan, Taguig (now part of Metro Manila), for his alleged role in the Katipunan Revolt.
7
Manila With the unmasking of the Katipunan, Andres Bonifacio called the Tejeros Convention, at which the revolutionary Tejeros government was formed, with General Emilio Aguinaldo at its head. The Tejeros government was unsuccessful in its fight for freedom from Spain, and as part of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato peace treaty, General Aguinaldo accepted exile in Hong Kong. Despite the failure of the Tejeros revolution, Spanish rule of the Philippines was soon to come to an end. The Spanish-American War battlefield spread to Manila in 1898, where U.S. Commodore George Dewey defeated the Spanish fleet in the Battle of Manila Bay. With the Americans came General Aguinaldo, arriving on the U.S. warship USS McCullock, ready to resume his revolutionary activities against Spain. On June 12, 1898, in Manila, General Aguinaldo declared the Philippines independent from Spain; however, his declaration was not recognized internationally. The United States paid Spain 20 million dollars for their former colony, and Filipinos once again found themselves under foreign rule. War broke out between the Filipinos and the Americans on February 4, 1899, when an American soldier shot and killed a Filipino in Manila. The Philippine-American War continued through 1903 at the cost of many lives both in Manila and elsewhere throughout the islands. In 1935, the U.S. government committed itself to granting the Philippines
8
independence after a ten-year transition, a period that was extended by one year due to World War II. On January 2, 1942, the Japanese landed in Manila, where they remained for three years until they were forced out of their Intramuros stronghold in February 1945. Manila was severely damaged by the bombings of World War II. Of national capitols, only Warsaw, Poland, suffered greater destruction. On July 4, 1946, the Philippine flag was raised for the first time in Rizal Park in Manila, and the nation celebrated its first day of independence. Manila played a key role in the upsetting of dictatorial President Ferdinand Marcos. On August 21, 1983, exiled former senator Benigno Aquino was assassinated at Manila Airport immediately upon his return to his homeland. This assassination shocked the city and the nation and united opposition groups to fight for the end to his rule. 7
Government
The government of the city of Manila is under an umbrella government called the Metropolitan Manila Authority. The Authority governs all the towns and cities that make up Metropolitan Manila. The city government consists of an elected mayor and vicemayor, along with 36 elected councilors. 8
Public Safety
The Metro Manila police force is under the administration of the Philip-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Manila
The Manila Bay is one of the most protected natural resources in the Philippines. (Mike Yamashita; Woodfin Camp)
pines National Police (PNP) and is divided into five geographic districts. In 1997, the PNP instituted a special task force called “Task Force Tanglow” in Manila and throughout the entire country, focusing on the problems of violence and abuse directed at women and children. 9
Economy
Manila’s economy is multi-faceted. Diverse products, such as chemicals, textiles, rope, coconut oil, and shoes, are manufactured within the metropolitan area. Food and tobacco processing also employ many residents. With its
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
excellent protected harbor, Manila serves as the nation’s principal port. In addition, it is the financial and publishing center for the Philippines. The widespread use of English gives the city an advantage in international trade not shared by many Asian cities. Manila shares the problems of many large cities, however. It is overpopulated, and municipal agencies struggle to keep up with the demand for services. 10
Environment
One of Manila’s greatest natural resources is the protected harbor upon which it sits, the finest in all of Asia.
9
Manila handicrafts, such as carvings, lamps made of shells, and canework, would do well to try the shops at the Nayong Pilipino or to visit the famous outdoor market in Quiapo called Ilalim ng Tulay. (The name means “under the bridge,” for the market is located under the Quezon Bridge.) Other outdoor markets are found throughout the Metro Manila area. Notable ones include the Quinta Market in Quiapo, not far from Ilalim ng Tulay; Cartimar Market in Pasay, known as a place to buy pets; and the Baclaran Flea Market, located near the Baclaran Church in Baclaran, Manila. The Baclaran Market sells food, flowers, and household items, and is especially lively after mass on Wednesdays. Bargaining is acceptable and even expected at most outdoor markets.
Shoppers can choose between traditional open-air markets, or air-conditioned shopping malls with department stores, art galleries, and food courts. (Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp)
The sea provides fish, shells, and salt. Although Manila is now overwhelmingly urban, outlying areas still provide coconuts, hemp for rope making, and rice. Another source of Manila’s wealth is its people, with their high literacy rate and facility with languages. 11
Shopping
Manila offers a variety of shopping experiences, from colorful open-air markets to air-conditioned shopping malls. Shoppers seeking Philippine
10
Makati, the commercial hub of Metro Manila and the nation, boasts department stores, designer boutiques, and art galleries. Major shopping areas include the Makati Commercial Center, the Atrium of Makati, Makati Cinema Square, and the Greenbelt Square. The Cubao area of Quezon City also contains major shopping districts, including Araneta Center, which has nearly two thousand stores. 12
Education
The Philippine educational system is made up of six years of elementary school, four years of secondary school (high school), and higher education (college or university). Children are required to attend the first four years of
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Manila
School children play during recess at Assumption College, an exclusive girl’s school. (Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp)
elementary school. Approximately 88 percent of those over 15 years of age are literate. Several universities are based in Metro Manila. The Ateneo de Manila University in Quezon City offers elementary, secondary and undergraduate education, as well as graduate schools of arts and science, law, and business. The University of the Philippines Manila (UPM) contains colleges of medicine, nursing, public health, pharmacy, and dentistry, and supports institutes of ophthalmology and socio-biomedical research. Philippine General Hospital is
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
the training hospital for the UPM colleges. Founded in 1611, the University of Santo Tomas is Asia’s oldest university. Originally located within the walled city of Intramuros and intended for the education of priests, it has moved to larger quarters in Sampaloc, and now offers a wide range of courses, including music, architecture, engineering, business administration, and education. Other institutes of higher education in Metro Manila include the University of the Philippines (in Quezon City), De LaSalle University, the University of the East (UE Manila),
11
Manila Mapua Institute of Technology (MIT), and Asia Pacific College. 13
Health Care
Philippine General Hospital is the training hospital for the health colleges of the University of the Philippines Manila. A large facility, it serves approximately 700,000 patients per year. The Philippine Heart Center in Quezon City offers seminars and postgraduate courses to health care professionals. Nearly a million patients have been treated at the Heart Center since it opened its doors in 1975. The Center is also active in community outreach and education. Other health care facilities in the Metro Manila area include the University of Santo Tomas Hospital, the Makati Medical Center, and St. Luke’s Medical Center in Quezon City. 14
Media
For 20 years under the Marcos regime, official government censorship limited what the newspapers in Manila could print, and only four daily papers served the population. Now, with the absence of censorship, daily newspapers have flourished in the capital city, with more than 20 daily papers available. A variety of viewpoints are represented in the daily papers, which include the Manila Bulletin, Inquirer, Malaya, and the Manila Chronicle. Most publish in English, although papers are also available in Tagalog and, to a lesser extent, in Chinese. A few weekly magazines are published in Manila, including Free Press, which is known for expressing
12
critical and irreverent viewpoints. American magazines, such as Time and Newsweek, are widely available. Seven commercial television stations operate out of Manila, broadcasting some shows in English, some in Tagalog. Satellite and cable TV are available to a limited extent. More than a dozen commercial radio stations broadcast from the Metro Manila area, including DWNU, “The Only Station that Rocks the Nation,” and DWFM, whose slogan is “Most Requested Song.” Movie-going is very popular in Manila. Modern movie theaters throughout the Metro Manila area show both Philippine and foreign movies. 15
Sports
The most popular spectator sport in Manila is basketball. Manila has its own professional team in the Philippines Metropolitan Basketball League (MBA), the Manila Metrostars. Games for this league, as well as for the Philippine Basketball Association (PBA), take place at the Rizal Memorial Stadium and the Araneta Coliseum. Other popular spectator sports include jai-alai, horse racing, and cockfighting. Jai-alai games take place seven days a week at Jai-alai de Manila stadium in Malate. Horse races are held Wednesday nights and Saturday and Sunday afternoons at race tracks in Santa Ana and Santa Cruz. Cockfights take place in various locations, mostly
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Manila on Sundays and holidays. The most well-known cockpits are the Philippine Cockers Club in Santa Ana, La Lorna in Quezon City, and Libertad in Pasay City. 16
Parks and Recreation
Rizal Park, also known locally as Luneta Park, is a popular strolling ground at the center of Manila. With flowers, fountains, and lush lawns, it is usually filled with thousands of people in the late afternoons and evenings. It contains a memorial to Dr. Jose Rizal, the national hero who was executed nearby by the Spanish in 1896. A changing of the guard ceremony takes place regularly, as well as twice daily light shows near a set of statues reenacting the execution. The 6:30 PM show is in Tagalog while the 7:30 PM show is in English. The park also contains playgrounds, a roller-skating rink, an openair auditorium, and gardens in traditional, Japanese, and Chinese styles. Other parks in the Metro area include Fort Santiago Park in Manila, and Quezon Memorial Circle and the Ninoy Aquino Park and Wildlife Center, both in Quezon City. The Manila Zoological Garden is in Malate. While it contains interesting specimens of the Philippine eagle and the dwarf buffalo, the facility is known to be crowded and many of the animals neglected. The Chinese Cemetery in the area of Santa Cruz known as Monumento is a fascinating place because of the blending of Catholic, Buddhist, and
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Taoist traditions and the grandiose nature of some of the tombs. Some monuments include mailboxes, refrigerators, and even air-conditioning. Tour guides are available. Golfing is available at 11 greens throughout the Metro Manila area. 17
Performing Arts
Music of many types can be found in Manila. The Cultural Centre in Manila hosts performances by international orchestras and artists as well as by the Philippine Philharmonic Orchestra and the Philippine Madrigal Singers. Free outdoor musical performances are held weekly in Paco Park on Fridays, at Puerta Real at the Intramuros Wall on Saturdays, and at Rizal Park on Sunday afternoons. Jazz is performed regularly in several of the larger hotels’ lounges. Numerous bistros and cafes provide a stage for local singers or the chance for a karaoke experience. Folk dancing demonstrations are held Sunday afternoons in the Mindanao section of Nayong Pilipino in Pasay City. Several restaurants in the Metro area feature Philippine folk dancing as their dinner entertainment. A variety of live theater experience is available in Manila. The Rajah Sulayman Theater, located in Intramuros, provides open-air performances. Other theaters are located in Malate at the Cultural Center of the Philippines, as well as at the Folk Arts Theater and at the William Shaw Theater in Mandaluyong.
13
Manila 18
Libraries and Museums
Metro Manila offers visitors the opportunity to explore the cultural wealth of the Philippines through art museums, historical museums, and cultural and scientific displays. Three art museums can be found in Malate: the Cultural Center Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Manila, and the Museo ng Sining, which is the largest museum of contemporary art in the Philippines. The San Augustin Museum in Intramuros contains oil paintings, frescoes, and vestments. The National Museum, located in Rizal Park, contains prehistoric artifacts, as well as pottery, weapons, and costumes. Seven native boats, dating from between 890 and 710 B.C., are also featured. The Ayala Museum in Malate presents a chronological display of Philippine history in over 60 dioramas. The Lopez Museum in Pasig has a collection of over 13,000 Filipino books, some dating back as far as 1524. Its large collection of historical travel literature includes the first printed account of Magellan’s journey to the Philippines. The Rizal Shrine, which honors national hero Dr. Jose Rizal, is located at Fort Santiago in Intramuros. It displays some of his personal belongings, as well as the cell in which he was imprisoned. Casa Manila Museum, also located in Intramuros, is a reproduction of a typical Spanish residence. Another historical residence on display is the former Malacanang Palace, now known as the Museo ng Malacanang. This museum
14
once housed examples of the Marcos’s notorious extravagance but now contains mostly photographs of former presidents. The Nayong Pilipino (“Philippine Village”) is a large complex providing a miniaturized version of the entire country, with representative native homes and regional landscapes. It also contains several specialized museums, including the Museum of Philippine Dolls and the Nayong Pilipino Aquarium. The Philippine Museum of Ethnology, also part of the Nayong Pilipino, contains information on the country’s cultural minorities, with examples of tools, musical instruments, weapons, and utensils. The Museo Pambata in Ermita is a children’s museum that encourages hands-on exploration of a rainforest, a streetcar, and an old-fashioned fire engine. The Museum of Arts and Sciences at the University of Santo Tomas has a variety of exhibits, as well as an extensive library. The National Library in Manila has an extensive collection of approximately 1.3 million books. Other libraries may be found in the area colleges and universities and at the International Rice Research Institute. 19
To u r i s m
In recent years, many luxury hotels have been built in Manila to handle the increasing tide of business travel and the tourists who are drawn by the tropical climate, diving opportunities, and
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Manila hospitable people. Budget-priced hostels are available as well. Nearly all of the 1.5 million tourists who visit the Philippines each year enter through Manila and spend at least some of their holiday in the capital city. Many also use Manila as a base from which to explore other nearby attractions, such as the beaches of Bantangas and the hot springs of Los Banos. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY Black Nazarene Procession Feast of the Santo Nino (Holy Infant) Chinese Lunar New Year, Chinatown (depending on lunar calendar, occurs between mid-January and mid-February)
The most unique and inexpensive way to take a short trip around town is to ride in a Jeepney. Each one is exclusive in its decoration. (George Hall; Woodfin Camp)
FEBRUARY
DECEMBER
Feast of Our Lady of Lourdes, Quezon City People Power Days, celebrating the peaceful end of the Marcos era, Quezon City
Feast of Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception, night boat procession Simbang Gabi, night masses held just before dawn throughout the Christmas season
MARCH-APRIL Maundy Thursday Good Friday
MAY Labor Day, parade in Rizal Park Flores de Mayo-Santacruzan, processions in honor of the Virgin Mary
JUNE Manila Day, anniversary of Manila’s being declared a city in 1571, parade and film festival
JULY Filipino-American Friendship Day, evening concert in Rizal Park Paternos River Fiesta
OCTOBER La Naval de Manila, evening candle-lit procession commemorating the 1646 sea victory over Dutch plunderers, Quezon City
NOVEMBER All Saints Day
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
21
Famous Citizens
Lorenzo Ruiz (c. 1600–37), calligrapher, executed in Japan for refusing to renounce Christianity, canonized in 1987, becoming first Filipino saint. Mariano Gomes (1799–1872), secular priest and martyr, founder of newspaper La Verdad, which reported Spanish abuses. Jose Maria Basa (1839–1907), reformer and patriot. Numeriano Adriano (1846–97), reformer and patriot, leading member of
15
Manila La Liga Filipina, executed by the Spanish for treason. Trinidad Pardo de Taverna (1857–1925), director of National Library and Museum, co-founder of the Federal Party, which advocated statehood in the Philippines. Orencio Lerma (1861–97), musician and martyr, executed by the Spanish. Andres Bonifacio (1863–97), co-founder of the Katipunan, led revolution against Spain in 1896. Teodoro Plata (1866–96), co-founder of the Katipunan, executed by the Spanish. General Antonio Luna (1866–99), called “the greatest soldier of the revolution,” founded and edited La Independencia, the newspaper of the revolution. 22
For Further Study
Websites Manila Bulletin. [Online] Available http:// www.mb.com.ph (accessed January 21, 2000). Manila Times. [Online] Available http:// www.manilatimes.net (accessed January 21, 2000).
Government Offices Mayor’s Office (02) 527-4991 City Press Office (02) 527-0909 Director, Public Recreation Bureau (02) 524-8157
16
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Department of Tourism Office, Manila TM Kalaw Street Ermita, Luzon The Philippines (02) 523-8411
Publications Abante 268 Atlanta Manila Ang Pahayagang Malaya (Freedom Newspaper) 202 Railroad and 13th Street Port Area Manila Ang Pilipino Ngayon (Philippines Today; in Filipino) 202 Railroad and 13th Street Port Area Manila China Town News (in Chinese) 652 St. Tomas Street Intramuros Manila Financial Times of Manila Times Journal Building Railroad and 19th Street Manila Malaya (Freedom) C. C. Castro Building Tomog Avenue Manila Manila Bulletin Corner of Muralla and Recoletos P. O. Box 769 Intramuros Manila Chronicle 371 Bonifacio Drive Port Area Manila Manila Standard Elizalde Building, 4th Floor Ayalda Avenue Manila Manila Times 30 Pioneer Street Mandaluyong
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Manila People's Bagong Taliba Times Journal Building Railroad and 19th Street Port Area Manila People's Journal Times Journal Building Railroad and 19th Street Port Area Manila Philippine Daily Inquirer YIC Building, No. 1006 Romualdez Street UN Avenue Manila Philippine Star 202 Railroad and 13th Street Port Area Manila Philippines Times Journal Times Journal Building Railroad and 19th Street Port Area Manila United Daily News (in English and Chinese) 812 Benavides Street Binondo
Books Allen, Francis J. Concrete Battleship: Fort Drum, El Fraile Island, Manila Bay. Missoula, MT: Pictorial Histories Publishing Company, 1989. Berner, Erhard. Defending a Place in the City: Localities and the Struggle for Urban Land in Metro Manila. Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1998. Bowditch, Nathaniel. Early American-Philippine
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Trade: the Journal of Nathaniel Bowditch in Manila, 1796. New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1987. Brittan, Dolly. The People of the Philippines. New York: Powerkids Press, 1998. Caoili, Manuel A. The Origins of Metropolitan Manila: A Political and Social Analysis. Diliman, Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1999. Connaughton, R.M., John Pimlott, and Duncan Anderson. The Battle for Manila. Norvato, CA: Presidio Press, 1995. Davis, Lucille. The Philippines (Countries of the World). Mankato, MN: Bridgestone Books, 1999. Kinkade, Sheila, and Elaine Little (photog). Children of the Philippines (World's Children). Minneapolis: Carolrhoda Books, 1996. Mansfield, Stephen. Guide to Philippines. UK: Bradt Publications, 1997. Michel, John J.A. Mr. Michel's War: From Manila to Mukden: An American Navy Officer's War with the Japanese, 1941– 1945. Norvato, CA, 1998. Moser, Caroline and Cathy McIlwaine. Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerability. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1997. Peters, Jens. Lonely Planet Philippines (6th Ed.). Hawthorne, Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications, 1997. Rizal, Jose, Raul L. Locsin, ed. and Ma Soledad Locson-Locsin, transl. Noli Me Tangere. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997. Roth, Marissa, Jessica Hagedorn, and Hagedorn Roth. Burning Heart: A Portrait of the Philippines. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, 1999. Schemenauer, Elma. The Philippines. Charhassen, MN: Childs World, 1999.
17
Mexico City Mexico City, Mexico, North America Founded: 1521; Incorporated: 1522 Location: North America, Mexico, in a basin known as the Valley of Mexico, built on the dried bed of Lake Texcoco. Mountains surround the city, with the 17,877foot active Popocatépetl Volcano (the smoking mountain) nearby. Time Zone: 6 AM = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Elevation: 7,340 ft (2,237 m) Latitude and Longitude: 19º26'N, 99º7'W Climate: Because of its altitude, Mexico City's weather is cool, with small seasonal changes. While snow is rare, night frosts are common during the colder months of December and January. Annual Median Temperature: 18ºC (64ºF). During the colder months, temperatures average 12.4ºC (54.3ºF). During the rainy season (May through September) remperatures average 17.3ºC (63.1ºF) Average Annual Precipitation: 180 cm (70.5 in) per year. Weights and Measures: Metric Monetary Units: The peso; 9.4 pesos = $ 1 (January 2000) Telephone Area Codes: Country code: (52); Mexico City: (5)
1
Introduction
On a cold winter day, when the wind doesn’t blow, Mexico City lies shrouded by a thick, brown cover. Caught within the tall mountains that surround the mile-high city, the smog permeates everything. The eyes sting, and clothes smell like gasoline. The clearing of throats soon turns to hacking, and the lines at the hospitals grow long. At its worst, Mexico City seems to take the very life out of its citizens. But while they complain about the smog, the traffic, even about its politics and the price of fruit, it is rare to hear Chilangos—the name given to Mexico City
residents—express contempt or hatred for their city. They cherish those rare clear days, when the winds have scrubbed the skies clean and turned them deep blue. In the distance the active Popocatepétl Volcano rumbles and spits fire, while its eternal companion, the dormant Iztaccíhuatl, stands silently by. Sitting in a small plaza adjacent to cobblestone streets and hundred-year-old trees in one of the city's colonial neighborhoods, it is easy to forget that more than 20 million people live within the radius of a few miles. Twenty million people. Visitors shudder at the thought
19
Mexico City
Mexico City Population Profile
remains of an Aztec temple peek over a protective wall. Two worlds came to a cataclysmic clash, and yet created something new: Mexico City.
City Proper Population: 8,500,000 Area: 1,499 sq km (579 sq mi) Nicknames: Mexico, "El D.F." (The Federal District); informally, the residents of Mexico City are called chilangos.
Metropolitan Area Population: 18,131,000 Description: Mexico City and 27 neighboring municipalities (second largest metropolitan area in the world) Area: More than 2,330 sq km (900 sq mi) World population rank1: 2 Percentage of national population2: 18.3% Average yearly growth rate: 1.8% ——— 1. The Mexico City metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of Mexico’s total population living in the Mexico City metropolitan area.
of getting lost among the millions, for Mexico City has been called cruel, unrelenting, inhuman. Twenty million people, and at times, just as many cars—or so it seems. It is a city where citizens trust the robbers more than police officers. How could anybody willingly want to live there? It has all been said; even Chilangos have said it. And yet it has also been said that this is a cosmopolitan, deeply sophisticated, and marvelous city, with a history that stretches for many centuries. Anyone who stands in the city’s Zocalo, the main square, will see the mighty cathedral slowly sinking into the soft silt of a former lake. Next to the cathedral, almost as if rising from that very soil, the excavated
20
2
Getting There
Highways Five main national highways connect Mexico City to the rest of the nation. By March 1999, nearly 240,000 vehicles per day used the highways to enter and leave the city. Bus and Railroad Service More than 24,000 passenger buses arrive in the Federal District each week, bringing passengers from throughout the country. Overland travelers from the United States can take their own vehicles or travel by bus or train to Mexico City. Airports Most international visitors to Mexico City arrive at the Benito Juárez International Airport, located on the eastern border of the city. The airport is used by nearly 19 million travelers each year. 3
Getting Around
Bus and Commuter Rail Service With more than 3 million registered vehicles, Mexico City is difficult to navigate. Major roads are nearly always congested by every possible mode of transport. Most common are taxis, VW “bugs” painted green or yel-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Mexico City
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
21
Mexico City low, and small buses known as “peseros” because they originally charged one Mexican peso for a ride. Buses that burn cleaner fuels are replacing the highly polluting peseros. The city also is adding more electric buses to its fleet. The efficient underground metro system, which opened in 1969, carried about four-and-a-half million passengers per day in 1999. By 2010, the metro system is expected to grow to 15 lines, stretch over 315 kilometers (196 miles), and carry more than 12 million passengers per day. Mexico City opened a new underground metro line in November 1999. When fully completed, Line B will stretch for nearly 24 kilometers (15 miles), from the heart of the city to the fast growing northeast suburbs. More than 600,000 passengers per day were estimated to board along the line’s 21 stations in 2000. In January 2000, the government set the fare for the metro and buses at 1.50 pesos (about 25 cents). Senior citizens and the indigent travel for free. 4
People
About one-fifth of Mexico’s people live in the metropolitan area. Most of its inhabitants are people of mixed European and Indian descent (mestizos) and Mexicans of European descent (criollos). But steady immigration from rural areas has brought more indigenous people to the city. Most Mexicans are Roman Catholic, but other religions have shown significant growth in recent years.
22
5
Neighborhoods
Similar to other major metropolitan areas in developing nations, Mexico City’s neighborhoods range from those in extreme poverty, where residents live in dilapidated homes without water and electricity, to posh neighborhoods that rival Beverly Hills, California, in their wealth. It is still possible, in this megalopolis of millions, to find a quiet corner in some small tree-lined plaza where the noises and smells of millions of cars seem to vanish. The heart of the city, built over the remnants of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlán, is known today as “El Centro” (downtown) or Mexico Viejo (Old Mexico). It is a large area of about four square kilometers (two-and-a-half square miles) dotted by dozens of museums and plazas and thousands of shops and restaurants. Its sidewalks are often crowded by thousands of street merchants selling toys, piñatas, leather belts, and cure-all medicinal herbs. Designated as a historic treasure, Mexico City has embarked on a revitalization program spearheaded by the government that is expected to take many years to complete. The downtown area is defined by its Zocalo, a massive open central plaza that is surrounded by the imposing Cathedral of Mexico, the National Palace, the official seat of the presidency, and many fine colonial buildings, including City Hall. Next to the cathedral are the excavated ruins of Templo Mayor, one of the most important ceremonial buildings of the Aztec era. It was
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Mexico City
City Fact Comparison Indicator
Mexico City (Mexico)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
18,131,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1521
753 BC
723 BC
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$152
$193
$172
$129
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$57
$56
$59
$62
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.)
$14
$14
$15
$16
$223
$173
$246
$207
24
13
20
11
Esto
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
400,000
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1941
1944
1976
1948
Total daily costs Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established 1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
first uncovered in 1978, and archaeologists continue to make new discoveries in the area. The city plans to plant trees in the vast and empty Zocalo to make it friendlier to visitors and to help combat air pollution. During colonial times, Spaniards built fine mansions in Mexico Viejo. Today, most of these have been turned into businesses or torn down to make way for newer buildings. Others languish in disrepair. Near downtown is La Zona Rosa (the Pink Zone), a neighborhood crowded with expensive restaurants and shops. The neighborhood is not as vibrant as it once was but remains popular among international
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
visitors. As the city grew, its wealthy citizens continued to move west, building homes in the residential neighborhoods of Polanco, Lomas de Chapultepec, and Bosques de las Lomas. The city stretched south as well, swallowing small surrounding towns and incorporating them into the city. Two of them are Coyoacan and San Angel, where many neighborhoods are defined by their small plazas, cobblestone streets lined by massive old trees, and colonial mansions, many hidden by high walls and colorful gardens. On weekends, thousands of Chilangos descend on Coyoacan and San Angel to shop in the small boutiques and at
23
Mexico City
Mexico City’s skyline is lined with historical landmarks. (Mike Yamashita; Woodfin Camp)
street fairs. They sit at the coffee shops and eat at the fine restaurants or buy paintings and sculptures from artists who display their work in the plazas. Here, visitors find a little of the old, provincial Mexico. Farther south is Ciudad Universitaria or University City, home to Mexico’s National University (UNAM). Nearby is the modern and wealthy neighborhood of Pedregal de San Angel, where many homes offer fine examples of modern architecture. The university campus and Pedregal’s homes were built on top of lava fields. Still farther south, on the edge of this megalomaniac city, is Xochimilco,
24
which maintain many ties to its preColumbian past. With more than 304 kilometers (189 miles) of canals lined by cypress trees, seven major lagoons, and floating gardens, flower markets, and hundreds of festivals each year, Xochimilco remains one of the most visited districts in the city. To the north, there are many working-class neighborhoods, including the Villa de Guadalupe, home to the national shrine of the Basílica de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe. Hundreds of thousands of pilgrims from throughout Mexico and as far north as the United States come to the church to pay their respects.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Mexico City The variety of architectural styles in Mexico City is staggering. The only constant is the height of buildings. Because a large part of the city is built on the soft silt of former lakes, and because of the frequent seismic (earthquake) activity, most buildings only reach a few stories high. Mexico City is not a city of towers. Some buildings, especially in the historic downtown area, continue to sink into the soft silt under their own weight. Moorish, Spanish, Tudor, Greek, Roman, Victorian, neo-classical and neo-gothic influences are seen throughout the city. Housing varies according to social status. According to government figures, about two-and-a-half million people (about 30 percent of the population) live in apartment complexes. About 80 percent of these buildings operate much like condominiums, and most of them were built between 1960 and 1980. In the richer enclaves, it is often impossible, without an invitation, to know what kind of home hides behind the 12-foot walls, which are topped with high-voltage electric security wires. 6
History
People had been living in the Valley of Mexico for many centuries before the arrival of the Aztecs in the thirteenth century and the conquering Spaniards soon after that. The basin had no natural outlet and several lakes formed in the valley, attracting inhabitants to their shores. Not far from present-day Mexico City, more than 100,000 people lived in Teotihuacán, the "Place of the Gods,'' before it was
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
inexplicably abandoned around A.D. 750. Many other groups moved in and out of the valley. Several lakeside communities, some with 10,000 to 15,000 residents, flourished in the Valley of Mexico during pre-Columbian times. According to oral history, the Aztecs were a nomadic tribe. Unskilled and barbaric, they were not welcomed by the inhabitants of the Valley of Mexico when they arrived there in the thirteenth century. They were forced to move from one place to another along the western shore of salty Lake Texcoco, and they ate whatever they could find, including mosquito larva, snakes, and other vermin. In time, the Aztecs settled on some swampy islands on the western shores of the lake. According to legend, the Aztec war god Huitzilopochtli led them to this place. They knew they were home after seeing an eagle perched on a cactus devouring a serpent (today, this national emblem is on the Mexican flag). From here, the Aztec city of Tenochtitlán spread over the marshes, swamps, and islands. In 1428, in an alliance with several valley communities, the Aztecs defeated the dominant city of Azcapotzalco. Until then, the Aztecs, known for their viciousness, had served as mercenaries (hired soldiers) for the Tepanecs, the people of Azcapotzalco. To maintain power after their victory, the Aztecs joined a triple alliance with the valley cities of Texcoco and Tlacopan. The three cities exacted tribute (money and goods in exchange for protection) from surrounding communities, but it was Tenochtitlán that rose to become an
25
Mexico City
Remains of the Aztec Empire. (Kal Muller; Woodfin Camp)
empire, its grasp extending well beyond the Valley of Mexico. By the time Spanish explorer and soldier Hernán Cortés traveled from Cuba to Tenochtitlán in 1519, the city had grown to more than 100,000 people. It was, in the words of the conquering Spaniards, an amazing city of fertile gardens, canals, and massive temples, more beautiful than any European city. Tenochtitlán was connected to the mainland by three large causeways (bridges) that converged on the ceremonial center, near Emperor Moctezuma II’s palace and the main temple.
26
Moctezuma, who believed Cortés was the returning god Quetzalcóatl, welcomed the Spaniards into the city. He was soon their prisoner, however, and died in 1520. The Aztecs then embarked on a futile defense of their city against the Spaniards and their allies, native peoples like the Tlaxcalans, who had been earlier defeated by the Aztecs. Tenochtitlán was heavily damaged during the final battle on August 13, 1521, with Cuauhtémoc, the last of the Aztec kings, leading its defense. Cuauhtémoc, who is now considered a revered national hero, was later tortured and executed. Cortés ordered
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Mexico City the surviving Aztecs out of the city and razed Tenochtitlán. Over its remnants, he began to build a Spanish city he called Mexico. The city was established, and Spain recognized its cabildo (town council) in 1522. The territory became known as New Spain. By the 1530s, Mexico City was given jurisdiction (rule) over other cabildos of New Spain and quickly established itself as the most important city in the Americas. Like that of the Aztecs, the Spaniards’ grasp extended well beyond the Valley of Mexico—only much farther. At one point, Mexico City ruled a territory that extended south to Panama and north to California. By the 1560s, diseases introduced by the Europeans, war, and indentured labor (a contract binding a person to work for another for a given length of time) had decimated Mexico’s native population to one-third of its former size. The wealth taken from New Spain allowed Cortés and those who followed him to build an impressive city. By the eighteenth century, Mexico City’s architecture was renowned, and often compared with the best Europe had to offer. For a period, Mexico City remained by the lakeside. But flooding became a constant problem. After 1629, when several thousand people died in floods, Lake Texcoco and surrounding lakes were drained or filled in. Yet flooding still remained a problem at the turn of the twenty-first century. Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821, after a long war.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
The republican constitution of 1824 established Mexico City as the nation's capital. Unrest followed for the next several decades, as different factions fought for control of Mexico. In 1847, during the Mexican-American War, U.S. troops captured Mexico City and forced a peace treaty on the country. By the 1850s, Mexico’s rulers tried to curb the power of the Catholic Church. The city’s convents were destroyed or turned to other uses. Since then, Mexico’s government has maintained an uneasy relationship with the Vatican (the seat of the Roman Catholic Church). Through the turmoil, the only constant was continued growth, with wealth and power growing increasingly more concentrated in Mexico City. Porfirio Díaz, who ruled the nation for more than three decades (1876–1910), developed the city’s infrastructure (the basic facilities on which the growth of a community depends, such as roads, schools, transportation, and communication systems), encouraged foreign investment, and laid the groundwork for industrial development. By the early twentieth century, Mexico City was becoming a modern city, with gas and electric lighting, streetcars, and other modern amenities. Yet, Díaz’s dictatorial, often cruel, regime concentrated land and wealth in the hands of a few people. The majority of the nation languished in poverty. Social injustice led to nationwide revolts, and ultimately the Mexican Revolution (1910–17). The city was not untouched by the revolution. Battles were fought on its streets,
27
Mexico City and thousands of displaced villagers sought refuge in the city. During the war, Mexico City was held briefly by the famous revolutionaries Ernesto “Pancho” Villa and Emiliano Zapata. Yet, Mexico City’s national eminence was unaffected by the revolution. The city continued to modernize at a rapid pace. Old palaces and colonial homes were demolished to make way for new roads and modern buildings. By 1924, Avenida Insurgentes, considered today one of the world's longest avenues, was being laid out. By the late 1920s, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) was well on its way to becoming the most powerful political force in the nation. From Mexico City, it would rule the nation as a de facto (existing in fact though not by legal establishment) one-party state for the next 70 years. Under the PRI, political power became more centralized in Mexico City, which continued to benefit at the cost of other regions in the nation. By 1930, Mexico City had grown to one million and continued to prosper after World War II (1939–45). But the strains of rapid growth were beginning to show. In 1968, Mexico City hosted the Summer Olympic Games and two years later the Soccer World Cup. Both events were meant to signal the prosperity of a developing nation, but serious problems had been masked by the PRI's authoritarian regime. In 1968, government troops massacred an unknown number of protesting students at a Mexico City housing complex. Mexican historians believe the massacre eventually unrav-
28
eled the PRI’s hold on the nation and led to dramatic political changes by the 1990s. Under relentless growth, Mexico City had lost its charm by the 1970s, when the government could barely keep up with services. The collapse of oil prices starting in 1982 further curtailed public spending (Mexico is the leading producer of crude oil outside of the Persian Gulf; the Mexican government uses the great oil revenue to finance public spending). Mexico City was choking in the smog and pollution. In 1985, a massive earthquake shook the city, killing at least 7,000 people and destroying dozens of buildings. Villagers from the countryside who continued to pour into the city to escape poverty only compounded the city's problems. With no housing available, they took over lands surrounding the city, creating huge shantytowns that extended for many miles. By the mid1990s, the city was suffering through a debilitating crime wave that only seemed to increase each day. In 1997, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, a member of the Party of the Democratic Revolution, became the first elected mayor of Mexico City, dealing a major blow to the PRI, which had ruled the city without interruptions since 1928. Cárdenas promised a more democratic government, and his party claimed some victories against crime, pollution, and other major problems. He resigned in 1999 to run for the presidency. Rosario Robles Berlanga, the first woman to hold the mayoral post, promised she
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Mexico City would continue to reverse the city's decline. 7
Government
In July 1997, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas became the first elected mayor of Mexico City. Before his election, the President of the Republic appointed the mayor. In essence, the federal government controlled the city, historically the center of cultural, political, and economic power of the nation. Today, Chilangos elect the mayor, considered the second most powerful political position in Mexico behind the presidency. Running as a member of the Party of the Democratic Revolution, Cárdenas' victory was a major blow to the Institutional Revolutionary Party, which had governed Mexico since the 1920s. In 1999, Cárdenas resigned his post to run for the presidency in 2000. Rosario Robles Berlanga was appointed to the post, becoming the first woman mayor of the city. Mexico City is made up of 16 districts. Each district is headed by a delegado or district head, appointed by the mayor and confirmed by the Federal District’s Legislative Assembly. Each district is in charge of providing services for its citizens. 8
Public Safety
Crime is one of the most serious problems facing Mexico City, touching the lives of all its citizens, directly and indirectly. Considered one of the least safe cities in the world, Mexico City in
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
the 1990s faced a “crime explosion,” in the words of its first elected mayor, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas. While crime grew by 46 percent between 1960 and 1994, it grew by 59 percent between 1994 and 1997, when about 700 crimes were reported daily. The Cárdenas administration was overwhelmed by the crime wave and embarrassed by its inability to end it. Yet, the government claimed some success by mid-1999. The number of daily crimes reported each day dropped to less than 700 for the first time in several years. In the first two months of 1999, more than 50 banks were robbed, but between March and September, only four banks were robbed. Assaults on drivers dropped from 78 per day in 1997 to 45 by 1999, and car theft dropped from 160 in 1997 to 123 by 1999. Yet, house break-ins remained the same, about 25 per day, and assaults on pedestrians increased from 94 per day in 1997 to 132 per day in the first six months of 1999. A serious problem for the city is the discredited and highly distrusted police department. The mordida (bribe) that Mexican citizens are often forced to pay when confronted by police is the most enduring symbol of corruption. Police officers in the 1990s have been accused of murder, rape, kidnapping, and many other offenses. “The fight against crime has encountered resistance within the police forces themselves,” Cardenas told the Associated Press in September 1999.
29
Mexico City The city administration slowly has been trying to reform the police department, retiring and firing many officers. In 1998, the city hired 4,200 new recruits and sought the assistance of French police and university professors to train them. On average, police officers earn $350 per month, but the city has doubled the salary and improved benefits for retrained officers. In August 1999, the city’s police chief ordered 900 traffic officers, all of them men, to stop writing tickets. He said women officers would take over ticket-writing duties because they were less likely to be corrupted. Crime has led to the creation of many private security forces, and it is not rare to see wealthier Mexicans accompanied by bodyguards. The government estimates there are 534 private security companies with 17,500 employees. 9
Economy
Mexico City remains the economic engine of the country even though some industries have been encouraged to move to other areas to reduce pollution and curb growth. Yet more than half of the country's industrial output is still produced in the city. Important industrial activities include textiles, chemicals, furniture, plastics and metals, electronics assembly, and the production of pharmaceutical products. The food and beverage industry remains a major employer while tourism brings millions of dollars into the economy.
30
The informal economy plays an important role in the city. Each day, thousands of unlicensed vendors take to the streets, selling everything from windshield wipers and umbrellas to electrical sockets, tacos, and soft drinks. These are people who would be otherwise unemployed, but they present a different challenge to city officials. For years, the city has tried unsuccessfully to clear the vendors off streets in the downtown area. Business owners complain that street vendors are not subject to taxes, do not pay rent, and compete unfairly by selling similar and often cheaper products. 10
Environment
Mexico City’s air pollution sent more than one million people to hospitals in 1999. Despite planting ten million trees, forcing gasoline stations to sell unleaded fuel and install vapor capture systems, and introducing alternative fuels for government vehicles, air pollution remains one of the most daunting environmental issues facing Mexico City. More than three million vehicles on the road each day are mostly to blame, but so are industries and small factories, deforestation, and fires. Over the years, the city has tried or considered drastic measures to clear the air. Among the wildest ideas that have been proposed include blowing up surrounding hills to increase air circulation and installing large fans to blow smog out of the valley. Most recently, some
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Mexico City have proposed creating thousands of rooftop gardens throughout the city. The city also has tried some traditional approaches. To curtail smog, it prohibited driving on certain days, keeping vehicles off the road depending on the last number of their license plates. But the wealthier circumvented the law by buying a second, sometimes even a third car with a different license plate number. Garbage and water also remain critical problems. The city’s 17,000 sanitation workers and a fleet of more than 2,000 trucks collect 11,850 tons of trash per day. Mexico City, which has some of the world’s highest rates of water consumption in the world, suffers chronic water shortages. Each day, it needs 35,000 liters (9,259 gallons) of water per second for its inhabitants. About 30 percent of the city’s drinking water is brought from a location 127 kilometers (79 miles) away and then pumped 1,000 meters (0.62 miles) uphill. About 67 percent of the city's water comes from underground sources, with about 588 wells in operation. 11
Shopping
The Mexican shopping experience begins at the tianguis, large open markets that predate the arrival of the Spaniards in the New World. One of the great tianguis, a word that is still used today, was located in Tlatelolco during the Aztec reign, when thousands of people would gather at an outdoor market each day to buy, sell, and trade
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Open markets are a part of the Mexican shopping tradition. Consumers buy fresh fruit, vegetables, and meat daily at the Plaza of Three Cultures. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
thousands of artifacts, vegetables, flowers, and animals. The open market has kept its place in Mexican culture, but shopping has expanded into sophisticated and chic shopping malls, much like those found in the United States. During colonial times, the downtown area was the most important commercial center in the city. But in modern times, the mall and regional shopping centers dislodged the Centro Historico (the historic center) as the place to shop. Mexico City is renowned for shopping. Visitors can choose from street markets to sophisticated shopping centers, like Santa Fe in the northwestern part of the city. Arts and crafts
31
Mexico City from throughout Mexico are found in the city. Jewelry, shoes, and other leather goods are important elements in the retail industry. 12
Education
The city has the highest literacy rate in the country, estimated at more than 90 percent. Students are required to attend six years of primary school and three years of secondary school. Students who want to go on to college are required to attend three years of bachillerato (college prep courses). During the 1997–98 school year, there were almost three million students and 168,442 teachers in the city’s 9,460 schools. Mexico City is home to some of the nation’s most important universities, including the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), founded in 1551. More than 350,000 students are enrolled at the sprawling university. Some of Latin America’s most influential intellectuals have taught and attended classes at the prestigious Colegio de Mexico. Among other respected institutions are the National Polytechnic Institute and the Metropolitan Autonomous University. The IberoAmerican University, Anáhuac University, and the United States International University are private institutions. 13
Health Care
Mexico City has a large number of public and private hospitals, including the oldest hospital in the Western Hemisphere. Cortés founded the Jesus
32
of Nazareth Hospital early in the sixteenth century. The city has 66 general hospitals, 47 specialized hospitals, more than 7,000 clinics, 542 surgical rooms, 286 clinical analysis laboratories, and more than 18,000 hospital beds. Many health facilities are operated by the government and provide basic health care for the city’s poor. While the city has improved sanitary standards, the population faces daunting problems. In the first six months of 1999, the city reported 1.1 million cases of respiratory problems caused by air pollution. That marked a 37 percent decrease for the same time period in 1998 when 1.7 million cases were reported. Diarrhea also was down by 49 percent. In 1998, 489,000 cases were reported compared to 252,000 for the same period in 1999. 14
Media
Mexico City, along with Buenos Aires, Argentina, is one of the most important book-publishing centers in Latin America, with more than 30 publishing houses. Mexico City also remains one of the top exporters of Spanish-language television programming in the Americas. Televisa, one of the largest communications conglomerates in the developing world, produces more than 20,000 hours of programming each year. Television Azteca is a competing but much smaller company. More than 30 daily newspapers, including an English-language daily, weekly newspapers, and dozens of magazines
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Mexico City are published in Mexico City. More than a dozen foreign bureaus are located in Mexico City. 15
Sports
Mexico City has a long history in sports. The city was host to the Summer Olympic Games in 1968 and the Soccer World Cup in 1970 and 1986 and has played host to many other sporting events. Estadio Azteca, one of the world's largest soccer stadiums, seats more than 100,000 people. Today, the public uses many of the former Olympics venues for other sporting events. More than 200,000 people each month visit the city’s 11 major sports installations. Many of these facilities have deteriorated, and the city plans to fix them. 16
Parks and Recreation
Chilangos prize open spaces. The city’s parks and plazas are always crowded, often overused. On weekends, it is often hard to find a quiet corner in any park, garden, or city plaza. One of the city’s most treasured open spaces is Chapultepec Park, which at 1,600 acres is the largest wooded area in the city. Chapultepec, which in the Nahuatl language means “Hill of the Grasshopper,” also is important historically. Aztec emperors used the park for hunting and recreation. Tenochtitlan also got its drinking water from the park. During colonial times, the Spanish built many buildings at Chapulte-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Mexico City is among the most important cultural centers in Latin America. Here, the Ballet Folklorico performs at the Palace of Fine Arts. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
pec, including a mansion that became Mexico’s military academy. United States troops attacked and captured the school, known as Chapultepec Castle, during the final battle of the MexicanAmerican War, on September 13, 1847. Today, Chapultepec is home to some of the city’s finest museums. Many other large parks dot the city, including the Alameda Central near the Zocalo. Created in 1592, the Alameda
33
Mexico City was an exclusive area reserved for the well-to-do. In time, the park was opened to everyone. Today, the Alameda is known for strolling couples who hold hands during romantic interludes. Viveros, a large park in Coyoacan, is popular with runners and walkers who come to do laps among the large trees. The Desert of the Lions (“El Desierto de los Leones”), southwest of the city, is known for its large open spaces, mountains, forests, and springs. 17
Performing Arts
Mexico City is one of the most important cultural centers in Latin America, attracting talent from throughout the Spanish-speaking world. The Palace of Fine Arts, a concert and opera hall in the historic downtown area, is the hub of Mexico’s cultural activity. The stunning building regularly plays host to ballets, concerts, and plays. Its galleries feature artists from throughout the world. Within its walls, there are stunning murals by Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and José Clemente Orozco. The city has many theater groups and dance companies. Mexicans come to the city to study at its fine art, music, and dance schools. The National Center of the Arts opened in 1994. It contains a library and concert hall, and offers classes in cinema, dance, music, and drama.
National Museum of Anthropology in Chapultepec Park, considered the world’s finest in its specialty. The park also houses the Museum of Modern Art, the Rufino Tamayo Museum, the Papalote Children’s Museum, and the museums of natural history and technology. Coyoacan has the Frida Kahlo Museum while Xochimilco is home to the Dolores Olmedo Museum, which has important works by Kahlo and Diego Rivera. Many museums are free on Sundays. The city is also home to the National Library. 19
Mexico is among the top ten nations in the world in tourism, with about 19 million visitors in 1999. According to government figures, Mexico City was visited by nearly eight million people in 1998, with nearly two million from outside Mexico. Nearly 60 percent of visitors are from the United States and Canada, about 21 percent from Europe and eight percent from South America. Even the most tireless travelers would need days just to see the city’s most important sights. The city has world-class museums, hotels, shops and restaurants, and a history that expands for hundreds of years. There are more than 44,000 rooms in 589 hotels. 20
18
Libraries and Museums
Dozens of public and private museums dot Mexico City, including the
34
To u r i s m
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY
New Year’s Day
FEBRUARY Constitution Day
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Mexico City
Mexicans celebrate the Day of Our Lady of Guadeloupe, the most religious holiday in Mexico. (Robert Frerck; Woodfin Camp)
MARCH Birthday of Benito Juárez
MAY Labor Day Battle of Puebla Mother’s Day
SEPTEMBER Independence Day
21
Famous Citizens
Octavio Paz (1914–98), writer, the first Mexican to win the Nobel Prize in literature, and career diplomat, serving in France, Switzerland, Japan, and India. Frida Kahlo (1907–1954), painter.
OCTOBER Dia de la Raza (Columbus Day)
NOVEMBER All Saints' Day All Souls' Day Revolution Day
DECEMBER Day of Our Lady of Guadalupe
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Because Mexico City has been the center of national culture, the country’s most important writers, painters, and musicians have left their stamp on the city. Some came to study and later to teach and work. Artists like Diego Rivera (1883–1957 husband to Frida Kahlo)
35
Mexico City and fellow muralists David Alfaro Siqueiros (1898–1974) and Jose Clemente Orozco (1883–1949), executed many of their murals and paintings in Mexico City. 22
For Further Study
Websites Official government of Mexico City. [Online] Available http://www.df.gob.mx (accessed June 28, 2000). Mexican Ministry of Tourism. [Online] Available http://www.mexico.travel.com (accessed January 20, 2000).
Government Offices Mexican consulates in the United States: 540 North LaSalle Street Chicago, IL, 60611 312-670-0240 8 East 41st Street New York, NY. 10017 212-689-0456 125 Paseo de la Plaza Los Angeles, CA 90012 213-624-3261
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Mexican Government Tourism Office(s): 405 Park Avenue, Suite 1401 New York, New York 10022 1-800-446-3942. 10100 Santa Monica Blvd., Suite 224 Los Angeles, CA 90067 213-203-8151
36
Books Arrom, Silvia Marina. Women of Mexico City. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985. Bernal, Ignacio. Tenochtitlan. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1975. Broda, Johanna. The Great Temple of Tenochtitlan: Center and Periphery in the Aztec World. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. Carrasco, David. Daily Life of the Aztecs: People of the Sun and Earth. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1998. Cassaro, Michael A. and Enrique Martinez, eds. The Mexico City Earthquake, 1985. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1990. Cope, R. Douglas. The Limits of Racial Domination: Plebeian Society in Colonial Mexico City: 1660–1720. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994. Cory, Steve and Ray Webb (illustrator). Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Mexico City. Chicago: Lerner Publishing Group, 1999. Cross, John C. Informal Politics: Street Vendors and the State in Mexico City. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. Davis, Diane. Urban Leviathan: Mexico City in the 20th Century. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994. Gutmann, Matthew C. The Meanings of Macho: Being a Man in Mexico City. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Johns, Michael. The City of Mexico in the Age of Diaz. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997. Levitt, Helen. Mexico City. New York: Center for Documentary Studies, W.W. Norton, 1997. Poniatowska, Elena, Arthur Schmidt, & Aurora de Camacho Schmidt. Nothing, Nobody: The Voices of the Mexico City Earthquake. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995. Poniatowska, Elena and Kent Klich (photographer). El Niño: Children of the Streets, Mexico City. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1999. Sabloff, Jeremy A. The Cities of Ancient Mexico: Reconstructing a Lost World. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Miami Miami, Florida, United States of America, North America Founded: 1836; Incorporated: 1896 Location: East coast of South Florida, United States, North America Time Zone: 7 AM Eastern Standard Time (EST) = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: White, 71.8%; Black, 27.4%; American Indian, 0.2%; Asian 0.6%; Hispanics, 62.5% (may be of any race) Elevation: 3.4 m (11 ft) Latitude and Longitude: 25º83'N, 80º27'W Coastline: 135 km (84 mi) Climate: Semitropical climate with a warm summer and a dry winter, and high humidity. Second most humid city in the U.S. Annual Mean Temperature: 24ºC (76ºF); January 20ºC (68ºF); July 28ºC (82ºF) Average Annual Precipitation: 142 cm (56 in) Government: Mayor-commission Weights and Measures: Standard U.S. Monetary Units: Standard U.S. Telephone Area Codes: 305 Postal Codes: 33101–33299
1
Introduction
Located nearly at the southeasternmost point of the continental United States, the city of Miami, which celebrated its one-hundredth birthday in 1996, conjures images of sunny beaches, tourists, and immigrants, and it is also a major center for international trade. Since Fidel Castro came to power in Cuba at the end of the 1950s, successive waves of Cuban immigrants have dramatically changed the ethnic composition of the city, which is now over 50 percent Hispanic, and informally known as “the capital of Latin America.” Miami today is a colorful, cosmopolitan city, reveling in its ethnic
diversity. Its sunny climate and natural beauty continue to make it a prime tourist destination, even as it struggles to contain crime and other urban problems resulting from large-scale flight to suburban areas. 2
Getting There
Miami is located in South Florida. Situated on the Atlantic coast bordering Key Biscayne Bay, it is also located at the mouth of the Miami River. Highways Miami can be accessed by highways running both north-south (I-95, the Palmetto Expressway, the Florida
37
Miami Turnpike) and east-west (the Airport Expressway, the Dolphin Expressway, and the Tamiami Trail). Also running east-west are the Miami Beach, Bal Harbor, Sunny Isles, and William Lehman Causeways. Bus and Railroad Service Greyhound and Trailways provide service to Miami from points across the United States. Amtrak offers trains with sleeping berths and restaurant cars. Airports Miami International Airport is second nationally in the number of international passengers transported every year. Over 85 scheduled carriers offer flights to and from the city. In 1997 the airport served 34 million passengers, 19 million domestic and 15.5 international. About 70 percent of all passengers arriving in the United States from Central and South America come through Miami’s airport. Shipping Miami International Airport leads the nation in transport of international cargo and is the world’s third-busiest airport in terms of total freight tonnage. In 1997, it handled 1.7 million metric tons (1.9 million tons) of cargo. Nearly 278,700 square meters (three million square feet) of new cargo handling space will be added to the facility by 2006 as part of a $4 billion major improvement plan. Miami’s Dante B. Fascell Port handled nearly 6.4 million metric tons
38
Miami Population Profile City Proper Population: 365,498 Area: 88 sq km (34 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 71.8% white; 27.4% black; 0.2% American Indians; 0.6% Asians; 62.5% Hispanic (may be any race) Nicknames: Gateway of the Americas, Cruise Capital of the World
Metropolitan Area Population: 2,210,000 Description: Includes Miami and the surrounding region Area: 5,037 sq km (1,945 sq mi) World population rank1: 143 Percentage of national population2: 0.8% Average yearly growth rate: 1.2% Ethnic composition: 77% white; 21.1% black; 1.8% Asian; 54.4% Hispanic (may be any race) ——— 1. The Miami metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of the United States’ total population living in the Miami metropolitan area.
(seven million tons) of cargo in 1997. The port employs 45,000 people, generating $8.3 billion in revenue annually. 3
Getting Around
Greater Miami extends along the coast of Biscayne Bay. The major avenue in the city is Biscayne Boulevard, a four-lane road that borders the city’s oceanfront parkland to the east (Bicentennial Park and Bayfront Park). The downtown streets are laid out in a grid pattern, with the Dolphin Expressway and the North-South Expressway forming major arteries through the city. To
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Miami
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
39
Miami
City Fact Comparison Miami (United States)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
2,210,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1836
753 BC
723 BC
$172
$129
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$82
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$40
$56
$59
$62
$2
$14
$15
$16
$124
$173
$246
$207
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.) Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals)
$193
Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established
2
13
20
11
The Miami Herald
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
349,114
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1910
1944
1976
1948
1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
the east a number of bridges, called causeways, connect the mainland with Miami Beach, Virginia Key, and Key Biscayne. Bus and Commuter Rail Service A 7.1-kilometer (4.4-mile) elevated rail service, Metrorail, carries passengers around downtown Miami, while Greater Miami is served by the 34-kilometer (21-mile) Metromover system. In addition, the Metrorail line connects with Tri-Rail, which serves Miami-Dade, Palm Beach, and Broward counties over a 108-kilometer (67-mile) route. Miami’s Metrobus service is used by about 200,000 passengers every day.
40
Sightseeing Various walking tours are offered, including tours of a variety of neighborhoods and an architectural tour of the Art Deco District. There are also boat tours and aerial tours by helicopter and hot-air balloon. Miami is known as the “Cruise Capital of the World.” Its port is home to ocean liners operated by Cunard Lines (including the Queen Elizabeth II), Carnival Cruise Lines, Royal Caribbean, Norwegian Cruise Lines, and Premier Cruises. Cruise ships launched from Miami dock at ports in the Caribbean,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Miami Mexico, Central America, and South America. 4
People
In 1995 Miami had an estimated population of 365,498, up from 358,548 recorded in the 1990 census. In 1990, blacks accounted for 27.4 percent of the population, Asians 0.6 percent, and American Indians 0.2 percent. Hispanics (who may be of any race) made up 62.5 percent of the population. The Miami Metropolitan Area had an estimated population of 2,210,000 in 1998, up from 1,937,194 in 1990. Its population was 77 percent white, 21.1 percent black, and 1.8 percent Asian. Hispanics (counted as an ethnicity, not as a race) accounted for 54.4 percent of the population. 5
Neighborhoods
Downtown Miami is an area of great cultural diversity, where one can often hear Spanish, English, Hebrew, and other languages spoken. The heart of downtown is the intersection of Miami Avenue and Flagler Street. A dozen or so blocks along Flagler make up the city’s shopping and theater district. After undergoing a period of blight and neglect, Miami Beach, a sand bar in the Atlantic Ocean about five kilometers (three miles) east of the mainland, is enjoying a renaissance, both among Florida natives and tourists. The trendiest spot is South Beach (nickname: SoBe), renowned for its colorful Art Deco buildings. New nightclubs, hotels,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
restaurants, cafés, galleries, and stores have opened in this area that used to be known primarily as a mecca for Jewish retirees from northern states, drawing an eclectic mix of urban yuppies, artists, and vacationers. The pedestrianonly thoroughfare Lincoln Road, occupying 11 blocks in the heart of South Beach, is a popular center for culture, nightlife, and shopping. Here one may view contemporary art by the area’s upand-coming painters, hear a bookstore poetry reading, or peer through the windows of the Miami City Ballet’s rehearsal studio to see its dancers at work. Surrounding the central city are suburbs including Little Havana, the Bohemian-flavored Coconut Grove, West Miami, North and South Miami, and Coral Gables. 6
History
The name “Miami” means “Big Water” in the language of the Calusa Indians, the major Native American tribe inhabiting the region when the Spanish arrived there in the sixteenth century. Although the Spanish never really succeeded in the settling the region, the Calusa had been wiped out by the early eighteenth century, from their lack of resistance to the diseases the Europeans brought with them, and the Creeks and Seminoles became the dominant tribes. The British gained control of Florida in 1763, during the French and Indian War, but the Spanish won it back 20 years later, only to lose it
41
Miami
Miami skyline. (Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp)
again in 1821, ceding the territory to the United States. Hostility by the Seminoles slowed settlement in the region until their banishment to the Everglades in 1842 and even afterward. As northern Florida prospered, the south remained sparsely inhabited and undeveloped. The area of present-day Miami, at the mouth of the Miami River, was part of a tract of land belonging to a plantation owner and also the site of Fort Dallas, which became a permanent outpost of the U.S. army in 1849. Following the Civil War (1861–65) two entrepreneurs, William Brickell and J.W. Ewan bought the land
42
and established a trading post that eventually grew into a commercial center. However, development of Miami began in earnest when the wealthy widow Julia Sturdivant Tuttle bought a large tract of land in the area and convinced Henry Flagler to extend his Florida East Coast Railroad there. The railway construction was completed in 1896, and Miami was incorporated in the same year. Another major advance in transportation—expanded highway access—brought the city a building boom in the 1920s, when its population jumped from 30,000 to 200,000
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Miami people within five years. The boom ended with a devastating hurricane in 1926, but the infrastructure put in place in the preceding years had laid the groundwork for future development. Industrialization and military bases came to the city during World War II (1939–45), leading to another population boom, and Miami has grown steadily ever since. The face of the city was changed forever when Fidel Castro (b. 1927) came to power in Cuba in 1959, and over 150,000 Cubans flocked to Miami over the following decade. Today it is a bilingual city and the only major city in the United States with a majority Hispanic population. In the 1990s, Hurricane Andrew, rising crime, and inter-ethnic tensions led to the exodus of some 100,000 non-Hispanic whites from Greater Miami, leaving the city struggling with growing social and fiscal problems. 7
Government
Miami is the seat of Dade County. The Miami-Dade County Government, whose offices are headquartered in downtown Miami, is headed by a strong “executive” mayor, a country manager, and a county commission, and has a budget of $4 billion. County commissioners are elected by district. Each of the 29 municipalities in the county also has its own government. The city employs approximately 3,500 persons.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
8
Public Safety
A well-known negative aspect of Miami is the city’s reputation as the nation’s crime capital. Home to movie stars, multinational corporations, and a culturally and ethnically diverse population, Miami, in the eyes of the public, is also linked to drug lords and highprofile killings, such as the murders of nine foreign tourists in Florida from October 5, 1992, to September 14, 1993—five of which took place in Miami. In 1997, the city made headlines with the murder of clothing designer Gianni Versace. In 1995, the city’s crime index per 100,000 residents was 15,623.7, the highest in the nation. Violent crimes reported to police totaled 3,413.3 (murder, 29.0; rape, 52.3; robbery, 1,498.7; aggravated assault, 1,833.3). Property crimes totaled 12,210.3 (burglary, 2,607.2; larceny/theft, 7,271.1; motor vehicle theft, 2,332.1). 9
Economy
Miami has a highly diversified economy with over 170 multinational companies headquartered in the city and its environs. Top economic sectors include tourism, services, trade, manufacturing, real estate, and construction. Major employers include the MiamiDade County school district, county, federal, and state governments, University of Miami/Jackson Memorial Medical Center, and Bell South. The Miami Customs District reported $47 billion in imports and
43
Miami
Miami’s beaches attract nearly 10 million visitors annually. Tourism contributes billions of dollars in revenue to the economy of Miami. (Catherine Karnow; Woodfin Camp)
exports for 1997, mostly from trade with Latin America. The 19-hectare (47acre) Miami Free Zone, established in 1978, was the world’s first privately owned and operated foreign trade zone. It consists of a 78,593-square-meter (846,000-square-foot) warehouse and office complex near Miami International Airport. Hurricane Andrew in 1992 was followed by a building boom, and the construction industry remains active, with rising demand for single-family homes and condominiums. In 1997, sales of single-family homes totaled $1.9 billion; sales of condominium units
44
totaled $558 million. Top industries in the manufacturing sector are apparel, metal fabrication, printing, and medical products, and the biomedical sector is showing rapid growth. The film and entertainment industry is another major generator of income for Miami. Together, movies, television, and commercial and fashion photography generated more than $212 million in income in the area. Recent movies filmed in the Greater Miami area include Donnie Brasco, Speed II, Out of Sight, and There’s Something About Mary.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Miami Miami’s access to Latin America has made it a top international banking and investment center, with most bank offices located in the city’s financial district along Brickell Avenue. Today it is home to the international trade divisions of a number of major U.S. banks. The city’s financial institutions have won important business in connection with economic development and privatization in Latin American countries. Agriculture remains an important part of the Greater Miami economy. The region is the nation’s leading supplier of vegetables during the winter season. As the only subtropical farming area in the continental United States, it is a leader in the production of tropical fruits and vegetables, with crops valued at $81 million annually. The Miami area also supplies one-fourth of all ornamental plants sold in the country. 10
Environment
Miami, located only two degrees above the Tropic of Cancer, is a subtropical city located on flatlands that were once home to pine and palmetto trees. Its coastal area consists of sandy beaches, and even the region’s interior is only thinly wooded. Lake Okeechobee, 145 kilometers (90 miles) north of the city, is linked to Miami by manmade canals. During the wet season, Greater Miami must contend with problems caused by tropical storms and hurricanes. Among the worst is sanitary sewer overflow, exacerbated by the city’s low terrain: its highest elevation is
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
only 12 meters (40 feet) above sea level, and the groundwater table is only one to two meters (three to six feet) below the earth’s surface. When it rains, water is sucked through the sandy earth and further still into the cracks of some of the sanitary sewer pipes crisscrossing beneath Metropolitan Dade County. When unexpected water makes its way into these pipes, the system becomes overloaded. Downtown flooding in the late 1980s and early 1990s caused raw sewage to spill into the Miami River, prompting Metropolitan Dade County to sign consent decrees with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) that mandated comprehensive sanitary sewer system rehabilitation. The metropolitan area’s water and sewer department is in the midst of a $1.1 billion sewer upgrade project scheduled for completion by 2002. Pumping station capacities will be expanded; three wastewater treatment plants will be upgraded; and studies of utility operation will be conducted. Dade County’s Department of Solid Waste Management collects waste from more than 260,000 residential addresses, disposing of approximately 2.1 million metric tons (2.3 million tons) annually. Its disposal system consists of one resources recovery facility and associated ash monofill, two landfills, and three regional transfer stations.
45
Miami 11
Shopping
Miami and its suburbs offer abundant and varied shopping. The downtown shopping district centered around Flagler Street and South Miami Avenue is one of the busiest shopping areas, with some 1,500 retail outlets, including the second-largest jewelry district in the country. The Omni International Hotel has a two-level shopping plaza with a multiplex movie theater. Bayside Marketplace on Biscayne Boulevard is an open-air waterfront arcade modeled on Boston’s Quincy Market, with dozens of shops as well as restaurants and entertainment facilities. Picturesque CocoWalk in Coconut Grove offers major retail stores, specialty shops, and cafes, all in a setting that has the feel of an Old World village. A variety of ethnic stores in Little Havana offer specialty products, and the Falls, an upscale shopping center anchored by Macy’s and Bloomingdale’s, features manmade waterfalls, footbridges, and covered walkways. In South Beach, Lincoln Road, the nation’s first pedestrianonly shopping street, offers a colorful mix of culture, cuisine, and shopping. Miami’s Design District offers dozens of showrooms for interior decorators. 12
Education
The Miami-Dade County school district enrolls more than 340,000 students, making it the fourth largest in the country. About one quarter of its students are foreign-born and speak 62 different languages. Among the educational innovations instituted by the
46
school system are 66 magnet school programs, charter schools, satellite learning centers housed in private businesses, and the New World School of the Arts for high school and college students. A new type of school, the Elemiddle School serving grades K through eight, was introduced in 1998, with the goal of replacing large middle schools with smaller community-based units. Students in the Greater Miami area also have the choice of attending over 445 private schools, which enroll more than 45,000 students. With more than 50,000 students, Miami-Dade Community College (MDCC) is the nation’s largest single-district multi-campus community college. This two-year school, which operates six campuses, leads the nation in number of degrees awarded to minority students. Florida International University, a four-year state university, has two campuses and enrolls over 30,000 students. The 72-year-old University of Miami is a private research university with an enrollment of 14,000 and respected programs in law, engineering, medicine, and business, and is noted for its Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences and Jackson/UM Medical Center. Other four-year institutions include Nova Southeastern University, home of Florida’s first dentistry school; Barry and St. Thomas universities, which are both Catholic-affiliated; Baptist-run Florida Memorial College; and Johnson & Wales University, a degreegranting college that prepares students to enter the hospitality and restaurant
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Miami fields. Johnson & Wales runs an oncampus restaurant and two off-campus eateries staffed by its students.
biomedical corridor to further enhance the presence of this sector in the region. 14
13
Health Care
Miami is the home of the nation’s second-largest public hospital, the University of Miami/Jackson Memorial Medical Center, which forms the core of a major medical complex located near the city’s downtown. The complex also houses the highly respected Bascom-Palmer Eye Institute and the Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center. Miami-Dade County has a total of 28 hospitals and 33,000 licensed health-care personnel, the most of any region in Florida. Hospital facilities were reported to have had a combined revenue of $120 million in 1997 and to have treated some 15,000 patients from Florida and around the world. In addition to direct patient services, the Miami area is home to a substantial biomedical industry that produces pharmaceuticals and medical devices and conducts important research and development projects, such as those that led to the development of ultrasonic diagnostic equipment and artificial kidneys. Biomedical companies located in the region include Cordis/Johnson & Johnson, Beckman-Coulter, and Kos Pharmaceuticals. In 1998 the Miami-Dade County commissioners set aside an 11.7-squarekilometer (four-and-a-half-square-mile) area for the development of a proposed
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Media
Miami’s major daily newspaper is the Miami Herald, published in the morning and on Sundays (circulation: weekdays, 349,114; Sundays, 461,201). The city has two Spanish-language daily papers, El Nuevo Herald (published by the Herald for Spanish speakers) and Diario las Americas (circulation, 68,011). Miami also has a daily business newspaper, the Daily Business Review. The newspaper of the black community is The Miami Times, and New Times of Miami is an alternative paper focusing on news and the arts. Spanish-language magazines published in Miami include Hombre Internacional, TV y Novelas (a soapopera fanzine), and a Spanish-language edition of Harper’s Bazaar. Miami has television stations affiliated with all the major commercial networks, as well as two public broadcasting stations and 19 AM and FM radio stations, some of which broadcast exclusively or mostly in Spanish. 15
Sports
Miami is home to several major league sports teams. The National Football League’s Miami Dolphins play at Joe Robbie Stadium. In the National Basketball Association, the Miami Heat plays at the Miami Arena. The National League’s Florida Marlins, who play at Pro Player Stadium, won the 1997 World Series. Miami also has a team in
47
Miami
The Miami-Dade County Government is centrally located in downtown Miami. (Gerd Ludwig; Woodfin Camp)
the American Soccer League—the Miami Freedom, whose home matches are usually played at Milander Stadium in nearby Hialeah. A variety of other sports are also played in the Greater Miami area. JaiAlai, a game that originated in the Basque region of Spain and has players chasing balls called pelotas that can travel at speeds of up to 274 kilometers (170 miles) per hour. The South Florida Cricket Association has more than 25 teams. Miami is home to Florida’s largest thoroughbed race track, the Calder Race Course, which offers racing both
48
in the summer and winter. Greyhound racing, also popular with Miamians, is sponsored by the Biscayne Kennel Club. The Miami Grand Prix is held in Homestead every February. 16
Parks and Recreation
Miami has 37 parks, covering a total of 1,012 hectares (2,500 acres), and there are some 700 parks and recreation areas found throughout Dade County. Miami’s parks offer facilities for picnicking, hiking, camping, basketball,
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Miami softball, handball, racquetball, as well as 129 kilometers (80 miles) of bike trails. The city also operates ten public swimming pools, 15 public tennis courts, two golf courses, and four marinas, with a capacity of 940 boats. Water sports are the premier recreational attraction in the Miami area and include boating, canoeing, fishing, swimming, scuba and skin diving, windsurfing, and waterskiing. Haulover Park and Biscayne National Park are popular with divers, while Haulover Beach and South Pointe are among the spots favored by surfers. 17
Performing Arts
Miami’s Florida Philharmonic Orchestra is the major symphonic ensemble in South Florida. The region is also home to the Greater Miami Opera, whose productions feature soloists from around the world. Other musical groups include the Miami Chamber Symphony and the New World Symphony, a youth orchestra. Dance is represented by the Miami City Ballet Company, directed by renowned dancer Edward Villella, and the Ballet Flamenco La Rosa. A variety of touring artists also performs at the Gusman Center for the Performing Arts, the Jackie Gleason Theater of the Performing Arts (called TOPA), and the Dade County Auditorium, which is also home to the city’s opera company. The Miami Beach Symphony Orchestra performs at the Jackie Gleason Theater. Regional theater is presented at the Coconut Grove Playhouse, and the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Florida Shakespeare Theater performs at the Biltmore Hotel. The Miami Light Project offers musical theater, comedy, and dance at a variety of locations. 18
Libraries and Museums
The Miami-Dade Public Library System operates a main branch downtown, as well as 25 neighborhood branches and four regional libraries throughout the area. The downtown library, located in the Metro-Dade Cultural Center, has the largest library collection in the southeastern United States. More than 500,000 patrons annually take advantage of the library special educational programs and exhibitions. Its Porta-kiosk Library in the Metrorail Civic Center Station, opened in 1992, is the world’s first library located in a transit-system facility. The Historical Museum of Southern Florida and the Miami Art Museum of Dade County (together with the MiamiDade Public Library) are housed in the Metro-Dade Cultural Center in downtown Miami. The art museum (formerly the Center for the Fine Arts) features major artworks from around the world, including many traveling exhibits. Other museums in the Miami area include the Miami Museum of Science and Space Transit Planetarium; the Weeks Air Museum, whose exhibits chronicle the history of aviation; the Gold Coast Railroad Museum, where historic railroad cars are on display; the American Police Hall of Fame and Museum; and the Miami Youth
49
Miami Museum, which features exhibits for children.
hands-on
A unique facility located in Coconut Grove is the Vizcaya Museum and Gardens. Originally a palatial private residence built in 1916 in Italian Renaissance style, the museum features 34 rooms whose decor ranges from rococo to neoclassic, including a gilded music room and a tapestry-filled dining room. Surrounding the mansion are four hectares (ten acres) of formal gardens overlooking Biscayne Bay. 19
To u r i s m
Tourism is one of the mainstays of Miami’s economy, and it continues to grow steadily. In 1997 the tourist industry generated $11.6 billion in revenue and created full-time employment for 125,000 people. In the same year, nearly ten million people visited Greater Miami, breaking tourism records for the third year in a row. Warm weather, sunshine, abundant beaches, and a wide variety of entertainment are among the elements that draw large numbers to the region. The three most popular districts among visitors to Miami are (in order) South Beach, Bayside Marketplace, and CocoWalk. Miami is surpassed only by New York City and Los Angeles in numbers of foreign visitors, attracting 5.3 million in 1997 from Europe, Canada, and South America. Miami’s major convention facility is the James L. Knight International Center, a complex consisting of the Miami Convention Center, a Hyatt
50
Key Biscayne Bay offers fun in the sun, as well as educational opportunities such as the Seaquarium. (Piero Guerrini; Woodfin Camp)
Regency Hotel, and the University of Miami Conference Center. The Convention Center auditorium seats 4,800 people, and the facility also offers lecture halls, meeting rooms, and a 2,601square-meter (28,000-square-foot) hall for exhibits. Giving the city’s convention industry a major boost was the recent completion of the $135 million oceanfront Loews Miami Beach Hotel in 1998, located within walking distance of the convention center. Another new facility, the 422-room Royal Palm Crowne Plaza Resort, was completed in late 1999. 20
Holidays and Festivals
JANUARY Miccosukee Tribe’s Indian Arts Festival
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Miami National Children’s Theatre Festival Orange Bowl Art Deco Weekend Festival Freddick Bratcher Florida Dance Festival
AUGUST
LATE JANUARY-EARLY FEBRUARY
OCTOBER
Original Miami Beach Antique Show
FEBRUARY Miami Film Festival Miami International Boat Show Bob Marley Festival Coconut Grove Arts Festival
LATE FEBRUARY-EARLY MARCH Doral-Ryder Open
MARCH Taste of the Beach Calle Ocho Festival Carnaval Miami Florida Derby Grand Prix of Miami Italian Renaissance Festival Lipton Tennis Championships
MID-MARCH-EARLY APRIL Dade County Fair & Exposition
APRIL Fairchild Tropical Garden Rain Forest Festival Merrick Festival of Coral Gables
MAY Roots & Culture Festival Subtropics Music Festival Arabian Nights Festival Great Sunrise Balloon Race & Festival
LATE MAY-EARLY JUNE Miami International Home & Garden Show
JUNE Miami/Bahamas Goombay Festival Florida Dance Festival
JULY 4th of July at Bayfront Park Tropical Agricultural Fiesta Colombian Festival International Mango Festival Key Biscayne 4th of July Parade & Fireworks
JULY-EARLY OCTOBER San Francisco Shakespeare Festival
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Miami Reggae Festival
EARLY SEPTEMBER-LATE OCTOBER Festival Miami West Indian Carnival Extravaganza Caribbean Festival Columbus Day Regatta Hispanic Heritage Festival
NOVEMBER Miami Book Fair International Puerto Rican Festival South Florida International Auto Show South Miami Art Festival Feria de Espana
LATE NOVEMBER-EARLY JANUARY Santa’s Enchanted Forest
DECEMBER Big Orange New Year’s Eve Celebration King Mango Strut King Orange Jamboree Parade
LATE DECEMBER-EARLY JANUARY Kwanzaa Celebration
DECEMBER-MID-MAY Metropolitan South Florida Fishing Tournament
21
Famous Citizens
Dave Barry (b. 1947), longtime Miami resident, writes a Pulitzer Prize-winning humor column for the Miami Herald. Polish-born Isaac Bashevis Singer (1904–91), Nobel-Prize winning novelist who maintained a residence in Miami starting in the 1970s. Edna Buchanon (b. 1939), crime reporter and novelist. Carl Hiaasen (b. 1953), author of crime and mystery novels.
51
Miami Janet Reno (b. 1938), attorney general of the United States.
Miami, FL 33131 (305) 539-3000
Sidney Poitier (b. 1924), the first black actor to become a major motion picture star.
Publications
Ellen Zwilich (b. 1939), composer and first woman to win the Pulitzer Prize for music. New York-trained dancer Edward Villella (b. 1936), director of the Miami City Ballet Company. 22
For Further Study
Websites Miami City Hall. [Online] Available http:// www.ci.miami.fl.us (accessed October 14, 1999). Miami-Dade County. [Online] Available http:// www.metro.co.dade.fl.us (accessed October 14, 1999). Miami Information Access. [Online] Available http://www.info-access.com/ (accessed October 14, 1999). MiamiSite. [Online] Available http:// www.miamisite.com/ (accessed October 14, 1999).
Government Offices City Hall 3500 Pan American Drive Miami, FL 33133 (305) 250-5400 Mayor’s Office 3500 Pan American Drive Miami, FL 33133 (305) 250-5300 Miami Planning and Development Department 444 SW 2nd Ave. Miami, FL 33130 (305) 416-1400
Tourist and Convention Bureaus Greater Miami Convention and Visitors Bureau 701 Brickell Ave., Suite 2700
52
Daily Business Review 1 SE 3rd Ave., Suite 900 Miami, FL 33131 Diario Las Americas 2900 NW 39th St. Miami, FL 33142 Miami Herald 1 Herald Plaza Miami, FL 33132 Miami Metro Magazine 800 Douglas Rd., Suite 500 Coral Gables, FL 33134
Books Allman, T. D. Miami, City of the Future. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1987. Cerwinske, Laura. Miami, Hot and Cool. Photographs by Steven Brooke. New York: C.N. Potter, 1990. Davies, Frank. Kidding Around Miami: What to Do, Where to Go, and How to Have Fun in Miami. Santa Fe, NM: John Muir Publications, 1997. Dunn, Marvin. Black Miami in the Twentieth Century. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1997. Grenier, Guillermo, and Alex Stepick III, eds. Miami Now: Immigration, Ethnicity, and Social Change. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1992. Harris, Daryl B. The Logic of Black Urban Rebellions: Challenging the Dynamics of White Domination in Miami. Westport, CN: Praeger, 1999. Moore, Deborah Dash. To the Golden Cities: Pursuing the American Jewish Dream in Miami and L.A. New York: Maxwell Macmillan International, 1994. Portes, Alejandro, and Alex Stepick III. City on the Edge: The Transformation of Miami. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. Rieff, David. The Exile: Cuba in the Heart of Miami. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. Rieff, David. Going to Miami: Exiles, Tourists, and Refugees in the New America. Boston: Little, Brown, 1987.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Minneapolis Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America, North America Founded: 1849; Incorporated: 1866 Location: Eastern Minnesota on the Mississippi River, United States, North America Time Zone: 6 AM Central Standard Time (CST) = noon Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Ethnic Composition: White, 81%; Black, 13%; Asian, 4%; Hispanic origin (of any race) 2% (1996) Elevation: 255 m (838 ft) Latitude and Longitude: 44º98'N, 93º26'W Climate: The Twin Cities region has wide fluctuations in temperature, with long, cold, and snowy winters but warm temperatures and low humidity in the summer. Annual Mean Temperature: 7ºC (44.7ºF); January -11ºC (12.2ºF); July 22ºC (72ºF) Seasonal Average Snowfall: 117 cm (46 in) Average Annual Precipitation (rainfall and melted snow): 56 in (142 cm) Government: Mayor-council Weights and Measures: Standard U.S. Monetary Units: Standard U.S. Telephone Area Codes: 612 (Minneapolis & suburbs), 651 (St. Paul & suburbs) Postal Codes: 55401–70
1
Introduction
Located at the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers, Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota, once heated rivals, are known today as the Twin Cities and are the nexus of a thriving 11-county metropolitan area. Home to the largest of the four campuses of the University of Minnesota, the area has rich cultural resources and a reputation for civic involvement by ordinary citizens and by its business community. It is home to numerous major corporations, which draw on a well-educated labor pool. In the decades since World War II (1939–45), the region’s popula-
tion has become increasingly a suburban one, but urban redevelopment has kept its central cities vital and safe. 2
Getting There
The Twin Cities are located in eastern Minnesota, at the junction of the Minnesota and Mississippi Rivers, near the Wisconsin border. St. Paul is located roughly eight kilometers (five miles) southeast of Minneapolis, which is the seat of Hennepin County. The Twin Cities Metropolitan Statistical Area comprises ten Minnesota counties, as well as one (St. Croix) in Wisconsin.
53
Minneapolis
Minneapolis Population Profile City Proper Population: 358,785 Area: 143 sq km (59 sq mi) Ethnic composition: 81% white; 13% black; 3.3% American Indian; 4.3% Asian Nicknames: Twin Cities (with St. Paul), City of Lakes, Land of 10,000 Lakes
Metropolitan Area Population: 2,792,137 Description: Covers counties in Minnesota and Wisconsin Area: 15,076 sq km (6,064 sq mi) World population rank1: 130 Percentage of national population2: 0.9% Average yearly growth rate: 1.1% Ethnic composition: 91.2% white; 4.4% black; 3.4% Asian/Pacific Islander ——— 1. The Minneapolis metropolitan area’s rank among the world’s urban areas. 2. The percent of the United States’ total population living in the Miami metropolitan area.
Highways The Twin Cities region is accessible by I-94, a major east-west route running from coast to coast of the United States, and I-35, bisecting the country north to south from Lake Superior to the Gulf of Mexico. In addition, I-494 and I-694 offer access to the Twin Cities suburban areas. Bus and Railroad Service Amtrak and Greyhound both serve the Twin Cities region. If traveling from the airport, Airport Express is a public
54
shuttle van service, providing transportation to hotels in downtown Minneapolis. Airport Express shuttles depart the airport (in front of luggage pick-up area) approximately every half-hour and stop at all of the downtown hotels; likewise, the shuttles depart major hotels approximately every half-hour. Airports In 1998–99, over 30 million passengers passed through the Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport on 491,273 arriving and departing flights. The Airport is located 20 minutes from downtown Minneapolis. The airport, which is served by 13 commercial airlines and is the international headquarters of Northwest Airlines, services a total of over 1,000 arriving and departing flights every day. Direct flights are available to major foreign cities. The Minneapolis-St. Paul Airport is ranked as one of the nation’s safest. Shipping The Twin Cities are among the nation’s major transportation hubs. Some 150 trucking companies serve the region, making it a major trucking center. The Minneapolis-St. Paul ports together handle about ten million metric tons (11 million tons) of cargo annually. Four air cargo carriers and 40 air freight forwarders service the Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport; more than 154 metric tons (170 tons) of freight pass through the airport annually.
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Minneapolis
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
55
Minneapolis 3
Getting Around
The streets of Minneapolis are laid out in two adjacent grid patterns. Streets north of Grant Street follow a northeast-southwest axis, while those to the south are laid out north-south and east-west. With the Mississippi River wending right through its center, St. Paul’s layout is more irregular and broken up by hills and bluffs. Both cities have extensive systems of elevated, covered skywalks connecting virtually all of their major government and commercial buildings. The skywalk systems move much of the cities’ street life to second-story level during the region’s notorious winters, when they provide a climate-controlled haven from biting winds, frigid temperatures, and heavy snowfall. The Minneapolis skywalks can take pedestrians as far as 12 city blocks—from a city-operated parking ramp to the convention center. The Twin Cities area is known for ease of commuting, with traffic flow aided by an efficient freeway system, medium population density, and the fact that commercial and public buildings are spread out over two downtown areas. The legendary politeness of Midwesterners may contribute as well. Bus and Commuter Rail Service Metropolitan Council Transit Operations (MCTO), the nation’s secondlargest bus system, operates more than 900 buses every day in the Twin Cities and the surrounding suburbs, carrying over 60 million passengers annually.
56
The Twin Cities are also served by more than 800 taxis. Sightseeing Visitors might want to launch their sightseeing venture with an overview of the city from the observation deck atop the Foshay Tower and catch a glimpse of the Farmers' Market along the Nicollet Mall. The Minneapolis Planetarium is a popular site, as is Underwater World, a 4.5 million-liter (1.2 milliongallon), walk-through aquarium at the Mall of America. The Minnesota Zoo hosts 450 species of animals featured in their natural habitats. For a thrill, visitors can take a ride on the Wild Thing "hyper coaster" at Valleyfair! Family Amusement Park. For a tamer afternoon, there are an abundance of museums in Minneapolis. While many display fine art and history, several host unique exhibits, from medical quackery to children's interactive games. Gray Line sightseeing tours of the Twin Cities area visit Nicollet Mall and other attractions. 4
People
In 1990, the population of Minneapolis was 368,000, of which 81 percent were white; 13 percent were black; 4.3 percent Asian; and 3.3 percent American Indian. Hispanics (both white and black) accounted for 2.1 percent of the population. The 1996 population estimate was 358,785. The population of the St. Paul-Minneapolis Metropolitan Statistical Area was estimated at 2,792,137 as of 1997. The region’s racial composition was listed by the U.S. Cen-
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Minneapolis
City Fact Comparison Minneapolis (United States)
Cairo (Egypt)
Rome (Italy)
Beijing (China)
Population of urban area1
2,363,000
10,772,000
2,688,000
12,033,000
Date the city was founded
1849
753 BC
723 BC
$172
$129
Indicator
Daily costs to visit the
AD
969
city2
Hotel (single occupancy)
$91
Meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner)
$44
$56
$59
$62
$2
$14
$15
$16
$137
$173
$246
$207
2
13
20
11
Star Tribune
Akhbar El Yom/ Al Akhbar
La Repubblica
Renmin Ribao
334,751
1,159,339
754,930
3,000,000
1867
1944
1976
1948
Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.) Total daily costs
$193
Major Newspapers3 Number of newspapers serving the city Largest newspaper Circulation of largest newspaper Date largest newspaper was established 1 United
Nations population estimates for the year 2000. maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3 David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. 2 The
sus Bureau in 1996 as 91.2 percent white; 4.4 percent black; 3.4 percent Asian/Pacific Islander. 5
Neighborhoods
The city of Minneapolis identifies 81 distinct neighborhoods, 11 communities, and four industrial areas within its boundaries. The central historic landmark of Minneapolis is Bridge Square, the spot that marks the founding of the city. The city is located on both the east and west banks of the Mississippi River, with the larger part located west of the river. Nicollet Avenue is home to the major downtown
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
shopping district, Nicollet Mall, which is closed to all vehicles except buses and taxis. The city’s financial district is located on Marquette Avenue. The University of Minnesota campus is mostly located on the east bank of the river. The Lake of the Isles area houses an upscale residential neighborhood. Divided between both river banks, between two bridges, is the grain-milling district. Inner-ring suburbs on the west bank of the river include Brooklyn Center, Robbinsdale, Crystal, Golden Valley, St. Louis Park, Edina, and Richfield. Second- and third-tier suburbs include
57
Minneapolis
A view of the Minneapolis skyline. (Greater Minneapolis Convention & Visitors Bureau)
Bloomington (home of the Mall of America), Eden Prairie, Chaska, Minnetonka, and Plymouth. The neighborhoods surrounding the University of Minnesota are located in the eastern part of the city. St. Paul is smaller than Minneapolis and preserves more of a traditional “small town” feeling. Its neighborhoods include Summit Hill, Crocus Hill,
58
St. Anthony Park, Merriam Park, Macalester-Groveland, and Highland Park. 6
History
The area that today comprises the Twin Cities was home to the Sioux tribe when it was first discovered in the late seventeenth century by Europeans—a French party headed by Father Louis Hennepin (for whom Hennepin County is named) that explored the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
Minneapolis area where the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers meet and named the waterfall at the navigable head of the Mississippi River after St. Anthony. Permanent settlement began after the establishment of Fort St. Anthony by the U.S. military in the early nineteenth century. Settlers began arriving from the East, followed by immigrants from Germany, Sweden, Norway, and Ireland. In 1872 present-day Minneapolis was formed by the merger of cities on the east and west banks of the Mississippi. Fueled by its two major industries—timber and flour milling—and an abundant supply of immigrant labor, the city grew rapidly. Rail line expansion also made it a major transportation center. Both Minneapolis and St. Paul flourished through the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, as their infrastructure grew and civic and cultural institutions sprang up. A rivalry developed between Minneapolis, the state’s most populous city and home of industrial giants such as Cargill and General Mills, and St. Paul, the state capital, venue of the state fair and home to the “gentry” that populated the Summit Hill neighborhood. The 1920s saw a building boom in both cities. However, it stalled during the Depression years of the 1930s when most new construction was sponsored by government relief programs. The area’s reputation for social activism grew during these years, when it became a focal point for the organized labor movement, as well as both the Socialist and Communist parties. The Twin Cities continued to flourish in the
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cities
post-World War II decades, although the area’s economic base shifted from the traditional lumber and milling industries to new areas, including farm machinery and electronics. Suburbs mushroomed in the region, which grew into the nex
