Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife Environmental Guideline for India and South Asia
Asha Rajvanshi Vinod B. Mathur Geza C. Teleki Sujit K. Mukherjee
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife Environmental Guideline for India and South Asia
Asha Rajvanshi Vinod B. Mathur Geza C. Teleki Sujit K. Mukherjee
CEC Canadian Environmental Collaborative Ltd.
Published by Wildlife Institute of India (WII) Post Box # 18, Chandrabani Dehradun - 248001 INDIA Tel : +91-135-640111 to 115; Fax : +91-135-640117 Website : http://www.wii.gov.in
In collaboration with Canadian Environmental Collaborative Ltd. (CEC) 410 Mill Wood Road, Toronto , Ontario, CANADA M4S 1K2 Tel : +1-416-488-3313; Fax : +1-416-488-2468
©
Wildlife Institute of India, 2001
All rights reserved. Apart from the purpose of study, research, review and the application of environmental guidelines in road planning, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or otherwise without the prior permission of the copyright owner.
ISBN 81-85496-10-2 Citation Asha Rajvanshi, Vinod B. Mathur, Geza C. Teleki and Sujit K. Mukherjee (2001). Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife: Environmental Guideline for India and South Asia. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun and Canadian Environmental Collaborative Ltd., Toronto. Word Processing and Layout Mukesh Arora and Narinder Singh Bist Map Illustrations Panna Lal, Dinesh S. Pundir and M. Veerappan Typesetting and Printing Shiva Offset Press, Dehradun - 248001 Tel : +91-135-655748
Distributor Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh 23-A New Connaught Place, P.O. Box 137, Dehradun - 248001, India Tel : +91-135-655748 Fax : +91-135-650107 Email :
[email protected] Website : http://www.bishensinghbooks.com Cover Concept : Asha Rajvanshi and Vinod B. Mathur Design : Mukesh Arora and Abhimanyu Gahlot Photographs : Personal collection of authors
iii
CONTENTS
PREFACE, vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, ix
PART – I THEORY AND PRACTICE 1.
ROADS AND WILDLIFE: THE RELATIONSHIP, 1 1.1 Wildlife, 2 1.1.1 Economic Values, 2 1.1.2 Ecological Values, 3 1.1.3 Recreational Values, 3 1.1.4 Scientific Values, 3 1.1.5 Spiritual, Cultural and Religious Values, 3 1.2 Roads, 4 1.2.1 South Asia, 6 1.2.2 Road Project Categories, 6 1.3 Roads and Wildlife, 7 1.4 The Target Audience, 8 1.5 Using the Guide, 9 1.6 Additional Sources of Information, 10 1.7 References, 10
2.
PROTECTED AREAS, WILDLIFE AND ROADS: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES, 13 2.1 Impacts of Roads, 13 2.1.1 Habitat Fragmentation and Modification, 14 2.1.2 Restriction of Animal Movements: The Barrier Effect, 15 2.1.3 Injury and Mortality of Wildlife, 16 2.1.4 Soil Erosion and Sedimentation, 18 2.1.5 Environmental Contamination, 18 2.1.6 Noise, 19 2.1.7 Human Colonization-induced Disturbances, 19 2.2 Cause-and-Effect Relationships and Impact Types, 20 2.2.1 Direct Impacts, 20 2.2.2 Indirect Impacts, 20 2.2.3 Cumulative and Synergistic Impacts, 21
iv
2.3 Impact Significance, 21 2.4 References, 23 3. ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS, LEGISLATION AND PROCESS, 25 3.1 India, 25 3.1.1 The Institutional Framework, 25 3.1.2 Project Proponents, 26 3.1.3 Regulatory Agencies, 26 3.1.4 Other Stakeholders, 26 3.1.5 Facilitators, 27 3.1.6 Contractors, 28 3.1.7 Legislation, Policies and Guidelines, 28 3.1.8 Environmental Quality Standards, 30 3.1.9 The Clearance Process, 33 3.2 EA in the Region, 36 3.2.1 Bangladesh, 36 3.2.2 Bhutan, 37 3.2.3 Nepal, 38 3.2.4 Pakistan, 39 3.2.5 Sri Lanka, 41 3.3 References and Sources of Information, 44 4.
ECOSYSTEMS, IMPACTS AND MITIGATIVE MEASURES, 47 4.1 Ecosystem Types and Sensitivity, 47 4.1.1 Aquatic Ecosystems, 47 4.1.2 Coastal Ecosystems, 48 4.1.3 Desert Ecosystems, 48 4.1.4 Mountain and Alpine Ecosystems, 48 4.1.5 Savannah and Grassland Ecosystems, 49 4.1.6 Forest Ecosystems, 50 4.1.7 Special Ecosystems: Caves, Coral Reefs and Micro-Climatic Zones, 52 4.2 Impacts, 53 4.2.1 Habitat Modifications, 53 4.2.2 Barrier Effect of Roads, 59 4.2.3 Animal Mortality, 62 4.2.4 Human Use Problems, 63 4.2.5 Tourism, 65
v
4.2.6 4.2.7 4.2.8 4.2.9
Hunting, 66 Fires, 67 Resource Exploitation, 67 Erosion and Sedimentation, 67
4.3 Mitigative Measures and Best Practices, 68 4.3.1 Mitigating Fragmentation and Isolation, 71 4.3.2 Compensation for Habitat Fragmentation or Loss, 73 4.3.3 Mitigating the Barrier Effect, 74 4.3.4 Preventing Vehicle-Wildlife Collisions, 76 4.3.5 Mitigating Human Use Problems, 77 4.3.6 Mitigating Erosion and Resulting Siltation and Sedimentation, 79 4.4 References, 80 5.
METHODS AND TOOLS, 89 5.1 Environmental Assessment and Decision Making, 91 5.2 Screening and Scoping, 91 5.2.1 Checklists, 94 5.3 Collecting the Information, 95 5.3.1 Baseline Studies, 95 5.3.2 The Field Survey, 95 5.4 Defining Impacts: The Available Tools, 98 5.4.1 Matrices, 98 5.4.2 Networks, 99 5.4.3 Overlays and Computerized Mapping, 100 5.4.4 Predictive Models, 103 5.4.5 Expert Systems, 104 5.5 Summary, 105 5.6 Significance, 107 5.6.1 Magnitude of Impacts, 107 5.6.2 Duration of Impacts, 108 5.7 Remedial Measures, 109 5.7.1 Avoidance, Mitigation and Enhancement, 109 5.7.2 Compensation, 110 5.8 Public Consultation as Part of Mitigation Planning, 110 5.9 Follow-up, 112 5.9.1 Compliance Monitoring, 112 5.9.2 Effects Monitoring (Evaluation), 113
vi
5.9.3
The Environmental Management Action Plan ( EMAP), 113
5.10 Suggested Practice, 114 5.11 Useful Websites Concerning EA, Wildlife Methods, and Models, 115 5.12 References, 117 6.
ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION, 121
PART - II CASE STUDIES 1.
Road and Rail Network Development and Gir National Park and Sanctuary, 131
2.
Kohalpur-Mahakali Highway Project, Nepal, 139
3.
Mumbai-Pune Expressway Project, 147
4.
Linear Developments and Elephant Movement in Rajaji-Corbett Conservation Area, 155
5.
Colombo-Katunayake Expressway Project: Integrating Environmental Considerations in Project Planning, 163
6.
Andhra Pradesh State Highway Rehabilitation and Maintenance Project: The Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road, 173
ANNEXURES Annexure I
- Glossary, 181
Annexure II – Sample of Environmental Management Action Plan, 193 INDEX, 208
vii
PREFACE
The distribution of the World Bank’s Roads and the Environment Handbook (since 2000, as an electronic document on the Bank’s web site) marked the start of a new approach to guidebooks for the World Bank; namely the creation of a ‘parent’ Handbook on environmental issues related to land transportation development, with a view to encouraging more detailed region or topic-specific handbooks. This Guideline is the first such ‘offspring’ and its initiation can be credited to Dr. Chris Hoban, now the Bank’s resident advisor in New Delhi. The original thought was to call this document a “Best Practice Guide” focusing on tigers and leopards. In undertaking the background investigation and examining lessons learned with other projects, it became clear that limiting the guide to a few “charismatic” species would do little to advance road-wildlife impact reduction and that there is often no ‘Best Practice’, but rather a number of well documented approaches and avoidable pitfalls in the planning of land transportation development in proximity of sensitive wildlife habitats. It was therefore felt that a broader framework was needed and that “ Environmental Guideline” would be a more appropriate title. Land transportation projects are perhaps the greatest direct and indirect causes of wildlife degradation in any type of development project. Not only can they bring out physical displacement of species and cause habitat degradation but they can also induce increased resource stress and depletion by making human access to an area possible or easier. Thus, it was considered to bring out this Guideline. Well known mitigative measures exist, yet they are typically poorly understood and implemented. A basic “how-to” guideline was therefore considered to be a useful tool for Bank staff, borrowers and consultants in South Asia, but also for the land transportation sector as a whole. The work was also given a regional emphasis, since there is a huge emphasis on road development in India and South Asia. For example, in India over 13,000 km of roadway is now in the planning stage and 11,285 km in Sri Lanka and 201,182 km in Bangladesh are now already in use. With this activity there are consistent documented recurring environmental
viii
concerns related to roads and wildlife. As well, the countries in the region are in the process of strengthening their environmental institutions, regulations and policies, and this Guide was seen as contributing to this momentum. It is hoped that it will inspire others to contribute case studies on ‘lessons learned’. The team’s idea is to create a web-based document, where the submission of case studies would be encouraged, then added to the website database and made available to all users. I hope that this volume will stimulate other regional, national or sub-sector specific works, such as for Pakistan, or Bangladesh or coastal zones and urban transportation. The Guideline, in its present form, evolved from a need to provide a critical mass of information to transportation sector professionals. Based on a knowledge of the expectations of Indian and South Asian professionals, the notion of a short report as originally envisioned by the World BankWII-CEC team, did not meet that need. After consulting the Bank, WII and CEC Ltd. moved forward to publish this volume. This Guideline will also be available, in a slightly abridged form, on WII’s and CEC’s website.
Geza C. Teleki President, CEC Ltd.
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The project was funded through the Canadian Environmental Trust Fund of the World Bank, and in that regard we appreciate the World Bank’s and Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and the Government of Canada’s support. Dr. Chris Hoban, Transportation Group, World Bank headquarters (now resident advisor in New Delhi), initiated the idea for this endeavour and secured the funding. Mr. Anil Somani, a Senior Environmental Specialist with the Bank, undertook a technical review of the draft document. These two key involvements are gratefully acknowledged by the authors. We are grateful to Dr. R. Anandkumar, Director, Impact Assessment Division, Dr. S. Bhomick and Dr. S.K. Aggarwal, Additional Directors, Impact Assessment Division of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India for their unfailing support in providing technical information on the procedural aspects of environmental clearance in the Indian EIA system. Mr. Paneer Selvam, and Ms. Sonia Kapoor, both environmental specialists of the World Bank (India Office) shared their professional experience with environmental assessments of several Bank funded projects with us. Their inputs benefited us immensely. Interactions with a large number of people enabled us to improve the contents of the case studies provided in this document. We sincerely acknowledge the contributions of Mr. H.S. Panwar, Former Director, Wildlife Institute of India, Mr. Mahesh Singh, DCF (Wildlife), Sasan, Gir, Mr. A.P. Singh, Civil Engineer, U.P. Irrigation Department, Mr. Jhamak Karki, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Nepal and Mr. H.D.V.S. Vattala, Central Environment Authority, Sri Lanka. At the Wildlife Institute of India, we sincerely thank Mr. Bivash Pandav and Mr. Kartikeyan Vasudevan, faculty members and Mr. M.K.S. Pasha and Mr. G. Arindran, research scholars, for their valuable inputs in the development of case studies. We thank Dr. Yogesh Dubey and Mr. Prakash Dash for their assistance in literature search. Computing, designing and mapping efforts of Mr. Narinder Singh Bist, Mr. Mukesh Arora, Dr. Navneet Gupta, Mr. Panna Lal, Mr. Dinesh Pundir, Mr. Muthu Veerappan
x
and Late Shanmugam of the EIA Cell and GIS & Computer Centre of the WII are sincerely acknowledged. We thank Mr. M.S. Rana and the staff of the WII Library and Documentation Centre for providing valuable support for this work. In Canada, we are grateful for the expert technical editorial work of Mr. Simeon Stairs, and Maya Katal, both with CEC Ltd. They contributed very significantly in enhancing the quality of this document. Over the duration of the project, a number of other colleagues provided suggestions and valuable reactions to components of the work. Their input is also acknowledged.
Dehra Dun, India and Toronto, Canada
Asha Rajvanshi Vinod B. Mathur Geza C. Teleki Sujit K. Mukherjee
vii
PART – I
THEORY AND PRACTICE
1. ROADS AND WILDLIFE: THE RELATIONSHIP
I
n 1997, the World Bank published Roads and the Environment: A Handbook (World Bank Technical Paper No. 376), a guide designed to encourage the integration of environmental considerations into road projects by all Bank borrowers. The handbook is generic, drawing on the experience of many agencies, including the World Bank. One of the Bank’s intentions with the publication of the handbook was to provide a template from which could spring subject-specific or regional guidelines. This Guide for India and South Asia is the first of such follow-up documents. The donors’ transportation sector lending portfolio for India alone exceeds 2 billion dollars, and projects throughout the country (e.g. Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan) have had or are facing environmental problems. Environmental Assessments (EAs) and related analyses are increasingly being turned down or approved only subject to extensive conditions. Such outcomes often stem from inadequate treatment of wildliferelated issues. Lessons already learned in India and throughout the region about how roads and the environment can co-exist are an invaluable resource that can be used in the search for environmentally appropriate solutions to road-wildlife conflicts. Unfortunately, road developers rarely turn to the large body of past experience because a) they are not aware that such information exists, or b) if they are aware that it exists, they either have no idea how to obtain it or the acquisition process is cumbersome and bureaucratic. Consequently, instead of drawing on past experience, road developers seem to make the same mistakes again and again. The idea that wildlife and its habitats ‘get in the way’ of roads reflects a common and persistent mindset, and a growing problem in India as well as in most parts of the world. Clearly, there is a need to make lessons learned from past experiences with road development and wildlife in the region more readily available to the people who are involved in the road development process. The lack of accessible information on past projects is particularly acute at the state level and not much better nationally. This Guide is intended to highlight lessons
2
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
learned and to provide practical instructions for avoiding and managing conflicts between roads and wildlife.
1.1 Wildlife Recent estimates of the total number of species on the planet range from 13 to 14 million, of which only about 1.4 million species (see Table 1.1) have been scientifically described (Wolf 1987). The tremendous variety of organisms, the genetic material they contain, and the ways in which they interact with each other and their Table1.1 1.1 Species Speciesestimates estimates environments constitute the planet’s Table biological diversity, or ‘biodiversity’. Life forms Known species Broadly defined, wildlife includes all Lower plants, fungi 73,900 uncultivated flora and fauna and and algae thus is nearly synonymous with Higher plants 248,400 biodiversity. Micro-organisms
36,600
Biodiversity represents the Invertebrates 116,873 natural biological capital of the earth, Insects and arthropods 874,161 which present and future human Fish 19,056 generations, communities, and nations will continue to draw on for Birds 9,056 life and development. People rely on Herptiles 8,962 such biological wealth, and the Mammals 4000 ecosystems that sustain it, to provide Total 1,391,008 innumerable direct and indirect benefits. Wildlife supports many Source: Source:IUCN IUCN1996 1996 consumptive and non-consumptive economic activities, as well as many other pursuits, such as recreation, scientific research and education. Wildlife is also a key element of aesthetic, spiritual, and religious experience. The protection of wildlife and its habitats makes a great deal of sense in light of the many values that they have for the people of India and the world. 1.1.1 Economic Values Economic uses of wildlife include commercial harvesting of wildlife products to be sold in formal markets, a benefit implicitly reflected in national income accounts. Wildlife products are also directly consumed without entering the channels of trade. Genetic material, species, ecological communities, and even biological processes are used to meet the human need for food and drink; clothing and fabrics; building and manufacturing materials; fuels; and medicines.
Roads and WildLife: The Relationship
3
1.1.2 Ecological Values Direct ecological benefits of healthy ecosystems include ecosystem services such as cleansing of the atmosphere; maintenance of soil fertility; and dispersal, breakdown and recycling of wastes. Forests and wetlands regulate the runoff of water from the hills; coral reefs, mangroves and salt marshes shield the coast from storms and protect against coastal erosion; microorganisms clear the earth of dead and decaying matter; and many species of animals exert biological controls on pests and disease vectors. Such ecological functions contribute to both the economic and social well-being of humans. 1.1.3 Recreational Values Wildlife also has an enormous recreational value in terms of the maintenance of the psychological well-being of people. Studies have shown the damaging effects on the human psyche due to long-term isolation from nature, as is the case with many urban dwellers. Increasingly, people are looking to the natural world as an escape and as a means of enrichment of their lives and fulfillment of aesthetic tastes. Nature-based psychological renewal is becoming increasingly important in India and elsewhere. All of this translates into strong economic values, as is demonstrated by the growth in ecotourism and other nature-based forms of recreation. 1.1.4 Scientific Values Wild genetic resources are used in strengthening the gene pools of economically important animals and plants, for recombinant DNA research, and the biosynthesis of new products. The success of animal husbandry in developing improved crossbreeds of livestock is dependent on breeding trials with different kinds of genetic resources taken from the wild. Wildlife species are also sentinels of the health of our ecosystems (NRC 1991). For example, protozoa, bryophytes and lichens, as well as fish and mollusks, are used as reliable indicators of air and water quality degradation. Bird species have generally been employed as indicators of pesticide presence, and the top carnivores in terrestrial ecosystems are considered as indicators of the richness of the prey base and the overall health of the natural environment. 1.1.5 Spiritual, Cultural and Religious Values Reverence for nature is the unifying ethical principle of Hinduism and Buddhism, and is evident in some other religions. All life is deemed sacred, and each creature has its own place and function in nature’s mosaic. At the root of Buddha’s teachings was the view that all wild creatures enjoyed
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
4
privileged positions of protection. Wild animals such as the lion, elephant, monkey, pea fowl, swan and owl have been revered in Hindu mythology and many trees are held sacred and are worshipped. The ancient Hindu rulers were greatly influenced by the environmental philosophies of Hindu epics and promoted nature conservation. As early as the 3rd century BC, emperor Ashoka designated areas as protected, perhaps the first such governmental decree on record anywhere. Animals and plants have found special places in the religions of many tribal and rural communities as well. Worship of trees and animals are among the elements of animism practiced by many South Asian tribal populations. The enormous pressure to convert wildlands to agricultural uses, fueled by massive population growth, has meant that India has had to compromise (somewhat) its remarkable conservation ethic. The story is the same for other South Asian countries. Roads have played a pivotal part in this change.
1.2 Roads In 1994, India had 3 million km of roads, of which about 50% were surfaced (Table 1.2). As of 1997, the Ministry of Surface Transport was planning almost 1,300 km of new roads for its national highway system. Table 1.2 Statistics of Indian roads Road length (km) Category
Total (T) Surfaced (S)
1991
1992
1993
1994
All India
T S
2350365 1112521
2485783 1159741
2716291 1283259
2919439 1431378
Highways
T S
1953829 945509
2083946 989646
2299084 1102856
2494465 1156146
National and state highways & PWD roads
T S
670396 549177
683316 562196
659628 563122
667265 570888
Panchayat roads
T S
954291 330504
959782 339281
1075411 426925
1085769 436972
Rural roads
T S
329142 65828
440848 88169
564045 112809
741431 148286
Urban roads (Municipal, railway and port roads)
T S
186799 136644
189352 137325
195150 141110
200368 145497
Forest roads
T S
127385 30368
127752 32770
127889 39293
130118 39735
Project roads (irrigation and electricity)
T S
67363 15733
69521 17257
74101 20433
74223 20561
Source: Government of India 1997
Roads and WildLife: The Relationship
In addition to the already ambitious existing road design and construction programme, in early 1999 India announced plans to construct, by 2010, a national expressway system stretching across the country for 13,000 km, from north to south and east to west (see Table 1.3). The national network would involve many new alignments, certain to present many conflicts with the country’s protected areas (national parks and wildlife sanctuaries) and wildlife. The potential for serious and permanent negative effects on wildlife resources is high (see Box 1.1).
5
Table 1.3 Current and proposed roadwork in India: 1996-2003 Road project Golden quadrilateral
km 5952
NH2 Delhi – Calcutta
1469
NH5&6 Calcutta–Chennai NH4, 7, 45 & 46
1745
Chennai– Mumbai
1302
NH8 Delhi – Mumbai
1436
North – South and East–West cor ridors
7300
Source : National Highway Authority of India 1999
Box 1.1 India’s Golden Quadrangle Road Project In early 1999 the Government of India (GOI) initiated its National Integrated Highway Development Project (NIHDP). The objective of NIHDP is to build a 7300 km-long high speed, six-lane controlled-access, toll way across the length and breadth of the country. The estimated cost is Rs. 28,000 crore or $US 6 billion. The project will be implemented by the National Highway Authority through a host of funding mechanisms, each triggering % SRINAGAR % # certain environmental and social # ## ## %# # % ## % # ## % # # % sector requirements (above and # # # # # # # # # # ##### # beyond India’s own regulations). # # # #% % ## % # # # # ### #### # # # ## ## # #% ## The map which is an overlay of # % # #% #CHANDIGARH # ## # # % # ## # % # # ## # ## # the proposed road corridor and %# # # # # % # # ## % ##% # % DELHI # ### #%# # # the existing and proposed # # % % # # ## # % # # # # # % % # % # % # # # # # # # % # # # # % # # # ## % ## ##% # # ## # % # # # protected area network (national # # %## # %## % # % % ## ### # # # ## # # # # # # # # # # # # # #% # ### # # # ## ## # # % # % # ## %% # parks and wildlife sanctuaries) # # % # % # # # # % # # %# % ## # # # # ## # # # # SILCHOR # # % # # # ### # %# across India, would suggest that ### ## #### # # ## ### # %# ## # # ### ##### ### # # # ## % ### ## % # # ## # % # # ## # # # # # # # # %# # this project will likely conflict with # # % % # ## ## # # # # # # # % #KOLKATA # # # # # # %# #% % # # # # # ##PORBANDAR % % % # # ## % many of these areas. Therefore, # # # # # # # % # # % # # ## # ## # # # # # % # # % # # # # # # # % special measures will be needed # ## # # # # # # ## ## # # #% # # # # %# % # # # # % # ## # to avoid and mitigate permanent # % #MUMBAI %# ## ## # # % % # # # # # # # # # # # losses. This places a special onus # # ## # # # #% # # % #% % HYDERABAD #% # on the National Highway # # ## # # # ## # # # ## Authority of India, road planners, ### # #% # # # # ## # their consultants and contractors, # # # # # # # # # # # ## # # #% # # # # # ## # # # % ## # % # # # # # # # # # # # # % # %CHENNAI # to integrate wildlife and wildlife # # # ##% # # #% % # # % # #% # # # # # # # ## # ## # # # # % %# % # ## # # % #% # % %# habitat conservation concerns # ## # # # # # # # Golden Quadrangle Road Project ## # % % % ### North-South Road Corridor Project ### ## into road development. This # # # # #% # # East-West Road Corridor Project # ## # # # # Guide should prove to be a # %Existing National Park % # ## # # % ## # # ## # Existing Wildlife Sanctuary # % # # KANYAKUMARI valuable resource at all stages of % %Proposed National Park % # # % # % # Proposed Wildlife Sanctuary the work.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
6
1.2.1 South Asia Other South Asian countries are also undertaking large-scale road development programmes and presently have road networks, ranging between 7,700 km in Nepal to 225,000 km in Pakistan. Bhutan, the smallest country, has less than 1000 km of roads. 1.2.2 Road Project Categories All road projects, without exception, can be expected to affect their environments in some way. Projects can also be expected to vary in the nature and extent of their effects on surrounding areas, including the wildlife found in them. The setting in which a road project is to be undertaken and the activities the project is to include are major determinants of the type and severity of the impacts. Road projects can be grouped into four categories with respect to their settings and the activities they entail: z z z z
(i)
new roads; existing road rehabilitation/upgrades; rural roads; and urban roads.
New versus existing project types
Impacts associated with new and existing project types are significantly different (see Box 1.2). The key difference is that, for new projects, the focus is on preventing impacts from occurring, whereas for existing or upgrade projects, the focus is on rehabilitating and mitigating existing chronic problems stemming from past mistakes, as well as preventing new impacts from road improvement and upgrading work. (ii) Rural versus urban project types In the rural setting, the key impacts usually revolve around loss of productive agricultural lands and the opening up of previously inaccessible, or marginally accessible, territory to in-migration, loss or degradation (e.g. fragmentation) of healthy ecosystems as well as accelerated resource extraction. Since rural life is so closely integrated with the biophysical aspects of the environment, issues such as water quality and biodiversity conservation deserve special consideration. In the urban setting, where population densities are higher and the connection to the biophysical environment is less significant, the dominant impacts generally have to do with displacement of people and their homes,
Roads and WildLife: The Relationship
7
Box 1.2 Comparison of key EA considerations for new versus upgrade or rehabilitation projects For a new facility the focus is on the proper technology, siting and avoidance of impacts all together. The proponent must: i.
justify the need and the use of a preferred technology;
ii.
describe the actions taking place during each of the main phases of a project (construction, operation, and maintenance) which could lead to environmental damage (for example, wildlife habitat fragmentation);
iii.
prepare alignment drawings which show the location of the facility relative to the local bio-physical and socio-cultural environmental features;
iv.
identify the potential impacts of the facility relative to surrounding land use within a 5 km radius/corridor* of the facility; and
v.
formulate a plan to prevent anticipated undesirable impacts from occurring, such as loss of wildlife habitat or migration corridors.
For existing facilities, which generally undergo enlargement or upgrading, the focus should be on any necessary repair or rehabilitation of prior environmental damage. For example, a road passing near or through a wildlife area where migration routes have been cut and existing wildlife mortality is significant, special attention would be paid to realignment of the road or the provision of wildlife passages (both over and underpasses). For existing projects the analyst would: vi.
define the nature of the proposed work and how it would change the existing facility;
vii. identify which, if any, aspects of the existing facility have caused unacceptable negative impacts; viii. analyze the combined effect of the rehabilitation action with that of the existing facility operations; and ix.
prepare an action plan for the repair of the past damage done and for the prevention of any negative effects resulting from the new work. This requirement does not suggest that the state of the environment in the study area must be brought back to the predevelopment conditon but rather that, at the very least, the degradation be halted and the environment not be subjected to significant new negative impacts.
*
Width of a corridor to be studied depends on the legal requirements plus the predicted extent of the impacts, identified during the project scoping. In India, corridor widths often range from 50 to 1000 m (for new roads associated with sensitive features).
neighbourhood disruption, local air shed contamination, noise and aestheticvisual degradation. These effects can translate into serious health effects.
1.3 Roads and Wildlife Changes in land use, exploitation and a fast-eroding natural resource base threaten the structure and function of ecosystems that support the world’s biological wealth (WRI, IUCN and UNEP 1992). Habitat loss and fragmentation, invasion by introduced species, decline in primary productivity of ecosystems, depletion of living resources, pollution of water and air, and
8
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
global climate change are some of the processes contributing to far-reaching ecological and economic implications. Roads have been closely linked to many of these processes and impacts, often as a fundamental cause. The single largest threat to wildlife and indeed biodiversity is the loss of forested areas. The pace at which prime tropical forests are being destroyed in Asia and other parts of the world is alarming (see the FAO and WCMC websites www.fao.org and www.wcmc.org). Habitat loss, disruption of ecosystem functions, and extinction of species are among the most certain manifestations of forest destruction. Even if the extinction of a given species does not occur, it may become endangered due to the loss of genetic variability through elimination or fragmentation of habitats. Roads are commonly associated both directly and indirectly with deforestation and habitat fragmentation. Aquatic biodiversity can also be significantly threatened by poorly designed and laid out roads, which can constrict flows, prevent fish movement, flood or drain areas, and degrade water quality (see Chapter 2 for greater detail). Once lost or degraded, wildlife habitat is difficult or impossible to repair, and the cost of ecological restoration can be very high, often far beyond the means of most countries. Conservation of wildlife species stands out as the best means of maintaining and possibly improving (or enhancing) natural processes and components of the systems from which we derive so much value. Environmentally sensitive road planning and operation is one component of conservation which, in concert with effective regulations and credible compliance monitoring and enforcement, can lead to better protection of India’s and South Asia’s wildlife and especially its endangered animals and plants. This Guide should become the base-level tool for road planners and environmental practitioners of the region working to design and operate roads in balance with an area’s wildlife ecosystems.
1.4 The Target Audience Just as good road project planning, management and execution requires professional transportation engineers who are technically credible and sensitive to environmental issues, road EAs require experienced environmental professionals, supporting the engineering team. Since EA combines a good deal of qualitative judgment with technical facts, the involvement of experienced environmental specialists is essential. Such people should be brought into the project planning process at a very early stage. While final decisions on EAs are often made at the political level, EA practitioners, working with the project engineers, should consider themselves as decision shapers. With well-prepared and presented information, they can have great influence on how EA-related decisions are made. EA practitioners (i.e. the engineering-environment-social teams who assess road projects) will find the
Roads and WildLife: The Relationship
9
Guide useful as a reference document, helpful in addressing a range of environmental issues. EA practitioners are by no means the only groups who will use this Guide. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), research groups, community organizations and government agencies, as well as any others whose input is desired during both the project development and EA implementation, are all potential users of this Guide. The target audience therefore also includes transportation managers, planners, road designers and engineers, technicians, and any environmental units within the responsible transportation agencies. Contractors should also use this Guide.
1.5 Using the Guide Part I of this Guide provides the ‘first layer’ of information, guiding the practitioner in the identification of the nature and scope of wildlife-road problems and ways of resolving them. While it is a basic document, the Guide should also be useful to professionals as a reference text and as a source of case studies that highlight lessons learned and past experience with certain practices as they affect wildlife habitat. Users are urged to become familiar with the material presented in this chapter and Chapter 2, and use Chapter 3 as a reference to the EA process and related legislation in India. Chapter 3 also includes an overview of how EA and wildlife-road issues are addressed elsewhere in South Asia. Chapter 4 provides a summary discussion of the key impact types likely to arise during or after implementation of a road project. Each impact type is defined, and lessons learned and best practices are described. The chapter can be used as a reference in constructing likely impact scenarios, and is most useful if consulted during impact analysis and mitigation planning. Chapter 5 provides a summary of the methods and tools applied at each stage of environmental analyses. The methods and tools described are considered to be examples of ‘tested and effective practices’ that are in compliance with the EA requirements of India’s Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), most South Asian nations’ environmental regulations (see Chapter 3), as well as those of the International Finance Institutions (IFIs). Chapter 6 provides a set of important references and websites, which address road and wildlife issues in India and in general. These references are in addition to those found at the end of each chapter, some of which are available at the library of the Wildlife Institute of India.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
10
Part II includes six case studies, provided as examples of existing wildlife-road issues and the EA work which should have been or was undertaken to address them. They have been selected to cover a broad range of wildlife-road issues. Collectively the cases present important ‘lessons learned’ from past work completed in India and South Asia.
1.6 Additional Sources of Information The following databases, related to the execution of road-wildlife related environmental studies, are available on the WII’s website (www.wii.gov.in) which is updated regularly. z
Indian environmental institutions, organizations, contacts and their addresses and phone numbers;
z
Samples of key MoEF EA and related application forms;
z
Summary of India’s central and state level environmental laws and regulations;
z
List of protected areas in India;
z
Listing of threatened and endangered wildlife in India;
z
Demographic and other Indian environmental statistics related to roads and wildlife;
z
India’s regulations on ambient water, air and noise quality as well as limits to emissions from motorized vehicles;
z
India’s National Wildlife Action Plan (1983);
z
India’s National Forest Policy (1988); and
z
Best-Use Classification for India’s Inland Waters.
1.7 References Government of India (1997). Basic Road Statistics of India. Ministry of Shipping and Transport. IUCN (1996). List of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. National Highway Authority of India (1999). News Update, Internet accessed 09/99. (http://www.nhai.org/north-south-east-west-corridor.htm)
Roads and WildLife: The Relationship
11
National Research Council (NRC) of the USA (1991). Animals as Sentinels of Environmental Health Hazards. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. Wolf, E.C. (1987). On the Brink of Extinction: Conserving the Diversity. World Watch Paper No. 78. World Bank (1997). Roads and the Environment: A Handbook. Technical Paper No. 376. The World Bank, Washington, DC. WRI, IUCN and UNEP (1992). Global Biodiversity Strategy: Guidelines for Action to Save, Study and Use Earth’s Biotic Wealth Sustainably and Equitably. UNESCO -World Resources Institute.
2. PROTECTED AREAS, WILDLIFE AND ROADS: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
W
ithin the past 50 years, Protected Areas (PAs) have become some of the last refuges for wild plants, animals, and communities in India and South Asia. Such PAs maintain characteristic and representative samples of unique ecosystems and communities, and thereby protect and preserve species and biotic communities of national and international significance. They are often referred to as biodiversity conservation areas. Areas outside PA boundaries can provide links between protected areas. These are essential in ensuring the functional integrity of wildlife habitats and maintenance of viable populations of rare and endangered species. The vast network of roads in India and South Asia and the wide range of landscapes and habitats that it affects has a significant bearing on the ecology and integrity of PAs and the areas that serve as links between them. Considering the importance of wildlife to human society, and the need for its conservation, the impacts of roads on wildlife values must be managed throughout the life cycle of a road project, including the planning, construction and operation periods.
The purpose of this section of the Guide is to synthesize the information on wildlife impacts associated with road design, construction and operation. The identification and description of these impacts will provide transportation planners with a better understanding of what to avoid, improving the chances that roads will be more compatible with the ecosystems through which they pass, and that negative impacts are prevented and/or minimized.
2.1
Impacts of Roads
In the last decade, considerable research has established that the most pervasive threats to biological diversity involve roads (World Bank 1997). Review of the published literature reveals that the impacts of road projects on wildlife values (see Figure 2.1) can be broadly grouped into the following six categories: z
habitat fragmentation and modification;
z
restriction of animal movements;
z
injury and mortality of wildlife species;
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
14 z
soil erosion and hydrological alterations;
z
environmental contamination; and
z
human colonization-induced disturbances.
Ö
Ö
SOURCE OF BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC EFFECTS
BARRIER
ROADSIDE HABITAT 7 ROAD KILL
HABITAT MODIFICATION
ROADSIDE HABITAT
BARRIER
Ö Ö Ö
CONDUIT FOR MOVEMENT
Ö
Ö
Ö Ö Ö
Fig. 2.1 Schematic representation (after Van der Zande et al. 1980) of wildlife impacts of road projects : Habitat modifications, animal movement restriction, mortality of animals, induced biotic and abiotic disturbances.
2.1.1Habitat Fragmentation and Modification The most significant effect associated with road construction and operation is the fragmentation of large wildlife habitat areas into smaller patches (Andrews 1990; Rebecca et al. 1996). This typically occurs when new road alignments are established in previously undisturbed or little-disturbed habitat areas. A single road can turn a habitat area into isolated units, while a network of new roads can effectively reduce a contiguous habitat area to a large number of discrete patches. Several small patches of habitat, even if collectively equivalent in area to the original larger patch, are not its functional equivalent. Gaps between habitat patches prevent dispersal and recruitment of both individuals and species. Populations isolated in forest patches surrounded by other habitat are often not of sufficient size to maintain themselves over the long term without genetic exchange with other populations of the same species (see Case Study No.3). Insularization of populations generally leads to their decline and eventual demise, to the detriment of the ecosystem. The nature of habitats is itself changed by the creation of new ecotones (where cleared areas and forests meet) along new patch borders. Higher proportions of edge habitat favour edge-adapted species over those that rely on undisturbed interior forest habitat. While these changes may in fact increase biodiversity, it would likely be at the expense of indigenous species. Such changes must be planned and should not be accidental. Opening a road allowance through a forested area may also induce micro-climatic changes, thereby bringing about modification of the ecosystem.
Protected Areas, Wildlife and Roads : Environmental issues
15
Typically, right-of-way clearing and subsequent thinning of roadside vegetation during the operation phase exposes habitats near the road to the drying effect of winds and the sun, which may eliminate favourable germination and growing conditions for certain plant species surprisingly far from the road cut itself. A drier micro-climate may also lead to increases in the incidence of fire. Roads passing near or sometimes through coastal mangroves and estuarine wetlands pose a special threat. Wetlands in these areas are a mixture of fresh and brackish water, with most plants depending on a constant blend or mixing cycle, thus maintaining a specific level of salinity. Roads without carefully planned cross drainage can cause severe and rapid destruction of such areas by interfering with natural flushing and creating a saline imbalance, leading to mass mortality of all organisms unable to tolerate new salinity levels. Losses for aquatic ecosystems can be particularly severe in areas where streams are intermittent, i.e. they are dry during part of the year. In many cases, such streams are important fish spawning waters during the wet season, but can be easily obliterated by dry-season construction activities. 2.1.2 Restriction of Animal Movements: The Barrier Effect Animals move to forage, find mates, seek shelter, reach breeding sites and participate in social interactions. These movements occur on a variety of spatial scales ranging from less than a meter for some invertebrates to hundreds or thousands of kilometers for mammals and migratory birds. Roads and railway tracks are one of the main obstacles to the movement of land vertebrates (Bennett 1991). Three components of a road that can act as barriers to the movement of terrestrial animals are (i) bare road surfaces; (ii) altered roadside habitats, including deep roadside ditches and fences; and (iii) the broad band of emissions and disturbances such as noise, dust, headlight illumination, and airborne pollutants in the soil and vegetation. Wide highways with high traffic volumes bring the highest levels of ecological disturbance and present the greatest barriers to wildlife. Construction of roads through wetlands and channelization of flowing water where roads cross streams are significant barriers to free movement of aquatic animals and can isolate and divide populations. Filling in of small streams to allow crossings, and consequently blocking or channeling water through culverts, can seriously restrict the movements of aquatic species. Noise from construction equipment, blasting, and subsequent traffic on roads also contributes to the barrier effect. Most animals are naturally afraid of loud mechanical noises, and vehicle noise may not only dissuade them
16
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
from crossing roads, but also from using roadside habitat areas. The barrier effect is less serious at night when traffic volumes on most roads are lower. Wildlife barriers imposed by roads inhibit movements, change home ranges, isolate populations and reduce genetic diversity and the ability of populations to remain in equilibrium, (Lode 2000) all of which may lead to altered population dynamics and considerable ecosystem losses (see Case Study No. 2). 2.1.3 Injury and Mortality of Wildlife A significant number of animals are injured or killed by passing vehicles (see Table 2.1). The improvement of roads permits higher average speeds, thereby increasing chances of fatal wildlife-vehicle collisions. Animals that are attracted to the road surface, or to the roadsides to exploit food sources, tend to be the species most frequently killed. Such species include reptiles that are drawn to sun-warmed asphalt, herbivores such as deer grazing on roadside grasses, and predators attracted to roads to feed on carcasses of earlier accident victims. Animals that regularly cross roads as part of their movements between different habitats are also likely victims (Case Study Nos. 1 and 2). For example, roadside bird mortality is a relatively new environmental dimension in developing countries such as India. With the recent increase in the number of high-speed cars and the simultaneous improvement of roads in India, birdcar collisions and the resultant bird mortality are becoming significant. In a study undertaken in Punjab State of India, as many as 11 bird species were reported to collide with moving vehicles on a 270 km drive travelling at speeds of 80 to 120 km per hour. The bird species killed generally included ring doves, house sparrows, red wattled lapwing and Indian roller (Dhindsa et al. 1988). Road kills can have significant impacts on the population dynamics of species, especially those with restricted and declining distributions. In a review of the literature dealing with the effects of roads on wildlife, Forman and Alexander (1998) found that since the 1970s, road mortality has replaced hunting as the major human-induced cause of wildlife mortality in several countries. Road kills become very significant when rare or endangered species such as the tiger, lion, leopard, as well as their prey such as sambar, chital, and nilgai are killed (see Table 2.1). The carnivores are already few in number and any reduction would seriously affect the population’s reproductive potential. Data on road-related mortality of animal species in India is still very scarce. This is not because road kills are uncommon, but largely because
Protected Areas, Wildlife and Roads : Environmental issues
17
focused studies dealing with transportation impacts on wildlife have still not become a major issue that attracts the attention of wildlife conservationists and park managers. Although scattered information on road kills is available from national parks and sanctuaries, animals killed on Indian roads outside PAs are rarely documented. Given this situation, the information contained in Table 2.1 should be considered to be a gross under-estimation of actual wildlife losses on India’s roads. Table 2.1 Animal mortality on roads in protected areas of India and Nepal (1997-1998) Number of individuals killed per year
Wildlife habitats and the nature of roads on which mortality is reported Tadoba Tiger Reserve
Sariska Tiger Reserve
Gir National Park and Sanctuary
Corbett Tiger Reserve
Pench Tiger Reserve
Royal Bardia Natio nal Park Nepal
FR
SH
SH
SH
NH
NH
2
1
Chital Sambar
3
3
Nilgai
1 2
1
Wild boar Lion
2
Leopard
1
Tiger
2
Langur
17
Civet
3
4 5
2
37
1 1
Porcupine
1
Barking deer
2
Mongoose
4
Hyaena
2
Jungle cat Total road kills Source
1 1 1
1
29
8
6
46
6
6
Dubey, 1997 pers. comm.
Johnsingh et al. 1998
Singh & Kamboj 1996
Uttaranchal Forest Dept.
Areendran & Pasha 1999 pers. comm.
Karki & Shreshtha 1998 pers. comm.
F R = Forest Road,
NH = National Highway,
SH = State Highway
18
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
2.1.4 Soil Erosion and Sedimentation The construction of roads affects soil and land stability. Instability tends to be most pronounced in hilly areas and where geological features exacerbate construction-related destabilization. Creation of steep cuts in rapidly weathering rock, removal of basal support of slopes, loading of unstable surfaces, inadequate drainage provisions, removal of vegetation and vibration from blasting and traffic may all lead to slope failure and erosion (see Box 2.1). Box 2.1 Vegetation and slope stability The relationship between landslide activity and forest cover was studied along two hill roads crossing steep hillsides in the Kumaun Himalaya. The Kilbury road was cut through reserved forest (29º24’N79º28’E, altitude 2100m). The Almora bypass crossed a suburban fringe (29º16’N 79º40’E, altitude 1650m). Tree canopy cover upslope of the road cut was found to be 56.8% along the Kilbury road and 14.1% along the Almora bypass. Tree canopy cover down slope of the roadbeds, prior to the road being built, was very close to upslope figures. After road construction tree cover downslope was found to be 35.7% and 7.6% respectively for the two roads.. Ground cover downslope of the road was also much reduced. This example illustrates the potential for degradation of ecosystems as a result of slope instability originating with construction. Source: Haigh et al. 1995.
Construction of drains, embankments, cuts and fills can affect local hydrology both within and beyond the boundaries of the road right-of-way. When roads are poorly sited, improperly constructed, or badly maintained, erosion is a common result. Indirect effects may be quite widespread as sediment from the road site is washed into and deposited in streams and wetlands. Such sediment inputs can permanently affect aquatic ecosystems that are not adapted to high-sediment conditions. Channel relocation during road construction, obstruction of flow to wetlands, and drainage of wetlands to prevent flooding of roads have negative environmental implications for fish. Although sedimentation may only directly affect the most sensitive aquatic organisms such as benthos and fish, all components of the wetland community will eventually be degraded indirectly stemming from the secondary effects of the damage to, or sometimes the extirpation of, the more sensitive organisms. 2.1.5 Environmental Contamination Runoff from road surfaces typically contains a range of contaminants, the composition of which depends on traffic volume, fleet condition, fuels used, types of cargo transported, and road surfacing materials. Common
Protected Areas, Wildlife and Roads : Environmental issues
19
pollutants in surface runoff include tyre particles, lubricants, petrol, phenols, and organic wastes. In addition, airborne pollutants from vehicle exhausts may include solid particles, oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur, and lead. Both airborne and waterborne contaminants can affect vegetation and other organisms in the habitats adjacent to roads in various ways, depending on their quantities and concentrations, as well as characteristics of the receptor species. Road dust during construction and operation often settles on vegetation as well as dwellings, reducing photosynthesis in plants and degrading air quality inside homes and businesses. These impacts have been observed to occur at distances of 10 to 200 m from road edges (authors’ experiences). 2.1.6 Noise Noise from road construction and operation can cause animals to avoid areas near roads. Forman and Alexander (1998) reported that noise significantly decreases bird species richness as one gets closer to the edge of the pavement. Usually impacts are strongly influenced by the type of cover, traffic volume and speed. For example, at 120 km per hour and traffic volumes of about 10,000 vehicles per day, the “noise-effect distance” was 305 m in woodlands; for 50,000 vehicles per day, the noise-effect distance was 810 m. In grasslands, the distance is typically much less. Road noise effectively makes habitat areas near roads unusable for some species, a condition that can affect not only those species’ success, but the structure of the ecosystem well beyond the road right-of-way. 2.1.7 Human Colonization-induced Disturbances Roads and railways facilitate the entry of people into natural areas, protected or otherwise, simply by providing improved access and opportunities for economic exploitation of resources. New roads in previously undisturbed areas are often followed, within a short time, by clusters of roadside settlements that spring up to serve passing motorists. These bases provide exploitative access to adjacent forest areas. Over time, roadside clusters grow into a continuous narrow band of urbanization along the road. These become an ever-widening swath of human influence as side trails and community roads extend outward from the original road, creating their own colonization effects. In this way, a previously remote and inaccessible forest area can become a highly fragmented, human-dominated landscape within just a few years. In theory, the colonization effects of roads should not occur where roads pass through designated PAs. Although legislation for the protection of such
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
20
areas may be in place in most countries, allocations of staff and financial resources for enforcement are hopelessly outmatched by the forces of human migration. Unless provisions are made for proactively increasing protection in parallel with increasing road-related colonization pressure, PAs will continue to be seriously degraded. Road planners must keep this consideration in mind from the earliest stages of route selection.
2.2 Cause and Effect Relationships and Impact Types Although roads and road improvements may in some cases have positive environmental effects (e.g. bypass roads often reduce congestion, thereby reducing emissions), impacts arising from road development are for the most part negative. Therefore, this Guide focuses on describing how to avoid and mitigate negative impacts. Impacts arising from road development can be organized into three broad groups: z
direct or primary impacts;
z
indirect or secondary impacts; and
z
cumulative and synergistic impacts.
2.2.1 Direct Impacts Direct impacts are the primary effects of activities associated with road building and operation. For example, a direct impact of clearing a right-ofway would be loss of habitat; the creation of steep cut slopes would yield soil erosion as a direct impact; and upgrading a road to allow higher traffic speeds would directly influence the rate of road kills (Lode 2000). Direct impacts are the easiest impacts to understand and predict because of the straightforward cause-effect relationships that are evident. They are not necessarily the most important. 2.2.2 Indirect Impacts Indirect impacts are the consequences of direct impacts, and are often considerably more complex. For example, the barrier effect of a road may restrict the movement of some species (a direct impact); an associated indirect impact might be that in which the species’ reduced mobility upsets key predator-prey relationships, thereby altering the dynamics of the entire ecosystem (see Case Study No. 3). Road-related land clearing for subsistence agriculture is a good example of an indirect impact, in that the clearing is not caused by the road itself, but is a consequence of in-migration, which is itself a direct result of the road being built.
Protected Areas, Wildlife and Roads : Environmental issues
21
Indirect impacts may have more profound consequences on the environment and be more difficult to foresee than direct impacts, because of the uncertainties involved in assessing each likely impact. 2.2.3Cumulative and Synergistic Impacts Cumulative and synergistic impacts are generally the consequences of either (i) a single impact occurring many times over a project period, e.g. blasting during construction; (ii) multiple interrelated impacts occurring in the same period, e.g. roads may induce competition for resources, redefine home range boundaries, and induce stress among animals simultaneously; or (iii) multiple unrelated direct and indirect impacts, e.g. barrier effect, human colonization, and habitat contamination. In all cases, individual impacts cannot be considered in isolation, but rather must be seen as components of the more serious cumulative or synergistic effects. In the case of cumulative impacts, each individual impact has an additive effect, such that although it may be minor in itself, its incremental contribution to the overall impact may be quite significant. Effects contributing to synergistic impacts can be thought of as multiplicative, in that the combination of two or more separate impacts creates effects greater than the sum of individual impacts occurring separately. Synergistic effects may arise where one impact compounds or prevents effective mitigation of another. For example, soil erosion and contamination of soil during road operation are two common impacts, neither of which may be especially serious if properly mitigated. If, however, the contamination is severe enough that establishment of vegetation (a common mitigative measure for erosion) is impeded, the consequent erosion could be much worse, and the distribution of soil-borne contaminants much more widespread, than would otherwise be the case. Prediction of cumulative and synergetic impacts is difficult because of uncertainties regarding the interrelationships of individual impacts. The works of Spaling and Smit (1993), Lawrence (1994), Bedford and Preston (1996), and CEAA (1998) are especially useful in assessing cumulative and synergistic impacts, and should be consulted if such impacts are suspected. Table 2.2 illustrates cause-effect linkages for certain project activities, in relation to wildlife. The impact-level characterizations further highlight the complexities of interacting systems and the cause-effect relationships that lead to direct or synergistic long-term and irreversible effects.
2.3 Impact Significance The significance of impacts is a function of their magnitude and severity (see World Bank 1997) and its determination is vital for better mitigation planning (see Section 5.5).
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
22
Table 2.2 Examples of potential impacts of roads on wildlife Project characteristics/ Direct impacts activity
Indirect
impacts
Cumulative/ synergistic impacts
Clearing of vegetation
Loss or degradation of habitat
Reduction in habitat use
Decline in wildlife population and diversity
Right-of-way clearing
Fragmentation of habitat
Reduction in structural diversity, increase in isolation of habitats
Reduction in population size and integrity
Construction and operation of roads
Barrier to dispersal
Disproportionate utilization of habitats
Competition for resources and redefined boundaries of home range Increased stress and related health declines
Mowing of roadsides
Changes in vegetation composition
Fluctuations in small mammal density due to discontinuity with adjacent wooded habitats
Alteration of trophic dynamics, ecosystem change
Application of herbicides to control vegetation along roadways
Transportation of chemicals to water bodies
Changes in wetland characteristics
Loss of habitat niche for dependent species, population decline
Road construction in coastal areas
Alteration of tidal flushing cycle in mangroves and salt marshes
Increased or decreased salinity
Changes in habitat quality and species composition
Road construction on unstable land.
Soil erosion
Siltation of water bodies
Degradation of aquatic habitat, species decline
Dust raised during operation and construction.
Dust deposition on vegetation, interference with photosynthesis
Reduced primary productivity
Reduction of food sources, species decline
Traffic
Disturbance to wildlife species of road verges
Changes in activity patterns leading to habitat use more during night
Competition for resources with nocturnal animals, decline of certain species
Abandonment of habitat, migration to others
Overuse of other habitat areas, eventual decline of some species
Decline in populations
Change to trophic dynamics and species composition
Increase in traffic volume
Increased road kills
Protected Areas, Wildlife and Roads : Environmental issues
Project characteristics/ Direct impacts activity
Indirect
Channel relocation
Degradation of wetland dependent on flooding
Threats to conservation of some wetland species
Diminished ground water
Localized drought, decline in productivity
Alteration direction of water flow
impacts
23
Cumulative/ synergistic impacts
recharge
Road alignment through wildlife habitat
Increased access to pristine wildlife habitat areas
Increased flow
Reduced habitat
in receiving streams
suitability for some species, affecting species composition
Unplanned development
Decline in habitat quality
Poaching
Species decline
Changes in behavioural responses, and physiological disorders
Increased mortality
Construction activities, blasting and vehicle movement
Stress on animals
Land taking for road
Displacement of people
Colonization pressure in unsettled areas
Deterioration of previously undisturbed natural areas
Construction of temporary access roads for quarries
Facilitation of public access
Eventual acceptance of road as permanent features
Colonization stimulating roadhabitat conversion
Road construction in mountain ecosystems
Barriers to vertical migration and dispersal of species
Sub-division of populations in in previously connected habitats
Threat to endemic character of the mountain ecosystem
Reduced fertility
Reversible, short term impacts confined to small spatial limits are generally easiest to mitigate; for example, impacts associated with the creation of temporary roadside trenches. Impacts involving faulty route alignment, construction activities and traffic-related environmental degradation are generally long term, often permanent, and therefore more severe.
2.4 References Andrews, A. (1990). Fragmentation of habitat by roads and utility corridors: a review. Australian Zoologist 26, 130-42.
24
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Bedford, B.L. and E. Preston, eds. (1996). Cumulative Effects on Landscape Systems and Wetlands: Scientific Status, Prospects and Regulatory Perspectives. Springer International, New York. Bennett, A. F. (1991). Roads, roadsides and wildlife conservation: A review. In: Nature conservation: The role of corridors, (ed. D.A. Saunders & J. Hobbs), pp. 99-118. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Sydney. Canadian Enviornmental Assessment Agency (CEAA). (1998). Cumulative Ef fects Assessment Practitioners’ Guide. CEAA, Ottawa, Canada [www.ceaa.gc.ca] Dhindsa, S., J.S. Sandhu, P.S. Sandhu and H.S. Toor (1988). Roadside birds in Punjab (India): relation to mortality from vehicles. Environmental Conservation, 15 (4),303-310. Forman, R.T.T and L.E. Alexander (1998). Roads and their major ecological effects. Annu. Review. Ecol. Syst. 29, 207-31. Johnsingh, A.J.T., K. Shankar and Shomita Mukherjee (1998). Saving prime tiger habitat in Sariska Tiger Reserve. Cat News 27, 3-4. Lawrence, D. (1994). Cumulative effects assessment at the project level. Impact Assessment 12, 253-273. Lode, Thierry. (2000). Effect of a motorway on mortality and isolation of wildlife populations. Ambio 29 (3),163-166. Rebecca, A.R., J. Johnson-Barnard and W.L. Baker (1996). Contribution of roads to forest fragmentation in the Rocky Mountains. Conservation Biology, 10(4), 1098-1106. Singh, H.S. and R.D. Kamboj (1996). Biodiversity Conservation Plan for Gir. Gujarat Forest Department, Gujarat, India. Spaling, H. and B. Smith (1993). Cumulative environmental change: conceptual frameworks, evaluation approaches, and institutional perspectives. Environmental Management 17(5), 587-600. Van der Zande, A.N., W.J. ter Kerurs and Van der Weiden (1990). The impact of roads on the densities of four bird species in an open field habitatevidence of a long distance effect. Biological conservation 18, 299-321. World Bank (1997). Roads and the Environment: A Handbook. World Bank Technical Paper No. 376. The World Bank, Washington, DC.
3 . ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS, LEGISLATION AND PROCESS
T
he principal environmental regulatory agency in India is the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). The MoEF formulates environmental policies, sets standards and gives environmental clearance for major projects in accordance with legislative directives. The central and state legislation that regulates the environmental clearance of roads and highway projects focuses on the following: z
preventing pollution of the environment;
z
managing natural resources; and
z
gaining a better understanding of and control over the linkages between pollution and natural resource conservation.
In this chapter the basic elements of the management framework for road-wildlife-environment issues in India and other South Asian countries are described.
3.1 India 3.1.1 The Institutional Framework The planning, construction and operation of major roads in India is largely the responsibility of central and state road agencies. Recent amendments to the National Highway Act (1956) have opened the way for private sector involvement. There are five major stakeholders (see Figure 3.1) in road development, construction and operation. These are: z
the proponents;
z
the regulatory agencies directly responsible for the project; ‘other stakeholders’, such as agencies and private sector groups and individuals who are affected by the project and/or have an indirect regulatory role; the facilitators, such as consultants and advisors; and the contractors who build and maintain the roads.
26
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
A broad understanding of the functions and roles of these stakeholders, in the context of roads and protected areas and EA in India, will help to clarify how best to involve each group in the environmental approval process. 3.1.2 Project Proponents In India, EA applies to both public and private sector projects. Central and state Public Work Departments (PWDs) are usually the major proponents involved. The National Highway Authority of India (NHAI), an autonomous body under the Ministry of Surface Transport (MOST), has the responsibility for planning, construction, development, operation and maintenance of all national highways in the country. The NHAI also invites private sector involvement and encourages foreign/government agencies and other institutions to get involved in road development activities. The roads along India’s frontiers are under the control of the Border Road Organization, a unit within the Ministry of Defence. 3.1.3 Regulatory Agencies Developmental planning is regulated by various government ministries and the autonomous bodies under them. The Planning Commission grants the approval of funding allocations for road projects under the national Five Year Plan. New roads are administered by state governments and the MOST. The MOST regulates the allocation of the funds for detailed feasibility studies; land acquisition; relocation of utilities; and resettlement and rehabilitation of affected communities. The Indian Road Congress (IRC) is an advisory body that provides the standards and specifications for construction, maintenance and improvement of roads, highways and bridges. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), an autonomous body of the MoEF, is the agency that ensures that environmentally acceptable methods and mitigative measures are employed, and that India’s environmental standards for road development and operation are adhered to. The role of the State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and the state forest departments is to provide the state-level clearances (e.g. the No Objection Certificate (NOC) under the Air and Water Act and the Forest Clearance under the Forest Conservation Act) that are necessary initial steps before the MoEF’s environmental clearance for a project can be sought. 3.1.4 Other Stakeholders Government agencies, NGOs, corporate groups and citizens directly or indirectly affected by road developments are numerous (see Figure 3.1). The consideration of their concerns by the proponent is an important and highly advisable step in the environmental clearance of a project. Through the public
Environmental Institutions, legislation and process
27
hearing process that has recently been made mandatory (for Schedule I projects) in India, the inputs of the directly and indirectly affected groups are recorded, considered and incorporated (where relevant) in project design and construction (see Case Study Nos. 3 and 5).
PROPONENTS National Highway Authority State Roads and Building Department State Transport Corporations Public Works Department Border Road Organisation
FACILITATORS (Specialists) EIA Consultants Academic and Scientific Institutions Research and Development Organisations Road Research Institutes and Civil Engineering Departments of other Engineering Institutions
CONTRACTOR(S) They implement construction-related mitigative measures defined in the environmental documents
REGULATORY AGENCIES Planning Commission Ministry of Surface Transport Ministry of Environment and Forests Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) Indian Road Congress State Forest and Wildlife Departments
‘OTHER’ STAKEHOLDERS Wildlife Conservation Groups Non Governmental Organizations Municipal Corporation & Residents of Project Area Trade and Commercial Establishment and their Regulatory Agencies Culture and Heritage Groups
Fig. 3.1 Key participants in assessment of road related wildlife issues in India
3.1.5 Facilitators Facilitators include the various consultants and advisors that participate in the EA and road planning processes. They help shape the final, and ultimately, political decisions made with respect to a project’s clearance. Significant among these facilitators are academic and research institutions, which have considerable expertise in conducting assessments of project impacts on different components of the environment. The institutions that have particular relevance to the assessment of wildlife and biodiversity impacts include the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON), and leading nongovernmental organizations like Bombay Natural History Society ( BNHS) and the World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF) - India. Besides these, some universities also have the necessary expertise to conduct environmental and ecological assessments. A detailed list of these institutions and organizations, including their mandates and contact addresses, is provided on the WII website. On the road engineering side, key organizations include the Central Institute of Road Transport (CIRT), Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) and Central Building Research Institute (CBRI).
28
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Unfortunately, linkages between the environmental and engineering organizations are weak, providing little opportunity for inter-agency activity or cross-disciplinary cooperation. This condition represents a major obstacle to India’s (and indeed most countries’) efforts to plan more ‘environmentally friendly’ roads. 3.1.6 Contractors Most guidebooks and discussions regarding road-environment issues exclude specific mention of the road construction and maintenance contractors as key players. This is a serious oversight, since, aside from those who prepare the construction guidelines, contractors are the ones who have the most influence in determining whether a project will be environmentally acceptable or would have serious effects. Two problems are often highlighted when projects that contain environmentally sensitive elements are being bid on by contractors: a) bid documents do not specify the level of effort or environmental measures required, such that contractors do not allocate adequate resources to the required tasks; and b) contractors often do not have the technical expertise to assess what is needed, what it will cost, and how to implement measures defined in bid documents. Therefore, the responsibility lies squarely with the proponent (the contractor’s employer) for including well-prepared and comprehensive environmental clauses in the bid packages. It is useful to check a contractor’s environmental track record, a kind of pre-qualification exercise. Cooperation between the contractor and the proponents and their technical specialists at the earliest possible time is recommended in order to minimize lost time, unnecessary spending, and the occurrence of avoidable environmental impacts. Such actions will lead to significant savings in the long run. 3.1.7 Legislation, Policies and Guidelines Conservation, protection and preservation of the environment are cornerstones of the Indian ethos, culture and traditions. They have been written into India’s Constitution, one of the first in the world to recognize the importance of environmental conservation. The 42nd amendment to the Indian Constitution in 1976 forced the states to take measures to protect and improve the environment, and to safeguard the forests and wildlife. Many central and state laws have been enacted over time for the protection of the environment. The key central and state laws and regulations that govern the process of environmental clearance of new highway, road, bridge and rail projects are identified and briefly described below. More detailed information on each is available on the website of MoEF.
Environmental Institutions, legislation and process
(i)
29
The Environmental Protection Act
The Environmental (Protection) Act (1986), passed as Notification No. G.S.R. 1198(E), includes rules to protect the environment through planning and execution of a standard nationwide programme for the prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution. It also specifies standard procedures for handling hazardous substances. (ii) Environmental Guidelines In 1989 the MoEF, in conjunction with the MOST, published comprehensive environmental guidelines for rail, road and highway projects. These guidelines assist project authorities and contractors in planning and conducting environmental assessments, and in devising comprehensive environmental management plans for transportation projects, including rail, roads, highways, expressways and airports. The guidelines also list which types of project are subject to EA requirements. The environmental guidelines emphasize the evaluation of project impacts through the prediction of change in selected biophysical and socio-economic parameters (see the WII website for details). In addition to adequate information on ecological values, details on the operational characteristics of the road project must also be presented. The guidelines go into special detail on what is required for roads proposed in hilly terrain. They specify that contractors should: z
adopt appropriate cut and fill technologies;
z
establish vegetative cover on all cut/fill slopes and afforest roadside land;
z
adopt and adhere strictly to erosion control measures and implementation schedules;
z
protect and retain, wherever possible, natural drainage systems; and
z
dump excavated material only in accordance with best practices.
(iii) Environmental Impact Assessment Notification The Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, issued on January 27th, 1994 and amended on May 4th, 1994 under clause (a) of sub-rule (3) of rule (5) of the Environmental Protection Rules (see the WII website for details), streamlined the EA process for development projects. Schedules listing the project types requiring comprehensive and preliminary environmental analyses are included in the Notification. Besides setting time schedules for decision-making, the Notification also describes the procedures to be adopted for obtaining clearance and for public involvement.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
30
(iv) EIA Notification for road and highway projects Schedule I of the EIA Notification (Govt. of India 1994) states that all major road and highway projects require environmental clearance from the central government. Such projects include tarred roads in the Himalayas and on any forest land; any national highways more than 5 km long; and state highways exceeding 5 km in length and involving forest lands. All new road projects affecting sites defined as ecologically sensitive or fragile under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 also require environmental clearance, irrespective of whether they are listed under Schedule I of the EIA Notification (see the WII website for details). An amendment to the EIA Notification (April 10th,1997) exempts any highway projects that involve improvement work such as widening and strengthening of existing roads, where the total new land acquisition is less than 10 hectares. Any road scheduled for improvement that passes through or infringes on ecologically sensitive areas, including national parks, sanctuaries, tiger reserves and reserved forests, does not qualify for this exemption. In some states, such as Gujarat, roadside plantations are treated as forest tracts and before any clearing can take place, the NOC from Department of Forest (DoF) for the removal of forests and a reforestation plan, approved by the DoF, is required. (v) National wildlife and forest conservation policies The two major documents that emphasize the need for wildlife and biodiversity conservation and provide frameworks to achieve it are the National Wildlife Action Plan (MoEF 1983) and the National Forest Policy (MoEF 1988). These documents promote wildlife conservation by suggesting: z
the creation of a network of protected areas to cover representative samples of major wildlife ecosystems and with adequate geographic distribution;
z
the restoration of protected areas to their natural states;
z
the rehabilitation of endangered species, including restoration of former habitats;
z
the development of adequate corridors for genetic continuity in production forests and pasture land; and
z
the strengthening of management of existing protected areas.
3.1.8 Environmental Quality Standards The MoEF has the overall responsibility to set policy and standards for the protection of the environment. For air, water and noise, it does this
Environmental Institutions, legislation and process
31
through its Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The CPCB stipulates the environmental quality standards to be adopted for all development projects. Sections 3.3.1 through 3.3.3 present the quality standards for air, water and noise, the environmental components most often affected by road building and operation. (i) Ambient air quality standards Ambient air quality standards were defined by the CPCB in 1994 (Table 3.1). Table 3.1 Ambient air quality standards for India Concentration in ambient air (µ µ g/m 3) Pollutant
Time weighted average
Industrial area
Residential/ commercial area
Sensitive area
Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 )
Annual averagea 24 hoursb
80 120
60 80
15 30
Oxides of Nitrogen (as NO 2)
Annual average 24 hours
80 120
60 80
15 30
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
Annual average 24 hours
360 500
140 200
70 100
Respirable Particulate Matter (RPM)
Annual average 24 hours
120 150
60 100
50 75
Lead (Pb)
Annual average 24 hours
1.0 2.0
0.75 1.00
0.50 0.75
8 hours 1 hour
5.0 10.0
3.0 4.0
4.0 2.0
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Source: Website of Central Pollution Control Board 1999. a Annual arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform interval. b 24 hourly/8 hourly values should be met 98% of the time in a year. It may exceed this level 2% of the time, but not on two consecutive days.
(ii) Water quality standards The CPCB has designated ‘Best-use’ classes of water (Table 3.2) for all the major rivers of the country (see the WII website). Use classes refer to maximum pollution levels that a water body may be permitted to degrade to while still meeting the quality standard for its ‘designated’ use. Further details on environmental quality standards are also available on the websites of MOEF (www.envfor.nic.in), CPCB (www.envfor.nic.in/cpcb/cpcb.html) and WII (www.wii.gov.in).
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
32
Table 3.2 Ambient water quality standards for India Designated-Best-Use
Class of water
Drinking water source without conventional treatment but after disinfection
A
Outdoor bathing (organised)
B
Criteria 1.
Total coliform organism MPN/100ml shall be 50 or less pH between 6.5 and 8.5 Dissolved oxygen 6mg/l or more Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 5 days 20oC 2mg/l or less
2. 3. 4. 1.
Total coliform organism MPN/100ml shall be 500 or less pH between 6.5 and 8.5 Dissolved oxygen 5mg/l or more BOD 5 days 20oC 3mg/l or less
2. 3. 4. Drinking water source after conventional treatment and disinfection
C
Propagation of wildlife and fisheries Irrigation, industrial cooling, controlled waste disposal
1. 2. 3. 4.
Total coliform organism MPN/100ml shall be 5000 or less pH between 6 to 9 Dissolved oxygen 4mg/l or more BOD 5 days 20oC 3mg/l or less
D
1. 2. 3.
pH between 6.5 to 8.5 Dissolved oxygen 4mg/l or more Free ammonia (as N) 1.2 mg/l or less
E
1. 2.
pH betwwn 6.0 to 8.5 Electrical conductivity at 25oC micro mhos/cm max 2250 Sodium absorption ratio max. 26 Boron max. 2mg/l
3. 4. Source: Website of Central Pollution Control Board 1999.
(iii)
Ambient noise standards
Ambient noise standards were established by the MoEF in 1989. They are based on the A-weighted equivalent decibel noise level (Leq) and grouped into four categories (Table 3.3) in accordance with the dominant land use in the area. Table 3.3 Indian national ambient noise standards Type of landuse
Industrial
Code
A
Noise limits in L eq dBA Daysa
Night
75
70
Commercial
B
65
55
Residential
C
55
45
Silence area b
D
50
40
Source: Schedule III inserted into G.S.R. 1063(E) dated 26.12.89. Published in the Gazette No.643 (1989). a Day time is from 0600 hrs. to 2100 hrs.; b Silence zone is an area up to 100 meters around hospitals, schools and courts; no horns, loud speakers or bursting of fire crackers.
Environmental Institutions, legislation and process
33
3.1.9 The Clearance Process (i)
Environmental clearance
The Impact Assessment Division of the MoEF plays the key role in processing environmental clearance applications for road projects. The Forest and Wildlife Divisions of the MoEF are often asked to evaluate the environmental studies conducted as part of the overall feasibility studies for the proposed projects (see Figure 3.2). This is particularly true for projects involving conversion of forest land or the alignment of roads and highways near to or within wildlife areas. Minister
Secretary
Special Secretary
Director General of Forests (DGF)
Joint Secretary
Additional DG
(Forest)
Additional DG (Wildlife)
Director, Impact Assessment (IA) Division
Dy. IG Forest
Dy. IG Wildlife
Forest Division
Wildlife Division
Areas of responsibility of IA Division IA-I: Water resource and nuclear power projects IA-II: Industry, thermal power and mining projects IA-III: Coastal zone, infrastructure and miscellaneous projects
Fig. 3.2 Organization and chain of command for the MoEF
Project proponents who want to undertake the types of new road projects listed in Schedule I of the EIA Notification, 1994 are required to submit an application to the Secretary of the MoEF, using a standardized form (see the WII website for a copy). The application should be accompanied by a feasibility or project report, which includes an Environmental Appraisal Questionnaire (see WII website); an EIA report; and an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) prepared in accordance with the MoEF’s
34
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
guidelines for rail, road and highway projects (MoEF 1989). A public hearing report is also required. Rehabilitation plans must also be submitted where large-scale displacement of people is anticipated. India is currently reassessing its policy on displacement and resettlement of people. The exceptions to these procedural requirements are projects involving paved roads in the Himalayas, national highways less than 5 km long, state highways shorter than 5 km and involving forest land, and all state highways not involving forest land. These require only state government approvals. The documents submitted by a proponent are first reviewed by a multidisciplinary team in the MoEF (see Figure 3.3) who may undertake site visits wherever required, interact with the proponent and hold consultations with experts and ‘other stakeholders’ on specific issues, whenever necessary. After this preliminary internal scrutiny by the MoEF, the documents are given to the Environmental Appraisal Committee (EAC), which meets regularly to appraise rail, road, highway and other infrastructure projects. Based on the evaluation (see Figure 3.3) of documents submitted by the proponent and other information gathered at the EAC meeting and the site visit, the Committee will recommend that the project be either approved, rejected or approved with conditions. The recommendations and conditions of the Committee are then processed by the MoEF. All conditions stipulated are binding and must be dealt with by the proponent to the satisfaction of the MoEF before the project can ‘break ground’, or before the date specified in the statement of conditions. Interestingly, there is no legal requirement for the submission of a completion report in which the proponent certifies that all conditions have been met. In other words, implementation of conditions is based on the honour system. The entire process, from the time all relevant documentation has reached the MoEF, through the EAC evaluation and the subsequent MoEF decision, should take less than 120 days. In practice, this deadline is seldom met. The involvement of several agencies, with communication gaps between them, often results in long delays. The Forest Clearances and NOCs that must precede the environmental clearance, often provided by state-level agencies, are also frequently delayed, further slowing the process. The most likely reason for this situation is that central and state agencies are not directly involved in a project’s planning until the applications for clearance are submitted. Naturally, such agencies need time to ‘catch up’, ask questions and review the project in the context of what is happening in their jurisdictions. Early proactive communication by the proponent with all regulatory agencies should significantly reduce this bottleneck. If EA documents are poorly prepared, and the proponent has not consulted the MoEF, particularly
Environmental Institutions, legislation and process
Submission of State-level application of No-Objection Certificate (NOC)
Whether the State-level or Central approval process needs to be followed, depends on the nature of road project, the source and amount of funding
Submission of the environmental appraisal questionnaire by proponent to MoEF
Project documents to be submitted by proponent -EIA and EMP and Public Hearing Report -Resettlement Plan -Engineering Feasibility Study Report
If needed No SPCB NoObjectionCertificate Application
35
Submit by proponent
State-level approval can bypass these applications Forest Department (State) NoSubmit by proponent Objection Certificate Application
MoEF assembles all Information and proceeds with environmental clearance
MoEF staff scrutinize documentation, for basic compliance
None compliant
Yes; Documentation submitted to EAC Committee for evaluation
Review and evaluation by EAC
State level approval options -reject -approve -approve with conditions
Pending rejections are transmitted to proponent with an opportunity to correct problems if possible
EAC recommendations to MoEF -reject -approve -approve with conditions MoEF Evaluates may request technical assessment, more information, etc. and renders a decision to: -reject -approve -approve with conditions MoEF sends environmental clearance to proponent with or without conditions - Proponent can proceed with project ground breaking
Usually MoEF does not require verification that proponent has complied with conditions, but reserves the right to audit at any time
Fig. 3.3 Steps in environmental clearance in India
when sensitive issues are involved, further delays will occur while the MoEF consults experts. If improperly planned and executed, public hearings can also delay decisions. (ii) Procedures for projects involving forest clearance For projects involving clearing of forest land, the proponent must obtain permission under the Forest Conservation Act from either the central or state government, depending on the size and location of the forest. Permission to clear forest land must be obtained before applying for environmental clearance of a project. The application for clearance is prepared by the proponent and submitted to the MoEF if the clearing area is greater than 20 ha, or to the Regional Chief Conservator of Forests (RCCF) if the clearing area is less than 20 ha. Applications going to the MoEF require a site inspection if they involve more than 40 ha, with recommendations for actions being made by the MoEF’s Central Advisory Committee. For applications going to the RCCF, recommendations for sites smaller than 5 ha are made by the RCCF. The
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
36
state forest department’s advisory group makes recommendations for areas between 5 and 20 ha in size. Recommendations are assembled by MoEF and a formal approval order, e.g. the NOC, is issued by the state government involved.
3.2 EA in the Region Environmental assessment of transportation projects in countries within the South Asia region, namely Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, varies considerably in terms of the details required and available legal and administrative support. A summary of the EA procedural process for each South Asian country, in relation to India’s approach, is presented below in order to help practitioners compare methods applied elsewhere, presenting a range of approaches, as well as some lessons learned. 3.2.1 Bangladesh Road transportation projects in Bangladesh are the responsibility of the National Roads and Highways Department (RHD). In mid-1998, the RHD added a new Road Design and Environment Circle to its Technical Services Group. Three divisions have been established within the Circle, one of which is the Environment and Resettlement Division (ERD). The ERD has 3 staff positions; as of October 1998 it had an executive engineer and an EA specialist, and a resettlement specialist will be hired in the future. The Division’s executive engineer is the RHD’s representative on the National Environment Committee, which decides on the EA requirements and the adequacy of existing EAs. The formation of the ERD has provided a single point of contact for transportation EAs. Since the formation of the ERD within the RHD, studies at the Initial Environmental Evaluation (IEE) level have been done within that Division. All other more detailed work is undertaken by outside consultants. (i)
Legislation and policies
In 1995 the Government of Bangladesh enacted its Environmental Protection Act and in 1997 passed the Environmental Preservation Law (S.R.O. No.197-Law/97), which categorized industries and projects into four groups: Green, Orange-a, Orange-b and Red , with green signifying the least severe likely impacts and red the most severe. Orange and red category projects usually require some form of EA. Clause (3) of the Environmental Preservation Law is a “Declaration of Ecologically Critical Area” and identifies 11 areas that are subject to strict
Environmental Institutions, legislation and process
37
government control. Reserved forests, wildlife habitat and animal preservation areas are included. The clause does not set out a clear designation, but gives the national government discretion as to how a critical area is treated. Also in 1997, 14 sets of standards defining acceptable air, noise and water quality as well as permissible contamination levels for a range of materials, including solid and liquid waste, were made law. The Department of Environment (DoE) within the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) enforces these standards. (ii) Environmental Approval: Steps involved As a first step the proponent, in nearly all cases the RHD, completes a feasibility study and the associated environmental documentation in compliance with the Environmental Preservation Law, 1997. The proponent must also meet donor requirements wherever they are more specific than the national regulations. Once prepared by the proponent, the EA documentation is passed on to the DoE and finally to the National Environment Committee for approval. Once approved, and with a letter of “no objection” from the local community, the project can move to implementation. Mitigation plans contained in the EA document must be implemented according to a specified schedule. Under such a system, environmental approvals pass through only two entities. 3.2.2 Bhutan Currently, Bhutan does not have a legal procedure or standard which can be used for the completion of environmental analyses in relation to roads or other types of infrastructure projects. The recommendations of a recent Asian Development Bank-funded project to develop sectoral EA guidelines for Bhutan (ADB/Hatfield 1999) form a basis for standards and guidelines now being developed. The ADB/Hatfield (1999) study, which has been endorsed by the government of Bhutan, proposes a streamlined process with four categories of projects, each related to the extent of impacts predicted. (i)
Legislation and policies
Proponents contemplating road and infrastructure projects in Bhutan should have a working understanding of the following rules, regulations and acts:
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
38 z
Municipal Act;
z
Rules and regulations for construction of buildings (semi permanent and permanent) within rights-of-way (Ministry of Home Affairs);
z
Road Safety and Transport Act, 1997;
z
Rules and Regulations (1992) pertaining to construction of infrastructure;
z
Water and Sanitation Rules, 1995.
Bhutan also has a set of construction rules that are relevant for road projects. The construction of any sort of structure within 15 m of the road’s edge is not permitted, and it is suggested that all non-road-related facilities be kept at least 45 m away from the roadway. This in essence is a right-ofway regulation. (ii) Contractor licensing Bhutan has various licensing procedures to certify contractors, according to project size. The Ministry of Trade and Industry issues these licenses, which are renewed yearly. Contractors must adhere to certain engineering standards monitored by the Division of Roads. Under the proposed environmental assessment process (ADB/Hatfield 1999), how well contractors implement environmental requirements will be linked to the renewals of licenses, thus providing an easy compliance monitoring system. 3.2.3 Nepal Nepal began practicing EA in 1992, and the following year its national EIA Guidelines were created. EA guidelines for five sectors of the economy (one being roads) are being developed. In 1995 the Ministry of Environment and Population was formed, and the Environmental Protection Act was made into law in 1996. As well, the National Economic Planning Agency, traditionally the senior development planning entity in the country, strengthened its environment sector. In 1998 the government enabled its Environmental Protection Rule, which laid out the steps for EIA and indicated what intensity of EA would be applied to projects commonly undertaken in Nepal. The Department of Roads has gone far in terms of developing specific EA guidelines and setting certain standards. They even have bioengineering guidelines for road projects. Even with this in place, projects’ environmental works are often driven by donor requirements.
Environmental Institutions, legislation and process
(i)
39
Legislation and policies
Nepal has a number of acts and rules (regulations) that deal with the conservation of wildlife and protected areas. They include: z
The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973)
z
The Wildlife Sanctuary Rules (1977)
z
The Forest Act (1992)
z
Local Self-Governance Act (1998)
These are enforced by at least four agencies: (i) the Department of Agriculture; (ii) the Ministry of Forests and Soils; (iii) the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation and (iv) the Ministry of Population and Environment. The first two agencies often must approve forest cutting and land use conversions from forest to agriculture while, at the same time, acting to protect wildlife ecosystems. (ii) Environmental approval: steps involved Nepal’s environmental approval process is evolving, and at present begins with the proponent agency receiving an approval in principle to proceed with a feasibility study from the Ministry of Finance (MOF). The MOF, sometimes in consultation with the Ministry of Population and Environment (MOPE), decides on the level of environmental analysis required for a given project. Donor-funded projects often have specific requirements that the Government of Nepal follows. The proponent must then organize the environmental analysis and submit a full EA report, with an engineering feasibility study, to the MOF. The MOF then calls in the MOPE for technical review. Since almost all development work is donor driven, EA requirements are usually dictated by donor regulations and the EA work is completed by outside consultants. MOPE’s environment unit is staffed with highly trained people but these people are hugely over worked and as such environmental protection suffers. In the event that projects are private sector investments with no foreign public funds involved, environmental requirements are at the discretion of the MOF and the MOPE (if invited to comment by the MOF). 3.2.4 Pakistan In 1992, Pakistan established its Ministry of Environment, Urban Affairs, Forestry and Wildlife (MEUFW). The Ministry, now called the Ministry of Environment, Local Government and Rural Development (MoELG&RD), was put in charge of creating proper legislation, regulations and standards
40
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
with which EAs could be conducted and environmental protection ensured. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established at both federal and provincial levels for the enforcement of environmental laws. Environment Sections were also established in the planning departments of both federal and provincial governments. An Environment Section (ES) was created in the federal Planning and Development Division (PDD) in 1992, and has played a key role in the implementation of EA processes ever since. The Planning and Development Division (PDD) is responsible for the coordination and approval of all foreign-aided and federally funded projects costing more than US$ 3.16 million. All provincial and locally funded projects costing less than US$ 3.16 million are coordinated and approved by the provincial Planning and Development (P&D) departments. The distinction between national and provincial project authority has been clearly delineated and is based on geographic scope, cost, and project type. A number of line agencies, such as the National Highway Authority (NHA), have environment cells (or units) whose responsibility it is to make sure that projects proposed by their agencies comply with the country’s environmental requirements. Pakistan has a project screening process and associated project categorization. At present all standard development projects have been classified into one of three categories, each with a prescribed level of environmental assessment. Sectoral EA procedures and guidelines were prepared in 1998. The NHA, under the federal Ministry of Communication, and its provincial counterparts, the provincial Communication and Works (C&W) departments, now have EA guidelines as well as a project screening and categorization process. (i) Legislation and policies In 1996, the MoELG&RD began to enforce the national environmental quality standards which dealt primarily with ‘end-of-pipe’ standards including air quality, water quality, and noise in relation to vehicle operation. In 1997, revised standards were finalized after extensive consultation with different government departments, the private sector and NGOs. At the same time, a more comprehensive Environmental Protection Act was being enacted (199798). Under the new Act, EA has been made mandatory for all projects, and a two-tiered EA process has been introduced. It includes, depending on the nature of the project, Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). (ii) Environmental approval: steps involved Once a project concept has been conceived and documented by a proponent, such as the NHA, a proposal describing the project and other
Environmental Institutions, legislation and process
41
details is submitted to the PDD along with a copy of the EA report. The PDD has traditionally decided on the level of EA to be undertaken. The proponent agency is now required, in consultation with the EPA office or the Environment Section of the PDD, to submit the relevant EA report (using the sectoral guideline) to the PDD. This should be a complete EA, including the type, significance and duration of negative impacts, the mitigative measures to be applied, and the risks associated with their failure. If the project only requires an IEE, the study must confirm that impacts fall within the limits defined in the sectoral guideline. The EPA must also review all documents, including IEEs. The EPA recommends that proponent agencies hold a project briefing meeting with all concerned agencies at the start of the IEE activity. Usually the agency’s environmental unit acts as the focal point for EA completion. In the provinces, there may not be an environmental unit attached to the department, in which case consultants are hired to prepare an EA report. Once completed, a draft EA document is submitted to the PDD and usually to the EPA for review and comment. The EPA may request public consultation, if it feels that people will be negatively impacted and the EA has not adequately addressed this issue. EA documents contain the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) and an Environmental Management Plan (EMP). A summary of a Resettlement Action Plan (RAP), if required, is included in addition to the full RAP submitted as a separate document. This full submission, plus an application known as PC-1, is handed over to the PDD for final approval and funding. Once the submission is approved by PDD, groundbreaking can begin. 3.2.5 Sri Lanka In Sri Lanka, the National Environmental Act (NEA) No. 47 (1980) introduced the EA requirements for development projects and laid down the procedures for obtaining environmental clearance. The 1985 NEA Amendment Act No. 56 stipulated that road projects must receive environmental clearance before their approval for implementation. The project review and approval agencies include the Department of Coast Conservation; Department of Wildlife Conservation; Urban Development Authority and the Central Environmental Authority. The proponent agency (any agency sponsoring a project) and the Central Environmental Authority give the final environmental approval. As of March 1999, all development projects in Sri Lanka were classified into three categories: (i) projects prescribed under NEA; (ii) projects not
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
42
prescribed under NEA but with impact potential; and (iii) projects that are categorically exempt from any EA approval. (i)
Projects prescribed by NEA
Projects located in environmentally sensitive areas, as specified in Part III of Gazette Notification No. 772/22, 1993, require environmental clearance irrespective of their magnitude and whether or not they are located in the coastal zone. Environmentally sensitive areas are defined as any areas within 100 m of land designated under various Acts and Ordinances including the National Heritage Wilderness Act No.3 of 1988, and the Forest Ordinance (Chapter 451). (ii) Projects not prescribed under NEA A large number of activities that are part of road development are not covered by the NEA. They may, however, be subject to an environmental review depending on their impact potential. Examples of such activities are: rehabilitation and reconstruction of local, provincial and national roads and bridges, and area-wide traffic management schemes. (iii) Projects that have categorical exemptions from environmental approval Projects under this category are not subject to the project approval process as laid down in the NEA. Projects or actions that are included in this category meet four criteria for exclusion from EA requirements. They are expected to result in: (i) no significant impediment to planned growth or land use of the area; (ii) no relocation of significant numbers of people or enterprises; (iii) no major changes in air or water quality or in noise levels; and (iv) no significant impact on travel patterns that would add congestion or cause unsafe conditions. Examples of such projects that qualify for the exemption category include: z
planning and technical studies;
z
utility installations situated along or across transport facilities;
z
construction of bicycle and pedestrian lanes, paths and facilities (with the exception of area-wide programmes);
z
installation of noise barriers or alterations to existing publicly owned buildings;
z
site-level landscaping, installation of fencing, warning and other signs, pavement markings, small passenger shelters, traffic signals, where no substantial land acquisitions and traffic disruptions will occur; and
Environmental Institutions, legislation and process z
43
emergency repairs, rehabilitation, or reconstruction carried out on an existing right-of-way.
3.2.5.1 Legislation and policies The NEA is the basic national charter for protection and management of the environment. The following laws must also be taken into consideration during the environmental approval steps for any road project: z
Urban Development Authority Law, No.41 of 1978;
z
Greater Colombo Economic Commission Law, No.4 of 1978;
z
National Heritage Wilderness Act No.3 of 1988;
z
Forest Ordinance (Chapter 451);
z
Coast Conservation Act, No.57 of 1981;
z
Botanic Gardens Ordinance (Chapter 446);
z
Town & Country Planning Act No.13 of 1946 (and subsequent amendments);
z
Land Acquisition Act of 1956; and
z
Highways Act Motor Traffic.
3.2.5.2 Environmental approval : steps involved A set of regulations under Section 23 CC of the NEA, read with Section 32 of the NEA, governs the project approval process. Regulation No. 5 emphasizes that the project proponent should submit preliminary information (any of the four listed in Section 3.5.5) to the project approving authority as early as possible. To that end, the project proponent is required to submit several (see below) documents relating to environmental impacts of development projects to enable the project approving agencies to make informed decisions. In the case of projects in the transport sector, the most important of these documents are: z
the Preliminary Information (PI) document;
z
the Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) report; and
z
the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report.
The PI document assists the project approving agencies in deciding whether they can make a ‘finding of no significant impact.’ Such a finding allows a conditional environmental clearance for the project. The next level is the IEE, where the possible environmental impacts of the project and their intensity are identified. A well-prepared PI document can also serve as an
44
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
IEE report. A comprehensive EIA is required when significant environmental impacts are foreseen. The proponent agency and the Central Environmental Authority give the final environmental approval.
3.3 References and Sources of Information INDIA Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). (1974). Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. Government of India, New Delhi. Ministry of Environment and Forests (1981). Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act. Government of India, New Delhi. Ministry of Environment and Forests (1980). The Forest (Conservation) Act. Government of India, New Delhi. Ministry of Environment and Forests (1986). Environment (Protection) Act. Government of India, New Delhi. Ministry of Environment and Forests (1994). The Environmental Impact Assessment Notification. Government of India, New Delhi. Ministry of Environment and Forests (1983). Revised list of Schedules to the Wildlife Protection Act Consequent on Amendments to the Schedules (The Gazette of India, New Delhi, Wednesday, April 13, 1983)., Government of India, New Delhi. Ministry of Environment and Forests (1989). Environmental Guidelines for Rail/Road/Highway Projects. Government of India, New Delhi. Ministry of Environment and Forests (1994). Handbook of Environmental Procedures and Guidelines. Government of India, New Delhi. Ministry of Environment and Forests (1983). National Wildlife Action Plan. Government of India, New Delhi. Ministr y of Environment and Forests (1988). National Forest Policy. Government of India, New Delhi.
Environmental Institutions, legislation and process
45
BANGLADESH Department of Environment (1997) EIA Guidelines for Industries. Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka. Jamal, A. (1993). Bangladesh: The State of the Environment. Coastal Area Resource Development and Management Association, Dhaka. Ministry of Environment and Forest (1995). National Environment Action Plan ( NEMAP) Volume II, Main Report. Government of Bangladesh, Dhaka. People’s Republic of Bangladesh (1997). Bangladesh Environmental Preservation Law: S.R.O. No.197-Law/97 ( English Translation). BHUTAN Asian Development Bank and Hatfield Consultants Ltd. (1999). Bhutanese Environmental Assessment: Sectoral Guidelines-in ADB TA-2531-BHU, Strengthening EA Capabilities and Preparation of Environmental Guidelines in Bhutan. (7-volume set). Prepared by Hatfield Consultants, Vancouver, Canada. NEPAL Asian Development Bank (1992). Nepal: Economic Policies for Sustainable Development. ADB TA NO. 5339 final report. Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines. Bio-Engineering Unit (1998). Depar tment of Roads: Environmental Guidelines. Ministry of Planning and Public Works, Nepal. Bio-Engineering Unit (1998). Department of Roads: Environmental Policy. Ministry of Planning and Public Works, Nepal. PAKISTAN Government of Pakistan (1997). The Environmental Protection Act. National Assembly of Pakistan, Islamabad. IUCN (1997). Rapid Assessment of the EIA Needs of the Environment Section. IUCN, Environmental Assessment Services, Islamabad. IUCN (1997a). EIA Needs Assessment Survey of Federal Government Departments. IUCN, Pakistan Programme, Islamabad.
46
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
World Bank (1996). Pakistan Environmental Protection and Resource Conservation Project. Mid-Term Review Report. South Asia Region, World Bank, Washington, DC. SRI LANKA National Environmental Act No. 47 (1980) amended by Act No. 56 of 1988. Central Environmental Authority (1993). Guidelines for Implementing the EIA Process, No.1. A General Guide to Project Approving Agencies (PAA). Second Edition. CEA, Sri Lanka. Central Environmental Authority (1995). Guidelines for Implementing the EIA Process, No.2. Guidelines for Conducting Environmental Scoping. CEA, Sri Lanka. Central Environmental Authority (1997). Environmental Guidelines for Road and Rail Development in Sri Lanka. CEA, Sri Lanka.
4. ECOSYSTEMS, IMPACTS AND MITIGATIVE MEASURES
T
here have been extensive studies done on the impacts of roads on the environment (e.g. Oxley et al. 1974; Oxley and Fenton 1976; Waechter 1979; English Nature 1994; Clevenger 1998; Bryon 1999), all concluding that roads can be a serious threat to the maintenance of biological diversity. If poorly planned and constructed, roads eliminate and fragment habitats (Andrews 1990; Rebecca et al. 1996), cause accidental wildlife deaths (Lewis 1989; Drews 1991, 1995; Rosen and Lowe 1994; Evink et al. 1996), affect wildlife distribution and movement patterns, and destroy wetland habitats (US EPA 1997). The response of an ecosystem to impacts is governed by many factors, and different ecosystems can be expected to adapt in different ways to roadrelated impacts. The type of ecosystem in which a proposed road development is to be undertaken is therefore a major consideration in determining potential impacts. This chapter describes common impacts of road development on seven types of ecosystems commonly found in India and South Asia, and outlines a set of appropriate mitigative measures to counter them.
4.1 Ecosystem Types and Sensitivity The biophysical environment is made up of a myriad of ecosystems, each responding to impacts in different ways and displaying variable levels of resilience in the face of change. Factors such as biogeography, climate, patch area, richness, redundancy and uniqueness of adjacent ecosystems shape impacts. Road planners and managers should be aware of this complex variability and interplay of factors if they hope to practice effective environmental impact management. 4.1.1 Aquatic Ecosystems Aquatic ecosystems include rivers, lakes and wetlands. Wetlands often support a large number of rare and endangered species, and generally have a high abundance of fish and water birds. Erosion from poorly constructed and inadequately rehabilitated sites can lead to downstream siltation, ruining spawning beds for fish. Constriction of flows at water crossings can make the current too fast for some species. Alteration of flood cycles, tidal flows,
48
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
and water levels can upset trophic dynamics by affecting the life cycle of plankton, with corresponding effects on the rest of the food chain. River valleys and their riparian zones, particularly in drier climates, are very sensitive to any development that removes vegetative cover, since such areas are delicately balanced micro-climatic zones, depending on very limited moisture supplies. The wildlife found in these conditions often represent unusual assemblages and need to be protected from unnecessary disturbance. Rechannelling of waterways is often undertaken as part of road construction. This can result in a loss of aquatic habitat diversity and lead to potentially serious and chronic erosion. Finally, streambeds are often used as sources of aggregate material. Serious impacts can occur because of the disruption and outright removal of streambed habitats, and from pollution derived from machinery regularly working in the streambed. 4.1.2 Coastal Ecosystems Coastal ecosystems include estuaries, salt marshes, beaches and near shore islands, and tend to be diverse and productive. Coastal ecosystems are closely linked to mangrove forests, and the two are often considered together. Coastal systems are strongly affected by land-based alterations to drainage, effluent discharges and land use modification, which often occur with road development. The estuarine system is particularly vulnerable to development, including road, bridge and causeway construction. Estuaries, salt marshes and eelgrass bed areas are often prime locations for settlements and harbours. Such developments have displaced hundreds of species that use these coastal areas as their nursery and rearing grounds (see Box 4.1). 4.1.3 Desert Ecosystems Desert ecosystems typically have very dry and extreme climates, little vegetation, and soils that are extremely vulnerable to disturbance and erosion. Soil stability and fertility are often highly dependent on the formation of soil crusts, which all too often are indiscriminately disturbed by road development. Impacts on desert ecosystems are of special concern because of these systems’ fragility and the long time required for the disturbed desert vegetation to regenerate. 4.1.4 Mountain and Alpine Ecosystems Mountain and alpine ecosystems are characterized by temperate climates, with large daily and seasonal variations in temperature, and often harsh growing conditions. Mountain environments are generally rich in animal and plant communities, many of which are unique to these ecosystems. Mountain ecosystems tend to be less resilient than those that do not experience such
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
49
Box 4.1 Sea turtles, black buck and coastal highway planning in Orissa A 35 km long coastal road connects two major tourist centres, Puri and Konark, along the eastern coast of India. The road was constructed in the early 1980s and a 15 km stretch passes through the Puri-Balukhand Wildlife Sanctuary. This Sanctuary provides protection KADUA R. to the endangered blackbuck (Antelope MOUTH cervicapra) and olive ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), along with a host of other animal and plant species. A 5 km stretch B of this road was constructed initially very close a y to the high tide line of the sea, directly affectKONARK ing the sea turtles by (i) reducing the space availo able for them to nest and (ii) disturbing their f KUSHABHADRA egg laying activities with 24 hour vehicular MOUTH traffic. The presence of heavy vehicular traffic B on this road resulted in recorded road kills of e the endangered blackbuck. Besides the road n kills, the original alignment also has provided PURI-KONARK g ROAD an easy access for poachers to enter this Wildlife a Sanctuary. In the mid 1980s, this stretch of road l was damaged by a cyclone and the reconstructed alignment was moved away from this NUANAI MOUTH sensitive coastal zone. Although damaged by the cyclone, the original alignment has never been fully blocked off, and the damage to that PURI N ecosystem continues to take place. 0 7.2 km
Puri-Balukhand Wildlife Sanctuary
Source: Pandav et al. 1994.
harsh conditions and extremes, and therefore the impacts on them are generally longer-lasting. Wildlife in mountain ecosystems (e.g. the various species of wild goat) tend to migrate ‘vertically’, that is up and down the mountain slopes in response to changing seasons and food supplies. Roads through steep mountainous terrain, often requiring deep cuts, tunnel portals and viaducts, can pose severe obstacles to these vertical wildlife movement patterns (see Box 4.2), sometimes magnifying the existing stress on mountain species, many of which are rare, threatened or endangered. 4.1.5 Savannah and Grassland Ecosystems Savannah ecosystems occur at varying latitudes and are characterized by semi-arid climatic conditions. Their vegetation consists mainly of widely spaced drought-resistant tree species, interspersed with herbaceous and shrub species. Seasonal fluctuations in rainfall tend to be large, and soil disturbed by road construction can be extremely vulnerable to erosion during the wet season. Grassland ecosystems are dominated by herbaceous species and generally occur in areas experiencing relatively low rainfall, large amounts of sunshine,
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
50
Box 4.2 Mountain ecosystems: The Dakpai-Buli road, Bhutan A 36.5 km long new road, connecting Dakpai and Buli, in the Zhemgang Dzongkhag mountain area of Bhutan, was recently approved. An 8 km long section from km 16-24 runs through a dense and very steep-sloped broad leaf evergreen forest. Just after the village of Tali, the terrain is so steep that trees grow at a tilt. The forest is a habitat of the golden langur, an endemic species of the Himalayan ecosystem, as well as the hornbill, Himalayan bear, barking deer, monkey, leopard and wild pig. The golden langur exists in three troupes; one about 3 km away from Zhemgang town, occupying a habitat below the national highway. The other troupes are located down the valley but still along the proposed highway. Golden langurs are largely arboreal and the clear-felling of trees within a 15 m-wide road RoW would lead to potentially serious impacts. Since they move in the tree tops, a 15 m-wide break in the canopy would mean that the langurs would need to descend to the forest floor during their feeding activity, where competitors and predators await. Given the steep and sensitive topography of the area, blasting and earthworks during construction are expected to lead to major forest destruction, threatening the golden langur’s habitat. If large canopy trees could be left standing along both sides of the road every few kilometers such that their crowns touched above the road, movement corridors for the langur could be maintained for use by the langurs despite the noise, air pollution, and steady traffic below. Clearly, some action is better than nothing at all. Source: Jimba et al. 1998
and plentiful winds. Grasslands are major carbon dioxide processors, and are thus important to global climate regulation. The sod layer operates as a highly effective natural barrier against negative impacts, specifically erosion and desertification. Roads in these areas, especially busy ones, can have serious impacts on wildlife in terms of vehicle-wildlife collisions, barrier effect, habitat fragmentation and human use pressure (see Box 4.3). Box 4.3 Roads and grasslands: The Dudhwa Tiger Reserve in Uttar Pradesh State Dudhwa Tiger Reserve in the northern Indo-Gangetic Plain is home to a small population of tigers as well as the endangered swamp partridge and swamp deer (barasingha), both habitat specialist species inhabiting the grasslands. It boasts of one of the finest quality Dipterocarp (Shorea robusta) forests in India, and probably the best remaining tall-grass grasslands on the subcontinent. Nevertheless, two major roads, the Dudhwa-Gauriphanta and Dudhwa-Chandanchowki roads, pass through the core zone of the National Park. The road network disturbs 16 percent of the PA, fragmenting this grassland-swamp complex. These roads provide people with 24-hours a day unrestricted entry into the PA, further stressing the ecosystem. Since this road network was constructed years before India’s EA process became law, no assessment or attempts to mitigate negative effects were ever undertaken. In light of the ecological and cultural value of this Reserve, it seems unusual that authorities have not been able to protect this unique area from road impacts. Source: Press Clipping retained by WII 1999
4.1.6 Forest Ecosystems Forest ecosystems in South Asia are characterized by dominant multistoried canopy trees, shrubs, lianas and climbers. This ecosystem type has
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
51
great species diversity as well as broad vertical stratification1, and a complex canopy structure. There are six broad categories of forest ecosystems: (i) mangroves, (ii) tropical rain forest, (iii) dryland forest, (iv) deciduous forest, (v) coniferous forests, and (vi) high-altitude cloud forest. Within these categories there are many subcategories, distinguished mainly by climatic conditions, which encourage certain plant and animal communities and suppress others. South Asian forests are highly diverse and support a wide range of wildlife, including most of the region’s endangered mammals. Of all the ecosystems exposed to the impact of roads, forest ecosystems are affected the most, and usually exhibit change in the shortest amount of time, yet fortunately are highly resilient. They are also the best understood in terms of impact cause-effect relationships. The most significant road-related impacts in forest ecosystems are habitat fragmentation and wildlife mortality (see Box 4.4). Box 4.4 Forests, wildlife and roads: The Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary
POL
LAC HI
The Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary (IGWS) is in the Anamalais forest in the Western Ghats (hills) of Tamil Nadu. Nearly 60% of all herpetofauna, 80% of caecilians (limbless amphibians) and uropeltids (shield-tailed snakes) are endemic to the IGWS, and are poorly understood. The Sanctuary has an extensive network of existing roads, established prior to the designation of the IGWS. Apart from contributing to the fragmentation of the Sanctuary, the roads have caused the steady depletion of the IGWS’s rare and endemic wildlife, through road kill. Karthikeyan et al. 1999 recorded road kills on selected road segments within the IGWS from November 1998 through January 1999. Wildlife recorded as having been killed included the spiny doormouse, small Indian civet cat, common palm civet, bonnet macaque, common langur and sambar. For the 170.7 km-days (number of km walked X number of days walked) of sampling along four road segments, 311 amphibians and 70 reptiles, comprising 20 species of herpetofauna, were recorded. Road kills tended to be higher in TAMIL ALIYAR areas which had large canopy trees and NADU RESERVOIR woody vegetation adjacent to the road. PARAMBIKULAM RESERVOIR Roads in barren areas or with adjoining INDIRA GANDHI VALPARAI deforested strips, as in tea plantations, had WL SANCTUARY lower incidences of road kills. Based on the UPPER ALIYAR RESERVOIR condition and timing of the sighting of roadS LL HI kills, most were thought to occur at night. CHALAKUDI I LA Closure of the road during night hours AMA ANN should be considered, in order to protect KERALA these endangered species. However, such a SCALE = 1:1,000,000 restriction might be difficult to implement State Boundary Road connecting Pollachi & Chalakudi since the road is a major haul route for IGWL Sanctuary industrial and commercial goods destined for the area’s tea industry. Pollachi-Chalakudi road across Source: Karthikeyan et al. 1999. Annamalai hills
1 Vertical stratification refers to the range of forest levels at which different species live, e.g. the forest floor to the high canopy.
52
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
4.1.7 Special Ecosystems: Caves, Coral Reefs and Micro-Climatic Zones Caves and limestone karst areas Construction of roads and related infrastructure is highly dependent on concrete, for which limestone is a major raw material. Limestone is often mined from limestone caves and karst areas, and these systems and their ecological and cultural values are increasingly threatened by road development. The World Bank has recently highlighted the extraordinary value of these fast-disappearing ecosystems in a new technical paper (Vermeulen and Whitten 1999). Asia is a primary world location for these formations and little technical information has, until now, been available on them. The following paragraphs have been paraphrased from Vermeulen and Whitten’s report. The biodiversity of limestone ecosystems, both surface and cave systems, is highly localized and includes species which are able to cope with the highly alkaline environment, species which can endure the severity of exceedingly dry soil conditions over part of the year, and species which are confined to, or found primarily in, limestone caves. Some species are confined to single hills or cave systems. Many of the species concerned are relatively small, little known, and are rarely included in lists of threatened and endangered species, which tend to focus on the larger and more conspicuous species. Some of these little-known species have important and under-appreciated values. For instance, the cave-nesting swiftlets, their nests being an extremely valuable commodity used in oriental delicacies (by weight more valuable than gold), utilize limestone caves and karst overhangs as nesting sites. Other species are equally important in an economic sense but in a less obvious way. Bats, for example, are important pollinators of various commercial tree crops, and major predators on damaging or dangerous insects. Losses of limestonerestricted species as the result of rapid economic development, have already been recorded, and the status of other species is not good. Certain limestone areas are also significant in that they harbour some of the earliest evidence of human culture in Asia, and in some countries are historically significant in having sheltered revolutionary movements. Palaeontological remains in cave deposits have provided great insights into prehistoric fauna. In the humid tropics, caves are among the very few sites where ancient organic material is preserved. Geological remains provide invaluable information about past environmental conditions. Also, many karst areas are regarded as being exceptionally beautiful, and attract large numbers of tourists. The impact of roads on this important ecosystem has rarely been considered.
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
53
Coral reefs Coral reefs are the production centers for most tropical fish, which are vital for much of the human population living along the coasts of South Asia. Coral reefs also provide important protection from monsoon-driven coastal erosion, by dissipating much of the energy of waves before they reach the coastline. Coral reefs survive within a narrow range of biophysical conditions and parameters such as salinity, water temperature, turbidity, sedimentation, nutrient enrichment, need only sustain minor changes in order to destroy or degrade these important habitats. Of South Asian countries, India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh have coral reef ecosystems. Since coral reefs are often not directly linked to the land, and rarely get in the way of land-based transportation infrastructure, they are often ignored when road development is being considered. Improperly planned coastal roads can affect all the critical parameters identified above, and can lead to serious long-term biological and social consequences. The extent of damage done and the rate of recovery from change, are factors only now being investigated. The proposed development of coastal roads and ports along the state of Gujarat’s northwest coast and new road and port construction in the Andaman Islands will be good case studies to monitor in terms of what mitigative measures are put in place to avoid and reduce serious road-related impacts on the coral and near shore marine ecosystems.
4.2 Impacts 4.2.1 Habitat Modifications (i)
Fragmentation
Fragmentation of landscapes that include wildlife habitats is one of the driving forces behind the current decline in biodiversity. Fragmentation is defined as the breakup of the habitats of plant and animal populations into smaller, more isolated units (Rikswaterstat 1993 and 1997). This definition encompasses terrestrial and aquatic habitats, including both ground-dwelling and arboreal species. Unfortunately, in many regions of India, South Asia and indeed the world, fragmentation of precious wildlife habitats is growing. This situation is particularly acute in India, given its high population density. Transportation projects are now being considered as principal new causes of habitat fragmentation (Reck and Kaule 1993; Langerelde and Jaasma 1997). Fragmentation is a complex impact that is perhaps better described as a set of interrelated processes that are set in motion when roads are built in relatively undisturbed natural settings (Figure 4.1). These processes include habitat loss and modification; habitat transformation and habitat isolation.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
54
CAUSES/FACTORS
(ii) Loss
The actual amount of wildlife habitat removed for road rights-ofway is in itself often insignificant2 in relation to the total surrounding area. However, road, rail and other linear projects split up habitat by creating PRIMARY EFFECTS physical and psychological barriers Habitat loss for wildlife. They also encourage the Habitat transformation Habitat isolation in-migration of people who further alter and often eliminate wildlife habitat. The impact usually starts with a dirt track or forest access road SECONDARY IMPACTS with almost no effect on the Habitat fragmentation surrounding ecosystem. As it is Reduction & degradation widened to a single lane motorway, problems escalate dramatically. Sometimes expansion along existing ECOLOGICAL routes may not be possible, and a CONSEQUENCES new route has to be picked, causing Ecological stress additional loss and habitat changes Loss of biodiversity (see Box 4.5). Road-related reduction in habitat areas may therefore have Fig. 4.1 Fragmentation linkages much more serious cumulative implications for wildlife populations than mere loss of living space (see Box 4.6). A knowledge of the ecology of the existing system through which a road may pass is therefore a key component of good wildlife impact prevention. Vegetation clearing & trenching Construction work Traffic & road side management
Box 4.5 Coral reefs: Roads and turtles in the Andamans Great Nicobar Island is considered to be the second most important habitat in the island group, for the olive ridley turtles. There are four nesting beaches. This island is also the favoured nesting site in India for the leatherback turtle. Construction of the 51 km long E-W highway has provided an easy access to these turtle nesting beaches. The N-S highway has also provided easy access to the hawksbill turtle nesting beach. The mining of beach sand for road construction has eliminated significant amounts of nesting habitat. Since the roads were constructed long before the EIA notification came into force, no EIA was conducted. A failure to safeguard these highly sensitive areas, simply because in the past, they were not subject to environmental controls, is inviting serious losses and possibly extirpation of these species from Great Nicobar. Marine turtles are important large predators of the reef that need to be protected. Source: Bhaskar 1993.
2 An important caveat is that if the habitat supports rare and endangered organisms, or is relevant for key life-cycle functions, any loss should be considered critical.
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
55
Box 4.6 Mumbai-Pune Expressway Project: An example of habitat modification and loss The existing Indian National Highway NH-4, which connects Mumbai (Bombay) with Pune in Maharashtra State, is a two-lane divided highway with short undivided stretches. A new expressway is planned to accommodate at least 60% of the NH-4 traffic. The six-lane expressway will follow a new alignment parallel to the existing NH-4. By 2005, the projected increase in traffic would require at least 10 lanes, and therefore would have to be replaced or upgraded again. The proposed expressway alignment would thus not only result in the loss of portions of highly specialized ecosystems, but would also increase the possibility of further destruction/fragmentation of these ecosystems due to new impacts adding to the existing ones. In other words, chronic degradation of an endangered ecosystem is likely to develop. The expressway will pass through three landscape features: (i) the Coastal Plains; (ii) the Western Ghats; and (iii) the Deccan Plateau. Of these, the multi-layered tropical forests of the Western Ghats harbour one of the richest and most diverse ecosystems in the world (WII, 1999). The Ghat forests support a diversity of flora and fauna with many endemic species, and are specialised habitats for mouse deer and giant squirrel. Fragmentation of these habitats will restrict wildlife movement, migration, feeding and socialization patterns for most species (See Case Study No. 3).
(iii) Transformation Literature from different parts of the world indicates that on an average 15-20% of the world’s land area has been negatively affected by roads. Transformation involves changes in the biophysical conditions of a habitat, e.g. increased temperature, noise, or air pollution, as well as drying out of the habitat. When this occurs along roads, it is termed road effect or edge effect. The edge effect zone typically extends 200-400m on either side of the cleared road surface, including verges and ditches. The edge effect zone is usually asymmetrical, with boundaries reflecting local environmental variables (Figure 4.2) such as slope, winds, and habitat suitability on both sides of the road (Forman et al. 1997). Knowledge of the likely width of the edge effect zone allows informed estimation of the proportion of the land area, beyond the physically disturbed right-of-way, that needs to be included when estimating impacts. Edge effects can be measured as changes in productivity, understorey species numbers, overall species abundance and diversity, and micro-climatic conditions (Thomas et al. 1979; Chen et al. 1992). Taylor et al. (1985) conducted a mammal survey along roads in Tasmania and concluded that roads increase the ease with which large carnivorous mammals can move into roadside habitats and prey on the fauna living there. Edge habitats, typical of roadsides, are also known to support a greater diversity of small mammals and to attract generalist species (Adams and Geis 1983) with excellent dispersal abilities, capable of invading and colonizing disturbed habitats (Ferris 1979
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
56
ROAD >1000
|
2001000
|
100200
|
50100
<50
|
|
UPSLOPE
<50
|
50100
100200
2001000
|
|
|
> 1000 Distance from | road (meters)
DOWNSLOPE Hydrological effects Salt, lead, etc. in aquatic systems Downstream sediments
UPWIND
DOWNWIND Silt, sand, nutrients from road dust Salt damage to pines in farmland Grassland birds by quiet road Grassland birds by busy highway Forest interior birds Large mammals in woodland
LESS SUITABLE SURROUNDING HABITAT
MORE SUITABLE SURROUNDING HABITAT Invasion by roadside species Human access affecting wildlife, fire, and sensitive habitats
Fig. 4.2 Road effect zone is defined by ecological effects extending variable distances from road edges (Reproduced from Forman et al. 1997).
and Andrews 1990). Gibb (1991) demonstrated that ‘recognized’ edge species constituted 16% of the bird community found within 100m of a major highway in the USA. Both new and rehabilitation projects often significantly disturb vegetation communities. The cutting of canopy trees leads to complete floristic transition from shade-loving species to pioneering and sun-tolerant plants. Naturally, these changes have profound effects on the local wildlife. While species richness in fragmented areas sometimes exceeds pre-development levels, loss of native communities often occurs, and is considered a serious negative ecological impact. Unimproved roads may accommodate a considerable number of species that would be severely threatened by improvements such as widening. Only a small number of species or wildlife communities are associated with paved road rights-of-way (Zwaenpoel 1997).
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
57
Fragmentation in wetlands can reduce water circulation and can limit or prevent the movement of individuals within a previously contiguous community of plants and animals. Small, isolated populations are much more susceptible to natural and human-induced stresses and have more difficulty recovering from such stresses than large contiguous populations. Fragmentation may therefore be closely linked to reductions in biodiversity. Development projects that occur near wetlands often affect their shorelines (see Box 4.7). The loss of transition zone habitat results in the severing of important ecological connections between the wetland and the surrounding landscape. In addition, the drying of wetland shorelines limits their ability to respond to both natural and anthropogenic alterations. Cumulatively, the loss of transition zone habitat and the drying can result in major adverse impacts such as impaired wetland resilience, rapid aging and transformation of a wetland into a bog. Some coastal wetlands have been transformed into freshwater lakes when their connection with the sea has been obstructed by road projects (see Case Study No. 5). Box 4.7 Rajasthan State Highway Project (RSHP) The RSHP proposes to improve (including widening, upgrading geometric dimensions and construction of additional crossings and bypasses) the network of state highways. Several of the road links proposed for improvement would involve significant impacts on wetland ecology as a result of alignments along or across important wetlands. The 20 km long Kota bypass and 72 km long Kota-Indergarh, Rajgarh-Sikandra, Duasa, and SawaimadhopurIndergarh-Baran-Jhalawar-Pachpahar alignments would pass close to the National Gharial Sanctuary. Apart from the mud flats, there are cliffs, ravines and forests which are all important bird habitats located close to the proposed roads. These will likely be significantly disturbed and will no longer be available to species dependent on them. Source: World Bank 1998.
Often roads associated with politically motivated development lead to large-scale unexpected impacts on entire regions (Forman 1995; Forman and Collings 1997). In Rondonia, Brazil, construction of the highway was the driving force for the area’s ‘development’. Immediate in-migration pressures led to the construction of a grid of secondary roads extending outward from the highway. Small forest plots between these roads were quickly brought under cultivation, depleted of nutrients and eventually converted to large grazing areas and fields (Dale et al. 1994). Ironically, a road intended as a major poverty alleviator and thought to be environmentally benign (few environmental and social sector specialists were involved in its early planning) fragmented and transformed the ecosystem of the entire State and left thousands of families destitute.
58
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
(iv) Isolation The most obvious manifestation of fragmentation is the division of large habitat areas into smaller patches that become isolated from each other. As the network of primary and secondary roads expands, the ratio of suitable to unsuitable habitat declines, resulting in a mosaic of small habitat patches surrounded by ‘hostile’ conditions. The distance separating suitable habitat grows, leading to eventual degradation of an entire wildlife ecosystem and its ability to cope with negative impact. Normally, various populations live in an area, interacting in many ways to achieve stability through their combined presence. Such assemblages are referred to as metapopulations. Isolating metapopulations into island-patches (Figure 4.3), can lead to serious destabilization across all groupings and eventually degrade an entire region’s wildlife ecosystem. The key to sensing when such a collapse is likely to occur is to know the characteristics Individual Metapopulations of the keystone Reproductive unit species in the variGroup territory ous affected comLocal population munities. ConnecHabitat patch tivity of patches Long distance is controlled by dispersal Local dispersal the extent of blockages in terms of landforms and land use changes created by a new Long term road. The greater extinction Road the degree of connectivity, the more likely the recovery Fig. 4.3 Metapopulations and roads from the destabilizing impacts of road development. Isolation may also mean that sub-populations of individual species become cut off from interaction and genetic exchange with other subpopulations of the same species. This eventually leads to in-breeding and declines in fitness if there are not enough individuals (minimum viable population size) to sustain genetic diversity over the long term. The impacts of roads on habitat isolation and the viability of animal populations have been studied on frogs by Reh and Seitz (1990), on deer species by Calvo and Silvy (1996) and Vos (1997), and on grizzly bears and mountain lions by Gibeau and Heure (1996). All studies stressed the need for careful study
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
59
and mitigation of fragmentation and isolation impacts of road alignment planning, road construction and road operation. 4.2.2 Barrier Effect of Roads Linear developments such as roads, railroads and even power transmission lines become barriers when they are, or are perceived by wildlife to be, impossible or dangerous to cross. In this sense, the barrier effect is both a physical and psychological phenomenon (Table 4.1). The four most important components of road corridors that can act as functional barriers to wildlife movements are (i) the road verges (shoulders and ditches); (ii) the road surface itself; (iii) poorly-designed crossing structures; and (iv) traffic (see Box 4.8). Table 4.1 Barrier effects of roads
Construction period
Design period
Activity
Barrier effects
Alignment of route through contiguous wildlife habitat
Creation of disjointed habitats split by a physical barrier
Clearing of vegetation on road verges
Impaired movement of grounddwelling and sensorial mammals
Removal or thinning of canopy of trees overhanging the carriageway or the RoW
Transformation of vegetation community to non-native grouping. Discontinuity of movement of arboreal species of mammals (macaques, squirrels, flying foxes) Ecological barrier to movement of understorey bird species Physical barrier for movement of small burrowing mammals
Movement of workers and machinery on construction sites
Inhibition of movements due to human disturbances
Construction of trenches along sides of roads for drainage of water
Physical barrier for reptiles and small burrowing mammals
Land leveling for road surface and development of inclines near verges
Creation of physical barriers where road width may not offer significant barrier but the inclined shoulders inhibit movement of crawling animals
Impoundment of water
Restriction of movement of amphibians
Channelization of streams
Obstruction of movement of aquatic species
Construction of overpasses, underpasses, culverts, bridges and causeways
Restriction of daily and migratory movements
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
60
Activity
Barrier effects
Surfacing of carriageway
Behavioural disorders due to tunnel syndrome
Operation Period
Physical barrier inhibiting diurnal movement and dispersal of animals Movement of traffic
Collisions with vehicles, leading to injury and mortality
Traffic noise
Psychological barrier and disrupts diurnal patterns
Headlight glare
Temporary blinding and risk of collision
Emission of products of fuel combustion and spillage of fuels and other material transported by containers
Impairment of movement of sensitive species in contaminated zones that pose psychological barriers
Box 4.8 Kohalpur-Mahakali Highway, Nepal Royal Bardia National Park (986 km2) encompasses the largest and finest tracts of grassland in South Asia and harbours some highly endangered species (tiger, swamp deer, black buck, gangetic dolphin, gharial and the Bengal florican). The area attained greater significance as a PA after the successful reintroduction of the one-horned rhinoceros and the restocking of gharial. This unique PA today stands bisected by the Kohalpur-Mahakali Highway, which crosses the western half of the PA between Karnali and Amreni, restricting animal movements. Appropriately located underpasses and overpasses, which could have been effective in overcoming the impacts of fragmentation created by the construction of ditches, were not included in the project design, even though they were defined in an EA. As a result, the Highway is a 27 km long barrier across once contiguous habitat (see Case Study No. 2).
(i) Road verges The construction and operation of a road or highway brings about changes in the microclimatic conditions at the edge of the road. These roadinduced changes gradually decrease with distance from the edge of the road surface (Mader 1984). Variables like temperature, humidity and evaporation are affected by the presence of roads. This zone of altered microclimatic conditions can become a barrier for different organisms ranging from invertebrates such as ants, beetles, moths and butterflies (Somways et al. 1997) to amphibians and reptiles (Ashley and Robinson 1996) to large herbivores and carnivores (Ruediger 1998). Road verges are often inhospitable environments for wildlife, since the vegetation is constantly being cut or sprayed with chemicals. Also, the composition of roadside plant communities tend to differ from more distant habitats and therefore does not offer the food sources and level of shelter favoured by local wildlife species. Oxley et al. (1974) reported that small forest mammals were reluctant to venture on to road surfaces where the width of the verge exceeded 20 m. More recent studies
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
61
(Reijnen et al. 1995; Forman et al. 1997) suggest that such edge effects extend from 200 to 400 m on either side of the pavement. The physical characteristics of roadside areas may also play a large role in determining the extent of the barrier effect. Deep ditches and steep embankments are especially formidable barriers to smaller terrestrial species such as amphibians and reptiles. (ii) Road surfaces Road surfaces are barriers to many species of wildlife because roads are noisy, provide unfamiliar footing, and offer no cover. Most wildlife instinctively avoids such features. For animals living in dense forests with low mobility, the road represents an extreme contrast in habitat. In that regard, roads with cleared widths exceeding 100 m have been shown to be significant barriers to animal movement (Oxley et al. 1973). (iii) Crossing structures Culverts, underpasses, and bridges often do not incorporate features that encourage their use by animals, thus ultimately functioning as physical barriers to movements of both terrestrial and aquatic species (see Box 4.9). Factors influencing the effectiveness of crossing structures have been evaluated by several workers (Reed 1981; Litjens 1991; Keller and Pfister 1995; Yanes et al. 1995; Putman 1997). They established that structure width, approach area, length, height above ground, and visibility from the structure all had Box 4.9 Rajaji National Park and elephant movement The movement of elephants between Rajaji National Park and Corbett Tiger Reserve and parts of the Lansdowne, Bijnor and Kalagarh forest divisions maintains a genetic exchange critical to the long-term survival of the herd. Populations in this conservation unit are threatened by at least two major linear developments. These are: i.
the hydropower channel of Garhwal-Rishikesh-Chilla Hydel Project and the construction of the bridge on the channel; and
ii.
the Haridwar-Rishikesh-Dehradun Road and Kotdwar-Lansdowne road
The existing design of cross-drainage structures, including bridges and aqueducts, are not very conducive to animal movements. This is largely because of insufficient head room for animals as large as elephants. The best example of poor design is the Duggada stream culvert (siphon). Before its construction, Duggada was one of the main movement routes of elephants from forest to river. Now this route is virtually abandoned. The diameter of the culvert is sufficient to allow maximum water discharge during high-water periods, but its tunnel-like appearance discourages elephants from using it. This could have been avoided if a big arch-type structure, with piers in the torrent bed supporting the beams of the roadway, had been constructed instead of the existing round culvert. There is also limited use of the existing bridge across the channel and the eastern Ganges by wild elephants trying to retrace their traditional movement route. A wider bridge with earth-filled pockets on the exposed surface of the retaining walls, allowing vegetation, especially creepers, to grow along it, would have encouraged its use by elephants (see Case Study No. 4).
62
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
to be tailored to the target species’ requirements or they would not use it. An understanding of an animal’s life history and generally preferred habitat, feeding activity and movement patterns are essential to successful design of crossing structures. For aquatic animals, channelization of flowing water where roads cross streams poses a formidable physical barrier, because it often results in increased water velocity; many aquatic species may be unable to move against newly strengthened currents. When watercourses are too small for bridges, culverts are often built. Their configuration, diameter, length and placement in the watercourse directly determine whether they will block or permit passage of aquatic species. Roads passing through or beside wetlands (e.g. marshes, swamps, and lakes) can inhibit or prevent aquatic animals from moving between the wetland and adjacent habitats. If these animals are able to cross the road barrier (e.g. amphibians and turtles), they then risk heavy mortality from road traffic (Hodson 1960). If migratory populations exist, a blockage can permanently eliminate local as well as regional populations. (iii) Traffic movement and ‘clearing width’ Operation of vehicles may prevent animals from crossing roads because of noise, movement, and emissions. Large traffic volumes can repel birds from roadside areas; some species stay 500 to 600 m away from even quiet rural roads and between 1600 and 1800 m from busy highways (Boer 1958). This ‘clearing width’ is a significant factor when assessing the total impact of roads. The noise from the traffic affects vocal communication among birds, which can result in life cycle disruptions (Reijnen et al. 1995). The operation of vehicles results in emissions of various pollutants into roadside airsheds and on soil and vegetation. This often results in the avoidance of the zone by wildlife sensitive to these pollutants. Species that depend on their sense of smell to detect predators are particularly vulnerable. 4.2.3 Animal Mortality Estimates of road kills, based on measurement along short sections of roads in The Netherlands, revealed that each year 159,000 mammals and 653,000 birds are killed. Seven million birds are killed in Bulgaria, and five million frogs and reptiles are killed annually in Australia (van der Zande et al. 1980; Bennet 1991; Forman 1995) through collision with vehicles. An estimated one million vertebrates per day are killed on roads in the United States (Forman and Deblinger 1998)3. Other studies ( Lode 2000) suggest that traffic can severely affect wildife species demography through road kill and isolation. 3 While these figures, in absolute terms are large, their relative importance in relation to species success has not been well defined. For endangered animals even one vehicle death is large. One measure of the magnitude of this form of animal mortality is the fact that in North America, animal deaths by vehicle collision have surpassed hunting.
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
63
Factors leading to road mortalities relate largely to how conducive the roadside and RoW conditions are to feeding, resting and nesting for local fauna. Roadside vegetation, fruiting shrubs on median strips, and spilled grains along roadsides are the chief attractants for small mammals and birds. Grasses along the road edge attract large herbivores. The post-construction treatment (planting and landscaping) of roads can significantly affect the vehicle-animal collision rate, particularly the choice of plants used. The wildlife’s vulnerability varies with age and inherent behaviour and activity patterns of affected species. Deer-automobile collisions account for the highest number of mortalities on roads and highways (Bashore et al. 1985) in North America. Deer tend to be active during dawn and dusk periods, when traffic density is building or high and visibility is poor. Gir National Park and Sanctuary (see Case Study No.1) in Gujarat State of India is home to the last surviving population of Asiatic lions (Panthera leo persica). Six highways pass through this Protected Area, of which three are open to traffic all the time and Table 4.2 Mortality of animals due to therefore have a constant flow of road kill in the year 1997 traffic comprised largely of heavy vehicles. Lions, leopards, smaller Animal Name of Date of carnivores and large herbivores species village accident have been killed by vehicles (see location Table 4.2) on these highways. Lion Dalkhama 7-3-97 Mortality of wild animals on Chital Jhankia 23-3-97 highways within other national parks has also been reported from Nilgai Jhankia 12-5-97 India (see Box 4.10). A large Leopard Himal 6-7-97 number of wild animals like tiger, Lion Talala 3-10-97 leopard, and gaur are occasionally Hyaena Khamba 6-10-97 run over while they attempt to Porcupine Jhankia 12-12-97 utilize habitats across the highway for feeding and visiting water Source : Gujarat Forest Department 1999 sources. 4.2.4 Human Use Problems The influx of people, whether settlers or tourists, into wilderness areas following road construction rapidly accelerates habitat degradation (Lyon 1983; Forman 1995) and the associated decline in resident species (Griffith and Van Schaik 1993; Dale 1994). Planning of roads as a component of carefully planned land use, as opposed to roads inducing development, is the pivotal paradigm shift that needs to take place if people-road impacts are to be avoided and mitigated.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
64
Box 4.10 Road kills on NH-7 along the Pench Tiger Reserve
h nc Pe
The National Highway NH-7 is a transportation lifeline of India. It runs along a north south axis connecting Varanasi (north India) with Nagpur (central India) and Hyderabad and Bangalore (south India). An approxi-mate 80 km section of this highway runs N through the relatively 0 25 SEONI undisturbed moist and dry MADHYA PRADESH deciduous forests in Central India from Seoni in Madhya Pradesh to Mansar in Maharashtra (see figure in this box). Set in this forest stretch is an important tiger habitat designated as Pench Khawasa Tiger Reser ve, Madhya Mantor Pradesh. Road kills Tiger Reserve MAHARASHTRA encountered on NH-7 Reserved Forest bordering Pench Tiger Reservoir Reserve (PTR) during 1996 - 1999 are given below: Pe
nc h
Ri
NH
ve r
7
r ve Ri
Road kill information on NH-7 bordering PTR Species Langur
Number
% of Kills
37
71
Rat snake
3
6
Rhesus macaque
3
5
Tiger
2
4
Nightjar
2
4
White-backed Vulture
1
2
Python
1
2
Red-Jungle Fowl
1
2
Ruddy Mongoose
1
2
Common Palm Civet
1
2
Total
52
100.00
Source: Areendran and Pasha 2000
Wildlife conservation through the creation of a network of protected areas has only recently been initiated in India. As a result, pre-existing road networks already cross many protected areas. Gir National Park and Sanctuary and Sariska Tiger Reserve are prime examples. The Alwar-Jaipur State Highway passes through the Sariska Tiger Reserve, and about 2000
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
65
vehicles use the road every day (1000 are trucks, travelling mainly at night). Instances of tiger and deer being killed by speeding vehicles at night have been reported (Johnsingh et al. 1997). Ongoing discussions about possibly widening a nearby road, at a cost of Rs. 42 million (US$ 1.2 million) in order to divert the traffic away from the Tiger Reserve, have not progressed. In addition to cost, a likely reason for the inaction is that convincing data on the implications of such mortalities have not been developed and presented to officials in a way that highlights not just the science (Sharma and Johnsingh 1996) but also cultural heritage and economic dimensions (Narayan 1996). Along the Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road, which skirts a wildlife sanctuary, planners agreed not to widen the carriageway or clear verges, but simply strengthen the pavement (see Case Study No. 6). 4.2.5
Tourism
Improving road infrastructure encourages higher visitation, frequently in excess of protected areas’ carrying capacities, leading to their eventual destabilization. Wildlife areas that are directly linked to urban road networks tend to suffer major and sustained habitat and wildlife degradation (see Box 4.11), since they are easily accessible to many and, in many countries including India, have inadequate visitor controls in place. A large number of India’s protected areas have shrines and temples located within their administrative boundaries, further compounding the problem for managers and administrators. Box 4.11 Gir National Park: Tourists, roads and lions The Gir forest was declared a national park in 1965 and has the only population of the wild Asiatic lion in the world. The Park has a network of roads and a railway lines passing through and around it. Pilgrims, tourists, daily commuters, traders and the Park’s management staff use these facilities. There are about 100 km of state highways and major roads and 590 km of forest roads in the Gir forest. Of these, the six state highways and one major district road between Sasan and Devaliya are most significant in terms of their impact potential. The roads in the region are heavily used by pilgrims (>80,000/year) for visiting the three main temples in the Gir - Kankai, Banej and Tulsishyam and also for the transportation of industrial products from large mineral processing plants surrounding the PA. The Park’s ‘Working Plan’ prepared for the 1976-85 period was updated after the MoEF, in 1992, sanctioned new eco- development activities around the Park. The Park habitat continues to be stressed and the lion and other wildlife populations are growing, leading to more ‘wildlife-people interactions’ and loss of crops, etc. This cycle was initiated by too many access roads. Source: Case Study No. 1; Kothari, Singh and Suri 1996
Protected area managers must respect the interests of the tourists who come to view Indian wildlife and permit pilgrims to visit the shrines and temples, while at the same time supporting conservationists who are interested
66
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
in restricting access and maintaining a secure natural area for wildlife. The more access roads there are, the greater is the management problem. The Sariska-Kalighati-Pandupole road in Sariska Tiger Reserve in the state of Rajasthan is a good example of a heavily used road inside a protected area. Twice a week, pilgrims (100 to 200 vehicles per hour) visit the Pandupole temple, located in the core of the Tiger Reserve. They must drive for 20 km through Kalighati, the only uninhabited wildlife-rich valley of the PA to reach the temple location. The vehicular traffic causes pollution and noise, which results in enormous disturbance to the wildlife. Pilgrims litter the area, particularly around the temple, with garbage, plastic bags and plastic containers4. The impacts of this road access include disruption of wildlife dynamics (garbage foraging); pollution of runoff water, resulting in contamination of two perennial streams in the Reserve (Johnsingh et al. 1997); and degradation of habitat and potential effects on the food chain. The cumulative impact is chronic instability of the wildlife ecology in at least some parts of the Reserve. Human visitation is also associated with the introduction of exotic species (McDonald et al. 1989), which is threatening the survival of some native ecosystems. For example, the dispersal of seeds by tourist vehicles entering Kakadu National Park in Australia has resulted in over 5% of flora being alien plants (Lonsdale and Lane 1993). Through such introduction of exotic competitors for native species, ecosystems are destabilized. 4.2.6Hunting As visitation rates rise, illegal killing of animals for meat may also occur. This has been found in a number of African parks, e.g. Mikuni National Park in Tanzania (Drews 1995 and Richard et al. 1996). In India and most of South Asia, the killing of animals for food is rare, since it is usually a strict religious taboo, but this is not the case for most tribal people who inhabit many of the more remote tracts in India. Similar situations exist in Sri Lanka and Nepal. In Pakistan and Bangladesh, there is no such general restriction on killing of animals for food. Community hunting5 is also an established practice among some tribal populations in central India. When rare and endangered species are involved, the tribal hunting becomes serious and can significantly degrade populations. In the absence of good planning that takes hunting pressure into account, roads stimulate abuse rather than sustainable harvesting. 4 The fact that disposal facilities such as garbage cans and bins, or signs encouraging proper disposal of garbage, are not provided, is likely a major reason for the extensive littering. 5 While tribal people do hunt, they do not do so commercially. The effects of their hunting for personal use are minor compared to the killing associated with wildlife damage to crops.
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
67
4.2.7 Fires As access into an area improves and population density increases, so does the risk of fires, which can have serious impacts on wildlife (Bennet 1988; Pica et al. 1998). Intentional fires set in order to promote growth of new grass and for clearing the forest floor to collect fallen fruits is a common practice along roadsides in the tribal areas in India. These fires reduce roadside habitat quality and eliminate any ecological gains made between burns. On the other hand, such fires reduce the presence of preferred habitat for many wildlife species to outside the RoW (the burn area). If the ecosystem depends on fire as a stabilizing action, suppressing the fire will degrade the ecosystem (Stevenson 1996). In some cases, roads can act as fire-prevention belts, contributing significantly to reducing the frequency of catastrophic fires. These conflicting costs and benefits of fire lines stress the importance of involving both people with scientific environmental knowledge and those with local knowledge of the ecosystem in road sighting and in mitigation planning. 4.2.8 Resource Exploitation In India and elsewhere, new roads have led to large-scale deforestation and opening of areas to strip-colonization and cultivation. Such experiences have also been reported from Amazonian forests (Dale 1994; Reid and Bowles 1997) and in Nepal (see Case Study No. 2). New roads may become grounds for the establishment of exploitative industries, often leading to the fragmentation and destruction of critical habitats and the stressing of species that ultimately may abandon their native habitats. For example, logging promoted by road expansion in Russia became a major threat to the conservation of the Amur Tiger (Miquelle et al. undated). During the construction of 550 km of hill roads in Chamoli district of Uttaranchal, forests were destroyed by construction crews collecting firewood, followed by wholesale cutting of virgin forest stands (Bhatt 1980). Mineral extraction industries have threatened the tiger in the Buxa Tiger Reserve (see Box 4.12) and the lion in Gir National Park and Sanctuary. 4.2.9 Erosion and Sedimentation For roads, the frequency of erosion and landslides is generally related to the depth of the cuts, steepness of slopes, degree of vegetative cover, climatic conditions, geological structure and lithology. The higher the road cut, the greater the structural weakness that is created. The steeper the hill slope, the more likely it is that the forces of instability, such as gravity and saturation, will be greater than the forces for resistance, such as soil cohesion and root anchoring. Failure to establish protective vegetation on newly-exposed slopes promptly following construction, allows running water to exacerbate slope
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
68
Box 4.12 The Tala-Rydak Road Project and the Buxa Tiger Reserve The Buxa Tiger Reserve (BTR), located in Alipurdwar subdivision of Jalpaiguri District of West Bengal, is home to a wide variety of endangered wildlife species such as the clouded leopard, gaur, giant squirrel, tiger, elephant and otter. An elaborate network of roads was established in this region after the Chinese aggression in 1962. This led to the fragmentation of the Villages forest, which was once a single BHUTAN International Boundary patch extending from West Bengal Tala State Boundary Bhutan Ghat Metalled Road to Assam and Bhutan. #
#
ASSAM
Raidak River
Proposed Road
ri ba ina# Ma
Rydak#
River Core Area/Proposed NP Buffer Area
North Rydak
N W
E
Chikla Jhara
S
JALPAIGURI # Samuktala
0
15 Kilometers
Proposed Tala Rydak Road Project through Buxa Tiger Reserve
The Tala - Rydak road will link India and Bhutan. In order to improve transportation and trade between the two countries, the Government of Bhutan wants to extend the Samukotla- Mainabari road through the core zone of the Buxa Tiger Reserve near the Bhutan Ghat Beat.
An existing dirt road between Mainabari and Bhutan Ghat would be widened and paved. The total length of road from Mainabari to the Indian border at Bhutan Ghat is 12 km. The proposed road will bisect the wildlife habitat near Mainabari and the Bhutanese border, and create a major hindrance to the movements of elephant and gaur.
stability problems. Inadequate drainage of slopes has the same effect. Errors during construction, including uncontrolled blasting, can create unstable road cuts, leading eventually to landslides. Construction related activities during road building can sometimes adversely affect local hydrology. Streams may be altered for a considerable distances both upstream and downstream of road due to run off from road surfaces before they are paved and also due to altered bank characteristics if boulders and road building material is removed from streams and river beds. All these effects reduce wildlife habitat, frequently stressing wildlife populations. Erosion from a road site can have far-reaching and long-term effects on terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Continual downhill movement of soil buries vegetation that provides food and habitat for many species. The transportation of sediments to streams, lakes and wetland ecosystems that are not adapted to high sediment levels buries spawning beds and may render aquatic habitat areas unsuitable for their usual inhabitants.
4.3 Mitigative Measures and Best Practices In Sections 4.2.1- 4.2.5 groups of impacts were described in relation to how they affect wildlife and their habitat. The examination of these causeeffect relationships (see also Table 4.3) suggests that with careful pro-active
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
69
planning and sensitive construction, many of the negative effects can be avoided or reduced to an acceptable level, before they actually occur. Skillful application of mitigative measures during the construction and operational periods can further reduce the negative effects of roads. In this section, common and widely practiced mitigative measures, and useful approaches to implementing them, are described. Table 4.3 Summary of road development activities and ecological impacts on the natural environment Project activities Design Selection of route alignment and design, including road cross-section, vertical alignment, culvert and underpass design and enhancements
Ecological impacts
Impacts on wildlife
Loss of wildlife and habitat and /or community welfare
Tradeoffs decided on in the absence of up-to-date technical information about the wildlife resource(s) to be traded undermines conservation efforts
System of tradeoffs often invoked
Land consumption Construction
Changes in vegetation and ecology
Habitat Loss, Fragmentation
Clearing of vegetation
Reduced plant cover
Habitat loss
Rehabilitation and resettlement of property, resources, and local people
Lowered plant diversity Adverse changes in species composition
Habitat disruption or fragmentation
Establishment of associated work, supporting infrastructure and construction camps
Disruption of succession and nutrient cycling. Invasion by exotic species
Habitat modification Decline in species sensitive to sedimentation
Resource harvesting by project labourers (fuelwood and food)
Increased pressure on natural resources due to resource competition and exploitation
Decline in prosperity of flow-dependent ecosystems
Changes in faunal number and diversity Water quality and hydrology
Barrier effect
Water impoundment
Modification of surface and ground water flows
Obstruction of daily and migratory movements
River and stream diversion and channelization
Shifts in water balance due to extraction of water for construction
Under-utilization of habitat and resource competition
Reclamation of pools, ponds, and other wetlands
Degradation in the quality of receiving waters due to increased sedimentation load and pollutants in surface runoff
Extraction of water for construction work
Soil characteristics and productivity
Induced threats
Transportation of raw materials, pre-assembled components, machinery and labour to project site
Compaction of soil Loss of productive soil Decline in porosity and permeability to water
Increased accessibility to pristine areas Increase in hunting and poaching incidences
Mining, quarrying or dredging for obtaining raw material
Decline in productivity
Increase in probability of induced fire
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
70
Project activities
Ecological impacts
Impacts on wildlife
Excavation and filling
Destabilization of slopes and erosion
Increase in human-wildlife conflicts
Blasting, rock cutting, drilling and or tunneling
Mass movements of soil and rock in mountainous terrain
Increase in resource exploitation
Road surfacing and construction of underpasses and culverts
Generation of tipped material due to imbalance between volumes of earth cut and filled
Restoration of exposed areas through planting and land stabilization
Displacement of soil on dunes in desert ecosystems
Transportation of waste generated during construction
Loss of wet soils in riparian and marshy lands during construction of channels and under passes
Management of waste material at dumping sites Operation Movement of vehicles
Safety hazards and health impacts Wildlife population depletion Air quality
Transportation of goods, and finished and raw industrial products
Pollution due to emission of NOX, SOX, PM10, CO and HC
Vehicle-wildlife collisions Decline in wildlife health due to air, water and noise pollution Competition for dwindling resources Long-term impacts on population/biodiversity
Road maintenance
Pollution due to generation of particulates due to combustion of fuels, re-entrainment of road dust and material transformation
Increase in in-breeding and decline in size and population Reduction of genetic diversity Local extinction of species in isolated habitats
Noise pollution Movement of traffic and the sound of horns and signals at crossing induce significant noise pollution
Changes in animal behavior
An environmentally acceptable road project should budget for the mitigation of road induced impacts and, as a last resort, for compensation of unavoidable losses. Mitigative measures are usually restricted to the road corridor and seek to avoid or reduce ecological disturbances by means of technological and ecological improvements. Compensation measures seek to replace losses and degradation of natural systems by restoring lost wilderness values or creating, replacing, at different locations, features damaged by a project, or simply paying for the loss, without any restoration.
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
71
4.3.1 Mitigating Fragmentation and Isolation Developing engineered and ecological landscape connectors can mitigate fragmentation and isolation impacts. The key to designing such connectors is an understanding of the processes that regulate the ecological functioning, and maintain the stability of animal and plant communities. Connectors can permit crossing of ground and surface water sources, animal dispersal and migration, and pollination and seed dispersal. (i) Engineered or engineering structures Well designed culverts, underpasses and overpasses can be effective in mitigating fragmentation impacts by allowing movement of wildlife species to continue despite the imposition of roads on the landscape. To be effective, crossing structures must be designed such that their width, height, length, and approach area, as well as visibility from them, are conducive to use by the intended wildlife species. For example, elephants will not use an underpass that does not have adequate headroom, and prey species are unlikely to enter a structure if the approach area is such that escape routes are severely limited. Similarly, the configuration, diameter, length and placement in the watercourse of crossing structures for aquatic species directly determine whether they will block or permit passage of aquatic species. An understanding of wildlife species’ needs is essential to successful design of crossing structures, and wildlife experts should therefore be involved in the design process. Another engineering option in mountainous areas is the construction of road/rail tunnels that pass under sensitive wildlife areas. This can prevent dissection of above-ground ecosystems and ensure the integrity of their values. However, care must be taken so that the tunneling does not create further ecological impacts, as was the case with a tunnel constructed several years ago in India’s Maharashtra State (see Case Study No. 3). The tunnel debris, disposed off down-slope during construction, still remains there as an impervious cover on the soil, supporting no vegetation. As a result of this permanent loss, the Maharashtra State Transport Department is now considering adding waste disposal clauses to all its construction contracts. (ii) Conservation buffer zones A buffer zone is an area that surrounds the core of a protected area, allowing a range of human activities to take place while protecting the core area from undue negative impacts and providing connections to other less disturbed habitat areas. The idea is to prevent isolation of discrete habitat patches such as core of protected areas by maintaining enough habitat features in the buffer areas to facilitate the movement of wildlife across them. Such habitat features may include forested riparian zones, wide hedgerows between
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
72
cultivated plots, and continuously linked production forest areas. Although such features may not provide optimal habitat for all species, they can nevertheless allow animals to move between core habitat areas, thus helping to mitigate the isolation of metapopulations (see Section 4.2.1.3 above). Sensitive road planning should recognize the value of buffer zones by adjusting route alignments and incorporating crossing structures accordingly. Conservation buffer zones may also be designed to protect core habitat areas from edge effects by lessening the contrast in habitat conditions between the edges and the core areas. For example, maintaining a certain amount of forest cover near the protected area boundary can soften the transition from open roadside areas to interior forest habitat, helping to reduce micro-climatic effects such as drying, and discouraging incursions by invasive species. These are able to out-compete and displace the native populations. In this context, it is important that during route selection for new roads, distances between road alignments and protected area boundaries be carefully evaluated to allow for the establishment of appropriate buffer zones. The design of buffer zones relies heavily on an understanding of the habits and habitat requirements of the wildlife found in the protected area in question. For example, protected areas for herds of grazing animals need different buffer zones than do those for large predators such as tigers. Wildlife experts should therefore be involved from the earliest stages of route selection when roads are expected to pass nearby protected areas. (iii) Ecological networks Ecological networking is based on four underlying concepts (Bennett 1991): conservation of core areas that ensure the conservation of the main habitat types; creation of green corridors that allow species to disperse and migrate between core habitat areas; restoration of areas to provide more habitat; and delineation of buffer zones that protect the network from potentially damaging external influences, such as roads. The ecological network approach recognizes the need to move away from preserving a small number of especially valuable sites or populations of endangered species, towards wildlife management that focuses on the needs of people and development as well as wildlife conservation, at the scale of an entire landscape. Ecological networks are a way of maintaining a relatively high degree of connectivity between natural areas through the maintenance of ‘green corridors’, without attempting to exclude human activities. Basic ingredients for successful application of this approach are a) adequate political
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
73
and administrative support, demonstrated by the provision of legislation, policy and funding; b) basic data on species composition and overall abundance, and knowledge of the habits and habitat requirements of key species; and c) trained people who understand, in general terms at least, the wildlife dynamics taking place in the impact zone. Of these ingredient, (a) is most important, since the rest often fall into place as soon as the action has senior-level support. 4.3.2 Compensation for Habitat Fragmentation or Loss Seldom can the mitigative measures adopted ensure the reduction of all impacts to acceptable levels. Where mitigation cannot be entirely effective in reducing ecological impacts, compensation should be attempted. The choices for compensatory measures include: Re-establishment of wildlife habitats; Creation and restoration of habitat areas (for compensating biologically impoverished landscapes); Upgrading other suitable and similar habitats to protected area status (creation of legally protected habitat units); and Relocation of wildlife species displaced by road development to other suitable habitat areas. The choice of measures used depends on the type of habitat affected, its land-use history, uniqueness, rarity, and conservation significance and the availability of alternative habitat within the same or related landscapes. More than this, it is the magnitude and nature of the impact and available funding that may ultimately dictate whether restoration, replacement or protective strategies are adopted. The most common compensatory measure currently being applied is habitat replacement. For example, to compensate for the losses to the Great Indian Bustard habitat that occurred during the extension of a pipeline through its habitat, new habitat contiguous with an existing protected area was approved for designation as a wildlife sanctuary (WII 1993). Similarly, three new protected areas will be designated to compensate for habitat losses resulting from the proposed Narmadasagar Project (WII 1994). There have also been instances where species of endangered plants or those that are protected by law were transplanted outside the impact zone of road projects (see Box 4.13). The design, construction and maintenance of such mitigative and compensatory measures demands a high degree of specialist knowledge, and close cooperation between ecologists and road engineers during the road planning, construction and operating stages.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
74
Box 4.13 Relocation of an endangered species The North Lantau Expressway in Hong Kong is a 12.5 km long dual three-lane expressway with a driving speed limit of 100 km per hour connecting the urban areas of western Kowloon to the new Chek Lap Kok Airport. The expressway takes the form of a linear structure along the northern coast of the Lantau Island built on hillsides and partially on reclaimed land. The construction involved excavation of 6.3 million m3 of soil and rock and the removal of 10 million m3 of dredged material from the Chek Lap Kok surrounding sea bed, and a further Airport Lantau fixed crossing 14 million m3 of marine sand fill and 4 million m3 of seawall rock to North Lantau form the roadwork. This is the first Expressway highway on the island. During site LANTAU clearance of a slope in Tung ISLAND Chung, protected pitcher plants (Nepenthes mirabilis), was observed by the resident environmental staff on routine site inspection. Through liaison meetings with concerned parties, Source: Environmental Protection Department, Govt. of Hong the pitcher plants were transplanted away from damage. Kong 1997
The bottom line in mitigation and compensation planning will always be the involvement of local communities in conservation efforts. Awareness of issues and knowledge of potential solutions will encourage local people to strike up partnerships in developing conservation policies and acceptable mitigative and compensatory measures. Their solicited inputs often lead to effective conservation actions. Finally, measures that compensate for the chronic degradation or loss of wildlife ecosystems should be explicitly defined in all projects where such losses are anticipated and unavoidable. Mitigation and compensation should not be afterthoughts, but rather integral components of the overall project activities. Costs associated with them should be explicitly included in the project budget. 4.3.3 Mitigating the Barrier Effect Some common measures used to mitigate barrier effects imposed by road development are briefly outlined below. (i) Preventive measures during the planning stage z
Route selection should avoid critical habitats of rare and threatened species, as well as areas of high biological diversity.
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
75
z
Carefully consider the option of widening, resurfacing and realigning existing roads rather than building new roads in and around protected areas.
z
Design tunnels, bridges, culverts and other crossing structures such that they are useable for transportation as well as wildlife movement corridors. For example, make bridges over streams high enough to accommodate the movement of large wildlife beneath them, and make culverts large enough to accommodate not only peak flows but also use by riparian wildlife species.
(ii) Wildlife crossing structures z
Where bridges for use by large animals like elephants are constructed over water channels, they should be at least 50 m wide, with high railings (walls). Grasses and creepers should be planted in pockets of soil kept on the bridge deck, in order to reduce the visibility of height of the crossing structure.
z
Most large animals will not readily cross narrow bridges, particularly over railways or busy road. Based on the experience of earlier studies (e.g. Putman 1997), overpasses that are 30 m wide and have wider funnel-shaped approaches are sometimes successful. Underpasses are an option but their success depends heavily on the wildlife in question. For example, the minimum suggested height and breadth of a crossing tunnel for most deer species is at least 4 m x 4 m (Reed et al. 1975). Wildlife specialists should be consulted in the design of such structures.
z
Dark tunnels painted light grey or underpasses with a wooded appearance at their exits and entrances increase the chances that they will be used (Kruger and Wolfel 1991). To further promote the use of tunnels, feeding areas and watering holes should be developed near the entrances. This, however, must be very carefully evaluated in relation to local human communities. Since feeding and watering areas may become animal concentration areas, their establishment near populated areas could increase the likelihood of poaching.
z
Consider building road tunnels under mountainous areas particularly rich in biodiversity and with rare and endangered species (as with stretches along the Mumbai-Pune Expressway).
z
In designing culverts, the angle at which the structure is placed into the stream, in relation to the stream’s natural gradient, is critical to fish movement and migration. A culvert installed at a slope other than the stream gradient will result in a plunge pool or waterfall effect at the downstream end of the culvert and increased flow rate
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
76
through the culvert, resulting in the blockage or retardation of the passage of many aquatic species (Figure 4.4). Culvert Culvert
Hydraulic jump Outlet drop a. Perched outlet
b. Hydraulic jump at inlet (Source: Fitch 1997)
Fig. 4.4 Improper culvert placement and streambed slope z
The length of culverts and their interior roughness are two other important factors. Some smaller aquatic species will tire in long smooth culverts, and in such cases baffles have to be designed into the structures to provide eddies in which smaller aquatic species can rest. Past experience suggests that for culverts 25 m long, their slope should not exceed 0.01 m/m, and for those >25 m the slope should be 0.005 m/m. With baffles slope for any size culvert can be up to 0.05 m/m.
(iii) Manipulating roadside habitat Altering roadside habitat often discourages wildlife crossings. Most often this means cutting away vegetation and reducing roadside cover and potential food sources. On the other hand, canopy connectivity above a road should be maintained wherever possible to provide potential crossing points for arboreal mammals, birds and herptiles. 4.3.4 Preventing Vehicle-Wildlife Collisions For various reasons, including daily and annual movement requirements, feeding activity and territoriality, wildlife will choose to cross roads and will get hit by vehicles. Many wildlife deaths can be prevented by careful placement of the alignment and appropriate roadside plantings. Measures used to discourage animals from moving onto the road surface are: z
Flash mirrors or game reflectors on roads with moderate traffic. These work best with larger ungulates such as deer.
z
Warning signs for drivers to slow down in areas where high-use crossing points or wildlife corridors are known.
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures z
77
Regulating traffic during times when animals are most active, usually at night (see Box 4.14)
Box 4.14 Existing and proposed regulations for road sections in Gir National Park and Sanctuary
9
9
9
9
Jamwala-Sapnes-Dhari
9
9
9
9
9
9
Mendarda-Sasan-talala
9
Sasan-Visvadar
9
9
Talala- Jamwala Sasan-Devaliya
9
Ban on use of private vehicles
Una-Dhari
Road sections
Opening of road from sunrise to sunset
Restriction of speed limit to 20 km/hr
Opening of road between sunset & sunrise
Proposed regulations
Restriction of movement of heavy vehicle
Existing regulations
9
9
Source : Gujarat Forest Department (see also Case Study No. 1)
z
4.3.5
High fences (>3 m) in areas heavily used by large ungulates (e.g. chital, sambar, nilgai, black buck), are deterrents to crossing, but not absolute barriers. Their effectiveness can be enhanced by providing alternate means of passage, thus reducing the probability of animals intent on crossing being trapped. Fences must be constructed in close consultation with wildlife ecologists, who can help to avoid fencing designs that are likely to produce their own unwanted ecological effects, such as new artificial barriers to movement. Mitigating Human Use Problems
Practices that ensure mitigation of human use impacts, particularly those associated with increased urbanization, poaching and other illegal forms of resource extraction in wildlife-rich areas, need to be applied during the planning phase of all projects. When considering alternative alignments, the types of habitats to be affected need to be compared, in order to protect the best areas from undue
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
78
human encroachment and land-use changes. Focusing on minimizing the amount of land to be taken may not always be the best strategy, since forcing a shorter route may mean cutting through the biologically richest part of the habitat, such as nesting or rearing areas. Sections of road within forest zones or other wildlife habitats can be limited to a maximum width. This might not please road builders, but can prevent the taking of excessive amounts of valuable habitat, and may also be successful in diverting traffic onto other road corridors. The NandyalGiddalur-Thokapalli road in Andhra Pradesh is a good example (see WII and CEC Ltd. 1998, and Case Study No. 6). Road widening and maintenance restrictions were imposed to keep intrusions to a minimum, while continuing to permit the movement of traffic. Tourists and vehicles can be managed by providing parking areas outside sensitive zones to reduce noise, disturbance, littering and loss of habitat to parking areas. During a road’s operational period a number of mitigative measures can be implemented to further protect wildlife resources. These include: z
establishing and enforcing regulations that prevent off-road driving within protected areas;
z
installation of speed bumps at frequent intervals along roads through protected areas. The Park management of Gir National Park and Sanctuary in Gujarat is using this approach (see Case Study No. 1);
z
establishing checkpoints at the entrance, midway and at the exit of the protected areas, to monitor for illegal resource exploitation and compliance with speed limits. Check posts equipped with radios have been constructed in Royal Bardia National Park at both ends of the highway within PA and also midway along the road to monitor speed and other illegal activities (see Case study No. 2);
z
developing a system of road closures between dusk and dawn, the period of highest wildlife activity;
z
developing ongoing environmental awareness programs, describing the importance of wildlife conservation and its relationship to the public, and how roads and wildlife can co-exist;
z
involving local people at all stages of a project to gain community support. Wherever possible, employment of local people in construction and other associated work, patrolling, and fire-watching will enhance their stake in the conservation efforts;
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
79
z
including environmental clauses in maintenance contracts, which make it illegal for workers, contractors, and any other road workers to collect or utilize forest resource; and
z
assuring that road verges remain as undisturbed and unobstructed to animal movements as possible (see Case Study No. 6).
Deciding which of these methods, or combination of them, to use will depend on the species involved, the scale (in terms of geography and time) of the problem and the available funding and technical expertise. Methods dealing with traffic management and policing need little wildlife expertise. Road closures require knowledge of species’ behaviour. All other approaches should have wildlife or environmental specialists involved. 4.3.6Mitigating Erosion and Resulting Siltation and Sedimentation Erosion can be minimized through ecological and engineering options. The preferred are bioengineering approaches (Howell 1999, Howell 1999a) using less intrusive methods such as plantings and fiber matts in favour of concrete, steel and bulldozers. The following are some of the practices that are recommended for implementation during the planning stage of projects: z
preparation of an erosion hazard-zone sketch map, serving as a guide to road planning;
z
locating roads on the sides of ridges to ensure proper drainage;
z
following topographical contours during road alignment with grades between 0% and 10%, except where terrain requires short steep grades; and
z
locating roads sufficiently far away from water bodies to avoid transportation of eroded soil material to streams and other water sources.
For protection of slope stability and soil erosion the following practices should be adopted: z
grading slopes appropriately to provide traps for eroding debris;
z
strengthening the bases of slopes through enlargement of the toe of the land to be slid;
z
securing steep cut slopes by the use of reinforcing structures at their bases;
z
construction of retention walls to prevent mass movements of soil; and
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
80 z
netting exposed slopes with coir, jute or synthetic geotextiles, followed promptly by revegetation.
Other preventive measures to limit project damage to road development include: z
re-routing any potential surface runoff discharges away from spawning and rearing fish habitat or waterfowl and herptofauna nesting areas to either settling basins or at least vegetated areas;
z
restricting, through contract clauses and associated fines, the removal of aggregate materials from streams which are important habitats of fish and wetland species. Riparian zones are critical to stream health and can easily become the source of stream degradation if development is permitted within them. Protect riparian areas by establishing buffer zones, which if disturbed should be planted with grasses and sedges to provide both a check and filter for discharge of sediments directly into the stream channel.
4.4 References 4.4.1 Ecosystem Types and Sensitivity Areendran, G. and M.K.S. Pasha (2000). Gaur Ecology Project, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. Br yon, H. (1999). Biodiversity and Environmental Impact Assessment of Road Schemes: Draft Guidelines on a Systematic Approach . Environmental Policy and Management Group. Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, U.K. Bhaskar, S. (1993). The Status and Ecology of Sea Turtles in Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Centre for Herpetology, Publication No. ST1/93. 1-37. Boer L. and W.J. (1958). De entomologiche waarde van eiken-berkenbos. De Levende Natuur, 61, 97-102. Calvo, R. N. and N.J. Silvy (1996). Key Deer Mortality in the Florida Keys, USA.
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
81
Clevenger, A.P. (1998). Effect of Highways and other Linear Developments on Wildlife Populations. Literature collection prepared in the PapyrusTM 7.0 Bibliography System. Drews, C. (1991) Road kills in Mikumi National Park. Miombo. Newsletter of the Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania 7, 6-7. Drews, C. (1995). Road kills of animals by public traffic in Mikumi National Park, Tanzania, with notes on baboon mortality. African Journal of Ecology 33, 89-100. English Nature, ( 1994). Roads and Nature Conservation: Guidance on Impacts, Mitigation and Enhancement. English Nature, Peterborough, U.K. Environmental Protection Department, Govt. of Hong Kong (1997) Environmental Measures on Airport Core Projects, Case I, North Lantau Expressway Project. Govt. of Hong Kong. Evink, G.L., P. Garet, D. Zeigler and J. Berry (eds.) 1996. Trends in Addressing Transportation Related Wildlife Mortality. Proceedings of the Seminar on Transportation Related Wildlife Mortality. Florida Department of Transportation, Tallahassee, Florida Fitch, G.M. (1997). Designing highway culverts that do not impede the movements of resident fish species. Road Engineering Journal, November, 1997 Internet accessed http://www.usroads.com/journals/p /rej/9711/re971102.htm. Forman, R.T.T. and R.D. Deblinger (1998). The ecological road - effect zone for transportation planning, and a Massachusetts highway example. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Wildlife and Transportation (eds. G.L. Evink, P. Garrett, D. Zeigler and J. Berry). 69-98, Florida Department, of Transportation. Tallahassee, Florida. Gibbs, J.P. (1991). Avian nest predation in tropical wet forest: An experimental study. Oikos 60, 155-161. Griffths, M., and C.P. Van Schaik (1993). The impact of human traffic on the abundance and activity of Sumatran rain forest wildlife. Conservation Biology 7, 623-26. Jimba, K., H. Adhikarey, P.D. Wangdi, Lhakpa Sherpa, P. Tshering and D. Dorji (1998). Dakpai - Buli Road. Environmental Impact Assessment Report. ISDP, Zhemgang, Bhutan.
82
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Johnsingh, A.J.T., K. Sankar and S. Mukherjee (1997). Saving prime tiger habitat in Sariska Tiger Reserve. Cat News 27, 3-4. Karthikeyan, V., S.P. Vijay Kumar and N.M. Ishwar (1999). Western Ghat Habitat Fragmentation Project, Wildlife Institute of India (WII). Kothari, A., N. Singh and S. Suri (eds.) (1996). People and Protected Areas: Toward Participatory Conservation in India. Sage Publications, New Delhi. Kruger, H.H. and H. Wolfel (1991). Behavioural Response of Fallow Deer to Various Types of Simulated Underpasses. Proceedings of the XXth Congress of the International Union of Game Biologists. Langevelde, F.V. and C.F. Jaarsma (1997). Habitat fragmentation, the role of minor rural roads and their traversability. In:. Habitat Fragmentation and Infrastructure (eds. Kees Canters, Annette Piepers and Dineke Hendriks-Heersma), 171-182. Proceedings of the international conference on habitat fragmentation, infrastructure and the role of ecological engineering, 17-21 September 1995, Maastricht and The Hague, The Netherlands. Lewis, A.D.(1989) Road kills and other records of mainly smaller mammals from Kenya : data for a Kenyan mammal atlas. East African Natural History Society Bulletin 19, 20-22. Mishra, A.K. (1998). Potential Threats from Proposed Developmental and Mining Projects on Wildlife Values of Buxa Tiger Reserve. Management Term Paper (unpublished). Wildlife Institute of India. Oxley, D.J. and M.B. Fenton (1976). The harm our roads do to nature and wildlife. Canadian Geographic Journal 92(3), 40-45. Oxley, D.J., M.B. Fenton and G.R. Carmody (1974). The effects of roads on populations of small mammals. Journal of Applied Ecology 11, 51-59. Pandav, B., B.C. Chaudhury and C.S. Kar ( 1994). Olive Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) and its Nesting Habitats along the Orissa Coast India; A Status Survey. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun Rebecca, A.R., J. Johnson-Barnard and W.L. Baker. (1996). Contribution of roads to forest fragmentation in the Rocky Mountains. Conservation Biology 10(4), 1098-1106. Reh, W. and A. Seitz (1990). The influence of land use on the genetic structure of populations of the common frog (Rana temporaria). Biological Conservation 54, 239-249.
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
83
Reijnen, R., R. Foppen, C.Braak ter, and J. Thissen (1995). The effects of car traffic on breeding bird populations in woodland. III. Reduction of density in relation to the proximity of main roads. Journal of Applied Ecology 32, 187-202. Reijnen, M.S.J.M., G. Veenbaas and R.P.B. Foppen (1995). Predicting the Ef fects of Motorway Traf fic on Breeding Bird Populations. DLO Institute of Forests and Natural Resources, Ministry of Transportation and Public Works. Delft. The Netherlands. Rijkswaterstaat, Dienst Weg -en Waterbouwkunde (1993). Projectplan Versnippering [Project plan fragmentation]. Rijkswaterstaat, Road and Hydraulic Engineering Division (1997). Programma Plan Ontsnippering 1997 - 2001. Delft, The Netherlands. Rosen, P.C. and C.H. Lowe (1994). Highway mortality of snakes in the Sonoran desert of southern Arizona. Biological Conservation 68, 143148. Sharma, D. and A.J.T. Johnsingh (1996). Impact of Management Practices on Lion and Ungulate Habitats in Gir Protected Area (Gujarat). Technical Report. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun. Thomas, J.W., C. Master and J.E. Rodiek (1979). Edges. In: Wildlife Habitats in Managed Forest: The Blue Mountains of Oregon and Washington (ed. J.W. Thomas), 48 - 59. USDA Forest Service Agricultural Handbook No. 553. US Environmental Protection Agency (1997). Quantifying the Impacts of Road Construction on Wetlands Lost. Final report prepared by the Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Inc. Published by TranSafety, Inc. with Apogee Research Vermeulen, J. and T. Whitten (eds.) (1999). Conservation of Biodiversity and Cultural Property in the Exploitation of Limestone: Lessons from East Asia. World Bank Technical Paper, pre-publication draft. The World Bank, Washington, DC. Vos, C.C. (1997). Effects of road density; a case study of the moor frog. In:. Habitat Fragmentation and Infrastructure (eds. Kees Canters, Annette Piepers and Dineke Hendriks-Heersma), 93 - 97. Proceedings of the international conference on habitat fragmentation, infrastructure and the role of ecological engineering, 17-21 September 1995, Maastricht and The Hague, The Netherlands.
84
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Waechter, A. (1979). Animal mortality on a high traffic road. Mammalia 43(4), 577 - 579. WII (1993). Environmental Impact Assessment of HBJ Gas Pipeline Upgradation Project on Wildlife and Wildlife Habitats. WII-EIA Technical Report 2. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun WII and CEC Ltd. (1998). The Andhra Pradesh State Highway Rehabilitation and Maintenance Project: The Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road. Technical report prepared for the World Bank & Andhra Pradesh Roads and Buildings Department. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. WII (1994). Impact Assessment Studies of Narmada Sagar and Omkareshwar Projects on Flora and Fauna with Attendant Human Aspects. 1994. WII - EIA Technical Report 9. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. 4.4.2 Habitat Modification, Fragmentation, Loss, Transformation, Isolation and Barrier Effects Adams, L.W. and A.D. Geis (1983). Effects of roads on small mammals. Journal of Applied Ecology 20, 403-15. Andrews, A. (1990). Fragmentation of habitat by roads and utility corridors: a review. Australian Zoologist 26, 130-42. Ashley, E.P. and J.T. Robinson (1996). Road mortality of amphibians, reptiles, and other wildlife on the long point causeway Lake-Erie. Canadian Field Naturalist 110(3), 403 - 412. Bashore, T. L., W.M. Tzilkowski and E.D. Bellis (1985). Analysis of deer vehicle collision sites in Pennsylvania. Journal of Wildlife Management 49(3), 769 - 774. Bennett A.F. (1991). Roads, roadsides and wildlife conservation : a review. In : Nature Conservation 2 : The Role of Corridors (eds. Denis A., Saunders and Richard J. Hobbs), 99 – 117. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Sydney. Chen, J., J. Franklin and T.A. Spies (1992). Vegetation responses to edge environment in old-growth Douglas-fir forests. Ecological Applications 2, 387-96. Ferris, C.R. (1979). Effects of Interstate 95 on breeding birds in northern Maine. Journal of Wildlife Management 43, 421 - 427. Forman R.T.T., D.S. Friedman, D. Fitzhenry, J.D. Martin, A.S. Chen and L.E. Alexander (1997). Ecological effects of roads: Toward three summary indices and an overview for North America. In: Habitat
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
85
Fragmentation & Infrastructure (eds. Kees Canters, Annette Piepers and Dineke Hendriks-Heersma), 40 - 54. Proceedings of the international conference on habitat fragmentation, infrastructure and the role of ecological engineering, 17-21 September 1995, Maastricht and The Hague, The Netherlands. Forman, R.T.T. (1995). Land Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. Forman, R.T.T. and R.D. Deblinger (1998). The ecological road - effect zone for transportation planning, and a Massachusetts highway example. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Wildlife and Transportation. (eds. G.L. Evink, P. Garrett, D. Zeigler and J. Berry). 69-98. Florida Department of Transportation. Tallahassee, Florida. Forman, R.T.T. and S.K. Colling (1997). Nature conserved in changing landscapes with and without spatial planning. Landscape and Urban Planning 37, 129-35. Gibeau, M.L. and K. Heuer (1996). Effects of transportation corridors on large carnivores in the Bow River Valley, Alberta. In: Proceedings of the Transportation Related Wildlife Mortality Seminar (eds. G.L. Evink et al.). Florida Department of Transportation/Federal Highway Administration. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC. Hodson, N.L. (1960). A survey of vertebrate road mortality. Bird Study 7, 224 - 31. Keller, V., and H.P. Pfister (1995). Wildlife Passes as Means of Mitigating Effects of Habitat Fragmentation by Roads and Railway Lines. Swiss Ornithological Institute, Sempach. Litjens, B.E.J. (1991). Evaluation of Wildlife Overpasses on Motorway. A consultants chap nature, Milien en Fauna beheer van net Ministrerie van Lan bound (summary in English). Lode, Thierry. (2000). Effect of a motorway on mortality and isolation of wildlife populations. Ambio 29 (3),163-166. Mader, H.J. (1984). Animal habitat isolation by roads and agricultural fields. Biological Conservation 29, 81-96. Oxley, D.J., M.B. Fenton and G.R. Carmody (1973). The effects of roads on populations of small mammals. Journ. Appl. Ecol. 11, 51 - 59. Putman, R.J. (1997). Deer and road traffic accidents: options for management. Journal of Environmental Management 51, 43-57.
86
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Reck, H and G. Kaule (1993). Strassen und Lebensraume: Ermittlung und Beurteilung strassenbedingter Auswirkungen auf Pflanzen, Tiere und ihre Lebensraume. Forschung Strassenbau und Strassenver kehrstechnik. Heft 654. Herausgegeben vom Bundesminister fur Verkehr, BonnBad Godesberg, Ger. Reed, D. F. (1981). Effectiveness of highway lighting in reducing per-vehicle accidents. Journal of Wildlife Management 45(3), 721-726. Reed, D. F. (1981). Mule Deer behaviour at a highway underpass exit. Journal of Wildlife Management 45(2), 542 - 543. Reed, D.F., T.N. Woodard and T.M. Pojar (1975). Behavioural response of mule deer to a highway underpass. Journal of Wildlife Management 39, 361-367. Reid, J.W. and I.A. Bowles (1997). Reducing the impacts of roads on tropical forests. Environment 39(8), 10 - 13. Ruediger, B. (1998). Rare Carnivores and Highways : Moving into the 21st Century. Paper presented at International conference on wildlife ecology and transportation. Feb. 10-12, 1998. Florida Department of Transportation, Tallahassee, Florida. Somways, M.J., R. Osborn and F. Carliel (1997). Effects of a highway on ant (Hymenoptera formicide) species. Biodiversity and Conservation, ISSN: 0960-3115. Taylor, R.J., S.L. Bryant, D. Pemberton and T.W. Norton. (1985). Mammals of the upper Henty River region of western Tasmania. Royal Society of Tasmania 119, 7 - 14. Van Apeldoorn, R. C. (1997). Fragmented mammals: What does that mean?. In:. Habitat Fragmentation and Infrastructure (eds. Kees Canters, Annette Piepers and Dineke Hendriks-Heersma), 40-54. Proceedings of the international conference on habitat fragmentation, infrastructure and the role of ecological engineering, 17-21 September 1995, Maastricht and The Hague, The Netherlands. World Bank (1998). Rajasthan State Highway Project, Sectoral EA Report. Yanes, M., J.M. Velasco and F. Suarez (1995). Permeability of roads and railways to vertebrates: the importance of culverts. Biological Conservation 71, 217 - 222. Zande A.N. van der, W.J. Keurstue and W.J. Weijden van der (1980). The impact of roads on the densities of four bird species in an open field
Ecosystems, Impact and Mitigative Measures
87
habitat - evidence of a long distance effect. Biological Conservation 18, 299 - 321. Zwaenepoel, A. (1997). Floristic impoverishment by changing unimproved roads into metalled roads. In : Habitat Fragmentation & Infrastructure (eds. Kees Canters, Annette Piepers and Dineke Hendriks-Heersma), 127 - 138. Proceedings of the international conference on habitat fragmentation, infrastructure and the role of ecological engineering, 1721 September 1995, Maastricht and The Hague, The Netherlands. 4.4.3 Mitigation Measures and Best Practices Bennett, A.F. (1988). Roadside vegetation: A habitat for mammals at Naringal, southwestern Victoria. Victorian Nature 105, 106-13. Bhatt, C.P. (1980). Ecosystem of the Central Himalayas and Chipko Movement, Dashauli Gram Swarajya Mandal, Gopeshwar, Chamoli, U.P.). Dale,V.H., R.V. O’Neill, F. Southworth and M. Pedlowski. (1994a). Modeling effects of land management in the Brazalian Amazonian settlement of Rondonia. Conservation Biology 8, 196 - 206. Dale, V.H., S.M. Pearson, H.L. Offerman and R.V. O’Neill (1994b). Relating patterns of land-use change to faunal biodiversity in the Central Amazon. Conservation Biology 8, 1027 - 36. Forman, R.T.T. (1995). Land Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U.K. Howell, John. (1999). Roadside Bio-engineering: Reference Manual. Department of Roads, HMGN. Howell, John. (1999a). Roadside Bio-engineering: Site Handbook. Department of Roads, HMGN Lonsdale, W.M and A.M. Lane (1993). Tourist vehicles as vectors for weed seeds in Kakadu National Park, Northern Australia. Biological Conservation 69, 277-283. Lyon, L.J. (1983). Road density modes describing habitat effectiveness for elk. Journal of Forestry 81, 592 - 95. McDonald, I.A.W., L.L. Loope, M.B. Usher and O. Hamann. (1989). Wildlife conservation and the invasion of nature reserves by introduced species: A global perspective. In: Biological Invasions: A Global Perspective (ed. J.A. Drake, H.A. Mooney, F. di Castri, R.H. Groves, F.J. Kruger, M.
88
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Rejmanek and M. Williamson), 215-255. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Miquelle, D., H. Quigley and M. Hornoker (undated). A Habitat Protection Plan for Amur Tiger Conservation: A Proposal Outlining Habitat Protection Measures for the Amur Tiger. Downloaded from internet website http://www.5tigers.org/hornoker.htm. Narayan, S. ( 1996). Joint management of Gir National Park. In: People and Protected Areas: Toward Participatory Conservation In India (eds. Kothari, A., N. Singh and S. Suri), 212 - 233. Sage Publications, New Delhi. Pica, E., J. Smith and G. Kripe (1998). Trails of Destruction. Friends of Earth Publication.
5. METHODS AND TOOLS
T
he most widely applied (and also perhaps the most misused) method for determining the impact of roads on wildlife and wildlife habitat is Environmental Assessment (EA). EA has been in use since the mid 1970s, and in India since the mid 1980s. Fortunately, the basic elements of the EA process (Figure 5.1) are PROJECT PROPOSAL well documented and reasonably well understood. The problem with EA lies in the execution SCREENING Is an EIA required? of the work, particularly knowing how to identify, focus in on and mitigate unacceptable impacts before they occur. Such problems with EA What are the key SCOPING issues? execution usually arise because many of the people charged with conducting EAs i) encounter uncooperative Baseline data collection line agencies; ii) tend IDENTIFY, COLLECT Impact prediction toward ‘information AND ANALYSE INFORMATION Assessment of impact significance overkill’ (often the wrong Identify mitigation measures and information) because not monitoring programme enough time is provided for early planning; iii) tend to overstep their technical under-standing Prepare EIA report and mis-interpret or overPRESENT INFORMATION simplify findings; iv) have difficulty presenting the Submit to Decision-makers findings clearly and convincingly; and iv) feel Fig. 5.1 A generalized procedure for EA a real lack of support
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
90
from the most senior ranks of the agency and government. In other words, EA agencies in most countries, including India, are not considered a serious force to be reckoned with by other agencies and the private sector, and naturally the work suffers. This is a fact of life afflicting all environmental agencies in South Asia. Alarm sounded across India and South Asia over the region’s fastdisappearing wildlands and wildlife, coupled with concern about the lack of knowledge and skills displayed in conducting EAs and reporting on and doing something about the reported impacts, was in part what prompted the preparation of this Guide. It has been designed to begin to deal with deficiencies (ii) through (iv) identified above. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 identified and addressed the five main building blocks of better ‘wildlife-wildland-road’ conflict resolution, environmental analyses and EAs, namely: z
confidence that environmental efforts are being supported by senior agency officials as well as a good knowledge of the laws and process governing EAs and the institutional steps needed in order to obtain an environmental approval;
z
a basic understanding of common wildlife ecosystems and their sensitivity to road-development-related impacts;
z
a knowledge of the cause-effect relationships of the impacts likely to occur with road development;
z
an appreciation for the mitigation options for avoiding, preventing and reducing impacts stemming from road development; and,
z
the ability to effectively present environmental information such that it will be applicable in decision-making.
In this chapter, these building blocks are combined and presented in terms of: z
the steps necessary in order to define impacts credibly;
z
an approach to defining realistic mitigative measures linked to an implementation timetable; and
z
the process of preparing sound, clear EA documents and obtaining environmental approval of the road project.
EAs focusing on road-wildlife issues need to address the potential impacts from a broad perspective, i.e. in relation to the regional ecosystem’s baseline conditions, etc. This approach is referred to as the Ecological Impact
Methods and Tools
91
Assessment (EA E), and is recommended for all investigations involving wildlife and protected areas.
5.1 Environmental Assessment and Decision Making The steps for conducting an ecological EA would generally be the same as for any EA study (Figure 5.1). For the EAE, boundaries are based on a combination of physical, administrative and ecological limits, i.e. related to natural history, such as migration needs, feeding requirements, gene-pool maintenance requirements, prey vulnerability, species interaction, etc. Conventional EAs often ignore such ecological dimensions. Clearly, EAE is better at incorporating ecological concerns in project assessment.The gap between ‘conventional’ EA and EAE has been eloquently described by Beanlands and Duinker (1983). They said that the reality of limited resources forces EA practitioners to be selective. They must be sensitive to the key ecological factors, maximize the value of ‘lessons learned’, and bind the work such that it is focused and problem-oriented, yet still ecologically credible. In practice, the ‘ecological’ part usually vanishes. A recent review of EA examined the relative influence of ‘art’ and ‘science’ on EA decisionmaking (Morrison-Saunders and Bailey 1999), and found that well-articulated discussions about environmental impacts, based on lessons learned and science, seemed the most attractive for decision makers. Well-documented, rigorous scientific evidence appeared to make little difference to the usefulness of EA studies to decision-makers. Frequently this problem arises when authors fail to present the results in a form applicable in development-related decision making, or relevant to decision makers. The implementation of environmental actions defined in an EA seems to have a higher chance of success if responsibility is assigned at the time the impacts are discussed. Further, having a bit of scientific uncertainty surrounding an impact actually seemed to be an advantage, since such uncertainty appeared to encourage an adaptive style of EA management.
5.2 Screening and Scoping Planning for an environmental assessment involves two key activities: screening and scoping. 6 Screening refers to an early determination of the potential magnitude of impacts and hence the depth of study required. This should be the first stage in incorporating environmental considerations into a road development project. Screening should:
6 Screening and scoping are most often used on specific projects (as opposed to higher order solutions) to pinpoint environmentally acceptable designs.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
92 z
provide a definition of the scale and type of project;
z
identify a ‘long list’ of affected ecosystem components that are sensitive and important to the overall ecology of the study area (sometimes referred to as the Valued Ecosystem Components or VECs);
z
establish the general nature and magnitude of the potential impacts; and
z
suggest the most appropriate EA process (in terms of level of detail) to apply to the project.
Scoping is a process used for defining what can and what cannot be accomplished during a particular environmental study, and to determine to what level of detail a study needs to cover. Scoping should include: z
defining the geographic boundary of the study in relation to possible impacts;
z
identifying the time constraints and time horizons of the study (i.e. project time limits and how far into the future one should predict project effects); and
z
identifying the skills and human resources needed to undertake the project.
Screening and scoping can be completed by undertaking the following tasks that incorporate the key activities listed above. These seven tasks are: z
describing the need for a project;
z
describing the proposed project and alternatives (solutions);
z
identifying which VECs, defined in the long list, are most sensitive to road-related impacts (using the six indicators of significance listed in Section 5.6.2);
z
evaluating the potential impacts of project options on the VECs within the study area (at this point based on existing knowledge, past reports and consultation with communities within the study area);
z
establishing existing institutional capacity and environmental lessons learned in the study area;
z
selecting a preferred project option (concept); and finally
Methods and Tools z
93
identifying the EA type7 to be applied to the preferred project option.
It is only after completing these tasks that EA practitioners, road managers and planners can legitimately say that they understand the proposed project in the context of its environment and in relation to other engineering solutions. Skipping screening and scoping (see Case Study No.3) often leads to costly complications and delays Box 5.1 Impact indicators: roads and wildlife later in the project Geology and Landscape Cover quality development. Change in unique features Ecotone pressure On receiving the engineering description of the project and sighting details, the EA practitioner is confronted with a myriad of choices, including which indicators to use (Box 5.1). Selecting appropriate indicators that will be used not only as the basis for field collections, but for future monitoring as well, is essential to successful EA. Remembering the following indicator criteria when selecting them will help keep the list relevant. The indicators should: z
Landforms sensitivity Presence of sedimentary and metamorphic rock Slope stability Visual quality Weathering Soil Erosion properties Fertility Nutrient cycle Sedimentation Soil microfauna Soil microflora Water Ground water quantity & quality Nutrient cycle Surface water quantity & quality Air Air quality: SO2, NOx, CO, THC, Odor, RPM10 (ambient and emitted) Climatic changes Micro climate Wildlife habitat Vegetal cover Vegetation density Alteration/degradation Bank vegetation Corridors
Food quality/quantity Fragmentation Habitat quality Habitat size Drying of shorelines Mud flat area Fauna and Flora Breeding biology Breeding sites Canopy alterations Dispersal Emigration Endemism Faunal diversity Floral diversity Home range Host species Immigration Introduced species Rarity Local extinction Migration Phenology Population mortality Population natality Redundancy Resilience Resource competition Territory size Endangered species Vulnerable species
be measurable and standardized;
7 Projects which are clearly site-specific and can be executed using a programmatic or class EA approach that is initiated without the ‘front-end’ planning, is acceptable. Projects which are clearly beneficial, such as rehabilitation of eroded transportation corridors also do not require full blown EAs, although rehabilitation in wildlife sanctuaries can be problematic ( as in the Rajiv Gandhi Tiger Reserve in Andhra Pradesh).
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
94 z z z z z
be focused on VEC or ecosystem components likely to be stressed by project activities; be appropriate for the scale of likely disturbance due to the project; have a natural variability that is understood; be part of an existing data series; and be diagnostic, as opposed to descriptive (e.g. a value that related to an unacceptable limit).
5.2.1 Checklists The scoping activity, particularly if the Valued Ecosystem Component approach8 is being used, can be enhanced through the preparation of checklists. Checklists are intended to serve as reminders of the extent and depth of information needed to complete the assessment. There are generally three well recognized categories of checklists. These are: z
Simple checklists: Straightforward lists of parameters to be measured;
z
Descriptive checklists: An identification of environmental parameters and guidelines on how parameter data are to be measured; and,
z
Scaling checklists: Similar to descriptive checklists, but with the addition of information basic to defining the significance of an impact, e.g. the Threat Matrix (Cole, 1994).
The Threat Matrix (Figure 5.2) has a further advantage in that it can be used to define the level of effort needed to address each impact by rating
etc.
in-m igra tion
tra ffic
brid ges
fore ste xtra ctio n com peti ngs pec ies roa dw ide nin g
live sto ck
Attribute of Threatened Valued Ecosystem Component ( VEC) or wildlife ecosystem or other
rec rea tion
Potential threat
feeding area forest canopy prey species prey habitat migration route movement corridors etc. etc.
Each cell can contain a index rating, scale number, actual quantitative data, comments, cross reference to other threats or attributes, etc.
Fig. 5.2 Adaptation of the threat matrix for wilderness area management to wildlife and habitat impact planning for road projects (after Cole 1994). 8 Good sources for these are Beanlands and Duinker (1983), Lohani et al. and ADB (1997) and The World Bank (1997).
Methods and Tools
95
how well the potential impact is understood. The clearer this matrix is, less is the effort needed to define impacts and to develop a mitigation approach. Good details on the design and use of checklists are presented in Gilpin’s (1995) text on EIA. In India, checklists for road-wildlife EAs should address all the parameters listed in the MoEF’s questionnaire for environmental appraisal for transportation projects (see www.wii.gov.in). In that way the subsequent environmental analysis will at least be started in compliance with the MoEF’s specifications.
5.3 Collecting the Information 5.3.1 Baseline Studies The baseline study is a cornerstone of EA, since it should define the existing status of the ecosystem(s) potentially threatened by the road. Baseline data serve as reference points against which potential or actual project-induced changes can be measured. It is here that good scoping can save large amounts of time and money, and avoid the frustration of discovering too late that the wrong variables were measured. Baseline studies usually consist of a combination of desk studies (gathering existing documents, data sets, accumulating past lessons learned) and field surveys to address key issues outlined during scoping. The depth of desk studies is generally determined by the nature of secondary information (Table 5.1) available and the extent to which spatial and remotely sensed data sources are to be used. The utility of field-based studies can be greatly enhanced by the use of appropriate sampling and surveying techniques. 5.3.2 The Field Survey During a field survey, basic data on the indicators, defined during the scoping session, are collected and the project team is able to gain an overall impression of habitat and communities that are likely to be affected. Historical information, maps, aerial photographs, and satellite imagery can be helpful in planning the timing and duration of the detailed surveys. A phased approach is generally the best practice (if time and budget permit). A rapid site visit as part of screening and scoping should be undertaken first, to get an overview of the ecology of the area. These rapid surveys should reveal the key issues to be examined, should also be helpful in adjusting the boundaries of the study area and planning of a full-scale sampling programme.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
96
Table 5.1 Information sources for facilitating field surveys To p i c s
Key references
Vegetation ecolog y Ecological surveys Vegetation classification Wildlife surveys methods Wildlife census techniques Air, water and land pollution
Mueller Dombois and Ellenberg 1974 Misra 1973; Champion and Seth 1968 Giles 1972; Sale and Berkumuller 1988 Rodgers 1991 Economopoulos 1993.
Identification guides Animals Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibian Fishes Insects Butterflies
Prater 1980 Ali 1980 Daniel 1983 Dass 1985; Dutta 1997 Jhingran 1991 Mani & Gupta 1985 Blyth 1982; Evans 1985; Haribal 1992
Plants Vascular plants Pteridophytes Gymnosperms Bryophytes Algae Fungi
Hooker 1872-1897 (7 Vols.) Beddome 1864; Khullar 1994 Sahni 1990 Bruhl 1931; Tiwari and Pant 1994 Carter 1926; Kargupta and Siddiqui 1996 Bilgrammi et al. 1991
Conservation status Animals
IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (1996)
Plants
IUCN Red Data Book for Plants (Nayar and Sastry 1987)
General EA guide for Asia
Lohani et al. 1997
Overview of EIA methods
World Bank 1997.
For any full-scale wildlife survey, the data to be collected should include parameters that measure the following: z
the changes in species or wildlife community conditions such as distribution;
z
abundance;
z
rarity;
z
species diversity and critical habitat requirements;
z
migratory and travel route disruption;
z
predator-prey balance; and
z
habitat resilience.
Methods and Tools
97
The quality of field-based data greatly depends on the appropriateness of sample sizes, sampling patterns, survey designs, species abundance measures, other ambient environmental conditions and the methods of data collection (Table 5.2). A handbook for India prepared by WII (Sale and Berkmuller 1988) provides excellent advice in these areas, and should be consulted. Table 5.2 Summary of field techniques for establishing ecological baselines for EA Parameters
Methods
Remarks
Simple checklists of plant names and references of local and regional flora can be useful. Plant checklists are also the major data sources for community description.
Use of classification systems of forests provided by Champion and Seth (1968) can be useful in developing ecological understanding of plant communities in the study area.
Estimation of ground cover
‘Two step’ method and circular plot and frame method
Method is suitable in situations where one can walk conveniently and where vegetation is sparse. For measurement in dense vegetative cover, circular plot or square frame method is used for sampling.
Estimation of shrub and tree layer
Point-Centered Quadrat (PCQ) method
The PCQ is a transect-based point sampling method for investigating density and species composition.
Estimation cover
canopy
Gridded mirror (Densiometer) method
Provides estimates as percentage cover.
Vegetation & habitat mapping
Remote sensing & GIS techniques
The degree of details of information on the maps depends upon the precise objective of study
Floristic inventory and description of major plant communities Habitat
assessment
of
Estimation of animal abundance
Direct methods
Large and bodied species
Direct methods include animal sighting.
medium
Line transects (open width and belt transects), road counts, silent drive counts, block counts, waterhole census
Fairly reliable and most commonly used methods for estimating density and abundance.
Primates
Scan and focal sampling
The methods can be effective if the population being studied is not very disturbed by human presence which might ‘freeze’ them.
Reptiles & amphibians
Spotlight counts and pitfall traps
Parameters such as time and location of sighting, weather condition, moon stage and water level could influence the survey results.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
98
Parameters Birds
Methods Belt transects, mist nets and territory mapping
Remarks Location of transects (example along roads and disturbed areas) can influence sampling. Mist nets are generally useful for birds of the understorey (up to 3 meters above ground). Territory mapping depends on locating singing males in the area and is therefore limited to use during the breeding seasons.
Indirect methods Large and medium sized species
Counts of pellets/scats, quills, moults, pugmarks, hoof prints, claw marks, other surface markings (scrape marks, debarking signs) and dens, burrows and nests.
The method poses some difficulties in using pellet counts for estimating abundance of species with closely resembling pellet e.g. chital and domestic goat pellet look alike and pose problems of estimating species abundance.
Birds
Calls
Fairly reliable method of identification of species and their abundance.
Sources : W.A. Rodgers (1991), Techniques for Wildlife Census in India - A Field Manual, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun and Sale J.B. and K. Berkmuller (1988), Manual of Wildlife Techniques for India, Field Document No. 11, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.
Selecting the best field survey method requires the consideration of five factors: i) existing data; ii) funds budgeted and time available; iii) likely severity (including geographic reach) of the impacts; and iv) level of detail required. A well thought-out scoping exercise can go a long way in mapping out this step. A further guiding principle of fieldwork is to arrive in the field with a sampling plan; one that can be adapted to site conditions. To assist practitioners with deciding which method to apply, a summary of field techniques has been provided (Table 5.2).
5.4 Defining Impacts: The Available Tools 5.4.1 Matrices Matrices basically combine a list of project activities with a checklist of environmental conditions and characteristics that might be affected. Aligning these lists along horizontal and vertical axes in a matrix pattern allows the identification of cause-effect relationships between the specific activities and impacts (see Box 5.2). This matrix is simply a re-application of the matrix approach defined in Section 5.2.1. Since the development of the Leopold
Methods and Tools
99
Matrix (Leopold et al. 1971), which promoted ranking of impacts, expert judgements have shown an increasing tendency to incorporate some measure of magnitude and importance of impact.
OPERATION
Movement of vehicles and traffic generation Transportation of people and materials Regulation of traffic and speed limits Maintenance of roadway Maintenance of right of way Feeder road system from main artery Land consumption Clearing of vegetation Construction camp waste disposal River and stream diversion, and channelisation Transportation of raw material Construction of underpasses and culverts
Other
Shift in resident population
Noise and vibration
Air quality as applied to wildlife
Soils/land stability— habitat
Ground water quantity & quality
Surface water; quantity & quality
Drainage and erosion
Wildlife population changes
B: Characteristics ( also valued ecosystem components) of the environment which are likely to be affected are identified (these will alter from area to area). Where a characteristic of the existing environment is potentially affected by a characteristic of the proposed development, the appropriate matrix cell should be noted. This indicates likely environmental interactions.
Exotic flora and fauna introduction
Note : A: Actions which are part of the proposed development are identified (these will alter from project to project).
Modification of habitats
Fill placement
B. Likely change in the existing environment
CONSTRUCTION
A. Characteristics of the proposed development
Box 5.2 Example of an environmental interaction matrix
5.4.2 Networks Networks are an extension of matrices that incorporate long-term impacts of project activities. Environmental components are generally interconnected and form webs or networks, and an ecological approach is often required to identify the secondary and tertiary impacts (Figure 5.3). Cause-condition networks are established from a list of project activities. Developing a network requires answering a series of questions relative to each of the project activities, such as: z
What are the primary impact areas and what are the primary impacts within these areas?
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
100
z
What are the secondary impact areas and what are the secondary impacts within these areas? What are the tertiary impact areas, if relevant and feasible, and so on.
PROJECT ACTIVITIES
IMPACT Primary
Components of Activities
z
Secondary
Tertiary
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Networks can be complementary to matrices, as their main purpose is to illustrate Fig. 5.3 An impact network (from Lohani et al. 1997). higher order impacts that are not indicated by matrices. 5.4.3 Overlays and Computerized Mapping The extent of effects likely to occur when wildlife and wildlife habitats are involved is often best visualized on maps, supported by numerical data. McHarg (1968; 1969) originally applied overlay mapping to environmental problem solving, stating that representations of the aggregate impact of a project can be obtained by overlaying several color-coded transparencies onto a base map, each overlay representing one or more features of the study area. The major constraint of this methodology was that the severity of impacts could not be determined accurately, and the number of overlays that could be considered at any one time was limited to a few. This latter constraint, stemming from the manual overlay approach, has now been largely eliminated with Geographical Information Systems (GIS) software (in use since about 1988). GIS converts numerical and other quantitative data about specific study area features, e.g. forest crown density, ground cover, or forest patch size, into visual geographic objects for the purposes of spatial analysis (Figure 5.4). Such mapping capability allows users to integrate information, visualize scenarios, solve complicated competing-use problems, present powerful ideas, and display likely outcomes of proposed mitigative actions. Remote sensing (RS), which provides high resolution digital images of large landscapes, can be used as the GIS data source. Project planners can now use RS and GIS in conjunction to create spatial databases for planning and decision-making. In other words, specific descriptive and quantitative data on affected ecosystems can be taken from satellite imageries, then fed into a GIS programme which reconverts the data into visual information; all keyed to a base map of the study area. What makes this so powerful is that visual images of impacts
Methods and Tools
101
Thematic layers
Road te da Up Update
Vegetation
Update
Slope
Update
Water availability Patch size
Update
Existing roads Wildlife distribution
mno pqs
ID# Cover H.Qu. Slope Veg. Soil 1 “ 2 “ 3 “ 4 “ 5 “ 6 “ CODE SHEET
“SEQUENCE”
ATTRIBUTE CODING
“DIGITIZE”
KEY ENTRY
FINAL MAP OUTPUTS
Road A
Road B
Fig.5.4 Schematic representation of map overlay procedures that enable delineation of preferred road alignment (Road A) option against Road B option to avoid sensitive habitats (core area of Tiger Reserve shown in dark scale) and sites of animal distribution (represented by dots)
102
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
and/or of highly sensitive conditions can be displayed and modified in response to proposed management options. Outcomes can be observed readily. Answers to questions like ‘What is the best route for the alignment of a road through a sensitive environment?’ can be readily provided by creating a spatial database (Figure 5.4) containing quantitative data on the distribution and abundance of species and the various key habitat attributes and data assembled during the field collection period. GIS-RS outputs are visually clear and can instantly illustrate key findings, making them excellent and powerful tools for shaping resource use decisions (Box 5.3). The downside of the GIS/RS approach is that it requires large data sets and trained people (Morgen and Nyborg 1994), who are in short supply. In addition, the professional-level software, satellite images and computer equipment required to actually perform a GIS-based analysis are expensive. One option for India would be to concentrate wildlife-related GIS/RS analyses with the WII, building up a GIS library there and, with time, expanding it to other centers within India. In this way, GIS users and EA practitioners could obtain readyto-use GIS files and work with them in their home offices, on more affordable equipment. Box 5.3 The Arun Basin (Nepal) power project access road: An example of GIS application. The Arun Hydropower Project is being planned in the remote Arun River Basin of Nepal. The project requires a long access road, the first road into the basin. The EA pointed out standard issues of erosion, water crossing obstructions etc., but could not address the long term secondary effects of the road, such as the impacts of in-migration and new resource extraction pressures on sensitive social, environmental and cultural features found in this diverse watershed. The study team determined through thorough scoping that the sensitive features most likely to be affected would be wildlife habitat, the cultural integrity of the area, religious sites, architectural relics and culturally significant landscapes. To analyse the impacts, the GIS team assembled data on forest cover, wildlife distribution, religious sites, demography and settlement data, topography, geomorphology (erosion factors), water resources, climate and existing access routes into the basin (trails and tracks). The team then developed several alignment options and estimated the extent of direct losses to valued ecosystem components. In addition, based on demographic growth patterns, the scale and location of road-related colonization of the previously inaccessible areas were projected, and the indirect effects on the valued ecosystem components assessed. Powerful visual images of predicted change, backed up by data tables, were prepared to permit planners to select and design a road alignment that had the least possible direct impact. More importantly, the GIS-based analysis highlighted future impact hotspots, describing not only the impacts but their likely sources. While undisputedly powerful, this methodology requires highlytrained technicians to prepare the large data sets without which assessment is impossible, and costly equipment is needed to analyze very large files and print out color overlay maps, etc. The use of RS-GIS has often been successful in locations where the technology and skills are first concentrated in a very limited number of locations but with wide access to users (e.g. in Indonesia, Thailand, Laos). In India, on issues dealing with wildlife, WII is adopting that approach. Source: WII 1994; Morgen and Nyborg 1994; Lohani et al.[Vol II], 1997 and WB website (www.worldbank.org).
Methods and Tools
103
5.4.4 Predictive Models Quantitative predictive models have been used in environmental assessment for many years now, such that there is a bewildering array to choose from. The following descriptions illustrate the range of models available to EA practitioners: z
Habitat Evaluation Procedures (HEP), developed by the US Department of Interior (1980), have been successfully applied to ecological assessments. HEPs focus on the calculation of Habitat Suitability Indices (HSI), which express the ratio between habitat conditions provided by a study area for an ‘evaluation species’ (which may be a single species, group of species or an individual life stage) and its optimum habitat conditions. The differences in values of habitat units calculated for a ‘pre-project’ scenario and those calculated for ‘post-project’ scenarios determine the impacts that a project can have on wildlife habitats. These models have also been successfully employed as tools in locating ‘replacement’ habitat (see Box 5.4).
Box 5.4 Example of application of HSI modeling approach in an EIA study in India In a recent EIA study conducted by the Wildlife Institute of India for the ecological assessment of Narmada Sagar and Omkareshwar Project, Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) Models were developed for the evaluation of habitat quality of the area that would be inundated, the impact zone falling immediately outside the inundated zone that would receive the immediate impacts of the project, and the contiguous forest areas outside the inundated zone. Study zones/ Forest range Inundated
Area
Chital
Sambar
2
(km )
HSI
HU
HSI
HU
91.19 32.27 74.89 86.19 39.77
0.26 0.10 0.50 0.36 0.29
24.00 3.22 37.44 31.03 11.66
0.15 0.10 0.40 0.40 0.16
13.67 3.22 29.95 34.47 6.56
78.46 11.31
0.56 0.40
43.93 4.53
0.37 0.25
29.42 2.83
142.14 157.98
0.42 0.70
59.69 110.58
0.27 0.50
39.08 78.99
zone
Balri Handia Chandgarh Mundi Satwas Impact zone Chandgarh Mundi Contiguous forest zone (outside) Chandgarh Punasa
The delineation of good quality habitat for upgrading to a protected area could be accomplished by the HSI modeling through the ability of the model to compare desirable characteristics of the new and existing sites. (Source: WII 1994)
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
104 z
SOURCE, a hypertext database designed for task managers in the Development Directorate of the European Commission for use in preliminary impact assessments;
z
EIA-AID, for computer-aided environmental assessment of industrial projects, developed by the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur; and
z
EIA-TRACK, a knowledge-based system developed by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII 1998) for evaluation of ecological impacts. This is the first knowledge-based system for supporting EA in India. This is a very useful tool for project planners, practitioners, environmental managers and decision-makers, as it has taken into account the technical and logistical framework of EA in India. For details, see website www.wii.gov.in
5.4.5 Expert Systems Knowledge-Based Systems (KBS) rely on a database of information about a particular problem area (domain), an understanding of the problems implicit within that domain, and skill at solving such problems. Knowledge bases in expert systems are based on a collection of rules, constructed by codifying the experience and knowledge of a group of experts. These rules are often represented in the following form: IF
THEN”(Lohani et al. 1997, pg.84). An example of a wildlife-road issue might be: IF a road is to be constructed through a particular wildlife sanctuary AND
that area supports a tiger-prey community
AND
it is located in a humid-tropical setting
AND
construction would extend over 2 years
AND
key species endangered are ……….,………, and ………
THEN the likelihood that the tiger population will be seriously degraded is significant, AND IF
such degradation continues unabated over a three year period
THEN irreparable damage to the population/community is almost certain.
Methods and Tools
AND
105
the following possible effects should be investigated
……. ……. ……. The better expert systems are also able to provide explanations of why certain answers were given. Systems of note are the environmental assessments review software (Schibuola and Byer 1991), ADB’s Calyx-ADB system developed specifically for ADB borrowers (ADB 1996), and a similar system known as ECOZONE (Edwards-Jones and Gough 1994) developed by the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The latter is a rule-based programme with many modules, making it easily adaptable to specific conditions in India. Comprehensive review articles by Houshon (1990) and Beanlands (1994) listed many expert systems developed exclusively for environmental applications. Well-maintained expert systems (there are few) such as ADB’s Calyx system are updated regularly through the addition of new ‘rules’ and facts, obtained from recently completed projects and research. This feature is an expert system’s greatest benefit, in that it allows taking quick advantage of lessons learned and passing this collective knowledge on to system users. While expert systems bring specialized knowledge of environmental problem-solving to locations where expertise is not available, there is a serious downside. Expert systems can easily transform impact analysis into a sort of ‘black box’ exercise, particularly in locations where little environmental expertise exists. Its application can short-circuit the capacity building involved in researching and reasoning through wildlife-road issues. At worst, practitioners’ ability to recognize problems and deduce impacts can be dulled; use of expert systems will certainly not aid in the development of such skills through practice. In the context of agencies that are building their technical capacity and experience, expert systems should be used to supplement more traditional investigation, until solid technical capacity is in place.
5.5 Summary While not applicable in all cases, and a significant over-simplification of the decisions required, the following sequence of application of the tools defined in Section 5.3 and 5.4 are presented as a framework for optimizing these project scoping, screening and field sampling methods.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
106
For projects that involve new facilities and the removal and/or disturbance of previously undisturbed land, the following sequence is suggested: z
Define the Valued Ecosystem Components (VECs) by starting with a long list, developed through an examination of past data, reports and consultation with local officials and community members. Then focus in on only those for which significant (see discussion of significance Section 5.6) impacts are possible. This should be accompanied by a reconnaissance survey of the project area, taking no more than 5 days. Wherever, threatened or endangered species or ecosystems are involved, ecologists and/or wildlife specialists should always be involved.
z
Using either the matrix diagram or network diagram approach, define the likely impact cause-effect relationships that are likely to occur within or among the VECs.
z
If alternative alignments and sites are involved and the area involves a number of ecosystems, availability of RS/GIS should be determined, by contacting WII or similar bodies. If they are available, collaboratively develop the RS/GIS databases, again with a focus on the selected VECs.
z
If several ecosystems may be affected, such as an entire airshed or stream basin, and unacceptable changes are possible, the application of one or a number of predictive models may be warranted. Possible constraints, though, are availability of data and whether existing budget and time permits such analysis. The outputs of these models could, if planned, be fed into the GIS system for the production of thematic overlays.
z
As soon as the basic analysis plan has been agreed to and the VECs and possible impacts are defined, a field sampling programme should be initiated. Its level of detail, time and geographic scale should be based on the types of ecosystem(s) and their species assemblages affected. It is here that trained wildlife specialists are essential, since they can provide highly relevant guidance in formulating the sampling programme.
For projects that involve rehabilitation or upgrading of existing facilities, the following sequence is suggested: z
Define the VECs by starting with a long list, developed through an examination of past data, reports and consultation with local officials and community members. Then focus in only on those for which significant (see discussion of significance in Section 5.6) impacts are
Methods and Tools
107
possible. This should be accompanied by a reconnaissance survey of the project area, taking no more than 5 days. Whenever threatened or endangered species or ecosystems are involved ecologists and/or wildlife specialists should always be involved. z
Apply a matrix or network diagram approach to define impacts and, if a complex web of issues emerges, use an expert system like CalyxADB to help in boiling down the issues and deciding which ones are most important to investigate (if expertise is not readily available).
z
If the project affects no ecologically sensitive areas, neither RS/GIS nor an expert system should be necessary and a field sampling programme, based on the preparation of an indicator checklist, can proceed. However, the level of intensity of the analysis will be dictated by the envisioned effect.
z
In circumstances where the ecosystems are already significantly affected by development, specific computer models may be useful in defining existing impacts versus those likely resulting from the proposed project. Again, data requirements, time and budget will dictate the level of effort. The decision to use models should be made, if possible before the field sampling begins, in order that the data collected can be tailored for use in the model(s).
5.6 Significance Determining the significance of impacts on wildlife and their habitat is rarely addressed, and yet it is important information to be used in determining the type and urgency of mitigative actions. It is shaped by two overarching characteristics: impact magnitude and duration of the effect. 5.6.1 Magnitude of Impacts It is relatively easy to quantify the magnitude of impacts for physical effects, such as land cleared, trees removed, and homes affected. It is more difficult to quantify effects on the biological environment (e.g. type of habitat lost); and it is very complex as far as the effects on people are concerned. For the latter, simple indicators could include the number of people affected and estimated economic losses, but wider effects on social and economic welfare should also be analyzed. For some impacts, only a qualitative description of the effect is possible.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
108
5.6.2
Duration of Impacts
Allowance should be made for both short and long term impacts. The loss of agricultural areas along the alignment of a road is an immediate impact, whereas the retreat of a mangrove swamp following modification to the water flow, or the modification of the saline threshold in an estuary, both of which may become apparent only several years after construction, would be long term effects. This characteristic is termed the ‘temporal extent’ or duration of an impact. Impacts that are sudden, such as hazardous waste spills, or cumulative, such as contamination build-up in roadside soils and crops, should also be considered. Significance, if it is expressed properly, needs to provide data on the following six indicators: z
predicted deviation from established criteria or standards;
z
duration of the deviation in relation to key species’ life cycles and requirements for population maintenance;
z
geographic extent of an effect;
z
resilience (i.e. capacity for self repair as with tidal flushing) of the ecosystem(s) where the predicted effect is to occur;
z
cumulative nature of the impact; and
z
community tolerance of the impacts, and preferences in relation to the costs and benefits of the project.
These six factors can be considered good indicators of significance when they are used with competent ecological and sociological appreciation of the affected environmental component. Armed with data on these six conditions, practitioners should be able to establish the importance of the effect and thus the urgency of the mitigative action. In addition to the above consideration, the conservation significance of the ecological/biogeographic region, wildlife habitats and species are important in establishing impact severity or significance. Criteria for establishing conservation significance are fairly well developed (Ratcliffe 1977; Margules and Usher 1981; Treweek 1999) and have been successfully adopted in the appraisal of wildlife impacts of linear projects like pipelines (Rajvanshi 1995) and can be also adopted for road projects.
Methods and Tools
109
5.7 Remedial Measures 5.7.1 Avoidance, Mitigation and Enhancement Mitigative measures fall into three main categories: (i) those that seek to avoid impacts; (ii) those that focus on reducing impacts to a level acceptable in relation to regulations and ecological limits; and (iii) those that are used to enhance conditions and add value to mitigative actions being undertaken. It is important that mitigative measures be tied closely to an understanding of ecosystem function and to defined performance standards, so that it is possible to evaluate their effectiveness. A rule of thumb to remember when thinking of mitigative measures is to always design mitigation action to counter the predicted (or in some cases already existing) effects such that conditions after mitigation are at least no worse than before, and at best improved beyond the existing level. This is also referred to as the ‘no net loss’ approach. Some of the suggested approaches for mitigation are: During project planning z
avoid sites with a high ecological value; and
z
include wildlife corridors across sites to link adjacent habitats where this is needed.
During the operational period z
restrict construction activities to defined areas which are ecologically less sensitive;
z
schedule operations to take account of animal breeding seasons;
z
control illegal resource harvesting by construction workers;
z
remove rare/endangered plants from the site (as seed collections, cut turf, or rooted specimens) and transplant (temporarily or permanently);
z
remove rare/endangered animal and plant species from site or promote the use of suitable alternate locations;
z
manage site activities (e.g. use of machinery, transport, waste/ overburden removal) to maintain acceptable soil, water, and vegetation quality;
z
restore vegetation and other habitat features;
z
maintain viable population of animal species through consultation with wildlife specialists; and
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
110 z
create habitat to compensate for damage caused ( based on the HEP or related method).
A large number of suggested mitigative measures are described in Roads and the Environment: A Handbook, Chapters 7-18 (World Bank 1997). A further excellent source of suggestions for mitigative measures (including many illustrations) for wildlife issues is found in Roads in the Wet Tropics: Best Practice Manual 1997, State Roads Department, Queensland, Australia. 5.7.2 Compensation Although the easiest type of mitigative measure to provide, compensation should only be used as a last resort, since its use means that serious impacts will take place and unavoidable losses will occur. Compensation is made either through outright payment and/or replacement of lost area such as habitat or commercial space.
5.8 Public Consultation as Part of Mitigation Planning The development and execution of an effective public consultation programme is essential in defining relevant mitigative measures. This is so because: z
Road projects often require some local input, such as employment, maintenance, or policing functions. In order for the project to be accepted by the local people, and for them to cooperate in its execution, they need to be informed about. They need to be encouraged to provide input to mitigation design, and be made to feel that their contribution will be valued.
z
There is a very real danger that a project implemented without concerted public involvement will put serious pressures on the quality of life of the local population (and frequently reduce it). There are many examples of this around the world. Proper consultation helps to keep negative impacts to a minimum and compensation costs down.
z
In developing countries, large historical databases on background conditions in a potential impact zone are rarely available. At best, information is patchy, collected for very specific reasons, and generally of little use to the EA. In contrast, local residents are often ‘walking historical databases’ on past conditions (see Box 5.5) and can often provide excellent qualitative information on likely future environmental trends and community dynamics. This resource can
Methods and Tools
111
be tapped through thoughtful (and often inexpensive) community consultation, and can add immeasurably to the planning of practical mitigative measures, as well as to the building of goodwill and a collaborative atmosphere. Box. 5.5 Large-scale habitat alterations and involvement of the public: Bangladesh Third Road Rehabilitation Feasibility Project Surface drainage, critical in Bangladesh, is always seriously affected by road development. The Third Road Rehabilitation Project involved the proposed construction and reconstruction of over 600 kilometers of roads throughout the country. Bangladesh has unique fisheries, created when flood waters rush into fields and low areas creating impoundments and feeding areas for fish who seek these areas out but that normally live in the rivers, or have migrated from the Bay of Bengal. In the north these areas also serve as extensive migratory bird resting areas. All these conditions depend on unimpeded seasonal flooding, Roadways can damage these cycles permanently, interfering with this intricately balanced aquatic wildlife system, by simply blocking or altering the timing and distribution of flood waters. Roads must be located on large berms, involving the placement of millions of m3 of materials, acting like long check-dams. During the dry season these areas cannot be distinguished from any other low lying plots. It was the critically important consultation with local communities and farmers, supplemented with technical field observations, that prevented road planners from placing alignments directly over these sites. Source: Govt. of Bangladesh (GOB) 1998.
The most effective approach to involving local people is the slow building of confidence and trust. However, time constraints in EA often require an alternative which Chambers (1983) coined as the “Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) technique.”9 Rapid rural appraisal involves seeking information from a variety of scientists and knowledgeable community members over a short time period, and combining the results in a multidisciplinary assessment report. Chambers has described it as a ‘middle zone’ between the anthropological survey and the development cost-benefit matrix analysis. He suggests heeding two basic precepts for staying in the ‘middle zone’, namely optimal ignorance (knowing which facts are not worth knowing) and appropriate uncertainty (aiming for the minimum level of accuracy to get the order of magnitude and direction of change right). RRA is particularly relevant for wildlife issues, which often cannot be investigated with scientific rigor alone due to time and budget constraints. RRA is also very well suited to understanding which ecosystem components and wildlife values are most important to local people. Through consultation, 9 This approach is not limited in any way to rural settings. In urban areas it is just more difficult to identify those individuals who are long-time residents with valuable historical knowledge. Since Chamber’s work, RRA has been reinvented several times, including name changes and a movement toward better information sharing and project planning with project affected people.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
112
proposed remedial measures can be tested for acceptance, modified according to local needs, and eventually turned into a solution crafted by the proponent in collaboration with the stakeholders.
5.9 Follow-up Implementation of mitigative measures is often the weakest link in the environmental management process and requires special attention from managers. The environmental assessment study should identify plans for works supervision, future environmental monitoring, and evaluation studies. This assures continuity between design and construction and helps ensure full implementation of the environmental management plan. The implementation of mitigative measures should involve skilled and responsible staff in both the environmental (biophysical and social) and engineering fields, including those concerned with work supervision during the construction phase. Responsibility for undertaking monitoring, as well as the reporting, should be specified in the environmental management plan. Contractors must not be left out of the learning and capacity-building cycle, since they undertake much of the environmental follow-up work. 5.9.1 Compliance Monitoring During construction phase, all mitigative measures designed to reduce the impact of the construction activities should be monitored and enforced by the environmental monitoring authorities. This requires: z
defining the proposed mitigative and compensatory measures;
z
specifying who is responsible for the monitoring activity;
z
specifying mitigative measures and their implementation in contract specifications;
z
making environmental competence one of the selection criteria for contractors; and
z
briefing, educating, and training contractors in environmental protection methods.
Compliance monitoring, particularly in EAEs, should not be confined to the road right-of-way, but should cover all sites affected by the project, including borrow pits, quarries, disposal sites, waterway diversions, materials treatment areas, access roads, and work camps, as well as the surrounding area within the affected ecosystem.
Methods and Tools
113
After the construction phase, environmental monitoring must be continued. Some mitigative measures, such as drainage systems, erosionpreventive plantings and compensatory afforestation, require regular maintenance for correct operation, and monitoring is necessary to ensure their continued effectiveness. Compliance monitoring is usually defined in the Environmental Management Plan and refined in a work programme. 5.9.2 Effects Monitoring (Evaluation) After mitigative measures are implemented, effects monitoring or evaluation can test the validity of hypotheses (e.g. that certain impacts will stem from specific actions) formulated in the environmental impact study. Effects monitoring can also determine if the mitigative measures have achieved their expected results.10 In most countries, such evaluation is not required by law, and is therefore often not done. Evaluation is necessary not only for individual projects, but also to advance methodologies, assist in designing future studies, and, through ‘lessons learned’, to improve the relevance and cost-effectiveness of environmental protection measures. Governmental support is usually weak in this area, but needs to be encouraged. Without effects monitoring, mistakes are often repeated again and again. Effects monitoring should be the responsibility of the proponent, who can contract others to undertake the work. It should target impacts predicted to be serious as well as costly mitigative measures. 5.9.3 The Environmental Management Action Plan (EMAP) From planning, through the operating period of a project, mitigative monitoring, consultation and compensatory measures need to be applied according to a work schedule and by specific people at specific locations. EAs often provide these base data, scattered throughout the documentation. The EMAP, actually best prepared as a matrix table, pulls all mitigation actions and commitments together in a time-sensitive form that can become a contractual requirement, is implementable and can be used as a compliance monitoring tool (see example in Annexure II). It also should define and schedule key social mitigation and any technical capacity building, should that be a part of the mitigation agreement. Wildlife and sensitive area protection issues lends themselves well to the EMAP, and practitioners are encouraged to spend ample time learning to develop and use this tool. 1 0 Effects monitoring presents the primary opportunity for accumulating a ‘lessons learned’ database vis-à-vis mitigation planning, and for adapting overly ambitious mitigation.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
114
5.10 Suggested Practice The following step-by-step instructions should guide users in applying a technically acceptable approach to identifying what the wildlife-road problems might be, how to examine them, and how to design ways to overcome them. Users not familiar with ecology or environmental impact analysis should seek advice, at least during the planning stage (World Bank 1997; Lohani et al. 1997) of a project. These steps, discussed in detail in Chapters 3-5 are: z
Assemble the key engineering data on the project, including corridor location, optional RoW locations, typical road cross-sections, cut and fill requirements, workforce statistics and plans for construction camps, etc.
z
Identify and describe the Valued Ecosystem Components by: z
z
identifying the major (keystone) species in the study area
z
identifying unique habitats;
z
z z
z
z
z z z
reviewing any existing information, reports on the baseline environmental conditions in the area, and recording on a map any sensitive areas, species, landscapes, and habitats;
listing key environmental conditions within VECs which, if degraded, could lead to serious problems
z
roughly define the likely impacts on the wildlife and its habitat;
z
finalize the available budget and time for the study;
Decide on the methods to be applied, given the various boundaries defined in the preceding steps, and design a field programme; Initiate a consultation/information exchange process with the local communities likely to be affected, informing them as to what you plan to do, and asking them explicitly for their input and help; Conduct field survey(s); based on the knowledge of the wildlife community, design necessar y sur veys to match a wildlife community’s characteristics; Complete the data analysis, determining as quantitatively as possible, the extent of the impact and the sorts of mitigative measures that need to be applied; Present findings to the local community and ask them for advice and critical inputs on proposed impacts and mitigative measures; Combine the impacts and mitigative measures into an Environmental Management Plan , which can be presented as a table; and Write the EA report according to a format prescribed by the relevant laws and regulations.
Methods and Tools
115
5.11 Useful Websites Concerning EA, Wildlife Methods, and Models In Table 5.3 a selection of websites is presented, encompassing relevant aspects of wildlife-road environmental analysis. The WII website is highly relevant for India and should be consulted. Table 5.3 Selected websites dealing with environmental and wildlife matters To p i c
We bsite
Website administrator
Comments
Air quality modeling
www.epa.gov/scram001
US EPA
Modeling software, documentation
Biodiversity
www.erin.gov.au/life/general_info/
Govt. of Australia
Methods for assessing biodiversity
Ecological risk Analysis
www.hsrd.ornl.gov/ecorisk/ecorisk.html
U.S. Govt.
Ecological risk analysis
www.epa.gov/dics/airs/airs.html
U.S. EPA and Purdue Univ. USA
Exposure assessment models
ftp.epa.gov/epa_ceam/wwwhtml/ software.htm
US EPA
Effluent exposure (water,air,noise), fauna, flora, humans
Groundwater quantity and quality-impacts
www.mines.edu.igwmc
Colorado School of Mines, USA
Groundwater quantity and quality impact models
Habitat impact evaluation
www.mesc.usgs.gov/hep/hep.htm/ www.mesc.usgs.goc/swprod/html
US Geological Service
Habitat evaluation techniques
Large environmental bibliographic sources
www.ceac.gc.ca http://envirolink.org/
Govt. of Canada Envirolink World Bank
Reference list of environment related sites NA, LA and ASIA
http://iaia.nodak.edu/iaia/eailist/
Univ. of North Dakota for IAIA
A list of over 140 environment websites, updated regularly
Surface water quality modeling
www.wes.army.mil/el/models/ index.html
US Army Corp of Engineers
Sofware-based water quality impact predictions
Water quality assessment (infrastructure projects)
www.ncl.ac.uk/~nxc/eia.html
Wildlife Institute of India
www.wii.gov.in.
On-line water quality modeling-worldwiderivers
WII, Dehra Dun India
Large selection of relevant information pertaining to wildlife in India
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
116
Topic
Website
Website administrator
Comments
Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India
http://envfor.nic.in/
National Informatics Centre
Provides key information on clearance process, legislations, environmental database,advisory bodies and links to other institutions that stipulate national standards for air, water and noise.
Worldwide virtual library
http://conbio.rice.edu/vl/
Rice Univ., USA
Biodiversity, biology and environment
Endangered species information
http://www.wcmc.org.uk/CITES/eng/ index.shtml
CITES (Trade in Switzerland species), endangered
Wildlife and agriculture information
http://www.fao.org
FAO (Agricultural biodiversity), Rome
Many documents on line
General wildlife ecology
http://www.iucn.org
IUCN, Switzerland
Many reports on line
Wildlife ecology research
http://www.iisc.ernet.in/
Indian Institute of Science, Centre of Ecological Sciences, Bangalore, India
Important biodiversity institution in India
A guide to biodiversity and wildlife
http://www.biodiv.org/chmBiodiversity
Clearing House Mechanism (CHM)
Worldwide information database
http://www.biodiversity.org
Conservation Information System (BCIS)
Biodiversity and wildlife network
http://www.bdt.org.br/bin21/ bin21.html
Biodiversity Information Network 21 (BIN21)
Useful for consulting on wildlife and biodiversity issues
General environmental management and wildlife-broad- based
http://www.wri.org/wri/biodiv/ biodiv.html
World Resources Institute Biodiversity
Large information and on-line documentation facility
Biodiversity and people
http://www.wbln0018.worldbank.org/ essd/essd.nsf/
The World Bank Group
Many hyperlinks to additional information
Sources: Internet search engines, www.worldbank.org , IAIA website, Lohani et al. (1997).
Methods and Tools
117
5.12 References Ali, Salim (1980). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Oxford University Press. Oxford, U.K. Asian Development Bank (1996). Development of A Computerized EIA System, RETA No. 5544; ESSA Technologies Ltd. Beanlands, Gordon and P. Duinker (1983). An Ecological Framework for Environmental Impact Assessment. Federal Environmental Assessment Review Office (now the Canadian Environmental Impact Assessment Agency), Government of Canada, Ottawa. Beanlands, Gordon (1994). The Application of Expert Systems to Environmental Impact Assessment. Annotated Bibliography. GEBEC Consultants, Halifax, Canada. Beddome, R.H. (1864). The Ferns of Southern India and Ceylon. Today and Tomorrow Printers and Publishers, New Delhi. Bilgrammi, K.S., S. Jamakuddin and M.A. Rizvi (1991). Fungi of India. Today and Tomorrow Printers and Publishers, New Delhi. Blyth, Wynter (1982). Butterflies of the Indian Region, New Delhi. Bruhl, P.A. (1931 and reproduced in 1982). Rec. Bot. Surv. India XIII (1&2).
A census of Indian mosses.
Carter, N. (1926). Fresh water algae from India. Rec. Bot. Surv. India. 9, 263 - 302. Champion, H.G. and S.K. Seth (1968). A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Government of India, New Delhi. Chambers, R. (1983). Rural Development: Putting the Last First. Longman, London. Cole, David N. (1994). The Wilderness Threat Index: A Framework for Assessing Impact. Res. Paper INT 475. US Department of Agriculture and Forest Service Research Station. Ogden, Utah,USA. [www.fs.fed.us]. Daniel, J.C. (1983). The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay Natural History Society Publication. Dass, Inderneil. (1985). Indian Turtles: A Field Guide. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Publication. Dutta, S.K. (1997). Amphibians of India and Sri Lanka. Odyssey Publishing House, Bhubneshwar.
118
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Economopoulos, Alexander P. (1993). Assessment of Sources of Air, Water and Land Pollution Part I (of Two): Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution. No. WHO/PEP/89. WHO, Geneva Edwards-Jones, Gareth and M. Gough (1994). ECOZONE - A Knowledgebased Computer System for Training in Environmental Impacts of Agricultural Projects. Food and Agricultural Organization. Evans, Brigadeir W.H. (1985). The Identification of Indian Butterflies. Bombay Natural History Society Publication. Giles, Robert H. (1972). Wildlife Management Techniques. The Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C. Gilpin, A. (1995). Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Cutting Edge for the Twenty-first Century. Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, Cambridge, U.K. Government of Bangladesh (GOB) (1998). Project Initial Environmental Examination Report. Bangladesh-Third Road Rehabilitation and Maintenance Project (RRMP-III), Bangladesh. Haribal, Meena. (1992). The Butterflies of Sikkim Himalayas and their Natural History. Sikkim Nature Conservation Foundation (SNCF), Gangtok, Sikkim. Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897). The Flora of British India. Vols. I-VII. L. Reeve, London. Houshon, J.M. (1990). Expert Systems for Environmental Applications. ACS Symposium Series 431. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC. IUCN (1996). IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. The IUCN Species Survival Commission, IUCN, Gland. Kargupta A.N.and E.N. Siddiqui. (1996). Algal Ecology: An Overview. Vedams Books Pvt. Ltd. Khullar, S.P. (1994). An Illustrated Fern Flora of Western Himalaya. International Book Distributors, Dehradun. Leopold, L., et al. (1971). A Procedure for Evaluating Environmental Impact. US Geological Survey Circular 645. US Geological Survey, Washington, DC. Lohani, B.N. et al. (1997). Environmental Impact Assessment for Developing Countries in Asia: Overview (Volume I). Asian Development Bank, Manila.
Methods and Tools
119
Lohani, B.N. et al. (1997). Environmental Impact Assessment for Developing Countries in Asia: Case Studies (Volume II). Asian Development Bank, Manila. Mani, M.S. and V.K. Gupta (1985). Oriental Insects: Association for the Study of Oriental Insects. Composite Book Publication. Margules, C. and M.B. Usher (1981). Criteria used in assessing wildlife conservation potential: A review. Biological Conservation 21, 79 - 109. McHarg, I. (1968). A Comprehensive Highway Route-selection Method. Highway Research Record No. 246. Highway Research Board, Washington, DC. McHarg, I.L. (1969). Design with Nature, Natural History Press. New York, USA. Misra, R. (1973). Ecology Workbook. Oxford and IBH Publication, New Delhi. Morgen, Glen and Petter Nyborg (1994). Using GIS to Support Watershed Management: Case Studies for Nepal and China. ITLAB Technical Paper-GIS Series No.1. World Bank, Washington, DC. Morrison-Saunders, A and J. Bailey (1999). Exploring the EIA/Environmental Management Relationship. Environmental Management 24 (3), 281-295. Mueller-Dombois, D. and H. Ellenberg (1974). Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology. John Wiley, Chichester. Nayar, M. P. and A.R.K. Sastry (1987). Red Data Book of Indian Plants, Vol. I, II & III. Botanical Survey of India Publication, Calcutta. Prater, S.H. (1980). The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. Queensland Department of Roads (1997). Roads in the Wet Tropics: Best Practice Manual. Queensland Department of Roads, Brisbane, Australia. Rajvanshi, A. (1995). Environmental assessment of linear developments. In: Manual for 11th Intensive Course on Environmental Assessment and Management. Centre for Environmental Management and Planning, Aberdeen University, Aberdeen. Ratcliffe, D.A. (1977). A Nature Conservation Review. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
120
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Rodgers, W.A. (1991). Techniques for Wildlife Census in India, A Field Manual. Technical Manual: TM 2. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. Sahni, K.C. (1990). Gymnosperms of India and Adjacent Countries. Shiva Offset Press, Dehradun. Sale, J.B. and K. Berkmuller (1988). Manual of Wildlife Techniques for India. FAO, United Nations’ India Establishment of the Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. Tiwari, S.D. and G. B. Pant. (1994). Bryophytes of Kumaun Himalaya. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun. Treweek, J. (1999). Ecological Impact Assessment. Blackwell Science Limited, Oxford, U.K. United States Department of the Interior (USDI) (1980). Habitat Evaluation Procedure. Ecological Service Manual. Division of Ecological Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, 102, Washington, DC. WII (1994). Impact Assessment Studies of Narmada Sagar and Omkareshwar Projects on Flora and Fauna with Attendant Human Aspects. WII EIA Technical Report 9. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. WII (1998). EIA~TRACK (Environmental Impact Assessment, Training, Research, Advisory and Consultancy Kit) Computer-based Integrated Decision Support System. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun. World Bank (1997). Roads and the Environment: A Handbook. World Bank Technical Paper No. 376. World Bank, Washington, DC.
6. ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION
D
uring the last few decades, studies conducted in a variety of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems have demonstrated that many of the most pervasive threats to biological diversity - habitat destruction and fragmentation, edge effects, exotic species invasion, pollution and over-hunting are exacerbated by roads. Nonetheless, more roads continue to be built and road densities are increasing throughout South Asia. Each day there are more studies undertaken to assess the potential impacts of roads, examine the nature of direct impacts of roads on ecosystems and wildlife populations, and develop mitigative strategies for road projects. Access to pertinent literature and information is critical for environmental engineers, road planners and biologists for ensuring the success of the road design programme and the conservation plan for biodiversity resources, based on scientific data and principles established by sound research efforts. An effort has been made here to assemble some key references that will be of use to those interested in learning about the road impacts on the ecological environment and for those involved in the design and application of mitigative measures for road projects.
6.1 References Adams, C.E. (1983). Road-killed animals as resources for ecological studies. Amer. Biol. Teach. 45, 256-261. Adams, L.W. and L.E. Dove (1989). Wildlife Reserves and Corridors in the Urban Environment: A Guide to Ecological Landscape Planning and Resource Conservation. National Institute for Urban Wildlife, Columbia, Maryland. Adams, L.W. and A.D. Geis (1983). Effects of roads on small mammals. J. Appl. Ecol. 20, 403-415.
122
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Anon. (1997). Proceedings of International Conference on Wildlife Ecology and Transportation. 10-12 February 1997, Ft. Meyers, Florida. Anon. (1975). A Design Guide for Wildlife Protection and Conservation for Transportation Facilities. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Anon. (1982). Wildlife Mortality in Transportation Corridors in Canada’s National Parks- Impact and Mitigation. 2 Volumes. Parks Canada. Bain, M.B., J.S. Irving, R.D. Olsen, E.A. Stull and G.W. Witmer (1986). Cumulative Impact Assessment: Evaluating the Environment Effects of Multiple Human Developments. US Department of Energy, Washington, DC. Baker, R.H. (1997). Are man-made barriers influencing mammalian speciation? Journal of Mammalogy 79, 370-371. Bennett, A.F. (1990). Habitat corridors and the conservation of small mammals in a fragmented forested environment. Landscape Ecology 4, 109-122. Bisset, R. (1984). Methods for assessing direct impacts. In: Perspectives on Environmental Impact Assessment (eds. B.D. Clark, A. Gilad, R. Bisset and P. Tomlinson), 195 - 212. Reidel, Dordrecht. Box, J.D. and J.E. Forbes (1992). Ecological consideration in the environmental assessment of road proposals. Journal of the Institution of Highway and Transportation 39, 16-22. Bratton, J. H. (1990). Seasonal pools – an overlooked invertebrate habitat. British Wildlife 2, 22-31. Bruinderink, G.W., T.A. Groot and E. Hazebroek (1996). Ungulate traffic collisions in Europe. Conservation Biology 10(4), 1059-1067. Brookes, A & K.R. Hills (in press). The impact of road developments on river corridors: lessons learnt from south-central England. In: Nature Conservation and the Management of Drainage System Habitat (ed. D. Harper). John Wiley, Chichester. Buckley, G.P. (ed.) (1989). Biological Habitat Reconstruction. Pinter (Belhaven), London. Burnett, S.E. (1992). Effects of a rainforest road on movements of small mammals: mechanisms and implications. Wildl. Res. 19, 95-104.
Additional Sources of Information
123
Canters, K., Annette Piepers and Dineke Hendriks-Heersma (eds.) (1997). Habitat Proceedings of the International Conference on Habitat Fragmentation, Infrastructure and the Role of Ecological Engineering. Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, Delft & The Hague, The Netherlands. Case, R.M. (1978). Interstate highway road-killed animals: a data source for biologists. Wildlife Society Bulletin 6, 8-13. CIRIA (1992). Environmental Assessment: A Guide to the Identification, Evaluation and Mitigation of Environmental Issues in Construction Schemes. CIRIA Research Project 424. Construction Industry Research and Information Association, Birmingham, U.K. Clark, B.D., K. Chapman, R. Bisset, P. Wathern and M. Barret (1981). A Manual for the Assessment of Major Development Proposals. HMSO, London. Clark, D.R. (1979). Lead concentrations: bats vs. terrestrial small mammals collected near a major highway. Environ. Sci. and Tech. 13, 338-340. Clevenger, A.P. and K. Wells (1997). Proceedings of the Second Roads, Rails and the Environment Workshop, 9-10 April 1997. Revelstoke, B.C. Danks, A. (1991). The role of corridors in the management of an endangered passerine. In: Nature Conservation 2: The Role of Corridors (eds. D.A. Saunders and R.J. Hobbs), 291 – 296. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Australia. Davies, K. (1992). Cumulative environmental effects: A sourcebook. Federal Environmental Assessment Review Office. Ottawa, Canada. Dickerson, L.M. (1939). The problem of wildlife destruction by automobile traffic. Journal of Wildlife Management 3, 104-116. Dodd, K.C. (1990). Amphibians and roads, Conservation Biology 4(2), 210211. Edwards, R.W. and F.M. Slater (1981). Impacts of road deaths on wildlife conservation. Nat Wales 17, 153 - 156. DoT (Department of Transport) (1989). Environmental Assessment Under EC Directive 85/337/DTp. Highways and Traffic, Departmental Standard HD 18/88. HMSO, London. Environmental Resources Management (1996). The Significance of Secondary Ef fects from Roads and Road Transport on Nature Conservation. English Nature Research Report No.178.
124
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
EPC (Environmental Protection Commission-People’s Republic of China) (1986). Management guidelines on environmental protection of construction projects of the People’s Republic of China. Evenden, F.G. (1971). Animal road kills. Atl. Nat. 26, 36-37. Evink, G.L. (1996). Florida Department of Transportation Initiatives Related to Wildlife Mortality. Report from Environmental Management Office. Evink, G., D. Ziegler, P. Garrett and J. Berry (1996). Transportation and wildlife: reducing wildlife mortality and improving wildlife passageways across transportation corridors. In: Proceedings of the seminar FLDOT/ FHA Transportation-Related Wildlife Movement. Florida Department of Transportation, Tallahassee, Florida. Evink, G., D. Ziegler, P. Garrett and J. Berry (1996). Highways and movement of wildlife: Improving habitat connections and wildlife passageways across highway corridors. In: Proceedings of the Seminar FLDOT/FHA Transportation-Related Wildlife Movement. Florida Department of Transportation, Tallahassee. Florida. Fahrig, L., J.H. Pedlar, S.E. Pope, P.D. Taylor and J.F. Wegner (1995). Effect of road traffic on amphibian density. Biological Conservation 74, 177182. Falk, N.W. (1978). Highway right-of-way fences as deer deterrents. Journal of Wildlife Management 42, 646-650. Finnis, R.G. (1960). Road casualties among birds. Bird Study 7, 21-32. Forbes, J.D. and D. Heath (1990). The Ecological Impact of Road Schemes [DOT/NCC]. HMSO, London. Forman, Richard T. and Lauren E. Alexander (1998). Roads and their major ecological effects. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 29, 207-31. Garret, M.K. and V. Carter (1977). Contribution of remote sensing to habitat evaluation and management in a highly altered ecosystem. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. Nat. Resour. Conf. 42, 56-65. Geist, V. (1971). A behavioural approach to the management of wild ungulates. In: The Scientific Management of Animal and Plant Communities for Conservation (eds. E. Duffey and A.S. Watt), 413 – 424. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. Halls, L.K., C.E. Boyd, D.W. Lay and D.W. Goodrum (1965). Deer fence construction and costs. Journal of Wildlife Management 29(4), 885 888.
Additional Sources of Information
125
Harris, L.D. and P.B. Gallagher (1989). New initiatives for wildlife conservation: The need for movement corridors. In: Preserving Communities and Corridors (ed. G. Mackintosh), 11 - 34. Defenders of Wildlife, Washington, DC. Haverschmidt, F. (1995). Nightjars on roads at night. Ibis 97(2), 372. Hellawell, J.M. (1986). Biological Indicators of Freshwater Pollution and Environmental Management. Elsevier, London. Herbstritt, R.L. and A.D. Marble (1996). Current state of biodiversity impact analysis in state transportation agencies. Transportation Research Records 1559, 51-63. Hickman, A.J. and D.M. Colwill (1982). The Estimation of Air Pollution Concentrations from Road Traffic. TRRL Report LR1052. Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne. Hubbs, A.H. and R. Boonstra (1995). Study Design to Assess the Effects of Highway Median Barriers on Wildlife. Research and Development Branch, Ontario Ministry of Transportation, Canada. Hunt, A., H. Dickens and R. Whelan (1987). Movement of mammals through tunnels under railway lines. Australian Zoologist 24(2), 89-92. IEA (1993). Guidelines for the Environmental Assessment of Road Traffic. Institute of Environmental Assessment, East Kirkby, Lincs. IHT (1994). Traffic Impact Assessment Guidelines. Institution of Highways and Transportation, London. Jeffries, R.L. and A.J. Davy (eds.) (1979). Ecological Processes in Coastal Environments. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford. Johnson, C.J. (1995). A Method for Estimating the Dollar Value of Lost Wildlife Diversity and Abundance Resulting from Wildlife-Vehicle Collisions. B.C. Ministry of Transport and Highways, Planning Services Branch, Economic analysis project working paper, Victoria, B.C. Keller, V., H.G. Bauer., H.W. Ley and H.P. Pfister (1996). The significance of wildlife overpasses for birds. Der Ornithologische Beobachter 93, 249258. Keller, V. and H.P. Pfister (1995). Wildlife Passages as a Means of Mitigating Effects of Habitat Fragmentation by Roads and Railway Lines. (Unpublished report)
126
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Kelsall, J.P. and K. Simpson (1987). The Impacts of Highways on Ungulates: A Review and Selected Bibliography. Keystone Bio-Research, Harbourgreene Drive, Surrey, B.C., V4A 5J2. Kuiken, M (1988). Consideration of environmental and landscape factors in highway planning in valued landscapes: an Australian survey. Journal of Environmental Management 6, 191-201. Kuitunen, M., E. Rossi and A. Stenroos (1998). Do highways influence density of land birds. Environmental Management 22(2), 297-302. Lalo, J. (1987). The problem of roadkill. American Forests (Sept/Oct), 5053. Leedy, DL (1975). Highway-Wildlife Relationships. A State of the Art (Vol. 1). National Technical Information Service. Lehnert, M.A. and J.A. Bissonette (1988). Effectiveness of highway crosswalk structures at reducing deer-vehicle collisions. Wildlife Society Bulletin 25, 809-818. Leighton, D. (1988). Helping the animals cross the road. Canadian Geographic Journal 108, 22-28. Linsdale, J.M. (1929). Roadways as they affect bird life. Condor 31, 143-145. Mader, H.J. (1984). Animal habitat isolation by roads and agricultural fields. Biological Conservation 29, 81-96. Mamalis, J. (1996). Wildlife Use of Highway Underpasses: Phase I & II Trans Canada Highway. Report for Parks Canada, Calgary. Noss, R.F. (1990). The ecological effects of roads - or the road to destruction. In: Killing Roads: A Citizens’ Primer on the Effects and Removal of Roads (ed. Davis, J), 1 – 5. Earth First! Biodiversity Project Special Publ., Tucson, Arizona. Noss, R.F. (1993). Wildlife corridors. In: Ecology of Greenways (eds. D.S. Smith and P.C. Hellmund), 299-309. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN. NRA (1992). River Corridor Surveys, Methods and Procedures. Conservation Technical Handbook 1. National Rivers Authority, Bristol. Peek, F.W. and E.D. Bellis (1969). Deer movements and behavior along an interstate highway. Highway Research News 36, 36-42. Pfeifer, M. (1997). Barrier Effect of Highways and Express Roads on Wildlife. (Unpubl. report) Landesjagerschaft Stelemark, Austria.
Additional Sources of Information
127
Pfister, H. and V. Keller (1995). Roads and wildlife - are green bridges a solution? Bauen 1, 26-30. Pienaar, U.V. (1968). The ecological significance of roads in a National Park. Koedoe 11, 169-174. Quickley, G.P. (1989). Biological Habitat Reconstruction. Pinter (Belhaven), London. Reck, H. and G. Kaule (1993). Roads and Habitats: An Analysis of the Effects due to Roads on Plants, Animals and their Habitats. Institute fur landschaftsplanung und okologie, Universitat Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany. Reed, D.F., T.D.I. Beck and T.N. Woodward (1982). Methods of reducing deer-vehicle accidents: benefit-cost analysis. Wildlife Society Bulletin 10(4), 349-354. Reed, D.F., T.M. Pojar and T.N. Woodward (1974). Use of one-way gates by mule deer. Journal Wildlife Management 38(1), 9-15. Roberts, R.D. and T.M. Roberts (1984). Planning and Ecology, Chapman & Hall, London. Rodiek, J.E. and E.G. Bolen (1991). Wildlife and Habitats in Managed Landscapes. Island Press, Washington, DC. Rosell, C., J. Parpal, R. Campeny, S. Jove, A. Pasquina and J.M. Velasco (1995). Mitigation of barrier effect of linear infrastructures on wildlife. In: Habitat Fragmentation and Infrastructure (eds. Kees Canters, Annette Piepers and Dineke Hendriks-Heersma), 367 - 372. Proceedings of the international conference on habitat fragmentation, infrastructure and the role of ecological engineering, 17-21 September 1995, Maastricht and The Hague, The Netherlands. Scanlon, P.F. (1987). Heavy metals in small mammals in roadside environments: implications for food chains. Sci. Total Environ. 59, 317323. Schonewald-Cox, C. and M. Buechner (1992). Park protection and public roads. In: Conservation Biology: The Theory and Practice of Nature Conservation, Preservation and Management. (eds. Fiedler, P.L. and S.K. Jain), 373-395. Chapman and Hall, New York. Simberloff, D. and J. Cox (1987). Consequences and costs of conservation corridors. Conservation Biology 1(1), 63-71.
128
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Singer, F.J. and J.B. Beattie (1985). The controlled traffic system and associated wildlife responses in Denali National Park. Arctic 39, 195 – 203. Smith, B. (1983). Wildlife Mitigation Measures TCH Phase I Contingency Plan for Wildlife Intrusions into the Highway Right-of-way. (Unpublished report). Parks Canada, Calgary. Starfield, A.M. and A.L. Bleloch (1986). Building Models for Conservation and Wildlife Management. Macmillan, London. Treeweek, J.R. and N. Veitch. (1996). Use of GIS and remotely sensed data for ecological assessment of proposed new road schemes. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 5, 249-257. Treeweek, J., S. Thompson, N. Veitch and C. Japp. (1993). Ecological assessment of proposed road developments: a review of environmental statements. J. Environ. Plan. Manage. 36(3), 295-307. Van Bohemen, H.D. (1995). Mitigation and compensation of habitat fragmentation caused by roads: strategy, objectives, and practical measures. Transportation Research Records 1475, 133-137. Way, J.M. (1970). Roads and the conservation of wildlife. J. Inst. Highway Engrs. 17, 5-11. Wood, D.A. (1992). Assessing the Environmental Impact of Road Schemes: The SACTRA Report. Paper presented at Planning and Transport Research and Computation (PTRC) XXth Summer Annual Meeting on European Transport, Highways and Planning, University of Manchester, Institute of Science and Technology. Yanes, M., J.M. Velasco and F. Suarez (1995). Permeability of roads and railways to vertebrates: the importance of culverts. Biological Conservation 71, 217-222.
PART – II
CASE STUDIES
1 ROAD AND RAIL NETWORK DEVELOPMENT AND GIR NATIONAL PARK AND SANCTUARY This case study describes how long-term “management” of roads passing through habitat for rare animals has had serious long-term negative effects and how rehabilitative actions can help.
1. Key Project Statistics Gir forest is the largest, biologically intact and contiguous tract of forest in the Saurashtra penninsula of Gujarat, totalling 1,882 km2 of forest, of which 1412.1 km2 are designated as the Protected Area (PA). In this PA, the National Park, covering an area of 258.7 km2, is surrounded by 1153.4 km2 of Wildlife Sanctuary. The remaining area of the Gir forest has been declared as the Reserved Forest (Figure 1). The Gir PA comprising the Gir National Park and the Gir Wildlife Sanctuary has a network of fair weather roads and a railway line, used by pilgrims, tourists, daily commuters, traders and the PA staff (Figure 1). There are about 100 km of state highway/major roads and 590 km of forest roads in the Gir PA. Of these, the 6 state highways and one major district road between Sasan and Devaliya are most significant in terms of their impact potential. The railway line runs through the Sanctuary for a length of 15 km, connecting Visvadar and Talala (Figure 1). Six passenger trains run on this route every day. A speed limit of 20 km per hour has been imposed by the railway authorities for locomotives (mainly steam-powered) running on this line while passing through the PA. The roads in the region are heavily used by pilgrims for visiting the three main temples: Kankai, Banej and Tulsishyam (Figure 2). The roads are also used for transportation of raw and finished products from large mineral processing units located in the surrounds of the PA. This PA also has a high influx of tourists who visit this area to see the only population of wild Asiatic lions in the world.
132
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Fig. 1 Gir Protected Area and transportation network.
Over the years, there has been a significant rise in the number of vehicles and the pilgrims on the roads in the PA (Figure 2). The number of tourist both Indian and foreign have also grown steadily (Figure 3) in the past decade (Kamboj et al. 1997).
Case Studies : Road and Rail Network in Gir National Park
133
Fig. 2 Total number of vehicles and pilgrims visiting Gir Protected Area
56753 75388 2493
823
853
1995-96
1994-95
47232
41429 1993-94
44990 978
36262 822
28258
33334 997
988
1992-93
1991-92
1990-91
1989-90
17591 1985-86
1994-95
1993-94
1992-93
1991-92
1990-91
1989-90
1988-89
0 1987-88
0
854
10000
5000
392
20000 414
4474
4251
2700
2081
1611
1008
2836
10000
30338
16888
30000
15000
262
20000
40000
3715
9740
25000
11291
15924
30000
38833
50000
25117
35000
1988-89
40000
Foreigners
60000
1987-88
Total no. of pilgrims
Indian
70000
1986-87
45000
37611
Total no. of vehicles
38707
42526
80000
Fig. 3 Number of tourists visiting Gir Protected Area
2. Significant Wildlife Values Gir Sanctuary and National Park is home to the only wild Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica), population in the world. This unique ecosystem, characterized by dry deciduous scrub forest supports 400 species of flowering plants, 32 species of mammals, 26 species of reptiles, 300 species of bird and more than 2000 species of insects (Kamboj et al. 1997). It also has the highest concentration of lions, leopards, and possibly the single largest population of marsh crocodile in the country. Main herbivores of the PA are spotted deer, sambar, nilgai, four horned antelope, chinkara, wild pig and porcupines. The main birds found in the tract are peafowl, quails, partridges, nightjar, heron, ibis and vultures. The predator birds are represented by owl, shikra and brahmini kite. The area forms the catchment of seven perennial rivers and thus provides the ecological security and environmental amelioration for the drought prone region of Saurashtra.
3. Impacts Observed and Mitigative Measures Proposed 3.1 Impacts Observed Impacts of roads and growing traffic intensity on these roads have been recently documented by the park management (Kamboj et. al. 1997 and Srivastava 1998). 3.1.1 Mortality of wild animals The most significant negative impact that has serious implications for the conservation of the PA’s wildlife is wild animals being killed by collisions
134
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
with speeding vehicles. Of the six state highways passing through the PA, three (SH23, SH98 and SH111) are open to traffic for 24 hours a day and therefore have a constant flow of traffic comprising largely of heavy vehicles. Animals, such as lions, leopards and spotted deer, prefer to move along the road specially during the summer months, when the roads act as cool tunnels (due to shade trees), or during the mating season, and thus become more vulnerable to heavy traffic induced injury/mortality. Other smaller animals that are generally not recorded but are more often hit by vehicles include snakes, lizards, mongoose and porcupine. Birds that prefer open Table 1 Mortality of animals due to road habitats, like nightjars and lapwings, kill in the year 1997 tend to live along the roads and are Animal Name of village Date of species location accident run over frequently. Information obtained from the records of Lion Dalkhama 7-3-97 Gujarat Forest Department on the Chital Jhankia 23-3-97 mortality of animals on the roads Nilgai Jhankia 12-5-97 is inconclusive since total counts Leopard Himal 6-7-97 were not recorded. Sample data for Lion Talala 3-10-97 1997 shows that many wild species Hyaena Khamba 6-10-97 including a lion and leopard were Porcupine Jhankia 12-12-97 killed (Table 1). 3.1.2 Barrier effect All the major highways that pass through the PA create a barrier due to steady traffic that has increased in recent years. These roads have also become psychological barriers for most animals. Bright headlights, noise and the air emissions from these vehicles are strong deterrents for animals wanting to cross the road. The problem of habitat reduction is further compounded since, within the fringe of the sanctuary, there are about 14 human settlements with a total human population of 4500 and an almost equal number of livestock that deter use of fringe habitats by wild animals. 3.1.3 Habitat loss and illegal activities With the rise in vehicular traffic and tourists, the amount of fires, theft of timber and fuel wood and illegal removal of forest produce has also increased. These developments have added to the pressures arising from the influx of people into the PA who illegally harvest fuel wood, grass, timber and animals (for food). Population densities as a whole are rising, and thus increasing the intensity of man-wildlife conflict around the PA boundaries.
Case Studies : Road and Rail Network in Gir National Park
135
Unfortunately, industrial interests outside the PA are lobbying to get some of the forest roads upgraded to secondary asphalt roads. These interests reason that, with the restriction of traffic on the state highway to daylight hours, vehicles transporting raw and finished products will need to use ‘forest roads’ to move the goods. Therefore, these roads need to be surfaced with asphalt. Until this conflict is resolved, the mitigative measures proposed may not be effective in reducing the threats to the PA. 3.1.4 Railway operations, fire and animal collisions The steam locomotives using these tracks between Talala and Visvadar pose a big hazard, since sparks from the coal-fired boilers cause forest fires. Wild animals can also get hit and killed by passing trains; as many as 12 lions/lionesses were reported killed on this track between 1984 and 1995 (Singh and Kamboj 1996). The lions know that they should retreat when they smell, see or hear people, but they do not respond in the same way to trains since trains do not exhibit any clues that danger is approaching.
3.2 Mitigative Measures Proposed Park management has developed options to mitigate these impacts, largely by trying to reduce the traffic on the roads within the PA. A number Table 2. Management regulations on different road sections in Gir PA Existing regulation
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
Mendarda-Sasan-Talala
9
Sasan-Visvadar
9
Talala-Jamwala
9
9
Sasan-Devaliya
9
9
9
9
9
Ban on use of private vehicles
9
9
Opening of road between sunset and sunrise
9
Jamwala-Sapnes-Dhari
Unregulated (24 hr use)
Una-Dhari
Opening of road from sunrise to sunset
Restriction of speed limit to 20 km/hr
Proposed regulation
Restriction of movement of heavy vehicle
Road sections
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
136
of changes regulating the movement of heavy vehicles through the park have recently been proposed by park management (Table 2). Additional mitigative options proposed under another study conducted by the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA 1994) to reduce traffic include the following: z
Use of electric vans for transporting people between the core areas and the roads outside PA;
z
Provision of electric buses that take pilgrims from the point on the boundary of the PA to the temples within the PA along specified routes.
For the mitigation of the impacts of the railway line, the only feasible option is to discontinue the steam locomotive and to enforce speed regulations. The other condition that can be imposed is to have only two dead stops between Kansia and Sasan Gir section of the railway route.
4. Management Actions, Successes and Failures The benefits of the mitigative measures proposed to reduce the major impacts of the road and rail network will take some time to develop. Traffic movement has been restricted from sunset to dawn on the Sasan-Visvadar road, and strict use of park travel permits has been implemented. This has reduced the traffic on the section of the road that covers a major stretch through the PA. Travel through the PA now requires a permit and entry and exit is carefully monitored. All of these actions are being strongly supported by the park management. Fire hazards from steam locomotives will be reduced if diesel locomotives replace the old steam engines; a proposal already accepted by the railway authorities. The realignment of the railway line may not be feasible as this is linked to other sections of railway line outside the PA. The use of battery operated vans/buses is not a feasible solution because of the hilly nature of terrain in the PA.
5. Lessons Learned and Best Practices 5.1 Lessons Learned Though the expansion of road and rail networks in Gujarat is inevitable, their alignment through sensitive areas has led to irreversible impacts on a unique ecosystem. The vehicular traffic on the six highways and a major
Case Studies : Road and Rail Network in Gir National Park
137
district road between Sasan and Devaliya that run through the Gir PA pose the greatest risk to many animal species including endangered ones. Mitigation planning for reducing the impacts associated with these roads and rail lines passing through the PA is limited by two factors: (i) the present alignment of roads and rail line through the area existed prior to the declaration of the area as a PA; and (ii) the PA’s use as a local revenue generator, thus inviting large numbers of people to pass through the area. For now, PA managers are not willing to cut off this access. The pressure by pilgrims visiting the temples located within the PA and tourists has resulted in an exponential increase in the vehicular traffic on the highways in and around Gir. Poverty, scarcity of land, short sighted landuse planning and infrastructure sighting have all contributed to the continuing degradation of this unique area. 5.2 Best Practices The best practices for reducing impacts would involve regulating the traffic both in terms of volume and frequency on all roads passing through Gir. This would include restricting transit during the period of the day when the animal activities along the different sections of road is expected to be maximum. Strict compliance with the regulations would require regular monitoring and to that end, a monitoring plan should be prepared by the PA management, with the full support of senior officials. Also, signages can be suitably located along the road to increase the awareness of people about the dangers of collisions with wildlife along these roads. Signs at the entrance and exit of every road showing the mortality and existing population of important wildlife species would also be a good way to increase the awareness of the value of the Gir’s resources. Speed breakers and the restriction of food and other vendors along the road would also help reduce user volumes. Gravel roads within the PA should not be upgraded and repaired minimally, in order to discourage speeding and deter regular use of the roads within the PA. The Gir habitat needs to be patrolled and a ceiling placed on the the total number of visitors per year. Ceilings should be based on the park ecosystem’s regenerative capacity and resilience. Heavily used PAs around the world have adopted this approach as the best practice in the face of serious losses due to unrestricted recreational use. A long-term program to reroute or consolidate all roads passing through the GPA will add enormously to the conservation of this unique world heritage.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
138
6. Sources of information 6.1 Contact Conservator of Forests, (Wildlife Circle) Gujarat Forest Department, Sadar Baug, Junagadh, Gujarat - 362 001. Tel. : 0285-631678, 630051 Fax : 0285-632900
6.2 Documentation Used IIPA (1994). Biodiversity Conservation through Eco-development. A Prelimenary Indicative Plan for Gir National Park, Gujarat. Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi. Kamboj, R.D., Mahesh Singh and B.R. Raval (1997). Analysis of Threats to Gir Ecosystem. Indian Forester, October. 964-972. Singh, H.S. and R.D. Kamboj (1996). Biodiversity Conservation Plan for Gir. Gujarat Forest Department, Gujarat. Srivastava, A. (1998). Saga of Human Apathy in Gir. Technical Note. Gujarat Forest Division, Gujarat.
2 KOHALPUR-MAHAKALI HIGHWAY PROJECT, NEPAL This case describes what happens when well thought-out mitigative measures are ignored, leading to human intrusion into highly sensitive areas. The importance of having laws and regulations supported by compliance monitoring is highlighted. Poor construction practices have resulted in stress on wildlife and the deterioration of an entire mitigation programme has taken place due to administrative disinterest and a lack of funds.
The Kohalpur-Mahakali Highway Project (KMHP), also referred to as the Third Highway Project is a 204 km long road segment of the East-West Highway Project (EWHP) in Nepal.
1.
Key Project Statistics
Nearly 27 km of the Kohalpur-Mahakali highway ( in two sections) runs through the Royal Bardia National Park (RBNP) (Figure 1). The alignments for the two sections were chosen, based on engineering considerations. The first (western section) was chosen because of an obligatory bridge site on the Karnali river near its mouth and the second (eastern section) because of the appropriateness of the site for an irrigation weir on the Babai River. The highway is 7.5 m wide and has a right-of-way (RoW) of 20 m from the centerline of road on the north side and 10 m on the south. The 27-km alignment through the RBNP has a number of box culverts, three bridges (one each on Babai river, Theni khola (stream) and Budhu khola and two floodways of 195 m and 75 m on the Aurai and the Gumna rivers, respectively.
2. Significant Wildlife Values Royal Bardia National Park’s 968 km2 area encompassing the largest and finest agglomeration of woodland and grassland in Asia harbours a unique community of terrestrial, avian, and aquatic life forms. The area was made a Protected Area (PA) in 1989 since it has the highest biodiversity levels in the Indian subcontinent. The PA is unique as it is the largest protected area in
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
140
Nepal with the highest biomass of ungulates reported from anywhere in Asia (Studsrod and Wegge 1995). The rare and endangered species of fauna in this PA include tiger, swamp deer, black buck, gangetic dolphin, gharial and the Bengal florican. The successful reintroduction of the rhino and the restocking of the gharial in this area have further enhanced the conservation values of Royal Bardia National Park.
3. Impacts and Mitigative Measures Proposed The project appraisal conducted in 1984 highlighted the following potential impacts of the East-West highway through the Park: (i)
Bisection of the western half of the Park between Karnali and Amreni, by the highway, which could alter, restrict or block animal movements.
(ii) Acceleration of the pressures on the PA by placing the highway alignment within 50 m of the entire southern and eastern boundary of the Park (Figure 1).
Fig. 1. Alignment of Kohalpur-Mahakali highway through Royal Bardia National Park
Case Studies : Kohalpur-Mahakali Hiighway Project, Nepal
141
(iii) Increased possibility of commercial poaching due to easy access for poachers and traffickers of contraband along the entire perimeter of the Park. (iv) Fragmentation of the area which has been a contiguous forest tract and which formed the migratory route of rhinos between the highway and the Babai canal of the Babai irrigation project. (v) Increased economic opportunities due to reduced travel time from India and resultant increase in pressure on all the Park resources. Recognizing the potential impacts of the proposed road alignment through the conservation area, IDA and the Govt. of Nepal agreed on the specific mitigative measures to be implemented by the Department of Roads (DOR) and the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) during and after construction. The following are some of the specific protection measures that were proposed by DNPWC and made part of the resolution agreed to in 1983 by the Ministry of Works and Transport: (i)
Right-of-way (ROW) to be kept to a minimum.
(ii) Tree cutting to be kept to a minimum. (iii) Earth for embankment fillings to be transported from outside the wildlife area and the construction work to be limited between dawn and dusk. (iv) No camps for labour or offices to be permitted within the Reserve area. (v) No underpasses to be built since free movement of animals on the highway will be allowed. (vi) Restrict, and in some locations, ban night traffic, and also reduce and enforce speed limits. (vii) Relocate Amreni village by paying compensation, thereby reducing the chances of future illegal colonization within Reserve boundaries. (viii)No fencing required except east of the Babai river to prevent livestock from grazing in the PA, where the road alignment meets with the boundary of the Reserve (Figure 1). (ix) Radio communication amongst all entry and exit points of Reserve area to be maintained.
4.
Management Actions Successes and Failures
Periodic assessment of the progress in the implementation of mitigative measures and the overall adequacy and efficacy of the measures proposed is
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
142
very critical for almost all developmental projects, but this is seldom achieved. This project was unique in that the compliance monitoring became a specific exercise under a separate World Bank funded project. 4.1 Misguided Mitigation Most of the mitigative measures suggested at the time of clearing the project were based on rapid appraisal since EIAs were not commonly done at that time in Nepal. The mitigative measures were largely simplistic and inadequate for ensuring the conservation of PA values. Royal Bardia National Park has always been a difficult Park to manage even without the East-West highway because of the severity of pressures on the land and its resources, encroachments, illegal hunting, rampant fires and poaching. A greater level of protection was needed to face the challenges linked to the East-West Highway Project. To that end, the following mitigative measures should have been considered: z
The mitigative actions should not have been developed without overall knowledge and understanding of the ecological conditions which are critical for the maintenance of the ecological balance of RBNP.
z
Thoughtfully constructed underpasses could have provided a plausible alternative to having animals crossing the highway, dodging traffic.
z
By placing time restrictions on travel, without other controls, animal crossings would still face a great risk of collision with a vehicle. Even in the morning, when wildlife movement is decreasing, the release of accumulated traffic stopped at the ends during the night would increase the chances of accidents. Similarly during the afternoon, the speeding traffic trying to traverse through the Park before dusk would also endanger animals which begin to move and cross the road in the late afternoon hours.
4.2 Modifying Mitigative Measures without Technical Justification Earth for construction of the embankment for the road portion inside the Protected Area was to be obtained from sources outside the PA so as not to create additional barriers (deep ditches) to animal movement (World Bank 1992). This was later relaxed when the transportation of earth from outside the PA became too costly. As a result, deep, wide ditches were left from the side-borrow activity, forming formidable barrier to animal movement. To some extent, underpasses could have been effective in mitigating these barriers, but these were not visualised or planned for. In the 14-km section from Chispani (west) to Amreni, a large number of box culverts were builtnone large enough to be used as animal crossing sites.
Case Studies : Kohalpur-Mahakali Hiighway Project, Nepal
143
Two floodways/crossings on Ghumna and Aurai rivers have been planned. They could have been developed to serve as animal crossings, but this option was not considered.
z
The ban on night driving and the enforcement of the speed limit has not been implemented satisfactorily. The restriction on night transit existed for the first year only. A speed limit of 40 km per hour for covering the stretch 11 11 12 of highway within 9 10 the PA was 8 imposed but could 6 not be enforced 4 during the 2 2 1 operational phase. 2 The failure to 0 1992- 1993- 1994- 1995- 1996- 1997enforce these two 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 measures resulted Highway open between Highway open for 24 hrs in a dramatic rise in 0600 hrs - 2100 hrs Source: Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation animal mortality (Figure 2).
z
animal mortality. Fencing over the 9 km section east of Babai was proposed to prevent livestock grazing in the PA, but was not implemented until several years later when a review of the compliance monitoring and evaluation of mitigative measures was undertaken in 1992 (Panwar 1992).
z
No labour camps or offices were to be permitted within the PA, yet Chispani (west) became a major site for setting up labour camps, engineers’ facilities and construction offices.
z
It was also agreed that the portion of Amreni village where the engineers’ facilities and labour camps are situated would be shifted outside the PA by acquiring land. This has not happened. Instead, Amreni village has grown and has become a potential source of ecological disruption for the PA.
Total no. of animals killed
z
Fig. 2. East-West highway operating hours and
4.3 Correcting Past Errors 4.3.1 Mitigative measures at the macro-level In 1992, three years after the original mitigative measure were supposed to be implemented, the following specific recommendations were proposed
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
144
(Panwar 1992) as a holistic package of measures to be implemented prior to the operation of the highway. These were: z
The expansion of PA on the eastern and southern boundaries and the allotment of a 5 km belt along these boundaries as a buffer zone to safeguard wildlife in the PA.
z
The fencing of over 9 km in the section east of Babai.
z
The development of a conservation society (a form of participatory conservation by the local communities) that would act as an entity for transferring benefits to local people for subsistence and economic development and at the same time ensuring the scientific management of the PA.
4.3.2 Design modifications as environmental safeguards The following are the design features and specific additional environmental safeguards that were recommended in order to correct past mistakes:
5.
z
Building underpasses for the Aurai and Gumna rivers by converting the existing floodway into bridges with features to promote their use by wild animals.
z
Construction of additional large diameter and short underpass midway on Patalchuli khola by the conversion of box culvert into a bridge/underpass or by constructing a new underpass in the proximity of the Patalchuli khola crossing.
z
Prohibiting night transit through the Park and further restricting vehicle travel periods between 0500 hrs to 0800 hrs and from 1700 hrs to 2100 hrs to facilitate animal crossing.
z
Construction of check posts (equipped with radio communication) at both ends of the section of highway within the PA and also midway along the road, in order to monitor excessive vehicle speed and other illegal activities within the PA.
Lessons Learned and Best Practices
5.1 Lessons Learned The project is running in the tenth year of its implementation now. Many mitigative measures were proposed without any prioritization. Not much headway could be made due to a lack of funds. To date, only the following two mitigative actions have been implemented:
Case Studies : Kohalpur-Mahakali Hiighway Project, Nepal
145
z
Four check posts were constructed in the section of the highway between Chispani west and Ramuwapur; their staffing and actual operation remaining uncertain; and,
z
10 km of fencing was erected between Babai and Ramuwapur.
The more critical modifications in design features, including the construction of underpasses, were not undertaken. The embargo on night transit has been lifted completely, even with clear evidence of the value of the restriction. Vehicle-animal collisions have risen. Due to weak administration, scarce funds and a failure to convince key officials of the merits of the measures, it is unlikely that any additional mitigative measures will be implemented at this time. While the rapid appraisal approach was the best available at the time, careful consideration of the scale, cost of mitigative actions, as well as their prioritization, was not done. As a result the mitigation plan collapsed. In the absence of statutory requirements, commitments were systematically abandoned. Even simple measures like the regulation of traffic by restricting night transit through the Park and the ban on the taking of earth from along the roadsides in the PA were not honoured.
5.2 Best Practices Best practices for ensuring the development of highway projects without jeopardizing the wildlife would obviously necessitate the technical assessment of the project in the initial stages of project planning. Based on the results of technical assessment, a concrete mitigation plan should have been developed. An inter-departmental committee should have ensured the implementation and maintenance of such a plan. Such a committee could have had representatives from DOR, DNPWC, project authorities of KMHP and the Director of RBNP. The funds for the project should have been made available in different phases. Their release for subsequent phases of the project should have been contingent on the successful implementation of mitigative measures. Given the international significance of RBNP, a decree should have been passed, legally binding the proponent and contractors to a specific mitigation plan. Donors should have demanded more rigorous compliance monitoring, reporting and a system of penalties.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
146
6.
Sources of Information
6.1 Contact Chief Warden Royal Bardiya National Park, Thakurdwara, Bardiya, Nepal Tel./Fax: 084-29712; 084-29719 Email: [email protected]
6.2 Documentation Used Panwar, H.S. (1992). Assessment of Direct and Indirect Impacts on Bio-habitat and Wildlife of Royal Bardia National Park due to Construction of Kohalpur - Karnali Segment of the East - West Highway and Evaluation of Mitigation Measures Adopted hereto with Suggestions for Measures now Required. Consultancy Report for World Bank. Official Communications (1999) Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation, Nepal. Studsrod, Jan Erik., & Per Wegge (1995). Park-people relationships: the case of damage caused by park animals around the Royal Bardia National Park, Nepal. Environmental Conservation 22(2). 130 - 141. World Bank (1992). Arun III Access Road Project. Report No. 7461 - NEP. Staff Appraisal Report
3 MUMBAI - PUNE EXPRESSWAY PROJECT This case describes habitat loss, fragmentation, migration restrictions, ecosystem modification, erosion and sedimentation impacts. It also underscores the need to get environmental specialists involved early in the planning process, thereby saving costs and time. Finally, it highlights how environmental safeguards through carefully developed mitigative measures for integrating biodiversity concer ns have been grossly violated during the implementation phase of a major expressway project.
National Highway NH-4 connects Mumbai with Pune, the location of Maharashtra State’s major government facilities. Ever-increasing demand on this major road link has resulted into a pressing need for the development of a new 86.4 km-long expressway. The existing highway (NH4) is a 2-lane divided highway, with small stretches of undivided road. The expressway, following a new alignment, has been designed to divert 60% of the total existing traffic (13748 PCU) and a total of 43414 PCU of the projected traffic for the year 2020. Work on the expressway was initiated in 1998. The expressway was open to traffic in April 2000.
1.
Key Project Statistics
The alignment alternatives were evaluated in terms of gradient, construction cost, operational feasibility and environmental acceptability. The recommended alignment starts from the proposed Panvel bypass in Mumbai and runs parallel to the existing NH-4 before it terminates at Dehu Road at the proposed Pune westerly bypass (Figure 1). The expressway is designed to have three lanes in each direction with a 7m wide divider. The salient design features of the expressway are given in Table 1. The expressway passes over the Western Ghats, traversing steep rainforest topography as well as coastal lowlands. 1.1 Design Considerations Tabled by the MOEF in 1997 Subsequent to the 1996 EA, the MoEF prepared its first evaluation of the project and turned it down, citing the need to fill a number of key gaps as a prerequisite to reconsideration. MoEF’s conditions were:
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
148
Fig. 1 Location of Mumbai-Pune Expressway Project z
Possibility of widening of the existing National Highway (NH-4) between Mumbai and Pune, including bypass provisions where appropriate for traffic/route diversion in lieu of the new expressway, in order to reduce habitat loss.
z
Exclusion of proposed and existing sanctuaries and other ecologically sensitive areas from the route corridor of the expressway.
z
Feasibility of the realignment of the route, to circumvent the Western Ghat section and the diversion of the traffic through the tunnels.
z
Design a four-lane highway, instead of the six-lane option.
All of these recommendations were more or less adopted by the Government of Maharashtra.
Case Studies : Mumbai - Pune Expressway Project
149
Table 1. Salient design features of Mumbai Pune - Expressway Design
elements
Terrain type Rolling topography
Design speed (km/h) - Desirable - Minimum Right of way (m) Lane width (m)
Mountain
120 85
70 60
90
75
3.75
3.75
11.25
11.25
Hard shoulder (m)
2.50
2.00
Verge/earthen shoulder (m)
1.50
1.00
Central median (m)
6.00
4.00
Edge strip (m) - Median side - Shoulder side
0.70 0.50
0.70 0.50
Cross-slopes/camber (%) - Carriageway - Hard shoulder - Verge
2.50 3.50 4.00
2.50 3.50 4.00
Longitudinal gradient (%) - Ruling - Absolute maximum
2.00 3.00
4.00 5.00
Carriageway width (m)
Source: RITES & SWK 1995
2. Significant Wildlife Values Significant wildlife features within the road corridor are: (i) the coastal ecosystems consisting of a mosaic of mudflats, mangroves and coastal marshes in the intertidal zone and the chain of wetlands in the Panvel-Khopoli section; (ii) the Western Ghats in the Borghat region between Sanjgaon and Kurwanda, comprising hill forests, riverine forests along the water courses and the valley forests of Amba, Ulhas, and Rajmachi; and, (iii) the Deccan Plateau, between Lonavale and Dehu Road, that supports grassland and scrubland ecosystems. The most important ecological unit crossed by the alignment is the Borghat, which has received international recognition as one of the world’s 18 hot spots of biological diversity. The crestline forests, consisting of rare subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests, semi-evergreen moist deciduous forests, and the high elevation dry deciduous communities on the gentle slopes, support a very diverse assemblage of plant species. Nearly 9% of the 4500 species of flowering plants known from the Western Ghats are represented in the Borghat region. The flowering
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
150
plants of the Khandala sub-region alone include 150 trees, 77 shrubs, 95 climbers and 434 herbs (Santapau, 1967). Several of the species are endemic (Nayar and Sastry 1987; Sanjappa 1991). The project area is home to a larger number of mammals such as leopard, wild dog, gaur, Malabar giant squirrel, bonnet macaque, common langur and palm civet which have been reported from the Western Ghat region. In addition, the smaller mammals like the barking deer, mouse deer, common mongoose, black-naped hare and pangolin also occur in the area. Many of the species recorded from this region are highly endangered and are listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act (MoEF 1983). Two species that demand greater conservation are the Malabar giant squirrel and the mouse deer, which inhabit specialized habitats in the forested pockets of Borghat. From the survey reports that are available (Borges 1992) the distribution of Malabar giant squirrel has been established in this expressway corridor. The riverine forests along the watercourses and the hill forests have a diverse avifauna and herpetofauna. A part of the study area also supports a variety of indigenous grasses and is home to several species of reptiles, scrubland birds and smaller mammals (RITES and SWK 1995).
3. Predicted Impacts and Proposed Mitigative Measures 3.1 Predicted Impacts Given the controversial nature of this project, impacts and mitigative measures were recorded between 1996 and groundbreaking in late 1998. The 1996 EA, and subsequent appraisals in 1997 by the MoEF, listed the following impacts (presented in an abbreviated form): z
Stress on the ecologically significant landscape features would affect biodiversity;
z
Lonavale lake, a major water body in Lonavale township might be degraded due to increased silt load.
z
The proposed expressway route is likely to bisect the proposed Father Santapau Sanctuary, which lies within the loop of the expressway southwest of Khandala township.
z
Land take, clear felling and deforestation activities may have direct bearing on wildlife habitat size and characteristics.
Case Studies : Mumbai - Pune Expressway Project
151
z
The project might seriously degrade the habitats and disrupt migratory routes for a variety of birds such as thrushes, fly catchers, woodpeckers, and bulbuls.
z
The loss of critically important tall trees would result in the destruction of nesting sites for a large number of birds of prey.
z
The expressway is expected to completely cut off the local people from the resource areas on the opposite side of the carriageway.
z
After the initial rejection of the EA, the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) was requested in September, 1997 to further evaluate the issues. The expert committee confirmed MoEF’s findings and added that:
z
The Amba valley, along with some pockets of the Rajmachi valley, is a repository of rich and diverse floral species, many of which are endemic to this region. The road, if cut through the hillside along the proposed alignment, would inevitably destroy the unique plant resources of the valley, especially in the area designated as the proposed Father Santapau Sanctuary.
z
The grasslands and scrublands of the plateau region through which the alignment would pass are ecosystems unique to Maharashtra (Rodgers and Panwar 1988).
In other words, the Amba valley is a repository of Indian biodiversity that has undiscovered economic wealth, as well as being an important part of India’s ecological heritage. Permitting the expressway alignment to traverse the valley and the forest areas would result in very significant and permanent ecological damage. 3.2 Proposed Mitigative Measures Predicted impacts were examined and two key actions were taken. First, the Ghat section of the alignment, which would have passed through the Amba valley and the Borghat forest, was redesigned, such that the existing NH4 would be improved through that area, and construction would be restricted to the existing RoW. Secondly, the road was further realigned through the Lonavala lake area; where it was originally designed to pass over the lake on piers, it would skirt around it. Specific mitigative actions dealing with the adjustment of alignments, tunnels were also proposed by the committee.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
152
4.
Management Actions, Successes and Failures
4.1 Management Actions: The MoEF’s Response 4.1.1 EA Based on WII’s study (WII 1998), the proponent revised the design and resubmitted the EA. The MoEF gave a conditional clearance listing 20 new conditions (some quite onerous). 4.1.2 Forest Conservation Act Given the large amount of tree removal proposed, the project required clearance under the Forest Conservation Act. This approval was obtained from the Maharashtra Forest Department, but again came with a number of conditions. No other known restrictions were placed on the project. The mitigative measures regarding construction materials handling, work camp operation, and similar measures were defined as contract terms and conditions or specifications. A single monitoring period six months after the start of construction was to be the compliance check assuring the MoEF that its conditions were in fact being implemented. 4.2 Monitoring The series of environmental safeguards proposed by the team of scientists and considered by the MoEF and the State Government of Maharashtra at the time of granting the ‘environmental clearance’ were not adhered to during the implementation phase of the project. The mitigative measures for handling of construction materials and excavated debris; work camp and operation, design features including tunnelling were not followed in practice and no compliance monitoring by the government agency responsible for it was carried out. Thus, the provisions of the Environmental Management Plan never got implemented.
5.
Lessons Learned 1. Projects, where the terrain is complex and environmental and social conditions vary a great deal, mandate that a well-developed and comprehensive Terms of Reference be prepared, involving not only engineers but also environmental planners and social scientists. The additional expense (small in relative terms) could have saved millions of rupees, needed for follow-up studies.
Case Studies : Mumbai - Pune Expressway Project
153
2. Having to make changes after the road had been designed meant the sub-optimal road and traffic movement features more or less had to be accepted. For example, the realignment of the Ghat section of the expressway onto the NH4 alignment means that traffic lanes will be restricted and both the NH4 and expressway traffic will somehow have to be accommodated along that stretch. The added danger is that this congestion could lead to additional bypasses, involving unforeseen impacts. Early identification of this environmental bottleneck could have led to a more sensitive design that would not have compromised traffic flow. 3. Projects of this sensitivity need to have mitigative measures proposed for the construction and operational periods integrated into contract terms and conditions and contract specifications. This is doubly important in the case of a Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) facility where the operator will be a private entity, having a somewhat ‘distant’ relationship with the regulatory agencies. 4. In order to monitor the adherence of environmental safeguards and mitigative measures, compliance monitoring has to be effectively carried out during the implementation phase of the project. A provision of certification needs to be incorporated in the monitoring protocol to prevent deviation from and violation of the stipulated conditions in environmental clearance of the project. 5. This case study is a clear example of the utter disregard to the laid down EA process. Environmental safeguards suggested through carefully developed mitigative measures for integrating biodiversity concerns have been grossly violated during the implementation phase.
6.
Sources of Information
6.1 Contact Vice Chairman & Managing Director Maharashtra State Road Development Corporation (MSRDC) Nepean Sea Road, Priyadarshini Park, Mumbai - 400 036 Maharashtra Tel.:369-6109/10, 368-5910/6112 Fax: 368-4943 Website: http://www.msrdc.org/
154
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
6.2 Documentation Used Borges, Renee M. (1992). The Status, Ecology and Conservation of the Indian Giant Squirrel (Ratufa Indica). Draft Technical Report No. 1. INDO US Project. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Wildlife Institute of India. Ministry of Environment and Forests. (1983). Revised list of Schedules to the Wildlife Protection Act Consequent on Amendments to the Schedules (The Gazette of India, New Delhi, Wednesday, April 13, 1983)., Government of India, New Delhi. Nayar, M.P, and A.R.K. Sastry (1987). Red Data Book of Indian Plants (Vol. I, II, & III). Botanical Survey of India Publication, Calcutta. RITES & Scott Wilson Kirkpatrick, Consulting Engineers. (1995). Feasibility Study for Bombay - Pune Expressway. Government of Maharashtra, Public Works Department. Final Report, (Four volumes). Rodgers, W.A. and H.S. Panwar (1988). Planning a Wildlife Protected Area Network in India. (Vol. I & II). Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. Sanjappa, M. (1991). Endemic legumes of Western Ghats. In : Proceedings of the Symposium on Rare/Endagered/Endemic Plants of Western Ghats. Kerala Forest Department Publication. No. 3, 30-43. Santapau, H. (1967). The Flora of Khandala on the Western Ghats of India, Vol. XVI(1). Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. WII, (1998). Ecological Assessment of the Proposed Mumbai - Pune Expressway. WII - EIA Technical Report 22. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.
4 LINEAR DEVELOPMENTS AND ELEPHANT MOVEMENT IN RAJAJI - CORBETT CONSERVATION AREA This case example highlights the impacts of linear barriers, including roads, on the movement of elephant in their largest conservation unit in the state of Uttaranchal. The options of suitable modifications in the design of existing structures that reflect faulty engineering planning of the roads and cross drainage structures in the conservation area are discussed.
1.
Key Project Statistics
The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) population is presently distributed throughout India in relatively isolated locations. The north-western elephant population of nearly 750 in the state of Uttaranchal is presently fragmented into 6 units. The Rajaji National Park - Corbett Tiger Reserve conservation area and parts of Lansdowne - Bijnor and Kalagarh forest division are three of these units which harbour 90% of the total elephant population of the State (Figure 1).
Fig. 1 Rajaji National Park - Corbett Tiger Reserve conservation area
The movement of elephant in these three units has maintained the genetic exchange, vital for the long-term survival of the elephant. The population in this larger conservation unit are threatened by at least four major linear developments. These are:
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
156 z
Hydropower channel of Garhwal-Rishikesh-Chilla Hydel Project and the construction of the bridge on the channel
z
Haridwar - Rishikesh - Dehradun road which runs across the narrow Chilla - Motichur corridor.
z
Kotdwar - Lansdowne road which runs across the narrow Rajaji Corbett corridor.
z
A railway track passing through a section of the Rajaji National Park.
2. Wildlife Values Rajaji National Park is divided by the river Ganges into two unequal parts and has a core area of 820 km2. The larger western portion occupies 571 km2 and the smaller eastern portion covers 249 km2. The National Park has significant conservation values and includes a large area of the fragile Siwalik ecosystem. The flora and fauna of this ecosystem resemble that of the Himalayan and the Gangetic Plains Biogeographic Zones (2 & 7 respectively) (Rodgers & Panwar, 1988). The PA is a home to the most northwestern population of the Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus). The area is largely ‘Moist Deciduous Forests’ (Champion and Seth, 1968) with the subtypes viz. Moist Siwalik Sal (Shorea robusta), Moist Bhabar Dun Sal and Dry Siwalik Sal covering about 75% of the Park area. The remaining area is under mixed forests along the rau (dry river bed) and on the hills. Riparian forests occur along the Ganges. The sal forests mostly occur in the plains and have mainly sal in the upper-canopy. Elephant (Elephas maximus) is the most important herbivore species of conservation significance found in this PA. There are approximately 500 elephants in the Park (Kumar, 1995). Among the common herbivores are sambar (Cervus unicolor), chital (Axis axis), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), goral (Nemorhaedus goral) and nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus). The carnivores present are tiger (Panthera tigris), leopard (Panthera pardus), wild dog (Cuon alpinus), jackal (Canis aureus) and hyaena (Hyaena hyaena). There are some 315 bird species in the PA, which include resident and migratory terrestrial and water birds. Rajaji National Park, together with Corbett Tiger Reserve covering an area of 1320 km2 (with 520 km2 of national park area forming its core) and the tracts of reserved forests of Siwalik Reserved Forests and Lansdowne Forest Division form the largest conservation unit for elephant population of the state of Uttaranchal.
Case Studies : Linear Developments and Elephant Movement
157
3. Predicted Impacts z
z z
z
z
4.
The 14 km long Rishikesh - Chilla Hydropower Channel constructed early in the 1970’s and which runs parallel to the left bank of the river Ganges has drastically reduced the access of elephants from Chilla to the Ganges. Nearly 15 km2 of habitat (including at least 8 km2 of grasslands) has also become inaccessible to elephants. This power channel offers the greatest threat to the viability of the Chilla - Motichur corridor that is already under tremendous biotic pressures induced by mushrooming developments on the western bank of the Ganges. There is also an existing army ammunition dump, drug factory, the settlement of Tehri dam evacuees and the expansion of townships of Raiwala and Haridwar. It is feared that if, the existing biotic pressure continues to dominate, the movement of bull elephants across the Chilla - Motichur corridor would also eventually cease. The alignment of Haridwar - Rishikesh-Dehradun road between the natural habitats of elephants and the river Ganges poses significant obstacles to the movement of elephants to the Ganges (Johnsingh 1992). Habitat fragmentation and the resultant loss of genetic continuity between isolated animal population are two of the many significant consequences of linear development of power channel and the alignment of roads. This impact is threatening the survival of major proportion of the northwestern elephant population.
Mitigative Measures
Considering the conservation implications of a blocked elephant movement route between Rajaji National Park and the Corbett Tiger Reserve conservation area, there is an urgent need to: z z
develop a sound conservation plan for areas identified as movement routes/corridors. visualize modifications in engineering structures to avoid repetition of past blunders in the design of engineering structures associated with developmental projects of such nature in future.
4.1 Measures for Improved Conservation Planning Considering that not much damage resulting from linear development of roads, and canals can be undone, restorative strategies should be adopted for the improved conservation planning of the area. Restoration of degraded
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
158
habitats and attempts to arrest ecological impacts resulting from resource extraction and incompatible landuse practices and fast progressing development activities in the corridors is perhaps the only possible means to restore some levels of lost contiguity between the adjacent elephants habitats. Johnsingh et al. (1990) made four recommendations for conservation action: (i) acquisition of land from the Tehri dam evacuees and the army and its protection by electric fencing for serving as a corridor link (ii) imposition of ban on cattle grazing (iii) promotion of ecodevelopment strategies to reduce biotic pressure on forest in the corridor area (iv) reduction of human disturbances in movement paths. Reduction in the competition for resources between the elephants and the resident human population, by carefully planning the locations of water sources and promoting regeneration of fodder species, would eliminate most of the stress existing there today. 4.2 Design Alternatives for Engineering Structures A careful blend of ecological considerations in the planning of canal and other cross drainage structures viz. bridges, underpasses and aqueducts can prevent major impacts on movements of wild denizens in the wildlife areas. The existing design of cross drainage structures including bridges and aqueducts in Rajaji National Park are not very conducive to animal movements. This is largely because of insufficient headroom for animals as large as elephants. The most critical example of this type of structure is Duggada siphon construction for crossing the power channel over Duggada stream. Before the construction of this structure, Duggada was one of the main movement track of elephants from forest to river but now this is almost an abandoned track. The size of the siphon barrel is sufficient to allow maximum water discharge in the torrent yet the tunnel like appearance of siphon barrel discourages elephants from using these structures. This could have been avoided if a big arch type structure could have been constructed instead of the existing siphon barrel with piers in the stream (Fig. 2). Road
Road
Pier and beam type bridge
Big arch type bridge Source: Singh 1999
Fig. 2 Design option for bridges and other cross drainage structures
Case Studies : Linear Developments and Elephant Movement
159
5.0 Lessons Learned Rajaji National Park is a typical example of conservation pursuit in which the ecological considerations had to be compromised at the time of its declaration as a PA since major developments were already in place. Not much can be done to mitigate the nearly permanent damage caused by the power channel and the roads that were constructed in 1983, prior to the area being declared a protected area. In future, while designing the roads, bridges and other structures for river crossing through PA and other wildlife habitats the following considerations should be kept in mind to reduce their barrier effect and visual impacts. (i) The slope of the path for wildlife movement should not be steeper than 1:8 (H:V). (ii) A guided path to engineering structures and construction of water tanks can be carefully designed and planned near the proposed structures to facilitate attraction of animals near them. Their habituation to the presence of such structures would thus increase the probability of animals crossing them (Figure 3).
EXISTING LAYOUT PLAN OF WATER TANK
SUGGESTED LAYOUT PLAN OF WATER TANK
Defects in the existing system
Suggestion for purposed system
1.
No water circulation in the tank because it is fed from one side only and there is no out let.
1.
There should be at least one outlet in the tank so that there should be circulation of water
2.
Regular cleaning of tank to clean the silt & elephant dropping from the tanks
2.
No vegetation cover between tank & inspection road of canal
3.
Sufficient forest cover should be available between the tank & the canal road so that the bathing elephants should not be visible from canal inspection road.
3.
Side of tank is not sufficient to accommodate large herd of elephants
4.
All the three sides of forest should have flat slopes so that elephants can enter in the tank easily.
Fig. 3 Existing layout of artificial water tank fed by the Chilla Power Canal and suggested modifications for improved use by elephants (Source: Singh, 1999)
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
160
(iii) Sufficient pockets for retaining the earth should be made on the exposed surface of bridges across the channels and river so that some creepers/vegetation can be grown in them. This would reduce the view of water column flowing below and would not instill the fear of drowning in animals while using such structures. (iv) The exposed surface of structures for river crossing should be appropriately painted to blend with natural environment.
6.
Sources of Information
6.1 Contact (i) Director, Rajaji National Park, 5/1 Ansari Marg, Dehradun (Uttaranchal) Tel.:91-135-621669, 744225 Email: [email protected] Website:
(ii) Shri A.P. Singh, IV/50, Peerbaba Colony U.P. Irrigation Department Roorkee, Dist. Haridwar Uttaranchal Email: [email protected]
6.2 Documentation Used Champion, H.G. and S.K. Seth. (1968). A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Govt. of India Press, New Delhi. Johnsingh, A.J.T., S. Narendra Prasad and S.P. Goyal, (1990). Conservation status of the Chilla - Motichur corridor for elephant movement in Rajaji - Corbett National Parks area, India. Biological Conservation 51 125138. Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1992). Elephant corridors in Uttar Pradesh. In: Proceedings of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group, 20 -22 May, 1992. Bogor, Indonesia.
Case Studies : Linear Developments and Elephant Movement
161
Kumar, Diwakar (1995). Management Plan of Rajaji National Park. (1995 - 1996 to 2005 - 2006) U.P. Forest Department, Uttar Pradesh (Now Uttaranchal). Rodgers, W.A. and H.S. Panwar, (1988). Planning a Wildlife Protected Area Network in India. (Vol. II and I). A Report Prepared for Department of Environment, Forest and Wildlife, Government of India. Wildlife Institute of India. Singh, A.P. (1999). Planning Engineering Structures for Better Wildlife Conservation Prospects : A Case Study on the Problems of Elephant from Linear Developments in Rajaji National Park. Paper presented at the 7th International Symposium on Environmental Concerns in Right of Way Management. 9-13 September, 2000, Alberta, Calgary, Canada.
5 COLOMBO - KATUNAYAKE EXPRESSWAY PROJECT: INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS IN PROJECT PLANNING This case describes habitat fragmentation, ecosystem modification and movement restrictions in a biologically significant coastal wetland habitat due to construction of an expressway. It exemplifies how availability and integration of good scientific information on ecosystem dynamics, during the planning and design phase can help to mitigate ecological impacts.
1.
Key Project Statistics
The proposed Colombo-Katunayake Expressway (CKE) aims to provide a high-speed road link between the capital Colombo and the Bandaranayake International Airport (BIA) at Katunayake (Anon. 1997). The six-lane, controlled-access expressway would be 24.6 km in length (Figure 1). It is designed for a speed of 100 km per hr and has 3.5 m travel lanes with three grade-separated interchanges. The CKE would be constructed on an embankment 1-1.5 m above the surrounding land, and all existing lateral roads would be taken above the CKE as overpasses. Once completed, the CKE is expected to attract at least 25% of the through traffic on the existing roadway, which in 1995 was carrying a mixed load of approximately 44,000 vehicles per day. The total project cost including roadway construction cost, engineering fees, land acquisition and compensation has been estimated at Rs.5 billion (US$ 86 million). A comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of CKE was conducted to evaluate five alignment options. The “Western Trace” option was found to be the most acceptable since it was found to have the least social impact, be visually less obtrusive, and have a higher expected economic rate of return than other options.
2. Significant Conservation Values The alignment would also pass through the Mathurajawela marsh and along the edge of the Negombo lagoon (Figure 1).
164
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Fig. 1 Route alignment of the Colombo-Katunayaka-Expressway (CKE) Western Trace
Case Studies : Colombo- Katunayake Expressway Project
165
The 6232 ha Mathurajawela Marsh-Negombo Lagoon coastal wetland is located north of Colombo. The lagoon (3164 ha) is connected by a single narrow opening with the sea; the marsh (3068 ha) extends southward from the lagoon. The marsh segment has been declared as the Mathurajawela Wildlife Sanctuary under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance of the Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka. The MMNL wetland system is very important from the standpoint of conservation of biological diversity as it provides important habitat for a wide variety of birds and aquatic species, some of which are rare, endangered or commercially important. The species diversity of the MMNL is illustrated in Table 1 (Anon. 1994). The MMNL is an important fish habitat because of the presence of a diverse series of interconnected biotopes such as canals, streams and the lagoon. Many of the aquatic species harvested from the MMNL actually reproduce in the open sea. Their early, floating larval stages are carried into the lagoon by the tidal currents. Thus the linkage between the lagoon and the sea is essential for sustainable fishery production. The Negombo lagoon has seven species of seagrass, which play an important role in the functioning of the lagoon. Seagrass binds the sediments in the lagoon, and is an important primary producer. They also provide microhabitats for many species of euryhaline fauna such as shrimps and polychaete worms and contribute significantly to the high biodiversity of the habitat. Table 1. Species diversity recorded in the Muthurajawela-Marsh-Negombo Lagoon Category
Sri Lanka
Number Total
Mammals
of species recorded Endemic
Threatened
86
34
02
Resident birds
221
85
-
04
Migratory birds
169
40
-
02
Reptiles
162
37
05
14
39
15
05
05
176
133
04
01
Amphibians Fishes Butterflies
242
67
09
Dragonflies
113
34
08
06
Source: Anon. 1994
The brackish water swamps present in the area are ecologically as well as economically important, as they maintain high productivity, act as a silt
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
166
trap, remove pollutants, provide nursery and feeding grounds for fish and shrimp species, and supply the lagoon with nutrients. The mangrove forests form a narrow belt along certain segments of the shoreline of the lagoon, and serve as important nursery habitats to young fish and crustaceans. The CKE will pass through a small area of the brackish water swamp and a patch of mangrove forest.
3. Predicted Impacts The wetlands affected by the CKE are the Muthurajawela marsh, the network of canals, ponds, brackish water swamps, streams and the Negombo lagoon. The projected area of wetland habitats lost is shown in Table 2. Although the actual planned width of the roadway is 30 m, a corridor of 100 m is likely to be directly affected, since fauna and flora within this corridor will be subjected to many of the major impacts of the construction and operational phases of the project. It is evident from Table 2 that 2.7% of marshland and 1.4% of mangrove forests will be impacted. Since the expressway runs a distance of 1.4 km through the lagoon off Liyanagemulla, close to the eastern shore, sea grasses growing along this stretch can also be expected to be destroyed. Table 2. Extent of wetlands habitats affected by the CKE (Western Trace) Type of Habitat
Existing area (ha) *
Extent affected (ha) ** Physically
*** Ecologically
Extent as percentage **
***
Physically
Ecologically
Marsh
2906
79.8
133
2.7
4.5
Mangroves (Brackish water swamp)
350
4.8
08
1.38
2.3
Lagoon
3200
9.6
16
0.3
0.5
Seagrasses
704
9.6
16
1.38
2.3
Sources : 1) Land use map 1996 2 ) Profile of Muthurajawela Marsh-Negombo Lagoon 1991 *
After reclamation of the Kerawalapitiya marsh
**
The embankment width (60 m) is considered in the computation of the extent affected physically
*** A corridor of 100 m is considered in the computation of the extent affected ecologically
Case Studies : Colombo- Katunayake Expressway Project
167
Since the expressway is to be constructed on an embankment (1.5 m high), it will interfere with the normal dispersal of storm water. Impeded dispersal is likely to cause the eastern side of the embankment to be flooded, which could have adverse impacts on some terrestrial fauna. Although the embankment will not act as an obstruction to the free movement of terrestrial animals such as birds, bats and insects that can fly, it will act as a barrier for small mammals, reptiles, amphibians and some invertebrates such as land snails. These animals may have great difficulty or be completely unable to climb the embankment to cross the expressway, and will face a high probability of being run over by vehicles if they do. Long-term ecological changes may come about as a result of the restriction of such species’ movements. During the construction phase, oil from machinery and materials such as asphalt and cement may spill into the marsh, streams and lagoon, causing harm to the aquatic flora and fauna. Excessive noise generated by the machinery can scare away waterfowl and other fauna, sensitive to high noise levels. Similarly, polluted runoff from the expressway surface during the operation period may be a source of contamination, and traffic noise and lighting could affect habitat use in wetland areas near the road. Sand dredging for building material could have several adverse impacts. Offshore dredging can alter nearshore sediment movement and the stability of the coastline. During the dredging operation, there is a possibility of subsidence of adjacent areas, subsoil failure, alteration of soil characteristics and hydraulic and geotechnical problems. Increased turbidity is another dredging-related impact that could affect the well being of submerged plants and fish by reducing the availability of light. Sand mining from the sea bottom would result in the destruction of part of the benthic habitat as well as the organisms living therein. Oil leaks from the dredger and mechanical impacts of the pipeline on the reefs can harm marine life. Transportation and stockpiling of freshly dredged sand can result in extreme alteration of soil and surface water salinity levels in the vicinity of the construction site.
4.
Proposed Mitigative Measures
The following measures are proposed to avoid, mitigate or compensate for negative impacts that can be expected to arise as a result of the expressway project: z
In order to prevent depletion of the marsh area, no new roads should be planned for transporting materials; only existing ones should be used.
z
To minimise the barrier effect of the CKE embankment for small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, land snails and arthropods, culverts
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
168
should be constructed at appropriate intervals and suitably vegetated to serve as effective movement corridors for these animals. z
Fast-growing trees such as Cerbera manghas and Pandanus odorotissimus should be grown on either side of the embankment to serve as noise and dust barriers, and also to provide cover and nesting sites for birds and other animals.
z
An “undercrossing” is recommended where the proposed road will cross the canal, to maintain uninterrupted flows and tidal mixing, vital for the wetland ecosystem.
z
To compensate for the loss of 80 ha of mangroves by the CKE (2.3% of the existing total extent around the lagoon) mangrove species Dolichandrone spathacea, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Sonneratia caseolaris and Exocoecaria agallocha should be established on either side of the road embankment, where the CKE traverses the swamp.
z
The portion of lagoon that would be isolated by the CKE should be connected to the main body of the lagoon by way of passages built beneath the roadway, large enough for fishing boats to pass. These passages will serve as access points for juvenile fish and crustacean larvae that use the seagrass beds for feeding and shelter. This measure should also ensure tidal mixing.
z
Street lamps should be designed so as to illuminate only the expressway and avoid straying of light upwards and sideways. This should minimize any adverse impacts of illumination on fauna at night.
z
To minimise impacts on the shoreline and benthic ecosystems, dredging should be strictly confined to the designated areas, which will be located at least 3 km offshore from the shoreline and at depths between 15-30 m.
z
To avoid hydraulic and geotechnical problems, the depth of dredging should be limited to 1.5-2 m below the existing seabed. Dredging pits should conform to uniform linear channels along the seabed within the borrow area, rather than forming scattered deep holes.
z
For transport of dredged material, the existing gaps in the reef should be used to avoid any undue damage to reef communities, or later impacts on the shoreline due to erosion.
z
Floating pipelines should be used to avoid direct physical damage to reefs, and should be anchored to withstand wave action under all conditions (Box 1).
Case Studies : Colombo- Katunayake Expressway Project
169
Box 1. Mooring of floating pipelines is a good practice to minimise coral destruction
FLOATING PIPELINE WITH MOORING FACILITY
A system of pipelines with floating, submerged and onshore sections will be used in this project for pumping sand from the seabed. The floating pipeline, consisting of flexible elements, will be connected to the onshore pipeline. The pipeline will be laid through a “gap” in the coral reef to prevent destruction of the reef by pipeline movements. Mooring of the pipeline will also prevent coral damage and will help to minimize turbidity increases. These sound coastal engineering techniques will help to minimize ecological impacts.
4.
z
To prevent water logging and extremes of salinity, the seawater should be pumped out of the sand-water slurry back to the sea as soon as de-watering begins to occur
z
To minimize impacts associated with dispersion of dust into the atmosphere, gravel, sand and other material in dump trucks must be covered with tarpaulins during transportation.
z
All emissions from the equipment used in construction must comply with the emission standards specified by the Central Environmental Authority (CEA) regulations. Mufflers should be installed and maintained on all machinery and equipment.
Monitoring Plan
A monitoring committee appointed by the CEA should administer a monitoring programme. The monitoring committee should include experts and representatives from various line agencies and NGOs, and should be chaired by the CEA. The CEA should consult relevant specialists for advice as required for specific issues. The project proponent should bear all the costs of surveys, measurements, reporting and other costs associated with monitoring.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
170
5.
Lessons Learned and Best Practices
This case study illustrates the often-complex nature of the impacts associated with road development in wetland areas. Some of the major lessons learned were that:
6.
z
The availability of good ecological information leads to better impact prediction and development of sound practices for impact mitigation. The importance of factors such as seasonal or life-cycle migrations and salinity variations (themselves a function of tidal cycles and rainfall fluctuations) demonstrates the need to consider baseline conditions for multiple monitoring periods.
z
The consideration of possible impacts often needs to take account of far-removed locations linked to the project site by complex interactions. Salt marshes are a good example of this; localized changes in tidal flushing, salinity, access and shelter for aquatic species may have far-reaching, long-term effects on open-sea fisheries.
z
Appropriate design provisions and siting of cross drainage structures below the raised embankments should be used to facilitate movement of small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, land snails, and arthropods, thereby helping to reduce the barrier effect.
z
Constructing underpasses to interconnect portions of coastal wetland habitats that have been severed by new roads is a good practice to maintain tidal mixing and navigation and reduce salinity-related ecological damage.
z
The activities related to road construction, such as sand dredging, may be just as destructive, or more so, than the road itself, and consideration of the potential impacts of such activities should be a central part of the overall environmental exercise.
Sources of Information
6.1 Contact Director Central Environmental Authority Parisara Mavata Maligawatte New Town Sri Lanka Tel.: +94-1-43-9073 Fax:+94-1-439076 Website: http://www.eco-web.com/register/02593.html
Case Studies : Colombo- Katunayake Expressway Project
171
6.2 Documentation Used Anon. (1994). Conservation Management Plan: Muthurajawela Marsh and Negombo Lagoon. Wetland Conser vation Project. Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and Euroconsult, Netherlands. Anon. (1997). Environmental Impact Assessment Report: ColomboKatunayake-Expressway. Road Development Authority, Ministry of Transport and Highways, Sri Lanka. CEA and Euroconsult (1991). Wetlands are no Wastelands. Wetland Conservation Project. Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka and Euroconsult, Netherlands. GCEC/Euroconsult (1991). Master Plan of Mathurajawela and Negombo Lagoon. Colombo.
6 ANDHRA PRADESH STATE HIGHWAY REHABILITATION AND MAINTENANCE PROJECT: THE NANDYAL-GIDDALURTHOKAPALLI ROAD This case describes how simple errors in initial baseline data can lead to significant future economic losses, requiring a large cooperative effort to correct. This case underscores that sharing information with other stakeholders as it is obtained will often prevent such costly mistakes. Finally, it also illustrates that examination of a project in the context of what is taking place in the region, may help in identifying more regional and cumulative effects, and place the project’s total impact in perspective.
1.
Key Project Statistics
In March 1997, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) granted environmental clearance to the above project but imposed a set of strict conditions. Generally, the conditions addressed the entire 1400 km of road in the state-wide study, but focused on the ecological and socio-economic impacts of the proposed widening of the project road section which passed through protected areas and reserved forests. An expert sub-committee constituted by the MoEF for environmental appraisal of the projects visited the project sites in June 1997 and placed additional conditions on the project. This second set of conditions were much more detailed and wide-ranging, and included requirements for the completion of a techno-feasibility study as well as an environmental analysis of the Nandyal–Giddalur-Thokapalli road section. The existing mapping showed this road as passing along the southern boundary of the Gundla Bramheswaram Wildlife Sanctuary (GBM) as well as the Pacherla Reserved Forest to the south. As a result, the sub-committee re-emphasized the analysis of impacts on wildlife. The environmental analysis, as specified by the subcommittee, was undertaken, specifically addressing the Nandyal-GiddalurThokapalli (NGT) road section.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
174
2. Significant Wildlife Values For the 24 km that the NGT road passes through the reserved forests, it does not traverse through any PA area (i.e. national park or sanctuary). The road does not traverse through any part of the GBM Sanctuary, although it does skirt its southern boundary for approximately 1.5 km (Figure 1). The NGT road also skirts the boundary of Chelma Reserved Forests just outside the GBM Sanctuary. The alignment of the NGT road (Figure 1) does not intersect or pass by any designated PAs. N
0
G.B.M Sanctuary
NH 18
ram Basavapu Forest
To Nandyal
Gajulapalli
1 km
Kambham R.F.
Chelama R.F.
%
To Thokapalli
Nandya
l R.F.
%Diguvametta
Pacherla Forest
% % #
Giddalur
Uyyalavada R.F.
Pedakamalur Forest
Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road Old Railway Meter Gauge Track New Broad GaugeTrack GBM Sanctuary Boundary (Part)
GIS Cell, 2001
Fig. 1. The Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road Project area in relation to sensitive habitat
However, the areas skirted are home to a number of India’s endangered species including the tiger, leopard, hyena, jungle cat, sloth bear, mouse deer, pangolin, giant squirrel, python and marsh crocodile.
Case Study : The Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road
175
3. Impacts Predicted and Mitigative Measures Proposed During the field visit to the GBM Wildlife Sanctuary and the adjacent reserved forests, the presence of chital, monitor lizard and giant squirrels could be confirmed by direct sightings. As per the records of the census conducted by the Forest Department, 17 tigers and 7 leopards were reported in the Nandyal Forest Division (which includes the entire study area) in 1997. Indirect evidence of sambar, nilgai and hyena could also be observed during the reconnaissance survey of the area. 3.1 Impacts Observed The existing NGT road, established more than 50 years ago, is not a barrier to movement of animals. The contiguity of the habitat on both sides of the road has been largely maintained, as is evident from observations and reported movements of animals in the larger conservation area, which includes the GBM Sanctuary and Rajiv Gandhi Tiger Reserve (RGTR) 8 km north of the road, as well as the reserved forests of the Pacherla Beat of the Chelama Range to the south. During the field visit chital were observed freely crossing the road and evidence of sambar was found on both sides of the road. It became clear that the main reason for the MoEF’s concern was that in the report submitted to the agency, the NGT road was shown as skirting the southern boundary of the RGTR. The field investigation quickly determind that the RGTR was at least 8 km away and in fact the road skirted the southern boundary of the GBM, far less sensitive an area then the Reserve. No other impacts were predicted. 3.1.1 Mortality of wild animals The efforts to collect information on road kills or poaching incidences on the NGT road was not successful. Useful anecdotal recollections were obtained from the local people who estimated the numbers of large animalroad kills to be about five per year. No data were available on kills of smaller mammals, birds and reptiles. None of the recollections involved tigers. 3.1.2 Barrier effect The NGT road has a mere 5m wide carriageway with grassed shoulders (verges). Trees now are allowed to hang over the road and in fact form a closed canopy in some locations. Animals like giant squirrel were observed crossing the road and evidence of presence of the same animals on both sides of the road was common. Therefore the NGT road was not considered a barrier.
176
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
3.1.3 Habitat loss and illegal activities In the outer areas of the GBM Sanctuary, local residents collected wood and NTFP from the area near the boundary of the buffer zone and extending well inside the zone into the core of the Reserve. Habitat for wildlife preferring closed-canopy areas was being lost at a rapid rate to local community activities for at least one km on both sides of the road. Local game wardens reported that poaching was taking place. The concern was expressed that with an improved road the trafficking in illegally obtained wildlife could be accelerated. 3.1.4 Special impact: railway operations The old narrow gauge railway line alignment abutting the southern boundary of the GBM Sanctuary (Figure 1) was converted to a broad gauge railway line and partially realigned in 1996, without an EIA. This line connects Vijayawada to Guntakal, and runs almost parallel and to the north of the road, inside the buffer zone and directly through the Chelma Reserved Forest to the north-west. The impact of this development was far more significant than the improvement of the existing NGT road in terms of its visible impact upon the conservation values of the GBM Sanctuary and the adjoining reserved forests. The ecological degradation resulting from this rail project is still evident. There are large clear-felled areas, un-reclaimed and unsafe burrow pits and deposits, eroding and unprotected hill slopes and deposits of impervious overburden all along the slopes of the track. The impact of NGT road is insignificant in comparison to what occurred with the railway project.
3.2 Mitigative Measures Proposed The road improvement project, confined to within the existing limits of the RoW, would likely result in modest impacts. Nevertheless, the importance of wildlife conservation advocated the need to develop a set of mitigative actions that would avoid or minimize the likelihood of serious impacts during the detailed design, construction and operation of the road. 3.2.1 Traffic The mitigation of impacts associated with increased traffic on the improved road is possible by a applying any one of a variety of measures such as road tolls to discourage/divert non-essential traffic, speed limits along the forested section of the road, or reducing the headlight intensity at night by using headlight hoods; something that is already being done in India by painting the upper halves of headlight surfaces black.
Case Study : The Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road
177
3.2.2 Road kills Regular, known wildlife crossing points and migratory corridors need to be well sign-posted, requiring drivers to use extra caution. Along the section where the NGT road abuts the GBM Sanctuary fencing at particularly active crossing sites (as identified by the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department) could effectively reduce the possibility of road hit. However, wildlife fencing can have the opposite effect by trapping animals attempting to cross making them easy targets for their predators. Therefore, fencing should be applied only when absolutely necessary. Speed breakers just before important crossing points might also reduce the risk of road kills of large animals. 3.2.3 Illegal exploitation of resources Organized vehicle checkpoints at the entry and exit of the forested section of the NGT road would help to control the illegal exploitation of resources. Keeping the existing rugged alignment will not assure that average speeds remain slow, giving no advantage to the poachers. Contract clauses and temporary fencing should be helpful in limiting the spread of support facilities into the forested areas along the road during construction, and would discourage workers from exploiting the forest resources. 3.2.4 Blocking or delaying animal migration The design and location of existing bridges and underpasses in the forest and Ghat (hilly) section of the NGT, completed decades ago, has already ensured that animal crossings in the forested area remain unhindered. In other areas along the road that are established animal crossing points, fencing during construction was proposed, in order to keep large mammals from direct contact with hazardous substances and also from being on the road during construction. Subsequently, signage can be put up at these points to indicate animal crossing points. 3.2.5 Construction activities In order to prevent the impacts of soil erosion and water pollution, the timing of road operations outside the monsoon season was proposed. It was suggested that the APRBD incorporate the mitigative measures defined above into a revised IEE, which would form that basis of the EMAP. Success would depend on close coordination among the APRBD, the Nandyal and Giddalur Divisions of Andhra Pradesh Forest Department, as well as the district administration. It was further suggested that once the contractor arrived on site, the APRBD’s environmental officer organize a
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
178
meeting with the Nandyal and Giddalur Forest Divisions of the APFD every two months, to brief them on events and to seek assistance with all aspects of road planning and let them examine any designs that may impinge on wildlife management.
4.
Management Actions, Successes and Failures
Based on the findings of this survey, the list of MoEF conditions were transferred onto the rows of a table and for each row, the following information was provided: z
Actions proposed/completed by the APRBD to fulfill the MoEF conditions
z
Clarification and comments needed from the APRBD and added to file
z
Cross-references to actions defined in other documents.
z
Agency responsible
z
Proposed time frame
The exact numbering of all conditions were also listed on the table, permitting easy cross referencing. This table formed the key output of the work and served as a checklist for the APRBD and MoEF, and was designed for inclusion as an environmental clause in construction bid documents. Discovering that a simple mapping error drove this project into having a very costly extra study completed, illustrated the importance of careful project scoping and base data assembly. At the same time it identified what actions were possible if sensitive areas are examined by specialist, even if only for a short duration, as was the case for this project. Since the MoEF works strictly on the honour system, no compliance monitoring report or even the confirmation that the conditions imposed were met, was required. Under such conditions the mitigation activity could easily fall between the cracks, particularly given the MoEF’s heavy work load and rare follow-up compliance monitoring action. A more visible and traceable method for recording compliance is needed.
5
Lessons Learned and Best Practices
5.1 Lessons Learned This project brought to light three key lessons: i.
the early discussion of environmental findings with other informed stakeholders may avoid costly delays and surveys;
Case Study : The Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road
179
ii. specialists in the field, even for a few hours is vastly superior to having none at all, and also is highly cost effective; and, iii. the examination of a project in the context of what is going on around it ( this obvious action is not taken very often) might cast a very different light on its impact. 5.2 Best Practices 1. Share information with stakeholders from the earliest part of an environmental study and consult the local community; 2. if at all possible ask specialists to look over sensitive problems in the field, even if for only a few hours; and, 3. allocate time for people undertaking environmental studies to examine regional activities in the event that far greater and/or cumulative impact might be taking place.
6.
Sources of Information
6.1 Contact (i) Engineer in Chief, Andhra Pradesh Roads and Buildings Department (APRBD) Hyderabad, India Tel.: 040-339-1155, 332-3536
(ii) Chief Conservator of Forests & Chief Wildlife Warden, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh, Saifabad, Hyderabad-500 004 Tel.: 040-3230561, 3232668 (O)
6.2 Documentation Used Andhra Pradesh Forest Department 1997. Tiger/Panther Census Report. Nandyal Forest Division, Nandyal. Andhra Pradesh Roads and Buildings Department 1997. Environmental Management Plan of Andhra Pradesh State Highways Project- Version 1.1. Kirloskar Consultants Ltd. 1997. Techno-Economic Feasibility Study of Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road, Volumes 1 & 2. Secunderabad.
180
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
MoEF 1994. The Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, (as amended on 4-5-94) Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt., of India, New Delhi. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India. 1972. The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act. New Delhi. Andhra Pradesh Forest Department (Undated) Notification of the Gundla Brahmeswaram Wildlife (G.B.M.) Sanctuary Range: Nandyal Division, Nandyal. Snowy Mountains Engineering Corporation (Australia) Ltd. 1996. Environmental Analysis Report for Andhra Pradesh State Highways Project. Prepared under supervision of Environmental Service Pvt. Ltd. Supplemental Report on Environment Aspects of Andhra Pradesh State Highways Project (1997). A Report Prepared for the meeting of the Expert Committee for Infrastructural Development and Miscellaneous Projects, APRBD. Technical Specifications for Tender Documents, Andhra Pradesh State Highways Project Contract No. APSH 3 (Under World Bank Loan Assistance). Wildlife Institute of India and Canadian Environmental Collaborative (CEC) Ltd. (1998). The Andhra Pradesh State Highway Rehabilitation and Maintenance Project: The Nandyal-Giddalur-Thokapalli Road. Technical Report. Submitted to the World Bank. World Wildlife Fund, Andhra Pradesh (Undated). A Rapid Assessment of the Impacts of the Proposed Widening of the Guntur-Kurnool Road on the Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve.
Glossary of terms
181
Annexure 1 GLOSSARY OF TERMS -AAlternatives Options for a particular project, in terms of locations, methods, and techniques to be used, including the option of not proceeding with the project. Applicant The proponent or developer seeking approval or consent for a proposed project, or seeking the issue of a permit or license. Assessment (versus Analysis) The combination of analysis with policy-related activities such as identification of issues and comparison of risks and benefits (as in risk assessment and impact assessment). -BBackground pollution Degree of pollution of areas not directly affected by point sources of pollution. According to their extent global, continental, regional and local background pollution can be distinguished. Background concentration The concentration of a chemical in a medium prior to the action under consideration or the concentration that would have occurred in the absence of a prior action. Barrier A topographic feature or a physical or biological condition that restricts or prevents migration of organisms or prevent establishment of organisms that have immigrated or a condition that prevents or appreciably reduces crossbreeding of organisms. Benefit-Cost analysis A method of comparing alternative actions according to the relative costs incurred (technical, environmental and economic) and the relative benefits
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
182
gained. The analysis can incorporate discounting calculations to take into account the time value of money. Biological diversity/Biodiversity An umbrella term to describe collectively the variety and variability of nature; it encompasses three basic levels of organization in living systems: the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels. Plant and animal species are the most commonly recognized units of biological diversity. Biotic community An association of plants, animals, and other organisms (e.g. woodland). Buffer zone Vegetal strips of land to screen ecosystems from impacts such as pollution or disturbance, and/or to reduce the area restrictions of protected sites. It can be located (a) adjacent to developments or components of these, usually with the aim of filtering out pollutants, (b) around protected areas, with aims such as providing additional habitat for some animals, protecting the site from pollutants and disturbance, and perhaps encouraging expansion through species dispersal, or (c) within sites, usually with the aim of permitting their use for both amenity purposes and conservation. -CCoastal wetland Land along a coastline that remains flooded with salt water permanently or for a part of the year. Compliance monitoring Periodic sampling and/or continuous measurements of levels of waste discharge, noise or similar emission to ensure that conditions are observed and standards met. Conservation Wise use and careful management of resources, so as to maintain the maximum possible ecological and social benefits from them for present and future generations. Methods include preservation, balanced multiple use, reduced waste generation, recycling, reuse, and limited resource use. Cumulative effects Progressive environmental degradation over time arising from a range of activities throughout an area or region, each activity considered in isolation
Glossary of terms
183
being possibly not a significant contributor. Such effects might arise from growing vehicles, multiple source of power generation or incineration, or increasing application of chemicals to the land. Conservation biology A branch of the biological sciences that studies biodiversity, species abundance, scarcity, and extinction, and the relationships of these to natural processes, habitat conditions, and population changes in response to human-induced disturbances. -DDisturbance An episodic but intense environmental influence, usually physical, that causes a substantial ecological change. It can act at the larger, stand or landscape level, or more locally as microdisturbance. -EEcosystem The plants and animals of an ecological community, and their environment, forming an interacting system of activities and functions regarded as a unit. There are innumerable ecosystems: for example, marine, freshwater, terrestrial, forest, and grassland. All ecosystems together comprise the biosphere. Ecotone Mixed communities formed by an overlap of adjoining communities in the transition areas. Actual transition areas on the ground between two communities, regardless of whether the latter are climax or seral. Edge effect The influence of two communities upon their adjoining margins or fringes, affecting the composition and density of the population in these bordering areas e.g. a forest edge bordering a grassland. Endangered species Faunal and floral species likely to become extinct as a result of direct exploitation by humans, intrusion into highly specialized habitats, threats from other species, interruption of the food chain, pollution, or in combination with other destructive factors.
184
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Environment A concept which includes all aspects of the surroundings of humanity, affecting individuals and social groupings. The European Commission has defined the environment as “the combination of elements whose complex interrelationships make up the settings, the surroundings and the conditions of life of the individual and of society, as they are or as they are felt”. The environment may be regarded as a parcel of things which render a stream of beneficial services to people, though largely unpriced, and which take their place alongside the stream of goods and services rendered by real income, houses, infrastructure, transport, and other people. Environmental guidelines A set of norms to guide the environmental evaluation of projects and the environmental management plans and actions to promote sustainable development. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has set up guidelines to assist the project authorities in planning and carrying out Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of projects in different sectors infrastructure, communication, transport, power (nuclear, thermal & hydro), industry and mining, etc. The guidelines are prepared with the basic assumption that the EIA is to be used as planning tool and the environmental considerations should be incorporated in initial stages of project planning and the cost of environmental protection measures should be treated as integral component of the total project cost. The guidelines are applicable to all new projects as well as projects involving significant changes (modernisation or upgradation) in existing facilities. Environmental management A concept of care applied to localities, regions, catchments, natural resources, areas of high conservation value, waste handling and disposal, cleaner processing and recycling systems, with the purpose of protecting the environment in the broadest sense. It involves the identification of objectives, the adoption of appropriate mitigation measures, the protection of ecosystems, the enhancement of the quality of life for those affected, and the minimization of environmental costs. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Procedure which provides the opportunity for identifying, mitigating or enhancing the potential environmental health and social consequences of a proposed activity and for generating alternatives or additional options to that activity. Also referred to as Environmental Assessment (EA).
Glossary of terms
185
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) A document, prepared by a proponent that contains description of a proposed activity or development and the possible, probable, or certain effects of the proposal on the environment, examination of the alternatives to the proposal; the mitigation measures to be adopted; formulation of the program of environmental management; monitoring, PPA or auditing; and plans for decommissioning and rehabilitation. EIS is a key document in the EIA process. Environmental indicator It is an environmental element or parameter that provides a measure of an impact, on at least some qualitative scale. Environmental standards These are criteria designed to contain certain environmental conditions within specified limits believed to be requisite to achieve social objectives (usually healthrelated). Example includes - limits on effluent discharge concentrations; clean air and water quality standards, policies or plans; and plans or policies that protect areas or limit the use of natural resources. Environmental inventory A complete description of the environment as it exists in an area where a particular proposed action is being considered. Extinct species Species not definitely seen in the wild during the past 50 years (criterion as used by CITES). Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 The act promulgated as an umbrella legislation setting forth the general power of the Central Government for the protection and improvement of environment and for the matters connected therewith in India. -FFauna The total animal life of an area; usually the total number of animal species in a specified period, geological stratum, geographical region, ecosystem, habitat or community. Forest cover All trees and other woody plant (under brush) covering the ground in a forest. Includes (a) trees and tall shrubs (b) herbs and shrubs growing thereunder or in
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
186
openings in forest (c) litter or fallen leaves, branches, fallen trees, and other vegetative material on the forest floor (d) the rich humus of partly decayed vegetable matter at the surface and top layer of soil. Forest A community of trees and associated organisms covering a considerable area, utilizing oxygen, water and soil nutrients to attain maturity and reproduce itself. Fragility/Sensitivity It is strictly an indication of need for protection rather than a criterion of value. It refers to ecosystems that are particularly sensitive to environmental change. Because of their sensitivity to previous impacts, fragile ecosystems also tend to be rare. -GGIS Geographic Information System, an information technology tool that stores, retrieves, integrates, manipulates, analyses and displays both spatial and nonspatial information. -HHabitat Environment in which an organism lives and which provides for all or most of its needs. Habitat assessment Assessment that determines the suitability of ecosystems as habitat for a species. -IImpact An impact has both spatial and temporal components and can be described as the change in any parameter, over a specified period and within a defined area, resulting from a particular activity compared with the situation which would have occurred had the activity not been initiated. Impact significance The importance attached to a particular impact (or impacts) in altering the state of environment by virtue of nature, size and location. Determining impact
Glossary of terms
187
significance will involve discussions with experts and members of the public and is based on value judgement. J-K-L Keystone species A species whose loss from ecosystem would cause a greater than average change in other species populations or ecosystems process; species that have a disproportionately large effect on other species in community. Limiting factor Factor such as temperature, light, water, or a chemical that limits the existence, growth, abundance, or distribution of an organism. -MMonitoring Intermittent (regular or irregular) surveillance carried out in order to ascertain the extent of compliance with a predetermined standard or the degree of deviation from an expected norm. -NNational park An area of ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological or zoological importance declared by the State Government for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing its wildlife and its environment under the provisions of the clauses of sections 19 to 26 of Wildlife Protection Act, (1972), Govt. of India. Natural resource Anything obtained from physical environment to meet human needs. Networks Networks illustrates the multiple links between project activities and environmental characteristics and are therefore useful in identifying and depicting second-order impacts (indirect, synergistic etc.). -O-PPolicy A general course of action or proposed overall direction that a government is or will be, pursuing and which guides ongoing decision making.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
188
Potential impacts Impacts which could occur in the absence of appropriate design, modifications or preventive measures. Program A coherent, organized agenda or schedule of communications, proposals, instruments and/or activities that elaborates and implements policy e.g. energy program or transport program. Project A proposed capital undertaking, typically involving the planning, design and construction of a large-scale plant, facility or structure (e.g. mining, construction of airport, highway or installation of a cement plant). Proponent The proposer (or applicant) of an activity, policy, plan, program, or project in the private and public sectors. Protected forest It is a legal term for an area subject to limited degree of protection, and constituted as such under the provisions of the Indian Forest Act. -Q-RReserved forests Forests constituted under the Indian Forest Act (I.F.A.), or other forest laws (e.g., U.P. Forest Act), are the exclusive property of Government and are subject to complete protection. Villagers or adjacent people have no rights whatsoever in these forests; however, they may sometimes be granted certain concessions, e.g. such as grazing of their cattle, collection of dry and fallen firewood by head-loads for their bonafide domestic use, etc., in consideration of their cooperation and assistance in forest protection. Reviewer The person, agency or board-with responsibility for reviewing an environmental impact assessment and ensuring compliance with published guidelines. Right-of-Way (RoW) The corridor through which a powerline, pipeline, or rail/road passes after the rights have been acquired for such alignments by the project authorities. Riparian An area located at the bank of a water course, such as a river or stream.
Glossary of terms
189
Risk management Term used to indicate the decision-making process which combines the risk assessment results with the socio-economic, technical, political and other considerations to reach to a conclusion on how to control and manage exposure to suspected hazardous agents. Risk The probability of a prescribed undesired effect. If the level of effect is treated as an integer variable, risk is the product of the probability and frequency of effect (e.g. probability of an accident). Risks result from the existence of a hazard and uncertainty about its expression. River corridor A river corridor consist of a stretch of river, its bank and the adjacent land (about 50m wide). River Corridor Survey (RCS) is a standard approach used in ecological surveys to highlight important features when rehabilitating and enhancing degraded riparian habitats. Rare Taxa with small populations that are not at present endangered and vulnerable, but are at risk. These taxa are usually localised within restricted geographical areas or habitats or are thinly scattered over a more extensive range. -SSanctuary An area designated by the State Government for its adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance, for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment, under the provisions of section 18 of Wildlife Protection Act, (1972), Govt. of India. Species diversity Number of different species and their relative abundance in a given area. Species A population of animals or plants whose members have substantially the same structure, habits and range, normally interbreed, and are identified by a systematic biologist under the same binomial name. Synergistic impacts The some of total impacts that exceed the sum of their individual impacts. For
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
190
instance, in the presence of sunlight, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons may combine to form photochemical oxidants, which have impacts over and above those of only nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. Social benefits The non-monetary and not easily calculated returns to society arising from creation of recreational areas, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries etc. -TTerms of Reference (ToR) Written requirements governing EIA implementation, consultation to be held, data to be produced and form/contents of the EIA report often produced as an output from scoping. Threatened species A wild species that is still abundant in its natural range but is likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future because of a decline in numbers. U-VVulnerable species Taxa likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the causal factors continue operating. Included are taxa of which most or all the population are decreasing because of over-exploitation, extensive destruction of habitat or other environmental disturbance; taxa with populations that have been seriously depleted and whose ultimate security has not yet been assured; and taxa with populations that are still abundant but are under threat from serious adverse factors throughout their range. -WWetland Temporarily or permanently inundated terrestrial systems bordering on aquatic systems and including shallow systems such as estuaries, salt marshes, bogs, sponges, mires, swamps,floodplain and many coastal lakes and lagoons. Wildlife All free, uncultivated/undomesticated species of plants and animals. According to the Indian Wildlife Protection Act 1972(amended in 1991), it includes any animal, bees, butterflies, crustacea, fish and moths; and aquatic or land vegetation which forms part of any habitat.
Glossary of terms
191
Wildlife management Management of populations of wild species and their habitats for the welfare of human beings and other species, and for the preservation of threatened and endangered wildlife species. Wildlife corridors Linear vegetated features, such as a hedgerows or roadside verges, that are linked to other wildlife areas and may act as interconnecting routes for the movement of animals between different areas needed during life, or facilitate dispersal of animals and plants by providing access to new or replacement sites. Wild animal It means any animal found wild in nature and includes any animal specified in Schedule I, Schedule II, Schedule III, Schedule IV or Schedule V of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 An Act to provide for the protection of wild animals, birds and plants and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto.
Sample Environmental Management Action Plan (EMAP) (This is an operational EMAP) EXAMPLE only: Please see NOTE at the end of the table
Environmental impact
Mitigation measures taken or to be taken
DESIGN PHASE Increased visual intrusion from clearance of alignment
1.
Ref No. 11 (FIDIC Clause)
Ref. No.22 (Contract Specs.)
Trees along the roadside in Siem Reap (SR) are under the management of APSARA (since the entire province is a cultural conservation zone). Carriageway widths have been modified to prevent and significantly reduce the need to cut trees. All tree cutting in the urban section of NR6 will be cleared by APSARA and the Provincial Town Planning Department. In rural sections tree removal will be based on a plan in which the trees interfering with safe traffic movement will be marked for removal. This plan will be checked by the PIU and approved
Location
Entire NR6 area
Time frame
Implementing organization/ Supervising organization
During design phase
Project Implementat -ion Unit (PIU), MPWT* and APSARA**
Capital cost in $$ (@3,600R/ $US) Included in the contract document capital costs
Operational costs/Unit cost ($/unit)
Sample Environmental Management Action Plan
Annexure II
See contract estimate
* MPWT Ministry of Public Works and Transport ** APSARA Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap 1 2
193
Clauses found in contract conditions FIDIC 4 Clauses found in the Specification of the contract packages of MPWT.
Danger to nonmotorized traffic 2.
Increasing 3. pedestrianvehicle accidents due to traffic volume and speed
Mitigation measures taken or to be taken
Ref. No.22 (Contract Specs.)
Location
Time frame
In rural sections of the road and where space permits— flattened path only
During design phase
During design phase
Implementing organization/ Supervising organization
Capital cost in $$ (@3,600R/ $US)
Included in the contract document capital costs
Operational costs/Unit cost ($/unit)
See contract estimate
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
prior to the commencement of civil works. A design will be prepared for an ox cart track paralleling the road (within the RoW) where space permits, either as a part of the roadway feature or a separate surface located a meter or two from the toe of the roadbed. Special provisions at bridges will also be designed into these cart tracks. Secondly, given that the carriageway is 8m across, (i.e. two fourmeter-wide lanes), there will be room for slower moving vehicles, e.g. motorcycles, to use the shoulder areas (about 1.5m) of the carriageway. A rehabilitated road will more than quadruple the traffic within a short span of its completion, due to the suppressed traffic restored onto the road. To help reduce the risk of serious accidents, speed control signs and other visual means will be used at the entrance and through the urban zones of towns and villages along the road. Many of the activities of the villages are centered on the road and thus there is a large pedestrian and livestock traffic back and forth across the road. A reduced speed will help both with
Ref No. 11 (FIDIC Clause)
194
Environmental impact
Land, assets and right to use land taken away
Mitigation measures taken or to be taken
4.
5.
6.
7.
Losses to cultural heritage Demolition of buried archaeological sites
8.
9.
Ref. No.22 (Contract Specs.)
Location
Refer to Table 6 in RAP
Time frame
Implementing organization/ Supervising organization During design MPWT and phase see NGO(s) Table 4 in recommended RAP: as a monitor Implementhe PIU tation schedule for RAP/EMAP
Damdek (NR6)
Contractor working with community leaders
Kampong Kdai (NR6)
Capital cost in $$ (@3,600R/ $US) MPWT and MOEF, plus Governor’s Office
Operational costs/Unit cost ($/unit) See RAP for $$ values
$12/m2 x 1000m2 shaded enclosed
36,000
10000
10000
Trapeang Rapou (NR3) Based in PP, but operating from Siem Reap Along SR roads
During design phase
PIU and CCP
During design phase
195
Compensation will be given to entitled PAPs based on a census of all PAPs. This will form the basis of the Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) and its Entitlement Policy. The RAP will be implemented by the provincial Governor’s Office in cooperation with a reputable NGO. The NGO would participate as the advisor to the Governor’s Office. Entitled people must be moved back from the work zone, (as defined during the PAP census), before any civil engineering works can start. This will be done in a sequence such that actual resettlement occurs at least 4 months ahead of the start of civil works in that location. (see RAP) The RAP will contain a section outlining who is entitled to compensation, what the compensation mechanisms will be, how grievances are filed, and how the Government is expected to handle them. In the approaches to towns and villages and the road through them, mobile vendors who sell items on the ground or from makeshift stands at the edge of the pavement, will be encouraged to conduct their business at new market areas provided by the project. These would be constructed at locations agreed to by the village head and the displaced vendors. These market areas are proposed for Damdek, Kampong Kdai and Trapeang Rapou. Details are provided in the RAP document. The Minister of Culture and Planning, will form a Steering Committee on Cultural Property (CCP) to address and make decisions on all architectural problems arising with the project. Deciding which of the small bridges will be restored should be one of the CCP’s first tasks. Visible cultural heritage sites along the alignment have been identified and inventoried. A more detailed surface archaeological survey of the road corridor will be conducted to confirm that there are no special additional sites that need conservation. A protocol
Ref No. 11 (FIDIC Clause)
Sample Environmental Management Action Plan
Environmental impact
Potential damage to Kampong Kdai Angkor bridge
Destruction of the nine small Angkor period bridges
10.
11.
12.
and action plan will also be prepared by the CCP, to establish exactly the procedure the contractor(s) must follow should a cultural feature be unearthed (regardless of size). Finally, the CCP will organize a half-day training session, given by an external expert, for contractors and monitors (latter from PIU and Env. Cell) on road construction and archaeological finds and key steps to follow. Attendance by contractors will be mandatory. A special study will be commissioned by the Bank (through the French Trust Fund (probably) to examine the load and emissions-related effects of future traffic across the Kampong Kdai bridge. The study will be directed by the PIU and will establish whether the bridge can continue to be used and if so what measures need to be taken. The nine small bridges have been inventoried and photographed. It was agreed with the Government to restore 2 of these bridges (but first dismantle them and move them to a suitable nearby site) for use as tourist attractions. The laterite rock blocks from the other nine bridges will be taken to a site designated by the CCP and left for use with the Angkor restoration. The CCP will decide on which of the bridges are to be restored and will carry out the site preparation. The CCP will also prepare an estimate cost, since much of the work is archeological. All culverts will be designed for the purpose of the flood discharge (100-year flood). In areas where extreme fill heights (>3.5m) need to be used to prevent road flooding, e.g. along NR3, cross drainage will be carefully managed to assure that no lands are flooded or conversely washed away by build-up of water followed by flash flooding. No new bridges will be constructed.
Ref No. 11 (FIDIC Clause)
Ref. No.22 (Contract Specs.)
Location
Time frame
Implementing organization/ Supervising organization
Capital cost in $$ (@3,600R/ $US)
Operational costs/Unit cost ($/unit)
During design phase At Kampong Kdai
At bridge sites
Refer to Engineering Design Report
180,000
Design phase, prior to the initiation of civil works
During design phase
Contractor with direction from PIU
10,000 per bridge
Included in bridge construction cost
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Increasing danger of flooding due to inadequate culverts and drainage
Mitigation measures taken or to be taken
196
Environmental impact
Mitigation measures taken or to be taken
Ref No. 11 (FIDIC Clause)
Ref. No.22 (Contract Specs.)
19.1. (c)
Special Specification Section 1.12
Location
Time frame
Throughout corridor during construction
During reconstruction of grade and between asphalt removal and replacement
Implementing organization/ Supervising organization
Capital cost in $$ (@3,600R/ $US)
Contractor/ MPWT and its PIU. At present no in-house environ. Capacity. It will come from new Env. Cell within MPWT, under ADBTA. Pollution Control Dept. for monitoring. standard equipment and materials
Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103
CONSTRUCTION PHASE Natural Environment (Dust, odour, air and noise)
Dust/ Odour
13.
14. 15.
16.
Water should be sprayed during the construction phase in any mixing area where dry materials are handled and/or crushed. Temporary access roads to aggregate sites must be included in the dust suppression programme. A spraying schedule will be prepared by the contractor and will serve as the basis of a dust control programme. The PIU will monitor this schedule should problems arise. Vehicles delivering materials to and from the construction sites should be covered to reduce spills. Asphalt application will be heated liquid bitumen sprayed onto an aggregate base. Bitumen preparation sites will be noisy, with some odor and a considerable risk of fire. Therefore all bitumen preparation and loading sites must be over 500m down-wind from any communities/residences, and the contractor must have spill and fire protection equipment available to rapidly deal with any accidents. Mixing and crushing plants/operations should be equipped with dust suppression devices such as water sprays. Operators should wear dust masks and ear protection.
19.1. (c) 19.1. (c)
During construction During construction phase
19.1. (c) During construction phase
Operational costs/Unit cost ($/unit)
Sample Environmental Management Action Plan
Environmental impact
197
Mitigation measures taken or to be taken
Ref No. 11 (FIDIC Clause) 19.1. (c)
Ref. No.22 (Contract Specs.) Special Specification Section 1.12
Throughout corridor
Special Specification Section 1.12
Throughout corridor
Location
Time frame
Implementing organization/ Supervising organization Beginning with Contractor/ and continuing / with throughout monitoring construction from PCD and PIU or Env. Cell of MPWT Beginning and Contractor/ throughout / with construction monitoring from PCD and PIU or Env. Cell of MPWT
Capital cost in $$ (@3,600R/ $US) Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103
Air Pollution
17.
Vehicles and machinery are to be regularly maintained so that emissions conform to national standards. Since Cambodia’s standards for emissions controls are still being developed, Thailand’s standards for construction vehicle and truck emissions will be applied.
Noise
18.
Noise standards at aggregate crushing plants and bitumen preparation sites will be strictly enforced to prevent increase in acceptable noise standards (Government of Thailand standards for commercial zones, namely L90 of 70 dBA). Maintenance of machinery and vehicles should be enhanced to minimize noise. When construction is taking place at ≤100 m from the many villages along both routes, or the road passes within 150m of sensitive areas such as hospitals, construction should be stopped from 2000 hrs to 0600 hrs. This will reduce night time noise levels—which in most towns are non-existent.
19.1. (c)
Wherever possible, the siting of alignment and filling should avoid ponds and wells. Natural wetlands, such as those found along the NR3 road corridor, should be left undisturbed. Where ponds are affected, replacements will be dug. Any wells removed must be replaced with an equivalent or better well (same flow level) prior to the closure of the existing well. In sections along watercourses, earth and stones will be properly disposed off so that they do not block rivers and streams, resulting in adverse impact on water quality and flow regime. The formation of standing waters on construction sites in tropical areas often leads to the spread of insect-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue fever and schistosomiasis. Therefore there must be a
Design requirement
Special Specification Section 1.12
1 on NR6, 1 on NR3
Whenever encountered during construction
PIU and Contractor/ / MOE and Env. Cell of MPWT
Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103
19.1. (c)
Special Specification Section 1.12
Refer to cross drainage structure engineering report
Whenever encountered during construction
Contractor/ / PIU and Env. Cell of MPWT
Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103
19.
20.
21.
Alteration of drainage
22.
23. Stagnant water as insect-borne disease
Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103
See RAP
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
WATER Loss of wetlands and ponds
19.1. (c)
Operational costs/Unit cost ($/unit)
198
Environmental impact
Mitigation measures taken or to be taken
vectors
24.
Siltation
25.
Contamination of water table or surface drainage
26.
vigorous programme by the contractor to avoid such standing waters, including the removal of old materials such as used tires and storage drums. In cases where standing waters are managed by their owners (users), e.g., through fish or waterfowl stocking, they will be held responsible for insect control. The owners/users should be given information about the dangers of waterborne diseases in standing water and how to prevent them. All necessary measures will be taken to prevent earthworks and stone works related to the road from impeding cross drainage at rivers/streams and canals or existing irrigation and drainage systems. ‘Sideborrow’ sites will be used as drainage ditches and designed such that they drain into the nearest water course—BUT at a slope (e.g., <5%) permitting fine suspended materials to settle out Construction materials containing fine particles, e.g. limestone or laterite, should be stored in an enclosure such that sediment laden water does not drain into near by watercourses, but rather percolates slowly into the soil. See measure for soil erosion.
Ref. No.22 (Contract Specs.)
19.1. (c)
Special Specification Section 1.12 Special Specification Section 1.12
Location
Time frame
Refer to Through out construction construction site plans period.
Refer to construction site plans
Throughout construction period
Implementing organization/ Supervising organization
Capital cost in $$ (@3,600R/ $US)
Contractor/ / PIU and Env. Cell of MPWT, input from MoEF PIU and Env. Cell prepare spill contingency plan Monitoring by PIU and Env. Cell, with advice from Pollution Control Dept.
Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103 Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103
Operational costs/Unit cost ($/unit)
199
For this type of road rehabilitation the most severe possible water quality impact could come from spilled bitumen or any petroleum products used to thin the bitumen. Bitumen is stored in drums which may leak or which are often punctured during handling after long periods (>6months in the elements) of storage. No bitumen must enter either running or dry streambeds and none can be disposed of in ditches or small waste disposal sites prepared by the contractor. Bitumen storage and mixing areas must be protected against spills and all contaminated soil must be properly handled according to MOE or other acceptable (to RCG and World Bank) standards. As a minimum these areas must be contained, such that any spills can be immediately contained and cleaned
Ref No. 11 (FIDIC Clause)
Sample Environmental Management Action Plan
Environmental impact
Mitigation measures taken or to be taken
27.
Contamination from fuel and lubricants
28.
Sanitation and waste disposal in construction camps
29.
30. 31.
Vehicle maintenance and refueling should be confined to areas in construction camps designed to contain spilled lubricants and fuels. Waste petroleum products must be collected, stored and taken to approved disposal sites, according to MOE requirements. Sufficient measures will be taken in the construction camps, i.e. provision of garbage bins and sanitation facilities. All sewage sources or toilet facilities should be at least 300m from water sources or existing residences. Prior to initiating work, the contractor will present a simple sewage management plan to the MOE and PIU for approval. Drinking water will meet national potable water standards. Solid waste and garbage will be collected in bins and disposed of daily, according to a brief and basic waste management plan prepared by the contractor and approved by the MOE and the PIU, prior to the commencement of civil works.
Ref. No.22 (Contract Specs.)
19.1. (c)
Special Specification Section 1.12
19.1. (c)
Special Specification Section 1.12
19.1. (c)
Special Specification Section 1.12
Location
Refer to construction design survey document (CDSR) Construction camp lease area
Time frame
Implementing organization/ Supervising organization
Capital cost in $$ (@3,600R/ $US)
Throughout construction period
Contractor/ / PIU and Env. Cell of MPWT
Covered under Item No. 103
Throughout construction period
Contractor/ / PIU and Env. Cell of MPWT
Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103 Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103
Construction Before and camp lease during building area of construction camps
Contractor/ / PIU and Env. Cell of MPWT
Operational costs/Unit cost ($/unit)
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Contamination from waste water (other than sewage)
up. Prior to initiating the work, the contractor will meet with the MOE to determine the proper siting of the mixing areas and the handling and management of such spills. Any petroleum products used in the preparation of the bitumen mixture must also be carefully managed to avoid spills and contamination of the local water table only 3-6 meters below the road surface. All justifiable measures will be taken to prevent the wastewater produced during construction from entering directly into rivers and irrigation systems.
Ref No. 11 (FIDIC Clause)
200
Environmental impact
SOIL Soil erosion
32. 33.
Loss of topsoil
34.
35.
Compaction of Soil
FLORA Loss of trees
Ref. No.22 (Contract Specs.)
Location
On slopes and other potentially erodible places along the roadside, appropriate vegetation that retards erosion should be planted. On sections with high filling and deep cutting, the slopes should be protected by stone or brick walls and planted with appropriate vegetation (occurring rarely on these project roads).
Design requirements
Special Specification Sections 6.6 and 6.20
Upon completion of construction activities at these sites
Contractor/ / PIU and Env. Cell of MPWT
Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103
Arable lands should not be used as earth borrowing or storage sites whenever possible. If needed, the topsoil (15cm or so) should be kept and refilled after excavation is over to minimize the impact on productive lands. It may be necessary to construct new access roads to aggregate sites, and place them through agricultural lands. These temporary roads will be made along existing farm tracks so as to avoid losses to agricultural lands. Contractors will be required to present proposed construction road alignments and hauling schedule to the PIU for approval, 4 weeks before construction is to commence. Construction vehicles should operate within the corridor of impact, i.e. approx. 9 m to either side of the carriageway centerline, to avoid damaging soil and vegetation. It will be most important to avoid soil compaction around trees. Generally the rule will be to avoid driving heavy equipment or trucks anywhere into the ‘drip-line’ of a tree (defined as the imaginary line around a tree where rainwater falls freely to the ground unimpeded by the tree’s foliage).
19.1. (c)
Special Specification Section 1.12
Primarily at water crossings and sections where fill heights are >3m. Refer to CDSR Along corridor
During construction
Contractor/ / PIU and Env. Cell of MPWT
Along river north of Kampong Kdai
During construction
Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103
36.
19.1. (c)
Special Specification Section 1.12
Throughout corridor especially in productive areas
During construction
Contractor/ / PIU and Env. Cell of MPWT
Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103
37.
A tree-cutting and replanting scheme will be prepared by APSARA, the Provincial Forestry Department, the contractor and the PIU, within the first four months of the start of civil works. Tree clearing within the RoW of NR3 should be avoided beyond
Design
Special Specification Section 6.6
Areas of tree plantations along roadsides;
Soon after completion of construction activities in immediate area
Forest Dept.// PIU, Env. Cell of MPWT and
Covered under normal work Pay items and Item
19.1. (c)
Time frame
Implementing organization/ Supervising organization
Capital cost in $$ (@3,600R/ $US)
Operational costs/Unit cost ($/unit)
201
Ref No. 11 (FIDIC Clause)
Mitigation measures taken or to be taken
Sample Environmental Management Action Plan
Environmental impact
Mitigation measures taken or to be taken
Ref No. 11 (FIDIC Clause)
Ref. No.22 (Contract Specs.)
what is directly required for construction activities and what should be removed to reduce accidents. A replanting scheme must be developed by the APSARA, the contractor and the PIU, within the same 4-month time period. Compaction of vegetation
38.
See soil compaction (No. 36).
39.
Construction workers should be told to protect natural resources and wild animals. Hunting is strictly prohibited. Stream crossings that are dry during the work period should be kept unobstructed at all times and the channels should not be altered, since during the monsoon periods these dry river beds become fishing areas for local residents. Materials are not to be borrowed from these river beds. In the NR3 corridor, the first 5 km of roadway are flanked by brackish tidal waters, which mark the end of a large brackish wetland stretching to the coast. During road construction this channel may have to be moved back away from the carriageway, and if so this must be done with great care to make sure that the natural water movement (in terms of flow and volume) is maintained. Prior to civil works beginning there, the MoE should be consulted. Many of the streams along NR3, for which culverts will be sized, are tidally influenced and therefore adequate measures to keep such flows unimpeded must be considered in calculating the culvert sizes.
Location
refer to strip mapping survey
Time frame
Implementing organization/ Supervising organization contractor
Capital cost in $$ (@3,600R/ $US) No. 103
Operational costs/Unit cost ($/unit)
202
Environmental impact
During clearing operations
Special Specification Section 1.12
Especially in arable areas
During construction
Contractor/ / PIU and Env. Cell of MPWT
Special Specification Section 1.12
Vicinity of construction
During construction
Contractor/ / PIU, MOE and Env. Cell
FAUNA
40.
42.
Contractor/ / PIU, MOE and Env. Cell
Contractor/ / PIU, MOE and Env. Cell
Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
41.
19.1. (c)
Social Environment
Mitigation measures taken or to be taken
Ref No. 11 (FIDIC Clause)
Ref. No.22 (Contract Specs.)
29.1
Special Specification Section 1.9
Wherever necessary
During construction
During construction
Contractor/ / PIU and police authority
During construction
Contractor/ / PIU
Location
Loss of access
43.
Temporary bypasses should be constructed and maintained (including dust control) during the construction period, particularly at bridge crossings.
Traffic jams and congestion
44.
If there are traffic jams during construction, measures should be taken to relieve the congestion through better coordination between the contractor, the Provincial Transportation Department, and the police.
19.1. (c)
Special Specification Section 1.9
High traffic and urban areas
Road safety; collisions between vehicles, people and livestock
45.
Control speed of construction vehicles through road safety education and fines. Allow for adequate traffic flow around construction areas. Provide adequate signage, barriers and flag persons for traffic control. Communicate to the public through radio, TV, and newspaper announcements regarding the scope and time frame of projects, as well as certain construction activities causing disruptions or access restrictions.
19.1. (c)
Special Specification Section 1.9
Throughout road corridors
46. 47. 48.
Time frame
Month’s period
Implementing organization/ Supervising organization
Capital cost in $$ (@3,600R/ $US)
Contractor/ / PIU and Env. Cell
Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103 Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103 Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103
Operational costs/Unit cost ($/unit)
Sample Environmental Management Action Plan
Environmental impact
203
Deterioration of health of workers due to poor camp conditions
Mitigation measures taken or to be taken
49.
50. 51.
Risks from accidents during blasting in quarries
52.
Cultural Remains
54.
53.
56.
Littering with waste construction materials
57.
If archaeological relics or remains are discovered, the procedure developed by the CCP should be triggered immediately. The primary contact would be APSARA in Siem Reap. The construction should be stopped until APSARA or their designated specialist assesses the find and gives a resume work instruction. Should any artifacts be uncovered, archaeologists will supervise the excavation to avoid any damage to the relics. A detailed study is to be conducted on the Kampong Kdai bridge to assess its structural strength and resistance to corrosive emissions, to establish whether it can be used as an NR6 bridge. All construction materials should be reused, recycled or properly disposed of. This will become particularly important at the many small bridge replacement sites, where old reinforced concrete will need to be properly disposed of. All worn out parts, equipment and empty containers must be removed from the site to a proper storage location designated by the provincial government and the MOE.
19.1. (c)
Ref. No.22 (Contract Specs.) Special Specification Section 1.12
Location
Construction camps
Time frame
During construction At start-up
19.1. (c)
At start-up
Implementing organization/ Supervising organization Contractor/ / PIU Env. Cell of MPWT, Health Dept and MOE
Capital cost in $$ (@3,600R/ $US) Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103 Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103 Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103
19.1. (a)
Special Specification Section 1.12
In areas with rock substrate and in quarries
During construction
Contractor/ / Police
27.1
Special Specification Section 1.12
Throughout road corridors
Throughout construction
Contractor with PIU, APSARA and Env. Cell of MPWT
19.1 (c)
Special Specification Section 1.12
Throughout road corridors
Throughout construction
Contractor with PIU, and Env. Cell of MPWT
Covered under normal work Pay items and Item No. 103
Operational costs/Unit cost ($/unit)
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
55.
Make certain that there is good drainage at all construction areas, to avoid creation of stagnant water bodies, including water in old tires, especially in urban/industrial areas. Provide adequate sanitation and waste disposal at construction camps. Provide adequate health care for workers and locate camps away from sensitive areas. Effective safety and warning measures will be taken to reduce accidents. The management and use of blasting materials will be in strict conformity with the safety requirements for public security.
Ref No. 11 (FIDIC Clause) 19.1. (c)
204
Environmental impact
Mitigation measures taken or to be taken
Ref No. 11 (FIDIC Clause)
Ref. No.22 (Contract Specs.)
Location
Time frame
Implementing organization/ Supervising organization
Capital cost in $$ (@3,600R/ $US)
Regular intervals based on maint. plan
Design then build during construction
MPWT Env Cell of MPWT, Forest Department
Covered in construction phase under sub-head of Flora of this EMAP
OPERATIONAL PHASE Natural Environment AIR Dust
58.
Maintain roads.
59.
Replace roadside tree plantations lost to construction and encourage new afforestation projects. Any areas where new plantings took place
Pollution
60.
61.
Noise
62.
According to monitoring results, at places with excessive noise, measures such as soil berms, dense layered plantings of vegetation, line of sight blockages to noise by placement of commercial establishments to block the noise, or other measures should be considered.
63.
Contingency plans for cleanup of spills of oil, fuel, and toxic chemicals, according to Item No. 27-29 and
Particularly in settlement areas
After completion of construction See Flora After completion of construction
1.12.6.1 1.12.6.2
Provincial Governor’s
Should be developed
Dept of Pollution Control// MPWT Forest Department // Env. Cell of MPWT MOE, MPWT, Dept of Pollution Control and Forestry Dept.
Prov. Public Works
Covered in construction phase under sub-head of Flora of this EMAP
205
WATER RESOURCES Contamination from spills due
The Department of Pollution Control of the MOE should check emissions from diesel trucks, buses and 2-stroke motor bikes semi-annually and require maintenance. By increasing roadside plantations, localized air pollution will be reduced due to the blocking effect of foliage and through photosynthesis.
Plant immediately after area is no longer disturbed
Operational costs/Unit cost ($/unit)
Sample Environmental Management Action Plan
Environmental impact
to traffic movement and accidents Maintenance of storm water drainage system FAUNA Tend and maintain tree plantations
Social Environment
64.
based on a spill contingency plan worked out by a consultant for the MPWT, within one week of the opening. The drainage system will be periodically cleared so as to ensure adequate storm water flow.
65.
Trees planted along the roadsides and in villages to replace the ones lost during construction need to have a tending and maintenance schedule prepared and live-tree counts provided to the MPWT every six months.
66.
PREPARATION OF A SPILL CONTINGENCY PLAN: For delivery of hazardous substances, three certificates issued by the transportation department are required - permit license, driving license, and guarding license. Vehicles delivering hazardous substances will be labeled with standardized signs. Public security, transportation and fire fighting departments will be made aware of the routes and designated parking lots for these vehicles. In case of spills of hazardous materials, report to the Pollution Control Department in PP at once and deal with it in accordance with the spill contingency plan.
67. 68.
Ref No. 11 (FIDIC Clause)
Ref. No.22 (Contract Specs.)
Location
Time frame
Office and MPWT 1.12.2.5
Urban areas
Beginning and end of monsoon
1.12.6.2
N/A
Prepare Plan within 6 months of commencement of construction and familiarize contractor with SCP at start of work and implementation measures that are required.
Implementing organization/ Supervising organization Dept., Govt. office and MoE MPWT, Municipal Govt.
Capital cost in $$ (@3,600R/ $US)
Operational costs/Unit cost ($/unit)
MPWT, working with the MoE and likely an international consultant
Note: 1. This EMP, is in a form which has proven to be the most useful for direct inclusion or transfer of materials to contracts. Being specific in defining the mitigative measures in column 2 is critical, as is the identification of who will be responsible.
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
Accident involving hazardous materials
Mitigation measures taken or to be taken
206
Environmental impact
3. 4. 5.
Usually accompanying the EMP, is an implementation schedule, prepared as a bar chart showing the tasks listed in the EMP in relation to the planning, start and execution of the engineering work. It is often very useful to include the Resettlement Action Plan schedule in this bar chart. Make sure that each mitigation measure is numbered, in order to permit cross referencing. Wildlife and sensitive habitat impacts can also be highlighted as colours or shaded to add special emphasis—there can also be interrelated tasks shown. Make sure that the “impacts” listed in column 1 are truly impacts, they must be worded as impacts—this is often poorly done.
Sample Environmental Management Action Plan
2.
207
INDEX
Analysis
Biodiversity 53,57,75,115
checklists 94-95
Biological diversity see biodiversity
expert systems 104-105,107
Biological integrity
Calyx-ADB system 105,107 ECOZONE 105 matrices 98-99
ecosystems, 47 and special ecosystem, 52 Birds
and threat matrix 94
diversity 2,19
models 103,106-107,115
estimation 98
EIA-AID 104
identification 96
EIA-TRACK 104
indicator 3
SOURCE 104 Animals distribution 102
mortality 16,62 Borrow pits 112 Buffer zone 71,72,80
dispersal 60,71 mortality 13,16-17,23,60,62
Canada 115
movement 13,15-16,20,59,61,79
Case studies
Aquatic ecosystem 15,18,47-48 see also under ecosystem types
Case 1
Road rail network development and Gir National Park and Sanctuary, India 131
Case 2
Kohalpur-Mahakali highway, Nepal 139
Avoidance 7,62,109 Bangladesh Third Road Project 111 Barriers 15,16,23,61 artificial 77
Case 3 Mumbai-Pune expressway, India 155
ecological 59
Case 4
noise 42 physical 54,59 psychological 54,60 Baseline studies, 95 Benefit 2,3 Benefit-Cost Analysis 67,108 see also cost-benefit analysis
Linear development and elephant movement; RajajiCorbett conservation area, India 155
Case 5 Colombo Katunayake Expressway, Sri Lanka 163 Case 6 The Nandyal-GiddalurThokapalli road, India 173
Best practice 9,29,68,95
Caves, karst areas and coral reefs see under ecosystem types
Best use classification 32
Coastal see under ecosystem types
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
210
Coastal wetlands 57 Communities animal/wildlife, 51,56,58,71 and plant, 48,60,97
Critical habitat 67,74,96 natural capital, 2 Crossing structures 59,61,71 Cumulative actions
characteristics of 14,114
additive 21see also case study 4
composition of 60
aggregated 100
description of 97
Cumulative effects
ecological, 2 local,tribal and rural 26,56,74,75
incremental or multiplicative effects 21
unique, 140
measurement of 21
Compensation 70,73,74,110
sources of 22
Comoensatory afforestation 113
spatial extent of 23
Conditional clearance 152
temporal extent of 23,108
and additional condition for clearance 173 Conservation biodiversity/wildlife 13,30,72,78 conservation buffer zone see buffer zone conservation significance 108 Construction 5,13-15,18 see also contractor and road costs 40,193 contract/contractual clause 71
Data biological 102 chemical contaminants 18-19 ecological 96,97 primary 102 remotely sensed 100,106 secondary 114 spatial 101-102 Database
environmental guidelines 29,37,38
designing 100
and sectoral guidelines 34,40-41
sources 121-127
monitoring for compliance 112-113
type, of database
schedule 109,113 Contractor 28 see also under stakeholder Cost-Benefit Analysis 111 Corridor
computerized 104 environmental 116 field based 97 historical 110 Data collection 96-97
movement 75
Decision making 8,29,90-91,100
river 190
Department of Environment
road 59
Bangladesh 36
wildlife route 76,157
Bhutan 37
Cover
India 25,29
estimation 97
Nepal 38
forest 72
Pakistan 39
vegetative 61,67,69
Sri Lanka 41
Index
Desert see under ecosystem types
211
restoration 8,72
Development planning 38 Development
and habitat restoration 73 replacement 73,103
rural 16,39
and habitat replacement 73
rural roads 47,62
stability 71
urban 6,41
type, of ecosystem
urban roads 4,67
aquatic, 68
Directives 25
caves, karst areas and coral 52
Diversity
reefs 53
biological 14,47,74
coastal 48,149
ecological 48,51
desert, 48
Disturbance
forest 50-51
ecological 15
Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary 51
indicators of 93 see also indicators under impact
Pollachi-Chalakudi road,Tamil Nadu 51
Dudhwa Tiger Reserve 50
mountain and alpine, 48-49
Documentation, content, format and responsibility 33-35,37, 41,43 EA see EIA Ecologically critical areas 36 Ecological impacts, predicting 69,157,166,175 Ecological evaluation baseline, estabilishment of 97 criteria 108 see also impact indicator diversity 96 tools for evaluation 98 see also checklists, matrices, networks overlays Ecological concepts
savannah and grassland 49-50 unique ecosystem 151 valued ecosystem component (VEC) 92 EIA analysis see Analysis approaches 91-94 basic elements 89 controls/checks 34,37-39,41 deficiencies 89 design 90 effectiveness, of EIA 90 institutional set up 25
in EA 91
legislative tools 28, 36-37,39-40,43
in EcA 91
notification, EIA 29-30
in project scoping 91
practical and scientific, EIA 2,91,111
Ecosystem barriers see barriers
problems, in EIA 90 regulatory agencies
conservation status 96
Bangladesh 36
evaluation guide 96
Bhutan 38
fragility 48,156
India 26
resilience 108
Nepal 38
redundancy 47,93
Pakistan 40
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
212
Sri Lanka 41 scoping process 91
Forest see under ecosystem types Forest clearance 34,35
screening process 40 steps involved, screening Bangladesh 37 India 33,34 Nepal 39 Pakistan 40 Sri Lanka 43,44 software see Analysis Ecological Impact Assessment (EAE) 91 Endangered wildlife species 107,140 Endemic species 150,165 Environmental clearance 33 chain of command Bangladesh 36 Bhutan 37,38 India 33
Geographical information system (GIS) 100-102 application, in EIA 102 glossary 182-192 Habitat assessment and evaluation Procedure 97,103 Habitat designations national parks 188 Gir National Park 131 Rajaji National Park 155 Royal Bardia National Park 140 reserved forest 189 sanctuaries 190 Gundla Bramheswaram Sanctuary 173 tiger reserves 155
Nepal 39
Buxa Tiger Reserve 68
Pakistan 40
Pench Tiger Reserve 64
Sri Lanka 43 procedures Bangladesh 37 Bhutan 37,38
Sariska Tiger Reserve 66 wetlands 191 wildlife corridors 192 Habitat integrity 13
India 25 see also Figure 3.3, 35 Nepal 39 Pakistan 40,41 Sri Lanka 41,42
Impact categories cumulative 20 - 21
Environmental law see under EIA legislative tools
direct 20 see also primary
Environmental safeguards 144,152153
primary 54,100
Environmenal sensitive areas 42
indirect 20 see also secondary secondary 54,100,102 synergistic 20-22
Erosion and sedimentation 18
cause-effect relationships 20-21,68 see also Table 2.2
Field surveys/sampling 95,106 and wildlife surveys 96,97
cross drainage structures 158 see also crossing structures and case study on Rajaji National park, 155
Fire 15,19,67
duration, of impacts 108
Index
213
evaluation tools checklists 94
resource exploitation 67 tourism, impact of 65 Gir National Park 65,133,137
computerized mapping 100 matrices, example of 99
Implementation
networks, example of 100
compliance monitoring 145
overlays, example of 101
environmental management plan
indictors, of impact 93,107,108 magnitude, of impact 107
mitigation plan 145 Institutional framework 25
meta-populations, impact on 58 predictive models 103
Knowledge bases 104-105
habitat evaluation procedures (HEP) 103
Management(Action) Plan 113
habitat suitability index model (HSI), application of 103
Methods
road-effects zone 55-56 significance, of impacts 106-107 summary, of road activities and impacts see Table 4.3 types
sample of 193-207 error, 178 field techniques 97, see also field surveys mapping 100 sampling 97
animal mortality see under animal Gir National Park and Sanctuary 63,133-136 Pench Tiger Reserve 64 barrier effect 59,69,74,134 erosion and sedimentation 67,147
survey techniques 96,98 design and analysis 97-98 methods 97-103 Mitigation, including mitigative measures and approaches
fire 67,135
avoidance and prevention 109 see also avoidance
habitat contamination 167
barriers effects
habitat degradation 151
crossing structures 75
habitat fragmentation 53,141, 147
design modifications 75,144
habitat modification 53,147 and transformation 55-57
habitat manipulation 76 route selection, 74
habitat loss 54
compensation measures 110
human use and colonization 63
cost of 145
hunting 66
erosion, siltation and sedimentation 79,167 alignment 79 bioengineering 79
habitat isolation 58 and isolated animal population 157 movement obstruction and restriction 157,163,167 see also disruption under migratory movement
contract clause 80 engineering 79 slope grading and stabilizing 79 fragmentation and isolation 71
Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife
214
conservation buffer zones 71 ecological connectivity-networks and corridors 72 engineered structures 71 human use 77 environmental clauses 79 check posts, for inspection 78,144,177 road closure 78,79,144 speed limits 78,143 mortality, preventive devices, alarms, flash mirror and fencing 76,77,143,177 traffic controls, speed breakers and warning signage, 76,78,137 Indicators of disturbance 93
India, schedule I projects 33 Nepal, donor funded projects 39 Pakistan 40 Sri Lanka, prescribed projects 41 Protected areas national parks 188 sanctuaries 190 Public consultation legislative requirement for 34 participatory process 4 public hearing 27,35 Prevention, see avoidance and prevention
of habitat 93 of pollution 93 selection criteria 94 Migratory movement, disruption, 151 facilitation, 23 Monitoring compliance monitoring 112,142,178 effects monitoring 113 environmental management action plan (EMAP) 113,193 monitoring programme 169 monitoring protocol 153 responsibility 112,113 Mountain and alpine ecosystem see under ecosystem types Movement corridor see under corridor
Rapid rural appraisal, various forms 111 Remedial measures 109 avoidance 109 mitigation 109 habitat enhancement 109 compensation 73,110 Roads alignment, options 151,157 categories, in relation to types of impact 6 construction 14 borrow pits 112,176 construction/work camps 69 earthworks 50,142 crossing structures 61 culvert, placement 75-76 design criteria 61,159
Network 99
and provisions 170
No net loss 109
wildlife crossing structures 75 see also crossing structures
Project screening categories Bangladesh, orange and red category 36
engineered structures 157 environmental clause 28,79 impacts on wildlife and habitat 13
Index
215
networks, summary for India and South Asia 5,6
proponents 26-27
new versus upgraded 6,7
NGOs and local governments 27
and planning 7
regulatory agencies 26-27
statistics 4,5 Roads project
facilitators ( EIA specialist) 27
Standards air, ambient 31-32
Arun Basin Power Project access road 102
environmental quality, 30,37
Coastal highway, Orissa 49
water, air, ambient 31 see also best use classification
Dakpai-Buli road, Bhutan 50 East-west highway, Great Nicobar 54 Golden Quadrangle Road Project 5 Kohalpur-Mahakali highway, Nepal 60,141 Lantau expressway, Hong Kong 74 Mumbai-Pune Expressway Project 55 see also Case Study 3 Rajasthan State Highway Project 57 Tala-Rydak road and Buxa Tiger Reserve 68 Sariska-Kalighati Pandupole road 66 Savannah and grasslands see under ecosystem types Screening approach 92 criteria 92 definition 91 guide 92 Scoping criteria 92 definition 92 Species estimates 2 Study baseline 95
noise, ambient 32
Stake holder 26-27 Traffic exotic species, introduction of 66 impact 22 movement, of traffic 62,70 pollution, source of emissions 18,19,66 restriction, of animal movement 141see also mortality Websites, 115 Wildlife and roads 7 conservation 176 extinction 31-32 endangered and threatened, IUCN listing 96 key habitats 102 keystone species 188 population dynamics 16 size 58 viability 58 regulations 36,39,43 value
field 95
ecological 3
limits 91,92,95
economic 2
reconnaissance 106-107
recreational 3
Stakeholders contractors 28 culture and heritage groups 26-27
scientific 3 spiritual, cultural and religious 3 Wildlife action plan 10,30
Asha Rajvanshi, D. Phil. (Garhwal University) is an environmental scientist specializing in ecological impact assessment. She has vast experience of conducting, coordinating and reviewing environmental impact assessment of development projects in various sectors. Presently, she is a Senior Reader and Faculty Incharge of the Environmental Impact Assessment Cell at the Wildlife Institute of India. She has contributed significantly both nationally and internationally in building the technical capacity in the field of EIA through her professional inputs in academic and professional training programmes. She has served on several Committees of the Government of India for environmental appraisal of development projects and has worked as a consultant for several international agencies . She is also the member of the International Association for Impact Assessment. Vinod B Mathur, D. Phil. (Oxford University, England) is a wildlife ecologist specializing in Protected Area management and mitigation planning of developmental projects. He began his career as a professional forester and joined the Wildlife Institute of India in 1986. He has been associated with the conduct of Environmental Assessments of developmental projects. Presently, he is the Professor and Head of the Department of Protected Area Network, Wildlife Management and Conservation Education and is involved in training, research and consultancy in the field of biodiversity conservation. He is also a member of the International Association for Impact Assessment and has worked as a consultant for several international agencies. Geza C. Teleki, M.Sc. (California State Unv., Humboldt) is an ecologist, specializing in environmental and social sector impact prevention and mitigation planning. He initially served as a fisheries scientist working on one of Canada's first long term impact monitoring program for industrial complex developments on large lakes and then as a biologist with a power utility on the Columbia River. In 1982 he entered private practice, focusing on international environmental and social sector consulting and technical capacity building. He has worked in 23 countries around the world and has completed over 120 environmental and social sector studies as well as works on institution building. He has written more than 150 environmental reports and has published a large a number of technical books and research articles. Sujit Kumar Mukherjee, M.Sc. (Sagar University) is a professional forester and has a vast experience as a wildlife manager. Presently, he is the Director of the Wildlife Institute of India. He has coordinated several Environmental Impact Assessment studies and has served on several advisory committees of the Govt. of India to advise on matters related to the amendments in the wildlife and environmental legislations and the formulation of national environmental and wildlife conservation policies.
W
ildlife biologists have at their disposal a large library of texts, sourcebooks and manuals on how to manage wildlife ecosystems. Conversely, transportation planners and managers, who must regularly route roads and rail lines across expanses of wildlife territory, rivers, wetlands and along coastlines have no such tools. A classic case of underequipping the 'front lines'. This seems doubly unfortunate given that roads are the single most intrusive human activity in relation to wildlife and wildlife habitat. The Roads, Sensitive Habitats and Wildlife: Environmental Guideline for India and South Asia, has been written to fill that gap. It is likely the first of its kind in the region. The Guideline defines a basic step-by-step process that permits non-specialists to incorporate wildlife and wildlife habitat conservation principles into road and rail planning. It is not an exhaustive treatment of wildlife ecology and latest techniques. The authors have presented these steps in the context of basic wildlife biology and conservation concepts in order to provide a realistic backdrop to the wildlife-road transportation relationship. The authors present more than 75 accounts of actual project experiences across India and South Asia and provide six case studies that highlight lessons learned. It is hoped that the inclusion of the case studies will stimulate the further exchange of experiences among road planners and natural resource managers across India and South Asia. WII is extending this work by continuing to assemble wildlife-roadrelated studies and data from across India.
CEC Canadian Environmental Collaborative Ltd.
