The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions - International Symposium Proceedings (Studies in Environmental Science)

THE BIOSPHERE: PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Other volumes in this series

1 Atmospheric Pollution 1978 edited by M.M. Benarie 2 Air Pollution Reference Measurement Methods and Systems edited by T. Schneider, H.W. de Koning and L.J. Brasser

3 Biogeochemical Cycling of Mineral-Forming Elements edited by P.A. Trudinger and D.J. Swaine

4 Potential Industrial Carcinogens and Mutagens by L. Fishbein 5 Industrial Waste Managements by S.E. Jdrgensen 6 Trade and Environment: A Theoretical Enquiry by H. Siebert, J. Eichberger, R. Gronych and R. Pethig 7 Field Worker Exposure during Pesticide Application edited by W.F. Tordoir and E.A.H. van Heemstra-Lequin 8 Atmospheric Pollution 1980 edited by M.M. Benarie 9 Energetics and Technology of Biological Elimination of Wastes edited by G. Milazzo 10 Bioengineering, Thermal Physiology and Comfort edited by K. Cena and J.A. Clark 11 Atmospheric Chemistry. Fundamental Aspects by E. MBszaros 12 Water Supply and Health edited by H. van Lelyveld and B.C.J. Zoeteman 13 Man under Vibration. Suffering and Protection edited by G. Bianchi, K.V. Frolov and A. Oledzki 14 Principles of EnvironmentalScience and Technology by S.E. Jdrgensen and 1. Johnsen 15 Disposal of Radioactive Wastes by Z.DlouhO 16 Mankind and Energy edited by A. Blanc-Lapierre 17 Quality of Groundwater edited by W. van Duijvenbooden, P. Glasbergen and H. van Lelyveld 18 Educationand Safe Handling in Pesticide Application edited by E.A.H. van HeemstraLequin and W.F. Tordoir 19 Physicochemical Methods for Water and Wastewater Treatment edited by L. Pawlowski

20 Atmospheric Pollution 1982 edited by M.M. Benarie 21 Air Pollution by Nitrogen Oxides edited by T. Schneider and L. Grant 22 Environmental Radioanalysis by H.A. Das, A. Faanhof and H.A. van der Sloot 23 Chemistry for Protection of the Environment edited by L. Pawlowski, A.J. Verdier and W.J. Lacy 24 Determination and Assessment of Pesticide Exposure edited by M. Siewierski

Studies in Environmental Science 25

THE BIOSPHERE: PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS Proceedings of the Miami International Symposium on the Biosphere, 23-24 April 1984, Miami Beach, Florida, U S A .

edited by

T. N. Veziroglu Clean Energy Research Institute, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, U.S.A.

ELSEVlE R Amsterdam

- Oxford - New York

1984

- Tokyo

ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS B.V. Molenwerf 1 P.O. Box 21 1,lOOO AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Distributors for the United Stares and Canada: ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHING COMPANY INC. 52, Vanderbilt Avenue New York, N Y 10017

Library of ('ongrehs Cataloging in Publication Data

Miami International Symposium on the Biosphere Miami Beach, Fla.) The biosphere : problems and solutions.

(1984

:

(Studies in environmental science ; v. 25) Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Environmental protection--Congresses. 2. Biosphere--Congresses. 3. Human ecology--Congresses. I. Veziroglu, 'r. Nejat. 11. Title. 111. Series.

TD169.M5j 1984 363.7 ISBN 0-444-42424-5

84-21216

ISBN 0-444-42424-5 (Val. 25) ISBN 044441696-X (Series) @Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1984 A l l rights reserved. N o part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V./Science & Technology Division, P.O. Box 330,1000 A H Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Special regulations for readers in the USA - This publication has been registered with the Copyright Clearance Center Inc. (CCC), Salem Massachusetts. Information can be obtained from the CCC about conditions under which photocopies of parts of this publication may be made in the USA. All other copyright questions, including photocopying outside o f the USA, should be referred t o the copyright owner, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., unless otherwise specified. Printed in The Netherlands

V

THE BIOSPHERE:

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e M i a m i I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on t h e B i o s p h e r e , 23-24 A p r i l 1984, M i a m i B e a c h , F l o r i d a , U . S . A . ; p r e s e n t e d by t h e C l e a n E n e r g y R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y o f Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, i n cooperation with t h e International Association f o r Hydrogen E n e r g y a n d t h e D e p a r t m e n t of Mechanical Engineering, University of M i a m i .

EDITOR T. Nejat Veziroglu Clean Energy Research I n s t i t u t e University of M i a m i Coral Gables, F l o r i d a , U.S.A. EDITORIAL BOARD Aykut Menteg U n i v e r s i t y o f Miami Coral Gables, F l o r i d a , U . S . A .

Harold J. P l a s s , Jr. University of M i a m i Coral Gables, F l o r i d a , U.S.A. f l k e r Gcrkan U n i v e r s i t y of b f i a m i Coral Gables, F l o r i d a , U . S . A . MANUSCRIPT EDITOR S h e i l a M:. P u r y e a r Clean Energy Research I n s t i t u t e University of l i a m i Coral Gables, F l o r i d a , U.S.A. MANUSCRIPT ASSISTANTS E l i z a b e t h J. C i s a r Clean Energy Research I n s t i t u t e University of N i a m i Ccral Gables, F l o r i d a , U . S . A . C r i s t i n a Robu Clean Energy Research I n s t i t u t e U n i v e r s i t y of M i a m i C o r a l Gables, F l o r i d a , U.S.A.

VI

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The O r g a n i z i n g C o m m i t t e e o f t h e M i a m i I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on t h e B i o s p h e r e g r a t e f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e s t h e s u p p o r t , h e l p a n d c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r Hydrogen Energy and t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g , U n i v e r s i t y of bliami. We w i s h t o e x t e n d o u r s i n c e r e a p p r e c i a t i o n t o t h e K e y n o t e Speaker, D r . Nicholas Polunin o f t h e Foundation f o r Environmental C o n s e r v a t i o n , Geneva, S w i t z e r l a n d , and t o t h e B a n q u e t S p e a k e r , D r . C r a i g B. D a v i s , World C o u n c i l f o r t h e E i o s p h e r e and t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u n c i l f o r E n v i r o n m e n t a l E d u c a t i o n , Ames, Iowa. S p e c i a l t h a n k s are d u e t o o u r a u t h o r s and l e c t u r e r s , who h a v e p r o v i d e d t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e Symposium as p u b l i s h e d i n t h e p r e s e n t volume o f p r o c e e d i n g s . And l a s t b u t n o t l e a s t , o u r d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e i s owed t o t h e s e s s i o n c h a i r p e r s o n s f o r t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and e x e c u t i o n of t h e technical sessions. The O r g a n i z i n g Committee b f i a n i i I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium

on t h e B i o s p h e r e

VII

PREFACE

Our b i o s p h e r e , t h e o n l y e n v i r o n m e n t i n t h e u n i v e r s e known t o b e h o s p i t a b l e t o l i f e , is u n d e r a t t a c k by many a g e n t s o n many f r o n t s . T h e s e a g e n t s h a v e a r i s e n , t o a l a r g e d e g r e e , from human a c t i v i t i e s d e s i g n e d t o meet t h e g r o w i n g w a n t s a n d n e e d s of a n exp a n d i n g w o r l d p o p u l a t i o n . Among t h e l e a d i n g o f f e n d e r s are a c i d r a i n s , a c i d smog, a i r p o l l u t a n t s , COX, NOx a n d SOX, waste h e a t , o i l s p i l l s , s o l i d w a s t e s , c h e m i c a l w a s t e s , n o n - b i o d e g r a d a b l e wastes and n u c l e a r wastes. The e f f e c t s o f t h e i r a c t i o n s are o b s e r v a b l e i n t h e ongoing p r o c e s s e s o f a c i d i f i c a t i o n , d e f o r e s t a t i o n , desertif i c a t i o n , l a n d e r o s i o n and r i s i n g o c e a n s : poisoningthe.atmosphere, f o u l i n g t h e water s u p p l i e s a n d c a u s i n g o t h e r f o r m s o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l damage. The hazards t o human h e a l t h p o s e d by a d e t e r i o r a t i n g env i r o n m e n t a r e compounded by u n s a f e c o n d i t i o n s i n many f a c t o r i e s and m i n e s . M o r e o v e r , these h a z a r d o u s c o n d i t i o n s are f o u n d in every n a t i o n o f t h e world, whatever its d e g r e e o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . The o b j e c t i v e o f t h e M i a m i I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium o n t h e E i o s p h e r e w a s t o p r o v i d e a forum f o r t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e l a t e s t research f i n d i n g s o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s of human a c t i v i t i e s . Wewished t o c o n s i d e r what is h a p p e n i n g a n d what must b e d o n e - t o r e d u c e a n d e l i m i n a t e h a r m f u l e f f e c t s end t o improve t h e environment and q u a l i t y o f l i f e f o r a l l t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f o u r e f e l t i t i m p o r t a n t , a l s o , t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r refragile planet. W searchers a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f i n d u s t r y , g o v e r n m e n t a n d academia, t o p r o m o t e t h e b r o a d e s t p o s s i b l e p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e s e p r o b l e m s and t o a r r i v e a t u n i f i e d and o p t i m a l s o l u t i o n s . T h i s v o l u m e o f p r o c e e d i n g s p r e s e n t s t h e p a p e r s recommended by t h e s e s s i o n c h a i r p e r s o n s and t h e k e y n o t e a n d l u n c h e o n b a n q u e t addresses. I t is a r r a n g e d i n 16 c h a p t e r s by s u b j e c t . The reader should b e a d v i s e d t h a t it w a s d i f f i c u l t t o c l a s s i f y s p e c i f i c a l l y some of t h e p a p e r s where t h e r e w a s a n o v e r l a p i n t h e s u b j e c t matt e r . I n s u c h cases, we t r i e d t o make t h e best p o s s i b l e choice. Wehope t h a t t h e p r o c e e d i n g s o f t h i s c o n f e r e n c e , The B i o s p h e r e : P r o b l e m s and S o l u t i o n s , w i l l s e r v e n o t o n l y t o a d v a n c e t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f o u r knowledge and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e b i o s p h e r e , b u t also as t h e basis f c . r t h o u g h t f u l d e b a t e a n d p o s i t i v e a c t i o n f o r t h e preservation of the planet earth. T. Nejat V e z i r o z l u Editor

VIII

SYMPOSIUM COMMITTEE AND STAFF SYMPOSIUM COMMITTEE Lucian0 N. B l a n c o , University of M i a m i David L. C o f f i n , U.S. Ehviromnentul Protection Agency B a r r y Commoner, Queens College, CUNY Michael R . Fox, Rockwll Eanford Opemtiae N i c h o l a s Georgescu-Roegen , VmrderbiZt University Paul M i c h a e l , W.ooWlaren National Labomtory J u l i a F . Morton, University ofMiami Harold J. P l a s s , University of Miami B r a d l e y I . R a f f l e , Conoco Oil Compmgl John R e u s s , U.S. En~romwntalRvtection Agency John 16. R i c h a r d s o n , Jr , m e A m e ~ w nChriver8Cty John W. Shef f i e l d , University of M < 8 8 O d - R O t h A n i t r a Thorhaug, P l o ~ d aInternational University T. Nejat Veziroglu ( C h a i r p e r s o n ) , Univer8ity of M i a n t i Robert 116. Zweig, C h a n Fuel Institute

.

STAFF Coordimtore : S h e i l a M. P u r y e a r C r i s t i n a Robu Ann G. R a f f l e Executive Secretary: L u c i l l e J . Walter Manuedpt Editor: S h e i l a M. P u r y e a r Graduate A 8 8 i 8 t O l t 8 : Marina M . Blanco flker Ghkan Aykut Mente 0. Tuna Y i 1 irim

8

Vndsrpldrcat0 A 8 8 i 8 a t 8 2

E l i z a b e t h J . Cisar

Carmen Mencio

Ix

SESSION OFFICIALS

PLENARY SESSION

SYWOSIUM OPEKING

Chairpersons:

J. Catz, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, U.S.A. H. J. Plass, Jr., University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, U.S.A.

SESSION 1A

ENERGY-RELATED EFFECTS AND PROELEMS

Chairpersons:

A. Thorhaug, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, U.S.A. D. E. Willard, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, U.S.A.

SESSION 1B

HUMAN HEALTH

Chairpersons:

S. D. Huang, Riverside City College, Riverside, California, U.S.A. J. B. Mann, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, U.S.A.

SESSION 2A

GLOBAL/ LAND USE CONSIDERATIONS AND TRENJIS

Chairpersons:

H. J. Plass, Jr., University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, U.S.A. K. M. Elemow, Filkes College, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

SESSION 2B

ACID RAINS/ WATER QUALITY

Chairpersons:

J. F. Morton, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, U.S.A. S. Y . Bartell, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, U.S.A.

SESSION 3A

AIR/ SPACE POLLUTION

Chairpersons :

D. L. Coffin, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, U.S.A.

Sr. J. K. Frei, Barry University, Miami, Florida, U.S.A. SESSION 3B

NUCLEAR/ CHEMICAL WASTE DISPOSAL & MANAGEMENT

Chairpersons:

D. W. Yarbrough, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, Tennessee, U.S.A. J. T. Oris, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, U.S.A.

X

SESSION 4 A

STREAMS, RIVERS AND ESTUARIES

Chairpersons:

B. A. Miller, Government of Jamaica, Ministry of Environment, Science, and Technology, Kingston, Jamaica R. I. Eisenhart, Illinois Environmental Protection Agency, Springfield, Illinois, U . S . A .

SESSION 4E

ENDANGERED SPECIES / CIIEMICALS

Chairperson:

J. A. Kushlan, South Florida Research Center, Homestead, Florida, U.S.A.

XI

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments Preface Symposium Committee and Staff Session Officials

VI VI I VIII IX

INTRODUCTION

KEYNOTE ADDRESS: N. Polunin

TO BATTLE FOR THE BIOSPHERE

BANQUET ADDRESS: EDUCAT'ION FOR ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE bEVELOPMENT C. B. Davis 1*

11-15

GLOBAL VIEW

GLOBAL SECURITY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT- THE ESSENTIAL CONKECTION J. A. Lee ENVIRONETHICS: GLOBAL STRATEGY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALI'lY P. Horsbrugh THE MIDAS SYNDROME: HUMAN DILEMMA V. Prime A GESTALT APPROACH TO THE ENVIRONMENT S. Bendix, G. G. Bendix 2.

1-9

17-21

23-33 35-40 41-48

BIOSPHERE RESERVES

POTENTIAL INDICATORS FOR MONITORING BIOSPHERE RESERVES 49-63 G. E. Machlis, R. G. Wright 65-81 TIIE INTERNATIONAL NETWORK OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES: A NEW DIMENSION IN GLOBAL CONSERVATION W. P. Gregg, Jr. COMMUNICATING THE MEANING AND SIGNIFICANCE OF INTERNATIONAL 83-85 BIOSPHERE RESERVES TO NATIONAL PARK VISITORS R. A. Mebane 3.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF HYDROCARBON FUELS

A REVIEW OF REGIONAL IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF U . S . SYNTHETIC FUEL RESOURCES R. D. Brown, C. A. Bisselle THE ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECT OF DEVELOPING INDIANA OIL SIiALE D. E. Willard, C. V. Oster, Jr., I. W. Ritchie, W. W. Jones, J. S. Zogorski

87-99

101-118

XI1

RADIONUCLIDES IN U.S. COALS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS WITH RESPECT TO ENERGY DEVELOPMENT C. A. Bisselle, R. D. Brown 4.

119-143

R A D I O A C T I V I T Y AND NUCLEAR WASTE

COMPARISON OF OBSERVED AND PREDICTED Kr-85 AIR CONCENTRATIONS M. Yildiran, C. W, Miller

145-158

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RELEASE OF RADIOACTIVITY TO THE BIOSPHERE DURING DEEP GEOLOGIC DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE SOLIDS THROUGH UNDERGROUND WATER A. G. Solomah

159-168

PROPOSED TECWIQUE ON SPENT FUEL DISPOSAL S. M. Raza, S.B.H. Abidi, S. A. Raza, N. Farooqui

169-179

5.

LAND MANAGEMENT

THE EFFECTS OF LAND USE ALTERATION ON TROPICAL CARBON EXCHANGE J. Molofsky, E. S. Menges, C.A. S. Hall, T. V. Armentano, K. A. Ault

181-194

PLANT COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN AN ABANDONED LIMESTONE QUARRY: A DEMOGRAPHIC ASSESSMENT K. M . Klemow

195-210

RESTORATION OF; NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS ON SURFACE COAL MINE

211-225

LANDS IN THE NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES

F. J. Brenner SOME PLANTS TO PROMOTE AFFORESTATION AND THEIR MULTIPLE USES A. Jagadeesh 6.

227-232

ACID RAINS

ACID PRECIPITATION: A REVIEW U. M. Cowgill

233-259

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF INDIVIDUAL STORMS AS A FUNCTION OF AIR PARCEL TRAJECTORIES FOR THE PREDICTION OF ACID RAIN CHARACTERISTICS M. S. Kotturi

261-270

EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN ON EPIPHYTIC ORCHID GROWTH S r . J. E. Frei, C. Orenic, N. Smith, 11. Jeffer

27 1-283

XI11

7.

WATER Q U A L I T Y

THE EVOLUTION OF WATER QUALITY IN LARGE HYDRO-ELECTRIC RESERVOIRS: A MODEL OF ACTIVE AND STAGNANT ZONES N. ThBrien, K. Morrison

287-296

AUTOMATED MULTISPECIES BIOSENSING SYSTEM AND DEVELOPMENT: 297-301 ADVANCES IN REAL-TIME WATER QUALITY MONITORING E. L. Morgan, R. C. Young EFFECTS OF pH ON CHROMIUM ADSORPTION IN GROUNDWATER J. T. Mason 111, D. R. Leonard

303-314

RADIUM IN DRINKING WATER IN SOUTHWEST FLORIDA %. Johnson, J. Eakins

315-331

8.

WATER RESOURCES

€IAN RIVER BASIN EhVIRONbiENTAL MASTER PLAN B. I. Loran, P. J. Morris, P. N. Storrs WATER RESOURCES IN T€iE SOVIET UNION: C. M. Becker, K. C. Ray 9.

333-345

TRENDS AND PROSPECTS347-379

COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

MANAGEMENT AND REIUBILITATION OF COASTAL RESOURCES IN THE 381-386 THIRD WORLD: JAMAICAN MODEL FOR SEAGRASS RESTORATION B. Miller, A. Thorhaug ESTUARINE MANAGEMENT- THE INTEGRATED PICTURE R. W. Flint

387- 4 06

THERMAL POLLUTION EFFECTS ON AN ESTUARY IN A DEVELOPING NATION: IMPACT AND REHABILITATION OF SEAGRASS A. Thorhaug

407-413

10.

P O L L U T I O N OF R I V E R S

TRACKING CF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE SPILLS TO INLAND STREAMS R. H’. Eisenhart

415-435

EFFECT OF DISTILLERY WASTE ON THE BIOTA OF RIVER CAUVERY, 437-446 INDIA A . A. Rahaman EFFECT OF TANNERY WASTES ON THE PHYTOPLANKTON A. Ranjitha

447-452

FATE OF HEPTACHLOR ‘J. Simon, F. L. Parker

453-460

XIV 11.

INDUSTRIAL WASTE

ENVIRONMENTALLY BALANCED INDUSTRIAL COMPLEXES N. L. Nemerow

461-470

BIOMASS CONVERSION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE D. R. Coleman, M. V. Kilgore, Jr., T. J. Laughlin, C. L. Lishawa, W. E. Meyers, M. H. Eley

471-486

AN IhVESTIGATION INTO THE BIODEGRADABILITY OF METALWORKING LUBRICANTS WITH REGARD TO BOD/COD PARAMETER DATA 487-498 K. E. Rich NONSECURITY OF THE SECURE CHEMICAL LANDFILL E. A. Zwenig 12.

499-513

ECOROMIC DEVELOPMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENT

STRATEGIES FOR THE UPKEEP OF QUALITY OF LIFE IN DETERIORATING ENVIRONMEKT OF RAPIDLY INDUSTRIALIZING COUNTRIES R. Kaparthi

515-525

ENERGY USE PATTERNS IN RURAL AREAS Ah?) ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IN DEVELOT'ING COUNTRIES B. Bowonder

527-534

TRENDS IN ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND THEIR FUTURE IN INDIA J. S. Sharma

535-546

13.

HEALTH HAZARDS AND SOLUTIONS

FINDING SOLUTIONS TO POTENTIAL EEALTH AND 'EfNIEWNMENTAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH COAL LIQUEFACTION MATERIALS R. H. Gray

547-557

BLOOD PLASMA LEVELS OF VOLATILE CHLORINATED SOLVENTS AND METABOLITES IN OCCUPATIONALLY EXPOSED WORKERS C. D. Pfaffenberger, A . J. Peoples, T. V. Briggle

559-569

HUMAN EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE USE OF ALDICARB ON COTTON IN SUDAN, AFRICA J. B. Mann, J. X. Danauskas

571-578

ACUTE EFFECTS OF NONPHARMACOLOGICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL SlCOKING TOBACCO - A CASE STUDY (COMPARATIVE) ChTER VARIOUS AGE GROUPS b l . S . Sharma, J. S. Skarrna, D. Nandan

579-591

14.

ENDANGERED SPECIES

ENDANGERED SPECIES IN GUYANA AND THE CARIBBEAN E . N. Kumar

593-597

xv GIANT PANDA CONSERVATION AND BAMBOO FOREST DESTRUCTION J. J. N. Campbell

599-616

EFFECT OF A COMBINATION OF POLLUTANTS ON THE FISH RASBORA DANICONIUS (Ham.) M. N. Madhyastha, R. Nayak

617-628

ENVIRONMENTAL UPTAKE OF LEAD IN BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERONS629-637 D. Sigurslid PHOTOINDUCED TOXICITY OF ANTHRACENE IN AQUATIC ORGANISMS: 639-658 AN ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVE J. T. Oris, J. P. Giesy, P. bl. Allred, D. F. Grant, P. F. Landrum 15.

ENVIRONMENTALLY C O M P A T I B L E SYSTEMS

ENERGY SYSTEMS, HYDROGEN AND THE BIOSPHEN J. E, S. Graham

659-668

HYDROGEN PRODUCTION BY NON-PHOTOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA S. D. Huang, C. K. Secor, R. M . Zweig, R. Ascione

669-678

POLLUTION-FREE PESTICIDES A. Jagadeesh

679-682

16.

SPACE P O L L U T I O N

MORAL CONSIDERATIONS RELATING TO PROBLEMS OF SPACE DEBRIS S. A. Schuh 683-688 ENERGY AND LEGISLATION IN OUTER SPACE J. J. Hurtak

689-709

AUTHOR INDEX

711

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N.Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,Amsterdam,1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

1

Keynote Address TO BATTLE FOR THE BIOSPHERE

N. Polunin president, The Foundation for Environmental Conservation, and of the World Council for the Biosphere Founder and Editor, Environmental Conservation 15 Chemin F.-Lehmann 1218 Grand-Saconnex Geneva, Switzerland

One of the most important prerequisites for mutual understanding and desirable unison, and indeed for stability in our modern world, is precise definition - so that, for example, when I speak about The Biosphere, you all know precisely what I am referring to,, and vice versa. This impressive gathering of minds from many parts of the world is assembled to consider and I hope honour The Biosphere, so first I would ask each and every one of you to think of what you understand by that key term for a vital concept, while I count eiqht seconds - sitto voce- so as not to disturb you-from your thoughts. Thank you! I will now tell you what I myself understand The Biosphere to be, and if any of you differs seriously, please raise a hand when I call for any dissent, and we'll discuss the matter with Mr. Chairman's permission before proceeding any further.

DEFINITION OF THE BIOSPHERE The Biosphere seems best defined simply as "the peripheral envelope of Planet Earth, together with its surrounding atmosphere so far down, and up, as living things exist naturally. It thus ranges from the deepest [rock strata] and bottoms of 'troughs' in oceans, upwards to the highest levels of the atmosphere, in which any form of life - [including chemosynthetic, bacterial or other cells or dormant spores] is present at all normally, for we exclude artificial projections into space" and other man-engendered feats (Polunin 1982; cf. also 1980a, 1980b). First as a descriptive outline and subsequently as a definition, this has latterly become widely adopted and seems likely to prevail (e.g. Anon. 1982 etc.; Pauling et al-., 1982). Now how does this strike us, individually and collectively? If we all agree, I suggest that we adopt it for the workings of this Symposium, and moreover give it extra weight towards stability by adopting a supportive resolution. So now is your chance and the time to indicate any disagreement or dissent. This "zone of life" employment should at once dispel the other main use of our term as "the web of life" that is popularly attributed to Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and is still apt to be confusingly used even in learned journals and papers submitted to mine. It should also obviate Webster's alternative (and in a sense intermediate) definition of

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The Biosphere as "living beings together with their environment", though this last usage seems nearer to our choice than to "the web of life". As for the living organisms themselves, I believe they should all be considered as an integral part of The Biosphere, even as Mankind is an integral part of it and, of course, utterly dependent on it. This modern use of the term "Biosphere" appears to be attributable to the far-sighted Russian Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky, who was born in St. Petersburg (now Leningrad) in 1863 and died there as recently as 1945. Widely considered the founder of biogeochemistry, he wrote a book entitled La Biosphere, of which I have so far not been able to obtain a copy even to cite, but cf. e.g. Kovda (1970). KEY FACTS ABOUT THE BIOSPHERE Not only are we humans part of, and absolutely dependent on, our only one Biosphere, but we are faced with a number of widelyaccepted facts about it which surely impose limitations and, often, concomitant obligations, on all our living races of Homo sapiens, whatever our colour or creed, as the pandominant stewards of our Planet Earth. Let me spell out a "round dozen" of them, largely following the treatment in the Declaration of the World Campaign for The Biosphere (Anon. 1982). 1.

The Biosphere - that vast system of living and non-living matter which forms the outer envelope of our Planet Earth - is an integrated whole of which the components are widely interdependent.

2.

This system has, in its operation evolving over several thousand million years, given rise to numberless millions of species and other taxa of biota of which many continue to live within it.

3.

Mankind is one of those species with, however, the unique endowment of conscious intelligence that makes him practically all-powerful.

4.

As consumers, we humans draw our essential resources of air, water, food,warmth, and spiritual energy, from The Biosphere, and are therefore completely dependent on its great cycles, vast production, and ecological integrity, for our well-being and very existence.

5.

The carrying capacity of The Biosphere for satisfying human life, which may be raised by technology but all-too-easily and widely lowered by it% aftermath, is nevertheless limited under specific conditions and times.

6.

What these limits are now, or may turn out to be in the future, is neither known nor perhaps even knowable except in retrospect.

7.

Because of the present uncertainties concerning human populations and their effects on The Biosphere, it would be prudent - bearing in mind always our absolute dependence on The Biosphere - to guard against imposing constraints on it of any conceivable kind.

9.

The most dangerous threats to life, including those to (and com-

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monly perpetrated by) Mankind, are often the quietly insidious ones - such as those to the stratospheric ozone shield - against which we must be constantly on the alert and should be ready to take action when necessary on a global scale. 10. Yet the most dangerous and immediate threat to life as we know it is that of thermonuclear holocaust, against which we should all do everything we possibly can - for there are not only the great powers threatening (who seem unlikely to start anything intentionally as they know the appalling consequences, and that nobody would really win), but also smaller ones, as well as grave possibilities of mechanical failure or malfunctioning, human or computer error, or sheer accident (cf. Tolba et al., 1983). There is also the problem of mental imbalance in our increasingly crowded world, and of somebody in a tither "pressing the wrong button". 11.

A grave aspect of the point about human error is the psychological one - that under the extreme pressures and stresses of hyper-responsibility and in time doubtless also incapacitating fatigue, leaders could make wrong decisions and, perhaps based on misinterpretation or misinformation, start nuclear holocaust; and if you doubt the biospheral importance of this horrendous possibility, consult, for example, last year's papers of Ehrlich et al., Tolba et al., and Turco et al., cited in our references.

12.

The one thing that Mankind seems incapable of doing, though now amply possessed of the knowledge and means, is peaceful limitation of its own population, which continues, increasingly if insidiously, to impose the next-greatest threat after nuclear ones; yet even Mankind cannot go on growing - demographically and, still less, demophorically - on a finite globe: the further it goes, the greater will be the fall, which surely poses our gravest long-term dilemma.

Those are my "round dozen" choices for our present occasion, but one could almost as well have added another dozen of such concerns as: 1.

governmental indifference to the welfare of The Biosphere,

2.

economic disparity between the so-called rich and poor nations,

3.

the debt-engendered instability of both these factions,

4.

toxic pollutions including long-range airborne acidification,

5.

deforestation and other devegetation,

6.

ever-more and -wider soil depletion and erosion,

7.

inexorably expanding desertification,

8.

increasing salinization especially with more and more irrigation,

9.

breakdown of communications,

10.

carbon dioxide build-up engendering climatic changes,

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11.

threats to the stratospheric ozone shield,

and various other grave possibilities that, it seems, keep cropping up practically all the time inter alia as what I used to call and write about as "conceivable ecodisasters". WHAT CAN WE DO? It is a trite thing to say, but surely our world needs saving from itself - from destruction perpetrated by Mankind, its uniquely intelligent component! Many of you in your learned papers to be presented to this Symposium will be helping in this direction, and I plead with you to do it consciously in the context of the qlobal whole. Thus even the tiniest bits may be vital to the welfare of that whole, such that it cannot continue healthily - or perhaps even at all - without them. For as we said in our No. 1 point about The Biosphere, it constitutes one integrated whole of which the components are widely interdependent. I'll now spell out my further and last "round dozen" - of considerations and actions to support the World Campaign for The Biosphere as an educational device and largely as recorded in more detail at earlier stages of the Campaign's development (Polunin 1980b; 1982). These are as follows: 1.

Publishing and broadcasting information and support by all appropriate means: This should include editorials, survey articles, and research topics in hiqh-level journals. and also invoke the "popular"-press through chronic involvement of leading internationally-oriented newspapers. If the big internationals lead the way with persistence and inspiration, the local but often widely-quoted press will surely carry on the message.

2.

Using other vehicles of desirable publicity, including posters and stickers: Persistently involved should be such further "media" as television - in which several recent initiatives based particularly on London, England, are to be welcomed documentary and even fictional films and writing, radio broadcasting, the pulpit, and possibly the ''legitimate'' stage. Explanatory posters should be used, for example, at appropriate conferences and meetings, and attractive stickers on vehicles of all kinds (e.g. Gaekwad & Oza 1981; Oza 1982; Polunin 1982). Some of the most effective of these have been manufactured quite gratuitously in India in support of our Campaign for The Biosphere.

3.

Employing instructive advertising and audience-attracting showmanship: One of the prevailing means of changing peoples' attitudes is through improving their knowledge and understanding by dignified advertising in various media - including those already mentioned, and accurate newspaper notices and announcements. Unfortunately, media advertising is apt to be far too costly for the widely impecunious environmental movement to pay for, whereas governments and major industries cannot afford to let happen the kinds of things that ecologists and realistic demographers feel bound to warn them about: herein should lie the basis of bill-footing for advertising on behalf of The Biosphere.

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4.

Books on The Biosphere and illustrated study manuals: Obvious desiderata which scarcely need explaining, as are our colleague Dr. John R. ("Jack") Vallentyne's displays of "audience-attracting showmanship'' with his sonic globe and broadcasting to many millions.

5.

Specialist research and its vigorous application: Although it is true that the answers to manv loomina or Dredictable auestions are known (at least to eniightenei workers), and &at what is now widely needed is due application of such knowledge, there can scarcely be too much basic research and applicational testing of pertinent results emanating from it. Moreover, who can tell, at any particular stage, what research results are pertinent and even important for application?

6.

Need to control human numbers and behaviour: Perhaps the most fundamental thing that modern Mankind has so far failed to do is to control his own numbers and their demands, despite having the necessary knowledge and means to do so humanely. So the remedy is left to Nature's ways of shortage and deprivation, famine and/or pestilence, or to Mankind's own way of increasing violence and slaughter. Yet this ever-worsening situation has to be remedied if our world is not to deteriorate further into a plethora of dreary monocultures and widespread squalor. On the need for proper remedy, environmental education and due awareness should at least provide an overdue warning, while widely pointing the way to stewardly care and ultimate amelioration - hence our new WCB-ISEE dual establishment to carry on the World Campaign for The Biosphere (cf. Davis 1983).

7.

National Parks, Biosphere Reserves, and biologicalgardens, etc.: The National Parks and Protected Areas movement has gathered considerable momentum in recent years, inter alia in relation to the rights of indigenous peoples and some integration with development and even military preparedness. It is now extending actively into the marine environment, while further valuable educational tools include the Man and The Biosphere (MAB) programme and the now practically world-wide network of Biosphere Reserves (Batisse 1980; 1982). The inspiration to be derived from communion with Nature in a wilderness area can be supreme, as the poets have repeatedly demonstrated, and such communion can be an aesthetic experience leading to productive enlightenment. As for such devices as the World Conservation Strategy, it often seems to us that such an educational one as the World Campaign for The Biosphere is a prerequisite to sufficiently wide public understanding for their successful implementation. In any case, all the remaining wild wilderness areas that can be preserved should be protected, where possible with buffer zones, and to such ends we recently suggested the establishment forthwith of what might be called a "world wilderness alliance" - of similarly-oriented bodies that would, for instance, stand and act together if any of their members were threatened by developmental incursions or unenlightened officialdom (Polunin 1983).

8.

Pertinent conferences, meetings, and other "free" deliberations: These should be organized and duly publicized to foster and

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,

9.

further the World Campaign for The Biosphere - particularly through the new dual world body concerning which you will be hearing from its Secretary-General, Professor Craig B. Davis (cf. 1983), in his Banquet Addr'ess to this Symposium. Imperative to change h a a n attitudes and priorities : Whether or not there is need to chanse to a so-called "new international economic order" , it is surely important that peoples' attitudes toward the future should change widely in consideration of "generations yet unborn", and only right to preserve options for them by such means as limiting ourselves to efficient use of the remaining stocks of certain essential minerals and fossil fuels. There is a1scx.a dire need to change radically our attitudes vis-a-vis "workers on the land" and "traditional peoples" , for they are the ones who surely know most intimately their own small pieces of The Biosphere - whatever they may call it moreover understanding its needs and how it can best be maintained and fostered. Indeed it may well prove to be ultimately on them, rather than on politicians or industry or even Big Agribusiness that, with the erosion or ignorant destruction of more and more of our life-support system, contemporary humanity may find itself dependent for food and much else.

10.

Need to establish due ethics and laws: In their aggregate paper, "Ethics of Biospheral Survival", contributed from the vantage-point of cultures based on four different continents, Willard et al. (1980) emphasized the need for fresh thinking and ethics on behalf of The Biosphere, while Widman & Schram (1980) dealt with the hopes for "Common Laws for Earth and Mankind" in a similarly innovative fashion. These papers were prepared for, and presented in outline at, our Second International Conference on Environmental Future, and engendered long and lively discussions which are published for the most part in the Conference proceedings (Polunin 1980~). But much more of that kind of consideration - of ethics and laws, and concomitant action towards their ultimate implementation - is urgently needed. For without duly ethical thinking "in the corridors of power", and along the wider roads that lead to them and in edicts that stem from them, there can be little room to hope for a better world, while one of the most obvious needs for the future will surely be suitable laws and their enforcement for Mankind gna Nature.

11.

Institutional and organizational involvement towards survival: It is important that a large number and wide range of leading international organizations and institutions, national and other academies and associations, and university and other departments and research institutes, etc., comprehend the concept and full significance of The Biosphere, and participate in fostering the Campaign for its healthy maintenance in perpetuity.

12.

"Guardians of The Biosphere" Recognition and Awards: We are firmly convinced that substantial betterment would accrue to the prospects for survival of our tottering world if only people everywhere would learn about The Biosphere and realize their responsibilities, as its intellect-endowed skewards, to preserve and foster it in all possible ways,

I applying this stewardship to their day-to-day as well as longer-term actions. Should not such learning and cognate behaviour take the place of the fervoured discipline (for example, stemming from religious beliefs but without the spiritual tyranny that is still imposed by some even today) whose erosion in the modern world is so deeply to be deplored? To become thus the profoundly conscious (and why not officially recognized?) Guardians of The Biosphere, should give to all such adherents a missionary feeling of hoped-for accomplishment and lasting "togetherness". A pervading attitude of "this is Our Biosphere to cherish and maintain", should then underlie their concerted resolve to preserve peace on Earth and do all in their power, individually and collectively, to assure for Mankind and Nature a lastingly robust future. True Guardians of The Biosphere should be universally recognized as feeling and duly practising their full responsibilities toward ensuring this. By them, any human act that is clearly contrary to the interests of sustaining a healthy Biosphere should be denounced as wicked, and should therefore be prevented or countered at all costs. That is my "round dozen" of points of concern and desirable actions on behalf of The Biosphere as our threatened life-support - a s focal points of attack in an on-going educational, etc., battle that must somehow be won if our world is to survive in anything like its present, precious but fragile form. CONCLUSION To end my pleas I cannot do better, after drawing too extensively on my own earlier writings and now having little more time to spare, than to quote, with some paraphrasing for which I'll ask his permission if there is any question of publication, the warning penultimate paragraph of the worthily detailed article on "Biosphere" in the latest edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica, by that versatile American botanist David Murray Gates (1981 reprinting): The point has been made abundantly regarding the untoward effects of Man's activities which amount to a veritable attack on The Biosphere. Past centuries of public profligacy and pribate greed may now cost Man whole centuries of deprivation - o r millenia, or even annihilation if we think (as we surely should) of thermonuclear conceivabilities. Hope diminishes with each decade, even in some years or shorter periods. There is a persistent unconsciousness regarding the innumerable individual actions that affect Nature; these seemingly insignificant events, when multiplied by Man's ever-increasing numbers and compounded by his demophory, constitute a tremendous assault on The Biosphere. As a civilization develops, its technology improves and the needs of its citizens become displaced by wants or, in time, demands- even if they are for the merest trappings of technology. Can our world survive this wasteful phase? We must all help to show that it can. REFERENCES Anon. (1982) Declaration: The World Campaign for The Biosphere. Environmental Conservation, 9(2):91-92; reprinted plurally, e.g., in The Environmental Professional, 5:239-241.

8 Batisse, Michel (1980). The Relevance of MAB. Conservation, 1(3):179-184, map.

Environmental

Batisse, Michel (1982). The Biosphere Reserve: A tool for environmental conservation and management. Environmental Conservation, 9(2) :101-111, 8 figs. Davis, Craig B. (1983). The World Council for The Biosphere/ International Society for Environmental Education. Environmental Con;ervation, =(4):353-354. Ehrlich, Paul R., and 19 others (1983). Long-term biological consequences of nuclear war. Science, =:1293-1300. Gaekwad, Fatesinghrao P. & Oza, G. M. (1981). Save our Biosphere. Environmental Conservation, 8(2):117-118, fig. Gates, David M. (1981). Biosphere. Macropaedia- Knowledge in D e p t h -

Encyclopaedia Britannica:

Kovda, V.tictor A . l (1970). Cohtemporary scientific concepts reiating to the-biosphere. Pp. i3-29-in Use and ConserGation of The Biosphere (Natural Resources Research X), UNESCO, Place de Fontenoy, Paris, France: 272 pp. Oza, G. M. (1982). Save trees, save our biosphere! Conservation, 2(3):255-256, fig.

Environmental

Pauling, Linus, Benavides, Felipe, Wahlen, Fredrich T., Kassas, Mohamed, Vohra, B. B. & Knox, George A . (1982). Open letter: To all who should be concerned. Environmental Conservation, 9 (2):89-90. Polunin, Nicholas (1980a). Editorial: Environmental education and The Biosphere. Environmental Conservation 1(2):89-90. Polunin, Nicholas (1980b). Suggested actions for the forthcoming "World Decade for The Biosphere". Environmental Conservation, 7(4) :271-277, fig. Polunin, Nicholas (Ed.) (1980~). Growth without Ecodisasters? Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Environmental Future (2nd ICEF), held in Reykjavik, Iceland, 5-11 June 1977. Macmillan Press, London & Basingstoke, England, and Halstead Press Division of John Wiley & Sons, New York: xxvi + 675 pp., figs. and tables, 1980. Polunin, Nicholas (1982). Our global environment and The World Campaign for The Biosphere. Environmental Conservation, z(2): 115-121, 2 figs. Polunin, Nicholas (1983). Progress and Offshoots of the World Campaign for The Biosphere. Address to the 3rd World Wilderness Consress. held at Inverness and Findhorn. Scotland, U.K., during 8114 October 1983; see also Environmental Conservation, 10(4):367. [It is understood that publication will follow in the Proceedings of the Congress.]

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Tolba, Mostafa K., Westing, Arthur H. & Polunin, Nicholas (1983). The environmental imperative of nuclear disarmament. Environmental Conservation, =(2):91-95. Turco, R. E., Toon, 0. B., Ackerman, T. P., Pollack, J. B. & Sagan, Carl (1983). Nuclear winter: Global consequences of multiple nuclear explosions. Science, =:1283-1292. Widman, Gary L. & Schram, Gunnar G. (1980). Common laws for Earth and Mankind: A glorious hope? pp. 555-568 and discussion to p. 579, in Polunin, Nicholas ( 1 9 8 0 ~ )q.v. ~ Willard, Beatrice E., Asibey, Emmanuel 0. A . , Holdgate, Martin W., Fukushima, Yoichi & Gray, Elizabeth and David Dodson (1980). Ethics of biospheral survival: A dialogue. pp. 505-535 and discussion to p. 551 in Polunin, Nicholas (1980~1,q.v.

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N.VeziroBlu Elsevier Science PublishersB.V.,Amsterdam,1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

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BANQUET ADDRESS

EDUCATION FOR ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Craig B. Davis Secretary General, World Council For The Biosphere International Society For Environmental Education Director, School of Natural Resources Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio 43210, U . S . A .

The Biosphere i s the b a s i c l i f e support system o f the planet upon which a l l b i o l o g i c a l , s o c i a l , a d e-o:,ovic a c t i v i t y i s dependent. The choice i s not between preserving ecological systems o r preserving economic systems. For a s b i o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l beings, we need both. The creation o f eco logica 1 l y sustainab Ze s o c i e t i e s i n every p a r t of the globe i s the moot c r i t i c a l environmental challenge o f our time.

I have been asked to speak today about a new effort in international environmental education, an effort to bridge the gap between the developed and the developing world, between the rich and the poor, between our understanding of the environmental problems that threaten the stability of societies around the world and our " & l l f r to do something about it. I have been asked to tell you about the new World Council For The Biosphere and its sister organization, the International Society For Environmental Education (WCB-ISEE) (Davis 1984). But, this is an embryonic effort and a description would of necessity be limited to a mixture of boring organizational details and untested idealism. Therefore, what I intend to speak about is how we arrived at the point where we felt that a new effort in environmental education was needed. Being an American, I will approach this evolutionary tale from my vantage point. As I proceed, those of you who come from other parts of the world, from other cultures, might consider the evolutionary history of environmental thinking in your countries. Then we'll see if we have arrived at the same conclusions when I've finished. In any nation, the history of environmental concern is best understood when one views other aspects of the nation's past (see Davis and Tanner 1982). The history of the United States is one of rather rapid expansion across a wilderness bountiful with natural resources; vast forests, exceptionally fertile prairies, rich mineral deposits,.great rivers, and fisheries. Our settlement of this wilderness might have been less dramatic had it happened a millennium or two earlier. But occurring when it did, it marked us as a nation of technological opportunists with the means to utilize these resources rapidly, and we sometimes destroyed them before moving on to new frontiers.

12 Concern about dwindling natural resources kindled the development of the American Conservation Movement. The history of this movement can be divided into three periods (Stapp 1974, Swann 1975, Kirk 1977): 1.

The Awareness Period - This period, approximately 1864-1900, was influenced by such astute and politically active writers as George Perkins Marsh (Man and N a t u r e ) , John Muir (The Mountains of CaZifomzial, John Wesley Powell (Exp2oration.s of t h e Colorado River of t h e West and I t s T r i b u t a r i e s ) , and John Burroughs, author of twenty nature books. The objective of the writings and teaching of this period was the replacement of the frontier ethic of resource exploitation with a new ethic, one favoring the conservation of natural resources.

2.

The Preservation Period - From 1901 until approximately 1910, the American Conservation Movement was dominated by the thinking and great influence of one man -President Theodore Roosevelt. An avid outdoorsman and conservationist, Teddy increased by at least five times the amount of federally protected land, established the first wildlife sanctuaries, and created America's first conservation management agency, the U.S. Forest Service.

3.

The Management Period - Started by Roosevelt, the management period extends to the present day. It has been marked by the development of government resource agencies such as the U.S. Soil Conservation Service, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The objective of management programs has been the wise use of our natural resources.

Thus, the Conservation Movement started with an educational emphasis. Once the new conservation ethic began to take hold in our society, we developed a corps of professionals (the managers) who were to learn how to make the "ideal" of the conservation ethic a reality. We also developed a corps of professional and paraprofessional educators who carried the message of soil conservation, water conservation, forest conservation, and wildlife conservation to every sector of our society. Their message was a positive one. It was simple. It was nonthreatening. Let us protect this bountiful land of ours. Let us plow on the contour to retard soil erosion. Let us alternate crops to preserve s o i l fertility. Let us allow marginal lands to remain fallow as reserve for future generations. Let us set aside refuges for our wildlife. Let us construct dams to keep our valuable freshwater resources from flowing unused to the sea. The focus was on things, on the s o i l , on the water, on birds and the deer. The focus was local and personal. The problem i s here and it is under our control. It was an age of easy answers, an age of innocence, an age that could not last. The age of innocence ended in 1962 iwth the publication of Rachel Carson's book, S i l e n t S p r i n g . The message was negative; it triggered unprecedented concern about toxic chemicals in our air, water, and land. The message was complex, so complex that years would pass before it would be fully comprehended. The message was frightening and threatening to many sectors of our society. S i l e n t Spring initiated the environmental movement, a movement that focused on processes rather than things -ecological processes, economic processes, political processes, etc. It focused on pollutants and how they disrupted ecological systems; it focused on endangered species and the loss of genetic heritage; it focused on the preservation of wilderness -not as refuges for animals, but as valuable ecosystems in their own right; it focused on big industry and on development as the enemy of the environment.

13 As concern grew during the 1960's, the U.S. government responded by passing landmark environmental legislation such as the Endangered Species Act, the Wilderness Preservation Act, and the National Environmental Policy Act and by establishing the U . S . Environmental Protection Agency and the President's Council on Environmental Quality. By the late 1960's, we began to realize that national responses were not adequate for many environmental problems. We realized that pollutants can and often do spread worldwide, traveling on currents in the atmosphere and oceans. We began to be concerned about pollution of the seas, acid rain, and destruction of the ozone layer. We began to realize that environmental degradation can also be carried on economic currents. The loss of soil productivity in one part of the world will stimulate markets in other parts of the world. Market stimulation will tempt farmers to exploit their land in the quest to maximize profits. Thus soil destruction in Africa can lead to soil destruction in Iowa. We began to recognize the global nature of environmental systems and realize that international cooperation was needed to preserve the life support system of the planet - the Biosphere.

In June of 1972, representatives of the world's nations convened in Stockholm to consider the health of our "Only One Earth." The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was a watershed event in the development of international understanding of the nature of environmental degradation. Of course, representatives from the U.S. and other developed nations came to Stockholm with an agenda that viewed the environmental crisis in terms of pollution, endangered species, and the loss of wilderness and open space. They called for constraints on the activities of industry and a movement toward a more "natural" way of life. Much to their surprise, however, this view was not shared by representatives from the developing countries. Their view was stated eloquently by Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, who chastized the West for its elitist attitude toward development and pointed out that "poverty is the worst form of polZution. " (Emphasis added.) The developing nations viewed economic development as their only hope for escape from the dehumanizing influence of abject poverty. Herein lies the watershed. For the first time, these widely divergent views were aired and discussed in a global forum. For the first time, development was placed in its proper perspective as a component of environmental issues, as a source of the problem and as a means to its solution. Much has happened since 1972. We have made great strides in our understanding of ecological systems and the impacts that human activities have on these systems. We have learned a great deal about the human, social, and economic costs wrought by these impacts. We are beginning to understand how the degradation of ecological systems can have international and even global repercussions. Since Stockholm, many governments in both the developed and the developing nations have recognized that they must take steps to curtail the destruction of their ecological resource bases and have created legislation, agencies, and programmes to address this concern. Non-government agencies that have been active in conservation issues for years have taken up the fight for environmental quality, and new NGO's have arisen in virtually every region of the globe to address environmental issues of local, regional, and international concern. At the international level, the United Nations created the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) to promote and coordinate the quest for global environmental quality.

14 So, with all of this progress in knowledge and understanding and this response from governments, nongovernmental organizations, and the UN, how much progress have we made toward the goal of Stockholm "to safeguard and enhance the environment for the benefit of present and future generations of Man"?

In 1982, on the tenth anniversary of the Stockholm conference, the Governing Council of the United National Environmental Porgramme convened the Session of a Special Character in Nairobi, Kenya, to review progress toward that goal set in Stockholm and to set new directions for future action. There was general agreement in Nairobi that though we have learned a great deal since 1972 about how our natural environment functions, little of this new knowledge has found its way into decision-making processes in business, industry, and government. The developed countries still view economic development as the prime enemy of the environment, while the developing countries continue to say "first we will industrialize, then we will worry about such luxuries as a clean environment." Further, agencies created during the 1970's, in both the developed and the developing world, lack the financial support and the political and economic power to effect essential changes. There seems to be a lack of ' % r i l I " in the halls of governments. Dr. Mostafa Tolba, Executive Director of the United Nations Environmental Programme, stated the problem bluntly in his opening address to the Session of a Special Character. He lamented that "governments have not matched developing environmental knowledge with deed," and warned that "the magnitude of the problems we are facing cannot allow a repeat lackluster performance on the scale we have seen over the previous years."

...

Dr. Tolba challenged the Session Session delegates to consider how our expanding knowledge of the environment can be converted to improved political and economic decision making. They responded with the Nairobi Declaration that reaffirms the goals of Stockholm, details a new Action Plan, and calls for an increase in " p u b l i c and p o l i t i c a l awareness of t h e importance of t h e envircrEent through information, education, and t r a i n i n g . I' (Emphasis added. ) It was these very same sentiments, arrived at independently, that led a small but renowned group of environmental scientists, led by Nicholas Polunin, to initiate a global educational effort called the "World Campaign for The Biosphere." And it was this "Campaign" that led to the creation of the World Council For The Biosphere and the International Society For Environmental Education. By the formation of this new international organization we intend to mobilize the international community of environmental educators, to link these educators to some of the world's foremost experts on the environmental problems of our time, and to promote and support the development of a new generation of environmental education materials and programmes. This new generation of materials and programmeswill focusonthe issues involved with development (underdevelopment as well as overdevelopment) and the maintenance of our global life support system - The Biosphere. THE WORLD COUNCIL FOR THE BIOSPHERE ultimately will comprise 15 outstanding individuals selected for their concern f o r and experience w i t h biosphere issues; their global perspective; and their scientific, technical, o r educational experience. The Council will serve as a forum for the identification and discussion of.issues at the interface of development and the Biosphere. Functioning as a "think tank," it is charged with resynthesizing our understanding of the relationship between development and the complex dynamics of the life support systems of our planet; with generating new approaches, new ideas, and new ways of knowing and understanding; and with establishing dialogue, coordination, and cooperation between scholars and practitioners of development and scholars

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and practitioners of Biosphere protection. The Council will advise the members ot ISEE on the topics, issues, concerns, and problems that should be addressed by new educational materials and programmes. Edward Ayensu Reid Bryson Lynton Keith Caldwell Mohamed Kassas

Nicholas Polunin Leon de Rosen M. S . Swaminathan John Vallentyne

ISEE will serve as a research and instructional network, gathering information, organizing it into educational materials and programs, and disseminating the results to a wide variety of target audiences throught the world. Thus we are following the advice of Rene Dubos who challenged us to "Think Globally, but Act Locally." The job, EDUCATION FOR ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, is a big one. But, we think we have the ideas, the motivation, and the horses to get the job done.' We invite you to join us. LITERATURE CITED Davis, Craig B. (1983). The World Council For The Biosphere/ International Society For Environmental Education. Envir. Conservation 10(4): 553-554. Davis, Craig B., and Thomas Tanner (1982). American environmental education in the age of accountability. In: Bandhu, D., and N. L. Ramanathan (Eds.), Education f o r Environmental Planning and Conservation. Indian Environmental Society. New Delhi, 1982. 485 pp. Kirk, John J. (1977). The quantum theory of environmental education. In: McCabe, R. (Ed.), Current I s s u e s i n Environmental Education 111, pp. 2936. ERICISMEAC. Columbus. 272 pp. Stapp, William B. (1974). Historical settings of environmental education. In Swan, J. A., and W. B. Stapp (Eds.), Environmental Education S t r a t e g i e s Toward a More Livable Future. pp. 42-49. John Wiley & Sons, NY. 349 pp. Swan, Malcolm (1975). Forerunners of environmental education. In McInnis, N., and D. Albrecht (Eds.), What Makes Education Environmental? pp. 4-20. Environmental Educators, Inc. and Data Courier, Inc., Washington and Louisville. 470 pp.

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited b y T.N. Veziroklu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1 9 8 4 - Printed in The Netherlands

GLOBAL SECURITY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT THE ESSENTIAL GLOBAL CONNECTION -

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James A. L e e O f f i c e of E n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d S c i e n t i f i c A f f a i r s The World Bank Wa s hington, DC 20433, USA

ABSTRACT T h i s is a t i m e o f g r o w i n g u n c e r t a i n t y a n d d o u b t s in t h e w o r l d ' s The g l o b a l e c o n o m i c s y s t e m is u n d e r s t a n d i n g of i t s e l f an d i t s f u t u r e . s how ing s i g n s o f s e v e r e s t r a i n , g i v i n g r i s e t o s e r i o u s c o n c e r n in a l l q u a r t e r s as t o i t s f u t u r e r e s i l i e n c y in t h e f a c e of r e p e a t e d s h o c k s . The w o r l d economy is, in f a c t , u n d e r g o i n g d r a m a t i c c h a n g e s -- c h a n g e s t h a t are v a s t a n d s w e e p i n g in t h e i r s c o p e a n d , v e r y p o s s i b l y , i r r e v e r s i b l e in t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s . As t h e o l d e c o n o m i c o r d e r g i v e s way t o a n , as y e t , u n c e r t a i n new p a t t e r n , a n i n e s c a p a b l e f a c t is e m e r g i n g . And, t h a t is, t h e w o r l d ' s Interdependence and l i n k a g e c h a r a c t e r i z e i t s economy is now t r u l y g l o b a l . configuration and processes. The c e n t r a l d r i v i n g f o r c e , t h e e n g i n e t h a t powers t h e w o r l d economy is eco n o m ic d e v e l o p m e n t -- a p a n o p l y of a c t i v i t i e s a nd e n d e a v o r s f a s h i o n e d t o s a t i s f y t h e c u l t u r a l l y d e r i v e d n e e d s of t h e w o r l d ' s s o c i e t y a n d now, o f n e c e s s i t y , i n c r e a s i n g l y f o c u s e d on t h e s u r v i v a l of h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s o f p o o r p e o p l e s c a u g h t u p in t h e a g o n y o f p e r v a s i v e and p e r s i s t e n t p o v e r t y . Economic d e v e l o p m e n t rests upon t h e u n d e r p i n n i n g s of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , u n d e r p i n n i n g s t h a t , l i k e t h e w o r l d ' s eco n o mi c s y s t e m t h e y s u p p o r t , a r e s h o w i n g signs o f s e v e r e s t r a i n , a n d whose r e s i l i e n c y is t h e o b j e c t of growing concern. I f t h e environmental and r e s o u r c e underp i n n i n g s of t h e g l o b a l eco n o m ic s y s t e m c a n n o t b e s e c u r e d , i f t h e y c a n n o t f u r n i s h e v i d e n c e of b e i n g a b l e t o s u s t a i n p r e s e n t and f u t u r e development, t h e n e c o n o m i c d i s l o c a t i o n a n d b r eak d o wn s w i l l o c c u r . Th e emer g en ce of g l o b a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n s e c u r i t y as a t h r e a t t o g l o ' b a l e c o n o m i c s e c u r i t y , and, h e n c e , i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e a c e is y e t t o b e w i d e l y p e r c i e v e d an d u n d e r s t o o d . S e v e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d r eco m m en d at i o n s a r e a d v a n c e d as providing a b a s i s f o r p l a n n i n g and a c t i o n .

1.

INTRODUCTION

Our I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on t h e B i o s p h e r e comes a t a t i m e when t h e r e s i l i e n c y o f t h e w o r l d ' s e c o n o m i c s y s t e m is b e i n g s o r e l y t e s t e d . Subj e c t e d t o r e p e a t e d t r a u m a t i z i n g s h o c k s , i t r e e l s u n d e r t h e stresses t h a t threaten its very integrity. S u d d e n l y , t h e w o r l d is coming t o see i t s econom ic s y s t e m much as t h e e c o l o g i s t v i e w s t h e e n v i r o n m e n t ; n amel y , e v e r y t h i n g is somehow c o n n e c t e d . The web o f i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s , i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e w o r l d ' s eco n o mi c s y s t e m h a s i t s p a r a l l e l in t h e web o f l i f e . S t r e s s some p a r t o f a n e c o s y s t e m a n d t h e r e p e r c u s s i o n s are m a n i f e s t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e sy st em. D e c l i n i n g o i l p r i c e s on t h e w o r l d m a r k e t a r e n o t w i t h o u t t h e i r e f f e c t on your f r i e n d l y n e i g h b o r h o o d b an k a r o u n d t h e c o r n e r . D e c l i n i n g demands f o r e x p o r t s o f raw m a t e r i a l s f r o m d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s is r e f l e c t e d in t h e i r

17

18 i n a b i l i t y t o s e r v i c e t h e i r growing indebtedness, w i t h t h e s p e c t r e of d e f a u l t s looming. T h i s is a t i m e o f growing u n c e r t a i n t y a n d d o u b t s in t h e w o r l d ' s Some s p e a k of t h e f a d i n g p r o m i s e , u n d e r s t a n d i n g of i t s e l f a n d i t s f u t u r e . w h i l e o t h e r s t a l k c o n f i d e n t l y of unlimited p o t e n t i a l . Some see t h e w o r l d moving p r e c a r i o u s l y c l o s e t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n a r c h y , w h i l e o t h e r s p r e d i c t t h e emergence o f a g l o r i o u s new age t o b e made p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h t e c h n o l o g y t h a t l i t e r a l l y b o g g l e s t h e mind. Whatever y o u r own p e r c e p t i o n s -- hope o r b e c e r t a i n t h a t p r o f o u n d movements are fear, anticipation o r resignation a t work g l o b a l l y -- in t e c h n o l o g y , in p o l i t i c s movements t h a t are v a s t a n d s w e e p i n g i n t h e i r s c o p e a n d , most c e r t a i n l y , i r r e v e r s i b l e in t h e i r consequences.

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2.

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GLOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE

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The w o r l d is c h a n g i n g i t is experiencing convulsions not unlike those t h a t characterized its birth. The w o r l d economy is u n d e r g o i n g d r a m a t i c r e v i s i o n s . The " o l d o r d e r c h a n g e t h , " a n d many of t h e f a m i l i a r g u i d e p o s t s t h a t s e r v e d t o d i r e c t t h e p a t t e r n s of t r a d e a n d development are less v i s i b l e o r h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d . Even t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t f o r s o l o n g p r o v i d e d e q u i l i b r i u m a n d s t a b i l i t y t o t h e s y s t e m are now coming u n d e r a s s a u l t as b e i n g no l o n g e r a d e q u a t e o r e v e n r e l e v a n t t o t h e e m e r g i n g "new o r d e r . " Amidst t h i s economic a n d p o l i t i c a l f e r m e n t a t i o n a n i n e s c a p a b l e f a c t is s u r f a c i n g and, t h a t is, t h e w o r l d ' s economy is now t r u l y g l o b a l a n d t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s a n d l i n k a g e s p o i n t t o t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e t h a t now c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e system. Interdependence and l i n k a g e c h a r a c t e r i z e i t s c o n f i g u r a t i o n and processes. The f a c t of i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e is a h e a d of i t s p e r c e p t i o n by governments; and e v e n t h e c o r p o r a t e s e c t o r a n d t h e b a n k s r e f l e c t a n u n c e r t a i n t y as t o t h e p r o c e s s e s a t work. Policymakers around t h e world s e e k i n g t o g i v e p r a c t i c a l e f f e c t t o They are now t h e i r n a t i o n a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t s are e x p e r i e n c i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s . d i s c o v e r i n g t h a t t h e i r v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s are i n e x t r i c a b l y t i e d t o t h e vested i n t e r e s t s of o t h e r s . The s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s o c c u r r i n g in t h e g l o b a l economy a r e p r o f o u n d l y a l t e r i n g t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n s of t r a d e , t h e r e b y a f f e c t i n g n a t i o n a l a n d r e g i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d t h e economic r o l e s which h i s t o r y h a s s e r v e d t o c o n f e r on c o u n t r i e s .

3.

TOWARD AN AGE OF GLOBAL SCARCITY?

While t h e p a t t e r n s of economic development a n d t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s of t h e g l o b a l economy u n d e r g o change, i n c l u d i n g t h e stresses i n h e r e n t in t h e s e e v o l v i n g new r e l a t i o n s h i p s , i t s t i l l r e m a i n s f o r economic development t o b e t h e e n g i n e , t h e c e n t r a l d r i v i n g f o r c e of t h e w o r l d economy. I n a l l i t s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , be i t t h e l a n d l e s s poverty-stricken f a m i l y t r y i n g t o s e l l c h a r c o a l wrested from t h e r a p i d l y d i s a p p e a r i n g f o r e s t s of E a s t A f r i c a , o r t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t e g i a n t e y e i n g a new g e n e r a t i o n of m i c r o c o m p u t e r s , economic development is t h e means whereby c u l t u r a l l y d e r i v e d n e e d s a n d w a n t s a r e s a t i s f i e d . T h a t f o r a growing m a j o r i t y of t h e w o r l d ' s p e o p l e t h e s e e f f o r t s are d i r e c t e d i n c r e a s i n g l y a t e n s u r i n g s u r v i v a l is t e s t i m o n y t o t h e a p a t h e i d which h a s h i s t o r i c a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e man:environment r e l a t i o n s h i p .

19 Development is a p r o c e s s , a n d t h e b u s i n e s s of development rests upon I f t h e environmental and n a t u r a l t h e underpinnings of t h e environment. r e s o u r c e u n d e r p i n n i n g s o f t h e w o r l d ' s economic s y s t e m c a n n o t b e s e c u r e d , if they cannot provide evidence of being a b l e t o s u s t a i n p r e s e n t and f u t u r e development. t h e n economic d i s l o c a t i o n s a n d o u t r i g h t breakdowns would seem t o be i n o u r f u t u r e . T h e i r o c c u r r e n c e w i l l t r i g g e r human d e p r i v a t i o n on a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d scale, i n c l u d i n g s o c i a l u n r e s t w i t h m i l i t a n t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . The s c e n a r i o which a p p e a r s t o b e e m e r g i n g is o n e of t h e a d v e n t of a n T h e r e are age of g l o b a l s c a r c i t y in a w o r l d o f i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n . v a r y i n g views on t h e d e g r e e o f t e n s i o n i n h e r e n t in t h i s e m e r g i n g s i t u a t i o n , on t h e ways t h i s t e n s i o n is l i k e l y t o m a n i f e s t i t s e l f , a n d how i t c a n be a l l e v i a t e d , b u t t h e r e c a n b e no d o u b t a s t o i t s p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t t o w o r l d security. P o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e s in many c o u n t r i e s o f t h e w o r l d are e r o d i n g hard-won economic g a i n s , a n d in t h e p r o c e s s are c o n t r i b u t i n g t o a n a c c e l e r a t i o n in t h e t r e n d s of e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e degradation and d e s t r u c t i o n .

A w o r l d t h a t now h a s o v e r f o u r b i l l i o n i n h a b i t a n t s ; a w o r l d d i v i d e d t o an a l a r m i n g a n d i n c r e a s i n g d e g r e e by a p o v e r t y c u r t a i n t h a t is g i v i n g r i s e t o s o c i a l t e n s i o n s t h r e a t e n i n g o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y ; a w o r l d in which soon o v e r 7 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e t h e n s i x b i l l i o n i n h a b i t a n t s w i l l i n t e n s i f y p r e s s u r e s on a n a l r e a d y s t r e s s e d e n v i r o n m e n t a n d s w e l l t h e r a n k s of t h e poverty-stricken; a world evidencing continued environmental degradation d e f o r e s t a t i o n , t o p s o i l loss, d e s e r t e n c r o a c h m e n t , water s c a r c i t i e s , o v e r g r a z i n g , o v e r f i s h i n g , t o x i c wastes, p o l l u t i o n -- in s u c h a w o r l d t h e o n l y k i n d of economic development t h a t c a n make a n y s e n s e is t h a t which is c a p a b l e o f m e e t i n g minimal human n e e d s , a n d whose c o n t i n u e d g r o w t h c a n be s u st a i n e d .

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4.

THE UNRECOGNIZED THREAT TO GLOBAL SECURITY

- THE NEED

FOR COLLECTIVE ACTION

I t is b o t h i n t e r e s t i n g a n d d i s h e a r t e n i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e w o r l d ' s f a m i l y of n a t i o n s are b e a r i n g t h e h e a v y b u r d e n of a r m i n g t h e m s e l v e s a g a i n s t perceived t h r e a t s t o t h e i r n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y . Something a p p r o a c h i n g e i g h t hundred b i l l i o n s of d o l l a r s a r e b e i n g s p e n t a n n u a l l y , o s t e n s i b l y t o d e t e r a g g r e s s i o n a n d t h r e a t s t o n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l peace. At t h e same t i m e , no less a t h r e a t t o b o t h n a t i o n a l a n d g l o b a l s e c u r i t y c o n t i n u e s l a r g e l y u n r e c o g n i z e d and u n a b a t e d . I am r e f e r r i n g , of c o u r s e , t o t h e demise of t h e w o r l d ' s e n v i r o n m e n t a l s y s t e m s w h i c h , b e c a u s e i t h a s proceeded i n s i d i o u s l y a n d i n c r e m e n t a l l y , a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e f u r t h e r removed i n t i m e , i s a c c o r d e d r e l a t i v e l y s c a n t a t t e n t i o n . And, i f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l comrmnity t h i n k s t h e e n v i r o n m e n t is u n d e r h e a v y s t r e s s now -in t h e words of t h e o l d showman, "you a i n ' t s e e n n o t h i n ' y e t . " And, i f t h e development comrmnity p e r c e i v e s no need t o p u r s u e p a t t e r n s of development t h a t g i v e p r o m i s e o f b e i n g s u s t a i n a b l e , no n e e d t o r e o r d e r p r i o r i t i e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n and consumption o f t h e s u p p o r t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l and r e s o u r c e s s u b s t r a t u m , i t w i l l d o s o a t i t s own g r e a t r i s k a n d p e r i l . F a i l u r e of o u r g l o b a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l s y s t e m means f a i l u r e of o u r g l o b a l economic system. And, g i v e n t h e p r e s e n t u n c e r t a i n t i e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e r e s i l i e n c y of t h e l a t t e r , t h i s s h o u l d be t a k e n as a n e a r l y w a r n i n g s i g n a l of what c o u l d happen i f t h e o u t e r l i m i t s of o u r g l o b a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l The systems are l i k e w i s e e x c e e d e d beyond t h e i r c a p a c i t y t o e q u i l i b r a t e . i n t e g r i t y of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t is e s s e n t i a l t o o u r b e i n g a b l e t o s u s t a i n economic development. Thus, economic development and t h o s e who are r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i t t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d h a v e a v i t a l i n t e r e s t in p r o t e c t i n g

20

and w i s e l y managing t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l systems and r e s o u r c e s committed t o t h e i r c o n t r o 1 and u s e , if f o r no o t h e r r e a s o n t h a n t o e n s u r e t h a t muchneeded economic development and growth a r e n o t t h r e a t e n e d by t h e loss of these e s s e n t i a l supports. " I n t h e r e a l world t o d a y , t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s of t h e s e p a r a t e s t a t e s converge i n t h e need t o d e f e n d and s u s t a i n t h e l i v i n g systems of t h e Planet Earth t h e i d e a o f common s e c u r i t y i s r e l e v a n t , as w e l l , t o t h e economic s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e world w e l i v e i n an interdependent world, not o n l y in terms of expanded e x c h a n g e s o f g o o d s and money and p e o p l e , but of n u t u a l dependence on t h e d a i l y f u n c t i o n i n g of i n t e g r a t e d economic and t e c h n i c a l systems and s e r v i c e s t h a t have become a k i n d of metabolism f o r t h e body p o l i t i c of t h e s o c i e t y of n a t i o n s And, t h e i d e a of common s e c u r i t y i s r e l e v a n t t o t h e e c o l o g i c a l r e a l i t i e s of t h e world -- f o r how c a n w e e v e n t a l k a b o u t n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y when t h e g l o b a l commons and the b a s i c b i o l o g i c a l systems a r e u n d e r t h r e a t , t h a t is, when t h e p l a n e t i t s e l f i s i n s e c u r e and under r i s i n g r i s k s from y e a r t o y e a r . i /

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Admittedly, t h e emergence of e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n s e c u r i t y as a g l o b a l t h r e a t i s something of a new phenomenon. J u s t as t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s and l i n k a g e s t h a t now c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e e v o l v i n g world economy a r e becoming a p p a r e n t , so, t o o , t h e i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s of t h e i r r e s o u r c e u n d e r p i n n i n g s and t h e i r e s s e n t i a l r o l e i n s u s t a i n i n g development a r e j u s t becoming a p p a r e n t t o a w i d e r audience. The i n t e g r i t y o f t h e environment and n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e b a s e is e s s e n t i a l t o t h e w o r l d ' s a b i l i t y t o s u s t a i n economic development.

Y e t , t h e r e s t i l l e x i s t s throughout much of t h e world a u n i v e r s a l complacency about t h e d e c l i n i n g s t a t e of t h e environment. And so, I would make s e v e r a l p o i n t s t h a t I b e l i e v e w a r r a n t o u r i n d i v i d u a l a t t e n t i o n and c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n :

-

5.

f i r s t , t h e s e c u r i t y of n a t i o n s , and t h e r e f o r e , of t h e world depends u l t i m a t e l y on a c h i e v i n g s u s t a i n a b l e development; hence, o u r p e r s p e c t i v e must be g l o b a l ; second, development must a l l o w f o r economic growth on t h e p a r t of b o t h developed and d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n s i f i t i s , in f a c t , t o be sustained; t h i r d , s u s t a i n a b l e development r e q u i r e s t h a t n a t i o n a l development s t r a t e g i e s i n c l u d e v i g o r o u s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e environment, r e s o u r c e s management, and s o c i a l e q u i t y .

FIVE ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS

How t h e n c a i we r e c o n c i l e t h e g l o b a l i m p e r a t i v e t o assist i n t h e socio-economic advance of a l l p e o p l e s , w i t h t h e i m p e r a t i v e t o s a f e g u a r d t h e environment and n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s t h a t are e s s e n t i a l t o t h e v e r y development t h a t makes s u c h advances p o s s i b l e ? To my mind, f i v e e s s e n t i a l r e q u i r e m e n t s s t a n d out:

1/ Wilson, Thomas W. Jr., " N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y : New P e r c e p t i o n s , " I n t e r a c t i o n , Vol. 2 , Nos. 4 6 %, G l o b a l Tomorrow C o a l i t i o n , Washington, D.C. 1982.

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. .

. . .

R e c o g n i z e t h a t economic g r o w t h i n all c o u n t r i e s is e s s e n t i a l , i f f o r no o t h e r r e a s o n w e are t o a v e r t economic, p o l i t i c a l , a n d social disaster.

Act on t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t s u c h g r o w t h , i f p r o p e r l y p l a n n e d and excecuted, need n o t cause unacceptable environmental p e n a l t i e s . A s s i s t n a t i o n s in t h e c h o i c e o f p a t t e r n s of growth which, above a l l , p r o m i s e t o b e s u s t a i n a b l e a n d y i e l d r e a s o n a b l e economic g a i n s w i t h minimal e n v i r o n m e n t a l r i s k .

P r o v i d e t h e w o r l d ' s p o o r e r n a t i o n s w i t h u r g e n t l y needed concess i o n a r y a i d t o promote t h e k i n d o f development t h a t w i l l p r e v e n t e c o l o g i c a l d i s a s t e r , a n d t h e middle-income c o u n t r i e s w i t h greater a c c e s s t o commercial c a p i t a l conditioned f o r environmentally sound development. F i n a l l y , t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t human d e g r a d a t i o n t h a t grows o u t of p e r s i s t e n t a n d p e r v a s i v e p o v e r t y now t h r e a t e n i n g h u n d r e d s upon h u n d r e d s of m i l l i o n s o f p e o p l e is t h e most d a n g e r o u s t h r e a t t o t h e environment.

The growing u n c e r t a i n t y a n d d o u b t s in t h e w o r l d ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of i t s e l f a n d i t s f u t u r e , o f w h i c h I e a r l i e r s p o k e , are s y m p t o m a t i c o f t h e a t r a n s i t i o n , h o p e f u l l y , in g r e a t t r a n s i t i o n on w h i c h i t h a s embarked which i t w i l l f i n d new p a t t e r n s of g r o w t h more s e n s i t i v e t o t h e r e a l i t i e s To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e g l o b a l economic s y s t e m f a i l s of t h e w o r l d ' s n e e d s . t o transform perceived p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n t o realities; t o t h e degree t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e w o r l d ' s p e o p l e s c o n t i n u e t o see t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t s b e i n g changed a n d s h a p e d in ways w h i c h , somehow, s t i l l o n l y f r u s t r a t e t h e i r hopes and e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r a b e t t e r l i f e ; t o t h a t e x t e n t mankind is coming more and more t o see i t s image o f t h e f u t u r e as a n i l l u s i o n .

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I t seems t o m e t h a t i f w e are t o h a v e a n y c h a n c e a t a l l f o r a l l e v i a t i n g t h e growing d i m e n s i o n s of human d e p r i v a t i o n , a whole new c o n c e p t of o b l i g a t i o n a n d d u t y n e e d s t o b e b l u e p r i n t e d on a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l scale. The r e a l i t i e s o f t o d a y ' s w o r l d a n d t h e p r o s p e c t of tomorrow's mandates t h a t w e cannot c o n t i n u e t o p r a c t i c e e n v i r o n m e n t a l a p a r t h e i d , f o r , i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , i t is t h e e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h s u s t a i n s t h e p e o p l e s o f t h e w o r l d . Given t h e t r e n d o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t i o n , f u e l e d b y t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of a world economic s y s t e m in t u r m o i l , h u n d r e d s upon h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s o f human b e i n g s w i l l c o n t i n u e t o s u f f e r , b r i n g i n g f u r t h e r g r i e f t o t h e i r environment a n d d i m i n i s h i n g t h e i r h o p e s f o r t h e f u t u r e .

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f a i l i n g t o observe S u s t a i n a b l e development is a g l o b a l i m p e r a t i v e i t can only c o n t r i b u t e t o a f u r t h e r a n c e of g l o b a l i n s e c u r i t y the results of which c a n o n l y b e s p e c u l a t e d upon.

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DISCLAIMER The v i e w s e x p r e s s e d in t h i s p a p e r are s o l e l y t h o s e of t h e a u t h o r and d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t t h e p o l i c i e s or p r a c t i c e s o f t h e World Bank.

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions,edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

ENVIRONETHICS:

GLOBAL STRATEGY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

Patrick Horsbrugh Environic Foundation International Inc. P. 0. Box 88 Notre Dame, Indiana 4 6 5 5 6 - 0 0 8 8 , U.S.A.

ABSTRACT The various subjects identified for deliberation, however vital, require the fundamental discipline of context and strategic coordination if individual issues are to be effectively resolved, and general environic improvement achieved. Official and private endeavors towards the resolution of this dilemma in practical physical planning have not noticeably reduced the devastations that prevail. In consequence, further attempts must be made to promote strategies of planning generalization wherewith to balance the intensity of an ethical obligation, an environethic! The concept arose from private discussions with Margaret Mead, Buckminster Fuller and Helen Bryan Garland during Earthday coordination meetings prior to U.N. events. The subjects explored include: the moral rectitude of endowing particular biological entities with legal standing, with the right of defense: policies requiring the adaptation of synecological disciplines in the practice of synecotectural design and synecopolitan planning using vegetation on any structure for fundamental reasons of energy conversion and conservation, atmospheric vitality, psychological and aesthetic benefit, and wildlife security (examples: design for least tern accommodation in Miami) ; and the system of conveying these issues by the publication of a multi-language Environic Almanac, issued not as a periodic tome, but as a continuous file.

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NO longer can we afford to build. for human convenience alone. Henceforward, the obligation to provide for all species must be recognized as an integrated planning strategy.

AS the resources of the earth are degraded, the prospects of peace depend less upon the ethics of man-to-man relationships than upon the environethics of man/landscape interaction. INTRODUCTION As the range of human activities increases, so must the realm of ethical responsibility expand. New opportunities impose new moral obligations and new behavioral disciplines must be learned. As the threshold of spacial invasion is crossed, the design ethics of absolute material encyclement becomes a moral imperative in the form of design concepts recognizing that the affairs of man are inseparable from environmental context. Technological extravagance now enforces a revised regard for material and biological economy that has neverbefore had to be considered by modern man. As the limits in resource consumption are approached, a new sense of values is required which acknowledges that the human destiny rests upon environic quality. The traditional ethics between man and man is now superseded by environethics between man and the uncompromising consequences of environmental conditioning. There is no denial of the near desperate environmental disgrace that prevails, affecting the atmosphere, the waters and the earth itself. The crisis in environic quality has produced, inevitably, a moral crisis of intellect and of human conduct. The inherited ethical concepts must apply, also, to species other than human, even including inanimate no less than animate material in confirmation of the universal unities being discovered. Aesthetic appreciatiangives ethics visibility in that the modern condition of ugliness gives warning that the human indolence is amiss, that economy is ignored and that design is inappropriate. Meanwhile, perceptive anthropologists of the past century have emphasized that the traditional morality must become common to all mankind, and include all that is affected by human behavior. The environment is therefore involved, and in

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c o n s e q u e n c e , a r e v i s e d c o n c e p t of e t h i c a l c o n d u c t i s now req u i r e d t h a t e x c e e d s t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l man/man e t h i c i n f a v o r o f a m a n / l a n d s c a p e ENVIRONETHIC. Abraham L i n c o l n e x p r e s s e d t h i s e t h i c a l dilemma, most s u c c i n c t l y , when a d d r e s s i n g C o n g r e s s i n 1 8 6 2 , d e c l a r i n g t h a t "The dogmas o f t h e q u i e t p a s t , a r e i n a d e q u a t e f o r t h e s t o r m y present. The o c c a s i o n i s p i l e d h i q h w i t h d i f f i c u l t y , and w e must r i s e w i t h t h e o c c a s i o n . A s o u r case i s new, s o w e must t h i n k anew, a n d a c t anew. W e m u s t d i s e n t h r a l l o u r s e l v e s , and then w e s h a l l save ( t h e c o n d i t i o n o f ) our country."

/I/

H i s e x h o r t a t i o n t o t h i n k anew i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e env i r o n i c stress t h a t p r e v a i l s i s most t i m e l y , w h i l e t h e n e e d t o d i s e n t h r a l l o u r s e l v e s o f s t e r i l q economic p r a c t i c e s i n f a v o r o f s t r a t e q i e s i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l v i t a l i t y i s o b v i o u s when r e v i e w i n q t h e a n x i e t i e s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l commerce a n d raw m a t e r i a l exchange.

The phenomenal r i s e i n t h e number o f p r i v a t e o r q a n i z a t i o n s d e t e r m i n e d upon t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f w i l d l i f e s p e c i e s , t h e i r h a b i t a t and l a n d s c a p e r e s e r v a t i o n s , i n a r c h i t e c t u r a l p r e s e r v a t i o n and s p e c i a l a r e a c o n s e r v a t i o n is e n c o u r a g i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l l e a d e r s h i p r e q u i r e d f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f environethical d i s c i p l i n e s is already vigorous a s a basis f o r a new e n v i r o n e t h i c a l doqma. The i s s u e i s , f u n d a m e n t a l l y ,

educational.

" A s o u r c a s e i s new," e n v i r o n e t h i c a l p r i n c i p l e s m u s t be t a u g h t a s t h e b a s i s o f human b e h a v i o r , a s p r a c t i c a l p l a n n i n g s t r a t e g y and d e s i g n d i s c i p l i n e , of c a u s e and e f f e c t , "so w e must t h i n k anew, and a c t anew" i n r e v i s i n g e d u c a t i o n a l p r i o r i t y and i n d e v i s i n g i n n o v a t i v e p u b l i c i n s t r u c t i o n c o n f o r m i n q t o reality

.

A t a t i m e when t h i s n a t i o n i s i n an agony o f d i s i l l u s i o n r e s p e c t i n g i t s academic s t a n d a r d s and d i r e c t i o n s , t e c h n o l o g i c a l advancements p r o c e e d u n r e s t r a i n e d by t r a d i t i o n a l c o n v i c t i o n s o f m o r a l i t y . W h i l e a new d e d i c a t i o n i s u r q e n t l y r e q u i r e d , no r e a l p r o q r e s s c a n be e x p e c t e d w i t h o u t a d r a s t i c c h a n g e i n o u r a p p r e M o d i f i c a t i o n o f bec i a t i o n of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l v i t a l i t i e s . h a v i o r i s r e q u i r e d i n t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t human b e n e f i t depends upon e c o l o g i c a l h y g i e n e , c o n s e q u e n t l y , a s h i f t i n emphas i s from e t h n o c e n t r i c i l l u s i o n i n f a v o r o f e n v i r o c e n t r i c r e a l i t y i s e s s e n t i a l a s t h e b a s i s of any r e v i s e ? t b r i i s t . i n e d u c a t i o n .

CONCEPT The c o n c e p t o f ENVIRONETHICS i s s u g g e s t e d , t h e r e f o r e , a s t h e f o c u s o f a program of i m m e d i a t e p r a c t i c a l r e s p o n s e t o t h e mounting e d u c a t i o n a l dilemma i n m a t t e r s a f f e c t i n q e n e r q e t i c s , s y n e c o l o g i c a l a c c o r d , and d e l i b e r a t e e n v i r o n i c d e s i g n . The u r g e n c y f o r e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n , w i t h e v e r less p o l l u t i o n , i s c o n f i r m e d by e x p e r i e n c e of e n v i r o n m e n t a l b e f o u l m e n t r e s u l t i n g from t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f i q n o r a n t p r a c t i c e s long susThe C l e a n t a i n e d a f t e r t h e i r o b n o x i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e known. Enersy R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y o f M i a m i , and The I n t e r -

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n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r Hydrogen E n e r q y a r e t o be c o n s r a t u l a t e d f o r t h e i r r e s e a r c h and e d u c a t i o n a l i n i t i a t i v e s . T h e i r academic l e a d e r s h i p must be e n c o u r a g e d beyond t h e mere t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s a t h a n d , and t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l e n d e a v o r s c o n c e n t r a t e d upon some f o r m u l a o f u n i v e r s a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a n d immediate a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e f o r m of a n e n v i r o n e t h i c which s t i m u l a t e s accord between a l l t h e environmental i s s u e s o f t h e "stormy p r e s e n t . " The e x t r a v a g a n t and a v a r i c i o u s c o n s u m p t i o n of t h e e a r t h ' s r e s o u r c e s l e a d s , i n e v i t a b l y , t o a scramble f o r c o n t r o l of t h e materials t h a t remain. Such c o m p e t i t i o n p r o v o k e s t r a d i t i o n a l c o n f l i c t s and i n t e n s i f i e s s t r u g g l e s f o r t e r r i t o r i a l d o m i n a t i o n . Wars, i n c o n s e q u e n c e , seem i n e v i t a b l e and u n a v o i d a b l e f o r r e a s o n s o f r e s o u r c e economy, q u i t e a p a r t f r o m p r e v a i l i n g i d e o l o g i c a l and r e l i g i o u s a n t a g o n i s m s . The b l a t a n t p r o c e s s i n g of s u c h r e s o u r c e s h i n d e r s n a t u r a l e n v i r o n i c p r o d u c t i o n o v e r e v e r l a r g e r a r e a s , and d e g r a d e s e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y t h e r e b y a g g r a v a t i n g t h e human a n d e c o l o g i c a l d i s t r e s s . The e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n p r o c e s s a r e f u r t h e r impeded by t h e e v e r i n c r e a s i n g demand f o r accommodation w h i c h becomes y e t more d e s p e r a t e a s p o p u l a t i o n s m u l t i p l y . Under s u c h p r e s s u r e s , i n h e r i t e d e t h i c s , b a s e d upon p r a c t i c a l compromise b e t w e e n man and man, c a n be e f f e c t i v e n o l o n g e r amid t h e r e s t r a i n t s imposed by s c a r c i t y a n d by t h e pena l t i e s of degradation. E t h i c a l c o n d u c t , a r i s i n g from m u t u a l c o n c e s s i o n , i s no s h i e l d a q a i n s t t h e h e a v y h a n d o f n a t u r a l r e t r i b u t i o n . T h e r e c a n be no compromise w i t h t h e e n v i r o n i c c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e human d e f i a n c e o f t h e n a t u r a l f o r c e s a n d p h y s i c a l factors. C o n v e n t i o n a l e t h i c s based o n n e q o t i a t i o n m u s t now y i e l d t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t e n v i r o n i c dependency r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e a l i t y o f s o c i a l s u r v i v a l . An e n v i r o n e t h i c , which r e c o g n i z e s t h a t mankind i s m a i n t a i n e d by t h e g r a c e o f n a t u r a l v i t a l i t y a n d a b u n d a n c e m u s t be d e v i s e d , upon s y n e c o l o g i c a l a c t u a l i t y . NO p r e v a i l i n g e t h i c a l c o n v i c t i o n s g o v e r n i n g human * b e h a v i o r c a n res t r a i n a c t s o f d e s p e r a t i o n a r i s i n g from t h e need o f d i m i n i s h i n q r e s o u r c e s and d e g r a d e d h a b i t a t t u r n e d r a n c i d by t e c h n o l o g i c a l inadvertence. An e n v i r o n e t h i c , would d e t e r m i n e b e h a v i o r i n r e s p o n s e t o e c o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t . The r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e a b s o l u t e i m p e r a t i v e of e n v i r o n i c c o n d i t i o n m u s t become t h e d o m i n a t i n g a c a d e m i c comm i t m e n t of o u r t i m e . The p r i m a c y o f e n v i r o n e t h i c s i n a c h i e v i n g c u l t u r a l r e c o n c i l i a t i o n and s y n e c o l o g i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n i s v i t a l if t h e human momentum i s t o be m a i n t a i n e d . W h i l e t h e r e may be n o t h i n g new i n t h e c o n c e p t o f e n v i r o n e t h i c s , i t r e q u i r e s formul a t i o n i n terms of p r a c t i c a l s t r a t e g i e s i n t h e u s e o f r e s o u r c e s , i n c o n s e r v a t i o n p o l i c i e s and a s a n e d u c a t i o n a l a g e n d a , e v e n a s a formula i n achievinq r e l i q i o u s accord. DEFINITION

T h e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e t e r m E N V I R O N E T H I C i s b a s e d upon The O x f o r d E n q l i s h D i c t i o n a r y , /?/ and i s o f f e r e d f o r c r i t i c a l cons i d e r a t i o n by r e a s o n o f s i m p r i c i t y i n u s e and c l a r i t y o f meaning. The term ' e t h i c s ' , d e s c r i b e d a s " t h e s c i e n c e o f morals" and i s

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further confirmed as a "department of study concerning t h e princ i p a l s o f human d u t y . " The i n j u n c t i o n of " d u t y " , i s p e r h a p s t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e issue i n t h a t d u t y is n o t i d e n t i f i e d . D u t y t o whom?, t o o t h e r humans, o b v i o u s l y , b u t d o e s t h e o b l i g a t i o n r e s t t h e r e ?

I n so f a r t h a t e v e r y t h i n g d e p e n d s , e v e n t u a l l y , u p o n t h e c o n d i t i o n o f something else, it i s logical to s u g g e s t t h a t t h e human d u t y m u s t i n c l u d e r e s p e c t f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e e n v i r o n ment by w h i c h t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e ( o f a n y t h i n q ) i s m a i n t a i n e d . D e n i a l o f t h a t human d u t y l e a d s t o d e s p e r a t i o n , d e g r a d a t i o n a n d d e m i s e , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e prime m o t i v a t i o n b e h i n d t h e c o n c e p t o f e t h i c s w o u l d seem t o b e t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f c o n d i t i o n s o f v i t a l i t y f o r a n y s p e c i e s . M o r e o v e r , t h e p r e c i s i o n i m p l i e d by t h e t e r m " s c i e n c e " r e s p e c t i n g imprecise morals i s n o t s t r a i n e d in t h i s context of environic quality. T h e more d e t a i l e d d i c t i o n a r y d e s c r i p t i o n s c o n f i r m t h i s hypothesis w i t h references to " r u l e s of conduct recognized i n c e r t a i n a s s o c i a t i o n s o f l i f e " ; " t h e w h o l e f i e l d o f moral s c i e n c e i n c l u d i n g , b e s i d e e t h i c s , p r o p e r l y so c a l l e d , t h e s c i e n c e o f l a w , whether c i v i l , p o l i t i c a l or i n t e r n a t i o n a l " and t o " t h e t r e a t i n q o f moral q u e s t i o n s , a n d o f e t h i c s a s a s c i e n c e . " I t is o n l y a s m a l l a d j u s t m e n t i n scale t o expand " t h e s c i e n c e o f l a w , w h e t h e r c i v i l , p o l i t i c a l or i n t e r n a t i o n a l " t o include e n v i r o n i c s , t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e environment. The p h i l o s o p h i c a l i s s u e i m p l i e s , s i m p l y , t h a t human w e l l - b e i n g a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y are synonymous.

/z/

Webster's D i c t i o n a r y a m p l i f i e s t h e Oxford D i c t i o n a r y d e s c r i p t i o n w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o e t h i c s as " a s y s t e m o r c o d e o f morals of a p a r t i c u l a r p h i l o s o p h e r , r e l i q i o n , g r o u p , p r o f e s s i o n , etc." E n v i r o n o l o g i s t s , c o n s e r v a t i o n i s t s , biologists are obvio u s l y e m b r a s e d b y t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n w h i c h w o u l d seem t o b e i n conformity, also, w i t h A r i s t o t e l i a n l o g i c .

T h i s e t h i c a l emphasis concerning environmental well-being i s a common t h e m e among t h e many d i s t i n g u i s h e d A m e r i c a n a u t h o r s h a v e w r i t t e n w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t e l o q u e n c e i n terms of t h e conservation of quality. The e n v i r o n e t h i c a l w r i t i n g s o f J o h n W u i r , A l d o L e o p o l d , B u c k m i n s t e r F u l l e r , I a n McHarg, Hugh J o h n s o n , E r n i e 1 C h r i s t e n s e n a n d L e w i s Mumford a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y e m p h a t i c t o j u s t i f y mention i n t h i s c o n t e x t . Such e x p r e s s i o n s h a v e i n s p i r e d leadership i n t h e establishment of pioneering conservation institutions. T h e S i e r r a C l u b , T h e N a t i o n a l Audubon S o c i e t y a n d enumerable i n f l u e n t i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s d e v o t e d t o g e n e r a l and t o p a r t i c u l a r protection o f environic q u a l i t y , symbolize t h e cult u r a l i n i t i a t i v e u n d e r t a k e n bythes.: v i g o r o u s and v a r i e d p e o p l e whose g r e a t e s t p l a n n i n g d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , T h e N a t i o n a l P a r k s S e r v i c e , TVA a n d y e s , T h e U . S . Corps o f E n g i n e e r s a r e t h e e n v y o f the nations. Such i n i t i a t i v e i s c o n f i r m e d by t h e o f f i c i a l Envir o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency, and by t h e p r i v a t e E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Fund, The American R i v e r s C o n s e r v a t i o n C o u n c i l , The N a t i o n a l T r u s t f o r H i s t o r i c P r e s e r v a t i o n , e t c . , many o f w h i c h h a v e e m e r g e d i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e i r predecessors i n G r e a t B r i t a i n . T h e s e g r e a t i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e s u p p l e m e n t e d b y many l o c a l - i n t e r e s t p r o t e c t i o n i s t q r o u p s d e d i c a t e d t o t h e w e l f a r e of s p e c i e s , s c e n e s

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and s p e c t a c u l a r i t e m s i n t h e i r i n f i n i t e d i v e r s i t y , a r e s u f f i c i e n t t o c o n s t i t u t e a f o r c e t h a t demands p o l i t i c a l r e c o g n i t i o n . Such a b r o a d c o l l e c t i v e i n f l u e n c e f o r good order demands coord i n a t i o n i n terms o f a c u l t u r a l m o r a l i t y i n d e f e n s e of e n v i r o n i c quality. I t i s t i m e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t some o r g a n i z a t i o n of p r i v a t e e n d e a v o r , i n c l u d i n g c e r t a i n i n d u s t r i e s , emerged t o f o r m a l i z e t h e e t h i c a l i n f l u e n c e s o f t h e s e numerous a n d d i v e r s e g r o u p s o n a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c a l e , e s p e c i a l l y now t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f UNESCO seems t o be i n some d o u b t . The s i t u a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e moral r e c t i t u d e t h a t i s c l e a r l y f r e e o f p r e v a i l i n g p o l i t i c a l shadows w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e both n a t i o n a l a n d U n i t e d N a t i o n s operations. I t i s u r g e n t t h a t t h e " v o i c e " o f n a t u r e be h e a r d as an independent e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e d e l i b e r a t i o n s o f n a t i o n s , registered by i n f o r m e d o p i n i o n whose critical-mass may s o o n become d e c i s i v e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s .

The c r e a t i o n of some e n v i r o n i c f o c u s , s e r v i n g a l l c o n s e r v a t i o n i n t e r e s t s , e m p h a s i z i n g t h e e s s e n t i a l u n i t y which b i n d s a l l s u c h i n t e r e s t s , f o r m u l a t e d a s a global s t r a t e g y o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y , i s now e s s e n t i a l . The U n i t e d N a t i o n s h a s n o t shown, it seems, t h e n e c e s s a r y t h r u s t t o compete w i t h r o u t i n e p o l i t i c a l a n x i e t i e s o r to c o u n t e r a c t t h e p r e v a i l i n g e n v i r o n i c d e c l i n e , t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e Seas f o r i n s t a n c e . STRATEGY

The p r o s p e c t s f o r a n y e f f e c t i v e r e o r i e n t a t i o n i n t h e h a n d l i n g o f r e s o u r c e s are indeed d i m . P o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i o n s are r e k i n d l e d as programs a d v o c a t i n g t h e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s prompted by s c a r c i t i e s a s c o n d i t i o n s d e g e n e r a t e and a s a c t s o f desperation increase. The human p r o p e n s i t y t o d i v i d e , p o s s e s s i v e l y a n d p o l i t i c a l l y , t h a t which t h e n a t u r a l f o r c e s c a u s e t o be u n i f i e d , ens u r e s t h a t s u c c e s s i v e c i v i l i z a t i o n s m u s t c o n t e n d w i t h t h e cons e q u e n c e s o f c o n t i n u e d d e f i a n c e o f e n v i r o n i c d i s c i p l i n e s . Some p l a n n i n g s t r a t e g y w h i c h c o u n t e r s t h i s i n s i s t e n t i n s t i n c t i s required. I t c a n be d e v i s e d upon t h e c o n c e p t o f e n v i r o n e t h i c s i n r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e material r e a l i t i e s o f t h e earth, i t s e v o l v i n g climate, and s y n e c o l o g i c a l c o n t i n u i t y . By c o m p a r i s o n , t h e t r i v i a l i t y and e x p e d i e n c e o f t r a n s i e n t human economy i s o b v i o u s . Any code o f m o r a l i t y i n human b e h a v i o r is better based upon t h e c o n s i s t e n t e v i d e n c e o f s y n e c o l o g i c a l d i s c i p l i n e t h a n upon c u l t u r a l i l l u s i o n , however l o n g s u s t a i n e d . "The power of a n i d e a whose t i m e has come" i s e x c e e d e d o n l y by t h e f o r c e o f r e t r i b u t i o n of a h o s t i l e e n v i r o n m e n t enr a g e d by human m i s t r e a t m e n t . The d o m i n a t i o n of e t h n o c e n t r i c c o n c e p t m u s t be r e p l a c e d by e n v i r o c e n t r i c h u m i l i t y . W h i l e t h e c o n c e p t of The U n i t e d N a t i o n s p e r p e t u a t e s t h e p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e s of t e r r i t o r i a l s u b d i v i s i o n , s o d i s a s t e r o u s t o environmental consistency, t h e a c t u a l i t y of 'earth i n d i v i s i ble' must dominate p o l i t i c a l judgment i f t h e d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e b i o s p h e r e i s t o be r e d u c e d . The v a l u e o f w h a t i s s h a r e d , as compared w i t h what i s p o s s e s s e d , must p r o v i d e t h e basis o f f r e s h i n s p i r a t i o n i n t h e c o n d u c t of i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i c y . More e f f o r t

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i s q e n t on t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f b o u n d a r i e s t h a n upon t h e substances enclosed. I t i s clear, however, t h a t t h e e m o t i o n a l , p o s s e s s i v e , n a t i o n a l i s t i c i n s t i n c t s a r e too i n g r a i n e d t o b e r e v i s e d w i t h o u t t h e i n f l u e n c e of e n v i r o n i c d i s a s t e r . T h e f e a r o f c o n s e q u e n c e s , may e n f o r c e some m o d i f i c a t i o n of t h e p o s s e s s i v e i n s t i n c t s , b u t t h e r a c e t o p o s s e s s d i m i n i s h i n g r e s o u r c e s and t h e n a t u r a l r e t a l i a t i o n from e n v i r o n i c i n j u r y i n d i c a t e a bleak future.

P l e a s made a t The U n i t e d N a t i o n s o n b e h a l f o f e n v i r o n i c q u a l i t y a n d w i l d l i f e s e c u r i t y , f o r t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of nonhuman s p e c i e s i n d e f e n s e of t h e i r " r i g h t s " a n d r e a s o n a b l e exp e c t a t i o n s h a v e b e e n made t o seem p r e p o s t e r o u s i n t h e p o l i t i c a l atmosphere o f p o s s e s s i o n .

W h i l e it m i g h t seem p r e f e r a b l e t o e x p a n d e s t a b l i s h e d i n s t r u m e n t s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i c y e x c h a n g e , t h e n e c e s s a r y c h a n g e s i n v o l v e t h e e n t i r e mechanism of o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i n e r t i a . The immense t a s k o f s p e e d y p u b l i c i n s t r u c t i o n , on a g l o b a l s c a l e , i s so i m p e r a t i v e t h a t a new i n s t r u m e n t t o " t h i n k anew and a c t anew" i s r e q u i r e d . T h e d e l i c a c y o f t h e human p r e d i c a m e n t i s too s e r i o u s t o be l e f t t o g o v e r n m e n t s a l o n e , and e n v i r o n i c pol i t i c a l p a r t i e s h a v e a l r e a d y emerged i n F r a n c e , J a p a n , West Germany, a n d i n The U n i t e d Kingdom. The i m p e t u s o f p o l i t i c a l r e a c t i o n e m e r g i n g f r o m e n v i r o n i c e v i d e n c e c o n f i r m e d by s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h , d e s e r v e s e x p r e s s i o n which o n l y e n v i r o n e t h i c a l c o n v i c t i o n c a n p r o v i d e . The e s s e n c e of e v e r y c r i s i s i s t i m e and t i m i n g w h i c h a p p l i e s , e s p e c i a l l y , i n m a t t e r s o f environmental d e g r a d a t i o n . Time, h e r e , i s as much p a s t a s f u t u r e i n t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r p r e s s u r e s w i t h which w e must c o n t e n d began w i t h i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , and a r e accumulat i v e , a s t h e i n c i d e n c e of a c i d - r a i n d e m o n s t r a t e s so g e o g r a p h i c a l l y . I n consequence, water s h o u l d symbolize, p e r h a p s , t h e urqency of environmental q u a l i t y i n t h e immediate well-being of any s p e c i e s , and i n t h e d e s t i n y o f mankind. Since a l l p o l i t i c a l and economic i s s u e s a r e now c o m p l i c a t e d by e n v i r o n i c f a c t o r s , e t h n o c e n t r i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s m u s t be a c c e p t e d now a s e n v i r o c e n t r i c imperatives. SYMBOLISM E x i s t i n g e d u c a t i o n a l systems and f a c i l i t i e s r e p r e s e n t t h e f i r s t order o f c h a n g e i n c u l t i v a t i n g a n i n f o r m e d p o p u l a c e . As the crisis i n environmental awareness c o i n c i d e s w i t h a n x i e t y o v e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n a d e q u a c i e s , a new f o c u s o f e d u c a t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n i s t i m e l y w h e r e w i t h t o c o n c e n t r a t e upon t h e v e l o s i t y of t h e n a t u r a l f o r c e s , and t h e human d e p e n d e n c e t h e r e u p o n . The c r e a t i o n o f a v i g o r o u s i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m based o n e n v i r o n e t h i c s , t h e r e f o r e , would be s e e m l y , a n d w a t e r s h o u l d s y m b o l i z e any new e d u c a t i o n a l e n d e a v o r . The a p p r e c i a t i o n of WATER I N D I V I S I B L E , t h e b a s i s of b i o l o g i c a l p e r p e t u i t y , o f f e r s b o t h s y m b o l i c a s p i r a t i o n and p r a c t i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a s t r a t e q y of g e n e r a l edu c a t i o n i n environmental q u a l i t y and e n v i r o n e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d a s

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t h e p l a n n i n g d i s c i p l i n e most l i k e l y t o redeem t h e d e q r a d a t i o n s t h a t p r e v a i l . S o o n e r o r l a t e r a l l c i v i l i z a t i o n s c r e a t e and a r e condemned by t h e i r own water c r i s e s . I t i s s t r a n q e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t human h i s t o r i e s a r e n o t y e t w r i t t e n i n t e r m s o f water husb a n d r y , i n r i v e r i n e economy, o f c o a s t a l a d a p t a t i o n a n d a d v e n t u r e , i n f o r e s t r y , i n w e t l a n d d r a i n a g e and c o n s e q u e n c e . I n s c i e n t i f i c terms, t h e a b s o l u t e l i m i t t o t h e q u a n t i t y of w a t e r a v a i l a b l e , i n a l l i t s f o r m s , seems e s t a b l i s h e d , i t s b i o l o g i c a l i n f l u e n c e recognized. I n r e l i g i o u s t e r m s , t h e symb o l i s m o f water i s e v e r - p r e s e n t , w h i l e w a t e r h a s r e m a i n e d an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f any i n t e l l e c t u a l attainment. In architectural d e s i g n , as d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e g a r d e n i n g a r t s of P e r s i a , C h i n a and J a p a n , i n t h e Moqul t e r r a c e s , t h r o u g h o u t t h e l a n d s c a p e app r e c i a t i o n ' s of t h e E u r o p e a n r e n a i s s a n c e i n v e n t i v e n e s s , t o c l i max i n t h e E n q l i s h p a r k s o f t h e e i q h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w a t e r h a s r e p r e s e n t e d , c o n s i s t e n t l y , t h e h i q h e s t a c h i e v e m e n t of a n y c u l t i v a t e d landscape. I n r e s p e c t o f medical hyqiene, t h e i n f l u e n c e o f w a t e r and The v i s i b i l i t y o f w a t e r i s , a l s o , a p s y c h o l o g i c a l n e c e s s i t y , and t h e p l a n n i n g o f f o u n t a i n s a s p a r t of urban hydro-psychotherapy is an e s s e n t i a l p r e c a u t i o n f o r t h e r e d u c t i o n of e m o t i o n a l t e n s i o n a n d d i s o r d e r s i n a r e a s of h i s h p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y . The e f f e c t s o f w a t e r p o l l u t i o n , r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e c a r e l e s s d i s c h a r q e o f c h e m i c a l wastes , i n d u s t r i a l , a q r i c u l t u r a l ' , n u c l e a r and domestic, i s now s o a l l - p e r v a s i v e t h a t w a t e r - p u r i t y h o l d s p r i o r i t y among t h e e n v i r o n i c p r o b l e m s o f most c o m m u n i t i e s , and i s a t c r i s i s p i t c h i n many. i t s c o n d i t i o n s are paramount.

An i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o g r a m i n hydrodynamic s t r a t e g y , s i m i l a r t o t h a t now r e v e a l i n g m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c o n t i n u i t y , i s r e q u i r e d immediately, wherewith t o . p r o p a q a t e t h e s a n c t i t y o f w a t e r as t h e prime f a c t o r i n e n v i r o n i c redemption. A s t h e a b s t r a c t conc e p t o f ' p e a c e ' w a s f o r m u l a t e d t o j u s t i f y t h e c r e a t i o n o f The U n i t e d N a t i o n s , s o now some p r a c t i c a l c o n c e p t o f e n v i r o n m e n t r e d e m p t i o n i s r e q u i r e d , and w a t e r may s e r v e t o s y m b o l i z e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l commitment. Mistreatment of water is s e l f - i n s t r u c t i v e . Defiance O f hydrodynamic d i s c i p l i n e s i s g e n o c i d a l . I t i s b i o c i d a l . Water symbolizes t h e e n v i r o n e t h i c a l c o n c e p t i n a c t i o n , as v i s i b l e e n e r g y of i n f i n i t e f o r c e , o f c a u s e a n d e f f e c t , whereby t h e f o r m of a n y l a n d f o r m i s as i t i s now p e r c e i v e d . B i o e t h i c s i n d e t a i l , and e n v i r o n e t h i c s i n g e n e r a l c s h o u l d be e x p l o r e d a s t h e u l t i m a t e q l o b a l c u l t u r a l o b l i g a t i o n and educ a t i o n a l o h j e c t i v c , i f humanity i s t o s u r v i v e and social prog r e s s be made on t h i s p l a n e t , t h e ' m e c h a n i c s o f w a t e r p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d r e u s e ( p o i e s i s ) is f u n d a m e n t a l t o p r a c t i c a l space c o l o n i z a t i o n now t h a t t h e n a t i o n h a s d e t e r m i n e d upon t h i s e s s e n t i a l i n v e s t m e n t , commercial and m i l i t a r y . Environology, t h e s t u d y of c o n d i t i o n i n a l l i t s manifest a t i o n s , c o n s t i t u t e s p e r h a p s , t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c u l t u r a l imperat i v e of o u r t i m e . The scale of t h i s pract.ice is g l o b a l a n d i n divisible. I t i n v o l v e s e v e r y material, e v e r y chemical and t h e r m a l c o n d i t i o n , for energy and e n v i r o n i c s are c o - i n c i d e n t a l .

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An u n p r e c e d e n t e d e f f o r t i s r e q u i r e d b y p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e , rather t h a n qovernmental a g e n c i e s , to f a c i l i t a t e speedy c o o r d i n a t i o n between t h e numerous c o n s e r v a t i o n o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e i r common c o n c e r n w i t h w a t e r q u a l i t y , t o i n i t i a t e imaginative i n s t r u c t i o n a l programs i n hydrodynamics, t h e e n v i r o n e t h i c s o f t h e w a t e r d i l e m m a a n d o n t h e human prosp e c t u p o n i t s s u c c e s s f u l r e s o l u t i o n ( f o r t h e program m u s t be o p t i m i s t i c however b l e a k t h e r e a l i t y ) . HY DRORAMA

T h e c u l t i v a t i o n of e n v i r o n e t h i c a l c o n c e p t s o f b e h a v i o r towards t h e n a t u r a l elements and t h e s y n e c o l o g i c a l v i t a l i t y t h a t m u s t be m a i n t a i n e d r e q u i r e s s t i m u l a t i n g d e m o n s t r a t i o n . T h e s u b j e c t c a n n o l o n g e r be c o n f i n e d t o t h e c l a s s r o o m . It r e q u i r e s t h e m o s t i n n o v a t i v e e x p o s i t i o n y e t d e v i s e d i n t h e form of a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y r e c o g n i z e d " c e n t e r " i n w h i c h a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f water a r e d i s p l a y e d , i n c o n d i t i o n s , l i q u i d , s o l i d , c r y s t a l i n e and v a p o r . The h y p o t h e s i s o f a n e n v i r o n e t h i c c a n n o t b e b e t t e r i l l u s t r a t e d t h a n b y t h e e n e r g e t i c p o w e r s of c a u s e a n d e f f e c t as wrouqht by water. M o r e o v e r , t h e c o n c e p t o f e n v i r o n e t h i c s m u s t be r e v e a l e d , also, i n h i s t o r i c c o n t e x t , showinq t h a t t h e earliest c u l t u r e s were r i v e r i n e i n o r i g i n , a n d were s u s t a i n e d b y c o n s i s t e n t res p e c t f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n of w a t e r , e v e n t u a l l y e m e r g i n g a s c i v ilizations. T h e q u a l i t y of e n v i r o n i c h y g i e n e o f t h e e a r t h , o f t h e a t m o s p h e r e a n d o f t h e w a t e r s i n d i v i s i b l e , i s now so p r e c a r i o u s a s a r e s u l t o f human d e l i b e r a t i o n or o f i n a d v e r t e n c e t h a t f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e s of c l i m a t e a r e i n p r o g r e s s , t h o u g h t h e e f f e c t s remain i n d i s p u t e . A new f o c u s , t h e r e f o r e , i s n e e d e d t o d r a m a t i z e t h e s e awful p o t e n t i a l i t i e s , a p p l i c a b l e a t any scale, i n any l o c a t i o n , In f o r e v e r y p u r p o s e , human a n d e c o l o g i c a l , t h r o u g h o u t t i m e . r e s n o n s e t o t h i s c h a l l e n g e i n speedy p u b l i c i n s t r u c t i o n a n i n n o v a t i v e i n v e s t m e n t has been p r o p o s e d , f o r t h e promotion o f u n d e r s t a n d i n q i n w a t e r economy. T h i s f a c i l i t y may be r e a l i z e d i n t h e f o r m o f a n HYDRORAMA, a u n i q u e museum-like r e s e a r c h and e x h i b i t i o n c e n t e r , s u s t a i n e d by h o t e l / m o t e l a c c o m m o d a t i o n w i t h d o n f e r e n c e h a l l s a n d c l a s s rooms.

The proposed c o m p o s i t i o n is w i t h o u t p r e c e d e n t , and is i n t e n d e d t o e s t a b l i s h new i n i t i a t i v e s i n u r g e n t p u b l i c i n s t r u c t i o n i n w a t e r h u s b a n d r y , a m i d . t h e e v i d e n c e o f d i m i n i s h i n g ecol o g i c a l r e s o u r c e s and d e c l i n i n g e n v i r o n i c q u a l i t y , world-round, as may be made v i s i b l e b y remote s a t e l l i t e d a t a , c o n t i n u o u s l y .

T h e H y d r o r a m a w i l l c o n t a i n d e p a r t m e n t s Of e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n , m e t e o r o l o g y , g e o l o g y , h y d r o l o g y , b i o l o g y , e c o l o g y , forest r y , w i l d e r n e s s a n d w i l d l i f e research, s u p p l e m e n t e d b y p e r m a n e n t e x h i b i t i o n s and t r a v e l l i n g d i s p l a y s on e v e r y r e l e v a n t t o p i c , m a i n t a i n e d b y n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r i e s a n d commercial operations. The Hydrorama m a y . o f f e r h e a d q u a r t e r s offices €or a n y c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d e n e r q y o r g a n i z a t i o n a s a m e a n s of en-

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s u r i n g improved c o o r d i n a t i o n among t h e w i d e s t r a n g e o f s u c h p r i v a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , and t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l / i n d u s t r i a l a n d t r a n s p o r t e n t e r p r i s e s w h a t e v e r t h e i r d e g r e e o f water d e p e n d e n c e . Because o f t h e need f o r v i s i b i l i t y , a c e n t r a l s i t e has been s e l e c t e d , /a/ which l i e s a s t r i d e t h e p r i m e t r a n s c o n t i n e n t a l highway and r a i l w a y t o e n t i c e t h e t r a v e l l i n g p u b l i c a n d t o i n f o r m them w h i l e e n r o u t e . The p a r t i c i p a t i n q p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s w i l l be e x p e c t e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r own e d u c a t i o n a l p e r s o n n e l a v a i l a b l e t o j o i n w i t h a c a d e m i c f a c u l t y i n r e s e a r c h and i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e r e b y c o n t r i b u t i n g d i r e c t l y to t h e a l l e v i a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l educat i o n a l d e f i c i e n c i e s , as an e x t e n s i o n of p r e s e n t s e r v i c e s u s u a l l y provided a s documentation. Under t h e a u s p i c e s o f a d i s t i n g u i s h e d L J n i v e r s i t y , c o u r s e s w i l l be a r r a n g e d f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f a n y s p e c i a l i t y , c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h c o u r s e s p r o v i d e d by o t h e r academic e s t a b l i s h m e n t s . Classroom and r e s e a r c h accommodation may be r e n t e d , t h r o u g h t h e h o t e l , f o r s p e c i a l s e s s i o n s , a s l o n g a s req u i r e d , whereby s c h o o l s , u n i v e r s i t i e s , h e r e a n d a b r o a d , i n d u s t r i a l and commercial i n t e r e s t s , c o n s e r v a t i o n o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d s o c i a l g r o u p s c a n assemble f o r t h e p r o m u l g a t i o n o f t h e i r s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s on a n i n c i d e n t a l o r r e g u l a r s c h e d u l e . N o w t h a t h o t e l accommodation h a s b e e n s t a n d a r d i z e d f r o m c o a s t t o c o a s t , monotony r e s u l t s , and t h e p r o s p e c t o f a n e n t e r p r i s i n g h o t e l chain o f f e r i n q similar s e r v i c e s i n p u b l i c instruct i o n i n s t r a t e q i c l o c a t i o n s is an e x c i t i n g investment probab i l i t y , i n t e r m s similar to the r e g u l a r u n i v e r s i t y extension services. T h e p r i v a t e f u n d i n g of t h e Hydrorama may be r a i s e d i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l money m a r k e t s , c o m b i n i n g t h e a p p e a l o f e n t e r -

t a i n m e n t , e d u c a t i o n and commercial v e n t u r e s , v i t a l e n v i r o n i c economics. Any n a t i o n w h i c h c a n s u p p o r t t h r e e D i s n e y e s q u e a t t r a c t i o n s d e v o t e d t o t h e p u r s u i t s of " f u n " c a n , s u r e l y , s u s t a i n o n e focus devoted t o t h e understanding of t h e m o s t v i t a l c u l t u r a l o b l i g a t i o n t o c o n f r o n t mankind, t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e e a r t h a s s y m b o l i z e d by w a t e r , t o i n s p i r e ENVIRONETHICAL c o n d u c t t o ens u r e a more s t a b l e s o c i e t y amid a h e a l t h i e r e n v i r o n m e n t . SUMMARY

The E n v i r o n m e n t a l E t h i c i s emerging;, e n c o u r a g e d by h i s t o r i c a l research a n d by a v a r i e t y o f l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d and new n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l p u b l i c a t i o n s of m e r i t . /5/ Publ i c a n x i e t y o v e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s is r i s i n g as a e g r a d a t i o n i m p e r i l s a l l ecological s y s t e m s i n t h e i r i n f i n i t e i n d i v i s i b i l i t y , and i n t h i s c o n t e x t o f i n c r e a s i n g d i s a r r a y , t h e p r o g r e s s i v e c o n c e p t of E N V I R O N E T H I C S i s , i n d e e d , logical. The e t h i c of e n v i r o n m e n t a l d i s c i p l i n e p r o v i d e s , a l s o , t h e means of e x p r e s s i o n f a v o r i n g t h e " r i g h t s " o f t h e non-human s p e c i e s , t o ensure the protection of t h e irreplaceable a e s t h e t i c scenes, t h e g e n e r a l biotic well-being, and f o r t h e s u r v i v a l o f p a r t i c u lar inhabitants.

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ENVIRONETHICS i s r e q u i r e d , a l s o , t o s t i m u l a t e a r e v i s i o n of v a l u e s i n t h e p r a c t i c a l p l a n n i n g o f w i l d e r n e s s , w e t l a n d s , marine marshes, o f t h e s h a l l o w t h a l a s p a c e s , i n redeeming desec r a t e d l a n d s c a p e s , and i n t h e u r b a n b e w i l d e r m e n t . The c o n c e p t o f ENVIRONETHICS s h o u l d s e r v e a s a balm, a l u b r i c a n t , between t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n s , p o l i t i c a l and m e r c e n a r y f o r c e s b y w h i c h human a v a r i c e i s e n e r g i z e d . Such a concept c o u l d b r i n g a changed and a charged c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e human d e p e n d e n c e upon t h e v i t a l i t y o f o t h e r s p e c i e s i n t h e i r h o l i s t i c i n t e r a c t i v i t y , a s may b e i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e p r o posed Hydrorama. The m e t a m o r p h o s i s f r o m man-to-man (anthropocentric) (envirocentric) environethics represents e t h i c s t o man-to-land p e r h a p s , t h e u l t i m a t e c o n f i r m a t i o n o f H . G . Wells' d i c t u m t h a t "human h i s t o r y becoEes more a n d more a race b e t w e e n e d u c a t i o n a n d c a t a s t r o p h e . " /&/

,

REFERENCES

1.

Abraham L i n c o l n , Annual M e s s a g e t o C o n q r e s s , December 1 , 1862. The p a r e n t h e t i c a l i n t e r j e c t i o n i s a d d e d t o emphas i z e t h e n e c e s s a r y s h i f t f r o m t h e human ( p o l i t i c a l ) t o t h e environmental ( b i o l o g i c a l ) c o n t e x t .

2.

The O x f o r d E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y , O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1971.

3.

Webster's N e w T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y D i c t i o n a r y o f t h e E n g l i s h L a n g u a g e , U n a b r i d g e d , Second E d i t i o n , The World P u b l i s h i n g Company, 1 9 7 1 .

4.

P r o p o s e d s i t e , N o r t h P l a t t e , N e b r a s k a , G R E A T PLAINS i n t h e c e n t e r o f The S t a t e , i n t h e c e n t e r o f The N a t i o n a n d c e n t r a l t o The N o r t h A m e r i c a n C o n t i n e n t , a b o v e t h e O g a l a l a A q u i f e r , a t t h e j u n c t i o n o f t h e two r i v e r s y s t e m s o f e s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , amid a v a r i e t y o f e x i s t i n g h y d r o l o g i c a l f a c i l i t i e s , and i n f l u e n c e d a l s o by t h e l a s t i c e - a g e h y d r o g r a p h i c s , p r e v i o u s l y f o r m i n g a sea-bottom i n r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t g e o l o g i c a l t i m e s . HYDRORAMA,

5.

A s e x e m p l i f i e d by new q u a r t e r l y j o u r n a l s s u c h a s : "Environmental E t h i c s " : dedicated t o t h e Philosophical Aspects of Environmental Problems, a p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e J o h n Muir I n s t i t u t e of E n v i r o n m e n t a l S t u d i e s , U.S.A.; "Mimar", A r c h i t e c t u r e i n D e v e l o p m e n t , C o n c e p t Media, S i n g a p o r e ; "Land U s e P o l i c y " , d e v o t e d t o p r a c t i c a l i s s u e s o f p h y s i c a l p l a n n i n g and e v a l u a t i o n , U n i t e d Kingdom: " G e o t e c t u r e " , j o u r n a l of t h e G e o t e c t u r e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of N e w S o u t h Wales, A u s t r a l i a .

6.

H.

G.

Wells, "The O u t l i n e of H i s t o r y , "

1922.

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions,edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

THE MIDAS SYNDROME:

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HUMAN DILEMMA

Valerie Prime 1680 Riverside Dr. Stuart, FL 3 3 4 9 4 , U.S.A.

ABSTRACT

The biosphere is in jeopardy because of mankind's failure to recognize that natural balance is only achievable through variety. In channeling the diverse energies of the world to one species, the human animal, we are overpopulating the biosphere beyond its power to survive. Unchecked use of any form of energy is detrimental to world survival. Since the deteriorating power of the biosphere to respond is causing accelerated governmental instability the need for action is immediate. A series of first steps to deal with the problem is outlined and the conclusion is drawn that these steps are possible and that delay will increase the difficulty of the task and decrease the reward for achievement. 1.

INTRODUCTION

I want to thank the University of Miami for the opportunity of speaking here. There is a grandeur in the concept of a symposium based on that remarkable thin film which, alone in all the firmament explored by science, is capable of life support.

Drawing inspiration from this idea, I shall briefly examine the biosphere as I know it, its jeopardy, and the cause of that jeopardy. None of us here can fail to be aware of the gravity of our situation today, and all our separate problems are united by a basic cause which governments persistently underfund, under-regard, and very seldom undertake. The title for my talk derives from the Greeks who gave us the basis of all art and science in western civilization, and gave us, too, the inestimable gift of a discoverer's clear eye. Do you remember the tale of King Midas, the progenitor of all great financiers, who received from the gods the gift of the touch of gold? Like any good economist of today King Midas proceeded to turn into gold all of his resources on which he could lay hands. The fearful nature of his gift was revealed when he tried to eat... and choked on precious metal... and when the warm and loving darling of his heart, his daughter, embraced her terrified father, putting her hands upon him ... I do not believe there is another such clear

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warning of man's relationship to the world and the danger of shortsighted greed; and I wonder at how surely the story addresses the great hazard of our time: overpopulation. There is no doubt in my mind or yours that we are the most gifted of all species, the optimum form of life. But the gods have given us King Midas' choice. Like him we can turn everything into the most precious substance; like him we can turn all of life into power, into us. At this time it is the course we have chosen, though its price is irreparable harm to the biosphere and in human suffering escalates each year. But we are not compelled to continue. This, then, is an overview of our gift, of what it has done, of what the clear eye of reason can do to restore our biosphere and our place within it. 2.

THE PROBLEM DEFINED

It is the nature of all life from the simplest amoeba to outgrow its environment--it does not need to be taughtto dothis, and it is a pity that so much thought has been wasted on justifying it. It took the world about four billion years to produce Homosapiens, and it took two to five million years thereafter to achieve the first billion people by 1800-1850. It took about one hundred years for the next billion to arrive by 1930. The third billion in 1960, took only 30 years. The fourth billion in 1975 took only 15 years. We are now manifestly past the ability of the biosphere to support itself and us, yet we are on a headlong course for the fifth billion, expected to arrive in 1987, a total of 12 years. By the year 2000 this thin film of biosphere is expected to support over 6 billion people. Why continue a recital of escalating numbers?... 146/min, 790/hr, 211 thousand a day 14 billion by the year 2130. At that time it is expected that human growth will stabilize. Let me quote from an article on population in a 1939 British Encyclopedia Yearbook. "The population of the U . S . will grow mare slowly in the future until a probable maximum of about 153 million is reached by 1980." That was the best thinking of the day. Yet, when 1980 was actually reached, the U.S. population stood at 230 million, almost 80 million more than predicted, and no end foreseen, no action taken. Only other larger and more distant figures substituted for that magic moment when equilibrium will be achieved. Equilibrium with what? What will be left?

...

Figures for this country are even more exaggerated in other nations, where services cannot match procreating, and the existence of an uneducated, starving and embittered population makes havoc of any legislative program to reduce numbers or any government which proposes it. 3.

IMPRACTICAL SOLUTIONS

The answer has historically been migration, but the habitable areas of the world are now largely filled, so that "boat people" are turned away without mercy. In the Cambodian-Thailand agony, it has been estimated that as many as 5 million emigrants died or were killed. This country has chosen to largely ignore immigration, because of a tradition based on facts no longer applicable, yet this policy

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serves only to postpose the necessity of action in the mother countries with their soaring birthrates, and to make ever more difficult a balance in the host nation. In this country, the influx of illegal immigrants has soared well over 1 million/year, and, added to legal immigration, is estimated to equal the national birthrate. Delay in control makes every control more tenuous, as the lines of common language, education, ancestral loyalty, all become unusable, leaving the government with few choices other than acquiescence or force. 4.

PENALTIES FOR INACTION

If control becomes more difficult, the penalties become more severe. Let us review the broad outlines: 4.1

In Energy

Population growth is inextricably bound with the copsumption of the world's energy. All life is energy, it exists by consumption of other energies--plant, animal or atom. The history of man's growth has been the gradual intensification of energy effectiveness, and the use of this energy inever-increasing discharges has promoted the takeover of the world by one species. It has promoted other problems. The emission of C02 from fossil fuel power is affecting global climate, and, if not controlled, it will make all life as untenable as that on Venus. The acidity of Canadian and Northeastern lake systems from SO2 emissions has decimated fish, forests, animals, even the bees on which so much of the future depends. Studies by Dr. John Winchested of Florida State University show a strong correlation between rising lung cancer and production of S02. At Shippingport, PA, scrubbers have been installed to remove the offensive emissions. Yet a 1300 acre valley is now filled with the threatening presence of 200 million tons of sludge. Nuclear power has been quoted as the answer to the energy demands. Its use is growing rapidly in the world despite the bitter opposition of a large segment of the population. Apart from its inseparable connection with nuclear war, there are the innumerable questions of safety, involving possible accidents of incredible magnitude through oversight, carelessness, mechanical defect, and the unknown and there are the endless and unanswered questions involving nuclear wastes, failure to solve the storage problems, the dumping of wastes at sea, and the poisoning of the future.

...

Whatever choice we make, the increased use of energy by an expanding population is bought dearly. Where there is no visible damage as might be with renewable energy, even then there is a gift-wrapped penalty. Higher use of energy postpones the inevitable population adjustment and further robs the future while no attempt is made to restore a natural proportion. 4.2

In Species

Once we have wiped the slate clean of a piece of the design it is a finality. Time will never replace it. The increase of humanity

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is directly responsible for eradication or diminution of an evergrowing number of species. Perhaps ninety percent of all created species have become extinct. In the past they were replaced with others; today onlyonespecies replaces the void. Out of all the vanished life forms in the last two hundred years, more than half have disappeared since 1900 and today it is estimated that one to three leave this biosphere each day. By the end of this decade it is projected it will be one an hour. When numbers of people move into a space which a variety of life inhabited, there is an obvious corollary in the disappearance of that varied life. Less immediately apparent are a host of other conflicts. Water from which it -is basic to all life: but man, with imagination and greed has utilised it in many ways so that this basic life necessity is increasingly denied to other species. In developed countries usurpation of habitat may consist of destruction of the natural plant forage and substitution of less nutritous or protective plants, or all may be destroyed for mining construction; in poorer countries eradication of the herbiage occurs and deserts are created in a desperate struggle for life which demeans the living. Other life is detroyed in sudden death by our transport vehicles. Highways, covering ever larger sections of the land, isolate pockets of wildlife as effectively as a zoo but without sufficient sustenance. With man go his pets and livestock, fitting into their niches as hunters or grazers. Better fed and nurtured than the wildlife, brought into unnatural concentration, they are inordinately successful competitors. Further inroads are made by parasites and viruses familiar to domestic livestock, virulent to the wild. Pollution, war and trapping decimate other species. Clear cutting is proceeding in areas where plants, insects, even birds may be unknown to us. The loss of one plant can take with it over two dozen birds, animals and insects. 4.3

In Land

Pressures brought by the swelling numbers of humans cause all other species to retreat and retreat until there is no place, for the earth and all that grows on it are under assault. The tropical forest is disappearing at from 25 to 100 acres per minute. In starving Africq about one fourth million acres of desert are created each year. In'the Amazon where cutting is proceeding with devastating speed, forest land which loses less than 3 pounds of soil a year is clear cut; and this same land can lose 3 4 tons a year. At home, in the United States, there is an annual loss of one million acres of farmland; three million acres of crop, pasture, range and forestland. Our own forest in the eastern United States is in crisis. Over the entire area the forest is in decline, surveys by the forest service show a rapid sickening of at least a half dozen coniferous trees. Some of the hardwood trees in high locations are showing the same_ symptoms. Plant pathologist Robert Bruck has said we may be facing the "ecological catastrophe of the century". Acid precipitation has caused similar declines in Europe.

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4.4

In Water

The hydrosphere that developed all life is often so sullied that it is unable to sustain life. Irrigation accounts for 81% of all water used in this country and an estimated 53% is tapped from ground water storage. In my county springs which ten years ago leaped a foot into the air have almost ceased to flow. We mine our drinking water while we drain the land which contributed most largely to underground supplies and on which our Florida rainfall depends. Nationwide more than 60,000 pollutors dump waste waters into municipal sewage plants. Dumps of toxic wastes may be gradually filtered to the water table or taken up by vegetation. The serious nature of our water poisons was graphically illustrated by last years' great die-off of loons and pelicans. Studies by local Florida laboratories and by the Department of Interior showed that both native pelicans and migrating loons from far north had succumbed to high levels of heavy metals. Over the world the same belief in water's ability to purify exists as tankers pump bilges, factories pour wastes, pesticides are sprayed on ponds, and fishermen fight over dwindling fish supplies in the ocean. 4.5

In Political Structure

The future dims as populations surge and economies falter; political upheaval looms. The Third World, which is most in need of help, is most poorly equipped to improve conditions. Many developed countries whose birth rates, or even birth numbers are falling are less obviously oppressed by the same factors; human tides have washed over them for many centuries, leaving few resources to nourish a future.. The coming of democracy all too often gives license without wisdom or restraint, so that unloosed resources are squandered without replacement. From the pressures of overpopulation comes the great flood of immigrants who have no future unless they find a new nation, who bring cheap labor, future political unrest and, always, a tradition of large families. And in reaction to the divisive voices governments tend towards totalitarianism. Unless a way is found to curb the growth of population there is no future for man or any other life form. Unrest will surely find a way to tap the enormous destructive powers which yearly grow in strength, numbers, and accessibility. 5.

ARGUMENT FOR ACTION

Faced with multiplying probabilities, which in the long term assume the proportions of certainties, it is scarcely credible that man has not put his greatest concentration on the best and speediest solutions to the basic problem. Simultaneously, the finest international resources should be devoted to solving those problems connected with a diminishing or stabilized population. Though the facts are gloomy the import is optimistic. The path out of our dilemma is clear. King Midasrunlike most Greek Heroes, had his fatal gift removed and his daughter restored. Through no miracle can we ever hope to see again those breathing, feeling life

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forms which we replaced with the gold of humanity, yet, like Midas, we have the power to refuse to exercise our extraordinary gift and to live in sensitivity to the world about us. 5.1

Specifics These are some of the steps we should take:

We should devote a significant part of national budgets to making birth control available to all in every country. Instead of desisting when confronted with religious dogma, means should be found to reconcile, or finally, to confront emotion with reality. Positive incentives should be offered. All present or possible birthcontrolmethods should be studied as to effectiveness and the full force of science be employed to develop the best means. Education should teach demography and an understanding of the biosphere as a basic science for all, and a budget should be allotted to educate citizenry and legislature alike. There is no course now taught so important to the well-being of society. Each country should set ideal population figures capable of existing in perpetuity and should set goals to achieve these figures within a reasonable period of time. Unbridled immigration, which serves to camouflage the problem and makes solutions more difficult, should be restrained to comply with conservation of resources and political equilibrium. International conferences on population problems and their control should be attended by heads of state as well as specialists to give due priority. Resource depletion should include questions of international trade controls and land use laws which currently encourage waste. Concurrently with birth control efforts, govenments should undertake studies to determine how to redirect job training, the economic sciences, tax exemptions. Each of these areas is based on a concept of infinite growth as desirable and achievable. 6.

CONCLUSION

The above lightly sketched moves touch on some of the most important areas which need addressing. If they seem like a tall order we should consider. .. through delay we have already destroyed much in the biosphere, have intensified its jeopardy, have depleted the joy of all life to come... Nothing suggested here is impossible to reasonable man. All of it is necessary to preserve and enhance our particular interests and our particular lives. Each year of delay the reward is less, the achievement more difficult.

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions,edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - hinted in The Netherlands

A GESTALT APPROACH TO THE ENVIRONMENT

S e l i n a Bendix, Ph.D. and G i l b e r t G. Bendix, P.E. Bendix E n v i r o n m e n t a l Research, I n c . 1390 Market S t r e e t , S u i t e 902 San F r a n c i s c o , C a l i f o r n i a 94102, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT I n t h e l a s t t w e n t y y e a r s , e x t e n s i v e r e s o u r c e s have been devoted t o t h e s o l u t i o n o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l problems, b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n t h e most e f f e c t i v e way. As we do n o t have t h e r e s o u r c e s t o s o l v e a l l problems s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , and s i n c e s o l u t i o n s t o some problems may cause o r a g g r e v a t e o t h e r problems, i t becomes necessary t o c o n s i d e r a g l o b a l systems approach t o s e t t i n g p r i o r i t i e s . The paper r a i s e s a number o f q u e s t i o n s t h a t must be r o u t i n e l y asked and answered and p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e systems approach must i n c l u d e economic, s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s b e s i d e s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n o r d e r to a r r i v e a t a p p r o p r i a t e p r i o r i t i e s and t o produce s o l u t i o n s which can be m e a n i n g f u l l y implemented. The hazard o f n u c l e a r war c o n s t i t u t e s a u n i q u e r i s k o f imminent environment a l catastrophe. Recent r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l consequences o f such a war, o f t h e " n u c l e a r w i n t e r , " p u t an onus o n t h o s e s u i t a b l y educated t o understand t h e scope o f t h i s t h r e a t t o pass on t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g t o t h e p u b l i c , press and p o l i t i c i a n s . S i n c e t h e t h r e a t o f n u c l e a r war w i l l be w i t h us f o r some time, s o l u t i o n s t o o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l problems must be pursued s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . An i n t e g r a t e d systems approach t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l problems, when e x p l a i n e d t o t h e p u b l i c , can develop p r o p e r p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t f o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l s o l u t i o n s . INTRODUCTION Over t w e n t y y e a r s have passed s i n c e Rachel Carson's " S i l e n t S p r i n g " p u t A c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f emotional, t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l movement o n t h e map. i n t e l l e c t u a l and economic r e s o u r c e s has been s p e n t s i n c e t o keep o u r p l a n e t a h a b i t a b l e p l a c e , and i t ' s t i m e t o t a k e s t o c k o f what we have accomplished, where we a r e , where w e ' r e headed, and where we s h o u l d be headed.

It seems t h a t t h e r e s o u r c e s s p e n t t o r e s o l v e o r a m e l i o r a t e e n v i m n m e n t a l problems have produced r e s u l t s , b u t whether t h e r e s u l t s have been commensurate with t h e resources spent i s another question. F o r o n e t h i n g , we seem t o have no p r i o r i t i e s . A c t i o n s a r e determined b y ad hoc groups w i t h p e t concerns: P r o t e c t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s c e n i c r i v e r , save t h e whales, c l e a n up t h i s t o x i c waste dump. Governments d o n ' t move u n l e s s t h e y a r e pushed b y o n e o r more o f these groups, and t h e n t h e y move i n t h e d i r e c t i o n pushed and n o t a c c o r d i n g t o a p l a n based o n a n a l y s i s , p r i o r i t i e s . l o n g t e r m c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , e t c .

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We b e l i e v e t h a t t h e convenors o f t h i s symposium have provided an important s e r v i c e by p u b l i s h i n g a C a l l f o r Papers w i t h a Program Format l i s t i n g 31 t o p i c s , some w i t h subtopics, i n c l u d i n g issues t h a t can be addressed l o c a l l y , i s s u e s t h a t can o n l y be addressed on an i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l , and e v e r y t h i n g i n between. It i s to be noted t h a t s u b j e c t s l i k e envirenmental p o l i t i c s , t h e economics o f p o l l u t i o n , o r environmental i m p e r i a l i s m were n o t t o be found on t h e l i s t . Are t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d n a t i o n s e x p o r t i n g t o t h e T h i r d World t h e very p o l l u t a n t s from which they have p r o t e c t e d t h e i r own c i t i z e n s ? Are t h e developing n a t i o n s i g n o r i n g t h e c o s t l y environmental lessons learned by t h e advanced c o u n t r i e s ? A P o l i s h - h e r i c a n f r i e n d from Los Angeles r e t u r n e d from a v i s i t t o t h e o l d country w i t h t h e comment: "Here we c a l l i t a i r p o l l u t i o n , t h e r e they c a l l i t progress." How can we i n t e g r a t e t h e 3 1 t o p i c s o f t h e Program Format i n t o a system t h a t takes account o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o each o t h e r and o f t h e p o l i t i c a l , economic and o t h e r c o n s t r a i n t s l i m i t i n g o u r environmental o p t i o n s ? To p u t a conven i e n t handle on t h i s question, we decided t o borrow a term from psychology and t i t l e o u r e f f o r t as a G e s t a l t approach t o t h e environment. Having d e f i n e d o u r o b j e c t i v e , we a r e immediately beset by questions which Do a l l environmental must be answered b e f o r e we can perform o u r main task. problems c a r r y equal weight? I f not, what s c a l e do we apply? What do you do when one person's a i r p o l l u t i o n i s a n o t h e r ' s progress? How do you compare long range and immediate problems? What about t h e environmental t h r e a t t h a t can preempt a l l o t h e r s ? This l i s t o f questions i s n o t comprehens4ve. b u t i t ' s enough to p r o v i d e a framework f o r our endeavor.

CAN APPLES BE SUBTRACTED FROM PEARS? Engineers have a way o f making d e c i s i o n s c a l l e d Engineering Economy. If two o r m r e types o r arrangements o f power p l a n t can produce t h e d e s i r e d amount o f e l e c t r i c i t y , t h i s method w i l l i d e n t i f y t h e p l a n t which w i l l d e l i v e r t h e e l e c t r i c i t y a t t h e lowest c o s t per k i l o w a t t hour o v e r t h e l i f e of t h e p r o j e c t and, u s u a l l y , t h a t i s t h e p l a n t t h a t w i l l be b u i l t . I n recent years, we have learned t h a t t h i s method has some shortcomings; i t does n o t , f o r instance, consider environmental f a c t o r s , p u b l i c s a f e t y o r long term a v a i l a b i l i t y o f f u e l . We have now extended o u r s t u d i e s beyond engineering economy t o deal w i t h t h e above f a c t o r s i n o r d e r to g i v e us t h e complete p i c t u r e . Complete p i c t u r e ? I s t h e r e such a t h i n g ? Can you compare t h e s a f e t y o f a c o a l - f i r e d power p l a n t w i t h t h a t o f a nuclear power p l a n t by s u b t r a c t i n g potent i a l meltdown c a s u a l t i e s from p o t e n t i a l c o a l mine accident v i c t i m s ? What about t h e l i n g e r i n g hazards from r a d i o a c t i v e wastes? Can apples be s u b t r a c t e d from pears? Apples a r e n o t pears and c a n ' t be subtracted from pears, b u t apples and pears can change places. D i f f e r e n t people have d i f f e r e n t values, r e l i g i o n s , I f a s h r i n e i s to be f l o o d e d by a h y d r o e l e c t r i c p r o j e c t , I see i t as an etc. apple i f t h e s h r i n e belongs t o my d e i t y and as a pear i f i t belongs t o your d e i t y . Y o u ' l l see i t j u s t t h e o t h e r way around. I S THE CURE WORSE THAN THE DISEASE?

Humans are impulsive and i m p a t i e n t and o v e r c o n f i d e n t i n t h e i r power t o shape t h e i r environment. When we encounter a problem, we tend t o grab f o r any Indoor a i r s o l u t i o n w i t h i n reach and t o apply i t w i t h o u t much d e l i b e r a t i o n . p o l l u t i o n i s p a r t i a l l y t h e r e s u l t o f energy conservation. Are t h e n a t u r a l

43 r e s o u r c e s we save w o r t h t h e formaldehyde we now i n h a l e as a r e s u l t o f i n s u l a t i n g o u r l i v i n g space w i t h urea formaldehyde r e s i n s ? O r i s t h e c u r e worse t h a n t h e disease? We p u t c a t a l y t i c c o n v e r t e r s o n v e h i c l e s t o reduce a i r p o l l u t i o n . Some o f t h e s e v e h i c l e s o p e r a t e i n areas where a i r p o l l u t i o n i s n o t a problem b u t where c a t a l y t i c c o n v e r t e r s cause g r a s s f i r e s , a bad c u r e where t h e r e ' s no d i s e a s e i n t h e f i r s t place. Should we e l i m i n a t e c a t a l y t i c c o n v e r t e r s ? Not u n t i l something b e t t e r comes a l o n g , b u t c o u l d we be more s e l e c t i v e about t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n ? F o o l s r u s h i n where w i s e men d a r e n o t t r e a d , and we must f i n d a m i d d l e ground between t h e two, s i n c e we can a f f o r d n e i t h e r t h e a l o o f n e s s o f t h e w i s e nor t h e impulsiveness o f t h e fools. We must move ahead w i t h o u r e n v i r o n m e n t a l s o l u t i o n s , b u t we must ask some q u e s t i o n s as we go. The f i r s t q u e s t i o n s h o u l d always be: "Why has i t been done t h i s way up t o now?" Energy c o n s e r v a t i o n has been one o f t h e g r e a t e n v i r o n m e n t a l v i r t u e s o f t h e To reduce t h e h e a t i n g o r c o o l i n g l o a d o f a b u i l d i n g , we t a k e i n l a s t decade. l e s s o u t s i d e a i r and r e c i r c u l a t e more a i r . How many o f us have asked why we had so many a i r changes i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e o r why, indeed, t h e s e a i r changes were I f we d i d ask t h i s q u e s t i o n , we m i g h t a c t u a l l y mandated b y b u i l d i n g codes. f u r t h e r s p e c u l a t e as t o whether t h e a i r changes were i n t e n d e d t o d i l u t e concent r a t i o n s o f any substances d e t r i m e n t a l t o human h e a l t h o r c o m f o r t . U l t i m a t e l y , we m i g h t r e c i r c u l a t e more a i r , b u t a t t h e same t i m e p r o v i d e some t y p e o f f i l t e r i n t h e r e c i r c u l a t i o n d u c t t o remove formaldehyde, radon, c i g a r e t t e s m k e o r k i t c h e n odors. We m i g h t a l s o ask some q u e s t i o n s about t h e i n h e r e n t p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e mater i a l s we c o n s i d e r i n c o r p o r a t i n g i n t o o u r s o l u t i o n . Are t h e y flammable? b i o l o g i c a l l y a c t i v e ? r a d i o a c t i v e ? How much energy c o n s e r v a t i o n has been achieved w i t h asbestos i n s u l a t i o n , some o f i t exposed and f r i a b l e ? We m i g h t be a b l e t o r e p l a c e some chemical p e s t i c i d e s b y i m p o r t i n g a p r e d a t o r o f t h e p e s t o f t h e week, b u t what i s o u r p r e d a t o r g o i n g t o e a t n e x t week, a f t e r t h i s week's p e s t has been e r a d i c a t e d ? F i g u r e 1 shows how easy i t i s t o r u n i n t o n o n - s o l u t i o n s when t a c k l i n g e n v i I f t h e answers t o o u r q u e s t i o n s l e a d t o a box w i t h rounded ronmental problems. ends, i n t h i s case i f t h e y l e a d us s t r a i g h t down, we have a u s a b l e s o l u t i o n . On t h e upper r i g h t , we have a temporary s o l u t i o n , and a l l t h o s e dead ends w i t h r e c t a n g u l a r boxes a r e j u s t t h a t , dead ends. F i g u r e l o a s k s o n l y a few o f t h e q u e s t i o n s t h a t must be answered when s o l v i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l problems, and a l r e a d y t h e odds seem t o be s t a c k e d a g a i n s t us. The q u e s t i o n s t h a t f o l l o w w i l l make t h e q u e s t i o n s posed so f a r l o o k easy. WHOSE OX I S BEING GORED?

We a r e a l l p a r t o f t h e problem, and we a l l t h i n k t h a t o u r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o Obviously, my tonedeaf n e i g h b o r impot h e problem i s l e s s t h a n o u r n e i g h b o r ' s . ses a g r e a t e r i n s u l t upon t h e environment by p r a c t i c i n g h i s French h o r n t h a n I do by s p r a y i n g my y a r d w i t h p e s t i c i d e s . H e ' s an o r g a n i c gardener and disagrees. Have y o u e v e r shared an o f f i c e w i t h a c i g a r e t t e s m k e r who i n s i s t e d t h a t he p r o duced l e s s a i r p o l l u t i o n t h a n y o u r a u t o m o b i l e ? I ' v e n o t i c e d t h a t t h e most uncompromising e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t , t h e one who opposes any and a l l energy p r o j e c t s o t h e r t h a n c o n s e r v a t i o n , w i l l h a p p i l y commit v a s t amounts o f f o s s i l f u e l s t o reach t h e m o u n t a i n he wants t o c l i m b . We can each p o i n t a t t h e n e i g h b o r t o t h e l e f t and t h e n t u r n around t o p o i n t a t t h e n e i g h b o r t o t h e r i g h t and, f i n a l l y , we can break t h e c i r c l e and p o i n t a t Number One and ask: Why me?" Most o f

44

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45

us, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e f r o m t h e more i n d u s t r i a l i z e d p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d , c a n answer t h a t q u e s t i o n t h u s : "Because you have been l i v i n g beyond y o u r e c o l o g i c a l means, and y o u r c r e d i t i s r u n n i n g out." Our employers and r e s e a r c h g r a n t s may have p a i d o u r way t o b e a u t i f u l Miami Beach, b u t o u r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s c i e n c e must pay f o r t h e j e t f u e l as w e l l . WHAT HAPPENED TO THE FREE LUNCH? P r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y m v e t o p r o t e c t t h e environment c a r r i e s a p r i c e t a g , and o f t e n t h e p r i c e i s p a i d by t h o s e l e a s t a b l e t o pay. O f t e n i n d u s t r i a l employers r a l l y t h e i r workers against p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l requirements by threatening t o c l o s e the. p l a n t i f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e imposed. Sometimes t h i s i s j u s t a ploy, b u t many t i m e s t h e p l a n t i s o b s o l e t e and o n l y m a r g i n a l l y p r o f i t a b l e and, w i t h s u i t a b l e t a x w r i t e - o f f s , c l o s i n g t h e p l a n t may n o t b e a bad d e a l f o r t h e owner. A r e we about to f a c e t h e w o r k e r s who a r e a b o u t t o l o s e t h e i r j o b s ? A r e we prepared t o f a c e t h e i r f a m i l i e s ? I t ' s no c o n s o l a t i o n t o t h e s e workers and f a m i l i e s t h a t new j o b s may b e c r e a t e d elsewhere i n a new p l a n t m e e t i n g a l l e n v i r o n mental standards. Are we g o i n g t o c o n s i g n t h e s e f a m i l i e s t o t h e w e l f a r e r o l l s o r a r e we g o i n g t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r d i g n i t y ? A r e we prepared t o pay t h e f u l l p r i c e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l improvements o r do we s t i l l bel'ieve i n a f r e e lunch, t h e l u n c h p a i d f o r b y t h o s e l e a s t a b l e t o pay? I f we d e c i d e to s h o u l d e r o u r m o r a l r e s m n s i b i l i t y . we may have t o make subf h e t o p i c o f t h e lean A i r s t a n t i a l changes i n o u r e n t i r e s o c i a l s t t u c t u r e . Research I n s t i t u t e ' s i t s n e x t symposium c o u l d be t h e a c c o m m d a t i o n of economic and s o c i a l impacts o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l a c t i o n . WHY DID THE FORMAT OMIT THE MOST URGENT TOPIC?

We y l o s s e d o v e r t h e word " p r i o r i t i e s ' e a r l i e r i n o u r paper, and t ' s t i m e t o r e t u r n t o i t . A l t h o u y h o i l l e a k s c o n s t i t u t e an i m m e d i a t e problem, i t ' s always a l o c a l problem. A l t h o u g h t h e t h e r m a l e f f e c t o f t h e carbon d i o x i d e i n crease i n o u r a t m s p h e r e may b e worldwide, i t does n o t c o n s t i t u t e a t h r e a t o f immediate c a t a s t r o p h e . One immediate w o r l d w i d e c a t a s t r o p h i c t h r e a t t o t h e e n v i ronment today overshadows a l l o t h e r s , t h e t h r e a t o f n u c l e a r war. Why was t h i s t o p i c m i s s i n g f r o m t h e Format? Indeed, u n t i l l a s t December, when Science p u b l i s h e d t h e r e p o r t s b y R. P. Turco e t a l . and b y P. R. E h r l i c h e t e,nor.avnilmenatl p r o f e s s i o n a l s had g i v e n l i t t l e t h o u g h t t o t h e e n v i r o n mental consequences o f n u c l e a r war. Since o u r capacity t o c r e a t e t h e "nuclear w i n t e r " has been w i t h us f o r some decades, why have we f a i l e d t o f a c e t h e i s s u e ? F i r s t , humans t e n d t o The answer t o t h i s q u e s t i o n comes i n s e v e r a l p a r t s . a t t a c k problems t h a t appear t r a c t a b l e and t h a t can be d e f i n e d , i n c l u d i n g t i m e necessary f o r s o l u t i o n , i n a g r a n t a p p l i c a t i o n . Second, f o r many y e a r s now, we have t r u s t e d d e t e r r e n c e t o p r e v e n t n u c l e a r war. Why work o n a n o n e x i s t i n g problem? U n f o r t u n a t e l y , when t h e l e a d e r s o f one o f t h e superpowers s t a r t t o t a l k o f p r e v a i l i n g i n a n u c l e a r war, i t ' s t i m e t o wake up. T h i r d , we come back t o our e a r l i e r p o i n t , t h a t e n v i r o n m e n t a l p o l i c y i s made b y ad hoc groups w i t h p e t issues. N u c l e a r war i s n o t a p a r o c h i a l problem. The e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s o f even a l i t t l e n u c l e a r war can be expected t o overshadow a l l t h e o t h e r e n v i r o n mental problems we a r e now addressing.

46

WHAT CAN BE DONE TO REACH A GESTALT SOLUTION? We have supplemented engineering economy s t u d i e s w i t h environmental impact statements, a step i n t h e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n . The p r e v i o u s l y r a i s e d questions and examples i n d i c a t e a need f o r a f u r t h e r s t e p i n broadening t h e range o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n p r i o r to decisionmaking. Once we r e a l i z e t h a t a l l i n s u l t s t o t h e environment a r e n o t equal, t h a t few, i f any, a r e unrelated t o o t h e r i n s u l t s , and t h a t resources t o deal w i t h them a r e l i m i t e d , we have t h e b a s i s f o r a systems approach t o environmental problems. No doubt, t h i s paper w i l l i n s p i r e someone t o s e t up another computer model o r o n l y a modest d e c i s i o n t r e e . D e c i s i o n t r e e s and computer models r e q u i r e assumptions, and o f course we can make no d e c i s i o n s w i t h o u t assumpt i o n s , b u t unless we recognize t h e f r a g i l i t y o f o u r assumptions and have an open mind t o t u n i n g these assumptions as we ask ourselves whether we're subt r a c t i n g apples from pears, whether t h e c u r e m i g h t be worse than t h e disease, etc., w e ' l l be no b e t t e r o f f than before. There w i l l be a p r i c e t o be paid, and we must consciously decide t h a t t h e p r i c e w i l l be p a i d by those i n t h e best p o s i t i o n t o pay i t . Not o n l y i s t h i s t h e m o r a l l y r i g h t approach, b u t i t i s t h e o n l y approach t h a t has a chance o f working. I f we hand t h e b i l l t o those who d o n ' t have t h e c o i n , t h e b i l l w i l l n o t - b e paid, and our " s o l u t i o n " comes t o naught. Fly-by-Nite Electroplating Company may have dumped t o x i c wastes down t h e y u l l y i n back f o r t h i r t y years, b u t a l l o f F l y - b y - N i t e ' s earnings d u r i n g those decades wouldn't begin t o pay f o r t h e c o s t o f c l e a n i n g up t h e a q u i f e r , much l e s s t h e company's c u r r e n t assets. On t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l , those c o u n t r i e s w i t h o u t access t o o t h e r sources of; energy w i l l denude t h e i r f o r e s t s from l a c k o f choice, so i t behooves t h e "haves t o do w i t h l e s s so t h a t t h e "have nots'' w i l l be a b l e t o share, l e s t t h e l a t t e r be d r i v e n t o commit damage t o t h e environment. I f an environmental assessment o f some k i n d had been conducted p r i o r t o t h e founding o f t h e c i t y o f Los Angeles, i t would probably have been b u i l t i n a l o c a t i o n l e s s s u b j e c t t o a i r i n v e r s i o n s and more s u b j e c t t o r a i n f a l l . I f we had i t t o do over, o u r i n d u s t r y would a l l have been equipped w i t h 1984 s t a t e o f t h e a r t p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l equipment. I f and i f and i f . A t t h i s time, i t i s impossible t o c o r r e c t t h e environmental mistakes o f t h e p a s t w i t h o u t considerable s o c i a l upheavals. We would n o t suggest t h e r e l o c a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e population o f Los Angeles, y e t we a r e prepared t o c l o s e an i n d u s t r i a l f a c i l i t y t h a t f a i l s t o meet a i r emission standards. I t ' s t i m e f o r us t o accept our r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e s o c i a l problems i n h e r e n t i n environmental s o l u t i o n s . This does n o t mean t h a t we continue to i g n o r e environmental i n s u l t s i n o r d e r to avoid s o c i a l problems, b u t r a t h e r t h a t we accept t h e s o c i a l problems as p a r t o f I f any r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e United States Environt h e environmental ones. mental P r o t e c t i o n Agency a r e present, h o p e f u l l y you w i l l bear t h i s i n mind when you r u l e on what i s and what i s n o t an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f a p r o j e c t , i.e. g r a n t f undable.

F i g u r e 2 shows, a suggested d e c i s i o n t r e e which p o i n t e d l y i n c l u d e s socioeconomic impacts a s ' a c o s t t h a t must be addressed i n f u l l . We must s o l v e many environmental problems, and our resources a r e inadequate f o r complete s o l u t i o n s t o a l l o f them. For those problems, however, f o r which we a r e n o t w i l l i n g o r a b l e to pay i n f u l l , such as t h e r e l o c a t i o n o f Los Angeles, we have t o go back f o r l e s s ambitious solutions. Previously, we i n d i c a t e d t h a t n u c l e a r war c o u l d make a l l o t h e r environmental i s s u e s m o t . Does t h i s l e a d t o t h e i n e v i t a b l e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t we should drop whatever e l s e we are doing and work to a v e r t nuclear war? I t ' s n o t a ques-

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t i o n o f one o r t h e o t h e r . Given o u r p r i v i l e d g e d educational s t a t u s o n environmental matters, t h o s e o f us assembled here have a s p e c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o i n form our p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n makers, as w e l l as t h e general p u b l i c and t h e press, o f t h e r e a l environmental hazards a s s o c i a t e d w i t h n u c l e a r war, even w i t h t h a t u n l i k e l y prospect, " l i m i t e d n u c l e a r war." Media coverage o f t h e Science r e p o r t s l a s t e d o n l y 24 hours. It i s up t o us t o g e t t h e s u b j e c t back o n t o t h e f r o n t page and onto t h e t e l e v i s i o n screen. None o f t h i s r e l i e v e s us o f o u r more mundane tasks. The n u c l e a r war t h r e a t i s l i a b l e t o be w i t h us f o r a l o n g time, and i n t h e meantime hazardous waste dumps c o u l d p r o l i f e r a t e , prime a g r i c u l t u r a l land c o u l d be paved o v e r and, c e r t a i n l y , t h e carbon d i o x i d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e a t m s p h e r e w i l l increase.

No doubt, t h e f u t u r e w i l l b r i n g new environmental problems t h a t we h a v n ' t even dreamed o f u n t i l now, and some o f t o d a y ' s low p r i o r i t y problems w i l l t a k e on major s i g n i f i c a n c e as a r e s u l t o f f u t u r e events. Any system t h a t we develop t o guide o u r o v e r a l l environmental e f f o r t and emphasis must be s u f f i c i e n t l y Our program must be pref l e x i b l e to a c c o m d a t e new problems and p r i o r i t i e s . pared f o r t o d a y ' s wonder remedy t u r n i n g i n t o t o m r r o w ' s nightmare. A f t e r World War 11, DOT and t h e atom seemed t o o f f e ' r n o t h i n g b u t o p p o r t u n i t i e s ; t h e headaches came l a t e r . Although we a r e probably m r e c a u t i o u s about o u r o p p o r t u n i t i e s now, we should be prepared f o r unpleasant s u r p r i s e s . Every e n t e r p r i s e should c a r r y a d i s a s t e r p l a n w i t h i t ; h o p e f u l l y i t w i l l never be needed, b u t i f t h i n g s go wrong, t h e r e s u l t s can be m i t i g a t e d . HOW DOES I T ADD UP? Waking up i n t h e m r n i n g , i t ' s a p l e a s u r e t o l o o k o u t t h e window and see t h a t t h e b i r d s and t h e bees a r e s t i l l o u t t h e r e , t h a t t h e s i l e n t s p r i n g has n o t descended upon us, a t l e a s t n o t y e t . F o r t h a t m a t t e r , t h e l a s t twenty years have witnessed a p e r s i s t e n t e f f o r t t o c o u n t e r mankind's i n s u l t s t o t h e e n v i r o n ment. A c t u a l l y , i t has n o t been a s i n g l e e f f o r t b u t a number o f separate and u s u a l l y uncoordinated e f f o r t s , and c r e d i t f o r t h e s e e f f o r t s belonys m r e t o o r d i n a r y outraged c i t i z e n s t h a n t o us, who should have been t h e most alarmed because o f o u r p r o f e s s i o n a l knowledge. We have come t o t h e p o i n t where t h e o r d i n a r y c i t i z e n i s dependent upon t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s f o r guidance. It i s one t h i n g t o v o i c e t h a t e c o l o g i c a l p l a t i t u d e t h a t e v e r y t i n g i s i n t e r r e l a t e d ; i t ' s an e t e r n a l j o b t o i d e n t i f y t h e r e l a t i o n ships. Modern science has p r o v i d e d us w i t h a g r e a t many t o o l s f o r t h i s job, and we have t o use these t o o l s t o p l a c e o u r i n d i v i d u a l environmental p r o j e c t s i n t o a proper perspective. Not o n l y w i l l t h i s enable us t o do a b e t t e r p r o f e s s i o n a l j o b , i t w i l l r e s u l t i n our a b i l i t y , and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , t o educate t h e non-professional e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t s who, i n t u r n , w i l l do a m r e meaningful j o b when p r e s s u r i n g p o l i t i c i a n s i n t o environmental a c t i o n . Our f i n a l recommendation i s t h e same one we have g i v e n throughout t h i s paper. Ask questions and i n s i s t upon answers. Some answers w i l l come o u t o f your p r o f e s s i o n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , and some w i l l come from y o u r conscience, b u t o t h e r answers w i l l have t o come from s o c i e t y as a whole, and i t ' s a l o t m r e d i f f i c u l t t o g e t an adequate answer from t h i s many-headed m n s t e r t h a n i t i s 4 0 n a i l down even y o u r conscience. Unless we g e t answers, and s a t i s f a c t o r y answers a t t h a t , t o q u e s t i o n s o f t h e k i n d we have r a i s e d here, we w i l l f i n d a t l e a s t one new I f we persevere, howenvironmental problem a t o u r door f o r every one we solve. ever, t h e G e s t a l t approach can produce t h e i n s i g h t necessary t o make s i g n i f i c a n t headway toward conquering environmental problems and, i f we go p u b l i c w i t h o u r i n s i g h t , we should develop t h e p o l i t i c a l support o u r endeavor deserves.

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

POTENTIAL INDICATORS FOR MONITORING BIOSPHERE RESERVES

Gary E. M a c h l i s a n d R. G e r a l d Wright Cooperative Park Studies Unit National Park Service C o l l e g e o f F o r e s t r y , W i l d l i f e and Range S c i e n c e s University of Idaho Moscow, I d a h o 83843, U. S.A.

ABSTRACT B i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e s are i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y r e c o g n i z e d l a n d s c a p e s t h a t have been set a s i d e t o p r o t e c t v a r i o u s e c o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The m o n i t o r i n g of e c o l o g i c a l c h a n g e w i t h i n s u c h r e s e r v e s i s a c e n t r a l component o f b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e management, a n d t r a d i t i o n a l methods have p r o v e n d i f f i c u l t a n d c o s t l y . This paper e x p l o r e s a n a l t e r n a t i v e technique using s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s t o The t e c h n i q u e may p r o v i d e a p r a c t i c a l " e a r l y m o n i t o r b i o p h y s i c a l change. warning system" f o r r e s e r v e managers. The p a p e r r e v i e w s b i o l o g i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l m o n i t o r i n g t e c h n i q u e s a n d p r o v i d e s a t h e o r e t i c a l framework f o r experimenting with s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s . S e v e r a l i n d i c a t o r s of Olympic N a t i o n a l Park B i o s p h e r e R e s e r v e are d e v e l o p e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o t e n t i a l o f s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s f o r monitoring biosphere reserves.

1.

INTRODUCTION

A c e n t r a l component o f b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e management i s t h e a b i l i t y t o monitor b i o p h y s i c a l c h a n g e w i t h i n a r e s e r v e , b o t h as a n i m p e t u s f o r management a c t i o n s a n d as c r i t i c a l b a s e l i n e d a t a f o r e c o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h ( F r a n k l i n 1 9 7 7 ) . Programs t o m o n i t o r s p e c i f i c e c o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s have b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d o v e r t h e y e a r s i n many n a t i o n a l p a r k s , n a t i o n a l f o r e s t s , a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l r a n g e s , which have s i n c e b e e n d e s i g n a t e d b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e s .

Yet s e v e r a l d i f f i c u l t i e s e x i s t . Even i n i n s t a n c e s where t h e r e i s i n t e r e s t and a d e s i r e t o d e v e l o p l o n g - t e r m m o n i t o r i n g programs, i t i s c l e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e t o m e a s u r e o r m o n i t o r a l l b i o l o g i c a l v a r i a b l e s . The most a m b i t i o u s m o n i t o r i n g program c a n o n l y d e a l w i t h a f r a c t i o n o f t h e i m p o r t a n t b i o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s (Johnson a n d B r a t t e n 1 9 7 8 ) . Because of t h e b i o l o g i c a l a n d p h y s i c a l c o m p l e x i t y o f most e c o s y s t e m s , most m o n i t o r i n g t o d a t e h a s been disciplinarily-oriented, s i t e - s p e c i f i c , a n d n a r r o w i n s c o p e (Huckabee 1973). Likewise, i t i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o d e c i d e i n a d v a n c e which b i o l o g i c a l p a r a m e t e r s may p r o v e t o b e i m p o r t a n t y e a r s i n t h e f u t u r e . The r e s u l t i s t h a t , even when m o n i t o r i n g programs are i n f o r c e , t h e r e i s n o g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e p r o p e r p a r a m e t e r s w i l l b e measured o r t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l b e a v a i l a b l e q u i c k l y enough t o a l e r t managers t o a p o t e n t i a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l problem. T h i s p a p e r seeks t o show how a n a l t e r n a t i v e t e c h n i q u e might b e d e v e l o p e d t o i n d i r e c t l y i n d i c a t e p o t e n t i a l e c o l o g i c a l changes i n biosphere r e s e r v e s . e a t t e m p t t o show The a p p r o a c h i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e use o f s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s . W how m o n i t o r i n g c h a n g e s i n c e r t a i n s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s may a l e r t management t o

49

50 t h e p o t e n t i a l o€ subsequent e c o l o g i c a l change w i t h i n a reserve. W e do n o t m a i n t a i n t h a t t h i s approach i s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r s i t e - s p e c i f i c b i o l o g i c a l monitoring, b u t r a t h e r i t i s a n " e a r l y warning system" which can b e used t o i d e n t i f y key problems r e q u i r i n g more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s . F i r s t , w e b r i e f l y d i s c u s s t h e c a u s e s of e c o l o g i c a l change w i t h i n b i o s p h e r e reserves, and t h e n review c u r r e n t b i o p h y s i c a l m o n i t o r i n g e f f o r t s . Next, s o c i a l m o n i t o r i n g i s reviewed, and t h e p r o c e s s of c o n s t r u c t i n g s o c i a l e t h e n p r o v i d e a t h e o r e t i c a l framework f o r i n d i c a t o r s described. W h y p o t h e s i z i n g t h a t s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s may be r e l a t e d t o changes i n b i o p h y s i c a l parameters w i t h i n a reserve. F i n a l l y , we e x p l o r e how t h i s method might be a p p l i e d , u s i n g d a t a from Olympic N a t i o n a l Park Biosphere Reserve and i t s surrounding r e g i o n .

2.

CAUSES OF ECOLOGICAL CHANGE WITHIN BIOSPHERE RESERVES

Ecosystems w i t h i n b i o s p h e r e reserves a r e f a r more dynamic t h a n g e n e r a l l y acknowledged (Smith 1966). T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e f o r r e s e r v e s d e s i g n a t e d i n n a t i o n a l p a r k s , and f o r which management p l a c e s few r e s t r a i n t s o n t h e a c t i o n s of n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s . Such environmental changes o r f l u c t u a t i o n s , b o t h i n s t r u c t u r e and composition, o c c u r i n response t o s u c c e s s i o n , n a t u r a l d i s t u r b a n c e s such a s f i r e , f l o o d , and e r o s i o n , and i n r e s p o n s e t o v a r i o u s animal s p e c i e s . The importance of n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s i n many ecosystems i s now becoming recognized (Godfrey 1978; Bonnicksen and Stone 1 9 8 2 ) , and i s b e i n g i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o r e s o u r c e management p l a n n i n g f o r p a r k s and e q u i v a l e n t r e s e r v e s (Westhoff 1971; Dolan C G . 1978). The n a t u r a l ecosystems w i t h i n b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e s a r e a l s o changed o r modified by human i n f l u e n c e s . None of t h e b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e s i n t h e c o n t i n e n t a l U.S., even i n t h e n a t i o n a l p a r k s , c a n be c o n s i d e r e d t o r e p r e s e n t p r i s t i n e environments. S e v e r a l have been a l t e r e d i n t h e p a s t by l o g g i n g , g r a z i n g , m i n e r a l e x p l o r a t i o n , water d i v e r s i o n p r o j e c t s , homesteading, and a g r i c u l t u r a l use. However, t h e r e s i l i e n c y of t h e n a t u r a l environments, and t h e p r o t e c t i o n a f f o r d e d by p r e s e n t management p o l i c i e s , h a s allowed many of t h e r e s e r v e s t o r e c o v e r from p a s t a b u s e s (Gregg and Goigel 1981). For example, o l d homesteads and a g r i c u l t u r a l p l o t s of t h e Great Smokeys N a t i o n a l P a r k Biosphere Reserve have been reclaimed by t h e r i c h mesophytic f o r e s t of t h e r e g i o n i n a p e r i o d of o n l y 50 y e a r s . The once n e a r l y e x t i r p a t e d g r i z z l y b e a r and big-horn sheep p o p u l a t i o n s of G l a c i e r N a t i o n a l Park Biosphere Reserve have a g a i n become v i a b l e e n t i t i e s i n a s i m i l a r p e r i o d of time (Keating 1983). D e s p i t e t h e s e a p p a r e n t s u c c e s s e s , t h e n a t u r a l systems of b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e s are becoming more and more s u s c e p t i b l e t o change o r m o d i f i c a t i o n by human i n f l u e n c e s . A 1980 s u r v e y of U.S. n a t i o n a l p a r k s (NPS 1980) found t h a t managers p e r c e i v e d none of t h e p a r k s a s immune from t h r e a t s t h a t are c a u s i n g i r r e v e r s i b l e damage; p a r k s d e s i g n a t e d a s b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e s had a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r number of r e p o r t e d t h r e a t s . I n a d d i t i o n , 75 p e r c e n t of t h e r e p o r t e d t h r e a t s were i n a d e q u a t e l y documented. The problems t h r e a t e n i n g b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e s a r e , however, n o t l i m i t e d t o A s t u d y documenting r e s o u r c e management problems f a c i n g p r o t e c t e d t h e U.S. areas throughout t h e world w a s r e c e n t l y completed by T i c h n e l l and Machlis (1984). This s t u d y sampled 98 s i t e s i n 50 c o u n t r i e s , chosen t o f a c i l i t a t e comparisons of problems among a r e a s i n c o u n t r i e s a t d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s of economic tievelopment, l o c a t e d i n d i f f e r e n t biomes, and t h a t w e r e a f f i l i a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t management programs. Thirty-seven b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e s and World H e r i t a g e s i t e s were i n c l u d e d i n t h e survey; t h e i r most common t h r e a t s

51 w e r e l a c k o f p e r s o n n e l , i l l e g a l removal o f a n i m a l l i f e , removal o f v e g e t a t i o n , trampling, e r o s i o n and loss of h a b i t a t . In contrast t o t h e U.S. parks study, T i c h n e l l a n d M a c h l i s f o u n d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e s a n d n a t i o n a l p a r k s i n t h e number o f r e p o r t e d t h r e a t s . L i k e t h e U.S. s t u d y , l a c k of d o c u m e n ta tio n w a s h i g h ; 4 1 p e r c e n t of t h e r e p o r t e d t h r e a t s were i n a d e q u a t e l y d o c u m e n t e d . The f i n d i n g s o f t h e s e a n d s i m i l a r s t u d i e s p o i n t o u t t h e u r g e n c y o f d e v e l o p i n g a p r a c t i c a l a n d r e l i a b l e means t o m o n i t o r and p r e d i c t t h e i m p a c t o f human a c t i v i t i e s on n a t u r a l s y s t e m s . To d a t e , a l l e f f o r t s h a v e f o c u s e d on biophysical monitoring.

3.

A REVIEW OF BIOLOGICAL M O N I T O R I N G

T h e r e a r e two common t y p e s o f t e c h n i q u e s f o r m o n i t o r i n g b i o p h y s i c a l p a r a m e t e r s . One t y p e e m p l o y s d i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f e l e c t r o n i c i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n t o measure chemical o r p h y s i c a l parameters p r i m a r i l y The d e p l o y m e n t o f s u c h e q u i p m e n t h a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a i r a n d water q u a l i t y . been i n c r e a s i n g r a p i d l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h a d vances i n m i c r o c i r c u i t r y . However, t h e h i g h c o s t , l a c k o f t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l , a n d t h e f r e q u e n t n e e d t o s e r v i c e e q u i p m e n t h a s r e s t r i c t e d i t s p l a c e m e n t i n m o s t remote n a t u r a l a r e a s where power a n d access i s l i m i t e d . The s u b t l e , l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t s o f many t y p e s o f p o l l u t a n t s and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e o f t e n t r a n s f e r r e d t h r o u g h t h e f o o d c h a i n r a t h e r t h a n i n a n a i r or w a t e r medium, a l s o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s of i n s t r u m e n t e d m o n i t o r i n g . The s e c o n d t e c h n i q u e e m p l o y s t h e u s e o f v a r i o u s l i v i n g o r g a n i s m s , e i t h e r plant o r animal, a s i n d i c a t o r s p e c i e s t o i n d i r e c t l y monitor environmental q u a l i t y . The u s e f u l n e s s o f s u c h o r g a n i s m s i n t h i s c a p a c i t y i s b a s e d p r i m a r i l y on t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e s e l e c t e d s p e c i e s f o r s p e c i f i c p o l l u t a n t s (Heck 1 9 6 6 ) . U s e f u l i n d i c a t o r o r g a n i s m s a r e t h o s e w h i c h are s e s s i l e o r move v e r y l i t t l e . They m u s t n o t b e a b l e t o a v o i d t h e p o l l u t a n t by t h e i r m o t i l i t y ( S t e i n and D e n i s o n 1 9 6 7 ) . P l a n t s f i t t h i s c r i t e r i a w e l l a n d h a v e l o n g b e e n u s e d t o p r o v i d e a n i n d e x o f a i r q u a l i t y ( J u h r e n gt. 1 9 5 7 ; P y a t t 1 9 7 0 ; Treshow 1968). The u s e of v e g e t a t i o n , h o w e v e r , h a s l i m i t a t i o n s . To s e p a r a t e v i s i b l e symptoms of a i r p o l l u t i o n damage f r o m a l l o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t c o u l d p r o d u c e similar t r a i t s r e q u i r e s a c o m p e t e n t o b s e r v e r . The o b s e r v e r m u s t a l s o b e i n t h e f i e l d t o r e a d t h e symptoms a t t h e p r o p e r t i m e , a n d t h e s e n s i t i v e v e g e t a t i o n must o c c u r w i t h a r e a s o n a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o v e r t h e a r e a (Brandt 1 9 7 3 ) . I n o t h e r c a s e s , t h e v e g e t a t i o n may n o t b e v i s i b l y i n j u r e d o r k i l l e d , and t h e e f f e c t s of p o l l u t a n t s may o n l y b e e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s of g e n e r a l i z e d c h l o r o s i s , e a r l y s e n e s c e n c e , o r p o o r growth. These problems are d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y i n t h e f i e l d (Brandt 1973). The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d u s e o f s u i t a b l e a n i m a l s p e c i e s t o s e r v e a s i n d i c a t o r s of e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y h a s b e e n t h e s u b j e c t o f i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t and s t u d y ( J e n k i n s 1971, 1 9 7 2 ) . Aq uat i c organi sms, p a r t i c u l a r l y those which a r e f i l t e r f e e d e r s , a p p e a r t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e as s e n t i n e l s f o r i n d i c a t i n g l e v e l s of p o l l u t a n t s i n t h e w a t e r environment (Goldberg &. 1 9 7 8 ; D i s s a l v o 1 9 7 5 ; Stegeman a n d T e a l 1 9 7 3 ) . The use of a n i m a l o r g a n i s m s , h o w e v e r , s u f f e r s f r o m t h e same p r o b l e m s a s p l a n t s ; the a v a i l a b i l i t y of o r g a n i s m s , t h e need f o r competent o b s e r v e r s , and i n a d d i t i o n t h e l a b o r a t o r y f a c i l i t i e s , money, and t i m e n e e d e d f o r e x t e n s i v e &. 1 9 7 8 ) . h i s t o p a t h o l o g i c a l a n a l y s e s (Goldberg

s

c&.

s

52 The use of biological indicators in monitoring biosphere reserves has received attention, but evidence suggests such monitoring is neither systematic nor widespread (Gregg and Goigel 1981). Early monitoring programs consisted primarily of routine observations of various biological resources. These early observations were essential in developing a knowledge of the then little understood resources of the protected areas, and were a valuable means to document changes in biological systems. These observations often represent the only baseline data available to contemporary scientists seeking to reconstruct historic landscapes in parks (Bonnicksen 1982; Vankat 1977), and they form the basis for on-going monitoring programs in many biosphere reserves. Unfortunately, the highly descriptive, qualitative, and variable nature of the early descriptions, and the lack of proper uniformity among observers, diminishes the usefulness of much of the early data. Funding problems, personnel turnover, and changes in priorities caused most studies to be limited to short-term efforts (Houston 1971). Current monitoring efforts are similarly limited.

White and Bratten

(1981) surveyed 33 U . S . biosphere reserves regarding their overall monitoring efforts. Twenty-five had some kind of permanent plot vegetation monitoring, and six had population monitoring. Mack st. (1983) conducted an in-depth survey of 1 4 U.S. biosphere reserves regarding baseline resource inventories, long-term monitoring, and long-term ecological research. They developed an index (on a 100 pt. scale) of the comprehensiveness of scientific activities. Table 1 shows that the index scores are relatively low, with macro-climate monitoring receiving the highest rank and aquatic systems (biological factors) the lowest. Finally, data on 27 World Heritage Sites and Biosphere Reserves from over 20 countries found that 41 percent of all threats to the natural resources reported by managers were suspected but not documented (Tichnell and Machlis 1984). Table 1. Index of Long-Term Environmental Monitoring, 14 U.S. Reserves. Index Macroclimate

Biosphere

Index Rating 38

Aquatic systems, chemical factors

31

Disturbances, anthropogenic (causes)

25

Disturbances, exotic species (causes)

23

Disturbances, anthropogenic (vegetation recovery)

22

Disturbances, natural (causes)

22

Aquatic systems, physical factors

15

Disturbances, natural (vegetation recovery)

14

Disturbances, exotic species (vegetation recovery)

11

kuatic systems, biological factors - adapted from Mark &. (1983)

7

53

Hence, biological monitoring is a central component of any effort to understand change with biosphere reserves. Limitations include high cost, difficulties in data collection, lack of trained personnel, the need for laboratory research, and sporadic application. Can other approaches be useful? We now turn to a brief review of "social" monitoring, or the use of social indicators. 4.

A REVIEW OF SOCIAL MONITORING

In the social sciences, monitoring of human activity has been primarily accomplished with the use of social indicators. A social indicator is a social statistic used to indicate a trend in some variable of interest to decision makers. Divorce rates, for example, can be used to indicate changes in the stability of community social systems. Social indicators share these characteristics: 1)

They are components in a theoretical framework or model of a social system that helps illuminate important variables (Burch 1 9 8 4 ) .

2)

They can be collected at a sequence of points in time and accumulated into a time series (Land 1 9 7 0 ) .

3)

They are either directly or indirectly related to policy and provide guidance for social intervention (Sheldon and Land 1 9 7 2 ) .

The importance of social indicators was recognized as early as 1929, when President Hoover set up the President's Research Committee on Social Trends. The committee's report attempted to describe life in the United States by means of a varied set of social statistics. This was repeated 30 years later by President Eisenhower's Commission on National Goals (1960) and the National Planning Study (Lecht 1 9 6 6 ) . Both studies recommended that a system of social accounts be established to supply information about the nation's "social health" and its needs, in order to provide a firm basis for policy decisions. These major efforts have intermittently continued, with three key U.S. Government reports in 1973, 1976 and 1982. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the Statistical Office of the United Nations have been active in the development of social indicators on an international basis. Methodological development of social indicators has followed. Several studies have focused on the purpose of social indicators (Bauer 1966; Sheldon and Moore 1968; Etzioni 1 9 7 0 ) ; others deal with problems of measurement and definition (Land 1970; Gastil 1970; Anderson 1 9 7 3 ) . While social indicators have often been linked to measuring "quality of life" (Liu 1 9 7 5 ) , a variety of rationales have been developed to support their u s e . All seem to emerge from a common concern for the consequences of public policy decisions (Burch _ et _ al. 1984). 5.

CONSTRUCTING SOCIAL INDICATORS

The construction of social indicators involves several general steps. First, a theoretical framework must be developed that provides a rationale for

54

the choice of variables, and the variables must be operationally defined. The indicator for each variable must be chosen, and the measurement units selected with care; social data is often aggregated by formal administrative units (such as counties and states) that may not be meaningful in the context of monitoring local or regional trends. It is often necessary to choose from among several statistical series; Table 2 suggests several important characteristics. Table 2 .

Important Characteristics of Social Indicators.

VaZidity:

the extent to which an indicator measures the phenomenon or concept it is intended to measure.

ReliabiZity:

the proportion of an indicator's variance that is not error

variance.

S t a b i l i t y : the lack of unwanted variability in an indicator over time, especially responses to extraneous and irrelevant influences.

ReSp0?28iVe?~SS: the speed and magnitude of an indicator's response changes in related aspects of society.

Availability o f Data:

the accessibility of existing data sources, adaptability of existing vehicles for data collection, or capacity of new data collection procedures to measure the needed data.

fisaggregatability:

the capacity of a social indicator to be assessed and reported separately as a function of other variables (for example, characteristics of subpopulations, types of communities, regions of the country).

IntertempomZ Conparability:

the extent to which successive measures can have

the same interpretation.

Intergroup Comparability:

the extent to which measures for different populations can have the same interpretation.

Timing Relative to the Occurrence o f a Problem:

whether an indicator leads,

is coincident with, or lags behind a problem.

Timeliness:

the availability of indicator data when needed and the lack of obsolescence of these data for their intended use.

-

adapted from Rossi and Gilmartin (1980).

After social indicator data are collected, it is possible to combine two or more indicators into composite indices. For example,to monitor trends in crime, indicators of various criminal activity may be aggregated for an overall indicator, and hence provide a better measure of the general crime variable than individual crime statistics. Rossi and Gilmartin (1980) suggest that there are several techniques for combining indicators, including correlation analysis, *egression analysis, factor analysis, expert judgement, and ad hoc selection.

55 I n a d d i t i o n , t h e components of a s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r i n d e x may need t o be weighted. I n a g e n e r a l c r i m e i n d e x , i t may be u s e f u l t o w e i g h t c r i m e s by t h e i r " s e r i o u s n e s s " , l e v e l of v i o l e n c e , o r some o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . These i n c l u d e b o t h s t a t i s t i c a l and c o n c e p t u a l a p p r o a c h e s . The v a l i d a t i o n of s u c h composite i n d e x e s i n v o l v e s t h e t e s t i n g f o r e x t r a n e o u s v a r i a t i o n ( s u c h as changes i n d a t a c o l l e c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s ) and improvement i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l framework t h a t r a t i o n a l i z e d t h e c h o i c e of v a r i a b l e , i n d i c a t o r and measurement u n i t . S t r u c t u r a l e q u a t i o n models, dynamic t i m e s e r i e s models, and s p e c i f i c t r a n s i t i o n models ( c a l l e d demographic a c c o u n t s ) can a i d i n t h e r e f i n e m e n t of &. 1977). m o n i t o r i n g e f f o r t s (Land and F e l s o n 1976; Land 1978; Pampel

This general process f o r constructing s o c i a l indicators i s primarily designed f o r u s e i n m o n i t o r i n g t r e n d s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e chosen i n d i c a t o r ; r e p o r t e d c r i m e s i s a c l o s e l y l i n k e d i n d i c a t o r of c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y . The use of s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s as p r o x i e s f o r b i o p h y s i c a l i n d i c a t o r s , and t h e i r u t i l i t y as i n d i c a t o r s of b i o l o g i c a l change i s a r e l a t i v e l y u n t r i e d approach. The N a t i o n a l W i l d l i f e F e d e r a t i o n h a s c o n s t r u c t e d "Environmental Q u a l i t y Indexes" s i n c e 1969, which mix b i o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s . S i m i l a r e f f o r t s have been made by Lave and S e s k i n (1970) and L i u (1975). B a s k e r v i l l e (1976) combined s o c i o economic and e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n d i c a t o r s of f o r e s t ecosystem change i n h i s a n a l y s i s of v a r i o u s s p r u c e budworm management a l t e r n a t i v e s . Yet t h e s e e f f o r t s do n o t e x p l o r e t h e r a t i o n a l e o r p o t e n t i a l of u s i n g s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s t o monitoring e c o l o g i c a l change. A s mentioned e a r l i e r , t h e f i r s t s t e p i s t h e development of a t h e o r e t i c a l framework.

6.

A RATIONALE FOR USING SOCIAL INDICATORS TO MONITOR ECOLOGICAL CHANGE

One o f t h e major c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Homo s a p i e n s i s t h e s p e c i e s ' a b i l i t y t o a l t e r i t s h a b i t a t . Swidden a g r i c u l t u r e m o d i f i e s s o i l f e r t i l i t y ; l o g g i n g near streams and r i v e r s changes water t u r b i d i t y ; m a n u f a c t u r i n g consumes c o a l and p e t r o l , p r o d u c e s a i r c o n t a m i n a n t s and a l t e r s t h e a c i d i t y of r a i n . The documentation of t h e s e i m p a c t s h a s i n c r e a s e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s ; e m p i r i c a l case s t u d i e s i n c l u d e w a r f a r e i n Vietnam (Westing &. 1 9 8 1 ) , f o r e s t r y and &. 1 9 8 1 ) , sewage a g r i c u l t u r a l development i n t h e upper Amazon (Gentry d i s c h a r g e s i n South A f r i c a (Orren 1 9 8 1 ) , and t o u r i s m i n t h e C a r r i b e a n (Beckhuis 1 9 8 1 ) .

s.

T h i s c a p a c i t y f o r s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r i n g ecosystems p r i m a r i l y o c c u r s because of Homo s a p i e n s ' a b i l i t y t o c o o r d i n a t e a c t i v i t i e s , t o o r g a n i z e i n t o complex u n i t s ; i t i s t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s k i l l t h a t a l l o w s human technology t o i n c r e a s e i t s power (Burch gal. 1984; Mumford 1 9 6 7 ) . That i s , o u r a b i l i t y t o organize i n t o s o c i e t i e s p r o v i d e s t h e mechanism f o r lumber m i l l s t o produce saw l o g s , f a c t o r i e s t o m a n u f a c t u r e c a r s , farms t o produce food. These a c t i v i t i e s i n t u r n produce changes i n t h e n a t u r a l environment. Such a l t e r a t i o n s of n a t u r a l e c o s y s t e m s produce changes i n many environmental p a r a m e t e r s - - a i r q u a l i t y , p l a n t and a n i m a l abundance, water q u a l i t y and s o on. These p a r a m e t e r s c a n b e d i r e c t l y measured by b i o p h y s i c a l i n d i c a t o r s , e.g., suspended p a r t i c u l a t e s p e r c u b i c meter, number of i n d i v i d u a l s per h e c t a r e , l e a f area p e r meter and s o f o r t h . Y e t t h e a c t i v i t i e s of s o c i e t y which c a u s e t h e s e changes themselves measured by s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s - - i . e . --___ the number of l o g g i n g mills, t h e amount of s a w l o g s produced, t h e acres i n food p r o d u c t i o n .

can

F i g u r e 1 i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s i d e a . S o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s of human a c t i v i t y a r e hypothesized t o b e r e l a t e d t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l p a r a m e t e r s a l t e r e d by t h o s e I f a u t o m o b i l e g a s o l i n e consumption c a u s e s a r i s e i n a i r b o r n e human a c t i v i t i e s .

56 hydrocarbons, then trends in the number of gallons consumed by the transportation sector may be an appropriate indicator of air quality changes. Biophysical Indicators

fwhtch

t

change

T e n g a g e s in

Fig. 1. A Rationale for Using Social Indicators to Monitor Ecological Change Obviously, intervention effects and extraneous variables may make such relationships spurious. New anti-pollution devices may reduce the automobile's contribution to reduced air quality, and petrol consumption may no longer be a useful indicator. Yet the possibility exists that carefully constructed social indicators could track environmental change within biosphere reserves. Methodological pitfalls exist. Careful causal arguments and consistent, strong correlations between the proposed social indicator and biophysical indicators are necessary to development of useful measures. Yet resistance to such an approach may not lie in the methodological requirements. Other than the economic values of price, there is a tendency among resource decision makers to consider social measurement a "soft" rather than "hard" scientific technique. Yet as Burch writes: Part of this attitude may be due to the common assumption that measuring human behavior is nearly impossible. This is absurd. The procedure for inventorying a human habitat, setting, or locale is similar to ecological analysis of the environments of other large animals. One counts a variety of thingssize and structure of population, fecundity, fertility, territory, hierarchy, social change, organization of the breeding and socializing unit, to mention a few. The real point is that most nonhuman ecosystem studies have relatively primitive theoretical questions, which only require simple, elementary measures, and it is precisely these elementary, simple measures of the human community that are most readily available and generally superior to accuracy to similar measures made in field studies of other animals (1984:7-8). Epidemiologists provide an instructive example. As Burch notes, the statistical associations they find between disease episodes and alterations in

51 a i r and water q u a l i t y are b a s e d upon a g g r e g a t e d d a t a . T h e i r s t u d i e s u s e s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s o f h e a l t h changes and b i o p h y s i c a l i n d i c a t o r s o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l change t o p r e d i c t , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r i n d u s t r y w i t h a known p r o c e s s and a known e m i s s i o n s y s t e m i s l i k e l y t o p r o d u c e a n i n c r e a s e of so many grams p e r s q u a r e meter of p a r t i c u l a r p o l l u t a n t s , which w i l l r e s u l t i n c e r t a i n changes i n m o r b i d i t y and m o r t a l i t y r a t e s f o r s p e c i f i c segments of p a r t i c u l a r p o p u l a t i o n s . Like t h e p u b l i c h e a l t h o f f i c i a l , t h e b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e manager may b e a b l e t o u s e s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s t o p r e d i c t s h o r t - t e r m p e r t u r b a t i o n s and longterm t r e n d s i n a r e s e r v e ' s e c o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I n d i c a t o r s of t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s most d i r e c t l y l i n k e d t o e c o s y s t e m change ( l o g g i n g , g r a z i n g , v i s i t o r use and s o f o r t h ) might s e r v e as a k i n d o f " e a r l y w a r n i n g system" f o r t h e b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e r e s o u r c e m a n a g e r - - s i g n a l l i n g t h a t e c o s y s t e m change i s l i k e l y o c c u r r i n g and s u g g e s t i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n and magnitude o f t h e change. To i l l u s t r a t e , w e e x p l o r e p o t e n t i a l i n d i c a t o r s f o r Olympic N a t i o n a l P a r k Biosphere R e s e r v e .

7. 7.1

SOCIAL INDICATORS FOR OLYMPIC NATIONAL PARK BIOSPHERE RESERVE

D e s c r i p t i o n of Olympic B i o s p h e r e R e s e r v e and S u r r o u n d i n g Area

Olympic N a t i o n a l P a r k B i o s p h e r e R e s e r v e , l o c a t e d on t h e Olympic P e n i n s u l a i n n o r t h w e s t e r n Washington S t a t e , c o v e r s a n area o f 896,597 a c r e s N i n e t y - s i x p e r c e n t of t h i s area h a s been o f f i c i a l l y (362,848 h e c t a r e s ) . nominated as w i l d e r n e s s . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e p a r k c o v e r s a r e g i o n o f rugged f o r e s t e d and g l a c i a t e d mountains. Approximately 3254 acres (1317 h e c t a r e s ) of the p a r k a r e s t i l l i n p r i v a t e h a n d s , a l t h o u g h t h e s e i n h o l d i n g s are b e i n g purchased a s f u n d s become a v a i l a b l e . Olympic N a t i o n a l P a r k l i e s w i t h i n t h e b o u n d a r i e s of f o u r c o u n t i e s on t h e Olympic P e n i n s u l a ; t h e f o u r - c o u n t y area i s t r e a t e d i n t h i s a n a l y s i s a s t h e Olympic " r e g i o n . " The economy o f t h e Olympic r e g i o n i s h e a v i l y dependent upon t h e a r e a ' s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . The f o r e s t p r o d u c t s i n d u s t r y is dominant, w i t h no county h a v i n g l e s s t h a n 45 p e r c e n t o f i t s t o t a l l a n d area c l a s s i f i e d as commercial f o r e s t l a n d . C o a s t a l areas, f o r e s t e d l a n d s , and Olympic N a t i o n a l Park a l l c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e prominence o f t h e r e c r e a t i o n and t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y . The f i s h e r i e s s e c t o r of t h e economy i s becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t .

7.2

Sample S o c i a l I n d i c a t o r s

Three key v a r i a b l e s were c h o s e n f o r t h i s sample m o n i t o r i n g e f f o r t - - t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , i n d u s t r i a l development, and t o u r i s m . The use of a n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s u c h as f o r e s t s c a n i m p a c t t h e s u r r o u n d i n g n a t u r a l ecosystem. Depending on how i t i s done, a n i n c r e a s e i n l o g g i n g c a n d e g r a d e the q u a l i t y of w a t e r s h e d , l e a d t o e x t e n s i v e s o i l e r o s i o n and e l i m i n a t e w i l d l i f e h a b i t a t ( M i l l e r 1 9 7 9 ) . I n d u s t r i a l development i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i g h e r e n e r g y consumption ( B e n n e t t 1 9 7 6 ) , g r e a t e r p r o d u c t i o n o f wastes (Garvey 1 9 7 2 ) . and more i n t e n s i v e u s e o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s (Simmons 1 9 7 4 ) . I n t h e 1980 S t a t e o f the Parks Study, 26 p e r c e n t of a l l r e p o r t e d t h r e a t s w e r e r e l a t e d t o i n d u s t r i a l development ( N P S 1980). F i n a l l y , a v a r i e t y o f s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t t o u r i s m has an impact on t h e environment (Machlis 1 9 7 9 ) . T o u r i s t developments a d j a c e n t t o a b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e may i n c r e a s e p o l l u t i o n (USDC 1 9 7 6 ) ; t r a m p l i n g , e r o s i o n , w i l d l i f e h a r r a s s m e n t and i n c r e a s e d o c c u r r e n c e of man-caused w i l d f i r e s

68 can a l s o b e consequences of h e i g h t e n e d l e v e l s of t o u r i s t a c t i v i t y i n s i d e a b i o s p h e r e reserve.' F i g u r e s 2 through 4 i l l u s t r a t e 34Lyear t r e n d s i n s e v e r a l key i n d i c a t o r s . F i g u r e 2 shows t h a t t h e Olympic r e g i o n timber h a r v e s t climbed r a p i d l y i n t h e m i d - s i t t i e s , y e t h a s r e c e n t l y dropped t o l e v e l s similar t o t h e 1950s. F i g u r e 3 shows t h a t from 1948 t o 1970, t h e number of manufacturing and c o n s t r u c t i o n employer u n i t s ( t h e number of employers o p e r a t i n g i n t h e i n d u s t r y f o r a g i v e n y e a r ) remained s t e a d y . Manufacturing and c o n s t r u c t i o n employers r o s e r a p i d l y i n t h e 19709, and h a s r e c e n t l y d e c l i n e d . F i g u r e 4 shows a n e r r a t i c b u t continuous rise i n t h e number of v i s i t o r s t o t h e b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e , w i t h a l e v e l i n g o f f i n t h e l a s t decade. I f t h e p e r c e n t a g e change of e a c h i n d i c a t o r i s added t o form a n unweighted index of human a c t i v i t y i n t h e region,.a d e c l i n e i n t h e rate of change i s e v i d e n t , beginning i n t h e middle of t h e 1960s. F i g u r e 5 i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s "rate of change" i n d e x , u s i n g four-year a v e r a g e s . The d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t from approximately 1965 t o 1977 t h e Olympic r e g i o n e x p e r i e n c e d a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n r e s o u r c e u t i l i z a t i o n , i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and t o u r i s m , and t h a t s i n c e 1977 socio-economic a c t i v i t y i n t h e r e g i o n h a s s t a b i l i z e d .

I:

1950

Fig. 2.

I

1955

I

1960

I

1965

.

1470

I

1975

.

1980

Olympic Region Timber Harvest by MBF 1948-1982.

59 2.000-

- 1.5005 1.OOo. YI

c

3

E"

w

500-

1950 1955

Fig. 3.

1950

Fig. 4.

660

1965

1970

l9k

&

Annual Average Number of Employer Units in the Olympic Region in Manufacturing and Construction, 1948-1982.

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

Park Visitation, Olympic National Park, 1948-1982.

I

: 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 I972 1976 I980

Fig. 5.

Percent Rate of Change in Combined Indicators, 1948-1982.

60 To test t h e c o r r e l a t i o n of t h e s e s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s and b i o p h y s i c a l changes w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v e , time-series d a t a on a i r q u a l i t y , water q u a l i t y , w i l d l i f e p o p u l a t i o n s , and so f o r t h are needed. I r o n i c a l l y (and t r u e t o Burch's earlier s t a t e m e n t ) , no such d e t a i l e d and continuous d a t a s e t i s a v a i l a b l e f o r b i o p h y s i c a l v a r i a b l e s . S t a t i s t i c a l tests of c o r r e l a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g lagged time-series a n a l y s i s , i s the n e x t s t e p i n t h e development of t h e s e and s i m i l a r s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s .

8.

CONCLUSION

There are a v a r i e t y of ways t h a t s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s such as t h o s e j u s t d e s c r i b e d could be used i n b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e management. F i r s t , they s e r v e a s an inexpensive set of b a s e l i n e d a t a . P e r i o d i c updating should keep them reasonably c u r r e n t , and long-term t r e n d s could be a s s e s s e d . Tourism i n d i c a t o r s could s e r v e a s benchmarks f o r a s s e s s i n g f u t u r e v i s i t a t i o n w i t h i n r e s e r v e s ; t h e r a t e of change index could i n d i c a t e r e g i o n a l socio-economic development. Second, t h e i n d i c a t o r s may provide an " e a r l y warning" of impacts upon t h e biosphere r e s e r v e . A sudden i n c r e a s e i n c o n s t r u c t i o n employer u n i t s could s i g n a l a s p u r t i n i n d u s t r i a l development and a d e c r e a s e i n a i r q u a l i t y as manufacturing f a c i l i t i e s a r e completed. Once a l e r t e d , park r e s o u r c e s p e c i a l i s t s and s c i e n t i s t s could i n t e n s i f y t h e i r b i o p h y s i c a l monitoring e f f o r t s t o g a t h e r more a c c u r a t e d a t a . Hence, t h e s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s could s u g g e s t s i t e - s p e c i f i c b i o p h y s i c a l monitoring. Third, s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s could be used t o compare s e v e r a l r e s e r v e s . For example, d a t a on timber h a r v e s t a d j a c e n t t o Olympic N a t i o n a l Park and Great Smokeys Biosphere Reserves could be compared over 40 y e a r s , and t h e r e l a t i v e p o t e n t i a l f o r impacts could be a s s e s s e d . The l i n k between s o c i a l C l e a r l y , t h i s i s a v e r y modest beginning. i n d i c a t o r s and environmental change needs t o be r i g o r o u s l y examined, and t h e p r a c t i c a l u t i l i t y of such i n d i c a t o r s must be borne o u t by t h e i r u s e f u l Y e t we t h i n k t h i s paper r a i s e s a p p l i c a t i o n t o b i o s p h e r e r e s e r v e management. t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t s o c i a l i n d i c a t o r s may prove u s e f u l i n monitoring W e hope o t h e r s are i n t r i g u e d o r i r r i t a t e d enough t o biosphere r e s e r v e s . e x p l o r e t h e s e i d e a s and h e l p r e f i n e them f u r t h e r .

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This Page Intentionally Left Blank

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N.Vezuoglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

THE

INTERNATIONAL NETWORK OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES: A NEW DIHENSION IN GLOBAL CONSERVATION

William P. Gregg. Jr. Han and t h e Biosphere Program Coordinator National Park S e r v i c e Washington. DC 20240. U.S.A.

ABSTRACT

T h e International Network o f Biosphere Reserves is being established under UNESCO’s Man and t h e Biosphere Program t o conserve representative examples o f t h e world‘s ecosystems and to make t h e s e a r e a s available f o r basic and applied research, education, demonstration. and training. S i n c e UNESCO first designated biosphere r e s e r v e s in 1976. t h e network has grown to include 226 s i t e s in 62 c o u n t r i e s (December 1983 data). and is becoming a significant. factor in efforts t o achieve harmonious relationships between human societies and t h e ecosy6tems o n which they depend. T h e biosphere reserves provide a symbolic and practical framework f o r human cooperation at t h e local, regional, and international levels t o find solutions t o interrelated environmental. land use, and socioeconomic problems. They also provide a basis f o r developing and coordinating scientific, educational. and management functions performed individually or severally by various t y p e s o f legally protected areas. Tha evolution of t h e biosphere reserve project is discussed. with emphasis o n i t s r o l e in putting protected areas t o work in developing t h e knowledge, skills, and human value s y s t e m s required for sustainable conservation o f t h e world’s ecosystems. 1. PROTECTED A R E A S AND T H E CHALLENGES OF T H E MODERN AGE T h e establishment o f national s y s t e m s of parks and protected areas in nearly every country o f t h e world i s properly regarded as one of t h e most significant achievements o f human civilization. The systematic protection o f t h e natural and cultural heritage of nations i s a uniquely modern concept which has, during t h e current century, become a n integral part of t h e identity o f a growing number o f nation-states. National parks and equivalent reserves contribute increasingly t o a s e n s e o f national pride and cohesiveness. They often protect cherished national symbols which a r e s o u r c e s of inspiration f o r t h e people. In addition, their substantial direct benefits from recreation and tourism are major f a c t o r s in t h e economies of s c o r e s o f nations, particuA positive symbolism having larly in developing countries. both personal and national dimensions. in combination with new

65

66 sourcee of revenue, have for more than fifty years.

fueled

the

protected area movement

An important element in the development of protected area 6ySteRS has been the perception that, without intervention by government or public interest organizations. public benefits would be irretrievably foregone a s important resources are threatened, damaged. and lost through relentless human exploitation. There can be no question that actions in the public interest t o acquire these areas or regulate the uses and activities on them have saved many areas from imminent damage or destruction, eepecially from conversion t o alternative uses, such a s forestry, agriculture. urbanization. or mining. However, the reprieve has often been short lived. In case after case. what once appeared securely protected is increasingly beset by a litany of threats from within and without. The litany is long and growing. a s human demands for commodities and the impacts of population growth, technology, and changing human value systems create challenges for protected area administrators and for human society itself which would have been unimaginable even a few years ago. The laws governing the establishment and management of protected areas usually provide good protection from large-scale land use conversions for development and other activities requiring government authorization. However. these instruments are less effective in dealing with the growing cumulative impacts of the activities of individual people. such a s illegal harvesting of plants and animals, the introduction of pests and exotic species. or damage from recreational uses. Hany of these impacts have long received the attention of protected area administrators. However. they are becoming more widespread. more intense. and more difficult to address with limited budgets and staff. In many developing countries. protected areas are increasingly used for subsistence activities by local people, who often benefit little from the establishment of such areas. Also of concern is the fact that, throughout the world, existing laws and regulations are proving inadequate t o address a broad range of uniquely modern environmental threat6 which result from regional development or extraregional environmental changes. the effects of which often transcend national boundaries. In particular, regional pollution and the effects of inappropriate regional land use are adversely affecting protected areas. just Efforts to address a s they are the well-being of the people. these types of problems frequently become mired in attempts t o maximize the self-interest of individual nations or economic sectors. Overcoming such impediments requires objective information on the problem itself, preferably from multiple locations, and a willingness t o work collectively t o develop equitable and practical solutions. A record of cooperation to develop balanced, interdisciplinary and international perspectives ha6 become increasingly important, a s unilateral action by individual nations and sectors in dealing with these problems and reducing associated conflicts has become less effective. In many countries. special constituencies have developed around a particular category of protected area, and organizations have been established t o serve the interests of particular users,

67

such a s recreationietc, naturalists. and ranchers. These constituenciee often cpearhead efforts t o raiee public awareness on major environmental problems, and their ability to influence the management prioritiec of protected areae ie well documented. However. developing the role of protected area6 a s centers for developing the knowledge and ekillo needed t o eolve theee problems has rarely been a part of their agenda. In recent years, threats. such ae acid precipitation, pollution of regional ceas, tropical deforestation, and desertification have increased the amount of communication among nations and sectors with vastly different interests. Although protected areas have an important stake in these discussions and can contribute materially to cooperative solutions, their role has been largely unrecognized, in spite of their well-documented record in providing scientific information relating to such threats. I believe that this is due to the fact that the symbolic identity of most categories of protected areas was established during an earlier period when such problems either did not exist or were not considered important. National parks, for example. are generally perceived a s significant parts of a nation’s natural heritage and. in most cases, a s centers for public recreation and public education. The important role of certain national parks notwithstanding. the symbolic identity of national parks as a group is not closely associated with scientific study, human cooperation, training, and other activities necessary for addressing modern environmental problems. Although their purposes would differ, the same could be said for nature sanctuaries, national monuments. multiple use areas. and other protected area categories. even though some individual sites have made important contributions to knowledge and technology relating to these problems. For most categories, research has traditionally been a secondary activity focused narrowly on achieving the immediate objective6 of an individual protected area. Integrated regional or international research programs involving two or more prot.ected area6 have been rare indeed. The idea that protected areas should help provide the scientific basis for sustainable conservation at the local, regional, and global levels is not at all well appreciated. The continuing failure to recognize the multiple roles protected areae can play i n regional economic development has the dual effect of reducing the security of the protected area while foregoing opportunities to improve the sustainability of development. Because they represent permanently dedicated landscapes. protected areas can increase the probability that development w i l l be successful by providing benchmarks of regional environmental quality against which to assess the impacts of the development and enable undesirable consequences to be addressed at the earliest possible time. providing sites for applied research to develop land use and management methods uniquely suited to the ecological and socioeconomic conditions of the region. the traditions of local people. and the capabilities of responsible agencies and institutions. helping maintain the sustainability of the development process through local/regional initiatives after the initial development has been completed. and

68 providing a focus for cooperation among conservation and development constituencies within the region, thereby reducing conflict. and associated costs.

0

On the other hand, successful integration of protected areas and regional economic development can benefit the protected area by making available additional funding from domertic and international sources for enforcement, training. rerearch, and educational activities: and by fostering local support for conserving protected area resources a s the economic well-being of the local people improves. Unlese this integration is accomplished, both development and protected areas will become less sustainable, especially in developing countries. is needed is a new symbolism and practical framework What t o establish the role of protected area6 a s centers for scientific study and human cooperation to solve interrelated environmental. land use, and socioeconomic problems. The symbolism must reinforce the purposes of existing categories of protected areas and ha've the potential t o motivate large numbers of people on its behalf. The framework must enhance the rolo of protected areas in the progressive advancement of human civilization by helping people to solve problems at the local, regional, and global levelo. The International Network of Biosphere Reserves, launched in 1971 under the auspices of UNESCO a s part of the Hun and the Biosphere Program (NAB). establishes this symbolism and framework. In so doing. it can provide a new dimension in global conservation.

2. Biosphere Reserves:

Protected Areas as Informational Resources

The need for an international network of protected research sites for the study of the world's ecosystems has been recognized During the 1960's. the idea influenced for more than 20 years. the planning and development of the Conservation of Ecosystems Project in the International Biological Program. the immediate forerunner of NAB. It bore fruit in 1971. when UNESCO's newly established NAB Program approved the establishment of such a network. In 1972, the idea was strongly endorsed in Stockholm at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. After several years of planning. the first protected areas were officially designated a s biosphere reserves by the Director-General of UNESCO in 1976.

A unique dimension of the biosphere re6erve concept is the recognition of the value of protected areas in providing information for the benefit of people. The purpose of the network is to conserve a representative sample of the world's major ecosystems. and the genetic material they contain. Ecosystems and their genetic resources are recognized a s informational resources. which yield their infornation through the process of scientific investigation. By investigating ecological relationships and uses of genetic resources, we are able t o develop sustainable systems of land use which enable the ecosystems of individual biogeographic regions t o furnish the widest possible range of amenities and commodities. The concept thus acknowledges that natural ecosystems and their genetic resources represent

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6tOrehOUSeS of information of unlimited value to people. and the systematic exploitation of these information resources through scientific study represents one of the highest missions of protected areas which receive the biosphere reserve designation. 3. An Ecosystem Approach

Biosphere reserves are effective conservation areas which protect large landscape units (usually watersheds) suitable for the study of natural and managed ecosystems. using the holistic approaches of modern ecology. Indeed, many of the world's leading centers for developing the theory and practice of eC06ySten study have been designated as biosphere reserves. The particular emphasis on conservation and study at the ecosystem level is another unique dimension of the mission of biosphere reserves. Ideally, each biosphere reserve should include large self-sustaining ecosystems which provide for the natural evolution of species. including upper level predators and other species requiring the availability of expansive habitat. It should also be large enough to provide places for developing sustainable human use systems and for rehabilitating degraded areas. through research. denonstration. and training. In this respect, biosphere reserves provide models for management and sustainable development of the ecosystem6 of a biogeographic region. Based on a 1983 report (IUCN 1983). existing biosphere reorrves range in size from a 70-million-hectare site in Greenland to a 60-hectare marine park in Italy. Only the largest of the reerrves are clearly adequate for conserving self-sustaining ecosystems and allowing for the natural evolution of their genetic resources. Host of the reserves contain watersheds or similar areas suitable for ecooystem study, but, in the long run. are probably not large enough to conserve genetic diversity. and wide-ranging specie6 in particular. without management intervention. About two-thirds are smaller than 100,000 hectares. and 37% are smaller than 10,000 hectares. Long-term conservation of these areas will require cooperative natural resource managemrnt programs usually involving various administrators within and rometimes outside the biogeographic region. As zones of cooperation are establiehed, the effective size of the biosphere re8rrve increaser until the limitation. of tho rrserve, a8 originally esignated, are substantially overcome.

4. A Network Approach Biosphere networks nrtworkr have drvrloped which

form

reperves are linked rrgionally and globally to for cooperation. Although the bonefits of those yrt to be fully realized. a framework is bring will

oenable better coordination of rerrarch and and educational activitirr within particular biogeographic rrgione, ofacilitate rcirntific cooperation on problrmr of comuon interert. and

between

protected

areas

70

Oimprove coordination of efforts to monitor regional and planetary changes in air, water, and land components of the biosphere.

A unique dimension of the biosphere reserve designation is its ability link ecologically and functionally complementary sites under different administrators within the same biogeographic regions. In Costa Rica. La Amistad Biosphere Reserve has recently been established by uniting several contiguous land management units, which collectively fulfill all of the purposes of the reserve. In California, the California Coast Ranges Biosphere Reserve contains three geographically separate units with sites under six different administrators. The sites collectively conserve all but one of the region’s representative ecosystems and perform a11 of the required biosphere reserve functions. Along the border between the United States and Canada, efforts are underway to develop biosphere reserves linking complementary sites in each country within the same biogeographic region. In the Lesser Antilles. the feasibility of a multi-site biosphere reserve involving several of the island nations and dependencies is being explored. At the present time. tho biorphoro rorervo provide8 the only moans of dovoloping rymbolic linkago8 to provido a focur for coordinating tho activitirr of a numbor Of protrctod a r o w within a biogoographic rogion.

9. A Voluntary Approach

In most countries. there are no independent legal authorities for establishing and administering biosphere reserves. According to a recent estimate (Hiller 1983), eighty-four percent of biosphere reeerves have the same boundaries as existing national parks or other protected areas. In these areas. acceptance of the biosphere re6erve designation, and implementation of biosphere reserve functions, are voluntary administrative decieions which rely on existing legal authorities. Fortunately, these authorities usually are adequate if used effectively and innovatively. The advantages of the voluntary approach often outweigh any disadvantages associated with lack of legally enforceable standards. In countries such a6 the United States where legal and administrative requiromontr relating to protected areas are many and complex. the absence of specific laws and regulations relating to biosphero reserver ha6 been key to the acceptance of the derignation by site adminirtratoro. The U.S. practice of combining rites under different administrator6 to form biorphoro rererver bearing the name of a biogeographic rogion would bo impO88ible to execute in a formal legal way, yet is easily accomplirhed voluntarily bocaueo tho associations provide opportunities without comproniring the administrator’s ability to carry out the purpose and objectivor of a particular protected area. Tho voluntary naturo of the program allows the biorphorr resorve network to bo developrd rapidly in countrior having many large protrcted aroar a8 candidate site.. It alro allows floxibility in tailoring biorphsrr reserve activitier to meat tho nrrds of a particular biogoographic region.

71 Biosphere reserves are developed opportunistically. Rarely does a biosphere reserve conserve all of a region's representative ecosystems or carry our all biosphere reserve functions at the However. ae the reserve's functions time it is established. are developed and its importance to the people of the region becomes appreciated. possibilities for including additional sites and expanding functions, particularly through cooperative activities. will become apparent. The moral force of international recognition of the scientific importance of particular protected areas, and their role in future progress of civilization, is not inconsequential. A l though the benefits remain to be fully realized. biosphere reserve status can be expected to improve the security of protected ecosystems as administrators develop new ways to implement the biosphere reserve concept. Interest in biosphere reserves has soared i n recent years. In the United Sfates. this is reflected in a managers' initiative to convene the first conference on the management of biosphere reserves, which will be held in November 1984 as part of the 90th anniversary celebration for Great Smoky Hountains National Park. one of the country's leading biosphere reserves. Such voluntary efforts to improve the contributions of biosphere reserves are certain to increase as the concept becomes better understood. Finally, it is worth noting that a few developing countries, such as Hexico and Honduras, give biosphere reserves separate legal status. Because biosphere reserves are perceived as playing an important role in the sustainable development of these countries, and because other protected area systems are not so well entrenched as to preclude the addition of a new protected area category, the legal establishment of biosphere reserves has been possible. As more developing countries consider the advantages of biosphere reserves in planning national protected area programs, the number of countries adopting this alternative should increase. 6. The Functions of Biosphere Reserves

Biosphere reserves are dynamic natural and human systems, constantly adjusting to changes in natural conditions and the A l l biosphere reserve functions are expectations of people. dedicated to the service of humanity, and specifically to fostering productive and sustainable relationships between people and their environnent. The functions are interdependent. and the success of a reserve is determined largely on the basis of how effectively they are integrated to improve the health of a rmgion's ecosyotemi and the well-being its people.

In essence, biosphere reserves carry out five basic functions: conservation. monitoring, re6earch. education, and cooperation. 6.1

Conservation

The International Network of Bioephere Reeervos is a global conmervation initiative designed to conserve examples of the

12

world's ecosystems a s large, self-sustaining landscape units. Using a biogeographic classification developed in 1975 and recently revised (Udvardy 1975). the goal is t o include representation from each of the world's 193 biogeographic regions. A s of January 1984, biosphere reserves had been designated in 90. The biosphere reserve project emphasizes inclusion of very 1arge areas containing reprasentative rather than unique features. I t thus complements national and international efforts aimed at coneerving significant natural resources and small-scale features. including locally distributed natural communities and populations of special scientific interest. Because they contain a substantial proportion of the indigenous flora and fauna of a biogeographic region, biosphere reserves are important reservoirs of genetic material. These resources increasingly are finding application in developing improved strains of commercially important species, and in develop ing new pharmaceuticals. industrial chemicals. building materials, food sources, pest control agents. and other products t o improve human well-being. The genetic resources of biosphere reserves also provide material for reestablishing indigenous epecies in areas where they have been extirpated, thereby enhancing the stability and diversity of regional ecosystems. A unique aspect of biosphere reserves is the inclusion, where practicable. of traditional land use systems illustrating harmonious relationships between indigenous populations and the environment. These systems often reflect centuries of human experience and can provide information of immense value in improving the productivity and sustainabilty of modern land use and management practices. In addition t o providing important sites for scientific study, the inclusion of such areas can help foster pride on the part of local populations in their traditions. and provide the basis for improving their means of sustenance through the Judicious use of science and technology in ways which respect these traditions.

6.2. The Honitoring Function

Because of their secure protection, generally large size and remote location, and the inclusion of areas free from significant human impact, biosphere reserves typically provide ideal sites for monitoring changes in the physical and biological componente of the biosphere. Host biosphere reserves have at least a minimal monitoring program. and many are among the world's preeminent sites for long-term ecological mea8urement. Some of the latter have data bases spanning more than a century. Some were sites for the study of ecosystems in the International Biological Program. and amassed large interdisciplinary data base6 of immense scientific value. Still others are world conters for the development of new concepts and methodologies, and have played leading roles in the development of modern ecology and other scientific disciplines. Their protection and scientific mission make biosphere reserve8 particularly attractive sites for -gathering Scientific information. Scientists can have more confidence than in most

73

other areas that the integrity of study sites will be respected. and that collected data will contribute to a growing data bank As land use changes of increasing scientific significance. and, human impacts progressively decrease the availability of euitable monitoring sites, scientific interest in biosphere reserves is certain to increase. Monitoring in biosphere reserves is still primarily directed toward meeting the management needs of the particular protected area (Gregg and Goigel 1983). For this reason. the network's potential value a s a framework for coordinated monitoring of regional and global environmental cycles and trends has not yet been realized. However. interest in developing this function is increasing. Canada. in cooperation with other northern countries. is exploring the feasibility of developing a network of biosphere reserves for integrated monitoring and comparative research in the circumpolar north. The United States and the U.S.S.R. are coordinating the monitoring of pollutants and their effects using similar methods in paired biosphere reserves. Through the Global Environmental Monitoring System of the United Nations Environment Programme, these linkages are now being expanded to include biosphere reserves in Chile. The National Aeronautical and Space Administration, in cooperation with US-MAB, is developing a program t o utilize biosphere reserves as ground stations in concert with remote sensing technologies to improve our understanding of regional and global cycles and trends in the biosphere. as well a s provide geographic information systems to support better use and management of regional ecosystems. These efforts are indicative of the growing use of biosphere reserves for coordinated monitoring targeted on major environmental problems. such a s the effects of air pollutants and acid precipitation. 6.3. The Research Function

In most protected areas. research is a secondary function which is intended t o provide infornation to enable effective response to immediate resource management problems. This situation ha6 generally persisted after protected areas become biosphere reserves. Interdisciplinary research programs involving the natural and social sciences, of the kind envisioned by MAB to develop models for sustainable conservation of a region's ecosystems, do not usually become part of the research agenda as an immediate result of biosphere reserve designation. Expansion and reorientation of research programs is likely to occur slowly as the other functions of the biosphere reserve are developed. Part of the problem is due t o the fact that most existing biosphere reserves are incomplete in terns of the research functions they are capable of performing under existing laws and regulations. For example. national parks in the U.S. are legally prohibited from carrying out manipulative research to improve the productivity of forest ecosystems. On the other hand, research priorities for experimental forests may preclude much work on conservation of biological diversity. When such areas become biosphere reserves. these constraints usually remain. Cooperation between adninistrators of nonmanipulative and manipulative research areas may

14

eomeday overcome such limitations, but examples of such efforts t o date have been relatively few. In a 1980 eurvey of U.S. biosphere reservee, reeearch programs were judged adequate t o provide information for science and management programs for only five of the 38 units surveyed (Gregg and Goigel 1983). Although the staffing and funding of research is improving. they fall well short of requirements for developing models for sustainable ecoeystem conservation.

In a recent paper. I underscored the importance of using biosphere reserves for coordinated research on topics having particular relevance t o the advancement of human civilization (Gregg, presq). Examples include research t o determine requirements for conserving biological diversity (to maintain our options for future development of genetic resources). t o assess the impacts of pollution on the structure and functions of ecosystems (to provide the basis for scientifically supportable policies for compatible development). t o evaluate the effects of traditional and modern land use practices on ecosystem processes (to improve the sustainability of development). and t o develop sustainable production systems for degraded areas (to improve the productivity of regional ecosystems and the economic well-being of regional A few reservee have substantial programs in such areas, people). and many have limited programs focused on narrowly defined problems. Better understanding of the purpose of biosphere reserves and a more general acknowledgement of their role in addressing regional and global environmental and socioeconomic problems will be required before coordinated research initiatives are likely t o receive substantial support. Before leaving the subject of research. it is worth mentioning that the international network provides a framework for comparative studies of similar problems in different parts of the world. for testing and transferring new methodologi?s, and for coordinating the development of information management systems. These areas are beginning to receive some attention, but the potentials remain to be developed fully. 6.4. The Education Function

Biosphere reserves can serve a s important field centers for the education of scientists, resource managers. protected area administrators. visitors. and local people. The biosphere reserve's strong emphasis on developing educational programs is unique among protected area categories. The nature of these programs depends on the particular conditions. capabilities. and needs of the biosphere reserve and the surrounding region. However. the following kinds of activities are being developed in many reserves: Academic and Professional Traininq includes a range of activities designed t o improve the knowledge and skills of cjtudents. scientists, resource managers. and protected area administrators. Seminars. workshops, university field courses, work-study programs, details and exchanges of professional personnel. government-sponsored training programs, and similar activities are used in many reserves to provide training in particular professional

75 fields and in the use of available technologies. A number of biosphere reserves are centers for professional training in the management and use of protected areas or particular types of habitats, such a s mountains. tropical forests, and wetlands. Environmental Education covers activities designed primarily for visitors and local people t o foster improved understanding of the relationship between people and their environment. Communicating the role of science in general. and the biosphere reserve in particular, in providing the basis for harmonious relationships is an important aspect. A long-term goal in many reserves is the development of a conservation ethic among local people, in which environmental education can play an important role by showing how intelligent stewardship of the region's resources is relevant t o the well-being of its people. For visitors to biosphere reserves, environmental education programs can. by pointing out the similarity of environmental problems in different parts of the world, contribute to the development of a world view and public support for building cooperative relationships for finding practical and equitable solutions to these problems. Demonstration and Extension provide the means of transferring technology and communicating the results of research activities for the practical benefit of local people. In developing countries, these activities, in concert with environmental education, must often receive priority attention in order to build local support for the biosphere reserve. Demonstration projects in agriculture. forestry, rehabilitation of degraded landscapes, health, development of environmentally compatible cottage industries. energy conservation. and similar areas improve socioeconomic stability and provide the basis for integrated development of regional ecosystems. In Rexico. the development of demonstration projects and extension services for agricultural development and range management were the main factors in fostering public support for the establishment and effective protection of the Hapimf Biosphere Reserve. which conserves a significant population of the endangered desert tortoise (Halfft.er 1981). In developed countries. extension services for regional users of renewable resources are an important component of the educational function. I n the United States, these services are provided by a number of experimental forests and rangelands administered by the Department of Agriculture. Job Traininq for Local People is an important part of the education function in some biosphere reserves, especially in developing countries. The employment of local people in the protection and management of the biosphere reserve is a practical way t o promote local support.

6.S. The Cooperation Function Cooperation not only serves as the master integrator of the other functions, but also provides the moral force behind the symbolism of the biosphere reserve concept. It is the cornerstone of a successful biosphere reserve. and failure to develop it is the principal impediment to general recognition of the value of the biosphere reserve concept. Biosphere reserve status can provide a framework for improving cooperation at the local,

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regional. and international level. Howrver, the o b ~ e C t i V e 8 of cooperative activities must be clear. and effective inrtitutional mechanisms made operational if progreor is to be made. Cooperation is increasingly regarded a 8 an aspect of good management for all categories of protected areas. However. biosphere reserves are distinguished from other protrcted area categories in several ways. First, cooperation has been embodied, specifically and visibly, in the biosphere reserve concept from its inception. Unlike other protected area categories. it is an essential part of the symbolism. and a key factor in fostering personal commitment on the part of growing numbers of people. Second. cooperation is envisioned a s exceptionally broad, involving diverse interests and people with very different perspectives. Efforts are directed toward finding practical and sustainable strategies for dealing with complex and interrelated enwironmental. land use. and socioeconomic problems affecting a particular biogeographic region. For this reason, the range of interests involved in planning and implementing the biosphere reserve concept typically includes biosphere reserve administrators. natural and social scientists, resource managers, environmental and development interests. government bureaucrats and politicians. and local people. Communication among these groups. 6018 of which may have been traditional adversariee. must be based on acceptance of the need to integrate conservation and development within the biogeographic region, and on recognition of the value of a securely protected and fully functional biosphere re6erve in meeting this need. The administrators and staff of the biosphere reserve must build the initial communication linkages through personal initiatives. Through these efforts, a zone of cooperation around the biosphere reserve can eventually develop which. in effect, represents a zone of influence where cooperative activities are implemented. The spatial dimensions of this zone will expand as more participants Join the local network. Developing the network of cooperation for carrying out the mission of the biosphere reserve will take many years. and ie an openended process. A third aspect involves the multiple levels on which cooperation in biosphere reserves operates. Although most cooperative activi'ties are local and directly support sustainable coneervation of the biosphere reserve and its immediate vicinity, cooperation on regional and international levels will become an important factor in the future. All biosphere reserves are part of an international network, which provides a framework for conmunication within and among biogeographic regions. This communication is generally scientific, and involves the sharing of technology and information. and the development of coordinated research projects. to provide better perspective on problems of common interest. Cooperation within the network is best illuctrated in monitoring atmospheric pollutants and their effects on natural ecosystems. and in developing and applying improved methods for managing and restoring tropical forests. To date. the number of cooperative projects involving multiple bioephere reserves has been small, owing to limitations on funding, especially

for bilateral activities. and the tendency of reserve adninistrators to give priority to projects conducted within the reserve's A s the influences on protected areas continue to boundaries. shift from the local to the regional and global, the incentive for coordinated scientific use of biosphere reserves will increase. Should an anticipated substantial increase in funding for the United States Man and the Biosphere Program materialize in 1985, expect to see a significant increase in the use of biosphere reserves as sites for coordinated scientific activities. During the past five years. biosphere reserves have made significant strides in promoting cooperation at all levels. In Canada. Mexico. and Africa, the biosphere reserves have provided the framework for new approaches to involve local people in developing research programs and strategies for integrated development (Bull 1984. Halffter 1981. Gilbert 1983). In the United States. biosphere reserves have provided the catalyst for establishing new institutions to marshal1 the professional capabilitiee of government agencies and academic institutions to provide perspective on the ecosystem use and management problems of the Southern Appalachians and the Virgin Islands. Mexico and the United States have a longstanding project on watershed and wildlife management in woodland ecosystems in the Sonoran Desert region. In many developing countries, biosphere reserves have served as sites for north-south cooperation to improve the standard of resource management and, in a some cases, the economic well-being of local people. Such examples are evidence that the biosphere reserve concept is beginning to become a positive force in international scientific cooperation and technology transfer. However, if the biosphere reserves are to realize their potential in demonstrating the practical benefits of integra ting protected area conservation and ecosystem development, the concept must be understood and supported by national governments and by international institutions in the conservation. scientific. economic development. and human services sectors, which must be willing to give priority to projects involving bioephere reserves. The development of the biosphere reserve as a cooperation concept can appropriately be done by planning and implementing cooperative regional demonetration projects. through which biosphere reserves are used to demonstrate solution6 to the complex land use and management problems of particular biogeographic A recent proposal by the U.S. Agency for Intmrnational regions. Developmmnt for ruch a project in northwest Rwanda
7. DEVELOPED V S DEVELOPING COUNTRY MODELS The Firrt Intarnational Congrmrr on Biosphere Rermrvmr, 6pOnsOrOd by UNEP, UNESCO, and IUCN war hmld in the Sovirt Union

78

in September 1983. It brought together representatives from more than 50 nations to review the first decade of the biosphere reserve project, and to develop an action plan for the future. In their presentations, the representatives made it clear that the emphasis being placed on the various biosphere reserve functions varies markedly depending on the conditions prevailing in particular countries. Although these differences make it difficult to establish a uniform management identity for biosphere reserves, the flexibility of the concept in meeting a wide variety of needs remains a major strength.

In the differences between developed and developing countries can be seen distinct biosphere reserve models. In developed countries, the number and variety of protected areas 1s large. The legal basis for different categories of protected areas is firmly established. There are many influential constituencies to promote effective protection. Institutions are structured, sectorial, and numerous at the local, regional, and national level. Scientific and technological capabilities are well developed. In these countries. conservation. monitoring and research functions receive particular attention. Indeed. the network in these countries contains many of the world’s outstanding national parks as well as leading centers for research on natural and managed ecosystems. In these areas, there is increasing interest in translating biosphere reserve status into more effective protected area management. In developed countries. emphasis is likely to be placed on rcientific use, environmental education. and regional cooperation including the development of new institutions for dealing with environmental problems and integrating the protected areas into the surrounding ecological and socioeconomic region. In the United States and Canada. bioephere reserve designation is being ueed to link togother ecologically and functionally complementary protected areas under different administrators within a particular biogeographic region. The voluntary biosphere reserve associationc can be a significant moral force for cooperation in land use and management. In developing countrier. protrcted area eystems, institutions. a conrervation ethic, conrervation constituencies. and technical capabilities are often eithor lacking or woakly doveloped. Biosphors rerorvrr can as6ume a major role in OffSOtting thore deflCienCi##r and in narrhalling domertic and intornational reeourcor to put protected area6 to work for tho bonofit of people. In thore countrios. the 6uccorr of the biorphoro rorrrvo concept will depond on whothor it can be ured as a framowork for integrated rural developmont project8 which oimultaneously achiovr conservation and economic dovelopment objectivos. Improving tho land management rkille. hygiene. and general oconomic well-boing of local poople, ar woll as fortsring a con8orvation ethic through oducation and involvemont in all arpoctr of tho biorphore rororvo projoct, will provido tho foundation for local rupport. Monitoring and rerearch functionr. and rolated training, will normally havo to roly hoavily on thm involvomont of outrido rpocialirtr until domortic capabilitior are dmvolopod. Education, domonstration. and training function8 in biosphoro rrrrrvor will bo particularly important in doveloping profeorional and

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technical capabilities relating to the stewardship of protected areas and in sustaining the benefits from integrated rural development programs. 8. CONCLUSIONS

During the eight years since the first biosphere reserves were officially designated by UNESCO, the biosphere reserve concept has journeyed from obscurity to an important, if not yet commanding, position in the world lexicon of protected areas. It draws its growing influence from its capability to integrate the functions performed individually or severally by existing categories of protected areas, and from a unique positive symbolism which has the capacity to motivate people around the world to put protected areas to work to help address the interrelated ecological and human problems of an increasingly interconnected world civilization. It uniquely recognizes and exploits the value of protected natural ecosystems as unlimited archives of information to support the well-being of people. The success of the bioephere reserve concept has at once been exceptional and limited. The rapid growth of the international network has been remarkable, yet development of the multiple functions of the designated areas h a s bean much 8lOWer to materialize. There remain6 much uncertainty a s to how the biosphere reserve designation should affoct management. Yet, there is a growing willingness--even enthusiasm--for exploring the dimensions of this still evolving concept. The outcomo of this exploration w i l l vary depending on the particular problemo, capabilities, and needs of particular nations or biogeographic regions. Yet. regardless of the outcome. thero seems little doubt that application of the biosphrre reeervr concept will strengthen the justification for protecting the deeignated areas, broaden their constituencies, and gonerally improve their security. Although biosphere reserves have been used euccessfully to improvr the economy of rural communitiee in developing countries. major demonstration projects await increaeed interert in the biosphrre reserve projoct by agencimr and nongovrrnmental organizations rerponsibla for funding developnont in thoro countries. Becaure of their pmrmanmnt protoction and rciontific mireion. bioepherm rerorvee can provide a suitable framowork for evaluation, objective roarrossmont, and appropriate rmdirmction of developmont activitirr to onaurm that thoy arm mcologically 8U8tainable. In many inrtancrr, it rhould bo posriblo to improvm tho economic jurtification for rural devolopmrnt projoctr by intograting thorn with a biorphmrm rororve. The biorphore rormrvo concopt providrr a dynamic frsmowork for intograting protoctmd aroa conservation and economic dovolopmont, a8 envirionod in tho World Conrmrvation Stratmgy dmvolopod by thm IUCN a8 tho baoio for global oco8yotom conoorvation (IUCN 1980). Tho biorphoro roomrvom can, and rhould. bo dmvmlopod aa contorr for carrying out thir mtratogy. Thmy can rorvo ao important Catalyrt8 for human coopmration to dmvmlop mod018 for tho rational U I O of tho ocooy8tomm in oach of tho world’. biogoographic rmgionr. Thoy can bo focal point8 for dovmloping

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new mechanisms and institutions for marshalling the scientific. technological, and financial resources needed Co improve the productivity and sustainability of land uee system6 while maintaining the biological diversity of regional ecOSySteR6. A 6 educational resources. they can make naJor contributions in training protected area managers. scientists, technicians. and local people. They can provide continuing demonstration of the relevance of conservation in the lives of people. and build a conservation ethic which helpe underwrite the security of protected areas. These missions await tho full attention of the world community. However. their promise ie immense, and their fulfillment will represent a new dimenaion in global conservation and a naJor contribution toward rrrtoring and maintaining harmonious relationships between man and the biosphere.

REFERENCES 1. Batisse.

Michel. 1982. The environmental conservation Conservation 9(2):101-111.

biosphere reserve: a tool for and management. Environmental

2. Bull. G. A . 1983. An overview of the situation with respect to Waterton Lakes National Park. Pp.22-35 Scace. R.C. and C.J. Martinka. Towards the biosphere reserve: exploring relationohips between parks and adjacent lands. Proceedings of an International Symposium. Kalispell, Montana. June 1982. National Park Service. Denver, Colorado. 239pp.

3. Gilbert. Vernon C. 1983. Cooperative regional demonstration projects: environmental education in practice. George Wright Forum 3(3):32-39. 4. Gregg. William P. In Preee. Building science programe to Procoedingc support the multiple roles of biosphero roeervee. of the Firot International Congrees on Biosphere Rererver, Minsk, Byelorureia, U.S.S.R.. September 1983. UNESCO, Paris.

Jr. and Monica M. Goigel. 1983. Tho biorphere roserva project: the United States experience. dicartri at aL.-eds. Ecology in practice. Procoodingr of the Tenth Anniversary Conforence. Man and tho Biorphera Programmo. Tycooly, Dublin.

9. Gregg. William P.,

6. Halffter, Gonzalo. 1981. Tho Uapimf Bioephore Reoerve: loaal participation in conrervation and dovolopmont. Ambio 10(2-3):93-96 7. Intornational Union for Conrorvation of Nature and Natural Rorourcor. 1983. UAB Information Syrtor: Biorphoro rorervor. 3. Siptombor 1983. UNESCO UAB Socrotariat, Compilation 7 placo do Pontenoy. 73700 Parir. Prance. 61pp.

81 8. Intornational Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Ro8ourcer. 1980. World conoorvation strategy. Prepared in cooperation with UNEP and UNESCO. IUCN. Gland, Switzerland.

Konton E. 1983. Biorphoro reserves in concept and in practice. Pp.7-21 Scace. R. C. and C. J. Martinka-ede. Toward8 tho bioophere rerorvm: exploring relationships between park8 and adjacont landr. Proceedings of an International Synporiun, Kalirpoll. Montana. June. 1982. National Park Sorvico, Donvor. Colorado. 239pp.

9. Hillor,

10.Udvardy. Miklos D.F. 1975: A classification of the biogeographical IUCN Occasional Paper No.18. IUCN. provinces of the world. Horger. Switzerland. 11.United States Agency for International Development. 1983. Cooporation in environmental management: a proposeed, cooperative US Agency for regional demonstration project in Rwanda. International Development, Environmental Training and Management in Africa. Regional Office, P.O. Box 67839. Nairobi, Kenya.

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

COMMUNICATING THE MEANING AND SIGNIFICANCE BIOSPHERE RESERVES T O NATIONAL PARK VISITORS

OF

INTERNATIONAL

R. Alan Mebane National P a r k Service Everglades National P a r k Homestead, Florida 33030, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT Those Biosphere Reserves which a r e also national parks have a n a d v a n t a g e in having an established c l i e n t e l e of visitors. This audience is o f t e n more supportive of park and Biosphere objectives a f t e r participating in public programs conducted by t h e staff. Yellowstone National Park a n d Everglades National Park a r e discussed in t e r m s of objectives and methods used to involve visitors with park resources in interpretive, educational activities. 1.

INTRODUCTION

Many International Biosphere Reserves in t h e world w e r e f i r s t established as national parks by t h e nations in which t h e y a r e located. These a c t i o n s set aside a r e a s of outstanding n a t u r a l o r c u l t u r a l resources which a r e p r o t e c t e d a n d managed to minimize human impacts. As development of adjoining lands progresses, t h e rarity of undisturbed lands becomes much m o r e apparent. Through t h e United N a t i o n s Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization's (UNESCO) Man and t h e Biosphere program, s e v e r a l governments have nominated o n e o r m o r e of their national parks, as well as o t h e r significant natural areas, as Biosphere Reserves. When this s t a t u s is g r a n t e d by a n organization of the United Nations, t h e reserves r e c e i v e g r e a t l y increased recognition and s t a t u r e from the world c o m m u n i t y as well as f r o m their own governments. 2.

DISCUSSION

The designation of a Biosphere R e s e r v e may n o t result in many headlines in newspapers o r c a u s e a g r e a t swell of public e x c i t e m e n t , y e t having a reserve in one's country is good news, i m p o r t a n t to a l l c i t i z e n s as a m e a s u r e of t h e health and R e s e r v e s which a r e a l s o national parks with significance of their environment. established visitor use o f t e n h a v e a decided a d v a n t a g e o v e r r e s e r v e s which h a v e limited access or recognition by t h e g e n e r a l public. Even though reserves may have strong protection under t h e laws of t h e nation, t h e success of these p r o t e c t i v e measures will vary. As public awareness of t h e value of a reserve grows, so a l s o grows public support for its integrity and well-being. I submit t h a t public c o n c e r n and interest a r e vital to long-range protection of Biosphere R e s e r v e s and t h a t such support c a n b e e a r n e d through active programs of education and visitor services.

Both Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho, and Everglades National Park in Florida, b e c a m e International Biosphere Reserves in 1976 as well as equally important World H e r i t a g e Sites in 1979. Each park has ongoine proqrams of

83

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interpretive activities designed to involve visitors with park resources for enjoyable, educational experiences. A description of the purpose of some of these activities may suggest ways in which the resources of Biosphere Reserves are benefitted, as well as the participants. It is a general policy of the United States Government to offer federally funded interpretive services for national park visitors as part of a legislative mandate from the Congress. The 1916 Act creating the National Park Service directed the agency "To conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wildlife therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same by such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations."

Yellowstone, established in 1872 as the world's first National Park, has had over 80 million visits since that time and has become very well known throughout the world. I t s 2.2-million acres of wilderness are an ideal reserve where ecological relationships are nearly as they were hundreds of years ago. Yet, more than two million visitors tour the park each summer using the 2% of the park developed for roads and services. Over one million of these visitors makes personal contact with park rangers or devotes some of their time to a guided walk or other interpretive activity. They do so to learn more about geysers, hot springs, bears, and other animals, usually the best-known features of the park. From this starting point, new interests often develop under the guidance of a skilled interpreter who introduces concepts which relate i n some way to the background or experience of each participant. More than half the activities in Yellowstone deal with wildlife and ecology, which lead to discussion about the value and rarity of large natural areas i n the modern world. In most of these situations, it i s the natural time to reveal that such areas are important to a l l nations and that Yellowstone i s now a Biosphere Reserve. Put into context at the opportune moment, the idea of a reserve as a worldclass conservation effort i s received with approval. This receptive and supportive attitude is the best possible souvenir of an enjoyable visit to a reserve. Examples of visitor services in Yellowstone are typical of many national parks i n the United States. There is a wide selection of naturalist-guided walks to points of interest such as geyser basins, canyon rims, lake shores, mountain tops and even a vacant bear den. Visitors have opportunities to attend evening slide programs on a wide range of topics and are encouraged to t r y new experiences either with a naturalist or on their own. Demonstrations of modern camping techniques or catch-and-release fishing give people the opportunity to observe and learn skills for using and enjoying natural resources without damaging or consuming them. Portrayals of early periods of the national park as through "living history" help visitors understand the philosophies that guided the development of present management policies. Visitor centers contain exhibits and often an auditorium for audiovisial programs. Publications sold through non-profit cooperating associations are selected to provide authoritative and educational materials for further reading. Posters and special displays are used to focus special attention on subjects such as the significance and purpose of Biosphere Reserves. Those persons who seek more opportunity to learn about the scientific and cultural resources of Yellowstone National Park can enroll in the Yellowstone Institute for courses taught by qualified instructors. During the six-day courses, students live and learn in and from the park itself.

A recurring theme of park interpretation in Yellowstone and elsewhere i s that parks are not sufficient in themselves t o protect habitats and wildlife species. Their conservation is a worldwide concern and responsibility.

In the totally different environment of Everglades National Park, similiar services are offered in terms of guided walks, evening programs, and visitor centers, but there are important differences from Yellowstone. Here, it is more of a challenge t o help

85

people e x p e r i e n c e t h e Everglades firsthand. T h e r e is a n a t u r a l i n t e r e s t to see a l l i g a t o r s and birds, y e t t h e r e is o f t e n a g e n e r a l lack of understanding of t h e r e a l n a t u r e of ecosystems in which t h e y live. N a t u r a l i s t s i n v i t e visitors o n "wet walks1' through flooded sawgrass prairies to hardwood t r e e islands, c a l l e d h a m m o c k s , o r in c a n o e s to see what lives in estuaries. On t r i p s such as t h e s e , visitors begin to a p p r e c i a t e t h e c o m p l e x i t y of life and i t s e x t r e m e sensitivity to degradation of w a t e r o r air. The proximity of t h e 1.2-million a c r e Everglades National Park and Biosphere Reserve to t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a of Miami m e a n s t h a t very s t r o n g m e a s u r e s on b o t h sides of t h e park boundary h a v e t o be t a k e n for i t s p r o t e c t i o n , especially so t h a t t h e s h e e t flow of w a t e r a c r o s s t h e glades follows as n o r m a l a c y c l e as possible. For t h e last t e n y e a r s , Dade County and Miami schools have m a d e t h e Everglades a part of t h e i r regular curriculum in c o o p e r a t i o n with t h e National P a r k Service. Park naturalists c o n d u c t workshops f o r t e a c h e r s who t h e n r e t u r n with t h e i r c l a s s e s for o n e to five days of e n v i r o n m e n t a l learning. Over 25,000 t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t e e a c h year. There is a c o n t i n u u m of Everglades e x p e r i e n c e s for s t u d e n t s f r o m f o u r t h g r a d e through high school. Reaching youth a t a r e c e p t i v e age h a s proved t o b e o n e of t h e most effective means f o r t h e National Park Service to build bridges b e t w e e n c i t y dwellers and the natural world t h a t s u p p o r t s them.

3.

CONCLUSION

I t is e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e public s u p p o r t s t h e c o n c e p t of Biosphere R e s e r v e s if t h e y a r e to b e p r o t e c t e d f r o m t h r e a t s to t h e i r resources. Activities f o r visitors to reserves, including s t u d e n t s and local residents, build s u p p o r t through a succession of s t e p s beginning with understanding. Ideally, understanding leads to a p p r e c i a t i o n , appreciation to concern, c o n c e r n to protection.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The philosphy a n d programs described in t h i s p a p e r a r e derived f r o m t h e author's work with t h e National P a r k Service, U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of t h e Interior. REFERENCES 1.

Tilden, F. 1977. I n t e r p r e t i n g Our Heritage. Univ. of N.C. Press.

2.

Gregg, W. P., Jr. and Zabe, E. H. 1984. Communication to t h e Public in U.S. Biosphere Reserves. U.S. MAB S e c r e t a r i a t . February.

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N.Veziroglu Elsevier Science PublishersB.V.,Amsterdam, 1984 -Printed in The Netherlands

87

A REVIEW OF REGIONAL IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF U.S. SYNTHETIC FUEL RESOURCES

R.D. Brown and C.A. Bisselle Metrek Division, The MITRE Corporation McLean, Virginia 22102, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT A comprehensive review was made of the topic of environmental impacts of synthetic fuels development. The results are discussed by resource (e.g., coal, peat, oil shale, tar sands, heavy oil), by resource region (e.g., Powder River, Fort Union, Eastern Interior, San Juan River), and by major resource provinces (e.g., Eastern Interior, Rocky Mountain, Northern Great Plains, Gulf Coast). In the West, naturally high levels of airborne particulate matter may exceed National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). In industrialized areas in the East, non-attainment of NAAQS is a common problem, but opportunities are available for reductions in emissions from existing sources. Opportunities for such offsets are not readily available in the West, where little development has taken place. Air issues characterized by a high degree of public sensitivity include acid deposition, considered a problem in parts of the Fort Union and Texas coal regions and in high mountain lakes, and visibility deterioration, primarily with respect to the impairment of scenic vistas. Water availability is considered a limiting factor with respect to synfuel development in water-short areas, particularly the Green River Formation, comprising parts of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. Particularly in the West, public sensitivity concerning unique, threatened, endangered, or sensitive species (e.g., black-footed ferret, Colorado squawfish) may be a major impediment to synfuels development.

1.

INTRODUCTION

In the 1850s, a U.S. oil shale boom appeared imminent but never materialized, because more economical oil supplies became available with the development of domestic oil fields. With the U.S. petroleum supplies dwindling and the price of world oil increasing, the 1970s saw a resurgence of interest in synthetic fuels from oil shale, as well as from other fossil resources. National attention focused on the potential environmental impacts of synthetic fuels development, first with proposed leasing of federal lands for oil shale development [l], and subsequently with the establishment of a U.S. synthetic fuels industry [2]. It soon became apparent that few data existed with respect to potential impacts associated with the development of synthetic fuel resources. In 1977, the President established an interagency committee to identify health and environmental problems associated with advanced energy technologies, to review the adequacy of research programs, and to identify research needs. The committee (The Federal Interagency Committee on the Health and Environmental Effects of Energy Technologies) produced eight major reports relating to synthetic fuels, one focusing solely on research priorities relating to the health and environmental effects of synthetic fuel technologies [ 3 1 .

88 Research conducted since the early 1970s by federal agencies, synfuel companies, and university scientists has produced a voluminous amount of data on potential impacts relating to synthetic fuels. Most of the research was funded, in some way, by the federal government. The objective of this paper is to present a summary of the salient findings of the research conducted to date. The summary in based on the senior author's involvement in manv svnfuel studies over the last ten years and the results of a comprehensive litera;& search completed January 30, 1984. 2.

SCOPE OF STUDY

Several computerized literature data bases were searched for information relating to region-specific issues associated with synthetic fuels development: A master list of citations relating to environmental issues, indexed by synthetic fuel terms (e.g., coal gasification, coal liquefaction, oil shale, tar sands) was compiled, covering the period January 1970 through January 1984. The search resuved in about 1,500 citations. About 60 percent related to water quality or water availability, about 25 percent to fauna or flora, and about 15 percent to air quality. About 700 citations related to regional issues. About 300 contained detailed information. A listing of these citations is available from the authors upon request. The reader is referred to a few [4-171 of these which have been published recently and which contain an overview or comprehensive information relating to our current understanding of potential health and environmental impacts associated with synthetic fuels development. The following is a brief review of the perceived regional impacts as presented in the relevant literature. Space constraints prevent a detailed presentation of information on production constraints posed by impact mitigation. Table 1)is an exemplary listing of the impact issues identified within major fossil-fuel resource provinces in the U.S.

3.

SUMMARY OF IMPACTS OF RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

3.1

Coal

With respect to synfuels development in coal regions, a number of studies indicated that air issues focus on the preconstruction review provisions of the Clean Air Act, especially those relating to prevention of significant deterioration (PSD). Concern centers on the likelihood of exceeding statutory increments for additional allowable emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO21 or total suspended particulate (TSP) matter. (Generally, for PSD Class I areas, the increment is 2 percent of the National Ambient Air Quality Standard. For Class I1 areas, the increment is about 25 percent.) The focus of most of the literature in this area appears to be on the deterioration of air quality in the numerous national parks, wilderness areas, national monuments, Indian reservations, etc. in the West. With respect to National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), issues tend t o focus on the problems of siting facilities in areas that do not meet the NMQS (i.e., non-attainment) for a pollutant. In the West, naturally high levels of airborne particulate matter may result in an area being in non-attainment. In the industrialized areas in the East, non-attainment with NAAQS is a common problem. In many synfuel areas where little development has taken place, the literature suggests that currently, there is insufficient information with which to classify an area with respect to attainment.

89 TABLE 1. LISTING OF EXEMPLARY ISSUES Synfuel Resource Provinces F u g i t i v e Dust

Areas of C o n s t r a i n t Air Q u a l i t y Visibility

PSD L i m i t s Class I c o n s t r a i n t s e x i s t n e a r NE W.VA. border

Interior Rocky Mountain

Northern Great Plains

---

---

Airborne d u s t from o i l s h a l e development

Fine p a r t i c u l a t e s from c o a l and oil s h a l e development, San Juan Region adversely a f f e c t e d

O v e r a l l C l a s s I and p o s s i b l e Class I1 c o n s t r a i n t s from o i l s h a l e and t a r sands development

---

Theodore Roosevelt Park Impacted

Class I and I1 budgets may be exceeded by emiss i o n s from c o a l development

Vapor from c o a l conversion could c r e a t e c l o u d s and l o c a l ground f o g

Theodore Roosevelt Park ( F o r t Union) particularly affected PSD increment a l r e a d y may be utilized

Gulf Coast

Eastern

Interior

---

---

Acid P r e c i p i t a t i o n

NAAQS L i m i t s

-

Non-attainment a r e a s c o n s t i t u t e a cons t r a i n t on s y n f u e l s development Non-attainment areas c o n s t i t u t e a cons t r a i n t on s y n f u e l s development

Class I and Class I1 a r e a s may l i m i t l i g n i t e development

Metal Emissions

---

90

TABLE 1 (Continued) Synfuel Resource Provinces

Areas of Constraint Air Quality Acid Precipitation NAAQS Limits

Rocky Mountain

Possible impact on alpine tundra and lakes

Ambient levels at or near NAAQS limits

Northern Great Plains

Fort Union area could be severely affected by acid rain

Emissions from coal development may exceed NAAQS

Metal Emissions

Airborne metals could become a health problem

---

Particulate nonattainment areas of Powder River Region a problem Non-attainment areas constitute an overall constraint Gulf Coast

Acid deposition may be a problem in northeast Texas

Overall Air Degradation Eastern

Interior

Ohio river towns may be impacted by emissions from coal and oil shale development

Rocky Mountain

Degradation of pristine environment, affect pronounced in San Juan Region

Non-attainment areas may limit lignite development

Airborne trace metal emissions excessive from lignite processing

Complex Terrain Air Models & Impacts

Radionuclides Emissions

Rough terrain would aggravate ground level concentrations

---

Existing Models not adequate to estimate oil shale or tar sands air impacts Rough terrain could aggravate ground level concentrations

91 TABLE 1 (Continued) Synfuel Resource Provinces Overall Air Degradation Northern Great Plains

Gulf Coast

Degradation of Fort Union region by coal conversion emissions

_--

Water Consumption

Areas of Constraint Air Quality Complex Terrain Air Models & Impacts

_--

-c-

Water Resources Acidity/Alkalinity and Metal Solubility in Runoff

Eastern

Acid mine drainage from coal development

Interior

Acid mine drainage from coal development

Rocky Mountain

Water availability can limit shale oil production (various estimates)

Alkaline runoff from coal and oil shale development

Area sensitive to stream-flow reduction Tar Sands areas deficient in ground-water Tar Sands areas limited in available surface water Northern Great Plains

Local streams sensitive to flow reduction

Alkaline runoff from Fort Union development

Radionuclides Emissions Some high radionuclides in North and South Dakota lignites High radionuclides in Texas lignites

Salinity

___

Water withdrawal and saline discharges from insitu oil shale development may impact Colorado river system

92

TABLE 1 (Continued) Synfuel Resource Provinces Water Consumption Northern Great Plains (Concluded)

(Overall regional water availability not an issue)

Gulf Coast

Surface and subsurface water withdrawal rates can limit other water uses

Areas of Constraint Water Resources AciditvfAlkalinitv and Meis1 Solubility in Runoff

Acid Mine Drainage from lignite and coal development

Aquifer disruption Impacts on groundwater quality and quantity Sedimentation

Discharges

Eastern

Incremental pollution

Interior

Incremental pollution

Rocky Mountain

Erosion from oil shale development may create turbidity and sedimentation problems in the Colorado river system

Uncontrolled leachate runoff from spent shale a problem (Mostly "zero discharge") Aquifer disruption can lead to contamination of drinking water Aquifer disruption it the key water quality issue

Salinity

93 TABLE 1 [Continued) Synfuel Resource Provinces Sedimentation Northern Great Plains

---

Areas of C o n s t r a i n t Water Resources Discharges S e n s i t i v i t y t o biol o g i c a l oxygen demand Groundwater q u a l i t y t h r e a t e n e d by F o r t Union development

Gulf Coast

---

Habitat Eastern

Interior

Rocky Mountain

Reclamation of s t e e p contours a problem

---

T e r r e s t r i a l habit a t l o s s and d i s turbance Stream h a b i t a t modification S t r i p mining alt e r a t i o n and reclamation problems Metal uptake by plants

Toxic m e t a l t h r e a t t o aquatic biota Acid r a i n impacts on v e g e t a t i o n

P o t e n t i a l Water Problems Wildlife Threatened, Endangered o r S e n s i t i v e Species I n d i a n a Bat and S c i o t o Madtom endangered by c o a l development I n d i a n a Bat and S c i o t o Madtom endangered by c o a l development 7 b i g game s p e c i e s Salmonid s p e c i e s a f f e c t e d by flow r e duction Non-salmonid s p e c i e s a f f e c t e d by s a l i n i t y Wild Horses P o s s i b l e impacts on black-footed f e r r e t peregine f a l c o n humpback chub greater sandhill crane - bald e a g l e - whooping c r a n e - etc.

-

Rare p r a i r i e g r a s s e s

94

TABLE 1 (Concluded) Synfuel Resource Provinces Habitat Northern Great Plains

Areas of Constraint Wildlife Threatened, Endangered or Sensitive Species

Aquatic and terrestial habitat disruption brought about by coal conversion indusry in Powder River and Fort Union Regions

Coal conversion in the Powder River Region could adversely affect certain species and unique ecosystems

Stability of vegetation on reclaimed lands is improbable Metal uptake by plants (Fort Union) Gulf Coast

Habitat disruptions

Wildlife disturbances due to lignite mining

Acid deposition has been noted as a potential problem for parts of the Fort Union and Texas Regions where soils lack buffering capacity. Airborne emissions of radionuclides have been raised as a concern for the development of localized coal and lignite deposits in the Fort Union and Texas Region's. Visibility deterioration and overall air degradation have been raised as concerns, primarily in the West, with respect to the impairment of scenic vistas. Water issues raised in the literature in relation to coal development for synfuels production focus on a variety of problems. Issues raised in more than one region related to the potential for groundwater contamination, the need for information to estimate water quality impacts associated with runoff (non-point source discharges), an insufficiency of, or lack of adequate information on local water supplies, disruptions to surface water or aquifer flows, competition among synfuel developers and other water users for available water, and the need for multi-state coordination and consent where interstate water resource agreements are applicable. A number of studies addressed ecological issues associated with coal development. Generally, these related to habitat disturbance and reclamation problems associated with coal mining. Concern for impacts on various threatened, endangered, or sensitive species (e.g., black-footed ferret) was a common theme in reports related to many of the coal regions.

95

3.2

Peat

Only one environmental issue was identified in the literature search relating to synthetic fuel production from peat. The issue related to peat processing near a wetland area in the Mid-Atlantic Peat region. The focus of the issue was that runoff from the extraction of peat and runoff from the associated reclamation for agricultural use can severely degrade the quality of water in wetland and coastal water habitats needed by marine biota. 3.3 Oil Shale For the oil shale regions, air issues raised in the literature focus on the Piceance Creek and Uintah Basins. A number of studies have indicated that PSD requirements would likely constrain oil shale development, especially with respect to SO2 emissions. Similar to the western coal regions, NAAQS are not being met in some locations. Acid deposition has been cited by several sources as a potential problem with respect to impacts on high mountain lakes and tundra downwind of proposed development. Complex terrain within the regions tends to cause thermal inversions and air stagnation in low lying areas. Many studies raised potential concerns with respect to air contamination from emissions of trace metals, trace organic substances, and fugitive dust from oil shale activities. Several studies indicated that reduction in the degree of visibility and overall air degradation are major issues in the regions. The literature reviewed suggested that water availability could be a constraining factor with respect to oil shale development in the Green River Formation, which encompasses both the Piceance Creek and Utah Basins. A number of studies indicated that a point will be reached where local sources of unappropriated water become exhausted and water must be purchased from competing consumers of water, water storage projects would need to be built, shale processing plants may need to be moved closer to assured water supplies and away from the oil shale mine, and/or water would need to be transported for great distances, even from other water basins. Several studies related to the need for resolving legal and institutional uncertainties pertaining to water rights and competitive uses. The development of eastern oil shales, in Kentucky and Tennessee, also was addressed in the literature. The problem of water quality degradation in surface waters or groundwater resulting from runoff from oil shale development was an issue raised for both states. For Kentucky, other issues suggested by the literature related to acid mine drainage and habitat disturbance. A number of studies addressed ecological issues within the Green River Formation. Habitat disruption, reclamation, threatened/ endangered/sensitive (T/E/S) species, and pollutant uptake by plants and animals are issues common to the Piceance Creek and Uintah Basins. The literature suggested that both regions are unique in terms of the numbers and variety of T/E/S species (e.g., black-footed ferret, Colorado squawfish). Two sources discussed potential production constraints imposed by existing policies for leasing federal lands. The Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 mandates that no individual or firm may acquire more than one lease, and limits the size of a single tract to 5,120 acres (eight square miles). The reports suggest that these restrictions will divide an oil shale resource into units too small to permit efficient mining of the resource. Efficiency is reduced further by the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976, which requires that spent shale be disposed of within tract boundaries.

96 3.4

Tar Sands

With respect to tar sands development, the literature reviewed suggested air issues for Utah and California. For Utah, the issues relate to PSD (Class I and 11) areas which may pose constraints, limits imposed by NAAQS, complex terrain problem, and overall air degradation. For California, the issues relate to only a part of the region (i.e., Kern County) where PSD Class I and I1 limits and overall air degradation are considered to be major problems. Water issues raised in the literature in relation to tar sands development addressed a variety of problems, mostly associated with development in Utah. These issues focused on localized salinity problems, the quality of discharged process wastewater, runoff from site development, groundwater contamination and disruption of groundwater flow, physical water availability, and competition among tar sands developers and other water users for available water. Ecological issues associated with tar sands development were identified for Utah. The literature suggested that tar sands development may disrupt large areas of habitat and impact several T/E/S species (e.g., black-footed ferret, Colorado squawfish). 3.5

Heavy Oil

For heavy oil development, the literature indicated issues associated with air quality in California and impacts on stream flow in Texas. For California, some of the state's heavy oil reservoirs are in areas already in violation of or near the limits of Federal and/or state ambient air quality standards. Steam generation emissions (particulates, sulfur oxides, and nitrogen oxides) from new steam-injection projects may need to be off-set by emission reductions in the surrounding area. Future projects may be limited by the availability of such tradeoffs. If adequate steam generators can be developed for use below ground level, most of the air emission problem associated with steam generators may be eliminated. One source indicated that steam boilers used in heavy oil recovery could cause overall air degradation. The only environmental issue identified for heavy oil development in Texas related to reduced stream flow, resulting in a concentration of contaminants. 4.

OVERALL STATUS OF LITERATURE

A literature search of the type conducted for this paper has several limitations. It tends to miss literature citations which may be pertinent, but are not coded into a data base by means of descriptor terms associated with synthetic fuels. For example, reports and articles relevant to environmental impacts associated with peat extraction and processing for the purposes of combustion, charcoal production, and soil conditioning may not be identified by such a literature search, unless such studies were coded with synfuels descriptors. The environmental impacts associated with extraction would be the same if the peat would be used in synfuels production. A similar situation exists with respect to the extraction and processing of coal for combustion and the recovery of heavy oil by means of enhanced oil recovery techniques from existing oil and gas wells. Generally, synfuels related articles tend to respond to perceived problems. Many are retrospective (especially those relating to water quality). A few are prospective (i.e., deal with future development). Most issues are raised within the context of a particular site or facility development and do not address the perspective of overall synfuels development within a region.

91

Most environmental reports and articles dealing with geographical areas are oriented toward river basins, air sheds, and major ecological communities (e.g., biomes). They are not restricted to specific resource regions. This makes a one-to-one correlation of impacts identified in the articles to the resource regions addressed in this paper difficult. While there is a voluminous amount of literature that addresses environmental issues in general (non-specific) terms, there are relatively few original or primary studies that explicitly identify the actual constraints to oil shale development. There are even fewer that attempt to quantitatively assess the constraints in terms of actual production numbers. Several of the studies that do make the attempt appear to be contradictory. For example, for the Green River Formation some reports indicate that there can be essentially very little oil shale development, while others predict that substantial production levels can be realized within current environmental regulations. Early estimates seemed to focus on what, at a minimum, was feasible, whereas, only recently, estimates have begun to focus on determining the maximum level of development possible due to regulatory constraints and environmental concerns. The quality of the studies varies a great deal, ranging from those that are cursory and inadequately documented, to those which are relatively thorough and exhaustive. For all three areas (air, water, and ecology) there are significant methodological limitations which partially explain the lack of specificity in the results of the studies with respect to identifying particular constraints. Some relevant publications are not in the open technical literature. These include private distribution of articles, brochures, fact sheets, etc. by industry and environmental organizations. 5.

COMMENTARY ON IMPACT MITIGATION

Impacts should not be viewed as absolute barriers to development. Since they are anticipated, they may be overcome to a large extent by appropriate planning for synfuels development conducted at regional and site-specific levels.

An important observation made during this review of impact issues is that a compound impact on synfuels development can be anticipated when one views impacts, not individually by issue, resource, or technology, but collectively by overlaying potential impacts posed by air and water and ecological issues within a geographic area. Issues need to be viewed in light of cumulative limitations posed by planned synfuels development of all synfuels resources within a common regional area. This viewpoint is most necessary for the Green River Formation, comprising potential major synfuels development areas in Wyoming, Colorado, and Utah. A coordinated approach is needed which integrates all synfuels and other industry development plans for the area in order to minimize constraints posed by environmental issues. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Portions of the information reported in this paper was gathered under various studies sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Synthetic Fuels Corporation, and the Federal Interagency Committee on the Health and Environmental Effects of Energy Technologies.

98

REFERENCES 1.

U . S . Department of the Interior ( U . S . DOE). 1973. "Final Environmental Statement for the Prototype Oil Shale Leasing Program," Vols. I-VI. Washington, D.C.

2.

U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration. 1977. "Final Environmental Impact Statement: Alternative Fuels Demonstration Program." Vols. 1 and 2 , ERDA-1547. Washington, D.C.

3.

Brown, Richard. 1981. "Health and Environmental Effects of Synthetic Fuel Technologies: Research Priorities." April. The MITRE Corporation, McLean, VA (MTR-80W348, or available as NTIS No. PB 81-212474). "A Report to the Federal Interagency Committee on the Health and Environmental Effects of Energy Technologies."

4.

Ballard, Steven C., Michael D. Devine et al. 1982. "Water and Western Energy: Impacts, Issues, and Choices." Westview Press, Boulder, CO.

5.

Chartock, Michael A., Michael D. Devine, Martin R. Cines, and Steven E. Plotkin. 1982. "Environmental Issues of Liquid Transportation Fuels from Coal." Environmental Conservation, Vol. 9(2):131-139.

6.

Devine, Michael D., and Gary D. Miller. 1983. "Air Quality Impacts and Issues of Energy Development in the Western United States." Energy Systems and Policy, Vol. 7(1):1-31.

7.

National Research Council. 1983. "A Review of the 1982 Department of Energy Health and Environmental Effects Assessments on Coal Liquefaction and Oil Shale Technologies." National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

8.

Newton, Catherine K. 1983. "Air Quality Questions Hover over Shale Country." Shale Country, Vol. 5(3):8-11.

9.

Polsgrove, Carol. (May):65-67.

1983.

"Conflict Along the Carolina Coast."

Oceans,

10. Rom, William N., and Jeffrey Lee. 1983. "Energy Alternatives: What are their Possible Health Effects." Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 17(3):132A-l44A.

11. Rubenson, David and Richard Pei. 1983. "Oil Shale in the Piceance Basin: An Analysis of Land Use Issues.'' Report No. R-3040-RC, The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, CA.

12. Schwab, A.P., W.L. Lindsay, and P.J. Smith. 1983. "Elemental Contents of Plants Growing on Soil-Covered Retorted Shale." Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 12(3):301-304. 13.

Turk, J.T. and D.B. Adams. 1983. "Sensitivity to Acidification of Lakes in the Flat Tops Wilderness Area, Colorado." Water Resources Research, Vol. 19(2):346-350.

14. U . S . Bureau of Land Management. 1983. "Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement for the Prototype Oil Shale Leasing Program." January. U.S. Department of the Interior, Billings, Mt.

99

15. U . S . Bureau of Land Management. 1983. "Final Fort Union Coal Regional Impact Statement." U.S. Department of the Interior, Billings, MT. 16. U.S. Bureau of Land Management. 1983. "Final Environmental Impact Statement: Utah Basin Synfuels Development." U.S. Department of the Interior, Salt Lake City, UT. 17. U . S . Environmental Protection Agency. 1983. Environmental Monitoring Reference Manual for Synthetic Fuels Facilities (EPA-600/8-83-027, or availabale as NTIS No. PB 83-251850), Office of Research and Development, Washington, D.C.

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - hinted in The Netherlands

101

THE ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECT OF DEVELOPING INDIANA OIL SHALE D.E. W i l l a r d , C.V. Oster, Jr., I . W . R i t c h i e , W.W. School o f P u b l i c and Environmental A f f a i r s Indiana U n i v e r s i t y Bloomington, I N 47405. U.S.A.

Jones

J.S. Zogorski Department o f C i v i l Engineering South Dakota School o f Mines & Technology Rapid City, SD 57701-3995, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT I n d i a n a o i l s h a l e d e p o s i t s c o n t a i n as much e n e r g y as I n d i a n a c o a l . New technologies make i t p o s s i b l e f o r d e v e l o p e r s t o p r o v i d e a f i n i s h e d product a t prices c o m p e t i t i v e w i t h n a t u r a l petroleum products. The e n v i r o n m e n t a l consequences o f producing o i l s h a l e d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y from t r a d i t i o n a l o i l production. This paper discusses t h e p o t e n t i a l impacts, a v a i l a b l e data and necessary research f o r d e v e l o p i n g o i l s h a l e i n Indiana. We r e v i e w t h e e x t e n t o f p o t e n t i a l o f t h e resource, the i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e about land, water, and a i r i n t h e resource area and d e v e l o p s e v e r a l t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y based scenarios o f impact. We then propose base1 i n e and r e g u l a t o r y m o n i t o r i n g programs as we1 1 as a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h programs n e c e s s a r y t o d e v e l o p o i l s h a l e i n I n d i a n a i n as e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y c l e a n manner as p o s s i b l e . F i n a l l y , we w i l l speculate on t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t o i l shale w i l l be developed, and i f so, under what c o n d i t i o n s .

I.

INTRODUCTION

This paper d e a l s w i t h t e c h n o l o g i e s n o t y e t formed i n a w o r l d i n which the economic and p o l i t i c a l l y forces may v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t h e f u t u r e and which u n c e r t a i n t y about the environmental background i n f o r m a t i o n r u l e s . We attempt to e x p l o r e t h e environmental aspects o f a f u t u r e development o f Indiana O i l Shale. Thus, i t more c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e s a t e c h n o l o g y assessment t h a n a s c i e n t i f i c r e p o r t o f experiments a l r e a d y completed. Yet, g i v e n t h e l a g time f o r environmental programs i n the United States, we t h i n k our paper suggests a course o f a c t i o n w h i c h one s h o u l d b e g i n now t o p r o c e e d i n an o r d e r l y and environmental l y acceptable way. U s u a l l y , when we begin t o d e v e l o p a new resource, we have some n o t i o n on how l a r g e t h e r e s e r v e s o f t h a t r e s o u r c e are. I n t h . i s case we h a v e a good n o t i o n o f t h e e x t e n t o f m i n e a b l e o i l s h a l e f r o m s t u d i e s done b y t h e I n d i a n a G e o l o g i c a l Survey. The s i z e o f t h e r e s e r v e s , on t h e o t h e r hand, depend upon the economics o f o i l and t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f o i l s h a l e e x t r a c t i o n . These, i n turn, depend upon an i n t e r a c t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e p o l i t i c a l climate, and w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s t r a i n t s ( F i g u r e 1). Because t h e economics, technology, p o l i t i c s and environmental c o n s t r a i n t s a1 1 a f f e c t each and are thus a l l interdependent, changes t o any o f these from o u t s i d e s t i m u l i or from each o t h e r w i l l change t h e e s t i m a t e o f r e s e r v e . S i m p l y p u t , i f f o r some r e a s o n

1 I . I I ---

RFSnllRCFS ,.--..-. .

ECONOMICS RESERVES

t TECHNOLOGY

FIG

8

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS

‘I CONCEPTUAL MODEL-RESEARCH 8

103 imported o i l becomes v e r y e x p e n s i v e o r , i f f o r some reason t h e U.S. d e c i d e s t o d e v e l o p d o m e s t i c r e s e r v e s o r , i f f o r some r e a s o n someone d e v e l o p s an u l t r a cheap t e c h n o l o g y w h i c h d o e s n o t p o l l u t e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e s i z e o f t h e r e s e r v e s w o u l d g r o w i m m e n s e l y . So we v i e w t h i s as a d y n a m i c s e l f a d j u s t i n g model p l a c i n g t h e s e v a r i a b l e s i n p e r s p e c t i v e . 2.

THE NATURE OF THE EASTERN OIL SHALE

F i g u r e 2 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s h a l e b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s i n t h e U n i t e d States. I n t h e west, we see t h e s m a l l area where most o i l s h a l e r e s e a r c h and development h a v e taken p l a c e i n t h e past. I n t h e east, t h e map shows a l a r g e a r e a o f s h a l e b e a r i n g f o r m a t i o n s , much 1 i e s t o o d e e p f o r f e a s i b l e m i n i n g a t present. I n s o u t h e a s t e r n I n d i a n a , o i l s h a l e o u t c r o p s i n beds 60 - 170 f e e t t h i c k i n an area t w i c e t h e s i z e o f t h e s t a t e o f Deleware. However, t h e r i c h e s t and most a c c e s s i b l e l i e s i n a band from I n d i a n a p o l i s t o L o u i s v i l l e . T h i s s h a l e o c c u r s i n b e d s u p t o 1 2 0 f e e t t h i c k w i t h 2 - 2 0 f e e t o f o v e r b u r d e n . T h i s s h a l e has been known s i n c e e a r l y work i n 1837. The I n d i a n a G e o l o g i c a l Survey and o t h e r s have d e s c r i b e d i t i n many pub1 i c a t i o n s (Hassenmuel l e r and Woodward, 1981). O i l s h a l e i n I n d i a n a , named t h e New A l b a n y s h a l e , o u t c r o p s i n t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n p o r t i o n o f t h e s t a t e ( F i g u r e 3). I t t h e n t h i c k e n s and d i p s i n a s o u t h w e s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n t o w a r d I 1 l i n o i s . I t may b e as much a s 337 f e e t t h i c k i n s o u t h e r n Posey C o u n t y i n s o u t h w e s t e r n I n d i a n a . However, i t i s s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d f e e t down. The New A l b a n y s h a l e i s n e a r l y impermeable except where f r a c t u r e s occur. I t l i e s i n s e v e r a l beds o f which t h e H e n r y v i l l e bed, t h e uppermost, c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l t r a c e elements, p a r t i c u l a r l y z i n c , cadmium, molebdinum, and vanadium, and t o a l e s s e r degree l e a d , n i c k e l and copper. D i r e c t l y b e l o w t h e H e n r y v i l l e bed i s t h e F a l l i n g Run bed which i s h i g h e r i n uranium (as much as 100 p a r t s per m i l 1 i o n ) and presumably r a r e e a r t h s . The H e n r y v i l l e s h a l e n a t u r a l l y o u t c r o p s i n s e v e r a l p l a c e s and i n J a c k s o n C o u n t y , I n d i a n a , h a s on o c c a s i o n b u r n t f r o m n a t u r a l causes. E a s t e r n s h a l e d i f f e r s i n a number o f i m p o r t a n t ways f r o m w e s t e r n s h a l e s ( T a b l e 1). O f importance t o our a n a l y s i s are several c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e a s t e r n s h a l e , namely t h e h i g h l e v e l o f s u l f u r c o n t e n t , t h e a c i d i c l e a c h a t e and t h e somewhat l o w e r y i e l d o f s y n t h e t i c c r u d e per t o n ( a c c o r d i n g t o t h e F i s c h e r assay). I n d i a n a O i l S h a l e d e p o s i t s w h i c h l i e n e a r t h e s u r f a c e c o n t a i n as much energy as I n d i a n a c o a l . I f d e v e l o p e r s processed o n l y 25% o f I n d i a n a shale, t h e p o t e n t i a l w i l 1 exceed 110 b i l l i o n b a r r e l s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 t i m e s t h e Prudhoe Reserves. S e v e r a l d e v e l o p e r s propose techno1 ogies f o r t h e e x t r a c t i o n o f p r o d u c t f r o m o i l s h a l e t h a t y i e l d h i g h e r t h a n t h e F i s c h e r assay. I f t h e s e t e c h n o l o g i e s p r o v e f e a s i b l e , t h e amount o f energy a v a i l a b l e i n I n d i a n a s h a l e w i l l r i s e correspondingly. Because o f t h e d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e o f e a s t e r n s h a l e and t h e much d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n I n d i a n a , we a n t i c i p a t e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l problems. I n g e n e r a l , we h a v e c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e resource, s e v e r a l o p t i o n a l t e c h n o l o g i e s have been suggested, and we l a c k most o f t h e n e c e s s a r y i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l b a c k g r o u n d . As a r e s u l t , t h i s paper w i l l t a l k p r i m a r i l y about t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f d a t a ( F i g u r e 4). We shal 1 proceed t o r e v i e w t h e p o t e n t i a l consequences o f a i r p o l 1 u t a n t s , water use and water p o l 1 u t a n t s , l a n d use and t h e socioeconomic e f f e c t s . L a s t l y , iqe s h a l l comment on t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a c t u a l development

POT

106

EXPLANATION

Outcrop bell 01 New Albany Shale and equivalent strata

I n

New Albany Shale and eqwalenls overlain by younger strata

-----

Wisconsinan SlaciaI bcundary

---

Illinom glacial boundary

FiguIre

3

Map of Indiana showing distribution of the New Albany Shale and

equivalent strata. Geology modified from Indiana Geological Survey 1°x20 Regional Geologic Map Series.

106

FIG. 4, DATA BASE

107

Table 1.

Differences Between Western and Eastern Oil Shale Resources

Western

Eastern

Kerogenaceous marl stone

True o i l s h a l e

High carbonate, low sulphur content

Low carbonate, high sulphur ( p y r i t e ) content

Carbonates prod uce cement a teo us property in spent s h a l e (low permeab i 1 i t y )

Less cementateous property

Produces a1 kal ine leachate

Produces a c i d i c leachate

Arid climate and vegetation

Temporal, humid cl imate and vegetation

Lit t 1e prec i p i t a t ion, high evapotranspiration

Moderate p r e c i p i t a t i o n and evapo t r an spi r a t i o n

Process wastewaters recycled

Process wastewaters possibly t r e a t e d and discharged

High hydrogen-carbon r a t i o

Low hydrogen-carbon r a t i o

Natural y i e l d of 25-35 gallons per ton

Natural yield of 10-15 gallons per ton, before r e t o r t i n g with hydrogen

3.

AIR

Two problems c o n f u s e our p r e d i c t i o n s about a i r pol l u t i o n impact a s a r e s u l t of a d e v e l o p i n g I n d i a n a s h a l e i n d u s t r y . F i r s t , no one now p r o c e s s e s eastern o i l s h a l e on a comnercial l e v e l . Stone and Webster Engineering Company ( 1 ) have developed a process they propose using, b u t t h e i r experiments have a1 1 been in t h e i r Brazilian development and no reports a r e y e t p u b l i c l y a v a i l a b l e . Midwestern Energy Resources C o r p o r a t i o n i s e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h a r o t a r y k i l n technology from A1 1 i s Chalmers, b u t again no commercial t e s t s have been made. Thus, we have d i f f i c u l t y estimating emissions f r a n these technologies. Bates ( 2 ) e s t i m a t e d p o t e n t i a l a i r e m i s s i o n s o f c r i t e r i a pol l u t a n t s from t h e t e c h n o l o g i e s then under experiment ( T a b l e 2). He assumed a r e t o r t of 50,000 b a r r e l s per day, running a t 50% e f f i c i e n c y , w i t h an o i l y i e l d of about 10 g a l l o n s per ton. T a b l e 2 d e s c r i b e s some of t h e c a l c u l a t e d a i r e m i s s i o n s of c r i t e r i a p o l l u t a n t s using w e s t e r n s h a l e under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s . We s u s p e c t t h a t i t w i l l be some t i m e b e f o r e anyone b u i l d s a f a c i l i t y in t h e e a s t t o process 50,000 b a r r e l s per day, and when t h e y do i t w i l l be a d i f f e r e n t technology. S i m i l a r l y , t h e technology suggested for eastern s h a l e w i l l y i e l d considerably more than 1 0 g a l l o n s per ton. Bates' numbers, taken from Western projects, probably exceed our expectations i n t h e e a s t for t h e next f i v e or six years. Table 3 g i v e s t h e p o t e n t i a l a i r emissions from various extant o i l s h a l e t e c h n o l o g i e s (3) The t a b l e shows t h e p o t e n t i a l unabated e m i s s i o n r a t e s . Various a i r pol 1 ution technologies can reduce the s u l f u r dioxide emissions and

108

perhaps the others as we1 1. Again, these technologies d i f f e r considerably from t h o s e proposed f o r e a s t e r n s h a l e . I n summary, c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e e x i s t s t h a t a i r emissions w i l l contain both c r i t e r i a p o l l u t a n t s and others, no m a t t e r what t h e r e t o r t technology. Table 2.

P o t e n t i a l A i r Emissions o f C r i t e r i a P o l l u t a n t s (Adapted from Bates 1981) Tons/Y ear Part i c u l a tes S u l f u r Oxides Nitrogen Oxides Hydrocarbons

2920-5840 360 -2920 4380-7300 180-1 100

Assumptions: 1. 2. 3.

Table 3.

50,000 bblslday 50% e f f i c i e n c y O i l yield 10 g a l / T

-

P o t e n t i a l A i r Emissions from Extant Oil Shale Technologies (Adapted from Fruchler, J. S., g 1983)

c.

3Potential Unabated Rates Proj ec t 2

S02( kg/bbl )

Occidental Rio Blanco Geokinetics Paraho Union B TOSCO I1

11.1 51.7 7.5 2.1 2.8 6.4

NH3( kg/bbl )

-.68

.76 .045 2.8

HC( kg/hr)

C02( k g l b b l )

101

-

415 52 5

89

154 72 49

-

-

-

316

1 = Retorts vary w i t h i n p r o j e c t 2 = Other reported p o l l u t a n t s include PAH's, Hg, NO, 3 = Some c o n t r o l s are p o s s i b l e

As

Much o f t h e area near and downwind o f w e s t e r n o i l s h a l e developments contains p r i s t i n e a i r p o l l u t i o n conditions. Such i s n o t the case i n the east. S i m i l a r l y , t h e r e g i o n downwind o f t h e w e s t e r n d e v e l o p m e n t has few people. Again, t h i s i s n o t the case i n the east. While the o i l shale r e g i o n o f Indiana i s s p a r s e l y p o p u l a t e d , i t 1 i e s between t h r e e m a j o r c i t i e s : I n d i a n a p o l i s , C i n c i n n a t i and L o u i s v i l l e . It a l s o l i e s downwind from a l a r g e number o f a i r p o l 1u t i o n sources, p a r t i c u l a r l y those which produce s u l f u r d i o x i d e (Figure 5). Few r e g u l a r l y maintained monitoring devices f o r any p o l l u t a n t occur i n the o i l s h a l e area. T a b l e 4 summarizes t h e a v a i l a b l e a i r p o l l u t i o n d a t a f o r t h e

109

110

s o u t h e r n p o r t i o n o f I n d i a n a f o r t h e S O 2 , NO,; 03, HC. No d i r e c t measure o f ambient a i r p o l l u t i o n i n t h e o i l shale area e x i s t s , nor do any meteorological s t a t i o n s which describe the wind p a t t e r n s occur i n the region. Because the o i l s h a l e r e g i o n s t r e t c h e s f r o m t h e Ohio R i v e r B a s i n n o r t h w a r d and because wind conditlons and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n v e r s i o n conditions vary throughout the region, l o c a l meteorological s t a t i o n s would improve t h e data base considerably. In a recent paper by Loucks (unpublished MS) says t h a t studies o f t r e e r i n g data and growth data o f vegetation i n d i c a t e s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l s o f c r i t e r i a p o l 1utants i n the region. While inadequate data e x i s t t o characterize the ambient p o l l u t a n t s i n t h e r e g i o n , i n d i r e c t e v i d e n c e r e i n f o r c e s t h e t h e o r y t h a t ambient a i r c o n d i t i o n s are h i g h l y p o l luted.

Table 4.

A v a i l a b i l i t y o f A i r P o l l u t i o n M o n i t o r i n g Data i n t h e O i l Shale Region o f Indiana 1976- 1981

Number o f Stations

so2 Particulates NO 2 Ozone HC

18 18 3 1 0

Number o f Years, a1 1 s t a t i o n s a t EPA e v a l u a t i o n c r i t e r i a

Stations w i t h 2 Number o r more years Violations

38 42 7 2 0

1 = 24 hour primary 2 = 15 Annual Average, 9 24 hour primary 3 = 1 hour average

4.

WATER

We must proceed s i m i l a r l y i n our discussion o f p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t s t o water i n t h e o i l shale region o f t h e state. Here, however, the problem becomes more complex because o i l shale development w i l l a f f e c t both water q u a n t i t y and water q u a l i t y . We can sumnarize water q u a l i t y data by saying t h a t few surface water s t a t i o n s a r e r e g u l a r l y m o n i t o r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e g i o n and none f o r ground water q u a l i t y . Bates and Thoem (5) suggest t h a t development w i l l a f f e c t both surface and ground water. Below we w i l l discuss the a v a i l a b l e evidence t h a t o i l shale development w i l l p o l l u t e ; second, t h a t i t w i l l use t h e a v a i l a b l e w a t e r r e s o u r c e s ; and t h i r d , we w i l l l o o k a t the a v a i l a b l e data i n the region. Water p o l l u t i o n may occur e i t h e r as a r e s u l t of discharges i n t o the surface water o r t h e l e a k i n g o f leachate m a t e r i a l s o f the spent shale i n t o the ground water. Table 5 adapts O'Shaughnessy e t a1 (4) and Bates and Thoem (5) data on several p o t e n t i a l water p o l l u t a n t s in-waxe water. Because o f the v a r y i n g technologies, both o f o i l s h a l e r e t o r t i n g and o f water t r e a t m e n t , t h e numbers v a r y q u i t e r a d i c a l l y i n many cases. We expect lower pH from eastern shale and higher s u l f a t e s . Note t h a t t h i s c h a r t does n o t d e s c r i b e t r a c e m e t a l s . There w i l l , however, be p o t e n t i a l . t r a n s f e r o f t r a c e m e t a l s e i t h e r i n t h e waste w a t e r s o r from the leachates, depending upon t h e technology. These t r a c e m e t a l s i n c l u d e oxides o f s u l f u r , c h l o r i d e s , c a r b o n a t e s , a1 uminum, boron, cadmium, f l u o r i n e , lead,

111 molybdenum, vanadium, and z i n c . R e t o r t i n g t h e H e n r y v i l l e and t h e Fa1 1 i n g Run s h a l e w i l l r e l e a s e n i c k e l , c o p p e r , z i n c , as we1 1 as u r a n i u m . U n t i l we know more d e t a i l about t h e t e c h n o l o g y , we can o n l y assume t h a t these m a t e r i a l s w i l l show up e i t h e r as scrubber r e s i d u e s i n waste water, waste p i l e s o r i n l e a c h a t e systems from t h e spent shale.

Table 5. Wastewater C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f f i l t e r e d R e t o r t (0.4 m i c r o n ) Wastewater et _ a1 1982 and Bates and Thoem 1980.) (Adapted from O'Shaughnessey _

PH TDS TDC COD BOO Ammonia N Arsenic Cyanide Sulfate Sulfide

8.5-9.6 6.197-15,900 2.500-9.500 6.200-10,840

3300 1,800-3.247 0.4-6.875 2.6-20.8 1,600-1,715
We know somewhat m o r e a b o u t w a t e r q u a n t i t y p r o b l e m s . A1 1 o f t h e known t e c h n o l o g i e s o f o i l s h a l e r e t o r t i n g use water t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r e x t e n t . Known o i l s h a l e p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n o l o g i e s use a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 t o 1 5 m i l l i o n g a l l o n s per day f o r a 50,000 b a r r e l p e r day f a c i l i t y . New t e c h n o l o g i e s may use l e s s water, b u t produce c o n s i d e r a b l e waste water as we h a v e d i s c u s s e d above. W h i l e t h e e a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s i s g e n e r a l l y more h u m i d t h a n t h e w e s t , t h e p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n o f t h e s t a t e , because o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g impermeable s h a l e becmes d r o u g h t y i n sumner. The d a t a on ground water ar; d e r i v e d from v e r y few records. The s u r f a c e water f r o m s t r e a m f l o w s t a t i s t i c s f o r 51 gauging s t a t i o n s , few which h a v e c u r r e n t o r c o m p l e t e data. The d a t a on ground water a r e d e r i v e d from v e r y few r e c o r d s . L i t t l e ground On o u r map, water e x i s t s except i n a l l u v i a l f i e l d s a l o n g t h e m a j o r waterways. t h a t would be t h e e a s t f o r k o f t h e White R i v e r , and o f course, t h e Ohio R i v e r . There a r e no a v a i l a b l e d a t a about seasonal change i n ground water. Similarly, t h e r e a r e no a v a i l a b l e d a t a a b o u t g r o u n d w a t e r qua1 i t y . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l r e s e r v o i r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e s o u t h e r n p o r t i o n o f Indiana. These do n o t p r o v i d e enough excess water f o r a l a r g e o i l s h a l e development. We can o n l y c o n c l u d e t h a t e i t h e r i n d i v i d u a l d e v e l o p e r s o r t h e s t a t e must p r o v i d e an adequate water f a c i l i t y f o r such a d e v e l o p m e n t , p r o b a b l y m o v i n g water f r o m t h e Ohio R i v e r Basin i n t o t h e o i l s h a l e region. C u r r e n t l y Indiana s t a t e l a w f o r b i d s i n t e r basin t r a n s f e r s . The Ohio R i v e r does n o t f l o w s t r o n g l y i n sumner and drops t o minimun n a v i g a t i o n a l l e v e l s . Thus, 1 arge s c a l e r e m o v a l f o r s h a l e r e t o r t i n g c o n f l i c t s w i t h s h i p p i n g i n t e r e s t s on t h e R i v e r .

112

5.

LAND USE

Land use problems f o r eastern s h a l e d i f f e r from those o f western shale f o r a v a r i e t y o f reasons. U n l i k e t h e west, I n d i a n a i s p r i m a r i l y an a g r i c u l t u r e state. Over 50% o f t h e f a r m s i n t h e o i l s h a l e r e g i o n a r e r a t e d as prime a g r i c u l t u r e lands by t h e U.S. S o i l Conservation Service. I n a d d i t i o n , a number o f p u b l i c l a n d h o l d i n g s used f o r r e c r e a t i o n and w i l d l i f e o c c u r w i t h i n the r e g i o n . Thus, we must c o n s i d e r n o t o n l y t h e p o t e n t i a l a c r e a g e o f l a n d mined f o r o i l shale, b u t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t r e c l a m a t i o n w i l l r e t u r n t h a t l a n d t o i t s f o r m e r use. Johnson ( 1 ) d i s c u s s e d r e c l a m a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s on Stone and Webster's Petrobas p r o j e c t i n B r a z i l . The proposed an Indiana p r o j e c t which w o u l d b u i l d a 50,000 b a r r e l p e r day r e t o r { w i t h a y i e l d o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 16 g a l l o n s per ton. Assuming they use the t o p 60 f e e t o f t h e s h a l e bed and leave t h e remainder as an impermeable seal t o reduce ground water p o l l u t i o n and t h a t t h i s 60 f e e t i n c l u d e s 50 f e e t o f s h a l e and 10 f e e t o f overburden, we c a l c u l a t e T a b l e 6 g i v e s the t h e y w i l l r e q u i r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 400 a c r e s per year. c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r a 50,000 b a r r e l per day p r o j e c t and compares those numbers t o a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r acreage f i g u r e s . Some d e v e l o p e r s h a v e c a l c u l a t e d t h a t Indiana o i l shale could e a s i l y support a t o t a l i n d u s t r y o f a h a l f m i l l i o n b a r r e l s per day. I f so, we s i m p l y m u l t i p l y t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s on Table 6 by 10 and c a l c u l a t e 4000 a c r e s p e r y e a r a f f e c t e d by o i l s h a l e . The t a b l e a l s o i n c l u d e s , f o r comparison, t h e c u r r e n t l e a s e s h e l d b y p o t e n t i a l o i l s h a l e d e v e l o p e r s equal 1 i n g 45,000 acres, t h e amount o f acreage o c c u r r i n g i n Indiana s t r i p mines a r e 90,000 acres. For those i n t h e midwest t h a t h'ave sane f e e l i n g f o r our l a n d use, t h e Hoosier N a t i o n a l Forest, i s approximately 200,000 acres. I n southern Indiana t h e r e are c u r r e n t l y 150,000 acres i n o i l and gas leases as y e t undeveloped. And a f t e r 10 years o f hard s t r u g g l e , e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t s set aside a 13,000 acre w i l d e r n e s s area. I n short, t h e area p o t e n t i a l l y affected i s a r e l a t i v e l y s i g n i f i c a n t p i e c e o f t h e state.

Table 6.

Land Use Considerations

Theor e t ic a1 1y : A 50,000 b b l l d a y r e t o r t w i t h a y i e l d o f 16 g a l s / T (Petrobas) = 131,000

-

154,000 T/day = 48

-

56 X 106T/year

= 400 Ac/year 60 f e e t deep ( 1 0 ' overburden x 50' shale)

= 45,000 Ac f o r O i l Shale Canpanies Current Leases -

Indiana S t r i p Mines

- 90,000

Hoosier National Forest

Ac

- 200,000

Ac

O i l and Gas Leases i n Southern I n d i a n a

Deam Wilderness

-

13,000 Ac

-

150,000 Ac

113 No s t u d i e s suggest t h a t spent s h a l e w i l 1 e v e r r e t u r n t o p r i m e a g r i c u l t u r a l use. Most d e v e l o p e r s p l a n on b a c k f i l l i n g t h e i r process wastes i n t o t h e s u r f a c e mined area. These wastes i n c l u d e overburden, waste l e a n shales, spent s h a l e , r a w f i n d s , f i n d s and p r o c e s s e d wastes. These w a s t e s p o s e s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s because o f t h e i r : ( 1 ) c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n ; ( 2 ) p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s ; and ( 3 ) vol m e .

S h a l e w a s t e s c o n t a i n o r g a n i c c a r b o n , v a r i o u s c a t i o n s , a n i o n s and t r a c e m e t a l s , s u c h as a l u m i n u m , b o r o n , cadmium, f l u o r i d e s , l e a d , molybdenum, vanadium, z i n c , i r o n , and u r a n i u m . I n d i a n a s h a l e w a s t e s , d e p e n d i n g upon t h e technology, may a l s o c o n t a i n c o n s i d e r a b l e s u l f a t e . The I n d i a n a G e o l o g i c a l Survey has proposed t h a t d e v e l o p e r s use o n l y t h e t o p h a l f o f t h e seam. T h i s n o t o n l y i n c l u d e s t h e r i c h e s t o i l shale, b u t l e a v e s t h e b o t t o m h a l f 50 o r 60 f e e t i n s i t u as an i m p e r m e a b l e l a y e r r e d u c i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r ground water p o v u x n . Thus, t h e s t r i p p e d a r e a s n o t o n l y p r o v i d e a c o n v e n i e n t p l a c e f o r t h e placement, b u t a r e l a t i v e good s e a l f o r t h e p o l l u t a n t s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e l e a c h a t e s o f t h e s e m a t e r i a l s . We d o n o t as y e t know how good.

A p r o b l e m d e v e l o p s i n t h a t spent s h a l e , as a r e s u l t o f r e t o r t i n g , expands l i k e popcorn. Depending on t h e techno1 ogy, v a r i o u s e x p e r t s p r e d i c t anywhere T h i s means t h a t spent s h a l e w i l l n o t f i t from 20 t o 50% expansion by volume. e n t i r e l y i n t h e h o l e s from which i t came. Some c o n s i d e r a b l e m a t e r i a l w i l l be By t h e same t o k e n , d e p e n d i n g upon t h e l e f t stacked about t h e landscape. t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system, i t may s i t i n p i l e s f o r p o t e n t i a l secondary r e c o v e r y o f some o f t h e m e t a l s o r f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e s p e n t shale w i l l leach. The l e a c h a t e s c o n t a i n a v a r i e t y o f m a t e r i a l s as we h a v e discussed e a r l i e r . F i g u r e 6 shows t h e expansion o f spent s h a l e under v a r i o u s c o n d i t i o n s . F i g u r e B shows t h e e x p a n s i o n i f t h e t o p 50 f e e t i s m i n e d , g i v i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y a 20% expansion. G e n e r a l l y , t h i s w i l 1 occupy t h e space f o r m e r l y f i l l e d by overburden. I f t h e expansion i s as h i g h as 50% and a l l 100 f e e t o f t h e s h a l e were mined, i t would extend 50 f e e t h i g h e r t h a n t h e ground surface. The r e c l a i m e r m u s t t h e n c o v e r t h i s w i t h s o i l . L i t t l e e x t r a a v a i l a b l e s o i l e x i s t s i n t h a t r e g i o n o f I n d i a n a t o augment t h e t h i n overburden. We know o f no c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h on r e c l a m a t i o n o f t h e s e p i l e s o f e a s t e r n s p e n t s h a l e . Two p r i m a r y e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n c e r n s i n c l u d e t h e d e g r a d a t i o n o f s u r f a c e and ground water q u a l i t y as a r e s u l t o f l e a c h i n g t h r o u g h these wastes The Petrobas p r o j e c t and p h y t o t o x i c i t y and s t a b i l i t y on t h e r e c l a i m e d area. shows r e c l a m a t i o n f r o m B r a z i l . T h i s p r o j e c t u s e d , a t l e a s t i n p a r t , I n d i a n a s h a l e upon w h i c h t h e y p l a n t e d a v a r i e t y o f p l a n t s w h i c h g r o w i n t r o p i c a l regions. O f these, t h e y p l a n t e d mimosa, e u c a l y p t u s . C a r o l i n a p i n e and s e v e r a l other t r o p i c a l t r e e species. Some r e c l a m a t i o n a t t e m p t s were made u s i n g matte, a f o r m o f t e a . J o h n s o n r e p o r t s t h e s u c c e s s o f t h i s s t u d y . We p o i n t o u t t h a t B r a z i l has somewhat d i f f e r e n t c l i m a t e and s o i l c o n d i t i o n s f r o m those found i n Indiana.

6.

SOCIOECONOMIC

I n d i a n a s h a l e development would a f f e c t l o c a l socioeconomic p a t t e r n s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t l y t h a n western d e v e l o p m e n t s a f f e c t e d t h e i r 1 o c a l p a t t e r n s . Because the Green R i v e r area o f C o l o r a d o i s d i s t a n t f r o m l a r e l a b o r markets, t h e area w o u l d r e c e i v e a 1 a r g e and s u d d e n s e m i - p e r m a n e n t in!l ux o f w o r k e r s and t h e i r f a m i l i e s . The a r e a has f e w l a r g e t o w n s o r s e r v i c e s a v a i l a b l e . The i n f l u x w o u l d c a u s e a "boom t o w n " s i m i l a r t o t h o s e a t G i l l e t e , Wyoming and C o l s t r i p ,

EXP”

TO HERE

y.

.

-..

.... * . .. . .... GRCUM)

t

W A N D S r0 HERE

LEVEL-

MINE TO /

.

MINE To, HERE

20% EXPANSION

100’ MINED 50% EXPANSION

FIG. 6. SCHEMATIC SHOWING SPENT SHALE EXPANSION

115 Montana. I n s o u t h e a s t e r n I n d i a n a , a l a r g e l a b o r f o r c e a l r e a d y e x i s t s . The s h a l e r e g i o n 1 i e s we1 1 w i t h i n comnuting range o f I n d i a n a p o l i s , C i n c i n n a t i , and L o u i s v i l l e . R e c e n t l y , t w o n u c l e a r power p l a n t p r o j e c t s ( M a r b l e H i 1 1 i n Madison, I n d i a n a and Zimner i n C i n c i n n a t i ) have l a i d o f f c o n s t r u c t i o n workers. I n d i a n a and Kentucky b o t h c o n t a i n many p r e s e n t l y unemployed m i n e r s . The l a n d use and water a v a i l a b i l i t y c o n f l i c t s from l a r g e s c a l e o i l s h a l e development i n I n d i a n a w i l 1 r e s e m b l e t h o s e i n C o l o r a d o and i n t h e c o a l m i n i n g a r e a s i n Montana, Wyoming and S o u t h D a k o t a . However, b e c a u s e o f t h e g r e a t e r p o p u l a t i o n and p r e v a l e n c e o f farming, t h e s e c o n f l i c t s may become more i n t e n s e i n I n d i a n a t h a n i n t h e west.

7.

ECONOMIC POTENTIAL FOR DEVELOPMENT OF EASTERN OIL SHALE

B e f o r e t h e d i s c o v e r y o f o i l i n 1859, o i l s h a l e was a p r i m a r y s o u r c e o f Today, however, u n c e r t a i n t y c l o u d s economic f e a s i b i l i t y p e t r o l e u m i n t h e U.S. of e x t r a c t i n g o i l f r o m s h a l e i n t h e U.S. The USSR and China today produce s h a l e o i l c o m n e r c i a l l y , as w e l l as B r a z i l on a l i m i t e d s c a l e (6). Yet s h a l e o i l has not been an i m p o r t a n t source o f energy i n m a r k e t economies. Indeed, engineers have viewed s h a l e o i l as " a l m o s t f e a s i b l e " f o r a t l e a s t t h e l a s t t h i r t y y e a r s (7) As r e c e n t l y as 1973, e x p e r t s have pegged t h e p r o j e c t e d p r i c e o f o i l from s h a l e a t as l i t t l e as $5.50 p e r b a r r e l , C u r r e n t l y , e s t i m a t e s r a n g e from $20 t o $30 p e r b a r r e l . A d v o c a t e s h a v e r e g u l a r l y c l a i m e d o v e r t h e y e a r s t h a t a 20 percent r i s e i n t h e w o r l d p r i c e o f c r u d e would make s h a l e o i l f e a s i b l e . W o r l d o i l p r i c e s h a v e r i s e n f a r more t h a n 2 0 p e r c e n t d u r i n g t h e l a s t decade, b u t s h a l e o i l has f a i l e d t o become a m a j o r source o f petroleum. Comparisons o f o i l s h a l e c o s t w i t h c u r r e n t w o r l d p r i c e s f o r o i l can m i s l e a d . The c h a n g e s i n t h e w o r l d m a r k e t f o r o i l s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1970s t h a t p r o v i d e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r s h a l e o i l a l s o c o n t a i n new sources o f economic r i s k . To understand t h e p o t e n t i a l r o l e o f s h a l e o i l , one must f i r s t understand t h e b a s i c s o f t h e w o r l d market f o r o i l . The Saudia Arabian and o t h e r OPEC r e s e r v e s dominate t h e w o r l d s u p p l y o f petroleum. Saudia A r a b i a a l o n e has 24.6 p e r c e n t o f t h e w o r l d ' s p r o v e n r e s e r v e s o f o i l (8). Saudia A r a b i a ' s i n t e r n a l needs r e q u i r e l i t t l e o i l , making them a major f o r c e i n o i l e x p o r t s . W h i l e t h e p r i c e s t h e Saudis charge f o r t h e i r o i l h a v e r i s e n d r a m a t i c a l l y s i n c e 1973, t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s r e m a i n v e r y l o w . Thus w h i l e t h e h i g h OPEC p r i c e s seem t o s p u r o i l s h a l e o p p o r t u n i t i e s , t h e s e o p p o r t u n i t i e s a r e il 1 u s o r y i n t h a t OPEC c o u l d u n d e r c u t t h e s e w i t h ease. The f e a s i b i l i t y o f new energy t e c h n o l o g i e s i s based l e s s on t h e c u r r e n t h i g h p r i c e s f o r c r u d e o i l than on t h e u n c e r t a i n t y s u r r o u n d i n g f u t u r e p r i c e and a v a i l a b i l i t y . The c a r t e l - l i k e p r i c i n g b e h a v i o r o f OPEC c o u p l e d w i t h p o l i t i c a l i n s t a b i l i t y i n t h e m i d d l e e a s t h a v e caused c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n f u s i o n about f u t u r e p r i c e s and s u p p l ies. The s u p p l y i n t e r r u p t i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n i n 1979 d r a m a t i c a l l y showed t h e impact o f a s i n g l e c o u n t r y ' s i n t e r n a l e v e n t s on t h e w o r l d w i d e m a r k e t f o r o i l . The c o n t i n u i n g c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e p o t e n t i a l impact o f t h e war between I r a n and I r a q on o i l s u p p l i e s o f f e r s another example. Because o f t h e s e concerns, s h a l e o i l c o u l d become a t t r a c t i v e t o d e v e l o p d e s p i t e i t s h i g h c o s t because o f t h e s t r a t e g i c r o l e o i l s h a l e m i g h t p l a y i n t h e c o n t i n g e n c y p l a n s o f t h e U.S. g o v e r n m e n t t o i n s u r e a m i n i m a l d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n c a p a b i l i t y f o r p e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t s . O i l f r o m s h a l e can b e r e f i n e d i n t o 1 i q u i d f u e l s s u c h as g a s o l i n e o r j e t f u e l ( k e r o s e n e ) f o r m o b i l e use.

116

n u s , we w i l l compare I n d i a n a o i l s h a l e t o o t h e r sources o f l i q u i d f u e l s i n the U.S. and N o r t h h e r i c a r a t h e r t h a n w i t h o t h e r sources o f energy i n t h e world, The economic f e a s i b i l i t y o f I n d i a n a s h a l e o i l depends on t h e c o s t o f t h e s h a l e o i l i t s e l f and on t h e c o s t s o f p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s . Few r e l i a b l e estimates o f s h a l e o i l costs e x i s t , which i s not s u r p r i s i n g given the e a r l y stages o f development o f t h e i n d u s t r y . The c o s t s f o r some a l t e r n a t e sources v a r y f r o m we1 1 understood t o s u b s t a n t i a l u n c e r t a i n t y . Should s h a l e o i l costs t u r n o u t r e l a t i v e l y l o w when compared t o t h o s e o f t h e o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e s t u r n o u t high, s h a l e o i l c o u l d p r o v e f e a s i b l e , and v i c e versa. E s t i m a t i n g t h e c o s t o f o i l f r o m I n d i a n a s h a l e i n p a r t d e p e n d s on t h e t e c h n o l o g y chosen. One t e c h n o l o g y t h o u g h t p r o m i s i n g i s based on t h e P e t r o s i x Process d e v e l o p e d o v e r t h e l a s t t h i r t y y e a r s b y Petrobas, t h e n a t i o n a l o i l company o f B r a z i 1. The D e v o n i a n s h a l e f o u n d i n I n d i a n a r e s e m b l e s t h e s h a l e f o u n d i n B r a z i l and p r o c e s s e d i n t h e P e t r o b a s p i l o t p l a n t . Petrobas a n t i c i p a t e s e s t a b l i s h i n g commercial s c a l e o p e r a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e n e x t few years. A l l i s Chalmers has d e v e l o p e d another approach based on a r o l l e r g r a t e r e t o r t . They h a v e t e s t e d t h i s process on I n d i a n a s h a l e i n a s m a l l process development u n i t b u t n o t i n a p i l o t p l a n t stage. Cost e s t i m a t e s f o r e i t h e r process w i l l remain v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o d e v e l o p b e f o r e t e s t i n g i n p i l o t p l a n t o p e r a t i o n s and even t h e n t h e e s t i m a t e s w i l l n o t l i k e l y be w i t h i n l e s s t h a n p l u s o r minus 30 p e r c e n t o f e v e n t u a l f u l l s c a l e commercial costs. The m i n i n g o f t h e s h a l e and t r a n s p o r t t o t h e p r o c e s s s i t e a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t c o s t elements. The m i n i n g and t r a n s p o r t c o s t s w i l 1 n o t s u b s t a n t i a l l y vary w i t h t h e recovery technology b u t w i l l vary w i t h t h e d e t a i l s o f the specific project. U n l i k e w i t h western o i l s h a l e t e c h n o l o g i e s which r e q u i r e d underground mining, I n d i a n a ' s o i l s h a l e l i e s j u s t beneath t h e s u r f a c e and can b e e x t r a c t e d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l s u r f a c e m i n i n g techniques. E n v i r o n m e n t a l c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b o t h p r o c e s s i n g and d i s p o s a l o f t h e spent s h a l e w i l l a l s o a f f e c t o i l s h a l e development. S e v e r a l s e c t i o n s above d i s c u s s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e c o s t s . T h e y may w e l l p r o v i d e a s o u r c e o f d i s economies o f s c a l e . The waste d i s p o s a l p r o b l e m s c r e a t e d by a v e r y l a r g e s c a l e f a c i l i t y a r e compounded b y b o t h t h e volume o f t h e waste and i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n one l o c a t i o n . A s e r i e s o f s m a l l s c a l e f a c i l i t i e s s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t the s h a l e r e g i o n , w h i l e n o t r e d u c i n g t h e volume o f waste, c o u l d h e l p spread i t out and perhaps m i n i m i z e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l impact o f d i s p o s a l . Such an approach m i g h t a l s o reduce t h e c o s t s o f t r a n s p o r t i n g s h a l e t o t h e process f a c i l i t i e s but c o n v e r s e l y c o u l d i n c r e a s e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t s o f t h e processed o i l . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n and e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o s t s o f s h a l e o i l , we add t h e c o s t s o f t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e needed t o s u p p o r t t h e employment i n t h e shale o i l and s u p p o r t i n g i n d u s t r i e s and e x t e r n a l o p p o r t u n i t y c o s t s o f u s i n g t h e land f o r s h a l e o i l development r a t h e r than a l t e r n a t i v e uses. S i m i l a r l y , we should c o n s i d e r an o p p o r t u n i t y c o s t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u s i n g water f o r s h a l e o i l r a t h e r t h a n f o r competing uses. I f such c o s t s a r e b o r n e b y t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r r a t h e r t h a n t h e p r i v a t e and we must s e p a r a t e l y account f o r t h e s e costs. I n d i a n a o i l s h a l e i s n o t t h e o n l y domestic s o u r c e o f l i q u i d f u e l n o r even n e c e s s a r i l y t h e l e a s t c o s t l y . One p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e i s western o i l shale, p r i m a r i l y f r o m C o l o r a d o , U t a h , and I d a h o . I n t h e r e c e n t p a s t , b o t h l a r g e c o r p o r a t i o n s and t h e U.S. Department o f Energy have shown c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t i n western shale. T h a t i n t e r e s t has subsided somewhat r e c e n t l y i n t h e f a c e o f concerns about water a v a i l a b i l i t y and e n v i r o n m e n t a l problems, n o t t o mention c h a n g e s i n w o r l d o i l p r i c e s . Such i n t e r e s t c o u l d e a s i l y r e v i v e , however,

117 should d e v e l o p e r s i m p r o v e i n s i t u p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y , which r e c o v e r s t h e o i l In principle, i n s i t u production w i t h o u t r e m o v i n g t h e s h a l e f r a m h e ground. promises t o reduce t h e water r e q u i r e m e n t s and t h e s h a l e d i s p o s a l p r o b l e m s o f o t h e r t e c h n o l o g i e s , b u t i t has y e t t o p r o v e f e a s i b l e i n a p p l i c a t i o n . I n c r e a s e d o i l p r o d u c t i o n f r o m U.S. f i e l d s e i t h e r i n A l a s k a o r i n t h e l o w e r 48 s t a t e s c o u l d p r o v i d e a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e s o u r c e o f l i q u i d f u e l s . The N o r t h Slope o f A l a s k a has p r o v e n r e s e r v e s o f 9.6 b i l l i o n b a r r e l s w i t h t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t A l a s k a n r e s e r v e s c o u l d e v e n t u a l l y t o t a l as much as 1 5 b i l l i o n b a r r e l s (9). Alaskan o i l , however, has h i g h t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b r i n g i n g i t t o market. A d r o p i n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t s c o u l d i n c r e a s e i t s r o l e , t o t h e d e t r i m e n t o f t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r s h a l e o i l . W i t h i n t h e l o w e r 48 s t a t e s , m a j o r new f i n d s , a l t h o u g h p o s s i b l e , a r e n o t l i k e l y . A g r e a t d e a l o f o i l remains i n e x i s t i n g f i e l d s , h o w e v e r , e v e n a f t e r p r i m a r y r e c o v e r y t e c h n i q u e s no l o n g e r produce. Recent y e a r s have seen e x c e l l e n t p r o g r e s s i n secondary and t e r t i a r y recovery techniques appl ied t o e x i s t i n g f i e l d s . Further technological improvements c o u l d s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n c r e a s e d a n e s t i c r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s even w i t h o u t new f i n d s . I n c r e a s e d o i l p r o d u c t i o n c o u l d occur e l sewhere i n N o r t h America. Mexico has 8.5% o f t h e w o r l d ' s p r o v e n r e s e r v e s ( a l m o s t t w i c e t h o s e o f t h e U.S.) and a l t h o u g h much o f t h e i r c u r r e n t p r o d u c t i o n g o e s t o t h e i r c u r r e n t needs, increased e x p o r t s t o t h e U.S. c o u l d be p o s s i b l e i n t h e f u t u r e (8) Canada a l s o has t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r i n c r e a s e d o i l p r o d u c t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y f r o m t h e Athabasca o i l sands i n A l b e r t a (6) U.S. has f e w s o u r c e s o f o i l sands i n C a l i f o r n i a , Utah, and Kentucky. Improvements i n r e c o v e r y t e c h n o l o g y f o r o i l sands m i g h t o f f e r t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r i m p o r t s f r o m Canada o r p r o d u c t i o n from U.S. sources. T h e o r e t i c a l l y , s y n t h e t i c f u e l s from c o a l another p o s s i b l e source o f 1 i q u i d f u e l . Since t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e U.S. S y n t h e t i c F u e l s C o r p o r a t i o n i n 1980 the government has focused on t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c f u e l s d e r i v e d from coal. W h i l e assessments o f t h e l i k e l y success o f such programs v a r y b o t h b y s o u r c e and o v e r t i m e , c o a l o f f e r s p r o m i s e compared t o s h a l e i n p a r t b e c a u s e o n l y one t h i r d t h e tonnage needs b e mined p e r b a r r e l o f o i l w i t h c o a l as w i t h o i l s h a l e ( 1 0 ) . As w i t h o i l s h a l e , t h e e c o n o m i c f e a s i b i l i t y d e p e n d s upon t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s and s o l u t i o n s t o t h e e m e r g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l problems. The u n c e r t a i n t i e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e c o s t s o f s h a l e o i l and t h e c o s t s o f t e h major d a n e s t i c a l t e r n a t i v e s pose s e r i o u s problems b o t h f o r p u b l i c p o l i c y and f o r energy companies. O i l s h a l e d i f f e r s from p e t r o l e u m g r e a t l y i n t h e s o r t o f u n c e r t a i n t i e s d e v e l o p e r s must accept. The m a j o r r i s k i n p e t r o l e u m e x p l o r a t i o n i s whether d e v e l o p e r s can f i n d o i l o r not. But, o i l s h a l e abounds. The r i s k l i e s i n t e c h n o l o g i c a l invention. I n any case, p u b l i c and p r i v a t e o f f i c i a l s faced w i t h d e c i s i o n s expend funds t o p r e p a r e f o r p o t e n t i a l r i s k p r o d u c t i o n must do so w i t h u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n e v e r y m a j o r area except e x p l o r a t i o n . 8. CONCLUSIONS ( F i g u r e 7 ) Our paper d e s c r i b e s t h e abundant o i l s h a l e r e s o u r c e a v a i l a b l e . It a l s o d e s c r i b e s an e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e u n c e r t a i n t y i n r e l a t i o n t o environmental qua1 i t y . We know t h e r e i s a i r p o l 1 u t i o n . We know t h e r e a r e water q u a n t i t y problems. We t h i n k t h e r e a r e water q u a l i t y problems. The l a n d use i n t h a t area i s q u i t e p r o f i t a b l e as an a g r i c u l t u r e resource. We h a v e shown t h a t there i s c o n s i d e r a b l e u n c e r t a i n t y about t h e p o t e n t i a l techno1 o g i e s t h a t e x i s t . A l l o f these, we b e l i e v e , a r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o changes i n economic and p o l i t i c a l

118

J

F I G . 7.

EQUATION TO SOLVE FOR F

(=

FUTURE)

c o n d i t i o n s f a r removed from southern Indiana. We suggest t h a t the Federal and S t a t e governments d e v e l o p t h e a p p r o p r i a t e research and m o n i t o r i n g systems t o a c q u i r e and understand t h e background data and p o t e n t i a l impacts. They could t h e n d e v e l o p m i t i g a t i o n systems, and a l l o w r e v i e w by t h e s c i e n t i f i c and r e g u l a t o r y community. We note t h a t t h e p u b l i c agencies i n the. s t a t e o f Indiana a r e n o t e q u i p p e d t o d e a l w i t h t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d . We note t h a t t h e r e i s pressure t o d e v e l o p s y n t h e t i c f u e l s from coal and t o increase the production o f Indiana coal. Sadly, we suspect t h a t t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o behave i n a f a r - s i g h t e d f a s h i o n w i l 1 s l i p from us and we w i l 1 again proceed i n a catch up, f i x up mode. For t h o s e o f us i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l s c i e n c e b u s i n e s s , t h i s c o n s t i t u t e s a tragedy.

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N.Veziroglu Elsevier Science PublishersB.V.,Amsterdam,1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

RADIONUCLIDES IN U.S. COALS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS WITH RESPECT TO ENERGY DEVELOPMENT

Charles A. Bisselle and Richard D. Brown Metrek Division The MITRE Corporation McLean, Virginia 22102, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT The current state of knowledge regarding radionuclide concentrations in U.S. coals is discussed. Emphasis is on the levels of uranium in coal (and lignite) which may represent a concern resulting from coal combustion; areas of the U.S. where such levels have been found; and implications of high radionuclide levels in coal to energy technologies (e.g., new vs. existing coal-fired power plants and coal-based synthetic fuel facilities). The paper reviews relevant studies and also presents new data derived from a computerized search of radionuclide content in about 3800 coal samples collected throughout the conterminous U.S. 1. INTRODUCTION The central question of this paper concerns the fate of certain highly radioactive coals surveyed in the 1950s. Most studies on the impacts of fossil-fuel power plants appear not to have taken these coals into consideration. In light of recent EPA pronouncements, another look at these coals is in order. On 27 December 1979, the Administrator of the U . S . Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced in the Federal Register the decision to list radionuclides as hazardous air pollutants under Section 112 of the Clean Air Act. This announcement contained a summary of the impacts of radioactive emissions from a variety of facilities (sources) including coal-fired power stations. In terms of fatal cancers to a regional population (within a 50-mile radius), the summary indicated that "new" coal-fired power plants resulted in twice the effects attributable to the second highest contributor (the phosphate industry) and that the effects were at least an order of magnitude more than any of the remaining contributors of radioactive air pollutants. In the background document [l] to this announcement, it was shown that the fatal cancers from older "existing" facilities was yet another order of magnitude higher than for the "new" plants. Therefore, it is not unreasonable to infer from the 1979 announcement or the 1979 background document that coal-fired power plants were considered a major, if not the major, source of the several that were mentioned. On 6 April 1983, the Administrator of EPA announced in the Federal Register that radionuclide emission standards were being proposed for four categories of sources: (a) Department of Energy (DOE) facilities;

119

120

(b) Nuclear Regulatory Commission licensed facilities (excluding facilities that are part of the uranium fuel cycle) and non-DOE Federal facilities; (c) underground uranium mines; and (d) elemental phosphorous plants. Of particular interest was the fact that standards were not proposed for coal-fired boilers, neither industrial nor utility boilers. However, in the 1983 announcement, EPA provides a caveat recognizing that "there could be a subcategory of coal-fired boilers for which it would be appropriate to issue an emission standard," since there is "the possibility that boilers may be using coal with radionuclide content that is significiantly above average or that existing boilers may be operating in a manner that causes elevated emissions of radionuclides." The apparent shift in emphasis between EPA's 1979 and 1983 positions on radionuclide releases from coal-fired power plants gives the above caveat special importance. This paper discusses two features of the caveat, namely, an emissions standard and coal with high radionuclide content. 2.

BACKGROUND

Prior to World War 11, uranium had little commercial value save minor use in the ceramic industry where uranium was employed to impart green and yellow coloring to glassware and fired clay products [ 2 ] . With the advent of nuclear power, uranium acquired a tremendous importance, and the search for new deposits led to the discovery of low-rank coals containing appreciable concentrations or uranium. In the late 19408, deposits of radioactive coal were discovered by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in Wyoming and the Dakotas, resulting in a general reconnaissance search for uranium-bearing, coaly carbonaceous rocks in several western states by USGS in cooperation with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) during the years 1951-1954 13, 41. Although there were several more interesting discoveries of coaly, lignitic, and carbonaceous shales as well as impure coals in Idaho and New Mexico, it was not until a 1954 discovery of 1000 ppm (0.1 percent) uranium in thin beds of impure lignite in the Cave Hills and Slim Buttes areas of South Dakota that a wave of prospecting and land acquisition in the Dakotas and Eastern Montana began 14, 51. In 1957, several shipments as large as 500 tons each of impure lignite and lignitic shale containing more than 1000 ppm were made for metallurgical testing by the AEC and the U.S. Bureau of Mines [ 6 1. Six years later, commercial uraniuim recovery operations began at four locations in southwestern North Dakota with a cutoff concentration of 1300 ppm uranium. At two of these plants, the lignite was roasted in rotary kilns under controlled conditions with subsequent leaching of the uranium from the ash at another location. At the other two operations, the process was less complicated with open burning conducted in the puts themselves. For commercial reasons, none of these operations lasted more than three or four years. Until two years ago, a uranium mill in Karnes County, Texas had a roasting operation for burning uranium-bearing (300 ppm U) lignites for the primary purpose of uranium recovery. The concept of extracting uranium from coal ash has remained of interest and continues to be studied [8, 9, 10, 111. To ensure profitability, present economics require that the coal would be first burned for its heat content, with mineral extraction as a secondary benefit.

121 In 1964, Eisenbud and Petrov published an article regarding the relative radiological impacts of airborne releases from coal-fired and nuclear power plants [12]. Based on maximum permissible concentrations of radionuclides in airborne releases, it was argued that coal-fired power plants could be more hazardous radiologically than nuclear power plants. This controversy continues and several studies have provided refinements and modifications over the years. Two of these studies 113, 141 indicate that the radiological impacts from a coal-fired plant may be as large, if not more so, that those for a comparably sized nuclear power plant. Another study [l], while not making a direct comparison between the two types of power plants, provides sufficient information for the reader to readily draw a similar conclusion regarding nuclear and coal-fired power plants. In reviewing such studies, two key factors should be considered: 0

These studies compared the impacts due to the operation of the power plants alone and did not consider the variety of impacts associated with the remainder of the respective fuel cycles (e.g., mining, processing, transportation, waste disposal). Consideration of such additional factors could alter the conclusions based solely on the power plant portion of the fuel cycle.

0

Pollution control devices, especially those for particulate matter, on newer coal-fired plants may mitigate the impacts of such units.

It is primarily upon this latter contention that EPA has decided not to include coal-fired power plants in the radionuclide category of its proposed National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants. The previously mentioned comparisons between nuclear and coal-fired power plants were based on the use of coal with average uranium values, on the order of a few ppm of uranium in the coal. The question of how representative of future conditions these comparisons are may be raised in light of the following factors: 0

Subbituminous coal and lignite coals are expected to play an increasingly important role in meeting the energy needs of the U . S .

0

Western coal is highly desireable for its low sulfur content.*

0

Western coal is abundant.

0

Western coal, by virtue of being easily strip mined, is more accessible than the coals of many other regions in the country.

0

Most of the reported findings of high uranium content in coal are in western states.

A possible inference from these factors is that releases of radioactivity could increase dramatically from coal-fired power plants as more western coal is burned. This inference has not necessarily proven to "Although revised New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for sulfur emissions from coal-fired power plants may tend to reduce the need for low-sulfur coals at new or recently constructed plants, low-sulfur coal would still be desirable for many of the older plants (44 FR 33581).

122 be true. Several studies performed for or by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) show that, in general, the coals used in and/or the airborne pollutants released from western power plants are not significantly different with respect to radioactivity from those used or released elsewhere in the country [15, 16, 171. However, it is important to note that none of these DOE studies considered coals with high radionuclide contents such as those reported by the USGS and the AEC in the 1950s.

An interesting development of relatively recent origin concerns the conversion of coals, lignites, and carbonaceous shales into synthetic fuels. Here too, the radionuclide content of the parent fuel has caused concern regarding its potential environmental impacts 118, 19, 201. This concern may prove to be of greater importance than the radiological impacts of direct combustion of coal, since synthetic fuel development is expected to focus more on lower rank coals and coaly carbonaceous shales (wherein are found some of the higher uranium levels), rather than on anthracite or high-BTU bituminous coals (which are generally lower in uranium content). 3.

EMISSION STANDARD

While there are several different forms that an emission standard could take, this study focuses on a standard based on the radionuclide content of the coal prior to combustion. The most important radionuclides found in coal are uranium-238 and thorium-232 (plus their daughters) as well as potassium-40. For many samples (particilarly from early surveys), the presence of uranium is the only determination made. Measurements for thorium are less frequently made and potassium data are seldom reported. The overall health risk of the radioactivity in coal depends upon the individual health risks of the many radionuclides potentially present in coal. However, it could be cumbersome to base a concentration standard on a number of isotopes. It would be much easier (and likelier to be done as well as more enforceable) if the standard were based on a single species if that species were shown to be representative, relatively easy to measure accurately, and it is possible, for example through correlation and other relationships, to account for the other isotopes. Several of the lignites reported in the literature had heating values in the 3000-5000 BTU per pound range with a few samples as low as 1000 BTU per pound [21]. Although some of these ores are generally regarded as lignites, they are for the most part not of fuel grade and some will not support combustion "61. Some specimens of the uraniferous lignite outcrops in the Cave Hills (South Dakota) region would not burn under a blowtorch flame [22]. Lignite coals are defined as having a heating value up to 8300 BTU per pound while subbituminous coals range from 8300 to 11,500 BTU per pound. The higher rank coals--bituminous and anthracite--have greater heating value although, strictly speaking, these coals are more properly descirbed in terms of fixed carbon and volatile matter limits rather than heating value [231. Because different amounts of these fuels would be required to produce the equivalent heat input (and electrical output) in a power plant, any standard for uranium in coal should be established on a heating value basis. Several authors [14, 24, 25, 171 refer to "national averages" for the uranium and thorium contents in coal. The referenced values of 1.8 ppm U

123

and 4.7 ppm Th are based primarily on the work of Swanson who measured approximately 800 samples of coal from different parts of the country [26]. Strictly speaking, the values are simply the arithmetic averages of the 800 samples without any implications of how representative of the coal reserves the values are. Trace element concentrations, particularly uranium, can vary an order of magnitude or more between nearby seams and even laterally or vertically within a given seam [271. Moreover, there is no indication of the tonnage or mineability associated with the samples. Nevertheless, these values have gained wide acceptance. While there is no scientifically established level of uranium in coal which would be considered hazardous to health if the coal were burned in a power plant, several authors have estimated values, shown below, hich are essentially based on such a concept. Uranium Concentration

Reference Van Hook, 1978 [28] Greiner, 1983 [291 Hardin, et al., 1982 [30 Greiner, 1981 [31] Wagner and Greiner, 1982 [251

All of the authors qualify their estimates in one way or another. Van Hook states that "atmospheric releases of radionuclides from increased coal combustion do not represent a significant public health problem unless coal containing greater than 5 ppm U comes into general use." It is not clear whether "general use" implies one plant burning such coal over an extended period of time or most plants burning such coal over an extended period.* The latter condition is quite unlikely while the former may reasonably happen.

In fact, Swanson as quoted in Styron noted that some deposits with U-238 concentrations as high as 4 4 ppm (before cleaning) are being used by electric power utilities in the United States [32]. While the value of 44 ppm is not an average and the duration of use is not mentioned, the inference can be taken that in some cases use of coal with above average uranium concentrations is not unlikely. Furthermore, it has not been established whether typical coal cleaning processes can remove substantial amounts of uranium. For the three values associated with Greiner, it was suggested that any boiler extensively using coal with such uranium concentrations be evaluated with regard to its radiation environment. Hardin and his co-authors at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency concluded that the use of coal with 10 ppm uranium is a possibility and could lead to elevated population risks associated with radionuclide doses to lung and bone. Since the values (5, 6 , 10, 20, and 30 ppm of uranium in coal) are not based on rigorous analysis, such an analysis would be necessary before any regulatory standard could be established. Based on acceptable dose risk to *One may infer from Patterson's quotation [331 of Van Hook's comment that

the term "general use" refers to the entire utility industry, while the original quotation seems to have been made on the basis of a single power plant.

124

nearby individuals and populations, one could work backwards to an acceptable level for uranium in coal. In addition to the usual stack, meteorological, and demographic parameters involved in such calculations, conditions regarding the combustion process and the presence of other radionuclides must be considered. How much o€ a particular radionuclide remains with the bottom ash relative to the amount associated with fly ash and what particle size distributions are involved are two areas under investigation. Moreover, if the standard were to be promulgated on uranium in coal, other radionuclides often present in coal must be taken into account, particularly those which are highly volatile (e.g., various isotopes of lead, radon, and polonium).

4. RADIONUCLIDES IN COAL A prerequisite to the determination of an emission standard based on radionuclide content in the fuel is a knowledge of the levels and locations of uranium in coal. This report presents new data derived from a computerized search (the USCHEM data base maintained by the U.S. Geological Survey) of uranium content in approximately 3800 coal samples collected throughout the coterminous U.S. Also summarized is Information from a literature search of documents (mostly from the 1950s and the 1960s) wherein are noted potentially extensive quantities of uranium-bearing coal in various Western states.

4.1 Literature Search The results of a literature search for uranium-in-coal information are summarized in Table 1, where information on approximately 65 sampling programs (from single samples to dozens and even hundreds of samples per program) in some 20 states (see also Figure 1) is provided. As can be seen from Table 1, the thorium content of the coal frequently was not measured. One can also infer that many of the coals associated with these findings may not be of significance relative to hazardous radioactive emissions from coal combustion at power plants for a variety of criteria, including: 0

0 0 0

too few samples deposits too deep beds too thin minor or small occurrences impure coal low heating value high ash content

A coal sample with a low uranium content is defined in this report to be one having a uranium content of the same order of magnitude as the national average (i.e., 1.8 ppm U). When only a few samples are provided for a given area, one cannot be certain that the values recorded can represent the coal deposit with any statistical significance. In the case of grab samples, they are usually considered as being "rarely representative" [231. Furthermore, a deposit that appears to have been examined only once (particularly where o nl y low concentrations were found) would indicate that the find is of little interest. The early geologists (1950s and 1960s) were looking for commercially exploitable uranium which just happened to be in coal. Those deposits which were examined more than once for uranium and have a large amount of usable coal are the deposits which are of potential concern to environmentalists today.

125 The depth of a bed, its thickness, and its areal extent are indicators of the economic feasibility of extracting the coal. The desirability of extracting the coal may also depend upon the presence of impurities in the coal (e.g., trace metals, sandstone, shale), the BTU content of the coal, and the percentage of ash in the coal. It must also be noted that since World War 11, the coal resource classification system has undergone radical change. Recently, the USGS published a standardized system designed to lessen individual geologic and engineering judgments in the interpretation of data and methods and to provide reproducible and comparable estimates [23]. Under the present reserve classification system (depth, thickness, etc.), the extent of some of the earlier coal discoveries may no longer be considered quite as optimistically. Moreover, since uranium ore was the mineral of primary interest, less attention was paid to the quality of the host medium. Substances identified as coal were sometimes misnamed (i.e., they may have been coaly carbonaceous shale or lignitic shale) or impure, being mixtures of coal, sandstone, and shale. In either case their suitability for direct combustion may be questionable. Most of the listings in Table 1 appear to be relatively inconsequential on the basis of one or more of the criteria discussed above. There are four areas, however, which may warrant further analysis as potential sites of high-uranium coal or lignite: (a and b) Sweetwater County and North Park Field in Colorado; (c) Slim Buttes in South Dakota; and (d) Karnes County in Texas. Although the information in Table 1 does not conclusively imply that these four areas are potential trouble spots (in fact, one or two of the locations may not have met all the criteria discussed above), there does not appear to be enough information to rule them out at this time. 4.2 Computer Search The USCHEM file, containing geochemical and trace element data, is part of the computer-based National Coal Resources Data System developed by the U.S. Geological Survey. In September 1983, the file was queried regarding measureable uranium and thorium concentrations in coal throughout the United States. The output, involving more than 3800 samples, was arranged in ascending order of uranium content. Average values were also determined. The distribution of concentrations of uranium in the coal samples is such that more than 93 percent of the samples have concentrations less than 5 ppm U, while fewer than 2 percent have values greater than 10 ppm U. The concentrations appear to be normally distributed with a peak (modal value) between 0.61 and 0.7 ppm. The average concentration of uranium in coal for this distribution is 1.90 ppm while the corresponding value for thorium is 4.67 ppm. One conclusion from this exercise is that it would appear that the "national average" of 1.8 ppm U and 4.7 ppm Th in coal has not changed significantly since Swanson's analysis in 1976. It must be remembered that none of these "national averages" is anything more than an arithmetic average of a given set of samples; moreover, the samples were chosen because they were known to contain uranium. Samples known not to contain this element were not considered in the averaging.

126 Table 1. Uranium i n Coal ( L i t e r a t a r e Data, Greater than 5 ppm)

Location

Commente

CALIFORNIA Lo8 Angeles Co. San Benito Co. Amador Co. Alameda Co.

200 50 40 30

Moore and Stephans, 1953 as reviewed i n [34 I ; t h i n beds, "minor o~currences".

COLORADO

J e f f e r s o n Co.

1000

-

5000

Gude and McKeown, 1953, as reviewed i n [341; small l e n t i c u l a r bodies.

North Park F i e l d a r i t h . mean geo. mean

L0.2

-

23.7

[35]; 21 samples, U values G5ppm include 5.4, 5.8, 10.5, 11.4, 12.5, and 23.7, Th L3.0 34.8ppm

4.1 1.6

-

IDAHO

Goose Creek a r e a (Cassia Co.)

max. ll00

[ 3 6 ] ; Hole 2 , impure c o a l , 245 f t . deep, 4 f t . t h i c k .

Cassia Co.

mas.

970

Mapel and Hail, 1959 as reviewed in 137 1 ;

F a l l Creek Area

max. 1300 avg. 200

Vine and Moore, 1952 as reviewed i n [34]; impure c o a l , " p o s s i b l e commercial deposit".

(Bonneville Co.)

ILLINOIS Herrin No. 6 bed

-

7.5 avg. 2.2

0.8

Sahara Coal Co. Mine No. 6

85

[38]; 1 5 samples, I N A A , Th = 1.37 3.9 ppm.

-

[ 4 ] ; 2 samples, 1 f t . t h i c k bed.

Note:

INAA Instrumental neutron a c t i v a t i o n a n a l y s i s SSMA = Spark source mass spectrometry TEMS Lx Gx eU Coal

= Thermal emission mass spectroscopy = L e s s than x

-,Greater than x = Equivalent uranium

tonnages a r e i n s h o r t tons o r m i l l i o n s ( M ) of s h o r t tons.

127 Table 1 (Continued)

Locat i o n

ILLINOIS ( c o n t i n u e d ) H e r r i n No. 6

-

0.2

28

[39];bench sample R , 7 f t . t h i c k seam, t o p 3 o r 4 i n c h e s h a s 28 ppm U , w h i l e r e s t of sample h a s no more t h a n 1 ppm.

INDIANA Linton

20

[ 4 ] ;0.7 f t . t h i c k .

Gentryville

12

[ 4 ] ;1.2 f t . t h i c k .

6.1

[40];g r a b sample, h i g h v o l a t i l e C bituminous, Th 1.7 ppm.

IOWA

Cherokee Group

Harrisburg H e r r i n No. 6

-

L10

-

80

P a t t e r s o n , 1954 as reviewed i n [ 34 1 ; "minor occurrences".

KANSAS NE of F o r t S c o t t

70

[ 4 ] ;0.9 f t . t h i c k

10

[41; 8 f t . t h i c k .

KENTUCKY Providence MONTANA

Townsend Valley

220

[41];l o c a l i t y F , l i g n i t e , 2 i n thick.

Ekalaka H i l l s

G50

A s reviewed i n 141 ; GlOOO t o n s estimated reserves.

Ekalaka H i l l s

10

-

340

[42];mostly i n C u s t e r N a t i o n a l F o r e s t , up t o 7 f t . thick, l i g n i t e , high ash (24-49%), up t o 215 f t . deep.

Long P i n e H i l l s

50

-

300

[ 421 ; "only,, s m a l l amounts of uranium.

128 Table 1 (Continued)

Loca t i o n

U(ppm)

Comments

NEVADA Esmeralda County

30

-

Gamma Property, C h u r c h i l l County

60 520 avg. 283

C h u r c h i l l County

Moore and Stephans, 1954 as reviewed in [37 I. [43]; 10 samples, mostly t h i n beds, clayey l i g n i t e w i t h high ash content.

590

Lovering, 1954 as reviewed i n 1371.

-

Backman e t a l . , 1957 a s reviewed i n [34 1.

N E W MEXICO

L a Ventana Mesa,

10

6200

Sandoral County L a Ventana Mesa

up t o 6200 avg. 1000

[31; small d e p o s i t s .

NORTH DAKOTA

S e n t i n e l Butte F l a t Top Butte

I

A s reviewed i n [41; G l O O O t o n s

G50

estimated r e s e r v e s each.

Bullion Butte Chalky Buttes Medicine Pole H i l l s L i t t l e Badlands Chalky Buttes

avg. 900

[421; 0.5 f t . t h i c k , small amounts.

avg. 170

[42]; 2 f t . t h i c k , average ash = 30%, estimated 15 M tons, most is o v e r l a i n by less than 300 f t . overburden.

OHIO Crescent

30eU

Snider 1953 as reviewed i n [341; "minor occurrences."

Latrobe

10

[41; 0.5 f t . t h i c k .

PENNSYLVANIA Darlington, Beaver County Dora, J e f f e r s o n County

30

100

Ferm, 1955 as reviewed i n [ 3 4 ] ; kottom 6 in. of coa!, minor occurrences.

-

Ferm, 1955 as reviewed in 1341; "minor occurrences. "

40 e U

129 Table 1 (Continued)

U( ppm)

Location

Comments

PENNSYLVANIA (continued) Beaver County C l e a r f i e l d County J e f f e r s o n County

I

[ 4 ] ; 0.25

-

0.5 f t . t h i c k .

10

-

70

Harding County

50

-

300

B i l l y Dale Group, North Cave H i l l s

avg. G4400 [22 ; "E" bed i s 9-10 i n . 620 11,300 t h i c k n e a r s u r f a c e , s e v e r a l thousand t o n s combustible w i t h abundant smoke.

SOUTH DAKOTA

[44 ; 6 samples.

-

I

Lodgepole area and Johnson o u t l i e r s Northern Slim B u t t e s Slim B u t t e s , Olesrud Bed

Slim B u t t e s Mendenhall r i d e r bed Slim B u t t e s , Mendenhall r i d e r bed

G50

As reviewed i n [ 4 ] ; GlOOO tons estimated reserves.

G50 1 - 150

4

-

92

1361; h o l e SD-10, l i g n i t e , 5 f t . t h i c k , 381 f t . deep. [36]; hole 16, 8 f t . thick, 333 f t deep.

max. 900

[ 3 6 ] ; h o l e SD-8,

Slim B u t t e s , Mendenhall a r e a

avg. 50

5.4 f t . t h i c k , 49 M t o n s

Slim B u t t e s , o th e r than Mendenhall

avg. 70

340 M t o n s

Mendenhall a r e a , Harding County

avg. 50

G i l l e t a l . , 1959 a s reviewed i n [371.

2300

[ 4 5 ] ; W h i t s e t t formation, delayed n e u t r o n a c t i v a t i o n analysis.

1 - 7 4 - 70 1 7800

Wilcox l i g n i t e

I

3 in. thick.

[421; 5800 BTU, impure l i g n i t e .

TEXAS

Karnes County

-

Upper Jackson

130

Table 1 (Concluded)

Location

U(ppm)

Comments

TEXAS (continued)

Karnes County

950

-

2450

[46]; Jackson formation, 3 samples, lignite, intrusions into shale.

I

5.7 6.0, 6.2 6.0

Radian sample Texas Railroad Commission 1481 Texas Air Control Board data gathered on 163 samples of Texas lignite, 105 of which were associated with U determinations. Only the listed 4 values were greater than 5 ppm.

20

Zeller, 1955 as reviewed in [37].

UTAH

--VIRGINIA

---

-

0.2 5.6 mean 1.61 5 0.97

[491; 134 samples, whole coal, 5.6 ppm U sample from Dickenson County was only sample greater than 5 ppm, delayed neutron activation analysis, Th = 3.0 - 14.0 ppm.

WEST VIRGINIA

---

L10

-

30

Patterson, 1954 as reviewed in [37].

WYOMING Pumpkin Buttes Sweetwater County Red Desert Red Desert

40 ,10

-

1000

- 470

- 100 avg. 30 4

J.D. Love, 1952 as reviewed in [34]; "minor occurrences." Masursky and Pipiringos, 1957 as reviewed in [341; 163 M tons. [ 5 0 ] ; nine principal coal beds, 690 M tons at 30 ppm or more, 20% estimated to be strippable (L60 ft overburden), beds from 2 in. to 42 ft. thick, subbituminous B, up to 510 ppm in impure-coal beds.

131

Fig. 1.

Locations of High-Uranium Coals (Literature Data)

Fig. 2.

Locations of High-Uranium Coals (USCHEM Data)

132 Table 2 .

Uranium i n Coal (USCHEM Data)

STATE

CONCENTRATIONS OF URANIUM I N COAL (ppm)

county AWLBAMA

Choctaw Fayette

ARIZONA Grab Pinal ARKANSAS

Saline COLORADO

Arapahoe Elbert Jackson

Mesa Moffat Routt

5

*. .* .*

.* .*

ox

.* .* .* .* .*

IDAHO Cassia

ox

ILLINOIS Franklin Montgomery Perry

ox .* ox

INDIANA Dubois Fountain

ox

Gibson Sullivan Vermillion Watrick IOWA Appanoose Davis Mahaska Wapello

KANSAS Bourbon Wilson KENTUCKY Breathitt Johnson Lawrence Leslie

ox

.* .* .* .*

.* .* .* .* .* .*

.* ox .* .*

10

15

20

30

133 Table 2 (Continued)

STATE county

MARYLAM) Anne Arundel

CONCENTKATIONS OF URANIIIM I N COAL (ppm) 5 10 15 20 30

.*

MASSACHUSETTS Nantucket

.*

MISSISSIPPI Scott

ox

MISSOURI Adair Audrain Barton Bates Henry Macon Putnam

ox ox ox

.* .*

.* .*

MONTANA Big Horn Garfield Powder River Richland

.* .* .* .*

NEBRASKA Jefferson Johnson Otoe Pawnee Richardson

ox .* ox ox ox

NEVADA Churchill Esmeralda Washoe White Pine

ox .* ox

NEW MEXICO Colfax San Juan

.* .*

NORTH DAKOTA Dunn

.*

OHIO Belmont Musklngom

ox

.*

.*

134 Table 2 (Concllided)

CONCENTRATIONS OF URANIUM I N COAL (ppm) 5 10 15 20 30

STATE county

OKLAHOMA Craig Haskell Le F l o r e Nowata P i tt s burg

.* ox .* .*

0"

PENNSYLVANIA Northumberland

ox

TENNESSEE Anderson Fentress Scott

.* .* .*

UTAH Kane

.*

VIRGINIA Russell

.*

WEST V I R G I N I A Harrison Raleigh Wyoming

.* .* .*

WYOMING Campbell Carvon Johnson Sheridan Sweetwater Teton TOTAL STATES AFFECTED T o t a l Counties

0"

.* .* .* .* .*

27 79

NOTES: There are two sets of symbols f o r t h i s Table. The f i r s t s e t , @ a n d --, s i g n i f i e s whether a mine i n a p a r t i c u l a r county may be a f f e c t e d should a uranium-in-coal s t a n d a r d be e s t a b l i s h e d a t a g i v e n l e v e l ; e.g., a mine i n Arapahoe County, CO, may be a f f e c t e d i f t h e s t a n d a r d were s e t a t e i t h e r 5 o r 1 0 ppm. The second s e t , * and X, i n d i c a t e s whether a t l e a s t one sample v a l u e i s i n t h i s i n t e r v a l ( a s d e f i n e d by t h e v a l u e i n t h e column heading i n q u e s t i o n and t h e n e x t h i g h e r column heading v a l u e ) ; e . g . , Sweetwater County, WY, has c o a l samples i n t h e 5-10, t h e 10-15, and t h e 15-20 ppm r a n g e s , and above 30 ppm, but n o t i n t h e 20-30 ppm range. Mahaska County, I A , has c o a l samples i n t h e 5-10 ppm and above 30 ppm r a n g e s , b u t n o t i n t h e 10-15 o r 15-20 ppm ranges.

135

A national average of uranium concentration in coal would have more significance if it were feasible to include additional information. Weighting and/or screening factors relating to the mineability and economic worth of various deposits would indicate which uranium-in-coal samples should realistically be included in the computation and by how much. Moreover, samples for which uranium was sought but not detected should be considered since not all coal contains uranium. The nature of the computer request precluded the latter while the former was not feasible due to data gaps in the USCHEM file. Since the basic purpose of the computer request for this study was to determine where samples were which might cause problems if a standard were established at any of several levels, zero concentrations of uranium were not included. The auxiliary information (e.g., depth, thickness, Btu content) is not uniformly represented in all of the uranium-in-coal samples. Depth-to-seam information is contained in a different information file (not USCHPI), and the identification numbers for samples in the two systems are not necessarily the same. This can create difficulties when trying to cross-reference data. The so-called "thickness" data in USCHEM is vague in the sense that it is not clear whether seam thickness, sample thickness, or bench thickness is implied for the different samples. One would have to review the original field notes to ascertain the type of thickness cited. There are few BTU values in the USCHEM data base. From a printout of samples where the uranium in coal is greater than 5 ppm, approximately half of the samples lacked BTU information. A geographical/numerical distribution of the uranium concentration data is presented in Table 2 wherein two concepts are considered. One, noted by X and * symbols, provides an approximate distribution of the data by county and state. It is approximate in the sense that an asterisk (*) indicates that at least one data entry occurs in a given concentration interval (e.g., 5-10 ppm, 10-15 ppm). An X indicates no data in the interval. The other set of symbols, e a n d --, relate to the establishment of a threshold uranium concentration in coal. If a bullet (0)occurs, there is at least one coal sample in that county which has a higher value than the column heading, and the responsible mine may be affected if a standard is established. Bullets in the first two columns for a given conty do not necessarily mean that samples of 5 and 10 ppm U were found; a single value of 13 ppm U would result in both bullets since either standard ( 5 or 10 ppm) would be exceeded. At the end of the table is a count of the number of counties and states which might be affected if the value of the column heading were chosen as the standard. A strictly geographical presentation of data is provided in Figure 2 showing those locations with at least one sample greater than 10, 20, and 30 ppm, respectively. The symbols in Figure 2 delineate those four locations with uranium concentrations in coal above 30 ppm, namely Wapello County, IA (34.6, 35.9, 40.7 and 42.9 ppm U); Adair County, MO (59.5 ppm U); Sweetwater County, CO (75.4 ppm U); and Churchill County, NV (129.5 ppm U). 4.3

Comparison of Literature and Computer Surveys

Information regarding uranium in coal entered into the USCHEM file has a cutoff date in the early 1970s which means that none of the very high (hundreds and thousands of ppm U) readings of the 1950s and 1960s appear in the computer printout.

136

From Tables 1 and 2, it can be seen that many of the same states are involved. Table 1 contains information from 20 states while 27 states are represented in Table 2 with a total of 30 states altogether. Figures 1 and 2 depict a similar situation although it should be recalled that the cutoff values ( 5 ppm U for Figure 1 and 10 p p m U for F i g u r e 2) a t e s l i g h t l y different. A notable difference between the two surveys is the lack of data from Texas and South Dakota in the computer results compared to the amount of information presented in the literature survey for these two states. Relative to the literature survey, it is understandable why South Dakota is not represented in the USCHEM file (at least for concentrations greater than 5 ppm U>, since most of this state's data appear to have been collected prior to 1970. However, the literature survey indicates high uranium levels in Texas coal samples collected during the 19708, while the highest value in the USCHEM file is only 4.65 ppm and consequently does not appear in Table 2. At the end of the discussion for each data set (literature review and computer analysis) several locations where potential impacts might occur were identified. One location is common to both data sets--Sweetwater County, Colorado. This area in the Red Desert was described in 1962 by Masursky as follows [501: Coal reserves and uranium content were calculated for the nine principal coal beds, which range in thickness from a few inches to 42 feet and average about 7 feet. Estimates of uranium content are based on uranium analyses of 1,700 core and auger samples and 500 surface samples obtained in 60 core holes, 140 auger holes, and 79 surface sections. About 24,000 short tons of uranium is contained in 690 million short tons of coal at a grade of 0.003 percent or more uranium. An additional 1,600 million tons of measured and indicated coal contains less than 0.003 percent uranium. About 20 percent of the estimated coal is potentially strippable. In Battle Spring Flat, the area of highest uranium concentration, the Sourdough No. 2 bed averages 2.8 feet in thickness, underlies 428 acres, and contains 2 million tons of coal with an average uranium content of 0.010 percent; the coal ash averages 0.030 percent uranium. Locally, thin splits of this bed contain as much as 0.047 percent uranium and 0.140 percent uranium in the coal ash. The 103 proximate and 16 ultimate analyses of cores show that the coal contains an average of about 16 percent ash, 2.5 percent sulfur, and 21 percent moisture and has an average heating value of about 7,900 Btu on an as-received basis. The coal is subbituminous B in rank. Results of the investigation indicate that the large reserves of coal in the Red Desert are of interest primarily as a fuel resource and that uranium probably can be produced only as a Syproduct. Several features of this quotation are of interest: the large number of samples analyzed, the average uranium content of 30 ppm U or more, the large tonnages (approximately 140 million short tons) of potentially strippable coal, moderate ash content, somewhat high sulfur content, and subbituminous B rank. Other than the sulfur and ash contents, these

137

deposits might be considered fairly attractive for direct combustion, gasification, or liquefaction. Many years later, the deposits in Sweetwater County are still receiving attention regarding the extent of the deposit and the uranium content 1181. Toth et al. note that this coal may be "more commercially desirable for direct combustion than the lower grade lignite in most states...(which) may be more.amenable to coal conversion systems" [lo]. The quantities of coal involved may be significant. For 1981 it was estimated that 600 million short tons of coal were consumed by all electric utilities in the U.S. [511. A new coal-fired utility boiler of 1000 MWe capacity is estimated to consume 3 million short tons of coal annually [l]. Thus, it is conceivable that these deposits could supply several moderately sized power plants for many years. 5. TEXAS LIGNITE With the renewed optimism regarding the future use of lignite as an energy source in Texas [521, reports of extremely high uranium concentrations in Texas lignite [53, 46, 541 need examination. Parks notes that economic (i.e., greater than 200 ppm U) uranium deposits in Texas are often associated with lignite [551. Published concentrations of uranium in Texas lignites vary considerably. Deul and Anne11 reported that the lignite from Milam County showed such a low radioactivity that uranium determinations were not made [441. Using coal and lignite samples from 12 counties (including Karnes County), Kohls looked for, but did not detect, either uranium or thorium 1561. On the other hand, Huang and Chatham report uranium concentrations in lignite ranging from 1 to 7 ppm in Wilcox lignite, 4 to 70 ppm in Yegua-Jackson lignite, and 1-7800 ppm in Upper Jackson lignite [461. Cooper et al. [7] mention "unsubstantiated reports of uranium concentrations of as much as 80 to 300 ppm by weight in some South Texas lignite coals. Cooper also refers to a roasting recovery operation in Kames County for burning uranium-bearing lignites with 300 ppm U. Mohan et al. analyzed several lignite samples from the Jackson formation in Karnes County and found uranium concentrations varying from 950 to 2450 ppm 1471. Toth et al. mention 32 small strip mines of uraniferous lignite in Kames County containing 0.05 percent U3O8, or 440 ppm U [lo]. Recently, White et al. compiled a listing of uranium-in-lignite values from 102 samples with a mean of 1.8 ppm covering a range from 0.4 to 6.2 ppm [481.

. ."

Much of this apparent discrepancy in uranium content can be explained in terms of the quality and use of the lignite. Much of the lignite under consideration is impure being mixed with sandstone and/or shale and is not suitable for combustion use. Such impurities are not necessarily a disadvantage when the lignite is used for uranium extraction by roasting since the interspersed or contacting sandstones and shales are often high in uranium. Facer remarks that many of the lignite beds are very thin [151. In 1979, while studying the relationship between stratigraphy and uranium deposition, Chatham surveyed a 4-acre section of southwestern Kames County, Texas [57]. Nine vertical profiles in this area indicated two seams of lignite, each about one to two feet thick, separated by approximately one foot of mudstone, and lying within 60 feet of the surface. Most of the approximately 150 samples in the lignite contained in the range of 20 to several hundred ppm U while several samples, particularly near the lower

138

contact of the lower seam, contained a few thousand ppm U. No information was provided regarding the quality (impurities or Btu content) of the lignite. Zingaro notes that large concentrations (i.e., several thousand ppm) of uranium in Texas lignite are quite rare and occur in very localized small quantities 1581. He characterizes the sample yielding 7800 ppm U as a "freak inclusion" of lignite into a shale formation. He also notes that, while concentrations in the hundreds of ppm are not uncommon, the occurrences are widely dispersed and involve mostly impure lignites unsuitable for direct combustion purposes. 6.

SUMMARY

Based on recent data from the USCHEM file, the "national average" for uranium in coal is essentially the same as that proposed by Swanson in 1976 (i.e., 1.8 ppm U). Although most of the early high-uranium samples have been omitted from either computation, these high values have largely been shown to be in coal which was either too impure, in a bed too thin or too deep, too low in heat content, or otherwise unsuitable as a fuel for a power plant. Because earlier geologists were looking primarily for uranium, they were not always careful in defining the host medium, often designating as coal those substances which might more properly be termed as coaly, lignitic, or carbonaceous shales.

If EPA should consider establishing a uranium-in-coal standard, it should be based on the isotope U-238 contained in coal and related to the coal's heat content. Moreover, the health effects of other radionuclides in coal should be taken into account. If the standard is approximately 20 ppm uranium in coal, most mines in the country would not be affected. However, there are a few areas In the country (e.g., in Wyoming, Colorado, Texas, South Dakota, Missouri, Nevada) where coal deposits may be of commercial interest and contain enough uranium to warrant further investigation. Based on Swanson's 1976 data, Wagner and Greiner concluded that there was a significant probability that one or two power plants might burn coal with uranium content greater than 30 ppm for long periods of time 1251. Supplementing their data with information from the present literature review and the recent computer search, one might infer that a few more power plants could be involved--and this inference may possibly be extended if a standard were established at a lower concentration of uranium in coal. Lacy and his colleagues believe that over the long run, the blending and averaging of coal for direct combustion will be sufficient to mitigate any real problems, but some seams may have to be segregated 1541. These discussions regarding the number of power plants possibly affected and the use of coal blending refer primarily to the smaller, older power plants not necessarily adhering to NSPS controls. The potential for madionuclide releases from the development and utilization of synthetic fuels should also be of concern since the raw materials (often lower rank coals and/or carbonaceous shales) may have high uranium content.

139

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54.

Lacy, J . C . e t a l . 1979. "An I n t e g r a t e d Assessment of Texas L i g n i t e Development: Volume I--Technical Analysis." Radian Corporation A p r i l ( a v a i l a b l e as NTIS No. PB80-178783). Prepared f o r Texas Energy Advisory Council, t h e U.S. Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency, and t h e U.S. Department of Energy.

55.

Parks, Steven Louis. 1979. " D i s t r i b u t i o n and a P o s s i b l e Mechanism of Uranium Accumulation i n t h e Catahoula T u f f , Live Oak County, Texas." M a s t e r ' s T h e s i s submitted t o t h e Graduate College (Geology) of Texas A&M U n i v e r s i t y , College S t a t i o n , TX.

56.

Kohls, Donald W. 1962. "Reconnaissance of Trace Elements i n Texas Coal and Lignite." Bureau of Economic Geology, Mineral Resource C i r c u l a r No. 43, October, The U n i v e r s i t y of Texas, A u s t i n , TX.

57.

Chatham, James R . 1979. "A Study of Uranium D i s t r i b u t i o n i n a n Upper Jackson Lignite-Sandstone Ore Body, South Texas." Master's Thesis (Geology), May 1979, Texas A&M U n i v e r s i t y , College S t a t i o n , TX.

58.

Zingaro, Ralph A. 1983. Department o f Chemistry, Texas A&M U n i v e r s i t y , College S t a t i o n , TX, November 1, 1983 and December 1, 1983. Telephone Conversations.

5

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

145

COMPARISON OF OBSERVED AND PREDICTED KR-85 AIR CONCENTRATIONS*

Metin Yildiran** and Charles W. Hiller Health and Safety Research Division Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT A computer code, ANEMOS has been written to estimate concentrations in air and ground deposition rates for Atmospheric Nuclides Emitted from Multiple seration Sources. This code uses a modified Gaussian plume equation. Output from ANEMOS includes annual-average air concentrations and ground deposition rates of dispersed radionuclides and daughters. To use the environmental transport model properly, some estimate of the models predictive accuracy must be obtained. To validate the ANEMOS model, one year of weekly average Kr-85 concentrations observed at 13 stations located 28 to 144 km distant from continuous point source at the Savannah River Plant (SRP), Aiken, South Carolina, have been used. There was a general tendency for the model to underpredict the observed air concentrations slightly. Pearson's correlation between pairs of logarithms of observed and predicted annual-average values was r=0.84. The monthly results tend to show more scatter than do either the seasonal or the annual comparisons.

1.

INTRODUCTION

The ANEMOS [l] computer code has been developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory to estimate concentrations in air and ground deposition rates for Atmospheric Nuclides Emitted from Multiple Operation Sources. ANEMOS is one component of an Integrated Computerized Radiological Risk Investigation System [ 2 ] (CRRIS) developed

-

*

**

Research sponsored by the Office of Radiation Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, under Interagency Agreement DW930177-01-0 under Union Carbide Corporation contract EPA-89-F2-A106 with the U.S. Department of Energy. Although the research described in this report has been funded bythe U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, it has not been subjected to the Agency's required peer and policy review and, therefore, does not necessarily reflect the views of the agency and no official endorsment should be inferred. International Atomic Energy Agency Fellow at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Permanent Address: Turkish Electrisity Authority, Nuclear Power Plants Division, Ankara, Turkey.

146

for the U . S . Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for use in determining compliance with the Clean Air Act for radionuclides released from U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission-licensed and U.S. Department of Energy facilities. To use any environmental transport model properly, some estimate of the model's predictive accuracy must be obtained. The best way to determine the accuracy of calculational procedures such as ANEMOS is to compare predictions from the procedure with field measurements taken under release conditions similar to those assumed by the model, a process commonly referred to as model validation. A data set has been made available by the Savannah River Plant (SRP) at Aiken, South Carolina, that makes it possible to perform a validation study of ANEMOS out to a downwind distance off 144 km [3,4]. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the ANEMOS code and to present the results of a validation study using the SRP data base. 2.

ANEMOS CODE

ANEMOS estimates concentrations in air and ground deposition rates for Atmospheric Nuclides Emitted from Multiple Operating Sources. ANEMOS is intended to calculate the average concentrations around a source for releases that occur over an extended period of time such as a year. A schematic representation of the ANEMOS code is shown in Figure 1.

Fig. 1. A schematic representation of the ANEMOS computer code.

147

Discharges of radionuclides to the atmosphere result in doses to man from inhalation of an immersion in contaminated air, exposure to contaminated ground sources, and ingestion of food-stuffs contaminated by deposited radionuclides. The calculations made in ANEMOS are based on the use of a modified straight-line Gaussian plume atmospheric dispersion model [5]. Based on the type of long-term meteorological data available for many Unites States cities, a 22.5' sector-averaged air concentration is calculated:

where 'is

(x,0)

=

ground-level air concentration of radionuclide i with particle size s in wind direction 8 (1 5 8 5 16) at downwind distance x (activity/m3);

Piprs(") = effective emission rate for radionuclide i with particle size s in stability class p, wind speed class r, and wind direction 8 at downwind distance x (activity/s); f (0) Pr

-

u

r

=

fraction of total release time that wind blows toward direction 0 in wind speed class r and stability class p (unitless);

= mean wind speed associated with wind speed

category r (m/s);

Ns = number of atmospheric stability classes ( 2 8 ; unitless); Nw = number of wind speed classes L

(5

8;

unitless);

= depth of the atmospheric mixing layer associated

with stability class p (m); h = effective height of the plume (m); and e = the height of the receptor above ground (m). The value of G (z,h ,L ,x) used in Eq. (1) depends on the In the most common case of relationship between z, el 'and LP' z 5 he 2 Ln, and accounting for multiple reflections of the plume between the ground and the top of the mixins layer.

148

where

... n;

m = 0, 1, 2 ,

u Z (p,x) = vertical dispersion parameter for stability category p and downwind distance x (m).

When the value of uz(p,x) becomes greater than one or two times Lpr the radionuclide plume can be assumed to be effectively distributed uniformly in the vertical throughout the mixing layer. Under these circumstances

There are times when the relationship z 5 he 5 Lp may not hold in the atmosphere for a given assessment problem. If z < Lp < he or he < Lp < z , then (4)

G(z,he,L ,x) = 0 P Also, if L lower face =.nd

< z and L < he, the plume reflects from only a P -

-

2

G(z.he,L

P

.x) =

(5)

ANEMOS automatically selects the G(z,he,Lp,x) that is most appropriate for a given calculation.

ANEMOS requires as basic meteorological input a joint frequency distribution of wind direction, wind speed class, and atmospheric stability class over the time period of interest in each run. The

149

wind speeds associated with each wind speed class are often measured at 10 m height. These wind speeds can be automatically adjusted by ANEMOS for effective stack heights above 10 m on the basis of a wind profile power law as a function of atmospheric stability class and surface roughness length 161. The basic set of vertical dispersion coefficient ( a ) values used in ANEMOS is that developed by Smith [7] as modified by Hosker [8]. Values of (J are specified as a function of atmospheric stability, downwind distance, and surface roughness length. The height of the top of the tropospheric mixing layer above ground is considered to be a function of atmospheric stability class. ANEMOS results can be very sensitive to the values chosen for mixing height, especially at downwind distances beyond a few kilometers and when Eqs. ( 2 ) and ( 2 ) are being used. Daughter radionuclides may form during downwind travel from released parent radionuclides due to decay processes. In addition, both parent and daughters may be removed from the plume during transport by dry and wet deposition processes. All removal and input processes (including dry and wet deposition and decay and buildup) for all parent and daughter radionuclides are summed and integrated over the time that the plume travels to a given downwind location. A user of CRRIS may calculate external dose at a location due to a finite cloud containing a gamma- or x-ray-emitting radionuclide passing overhead. This calculation is made on the basis of the methodology presented by Healy and Baker [9] and incorporated into Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) Regulatory Guide 1 .lo9 [lo] for use with noble gas releases from stacks greater than 80 m in height. Once the finite plume dose has been calculated, it is divided by the appropriate dose conversion factor to get an "effective" air concentration. This "effective" air concentration is transmitted to ANDROS [ll] for subsequent dose and health risk calculations from the overhead cloud. The output of ANEMOS is presented for 16 sectors of a circular grid with nuclide-specific air concentrations and ground deposition rates. ANEMOS can calculate both the sector-average concentrations and deposition rates at a given set of downwind distances in each sector, and the average of these quantities over an area within each sector bounded by two successive downwind distances. 3.

THE SRP DATA BASE

The SRP is a major production facility of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The SRP includes a nuclear fuel manufacturing facility, three production reactors, two chemical separation plants, a heavy water production plant, and various waste management activities. These facilities are located on a 770 km2 site south of Aiken, South Carolina. The terrain within 150 km of the SRP is gently rolling hills ranging in elevations from 150 m above sea level to the northwest to about 25 m toward the southeast. The SRP is covered with mixed hardwood and pine forests: the surrounding area consists of mixed forests and clear land [31. Fission product Kr-85 is released as a nonbuoyant plume at a

150

heiqht of 62 m during dissolution of irradiated fuel. Kr-85 is an inert gas with a (10.76 years) radioactive half-life. Therefore, it can be used as a tracer of atmospheric dispersion processes without the complicating effects of wet deposition, dry deposition, and chemical transformation. Kr-85 air concentration measurements began in March 1975 and continued through September 1977 at 13 stations surrounding S R P . These stations are shown in Fig. 2 [ 4 ] . Cryogenic air samplers were used to collect the Kr-85 for laboratory processing andcounting. The sampling stations ranged in distances from 28 to 144 km from the release point. Meteorological data for the years of the Kr-85 Savannah River experiments are available. There are separate meteorological data bases for hourly surface weather observations, twice daily rawinsonde observations, and hourly-average meteorological tower observation. In addition to these meteorological data, the on-site 62 m meteorological tower data and an acoustic sounder located at the S R P have been used to compile wind rose statistics representative of the source area and vertical mixing characteristics of the lower atmosphere, respectively. 4.

METHODOLOGY

Separate ANEMOS simulations of Kr-85 transport were performed for each study period from September 1975 through August 1976 from the S R P data base.

Fig. 2. i:r-85 cryogenic air sampling stations, meteorological towers and surface weather stations within 200 km of the SRP Source [ 4 1 .

151

Study periods of interest were twelve months, four seasons, and one annual value. Model parqmeters were chosen appxopriate torelease conditions at the SRP. The source term was assumed to be a steady atmospheric release from a single point source (stack). Values of simulated ground-level Kr-85 air concentrations were computed for each of the 13 locations corresponding to the monitoring stations specified in the SRP data base. Comparisons were made between measured values of Kr-85 air concentrations and values of Kr-85 air concentrations predicted for each of the stations and time periods considered in this study using the statistical analysis package SAS 79 [13]. A background concentration of 14 pCi/m3 was subtracted from the measured concentrations at each station to derive the “observed” values used in these comparisons. The tendency of ANEMOS either to overpredict or underpredict was evaluated by examining the values of the ratio of predicted to observed air concentrations. The frequency distribution, median and geometric standard deviation of predicted-to-observed (P/O) ratios, and the slope, intercept, and Pearson’s correlation for the regression of the loq of the predicted air concentrations versus the log of the observed air concentrations have been computed for the annual, seasonal and monthly time periods. Also, Test of Significance [14] and the Reliability Index [151 have been applied to our results. 5.

RESULTS

Table 1 shows a station-by-station comparison of the observed and predicted annual average Kr-85 air concentrations. Table 2 shows the frequency distribution of the comparison of predicted to observed ratios for the annual, seasonal and monthly air concen: trations of Kr-85. A plot of log-predicted versus log-observed ground-level concentrations is given in Fig. 3. Given in Table 3 for each time period considered are the median and geometric standard deviation of the P/O values and the slope, intercept and correlation coefficient for the regression of the log of the observed air concentrations versus the log of the observed air concentrations. The results of the Test of Significance are also given in Table 3. The results show that the annual predicted ground-level Kr-85 concentrations exceed the observed values for 7 of the 13 stations. The predicted-to-observed concentration ratio was less than 1 in 6 of the 13 cases. Also this ratio was less than 0.5 for 1 of the 13 stations. It is assumed that the observed air concentrations at a given location are lognormally distributed. The Reliability Index is given in Ref. [151. One may use either of the following formulas:

kg =

152 Table 1 . Comparisons of observed and predicted annual average a i r concentrations of Kr-85 a t the SRP, September 1975 through August 1976.

station

Distance Kr-85 Concentrations (p/Ci/mB) from source (h) Observed Predic ted

Predicted Ob8elTOd

2

94

8.6

10.0

1.16

3

60

12.0

21.1

1.76

4

99

15.0

16.1

1.07 1.43

5

98

5.4

7.7

6

109

10.0

11.2

1.12

7

100

21.0

19.4

0.92

8

57

51.0

38.2

0.75

9

93

32.0

17.5

0.55

10

50

73.0

35.9

0.49

11

98

25.0

15.3

0.61

12

112

10.0

16.9

1.69

13

144

14.0

9.9

0.71

14

28

38.0

47.1

1.24

where : kg = the geometrically based index

ks = the statistical reliability index xi = ith model prediction yi = observations corresponding to Xi n = number of pairs (xi,yi) From Eq. [6] and Eq. [7] the values kg = 1.473 and ks = 1.497 are found. These results indicate that the model is accurate within a factor of about 1.5, in the sense described in Ref. [15]. Since the samples are from lognormal distributions in Ref. [15], this means that, within one standard deviation (that is about 68% of the time) the prediction will be within a factor of 1.5 of the observation < 1.5 and < 1.5, 68% of the time). Y1 x1

(2

%

The frequency distribution of the comparison of predicted and observed annual, quarterly and monthly concentrations of Kr-85 is

153 ORNL-DWO 04C-8878

PLOT OF LOG PRE 4.0

I

I

I

1.9

2.3

2.7

0

LOG OBS

I

I

I

I

3.1

3.5

3.9

4.3

3.8 3.6 3.4 3.2 w U

a

0

s

3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.8

1.5

LOG O B S

Fig. 3. Comparison log-prec2icted and log-observed annual Kr-85 ground-level concentrations at SRP monitoring stations. Values are plotted in units of pCi/m3. The solid line implies prediction = observation; dashed line, prediction = 0.1 x observation; and broken line, prediction = 2 x observation. given in Table 2. The monthly results tend to show more scatter than do either the seasonal or the annual comparisons. In other words, the results tend to be more scattered as the averaging time being considered decreases. The statistical analysis of comparisons between predicted and observed annual, quarterly, and monthly air concentrations of Kr-85 are given in Table 3 . From the Test of Significance it is found that the correlation coefficient for the long term periods considered in this study all significant at p < 0.01 level. The correlation coefficients tend to be more insignificant as the averaging time being considered decreases. Annual and quarterly values give very high correlation coefficients. For example, annual correlation coefficient is 0.84 and summer correlation coefficient is 0.95. If we look at the monthly results, three months (September, November and December) are not significant at p < 0.01 and give very low correlation coefficients. The median ratio of predicted-to-observed values indicates a slight tendency towards underpredictions. For example, the underprediction of annual values is less than one order of magnitude (Median = 0.96). There are some overpredictions in our analysis; however, they were always less than one order of magnitude. For example, the median ratios of September 1975 and October 1976 are 4.63 and 6.49, respectively. The geometric standard deviation of

154 Table 2. The frequency dirtribution of the oompariron of predicted and obrerved annual quarterly and monthly air concentrationr of Ir-85 at the SBP, September 1975 through August 1976.

l0.l

Frequency of ratio (P/O)* 0.1-0.5 0.5-1 1-2 2-10

go

ANNUAL 0

1

5

7

0

0

0

0

0

5

7

0

DOC. 1975-Fob. 1976

0

4

5

2

0

0

Mar.-blay 1976

0

2

4

5

0

0

0

2

5

3

2

0

Sop. 1975

0

0

0

5

3

5

Oct. 1975

0

0

0

2

8

3

Nov. 1975

0

1

7

1

1

1

Doc. 1975

0

6

4

2

1

0

Jan. 1976

0

3

7

1

2

0

Fob. 1976

0

0

5

4

3

1

Mar. 1976

0

9

1

1

1

0

Apr. 1976

0

0

7

4

1

0

May 1976

0

0

3

4

6

0

June 1976

0

3

4

4

1

0

July 1976

0

1

4

3

0

1

Aug. 1976

0

1

2

3

6

1

A' value of 1 signifies

a

Sop. 1975-Aug. 1976

QUARTERLY 1975

Sep.-Nov.

June-Ang

. 1976

MO"ELY

perfect prediction.

155

Table 3. The statistical analysis of comparisons between predicted and observed annual, quarterly and monthly air concentrations of Kr-85 at the SRP, September 1975 through August 1976.

Median

Geometric Standard Deviation

0.96

1.52

-0.43

1.16

0.84.

Sep.-Nov. 1975

2.26

1.59

-0.81

1.00

0.80.

Dec. 1975-Feb. 1976

0.64

1.52

-0.98

1.44

0.90.

Mar.-May

0.85

1.57

-0.45

1.22

0.88.

1.04

1.80

-2.00

1.69

0.95.

Sep. 1975

4.63

3.39

1.49

-0.07

0.07

Oct. 1975

6.49

2.61

-2.29

1.13

0.65.

Nov. 1975

0.94

2.92

1 .oo

0.63

0.49

Dec. 1975

0.61

2.36

2.61

0.32

0.35

Jan. 1976

0.72

2.01

0.74

0.84

0.64.

Feb. 1976

0.86

2.40

-0.49

1.24

0.80.

Mar. 1976

0.44

2.12

0.76

1.02

0.76,

Apr. 1976

0.96

1.61

-0.51

1.20

0.85.

May 1976

1.86

2.12

-0.85

1.08

0.81.

June 1976

0.82

1.87

-0.98

1.44

0.90.

July 1976

1.08

2.60

-0.63

1.18

0.82.

Aug. 1976

2.03

2.77

-1.83

1.40

0.69.

Interceptb

b Slope

b Correlation Coefficient

ANNUAL Sept.1975-Aug. 1976 QUARTELY

1976

June-Aug. 1976 MONITILY

.

bFor a perfect fit, blope=l, intercept=O, and correlation coefficientll. Signigicant a t p

<

0,OI.

156

predicted-to-observed ratios are lower for long time periods, such as months, considered in this study. Also, the regression of the log of prediction versus log of observation is closer to a perfect fit for the long time periods than any of the other short time periods considered in this study. 6.

DISCUSSION

The comparisons presented here assume that Kr-85 is emitted by SRP in a continuous manner when, in fact, it is emitted intermittently. Because of the relatively long averaging times considered in this study, and since there were no long shutdown periods suggested in the monthly emission data, this assumption should not be critical to the conclusions of the study. These results also assume no significant problems with the cryogenic Kr-85 sampling system or with the meteorological data acquisition system. A more critical problem is the selection of a value for the limit to vertical mixing, or lid height. Simulated ground-level air-concentration values at mesoscale distances are quite dependent on this parameter. For distances at which Eq. ( 3 ) is used, computed concentration is an inverse function of lid height. Furthermore, the effective limit to vertical mixing may be much higher than the classical lid height. For example, convective activity may serve to remove material from the lower layers of the troposphere [16].

These results show the importance of considering averaging times when discussing the accuracy of Gaussian plume model air concentration predictions. The monthly comparisons were generally less accurate than the quarterly comparisons which were, in turn, generally less accurate than the annual average comparison. This decrease in accuracy with decrease in averaging time has been demonstrated previously for the Gaussian model [17,181. This trend has been attributed to the less uniform distribution of wind direction within a sector for the shorter averaging times [17]. No attempt has been to judge the "acceptability" of the accuracy of results presented here. For example, are the annual average predictions too conservative, not conservative enough, or acceptable as presents? Only the user of these predictions should make this judgment. 7.

CONCLUSIONS

Comparisons between predicted and observed ground-level Kr-85 air concentrations have been made by using the ANEMOS computer code. Comparisons were made for annual, seasonal, and monthly time periods. There was a general tendency for the model to underpredict slightly the observed air concentrations for the time periods considered. The results for long term periods were more accurate than the results for short term periods, such as months. In other words, the general accuracy of the results tended to decrease as the averaging time being considered decreased. The results of model validation studies such as this one should be considered whenever ANEMOS or similar computer codes are used to determine compliance with EPA radionuclide emission standards or

157

applied to other radiological assessment problems. The acceptability of the model accuracy indicated by such studies must be determined by the model user on the basis of the use to which the model is being applied. REFERENCES Miller, C.W., Begovich, C.L., and Hermann, O.W., "ANEMOS: A Computer Code to Estimate Air Concentrations and Ground Deposition Rates for Atmospheric Nuclides Emitted from Multiple Operational Sources," ORNL-5973, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (in press). Baes, 111, C.F., and Miller, C.W., "CRRIS: A Computerized Radiological Risk Investigation System for Assessment of Atmospheric Radionuclides Releases," Nucl. Safety 2 5 (1): 75-85 (1984). Pendergast, M.M., Boni, A.L., Freber, G.J., and Telegadas, K., Measured Weekly Kr-85 Concentrations Within 150 km of the Savannah River Plant (March 1975 through September 1977) Final Report," NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL ARL-80 (1980). Telegadas, K., Ferber, G.L., Drexler, R.R., Pendergast, M.M., Boni, A.L., Hughes, J.P., and Grey, J., "Measured Weekly and Twice Daily Krypton-85 Surface Air Concentrations within 150 km of the Savannah River Plant (March 1975 through September 1977) Final Report," NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL ARL-80 (1980), Slade, D. (ed.), "Meteorology and Atomic Energy TID-24190 (1968).

- 1968," USAEC

Irwin, J.S., "A Theoretical Variation of the Wind Profile PowerLaw Exponent as a Function of Surface Roughness and Stability," Atoms. Environ. 13: 191 (1979). Smith, F.B., "A Scheme for Estimating the Vertical Dispersion of a Plume from a Source Near Ground Level," Chapter XVII, In Proceedings: Third Meeting of the Expert Panel on Air Pollution Modeling, Paris, France, 2-3 October 1972, NATO-CCHS Report 14, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Brussels, Belgium (1972). Hosker, R.P., "Estimates of Dry Deposition and Plume Depletion over Forests and Grassland,'' pp. 291-308, In Physical Behavior of Radioactive Contaminants in the Atmosphere, STI/PUB/354, IAEA, Vienna, Austria (1974). Healy, J.W. and Baker, R.E., "Radioactive Cloud-Dose Calculations," pp. 301-377, In D. Slade (ed.), Meteorology and Atomic Energy - 1968 USAEC TID-24190 (1968). Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Regulatory Guide 1.109, "Calculation of Annual Doses to Man from Routine Releases of Reactor Effluents for the Purpose of Evaluating Compliance with lo," CFR Part 50, Appendix I (Revision 11, Office of Standards Development, (1977). U.S.

Begovich, C.L., Ohr, S . Y . , and Chester, R.O., "ANDROS: A Code for Assessment of Nuclide Doses and Risks with Option Selec-

158

tion," ORNL-5889, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (1975). [12] Turner, D.B., "A Diffusion Model for an Urban Area," J. Appl. Meteorol. 3(1) : 83-91 (1964). [131

Barr, A.J., Goodnight, J.H., Sall, J.P., and Helwig, J.T., "A Users Guide to SAS 79." SAS Institute, Inc., Raleigh, NC (1979).

[141

Snedecor, G.W., Cochran, W.G., "Statistical Methods," Edition VI, The Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa (1967).

[151 Williams, L.R. , Leggett, R.W. , "A Measure of Model Reliability," Health Phy. 46 (1): 85-94 (1984). [161

Garrett, J.A., Personal Communication to C.W. Miller (1980).

[17] Draxler, R.R., "An Improved Gaussian Model for Long-term Average Air Concentration Estimates," Atmos. Environ. 14: 597-601 (1980). [18] Miller, C.W., Little, C.A., "A Review of Uncertainty Estimates Associated with Lodels for Assessing the Impact to Breeder Reactor Radioactivity Releases,'' ORNL-5832, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (1982).

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,Amsterdam,1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

159

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RELEASE OF RADIOACTIVITY TO THE BIOSPHERE DURING DEEP GEOLOGIC DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE SOLIDS THROUGH UNDERGROUND WATER

A.G. SOLOMAH Institut fur Chemische Technologie Kernforschungsanlage, KFA-JUlich D-5170 JBlich, Federal Republic of Germany

ABSTRACT The effects of temperature, brine composition and y-irradiation on the release of radioactivity from radioactive solids during their deep geologic disposal through groundwater are investigated. The data presented here are related to a =thetic E k s matrices (SYNROC) which have been proposed a s host matrices for radioactive waste. Temperature and gamma irradiation have shown positive effects to enhance the release of radioactive species from the solid matrices into the leaching aqueous media. Significant drop in the leach rates of Ba and Cs were observed after 28 days of leaching as a result of development of protective surface films of TiO; which are much less soluble. Simulated brines have shown no appreciable effects on the release of radioactive waste elements.

1.

INTRODUCTION

Radioactive waste materials, solids, liquids and gases have to be ultimately isolated from our biosphere. Radioisotope applications in medicine, agriculture, industries, etc. represent a major source for radioactive waste materials. Nuclear power generation plants produce different types of radioactive waste materials; gases, liquids and solids, short-lived and long-lived radioisotopes. Nuclear reactors spent fuels represent one of the most critical issues facing the future of nuclear energy. A thermal nuclear reactor of 1000 W e * produces about 35 MTHM** every year as highly active irradiated U02. This irradiated UOz contains almost all the elements which exist in the periodic table. If the nuclear industry will decide to dispose the spent fuel ultimately, i.e., no reprocessing will take place to recover plutonium and uranium, a substantial source of energy will be lost. But if reprocessing will be decided to recover plutonium and uranium to reuse them either in the present thermal nuclear reactors or in the future fast breeder reactors, a by-product radioactive waste will be produced. This radioactive waste includes relatively short-lived isotopes whose half-lives are less than 100

* **

W e = Mzga watt electric (10 W) MTHM =Metric Xonne of Eeavy Metal

160 years (e.g., 137Cs has T1/2 %3OY, 9'%r has T1/2 - 2 8 Y), relatively long and ery long-lived isotopes whose half-lives are longer than l o 3 years (e.g., y39Pu has T1/2 2.41 x lo4 Y, 2 4 3 A m has T1/2 % 7.37 x lo3 Y). Table 1 shows the composition of the actinides and the fission product elements in the high level radioactive waste generated from the PUREX* reprocess based on ORIGIN Computer Code (Oak Ridge Isotope Generation and Depletion Code) for a thermal nuclear reactor operating at % 33000 MWD/MT burnup and with a cooling period of 30 years after reprocessing [l]. Q

Isotope Activities of Actinides and Fission Products Resulting Table 1. From Reprocessing of 1 Metric Ton of Uranium Dioxide, 3.3 w/o U-235, discharged from a Pressurized Water Reactor. Burn up is 33000 MWD and the neutron flux is 2.92 E 13 n.cm-*.s-l. Calculations are based on removing 99.5% of U and Pu and 30 years of storage after reprocessing ACTINIDES Element*

FISSION PRODUCTS

Activity (Bq)

E1ement

Activity (Bq)

Ac Th Pa U NP Pu Am Cm Bk Cf

5.883+5 6.55E+J 1.27E+10 6.36E+8 6.82E+11 J.883+12 7.33E+12 2.85E+13 6.33E-3 6.34E+5

TOTAL

4.38E+13

79Se 90Sr 90Y 93Zr 9 3%b

99Tc l07Pd 113mCd l25Sb 12SmTe 126Sn 1261 Sb

lZ6Sb I 134cs 135 cs 137cs 137Ba 147Pm 151 Sm 152 129

154EU EU 155

Eu TOTAL

* The activities and "'Ac,

1.4JE+10 1.35E+15 1.35E+15 6.993+10 5.62E+10 5.29E+11 4.07E+9 8.62E+10 1.32E+11 5.48E+10 2.02E+10 2.02E+10 2.00E+10 1.38E+09 3.11E+11 1.06E+10 1.98E+15 1.85E+15 1.28E+12 3.64E+13 7.99E+10 6.92E+13 2.40E+9 6.64E+15

-___

of the isotopes were summed up. For example, 2 2 5 A ~ , T c their activities were added together and represented by Ac.

This radionuclide waste composition will ultimately require isolation from our biosphere. One of the most considered options is to incorporate

*

PUREX Process = Plutonium, Uranium Reduction Extraction Process

161 these radioactive species in an inert, durable and chemically stable solid matrix appropriate for deep-geologic disposal in our earth. Glass and its derivatives have been proposed as host matrices for this type of radioactive waste [ 2 ] . Glass matrices and compounds have shown poor chemical stability under hydrothermal leaching conditions similar to those in the deep earth environment [ 3 ] . Therefore, crystalline materials, e.g., supercalcine [ 4 ] , synthetic rocks [5], etc., have been considered as host matrices for radioactive waste [ 6 ] . =thetic E k s or SYNROC matrices have shown their superior leaching resistance, radiation stability and mechanical properties over glass and other crystalline materials [ 7 , 8 ] . SYNROC-B crystalline matrices are assemblages of three phases: BaAl2Ti5Olb,perovskite (CaTi03) and zirconolite (CaZrTi207). These phases have shown their mutual compatibility with one another and their ability to incorpoate a wide range of radioactive waste constituents (shown in Figure 1) in their crystalline lattice structures [ 5 , 8 ] . A subsolidus sintering technique was developed as an alternative process for SYNROC-B containing up to 20 w t . % simulated radioactive waste [ 9 ] . 2.

OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH

Chemical stability - particularly the leaching behaviour-of the radioactive solid material is one of the most important factors in its evaluation. The chemical alteration of the solidified waste forms by groundwater during deep-geologic disposal represents the most likely mechanism by which dangerous radioactive species could be reintroduced into the biosphere. Knowing the geologic history of the repository, the chemistry of the groundwater (brine) and the mechanisms involved in the corrosion of these radioactive solids can provide help to predict the long-term stability of these materials. In a scenario where accidental groundwater will introduce into the repository during the first thousand years and the external barriers surrounding the radioactive solids (e.g., backfill, canister, etc.) are removed and subsequently, the groundwater (brine) will be in contact with the solidified radioactive waste, one should consider the following factors in order to assess the safety and the risk associated with such a disposal strategy: ( i ) during the first few centuries of the disposal period i n the deep-

geologic disposal, the temperature of the repository site will increase for a period of time as a result of the decay of the fission products (i.e., y-emitters) which generate heat in a partially isolated system. (ii)

(iii)

the water chemistry of the groundwater (brine) tncluding the composition (anions and cations), pH, oxidation and reduction potentials (EH) and its characteristics at elevated temperatures and pressures, and the effects of gamma irradiation on the release of radioactive species during the chemical reaction between the radioactive solids and the aqueous media (brine or groundwater).

In this paper, data about the leaching behaviour of a modified SYNROC-B radioactive waste form are presented.

162 3.

EXPERIMENTS

. Different leaching tests (MCC-1 and MCC-2 leach tests)" [lo] were conducted on monolithic samples of sintered modified SYNROC-B matrices containing 10 wt.% simulated radioactive waste. The leaching tests carried out in this study covered the range of temperatures 25 to 150 C (293 to 423 K) in triple distilled Hz0. A modified leach test under the influence of gamma irradiation was developed to study the effects of gamma irradiation on the leaching behaviour of the proposed matrices (111.

3.1

Experimental Procedure

Samples of sintered modified SYNROC-B waste form containing 10 wt.% simulated PUREX Process radioactive waste were cylindrical in shape (with 1.2 cm. dia. disks and an 0.3 cm. height, each). The top and the bottom of each disk was polished to a 1.0 pm finish. The monolithic samples were placed in Teflon containers, which are recommended by the MCC. They contained the appropriate volumes of the leachant (triple distilled H20). The ratio of the geometric surface area of the solid to the volume of the leachant is 0.1 cm-L as described in MCC-leach test procedures. These Teflon containers were not considered sufficiently stable for gamma irradiation leach tests, therefore, fused quartz containers were used under irradiation conditions [12]. 6oCo gamma source (T1/2 Q 5.27 years) was used as the irradiation source at the ambient temperature, 25OC (298 K). Background analyses were conducted on the Teflon-H,O and quartz-H,0 systems in the absence of any sample material. Different simulated natural brines similar to those present in different proposed repository sites in the USA [13] were used as leaching media to study the effect of the constituents of these brines on the release of the simulated radioactive species from SYNROC-B ceramic waste matrices. Table 2 shows the Table 2.

Element

Chemical Analysis of Natural Brines, Concentrations in mg/ml [13]

Michigan

Mississippi

New Mexico

Utah ~

Na K Ca Mg

Sr c1

s04 Br TDS*

28 9 80 16 2.00 250.00

-

385

79 7.08 34 3.92 1.52 198.70 0.18 2.04 326.71

44.4 30.25 0.50 62.60

-

251.50 3.30 0.53 395.09

~~~

18.80 5.99 52.70 39.20 2.00 241 .OO 0.004 3.08 366.608

*

TDS = Total Eissolvable Solids

*

MCC = Materials Characterization Center, PNL, Richland, Washington, USA.

163 chemical analyses of the natural brines, while Table 3 gives the compositions of the simulated brines used in these leachability studies. Table 3.

Compositions of the Simulated Brines used in Leachability Studies, Concentrations in mg/ml

Compound

Michigan

NaCl KC 1 CaC12

Mississippi

71.436 17.16 221.537 62.651 3.618

SrC12 Br

201.552 13.500 94.153 15.349 2.750

New Mexico

Utah

113.227 57.676 1.385 245.123

47.964 11.421 145.937 153.496 3.618

-

-------------------negligible---------------------------------

-------------------negligible---------------------------------

s04 TDS

376.402

327.304

417.461

332.436

The normalized leach rate of a specific element i, either from the simulated radioactive waste species or from the matrix components, can be calculated according to the following equation:

where

LRi(t) = normalized leach rate (averaged or linear) of element i during the leach period t M (t) = i "L

=

concentration of element i in the leachant after the leach period t (g.rn1-l) volume of the leachant (ml)

fi(0) = inttial fraction of element i in the solid before leaching S

= geometric surface area in contact with the solution (m2)

t

= leach period (days).

The concentrations of the elements released from the solid waste matrices into the leachant were measured with atomic absorution/atomic emission flame spectrophotometry iycluding the background or reference solutions. The change in acid/base formation during leaching process was monitored through the measurements of pH of the leachants and the end of each sequential leach period. The pH measu_rement for the reference solutions was also carried out in order to monitor the behaviour of the container-leachant system itself which might cause an intereference in the data analyses.

164

4.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The e f f e c t s of leaching temperature and gamma i r r a d i a t i o n on t h e r e l e a s e of the simulated r a d i o a c t i v e waste s p e c i e s from SYNROC-B ceramic m a t r i c e s a r e presented i n Figure 1. It is evident t h a t t h e r e a r e i n c r e a s e s i n t h e normalized leach r a t e s of Ba and C s with t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e leaching temperature and due t o gamma i r r a d i a t i o n a s compared t o 25OC (298 K) leach t e s t where no gamma i r r a d i a t i o n i s involved. Temperature E f f e c t s on t h e Leach Rates of Barium and Cesium

4.1

A s t h e normalized l e a c h r a t e s of Ba and C s i n c r e a s e s temperature, i . e . , t h e r e is a p o s i t i v e temperature e f f e c t behaviour of SYNROC-B waste form, t h e r e f o r e , t h e leaching c o n t r o l l e d by an a c t i v a t i o n energy. Thus, t h e leach r a t e empirical Arrhenius Law:

with t h e on t h e leaching process i s would follow the

Lri(T) = Ki exp (-Qai/RT) where

LRi(T) = normalized leach r a t e of an element i a t t h e leaching temperature T (g.m-' .day-$) Ki

Qai

= preexponential c o n s t a n t f o r t h e element i (g.m-'.day-') =

a c t i v a t i o n energy of t h e element i ( k c a l - m o l - l )

R

= gas c o n s t a n t (kcal.mo1-'.K-')

T

= leaching temperature (K)

For a s i n g l e forward r e a c t i o n , a p l o t of In (LRI(T) versus (1/T) w i l l give a s t r a i g h t l i n e whose s l o p e is (-Q /R) [14,15]. The c a l c u l a t e d 2 * 3.2 kcal.mo1-' a c t i v a t i o n e n e r g i e s f o r C s and Ba a r e ~ ~ i . 6and respectively. Figure 1 shows s u b s t a n t i a l d e c r e a s e s i n t h e l e a c h r a t e s of barium and cesium a f t e r 28 days of leaching. This is due t o t h e development of protect i v e s u r f a c e f i l m s c o n s i s t i n g predominantly of t i t a n i u m d i o x i d e , T i O z , which a r e much l e s s s o l u b l e . This has been v e r i f i e d by studying t h e leached surface using Auger e l e c t r o n spectroscopy ( U S ) and secondary i o n mass spectrometry (SIMS) [16].

4.2

E f f e c t s of Gamma I r r a d i a t i o n on t h e Leach Rates of Barium and Cesium

Figure 1 shows t h e l e a c h r a t e s of Ba and C s under t h e i n f l u e n c e of gamma i r r a d i a t i o n a t 25OC (298 K) i n comparison with those under no gamma i r r a d i a t i o n . It i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e normalized l e a c h r a t e s a r e i n i t i a l l y higher than those f o r u n i r r a d i a t e d samples. After 28 days of l e a c h i n g , t h e l e a c h r a t e s drop s i g n i f i c a n t l y under gamma i r r a d i a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s s i m i l a r t o those observed f o r t h e u n i r r a d i a t e d samples. The i n c r e a s e s i n t h e l e a c h r a t e s of Ba and Ca under gamma i r r a d i a t i o n may be due t o t h e formation of f r e e r a d i c a l s and i o n i c s p e c i e s through water r a d i o l y s i s , as w e l l as t h e formation of hydrogen peroxide and i o n i c hydrogen

165

C s Ba

o

y-irradiation,298k no y-irradiation,4231

o

no y-irradiation,298V

m

\

E-4 1

I

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

I

1

I

1 I I l l

I

1

1 I 1111

El E2 Leach Period, days 1

E5

Figure 1.

I

I

E6 E7 Accumulated y - Dose, rads

E3 d

E8

E f f e c t s of Temperature and y-Irradiation o n the Leaching Behaviour of Sintered SYNROC-B S o l i d Containing LO w t . 4 ; Simulated PUREX Waste.

166

[ 1 4 ] . These short-lived f r e e r a d i c a l s and i o n i c s p e c i e s may i n q r e a s a the+2 i n i g i a l leach r a t e , e s p e c i a l l y of low-valence c a t i o n s (e.g., C s , Rb , Ba , Fe , e t c . ) located near the s u r f a c e of t h e s o l i d waste form [11,12]. 4.3

E f f e c t s of t h e Simulated Brines a s Leaching Media on t h e Leach Rates of Simulated Radioactive Waste Elements

Simulated b r i n e s with compositions given i n Table 3 were prepared and used a s leaching media t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e i r e f f e c t s on t h e l e a c h r a t e s of d i f f e r e n t simulated r a d i o a c t i v e waste elements of i n t e r e s t . I t was found t h a t t h e r e a r e no a p p r e c i a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e r a t e s of s e v e r a l r a d i o a c t i v e waste elements e i t h e r i n d i s t i l l e d H20 or i n simulated b r i n e a t 25OC (298 K) and a t t h e i r b o i l i n g temperature, l l O ° C ( 3 8 4 K ) .

5.

CONCLUSIONS

Although t h e leaching periods of t h e leach t e s t s c a r r i e d out i n t h i s work a r e almost n e g l i g i b l e with r e s p e c t t o t h e deep-geologic d i s p o s a l periods which a r e i n the range of lo5 - lo6 y r , the d a t a provided i n t h i s paper can h e l p t o understand t h e behaviour of the SYNROC-B r a d i o a c t i v e waste m a t r i c e s i n a s c e n a r i o where a c c i d e n t a l groundwater w i l l be i n c o n t a c t with t h e s e s o l i d i f i e d waste m a t e r i a l s . From the d a t a presented i n the preceding s e c t i o n s , one can draw the following conclusions:

1. the e f f e c t s of temperature on the l e a c h r a t e s of Ba and C s a r e p o s i t i v e and t h e i r a c t i v a t i o n e n e r g i e s a r e 3 . 2 and 6 . 2 kcal.mo1-1 respect i v e ly

.

2. t h e e f f e c t s of gamma i r r a d i a t i o n on t h e l e a c h r a t e s of Ba and C s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t e s p e c i a l l y during t h e f i r s t 2 8 days. 3 . There a r e no a p p r e c i a b l e e f f e c t s of t h e simulated b r i n e on t h e leaching behaviour of SYNROC-B ceramic waste forms. 6.

RECOMMENDATION

I t i s highly recommended t o perform a c t u a l t e s t s on SYNROC-B m a t e r i a l s i n c o r p o r a t i n g r e a l r a d i o a c t i v e waste i n o r d e r t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e behaviour of these r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s under a c t u a l d i s p o s a l c o n d i t i o n s . More r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s a r e required t o study t h e leached s u r f a c e t o o f f e r new understanding f o r the mechanisms involved i n t h e chemical a t t a c k of the groundwater t o t h e exposed s u r f a c e s of t h e proposed r a d i o a c t i v e waste matrices. These e v e n t u a l l y w i l l provide h e l p t o a s s u r e s a f e d i s p o s a l f o r t h e r a d i o a c t i v e waste m a t e r i a l s and secure our c l e a n biosphere.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author would l i k e t o thank Sandra Ramsay and Kathy Woodbeck f o r t h e i r valuable a s s i s t a n c e i n preparing t h e manuscript of t h i s paper.

167 REFERENCES

1.

Bell M.J., ORIGIN - The Oak Ridge National Laboratory Isotope Generation and Depletion Code, ORNL-4628, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, USA, (1973).

2.

McElroy, J.L., Quarterly Progress Report Research and Development Waste Fixation Program, PNL-2264, Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Richland, Washington, USA, (1977).

3.

McCarthy, G.J., "Radioactive Waste Management: the Nuclear Waste Form," p. 17 (1975). Earth and Mineral Science, 5,

4. McCarthy, G.J., "High Level Waste Ceramics: Materials Considerations, Process Simulation and Product Characterization," Nucl. Technol. 92-105, (1977). 5.

32,

pp.

Ringwood, A.E., "Safe Disposal of High Level Nuclear Reactor Waste: A New Strategy," Australian National University Press, Canberra, Australia, (1978).

6. Strachan, D.M., "Crystalline Materials for the Long Term Storage of Hanford Defense Waste, RO-SA-13," also, Proc. National. Meeting Amer. Cer. SOC., Detroit, Michigan, USA, pp. 1-38, (1978).

7. Solomah, A.G., "High Level Radioactive Waste Management," Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Nuclear Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, N.C., USA, (April, 1980).

8. Campbell, J. et al., "Properties of SYNROC-D Nuclear Waste Form: A Stateof-the-Art Review," UCRL-53240, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA, (1982).

9. Solomah, A.G., T.M. Hare and H. Polmour 111, "HCW Fixation in Sintered SYNROC-B ceramics: Compositions and Phase Characterization," Trans. Amer. Nucl. SOC., p. 197, (1980).

E,

10.

Turcotte R.P. et al., "The Materials Characterization Center Standard Tests I: Proposed Waste Form Leach Tests," Abstracts of ORNL Conf. Leachability of Radioactive Solids, Gatlingerg, Tennessee, pp. 96-99, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (December, 1980).

11.

Solomah. A.G. and L.R. Zumwalt." Leachability Studies of Modified SYNROC-B Waste Form: Effect o f - G a m a Irradiation," Rad. Eff. 60, p. 245, 1982)

.

12.

Solomah A.G., "The Influence of Gamma Irradiation on the Leaching Behaviour of A Modified SYNROC-B Ceramic Waste Form," in the Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management, S.W. Topp, Ed., Elsevier Science Publishing Co. Inc., New York, N.Y. USA, pp. 727-732, (1982).

13.

Stewart D.B. et al., "Application of Physical Chemistry of Fluids in Rock Salts at Elevated Temperature and Pressure to Repositories for Radioactive Waste," in the Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management, G.J. McCarthy, Ed., Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York, N.Y. USA, pp. 297 (1979).

168

14.

Oversby, V.M., "Leach Testing of Waste Forms Interelationship of IS0 and MCC Type Tests," Second Semi Annual Workshop of Nuclear Waste Forms, Gaithersburg, Maryland, May 19-21, 1982; see also UCRL-87621, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA, (1982).

15.

Solomah, A.G., "Effects of Temperature on the Leaching Behaviour of Sintered Modified SYNROC-B Waste Form,*' Nucl. Technol. 62, pp. 311-316, (1983).

16.

Solomah, A.G., in preparation, (1984).

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N.Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam,1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

PROPOSED TECHNIOUE O N S P E N T F U E L DISPOSAL S.M. RAZA, S.B.H.ABID1, S.A.RAZA* and N.FAROOQU1 Department of Physics University o f Baluchistan, Quetta (PAKISTAN)

*Pakistan Industrial Development Corporation M S M Division, P.I.D.C. House, Dr. Zia-uddin Ahmad Road, Karachi (PAKISTAN)

ABSTRACT T h e s p e n t fuel elements from nuclear power stations are reprocessed after a period of storage, and then the residual wastes are converted into solid blocks through vitrification technology. Low-level radioactivity of spent fuel demanded waste management for d e e p s e a disposal and also the inceneration technology. Intermediate level radioactive wastes from spent fuel require containment in an engineered storage system before finally disposing o f them t o sea. In this paper, we are mainly concerned with high level waste management practices, vitrification technology, transportation and disposal o f wastes. Our proposed technique o n spent fuel disposal require d e e p drilling in larger areas of granite and similar hard rocks covered and surrounded by clays and s a l t formations. Naturally, the folded structure of hard rocks surrounded by areas of s a l t formations would lead to a permanent storage for high level radioactive wastes.

1.

INTRODUCTION

There are two generic disposal methods: (i) dilution and controlled dispersion to the environment; and (ii) concentration and burial or storage. High-level liquid wastes and solid waste matter are invariably stored or buried. The terms low-, intermediate - and high-refer to the concentration of radioactivity. W e endorse, i n particular, the expansion of the geological and oceanographic research programmes for high-level waste disposal. The major source of waste from nuclear industry i s the spent fuel elements from nuclear power stations. These contain unburnt uranium, plutonium and waste products arising from nuclear interactions within the fuel i n the reactor. After a period of storage, the spent fuel i s reprocessed to seperate out these various components, permitting the unburnt uranium and plutonium t o be extracted and recycled for further use. The residual wastes from reprocessing are highly radioactive and form t h e high-level nuclear wastes. Storage i s not a substitute for disposal,

169

170 although it is a necessary part of waste management. The transition from storage (containment in an engineered storage system) to disposal is unlikely to take place until at least 50 years after the wastes have been vitrified, assuming vitrification will take place at least five years after the removal bf fuel from the reactor. We are presently concerned with optimisation of waste storage and disposal. Further research is needed to ascertain the disposal route which is best from the point of view of safety, economy and public acceptibility. The duration of the subsequent period of storage in vitrified form depends on a number of factors, the most important of which is the eventual method of disposal to be adopted; a shorter period may be required if the waste is disposed of on the deep ocean bed then if it is buried below the sea bed or the land surface. The containment in an engineered storage system, either for which technology already exists above ground or sub-surface might be the best way to deal with solidified high-level wastes for at least 50 years and possibly much longer. In examining the waste management implications of the nuclear power programme, we have based our calculations on the figure of 2 5 G W which is the most recent estimate of likely installed nuclear generating capacity in the year 2 0 0 0 . In the case of high-level radioactive waste remaining from the reprocessing of spent fuel, the envisaged increase in capacity is unlikely to present any signigicant new waste management task. The total high-level waste arising u p to the year 2000 from a 2 5 G W programme would be less than 600 m3 in volume. The type of reactor is unlikely to alter the activity, or significantly affect the volume, of high-level vitrified waste. Geological disposal is only one of a number of possible methods of dealing with high-level wastes.

-

J.B. Lewis (1) summarised with arguments the unsuitability of dumping the high-level radioactive wastes in the ocean beds, particularly, due to problems arising from monitoring the effects caused by deep sea disposal. The principal natural source of internal radiation to deep sea fish is Po 2 1 0 and a study of this in fish provides a useful indication of how other radionuclides will behave. However, a more eloborate research programme is needed which includes three-dimensional waste dispersion model, two-dimensional meridional model and process models. These models will provide informations about accurate estimates of concentration fields, natural trace distributions and physical transport processes in specefic locations. 2.

REASONS F O R NUCLEAR FUEL REPROCESSING

Fission products contained in irradiated fuel elements constitute the dominant radioactive waste disposal problem in nuclear industry. High-level wastes include the isotopes of neptunium (Np), americium (Am) and curium (Cm), alongwith small amounts of uranium and plutonium, that would not be removed in reprocessing owing to ineffeciencies in chemical seperation. When reprocessing has been carried out, the high-level radioactive waste is initially in liquid form. During fuel reprocessing operations, the fission products are freed from the normal

171 confinement of f u e l element c l a d d i n g . B e f o r e , b e i n g t r a n s p o r t e d t o a reprocessing f a c i l i t y , i r r a d i a t e d f u e l elements a r e stored i n a w a t e r - f i l l e d b a s i n f o r a b o u t 3 m o n t h s of t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e i n i t i a l l y h i g h r a t e o f d e c a y o f f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s a c t i v i t y . The c o s t of c o n s t r u c t i n g t a n k forms f o r h i g h - l e v e l r a d i o a c t i v e waste s t o r a g e d e p e n d s on s i t e c o n d i t i o n s and on t h e c h e m i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e waste s o l u t i o n s . H u n d r e d s o f d i f f e r e n t f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s a r e formed i n a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r , o f w h i c h s t r o n t i u m 90 and c e s i u m 1 3 7 , two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s , c o n s t i t u t e a b o u t 5% of t h e t o t a l , p a r t i c u l a r l y , i n LWR ( l i g h t w a t e r r e a c t o r s ) . The f i s s i o n a b l e p l u t o n i u m 2 3 9 i s consumed by f i s s i o n r e a c t i o n s , n e a r t h e e n d o f t h e e f f e c t i v e l i f e of t h e f u e l , a s f a s t a s i t i s b e i n g c r e a t e d . The e f f e c t i v e l i f e o f t h e f u e l i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e d e s i g n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f f u e l c o m p o s i t i o n and r e a c t o r s . However, t h e f i s s i o n a b l e p l u t o n i u m i s b r e d i n some f a s t r e a c t o r s . I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e , w e produce plutonium a b o u t t w i c e t h a n what w e c o n s u m e . From t h e t i m e s p e n t f u e l i s r e m o v e d f r o m t h e r e a c t o r , i t c o n s i s t s of f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s which i n c l u d e s u n s t a b l e n u c l i d e s s u c h a s xenon 135 and cesium 1 3 5 which d e c a y s f a s t t o v a r i o u s o t h e r e l e m e n t s , s t a b l e n u c l i d e s s u c h a s Sm 1 4 9 e t c , u n b u r n t i s o t o p e s of uranium and p l u t o n i u m , c l a d d i n g and e n g i n e e r i n g materials. Before r e p r o c e s s i n g t h e s p e n t n u c l e a r f u e l , sometimes posti r r a d i a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t f o r t h e enrichment of u n r a n i u m a n d p l u t o n i u m . T h i s i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by a d d i n g u r a n i u m and p l u t o n i u m o f which t h e e n r i c h m e n t i s r e q u i r e d , i n t h e f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s a n d t h e n a p a r t i c u l a r c h e m i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g p r o c e s s known a s "Purex P r o c e s s " i s followed.However, w e s h o u l d have a p l a n t design philosphy of "Purex Process" t o achieve our cause f o r a s p e c e f i c purpose. Now, w e b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s a n d i t s objectives for spent f u e l reprocessing.

(1)

-

(2)

-

(3)

-

(4)

-

P h y s i c a l and m e c h a n i c a l fuel.

changes i n t h e p r o p e r t i e s of

the

R e a c t i v i t y o f f u e l d e c r e a s e s w i t h t i m e d u e t o g r o w t h of f i s s i o n product poisons. Plutonium i s a y a l u a b l e byproduct of f i s s i o n . I t should be recovered f o r t h e use i n f a s t breeder r e a c t o r s . To seperate out

low-, i n t e r m e d i a t e - , and h i g h - l e v e l r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e s and t o p r o p o s e methods f o r t h e i r d i s p o s a l .

Objectives:

(2)

-

(3)

-

(1)

To r e c o v e r Pu i n p u r e f o r m w i t h > 9 9 . 9 % e f f e c i e n c y . T o r e d u c e u r a n i u m c o n t e n t of p l u t o n i u m T O geduce

t o <1%.

f i s s i o n p r o d u c t a c t i v i t y i n Pu by a f a c t o r o f

'L10 (4)

-

(5)

-

T o r e c o v e r d e p l e t e d uranium i n p u r e form from f i s s i o n products. To arrange

f i s s i o n p r o d u c t s f o r permanent s t o r a g e according

172 to activity. (6)

3.

-

To control the emission of fission products to atmosphere and effluents and make it safer for biosphere.

HIGH LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT

High level radioactive waste for considerable length of time was already known to be practicable, and in a vitrified form would require far less supervision than in liquid form. It is easier, safer and cheaper to contain and store solids than liquids and it is logical to convert the waste into solid blocks. While tank storage of high-level liquid waste is manageable on a short term basis, it is not an attractive permanent solution to the disposal problem in view of the long radioactive half life of some fission nuclides. Disposal of high level radioactive wastes by dilution and dispersion is not an attractive solution in view of the large waste volumes involved and the stringent tolerances on strontium 90 concentration in the environment. The most troublesome solid wastes come, not from the reactor, but from the fuel reprocessing plants. Long before the year 2000, it will have become routine for the high-level radioactive waste produced in reprocessing fuel from these plants to be converted to solids and buried or stored where it cannot reach the biosphere. For spent fuel and vitrified waste management, interim storage is an essential part of the cycle. The passive air-cooled vault store developed by GEC Energy Systems Limited provides an optimum engineered solution, available now for power station or reprocessing site application. Temporary storage is particularly important with respect to an isotope such as iodine 131 (t = 8 days). r For fuel management scheme, cesium discharge reduction is 'also an important part of the spent fuel cycle. The best method of reducing the cesium discharges in the interim would be to immerse boxes of spent ion exchange material in storage pond water at the site. The fuel, which is not normally canisterised, can be inspected or retrieved at any time. After a few years cooling in the pond, oxide fuel can be maintained safely in an air storage environment. So far the solutions they have come up will have been merely temporary, and almost twenty thousand tons of deadly waste are now scattered over the globe in steel rods housed in storage tanks and boric acid pools that are fast becoming overcrowded. By 2000, the tonnage of spent fuel may have increased five-hold, raising the storage problem to crisis proportions. Vitrification of high-level radioactive waste soon after reprocessing has been carried out, would the temperature of the blocks to rise if they were left to themselves. The temperature increase would depend on their size, shape, waste content and surroundings, but it is undesirable to allow too great a rise in temperature of the blocks because this could affect their ability to contain the radioactive wastes. In practice, it is quite easy to design storage, o n or near the surface, to provide shielding and containment of the radioactivity, and to provide cooling by water or air to take away the heat generated. The amount of heat generated by the blocks decreases with time because of the reduction in radioactivity. Our recent estimates show that we

173 s h o u l d s t o r e t h e h i g h - l e v e l r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e s f o r a t l e a s t 50-100 y e a r s , a n d may b e c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e , b e f o r e t h e h e a t g e n e r a t i o n f a l l s t o a l e v e l a t w h i c h t h e e c o n o m i c a n d s i m p l e method o f d i s p o s a l i s p o s s i b l e . P r o f e s s o r Ringwood a t C a n b e r r a h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t o overcome t h e r i s k of g l a s s b l o c k s g e t t i n g h o t t h e r e would b e m e r i t i n u s i n g a n a r t i f i c i a l r o c k c a l l e d Synrock ( c e r a m i c ) i n s t e a d of g l a s s t o c o n t a i n t h e r a d i o a c t i v e wastes. J u l i a n Weiss ( 2 ) h a s m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e r e a r e p r o m i s i n g methods a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e d i s p o s a l of h a z a r d o u s w a s t e s ( t h a t can r e m a i n a c t i v e f o r a n y t h i n g b e t w e e n o n e t h o u s a n d y e a r s and m i l l i o n s of y e a r s ) , wh i ch i n c l u d e c h a n g i n g d e c a y i n g m a t t e r t o g l a s s o r blending i t w i t h c o n c r e t e , o r t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e s u b s t a n c e t o c e r a m i c s . In a m u l t i p l e b a r r i e r t e c h n i q u e , h o s t r o c k ( e i t h e r s a l t , b a s a l t o r g r a n i t e ) i s s e l e c t e d . Crushed rock i s used t o coat m e t a l and s t e e l b a r r i e r s t h a t f o r m c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s , w h i l e w a ste products a r e k e p t a t t h e c e n t e r . Monazite (phosphate molecules) c o u l d be u s e d t o c o n t a i n h a r m f u l r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e s f o r hundreds o f m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s , a n d f o u n d c o m p l e t e l y w a t e r r e s i s t a n t . One advantage i n t h i s case i s t h a t t h e conversion t o monazite could t a k e p l a c e a t a t o m i c e n e r g y p l a n t s , t h e r e b y a v o i d i n g t r a n s p o r t of w a s t e s . Moreover, a v a r i e t y of b o r o s i l i c a t e g l a s s e s can be const r u c t e d f r o m n u c l e a r w a s t e . The o p t i o n o f v i t r i f y i n g n u c l e a r w a s t e d r y i n g i t t o powder, mixing i t w i t h g l a s s making m a t e r i a l s c a l l e d f r i t , t h e n m e l t i n g a n d c o o l i n g i n t o s o l i d f o r m - h a s b e e n t a k e n up by s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s . A v a r i e t y of d i f f e r e n t s t o r a g e t e c h n i q u e s and d i s p o s a l medium e x i s t s , s u i t e d t o d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f w a s t e s p e n t f u e l or reprocessing a n d t h e g e o l o g y o f d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s . The spent nuclear fuel is encapsulated i n titanium, s t a i n l e s s s t e e l a n d c o p p e r c a n i s t e r s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The b e s t m e t h o d o f e n c a p s u l a t i n g s p e n t n u c l e a r f u e l i n c o p p e r i s b a s e d on t h e p r i n c i p l e o f h o t i s o s t a t i c p r e s s i n g o f w a s t e . How-ever, m o s t o f t h e w o r l d ' s nuclear byproducts are p r e s e n t l y s t o r e d i n s t a i n l e s s s t e e l c a n i s t e r s . Two b a s i s m e t h o d s w e r e s t u d i e d by P r o f e s s o r B.L.Cohen ( 3 ) f o r s t o r a g e and s i d p o s a l of r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e s . These i n c l u d e ( a ) i m m o b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e w a s t e s by c o n v e r t i n g t h e m t o more e a s i l y s t o r e d s o l i d f o r m , o r by s e l e c t i v e f i x a t i o n o f t h e r a d i o a c t i v i t y i n i n e r t , n o n - l e a c h a b l e , a n d h e n c e b u r i a b l e s o l i d m a t e r i a l , and (b) piping t h e wastes i n t o l i q u i d form i n t o g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n where t h e r e i s l i t t l e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n of ground water s o u r c e s . R e s e a r c h on t h e former method i s b e i n g c o n d u c t e d a t a number o f l a b o r a t o r i e s a n d i n v o l v e s s t u d i e s o f v a r i o u s c a l c i n a t i o n and f i x a t i o n s c h e m e s . A n e x a m p l e o f o n e o f t h e scheme i s a s f o l l o w s : t h e w a s t e s o l u t i o n i s p a r t l y c a l c i n e d and f i l t e r e d t o remove s o l i d f i s s i o n p r o d u c t o x i d e s , w h i c h a r e compacted and p a c k a g e d f o r s t o r a g e . The r e s i d u a l w a s t e s o l u t i o n i s p a s s e d o v e r a bed of m o n t m o r i l l o n i t e c l a y which i s e f f e c t i v e i n a d s o r b i n g f i s s i o n p r o d u c t ions. The c l a y i s t h e n h e a t e d t o a h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e , becoming a r e f r a c t o r y and e s s e n t i a l l y n o n - l e a c h a b l e m a t e r i a l which can b e b u r i e d .

-

The c o m p a r i t i v e l y s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s o f r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s i n v o l v e d make i t p r a c t i c a l t o u s e h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d w a s t e management p r o c e d u r e s , whose c o s t m u s t b e viewed i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e p r i c e o f t h e e l e c t r i c i t y g e n e r a t e d . F o r e x a m p l e , a medium

174 s i z e , 1000 MW r e a c t o r produces t h i r t y t o n s of w a s t e e a c h y e a r . Ninety s i x p e r c e n t of t h a t waste could a c t u a l l y be reprocessed, t h e r e b y d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c i n g t h e amount o f u s e l e s s s p e n t f u e l f o r d i s p o s a l , b u t p l a n s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s of commercial r e p r o c e s s i n g p l a n t s h a v e v i r t u a l l y come t o a s t a n d s t i l l . A s mentioned e a r l i e r t h a t v i t r i f i c a t i o n of high-level r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e s demanded " c o o l i n g " i n t h e s t o r a g e b e f o r e b u r i e d t o any p r o p e r g e o l o g i c a l s i t e would, however, r e q u i r e d e l a y e d b u r i a l , a s shown i n F i g (11, o t h e r w i s e w a s t e s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o b o r o s i l i c a t e g l a s s ( S i m i l a r t o P y r e x ) w o u l d become d e v i t r i f i e d ( c r y s t a l l i z e d o r b r i t t l e ) a t t e m p e r a t u r e s h i g h e r t h a n a b o u t 700C.

4.

G E O L O G I C A L DISPOSAL O F H I G H - L E V E L METHODS A N D PROPOSED MODELS:

RADIOACTIVE

WASTES:

V a r i o u s p r o p o s a l s ( 4 ) f o r d i s p o s a l h a v e b e e n made, i n c l u d i n g d i s p o s a l i n r o c k s t h o u s a n d s of f e e t u n d e r g r o u n d where t h e y would b e v i r t u a l l y i n a c c e s s i b l e . The b e s t way f o r w a r d f o r g e o l o g i c a l disposal w i l l be t o continue t o cool t h e blocks n e a r t h e s u r f a c e u n t i l t h e h e a t t h e y produce h a s f a l l e n t o a l e v e l a t which d i s p o s a l c a n b e r e c o m m e n d e d . When w e a r e s a t i s f i e d t h a t t h e i s o l l a t i o n o f s u c h s o l i d i f i e d w a s t e s c a n b e deemed p e r m a n e n t w e c a l l i t d i s p o s a l . W i t h i n t h e p a s t few y e a r s , t e s t s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e a b i l i t y of v i t r i f i e d g l a s s t o w i t h s t a n d n o t o n l y h e a t fro m a t o m i c p a r t i c l e s b u t from p l a c e m e n t d e e p w i t h i n t h e e a r t h . Large c l a y s e d i m e n t s u p t o 170m t h i c k w o u l d immerse t h e w a s t e s e v e n i f t i t a n i u m c a n i s t e r s d i s s o l v e d . A s much a s o n e f o u r t h o f t h e s e a - b e d i s g e o l o g i c a l l y s t a b l e , a n d i f n u c l e a r w a s t e i s mixed t o f o r m b o r o s i l i c a t e , t h i s t y p e o f d i s p o s a l c o u l d b e i n e x p e n s i v e and p r a c t i c a l ; b u t w e have t o c o n s i d e r t h e review a r t i c l e of J . B . L e w i s (1) a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h d u m p i n g o f h i g h l e v e l r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e s i s u n s u i t a b l e i n d e e p o c e a n b e d s . The r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e s b e i s o l a t e d f o r h u n d r e d s o f y e a r s seems a l a r m i n g t o some b e c a u s e few t h i n g s i n o u r e n v i r o n m e n t l a s t t h a t l o n g . Deep underground. ho e v e r , t h e t i m e c o n s t a n t s f o r change a r e i n t h e 1 y e a r s . Thus, on any l o n g t i m e s c a l e , n u c l e a r range o f 107-10 power m u s t b e viewed a s a method f o r c l e a n s i n g t h e e a r t h o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y . Random b u r i a l o f f e r s l e s s s e c u r i t y t h a n c a r e f u l c h o i c e of a b u r i a l s i t e b a s e d on g e o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n . Cohen ( 3 ) s u g g e s t e d f e w m e t h o d s f o r a d d i t i o n a l P r o f e s s o r B.L. p r o t e c t i o n a g a n i s t r e l e a s e during few hundred y e a r s c r i t i c a l , which a r e a s f o l l o w s :

(1)

-

(2)

-

(3)

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The m a t e r i a l w i l l b e b u r i e d i n a g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n t h a t h a s been f r e e of ground w a t e r f o r t e n s of m i l l i o n s of y e a r s and i n w h i c h g e o l o g i s t s a r e q u i t e c e r t a i n t h e r e w i l l b e no w a t e r f o r some t i m e i n f u t u r e . I f water should g e t i n t o t h e formation, the rock constituting i t w o u l d h a v e t o b e l e a c h e d o r d i s s o l v e d away b e f o r e w a t e r c o u l d r e a c h t h e w a s t e . Even i f t h e r o c k w e r e s a l t , d i s s o l u t i o n would t y p i c a l l y r e q u i r e t h o u s a n d s o f y e a r s . Once t h e w a t e r r e a c h e d t h e w a s t e g l a s s , t h e l a t t e r w o u l d b e l e a c h e d a t a r a t e o f o n l y a b o u t 1%p e r c e n t u r y .

175

1500- BURIAL AFTER BURIAL AFTER

10 YFARS ( 3 4 KWI

.0001 .001

.o 1 .1 1 Y E A R S AFTER BURIAL

10

100

Fig. 1. (4)

-

Ground water flows through aquifers rather slowly, requiring typically 1,000 years to reach surface waters from a depth of 600 m.

(5)

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Most of the radioactive materials would be held up by ion exchange processes, travelling 100 to 10,000 times slower than later.

The geological formation which have been considered for storage of high-level wastes in liquid form include salt beds, deep underground basins, and excavations i n selected shale formations. One of the criteria for the choice of a repository site is that there be a lack of valuable minerals and the prospect of discovering them. While discussing the various methods for the disposal of radioactive wastes, Professor B.L. Cohen (5) examined that if blocks were placed in salt under pressure, the heat would make the salt around it. This will cause the migration of the water pocket i n the direction of the higher temperature, which i s of course the direction of the buried waste canister. Small amount of water would continue to migrate after 25 years, carrying corrosive substances such as hydrochloric acid arising from chemical reactions induced in the salt by the radiation from the canister. While for a hard rock like granite, the heat could crack the rock and hence the migration rate of dispos,ed high-level radioactive wastes through cracks upto the surface of the earth would become appreciably larger thus causing human intrusion.

176 Therefore, w e suggest recommendations i n f u t u r e r e s e a r c h programme f o r t h e d i s p o s a l o f h i g h - l e v e l r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e s , which a r e a s f o l l o w s :

(1)

-

(2)

-

(3)

-

(4)

-

Type o f t h e r o c k w h i c h would b e m o s t s u i t a b l e f o r s t o r i n g t h e s o l i d i f i e d w a s t e s . Even, t h e p l a c e m e n t o f a n a r t i f i c i a l rock (ceramic) b a s i n deep underground t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d . T h i s a r t i f i c i a l r o c k ( c h e m i c a l l y formed ceramic m a t e r i a l ) s h o u l d be c o m p a t i b l e enough t o h o l d h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s c a u s e d by b u r i e d c a n i s t e r s . Even i f g r o u n d w a t e r c o m e s i n c o n t a c t w i t h a r t i f i c i a l r o c k , t h i s compound i s tough enough t o r e s i s t l e a k a g e . An a p p r o p r i a t e r o c k d r i l l i n g p r o g r a m m e t o s u g g e s t v a r i o u s d e s i g n s of t h e b u r i a l . S t u d i e s o f v a r i o u s t y p e s o f d e e p r o c k f o r m a t i o n s s u c h a s on craton. S t u d i e s on d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f r o c k s w h ic h h a v e d i f f e r e n t responses t o heat.

The a d v a n t a g e o f g o i n g t o d e p t h s o f h u n d r e d o f m e t e r s i s t h a t i n a c t i v e p a r t s of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t have g e o l o g i c s t r u c t u r e s t h a t would r e m a i n s t a b l e f o r m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s . The t o t a l a m o u n t o f n a t u r a l r a d i o a c t i v i t y i n t h e g r o u n d down t o t h e p r o p o s e d n u c l e a r w a s t e b u r i a l d e p t h s h o u l d f i r s t be d e t e r m i n e d i n terms of t h e r a d i u m c o n t e n t a n d a n a l l o w a n c e s h o u l d b e made t h a t i t s h o u l d be g r e a t e r t h a n t h e r a d i o a c t i v i t y i n t h e w a s t e s u n d e r s a f e g a u r d c o n d i t i o n s . Of c o u r s e , t h e r a d i o a c t i v i t y o f w a s t e s i s more c o n c e n t r a t e d , b u t i n p r i n c i p l e t h a t d o e s n o t make a n y d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e b i o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s o f r a d i a t i o n . The r e a s o n b e h i n d t h i s a r g u m e n t c a n be e x p l o r e d from t h e a r t i c l e of B.L. Cohen ( 3 ) . B a s e d o n t h e s e a r g u m e n t s , w e s h o u l d s u r v e y and e x p l o r e t h e amount o f r a d i u m i n t h e t o p 1 0 0 0 m e t e r s of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t o f g e o l o g i c a l s t a b l e a r e a s of P a k i s t a n and a l s o t h e amount o f r a d i u m i n p e o p l e . We h a v e d i s c o v e r e d t w o d e s i g n m o d e l s f o r t h e g e o l o g i c a l d i s p o s a l of h i g h - l e v e l r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e s , d e e p underground t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e by c o n s i d e r i n g r e c e n t t h e o r i e s o n g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s , w h i c h however makes i t r e a s o n a b l e f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f c a r r y i n g f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . The d e s i g n m o d e l s i f n o t p r a c t i c a l l y s u i t a b l e c a n , however l e a d t o f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , s u g g e s t i o n s a n d i m p r o v e m e n t s . I n t h e f i r s t d e s i g n m o d e l , a s shown i n F i g ( 2 1 , w e h a v e made u s e o f t h e r e c u m b e n t f o l d i n g ( d i p o f O-lOo) which can c a r r y c a n i s t e r s o f h i g h - l e v e l r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e s . The r e c u m b e n t f o l d i n g s a r e s u p p o r t e d f r o m t h e c o n c r e t e w a l l s and a l s o f r o m t h e s h i e l d i n g m a t e r i a l w h i c h i s made o f a n a r t i f i c i a l r o c k ( c e r a m i c ) . The s h i e l d i n g c a n p r e v e n t l e a k a g e a n d c a n h o l d h i g h e n o u g h t e m p e r a t u r e s c a u s e d by w a s t e c a n i s t e r s . The r e c o m b e n t f o l d i n g s a s shown i n F i g ( 2 ) i s s u r r o u n d e d by s a l t o r b a s a l t : i f w a t e r v a p o u r s d e v e l o p e d w i l l move t o w a r d s t h e i n c l i n e d p a r t o f t h e f o l d i n g where w e h a v e t h e maximum h e a t d u e t o w a s t e s . I f a n y chemical r e a c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e due t o r a d i a t i o n of t h e wastes i n s a l t , t h a t c o r r o s i v e s u b s t a n c e w i l l move t o w a r d s . t h e i n c l i n e d p a r t , and c a n n o t b e l e a c h e d from t h e c h e m i c a l l y formed a r t i f i c i a l rock. This process w i l l take place i n successive s t e p s a s t h e h e a t content can be s u i t a b l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e environment without causing any crack i n t h e rock. Since f o l d s a r e very common g e o l o q i c a l s t r u c t u r e s , a n d c a n b e e a s i l y f o u n d i n t h e t o p

177

STONE CORRAL

1lS"AFT

Fig. 2 . 200-500 meters of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t where d r i l l i n g a s w e l l as t h e p l a c e m e n t o f c o n c r e t e a n d a r t i f i c i a l r o c k s c o u l d b e made a c c e s s i b l e . I n t h e s e c o n d d e s i g n m o d e l , a s shown i n F i g ( 3 ) , w e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d t h e r o c k b a s i n i n t h e c r a t o n ( w h i c h i s u s u a l l y 35-45 Km t h i c k ) d e e p u n d e r g r o u n d , 400-1000 m f r o m t o p o f t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . The r o c k b a s i n i n t h e c r a t o n i s s u r r o u n d e d by a n a r t i f i c i a l rock t o avoid leakage of leachable materials. This method i s r e l a t i v e l y e x p e n s i v e t h a n t h e former one and c a n n o t be made e c o n o m i c a l l y v i a b l e . H o w e v e r , t h i s m e t h o d h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e of c o n t a i n i n g l a r g e amounts o f w a s t e c a n i s t e r s .

Since, we do n o t have s u f f i c i e n t d a t a about t h e geological d i s p o s a l of r a d i o a c t i v e wastes; o t h e r w i s e it is p o s s i b l e t o s i m u l a t e computer model e x p e r i m e n t s on recombent f o l d e n t i r e l y

178

c

SHAFT FOR HIGH LEVEL WASTE

,

STORAGE AREA FOR HIGH LEVEL WASTES

179 with numerical formulations. Different folding mechanisms operate in characteristic tectonic settings such as Flexural slip folding and Passive folding. We must avoid Passive folding mechanism because in this case deformation predominantly occurs in highly ductile rocks and especially in metamorphic terains which can extend to greater depths. But, i n the case of Flexural slip folding, the time required for continuous r ck deformation is quite long, at least of the order of n x 1 0 years, and detachment seems to require a highly ductile layer at the base. This follows that the recumbent fold of which structural geology is evolved from Flexural slip folding mechanism can contain wastes as long as millions of years. Secondly, granatized rocks which are partly sedimentary and partly igneous should be considered for recumbent fold. Moreover, computer simulation experiments in view Of Geotectonic and recent plate tectonic-theories should be conducted. We have to seek "superstructure" from the survey of geologically stable areas of Pakistan. A superstructure is formed due to shallow level o f less mobile rocks (epeirogenic) uneffected by plutonic activity or metamorphism. Areas of crust which suffer no more than epeirogenic deformation are knwn as stable areas or cratons. Hence, i t follows from our discussions that recumbent folds and structurally stable areas known as cratons should be considered for the disposal of high level radioactive wastes. 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: typing this manuscript.

We are thankful to Mr. Abdul Rauf for

REFERENCES (1)

-

(2)

-

(3)

-

(4)

-

(5)

-

J.B.Lewis, The case for Deep Sea Disposal, Atom 317, 49 (1983). J. Weiss, Options

for Nuclear Waste, PHP, pp.75,

B.L. Cohen, Impacts of Nuclear Energy Scientist, Vo1.64, 550 (1976).

.....,

March(1983).

American

W.Marshal1, The disposal of High-Level Nuclear Wastes, Atom 300, 262 (1981). B.L. Cohen, The Disposal of Radioactive Wastes from Fission Reactors, Scientific American, Vol 236, No.6. June (1977).

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions,edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

181

THE EFFECTS OF LAND USE ALTERATION ON TROPICAL CARBON EXCHANGE

Jane Molofsky, E r i c S. Menges, Charles A. Thomas V. Armentano, Kevin A. A u l t

S. H a l l + ,

B i o t i c Resources Analysis Program Holcomb Research I n s t i t u t e Butler University I n d i a n a p o l i s , Indiana 46208, U.S.A. *Section o f Ecology and Systematics Cornell U n i v e r s i t y Ithaca, New York 14853, U.S.A. ABSTRACT The n e t annual r e l e a s e o f carbon from t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s o f t h e w o r l d i s estimated t o range from 0.6 t o 1.1 x lo9 tons ( G t ) , based on computer model simulations. The s i m u l a t i o n s i n c o r p o r a t e t h e most r e c e n t data on t r o p i c a l l a n d use change, r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n biomass and s o i l carbon d e n s i t y , and t h e conversion o f f o r e s t t o b o t h s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n and t o permanent a g r i culture. Carbon accumulation i n f a l l o w and immature f o r e s t s and i n organic s o i l wetlands a l s o i s included. The study represents t h e f i r s t attempt t o i n t e g r a t e a l l these f a c t o r s i n t o an e s t i m a t e o f t h e t r o p i c a l f o r e s t carbon balance. Model s i m u l a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t releases o f 0.30 t o 0.48 Gt/yr occur i n South America, t h e r e g i o n w i t h t h e l a r g e s t f o r e s t area, although i t s deforest a t i o n r a t e s a r e lower than t h e g l o b a l average. I n Southeast Asia, where mean r e g i o n a l f o r e s t biomass i s high, carbon r e l e a s e r a t e s range from 0.17 t o 0.34 Gt/yr. Our simulated releases a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower t h a n those r e s u l t i n g from some e a r l i e r analyses which evaluated l e s s d e t a i l e d data on land-use change and carbon d e n s i t i e s . The r e s u l t s , which agree w i t h o t h e r r e c e n t papers, suggest t h a t t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s , when compared t o f o s s i l - f u e l sources, a r e p r e s e n t l y a r e l a t i v e l y small carbon source. However, an understanding o f t h e b i o s p h e r e ' s r o l e i n t h e g l o b a l carbon c y c l e r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r refinement i n a n a l y s i s o f t h e many asynchronous r e g i o n a l carbon pools.

1.

INTRODUCTION

The i n c r e a s i n g carbon d i o x i d e ( C O , ) c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e atmosphere has sparked concern t h a t g l o b a l warming and c l i m a t i c change might occur i n t h e near f u t u r e ( N a t i o n a l Academy o f Sciences 1983, Seidel and Keyes 1983). Atmospheric CO, has increased from p r e i n d u s t r i a l concentrations o f 250-290 ppmv ( p a r t s p e r m i l l i o n by volume) t o 340 ppmv i n 1980 ( K e e l i n g and Bacastow 1977). The main source o f atmospheric CO, i s combustion o f c o a l , o i l , and gas which released approximately 5 G t (1 G t = lo9 t) i n 1980 (Marland and R o t t y 1983). Although t h e oceans form a s i n k f o r atmospheric carbon, t a k i n g up approximately 2 G t / y r (Broecker e t a l . 1979). whether t h e biosphere i s a n e t source o r s i n k remains a major unanswered q u e s t i o n i n carbon c y c l e research ( C l a r k e t a l . 1982). The p r e s e n t paper focuses on q u a n t i f y i n g t h e r o l e o f t h e biosphere, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e t r o p i c s , w i t h i n t h e g l o b a l carbon cycle. The r o l e o f t h e biosphere and t h e degree o f i t s i n f l u e n c e on t h e carbon c y c l e i s l a r g e l y determined by t h e e x t e n t o f human d i s t u r b a n c e o f n a t u r a l ecosystems. Most u n d i s t u r b e d ecosystems a r e assumed t o be i n e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h

182 r e s p e c t t o carbon exchange. However, a f t e r disturbance, carbon s t o r e d i n the b i o t a and s o i l s i s released t o t h e atmosphere. The balance between t h e carbon r e l e a s e from d i s t u r b e d ecosystems and carbon storage i n regrowing vegetation l a r g e l y determines i f t h e biosphere i s f u n c t i o n i n g as a n e t s i n k o r source o f Analysis o f t h e r o l e o f t h e biosphere i n t h e g l o b a l carbon atmospheric CO,. c y c l e continues t o focus on e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e carbon exchange o f f o r e s t s , emphasizing d e f o r e s t a t i o n r a t e s and carbon storage i n biomass and s o i l s . T r o p i c a l f o r e s t s a r e t h e s i n g l e l a r g e s t carbon pool i n t h e t e r r e s t r i a l biosphere, s t o r i n g over 50% o f t h e 860 G t found i n biomass and s o i l s o f the w o r l d (Olson e t a l . 1983). Although r e c e n t c l e a r i n g o f t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s has been suggested as a source o f atmospheric CO, second o n l y t o f o s s i l - f u e l ( B o l i n 1977, Hampicke 1979, Woodwell e t a l . 1978), estimates o f t h e source s t r e n g t h have v a r i e d w i d e l y among workers u s i n g d i f f e r e n t models and data. Houghton e t a l . (1983) estimated carbon r e l e a s e t o range from 1.8-4.7 Gt/yr f o r t h e e n t i r e biosphere (about 80% i n t h e t r o p i c s ) , whereas D e t w i l e r e t a l . (1984) estimated t r o p i c a l releases t o be 0.5-1.9 Gt/yr. Estimates by D e t w i l e r e t a l . (1984) may be t o o low because they have n o t y e t i n c o r p o r a t e d s o i l carbon releases, w h i l e estimates by Houghton e t a l . (1983) appear t o be too h i g h because they used biomass values and c l e a r i n g r a t e s which t h e l a t e s t evidence suggests a r e overestimates. Furthermore, b o t h s t u d i e s have r e l i e d on biomass e s t i m a t i o n f o r t h e whole t r o p i c s w i t h o u t developing r e g i o n - s p e c i f i c estimates. The purpose o f t h i s paper i s t o d e s c r i b e r e s u l t s from c u r r e n t t r o p i c a l carbon exchange modeling, which i n c o r p o r a t e s several improvements i n the t r o p i c a l f o r e s t data base. As described below, our p r o j e c t i o n s o f carbon exchange i n 1985 (a) u t i l i z e t h e l a t e s t data on t r o p i c a l land-use change; (b) d i s t i n g u i s h c l e a r i n g from permanent a g r i c u l t u r e and s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n ; (c) t e s t how mean r e g i o n a l biomass values a f f e c t carbon r e l e a s e ; (d) disaggregate biomass d a t a i n t o 10 t r o p i c a l r e g i o n s and 4-6 v e g e t a t i o n types; (e) i n c l u d e s o i l carbon dynamics i n d i s t u r b e d f o r e s t s and i n r e c o v e r i n g v e g e t a t i o n ; and ( f ) model t h e carbon exchange o f o r g a n i c s o i l wetlands, a subregional carbon pool p r e v i o u s l y regarded as i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e o v e r a l l carbon balance. S i m i l a r runs made a t C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y agree g e n e r a l l y w i t h t h e Holcomb runs presented here.

2.

PATTERNS OF LAND-USE CHANGE

Rate o f land-use change appears t o be t h e s i n g l e most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r determining t h e magnitude o f carbon r e l e a s e , i f o t h e r parameters such as biomass o r carbon o x i d a t i o n r a t e s a r e h e l d w i t h i n a c r e d i b l e range (Woodwell e t a l . 1983). Several s t u d i e s have r e l i e d on i n d i r e c t estimates o f deforestat i o n based on p o p u l a t i o n growth and wood p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s (Revelle and Monk 1977, Houghton e t a l . 1983) i n t h e absence o f more d i r e c t estimates o f c l e a r ing. S i m i l a r l y , some e a r l i e r surveys which considered o n l y a subset o f f o r e s t types and disturbance (Myers 1980, Persson 1974) were e x t r a p o l a t e d t o a l l f o r e s t types t o determine how d i f f e r e n t c u t t i n g r a t e s i n f l u e n c e d carbon releases from t h e t r o p i c s (Houghton e t a l . 1983). The l a t e s t a v a i l a b l e assessment o f t r o p i c a l land-use change by FAO/UNEP (1981a.b.c). however, i s r e l a t i v e l y complete (76 c o u n t r i e s considered) and d i s t i n g u i s h e s between d i f f e r e n t l a n d uses and f o r e s t - c o v e r types. Therefore, these d a t a were used as the b a s i s o f our s i m u l a t i o n runs o f carbon exchange i n t r o p i c a l f o r e s t areas subjected t o c l e a r i n g f o r a g r i c u l t u r e . The FAO/UNEP

i n v e n t o r y considers o n l y land-use p a t t e r n s observed i n the Rates o f land-use change i n 1985 were based on d i f f e r e n c e s between f o r e s t area p r o j e c t e d by FAO/UNEP f o r 1985 and l a n d use s t a t i s t i c s f o r

1976-1980 period.

183 1980 (Table 1, Fig. 1). For a l l analyses, i n d i v i d u a l - c o u n t r y data were aggregated i n t o t e n regions (Armentano e t a l . 1984): two i n Asia, f i v e i n A f r i c a , and t h r e e i n L a t i n America and t h e Caribbean. F o r e s t i n v e n t o r y data from FAO/UNEP (1981a,b,c) were aggregated i n t o f o u r major land-use c a t e g o r i e s : p r i m a r y v e g e t a t i o n , logged vegetation, s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n / f a l l o w , and bush. A f i f t h category, permanent a g r i c u l t u r e and human s e t t l e m e n t , was c a l c u l a t e d f o r each r e g i o n by s u b t r a c t i n g o t h e r categ o r i e s from t h e t o t a l l a n d area. Our c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme f o r b o t h c o n i f e r ous and broad-leafed f o r e s t s f o l l o w e d Lanly (1982), who considered any closed f o r e s t s undisturbed f o r a t l e a s t 60 t o 80 years t o be primary f o r e s t . Logged f o r e s t s were d e f i n e d as those recorded w i t h i n t h e l a s t 60 t o 80 years p l u s f o r e s t s h e a v i l y harvested a n n u a l l y . Areas o f s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n / f a l l o w were taken from FAO/UNEP estimates o f f a l l o w . Woody-vegetation formations t h a t could n o t be c l a s s i f i e d as closed f o r e s t s , i n c l u d i n g open-woodland savannas and bamboo and shrub areas, were combined as bush. TABLE 1.

SVWBOLS. DEFINITIONS, DATA SOURCES, AN0 CALCULATIONS FOR TROPICAL LAND-USE CHANGE (a*.

FADIUNEP (19BIa,b,c) Source f o r 1980. 1985 data

Our Symbols

Definltions

FA0 Classes

PV

Prlmary Vegetation

NHC/NSfIw. NHtlNSfZ

LV

Logged Vegetation

NHC/NSfluc.

SW

S h l f t i n p Cultivation

NHC/NSa

BU

Bush Agriculture

NHB. NH8a. NHdNHO. NHc/NHOa. nH

ffi

Tables la. b: 70. b

NHC/NSflm

Tables l a , b: ? a s b Tables la. b; !7as b

-----

Tables I c . e. f : 7c. c . f fornula 2 (below)

flux.r

Calculations

APV

LOSS O f

"DEF ~"DEF

PV

F o n u l a 1 (below)

Deforestation o f PV

Tables 6a.b

Deforestation o f LV

Tables 6a.b APV

-

PWLV

Logging o f PV

TOR

Total Deforestation Rate

ASW

Change in Sridden Area

'"DEF L Formula 1

ABU

Change I n Bush Area

Formula 1

M G

Change i n A g r i c u l t u r a l Area

Fornula 1

1, Ipv

F i g . 1)

I

1985 value

-

-

1980 value

5 -~~

2.

AG

= T o t a l Land Ire.*

-

PVDEF

v

~

~

~

(PV+LV+SU+BU)

__ _____ ~-

'FA0 (1978)

The land-use c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n from permanent a g r i c u l t u r e . Some p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s have considered o n l y one category o f a g r i c u l t u r e (Houghton e t a l . 1983). assuming t h a t a l l c l e a r i n g f o r food p r o d u c t i o n r e s u l t s i n permanent o r long-term l o s s o f n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n (Woodwell e t a l . 1978, Houghton e t a l . 1983). Detwiler e t a l . (1983; i n press) p o i n t e d o u t t h e importance o f s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n f o r r e a l i s t i c a l l y e s t i m a t i n g t r o p i c a l carbon dynamics. Large areas o f t r o p i c a l l a n d a r e a c t u a l l y c u l t i v a t e d f o r o n l y 2-3 years a f t e r c l e a r i n g (FA0 1981a,b,c). Abandonment leads t o accumulation o f carbon i n t h e f a l l o w stage, w h i l e under permanent a g r i c u l t u r e , carbon s t o r e s remain low. Before s i m u l a t i n g carbon exchange, FA0 woody v e g e t a t i o n data were conv e r t e d i n t o r e g i o n - s p e c i f i c ecosystem areas. Table 1 and F i g u r e 1 d e t a i l t h e l o g i c f o r c a l c u l a t i n g l a n d t r a n s f e r s and show how FAO/UNEP d a t a were used t o c a l c u l a t e land-use change r a t e s ( f o r a more complete d e s c r i p t i o n see Armentano e t a l . 1984). Table 2 c o n t a i n s a summary o f land-use conversion r a t e s f o r t h e major t r o p i c a l regions. H a l l e t a l . (personal communication) have done a s i m i l a r a n a l y s i s b u t d i d n o t aggregate t h e n a t i o n a l d a t a by region.

184

F i g u r e 1. Methodological l o g i c o f computing v e g e t a t i o n a l t e r a t i o n s used i n s i m u l a t i o n s o f t r o p i c a l upland ecosystem land-use change. Data obtained from FAO/UNEP (1981a.b.c). For d e t a i l on symbols, see Table 1.

TABLE 2 P

-_

1905 LANO-USE CONVERSION RATES I N FIVE TROPICAL REGIONS C a l c u l a t e d from fb0 (1978) and fAO/UNEP (1981a.b.c)

--

I

Southeast Asia

Africa

23

414

1.171

211

3.894

135

795

519

132

2,061

Prlmary F o r e s t t o S h i f t i n g C u l t i v a t i o n

480 188

78

216

607

280

1.369

Logged F o r e s t to Permanent A g r i c u l t u r e

603

10

239

999

199

2.050

Primary f o r e s t to Permanent A g r i c u l t u r e

239

6

76

1.168

411

1,903

Bush to Permanent A g r i c u l t u r e

170

0

976

1.540

13

2.699 23.847

Conversion Prfmary f o r e s t t o Lcggcd f o r e s t

1,415

Lopped f o r e s t t o S h l f t i n p C u l t l v a t i o n

f a l l o r t o Shifting C u l t i v a t i o n

5.791

1.029

6.165

7.764

3.098

0

74

2

0

0

Prlmary and Logged f o r e s t to Bush

-

3.

Central Amer Ica and the Caribbean

South America

South AsIa

Totals

76

CARBON DENSITIES AND DYNAMICS

To estimate carbon exchange i n t r o p i c a l regions, i n f o r m a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d on carbon d e n s i t i e s ( i n tC/ha) o f biomass and s o i l s o f each ecosystem type, r a t e s o f l a n d use change, and t h e f a t e o f c l e a r e d v e g e t a t i o n ( H a l l e t a l . i n press; D e t w i l e r e t a l . i n press). With these data, t h e dynamics o f carbon exchange i n undisturbed, d i s t u r b e d , and r e c o v e r i n g systems can be c a l c u l a t e d . Because t r o p i c a l ecosystems d i f f e r r e g i o n a l l y i n mean carbon d e n s i t y (Brown and Lug0 1984). carbon d e n s i t y should be d e f i n e d s e p a r a t e l y f o r each r e g i o n t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t a v a i l a b l e data allows. The r e g i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n s prevent misconceptions as t o carbon r e l e a s e from s p e c i f i c r e g i o n s and f a c i l i t a t e e v a l u a t i o n o f s o w c e s o f e r r o r and u n c e r t a i n t y i n g l o b a l carbon analyses.

185 3.1 Predisturbance F o r e s t Biomass T r o p i c a l f o r e s t s on m i n e r a l s o i l s occupy most o f t h e t r o p i c s and theref o r e a r e o f p r i m a r y i n t e r e s t i n e s t i m a t i n g carbon releases. I n general, biomass increases w i t h temperature and moisture. Thus, values a r e h i g h e s t f o r r a i n f o r e s t s and wet f o r e s t s (Brown and Lug0 1980). Greatest biomass i s found i n Southeast Asia lowland r a i n f o r e s t s , o f t e n dominated by commercially p r i z e d dipterocarps ( f a m i l y Dipterocarpaceae) (Myers 1980). D e s t r u c t i v e sampling o f p r o d u c t i v e s i t e s has shown t h a t biomass i n old-growth d i p t e r o c a r p stands can exceed 500 tC/ha ( B r u n i g 1977). Over l a r g e areas encompassing s i t e v a r i a b i l i t y , however, mean values f o r Southeast Asian r a i n f o r e s t s are no more than 200 tC/ha (Cannell 1982, Chan and Olson 1983). F o r e s t biomass v a r i a b i l i t y i s caused b o t h by s i t e and c l i m a t i c f a c t o r s and by degradation associated w i t h p a s t disturbance. Thus t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s i n A f r i c a and L a t i n America average about 50 t o 85% o f t h e biomass o f Southeast Asian f o r e s t s (Table 3). I n p a r t s o f L a t i n America, t h e lower biomass may r e s u l t from p a s t d i s t u r b a n c e of s i t e s t h a t have recovered enough t o be c l a s s i f i e d as p r i m a r y f o r e s t . I n areas such as t h e Amazon Basin, p r o d u c t i v i t y i s o f t e n l i m i t e d by low s o i l - n u t r i e n t a v a i l a b i l i t y (Sanchez e t a l . 1982). ESTIMATED ABOVE-GROUND BIOMASS AND SOIL CARBON CONTENT ( t C / h a ) FOR TROPICAL FOREST REGIONS I N MODEL RUNS THE VALUES ARE MEANS WEIGHTLO FOR THE AREA OF VARIOUS FOREST TYPES ~. ._.___

TABLE 3

____

A l l Sites

E o n et a1

Region

Undisturbed S i t e s

LOW

(1983) Hlqh

So11 Carbonb

Southeast A s l a

252

108

178

South A r i a

107

7s

126

65

E a s t Africa

122

60

103

67

West A f r i c a

123

63

106

70

Central A f t i c a

139

76

127

66

Not t h A f r i c a

103

47

79

51

South America

129

85

143

72

C e n t r a l America

'Literature

66

117

Caribbean

- 132

~-

90 ~

132

62

137

-

151

.

-

-

_ _

_ _7 9

Sources

~ r u n i g( 1 9 7 7 ) ,

Cannell ( 1 9 8 2 ) . Snedaher ( 1 9 8 0 ) . Blown and Lug" ( 1 9 8 0 ) . Chdn and Olson (1 9 8 3 ). Grubb ( 1 9 7 7 ) Anderson el a1 (1983) see Armentano et a1 ( 1 9 8 4 ) for details o n a g y r e f a t i a n or bloPass d a t a *

b L l t e r a t u r e Sources. Grubb ( 1 9 7 7 )

Brown and Lug0 ( 1 9 8 0 ) .

Yoda and K l r a ( 1 9 6 9 ) . Char1 ( 1 9 8 2 ) .

S c h l e s i n g e r ( 1 9 7 9 ) and Evuards and

Because biomass estimates v a r i e d w i d e l y , we t e s t e d t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f carbon exchange estimates t o a range o f biomass values. One s e t o f simulat i o n s was based on a c o m p i l a t i o n o f biomass s t u d i e s o f f o r e s t s i t e s having no apparent p r i o r d i s t u r b a n c e (Table 3). However, s i n c e these d a t a were n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r a l l regions and ecosystems, estimates from Brown and Lug0 (1980) were s u b s t i t u t e d where gaps occurred. As an a l t e r n a t i v e , t h e extensive survey o f Olson e t a l . (1983) o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e on ecosystem biomass values provided mean values f o r l a r g e areas which i n c l u d e f o r e s t s subjected t o v a r y i n g degrees o f disturbance (Table 3). For b o t h cases, below-ground biomass was estimated from above-ground values by m u l t i p l y i n g by a f a c t o r o f 16 t a 25%, depending on t h e l i t e r a t u r e data (Cannell 1982). P r e s e n t a t i o n o f biomass values as a range o f h i g h and low values r e f l e c t s n a t u r a l v a r i a b i l i t y and t h e u n c e r t a i n t y i m p l i c i t i n a l i m i t e d data base, and i n c o r p o r a t e s some s t u d i e s o f p r o d u c t i v e s i t e s (Olson e t a l . 1983). However, s t u d i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l f o r e s t s i n Southeast Asia and A f r i c a r e p o r t biomass values c o n s i d e r a b l y i n excess o f t h e Olson e t a l . ' s (1983) maximum mean b i o mass values. I n c o n t r a s t , s p e c i f i c s t u d i e s i n t h e t h r e e n e o t r o p i c a l regions

186 focused on f o r e s t s t h a t were i n t e r m e d i a t e i n biomass accumulation between Olson e t a l . ' s range o f region-wide biomass estimates. The organic m a t t e r c o n t e n t o f s o i l a l s o v a r i e s by ecosystem and r e g i o n (Table 3). Carbon c o n t e n t g e n e r a l l y increases w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p r e c i p i t a t i o n and decreasing temperature (Zinke e t a l . 1983), and v a r i e s r e g i o n a l l y . Soil carbon content i s g r e a t e s t i n mangrove and swamp ecosystems where water t a b l e s a r e near o r above t h e s o i l surface f o r l o n g p e r i o d s (Chan 1982). Organic wetland s o i l s have t h e h i g h e s t carbon c o n t e n t , s t o r i n g up t o t e n times more carbon p e r hectare than upland s o i l s (Armentano e t a l . 1984).

3.2

Disturbance o f Ecosystems

Disturbance o f ecosystems o r d i n a r i l y reduces biomass and s o i l carbon content, w i t h t h e t y p e o f disturbance determining t h e magnitude o f loss. Greatest carbon l o s s takes p l a c e when f o r e s t s a r e converted t o permanent a g r i c u l t u r e and human settlements. A g r i c u l t u r a l ecosystems, which a r e the commonest r e s u l t o f f o r e s t c l e a r i n g , have biomass values t h a t average from 5-16 tC/ha, depending on t h e crop (Olson e t a l . 1983). A g r i c u l t u r e thus r e t a i n s o n l y 5-10% o f predisturbance carbon d e n s i t i e s . Most o f t h e f o r e s t biomass i s o x i d i z e d , p r i n c i p a l l y as e x p o n e n t i a l l y decaying d e t r i t u s o r necromass. An a d d i t i o n a l f r a c t i o n o f t h e biomass carbon, estimated a t 25%, i s i n s t a n t l y o x i d i z e d by f i r e ( S e i l e r and Crutzen 1980). A t h i r d component, r e f r a c t o r y charcoal, remains as unoxidized carbon f o r c e n t u r i e s . Decay o f necromass was c a l c u l a t e d based on decay r a t e s o f f o l i a r and wood components (Furtado e t a l . 1980, Nye and Greenland 1960, S w i f t e t a l . 1980, Chan and Olson 1983), weighted by t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f each component t o necromass (Armentano e t a l . 1984). T r o p i c a l a g r i c u l t u r e c o n s i s t s o f b o t h s h i f t i n g and permanent cropping systems. Where s h i f t i n g a g r i c u l t u r e i s p r a c t i c e d , l a n d i s c l e a r e d and c u l t i vated f o r a few years and then abandoned. Abandonment leads t o r e v e g e t a t i o n o f t h e s i t e , a process which r e s u l t s i n increased carbon i n t h e v e g e t a t i o n and soils. Based on t h e few s t u d i e s a v a i l a b l e , biomass i n most secondary f o r e s t s recovers t o about 60% o f predisturbance biomass; however, i f l e f t undisturbed, t h e r e c o v e r i n g biomass e v e n t u a l l y would approach predisturbance values, where t h e s i t e i s n o t degraded. Biomass recovery begins i n t h e same year as abandonment. I n c o n t r a s t , s o i l s continue t o l o s e carbon a f t e r abandonment. Soil carbon l e v e l s i n r e c e n t l y c l e a r e d f o r e s t s drop s t e a d i l y f o r approximately 15 years a f t e r disturbance. A new e q u i l i b r i u m carbon c o n t e n t i s then approached, estimated t o equal about 60% o f t h e o r i g i n a l f o r e s t s o i l c o n t e n t (Seubert e t a l . 1977, Nye and Greenland 1960). O x i d a t i o n o f organic m a t t e r i n s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n releases on average about 25% o f t h e f o r e s t s o i l carbon (Nye and Greenland 1960). 3.3

Organic S o i l Wetlands

Lowland swamp regions w i t h o r g a n i c s o i l s a r e o f i n t e r e s t because o f t h e i r h i g h s o i l - c a r b o n c o n t e n t and because o f r e p o r t e d r e c e n t disturbance, especiall y i n Southeast Asia (Armentano e t a l . 1983, Chan 1982). Although these systems occupy r e l a t i v e l y small areas o f t h e t r o p i c s , t h e y s t o r e more s o i l carbon p e r hectare than ecosystems on mineral s o i l s . Because FA0 i n v e n t o r i e s d i d not t r e a t organic s o i l wetlands s e p a r a t e l y , d a t a from o t h e r sources were used t o analyze t h e r o l e o f organic s o i l ecosystems i n t r o p i c a l carbon exchange (Armentano e t a l . 1983, Armentano e t a l . 1984). T r o p i c a l o r g a n i c s o i l s have been developed p r i m a r i l y i n Southeast A s i a and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t i n eastern A f r i c a (Table 4).

187 TABLE 4.

Country

lndoncs ia & S t W.laysia S i e r r a Leone Liberia Uganda/East A f ~ I c a

AREPS OF TROPICAL WETLAND CONVERSION TO AGRICULTURE

Total Area Converted (10” ha)

line

I119

1950-1980

Amentano e t al. (1984)

407

1930-1980

Armentano e t al. (1984)

7

1976-1980

FAO/UNEP (1981a)

40

1976-1980

FAWUNEP (1981a)

104

1935-1980

Jancron (1970) A r l d Land Information Center (1981b)

References

Rwanda

1.5

1970-1980

I v o r y coast

3

1970-1980

Lassoudlere (1976)

Ja~lca

1.2

1980-present

Kcnnard (1982)

I

Development o f wetlands f o r a g r i c u l t u r e u s u a l l y r e q u i r e s l o w e r i n g t h e water t a b l e by use o f drainage canals. The r e s u l t i n g o x i d a t i o n o f t h e s o i l organic m a t t e r can r e l e a s e l a r g e amounts o f C02 t o t h e atmosphere, depending on cropping p r a c t i c e s and p e a t depth. For example, p e a t o x i d a t i o n r a t e s i n Malaysian peat s o i l s d r a i n e d f o r a g r i c u l t u r e were estimated t o range up t o 64 tC/ha/yr from data o f C o u l t e r (1957). I n c o n t r a s t , o x i d a t i o n r a t e s i n p e a t s o i l s d r a i n e d f o r r i c e were estimated t o be 17 tC/ha/yr, based on t h e d u r a t i o n o f f l o o d i n g f o r a s i n g l e r i c e crop (Armentano e t a l . 1984). I n t h e absence o f drainage, however, organic s o i l s f u n c t i o n as carbon s i n k s (Anderson 1964). An estimate o f 0.8 tC/ha has been c a l c u l a t e d as a t y p i c a l r a t e f o r carbon sequest e r i n g i n undisturbed peatlands i n Southeast A s i a (Armentano e t a l . 1984). Thus, drainage causes a s h i f t i n t h e r o l e o f o r g a n i c s o i l s i n t h e carbon c y c l e (Armentano e t a l . 1983, 1984). Because o f t h e n a t u r e o f wetland carbon exchange, developed wetland areas w i l l s t i l l be r e l e a s i n g carbon years a f t e r development. Thus, i n e s t i m a t i n g carbon f o r a s p e c i f i c year, t h e h i s t o r y o f drainage f o r p r i o r decades and t h e t i m e - t r e n d o f carbon r e l e a s e must be simulated. I n most o t h e r ecosystem types, r e l e a s e o f carbon from disturbances p r i o r t o t h e p a s t several years b e f o r e disturbance i s very small. 4.

MODELING OF CARBON DYNAMICS

Rates o f carbon exchange i n t h e t r o p i c s were computed w i t h t h e s i m u l a t i o n model, GLOBC7, developed a t C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y ( D e t w i l e r and H a l l 1980, D e t w i l e r e t a l . 1981, H a l l e t a l . , i n press, Bogdonoff e t a l . , i n press). The model c a l c u l a t e s changes i n carbon storages and releases from ecosystems f o l l o w i n g conversions o f l a n d o f known area t o t e r r e s t r i a l land-use categories. The r e l e a s e o f carbon t o t h e atmosphere and long-term storage o f carbon as charcoal o r wood products i s a l s o c a l c u l a t e d ( F i g u r e 2). For each land-use category, carbon d e n s i t y i s s p e c i f i e d f o r t h r e e compartments: above and below ground biomass and s o i l carbon. F i v e model compartments correspond t o t h e f i v e land-use c a t e g o r i e s p r e v i ously described: primary v e g e t a t i o n , logged vegetation, s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n / f a l l o w , bush, and permanent a g r i c u l t u r e . Cycles o f disturbance and e s t a b l i s h ment o f e q u i l i b r i u m carbon d e n s i t i e s i n r e c o v e r i n g systems can be simulated (Figure 2). Undisturbed organic s o i l wetlands and abandoned a g r i c u l t u r a l land, b o t h o f which accumulate s o i l carbon, a r e t r e a t e d as s p e c i a l cases o f these cycles. Carbon f a t e s f o r each t r a n s f e r a r e s p e c i f i e d according t o s p e c i f i c landuse conversions. For example, f o r e s t e d l a n d c l e a r e d by s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t o r s i s farmed f o r 2-3 years b e f o r e t h e l a n d i s abandoned. Vegetation recovery and accompanying biomass storage b e g i n immediately f o l l o w i n g c u l t i v a t i o n , and s o i l continues t o l o s e carbon f o r several years a f t e r such regrowth. GLOBC7 c a l culates s e p a r a t e l y t h e r a t e s o f carbon exchange o f biomass and s o i l s . The

188

Figure 2. Land-use classification and transfer o f tropical ecosystems in GLOBC7 model. (From Bogdonoff et al., in press.) Wetland runs use "recovering cultivation" to simulate natural accretion of carbon in undisturbed organic soils.

simulations used data summarized in Tables 2 4 . Literature data are described in more detail in Armentano et al. (1984). If no specific regional data were available, worldwide averages or values from similar regions were used. Upland simulations were run for 1980-1985. Thus carbon exchange rates reported for 1985 include estimates of CO, release from decay o f necromass produced from clearing in the past five years. For wetlands, the historical pattern of carbon exchange from 1900 until the present was simulated. 5.

SIMULATION RESULTS

The land-use changes projected for 1985 in the tropics will release 0.60-1.02 Gt/yr C for the period 1980-1985 (Table 5). (These projections utilize the area-weighted carbon density data of Olson et al. C19831.1 If biomass data from studies: of undisturbed sites are substituted after calculating regional carbon densities based on ecosystem areas, a carbon release rate o f 1.08 Gt/yr is obtained. Thus, the difference between simulated releases based on Olson et al.'s high biomass values and biomass values from exceptionally old-growth sites is only 0.06 Gt. These results suggest that because, over large areas, most tropical forests contain less carbon than the exceptional sites, carbon release rates fall below 1 Gt/yr. Regardless of the biomass data used in simulations, Southeast Asia and South America are the regions of greatest carbon release (Table 5). In South America, carbon release ranges from 0.30-0.40 Gt/yr, 4 4 - 4 s of the total for the tropics, even though biahlass carbon densities there are only moderate. Annual deforestation rates equal 0.6% of the extant forest area, an annual loss of 2.7 million ha of primary forest. With a projected 5% annual deforestation

189 increase (FAO/UNEP 1981c), and l a r g e u n e x p l o i t e d areas s t i l l a v a i l a b l e , carbon release from South America w i l l probably c o n t i n u e t o increase i n t o t h e near future. Carbon releases from Southeast Asia range from 0.17-0.34 Gt/yr, a h i g h e r release on a u n i t area b a s i s than elsewhere, because biomass and s o i l carbon content i s r e l a t i v e l y h i g h (Table 3). D e f o r e s t a t i o n i s o c c u r r i n g a t 0.7% annually, h a l f o f t h i s r e s u l t i n g from s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n . Although 65% o f Southeast Asia i s s t i l l f o r e s t e d (FA0 1981b). s e l e c t i v e l o g g i n g has d i s t u r b e d a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h i s area, r e l e a s i n g carbon i n t h e process. Forests i n other t r o p i c a l r e g i o n s such as South Asia and Central America are l e s s extens i v e and a l r e a d y h e a v i l y d i s t u r b e d . TABLE 5.

CO,

RELEASE BY REGIONS

Region

Range f o r Current Annual Release ( G t )

Southeast A s i a South A s i a East A f r i c a Central A f r i c a North A f r i c a West A f r i c a South America Central America and Caribbean

0.170 0.015 0.038 0.021 0.004 0.023 0.302 0.059

TOTAL

0.633

-

0.337 0.022 0.048 0.040 0.004 0.042 0.480 0.110 1.083

Despite A f r i c a ' s l a r g e area, carbon releases ranged from 0.086-0.134 Gt/yr, o n l y 12-14% o f t h e t r o p i c a l t o t a l . The c h i e f areas o f f o r e s t l o s s are located i n s e m i a r i d and subhumid c l i m a t e s where f o r e s t carbon stocks a r e r e l a t i v e l y low (FAOANEP 1981a, Brown and Lug0 1980). Over h a l f o f A f r i c a n moist t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s a r e l o c a t e d i n Z a i r e , a l i g h t l y populated c o u n t r y w i t h l i t t l e f o r e s t disturbance ( L i b r a r y o f Congress 1980). Annual carbon r e l e a s e from t r o p i c a l o r g a n i c s o i l s equaled 0.015 G t i n Although t r o p i c a l o r g a n i c s o i l s c o n t r i b u t e d o n l y a small 1980 (Table 6). percentage t o t h e t o t a l t r o p i c a l exchange, t h e i r e x p l o i t a t i o n a l s o represented a l o s s o f n e t carbon-sequestering c a p a c i t y which f u n c t i o n e d i n t h e p r e d i s t u r b ance e r a a t a r a t e o f 0.034 G t carbon p e r year. Thus, t h e t o t a l annual s h i f t i n carbon exchange due t o t r o p i c a l wetland d i s t u r b a n c e i s p r e s e n t l y a t l e a s t 0.05 G t . Almost t h e e n t i r e s h i f t has occurred s i n c e 1950, w i t h Southeast Asian wetlands most s i g n i f i c a n t . The wetland carbon s h i f t i n Southeast Asia comprises 17-25% o f t h e t o t a l r e g i o n a l release. I n East A f r i c a , t h e apparent carbon s h i f t i n wetlands i s 1 3 - 1 3 o f t h e estimated r e g i o n a l release. TABLE 6

CARBON EXCHANGE OF TROPICAL ORGANIC SOILS BY COUNTRY (from Amcntano e t a1

Country Indonesia

u*st

20.0

Mlaystaa

Ivory coast

1.20

S h r r a Leone/Ltbcrta

1.0 0.01

Rwanda and Uganda

0.66 20.5

TOTAL

__.__

ANNUAL EXCHANGE (10" TC)b Prcdtsturbancc 1980

-16.27

-

0.15

Jmlca Other

1984) __

__

Organtc S o t 1 Area tn 10' ha

16.80

0.09

0.96

0.0

0.12

0.0

- 0.010 - 0.59

2.59

0.036 3. 16

-16.44

16.44

-34.20

*15.22

-

'Includes

Sabah and Brunet; Sarawak i s included i n the "other" category.

*Hcpat(vc

nmbers (ndlcatc a slnk

190 6.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Simulations o f t h e carbon exchange o f t h e w o r l d ' s t r o p i c a l regions, using t h e most r e c e n t l a n d conversion and carbon d e n s i t y data, i n d i c a t e t h a t net carbon r e l e a s e f a l l s w i t h i n t h e range o f 0.6-1.1 Gt/yr. These r e s u l t s are s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower than estimates r e p o r t e d f i v e years ago (Woodwell e t a l . 1978). b u t a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h r e s u l t s o f D e t w i l e r e t a l . (1984) (Table 7). A t t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l , our e s t i m a t e o f carbon r e l e a s e 0.17-0.34 Gt/yr f o r Southeast Asia agrees w i t h t h e 0.32 Gt/yr n e t r e l e a s e estimated by Chan and Olson (1983). Although biomass and s o i l carbon values a r e modeled d i f f e r e n t l y by v a r i o u s i n v e s t i g a t o r s (Table 7), d i f f e r e n c e s i n s i m u l a t i o n s a r e probably not due t o a l g o r i t h m d i f f e r e n c e s ; our model r e s u l t s resemble Houghton e t a l . 3 (1983) when s i m i l a r d a t a and assumptions a r e used (Woodwell e t a l . 1983). Thus, data d i f f e r e n c e s a r e more i m p o r t a n t than model s t r u c t u r e . E a r l i e r work had estimated t r o p i c a l carbon releases o f 1-7 Gt/yr o r more based on c l e a r i n g However, l a t e s t FA0 assessments (Lanly r a t e s o f l%/yr (Woodwell e t a l . 1978). 1982) i n d i c a t e t h a t o n l y 0.6% o f a l l closed, broad-leaved f o r e s t s a r e being c l e a r e d annually. More important, c l e a r i n g o f undisturbed p r o d u c t i v e broadleaved f o r e s t s , t h e ecosystem t y p e w i t h h i g h e s t carbon d e n s i t y , i s estimated t o be o n l y 0.27%/yr, whereas logged-over lower-biomass secondary f o r e s t s are being c l e a r e d a t 2.06%/yr. Thus t h e mean biomass o f f o r e s t s being cleared s h i f t s downward when disturbance and s i t e p o t e n t i a l a r e considered. I n addit i o n , t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f s h i f t i n g c u l t i v a t i o n / f a l l o w from permanent c l e a r i n g a l s o lowers p r e d i c t e d carbon release. Therefore, r e l i a b l e data on the v e g e t a t i o n t y p e s u b j e c t t o disturbance, and t h e k i n d o f disturbance, emerge as c r i t i c a l needs f o r t e r r e s t r i a l carbon modeling. TABLE 7 .

ESTIHATES Of CARBON RELEASES

Author

- .-..~

Clearing Rater

FROM THE

-----

TROPICS. AND FKTORS INCLUDED I N THE E S T l W l l E S ~

-__

.--

~

Blomass

Soil

~

.

~

S h l f t l n g Agriculture

.~

____

Carbon Release (611

Woodwell et al. (1978)

Hlgh

High

Yes

wo

(1982) Houghton et a l . (1983)

Nl.

Low-Hlgh

Yes

VCI

1 3-2 5

Low-Hlgh

Hlgh

Yes

NO

1 . 8 4 . 7b

Dctwiler et 01. (1984)

Low-Medlm

La-High

Yes

YCS

This Paper

Medlum

Low-Hlgh

Yes _ _ _ _-

vcs

01.0"

'not

._

1.0-7.0

0.7-2 2

____

0.6-1.1 ..~ ..-

-

available

b n r l d - w l d e release. tropics cowrise 80% o r more of t o t a l

T e s t i n g a range of f o r e s t carbon d e n s i t i e s shows t h a t t h i s parameter i s o n l y s e c o n d a r i l y i m p o r t a n t i n e x p l a i n i n g d i f f e r e n c e s i n carbon r e l e a s e e s t i mates. The use o f 200 tC/ha o f t o t a l biomass f o r m o i s t f o r e s t s and 160 tC/ha f o r seasonal f o r e s t s by Houghton e t a l . (1983) overestimates biomass f o r a l l regions except Southeast Asia. However, from our model runs, i t appears t h a t biomass accounts f o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n carbon r e l e a s e estimates o n l y on t h e order o f 0.50 Gt/yr. Because secondary f o r e s t s a r e most o f t e n cleared, t h e use o f t h e biomass d a t a from o n l y p r o d u c t i v e , undisturbed s i t e s i s n o t warranted. Realistic biomass values probably a r e c l o s e r t o t h e middle o r low end o f Olson e t a l . ' s (1983) estimates. T h i s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n may n o t be v a l i d f o r Southeast Asia, where h i g h biomass v i r g i n d i p t e r o c a r p f o r e s t s a r e c u r r e n t l y b e i n g cleared. Closed p r o d u c t i v e f o r e s t s , which a r e probably b e s t estimated by Olson e t a l . ' s (1983) h i g h values, a r e b e i n g c l e a r e d f o r a g r i c u l t u r e a t a r e l a t i v e l y low rate. Thus t o t a l carbon r e l e a s e may be no more than 0.8-0.9 Gt/yr. New volume i n v e n t o r i e s f o r t r o p i c a l c o u n t r i e s (FAO/UNEP 1981a,b,c) add s t r e n g t h t o t h i s conclusion because t h e y suggest even lower mean biomass (Brown and Lug0

191 1984) than used i n our s i m u l a t i o n . An a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r t o consider i s carbon l o s s i n converted f o r e s t s o i l s . Schlesinger (1983) r e p o r t s t h a t t h e a v a i l a b l e l i t e r a t u r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t 79% i s t h e b e s t e s t i m a t e o f t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f f o r e s t s o i l carbon r e t a i n e d i n a g r i c u l t u r a l s o i l s . Hence, carbon modelers may have overestimated t h e l o s s r a t e , thus o v e r e s t i m a t i n g carbon releases. The tendency f o r improvements i n t h e d a t a base t o produce lower estimates o f t r o p i c a l carbon r e l e a s e r a i s e s i m p o r t a n t questions about t h e b i o s p h e r e ' s r o l e i n t h e o v e r a l l carbon budget. F i r s t , i t i s apparent t h a t f u t u r e r e f i n e ments o f carbon r e l e a s e estimates w i l l r e s u l t i n changes on t h e order o f 0.1 A t t h i s level o f t o 0.2 Gt/yr r a t h e r t h a n 1 Gt/yr o r more as i n t h e past. release, subregional o r r e l a t i v e l y l o c a l ecosystem types become important c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n making r e l i a b l e g l o b a l estimates. Thus, f o r example, a s h i f t i n carbon balance i n t r o p i c a l organic s o i l wetlands o f 0.05 Gt/yr can no longer can be dismissed as i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e balance o f r e g i o n a l carbon releases. Since f u t u r e development i n t h e t r o p i c s i s l i k e l y t o focus on wetlands as p o p u l a t i o n s i z e and demand f o r a r a b l e l a n d expands, f u t u r e CO, releases from t r o p i c a l wetlands may become an I n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t component o f t r o p i c a l carbon exchange. Second, temperate-zone carbon dynamics w i l l become recognized f o r t h e i r importance i n t h e carbon r e l e a s e o f t h e e n t i r e biosphere. Although once considered secondary t o t h e t r o p i c s i n t h e g l o b a l carbon balance (Woodwell e t a l . 1978), c u r r e n t temperate zone carbon dynamics may be o f major s i g n i ficance. Since estimates o f temperate zone carbon exchange v a r y from a small source (Houghton e t a l . 1983) t o a n e t s i n k o f 1.0-1.9 Gt/yr (Armentano and Ralston 1980, Johnson and Sharpe 1983), temperate zone carbon storage c o u l d more than balance t r o p i c a l releases. Therefore, improvement i n temperate carbon balance estimates i s needed t o determine t h e dynamics o f simultaneous sources and s i n k s throughout t h e biosphere. Only a f t e r t h e n e t balance o f t h e many asynchronous r e g i o n a l carbon p o o l s i s understood w i l l t h e carbon balance o f t h e biosphere and i t s r o l e i n t h e g l o b a l carbon c y c l e be known. REFERENCES

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194 1977. Carbon Balance i n T e r r e s t r i a l D e t r i t u s . Ann. Rev. Schlesinger, W. H. o f Ecol. Sys. 8:51-81. Schlesinger, W. H. 1983. Changes i n S o i l Carbon Storage and Associated Prop e r t i e s w i t h Disturbance and Recovery. (Manuscript). 1983. Can We Delay a Greenhouse Warming. The S e i d e l , S. and J. Keyes. E f f e c t i v e n e s s and F e a s i b i l i t y o f Options t o Slow a Build-up o f Carbon Dioxide i n t h e Atmosphere. S t r a t e g i c Studies S t a f f , O f f i c e o f P o l i c y Analysis. Washington, DC. 150 pp. S e i l e r , W. and P. J. Crutzen. 1980. Estimates o f Gross and Net Fluxes o f Carbon Between t h e Biosphere and t h e Atmosphere from Biomass Burning. C l i m a t i c Change 2:207-247. Seubert, C. E . , P. A. Sanchez, and C. Valverde. 1977. E f f e c t s o f Land Cleari n g Methods on S o i l P r o p e r t i e s o f an U l t i s o l and Crop Performance i n the Amazon Jungle o f Peru. T r o p i c a l A g r i c . 54:307-321. 1980. Successional I m m o b i l i z a t i o n o f N u t r i e n t s and B i o l o g i c Snedaker, S. C. a l l y Mediated Recycling i n T r o p i c a l Forests. T r o p i c a l Succession Supplement, t o Vol. 12. Bio. T r o p i c a l (J. Ewel, ed.): pp. 16-20. S w i f t , M. J., A. G. Cook and T. J. P e r f e c t . 1980. The E f f e c t s o f Changing A g r i c u l t u r a l P r a c t i c e on t h e B i o l o g y o f a F o r e s t S o i l i n t h e Subhumid Tropics: Decomposition T r o p i c a l Ecology and Developments, J. I . Furtado, ed. pp. 541-548. Whittaker, R. H. and G. E. Likens. 1973. Carbon i n t h e . b i o t a . I n : Carbon and t h e Biosphere. G. M. Woodwell and E. V. Pecan, ed. U n i t e d States Atomic Energy Commission Symposium Series 30, N a t i o n a l Technical I n f o r mation Service, S p r i n g f i e l d , V i r g i n i a . pp. 281-302. Woodwell, G. M., R. H. Whittaker, W. A. Reiners, G. E. Likens, C. C. Delwiche, and 0. B. B o t k i n . 1978. The B i o t a and t h e World Carbon Budget. Science 199: 141-146. Woodwell, G.M., J. E. Hobbie, R. A. Houghton, J. M. M e l l i l o , B. J. Peterson, G. R. Sharer, T. A. Stone, B. Moore, and A. B. Park. 1983. Deforestat i o n Measured by Landsat: Steps Toward a Method. U n i t e d States Department o f Energy Contract No. DE-AC02-809V10468. 62 pp. 1969. Comparative E c o l o g i c a l Studies on Three Main Yoda, K. and T. K i r a . Types o f F o r e s t Vegetation i n Thailand. 5. Accumulation and Turnover o f S o i l Organic M a t t e r w i t h Notes on t h e A l t i t u d i n a l S o i l Sequence i n Khao (Mt.) Luang, Peninsular Thailand. Nature and L i f e i n Southeast Asia 6: 88- 110. Zinke, P. J., A. G. Stangenberger, W. M. Post, W. R. Emanuel, and J. S . Olson. 1983. Worldwide Organic S o i l Carbon and N i t r o g e n Data. (manuscript)

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - hinted in The Netherlands

196

PLANT COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT I N AN ABANDONED LIMESTONE QUARRY; A DEMOGRAPHIC ASSESSMENT

Kenneth A. Klemow Department o f Biology Wilkes C o l l e g e Wilkes-Barre, P e n n s y l v a n i a 18766, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT C o l o n i z a t i o n o f p l a n t s i n a n abandoned l i m e s t o n e q u a r r y n e a r S y r a c u s e , New York h a s proceeded s l o w l y s i n c e t h e s i t e was mined 50 y e a r s ago. To u n d e r s t a n d p l a n t community development i n t h e q.u a r r y-, p o p u l a t i o n s o f f o u r dominant monocarpic s p e c i e s ( E k c a s t r u m g a l l i c u m , M e i i i o t u s G a , P i c r i s h i e r a c i o i d e s and Echium v u l g a r e ) were i n t e n s i v e l y monitored from 1976 t o 1981 on two s i t e s t h a t d i f f e r e d i n d e n s i t y and s u b s t r a t e c h a r a c t e r : t h e sparse and dense s i t e s . Measurements of s u b s t r a t e p r o p e r t i e s on each s i t e and r a i n f a l l were a l s o made and r e l a t e d t o p o p u l a t i o n performance. D e n s i t i e s o f a l l s p e c i e s f l u c t u a t e d d u r i n g e a c h year due t o e p i s o d e s o f s e e d l i n g r e c r u i t m e n t f o l l o w e d by heavy m o r t a l i t y t h a t appeared t o p r i m a r i l y r e s u l t from d e s i c c a t i o n . D e n s i t i e s a l s o v a r i e d between y e a r s , a p p a r e n t l y due t o v a r i a b i l i t y i n r a i n f a l l . D e n s i t i e s of P. h i e r a c i o i d e s d e c l i n e d d u r i n g t h e s t u d y whereas t h o s e o f E. v u l g a r e i n c r e a s e d . No o v e r a l l t r e n d was observed i n t h e o t h e r s p e c i e s . Annual f l u c t u a t i o n s i n d e n s i t y were c o n s i s t e n t l y less pronounced on t h e dense s i t e , a p p a r e n t l y due t o a m e l i o r a t i n g i n f l u e n c e s o f b o t h v e g e t a t i o n and s u b s t r a t e . Community development i n t h e q u a r r y a p p e a r s t o b e t e m p o r a l l y e r r a t i c , depending upon v a r i a b i l i t y i n r a i n f a l l and i t s i n f l u e n c e on t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e c i e s . ~~~

1.

~

INTRODUCTION

Humans u s e l a r g e amounts o f metals and m i n e r a l s t h a t are e x t r a c t e d from t h e e a r t h . One e x t r a c t i o n method i s s u r f a c e mining, i n which a l a y e r of o v e r l y i n g m a t e r i a l and, s u b s e q u e n t l y t h e d e s i r e d commodity, is removed by a n open e x c a v a t i o n . S u r f a c e mining c a u s e s l o c a l i z e d b u t s e v e r e d i s t u r b a n c e t o p l a n t and a n i m a l communities because both t h e v e g e t a t i o n and t o p s o i l are c o m p l e t e l y removed. N e w v e g e t a t i o n must c o l o n i z e a s u b s t r a t e t h a t i s p h y s i c a l l y and chemically s t r e s s f u l . E c o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s of surface-mined s i t e s have t y p i c a l l y f o c u s e d on t h e Natural m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e s u b s t r a t e and v e g e t a t i o n f o r r e c l a m a t i o n [ 1-41. c o l o n i z a t i o n and community development h a s been s t u d i e d l e s s o f t e n on s t r i p - m i n e d sites. Because o f economic and s o c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , most s t u d i e s o f n a t u r a l r e v e g e t a t i o n have been made on a r e a s t h a t were mined f o r c o a l and m e t a l l i c o r e s [5-81. C o n v e r s e l y , n a t u r a l r e v e g e t a t i o n i n abandoned l i m e s t o n e Much remains t o q u a r r i e s h a s r e c e i v e d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n u n t i l r e c e n t l y [9-10]. be l e a r n e d a b o u t c o l o n i z a t i o n and covmunity development i n surface-mined s i t e s ,

196 p a r t i c u l a r l y i n l i m e s t o n e q u a r r i e s . Such s t u d i e s could y i e l d new i n s i g h t s i n t o c o s t - e f f i c i e n t ways of r e c l a i m i n g surface-mined s i t e s . To f u l l y e v a l u a t e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and abundance of p l a n t s and t o determine t h e f o r c e s t h a t l e a d t o v e g e t a t i o n change, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o examine p o p u l a t i o n - l e v e l (demographic) a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e p l a n t s p e c i e s [I I]. S e v e r a l demographic s t u d i e s o f p l a n t s p e c i e s c o l o n i z i n g mined s i t e s have been conducted, mostly w i t h i n t h e p a s t 15 y e a r s [12-161. However, each of t h o s e s t u d i e s have focused on a s i n g l e s p e c i e s and have been of 1 o r 2 y e a r d u r a t i o n . To b e s t u n d e r s t a n d community development and t o p i n p o i n t t h e f a c t o r s t h a t i n h i b i t s u c c e s s i o n on mined s i t e s , a m u l t i - y e a r approach i n c o r p o r a t i n g c o n c u r r e n t demographic a n a l y s e s o f s e v e r a l s p e c i e s is needed. To t h a t end, a 5-year s t u d y was conducted i n a n abandoned l i m e s t o n e quarry n e a r S y r a c u s e , N e w York. R e v e g e t a t i o n h a s proceded s l o w l y s i n c e t h e s i t e was mined i n t h e 1920's. The q u a r r y s u b s t r a t e is rocky, c a l c a r e o u s , i n f e r t i l e and e x c e s s i v e l y d r a i n e d [13, 17-18]. The p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y were: ( 1 ) t o i n v e s t i g a t e community development i n t h e q u a r r y by e v a l u a t i n g t h e demography of t h e component s p e c i e s , and (2) t o p i n p o i n t t h o s e f a c t o r s t h a t have i n h i b i t e d s u c c e s s i o n by r e l a t i n g demography t o e d a p h i c and m i c r o m e t e o r o l o g i c a l conditions.

2.

THE STUDY SITE

The s t u d y was conducted i n t h e J a m e s v i l l e Limestone Q u a r r y o p e r a t e d by the A l l i e d C o r p o r a t i o n . The q u a r r y i s l o c a t e d 9 km s o u t h e a s t o f S y r a c u s e , N e w York (43°00'N, 76'09'W) a l o n g a band o f Devonic l i m e s t o n e t h a t r u n s between Albany and B u f f a l o i n u p s t a t e N e w York. S u r f a c e mining f o r c a r b o n a t e rock began i n t h e 1890's and c o n t i n u e s today. Land h o l d i n g s of t h e q u a r r y c o n s i s t of about 1200 h a , o f which 650 ha have been d i s t u r b e d by mining o r dumping. T h i s study was made i n a 7.9 ha s e c t i o n of t h e q u a r r y t h a t was mined d u r i n g t h e 1920's and s u b s e q u e n t l y abandoned. The mining p r o c e s s removed t h e o r i g i n a l beech-maple-hemlock f o r e s t , t h e s o i l and 5-10 m o f bedrock. The s u b s t r a t e t h a t remains is composed o f c a l c a r e o u s r o c k s , s t o n e - s i z e d f r a g m e n t s and f i n e material. The s u b s t r a t e a l s o c o n t a i n s v a r y i n g amounts of c i n d e r from c o a l - b u r n i n g l o c o m o t i v e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e mining p r o c e s s .

Natural r e v e g e t a t i o n h a s proceeded s l o w l y i n t h e 50 y e a r s f o l l o w i n g abandonment. The p l a n t community c o n t a i n s a m i x t u r e of herbs, shrubs, Vines and = Desr., P i c r i s s t u n t e d trees. The dominant h e r b s i n c l u d e M e l i l o t u s a h i e r a c i o i d e s L., Hieracium f l o r e n t i n u m A l l . , Erucastrum g a l l i c u m (Willd. )O.E. S c h u l z , A s c l e p i e t u b e r o s a L., Echium v u l g a r e L., and Hypericum p e r f o r a t u m L (nomenclature follo-j). Woody p l a n t s i n c l u d e Rhus t y p h i n a L . , Vitis r i p a r i a Michx., L o n i c e r a t a t a r i c a L., Prunus v i r g i n i a n a L., P o p u l u s t r e m u l o i d e s Wichx., and Rubus sp., among o t h e r s . The p l a n t community e x h i b i t s marked p a t t e r n i n g i n b o t h s p e c i e s c o m p o s i t i o n and c o v e r due t o m i c r o t o p o g r a p h i c h e t e r o g e n e i t y [13]. To d e t e r m i n e how s u b s t r a t e c o n d i t i o n s and t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g v e g e t a t i o n a f f e c t community development, v e g e t a t i o n was sampled on two s i t e s t h a t were s e p a r a t e d by a b o u t 40 m. These s i t e s , named t h e s p a r s e and d e n s e sites, each measured a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 x 20 m. S p e c i e s c o m p o s i t i o n was s i m i l a r on t h e two s i t e s , b u t t h e d e n s i t y o f most s p e c i e s was greater on t h e d e n s e s i t e ( T a b l e 1). Likewise, i n mid-June 1976, e r c e n t c o v e r was 41% and 8%on t h e d e n s e and s p a r s e s i t e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y [20!. The s u b s t r a t e on b o t h s i t e s was rocky as f i n e material (<0.2 c m d i a m e t e r ) accounted for o n l y a b o u t 22% of t h e weight of t h e s u b s t r a t e ( T a b l e 2 ) . About

197 Table 1. Densities (m-') of plants on the sparse and dense sites, Jamesville Quarry, Syracuse, New York, on 26 May 1976. Spli)ols for life histories are: A = annual, B = biennial, P = perennial. Technical name Erucastrum gallicum Silene cserei -Melilotus alba Picris hieracioides Daucus carota -Echium vulgare Hypericum perforatum Hieracium florentinum Asclepias tuberosa Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Sanguisorba minor Table 2.

Cmon name

Life History

french rocket catchfly white sweet clover bitterweed Queen Anne's lace viper's bugloss St. Johnswort hawkweed butterflyweed daisy burnet

Sparse site 49.3 3.4 61.9 56.0 6.3 1.3 20.4 14.1 10.5 4.8 1.3

A A

B B B B P P P P P

Dense site

3.4 0.0

464.6 477.2 54.3 49.7 690.1 65.7 35.4 5.1 0.0

Substrate properties on the sparse and dense sites; values in the first two columns are mean? S.D. and, in parentheses, the number of observations; results of one-way analysis of variance comparing sites are presented in column 4; N.S. = not significant at&=0.05. Data from Klemow h Raynal [18], reprinted with permission. Property

Sparse site

51.12 Soil C1.25 cm diameter (I)* 22.2 2 Soil <0.2 cm diameter (%)* 70.7 2 Sand (X) 18.1 2 Silt (X) 11.2 2 Clay (%) Water retention ( % ) : 13.1 2 -1/3 bar 4.37 2 -15 bar 7.64 2 PH 7.00 2 Cation-exchange-capacity (m-equiv per 1OOg) 0.09 5 K+ (m-equiv per 1OOg) 0.56 2 ~ g 2 +(m-equiv per 1OOg) 4.67 2 Organic matter (%)

Dense site

*

11.8 7.58 4.60 3.85 1.68

(7) (7) (14) (14) (14)

48.7 2 9.96 22.0 4.54 65.7 2 1.53 24.0 2 1.76 10.3 If: 2.11

2.64 0.68 0.04 2.28

(7) (7) (7) (14)

28.2 2 11.6 2 7.56 13.12

0.02 (14) 0.04 (14) 0.49 (7)

0.23 0.81 6.66

(4)

Signif.

(8) (8) (8)

N.S. N.S. 0.01 0.005 N.S.

(4) (4) (4) (8)

0.005 0.01 0.025 0.005

2 0.08 (8) 2 0.16 (8) 2 1.84 (4)

0.005 0.005 0.025

8.85 5.23 0.05 4.12

(4)

*Data for 0-10 cm stratum. Rest of Table refers to cO.2 cm soil fraction only. half of the substrate's weight was made up of rock fragments y1.25 cm in diameter. Analyses of the fine material showed it to have a sandy-loam texture on both sites. The dense-site substrate had greater water retention, higher fertility and higher organic matter than the substrate sampled from the sparse site.

On sunny afternoons during the summer, temperatures at, and just above, the surface were 5-10°C warmer than those at a height of 100 cm [17]. During early afternoon on a t pica1 warm, sunny day in July 1976, exposed surfaces at both sites exceeded 44 BC whereas shaded surfaces were 10°C cooler. The surface on the dense site tended to be cooler'on the averge because more of it

198 was shaded. Temperatures on exposed and shaded s u r f a c e s were v e r y s i m i l a r on cloudy days. T h e r e f o r e , s i t e - r e l a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e o n l y o c c u r r e d on sunny days. p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e summer when t h e v e g e t a t i o n was most developed.

3.

METHODS

Permanent q u a d r a t s f o r s a m p l i n g v e g e t a t i o n were e s t a b l i s h e d on both s i t e s i n l a t e May 1976. Twenty-one q u a d r a t s , each measuring 0.5 x 0.5 m were randomly p o s i t i o n e d on t h e s p a r s e s i t e . F i v e 0.5 x 0.5 m q u a d r a t s and t h i r t e e n 0.2 x 0.2 m q u a d r a t s were randomly p o s i t i o n e d on t h e dense s i t e . A l a r g e r a r e a was sampled on t h e s p a r s e s i t e because t h e d e n s i t y o f p l a n t s was lower t h e r e . Each q u a d r a t was examined e v e r y two weeks d u r i n g t h e growing s e a s o n s o f 1976-1979. I n 1980 and 1981, t h e q u a d r a t s were examined t h r e e times each. Q u a d r a t s were n o t examined d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r s because o f f r e q u e n t snow c o v e r . A l l p l a n t s w i t h i n t h e q u a d r a t s were mapped on c o o r d i n a t e p a p e r d u r i n g t h e f i r s t examination i n May 1976. A wooden frame measuring 0.5 x 0.5 m f a c i l i t a t e d t h e mapping procedure. When t h e q u a d r a t s were examined a t s u b s e q u e n t d a t e s , t h e maps were brought up t o d a t e , a c c o u n t i n g f o r emergence of new i n d i v i d u a l s and m o r t a l i t y of o l d ones. A t e a c h sampling, each p l a n t was c a t e g o r i z e d i n t o one of t h r e e l i f e - h i s t o r y c l a s s e s : s e e d l i n g s , e s t a b l i s h e d - v e g e t a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s (Table 7 ) , and r e p r o d u c t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s . The number of s e e d s produced by r e p r o d u c t i v e l a n t s was determined i n 1980 and 1981 a c c o r d i n g t o methods d e t a i l e d e l s e w h e r e f21]. The methods allowed e s t i m a t e s t o be made f o r each s p e c i e s of-2oth t h e mean number o f s e e d s produced p e r p l a n t and t h e d e n s i t y o f s e e d s (m ) on each s i t e i n each year. The t o t a l number o f p l a n t s p r e s e n t a t each s a m p l i n g d a t e was determined f o r each s p e c i e s on e a c h s i t e . A l l p l a n t s t h a t appeared between s u c c e s s i v e sampling d a t e s were grouped t o g e t h e r i n t o s e p a r a t e c o h o r t s . The p r o p o r t i o n of t h e cohort t h a t s u r v i v e d t o each s u b s e q u e n t s a m p l i n g d a t e w a s d e t e r m i n e d and t h e d a t a were p l o t t e d as s u r v i v o r s h i p c u r v e s . S u r v i v o r s h i p c u r v e s a r e u s e f u l because t h e y e n a b l e one t o d e t e r m i n e ( 1 ) t h e age a t which most p l a n t s d i e , and ( 2 ) any r e l a t i o n s h i p s between m o r t a l i t y and t e m p o r a l l y v a r i a b l e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y r a i n f a l l . Many c o h o r t s were i d e n t i f i e d due t o t h e f r e q u e n c y o f sampling. The f a t e s o f o n l y s e l e c t e d , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c o h o r t s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d , however.

For each s p e c i e s , t h e number of p l a n t s i n each l i f e - h i s t o r y c a t e g o r y ( s e e d , s e e d l i n g , e s t a b l i s h e d o r r e p r o d u c t i v e ) was a l s o d e t e r m i n e d f o r e a c h s a m p l i n g d a t e on each s i t e . The p r o p o r t i o n o f s e e d s t h a t produced s e e d l i n g s was e s t i m a t e d by d i v i d i n g t h e number of s e e d i n g s t h a t emerged e a c h y e a r by t h e e s t i m a t e d number o f s e e d s produced p r i o r t o emergence. The p r o p o r t i o n of T a b l e 3.

Minimum s i z e s f o r e s t a b l i s h e d p l a n t s on t h e s p a r s e and d e n s e s i t e s , Jamesville Q u a r r y , S y r a c u s e , New York. P l a n t s smaller t h a n t h e l i s t e d s i z e were c l a s s i f i e d as s e e d l i n g s .

Species Erucastrum g a l l i c u m M e l i l o t u s alba Picris hieracioides Echium v u l g a r e

S i z e (cm)

1.5 3.0 2.0 2.0

Organ measured

stem Stem rosette leaf rosette leaf

199 s e e d l i n g s t h a t e s t a b l i s h e d and t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f e s t a b l i s h e d p l a n t s t h a t reproduced were d e t e r m i n e d f o r e a c h y e a r ' s s e e d l i n g crop. Mean p r o p o r t i o n s , based on t h e e n t i r e s t u d y , were a l s o d e t e r m i n e d by p o o l i n g t h e d a t a from a l l years. The p r o p o r t i o n s of t r a n s i t i o n between s u c c e s s i v e l i f e - h i s t o r y s t a g e s were used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n change through time. F i r s t , r a t e s of p o p u l a t i o n change p e r g e n e r a t i o n (R ) were e s t i m a t e d f o r e a c h s p e c i e s on each s i t e by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e propor?ion of s e e d s t h a t produced s e e d l i n g s by t h e p r o p o r t i o n of s e e d l i n g s t h a t e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e n by t h e p r o p o r t i o n of e s t a b l i s h e d p l a n t s t h a t reproduced and t h e n by t h e number o f s e e d s produced by mature p l a n t s . Second, t h e % v a l u e s were c o n v e r t e d t o a n n u a l r a t e s of change (A ) by t a k i n g t h e gth r o o t of R where g r e p r e s e n t s t h e mean nuEf;er o f y e a r s p e r g e n e r a t i o n [ 2 9 ] o f each s p e c i e s on e a c h s i t e . The mean l e n g t h o f t i m e t h a t s e e d s of e a c h s p e c i e s remain i n t h e s o i l was e s t i m a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e method of Klemow [ Z l ] and was t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t when g was d e t e rmined

.

Three c l a s s e s o f e s t i m a t e s were o b t a i n e d f o r e a c h s p e c i e s on each site. The f i r s t was bazgd on p r o p o r t i o n s of t r a n s i t i o n o f each l i f e - h i s t o r y s t a g e t o t h e n e x t f o r p l a n t s from a l l y e a r s p o o l e d , and r e p r e s e n t e d t h e mean r a t e of change o v e r t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s t u d y . The second was based on t h e h i g h e s t a n n u a l p r o p o r t i o n s o f each t r a n s i t i o n and r e p r e s e n t e d t h e r a t e of change t h a t would be o b t a i n e d u n d e r optimum c o n d i t i o n s ( b a s e d on t h e years o b s e r v e d ) . The t h i r d was based on t h e l o w e s t a n n u a l p r o p o r t i o n s and r e p r e s e n t e d t h e r a t e of change under t h e p o o r e s t observed c o n d i t i o n s . The p o p u l a t i o n f l u x o f f o u r s p e c i e s (Erucastrum g a l l i c u m , M e l i l o t u s ,a P i c r i s h i e r a c i o i d e s and Echium v u l g a r e ) w i l l be p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s paper. These s p e c i e s are t h e dominant monocarpic h e r b s growing i n t h e q u a r r y and t h e i r performance g i v e s a n e x c e l l e n t i n d i c a t i o n a s t o t h e demographic a t t r i b u t e s o f the other species.

4.

RESULTS

Four c a t e g o r i e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l be p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n f o r each o f t h e f o u r s p e c i e s : ( 1 ) l i f e - h i s t o r y a t t r i b u t e s ; ( 2 ) changes i n t o t a l d e n s i t i e s t h r o u g h time; ( 7 ) s u r v i v o r s h i p o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c o h o r t s ; and ( 4 ) e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e rates o f d e n s i t y change t h r o u g h time. For M e l i l o t u s =a, Picris h i e r a c i o i d e s and Echium v u l g a r e , demographic d a t a w i l l be p r e s e n t e d d e s c r i b i n g p o p u l a t i o n performance on b o t h t h e s p a r s e and d e n s e s i t e s . For Erucastrum g a l l i c u m , demographic d a t a of o n l y t h e s p a r s e - s i t e p o p u l a t i o n w i l l be p r e s e n t e d because t h e p o p u l a t i o n on t h e dense s i t e r a r e l y exceeded 10 i n d i v i d u a l s for most of t h e s t u d y .

4.1.

Life-History Attributes

Each of t h e f o u r s p e c i e s e x h i b i t e d a s t r i c t monocarpic l i f e - h i s t o r y , meaning t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s always d i e d a f t e r t h e y reproduced. There were, however, marked d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e s p e c i e s i n o t h e r l i f e - h i s t o r y a t t n b u t e s s u c h as t h e t i m e o f y e a r i n which most s e e d l i n g s emerged and t h e a g e a t which i n d i v i d u a l s reproduced. Moat Erucastrum g a l l i c u m d i s p l a y e d a t y p i c a l summer annual l i f e - h i s t o r y . s e e d l i n g s emerged d u n n g A p r i l and early May and p l a n t s grew v e g e t a t i v e l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e summer. P l a n t s f l o w e r e d and s e t s e e d from l a t e July u n t i l early

200

November. Very'few p l a n t s s u r v i v e d t h e w i n t e r a s v e g e t a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s ; most s u r v i v e d as s e e d s . S e e d l i n g s o f M e l i l o t u s & a l s o emerged i n A p r i l and May. P l a n t s grew v e g e t a t i v e l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r f i r s t summer and f a l l and t h e n d i e d back i n November. P l a n t s o v e r w i n t e r e d as a t a p r o o t w i t h buds a t t h e s o i l s u r f a c e . During t h e i r second summer, new stems were produced, and b o r e f l o w e r s and s e e d s from J u l y u n t i l l a t e October. Because p l a n t s always d i e d a f t e r t h e i r second y e a r o f growth, E. alba e x h i b i t e d a n o b l i g a t e b i e n n i a l l i f e - h i s t o r y [ l 8 ] . Most s e e d l i n g s o f P i c r i s h i e r a c i o i d e s emerged i n September and October, whereas t h o s e of Echium v u l g a r e emerged e i t h e r i n t h e l a t e summer, f a l l o r s p r i n g . I n d i v i d u a l s o f both s p e c i e s grew v e g e t a t i v e l y and formed r o s e t t e s d u r i n g t h e i r f i r s t summer. After o v e r w i n t e r i n g , some i n d i v i d u a l s produced f l o w e r i n g s h o o t s d u r i n g t h e i r second summer. R e p r o d u c t i o n was t y p i c a l l y delayed f o r one o r more y e a r s , however. Both p . h i e r a c i o i d e s and E. v u l g a r e e x h i b i t e d a f a c u l t a t i v e b i e n n i a l l i f e - h i s t o r y [23].

4.2

Temporal F l u x i n T o t a l D e n s i t i e s

D e n s i t i e s o f a l l f o u r s p e c i e s f l u c t u a t e d markedly d u r i n g e a c h y e a r (Fig. 1 ) . F l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e a n n u a l Erucastrum g a l l i c u m ( F i g . 1 ( a ) ) was expected because t h e s p e c i e s i s a n a n n u a l and t h e p o p u l a t i o n o c c u r s i n t h e form o f s e e d s d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r and as growing, p h o t o s y n t h e s i z i n g p l a n t s d u r i n g t h e s p r i n g , summer and f a l l . D e n s i t i e s o f t h e o t h e r t h r e e s p e c i e s f l u c t u a t e d d u r i n g each y e a r as w e l l , even though i n d i v i d u a l s had t h e c a p a c i t y t o s u r v i v e t h e winter (Fig. l(b-g)). The a n n u a l f l u c t u a t i o n i n t h o s e s p e c i e s r e s u l t e d from r a t h e r l a r g e f l u s h e s of s e e d l i n g emergence each y e a r and r a p i d m o r t a l i t y of s e e d l i n g s ( s e e below). I n E. alba and _P. h i e r a c i o i d e s , peak d e n s i t i e s each y e a r were t y p i c a l l y 20-100 times g r e a t e r t h a n t h e lowest d e n s i t i e s ( F i g . l ( b - e ) ) . In 5. vu;.are, p e a k , d e n s i t i e s were o n l y 2-4 times g r e a t e r t h a n t h e l o w e s t ( F i g . D e n s i t i e s of e s t a b l i s h e d i n d i v i d u a l s d i d n o t f l u c t u a t e n e a r l y a s much l(f-g w i t h i n each y e a r as d i d d e n s i t i e s of s e e d l i n g s .

.

D e n s i t i e s a l s o v a r i e d markedly between y e a r s , a l t h o u g h t h e f o u r s p e c i e s d i f f e r e d among each o t h e r i n t h e way d e n s i t i e s changed from y e a r t o y e a r . D e n s i t i e s o f E. a l l i c u m and alba were both h i g h e r i n 1978 t h a n i n any o t h e r ~ $ 9 ' ( F i g . 1 ( a - c y m E. g a l l i c u m . t h e peak d e n s i t y was a b o u t 185 p l a n t s m i n A p r i l , 1978; 3-8 t i m e s h i g h e r t h a n t h e peaks observed i n any o t h e r y1?9r ( F i g . l ( a ) ) . F o r _M. a x a , d e n s i t i e s i n A p r i l 1978 were 220 and 1270 m on t h e s p a r s e and d e n s e s i t e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y ( F i g . 2 1 ( b - c ) ) . Peak d e n s i t i e s d u r i 2 g t h e o t h e r y e a r s were 18-62 p l a n t s m- on t h e s p a r s e s i t e and 260-900 mon t h e dense s i t e . D e n s i t i e s o f 5. g a l l i c u m and y. a & n e i t h e r c o n s i s t e n t l y i n c r e a s e d n o r d e c r e a s e d o v e r t h e 6-year d u r a t i o n of t h e study.

c.

F o r _P. h i e r a c i o i d e s , peak d e n s i t i e s were markedly h i g h e r d u r i n g 1976 and 1977 t h a n d u r i n g 1979 and 1980 ( F i g . 1 ( d - e ) ) . Moreover, d e n s i t i e s of e s t a b l i s h e d p l a n t s d e c l i n e d on b o t h s i t e s such t h a t t h e d e n s i t y i n August 1981 was 9.0% and 9.6% o f t h a t i n August 1976 on t h e s p a r s e and d e n s e s i t e s , respectively. Whereas d e n s i t i e s of p. h i e r a c i o i d e s d e c l i n e d markedly d u r i n g t h e s t u d y , On t h e s p a r s e s i t e , t h o s e of E. v u l g a r e i n c r e a s e d on both s i t e s ( F i g . 1 ( f - g ) ) . p o p u l a t i o n s tended t o peak a t h i g h e r d e n s i t i e s each s u c c e e d i n g y e a r ( F i g . l ( f ) ) . Moreover, t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f e s t a b l i s h e d plan;9 i n c r e a s e d r a t h e r s t e a d i l y from 0.4 p l a n t s m-2 i n August 1976 t o a b o u t 3.0 m i n August 1981.

201

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Figure 1. Total densities of four monocarpic species, Jamesville Quarry, Syracuse, New York; (d-g) from Klemow & Raynal [ 2 3 ] , reprinted with permission.

202

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M M J S N J M M J S N JMM J S N J M M J SN J M M J Yca, 1 Ysor 2 Yeor 3 Year 4 Yew 5

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F i g u r e 2. S u r v i v o r s h i p c u r v e s f o r t o u r monocarpic s p e c i e s , Jamesville Quarry, S y r a c u s e , New York; ( a ) from Klemow & Raynal [ 2 4 ] , (d-g) from Klemow & Raynal [ 2 3 ] , r e p r i n t e d with permission. D e n s i t i e s on t h e d e n s e s i t e d i d n o t change much from y e a r t o y e a r u n t i l 1980 when t h e y i n c r e a s e d by a f a c t o r o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 ( F i g . 1 (g). D e s p i t e t h e f l u c t u a t i o n w i t h i n e a c h y e a r and between d i f f e r e n t y e a r s , d e n s i t i e s of h. h i e r a c i o i d e s and E. v u l g a r e were a l l c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r on t h e dense s i t e ( F i g . l ( b - g ) ) .

e. c.

4.7.

Survivorship

S u r v i v o r s h i p of g. g a l l i c u m on t h e s p a r s e s i t e v a r i e d markedly between y e a r s ; more s o t h a n observed i n t h e o t h e r t h r e e s p e c i e s ( F i g . 2 ( a ) ) . S u r v i v o r s h i p was h i g h e s t i n 1976 s u c h t h a t 70% of t h e p l a n t s t h a t emerged i n t h e s p n n g of t h a t y e a r s u r v i v e d u n t i l mid-August. I n c o n t r a s t , o n l y 6.2% of t h e s e e d l i n g s t h a t emerged i n s p r i n g 1977 s u r v i v e d t o mid-August, due t o v e r y heavy S e e d l i n g s t h a t emerged i n 1978 and 1979 m o r t a l i t y i n May and e a r l y June. s u f f e r e d r a t h e r c o n s t a n t m o r t a l i t y t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e summers. P l a n t s

203

-

died very r a p i d l y i n 1979 none of t h e s p r i n g r e c r u i t s survived p a s t l a t e August and none reproduced i n t h a t year.

In M e l i l o t u s a x a , s e e d l i n g s t h a t emerged i n t h e s p r i n g e x h i b i t e d comparatively low r a t e s of s u r v i v a l each y e a r (Fig. 2(b-c)). Survival w a s highest i n 1976 and 1980 where 16% and 10%of t h e s p r i n g s e e d l i n g s survived u n t i l autumn, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Fewer than 1 % of t h e s e e d l i n g s t h a t emerged i n t h e i n t e r v e n i n g y e a r s survived t h e i r f i r s t growing season on t h e dense s i t e and none survived on t h e s p a r s e s i t e . In a l l cohorts i n which p l a n t s overwintered, rates of s u r v i v a l were h i g h e r among 2-year-old p l a n t s than among 1-year-olds. For p. h i e r a c i o i d e s mean r a t e s of s u r v i v a l f o r f a l l r e c r u i t s during t h e i r f i r s t w i n t e r was 10%and 43% on t h e s p a r s e and dense sites, r e s p e c t i v e l y (Fig. 2(d-e). M o r t a l i t y was t y p i c a l l y very heavy d u r i n g t h e i r f i r s t summer and, g e n e r a l l y , fewer than 5% of t h e r e c r u i t s survived t h e i r f i r s t year. A s observed p l a n t s o l d e r than 1 y e a r had h i g h e r s u r v i v a l than younger p l a n t s . i n E. a&a, On both s i t e s , p l a n t s t h a t emerged i n f a l l 1979 had h i g h e r s u r v i v a l than those t h a t emerged i n 1976, 1977 or 1978. S u r v i v a l of a l l _P. h i e r a c i o i d e s i n d i v i d u a l s present on each s i t e a t t h e beginning of each y e a r was g r e a t e r i n 1976 $han i n succeeding y e a r s [23].

F o r s e e d l i n g s of E. vulgare t h a t emerged i n t h e s p r i n g , r a t e s of s u r v i v a l during t h e i r f i r s t summer ranged between 15% t o 45% ( F i g 2 ( f - g ) ) . Survival r a t e s were very high f o r E. v u l g a r e p l a n t s a f t e r they a t t a i n e d t h e age of 6 months. M o r t a l i t y a f t e r two y e a r s was g e n e r a l l y due t o p l a n t s completing t h e i r l i f e cycle.

E.

For gallicum. E. alba and _P. h i e r a c i o i d e s . s e e d l i n g s u r v i v a l was h i g h e s t i n 1976 and second h i g h e s t i n 1980 (Fig. Z(a-e)). S u r v i v a l w a s g e n e r a l l y much poorer f o r p l a n t s of those t h r e e s p e c i e s during 1977, 1978, and 1979. S u r v i v a l of 1. vulgare s e e d l i n g s was not c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r i n any y e a r (Fig. 2 ( f - g ) ) . Rates of s e e d l i n g s u r v i v a l tended t o be higher on t h e dense s i t e than on t h e s p a r s e s i t e f o r both 5. alba and 2. h i e r a c i o i d e s (Fig. 2(b-e)). For l . alba, t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l between s i t e s i n s u r v i v a l was most evident during 1977, 1 9 7 8 and 1979. S e e d l i n g s u r v i v a l was h i g h e r on t h e dense s i t e f o r p. h i e r a c i o i d e s during t h e i r f i r s t w i n t e r and d u r i n g t h e end of t h e i r f i r s t growing season.

4.4.

Life-History T r a n s i t i o n s and Rates of Population Flux

There was c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n between s p e c i e s , between s i t e s , and between y e a r s i n t h e proportion of i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t survived t o successive l i f e - h i s t o r y c a t e g o r i e s and i n t h e r a t e s of population change through time (Table 4 ) . The e s t i m a t e of population growth f o r Erucastrum gallicum u s i n g t h e pooled t r a n s i t i o n s was very c l o s e t o 1.0, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e population of t h a t s p e c i e s n e i t h e r increased nor decreased. A s observed i n Figure 1 ( a ) , however, t h e E. gallicum population f l u c t u a t e d markedly from y e a r t o year. Therefore t h e proporsions of s u r v i v a l t o s u c c e s s i v e l i f e - h i s t o r y s t a g e s a l s o v a r i e d between years. When t h e h i g h e s t annual proportions were used t o e s t i m a t e X , populations would grow by 20-fold each year under f a v o r a b l e conditi8hs. Conversely, when lowest proportions were used, populations would d e c l i n e by over 95% per year. Even though 2. gallicum i s an annual, i t s g e n e r a t i o n time was estimated t o be 1.23 y e a r s , because some s e e d s remained dormant f o r more than one year.

204

The p o o l e d x of t h e E. & p o p u l a t i o n on t h e s p a r s e s i t e was 0.94, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t i T r d e c l i n e d s l i g h t l y , whereas t h e p o p u l a t i o n on t h e dense s i t e i n c r e a s e d by an a v e r a g e of 14% each year. Like E. g a l l i c u m , & populations have t h e c a p a c i t y t o i n c r e a s e r a p i d l y under f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , s p e c i f i c a l l y by 1.7 and 5.0-fold each y e a r on t h e s p a r s e and dense s i t e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The p o p u l a t i o n s can l i k e w i s e d e c r e a s e r a p i d l y under u n f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s . The p e r c e n t a g e of s e e d l i n g s t h a t e s t a b l i s h e d was h i g h e r on t h e dense s i t e whereas t h e p e r c e n t a g e of e s t a b l i s h e d p l a n t s t h a t s u r v i v e d t o f l o w e r was h i g h e r on t h e sparse s i t e .

z.

Table 4 .

P r o p o r t i o n s of p l a n t s t h a t s u r v i v e t o s u c c e s s i v e l i f e - h i s t o r y s t a g e s and e s t i m a t e s of r a t e s of p o p u l a t i o n change f o r 4 monocarpic s p e c i e s on t h e s p a r s e and dense s i t e s , J a m e s v i l l e Quarry, Syracuse, New York. See t e x t f o r e x p l a n a t i o n . Data f o r ( b ) , ( c ) and (d) from [21].

( a ) Erucastrum B a l l i c u m Transition S e e d l i n g emergence Establishment Flowering Seed set RO

'yr g (yrs 1 (b) Melilotus

Sparse s i t e Pooled 0.180 0.311 0.075 0.216 0.248 0.763 315 801 1.06 41.09 1.04 20.51 1.23

w

Low

0.074 0.009 0.207 167 0.023 0.047

alba

Transition S e e d l i n g emergence Establishment Flowering Seed s e t 'RO

Sparse s i t e Pooled 0.252 0.252 0.062 0.329 0.120 0.120 449 449 0.84 4.20 0.94 1.70 2; 7

Dense s . i t e Pooled 0.253 0.667 0.153 0.320 0.064 0.101 548 1898 1.36 41.00 1.14 5.03 2.3

Low

0.252 0.00 0.00 449 0.00 0.00

& 0.113 0.101 0.014 .346 0.055 0.28

(c) P i c r i s hieracioides Transition S e e d l i n g emergence Establrishment Flowering Seed set RO

h gf&s>

Sparse s i t e Pooled 0.320 0.758 0.004 0.024 0.248 0.248 340 597 2.69 0.11 1.43 6.45 2.8

Dense s i t e Pooled 0.437 0.828 0.028 0.054 0.053 0.053 265 459 0.17 1.09 0.59 1.03 3.3

Low 0.227 0.001 0.248 248 0.014 0.22

Low 0.330 0.003 0.053 163 0.009 0.24

(d) Echium v u l g a r e Transition S e e d l i n g emergence Establishment Flowering Seed set RtJ

%r g(yrs)

Sparse s i t e Pooled H ~ J & 0.193 0.203 0.152 0.313 0.360 0.600 24 7 271 2.61 10.34 1.43. -2.38 2.7

Low

0 x 7 0.091 0.000 220 0.00 0.00

'

Dense s i t e Pooled L~ 0.199 0.358 0 x 1 0.150 0.174 0.139 0.343 0.429 0.250 202 242 156 2.07 6.45 0.44 1.24 1.73 0.78 3.4

205

A s observed i n Figure 1 (d-e), populations of p. h i e r a c i o i d e s declined markedly on both s i t e s . By using t h e pooled t r a n s i t i o n p r o b a b i l i t i e s , t h e r a t e s of d e c l i n e were estimated t o average 55% and 41% per year on t h e s p a r s e and dense s i t e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . I f c o n d i t i o n s d e t e r i o r a t e d f u r t h e r , t h e r a t e of d e c l i n e would approach 80% p e r year. Conversely, t h e population appears capable of r e v e r s i n g i t s d e c l i n e because t h e values exceeded 1.0 on both s i t e s when h i g h e s t t r a n s i t i o n p r o b a b i l i t i e s %ere used. A s observed i n ,*a rates of s e e d l i n g establishment were h i g h e r on t h e dense s i t e whereas t h e proportion of e s t a b l i s h e d p l a n t s t h a t flowered was h i g h e r on t h e s p a r s e s i t e .

r.

Populations of E. vulgare grew a t annual r a t e s t h a t were estimated t o average 43% on t h e s p a r s e s i t e and 24% on t h e dense s i t e . A s observed i n t h e o t h e r t h r e e s p e c i e s , t h e r e was considerable year-to-year v a r i a b i l i t y i n annual proportions of t r a n s i t i o n t o s u c c e s s i v e l i f e - h i s t o r y s t a g e s . By using c o n s i s t e n t l y high r a t e s of t r a n s i t i o n , populations on t h e s p a r s e and dense s i t e s would i n c r e a s e by 140% and 70% each y e a r , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Under l e a s t favorable c o n d i t i o n s , populations on t h e s p a r s e s i t e would go e x t i n c t a f t e r one generation while those on t h e dense s i t e would decrease by j u s t over 20% per year.

5.

DISCUSSION

D e n s i t i e s of a l l f o u r s p e c i e s f l u c t u a t e d markedly within each year and between d i f f e r e n t years. F l u c t u a t i o n s w i t h i n each y e a r were due t o l a r g e f l u s h e s of s e e d l i n g recruitment followed by heavy m o r t a l i t y of young p l a n t s . The f a c t t h a t populations f l u c t u a t e d so much w i t h i n each year emphasizes t h a t i t was important t o r e p e a t e d l y sample t h e s i t e t o o b t a i n an a c c u r a t e understanding of t h e community. A s i n g l e sample would have provided an incomplete p i c t u r e . There was c o n s i d e r a b l e year-to-year f l u c t u a t i o n i n d e n s i t i e s , s u r v i v o r s h i p and proportions of p l a n t s t h a t survived t o s u c c e s s i v e l i f e - h i s t o r y s t a g e s . F l u c t u a t i o n s i n s o i l moisture, caused by f l u c t u a t i o n s i n r a i n f a l l coupled with a s u b s t r a t e t h a t was e x c e s s i v e l y drained, appeared t o c o n t r i b u t e most t o v a r i a b i l i t y i n p l a n t performance. and Klemow [17] noted t h a t t h e Skaller quarry s u b s t r a t e can d r y below w i l t i n g point (-15 b a r s ) a f t e r even 6 consecutive r a i n l e s s days.

[Is]

Three of t h e f o u r s p e c i e s , Erucastrum nallicum, M e l i l o t u s *a and P i c r i s h i e r a c i o i d e s . appeared t o be most a f f e c t e d by year-to-year v a r i a b i l i t y i n r a i n f a l l . More r a i n f e l l d u r i n g t h e growing season of 1976 than during any o t h e r y e a r of t h e study (Fig. 31,. S e e d l i n g s u r v i v a l was h i g h e s t i n 1976 i n both Likewise, s u r v i v a l of a l l i n d i v i d u a l s of 2. E. gallicum and 5. *a. h i e r a c i o i d e s was h i g h e r i n 1976 than i n subsequent years. Conversely, t h e r e was considerably more j u v e n i l e m o r t a l i t y d u r i n g 1977, 1978 and 1979; y e a r s i n which t h e r e was e i t h e r s e v e r e or chronic drought d u r i n g t h e growing season. When q u a d r a t s were v i s i t e d a f t e r extended r a i n l e s s p e r i o d s , t h e r e were many p l a n t s t h a t had d i e d , obviously from d e s i c c a t i o n .

-

V a r i a b i l i t y i n r a i n f a l l had t h e most e f f e c t on s u r v i v o r s h i p i n E. allicum such t h a t a l l t h r e e types of s u r v i v o r s h i p p a t t e r n s (Types I , 11, and I I b were observed. Such temporal v a r i a b i l i t y i n s u r v i v o r s h i p has only r a r e l y been For alba, p r e v i o u s l y observed f o r a s i n g l e s p e c i e s on a s i n g l e s i t e [27]. m o r t a l i t y on t h e s p a r s e s i t e was so heavy d u r i n g 1977-1979 t h a t no p l a n t s emerging i n those y e a r s survived t o t h e i r second s p r i n g , and, hence, none reproduced. I n a d d i t i o n t o s u r v i v o r s h i p being h i g h e s t i n 1976, rates of establishment and t h e mean h e i g h t and mean number of seeds borne by reproductive p l a n t s were a l l h i g h e s t i n t h a t y e a r f o r g. alba and p. h i e r a c i o i d e s [21, 231. R a i n f a l l t h e r e f o r e a p p a r e n t l y influenced a v a r i e t y of demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e quarry p l a n t s .

z.

206

120

100

80 60

-s o 40

E

20

-

1976

1977

160

2 140

Figure 3 . R a i n f a l l i n Syracuse, New York during t h e growing seasons of 1976 through 1981. V e r t i c a l b a r s i n d i c a t e t h e cumulative r a i n f a l l i n m i l l i m e t e r s during t h e f i r s t 15 days and l a s t 1 5 o r 16 days of each month. Horizontal lines F i l l e d c i r c l e s above t h e b a r s i n d i c a t e denote 30-year means f o r t h o s e periods. extended r a i n l e s s periods; one c i r c l e , 4-7 days; two c i r c l e s , 8 o r more days. Data a r e from t h e National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, r e p r i n t e d with permission from Klemow 6 Raynal [ 2 3 ] . Unlike t h e o t h e r t h r e e s p e c i e s , t h e demographic response of Echium vulgare did not appear t o be a f f e c t e d by year-to-year v a r i a b i l i t y i n r a i n f a l l . Survival and reproduction of E. vulgare was as high during t h e drou h t s of 1977-1979, as during 1976, t h e y e a r with abundant r a i n f a l l ( s e e a l s o [23(l). The c o n t r a s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s on t h e two s i t e s a f f e c t e d t h e demography of a l l Rates of a and 2. h i e r a c i o i d e s . f o u r s p e c i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y E. gallicum, y. = s e e d l i n g s u r v i v a l and establishment were h i g h e r on t h e dense s i t e f o r both _P. Higher a v a i l a b i l i t y of moisture and n u t r i e n t s i n the h i e r a c i o i d e s and E. s u b s t r a t e a s well a s a c o o l e r , more shaded s u r f a c e on t h e dense s i t e were probably r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e b e t t e r performance of young p l a n t s t h e r e .

m.

In c o n t r a s t , once p l a n t s of those two s p e c i e s e s t a b l i s h e d , a g r e a t e r proportion survived t o flower on t h e s p a r s e s i t e than on t h e dense s i t e . Moreover, i n 2. h i e r a c i o i d e s , p l a n t s delayed reproduction longer and produced fewer seeds on t h e dense s i t e . Although experimental evidence is l a c k i n g , i t i s l i k e l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n d i v i d u a l s of 2. h i e r a c i o i d e a were i n h i b i t e d by comparatively high competition on t h e dense s i t e a f t e r they grew t o a c e r t a i n l a r g e s i z e . Other s t u d i e s of f a c u l t a t i v e b i e n n i a l s p e c i e s have demonstrated low

207

r a t e s of s u r v i v a l , delayed reproduction and low numbers of seeds produced by p l a n t s growing i n s i t e s of high competitive s t r e s s [28-311. Unlike populations of t h e o t h e r t h r e e s p e c i e s , those of Erucastrum gallicum were much l e s s developed on t h e dense s i t e than on t h e s p a r s e s i t e . Poor population development of t h a t annual s p e c i e s under conditions of high p l a n t d e n s i t y may not be unexpected because annuals a r e t y p i c a l l y r e s t r i c t e d from h a b i t a t s i n which t h e r e i s a dense cover of p l a n t s t h a t i n h i b i t s s e e d l i n g emergence and establishment [32]. gallicum on However, t h e low d e n s i t y of t h e dense s i t e may not have been e n t i r e l y due t o competition, because t h e o t h e r monocarpic p l a n t s (E. a s , 2 . h i e r a c i o i d e s and vulgare) e x h i b i t e d r a t h e r high r a t e s of s e e d l i n g emergence and establishment t h e r e . Moreover, d e n s i t i e s of 1. gallicum d i d i n c r e a s e s h a r p l y on t h e dense s i t e i n 1981 [20], suggesting t h a t t h e s p e c i e s d i d not c o l o n i z e t h e s i t e u n t i l t h a t year.

E.

E.

The demography of E. vulgare was hardly a f f e c t e d by c o n t r a s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s on t h e two s i t e s . Rates of s e e d l i n g s u r v i v a l , establishment, flowering and t h e number of seeds produced per p l a n t were a l l s i m i l a r on t h e two s i t e s . The only d i f f e r e n c e was t h a t p l a n t s on t h e dense s i t e had a s l i g h t l y longer reproductive delay. The r e s u l t s of t h i s study i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e was v a r i a b i l i t y among t h e f o u r s p e c i e s i n t h e i r r o l e i n t h e development of t h e p l a n t community i n t h e quarry. Populations of E. alba and _P. h i e r a c i o i d e s were a p p a r e n t l y well e s t a b l i s h e d on both s i t e s and E. gallicum was e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e s p a r s e s i t e a t t h e beginning of t h e study. D e n s i t i e s of gallicum and M.alba f l u c t u a t e d markedly from year t o y e a r but d i d not show a tendency t o e i t h e r decrease o r i n c r e a s e . The f l u c t u a t i o n i n d e n s i t i e s appeared t o r e s u l t from r a i n f a l l t h a t v a r i e d annually. D e n s i t i e s of _P. h i e r a c i o i d e s were a l s o a f f e c t e d by r a i n f a l l because they declined r a t h e r s h a r p l y during t h e drought-prone y e a r s of 1977-1979.

E.

For those t h r e e s p e c i e s , t h e e s t i m a t i o n of population growth r a t e s u s i n g t h e c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e s t observed r a t e s of t r a n s i t i o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e populations have a b i l i t y t o grow r a p i d l y when c o n d i t i o n s a r e optimum. Thus, t h e d e n s i t y t r e n d s observed i n t h i s study would have very l i k e l y d i f f e r e d had t h e amount and d i s t r i b u t i o n of r a i n f a l l d i f f e r e d . Moreover, d e n s i t i e s should rise t o l e v e l s exceeding those observed i n t h i s study, should a s e r i e s of y e a r s of abundant, frequent r a i n f a l l occur. The abundance of unoccupied a r e a , p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e s p a r s e s i t e , would allow d e n s i t i e s t o g r e a t l y increase. Eventually, however, population growth would cease because reproduction would be i n h i b i t e d by t h e high d e n s i t y of p l a n t s . Conversely, should c o n d i t i o n s d e t e r i o r a t e and drought become even more s e v e r e , populations of a l l t h r e e s p e c i e s would be s u b j e c t t o e x t i n c t i o n i n t h e quarry. Each s p e c i e s has, however, l i f e - h i s t o r y a t t r i b u t e s t h a t would delay or prevent e x t i n c t i o n under a l l but t h e most s e v e r e conditions. I n both E. = a and g a l l i c u m , not a l l seeds germinate each y e a r and many of t h e ungerminated seeds remain dormant i n t h e s u b s t r a t e f o r more than one y e a r [21, 241. Populations can t h e r e f o r e p e r s i s t even when a l l p l a n t s t h a t emerge i n a given y e a r d i e before reproducing. A bank of dormant seeds undoubtedly enabled t h e population of gallicum t o p e r s i s t through complete pre-reproductive m o r t a l i t y p e r s i s t e d on t h e s p a r s e s i t e i n 1979. Likewise, t h e population of I. d u r i n g 1978, 1979 and 1980 even though no p l a n t s reproduced i n t h e quadrats i n t h o s e years. I n c o n t r a s t , p. h i e r a c i o i d e s p e r s i s t e d b i n d i v i d u a l s delaying reproduction, thereby c r e a t i n g a bank or "reserve" [TO? of r o s e t t e s . Many o t h e r s p e c i e s , i n c l u d i n g both p l a n t s and animals, delay reproduction a s a means of preventing e x t i n c t i o n when populations a r e faced with p e r i o d i c a l l y s t r e s s f u l

E.

E.

208

c o n d i t i o n s [33-35]. Populations of a.ll t h r e e s p e c i e s would probably not p e r s i s t beyond f o u r consecutive y e a r s of s e v e r e drought because few s e e d s or r o s e t t e s would remain a l i v e t h a t long. I t is u n l i k e l y , however, t h a t t h e quarry would be s u b j & t t o more than f o u r consecutuve y e a r s of drought due t o t h e n a t u r e of r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n s i n c e n t r a l New York S t a t e . Populations of E . vulgare were not very w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d on e i t h e r s i t e a t t h e beginning of study, u n l i k e t h o s e of t h e o t h e r t h r e e s p e c i e s . I n s t e a d , _E. vulgare was a p p a r e n t l y s t i l l c o l o n i z i n g t h e quarry when t h e study was conducted, because d e n s i t i e s i n c r e a s e d , even d u r i n g s e v e r a l consecutive y e a r s of drought. Such a n i n c r e a s e a l s o suggests t h a t 1. vulgare i s more t o l e r a n t of t h e x e r i c , i n f e r t i l e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e quarry than t h e o t h e r t h r e e s p e c i e s . D e n s i t i e s of E. vulgare w i l l probably continue t o i n c r e a s e u n t i l t h e s i t e becomes v e m crowded and competition i n h i b i t s growth and development.

-

Typically, when a p l a n t community l o c a t e d i n a humid, temperate a r e a is s e v e r e l y d i s t u r b e d by n a t u r a l causes or by human a c t i o n s , t h e s i t e i s eventually r e s t o r e d by an o r d e r l y progression of p l a n t s p e c i e s t h a t c o l o n i z e and f i l l t h e s i t e . I n many i n s t a n c e s , t h e sequence is i n i t i a t e d by s h o r t - l i v e d , herbaceous p l a n t s t h a t colonize t h e s i t e . These p l a n t s a r e - then replaced by longer-lived, p e r e n n i a l herbs and, u l t i m a t e l y by woody p l a n t s [36-38]. I n t h e J a m e s v i l l e Quarry, t h e s e v e r i t y of t h e d i s t u r b a n c e has prevented such a t y p i c a l s u c c e s s i o n a l sequence. The s i t e c o n t a i n s a mixture of s h o r t - l i v e d h e r b s , long-lived herbs, shrubs and t r e e s . Among t h e herbaceous p l a n t s a r e s p e c i e s such a s M e l i l o t u s = a and P i c r i s h i e r a c i o i d e s t h a t a r e found on o t h e r s e v e r e l y d i s t u r b e d s i t e s i n t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n United S t a t e s and adjacent Canada [19]. These s p e c i e s a r e g e n e r a l l y not being replaced by p e r e n n i a l s and woody s p e c i e s , but a r e p e r s i s t i n g because c o l o n i z a t i o n by longer-lived p l a n t s has been slow and t h e s i t e remains r a t h e r uncrowded. Although d e n s i t i e s of 2. h i e r a c i o i d e s declined d u r i n g t h e study, t h e d e c l i n e was not due t o t h e s p e c i e s being replaced by s u c c e s s i o n a l change. I n s t e a d , t h e s p e c i e s i s marginally adapted t o t h e quarry and d e n s i t i e s declined due t o inadequate r a i n f a l l . F u r t h e r , E. vulgare, which i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g t h e study, was not a l a t e r s u c c e s s i o n a l s p e c i e s but merely an a p p a r e n t l y more t o l e r a n t s p e c i e s t h a t was l a t e a t c o l o n i z i n g t h e s i t e . There i s c o n s i d e r a b l e d i v e r s i t y among surface-mined s i t e s i n terms of t h e e x t e n t and n a t u r e of t h e d i s t u r b a n c e and i n terms of t h e roximity, d i s p e r s a b i l i t y and physiology of t h e p o t e n t i a l c o l o n i s t s f4, l o ] . One must t h e r e f o r e be c a r e f u l when a t t e p t i n g t o e x t r a p o l a t e t h e r e s u l t s of t h i s study t o o t h e r surface-mined sites. However, a s observed i n t h i s study, i t i s p o s s i b l e ( i f not l i k e l y ) t h a t communities on o t h e r surface-mined s i t e s w i l l c o n t a i n a mixture of herbs and woody p l a n t s and t h a t succession w i l l have been i n h i b i t e d I t is a l s o l i k e l y by unfavorable edaphic and micrometeorological conditions. t h a t : ( 1 ) t h e community w i l l probably c o n s i s t of s p e c i e s t h a t range from being poorly adapted t o those very w e l l adapted; ( 2 ) some s p e c i e s t h a t a r e p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y a b l e t o grow on t h e s i t e w i l l be absent because t h e i r propagules have y e t t o reach t h e s i t e ; (3) numbers w i l l f l u c t u a t e w i t h i n a y e a r due t o episodes of s e e d l i n g recruitment and m o r t a l i t y ; and ( 4 ) numbers w i l l f l u c t u a t e from y e a r t o y e a r due t o v a r i a b i l i t y i n weather p a t t e r n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y r a i n f a l l . ACKNOWLEDGEMETITS D.Jr Raynal provided advice throughout t h i s p r o j e c t , and t h i s research b e n e f i t t e d from d i s c u s s i o n s with 1. Schaedle, J. F e r r e l , J. Roman, C. Bonkoungou, T. Guobis and F. Raleigh. Technical a s s i s t a n c e was provided by S. Klemow, D. Bovalino, and B. DeCeorge. SUNY College of Environmental Science and F o r e s t r y provided f a c i l i t i e s and funding. The A l l i e d Corporation allowed access t o t h e study site. Wilkes College k i n d l y provided a d d i t i o n a l funding.

209

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" P r e d i c t i o n s of f a t e from r o s e t t e s i z e i n f o u r " b i e n n i a l " p l a n t species: Verbascum thapsus, Oenothera b i e n n i s , Daucus c a r o t a , and Tragopogon dubius", Oecologia, 48, 2 0 9 - 2 m 1 ) -

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211

RESTORATION OFINATURAL ECOSYSTEMS ON SURFACE COAL MINE LANDS I N

THE NORTHEASTERN U N I T E D STATES

Brenner Biology Department Grove C i t y C o l l e g e Grove C i t y , Pennsylvania 16127, U.S.A. F.J.

ABSTRACT

S u r f a c e mining c u r r e n t l y account8 f o r 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o a l mined i n t h e United S t a t e s and w i l l probably i n c r e a s e i n t h e f u t u r e because o f t h e lower o p e r a t i n g c o s t and i n c r e a s e d production/man-day when compared w i t h deep mining. I n t h e p a s t , reckamation of t h e s e s i t e s c o n s i s t e d o f p a r t i a l r e g r a d i n g and p l a n t i n g of g r a s s e s and t r e e s , o f t e n w i t h o n l y p a r t i a l success. These p a s t as w e l l as c u r r e n t r e c l a m a t i o n p r a c t i c e s d i d n o t a d e q u a t e l y r e s t o r e n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i v e communities and, f o r t h e most p a r t , lacked t h e d i v e r s e p l a n t communities t h a t e x i s t e d on t h e s i t e s p r i o r t o mining. O f t h e 66 s p e c i e s o f g r a s s e s , legumes and f o r b s c u r r e n t l y recommended f o r r e c l a m a t i o n , o n l y 6 a r e n a t i v e t o t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n United S t a t e s , whereas 4 4 o f t h e 52 t r e e e and 14 of t h e 31 s h r u b ‘species are n a t i v e t o t h e region. Natural success i o n i s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e development o f d i v e r s e and s t a b l e f l o r a and fauna communities on t h e s e lands. The r e s t o r a t i o n of n a t u r a l ecosystem cannot be accomplished w i t h o u t r e s t o r i n g t h e o r g a n i c and m o i s t u r e r e t e n t i o n as w e l l as t h e m i c r o f l o r a of t h e s p o i l s i n c e t h e s e components a r e e s s e n t i a l t o r e s t o r a t i o n of n a t u r a l g r a s s l a n d and f o r e s t e d ecosystems. 1. INTRODUCTION

Coal was f i r s t mined i n t h e United S t a t e s i n 1701, a l o n g t h e James R i v e r n e a r Richmond, V i r g i n i a , b u t commercial mining d i d not begin u n t i l 1745 (1). Coal was d i s c o v e r e d i n Kentucky i n 1752, and i n Ohio t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r . S h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r c o a l was discovered throughout t h e Appalachian Mountains and as f a r west as I l l i n o i s . The e a r l y mining o p e r a t i o n s c o u l d be c l a s s i f i e d as surf a c e or s t r i p mining. Exposed c o a l l a y e r s a l o n g r i v e r banks were mined w i t h p i c k and s h o v e l and, i n some cases, shallow c o a l seams were exposed w i t h hand t o o l s . Mechanized mining began around 1825 when mule-drawn s c r a p e r s were i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e c o a l f i e l d f i e l d s . T h i s enabled t h e removal of a d d i t i o n a l overburden t o expose t h e caprock o v e r t h e c o a l . By t h e u s e of e x p l o s i v e s , capr o c k s were f r a c t u r e d and removed by h o r s e and wagon. The O t i s steam s h o v e l was i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e mining i n d u s t r y i n 1877 n e a r P i t t s b u r g , Kansas. These e a r l y s u r f a c e mines were s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y small s i n c e t h e l a r g e s t s h o v e l s o n l y removed a few c u b i c meters of overburden. Following t h e Second World War, t h e development of l a r g e r drag-

212

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l i n e s made it f e a s i b l e t o remove between 9 21 m (30-70 f e e t ) of overburden. By 1968, 27 m (90 f e e t ) of overburden could be exposed i n high q u a l i t y c o a l seams. Geologists once considered t h a t c o a l s below 30 m (100 f t ) could not be recovered by surface mining but today c o a l as deep as 60 m (200 f t ) i s r o u t i n e l y included i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of minable reserves. The amount of overburden t h a t can be removed i s b a s i c a l l y a question of economics. The q u a l i t y , depth and thickness of t h e c o a l seam determines t h e amount of overburden t h a t can be removed economically. I n 1946, t h e average amount of overburden removed per m coal was 6:l. By 1955, t h i s r a t i o increased t o 8.5:1 ( 2 ) and by today, t h i s r a t i o v a r i e s between 20-3O:l i n t h e northeastern coal f i e l d s . The amount of coal mined by s t r i p p i n g was one percent i n 1917, increasing t o 34 percent by 1968 while today surface mining accounts f o r over 50 percent of t h e t o t a l United S t a t e s c o a l production. The primary reasons f o r t h e increase i n s u r f a c e mining are: ( 1 ) g r e a t e r output per man/day (30 t o n s f o r s u r f a c e mining compared t o 12 tons f o r deep mining), ( 2 ) lower median o p e r a t i n c o s t s ($18.00/ton i n s t r i p mining and $37.00/ton i n deep miningy, (3) g r e a t e r r a t e of recovery (90 percent i n s t r i p mining t o 50 percent i n deep mining), and ( 4 ) t h e r a t e of f a t a l i t i e s is f i v e times lower i n surface mining than i t i s f o r deep mining.(0.606/ m i l l i o n tons)(3). Surface mining f o r c o a l w i l l continue t o inc r e a s e as t h e United S t a t e s moves toward energy independence (4). I n 1982, c o a l accounted f o r 22.1 percent of t h e United States energy supply compared t o 17.3 percent i n 1972 w i t h t h e use of c o a l increasing during t h e next two decades (4j. The proven coal reserves of t h e United S t a t e s i s i n excess of 280 b i l l i o n tons, of which about 75 percent of t h e s u r f a c e minable c o a l i s west of t h e Mississippi. Most of t h e western c o a l , however, i s c l a s s i f i e d as subbituminous w i t h a heating value of 5600 Kcal/Kg compared t o 6100-7800 Kcal/Kg f o r e a s t e r n coals. Based on c a l o r i c value, about 55 percent of t h e t o t a l reserves of coal are east of t h e Mississippi. The Oulfur content of eastern c o a l s , on t h e o t h e r hand, may exceed 6 percent, but t h e u s u a l range i s between 2.53.5 percent. It i s conceivable, t h e r e f o r e , that s t r i c t e r a i r q u a l i t y r e g u l a t i o n s may r e s u l t i n l e s s demand f o r high s u l f u r east e r n coals. I n t h e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e , however, t h e demand f o r e a s t e r n surface minable c o a l should remain constant or increase w i t h a corresponding decrease i n deep mine production. I n t h e p a s t , surface mining caused t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of land resources, poJlution of streams, contamination of ground water a q u i f e r s and d t h e r environmental problems. For over 40 years, t h e l a c k of r e g u l a t i o n s and concern f o r t h e environment by both t h e govemment and industry have l e f t thousands of h e c t a r e s of unreclaimed mined lands throughout t h e northeastern c o a l f i e l d s . Acid and heavy metal discharges from abandoned surface mines have caused t h e degradation of a q u a t i c l i f e i n receiving streams(5-13). An increase i n t h e sediment load as a resuA5 of improperly reclaimed surface mines is a l s o detrimental t o a q u a t i c l i f e (14) as w e l l as increasing t h e flooding p o t e n t i a l in mountainous watersheds (15). E h r l i c h and E h r l i c h (16) stated t h a t only w a r caused more d e s t r u c t i o n t o t h e environment t h a n surface mining. In view of current reclamation p r a c t i c e s and t h e advances in t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of abandoned mine l a n d s , t h i s m a y n o t be an o b j e c t i v e evalua t i o n of t h e eurface mining industry. In this paper, p a s t and

213

current reclamation p r a c t i c e s are evaluated as t o t h e i r e f f e c t i v e ness in r e s t o r i n g n a t u r a l ecosystems i n t h e northeastern United States. 2. PREbMINING SURVEYS A reclamation plan f o r mined land should begin w i t h a premining geological and ecological survey of t h e proposed mine s i t e , The basic geological data should include t h e contour of t h e s i t e , ground water a s u i f e r s and s u r f a c e drainage patterns. The overburden should be analyzed f o r pH, acid-base balance and heavy metals, especially i r o n ( F e ) , m a n anese (Mn) and aluminum (Al) t o i d e n t i f y Once t h e s e s t r a t a a r e identip o t e n t i a l problem strata 717,18). f i e d , t h e y should be handled to prevent seepage from t h e s i t e upon completion of t h e mine operation. Moreover, a n overburden analysis w i l l allow f o r a more accurate p r e d i c t i o n of t h e s p o i l charact e r i s t i c s ( l g ) , thereby enabling a b e t t e r s e l e c t i o n of t h e species t o be used in re-vegetating t h e site.

The ecological evaluation of t h e s i t e should include t h e princ i p l e v e g e t a t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n s , chemical and b i o l o g i c a l characteri s t i c s of streams, and wetlands. A l l c r i t i c a l , s e n s i t i v e or endangered s p e c i e s e i t h e r on t h e s i t e or t h a t might be impacted by mining should be i d e n t i f i e d and precautions made t o p r o t e c t or r e - e s t a b l i s h these h a b i t a t s . T h i s basic ecological information w i l l be an a s s e t i n t h e re-establishment of a natural ecosystem on t h e s i t e once mining i s completed,

3, SITE PREPARATION For over 40 years, only minimum reclamation and p a r t i a l back f i l l i n g occurred on much of t h e surface mine lands i n t h e Appalachian c o a l f i e l d s . These abandoned s i t e s a r e characterized by a s e r i e s of s h o r t s t e e p s l o p e s , exposed highwalls, o f t e n w i t h water a t t h e i r base and t h e s p o i l as a mixture of a l l horizons, accounting f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n s t h a t e x i s t both within and between mine sites (20-22). Current s t a t e and federal r e g u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t t h e horizons be segregated and replaced i n t h e same o r d e r as removed during mining. The a f f e c t e d land has t o be returned t o t h e approximate o r i g i n a l contour (AOC) unless s i t e conditions or o t h e r cbcumstanc e s do not permit t h i s type of re-grading, Then an a l t e r n a t i v e reclamation p l a n is agreed upon by t h e mine operator, regulatory agencies and t h e property owner. These r e g u l a t i o n s , however, do not ensure adequate reclamation and, i n some circumstances, may be detrimental. The use of heavy e a r t h moving equipment o f t e n results i n compaction, increasing s o i l d e n s i t y and causing a d e c l i n e i n a v a i l a b l e moisture, a t least f o r a s h o r t duration. Regrading t o AOC o f t e n results i n long slopes that may a c c e l e r a t e erosion. The amount of s o i l movement on a s i t e devoid of vegetation i s more d i r e c t l y related t o t h e l e n g t h of t h e slope t h a n it is t o t h e degree of t h e slope, S o i l l o s s in t o n s per acre (A) may be c a l c u l a t e d by t h e equation: A = R K L S C P ,

214

where R i s t h e rainfall and runoff f a c t o r , K i s t h e s o i l erodabil i t y f a c t o r , L i s slope length, S i s degree of slope, C i s t h e cover and management f a c t o r and P is t h e support f a c t o r . I n gene r a l , s o i l loss w i l l be l e s s w i t h a s e r i e s of s h o r t s t e e p slopes than w i t h a long g e n t l e s l o e. The i n s t a l l a t i o n of water divers i o n s across t h e s l o e s (217 or i n v e r t e d t e r r a c e s w i l l aid i n reducing s o i l l o s s (207. Other f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t t h e f i n a l reclamation of a s i t e may be a lack of bonding between s o i l horizons, replacing t o p s o i l during excessively wet or dry conditions and a change i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l and chemical p r o p e r t i e s of t h e top s o i l due t o extended storage, Although reclamation is a small p a r t of t h e t o t a l mining operat i o n , it i s an extremely important p a r t i n terms of f u t u r e land use. The c o s t of reclamation has been estimated a t between $4000 and $7000 per a c r e (23,24) and t h e majority of t h e c o s t i s i n volved-with b a c k f i l l i n g and regrading t h e s i t e . These f i g u r e s may be excessive, however, s i n c e b a c k f i l l i n g and regrading axe p a r t of t h e continuous mining operation and s p e c i a l equipment i s not brought t o t h e s i t e f o r t h i s purpose. For t h i s reason, as well a s t h e amount of v a r i a t i o n from s i t e t o s i t e , it i s d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n an exact estimate of t h e c o s t of b a c k f i l l i n g , regrading and preparation of t h e s i t e for seeding.

-

4. RESTORATION OF THE MINE ECOSYSTEM

Current f e d e r a l and many s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e that t h e productivity of t h e land be returned t o t h e pre-mining conditions. According t o t h e s e r e g u l a t i o n s , i f t h e s i t e has been designated as prime f a r m land by t h e U.S. S o i l Conservation Service, then the land must be reclaimed as hay, pasture or'1Dv crops according t o e x i s t i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s . Based on t h e reclamation cost of $4000 t o $7000 per a c r e and a r e t u r n of $325 per a c r e f r o m farming (23), it would t a k e from 12-22 y e a r s f o r t h e income from t h i s land t o equal or exceed t h e c o s t of reclamation. These r e g u l a t i o n s a l s o s t a t e that t h e n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i v e communities t h a t e x i s t e d on t h e s i t e p r i o r t o mining must be reestablished on t h e s i t e . I n many a r e a s of t h e northeastern United S t a t e s , however, t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of woodlands i s discouraged by both t h e i n d u s t r y and t h e regulatory agencies, T h i s occurs even though woodlands e x i s t e d on t h e s i t e p r i o r t o mining, The propert y owner o f t e n i s encouraged t o s i g n a waiver i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e land be reclaimed as grassland r a t h e r t h a n woodlands, According t o Braun ( 2 5 ) , t h e majority of t h e natural climax

turies has altered t h e s e natural communities. A n a t u r a l communit y a t t h e time of mining, t h e r e f o r e , may be an o l d f i e l d , shrub or second growth f o r e s t community, o f t e n composed of a mixture of e x o t i c and n a t i v e species. M a n y of t h e s e e x o t i c s p e c i e s may have e x i s t e d i n t h e region s i n c e t h e region was first c l e a r e d f o r agric u l t u r e and m a y now be p a r t of t h e natural f l o r a . The term natur-

215

community may n o t , t h e r e f o r e , be synonymous w i t h nateve p l a n t communities. Regradless of t h e type of p l a n t community t o be established on t h e land a f t e r mining, t h e organic content and moisture r e t e n t i o n capacity of t h e s p o i l w i l l determine t h e success of t h e s e reclamat i o n e f f o r t s s i n c e both arameters a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h biomass production ?Table 1 ) ( 20-22,26). The r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e organic content and moisture i s e s p e c i a l l y important during periods of reduced r a i n f a l l and even excessive rainfall oft e n w i l l p e r c o l a t e through t h e s p o i l (6,14,15) or run o f f , depending on t h e regrading procedures (26). I n i t i a l reclamation e f f e c t s o f t e n f a i l due t o drought and/or high temperatures, even i n t h e humid northeastern United S t a t e s . The chemical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e a l s o important i n determining These microorganisms are important not only i n determining t h e success of i n i t i a l reclamation but a l s o t h e r a t e and p a t t e r n of natural SUCcession. I n a d d i t i o n , t o t h e i r r o l e i n mineral and n u t r i e n t cyc l i n g , micro-organisms a r e involved i n t h e decomposition of organi c material, thereby i n c r e a s i n g t h e organic content and providing media f o r seed germination of both e s t a b l i s h e d and invading species. Fungi mycorrhiea provides p l a n t s w i t h a l a r g e r physiologic a l l y a c t i v e s u r f a c e area f o r n u t r i e n t and i o n i c absorption as well as i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e t o high temperatures, toxins and extremes of pH (27). The innoculation of trees w i t h fungi p r i o r t o p l a n t i n g has been shown t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r s u r v i v a l on surface mines (28,291. Likewise, t h e f i e l d innoculation of est a b l i s h e d p l a n t s by e i t h e r spores ( 3 0 ) , s o i l ( 3 l ) , or vegetative mycella (32) has been shown t o i n c r e a s e t r e e survival. Mycorrhiea a l s o a r e important i n determining t h e p a t t e r n of natural success i o n (33) s i n c e over 125 s p e c i e s of p l a n t s have been shown t o be associated w i t h s p e c i f i c t y p e s of mycorrhiea (34). The p a t t e r n of n a t u r a l succession m a y t o some degree be determined by t h e previous land use s i n c e f u n g i spores are e i t h e r disseminated by wind or t h e replacement of t h e t o p s o i l during reclamation. t h e microbial composition of mine s p o i l s ( T a b l e 2).

Domestic sewage sludge has been recommended as a procedure t o increase t h e organic and nitrogen content of surface c o a l mines. The a d d i t i o n of sludge has been shown t o i n c r e a s e t h e establishment and growth of both herbaceous and woody v e g e t a t i o n (26). The use of sludge should, however, be c a r e f u l l y monitored f o r heavy metals t h a t may be detrimental t o both p l a n t s (35-37) and animals Table 1. C o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s between s o i l parameters and t o t a l biomass on 82 surface c o a l mine sites i n Pennsylvania. Parameters PH Organic Moisture Bioys Matter Capaaity g/m PH Organic Matter Moisture Capcity Biomass

.

1 000

0.791

0.791

1.OOo 0 870

0.8% 0.870 1.OOO

0,654

0,654

0.745

1.OOO

0.894 0 319

0.319

0.745

216

Table 2. C o r r e l a t i o n coeff i c i e n c e s bekween three s p o i l parameters and micro-organisms on 82 s u r f a c e c o a l mines i n Pennsylvania. BactBria

.

Oruanic Content

pH

N itrogen-Fixing Bacteria I r o n Bacteria Sulfur Bacteria Carbohydrat B a c t e re-Digesting ia Carbohydrate-Digesting Fungi

Moisture Capacity

0.60

0.58

0.77

0.75 0.77

0.73 0.75

0.94 0.50

0.5

0.40

0.69

0.59

0.66

0

o.42

A s i n g l e a p p l i c a t i o n of sludge i s g e n e r a l l y s u f f i c i e n t (38.39). t o e s t a b l i s h v e g e t a t i o n (20) and w i l l prevent t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of heavy m e t a l . i n t h e food chain. S p o i l pH Should be maintained a t 6.5 or g r e a t e r t o prevent t h e uptake of heavy metals by p l a n t s .

5. CURRENT RE-VEGETATION PRACTICES Abandoned and a c t i v e mine s i t e s as w e l l as r e f u s e p i l e s a r e v i s a b l e throughout t h e Appalachian c o a l f i e l d s . The establishment of v e g e t a t i o n on many of t h e s e s i t e s i s d i f f i c u l t because of low pH, l a c k of o r g a n i c m a t t e r , course rock fragments and o t h e r adv e r s e b i o l o g i c a l and chemical f a c t o r s . A v a r i e t y of t r e e s and shrubs have been p l a n t e d on t h e s e s i t e s w i t h varying success. These s p e c i e s i n c l u d e r e d p i n e (Pinus resinosa)(30,31,40), white p i n e (P. s t r o b u s ) , Jack p i n e ( P . b a n k s i a n a ) i t c h p i n e (P. r i idaT, V i r g i n i a p i n e (2. virFinLa), yellow pine (P. e c h i n a t a ) , *spruce ( P i c e a l a u c a ) e a s t e r n r e d cedar (Juni e r u s v i r g i n iana)(41,42), white Betula p a p y r i f e r a ) , b a c c e r r y -us s e r o t i n a ) , bur oak (9uercus macrocar a ) , green a s h ( F r a x i nus enns l v a n i c u s ) , sycamore m a n u s o c c i z e n t a l i s ) , black w a l 63obl:a seudoacacia)( 4 3 - 4 6 n a n d d i g bush o (Amor hora f r u t i e x o t i c s p e c i e s such as European a r r cosa)pT' (Larix d e c i d u a ) , Japanese l a r c h (L. l e t o l e i s ) , Scotch p i n e (g. p i n e (2. sxtkis),onderosa p i n e (2. * ' bloly pine (P. taeda)F--autumn o l i v e ( E l a e a nus s l a t a ) and amur honzysuckle (Lonicera maachii)(47). Of :he 52 s p e c i e s of t r e e s recommended f o r p l a n t i n g on s u r f a c e c o a l mine s i t e s , 4 1 a r e n a t i v e t o t h e e a s t e r n United S t a t e s whereas only 14 of t h e 31 shrub s p e c i e s a r e n a t i v e t o t h e r e g i o n (Table 3). B r i s t l e y l o c u s t (Robina f e r t i l i s ) , a s p e c i e s n a t i v e t o t h e southern Appalachian region, has been used e x t e n s i v e l y f o r mine reclamation i n t h e n o r t h e a s t because of i t s a b i l i t y t o become e s t a b l i s h e d Und e r harsh c o n d i t i o n s and n i t r o g e n f i x a t i o n .

, h(

T-TiEEi-

_q_r

and-strian

Although t h e majority of t h e t r e e s p e c i e s and approximately percent of t h e shrubs recommended f o r s u r f a c e mine reclamation a r e n a t i v e t o t h e e a s t e r n United S t a t e s ( 4 7 ) t h i s has not been t h e case with g r a s s e s and legumes. Of t h e 66 s p e c i e s of g r a s s e s , legumes and f o r b s s u r r e n t l y used i n s u r f a c e mine reclamation,

45

217

Table 3.

Origin of g r a s s e s , legumes and f o r b s commonly used i n surface mine reclamation i n t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n United States.

Species

E a s t . U.S.

Grasses Legumes Forbs Conifers Hardwoods Shrubs

4 2 0 12 29 14

Cent.-West. U.S.

Cent. & S. Amer.

Eurasia

Total

~~

61

Total

37

9

3

1 2 2

0 0 0 0

21 22 2 4 2

-4

-0

3

2

19

3

66

149

3

25 4

19 33

only 6 are n a t i v e t o t h e n o r t h e a s t (Table 3) (47). S p e c i e s such as crown vetch ( C o r o n i l l a v a r i a ) ( 4 8 ) , b i r d s f o o t . t r e f o i l ( g o t u s -eza spp.), c l o v e r s (Trifolium c o r n i c u l a t a ) , l e s p e eza spp. t a l l f e s c u e Kd-31 I&arundinacea), and p e r e n n i a l r y e g r a d (Lolium erenne) h a w used s u c c e s s f u l l y throughout t h e Generallv. t h e reclamation of s u r f a c e northea-Uhtates. c o a l mines as g r a s s l a n d s c o n s i s t s of iGeding one or s e v e r a l spec i e s of g r a s s e s and legumes, none of which a r e p a r t of t h e n a t i v e flora.

,

6.. NATURAL SUCCESSION AND MINE RECLAMATION 6.1 Grasslands

Natural succession of both n a t i v e and. e x o t i c ' s p e c i e s i s an i m p o r t a n t component i n t h e development of a d i v e r s e and s t a b l e ecosystem on mined l a n d s (220. Althounh oDDortunistic sDecies such as t h e ox-eye d a i s y ( C h r santhemum ieucaithemum), c o l i s f o o t (Tuss i l a o f a r f a r a ) and f o b i a i a i c a were i n t r o d u c e d x o m m r t h America. localized &&dons or demes ma.. be g e n e t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t and, . t h e r e f o r e , ;night be considered n a t i v e t o t h e region.

&

I n Pennsylvania, of t h e t o t a l of 28 s p e c i e s found on 82 mine s i t e s , 82.1 percent were v o l u n t e e r s p e c i e s and 80.0 percent of t h e s e were n a t i v e t o t h e r e g i o n (22). The importance value of each of t h e 2 8 s p e c i e s w a s c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s of t h e i r percentage of t o t a l biomass, chlorophyll 5 c o n c e n t r a t i o n and p e r s i s t a n c e on t h e s i t e from y e a r t o y e a r - w i t h a m a x i m u m importance V a l ue f o r a s i n g l e s p e c i e s being 300. Volunteer s p e c i e s comprised from 0.5 t o approximately 82 percent of t h e biomass from y e a r t o y e a r , wheras t h e o v e r a l l importance of volunteer s p e c i e s v a r i e d from 31 t o 93 percent. The volunteer s p e c i e s t h a t provided t h e g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s e communities included t h e s e n a t i v e species goldenrod ( S o l i d a o s p .), ragweed (Ambrosia a r t e m i s i i f o l i a ) and dwarf - r e d d r y ?Rubus pl. ubescens)ell as t h e e x o t i c ox-eye d a i s y and sweet c l o F ( M e i o t u s a l b a and E. Offic i n a l i s ) . The amour,t of v o l u n t e e r s p e c i e s but n w h e t o t a l spe-

,

-

218

c i e s occurring on t h e s i t e s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d with t h e t o t a l biomass ( r = 0.58, P < 0.05) i n d i c a t i n g t h e importance of n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n t o mine reclamation (22). If t h e u l t i m a t e o b j e c t i v e of reclamation i s t o c r e a t e a div e r s e and s t a b l e ecosystem, t h e n i n i t i a l reclamation should be designed t o s t a b i l i z e t h e s i t e while providing a s u i t a b l e h a b i t a t f o r n a t u r a l succession. For example, t h e number of volunteer spe12,141 p l a n t s ) on a s i t e was 50 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r when sorties hum Sor hum v u l a r e ) w a s used as a cover crop r a t h e r t h a n o a t s Avena sa i v a ) or'perennial r y e g r a s s (Lolium erenne)(49). The during regrad x p Z E E T f small t e r r a c e s along t h - r h ding and b a c k f i l l i n g w i l l provide l e d g e s f o r holding seeds and f e r t i l i z e r d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l reclamation (50) as w e l l as r e t a i n moisture and o r g a n i c m a t t e r , thereby providing a seedbed f o r invading s p e c i e s (49).

?

+

N a t u r a l succession not o n l y provides a g r e a t e r degree of div e r s i t y and s t a b i l i t y t o mined l a n d s , but t h e s e p l a n t s have a l s o been shown t o have a g r e a t e r food and cover value for w i l d l i f e It would appear, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t e f f o r t s should be un(51,Y). dertaken t o encourage t h e r e s e a r c h and development of procedures t o encourage t h e use o f , n a t i v e s p e c i e s i n mine l a n d reclamation. I n a d d i t i o n , d a t a should be compiled as t o whether t h e s e lands could be reclaimed i n a manner t h a t would support r a r e and endangered p l a n t and animal s p e c i e s (55). 6.2 Woodlands The development of a d i v e r s e f o r e s t community i s s i m i l a r i n many r e s p e c t s t o t h a t of grasslands. Deciduous s p e c i e s volunteers on mine s i t e s provide d i v e r s i t y t o what otherwise would be a conif e r o u s o r r a s s l a n d community. Botkin and MilJer ( 5 5 ) and Botkin e t al. (577 i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p ( d h = R l a ( l - d h between t h e diameter ( d ) , height ( h ) and l e a f a r e a (la$%t i m a t e l y determines t h e importance of a s p e c i e s t o t h e f o r e s t community. A combination of r e l a t i v e dominance ( b a s a l area/ha), rel a t i v e d e n s i t y (stems/ha), c o n t r i b u t i o n t o canopy h e i g h t and t h e R value of t h e Botkin equation may be a b e t t e r i n d i c a t i o n of t h e importance of a s p e c i e s t o community s t r u c t u r e (20-22).

-

qax)

Of t h e 34 t r e e s p e c i e s i d e n t i f i e d on 82 s i t e s i n Pennsylvania, 22 were n a t i v e s p e c i e s t h a t occurred on t h e s i t e s as a r e s u l t of n a t u r a l succession. Native s p e c i e s comprised 50 p e r c e n t of both t h e r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y and dominance and 63 percent of canopy height but when a l l f o u r f a c t o r s were combined, t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e n a t i v e s p e c i e s and t h o s e used i n reclamation were approximately equal. I n a n o t h e r study of 19 s i t e s 45-60 y e a r s of age i n northe a s t e r n , Pennsylvania, c o n i f e r s produced an average of 5290 board f t / a c r e compared t o 599 board f t / a c r e f o r deciduous s p e c i e s (58). Generally i n t h e y e a r s f o l l o w i n g mining, t h e importance of native deciduous t r e e s i n t h e community i n c r e a s e with a corresponding dec r e a s e i n c o n i f e r o u s sDecies. O m o r t u n i s t i c sDecies such as aspens (Po u l u s s p r e i maple (A;& rubrum) an; black cherry (Prunu&inaP.?nvade t h e s e -s w i t h i n 1-3 y e a r s following m o fowe by o a k s ( uercus spp.) and h i c k o r i e s (Car a spp.) a growth and otherliard:oods. B r e h 2 ) reported t h a t t h e *

,

219

r a t e w a s similar f o r 0 deciduous species. Hence, t h e importance o f a given s p e c i e s i s l a r g e l y a f u n c t i o n of t h e t i m e of invasion and t h e age of t h e s i t e . Both deciduous (59) and c o n i f e r s (60) can be e s t a b l i s h e d on-mine s i t e s by direct seeding. T h i s should be done, however, during i n i t i a l reclamation s i n c e a dense herbaceous community i n h i b i t s t h e establishment of t r e e s p e c i e s e i t h e r by n a t u r a l succession or by d i r e c t seeding (22). Natural succession of trees and shrubs on surface mines also provides food and cover f o r w i l d l i f e . I n both Pennsylvania (61) and West Virginia (62), s u r f a c e mines supported abundant ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) populations. Throughout t h e range Of t h i s s p e r p r e erre food s p e c i e s such as aspens, do oods (Cornus spp. c r i b a p f e (Pyrus coronaria), hawthornes &ataeRus spp.)d g r e e n b r i e r Smilax ’ spp. volunteer on s u r f a c e mmes, thereby enhancing t h e s e a r e a s as i u f f e d grouse h a b i t a t . Likewise, i n Pennsylvania, white-tailed deer (Odocdileus v i r inianus) f e d on red maple, aspens, hawthornes and crabapple t o m e p e e than they d i d on o t h e r n a t i v e s p e c i e s or those used i n t h e i n i t i a l reclamation (63). The p l a n t i n g of trees and shrubs as food and cover f o r w i l d l i f e along t h e contours, water d i v e r s i o n s , and terraces as hedgerows between s t r i p s of g r a s s e s and legumes would enhance t h e s e a r e a s f o r w i l d l i f e without increasing t h e c o s t of reclamation (22).

3,

7.

?

vmums

The development of both shallow and deep water habitats on surface coal mines should be encouraged by regulatory agencies. These a r e a s have been shown t o provide h a b i t a t f o r both migratory and nesting waterfowl (45, 64,65) and t h e placement of a r t i f i c i a l nesting s t r u c t u r e s (64) and t h e planting of food s p e c i e s along t h e s h o r e l i n e s (45) w i l l enhance t h e w i l d l i f e b e n e f i t s of t h e s e areas. These wetlands a l s o support f u r b e a r e r populations as well as a v a r i e t y of shorebirds (45). Over 99 d i f f e r e n t phytoplankton and zooplankton t a x a have been i d e n t i f i e d i n s u r f a c e mine l a k e s (21) and t h e s e deep mine lakes

lands a l s o function as sediment t r a p s , allow f b r t h e recliarge and r e l e a s e of ground water and provide a basis f o r f u t u r e water s u p p l i e s and r e c r e a t i o n (66). Wetlands, i f constructed properly, should be developed on mined lands wherever s i t e conditions, property owner and water q u a l i t y permit t h e i r i n c l u s i o n i n t h e reclamation of t h e s i t e . 8. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMZNDATIONS

Surface mining f o r c o a l w i l l continue t o increase i n t h e fut u r e as t h e United S t a t e s moves toward energy independence. C u r r e n t reclamation p r a c t i c e s on t h e s e l a n d s include b a c k f i l l i n g , regrading t o t h e approximate o r i g i n a l contour (AOC), replacement of t o p s o i l , and seeding w i t h a mixture of grasses and legumes.

220

These procedures, however, do not insure-adequate reclamation nor do they r e s t o r e a diverse and stable ecosystem. Current regulat i o n s r e q u i r e t h a t if a s i t e is not being reclaimed for agriculture, that t h e n a t u r a l p l a n t community t h a t e x i s t e d on t h e s i t e p r i o r t o mining be restored. I n p r a c t i c e , however, generally g r a s s e s and legumes that are not p a r t of t h e n a t i v e f l o r a of t h e region a r e seeded during reclamation. Moreover, t h e r e is l i t t l e e f f o r t t o e s t a b l i s h t r e e and shrub s p e c i e s that are b e n e f i c i a l as food and cover f o r w i l d l i f e , Natural succession is a v i t a l f o r c e i n t h e establishment of a d i v e r s e and s t a b l e ecosystem. Reclamation should be designed t o increase t h e organic and moisture content of t h e s p o i l , develop a microbial community as well as s t a b i l i z e t h e s i t e and encourage natural succession. Whenever possible, water d i v e r s i o n s and small t e r r a c e s should be i n s t a l l e d f o r erosion c o n t m l and r e t e n t i o n of moisture and organic matter, thereby s e r v i n g as seed beds f o r invading species. The p l a n t i n g of trees and shrubs along diversions and t e r r a c e s or contours w i l l provide hedgerows f o r w i l d l i f e . The construction of both shallow and deep water wetlands should be encouraged by t h e regulatory agencies. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e ecologic a l b e n e f i t s of t h e s e wetlands, they a l s o function as sediment t r a p s , allow f o r t h e recharge and release of ground water and as s i t e s f o r f u t u r e water s u p p l i e s and recreation. Future reclamat i o n should be designed t o r e s t o r e d i v e r s e natural ecosystems rather than c r e a t e grassland monocultures throughout t h e northe a s t e r n United S t a t e s .

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procedures f o r m a x i m u m sedimezt-erosion c o n t r o l and wildl i f e p o t e n t i a l . 3rd Symp. S ~ f a c eMine Reclamation. 1975, 11: 3-23. Vogel, W.G. A guide f o r r e v e g e t a t i n g c o a l mine s o i l s i n t h e e a s t e r n United S t a t e s . U.S. F o r e s t Service. General Technical Report. NE-66. 1981, 190 pp. Ruffner, S.D. and J.G. H a l l . Crown vetch i n West Virginia. West Virginia Agr. Exp. Bull. 1963, p 487. Brenner, F.J. and C. Goughler. Evaluation of s u r f a c e mine s e e d l i n g s t o encourage natural s e l e c t i o n . R e s t o r a t i o n and Management Notes. 1983, 1:31-32.

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Jones, J.N.,Jr., W.H. Armiger, and G.C. HungBte. Seed ledge improve s t a b i l i z a t i o n of o u t e r s l o p e s on mine spoil. Unpub. Report, A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Service.

51

Brenner, F.J. 1978. Food and cover evaluation of s t r i p mine p l a n t s as r e l a t e d t o w i l d l i f e management. 2 D.E. Samuel, J.R. S t a u f f e r , C.H. Hocutt and W.F. Mason (eds.). FToc. Surface Mining and F i s h h i l d k f e Needs i n t h e East e r n United S t a t e s . FWS/OBS. 1978, 78/81, 388 pp.

52

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Brenner, F.J. and J. Kelly. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of avian communities on s u r f a c e mine lands i n Pennsylvania. Environmental Management. 1981, 5: 4 4 1 4 9 .

53

R.B. Kelly and J. Kelly. Mammalian bommunity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on s u r f a c e mine l a n d s i n Pennsylvania. Environmental Management. 1982, 6: 241-249.

54

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55

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DeCapita, M.R. and T .A. Bookhout Small mammal populations, v e g e t a t i o n a l cover and hunting use of an Ohio s t r i p mine area. Ohio J. Sci. 1975, 75: 305-313.

56

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57

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58-

59

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60.

,

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Brenner, F.J.. Aquatic and t e r r e s t r i a l h a b i t a t s i n Pennsylvania. I n H.H. Genoways and F.J. Brenner (eds.). Species O f S p e c z l Concern i n Pennsylvania. S p e c i a l Pub. 10, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh. I n press. Botkin, D.R. and R.S. Miller. Complex exosystems: models and predictions. Amer. S c i e n t i s t . 1974, 62: 448-451.

,

J. Janak, and J.R. Wallis. Rationale, limitat i o n s , and assumptions of a n o r t h e a s t e r n f o r e s t stimulat o r . IBM J. of Research and Development. 1972, 1 6 : l O l - 1 1 6 .

Davidson, W.H. Timber volumes of o l d Pennsylvania s u r f a c e mine reclamation p l a n t a t i o n s . U.S. Forest S e r v i c e Note 303. 1981, 5 PP. Brenner, F.J. and N.L. Simon. D i r e c t seeding of mast producing t r e e s on s u r f a c e mines i n Pennsylvania. Restoration and Management Notes. I n press. P l a s s , W.T.

F a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e establishment of d i r e c t -

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seeded p i n e on surface-mine s p o i l s . USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e Research Paper NE-290. 1974, 5 pp. 61.

Brenner, F.J. and S. Michalski 111. Evaluation of s u r f a c e c o a l mines as r u f f e d grouse h a b i t a t . I n preparation.

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K i m m e l , R.O. and D.E. Samuel. Ruffed erouse use of a twenty-year old s u r f a c e mine. I n D.E. Samuel, J.R. S t a u f f e r , C.H. Hocutt and W.F. MasonTJr. (eds.). Proc. Symposium on Surface Mining and F i s h f i i l d l i f e Needs i n t h e e a s t e r n United S t a t e s . FWS/OBS. 1978, pp. 345-351.

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Brenner, F.J., M.J. Musaus and W. Granger. S e l e c t i v i t y of browse s p e c i e s of white-tailed d e e r on strip-mine lands i n Mercer County, Pennsylvania. Proc. PA. Acad; Sci. 1977, 51: 105-108.

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and J.J. Mondok. Waterfowl n e s t i n g rafts designed f o r f l u c t u a t i n g water l e v e l s . J. Wildl. Manage. 1978, 43: 978-982.

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Sanduslry, J.E. The p o t e n t i a l f o r management of waterfowl D.E. Samuel, n e s t i n g h a b i t a t s on reclaimed mined lands. J.R. S t a u f f e r , C.H. Hocutt a d W.F. Mason (eds.). Proc. Surface Mining Fish/Wildlife Needs i n t h e E a s t e r n United S t a t e s . FWS/OBS 78/01. 1978, 388 pp.

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Rosso, W.A. Reclaim your lands with lakes. Coal Age Magazine. Aug. 1980, pp. 76-77.

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The Biosphere: Problem8 and Solutions. edited by T.N. Veziroau Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

221

SOME PLANTS TO PROMOTE AFFORESTATION AND THEIR MULTIPLE USES

A. Jagadeesh S o c i e t y o f S c i e n c e f o r t h e People 2/210 Nawabpet,Nellore 524 002 Andhra Pradesh, I n d i a

ABSTRACT I n t h i s p a p e r m u l t i p l e u s e s of p l a n t s l i k e Agave (Americana) , S e e t h a p h a l (Annona Squamosa), P h y l l a n t h u s Emblica, some minor o i l s e e d s a r e p r e s e n t e d . It i s f e l t t h a t by growing t h e above p l a n t s i n vacant l a n d s i t w i l l b r i n g rural p r o s p e r i t y b e s i d e s promoting A f f o r e s t a t i o n . 1.

INTRODUCTION

The United N a t i o n s Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n (UNCOD) h e l d a t N a i r o b i i n September, 1977 proposed t h e p l a n o f a c t i o n designed t o l i n k n a t i o n a l schemes t o l l r e - g r e e n f l d e s e r t s througho u t t h e world. It w a s i n i t i a t e d i n 1978 and i s expected t o be implemented by t h e end of t h e c e n t u r y . In f a c t R e a f f o r e s t a t i o n w i l l b r i n g rewards. Among many i m p r e s s i v e examples, one of t h e most s t r i k i n g i s i n Saudi Arabia where t h e h i g h l y f e r t i l e El Ahsaa Oasis, watered-from underground a q u i f i e r s , was t h r e a t e n e d by sand dunes. S i n c e 1962, 10 m i l l i o n t a m a r i s k , a c c a c i a and e u c a l y p t u s t r e e s have been p l a n t e d on 500 h e c t a r e s . Encroachment h a s been checked and 14 v i l l a g e s have been saved from t h e dunes. A s a f o l l o w up a c t i o n t o t h e p r o p o s a l of UNCOD, I have drawn a scheme of lfAFORESTATIONfl.

There a r e m i l l i o n s of h e c t a r e s of waste l a n d . Can't something u s e f u l be e x p l o i t e d from t h i s ? The f o r e s t a r e a compared t o t h e t o t a l a r e a i n s q u a r e Km. s t a t e wise i s given below. There a r e many t r e e s which grow v e r y w i l d l y even without water. To name a few, we have "Annona Squamosa ( S e e t h a p h a l ) , Agave (Americana). The f r u i t of Annona Squamosa c o n t a i n s many seeds. The NSS Volunteers i n c o l l e g e s and U n i v e r s i t y can s p r a y s e e d s of I1Annona Squamosa" i n Government Vacant Lands d u r i n g monsoon.

228

State

Total area i n Sq.Km.

Forest area percentage

Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gu j a r a t Hayyana Himachal Pradesh Karn a t a k a Kerala Madhya Pradesh Nagaland Orissa Rajas t h a n Pun j a b Tamilnadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Goa, Daman & Dieu Mizoram

2,76,8 14 73,538 1,73,876 1 ,95,984 44,222 55 673 1 9 91 ,773 38s 864 4, 42984 1 16,527 1 ,55,782 3,42,2 14 50,362 1,30,069 2 9494 13 87,853 3,813 21,087

22 5% 21..7% 17.00k 9.Wk 3.4% 38.3% 16.0% 24.0% 17.56% 17.30% 43.0% 10.6% 4.2% 17.Wk 8.6% 13.4% 28.6%

.

20.

00k

The s e e d o f t h e f r u i t y i e l d 21 t o 290k o i l . The charact e r i s t i c s of t h e o i l are:-

0.921 16 1 4558 181 t o 183.3 85.6 t o 88.2

Sp.G&.at 1 5 O C N 60 D Spordfica t i o n v a l u e I o d i n e number R.M. Value Poplenske v a l u e Uns aponi f i c a t i o n matter

0.6

0.2 0.2%

The o i l c o n t a i n s t h e f o l l o w i n g p e r c e n t a g e s o f a c i d s . Oleic L i n o l e ic Palmi t i c Stearic Cerotic

18.1

55.1 14.7 10.7 00.9 These a c i d s a r e used i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f :

O l e i c a c i d : - Soap b a s e , manufacture o f o l e a t e s , o i n t m e n t s , cosmetics, polishing compound, L u b r i c a n t s , Ore f l o a t a t i o n , Organic s y n t h e t i c i n t e r m e d i a t e , s u r f a c e coatings. L i n o l e i c a c i d -Soaps, s p e c i a l d r i e r s , f o r p r o t e c t i v e c o a t i n g , e m u l s i f y i n g a g e n t s , medicine, foods, f e e d s , biochemical r e s e a r c h . P a l m i t i c Acid

-

S t a r t i n g p o i n t i n t h e manufacture o f v a r i o u s m a t a l l i c p a l m i t a t e s , s o a p s , l u b e o i l s , water proo f i n g

.

229

S t e a r i c acid:-

Chemicals, e s p e c i a l l y s t e a r a t e s and s t e a r i c d r i e r s , l u b r i c a n t s , s o a p s , c a n d l e s , pharmac e u t i c a l s and c o s m e t i c s , r u b b e r compounding, shoe and metal p o l i s h e s , c o a t i n g s , food packaging.

The o i l i n g e n e r a l i s used i n t h e manufacture of paints. 2. DEMAND

FOR EDIBLE OILS

I n normal y e a r s , t h e p e r c a p i t a a v a i l a b i l i t y of e d i b l e o i l i n t h e c o u n t r y a v e r a g e s 3.5 Kg. and about 1 Kg. o f Vanasp a t i , as a g a i n s t 25 t o 30 Kg. i n Western c o u n t r i e s . The t o t a l requirement of v e g e t a b l e o i l s i n t h e c o u n t r y , as o f today, i s e s t i m a t e d a t 40 l a k h tonnes, compared t o t h e p r e s e n t a v a i l a b i l i t y o f 30 l a k h tonnes. There i s t h u s a gap o f 10 l a k h tonnes.

It i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t by 1983-1984, t h e demand would go up t o 55 l a k h t o n n e s , while t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y would be around 35 l a k h tonnes. The gap would, t h e r e f o r e , widen t o 20 l a k h tonnes. The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s a r e n o t f a r t o seek. The a c r e a g e a v a i l a b l e f o r o i l s e e d s c u l t i v a t i o n would f u r t h e r d i m i n i s h due t o a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e i n t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f r i c e and wheat, on t h e one hand, and t h e f a s t e r i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n on t h e o t h e r . The s i t u a t i o n i s , t h e r e f o r e , q u i t e alarming. I f t h i s s h o f t f a l l h a s t o be met by i m p o r t s , i t would

mean a forei;gn exchange d r a i n a g e o f about Rs.1,000 c r o r e s a

y e a r a s of now, and about Rs.2,000 c r o r e s by 1983-1984. We can't a f f o r d i t a t any r a t e . And, hence need f o r an a l t e r a t i v e . It l i e s i n t a p p i n g t h e e n t i r e t r e e and f o r e s t o r i g i n seeds-generawhich are now going a waste. l l y known a6 minor o i l s e e d s

-

3. VARIETIES O F MINOR OIL SELDS I n t h e e n t i r e f o r e s t b e l t o f Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Trkpura, Arunachal Pradesh, b o r d e r of Nepal, B i h a r and West Bengal, M.P., Orissa, U.P. and some p a r t s o f Maharashtra and Karnataka, hundreds o f t r e e and f o r e s t - b a s e d o i l s e e d s are abundantly a v a i l a b l e . Some o f them are, s a l s e e d , mango k e r n e l , neem s e e d , babul, aahua, kokum, plam, d a t e , nahor, u n d i , p i s a , k a r a n j a , kusum s e e d , j a c k - f r u i t seed, bobbie, m a r o t i , eurahonne, mahera, r u b b e r s e e d , r a t a n j o t , tamarind s e e d , kamala, dhupa, t e a seed, by no means an exhausj u t e s e e d , tobacco s e e d , khakan e t c , t i v e list.

-

Though thq p o t e n t i a l of minor o i l s e e d s i n d i f f e r e n t f o r e s t b e l t s o f I n d i a is immeasurable, a modest e s t i m a t e C a n , however, be made a8 f o l l w s :

230

Lalseed: The t o t a l p o t e n t i a l of sal s e e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Orissa, M.P., U.P., a i h a r and ;Yeat d e n g a l , i s e s t i m a t e d around 60 l a k h tonnes a year. I t s c o l l e c t i o n s t a r t e d as l a t e as 19617 on a very modest s c a l e , m a a l t h o u g h t h e c o l l e c t i o n h a s i n c r e a c e d , i t i s s t i l l 1.2 l a k h tonnes a y e a r , h a r d l y 1/60th o f t h e t o t a l availability

.

Neem Seed: Its p o t e n t i a l i s a l s o q u i t e h i g h , s i n c e i t i s a v , i l a b l e all o v e r t h e c o u n t r y . A modest e s t i m a t e p u t s i t a t around 20 l a k h t o n n e s , b u t very l i t t l e i s b e i n g c o l l e c t e d now, h a r d l y 1 l a k h tonnes. Mango Kernel.: The o t h e r i m p o r t n n t minor o i l s e e d i s mango k e r n e l and i t s t o t a l p o t e n t i a l i s about 20 l a k h t o n n e s a y e a r , b u t , i t s c o l l e c t i o n t h r o u , h o u t t h e c o u n t r y now i s h a r d l y 10,000 t o n n e s a year. Other Minor O i l s e e d s : O t h e r minor o i l s e e d s which would i n c l u d e mahua (one m i l l i o n t o n n e s ) , kusum ( 2 l a k h t o n n e s ) , Khakan ( 2 l a k h t o n n e s ) , K a r a n j a ( 5 l a k h t o n n e s ) , Kokum, Babul, u n d i , dhupa e t c . , would have a t o t a l p o t e n t i a l of about 10 m i l l i o n tonnes a yesr. Thus t h e t o t a l p o t e n t i a l of minor o i l s e e d s all o v e r t h e c o u n t r y c , n be s a f e l y e s t i m a t e d a t 2 c r o r e tonnes.

4. AGAVE (AMERICANA) The 'AGAVE'plants a r e known f o r t h e i r s u c c u l e n t l e a v e s and h a r d l o n g f i b r e s , which a r e comparable t o Manila Hemp. The o r i g i n a l p l a n t s were Mexican i n o r i g i n and l a t e l y widely o c c u r i n g i n I n d i a a l s o n t h e r a i l w a y t r a c k and v i l l a g e b o r d e r s . There a r e 3 s p e c i e s which grow i n I n d i a . AGAVE (Americana) was known t o produce j u i c e which was drunk i n Mexico. A d i s t i l l e d s p i r i t known as Mescal was produced. The f i b r o u s material of t h e p l a n t c o n s i s t s o f 73 t o 78% LIGNIFIED CELLULOSE. The d r i e d r e s i d u e l e f t o v e r a f t e r e x t r a c t i o n of f i b r e s c o n t a i n s about 1 0 % f e r m e n t a b l e s u g a r s . T h i s p l a n t grows w i l d l y under a v a r i e t y of e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s w i t h o u t water. L o c a l people e x t r a c t f i b r e by p u t t i n g t h e p l a n t i n mud f o r a month and hammering i t on a s t o n e t o remove t h e pulp. Ropes which a r e smooth and s t r o n g a r e manufact u r e d from t h i s f i b r e . The p l a n t when p u t i n w a t e r f o r l o n $ e r t i m e s produces a very bad s m e l l . T h i s l e d me t o t h i n k o f u s i n g i t t o produce b i o g a s i n gobar g a s p l a n t s . S i n c e t h e p l a n t h a s C e l l u l o s e , can we u s e i t i n p a p e r manufacture 7 I f t h i s i s p o s s i b l e , t h e p l a n t can be grown i n lakhs of h e c t a r e s o f waste l a n d .

5. PEYLLANTHUS

EMBI;ICA

(AMLA)

It i s b e i n g d i s c o v e r e d t h a t Vitamin C, which p l a y s a

231

major r o l e i n t h e human body's figii t c L n c e r .

immunity mechanism, can h e l p

American c a n c e r c l i n i c s r e c e n t l y e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t p a t i e n t s t r e a t e d w i t h Vitamin C showed a b e t t e r blood p i c t u r e and a c c o r d i n g t o a German weekly, t h i s was borne o u t by i n i t i a l c a u t i o u s e x p e r i m e n t s i n a B r i t i s h h o s p i t a l some s i x y e a r s ago. Some 100 c a n c e r p a t i e n t s i n a l a t e s t a g e of t h e d i s e a s e were given f i v e and l a t e r 10 grams. of Ascorbic a c i d p e r day and Lhe g e n , r a l i m p r e s s i o n was t h a t t h e i r p h y s i c a l and mental well-being was g r e a t l y improved and t h e y needed c o n s i d e r b l y fewer p a i n - k i l l e r s . The r e p o r t s a i d t h a t maximum dosage o f Vitamin C t h a t s h o u l d have t h e g r e a t e s t e f f e c t on t h e c o u r s e of t h e i l l n e s s i s u n f o r t u n a t e l y s t i l l n o t known. But e x c e s s dosage cannot harm t h e p a t i e n t and t h e r e have been no i l l - e f f e c t s from dosage u p t o 50 grams. a day i n j e c t e d intravenously, the report c l a r i f i e d . Doctors and r e s e a r c h e r s seem t o a g r e e t h a t t h i s simple t r e a t m e n t can p r e v e n t o r ' g r e a t l y d e l a y ' a r e c u r r e n c e o f t h e tumour. T h i s might mean t h a t medicine h a s e n t e r e d a new s t a g e i n i t s f i g h t a g a i n s t cancer. A t p r e s e n t we Hedoxine, Chewsee and f r u i t s which a r e r i c h (Amla) whose chemical

Moisture Protein Fat Minerals Fibre Carbohydrates Energy Calcium

have s y n t h e t i c Vitamin C t a b l e t s l i k e Drops l i k e Cecon. But n a t u r e p r o v i d e s i n Vitamin C. We have ' P h y l l a n t h u s Emblica a n a l y s i s revealed:

81.8% 0.5% 0.1%

0.5% 3.4% 13.7%

58K.Ca.

5omg/ 1oog

Phosphorus Iron Carotene Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin C

.

2omg/ 1 oog 1.2

9 Ilg 0.03

.

11

0.01 0.2

600

It

From t h e above a n a l y s i s i t i s c l e a r , most v a l u a b l e n u t r i e n t f a c t o r i n amla i s v i t a m i n C o r a s c o r b i c a c i d . Vitamin C c o n t e n t up t o 720 mg/100g. o f f r e s h p u l p and 921 mg/l00ml. of f r e s h j u i c e h a s been recorded. The f r u i t i s a l s o a . r i c h source of pectin. A tannin, containing g a l l i c acid, e l l a g i c acid and g l u c o s e i n i t s molecule and n a t u r a l l y p r e s e n t i n t h e f r u i t , p r e v e n t s o r r e t a r d s o x i d a t i o n o f t h e vitamin. R e c e n t l y some medical f i r m s manufactured G a r l i c p e a r l e s made from n a t u r a l G a r l i c . These are v e r y popular. I n t h e same way w e can also manufacture n a t u r a l v i t a m i n C t a b l e t s and drops.

232

F o r t h i s we need s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y o f raw p h y l l a n t h u s Emblica f r u i t s . As t h e p l a n t grows w i l d e l y even w i t h o u t w a t e r , NSS V o l u n t e e r s i n U n i v e r s i t i e s and C o l l e g e s can u n d e r t a k e , t h e p r o j e c t of growing t h e s e t r e e s i n Government v a c a n t l a n d s . I n t e r n a t i o n a l a g e n c i e s l i k e FAO, UNESCO can u n d e r t a k e t h i s p r o j e c t i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s through t h e i r branch o r g a n i s a tions.

CONCLUSIONS I n v i e w of t h e i n u l t i p l e u s e s of vatljous p l a n t s d e s c r i b e d above i t i s f e l t t h a t v a r i o u s o r g a n i s a t i o n s connected w i t h a f o r e s t a t i o n programmes i n c l u d e t h e s e p l a n t s i n t h e on g o z i n g projects. ACKNOWLEDGENhNTS The a u t h o r e x p r e s s e s h i s g r a t e f u l thanks t o P r o f . P.Nayudamma, Governor, I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development Research C e n t r e , O t t a w a , Canada; P r o f . T.Nejat Veziroglu, D i r e c t o r , C l e a n Energy Research I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y o f M i a m i , U.S.Q. D r . M.s.Swaminathan, Director-General., I n t e r n a t i o n a l Rice Research I n s t i t u t e , Manila, P h i l l i p i n e s f o r t h e i r c o n s t a n t encouragement and v a l u a b l e s u g g e s t i o n s .

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsetier Science Publishers B.V.,Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

ACID PRECIPITATION:

A REVIEW

U. M. Cowgill Dow Chemical U.S.A. Environmental Q u a l i t y 2030 W i l l a r d H. Dow Center Midland, Michigan 48640, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT There are two major groups o f thought concerning a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n . Group I h o l d s t h e view t h a t t h i s environmental problem r e q u i r e s l e g i s l a t i v e a t t e n t i o n , t h a t such p r e c i p i t a t i o n r e s u l t s c h i e f l y from t h e combustion of f o s s i l f u e l s which r e l e a s e s o x i d e s of N and S i n t o t h e atmosphere. Once p r e s e n t N and S may undergo t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e a c i d s and t h e s e s u b s t a n c e s may be t r a n s p o r t e d g r e a t d i s t a n c e s . Once d e p o s i t e d , t h e s e a c i d s cause damage n o t o n l y t o a l l components of t h e n a t u r a l landscape, b u t a l s o t o s t a t u e s , monuments, b u i l d i n g s and o t h e r anthropogenic m a t e r i a l s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h i s group o p i n e s t h a t t h i s phenomenon has p e r s i s t e d s i n c e t h e mid-1950s; t h a t t h e problem has worsened and t h e a r e a a f f e c t e d i s s t e a d i l y expanding. Proponents o f Group I p r e s e n t d a t a i l l u s t r a t i n g a mean d e c l i n e of 0.5 pH u n i t s below t h e norm f o r r a i n (pH 5.6) i n t h e r e g i o n s a f f e c t e d . The Group I1 o f f e r s s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e r e p o r t e d and sometimes observed phenomena. They suggest t h a t a c i d c o n d i t i o n s noted i n water bodies r e s u l t from d r a s t i c changes in land u s e , t h a t reexamination of h i s t o r i c a l d a t a r e v e a l t h e s e d a t a t o be t r e n d l e s s , t h a t l o c a l and n a t u r a l s o u r c e s o f N and S o x i d e s , e s p e c i a l l y r e s u l t i n g from t h e combustion of o i l , p l a y a major r o l e i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of a c i d i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n s in t h e r e g i o n a t r i s k . F i n a l l y , Group I1 p o i n t s o u t t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o q u a n t i t a t i v e l y a t t r i b u t e t h e phenomenon of a c i d r a i n f a l l i n g i n one p l a c e t o i t s o r i g i n i n another place. T h i s review d i s c u s s e s m e t e o r o l o g i c a l , p h y s i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s of a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n from t h e two p o i n t s of view j u s t presented and emphasizes t h e known and t h e unknown in t h i s complicated a r e a of r e s e a r c h . 1.

INTRODUCTION

Acid p r e c i p i t a t i o n has been a s s o c i a t e d with i n d u s t r i a l e m i s s i o n s s i n c e 1661[1,2], when Evelyn and Graunt noted t h e e f f e c t of such e m i s s i o n s on p l a n t s and persons. These e a r l y o b s e r v e r s saw f i t t o comment on t h e atmos p h e r i c exchange of p o l l u t a n t s between France and England and even proposed a r e l o c a t i 6 n o f i n d u s t r y remote from populated a r e a s . Although i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t Hales[3] and Linne[4] i n t h e E i g h t e e n t h Century had some concept of t h e i n o r g a n i c composition of p o l l u t e d a i r and r a i n , i t was n o t u n t i l Smith's[5] i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n 1852 t h a t t h e chemical c o n t e n t s of r a i n were s c r u t i n i z e d . Smith w a s c o g n i z a n t of t h e He i s t h e c r e a t o r o f t h e term " a c i d r a i n " [ 6 ] .

233

234

f a c t t h a t e x c e s s i v e l y a c i d i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n was a f f e c t e d , i f n o t induced, by c o a l combustion. I n a d d i t i o n , Smith suggested t h a t t h e major source of s u l f a t e i n r a i n is t h e o x i d a t i o n of H2s i n t h e atmosphere which i s d e r i v e d from o r g a n i c decomposition. He thought t h a t such decomposition was l a r g e l y of t e r r e s t r i a l o r i g i n . Smith a l s o noted t h a t frequency and q u a n t i t y of p r e c i p i t a t i o n as w e l l a s d i s t a n c e from t h e s e a were f a c t o r s important i n determining t h e e x t e n t o f a c i d i t y i n r a i n and snow. Furthermore, he was well aware o f t h e damage t o b u i l d i n g s and p l a n t s i n c u r r e d by a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n and even noted t h e atmospheric d e p o s i t i o n of v a r i o u s metals i n i n d u s t r i a l r e g i o n s . The work o f Smith has gone l a r g e l y unnoticed though he i s w e l l known t o l i m n o l o g i s t s [ 7 , 8 ] . Since Smith's i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , t h e environmental e f f e c t s of a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n have been t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l concern of many d i s c i p l i n e s b u t c h i e f l y of limnology, s o i l s c i e n c e and atmospheric chemistry. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e chemistry o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n and t h a t o f o l i g o t r o p h i c l a k e s would n o t have been a p p a r e n t t o any i n v e s t i g a t o r who d i d n o t have a l a r g e body of chemical d a t a a t h i s d i s p o s a l . C l a r k e [ 9 ] was such an i n v e s t i g a t o r and was t h e f i r s t t o observe and record t h e connection between t h e chemical composition of p r e c i p i t a t i o n and t h a t of d i l u t e l a k e w a t e r s . Thus, by 1924, i t was known, though l a r g e l y i g n o r e d , t h a t t h e combustion of c o a l was l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e e x c e s s i v e a c i d i t y of r a i n and t h a t t h e chemical composition of such r a i n c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e chemical composition of l a k e w a t e r s . Since t h i s time, many i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e knowledge of t h e formation and e f f e c t s of a c i d i c (pH <5.6) p r e c i p i t a t i o n . Limited space requirements of t h i s review a r e such t h a t a complete h i s t o r i c a l sequence o f a l l t h e c o n t r i b u t o r s t o t h e understanding of " a c i d r a i n " i s n o t p o s s i b l e and t h e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o some e x c e l l e n t reviews[8,10]. The phenomenon o f a c i d i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n may, i n t h e United S t a t e s , be viewed i n terms of a c o n t r o v e r s y . It is t h e i n t e n t of t h i s review t o examine t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f t h i s c o n t r o v e r s y and t o p o i n t out. t h e r e s u l t s of t h e most r e c e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n and p r e s e n t t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i n summary form.

2.

The Controversy

There a r e two major groups o f thought concerning a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n : Group I f e e l s t h a t t h e problem of a c i d r a i n r e q u i r e s l e g i s l a t i v e a t t e n t i o n [ l l ] while Group I1 b e l i e v e s t h e s i t u a t i o n does n o t m e r i t governmental a c t i o n [ l l ] . The p o s i t i o n o f t h e f i r s t group may be o u t l i n e d a s f o l l o w s [ l l ] :

A.

Acid p r e c i p i t a t i o n r e s u l t s l a r g e l y from t h e combustion of f o s s i l f u e l s which r e l e a s e s o x i d e s o f N and S i n t o t h e atmosphere.

B.

These o x i d e s undergo t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t h e atmosphere r e s u l t i n g i n t h e formation of HNO3 and H2SO4.

C.

These s u b s t a n c e s may be t r a n s p o r t e d g r e a t d i s t a n c e s .

D.

Once d e p o s i t e d through t h e v e h i c l e of r a i n , snow, h a i l , m i s t , dew o r fog they cause damage t o v e g e t a t i o n , s o i l s and r o c k s , l a k e s and r i v e r s , a q u a t i c b i o t a , s t a t u e s , monuments, and b u i l d i n g s .

E.

I n a d d i t i o n , t h i s s i t u a t i o n h a s a c c e l e r a t e d s i n c e t h e mid-1950s. The a r e a s most a f f e c t e d a r e s o u t h e r n and southwestern Scandinavia, F l o r i d a , C a l i f o r n i a and t h e s t a t e s surrounding and i n c l u d i n g t h e

235 Adirondack r e g i o n of t h e United S t a t e s , and t h e r e g i o n s o u t h of t h e Pre-Cambrian S h i e l d i n Canada, m o s t l y Ontario. Furthermore, t h i s group a s s e r t s t h a t t h e problem o f a c i d r a i n has worsened s i n c e t h e 1950s and t h a t t h e r e g i o n s a f f e c t e d have s t e a d i l y expanded. Proponents o f t h i s p o s i t i o n p r e s e n t d a t a i l l u s t r a t i n g a mean d e c l i n e of 0.5 pH u n i t s o r g r e a t e r below t h e norm f o r r a i n (pH = 5.6), i n t h e regions a f f e c t e d . The second g r o u p ( l l 1 p r e s e n t s s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e r e p o r t e d and sometimes observed phenomena. T h e i r p o s i t i o n i s o u t l i n e d below[ 111. A.

Acid c o n d i t i o n s i n l a k e s , r i v e r s and s t r e a m s were f i r s t noted i n s o u t h e r n Sweden and southwestern Norway. The second group s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s i s t h e r e s u l t of d r a s t i c changes i n l a n d use t h a t have p e r s i s t e d over t h e p a s t t h r e e decades, r a t h e r than t h e d e p o s i t i o n of a c i d m a t e r i a l s from t h e atmosphere. Changes i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s and f o r e s t husbandry have been noted i n s o u t h e r n and southwestern Scandinavia, a s w e l l a s i n N e w England.

B.

S e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s [ l l ] have reexamined t h e d a t a t h a t a r e used t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t a t r e n d i n a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n has p e r s i s t e d s i n c e t h e mid-1950s such t h a t t h e r e h a s been a g r a d u a l d e c l i n e i n t h e pH s i n c e t h a t time. These i n v e s t i g a t o r s have found such d a t a t o be t r e n d l e s s .

C.

The a s s e r t i o n t h a t a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n r e s u l t s from long-range t r a n s p o r t of p o l l u t a n t s produced by major complexes o f i n d u s t r y and power p l a n t s h a s been r e f u t e d by t h e second group. They p o i n t o u t t h a t i n t h e r e g i o n s a t r i s k t h e r e a r e n a t u r a l s o u r c e s a s w e l l a s l o c a l s o u r c e s of N and S o x i d e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e r e s u l t i n g from t h e combustion of o i l , t h a t probably p l a y a major r o l e i n t h e formation of a c i d i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n . Furthermore, t h i s group f e e l s t h a t d i s t a n t s o u r c e s v e r y l i k e l y have l i t t l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a c i d r a i n .

D.

Physio-chemical and m e t e r o l o g i c a l e v e n t s i n t h e atmosphere a r e so complex t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o q u a n t i t a t i v e l y a t t r i b u t e t h e phenomenon of a c i d r a i n f a l l i n g i n one p l a c e t o i t s o r i g i n i n a n o t h e r p l a c e . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s u n c l e a r whether t h e d e c l i n e of emissions i n one r e g i o n would a c t u a l l y reduce t h e a c i d i t y of r a i n i n a n o t h e r .

2 . 1 P o i n t s o f Agreement Despite t h e s e opposing, a p p a r e n t l y i r r e c o n c i l a b l e p o s i t i o n s , some agreement does e x i s t . The following d i s c u s s i o n e l u c i d a t e s some of t h e a r e a s of agreement between t h e two groups. The E l e c t r i c Power Research I n s t i t u t e (EPRI) i s s u p p o r t i n g l a r g e - s c a l e r e s e a r c h on t h e a c i d r a i n q u e s t i o n . Furthermore, t h e i r d i r e c t o r of environmental assessment r e c o g n i z e s t h a t [ l 2 ] :

A.

Acid r a i n below t h e pH o f 5.6 e x i s t s .

B.

P r e c i p i t a t i o n t h a t i s q u i t e a c i d i c i s f a l l i n g on v a r i o u s landscapes.

C.

Such r a i n b r i n g s about e c o l o g i c a l damage.

D.

Atmospheric emissions from u t i l i t y p l a n t s can play a p a r t i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a c i d r a i n .

236 F u r t h e r , a spokesman f o r t h e C e n t r a l E l e c t r i c i t y Generating Board of England[l3] observed t h a t i n d u s t r i a l a i r p o l l u t a n t s may t r a v e l g r e a t d i s t a n c e s . I n a d d i t i o n , he pointed o u t t h a t t h i s phenomenon has been shown t o occur with natural pollutants. Even so2 h a s been acknowledged as being t r a n s p o r t e d from power p l a n t emissions[l4]. A s t a f f member of t h e Environmental Assessment Department of EPRI speaking of ,502 t r a n s p o r t e d from power p l a n t e m i s s i o n s s t a t e d t h a t during t r a n s p o r t s e v e r a l t h i n g s happen: A.

so2 i s d i l u t e d by surrounding a i r .

B.

Some SO2 s e t t l e s t o t h e ground.

C.

Some i s oxidized t o s u l f a t e compounds.

D.

S u l f a t e s are d e p o s i t e d on t h e ground.

2.2 P o i n t s o f Disagreement Basic d i s a g r e e m e n t [ l l ] p r e v a i l s concerning h i s t o r i c t r e n d s i n a c i d depos i t i o n . A v a i l a b l e pH d a t a do n o t s u p p o r t t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t a c i d d e p o s i t i o n In addition, has been a s e r i o u s phenomenon f o r t h e past t h r e e d e c a d e s [ l l ] . c o a l and o i l usage d a t a f a i l t o s u p p o r t t h e s u g g e s t i o n of a n h i s t o r i c t r e n d i n acid deposition[ll]. There i s g e n e r a l agreement t h a t o x i d e s of N and S are t r a n s p o r t e d and undergo t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e a c i d s . However, t h e r e i s much d i s a g r e e m e n t [ l l ] on s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s . For example: A.

R e l a t i v e r a t e s o f t r a n s p o r t , t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and d e p o s i t i o n .

B.

D i f f i c u l t y of p r e d i c t i o n , i.e., how much of a p a r t i c u l a r S compound w i l l form, where i t w i l l f a l l , how c l o s e o r how f a r and how much of i t w i l l remain i n t h e atmosphere.

C.

Furthermore, SO2 may become involved i n a v a r i e t y of pathways. example :

For

1.

SO2 may be converted t o H2SO4 i n t h e a i r and t h e n be sorbed by a cloud.

2.

SO2 may be absorbed a s SO2 by a cloud and then be converted t o t h e corresponding a c i d .

3.

So2 may be d e p o s i t e d a s d r y d e p o s i t i o n , i n fog f o r example, and then converted i n t h e f o r e s t canopy.

4.

So2 may be d e p o s i t e d on t h e ground as SO2.

Recently, N e m a n [ l 5 ] , an atmospheric c h e m i s t , pointed o u t t h a t s i n c e t h e r a t e - l i m i t i n g s t e p f o r t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f SO2 i n t o r a i n w a t e r has n o t been completely i d e n t i f i e d f o r a l l seasons of t h e y e a r , reducing t h e q u a n t i t y o f SO2 i n t h e a i r may n o t b r i n g about a corresponding d e c l i n e of s u l f a t e i n t h e rainwater. This would be e s p e c i a l l y t r u e i f t h e r a t e - l i m i t i n g s t e p t u r n e d o u t t o be a c a t a l y s t such as a t r a n s i t i o n metal o r carbon.

237 I n view of t h e s e u n c e r t a i n t i e s , t h e following s e c t i o n of t h i s d i s c u s s i o n w i l l focus on d a t a r e l a t e d t o t h e q u a n t i t y and d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p r e c u r s o r s of a c i d r a i n from anthropogenic and n a t u r a l sources. 3.

Sources of SO,,

NO,,

NH3 and C l 2 Emissions:

Natural and Anthropogenic

3.1 Natural Sources o f SO,

On a g l o b a l b a s i s , t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e S c y c l e from n a t u r a l sources is i n excess of t h a t from anthropogenic o r i g i n s [ l 6 ] . This is not the c a s e f o r e a s t e r n North America where s u l f u r budgets show t h a t 90% of a l l S emissions a r e man-made[l7]. Four percent of t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n is n a t u r a l while 6% o r i g i n a t e s from o u t s i d e t h e r e g i o n [ l 7 ] . Similar budgets were obtained f o r Europe[ 181. The most important n a t u r a l source of S o r i g i n a t e s from the biogenic production of H2S from ocean s h o r e s [ l 6 ] . L e s s important sources i n c l u d e organic compounds r e s u l t i n g from b a c t e r i a l decomposition of organic matter, s u l f a t e r e d u c t i o n i n anoxic waters and s o i l s , geothermal and v o l c a n i c emissions of HgS and SOg and f o r e s t f i r e s [ l 7 ] . 3.2 Natural Sources o f NO,

On a g l o b a l b a s i s , t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e N c y c l e from n a t u r a l sources is thought t o be seven times t h a t o r i g i n a t i n g from anthropogenic s o u r c e s [ l 9 ] . Tropospheric production of NO, r e s u l t i n g from l i g h t n i n g d i s c h a r g e s may account f o r as much as 50% of t h e t o t a l atmospheric production of NO, on a g l o b a l basis[20]. Major c o n t r i b u t o r s t o background NO, a r e n a t u r a l t e r r e s t r i a l sources of NO and NO2 and t h e chemical decomposition of n i t r a t e s [ 2 1 ] . In e a s t e r n North America, however, less than 8% of a l l NO, emissions may be a t t r i b u t e d t o n a t u r a l sources[22]. I n areas where p r e c i p i t a t i o n occurs with a pH of less than 5.6 n a t u r a l sources of SO, and NO, a r e thought t o have o n l y a minimal c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e observed a c i d i t y . 3.3 Natural Sources of NH3 It has been suggested[23] t h a t t h e pH of rainwater may be c o n t r o l l e d by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f ammonia (NH3) and a c i d s (HNO3, H2SO4) and that t h i s n e u t r a l i z a t i o n procdss may t a k e p l a c e i n t h e atmosphere[24].

I n t h e presence o f water, gaseous Mi3 and SO2 react t o produce ammonium s u l f i t e and ammonium s u l f a t e . This s u g g e s t s that gaseous NH3 may n e u t r a l i z e a c i d r a i n i n t h e atmosphere[25]. Furthermore, ammonia may n o t o n l y a c t t o n e u t r a l i z e HNO3 but i t may a l s o react with hydroxyl r a d i c a l s t o form NOx[20,26]. The major s o u r c e of ammonia emissions i n t o t h e atmosphere is through t h e V o l a t i l i z a t i o n from land and sea, decomposition of o r g a n i c matter[27,28]. and emissions from f o r e s t f i r e s may a l s o be s i g n i f i c a n t [ 2 9 ] . In addition, urea-N may v o l a t i l i z e from f e e d l o t s which harbor l a r g e amounts of animal u r i n e . The National Research Council[30] has estimated t h a t 50-100% of t h e urea may be hydrolyzed i n t o ammonia and C02.

238 3.4 N a t u r a l Sources o f Clg N a t u r a l s o u r c e s o f c h l o r i d e s i n t h e atmosphere o r i g i n a t e from s a l t s p r a y from t h e s e a [ 3 1 , 3 2 ] , v o l c a n i c g a s e s [ 3 3 ] , and upper a t m o s p h e r i c r e a c t i o n s [ 3 4 ] . S i x p e r c e n t o f t h e a c i d i t y i n r a i n w a t e r i s r e p o r t e d t o be due t o HC1[35]. Various models have been proposed implying t h e n a t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n of HC1 i n t h e atmosphere. Yue e t a1.[36] proposed t h a t t h e f o r m a t i o n o f HC1 i n t h e atmosphere w a s determined by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f S02, ammonia, CO2, oxygen and H2SO4. S a l t s p r a y o x i d i z e d by ozone and t h e n p h o t o c h e m i c a l l y hydrolyzed i n H C 1 was a n o t h e r proposed model(371. T h i s a c i d w a s t h e n absorbed by m o i s t u r e t h u s producing a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n . Kohler and Bath[38] c a r r i e d o u t a mass b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n and showed t h a t t h e sea s a l t t o H C 1 c o n v e r s i o n d i d n o t f u l l y account f o r changes i n t h e N a : C 1 r a t i o found i n a i r . Duce[34] s u g g e s t e d t h a t p a r t i c u l a t e c h l o r i d e r e a c t e d w i t h NO2 t o produce HC1 and Robbins and h i s co-workers[39] proposed t h a t H C 1 w a s produced i n t h e atmosphere as a r e s u l t of HNO3 r e a c t i n g w i t h N a C l . 3.5 Anthropogenic Sources o f SO, The major a n t h r o p o g e n i c c o n t r i b u t o r o f SO, e m i s s i o n s i s s t a t i o n a r y f u e l combustion[40] Fuel combustion a c c o u n t s f o r 75% of SO, e m i s s i o n s [ 4 0 ] . I n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s e s p e r t a i n i n g t o primary metals, petroleum, chemical manuf a c t u r i n g and m i n e r a l p r o d u c t s a c c o u n t f o r a b o u t 18% o f t h e e m i s s i o n s [ 4 0 ] . T r a n s p o r t a t i o n and c m e r c i a l - i n s t i t u t i o n a l f u e l combustion a c c o u n t s f o r t h e remainder o f t h e c o n t r i b u t o r s t o SO, e m i s s i o n s [ 4 0 ] . 3.6 Anthropogenic Sources o f NO, The major a n t h r o p o g e n i c c o n t r i b u t o r t o NO, e m i s s i o n s i s s t a t i o n a r y f u e l combustion[40]. Forty-seven p e r c e n t o f a l l man-made NO, e m i s s i o n s o r i g i n a t e s from t h e combustion o f g a s , o i l and c o a l [ 4 0 ] . F o r t y - t h r e e p e r c e n t i s cont r i b u t e d by t r a n s p o r t a t i o n v i a g a s o l i n e and d i e s e l f u e l combustion[40], t h e b a l a n c e o r i g i n a t e s from i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s e s and c o m m e r c i a l - i n s t i t u t i o n a l f u e l combustion[40]. 3.7 D i s c u s s i o n o f Anthropogenic S o u r c e s o f SO,

and NO,

It i s observed t h a t r e g i o n a l (EPA) e m i s s i o n s o f NO, and SO, are more s t r o n g l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y t h a n are s t a t e e m i s s i o n s because u t i l i t i e s i n one s t a t e o f t e n s u p p l y e l e c t r i c i t y t o n e i g h b o r i n g s t a t e s [ 4 1 ] . Region V i s t h e most h i g h l y p o p u l a t e d area and a l s o produces t h e g r e a t e s t q u a n t i t y o f SO, and NO, e m i s s i o n s [ 4 1 ] .

H i s t o r i c a l d a t a [ 4 0 , 4 2 ] are a v a i l a b l e from EPA c o n c e r n i n g SO, e m i s s i o n s Both SO, and NO, e m i s s i o n s r e f l e c t a rise in f u e l c o n s u m p f r o m 1940-1977. t i o n from 1960 t o 1970. From 1940 t o 1960 o n l y a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n SO, e m i s s i o n s w a s n o t e d . The peak i n SO, e m i s s i o n s o c c u r r e d i n 1970. No, e m i s s i o n s i n c r e a s e d 171% between 1940 and 1960. Again, between 1960 and 1976 t h e r e was a 117% i n c r e a s e . No, e m i s s i o n s peaked i n 1973.

During t h e l a t e 1970s t h e ambient a i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f SO, had been I n f a c t , by 1980, SO2 e m i s s i o n s had reduced t o r e l a t i v e l y low l e v e l s [ 4 3 ] . been reduced by a b o u t 1 7 % [ 4 4 ] . Though d a t a f o r NO, e m i s s i o n s i n urban r e g i o n 8 are s c a n t [ 4 3 ] It woufd b e e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e levels had d e c l i n e d s i n c e 1978

239 s i n c e mean annual automobile mileage[45] has decreased a s w e l l a s t h e mean f u e l consumption per c a r using t h e l a t e s t a v a i l a b l e d a t a which a r e 1982[45]. The amount o f SOx emissions e m i t t e d by l a r g e b o i l e r s depends[46,48] upon the amount o f f u e l burned, i t s S c o n t e n t , t h e t y p e , d e s i g n and age of t h e b o i l e r and t h e method o f f i r i n g . Nearly a l l t h e S compounds i n bituminous and a n t h r a c i t e c o a l s a r e converted t o SO2. Usually about 1-2% SOx i s t r a n s formed i n t o so3, t h e amount of formation depending upon combustion c o n d i t i o n s , i . e . , l e a n e r f u e l m i x t u r e s i n c r e a s e t h e r a t e of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n [ 4 7 , 4 8 ] . S u l f u r r e t e n t i o n by c o a l s i s temperature dependent, t h e lower t h e ashing temperature, t h e h i g h e r t h e q u a n t i t y of S r e t a i n e d [ 4 9 ] . I n some f u e l s , t h e elemental composition may e x e r t a n e f f e c t on S r e t e n t i o n . For example, a high Na-lignite may r e t a i n more than 60% of t h e a v a i l a b l e S i n t h e boiler[50,51]. I n t h e c a s e of low N a - l i g n i t e s r e t e n t i o n of t h e a v a i l a b l e S i n t h e b o i l e r a s h may n o t exceed 10%[52,53]. High oxygen c o n t e n t of t h e combustion chamber i n c r e a s e s t h e emission of primary s u l f a t e s from both o i l f i r e d and c o a l - f i r e d b o i l e r s . According t o Homolya and Cheney[54] f o r a given S c o n t e n t , o i l - f i r e d u n i t s e m i t more SO3 t h a n c o a l f i r e d b o i l e r s . I n a d d i t i o n , Homolya e t c . [ 5 5 ] have noted t h a t compared t o p u l v e r i z e d c o a l , r e s i d u a l o i l s which c o n t a i n h i g h q u a n t i t i e s of vanadium, d i s c h a r g e g r e a t e r s u l f a t e e m i s s i o n s o n combustion. The combustion of f u e l o i l r e q u i r e s a h i g h e r flame temperature. T h i s requirement i n t e n s i f i e s t h e formation of SO3, H2SO4 and p a r t i c u l a t e s u l f a t e s , w h i l e t h e presence o f V s t i m u l a t e s t h e formation o f so3 i n t h e combustion p r o c e s s . Emission of SO3 d i r e c t l y from t h e combustion p r o c e s s may i n c r e a s e t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n areas c l o s e t o t h e emission s o u r c e . NOx e m i s s i o n s from c o a l - f i r e d power p l a n t s are e x c e s s a i r and temperature dependent[56]. For a s p e c i f i c f u r n a c e t e m p e r a t u r e , NOx formation d e c r e a s e s as e x c e s s a i r d e c r e a s e s [ 5 6 ] . A r e d u c t i o n i n f u r n a c e temperature reduces t h a t NO, ( t h e r m a l ) t h a t i s formed by t h e r e a c t i o n of atmospheric oxygen and n i t r o i.e. t h a t formed by t h e o x i d a t i o n of gen, and h a s no e f f e c t on t h e f u e l NO,, f u e l contaminants that c o n t a i n “561.

O i l - f i r e d power p l a n t s e m i t less NOx from t a n g e n t i a l l y - f i r e d a l l o t h e r types[48,57].

u n i t s than

3.8 Anthropogenic Sources o f NH3 Anthropogenic s o u r c e s account f o r o n l y a s m a l l amount of t h e t o t a l ammonia e m i s s i o n s [ 5 8 ] . Eighty p e r c e n t of t h e ammonia produced i n t h e U.S. w a s employed t o produce f e r t i l i z e r s [ 5 8 ] . The remaining 20% w a s u t i l i z e d i n animal f e e d s , e x p l o s i v e s , HNO3, a c r y l o n i t r i l e and amines[59]. Inefficient handling o f f e r t i l i z e r s may r e s u l t i n s i z e a b l e ammonia l o s s e s t o t h e atmosphere[60]. Ammonia is a l s o a by-product of coke p r o d u c t i o n from c o a l , o r e - r e f i n i n g and f o s s i l f u e l combustion[21]. S e v e r a l a u t h o r s [ 6 1 , 6 2 ] have noted t h a t s o i l pH may change as a r e s u l t of nitrogenous f e r t i l i z e r s . Furthermore, subsequent runoff may c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e lowering o f t h e pH of r e c e i v i n g a q u a t i c systems. S i n c e f r a g i l e a q u a t i c systems l o c a t e d i n r e g i o n s a t r i s k appear t o be i n f o r e s t e d l a n d s c a p e s , t h e proposed e f f e c t of f e r t i l i z e r a p p l i c a t i o n i s n o t p e r t i n e n t .

240

3.9 Anthropogenic Sources o f Cl2 Anthropogenic sources[63,64] of c h l o r i n e and c h l o r i d e s o r i g i n a t e i n t h e manufacturing, handling and l i q u e f a c t i o n of HC1 and C12 g a s . I n d u s t r i e s involved i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n and use of s o l v e n t s , p e s t i c i d e s , c h l o r i n a t e d hydrocarbons, p l a s t i c s and b l e a c h e s u t i l i z e c h l o r i n e . Furthermore, compounds of t h i s halogen a r e employed i n water p u r i f i c a t i o n , wastewater t r e a t m e n t , pulp and paper m i l l s , and f e r r o u s and nonferrous metal f l w i n g [ 6 3 , 6 4 ] . Chlorides a r e a l s o r e l e a s e d i n t o t h e atmosphere a s a r e s u l t of c o a l combustion[62]. 4.

Atmospheric T r a n s p o r t , Transformation and Deposition

Anthropogenic s o u r c e s of o x i d e s o f S and N a r e introduced i n t o t h e a t m o sphere a t h e i g h t s ranging from near t h e ground ( c a r e x h a u s t ) t o over 1000 f t ( t a l l s t a c k s ) . A s has a l r e a d y been noted n a t u r a l s o u r c e s c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y . The f a t e o f t h e s e m a t e r i a l s is determined by p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s of d i s p e r s i o n , t r a n s p o r t and d e p o s i t i o n . Complex chemical t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s t a k e place between t h e p l a c e of emission and t h e f i n a l d e s t i n a t i o n of t h e p o l l u t a n t . Residence t i m e of p o l l u t a n t s i n t h e atmosphere may be s h o r t , a s when such p o l l u t a n t s become i n j e c t e d d u r i n g a storm, o r long (day o r weeks) d u r i n g d r i e r weather. During t h e l a t t e r c a s e , p a r t i a l l y transformed p o l l u t a n t s may be c a r r i e d f o r long d i s t a n c e s . The a b i l i t y t o p r e d i c t t h e f a t e o f t h e s e p o l l u t a n t s is a methodology s t i l l i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s of development. Meterological e f f e c t s a r e a l s o d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t . G e n e r a l l y , d u r i n g t h e Winter, t h e winds tend t o c a r r y e a s t e r n U.S. e m i s s i o n s o u t t o sea while i n t h e summer t h e y are c a r r i e d northward by t h e Winds. The o v e r a l l e f f e c t is p r e c i p i t a t i o n with a low (<5) average annual pH over e a s t e r n North America[65]. Analysis o f r a i n w a t e r from e a s t e r n North America s u g g e s t s t h a t about It is 62% of t h e a c i d i t y is due t o H2SO4, 32% t o HNO3 and 6% t o HC1[11]. b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e major source of t h e s e a c i d s i n p r e c i p i t a t i o n is t h e oxidat i o n end products o f SOx and NO,. Thus, t h e rate a t which SOx and NO, (from t h e i r source t o t h e i r e v e n t u a l d e s t i n a t i o n ) are transformed i n t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e a c i d s is a c r u c i a l f a c t o r i n determining n o t o n l y t h e pH o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n but a l s o t h e r e c i p i e n t l o c a t i o n . 4.1 Chemical Transformation During T r a n s p o r t Atmospheric s u l f u r d i o x i d e may be converted t o s u l f a t e i n two ways[l8]. The f i r s t type of r e a c t i o n i n v o l v e s s u b s t a n c e s t h a t a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e gas phase. I n p o l l u t e d atmospheres, gaseous s u l f u r d i o x i d e i s o x i d i z e d t o s u l f a t e a f t e r gas-phase c o l l i s i o n s w i t h s t r o n g o x i d i z i n g r a d i c a l s (HO', HO2',. emissions provides these CH302*)[18]. Photo-oxidation of hydrocarbon-NO, r a d i c a l s as i n t e r m e d i a t e p r o d u c t s [ l 8 ] . The r a t i o o f hydrocarbon t o NO,, s o l a r r a d i a t i o n , temperature, dew p o i n t and t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f s u l f u r d i o x i d e and t h e o x i d i z i n g r a d i c a l s determine t h e rate of o x i d a t i o n [ l 8 , 6 6 ] . When t h i s p r o c e s s i s c a r r i e d o u t i n pure a i r , t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s u l f a t e i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t ( 6 6 1 . Estimated rates o f t h i s r e a c t i o n i n p o l l u t e d a i r range from 0.1-10% per h o u r [ l 8 ] . The second t y p e of r e a c t i o n , which is b e l i e v e d t o remove 90% of t h e s u l f u r d i o x i d e from t h e atmosphere[67] proceeds i n l i q u i d particles o r on p a r t i c l e s u r f a c e s : (1) when t r a n s i t i o n metals such as Fe and Mn aye p r e s e n t

241

M) c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e atmosphere, t h e y may b r i n g about i n high t h e c a t a l y z e d o x i d a t i o n of SO2 i n s o l t i o n [ 6 8 ] , ( 2 ) a n o t h e r mechanism is dependent upon ozone and H202 sorbed n l i q u i d d r o p l e t s which are a b l e t o promote,oxidation o f so2 a t a r a t e comparable t o that o f i n d i r e c t photoo x i d a t i o n [ l 8 ] , and (3) a t h i r d mechanism has been demonstrated o n l y i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y and i s p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h s u r f a c e - c a t a l y z e d o x i d a t i o n o f so2, t h e s u r f a c e i n t h i s c a s e being carbon o r s o o t [ 6 9 ] . S u l f u r d i o x i d e oxidation t o s u l f a t e on f i l t e r s f i l l e d with s o o t does not n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t e t o such a phenomenon's o c c u r r i n g i n t h e atmosphere. The rates of occurrence of t h e s e t h r e e mechanisms i n t h e atmosphere are unknown.

1

The p r o c e s s by which NO and NO2 a r e converted t o a c i d i c end p r o d u c t s a r e of p r i n c i p a l concern i n t h e formation of a c i d r a i n and are g e n e r a l l y poorly understood[70]. N i t r i c oxide e m i s s i o n s a r e p a r t i a l l y converted t o NO2 by gas-phase r e a c t i o n s [ 7 0 ] . The r a t e a t which t h i s p r o c e s s proceeds i s concentration-dependent[70]. A t h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i t may proceed a t t h e r a t e of 8% per minute[70]. I n a p o l l u t e d atmosphere exposed t o s o l a r r a d i a t i o n t h e p r o c e s s may proceed i n a matter of seconds, a s i t i s known t o do i n smog[70]. Involved i n t h i s r a p i d conversion are t r a n s i e n t s p e c i e s and o t h e r compounds such a s CO, hydrocarbons and aldehydes[21]. Diurnal photochemical c y c l e s both produce and d e s t r o y ozone[21]. As p a r t s o f t h i s set of r e a c t i o n s NO2 is converted t o HN03 vapor,and NO and NO2 may be sorbed o n t o existing particles[21]. Exact c o n v e r s i o n r a t e s a r e n o t w e l l known and a r e It i s a l s o thought t h a t N compounds have thought t o v a r y s e a s o n a l l y [ 7 1 , 7 2 ] . a g r e a t e r r e s i d e n c e t i m e t h a n SOx[721.

4.2 Removal of P o l l u t a n t s by P r e c i p i t a t i o n Kladlecek e t a1.[73] r e c e n t l y published a paper on t h e chemical composit i o n of cumulus c l o u d s . The pH o f c l o u d s i s more a c i d i c i n r u r a l r e g i o n s than i n urban ones. Tanner and h i s co-workers[74] have a l s o made t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n . Clouds, however, v a r y between urban and r u r a l r e g i o n s i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y may d i f f e r i n s i z e , i n a l t i t u d e , and i n formation; t h e r e f o r e , t h e s e d a t a are n o t e n t i r e l y comparable and should be viewed o n l y a s a " r u l e o f thumb". The second p o i n t t h a t may b e . g l e a n e d from t h e i r f i g u r e s i s t h a t t h e t o t a l comp o s i t i o n o f t h e cumulus cloud needs t o be c o n s i d e r e d ; HNO3 and H2SO4 are c l e a r l y n o t t h e whole s t o r y . The removal of s u b s t a n c e s from t h e atmosphere may occur i n two s t e p s ( 7 5 1 . The f i r s t i n v o l v e s t h e condensation o f water vapor on cloud condensation n u c l e i . The s t e p i s c a l l e d r a i n o u t . Some of t h e s e n u c l e i a r e thought t o be s u l f a t e p a r t i c l e s formed by gas-phase c o l l i s i o n s w i t h o x i d i z i n g r a d i c a l s (HO', H02', CH302')[75]. A t t h i s p o i n t t h e s i z e of d r o p l e t s b e g i n s t o i n c r e a s e , and s o l u b l e p o l l u t a n t s d i s s o l v e , undergo chemical changes, and slowly b e g i n t o f a l l t o t h e ground[75]. The removal of m a t e r i a l s below t h e cloud base through r a i n i s c a l l e d washout[75]. The presence of NH3 h a s t e n s t h e a b s o r p t i o n of SO2 and i t s c o n v e r s i o n t o s u l f a t e [ 7 6 ] . NOx undergoes s i m i l a r p r o c e s s e s which b r i n g about i t s removal from t h e atmosphere[76]. While t h e r a t e of gas-phase o x i d a t i o n of SO2 i n t h e atmosphere is p r i m a r i l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of HO'[77] and t o a lesser e x t e n t by HOq' and CH3O2', t h e p r o d u c t i o n of ~ 2 S 0 4w i t h i n cloud d r o p l e t s and r a i n i s c h i e f l y governed by H202[77]. The q u a n t i t y o f H202 i n s o l u t i o n a p p a r e n t l y d e t e r m i n e s t h e e x t e n t of i t s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e a c i d i t y o f cloud d r o p l e t s and r a i n [ 771.

242

4.3 Local Transport and Long Range Transport of Emission Pollutants It has been asserted that acid rain is primarily the result of long range transport of pollutants that have been emitted from tall stacks belonging to coal-fired utilities [ll]. These pollutants are believed to originate from the combustion of large quantities of fossil fuels [111. Recently, some studies have been published which have presented data t.bt refute the idea that acid rain results primarily from long range transport of pollutants [78]. Esposito et al. 1781 have shown that the U.S. regions most at risk consume large quantities of oil. Forty percent of the residual and 36% of the distillate oil burned in the country is consumed in the eight-state region surrounding the Adirondack Mountains. California is the second largest oil consumer and Florida is the third. Moreover, oil fired boilers produce 3-10 times as much sulfate (not SO2) per unit of S content as do coal-fired units. As mentioned earlier, the presence of V is thought tohasten this process [MI. It may be speculated that local sources may be more important than long range transport. Another approach to the transport controversy has been utilized by Rahn 179-811 who has attempted to "fingerprint" emissions by utilizing element matrix analysis. He has proposed that the elemental concentration of particulate matter in aerosols might reflect the origin of such matter and may even help resolve the question of long range transport contribution in contrast to that of local sources. Thus, aerosols relatively enriched in V might suggest a petroleum contribution, while those high in Mn might reflect coal combustion. As yet, this methodology has not been systematically evaluated for eastern North America. A number of concerns must be alleviated before this approach can become routine. First, the underlying assumption is that particulate matter enriched in V or Mn behave in the same fashion in the atmosphere as those enriched in sulfates and nitrates. Furthermore, Mn is often found enriched in large particles which, due to the nature of their size, are unlikely to contribute to those aerosols typical of long range transport [82]. Coal is deficient in Mn relative to that of soil 1821. Thus, the origin of fine particles enriched in Mn is not certain. Even though Rahn's method includes a correction for the presence of crustal chemical contributions, the source of these fine particles enriched in Mn remains uncertain. Vanadium, on the other hand, is found enriched in fine particles in the eastern United States. Again, the source of such particles is unknown [92]. It should be noted that Se is also released in coal combustion and its behavior is more likely to simulate that of S than Mn 1821. This suggestion, however, has not been systematically pursued. A second concern with Rahn's approach is the inability to separate out air masses of varying chemical composition which originate in the midwest but have received chemical contributions from eastern cities [82]. Although Rahn's approach has not been validated or confirmed for eastern North America [81], it apparently has been successful elsewhere 183,841. For example, his data suggest that Arctic haze noted in Alaska may originate from possible smelter operations in Eurasia 1841. Still another approach is being used. D r . L. Neman of the Brookhaven National Laboratory and a group at Argonne National Laboratory are studying the distribution of stable isotopes of S (32S, 34S) and 0 (180) in the atmosphere. The pioneer in this approach was M. L. Jensen 1851 who studied the 32S/34S distribution in the vicinity of Salt Lake City. By using stable isotopes of S, he was able to separate biogenic contributions from anthropogenic ones. During the copper workers strike of July 1971, when a large

243 scale copper smelter w a s s h u t down, he was a b l e t o show t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e of S i n t h e atmosphere w a s t h e Great S a l t Lake where b a c t e r i o g e n i c S was r e l e a s e d by a n a e r o b i c a c t i v i t y i n t h e mud. When t h e copper smelter w a s a g a i n f u n c t i o n i n g , t h e c i t y r e c e i v e d twice as much from t h e smelter as i t d i d from t h e l a k e and 1 5 t i m e s as much S as i t d i d from r e f i n e r i e s and automobiles. 4.4 D e p o s i t i o n "Acid r a i n " r e f e r s t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n t h a t h a s a pH l e s s t h a n t h e norm of 5.6 s i n c e u n p o l l u t e d r a i n may be s i m i l a r t o d i s t i l l e d water in e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h Cog which h a s a pH o f 5.6. The term d r y d e p o s i t i o n r e f e r s t o a c i d depos i t e d in t h e form of g a s e s , s o l i d s , f o g s , h a z e s and m i s t s . The c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t e r r e s t r i a l a c i d i t y from d r y d e p o s i t i o n is p o o r l y understood and d i f f i c u l t t o measure: however, Galloway and Whelpdale[86] in t h e i r proposed S budget f o r t h e e a s t e r n p o r t i o n o f t h e United S t a t e s , employed a g r e a t e r r a t e of d e p o s i t i o n p e r s q u a r e meter o f l a n d s u r f a c e f o r d r y d e p o s i t i o n t h a n f o r r a i n . I n c o n t r a s t , K e r r [ 8 7 ] in h i s Adirondack s t u d y proposed t h a t d r y d e p o s i t i o n of SOx w a s about 33% of t h e t o t a l d e p o s i t i o n . A study(891 The q u a n t i t y o f hydrogen ions i n fog c a n be g r e a t [ 8 8 , 8 9 ] . w a s c a r r i e d o u t in s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a which showed fog water t o have a g r e a t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n of SO4=, NO3= and NH4+ t h a n observed i n water d r o p l e t s . These a u t h o r s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s r e s u l t from fog water condensing and e v a p o r a t i n g on p r e e x i s t i n g a e r o s o l s and from scavenging of gasphase HNO3. It is n o t p o s s i b l e in t h i s r e v i e w t o c o v e r a l l t h e p e r t i n e n t a s p e c t s of a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n under t h e heading of a t m o s p h e r i c s c i e n c e s . There are many reviews t h a t may be examined f o r d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n s of d r y d e p o s i t i o n , model approaches t o v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of t r a n s p o r t and d e p o s i t i o n , and t h e v a r i a t i o n of N and S o x i d e s in p r e c i p i t a t i o n in r e l a t i o n t o t h e s e a s o n o f t h e y e a r . The most r e c e n t and up-to-date o f t h e s e reviews is t h e two volume work e d i t e d by A l t s h u l l e r and L i n t h u r s t [ 9 0 ] t o which t h e r e a d e r is r e f e r r e d .

5.

Environmental E f f e c t s o f Acid P r e c i p i t a t i o n

5.1 Acid P r e c i p i t a t i o n T i m e Trends C o g b i l l and L i k e n s [ 3 5 ] g a t h e r e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n d a t a from t h e 1950s and t h e Based on t h e s e cal1960s and c a l c u l a t e d t h e pH from t h e ion c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . c u l a t e d f i g u r e s , t h e y c o n s t r u c t e d maps and e s t i m a t e d l o n g term t r e n d s . These long term t r e n d s have been w i d e l y quoted and r e p u b l i s h e d . Based on t h e s e c a l c u l a t e d f i g u r e s , i t h a s been concluded t h a t New England and New York have been s u f f e r i n g from r a i n s of i n c r e a s i n g a c i d i t y o v e r t h e p a s t t h r e e decades and f u r t h e r m o r e t h a t t h e g e o g r a p h i c d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s e r a i n s is widening. There h a s been much c r i t i c i s m of t h i s work. I n p a r t i c u l a r , sampling methods[91] and p r e s e r v a t i o n [ 9 1 ] d i f f e r e d between t h e 1950s and t h e e a r l y 1970s, and t h e sampling s i t e s were n o t similar. S p e c i f i c f a u l t s w i t h t h e C o g b i l l and Likens d a t a are l i s t e d below[14,91]. 1955-56 and 1965-66 10 common s i t e s 4 showed a n i n c r e a s e in pH 2 showed a d e c r e a s e in pH 4 remained t h e same

244 1955-56 and 1972-73 2 common s i t e s 1 showed a n i n c r e a s e in pH 1 showed a d e c r e a s e in pH 1965-66 and 1972-73

' 8 common s i t e s 3 showed a n i n c r e a s e i n pH 2 showed a d e c r e a s e in pH 3 showed no change Therefore, critics f e e l t h a t th e h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t s of t he aci d p r e c i p i t a t i o n problem is apocryphal in t h e s t a t e s s u r r o u n d i n g and i n c l u d i n g t h e Adirondacks. It is clear t h a t d a t a such as t h a t shown above are t r e n d l e s s [ l 4 ] . I n addition, a U.S. G e o l o g i c a l Survey o f t h e a c i d i t y o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n and s u r f a c e waters i n New York S t a t e from 1965-1978 has f a i l e d t o phow a n y s i g n i f i c a n t t r e n d i n These a u t h o r s also discovered d e c l i n i n g pH v a l u e s f o r t h e p e r i o d s t u d i e d [ 9 2 ] . t h a t t h e s u l f a t e q u a n t i t y in p r e c i p i t a t i o n d e c l i n e d a n a v e r a g e o f 1-4% a n n u a l l y , t h a t no t r e n d in n i t r a t e w a s n o t e d , and t h a t t h e hydrogen ion c o n c e n t r a t i o n f a i l e d t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h measured t r e n d s o f s u l f a t e and n i t r a t e . T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t v a r i a b l e n e u t r a l i z i n g f a c t o r s are a t work t h a t have c l e a r l y n o t been i d e n t i f i e d [ 9 2 ] . T h i s would s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p r o p o s a l o f C o g b i l l and L i k e n s [ 3 5 ] namely t h a t t h e r e is a n h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t t o t h e a c i d i t y of p r e c i p i t a t i o n in New England and New York is u n s u b s t a n t i a t e d . Peters et&.[92] have n o t e d t h a t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1965-1978 s i g n i f i c a n t t r e n d s in t h e pH o f s u r f a c e waters i n New York S t a t e o c c u r r e d . The e f f e c t of p r e c i p i t a t i o n could n o t be i d e n t i f i e d because of t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s from a g r i c u l t u r e and i n d u s t r y . D e s p i t e t h i s c o n c l u s i o n , t h e s e a u t h o r s p o i n t o u t t h a t a 1-4% annual d e c l i n e in s u l f a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in streams w a s similar t o t h a t noted in p r e c i p i t a t i o n . P f e i f f e r and F e s t a [ 9 3 ] have r e c e n t l y examined s u r f a c e waters in New York S t a t e u t i l i z i n g a H e l l i g e c o m p a r i t o r , t h e same c o l o r i m e t r i c method u t i l i z e d in t h e 1930s. Examining t h e same group o f l a k e s , t h e y concluded t h a t a g e n e r a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f b o t h pH and g e n e r a l water q u a l i t y had o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e 40-year p e r i o d between s t u d i e s .

Kramer and T e s s i e r [ 9 4 ] p u b l i s h e d a r e a s s e s s m e n t o f h i s t o r i c a l pH and a l k a l i n i t y d a t a . They p o i n t e d o u t t h a t s t u d i e s such a s t h o s e o f P f e i f f e r and F e s t a [ 9 3 ] should be viewed w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g in mind:

1.

Type of sample c o n t a i n e r must be c o n s i d e r e d s i n c e t h o s e employed p r i o r t o 1960 could have c o n t r i b u t e d a l k a l i n i t y t o t h e sample.

2.

Color comparator d a t a , w i t h s u i t a b l e c o r r e c t i o n s a p p e a r s t o p r o v i d e t h e most r e l i a b l e d a t a .

C l a r k e [ 9 5 ] has p o i n t e d o u t t h a t c o l o r comparator methods are s u b j e c t t o e r r o r due t o n a t u r a l c o l o r o f waters, t o t u r b i d i t y and, t o t h e weak b u f f e r c o r r e c t i o n . It is n o t known whether such c o n s i d e r a t i o n s were made i n t h e s t u d y o f P f e i f f e r and F e s t a [ 8 3 ] . R e c e n t l y , t h e r e have been a number of a u t h o r s [96-1001 who have s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e a c i d i f i c a t i o n o f s u r f a c e waters may in p a r t be t h e r e s u l t of major changes i n land-use. F u r t h e r , t h e y have s u g g e s t e d t h a t many o f t h e r e g i o n s p r e s e n t l y a t r i s k have undergone such land-use changes s i n c e t h e t u r n o f t h i s c e n t u r y . It h a s a l s o been p o i n t e d o u t [ 9 6 ] t h a t s o i l s o f t h e Adirondack

245

Mountains, New England, s o u t h e r n Scandinavia, and e a s t e r n Canada have s o i l s with pH v a l u e s lower than 4 , which is lower than t h e pH o f t h e r a i n t h e s e areas are presently receiving. Munger and Eisenreich[lOO] have published a n e x t e n s i v e review on p r e c i p i t a t i o n chemistry. One of t h e i r major c o n c l u s i o n s h a s been t h a t p r e c i p i t a t i o n a c i d i t y is l a r g e l y c o n t r o l l e d by land-use p a t t e r n s i n a g i v e n r e g i o n and is most pronounced where e m i s s i o n s of N and S o x i d e s of anthropogenic o r i g i n a r e g r e a t e s t and s o i l b u f f e r i n g c a p a c i t y is lowest. Thus, i t must be considered t h a t t h e observed e x c e s s i v e a c i d i f i c a t i o n of s u r f a c e w a t e r s i n s e n s i t i v e regions o f t h e world is i n part t h e r e s u l t of changes i n land-uses which have occurred d u r i n g t h i s c e n t u r y . ’ Acid p r e c i p i t a t i o n t i m e t r e n d s , a s r e f l e c t e d by t h e pH o f s u r f a c e w a t e r s , a r e well-documented i n Northern Europe[lOl]. The work of Wright and h i s a s s o c i a t e s [ l 0 2 ] c l e a r l y demonstrates a d e c l i n e between 1950 and 1970 i n t h e pH of s u r f a c e w a t e r s i n s o u t h e r n Norway. The q u e s t i o n of changes i n land-use and concomitant i n c r e a s e s i n t h e a c i d i t y of runoff passing t o l a k e s and streams is d i s c u s s e d by Overrein e t a1.[101) though t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n from a g r i c u l t u r e is s t i l l l a r g e l y u n q u a n t i f i e d . 5.2 Areas a f f e c t e d by Acid P r e c i p i t a t i o n The chemical composition of a l a k e is determined by t h e a c t i o n of t h r e e s i g n i f i c a n t processes: p r e c i p i t a t i o n , watershed d r a i n a g e , and t h e a n a e r o b i c c o n d i t i o n of t h e mud. E s t i m a t i n g t h e H+ c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e deeper w a t e r s from a n a e r o b i c mud is d i f f i c u l t . T h i s c r e a t e s c o m p l i c a t i o n s i n determining t h e amount o f l i m e s u f f i c i e n t t o r a i s e t h e pH o f a l a k e . The g r a n i t i c r e g i o n s of t h e world[35,102-1061 have l a k e s which a r e part i c u l a r l y a t r i s k . These a r e a s are formed from bedrock t h a t weathers slowly. Such p l a c e s s u p p o r t s o f t water l a k e s which were i n i t i a l l y weakly a c i d i c and now a r e p o o r l y b u f f e r e d and c o n t a i n water impoverished i n i o n i c composition. I n North America t h e r e g i o n s most a t r i s k a r e : New England[35,106]; e a s t e r n Canada[l03]; t h e r e g i o n s o u t h o f t h e Pre-Cambrian S h i e l d , s p e c i f i c a l l y Ontario; t h e West Coast extending from B r i t i s h Columbia s o u t h i n c l u d i n g Washington, Oregon, a l l but t h e n o r t h e r n t i p of Idaho and much of e a s t e r n C a l i f o r n i a [ 7 8 ] ; t h e western s l o p e o f t h e Rockies i n Colorado, and a narrow s t r i p e x t e n d i n g s o u t h of Pennsylvania forming an a r c i n a s o u t h w e s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n i n c l u d i n g t h e B l u e Ridge mountains and extending a c r o s s n o r t h e r n Georgia and Alabama. There a r e r e g i o n s i d Maine[lO7] where t h e bedrock is g r a n i t e , t h e mean pH of t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n is 4.3 and t h e l a k e s a r e a l k a l i n e . The d r a i n a g e b a s i n s feeding t h e l a k e s c o n t a i n l i m e s t o n e till and marine c l a y . Thus, t h e m a t e r i a l s r e c e i v e d by t h e lakes from t h e d r a i n a g e b a s i n have been h e a v i l y b u f f e r e d and such l a k e s are n o t a t r i s k . S o f t water lakes i n F l o r i d a [ l 0 8 ] , s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e T r a i l Ridge Lakes w i t h t h e i r low b u f f e r i n g c a p a c i t y , which r e c e i v e d a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n shoved a d e c l i n e i n pH s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1960s. I n c o n t r a s t , s o f t water l a k e s i n Highland County, F l o r i d a [ l O 8 ] where p r e c i p i t a t i o n is n o t a c i d i c , have e x h i b i t e d no such t r e n d i n d e c l i n i n g pH d u r i n g t h e p a s t two decades[lOB]. The r e g i o n s i n t h e Old World-most a t r i s k a r e i n s o u t h e r n I Scandinavia[101.102,105]. These areas are a l l l o c a t e d i n g r a n i t e bedrock ,and are s o f t water l a k e s t h a t have been r e c e i v i n g a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n thought t o b e produced by t h e h e a v i l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d a r e a s of c o n t i n e n t a l Europe.

246 Well b u f f e r e d l a k e s w i t h n e u t r a l t o a l k a l i n e pH r a n g e s have maintained t h e i r H+ c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t s t a b l e l e v e l s f o r t h e p a s t c e n t u r y , b u t t h e s u l f a t e Such l a k e s c o n t e n t o f t h e s u r f a c e water has i n c r e a s e d s e v e r a l f o l d [ 1 0 9 , 1 1 0 ] . are found in t h e c a l c a r e o u s r e g i o n s of t h e world. A s noted above, i f alkal i n e c l a y s are p a r t o f t h e d r a i n a g e b a s i n , t h e i r b u f f e r i n g c a p a c i t y p r o t e c t s t h e r e c e i v i n g l a k e from t h e e f f e c t s o f a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n . The Western s e c t i o n s o f t h e United S t a t e s , t h e p l a i n s and t h e d e s e r t , and most o f t h e mountainous r e g i o n s do n o t s u f f e r from a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n a p p a r e n t l y due t o t h e observed presence of a l k a l i n e p a r t i c l e s i n t h e l o c a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n [ l l l ] .

5.3 E f f e c t s of A c i d i c P r e c i p i t a t i o n on Aquatic Systems S o f t water l a k e s are u s u a l l y formed by d r a i n a g e from a c i d i c igneous rocks. T h e i r n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g b i o t a d i f f e r s from hard water l a k e s which are formed by d r a i n a g e from c a l c a r e o u s d e p o s i t s and c o n t a i n h i g h amounts o f a l k a l i n e e a r t h [ l 3 ] . Hardness i s u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a l k a l i n i t y which i n c r e a s e s t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e water t o n e u t r a l i z e o r b u f f e r t h e incoming a c i d i t y . The n a t u r a l r a n g e o f pH i n l a k e s o f t h e world i s from 1.7 in Miyagi, J a p a n , a v o l c a n i c l a k e c o n t a i n i n g 474 ppm SO4= t o 1 2 i n Lake Nakuru, an a l k a l i n e l a k e i n Kenya[7]. The a c i d i c l a k e s u p p o r t s s u l f u r b a c t e r i a . The a l k a l i n e l a k e h a r b o r s a l g a e which are e a t e n by b i r d s . Both are f i s h l e s s . The n a t u r a l pH r a n g e o f b o d i e s o f water t h a t s u p p o r t f i s h i s 9.0 t o 6.5[111]. Above and below this r a n g e most f i s h f a i l t o s u r v i v e [ l l l ] . Impaired body s a l t r e g u l a t i o n is t h e p r i n c i p a l c a u s e o f f i s h d e a t h i n a c i d r i v e r s and l a k e s [ l l l ] . Na and C 1 ions i n blood plasma show c o n s i s t e n t l y lower c o n c e n t r a t i o n s under a c i d s t r e s s [ l l l , l l 2 ] . Secondary e f f e c t s i n c l u d e reduced K c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in muscle t i s s u e [ l l l , l l 2 ] . Al i s l e a c h e d from s o i l s r e c e i v i n g a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n [ l l 3 ] . An A l b u f f e r system r e p l a c e s t h e b i o c a r b o n a t e system when l a k e s have a pH less t h a n 5[113]. The Al t o x i c i t y (0.2 ppm and up) depends on water pH and i s maximum around 5[113]. Toxic e f f e c t s are a b s e n t a t pH 6 [ 1 1 3 ] . At t o x i c i t y i n a c i d water a f f e c t s t h e g i l l s by p h y s i c a l l y c l o g g i n g them; t h u s , i n i t i a t i n g mucous development which d i s t u r b s i o n exchange and b r i n g s a b o u t a d e p l e t i o n o f t h e body s a l t c o n t e n t [ l l 3 ] .

A v a r i e t y o f s t u d i e s [ l l 4 , 1 1 5 ] have r e v e a l e d h i g h Hg c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n These are o f t e n a n o r d e r o f magnitude above t h a t a c c e p t a c i d water b o d i e s . a b l e in d r i n k i n g water s u p p l i e s . Mercury h a s been l e a c h e d o u t o f t h e drainage basin receiving acid precipitation. Aquatic systems t h a t have undergone pH d e c l i n e s s u f f e r s e v e r e r e d u c t i o n in t h e number o f l i v i n g s p e c i e s i n d i g e n o u s t o a normal water s u p p l y . For example, a c i d i f i c a t i o n o f l a k e s r e d u c e s m i c r o b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y [ l l 6 - 1 1 8 1 . T h i s r e s u l t s in reduced r a t e s o f decomposition and p e r m i t s o r g a n i c matter t o accumulate. A c i d i f i c a t i o n o f l a k e s a l s o r e d u c e s t h e number o f zooplankton[ll9], phytoplankton[l20], a q u a t i c i n s e c t s [ l 2 1 ] , b e n t h i c c r u s t a c e a n s and m o l l u s c s [ l 2 2 ] , and i t f o s t e r s t h e growth o f a c i d o p h i l i c p l a n t s which t e n d t o c l o g waterways. G e n e r a l l y , a c i d i f i c a t i o n of l a k e s creates havoc in t h e ecosystem by d e s t r o y i n g t h e food s u p p l y b o t h o f f i s h and of t h e smaller organisms. The e f f e c t s o f i n c r e a s e d a c i d i f i c a t i o n o f s u r f a c e waters on macrophytes h a s n o t been w e l l documented; however dominant s p e c i e s a p p e a r t o be similar in most l a k e s w i t h a pH o f 7.5[123]. Although i t might be e x p e c t e d t h a t

241 dominant macrophyte s p e c i e s may be r e p l a c e d by Sphagnum which h a s been noted i n some Swedish l a k e s [ 1 2 4 ] , t h i s h a s n o t been observed i n o l i g o t r o p h i c l a k e s i n North America[l23]. The most pronounced e v i d e n c e f o r t h e i n f l u e n c e of a c i d i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n on a q u a t i c b i o t a h a s been t h e a d v e r s e e f f e c t s on f i s h p o p u l a t i o n s . Regions, where h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s a r e a v a i l a b l e a r e s o u t h e r n Norway[l25], t h e l a k e s of t h e La Cloche Mountains i n O n t a r i o [ l 2 6 ] , and some l a k e s i n t h e Adirondack Mountains[l27]. It is i m p o r t a n t t o r e a l i z e t h a t l a k e s now void of f i s h need not have l o s t t h e i r f i s h p o p u l a t i o n s due t o i n c r e a s e d a c i d i t y of t h e i r w a t e r s . I n a d d i t i o n , f i s h l e s s l a k e s may always have been void of f i s h . H i s t o r i c t r e n d d a t a f o r t h e l a k e s o f t h e Adirondack Mountains a r e s c a n t and t h e i r f i s h l e s s s t a t e can g e n e r a l l y n o t b e s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e r e s u l t s of lowered pH. 5.4 E f f e c t s o f A c i d i c P r e c i p i t a t i o n on T e r r e s t r i a l Systems 5.4.1 S o i l s Some i n v e s t i g a t o r s [ l 2 8 - 1 3 0 1 have s t a t e d t h a t t h e e f f e c t of a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n on s o i l s i s minimal compared t o t h a t of t h e i n f l u e n c e of a g r i c u l t u r a l practices. G e n e r a l l y , s o i l s t h a t r e c e i v e v a r i o u s t y p e s of n u t r i e n t a p p l i c a t i o n as a r e s u l t of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s a r e p r o t e c t e d from t h e e f f e c t s of a c i d i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n [ l 3 1 ] . N a t u r a l l y a c i d s o i l s a r e common i n r e g i o n s of high r a i n f a l l . Acidic p r e c i p i t a t i o n obviously c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h i s process, Soils that are though p r e s e n t l y t h e e f f e c t i s thought t o be m i n i m a l [ l 3 1 ] . p o o r l y b u f f e r e d have probably been a c i d f o r some time and such s o i l s a r e n o t l i k e l y t o be damaged by e x c e s s i v e l y a c i d i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n . Many y e a r s ago i t was c o m o n t o h e a r f a r m e r s comment t h a t farmland in t h e proximity of urban c e n t e r s r e c e i v e d p r e c i p i t a t i o n b e n e f i c i a l t o p l a n t s . T h i s f a c t h a s been documented s i n c e t h e middle of t h e l a s t c e n t u r y ( l 3 2 1 . It h a s been presumed t h a t HNO3 i s r a p i d l y u t i l i z e d by p l a n t s b u t s i n c e S d e f i c i e n c i e s a r e r a r e , t h e b e n e f i t s of H2SO4 t o p l a n t growth a r e probably s l i g h t - It i s w e l l known t h a t r e p e a t e d but s m a l l a p p l i c a t i o n s of n u t r i e n t s t o l e a v e s h a s a s t i m u l a t i n g and p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on y i e l d [ 1 3 3 ] .

Long term e f f e c t s of a c i d d e p o s i t i o n on s o i l s would be expected t o b r i n g about a modified c a t i o n exchange c a p a c i t y by r e p l a c i n g Ca* w i t h H+ on a v a i l a b l e exchange s p o t s i n o r g a n i c m a t t e r and c l a y . Long term e f f e c t s could a l s o i n c l u d e a removal of n e c e s s a r y p l a n t n u t r i e n t s which could r e s u l t i n impoverished y i e l d s [ 1 3 4 ] . C l e a r l y , c a l c a r e o u s s o i l s , c l a y s w i t h a pH g r e a t e r t h a n 6 , and c u l t i v a t e d s o i l s a r e n o t a t r i s k . Noncalcareous c l a y s and sandy Slow b u t continuous removs o i l s w i t h poor b u f f e r i n g c a p a c i t i e s are a t r i s k . a l o f Al from a s o i l p r o f i l e cannot be b e n e f i c i a l and i f t h e pH o f t h e s o i l i s less t h a n 5 , Al a v a i l a b i l i t y c o u l d c o n c e i v a b l y r e a c h t o x i c l e v e l s and be detrimental t o f o r e s t productivity[135,136]. Of c o u r s e , t h i s i n c r e a s e i n Al a v a i l a b i l i t y i n s o i l s s e n s i t i v e t o a c i d i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n has g r e a t e f f e c t on a q u a t i c systems, in p a r t i c u l a r t o f i s h , a s w e l l a s on t e r r e s t r i a l p l a n t s . P r e s e n t l y t h e Al phenomenon may b e viewed as t h e s i n g l e most i m p o r t a n t known e f f e c t o f a c i d i c d e p o s i t i o n on s o i l s . F i n a l l y , i t h a s been shown[137] t h a t some s o i l b a c t e r i a a r e s e n s i t i v e t o a c i d i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n ; however, f i e l d d a t a t o s u p p o r t t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n are n o t extensive.

248 5.4.2 Vegetation A v a r i e t y of chemical s p e c i e s a d h e r e s t o f o l i a g e from t h e atmosphere through both wet and d r y d e p o s i t i o n . S u l f a t e s , n i t r a t e s and o t h e r water s o l u b l e components o f r a i n may be u t i l i z e d by p l a n t s through c o n t a c t w i t h l e a f s u r f a c e s . Laboratory experiments have provided r e s u l t s t h a t suggest massive damage t o c e r t a i n c r o p s ( t r u c k c r o p s , oak, b i r c h and pine)[138-1401. Although t h e r e i s a l a c k of published i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e e f f e c t of a c i d i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n on h e r b i c i d e s , i t h a s been noted[141,142] t h a t a d e c l i n e i n t h e pH o f r a i n enhances f o l i a r a b s o r p t i o n and i n c r e a s e s f o l i a r i n j u r y of compounds such a s d i n i t r o p h e n o l and phenoxyacetic a c i d . I n a d d i t i o n , a l k a l i n e p e s t i c i d e s w i l l be more r e a d i l y sorbed by s o i l s t h a t have r e c e i v e d a c i d i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n . This may d e c r e a s e t h e b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y a s w e l l a s t h e compound's mobility[143,144]. Such a series of e v e n t s would n e c e s s i t a t e higher a p p l i c a t i o n s of p e s t i c i d e s t o a c h i e v e t h e same r e s u l t s . Any changes brought about i n t h e s o i l m i c r o b i a l p o p u l a t i o n s by " a c i d r a i n " w i l l n a t u r a l l y a f f e c t t h e e x t e n t o f d e g r a d a t i o n . Chemical d e g r a d a t i o n w i l l a l s o be changed by a c i d i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n . For example, Edwards[145] noted t h a t malathion and parathion p e r s i s t longer i n acid s o i l s than i n n e u t r a l s o i l s while a t r a z i n e [ l 4 6 ] and s i m a z i n e [ l 4 6 ] degrade more r a p i d l y i n a c i d i c environments. According t o McLaughlin and h i s co-workers[l47] t h e r e i s no evidence t h a t a c i d i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s l i m i t i n g f o r e s t growth i n e i t h e r Europe o r t h e United S t a t e s . The dieback and d e c l i n e of t h e North American spruce [ P i c e a a b i e s ] i s well documented[148]. T h i s d e c l i n e i s most pronounced a t h i g h e r elevat i o n s i n s o i l s t h a t a r e l a r g e l y composed of o r g a n i c m a t t e r . The p o s s i b l e r e l e a s e o f Al from c l a y r e s u l t i n g from e x c e s s i v e a c i d i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n , p o s s i b l y c r e a t i n g a r o o t environment too h i g h i n A l , would be d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y a s due t o A l complexation by t h e o r g a n i c m a t t e r [ l 4 9 ] . Both Johnson -e t a1.[150] and L o r d [ l 5 1 ] have pointed o u t t h a t Ca:A1 r a t i o s i n c r e a s e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g e l e v a t i o n i n spruce r o o t s a t Camels Hump, Vermont, and t h a t t h e Red spruce observed t r e e m o r t a l i t y i s n o t l i k e l y t o be due t o Al t o x i c i t y . It h a s occurred among trees d e c l i n e [ P i c e a rubens] has a l s o been n o t e d [ l 5 2 ] . s u b j e c t t o h i g h l y a c i d i c cloud m o i s t u r e and much r e s e a r c h i s i n p r o g r e s s i n high-elevation f o r e s t s i n n o r t h e r n New England[l47] i n o r d e r t o i s o l a t e t h e cause o f red spruce m o r t a l i t y . According t o I r v i n g [ l 5 3 ] , a v a i l a b l e experimental r e s u l t s show t h a t t h e e f f e c t of a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n on domestic c r o p s i s minimal though he h a s t e n s t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e e f f e c t has n o t been s c i e n t i f i c a l l y s c r u t i n i z e d f o r a l l crops. 5.5 The E f f e c t s o f Acidic P r e c i p i t a t i o n on Man-Made O b j e c t s Yocom and Baer[154] have reviewed t h e l i t e r a t u r e on t h e e f f e c t s of a c i d i c d e p o s i t i o n on man-made m a t e r i a l s . They conclude t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t a c i d i c d e p o s i t i o n h a s t e n s t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n of man-made o b j e c t s beyond that which could be a t t r i b u t e d t o n a t u r a l environmental phenomena. Due t o t h e v a r i e t y of m a t e r i a l s t h a t compose man-made o b j e c t s , t h e extend of damage r e s u l t i n g from a c i d i c d e p o s i t i o n is d i f f i c u l t t o assess. Yocum and Baer[154] p o i n t o u t t h a t f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h is r e q u i r e d t o i d e n t i f y s p e c i f i c d e p o s i t i o n p r o c e s s e s and t h e e x t e n t o f damage c r e a t e d . These a u t h o r s p o i n t o u t that p r o t e c t i v e and p r e v e n t i v e measures need t o be developed i n o r d e r t o p r e s e r v e t h e a r t i f a c t s o f human c u l t u r e .

249

5.6 The E f f e c t of A c i d i c P r e c i p i t a t 4 o n on Human Health

A t t h i s w r i t i n g , no a d v e r s e human h e a l t h e f f e c t s have been documented as a r e s u l t of metal m o b i l i z a t i o n by a c i d i c d e p o s i t i o n [ l 5 5 ] . It is r e a s o n a b l e t o suppose t h a t s o i l s r e c e i v i n g p r e c i p i t a t i o n of low hydrogen ion concentrat i o n s would, over t i m e , undergo l e a c h i n g of t h e i r m e t a l l i c compounds. Such an e v e n t could conceivably produce f i s h w i t h e x c e s s i v e q u a n t i t i e s of elements such a s Hg, Pb, Cd and Al in t h e i r t i s s u e s and produce a c i d i c water s u p p l i e s with unacceptable c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f heavy metals. The amount of Hg in f i s h , f o r example is a f f e c t e d by t h e s p e c i e s , t h e age of t h e f i s h , t h e amount of Bg in t h e s u r f a c e sediments and w a t e r , t h e pH o f t h e w a t e r , t h e degree of m i c r o b i a l a c t i v i t y in t h e s u r f a c e sediments, t h e s a l i n i t y o f t h e w a t e r , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f d i s s o l v e d o r g a n i c s and t h e amount of d i s s o l v e d oxygen in t h e water[156]. Thus, though e l e v a t e d Hg c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in f i s h may be c o r r e l a t e d with low pH, t h e s e o t h e r f a c t o r s must a l s o be considered and t h e Hg c o n t e n t o f f i s h cannot be a t t r i b u t e d s o l e y t o a c i d i c d e p o s i t i o n [ l 5 5 ] . High Hg l e v e l s have been found in brook t r o u t caught in l a k e s o f low pH as w e l l as t h o s e o f h i g h pH[157]. In t h e United S t a t e s t h e p o s s i b l e . a s s o c i a t i o n of h i g h Hg c o n t e n t of f i s h in r e l a t i o n t o w a t e r s of low pH h a s n o t been documented[155]. Data on t h e e f f e c t o f a c i d i c d e p o s i t i o n on d r i n k i n g water q u a l i t y a r e s c a n t [ 1 5 5 ] . Very a c i d water s u p p l i e s c a r r i e d through copper plumbing could conceivably add u n a c c e p t a b l e Cu q u a n t i t i e s t o d r i n k i n g water. T h i s possib i l i t y h a s a s y e t n o t been documented in t h e s c i e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e . Along t h e same l i n e of t h o u g h t , exposed s o l d e r e d c o n n e c t i o n s leached w i t h water low in pH could r e l e a s e Cd, Sb, Sn, and Pb i n t o d r i n k i n g water. T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y has a l s o n o t been noted in t h e s c i e n t i f i c l i t e r a t u r e .

G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , no a d v e r s e e f f e c t s on human h e a l t h , s p e c i f i c a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o a c i d i c d e p o s i t i o n , have been i d e n t i f i e d a t t h i s time. 6.

Current and Proposed Research

6.1 Ameliorative Approach A.

One approach t o t h e management of a c i d d e p o s i t i o n is t o lime t h e a f f e c t e d r e g i o n . Liming of a c i d l a k e s h a s been c a r r i e d o u t in s o u t h e r n Scandinavia s i n c e 1975[158]. Long term e f f e c t s , of c o u r s e , a r e as y e t unknown. S h o r t term e f f e c t s i n c l u d e [ l 5 8 ] a l k a l i n i t y and pH i n c r e a s e s ; a d e c l i n e in c o n c e n t r a t i o n of A l , Zn and Mn; r e s t o r a t i o n o f f i s h p o p u l a t i o n s , and a r e t u r n o f expected d i v e r s i t y of p l a n k t o n i c s p e c i e s . The c o s t of liming is e s t i m a t e d a t $75 ha-l[159]. L o g i s t i c problems a r i s e when remote and n e a r l y i n a c c e s s i b l e a r e a s r e q u i r e l i m i n g , and n a t u r a l l y t h e c o s t of t h e o p e r a t i o n i n c r e a s e s .

B.

In t h e mid-1950s c o l l e c t o r s were placed in smoke s t a c k s t o remove p a r t i c u l a t e matter. T h i s had t h e b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t of reducing p a r t i c u l a t e m a t e r i a l s in t h e a i r , b u t a l s o had t h e a p p a r e n t l y d e t r i mental e f f e c t of removing n e u t r a l i z i n g p a r t i c u l a t e s t h a t reduced t h e formation of t h e p r e c u r s o r s of a c i d r a i n . P a r t i c l e s produced a s a r e s u l t o f combustion by t h e cement i n d u s t r y , f o r example, have a n e h t r a l i z i n g e f f e c t on t h e formation of a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n . It might be u s e f u l , t h e r e f o r e , t o r e l a x p a r t i c u l a t e r e g u l a t i o n of c e r t a i n k i n d s of i n d u s t r y and t o encourage t h e development o f c o n t r o l l e d , s e l e c t e d p a r t i c u l a t e emissions.

250

C.

F o s t e r i n g t h e development o f p r a c t i c a l use o f s o l a r energy and s a f e u s e s of n u c l e a r energy would do much t o c o n t r o l t h e formation of a c i d precipitation.

6.2 On-Going Research The o u t l i n e presented below r e p r e s e n t s t y p e s of r e s e a r c h t h a t a r e in progress : A.

Development o f models t h a t more a c c u r a t e l y p r e d i c t where a c i d precipi t a t i o n forms, how f a r i t w i l l t r a v e l and where i t w i l l f a l l .

B.

Meterological r e s e a r c h i n v o l v i n g t h e movement o f a i r masses and t h e i r chemical composition.

C.

Research in atmospheric chemistry t h a t i n v o l v e s t h e f i n g e r p r i n t i n g of emissions through t h e a n a l y s i s of accompanying minor e l e m e n t s , o r i s o t o p e t r a c k i n g ; c o n f i r m a t i o n of mechanisms f o r t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n of soq i n t o r a i n water; d i s c o v e r y of what s u b s t a n c e s behave a s c a t a l y s t s i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e formation of d r y depof o r t h e o x i d a t i o n of So,; s i t i o n and i t s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e S c y c l e and f i n a l l y t h e e f f e c t of n a t u r a l sources.

D.

Research i n ecology t o f u r t h e r understand t h e e f f e c t of a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n on s o i l p r o f i l e s ; t h e e f f e c t of a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n on f o r e s t s , and f i n a l l y t h e long term e f f e c t of l i m i n g l a k e s and l a n d s c a p e s .

6.3 Proposed Research It is t h e o p i n i o n of many[l60] t h a t f o s s i l f u e l s w i l l w i t h i n a n o t h e r c e n t u r y . Technology needs t o be developed The k i n d s of m a t e r i a l s t o keep c i v i l i z a t i o n f u n c t i o n i n g . s u b s t a n c e s is hydrogen. Research should be encouraged t o f o r t h e production, s a f e h a n d l i n g , and use of hydrogen. 7.

be i n s h o r t supply t o handle o t h e r b e s t of such develop procedures

Conclusions

The c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h i s review may be expressed in terms o f a c o n t r o v e r s y between t h e two major groups of thought concerning a c i d i c d e p o s i t i o n . Important c o n s i d e r a t i o n a r e a s follows: A.

Acid p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s a problem and does e x h i b i t pH l e v e l s below t h e expected norm (pH 5.6).

B.

H i s t o r i c t r e n d s of p r o g r e s s i v e d e c l i n e i n t h e pH o f d e p o s i t i o n a r e w e l l documented i n n o r t h e r n Europe.

C.

H i s t o r i c t r e n d s of p r o g r e s s i v e d e c l i n e in t h e pH of p r e c i p i t a t i o n a r e poorly documented i n t h e United S t a t e s f o r New England. The T r i a l Ridge Lakes c l e a r l y have s u f f e r e d a d e c l i n e i n t h e i r s u r f a c e w a t e r s in t h e p a s t two decades.

D.

Acidic d e p o s i t i o n ( w e t o r d r y ) is probably due t o t h e combustion of f o s s i l f u e l s , though t h e confounding e f f e c t s of d r a s t i c changes in land-use p a t t e r n s cannot be ignored.

261

E.

Local s o u r c e s in t h o s e N e w World r e g i o n s a t r i s k probably a r e more important in t h e formation and production of a c i d i c p r e c i p i t a t i o n t h a n long range t r a n s p o r t .

F.

E c o l o g i c a l damage t o most a q u a t i c b i o t a is a p p a r e n t in l a k e s where s u r f a c e w a t e r s have d e c l i n e d below pH 5.

G.

P o s s i b l e t e r r e s t r i a l damage has n o t been well-documented, and though d i e b a c k in n o r t h e r n U.S. f o r e s t s h a s been observed, a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n h a s n o t been c o n c l u s i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d as t h e major c u l p r i t .

H.

Acidic p r e c i p i t a t i o n has hastened t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n of man-made o b j e c t s , but t h e mechanisms a r e p o o r l y understood. More r e s e a r c h is needed in t h e a r e a of p r e s e r v a t i o n , p r e v e n t i o n , and p r o t e c t i o n of man-made materials.

I.

Adverse human h e a l t h e f f e c t s have n o t been i d e n t i f i e d , and any h e a l t h e f f e c t s t h a t a r e l i k e l y t o occur a r e of a secondary n a t u r e .

J.

More r e s e a r c h is r e q u i r e d i n t o t h e long term e f f e c t s of t h e liming of lakes.

K.

More r e s e a r c h is needed in t h e d i s c i p l i n e of atmospheric chemistry, in p a r t i c u l a r in t h e a r e a of i d e n t i f y i n g s o u r c e s of emissions a t d i s t a n c e s remote from t h e i r o r i g i n ; in c o n f i r m a t i o n of t h e mechanisms r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f SO, i n t o r a i n water and f o r t h e oxidation of sox, and in d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o t h e formation and e f f e c t of v a r i o u s t y p e s of d r y d e p o s i t i o n .

L.

G r e a t e r s t u d y is needed t o d i s c o v e r t h e c a u s e s o f t r e e m o r t a l i t y i n t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n United S t a t e s .

M.

F i n a l l y , i t is u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e e f f e c t s of a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n w i l l be a l l e v i a t e d by t h e r e g u l a t i o n of SO, emissions u n t i l t h e phenomenon of a c i d p r e c i p i t a t i o n f a l l i n g in one l o c a l e may be c l e a r l y a t t r i b u t e d t o an o r i g i n in a n o t h e r l o c a l e .

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Edwards, C.A., In "Organic Chemicals i n t h e S o i l Environment", Goring, C.A., and Hamaker, J . W . ( e d s . ) , Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1972.

146.

Best, J.A.,

147.

McLaughlin, S.B., Raynal, D.J., and Johnson, A.H., U.S. P r o t e c t i o n Agency, EPA 600/8-83-016B, Washington, D.C.,

148.

Friedland, A.J., Johnson, A.H., and Siccama, T.G., P o l l u t i o n , 1984, Vol. 21, pp. 161-170.

and R e i b e r , H.G., Adv. Chem. Ser.,

and Weber, J . B . ,

H i l g a r d i a , 1945, Vol. 16, pp. 487-500. 1972, Vol. 111, pp. 55-120.

Weed S c i e n c e , 1974, Vol. 22, p p . 364-373. Environmental pp. 3-27-3-42.

Water, A i r and S o i l

269

149.

U l r i c h , B., U.S. Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency, TR-82-0111, EPA/NCSU Acid P r e c i p i t a t i o n Program, North C a r o l i n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Raleigh, NC, 1982.

150.

Johnson, A.H., Siccama, T.G., Turner, R.S., and Lord, D.G., In " E f f e c t s of A c i d i c D e p o s i t i o n on Vegetation", Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, M I , 1983.

151.

Lord, D.G. , "Root and F o l i a r Composition of Declining and Healthy Red Spruce in Vermont and New Hampshire, M.S.", T h e s i s , U. Penna, P h i l a d e l p h i a , PA, 1982.

152.

Johnson, A.H., J o u r n a l A i r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l A s s o c i a t i o n , 1983, Vol. 33, pp. 1049-1054.

153 *

I r v i n g , P.M., U.S. Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency, EPA 600/8-83-016B, Washington, D.C., pp. 3-42-3-62, 1983.

154.

Yocom, J.E., and Baer, N.S., U.S. Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency, EPA 600/8-83-0168, Washington, D.C., pp. 7-1-7-49, 1983.

155.

Clarkson, T.W.,

1T.S.

Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency, EPA pp. 6-1-6-72, 1983.

600/8-83-016B, h a s h i n g t o n , D.C., 156 *

Hultberg, H., and H a s s e l r o t , B., Rapport 192 Ingenjorsvetenskapsak Kademiem, KHM P r o j e c t , Swedish S t a t e Power Board, Vallingby, Sweden,

1981. 157.

S c h o f i e l d , C.L. , "Limnological Aspects of Acidic P r e c i p i t a t i o n " , Hendrey, G. ( e d . ) , Brookhaven N a t i o n a l Laboratory, Upton, New York,

1978. 158.

Grahn, O., and Hutlberg, H., Swedish Water and A i r P o l l u t i o n Research Laboratory Reports 1975 and 1976, 1975/1976.

159 *

Blake, L.M., "Proc. f o r t h e E f f e c t s o f Acid P r e c i p i t a t i o n on E c o l o g i c a l Systems", Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , E a s t Lansing, HI, 1981.

160.

H a f e l e , W., MA, 1981.

"Energy in a F i n i t e World", Vol. 1, B a l l i n g e r , Cambridge,

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Vezirouu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 -printed in The Netherlands

261

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF INDIVIDUAL STORMS AS A FUNCTION OF A I R PARCEL TRAJECTORIES FOR THE PREDICTION OF A C I D RAIN CHARACTERISTICS

M.S. K o t t u r i A i r Q u a l i t y Engineering U n i t Waste Management Branch M i n i s t r y o f Environment V i c t o r i a , B.C., V8V 1x5, Canada

ABSTRACT

The o b j e c t o f the study i s t o i n v e s t i g a t e the e f f e c t s o f l o c a l i n d u s t r i a l emissions on p r e c i p i t a t i o n Chemistry i n Northwestern B r i t i s h Columbia. In the study area i n a d d i t i o n t o general precursors t o a c i d r a i n such as Sulphur Dioxide (16 tonnes per day), t h e presence o f Hydrogen F l u o r i d e (2.18 tonnes o f t o t a l F l u o r i d e per day) presents a unique s i t u a t i o n i n Western Canada. I n order t o assess the impact o f SO and HF emissions on pH, event p r e c i p i t a t i o n samples were c o l l e c t e d and anafysed. The data showed t h a t the f l u o r i d e It a l s o concentration i n ambient a i r decreased w i t h increased p r e c i p i t a t i o n . showed t h a t the a c i d i t y and f l u o r i d e concentration i n r a i n were higher i n the summer than i n other seasons, t h e f l u o r i d e wet d e p o s i t i o n r a t e was a t a minimum i n sumner due t o the lower r a i n f a l l . Furthermore, the comparison o f storm t r a j e c t o r i e s w i t h observed i o n i c l o a d i n g has o f f e r e d an opportunity t o q u a l i t a t i v e l y assess p o l l u t i o n received by r a i n water during storms from l o c a l i n d i v i d u a l i n d u s t r i a l sources as w e l l as d i s t a n t n a t u r a l and o t h e r sources.

INTRODUCTION Acid r a i n measurements i n B r i t i s h Columbia has been monitored a t e i g h t s t a t i o n s by t h e Atmospheric Environment Service (AES) since A p r i l 1977 as p a r t o f the Canadian Network f o r sampling p r e c i p i t a t i o n (CANSAP). The CANSAP samples were monthly averages made up from a composite o f i n d i v i d u a l events w i t h q u i t e d i f f e r e n t a i r t r a j e c t o r i e s and a i r mass h i s t o r i e s and t h e r e f o r e do A n o t f u l l y e x p l a i n c e r t a i n l o c a l emission e f f e c t s on r a i n water chemistry. program t o provide a data base f o r the B.C. Coast by sampling i n d i v i d u a l storm events was introduced i n 1980. The network consisted o f f i v e s i t e s i n Prince Rupert-Terrace-Kitfmat area and one s i t e on the the northwest o f B.C., Vancouver Island, P o r t Hardy. The a c i d r a i n monitoring s i t e s are shown i n Figure 1. The main o b j e c t o f the study i s t o i n v e s t i g a t e , w i t h and w i t h o u t the e f f e c t s o f l o c a l i n d u s t r i a l e m i s s i o n s on p r e c i p i t a t i o n c h e m i s t r y o f i n d i v i d u a l storms on the west coast o f B r i t i s h Columbia.

262

Figure 1 B r i t i a h Colunbia a h w i n g Ac i d Rain KDnitoring Stations

EM1SSIONS

I n the Kitimat area the Aluminum Smelter and K r a f t Pulp M i l l are two main sources o f emissions. For the period J u l y 1980 t o June 1981, the emissions from the smelter averatled about 2.18 tonnes o f t o t a l f l u o r i d~e per day (1.57 tonnes o f gaseous f l u o f i d e and 0.61 tonnes o f p a r t i c u l a t e f l u o r i d e ) and 13.1 tonnes per day o f sulphur dioxide. The K r a f t pulp m i l l emissions amount t o 1.2 t o 2.0 tonnes per day o f sulphur dioxide, and less than 1.0 tonne per dqy o f organic sulphur compounds. ~

263

I n the P o r t Hardy area the s u l p h i t e p u l p m i l l i s t h e main source o f sulphur dioxide emissions which i s about 10 tonnes per day. AMBIENT MONITORING NEAR SMELTER FLUORIDE I n the lime plate F l u o r i d e was measured by l i m e p l a t e [l] method. method, the l i m e p l a t e was exposed t o the atmosphere f o r 30 days, then analyzed f o r f l u o r i d e content. T h i s method measures o n l y gaseous f l u o r i d e and has been used as a q u a l i t a t i v e index o f the aseous f l u o r i d e l e v e l s . Results were expressed as f l u o r i d a t i o n r a t e i n ugF/(cmq.day). I n order t o i n d i c a t e the concentration o f f l u o r i d e i n the ambient a i r w i t h distance i n t h e northern sector from t h e smelter, data from eleven It i s noted from the f l u o r i d a t i o n index s t a t i o n s are presented i n Table I. data t h a t the index decreased w i t h i n c r e a s i n g distance from t h e smelter, although the decrease was sharper a f t e r a distance o f 3.2 km n o r t h o f the smelter. TABLE I FLUORIOATION INDEX I N KITI-.. MEASURE0 NORTH OF ALCAN. RESULn I N rgF/(cm'.d) I-

Serldl Number

DlStdnCdN) Average Maxlmn Mlnlrmm No. Of u.r.t. F Index F Index F Index S d p l e S AlCdn Mill, km

S i t e Ndme

7 Period

---76 - Jun. 78 77 - Jun. 77 - Jun. - Jun. 76 - Jun. 78

I Mar. 76 Jun. 78 Jun. 78 NOV. 16 Jun. 78 NOV. 76 NOV. 76 Jun. 78 Jul. 75 Mar. 78 You. 16 Jun. 78 ~~

1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10 11

N o r t h AlCdn Fence C.N. Cmrrlnq Pole

Standard StdtlOn Doc's Cartage Pole Munlcfpal Yorks (Alcdn) Saunderr Three M i l e SIX Mlle Nine M i l e

Iron nt. End of V d l k Y

1.109

1.28 3.20

0.138

5.20

0.040

5.60

0.050

5.60

0.020

6.40 7.60 21.20 28.80 31.20 48.00

0.037 0.012 0.052 0.046 0.025 0.013

2.295 0.354 0.185 0.130 0.040 0.123

0.038 0.151 0.122

0.048 0.040

0.089 0.009 0.005 0.010 0.0001 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005

24 19 19 18 22 19 16 14 13 7

17

Nov. May May Jun. 71 Nov.

~

78 78 18

SULPHATION RATE The sulphation r a t e provides a rough estimate o f sulphur dioxide concentration i n ambient a i r . The sulphation r a t e was determined by using the candle method C2l. This consisted o f exposing a l e a d peroxide coated p r o c e l a i n c y l i n d e r f o r a month. After exposure, t h e c o a t i n g was analyzed i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y f o r i t s sul hate content. Results were expressed as sulphat i o n r a t e i n mg SO,/(lOO cm .day).

B

The sulphation data c o l l e c t e d a t f o u r s t a t i o n s during t h e p e r i o d J u l y It i s noted from the sumary t h a t the s u l p h a t i o n r a t e a t most o f t h e s t a t i o n s was w e l l w i t h i n t h e s p e c i f i e d B r i t i s h Columbia o r Ontario standard o f 0.5 and 0.7 mg SO,/(lOO cm2.day), respectively. Also t h e sulphation r a t e decreased w i t h distance from the smelter.

1975 t o March 1978 has been s u m a r i z e d i n Table 11.

264 TABLE I 1 SULPHATION RATES FROM ALCAN STATIONS WITH KITIMAT AREA RESULTS I N mg SOJ(100 cmZday1

STATION AND

TOUR BUILDING

HYDRO

SUB STAT10

EOUIS NUMBER

Period

MlNlCIPAL YORKS

CENTRE

0435040 Distance h d i r e c t l o r from Alcan

'OLLUTION CONTROL

0435035

1.2 kn. N.Y. 3.2 km. N.Y. Jul. 77 Mar. 78 l u l . 75 Mar. 71

-

-

0435037

4 kn, N.E.

- Mar.

u l 75

Average

0.27

Nmber o f values

9

33

23

Number exceeding a value o f 0.7.

1

1

0

0.15

0435036

5.6 km. N. 78

0.02

0

Period

1979

1979

1979

1979

Average

0.29

0.17

0.14

0.05

Number o f values Nulnber exceeding a value o f 0.7. mg SO,/(lW cm2.dayl

12

12

12

0

0

0

12

The Provlnce o f Ontario Standard

PRECIPITATION P r e c i D i t a t i o n normals C31 _ _ f o r t h e Deriod 1941 t o 1970 were a v a i l a b l e from t h e Federal S t a t i o n s : P r i n c e Rupert, Terrace A i r p o r t , K i t i m a t and P o r t Hardy A i r p o r t . The t o t a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n a t these s t a t i o n s per year were 2414, 1301, 2826 and 1730 mn, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The w e t t e s t month a t K i t i m a t , Prince Rupert, P o r t Hardy and Terrace was October w i t h 460, 360, 250 and 232 mn o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n and i n summer months p r e c i p i t a t i o n has been s u b s t a n t i a l l y less. While snowfall a t Prince Rupert and P o r t Hardy was low a t about 100 cm, K i t i m a t and Terrace A i r p o r t averaged about 400 cm, most w i n t e r s . P R E C I P I T A T I O N EVENT SAMPLING PORT HARDY A t P o r t Hardy an event p r e c i p i t a t i o n sampling s i t e was l o c a t e d a t P o r t Hardy A i r p o r t . About 35 km south o f t h e P o r t Hardy p r e c i p i t a t i o n m o n i t o r i n g s i t e t h e r e i s a s u l p h i t e p u l p m i l l . Ten events data obtained by t h e M i n i s t r y o f Environment w h i l e the m i l l was o p e r a t i n g was compared w i t h N i k l e v e C41 data when t h e m i l l was shut down. The date has been presented i n Table 111. I t can be seen from t h i s data t h a t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f excess s u l p h a t i o n was more d u r i n g m i l l operations than when the m i l l was shut down. The background pH o f r a i n w a t e r a t t h i s s i t e was about 5.3

KITIMAT The smelter s t a f f c o l l e c t e d r a i n samples a t t h e P o l l u t i o n Control Centre s i t e , 4 km NNE o f a smelter u s i n g t h e Sangamo automatic r a i n sampler.

265 TABLE 111 PORT HARDY EVENT PRECIPITATIOW DATA

The company has measured pH and F- i n p r e c i p i t a t i o n . The relatiomship between pH and F- i n event p r e c i p i t a t i o n samples i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 11. The low l e v e l r o o f top emissions of F- and SO, from the smelter may be removed from the atmosphere by wet deposition. Washout o f F- by r a i n f a l l i s r e l a t i v e l y easy because of the h i g h s o l u t i l i t y o f F- i n rainwater and t h i s i s r e f l e c t e d i n the i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between pH and F-, Figure 11. R A I N CHEMISTRY OF INDIVIDUAL STORMS AS A FUNCTION OF A I R PARCEL TRAJECTORY

In order t o d e l i n e a t e t h e v a r i a b i l i t y associated with i n d i v i d u a l storms, nine p r e c i p i t a t i o n events were studied on a storm by storm basis from September 1980 t o November 1981. For each storm f i v e samples were c o l l e c t e d i n the Prince Rupert-Terrace-Kitimat area and t h e i r i o n i c composition were determined. To t r a c e the o r i g i n o f the a i r parcel associated w i t h each p r e c i p i t a t i o n event back t r a j e c t o r y a n a l y s i s was done. Tracks o f a i r parcels were estimated f o r 24 hours i n increments o f 12 hours. T h i s allows one t o examine f o r p o s s i b l e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e chemistry o f r a i n sample and t h e meteorological parameters such as t h e geographical p o s i t i o n o f the storm (Since time track, i t s o r i e n t a t i o n and t h e speed o f movement o f the storm. i n t e r v a l i s f i x e d a t 12 h, t h e speed o f movement o f storm i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the l e n g t h o f the storm t r a c k i n t h a t time i n t e r v a l ) . The back t r a j e c t o r y data o f 9 storms are sumnarized i n Table I V and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e storm t r a c k s are presented i n Figure 111. The v i s u a l observation o f 24 h a i r mass t r a j e c t o r i e s presented i n Figure I11 i n d i c a t e s t h a t storm t r a j e c t o r i e s can be grouped i n t o t h r e e categories: (1) over water, (2) over land, and ( 3 ) o t h e r unique t r a j e c t o r i e s , and they can be compared with respective influences on t h e a c i d i t y i n the p r e c i p i t a t i o n .

1.

ACID CONTRIBUTION FROM STORM TRAJECTORIES OVER WATER

The synoptic weather maps f o r September 3 and 18, 1980, and September Case 1, 2 and 7 presented i n Figure 111. showed wfnds

9, 1981, i.e.,

266

FIGURE I 1

FLUORIDE IN-RAINWATER v s pH

lo(

0 BI OR

ox OU

ox 041

OX

02C

B 8

'5 2

L om

om

am no! ow OD?

om

001

I

A5

I

40

I

45

I

b0

I

55

predominantly south-southwesterly over the P a c i f i c . The observed r a i n f a l l o f Terrace f o r these cases was 25, 20 and 8.2 mn, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The wind speeds A comparison o f f o r Cases 1, 2 and 7 were 15, 6 and 24 knots r e s p e c t i v e l y . chemical c o n s t i t u e n t s f o r these t h r e e cases i n d i c a t e s : a.

b.

The pH value f o r Case 2 a t Terrace and Onion Lake was about 5.9 w h i l e t h e value f o r Case 1 and 7 ranged between 5.01 and 5.47. This i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e storm w i t h minimum speed (case 2) had s l i g h t l y b u f f e r e d r a i n when c o n t r a s t e d w i t h the o t h e r two cases. The f l u o r i d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n Case 7 r a i n samples a t Onion Lake and Terrace was 0.07 and 0.06 mg/l r e s p e c t i v e l y , considerably g r e a t e r than i n t h e Case 1 and 2, which had f l u o r i d e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f <0.04 mg/l. T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t the storm w i t h minimum r a i n had a higher .f1u o r i de concen t r at ion.

267

C

I 2.

I 111.0 a 1

im I

3.1 91

0 I 0.0 a l 10 I 1.0 a l 29 I 1.5 a l 71

I 6.4

MI

U I 1.5 MI 0 I 0.0 a l a I 3.0 a1

A C I D CONTRIBUTION FROM STORM TRAJECTORIES OVER LAND

The storm o f November 4 (Case 31, was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s t r o n g winds, 61 knots. The f l o w was s o u t h e a s t e r l y and over l a n d f o r t h e most p a r t . The r a i n f a l l a t Terrace was 21 mn. The storm f o r Case 5, which occurred on May 13, was one w i t h moderate winds. The storm moved very s l u g g i s h l y over land, see F i g u r e 111. About 10 mn o f r a i n f e l l over Terrace. The chemical composition o f r a i n samples c o l l e c t e d a t K i t i m a t , Onion Lake, Terrace, P r i n c e Rupert and Salvas Camp are summarized i n Table V. The data i n d i c a t e s t h a t r a i n samples associated w i t h l i g h t r a i n f a l l , 10 mn, and w i t h t h e slower storm over land, which passed over Alcan, deposited more f l u o r i d e w i t h r a i n samples c o l l e c t e d i n t h e K i t i m a t Valley, ( K i t i m a t , Onion Lake and Terrace) whereas Skeena V a l l e y samples, ( P r i n c e Rupert and Salvus camp) showed background f l u o r i d e l e v e l s i.e. 0.04 mg/l. The data The r e s u l t s o f excess sulphate a r e presented i n Table V. suggests t h a t 2 mg/l o f K i t i m a t p r e c i p i t a t i o n and 1.3 mg/l o f Terrace p r e c i p i t a t i o n has excess sulphate, l i k e l y o f i n d u s t r i a l o r i g i n . A similar excess SO,,” c o n c e n t r a t i o n was observed i n P r i n c e Rupert p r e c i p i t a t i o n . Furthermore, t h e t o t a l a c i d i t y i n t h e K i t i m a t V a l l e y p r e c i p i t a t i o n was noted t o be h i g h e r (30 t o 124 peq/L) than i n t h e Skeena V a l l e y (18 t o 30 *q/L). 3.

A C I D CONTRIBUTION FROM STORM TRAJECTORIES WITH UNIQUE FEATURES

I n t h i s category t h e storm system o f Case 4 represents a system w i t h over l a n d flow. T h i s case i s unique. On February 18, the storm passed over n o r t h Vancouver I s l a n d and i n t o the d r i e r Okanagan Valley. I t then d r i f t e d toward Terrace, see F i g u r e 111. During i t s passage, t h e storm appears t o have p i c k e d up aerosols such as Ca+2 of t e r r e s t r i a l o r i g i n which had a b u f f e r i n g e f f e c t on t h e r a i n samples c o l l e c t e d a t K i t i m a t and Terrace, see Table V I .

268

FIGURE I11 BACKWARD 24 HOUR (850 mb) TRAJECTORIES FOR TERRACE

- - - 4

..... ... ... -.-

----...-

0

7

+40°

Y

I b W

The r a i n samples c o l l e c t e d on February 19/20 showed depressed pH due t o lack of t e r r e s t r i a l components such as Cat2 see Table "11The v a r i a t i o n s observed i n t h e two data sets are probably due t o t e r r e s t i r a l e f f e c t s i n the f i r s t data set, and l o c a l i n d u s t r i a l i n f l u e n c e observed i n the second data set. The increase i n f l u o r i d e and aluminum i n the second data s e t was due t o washout o f l o c a l (Alcan) p o l l u t i o n i n the ambient a i r . CONCLUSIONS The study examines t h e emissions t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o a c i d i t y o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n the K i t i m a t and P o r t Hardy area. From J u l y 1980 t o June 1981, the Aluminum Smelter a t K i t i m a t emitted 2.18 tonnes o f t o t a l f l u o r i d e per day (1.57 tonnes of gaseous f l u o r i d e and 0.61 tonnes o f p a r t i c u l a t e

269 TABLE V CHEMICAL COWOSITION OF R A I N SAMPLES COLLECTED I N NORTHUEST. B.C.

S t a t 1on

YHEN STOM TRACKS YERE OVER LAN0

Onion

Kitimt

Terrace

Lake

3 I

5

I

I

3

5 I

I

Parameter

PH

5.9 1.9 0.2

4.5 2.1 0.5

4.8 0.9 0.09

1.2

(0.04

4.9 0.7 0.4

5.3 1.3

4.6 1.4

so,2-

mgn

NO,-

mg/l

FC1CaQ

mg/1 mg/l mg/l

0.6 0.4

Na+

mg/l

0.7

0.5

0.1

0.2

0.1

1.0

0.9'

1.29

0.51

0.28 0.8

1.8

2.0

0.8

0.6

1.2

1.3

74

50

25

92

21

10

0.07

0.0'

0.1 0.7 0.04 1.1

(0.5 (0.5 (0.5 (0.5 0.7 0.1' (0.02 0.0' (0.02 0.2 0.6

Cation Anion

5.5 0.5

0.1 0.M 0.5 0.02 0.2

5.2 1.6 0.4

4.9 0.5 0.13

(0.04 (0.04 0.5 (0.5 0.14 (0.02 0.6

-

0.8

0.4

1.5

0.1

-

-

Excess

0.4

Total Acidity

Note:

Case 3, November 4-5. 1980 Case 5. May 13-15. 1981 TABLE V I

Stations

Terrace

Feb. 18/19

Kitimat

Feb. 18/19

5.8 7.0

0.21 1.75

0.3 3.0

1.9 6.0

(0.5 2.1

(0.04 (0.04

(0.02 0.05

Na+

Sob2-

Cl-

F-

A1

TABLE V I I Government Stations

Period

pH

Ca+'

I

'1

4.5

0.07

0.4

(0.5

0.69

0.14

270

f l u o r i d e ) , and 13.1 tonnes o f sulphur d i o x i d e per day. The pulp m i l l emissions a t K i t i m a t were about 2 tonnes per day o f sulphur dioxide, l e s s than 1 tonne per day o f organic sulphur compounds. The sulphur dioxide emissions from the s u l p h i t e pulp m i l l near Port Hardy amount t o about 10 tonnes per day. The event p r e c i p i t a t i o n data shows t h a t the pH a t K i t i m a t (Tour B u i l d i n g S i t e ) ranged between 4.4 t o 7.2, Onion Lake 4.8 t o 5.9, Terrace A i r p o r t 5.1 t o 6.0, Salvus Camp 4.7 t o 5.6 and Prince Rupert 4,5 t o 5.7. The highest pH noted a t K i t i m a t , Tour B u i l d i n g s i t e , would seem t o be an anomally which can o n l y be explained by assuming t h a t the K r a f t M i l l p a r t i c u l a t e emissions appear t o c o n t r i b u t e a b u f f e r i n g i n f l u e n c e on r a i n a t t h i s s i t e . However, t h i s i n f l u e n c e was n o t f e l t a t the K i t i m a t P o l l u t i o n Control s i t e since pH a t t h i s s i t e was lower (4.3 t o 4.9) than the Tour B u i l d i n g s i t e . The r e s u l t s show t h a t t h e P o r t Hardy s i t e i s i n f l u e n c e d by emissions from the s u l p h i t e m i l l . When the m i l l was n o t operating pH o f rainwater a t t h i s s i t e was found t o be 5.3. The comparison o f storm t r a j e c t o r i e s w i t h observed i o n i c loadings has o f f e r e d a unique o p p o r t u n i t y t o q u a l i t a t i v e l y assess p o l l u t i o n received by rainwater during storms from l o c a l i n d u s t r i a l sources as w e l l as d i s t a n t , natural and other sources. REFERENCES 1.

Lynch, A.J., McQuaker, N.R., Gurney, M., C a l i b r a t i o n Factors and Estimation o f Atmospheric SO, and F l u o r i d e by use o f S o l i d Absorbents, Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 12, No. 2, p 169, Feb., 1978.

2.

A Laboratory Manual f o r t h e Chemical Analysis o f Emissions, Ambient A i r and P l a n t Tissues, Environmental Laboratory, M i n i s t r y o f Environment, Vancouver, B.C. 1973.

3.

Canadian Normal P r e c i p i t a t i o n 194 -70 Vol ume 2-51, Downsview, Ontario 1975.

4.

S. Nikleva, "Acid Rain on the West Coast o f B r i t i s h Columbia", Environment Canada's submission t o the Parliamentary Sub-committee on Acid Rain, November, 1983.

5.

M.S. K o t t u r i , "Emissions, A i r Q u a l i t y and P r e c i p i t a t i o n A c i d i t y i n the Prince Rupert-TCrrace-Kitimat Area" Report pub1ished i n December, 1982. A i r Q u a l i t y Engineering Unit, M i n i s t r y o f Environment, V i c t o r i a , B.C.

Environment Canada,

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science PublishersB.V.,Amsterdam,1984-Printed in The Netherlands

271

EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN ON EPIPHYTIC ORCHID GROWTH Sr. John Karen Frei, Chris Orenic, Natalie Smith, Heather Jeffer Division of Biological & Biomedical Sciences Barry University Miami, Florida 33161, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT The Big Cypress Swamp in South Florida is known for its subtropical flora and fauna. Among the species of subtropical vegetation occurring in this area are many epiphytic plants which are directly vulnerable to atmospheric inputs. Some preliminary evidence indicates that this general area may be experiencing elevated concentrations of gaseous and particulate air pollutants, but very little is known about their potential impact on biological resources. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of simulated acid rain at several pH levels in the growth and development of the epiphytic orchid plant Encyclia tampensis. The sixty plants used in this experiment were collected from the Fakhahatchee Strand located within the Big Cypress Swamp. Plants used were mature plants, intermediate sized plants and young seedlings, which were exposed to the following pH ranges of simulated acid rain (pH 2.5, 4.0, 5.6) for a period of six months. Observations were made concerning: number and conditions of flower spikes and flower buds; number and condition of new and old leaves; the general condition of the plant. The results indicated that there is a negative effect on the growth rate of these plants exposed to varying levels of simulated acid rain mistings. 1.

INTRODUCTION AND RATIONALE

Comprehensive knowledge of epiphytic ecology requires knowledge not only of the interaction between substrate and epiphytic plants, but also an understanding of the effect of air and water borne pollutants present in the habitat of these plants. The objective of this study was to investigate the growth and development of the epiphytic orchid Encyclia tampensis collected from the Fakhahatchee Strand in the Big Cypress Swamp, Florida, and grown under simulated acid rain conditions in a controlled

212

environmental setting. This orchid was chosen for study because of the reported decrease in its population numbers from within the Strand. Due to the plant's physical location, the decrease was thought not to be completely attributed to collection pressures. It was thought that this geographic region could be experiencing air and water borne pollutants. Air quality is continuing to improve in the United States, although serious problems exist in many areas. Changes by the federal government lessening the requirements of anti-pollution devices in automobiles could have an adverse effect on air quality. Ozone and carbon monoxide continue to be the pollutants most often in excess. Florida, east and south of Lake Okeechobee is experiencing ozone pollution (6). In a study of air quality in Florida, it was shown that in addition to ozone, NO2 and carbon monoxide are important pollutants in many areas of Florida, and that total suspended particle (TSP) levels are generally high throughout the state. Also, the fact that Florida is a southern state with strong photo-chemical processes, adds to its air pollution problems (12). Growth and development of plants are directly related to air quality. A number of pollutants not only suppress growth, but they also cause disease and death in plants (17, 19).

In his second environmental message to Congress in 1979, President Carter identified acid rain as one of the two most serious environmental problems associated with the continued use of fossil fuels (22). It is a growing problem in the northeast and is believed to be created when sulfar oxide and nitrogen oxide combine with water in the atmosphere (5). Acid precipitation may fall to the earth many miles from where the pollutants were emitted. Scientists estimate that 10-30 percent of the acid problem may result from dry deposition. This is significant because the farther the polluted air travels, the more sulfur dioxide is transformed into sulfuric acid which then coats other particles. There are documented cases of sulfate particles formed from emissions in the midwest and northeast traveling as far as the Gulf of Mexico (24). The Hubbard Brook watershed, located in northern New Hampshire, containing a much damaged ecosystem, receives about one-third of its sulfur in dry form (16). Acid rain, in its liquid form, has been shown to adversely affect plant growth and cause foliage damage (3, 8, 10, 13, 14, 18). It also may exert subtle effects on the reproductive potential of plants. Evans and Buzzone (7) have shown that reproductive development in ferns is very sensitive to the effects of acid rain in that sperm motility is decreased at pH levels below 5.8. Fertilization, which in all lower plants, i.e. bryophytes, involves movement of the sperm through the liquid environmental medium to the egg, would be subject to the effects of acid rain. It has been suggested that fertilization in the fern Pteridium may be used as Acid rain has a bioindicator of contaminants in rain water (11). been shown to affect the germination rate and seedling growth of many forest woody species. Acidic precipitation has been shown to adversely affect the microbiotic components of the environment as well ( 1 ) .

273

The acidity of rain in northern and central Florida has increased markedly in the past twenty-five years with the average sulfate and nitrate concentrations increasing by factors of 1.6 and 4.5 since the early 1950's (20). Since Florida's human population is still expanding rapidly, the demands for electric power are increasing more rapidly in Florida than in most other states. Florida is shifting to coal as the energy source for increasing electric power-generating capacity. In southern Florida, there are six coal-fired plants operating now with fifteen additional plants scheduled to be operating by 1987 (2). Many experts believe that fossil fuel burning power plants are responsible for much of the SO2 problem (21). Because of the described factors including the known detrimental effect of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere from fossil fuel burning, it is imperative to monitor the fragile epiphytic ecosystem for the effect of pollution while the ecosystem is still present in south Florida. Published reports regarding the effect of air pollutants on orchids are mainly concerned with the adult plant, i.e. how buds and flowers are affected by ethylene gas (23). Adult plants are reported to be relatively resistant to the air pollutants sulfur dioxide and ozone. Using untested pesticide materials and formulations has caused serious injury to orchid plants. Pesticide injury varies from stunting growth to leaf-scorch, necrotic spotting, white banding on newly developing leaves and abnormal pigmentation in the blades. Necrosis may cause collapsed blade There are no published studies concerning the margins ( 4 ) . effect of air or water borne pollutants on the germination of orchid seed or on early protocorm development.

2.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of simulated acid raidmist (hereafter referred to as acid rain) at several pH levels on the growth and development of Encyclia tampensis plants. On May 16, 1983, sixty E. tampensis plants were collected in the Fakhahatchee Strand. Some of the orchids when collected were physically removed from their bark substrates, leaving them with bare roots, while others were removed intact on their substrate bark using a machete to shave off the bark from the tree with its attached orchid plant. The plants were divided into three age groups (young seedlings, intermediate sized plants, and large mature plants) based on their stage of development. Of the total number of plants collected, seven were designated as young seedlings, two of which were collected attached to the bark substrate; 45 young plants were designated as intermediate sized plants, 15 of which were collected attached to the bark substrate; and 8 were designated as large mature plants of which one collected was attached to the bark substrate. The average size of the young seedlings was as follows: number of leaves was 2.9, the leaf length was 6.3 cm and the number of pseudo-bulbs/plant was 7.6.

the

274

The intermediate sized young orchid plants average size was as follows: the number of leaves was 6.3, the leaf length was 13.0 cm and the number of pseuho bulbdplant was 14.4. %he mature plants average size was as follows: the number of leaves was 19.5, the leaf length was 15.3 cm and the number of pseudo-bulbs/plant was 45.3. Designation into the three age groups was also based on the number and size of pseudo bulbs as well as the number and size of mature leaves. It was observed that young seedlings had pseudobulbs about 0.5 to 1.0 cm in diameter, and their leaves were short and slender. The mature plants had a large number of pseudo-bulbs some of which were large and thick while the intermediate sized plants had pseudo-bulbs of a size in between the other two. In nature, as the older pseudo-bulbs die, they decompose in place and new pseudo-bulb growth occurs on the outside of the cluster of the decayed pseudo-bulbs. Often the center of the pseudo-bulb cluster is totally decomposed-. Among the sixty plants collected, eighteen plants (5 mature and 13 intermediate) were in spike and some of the spikes were in flower at the time of the collection, while others were still in bud. There was a total of twenty-eight spikes among the eighteen plants in spike. The average spike length was 27.5 cm. Five of the mature plants were in spike accounting for ten of the eighteen spikes. One of the intermediate sized orchid plants had the most spikes five, which had a total of twenty-eight developing flower buds.

-

Those orchid plants which had been physically removed from their bark substrates were attached to pieces of tree fern - one plant per piece - with plastic coated wire. With time as the plants' roots grew into the tree fern securing the plant to the tree fern, the wires were removed. Five young seedlings, thirty intermediate sized plants and seven mature plants were secured in this manner. Four days after they were secured, 23 of the plants were placed into a growth chamber and allowed to acclimatize to the chamber for a period of fourteen weeks. The number of plants which could be placed in the chamber was limited by the physical size of the chamber as well as by the physical area misted by the water spray system. The misting during this fourteen week period was non-acidic. The remainder of the plants were placed in a saran greenhouse which had a sprinkling system on a time clock. The pH of the water in the greenhouse was 7.3 The growth chamber used was a Percival Model PT-80. During the experimental period, conditions in the chamber were programmed to simulate those found in the Fakhahatchee Strand and adjusted periodically to reflect seasonal changes. Light conditions were established using eight F 72 T12/cw/1500 fluorescent lamps and ten 60 watt incandescent lamps; these were under the control of two separate and independent 24 hour timers. The incandescent timer was set to turn the incandescent lights on one hour before and one hour after the fluorescent lighting timer turned its light source on to simulate sunrise andsunset. The light range was from 12 hours (10 fluorescent 12 incandescent) to 14 hours

275

(12 fluorescent 14 incandescent). The light entered the environmental chamber through translucent thermal barriers. Temperature controls were set to values approximating the Fakhahatchee Strand temperature as recorded during field trips to the Strand. The temperature range was 24O - 30° C daytime and 18 - 24O C nighttime. The relative humidity settings were kept near 60% and 10%. allowed to fluctuate

The watering system components were constructed of the following materials: spray nozzles #316 stainless steel, white nylon tubing, #304 stainless steel water holding tank, brass solenoid valve stainless steel strainer. The nozzles had 0.010 inch orifices and were rated at one gallon/hour at forty PSIG. The chamber had six nozzles located at the top of the chamber and spaced around the chamber. The watering system was set at 40 PSIG. The sprinkling system had been specially designed for this experiment to insure that the area below the nozzles was well watered. The plants were watered five times daily with threeminute sprayings per time interval. Spray times were 9:00 a.m., 12:OO noon, 2:30 p.m., 5:30 p.m. and 9:00 p.m. The pH of the spray was non-acidic.

-

Weekly observations were made on the sixty plants (individually numbered, and tagged for identification purposes), during the fourteen week acclimatization period as well as throughout the experimental period. The following measurements were taken during the acclimatization and experimental periods. 1.

Number of live flower spikes.

2.

Length of live flower spikes recorded in centimeters.

3.

Number of flower buds, flowers and/or seed pods/spikes. Spikes which died were also recorded.

4.

Total number of leaves - all leaves included mature. Dead leaves excluded.

5.

Average leaf length. Measurements were made from the base of the leaf considered as the leaf-pseudo-bulb junction to the tip of the leaf. At the leaf tip, measurement was made only of the live portion of the leaf. All leaves included - new and mature. Dead leaves excluded.

6.

Number of new leaves

7.

Length of new leaves separately.

8.

Range of mature leaf lengths.

9.

Number of live pseudo-bulbs.

10.

-

new and

-

immature leaves.

-

each new leaf was measured

Number of new pseudo-bulbs. Those considered new were those formed at the base of an immature leaf. General comments concerning the overall condition of the plants were also recorded on a weekly basis.

216

On August 21, 1983, after the acclimatization period was concluded, the 60 plants were divided into six groups of ten plants each, with an attempt made to include the three age distributions of plants previously described into each group. Three of the groups were arbitrarily chosen as experimental groups while the remaining three served as the control group. The experimental groups and the acid rain pH ranges to which they were subjected were as follows: Plant Group 1A Plant Group 2A Plant Group 3A

-

pH 4.0 pH 5.6 pH 2.5

Plant Group 1B Plant Group 2B Plant Group 3B

-

-

control group control group control group

The first experimental group (1A) was placed into the growth chamber under the same environmental conditions as the plants had previously been subjected to; however, the spray which they received was acid rain. A plant was exposed to only one of the three pH levels throughout the experiment.

The artificial acid rain formula used was based on that provided in February, 1983, by Virginia Polytechnic Institute. The following chemical amounts were mixed in deionized, distilled water (maximum conductivity, 2.0 umhos) and diluted to 1 liter. Na2S04

2.16218

CaS04

1.2208g 0.346513 0.0555g 1.2478g

MgS04 K2S04 KC 1 (NH4 2HPO NHqN03 HNO3,l.ON

0.0124g 0.744065

Ion -

Mg/l

Na+ Ca+2 NH + Mgq2

0.70 0.38 0.70 0.07

10.54ml 4.841111 HC1, 1.ON The stock solution was diluted 1 to 1000 after being adjusted to the desired pH with NaOH or H2SO4. Ionic concentration in the simulated rain solution should have been?

K+

0.05

so4-2

2.68 1.23 0.29 0.01

NO3 c1P04-3

277

Each batch (10 liters) made was adjusted to the desired pH using NaOH and H2SO4. A corning model 6 1 0 A expand portable pH meter was used with a set of Coleman Tri-Purpose shielded glass electrodes to determine pH. At the end of each acid rain treatment, the system was thoroughly rinsed with deionized water before the next acid rain treatment began. The control groups were maintained in the greenhouse throughout th6 course of the experiment. Each experimental plant group was placed for one week into the growth chamber undergoing the acid rain treatment, followed by a two week period in the greenhouse, and then placed back into the growth chamber for another week of acid rain treatment. This cycle - one week in - two weeks out - one week in - was repeated for twenty weeks so that each experimental group of plants received an acid misting seven days out of every twenty-one days for thirty weeks. 3. 3.1.

RESULTS Flower Spike Development

During the experimental period, the plants which had been in flower and spike development when collected underwent normal flower and seed pod development. After the plants were established, no new spikes developed until the first week of October. On the original spikes, all the seed pods which had developed had done so before any of the plants were subjected to the acid rain treatments. During the first two weeks of October, a new flower spike This spike was developed on plant #13 of group 1A (pH 4.0). initiated after 21 days of exposure to the simulated acid rain (pH 4 . 0 ) . This plant is an intermediate sized plant mounted on tree fern bark. By the fourth week of October, this plant had reached its maximum length of 5.7 cm and had produced a single flower. The length of this flower spike was considerably shorter than the 27.5 cm average length of the eighteen original plants collected in spike. It should be noted that it was also shorter than the smallest spike recorded after the initial orchid collection on May 16. The flower produced was of normal size but had brown spot damage along the edge of two of its sepals. This damaged area was a small indentation of tissue which had turned brownish in color. This flower was hand pollinated in late October, but the flower fell off the plant after showing no signs of seed pod development. No more flower buds developed and the spike died back after an additional 21 days of exposure to the acid rain. As can be seen in Table 1, four flower spikes developed during the acid rain treatment. They were initiated (all within 12 days of one another) after a period of 42 days of acid rain treatments. After an additional period of 21 days of acid rain treatment (for a total period of 63 acid rain treatment days) they reached the recorded spike size as indicated in Table 1. This represents a total of 190 days of growth including a recovery period of 137 days in the greenhouse.

218

Table 1. Comparison of Flower Spike Development after 63 Days of Acid Rain Treatment

PLANT #

PH

SIZE

LENGTH (cm)

NUMBER OF BUDS

51

Control

Mature

38.2

6

24

5.6

Medium

11.9

0

55

4.0

Mature

4.3

0

17

2.5

Medium

2.9

0

The longest spike development (38.2 cm) was in a mature plant #51 in the control group. The average diameter of its five flower buds was 0.5 cm. The longest spike from a plant receiving the acid rain treatments (pH 5.6) was from plant #24. This is a medium sized plant whose flower spike was 11.9 cm long. No buds have been initiated on this plant. The second longest spike on a plant receiving the acid rain treatment (pH 4.0) was from plant #55. This is a mature sized plant whose flower spike was 4.3 cm long. No buds have been initiated on this plant. The last plant with flower spike development on a plant receiving the acid rain treatment (pH 2.5) was from plant #17. This is a medium sized plant whose flower spike was 2.9 cm long. Development of New Leaves

3.2.

One new leaf was initiated on plant #25, a young seedling plant. This new leaf was initiated during the acclimatization period in the growth chamber and just prior to the acid rain treatment. This plant was in group #3A which received acid rain treatment (pH 2.5). Immediately after receiving one week's exposure to the acid rain, the new leaf died. A total of ten new leaves were initiated on plants #21, #27 and #43 - medium 6ized plants - as well on plant #30, a young seedling plant. These new leaves were initiated during the acclimatization period in the growth chamber and just prior to the acid rain treatments. These four plants were in group #1A which received acid rain treatment (pH 4.0). Within three weeks after undergoing a one week treatment of acid rain, seven of the ten leaves died. Fifteen new leaves were initiated on plants #6, #14, #37 and all young seedling plants - and on plants #31 and #41 which were medium sized plants. These new leaves were initiated during the acclimatization period in the growth chamber and just prior to the acid rain treatments. These plants were in group #2A Immediately after which received acid rain treatment (pH 5.6). #60

-

279

receiving one week's exposure to the acid rain, three of the new leaves on plant #60 died. Nine new leaves were initiated on plants #3, #5, and #7 - all and on plant #51 which was a mature plant. young seedling plants These new leaves were initiated during the acclimatization period in the greenhouse on these control plants, and just prior to the beginning of the acid rain treatments on Group #3A, #1A, and #2A. Control plant #7 lost two leaves six weeks after the end of the acclimatization period.

-

3.3.

Leaf Initiation During Acid Rain Treatment

Table 2 records leaves of plants still considered to be new 160 days (6 months) into the acid rain experimental period. A new leaf is defined as one which has a pseudo-bulb under development but not yet visible. During the experimental treatment with acid rain, additional new leaves were initiated. Once pseudobulbs developed at their bases, they were considered as mature leaves. For that reason they are not recorded in this table.

-

As can be seen from the table, the rate of growth of leaves, average growth of leaves, and average leaf length is greatest in plants exposed to acid rain of pH 5.6 and slowest in plants which were exposed to acid rain pH 4.0.

3.4.

Leaf Tissue Damage

Leaf tissue damage was studied in mature and intermediate sized plants. Those plants reported in Table 3 were selected based on similarity in size among the mature and intermediate sized plants. An examination of group 3A plants (pH 2.5) on the 180th day after the acid rain treatment began, revealed a leaf tissue damage which was rarely present on leaves of the control plants. This tissue damage (tissue necrosis) first noticed on February 17, 1984, was characterized by a blackening of the tissue and additionally in some cases a slight loss of tissue turgidity. The blackening of the tissue was found mainly along the lateral edges of the leaf, upper leaf epidermis and at leaf tips, but also all along the leaf including the upper and lower epidermis. An examination of three of the mature leaves on plant #17 (in group 3A), a mature plant, indicated that on the longest leaf there was the most tissue damage. This damage on the upper side of the leaf was localized along the lateral edges of the leaf which in several areas extended several millimeters in from the edge of the leaf. On the under surface of the leaf, the damage was present in a more "spotted" random manner, although there was lateral edge damage corresponding to that present on the leaf's upper surface. Thereappeared to be damage on older leaves, possibly of a mechanical nature, or from insects, around which the blackening of the tissue also developed. Ninety-three percent of the leaves on plant #17 were damaged.

280

Table 2.

pH

Control

Growth Rate of New Leaves After 180 Days of Acid Rain Treatment

PLANT NO.

PLANT SIZE

AGE OF LEAF days

FINAL LENGTH OF LEAF CM

5

Young

5

0.3

0.1

0.0200

5

Seedling

5

0.3

0.1

0.0200

7

Young

42

2.3

1.9

0.0452

7

Seedling

42

2.5

2.1

0.0500

x 5.6

= 1.35

RECORDED GROWTH GROWTH CM RATE CM new leaves

j; = 1.05

5

=

0.033

41

Medium

40

3.2

2.9

0.0725

41

Medium

40

3.3

2.8

0.0700

41

Medium

26

3.1

2.2

0.0846 ~~

41

Medium

12

1.5

0.8

0.0667

53

Mature

26

3.4

1.9

0.0731

= 2.90

4.0

j; = 2.12

= 0.077

21

Medium

20

1.0

0.5

0.0250

27

Medium

167

2.3

2.0

0.0120

30

Young

62

1.4

1.1

0.0177

~

~ _ _ _

43

Medium

93

0.9

0.1

0.0011

33

Mature

83

1.9

1.3

0.0157

2 2.5

x

=

1.50

x

= 1.0

Ti = 0.014

25

Young

27

2.8

2.0

0.0741

35

Mature

13

1.3

0.6

0.0462

59

Medium

27

2.4

1.3

0.0481

% = 2.16

j; = 1.3

x

= 0.056

~

281

An examination of Group 1A plants (pH 4.0) revealed less leaf damage, only 40% as compared to the 93% observed in Group 3A plants (pH 2.5). The ratio of the number of damaged leaves to healthy leaves was less in Group 1A plants as was the ratio of tissue damage to healthy leaf tissue on those leaves showing damage (see Table 3). Table 3.

Leaf Damage in Representative Plants of Each Experimental/Control Group

~

GROUP-(pH)

PLANT

TOTAL

#

# OF

-

LEAVES

# & % LEAVES DAMAGED

% LEAF TIPS DAMAGED

LEAVES H I GHLY DAMAGED

#

MATURE PLANTS 14.7 28

3A- ( 2.5)

17

30

1A- ( 4 . 0 )

55

5

2A- (5.6)

24

27

CONTROL

51

8

3A- (2.5)

59

17

1A- (4.0)

29

7

17.6

2A- (5.6)

41

8

9.1

CONTROL

39

11

13.1

-

93%

74%

6

2 - 40%

0

0

- 37%

0

0

2

-

25%

0

0

9.1 14

-

82%

86%

2

0

0

12.5%

0

0

45%

0

0

21.7

13.3 10 14.5

INTER. PLANTS

3

- 43%

5 1

An examination of the five leaves on plant #55, a mature plant in Group 1A indicated that the most tissue damage was located on the two oldest leaves. One of these leaves had black spotting on the upper surface both medially and laterally with the lateral damage apparent from both sides. There was blackening damage around sites of previous damage; in particular there was a hole in the center of the leaf approximately 0.3 cm diameter with tissue necrosis spreading out from the hole. There were numerous small black spots on the under surface of the leaf. Two of the leaves of fairly recent origin showed no sign of blackening tissue damage. An examination of group 2A plants (pH 5.6) revealed very little leaf damage. Where there was damage, it was located on the underside of the leaf. The damage was that of a tiny spotting with no blackening of leaf tissue. The degree of damage on the affected leaves was less than on group 3A leaves, but the

282

difference between group 1 A and 2A plants was difficult to discern. There was no damage to.leaf tips. An examination of the 27 leaves on plant #24 revebl slight damage to ten of the leaves,. This damage was a black spotting (0.1 cm diameter) located on the undersurface of the leaves. An examination of group 3B control plants, revealed very little damage of the type found on the plants exposed to the acid rain treatments. Of the eight leaves on plant #51, a mature plant, six leaves showed no signs of damage. Concerning the two remaining leaves one had damage which was not consistent with acid rain damage, and the other had a single 0.1 cm indentation along the edge of the leaf which appeared similar to acid rain damage. The leaf tips were whole on the six undamaged leaves, and the damage on the other two leaves appeared to be mechanical in nature. The two damaged leaves had a slight spotting on the underside of the leaf while the other six did not. 4.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This experiment was performed to determine the effect of acid rain on the growth and development of the epiphytic plant -E. tampensis.

-

Reduced flower spike and bud development and spike and bud initiation were observed. In the fall (October) the only spike initiated did not reach a normal size and produced only one flower which was visually damaged. When the flower was hand pollinated it aborted. By late winter (February), those plants which had received the most acid of the mistings (pH 2.5) had the shortest flower spikes initiated with no buds formed. As the mistings became less acid, the length of the spikes increased. The spikes initiated at ph 2.5 achieved only 7% growth of that grown under control conditions, those initiated at pH 4.0 achieved 1 1 % growth of those grown under control conditions and the spikes initiated at pH 5.6 achieved 31% growth of those grown under control conditions. The only buds initiated were on the plant grown under control conditions. The lack of bud initiation on flower spikes will ultimately lead to a lessening of a plant's reproductive potential and ability to survive. The effect of the acid rain on plant reproductive capacity has been noted by Evans and Buzzone (7) who observed reduction to Pteridium aquilinum sporophyte production at pH levels of 4.2 and 3.8. Further work by Evans and Conway ( 1 1 ) indicated a reduction in fertilization In of g. aquilinum gametophytes at pH levels of 4.5 and 3.6. studies of bush bean exposure to simulated acid rain, Hindawi, Rea and Griffis (13) reported reduced seed and pod growth at pH 4.0 and below. In the bush bean studies of Johnston et al. (15) statistically significant reductions in growth and pod number of the bean plants occurred in response to acid rain exposures between pH 3.2 and 4.0. The current study appears to support the general plant reproductive response to acid rain already reported, Such a response would appear to indicate that a plant's reproductive potential/response to acid rain is a good measure of its use as a bioindicator to judge the potential effect of this pollutant on plant survival in the environment.

283

The immediate effect of acid rain mistings on new leaves initiated during the acclimatization period was that at all acid rain levels (2.5, 4.0, and 5.6) newly initiated leaves were adversely affected. Twenty percent of those new leaves treated with acid rain of pH 5,6 dropped off the plant one week after treatment, 70% of those treated with acid rain of pH 4.0 dropped off the plant within three weeks of the misting and the only new leaf exposed to acid rain of pH 2.5 dropped off within one week of the misting. In a study of the effect of simulated acid rain in Phaseolus vulgaris and Helianthus annuus by Evans, Gmur and DaCosta (8), it was found that at pH levels 2.3 and 3.1 injury to Helianthus plants was greatest at the 3-4 leaf stage than at the 5-6 and 7-8 leaf stage. No significant plant age effects to acid rain were noted in the Phaseolus plants. The leaf initiation results on plants in which new leaves were initiated during the acid rain treatments is difficult to explain. As might be expected, the rate of growth of leaves, average growth of leaves and average leaf length was greatest in plants exposed to simulated acid rain of pH 5.6 but slowest in plants which were exposed to simulated acid rain of pH 4.0. It is not clear why leaf growth on plants which received an acid rain misting of pH 2.5 grew longer, had a larger average growth rate and grew faster than plants at pH of 4 . 0 . The growth rate of all leaves in the acid rain treatment was much less than in the control plants. Leaf tissue damage was similar to previously reported studies ( 8 , 9 , l o ) . The leaf damage observed on the control plants is most likely due to mechanical injury (effect of the wind, cold) or insect injury. As other researchers have reported, and as was found in this study, the greatest number of leaves damaged and the percent of leaf damage was found on those plants exposed to the most acid (pH 2.5) of the acid rain mistings. Only at pH 2.5 was there any damage to leaf tips.. Further study of the injury to the leaf cells themselves at a microscopic level should be made. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether acid rain had an effect on the growth and development of the epiphytic plant E. tam ensis. It has been shown that there is a negative effect 05 the :rowth rate of these plants exposed to varying levels of acid rain mistings. These results should be added to the qualitative evidence accumulating to indicate the negative effect of acid rain on plant growth.

-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research in this paper was sponsored by the National Park Service.

284

REFERENCES 1.

Babich, H., D.L. Davis and G. Stotsky. 1980. Acid precipitation causes and consequences. Environ. 22(4):6-13, 40-41.

2.

Brezonik, P.L., E.S. Edgerton and C.D. Hendry. 1980. Acid precipitation and sulfate deposition in Florida. Sci. 208:1027-1029.

3.

Cowling, E.B. and R.A. Linthurst. 1981. The acid precipitation phenomenon and its ecological consequences. Bioscience. 31(9):649-654.

4.

Davidson, O.W. 1967. Orchid ailments not caused by insects or diseases-11. Amer. Orchid SOC. Bull. 36(7):564-574.

5.

Environmental Quality. The Eleventh Annual Report of the Council on Environmental Quality. Dec. 1980. Gus Speth, Chairman.

6.

EPA:Pilot National Environmental Profile: 1977. Office of the Administrator, U . S . Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. Oct. 1980.

7.

Evans, L.S. and D.M. Buzzone. 1977. Effect of buffered solutions and sulfate on vegetative and sexual development in gametyophytes of Pteridium aquilinum. Amer. Jour. Bot. 64(7):897-902.

8.

Evans. L.S.. N.F. Gmur and F. DaCosta. 1977. Leaf surface and histoiogicai perturbation of leaves of Phaseolus vulgaris and Helianthus annuus after exposure to simulated acid rain. Amer. Jour. Bot. 64(7):903-913.

9.

Evans, L.S., N.F. Gmur and J.J. Kelsch. 1977. Perturbations of upper leaf surface structures by simulated acid rain. Envir. and Exp. Bot. 17:145-149.

10.

Evans, L.S. and T.M. Curry. 1979. Differential responses of plant foliage to simulated acid rain. Amer. Jour. Bot. 66(8):953-962.

11.

Evans, L.S. and C.A. Conway. 1980. Effects of acidic solutions on sexual reproduction of Pteridium aquilinum. Amer. Jour. Bot. 67(6):866-875.

12.

Green, A.E.S., D.E. Rio and R.A. Hedinger. 1978. Florida's air quality, present and future. Florida Sci. 41(3):182-190.

13.

Hindawi, I.J., J.A. Rea and W.L. Griffis. 1980. Response to bush bean exposed to acid mist. Amer. Jour. Bot. 67(2):168172.

14.

Jacobsen, J.S. and A.C. Hill (Eds.). 1970. Recognition of Air Pollution Injury to Vegetation: A Pictorial Atlas. Air Pollution Control Association. Pittsburgh, PA.

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16.

Johnston, J. William et al. 1982. Effect of rain pH on senescense, growth, and yield of bush bean. Environ. and Exp. Bot. 22(1):329-337.

16.

Kerr, R.A. 1981. There is more to "Acid Rain" than rain. Sci. 211:692-693.

17.

LeBlanc, F. and J. DeSloover. 1970. Relation between industrialization and the distribution and growth of epiphytic lichens and mosses in Montreal. Can. Jour. Bot. 48:14851496.

18.

Likens, G.E. and F.H. Bormann. 1974. Acid rain: A serious regional environmental problem. Sci. 184:1176-1179.

19.

Noble, R.D. and K.F. Jensen. 1980. Effects of sulfur dioxide and ozone on growth of hybrid poplar leaves. Amer. Jour. Bot. 67(7):1005-1009.

20.

Rosencrantz, A. and G. Wetstone. 1980. Acid precipitation national and international responses. Environ. 22(5):6-8.

21.

Walton, Susan. 1980. Coal conversion will increase acid rain damage. Bioscience. 30(5):293-295.

22.

Wetstone, G.S. 1980. The need for a new regulatory approach. Environ. 22(5):9-14, 40-41.

23.

Withner, C.L. 1974. (edited) Studies. John Wiley & Sons.

24.

Wolff, G.T., N.A. Kelly and M.A. Ferman. 1981. On the sources of summertime haze in the eastern United States. Sci. 21:703-705.

The Orchids: Scientific New York, NY.

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

THE EVOLUTION OF WATER QUALITY I N LARGE HYDRO-ELECTRIC ACTIVE AND STAGNANT ZONES

RESERVOIRS:

287

A MODEL OF

Normand Therien and Ken Morrison Department of Chemical E n g i n e e r i n g U n i v e r s i t y of Sherbrooke Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada J1K 2R1

ABSTRACT The decomposition of v e g e t a t i o n and s o i l s a f f e c t s w a t e r q u a l i t y in hydroe l e c t r i c r e s e r v o i r s , p r i m a r i l y through n u t r i e n t enrichment and oxygen consumpt i o n . A model of such decomposition w a s c o n s t r u c t e d and a p p l i e d t o t h e LG-2 The model i n c o r p o r a t e d r e s e r v o i r in t h e James Bay r e g i o n of QuEbec, Canada. i n f o r m a t i o n on v e g e t a t i o n and s o i l s e x i s t i n g p r i o r t o f l o o d i n g , r i v e r f l o w rates, and f l o w p a t t e r n s w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r , examining both a c t i v e and s t a gnant zones. C o e f f i c i e n t s f o r s o l u b i l i z a t i o n and m i n e r a l i z a t i o n were c a l i b r a t e d t o l a b o r a t o r y d a t a coming from o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s . The r e s u l t s of t h e model i n d i c a t e d a peaking of e f f e c t s on water q u a l i t y t h r e e y e a r s a f t e r i m poundment in t h e a c t i v e a r e a s of t h e r e s e r v o i r , with a r e t u r n t o ambient l e v e l s t h r e e y e a r s a f t e r t h e peaking. I n t h e more s t a g n a n t a r e a s of t h e r e s e r v o i r , peaking occured one y e a r l a t e r , and a t t h e end of s i x y e a r s phosphorus espec i a l l y c o n t i n u e d t o d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from pre-impoundment l e v e l s . There w a s f a i r agreement between model r e s u l t s and observed t r e n d s , but model p r e d i c t i o n s d i d n o t show s e a s o n a l p a t t e r n s o b s e r v a b l e in t h e d a t a , s i n c e s t r a t i f i c a I n i t s p r e s e n t form t h e t i o n and t u r n o v e r were not i n c l u d e d in t h e model. model is c a p a b l e of g i v i n g f a i r l y good p r e d i c t i o n s of w a t e r q u a l i t y in t h e LG-2 reservoir. The i n c l u s i o n of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n e f f e c t s could f u r t h e r improve model a c c u r a c y , and make i t a u s e f u l t o o l in impact assessment f o r r e s e r v o i r creat ion. 1.

INTROWCTION

The c r e a t i o n of a r e s e r v o i r causes f l o o d i n g of r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of v e g e t a t i o n and s o i l . The subsequent decomposition of t h e s e materials enr i c h e s t h e water w i t h n u t r i e n t s and creates a demand on d i s s o l v e d oxygen. Up t o t h e p r e s e n t t h e r e have not been any methods a v a i l a b l e t o p r e d i c t q u a n t i t a t i v e l y t h e changes in w a t C r q u a l i t y f o r a proposed r e s e r v o i r .

Maystrenko and Denisova [ I ] examined t h e decomposition of p u l v e r i z e d samp l e s of a v a r i e t y of v e g e t a t i o n and s o i l t y p e s in a q u a r i a , and monitored nuSerodes [ 2 ] s t u d i e d t r i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in t h e water f o r up t o t h r e e y e a r s . s h o r t - t e r m e f f e c t s on d i s s o l v e d oxygen of t h e decomposition of s o i l s and trees [31 both i n s i t u and in a q u a r i a . These r e s u l t s were used by de B r o i s s i a t o c o n s t r u c t a r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e model of decomposition. They r e c o g n i z e d , however, t h a t a more d e t a i l e d model of t h e k i n e t i c s of decomposition w a s needed. Thgrien and S p i l l e r [4] developed a d e t a i l e d model of t h e k i n e t i c s of decomposition, and a p p l i e d it t o t h e r e s u l t s of Maystrenko and Denisova 111. " h e r f e n e t a1 [51 r e f i n e d t h e i r -model and a p p l i e d i t t o a small r e s e r v o i r in

&t

288 n o r t h e r n Quebec. The same model was t h e n a p p l i e d t o t h e huge LG-2 r e s e r v o i r i n n o r t h e r n Ouebec t o e v a l u a t e t h e impacts of 4 d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i n g s c e n a r i o s 161. C e r t a i n d e f i c i e n c i e s were noted i n t h e s p a t i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e r e s e r v o i r . A s t u d y of w a t e r f l o w s w i t h i n t h e r e s e r v o i r [71 demonstrated t h a t two s e c t i o n s of t h e r e s e r v o i r were almost s t a g n a n t , with very slow c u r r e n t s and reduced w a t e r exchange w i t h o t h e r p a r t s of t h e r e s e r v o i r . This paper documents f u r t h e r r e f i n e m e n t of t h e same model, i n c o r p o r a t i n g a n improved s p a t i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e r e s e r v o i r . The model is a p p l i e d over a b a s e l i n e p e r i o d t o t h e end of 1984.

2.

STUDY SITE

The La Grande h y d r o e l e c t r i c p r o j e c t is l o c a t e d t o t h e e a s t of James Bay i n R a s e I, nearing completion, involves the n o r t h e r n Quebec, Canada (Fig. 1). f l o o d i n g of a t o t a l of 11 500 km2 [81. The a r e a is t a i g a , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s t u n t e d trees and sphagnum bogs. The LG-2 r e s e r v o i r was t h e f i r s t of t h e complex t o he completed, w i t h impoundment s t a r t i n g in l a t e 1978 and t h e r e s e r v o i r coming on-line in November 1979. The r e s e r v o i r h a s a s u r f a c e a r e a of 2 800 km2 and a g e n e r a t i n g c a p a c i t y of 5 300 MW. E x t e n s i v e s u r v e y s of v e g e t a t i o n were made p r i o r t o impoundment, as of c o u r s e were h y d r o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s . Also, water q u a l i t y has been monitored a t s e v e r a l sampling s t a t i o n s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r s i n c e 1977 ( F i g . 2).

3.

SPATIAL RE WESENTATION

There are two a s p e c t s t o t h e s p a t i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e r e s e r v o i r : t h e d i v i s i o n of t h e r e s e r v o i r i n t o d i s t i n c t w a t e r masses or z o n e s , and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of v e g e t a t i o n and s o i l w i t h i n t h e zones.

3.1.

D i s t i n c t Zones

Flow p a t t e r n s i n t h e r e s e r v o i r [71 s u g g e s t e d c o n s i d e r i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r t o active be made up of 5 more or less d i s t i n c t zones f a l l i n g i n t o 2 c a t e g o r i e s : and s t a g n a n t . The 3 a c t i v e zones were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h w a t e r exchange rates due t o i n f l o w s and i n t e r c h a n g e w i t h each o t h e r . The 2 s t a g n a n t zones had low f l o w s and reduced exchange w i t h a d j a c e n t a c t i v e zones. This d i v i s i o n of t h e r e s e r v o i r is shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in F i g u r e 3.

3.2.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of V e g e t a t i o n and S o i l

Within each zone, t h e v e g e t a t i o n and s o i l s were grouped i n t o v e r t i c a l s t r a t a a t 10 m i n t e r v a l s (Fig. 4). Each s t r a t u m p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e i n i t i a l p r o c e s s of f r a g m e n t a t i o n and s o l u b i l i z a t i o n o n l y when f l o o d e d . In addition, t h e i n i t i a l p r o c e s s of l e a c h i n g occured o n l y t h e f i r s t t i m e a s t r a t u m w a s flooded.

4.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL

For each of t h e f i v e zones of t h e r e s e r v o i r , changes i n volume w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d as:

289

Fig. 1. The La Grande Hydroelectric Complex

Fig. 2.

Sampling Stations in the LG-2 Reservoir

290

Fig. 3.

Division of the L G 2 Reservoir into 5 Zones. Zones 1-3 are "Active", While Zones 4 and 5 are "Stagnant"

l50 mtram 15 m t r o t o

Fig. 4.

Division of the Vegetation and S o i l s into 10-1~Strata

291

with

ti:

volume of zone i Q i j : volume of water t r a n s f e r r e d from zone i t o zone j ( n o t e :

zone 0

i n c i d a t e s a s o u r c e or s i n k e x t e r n a l t o t h e r e s e r v o i r ) .

For t h e two s t a g n a n t zones ( 4 and 5), we i n c l u d e d a d d i t i o n a l f l o w s t o account f o r exchange w i t h t h e a d j a c e n t a c t i v e zones (1 and 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . The v a l u e s f o r t h e s e f l o w s were c a l i b r a t e d i n t h e model. For e a c h water q u a l i t y p a r a m e t e r a mass b a l a n c e was c a r r i e d out such that :

with ckf,ckj: Bki:

c o n c e n t r a t i o n of p a r a m e t e r k i n zones i and j r e s p e c t i vely b i o l o g i c a l and p h y s i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a f f e c t i n g c k i in zone i.

There were i n f a c t 4 c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in i n f l u e n t s t o t h e r e s e r v o i r . Two of t h e s e i n f l u e n t s were from n a t u r a l r i v e r s and t h e o t h e r two were from reserv o i r s . To a c c o u n t f o r s e d i m e n t a t i o n of e n t r a i n e d p a r t i c u l a t e s f o r t h e r i v e r f l o w s upon e n t e r i n g t h e r e s e r v o i r , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of carbon and phosphorus No such r e d u c t i o n i n both i n f l u e n t s were reduced by 60% and 80% r e s p e c t i v e l y . was made t o t h e i n f l u e n t s from t h e r e s e r v o i r s s i n c e s e d i m e n t a t i o n would a l r e a d y have o c c u r r e d p r i o r t o e n t r y i n t o LG-2. The compartment submodel f o r t h e b i o l o g i c a l and p h y s i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i s shown i n F i g u r e 5. The p r i n c i p a l k i n e t i c s of decomposition were i n c l u d e d . The t o t a l o r g a n i c material f l o o d e d (TOMF) was fragmented and p u l v e r i z e d i n t o p a r t i c u l a t e o r g a n i c matter (FOM). A t f i r s t c o n t a c t w i t h water a c e r t a i n amount of s o l u b l e material w a s l e a c h e d d i r e c t l y i n t o l a b i l e d i s s o l v e d o r g a n i c m a t t e r (DOM) and r e f r a c t o r y humic material (HUM). DOM and HUM a l s o r e c e i v e d m a t e r i a l M i n e r a l i z a t i o n of DOM and HUM produced ammofrom t h e s o l u b i l i z a t i o n of FOM. nium (NH4) and phosphate (FO4). NH4 w a s n i t r i f i e d t o produce n i t r i t e s a i t r a t e s (N03). S i n c e most of t h e s e r e a c t i o n s were b i o l o g i c a l , oxygen (02) was consumed and carbon d i o x i d e produced. For t h e s e two g a s e s t h e r e w a s a l s o exchange with t h e atmosphere, b u t t h e CO2 compartment was t r e a t e d o n l y a s a s i n k . For e a c h of t h e f i v e zones in t h e r e s e r v o i r t h r e e p a r a l l e l submodels were c o n s i d e r e d : one f o r s o i l s and one each f o r gymnosperm and angiosperm v e g e t a t i o n . The f i r s t two compartments (TOMF and FOM) were c o n s i d e r e d hy v e r t i c a l s t r a t a , and were i n terms of mass only. The o t h e r s were c o n s i d e r e d a s d i s s o l v e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . More d e t a i l s on t h e submodel can be o b t a i n e d from T h e r i e n and S p i l l e r [ 4 ] and T h e r i e n [ 6 ] , i n c l u d i n g r a t e f o r m u l a t i o n s and c o e f f i c i e n t values.

5.

AGGREGATION OF STATE VARIABLES

The decomposition submodel is very d e t a i l e d , and w a s o r i g i n a l l y c a l i b r a t e d t o equally detailed data. However, t h e d a t a a v a i l a b l e t o u s on w a t e r q u a l i t y Data on p h o s p h a t e s were scarce, of t h e LG-2 r e s e r v o i r was n o t a s d e t a i l e d . w h i l e t o t a l phosphorus w a s measured f r e q u e n t l y . C o n c e n t r a t i o n s of t h e n i t r o g e n

292

-

F i g . 5.

I c02

02

Compartment Submodel f o r Decomposition o f S o i l and V e g e t a t i o n

s p e c i e s hovered n e a r t h e l i m i t s of d e t e c t i o n , and s o could n o t be compared DOM and HUM w e r e not measured a s s u c h , but measur e l i a b l y w i t h model r e s u l t s . rements of o r g a n i c carbon were a v a i l a b l e . Oxygen w a s t h e o n l y s t a t e v a r i a b l e measured d i r e c t l y . This c r e a t e d d i f f i c u l t i e s a l s o f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n of i n f l o w s t o t h e r e s e r v o i r from r i v e r s hecause t h e r e w a s no way t o a l l o c a t e t h e i n f l o w i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t o t h e compartments of t h e d i f f e r e n t sub'models. To overcome t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s , two assumptions were made. The f i r s t was t h a t i n f l o w i n g carbon and phosphorus (and i n f a c t n i t r o g e n ) were n o t t a k i n g p a r t i n t h e decomposition p r o c e s s e s , and f o r them i t was a s i m p l e mass b a l a n c e s i t u a t i o n . The second assumption was t h a t f i x e d p e r c e n t a g e s of DOM and HUM compartments were composed of carhon and phosphorus. Theref o r e t h e model o u t p u t s were oxygen, o r g a n i c carbon and t o t a l phosphorus. For phosphorus, f o r example, t h i s means : ROTi =

f

j =1

(Ph HUMji

+

Pd DOMji

+

PO4

)

.ii

+

FNDi

w i t h PTOTi: t o t a l phosphorus c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n zone i %, Pd: p r o p o r t i o n of phosphorus i n H U M and DOM r e s p e c t i v e l y HUMji, DOMji: c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of H U M and DOM r e s p e c t i v e l y f o r submodel j ( 1 s o i l t y p e and 2 v e g e t a t i o n t y p e s ) in zone i phosphate c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r submodel j in zone i F04.j:: PNDi. c o n c e n t r a t i o n of non-decomposing phosphorus i n zone i

6.

MODEL SIMULATION

The model has been run f o r t h e p e r i o d of 1 / 1 1 / 7 8 t o 31/12/84. For t h e i n f l o w s and i n f l o w i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s d a t a were i n t e r p o l a t e d between o b s e r v a t i o n

293 p o i n t s . For t h e f i n a l 1.5 y e a r s d a t a were not a v a i l a b l e , and p a s t observed c y c l e s were r e p e a t e d f o r t h i s p e r i o d . The program is w r i t t e n in FORTRAN IV, r e q u i r e s less t h a n 108 K of memory, and t a k e s t h e e q u i v a l e n t of 100 seconds on a n IBM 3 7 0 / 1 5 8 t o e x e c u t e . 7.

RESULTS

S i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s f o r o r g a n i c carbon, t o t a l phosphorus and d i s s o l v e d A l l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are in oxygen are shown in F i g u r e s 6 , 7 and 8 r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Wix. For o r g a n i c carbon t h e r e is an i n i t i a l p u l s e , e s p e c i a l l y i n zone 1. Aside from t h i s , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s peak in 1981 i n zones 1-3, and i n 1982 i n zones 4 and 5 . T o t a l phosphorus peaks a t t h e same times i n t h e same zones. For d i s s o l v e d oxygen t h e r e is a n o t i c e a b l e s e a s o n a l e f f e c t (low in summer, high i n w i n t e r ) . Aside from t h i s , t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d in zone 1 is f o r a minimum i n 1981 followed by an i n c r e a s e . Zones 4 and 5 show t h e same t r e n d . Zones 2 and 3 show a c o n t i n u i n g d e c l i n e over t h e s i m u l a t i o n p e r i o d .

8. 8.1

DISCUSSION Baseline Simulation

For o r g a n i c carbon a p o i n t s h o u l d be made p r i o r t o d i s c u s s i n g t h e r e s u l t s . Zones 1-4 e x h i b i t a peak i n carbon in 1 9 7 9 , something not p r e d i c t e d by t h e model. Such a peak was noted throughout t h e t e r r i t o r y , i n c l u d i n g u n p e r t u r b e d l a k e s . This peak would t h e r e f o r e seem t o be due t o e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s , p o s s i b l y atmospheric.

loul

1015

1076-1815

F i g . 6.

O b s e r v a t i o n s and Model P r e d i c t i o n s f o r Organic Carbon

294 TOTAL

-

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Fig. 7.

.

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1976-18.5

1076-1MS

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18.5

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Observations and Model Predictions for Total Phosphorus

OISSOLVED OXYQN L.e/Il

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+-T--i 1080 20

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1060

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.

15

1000' 1015' 1076-1015

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1076-1985

Fig. 8.

Observations and Model Predictions for Dissolved Oxygen

295 Other t h a n t h i s , t h e t r e n d s p r e d i c t e d by t h e model a r e i n some agreement with observed t r e n d s a t a l l zones e x c e p t zone 5. Here t h e r e is an extreme underestimation. For t h e o t h e r zones t h e r e is a s e a s o n a l p a t t e r n i n t h e d a t a not w e l l r e f l e c t e d by t h e model. This is most l i k e l y due t o a l a c k of summer s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e model. h r i n g s t r a t i f i c a t i o n most decomposition w i l l occur i n t h e hypolimnion, and t h u s t h e lower s t r a t a w i l l c o n t a i n most of t h e n u t r i e n t s . Over t h e summer t h e n u t r i e n t s i n t h e e p i l i m n i o n w i l l be consumed with only minor r e p l e n i s h m e n t . A t t u r n o v e r , t h e e n t i r e w a t e r column is mixed and n u t r i e n t s i n t h e e p i l i m n i o n a r e r e p l e n i s h e d f o r t h e next period of s t r a t i fication. W r i o d s of t u r n o v e r w i l l correspond t o maxima i n n u t r i e n t s i n t h e The model does f o l l o w t h e observed maxima in zones 1-4. s u r f a c e waters. An e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s i s t h e f i r s t two y e a r s i n zone 3. There t h e model u n d e r e s t i m a t e s carbon l e v e l s by about 30%. For zone 5 t h e model u n d e r e s t i m a t e s carbon g r e a t l y u n t i l t h e l a s t y e a r of t h e s i m u l a t i o n . W e w i l l r e t u r n t o a d i s c u s s i o n of zone 5 f u r t h e r on.

For t o t a l phosphorus t h e model shows v e r y good agreement w i t h t h e t r e n d s i n t h e d a t a f o r a l l zones. As w i t h carbon, t h e p r e d i c t i o n s f o l l o w t h e maxima of t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s , and t h e same comment on t u r n o v e r a p p l i e s h e r e . For d i s s o l v e d oxygen t h e model p r e d i c t i o n s f o l l o w t h e observed w i n t e r maxima f a i r l y w e l l f o r zones 1-3, but do not drop t o t h e observed minima. This is an e s p e c i a l l y s t r o n g i n d i c a t i o n of t h e importance of t u r n o v e r , s i n c e t h e minima w i l l correspond t o t h e mixture of s u r f a c e w a t e r w i t h t h e o x y g e n s t a r v e d w a t e r of t h e hypolimnion. For zone 4 t h e r e is some o v e r e s t i m a t i o n of even t h e maxima, while o v e r e s t i m a t i o n is s e v e r e f o r zone 5. Whether t h e two s t a t i o n s i n t h e s t a g n a n t zones are r e p r e s e n t a t i v e or n o t is q u e s t i o n a b l e . They are both somewhat i s o l a t e d from t h e zones i n which t h e y are i n c l u d e d , e s p e c i a l l y G2405 f o r zone 5. This s t a t i o n is l o c a t e d i n a relat i v e l y small l a k e connected t o t h e r e s e r v o i r by a .5 km-ide channel. Even b e f o r e t h e s u r r o u n d i n g land w a s f l o o d e d due t o a r a i s e d water l e v e l , t h i s l a k e had a h i g h i n p u t of a l l o c h t o n o u s carbon ( a s can be s e e n from t h e o r g a n i c carbon c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b e f o r e f l o o d i n g ) . The model does not have t h e s p a t i a l r e f i n e S i n c e t h e model does not ment t o account f o r such a l o c a l i z e d s i t u a t i o n . account f o r t h i s v e r y l o c a l i z e d i n p u t , i t cannot p r e d i c t t h e i n c r e a s e d oxygen consumption e i t h e r , t h u s e x p l a i n i n g t h e o v e r e s t i m a t i o n of oxygen. Unfortunatel y , G2405 is t h e o n l y s t a t i o n i n zone 5. S t a t i o n G2403 i n zone 4 i s a l s o somewhat i s o l a t e d from t h e rest of t h e a s s o c i a t e d zone, a l t h o u g h t h i s i s o l a t i o n is less pronounced. The s t a t i o n is l o c a t e d in t h e mouth of a bay on t h e east s i d e of t h a t zone. Even 62404 may not be a good r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of zone 3. It is a t t h e s o u t h e r n edge of t h i s zone. However, c u r r e n t s i n zone 3 are f a s t and a g r e a t d e a l of mixing o c c u r s h e r e . For zones 1 and 2, t h e s t a t i o n s are c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d and s h o u l d r e p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n s a d e q u a t e l y .

9.

CONCLUSIONS

The model is c a p a b l e of p r e d i c t i n g w i t h f a i r l y good a c c u r a c y t h e e v o l u t i o n of o r g a n i c carbon, t o t a l phosphorus and d i s s o l v e d oxygen in a l a r g e r e s e r v o i r following flooding. P r e d i c t i o n s d e p a r t from o b s e r v a t i o n s i n one zone i n p a r t i c u l a r , but t h e s a m p l i f g s t a t i o n i n t h i s zone a p p e a r s t o be a t y p i c a l . In i t s p r e s e n t form t h e model can be adapted e a s i l y t o any p r o j e c t e d r e s e r v o i r i f a p p r o p r i a t e pre-innundation d a t a are a v a i l a b l e .

The i n c l u s i o n of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n would improve t h e f i d e l i t y of t h e model even f u r t h e r f o r r e s e r v o i r s where s t r a t i f i c a t i o n w i l l occur. This would e f f e c -

296

t i v e l y double t h e number of d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s t o be s o l v e d , but t h a t should n o t p r e s e n t g r e a t d i f f i c u l t i e s a s t h e memory and e x e c u t i o n time r e q u i r e ments of t h e model a r e modest. The model r e p r e s e n t s a very powerful t o o l for a s s e s s i n g t h e impact of reservoir creation. D i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i n g s c e n a r i o s can be compared e a s i l y by changing f l o w r a t e s a n d / o r s u r f a c e a r e a s and volumes t o be f l o o d e d . REFERENCES 1.

Maystrenko, Y.G. and Eknisova, A . I . , "Method of f o r e c a s t i n g t h e c o n t e n t of o r g a n i c and b i o g e n i c s u b s t a n c e s in t h e w a t e r of e x i s t i n g and planned r e s e r v o i r s " , S o v i e t Hydrology, 6, 514-540 (1972).

2.

" I n f l u e n c e des s o l s e t a r b r e s noyes s u r q u e l q u e s c a r a c t e S e r o d e s , J.B., r i s t i q u e s chimiques de l ' e a u du r e s e r v o i r LG-2", Can. Water Res. J., 7 ( 1 ) , 355-374 (1982).

3.

de B r o i s s i a , M., Marcos, B. and Coupal, B., " P r e d i c t i o n of t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of n u t r i e n t s i n r e s e r v o i r s " , i n T h e r i e n , N. ( e d i t o r ) , "Simulating t h e Environmental Impact of a Large H y d r o e l e c t r i c P r o j e c t " , S i m u l a t i o n La J o l l a , C a l i f . (1981). Proceedings 9 ( 2 ) , 71-84, S.C.S.,

4.

T h e r i e n , N. and S p i l l e r , G., "A mathematical model of t h e decomposition of f l o o d e d v e g e t a t i o n i n r e s e r v o i r s " , i n T h e r i e n , N. ( e d i t o r ) , "Simulating t h e Environmental Impact of a Large H y d r o e l e c r i c P r o j e c t " , S i m u l a t i o n Proceedings 9 ( 2 ) , 87-98, S.C.S., La J o l l a , C a l i f . (1981).

5.

T h e r i e n , N., S p i l l e r , G. and Coupal, B., "Simulation de l a decomposition de l a matie're v e g e t a l e e t des s o l s inondes dans les r e s e r v o i r s de l a reg i o n de l a Baie de James", Can. Water Res. J., 7 ( 1 ) , 375-396 (1982).

6.

T h e r i e n , N., " E f f e t s de l a decomposition de l a v e g e t a t i o n e t d e s s o l s i n o n d e s s u r l a q u a l i t 6 des eaux du r e s e r v o i r LG-2", James Bay Energy Corp o r a t i o n , 162 p., Montreal (1983).

7.

F'ayre, G. and de B r o i s s i a , M., "@placements des masses d ' e a u " , Energy C o r p o r a t i o n , 48 p., Montreal (1983).

8.

Soucy, A., "An i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e James Bay h y d r o - e l e c t r i c p r o j e c t " , i n ThBrien, N. ( e d i t o r ) , " S i m u l a t i n g t h e Environmental Impact of a Large H y d r o e l e c t r i c P r o j e c t " , S i m u l a t i o n Proceedings 9 ( 2 ) , 1-5, S.C.S., La J o l l a , C a l i f . (1981).

James Bay

297

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - hinted in The Netherlands

AUTOMATED MULTISPECIES B I O S E N S I N G SYSTEM AND DEVELOPMEN : REAL-TIME WATER QUALITY MONITORING

ADVANCES

N

E. L. Morgan Environmental Biology Research Program Tennessee Technological U n i v e r s i t y 38505, U.S.A. Cookevi 1 l e , Tennessee

R. C. Young O f f i c e o f N a t u r a l Resources U. S. Tennessee V a l l e y A u t h o r i t y Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660, U.S.A. ABSTRACT The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s study was t o develop an automated computer-assisted m u l t i p l e species biosensing u n i t f o r stream-side water q u a l i t y monitoring. Groups o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e freshwater animals from several t r o p h i c l e v e l s were s e l e c t e d as t e s t s u b j e c t s f o r t h e automated biomonitor, i n c l u d i n g f i s h , immature insects, and mussels. Emphasis was placed on system design, hardware development, data management, and on i n i t i a l observations o f s p e c i e s - s p e c i f i c responses t h a t c o u l d be used as c r i t e r i a f o r j u d g i n g water q u a l i t y f i t n e s s . S p e c i a l l y designed d i f f e r e n t i a l a m p l i f i e r s f o r d e t e c t i n g selected b i o e l e c t r i c responses from u n r e s t r a i n e d s u b j e c t s were i n t e r f a c e d t o a 1 6 - b i t instrument a t i o n minicomputer. Analogue response s i g n a l s generated by f i s h g i l l v e n t i l a t o r y movements, mayfly nymph g i l l beats, and t h e mussel Quadrula, c a r d i a c events were d i g i t i z e d and s t o r e d on d i s k f i l e s as events per u n i t time. Results from t h i s study revealed t h a t a m u l t i p l e species b i o m o n i t o r designed t o d e t e c t s e l e c t e d b i o l o g i c a l responses generated by i n d i v i d u a l s from d i f f e r e n t freshwater t r o p i c groups can be measured simultaneously and data bases managed f o r real-time acquisition. Changes i n response r a t e s may then be viewed i n l i g h t o f f l u c t u a t i n g environmental c o n d i t i o n s and b o t h b i o l o g i c a l and chemical/ p h y s i c a l water q u a l i t y data f i l e s may be a c c e s s i b l e through v a r i o u s communic a t i o n systems.

1.

INTRODUCTION

Automated b i o l o g i c a l m o n i t o r i n g systems designed t o d e t e c t t o x i c a n t induced s t r e s s responses i n a q u a t i c animals have t y p i c a l l y r e l i e d upon a s i n g l e v e r t e b r a t e animal, t h e f i s h , for sensing water q u a l i t y changes [ I ] . From these systems, s t r e s s d e t e c t i o n has been measured as a change i n g i l l v e n t i l a t o r y frequency and cough a c t i v i t y , c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n , and selected b e h a v o r i a l and p h y s i o l o g i c a l responses. Though e f f e c t i v e i n many a p p l i c a t i o n s , i t appears u n l i k e l y t h a t f i s h alone w i l l be responsive t o t h e complex m a t r i x o f p o t e n t i a l t o x i c a n t s o c c u r r i n g i n a m u l t i p l e - u s e water resource. Therefore, i n attempts t o reduce t h e i n h e r e n t b i a s o f depending on a single-species o r animal group f o r j u d g i n g community t o x i c i t y and t o b e t t e r complement a q u a t l c e c o l o g i c a l q u a l l t y c o n t r o l programs, we propose a computer-assisted biosensing u n i t designed t o generate r e a l - t i m e b i o l o g i c a l response d a t a from groups o f d i f f e r e n t types of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e freshwater animals. By viewing b i o l o g i c a l response I n f o r m a t i o n from m u l t i p l e species i n 1 i g h t o f simultaneously d e r l v e d physlcal/chemical water qua1 I t y data, and comparing t h i s r e a l - t i m e i n f o r m a t i o n base t o h i s t o r i c a l and p r o j e c t e d trends,

298 increased l e v e l s o f confidence may be r e a l i z e d i n a p r e d i c t i v e / r e a c t i v e program f o r m a i n t a i n i n g a q u a t i c e c o l o g i c a l i n t e g r i t y [ 2 ] .

2.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Our s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e i n t h i s study was t o design an automated computera s s i s t e d m u l t i p l e species biosensing u n i t f o r stream-side water q u a l i t y m o n i t o r i n g employing freshwater v e r t e b r a t e s and i n v e r t e b r a t e s r e p r e s e n t i n g several t r o p h i c l e v e l s , i n c l u d i n g t h e b l u e g i l l s u n f i s h (Lepomis macrochirus), the immature i n s e c t nymph (Hexagenia spp.), and t h e washboard mussel (Quadrula quadrula). I n meeting t h i s o b j e c t i v e , emphasis was placed on system design, hardware development, and s o f t w a r e managements programs. The s e l e c t i o n o f t e s t organisms f o r t h i s development study was based p r i m a r i l y upon a v a i l a b i l i t y s i n c e our i n i t i a l research reveals t h a t numerous members o f these groups as w e l l as s e l e c t e d types from v a r i o u s o t h e r groups work e q u a l l y w e l l as t e s t subjects.

3.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

I n i t i a l research and development work was c a r r i e d o u t i n a mobile research l a b o r a t o r y operated by t h e U. S. Tennessee V a l l e y A u t h o r i t y (TVA) near the Tennessee River, Muscle Shoals, AL. Sand f i l t e r e d r i v e r water was used i n these t e s t s . During t h i s phase o f t h e study, techniques and procedures f o r m o n i t o r i n g b i o e l e c t r i c s i g n a l s produced by v a r i o u s p h y s i o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n s from t h e mussel and mayfly nymph s u b j e c t s were developed, incorpora t i n g m o d i f i e d methods p r e v i o u s l y t e s t e d i n automated f i s h b i o m o n i t o r i n g

[ 3 , 4 , 51. Once m o n i t o r i n g techniques had been r e f i n e d , design requirements f o r response s i g n a l a m p l i f i c a t i o n , i n t e r f a c e e l e c t r o n i c s , computer hardware, and data management systems were i d e n t i f i e d . Important t o these requirements was the o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t each animal t y p e induced rhythmic analog e l e c t r o magnetic frequencies associated w i t h s p e c i f i c p h y s i o l o g i c a l functions t h a t c o u l d be selected f o r , i.e., h e a r t rates, b r e a t h i n g p a t t e r n s .

3.1.

B i o l o g i c a l Considerations

F i s h t e s t chambers were m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f those used i n previous s t u d i e s Employing a tube chamber design which housed a s i n g l e f r e e swimming f i s h , a p a i r o f probe-type antennae were arranged on t h e tube i n s p e c i f i c c o n f i g u r a t i o n s f o r r e c e i v i n g t h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c frequencies generated by each g i l l v e n t i l a t o r y response (breath).

[ 4 , 51.

Mayfly nymph chambers were designed along a s i m i l a r plan, s i n c e t h e nymphs s e l e c t e d d i s p l a y a unique behavior o f "burrowing" i n t o acceptable Once substrate thus forming a tube-type tunnel w i t h i n which they l i v e . e s t a b l i s h e d t h i s a q u a t i c i n s e c t s e t s up a rhythmic p e r i s t o l f c o s c i l l a t i o n o f i t s many p a i r e d abdominal g i l l s . Should an acceptable s u b s t r a t e f o r developi n g a burrow n o t be present, t h e nymph w i l l t y p i c a l l y seek an a l t e r n a t e tube chamber o r s i m i l a r s h e l t e r ; i n o u r case an a r t i f i c i a l tube chamber. Our a r t i f i c i a l tube chambers c o n s i s t e d o f v a r i o u s s i z e s o f tygon o r p l a s t i c t u b i n g which had been equipped w i t h micro-probe antennae. W i t h i n these tube chambers, the apparent electromagnetic frequencies produced d u r i n g g i l l o s c i l l a t i o n s could r e a d i l y be measured by r o u t i n e e l e c t r o p h y s i o l o g y methods.

--

299 The washboard mussel c a r d i a c a c t l v i t y was monitored by a t t a c k i n g microprobe antennae t o t h e valves and n e q r - t h e c a r d i a c r e g i o n o f t h e anlmal. One technlque r e q u i r e d t h e placement o f antennae through 1-2 mn diameter openings d r i l l e d i n t h e umbo ( r a l s e d area on each v a l v e adjacent t o t h e hlnge) o f t h e shell. These antennae were arranged so t h a t they r e s t e d between t h e i n n e r surface o f t h e v a l v e ( s h e l l ) and the animal (mantle). They were n o t i n s e r t e d i n t o the tlssue. This arrangement p r o v i d e d access t o t h e b i o e l e c t r i c a c t l v i t i e s generated d u r i n g p e r i s t o l i c c o n t r a c t i o n s o f t h e h e a r t . I n t h e m o n i t o r i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n , one o f each species was placed i n a m o d i f i e d 38 L r e c t a n g u l a r glass a q u a r i a w i t h s l a t e bottom. These aquaria were adapted w i t h stand-pipes f o r t h e removal o f water from t h e bottom and received continuous once-through f l o w s o f r i v e r water. B l w e g i l l s housed i n tube chambers and mollusk were placed on t h e s l a t e bottoms w h i l e an a r t i f i c i a l tube chamber c o n t a i n i n g mayfly nymph was placed i n a subcompartment and f l o a t e d a t t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e aquaria. M a y f l y subcompartments a l s o received continuous flows and were equipped w i t h stand-pipes. For systems t e s t i n g , f o u r m o d i f i e d aquaria thus equipped were used.

3.2.

Computer-Assisted M o n i t o r

S p e c i a l l y designed d i f f e r e n t i a l d.c. powered a m p l i f i e r s were constructed w i t h v a r i a b l e g a i n and d.c. o f f - s e t . One a m p l i f i e r was used f o r each animal and t h e g a i n and f i l t e r s e t t o read t h e s p e c i f i c analog frequency desired. Undesirable h i g h frequency n o i s e was f i l t e r e d a t t h e i n i t i a l stages o f amplification. A m p l i f i e r s were i n t e r f a c e d t o a 1 6 - b i t Texas Instrument i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n minicomputer w i t h CRT terminals, p r i n t e r , duel sided h i g h d e n s i t y f l o p p i e s (1.2 H b i t e ) and modem. Responses were a m p l i f i e d up t o 10 times, d i g i t i z e d , and s t o r e d i n r e g i s t e r s u n t i l inputed t o t h e computer f o r f i l i n g on d i s k as designated i n t h e ROM program. The complete automated computer-assisted b i o m o n i t o r i n g system (ACABS) was an updated v e r s i o n o f the automated f i s h r e s p i r a t i o n m o n i t o r i n g system (AFIRHS) r e p o r t e d r e c e n t l y [S], which was f a b r i c a t e d by t h e Data Services Branch, TVA.

4.

RESULTS AND D I S C U S S I O N

An important t a s k i n meeting t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s study was f i r s t t o c o n f i r m t h a t v i s u a l l y observed b i o l o g i c a l responses, such as h e a r t r a t e and g i l l beats, were those represented by t h e analog frequencies seen a f t e r amplification. U l t i m a t e l y , these responses then had t o be v e r i f i e d w i t h t h e i r d i g i t a l e q u i v a l e n t s seen i n t h e computer out-put. Comparing v i s u a l counts o f f i s h g i l l beats t o e l e c t r o n i c a l l y produced analog frequencies and d i g i t a l e q u i v a l e n t s was r e a d i l y o b t a i n a b l e and i s g e n e r a l l y accepted [l]. Mayfly nymph g i l l o s c i l l a t i o n s were e a s i l y v e r i f i e d i n a s i m i l a r manner by d i r e c t l y observing t h e number o f g i l l events produced p e r u n i t time and comparing t h i s r a t e t o t h e simultaneously recorded number counted on a s t r i p c h a r t graph and computer out-put. V e r i f i c a t i o n o f mollusk c a r d i a c events a c t u a l l y observed t o events simultaneously recorded e l e c t r o n i c a l l y d u r i n g t h e same time i n t e r v a l was not accomplished w i t h o u t m o d i f y i n g t h e mussel s h e l l . This was done by c u t t i n g a "window'@ i n one v a l v e and s e a l i n g t h a t opening w i t h a glass p l a t e . I n doing so, t h e animal c o u l d m a i n t a i n normal homeostasis and hydrodynamic pressures w h i l e observing c a r d i a c responses. The t e s t mussel was a l s o equipped w i t h a micro-probe antennae c o n f i g u r a t i o n v i a t h e umbo i n s e r t i o n method. Thus, d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n o f c a r d i a c p e r i s t o l i c r a t e s c o u l d be c o r r e l a t e d t o

300 physiographic s t r i p c h a r t and computer p r i n t o u t data. Employing several s e t s o f observation/verification t e s t s w i t h mussels and mayfly nymphs, we provided c o n f i r m a t i o n t h a t the p h y s i o l o g i c a l responses observed were indeed represented by t h e a m p l i f i e r output. These responses were then seen as d i g i t a l e q u i v a l e n t s i n t h e computer p r i n t o u t . I n s i g h t gained from these t e s t s helped d i r e c t t h e f i n a l a m p l i f i e r design, t h e s p e c i f i c computer hardware c o n f i g u r a t i o n and program management system f o r data f i l e s and retrieval

.

The data management program was w r i t t e n and placed i n ROM (read o n l y memory) w i t h a v a r i a b l e format f o r data i n p u t and d i s p l a y . This allowed continuous data a c q u i s i t i o n from 1 t o 59 min and was s p e c i f i e d as " c o l l e c t i n g " i n the readout. A w a i t i n t e r v a l when no data would be taken had s i m i l a r limits. Data f i l e d on d i s k would be l i s t e d by year, month, day, hour, and minute as t o t a l events per i n d i v i d u a l t e s t s u b j e c t , c o l l e c t i o n i n t e r v a l i n minutes, and t h e number o f events per minute. The window d i s p l a y e d by the t e r m i n a l included these l i s t i n g s f o r groups o f e i g h t i n d i v i d u a l t e s t subjects a t a t i m e w i t h an update each minute. S t r a t e g i e s f o r e a r l y warning d e t e c t i o n s o f water q u a l i t y changes and i n c r e a s i n g p o l l u t i o n have been discussed i n d e t a i l [l, 6 , 7, 8, 91. T y p i c a l l y , by recording b i o l o g i c a l responses o f t e s t s u b j e c t s w h i l e maintained under ambient o r reference c o n d i t i o n s , one develops a data base upon which t o compare responses displayed d u r i n g s t r e s s f u l 1 periods. This approach w i t h groups o f d i f f e r e n t types o f a q u a t i c animals c o u l d improve t h e d e t e c t i o n l i m i t s and confidence l e v e l o f a r e a l - t i m e e a r l y warning b i o m o n i t o r i n g system. Combining t h e ACABS as a m u l t i p l e species sensing device w i t h simultaneously d e r i v e d water q u a l i t y data c o u l d p r o v i d e p o s i t i v e reinforcement t o d e c i s i o n s concerning developing t o x i c i t y . Arguments f o r i n c o r p o r a t i n g more than a s i n g l e species i n an automated b i o m o n i t o r i n g system, c l o s e l y f o l l o w s i m i l a r arguments a g a i n s t t h e use o f a s i n g l e species t o x i c i t y t e s t f o r i n f o r c i n g a t o x i c s r e d u c t i o n p l a n intended f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e r e c e i v i n g stream and i t s e c o l o g i c a l q u a l i t y [lo].

5.

CONCLUSIONS

The design and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e automated computer-assisted b i o m o n i t o r i n g system f o r m u l t i p l e species m o n i t o r i n g was shown t o be f e a s i b l e i n t h i s study. Though we were a b l e t o operate t h e system u s i n g groups o f t h r e e d i f f e r e n t types o f a q u a t i c animals i n a stream-side f a c i l i t y under ambient water q u a l i t y c o n d i t i o n s , a d d i t i o n a l t e s t i n g needs t o be done w i t h t o x i c treatments and v a r y i n g water q u a l i t y regimes. I n t h i s study we s e l e c t e d t o use a represent a t i v e f i s h , immature a q u a t i c i n s e c t and mollusk; however, p r e l i m i n a r y work shows t h a t a m u l t i t u d e o f o t h e r i n v e r t e b r a t e species w i t h i n these and o t h e r groups may be employed as biosensors. A d d i t i o n a l l y , we have found t h a t under stream-side l a b o r a t o r y conditions, b l u e g i l l can be maintained i n t h e t e s t chambers f o r up t o 2 y r s w h i l e t h e burrowing mayfly nymph has been monitored continuously f o r several months i n an a r t i f i c i a l burrow under s i m i l a r conditions. To date, mussels have been maintained i n t h e automated system and t h e i r c a r d i a c and o t h e r f u n c t i o n s recorded i n t e r m i t t e n t l y f o r p e r i o d s approaching 1 yr. We f e e l t h a t f u t u r e problems w i l l n o t r e s t e n t i r e l y w i t h the e l e c t r o n i c s as i t has i n t h e past, b u t w i l l p r i m a r i l y be encountered i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l aspects o f t h e m o n i t o r i n g system. F i n a l l y , we b e l l e v e t h e use o f m u l t i p l e species i n automated b i o m o n i t o r i n g systems can p r o v i d e a reasonable complement t o e c o l o g i c a l q u a l i t y c o n t r o l programs and t o x i c s r e d u c t i o n monitoring.

301 REFERENCES

1.

Cairns, J., Press Ltd.,

2.

Cairns, J., Jr., " P r e d i c t i v e and Reactive Systems f o r Aquatic Ecosystem Q u a l i t y Control," S c i e n t i f i c Basis o f Water-Resour. Mgt., Geophy. Study Committee, Nat. Res. Council, Nat. Acad. Press, Washington, 1982, pp. 72-84.

3.

Morgan, E. L., Eagleson, K. W., Herrmann, R. 6 McCollough, N. D., "New Developments i n Automated Biosensing from Remote Water Q u a l i t y S t a t i o n s and S a t e l l i t e Data R e t r i e v a l f o r Resources Management," k: Water f o r S u r v i v a l , J. Hydrol., 1981, 51(4), pp. 339-345.

4.

Morgan, E. L. and Eagleson, K. W., "Automated Biomonitoring A p p l i c a t i o n s i n Remote Water Q u a l i t y S u r v e i l l a n c e and Time Rated T o x i c o l o g i c a l Assay," Tech. Rpt. No. 86, Tenn. Water Resour. Res. Center, 1982.

5.

"Automated Biosensing A p p l i c a t i o n s Morgan, E. L., and Young, R. C., (Using F i s h Breathing Responses) i n M o n i t o r i n g Acid D e p o s i t i o n Events," Proc. 1983 Sympo. on Surface Mining, Hydrology, Sedimentology and Reclamation, B u l l . No. 133, Univ. Ky., Lexington, 1983, pp. 305-308.

6.

Cairns, J,, Jr., Sparks, R. E. 6 Waller, W. T., "The Use o f F i s h as Sensors i n I n d u s t r i a l Waste Lines t o Prevent F i s h K i l l s , " Hydrobiol., 41(2), pp. 151-167.

7.

Jr., " B i o l o g i c a l M o n i t o r i n g i n Water P o l l u t i o n , " Oxford, England, 1982.

Pergamon

H a l l , J. W., Morgan, E. L., Sparks, R. E., Waller, Cairns, J., Jr., W. T., 6 Westlake, F. G., "The Development of an Automated B i o l o g i c a l A Symposium o f t h e M o n i t o r i n g System f o r Water Q u a l i t y Management." Seventh Annual Conference on Trace Substances i n Environmental Health, V I I , pp. 35-40, 1974. In: Trace Substances i n Environmental H e a l t h

-

8.

Bonner, W. P. 6 Morgan, E. L., "On-Line S u r v e i l l a n c e o f I n d u s t r i a l E f f l u e n t s Employing Chemical Physical Methods and F i s h as Sensors,'' Tech. Report No. B-OSOTN, Tennessee Wat. Resour. Res. Center, Univ. Tennessee, Knoxvi 1 l e , TN, 1976.

9.

Dickson, D. L., Gruber, D., King, C., 6 Lubenski, K., " B i o l o g i c a l M o n i t o r i n g to Provide an E a r l y Warning o f Environmental Contaminants." In: B i o l o g i c a l M o n i t o r i n g f o r Envlronmental E f f e c t s , pp. 53-74, 1980.

10.

Cairns, J., Jr., "Are S i n g l e Species T o x i c i t y Tests Alone Adequate f o r E s t i m a t i n g Environmental Hazard?", Hydrobiologia, 1983, 100, pp.

47-57.

1973,

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroau Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Ameterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherland

303

EFFECTS OF pH ON CHROMIUM ADSORPTION IN GROUNDWATER

John T. Mason 111 Department of Chemical Engineering Tennessee Technological University Cookeville , Tennessee 38505 , USA David R. Leonard Department of Chemical Engineering Texas A & M University College Station, Texas 77843, USA

ABSTRACT Samples of groundwater contaminated with chromium were passed through adsorption columns to determine the effects of pH on adsorption rate. The water, with contaminants other than chromium, was used to determine the most effective adsorbent to use as part of an overall abatement process. In this study, material from three separate adsorbent manufacturers were compared and it was found that a wide variation in capabilities exists. Equilibrium studies eliminated one of the four adsorbents initially under investigation and indicated the pH values for additional study. Dynamic studies at a pH varying from 3 to 8 were performed as part of a matrix with flow rate and adsorbent dosage. It was found that only two of the remaining adsorbents would reduce the chromium concentration lower than the EPA standard of 0.05 mg/l during dynamic studies. Although both adsorbents reduced the chromium to the desired level , one, a new fibrous material containing an anion exchange resin, performed best at the neutral pH of the water. The other material, activated carbon, also performed well but required a pH of approximately 6.4. 1.

INTRODUCTION

It has been proven that disposing of industrial and other wastes in air, soil, and water is damaging the environment. Until recently, however, the removal of dissolved minerals from wastewater has been given relatively little attention, because minerals have been considered to be less of a pollution hazard than other constituents, such as organic matter and suspended solids. Chromium is one of the heavy metals which is considered to be highly toxic, and the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of pH on the removal of low concentrations o f chromium from a contaminated aquifer. +3Chromium occurs ips aqueous systems as the divalent (Cr+2 ), trivalent (Cr ) , or hexavalent (Cr ) ion. Hexavalent chromium is the ion of concern and is present in indgstrial wastes primarily in the form of chromate (CrO ) and dichromate (Cr 0, ). Although the largest potential sources of chromfum pollution in wat& streams are the metallurgical and metal finishing industries, chromium is comnonly used in a wide variety of industrial processes such as: pigment manufactures , leather tanneries, textile industries, and as a corrosion inhibitor in cooling towers and boilers. At one location in Alabama,

local groundwater was contaminated by the

304

discharge of various organic materials and dissolved chromium from an unknown source. The Clean Water Act (PL 95-217), passed by the United States Congress in 1976, discusses the standards for contamination levels of various organic and inorganic materials in waste streams being discharged into the environment [l]. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been charged with implementing this law and has published maximum contaminant levels that are a1 1 owabl e. An analysis of the groundwater used in this study [2] showing the major contaminants and the current EPA Standards for these contaminants are given in Table 1. Since the groundwater contained levels o f contaminants that exceed the established standards, the water required treatment to reduce the levels of contaminants. Preliminary studies by the organization responsible for the cleanup of the groundwater indicated that the volatile organics may be reduced to acceptable levels by air stripping but chromium remained as a contaminant of major concern. Table 1. Analysis of Alabama groundwater and current EPA Standards Contaminant

CIS & trans 1,2 Dichloroethane Trichloroethylene 2 Methyl Phenol Total Chromium Hexavalent Chromium

Concentration mgll 0.053 0.240

EPA Standard [l] mgll 0.0094 0.027

0.070 0.770

*

0.750

0.05

*

* None established at this time. 2. OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH

There are several techniques now available for the removal o f chromium from wastewater. Reduction of hexavalent chromium to trivalent chromium and subsequent hydroxide precipitation of the trivalent chromium ion is the most comnon method of hexavalent chromium removal [3]. The use of ion exchange resins to adsorb metals such as chromium has been well established, and to meet current EPA Standards some industries have adopted ion exchange ANDO, Inc. has techniques to treat :chromium ions in wastestreams [4]. developed an electrochemical treatment for the reduction of hexavalent In recent years many studies have been chromium to the trivalent form [5]. conducted in the area of activated carbon material as a possible adsorbent for chromium [6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16]. In most of the above processes the effect of pH has been determined to have a significant effect on the removal of chromium ions from wastewater. In addition to pH, the adsorption of a contaminant from the liquid phase is also influenced by surface functional groups and polarity of the contaminant. Functional groups on the surface of activated carbons and ion exchange resins allow- cation- or anion exchange with ions in the liquid depending upon the nature of the groups. Hydrogen and hydroxide ions are removed quite readily by adsorbents and may hinder or enhance the adsorption of other ions from solution [17]. When the solvent for the contaminant is

305

water, increased polarity of the contaminant usually inhibits adsorption. Generally adsorption increases as pH decreases. The pH of the solution also influences the solubility of ions. Shinskey has shown that chromium ions may precipitate due to pH changes in solution C181. In light of the above information it is evident that the effect of pH on adsorption must be considered in the removal of chromium from groundwater. The objective of this research was to study the experimental effects of pH on adsorption of chromium by both carbon and ion exchange materials. 3.

EXPERIMENTS

Adsorption studies are normally conducted in two phases. Phase one, the equilibrium study, is done to determine the maximum capability of the adsorbent in the specific contaminant/solution system. Phase two, the dynamic study, establishes factors to determine the rate at which the adsorbent is saturated in a flowing system. Experiments were conducted with four different adsorbents as shown in Table 2. These were chosen to represent a variety of adsorbents and do not necessarily constitute the ultimate in chromium removal capabilities. The main purpose of the experiments being to determine the preliminary effects of pH on removal, it was considered important to see where each type would fail. Table 2. Adsorbents used for chromium removal from groundwater Adsorbent Fi 1 trasorb 300 Ecosorb C Duolite ES-765 Ecosorb R

3.1.

Manufacturer Cal gon Graver Water Company Diamond Shamrock Graver Water Company

Type Activated Carbon Carbon Based Adsorbent Carbon Based Adsorbent Fibrous Material Containing Anion Exchange Resin

Equilibrium Studies

Equilibrium studies are usually accomplished by putting a known amount of adsorbent into a given volume o f liquid that has a known initial concentration of contaminant. The system is allowed to come to equilibrium at a selected temperature and the final contaminant concentration in the liquid phase is measured. The concentration change is then used to calculate the amount of contaminant adsorbed. From this, an isotherm is produced which relates concentration change per unit weight of adsorbent. Most equilibrium data follow one of three comnonly used models for the isotherm: the Brunaer, Emnett, and Teller (BET) isotherm; C191 the Langmuir isotherm [ZO] or the Freundlich isotherm [Zl]. The Freundlich model is the most c o m n isotherm and was found to be appropriate for this study. The Freundlich isotherm i s an exponential model and can be represented by the linear expression:

306

where: x m c n

= = = = K =

amount of contaminant adsorbed (mg/l) mass of adsorbent (grams) equilibrium concentration of contaminant in solution (mg/l) constant (reciprocal of the slope) Freundlich adsorption coefficient (intercept at c = 1)

In Equation 1, the constants are indicative of the adsorbent ability to remove a contaminant from solution. High K and high n values indicate high adsorption throughout the concentration range studied. A low K and high n indicates a low adsorption throughout the concentration range studied. A low n value, or steep slope, indicates high adsorption at strong solute concentrations and low adsorption at dilute concentrations. Based on the initial concentration a value for (x/m)co can be obtained which represents the ultimate adsorptive capacity at the conditions tested. From the (x/m) value the total quantity of liquid that can be treated is calculated usingCothe formula :

where: Wco (x/m)co

=

W co

= =

=

theoretical weight of liquid that can be treated per unit weight of adsorbent theoretical amount of contaminant that can be removed per unit weight of adsorbent based on the initial concentration of contaminant weight of liquid used in the equilibrium study initial concentration of contaminant

Equation 2 is used to identify suitable adsorbents and determine appropriate flow rates in the dynamic studies. 3.2.

Dynamic Studies

Dynamic studies are conducted with a steady flow of contaminated solution through a column packed with adsorbent. The adsorbent becomes saturated with the contaminant in layers somewhat similar to a chromatograph column. As the contaminated solution continues to flow the saturated layer moves preceeded by a mass transfer zone, until the entire column is saturated. This is displayed graphically on a breakthrough curve which relates volume of solution to the ratio of final concentration over initial concentration. Most breakthrough curves are shaped like an s with the concentration ratio increasing rapidly once the leading edge of the mass transfer zone reaches the end of the column. This is the break point. A number of factors determine the shape of the breakthrough curve and the flow rate of the feed, composition and thickness of the mass transfer zone:

;

307

concentration of the contaminants i n the feed, temperature, and pH. An increase i n flowrate increases the thickness and r a t e of movement of the mass transfer zone. I n i t i a l breakthrough tends t o occur f a s t e r and the mass transfer zone moves down the column f a s t e r as the i n i t i a l concentration of t h e contaminants increases. In wastewater treatment the e f f e c t of temperature on adsorption i s usually small b u t adsorption generally increases as temperature increases. The temperature was held constant a t 25°C f o r this study. Finally, a decrease in the feed pH usually increases adsorption as was discussed e a r l i e r . Comparison of d a t a from dynamic studies generally indicates higher loading capacities f o r continuous-flow studies than equlibrium studies. T h i s discrepancy i s explained by realizing t h a t the top of the mass transfer zone i s always i n contact w i t h full-strength feed, while i n equilibrium studies the concentration gradient decreases w i t h time. Data obtained from properly performed laboratory studies should indicate both the f e a s i b i l i t y of adsorbents f o r the removal of contaminants and provide data which may be used f o r design purposes. 3.3.

Materials and Equipment

The principal analytical equipment consisted of an Atomic Absorption (AA) spectrophotometer, a pH meter, a chart recorder, and an analytical balance. A Perkin-Elmer Model 403 AA coupled w i t h a Model 400 Heated Graphite Atomizer (HGA-400) temperature programer f o r the graphite furnace was used f o r the determination of chromium concentration. The solution pH was determined using a Fisher Accument Model 230 pH/Ion Meter. Sample weights were determined using a Cahn Model TA4100 analytical balance. Equilibrium studies were conducted i n 250 m l beakers. To insure samples were well mixed a Thermolyne Model SL-7225 magnetic s t i r r e r Dynamic studies were conducted teflon-coated stirring b a r was used. standard 50 m l glass burettes packed w i t h glass beads i n the bottom. contaminated water was gravity fed through the adsorption column. 4.

the and in The

RESULTS

I n i t i a l equilibrium studies were performed using the four different adsorbents shown i n Table 2 a t varying pH. The adsorbents which removed chromium below the .05 mg/l standard were then used t o study the e f f e c t of pH on adsorption i n further equilibrium studies. After completion of the equilibrium experiments, dynamic studies were performed t o investigate the adsorbents i n a non-equilibrium situation. Parameters investigated i n the dynamic t e s t s included pH, flowrate, and adsorbent dosage. 4.1.

E q u i l i b r i u m Studies

Data f o r plotting isotherms were obtained by t r e a t i n g fixed quantities of I t was contaminated groundwater w i t h a range of adsorbent dosages. experimentally determined t h a t one hour of contact time was s u f f i c i e n t t o a t t a i n equilibrium f o r a l l adsorbents tested.

308

After the adsorbent and water were mixed f o r one hour the adsorbent was removed by f i l t r a t i o n . The chromium remaining i n the water was then measured u s i n g the graphite furnace atomic absoyption spectrophotometer. To,investigate the influence of pH on the removal of chromium from the contaminated water, isotherms were conducted a t i n i t i a l pH values of 3.1, 7.4, and 9.2. I t was noted t h a t a f t e r contact w i t h the carbon based adsorbents the pH of the solution changed. Singer suggests this phenomena is due t o surface functional groups and the conditions of activation [15]. There was no pH change noticed during the Ecosorb R equilibrium studies. Isotherm data denoting the influence of pH and the adsorptive capacity of Ecosorb R a r e shown i n Figure 1. Similar plots f o r Ecosorb C and Filtrasorb 300 were obtained. Duolite ES-765 (a developmental product) was n o t an effective adsorbent f o r chromium i n preliminary contact studies a t any pH and i t was not studied further. The adsorption constants f o r the Freundlich model a r e given i n Table 3. These constants were determined u s i n g a least-squares f i t of the isotherm data. Based on calculations from Equation 2 and l i t e r a t u r e c i t a t i o n s , dynamic studies were continued a t pH value of 3.1, 6.3, and 7.4 ( t h e original pH of the water).

Residual Chromium (mg/liter)

Figure 1.

Isotherm f o r Ecosorb R

309

Table 3. Adsorption c o n s t a n t s for isotherms

4.2.

Adsorbent

PH

K

n

F i l t r a s o r b 300

3.2 7.4 9.4

1.93 13.40 0.76

18.01 0.97 2.30

Ecosorb C

3.2 7.4 9.1

37.04 4.12 7.05

0.63 1.46 1.16

Ecosorb R

3.2 7.4 9.0

80.67 25.35 57.57

0.55 2.12 1.61

Dynamic S t u d i e s

Parameters o f i n t e r e s t f o r t h e dynamic s t u d i e s were a d s o r b e n t dosage, pH, and f l o w r a t e . The effect of f l o w r a t e on t h e removal o f chromium from t h e contaminated water was i n v e s t i g a t e d by holding i n l e t pH and dosage c o n s t a n t while breakthrough c u r v e s were o b t a i n e d a t two d i f f e r e n t f l o w r a t e s . The effects of pH and a d s o r b e n t dosage were s t u d i e d i n s i m i l a r f a s h i o n . Since pH changed d u r i n g t h e e q u i l i b r i u m s t u d i e s , t h e pH of t h e e f f l u e n t s t r e a m was monitored d u r i n g t h e dynamic s t u d i e s . Dynamic s t u d i e s u s i n g Ecosorb C d i d n o t remove t h e chromium from t h e groundwater below t h e EPA S t a n d a r d s o f .05 mg/l. S t u d i e s w i t h F i l t r a s o r b 300 and Ecosorb R d i d provide s a t i s f a c t o r y results. Breakthrough c u r v e s showing t h e i n f l u e n c e o f f l o w r a t e and adsorbent dosage for Ecosorb R a r e given i n F i g u r e 2. The c u r v e f o r ' F i l t r a s o r b 300 was s i m i l a r , however, i t was found t h a t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n from t h e column was i n i t i a l l y high because o f t h e c o n t a c t pH effects mentioned p r e v i o u s l y . The pH of t h e s o l u t i o n was r a i s e d by t h e a d s o r b e n t t o a l e v e l such t h a t removal o f t h e contaminant was reduced u n t i l t h e a d s o r b e n t s u r f a c e pH was lowered. Huang and Bowers (14) found t h i s same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . The c u r v e s f o r both F i l t r a s o r b 300 and Ecosorb R i n comparable c o n d i t i o n s based on t h e i s o t h e r m d a t a even though d i f f e r e n t and t h e f l o w r a t e s a r e n o t e x a c t l y t h e same. From seen t h a t , although i n i t i a l breakthrough o c c u r s f i r s t f o r t h e i t a p p e a r s t o remain e f f e c t i v e for a l o n g e r time. 5.

Figure 3 show the weights a r e t h i s i t can be F i l t r a s o r b 300,

DISCUSSION

The results o b t a i n e d g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w t h o s e expected, however, t h e pH was found t o have more effect f o r t h i s water t h a n a n t i c i p a t e d .

310 Temp. 25°C 5 grams 2.15 mllrnin

1 -

m 3 grams 3.82 mllrnin

A 3 grams 2.18 ml/rnin

.8

-

.6

-

.4

-

.2

-

CfCO

_-___--0 0

Figure 2. 5.1.

1

I

I

4

8

12

__--__ 16

20 24 Liters Effluent

I

1

28

32

36

40

Breakthrough curves f o r Ecosorb R w i t h i n l e t pH o f 7.7

E q u i l i b r i u m Studies

It Table 3 shows t h e v a r i a t i o n discovered i n t h e e f f e c t i v e adsorbents. i s immediately apparent t h a t Ecosorb R has t h e r e q u i s i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r good adsorption throughout t h e concentration range a t a l l pH's. The h i g h K value and h i g h n show t h a t maximum adsorption could e x i s t on e i t h e r s i d e o f pH 7.4, however, Figure 1 shows t h a t i t should be c l o s e t o 7.4. The Ecosorb C f o l l o w s t h e same trends, o n l y a t lower values, and i t would appear t h a t t h i s would a l s o be an e f f e c t i v e adsorbent. The v a r i a t i o n s i n F i l t r a s o r b 300 make a n a l y s i s somewhat more d i f f i c u l t . Taken together, t h e data p r e d i c t s t h e best adsorption somewhat below pH 7.4 f o r low concentrations o f contaminant.

Based on these observations i t was decided t h a t t h e most p r o f i t a b l e area t o continue i n t o t h e dynamic s t u d i e s was a t a pH ranging between 3 and 8. 5.2.

Dynamic Studies

The dynamic studies, conducted w i t h t h r e e parameters varying, were done i n glass b u r e t t e s i n s t e a d o f 1 i n c h columns normally recomnended because o f t h e l i m i t e d o f groundwater a v a i l a b l e d i r e c t l y from t h e source. Based on t h i s , t h e p r e l i m i n a r y data obtained should n o t be used t o scale up d i r e c t l y t o f u l l s i z e adsorption columns, however, t h e o v e r a l l parametric e f f e c t s a r e v a l i d f o r f u r t h e r study.

911 1 .I

Temp. 25°C

0 8 grams Carbon 2.08mllmin A 2 grams Ecosorb R 1.93 mllmin .t

.c c/co .4

.2

_________ 0 0

4

8

12

1

I

1

1

16

20

24

28

.05mg/l

32

1

I

36

40

Liters Effluent

Figure 3.

Breakthrough curves f o r Filtrasorb 300 and Ecosorb R w i t h i n l e t pH of 6.4

I t again became obvious t h a t the Ecosorb R was the b e t t e r adsorbent of those which were s t i l l effective. Looking f o r the pH which would remove the chromium below the EPA Standard of 0.05 mg/liter w i t h the maximum flow r a t e or volume treated and a m i n i m u m amount of adsorbent was the objective. Using Ecosorb C the concentration was never brought down t o 0.05 mg/l so the results are not shown. Table 4 summarizes the r e s u l t s of the studies w i t h the flow r a t e s and adsorbent amount grouped into broad values. From t h i s i t can be seen t h a t the lower flow r a t e and higher adsorbent amount produced r e s u l t s f o r a l l pH values using Filtrasorb 300. Any modification can only produce l e s s desirable results. I t should also be noted t h a t the volume treated was b e t t e r a t an i n t e r i o r pH around 6 as opposed t o the extremes. A t higher flow rates the pH 7 f a i l e d t o reduce the effluent below the standard even a t the h i g h e r adsorbent amount. In contrast t o this the Ecosorb R performed even a t the higher and lower adsorbent amount. Although most data was collected a t flow r a t e , the r e s u l t s a t pH 7 f o r b o t h higher flow r a t e and adsorbent amount indicate t h a t this adsorbent i s very e f f e c t i v e chromi um.

flow r a t e the lower also more t o remove

I t appeared t h a t raising the pH even higher than 7 would prove more effective f o r Ecosorb R b u t this was not evaluated d u r i n g t h i s preliminary study because of the decision made a t the conclusion of the equilibrium studies. Also, w i t h the source of water being a t a pH varying from 7 . 4 t o 7 . 7 , the p o s s i b i l i t y of removing the chromium without pretreatment made

312

Table 4. F1 owrate (ml /min)

Volume t r e a t e d a t breakthrough ( l i t e r s )

Adsorbent

1-4 pH3

-

- 2*3

F i l t r a s o r b 300 Ecosorb R

1.0

-

F i l t r a s o r b 300 Ecosorb R

-

2'4

-

pH6

-

Adsorbent Weight ( g r ) 5-10 pH7

pH3

pH6

pH7

-

0.5

19.0

-

8.0

13.0

-

3.5 35.0

-

No 17.0

0.5

-

-

No

-

-

success i n this pH range a d e s i r a b l e end point. The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of F i l t r a s o r b 300 a t a pH near 6 follows the expected results more c l o s e l y and would give an option f o r adsorption w i t h pH adjustment i n an economic anal y s i s

.

An additional observation which can be made a s a result of Figure 3 concerns the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the adsorbent. The f i g u r e shows t h a t , a t the same pH and flow r a t e , Ecosorb R provides b e t t e r i n i t i a l breakthrough c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s even w i t h only 25% a s much adsorbent i n use. However, the slope of the F i l t r a s o r b 300 curve i n d i c a t e s t h a t multiple columns could provide b e t t e r adsorption. Although the F i l t r a s o r b 300 would never reach the capacity of the Ecosorb R , i t s c a p a b i l i t i e s could be improved. 6.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

As a result of this preliminary study, the following conclusions and recommendations f o r additional research a r e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r the system studied. 6.1.

Conclusions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6.2.

Ecosorb R and F i l t r a s o r b 300 a r e e f f e c t i v e adsorbents f o r chromium. No pH adjustment i s necessary f o r Ecosorb R t o remove chromium below .05 mg/l a t a l l conditions examined. A pH of 6.4 enhances the adsorption of chromium by F i l t r a s o r b 300. The breakthrough curve f o r F i l t r a s o r b 300 suggests multiple columns i n series would be required t o u t i l i z e t h e carbon e f f i c i e n t l y . The breakthrough curve f o r Ecosorb R suggests a s i n g l e column adsorber may be e f f e c t i v e i n t r e a t i n g the contaminated groundwater.

Recommendations f o r Future Work

Future study of tKis p r o j e c t should include dynamic s t u d i e s i n v e s t i g a t i n g column sizes, pH values ranging from 4 t o 8 o r higher, and regeneration o f adsorbents. Larger column diameters and m u l t i p l e columns should be investigated t o gain a b e t t e r - understanding of adsorbent usage r a t e . An

-

313

economic a n a l y s i s should a l s o be performed t o e v a l u a t e t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of each adsorbent. REFERENCES 1. Q u a l i t y C r i t e r i a f o r Water (Washington, Protection Agency, July 1976).

D.C.:

U.S.

Environmental

2.

York, Bob, U.S. Army Toxic and Hazardous M a t e r i a l s Agency P r i v a t e Communication, 22 Feb. 1983).

3.

Benfield, L. D . , J . F. Judkins, and B. L. Weard, Process Chemistry f o r Water and Wastewater Treatment, Prentice-Hall Inc. (1982).

4.

Akerman, R. A., S . C. Crosby, and R. E. Ellingwood J r . , "Recycling System f o r Mechanical P l a t e r s , " Water Reuse Symposium, March, 25 (1979).

5.

Praino J r . , R. F. and J. Del Pico, "Removal of Hexavalent Chromium from Journal o f Applied Photographic Aqueous Discharges: A Case Study." Science and Engineering, 8 ( 2 ) , 107 (1982).

6.

Argo, D. G., and G. L. C u l p , "Heavy Metals Removal i n Wastewater Treatment Processes: P a r t 2--Pilot P l a n t Operation," Water Sewage Works, 119 ( 9 ) , 128 (1972).

7.

Maruyama, T . , S . A. Hannah, and J . M. Cohen, "Removal of Heavy Metals by Physical and Chemical Treatment Processes." Presented a t 45th Annual Conference, Water P o l l u t i o n Control Federation. (1972).

8.

Huang, C. P. and M. H . Wu, "Chromium Removal by Carbon Adsorption." Journal o f Water P o l l u t i o n and Control Federation, 47, 2437 (1975).

9.

Roersma, R.

E.,

e t a l . "Removal of Hexavalent Chromium by Activated Ned. T i j d s c h r , Oppervalakte Tech. Met. S e r i e s 19,

1. 10.

Huang, C. P. and M. H. Wu, "The Removal of Chromium (VI) from Dilute Aqueous Solution by Activated Carbon," Water Research, 2 , 673 (1977).

11. Chervemisinoff, P. N. and Fred Ellerbusch, Carbon Absorption Handbook, Ann Arbor Sciences Publishers Inc., (1978). Carbon Adsorption Handbook, Ann Arbor Sciences Publishers

12.

Huang, C. P., Inc. (1978).

13.

S a i t o , Isamu, "Removal of Chromium (VI) i n Aqueous Solution by Activated Carbons,'' I n t l . Conference Management and Control of Heavy Metals i n the Environment, London: R. Perry Chrm., Sept. (1979).

14.

Huang, C. P., and A. R. Bowers, "Activated Carbon Processes f o r the Treatment of Chromium (V1)--Containin Industrial Wastewaters." Progressive Water Technology, 12, 629 (19807.

15.

Singer, P. C., "Activated Carbon f o r the Removal of Trace Metals from Aqueous Solutions," Ion Exchange f o r P o l l u t i o n Control, 2 , 195, (1980).

314

16.

Hagashi, Katsumi, et al., "Removal of Chromium ( V I ) from Aqueous Solution with Hydrazine Hydrate and Activated Carbon," Nippon Kaguku Kaishi, 12, 1951 (1981).

17. Weber Jr., W. J., Wi 1 ey-Interscience

sicochemical Processes for Water Qua1 ity Control, 12).

18. Shinskey, F. G., pH and pIon Control in Process and Waste Streams, Wiley-Interscience (1973). 19. Brunauer, S., P. H. Emmett, and E. Teller, "Adsorption of Gases in Multimolecular Layers." J. Am. Chem. SOC. 60, 309 (1938). 20.

Langmuir, I., "The Adsorption o f Gases on Plane Surfaces of Glass, Mica, and Platinum.'' J. Am. Chem. SOC. 40, 1361 (1918).

21.

Halsey, G. and H. S. Taylor, J. Chem. Phys., 15, 624 (1947).

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N.Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

315

RADIUM I N DRINKING WATER I N SOUTHWEST F’LORIDA

Wallace Johnson and Jearold Eakins Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services State of Florida Environmental Radiation Control Orlando, Florida 32858, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT An area of 4,375 square miles in southwestern Florida with a 1981 population of 682,894 has been found to have more than 20 percent of drinking water supplies tested exceed the Maximum Contaminant Levels for radium established by the U . S . Environmental Protection Agency under the Federal Safe Drinking Water Act. The area is known to have extensive deposits of phosphate ore, with associated natural uranium and progeny. sults of testing of drinking water in this area for radium (2’gRa) are reviewed and the occurrence of radium by geographical distribution is evaluated. Earlier reports by U.S. EPA that radium concentrations represent three statistical populations are confirmed and extended to apply to all sources of ground water in the area. Effects of elevated radiation dose on a large geographical area with a large, rapidly increasing population are considered. Co-variance of concentrations of radium with age adjusted rates of occurrence of cancers of all anatomic sites is described.

1.

INTRODUCTION

The Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services (HRS), Office of Radiation Control, recently issued a report of radionuclide concentrations in drinking water in Florida [l]. All public community* water supplies in the State were tested, as well as a large number of public, non-community supplies, and a sampling of private water supplies. A conclusion of the report was that significant numbers of drinking water supplies exceed the Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for total radium (226- and 228Ra) only in the southwestern part of the State. The present report evaluates pooled results for all three classes of supplies in a twelve-county area, shown in Figure 1, and referred to hereafter as the study area. Results are shown in

*Community water supplies serve at least 15 connections or 25 persons, year around. Non-community supplies serve the same numbers at least ninety days per year.

316

TABLE 1:

RESULTS OF DRINKING WATER TESTING IN TWELVE-COUNTY STUDY AREA IN FLORIDA OF RADIUM-226 IN DRINKING WATER

AFFECTED COUNTIES

county Hardee DeSoto Charlotte Lee

Number Tested 73 70 79 141

Percent Exceeding MCL 25 26 23 21

Geometric Mean 226Ra Testinq 2.6 pCi/l 6.5 4.6 4.3

Percent Exceeding MCL 6 16 10 12

Geometric Mean 226Ra Testing 2.9 pCi/l 2.2 2.1 2.0

CONTROL COUNTIES

County Highlands Glades Hendry Col1ier

Number Tested 135 49 81 110

OTHER COUNTIES IN STUDY AREA

County Hillsborough Manatee Sarasota Polk

Number Tested 330 58 234 303

Percent Exceeding MCL 1.5 22 51 9

Geometric Mean 226Ra Testing 2.8 pCi/l 6.5 5.9 3.0

Table 1 (above). Also shown in Figure 1 is the general outline of the Central Florida Pebble Phosphate Region [2]. Six counties are identified as having more than 20 percent of the supplies tested exceed the MCL for total radium (5.0 picocuries/liter). These are Manatee, Sarasota, Hardee, DeSoto, Charlotte, and Lee Counties. The remaining six counties in the study area were found to have a significantly lower percentage of the supplies tested exceed the MCL for total radium. The geometric mean 226Ra results, by county, are also shown in Table 1. The counties found to exceed the MCL in more than 20 percent of supplies tested comprise a contiguous geographical area of 4,375 square miles, having an 1981 population of 682,894. The study area contains one of Florida's most rapidly growing populations with an increase of 13.6 percent projected to 1985. Population density is non-uniform. Hardee and DeSoto Counties are rural with low population densities, and in the coastal counties, population is concentrated along the Gulf of Mexico, with lower, but rapidly increasing population densities inland. The entire area has low physical relief, [2]. Altitudes between 30-100 feet are usual. Major surface drainage includes the Manatee, the Myakka, the Peace, and the Caloosahatchee Rivers, all flowing into the Gulf of Mexico. Three principal aquifers are

317

O F STUDY

COLLIER Figure 1,

- - Scale:

S t u d y Area

Central Florida Pebble Phosphate District 1 " e q u a l s 36 m i l e s

identified over most of the area, an unconfined shallow aquifer, and the Upper and Lower Units of the Floridan aquifer. These are shown schematically in Table 2 , which also shows principal geologic units present. Drinking water is derived mainly from ground water. The water table ranges from near surface in the coastal areas to 10 feet or more below ground surface in higher elevations. Most of the annual rainfall occurs during the July-December period of the year. However, seasonal fluctuations of water level are usually less than

318

TABLE 2:

SIMPLIFIED HYDROGEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK OF HARDEE AND DESOTO COUNTIES

Hydrogeologic Unit Surficial Aquifer Upper Confining Beds Upper Unit Floridan Aquifer Confining Bed Lower Unit Floridan Aquifer

Average Thickness (feet) 40 30

200 140 800

Stratiographic Unit

Predominant Lithology

Surficial Deposits Surficial Deposits

Sand Clay, Marl

Hawthorne Formation Limestone and Tampa Limestone Tampa Limestone Clay, Marl Suwannee Limestone Ocala Group, etc.

Limestone

five feet. The Floridan aquifer is a major source of drinking water in the northern half of the area, but becomes increasingly less important to the south because of increasing mineralization, resulting in increased use of the shallow, unconfined aquifer. Deposits of phosphate ore (referred to industry) occur in much of the study area. these deposits is not known, but they occur tern Hillsborough, Manatee, Hardee, DeSoto, Counties. The limits of the deposits shown deposits containing more than 25 percent of

as matrix by the mining The exact limit of in western Polk, eastand parts of Sarasota in Figure 1 are for P205.

These deposits are reported to contain 136,403 metric tons of recoverable natural uranium [2]. Phosphate rock, in placer deposits, was discovered at the mouth of the Peace River in 1885, and mining commenced in 1888. Development of land pebble deposits followed exhaustion of river pebble in creeks and rivers. By 1905, most Florida phosphate was mined in Polk County. Mining is now becoming increasingly important in Manatee, Hardee, and DeSoto Counties. Uranium and radium are reported in the newer, as well as the older mining areas. An application for a Development of Regional Impact (DRI) for a phosphate mining complex in central Hardee County reports radium (226Ra) concentrations in pebble of 29 pCi/g [3]. Other applications report 226Ra concentrations in matrix of 1.3 - 26.0 pCi/g in Hardee County, and 7.2 - 52.3 pCi/g in Manatee County. Matrix lies in the water table aquifer over much of the area and de-watering is usually the first step in strip mining. Connector wells are commonly used for this purpose, with gravity flow of shallow waters into deeper aquifers as a conservation measure. Radium analysis in some of these connector wells in Polk County ranged from 0.3 - 88.8 pCi/g for total solids, w i t h a geometric mean of 3.7 pCi/liter [4]. A number of these wells have been removed from use because of high concentrations of radionuclides but it is not clear, at this time, how representative these results are of water actually flowing into the artesian aquifer because of wide differences in sampling procedures.

319

The principal phosphorous-bearing minerals in the Central Florida deposits are in the carbonate apatite group with the general formula Ca5 (PO413 (F, Ce, OH). After the overburden is stripped, ore is excavated by draglines, slurried by hydraulic jets, and pumped to nearby washing plants for size separation. Slimes (clays) amount to about one-third of the original ore volume and represent about one-third the total mineral value extracted. In addition, phosphate nodules and quartz sand occur in about equal volumes with the clays. The sand fraction contains only about 12 percent of the total radioactivity which is primarily associated with the phosphate fraction 151. The principal phosphorite horizon in Polk and Hillsborough Counties is the Bone Valley formation, whilein Manatee, Hardee and DeSoto Counties, where the Bone Valley is locally absent, the upper member of the Hawthorne formation forms the major zone of commercial phosphate. In the north, overburden thickness ranges from 10 - 50 feet and ore thickness, from 10 - 25 feet. In the southern portion of the district, generally south of the southerp boundaries of Polk and Hillsborough Counties, overburden ranges up 80 to 100 feet inthickness with ore thickness increasing to 35 feet. The depth to bed clays* ranges from about 100 feet in the north to 180 feet in the south [6]. This places the phosphate deposits, with their associated radionuclides,in contact with the water table aquifer over most of the study area.

-

The radionuclide considered in this study is radium-226 (226Ra) and, unless otherwise identified, further references to radium will mean 226Ra. Natural uranium occurs as a combination of 238U (99.3 percent) ( 0 . 7 percent). Members of this decay chain usually occur and 2% in geologic formations in a condition of secular equilibrium as far down the chain as radium-226. This means that concentrations expressed in units of decay per unit time (curie) are about equal. Because the elements have ver different specific activities, (226Ra - 0.98 curies/gram; 235U - 3.34 E-7 curies/gram), the mass of the elements present will be very different. The geochemistry of radium is not well known. Radium belongs to Group IIA of the periodic table and has a single oxidation state of +2. The immediate parent of radium is thorium (230Th), which has a half-life of 8.OE 5 years and a specific activity of 1.95 E-3 curies per gram. Radium is the least likely of the alkaline earth elements to form complex ions because of its large ionic radius. Most radium compounds are simple ionic species such as Ra Cl2, Ra C03, and Ra SO4 171. Tanner reports a 1964 study of wells in the Salt Lake, Utah, area and states that radium, in water, is not likely to be derived from the parent 230Th in water, but by extraction of radium from sediments 181. He reports that radium may be extracted from sediments if the pH is low enough to

*Bed clays are discontinuous deposits of soft, highly plastic, water-saturated clays on top of the Hawthorne formation. Thickness seldom exceeds two feet.

320

dissolve alkaline earth carbonates, if chelating agents are available to remove alkaline earth cations from precipitates, or if other ions are present in sufficient concentrations to displace radium from its captors. Tanner reports water high in chlorides to have high radium concentrations as a result of its complement of positive ions which compete for absorption sites with radium and other alkaline earths. A report was issued by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1980 which listed results of testing of a large number of wells in Sarasota County 191. A review of these data found the productmoment correlation between radium concentrations and dissolved chlorides to be weak (r = 0.13). This cannot be shown to be different from r = 0.0 at the .05 level of significance. There appears to be little effect on radium concentrations from the presence of chlorides in Florida. 2.

METHOD

Four counties from the study area, in which more than 20 percent of water supplies tested exceeded the MCL for radium, were selected for study and designated as Affected Counties. These are Hardee, DeSoto, Charlotte, and Lee Counties. Four additional count i e s f r o m m t u d y area were selected in which less than 20 percent of supplies tested exceeded the MCL. These are Highlands, Glades, Hendry, and Collier Counties, and they are designated control counties. Results for the remaining four counties contained in the study area are not included since they have been extensively reported by other investigators [5, 10, 91. The data include results for all public water supplies and for a sampling of 50 private water supplies per county. All samples were collected in one-gallon containers, acidified with 15 milliliters of nitric acid, and analyzed without filtration. Radium analyses were done only on samples found to have gross alpha results greater than 5.0 pCi/liter. All analyses were done by the HRS Office of Radiation Control Radiological Laboratory, located in Orlando, Florida. This laboratory is certified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency as the principal State Laboratory for radio-contaminants. Analytical procedures used were those approved by U.S. EPA [ll]. Sampleselect'ionfor the HRS study was based on two schemes. Since all public water supplies in the study area were sampled, they are assumed to comprise the entire statistical population. Selection of private wells to be sampled was made by county environmental health personnel arbitrarily in an attempt to achieve a uniform geographical distribution over the county, with shallow wells being sampled preferentially. The range of depths of wells sampled was from 42 to 2 0 0 feet. Since the saturated thickness of the water table aquifer in the study area is reported to be up to 80 feet, and since the top of the Upper Unit of the Floridan aquifer is reported nos to lie over 50 feet below sea level in the area, the wells sampled in the HRS study are expected to represent these strata. Most wells are open hole below a casing depth of about 30 feet, and samples probably represent a combination of the water bearing strata. The product-moment correlation coefficient

321

between well depth and radium concentration was 0.21, which cannot be shown to be different from 0.0 at the .05 level of significance. 3.

RESULTS

In a 1977 report, Kaufmann and Bliss reviewed data then available on dissolved radium concentrations in ground water in Florida 151. The bulk of these results were for samples taken in Polk County; however, some samples were taken in Hillsborough, Manatee, Hardee, and DeSoto Counties. Sampling was not restricted to drinking water and included samples from monitoring wells, irrigation wells, etc. They reported that by grouping all of the data from the Lower Floridan aquifer into a log-probability plot, using graphical techniques described by Sinclair [12], a curve was obtained which could be partitioned into three parent populations. Their results are summarized in Table 3 and Figure 2. They concluded that, "There are occasional high radium observations in ground water from the Lower Floridan aquifer associated with natural factors essentially unrelated to phosphate mineralization or the Central Florida phosphate industry." Data obtained by HRS were subjected to similar graphic treatment and results for affected counties are shown in Table 3 and in Figure 3 , with resolution of the parent populations. These results are quite similar to those reported by Kauffmann and Bliss for the Lower Floridan aquifer. An evaluation of the distribution of the parent populations, by county, and by group (i.e., affected or control counties) is shown in Table 4. Differences between counties, within a group, were not found significant at the . 0 5 level, while differences between group totals were found to be significant. A significantly greater percentage of population C results were TABLE 3:

PARENT POPULATIONS OF RADIUM MAKING UP COMPOUND CURVE OF DATA DISTRIBUTIONS Kaufmann and Bliss

Population A B C

Geometric Mean Radium

Percent of Total Sample

0.7 pCi/l 3.0 pCi/l 10.0 pCi/l

37 52 11

HRS Data, 1983 Affected Counties

Population A

B C

Geometric Mean Radium

Percent of Total Sample

0.9 pCi/l 4.3 pCi/l 14.0 pCi/l

19 63 18

322

20.1

10 . I

,

Population C 0’ 0

4’

/

5>(

/O

/

//

Population B 2,(

1.c

Composites of populations A,B&C

0.5

0.2

0.1

I

I

I

I

1

1

1

1

I

I

f

I

I

PERCENTAGE

Figure 2.

Component populations of radium in the lower Floridan aquifer of Central Florida, adapted from U.S. EPA/520-6-77-010

found to occur in affected counties, which are known to be mineralized. This was not the case for population B results. This appears to indicate a relationship between phosphate mineralization and concentrations of radium in ground water from the water table aquifer and the Upper Floridan aquifer. This does not necessarily contradict the findings of Kaufmann and Bliss in the deeper aquifer. Similar results were obtained from a special sampling of 275 private water supplies in Lee County. Three parent populations were clearly delineated. Well depths sampled ranged from 20 - 800

TABLE

4:

OlSTRlBUTlON OF PARENT POPULATIONS OF RADIUM

-

BY COUNTY

AFFECTED COUNTIES A population Pct. o f county Geomet r ic

County

Number

Total

Mean 226Ra

B Population Pct. o f County Geome t r ic Number T otal Mean -

10

39

0.5 pCI/I

2 8 5

12 25

0.7

11 10

8

1.2

SAMPLE TOTAL

25

19

Geom. Mean 1 dlimits

(0.3

Ha rdee OeSoto Charlotte Lee

-

1.3

1 .o

0.9

pCi/l

3.9 5.5 3.5 3.5

pCi/l

17 47

42 59 53 80

85

63

4.3

pCI/I

(2.9 - 6.3

pCi/l)

226Ra

C Population Pct. o f County Geometric

Number

5 5 7 7

19 29

24 (8.8

pCi/l)

Total

-

TOTAL

Mean 226Ra

22 12

13.5 13.5 11.3

26 17 32 59

18

14.0

134

24.0

25.5 p C i / l

pCi/l)

CONTROL COUNTIES

County

A Population Pct. o f County Geometric Number T o t a l Mean 226Ra

Highlands Glades Hend r y Colller

4 14 17 24

21

1.2 p C i / l

52 41 49

0.8 1 .o 1 .o

Number

B Population Pct. o f County Geometric Total Mean 226~a

79 41 51

l1 51 21

51

25

3.2 4.4 3.4 4.1

C Population Pct. o f County Geometric Total Mean 226Ra

Number --

0 2

pCi/l

0

3

7 7

0

0

5

4

- 23.6 15.5

pCl/l

18.3

pCi/l

--

TOTAL

19 27 41 49

~~

SAMPLE TOTAL

59

Geom. Mean 1 dlimits

(0.6

43

- 2.3

1.2 p C i / l pCi/l)

72 (3.4

53

-

6.7

4.8 pCi/l)

pCi/1

Too few data p o i n t s

136 W

tu W

324

20 0D

Population C

10.0-

/

/

5.0-

rl \

-rl

V

/

a

s‘

2.0-

-d

‘0

m

P;

w

0

g

1.0-

*rl

al 0 c 0 v

. a ti o n A

0 f0&0PUl

c, m h c, d

d

0.5-

0.2.

4

lb

10

j0

40

40 6b

7’0

8b

do

95

, 3

P E RC EN “AGE

Figure 3.

Component P o p u l a t i o n o f R a d i u m i n D r i n k i n g Water o f S o u t h w e s t F l o r i d a , A f f e c t e d C o u n t i e s

325

feet with an average depth of 127 feet. Only three percent of wells sampled had depths greater than 260 feet, while 83 percent had depths less than 200 feet. Twenty percent of wells tested were found to exceed the MCL for total radium or gross alpha radiation, and the range of radium results was 0.1 to 34.1 pCi/l. Sample selection for this special sampling was based on response of users of private wells to press and television reporting of results from the original H R S Study. Samples were collected by well users in one-gallon containers furnished to them by county health unit employees. The samples were acidified with 15 ml of nitric acid at the time of delivery to the collecting point, and they probably represent a good cross-section of the depths of private wells in Lee County. Results from the control counties were evaluated, using a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for goodness of fit [131. The hypothesis that the data are log-normally distributed cannot be rejected at the .05 level of significance. (See Figure 4). The parent populations in data from control counties were estimated on the basis of results obtained in affected counties. In addition, the distribution of radium results from fifteen Florida counties, located outside the study area, was tested with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, and the hypothesis that the data are log-normally distributed cannot be rejected at the .05 level of significance. Multiple populations of radium in drinking water do not appear to be characteristic of areas not containing phosphate ore at shallow depths. Data reported by the U.S. Geological Survey in their 1980 study of Sarasota County were also evaluated [9]. This report listed results of testing a number of chemical species in addition to radionuclides. It was determined that the only non-radioactive parameter which showed evidence of three parent populations was the concentration of fluorides. Fluorapatite is reported to be the principal source of fluorides in ground water in Hardee and DeSoto Counties [141. This is said to be largely restricted to the Upper Unit of the Floridan Aquifer, or to younger deposits. Uranium is reported to occur in phosphate deposits in association with apatite, probably by replacement of calcium. Higher concentrations of fluorides are found in Hardee County than is the case for Polk County 1151. Concentrations of fluorides in Polk County ranged from 0.3 to 0 . 8 mg/l. In contrast, wells penetrating the middle zone of the Floridan aquifer in Manatee County ranged from 1.0 to 3.2 mg/l [lo]. Concentrations of fluorides in Sarasota County ranged from 0.2 to 3.3 mg/l [9]. Fluorapatite may serve as a common source of radium and fluorides in ground water. The importance of fluorides in this area may be related to increased uptake of radium from drinking water when fluorides are also present in concentrations greater than 1 mg/l [161. This effect was reported in a study of radium body burdens in Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri by Samuels. Table 5 is adapted from that report. Although this is a small sample, it could represent a very important consideration in evaluating health effects from ingestion of radium in the study area.

3 26

20.0

10.0

-

5.0

4 \

4

V

a

W N

';"

2.0.

5

4

a (d

a w

0

1.0. 0

T I

c,

m &

c,

c

Q)

0

c 0 0.5. V

0

0.2.

I

5

Figure 4.

I 10

20

10

3b do 6b 8b gb 95 PERCENTAGE Distribution of Results of Radium-226 Testing, Control Counties

2b

I

3

327

TABLE 5:

EFFECTS OF FLUORIDES ON RADIUM UPTAKE FROM DRINKING WATER

Radium Concentration of Water pCi/l 12.0 8.2

11.4

F1uoride Concentration of Water mg/l 0. - 0.9 1.0 - 2.9 >3.0

Ratio of Body Burdsn* to Water concentration of Radium 27.9 43.9 34.2

*Body Burden computed for Standard Man with 3000 gm of skeletal ash. 4.

DISCUSSION

One obvious result of elevated cancentrations of radium in drinking water would be increased body burdens of radium in the exposed population. The average concentration of radium in bone in the U . S . population is reported to be 7.8 pCi/kilogram, resulting in an annual alpha dose equivalent to bone surfaces of 4 . 8 rnrem/year [17]. The same source estimates the average intake of radium in the U . S . to be about 1.4 pCi/day, from all sources. Efforts to estimate average concentrations of radium in bone in the study area are hampered by several factors: 1. Concentrations of radium in drinking water do not form a single log-normally distributed population in areas most affected. 2. The area has a rapidly growing population so that duration of ingestion is uncertain. 3. Uptake of radium from drinking water may not be the same as the U . S . average because of the presence of fluorides. It appears certain, however, that large numbers of persons in the study area exceed the U . S . average intake of radium by substantial amounts, from ingestion of drinking water alone. This results in increased body burdens of radium with resultant increased radiation dose to bone surfaces.

Recently, reports were issued on the incidence of cancers of all anatomic sites in Florida [18]. The data were adjusted for age, sex and race. Figure 5 shows the location of counties reported to exceed the average incidence in Florida by statistically significant amounts. It should be noted that a grouping of such counties occurs in a contiguous area of southwest Florida, which includes eight of the twelve counties comprising the study area. It is reported that this excess occurs, in these counties, in all race, sex groups. Comparison of the cancer rate with the geometric mean concentrations of radium in drinking water in counties in the study area showsa significant amount of co-variance. Table 6 shows the numerical relationship. The product-moment correlation coeffiA cient for the affected counties was found to be: r = 0 . 8 4 . Kendall coefficient of rank correlation test was also applied to the data and was found to show significant association at the -05

328

level of significance. A product-moment correlation coefficient was obtained for similar data from twelve counties outside the study area, and this was found to be: r = 0.09, which cannot be shown to be different from 0.0 at the 0.5 level of significance.

Similar co-variance between age-adjusted mortality rates for all types of cancers and average concentrations of radon (222FU-1) in drinking water in Maine counties was recently reported [19]. Hess suggests that this may result, due to effects from all sources of 222Rn in Maine counties, with water being an indicator of their magnitude. A 1981 report by Fleisher also draws attention to the frequent occurrence of elevated rates of lung cancer in U . S . counties with phosphate deposits or processing facilities [201.

Co-variance does not, of itself, prove a cause-effect relationship. It does, however, suggest that further studies should be undertaken to rule out such a possibility. It is quite likely that concentrations of radium in drinking water in the study area are indicators of the magnitude of the total radiation exposure as

s

artin

ade

Figure 5.

Counties which exceed averacp state incidence of cancers of all anatomic sites

329

TABLE 6:

CORRELATION BETWEEN AGE ADJUSTED RATES FOR CANCERS OF ALL ANATOMICAL SITES WITH GEOMETRIC MEAN RADIUM CONCENTRATION IN DRINKING WATER IN FLORIDA

AFFECTED COUNTIES County Hardee DeSoto Charlotte Lee r = 0.84 CONTROL COUNTIES County Highlands Glades Hendry Collier r = 0.49

Cancer Rate 465.9 613.3 473.2 547.0

Geometric Mean Ra-226 in Water 2.6 pCi/l 6.5 4.6 4.3

Cancer Rate 488.4 282.6 465.2 391.1

Geometric Mean Ra-226 in Water 2.9 pCi/l 2.2 2.1 2.0

suggested by Hess. Detailed studies of other sources of radiation exposure have not been made in the counties which are evaluated in this report. Polk County has been studied in detail for a number of years, and areas of elevated ambient gamma ray exposure have been identified there, as well as increased radiation dose to the lung resulting from high concentrations of 222Rn and its shortlived progeny in structures built on both mined and unmined phosphate lands [21, 22, 231. Other counties have been largely ignored in the past because no mining was being done in them. It appears that Florida may no longer have this luxury. 5.

CONCLUSIONS

A number of general conclusions may be drawn from results presented in this report. Radium concentrations in drinking water drawn from shallow aquifers in the study area are greater in areas known to be mineralized than in areas which do not contain phosphate ore deposits at shallow depths. The distribution of the results in mineralized areas does not constitute a log-normal distribution. The data may be resolved into three parent populations, each of which is log-normally distributed. Results from control counties and from counties outside the study area are approximately log-normally distributed.

Limited testing for dissolved fluorides in drinking water indicates that these data are not log-normally distributed and may be resolved into three parent populations very similar to those found in concentrations of radium. This probably results from a common source for both contaminants in drinking water from shallow aquifers. The common source appears to be fluorapatite, which comprises a large percentage of the ore deposits. There is significant co-variance between concentrations of

330

radium in drinking water from shallow aquifers in the study area and age adjusted rates of cancers of all anatomic sites, with the strongest co-variance occurring in affected counties. Significant co-variance has not been found to occur in counties outside the study area. REFERENCES 1.

Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services, "Radionuclides in Florida Drinking Water, An Interim Report," Office of Radiation Control, P.O. Box 15490, Orlando, FL 32858, 1983.

2.

Environmental Protection Agency, "Final Environmental Impact Statement, Central Florida Phosphate Industry," VOl. 2, EPA 90419-78-0266, 1978.

3.

Farmland Industries, "Development of Regional Impact Application, " 1979.

4.

Keaton, H. , "Florida Phosphate Recharge Well Analysis ," Polk County Health Department, Office of Radiation Control, 1983.

5.

Kaufmann, R. F., and Bliss, J. D., "Effects of Phosphate Mineralization and the Phosphate Industry on Radium-226 in Groundwater of Central Florida," EPA 520-6-77-010, 1977.

6.

Gurr, T.M., "The Structure, Stratiography, and Economic Geology of the Central Florida Phosphate District," Environment of the Central Florida Phosphate District, Southeastern Geological Society Guidebook, No. 19, 1977.

7.

Dyck, W., "The Mobility and Concentration of Uranium and Its Decay Products in Temperate Surficial Environments," Short Course in Uranium Deposits, Their Minerology and Origin, Kimberly, M. M., Ed., Mineral Association of Canada, 1978.

8.

Tanner, A. B., "Physical and Chemical Controls on Distribution of Radium-226 in Groundwater Near Great Salt Lake, Utah," The Natural Radiation Environment, University of Chicago Press, 1964.

9.

Sutcliffe, H. and Miller, R. L., "Data on Ground Water Quality with Emphasis on Radionuclides, Sarasota County, Florida," U . S . Geological Survey Open File Report 80 - 1223, 1980.

U.S.

10.

Brown, D. P., "Water Resources and Data Network Assessment of the Manatee Basin, Manatee and Sarasota Counties, Florida," U . S . Geological Survey Water Resources Investigation 82-37, 1982.

11.

U . S . Environmental Protection Agency, "National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations , EPA 57019-76-003, 1976.

331

12.

Sinclair, A. J., "Selection of Threshold Values in Geochemical Data Using Probability Graphs," Journal of Geochemical Exploration, Vol. 3 , No. 2, 1974.

13.

Sokal, R. R., and Rohlf, F. J., Biometry, W. H. Freeman and Company, 1969.

14.

Florida Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Geology, "Ground Water Resources of DeSoto and Hardee Counties, Florida," Report No. 83, 1977.

15.

Florida Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Geology, "Ground Water Resources of Polk County, Florida," Report No. 44, 1966.

16.

Samuels, L. D., "A Study of Environmental Exposure to Radium in Drinking Water,'' The Natural Radiation Environment, University of Chicago Press, 1963.

17.

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Report No. 45, 1975.

18.

Levine, R. S., and Chitwood, D., "Draft - Potential Public Health Problems from Hazardous Wastes in Florida," School of Medicine, Department of Epidemiology, University of Miami, 1983.

19.

Hess, C. V., "Environmental Radon and Cancer Correlations in Maine," Health Physics, Vol. 45, No. 2, 1983.

20.

Fleisher, R. L., "A Possible Association Between Luna Cancer and Phosphate Mining and Processing ," Health Physics; VOl. 4, July, 1981.

21.

Lowder, W. M. , "Indoor Radon Daughter and Radiation Measurements in East Tennessee and Central Florida," 1971. Health and Safety Laboratory, U . S . Atomic Energy Commission (HASL TM 71-8) New York, N.Y.

22.

Rowe, W. D., "Preliminary Findings Radon Daughter Levels in Structures Constructed on Reclaimed Florida Phosphate Land," 1975. Tech note ORP/CSD-75-4, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

23.

U . S . Environmental Protection Agency, "Indoor Radiation Exposure Due to Radium-226 in Florida Phosphate Lands, 1978. EPA 520/4-78-013.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

The Bwsphere: Problems and Solutione, edit$ by T.N. Veziroillu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

333

HAN RIVER BASIN ENVIRONMENTAL MASTER PLAN B. I. Loran, P. J. Morris and P. N. Storrs Engineering-Science, Inc. Arcadia, C a l i f o r n i a 91006. U.S.A.

ABSTRACT

The Han River Environmental Master Plan Project w a s i n i t i a t e d i n March 1982 and concluded i n September 1983. The s t u d y a r e a involved c o n t a i n s oneq u a r t e r of t h e a r e a of t h e Republic of Korea and one-third of t h e c o u n t r y ' s This p r o j e c t r e p r e s e n t s one of t h e f i r s t i n t e g r a t e d environmental population. e f f o r t s where environmental q u a l i t y improvements i n t h e f i e l d s of w a t e r , a i r and land ( s o l i d and hazardous waste d i s p o s a l ) were considered a t t h e same t i m e . The o b j e c t i v e s of t h e Master Plan were to develop long-term s t r a t e g i e s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g p o l l u t i o n within a c c e p t a b l e l i m i t s f o r t h e Han River Basin a r e a to t h e year 2000, t o develop short-term measures capable of e a r l y implementation t o improve p r e s e n t environmental c o n d i t i o n s , and to assess t h e impact of t h e environmental s t r a t e g i e s s e l e c t e d and e n s u r e t h a t b e n e f i c i a l i m p a c t s i n one environmental f i e l d would n o t c o n f l i c t with environmental g o a l s i n o t h e r fields. The p r e s e n t environmental q u a l i t y of t h e s t u d y area, t h e environmental improvement s t r a t e g i e s considered, and t h e recommended p l a n are described. 1.

INTRODUCTION

The Republic of Korea comprises t h e southern p o r t i o n of t h e Korean peni n s u l a and covers a n area of 99,000 s q km. The population w a s estimated t o be 40 m i l l i o n i n J u l y 1982. The s t u d y area (Figure 1) covered a q u a r t e r of t h e land of t h e Republic or approximately 27,000 s q km, and included a l l the Han River drainage b a s i n , e x c e p t f o r a p o r t i o n n o r t h of t h e Demilitarized Zone. The l a r g e s t c i t i e s included are Seoul, the c a p i t o l c i t y , and Incheon with mid-1982 populations of 8.8 and 1.2 m i l l i o n , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Based on estimated c u r r e n t population t h e project a r e a c o n t a i n s nine o t h e r c i t i e s w i t h populations of about 100,000 t o 400,000; four c i t i e s i n t h e range of 50,000 to 90,000; 10 towns i n t h e range of 20,000 t o 40,000; and an a d d i t i o n a l 15 smaller towns with a population of a t l e a s t 10,000. The population of t h e p r o j e c t a r e a i s approximately 14.0 m i l l i o n , or one-third t h e t o t a l population of Korea. About 8,000 i n d u s t r i e s l i e within t h e s t u d y area; many p l a n t s being l o c a t e d i n 16 indust r i a l complexes. R m 1970 to 1982, t h e population of Seoul and o t h e r c i t i e s i n t h e western s t u d y a r e a g r e w by 3 t o 10 p e r c e n t annually, while t h e c e n t r a l and e a s t e r n s t u d y area grew a t n a t u r a l growth rates or decreased i n population.

334

F i g u r e 1.

Map of South Korea Showing t h e Han River Basin Study Area

During t h e past twenty y e a r s the Korean economy h a s s u s t a i n e d a remarkedly h i g h rate of growth. G r o s s N a t i o n a l P r o j e c t ( G N P ) grew a t a n a v e r a g e a n n u a l r a t e o f 7.7 p e r c e n t from 1970 t o 1980. The per c a p i t a GNP r o s e from 204,000* t o 429,000 Won ( c o n s t a n t 1975 p r i c e s ) d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d . The growth w a s a c h i e v e d p r i n c i p a l l y by w e l l - d i r e c t e d i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and e x p o r t promotion. This r a p i d growth h a s been accompanied by a d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t h e q u a l i t y of t h e environment, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e l a r g e r urban and i n d u s t r i a l areas. I n t h e s e areas t h e amounts of domestic and i n d u s t r i a l wastes d i s c h a r g e d f a r exceed t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e environment t o assimilate them, and s e r i o u s p o l l u t i o n problems have r e s u l t e d . I n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e r e h a s been e x t e n s i v e development of t h e Han River However, even i n t h e upper r e a c h e s Basin, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n i t s lower r e a c h e s . of t h e r i v e r t h e r e are e n v i r o n m e n t a l problems, caused by mining, a g r i c u l t u r e , water r e s o u r c e s development, etc. Major e f f o r t s are r e q u i r e d to improve t h e p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n s and t o e s t a b l i s h r e g u l a t i o n s , p r o c e d u r e s and f a c i l i t i e s n e c e s s a r y t o m a i n t a i n a c l e a n , h e a l t h f u l and p l e a s a n t environment. The Korean Government h a s recognized t h i s s i t u a t i o n and a l r e a d y h a s t a k e n s i g n i f i c a n t s t e p s toward r e d u c i n g f u r t h e r p o l l u t i o n . These have i n c l u d e d : Enactment of t h e Environment P r e s e r v a t i o n Law which e s t a b l i s h e d p r o c e d u r e s f o r t h e a d o p t i o n and enforcement of e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s , t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t a s s e s s m e n t s , and t h e d e s i g n a t i o n of special countermeasure zones.

*

1000 Korean Won e q u a l s (approx.)

US$ 1 . 4 3

336 The l a w also authorized an h v i r o n m e n t a l Conservation Committee t o f u n c t i o n under t h e p r i m e m i n i s t e r f o r the purpose of reviewing master p l a n s , s e t t i n g policies, and coordinating i n t e r - m i n i s t e r i a l problems. Formation of t h e O f f i c e of Environment as t h e c e n t r a l agency res p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n of a i r and w a t e r q u a l i t y and o t h e r matters r e l a t e d to environmental p r o t e c t i o n . Implementation of s p e c i f i c measures f o r reducing p o l l u t i o n such a s t h e r e d u c t i o n i n t h e s u l f u r c o n t e n t of petroleum derived f u e l s used f o r i n d u s t r i a l processes and space h e a t i n g within t h e SeoulIncheon region from 3.8 p e r c e n t to 1.6 percent. This a c t i o n r e s u l t e d i n t h e i m m e d i a t e decrease i n t h e amount of a i r p o l l u t i o n caused by one of t h e major p o l l u t a n t s s u l f u r dioxide and so provided a d i r e c t improvement to ambient a i r q u a l i t y .

--

--

R e s t r i c t i o n s on canmercial, i n s t i t u t i o n a l , and i n d u s t r i a l development w i t h i n Seoul. Establishment of Green Belts i n major c i t i e s t o c o n s t r a i n urban expansion. Construction of t h e Seoul Subway t o reduce t r a f f i c congestion. In a d d i t i o n , t h e government perceived t h e need f o r long range planing f o r environmental p r e s e r v a t i o n and a l l o c a t e d funds f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of an environmental master p l a n f o r a major p r i o r i t y a r e a t h e Han River Basin.

-

2.

OBJECTIVES

The main o b j e c t i v e of t h e p r o j e c t w a s t o develop a long-term i n t e g r a t e d Master Plan f o r p r o t e c t i n g and improving environmental q u a l i t y i n t h e Han River m s i n to t h e year 2001 covering t h e water, a i r and s o l i d wastes s e c t o r s . Within t h e long-term Master Plan, a P r i o r i t y F i r s t Phase w a s i d e n t i f i e d as t h e period from 1984 t o 1988. The following items were included i n o r d e r t o achieve t h e o b j e c t i v e s of t h e Master Plan: summarize r e c e n t and f u t u r e population, and land use c o l l e c t and summarize i n v e n t o r i e s of wastes f o r e c a s t f u t u r e p o l l u t i o n and i d e n t i f y p r o j e c t s , o p e r a t i o n s , and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and l e g a l arrangements required t o meet environmental s t a n d a r d s prepare conceptual design and f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s f o r needed p o l l u tion control projects develop economic f e a s i b i l i t y and f i n a n c i a l p l a n s f o r Master Plan and F i r s t Phase P r o j e c t s The p r o j e c t a l s o included a s i g n i f i c a n t t r a i n i n g component f o r l o c a l personnel and f o r t r a n s f e r of technology and ideas.

3.

SmDY APPROACH

The p r o j e c t team was based i n Seoul1 t h e team c o n s i s t e d of personnel from three companies, Engineering-Science, nyundai and Hyosung, augmented by foreign a n d - l o c a l specialists f o r s p e c i f i c assignments. The p r o j e c t was i n i t i a t e d i n March 1982 and concluded i n September 1983. Available information and p r i o r s t u d i e s were obtained and evaluated. Where gaps were found to e x i s t , programs t o g a t h e r t h e a d d i t i o n a l d a t a were formulated and implemented. These programs included e x t e n s i v e f i e l d s t u d i e s i n each of t h e environmental, w a t e r , a i r , and s o l i d wastes sectors. Major s t u d i e s included water q u a l i t y monitoring of t h e Han River, a i r q u a l i t y monit o r i n g and emission source t e s t i n g , and s o l i d waste composition surveys. Other s t u d i e s were conducted f o r housing and s e r v i c e s , t r e n d s i n population, land use and waste g e n e r a t i o n , f i n a n c i a l d a t a , and environmental concerns. Forecasts of population and land use w e r e prepared. Waste l o a d s were, developed which were d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e f o r e c a s t s . Unit generation r a t e s , population and development f o r e c a s t s were i n t e g r a t e d t a k i n g i n t o account t h e probable impact of f u t u r e l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s on t h e types and q u a n t i t i e s of wastes This s t a g e of t h e s t u d y d e f i n e d t h e e x t e n t of t h e f u t u r e p o l l u t i o n generated. loads which are l i k e l y to be generated throughout t h e s t u d y area. The d e s i r e d In modern urban communities some p o l l u t i o n i s i n e v i t a b l e . upper l i m i t f o r such p o l l u t i o n i s defined by e s t a b l i s h i n g s p e c i f i c standards. For some p o l l u t a n t s t h e government had a l r e a d y prescribed standards. Where standards had n o t been p r e s c r i b e d , g u i d e l i n e s w e r e developed f o r use i n the p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e Master Plan. In many cases, t h e e x i s t i n g and f u t u r e quant i t i e s of waste loads would cause environmental p o l l u t i o n t o exceed t h e s t a n d a r d s and g u i d e l i n e s . The amount by which t h e f o r e c a s t l e v e l of p o l l u t i o n exceeded t h e standard o r g u i d e l i n e , i n e f f e c t , d e f i n e d t h e magnitude of t h e problem f o r each pollutant. A l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s w e r e developed t o reduce t h e wastes d i s c h a r g e s t o a degree such t h a t t h e q u a l i t i e s of t h e r e c e i v i n g waters or t h e ambient a i r would meet t h e a p p l i c a b l e standard o r g u i d e l i n e . The a l t e r n a t i v e s were then evaluated according to s e v e r a l c r i t e r i a which included: e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n reducing p o l l u t i o n technical f e a s i b i l i t y state-of-the-art - appropriateness of t h e technology reliability

-

c a p i t a l and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s O

ease of implementation financial constraints institutional constraints social constraints

-

cross-media e f f e c t s ( t o determine how an a l t e r n a t i v e formulated f o r one environmental s e c t o r might a f f e c t t h e o t h e r s e c t o r s ) The recommended optimum a l t e r n a t i v e was s e l e c t e d t o form t h e Master Plan and an implementation program f o r t h e period 1984 t o 2001 was prepared.

337 4. 4.1

WATER QUALITY

E x i s t i n g Conditions

As i s t h e case i n most Asian c o u n t r i e s , t h e sewerage systems i n Korea have developed from systems i n which n i g h t s o i l ( f e c a l s o l i d s ) was c o l l e c t e d i n v a u l t s or s e p t i c tanks f o r use on a g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s and l i q u i d wastes were discharged to t h e s u r f a c e d r a i n s . In 1982 about 60 p e r c e n t of t h e p r o j e c t a r e a population had f l u s h t o i l e t s with a connection to t h e drainage system. In Seoul almost a l l of t h e d r a i n s are covered; i n t h e rest of t h e p r o j e c t area about one-half of t h e d r a i n s are open channels.

There were only two f u n c t i o n i n g sewage treatment p l a n t s i n t h e p r o j e c t a r e a i n 1983, both i n Seoul. Only 30 p e r c e n t of t h e w a s t e s of t h e sewered population is t r e a t e d . The rest i s discharged u n t r e a t e d t o t h e Han River system. I n 1982 n i g h t s o i l systems w e r e used by about 6 m i l l i o n people i n t h e proj e c t area. N i g h t s o i l i n t h e c i t i e s i s u s u a l l y c o l l e c t e d w i t h vacuum t r u c k s exc e p t i n t h e o l d e r , more congested areas where t r a d i t i o n a l manual methods must be used. N i g h t s o i l may be t r e a t e d a t n i g h t s o i l t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s , s t o r e d i n dumps, or, i n t h e more rural a r e a s , spread on a g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s . In t h e v i c i n i t y of Seoul t h e q u a l i t y of t h e waters of t h e Lower Han River i s poor, as shown i n Figure 2. Dissolved oxygen c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e extremely low, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e areas n e a r e s t t h e c e n t r a l c i t y , where d u r i n g warm weather a t l o w t i d e t h e r i v e r i s n e a r l y anaerobic, with t y p i c a l d i s s o l v e d oxygen c o n c e n t r a t i o n of 1.0 mg/L, and f e c a l coliform l e v e l s approaching those of u n t r e a t e d sewage. However, c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of metals i n t h e water and s e d i ments are low. Many of t h e t r i b u t a r i e s to t h e Lower Han River are h e a v i l y p o l l u t e d and are anaerobic during low flows.

" v ;. l

Figure 2.

LEGEND

DO CONCENTRATION

P r e s e n t water Quality i n t h e Lower Han River

338 The North Han River i s e s s e n t i a l l y a series of l a k e s . In g e n e r a l , t h e water q u a l i t y i s e x c e l l e n t and s u i t a b l e f o r any intended purpose. Of some concern, however, i s t h e l e v e l of n u t r i e n t s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y phosphorus) i n t h e two lower lakes. Both of t h e s e l a k e s have phosphorus c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t h a t a r e judged t o be very near t h e l e v e l a t which a l g a l blooms w i l l occur and cause problems. The wastewaters from t h e C i t y of Chuncheon a r e t h e primary cont r i b u t o r of n u t r i e n t s . The water q u a l i t y i n t h e free-flowing South Han River i s good; d i s s o l v e d oxygen l e v e l s a r e a t o r above s a t u r a t i o n along i t s length. H o w e v e r , animal f e e d l o t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y p i g fanning, are a p r e s e n t p o l l u t i o n problem. The metals c o n t e n t of t h e South Han R i v e r waters and sediments i s a l s o high immedia t e l y downstream of a c o a l mining a r e a , although t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s decrease to n a t u r a l l e v e l s within a s h o r t d i s t a n c e . Generally, t h e n a t u r a l q u a l i t y of t h e groundwater i s s u i t a b l e f o r most uses. The t o t a l d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s c o n t e n t i s low, around 200 t o 300 mg/L. The water tends to be s o f t t o moderately hard, and with t h e exception of geothermal waters, t h e pH i s g e n e r a l l y between 6.2 and 8 . 0 . In t h e Seoul area t h e most extensive use of groundwater i s f o r i n d u s t r i a l purposes. Serious contamination of shallow a q u i f e r s has occurred. Factory w e l l s have been p o l l u t e d by o i l s and dyes, and i n many c a s e s , have experienced high ammonia l e v e l s . Sewage p o l l u t i o n i s a l s o a r e g u l a r occurrence, p a r t i c u l a r l y o u t s i d e t h e urban a r e a s and i n t h e poorer v i l l a g e s where shallow wells are dug c l o s e t o privies. In 1966, a typhoid epidemic occurred a t Shihung r e s u l t i n g i n 120 c a s e s and two deaths. The cause w a s sewage from p r i v i e s t h a t had contaminated shallow, hand-dug w e l l s . In A p r i l 1982, an outbreak of d y s e n t e r y a f f e c t i n g 100 persons was reported i n t h e Anyang Cheon v a l l e y . According t o t h e Ministry of Health and S o c i a l A f f a i r s , t h e cause of t h e outbreak was sewage-contaminated w e l l water. In g e n e r a l , t h e w e l l water i n t h e a l l u v i a l d e p o s i t s i s f r e e from bacterial contamination a t d e p t h s g r e a t e r than f i v e metres. 4.2

Water P o l l u t i o n Control A l t e r n a t i v e s

The degree of treatment r e q u i r e d to meet t h e e f f l u e n t s t a n d a r d s was t h e same f o r a l l t h e treatment p l a n t l o c a t i o n s . The a l t e r n a t i v e secondary treatments i n c l u d e conventional a c t i v a t e d sludge and b i o l o g i c a l f i l t r a t i o n . However, b i o l o g i c a l f i l t r a t i o n systems were not considered f o r t h e Greater Seoul a r e a a s t h e y r e q u i r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y l a r g e r a r e a s of land than conventional a c t i v a t e d sludge processes and s u f f i c i e n t land was not a v a i l a b l e . Sewage treatment processes produce sludge of varying amounts and characteristics which depend upon t h e treatment system adopted. For t h e Greater Seoul area, three d i s p o s a l o p t i o n s were considered, namely, marine d i s p o s a l by barge, dewatering and l a n d f i l l d i s p o s a l , o r i n c i n e r a t i o n and r e s i d u e b u r i a l a t landfills. Sewer systems w e r e s t u d i e d f o r Greater Seoul, Incheon, and o t h e r major c i t i e s . F e a s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s are l i m i t e d by t h e topography, t h e e x i s t i n g sewer o r drainage network, and t h e urban development a r e a s . A l t e r n a t i v e s were formulated to r e t a i n a s much of t h e e x i s t i n g sewer systems as p o s s i b l e and t o account f o r sewer f a c i l i t i e s t h a t a r e now being implemented; stormwater overflows were included i n a l l cases. The n a t u r a l drainage b a s i n s that flow t o t h e Lower Han River i n t h e Greater Seoul a r e a are very complex. Because of t h e topography and t h e e x i s t i n g and

f u t u r e urban development, major i n t e r c e p t o r s t o serve t h e s e b a s i n s would have t o be placed along t h e major t r i b u t a r i e s t o t h e Han River. The grouping of drainage a r e a s i n t o sewerage a r e a s t h a t could be served by s e p a r a t e sewage treatment f a c i l i t i e s depends on t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of sites f o r I t was determined t h a t t h e r e were f i v e p o s s i b l e t r e a t the treatment f a c i l i t y . ment s i t e s f o r major treatment p l a n t s to s e r v e t h e Seoul area. The carrying was a l s o c o s t s of vicinity

p o s s i b i l i t y of c o l l e c t i n g a l l of t h e sewage from Greater Seoul and i t through a t u n n e l o r f o r c e main t o Incheon f o r d i s p o s a l i n t h e sea s t u d i e d . €!owever, t h e c o s t s of t h i s scheme were much l a r g e r than t h e any a l t e r n a t i v e involving more l o c a l i z e d treatment and d i s p o s a l i n t h e of Seoul.

Water q u a l i t y s i m u l a t i o n s t u d i e s of t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s considered were made using computer models t o determine t h e l e v e l s of sewage treatment required. The primary water q u a l i t y o b j e c t i v e t o be met i n t h e Lower Han River was t h e To a s s u r e t h a t t h i s condition prevention of anaerobic c o n d i t i o n s i n the water. would be met a t a l l t i m e s , a t a r g e t d i s s o l v e d oxygen c o n c e n t r a t i o n of 2 mg/L i n a l l r i v e r segments was used. The s i m u l a t i o n s t u d i e s showed t h a t secondary treatment a t each of t h e treatment p l a n t s would be required and would be adequate t o m e e t t h e t a r g e t d i s s o l v e d oxygen c r i t e r i o n . 4.3

The Recommended Water P o l l u t i o n Control Plan

The recommended Master Plan f o r water p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l f o r t h e study a r e a up t o t h e year 2001 i n v o l v e s r e p l a c i n g n i g h t s o i l s e p t i c tank systems by sewers and sewage treatment f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e major c i t i e s . The recommended sewer systems a r e based on e x i s t i n g networks. Sewage treatment f a c i l i t i e s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same i n each c i t y and a r e based on conventional a c t i v a t e d sludge u s i n g s u r f a c e a e r a t o r s . Digested sludge w i l l be mechanically dewatered using p r e s s e s , then disposed of i n l a n d f i l l s i n conjunction with r e f u s e , although i t w i l l a l s o be a v a i l a b l e f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l purposes ( a r a b l e c r o p s , rice paddies, o r c h a r d s ) . The d e s i r e d water q u a l i t y g o a l s i n t h e Greater Seoul a r e a could be achieved using f o u r high-capacity sewage treatment p l a n t s , t r e a t i n g an average flow of 5 m i l l i o n m3/day and 1,000 ton/day of biochemical oxygen demand ( B O D ) . These p l a n t s could be served by a redesigned sewer system f e a t u r i n g 230 km of i n t e r c e p t o r s , p a r a l l e l t o t h e Han River and i t s major t r i b u t a r i e s . The f i n a l e f f l u e n t s discharged t o t h e Lower Han River w i l l have BOD and suspended s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of 20 and 30 mg/L, r e s p e c t i v e l y . About 445 ton/day of dewatered sludge w i l l t r a n s p o r t e d t o Nanjido l a n d f i l l i n 1991 and 810 ton/day i n 2001. When t h e e n t i r e sewered area i s e v e n t u a l l y provided with a s e p a r a t e system, t h e r e w i l l be about 7,300 km of secondary and 10,200 km of t e r t i a r y sewers. A t o t a l of 240,000 n i g h t s o i l conversions w i l l be required t o ensure complete e l i m i n a t i o n of n i g h t s o i l by 2001. To meet t h e d e s i r e d water q u a l i t y g o a l s i n t i m e f o r t h e Olympic G a m e s i n 1988 a l l t h e main i n t e r c e p t o r s and t h e f i r s t phase of two new sewage treatment

p l a n t s should be commissioned by t h a t d a t e .

340 5. 5.1

A I R QUALITY

Present Levels

There a r e more than 1 0 0 a i r q u a l i t y monitoring s t a t i o n s i n the s t u d y area. These s t a t i o n s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d and are operated by t h e Public Health I n s t i t u t e s of Seoul, Incheon, and t h r e e provinces. Additional s t a t i o n s were s e t up by the p r o j e c t , and a i r q u a l i t y d a t a w e r e c o l l e c t e d between October 1 9 8 2 and March 1983; the l a t t e r were p a r t i c u l a r l y valuable f o r suspended p a r t i c u l a t e s , because of unc e r t a i n t y about t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s of t h e sampling method p r e v i o u s l y used. Total suspended p a r t i c u l a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e s t u d y area g e n e r a l l y exceed t h e recanmended g u i d e l i n e s of 150 ug/m3 on an annual basis and 300 ug/m3 f o r 2 4 hours. The mean annual value was 331 ug/m3. P a r t i c l e s i z e determinations were made i n Seoul t o estimate t h e proport i o n s i n t h e t o t a l suspended p a r t i c u l a t e s of t h e r e s p i r a b l e p a r t i c u l a t e s (less than 1 0 um) and t h e f i n e p a r t i c u l a t e s (less than 2 . 5 urn). The recanmended g u i d e l i n e f o r f i n e p a r t i c u l a t e s ( 1 5 0 ug/m3 f o r 2 4 h o u r s ) was exceeded a t most Seoul s t a t i o n s . It appears, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t suspended p a r t i c u l a t e s a r e a major a i r q u a l i t y problem i n t h e study a r e a . The s u l f u r dioxide l e v e l s i n Seoul and i n some of t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s a l s o g e n e r a l l y exceed t h e Korean s t a n d a r d of 0.05 ppm (annual a r i t h m e t i c mean). Outside t h e C i t y of Seoul, b u t s t i l l w i t h i n t h e Seoul-Incheon metropolitan a r e a , t h e s u l f u r dioxide c o n c e n t r a t i o n s v a r i e d b u t w e r e near o r s l i g h t l y over t h e standard. Outside of t h i s m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a t h e s u l f u r dioxide l e v e l s are not a problem. Although t h e r e w e r e s e v e r a l s t a t i o n s a t which t h e recommended g u i d e l i n e s f o r carbon monoxide were exceeded, ambient c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of carbon monoxide a r e not considered to be a problem i n t h e s t u d y a r e a . Carbon monoxide, however, is a s e r i o u s contaminant i n many Korean t r a d i t i o n a l homes u s i n g the "yeontan" o r under f l o o r h e a t i n g system. This c o n s i s t s of slow-burning, high-ash coal b r i q u e t t e s combusted i n a s t o v e l o c a t e d below t h e f l o o r l e v e l , with t h e f l u e gas e x i t i n g through a pipe network b u i l t i n t o t h e f l o o r . System l e a k s can lead to carbon monoxide poisoning of t h e room occupants. Primary sources of suspended p a r t i c u l a t e s , s u l f u r dioxide, and carbon monoxide, and t h e i r r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s a r e presented i n T a b l e 1. Table 1.

-

Sources of A i r P o l l u t a n t s Btceeding Air Quality Standards i n t h e Study Area and R e l a t i v e Percent C o n t r i b u t i o n s Total Suspended

Source Yeontan Residual o i l Industrial hlgitive dust Motor v e h i c l e s

Particulates 5 11

5 37 42

SUlf UT Dioxide

Carbon Monoxide

40 51 1

( 1 < 1

8

15

-

84

-

Although t h e d a t a are imcomplete, t h e r e i s no evidence of problem levels of n i t r o g e n dioxide i n t h e s t u d y area. Additional and c o n t i n u i n g monitoring should be c a r r i e d out. Only five Hydrocarbon d a t a were i n s u f f i c i e n t to draw any conclusions. s t a t i o n s i n Seoul monitored hydrocarbons, and incomplete d a t a WePe reported.

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o draw f i r m c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t ozone and o x i d a n t l e v e l s i n t h b s t u d y area. Four chemiluminescent ozone a n a l y z e r s were added t o t h e monitoring network i n Seoul i n l a t e 1981 and were o p e r a t e d f o r a b o u t 20 perc e n t of t h e t i m e . The a v a i l a b l e ozone d a t a and t h e n i t r o g e n d i o x i d e d a t a s u g g e s t that t h e r e i s n o t a s i g n i f i c a n t o x i d a n t problem i n t h e s t u d y area. However, t h e t o t a l o x i d a n t d a t a (measured u s i n g t h e b u f f e r e d potassium i o d i d e method) s u g g e s t o t h e r w i s e . More m o n i t o r i n g s t a t i o n s and d a t a w i l l be r e q u i r e d b e f o r e t h i s q u e s t i o n c a n be r e s o l v e d . 5.2

Air P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l A l t e r n a t i v e s and Recommended P l a n

The p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s c o n s i d e r e d f o r major s o u r c e s and t h e i r r e l a t i v e e m i s s i o n r e d u c t i o n e f f e c t i v e n e s s are o u t l i n e d i n Table 2 . The e v a l u a t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s and t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h o s e t h a t should be implemented were based on a number of f a c t o r s . C o s t - e f f e c t i v e n e s s w a s a major c o n s i d e r a t i o n . Another i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r w a s t h e speed w i t h which a measure c o u l d be implemented. A s mentioned above, t h e a i r q u a l i t y i n t h e Seoul-Incheon area i s poor now, and t i m e l y r e m e d i a l measures s h o u l d be i n s t i tuted. Measures t h a t r e q u i r e d r e l a t i v e l y small c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e s (even with h i g h o p e r a t i o n a l c o s t s ) and t h a t c o u l d be implemented with a s h o r t l e a d t i m e were p r e f e r r e d .

The f i v e s t r a t e g i e s l i s t e d below w e r e recommended t o reduce p a r t i c u l a t e s emissions: 1.

Replace p r e s e n t f u e l s used f o r i n d u s t r i a l and o t h e r combustion with c l e an f u e l s .

2.

Improve i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s e s , combustion, and motor v e h i c l e e f f i c i e n c y by c o n s e r v a t i o n , improvements, and b e t t e r maintenance.

3.

Reduce t h e p a r t i c u l a t e s l o a d i n g from e x h a u s t g a s e s from s t a t i o n a r y and mobile s o u r c e s .

4.

Implement f u g i t i v e d u s t programs f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e s , r o a d s , and unpaved areas.

5.

Relocate major p o i n t s o u r c e s of p a r t i c u l a t e s o u t s i d e t h e SeoulIncheon area.

A n a l y s i s o f t h e s i x c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s developed f o r c o n t r o l l i n g s u l f u r d i o x i d e showed t h a t a l l s i x would be r e q u i r e d , as l i s t e d below: 1.

Replace e x i s t i n g f u e l s used f o r e n e r g y p r o d u c t i o n w i t h c l e a n e r f u e l s s x h as n a t u r a l g a s .

2.

Reduce f u e l consumption w i t h c o n s e r v a t i o n and improved combustion efficiency.

3.

Reduce t h e impacts of e m i s s i o n s by f u e l s w i t c h i n g based on f o r e c a s t s of a i r q u a l i t y c o n d i t i o n s .

4.

Reduce t h e s u l f u r c o n t e n t of p r e s e n t f u e l t y p e s .

5.

Reduce t h e s u l f u r c o n t e n t of f l u e g a s e s .

6.

R e l o c a t e major p o i n t s o u r c e s o u t s i d e t h e Seoul-Incheon a r e a .

342 Table 2.

E f f e c t i v e n e s s of A i r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l S t r a t e g i e s Overall W i s s i o n Reduction

Yeontan: Modify b u r n e r f o r o v e r - f i r e a i r Coal modif i c a t i o n - a d d l i m e s t o n e Coal blending-add l i m e s t o n e Lower c a l o r i c specs-add l i m e s t o n e c o n v e r t to yeontan h o t water h e a t i n g Convert to d i s t i l l a t e o i l hot water h e a t i n g Convert to LNG h o t w a t e r h e a t i n g I n s u l a t i o n and e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n R e s i d u a l Fuel O i l : U s e imported, low-sulfur f u e l o i l D e s u l f u r i z e f u e l o i l i n Korea Convert to a d d i t i o n a l LNG f u e l B o i l e r upgrading and improved O&M Boiler o p e r a t i o n a t more c o n s t a n t r a t e I n s t a l l p a r t i c u l a t e control devices Flue g a s d e s u l f u r i z a t i o n Staged combustion of N 4 , c o n t r o l Ammonia i n j e c t i o n f o r NOx c o n t r o l I n s u l a t i o n and e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n Increase s t a c k h e i g h t a t l a r g e s o u r c e s Relocate l a r g e s o u r c e s I n d u s t r i a l Processes : N e w o r modified c o n t r o l equipment Improved O&M w i t h e x i s t i n g equipment Relocate l a r g e s o u r c e s F u g i t i v e Dusts: A d d i t i o n a l s t r e e t sweeping-washing P a v i n g - s t a b i l i z a t i o n of unpaved areas C o n t r o l growth of motor v e h i c l e s Motor V e h i c l e s : L i m i t emissions without c a t a l y s t s L i m i t emissions with c a t a l y s t s Reduce-eliminate l e a d i n g a s o l i n e Redesign d i e s e l s to reduce smoke Improve maintenance of b u s e s P a r t i c u l a t e c o n t r o l s on HD v e h i c l e s Improve v e h i c l e i n s p e c t i o n program Non-adjustable e n g i n e parameters Opacity r e g u l a t i o n s - e n f o r c e on-the-road E l i m i n a t e two-cycle motorcycles L i m i t VKT i n congested areas C o n t r o l l e d Open Burning V o l a t i l e Organic Carbon: C o n t r o l s t o r a g e and t r a n s f e r Control l a r g e us ers of s o l v e n t s I n c r e a s e s N4, e m i s s i o n s - Liquefied n a t u r a l gas - O p e r a t i o n and maintenance VKT - V e h i c l e - k i l o m e t r e s t r a v e l l e d

LNG O&M

15 15 15 4 5 11 8

12

-

-

-

21 1 1

19 28 25 17

1

23 23 23

2

8 2 2 15 23 8 2 4

1 <1

3

-

5 12

-

11 18

-

Five s t r a t e g i e s w e r e recommended f o r c o n t r o l of carbon monoxide emissions: 1.

Replacement of g a s o l i n e with LPG f o r automobiles.

2.

Reduce f u e l consumption by c o n s e r v a t i o n and improved e f f i c i e n c y .

3.

Modify v e h i c l e engine designs.

4.

L i m i t v e h i c l e use i n congested areas.

5.

Modification of yeontan burners t o provide o v e r f i r e a i r .

Although hydrocarbon and n i t r o g e n oxide emission reduction i s not p r e s e n t l y r e q u i r e d , it was recommended t o i n s t i t u t e simple s t o r a g e and t r a n s f e r procedures which would g r e a t l y reduce v o l a t i l e organic carbon emissions. 6. 6.1

SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL Present P r a c t i c e s

S o l i d wastes i n t h e s t u d y area are p r e s e n t l y disposed of a t open dumps. "be waste m a t e r i a l s a r e l e v e l e d by hand, by t r u c k t r a f f i c , o r with bulldozers. The wastes are not covered e x c e p t when t h e s i t e i s c l o s e d . mere i s no odor o r r o d e n t c o n t r o l . Spraying i s used a t t h e Nanjido s i t e near Seoul f o r c o n t r o l of f l i e s . The lack of cover has n o t been a s e r i o u s problem i n t h e p a s t because of t h e high c o n t e n t of a s h i n t h e r e f u s e . However, i n 1981 t h e government ordered t h e s e p a r a t e c o l l e c t i o n of ash and o t h e r r e f u s e . The i n t e n t of t h i s o r d e r was t o create a w a s t e t h a t could be burned i n i n c i n e r a t o r s , b u t secondary b e n e f i t s were t h a t t h e a s h could be used a s f i l l m a t e r i a l and t h a t t h e l i f e of t h e dump s i t e s w a s extended because of t h e smaller volume of wastes. On t h e negative s i d e , however, i s t h e f a c t t h a t with t h e h i g h e r paper and vegetable m a t e r i a l c o n t e n t , t h e r e i s a g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l f o r both f i r e s and vector problems a t t h e dump s i t e s . Resource recovery and r e c y c l i n g are important i n t h e r e s i d e n t i a l and commercial s o l i d waste c o l l e c t i o n and d i s p o s a l system. P r i v a t e salvage c o l l e c t o r s i n t h e c i t i e s c o l l e c t waste m a t e r i a l s f o r resale. Metals, g l a s s , r a g s , and paper products a r e t h e m a t e r i a l s most i n demand. The government's Korea Resource Recovery and R e u t i l i z a t i o n Corporation encourages r e c y c l i n g of p l a s t i c s (and to a lesser e x t e n t , paper and i r o n ) by purchasing t h e s e materials and res e l l i n g them f o r processing and reuse. There i s c a r t laborers scavengers a t a r e delivered

also salvaging i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n and d i s p o s a l operations. Handselect and set a s i d e m a t e r i a l s . Wastes are picked over by t r a n s f e r p o i n t s , and scavengers pick over t h e wastes a f t e r they to t h e dumps.

Forty s o l i d waste d i s p o s a l s i t e s i n t h e Han River Basin were i n v e s t i g a t e d . Approximately 500 i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e s t u d y a r e a may be producing s o l i d o r sludge wastes t h a t would be considered hazardous o r t o x i c under p r o v i s i o n s contained i n t h e Korean Environmental P r e s e r v a t i o n L a w and corresponding regul a t i o n s . I t f u r t h e r appears t h a t 200 t o 300 i n d u s t r i e s are producing hazardous o r t o x i c l i q u i d wastes unsuited f o r sewer discharge. Some of t h e s e industries produce both l i q u i d and s o l i d wastes.

344 Under t h e terms of t h e Environment P r e s e r v a t i o n Law p r o v i s i o n s are made f o r p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s t o be l i c e n s e d as I n d u s t r i a l Waste Disposal Businesses (commonly r e f e r r e d t o as consignment companies). There are 21 l i c e n s e d opera t o r s . s e r v i n g t h e s t u d y area. Most of the hazardous wastes generated by the i n d u s t r i e s are hauled and disposed of by t h e s e consignment companies, although some i n d u s t r i e s (about f i v e p e r c e n t ) haul and dispose of t h e i r own hazardous wastes. f i e consignment companies must meet certain s p e c i f i e d s t a n d a r d s i n c l u d i n g q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r t e c h n i c a l personnel, c r i t e r i a f o r i n c i n e r a t o r s , tanks f o r s t o r a g e , n e u t r a l i z a t i o n , s e p a r a t i o n , etc. S p e c i a l i z e d devices are used depending upon t h e types of wastes to be handled. I n a d d i t i o n , the waste d i s p o s a l companies must have broad l a b o r a t o r y c a p a b i l i t i e s . S o l i d Waste Management A l t e r n a t i v e s and Recommended S t r a t e g y

6.2

The following s o l i d waste management technologies were considered as having p o t e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e s t u d y area: O

Pyrolysis Anaerobic d i g e s t i o n Combustion of refuse-derived f u e l

Mass i n c i n e r a t i o n O

Composting S a n i t a r y l a n d f i l l with and without methane g a s recovery,

I n c i n e r a t i o n (mass b u r n i n g ) , composting, and s a n i t a r y land f i l l i n g were considered f e a s i b l e i n t h e s t u d y area. These t h r e e a l t e r n a t i v e s were t h e obj e c t of a d e t a i l e d s t u d y where t e c h n i c a l , economic, and environmental f a c t o r s were considered. The value of t h e power (or steam) generated on i n c i n e r a t i o n and t h e s o i l c o n d i t i o n e r produced on composting were included i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n . It w a s concluded t h a t a s a n i t a r y l a n d f i l l i s t h e recommended a l t e r n a t i v e because of t h e lower c o s t , g r e a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y , and t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of landf i l l sites.

6.3

Hazardous Waste Management A l t e r n a t i v e s and Recommended S t r a t e g y

I d e a l l y , a l l hazardous waste should be reused, d e t o x i f i e d , or destroyed. Numerous hazardous waste treatment procedures have been a p p l i e d or suggested; many of t h e s e , however, o n l y change t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e waste. Incinerator ash and waate water treatment sludges are examples of t r e a t m e n t r e s i d u a l s containing concentrated amounts of contaminants which must s t i l l be disposed of s a f e l y . A hazardous waste treatment p l a n t could be used a s a s u p p o r t i n g f a c i l i t y operated i n conjunction with t h e e x i s t i n g p r i v a t e consignment companies. Such a p l a n t would handle only special wastes t h a t were d i f f i c u l t to treat or too expensive f o r t h e p r i v a t e companies. The f a c i l i t y could a l s o s e r v e a s a replacement of t h e consignment companies i n case they f a i l e d t o provide t h e i r designated function.

However, i t was concluded t h a t t h e r e w a s o n l y one basic d i s p o s a l method t h a t would be s u i t a b l e f o r g e n e r a l a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e s t u d y area. This w a s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n and o p e r a t i o n of well-designed, s e c u r e hazardous waste l a n d f i l l s .

345 7.

COSTS

The t o t a l c a p i t a l requirements of t h e Master Plan amount t o about 4.8 t r i l l i o n Won (US$ 6.9 b i l l i o n ) i n 1982 p r i c e s over t h e 18-year planning period. The g r e a t e s t c a p i t a l requirements f a l l i n t h e y e a r s 1984 t o 1991 when t h e averrage annual c a p i t a l r e q u i r e d w i l l be about 330 b i l l i o n Won (US$ 470 m i l l i o n ) per year. Economic f e a s i b i l i t y of t h e Master Plan w a s judged based on ( 1 ) p o s s i b l e a l l o c a t i o n s (0.5 t o 2 p e r c e n t ) of t h e p r o j e c t e d Gross National Product t o pollut i o n c o n t r o l i n Korea and assumed a l l o c a t i o n of a v a i l a b l e c a p i t a l t o t h e p r o j e c t area and ( 2 ) p r o j e c t i o n s of f i x e d c a p i t a l formation i n t h e p r o j e c t area. These analyses showed t h a t although i t w a s reasonable to assume t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of t h e needed c a p i t a l over t h e planning p e r i o d , t h e r e would be a shortage of capital u n t i l t h e l a t e 1980s. Thus, p r i o r i t i e s w i l l have t o be e s t a b l i s h e d t o h e l p d e c i d e which p r o j e c t s can be implemented i n t h e f i r s t few years. 8.

CONCLUSIONS

The Han River Basin Environmental Master Plan P r o j e c t r e p r e s e n t s one of t h e f i r s t i n t e g r a t e d environmental e f f o r t s where environmental q u a l i t y improvements i n t h e f i e l d s of water, a i r and land ( s o l i d and hazardous w a s t e d i s p o s a l ) were considered a t t h e same t i m e . This permitted the e v a l u a t i o n of cross-media i m p a c t s (such as a i r p o l l u t i o n generated on i n c i n e r a t i o n of s o l i d w a s t e ) which a r e o f t e n neglected. The strategies recommended would b r i n g about on implementation considerable improvements i n t h e o v e r a l l enviromental q u a l i t y and, thereby, i n t h e g e n e r a l h e a l t h and w e l f a r e of a major p o r t i o n of t h e South Korean population. This p r o j e c t , whose t o t a l expenditures have reached US$ 5.4 m i l l i o n , of which about US$ 3 m i l l i o n w a s loaned by t h e Asian Development Bank, r e p r e s e n t s a laudable e f f o r t by t h e Government of South Korea t o m i t i g a t e t h e environmental e f f e c t s of i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and i n c r e a s i n g u r b a n i z a t i o n and balance t h e need f o r economic development with t h e e q u a l l y b a s i c need f o r a c l e a n environment.

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The Bwsphere: Problems and Solutions,edited by T.N.Veziroglu Elsevier Science PublishersB.V.,Amsterdam,1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

WATER RESOURCES IN THE SOVIET UNION:

Charles M. Vanderbilt Department Nashville,

347

TRENDS AND PROSPECTS

Becker University of Economics and Business Administration TN 37235, U.S.A.

Kenneth C. Ray Proctor and Gamble Corp. Atlanta, GA, U.S.A. ABSTRACT Soviet growth has placed heavy demands on its water resources. As in capitalist countries, rapid economic development has been accompanied by declines in the quality of the USSR's natural resources. Plans to continue high rates of investment ensure that the problems will worsen unless major efforts are made to meet the challenge. In view of the USSR's relatively limited water endowment, dramatic plans have been made, including serious consideration of immense water diversion schemes. This paper surveys and evaluates trends in Soviet water use. It then examines the impact of the Soviet economic structure on the severity of water resource problems. Simple models of firm behavior indicate that environmental destruction by a Soviet firm may be greater than that by its capitalist counterpart. These microeconomic problems carry over to an aggregate level in view of the national emphasis on construction and industry. Given the critical need for fresh water, the Soviet response has been to plan massive water treatment and diversion projects. 1.

INTRODUCTION

Soviet growth has placed heavy demands on its water resources. In particular, agricultural and economic expansion along the water-scarce southern rim of the USSR have created major water resource problems. Anticipated future growth will increase the severity of the problems in the absence of substantial corrective measures. Indeed, water constraints may slow development considerably in the southern USSR unless measures are taken. This paper examines the effects of Soviet industrialization on its water resources, and then considers the impact of the Soviet incentive structure on this relationship. The 11th Five Year Plan (1981-1985) aims for industrial output increases of 26-28% for both capital and consumer goods, with substantial increases in thermal electric, hydroelectric and atomic power capabilities plus concurrent expansion in agricultural output and acreage ([60], p. 16). For the hydroelectric turbines to spin, the agricultural areas to produce crops, the atomic power reactors to cool, and the industrial sector to provide output, fresh and plentiful water is essential. Yet the Soviet Union does not enjoy a relatively abundant water endowment. Its 16% of the earth's land mass has only 10-11% of the fresh water runoff.' Moreover, while the European and Volga 'See M. Goldman [16], pp. 78-79; B. Babich g

a.[31, p.

1.

348 Basins of t h e USSR c o n t a i n about 80% of t h e c o u n t r y ' s p o p u l a t i o n , 90% of i t s a r a b l e l a n d , and g e n e r a t e almost 80% of i t s i n d u s t r i a l o u t p u t , t h e y c o n t a i n 3 only 24% of t h e t o t a l w a t e r r e s o u r c e s . Of t h e 4300 km a n n u a l run-off, over 80% d r a i n s i n t o t h e A r c t i c Sea and t h e P a c i f i c Ocean. The 27% of t h e USSR considered t o b e t h e most a r i d h o l d s o n l y 2% of i t s water r e s o u r c e s . The water d i s t r i b u t i o n d i s p a r i t y i s f u r t h e r emphasized when one c o n s i d e r s t h a t S i b e r i a h a s o v e r 155,000 r i v e r s compared t o t h e European R u s s i a ' s 45,000. Most i m p o r t a n t l y , 70% of t h e S o v i e t Union a n n u a l l y r i s k s t h e p o t e n t i a l of drought due t o l i m i t e d r a i n f a l l and r e s u l t a n t low s t r e a m flows. While a c o u n t r y cannot a l t e r i t s fundamental r e s o u r c e c o n s t r a i n t s , i t can a l t e r t h o s e a d d i t i o n a l o n e s c r e a t e d by i t s s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . I n p r i n c i p l e , p u b l i c ownership of t h e means o f p r o d u c t i o n can l e a d t o a n e f f i c i e n t u s e of s c a r c e environmental r e s o u r c e s , w i t h f i r m s paying a n a p p r o p r i a t e shadow p r i c e f o r t h e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s t h e y consume o r d e s t r o y . I n r e a l i t y , t h e S o v i e t i n c e n t i v e s t r u c t u r e may g e n e r a t e even g r e a t e r environmental d e s t r u c t i o n t h a n would occur i n a similar s i t u a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by u n r e g u l a t e d c a p i t a l i s m . The reward s t r u c t u r e f a c i n g a S o v i e t manager o f f e r s l i t t l e r e a s o n f o r him t o cons e r v e r e s o u r c e s of any s o r t , i n c l u d i n g s c a r c e w a t e r r e s o u r c e s . S e c t i o n 4 d i s c u s s e s models of S o v i e t f i r m b e h a v i o r i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l . We f i r s t t u r n t o a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e t r e n d s and e x t e n t of S o v i e t water u s e (Sect i o n 2) and f o l l o w by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e problems t h a t have ensued ( S e c t i o n 3). S e c t i o n 5 concludes w i t h a summary of t h e problems and c o n s i d e r a t i o n of l i k e l y future prospects. 2.

WATER USE AND WATER PLANS I N THE SOVIET UNION

The S o v i e t Union's p l a n s f o r economic expansion coupled w i t h r a p i d urban growth w i l l make a s t r a i n e d water s u p p l y even t i g h t e r . O v e r a l l i n d u s t r i a l o u t put f o r t h e USSR i n c r e a s e d 1 7 t i m e s between 1940-1975 w i t h t h e Western S i b e r i a n Economic Region and t h e Kazakhstan Economic Region e x p e r i e n c i n g r e s p e c t i v e i n c r e a s e s of 31 and 27 times.2 The development of p r e v i o u s l y undeveloped o r marginal a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d w i l l add f u r t h e r t o t h e S o v i e t w a t e r burden. With t h e s e i n d u s t r i a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l i n c r e a s e s t h e q u a n t i t y of water demanded w i l l rise a c c o r d i n g l y . Roughly h a l f of t h e water used from l a k e s , r i v e r s , r e s e r v o i r s and streams is used f o r i r r i g a t i o n , 3 w h i l e unreclaimed water consumption i n a g r i c u l t u r e exI n 1980, t o t a l S o v i e t water u s w a s r o u g h l y 396 km3, ceeds 70% of t h e t o t a l . while t h e t o t a l used i n i r r i g a t i o n i n 1979 w a s 180 km3.4? The e x t e n t of needless water l o s s i s s t a g g e r i n g i n view of t h e s e v e r e water c o n s , t r a i n t s i n t h e s o u t h e r n USSR,Kelley e t a l . ( [ 2 5 ] , p. 79) r e p o r t t h a t o n l y h a l f of w a t e r tapped f o r i r r i g a t i o n r e a c h e s t h e f i e l d s , and t h a t o n l y h a l f of t h i s l a t t e r amount i s recovered f o r r e u s e . S i m i l a r f i g u r e s are r e p o r t e d i n Gustafson ( [ 1 9 ] , p. 126), and t h e l o s s e s are a t t r i b u t e d i n l a r g e p a r t t o seepage due t o The two r e g i o n s comprise a major por2See F. Martyaev [ 3 4 ] , pp. 24-25. t i o n of t h e r a p i d l y growing, water s c a r c e p a r t s of t h e USSR. 3P. P o l e t a e v [42] pp. 11-12. D. K e l l e y &. [25] r e p o r t t h a t a comp a r a b l e 46% of US w a t e r u s e went t o a g r i c u l t u r e around 1970, though t h a t prop o r t i o n was expected t o rise c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t h e coming decade. 4The 1980 f i g u r e is g i v e n by P. P o l e t a e v [ 4 3 ] , p. 9 ; t h e i r r i g a t i o n f i g u r e i s provided by G. Kiryanov [ 2 7 ] , p. 10.

349

unlined canals and ditches. Descriptions of irrigated areas also suggest that the productivity of water use could be raised by improvements in field design. Growth in total water use has been dramatic. Between 1950-1970, water consumption in industrial uses quadrupled, while its use in agriculture doubled. The 170-200 km3 1970 Soviet water use hag doubled by 1980, and another 200 km3 increase was projected to occur by 1 9 8 9 With this increased demand for water resources, the ecological strains caused by each new factory or sown hectare will intensify, barring remedial measures. The Soviet Union has already exacerbated its water resource problems with the concentration of heavy and light industry, food production plants, and other industrial enterprises within 11 river basins in the European and southern regions--the Volga, Dnepr, Dnestr, Don, Kuban. Ural, Terek, Sulak, Kura, Amu Darya, and Syr Darya--that flow in part through arid or semi-arid regions.6 This has resulted in a series of environmental problems stemming from increased effluent levels, the continued dumping of raw sewage, inadequate water recycling and purification facilities, excessive costs for wastewater and sewage treatment plants, pesticide and fertilizer run-off, increased municipal demands, and greater soil erosion. Of the problems that resulted, scarcity of fresh water availability for irrigation was by far the most important. However, dramatic declines in commercial fishing, a cholera outbreak, and fear of regional environmental havoc wi h the continued drying up of the Aral Sea all helped to focus Soviet concern.

5

These problems have in fact led to an increased determination by the Soviet Union to protect its environment. This new awareness has been followed in recent years by declarations affirming the protection of nature by an effort to improve technological levels of wastewater and sewage facilities and speed their construction, and by an 11 billion ruble allocation in the 11th FYP for environmental protection.8 In addition, a number of plans have emerged to help improve the environment by diverting parts of the flows of Arctic-bound rivers from the north to the southern areas of inadequate moisture. Water problems in the Soviet Union stem in large part from the nation's agricultural inefficiencies. The Soviets have promoted an agricultural program that emphasizes rapid expansion of sown area and the opening of large amounts of potentially productive land. This strategy has been fairly water (as well as other input) intensive, and relatively labor saving. The lack of an appropriate incentive structure that has rendered sovkhoc and kolkhoz cultivation less productive in terms of output/ha. (despite probably using more nonlabor inputs/ha.) than private cultivation effectively has lead to the substitution of water, fertilizer and capital for labor effort in agricultural production. At the same time, it seems likely that labor underemployment in the rural Soviet Union is relatively comon (especially outside of the planting and harvesting seasons). With half of the nation's water supply devoted to irrigation, it is apparent that the demand for water could be reduced greatly if the underemployed labor force were induced to exert effort in water conservation practices.

-5The figures are given in M. Goldman 1161, p. 80, and are attributed to the Soviet economist S. Oziranskii. 6B. Babich

g g . I31, p. 1.

'For a detailed discussion, see T. Gustafson [191,:Ch. 3. 8~. Il'ev 1221, p. 3.

350 S o v i e t p o l i c y , however, h a s pushed l a r g e l y i n a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n , r e f l e c t i n g t h e a b i l i t y o f c e n t r a l p l a n n e r s t o t a k e advantage of o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f f e r e d by non ' i n c r e m e n t a l i s t s 0 1 u ~ i o n s . " ~ The most g r a n d i o s e of a l l w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n p l a n s i n v o l v e t h e Caspian Sea. To c o u n t e r t h e f a l l i n g l e v e l of t h e Caspian. t h e S o v i e t s have evolved a s e r i e s of p l a n s designed t o stem t h e d e c l i n e . These p l a n s r a n g e from d i v e r t i n g more w a t e r t o t h e Volga, t o a n i n c r e d i b l y complex set o f p l a n s t h a t would d i v e r t w a t e r from e i t h e r t h e Sea of Azov, t h e Ob and Y e n i s e i R i v e r s i n S i b e r i a , o r from v a r i o u s n o r t h e r n European A s M i c k l i n n o t e s ([351. p. 73) Russian r i v e r s t h a t empty i n t o t h e Arctic Sea." " t h e q u a n t i t y of w a t e r d i v e r t e d by t h e s e schemes would be immense: up t o 315, 250 and 42 c u b i c k i l o m e t e r s a n n u a l l y from S i b e r i a n r i v e r s , t h e A ~ Sea, v and t h e Pechora and Vychegda, r e s p e c t i v e l y . "

While t h e s e p r o j e c t s a r e v a s t , though w i t h i n t h e scope of t h e S o v i e t t e c h n o l o g i c a l a b i l i t y , t h e environmental consequences of t h e Kama-Vychegda Proj e c t which would i n v o l v e numerous c a n a l s , h y d r o e l e c t r i c s t a t i o n s , new reserv o i r s , t h e r i v e r d i v e r s i o n a r e u n c e r t a i n . Global g e o g r a p h e r s ' warnings of pote n t i a l l y major c l i m a t i c changes do n o t a p p e a r t o have impressed g r e a t l y t h e S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p . Other S o v i e t p l a n s f o r t h e Caspian Sea i n c l u d e d i k i n g c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s of t h e s e a i n an e f f o r t t o reduce l o s s e s from evapokation and r e s t o r i n g some of t h e l o s t b r e e d i n g w a t e r s of commercially v a l u a b l e f i s h . The p a r t s of t h e Caspian t h a t were under c o n s i d e r a t i o n w e r e b o t h t h e Northern Casp i a n , where damage h a s been p a r t i c u l a r l y g r e a t , and t h e Gulf of Kara-Boguz-Gol. The l e a s t complicated p l a n of a l l t h e r i v e r d i v e r s i o n o r d i k i n g schemes involved d i k i n g t h e Gulf of Kara-bguz-Gol. and t h i s p l a n i n f a c t h a s been i m plemented. On March 4, 1979, t h e f l o w of t h e water between t h e Caspian and Kara-Boguz-Go1 was h a l t e d w i t h t h e e r e c t i o n o f a dam.ll The dam w a s implemented under t h e premise t h a t t h e r a p i d e v a p o r a t i o n of w a t e r through t h e g u l f , e s t i m a t e d t o be as much as 5-6 km3 a n n u a l l y , could b e prevented.12 I n 1979, a f t e r t h e s t r a i t had been s u c c e s s f u l l y dammed, p l a n s were made t o p r o v i d e a l o c k system f o r t h e dam. S c i e n t i s t s had c a u t i o n e d t h a t i f t h e f l o w of t h e s t r a i t w a s completely blocked, t h e g u l f would d r y up w i t h i n 3-5 y e a r s , and t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g economic c o s t s would be s u b s t a n t i a l . 1 3 Because of t h e unique n a t u r e of t h e g u l f , s u r f a c e and underground b r i n e s c o n t a i n i n g numerous I z v e s t i i a reported r i c h d e p o s i t s of hydrous, r a w material would b e d e p l e t e d : t h a t a c u b i c k i l o m e t e r of Caspian-Kara-Boguz Go1 water c o n t a i n e d up t o 13 m i l l i o n t o n s of s a l t s , chemical compounds, and rare e a r t h elements.14 Apparently, t h e p l a n s f o r t h e l o c k system f o r t h e dam were e i t h e r s h e l v e d o r p r o p e r funds were n o t a l l o c a t e d , as c a l l s o r emergency measures t o s a v e Kara-Boguz-Gol were r e p o r t e d i n e a r l y 1983.G' Moreover, t h e e a r l i e r p r e d i c t i o n s of t h e s c i e n t i s t s a r e b e i n g r e a l i z e d . S i n c e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e dam, t h e s i z e of t h e g u l f h a s d e c r e a s e d by two-thirds and i t now c o v e r s o n l y 6000 km2 a s opposed t o 18,000 km2 t h r e e y e a r s e a r l i e r . The depth o f t h e g u l f h a s dropped as w e l l from a former 2-3 meters t o h a l f a meter. Also as pred i c t e d , t h i s s h r i n k a g e h a s r e s u l t e d i n a d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t h e q u a l i t y of t h e 'This advantage is noted i n a n a r t i c l e g e n e r a l l y s k e p t i c a l o f t h e advant a g e s possed by c e n t r a l l y planned economies i n d e a l i n g w i t h environmental i s s u e s . C. Z e i g l e r [ 7 1 ] , p. 132. "This

d i s c u s s i o n draws l a r g e l y from P. M i c k l i n [35].

"V. Gavrichkin. [141, p. 19. 12 P..Micklin ( [ 3 5 ] , p. 71), though, r e p o r t s t h a t s a v i n g s would be o n l y 4 km3. 13V.

Gavrichkin [ 141, p. 20.

1 4 A . Grachev,

[la], p. 27.

I5The d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s and i n t h f o l l o w i n g paragraph draws on Grachevb

l

.

361 e x t r a c t e d s a l t s , chemical compounds, and m i n e r a l s . The c o s t of p r o d u c t i o n proc e s s have both i n c r e a s e d . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e immediate economic c o s t s , o t h e r environmental problems have r e s u l t e d , and t h e s e w i l l e v e n t u a l l y impose f u r t h e r c o s t s . The l o s s of 12,000 km2 of water s u r f a c e h a s caused a d r a s t i c change i n t h e l o c a l a r e a . A g r i c u l t u r a l areas are becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y s a l i n i z e d and Interdepartmental disputes "even b i r d s a r e a v o i d i n g t h e l i f e l e s s waste."16 have a r i s e n between t h e M i n i s t r y of Land Reclamation and Water Resources' Volg o g r a d s t r o i A s s o c i a t i o n and t h e M i n i s t r y of Chemical I n d u s t r y over who should b e a r t h e c o s t of t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a l o c k . Both r e f u s e t o a l l o c a t e funds f o r the project. I n t h e meantime, Kara-Boguz-Go1 becomes s m a l l e r , and may become t h e f i r s t w a t e r body i n t h e USSR t o d i s a p p e a r . Due t o t h e poor p l a n n i n g and a f a i l u r e t o heed t h e warning of concerned c r e a t e d a secondary problem that r i v a l s t h e f i r s t . The l e v e l of t h e Caspian began t o r i s e i n 1978. T h i s r i s e h a s been a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e C a s p i a n ' s c e n t u r i e s - o l d tendency t o f l u c t u a t e i n d e p t h . A new problem h a s emerged as h a r b o r f a c i l i t i e s , wharves, p i e r s , and a d j o i n i n g s e t t l e m e n t s have been flooded by t h e r i s i n g w a t e r l e v e l . Thus, w h i l e t h e S o v i e t s recognized and t r i e d t o r e c t i f y t h e o r i g i n a l problem of t h e s h r i n k i n g Caspian, s h i f t i n g t r e n d s have made man's e f f o r t s c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e , a t l e a s t i n t h e s h o r t run.

scientists, the Soviet Union may have

Not a l l e f f o r t s t o augment stream f l o w o r raise w a t e r body l e v e l s have been a s d r a m a t i c as t h e p l a n s t o r a i s e t h e Caspian. A less enormous b u t s t i l l "non-incremental" p l a n i n v o l v e s Lake Sevan, one of t h e S o v i e t Union's most b e a u t i f u l l a k e s , s i t u a t e d h i g h i n t h e Armenian Caucasus. The S o v i e t s have comp l e t e d t h e f i r s t s t a g e of t h e i r p l a n s t o s u p p l y t h e l a k e w i t h more water and r e p l a c e t h e 24 km3 t h a t were used t o c o n s t r u c t t h e Sevan-Razdan cascade of i r r i g a t i o n and h y d r o e l e c t r i c s t a t i o n s . 1 7 I n March 1981, a 48.3 km. t u n n e l through t h e Caucasus mountains a t a h e i g h t of 1900-2600mwas f i n i s h e d , and t h e Arpa R i v e r began t o c o n t r i b u t e p a r t of i t s flow t o t h e l a k e . D e s p i t e comp l e t i o n of t h e t u n n e l , t h e Seven had dropped 1 8 m e t e r s w i t h t h e development of t h e c a s c a d e of power and i r r i g a t i o n s t a t i o n s . S o v i e t s c i e n t i s t s have c a l c u l a t e d t h a t t h e l a k e ' s l e v e l needs t o be r a i s e d 4-5 meters t o r e s t o r e t h e l a k e ' s former t h e r m o b i o l o g i c a l c o n d i t o n s , and t h a t t h e l a k e must be r e s t o r e d t o i t s former d e p t h w i t h i n 20 y e a r s i f t h e l a k e s ' s p e c i a l trout: t h e ishkhan, i s n o t t o become e x t i n c t . P r i o r t o WWII, 5000 c e n t n e r s of ishkhan were t a k e n ; t h e c a t c h h a s dropped now t o 60 c e n t n e r s .

3

The Arpa-Seven t u n n e l i s expected t o t r a n s p o r t a n n u a l l y up t o 250 m (.25 km3) of water. T h i s q u a n t i t y i m p l i e s a n a v e r a g e f l o w of 8m3/sec,while t h e d e s i r e d f l o w of 25m3/sec can b e a t t a i n e d o n l y d u r i n g t h e h i g h p e r i o d of t h e s p r i n g run-otf. Lake Se a n a l s o r e c e i v e s water from t h e E l g i s R i v e r , which c o n t r i b u t e s 50 m i l l i o n m / y e a r . F u t u r e p l a n s t o improve Lake Sevan c a l l f o r an e i g h t k i l o m e t e r t u n n e l t o s t r e t c h from t h e Vorotan R i v e r , and a combined flow d i v e r s i o n of t h e G e t i k and Marmarik R i v e r s t h a t w i l l c o n t r i b u t e a n n u a l l y 200 and 80 m i l l i o n m 3 of w a t e r , r e s p e c t i v e l y . I f no a d d i t i o n a l w a t e r i s taken from Lake Sevan,then it can be expected t o r e t u r n t o i t s former h e i g h t i n approximately 41 t o 45 y e a r s from t h e d a t e of completion of t h e p l a n s . 1 8 Thus,

3

--

l6=.,

p. 27.

"The d i s c u s s i o n of t h e Sevan is based on 0. Popov [ 4 5 ] , p. 1 7 and Yu. Arakelyan, [ 2 ] , p. 21. I 8 I f w a t e r l o s s from e v a p o r a t i o n i s e x a c t l y o f f s e t by r a i n f a l l and by t h e i n f l o w from t h e E l g i s , new i n c r e m e n t s from t h e Arpa, Vorotan, G e t i k and Marmari k R i v e r s w i l l l e a d t o a n a n n u a l g a i n of .53km3; t h i s increment w i l l r e p l a c e t h e i n i t i a l 24 km3 loss a f t e r 45 y e a r s ( i g n o r i n g changes i n e v a p o r a t i o n ) . I f t h e flow from t h e E l g i s is c o n s i d e r e d p a r t of t h e increment, t h e o r i g i n a l l e v e l

352 while c a l c u l a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t Lake Sevan cannot f i l l as f a s t a s i n t e n d e d , i t is a l s o a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e USSR had made a d e f i n i t e commitment t o improve t h e lake. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a t t e m p t s t o r e p l e n i s h Lake Sevan's w a t e r , e f f o r t s a r e being made a l s o t o d e c r e a s e p o l l u t i o n l e v e l s . I n 1978, t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of b i o l o g i c a l sewage t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s began i n b o r d e r i n g c i t i e s and towns and cons t r u c t i o n of i n d u s t r i a l f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e immediate p r o x i m i t y h a s been f o r b i d den.19 The s u p e r v i s i o n of water used f o r i r r i g a t i o n a l s o h a s been p l a c e d under s t r i c t e r g u i d e l i n e s . I n l a t e 1978, t h e CPSU C e n t r a l Committee and USSR Council of M i n i s t r i e s i n s t r u c t e d t h e Armenian Republic Council of M i n i s t e r s t o t a k e steps to s u r e t h e complete h a l t of u n t r e a t e d e f f l u e n t d i s c h a r g e i n t o t h e l a k e by 1 9 8 5 . 4 ' While t h e d i v e r s i o n of t h e Arpa t o Lake Sevan h a s been a s i g n i f i c a n t accomplishment, i t s scope i s r a t h e r small i n comparison t o c u r r e n t p l a n s being considered t o d i v e r t w a t e r t o t h e most water-scarce a r e a s i n t h e European, s o u t h e r n , and c e n t r a l Asian p a r t s o f t h e S o v i e t Union. A s t h e s e p l a n s w i l l have environmental impacts a s g r e a t a s any e n g i n e e r i n g p r o j e c t s b e i n g considered throughout t h e world, t h e y have provoked b o t h domestic and i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t r o v e r s y . S o v i e t water r e s o u r c e s p e c i a l i s t s have e s t i m a t e d t h a t by 1985, i f t h e c l i m a t e and w a t e r u s e t r e n d s c o n t i n u e , t h e w a t e r d e f i c i t i n t h e lower Volga River and A r a l , Azov, and Caspian Sea b a s i n s could r e a c h 130 km3. The major water d i s t r i b u t i o n and d i v e r s i o n p l a n s completed i n t h e p a s t have involved s a c r i f i c e s from t h e Volga and Dnepr b a s i n s . 2 1 Now, i t i s t h e s e b a s i n s t h a t a r e i n need of water. The d i v e r s i o n of t h e Volga and t h e Dnepr a r e i n c a p a b l e of p r o v i d i n g f o r a l l of t h e s h o r t r u n r e q u i r e m e n t s o f water needs, l e t a l o n e t h e long r u n requirements. The Volga's r o l e i n r e d i s t r i b u t i n g S o v i e t w a t e r r e s o u r c e s i s c e n t r a l t o many p l a n s . I n response t o a mandate from t h e CPSU 25th Congress, t h e USSR Academy of S c i e n c e s h a s recommended t h e d i v e r s i o n of about 20 km3/year of w a t e j from n o r t h e r n r i v e r s t o augment t h e Volga's flow, t e r e b y o f f s e t t i n g t h e 20km / y e a r p r e s e n t l y t a k e n i r r e t r i e v a b l y from t h e Volga.2B The i n c r e a s e d flow i n t o t h e Volga w i l l , i n t u r n , r a i s e t h e l e v e l of t h e Caspian Sea. However, not a l l of t h i s a d d i t i o n a l flow i s l i k e l y t o wind u Caspian, a s t h e r e i s p r e s s u r e as w e l l t o d i v e r t w a t e r (up t o 6 km / yinj a rthe ) from t h e Volga t o t h e Don, t h e r e b y r a i s i n g t h e l e v e l of t h e Sea of Azov. Freshwater flows i n t o t h e Azov have diminished, w i t h m i n e r a l i z e d Black Sea w a t e r thereupon flowing i n through t h e Kerch S t r a i t . A s i s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e followi n g s e c t i o n , t h e AZOV'S i n c r e a s e d m i n e r a l c o n t e n t h a s had n e g a t i v e e c o l o g i c a l and economic impacts i n t h e Azov b a s i n .

5

w i l l be r e s t o r e d i n 41 y e a r s . Obviously, v a r i a t i o n i n e v a p o r a t i o n r a t e s due t o changing s u r f a c e a r e a w i l l have some impact on t h e r e s t o r a t i o n d a t e , a s w i l l v a r i a t i o n i n t h e completion d a t e s of t h e p l a n s ' comuonents.

"Pravda

[ 4 6 ] , p. 24.

2 0 1 z v e s t i i a . [ 2 3 ] . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s t r i k i n g gap between d i r e c t i v e s and r e a l i z e d outcomes o f f e r s l i t t l e c o n f i d e n c e t h a t t h e s e t i m e t a b l e s w i l l be met. C o n s t r u c t i o n of w a t e r p u r i f i c a t i o n p l a n t s a r e n o t o r i o u s f o r t h e i r d e l a y s , while t h e time t a b l e s i n d i r e c t i v e s r e g a r d i n g d i s c h a r g e s g e n e r a l l y a r e viewed t o be f l e x i b l e . D e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n s on t h e s e p o i n t s appear i n T. Gustafson [191, [20] and D. Kelley [261. 'lN.

Nekrasov and N. Razin,

"G.

Voropayev,

[ 3 8 ] , p. 1.

[ 6 4 ] , p. 6 .

23Yu. Zhdanov, e t . a l . ,

[721, pp. 6-7.

The p l a n s f o r d i v e r t i n g n o r t h e r n water headed toward t h e B a r e n t s Sea t o t h e Volga are c o n c e p t u a l l y simple, b u t r e q u i r e huge amounts of c a p i t a l , Many v a r i a n t s of t h e d i v e r s i o n schemes e x i s t , and t h e purl a b o r , and t i m e . pose h e r e i s n o t t o e v a l u a t e a l l of them, b u t t o show t h e immensity of t h e proj e c t ~ . The ~ ~p l a n s f o r d i v e r s i o n o f t h e n o r t h e r n r i v e r s have s e v e r a l similar A promajor f e a t u r e s and are d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a m u l t i t u d e of v a r y i n g d e t a i l s . minent p l a n , even g r e a t e r i n scale t h a n t h e Academy of S c i e n c e s ' proposal, env i s i o n s r o u t i n g about 50 km3 o f water from t h e Northern Dvina and Onega River t o t h e Volga. N. Nekrasov and N. Razin o f t h e USSR Academy of Sciences comment t h a t " d i v e r s i o n on t h i s s c a l e w i l l r e q u i r e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of high c a p a c i t y pumping s t a t i o n s and t e s t s of t h e c a p a c i t y of r i v e r s and c a n a l s along t h e f o r q u i t e a while route."25 Y e t a n o t h e r p l a n t h a t h a s been around i n some i s b e s t known a s t h e Kama-Vychgda-Pechora r e v e r s a l scheme. It i n v o l v e s damming both t h e Vychegda and t h e Pechora R i v e r s w i t h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of c a n a l s and pumping s t a t i o n s t o t r a n s p o r t t h e water t o t h e Kama R i v e r . The water would f i n a l l y e n t e r t h e Volga where t h e Kama i n t e r s e c t s t h e l a r g e r r i v e r . T h e m p r o j e c t w a s i n i t i a l l y formulated as b e i n g p r i m a r i l y a hydropower scheme, and w a s t o have flooded 15,000 km2 of land--a fa; l a r g e r area t h a n i n l a t e r d e s i g n s . Opposition from s c i e n t i s t s i n t h e Komi ASSR, t h e s i t e of t h e area t o be flooded, were j o i n e d by t h e o i l and n a t u r a l g a s i n d u s t r y , who f e a r e d t h e inu n d a t i o n of v a l u a b l e f i e l d s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e 25th P a r t y Congress d e c l a r a t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t some d i v e r s i o n p r o j e c t i s q u i t e l i k e l y .

581711

Even g r e a t e r d i v e r s i o n schemes have a l s o been considered f o r areas east of t h e Volga. One scheme i n v o l v e s r e d i r e c t i n g p a r t of t h e flow of t h e Ob and Y e n i s e i R i v e r s i n western S i b e r i a t o Kazakhstan and o t h e r c e n t r a l Asian republ i c s . " Water supply problems o c c u r f r e q u e n t l y i n C e n t r a l Asia, and t h e area is s u b j e c t t o drought. The Toktogul H y d r o e l e c t r i c Power S t a t i o n d i d n o 3 8 p e r a t e f o r a "long time" because o f t h e i n a d e q u a t e f l o w of t h e Naryn River. The p l a n s f o r t h e r e d i r e c t i o n of t h e S i b e r i a n r i v e r s a r e t r u l y massive, and i n v o l v e t h e d i v e r s i o n of about 25 km3 y e a r : "The p l a n c a l l s f o r beginning t h e d i v e r s i o n a t t h e v i l l a g e o f Belogoye on t h e Ob. The main c a n a l w i l l s t a r t a t t h e conf l u e n c e of t h e Vagai and I r t y s h R i v e r s and w i l l r u n s o u t h a c r o s s t h e Irtysh-Tobol f l o o d p l a i n . Then i t c r o s s e s t h e v a l l e y of t h e Ubagan r i v e r , moving toward t h e T u r g a i Gates Along t h i s r o u t e , t h e water on t h e I r t y s h - S F DarYadivide. i s r a i s e d t o a h e i g h t of about 100 meters by f o u r s t a g e s o f pumping s t a t i o n s on t h e Lower I r t y s h h y d r a u l i c - e n g i n e e r i n g complexes and f o u r s t a g e s on t h e c a n a l i t s e l f . A f t e r p a s s i n g t h e p l a t e a u of t h e T u r g a i d i v i d e , t h e c a n a l w i l l f o l l o w t h e r i g h t bank of t h e T u r g a i r i v e r i n t o t h e Tengiz Reserv o i r , with a planned c a p a c i t y of 1 4 c u b i c kilometers which w i l l r e g u l a t e a n even low r a t e of water. From t h e r e t h e d i v e r s i o n r o u t e moves t o t h e s o u t h e a s t , c r o s s e s t h e Syr Darya River n e a r t h e Syr Darya-Amu Darya i n t e r f l u v e , e n t e r s t h e Amu Darya i n t h e Kara-Kalpak Autonomous Republic a t t h f o o t of t h e s o u t h e r n s l o p e of t h e Sultanuizdag Mountains. 29 2 4 A more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of competing r e v e r s a l schemes appear i n T. Gustafson [191, Ch. 5. 25N.

Nekrasov and N. Razin, [ 3 8 ] , p. 1.

26This d i s c u s s i o n draws h e a v i l y on T. Gustafson [ 1 9 ] , Ch. 5. 27N.

Nekrasov and N. Razin, [ 3 8 ] , p. 2.

28u., p. 2. 291bid.,pp.

2-3.

See a l s o V.A.Skornayakov and I. Ye. Timashev [58]. Var-

354

The f i n i s h e d c a n a l w i l l be 2270 km l o n g w i t h an average width of 120-170 meters and a n average d e p t h o f 1 2 meters. The environmental and e c o l o g i c a l There h a s been consequences a r e h i g h l y u n c e r t a i n , b u t may w e l l b e s u b s t a n t i a l . some o p p o s i t i o n from geographers and o t h e r s w i t h environmental i n t e r e s t s , though o p p o s i t i o n from t h e o i l and g a s i n d u s t r y and t h e enormity of t h e proj e c t ' s expense probably have been more e f f e c t i v e d e t e r r e n t s . However, d e s p i t e t h e l i m i t s t o man's u n d e r s t a n d i n g of major environmental phenomena i n d i c a t e d by r e c e n t e f f o r t s t o c o n t r o l t h e Caspian Sea, one f i n d s l i t t l e h e s i t a t i o n i n t h e w r i t i n g s of t h e proponents of d i v e r s i o n . The needs t o f u r t h e r expand a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e semi-arid c e n t r a l Asian p l a i n s , and t o p r o v i d e w a t e r t o t h e r a p i d l y growing c e n t r a l Asian p o p u l a t i o n make some Asian d i v e r s i o n scheme v i r t u a l l y i n e v i t a b l e i n t h e e y e s of S o v i e t planner^.^' Given t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l needs, t h e l a n d l o s s due t o wide-scale c o n s t r u c t i o n of h y d r o e l e c t r i c power s t a t i o n s w i t h t h e i r r i v e r flood p l a i n s is s t r i k i n g and i r o n i c . Komarov ( [ 3 0 ] , p. 57) c l a i m s t h a t 120,000 km2 have been flooded. Even given t h a t much of t h e l a n d l o s t was unusable, i t i s c l e a r t h a t huge t r a c t s of f e r t i l e l a n d have been s a c r i f i c e d . The Kuibyshev "Sea'' on t h e Volga a l o n e submer ed 20,000 km2, w h i l e an a d d i t i o n a l 11,700 km2 have become s i l t e d and swampy.3B Thus t h e USSR's e a r l y c r a s h e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n programs have proven c o s t l y i n t h e long r u n , n e c e s s i t a t i n g f u r t h e r expansion i n t h e d r y s o u t h e r n r i m , and hence f u r t h e r w a t e r c o u r s e a l t e r a t i o n schemes. River d i v e r s i o n and water r e s o u r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n both r e q u i r e c a n a l s t o t r a n s p o r t t h e p r e c i o u s l i q u i d , and t h e number of waterways w i t h i n t h e S o v i e t Union is i n c r e a s i n g a n n u a l l y . Hundreds have been c o n s t r u c t e d f o r i r r i g a t i o n , t o t r a n s p o r t water t o d e s i r e d a r e a s , and t o f u r t h e r i n l a n d s h i p p i n g and t r a n s p o r t . Canals everywhere f a c e problems o f water l o s s through seepage and e v a p o r a t i o n and i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o assess whether t h e s e problems a r e u n u s u a l l y s e v e r e i n t h e S o v i e t Union. Losses stemming from e v a p o r a t i o n a r e l a r g e l y una v o i d a b l e , but t h e d e g r e e of seepage can v a r y due t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e c a n a l ' s l i n i n g and t h e u n d e r l y i n g s o i l s t r u c t u r e . One of t h e most s e r i o u s examples of water loss i n t h e S o v i e t Union o c c u r s i n t h e Kara-Kum Canal t h a t r u n s through t h e d e s e r t i n Turkmenistan, n e a r t h e Afghan border. The Kara-Kurn, which r e c e i v e s 1 0 km3/year of w a t e r from t h e Amu Darya, l o s e s 2.5 km3 from seepage through t h e sand.32 This l o s s is t e n t i m e s t h e amount of water t h a t Lake Sevan r e c e i v e s from t h e Arpa. To d e a l w i t h t h i s predicament, a procedure h a s been developed t h a t i n j e c t s a c l a y s o l u t i o n p o s s e s s i n g a s m a l l amount of p o l y a c y l i c p l a s t i c i n t o t h e ground under t h e c a n a l . The end prod u c t is a p r o t e c t i o n s h i e l d 30 c e n t i m e t e r s t h i c k t h a t h a s been claimed t o have reduced w a t e r l o s s e s by 94% i n t r e a t e d s e c t i o n s of t h e c a n a l . Concrete l i n i n g of new c a n a l s i s a l s o becoming common (Gustafson [ 1 9 ] , p. 131). Canals have been i n s t r u m e n t a l i n opening up v a s t t r a c t s of new l a n d f o r a g r i c u l t u r e , and grea! q u a n t i t i e s of w a t e r have been d i v e r t e d f o r i r r i g a t i o n . However, a t l e a s t i n some i n s t a n c e s , t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of c a n a l water h a s been l i m i t e d by s t r i k i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e problems. The f o l l o w i n g examples may not be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , b u t t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y even p a r t i a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e e f f i c i e n c y of i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r u s e i n c e n t r a l Asia and S i b e r i a , i t seems l i k e l y t h a t a l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h e s c a r c e water a v a i l a b l e i s wasted. i a n t s of t h e I r t y s h r e v e r s a l scheme ( r e f e r r e d t o as t h e "Anti-Irtysh") w i t h d i f f e r e n t degree? of s c a l e , c o s t and environmental impact.

exist

30See T. Gustafson [ 1 9 ] , Chapter 5. 31Komarov [ 3 0 ] , p- 57. Gustafson ( [ 1 9 ] , p. 47) r e p o r t s t h a t 23,000 km 2 of a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d have been flooded. 32N. Morozov, [ 3 7 ] , p. 20. A s noted, o t h e r estimates of w a t e r l o s s a r e as h i g h as 40-50%. (T. G u s t a f s o n [19], p. 126: D. K e l l e y &. [ 2 5 ] , p. 79).

355

The 182 km. Kalunda Canal i n t h e southwest S i b e r i a n s t e p p e was b u i l t i n t h e l a t e 1970s t o open up new l a n d f o r a g r i c u l t u r e through t h e p r o v i s i o n of water f o r i r r i g a t i 0 n . ~ 3 Yet i t s development w a s h u r t by i n e f f i c i e n t p l a n n i n g and r e s o u r c e management. While t h e c a n a l ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n was a b l e t o proceed The on pace, t h e o p e r a t i o n s t h a t s u p p o r t e d i t s e x t e n s i o n f e l l f a r behind. most c r u c i a l of t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s were t h e r e p a i r shops f o r machinery. Other problems complicated t h e s i t u a t i o n : l a b o r t u r n o v e r w a s 50% each y e a r due t o i n adequate l i v i n g f a c i l i t i e s ; earth-moving and t r a n s p o r t i n g equipment was n o t used t o c a p a c i t y ; t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a c o n c r e t e p l a n t t o p r o v i d e m a t e r i a l s w a s so behind t h a t i t s p r o j e c t e d s t a r t - u p d a t e and t h e c a n a l ' s f i n i s h i n g d a t e coinc i d e d ; a l t h o u g h l o c a l g r a v e l was a v a i l a b l e , crushed r o c k was shipped i n i n s t e a d , r e s u l t i n g i n f r e q u e n t s h i p p i n g d e l a y s ; t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e c a n a l w i t h i t s i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t s was n o t g u a r a n t e e d due t o t h e l a c k of a c l e a r d e l i n e a t i o n being made i n developmental r e s p o n s i b i l i t y among concerned m i n i s t r i e s ; t h e c a n a l maintenance s t a f f had no q u a l i f i e d e n g i n e e r s ; f i n a l l y , machine o p e r a t o r s and mechanics were i n s h o r t supply. Both t h e Kulunda and Irtysh-Dzhezkazgan Canals serve as s m a l l - s c a l e models f o r t e s t i n g t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of d i v e r t i n g S i b e r i a n r i v e r s t o c e n t r a l Asia. N e i t h e r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n problems nor t h e l a c k o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o o r d i n a t i o n encountered bode w e l l f o r major r i v e r d i v e r s i o n p r o j e c t s . The Irtysh-Dzhezkazgan was s t a r t e d i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e o r e e n r i c h i n g m i l l s and m e t a l l u r g i c a l ~ c a n a l ' s l e n g t h w a s planned t o be a t l e a s t 1000 km., p l a n t s w i t h ~ a t e r . 3 The s t r e t c h i n g from t h e I r t y s h R i v e r i n w e s t e r n S i b e r i a t o i n d u s t r i a l c i t i e s i n c e n t r a l Kazakhstan. The water d r a i n e d from t h e I r t y s h w a s t o be r a i s e d 0.5 k i l o m e t e r s by a s e r i e s of powerful pumping s t a t i o n s i n a n a r t i f i c i a l channel t h a t l e a d s t o a set o f r e g u l a t i n g dams and s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r s . However, problems have a r i s e n throughout i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n . The c a n a l reached t h e mining c i t y of Karaganda i n 1972 o n l y t o f i n d t h a t t h e c i t y had f a i l e d t o c o n s t r u c t c o n n e c t i n g p i p e l i n e s and p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l f a c i l i t i e s . A s of 1978, d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t had a r i s e n i n c l u d e d a complex t a n g l e of funding s h o r t a g e s r e s u l t i n g from t h e l a c k of a c l e a r , f u n c t i o n a l s t a t e m e n t of respons i b i l i t i e s and d e a d l i n e s among p a r t i c i p a t i n g m i n i s t r i e s and concerns. Unsurp r i s i n g l y , i n d u s t r i a l complexes b u i l t w i t h t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s of o b t a i n i n g w a t e r from t h e c a n a l , b u t completed w e l l b e f o r e t h e c a n a l ' s a r r i v a l a l s o experienced h i g h o p e r a t i n g c o s t s . There h a s been d i f f i c u l t y as w e l l i n a c h i e v i n g t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s completion of t h e c a n a l and p r o j e c t s t h a t w i l l u t i l i z e i t s water. While Karazahl, a c i t y b u i l t t o develop o r e under t h e premise of t h e c a n a l ' s w a t e r b e i n g a v a i l a b l e r e q u i r e d w a t e r t o be brought i n by t r u c k , l a g s i n p l a n n i n g and d e s i g n i n g a d j o i n i n g agro-towns postponed t h e i r p r o j e c t e d development and c o n s t r u c t i o n t o 1985. F u r t h e r , i n areas t h a t t h e c a n a l h a s reached, poor i r r i g a t i o n methods a l r e a d y have l e d t o t h e s a l i n i z a t i o n of t h e s o i l . F i n a l l y , as a n example of i n c o h e r e n t c o o r d i n a t i o n , d u r i n g t h e c a n a l s ' cons t r u c t i o n t h e Karaganda P r o v i n c e p a r t y a u t h o r i t i e s d e c i d e d t o develop a f l e d g l i n g meat i n d u s t r y i n a n a r i d r e g i o n hundreds of k i l o m e t e r s from t h e c a n a l . It i s e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e Irtysh-Dzhezkazgan w i l l , upon completion, have a s much as 850 m i l l i o n m 3 of water throughout i t s system. The I r t y s h River, though, i s n o t e x a c t l y a r a g i n g t o r r e n t a t i t s p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e c a n a l . From i t s s o u r c e a l l €he way t o Omsk, t h e t o t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n of i t s

33This d i s c u s s i o n draws on V.

Sapov.

[ 5 2 ] , pp. 8-9.

34This d i s c u s s i o n draws on M. P o l t o r a n i n and V. Sevastyanov, pp. 11-12.

[441,

356 3 tributaries in the hot summer months ranges between 140 and 180 m /sec.351 The demands on the Irtysh along with the droughts between 1974-78 have resulted in major declines in the river level. Due to the importance of shipping and navigation, the pace of dredging efforts has picked up and the channel has been deepened, so that the current's speed has increased and the water level has fallen even further. Consequently, there is now a canal under construction to divert the flow of the Ob River and interesect the Irtysh near Pavlodar.

The problems involving the use of the Irtysh-Dzhezkazgan's irrigation waters appear to be representative of the Soviet land reclamation experience. Vast areas have been made suitable for cultivation (90,000 km2 in the 1971-75 9th FYP alone: see Gustafson [19], p. 124). Yet agricultural land loss has been commensurate (see D. Kelley &. [25], pp. 225,84), largely reflecting the abandonment of salinized land. To meet output targets, the Ministry of Reclamation agg Water Management (Minvodkhoz) has constructed vast lengths of waterways. Unfortunately, the incentive structure does not reward waterway quality or maintenance, and the result has been that the waterways built function poorly. Coordination between the Ministry of Agriculture, responsible for developing the reclaimed area for farming, and Minvodkhoz has been poor as well, and funding for capital inputs complementary to irrigation water appears to be ~ u b o p t i m a l . ~ ~ In summary, needs to irrigate agricultural land, provide water for growing central Asia and generate power have given water diversion schemes an important role in Soviet development plans. Ecological consequences of past industrial and environmental policies have been severe as well, and have made water diversion still more critical. Unfortunately, efforts to date on smaller projects suggest neither that more massive diversion projects will be achieved without problems, nor that use of the diverted flows will be highly effective. 3.

WATER USE AND WATER QUALITY

Having considered Soviet water use trends and plans for making available additional water resources, we turn now to an assessment of Soviet development on the quality of its water resources. In view of thefragile nature of support offered by an arid ecosystem for modern industrial and agricultural economy, it is unsurprising that the environmental consequences have been severe. Indeed, much of the rationale for the Volga diversion schemes involves restoring the environment around the southern seas. The Caspian and the Aral Seas were once treasure troves of the inland Soviet fishing industry. However, fish harvests have declined considerably with the rapid industrialization of the river basins, indicating that the environment is changing rapidly. Both the Aral and Caspian are fed by two major rivers. The Caspian obtains the majority of its water from the Volga and Ural rivers, with over 70% of the flow coming from the Volga, while the Aral is fed by the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya. Both seas have exceptionally high evaporation rates, since they are located in the arid southwest, though neither has any tributaries that offset the inflows. 2 381 Between 1930 and 1965, the surface area of the Caspian shrank 2,450 km Because of the Caspian's unique nature, some fluctuation in size has been experienced in the past, but the regular drop in the sea's level and surface area is

.-

35V. Kiryasov and V. Mezentsen. [29], p. 1. At that flow rate, it would require roughly two months to supply 850111 m3 of water. 36This discussion draws heavily on T. Gustafson [19], Ch.9.

37w., p. 127. 38M. Goldman, [16], p. 219.

3 57 c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e i n t e n s e industria1,agricultural. municipal, and i r r i g a t i o n a l demands p u t upon t h e U r a l and t h e Volga. I n t h e l a t e 1920's and e a r l y 1930's, t h e Caspian r e p o r t e d l y r e c e i v e d 32.5 km3 of water a n n u a l l y . Now t h e s e a r e c e i v e s o n l y 5-6 km3 a n n u a l l y , and i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e s h o r t f a l l i s i n ~ r e a s i n g . ~ ~ W i t ht ihni s 35 y e a r p e r i o d from 1930 t o 1965 t h e t o t a l a n n u a l c a t c h e s of t h e l o c a l f i s h i n g i n d u s t r y have dropped from 600,000 metric t o n s t o 100,000 m e t r i c t o n ~ . ~ O T hcomposition e of t h e c a t c h h a s worsened a s w e l l , w i t h s p e c i e s of low commercial v a l u e r e p l a c i n g t h e c h e r i s h e d and once p l e n t i f u l s t u r g e o n , a s w e l l a s w h i t e f i s h , salmon, and h e r r i n g . The economic e f f e c t s of t h e C a s p i a n ' s r e c e s s i o n have been c o n s i d e r a b l e . With a 25% r e d u c t i o n i n t h e n o r t h e r n C a s p i a n ' s a r e a , many p o r t s e i t h e r have become d y s f u n c t i o n a l , o r p r o v i s i o n s have had t o b e made t o open a channel o r more communities f u r t h e r i n l a n d . I n a d d i t i o n t o d e c r e a s i n g t h e water i n f l o w i n t o t h e Caspian, S o v i e t i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n h a s l e d t o a d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t h a t water's quality. I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 ' s , Goldman ( [ 1 6 ] , p. 231) e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e Volga c a r r i e d 70% of a l l e f f l u e n t s i n t h e S o v i e t Union. A t t h i s t i m e , boxes, r o t t e n watermelons and muskmelons, and c i t y garbage used t o f l o a t on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e Volga. Due t o t h e h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n of petroleum and o i l r e f i n e r i e s situ a t e d on t h e r i v e r , t h e Volga caught f i r e a t l e a s t once. Komarov r e p o r t s t h a t as of 1978, t h e midstream o i l c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h e Volga w a s 25-30 t i m e s t h e MF'C ("maximum p e r m i s s i b l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n " : t h e S o v i e t s t a n d a r d f o r e f f l u e n t s ) 41 . It i s claimed t h a t t h e f l o a t i n g t r a s h and o i l s l i c k s a r e a t h i n g of t h e p a s t , and,given t h e p r i o r i t y r e c e i v e d by t h e Volga i n t h e S o v i e t w a t e r q u a l i t y i m 42 provement program, i t i s p l a u s i b l e t h a t i t s p o l l u t i o n l e v e l s are d e c r e a s i n g . Y e t i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t p o l l u t i o n l e v e l s i n t h e Caspian a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g a c o r r e s p o n d i n g drop, g i v e n t h e p a r t i a l l y cumulative e f f e c t of p o l l u t i o n on s e a s , a l o n g w i t h a n i n c r e a s e d p o l l u t a n t l o a d due t o a g r i c u l t u r a l wash-out. The A r a l Sea i s s i m i l a r t o t h e Caspiz3,in t h a t i t is s h r i n k i n g due t o a n i n f l o w drop i n r e c e n t y e a r s of 30 t o 80%.I n 1977-78, t h e a v e r a g e annual w a t e r r e s o u r c e s i n t h e Aral Sea b a s i n w s e s t i m a t e d t o b e 127 km3, of which t h e A r a l once r e c e i v e d around 58 km3.6$ C a l c u l a t i o n s have i n d i c a t e d h a t t h e o n l y p a r t o f t h e A r a l remaining i n 20 y e a r s w i l l be two s a l t l a k e s . h 5 The a v e r a g e depth of t h e Aral h a s dropped 7 meters s i n c e 1963. A s of 1979, t h e Aral's volume h a s d e c l i n e d from a 1946-50 l e e l of 1062 km3 t o 758 km3; s u r f a c e !! a r e a h a s f a l l e n from 66,000 km2 t o 52,000 km , and i t s s a l i n i t y h a s n e a r l y doubled.46 Recent water demands f o r i r r i g a t i o n , coupled w i t h poor d r a i n a g e schemes and d i v e r s i o n t o a r e a s beyond t h e A r a l d r a i n a g e b a s i n have r e s u l t e d i n t h e v i r t u a l e l i m i n a t i o n of i n f l o w from t h e S y r Darya, a t r a d i t i o n a l c o n t r i b u t o r of 1 3 km3. 39V. Gavrichkin [ 1 4 ] , p . 20. U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e s e f i g u r e s do n o t a p p e a r t o be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e f l o w s r e p o r t e d i n P. Micklin [35], pp. 69.71. Neverthel e s s , t h e r e i s no disagreement concerning rates of change of w a t e r i n f l o w .

40P. M i c k l i n [35]. p. 69. 41B.

Komarov [ 3 0 ] , p. 37.

42T.

Gustafson [ZO], pp. 457-459.

43See B. Babich, V. Lozansky and A. Kuzin. is g i v e n i n A.A. Rafikov, [491, 1983, p. 346. 441.Rusinov [ 5 1 ] , p. 17. V.M. [491, 1983, p. 345.

45Ye. Fyodorov [ l l ] , pp. 5-6.

A series o n t r i b u t a r y i n f l o w

Borovskiy [ 5 ] , 1980, p. 63 and A.A.

Rafikor

46A. Y u r i t s , [ 6 9 ] , p. 1 3 , V.M. Borovskiy [51, 1980, p. 63, and A.A. Rafikov [49], 1983.-4le-~e-~r++&32J ,1981.

3 68 The Aral's d e c l i n e h a s r e s u l t e d from removal of w a t e r from t h e Amu Darya add Syr Darya f o r l a r g e - s c a l e i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t s t h a t f i g u r e prominently i n t h e r e g i o n ' s economic development. S i n c e 1979, t h e Amu Darya o r i t s t r i b u t a r i t i e s have r e c e i v e d t h e a d d i t i o n a l burden of s e v e r a l major c o n s t r u c t i o n proj e c t s t h a t a r e f i n i s h e d o r under c o n s t r u c t i o n : t h e Navoi S t a t e Regional Power S t a t i o n , new chemical and p e t r o l e u m - r e f i n i n g p l a n t s i n Chardzhov and Bukhara, p o u l t r y f a c t o r i e s i n Taknatash. a g r i c u l t u r a l f a c i l i t i e s i n Nukus, l i g h t 41 i n d u s t r y i n Tashavz, Urgut, and Kataub, and a g r i c u l t u r a l f a c i l i t i e s i n Termez. The Syr Darya's w a t e r s w i l l , upon t h e p l a n t s ' completion, b e used f o r t h e Syr Darya S t a t e Regional Power S t a t i o n , a p o u l t r y f a c t o r y i n Kyzl Orda, a m e t a l l u r g y p l a n t n e a r Tashkent, chemical and petroleum r e f i n e r i e s i n Almalyk and Fergana, l i g h t i n d u s t r y i n Kyzl Orda and n e a r Tashkent, and t h e e x t e n s i v e development of v a r i o u s a g r i c u l t u r a l f a c i l i t i e s w i t h i n t h e r i v e r b a s i n . I r r i g a t e d a r e a i n C e n t r a l Asia and Southern Kazakhstan grew from 55,000 km2 i n t h e mid 1960s t o 70,000 km2 by 1980 and i s s t i l l p r o j e c t e d t o grow by a n o t h e r 25,000 km2 i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e , r e q u i r i n g an a d d i t i o n a l 35 km3 of water. It a p p e a r s from d i s p a s s i o n a t e a c c o u n t s of S o v i e t w a t e r u s e p l a n s t h a t p l a n n e r s a r e r e s i g n e d t o t h e A r a l ' s d r y i n g up ( o r a t l e a s t a c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e p r o c e s s u n t i l S i b e r i a n w a t e r becomes a v a i l a b l e ) d e s p i t e t h e r e s u l t i n g d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n of a l a r g e a r e a i n t h e e a s t e r n A r a l b a s i n , s o i l damage t o s t i l l l a r g e r a r e a s from d e p o s i t s from e r o s i o n of d r i e d s e a bed, and l o s s of comm e r c i a l f i s h i n g i n t h e Aral ( s e e Borovskiy [ 5 ] , 1980). The e n t i r e environmental e f f e c t s of t h e Caspian and A r a l ' s c o n t i n u e d d i s a p p e a r a n c e a r e unknown. The q u a n t i t y of w a t e r i n a g i v e n a r e a n o t o n l y e f f e c t s t h e q u a n t i t y evapora t e d , but a l t e r s t h e r a i n f a l l p a t t e r n s a s w e l l . Because of t h e C a s p i a n ' s decreased s u r f a c e a r e a , Micklin c l a i m s t h a t " t h e c l i m a t e a l o n g t h e n o r t h e r n and n o r t h w e s t e r n c o a s t s h a s become more c o n t i n e n t a l and d e s e r t c o n d i t i o n s have i n t r u d e d i n t o t h e E a s t e r n p o r t i o n of t h e Volga basin", and t h a t t h e r e i s growing e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e sukkgvei ( t r a n s c a s p i a n d e s e r t winds) a r e occuring a t increased i n t e r v a l s . Furthermore, w i t h l a r g e p a r t s of what was once s e a exposed t o t h e wind, i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t massive s a l t d e p o s i t s w i l l be t r a n s p o r t e d t o nearby a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a and damage c r o p l a n d s . The Sea of Azov i s y e t a n o t h e r S o v i e t "sea" t h a t h a s encountered s e v e r e environmental problems. The Azov's depth h a s dropped by o v e r 2 meters i n r e c e n t y e a r s , w h i l e i t s s a l i n i t y h a s i n c r e a s e d by n e a r l y 30"/! Due t o t h e f a l l i n t h e Azov's l e v e l a n i n c r e a s e d q u a n t i t y of Black Sea w a t e r h a s e n t e r e d through t h e Kerch S t r a i t . A s t h e b a s i n s of t h e t r i b u t a r y Kuban and Don r i v e r s a r e among t h e most i n d u s t r i a l i z e d i n t h e S o v i e t Union, i t i s uns u r p r i s i n g t h a t i n d u s t r y and a g r i c u l t u r a l wash-out have c o n t r i b u t e d h e a v i l y t o t h e Azov's p o l l u t i o n . 5 0 While t h e l e v e l of o i l p o l l u t i o n i n t h e Black Sea is a d m i t t e d l y h i g h , t h e Azov's o i l c o n t e n t h a s been measured t o exceed 47This d i s c u s s i o n i s based on f o u r a r t i c l e s t r a n s l a t e d i n t h e C u r r e n t from Pravda, a l l e n t i t l e d "The Digest of t h e S o v i e t P r e s s ( h e r e a f t e r E) USSR Under Construction." See [ 4 7 d ] , p. 1 4 . 48P.

Micklin [ 3 5 ] , p. 70.

49B. Komarov [ 3 0 ] , pp. 28, 41. The s a l i n i t y h a s a l s o been i n c r e a s e d by t h e annual d i s c h a r g e i n t o t h e Azov of 3 m i l l i o n t o n s of s a l t and s a l t compounds from o t h e r s o u r c e s .

5*0 ZUmBrunnen([73], p. 49) e s t i m a t e s f o r t h e e a r l y 1970s t h a t 7 m i l l i o n m3 of e f f l u e n t were dumped a n n u a l l y i n t o t h e Don.

3 59 t h e l a r g e r sea's by many t i m e s . Water samples taken from t h e Azov o f t e n cont a i n 100 MPC's of o i l and between 40-50 MPC's of phenol and zinc.51 The combined e f f e c t s of h i g h e r s a l i n i t y , d e c r e a s e d water f l o w from i t s t r i b u t a r i e s , and i n c r e a s e d p o l l u t i o n l e v e l s have decimated t h e p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y of t h e Azov. Because of t h e s a l i n i t y , t h e DO c o n t e n t h a s dropped and t h e r e a r e less food s o u r c e s f o r f i s h . A t one t i m e , t h e Azov was t h e most p r o d u c t i v e body of w a t e r i n R u s s i a , y i e l d i n g n e a r l y t h r e e t i m e s t h e combined o u t p u t of t h e Capsian, B a l t i c , and Black Seas. However, i n r e c e n t y e a r s t h e c a t c h h a s dropped t o one n i n e t i e t h of i t s peak abundance. The f i s h t h a t a r e l e f t c l u s t e r n e a r t h e r i v e r d e l t a s , and ( a s i s t r u e f o r t h e Caspian) t h e q u a l i t y of t h e f i s h i n commercial terms h a s dropped.52 P o l l u t i o n from numerous i n d u s t r i a l e n t e r p r i s e s and heavy urban concent r a t i o n s a l o n g i t s r i v e r s , t r i b u t a r i e s a l s o have a f f e c t e d t h e Black Sea. The s e a , a l o n g w i t h t h e Azov, i s t h e e v e n t u a l d e s t i n a t i o n r i v e r s t h a t c a r r y t h e w a s t e s of v a s t i n d u s t r i a l r e g i o n s of t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n USSR. Komarov ( [ 3 0 ] , p. 37-38) c i t e s r e p o r t s f o r 1978 t h a t t h e e n t i r e r e s o r t and h e a l t h a r e a s t r e t c h i n g from Odessa t o Batumi was p o l l u t e d w i t h o i l , phenyl and b a c t e r i a l contaminants. ZumBrunnen ( [ 7 3 ] , pp. 35, 43) c h r o n i c l e s t h e p l i g h t of t h e Black Sea d r a i n a g e b a s i n between t h e e a r l y 6 0 ' s and ~ O ' S , and r e p o r t s t h a t p o l l u t i o n rendered t h e I n g u l e t s , Saksagan, and Byk r i v e r t r i b u t a r i e s devoid of l i f e . Problems were compounded by i n a d e q u a t e or non-existent i n d u s t r i a l and municipal p u r i f i c a t i o n and t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s . Along t h e Black Sea c o a s t t h e r e were 200 l o c a t i o n s i n 1970 where wastewater was r e l e a s e d w i t h o u t having undergone any t r e a t m e n t . 53 S o v i e t i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n h a s a l s o a f f e c t e d i t s l a k e s , though n o t t y p i c a l l y a s d r a m a t i c a l l y a s i t s s o u t h e r n "seas". The l a k e t h a t h a s r e c e i v e d t h e g r e a t e s t a t t e n t i o n from concerned S o v i e t e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t s is t h e e a r t h ' s l a r g e s t fresh-water l a k e , Lake B a i k a l . Located i n s o u t h c e n t r a l S i b e r i a , t h e l a k e i s a c r e s c e n t t h a t e x t e n d s f o r 636 km. w i t h a n a v e r a g e width of 47.8 km. B a i k a l r e c e i v e s w a t e r from 336 r i v e r s b u t h a s o n l y one o u t l e t , t h e Angara R i v e r . The l a k e i s thought t o be t h e w o r l d ' s o l d e s t ( a t 25-30 mP1lion y e a r s ) , c o n t a i n s 1500 unique p l a n t and animal s p e c i e s , and i s known t o be t h e d e e p e s t w i t h a maximum d e p t h of 1620 meters. Estir;$yes of B a i k a l ' s p e r c e n t a g e of world fresh-water range from 2.5% t o 20%.The l a k e i s a s o u r c e of n a t i o n a l p r i d e , and i s r e f e r r e d t o by v a r i o u s S o v i e t a u t h o r s a s "our g l o r i o u s sea'' and " S i b e r i a ' s b l u e p e a r l , " which must be p r o t e c t e d " l i k e t h e a p p l e of o n e ' s eye". The l a k e is (was) e x c e p t i o n a l i n both i t s t r a n s p a r e n c y and p u r i t y and p o s s e s s e s an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y r i c h DO c o n t e n t of 12-14mg/l. The problems of B a i k a l began i n t h e l a t e 1 9 5 0 ' s and e a r l y 1 9 6 0 ' s when t h e USSR began t o develop g r e a t S i b e r i a . he d e c i s i o n t o l o c a t e i n d u s t r y i n t h e v i c i n i t y of B a i k a l w a s made i n 1 9 5 7 . S T I n 1966, t h e f i r s t of two pulp and paper m i l l s and accompanying communities s p r a n g up on t h e s h o r e s of Baikal. B. Komarov [ 3 0 ] , p. 38. The d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g paragraph i s a l s o based on t h i s s o u r c e , pp. 38-41.

52Komarov [30] r e g a r d s t h e Azov a s comparable t o Lake E r i e , except t h a t t h e former h a s y e t t o e x h i b i t a r e a s of e u t r o p h i c a t i o n . 53C.

ZumCrunnen [ 7 3 ] , p. 58.

54This d i s c u s s i o n i s based on '2.1. G a l a z i y [ 1 4 ] ; T. Gustafson [191, ZumBrunnen [ 7 4 ] , pp. 81-85; M. Goldman [ 1 6 ] , p. 179; V. Yermolayev [671, p. 7; and V.Yermolayev [ 6 8 ] , p. 9. 55See C.

ZumEirunnen [ 7 4 ] , p. 8 3 and M. Goldman [151, p. 316.

360 The nearby town of Baikalsk started emitting over 60 million cubic meters of effluent destined for the lake. The decision to develop Baikal touched off a wide-spread debate (the first of its kind in the USSR) as environmentalists, academicians, and scientists vigorously protested. Proponents of development proclaimed the USSR's need to develop its economy and exploit its resources, and offered assurance that effluents would be properly treated. Environmentalists remained suspicious and vocal in opposition, fearing that even limited development or industrialization would irrepairably harm the lake and its endemic flora and fauna, while products made by the polluting industries could be synthesized elsewhere. The proindustrialization forces prevailed, while making concessions by promising to provide the best in purification facilities. Modern facilities were in fact constructed, albeit with some delay and relaxation of effluent standards.56 Felled logs ceased to be floated down Lake Baikal's tributaries, as it became apparent that whitefish spawning grounds were destroyed in the process.57 However, logs are still collected at the river mouths and rafted across Lake Baikal, thereby still hindering the spawning run, while sunken logs contribute large quantities of organic material to the lake. In recent years, the city of Ulan Ude on Baikals' Selenga River tributary has continued to develop. A food processin plant, light industry, and the paper, pulp and lumber industry are expanding.g8 Komarov ([301, p.33) claims that polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) were found in Lake Baikal in 1976. Yet as 51nnRrunnen ([74], p. 81) points out, despite its problems Lake Baikal remains clean by the standards of lakes in developed areas, more comparable to Lake Superior or Lake Tahoe than Lake Erie. Whether its purity will withstand the region's projected industrial development and the nearby BaikalAmur Mainline railroad remains uncertain.59 Another well-known lake that faces serious environmental problems is Lake Issyk-Kul. Issyk-Kul, located 1608m above sea level in the Kirgiz Republic with a surface area of 6200 km2, is an all-Union resort that expects to receive over lm visitors annually by 1990. Between 1910 and 1970, the lake's depth declined 3.3 meters, but dropped 3 more meters in the ten years between 1971-1981.60Soviet scientists now anticipate that it will drop another 3-4 meters in the next few decades, with its shoreline creeping inwards by 500-1000 meters. Already, the water loss figures suggest that the lake has become smaller by about 3-400 km2. The recent annual water shortfall of .4 to .45 km3 is generated by over 500 industrial, municipal, consumer service, and agricultural enterprises in the area. As in the case of Lake Baikal Issyk-Kul has also suffered from growing pollution and an apparent 56Thus, the mills' effluents are now drinkable (C. ZumBrunnen [74], p. 113), but leading Soviet environmentalists still criticize the standards set as being too lax (G. Galaziy [13], pp. 218, 220). Ironically, the pulp and paper industry's original justification for setting up the plants--to use the lake's exceptionally pure water in rayon production, thus greatly reducing demineralization costs--became obsolete before the plants were completed, as the Soviet tire industry began switching to nylon. Thus the Baikal's mill now also produces paper and turpentine. See T. Gustafson [191, pp. 40-44. 57Destruction of the spawning grounds and short-sighted fishing practices have combined to nearly decimate the whitefish catch and impair its commercial viability. See C. ZumRTunnen [74], pp. 100-103, 58Pravda [47b], p. 11. Another form of pollution potentially detrimental to Baikal comes from the estimated 6,000-10,000 speedboats that traverse the lake. See M. Mikhalkov [36], p, 19. 59A pessimistic assessment is given by T. Gustafson [19], p. 45. 60This discussion draws on 0. Losoto and V. Shirokov [32], pp. 10-11,

361 i n d i f f e r e n c e from t h e main p o l l u t e r s .

The sewage system of t h e nearby c t y

of P r z h e v a l s k began i n 1969, b u t was s t i l l under c o n s t r u c t i o n i n 1978.613

The A r a l , Azov, B a l t i c . Black, and Caspian Seas a l o n g w i t h t h e l a k e s of t h e S o v i e t Union a r e d e p o s i t o r i e s f o r p o l l u t i o n from i n d u s t r i a l development, a g r i c u l t u r a l n u t r i e n t wash-out, o i l l e a k a g e and s p i l l s , and l i m i t e d sewage t r e a t m e n t . The r i v e r s of t h e USSR a r e , i n t u r n , t h e t r a n s p o r t e r s of most e f f l u e n t l o a d s , and o f t e n are h i g h l y p o l l u t e d . The r i v e r s of d e n s e l y popu l a t e d European Russia a r e e s p e c i a l l y s u s c e p t i b l e t o h i g h p o l l u t i o n levels, r e s u l t i n g from t h e i n c r e a s e d i n d u s t r i a l e f f l u e n t l o a d , a g r i c u l t u r a l wash-out of both o r g a n i c and i n o r g a n i c s u b s t a n c e s , and a reduced flow r e s u l t i n g from h y d r o - e l e c t r i c dams and e x t e n s i v e i r r i g a $ i o n demands. Accounts of d e g r a d a t i o n of major S o v i e t r i v e r s have been s t r i k i n g and i n d i c a t e t h e l i m i t e d e x t e n t of environmental concern maintained by p l a n q e r s and managers. A l l major r i v e r s i n c e n t r a l A s i a have been dammed f o r i r r i g a t i o n o r hydropower. Half of t h e Amu Dargr's t o t a l f l o w and n e a r l y a l l of t h e Syr Massive c o n s t r u c t i o n and economic Darya's is d i v e r t e d f o r i r r i g a t i o n . development p l a n s such a s t h e Baikal-Amur m a i n l i n e appear t o have been f o r mulated w i t h l i m i t e d environmental c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . Published warnings have followed i n BAM's c a s e , but i t remains u n c e r t a i n t h a t p l a n n e r s w i l l a c c e p t an 8-10% c o s t i n c r e a s e f o r even moderate environmental p r e c a u t i o n s . 63 V i r t u a l l y a l l major r i v e r s have s e r i o u s p o l l u t i o n problems as w e l l . The I s e t River i n 1965, and t h e Volga i n 1970 both caught f i r e a f t e r e x c e s s i v e amounts of o i l had been r e l e a s e d i n t o them.64 The Moscow River w a s considered dead by t h e e a r l y 1970's and no f i s h could be found w i t h i n it.65 The Byk River t h a t r a n through Kishniev, t h e c a p i t a l of Moldavia, was r e p o r t e d t o be almost a n open sewer and t o be b l a c k a t i t s p o i n t of e n t r y i n t o t h e Dnestr.66 The Dnestr i t s e l f h a s been regarded a s being r e l a t i v e l y c l e a n i n r e c e n t y e a r s (though s e e ZumBrunnen [ 7 3 ] , pp. 35-8 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n of i t s earlier problems), but r e c e n t l y experienced t h e d i s a s t r o u s s p i l l of o v e r 1 b i l l i o n g a l l o n s of waste s a l t s from a f e r t i l i z e r p l a n t a f t e r a n e a r t h e n dam gave way. 67 Bush([6], p. 11) r e p o r t s t h a t 25 km3 of u n t r e a t e d water are i n t r o d u c e d The S i b e r i a n r i v e r s a r e g e n e r a l l y i n b e t t e r a n n u a l l y i n t o open r e s e r v o i r s .

61Some l a k e s i n t h e h e a v i l y populated western S o v i e t Union a l s o s u f f e r p o l l u t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y from added n u t r i e n t s . An ecample, t h a t of 80 km2 Lake Naroch i n B e l o r u s s i a , i s given by L. Novikov [40]. E u t r o p h i c a t i o n , w i t h i n c r e a s i n g q u a n t i t i e s of r u s h e s and a l g a e blooms, h a s o c c u r r e d i n shallow a r e a s . The n u t r i e n t growth i n t h i s c a s e s t e m s from many s o u r c e s : i n d u s t r i a l wastes, a g r i c u l t u r a l runoff (exacerbated by nearby land r e c l a m a t i o n p r o j e c t s ) , and poor sewage t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e l a k e ' s many s a n i t o r i u m s and v a c a t i o n sites. 62Ye. Fyodorov,

[ 1 2 ] , p. 11.

63See V. V. Vorob'yev

and A. T. Naprasnikov [631, p. 319.

64M, Goldman, [161, p. 108. 65A.

Rubinov [501, p. 5.

66C.

ZumBrunnen, [731. p. 33.

67S.

Schmemann, [53], pp. 1, 11.

shape compared to their European and Southern counterparts, though their natural purification mechanism requires a much longer distance to function. Our sketch of the Soviet Union's water resource management has focused on the environmental problems that have emerged in recent decades. It would be improper to fail to acknowledge the major efforts of recent years to improve the environment. In their 10th FYP, the USSR launched an attack on environmental problems and allocated 14 billion rubles to this cause, and reaffirmed their commitment to environmental improvement with an additional 11 billion ruble allocation in the current (11th) FYP.68 In comparison with the motives for environmental programs in advanced capitalist countries, it seems fair to describe Soviet concern for their water resources as stemming from awareness of potential water constraints to further economic expansion, particulary along the southern rim, rather than from a strong conservationist drive by the Soviet leadership. The Soviet strategy designed to improve the water resource base is highly integrated with plans to improve the distribution of Soviet water. These plans have several basic goals: 1) to concentrate pollution improvement in areas where alleviation is most critical (for example, the Moscow and Volga Rivers); 2) to provide all effluent-dumping industries with access to a wastewater treatment station or a closed cycle water system; 3 ) to eliminate the flow of raw sewage from municipalities into any river or sea; 4) to provide more water to critical areas by transporting it from areas of excess moisture (involving river diversion and canals) and 5) to find the "correct balance" between industrial, agricultural and environmental needs in regards to the distribution of fresh water. Severe fresh water shortages have forced the Soviet Union to consider both diversionary redistribution schemes and water-saving conservation measures, in which decreased pollution levels is an important component. Conservation goals overlap with the goals for pollution control, especially in the establishment of closed-system water use facilities for industry. There is little doubt that Soviet environmental awareness has grown rapidly, and that environmental advocates have a degree of official support. Indeed, the relative fragility of the arid Soviet ecosystem ensure that planners cannot ignore the warnings of environmental scientists. There is a growing awareness in the USSR that failure to rationalize water resource utilization policies at best will add a costly drag on further economic growth, and at worst may invite one or several ecological disasters. In 1980 Leonid I. Brezhnev admitted"There was a time when the aim was to put a plant into operation as soon as possible at any price. Today, however, we must build in a way that will not be detrimental to nature, we must renovate old enterprises so that they will not be detrimental to the environment."69 One of the prices to which Brezhnev Teferred was the almost unregulated dumping of waste that occurred prior to the 9th FYP. Unfortunately, public statements by Soviet leaders often characterize an unrealistic ideal rather than actual policy. Such discrepancies, along with the absence of highly systematic data, make it difficult to guage the Soviet Union's real progress in dealing with the correction of old environmental water abuse problems and the prevention of new 68Gustafason [19], [20], presents a critical discussion of the Soviet environmental progr'm. 69Cited in P. Poletaev [42]. p . 10.

363

ones. While Western analysts are keenly aware of the growth in power of Soviet environmental interest groups, these groups' pressure may be more than counteracted by countervailing forces. In particular, desire to achieve continued output growth may limit the extent that investment funds will be channeled to environmental programs that do not remove potential production constraints. While maintenance of economic growth is likely to dictate water conservation programs in the southern USSR, the growth drive is likely to lead to environmental deterioration in the expanding areas in Siberia. Among environmental achievements claimed, the dramatic improvement of the Moscow River is perhaps the most visible. Twenty species of fish are said to have returned to the once lifeless waters after the Soviets launched their environmental clean-up campaign in the capital's province.70 Large water treatment plants have been constructed to meet the needs of the capital city. The Lyubert Aeration plant and the Novokurynovo Station together can treat 5 million m7; of water per day, so that since 1974, "no untreated water has entered the Moscow river." Much of the river's newly-returned health can be attributed to the creation of an industrial water supply system (the first in the USSR) and an increase in the number of waste recycling systems. Restrictions have also been passed for the Moscow Canal. Steamships have been prohibited from dumping, all wastes were required to be stored in containers, and 200 artificial spawning grounds were built. Noted improvements in the Volga's water have also been observed.71 Floating trash and oil slicks are no longer evident. However, the current treatment facilities involve primarily biological purification systems which fail to remove many chemical contaminants. The Caspian Sea has also been targeted as a body of water in dire need In 1978, the first of many water-treatment and conservation installof help. ations in the Caspian basin were put into operation. When all are eventually completed they will have a combined capacity of handling 3.2 million m3 daily.72 The Caspian Sea Petroleum enterprise has implemented measures to stem the oil pollution of the sea at its offshore rigs and this effort has been linked with more than 100 floating and shore purification facilities in and surrounding the Caspian. The tributary Ural River has also been a beneficiary of increased environmental protection and purification standards. Between 1976-81, 241m rubles'have been invested in the protection of the Ural, and it is claimed that now "the Ural River has become incomparably purer It's waters are saturated with DO, and their petroleum-product content...has been reduced to a fraction of its former level, the concentration of permissible substances is within the permissible norms? If this is indeed true, then the Ural has made a spectacular recovery. Additionally, 45 new water-recycling systems have

...

70This discussion is based on (and the quotation below is taken from) A. Rubinov [50], p. 5. 71See R. Fyodorov [lo], p. 18. Several other major rivers, including the Desna, have also been the targets of clean-up drives. 72This discussion is based on Y. Vodolazhsky [61]. 73The statement was made by the Director of the Southern Ural Basin Territorial Administrations Hydrochemical Laboratory. See V. Shulgunev [55], p. 8.

364 started up in the Ural Basin, and the water-protection structures that 58ve The been built have eliminated or reduced the major polluters of the river. Ural, though, does not lack nearby polluting enterprises. Nor has all construction proceeded as planned: many purification plants need to be constructed or reconstructed, and deadlines for second-stage purification facilities have not been met. Moreover, the Ural remains subject to considerable pollution due to run-off from numerous livestock facilities containing untreated raw waste. As water resources deteriorate and demand for fresh water grows, the Soviets have responded with more rapid construction of treatment facilities. In the 10th FYP, it was planned that wastewater treatment, and purification facilities with a total capcity of more than 35m m3 would be commissioned, a 150% increase over the 9th FYP.75 Some technological innovations have been implemented as well: examples given in the Soviet press include an effluentfree water supply system at the Chimkent Phosphorous plant.76 This closedsystem has limited the use of fresh water to providing only a cooling system. The Suoyarvi Cardboard factory has introduced a process which uses industrial effluents in box construction. Freshwater consumption has dropped 80% and the dumping of effluent into Lake Suoyarvi has been halted. The Verkhnedneprovsky Mining and Metallurgical Combine has come up with a purification and water-recycling system that has eliminated the dumping of sewage into the Dnepr

Nonetheless, the Soviet problems of material allocation and construction that often run years behind schedule are well known. While water treatment, purification, and recycling plants are being built, the overall trend is not to fulfill plans on time in these construction areas. Construction of water resource protection facilities has lagged considerably, due to limited funding. The annual average allocation for capital investment in the wastewater treatment plants is 20% of the estimated total cost of the facility. At this slow pace, the construction that "according to the plan" will be completed in three years usually takes eight.77 For example, in the Kuznetsk basin less than half of the 190 measures whose completion was targeted for 1978 had managed to be finished. For the coal industry, 19 of 61 planned treatment or purification facilities were built, in the metallurgical industry only 11 of 32, in the chemical industry only 6 of 15. More striking still, despite the limited funding available, the 150 million rubles spent on these projects comprised only half of the allocated tota1.78 Nor do problems end with the completion of a facility's construction, and examples of operational problems abound. The first stage pollution control installations on the Af River have been down for repairs since the moment they were ~ompleted.~gIn the Azov-Black Sea region, only 24 out of 5000 villages and towns had sewage systems in progress in 1980, but everal of these 2 4 systems were not working due to a personnel shortage.88 74This discussion draws on V. Shulgunev, [ 5 5 ] 75B. Babich, V. Lozansky, A. Kuzin [31, p. 2 .

p. 8 .

76This discussion draws on Yu. Belichen'ko and V. Lubyako, [4]. p.12. 77See K. Sharonov, [ 5 4 ] , p. 20.

78G. Yurov, [70], p. 21

-

791bid.. p. 21. 8 0 ~ . Kiryanov, [281, pp.10,17,

366 It is difficult to ascertain the representativeness of the examples provided in the Soviet press regarding water quality and water treatment. Given the Soviet Union's rapid industrialization though, it is difficult to imagine that many water bodies in urbanized areas have avoided significant pollution. Moreover, examples of construction inadequacies are found over a wide geographic range. The problems also appear to stem from factors likely to apply to more than just a few specific projects, including low funding levels and an absence of administrative commitment. Even the well-intentioned, well-funded plant or city faces major operational constraints, since the USSR is characterThus, ized by severe shortages of ecological equipment and trained personnel." it is plausible that the construction experience of water treatment facilities elsewhere in the Soviet Union is not dramatically better than for those discussed above. 4.

WATER RESOURCE EXPLOITATION IN PLANNED AND MARKET ECONOMIES

The picture we have drawn thus far is of a nation that has placed great demands on its water resources, but that is now being forced to take some corrective steps. The steps to halt further ecological damage are restricted by two sets of constraints: those inherent in the Soviet economic system, and those inherent in the need to produce agricultural and industrial goods, regardless of the economic system. In this section we consider whether the Soviet economy might respond more sensitively to environmental destruction than will capitalist societies, or whether the Soviet system exacerbates environmental problems. Unfortunately, this discussion must remain at an abstract level. Most Soviet environmental problems involving water resources have ecologically unique characteristics that hinder simplistic cdmparisonswith other countries' environments. Nor, obviously, are all capitalist countries identical: even countries at similar levels of development for historical and political reasons may have greatly different levels of concern for their environment .82 While it is difficult to draw conclusions from a comparison water resource problems in the USSR and capitalist countries, there are some countries for which the comparison is also highly inappropriate. These countries are the traditionally highly developed countries--such as the USA, Canada, Australia, West Germany, France and Sweden--that have far higher living standards than does the USSR. As it is generally accepted both that income elasticities of demand for environmental goods and costs of provision of a clean environment will be higher in more developed countries, uncorrected comparisons fail to yield meaningful results (though this has not prevented the appearance of many comparisons). Moreover. the likely findings of any study that corrects for differences in costs of providing a clean environment (such as that the USSR neglects its environment relative to say, Sweden).. would be most unsurprising. A more appropriate comparison would be between the USSR and Italy, Ireland, Spain or Greece. Formally, a valid cross-country comparison of the relative environmental efficiency of two systems (ignoring aggregation and measurement problems) requires one first to know how social preference functions differ. Even if one knows preference structures, it is necessary to correct for differences in real income levels and in the opportunity cost of maintaining a given level of environmental quality. This cost schedule will itself depend on income levels, as well as on a country's particular geographic characteristics. Any such c o r 'lSee

N. Feitel'man and I. Smagarinskii, [81, p. 14; T. Gustafson (201.

"See J. McIntyre and J. Thornton [33] fot a discussion of the problems involved in cross-country environmental comparisons.

366

parison would require extremely careful construction, and is beyond the scope of this paper. This section now considers how the environmental damage generated by an individual producer varies as the rules of the prevailing economic system vary. The economy-wide environmental quality differences generated by these micro behavioral differences are discussed briefly in the following section. Consider an individual enterprise that produces a good Q from inputs of capital, K, and labor, L. This enterprise may be either factory or a farm, or it may be a producer of personal services. Assume further that in its production process the enterprise exploits the ambient environment, and in so doing reduces the quantity and/or quality of environmental goods (water, air, soil) available to the rest of society. In the case of water, the quantity may be effectively reduced if the firm's withdrawals from a stream exceed its discharges to the stream (due to evaporation,, inclusion of water in the firm's product, or discharge of water into the ground that does not immediately return to the stream). Quality of the stream's water will also be reduced to the extent that the firm's discharges include nutrients and chemical pollutants, or alter the stream's temperature. Assume a continuous production function for the firm that may be written Q = Q(K,L,E), where E is an index of environmental dislocation stemming from the firm's production process. Such a function may be consistent with, but need not implysthe "materials balance'' constraint that matter can only be altered, and not created or destroyed. To keep the discussion as straightforward and intuitive as possible, we ignore complexities regarding irreversibility of environmental effects and precise depiction of an environmental damage function. Perhaps more importantly, we ignore difficulties that arise in representing what is properly a vector of environmental effects with a single index. Less critically, we do not distinguish between "use" and "dislocation" of the environment and environmental damage, implicitly assuming the latter to be a monotonically increasing function of the former. Although these considerations are important, they are unlikely to affect the qualitative conclusions drawn here. We assume further that Q is a convex function of its inputs over the relevant range, and that aQ/aE>O for sufficiently small amounts of E. That is, given amounts of capital and labor can be used to generate more output if the firm is willing to disturb the environment somewhat. We further assume that at some point the gain from additional environmental disturbance falls to zero; this restriction prevents firms from engaging in infinite amounts of environmental disruption. The propositions offered below are made with reference to the specific production function given in equation (l), but it can be shown that only the assumptions given thus far are necessary to drive the results. For expositional clarity and mathematical simplicity, assume a simple relationship that incorporates the characteristics mentioned above, so that the firm's output can be written Q

=

LaEe

-

dEb.

Capital use is temporarily ignored. Q is increasing in L and E, but for e
367 Consider the behavior of an entrepreneur in a market economy facing this production relationship. The standard assumption is that the entrepreneur will strive to maximize revenue, equal to price P times quantity Q, less costs. Costs in (1) simply equal the wage bill, the wage rate W times labor employed, L. Substituting in for Q from (1). the entrepreneur's maximand is thus: MAXr

= P.(L'Ee

-

d bE )

-

wL.

(2)

{L,E) Choice variables for the firm are the amount of labor hired, L, and the degree of environmental disturbance, E. Assuming that an interior solution is obtained and that o < ~ , e < land e
Pk E* = (--) For d(l-I)-e>O,

d-ad-e

(1-f.1 d-Id-e

(3 83

(4)

then dE*/dP>O and dE*/dw
The first finding is hardly surprising: if the price of tkz firm's The product rises, output rises, and so does environmental disruption. second result is less obvious, and less general. As the cost of labor input rises, the firm economizes on labor use and further abuses the environment. However, total firm output also declines, leading to less of both factors being employed. In this case, the latter effect dominates, and declining production generates a net decline in environmental abuse as both coats rise. These differentials enable us to draw an initial "second best" result. Compare the situation in which the firm in question is run by a private entrepreneur with one in which all inputs and outputs are directed by a social planner. Assume further that neither the entrepreneur nor the social planner recognizes thevalue of environmental preservation. Then the planner who wishes to maximize social welfare will choose inputs to maximize "shadow" profits, given the unit costs we assume for L and for E (zero by assumption). If w and P are identical for planner and entrepreneur, then so will be the degree of environmental disturbance.

In fact, the appropriate maximand for a Soviet enterprise or its parent ministry is difficult to judge. We consider several alternatives in this paper, none of which attach a weight in the maximand to environmental 831t is necessary for d(1-k) - e>O for the determinant of the total differential of the first order conditions (i.e., the Hessian determinant) to be negative definite; this in turn is a sufficient condition for profits to reach a maximum at the point where the first derivates equal zero. 84This level will exceed the socially optimal level degree of environmental disruption. However, unless the costs to society of losing a unit of E are so great that a corner solution is obtained (or social profics are negative at the efficiency point), some environmental disturbance will b e socially desirable.

368 degradation. Such an assumption is an obvious oversimplification of a system that does contain a system of pollution control agencies with some enforcement powers (see K. Bush [6], T. Gustafson [19], and D. Kelley [26]). However, the diffuse nature of environmental protection administration and the great social value attached to physical production limit the environmentalist constraints. Furthermore, while environmental groups may have some impact on the determination of plant location(or even if a particular plant is built), the evidence that they alter substantially the marginal behavior of existing plants is much weaker. We therefore proceed under the strong assumption that the Soviet manager is virtually unconstrained by environmental concerns.

In reality, capitalist societies usually impose a unit charge on water use (though this charge typically is not set with reference to a precise social value), but do not impose direct charges for damage done to the water used.85 By contrast, the USSR imposes charges neither on water use nor for water quality degradation. As Bush ([6], p. 20) notes, Article 15 of the "Bases of Water Legislation in the USSR and Union Republics" mandates continued free water use, claiming that user charges would be too complex to administer. Like their western counterparts, though Soviet economists have pushed for the introduction of charges for a firm's consumption of scarce environmental socially-owned private goods. In their discussion of the need to calculate use of environmental goods in evaluating the enterprise cost of production, Feitel'man and Smagarinskii state bluntly: 86 "To date we have not yet elaborated a substantiated cost-accounting mechanism that would encourage production links to use natural resources in moderation. Therefore managers are unwilling to build nature conservation systems among existing production facilities, since under the present accounting system t,his will lead to the palpable worsening of cost-accounting indicatars of basic activity." From (4),if the wage paid by the entrepreneur exceeds the shadow wage due to the presence of payroll taxes, wage constraints, or the planners' recognition of unemployment, then the planned firm will produce more of the polluting output than an otherwise comparable capitalist firm, and in the process will pollute more. The planned firm will also generate higher E* if the shadow price of output exceeds the producer's price, as would be the case if the firm were producing investment goods o r necessities valued more by the planner than by the market in equilibrium. It can also be shown that the imposition of user charges for environmental goods such as water consumption faced by capitalists will lower a firms' optimal water consumption, and by lowering profits will also drive marginal firms from the industry altogether. In aggregate, if (as seems 851ndividual communities may zone out high-polluting industries, forcing such firms to be less choosy in picking a plant site. W. Fischel ("Fiscal and Environmental Considerations in the Location of Firms in Suburban Communities", in E. S. Mills and W.E. Oates, eds. Fiscal Zoning and Land Use Controls.Lexing)k argues ton MA.: ~~~i~~~~~ ~ ~ 1975 ~ ~ that , these zoning laws compel highly polluting firms to locate in high property tax areas, thus imposing an indirect cost on them for their pollution. However, the cost thereby borne is unlikely to equal the entire social damage, unless their pollution is extremely localized in effect. 86[8], p. 15; Also see V. Fel'zenbaum [91. Recognition of the problems in costing natural resources is widespread, and the articles appear in prominent journals (Feitel,!man and Smagarinskii's piece appeared in Voprosi Ekonomiki.1981, . . 4 no. 11).

369 likely) Soviet priority sectors such as the capital goods and defense industries or agriculture are pollution-intensive relative to light consumer goods and personal services, then we should expect the USSR to generate greater environmental disruption than would a market economy with a similar resource endowment. The expectation that the planned firm will cause greater environmental disturbance is not lessened if we assume that the capitalist firm has market power, and exercises it in a monopolistic or monopsonistic fashion. In the former case we now have P = P(Q); P'
a PL(l+E)

%=

[---

w

d-11d-e

l

1-11 d-Ed-e

(bd'

(5)

where E = P'Q/P
This conclusion is further strengthened if we admit the possibility of harassing legal action against the capitalist firm. The contrast is now between a planned economy in which production is efficient, given a vector of socially imposed shadow prices (and hence in which welfare is maximized), save for the inclusion of environmental damage costs, with a market economy in which a competitive firm ignores the environmental impact of its actions except to the extent that it provokes suits from environmentalists (conceivably including the government). While it is true that polluters do not entirely avoid legal action from injured parties in the SSR, it is apparent that such action is far more common in market economies.sz1 The logic for this tendency is apparent: well defined property rights tend to make welfare losses accrue relatively more to private agents than to socially owned factors in market economies. There is a natural reluctance for one arm of the government to sue another, particularly if nearly all agents are contributing to environmental deterioration in some manner. Moreover 871f ~<-l,then a 1% fall in production would result in a price rise in excess of 1% ; since revenues would therefore rise while input costs would fall, a profit-maximizing monopolist would never locate at such a point. 88The magnitude of such fines is generally small, though, and often contribute to the discretionary revenue of local public bodies (K.Bush [6], p. 19). The fines may also be viewed by the firm as being an inevitable lump sum fee necessary to maintain good community relations. Bush also points out (p. 23) that Soviet environmental legislation typically lacks the precision of western laws. An extensive discussion of environmental law enforcement in practice is given in T. Gustafson [ZO].

370 i n d i v i d u a l v i c t i m s of p o l l u t i o n cannot t a k e d i r e c t l e g a l a c t i o n i n t h e S o v i e t Union, but can o n l y f i l e a complaint w i t h t h e r e l e v a n t environmental p r o t e c t i o n a ~ t h o r i t y . ~ gOn t h e o t h e r hand, p r i v a t e f i r m s and i n d i v i d u a l s i n c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s who s u f f e r p r o p e r t y damage a r e c o m p a r a t i v e l y f r e e t o s e e k l e g a l remedies, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e o f f e n d e r i s an e a s i l y i d e n t i f i e d p r i v a t e f i r m . Nor does environmental p r o t e c t i o n i n t h e USSR b e n e f i t from t h e p r e s e n c e of powerf u l government a l l i e s w i t h a f u n c t i o n completely s e p a r a t e from t h o s e a g e n c i e s involved i n n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e e x p l o i t a t i o n . F i n a l l y , w h i l e p o l l u t i o n f i n e s a r e l i m i t e d i n t h e USSR, t h e S o v i e t p r i c i n g scheme may reduce t h e i r impact f u r t h e r . A s Fel'zenbaum ( [ 9 1 , pp. 30-31) p o i n t s o u t , any f i n e t h a t t h e f i r m manages t o have included among i t s o p e r a t i o n a l p r i c e s a r e a d j u s t e d upwards by c o s t s is d e f l e c t e d t o t h e extent t h a t output t h e p l a n n e r s . The l a c k of p r i c e r e s p o n s i v e n e s s f u r t h e r a l o n g t h e product c h a i n l i m i t s even t h e l o n g r u n impact of any f i n e on t h e p o l l u t i n g f i r m . Returning t o t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e l a w s u i t , assume f u r t h e r t h a t t h e expected c o s t from b e i n g sued ( t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of a s u i t t i m e s t h e e x p e c t e d l e g a l c o s t s and cleanup c o s t s ) r i s e s w i t h E. Then i t i s e a s y t o show t h a t i f t h e f i r m maximizes expected p r o f i t s , t h e more p o s s i b i l i t y of a s u i t w i l l l e a d t o lower l e v e l s of environmental d i s r u p t i o n . The r e a c t i o n o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t s e f f e c t i v e l y changes t h e " p r i c e " of d i s t u r b i n g t h e environment from z e r o t o a p o s i t i v e v a l u e , s i n c e t h e l a r g e r is E , t h e g r e a t e r a r e t h e f i r m ' s e x p e c t e d l i t i g a t i o n c o s t s . Even i f t h e f i r m h a s complete c o n f i d e n c e t h a t i t w i l l u l t i m a t e l y p r e v a i l i n c o u r t , a n t i c i p a t e d l e g a l c o s t s and temporary i n j u n c t i o n s w i l l s t i l l have a modifying impact on i t s environmental b e h a v i o r . L e t u s now t u r n from t h e comparison of p r o f i t maximizing e n t r e p r e n e u r s w i t h e f f i c i e n t p l a n n e r s t o a n examination of t h e b e h a v i o r of less p r o f i t - o r i e n t e d management. Many l a r g e p o l l u t e r s i n c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s a r e s u b j e c t t o d e t a i l e d p u b l i c r e g u l a t i o n concerning t h e p r i c e s t h e y may c h a r g e and t h e i n p u t s t h e y choose. I n p a r t i c u l a r , w e s t e r n n a t i o n s a t roughly t h e S o v i e t Union's l e v e l of development are l i k e l y t o be i n t e r e s t e d i n m a i n t a i n i n g h i g h l e v e l s of employment i n t h e r e l a t i v e l y p r o d u c t i v e manufacturing s e c t o r . The employment l e v e l i n such a f i r m may exceed t h e p r o f i t maximizing l e v e l i f employment and o t h e r f i r m d e c i s i o n s a r e reached by agreements between t h e f i r m and government. As long a s f i r m s t r y t o E, any l e v e l of L i n e x c e s s of t h e e f f e c t s on environmental q u a l i t y . p r o f i t s (1) w i t h r e s p e c t t o E , and f u n c t i o n of L:

maximize p r o f i t s i n choosing t h e l e v e l of c o m p e t i t i v e l e v e l w i l l have d e l e t e r i o u s T h i s r e s u l t can be s e e n from maximizing expressing t h e optimal E t h a t r e s u l t s a s a

- d-e

E*=

(L)

bd

d-e

L

I

which i m p l i e s dE*/dL>O, a s d>e. The problem o f m a x i m i z i n g p r o f i t s s u b j e c t t o f i x e d employment l e v e l s could b e c o n f r o n t e d c o n c e i v a b l y e i t h e r by a w e s t e r n manager, o r t h e d i r e c t o r of a S o v i e t f i r m . I n e i t h e r c a s e , t h e l e v e l of environmental d i s t u r b a n c e w i l l exceed t h e c o m p e t i t i v e level.

*'See

- ct. [251,

D. Kelley.

pp. 172-173.

'OK. Bush ( [ 6 ] , p. 22); a l s o s e e D. K e l l e y [ 2 6 ] and e s p e c i a l l y T. Gustafson ([19] and [ 2 0 ] ) f o r d i s c u s s i o n s of environmental a u t h o r i t i e s . Howe.vei, i n 1974 a s p e c i a l environmental d i v i s i o n w a s set up w i t h i n Gosplan, w h i l e t h e Hydrometeorological s e r v i c e s a l s o monitors w a t e r q u a l i t y a l o n g w i t h t h e M i n i s t r y of Water and Land Reclamation.

371 A more r e a l i s t i c model o f m a n a g e r i a l b e h a v i o r t h a t is a p p l i c a b l e b o t h t o l a r g e c a p i t a l i s t f i r m s and l a r g e s o c i a l i s t e n t e r rises is g i v e n by In a c a p i t a l i s t t h e " b u r e a u c r a c y t h e o r y " models o f Niskanen and o t h e r s . 9 f environment, i t i s p o s i t e d t h a t a manager's s a l a r y p e r q u i s i t e s are d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o a f i r m ' s sales. C o n s e q u e n t l y , e s p e c i a l l y i n a h i g h l y r e g u l a t e d e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e manager o f a l a r g e p r i v a t e o r p u b l i c e n t e r p r i s e w i l l s e e k t o maximize o u t p u t s u b j e c t t o a z e r o ( o r o t h e r f i x e d ) p r o f i t c o n s t r a i n t . T h i s maximand a l s o may b e a f a i r l y r e a l i s t i c o n e f o r a S o v i e t manager. I n d e e d , t h e S o v i e t manager u n t i l r e c e n t l y w a s u r g e d e x p l i c i t l y t o maximize o u t p u t g i v e n t h e l e v e l s o f some n o n - e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n p u t s and i m p l i c i t l i m i t s on p r o f i t s . A s e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h p r o f i t - r e l a t e d o b j e c t i v e s h a v e grown, t h e a p p r o p r i a t e maximand may h a v e moved c l o s e d t o t h e e f f i c i e n c y c r i t e r i a assumed above ( g i v e n p r i c e s t h a t are n o t g e n e r a l l y s o c i a l l y o p t i m a l , t h o u g h ) . The h i g h d e g r e e of c o n t r o l o v e r i n p u t use u n d o u b t e d l y b l u r s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n among maximands a t t h e f i r m l e v e l as w e l l . O u t p u t o r i e n t e d g o a l s r e m a i n i m p o r t a n t , though, and a r e e s p e c i a l l y dominant a t t h e m i n i s t e r i a l l e v e l .

I n t h e o u t p u t m a x i m i z a t i o n case, t h e e n v i r o n m e n t o n c e a g a i n s u f f e r s more t h a n i t would u n d e r c o m p e t i t i v e , p r o f i t maximizing b e h a v i o r . I f p r o f i t s ( r e v e n u e less l a b o r c o s t s ) a r e p o s i t i v e a t t h e c o m p e t i t i v e o u t p u t l e v e l , t h e n by a s s u m p t i o n t h e manager w i l l u e e t h e p r o c e e d s t o h i r e a d d i t i o n a l l a b o r ; w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n a l l a b o r t h e manager w i l l a l s o f i n d i t d e s i r a b l e t o i n c r e a s e t h e l e v e l of e n v i r o n m e n t a l d i s r u p t i o n . I n terms o f t h e s t a n d a r d c o s t c u r v e d i a grams, e q u i l i b r i u m now o c c u r s where a v e r a g e c o s t ( r a t h e r t h a n m a r g i n a l c o s t ) e q u a l s p r i c e , l e a d i n g t o h i g h e r o u t p u t and i n p u t l e v e l s . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e o u t p u t maximizing model i s more a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e S o v i e t manager o r h i s m i n i s t e r i a l s u p e r v i s o r s t h a n f o r h i s w e s t e r n c o u n t e r p a r t , i t is a g a i n a p p a r e n t t h a t E w i l l b e h i g h e r i n a S o v i e t f i r m than i n a comparable p r i v a t e firm. I t s h o u l d b e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e s e r e s u l t s d o n o t depend o n a r e s t r i c t i o n o f t h e number o f non-environmental i n p u t s . F o r example, s u p p o s e t h a t o u t p u t depended o n c a p i t a l , K, a s w e l l as E and L:

Q = LLEeKh

-

bEd.

(7)

Then p r o f i t m a x i m i z a t i o n y i e l d s

1 -

h -

d-e

E*=

(%)

9. -

d-e

K

d-e

L

D e f i n i n g r t o b e t h e u n i t c o s t of c a p i t a l , o b t a i n i n g similar e x p r e s s i o n s f o r K and L, a n d t h e n s o l v i n g f o r E as a f u n c t i o n o f i n p u t and o u t p u t p r i c e s y i e l d s

E* = P

c(h+9.)

1 CL

h ch e

(j$

c(1-9.-h)

where c = [ ( d - e ) ( l - l - h ) - e ( l - h L ) ( t + h - Z!Lh)(l-h)-'(l-E) -1] -1 i s a c o n s t a n t t h a t w i l l b e p o s i t i v e f o r r e a s o n a b l e p a r a m e t e r v a l u e s . From (8) a n d (9) o n e f i n d s dE*/dK>Q, dE*/dL>Q, dE*/dP>Q,dE*/dw
W. Niskanen [ 3 9 ] and W. Oates and D. S t r a s s m a n n [ 4 1 ] .

312

Consideration of capital inputs strengthens the results obtained earlier. Capital provided to a firm in excess of the competitive optimum will generate a larger E. Furthermore, even if capital inputs are not provided in excess, the fact that capital is provided freely will enable the output-maximizing Soviet manager to produce more than the comparable capitalist manager, leading to a greater environmental disturbance. Of course, this result will be offset to the extent the Soviet manager faces artificially high wage costs or low output prices. A final maximand for the Soviet manager that deserves comment involves the maximization of output growth over a five-year period, subject to a zero profit constraint. Even if E is a depletable good (that is, environmental damage is not cumulative), the growth-maximizing manager will be very conservative-minded in the early years of the plan, using a portion of his labor force to offset the dislocating activities of the "productive" factors. These clean-up projects may be particularly large if the manager takes non-environmental inputs as given. Toward the end of the FYP, though, conservation programs will be abandoned as the manager concentrates on production.

The pattern of environmental destruction may thereby to some degree follow a cyclical pattern. This is particularly true to the extent that there exist some incentives for environmental preservation. A firm may find it desirable to demonstrate its compliance with effluent discharge standards in the early stage of an FYP while intending to commit large violations later. Since the Ministry of Water and Land Reclamation inspectors would be most unlikely to take immediate action, even if caught the firm would be safe for the duration excuse would receive a of the FYP (and its output-for-the-sake-of-the-Plan favorable hearing). With luck, the firm might even receive an allocation in the next plan for environmental equipment; given the equipment shortages and construction delays, part of this allocation could be shifted to inputs that would ensure rapid output growth in that plan. Concern with growth over an intermediate period may also generate environmental disturbances of a qualitatively different sort than in Western nations. The goal of achieving high output growth rates will lead a manager to employ small or zero discount rates for future output. By contrast, the private manager is likely to employ a discount rate well above the social discount rate, in view of capital taxes. Consequently, environmental disturbances resulting from production activity that generate few costs now but have the potential to hamper future production will be avoided more by the Soviet firm with fixed location than by his western counterpart. More generally, Soviet firms should be more careful than western firms in creating environmental dislocation with cumulative, irreversible effects. Given the highly cumulative effects of the withdrawal of water from rivers that flow into the southern Soviet seas, the conclusion above appears somewhat surprising. In these cases, though, the cumulative damage is not borne by those who withdraw the water upstream, but by those who live further south. In other words, it is the cumulative nature of damage to the production capacity of the firm in question that matters.

In summary, models of managerial behavior suggest that a Soviet firms' environmental disturbance is likely to be greater than that of a comparable western firm. This outcome is particularly likely in the event that the western firm exercises market power and responds to fears of lawsuits. It i s also particularly likely if the Soviet firm maximizes profits given low shadow costs of capital or labor, or if the Soviet firm maximizes output subject to a zero profit constraint and faces low stated input costs. The greater pollution outcome is less ljKely if t h e western f i r m i s also run by an output-

maximizing manager. The outcome is also less likely if the environmental effects in question have strong cumulative effects on the firm and the firm's decisionmaker is interested in maximizing output growth. These conclusions suggest that under many circumstances, a Soviet firm will create more environmental degradation than a comparable western firm. Essential to the conclusions is the assumption that firm decision-makers ignore the social costs of their polluting activity. If Soviet firms are more conscious of their environmental effects and are more socially responsible than their western counterparts, then the maximands discussed above require revision, and It is important to recognize, though, that Soviet firms may pollute less." there are few reasons other than social consciousness to expect the Soviet firm to be a smaller polluter. Unfortunately, the Soviet planning system appears to greatly restrict the instances in which environmental consciousness is an important factor in firm behavior.93

5.

ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCE AT A NATIONAL. LEVEL

The previous section indicated that Soviet firms were likely to create more environmental damage than comparable Western firms, unless concern for the environment were substantially greater. It is necessary to consider whether these results will be sustained at a macroeconamic level. At an economy-wide level, mobile resources not employed in one industry will seek employment elsewhere. Thus, the monopolistic firm that keeps its output and labor force below competitive levels and hence pollutes will not be a source of reduced aggregate environmental damage if the workers not employed at the monopolistic plant (as compared with a competitive one) generate even greater pollution in other occupations. Conversely, excessive employment by a social planner or output-maximizing bureaucrat may reduce aggregate pollution if their employment keeps employment low in even more polluting sectors. A notable characteristic of the Soviet economy is its relatively low share of the labor force in the service sectors. Although the share of the total labor force employed in services rose from 29% in 1960 to 41% in 1980. this latter level is still lower than that for any of the industrial market economies .94 Insofar as service workers contribute less than industrial or agricultural workers to water pollution and water use, Soviet industrial employment creation that draws workers from services in aggregate will have a negative environmental impact. That is, Soviet policy at macro and micro levels has resulted in a large industrial and in a small service sector as compared with comparable market economies. It appears safe to conclude, then, that workers have been pulled into relatively high polluting industrial activities as a result of the incentive structure in large Soviet firms.

92Soviet managers also face the problem of degermining which objectives indicated by the leadership are to take priority. As L. Taga [59] notes, the "ideal preferences" of the leadership may differ considerably from perceptions of their "effective preferences". Taga also addresses several problems confronting the USSR in dealing with environmental problems not analyzed here, including planning inconsistency, structure of authority relationships in the Soviet Union (ministerial departmentalism), and the failure of actual prices to reflect social value. These problems serve to hinder the emergence of a "socially conscious'' Soviet manager that chooses to value the environment in his maximand in place of maximands assumed above. Taga also provides a detailed description of the incentive structure facing managers. 93See C. Zeigler [71], L. Taga [ 5 9 ] , and, for a different perspective. J. McIntyre and J. Thornton [33]. 94The World Bank [ 6 6 ] , p. 189.

374

Soviet agriculture is 'also likely to be water-intensive relative to a $omparable capitalist agricultural sector. If Q is viewed as a fixed target level of agricultural output in ( 7 ) , it is apparent that (as long as $Q/aE>Oi the value of E required to meet the target will vary inversely with L and K Poor labor productivity incentives characteristic of Soviet agriculture thereby imply a low value of L. requiring large doses of capital and irrigation water to compensate.

.

In summary, it is possible that the higher levels of E at the firm level need not imply greater aggregate environmental disruption with Soviet incentives in place of capitalist ones. The types of industrial goods and personal services provided may vary systematically from one economy to another, and the "western type" may be more environment-intensive. Acltte fresh water shortages inthe southern USSR may also provoke a reasonable degree of voluntary environmentally-conscious behavior by Soviet managers and ministries. In the absence of such information, it seems likely that the Soviet industrial firm's production decisions do have a net polluting effect, and that these effects are augmented by a needlessly water-intensive agricultural system. Yet the s'everity of the fresh water constraint to economic growth in the southern USSR may well serve to offset the negative environmental effects of the Soviet incentive system. It appears characteristic of a system not highly motivated by efficiency concerns that the Soviet response to the scarcity problem has been to plan huge water diversion schemes and massive centralized pollution control projects, but not to alter substantially basic water use incentives. As disposable incomes rise in the USSR, the demand for environmental recreational amenities can be expected to grow rapidly. The vastness of the Soviet Union will permit much industrial expansion before the supply of recreation sites is pressed. Demand for year-round amenities such as clean water and local recreation sites will also grow rapidly; at least in the latter case, though, costs of providing the sites may well rise more rapidly (at least as perceived by the planner). The future will depend largely on whether or not the rate of response to this demand and the amenity demand growth are sufficient to offset increasing damage associated with further growth. Thus far, environmental protection in the USSR typically has lacked strong enforcement mechanisms. Rising demand for fresh water inputs into industrial and agricultural production in the southern USSR and for water-using recreational facilities everywhere may result in discrete institutional changes in water resource protection that lead to different managerial behavior than that posited here. Fining the manager of a polluting plant 50 rubles or withholding a bonus due to a violation will not build the necessary water pollution control facilities. Unfortunately, changes in rules may well substantially precede changes in power and funding. Gosplan's Division for the Protection of Nature does not appear to have ministerial clout remotely resembling the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Uncoordinated actions with environmental effects continue to result from the "departmentalist" nature of the Soviet economy, with many decisions effectively made by distant officials unconcerned withany spillover effects that result. These problems, however, have led to a push to balance the departmentalist ministerial structure with more powerful regional planning ( s e e Feitel'man and Smagarinskii [ 8 ] ) . Even while the resource commitment for a national water purification plant construction program is substantial, current problems are severe. Many obsolete water treatment systems need to be scrapped, ideally in favor of new, technologically advanced closed-system and effluent-reduced systems. Soviet studies also indicate that waste treatment and water purification plants are

315

usually built by non-specialized local construction organi~ations.'~ Essentially, general contractors attempt to built rather complicated systems without always having the technical know-how or proper tools. Further, it is standard procedure to build water treatment plants of whatever sort last as opposed to erecting them concurrently with the industrial enterprise. Unsurprisingly, the above procedures often result in poor quality ~ l a n t s . 9 ~Insufficient production of mechanical aerators, scroll centifuges, special sewage pumps, turboblowers and other needed equipment is considered to be an "acute problem" (see K. Sharonov [ 5 4 1 ) Although a labor shortage exists for qualified personnel to design, contract, and operate the plants, as of 1979 no university in the Soviet Union offered a specialized trainin program for urban sanitation encompassing the processing of domestic solid waste.87 In brief, major changes in thecurrently tepid pace of water treatment plant construction hardly appear to be imminent. If it is difficult to be optimistic regarding water treatment facilities, it is equally hard to envision a transformation of Soviet agriculture. Energy has been concentrated on an agricultural program that puts a premium on rapid expansion and the cultivation of hitherto virgin soil. The land expansion has come in semi-arid areas, though, that might have been found to be inefficient if productivity in traditional areas had been higher. With half of all Soviet water use devoted to irrigation, some conservation measures in agriculture must offer high returns. Indeed, agricultural rationalization might well involve the abandonment of many areas (even ignoring water use considerations). The political institutions seem much more likely, though, to instigate massive water diversion schemes than radical water conservation projects or agricultural incentive reforms. Dealing with problems such as "acid rain'' appears even more remote. Yet a determined effort by a Soviet-style "command" economy to reform environmental policy would be likely to generate results far more rapidly than in a decentralized, pluralistic society as long as the reforms are imposed from the top. So far, the need for water has generated massive construction programs and environmental awareness has resulted in the strengthening of laws and conservation agencies, but it has not challenged seriously the pokerful industrial ministries or led to major agricultural policy changes. Future events depend largely then on whether or not the senior Soviet leadership expresses a firm extra-legal commitment to water resource preservation in addition to investments needed to offset current inefficiencies in water resource use.

951zvestiia [24], p. 24. 96A recent tour of facilities in Saratov Province revealed that half of the waste treatment plants were operating inefficiently and that major effluent discharge violations had resulted due to their poor operating condition. See A. Vorotnikov [65], p. 25. 97Raznoshchik and V. Lubov [49].

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w, Vol.

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381

MANAGEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF COASTAL RESOURCES IN THE THIRD WORLD: JAMAICAN MODEL FOR SEAGRASS RESTORATION

Beverly Miller, M.C.E. Natural Resources Conservation Department Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment Kingston 10, Jamaica

Anitra Thorhaug, Ph.D. Department of Biological Sciences Florida International University Miami, Florida 33199, U.S.A. ABSTRACT The Global Conservation Strategy launched by the United Nations Environmental Program emphasized the importance of wise resource use and management of coastal resources. The Caribbean Action Plan signed in 1982 pointed out the importance of coastal resources to environmental health of the Caribbean. Some developing nations such as Jamaica already had realized the importance of their coastal resources. Jamaica has approximately 200 miles of coastline which is fringed by mangrove forests and beaches, has large seagrass meadows and offshore corals. In the process of development of urban centers, infrastructure, and industries, tens of thousands of acres of seagrasses have been decimated. A n important step in making seagrass resources and their fisheries nursery function sustainable was to transfer the technology of seagrass rehabilitation to Jamaica. It had never before been attempted in the tropics or the Third World. A set of 20 test locations for seagrass rehabilitation was jointly decided upon, including various portions of the coastline, various major types of pollution impacts and different environments (open ocean, coastline and estuary). At each site, the major types of seagrasses found in the area were planted. The results of this project show that the technology of seagrass rehabilitation can be transferred to the tropics. Test plots grew well on a variety of impacts. In some cases, seagrass beds coalesced in four months.

1.

INTRODUCTION

The "World Conservation Strategy" (IUCN, UNEP and WWF, 1980) launched and signed in March, 1980 by Jamaica, as well as many other developing nations, emphasized under priority requirements for life support systems, the following natural resources management policy: "Ensure that the principle management goal for estuaries, mangrove swamps and other coastal wetlands and shallows critical for fisheries is the maintenance of processes on which the fisheries depend." Following the "World Conservation Strategy", the Regional Seas Program for the Caribbean Action Plan carefully drafted for the Montego Bay, Jamaica meeting in March, 1981 and signed in Cartegena, Colombia in March, 1983, emphasized that

382 the Caribbean Islands were essentially coastal areas. It also emphasized the need for research on mitigation of coastal resources in the face of development impacts (UNEP/CEPAL,APCEP 13/54. , 1980). Jamaica has taken these guidelines seriously and is the first developing nation in the world to attempt to rehabilitate "shallows critical for fisheries", that is seagrasses, in Jamaica's attempts to preserve for future generations the natural resource of fisheries nurseries in the face of national development. Jamaica, the second largest island nation in the Caribbean Sea, has approximately 330 miles of coastline which is fringed by mangrove forests and beaches, has large seagrass meadows and offshore corals, as well as extensive coastal plains backed by a major mountain range. Large estuaries and bays have long made this an extremely attractive island. Development has occurred almost since Christopher Columbus discovered the island in 1494, and has been steady since Britain seized the island from Spain in 1655. Estuaries were made into ports around which cities developed. Large plantations were created from coastal plains and upland forests. Bauxite and limestone (for cement) have been mined intensively with loading ports built along the coastline. Infrastructure such as causeways, roads, bridges, airports, ports, power and sewage treatment plants also have been built on the edge of the coastline causing shoreline and subtidal damage. Effluents of sewage, chemicals and urban run-off have historically been discharged into the estuaries around which the major urban centers were developed. Tourism is a major industry that uses the natural resources, beaches, reefs and seagrass meadows, but this is confined mainly to the north and west coastlines. Fisheries historically have been an important protein source for the island's inhabitants. The Natural Resource Conservation Department of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment has the responsibility for creating policy, regulating, planning and doing scientific research on environmental resources in Jamaica. The investigation reported here was a portion of their plan to bring the important resources of estuarine and offshore seagrass meadows into a sustainable balance for the future. The "World Conservation Strategy" estimated that the cost of damage to U . S . marine fisheries caused by degradation of coastal wetlands has been almost $86 million a year (IUCN etg., 1980). Seagrasses play an important role in coastal processes by serving as a fisheries nursery, controlling erosion and by providing a matrix for habitat for coastal ecology. In the process of development of urban centers, infrastructure and industries, thousands of acres of seagrasses have been decimated in Jamaica. An important step in making seagrass resources and their fisheries nursery function sustainable was to transfer the technology of seagrass rehabilitation from the United States,dhereit is required on a regular basis for development, to Jamaica as a model for the Caribbean. The techniques have never before been attempted in the tropics or the Third World. This was a completely cooperative program among the U . S . Agency for International Development, Jamaica's Natural Resources Conservation Department (NRCD) and Florida International University (FIU). All were highly Cooperative parties in planning the original design of the program, contributing many ideas to solve problem areas of development to be investigated and facilitating the operation of the project. It is indeed a model of cooperation andatwo-way flow, and creation of new knowledge between a developed and a developing nation. The high level of ecological knowledge and training of NRcD technical staff and directorswasas important a factor as the seagrass restoration knowledge of FIU personnel. The joint knowledge of future development problems of NRCD and U.S.

3 a3 AID Kingston Mission was important to formulating sites of future usage of this information.

2.

2.1.

METHODS

Site Selection

A joint team from NRCD, FIU and UWI selected sites where developmental impact had occurred. Criteria were: 1) aerial photos, literature or interviews showed that seagrasses had existed prior to impact; 2) sites be scattered around various parts of the Island; 3) major types of present and future development be represented. After a long list of sites were compiled and examined, a feasible subset of sites were finalized. Within each site location appropriate areas for test plots were selected by the restoration biologists.

2.2.

Test Plot Setup

The test sites usually measured 27 x 9 m; the long dimension was divided to make six subplots 4.5 x 9 m. Each of the three species of seagrass was planted in two adjacent subplots. A different planting technique was attempted in each subplot. The four technique variables were plant seeds, roots, plugs and anchors; with plants installed in a 0.9 x 0.9 m matrix. Each subplot contained 50 planted units exept where noted. Plots of similar size were designated as controls at each site.

2.3.

Planting

Both fall and spring planting were carried out to test feasibility. Three species were planted at each site, each by two methods. A joint U.S.-Jamaican team of biologists and fishermen were utilized in the planting efforts.

2.4.

Monitoring

Sampling at each consisted of counting all the surviving planted units and measuring 25 percent of the planted units (every fourth plant) for length of blades, rate of rhizome laterial growth, number of blades per shoot, rate of blade growth and coalescence of plantings into homogeneous cover. Measurements were made along line transects set over the planted rows. Physical, chemical and biological parameters that had been noted in the preplanting survey (location, depth, sediment depth and type, indigenous seagrasses, dominant algae, visibility, wave energy regime and current) were noted during the monitoring. In addition, oxygen, light penetration, salinity and temperature were measured. Sediment cores were taken from selected sites for hydrocarbon residue and trace metal content analyses. Monitoring periods were approximately 60 days.

3.

3.1.

RESULTS

Dredge and Fill

This was the most successful impact type in terms of success of seagrass rehabilitation. All three species survived and grew successfully in former

384

dredge sites on both north and south coasts. 3.2.

Bauxite Sites

Although bauxite was evidently continually being emitted at periodic intervals from ship loading facilities, Thalassia in particular did well in survival and growth at these sites on bith the north and south coasts. 3.3.

Thermal Pollution

One species only, Halodule wrightii, survived and grew in the thermal plume where effluents were being emitted. 3.4.

Artifically Constructed Industrial Lagoons

While the salinity range was below 60 o/oo, Halodule wrightii survived. Found in the lagoon was a fourth seagrass, Ruppia. It should be noted that the period of study took place during a 55 year drought on the central south coast of Jamaica where the lagoon was found. Therefore, lagoons must be tested for upper dry season salinity. Basically, survival could be expected under more normal rain conditions. 3.5

Riprap and Jetties

Behind artifivally jettied areas restoration of seagrasses worked differently. One area exhibited high survival for Thalassia and Halodule, whereas another, with river discharge as an additional factor, failed completely. 3.6.

Erosion

Repeated work was done on the north and south coast erosion sites using a wide variety of anchors. At certain medium erosion sites the Thalassia (seeds with heavy anchors and well-anchored sprigs) survived moderately well. At the highest energy site low survival of Thalassia occurred. 3.7.

Cement "railings

The site was a land fill of cement tailings into Kingston Harbor. Continuous wind-blown fine particles were entering the site when the planting took place. The submerged slope from this fill was very steep and composed of these fine particles. This site failed for all species. 4.

DISCUSSION

For the first time in any developing nation, and for the first time in the tropics, seagrasses, essential to tropical fisheries nurseries, have successfully been rehabilitated from a variety of impacted sites. Dr. Mustafa Tolba, Director of the United Nations Environmental Program recognized this program and its success as a contribution by Jamaica to the world environment in his "World Environment Day" address, delivered from Jamaica in June, 1983.

However, the problem is not yet solved. Development is proceeding rapidly in Jamaica. Yearly impacts by oil spills, infrastructure and other urban development and coastal industries are still damaging seagrasses. Plans a r e underway in Jamaica to begin to solve this particular coastal management problem. Coastal mapping of seagrass resources is being planned. Consideration of policy, regulations and implementation to protect and mitigate seagrasses is now underway at NRCD. A large scale restoration project to rehabilitate an impacted fisheries nursery, using the trained NRCD staff and fishermen, is being planned between U.S. AID and NRCD. The NRCD staff is being trained in large scale mitigation logistics in the world's largest seagrass rehabilitation program in Dade County, Florida, for the Port of Miami (251 acres of seagrasses). In summary, the technology for seagrass rehabilitation has been tested and transferred to Jamaica. Since other Greater Caribbean nations have the same species of seagrasses with equivalent fisheries nurseries associated with them, similar environmental conditions and similar developmental impacts,this can be considered an extrapolatable model for the Greater Caribbean basin. Plans are now underway to utilize this technology in coastal management by NRCD. 5. A RFVIEW OF APPLICABLE POLICIES FOR FISHERIES NURSERY PROTECTION AND COASTAL WETLAND MITIGATION

5.1.

International Policy "World Conservation Strategy". 5.7 "Ensure that the principal management goal for estuaries, mangrove swamps and other coastal wetlands and shallows critical for fisheries is the maintenance of the processes on which the fisheries depend." 7.7 "Maintain habitats of resource species." "Caribbean Action Plan". "TO determine the impact of coastal development activities and land use on the ecological integrity of coastal swamps and lagoons in order to develop quidelines for conservation, management and recovery of these resources."

Federal U.S. Policies National Marine Fisheries Services (NMFS). Habitat Conservation Policy (1983) "The goal of NMFS activities will be to maintain or enhance the capability maintain fish and shellfish populations which of the environment to (see appendix for complete policy)". "At a minimum, Fishery are used Management Plans should include identification and descriptions of habitat requirements and habitats of the stock(s1 comprising the management unit; assessment of the conditions of these habitats, to the extent possible,as they relate to the continued abundance and distribution of the species; identification, where possible, of causes of pollution and habitat degradation; description of programs to protect, restare, preserve and enhance the habitat of stock(s) from destruction or degradation; and, where appropriate, proposal of measures intended to preserve, protect, and restore habitat determined to be necessary for the life functions of the stock(s)." National Environmental Policy Act. "Every federal agency shall consider ecological factors when dealing with activities which may have an impact on man's environment." Federal Legal Background. The legal background for mitigation is found in statutory programs dealing with conservation of fisheries and wildlife resources 5.2.

...

...,

includes the Clean Water Act 5 S 402, 404, 102 (b, 3031, Coastal Zone Management Act, program authorities of the Federal land managing agencies, Water Resources Planning Act of 1965, Federal Power Act, program authorities of NMPS, NO= and EPA, River and Harbor Act of 1973, NEPA, Endangered Species Act of 1973, several authorities of the Corps of Engineers, FWCA, Etc. Mitigation. In the 1958 amendements to FWCA, Congress provided authority to the federal water project agencies to modify or add fish and wildlife mitigation and enhancement measures to the structure and operation of such projects. 5.3.

Proposed Florida State Policy

403.--Mitigation "(1) It is the policy of this state to preserve wetland functions. The object of mitigation shall be to alleviate unavoidable loss of wetlands and estuarine systems, but not to justify the destruction of wetlands. (2) For the purposes of this section, mitigation shall mean: (a) avoiding the impact altogether by not taking a certain action or parts of an action; (b) minimizing impacts by limiting the degree or magnitude of the action and its implementation; (c) rectifying the impact by repairing, rehabilitating, or restoring the affected environment; (d) reducing or eliminating the impact over time by preservation and maintenance operations during the life of the action; or (e) compensating for the impact by replacing or providing substitute resources or environments. Mitigation shall not include payment of fees in lieu of other measures, dedication of land to natural uses, transfer of land or easements into public ownership, or the creation or restoration of wetlands not similar in nature to those being damaged. ( 3 ) When deciding whether to issue a permit to dredge or fill pursuant to this chapter or chapter 253, the department may consider mitigation proposed by the applicant. Mitigation may be considered only after a dredge or fill activity has been proposed in a manner that minimizes loss of wetland functions to the greatest extent practical. (4) The department shall not issue a permit to dredge or fill if the permitted activity, as mitigated, will result in a flat loss of wetland functions."

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors gratefully acknowledge the suport of the U.S. Agency for International Development, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment's National Resources Conservation Department, and Florida International University for support. We were particularly grateful to have a great deal of cooperation from the administrators in charge of the grant: Drs. Asher and Miners, Science and Technology U . S . AID, Washington, D.C.; Dr. James Smith U . S . AID, Washington, D.C.; Mr. Dan Rathburn, M r . Tapper and Mrs. Ross, NRCD; Dr. T. Breslin, Miss K. Kennedy and Mrs. H. Walsh, FIU: and Dr. G. Sidrak, UWI. Extremely helpful discussions with Dr. Mustafa Tolba and Dr. Noel Brown, UNEP,are also gratefully acknowledged. The technical assistance of Dr. B. Jupp, UWI, Peter Gayle, Barbara Chow and Everton Kelly of NRCD and Mr. W. Davis, U . S . I . S . , and Miss E. Thomas, NRCD, Kingston were enormously helpful in creating media caverage which generated public awareness.

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Vezuoklu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 Printed in The Netherlands

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ESTUARINE MANAGEMENT

387

- THE INTEGRATED PICTURE

R. Warren F l i n t The U n i v e r s i t y of Texas Marine Science I n s t i t u t e P o r t Aransas, Texas 78373, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT The management of Gulf c o a s t e s t u a r i e s i s becoming more important every day because of "sunbelt" p o p u l a t i o n growth and corresponding i n c r e a s e d c o n f l i c t between u s e r needs and ecosystem h e a l t h . There i s a developing awareness among both e s t u a r i n e s c i e n t i s t s and environmental managers t h a t t h e s e ecosystems do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f u n c t i o n a s d i c t a t e d by h i s t o r i c a l dogma. Consequently, a d e f i n i t e need exists t o g e n e r a t e e s t u a r i n e management s t r a t e g i e s t h a t f o c u s upon i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e complex i n t e r a c t i o n s between b i o l o g i c a l , p h y s i c a l , chemical, and g e o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s w i t h i n e s t u a r i n e systems. T h i s i n t e g r a t i v e approach, c r e a t i n g a h o l i s t i c p i c t u r e of ecosystem f u n c t i o n , i s t h e b a s i s f o r developing p r e d i c t i v e models that w i l l improve management decision-making concerning t h e b e s t u s e s and s u r v i v a l of e s t u a r i e s as p r o d u c t i v e and v a l u a b l e r e s o u r c e s . The combination of h i s t o r i c a l d a t a on f l o r a anf fauna s t a n d i n g s t o c k s and r e c e n t l y c o l l e c t e d d a t a on i n t e r a c t i v e p r o c e s s e s f o r s o u t h Texas e s t u a r i e s h a s provided a n understanding of how components of t h e s e e s t u a r i e s i n t e r a c t and demonstrated t h e u t i l i t y of i n t e g r a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s t o p r o v i d e u s e a b l e management t o o l s . These e f f o r t s have shown that by t a k i n g a h o l i s t i c approach t o understand ecosystem f u n c t i o n sound environmental management can be performed that b a l a n c e s ecosystem p r e s e n r a t i o n w i t h s o c i e t a l needs. The i n t e n t of t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n w a s t o demonstrate how t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e s t r a t e g i e s can b e used t o a i d environmental decision-makers i n b e t t e r s o l v i n g such problems a s f i s h e r y maintenance, f r e s h w a t e r i n f l o w r e g u l a t i o n t o e s t u a r i e s , and n a v i g a t i o n dredging. The s t r a t e g i e s included i d e n t i f y i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s between u n d e r l y i n g f o r c e s t h a t d r i v e t h e e s t u a r i n e systems and i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o a composite scheme of e s t u a r i n e management. The u l t i m a t e g o a l i s t o u s e t h e r e s e a r c h from t h e s e v a r i o u s s t u d i e s t o provide a r a l l y i n g p o i n t f o r a l l r e g u l a t i n g a g e n c i e s faced w i t h e s t u a r i n e management r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t o f o c u s upon.

1. INTRODUCTION Decision-makers t h a t are concerned w i t h m a i n t a i n i n g t h e q u a l i t y of o u r enviroument w h i l e a l s o a l l o w i n g f o r r e a s o n a b l e economic growth t o o c c u r u s u a l l y f o c u s upon a s p e c i f i c problem r e l a t e d t o h a b i t a t d i s t u r b a n c e when environmental a l t e r a t i o n i s t h e expected r e s u l t of man's i n c r e a s e d u t i l i z a t i o n of t h a t h a b i t a t . Examples of s p e c i f i c problems focused upon might i n c l u d e changes i n p o p u l a t i o n numbers of a n endangered s p e c i e s , i n c r e a s e s i n n u t r i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n a n a q u a t i c ecosystem, changes i n t h e s t r u c t u r e of a major conrmunity i n t h e h a b i t a t (e.g., s p e c i e s number, abundance, biomass), o r decreased p r o d u c t i o n i n a popul a t i o n p r o v i d i n g a n important food r e s o u r c e t o man.

388 Problems r e l a t e d t o environmental a l t e r a t i o n are u s u a l l y d e t e c t e d by research programs based on a f t e r - t h e - f a c t o r p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n a n a l y s i s of t h e system that provides a n empirical d a t a base where q u a n t i t i e s are measured, species a r e i d e n t i f i e d , organisms a r e weighed and abundances recorded. Other than obvious d i r e c t e f f e c t s t o t h e b i o l o g i c o r h a b i t a t f a c t o r s monitored, however, conclusions can n o t u s u a l l y be drawn from t h e s e approaches concerning t h e comp o s i t e of e f f e c t s t o a n e n t i r e ecosystem caused by environmental a l t e r a t i o n . If change i n t h e s t r u c t u r e of a community is d e t e c t e d through monitoring w e can not a u t o m a t i c a l l y conclude t h a t t h e r o l e t h i s community p l a y s t n ecosystem f u n c t i o n has a l s o changed. I n many c a s e s i t has not [ 1 , 2 ] . I f monitoring sugg e s t s that a f i s h e r y stocking program has increased t h e y i e l d of t h e f i s h e r y w e can not a b s o l u t e l y assume t h a t t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y of t h a t a q u a t i c h a b i t a t has increased. Often t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y of t h e stocked f i s h e r y w i l l i n c r e a s e a t t h e expense of some o t h e r population i n t h e h a b i t a t t h a t e i t h e r u t i l i z e s t h e same food source as t h e f i s h e r y population, o r serves as a food source f o r t h e f i s h e r y population, t h u s u p s e t t i n g t h e o v e r a l l balance of t h e ecosystem [ 3 ] . I f a p p r o p r i a t e b a s e l i n e s t u d i e s have been conducted and b i o t i c change i s d e t e c t e d , one s e e s t h e end r e s u l t and may determine t h a t t h e b i o t i c change i s l i n k e d t o environmental a l t e r a t i o n , But t h e mechanism(s) t h a t caused t h e change remains obscure. Although monitoring programs are necessary t o achieve some management o b j e c t i v e s , i t is c l e a r that s u c c e s s f u l environmental management r e q u i r e s much more informacion than can be provided by t h e t y p i c a l monitoring program designed t o d e t e c t change i n environmental f a c t o r s and plant/animal abundances, as a l s o discussed elsewhere 141. The i n c o r p o r a t i o n of a n ecosystem approach i n t o s t r a t e g i e s used t o s t r i k e a f i n e balance between p r e s e r v a t i o n of n a t u r a l resources from degradation w h i l e a l s o allowing continued economic growth and development is e s s e n t i a l t o d e t e c t t h e mechanisms involved and t o p r e d i c t ecosystem a l t e r a t i o n from long-term s u b t l e impacts. Taking a n ecosystem p e r s p e c t i v e i n management d e c i s i o n s m k e s c o n t r o l of a l l components of t h e environment more f e a s i b l e and a l s o p r o t e c t s not only t h e s p e c i e s most d i r e c t l y important t o man but a l s o t h o s e s p e c i e s a t lower t r o p h i c levels o f t e n f o r g o t t e n about i n t h e r e s o u r c e y i e l d s but without which t h e s e y i e l d s would n o t e x i s t . Good management of Gulf of Mexico e s t u a r i n e ecosystems i s becoming more important every day because of "sunbelt" population growth [5] and corresponding increased c o n f l i c t between u s e r needs and ecosystem h e a l t h . There i s a developing awareness among both e s t u a r i n e s c i e n t i s t s and environmental managers that t h e s e c o a s t a l ecosystems do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f u n c t i o n a s d i c t a t e d by h i s t o r i c a l dogma. It i s e s s e n t i a l t h e r e f o r e , t o g e n e r a t e e s t u a r i n e management s t r a t e g i e s t h a t focus upon i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e many complex i n t e r a c t i o n s i n t h e s e systems. Creating a h o l i s t i c p i c t u r e of ecosystem f u n c t i o n is t h e b a s i s f o r developing p r e d i c t i v e a b i l i t i e s that w i l l improve t h e process of determining t h e b e s t u s e s and s u r v i v a l of t h e s e e s t u a r i e s as productive and v a l u a b l e r e s o u r c e s . 2.

OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH

E s t u a r i e s a r e t y p i c a l l y thought of a s h i g h l y productive a q u a t i c h a b i t a t s that s u s t a i n important f i s h e r i e s [ 6 ] . I n t h e Texas c o a s t a l r e g i o n of t h e Gulf of Mexico f o r example, more t h a n 90% of t h e commercial and 50% of t h e r e c r e a t i o n a l f i s h e r y y i e l d s are comprised of s p e c i e s which spend much of t h e i r e a r l y l i v e s i n estuaries p r i o r t o recruitment i n t o t h e f i s h e r y . The Texas c o a s t is a l s o a good example of a n area where i n d u s t r i a l growth is i n c r e a s i n g d a i l y . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s o c i a t e d with t h i s development are o f t e n viewed as incompatible w i t h t h e maintenance of t h e s e c o a s t a l areas a s n a t u r a l , productive systems.

389 E s t u a r i e s are a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d as highly v a r i a b l e environments of varying s c a l e s . I n o r d e r t o comprehensively manage t h e s e complex ecosystems t h e r e f o r e , d e t a i l e d knowledge on t h e dynamics of underlying f o r c e s t h a t d r i v e t h e s e systems must be developed and a n understanding of how t h e v a r i o u s p h y s i c a l , chemical, and b i o l o g i c a l components l i n k t o g e t h e r i n t o a h o l i s t i c framework of long-term f u n c t i o n must be obtained. By c o n c e n t r a t i n g on key processes i n t h e s e c o a s t a l eocsystems such a s n u t r i e n t sources, primary and secondary production rates, metabolism, and population dynamics, a comprehensive p i c t u r e of long-term funct i o n can be c o n s t r u c t e d s i n c e a l l t h e s e processes are important t o t h e i n t e g r a t e d h e a l t h of t h e s e e s t u a r i e s , Using a s o u t h Texas e s t u a r y as an example, t h e purpose of t h i s paper w a s t o demonstrate how one can (1) i d e n t i f y environmental c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t a f f e c t e s t u a r i n e p r o d u c t i v i t y , (2) i s o l a t e s p e c i f i c processes that l e a d t o a h o l i s t i c perception of ecosystem f u n c t i o n , and (3) develop conceptual ecosystem models which can s e r v e as a b a s i c t o o l i n d e c i s i o n e k i n g a c t i v i t i e s concerning management of t h e e s t u a r i n e environment. A long-term d a t a set on t h i s e s t u a r y w a s r e c o n s t r u c t e d by combining r e c e n t ecosystem process measurements with ext e n s i v e community s t r u c t u r e o b s e r v a t i o n s , f i s h e r y s t a t i s t i c s and s c a t t e r e d h i s t o r i c a l d a t a . This m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y view of e s t u a r i n e ecology was c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e c l i m a t o l o g i c a l record t o i d e n t i f y p h y s i c a l f o r c i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e e s t u a r y . Evaluations of t h e d a t a set were made t o d e f i n e p a t t e r n s and mechanisms that explained ecosystem f u n c t i o n . The r e s u l t of t h e s e e x e r c i s e s w a s t h e demonstration of i n t e g r a t i v e d a t a e v a l u a t i o n t o p r e s e n t conceptual schemes of ecosystem dynamics t h a t could improve t h e environmental managers decisionmaking process. 3.

METHODS

A l l measurements discussed i n t h i s paper w e r e made i n t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y , l o c a t e d i n t h e northwestern Gulf of Mexico. T h i s e s t u a r y is one of seven major e s t u a r i e s along t h e Texas c o a s t and l i e s i n a region c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a semi-arid climate. For a more complete d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y and t h e study sites from which information w a s c o l l e c t e d f o r t h i s The development of a longp r e s e n t a t i o n see r e c e n t l y described s t u d i e s [ 7 , 8 ] . term d a t a set f o r t h i s e s t u a r y has incorporated a l l known information on t h e ecosystem. Included i n t h i s d a t a set are hydrography information, c l i m a t o l o g i c a l r e c o r d s , f l u v i a l flows, water q u a l i t y and n u t r i e n t s , n u t r i e n t r e c y c l i n g rates, primary production rates (e.g., phytoplankton, s e a g r a s s e s , saltmarshes, t i d a l f l a t s ) , b e n t h i c c m u n i t y s t r u c t u r e and production r a t e s , and f i s h e r y y i e l d s . Benthic macroinfauna d i s t r i b u t i o n d a t a were taken from previous s t u d i e s on t h e e s t u a r y [8,9] and more r e c e n t c o l l e c t i o n s made through October 1983. Methods of c o l l e c t i o n , which have remained unchanged f o r 11 y e a r s , included rep l i c a t e b e n t h i c samples on a least a q u a r t e r l y b a s i s u s i n g a 0.09 m2 P e t e r s o n grab. Each grab sample w a s sieved through 0.5 uun mesh s c r e e n and t h e r e t a i n e d organisms i d e n t i f i e d t o lowest p o s s i b l e t a x a and counted. Wet-weight biomass w a s measured on dominant populations and on each t o t a l sample. Hydrologic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , measured simultaneously w i t h t h e c o l l e c t i o n of b e n t h i c samples, included s a l i n i t y , temperature, d i s s o l v e d oxygen. and pH (Hydrolab Surveyor 6 ) . Primary production rates and b e n t h i c processes, including metabolism and n u t r i e n t r e g e n e r a t i o n , were measured i n t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y between 1981-83. Phytoplankton primary p r o d u c t i v i t y w a s measured by t h e 1 4 C method [ l o ] . Quarterly i n s i t u 0.5 and 1.0 m depth i n c u b a t i o n s were conducted f o r t h r e e y e a r s a t seven sites t h a t t o g e t h e r c h a r a c t e r i z e d t o t a l e s t u a r i n e production. Simultan eous measures of water column ammonia-nitrogen were made and analyzed according

390 t o phenol-hypochlorite methods 1111. An opaque sediment chamber w i t h c i r c u l a t i n g water pump w a s used f o r i n c u b a t i o n of sediments i n s i t u t o measure b e n t h i c metabolism and sediment n u t r i e n t r e g e n e r a t i o n r a t e s [12]. The chambers were placed by SCUBA d i v e r s and i n c u b a t i o n o c c u r r e d f o r a minimum of 3 h r . Changes i n oxygen c o n t e n t of t h e incubated w a t e r s were used t o c a l c u l a t e metabolism r a t e s and changes i n ammonia-nitrogen c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w e r e used t o c a l c u l a t e sediment f l u x r a t e s of n i t r o g e n [13]. Benthic conrmunity carbon p r o d u c t i o n w a s estimated from t h e metabolism measurements u s i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s e s t a b l i s h e d p r e v i o u s l y 1141. Other s o u r c e s of d a t a used h e r e included gauged f r e s h w a t e r i n f l o w and r i v e r i n e n i t r o g e n i n p u t from t h e Texas Department of Water Resources [ 1 5 ] . C l i m a t o l o g i c a l d a t a were o b t a i n e d from t h e NOAA, N a t i o n a l Environmental S a t e l l i t e Data and Information S e r v i c e . Other d a t a on carbon s o u r c e s b e s i d e s phytoplankton production t o t h e e s t u a r y were obtained from p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s on t h i s e s t u a r y 116,171. F i s h e r y c a t c h s t a t i s t i c s between 1970 and 1982 were o b t a i n e d from NOAA (G. Kinkle, N a t i o n a l Marine F i s h e r i e s S e r v i c e , M i a m i , F l o r i d a , pers o n a l communication). Catch per u n i t e f f o r t a d j u s t m e n t s were made t o t h e shrimp d a t a t o remove b i a s e s i n t h e c a t c h s t a t i s t i c s r e l a t e d t o d i f f e r e n c e i n e f f o r t between y e a r s . 4.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y i s l o c a t e d i n a semi-arid c l i m a t e where evaporation u s u a l l y exceeds r a i n f a l l , o f t e n r e s u l t i n g i n extended p e r i o d s In where e x t u a r i n e s a l i n i t i e s e q u a l o r exceed o c e a n i c waters ( h y p e r s a l i n i t y ) . a d d i t i o n , t h e mean t i d a l r a n g e i n t h i s r e g i o n of t h e northwestern Gulf of Mexico i s extremely small r e l a t i v e t o e s t u a r i n e volume and many t i d a l c y c l e s must occur b e f o r e t h e e s t u a r y i s f l u s h e d [ 1 8 ] . Consequently, t h i s e s t u a r i n e ecosystem i s extremely s e n s i t i v e t o c l i m a t o l o g i c a l changes that c a u s e e p i s o d i c s u r g e s of f r e s h w a t e r i n p u t , and t h e e s t u a r y o f t e n responds r a p i d l y t o such events. 4.1.

E s t u a r i n e Forcing

Presented i n F i g u r e 1 are seven y e a r s of h y d r o l o g i c d a t a on t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y . These d a t a i l l u s t r a t e d t h e e p i s o d i c n a t u r e o f f r e s h w a t e r i n p u t e v e n t s t o t h e e s t u a r y from f l u v i a l flow a n d l o r r a i n f a l l . There were no p r e d i c t a b l e p a t t e r n s observed i n t h e r e c o r d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t some y e a r s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y d r i e r t h a n o t h e r s . The s a l i n i t y r e c o r d ( F i g u r e 1) supported t h e c o n t e n t i o n s t a t e d above t h a t t h i s e s t u a r y responded r a p i d l y t o l a r g e f r e s h water i n p u t . For example, e x c e s s i v e r a i n f a l l wer a 24-hr i n t e r v a l i n September 1979 r e s u l t e d i n 35 c m of r a i n , t h e second h i g h e s t monthly measure i n t h e record ( F i g u r e 1). The h i g h i n t e n s i t y and s h o r t d u r a t i o n of t h i s r a i n f a l l res u l t e d i n t h e lowest recorded s a l i n i t i e s i n t h e e s t u a r y over t h e seven-year record, a l l of which o c c u r r e d w i t h no i n c r e a s e d r i v e r i n e i n p u t . I n c o n t r a s t , May-June 1981 w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e g r e a t e s t f l u v i a l i n p u t recorded over t h e 7-yr r e c o r d ( F i g u r e 1) and a l s o e x h i b i t e d above a v e r a g e r a i n f a l l (42% of t h e annual a v e r a g e ) , These c l i m a t o l o g i c a l and h y d r o l o g i c a l changes a g a i n r e s u l t e d i n a s i g n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e (P < 0.01) i n e s t u a r i n e s a l i n i t i e s soon a f t e r t h e changes. The lowered s a l i n i t i e s , i n d i c a t i n g t h e ecosystem's response t o t h e environmental changes, l a s t e d f o r extended i n t e r v a l s a f t e r both p e r i o d s d e s c r i b e d a b w e , which s u g g e s t e d t h e magnitude of impact on t h e ecosystem from t h e s e e p i s o d i c e v e n t s .

391

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F i g u r e 1. P l o t s of hydrologic and meteorologic v a r i a b l e s measured d u r i n g t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y s t u d y , 1977-83. The main f l u v i a l flow i n t o t h e C r p s C h r i s t i ' B a y e s t u a r y i s from t h e Nueces River, which averaged 7.8 X 1 0 m / y r of f r e s h w a t e r i n p u t . N e t f r e s h water i n p u t on a n a n n u a l b a s i s , which included t h e f l u v i a l flow and accounted a l s o f o r r a i n f a l l and e v a p o r a t i o n rates, w a s c a l c u l a t e d t o be approximately 5.1 X lo8 m3/yr 1171. Measured r i v e r i n e n u t r i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s 1151 i n d i c a t e d t h a t f l u v i a l flow t o t h e e s t u a r y could p r o v i d e a n annual mean of 5.46 X l o 5 kg/yr on n i t r o g e n t o t h e e s t u a r y [17].

8'f

N u t r i e n t r e g e n e r a t i o n rates measured f o r t h e e s t u a r i n e sediments were These measurements, observed t o p r o v i d e a n annual mean of 23.9 g N/m2/yr. when compared t o new n i t r o g e n s u p p l i e d from t h e r i v e r i n e s o u r c e t o t h e e s t u a r y ( T a b l e l ) , w e r e always s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r and i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e e s t u a r i n e sediments w e r e a much more r e l i a b l e s o u r c e of n i t r o g e n t o t h e system t h a n t h e r i v e r . The areal estimate f o r e s t u a r i n e sediments p r o v i d i n g r e c y c l e d n i t r o g e n t o t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y w a s 1.04 X lo7 kg/yr. As i n d i c a t e d above, f l u v i a $ s o u r c e s of new n i t r o g e n could o n l y p r o v i d e 5% of t h e e s t i m a t e d n i t r o g e n r e c y c l e d by t h e sediments. T h e r e f o r e , over t h e short-term e s t u a r i n e n u t r i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s appeared t o be maintained by r e c y c l i n g mechanisms r a t h e r t h a n i n p u t s of new material.

392

Table 1.

Comparison of n i t r o g e n s o u r c e s t o t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y between sediment r e c y c l i n g and f l u v i a l flow. N u t r i e n t r e c c l i n g i s based upon t h r e e sampling s i t e s and expanded o v e r 432.9 km' s u r f a c e area. R i v e r i n e n i t r o g e n is r e p r e s e n t e d by maximum mean v a l u e s over a five-year study period. January

April

h1Y

October

0.090

0.069

0.139

0.436

1.119

3.852

4.280

0.994

7.4

1.7

3.2

Wueces River Total Inorganic Nttrogen Input (10' kg/d.y)

Estuarine Sediment k n o n i r Nitrogen Regeneration ( l o 4 kglday) Percent River Contribution. Contrasted t o both Sources Cmbi ned

Table 2 .

30.5

M u l t i v a r i a t e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s r e s u l t s of t h e dependent v a r i a b l e w a t e r column ammonia-nitrogen compared w i t h o t h e r measured independent v a r i a b l e s t h a t p o t e n t i a l l y s e r v e d as a s o u r c e of a m n i a n i t r o g e n t o t h e w a t e r column. Number of fampling c a s e s w a s 16 over a t h r e e - y e a r p e r i o d of measurement i n t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay estuary

.

Independent Variable

Multiple Correlation Coeff i t f e nt

R2

Simple Correlation Coefficient

Significance

UPPER-ESTUARY (Station 2) -Rivetine Flw

0.6403

0.4103

0.6403

0.034

Wind Speed

0.8907

0.7933

0.4015

0.002

Ralnfall

0.9135

0.8345

0.5228

0.004

MID-ESTUARY (Station 7) -Sediment Regeneration

0.7290

0.5314

0.7290

0.011

Wind Speed

0.8338

0.6952

0.3563

0.009

Riverine Flw

0.8545

0.7302

0.1252

0.021

393 Evidence f u r t h e r s u p p o r t i n g t h i s c o n c l u s i o n comes from comparison of changes i n water column n u t r i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w i t h changes i n f l u v i a l flow rates and sediment n u t r i e n t r e g e n e r a t i o n rates (Table 2 ) . Only a t upper-estuary s i t e s were t h e r e s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s noted between e s t u a r i n e n u t r i e n t concent r a t i o n s and f l u v i a l flow. A t mid-estuary s i t e s n u t r i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h sediment r e c y c l i n g rates and n o t c o r r e l a t e d w i t h f l u v i a l flow rates, Annual phytoplankton y o d u c t i o n i n t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y w a s measured t o b e 174.1 g C/m / y r . T h i s annual rate w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l a r g e s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n 1191 a s w e l l as e x t e n s i v e s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n , as i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 2. P r o d u c t i v i t y w a s observed t o u s u a l l y be g r e a t e r f u r t h e r away from t h e r i v e r i n e s o u r c e d u r i n g most measurement p e r i o d s over t h e t h r e e y e a r s of s t u d y . Much of t h e decreased p r o d u c t i v i t y c l o s e r t o t h e r i v e r i n e s o u r c e w a s r e l a t e d t o s h a l l o w e r waters and g r e a t e r t u r b i d i t y i n t h e water column, c a u s i n g l i g h t l i m i t a t i o n on p h o t o s y n t h e s i s . Increased p r o d u c t i v i t y of t h e mid-estuary r e g i o n was l i n k e d t o a more c o n s t a n t supply of n u t r i e n t s from t h e sediments s i n c e i t w a s demonstrated above (Table 2) t h a t t h i s r e g i o n r e l i e d on t h e mechanism of sediment r e c y c l i n g f o r i t s n i t r o g e n s u p p l i e s . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e upper-estuary water column n u t r i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s more c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l e d f l u v i a l flows t h a n r e c y c l i n g of n i t r o g e n from t h e sediments ,

F i g u r e 2.

S p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n i n mean d a i l y phytoplankton p r o d u c t i o n estimated f o r t h e e n t i r e s t u d y p e r i o d i n t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y (1981-83).

3 94 Using t h e r a t i o of 6.6 f o r C:N c o n t e n t o f phytoplankton [20], i t w a s calc u l a t e d t h a t sediment r e c y c l i n g of n u t r i e n t s i n t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y w a s a b l e t o supply approximately 90% of t h e n i t r o g e n needed t o s u p p o r t measured phytoplankton production a n n u a l l y . I n c o n t r a s t , new n i t r o g e n c o n t r i b u t e d from r i v e r i n e i n p u t t o t h e e s t u a r y could o n l y s u p p o r t 5% of t h i s p h o t o s y n t h e s i s , ' u r t h e r emphasizing t h e g r e a t e r r e l i a n c e of t h i s e s t u a r y upon t h e r e c y c l i n g of i i t r o g e n f o r maintenance o f p r o d u c t i v i t y .

ia #

6

r

Rainfall

#

2

io

r '

3'0

'

5'0

0.88

(crr/3 m)

2 #

-

'

-

0.69

70 '

'

90 '

Fluvial Flow

Figure 3.

S c a t t e r p l o t s of d a i l y phytoplankton production w i t h (A) t o t a l r a i n f a l l f o r a three-month i n t e r v a l preceding measurement and (B) t o t a l f l u v i a l flow f o r a three-month i n t e r v a l preceding measurement. C o r r e l a t i o n p l o t s f o r each p l o t are i n d i c a t e d .

395 D e v i a t i o n s from t h i s p a t t e r n were observed i n t h e d a t a b a s e however, and were r e l a t e d t o t h e e p i s o d i c c l i m a t o l o g i c a l e v e n t s d i s c u s s e d p r e v i o u s l y . Data i n F i g u r e 3 b e s t i l l u s t r a t e d t h e e f f e c t of t h e s e c l i m a t o l o g i c a l changes t o t h e e s t u a r y w i t h r e s p e c t t o phytoplankton production. Whenever e x c e s s i v e r a i n f a l l o r f l u v i a l flows t o t h e e s t u a r y were observed d u r i n g a three-year s t u d y i n t e r v a l , p r o d u c t i v i t y rates responded, e x h i b i t i n g increased production of carbon. Furthermore, m u t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e s e two environmental v a r i a b l e s t o g e t h e r accounted f o r 84% of t h e t o t a l v a r i a t i o n ( i n c r e a s e s ) i n primary production in t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y d u r i n g 1981-83. For y e a r s i t has been thought t h a t t h e r i v e r d e l t a s and t i d a l marshes were t h e most important c o n t r i b u t o r s of n u t r i e n t s t o t h e c o a s t a l e s t u a r i n e ecosystem [6,15,21]. Contrary t o t h e s e b e l i e f s , evidence i s now accumulating s u g g e s t i n g a g e n e r a l f e a t u r e of e s t u a r i e s i s that n u t r i e n t r e c y c l i n g is import a n t i n s u s t a i n i n g production [22,23]. Data from t h e s t u d y d e s c r i b e d h e r e f u r t h e r supported t h i s c o n c l u s i o n . I b e l i e v e we have l e a r n e d from t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay d a t a b a s e t h a t a l t h o u g h many of t h e p r o c e s s e s c o n t r o l l i n g prod u c t i v i t y are r e l a t e d t o r e c y c l i n g , p e r i o d i c f o r c i n g from e p i s o d i c c l i m a t o l o g i c a l e v e n t s i s r e q u i r e d t o c a u s e a n "over-shoot" in p r o d u c t i o n , above t h e s t e a d y s t a t e l e v e l , which r e p l a c e s materials l o s t through r e c y c l i n g mechanisms and m a i n t a i n s a r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t long-term p a t t e r n of e s t u a r i n e production. If t h i s is t h e c a s e t h e n t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of n u t r i e n t s from r i v e r d e l t a s f o r example, becomes important from a p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e e p i s o d i c n a t u r e of t h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e continued r e l i a n c e of t h e ecosystem on t h i s contribution. 4.2.

B i o l o g i c a l Responses

The documentation of t r o p h i c l e v e l s above primary producers responding t o e p i s o d i c changes i n t h e e s t u a r i n e environment has a l s o been p o s s i b l e through t h e examination of t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r i n e d a t a base. An 11-yr period of o b s e r v a t i o n on b e n t h i c macroinfaunal abundance and biomass i n t h i s e s t u a r y ( F i g u r e 4) has i n d i c a t e d several i n t e r v a l s of change i n t h e b e n t h i c community r e l a t e d t o both c l i m a t o l o g i c a l changes and man-made a l t e r a t i o n s . For example, a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e (P < 0.001) i n b o t h abundance and biomass of b e n t h i c fauna was observed i n e a r l y 1980. T h i s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e i n t e n s i v e r a i n f a l l w e n t of September 1979 which w a s followed by a 9-0 i n t e r v a l of decreased e s t u a r i n e s a l i n i t i e s d e s c r i b e d p r e v i o u s l y and i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 1. It w a s b e l i e v e d that t h e benthos o f t h e e s t u a r y responded t o t h e i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n of t h e ecosystem, s t i m u l a t e d by i n c r e a s e d n u t r i e n t i n p u t s from t h e r a i n f a l l event, by e x h i b i t i n g r e c o r d measures f o r abundance and biomass of i t s populat i o n s , which were n e v e r e q u a l l e d i n t h e 11-yr s t u d y period ( F i g u r e 4). Also i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 4 are two i n t e r v a l s o f channel d r e d g i n g that occurred i n t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y , w i t h i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e b e n t h i c c o l l e c t i o n s d u r i n g t h e 11-yr s t u d y . I n b o t h i n s t a n c e s t h e dredging a c t i v i t i e s s u r p r e s s e d t h e annual peaks i n b e n t h i c macroinfaunal abundance and biomass t h a t were u s u a l l y observed i n t h e w i n t e r and s p r i n g of each s t u d y y e a r . It was concluded t h a t channel d r e d g i n g was c a p a b l e of producing short-term e f f e c t s on b e n t h i c c o y n i t i e s n e a r t h e d r e d g i n g a c t i v i t i e s . In b o t h i n s t a n c e s r e t u r n t o a v e r a g e measures f o r t h e s e v a r i a b l e s was noted t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r . There are few d i r e c t i n d i c a t i o n s from e s t u a r i n e d a t a b a s e s of l i n k s between production i n d i f f e r e n t t r o p h i c l e v e l s . To a degree, t h i s i s t h e r e s u l t of i n s t a n t a n e o u s measurements i n h i g h l y time-dependent systems. But i t a l s o r e f l e c t s t h e v a r i a b i l i t y and p a t c h i n e s s i n h e r e n t i n t h e s e e s t u a r i n e systems.

396

DREDGING

D J D J D J D J

rear

Figure 4.

73

74

7s

76

D J D

77

J D J D

78

79

J D J O J D J D 80

81

82

8J

P l o t s of mean macrobenthic i n f a u n a l abuncances and biomasses from October 1972 t o October 1983 i n t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y . Dredging i n t e r v a l s are i n d i c a t e d on t h e p l o t s .

A comparison of b e n t h i c macroinfaunal biomass o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y w i t h shrimp f i s h e r y y i e l d s i n t h i s same e s t u a r y between 1973-82, however, i n d i c a t e d a n i n t e r e s t i n g p a t t e r n (Figure 5). Experimental o b s e r v a t i o n s elsewhere have shown that penaeid shrimp o b t a i n a t least p a r t of t h e i r n u t r i t i o n from organisms l i v i n g i n t h e benthos 1241. The p a r a l l e l p a t t e r n observed f o r annual b e n t h i c biomass and annual shrimp f i s h e r y y i e l d s i n F i g u r e 5 suggested that e i t h e r t h e s e two components of t h e e s t u a r i n e foodweb were responding t o t h e same environmental changes o r they were responding t o each o t h e r , s i n c e a c o r r e l a t i o n of r 5 0.82 w a s measured between t h e two v a r i a b l e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e increased production of b e n t h i c biomass discussed above f o r t h e period following t h e September 1979 r a i n f a l l event (Figure 4) w a s a l s o evident in Figure 5 and t h e shrfmp f i s h e r y e x h i b i t e d parallel increased y i e l d s i n biomass, Thus, t h e suggestion that e s t u a r i n e p r o d u c t i v i t y is maintained by e p b o d i c c l i m a t o l o g i c a l events over t h e long-term was f u r t h e r supported by y e t another component of t h e Corpus Christi Bay e s t u a r i n e ecosystem.

397

m

-a -

U w L

-0 70

72

74

76

78

80

82

YEAR Figure 5.

Comparison of macrobenthic i n f a u n a l annual biomass and shrimp f i s h e r y y i e l d s f o r t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y . The c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e two v a r i a b l e s i s i n d i c a t e d .

A l l e s t u a r i e s c o n t a i n chemical g r a d i e n t s between t h e i r s a l i n e and f r e s h sources o f water i n p u t . Frequently, t h e r e a r e o t h e r g r a d i e n t s found i n e s t u a r i e s such a s i n temperature, sediment s t r u c t u r e , p a r t i c u l a t e m a t e r i a l s , and metabolism. The s p a t i a l v a r i a b i l i t y of t h e s e e s t u a r i n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s as important t o understand as t h e temporal v a r i a b i l i t y d i s c u s s e d above w i t h r e s p e c t t o e p i s o d i c c l i m a t o l o g i c a l events i f one wishes t o adequately manage an e s t u a r i n e ecosystem and make d e c i s i o n s based upon sound s c i e n t i f i c judgement.

I l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e s p a t i a l v a r i a b i l i t y i n mean d a i l y phytoplankton primary production f o r t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y (Figure 2) provided a good example of g r a d a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o a b a s i c food s o u r c e t o e s t u a r i n e consumers. Sediment metabolism, which is a n i n d i c a t o r of t h e h e a l t h of animals i n h a b i t i n g t h e e s t u a r i n e bottom and a measure of carbon production by t h e most important primary consumer component of t h e e s t u a r y , a l s o v a r i e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n moving from r i v e r i n e t o oceanic r e g i o n s of t h i s e s t u a r y (Figure 6 ) . I n t h e uppere s t u a r y l a r g e temporal v a r i a b i l i t y was observed and greater s e d h e a t metabolism was l i n k e d t o p e r i o d s of g r e a t e r freshwater i n p u t (r 0 . 8 6 ) . I n t h e mld-estuary r e g i o n g r e a t e s t o v e r a l l metabolic rates were observed and t h e s e rates were more c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n sediment t e x t u r e , kinds of b e n t h i c communities p r e s e n t , and primary production rates of t h e o v e r l y i n g waters t h a n t o allochthonous e f f e c t s such a s freshwater input. The f u r t h e r away from f l u v i a l flow e f f e c t s that metabolic measures were made, t h e more a b l e t h e s e measures were

-

398

,300

River

2

ocean

Figure 6.

“ I

Temporal and s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n i n b e n t h i c sediment metabolism i n t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y a t f o u r s t a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g a n e s t u a r i n e gradient i n s a l i n i t y .

t o r e f l e c t seasonal v a r i a t i o n s that would be expected i n an e s t u a r i n e ecosystem (Figure 6 ) .

4.3.

Interdisciplinary Patterns

A q u e s t i o n o f t e n posed when p h y s i c a l , chemical, and f o r b i o l o g i c a l a l t e r a t i o n s of an e s t u a r y are considered is: w h a t e f f e c t w i l l t h i s have on t h e b i o t a , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e d i r e c t l y used by man? The only r e l i a b l e approach t o t h i s question must involve several levels of b i o t a , ecosystem components, and processes and cannot be f u l l y s u c c e s s f u l without i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y l i n k a g e t o p h y s i c a l and chemical components w i t h t h e i r corresponding changes i n ecosystem function. As a simple example, c o n s i d e r t h e sunrmary of d a t a from a three-year s t u d y i n t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y presented i n Figure 7 that demonstrates how various i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y components can be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a perception of t o t a l ecosystem function. I n 1981 s a l i n i t y was low ( F i g u r e 7) because of t h e h i g h net freshwater i n p u t w i t h a s s o c i a t e d n u t r i e n t s a s v e r i f i e d by F i g u r e 1. N u t r i e n t regeneration rates were a l s o very high compared t o o t h e r y e a r s ( F i g u r e 7 ) . These physical-chemical f e a t u r e s r e s u l t e d i n b o t h high primary production

399

6Od

-

v)

a a

I

c

z

-

Y

19 81 Figuze 7 .

1982

1983

Annual mean measures f o r s a l i n i t y , primary production, sediment n u t r i e n t r e g e n e r a t i o n , and b e n t h i c biomass and production f o r t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y d u r i n g a three-year s t u d y i n t e r v a l .

and h i g h secondary p r o d u c t i o n , as e x h i b i t e d by b e n t h i c communities. The s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r primary p r o d u c t t o n o f 1981, w i t h t h e m a j o r i t y of carbon i n p u t t o t h e sedimenfs 1253, was enough t o s u s t a i n b e n t h i c s t a n d i n g s t o c k biomass i n

400

t h e e s t u a r y f o r t h e n e x t two y e a r s ( F i g u r e 7) even though p r o d u c t i o n decreased over t h o s e n e x t two y e a r s . Estuarine-wide s a l i n i t i e s d e c r e a s e d a g a i n d u r i n g 1983 ( F i g u r e 7) because of i n c r e a s e d r a i n f a l l ( F i g u r e 1) d t h assumed n u t r i e n t s u p p l i e s . Annual primary production, however, d i d n o t show much of a n i n c r e a s e over t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r (1982). Larger s t a n d i n g s t o c k s of b e n t h i c p o p u l a t i o n s a l o n g w i t h i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n of t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s i n 1983 ( F i g u r e 7 ) d i d n o t l e a v e a l a r g e excess of phytoplankton-derived carbon f o r r e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n i n t h e sediments and t h u s , n u t r i e n t r e g e n e r a t i o n rates w e r e v e r y low [23]. Lower r e c y c l i n g rates of n i t r o gen from t h e sediments negated t h e i n c r e a s e d s u p p l y of new n u t r i e n t s from g r e a t e r f r e s h w a t e r i n p u t and r e s u l t e d i n l e s s primary p r o d u c t i o n t h a n might have o t h e r w i s e been expected, I n o r d e r t o d e m o n s t r a t e how t h e v a r i o u s b i o l o g i c a l components of a n e s t u a r y are l i n k e d t o g e t h e r and c a n p o t e n t i a l l y a f f e c t o n e a n o t h e r , a c o n c e p t u a l scheme of m a t e r i a l flow f o r t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y w a s c o n s t r u c t e d ( F i g u r e 8 ) . A l l secondary consumer l e v e l p r o d u c t i o n e s t i m a t e s i n F i g u r e 8 came from f i s h e r y h a r v e s t y i e l d s where biomass was c o n v e r t e d t o carbon p r o d u c t i o n u s i n g a conv e r s i o n of w e t weight t o carbon c o n t e n t of 6% [25]. Ten p e r c e n t t r a n s f e r e f f i c i e n c i e s were assumed h e r e f o r carbon f l o w between t r o p h i c l e v e l s 161. A l l s o u r c e s of known carbon t o t h e e s t u a r y e q u a l l e d a n a n n u a l i n p u t of 372.2 g C/m2/yr ( F i g u r e 8 ) . The small amount of c a l c u l a t e d t r a n s f e r t o t h e p e l a g i c foodweb i n d i c a t e d that t h e m a j o r i t y of primary-produced carbon was d i v e r t e d to t h e b e n t h i c h a b i t a t . The b e n t h o s t h e r e f o r e , s e r v e d as a major l i n k between t h e primary s o u r c e s of carbon and t r a n s f e r of t h i s carbon t o secondary consumers. The a n n u a l b e n t h i c p r o d u c t i o n r a t e (504 g C/m2/yr) was c a l c u l a t e d t o b e more t h a n s u f f i c i e n t t o s u p p o r t a l l o t h e r secondary and t e r t i a r y consumer p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y ( F i g u r e 8 ) . A paradox a r o s e , however! concerning a n a d e q u a t e s u p p l y of carbon from primary producer s o u r c e s t o support t h e measured b e n t h i c p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e e s t u a r y , A p o t e n t i a l s o l u t i o n t o t h i s paradox might b e t h a t t h e 504 g C/m2/yr of b e n t h i c Ynfaunal p r o d u c t i o n i n i t s e l f a c t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t r o p h i c l e v e l s : microfauna ( b a c t e r i a , e t c . ) , meiofauna, and macrofauna [26]. I f t h i s were t h e c a s e , t h e n t h e needed i n p u t of carbon t o t h e benthos would b e c o n s i d e r a b l y reduced and have t o s u p p o r t a n This i n i t i a l benthic i n i t i a l b e n t h i c consumer level y i e l d i n g 287.3 g C/m2/yr. t r o p h i c l e v e l would t h e n s u p p o r t two o t h e r t r o p h i c l e v e l s (meiofauna and macrofauna) producing 144.6 and 71.8 g C/m2/yr r e s p e c t i v e l y , assuming a 50% t r a n s f e r e f f i c i e n c y between b e n t h i c t r o p h i c l e v e l s [26].

4.4.

Management A p p l i c a t i o n

Data from t h e long-term Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r i n e d a t a set t h a t provided i n s i g h t toward i n t e g r a t e d ecosystem f u n c t i o n were summarized on a n annual b a s i s and combined i n t o F i g u r e 9. The purpose of t h i s e x e r c i s e was (1) t o understand how components of t h e e s t u a r y i n t e r a c t e d and ( 2 ) t o i l l u s t r a t e how i n f o r m a t i o n on fauna ( e . g . , l i f e h i s t o r y c y c l e s , s t a n d i n g s t o c k s ) w i t h i n t h e ecosystem could b e combined w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n on ecosystem p r o c e s s e s (e.g., b e n t h i c production, n u t r i e n t r e g e n e r a t i o n ) i n a h o l i s t i c p i c t u r e that provided a u s e a b l e management t o o l t o t h e decision-maker.

A s a n example of how t h i s scheme could b e a p p l i e d as a decision-making a i d , c o n s i d e r t h e r e g u l a t i o n of f r e s h w a t e r i n f l o w t o e s t u a r i e s . When b e n t h i c n u t r i e n t r e c y c l i n g rates were a t a minimum i n t h e f a l l ( F i g u r e 9) n u t r i e n t i n p u t from t h e r i v e r i n e s o u r c e w a s a t i t s peak, t h u s m a i n t a i n i n g primary p r o d u c t i o n a t r e a s o n a b l e l e v e l s . I n c o n t r a s t , when r i v e r i n e i n p u t w a s low d u r i n g t h e

401

RlVERlNE INFLOW WASTE DISCHARQE

SEAGRASS ARTINA M A R S H PRODUCTION

LAND RUNOFF

30.8 0 C / m ’ / y

146.4

PHYTOPLANKTON PRODUCTION

\

00% IIIIDKD

II

I

0

C/m2/y

Tldal FIaf

I.1 373.2

g C/m2/y

RECVCLINQ

INFAUNAL CONSUMERS

EPIFAUNA

FIsh h Torflary Consumors

Predators

Figure 8 . *

Foodweb f o r the Corpus Christ1 Bay estuary showing flow of carbon between trophic l e v e l s . The flow r a t e s are expressed i n g C/m*/yr. Benthic nitrogen recycling r a t e s are a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d .

402

--*--100

Shellfish Yield (KC

x

Finfish Yield

10')

(K5

x 10')

0

Benthos nr o d u c t i o n (G

1

-

C/Mz/DAV)

0

B e n t h i c 200 Nitrogen R e c y c l i n g 100

-

Primary Production ( 6 c/H2/DAY)

UG-ATII W;-N/M*/H)

0

Jan '

'Jut

'

'

'

rO

MONTH Figure 9.

Mean v a l u e s from a m u l t i y e a r d a t a b a s e on t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y f o r b e n t h i c macroinfaunal biomass and p r o d u c t i o n , sediment n u t r i e n t r e g e n e r a t i o n , phytoplankton production, r i v e r i n e n u t r i e n t i n p u t , and r a i n f a l l , a l o n g w i t h f i s h e r y y i e l d s and p e r i o d s of peak brown shrimp abundance and larval c o l o n i z a t i o n t o t h e sediments.

s u m e r , b e n t h i c n u t r i e n t r e c y c l i n g rates w e r e h i g h and peak primary p r o d u c t i o n l e v e l s occurred. An a p p r o p r i a t e p e r i o d t o d i v e r t f r e s h w a t e r i n f l o w from t h e e s t u a r y f o r upland u s e w h i l e minimizing impact t o t h e e s t u a r y , t h e r e f o r e , would be d u r i n g t h e f a l l when t h e r i v e r i n e i n p u t w a s most needed by t h e e s t u a r y . In a d d i t i o n , t h e w i n t e r and s p r i n g p e r i o d s were times of i m p o r t a n t phases of b e n t h i c l i f e s t a g e s , when larvae were c o l o n i z i n g t h e sediments and j u v e n i l e shrimp were u t i l i z i n g t h e e s t u a r y f o r n u r s e r y grounds ( F i g u r e 9 ) . These w e r e also p e r i o d s of peak b e n t h i c s t a n d i n g s t o c k and peak f i s h e r y h a r v e s t s . Thus, t h e b e s t period of t h e year t o d i v e r t f r e s h w a t e r from t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y , according t o t h e d a t a i n F i g u r e 9 , appeared t o be d u r i n g t h e summer. Although primary production peaked d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d , b e n t h i c n u t r i e n t r e c y c l i n g was a l s o a t i t s peak and could compensate f o r n u t r i e n t l o s s e s r e s u l t i n g from f r e s h w a t e r diversion.

403

Another example demonstrating t h e u t i l i t y of t h i s approach came from cons i d e r a t i o n of t h e need f o r dredging i n o u r e s t u a r i e s , As i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e 9 , s t a n d i n g s t o c k s of b e n t h i c fauna w e r e much lower d u r i n g t h e f a l l t h a n o t h e r p e r i o d s of t h e y e a r . Secondary p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s were a l s o lowest d u r i n g t h e f a l l , as were phytoplankton p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s , Benthic n u t r i e n t r e g e n e r a t i o n rates were lowest d u r i n g r h e f a l l when peak s u p p l i e s of n i t r o g e n came from f l u v i a l i n p u t . S i n c e t h e w i n t e r t o e a r l y summer w a s important f o r b e n t h i c l a r v a e , juve n i l e shrimp, and peak f i s h e r y y i e l d s , t h e environmental manager could d e c i d e t o conduct dredging a c t i v i t i e s d u r i n g t h e f a l l when t h e s e a f l o o r communities would be l e a s t impacted by t h e d i s t u r b a n c e . There may be o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s n o t covered by t h e c o n c e p t u a l scheme i n F i g u r e 9, b u t t h e s e examples demonstrated how i n t e g r a t e d information could a i d environmental managers i n making d e c i s i o n s , based upon sound s c i e n t i f i c judgement. Another environmental c h a r a c t e r i s t i c that should be considered i n r e s p e c t t o t h e above decision-making examples i s r e s i l i e n c y a f t e r a d i s t u r b a n c e . I f f o r example, i t w a s concluded t h a t t h e f a l l would be t h e p e r i o d of least impact from dredging, t h e n t h e r e s i l i e n c y of impacted components need be considered. P r o c e s s e s and communities should n o t be p e r t u r b e d l o n g enough t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o ecosystem f u n c t i o n , Data p r e s e n t e d i n Table 3 i n d i c a t e d how r e s i l i e n t t h e b e n t h i c community of t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y Table 3.

Benthic community d a t a from a channel s t a t i o n i n t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y p r i o r t o channel dredging (1974-82) and a f t e r dredging (1982-83) occurred i n A p r i l 1982, t o i l l u s t r a t e r e s i l i e n c y of t h e b e n t h i c s p e c i e s assemblages i n t h i s ecosystem.

Sampllng Date

In fauna 1 Abundance 2 (antmals/m )

In fauna 1 Species Number

Infaunal Biomass ( g/m2)

January 1982

5,055.6

26

4.59

'

214.8

9

1.39

2,833.3

28

14.81

April 1982 July 1982

2 4.83

Average January

6,305.2 f 2,031.2

29.7 f 1 2 . 5

10.56

Average April

5,873.3

f 1,900.1

36.0 ? 17.4

16.86 ? 6.26

Average July

2,022.5 ? 1 , 2 4 2 . 3

38.9 ? 1 5 . 5

17.29 f 6.04

Sampling conducted two weeks after dredglng completed,

404

was a f t e r a period of dredging i n A p r i l 1982. The J a n u a r y 1982 b e n t h i c charact e r i s t i c s of i n f a u n a l abundance, s p e c i e s number and t o t a l biomass were normal f o r t h i s time of year 181. The A p r i l 1982 measures f o r t h e s e same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , taken i m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e dredging e v e n t , were f a r below t h e a v e r a g e f o r A p r i l of o t h e r y e a r s . By J u l y 1982, however, t h e s e same b e n t h i c measures were s i m i l a r t o average o b s e r v a t i o n s f o r t h a t month of o t h e r y e a r s . The benthos of Corpus C h r i s t i Bay were r e s i l i e n t enough t o show c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s normal f o r t h e s e fauna t h r e e months a f t e r t h e dredging d i s t u r b a n c e t o t h e e s t u a r y . 5.

CONCLUSIONS

Many p a s t e f f o r t s of managing e s t u a r i n e ecosystems, s t r i v i n g f o r a balance between p r e s e r v a t i o n and economic growth, have r e l i e d upon information from r e s e a r c h a d d r e s s i n g a f t e r - t h e - f a c t o r i n s t a n t a n e o u s a n a l y s e s of t h e system t h a t do n o t u s u a l l y provide p r e d i c t i v e a b i l i t i e s . To develop t h e s e p r e d i c t i v e a b i l i t i e s , however, i n o r d e r t o improve environmental management, more a t t e n t i o n needs t o be focused upon understanding t h e p r o c e s s e s involved i n ecosystem f u n c t i o n . By u t i l i z i n g s p e c i f i c examples from e s t u a r i n e environmental assessment i n s o u t h Texas, t h e s t u d y d e s c r i b e d h e r e has demonstrated how a h o l i s t i c percept i o n of ecosystem f u n c t i o n can improve environmental understanding. Combining r e c e n t s t u d y r e s u l t s on mechanisms t h a t r e g u l a t e ecosystem dynamics w i t h h i s t o r i c a l d a t a on w a t e r q u a l i t y and b i o t a changed our p e r c e p t i o n of e s t u a r i n e f u n c t i o n i n s o u t h Texas. Documented environmental changes i n t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y were c o r r e l a t e d w i t h changes i n primary p r o d u c t i v i t y r a t e s , b e n t h i c community s t r u c t u r e and f i s h e r y y i e l d s . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n coupled w i t h h i g h measured rates of n u t r i e n t r e g e n e r a t i o n from t h e e s t u a r i n e sediments caused us t o conclude that t h e ecosystem relies h e a v i l y on t h e r e c y c l i n g of m a t e r i a l s and r e q u i r e s e p i s o d i c c l i m a t o l o g i c a l changes i n o r d e r t o r e p l a c e materials l o s t from r e c y c l i n g and t o m a i n t a i n a s t e a d y s t a t e i n e s t u a r i n e production. With t h i s r e f i n e d p e r c e p t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between e p i s o d i c i n p u t s o f f r e s h w a t e r and ecosystem f u n c t i o n i t became more a p p a r e n t that n e t production of t h e e s t u a r y , above t h e long-term s t e a d y s t a t e l e v e l s , could only be r e a l i z e d through t h e s e e p i s o d i c e v e n t s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e development of material flow schemes and i n t e g r a t i o n of s e v e r a l p h y s i c a l , chemical, and b i o l o g i c a l components i n t o h o l i s t i c d i s p l a y s s i g n i f i c a n t l y enhanced o u r understanding of e s t u a r i n e dynamics. The i n t e g r a t i o n of i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y d a t a i n c r e a s e d o u r knowledge of how v a r i o u s p r o c e s s e s l i n k e d t h e b i o l o g i c components of t h e system. The i l l u s t r a t i o n of carbon flow through t h e system b i o t a demonstrated t h e importance of t h e e s t u a r i n e benthos s e r v i n g as a l i n k between primary producers and almost a l l secondary consumers i n t h e ecosystem. These t r o p h i c a n a l y s e s a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e benthos t o changes i n carbon supply t o t h e e s t u a r y s i n c e t h e r e appeared t o be no excess carbon c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e system, above t h a t r e q u i r e d t o s u p p o r t measured b e n t h i c production. The long-term d a t a set f o r t h e Corpus C h r i s t i Bay e s t u a r y has l a i d a r e l i a b l e base upon which t o develop e s t u a r i n e management s t r a t e g i e s . P r e d i c t i v e modelling can u s e t h i s kind of ecosystem c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n and t h e c o n c e p t u a l schemes that are developed from i t f o r model v e r i f i c a t i o n and refinement i n o r d e r t o improve our a b i l i t y t o d e t e c t and p r e d i c t change i n e s t u a r i e s . It has been suggested [ 2 7 ] that p o t e n t i a l environmental d i s t u r b a n c e s b e e v a l u a t e d by means of a n i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y problem-solving approach, The i n t e g r a t i o n of v a r i o u s e s t u a r i n e ecosystem components i n t o a c o n c e p t u a l scheme a b l e t o b e v i s u a l i z e d by t h e environmental manager, as demonstrated h e r e , i s a d r a m a t i c improvement over t h e t r i a l - a n d - e r r o r management approaches followed i n t h e p a s t . I t a l s o b r h g S u s

405

closer to quantitatively modelling these kinds of environments, Our economic interests in estuarine resources are too great to allow us to continue without considering these potential improvements in our decision-making process. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Funding for this work was provided in part from the Texas Department of Water Resources and the Texas A6N Sea Grant College Program to the University of Texas Marine Science Institute. Thanks are extended to all my colleagues who spent time in collecting samples and working up data over the years that have been used in this summary. Appreciation is also extended to N. Flint for her useful comments. This manuscript is the University of Texas Marine Science Institute Contribution No. 612. REFERENCES 1.

Rhoads, D.C., P.L, McCall, and J,Y. Yingst, 1978, Disturbance and production on the estuarine seafloor, her. Sci. 663 577-586.

2.

Flint, R.W. and R.D. Kalke, 1983, Environmental disturbance and estuarine benthos functioning, Bull. Enviro. Contam. Toxic, 31(5): 501-511.

3.

Goldman, C.R., M.D. Morgan, S.T. Threlkeld, and N. Angeli, 1979, A population dynamics analysis of the cladoceran disappearence from Lake Tahoe, California-Nevada, Limol. Oceanogr. 24(2): 289-297.

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Good, R.E. and N.F. Good, 1984, The Pinelands Natural Reserve: an ecosystem approach to management, BioScience 34(3): 169-174.

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Thayer, G.W., D.S. Peters, D.R. Colby, and L.F. Simoneaux, 1983, Does alteration of freshwater inflow patterns impact the nursery function of estuaries?, COPAS 2(4): 39-40

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Odum, E.P., 1971, Fundamentals of Ecology, W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa., 574 pp.

7.

Flint, R.W., S . Rabalais, and R.D. Kalke, 1982, Estuarine benthos and ecosystem functioning, pg. 185-201, 2 J.R. Davis (ed.), Proc. Symp. Recent Benthological Findings in Texas and Adjacent States, Aquat. Sci. Sect., Texas Acad. Sci., Austin.

8.

Flint, R.W. and J.A. Younk, 1983, Estuarine benthos: long-term community structure variations, Corpus Christi Bay, Texas, Estuaries 6(2): 126-141.

9.

Holland, J.S., N.J. Maciolek, R.D. Kalke, L. Mullins, and C.H. Oppenhefmer, 1975, A benthos and plankton study of the Corpus Christi, Copano and Aransae Bay systems, Final Report to Texas Water Development Board, from the Univ. Texas Marine Science Institute, 174 pp.

10t

Goldman, C.R., 1968, The use of absolute activity for eliminating serious errors in the measurement of primary production with 14C, J, Cons. Perm Int. Explor. Mer. 32(2): 172-179.

11. Solorzano, L, 1969, Determination of ammonia in natural waters by the phenol-hypochlorite method, Limnol. Oceanogr. 14: 799-801.

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12. Flint, R.W. and D, Kamykowski, (in press), Benthic nutrient regeneration in south Texas coastal waters, Estuar. Coastal and Shelf Sci, 13. Hargrave, B.T. and G.F. Connoly, 1978, A device to collect supernatant water for measurement of flux of dissolved compounds across sediment surfaces, Limnol. Oceanogr. 23: 1005-1010. 14. Rowe, G.T. and K.L. Smith, 1977, Benthic-pelagic coupling in the midAtlantic Bight, pg. 55-66, & B.C. Coull (ed.), Ecology of Marine Benthos, The Univ. South Carolina Press, Columbia, 15. Texas Department of Water Resources, 1981, Nueces and Mission-Aransas Estuaries: A study of the influence of freshwater inflows, Texas Dept. Water Res., Final Report fLP-108. 16. Oppenheimer, C.H., T. Isensee, W.B. Brogden, and D. Bowman, 1975, Establishment of Operational Guidelines for Texas Coastal Zone Management. Biological Uses Criteria, Final Report to National Science Foundation (Grant 11GI-34870X) and Office of the Governor of Texas (IAC 1174-75-0685) from the Univ. Texas Marine Science Inst., Austin, 17. Armstrong, N.E., 1982, Responses of Texas estuaries to freshwater inflow, pg. 103-120, V.S. Kennedy (ed.), Estuarine Comparisons, Academic Press, New York.

18. Smith, N.P., 1982, Tidal flushing of intracoastal bays, Contrib. Mar. Sci. 25: 1-12. 19. Flint, R.W., (in press), Phytoplankton primary production in the Corpus Christi Bay-Estuary, Contrib. Mar. Sci. 20.

Redfield, S.C., B.H. Ketchum, and F.A. Richards, 1963, The influence of organisms on the composition of sea water, pg. 27-77, M.N. Hill (ed.), -The Sea, Vol. 2 , Wiley, New York.

21. Odum, E.P. and A.A. de la Cruz, 1967, Particulate organic detritus in a Georgia salt marsh-estuarine ecosystem, pg. 383-388, g G.H. Lauff (ed.), Estuaries, Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Washington, D.C. 22. Nixon, S.W., 1981, Freshwater inputs and estuarine productivity, pg. 31-57, In R. Cross and D. Williams (eds.), Proc. Nat. Syrnp. Freshwater Flow to Estuaries, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv., Office Biol, Serv., Publ. #FWS f OBS-81f 04. 23.

Van Klump, J. and C.S. Martens, 1983, Benthic nitrogen regeneration, pg. 411-457, E.J. Carpenter and D.G, Capone (eds.), Nitrogen in the Marine Environment, Academic Press, New York.

24. Moriarty, D.J.W., 1977, Quantification of carbon, nitrogen, and bacterial biomass in the food of some Penaeid prawns, Aust. J. Mar, Freshwater Res. 28: 113-118. 25.

Flint, R.W. and N.N. Rabalais, 1981, Gulf of Mexico shrimp production: a foodweb hypothesis, Fish, Bull, 79: 737-748.

26. Walsh, J.J., 1981, Shelf-sea ecosystems, pg. 159-196, 2: A.R. Longhurst (d.) Analysis of Marine Ecosystems, Academic Press, New York. 27.

Barrett, G.W., G.M. Van Dyne, and E.P. Odum, 1976, Stress eCology, BioScience 26: 192-194.

407

The Biosphere: Problem8 and Solutiom, edited by T.N.Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,Ams~rdam,1984- Printed in The Netherlands

THERMAL POLLUTION EFFECTS ON AN ESTUARY IN A DEVELOPING NATION: REHABILITATION OF SEAGRASS

IMPACT AND

Anitra Thorhaug Department of Biological Sciences Florida International University Miami, Florida 33199, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT Four fossil fuel generators of 213.5 megawatts supplying greater Kingston produced thermal effluents that denuded a 12,398 m2 area; a 8,000 m2 area inhabited only by the seagrass Halodule wrightii gradually merged into the natural shoreline community of Thalassia. For the first time in any global location, seagrass was rehabilitated while thermal pollution was ongoing. The heat tolerant species Halodule wrightii was able to survive and coalesce in barren areas when restored, although the other two species, Thalassia and Syringodium did not survive. Thus, the heat tolerant species of seagrasses can be restored in continually emitted thermal effluents. This will help to replace the lost functional characteristics of the original seagrass communities.

1.

INTRODUCTION

The effects of thermal effluents on a variety of ecosystems have been studied in detail for developed nations, most of which are in the temperate zone [l]. In a review for GESAMP (FA01 [21, only a few tropical nations had studied tropical or subtropical effluents. Puerto Rico, subtropical Florida, Hawaii, India, tropical Australia, "enezuela, and Guam were chief among these. The tolerance limits between lethal limits and summer ambient temperatures for fishes, invertebrates and dominant plant species in temperate ecosystems appear to be a greater absolute interval or "margin of error" than that of tropical and subtropical species' lethal limits to thermal effluents. Species of tropical and subtropical ecosystems live close to their upper thermal limits and are more effected by heated additions. It is apparent that much of the information gathered in the tropics has been in the U.S. territories, especially in Caribbean locations. Large areas such as Africa and Southeast Asia are without any quantitative indications of upper thermal limits of local plant and animal species. Summarizing the information from the subtropical/tropical systems, the upper thermal limits for corals and seagrasses appear to be between 32 and 34'C on a sustained basis. Frequently, summer effluents from power plants are in the range of 32 to 35'C. Thus, large isotherms surrounding the power plant effluents are moribund. Both field [3,4] and laboratory studies have shown a difference in upper temperature tolerance limits among the various species of seagrasses: Syringodium filiforme has the Least temperature tolerance; Thalassia testudinum,

408

between 31 and 33'C;

and Halodule wrightii, the highest.

No rehabilitation of thermally damaged seagrasses has ever occurred while effluents were still being emitted. 2.

SITE

The Old Harbour Power Plant is located on the southwest coast of the Caribbean island, Jamaica. There are four turbines with generating capacities of 30, 60, 55 and 68.5 megawatts that were commissioned in 1968, 1969, 1971 and 1973, respectively. The coolant is circulated by two pumps for each turbine that can each pump 30,000, 54,000, 60,000 and 60,000 gallons per minute, respectively. The temperature of the discharged effluent is approximately 7-8'C above ambient. The power plant supplies most of the electricity to the Kingston urban and industrial area. A 212 m cooling canal from the plant delivers the effluents into the northern shore of a major southern estuary, Old Harbour Fig. 1). There is a fairly low degree of development and urbanization in this estuary. Two bauxite loading facilities, both several kilometers from the power plant are the only industries. Several small villages, primarily populated by fishermen, are scattered near the shoreline. Much of the Old Harbour area is relatively undisturbed mangrove shoreline with sublittoral seagrasses.

3.

3.1.

METHODS

Transects for Zonation

Starting at the mouth of the effluent canal and proceeding down the shoreline at 30 m intervals, measured transects were taken of community types in June, September, November (1983) and January (1984) by diver-biologists. The

Fig. 1.

Site of the Old Harbour Power Plant with Planting Test Plots Area Indicated.

409

dimensions of zones and dominant vegetation types were recorded. 3.2.

Rehabilitation

W o transplantings in November 1982 and April 1983 at separate test plots were made in the barren to patchy Halodule zones of the effluent (Fig. 2 ) . Each test plot had three species of seagrass transplanted by two methods. The plantings were at 0.9 m intervals within a 4.6 x 9.1 m subplot along transect lines so the transplants could be relocated. Earth anchors with attached buoys were placed at each corner for demarcation. Thalassia testudinum was transplanted by sprig and seed; Syringodium filifonne was transplanted by plug and sprig; and Halodule wrightii was transplanted by plug and sprig.

Monitoring of the test plots proceeded on an approximately 65 day basis from February 1983 onward. Monitoring included blade length, rhizome length, number of short shoots, number of rhizomes, number of seeds and physical/ chemical parameters: temperature, salinity, light (Li Cor quantum light meter), dissolved oxygen, sediment type and current. 4. 4.1.

RESULTS

Physical/Chemical Results

Temperatures 185 m from the mouth of the effluent were.recorded as follows: February 1983, 3OoC; April 1983, 34'C; June 1983, 34'C; September 1983, 35OC; November 1983, 34.5OC; and January 1984, 33.5OC. Ambient bay temperatures on these same dates were, respectively: 28OC; 29'C; 28OC; 30.4OC; and 27OC. The flow pattern from the effluent ran parallel to shore toward the west frcnn the effluent for approximately 300 m before curving south toward the sea. This could clearly be ascertained by temperature, turbidity,surface patterns and ecological zonation. The effluent stayed 15 to 30 m offshore due to an uneven mangrove thicket along the shore, except when southeast winds pressed it toward the shore. The average width of the effluent was 80 to 100 m. Other data from the physical/chemical monitoring is seen in Table 1.

Fig.

2.

Configuration of each test plot and its control.

410 Table 1.

4.2.

Physical/Chemical Parameters

Temp. OC

Do PPm

Sal. o/oo

Current cm/sec.

February

30.0

6.6

33.90

4.0

340

310

April

34.0

6.8

36.20

7.0

---

---

June

34.0

5.0

35.90

0.0

235

80

September

35.0

5.4

36.30

1.0

270

150

November

34.5

6.4

34.90

---

200

125

Light Sur. QUA

LPght Bot. QUA

Zonation of Vegetation

The natural vegetation along this shoreline was upper intertidal mangroves (Rhizophora mangle), lower intertidal Halodule wrightii, Thalassia testudinum about loom, interspersed Thalassia and Syringodium filforme, then either Thalassia extending baywardor patchy Syringodium extending bayward. The thermally affected area had a totally different zonation. Areas formed isopleths based on outflow temperature. These were tongue shaped (Fi s. 3, 4 ) . Closest to the effluent canal mouth was a large barren area, 12,398.m Next an area of patchy Halodule was found. This gradually merged into a Halodule zone, 7,729 m2 in area. On the bayward side of the Halodule zone a mixed Thalassia and %ringodium zone occurred. This extended outward to a pure Thalassia zone usually. In some areas it was a pure S rin odium zone extending bayward (2000 shoot groups per m-2). At the far end of'the'length of the thermal zone along the shore there was a mixed Thalassia and Syringodium zone, followed by a pure Thalassia zone (about 750 short shoots per m-L).

s.

The dimensions of the zones were somewhat dynamic depending on season during the study period (Figs. 3, 4). In the summer period when temperatures were 34 to 35'C in much of the effluent, the barren area was larger. In late fall and winter, Halodule began to invade the barren area and to coalesce and e y a n d in patchy areas. Dense Halodule populations up to 2800 short shoots per mcould be found in the winter. The restoration effort in the fall showed growth of both Halodule (plugs and shoots) and Thalassia, and some Syringodium growth. By summer, both Thalassia seeds and shoots as well as Syringodium had died. Halodule remained planted both as plugs and shoots. The spring planting showed less survival for Halodule and no long term survival for Thalassia and Syringodium (Table 2).

5.

DISCUSSION

A classic pattern of tongues of isotherms which denoted benthic vegetation types of varying tolerance to heat resulted at the mouth of the effluent: bare area, patchy Halodule, thicker Halodule, then mixed Thalassia and Halodule, and

411

NOVEMBER 1983

-

Figs. 3 (above) & 4 (below). Zonation of thermally effected area. Horizontal scale: 1" = 10'. Vertical scales: 1" 100' (3) and 50' ( 4 ) . DBare, Halodule; T h a l a s s i a , R Syringodiumi Mixed Thal/Syr

412

Table 2.

Results of Growth Measurements for Three Species of Restored Seagrasses in a Thermal Effluent

S e p 6 9 3 - . 3 2 1 9 8 16 - - NOV 32 17 1128 - - 85 16 161232 - 88 J u ~27 7 442

-

41 44 8

5

16 35 4

23 8 469

-

99 65 18 2

6 1 0 1 8 - . 2 6 19 141602

1

- -

7 1 0

85 14 6

2

5

2

5

5

2

10 25 4

-

THALASSIA I

SPRING

FALL

SYRINGODIUM F

W

SPRING

I

J

B = blade lengthfcm); SA = number.a' shoots (m-'); RL = rhizome length (cm); RN = number of rhizomes (m-'); PD = plug diameter (an);S = number of seeds.

finally Thalassia or Syringodium. This is directly comparable to other paver plants in the tropics and subtopics examined and reported in estuaries such as Florida and Puerto Rico.

413 The first time any attempt at rehabilitation of vegetation with ongoing effluents was made at the Old Harbour power plant. This was successful. In the test plots we were able to substitute one seagrass functional group, Halodule wrightii which had a higher thermal tolerance, for the original ecosystem Thalassia which had a lower thermal tolerance. 6. RECOMMENDATIONS

My recomendation for preservation of estuarine resources of developing nations is not to use once-through cooling in estuaries. The best alternative is the siting of power plants for open ocean outfalls with pipes to put effluents into fast moving ocean currents or deep water. Other alternatives for power plants presently existing in estuarine locations are canals directing once-through cooling to deeper, better flushed water with less fisheries nursery potential. This is cost-effective. More expensive solutions include cooling ponds, spray ponds, cooling towers and expensive pipelines or dikes. Dilution in estuaries usually carries problems of entrainment of fish larvae or plankton and therefore is not a suitable environmental solution. It appears possible to restore heat tolerant seagrass species in the outer areas that are now denuded. This can increase fisheries areas, especially in the winter when effluents in the tropics range from 30 to 33DC in their outer isopleths. It would probably not be cost-effective to attempt to rehabilitate inner isopleths while effluents were still being emitted. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank the U.S. Agency for International Development for supporting this research grant. I also thank the Department of Biological Scineces at Florida International University and the Natural Resources Conservation Department of Jamaica for sponsoring this research grant. Special thanks for restoration and field procedures are due Fitzgerald Booker and Peter Gayle. Gratitude is expressed for the cooperation received from Beverly Miller, Director, NRCD, who was co-principal investigator on this project, from U.S. AID, Science and Technology who was the principal sponsor, and Florida International University and the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment who also served as sponsors. REFERENCES

1. Coutant, C., CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control, 1970, Vol. 1, pp. 341. 2.

Thorhaug, A., FA0 Report, Rome, 1980.

3.

Thorhaug, A., Blake, N., and P. Schroeder, Bull. mar. Poll., 1978, Vol. 9, pp. 181-187.

4. Marcus, J., and Thorhaug, A., Abstract, 13th International Botanical Congress, Sydney, Australia, 1981.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

TRACKING OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE SPILLS TO INLAND STREAMS

Robert W. Eisenhart D i v i s i o n o f Water P o l l u t i o n Control I 11in o i s Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency S p r i n g f i e l d , I l l i n o i s 62706, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT Dangers to the biosphere occur from t h e consumption o f waters t h a t have become p o l l u t e d by accidental discharges o f hazardous substances i n t o an aquatic environment. Prompt m i t i g a t i o n o f s p i l l s and expeditious n o t i f i c a t i o n o f downstream users i s necessary t o avoid excessive adverse environmental impacts. A r r i v a l time o f t h e l e a d i n g edge o f a p o l l u t a n t plume a t a s e n s i t i v e area must be determined r a p i d l y . It i s imperative t h a t every aspect o f t h e plume's progress downstream be Downstream observers known and to determine r a t e s o f t r a v e l and dispersion. and a u t h o r i t i e s responsible f o r water i n t a k e s and s e n s i t i v e environments must be i d e n t i f i e d and n o t i f i e d . Speed i s necessary i n order t o lessen the impact o f an environmental i n s u l t .

River m i l e s to the mouth of a stream have proven to be t h e most useful data f o r t r a c k i n g contaminant plumes. Distances to the nearest h a b i t a t i o n and comnunity, r e c e i v i n g and t r i b u t a r y streams, f l o w measurement and water intakes, and p o t e n t i a l observers can then be determined from the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f r i v e r m i l e s to these s e n s i t i v e environments. Aids have been developed and incorporated i n t o a handbook t o f a c i l i t a t e manipulation o f t h e data base for t h e I l l i n o i s River, which i n c l u d e tables, charts, maps, and diagrams.

1.

INTRODUCTION

Studies l e a d i n g to t h i s paper have revealed various aspects o f Man's involvement i n our c u r r e n t s t a t e o f environmental degradation and hazardous substance s p i l l s i n I l l i n o i s . The r e p o r t s o f environmental i n s u l t s to the waters o f t h e s t a t e have c o n t i n u a l l y increased due to t h e f r u i t f u l n e s s o f t h e environment and t h e people l i v i n g therein. As p r o d u c t i v i t y increases w i t h population growth and i n c r e a s i n g consumer demands, so does t h e generation o f waste and the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r s p i l l s d u r i n g processing and transportation. The degradation o f our biosphere continues due t o acute and long-term chronic exposure o f i t s organisms to t o x i c materials. What we leave to our descendants, i n the way o f a f r u i t f u l environment, depends on how w e l l we p r o t e c t what i s l e f t . We must pursue extending brotherhood to f u t u r e

415

416 generations, f o r we a r e o n l y borrowing resources and p r o d u c t i v i t y from t h e i r su'pply t h a t we l e a v e t o them. Are we going t o l i m i t t h e i r o p t i o n s i n determining t h e i r f u t u r e ? Today we a r e b w i l d i n g upon t h a t which was l e f t t o us. We can o n l y b u i l d our b r i d g e t o t h e f u t u r e from t h a t which was l e f t t o us from t h e past. Soon we w i l l becoqe.the past. What k i n d o f b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s w i l l we be l e a v i n g f o r our g r a n d c h i l d r e n ' s g r a n d c h i l d r e n t o b u i l d t h e i r b r i d g e to t h e f u t u r e ? L e t us guide t h o u g h t f u l progress i n t o t h e f u t u r e .

2.

HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE SPILLS

Dangers to t h e biosphere occur from t h e consumption o f waters t h a t have become p o l l u t e d by a c c i d e n t a l discharges o f hazardous substances i n t o an a q u a t i c environment. Prompt m i t i g a t i o n o f s p i l l s and e x p e d i t i o u s n o t i f i c a t i o n of downstream users i s necessary t o a v o i d excessive adverse environmental impacts. A r r i v a l time o f t h e l e a d i n g edge o f a p o l l u t a n t plume a t a s e n s i t i v e area must be determined r a p i d l y . I t i s i m p e r a t i v e t h a t every aspect o f t h e plume's progress downstream be known i n o r d e r to determine r a t e s o f t r a v e l and dispersion. Downstream observers and a u t h o r i t i e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r water i n t a k e s and s e n s i t i v e environments must be i d e n t i f i e d and n o t i f i e d . Speed i s necessary i n order t o lessen t h e impact o f an environmental i n s u l t .

An i n c i d e n t c o n t r o l sheet f o r use b y the IEPA Emergency Response U n i t (ERU) provides an i t e m i z a t i o n o f data to be p r o v i d e d to t h e Duty O f f i c e r (DO) during the i n i t i a l n o t i f i c a t i o n o f a s p i l l . From t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n a hazard assessment i s made and an a p p r o p r i a t e response planned. The l o c a t i o n a l aspects o f t h e s p i l l t h a t are n o r m a l l y provided t o the DO a r e t h e nearest comnunity, a d j a c e n t county, and t h e b e s t a v a i l a b l e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s i t e which may i n c l u d e distances from i n t e r s e c t i o n s , roads, bridges, r a i l r o a d s , o r streams. Distances to t h e n e a r e s t h a b i t a t i o n and comnunity, r e c e i v i n g and t r i b u t a r y streams, f l o w measurement and water i n t a k e s , and p o t e n t i a l observers must then be determined from t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f r i v e r m i l e s (RN) t o these s e n s i t i v e environments. RM t o t h e mouth o f a stream have proven to p r o v i d e t h e most u s e f u l data f o r t r a c k i n g contaminant plumes. U s u a l l y t h e temporal i n f o r m a t i o n given t o the 00 i n c l u d e s o n l y the t i m e o f t h e i n c i d e n t and t h e time o f r e p o r t i n g , b u t m e t e o r o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s a l s o required. Weather and stream f l o w data are t o be provided by t h e o n - s i t e r e p o r t i n g personnel when possible; which would i n c l u d e d i r e c t i o n and speed o f t h e wind and t h e waters o f t h e r e c e i v i n g waterway. An e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e r i v e r stage should be made t o a i d i n e s t i m a t i n g t h e stream v e l o c i t y and f l o w r a t e . It i s necessary t o assemble a l l o f t h e above data and i n f o r m a t i o n i n such a format t h a t i t i s e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e and manipulated i n o r d e r t o accomplish t h e main purpose o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f the W ; namely, to p r o t e c t t h e c i t i z e n r y , b i o t a , and environment o f t h e State o f I l l i n o i s by p r e d i c t i n g a r r i v a l time o f t h e p o l l u t a n t plume a t s e n s i t i v e s i t e s and n o t i f i c a t i o n o f responsible authorities.

417

3.

MANUAL

Aids have been developed and incorporated i n t o a manual to f a c i l i t a t e manipulation of the data base f o r the I l l i n o i s River, which include t a b l e s , c h a r t s , maps, and diagrams. The actual sequence o f determinations t h a t must be made by the DO following completion o f the Incident Control Sheet (Fig. 1 ) is a s follows: 3.1 Consult Maps f o r Locational Information: 1. 2. 3.

S t a t e of I l l i n o i s Basin and County Map (Map 1 ) t o determine county and river basin. Maps of I l l i n o i s River Hydrologic Units (Map 2) and I l l i n o i s Waterway and its T r i b u t a r i e s (Map 3) and Bed P r o f i l e -- I l l i n o i s River (Fig. 3) t o determine approximate RJ4. River segment map by RM and lock and dam pools as follows, f o r more detail ed i n forma ti on. 0.0 - 80.2: Alton Dam Pool (Maps 4 EL 5 ) 80.2 157.8: LaGrange Dam Pool (Maps 6 EL 7) 231.0: Peoria Dam Pool (Maps 8 EL 9) 157.8 231.0 - 247.0: Starved Rock Dam Pool (Map 9 ) 247.0 - 271.5: Marseilles Dam Pool (Map 1 0 ) 271.5 - 286.0: Dresden Island Dam Pool (Map 10) 286.0 - 291.1: Brandon Road Dam Pool (Map 11) 291.1 Over: Lockport Dam Pool (Map 11 )

-

-

3.2 Consult Maps 4-11 and I l l i n o i s River Waterway River Miles RM t a b l e (Table 1 ) t o Locate and Aid i n Determination of Arrival Time of Pollutant Plume at: 1. Canmuni ties nearby and downstream, 2. Water intakes nearby and downstream, 3. S e n s i t i v e environments nearby and downstream, 4. Receiving and t r i b u t a r y streams, 5. Potential observers a t river crossings of transportation f a c i l i t i e s . 3.3 Consult I l l i n o i s River Tim-of-Travel

(Fig. 21, P o l l u t a n t Plum In-Stream Velocity (Table 21, and River Segment Maps (Maps 4-11) f o r Surface Velocities a t Low ( . 9 ) , Medium (.5), and High ( . l ) Stream Flow: 1. A t point of s p i l l by c h a r t , t a b l e , measure, o r estimate, 2. Through entire navigation pool, 3. Downstream to c r i t i c a l points.

3.4 Determine Weather Conditions a t Present and Forecast: 3.5 Determine Estimated Time of Arrival of Aquatic P o l l u t a n t Plume: 3.6 Consult L i s t of Telephone Numbers and Notify Individuals Responsible f o r Water Intakes (Table 3 ) and Environmentally Sensitive Areas (Table 4 ) ; and f o r Observation Contacts (Table 5 ) along the I l l i n o i s River.

Fig. 1.

Incident Control Sheet

- Initial Notification of Spill

TIME-OF-TRAVEL, DAYS

+ 0

TIME-OF-TRAVEL,

DAYS

420

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

1

I

I

I

-

I

-I

v

TWUEG

3m

-

I

I

I

I

I

I

x

-

I

I

H c

m

N

H (D

m

N

-a b

i

a 4

421

n

i

a

i

422

Map 4.

River Miles 0-43.2: Alton Dam Pool: Grafton-Pearl

(Maps, 4-1 1)

423

Map 6.

River Miles 43.2-80.2: Alton Dam Pool (Cont'dl: Pearl-LaGrange

(Maps, 4-11)

424

Map 6.

River Miles 80.2-120.0: LaGrange Dam Pool: LaGrange-Havana

(Maps, 4-1 1)

425

Map 7.

River Miles 120.0-157.8: LaGrange Dam Pool (Cont'dl: Havana-North Pekin

(Maps, 4-1 1)

426

Map 8.

River Miles 157.8-193.0: Peoria Dam Pool: North Pekin-Chautauqua

(Maps, 4-11)

Map 9.

River Miles 193.0-247.0: Peoria Dam ICont’d) & Starved Rock Dam Pools: Chautauqua-Marseilles

(Maps, 4-11)

P

N 4

P N

03

Map 10. River Miles 247.0-286.0: Marseilles Dam

(L

Dresden Island Dam Pools: Marseilles-Joliet

(MaDS, 4 - 1 1)

Map 11. River Miles 286.0-Over: Brandon Road Dam 6 Lockport Dam Pools: Joliet-Lake Michigan

(Maps, 4-11)

rp

N W

430

Table 1.

I l l i n o i s River Waterway River Miles (Note 1)

I1M -

Location

Water Supply

298.6 297.7 291.1 290.0 288.8 281.6 286.0 285.0 278.0 276.8 273.7 273.0 271.5 270.6 269.9 268.1 263.5 254.1 248.8 247.0 246.7 244.6 240.0 239.7 239.6 237.6 231 .O 226.3 225.4 224.7 223.0 222.5 213.9 212.0 210.2 209.0 207.5 198.5 196.0 193.0 189.2 188.5 180.6 179.0 174.0 171 .O 167.0 166.1 162.6 162.0 161.4 160.7 159.7 157.8

Above Lockport Above Lockport San & Ship Canal/MSD DesPlaines R / P S Canal Jol i e t DesPl a i nes f I & M J c t Jol i e t Below J o l i e t Above 1-55 DuPage R/DesPl a i nes J c t

Mu1t i p 1 e Intakes Mu1 ti p l e I n takes Mu1ti p l e I ntakes Jol i e t

Comnonweal t h Edison Lock & Dam Ra i1road Jon T Chemicals Drawbridge 111 i n o i s Nitrogen I l l i n o i s Power Lock & Dam

Marsei 11es Ottawa Fox River Nap1 ate Starved Rock State Park Vermil 1i o n River La Sal 1e I & M Canal Peru Above Hennepi n Coleman Lake F& W Area I & M Canal Hennepin Hennepi n Senachwine Lake Henry Chautauqua Refuge Lacon Marshall County Conser Chillicothe Woodford County Refuge Spring Bay Peoria Lake Refuge Peoria Heights Ten M i l e Creek US Coast Guard Base E. Peoria, Farm Creek Peoria Peoria K i ckapoo Creek Peoria

Lock d Dam Ra i1road Bridges Ra i1road Lock & Dam

M u l t i p l e Intakes Mobil O i l

Kankakee R+DesPlai=IL R Above Morris Above Morris Aux Sable River Mazon River, Morris Seneca Above M a r s e i l l e s Marseilles

Observer

RR Drawbrg

L-O-F Glass Lock & Dam Drawbridge Highway Foster Grant R a i l road I l l i n o i s Power JonesLLaughl i n Steel

C h i l l i c o t h e Power

Peoria Water CILCO Archer Daniels M i d l and

Hwy & RR

Railroad Peoria Lock

431

Table 1.

I l l i n o i s River Waterway River Miles (Continued)

RM -

Location

156.0 154.4 152.9 152.8 151.7 151.3 151.O 147.7 147.4 122.6 120.4 120.0 118.5 111.8 110.0 100.7 98.0 97.0 94.2 88.9 88.8 83.5 80.2 78.7 70.8 67.0 65.5 63.2 61.3 58.2 56.0 55.5 50.0 48.5 43.2 38.3 32.1 31.7 23.2 21.5 21.4 21.3 19.5 14.7 8.8 7.0

P e k i n Lake, Lick Creek Tuscarora Pekin Pekin

3.6 1.3

0.0

Water Supply

Observer

CILCO Railroad Highway Corn Products

Pekin Lost Creek Mackinaw River Map1 eton Quiver Creek Spoon River Havana Havana Otter Creek Anderson Lake Conservation Sanganoi s Conservation Sangamon River Browning Sugar Creek Beards town LaMoine River LaGrange Indian Creek Meredosia McKee Creek Nap1 es Mauvaise Terre Creek Valley City Pike County Conservation F1 orence F1 orence Montezuma, Sandy Creek Bedford Pearl Apple Creek Kampsv i l l e Godar Refuge Macoupin Creek Hardin Hardin East Hardin Fowler Lake Refuge Otter Creek Mark Twain Refuge Pere Marquette S t a t e P r k

Brussels

Gra f ton

Ra i 1road Caterpillar

I11 i n o i s Power

Railroad Lock & Dam

CI PS

Railroad Highway

Railroad Ferry 1 Hwy

Hwy & RR

Ferry Grafton

Mississippi River

Note 1: Canpiled from Waterways 1969 & 1971, USCG 1979 1 1981, and PWS 1983

432

Table 2.

P o l l u t a n t Plume In-Stream V e l o c i t y (Graf, 1982)

M a r s e i l l e s to Starved Rock

246.5 231.0 RM

M a r s e i l l e s to Starved Rock

246.5 231.0 RM

Starved Rock t o Hennepin

231 .O 207.6

Hennep i n t o Chi1 1i c o t h e

207.6 180.5 RM

C h i l l i c o t h e to Peoria Water Co.

180.5 166.1 RM

Leading Peak Trailing Leading Peak Trailing Leading Peak Trailing Leading Peak Trailing Leading Peak Trailing Leading Peak Trailing

RM

Peoria Water Co. to 166.1 Peoria Lock & Dam 157.8 RM

Table 3.

-80 mph .60 -50 -45 mph

= = = = = =

9,320 CFS 6,070 CFS

-38 .25

-54 mph -47 = -36 = -57 mph = -50 = .40 = -68 mph = -52 = .34 = -34 mph = -31 = -28 =

5,180 CFS

=

6,200 CFS

I l l i n o i s River Water Intakes (USCG 1981 & PWS, 1983)

Mile -

Loca ti on

User -

1.3 70.8 118.5 147.4 151.7 154.4 161.4 162.6 166.1

Grafton Meredosia Havana Map1eton Pekin Tuscarora Peoria E. Peoria Peoria

180.6 209.0 21 2.0 223.0 237.6

Chillicothe Hennepin Hennepi n Peru-Below I d M Nap1a t e

246.7 248.8 269.9

Marseilles Above M a r s e i l l e s Above M o r r i s

273.7 278.0 285.0 285.0 288.8 289.9 297.7 298.6

0.5 Kankakee R. Above 1-55 Below J o l i e t Be1ow J o l ie t Jol i e t Above J o l i e t Above Lockport Above Lockport

61 8/786-3344 217/523-3600 309/543-2227 309/675- 1000 309/346-1121 309/672-5151 30 9/ 673- 7828 309/672-5151 3O9/671-3758 676-2024 309/274-8060 C h i l l i c o t h e Power P l a n t 815/ 925-2521 Jones & Laughlin Steel 81 5/223-1775 11. Power Co. 815/224-1525 Foster Grant Co. 81 5/433-0932 Libby-Owens-Ford Glass ( H3221) 81 5/223-1775 11. Power Co. 815/795-4151 I11 i n o i s N i trosen Co. Jon T. Chemicais 81 5/942-1222 (H0112) Comnonweal t h Edison-Dresden Nuclear 81 5/726-6111 81 5/423-5571 Mobil O i l 815/726-6111 Comnonweal t h Edison J o l i e t P u b l i c Service Co. o f Northern I L 815/727-5561 Jol i e t 815/740-2370 815172 6/ 5494 Water I n t a k e C r i b s Water I n t a k e C r i b s 81 5/726-5494 815/ 726- 5494 Water I n t a k e C r i b s

Telephone

Grafton C I P S co. IL. Power Co. Caterpillar Tractor Corn Products I n t e r n a t i o n a l CILCO Archer Daniel s M i d l and CILCO Peoria Water Co.

-

433

TABLE 4.

I l l i n o i s R i v e r Environmentally S e n s i t i v e Areas (Note 1)

ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT o f CONSERVATION. DIRECTOR'S OFFICE: Dr. David Kenhey 217/782-6302 -LAND & HISTORIC SITES: Charles Tamninga 217/782-6752 (H498-8432) PUBLIC LANDS: Raymond Norbut 217/782-1395 NATURAL RESOURCES: G1 enn Harper 21 7/785-8285 FISH AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES: Mike C o n l i n 2171782-6424 (H438-3556)

-

-

-

2 FIELD OFFICES

-

RM): Mike Cochran 618/462-1181 (H664-4587) Re i o n I V (0.0-133.3 F%-ere a r q u e t t e S t a t e Park (7.0): Dick Brown 618/786-3323 (H786-2104)

-

-

618/462-1181 Mark Twain National Wild1 i f e Game Refuge (4.9-8.8) Fowler Lake Refuge (8.8-19.5) 618/462-1181 Godar Refuge (22.9 31.7) 618/462-1181 P i k e County Conservation Area (58.2): Rick Messinger 618/376-3303 100.7): Gary Senn 309/546-2628 3Sanganois Conservation Area (92.0 H217/322-6595) hautauqua National W i l d l i f e Refuge (125.0 193.0) 309/822-8861

-

-

-

-

-

&

-

*

-

-

-

Herman H i e r 815/625-2968 Re i o n I (94.2-253.8RM): (Lacon-Marseilles): L t . J i m L i s t o n 7 815/625-2968 (H857-2121) 3Anderson Lake Conservation Area (1 10.0) : Roger Cox 309/759-4484 Pekin Lake (156): Charles Oest 309/968-7135(H7412) F o r t Creve Coeur State Park (159.0) 309/694-3193 309/822-8861 3Peoria Lake Refuge (171 .O) 309/566-8861 3Woodford County Refuge (179.0) : Richard Brooks 309/246-8351 Marshall County Conservation Area (188.5): Lawrence Rice 815/447-2082 Coleman Lake F i s h & W i l d l i f e Area (210.5): Mike Resetich Starved Rock S t a t e Park (231): Jon Blume 815/667-4726, 4389 (H4270) B u f f a l o Rock State Park (235.5): 815/942-0796, 3848 (H433-2220) I l l i n i S t a t e Park (247.5): W i l l i a m Carlson 815/795/2448

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

815/675-2385 (H695-5546) Re i o n I 1 ( > 253.8 RM): J i m Langbein 81 5/935-8940 (H937-1538) DFsPlaines Conservation Area (275): Dennis Doyle 815/423-5326 (H6192) I l l i n o i s - M i c h i g a n Canal: Dave Carr 815/942-0796 H3848)

l A I 7 - I -a r s e n 1es ) : Lt. Ken Young

-

-

Notes:

--

Compiled from DOC 1983. Waterways 1969 & 1971 USCG 1979 & 1981, 1 Telephone Books and Calls.

--

Regional F i e l d O f f i c e s a r e to be contacted f o l l o w i n g s p i l l s and f i s h 2 kills.

--

M i g r a t o r y b i r d routes must be considered i n the event o f an o i l o r 3 hazardous substance discharge o r s p i l l on the I l l i n o i s River. Immediate a c t i o n t o p r o t e c t w i l d l i f e ( p r i m a r i l y ducks and geese) must be taken d u r i n g the months o f September through A p r i l f o r these locations.

REFERENCES

-

DOC, 1983 "Personnel Directory", I l l i n o i s Department o f Conservation, S p r i n g f i e l d , Undated (Received January, 1983).

434

Table 5.

I l l i n o i s R i v e r Observation Contacts (Note 1 )

Mile -

Location

3.6 21.5 27.5 32.1 43.2 56.0 61.3 80.2 88.9 139.7 151.3 152.8 157.8 160.7 162.4 164.5 213.9 224.7 231 .O 239.7 247.0

Brussels Hardin Be1ow Kampsvil 1e Kampsville Pearl F1orence V a l l e y City LaGrange Beardstown Banner S. o f Pekin Pekin Peoria Peoria Peoria Peoria Above Hennepi n LaSal 1e Starved Rock Ottawa Marseilles

254.1 270.6 271.5 273.0 286.0 286.8 287.5 288.4

Seneca Above M o r r i s I l l i n o i s R. Head I l l i n o i s R. Des Plaines R. Jol i e t Jol i e t Jol i e t J o l i e t Bridges

290.0 291.1 10.3

Above J o l i e t Lock por t Kankakee R.

Observation P o i n t

Telephone

Dyer P l a i n F e r r y

618/786-3636 61 8/576-2316

Hwv 100 GM & 0 RR

C0-E Boat Landing 21 7/653-4578 Hwy 108 & 96, F e r r y 21 7/a29-4222 I C G RR US36 B r i d g e 21 7/742-5286 N&W RR 21 7/833-2696 21 7/225-3317 LaGrange L & D (COE) BN RR 21 7/323-4214 COE 309/647/6463 C & NW RR 309/347-4965 Hwy 9, C R I & P RR 309/346-0402 Peoria Lock (COE) 309/699-6111 P & PU RR 309/694-8612 F r a n k l i n St., P & W RR 309/699-1814 COE Moorings, Boat Yard 309/676-4601 Penn NY Central C o n r a i l (Peoria YD) 309/694-1471 Hwy 351, Shippingsport 81 5/223-1208 81 5/667-4114 Starved Rock L & D (COE) 81 5/434-0018 BN RR M a r s e i l l e s Dam (COE) 81 5/795-2593, 2 728 C R I 6 P RR ( P e o r i a Yd) 309/674-0511 EJ 6 E RR 81 5/942-1869 31 2/353-6400 Dresden Is. L&D (COE, Chicago) DesPlaines & Kankakee Confluence Brandon Road Lock (COE) 81 5/744-1714 COE CRI&P RR (Chicago Switchboard) 312/435-7300 S t a t e o f I 1 1 i n o i s Div. o f Waterways 815/726-5494 Brandon Road 81 5/744-1987 Jackson 81 5/727-9352 Jefferson 81 5/727-9484 Mc Donough 81 5/727-9507 Romeo Road Lockport 81 5/838-1641 Ruby Road 81 5/722-3120 W. Cass 81 5/722-4031 EJ & E RR ( M o r r i s ) 81 5/942-1869 Lockport Lock (COE) 81 5/838-0536 Wilmington Dam (ESDA) 81 5/476-2334

----

Note 1 : Compiled from Waterways 1969 & 1971, USCG 1979 & 1981, Telephone Books and Calls.

-

Graf, J.B., Correspondence to Eisenhart, August 13, 1981, and Graf, 1982 Conversation, October 29, 1982, U.S. Department o f the I n t e r i o r - G e o l o g i c a l Survey, Urbana.

-

Kothandaraman, Veerasamy, and Evans, Ralph L., " E f f e f i t s Kothandaraman, 1971 o f Lake Michigan D i v e r s i o n on t h e Water Chemistry o f t h e I l l i n o i s Waterway , Water Resources B u l l e t i n , August, 1981 , Vol. 17, No. 4, p-607, American Water Resources Association, tdinneapol i s .

436

Maps, 4-11

- Maps,

Quadrangle, 1 :24000, U.S.

Geological Survey, Washington.

PWS, 1983 - "List of Public and Food Processing Water Supplies U t i l i z i n g Surface Water," I l l i n o i s Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Publfc Water Supplies, Springfield, J u l y , 1983.

-

Singh, 1973 Singh, Krishan P., and S t a l l , John B., "The 7-Day 10-Year Law Flows of I l l i n o i s Streams," I l l i n o i s S t a t e Water Survey, Urbana, Bulletin 57, 1973..

-

S t a l l , 1969 S t a l l , John B., and Hiestand, Douglas W., "Provisional Time-of-Travel f o r I l l i n o i s Streams", I l l i n o i s S t a t e Water Survey, Urbana, Report of Investigation 63, 1969.

-

USCG, 1979 "MSD Chicago Local (Sub-regional) O i l and Hazardous Substances Water Pollution Contingency Plan," U.S. Coast Guard, Marine Safety Office, Chicago, March, 1979.

-

"Local Contingency Plan", U.S. USCG, 1981 St. Louis, J u l y , 1981.

Coast Guard, Marine Safety Office,

USGS, 1979 - "River Mileages and Drainage Areas f o r I l l i n o i s Streams, Vol. 2, 111 i n o i s River Basin," U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Investigations 79-111 , Champaign, 1979. Waterways, 1969 - "Report f o r Recreatf onal Development - I11 inois River Backwater Areas," Division of Waterways, Springfield, 1969. Waterways, 1971 - "Map Atlas of Upper I l l i n o i s River," Division of Waterways, Springfield, 1971.

RWE: ba/sp0585d/l-9

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 -Printed in The Netherlands

431

EFFECT OF DISTILLERY WASTE ON THE BIOTA OF R I V E R CAUVERY, I N D I A A . A . Rahaman D e p a r t m e n t o f Zoology A W M S r i Pushpam C o l l e g e P o o n d i - 613 503, I n d i a

ABSTRACT S u g a r a n d d i s t i l l e r y i n d u s t r i e s r a n k among t h e major i n d u s t r T h e r e a r e more t h a n 215 s u g a r m i l l s and a b o u t 1 0 0 d i s t i l l e r i e s . Extreme p o l l u t i o n o f r i v e r s a n d f o u l s m e l l i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f s u g a r m i l l s a n d d i s t i l l e r i e s a r e commonly e x p e r i e n c e d . I t is e s t i m a t e d t h a t 500 m i l l i o n l i t r e s o f e f f l u e n t p e r d a y a r e d i s c h a r g e d i n t o R i v e r C a u v e r y f r o m v a r i o u s i n d u s t r i e s . Of t h e s e , 6.75 l a k h s l i t r e s o f e f f l u e n t p e r d a y a r e d i s c h a r g e d from o n e o f t h e d i s t i l l e r i e s i n t o t h e Uyyakondon C h a n n e l , a b r a n c h o f R i v e r C a u v e r y . The d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e p o i n t o f d i s c h a r g e a n d e f f l u e n t m i x e s i n r i v e r waters is a b o u t 2 0 km. The i m p a c t o f e f f l u e n t on t h e p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l n a t u r e o f water b o d i e s and b i o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t i e s h a s b e e n s t u d i e d . The s t u d y a r e a i n c l u d e s 13 t a n k s , 20 l a k e s , 20 km o f t h e Uyyakondon C h a n n e l l e n g t h a n d t h e R i v e r Cauvery waters a t Grand A n i c u t , T h a n j a v u r D i s t r i c t , I n d i a . Among p h y t o p l a n k t o n , Cyanophyta w a s t h e t o l e r a n t group. Z o o p l a n k t o n d e n s i t y i n t h e c h a n n e l and r i v e r waters w a s r e c o r d e d . Water mites and s t o n e f l i e s a r e common i n r i v e r waters b u t a r e a b s e n t i n t h e c h a n n e l water. However, l a r v a l g a s t r o p o d s were f o u n d t o be more a b u n d a n t i n o r g a n i c a l l y r i c h areas. T u b i f e x t u b i f e x w a s r e c o r d e d and s o m e t i m e s f o r m s a " r e d c a r p e t " on t h e stream bottom, m i n g l e d w i t h o r g a n i c d e b r i s .

ies i n I n d i a .

D u r i n g summer m o n t h s , t h e l o w f l o w o f water m a g n i f i e d t h e e f f e c t of e f f l u e n t s a n d t h e r e w a s a d e p r e s s i o n i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t i e s . I n t h e p o l l u t e d z o n e s , t h e b i o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t i e s a r e r e d u c e d numeric a l l y a n d s o are t h e number o f s p e c i e s . T h e r e w a s no s i g n o f rep l a c e m e n t community o b s e r v e d . D u r i n g t h e mongoon s e a s o n t h e r e is d i l u t i o n o f d i s t i l l e r y e f f l u e n t , c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e physico-chemical and b i o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s showed a marked improvement. The b r e e d i n g p e r i o d i c i t y of t h e c a r p The s t u d y s u g g e s t e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y C i r r h i n a reba w a s a l s o s t u d i e d . o f a " l i v i n g f i l t e r " mechanism f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t of waste, w h i c h c o u l d be u t i l i z e d f o r a q u a c u l t u r e s t u d i e s . INTRODUCTION R i v e r s , r e s e r v o i r s , l a k e s and t a n k s are e c o l o g i c a l l y d e t e r i o r a t i n g d u e t o u n a b a t e d d i s c h a r g e o f e f f l u e n t s from v a r i o u s i n d u s tries. I n d u s t r i e s a r e g e n e r a l l y l o c a t e d i n t h e p r o x i m i t y of t h e rivers. I t is t h e r e f o r e common t o see f o a m , f l o a t i n g d e b r i s and

438

marked t u r b i d i t y a r o u n d t h e d i s c h a r g e e n d o f t h e i n d u s t r i e s . r e s u l t is d i m i n u t i o n o r a l t e r a t i o n of a q u a t i c l i f e .

The

The e f f l u e n t g e n e r a t e d i n d i s t i l l e r y i n d u s t r i e s v a r i e s v a s t l y i n c o m p o s i t i o n and p o l l u t i o n loads. A l l e f f l u e n t s c a n n o t be class i f i e d a s p o l l u t a n t s a n d w i l l d e p e n d on c o n s t i t u e n t s a n d t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n . The s p e n t wash t h a t is s e n t o u t f r o m t h e d i s t i l l e r y is h i g h l y c o l o u r e d a n d a c i d i c c o n t a i n i n g a h i g h p e r c e n t a g e o f d i s s o l v e d i n o r g a n i c a n d o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s . The d i s s o l v e d o r g a n i c m a t t e r i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e h i g h b i o c h e m i c a l oxygen demand a n d p o l l u t i n g n a t u r e o f t h e waste. I n g e n e r a l , t h e s p e n t wash c o n t a i n a h i g h e r amount o f p o t a s h , w h i c h r a n g e s f r o m 7% t o 15% o f t h e total solids. Owing t o t h e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e a n d h i g h BOD, t h e e f f l u e n t is c o l l e c t e d i n t h e l a g o o n s . Thus t h e wastes are b i o l o g i c a l l y t r e a t e d and t h e p r o c e s s e s are a n a e r o b i c , w i t h a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n and a n a e r o b i c lagooning. A t t h e e n d o f t h e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e waste, t h e c o l o u r y e t p e r s i s t s a n d t h e BOD is r e d u c e d from 33,000 ppm t o 2 , 5 0 0 ppm. The e f f l u e n t i s d i l u t e d a n d u s e d f o r i r r i g a t i o n i n t h e The s l u d g e is r e c o v e r e d d r y l a n d areas f o r s u g a r c a n e c u l t i v a t i o n . from t h e l a g o o n a n d is u s e d a s m a n u r e . However, f o r a n i n d u s t r y l o c a t e d n e a r t h e w e t l a n d areas t h e The t r e a t e d e f f l u e n t is d i l u t e d e f f l u e n t d i s p o s a l is d i f f e r e n t . a n d mixed a t t h e c l o s e p r o x i m i t y o f t h e r i v e r c h a n n e l . Due t o t h e c o l o u r , h i g h BOD a n d s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s , t h e r i v e r c h a n n e l is p o l l u t e d , f a c t w h i c h a f f e c t s t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e water. D u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f i t s r u n o f f i t a l s o p o l l u t e s t h e R i v e r Cauvery a n d R number o f t a n k s a n d l a k e s a l s o ( F i g . 1 ) . R e c e n t l y T a m i l Nadu Water P o l l u t i o n B o a r d h a s drawn t h e a t t e n t i o n o f i n d u s t r i e s t o t h e p r e v e n t i o n and c o n t r o l o f p o l l u t i o n A c t 1974. A c c o r d i n g l y , a n y i n d u s t r y w h i c h p o l l u t e s t h e w a t e r b o d i e s is p u n i s h a b l e . Hence, e f f l u e n t s are b e i n g t r e a t e d w i t h t h e a v a i l a b l e b i o t e c h n o l o g y methods. The p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n a t t e m p t s t o f i n d t h e e f f e c t o f d i s t i l l e r y wastes o n t h e water q u a l i t y a n d p h y t o z o o p l a n k t o n d i s t r i b u t i o n a l o n g t h e l e n g t h o f Uyyakondon c h a n n e l , t a n k s a n d l a k e s a n d t h e R i v e r C a u v e r y waters. The p r e s e n t s t u d y r e p o r t s on t h e m i c r o f a u n a o f i n v e r t e b r a t e s c o l l e c t e d from v a r i o u s s t a t i o n s a n d a l s o on t h e impact of waste o n t h e i n t r a - o v a r i a n d e v e l o p m e n t of carp Cirrhina

e.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The p r e s e n t s t u d y w a s c o n d u c t e d i n f o u r major water s a m p l i n g s t a t i o n s a l o n g t h e Uyyakondon c h a n n e l a n d t h e r i v e r C a u v e r y . The

Uyyakonhon channel i n which t h e h i s t i l l e r g effluent is disckarged r u n s u p t o a d i s t a n c e o f 4 5 k m f e e d i n g a number o f r a i n - f e d t a n k s a n d l a k e s . The p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s made f r o m f o u r major s a m p l i n g p o i n t s a l o n g t h e Uyyakondon c h a n n e l a n d R i v e r C a u v e r y , a n d 33 s a m p l i n g p o i n t s c o m p r i s i n g 13 t a n k s a n d 2 0 l a k e s . The s a m p l i n g p o i n t s were f i x e d t o c o v e r t h e e f f l u e n t o u t f a l l and t h e t r i b u t a r i e s and d i s t r i b u t a r i e s of t h e channel. I n t h e f i r s t phase f o u r major s a m p l i n g p o i n t s , a n d f o r t h e s e c o n d p h a s e 33 p o i n t s

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F i g . 1 . Sketch Showing t h e Course: Uyyakondan Channel. ( I : Above UyyakondanChannel S t a t i o n ; 1 1 : A t t h e p o i n t of d i s c h a r g e o f e f f l u e n t s t a t i o n ; 1 1 1 : Admixture o f e f f l u e n t w i t h r i v e r cauvery; I V : 2 , 5 , 6 , 9 , 1 0 t o 1 6 , 1 8 : Zone of p a r t i a l Recovery Tanks S t a t i o n ; V : 1 , 3 , 7 , 8 , 1 7 , 1 9 , 2 0 t o 33: Zone of--complete recovery l a k e s s t a t i o n ; V I : Clean water r i v e r cauvery s t a t i o n )

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( t a n k s a n d l a k e s ) were t a k e n f o r s t u d y . S t a t i o n I is f i x e d above t h e p o i n t o f d i s c h a r g e o f e f f l u e n t from t h e d i s t i l l e r y f a c t o r y , S t a t i o n I 1 b e i n g t h e z o n e o f d i s c h a r g e of e f f l u e n t , S t a t i o n 111 b e i n g t h e z o n e of a d m i x t u r e o f e f f l u e n t w i t h R i v e r C a u v e r y waters. S t a t i o n I V is a z o n e o f p a r t i a l r e c o v e r y which i n c l u d e s t a n k s . S t a t i o n V is t h e z o n e o f c o m p l e t e r e c o v e r y of e f f l u e n t a l o n g t h e Uyyakondon c h a n n e l , w h i c h c o m p r i s e s l a k e s . S t a t i o n V I i s t h e z o n e o f c l e a n water i n R i v e r C a u v e r y . TABLE

I

N a m e o f t h e s a m p l i n g p o i n t s a n d s t a t i o n numbers a l o n g t h e Uyyakondon c h a n n e l i n t h e C a u v e r y r i v e r s y s t e m , a n d t h e names o f t h e t a n k s a n d l a k e s ( E r i ) t a k e n u p f o r s t u d y i n 1976 a n d 1981-'83. Station

I:

Above Uyyakondon c h a n n e l

Station

11:

Below Uyyakondon c h a n n e l

S t a t i o n 111:

A d m i x t u r e o f e f f l u e n t i n t h e Uyyakondon c h a n n e l i n River Cauvery

Station

IV:

13 t a n k s i n F i g . ( 1 ) 2 . S e v e n t h a kulam 4 . Navar kulam 5. Thondaman p a t t i t a n k 6. K o t t r a p a t t i t a n k 9 . P i l l y a r k u l a m 10. V i l a n g u l a m 11. K i l l i y u r kulam 1 2 . P a t h a l a p a t t i mela kulam 13. P a t h a l a p a t t i Kela k i l a m 1 4 . V a l a n t h a n k o t t a i t a n k 15. T h i r u n e d u kulam 16. Manganam t a n k a n d 18. N a v a l u r t a n k

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2 0 l a k e s ( E r i ) i n F i g . ( 1 ) 1. K u t a p a r peria e r i 3. K r i s h n a samudram &. Kamath e r i 8. K u t h u g u d i 1 7 . D e v a r a y a n e r i 19. S o r a k k u d i p a t t i e r i 2 0 . Olamutu e r i 2 1 . M a r u t h i e r i 2 2 . N e p p i k a i e r i 23. Vendayan p a t t i e r i 2 4 . Sandan e r i 2 5 . O d a i e r i 2 6 . Verri e r i 2 5 . Kamathi e r i 2 9 . Salipidi eri 2 8 . Kamathi p u d i e r i 3 0 . Velamaduram e r i 31. S a y a d u k i e r i 3 2 . Alaga p a t t i e r i a n d 33. S e r a n d i e r i

Station

VI:

R i v e r C a u v e r y water

The m e a s u r e d q u a n t i t y o f water w a s f i l t e r e d f r o m a l l t h e s t a t i o n s f o r c h e m i c a l a n a l y s i s (APHA, 1 9 7 5 ) . L i k e w i s e , t h e p l a n k t o n s were c o l l e c t e d u s i n g b o l t i n g s i l k number 1 0 , a n d were p r e s e r v e d i n 5% f o r m a l i n . They were c l a s s i f i e d and i d e n t i f i e d u p t o g e n e r i c l e v e l and a r e e x p r e s s e d i n number o f o r g a n i s m s . p e r m l . M a c r o f a u n a a r e e x p r e s s e d i n number p e r s q u a r e meter. Owing t o t h e a b u n d a n c e o f p h y t o p l a n k t o n i n t h e waters of River C a u v e r y , a t t e n t i o n w a s f o c u s s e d o n l y o n t h e s t u d y of t h e d o m i n a n t f o r m s . The p r e s e n t s t u d y a i m s t o understand t h e impact o f d i s t i l l e r y e f f l u e n t i n t h e c h a n n e l , r i v e r waters and a l s o t a n k s a n d l a k e s . RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Unchecked s m a l l or l a r g e health hazards fish mortality

release o f waste t o t h e s t r e a m o f r i v e r s , e i t h e r i n q u a n t i t i e s deteriorates t h e ecosystem c a u s i n g through t h e food chain. River p o l l u t i o n c a u s e d w a s s t u d i e d ( M a l d e n , 1 9 4 3 ) . Hawkes 1 9 5 7 s t a t e s t h a t

441 r i v e * p o l l u t i o n c a u s e d f i s h m o r t a l i t y w a s m e d i a t e d by p h y s i c o c h e m i c a l agenci'es b u t it is e s s e n t t a l l y a b i o l o g i c a l phenomenon. P o l l u t a n t s i n t h e waste c a u s e a n immediate a n d l o n g t e r m e f f e c t . The d i s t i l l e r y e f f l u e n t r e l e a s q d ' i n t o t h e Uyyakondon c h a n n e l a n d R i v e r C a u v e r y water, a n d a f e w t a n k s a n d l a k e s , were f o u n d t o h a v e a f f e c t e d t h e i r waters q u a l i t y a n d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o r g a n i s m s . The wastes a r e d a r k brown i n c o l o u r a n d t h e c h a n n e l water g e t s c o l o u r e d t o a d i s t a n c e o f u p t o 20 km. The t a n k s and l a k e s w h i c h are l o c a t e d a t t h e p r o x i m i t y o f Uyyakondon C h a n n e l are a l s o col o u r e d . A p p a r e n t l y , t h e l i g h t p e n e t r a t i o n w a s a f f e c t e d and t h e r e b y t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e water bodies is b e i n g i n t e r f e r e d w i t h . B a r t s c h 1960 s t a t e s t h a t c o l o u r i n g materials d i s c h a r g e d by i n d u s t r i e s l e d t o d e c r e a s i n g p h o t o s y n t h e t i c a c t i v i t y and a l s o d e p l e t i o n of o x y g e n . Such phenomenon is clear i n S t a t i o n I1 a n d I11 o f t h e present study. The f l o w a n d volume o f water i s a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n d e t e r mining t h e p h y s i c a l , chemical and b i o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e r i v e r . D u r i n g t h e summer ( A p r i l - J u n e ) t h e l o w f l o w o f water i n t h e Uyyakondon c h a n n e l m a g n i f i e d t h e e f f e c t o f d i s t i l l e r y wastes. The However, d u r i n g t h e i m p a c t o f t h i s c o u l d be s e e n i n a few t a n k s . monsoon s e a s o n (September-December) t h e e f f l u e n t s g e t d i l u t e d and a number o f r a i n f e d t a n k s a n d l a k e s are r e a c h e d . The t a n k s w h i c h f o r m n u r s e r y g r o u n d f o r r e a r i n g f i n g e r l i n g s

a r e a p p a r e n t l y a f f e c t e d d u e t o want o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n . The h i g h f l o w r a t e o f water i n t h e Uyyakondon c h a n n e l a n d i n R i v e r Cauvery d i l u t e d t h e e f f l u e n t t o a maximum e x t e n t p o s s i b l e , t h e r e b y a n i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l community w a s o b s e r v e d i n t h e down stream. Due t o t h e s e e p a g e , a number o f t a n k s became c o l o u r e d . According t o T a r z w e l l 1957, t h e s e d i m e n t s are t h e r e s u l t o f e r o s i o n a n d t h e s o l i d s a n d t u r b i d i t y p r e v e n t l i g h t p e n e t r a t i o n and p h o t o synthesis. I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , e v e n when t h e d i s t i l l e r y e f f l u e n t is d i l u t e d t h e c o l o u r p e r s i s t s a n d t h e w a s t e c o n t a i n s a n e x c e s s o f d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s w h i c h are a b o v e t h e p e r m i s s i b l e l e v e l , h e n c e t h e b i o t i c p o p u l a t i o n is a t a minimum. I n t h e Uyyakondon c h a n n e l t h e maximum f l o w o f water is o n l y 368 c u s e c . The d i s c h a r g e of waste is c o n s i d e r e d d e p e n d e n t upon t h e f l o w o f water i n t h e c h a n n e l . D u r i n g t h e d i e 1 c y c l e , s t u d i e s o f t h e oxygen r e c o v e r y cound not be d e t e r m i n e d e v e n a t a d i s t a n c e o f 30 km i n r i v e r s o r t a n k s . The waste m a t e r i a l g e t s s t a g n a t e d i n t h e c h a n n e l d u e t o l o w volume, and g e t s washed d u r h g maximum f l o w o f water. The s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e w a s f o u n d t o be u n i f o r m i n t h e c h a n n e l , t a n k s , and l a k e s . However, d u r i n g t h e monsoon s e a s o n , c h a n g e s i n t h e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e were n o t i c e d . I n S t a t i o n I1 t h e r e w a s a p p a r e n t l y n o d i s s o l v e d oxygen p r e s e n t . The a b s e n c e o f oxygen i s a l s o r e c o r d e d i n S t a t i o n 111. However, when t h e s t u d y was e x t e n d e d t o 13 t a n k s a n d 2 0 l a k e s i t w a s f o u n d t h a t t a n k s N o . 2 , 4 a n d 14 w e r e d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d by t h e waste, w h e r e a s t a n k s N o . 15. 16 and 18 w e r e u n a f f e c t e d ( F i g . 1 ) f o r m i n g t h e c o n t r o l f o r t h e o t h e r s ( 2 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 2 , 13 a n d 1 4 ) . The water q u a l i t y a l t e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e p e n d i n g upon t h e d i s c h a r g e o f t h e waste m a t e r i a l s . I n t h e case of l a k e s 24 t h r o u g h 33 w e r e u n a f f e c t e d by t h e d i s c h a r g e o f waste m a t e r i a l . A comparison between t h e s e w i t h t h a t of p o l l u t e d l a k e s n u m b e r i n g 1, 3 , 7, 8 , 1 7 , 1 9 , 20 t h r o u g h 2 3 were f o u n d t o b e a f f e c t e d b y t h e d i s c h a r g e o f waste. The i n t e n s i t y o f t h e e f f e c t

442

c o u l d be s e e n i n l a k e s 1, 7 , 8 . Due t o t h e l a r g e f l o w o f water t h e r e is d i l u t i o n o f w a s t e s . However, t h e water q u a l i t y is a f f e c t e d . B u t c h e r 1940 s t a t e s t h a t d i s s o l v e d oxygen c o n t e n t i n a stream f a l l s due t o t h e a c t i v i t y o f bacteria. I n t h e P r e s e n t o b s e r v a t i o n i n t h e Uyyakondon C h a n n e l a n d i n t h e R i v e r C a u v e r y w a t e r s , t h e r e s u l t s f a v o u r a b l y compare w i t h t h e a b o v e o b s e r v a t i o n . I n t h e r e c o v e r y zone i n t a n k s I V B and l a k e V B t h e r e w a s g r a d u a l b u i l d u p o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n . Hynes 1963 i n h i s s t u d i e s f o u n d a d e c l i n e i n t h e o r g a n i c matter i n t h e r e c o v e r y z o n e , which r e s u l t s i n t h e u p t a k e o f oxygen f r o m t h e a t m o s p h e r e , a n d may be compared w i t h the present study. I n a l l t h e s t a t i o n s t h e pH w a s a l k a l i n e . A l k a l i n e pH is bel i e v e d t o p r o v i d e optimal c o n d i t i o n s f o r f a v o u r a b l e growth of plankt o n ( V i l l a d o l i d e t a t 1 9 5 4 ) . The o p t i m a l pH i n t h e r i v e r h a s r e s u l t e d i n a bloom o r abundancy o f p h y t o p l a n k t o n o r g a n i s m s . K l e i n 1957 r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e c h l o r i d e c o n t e n t depends on t h e p r e s e n c e o f i n d u s t r i a l wastes. C h l o r i d e c o n t e n t i n c r e a s e s t h e i n t e n s i t y of p o l l u t i o n . I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , S t a t i o n I1 r e c o r d e d high Chloride content. The micro n u t r i e n t s s u c h a s s i l i c a t e s , n i t r a t e s a n d p h o s p h a t e a r e i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e p h y t o p l a n k t o n i c o r g a n i s m s . They a r e p r e s e n t i n o r g a n i c a l l y e n r i c h e d waters r a t h e r t h a n i n c l e a n waters. T h e r e is a n i n c r e a s e i n p h o s p h a t e s i n t h e p o i n t o f d i s c h a r g e a n d l e s s p h o s p h a t e i n S t a t i o n I11 i n d i c a t e s t h a t p h o s p h a t e s h a v e b e e n consumed by t h e m i c r o b i a l p o p u l a t i o n . S i l i c a t e s a r e r e l a t e d w i t h t h e bloom o f d i a t o m s (Round 1 9 7 2 ) . A d e c r e a s e i n t h e s i l i c a t e s s u g g e s t s u t i l i z a t i o n by t h e d i a t o m s . N i t r a t e s a r e u t i l i z e d by d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s o f algae. The o r g a n i c s o u r c e w h i c h i s decomposed by microbes i n f l u e n c e s t h e a l g a l g r o w t h . D e n s i t y o f t h e algae is r e l a t e d t o t h e a m o u n t s o f n i t r a t e s During t h e p e r i o d of i n v e s t i g a t i o n , algae'belonging t o t h e 4 major d i v i s i o n s , s u c h a s B a c i l l a r i o p h y t a , C h l o r o p h y t a , Cyanophyta T o t a l l y , 63 g e n e r a o f algae, comand E u g l e n o p h y t a w e r e r e c o r d e d . p r i s i n g 2 7 g e n e r a o f B a c i l l a r i o p h y c e a e , 22 g e n e r a o f C h l o r o p h y c e a e , 1 2 g e n e r a o f Cyanophyceae, and 2 g e n e r a o f E u g l e n o p h y c e a e were encountered. During t h e c o u r s e of s t u d y o n l y t h o s e g e n e r a which were i n bloom, a b u n d a n t o r common w e r e r e c o r d e d . The d e n s i t y o f t h e populations varied i n different s t a t i o n s during t h e different p e r i o d s o f s t u d y . However, a g e n e r a l t r e n d i n t h e p h y t o p l a n k t o n i c p o p u l a t i o n is t h a t t h e B a c i l l a r i o p h y c e a e a n d C h l o r o p h y c e a e were r e c o r d e d i n g r o s s l y p o l l u t e d r e g i o n s , h o w e v e r , i n c l e a n waters, Chlorophyceae c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e t o t a l b u l k o f phytoplankton. Among p h y t o p l a n k t o n , Cyanophyceae a n d B a c i l l a r i o p h y c e a e were e i t h e r i n bloom o r a b u n d a n t i n S t a t i o n 11, t h e z o n e o f d i s c h a r g e of e f f l u e n t f r o m t h e d i s t i l l e r y . Among C h l o r o p h y c e a e , C h e a t o h o r a w e r e abundant. In i n group Bacillariophyceae, N i t z s c h i d i a w e r e f o u n d t o b e i n bloom and c o n s i d e r e d a s p o l l u t i o n t o l e r a n t g e n e r a . They a r e a l s o i n bloom o r a b u n d a n t i n S t a t i o n 111, w h i c h is t h e z o n e o f a d m i x t u r e o f waste i n t o t h e R i v e r C a u v e r y . The

443

Cyanophyceae O s c i l l a t o r i a , M i c r o c y s t i s a n d S p i r u l i n a were f o u n d i n bloom i n S t a t i o n I 1 s u g g e s t i n g p o l l u t i o n t o l e r a n t g e n e r a of algae (Table 11). Among C h l o r o p h y c e a e , S p i r o g y r a e x c l u s i v e l y w a s p r e s e n t abund a n t l y i n t h e p u r e w a t e r s i n t a n k s a n d a l s o i n t h e waters o f t h e r i v e r C a u v e r y . b o n g B a c i l l a r i o p h y c e a e , N i t z s c h i a and C c l o t e l l a were e i t h e r a b u n d a n t o r i n bloom i n p u r e water b o d i e s . Cauvery waters, N i t z c h i a a n d F r a g i l a r i a were a b u n d a n t . Among t h e Cyanophyceae, O s c i l l a t o r i a a n d M i c r o c y s t i s were f o u n d t o be a b u n d a n t i n p o l l u t e d t a n k s and p o l l u t e d l a k e s . But t h e y w e r e also r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e c l e a n water bodies o f River C a u v e r y .

b

The s t u d y i n d i c a t e d c l e a r l y t h a t 6 g e n e r a o f p h y t o p l a n k t o n

t o l e r a t e t h e i n t e n s i t y of p o l l u t i o n below t h e p o i n t o f d i s c h a r g e o f waste b y t h e d i s t i l l e r y i n d u s t r y ( S t a t i o n 1 1 ) . They a r e a l s o f o u n d i n t h e m i l d l y p o l l u t e d water ( S t a t i o n 1 1 1 ) . T h i s i n d i c a t e s u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e i n o r g a n i c s o u r c e s of n i t r o g e n or p h o s p h a t e which is f o u n d i n d e c r e a s e d q u a n t i t i e s i n S t a t i o n 111. Algae a r e r e c o g n i z e d a s i n d i c a t o r s o f p o l l u t i o n by v a r i o u s workers. I t w a s K o l k w i t z a n d Mareson 1908, t h a t f i r s t c l a s s i f i e d s p e c i e s o f a l g a e on t h e b a s i s of t h e i r t o l e r a n c e t o p o l l u t i o n and pointed out t h a t t h e presence of c e r t a i n species of algae could help t o d e f i n e d i f f e r e n t zones of degradation i n t h e r i v e r . Accordingly, they recognized f i v e such zones. 1.

The p o l y s a p r o b i c z o n e - c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a h i g h c o n t e n t of p u r i f y i n g o r g a n i c m a t t e r .

2.

The Gamma m e s o s a p r o b i c z o n e r e c o v e r y from p o l l u t i o n .

3.

The Beta m e s o s a p r o b i c z o n e , w h e r e most o f t h e o r g a n i c matter had b e e n m i n e r a l i z e d .

4.

The o l i g o s a p r o b i c z o n e , a n a r e a i n w h i c h m i n e r a l i z a t i o n is complete.

5.

The K a t h a r o b i c z o n e , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by c l e a n water, a z o n e c o m p a r a b l e t o m o u n t a i n streams.

-

t h e f i r s t stage i n t h e

I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , S t a t i o n I1 is c o n s i d e r e d as a p o l y s a p r o b i c Cyanophyceae are z o n e w h e r e a h i g h d e g r e e o f p o l l u t i o n is p r e s e n t . f o u n d t o t o l e r a t e d i s t i l l e r y waste. S t a t i o n I11 c o u l d be compared t o t h e m e s o s a p r o b i c z o n e , where p o l l u t i o n t o l e r a n t C h l o r o p h y c e a e , s u c h a s Closterium a n d C h a e t o p h o r a a r e commonly p r e s e n t . S t a t i o n I V a n d V c o u l d be compared t o t h e o l i g o s a p r o b i c z o n e T h i s is clear and i t is t h e z o n e of p a r t i a l and complete r e c o v e r y . f r o m t h e c h e m i c a l a n a l v s i s o f water a n d a l s o from t h e DhvtoDlankton samples which c o n s i s t of S p i r o g y r a , N i t z s c h i a , C y c l o t e i l a , ' F r a g i l a r i a , Oscillatoria and M i c r o c y s t i s . S t a t i o n I V B , V B a n d V I c o u l d be compared w i t h t h e K a t h a r o b i c z o n e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p u r e water. In t h i s z o n e S p i r o g y r a , N i t z s c h i a , F r a g i l a r i a , O s c i l l a t o r i a and M i c r o c y s t is w e r e r e c o r d e d .

444

RESULTS

TABLE I1 CHLOROPHYCEAE

STATION I1

Volvox Ch 1ore1la Ankistorodesmus Pediastrum Spirogyra Chaetophora

PROTOZOANS

Co lopodium Epi sty1is Vorticella

STATION 11 R

c C

ROTIFERS

BACILLARIOPWCEAE Nitzschia Synedra Gyrosigma Pleurosigma Fragilaria Navicula Cyclotella Melosira Staurones Amphors

B R R R A R R R R R

Rotaria Motatoria Kerate11a Brachonus Filinia Diurella Mutilina Thilodina Plantias

A A A

A A A

A A

ANNELIDA Tubifex tubifex

A

CLADOCERANS Moina

R

CYANOPHYCEAE COPEYODS

Oscillatoria Spiru1ina Microcyst is

B B B C

Lyngbya Nostoc Mer ismopedia

R R

EUGLENOPHYCEAE Eug 1ena

R B A C R

Mesocyclops Cyclops Cletocimptus INSECTS Er istalis Chironom ids (Tendipes) Stonefly Nymphs

BLOOM (above 1000) = ABUNDANT (below 1000) = COMMON (50-100) = RARE (1-50) =

R R R

C R R

445

P a t r i c k 1965 came t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t E u g l e n a and @ c i . l l a t o r i a are h i g h l y p o l l u t i o n t o l e r a n t g e n e r a and t h e r e f o r e r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t o r s of e u t r o p h i c a t i o n . R a n j i t h a 1983, w h i l e s t u d y i n g t h e t a n n e r y e f f l u e n t s on p h y t o p l a n k t o n stated t h a t Oscillatoria formosa, Navicula l a n c e o l a t a and N i t z s c h i a scalaris are t h e p o l l u t i o n t o l e r a n t s p e c i e s . R a t h n a s a p a p a t h y , 1975 h a s r e p o r t e d t h a t O s c i l l a t o r i a , E u g l e n a , C h l o r e l l a a n d A n k i s t r o d e s m u s a r e t y p i c a l i n h a b i t a n t s of h e a v i l y p o l l u t e d waters. P a l m e r , 1969 v i e w e d t h a t Cyanophyceae a r e v e r y t o l e rant to pollution. Rana, 1 9 7 7 s t u d i e s a l g a l f l o r a o f a stream i n U.P. I n d i a p o l l u t e d by s u g a r f a c t o r y waste. The p o l l u t e d stream water h a d h i g h p l a n k t o n t u r b i d i t y ( S e c c h i d i s c v a l u e 0 . 5 f t ) a n d had a f l o r a d o m i n a t e d b y f i l a m e n t o u s Cyanophyceae and E u g l e n o i d s . The diatoms w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d by a u n i q u e species o f N a v i c u l a . I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i t may b e s a i d t h a t S i r u l i n a , w h i c h is t represented e x c l u s i v e l y b l o o m i n g i n t h e d i s t i l l e r y wastes b i n o t h e r waters, s u g g e s t s i t s t o l e r a n c e t o t h e i n t e n s i t y o f w a s t e . Among Z o o p l a n k t e r s , no p r o t o z o a n s were r e c o r d e d i n S t a t i o n 11, b u t a n a b u n d a n t p o p u l a t i o n o f r o t i f e r s were s e e n . They i n c l u d e R o t a r i a r o t a t o r i a , Keretella, B r a n c h i o n u s , F i l i n i a , D i u r e l l a , M u t i l i n a T h i l o d i n a a n d P l a n t i a s . Among t h e s e , n o n e a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n S t a t i o n I , b u t M u t i l i n a , T h i l o d i n a a n d P l a n t i a s are a b u n d a n t i n t h e D o D u l a t i o n i n S t a t i o n 111. I n S t a t i o n I V A a n d I V B were rec o r d e d - Rotaria r o t a t o r i a , A s p l a n c h n a , Keratella a n d B r a c h i o n u s , s u g g e s t i n g r i c h i n o r g a n i c n u t r i e n t s t o w h i c h t h e i r a b u n d a n c e is d u e . ~

An i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e n o t e d is t h a t t h e a n n e l i d s l u d g e worm T u b i f c x t u b i f e x a r e i n bloom i n S t a t i o n 11. They are a l w a y s p r e s e n t d u r i n g t h e summer s e a s o n a n d r a r e l y p r e s e n t d u r i n g t h e monsoon periods. T u b i f e x t u b i f e x f o r m s a "red carpet" i n S t a t i o n I1 a n d m i n g l e s a l o n g t h e suspended o r g a n i c materials. I t is n o t p r e s e n t i n a n y o f t h e o t h e r s t a t i o n s a t any t i m e d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of s t u d y . Among o s t r a c o d s , C y p r i s are f o u n d i n a b u n d a n c e i n c l e a n waters o f t a n k s I V B a n d l a k e s V B. However, c o p e p o d s s u c h a s M e s o c y c l o p s a n d C y c l o p s a r e a b u n d a n t i n S t a t i o n 111, t h e m i l d l y p o l l u t e d water region. Mesocyclops are a l s o f o u n d i n abundance i n t h e m i l d l y p o l The copepod Clectocimotes l u t e d t a n k s o f S t a t i o n I V A and l a k e s V A. h a s b e e n recorded i n a b u n d a n c e i n t h e waters o f R i v e r C a u v e r y . I n s e c t s are t h e major i n v e r t e b r a t e s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e b u l k o f t h e b i o t i c community. C o r i x a are a b u n d a n t i n S t a t i o n V I a l t h o u g h o t h e r i n s g c t s were r e p r e s e n t e d i n o t h e r S t a t i o n s . Nymphs s u c h a s S t o n e f l y nymphs a n d May f l y nymphs are a b u n d a n t i n S t a t i o n

v

B.

G a u f i n 1957 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f May f l i e s , S t o n e f l i e s , a n d Caddies f l i e s i n a stream is i n d i c a t i v e o f c l e a n water, a n d t h e i r a b s e n c e means t h a t r i c h o r g a n i c wastes a n d l o w d i s s o l v e d oxygen s u p p l y are p r e s e n t . The c u r r e n t s t u d y f a v o u r a b l y c o m p a r e s w i t h t h e e a r l i e r o l p e r v a t i o n made b y G a u f i n i n 1957. The Chironomid l a r v a e b e l o n g i n g t o t h e g e n e r a T e n d i p e s wererecorded f r o m S t a t i o n I 1 a n d c a n be c o n s i d e r e d a p o l l u t i o n t o l e r a n t s p e c i e s . A benthic s u r v e y i n t h e N o r v e g i a n l a k e i n d i c a t e d Chironomid l a r v a e predomi-

446

n a n t l y p r e s e n t i n t h e bottom, w h i c h w a s r i c h i n o r g a n i c d e t r i t u s ( S i v e r t s e n , 1 9 7 4 ) . M o l l u s e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b u t are n e i t h e r i n bloom n o r a b u n d a n t . The i n t r a o v a r i a n d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c a r p C i r r h i n a reba c o l l e c t e d i n S t a t i o n V I and below t h e a d m i x t u r e o f e f f l u e n t i n S t a t i o n I 1 1 i n d i c a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s t a g e o f m a t u r i t y o f t h e eggs. The m a t u r e e g g s o f S t a t i o n V I h a d a d i a m e t e r of. 42-45 micrometers, w h i l e t h e m a t u r e e g g s t a k e n from t h e m i l d l y p o l l u t e d r e g i o n h a d a d i a m e t e r o f t h e o v a r y o f 36-39 micrometers. The morphometry s t u d y i n d i c a t e d l e s s g r o w t h i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n s which a r e a f f e c t e d by t h e d i l u t e e f f l u e n t . I t c o u l d be m e n t i o n e d t h a t f o o d is t h e main r e a s o n f o r t h e g r o w t h a n d s u r v i v a l o f t h e c a r p , which i t c o u l d o b t a i n i n more c l e a n waters. The b i o t a o f t h e Uyyakondon c h a n n e l , R i v e r C a u v e r y , t a n k s a n d l a k e s , p o s i t i v e l y r e f l e c t s t h e c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t i n g i n t h e environment,and t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d a r e b e i n g u t i l i z e d f o r b i o l o g i c a l m o n i t o r i n g o f water pollution levels. The s t u d y is now c o n t i n u e d o n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f d i s t i l l e r y waste by c u l t u r i n g t h e m i c r o s c o p i c o r g a n i s m s w h i c h are t o l e r a n t t o t h e d i s t i l l e r y wastes. T h e s e o r g a n i s m s w i l l form t h e " l i v i n g f i l t e r " i n t r e a t i n g t h e d i s t i l l e r y wastes a s h a s b e e n d o n e w i t h ' t h e beet s u g a r f a c t o r y wastes (Shayegan a n d S a n a i , 1 9 8 0 ) . D u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s , m e t h a n e c a n be s a v e d a n d t h e t r e a t e d waste w i l l form a good medium f o r t h e aqua c u l t u r e .

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroklu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,Amsterdam, 1984 -Printed in The Netherlands

447

EFFECT OF TANNERY WASTES ON THE PHYTOPLANKTON

A. Ranjitha Department of Botany Vellalar College for Women Erode - 638 009, India

ABSTRACT River Cauvery is among the major perennial rivers of South India and River Bhavani is one of its major tributories. A channel of River Bhavani is diverted from Kalingarayan anicut which forms the Kalingarayan Channel. The total length of the channel is 90 km and the total capacity 580 Cu.secs. Tanneries under investigation are located on the right of Kalingarayan Channel at Bhavani-Erode Main Road. Five sampling stations were fixed covering the unpolluted zone, polluted zone and zone of recovery. The parameters studied showed a high value at the effluent station, andat the point of admixture of tannery effluent and channel water the values were reduced. Further down,there is a decreased rate indicating either full or partial recovery. The phytoplankton counts clearly indicate that there is a reduction in the number of the species and in the total number of the species, and in the total number at the point of admixture of the effluent and channel water Oscillatoria formosa, Navicula lanceolata and Nitzschia scalaris are pollution tolerant alqal species. A pollution index for tannerv effluent was also proposed: INTRODUCTION Discharging the tannery effluent into the river system in India is very common, as a number of small scale tanneries which utilize considerable amounts of water are situated along side the channel. Tannery is one of the major industries in Tamil Nadu, India and one of the industrial wastes responsible for water pollution. The discharge of the effluent into the stream depletes the dissolved oxygen, destroys the aquatic life and renders the stream unsuitable for community water supply and other beneficial uses. The present investigation deals with the effect of tannery effluent on the phytoplankton of a channel called Kalingarayan Channel at Erode (Tamil Nadu, India). Kalingarayan Channel branches off from river Bhavani and runs independently parallel to River Cauvery for a distance of 90 km with the capacity of 580 cu.secs. and finally joins River Cauvery. There are about 112 small tannery units on the right of Kalingarayan Channel and the tannery effluent is discharged into this channel. Five different sampling stations were identified to study the impact of pollution and thus station I represents the

448

unpolluted zone, station 11 effluent, station 111 admixture of effluent and channel water, station IV and V recovery zones. Analysis of water sampl-eswas done as per standard methods (APHA, 1975) and the phytoplankton was identified by using the published monographs. RESULTS The results of physico-chemical analysis are given in Table I. Tannery effluent has a characteristic pungent odour due to the presence of certain chemicals, tannin, raw skin and flesh. The colour of the effluent was dark brown to light brown and depends upon the tannery washings. In the present investigation temperature has no significant impact on the biota. Turbidity, pH, bicarbonate, total dissolved solids, chlorides, total chromium, tannin and lignin content of the effluent were always higher than at other stations. Due to the mixing of the channel water at station 111, the values were slightly reduced and at down stream there is further reduction showing either partial or complete recovery at station V. The pH was always towards the alkaline side and an alkaline pH is believed to provide the optimal conditions for the favourable growth of Cyanophyta and Chlorophyta,whilelow pH is responsible for the high percentage of Euglenophyta and desmids. There is always an inverse relationship between the dissolved oxygen and free carbon dioxide. Station I1 recorded nil value for dissolved oxygen throughout the period of investigation but the value of carbon dioxide was very high. As there is no phytoplankton at this station there is no photosynthetic activity and this is probably the reason for the presence of free carbon dioxide at this station. Being an important parameter, the BOD value clearly indicates the pollution load at station 11, hence it affects the biota directly. The amount of total chromium exceeds the permissible limit of IS1 standards, 2 mg/l, (Sastry, 1975) only during March 1982 at station 11, but when it mixes with the effluent the value comes down to 2 mg/l. The dark brown colour of the effluent is due to the presence of tannin and lignin, hence it could be considered as an aesthetic pollutant. The stagnation of the effluent near tanneries gives very strong odour. Tannins reduce the available oxygen and this increases the biological oxygen demand. During the period of investigation algae belonging to four major divisions namely Cyanophyta, Cholorophyta, Bacillariophyta and Euglenophyta were encountered (Table 11). Totally 18 species of algae comprising 3 species of Cyanophyta, 7 species of Chlorophyta including 2 desmids, 7 species of Bacillariophyta and 1 specie of Euglenophyta were recorded. Their proportions, however, varied monthwise and stationwise. Generally the Cyanophyta and Bacillariophyta constituted the bulk of algal population while Chlorophyta showed some fluctuation depending upon the water quality, Euglenophyta represented by a single species formed approximately 1% of the total algal population. The algal flora was generally rich at station 1,and at station 111 species diversity was aIways less with a few dominant tolerant algal species, while at station V the algal content was more or less similar to that of station I. Among Chlorophyta, the occurrence of Spiroqyra Parodoxa was closely parallel with the occurrence of Chlorophyta. Ulothrix

TABLE I Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Kalingarayan Channel

Physico-chemical Factors

I

I1

Sampling Stations I1I

IV

V

-

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Turbidity

PH Bicarbonates Dissolved oxygen Free carbon dioxide Total dissolvd solids Chlorides Total chromium 8. 9. Tannin and Lignins 10. Biochemical oxygen demand

8-20 NTU 7.2-8.5 90-240 5.96-8.22 2-8 100-2780 17.73-42.56 0-0.6 15-99

120-180 NTU 7.6-8.6 130-620 NIL 4-16 460-5635 95.76-1344.31 0.1-2.4 82-1818 3000-4000

All values, except for the pH, are expressed in mg/l.

96-120 NTU 7.4-8.5 112-500 0-6.8 2-10 205-3645 35.47-319.23 0-2.0 52-292.5

32-80 NTU 7.3-8.5 90-370 2.5-6.9 2-10 100-3325 24.83-63.84 0-1.8 20-232.5

8-68 NTU 7.4-8.5 30-330 3.69-7.2 2-8 100-2780 19.02-46.11 0-1.5 15-201

----I& lb

(D

TABLE I1 List of the Species Encountered with Frequency of Occurrence at Various Stations

Algal genera and species I 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Oscillatoria formosa Oscillatoria curvicebs Phormidium ambiquum Scenedesmus quadricauda Tetraspora gelatinosa Ulothrix tenerrima Opedogonium nodulosum Spirogyra paradoxa Closterium acerosum Cosmarium subspeciosum Tabellaria flocculosa Terposinoe musica Fragillaria capucina Pinnularia viridis Navicula canceolata Navicula spicula Nitzschia scalaris Euglena viridis

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

- 1500 - 510 - 20

-

10 10 - 120 - 260 - 1510 - 80 - 10 - 100 - 20 - 400 - 70 - 820 - 110 - 210 - 90

Sampling Stations I11 0 - 990 0 - 430 NIL NIL 0 10 0 20 0 20 0 - 1100 NIL NIL 0 70 NIL 0 - 120 0 20 0 - 420 0 70 0 - 180 0 30

V 0 0

-

NIL NIL 0 0

0 0 0

-

NIL 0 NIL 0 0 0 0 -

-

0

0

-

1410 490

10 30 70

930 40

90

160 40

800 110 190 60

A

cn

0

461

tenerrima, Oedogonium nodulosum were rare in occurrence while Cosmarium subspeciosum Nordet and Closterium acerosum Ehrenb were identified at station I and were completely absent at station 111 and rarely found at station V. Cyanophyta was found throughout the period of investigation except in July 1981 when filamentous algae were totally absent. This group was represented by Oscillatoria formosa Bory ex Gomont and Oscillatoria Curviceps Ag. ex. Gomont and rarely by Phormidium ambiquum Gomont. Navicula lanceolata Kutz, Navicula spicula, cleve, Nitzschia scalaris (Shr) W.sm., Fragilania capucina desmaziers, Tabellaria flucculosa (Roth) Kutz, Pinnulaiia viltidis (litzsche) Ehr Terpsinoe Terpsinoe musica Ehr. were species of Bacillariophyta recorded during the course of investigation. At all the sampling stations Navicula lanceolata and Nitzschia scalaris were present. Fragilaria Capucina was the only type of diatom and phytoplankton present in July 1981 and it was absent from September to December 1981 from all stations. Tabellaria flucculosa (Roth) Kutz, Pinnularia Viridis (Nitzsche) Ehr., Terpsinoemuscia Ehr., were rarely found. The diatoms were epiphytic on the filaments of Oscillatoria formosa from March to May 1981. When the flow of water in the channel was resumed after the dry period in June 1981, only diatoms made their appearance. Euglenophyta was very rare and represented by Euglena viridis Ehr. The diversity index (Gleason 1922) shows a low value at the polluted zone. DISCUSSION Algae were recognized as indices of organic pollution by Kolkwitz (1950), Pavalovska (19501, Liebmann (19511, Uherkovich (1962, 1964), Fjerdingstad (1962,19641,Palmer (1963,1969), Breitig (1970), Hortobagyi (1973) and Hosmani and Barati (1980). In the present study, station I is comparable to the Katharobic Zone characterized by clean water, nil pollution load, saturated dissolved oxygen and rich algal flora. Station I1 is a polysaprobic zone with a high degree of pollution, nil oxygen content and free of algae. Station I11 with its strong but diminishing pollution load owing to dilution and decreased oxygen content could be compared to the mesosaprobic zone. This station is biologically important as it showed the pollution tolerant algal species such as Oscillatoria formosa, Navicula lanceolata and Nitzschia scalaris. Station IV and V could be compared to the oligosaprobic zones with weak or nil pollution load, improved dissolved oxygen and recovery and establishment of algal flora as that of station I. The pollution index of Kalingarayan Channel cannot be calculated using the indeces suggested by the previous workers (Nygaad 1949, Hortobagyi, Horaswas and Govindan 1981) as their studies were based on a totally different system. The unique feature of the present site of study is that it affords a good example for single point pollution with effluent from a single industry. From the results it is clear that Cyanophyta and Bacillariophyta are tolerants of tannery effluent pollution as practically as species belonging to those groups are found at station 111. Several species of Chlorophyta and Euglenophyta are sensitive to tannery effluent and therefore, at station 111, the Chlorophyta shows not only a reduction in total number but also in

462 TABLE I11 Pollution Index for Tannery Effluent on Kalingaryan Channel Station s Cyanophyta I I11 V

31 29 30

Number of Species Encountered Bacillariophyta Chlorophyta Euglenophyta 39 13 30

59 50

56

11 2 10

Pollution Index 1.8 5.3

2.15

the number of species while the single species of Euglena was absent. Based on the above observations a pollution index for tannery wastes may be obtained as follows: Pollution = No. of species of Cyanophyta + Bacillariophyta index No. of species of Chlorophyta and Euglenophyta The pollution index calculated by the total count of species encountered in different months of study is given in Table 111. When the pollution index exceeds 2 the station is considered to be a polluted zone. The periodicity and distribution of Cyanophyta was associated with high temperature and low dissolved oxygen and thus this group serve as indicators of pollution. Distribution of diatoms has been considered to reflect the average ecological conditions and where there is higher concentration of dissolved oxygen. Thus the number of Chlorophyta decreased when there was a high pollution load and less dilution. The limitations in the existence of desmids may be due to the greater population of Cyanophyta and high alkalinity. An inverse relationship was proposed between Bacillariophyta and Euglenophyta. Members of Euglenophyta are scarce in fast flowing water. The high pH value might have been a limiting factor for Euglenophyta. Thus this study affords a good example for single point pollution with effluent from a single industry. REFERENCES

1.

Fjerdingstad, E. 1960. Some remarks on new saprobian system. In Biol. Prob. in Water Pollution (999-WP.25) Third Seminar, J . S . Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C.

2.

Govindan, V. 1981. Studies on algae in relation to treatment of waste waters. Thesis submitted to University of Madras.

3.

Hosmani, S.P. and Bharati, S.G. 1981. Algae as indicators of organic pollution. Phykos, 19. 23-26.

The Bioephere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 -Printed in The Netherlands

453

FATE OF HEPTACHLOR John Simon F r a n k L. P a r k e r Vanderbilt University

Nashville, Tennessee

3 7 2 3 5 , U.S.A.

ABSTRACT S i n c e f i e l d e c o s y s t e m s are so complex, a dynamic l a b o r a t o r y r i v e r i n e m i c r o c o s m was s e t u p t o o b s e r v e t h e p e r s i s t e n c e a n d f a t e of h e p t a c h l o r . The microcosm i n c l u d e d a q u e o u s , b i o t i c , and s e d i m e n t c o m p a r t m e n t s c a p a b l e of p h y s i c a l , c h e m i c a l , a n d biological processes. H e p t a c h l o r , n u t r i e n t s , a n d w a t e r were a d d e d t o t h e s y s t e m a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e of 1 8 . 4 l / d a y w h i l e t h e d y n a m i c p r o c e s s e s o f t h e s y s t e m were s t u d i e d . To e x t e n d t h i s a n a l y s i s t o t h e p r o t o t y p e , a m o d e l i s necessary. T h e f a t e of h e p t a c h l o r i n t h e m i c r o c o s m i s c o m p a r e d t o t h e f a t e i n t h e p r o t o t y p e as computed by t h e m o d e l , E x p o s u r e A n a l y s i s M o d e l i n g S y s t e m (EXAMS), d e v e l o p e d by t h e E n v i r o n m e n t a l EXAMS P r o t e c t i o n Agency R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y i n A t h e n s , Georgia. i s a c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z e d m o d e l b a s e d o n d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s of t h e p a r t i t i o n i n g o f f i v e i o n i c s p e c i e s of h e p t a c h l o r i n w a t e r s , sediment, and b i o t i c compartments, t a k i n g i n t o account t h e dominant p h y s i c a l , chemical, and b i o l o g i c a l processes. The i n p u t p a r a m e t e r s f o r EXAMS a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e l a b o r a t o r y microcosm.

The r e s u l t s of t h i s s t u d y show d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n f a t e p r e d i c t i o n s of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d l a b o r a t o r y m o d e l i n g s y s t e m s . 1.

INTRODUCTION

D e v e l o p m e n t o f m o d e l s p r e d i c t i n g t h e f a t e of h a z a r d o u s chemicals i n t h e aqueous environment is a f i e l d recently a t t a i n i n g s i g n i f i c d n t i m p o r t a n c e a f t e r t h e s u r g e of h a z a r d o u s waste s i t e d i s c o v e r i e s . Many o f t h e c h e m i c a l s l e a c h i n g from t h e s e s i t e s have been found t o b e c a r c i n o g e n i c , and close a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f a t e of t h e s e c h e m i c a l s is w a r r a n t e d . The f a t e of c h e m i c a l s may b e s t u d i e d i n t h r e e w a y s ; i n t h e f i e l d , by l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s s i m u l a t i n g f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s , and by c a l c u l a t i o n s based on theory. S t u d y of a c h e m i c a l i n t h e f i e l d i s e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e o f t h e l a r g e n u m b e r of uncontrolled v a r i a e l e s e x i s t i n g i n the natural environment. However, i t i s .only by s u c h s t u d i e s t h a t l a b o r a t o r y and computer model s t u d i e s can be v a l i d a t e d and v e r i f i e d . Are o n l y

454

a p p r o x i m a t i o n s of w h a t a c t u a l l y h a p p e n s i n t h e f i e l d . These s t u d i e s a r e u s u a l l y c a r r i e d o u t i n l a b o r a t o r y microcosms i n w h i c h a few v a r i a b l e s a r e . c l o s e l y r e g u l a t e d . A chemical's fate i n the e n v i r o n m e n t may a l s o b e p r e d i c t e d b y i n v e s t i g a t i n g i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e chemical, p h y s i c a l , and b i o l o g i c a l d i v i s i o n s of a n a q u e o u s s y s t e m . I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between a chemical and t h e s u r r o u n d i n g environment are complex and t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s are o f t e n i m p l e m e n t e d w i t h a c o m p u t e r m o d e l , e n a b l i n g a l a r g e n u m b e r of v a r i a b l e s o v e r a w i d e r a n g e of v a l u e s t o b e u s e d . This study c o m p a r e s t h e f a t e of t h e i n s e c t i c i d e h e p t a c h l o r i n a m o d e l l a b o r a t o r y stream t o i t s f a t e as p r e d i c t e d by a c o m p u t e r program d e v e l o p e d b y EPA s c i e n t i s t s a t t h e E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency Research L a b o r a t o r y i n A t h e n s , G e o r g i a . T h e s u c c e s s f u l d e v e l o p m e n t o f p o l l u t a n t f a t e p r e d i c t i o n may t h e u s e o f l a b o r a t o r y microcosms. A v a r i e t y of microcosms h a v e b e e n u s e d t o h e l p d e v e l o p e n v i r o n m e n t a l t h e o r i e s and models. L a s s i t e r ( 1 9 7 9 ) r e v i e w e d d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of microcosms and gave examples d e s c r i b i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n and t h e o r y of e a c h . Microcosms a r e u s e d f o r t h e o r y a n d m o d e l i n g s t u d i e s b e c a u s e t h e y are easier t o employ, c o n t r o l , and o b s e r v e , b o t h q u a l i t a t i v e l y a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e l y , t h a n more c o m p l e x n a t u r a l ecosystems. The e n v i r o n m e n t a l p a r a m e t e r s and pathways used i n m o d e l s may b e d e t e r m i n e d i n l a b o r a t o r y m i c r o c o s m s w i t h a h i g h d e g r e e of a c c u r a c y b e c a u s e t h e v a r i a b l e s c a n b e t i g h t l y c o n t r o l l e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e a c c u r a c y of d e t e r m i n a t i o n s made t h r o u g h f i e l d s t u d i e s where t h e v a r i a b l e s cannot be so e a s i l y c o n t r o l l e d . be e n h a n c e d by

2.

MODELING THEORY

O n c e a c h e m i c a l i s r e l e a s e d i n t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i t may b e a f f e c t e d by c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n s , p h y s i c a l t r a n s p o r t , and b i o l o g i c a l Most m a t h e m a t i c a l l y b a s e d i n t e r a c t i o n s ( C l i n e et. a l . , 1981). models d e t e r m i n e t h e chemical's f a t e by l o o k i n g a t e a c h p r o c e s s a n d i t s r a t e a f f e c t i n g t h e f a t e i n d e p e n d e n t of a l l o t h e r processes. T h e rate p r o c e s s e s are t h e n a p p l i e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y t o d i f f e r e n t c o m p a r t m e n t s of t h e s y s t e m t h e r e b y i g n o r i n g a n y interactions. F i r s t o r d e r d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s are u s u a l l y u s e d i n f a t e m o d e l s , a n d b e c a u s e s o l i t t l e i s known a b o u t t h e i r a c t u a l rates d e p i c t i n g t h e change i n chemical c o n c e n t r a t i o n as t h e Rate c o n s t a n t s a n d c o r r e s p o n d i g s u m of t h e f i r s t o r d e r e q u a t i o n s . c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e e q u a t i o n s may b e f o u n d e i t h e r from p u b l i s h e d Data o n m o v e m e n t of d a t a , o r from e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s . w a t e r a n d s u s p e n d e d m a t e r i a l i n t o a n d o u t of e a c h c o m p a r t m e n t a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r a t e of c h e m i c a l t r a n s p o r t t h r o u g h t h e system. With the rate e q u a t i o n s and t r a n s p o r t i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e f a t e of t h e c h e m i c a l i n e a c h c o m p a r t m e n t m a y b e p r e d i c t e d . T h e EPA p r o g r a m u s e d f o r t h e h e p t a c h l o r f a t e p r e d i c t i o n i s t h e E X p o s u r e A n a l y s i s M o d e l i n g S y s t e m (EXAMS). T h e p r o g r a m was d e v e l o p e d t o p r e d i c t t h e f a t e of c h e m i c a l s i n d i f f e r e n t e n v i r o n m e n t s eg. r i v e r , e s t u a r y , r e s e r v i o r , e t c . The program is u s e r i n t e r a c t i v e , and l o a d i n g s , chemicals c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s are e a s i l y changed, t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g for t h e e f f e c t s of v a r y i n g c o n d i t i o n s t o b e e a s i l y c a l c u l a t e d . EXAMS uses first o r d e r or psuedo first o r d e r d i f f e r e n t i a l equations

455

a l o n g w i t h mass f l u x e s a c r o s s c o m p a r t m e n t b o u n d a r i e s t o m a k e f a t e predictions. T h e mass t r a n s p o r t o f a l l m a t e r i a l s i n t h e e c o s y s t e m i s a s t e a d y s t a t e e x c e p t f o r t h e mass o f t h e o r g a n i c chemical b e i n g s t u d i e d . O n c e i n t h e e c o s y s t e m , EXAMS a l l o w s a chemical to i o n i z e i n t o s i n g l y or doubly charged i o n i c s p e c i e s , and allows f o r e a c h . s p e c i e s to e n t e r t h e f o l l o w i n g f a t e p r o c e s s e s : vilatilization, direct photolysis, sensitized photolysis, hydrolysis, photoautotrophic degradation, microbial degradation, If m i c r o b i a l u p t a k e , and exchanges w i t h sediment r e s e r v o i r s . t h e c h e m i c a l d o e s n o t e n t e r o n e o f t h e a b o v e p a t h w a y s t h e n i t may e i t h e r b e s u s p e n d e d i n t h e water column s y s t e m , d i s s o l v e d i n t h e p o r e water of t h e b e t h i c c o m p a r t m e n t , o r e x p o r t e d o u t of t h e s y s t e m w h i l e s o r b e d o n t o o n e of t h e s u s p e n d e d t r a n s p o r t e d factions. An i n d e p t h d e s c r i p t i o n o f EXAMS may b e f o u n d i n t h e u s e r manual ( C l i n e e t . a l . , 1981 ) . 3.

CHEMICAL INFORMATION

The compound c h o s e n f o r t h e s t u d y i s t h e i n s e c t i c i d e heptachlor. H e p t a c h l o r was s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f i t s c h e m i c a l b e h a v i o u r a n d p o t e n t i a l d a n g e r t o human h e a l t h a n d t h e environment. T h e c h e m i c a l i s o n e o f 1 2 9 d e s i g n a t e d b y t h e EPA as a p r i o r i t y p o l l u t a n t . B e f o r e b e i n g b a n n e d i n 1 9 7 5 , two m i l l i o n p o u n d s o f h e p t a c h l o r were p r o d u c e d a n n u a l l y ( N e w Y o r k T i m e s , 1975). H e p t a c h l o r is a c l o s e c h e m i c a l r e l a t i v e of t h e i n s e c t i c i d e c h o l o d a n e a n d t h e two h a v e b e e n u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y f o r b o t h domestic and a g r i c u l t u r a l purposes. T h e w i d e u s e of t h e s e c h e m i c a l s h a s c a u s e d them to b e s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d r e s i d u e s a r e c o m m o n l y f o u n d i n d a i r y , meat, f i s h , a n d p o u l t r y products. Heptachlor residues have even r e g u l a r l y been found i n t h e f a t t y t i s s u e s of h u m a n s ( N e w Y o r k T i m e s , 1 9 7 5 ) . H e p t a c h l o r h a s b e e n s h o w n t o b e q u i t e t o x i c t o a q u a t i c l i f e a n d b e c a u s e of a q u a t i c o r g a n i s m s s e n s i t i v i t y t o h e p t a c h l o r , t h e EPA h a s s e t t h e f r e s h w a t e r q u a l i t y criteria f o r h e p t a c h l o r a t 0.001 p a r t s p e r H e p t a c h l o r ' s hazardous p r o p e r t i e s and b i l l i o n (U.S. EPA, 1 9 7 6 ) . w i d e s p r e a d u s e w a r r a n t t h e s t u d y of i t s b e h a v i o u r i n a q u a t i c systems. I n t h e s t u d y , a n u t r i e n t - c o n t a m i n a n t s o l u t i o n c o n s i s t i n g of m a c r o n u t r i e n t s a n d h e p t a c h l o r was p u m p e d i n t o t h e s y s t e m a t a constant rate. A s previously s t a t e d , once i n the system the chemicals could e n t e r e i t h e r chemical, biological, or physical pathways. T h e major c h e m i c a l p a t h w a y s are d e g r a d a t i o n r e a c t i o n s . I n aqueous systems the dominating chemical degradation reactions are o x i d a t i o n , h y d r o l y s i s , and p h o t o l y s i s ( L a s s i t e r et. a l . , 1979). Biological pathways are b o t h d e g r a d i n g ( b i o t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s ) and s o r p t i v e ( b i o a c c u m u l t a t i o n ) processes. P h y s i c a l p a t h w a y s i n v o l v e t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e chemical a n d n o t changes i n the chemical's composition. T h e chemical may e i t h e r become p h y s i c a l l y a d s o r b e d o n t o s e d i m e n t p a r t i c l e s o r c a r r i e d In t h r o u g h t h e s y s t e m w i t h water and s u s p e n d e d materials. a c t u a l i t y t h e three b a s i c p a t h w a y s are i n t e r r e l a t e d , b u t f o r f a t e p r e d i c t i o n s t h e assumption t h a t t h e pathways act i n d e p e n d e n t l y is made. P r e v i o u s s t u d i e s o n c h e m i c a l p a t h w a y s of h e p t a c h l o r s u g g e s t t h a t h y d r o l y s i s t o 1 - h y d r o x y c h l o r d e n e i s t h e major d e g r a d a t i o n

466

r e a c t i o n of h e p t a c h l o r , a l t h o u g h p h o t o l y s i s a n d o x i d a t i o n w i l l also occur. Demayo ( 1 9 7 2 ) r e p o r t e d t h e p s u e d o f i r s t o r d e r r a t e c o n s t a n t for h y d r o l y s i s to b e Q.Q30/hour. P h o t o l y s i s of h e p t a c h l o r w i l l o n l y o c c u r i f a s e n s i t i z e r such as benzophenone is present (McQuire, 1972). The l i k e l i h o o d of s u c h a p h o t o s e n s i t i z e r b e i n g p r e s e n t i n t h e m o d e l stream i s l o w , c o n s e q u e n t l y , n o p h o t o l y s i s r a t e c o n s t a n t was e n t e r e d i n t o t h e EXAMS p r o g r a m . O x i d a t i o n of h e p t a c h l o r d o e s t a k e p l a c e , b u t o n l y t h r o u g h b i o l o g i c a l mechanisms (Callahan, et. a l . , 1979). The p h y s i c a l pathways of h e p t a c h l o r i n c l u d e a d s o r p t i o n o n t o s e d i m e n t s , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of t h e chemical t h r o u g h t h e water c o l u m n , a n d v o l a t i l i z a t i o n of t h e c h e m i c a l from t h e e p i l i m n i o n . EXAMS a s s u m e s t h a t a d s o r p t i o n i s l i n e a r w i t h r e s p e c t t o c h e m i c a l concentration. EXAMS c a n c o m p u t e a n a d s o r p t i o n p a r t i t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , i f o n e i s n o t k n o w n , from t h e c h e m i c a l ' s o c t a n o l water p a r t i t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a n d t h e f r a c t i o n of o r g a n i c c a r b o n i n the sediment. I n the study performed, the octanol-water c o e f f i c i e n t was c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g a r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n d e v e l o p e d by Kenaga and G o r i n g ( 1 9 8 0 ) r e l a t i n g o c t a n o l - w a t e r p a r t i t i o n i n g t o water s o l u b i l i t y . E X A M S c o m p u t e s t h e t r a n s p o r t of c h e m i c a l s t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r c o l u m n b y s u m m i n g t h e n o n d e g r a d e d f r a c t i o n of t h e d i s s o l v e d chemical c o n c e n t r a t i o n and t h e chemical f r a c t i o n sorbed t o suspended matter f l o w i n g through t h e system. V o l a t i l i z a t i o n i s c o m p u t e d i n EXAMS u s i n g a t h e o r y t h a t r e l a t e s t h e v a p o r p r e s s u r e of t h e c o n t a m i n a n t a n d t h e m i x i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e e p i l i m n i o n t o v o l a t i l i t y . B o t h of t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s ( b i o t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d b i o a c c u m u l a t i o n ) a r e known t o b e a c t i v e i n t h e r e m o v a l of h e p t a c h l o r from w a t e r . B i o t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s of h e p t a c h l o r a r e known t o e x i s t b e c a u s e of t h e p r e s e n c e of h e p t a c h l o r ' s o r i d a t i o n product, heptachlor epoxide, i n aquatic organisms exposed to heptachlor (Lu et. al., 1975). It is d i f f i c u l t to determine e x a c t u p t a k e rates by o r g a n i s m s s i n c e d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i s m s a n d d i f f e r e n t body p a r t s w i t h i n o r g a n i s m s h a v e d i f f e r e n t u p t a k e rates. An e s t i m a t e o f t h e b i o t r a n s f o r m a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t f o r h e p t a c h l o r o f 2 . 3 4 E - 4 / h o u r was c a l c u l a t e d f o r u s e i n EXAMS from d a t a t a k e n b y Lu e t . a l . ( 1 9 7 5 ) . T h e b i o a c c u m u l a t i o n p a r t i t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t was d e t e r m i n e d from a r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n r e l a t i n g bioconcentration to the contaminant's octanol-water coefficient (Southworth, et. al., 1978). B i o a c c u m u l a t i o n of h e p t a c h l o r i s not thought to be a very s i g n i f i c a n t process, but the b i o a c c u m u l a t i o n of i t s p e r s i s t e n t m e t a b o l i t e , h e p t a c h l o r e p o x i d e , i s r e p o r t e d t o b e a n a r e a of c o n c e r n ( L u e t . a l . , 1 9 7 5 ) . 4.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

T h e l a b o r a t o r y microcosm was s e t u p i n a c h e m i c a l l y r e s i s t a n t t r a y w i t h d i m e n s i o n s of 6 3 1 x 5 2 w x 6 . 6 d (cm) a n d v o l u m e of 1 5 . 6 l i t e r s . S e d i m e n t s were p l a c e d e v e n l y a c r o s s t h e b o t t o m of t h e t r a y a t a d e p t h of 1 . 6 cm. T h e s e d i m e n t s were o r i g i n a l l y t a k e n from a s l o w m o v i n g s e c t i o n n e a r t h e m o u t h o f M i l l Creek i n N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e s s e e . D e c h l o r i n a t e d t a p w a t e r f l o w e d from a c o n s t a n t head f l a s k i n t o the system. T h e w a t e r was d e c h l o r i n a t e d by a e r a t i n g t h e c o n s t a n t head f l a s k . This dechlorination t e c h n i q u e was t e s t e d , w i t h r e s u l t s s h o w i n g t h e r e s i d u a l c h l o r i n e

b e f o r e a e r a t i o n t o b e 1.5 mg/l, a n d u n d e t e c t a b l e a f t e r a e r a t i o n . T h e d e c h l o r i n a t e d t a p w a t e r was T e d i n t o t h e s y s t e m a t a n a v e r a g e f l o w r a t e of 9 . 9 0 m l / m i n . A n u t k - i e n t - h e p t a c h l o r s o l u t i o n was . p u m p e d - i n t o t h e s y s t e m a t a r a t e of 2 . 8 5 m l / m i n , a l l o w i n g a 4 . 4 7 to 1.0 dilution. T h e n u t r i e n t s c o n s i s t e d of b a s i c c h e m i c a l s f o r m i c r o b i a l growth as d e s c r i b e d by L e g n e r e t . a l . , ( 1 9 7 6 ) . S t r i p s o f t e f l o n were d a n g l e d i n t o t h e w a t e r a s a m e a n s t o c o l l e c t g r o w t h a n d p r e v e n t e x t e r n a l c o n t a m i n a t i o n of t h e b i o t a t e s t e d . A b a n k o f w i n d o w s s i t u a t e d i n f r o n t o f t h e microcosm s u p p l i e d l i g h t to the system. H e p t a c h l o r was m i x e d d a i l y i n t o t h e n u t r i e n t s o l u t i o n j u s t p r i o r t o r e s t o c k i n g t h e pump r e s e r v o i r . The h e p t a c h l o r s o l u t i o n was p r e p a r e d . from 9 9 + % p u r e c r y s t a l s , r e c e i v e d from t h e EPA T r i a n g l e Research P a r k L a b o r a t o r y l o c a t e d i n N o r t h C a r o l i n a . H e p t a c h l o r s t o c k s o l u t i o n was p r e p a r e d b y d i s s o l v i n g t h e c r y s t a l s into isopropyl alcohol. The h e p t a c h l o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n the n u t r i e n t - h e p t a c h l o r s o l u t i o n was 9 . 9 0 p p b . After d i l u t i o n t h e microcosm was b e i n g f e d a 1 . 0 p p b c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f h e p t a c h l o r . T h e s y s t e m was m o n i t o r e d t w i c e a d a y d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t t o c h e c k t h e f l o w r a t e a n d r e p l e n i s h t h e pump r e s e r v i o r . I n i t i a l l y , s e d i m e n t s a n d c r e e k w a t e r t a k e n from M i l l C r e e k were p l a c e d i n t h e t r a y a n d a l l o w e d t o r e m a i n s t a t i c f o r t e n days. N u t r i e n t s were t h e n f e d i n t o t h e s y s t e m f o r 3 3 d a y s t o a l l o w for g r o w t h a n d a c c l i m a t i o n t o o c c u r . T h e water, s e d i m e n t s , a n d b i o t a were s a m p l e d 1 , 2 , 5 , 1 0 , 2 2 , a n d 3 1 d a y s a f t e r t h e h e p t a c h l o r was a d d e d . T h r e e s a m p l e s of e a c h of t h e t h r e e s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t s , w a t e r , s e d i m e n t s , a n d b i o t a , were t a k e n f o r e a c h s a m p l i n g i n t e r v a l . Water s a m p l e s were p r e p a r e d f o r a n a l y s i s b y a d d i n g o n e m l o f p e s t i c i d e - g r a d e h e x a n e t o 1 0 0 m l of s a m p l e , a n d then shaking rapidly for one minute. T h e s e d i m e n t s a m p l e s were p r e p a r e d b y a d d i n g f i v e m l o f p e s t i c i d e - g r a d e h e x a n e t o o n e gram of s e d i m e n t s f o l l o w e d by s h a k i n g . B i o t a s a m p l e s were p r e p a r e d b y r e m o v i n g g r o w t h from t h e t e f l o n s t r i p s d a n g l i n g i n t h e s y s t e m . T h e g r o w t h was t h e n w e i g h e d a n d o n e m l o f p e s t i c i d e - g r a d e h e x a n e added p r i o r to shaking. C r a v i m e t r i c a n a l y s i s was p e r f o r m e d o n each of t h e t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d r y s o l i d w e i g h t a n d v o l a t i l e f r a c t i o n s of t h e c o m p o n e n t s . The s e d i m e n t r e s u l t s were a d j u s t e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e h i g h p e r c e n t a g e o f p o r e w a t e r c.ontained i n t h e f r e s h l y sampled sediments and b i o t a u s i n g T h e a n a l y s i s was p e r f o r m e d r e s u l t s from t h e g r a v i m e t r i c a n a l y s i s . as o u t l i n e d i n S t a n d a r d M e t h o d s ( 1 9 8 3 ) . The p r e p a r e d s a m p l e s were a n a l y z e d b y g a s c h r o m a t o g r a p h y u s i n g S h i m a d z u g a s chromatograph equipped w i t h a 50-meter glass c a p i l l a r y column and a nickel-63 electron capture detector. T h e d e c t o r s i g n a l s were s e n t t o a S h i m a d z u C-R1B r e c o r d e r w h i c h i n t e g r a t e d a n d r e p o r t e d t h e p e a k times a n d a r e a s t h r o u g h a m i c r o c o m p u t e r . A lindane i n t e r n a l s t a n d a r d was u s e d t o i m p r o v e t h e a c c u r a c y a n d p r e c i s i o n of t h e h e p t a c h l o r a n a l y s i s . A l l t e s t i n g procedures are i d e n t i c a l t o those u s e d by t h e V a n d e r b i l t U n i v e r s i t y S t u d e n t E n v i r o n m e n t a l Health P r o j e c t (Wilson, 1983).

458

5.

RESULTS A N D D I S C U S S I O N

The h e p t a c h l o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e water, s e d i m e n t s , and biota all decreasedwithtime. A f t e r t h e h e p t a c h l o r was e n t e r e d i n t o t h e s y s t e m t h e r e was a n i n c r e a s e i n h e p t a c h l o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o l l o w e d by a n u n e x p e c t e d d e c r e a s e , e v e n t u a l l y r e a c h i n g zero. The r e s u l t s show t h a t t h e p h y s i c a l f a t e p a t h w a y s d i d n o t p l a y a m a j o r r o l e a f t e r t h e s y s t e m became a c c l i m a t e d t o t h e h e p t a c h l o r . The f a t e pathways must t h e r e f o r e be dominated by c h e m i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l d e g r a d a t i o n pathways. During t h e study the system c h a n g e d a n d was b e t t e r a b l e t o d e g r a d e t h e c o n t a m i n a n t . This is l i k e l y t o b e t h e r e s u l t o f i n c r e a s e d m i c r o b i a l growth, u n r e l a t e d t o t h e h e p t a c h l o r i n t r o d u c t i o n , b u t l e a d i n g t o more o r g a n i s m s t h a t may e i t h e r a c t a s t r a n s f o r m e r s o r c a t a l y s t s . Except for the first sampling i n t e r v a l , t h e b i o t a did n o t contain d e t e c t a b l e T h e r e s u l t s of t h e g a s c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c l e v e l s of h e p t a c h l o r . a n a l y s i s s h o w e d t h a t new p e a k s were p r e s e n t , i n d i c a t i n g t h e T h e p e a k s were n o t p r e s e n c e of b r e a k d o w n p r o d u c t s . q u a n t i t a t i v e l y a n a l y z e d , b u t f r o m d a t a g i v e n b y Demayo ( 1 9 7 2 ) t h e p e a k s a r e s u s p e c t e d t o b e from t h e p r e s e n c e o f 1 - h y d r o x y c h l o r d e n e , t h e major p r o d u c t of h e p t a c h l o r h y d r o l y s i s . T h e d a t a f o r a l l t h e model stream’s s a m p l i n g i n t e r v a l s and d a t a f o r t h e s t e a d y s t a t e h e p t a c h l o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n a s p r e d i c t e d b y EXAMS a r e s h o w n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g table. TABLE 1 FATE -OF HEPTACHLOR fl A MODEL LABORATORY A N DI NEXAMS COMPUTER SIMULATED STREAM -

INTERVAL

WATER

SEDIMENTS

STREAM

BIOTA

mg/l

(ave) MICROCOSM

8.60E-6 1.66E-5 2.55E-6

1 day 2 day 5 day 10 d a y 22 day 31 d a y

U.D. U.D. U.D.

0.840 1 -72E-3 3.60E-5 8.5E-5 U.D. U.D.

1 -42E-3 U.D. U.D. U.D. U.D. U.D.

EXAMS

4.68E-4

EXAMS

1 .51E-1

2.98

Isteady state)

NOTE:

U . D . m e a n s t h a t t h e h e p t a c h l o r was n o t d e t e c t e d b y t h e method used.

469

T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e l a b o r a t o r y microcosm a n d t h o s e c o m p u t e d b y E X A M S a r e s i m i l a r i n some a s p e c t s , b u t d i f f e r e n t i n o t h e r s . T h e s e d i m e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s f o r EXAMS a t s t e a d y s t a t e a r e t h e same f o r t h e m o d e l s t r e a m sometime b e t w e e n d a y o n e a n d d a y two. T h e h e p t a c h l o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e c o m p a r t m e n t of t h e l a b o r a t o r y m o d e l i s m u c h l o w e r t h a n t p e c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e EXAMS w a t e r compartment. The greatest c o n c e n t r a t i o n d i f f e r e n c e inbetween t h e two m o d e l s i s i n t h e b i o t a . T h i s r e a s o n a b l e t h o u g h , b e c a u s e of t h e n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t m i c r o b i a l s p e c i e s a n d t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n v o l v e d i n a n a l y z i n g them. Although t h e d i f f e r e n c e s are large, t h e EXAMS m o d e l d o e s n o t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t m a n y u n p r e d i c t a b l e a c t i o n s of t h e d y n a m i c l a b o r a t o r y s y s t e m . The changing m i c r o b i a l c o n d i t i o n a n d t h e unkown c o m p l e x c h e m i c a l a n d b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t i o n s make p r e d i c t i o n s e x c e e d i n g l y d i f f i c u l t . 6.

CONCLUSION

The primary d i f f e r e n c e between t h e computer model and t h e l a b o r a t o r y model is t h a t t h e parameters governing chemical fate are h e l d c o n s t a n t i n t h e computer model, and v a r y i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y model. T h i s is n o t t o s a y t h a t a l a b o r a t o r y model is n e c e s s a r i l y t h e b e t t e r o f t h e two t h o u g h . T h e r e i,s n o d e f i n i t e way t o show t h a t t h e c h a n g e s u n d e r g o n e by a l a b o r a t o r y e c o s y s t e m p a r a l l e l c h a n g e s made i n t h e n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t . By n e c e s s i t y t h e computer model must assume t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t fate processes t a k e p l a c e i n d e p e n d e n t l y of o n e a n o t h e r . E v e n if t h e c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p s were k n o w n , i t w o u l d b e d i f f i c u l t t o i m p l e m e n t t h e m b e c a u s e t h e advanced modeling would r e q u i r e complex d i f f e r e n t i a l equations. Even i f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s c o u l d be implemented t h e program would be v e r y c o s t l y and d i f f i c u l t t o u s e advantageously. T h e same i s t r u e w h e n a t t e m p t i n g t o s i m u l a t e a n a t u r a l e c o s y s t e m . D e s i g n i n g a n d m o n i t o r i n g a l l of t h e v a r i a b l e s t a k i n g p l a c e i n a n a t u r a l e c o s y s t e m w o u l d make a n y s u c h p r o j e c t v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d . M o d e l s b a s e d o n r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e p r i n c i p l e s , s u c h a s EXAMS, c a n h e l p p o i n t t h e s c i e n t i s t o r e n g i n e e r i n t h e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n when t h e q u e s t i o n of c h e m i c a l f a t e a r i s e s . Validation studies help t h e s e m o d e l s b e c o m e more a c c u r a t e , e v e n t h o u g h a r e a s o n a b l y h i g h l e v e l of u n c e r t a i n t y r e m a i n s w h e n e v e r l a b o r a t o r y v a l i d a t i o n models and t h e o r e t i c a l models are compared. REFERENCES 1.

B u r n s , L a w r e n c e A . , D a v i d M . C l i n e , R a y R. L a s s i t e r , Exposure Analysis Modeling System (EXAMS): User M a n u a l a n d System Documentation, Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n A g e n c y , A t h e n s , G e o r g i a , 1 9 8 1 .

2.

M.V. S l i m a k , N.W. Gobel, I . P . Mays, C.C. Call,ahan, M.A., F o w l e r , J.R. F r e e d , P. J e n n i n g s , R . L . D u r f e e , F.C. W h i t m o r e , B . M a e s t r i , W . R . M a b e y , B.R. H o l t , C . G o u l d , W a t e r - r e t a t e d E n v i r o n m e n t a l F a t e of 1 2 9 P r i o r i t y P o l l u t a n t s , Volume 1 : I n t r o d u c t i o n a n d T e c h n i c a l B a c k g r o u n d , Metals a n d I n o r g a n i c s , P e s t i c i d e s a n d PCB's EPA-440/4-72-029a, 1979.

3.

New York Times,

pp.

3 4 , J u l y 31,

1975.

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4.

Demayo, A r d r i a n , B u l l e t i n of E n v i r o n m e n t a l C o n t a m i n a t i o n a n d T o x i c o l o g y , V o l u m e 8 , No. 4 , p p . 2 3 4 - 2 3 7 , 1 9 7 2 .

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Kenga, E.E., C . D . I . C o r i n g , ASTM T h i r d A q u a t i c T o x i c o l o g y S y m p o s i u m , S p e c i a l P u b l i c a t i o n No. 7 0 7 , 1 9 8 0 .

6.

Lasslter, R.R., State-of-the-Art-In-Ecological-Modeling, S.E. J o r g e n s e n , E d i t o r , Pergamon Press, N . Y . , pp. 127-161, 1979.

7.

Legnor, M , P. Pundodhar, V. S t r a s k s a b o r a , C o n t i n u o u s C u l t u r e 6: A p p l i c a t i o n s and New F i e l d , A.C.R. Dean, C.C.T. Evans, J . M e l l i n g , E d i t o r s , E l l i s Morwood L t d . , C h i c h e s t o n , E n g l a n d , PP. 329, 1976.

8.

W.

9.

McQuire, R.R., V o l u m e 2 3 , No.

P . , R . L . M e t e a l F , A.S. H i r w e , J . W . W i l l i a m s , J o u r n a l o f A g r i c u l t u r a l a n d F o o d C h e m i s t r y , V o l u m e 2 3 , No. 5 , PP. 967-973, 1975.

J o u r n a l of A g r i c u l t u r a l a n d Food C h e m i s t r y , 4 , pp. 856-861, 1972.

1 0 . S o u t h w o r t h , G.R., J . J . B e a u c h a m p , R e s e a r c h , Volume 1 2 , pp. 9 7 3 - 9 7 7 ,

P . K . S c h n c i d e r , Water 1978.

1 1 . S t a n d a r d M e t h o d s f o r t h e E x a m i n a t i o n o f Water a n d Wastewater, 980. American P u b l i c H e a l t h A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 5 t h e d i t i o n , 1 2 . Q u a l i t y C r i t e r i a f o r Waters U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o e c t i o n Agency, Washington D.C., pp. 154-156, 1976. 13. Wilson, D . J . , Personal Comnunication a t V a n d e r b i l t U n i v e r s i t y , September, 1983.

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N.Veziroglu Elsevier Science PublishersB.V., Amsterdam,1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

ENVIRONMENTALLY BALANCED INDUSTRIAL COMPLEXES Nelson Leonard Nemerow Consulting Environmental Engineer 6711 S.W. 48th Terrace Miami, Florida 33155, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT There is still time to save our biosphere from the ravages of pollution of all types. Human beings as well as industrial production will continue to increase with time. We are at such a high level of each that any,increase no matter how small demands too much of our dwindling fixed environmental resources. By changing our concept of manufacturing we can slow down the buildup in resource entropy of the world. Environmentally balanced industrial complexes (EBIC) are simply a selective collection of compatible industrial plants located together in a complex so as to minimize environmental impact as well as industrial production costs. These objectives are accomplished by utilizing the waste materials of one plant as the raw material for another with a minimum of transportation, storage, and raw material preparation costs. When the same industry neither treats its wastes, imports, stores, or pre-treats its raw materials, its overall production costs must be reduced significantly. Large, water-consuming, and waste-producing industrial plants are ideally suited for location in these industrial complexes. Not only are their wastes hazardous to our fragile environment, but they are also amenable to reuse by close association with satellite industrial plants using wastes and producing raw materials for others within the complex. In this paper preliminary concepts of five typical complexes centered about the following major industries--(l) fertilizer; ( 2 ) steel mill; ( 3 ) pulp and paper ; (4) sugar cane; and (5) tannery are proposed. Detailed description of only the tannery complex is presented in this paper. 1. INTRODUCTION Although the real measurable cost of industrial environmental pollution control remains relatively small when compared to total production or value added costs, it can be considered a significant amount when considered by itself. In fact, it may be enough to influence management of an industry to produce or discontinue the manufacture of specific consumer goods. While environmental engineers are usually not involved in that decision, our goal should be to reduce waste treatment costs to a minimum while protecting the environment to a maximum.

461

462

Environmentally Balanced Industrial Complexes (EBIC) are simply a selective collection of compatable industrial plants located together in a complex s o as to minimize environmental impact as well as industrial production costs. These ofjectives are accomplished by utilizing the waste materials of one plant as the raw material for another with a minimum of transportation, storage, and raw material preparation costs. When the same industry neither treats its wastes, imports, stores, or pre-treats its raw materials, its overall production costs must be reduced significantly. In conventional industrial solutions to waste problems, industry uses separate treatment plant units such as physical, chemical , and biological systems. These add production costs onto already highly competitive manufacturing problems. These costs are also easily identified and, even if relatively small when compared to other production costs, arestrenuouslyopposed o r objected to by industry. On the other hand, reuse costs, if any, in an environmentally balanced industrial complex, will be difficult to identify and more easily absorbed into reasonable production costs. Large, water-consuming, and waste-producing industrial plants are ideally suited for location in such in such industrial complexes. Not only are their wastes hazardous to our fragile environment, but they are also amenable to reuse by close association with satellite industrial plants using wastes and producing raw materials for others within the complex. Examples of such major industries are steel mills, sugar refineries, fertilizer plants, pulp and paper mills, and tanneries. These complexes are not without their own problems, or at least some unknowns which may determine their acceptability. For example, will it be politically and socially feasible, and practical to encourage several specific industries of predetermined definite production capacity to locate in one complex at a certain site? Will contaminants build up in recirculated and reused wastewaters to a degree which will interfere with production of industrial goods? Or will these contaminants be removed in the manufactured products and cause product quality rejections? How will fluctuations in product demand in the external market affect production in the complex? Will special temporary raw material(waste) storage facilities be necessary ? Will malfunctioning of equipment in the production of one product affect the other industrial components within the complex? These and other answers need verification before continuing promotion of the complexes. In this paper we will consider only one of the possible complexes. This will be referred to as the Tannery Complex, since the tannery can be considered the "heart" of this complex concept. Other industrial plants will be located in this complex since they are deemed essential ancillary manufacturing entities.

2.

ENVIRONMENTALLY BALANCED TANNERY COMPLEX

Tannery wastes from upper sole, chrome tanning mills contribute to a significant pollution problem in the United States. The wastes are hot, highly alkaline, odourous, highly colored, and contain elevated quantities of dissolved organic matter, B.O.D., total suspended solids, lime, sulfides and chromium. Tlie treatment of such wastes has been difficult because of the non compatible pollutional parameters of high

pH, organic matter, and potential toxic compounds. Most successful treatment plants utilize some form of biological treatment to reduce the oxygen demand on receiving wastes. This necessitates the use of well-designed and operated preliminary treatments to ensure safe and efficient biodegradation. High sludge quantities result from these treatments. Therefore, properly designed and operated tannery waste treatment systems are considered costly to build and operate; while the lack of these facilities will cause excessive stream, land, and air pollution. Building and operating the tannery in an environmentally optimized industrial complex eliminates both of these negatives. A detailed study of this type of tannery complex is given in the remainder of thepaper which follows. 3.

THE SLAUGHTERHOUSE-TANNERY -RENDERING COMPLEX

The author has presented two formal papers at technical meetings on the EBIC subject (1, 1977 and 3,1980) and a Report (4,1980) representing a first attempt at providing a complete mass balance of reference-validated inputs and outputs of plants within an industrial complex. The fulcrum industrial plant of this complex is a tannery. Supporting industries include slaughterhouse and rendering plants. The three-industry complex is also expanded to consist of an animal grazing and feedlot facility as well as a residential area for homes of all personnel working in the complex. As the complex is expanded to include the feedlot, residences, biogas and power plant services the complex becomes more self sustaining. Outside service requirements are minimized by the expansion. All power is generated within the complex in the expanded third stage version. Excess products of leather, meat, meal, soap, and even electricity are sold to consumers outside the complex. Chemicals, water, cattle, and animal feed are imported to the complex. Wastewater, blood and bone meal, hide and leather trimmings, cattle dung, and residential solid wastes are recovered and reused within (internally) the expanded complex. The complex can be constructed as shown in the first stage , second stage, o r fully expanded to the third stage. Criteria for decision will be based upon area requirements and individual, local objectives. STAGE 1 This is the first of the three stage industrial complex which is balanced internally so that little or no adverse environmental impact results from any of the industrial plant's productive activities. Each stage represents a totally balanced and individual industrial complex. The first stage consists of a three industry plant complex comprising 1) a slaughterhouse 2) a tannery and 3) a rendering plant. A schematical drawing of the complex is given in the following Figure 1 which includes inputs and outputs from each industrial plant. External raw materials and manufactured products for external sale are given in Table 1. STAGE 2 The second of the three stage industrial complex is also balanced internally so that little o r no adverse environmental impact results from any of the industrial plant's productive activities. It differs from the first stage in that it provides a more complete and self sufficient complex. It also provides more reuse potential for the three industrial effluents than the first stage. In addition, it provides living space in the complex for employees of the industrial plants and feedlot and grazing area for raising the animals to the required weight. Whenever feasible the second stage complex is recommended in preference to the

3

464

t

(5

0

n 0

n t

t L

-u

MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS FOR OUTSIDE SALE

R A W MATERIAL REQUIRED FROM OUTSIDE THE COMPLEX

Amount

Material

1. F r e s h Makeup

97,599 W l / d

water

Material

Amount

#/a

1. Meat p r o d u c t s

513,341

2. Tanned l e a t h e r

36,000 sq.ft./d

2. E l e c t . Power

45,432 KWH/d

3. Blood meal

4092 #/d

3. Cattle

90O/d 854,100 #LWK/d

4. Tallow

79,740 #/d

4. Chemicals

495 #/d Na2S

5. Bone meal

70,776 #/d

3960 #/d Ca(OH12 1500 #/d H2S04 2475 g a l / d k e r o s e n e 1980 f//d o i l o r wax

6. Tanned h i d e trimmings, shavings e t c .

1802 #/d

2475 #/d cr2(sob13 4208 #/d N a C l

TABLE

-

1

External. Raw Materials and Manufactured P r o d u c t s in Three I n d u s t r y 1I Complex ( STAGE

-

466

first stage. Mass balance of the second complex is given in Figure 2. External raw materials and manufactured products for external sale are given in Table 2 . STAGE 3 This is the third of three stage industrial complex. It enlarges the smaller complex and is more balanced internally so that little or no adverse environmental impact results from any of the industrial plant's productive activities. Agriculture and municipal residence services are provided in this complex. Residential solid wastes from both industrial and municipal facilities are fermented to methane gas which is used subsequently to produce electrical energy for use in the complex. Waste sludge from the fermenter is incinerated to produce additional electrical energy for use in the complex. The schematic arrangement of the third phase of the complex is shown along with the mass balances of each unit in Figure 3. External raw materials and manufactured products for external sale are given in Table 3. 4 . GENERAL DISCUSSION

As we proceed from the first stage to the three industry complex (Figures 1, 2 , and 3 ) by adding stages, some apparent potential problems arise. For example, when we add stage 2 to the complex, we compute that a cattle grazing and feedlot area of 620 acres is required for the 135,000 cattle. This vast acreage may be difficult to obtain in the same location as the three industries. In addition, a large quantity, 1350 tons per day, of feed must be supplied from internal and external sources. In the third stage of the complex I propose to produce methane gas from all solid waste residues. This gas will subsequently be used for power production. An excess of power within the complex results from this sequence of operations. An alternative to exporting power for sale outside the complex would be the production of other valuable intermediate products such as alcohol from the fermenters. This choice can be determined from market conditions at the time of establishment of the complex. The tannery three-stage complex analysis is the deepest study of the new concept. As shown in Table 3 the managers of the three stage complex still must import four basic materials: water, calves, chemicals, and cattlefeed. About three million gallons of water, 2.6 million pounds of feed, 900 calves, and about 6 tons of chemicals are needed each and every production day. This complex also will produce for external sale about 250 tons of meat, 36,000 square feet of leather, 40 tons of tallow, and almost 700,000 kilowatts of energy each production day. Although a complete economic analysis of such a system is still necessary, it appears at least self-sustaining and probably will show a considerable net profit. The implications of such complexes are obvious. However, if we are able to produce a profit and protect the environment from any degradation, our major goals will have been achieved.

.

Water

I~o,ooogal/d

- _. - - - -

domestic

supply

M UNl Cl PAL R E S l DE NC E 5 l l t s persons, 61 acres 304

residences

P 0)

-a

MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS FOR OUTSIDE SALE

R A W MATERIAL REQUIRED FROM OUTSIDE THE COMPLEX ~~

Material

Amount

Material 1. Freeh Makeup water 2. E l e c t . Power

3. Calws

2 ,927

,599

9OO/d (150 days p r i o r t o production) 90,000 #/d

4. Chemicals

495 #/d Na2S 3960 1500 2475 1980 2475 4208

1. Meat products

513,341 #/d

2. Tanned l e a t h e r

36,000 s q . f t . / d

W/d

55,564 WH/d

#/d C a ( O H I 2 #/d H2S04 gal/d kerosene #Id oil o r wax #/d Cr2(S04)3 #/d N a C l

Amount

3. Tanndd h i d e trimmings, shavings e t c . 4. T a l l o w

1802 #/d 79,740 #/d

5 . S o l i d Waste (Municipal r e f u s e and sludge

6. Animal Dung

4,259 #/d dry w t . 3,760,000 #/d

or

972,000 #/d

7 #/d C 1 2

5. C a t t l e f e e d

TABLE

-

2

2,625,000 #/d

External Raw Materials and Manufactured Products in Three I n d u s t r y Complex ( STAGE

-2)

(wet)

(dry)

Power

I o i a ) kwh/d

1 7

FERMtNTtRS l o o f t dio 1.0 It lengl

Solid Waste

( t o % solids

)oiler Feedwoter

-

Return Cooling Woter

I

470

TABLE 3 RAW MATERIAL REQUIRED FROM OUTSIDE THE COMPLEX

MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS FOR OUTSIDE SALE

Material

Amount

Material

1.Fresh Makeup Water

2,927,599 gals/day

1. Meat Products

513,34l#fday

1A.Well water (one time only)

l2MGD

2.Tanned Leather

36,0OOft?day

3.Tallow

79,7408f day

4.Energy

694,710KWHfday

2. Calves 3. Chemicals

4. Cattlefeed 5.

900/day-L50 days 540,000 #/day 495#/day Na2S 3960#/day Ca(OHI2 750#/day H2?O4 1980#//dayoil or wax 2475dlday Cr2(S02 2475#/day kerosene 7#/day Chlorine

Anount

2,625,000 #/day

CONCLUSIONS

A three stage environmentally balanced complex has been designed. Mass balances of all plant inputs and outputs have been computed based upon the most recent published industrial data. From an analytical standpoint an industrial complex consisting of a slaughterhouse, tannery, and rendering plant is technically feasible. This complex is also technically feasible when expanded to include animal grazing and feedlots as well as municipal residences (second stage ). The expanded version (third stage) of the complex is more self-sustaining as far as reused products and electrical energy generationare concerned. REFERENCES Nemerow, N.L., S.Farpoq and S.Sengupta "Industrial Complexes and their Relevance for Pulp and Paper Mills" Seminar on Industrial Wastes December 8-9, 1977 Calcutta, India. 2. Nemerow, N.L., S. Farooq and S.Sengupta "Industrial Complexes and their Relevance for Pulp and Paper Mills" Journal of Environment International Volume 3,No.l, page 133, 1980 Pergamon Press, Oxford, England. 3. Nemerow, N.L. "Environmentally Optimized Industrial Complex" National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur,India. Lecture delivered on January 15, 1980. Published in bound proceedings of Institute. 4. Nemerow, N.L. "Preliminary Assessment of Environmentally Balanced Industrial Complex-Three Stage Evolution'.' Report to EPA Contract number 68-02-3170. RTP North Carolina June, 1980. 5. Nemerow, N.L. and A. Dasgupta "Environmentally Balanced Industrial Complexes'' Purdue University Industrial Waste Conference 36th Annual 1981, page 916. 6. Tewari,R.N. and N.L. Nemrrow "Environmentally Balanced and Resource Optimized Draft Pulp and Paper Mill Complex" 37th Annual Purdue University Industrial Waste Conference May 12, 1982, page 353. 2.

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions,edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,Amsterdam,1984- Printed in The Netherlands

BIOMASS CONVERSION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

D.R. Coleman, M.V. Kilgore, Jr., T.J. Laughlin, C.L. Lishawa, W.E. Meyers Southern Research Institute Biochemical Engineering Section P.O. Box 55305 Birmingham, Alabama 35255-5305, U.S.A. M.H. Eley University of Alabama in Huntsville Department of Biological Sciences P.O. Box 311 Huntsville, Alabama 35899, U.S.A. ABSTRACT The amount of municipal solid waste (MSW) produced annually is increasing at an alarming rate. The potential hazards, lack of available landfill sites, and the increasingly strict regulations placed upon existing sites present serious problems in the disposal of solid wastes. Environmentalists and government regulations are forcing city and county governments to actively seek alternatives to landfilling. Unfortunately, direct incineration of MSW has not proved to be an adequate alternative due to the financial unfeasibility of this process and the additional contribution to our environment of unwanted byproducts, i.e., polyaromatic hydrocarbons. We ate developing a cost-effective and profitable process for the bioconversion of MSW by selecting and evaluating various existing technologies. Our selected process involves in part the efficient separation of the inorganic fraction of MSW (ferrous, non-ferrous, etc.) from the organic fraction. In addition, both fractions are sterilized, which greatly reduces the health hazards associated with MSW handling and landfilling. The inorganic fraction is then separated further for recycling. The organic fraction, which is 50 w t X cellulose, is readily converted to glucose by hydrolysis and subsequently to ethanol by fermentation. At present, we are achieving approximately 80 gallons of ethanol per dry ton of organics. 1.

INTRODUCTION

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is the material discarded daily in the form of paper waste, newsprint, corrugated cardboard, yard waste, food waste, glass containers, plastics, ferrous and aluminum containers, and so forth. The amount of MSW produced annually is increasing at an alarming rate. MSW discarded by Americans ranges from 2-5 pounds/person/day [ 1-31. Based on 1980 census figures, this amounts to an estimated annual production of 144 million dry tons. In most municipalities, MSW is collected and landfilled by contract. The potential hazards, lack of available landfill sites, and the increasingly strict regulations placed upon existing sites present serious problems in the disposal of solid wastes.

471

472

For many years it has been the general opinion of the scientific community that MSW contains far more than enough extractable energy to cover the cost of treatment to obtain this energy. It is expected that, in addition to covering the cost of collection, the products from treatment of this material could result in substantial profits in terms of commercially valuable substances. Principal among these profits is the energy gained from the degradation of the organic part of the solid waste. In the past, two considerations have limited the incorporation of this technology into solid-waste management: the large capital c m i t m e n t required to build plants capable of performing the conversion, and the absence of acceptable plant designs maximizing the efficiency of the conversion and yielding the projected profits. Two alternative, fundamentally different approaches are now connuonly considered for the management and disposal of MSW. The first approach is the thermal decomposition of this material with the concomitant generation of steam for operating municipal and industrial facilities and for generating electricity. One of the drawbacks to this system has been the environmental impact of applying this technology and controlling the pollution arising from this method. Difficulties also arise in providing electrical power to an existing monopoly at a fair price in a declining market for electrical consumption. The second approach to obtaining energy from municipal solid waste has been the biodegradation and fermentation of this material to obtain ethanol as an energy-containing product and, further, to separate and reuse the proteinaceous by-products for animal feed. Several pilot-scale facilities for performing this operation are now in operation. A major difficulty in the use of this process is in the initial separation and sterilization of the various components found in solid waste. Significant capital and energy are required to separate and sterilize the waste material to obtain a product useful for fermentation. Economic analysis of this approach, however, suggests that an acceptable return on investment can be achieved by application of this technology. Any process offering the potential to improve the efficiency and capital investment required for this operation could significantly influence the economics of producing ethanol and animal feed from solid waste. The process conceived and patented by Urban Waste Resources and evaluated by us is known as the Pressure Vessel Separation/Sterilization (PVSS) Process. It offers the requisite potential for achieving an improved conversion of MSW to sterile, fermentable products.

2.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An SCO composite was prepared by manually mixing 50-lb samples from five consecutive runs of the PVSS processor under identical parameters. Each run was performed on 600 lb (90 ft3) of MSW collected in the Hoover/Vestavia, Alabama area and 200 lb of water at 60 psig for 60 min. Samples of this composite were analyzed by the following: Analytical Labs and Services, Inc. (Huntsville, AL), Deep South Laboratories (Montgomery, AL), and Southern Research Institute (Birmingham, AL). Samples were submitted to the following investigators for saccharification and fermentation studies: Dr. Y. Y. Lee, Auburn University; Dr. J. S. Goldstein, North Carolina State University; Dr. M. Wayman, University of Toronto; Dr. J. L. Caddy, University of Arkansas; Dr. A. 0. Converse, Dartmouth College; and Dr. G. H. Emert, University of Arkansas. The following is a summary of each method, including methods used by US.

Dr. Y. Y. Lee, carried out a hydrolysis under these conditions: 1 part oven-dried solid to 2.1 parts liquid; 12% %SO,,; 190 *C; 3.5 min. 'The hydrolyzate was analyzed for glucose by high-performance liquid chromatography

473

Dr. Lee also performed a fermentation test on this hydrolyzate. The (HPLC).. pH of the hydrolyzate was raised to 10 by treatment with lime and left overnight. The pH was then readjusted to 4.5 by &SO,. and centrifuged to remove the precipitate. A Saccharomyces cerevisiae (ZTC? 561) was grown on glucose medium and centrifueed to collect cell$. ADDrOXimatelv 2 prams of the DreciDitated cplla were transferred to a combination of 8 mL hydrolyeate and 10 mL medium containing 0.5% yeast extract, 0.5% peptone, and 0.5% malt extract to give a total of 18 mL. Fermentation was carried out in a 200-mL flask in a shaker bath at 200 rpm and 30.C.

-

..

-

1

Dr. J. S. Goldstein's process involved a hydrolysis of SCO with a 1O:l ratio of 15-16 HCl (-45%) at 50 'C for 30 min with shaking at 120 oscillations per minute. Before being analyzed, the SCO was dried and high-density particles (e.g., glass) were removed. The hydrolyzate wss analyzed by gas chromatography (which detected xylose, mannose, and glucose) and by the dinitrosalicylic acid procedure for total reducing sugars. Residue, soluble lignin, and hydroxy-methylfurfural were also determined. Dr. H. Wayman used the following method. The hydrolysis procedure was carried out in 3 0 4 stainless steel pressure vessels. Prehydrolysis, to remove readily hydrolyzable material such as hemicellulose and starch, was performed at 150 'C (10 minutes to temperature, 20 minutes at temperature) with The SO2 used was 4% of organic waste material (OW), SO2 as the catalyst. resulting in a 1% solution. The washed residue from prehydrolysis was then hydrolyzed at 190 * C (16 minutes to temperature, 4 minutes at temperature) with SO2 as catalyst. SO2 was 2% on OWM or a 0.5% solution. The washed residue from this stage was then recycled for similar treatment with SO2. The resulting solutions were analyzed for glucose by a YSI glucose analyzer (glucose oxidase enzyme membrane) and for total reducing sugars by the DNSA method. Also, a sample of the sugar was posthydrolyzed with 6% €$SO4 for 1 hour at 115 *C, and the analyses were repeated to determine oligomers. Dr. J. L. Gaddy performed both a two-step and a single-step hydrolysis. The details of the method are proprietary. The two-step process consists of a prehydrolysis to convert hemicellulose to glucose and xylose and a main hydrolysis of the prehydrolysis residue to convert cellulose to glucose. The single-step process essentially combines prehydrolysis and hydrolysis into a single hydrolysis step. All experiments were carried out in batch reaction vessels maintained at constant temperature, All samples were air dried, and non-cellulose materials, such as metal and glass, were removed prior to the experiments. The ultraviolet spectrophotometric method developed by Scott (4) was used to determine glucose and xylose concentrations. The DNSA-reducingsugar procedure and a glucose-analysis procedure were used as s back up. Dr. Gaddy also performed a fermentation by the following method. The sugar solutions were fermented in batch vessels, with agitation, by 2. cerevisiae. As a control, synthetic glucose at the identical concentration was fermented simultaneously. Dr. Alvin 0. Converse performed both a straight H2S04 hydrolysis and an acid pretreatment followed by enzymatic hydrolysis. The SCO samples were oven dried and potentially damaging materials were removed by suspending the refuse in water with the aid of a Ross mixer. The supernatant slurry was then filtered and the filtrate was retained as a medium for resuspension. The solids were dried and then milled until-the particles were small enough to pass through a 1-mm sieve.

414

A slurry of 1500 g of this clean, milled refuse in 17 L of water (15 L of filtrate from cleaning and 2 L of fresh, an 8.8% solution) was prepared for introduction into the reactor. This concentration was too high to be properly In the reactor this slurry was pumped, so the slurry was diluted to 5.2%. first injected with 0.93% %SO,, and followed with high-pressure steam. Samples were taken as the temperature inside the reactor was increased from 180 to These samples, plus a feed slurry sample, were separated into solid 260 'C. and liquid components. The Liquid component was neutralized, and sugar analysis was performed by HPLC. The following is the pretreatment/enzymatic procedure used by Dr. Converse. Pretreatment conditions were 220 'C and %SO,, concentrations of 1.03% by weight. Eight samples were prepared for the enzymatic hydrolysis: two each from the pretreatment runs performed at 180, 200, and 220 *C, and two from the original feed slurry. The samples prepared were 20 mg/mL in 100 mL. The samples were placed into eight 250-mL Erlenmeyer flasks, and 10 1 NaOH was added to the pretreated samples so that a pH of 4.8 was attained in those six. Buffer (0.05 2 citric acid containing 1.0% NaN3 to inhibit bacterial growth) was added to bring each final volume to 100 mL. Then the samples were placed in a shaker bath and allowed to equilibrate at 50 "C for 20 min. To initiate hydrolysis, 0.95 mg of NOVO C-30 cellulase and 0.10 mL of NOVO 250-L cellobiase were added to each of the pretreated samples and one of the feed samples. The other feed acts as a control. Samples (3 mL) were removed from each flask at 0, 0.25, 0.50, 1, 2, 4, 24, and 48 hours after initiation. Each 3-mL sample is stopped, after extraction, with 10 IJL of 72% H2S0,, and refrigerated. After -12 hours, each sample was neutralized with barium carbonate and centrifuged. The supernatant was analyzed by HPLC.

Dr. G. H . Emert used a proprietary enzymatic simultaneous saccharification fermentation (SSF) process (5,6) after a particle-size reduction (PSR) step. This process uses a crude enzyme extract produced from Trichoderma reesii and the simultaneous fermentation of glucose to ethanol to reduce the effects of end-product inhibition on the cellulose complex. We performed acid hydrolyses using (98%) H2S04 and (37%) HCL. For the former, the moisture content of the SCO was determined to be 69.1% by drying overnight in a vacuum oven. A 250-g reaction mixture was then prepared by mixing 80.9 g of SCO (25 g by equivalent), 25 g of 98% t $ S O ; , and 144.1 g of distilled water. The reaction was immediately submerged in a 100 OC water bath for 2 hours. Then, the reaction mixture was filtered through a Biichner funnel. The filtrate was neutralized with CaC03 and analyzed by HPLC. The HC1 hydrolysis was carried out under the following conditions. Dry SCO (10 g) was mixed with 90 g 37% of HC1 and placed in a shaker for 2 hours. Cellulose was assayed by the method of Updegraff (7). Glucose was assayed by HPLC and the spectrophotometric method of Scott (4). We performed an SSF using 5. cerevisiae (ATCC 4132) alone and S. cerevisiae and 2. wickerhamii together by the following method. Initially, all SCO samples were autoclaved at 121 "C for 15 minutes. Each fermentation flask contained, by weight, 50% SCO (determined to be 14% solids, 7.5% cellulose, 36% moisture), 0.2% yeast extract, 0.4% Miles Tv cellulase, tap water, and 10% yeast culture inoculum to yield a total medium weight of 75 g. Samples containing cerevisiae, cerevisiae, and 2. wickerhamii and an uninoculated control were incubated at 35 and 49 'C. Samples were taken at 72, 96, 120, and 144 hours and analyzed for ethanol by HPLC.

s.

s.

476

3.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

We have performed a technical and economic evaluation of the PVSS process for classifying and sterilizing MSW. This process efficiently separates the inorganic fraction (ferrous, nonferrous, etc.) from the organic fraction. Both fractions leave the processor sterilized, which greatly reduces the health hazards associated with MSW handling and landfilling. The technology exists for further separation and classification for recycling of the inorganic fraction, that is, as ferrous, aluminum, glass, and plastics. The steam-classified organic (SCO) fraction is readily converted to glucose by either acid or enzymatic hydrolysis and subsequently to ethanol by fermentation.

3.1. MSW Processing During our investigation we have processed 30.5 tons of MSW and 1.5 tons of sewage, generated in Jefferson County, through a PVSS pilot plant. The MSW is separated into three fractions with an average of 43% in the organic fraction, 43% in the organic-inorganic mix, and 14% in the inorganic fraction. The organic fraction (Fraction 1) is similar to the paper pulp and passes through a 1/2-in. screen opening. The organic-inorganic mix (Fraction 2 ) is between 2 in. and 1/2 in. and can be reprocessed with 60% of the mix separated into an organic fraction and 35% of the mix separated into an inorganic fraction. Fraction 3 contains primarily recyclable glass and metal. The volume of the MSW was reduced 55% by PVSS processing. Utilization of all fermentable or recyclable components would yield an estimated 90% volume reduction. We have determined that the PVSS process requires -2.3 x lo6 Btu/ton of MSW processed, with most of this energy being recovered. Table 1 compares the lignocellulosic components of processed MSW to those of other biomass materials.

3.2. MSW Assessment Table 2 shows the composition of the average MSW based on consumer purchases. One column shows a comparison for a short-term assessment in 1980 of the MSW of southwest Jefferson County, Alabama. As seen by the differences in Jefferson County, it cannot be assumed that any two raw material sources are equivalent. The waste produced by a modern industrial city can vary greatly with the climate, the nature of its people's lifestyles, and the industrial and commercial facilities located in the region. Before any significant investment is made in the use of this or any process for municipal solid waste management, it must be demonstrated that the products of this process performed on locally produced waste is indeed useful in standard methods for hydrolysis and fermentation. Moisture analysis (Table 3) of the Birmingham MSW revealed the water content of each component. From 100 tons of MSW, 19.91 tons of water was measured; thus, the moisture content of the MSW was about 20% by weight. However, it is evident from the data that the moisture contained in the MSW is found only in the components that are composed either wholly or partially of natural organic materials. Therefore, the inorganic components (glass, ceramic, and metal) can be readily quantitated on a dry-weight basis, even in the original MSW. Furthermore. the plastic component of the organic portion of the MSW which is composed of 100% synthetic material also does not contain significant moisture and, likewise, can be readily quantitated on a dry-weight basis in the original MSW. The textile and leather/rubber components are assumed for this treatise to be composed of 50% natural organic materials and 50% synthetic

476

TABLE 1.

Material

THE COMPOSITION OF PROCESSED MSW AND OTHER SELECTED BIOMASS MATERIALS. Approxirate composition, % dry weight Hemicellulose Cellulose Lignin

Coniferous wood Deciduous mod Corn stover Wheat straw Red clover hay Bagasse Cotton Oat hulls Nut shells Newspr int Processed MSW

20-30 30-40 28.1 50 .O 20.6 20.4 2 .o 20.5 25-30 18 .o 5 .O

25-35 15-20 10.4 15.0 15.1 14.9 0 13.5 30-40 25 .O 14-18

40-50 40-50 36.5 30.0 36.7 41.3 94.0 33.7 25-30 55.5 45-55

aAdapted from various sources.

TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF JEFFERSON COUNTY MSW TO EPA PROJECTED NATIONAL AVERAGE, PERCENT BY WEIGHT

Component

EPA national average, 1973

>

Cardboard Newspaper Misc. paper

EPA national average, 1975

EPA 1980 projected averages

Jefferson County NSW, 1980

39.6

34.9

37.75

38.08

4.1 2.7 1.6

3.8 2.6 1.7

4.44 2.6 1.7

6.62 0.88 5.05

Lumber Yard wastes Ceramics, stones

3.6 14.1 1.5

3.8 16.3 1.6

3.8 16.3 1.6

1.08 6.95 0.93

Food wastes Glass

13.3 10.3

14.9 10.5

12.15 10.18

18.58 14.63

9.9

9.8

9.48

7.19

Plast ics Leather , rubber Textiles (rags, etc.)

>

Ferrous metal

Aluminum 6 othe metals

477

TABLE 3.

COMPOSITION PER 100 TONS MSW (JEFFERSON COUNTY, ALABAMA), CORRECTED FOR MOISTURE

Component

Tons component (as received)

% moisture of component

Tons water of component

Dry weight, tons component

W o a r d

8.11

5.0

0.41

1.70

Newspaper

12.51

6 .O

0.15

11.82

Misc. paper

11.40

5.5

0.96

16.44

Lumber

1.08

10 .o

0.11

0.91

Yard wastes

6.95

41.9

3.33

3.62

F o o d wastes

18.51

10 .O

3.00

5.51

Textiles

5.05

25 .O

1.26

3.19

Leather/rubber

0.88

10 .o

0.09

0.19

Plastics

6.62

0 .o

0.00

6.62

11.23

25.8

19.91

51.32

14.63

0 .o

0.00

14.63

Ceramics

0.93

0 .o

0.00

0.93

Ferrous metals

5.25

0 .o

0.00

5.25

Nonferrous metals

1.94

0 .o

3.00

1.94

Total inorganics

22.15

0 .o

0 .oo

22.15

Organic 6 Inorganic

99.98

19.9

Total organics Inorganic Glass

19.91

80.07

organic materials. There is moisture associated with the textile and leather/rubber components, although the water may be considered to associate principally with the natural materials. Another correction deemed necessary to establish the quality of Nsw for the PVSS process was the determination of the inorganic ash content of each of the components. Table b shows the percent ash and weight of ash for each com-

418 TABLE 4.

COMPOSITION PER 100 TONS MSW (80.07 TONS DRY WEIGHT), CORRECTED FOR INORGANIC ASH CONTENT

Component

Dry weight, tons

X ash, dryweight basis

Tons ash of component

Tons combustible

Organic Cardboard

7.70

5.3

0.41

7.29

Newspaper

11.82

1.5

0.18

11.64

Misc. paper

16.44

6.3

1.04

15.40

Lumber

0.97

2.1

0.02

0.95

Yard wastes

3.62

8.3

0.30

3.32

Food wastes

5.57

16.7

0.93

4.64

Textiles

3.79

2.6

0.10

3.69

Leather/rubber

0.79

11.4

0.09

0.70

Plastics

6.62

10 .o

0.66

5.96

57.32

6.5

3.73

53.59

14.63

100 .o

14.63

Ceramic

0.93

100 .o

0.93

Ferrous metal

5.25

100 .o

5.25

Nonferrous metal

1.94

100 .o

1.94

--

Total inorganic

22.75

100 .o

22.75

--

Organic 6 Inorganic

80.07

33.1

26.48

Total organics Inorganic Glass

53.59

ponent. The last column, labeled tons of combustibles, thus represents the true organic content of each component. A combination of the data in Tables 2 and 3 indicates that Jefferson County MSW is composed of about 53.6% organic materials, 26.5% inorganic materials, and 19.9% water.

479

TABLE 5.

COMPOSITION OF 100 TONS MSW (53.59% TOTAL COMBUSTIBLE ORGANIC MATERIALS), BASED ON DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN THE SYNTHETIC AND NATURAL ORGANIC COMPONENTS

Component

Tons combustible materials

Tons synthetic organics

Tons biomass ~

~~

Cardboard

7.29

7.29

Newspaper

11.64

11.64

Misc. paper

15.40

15.40

Lumber

0.95

0.95

Yard wastes

3.32

3.32

Food wastes

4.64

Textiles

--

4.64

3.69a

1.85

1.85

Leather/rubber

0.70b

0.35

0.35

Plastics

5.96'

5.96

--

53.59

8.16

Total combustibles

45.43

aAssumes 50% natural fibers (cotton, wool) and 50% synthetic fibers. bAssumes 50% leather and 50% rubber. CAssumes 100% synthetic materials.

One additional correction worth consideration in determining the potential yields of materials from the PVSS process is to distinguish between the synthetic organic and natural organic (biomass) materials. Although minor constituents of every organic component are most likely of synthetic origin, the major components under consideration in this section are textiles, leather/rubber, and plastics. The combustible fraction of the plastic component should be considered 100% synthetic organic materials. The combustible fraction of the textiles and leather/rubber components, on the other hand, is assumed to be composed of 50% synthetic materials and 50% natural materials. Table 5 summarizes this information. The biomass component of this sample of MSW is, therefore, 45.43%. Table 6 shows the composition of Birmingham SCO based on the previous analyses and the approximate carbohydrate expected for the various components.

480 TABLE 6.

COMPOSITION OF BIRMINGHAM SCO (STEAM-CALSSIFIED ORGANICS)

Estimated lb carbohydrate

Component

X dry weight of sco

Cardboard

16.05

321 .O

75 .o

240.8

Newspaper

25.62

512.3

75 .O

384.2

Misc. paper

33.90

678 .O

75 .o

508.5

Lumber

2.09

41.7

55 .O

22.9

Yard wastes

7.30

146.2

55 .O

80.4

Food wastes

10.20

204.2

40 .O

81.7

Text iles

4.07

81.3

80 .o

65 .O

Leather

0.77

15.3

30 .O

4.6

-

-

TOTALS

100 .oo

lb Component per ton SCO

2000 .o

Estimated X carbohydrate

69.4

1388.1

3.3. Analysis of SCO Material After PVSS processing, several composite samples of SCO were sent to independent Laboratories for feed analysis. The laboratories which participated were Analytical Labs and Services (Huntsville, AL) ; Deep South Laboratory (Montgomery, AL); and the University of Arkansas (Fayetteville, AR). The results for the composite Samples B445-124 and B445-126 series from runs 14-18 and 47-51 respectively are given in Table 7. The numbers presented are the results of individual analyses and their corresponding means and standard deviations. As indicated by the data presented in Table 7, the BOD analysis varied considerably among the different laboratories. The higher number is probably most accurate due to the high carbohydrate content and nutrient value of the samples. In addition, a comprehensive mineral analysis was completed for the SCO composite at the Institute and is presented in Table 8.

3 . 4 . Acid Hydrolysis We have conducted studies using various sulfuric and hydrochloric hydrolysis procedures. Also, samples have been sent to outside laboratories to examine several proprietary processes. Samples were sent to Auburn University, North Carolina State University, the University of Toronto, and the University

TABLE 7.

SUMMARY OF FEED ANALYSIS FOR SCO COMPOSITE SAMPLES

B445-124-6

B445-124-H

a

Anal. Lab Moisture BOD Feed a n a l y s I (wt %) fiber cellulose fat protein lignin hemicellulose

-

b

71.9

70.9

68 .O

340 .O

129,000 .O

NDe

70.28 52.8 5.2 5.5 16.8 0.42

--d 9.9 29.92 0.56 0.31 0.88 28.1

a A n a l y t i c a l Labs and S e r v i c e s , I n c o r p o r a t e d . b Deep South L a b o r a t o r i e s . C

U n i v e r s i t y of Arkansas. d = not determined.

e

"ND"=

C

B445-126-E

B445-126-E

a

b

65.85

66.2

440 .O

16950.0

'y b a s i s

ash t o t a l carbohydrates TOC organic N inorganic N kjeldahl N t o t a l solids

11--11

Sample No. B445-124-A

not d e t e c t a b l e

.

76.4 58.5 4.50 4.75 17.90 NDe

12.0 10.95 40.9 0.76 NDe

0.76 29.1

66.3 51.9 5.3 5.3 14.0 0.4

-4-8 --d

--d --d --a 32 .O

64.91 55.91 2.77 5.13 15.73 8.14

72.2 53.6 5.3 4.23 15.4: 3.20

17.43 9.46 42.86 0.64 0.17 0.81 34.15

17.8 9.67 32.3 0.68 NDe

0.68 33.8

482 TABLE 8 .

SUMMARY OF MINERAL ANALYSIS OF SCO COMPOSITE SAMPLE B445-124

Element

Zinc Iron Copper Manganese Cadmium Lead Nickel Magnesium Silver Cobalt Ant imony Thallium Vanadium Calcium Chromium Boron B e r y l 1ium Sodium P o t a s s ium Arsenic su 1f u r ( SO;) Fluorine Se 1en i um Mercury

Method

Flame AA ( A i r / % % ) Flame AA ( A i r / C 2 % ) Flame AA ( A i r / % % ) Flame AA (Air/C2%) Flame AA ( A i r / $ % ) Flame AA (Air/C2€$) Flame AA ( A i r / % % ) Flame AA ( A i r / % % ) Flame AA (Air/C2%) Flame AA ( A i r / $ % ) Flame AA ( A i r / C 2 % ) Flame AA ( A i r / % % ) Flame AA (Air/C2%) Flame AA (N20/C2%) Flame AA (N20/C2%) Flame AA (N20/C2%) Flame AA (N20/%%) Flame AE Flame AE Furnace AA Ion Chrom. Ion Chrom. Furnace AA Furnace AA

Amount, ppm ( d r y b a s i s )

420 .O 1745.0 26.4 63.1 2.85 92.7 6.45 810.0 98.5 6.6 36.7 <6.0


1530.0 230.0

4 .O
of Arkansas f o r a c i d h y d r o l y s i s s t u d i e s w i t h t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p r o p r i e t a r y process. A comparison of h y d r o l y s i s c o n d i t i o n s and r e s u l t s is p r e s e n t e d i n Table 9 .

Dr. using a taining glucose

Y. Y. Lee, Department of Chemical E n g i n e e r i n g , Auburn U n i v e r s i t y , 12% H2S0,, p r o c e s s a t 190 "C for 3 . 5 min, a c h i e v e d a h y d r o l y z a t e cona p p r o x i m a t e l y 12% g l u c o s e . By c a l c u l a t i o n t h e s u g a r y i e l d w a s 25 g of per 100 g of oven-dried SCO. These r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e a c o n v e r s i o n of

483 TABLE 9 .

C O W A R I S O N OF HYDROLYSIS CONDlTIONS AND YIELDS QROU SCO

Actual

Glucose concentration.

conversion, Gluco8eISCO.

(% cellulose

Theoretical EtOHlton USW,' gal

Actual

EtOHIton USY.a gal

Overall conversion efficiency, X

8lL

818

12% 4 S O b b 190 'C; 3.5 min

49

0.25

43.3

20

20

43.2

-45% HCIC 50 'C; 30 min

NDd

0.471

71

32.6

ND

ND

4% so gaae 150-1$0 *C; 50 min

ND

0.341

55.2

25.6

ND

ND

Proprietary (HCI)

83.8

0.58

LOO

46.3

43

93

Proprietary (HC1)

86.3

0.60

104

48.2

44.8

96.1

Proprietary (HCI)

59.1

0.50

86.2

39.9

37.1

80

8.45

0.221

38

17.6

m

ND

1.03% H2S0,, (pretreatment)f 220 'C; NOVO C-30 enzymatic hydrolysis

18.26

0.453

78.1

36.16

ND

ND

P S R ~(pretreatment)h SSF 48 h

54.68

0.482

81.2

37.5

37.5

81

4.5

0.10

17.1

ND

ND

31.3

0.269

46.3

21.4

ND

ND

24

0.35

61

28.2

28.2

61

PrOCee.8

0.93% $ S O 240 'C; 8.11 sec

10% %SO*'

to glucose)

7.91

100 'C; 2 h

37% HCli 27 'C; 2 h

PSR (pret reatment ) SSF 72 h 'Aa

received

bDr. Y. Y. Lee, Dept. of Chen. Eng.. Auburn University =Dr. I . S. Goldatein, Dept. Wood 6 Paper Science, North Carolina State University dNo data

eDr. U. Wayman, Dept. of Chem. E n g . , University of Toronto fDr. A. 0 . Converse, Thayer School o f Eng..

Dartmouth College

BParticle sire reduction hDr. G. H. Emert, Biomass Research Center, University of Arkansas 'Southern Research Institute, Biotechnology Division

484

approximately 43.3% of the total theoretical yield and would result in approximately 20 gal of ethanol being produced per ton of MSW, as received. Dr. I. S. Goldstein, Department of Wood and Paper Science, North Carolina State University, using an -45% HCL process at 50 'C for 30 min, achieved a conversion of approximately 75%, which would yield approximately 34 gal ethanollton MSW as received. Dr. M. Wayman, Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, using 4% SO2 as the hydrolyzing agent at 150-190 'C for a total of 50 min, achieved approximately 55% hydrolysis, which converts to 25.6 gal ethanollton MSW as received. Dr. J. L. Gaddy and Dr. E. C. Clausen, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Arkansas, have carried out a series of hydrolysis experiments on the SCO fraction using a proprietary process. The results of these experiments indicate that approximately 0.5 g of glucose and 0.1 g of xylose may be obtained per gram of dried SCO material with a ,one-step process. By calculation this yield is approximately 86% with respect to theoretical and would yield approximately 40 gal ethanollton MSW as received.

In our laboratory, we have conducted studies to examine the effect of solids ratio and %SO4 concentration on hydrolysis. With a reaction time of 2 hours at 100 'C, acid hydrolysis was performed on 10 w t % slurries of SCO and =-cellulose. Concentrations of 1, 5, 10, 20, and 40% wt/wt %SO,, were used. Prom these data it was confirmed that 10 to 20 wt % is the optimal acid concentration for SCO hydrolysis under these conditions, although the yields are relatively low (Table 8 ) . The maximum glucose yield is seen with 10 wt % H2S04, and this yield is 0.1 g glucose/gram dried SCO. This represents approximately 17% hydrolysis and would convert to approximately 8 gal ethanol being produced per ton of MSW as received. We have also examined the Uric-Rheinau HCL process using superconcentrated HC1 (37-432) at ambient temperature. Hydrolysis is carried out with 10 w t % slurries of SCO and 37 and 43% HC1. The results (Table 9) indicate that, by using 37% HCL, glucose yields are 0.27 g of glucose per gram of dried SCO material. By calculation this represent 46% hydrolysis of theoretical cellulose or 21 gal ethanollton MSW as received. 3.5.

Enzymatic Hydrolysis

The enzymatic hydrolysis of the cellulose component of SCO has also been explored. Again, these studies were conducted both "in house" and at outside laboratories to examine proprietary processes. Composite samples of SCO were sent to Dartmouth College and the University of Arkansas for hydrolysis by their respective proprietary enzymatic processes. Again, a comparison of the conditions and results of these processes is presented in Table 9. Dr. A. 0. Converse, Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, using a 1.03% H2S04 pretreatment at 220 *C followed by treatment with NOVO C-30 cellulase, achieved a conversion of 0.453 gram glucoselgram dried SCO. This relates to approximately 78% conversion and would yield 36 gal ethanol being produced per ton MSW, as received. Dr. G. H. Emert, Biomass Research Center, University of Arkansas, using only a PSR pretreatment followed by a simultaneous saccharification

485 fermentation process, achieved 0.48 g glucose/gram dried SCO. This converts to approximately 81% conversion of theoretical and results in almost 38 gal of ethanol being produced per ton of MSW, as received. In our laboratory we too have conducted enzymatic hydrolysis studies using PSR pretreatment followed by an SSF process. Using this procedure, we obtained 0.35 g glucose/gram dried SCO which relates to a 61% conversion of theoretical. By calculation this would result in the production of over 28 gal of ethanol produced per ton of MSW, as received.

4.

CONCLUSIONS PVSS process efficiently separates the inorganics from the organic fraction of MSW, thus enhancing the recyclability of metals contained therein. PVSS process produces a cost-effective, high-value feed stock from a material having a negative environmental value. SCO produced can be hydrolyzed by either acid or enzymatic process to glucose and subsequently to ethyl alcohol. PVSS process reduces the material to be landfilled by as much as 90%. The recyclability of metals coupled with the production of chemicals from waste source and the advantage of landfilling substantially less material makes for a source of revenue to city and county governments which cannot be ignored.

As a final consideration, MSW is an environmental concern to which we in the U.S. must find a solution due to a rapidly dwindling availability of landfill areas. The cellulose-to-chemicals industry, coupled with MSW classification, represents one possible solution wherein metals may be recycled and cellulose may be converted to useful chemicals while landfill requirements are reduced by 90% or more. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The research reported in this paper was sponsored by the Commissioners of Jefferson County, Alabama, under Contract SoRI-EAS-83-217. REFERENCES 1.

Rivers, D.B., and Emert, G.H, "Assessment of lignocellulosic substrates for the production of liquid fuels and chemicals", Personal Communication, 1984.

2.

Metcalf and Eddy, Phase I: Solid waste resource recovery feasibility analysis, prepared by Metcalf and Eddy, Inc./Engineers for Jefferson County Commission,' Birmingham, Alabama, January, 1981. Available from: Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Boston, MA.

486 3.

Bartley, D.A., Vigil, S.A., and Tchobanoglous, G., "The use of source separated waste paper as a biomass fuel", Biotechnol. Bioeng. Symp., 1980, No. 10, pp. 67-79.

4.

Scott, R . W . , "Combined determinations of glucose, mannose and xylose by spectrophotometry", Anal. Chem.. 1976, Vol. 48, No. 13, pp. 1919-1922.

5.

Becker, D . K . , Blotkamp, P.J., and Emert, G.H., "Pilot-Scale conversion of cellulose to ethanol ,I1 Fuels from biomass and wastes, Klass, D.L., and Emert, G . H . , eds., Ann Arbor Science, 1981, pp. 375-391.

6.

Blotkamp, P.J., Takagi, M., Pemberton, M.S., and Emert, G . H . , "Enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose and simultaneous fermentation to alcohol", Symposium Series No. 181, 1981, Vol. 74. pp. 85-90.

7.

Updegraff, D.M., "Semimicro determination of cellulose in biological materials", Analyt. Biochem, 1969, Vol. 32, pp. 420-424.

AICHE

487

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

AN INVESTIGATION I N T O THE BIODEGRADABILITY OF METALWORKING LUBRICANTS W I T H REGARD TO BOD/COD PARAMETER DATA

Karen E . Rich Franklin O i l Corporation B e d f o r d , Ohio 4 4 1 4 6 , U.S.A.

ABSTRACT

B i o c h e m i c a l oxygen demand, combined w i t h c h e m i c a l oxygen demand r a t i o s , p r o v i d e a p r o f i e t h a t c a n b e u s e d i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f an e f f l u e n t water s y s t e m ' s e n v i r o n m e n t a l h e a l t h . The b i o c h e m i c a l oxygen demand BOD) and t h e c h e m i c a l oxygen demand (COD) a r e commonly u s e d a s p a r meters f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d e g r a d a t i o n o f o r g a n i c compounds. The b i o l o g i c a l oxygen demand t e s t i n g measures o n l y t h e b i o d e g r a d a b l e p a r t o f an o r g a n i c w a s t e process. BOD p a r a m e t e r s a r e a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e a b i l i t y f o r s p e c i f i e d m i c r o o r g a n i s m s t o o x i d i z e a v a i l a b l e o r g a n i c matter. The c h e m i c a l oxygen demand p r o v i d e s a means o f measurement o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l h e a l t h o f t h e s y s t e m i n terms o f t h e oxygen demand p l a c e d upon org a n i c matter needed f o r d e g r a d a t i o n . Both BOD and COD p a r a m e t e r s have been i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r s t r a i g h t o i l , water-soluble c h l o r i n a t e d o i l , and w a t e r - b a s e d s y n t h e t i c t y p e m e t a l w o r k i n g l u b r i c a n t s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r d e g r e e o f b i o d e g r a d a t i o n w i t h i n a waste s y s t e m s u c h a s found i n i n d u s t r i a l e f f l u e n t s . Results indicate t h a t t h e petroleum o i l - c o n t a i n i n g s y s t e m s e x h i b i t a g e n e r a l l y low i n i t i a l BOD v a l u e , w h i l e COD v a l u e s are h i g h . S y n t h e t i c compounds t e s t e d e x h i b i t t h e o p p o s i t e p r o f i l e - h i g h BOD v a l u e s , l o w COD v a l u e s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t s y n t h e t i c s y s t e m s a r e more e a s i l y o x i d i z e d and degraded i n an aqueous m a t r i x t h a n c o n v e n t i o n a l petroleum-base compounds. This trend indicates a c t i v e b a c t e r i a l action to achieve d e g r a d a t i o n of o r g a n i c s w i t h o u t p l a c i n g a s t r o n g c h e m i c a l demand on t h e e f f l u e n t . I t h a s t h e r e f o r e b e e n o b s e r v e d t h a t BOD/COD t e s t i n g does e n a b l e environmental monitoring and a degree of biod e g r a d a b i l i t y t o be e s t a b l i s h e d for o r g a n i c systems.

-

1.

INTRODUCTION

I n d u s t r i a l p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l c a n b e n e f i t from t h e s t u d y o f oxygen c o n t e n t a n d i t s e f f e c t o n t h e o x i d a t i o n o f o r g a n i c matter. Such s t u d i e s i n c o r p o r a t e t h e u s a g e o f BOD a n d COD d a t a t o p r o v i d e a p r o f i l e t h a t c a n b e u s e d i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a water s y s t e m ' s quality. I n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e environmental r a m i f i c a t i o n s of t h e u s a g e of m e t a l w o r k i n g l u b r i c a n t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d by r e g a r d i n g t h e c o m p i l e d BOD/COD d a t a f o r s t r a i g h t o i l b a s e , w a t e r - s o l u b l e o i l base, and non-petroleum water-based s y n t h e t i c l u b r i c a n t systems.

488

The m e t a l w o r k i n g compounds c u r r e n t l y i n u s e by t h e m a j o r i t y of manufacturers c o n s i s t l a r g e l y of f a t t y a d d i t i v e s f o r l u b r i c i t y , s u l f u r and c h l o r i n e a d d i t i v e s f o r e x t r e m e p r e s s u r e p e r f o r m a n c e By a d d i n g a s p e c i a l i z e d emulsia b i l i t y , and a m i n e r a l o i l b a s e . f i e r package, s u c h s y s t e m s n o t o n l y become more w a t e r s o l u b l e , b u t increased chlorine content is possible, thereby increasing t h e p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s of such s o l u b l e o i l systems. The p r e s e n t s y n t h e t i c t e c h n o l o g y c o n s i s t s l a r g e l y o f t h e amines o a p polymer b a s e t y p e of compounds. Such s y n t h e t i c s are b e i n g developed w i t h t h e purpose of a c h i e v i n g a completely b i o d e g r a d a b l e p r o d u c t which c a n b e s a f e l y u s e d w i t h o u t t h e d i s p o s a l p r o b i e m s enc o u n t e r e d by t h e i r p e t r o l e u m - b a s e d c o u n t e r p a r t s . 2.

OBJECTIVE O F RESEARCH

D i s s o l v e d oxygen i s t h e key e l e m e n t i n t h e l i f e c y c l e o f any I t i s t h e demand on s u c h oxygen t h a t i s u s e d as body o f w a t e r . a measure o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f a wastewater t r e a t m e n t process. I n t h i s s t u d y , t h e b i o c h e m i c a l oxygen demand (BOD) and t h e c h e m i c a l oxygen demand (COD) v a l u e s are u s e d as t h e measuring device to determine t h e q u a l i t y of a given pollutant-containing s y st e m . I f t h e a s s u m p t i o n i s made t h a t t h e BOD t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s measu r e o n l y t h e b i o d e g r a d a b l e p a r t o f t h e o r g a n i c w a s t e sampling, then by t a k i n g s u c h measurements o v e r v a r y i n g t i m e s p a n s , a r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e o f d e g r a d a t i o n w i t h i n a w a s t e t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m c a n b e obs e r v e d . T h i s d a t a , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e c h e m i c a l oxygen demand v a l u e s , o f f e r s a p r o f i l e n o t only o f w a t e r q u a l i t y , b u t also of t h e e x t e n t of t h e biodegradation of t h e contained p o l l u t a n t s . W i t h i n t h e body o f t h i s p a p e r , t h e a u t h o r h a s a t t e m p t e d t o show t h e d e g r a d a t i o n p r o f i l e b a s e d on BOD a s w e l l a s COD p a r a m e t e r d a t a . 3.

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

BOD and COD v a l u e s w e r e o b t a i n e d f o r d i l u t e d s a m p l e s o f p e t r o leum b a s e d s t r a i g h t o i l l u b r i c a n t s , c h l o r i n a t e d s o l u b l e o i l l u b r i c a n t s , and w a t e r - b a s e d s y n t h e t i c m e t a l w o r k i n g l u b r i c a n t s . Samples w e r e t e s t e d a t 500:l and 1 O O O : l a i l u t i o n s ( w a t e r : p r o d u c t ) . Standa r d BOD a n a l y s e s , i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e W i n k l e r t i t r a t i o n method f o r oxygen c o n t e n t d e t e r m i n a t i o n , w e r e p e r f o r m e d f o r d i l u t e d s a m p l e s and s p e c i f i e d s t a n d a r d s . The BOD w a s d e t e r m i n e d by a d d i n g a microb i a l s e e d t o t h e d i l u t e d s a m p l e s , s a t u r a t i n g them w i t h a i r , i n c u b a t i n g f o r 5-,7-, 20-,30-,45-,50and 60-day i n t e r v a l s , and t h e n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d i s s o l v e d oxygen c o n t e n t r e m a i n i n g . Samples were i n c u b a t e d i n s t a n d a r d BOD b o t t l e s i n a c o n s t a n t water b a t h s e t a t 37OC l0C. A w a t e r s e a l w a s u s e d t o p r e v e n t a i r from e n t e r i n g b o t t l e s and c o n t a m i n a t i n g s a m p l e s . The BOD v a l u e s of t h e s a m p l e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d b y m e a s u r i n q t h e d i s s o l v e d oxygen c o n t e n t before The BOD v a l u e s were c a l c u l a t e d and a f t e r t h e i n c i b a t i o n pe;iods. a s follows: BOD, mg/l

-

D1

-

D2

P where D 1 i s t h e i n i t i a l d i s s o l v e d oxygen v a l u e ,

489

D2 i s t h e d k s s o l v e d oxygen v a l u e a f t e r i n c u b a t i o n , a n d P i s t h e f r a c t i o n o f s a m p l e used.

T h i s method f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e o b s e r v e d BOD v a l u e o f s a m p l e s measures t h e oxygen demand produced by c a r b o n a c e o u s and n i t r o g e n o u s compounds, a n d t h e i r immediate o x i d a t i o n . The c h e m i c a l oxygen demand (COD) t e s t i n g w a s u s e d t o p r o v i d e a r a p i d measure o f o r g a n i c w a s t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n . The COD u s e w a s def i n e d a s a measure o f oxygen e q u i v a l e n t t o t h a t p o r t i o n o f o r g a n i c matter i n a sample t h a t i s s u s c e p t i b l e t o o x i d a t i o n by a s t r o n g chemical o x i d a n t (potassium dichromate/50% s u l f u r i c acid s o l u t i o n s a s o x i d a n t s ) . Such oxygen e q u i v a l e n t s w e r e s t u d i e d by r e f l u x i n g d i l u t e d samples w i t h t h e potassium d i c h r o m a t e - s u l f u r i c a c i d solution. Upon c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e o x i d a t i o n p r o c e s s e s , t h e s a m p l e s were t i t r a t e d f o r c h r o m a t e c o n t e n t u s i n g s t a n d a r d f e r r o u s ammonium s u l f a t e r e a g e n t a s d e s c r i b e d by t h e s t a n d a r d EPA a n a l y s i s method [ l ] f o r COD t e s t i n g . Because o f t h e l a r g e amount o f w a t e r p r e s e n t i n t h e s a m p l e s , i t w a s i m p o s s i b l e t o measure a n i n c r e a s e i n a n y o f t h e r e a c t i o n p a r a meters, and t h e r e f o r e became n e c e s s a r y t o measure t h e change occ u r r i n g i n t h e d i c h r o m a t e ( t h e i n c r e a s e i n Cr3+) t o d e t e r m i n e t h e oxygen demand. T i t r a t i n g t h e amount o f C r 6 + t h a t remained a f t e r t h e r e a c t i o n was c o m p l e t e e n a b l e d oxygen l e v e l s t o b e . c a l c u l a t e d . The COD v a l u e s were d e t e r m i n e d by a s i m p l e m a t h e m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n ship:

where COD i s t h e c h e m i c a l oxygen demand, a i s t h e m l s o f f e r r o u s ammonium s u l f a t e u s e d f o r b l a n k b i s t h e m l s o f f e r r o u s ammonium s u l f a t e u s e d f o r sample, and N i s t h e n o r m a l i t y o f t h e f e r r o u s ammonium s u l f a t e . 4.

RESULTS

Chemical t r e n d s i n BOD and COD v a l u e s have b e e n e a s i l y i d e n t i f i e d f o r t h e t e n p r o d u c t s s t u d i e d h e r e ( T a b l e 1; F i g u r e s ) . The s t r a i g h t o i l - b a s e d metalworking l u b r i c a n t s ( F i g s . 1 3 ) , c o n s i s t i n g o f c h l o r i n e and s u l f u r d e r i v a t i v e s , f a t a d d i t i v e s , and p h o s p h a t e s w i t h a s t r a i g h t m i n e r a l o i l b a s e , a r e e a s i l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from t h e e m u l s i f i e r - c o n t a i n i n g w a t e r - s o l u b l e o i l s y s t e m s ( F i g s . 4 - 6 ) by t h e i r i n i t i a l 5-day BOD r e a d i n g s . With t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l o i l - b a s e d compounds, t h e i n i t i a l BOD v a l u e s are g e n e r a l l y lower and t h e COD values s u b s t a n t i a l l y higher. But when t h e s e v a l u e s are t a k e n a t t h e 3 0 - 60 day i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d , it becomes a p p a r e n t t h a t BOD v a l u e s i n c r e a s e s l o w l y t o a maximum and t h e n d i m i n i s h t o a minimal plateau.

-

With t h e a d d i t i o n o f a n e m u l s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m t o t h e s t r a i g h t o i l l u b r i c a n t , t h e i n i t i a l 5-day BOD r e a d i n g s show a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e , s e e n i n t h e p l o t s f o r p r o d u c t s D , E and F ( F i g s . 4 - 6). The 30- and 60day v a l u e s were s u b s t a n t i a l l y lower t h a n t h o s e o b t a i n e d f o r t h e n o n - s o l u b l e o i l s a m p l e s ( p r o d u c t s A , B and C ; Figs. 1 3).

-

490

TABLE 1. TESTING SAMPLE KEY AND CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND VALUES

Key

A

B C D E F G

H I

J

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) V a l u e s 1000 : 1 500 : 1

Product

Straight O i l Straight O i l Slightly Soluble Straight O i C h l o r i n a t e d Water-Soluble O i C h l o r i n a t e d Water-Soluble O i C h l o r i n a t e d Water-Soluble O i Water-Based S y n t h e t i c Water-Based S y n t h e t i c Water-Based S y n t h e t i c Non-Chlorinated, NaphthenicBased O i l

=; \

900

t

l

mg/l mg/l mg/l

mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l

mg/l

2300 mg/l

1317 2122 1875 979 1011 1392 525 742 681

I

1.

mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l

1506 mg/l

SAMPLE A

5 Fig.

l l l

3250 3922 3500 2731 1926 2519 976 1011 1262

15 25 35 45 55 Incubation Time (days)

BOD P r o f i l e s , S t r a i g h t Oils, Sample A.

491

2800.2400.-

=i 2000.-

-

\

E

v

1600.v)

Il 1

4

L

1200..

a

0

800s400.. 2013, C

’

.

.

.

.

.

-

.

-

:

:

:

.

.

-

-

A

.

,. m

1000

a-

a,

,

:

:

Fig.

3.

r

:

i

:

:

;

:

e

:

;

:

25 35 45 55 65 75 I n c u b a t i o n Time ( d a y s ) BOD P r o f i l e s , S o l u b l e O i l s , S a m p l e C.

5

15

492 v

-

m 5000 ,.

.-I

\

m

. .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 I n c u b a t i o n Time ( d a y s ) Fig.

4.

BOD P r o f i l e s ,

S o l u b l e O i l s , Sample D.

5

35

15

25

45

55

65

75

Incubation Time (days) Fig.

5.

BOD P r o f i l e s ,

S o l u b l e C h l o r i n a t e d O i l s , Sample E.

493

5000

.-

4000

,.

c

SAMPLE F

rl

\ Y

10 4

.

3000.-

s 0 2000

C

.

rn 1000

5

Fig. 6. 4.1

15

25

35

45

55

65

75

Incubation Time (days) BOD Profiles, Soluble Chlorinated Oils, Sample F

BOD Values

From the plots of incubation time versus BOD value for petroleum-based samples (Figs. 1 and 21, it is obvious that the addition of emulsifier systems (consisting of straight- and branched-chain amines with polyethoxylated nonionic surfactants) to the straight-oil type lubricant systems decreases the incubation time necessary to reach the maximum BOD level for the tested samples (Figs. 4 and 5 ) . For the highly chlorinated, water-soluble oil systems tested (Samples D - F), the high initial BOD values obkained indicate that such samples are readily oxidized- more so than observed for the straight, nonsoluble oil systems. From the data obtained for products D and E (Figs. 4 and 5 1 , the amine/sulfonate/nonionic surfactant emulsifier system these products contain to increase water solubility tends to exhibit a lower dissolved oxygen content, as the oxygen necessary for biodegradation must be taken from the environment. Product F (Figure 6 ) exhibited a different type of BOD profile which is easily correlated with its composition. Product F incorporates a highly sophisticated emulsion and inhibitor system into a basic chlorine/sulfur-containing petroleum oil. The two distinct maximums observed in the plots of incubation time versus BOD value can be attributed to the ratios of the base components of the system. For each of the major contributing organic components within the product, there is a separate and distinct oxidation point which exists without interference from the petroleum base component. The non-petroleum, water-based synthetic lubricant systems (Products G, H and I; Figs. 7 - 9) all exhibit similar BOD profiles: high initial BOD levels-quickly tapering off to an absolute minimum. In all of these synthetic systems, maximum BOD values were observed at the 5 - 7 day incubation period.

494

I.

-

5000

-v

4

\

4000.v

.. 2 0 0 0 .. 3000

rl

c)

0

m

1000

'. J

: : : : :

z

:

;

:

SAMPLE H

1 . . 5

Fig. 8.

15

r I

.

25

.

.

35

-

!

45

:

!

*

55

*

.

65

.

I

1

75

Incul>ation Time (davs) - BOD Profiles, Synthetics, Sample H.

495

-l2 ..

r

SAMPLE

5000

I

4

\

4000

ffl

2al 3 0 0 0 9 g 2000 m 1000

1000/1 5

Fig. 9.

5000

t

15

25

35 45 55 65 75 Incubation Time (days) BOD P r o f i l e s , S y n t h e t i c s , Sample I

SAMPLE J

$ 3000

2

2000

a

0

m

1000

5

Fig.

10.

15 25 35 45 55 65 75 Incubation Time (days) BOD P r o f i l e , S t r a i g h t Base O i l ( N a p h t h e n i c ) , Sam2le J.

496

V a r i a t i o n s among t h e t h r e e s y n t h e t i c l u b r i c a n t s a m p l e s c a n be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e unique chemistry encountered for each product. P r o d u c t G ( F i g . 7 ) w a s a s y n t h e t i c s o a p c o n t a i n i n g p o l y m e r s and polycyclic rust-inhibitor additives. P r o d u c t H ( F i g . 8 ) w a s a l s o an amine-soap b a s e s y s t e m , b u t w i t h a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t a d d i t i v e b a s e . The o b s e r v e d BOD l e v e l s f o r p r o d u c t H r e a c h e d t h e i r maximum a t t h e 7-day i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d . BOD l e v e l s f o r p r o d u c t H were a l s o s l i g h t l y lower t h a n f o r p r o d u c t G , i n d i c a t i n g a p o s s i b l e d e c r e a s e i n oxidation potential. Sample I BOD l e v e l s ( F i g . 9 ) w e r e m o s t s i m i l a r t o t h e p r o f i l e o b t a i n e d f o r P r o d u c t H. Samples H and I are chemicall y s i m i l a r and v a r y o n l y s l i g h t l y i n t h e i r defoaming c a p a b i l i t y . Sample J i s a s t r a i g h t n a p h t h e n i c o i l and e x h i b i t s v e r y p r e d i c t a b l e BOD v a l u e s ( F i g . 1 0 ) . I t e x h i b i t s a much h i g h e r i n i t i a l BOD r e a d i n g t h a n d o t h e c h l o r i n a t e d o i l s y s t e m s ( F i g s . 4 6) since i t c o n t a i n s n e i t h e r c h l o r i n e o r s u l f u r a d d i t i o n s , n o r a n y spec i f i c e m u l s i f i c a t i o n systems.

-

4.2

COD V a l u e s .

S i n c e COD i s a measure o f t h e o x i d i z a b l e o r g a n i c c o n t e n t o f a s a m p l e , t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e COD tests o b t a i n e d (Table 1) a r e cons i d e r e d t o b e a measure o f t h e g r o s s o r g a n i c p o l l u t i o n c o n t e n t of a w a s t e w a t e r s a m p l e [ 2 ] . A l l o r g a n i c components s h o u l d b e o x i d i z e d t o c a r b o n d i o x i d e a n d w a t e r , w i t h n i t r o g e n from a m i n e s a n d amino compounds c o n v e r t e d t o t h e ammonium i o n a n d n o t o x i d i z e d , a n d res u l t i n g COD v a l u e s t h a t a r e e x t r e m e l y l o w (Samples F and G , F i g s . 6 and 7 ) . Both s t r a i g h t o i l - b a s e d and c h l o r i n a t e d , w a t e r - s o l u b l e o i l b a s e d l u b r i c a n t s p r e s e n t e d e x p e c t e d COD p r o f i l e s : h i g h COD v a l u e s . I n c o m p a r i s o n , lower COD v a l u e s w e r e o b s e r v e d f o r t h o s e s a m p l e s c o n t a i n i n g s y n t h e t i c c h e m i s t r i e s . The h i g h COD l e v e l s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e petroleum-containing products a t t e s t t o t h e degradative d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered i n b a c t e r i a l as w e l l as chemical o x i d a t i o n p r o c e s s e s f o r p e t r o l e u m o i l s . The i n c r e a s i n g l y lower COD v a l u e s observed f o r t h e s y n t h e t i c s t e s t e d i n d i c a t e d an i n c r e a s e d degree o f b i o d e g r a d a b i l i t y f o r t h e o r g a n i c c o n t e n t , inasmuch a s a l o w COD v a l u e i n d i c a t e s t h a t o n l y a s m a l l amount o f o r g a n i c matter i s p r e s e n t a f t e r t h e o x i d a t i v e p r o c e s s e s have occurred. 4.3

Summary

C l e a r l y , t h e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e p r e d i c t a b l e t r e n d s f o r BOD a n d synthetic-based lubric a n t s y s t e m s t e s t e d and compared.

COD d a t a a s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e o i l - b a s e d a n d 5.

DISCUSSION

AlthoughbothBODandCODtestingarewidelyusedas a r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c o n d i t i o n s i n v a r i o u s waste s y s t e m s , b o t h methods have e x t r e m e l y l o w s e n s i t i v i t i e s . Because o f t h e i r h i g h . degree of manipulation as w e l l as t h e i r e x t e n s i v e a n a l y s i s preparat i o n , BOD and COD t e s t i n g h a v e become e x t r e m e l y s e n s i t i v e t o minor discrepancies i n t h e i r techniques. The q u a l i t y of t h e d i l u t i o n water, t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f any s e e d components u s e d , a n d t h e t e c h n i q u e o f t h e a n a l y s t are a l l p a r a m e t e r s t h a t must b e c o n s t a n t l y monitored. Many o t h e r f a c t o r s a l s o a f f e c t BOD a n d COD t e s t i n g .

491

Toxic s u b s t a n c e s i n t h e s a m p l e i n h i b i t o r may e v e n p r e v e n t b a c t e r i a l g r o w t h , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e o x i d a t i o n o < t h e o r g a n i c matter i n t h e system. T h i s w i l l c a u s e a r e s u l t a n t d e c r e a s e i n t h e a c t u a l BOD v a l u e o b t a i n e d a n d p o s s i b l y a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e COD v a l u e . The t i m e f a c t o r i n v o l v e d i n t h e i n c u b a t ' i o n o f BOD s a m p l e s t e n d s t o v a r y BOD valuqs i f not properly controlled. B a c t e r i a grow somewhat s l o w l y , so t h a t i t may t a k e c o n s i d e r a b l y l o n g e r t h a n a 5-day i n t e r v a l f o r completion o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l o x i d a t i o n . Interfering substances can also g r e a t l y a l t e r a c t u a l r e s u l t s . I n p e r f o r m i n g BOD t e s t i n g , i n t e r f e r e n c e from o t h e r o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s , which may p r o d u c e t h e same o x i d a t i o n r e a c t i o n as t h e W i n k l e r t i t r a t i o n , y i e l d h i g h v a l u e s r e s u l t i n g from what i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s p o s i t i v e i n t e r f e r e n c e s . On t h e o t h e r hand, r e d u c i n g a g e n t s c o u l d p o s s i b l y p r o d u c e t h e o p p o s i t e e f f e c t , r e s u l t i n g i n l o w e r - t h a n - e x p e c t e d BOD v a l u e s [ 2 ] . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t , u n l i k e BOD t e s t i n g , t o x i c subs t a n c e s d o n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h COD t e s t i n g . However, h i g h l e v e l s o f c h l o r i n e w i l l d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c e t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e method. To overcome s u c h i n t e r f e r e n c e s e n c o u n t e r e d i n c h l o r i n a t e d o i l s , a n a d d i t i o n of m e r c u r i c s u l f a t e w a s i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e s a m p l e s t e s t e d

DI.

D e s p i t e t h e o b v i o u s i n a c c u r a c i e s o f BOD and COD t e s t i n g , t h e y r e m a i n t h e w i d e l y a c c e p t e d method o f d e t e r m i n i n g p o l l u t i o n c r i t e r i a of w a t e r systems. S y s t e m s c o n t a i n i n g o r g a n i c matter e x h i b i t i n g l a r g e BOD v a l u e s w i l l b e o x i d i z e d by t h e n a t u r a l b a c t e r i a p r e s e n t . The b a c t e r i a l o x i d a t i o n p r o c e s s e s w i l l consume oxygen from t h e wastewater f a s t e r t h a n i t i s a b l e t o d i s s o l v e oxygen back i n t o t h e system f r o m t h e air. This c o n d i t i o n r e s u l t s i n extreme l o s s of oxygen w i t h i n t h e water s y s t e m , c r e a t i n g a l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g e n v i r onment f o r t h e o x y g e n - r e q u i r i n g o r g a n i s m s . It i s f o r t h i s reason t h a t a w a s t e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t removes as much a s p o s s i b l e o f t h e BOD l o a d p a s s i n g t h r o u g h it. I n reviewing t h e r e s u l t s obtained f o r i n d u s t r i a l l u b r i c a n t s t e s t e d i n t h i s s t u d y , i t becomes o b v i o u s t h a t a t t h e 5-day i n c u b a t i o n s t a g e , i t i s t h e s y n t h e t i c compounds t h a t u s e much more oxygen i n t h e p r o c e s s o f d e g r a d a t i o n . B u t by s t u d y i n g t h e e x t e n d e d i n c u b a t i o n e f f e c t o f t i m e o n t h e s t a b i l i t y o f s u c h l u b r i c a n t s , it becomes a p p a r e n t t h a t p e t r o l e u m - b a s e l u b r i c a n t s d o n o t b e g i n t h e i r o x i d a t i o n d e g r a d a t i o n u n t i l a much l a t e r t i m e i n t e r v a l a f t e r t h e i n i t i a l i n o c u l a t i o n i n t o a system. O b s e r v i n g t h e BOD and COD p a r a m e t e r d a t a from t h i s s t u d y , one would e x p e c t t h e s y n t h e t i c t y p e o f l u b r i c a n t s y s t e m t o p l a c e a much The s l o w l y h i g h e r oxygen demand o n any water s y s t e m i t e n c o u n t e r s . d e g r a d i n g p e t r o l e u m o i l s do n o t e x h i b i t t h e same oxygen p r o f i l e s and c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d , a s c a n a l l t h e s a m p l e s t e s t e d , from t h e time/BOD p l o t s obtained. 6.

CONCLUSIONS The c o n c l u s i o n s o f t h i s s t u d y are a s f o l l o w s :

1. As s e e n from t h e d a t a o f BOD v e r s u s i n c u b a t i o n t i m e , e f f l u e n t s y s t e m s t h a t e x h i b i t i n i t i a l l y h i g h BOD v a l u e s w i t h r e l a t i v e l y ' l o w COD v a l u e s c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s b e i n g i n a s t a t e of i n c r e a s e d d e g r a d a t i o n , i n which t h e s y s t e m h a s n e a r l y d e p l e t e d i t s o r g a n i c c o n t e n t o r i s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f d o i n g so.

498 2. The opposite trend is foreseen for the conventional oilbased compounds tested. Initially low BOD levels coupled with extremely high COD levels indicate that the product effluent contains an increased-amountof organic components which can be readily oxidized by chemicalmethods, but cannot be degraded by bacteria-induced oxidation (as observed in activated sludge processing).

3. Petroleum-containing lubricants would require a much longer degradation period to reduce oxygen-demanding components than have been observed for the water-based synthetic samples tested. This trend remains clearly a function of time and chemistry. 4. The overall view of the environmental studies and results obtained indicate a predictable pattern of biodegradation for wastecontaining effluents. It is the synthetic compound that offers the best ability for control, since there total degradation appears to occur more rapidly than the petroleum-based systems. It is the contention of this study that high BOD levels can be tolerated if encountered early enough in the effluent treatment cycle, to be controlledby conventional methods. 5. Metalworking lubricants are varied in character, as are their environmental effects. By categorizing the oxygen depletion brought about by lubricant-containing industrial waste (since it is not always possible to determine the exact chemical breakdown of waste-contributing effluents, the initial BOD/COD values become more important criteria with which to evaluate water quality. If all the above points are taken into consideration, a feasible characterization plot of organic effluent waste will have been established and can aid environmentalists in further defining the biodegradation within a system. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The research reported in this paper was‘performed in conjunction with Franklin Oil Corporation environmental research and under the guidance of Mr. Stan Napier, whose support was invaluable to the completion of this project. REFERENCES 1.

Moore, Allan J., “Dichromate reflux method for determination of oxygen consumed“, Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 2 8 , No. 8 : 953-956, 1949.

2.

Gibbs, Charles R., “Introduction to chemical oxygen demand”, Hach Company, 1978.

3.

Dobbs, Richard A., and Williams, Robert T., “Elimination of chloride interferences in the chemical oxygen demand test”, Analytical Chemistry, V o l . 35, No. 8:1064-1067, 1963.

4.

Standard Methods of Analysis for Wastewater, 14th Ed., Biochemical Oxygen Demand, 1980, pp. 520-550.

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,Amsterdam, 1984 - Rinted in The Netherlands

499

NONSECURITY OF THE SECURE CHEMICAL LANDFILL Eugene A. Zwenig Residents Against a Polluted Environment P.O. Box 529 Gordon, Georgia 31031, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT Hazardous waste disposal is a problem of major proportion, not yet completely addressed. Engineering evaluations show the flawed reasoning of landfill use. Geological aspects are developed, linking theories of soil formation and anticipated leachate dispersion. Ideas about clay impermeability and the use of clay and synthetic liners are examined. Examples of the stateof-the-art sites are reviewed to determine the basis for failure potential, and some areas of needed research are suggested. Also, legal and economic considerations, tied inextricably to engineering decisions, are highlighted. Because the evidence points toward inevitable danger, another direction is presented. Taking into account the legal, economic and engineering experience, as well as the protection for the public, recommendations are given for a transitional approach. Without causing a disruptive break in present operating procedures, a change is suggested in objectives, in financial systems and in safeguards leading eventually to an improved environment,

1.

INTRODUCTION

Hazardous waste disposal in the United States is not satisfactory. Since 1976, a series of state-of-the-art landfills had been proposed or built. In the judgment of many of our peers, these sites are failed or questionable. Federal targets of resource conservation and recovery have not been met- and will not be met - under the present system. To determine why such difficulties exist, examples of landfill projects are examined for failure potential. As a foil for this comparison, a critical review of the Chemical Manufacturers Association advertisement is made. The major elements of hazardous waste disposal decisions should include engineering, economics and law with attendant regulations. But in the past, engineering has not been the dominant concern. Instead, decisions tend to be political in nature. The inability to fully apply science and not politics, may be at the heart of the problem. But there was understanding among some federal and state employees, as exemplified by two publications. In 1977, the Environmental Protection Agency By 1980, the National (EPA) published a guide for state legislatures [l]. Conference of State Legislatures responded in kind with a parallel guide [ 2 ] . For reasons not yet clear, the bulk of the states did not accept the guidance.

500

2.

LAW AND LOGIC IN HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL

Legal roots for dangerous item liability may be traced to a 1916 Supreme Court decision, MacPherson vs. Buick [3]. It was decreed that a manufactured item or device that inherently could injure or destroy or place life and limb in peril, could be held the manufacturer's responsibility, if negligence is involved. Hazards of nature or acts of God are thus separate from artificial hazards, and when so distinguished, allow companies to be held liable in case of injury. But to-day, this 1916 decision is again challenged. In order to counter rising fears of ground and water contamination, statements by prominent chemists argue that natural dangers, such as the lethality of the oleander, for example, are so great that, in comparison, the leaching of a little dioxin does not matter [ 4 - 6 1 . This not only thwarts the meaning of the 1916 decision, but also removes the freedom of choice. An individual need not eat the oleander, but has no choice at all in dioxin or other toxic exposure perpetrated by others. Present law and ensuing regulations on hazardous waste may be questioned for logic, and in some cases, for engineering definitions. For example, waste burial is not disposal at all [7], but only temporary storage, at best. The specific time of failed burial is unknown, and experience indicates relatively short periods. Yet some of our respected scientists advocate landfill as a disposal procedure, acceptable within regulations. The positive response of legal effort may be illustrated by two cases,only six weeks apart. In June 1980, anunderground plumecontaining polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) approached Youngsville, Pennsylvania wells. But Congress had not provided the financial and political mechanism to correct the problem [a]. Then by July, the Justice Department set out, for the first time, to hold the producers of the waste just as liable as the dump operator [9]. This is a turning point, as is Reference 3 , since it puts the responsibility at the source, and not wholly upon some often less than knowledgeable operator. During the past 10 or 15 years, controls for contaminants were developed through a series of acts and regulations. A legal cornerstone is the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, RCRA, of 1976 [lo]. But after eight years, there is a nation-wide perception that the system is not working. The intent and spirit of the law has not been honored, and the law itself may have been violated. Criticisms range from charges of ineptitude to gangsterism. Because of the improper or failed sites, a cleanup program was initiated, The activity under Superfund has been minimal, at known as Superfund [ll]. about one percent of targeted sites, but the projected costs are astronomical, and are estimated to-day at $40 billion and in excess of $100 billion by the turn of the century. 3.

HAZARDOUS WASTE SITE EVALUATIONS

Three examples of hazardous waste sites are chosen for state-of-the-art illustrations from 1978 to 1984. Studies for each of these are cited to demonstrate the failure potential in liners, in some encapsulation efforts and in engineering design. The reasons for failure are shown to be those of basic engineering and related science concepts. It is less a matter of proper management than it is a problem of defying natural consequences, which inexorably doom the secure

601

chemical landfill. 3.1.

Wilkinson County, Georgia, Secure Chemical Landfill

This hazardous waste site operated through state arrangement, seven months in secret and two months with public awareness. It was closed September 13, 1978. There were a number of legal and ethical problems, but this discussion involves engineering aspects only.

A worse location could hardly have been chosen. Yet the site was attractive for one major reason. It contained lenses of clay called Twiggs clay, primarily a montmorillonite known as fuller's earth. Fuller's earth is a generic term referring to the ability of such fine-grained earths to adsorb color and oils in the cleaning or fulling of wool. The evaluation of montmorillonite and its close relation, bentonite, is a crucial item in the so-called secure chemical landfill. Although every location has individual differences, it is useful to group areas for a general understanding of the geological conditions. Differences in soil structure affect the time rate of failure, but not the final effects. It is no coincidence that the major site considerations for dumps are where ancient seas once existed. These tend to be cheap, except for mainly outside interests of mining and timber. See Figure 1 for southeast locations. Except for site B, which is in the lower Piedmont and is discussed below, all other sites are in the sand hills over ancient seas. Site B is in a zone of transition with a similar unreasonable placement. The rest are in areas of deposits of a vast sedimentary disposition, extending from Arkansas, through Mississippi and on up to Virginia. Where like conditions exist in other states, they are targets for similar dumps.

502

The Wilkinson site C is in the commercial kaolin mining belt. These are whitish clays that formed during various ages through combinative actions of sedimentation, laterization (soil chemical change formations following rock breakdown) and erosive actions in vast ancient seas and freshwater lagoons. A generalized section of the toxic dump area is seen in Figure 2. Unfortunately, this is the recharge zone of a major aquifer. This aquifer, called the Tuscaloosa, is of the cretaceous age deposit of massive white kaolinite. The younger Twiggs clay, the basis for site location, was assumed to be essentially impermeable, as mentioned previously. It is this fuller's earth fallacy that requires a detailed review, since it is the type of clay chosen for much of the toxic waste containment or encapsulation. Fuller's earth of this variety and bentonite have the same characteristics, other than volcanic glass shards in bentonite [12]. Until about 1970, geologists insisted they were the same. This fuller's earth, montmorillonite, is a clay mineral, sandwich-like, consisting of two sides of silica tetrahedral sheets and a central octahedral sheet (Gibbsite). There is a deficiency of charge which allows an extensive cation exchange between particles [13,14]. This feature permits the montmorillinite to act as an adsorption system up to 40 times its own plate thickness. See Figure 3 for an idealized view.

RWINTOWNSANDS

SECONDARY KAOLINITE LENTICULAR LIGNITIC CLAY MASSIVE KAOLINITE Figure 2. Wilkinson Dump Site Area

503

The cation adsorption capacity of montmorillonite is some 15 times that of kaolinite, a more stable clay. The closed Wilsonville, Illinois site of 1977, was a kaolin clay. Thus it seemed logical to go to the clay with greater adsorptive capacity as the next step, following the Wilsonville closing. However, a literature search should have alerted the dump designers in Wilkinson County, Georgia. There had been a previous case of the inability of fuller's earth to contain wastes. A report on the Allegheny River-Lake Erie Basin had noted groundwater contamination [15]. There, encapsulated chrome waste in fuller's earth leached into the Olean aquifer. Remedial removal of the fuller's earth with its encapsulated waste, decreased chrome concentrations in adjacent well waters. With respect to the failure in the Wilkinson County, Georgia dump, it is not known whether the montmorillonite clays were permeable originally, or became so due to the chemical action of the wastes. There was no planned test and research project, in addition to a lack of adequate base data for the site. The geologist, LeGrand, clarified the relationship between geology, groundwater and the recharge system for the area [16]. Although the underground water is a temporary or transient storage, with flow moving slowly around clay lenses, some waters move through seemingly impermeable clays. Within clay, flow also moves vertically, up or down, depending on geological and hydraulic circumstances. In Wilkinson County, we would suggest there is an unusual circumstance, namely, reverse flow in the aquifer. Even more pertinent to the subject, are the studies of later geologists, who indicated that dissolved chemicals of natural origin penetrate the Twiggs clay in a complicated physico-chemical metamorphosis [17,18]. As humic and other natural acids pass through the clays and alternately through sands, calcareous deposits and other sediments, the clays are altered, montmorillonite to kaolinite, kaolinite to bauxite, etc. In the discussion on liners, below, it is noted that the action of some hazardous wastes carry the changes to the extreme, the clays changing irreversibly and are no longer clays at all.

Platelet

GIBBSITE

/ / / / SILICA / / / /

WATER and CATIONS

GIBBSITE

/ / / / / SILICA / / / / /

Figure 3.

Montmorillonite

-

An Idealized View

Expansion 40 Times Platelet

604

Table 1. Area Well pH Disparity

No. Tested 20 3 12

Location

pH Range

pH Average

Rural wells, 1 mile radius

4.5 to 7.2

5.9

Gordon

4.1 to 5.0

4.6

Kaolin Mine, Gordon

N/A

5.2

7

Old Monitoring Wells, Dump

7.7 to 8.1

7.9

8

New Monitoring Welfs, Dump

7.9 to 8.3

8.0

This provides the first analytical tool. If a disparity is noted between the normal pH of the surrounding area and the monitoring wells, one should be aware that a problem may exist. Awide pH variation is a precursor of eventual breakthrough of contaminants. See Table 1 for such a disparity. Table 1 shows that the normal pH of this humid Fall Line area tends to be well on the acid side, while the dump site wells are consistently abnormal with respect to pH readings. In time, with the acid soils of the area, the pH at the dump will change. It is not known yet whether this may result in a massive unloading and migration into the aquifer, but this is a possibility. As far as is known, there is nothing unique about the site geology that might account for the difference in pH. These disparities exist both for deep and shallow wells at the site, or, from water table to deep aquifer. Since the variation is picked up at the monitoring wells, it follows that some migration from the encapsulating montmorillonite has occurred.

Eleven months after the closing of the site, a joint statement by the state Environmental Protection Division (EPD) and the EPA Region IV office indicated that the original 7 monitoring wells had not been properly developed. Tests showed elevated levels of chromium, lead and cadmium in the unfiltered samples, but not in the filtered samples. A well developed well, they said, would have filtered out the contaminant particles. But it may be that this rkcommendation indicated that a thorough research had not been conducted. For not only had the contaminants appeared in the dump vicinity, but had also been noted in a deep well, 1600 feet (488 m) from the site. This was in a well originally intended as a potable source for the office and laboratory by the EPD design team, and it was located in a direction opposite to accepted aquifer flow direction.

A water lchemistry study should have given pause to the EPA/EPD statement on filtered versus nonfiltered samples. First, the term "dissolved" is difficult to define due to the different forms in which nonaqueous materials appear in water [ 191. Second, subcolloidal particles, which collect on the membrane filter are found even in natural aquifer waters, and should not be separated out just because they are contaminants. The explanation of ill-developed wells was made long after the fact. No tests on the filter entrapped materials were reported. The possibility that a change in solution pH, to determine whether the filtrate may dissolve, was never explored.

505 Table ?.Heavy Metal Concentrations (samples taken and run by the Ecology Institute, U. of Ga. Sampling date 3/04/80. Values in parts per billion, ppb)

Newknitoringwell#3

80

6

101,

42

200

50

a

Illpmhmt Below site

53

0

53

13

91

39

99

spring al Adj&Iing Property

23

0

36

4

44

23

10

S t r e w Draking site

45

3

46

10

41

40

2

Special test for Mercury in the soil, sampled average taken from the site 84 ppb, and from samples taken below the site on adjoining property, average 19 ppb.

In addition to the subcolloidal matter which may be entrapped, a gelatinous suspension, in the manner of agglomerations of a shmutzdecke could develop on the filter. Crystalline and noncrystalline particles could be caught, yet, might pass easily in aquifer flow. There are a number of experiments that should have been run in a designed test plan to help close the gap in our -knowledge about contaminants carried in the aquffer. Instead, the decision of the EPD/EPA to replace the monitoring wells appears arbitrary and lacking in the expected research approach. At any rate, the seven original monitoring wells were replaced by eight new monitoring wells, presumably developed in an improved manner. The methodology was duly reported in the appropriate scientific publication [20]. Both old and new wells were prepared under the jurisdiction and guidance of the EPD. Fortunately, a public service laboratory and research organization, the Ecology Institute of the University of,Georgia, came in to test as one of the new wells was being developed. The test team also sampled off-site locations at our request. This procedure demonstrates the advantage of having an Ombudsman-like service available for the affected population. The relevant Ecology Laboratory results are seen in Table 2. Subsequently, it was found that the new properly developed wells still had to have their samples filtered in order to reduce the reported contaminant levels. Table 2 shows why this would be the case, since the evidences of site failure are apparent in the sampling by an impartial laboratory. The point should be made, additionally, that the site is in a remote, formerly heavily forested land with no modern contamination. The old monitoring well to the north of the site served an important function of an additional analytical tool. The well showed measurable contamination and indicated the possibility of reverse flow in the aquifer. Ordinarily, flow in this area is southeasterly, toward the Atlantic Ocean. But there is a massive withdrawal of about 5 million gallons (2.273 x lo7 1) per day by the Gordon mine. There may be some 35 million gallons (1.59 x 108 1) by the other mines in the immediate kaolin belt. It is evident that aquifer

506

flow patterns and possible changes in groundwater need further study and definition. 3 .2 .

Heard County, Second Georgia Secure Landfill Site

By 1980, the EPD realized that sites would have to be more sophisticated to be accepted by the local population. The technical aspects of the newer dumps may be seen by examining the advertisement put out by the manufacturers' trade group for the chemical industry. The problem is that the deliberate scale distortion leaves an impression not consistent with the actual situation. The simplified representation seen in Figure 4 is a common method of exaggerating the scale in the draftsman's favor. Ordinarily it is a perfectly harmless way of emphasizing a point. But inthis case, the vertical scale is expanded, and the horizontal scale is compressed to make the process appear fully controlled and safe. The clay seal, which is actually 2 to 5 feet is made to look very deep, perhaps as much as forty feet. The solid waste layers are made to look like parts of a small sand castle, but inactuality are massive, spread over acres and sometimes as high as a six story building. While the solid waste appears small, relatively, the intervening natural soil also appears massive. In the Heard County application, in some instances, the intervening soil was found to be less than 5 feet to groundwater.

MONITORING WELL

MONITORING WELL

A SIPHON

NATURAL SOIL

\

CLAY SEAL

507

Horizontally, the scale is compressed by a factor approximately 100. On the other hand, the diameter of the monitoring well is relatively expanded about 10 times, giving an exaggerated idea of safety in monitoring, at about a psychological factor of 1000. The monitor extends into a mythical representation of groundwater, which is not an underground river at all, but a series of interstices. Thus the monitoring well may not always be successful in intercepting a contaminant plume. In the case of the Heard County site, the engineering firm that designed the project took the cue for such scale exaggeration in their application. In part this was for acceptance by the state officials, but more particularly, for acceptance by the local population. Resistance was strong, however; the legal fight went as high as the State Supreme Court, and the facility is yet to be built. With regard to the technical aspects, the application was found to be lacking. Factors of risk included liner design, longevity of the facility, transportation to the site, long term costs to the state and local community, and the laboratory control was questioned [7]. The choice of site was not in accord with the guidance of Reference 1. Specifically, high risk areas are designated as those with high humidity and high well withdrawal for water sources. Both risks are involved. This is a region o f the so-called high precipitation-evapotranspiration potential contour of Reference 1. comparable to the Tennessee Valley Authority region. The Heard County location is within “tornado alley.’’ It is precisely this humid condition that poses further problems. The environment is that of extreme weathering. The top soil is thin or nonexistent. Subsoils are minimal, and the decomposing rock-in-place is called saprolite, a pre-soil stage in evolution. Saprolite is a permeable, noncompacting material and not suitable for the fill compaction called for in the application. Bentonite-like additives were never demonstrated as successful improvements, and the permit application did not specify test results or what type of clay would be used. The site was located 4 miles (6.44 km) from an ancient, vast land fault called the Brevard. Although seismic activity is extremely low, shear zones (potential failure planes) lie immediately to the north and south of the site. This is an area of transition in the lower Piedmont and should be regarded as fragile with its changing character in geological time; Design elements include the main feature of filling a polyethylene bag, whose dimensions in plan are 150,000 to 160,000 square feet (13935 to 14861 m2) and some 20 to 50 feet (6.07 to 15.17 m) deep, depending on base slope. The filling will include about 60 to70 percent of waste in drums, some dry wastes, and the remainder in loose granular fill, all arranged so as to form a cell. Cells are designed to be small and individual, that is, to be surrounded by compacted earth on all sides. Each cell is filled separately and capped with impermeable fill, and cells will number some 16 to 25 per polyethylene bag. Filling and compaction with heavy equipment, the application states, will require great care not to tear the vulnerable seamed and sealed plastic liners. The native population dubbed these huge burial shrouds, big-baggies. The permit application and design were inolved and well detailed, but one point is worthy of mention. The chemically contaminated waters, leached or otherwise drained, will be managed by a small water treatment plant. Effluents

608

will be lagooned. then utilized either to fight fires which may occur on tbe site, or the remainder to be disposed by land spray irrigation. The assumptions of .design predict, Important failures will occur only in an individual cell. Because of cell grouping, with earth wall separation, failures will not be cumulative, but will be completely isolated. The system for impounding contaminated waters is failsafe. The fill, drums and synthetic liner are not vulnerable to major damage. Caps and other clay liners are impermeable. The entire system is static, i.e., liner, bedrock, fill, and surrounding soil will not move or deteriorate. The wastes are stabilized, forever, primarily with such additions as lime. Thirty years after the site is closed, it becomes the property of the state, to be maintained forever.

3.3.

New York State Secure Chemical Landfill

Three miles from Love Canal, a chemical dump was developed to represent the newest breed of secure chemical landfill [21]. In size comparison, Wilkinson's dump was 87 acres (35.2 ha), Heard's dump was to be about 280 acres (113.3 ha) The polyethylene liner and the New York State dump is 365 acres (147.71 ha). increased from 3 acres (1.2 ha) to 10 acres (4.05 ha) in New York. Publicity and organization are well developed in New York. Reference 21 quotes the public affairs director as saying, "We call ourselves the NASA of the industry." And the health safety and environmental control manager said, "We're part of the solution, not the problem."

In a manner similar to the Heard proposal, chemical wastes are segregated by programmed dumping into subcells separated by 4 foot (1.2 m) thick walls of clay. After a pit, containing a number of subcells, is filled and covered, pumps will continue to extract water until all contained pollutants, cut off by the thick clay and polyethelene liner, are bone dry. Unlike the proposed Heard dump water use for firefighting and land spraying, the New York dump will send its drainage and leachate to the sewage treatment plant after being found acceptable at the site; final release will be into the Niagara River. The release of these effluents, both Heard and New York, seems a risky procedure, far too dependent on human decision and inevitable error. There were some critical comments on the design of the landfill. One was that the solutions were not more than "semi-solutions", as quoted in an article on liners [22]. Also the general design of the polyethylene bag system, complicated and sophisticated though it may be, was likened to a clay barge floating on high groundwater. About a year later, it was found that the most efficient way to handle the problems was to relax the rules for leachate, but at the same time, to make the

509

installation more complicated and expensive [ 2 3 ] . For example, if two synthetic liners are used with leak detection devices between them, in place of the single liner, then no groundwater monitoring, as in the Wilkinson dump, would be required. 3.4.

Problems of Liners

The issue is now joined. The integrity of the liner is the crux of the burial system. Dr. Peter Montague, head of the Princeton research program on toxic waste stated in Congressional hearing testimony, The conclusion is inescapable that all landfill liners will ultimately fail." Further, in a newspaper interview, Montague said, I think the whole idea of secure landfills is really a figment of opttmistic imagination" [ 2 4 ] . Specific research projects support these views. It was found that organic fluids such as solvents substantially increase the permeability of compacted clay soils including the most impermeable expansive montmorillonite [ 2 5 ] . This was supported by Dr. G. Fred Lee in his independent experiments [ 2 2 ] . Reference 22 indicates that caustics and acids would be included as well. In New Jersey, analysis showed that four landfills had failed in one to four years [ 2 6 [ . Reference 26 emphasizes the major considerations of failure. First, these sites were established by important chemical companies at the highest level of the state-of-the-art. Second, the failure mode puts the public in danger at some unknown future time because of the new EPA risk assessment policy. Damage will be pervasive, and, when recognized, remedial action will be too late. In some of the ases, the leak detection established that there were significant increases in leachate volume. However, when consultants, knowledgeable in hydrology and waste dump technology, were brought in, they were unable to locate the actual leak source. Therefore, Dr. Montague suggested that the radioactive tracer, tritium, be added to the waste to travel with the leachate after liner failure. The tritium is easily detected and would provide an indisputable parameter for leak tracking.

4. COSTS: THE ECONOMICS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE ERRORS All waste sites will leak. Some sites are short-lived, others longer. Failures may incur large costs in a variety of ways [ 2 7 to 301.

A few examples may be cited to illustrate the range of costs. In the most publicized Love Canal, 21,800 tons (19,800 Tonnes) of wastes were buried in a clay trench with a deep clay cover. Expenditures included $26 million for tests, about $10 million for new home relocation, and the cleanup costs are estimated at $50 million. The lawsuits total about $2.7 billion. 9

In the Valley of :the Drums, Shepardsville, Kentucky, there were about 100,000 drums, with estimated cleanup cost of $100 per drum or $10 million. In Charles City, Iowa, where arsenic wastes leached into the Cedar River, through the aquifer, estimates ranged from $10 to $50 million for cleanup. But the Comptroller General of the United States questioned whether control and decontamination technology had been sufficiently developed. Adesign office may recommend remedial measures with barriers, liners and treatment systems, but the damage may be pertasive and essentially uncontrollable. There may be another approach to the economic view.

The generators of

510

waste correctly state that for them, landfill is cheaper, generally by a large factor. The usual method for comparing alternative choices is to examine whether the the profit is sufficient for the rate of return to exceed the minimum, when comparing the alternative to the burial rate. External circumstances, such as penalties, transport difficulties or regulatory harassment may tilt the decision toward alternative choices. Since civil and criminal penalties are rarely invoked, the generator often finds it good business to do the least. An improved environment might result from the enlightenment that accompanies greater penalty and public pressures. But for the longer term, as commodities become more scarce, the perception of future needs dominate. Some examples of hazardous materials in short supply, say by the year 2000, in descending demand, are chromium, mercury and asbestos. An estimate of the expected sources might be: Chromium - 40 percent from Zimbabwe, 24 percent from the Soviet Union and 17 percent from the Philipinnes. Mercury - 31 percent from Spain, 21 percent from Italy and 14 percent from Canada. Asbestos - 92 percent from Canada. Is there any guarantee for good trade relations with these countries in the year 2000?

Considering these selected examples, if we were to recycle and reclaim, our dependency index would decrease in accordance with our ability to stockpile for the target year. Even as depletion allowances are made for mineral resources, so too, accretion allowances may be appropriate for hazardous waste reduction. 5.

DISCUSSION

The message of the inadequacies of land burial practices has not yet registered in engineering circles. The use of bentonite in slurries or combined with other liners for waste filled deep trenches is advocated at this time [ 3 1 ] . The newer systems are more sophisticated although lined trenches were used in the past. The present advocacy comes from new methads and lower costs. The guarantee by liner seal manufacturers is for 20 to 40 years. Since much of the wastes will last forever, the guarantee may seem minimal. In a sense, the waste industry has gone full circle. Although much less sophisticated, the Wilkinson dump was a montmorillonite trench system. Communication does not appear satisfactory in waste dump technology. The pattern of events in secure landfill shortcomings seems to call for some new direction. Aside from research, a need exists to remove industry from the burial habit, through a transition stage and finally toward full conservation and recovery practices. An immediate problem is the fear, almost panic, of the public on mention of toxic dump [ 3 2 ] . Experience suggests that this may be due to arbitrary land allocation by less than knowledgeable state authorities. The degree of inadequacy of state authorities has been noted by the Congress of the United States [ 3 3 ] . But exceptlons are to be found, and particular mention is given to California's alternative concepts [ 3 4 ] . It appears that first, a better geological study is required before site decisions are made. The choice of a site should include a very wide buffer zone

511 to provide for engineering error forgiveness. Transport routes should be well planned and improvements made where required to reduce the risk of accidents. And the public should be informed that the state recognizes that this is a limited temporary solution with all safeguards, bonding and compensation. The example of the crucial tests by the University of Georgia Ecology Institute illustrates the concept of the people's contractor or Ombudsman Laboratory and Engineering Service as a mechanism to protect and help bolster public confidence. Such a service, having only public interest, could help fulfill many of the research requirements, in addition. Although there are exceptions, in general, state and federal organizations have been found wanting in their regard for the public. And to attack the problem at its root, total costs should be borne by the generator, since there is no more basic responsible party. If the state or local community has a waste producing industry, which they fear would be in need of assistance a s a result, that governmental body should arrange for financial support. The burden should not fall upon some innocent and unsuspecting community as in the Wilkinson case.

On the other hand, if the participating generator contributes to thesuccess of the project through alternatives and reclaiming or recycling, rewards should be high. Such public benefit should receive tax relief at state and federal levels. 6. RECOMMENDATIONS Public confidence should be regained by using only isolated, geologically acceptable public lands for sites, with wide buffer zones. As a major safeguard, sites should be developed with an Environmental Impact Statement [35].

Burial should be recognized as temporary storage only. removal and treatment should be in place.

Plans for safe

Adequate insurance and bonding should cover all operations, including transportation. For evenhandedness, regional Ombudsman Laboratory and Engineering Services should be established as the people's contractors. For use of alternative waste disposal and stockpiling of reclaimed material, companies should benefit from tax credits. For burial,violations, accidents, program overhead, laboratory services, the costs should be proportionately assessed at the source, i.e., the generators who do not use alternative systems of waste disposal.

REFERENCES 1.

Kovalick, W.W. ed., "State Decision Makers Guide for Hazardous Waste Management"' SW-612, USEPA 1977.

2.

Steeler, J.H., "A Legislator's Guide to Hazardous Waste Management", National Conference of State Legislatures, October 15, 1980.

512 3.

MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co., 217 N.Y. 382, 111 N.E. 1050 (1916).

4.

Barrons, K.C., "Toxicity vs Hazard: Dioxin and the Oleander", Wall Street Journal, June 17, 1983.

5.

Wingate, P.J., "Everything in Moderation - Arsenic Included", Wall Street Journal, September 8, 1983.

6.

Ames, B.W., "Peanut Butter, Parsley, Pepper and other Carcinogens", 14, 1984.

Street Journal, February

7.

Carden, J.L., Chemical Waste Disposal Facility Study, Heard County, GA", Center for Environmental Safety, GA Inst. of Technology, February 9, 1981.

8.

Nag, A.. "PCBs Are Seeping Towards Town Well in Pennsylvania", Wall Street Journal June 4, 1980.

9.

Omang, J., "Waste Producers' Liability Sought", Washington -,July

16,1980.

10. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), October 21, 1976. 11.

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA).

12. Patterson, S.H. and B.F.Buie, "Field Conference on Kaolin and Fullers Earth", Guide Book 14, Georgia Geological Survey, 1974. 13. Buckman. H.D. and N.C. Brady, "The Nature and Property of Soils", 7th ed. MacMillan Co.. N.Y.,N.Y. 1969.

14. Means, R.E. and J.V. Parcher, "Physical Properties of Soils", Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc. Columbus, Ohio 1963. 15.

Frimpter, M.H., "Ground-water Resources, Allegheny River Basin and Part of the Lake Erie Basin", New York Basin Planning Report ARB-2, 1974.

16. LeGrand, H.G., "Geology and Ground-Water Resources of the Macon Area", Georgia Geological Bulletin, No. 72, 1962. 17. Kesler, T.L., "Environment and Origin of the Cretaceous Kaolin Deposits of Georgia and South Carolina", GA Min. Newltr, v. XVI, Nos 1-2, Spr. /Sum. 1963.

18. Austin, R.S., "The Origin of Georgia's Kaolin Deposits", 12th Forum, Geol. of Min., Inform. Circ. 49, GA Geol. Surv., Apr. 22-24, 1976, Atlanta, GA. 19. Hem, J.D., "Study and Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics of Natural Water", Geol. Surv. Water-Supply Paper 1473, USGPO 1959. 20. McLemore, W.H. "Monitoring Well Construction for Hazardous Waste Sites" 1981 Nat'l Conff., Proc. of the Env. eng. Divv. ASCE July 8-10. 1981. 21.

Pienciak, R.T. "New Improved Dumps May be Dangerous Too" 4 articles, AP. Feature, publ. in the Macon Telegraph, Aug. 1 to 4, 1983.

22. Morrison, A., "Can Clay Liners Prevent Migration of Toxic Leachate" Engineering, A X E , July 1981. 23.

Morrison, A. "EPA's New Land Disposal Rule

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Closer Look" C

M

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Engineering. A X E , January 1983.

24.

Boffey, P.M., "Experts Showing Copc'ern on Safety of Burying Toxic Waste in Landfills", New York Times, March 16, 1983.

25.

Anderson, D., K.W. Brown and J. Green, "Effects,of Organic Fluids on the Permeability of Clay Liners" Land Disposal of Hazardous Waste Proc. 8th Ann. Res. Symp. Mar. 8-10, 1982, Ky., EPA-600/9-82-002.

26. Montague, P. "Hazardous Waste Landfills - Some Lessons Learned from New Jersey", Civil Engineerinq , ASCE, September 1982. 27. Nemec, M.M. "Hazardous Wastes: Coping with a National Health Menace" Occupational Hazards, October 1979. 28.

Report to the Congress by the Comptroller General, "Waste Disposal Practices - A Threat to Health and the Nation's Water Supply" 6/6/78.

29.

Farb, DG. "Upgrading Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites", EPA/500/SW-677 January 1978.

30. "Hazardous Wastes: Your Community May Be in Trouble", and County, November 1978

The American City

31.

Tallard, G. "Slurry Trenches for Containing Hazardous Wastes" c i v i l Engineering, ASCE, February 1984.

32.

"Siting of Hazardous Waste Management Facilities and Public Opposition" SW809 USEPA 1979.

33.

"Technologies and Management Strategies for Hazardous Waste Control"

U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment, 1983, Washington, D.C. 34. "Alternatives to the Land Disposal of Hazardous Wastes", Toxic Waste Assessment Group, Governor's Office of Appropriate Technology, 1981, California. 35. Jain, R.R., L.V.Urban and G . S . Stacey, "Environmental Impact Analysis", 2nd Ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1981, New York.

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

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STRATEGIES FOR THE UPKEEP OF QUALITY OF LIFE I N DETERIORATING ENVIRONMENT O F RAPIDLY INDUSTRIALIZING COUNTRIES

Ramalingam Kaparthi U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e of Technology Osmania University. H y d e r a b a d - 500 007. A.P. India

ABSTRACT The onslaught on t h e environment due t o the r a p i d i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n of t h e developing c o u n t r i e s , i s i n t e n s i v e and h a s been s i g n i f i c a n t i n r e c e n t times. The e c o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s caused by ind i s c r i m i n a t e dumping of urban and i n d u s t r i a l wastes i n t o t h e environment h a s r e s u l t e d i n p u b l i c fury and proper Governmental a c t i o n on the p o l l u t i n g i n d u s t r i e s t o c o r r e c t t h e i r waste-treatment p o l i cies is forthcoming i n many developing c o u n t r i e s and e s p e c i a l l y i n India. I n d i a with teaming 740 m i l l i o n s t h r e a t e n i n g t o reach B i l l i on of people by the end of the century h a s progressed i n d u s t r i a l l y i n t h e l a s t decade o r two and has come t o t h e t o p ’ t e n t h p o s i t i o n of I n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s . The s t r a t e g i e s f o r t h e c o n t r o l of environmental degradation a r e discussed keeping Indian example a s a base f o r t h e r a p i d l y i n d u s t r i a l i z i n g countries. These s t r a t e g ies would h e l p i n g i v i n g c l e a n a i r , f r e s h w a t e r and a e s t h e t i c surroundings f o r people t o l i v e i n and t o have a better q u a l i t y of l i f e . 1.

INTRODUCTION

It is an a n c i e n t t r u i s m t h a t man is b u t a p a r t of n a t u r e and it would be unwise f o r him to damage t h e n a t u r e world on which he has t o depend. When man f i r s t began t o l i v e i n permanent settlements and u t i l i z e d f i r e , land and water around him, no p e r c e p t i b l e damage occurred t o h i s environment s i n c e t h e wastes produced w e r e taken care of by t h e self p u r i f i c a t i o n and a s s i m u l a t i v e powers of nature i t s e l f .

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The l e g i t i m a t e human a c t i v i t y t o provide food,shelter, amenl-

t i e s and t r a n s p o r t t o h i s fellow beings has r e s u l t e d i n t h e man t o become h i s own worst enemy. The products of i n d u s t r y and agriculture make a more bearable and pleasant human existance b u t have r e s u l t e d I n t h e production of wastes, e f f l u e n t s and emissions which cause p o l l u t i o n of water and a i r , erode t h e s o i l s , destroy t h e f o r e s t s and ecological systems.

Man has always been c a r e f u l t o remove wastes from h i s own p r i v a t e building or dwelling, b u t he u s u a l l y dumped them Inmediat e l y outside. Such indiscriminate dumping of domestic and indust r i a l wastes has l e a d t o t h e c r e a t i o n of s e r i o u s emironmental s a n i t a t i o n problems, accumulation of f i l t h and garbage thereby endangering the physical environment. I n d u s t r i a l revolution r e s u l t e d i n environmental p o l l u t i o n whi c h w a s to be taken a s a growth index of the i n d u s t r i a l i z e d country. The modem i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s vexed with t h e problems of p o l l u t i o n , s t a r t e d to realise t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e envlronment and have taken l a t e l y c o s t l y c o r r e c t i v e measures, to p u r i f y t h e i r p o l l u t e d r i v e r s and to cleanse t h e atmosphere with reduced or no i n p u t s of a i r pollutants. Thus t h e man's d e s i r e f o r clean a i r , p u r e water, good housing i n a e s t h e t i c surroundings, a l l consti t u t i n g i n Improving t h e q u a l i t y of l i f e is t o be taken care of by t h e present day governments. 2.

RAPID INDUSTRIALIZATION O F DEVELOPING COUNTRIES The people of t h e developing c o u n t r i e s are anxious t o indust-

r i a l i z e a t a rapid pace t o reach t h e acceptable standards of l i v i ng. They a r e a l s o a t an advantageous p o s i t i o n and can avoid the p i t - f a l l s of t h e developed countries and take preventive measures to control t h e ecological imbalances created by t h e indiscriminate dumping of i n d u s t r i a l wastes i n t o t h e environment. Many of the developing countries are i n the i n i t i a l s t a g e s of i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i on and some a r e developing a t a very rapid pace. I n d i a , f o r examp l e has now a t t a i n e d t h e t e n t h p o s i t i o n i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s i n the p a s t few years and i n this process It is faced with a number of p o l l u t i o n problem.

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3.

INDUSTRIALIZED I N D I A

India has achieved near self sufficiency i n number of industries l i k e textiles and chemicals l i k e c a u s t i c soda and s u l f u r i c acid, i r o n and steel, cement, food etc. The c a u s t i c soda induatry i s going through changes. Mercury c e l l e l e c t r o l y s i s i s being replaced by-mernbrane c e l l process t o reduce p o l l u t i o n and energy consumption. The Industry has an annual i n s t a l l e d capacity of over one m i l l i o n tonnes d i s t r i b u t e d among 35 units. Two more u n i t s of t o t a l capacity of 66,000 tonnes a r e expected t o cane on stream during e a r l y 1984. Total capacity by March 1985, w i l l be of 1.2 million tonnes c a u s t i c soda. Present day consumption of p l a s t i c s , both new and reprocessed, i s around 450,000 tonnes annually, out of which about 218,000 tonnes are produced annually. There are 10,000 s m a l l s c a l e p l a s t i c manufacturing u n i t s , producing a wide range of p l a s t i c s worth S.350 crores. ($ 35 million). The Indian Drug Industry i s w e l l developed producing 8.665 c r o r e s ($ 665 million) worth of bulk drugs and lb.2,450 cmree ($2450 million) of formulations. There are no imports of any formu l a t i o n s and most of the imported bulk drugs are a l s o made i n India. Most of t h e basic drugs a r e made from the basic s t a g e and required raw materials, chemicals and intermediates and solvents are indigenously available. A noteworthy record of the Indian economy i n the p a s t 30 year-

s, has been the increase i n the food g r a i n s production from 50 million tonnes t o around 140 million tonnes i n 1983-84, to come to self-sufficiency which resulted i n 'Green revolution' thereby reducing t h e chronic d e f i c i t s and imports of food grains. The notable achievement on the food f r o n t i s due t o increased use of chemi c a l f e r t i l i z e r s , high breed seeds, p e s t control measures and modern a g r i c u l t u r a l mechanised m e t h o d s including better water management policies. India produces 60,000 tonnes of p e s t i c i d e s c u r r e n t l y (1983) and has an i n s t a l l e d capacity of 98,000 tonnes, whereas t h e curren t demand i s of the order of 72,000 tonnes. Along with basic manufacture, t h e formulation industry too has developed and t h e r e are over 800 formulations a t present. However, the consumption of p e s t i c i d e s per hectare i n India i s s t i l l w e l l below t h e l e v e l s of

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t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l l y developed countries. F e r t i l i z e r production (83-84) is around 4.55 million tonnes whereas the sixth plan targct i s 5.6 million tonnes. By the end of the decade t o achieve self s u f f i c i ency the production must be around 8 million tonnes, compared to the production of 16,700 tonnes i n 1950, 162,200 tonnes i n 1960, 1.35 million tonnes i n 1970 and 4.35 million tonnes i n 1980 and 5.8 million tonnes capacity i n 1982. Work on the two g i a n t gasbased p r o j e c t s a t Thal Vaishet i n Maharashtra and Hazira i n Gujar a t , w i t h the world's l a r g e s t urea p l a n t of a capacity of 1.45 million tonnee of urea, i s i n progress and w i l l come onstream by the end of 1984. Six new gas-based f e r t i l i z e r p l a n t s w i l l be coming up i n the next f i v e to six years. The new f i n d s of gas and o i l i n various r i v e r basins and offshore a r e a s w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e t o t a l demand f o r t h e gas f r o m 900 million cubic m e t e r s t o 5,300 million cubic m e t e r by 1990. Though the share of n a t u r a l gas as feed stock i s expected t o be highest a t 46.6% i n 1989-90 it w i l l s t i l l be less than the world l e v e l of 69.596 i n 1990. F e r t i l i z e r consumption i n I n d i a stands today a t the level of 7.2 million t o m e s of n u t r i e n t s a year, recording a seven f o l d increase during the l a s t 17 years. It i s estimated that w i t h the population l i k e l y t o exceed 900 million and t o reach a b i l l i o n by 2000 AD the minimum a d d i t i o n a l food g r a i n requirement w i l l be 90 t o 100 million tonnes. This w i l l mean minimum increase i n f e r t i l i z e r consumption by 10 million tonnes of n u t r i e n t s in the 17 years. The rapid i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n of India has created p o l l u t i o n

of environment, i n the form of r i v e r w a t e r pollution, a i r p o l l u t ion and o t h e r forms of degradation of BCO-systems. 4.

-RONMENTAL

DEGRADATION

Reports of w a t e r p o l l u t i o n episodes are plenty i n India. The o f f i c i a l l y recorded s e r i o u s case of w a t e r p o l l u t i o n i s that of Jaundice e p i d d c of Delhi i n 1956, Ganges w a s set aflame due to oil pollution i n 1968. Cectain str-es of river basins like D d a r i n Durgapur-Asansol region, Hooghly near Calcutta, Qanges a t Kanpur, Matu'at Baroda, Kalu and Ullahas near Bombay and cauve r y near m e are grossly-polluted and show s i g n s of s t r a n g l i n g

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f u t u r e I n d u s t r i a l developments as w e l l a s drinking w a t e r supplies. On the Hoghly estuary alone near Calcutta there are nearly 159 i n d u s t r i e s of which 78 are j u t e mills, 12 t e x t i l e mills, 7

ta-

nneries, 5 formidable pulp and paper f a c t o r i e s , 4 l a r g e d i s t i l l e r i e s and 53 miscellanous i n d u s t r i e s , A BOD load of 52 tonnes per 5 3 day from these i n d u s t r i e s from 4 . 4 ~ 1 0 m / day of w a t e r a r e being dumped i n t o the r i v e r Hoogly near Calcufita. The Ganges a t Kanpur receives t h e domestic waste waters from 1.5 million people l i v i n g i n Kanpur (1971 census) along w i t h the w a s t e waters from 45 tanneries, 10 t e x t i l e mills, 3 woolen m i l l s , 2 j u t e m i l l s and number of Chemical and phannacuetical industries. R e p o r t s come q u i t e o f t e n of the f i s h k i l l s by discharge of waste waters i n various p a r t s of India. I n Bombay, the Kalu r i v e r near Kalyani once a spawning ground f o r the f a v o u r i t e H i l s a f i s h is no more so, Bio-magnification i n aquatic organisms form a source of danger t o the humans t h a t consume the f i s h .

Another source of w a t e r p o l l u t i o n i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l run off a non-point source of p o l l u t i o n with the increased use of inorgan i c f e r t i l i z e r s (T.2 million tonnes per annum) and p e s t i c i d e s (0.6 million tonnes p e r annum) the run off w a t e r from i r r i g a t e d land has been adding a v a r i e t y of organic and inorganic non-biodegradable pollutants. A t p r e s e n t their levels are not alarming b u t the s i t u a t i o n becomes s e r i o u s i n view of the increased f e r t i l i z e r use envisaged a t 9 m i l l i o n tonnes by 1985 and 18 million tomes i n 2000. I t is reported t h a t i n some regions the ground w a t e r has already reached excessive l e v e l s of n i t r a t e and hence it is essent i a l to w a t c h f o r n i t r a t e levels i n ground w a t e r s ,

-

Recently Bombay has experienced smog conditions, t h e level of suspended p a r t i c l e m a t t e r r i s i n g as high as 300 microgramsper cubic meter w e l l beyond t h e permissible '1-a Of 100 microgram Per an3 An estimated 13,000 m e t r i c tomes of pollutants are discharged into the air of Banbay. So2 i n the air is 70 t o 80 microgram 3 p e r cubic m e t e r and oxides of Nitrogen 50 to 60 microgram p e r an. Studies made r e c e n t l y a t Vishakapatnam where a 3.0 million per year capacity steel p l a n t is caning up, revealed acid r a i n conditions, t h e r a i n w a t e r having a pH of 3.3. and 3.9 during October

.

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1982 and January, 1983.

Which may be due to the e x i s t i n g Zinc smelting p l a n t , where no a i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l methods are adopted. 5.

PEOPLES' FURY OVER ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

Number of reports on peoples' f u r y u e cormwln over environmental degradation. A case of p o l l u t i o n p r o t e s t e r s t u r i n g viole n t and p o l i c e opening f i r e i n the a i r t o scare away the protesting crowd p r o t e s t i n g a g a i n s t the 'Unbearable a i r p o l l u t i o n ' caused by a carbon f a c t o r y i n Gujarat is reported and a case of peopl e ' s f u r y on the p o l l u t i o n caused by a F e r t i l i z e r f a c t o r y due to Amnonia discharges i n t o the a i r a t Ramagundam is a l s o recorded.

a poly f i b e r f a c t o r y and exposed t o p o l l u t i o n of t h e r i v e r waters, being s h i f t e d t o a safe place recently is a l s o known. The polluted r i v e r waters containing e f f l u e n t matter was the source of drinking water f o r t h e v i l l a g e and almost every one i n t h e v i l l a g e bore a scar i n the stomach having undergone surgery. These examples of peoples' f u r y over t h e p o l l u t i o n p e r i l s a r e understandable f o r any country and e s p e c i a l l y so f o r a developing country l i k e India. India w i t h i t s 740 million people today. threatening t o reach a b i l l i o n by the end of the century, has more than h a l f of i t s people below the poverty line. I l l i t r a c y is high compared t o o t h e r developed countries. However India is endowed with v a s t n a t u r a l yesoumes and if harnessed i n a planned way, it would develop i n t o one of the w e l l developed countries. It has t h e third l a r g e s t s c i e n t i f i c man-power w i t h second l a r g e s t man-power a s people i n the world. Thus i n t h e l a s t few years India has taken t h e t e n t h p o s i t i o n i n t h e l i s t of t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d countries. s i n c e to f i g h t poverty, g r e a t e r production is only t h e weapon. A case of v i l l a g e adjacent t o

6.

TREATMENT OF WASTES

I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and urbanization of a country leads t o creation Sad strengthening of i n d u s t r i a l and urban slums, posing problems of accumulation of f i l t h , barbage, i n d u s t r i a l harmful p o l l u t a n t s thereby reducing the w a t e r and air q u a l i t y and t h e q u a l i t y of l i f e of the people which l a in no way neaz ta any CLf the developed cbuntries. Hawever it is p o s s i b l e t o reduce t h e s e p e r i l s by treatment of wastes. Technology which has produced new and divergent products f o r t h e b e n e f i t of man to improve h i s q u a l i t y of l i f e , can also

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solve the problems created by harmful and unwanted wastes. Several of the waste waters a r e amenable f o r treatment whereas some discharge t o x i c chemicals whose effects cannot be imnediately measured(i.e.Chlorinated pesticides, poly chlorinated bi-phenyl’s, non Biodegradable detergents etc.) The discharge of untreated or p a r t i a l l y treated i n d u s t r i a l waste waters i n t o r a t e r courses w i l l pose serious health r i s k s t o the population t h a t consume the water, since the pollutants a r e n o t removed t o any appreciable degree during t h e conventional water treatment practices t h a t a r e currently adopted i n India. Waste either i n liquid o r s o l i d fonn should be considered as a resource t o be p u t back into the ecological cycle. Microbiological pathway i s more relevant i n a t r o p i c a l country l i k e India where m i c r o organisms grow and m u l t i p l y a t a much f a s t e r r a t e than i n cold clima t i c regions. Recycling and reuse concepts using s o l a r energy i n s t a b i l i z a t i o n ponds followed by aquaculture and agriculture are much more relevant. A Technological innovation limited t o the regional needs within the country w i t h energy saving devices and reuse concepts become re1evant

.

The national objective i s t o improve t h e q u a l i t y of l i f e of our c i t i z e n s . Technology options i n s a n i t a t i o n and i n pollution control should be such t h a t an environment w i t h clean a i r , unpolluted water, a e s t h e t i c a l l y pleasing landscape and good housing are m a d e & a i l a b l e t o the c i t i z e n s a t minimum social cost. In addition, the s c i e n t i f i c soundness and Technological adaptability, the systeo should be c u l t u r a l l y relevant’and s o c i a l l y acceptable, economically viable, easy to operate and maintain, safeguard public health and capable of recycling of wastes. 7.

STRATEGIES

The following s t r a t e g i e s a r e given t o control the pollution and thereby improve the quality of l i f e , a s exanplea based on Indian experience.

Evolve Governmental e f f e c t i v e action t o w a r d s the fulfilment of the declared objectives of improving the q u a l i t y of life, i n l e g i s l a t i n g simple and stringent laws and in lmplmenting them through various Central and State agenciea like pollution control 1.

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board88 working under newly created departments of environment.

Ime Oovernment of India has promulgated l a w s and acts f o r the prevention and c o n t r o l of w a t e r p o l l u t i o n i n the year 1974, and of a i r p o l l u t i o n i n 1981. after adopting a national envirormental policy,. Department of Environment w i t h a role of ' W a . t c h dog' to bring to the n o t i c e of the Ooverrnuent and Par1M-t i-88, causes and consequence8 of environmental degradation i n a l l sectors w a s established i n December, 1980, by the Government of India. The Department w i l l serve as a model agency f o r environmental protection and eco-development, and w i l l convey environmental a p p r a i s a l of development p r o j e c t s and w i l l take up d i r e c t a h i n i s k r a t i v e respons i b i l i t y for p o l l u t i o n monitoring and conservation of critical ecosystem88 designated a s 'biosphers reserves' and marine eco-systems. Ihe department is given a r o l e t o exarnlne the weak implementation of the a c t s which has increased the p o l l u t i o n l e v e l s of r i v e r w a t e r s , pesticide residues and heavy metals like mercury dumped by waste waters indiscriminately i n t o the water courses. Statutory bodies for the enforcement of the p o l l u t i o n a c t s are made by State Governments, who w i l l m a k e every industry o b l i g a t o r y to obtain consent f o r the discharge of wastes and the treatment p l a n t s before it is established a s an o b l i g a t i o n t o Society. The e x i s t i n g i n d u s t r i e s a r e a l s o expected t o t r e a t their wastes a t a s o c i a l c o s t according to the standards f i x e d by State Boards and r e p o r t on the progress made i n the implementation of the treatment systems a s approved by t h e m . The l a w s have p u n i t i v e measures of simple imprisonment of the recalcitrmt management personnel for not f u l f i l l i n g the obligations of waste treaiment and for continuously sending untreated or p a r t i a l l y t r e a t e d e f f l u e n t s i n t o the surrounding environment. These S t a t e Departments work i n unison w i t h the Central Board for prevention and control of w a t e r and a i r pollution. 2. Create Governmental d i v i s i o n s t o deal w i t h the g i g a n t i c problems t h a t loan ahead consequent t o l a r g e s c a l e i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , deforestation and degradation of eco-system, and t o concern w i t h p o l l u t i o n contro1,assessment of environment, conservation of l i v i n g n a t u r a l resources , eco-development, environmental research promotion, society-environment inter-actions, co-ordination and l i a i s o n w i t h State Governments, environmental infonnation and i n t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation,*

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These divisions would work under the Department of environment and co-ordinate environmental monitoring activities to lessen the

dangers of environmental pollution and also to respond and give corrective action to the developmental activities. 3. Create agencies for the standardization and codification of the industrial effluents, keeping in view of the existing levels of pollution and the availability of effective and appropriate technologies.

Environment Management is based on the principle of 'best practical means' and the standards of effluents are to be specified based on relationship between the intensity, duration and frequency of exposure to the pollution and the ensuing magnitude of the undesirable effect or the risk to life. In developing countries where the exposure levels are comparatively low and long time, it becomes extremely difficult to prescribe standards in the absence of such relationship. Generally the standards for effluents are set by drawing on the experience of other countries and their standards and also on inspired guess work. In India, Indian Standards Institution, created by Government of India to prescribe standards for the maintainance of the quality of the products, sets standards for effluents coming out of different industries and the Pollution Boards are empowered to give different standards broadly in consultations with the industries, based on the existing levels of pollution and air and water quality. The Boards are also expected to take the cogniance of the availability of technology of the processing wastes and its limitation vis-a-vis the cost efiective factor and appropriations. The difficulties observed with the development of standards are very well reflected in wide variations of the standan3s in different countries and in different states of any country like USA etc.

4. Encourage the efforts of the voluntary organizations sponsored by the well-meaning sensitive groups created to educate the people in the perils of pollution and to inculcate the awareness of social responsibilities in the polluting industries towards their surrounding eco-systems. The concerned authorities and people vested with the interest on the maintenance and the improvement of the quality of life for

524

t h e i r fellow-beings should encourage the v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s whose e f f o r t s a r e f o r keeping t h e eco-systems from f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a t i o n and f o r t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of the d e t e r i o r a t i n g factors. I n India, people's Organizations l i k e So-clean (Society f o r c l e a n environment), save Bombay C o m m i t t e e , an Organization of S c i e n t i s t s and i n t e l l e c t u a l s f o r environmental c a r e have come up r e c e n t l y t o s a v e t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n of environment. The l a t e s t t o come up i n Madras ( a s l a t e as March 26, 1984.) i s a s o c i e t y t o ' b r e a t h e l i f e ' i n t o environment and t o r e s e n s i t i s e and educate t h e people about t h e value and t h e need of environment and p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l . These s o c i e t i e s a r e expected t o b r i n g about a t t i t u d i n a l and behavioural changes i n a l l t h e concerned. I n a d d i t i o n , an ingeneously c r e a t e d 'Chipko' movement h a s come up, where i n t h e person would embrace a tree when it i s endangered f o r i t s removal by c u t t i n g it o u t and thus a i d i n prevention of denuding t h e f o r e s t area, a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e i n a non-violent way. S c i e n t i f i c p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s l i k e I n d i a n Science congrsms, I n s t i t u t i o n of Engineers etc., discussed Ehvironmental p r o t e c t i o n as t h e i r main themes of congresses f o r p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s of environmental c o n t r o l . These e f f o r t s though look small would d e f i n i t e l y help i n focussing t h e problems of environmental degradation and f o r t h e i r p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s . People would l i k e t o have progress witho u t p o l l u t i o n and i n d u s t r i a l i s t s should c r e a t e wealth from wastes and reduce t h e p e r i l s of p o l l u t i o n . Develop t h e research and consulting agencies f o r t h e b e n e f i t of i n d u s t r i a l i s t s and e c o l o g i s t s so t h a t the problems of p o l l u t i o n a r e i d e n t i f i e d and s t r a t e g i e s a r e planned t o demonstrate t h a t economic development i s p o s s i b l e without e c o l o g i c a l imbalance and f u r t h e r damage t o t h e degraded eco-system i s reduced. 5.

Research and consultancy s e r v i c e s i n t h e f i e l d of Environmental m g i n e e r i n g and Management a r e poor i n developing c o u n t r i e s , s i n c e t h e emphasis has been t o develop the i n d u s t r i e s a t a f a s t r a t e t o catch up with t h e developed world. I n t h e i r a n x i e t y t o better t h e l o t of people l i v i n g i n t h e t h i r d world, t h e c o u n t r i e s a r e f i g h t i n g hard and t a k i n g a l l p o s s i b l e i n d u s t r i a l and economic developmental a c t i v i t i e s without giving t h e due importance on t h e impact of t h e s e Ehvironmental impact s t u d i e s of t h e a c t i v i t i e s on the environment.

126

developmental p r o j e c t s are r a r e l y attempted. mere s h o d 9 be proper l i a s o n between the i n d u s t r i e s and l a w enforcing a u t h o r i t i e s on one hand and a l s o with t h e Research organizatlona t o t a c k l e the waate treatment problems which a r e p e c u l i a r to sane developing countries f o r which ready made options are n o t available. Alternative technol o g i e s f o r waste treatment, a l t e r n a t e r e c e p t a c l e s f o r l i q u i d wastes a r e t o be thought o u t to prevent and c o n t r o l t h e water pollution. New i d e a s on c o m n i t y treatment p l a n t s f o r the b e n e f i t of m a l l scale i n d u s t r i e s located i n i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s are t o be worked o u t a s treatment s t r a t e g i e s . New approaches t o waste water disposal are t o be thought o u t by which t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s t s a r e obliged t o As an example, t h e i n d u s t r y based on a r i v e r t r e a t the w a s t e s . bank be asked t o t a k e the f r e s h w a t e r from the down stream and Send t h e waste-waste water upstream, reversing t h e normal procedure, 80 t h a t t h e industry has t o control t h e q u a l i t y of waste water f o r i t s An i n d u s t r y can a l s o be asked not t o own survival and i n t e r e s t . dump t h e i r waste waters i n t o a r i v e r , if t h e surrounding areas are of f o r e s t or a g r i c u l t u r a l lands, so t h a t t h e r l g o u r s of treatment t o surface water or drinking water standards need not be imposed and the waste water i s u t i l i z e d f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l and f o r e s t r y purposes. The i n d u s t r i a l i s t s a r e t o be advised t o do some 'good housekeeping' so a s t o reduce t h e waste and use waste t o recycle whereever f e a s i b l e and possible. They a r e a l s o t o select t h e technologies based on l e a s t p o s s i b l e p o l l u t i o n and change the e x i s t i n g processes with t h e less p o l l u t i n g products and raw materials. These s t r a t e g i e s would go a long way, i n not lowering t h e q u a l i t y of l i f e b u t h e l p i n improving it. Thus'the preservation of our Environment is not a liberal o r conservative challenge it is common-sense a s declared by President Reagan during h i s S t a t e of Union Address f o r t h e year 1984.

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

527

ENERGY USE PATTERiJS I?l ZURAL AXEAS AND EMVIRGNMENTAL DEGRADATION I N DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

6. Bowonder C e n t r e f o r Energy, E n v i r o n m e n t and T e c h n o l o g y Administrative S t a f f College o f I n d i a B e l l a V i s t a , Hyderabad-500 049, I N D I A

ABSTRACT The m a j o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l problems i n g world are

(1,Z)

f a c i n g t h e develop-

i)D e p l e t i o n ( 3 ) and d e g r a d a t i o n o f t r o p i c a l f o r e s t s ( 4 , 5 ) ii)S o i l e r o s i o n , s e d i m e n t a t i o n (6,7) and d e g r a d a t i o n o f s o i l systems (8) iii)Fuelwood s h o r t a g e (9) A i r and w a t e r p o l l u t i o n ( l , Z , l O , l l ) iv) v)

E x t i n c t i o n o f species logical diversity

[i:jl

and r e d u c t i o n i n b i o -

3, or g e n e t i c e r o s i o n

Except w a t e r p o l l u t i o n a l l t h e o t h e r problems are l i n k e d t o energy use i n r u r a l areas. T h i s p a p e r h i g h l i g h t s t h e l i n k a g e between e n e r g y use and e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t i o n u s i n g t h e a v a i l a b l e data. FUELWODD USE AND DEFORESTATION Fuelwood i s t h e m a j o r e n e r g y s o u r c e o f t h d r u r a l p o o r i n a number o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . I n t h e normal course extract i o n of small q u a n t i t i e s o f f u e l w o o d does n o t do any harm t o t h e ecosystem s i n c e i t i s a r e n e w a b l e s o u r c e o f energy. When t h e a n n u a l e x t r a c t i o n exceeds t h e a n n u a l i n c r e m e n t a l y i e l d or s u s t a i n Tropical forests a b l e y i e l d , t h e r e , i s d e p l e t i o n o f c a p i t a l stock. can be d o n a i d e r e d ‘as common p o o l r e s o u r c e s and any common p o o l r e s o u r c e c a n be s u s t a i n e d o n l y a t l o w p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y o r when t h e r e a r e o n l y l i m i t e d number o f users. I n a number o f deval o p i n g c o u n t r i e s a l r e a d y t h e f u e l w o o d u s e have exceeded t h e sustainable forest yield. They are, Burundi, E t h i o p i a , Guinea, Kenya, Rwanda, S i e r r a l e o n e , Uganda, Ghana, Swaziland, T u n i s i a , Lebanon, P a k i s t a n , H a i t i and Egypt.(3) b u t o f t h i s i n Ghana, Kenya and P a k i s t a n t h e g r o w t h r a t e o f p o p u l a t i o n a s w e l l a s t h a t o f wood e x t r a c t i o n exceeds t h r e e p e r c e n t p e r annum. I n a l a r g e cumber - o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s wood i s t h e main

528 fuel f o r the r u r a l population. T h i s i s corroborated by t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h e f o l l a u i n g c o u n t r i e s ( 3 ) more t h a n 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e wood e x t r a c t e d i s used as fuelwood, namely S.Korea, Nepal, P a k i s t a n , Vietnam, S r i l a n k a , Guatemala, H a i t i , E l S a l v a d o r , Panrma, Bhutan, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Colombia, Venezuela, I n d i a , Bangladesh, Laos, Benin, Chad, Egypt, E t h i o p i a , Kenya, M a l i , Malawi, Mozambique, N i g e r , N i g e r i a , Rwanda, S i e r r a l e o n e , Sudan, Somalia, Tanzania, T u n i s i a , and u p p e r Volta. Not o n l y t h a t t h e wood t h a t i s used as f u e l w o o d i s high, i n a c t u a l u n i t s t h e p e r c a p i t a f u e l w o o d use i s a l s o v e r y high. The c o u n t r i e s where f u e l wood use p e r c a p i t a exceeds one c u b i c m e t e r p e r annum, a r e Angola, Benin, Cameroon, C e n t r a l A f r i c a n R e p u b l i c , Chad, Kenya, L i b e r i a , Malawi, M a l i , N i g e r i a , S i e r r a l e o n e , Sudan, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Guatemala, Honduras, B r a z i l , Colombia, Paraguay, Bhutan, S. Korea, I f YOU l i s t t h e s e w i t h Laos, Vietnam and Papua, New Guinea. c o u n t r i e s where p e r c a p i t a a r e a i s l e s s t h a n 0.5 h e c t a r e i t can be seen t h a t Benin, Kenya, Malawi, N i g e r i a , S i e r r a l e o n e , S. Korea, and Vietnam come u n d e r b o t h t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s . These f a c t o r s a l o n g w i t h t h e a c t u a l wood e x t r a c t i o n r a t e s (m3 p e r h e c t a r e o f f o r e s t a r e a ) f r o m f o r e s t s ( T a b l e 1) i n d i c a t e t h a t most o f t h e c o u n t r i e s where f u e l w o o d e x t r a c t i o n i s h i g h a r e low income c o u n t r i e s ( e x c e p t L i b y a ) . These c o u n t r i e s c a n n o t s w i t c h over t o f o s s i l f u e l s s i n c e th e y are m a i n l y o i l i m p o r t i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s ( e x c e p t L i b y a ) and m o s t l y have p e r c a p i t a I n otherwords, e n v i r o n m e n t a l degradal e s s t h a n US $ 500 (15). t i o n o f f o r e s t q u a l i t y and d e f o r e s t a t i o n (16,17) a r e t h e r e s u l t o f p o v e r t y , l o w incomes and u n d e r development. Unless fuelwood a v a i l a b i l i t y i s increased or a l t e r n a t i v e f u e l s are provided t h e c u r r e n t t r e n d of d e f o r e s t a t i o n w i l l c o n t i n u e . One o f t h e m a j o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l consequences of d e f o r e s t a t i o n o f t h e t r o p i c a l f o r e s t has been d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f e x t i n c t i o n o f ecosystems (12,14,18-20) species. T r o p i c a l f o r e s t s o f A f r i c a , I n d i a , M a l a y s i a , and Amazcr n i a a r e s p e c i e s r i c h and i n d i s c r i m i n a t e e x t e r m i n a t i o n o f s p e c i e s i s an i r r e v e r s i b l e l o s s . Because o f p o p u l a t i o n pressure t h e Rate of t r o p i c a l f o r e s t ecosystems a r e c l e a r e d a v e r y f a s t r a t e . d e f o r e s t a t i o n i n 7 6 d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s comes t o be 11.3 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s p e r annum whereas t h e a f f o r e s t a t i o n i s v e r y meagre com0.52 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s (21). Tropical forest p a r e d t o t h i s i.e. ecosystem a r e n u t r i e n t poor, v e r y f r a g i l e , p o o r l y s t u d i e d and once d i s t u r b e d g e t s i r r e v e r s i b l y damaged (16,17)

.

FA0 i n a r e c e n t s t u d y has i d e n t i f i e d t h a t i n many d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s t h e r e i s f u e l w o o d s h o r t a g e and t h i s s h o r t a g e i s I n India i l l e g a l fuell i k e l y t o increase the i l l e g a l extraction. wood e x t r a c t i o n exceeds 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l use. I n Srilanka ( 3 ) i l l e g a l e x t r a c t i o n was o n l y 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l consumpIt i s t i o n ( i n 1960) b u t t h i s has become 72 p e r c e n t b y 1975. i l l e g a l e x t r a c t i o n t h a t causes s e v e r e e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t i o n since

i)

a r e a s where i l l e g a l e x t r a c t i o n o c c u r s a r e a r e a s o f

lau biomass p r o d u c t i v i t y

ii)

n o e f f o r t s a r e made f o r r e g e n e r a t i o n i n i l l e g a l l y

529

Table 1 .

F o r e s t s and Economic Development T

Commerc i a1 energy u s e percapita

( Kilograme Equivalent) 20 55 180 30 89 39 265 618 218 565 66

55 70 266 791 455 767

--

242 72 251 140 140 2360 94

130 251 1642 30

530

e x t r a c t e d areas

iii) i l l e g a l e x t r a c t o r s have no i n c e n t i v e t o b u r n f u e l w o o d e f f i c i e n t l y and hence i t s i n e f f i c i e n t and o v e r USE. D e f o r e s t a t i o n and t h e consequent e n v i r o n m e n t a l degradat i o n w i l l c o n t i n u e u n l e s s e f f o r t s a r e made t o s t i m u l a t e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f f o r e s t s and g e n e r a t i o n o f f o r e s t s . Under i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y r e g u l a t i o n s a l o n e cannot a r r e s t d e f o r e s t a t i o n . I n s p i t e o f s e v e r e r e s t r i c t i o n s f o r e s t c o v e r ( 3 ) came down i n H a i t i f r o m 5 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l a r e a t o 9% between 1950 and 1979. F o r e s t r e g e n e r a t i o n e f f o r t s has t o be supplemented by i n t r o d u c t i o n o f renewable s o u r c e s o f energy s u c h a s o l a r energy, b i o g a s , w i n d energy, etc. BURNING AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES AND ANIMAL WASTES

A n o t h e r m a j o r energy s o u r c e of w i d e s p r e a d use i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s i s a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s i d u e s and animaJ wastes. Agric u l t u r a l r e s i d u e s and a n i m a l w a s t e s a r e b u r n t d i r e c t l y as f u e l i n r u r a l areas. B u r n i n g o f r e s i d u e s and w a s t e s r e s u l t s i n l o s s o f nitrogen. I n c r e a s e d t r e n d o f b u r n i n g t h e s e f u e l s have caused t h e carbon t o Nitrogen r a t i o t o f a l l considerably i n t h e s o i l s . Use o f a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s i d u e s ( i n t h e f o r m o f Compost o r d i r e c t l y ) and use o f a n i m a l w a s t e s r e d u c e s t h e o r g a n i c c a r b o n i n t o t h e S o i l . T h i s , w i t h t h e t r e n d of i n c r e a s e d use of c h e m i c a l n i t r o g e n d i r e c t l y r e s u l t s i n d r a s t i c r e d u c t i o n i n c a r b o n and i n c r e a s e i n n i t r o gen. L o w e r i n g o f t h e c z r b o n t o n i t r o en r a t i o a f f e c t s l o n g t e r m p r o d u c t i v i t y and agronomic s t a b i l i t y f ' 2 2 ) . S o i l i s one most c r i t i c a l r e s o u r c e s and d e g r a d a t i o n o f s o i l q u a l i t y u n d e r i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y i s l i k e l y t o be Increased deforestation, s h i f t i n g an i r r e v e r s i b l e change (23). c u l t i v a t i o n , i m p r o p e r w a t e r management a l o n g w i t h d e g r a d a t i o n o f s o i l q u a l i t y a r e a severe e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s o f t h e d e v e l o p i n g world. Very l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has been g i v e n t o s o i l management i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s and l o s s o f t o p s o i l i s an i r r e v e r s i b l e process. FUELWOOD USE AND A I R PMLUTIbN Though i t i s g e n e r a l 1 y c o n s i d e r a b l e t h a t a i r p o l l u t i o n from i n d u s t r i e s i s a severe p r o b l e m t h e r i s k o f a i r p o l l u t i o n from f u e l w o o d use has some s e r i o u s dimensions. I t has been r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e t o t a l suspended p a r t i c l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r u r a l women i s exposed t o i n c o o k i n g i s much h i g h e r t h a n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o w h i c h i n d u s t r i a l w o r k e r s a r a exposed to. R u r a l women cook m a i n l y i n i l l - v e n t i l a t e d houses and a r e exposed t o t h e smoke f o r many number of h o u r s even a f t e r t h e c o o k i n g p r o c e s s i s o v e r because O f p o o r v e n t i l a t i o n i n r u r a l households. A c t u a l f i e l d s t u d i e s con-. d u c t e d i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e Benzoalpha p y r e n e c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o w h i c h

531 r u r a l women a r e exposed ( c l o s e t o f u e l w o o d s t o v e s ) i n c e r t a i n Coma r e a 8 o f I n d i a i s 3850 nano grams p e r c u b i c m e t e r (24,25). p a r e d t o t h i s t h e average Benzo a l p h a p y r e n e c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n a US house ( i n d o o r ) w i t h wood s t o v e h e a t i n g i s as low as 1.2 nano grames p e r c u b i c m e t e r (24,25). C o n t i n u o u s e x p o s u r e t o v e r y h i g h l e v e l s (many t i m e s h i g h e r compared t o i n d u s t r i a l s t a n d a r d s o r ambient s t a n d a r d s ) has many health risks. R u r a l women has h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f anaemia (22,23) and i t can be a consequence o f e x p o s u r e t o h i g h l g v e l s o f c a r b o n monoxide. ENVIRONMENTdL R I S K These t h r e e examples can be c o n s i d e r e d as examples o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l r i s k (26-32) i n d i c a t i n g t h a t e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s i n developing c o u n t r i e s are very c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o i l l i t e r a c y , underdevelopment, p o o r awareness, l a c k o f i n f o r m a t i o n , p o o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l p l a n n i n g , l a c k o f c o n c e r n b y t h e government administ r a t o r s , and p o o r e f f o r t s b y mass medi8. The h a z a r d s i n a l l t h e t h r e e caaee a r i s e s o u t o f t h e f a c t t h a t p e o p l e a r e exposed t o various environmental r i s k s w h i l e the subjects are t r y i n g t o u n d e r t a k e a c t i v i t i e s f o r s a t i s f y i n g t h e b a s i c human needs. It i s very d i f f i c u l t t o a v e r t these r i s k s . D e v e l o p m e n t a l and e n v i r o n Unless m e n t a l p r o b l e m s a r e two s i d e s o f t h e same c o i n (33). e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s s u e s a r e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e environmental r i s k s a r e g o i n g t o become s e r i o u s , s i n c e e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o blems a r e i n t r i c a t e and h i g h l y i n t e r a c t i v e . CONCLUSIONS Many of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s f a c e d b y d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s a r e c l o s a y l i n k e d t o t h e energy use p a t t e r n s , more so i n t h e r u r a l areas. Most o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s o c c u r i n t h e low i n come d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s and a r e c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o t h e use o f t r a d i t i o n a l f u e l s such as fuelwood, a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s i d u e s and a n i m a l wastes. R e v e r s i n g t h e t r e n d o f usage o f t r a d i t i o n a l f u e l s w i l l be a l o n g drawn o u t p r o c e d u r e , b u t t h e n t h e p r o b l e m s w o u l d have v e r y severe. Unless d e l i b e r a t e e f f o r t s are i n i t i a t e d t o i n st i t ut i on a 1i ze env i r onmen t a 1 c o n c e r n s i n economic p l a n n i n g t h r o u g h a s e r i e s of p o l i c y i n t e r v e n t i o n s many o f t h e u n i q u e and f r a g i l e ecosystems would be i r r e v e r s i b l y l o s t . This i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n w i l l need t h e commitment o f p o l i t i c a l bosses and government a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . These groups have t o be s e n s i t i z e d and s t i m u l a t e d t o a c h i e v e improvements i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y i n developing countries.

532

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The a u t h o r i s . g r a t e f u l t o D e p a r t m e n t of E n v i r o n m e n t , Government o f I n d i a f o r p r o v i d i n g f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t f o r c a r r y i n g o u t t h i s research. The a u t h o r w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k Dr.T.N.Khostuo, S e c r e t a r y , D e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t , Mr. M. Narasimham, P r i n c i p a l , A S C I f o r t h e s u p p o r t and encourage m e n t t h e y h a v e p r o v i d e d .

RE FERE PIC ES 1.

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Dublin,

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H o l d g a t e , M.W., Kassas, M., a n d W h i t e , G.F., World Environm e n t a l T r e n d s between 1972-1 982, E n v i r o n m e n t a l C o n s e r v a t i o n Vol. 9, pp. 1-29, 1982.

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and B w r o n d e r , B., C h e t t r i , R., v o i r , A p p l i e d Geography, V01.3,

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Ramana, Bowonder, B., t a t i o n i n Reservoirs, Hyderabad, 1984.

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Pasca, T.N., C o n c e r n i n g Mood Energy , pp. 2-3, 1981.

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Biswas, A.K., E n v i r o n m e n t and Wate r D e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d , J o u r n a l o f t h e W a t e r R e s o u r c e s P l m n i n q and Management D i v i s i o n , V01.106, W R I , pp.319-332, 1980.

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S i l t a t i o n i n Nizamsagar r e s e r pp.193-204, 1983.

K.V., and Hanumantha Rao, T., SedimenAdministrative S t a f f College of India,

K., New p o l i t i c a l economy o f d e v e l o p m e n t , 1979.

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Jordan, C.F., Medina, E., and K l i n g e , H., How H e r r e r a , R., Human A c t i v i t i e s D i s t u r b N u t r i e n t C y c l e s o f a T r o p a c a l Rainf o r e s t i n Amazonia, A M B I O Vol.10, No.2-3, 1981.

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Biswas, M.R., and Biswas, A.K., Loss o f P r o d u c t i v e S o i l , I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l S t u d i e s , V01.12, pp.189-197, 1978.

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Aggarwal, A.L., and Dave, R.M., A i r Pollution Smith, K.R., Resource Systems and R u r a l F u e l s , W o r k i n g Paper WP-82-17, I n s t i t u t e , E a s t West Centre, H o n o l u l u , 1982.

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S m i t h , K.R., Aggarwal, A.L., and Dave, R.M. A i r P o l l u t i o n and R u r a l F u e l s , Working Paper WP-83-2, Resource Systems I n s t i t u t e , E a s t West Centre, H o n o l u l u , 1983.

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and B u r t o n , I.,E n v i r o n m e n t a l R i s k Assessment, Whyte, A.W., Scope R e p o r t 15, W i l e y , C h i c h e s t e r , 1980.

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Environmental Risk i n Developing Countries w i t h Bowonder, B., S p e c i a l Reference t o I n d i a , (Eds. T. O r i o r d a n and R.K. Turner) P r o g r e s s i n Resource Management and E n v i r o n m e n t a l P l a n n i n g Vol. 4, W i l e y , C h i c h e s t e r , 1903, pp.57-89.

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R., T r o p i c a l Rain Forests, pp.7-13, 1981.

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C o v e l l o , V.T., and Menkes, J,, I e s u e s i n R i s k A n a l y s i s , (Eda. C. Hohenemser and J.X. Kasperson) R i s k i n t h e T e c h n o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , West Vieru Press, Boulder, 1982, pp. 287-301.

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and Biswas, A.K., Eisuras, M.R., Development i n t h e T h i r d World, No.3, pp. 479-491, 1982.

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions. edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

536

TRENDS IN ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND THEIR FUTURE IN INDIA

Jitendra S. Sharma Chemistry Division Oil & Natural Gas Commission Sibsagar, Assam, India

ABSTRACT In the continuing race between man and nature, the ecological balance has been upset. It is becoming increasingly important for the Indian people to combat the danger inherent in the growing deterioration of the natural environment, the degradation of land, poisoning of the air, rivers and reservoirs and the pollution of cities. A third of India's potential agricultural land and threefourths of the non-agricultural land is lying practically useless. Besides, three-fifths of our total agricultural land is degraded and, on the whole, three-quarters of all the land under cultivation and in forestsneeds urgent care. Such a state of affairs is partly due to the poverty and overpopulation in our country, and is partly because of complacency, ignorance and lack of policy and organisation at the highest levels. It is a sad but undeniable fact that our forest departments have, by and large, failed to protect our 70 odd million hectares of forest lands against encroachments, unauthorised felling and denudation. It is estimated that 6,000 million tonnes of top soilare displaced every monsoon season by water erosion. The environment has begun to show obvious signs of the misuse of our natural envirnoment. A classic example of this is the entire exercise in flood control in the Ganga basin. The silent valley controversy in Kerala focussed the nation's attention on the plight of the tropical evergreen forests. Silted-up reservoirs no longer have their original capacity. 1.

DEGRADATION OF LAND RESOURCES

Exploitation of natural environment for useful material has always been an important facet of the man-nature interaction. Despite India's rich tradition and socio-religious background, the country has witnessed a depletion of its biological heritage on such a massive scale that it has become a matter of serious concern. There is evident of the neglect of land resources which are available wherever one might go in this vast country of ours. Denuded hillsides, ravines', waterlogged and saline lands, drought-stricken villages, silted tanks and drying wells are to be encountered almost everywhere. Floods ravage large areas of land year after year. The Rajasthan deser't maintains its leeward creep. In the northeastern parts of the country, shifting cultivation patterns continue to strip heavily-forested slopes of all vegetation.

536

Let me first take a broad look at the way in which our land resources are being used or misused. The total area of the country is 305 mil1ion.hectare.s. According to official sources, 18 million of these hectares are under urban or other non-agricultural uses. Another 21 million hectares are classified as barren and unculturable, being perpetually snowbound or rocky in nature. Of the remaining 266 million hectares, 17 million are classified as culturable wastes, and as many as 23 as fallow. This makes a total of 40 million hectares which, although capable of production by definition, are lying unproductive, apparently becuase of the degradation they have suffered. Of the remaining area of 226 million hectares, 83 are classified as forests and permanent pastures and 143 as agricultural lands. However, it is well known that only about 35 million hectares out of the 83 described as forests and permanent pastures are actually under good tree or grass cover,the remaining 48 being more or less completely devoid of vegetation. If these 48 million hectares are added to the 40 which have gone out of production for one reason or another, we arrive at a total of 88 million hectares which are more or less completely unproductive. This representsabout33 percent of our total relevant area of 266 million hectares. However, if we exclude the 143 million hectares of agricultural lands from consideration, this area of 88 million hectares represents as much as 72 percent of the 123 million hectares of nonagricultural lands. In other words: fully one-third of our total relevant land area and nearly three-quarters of our total nonagricultural area is today lying practically useless. These figures show how very sick our non-agricultural lands are. However, our agricultural lands are also not free from problems. According to the Ministry of Agriculture, as many as 175 million hectares, equivalent to 66 percent of our total relevant area, are affected by degradation caused mainly by serious soil erosion and waterlogging and salinity -- which are only two of the major ills the land suffers from. Since 88 of these 175 million affected hectares are more or less completely unproductive non-agricultural lands, it follows that the remaining 87 million hectares of sick lands are under cultivation. This represents 61 percent of the 143 million hectares which are classified as agricultural. In other words, over three-fifths of even our agricultural lands are degraded to some degree. The actual situation is, however, even more alarming than what these statistics reveal, because they do not take two additional factors into account. The first of these concerns the vast areas which are ravaged by floods. According to the National Conmission on Floods, the area affected by annual floods stands today at around 4 0 million hectares, compared to 25 million hectares some 30 years ago. The second factor involves the growing menaces of waterlogging and salinity in newly-irrigated canal command areas. It would not be unreasonable to assume that at least 10 million hectares out of our total irrigated area of around 40 million hectares are threatened by waterlogging and salinity and are in urgent need of attention if they are not to go out of production in the near future. Even allowing for a great deal of overlap between these 50 million hectares and the 175 already listed as degraded, the total

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a r e a which needs a t t e n t i o n c a n n o t be l e s s t h a n 2 0 0 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s -- o u t of a t o t a l r e l e v a n t a r e a o f 2 6 6 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s . T h i s r e p r e s e n t s a p e r c e n t a g e of 75. These f i g u r e s p r e s e n t a t r u l y f r i g h t e n i n g p i c t u r e even f o r t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l who p r e d i c t s a g r e a t f u t u r e f o r I n d i a a s an a g r i c u l t u r a l power. To r e p e a t : around t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of o u r t o t a l r e l e v a n t a r e a i s i n need o f u r g e n t a t t e n t i o n and a t h i r d is so s i c k t h a t it i s almost completely unproductive. I n t e r m s o f c a t e g o r i e s , a t least 6 1 p e r c e n t of o u r a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s and a t l e a s t 72 p e r c e n t of o u r n o n a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s a r e d e g r e a d e d t o a g r e a t e r o r lesser d e g r e e . I t i s no wonder t h a t w e a r e so d e s p e r a t e l y s h o r t of food, f r u i t , f i b r e , f u e l wood, t i m b e r , a n i m a l p r o d u c t s and, i n d e e d , e v e r y t h i n g t h a t t h e l a n d p r o d u c e s . I t i s no wonder t h a t w e c a n b a r e l y manage t o produce 130 m i l l i o n t o n n e s o f food g r a i n s from 143 m i l l i o n hect a r e s of a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s . I t i s h i g h t i m e w e r e a l i s e d t h e s t a t e w e a r e i n , f o r what w e a r e w i t n e s s i n g i s t h e unchecked e r o s i o n o f o u r r e s o u r c e base--even a s t h e demands on it from a s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n a n d s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g e x p e c t a t i o n s of a b e t t e r l i f e a r e r i s i n g r a p i d l y . The I n d i a n s i t u a t i o n can i n d e e d be compared t o t h a t o f a l e a k i n g b o a t i n t o which more and more p e o p l e keep c l i m b i n g , even a s , unknown t o t h e o c c u p a n t s , t h e h o l e i n i t s bottom g o e s on i n c r e a s i n g i n s i z e .

That t h i s p i c t u r e i s n o t overdrawn w i l l be c l e a r when w e cons i d e r , i n some d e t a i l , t h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h e problems of l a n d d e g r a d a t i o n which f a c e u s . As I have j u s t mentioned, t h e two major t h r e a t s t o o u r l a n d r e s o u r c e s a r e w a t e r l o g g i n g and s o i l e r o s i o n . According t o t h e l a t e s t a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e a r e a s which have a l r e a d y gone o u t of p r o d u c t i o n on a c c o u n t o f w a t e r l o g g i n g and s a l i n i t y a r e 1 3 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s . Of t h e s e , p e r h a p s h a l f a r e s i t u a t e d i n e s t u a r i n e and c o a s t a l a r e a s and have n o t been p r o d u c t i v e i n recent t i m e s . However, a t l e a s t 6 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s comprise l a n d s which w e r e p r o d u c t i v e u n t i l r e c e n t l y and have been l o s t t o w a t e r l o g g i n g and s a l i n i t y on a c c o u n t o f man-made s i t u a t i o n s . The f i r s t , and lesser, of t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s a r i s e s from t h e impediments which have been c r e a t e d i n t h e way o f n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e by e n g i n e e r i n g works s u c h a s f l o o d c o n t r o l embankments and r o a d , I f , a s i s o f t e n t h e c a s e , s u c h emr a i l and c a n a l embankments. bankments do n o t c o n t a i n a d e q u a t e c r o s s - d r a i n a g e works, w a t e r i s r e t a i n e d a g a i n s t them and c a u s e s damage t o t h e a r e a s submerged. The answer t o s u c h s i t u a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h e x p e n s i v e , i s f a i r l y e a s y . I t l i e s i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a d e q u a t e c r o s s - d r a i n a g e works wherever t h e s e a r e required. I t i s t h e second k i n d of s i t u a t i o n , p e c u l i a r t o c a n a l - i r r i g a t e d a r e a s , which i s much more a l a r m i n g . Lands i n c a n a l a r e a s o f North I n d i a are o f t e n f l a t and p o o r l y d r a i n e d . I r r i g a t i o n o f t h e s e a r e a s r e s u l t s i n w a t e r l o g g i n g and s a l i n i t y o v e r a p e r i o d o f time. T h i s p r o c e s s i s h a s t e n e d by two o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s : F i r s t l y , .the app l i c a t i o n of c a n a l w a t e r t o c r o p s i s o f t e n f a r i n e x c e s s of t h e i r needs. Secondly, wherever c a n a l s and d i s t r i b u t o r i e s a r e n o t l i n e d , a s i s o f t e n t h e case, they c o n t r i b u t e h e a v i l y t o waterlogging t h r o u g h s e e p a g e . The l i n i n g o f c a n a l s and d i s t r i b u t a r i e s i s i n d i c a t e d , n o t o n l y t o s a v e v a l u a b l e l a n d s from damage, b u t a l s o t o e l i m i n a t e water l o s s e s which o f t e n amount t o as much a s 40 p e r c e n t . of t h e w a t e r r e l e a s e d from t h e r e s e r v o i r .

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The reclamation of water-logged and saline lands which have already gone out of production is naturally even more difficult than the prevention of water-logging. Not only must drainage be provided t o these lands but arrangements must also be made to leach saline soils and to carry out soil amendments and introduce suitable cultural practices. Here, as in most other situations, prevention is definitely better than cure. Even if we give a low priority to the reclamation of water-logged and saline lands which have already gone out of production, we must save the 10 million odd hectares of newly irrigated lands from damage. Such a programme will require an average of Rs. 10,000 crores for the area we have in mind. It will also require technical and administrative inputs of a colossal nature. However, we have no option but to mount such an effort and ensure that it is carried out successfully if we are to save some of our best lands from increasing infertility. Let us now turn to the other major threat to the land, the erosion of the fertile top soil. It is estimated that the area seriously affected by wind erosion is around 50 million hectares while the area seriously affected by water erosion is around 100 million hectares. The control of wind erosion lies primarily in the restoration of vegetal cover to denuded lands by curbing indiscriminate grazing by nomadic herds and the creation of wind breaks and shelter belts which reduce the velocity of strong winds and thereby also their erosive and desiccating effects. These are also the methods by which shifting sand-dunes can be stabilised and prevented from smothering vegetation, blocking up roads and railroads choking irrigation channels in their vicinity in Western Rajasthan, The control of wind erosion also carries with it the hope of ending the aridity of the desert and of finding a permanent solution to its problems. Studies indicate that one of the possible reasons why moisture-laden clouds pass over Western Rajasthan without precipitating their burden on it is the fine dust suspended in the air over the desert. This dust is, of course, the direct result of wind erosion. Let us now turn to the erosion of the top soil by water, which undoubtedly constitutes the most serious threat to our land resources. This is so because apart from reducing the fertility of the 100 odd million hectares of land directly affected by it, it has a number of extremely deleterious side-effects. Thus, it leads to the siltation of reservoirs and tanks, the choking of estuaries and harbours, the occurrence of floods and finally to the loss to the sea of a great deal of priceless sweet water. The genesis of water erosion as of wind erosion lies in the ever increasing pressure of human and animal populations on forest and pasture lands in their search €or fuel and fodder. In tribal areas, growing population pressures produce similar results by shortening the cycle of shifting cultivation. The cutting of hillsides for building mountain roads also contributes to erosion and landslides. The over-exploitation of forests by commercial interests is yet another environmental problem. Unscrupulous forest contractors often cut down more trees than they are entitled to. The opening up of hitherto inaccessible forest areas by new all-weather roads and the easy availability of heavy duty trucks in recent years have

hastened this process greatly. . It is a shd but undeniable fact that our forest departments have bp and large failed to protect our 70 odd million hectares of forest lands against encroachments, unauthor5zed fellings, and denudation. This is partly due to the fact that they do not possess adequate legal powers over areas other than reserved forests, which constitute only about half of the total forest area. In the remaining half, described as protected and unclassed forests,,Forest Departments have very little say indeed. As far as pasture lands, which.constitute around 12 million hectares are concerned, these usually vest in village communities and have suffered enormous damage through enroachments and over-grazing. According to an estimate made in the seventies, the quantity of top soil displaced by water erosion alone was 6,000 million tonnes a year. It was calculated that this represented a loss in terms of the major nutrients NPK alone that would require 5.37 million tonnes of inorganic fertilizers to replace at a cost of Rs. 700 crores. Our total losses due to erosion must, however, be still greater if computed in terms of the agricultural, animal and forestry production that we are losing year after year as a result of the continuing degradation of 150 odd million hectares,of land. Such losses must certainly be of the order of several tens of thousands of crore rupees a year. These losses show up unmistakably in the pitiable condition of our poverty stricken masses for land degradation. The indirect losses caused by water erosion are no less serious in nature. The premature siltation of our 5 lakhs odd tanks and of the 487 reservoirs of our major and medium irrigation and multi-purpose projects, on which the community has invested over Rs. 10,000 crores during the last three decades, is a particularly serious matter. Observations show that the average rate of sedimentation in most reservoirs is 4 to 6 times as high as the rate which was assumed at the time that they were designed and built. The life expectancy of these projects is, therefore, being reduced significantly by soil erosion in their catchments. Another way in which the country pays dearly for soil erosion is through the losses it suffers as a result of floods, which occur because a great deal of the soil which is washed down from watersheds gets lodged in the beds of rivers and reduces their carrying capacity. According to the National Commission on Floods, the losses caused by floods during the three-year period from 1976 to 1978 amounted to Rs. 3,180 crores which works out to an average of over Rs. 1,000 crores per annum. However, these figures convey no idea of the suffering and misery caused by the loss of lives or of the toll taken of human and cattle health by the epidemics which invariably follow in the wake of floods. The only way to tackle the growing menace of floods is to control deforestation, denudation and soil erosion in the water sheds of rivers. Such a task must be undertaken on the most urgent basis particularly in the case of the Himalayan rivers, if certain disaster is to be avoided. If this problem is not tackled in time, it is not difficult to imagine a situation in which, thanks to increasingly frequent and intense floods,.and the consequent rise in the level of river beds, large portions of the rich flat lands of the Ganga basin may be turned into undrainable swamps. Perhaps it is already too late to save the situation because while the denudation and erosion of the Himalayas is already far advanced and is growing rapidly.

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Yet another extremely serious consequence of soil erosion is the havoc it plays with our water resources. This is so because the run-off of rain water from denuded surfaces is far greater than from slopes which are well-wooded and well-grassed. This means that a great deal of the water which would otherwise have been retained as sub-soil or ground water is lost to the sea, often after causing a great deal of damage in the process. This is the reason why springs and artesian wells in Siwaliks and middle Himalayas have dried up wherever extensive denudation takes place. How much would a total programme for the control of soil erosion over 150 odd million hectares require by way of financial outlays? Even if we assume, at a very conservative estimate, an average cost of no more than Rs. 1,000 per hectare, the total bill would be around Rs. 15,000 crores. Such an investment though colossal in size would certainly be justified if it can be carried out in a manner which is technically sound, and is supported by the local communities as well as by a stern political and administrative will. Apart from these two major ills which I have examined in detail, the other threat to soil concerns the deterioration of some of our best soils which are cultivated intensively in situations of perennial irrigation and multi-cropping. Such deterioration can take place on account of the continued application of large quantities of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides and the depletion of trace elements and other micronutrients. The second threat concerns erosion by the sea which affects many parts of our long coastline but has so far drawn attention to itself only in some of the densely populated areas of Kerala where the loss of land to the sea is of the order of 2 to 5 metres per annum. The third problem relates to the desfigurement of the land by activities such as brick-making, quarrying and open-cast mining. The Indian situation is not static and the threats to the health and productivity of our land resources are of a continuing nature. What is more, these threats will become increasingly serious and interactable with the passage of time. 2.

ECOLOGICALLY DESTRUCTIVE DEVELOPMENT

Ecologically Himalaya mountains are a most fragile and at the same time the most valuable area. The sudden changes in the topography, where erosion, drainage, etc., are rapid while the impact of climatic and other physical environmental factors are more severe, tend to make thm vulnerable. By their capacity to exert considerable influence on the environmental conditions of the surrounding areas they are vulnerable as well as valuable. Similarly their peculiar physical environmental conditions result in biologically special systems which have inherent value. Difficulty of terrain, climate, etc., tends to make the mountains less suitable for human inhabitation. The low population density has helped retain their biotic wealth at least in some parts of the country while most of the plains and river valleys have been heavily degraded. The human communities that have survived in the mountains have been extremely self-contained and isolated from each other with cultural adaptations particularly suitable to their environment. Developmental processes in the northern plains of India are bound to reach up to the Himalayas and cause modifications there also. Developmental processes in the mountain ecosystems are usually for the natural resources such as timber, minerals, etc., or use

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elsewhere, tourism and other recreational needs, enhancing communication facilities through roads, etc. While some of these pressures have to be accommodated, others have to be outright countered. The judgement needs to be based on an impartial scientific costbenefit analysis. The Western Ghats provide interesting case-studies of ecologically destructive development that has been rampant in recent decades. These hills from the western water-shed in Peninsular India extending from Gujarat to the southern tip of the land paralled to the west coast leaving only a less than 79 km wide belt on the west coast. It controls the environmental conditions of Peninsular India considerably. India is a monsoon country receiving most of its precipitation from the south-west monsoon but for which most of the subcontinent would have been a semi-desert. Located directly across the south-west monsoon stream, the rainfall on the western slopes of these ranges is exceptionally heavy. The entire range had tropical moist forests, till recently of great resource potential, in addition to its scientific and indirect climate modifying value. The Western Ghats have particularly a direct bearing upon the human welfare of the entire southern region, i.e., Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala and teh manifold influences transcend the state and other administrative unit boundaries. All the major Peninsular rivers, Godavari and Krishna, originate in the watershed of this range and flow east while a very large number 0 s short rivers flow west having torrential courses. The geomorphology and its evolution in this tract have given the river a unique set of ecosystems with extraordinary productivity by any standards. In spite of the tremendous population pressure on the western coastal strip, and the extremely severely degraded environment on the eastern Decean Plateau, even today compared with any other part of Peninsular India, the Western Ghats retain some pockets of unmodified habitat, particularly in the South Kerala-Tamil Nadu part of the range. This invaluable biological resource needs total conservation for protecting its genetic diversity for study and future use of its economic potential. This region perhaps has the greatest number of endemic plant and animal wealth in the whole of India containing the remnant Pleistocene refugia of tropical evergreen forests that once covered vast areas of Peninsular India. The Silent Valley controversy in Kerala focusses the nation's attention to the plight of the tropical evergreen forests. During the latter part of the 19th century and early 20th century, the introduction and expansion of plantation crops, primarily coffee, tea, rubber, cardamom and pepper, have resulted in the modification or the destruction of extensive stretches of moist forests in the Western Ghats. The demand for wood during the second World War and the misguided grow-more-food campaign during the war years resulted in further destruction of the forests. Finally, the post-war years saw the extensive development of hydel and irrigation projects in the river valleys in the region and raising of vast scale monocultural plantations replacing natural mixed forests. Most of the developmental activities, carried out in an uncoordinated manner with inadequate preinvestment investigation, particularly on the long-term repercussions, have resulted in immense loss of resource potential and inadequate returns on the investments. Where development was unavoidable, the lack of sufficient ecological safeguards

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have resulted in destructive shock waves in wider circles than in the immediate vicinity. An example of the wide ranging disruptions from the runaway technology, based on inadequate planning is the story of Kuttanad in Kerala. Kuttanad is an extensive estuaring ecosystem, the dynamic equilibrium of which was under the control of a number of factors, the most important of which, the heavy inflow of fresh water during the rainy period extending over eight months from the Western Ghats through five or six rivers whose catchments were all covered with tropical forests with 5,000 mm or more of rainfall. The heavy runoff flooded the low-lying Vembaned backwaters and surged out through the Cochin Sand bar. But during summer months with little inflow of fresh water, the sea water flowed in and created brackish water conditions. Extensive mangrove forests with crocodiles and flocks of immigrant water-birds, extremely productive prawn and estuarine fish harvests characterised tKe interior backwater areas. In the shallower stretches, by creating temporary bunds and pumping out water, one bumper paddy crop was obtained. The back-water zone had vase coconut gardens. Life styles had evolved depending on local, conditions and allround productivity was maintained. But, without understanding the dynamics of this wetland, developmental projects’ were initiated. Construction of massive permanent barrage named the Thannirmukkam Bund was undertaken to reclaim most of the shallow areas permanently keeping out the summer ingress of saline waters. Simultaneously dams were constructed higher up in the Western Ghats in all the rivers draining down to the backwaters and their catchment slopes thoroughly denuded or modified so that the annual fresh water inflow was severely reduced. The now stagnant water of the backwater which is also the dumping ground for untreated sewage from a number of large towns has excessive organic material. In addition, the water hyacinth has established itself and now covers up all open water areas. The dead plant material has reduced oxygen in the water, and teh freshwater fishing has trailed off. The reclaimed lands were settled by people and multicropping introduced. Devoid of the original fresh-water inflow, when the reclaimed soil dried up, the sub-surface saline water rose by capillarity, and salination has become a major problem. The bacteria in the effluents are no longer killed by periodicity of the sea water and water borne amoebic and bacterial diseases have got out of control. Coconut root wilt disease has reduced coconut yield, adding to burdens on the regional economy. The water hyacinth has blocked all boat movements, the sole mode of transportation in the area. Periodically heavy rains result in destructive floods as river catchments shorn of original forest have no longer the water retentive capacity. The silted up reservoirs also no longer have the original capacity, hence man made flash-floods come down and innundate the now inhabited reclaimed land which was originally a natural flood water reservoir. In short, the whole balanced, productive, unique system collapsed overnight causing more hardship and economic loss to the people than any profit overenvisaged as benefit from the developmental measures. There is little hope of putting things right since even the very gigantic dimensions of the problem has yet to be realised. The repercussions, not to mention the remedies, have to be identified and linked with causative factors. Though this example is extraordinarily spectacular, it has one characteristic worth serious consideration, i.e., the far-reaching consequences often

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felt in placed least expected and the unexpected repercussions from ecosystem modification. Maybe it is wrong to label them unexpected because our existing level of environmental scientific knowledge is sufficient to sound the warnings, but it takes serious mishaps to convince the planners as well as people who have set their goals on development with unsound priorities. It will be only after many more calamitous errors that the vulnerability of tropical ecosystems to crude human manipulations will be accepted generally and caution exercised. Meanwhile, the momentum of our present developmental processes themselves might push the whole system over the edge and contingency rear guard action plans need to be formulated. The first priority should be for identifying all remaining natural ecosystems and giving them total protection within Biosphere Reserves. This can be successfully achieved only through integrated development of the nearby human populations on an ecologically and economically sound basis, who would then no longer be forced to deplete their land resources. A network of Biosphere Reserves have to safeguard the biotic wealth of the western ghats for posterity. Mountains have by their very nature communicational constraints and invariably any hill district development gives maximum priotity to developing roads. It is taken for granted that roads bring prosperity. Apart from the ecological irreversible damage, if only one considers the maintenance costs of roads in heavy rainfall areas, sky rocketing petroleum prices, etc., it looks a dubious assumption. In fact one finds everywhere in the country the dismentling of the old ropeways and cable cars and disappearance of mules and ponies where there should have been greater reliance for such modes of transporting goods. In another approach, any project formulation needs to be made more broad-based taking into consideration first the ecological viability and then also considering costs currently not taken into account, such as value of soil, disruption of the life of the tribal or endoemic populations, etc. The Western Ghats hill area districts are considering backward in every sense of the word and often developmental projects are mooted with the proclaimed objective of developing those regions. Massive construction of industrial development labelled as redeemers of the backwardness, in fact in most cases become a curse on the land and only help further impoverishemnt and destruction. This destructive approach has to be changed. Vast stretches of Western Ghats are already so badly destroyed that massive inputs of developmental aids are obviously needed which can really Percolate down to the villager or tribe and put to use on the land instead of being siphoned off by the contractor or soaked up by the bureaucracy. Ecological rejuvenation of the mountains through afforestation is one such field where there could be employment, development and ecological and economic profit too. But here also diversion or modification of the whole programme by vested interests for short-term individual benefit is a real threat. 3.

IGNORANCE OF ECOSYSTEMS

why is environmental-degradation taking place in India? why is it not controlled? Partly, of course, the problem is one of ignorance of how ecosystems work. This ignorance begins to be challenged when the environment begins to show obvious signs of misuse and problems are created for production and survival. A classic example

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of this is the entire exercise in flood control in the Gangetic basin. Flooding of the Gangetic plains during the monsoons is not new. But in the past the population was prepared for this phenomenon with houses being built on high ground and the flood waters being permitted to spread over the land so as to deposit valuable silt on the farms. However, with increasing demands being made of the land and the population spreading to undertake agricultural activity, particularly with greater irrigation and inputs into intensive agriculture, the coming of the floods began to take problematic dimensions. There was both loss of life and property, as well as devastation of standing crops. The problem was compounded by the felling of trees in the lower Himalayas and, therefore, increased loads of water and silt that the rivers had to carry. For instance, in 1978 it was computed that the Ganga was the secondlargest sediment bearing river in the world after the Huang river in China; 1451 million tonnes of sediment annually compared to the Huang's 1887 million tonnes and, in terms of sediment load in relation to the size of the drainage basin, the Kosi in Bihar ranked fourth and the Ganga fifth. Consequently, the government of India, with its centralised planning machinery, decided to go in for flood control measures through a series of dams in the upper reaches and embankments in the plains. These worked well enough for a few years but soon the problem emergen in an even worse shape. With the increased siltation loads the reservoirs behind the dams began to fill up and the dam capacities lessened. Consequently, the dams had to discharge greater quantities of water than designed leading to further flooding. Secondly, the silt began to settle in the river beds as it was prevented from spreading into the surrounding farmland because of the embankments. Thus the river beds slowly became even higher than the surrounding area and floods took on an even greater magnitude as the old drainage patterns would no longer work. Thirdly, the land beyond the embankments could no longer drain into the river and so became marshy and saline. In sum, the intervention by man to control floods led to even greater environmental degradation as ecosystems had not been understood properly. Similarly, the impact of Green-Revolution techniques in increased food production had been anticipated but no accound had been taken of the effect in other areas. For instance, the development of fooder for animals. The introduction of shorter high-yielding varieties has seriously cut into this source. The other fooder source was from village grazing lands and other public lands. These have been extensively encroached upon for cultivation and the remaining lands have been overgrazed, eroded, and otherwise remained unproductive. The Bedti project, Karnatak shows that the employment opportunities generated will be less than the employment opportunities lost as a result of submergence, and it emerges that the social and environmental disruption will be much larger than the socio-economic growth created by the projects. Another analysis of the NAICO aluminium project proposed to be set up in Orissa raises the points that there are major environmental problems associated with its bauxite alumina operation. Mining, as a recent study in Madhya Pradesh discloses, is a devastating operation that destroys the natural ecosystems, particularly if it is surface mining.

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The associated problems of deforestation, waste disposal, water pollution, air pollution, dereliction, vibrations from blasting, land collapses and drop in water tables are, of course, marked. Nationalisation of all mining has only created a larger and more powerful centralised a-paratus contributing to environmental degradation on a more massive scale. Forests, of course, are the first victims along with rivers of environmental imbalances. Delhi's largest stretch of forest, the Ridge, continued to be smaller. In spite of this concern for the forests, the National Forest Policy has not been successful in protecting the ecosystem. In the Palamau District of the Chotanagpur Plateau has been observed that during the last two decades, the pinch of erratic rainfall is much more evident. This state of weather and climate is evidently due to sharp environmental and ecological disturbances taking place in the area because of the very rapid rate of deforestation. What, therefore, emerges is that in spite of, or perhaps because of, increasing centralisation of powers and authority, the environment is not only not being protected, but is being further degraded at a faster rate. This is true not only of forests and mining and water resources but of all resources. There is even a threat of water pollution to the Great Indian Desert. This is emerging from the polluted effluents being discharged by over 1500 dyeing and printing units into the dry riverbeds and canals around Jodhpur, Pali, and Balotra towns. In the name of development, the growth of these units has to be encouraged for the tourist trade. Even though India is the world's tenth largest industrial power, half of the energy its people consume, excluding animal energy is spent on cooking food. The wood stoves that cook the food are extremely inefficient, however, energy planners in the Third World tend to overlookthisessential need even though it is the most crucial for human survival and most sensitive to environmental conditions. In 1975-76, 133 million tonnes of firewood provided India with 28 percent of its total energy. Another 73 million tonnes of wood and 41 million tonnes of agricultural wastes are burnt each year. These non-commercial sources provide as much as 87 percent of India's cooking energy. Firewood provides half the cooking energy in Indian cities, 70 percent in villages. The situation is ecologically disastrous. For a majority of India's people the cooking energy crisis is there. The shortage of cooking energy not only causes problems with nutrition, but also spreads diseases. The already widespread incidence of scabies in India can certainly be attributed to inadequate supplies of water and fuel. We have a large population which is not only growing at an appreciable rate but is also among the poorest in the world. Nearly half of our people still live below the level of poverty. The pollution of poverty, the worst of all the world's environmental problems exists in India. It refers to resource deterioration, squalid housing and inadequate sanitation and drought stricken villages. Poverty creates tragic sequences of environmental deterioration leading to greater poverty. Industrial waste, is an especially grave Bombay and Ahamdabad. political power of the

considering its toxic and chemical nature, hazard to the people of Calcutta, Delhi, However, in spite of this, the financial and industrialists, coupled with high costs of

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Pollution control methods, ensure that very little progress is made towards checking and minimising this danger. Apart from the dumping of waste in water, industries also do their bit in polluting the atmosphere in India. Industrialists apart, even the government seems apathetic to the treatment of atmospheric pollution. The Indraprastha Power House, which has been continuing to belch out tonnes of pollutants every day in New Delhi is a billowing example of this. The Union Government enacted fairly comprehensive legislation concerning the preservation of the natural resources of the country including the prevention and control of air and water pollution. If any progress in solving environmental problems is to be made, India has to make a radical change in moving away from the "Policing the Society Theory" to the "Managing the Society Theory" of jurisprudence Such a legislation would also provide a major motivation for concerned citizens to organise themselves into groups to fight the environmental problems. This would be a big step in mobilising people's participation in preserving and bettering their environment. It would also be appropriate to set up an agency in the form of a suitably empowered Central Land Commission as has been recommended recently by the Committee on the Environment. The environmental movement has been gathering ground in India. The environmental groups and organisations of people which are attempting to give a new direction to the protection of the environment. Among them are the Chipko and Apikko Movements in Uttarakhand and Uttar Kanaad to protect the trees from felling; the effort to save the Silent Valley from submergence; the movement against teak in Jharkhand and against pine in Bastar in Madhy Pradesh. REFERENCES 1.

Bajaj, S . (Ed.), Environmental Priorities within the United Nations - Developing Country Viewpoint, Environmental Services Group, New Delhi, 1982.

2.

Gadgil, Madhav, and Malhotra, K.C., Report of the Field Study Conducted on Behalf of the Committee on Legislative Measures and Administrative Machinery for Environmental Protection, Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi, 1980.

3.

Kalra, R.L., and Chawla, Impact of Pesticidal Pollution in the Environment, Journal of the BNHS, Vol 78:l.

4.

Mann, H.S. and Prakash, Ishwar, Halting the March, Eco-development in the Thar, Department of Environment, New Delhi, 1983.

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutiom, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

647

FINDING SOLUTIONS TO POTENTIAL H E ~ L T HAND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WIW COAL LIQUEFACTION MATERIALS Robert H. Gray Coal L i q u e f a c t i o n Environmental Research Program B a t t e l l e y P a c i f i c Northwest Laboratories Richland, Washington 99352 U.S.A. ABSTRACT Chemically complex m a t e r i a l s produced by d i f f e r e n t coal l i q u e f a c t i o n processes and under various stages o f process design and operating conditions have been screened f o r p o t e n t i a l h e a l t h and environmental e f f e c t s . B i o l o g i c a l l y a c t i v e components o f these m a t e r i a l s have been i d e n t i f i e d , and t h e environmental f a t e o f problematic agents i s c u r r e n t l y being determined. Coal-derived l i q u i d s a r e g e n e r a l l y more a c t i v e than shale o i l and petroleum crudes i n b i o l o g i c a l t e s t systems. B i o l o g i c a l l y a c t i v e agents include primary aromatic amines , polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols and others. However, both s y n e r g i s t i c and a n t a g o n i s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n s occur among c o n s t i t u ents o f chemically complex mixtures. Hydrotreating, a r e f i n i n g o r upgrading process, s e l e c t i v e d i s t i l l a t i o n , o t h e r process c o n d i t i o n s and environmental f a c t o r s a l s o i n f l u e n c e chemical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y o f coal-derived materials. E l i m i n a t i n g t o x i c i n p u t o f coal l i q u i d s t o ecological t e s t systems r e s u l t s i n p a r t i a l system recovery. The growing h e a l t h and environmental data-base has provided i n p u t f o r assessment, and has been used by developers t o design occupational h e a l t h and i n d u s t r i a l hygiene programs and t o s e l e c t process m o d i f i c a t i o n s and product s l a t e s t h a t minimize r i s k t o man and t h e environment. The data may a l s o a i d s e l e c t i o n o f c o n t r o l technologies, m i t i g a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s , special hand1 i n g and accident prevention procedures o r s p i l l - c l e a n u p options t o enhance t h e environmental a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f a coal l i q u e f a c t i o n i n d u s t r y .

1.

INTRODUCTION

Increasing energy demands, r i s i n g p r i c e s , and an unstable world o i l market have s t i m u l a t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t i n developing a l t e r n a t i v e sources o f f u e l . Hydrogenation o f coal under h i g h temperature and pressure produces gaseous, l i q u i d and s o l i d products t h a t may serve as s u b s t i t u t e s f o r coal o r o i l . Four major d i r e c t coal l i q u e f a c t i o n processes have been under development i n the United States [l] and may be a v a i l a b l e f o r large-scale use i n t h e f u t u r e . These i n c l u d e two s o l v e n t r e f i n e d coal (SRC-I and -11) processes, EDS and H-coal. Although a l l produce l i q u i d f u e l products, t h e SRC-I process a l s o produces a l o w - s u l f u r , low-ash, s o l i d f u e l . Both SRC process options were evaluated a t a 30- t o 50-ton/day p i l o t p l a n t a t Ft. Lewis, Washington. The S R C - I process and i t s Two-Stage L i q u e f a c t i o n (TSL) v a r i a t i o n have been evaluated a t a 6-ton/day p i l o t p l a n t a t W i l s o n v i l l e , Alabama. An I n t e g r a t e d TSL (ITSL) o p t i o n i s a l s o being studied a t a smallerscale process development u n i t (PDU) i n New Rrunswick, New Jersey. The H-coal process was evaluated a t a 200- t o 600-ton/day f a c i l i t y a t Catlettsburg, Kentucky, w h i l e the EDS process was s t u d i e d a t a 250-ton/day p i l o t p l a n t a t Baytown, Texas. Other coal l i q u e f a c t i o n options (Fig. 1) are being developed and evaluated i n England, West Germany, Japan and South A f r i c a , where a commercial i n d i r e c t l i q u e f a c t i o n f a c i l i t y i s now operable.

548

-

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GERMAN PROCESSES JAPANESE PROCESS

CATALYST ADDED

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SYNTHESIS WITH SELECTIVE CATALYST

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SYNTHESIS LESS

FISCHER-TROPSCH.SOUTH AFRICA

SELECTIVE CATALYST

t BEING DEVELOPED IN THE UNITED STATES

Fig. 1.

Coal l i q u e f a c t i o n and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f major process o p t i o n s under development [Z], d e r i v e d from [3].

Along w i t h engineering design and development, t h e U.S. Department o f Energy (DOE) e s t a b l i s h e d a program t o e v a l u a t e t h e environmental a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f coal l i q u e f a c t i o n processes being developed i n t h e U n i t e d States [4,5]. Epidemiological s t u d i e s and t o x i c o l o g i c a l research on coal l i q u e f a c t i o n , g a s i f i c a t i o n and coking process m a t e r i a l s had i n d i c a t e d t h a t c o n s t i t u e n t s o f coal t a r s and heavy coal l i q u i d s were carcinogenic [6-91. Studies on d i r e c t coal 1 i q u e f a c t i o n processes supported t h i s conclusion [4,5]. Additionally, the h i g h phenol content and complex n a t u r e o f c o a l l i q u i d s i m p l i e d g r e a t e r acute and c h r o n i c t o x i c i t y i f these m a t e r i a l s were released t o t h e environment than t h a t observed f o r crude petroleums [lo].

DOE selected several o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o study t h e h e a l t h , environmental and s a f e t y aspects o f d i r e c t coal l i q u e f a c t i o n processes. B a t t e l l e ' s P a c i f i c Northwest L a b o r a t o r i e s were assigned r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r e v a l u a t i n g SRC m a t e r i a l s and i n i t i a t e d comprehensive h e a l t h and environmental e f f e c t s research programs [11,12]. S i m i l a r programs were i n i t i a t e d by t h e Oak Ridge N a t i o n a l Laboratory f o r t h e H-coal process [13] and by Exxon Research and Engineering

549

Co. f o r t h e EDS process [14]. B a t t e l l e subsequently established working r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h several process developers and obtained m a t e r i a l s representing a l l major U.S. and two foreign coal l i q u e f a c t i o n process options.

2.

PROGRAM OBJECTIVES

Objectives o f t h e DOE programs were t o : 1) i d e n t i f y and evaluate longterm h e a l t h and environmental issues associated w i t h d i r e c t coal l i q u e f a c t i o n ; 2) evaluate options t o permit environmentally acceptable design; and 3) assess r i s k t o man and t h e environment from deployment o f a large-scale industry. 3.

RESEARCH STRATEGY

Although DOE'S o b j e c t i v e s focused on assessing p o t e n t i a l h e a l t h and environmental e f f e c t s o f a coal l i q u e f a c t i o n i n d u s t r y , t h e r e have never been a) RESEARCH STRATEGY b) PROCESS DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

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Fig. 2.

TERRESTRIAL

L i n k i n g h e a l t h and environmental research w i t h technology ( a ) Health and environmental studies are i n t e development [15]. grated w i t h e a r l y process design and development. (b) Complex organic m a t e r i a l s produced under various stages o f process design and s c a l e are ( c ) screened w i t h various chemical, h e a l t h and environmental assays. M a t e r i a l s showing p o t e n t i a l b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y undergo more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s t o i d e n t i f y causative agents. (d) Environmental f a t e and p o t e n t i a l food chain t r a n s f e r o f agents responsible f o r b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y are evaluated.

550

any operating large-scale (i .e., demonstration- o r c o m r c i a l - s c a l e ) coal 1 i q u e f a c t i o n f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e United States. Therefore, research and assessment have u t i l i z e d m a t e r i a l s produced a t small-scale f a c i l i t i e s (bench, PDU, p i l o t p l a n t s ) , t h a t were considered g e n e r i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f l a r g e scale operations. Health and environmental research has accompanied engineer4ng development (Fig. 2) so t h a t r e s u l t s may i n f l u e n c e f i n a l process designs. For comparative purposes, o t h e r f o s s i l - d e r i v e d m a t e r i a l s and selected chemicals have a l s o been evaluated. These reference m a t e r i a l s which i n c l u d e shale o i l , crude and r e f i n e d petroleums, and pure forms o f known mutagens and carcinogens, help t o place i n c l e a r e r perspective r e s u l t s obtained w i t h coal l i q u e f a c t i o n materi a1 s

.

A t B a t t e l l e , research on coal-derived m a t e r i a l s has been performed i n chronological l y over1apping phases [ 11,12,16].

3.1

Phase I

I n i t i a l l y , m a t e r i a l s from e x i s t i n g coal l i q u e f a c t i o n f a c i l i t i e s were screened using a b a t t e r y o f short-term h e a l t h and environmental assays (Table 1). Chemical f r a c t i o n a t i o n and d e t a i l e d chemical analyses were performed on those m a t e r i a l s showing b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y , t o i d e n t i f y components responsible f o r e f f e c t . Results o f t h e short-term screening assays i n d i c a t e d t h e environmental p r o p e r t i e s and p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t s o f coal l i q u e f a c t i o n m a t e r i a l s , i d e n t i f i e d m a t e r i a l s t h a t may r e q u i r e special handling o r a d d i t i o n a l processing t o minimize environmental r i s k before they a r e widely d i s t r i b u t e d , and aided i n the design o f longer-term, more expensive studies. Table 1.

Short-term Health and Environmental Screening Studies

Assay

Test Organism(s)

Detects

B a c t e r i a (various species and s t r a i ns )

Mutation, chromosome damage, chromosome recombination, toxicity

Cultured mammalian C e l l s

C e l l transformation, mutation, chromosome damage, t o x i c i t y

Rodents

Acute o r a l and dermal toxicity, teratog e n i c i t y , carcinogeni c i t y

Aquatic

Algae, invertebrates, f i s h

Acute and chronic t o x i c i t y , behavior

T e r r e s t r i a1

Plants

Acute and chronic toxicity

Health In Vitro

I n Vivo

Environmental

551

3.2

Phase I 1

Longer-term research has emphasized m a t e r i a l s considered most representat i v e o f a p o t e n t i a l large-scale i n d u s t r y . These m a t e r i a l s have been s t u d i e d i n whole-animals t o evaluate t h e i r p o t e n t i a l c a r c i n o g e n i c i t y and t e r a t o g e n i c i t y , and i n more complex e c o l o g i c a l systems t o evaluate t o x i c e f f e c t s and environmental f a t e (Table 2). Again, chemical f r a c t i o n a t i o n and d e t a i l e d chemical analyses have been used t o i d e n t i f y components o f g r e a t e s t concern. Results o f longer-term experiments are being c o r r e l a t e d w i t h those o f shorter-term studies and w i l l provide a f i r m e r basis f o r assessing h e a l t h and environmental r i s k s . Table 2.

Long-term Health and Environmental Studies

Health Studies (Whole Animal) Skin c a r c i n o g e n i c i t y Inhalation toxicology Reproductive e f f e c t s Teratology and developmental toxicology Neurobehavioral t o x i c o l o g y

3.3

Environmental Studies Model ecosystems B i o l o g i c a l f a t e ( b i oconcentra t ion, b i omagni f ic a t i on, biodegradation ) Chemical Fate ( m o b i l i t y , p e r s i s tence/degradation, environmental concentration) Food Chain Transfer Environmental Pathways Modeling

Phase 111

A t h i r d phase o f research i s e v a l u a t i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f process o r operat i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s (i.e., temperature, c a t a l y s t condition, r e c y c l e configurat i o n , etc.), and c o n t r o l technology options on p o t e n t i a l h e a l t h and environmental e f f e c t s o f coal 1i q u e f a c t i o n m a t e r i a l s. Short-term h e a l t h and environmental assays used i n Phase I t h a t c o r r e l a t e w i t h longer-term assays used i n Phase I 1 a r e being used i n Phase 111. As i n Phases I and 11, i n t e g r a t e d chemical f r a c t i o n a t i o n and d e t a i l e d a n a l y t i c a l methods a r e being used t o determine which components a f f e c t b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y . Results o f these studies have provided a basis f o r determining t h e e f f i c a c y o f process o r operational m o d i f i c a t i o n s and c o n t r o l technology options t o minimize p o t e n t i a l h e a l t h and environmental e f f e c t s . 3.4

Phase I V

F i n a l l y , data from Phases I, I 1 and I11 may be used t o s e l e c t methods w i t h which t o monitor t h e workplace and l o c a l environment a t a large-scale coal 1iquefaction f a c i l i t y . T h i s e f f o r t i s needed t o Val i d a t e p r e d i c t i o n s o f environmental r i s k based on l a b o r a t o r y data, and t o assure a safe environment f o r t h e work f o r c e and general populace.

4.

FINDINGS

DOE-sponsored e f f o r t s t o evaluate p o t e n t i a l health, and environmental f a t e and e f f e c t s o f coal l i q u e f a c t i o n m a t e r i a l s have r e c e n t l y been reviewed C4.51. Selected data are s u m r i t e d below t o demonstrate t h e approach used t o study complex mixtures, and how t h e data may a i d t h e design o f an environmentally acceptable technology.

552

4.1

Health E f f e c t s and Causative Agents

Coal-derived m a t e r i a l s are chemically complex and, compared t o crude petroleums, are enriched i n polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), basic, a c i d i c and i n s o l u b l e constituents. Higher-boiling-range m a t e r i a l s a r e enriched i n both basic nitrogen-containing and h i g h l y p o l a r m a t e r i a l s bel i e v e d t o be responsible f o r b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y . Higher-boil ing-range coal l i q u i d s such as SRC-I process s o l v e n t (PS), S R C - I 1 heavy d i s t i l l a t e (HD), and PDU-derived H-coal d i s t i l l a t e s are mutagenic i n m i c r o b i a l t e s t systems; lower-boiling-range coal l i q u i d s such as S R C - I l i g h t o i l (LO) and wash solvent (WS), S R C - I 1 l i g h t (LD) and middle d i s t i l l a t e s (MD), and PDU-derived H-coal m a t e r i a l s are not. Studies w i t h d i s t i l l a t i o n c u t s show t h a t t h e mutagenically a c t i v e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f coal l i q u i d s (e.g., S R C - I 1 HD) occur i n those m a t e r i a l s b o i l i n g above 371°C (7OOOF). The l a t t e r make up about 20% o f t h e f u l l - b o i l i n g - r a n g e m a t e r i a l . Chemical f r a c t i o n a t i o n and analysis, coupled w i t h m i c r o b i a l assays i n which p o l y c y c l i c , primary aromatic amines (PAAs), as pure compounds and i n complex coal 1 iquids, were s e l e c t i v e l y a c t i v a t e d (using mixed f u n c t i o n amine oxidase) and deactivated (using n i t r o u s a c i d ) , and where b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y was c o r r e l a t e d w i t h PAA concentration, suggested t h a t t h e highest s p e c i f i c mutagenic a c t i v i t y was associated w i t h t h e PAAs. However, geneti c a l l y a c t i v e f r a c t i o n s are a l s o enriched i n azaarenes and p o l a r - s u b s t i t u t e d aromatics t h a t may a f f e c t genetic a c t i v i t y . Other studies i n d i c a t e t h a t m a t e r i a l s showing mutagenic a c t i v i t y i n m i c r o b i a l assays a l s o cause transformation (biochemical and morphological changes) i n c u l t u r e d mamnal ian cells.

-

When a p p l i e d t o the shaved backs o f mice, higher-boiling-range coal-derived m a t e r i a l s ( S R C - I 1 HD, SRC-I PS, H-coal d i s t i l l a t e s , EDS l i q u i d s and o t h e r s ) and shale o i l and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), a known carcinogen, produced h i g h incidences o f s k i n tumors. Lower-boiling-range coal l i q u i d s do n o t appear t o possess t h i s tumorigenic a c t i v i t y . Studies t o evaluate p o t e n t i a l t e r a t o g e n i c i t y , where pregnant r a t s were exposed t o coal l i q u i d s ( S R C - I 1 LD, MD and HD, S R C - I LO, WS and PS) e i t h e r o r a l l y o r through aerosols, showed t h a t f e t a l growth and s u r v i v a l were decreased. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of SRC-I PS and S R C - I 1 HD a l s o increased t h e incidence o f f e t a l malformations, p r i m a r i l y c l e f t palate, hypoplastic (imnature) lungs and herniated diaphragms. Coal-derived m a t e r i a l s were a l s o t e r a t o g e n i c i n amphibian and i n s e c t t e s t systems [4]. 4.2

Ecological E f f e c t s and Environmental Fate

T o x i c i t y studies [4,5,17] w i t h aquatic t e s t species (phytoplankton, invertebrates, f i s h ) show t h a t various coal l i q u i d s (SRC-I, SRC-11, ITSL, EDS) may be several hundred times more t o x i c than comparable petroleum products (i.e. No. 6 o r No. 2 f u e l o i l o r Prudhoe Bay crude). Acute t o x i c i t y ( l e t h a l i t y ) o f t h e water-soluble-fraction (WSF) o f coal l i q u i d s r e f l e c t s h i g h concent r a t i o n s o f low-molecular-weight, e a s i l y degradable phenolic compounds. Chronic t o x i c i t y ( e f f e c t s on growth, reproduction, etc.) appears due t o highermolecular- weight and more p e r s i s t e n t compounds which may a l s o i n c l u d e phenols. Although some f i s h species avoided a c u t e l y l e t h a l concentrations o f an S R C - I 1 WSF, they d i d n o t d e t e c t or avoid concentrations causing chronic e f f e c t s . When coal l i q u i d s were released i n t o experimental ponds o r streams, extens i v e changes occurred i n t h e s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l comnuni t y . Many zooplankton species were eliminated, and diatoms were replaced by blue-green algae. Patterns o f ecosystem metabolism were a l s o a f f e c t e d (i.e. a

553

food web based on p l a n t production was replaced by one based on d e t r i t u s ) . However, t e r m i n a t i o n o f t o x i c i n p u t r e s u l t e d i n p a r t i a l recovery o f t h e ecolog i c a l system. I n simpler t e s t systems where algae were exposed t o concentrat i o n s o f coal l i q u i d causing chronic e f f e c t s , t h e population a l s o recovered once t h e t o x i c a n t was removed. Studies i n which b a r l e y was exposed t o an S R C - I 1 l i q u i d i n s o i l i n d i c a t e d p o t e n t i a l f o r s i g n i f i c a n t t o x i c i t y i n a t e r r e s t r i a l h a b i t a t . However, t o x i c e f f e c t s were reduced f o l l o w i n g overwintering. S i m i l a r studies w i t h t h e SRC-I s o l i d product showed i t was nontoxic, although l a y e r i n g t h i s material under a s o i l overburden retarded r o o t growth. 4.3

E f f e c t s o f Chemical M a t r i x on B i o l o g i c a l Response

Recent f i n d i n g s suggest t h a t b i o l o g i c a l responses t o a p a r t i c u l a r chemical agent vary, depending on whether t h a t m a t e r i a l i s presented t o t h e organism o r environment as a pure compound o r i n a complex mixture. Selected data compari n g b i o l o g i c a l responses (mutagenicity, c a r c i n o g e n i c i t y , biouptake, acute t o x i c i t y , f i s h avoidance) t o c o a l - l i q u i d c o n s t i t u e n t s t e s t e d as pure compounds and i n complex mixtures a r e shown i n Fig. 3. The developing data- base suggests t h a t both s y n e r g i s t i c and a n t a g o n i s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n s occur among c o n s t i t u e n t s o f chemically complex organic materials. Thus, r e s u l t s o f studies w i t h pure compounds alone cannot be used w i t h confidence t o p r e d i c t e f f e c t s o f complex m a t e r i a l s . Current research e f f o r t s a r e addressing t h i s problem. I.,

1b1

CC,

Fig. 3.

E f f e c t s o f chemical m a t r i x i n coal l i q u i d s on b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y of selected compounds [la]. (a) Mutagenicity o f benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) and 6-aminochrysene (6-AC) , d e r i v e d from [19]. (b) Carcinogenicity o f BaP, d e r i v e d from [19]. ( c ) Biouptake of phenol, derived from [20]. (d) Behavioral response o f f i s h and acute t o x i c i t y t o phenol as a pure compound (PC) and i n a c o a l - l i q u i d water-soluble f r a c t i o n (WSF), from [21].

554

5.

TECHNOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

Results of these studies have significant implications for coal-liquefaction process designers and developers who are concerned with minimizing risks to the work force, general populace and the environment. Full-boilingrange coal-derived materials are generally more biologically active than shale oil and petroleum. High-boiling-range coal-derived materials are mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic in laboratory test systems. Coal liquids also cause acute and chronic effects in organisms representing various ecological trophic (feeding) levels. Chemical constituents of coal liquids, responsible for biological effects include PAAs, PAHs, phenols and others. Knowledge of these potentially detrimental health and environmental effects, and their causative agents, can be used to design environmentally acceptable coal conversion processes. For example, hydrotreating (a process which catalytically stabilizes liquid hydrocarbon products and/or removes objectionable elements by reacting them with hydrogen) is one potential method of refining or upgrading raw coal liquids prior to marketing. Hydrotreating also reduces the mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity of coal liquids. Hydrotreating reduced the mutagenicity of an SRC-I1 distillate blend by more than 100-fold. Hydrotreating also reduced the concentrations of two genetically active chemical classes, the PAAs and PAHs. The PAAs detected in the distillate blend, were below the limits of detection in hydrotreated materials. Concentrations of BaP, a known mutagen/carcinogen, were reduced at least 75% by hydrotreatment. Hydrotreating also reduced the concentration of phenols responsible for toxicity to aquatic organisms. Finally, removal of nitrogen compounds by hydrotreating may reduce teratogenic activity. Hydrotreating is an expensive operation and processing a full-boilingrange coal liquid is currently not economically feasible. However, because mutagenic activity of coal-derived materials is due primarily to PAAs that are found only in materials boiling above 371°C (700"F), distillation cuts might be adjusted so that the comnercial coal liquid product contains little mutagenic potential. Alternatively, distillation cuts could be selected to concentrate mutagenically active compounds in a high-boiling relatively small process stream, that might then be hydrotreated economically, recycled to extinction inplant, or gasified. Studies with PDU-derived materials representing a TSL option suggest that process variables (residence time in the liquefaction reactor, reaction temperature, catalyst condition, etc.) contributing to extraction severity, influence chemical characteristics and biological activity [22]. Thus, it may also be possible to modify process variables to minimize biological activity of coalderived products. Although engineering and economic factors must also be considered, the growing health and environmental data base can now be incorporated into the decision-making process. It is noteworthy that, except for acute toxicity, coal liquids currently projected for comnercial use are not expected to have higher biological activity than shale oil or petroleum. If process modifications, adjusting distillation cuts, and/or hydrotreating, are not technically or economically feasible, process designers can begin, now, to develop special handling and accident prevention procedures to minimize health and environmental risks. Accidental spills of coal liquids and other coal-derived materials during transport are a potential threat to the environment. Aquatic organisms exposed

t o coal l i q u i d components f o r l o n g periods o f t i m e w i l l experience a constantly changing spectrum of organic compounds, and d i f f e r e n t species w i l l experience d i f f e r e n t t o x i c e f f e c t s . Coal l i q u i d s a r e a l s o t o x i c t o t e r r e s t r i a l plants. Some-constituents of coal-derived m a t e r i a l s w i l l be taken up and translocated through food chains l e a d i n g t o man. Low-molecular-weight compounds, such as phenols, which a r e responsible f o r acute e f f e c t s , degrade r a p i d l y . Highermolecular-weight compounds are more p e r s i s t e n t and b i n d t o s o i l s and sediments, causing long-term e f f e c t s a t low concentrations. Although some species o f f i s h , avoided a c u t e l y t o x i c concentrations o f SRC l i q u i d s , they d i d n o t avoid concentrations causing chronic e f f e c t s . Thus, assuming t h a t accidental s p i l l s o f coal l i q u i d s w i l l occur, cleanup procedures need t o be developed t o minimize p o t e n t i a l chronic e f f e c t s i n aquatic and/or t e r r e s t r i a l systems. Some aquatic populations (e.g., algae) can recover f o l l o w ? n g exposure t o t o x i c concentrat i o n s o f coal l i q u i d s i n water a f t e r t h e m a t e r i a l i s removed. 6.

SUMMARY

P o t e n t i a l h e a l t h and environmental r i s k s associated w i t h deployment o f a large-scale coal l i q u e f a c t i o n i n d u s t r y are being assessed d u r i n g t h e e a r l y design stages o f technology development. Chemists, b i o l o g i s t s , e c o l o g i s t s and engineers have been i n v o l v e d i n a cooperative i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y e f f o r t t o solve environmental problems before process designs are f i n a l i z e d and f a c i l i t y c o n s t r u c t i o n begins, r a t h e r than w a i t i n g u n t i l r e g u l a t o r y agencies r e q u i r e studies o r u n t i l a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n when costs a r e higher. These e f f o r t s have provided guidance f o r i d e n t i f y i n g marketable products ( m a t e r i a l s t h a t b o i l below 7OO0F), and f o r s e l e c t i n g process m o d i f i c a t i o n s (e.g. r e c y c l e configurat i o n s ) , c o n t r o l technology options, m i t i g a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s , accident prevention, s p i l l cleanup and solid-waste disposal procedures t o minimize adverse human h e a l t h and environmental r i s k s . Although t h e example given i s r e l a t e d t o developing a coal conversion industry, t h e research s t r a t e g y o r approach i s e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o development o f o t h e r energy-related processes t h a t produce o r g a n i c a l l y complex m a t e r i a l s (petroleum, shale o i l , f u e l s from biomass etc.). I n f a c t , t h e concepts described can be a p p l i e d t o t h e development o f any technology o r t h e environmentally safe e x p l o i t a t i o n o f any resource. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Health and environmental s t u d i e s conducted by B a t t e l l e are supported by t h e U.S. Department o f Energy under Contract DE-AC06-76RLO 1830 and by t h e U.S. Environmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency under Contract TD1123, w i t h B a t t e l l e Memorial I n s t i t u t e , P a c i f i c Northwest Laboratories. REFERENCES

1.

DOE, "Environmental Development Plan f o r Coal Liquefaction", DOE/EDP-0044, U. S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C., 1980.

2.

Gray, R. H., "Health and environmental e f f e c t s o f coal l i q u e f a c t i o n processes: environmentally acceptable technology development," Energy ( i n press).

3.

IEA, "Coal Liquefaction: A Technology Review," Agency, OECD, Paris, France, 69 pp., 1982.

4.

Gray, R. H. and Cowser, K. E., eds., "Status of Health and Environmental Research R e l a t i v e t o D i r e c t Coal L i q u e f a c t i o n : 1976 t o the Present,"

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Energy

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DOE/NBM-1016, PNL-4176, P a c i f i c Northwest Laboratory, Richland, WA. NTIS, S p r i n g f i e l d , VA, 77 pp., 1982. Mahlum, D. D., Strand, J. A. and Weimer, W. C., "Summary o f h e a l t h and environmental research r e l a t i v e t o d i r e c t coal l i q u e f a c t i o n , " In: Proceedings, F i f t h ORNL L i f e Sciences Symposium, Synthetic F o s s i l Fuel Technologies: Results o f Health and Environmental Studies. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Woburn, MA ( i n press).

5. Gray, R. H.,

6.

Hueper, W. C. , "Experimental carcinogenic s t u d i e s on hydrogenated coal o i l s : I. Bergius Oils," Ind. Med. Surg. 25:51-55, 1956.

7.

Hueper, W. C., "Experimental carcinogenic studies on hydrogenated coal o i l s : 11. Fisher-Tropsch Oils," Ind. Med. Surg. 25:459-462, 1956.

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Weil , C. S. and Condra, N. I., "The hazards t o h e a l t h i n t h e Carcinogenic e f f e c t o f m a t e r i a l s on t h e s k i n hydrogenation o f Coal-11. of mice", Arch. Environ. Health 1:187-193, 1960.

9.

"An Mazumdar, S., Redmond, C. , S o l l e c i t o , W. and Sussman, N., epidemiological study o f exposure t o coal t a r p i t c h v o l a t i l e s among coke oven workers," J . A i r P o l l u t . Control Assoc. 25:382-389, 1975.

10.

Strand, 3. A. and Vau han, 6. E., eds., "Ecological Fate and E f f e c t s o f Solvent Refined Coal qSRC) Materials: A Status Report", PNL-3119. P a c i f i c Northwest Laboratory, Richland, WA. NTIS, S p r i n g f i e l d , VA, 1981.

11.

PNL, "Solvent Refined Coal-I1 (SRC-11) D e t a i l e d Environmental Plan," PNL-3517, P a c i f i c Northwest Laboratory, Richland, WA. NTIS, S p r i n g f i e l d , VA, 1980.

12.

PNL, "Volume I, Solvent Refined Coal-I (SRC-I) J o i n t Environmental Plan: Health and Ecological E f f e c t s (Draft)," P a c i f i c Northwest Laboratory, Richland, WA, 1981.

13.

Cowser, K. E., "Environmental and Health Program f o r H-Coal P i l o t Plant", Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 160 pp., 1980.

14. DOE, "EDS Coal L i q u e f a c t i o n Process Development Phase V. Q u a l i t y " , Fxxon Research and Engineering Co., of Energy, Washington, DC, 370 pp, 1981.

FE-2893-68,

EDS Product U.S. Department

15.

Gray, R. H., " A Strategy f o r environmentally acceptable technology development ,'I The Northern Engineer 15( 2) :12-17, 1983.

16.

Gray, R. H. and Drucker, H., "Assessing h e a l t h and environmental e f f e c t s o f a developing f u e l technology," I n : Proceedings o f t h e T h i r d I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on Energy Use Management, Beyond t h e Energy C r i s i s : Opportunity and Challenge. Volume 11, (R. A. Fazzolare and C. B. Smith, eds.), pp 499-507, Pergamon Press, Oxford, England, 1981.

17. Dauble, D. 0. Scott, A. J., Lusty, E. W.,

Thomas, 6. L., and Hanf, R. W., " E c o t o x i c i t y of M a t e r i a l s from I n t e g r a t e d Two-Stage L i q u e f a c t i o n and Exxon Donor Solvent Processes," PNL 4675, P a c i f i c Northwest Laboratory, Richland, UA. N T I S S p r i n g f i e l d , VA, 1983.

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Gray, R. H., "A m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y approach t o i d e n t i f y , characterize, and minimize p o t e n t i a l h e a l t h and environmental problems associated w i t h

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a case study,"

Environmental Toxicology and

19.

PNL, "Mutagenicity o f synfuel m a t e r i a l s " , I n : P a c i f i c Northwest Laboratory Annual Report f o r 1983 t o the DOE O f f i c e o f Energy Research. P a c i f i c Northwest P a r t 1, Biomedical Sciences, PNL-5000, pp 55-57. Laboratory, Richland, WA. NTIS, S p r i n g f i e l d , VA, 1984.

20.

PNL, "Ecological e f f e c t s o f coal conversion," I n : P a c i f i c Northwest Laboratory Annual Report f o r 1982 t o t h e DOE O f f i c e o f Energy Research, P a r t 2, Ecological Sciences, PNL-4600, pp 17-22. P a c i f i c Northwest Laboratory, Richland, WA. NTIS, S p r i n g f i e l d , VA, 1983.

21.

Gray, R. H., Dauble, D. D. and Skalski, J. R., "Use o f ecotoxicological and avoidance data t o assess e f f e c t s o f hazardous m a t e r i a l s on fish," In: Proceedings, Tenth Annual Aquatic T o x i c i t y Workshop, November 7-10, 1983. H a l i f a x , Nova Scotia, Canada ( i n press).

22.

Wilson, B. W., Buhl, P. and Moroni, E. C., " B i o l o g i c a l Testing and Chemical Analysis o f M a t e r i a l s from an I n t e g r a t e d Two Stage L i q u e f a c t i o n Process: A Status Report", PNL-4553, P a c i f i c Northwest Laboratory, Richland, WA, NTIS, S p r i n g f i e l d , VA, 1983.

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669

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N.Veziroplu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 -Printed in The Netherlands

BLOOD PLASMA LEVELS OF VOLATILE CHLORINATED SOLVENTS AND METABOLITES I N OCCUPATIONALLY EXPOSED WORKERS

C a r l D. Pfaffenberger, A n i t a J . Peoples and Thomas V. B r i g g l e D i v i s i o n o f Chemical Epidemiology Department o f Epidemiology and P u b l i c H e a l t h U n i v e r s i t y o f M i a m i School o f Medicine 15655 S.W. 127th Avenue, M i a m i , F l o r i d a 33177, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT Blood samples from 157 employees o f two metal-working p l a n t s which make e x t e n s i v e use o f degreasing s o l v e n t s l i k e t r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e (TRI), t e t r a c h l o r o e t h y l ene (TETRA), and 1,1 ,1-tri c h l oroethane (1,1,1-) were analyzed f o r s o l v e n t content as w e l l as t o t a l c h l o r o f o r m (CHC1 underived p l u s derived) l e v e l . A t one p l a n t where an a i r contamination pro%lem was suspected, 85% o f t h e workers had t r a c e ( l e s s than 1 ppb) t o q u a n t i f i a b l e amounts o f one o r more of t h e above mentioned s o l v e n t s and t o t a l chloroform l e v e l s up t o 2000 p a r t s p e r b i l l i o n ( 2 ppm). The average c h l o r o f o r m value f o r t h i s group was 190 ppb, almost e i g h t times t h e c u r r e n t l y accepted value f o r t h e general p o p u l a t i o n o f Dade County, F l o r i d a . When t h e c i r c u l a t i n g CHC13 was d i v i d e d i n t o underived and d e r i v e d components by a mass-spectrometric technique, i t was determined t h a t between 75% and 90% o f t h e c h l o r o f o r m was being derived from a precursor, presumably t r i c h l o r o a c e t i c a c i d (TCA), a known m e t a b o l i t e o f both A few r e s i d e n t s l i v i n g several t r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e and t e t r a c h l o r o e t h y l e n e . m i l e s from t h e p l a n t o f concern were sampled and found t o have t o t a l c h l o r o f o r m l e v e l s s i m i l a r t o those found f o r many o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f Dade County.

1.

INTRODUCTION

Assessment o f worker exposure t o v o l a t i l e c h l o r i n a t e d s o l v e n t s by analys i s o f blood plasma can be complicated by a number o f i n t e r r e l a t e d phenomena i n c l u d i n g : ( a ) accumulation o f t h e l i p o p h i l i c s o l v e n t s i n f a t t y t i s s u e , poss i b l y even b r a i n , ( b ) c o n s i d e r a b l y r a p i d e x c r e t i o n o f i n s p i r e d vapors by t h e lungs, ( c ) r e a c t i v i t y o f t h e s o l v e n t w i t h other c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e blood, ( d ) conversion o f t h e parent compound ( s o l v e n t ) i n t o corresponding metabolites, one o r more o f which may y i e l d other c h l o r i n a t e d s o l v e n t s as a r e s u l t o f t h e r mal decomposition, and ( e ) v a r i o u s sampling and s h i p p i n g parameters which may g r e a t l y a f f e c t t h e i n t e r p r e t i v e phases and s t a t i s t i c a l work-up o f t h e studies. Nevertheless, widespread exposure o f workers t o a l a r g e v a r i e t y o f c h l o r i n a t e d s o l v e n t s has made i t i m p e r a t i v e f o r i n d u s t r i a l h y g i e n i s t s and residue chemists t o q u a n t i f y blood-plasma l e v e l s of compounds such as chloroform ( CHCl3), tri c h l o r o e t h y l ene (TRI ) , t e t r a c h l o r o e t h y l e n e (TETRA) and 1,l ,1-tri chloroethane ( l , l , l - ) . The l a t t e r t h r e e s o l v e n t s are comnonly used i n deg r e a s i n g and d r y c l e a n i n g operations; i n f a c t i t was e a r l y work w i t h a small group o f d r y cleaners t h a t l e d t o t h e s t u d i e s discussed h e r e i n ( 1 ) .

-

560 Among t h e d r y cleaners examined, one who worked m a i n l y i n t h e room where garments were dipped i n t o t e t r a c h l o r o e t h y l e n e had a t o t a l c h l o r o f o r m l e v e l o f 6000 ppb w i t h an accompanying TETRA value o f 2300 ppb. A worker who spent o n l y p a r t o f each day i n t h e d i p room e x h i b i t e d 3000 ppb CHC13 and 800 ppb solvent. Two o t h e r cleaners who made occasional t r i p s t o t h e d i p room and otherwise worked as spot cleaners had r e s p e c t i v e t o t a l chloroform/TETRA values o f 350/100 ppb and 300/150 ppb. The d e t e r m i n a t i o n of blood-plasma l e v e l s o f chlorocarbons i s not always a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a n a l y t i c a l process. For example, b o t h TRI and TETRA are conv e r t e d by h e p a t i c enzymes i n t o t r i c h l o r o a c e t i c a c i d (TCA). Moreover, TCA i s t h e r m a l l y decomposed i n t o c h l o r o f o r m which i s n o r m a l l y present i n t h e c i r c u l a t i n g blood as a r e s u l t r e s u l t o f e a t i n g and d r i n k i n g foods and beverages ( 2 ) c o n t a i n i n g t h e trihalomethane o r one o r more o f i t s precursors. I n order t o make t h e exposure assessments r e p o r t e d herein, i t was necessary t o employ a mass-spectrometric method by which underived CHC13 and t h e r m a l l y d e r i v e d CHC13 ( f r o m TCA) c o u l d be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . 2.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH The primary purposes o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n were t o :

3.

a.

Apply p r e v i o u s l y developed methodologies f o r determining human blood-plasma l e v e l s o f v o l a t i l e halogenated organic compounds t o samples taken from o c c u p a t i o n a l l y exposed i n d i v i d u a l s .

b.

Demonstrate whether o r n o t blood l e v e l s o f halogenated s o l v e n t s f a l l d u r i n g non-working p e r i o d s (days o f f ) .

C.

Compare blood l e v e l s o f c h l o r i n a t e d s o l v e n t s i n workers o f two d i f f e r e n t p l a n t s performing t h e same types of work b u t possessing d i f f e r e n t a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g systems.

d.

Determine what blood-plasma l e v e l s o f c h l o r i n a t e d s o l v e n t s can be expected as a r e s u l t o f c h r o n i c exposure t o a i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s which r a r e l y exceed 2% o f t h e NIOSH recommended t h r e s h o l d l i m i t i n g values (TLV's) suggested f o r t h e v a r i o u s v o l a t i l e compounds.

e.

Compare t h e worker l e v e l s w i t h those o f t h e surrounding c i t i z e n s and values obtained f o r o t h e r non-occupationally exposed p o p u l a t i o n s .

f.

D i f f e r e n t i a t e i n a sub-set o f t h e samples how much o f t h e c h l o r o f o r m as detected by t h e gas-chromatographic procedure can be considered present as CHC13 i n t h e bloodstream and how much must be considered d e r i v e d from t r i c h l o r o a c e t i c a c i d o r another CHC13 p r e c u r s o r .

EXPERIMENTS

Blood samples. were c o l l e c t e d v i a venipuncture by q u a l i f i e d medical personnel and stored under r e f r i g e r a t i o n pending a n a l y s i s according t o p u b l i s h e d p r o t o c o l (3). Q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f blood-plasma l e v e l s o f c h l o r o f o r m and o t h e r chlorocarbons was aecompl i s h e d by t h e gas-chromatographic procedure described i n 3.1 below. D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between d e r i v e d ( f r o m TCA v i a TRI and TETRA) and underived CHC13 was according t o t h e mass-spectrometric method given i n 3.2. Solvent 1.1.1-trichloroethane d i d not y i e l d trichloroacetic acid o r c h l o r o f o r m from e i t h e r metabolism o r thermal decomposition.

561

3.1

Gas-Chromatographic Q u a n t i f i c a t i o n Procedure

Q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e chlorocarbon s o l v e n t s present i n t h e blood samples was accomplished by f o l l o w i n g the published gas-chromatographic procedure ( 3 ) o f Peoples, Pfaffenberger, e t a l . As discussed i n t h e above-cited a r t i c l e , t h e method, which was based on t h e e a r l i e r purge/trap/desorption methodology o f B e l l a r and L i c h t e n b e r g (4), r e a d i l y allowed q u a n t i f i c a t i o n t o one p a r t o f s o l v e n t per b i l l i o n p a r t s o f blood serum ( 1 ppb), w i t h a standard d e v i a t i o n o f + 15%. During c o l l a b o r a t i v e work w i t h Pierson and coworkers ( 5 ) o f t h e Research T r i a n g l e I n s t i t u t e , Research T r i a n g l e Park, i t was established t h a t t h e v a r i a n c e o f d u p l i c a t e specimen analyses by t h i s method was 5.76 w i t h a c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n of 17.7%. Moreoever, r e p l i c a t e analyses over time o f a b l o o d specimen pool i n d i c a t e d t h a t no degradation ( l o w e r i n g ) o f t h e chloroform v a l u e occurred d u r i n g a 10-week storage i n t e r v a l . The a n a l y t i c a l procedure i n v o l v e d h e a t i n g t h e specimen i n t h e presence of an a n t i f o a m i n g agent w h i l e p u r g i n g t h e v o l a t i l e organic chemicals from the s o l u t i o n u s i n g a f l o w o f i n e r t gas, u s u a l l y n i t r o g e n . The purged compounds were d i r e c t e d t o an adsorbent t r a p o f Tenax GC. A f t e r completion o f the p u r g e / t r a p period, v o l a t i l e analytes were t h e r m a l l y desorbed from t h e adsorb e n t t r a p t o a gas-chromatographic column which was temperature programed t o maximize r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s components. T h i s procedure i s a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f over 25 v o l a t i l e halocarbons, b u t d u r i n g t h i s invest i g a t i o n o n l y 11 were o f i n t e r e s t : c h l o r o f o r m (CHC13); e t h y l e n e d i c h l o r i d e (DCE); l , l , l - t r i c h l o r o e t h a n e (l,l,l-); carbon t e t r a c h l o r i d e (CCl4); bromodic h 1oromethane (BDCM) ; t r i c h l o r o e t h y l ene (TCE ) ; d ibromochloromethane (DBCM) ; bromoform (CHBr3); t e t r a c h l o r o e t h y l e n e (TETRA): chlorobenzene (ClBz); and v i n y l i d e n e c h l o r i d e (VCD). Inasmuch as o n l y CHC13, TRI, TETRA and l,l,lwere detected d u r i n g these studies, zero l e v e l s o f t h e o t h e r 7 compounds were n o t i n c l u d e d i n Tables 1 5. Other v o l a t i l e organic compounds which may be q u a n t i f i e d by t h i s procedure include: methylene c h l o r i d e , cis-1,2-dichloroe t h y l e n e , t r a n s - 1 ,2, - d i c h l o r o e t h y l ene , e t h y l idene ch l o r i de ,x l o r o b r o m o m e t h ane, 2,3-d73Ero-l-propene, cis-1,3-dichloro-l-propene, trans-1,3-dichloro1-propene, e t h y l e n e d i bromi d e T D B ) , 1,l ,1, 2 - t e t r a c h l o r o e t h a n e Y l - c h l o r o h e x ane, acetylene t e t r a c h l o r i d e , pentachloroethane, 3-chloro-l-bromopropane, hexachloro-1,3-butadiene and 1,4-dichlorobutane.

-

3.2

Mass-Spectrometric D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n Procedure

To d i f f e r e n t i a t e between c i r c u l a t i n g (underived) CHC13 and c i r c u l a t i n g t r i c h l o r o a c e t i c a c i d (TCA) i n t h e bloodstream o f workers exposed t o TCA, T R I and/or TETRA, t h e blood plasma was t h e r m a l l y decomposed i n t h e presence o f 80% D 0 ( 6 ) . Under t h e experimental c o n d i t i o n s employed, t h e decomposition o f TEA passed through t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e t r i c h l o r o m e t h y l carbanion, CCl3-, which a b s t r a c t e d a deuterium atom 80% o f t h e t i m e t o form CDC13. I n 20% o f t h e e x t r a c t i o n s , CHC13 formed v i a p r o t o n e x t r a c t i o n from water, so a 20% c o r r e c t i o n was necessary t o b e t t e r i n d i c a t e t h e amount o f underived c h l o r o (The plasma sample was n o t f r e e z e - d r i e d because t h e underived c h l o r o form. f o r m would have been l o s t d u r i n g t h i s step o f t h e a n a l y t i c a l procedure.) W i t h i n t h e mass spectrometer, CDC13 molecules gave r i s e t o a major posi t i v e l y charged fragment, CDC12+, w i t h m/z = 84. The major corresponding i o n (CHC12+) from CHCl occurred a t m/z = 83. From t h e r e l a t i v e abundances o f t h e two i o n s ?plus t h e aforementioned 20% c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e f r a g = 83), t h e amount o f d e r i v e d c h l o r o f o r m ( f r o m TRI and TETRA) was ment a t c a l c u l a t F d (6). S h i f t s ranged from 75% t o 90% as discussed below.

m/z

562 4.

ANALYTICAL RESULTS Analyses o f samples have been summarized i n Tables 1 Table 1.

-

6.

Blood Plasma Chlorocarbon L e v e l s (ppb) o f Some O f f i c e Personnel Working a t P l a n t A

lylyl-

CHCl3

TR I

1-a 1-b

147 175

T * T

T T

2-a 2-b

150 400

T T

O*

3-a

366

T

3 -f 3 -m

300 250

T T

4-a

270

4-f 4 -m

600 420

5-a

463

5 -f 5 -m

800 720

6-a

207

6 -f 6 -m

400 290

7-a

252

7 -f 7 -m

520 500

8-a

282

0

8-f 8 -m

790 460

T T

9-a

100

20

9-f 9 -m

285 350

T T

T T

10-a 10-c

235 25

T 0

0 0

SAMPLE

*

TETRA

22 6 7

0

T T

T T

0 9 7

A v a l u e o f T s i g n i f i e s a t r a c e < 1 ppb detected v a l u e o f 0 s i g n i f i e s not a t r a c e was detected

** A

T

T T

T T

563

Table 2.

Blood Plasma Chlorocarbon Levels (ppb) of a Small Group of Workers in Plant A

SAMPLE

CHCl3

TR I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

48 36 10 13 100 110 18 38 43 9 36 19 19 75 370 18 13 100 190 140

3 3 0 0 5 2 3 2 3 0 3 0 0 2 4 0 0 4 2 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

21 22 23 24

880 200 530 500

5 0

T

25-a 25-b

TETRA

O*

2

l,l,l3 3 0 0 2 2 2 2 3 2 6 T

2 3 4 2 3 3 4 2

0 3 0

0

3 3

340 410

4 3

0 0

2 3

26-a 26-b

950 1,150

10 12

0 0

23 19

27-a 27-b

1,885 1,965

4 7

0 0

0 0

*

T

**

7

A value of 0 signifies not a trace was detected T signifies a trace < 1 ppb detected

** A value of

For this investigation the gas-chromatographic (GC) method of Peoples, Pfaffenberger and coworkers (3) was applied to 187 blood samples, often run in duplicate or trip1 icate; and the mass-spectrometric (GC/MS/DS) procedure of Pfaffenberger, Briggle and Peoples ( 6 ) was utilized for 21 analyses. The methods appear applicable to a wide range of concentrations of solvent residues. When a very high level of solvent is discovered in a particular sample, the sample volume is conveniently adjusted downward. Most of the blood samples were obtained from people who were working around degreasing operations. Blood level s of chloroform, tri chloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, and 1.1 ,ltrichloroethane were anticipated. It should be recognized that in no instance were Plants A and El violating NIOSH recomnended TLV values for the latter 3 solvents. In fact, according to air monitoring records, neither plant ever exceeded 2% of the recornended TLV's for any of the solvents; so the findings

664

Table 3.

Blood Plasma Chlorocarbon Levels (ppb) of a Group of Workers at Plant B

SAMPLE

CHCl3

TR I

1 2 3

10 30 5 15 64 11 8 15 10 10 7 52 21 13 13 7 31 7 8 5 10 14 10 14 45 52 47 22 36 6 8 138 72 61 40 550 155 32 6 78

O * 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

TETRA

0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 9 4 0 17 5 4 0 7

l,l,l0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 2 0 0 0 0 5 16 7 10 18 22 2 3 6

A value of 0 signifies not a trace was detected of the investigation fall within the domain of currently acceptable bloodplasma levels of solvents (solventemia) resulting from chronic exposure to volatile chemicals in a workplace setting. Table 1 summarizes the first analyses performed on workers located at Plant A. Samples 1-a, 1-b, 2-a, 2-b, 3-a, 4-a, 5-a, 6-a, 7-a, 8-a, and 9-a were collected from office personnel not located within the plant but in a room adjacent to the facility and utilizing the same air-conditioning system.

666

T a b l e 4. SAMPLE

CHCl3

Blood Plasma Chlorocarbon L e v e l s (ppb) o f a Large Group o f Workers o f P l a n t A TR I

TETRA

l,l,l-

3 0

0 0

0 5 2 3 2 3 0 3 0 0 2 4 0 0 4 2 2 2 0 1 7 3 15 2 1 2 3 2 3 4 0 2 0 2 0 4 0

0

3 0 0 2 2 2 2 3 2 6

I

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

* **

36 10 13 100 110 18 38 43 9 36 19 19 75 370 18 13 100 190 140 30 12 100 1,500 300 1,000 200 22 20 11 12 46 800 310 18 70 10 275 58 250 18 1,600 26 400 410 33 95 105 500 28

1 15 3 4 3 3 3 0 3

1

A v a l u e o f 0 s i g n i f i e s not a t r a c e was detected A value o f T s i g n i f i e s a t r a c e < 1 ppb d e t e c t e d

0 0 0 0 0 0

12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 3 0

a

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0

T

2 3

4 2 3 3 4 2 2 1 4 6 2 0 3 2 2 3 2 4 2 7 2 1 2 6 1 3 2 8 3 2 4 4 0 2 6 3

**

566

Table 4. SAMPLE 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

* **

Blood Plasma Chlorocarbon L e v e l s (ppb) o f a Large Group o f Workers o f P l a n t A CHCl3

500 35 30 305 44 17 68 190 35 225 17 57 15 12 47 18 38 2,000 390 16 12 100 11 10 225 25 325 30 515 225

TR I

TETRA

O*

1

0 0 4 2

1

l,l,l4 2

1 1

2 T ** 0 0 0 0 3 1 2 22 6 1 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 3 1

(continued)

8 11 0

3 0 0 0 2 7 2 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

14 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 3 5 2

A v a l u e o f 0 s i g n i f i e s not a t r a c e was detected A v a l u e o f T s i g n i f i e s a t r a c e < 1 ppb detected

Traces t o q u a n t i f i a b l e amounts o f T R I , TETRA, and l,l,lwere found i n a l l o f Int h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ; and values f o r t o t a l CHC13 ranged from 100 t o 463 ppb. asmuch as these l e v e l s were c o n s i d e r a b l y h i q h e r than any found d u r i n g several years o f study o f t h e general p o p u l a t i o n i n and around Dade County, F l o r i d a ( 7 ) , 7 o f t h e p a r t i c p a n t s agreed t o be re-sampled on b o t h F r i d a y a t t h e end o f t h e workweek ( 3 - f through 9 - f ) and aqain on t h e f o l l o w i n g Monday (3-rn through 9-m) before r e t u r n i n g t o work. For 6 o f t h e 7 p a r t i c i p a n t s , t h e blood-plasma l e v e l o f CHC13 f e l l between 4 and 42 percent. P a r t i c i p a n t 10 went on a 2-week vacation t o a p r i s t i n e ( c l e a n a i r ) environment a f t e r donatinq sample 10-a. A t t h e end o f h i s v a c a t i o n h i s CHC13 r e s i d u e l e v e l had f a l l e n from 235 ppb t o 25 ppb, t h e g e n e r a l l y accepted average f o r our s t u d i e s centered around Dade County, F l o r i d a ( 7 ) . Sampling continued a t P l a n t A (Table 2 ) . T h i s group c o n s i s t e d o f 20 r a n domly chosen p a r t i c i p a n t s (samples 1 20), 4 workers who had been p r e v i o u s l y s t u d i e d (samples 21 24), and pregnant workers who were sampled t w i c e (samples Traces t o q u a n t i f i a b l e m o u n t s o f TRI, TETRA, and l,l,lwere 25-a - 27-b).

-

-

567

Table 5.

Blood-Plasma Chlorocarbon Levels (ppb) o f C i t i z e n s Non-Occupationally Exposed t o Chlorinated Solvents But Residing Only a Few Miles Away Frnm Plant. A

SAMPLE

CHCl3

TRI

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

10 12 53 26 7 28 16 18 9 20

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

*

SAMPLE

*

2-25-a 2-27-a 4-01 4-09 4-15 4-21 4-24 4-26 4-27 4-32 4-33 4-34 4-39 4-46 4-49 4-52 4-55 4-62 4-67

**

Range: Aver age :

* **

1.1,l-

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

A value o f 0 s i g n i f i e s not a t r a c e was detected

Table 6.

1-6-f 1-9-f

O *

TETRA

Percent Derived and Underived Blood-Plasma Chloroform i n Selected Samples as Determined b y a Mass Spectrometric Method DERIVED FROM SOLVENTS

UNDERIVED (FROM DIET)

90 % 87 %

10 % 13 X

85 % 89 %

15 % 11 x

% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %

21 %

79 80 88 82 88 88 90 78 88 89 75 78 89 78 79 80 77

75 - 90 % 83 %

20 12 18 12 12 10 22 12

% % % % % % % %

11 x

25 % 22 % 11 % 22 % 21 % 20 x 23 % 10 - 25 % 17 %

F i r s t number r e f e r s t o previous tables; r e s t o f numerals and l e t t e r s r e f e r t o samples w i t h i n t h e t a b l e i n d i c a t e d Range and average data c a l c u l a t e d f o r Table 4 values o n l y

568

found i n 93% o f t h i s group. The 4 o f f i c e personnel had CHC13 values ranginq from 200 ppb t o 880 ppb, and t h e 3 pregnant o f f i c e workers had r e s p e c t i v e Exposure appeared r e l a t e d average CHC13 l e v e l s o f 375, 1,050 and 1,925 ppb. t o a i r i n t a k e o f the a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g system. Samples were next c o l l e c t e d from another location, P l a n t B (Table 3 ) . Onl y 30% o f the 40 randomly sampled workers had q u a n t i f i a b l e l e v e l s o f TETRA and/ i n t h e i r bloodstream. No t r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e was detected; and values o r l,l,lf o r t o t a l chloroform ranged from 5 ppb t o 550 ppb. The data from Plant B workers suggested t h a t t h e r e was a problem p e c u l i a r t o P l a n t A. An a d d i t i o n a l 80 samples were randomly c o l l e c t e d from i n d i v i d u a l s f a l l i n g i n t o most o f the p o s s i b l e j o b categories o f P l a n t A. Trace t o quanti- found i n 85% o f t h i s group. Tof i a b l e m o u n t s o f TRI, TETRA, and l,l,lwere t a l chloroform values ranged from 9 ppb t o 2,000 ppb w i t h an average value o f 190 ppb. I n 81% o f t h e samples c o n t a i n i n g 100 ppb o r more CHC13, e i t h e r TRI o r TETRA o r both were also detected during t h e same analyses. The average C H C l v a l u e f o r t h e 15% o f t h e workers who had no other c h l o r i n a t e d solvent i n t i e i r blood was 26 ppb, a l e v e l e s s e n t i a l l y equal t o t h e m o u n t we g e n e r a l l y regard as average f o r c i t i z e n s o f Dade County ( 7 ) . Ten c i t i z e n s who l i v e d several m i l e s from P l a n t A b u t were t h e r e were sampled and analyzed f o r comparison purposes. As i n his Table 5, no one i n t h i s group had TRI, TETRA, o r l,l,lThe average chloroform l e v e l f o r t h i s group was 20 ppb, 20% lower cepted value f o r t h e general population o f Dade County ( 7 ) .

not employed indicated i n bloodstream. than the ac-

GC/MS/DS methodology ( 6 ) was applied t o 21 o f t h e samples o f P l a n t A workers. Table 6 cross-references these samples t o values given i n Tables 1, 2, and 4. Thus, sample 1-6-f i n Table 6 i s sample 6 - f o f Table 1; sample 2-27-a i s sample 27-a o f Table 2; and sample 4-27 i s sample 27 o f Table 4.

Samples analyzed according t o the GC/MS/DS procedure were from workers known t o be exposed t o e i t h e r t r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e , tetrachloroethylene, o r both. On a percentage basis, between 10% and 25% o f t h e chloroform value was under i v e d from a t r i c h l o r o m e t h y l carbanion precursor and probably was present as a r e s u l t o f d i e t a r y consumption. Between 90% and 75% o f t h e chloroform was app a r e n t l y derived from some precursor, presumably t r i c h l o r o a c e t i c acid. This suggested than an average o f 83% o f t h e body burden o f chloroform i n blood It plasma was r e l a t e d t o occupational exposure, most probably v i a i n h a l a t i o n . was s t r o n g l y suggested t h a t t h e a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g i n t a k e be f a r removed from t h e solvent vapors c o n s t a n t l y present i n t h e main p o r t i o n o f P l a n t A, b u t no f u r t h e r sampling was possible.

5.

CONCLUSIONS

Employees working around degreasing solvents such as t r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e , t etrachloroethylene, and l , l , l - t r i c h l o r o e t h a n e o f t e n have quant i f iable m o u n t s o f solvents i n t h e i r blood even when t h e a i r concentrations o f these v o l a t i l e organic compounds do n o t exceed f e d e r a l l y imposed maximum l e v e l s . I n certain circumstances, o f f i c e , personnel i n close p r o x i m i t y t o solvent use may also exh i b i t solventemia r e s u l t i n g from chronic exposure t o organic vapors. Every e f f o r t must be made t o assure t h a t f r e s h a i r i n t a k e i s from an uncontaminated a i r supply. By use o f gasckromatographic techniques, blood-plasma solvent l e v e l s up t o several thousand p a r t s per b i l l i o n may be detected i n c h r o n i c a l l y exposed workers. Mass-spectrometric methodology u t i l i z i n g deuterium oxide allows d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between t h e d e r i v e d and underived chloroform. T o t a l blood-plasma

569

CHC13 l e v e l s i n c h r o n i c a l l y exposed workers may be e i g h t y times higher than those o f t h e general population, b u t t h e r e s u l t i n g h e a l t h e f f e c t s are unknown. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish t o thank t h e many workers o f P l a n t s A and B who generousl y cooperated and donated blood samples w i t h o u t charge i n order t h a t t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o u l d be accomplished. We are a l s o g r a t e f u l t o O r . John E. Davies and O r . Robert S. Levine who helped w i t h many o f t h e medical aspects o f t h i s study o f c h r o n i c worker exposure t o v o l a t i l e organic solvents. REFERENCES

1.

Pfaffenberger, C a r l . D . , Peoples, A n i t a J., and B r i g g l e , Thomas V., "Use o f GC/MS and Deuterium Oxide t o D i f f e r e n t i a t e Between Chloroform and Der i v e d Chloroform i n Human Blood Serum," i n A b s t r a c t s o f t h e 28th Annual Conference on Mass Spectrometry and A l l i e d Topics, New York, New York, May 25-30, 1980, 366 - 367.

2.

P f a f f e n b e r g e r , C.D., Cantor, K.P., Peoples, A.J., and Enos, H.F., "Relat i o n s h i p Between Serum Chloroform Level and D r i n k i n g Water Source" i n t h e Proceedings o f t h e T h i r d Conference on Water C h l o r i n a t i o n : Environmental Impact H e a l t h E f f e c t s , 3, 1059 1075 (1980).

-

3.

Peoples, A.J., Pfaffenberger, C.D., Shafik, T.M., and Enos, H.F., "Determ i n a t i o n o f V o l a t i l e Purgeable Halogenated Hydrocarbons i n Human Adipose T i s s u e and Blood Serum," B u l l . Environm. Contam. Toxicol., 23, 244 250 (1979).

-

4.

"The Occurrence o f O r B e l l a r , T.A., Lichtenberg, J.J., and Kroner, R.C., ganohalides i n C h l o r i n a t e d D r i n k i n g Water," J. Am. Water Works ASSOC., @, 706 (1974). 703

-

5.

Pierson, S., "Measurement o f V o l a t i l e Organic Compounds i n Hispanic Hanes Component) P i l o t Study Blood Specimens," D r a f t Report, Task 38 o f (E.P.A. C o n t r a c t No. 68-01-5848, RTI/1864/38-5, June, 1982.

6.

Pfaffenberger, Carl D., B r i g g l e , Thomas V., and Peoples, A n i t a J., "Use o f D2D t o D i f f e r e n t i a t e Between Plasma Chloroform and T r i c h l o r o a c e t i c Acid," i n A b s t r a c t s o f t h e 3 1 s t Annual Conference on Mass Spectrometry and A l l i e d Topics, Boston, Massachusetts, May 8-13, 1983, 256 257.

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7.

Pfaffenberger, C a r l D., and Peoples, A n i t a J., "Long-Term V a r i a t i o n Study o f Blood Plasma L e v e l s o f Chloroform and Related Purgeable Compounds," JChromatogr., 239, 217 - 226 (1982).

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam,1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

571

HUMAN EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE USE OF ALDICARB ON COTTON IN SUDAN, AFRICA

Jon B. Mann and Joseph X. Danauskas Division of Chemical Epidemiology Department of Epidemiology and Public Health University of Miami School of Medicine 15655 S.W. 127th Avenue, Miami, Florida 33177, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT Cholinesterase inhibition determinations by Acholest [ l ] tests backed by the Michel [2] method were related to clinical symptom manifestations in field workers applying Aldicarb formulations "on-furrow" to cotton in Sudan. Air, water, urine and patch samples were analyzed to measure the potential exposure. Urine samples were analyzed for alkyl phosphate metabolites to preclude the possibility of interference from organophosphate pesticides. Workers were tested pre-application to determine normal cholinesterase levels. Acholest test samples were collected and analyzed in the field, with a portion of duplicate samples frozen for shipment to Miami for analysis by the Michel method. All other samples were shipped under Dry Ice to Miami for analysis. Aldicarb has an oral LD (rat) of 0.9 mg/kg and a dermal LD (rabbit) of (rats) to54100 (male) 5 mg/kg. A granular formula5Pon lowers the dermal LD -3970 (female) mg/kg. In water, Aldicarb oxidizes to5?he sulfoxide, then to the sulfone. The half-life is dependent upon pH and temperature. Animal studies indicate that Aldicarb is metabolized to the sulfoxide and sulfoxide oxime. In the analysis, peracetic acid was used to insure complete conversion to the sulfone with exposure measured as equivalent to the Aldicarb sulfone quantified. 1.

INTRODUCTION

Environmental groups have been successful in lobbying for laws restricting the purchase of pesticides with U . S . tax dollars for indiscriminate use in Third World countries. Unless the pesticides are registered for use in the U.S. and are used in the prescribed manner, the pesticides cannot be purchased by any U . S . agency. This could have severe economic impact on agriculture in developing countries which is unwarranted because of varying conditions in these countries (different temperatures, soil conditions, pests, crops, and more importantly less industrialization and far less pesticide use because of economic considerations). To avoid an unsolvable situation, a provision allows the use of pesticide not registered in the U . S . provided an environmental assessment is made followed by an Environmental Impact Statement (E.I.S.). Aldicarb is registered for use on cotton, but because of its extreme toxicity (oral LD less than 1 mg/kg, dermal LD 5 to 10 mg/kg) there was concern as to whe%er enough controls could be ez?ablished to prevent environmental contamination leading to human and animal health effects. By formulating a granular product the dermal LD50 changes drastically to between 566and4800 mgfkp

-

572

depending on the animal tested and whether the product was wet or dry. The granules are then coated with a plastic film to decrease the formation of powder caused by friction between granules during shipping. This is very important to the minimization of respirable size particles. 2.

SAMPLING

The sampling plan, as it was originally developed, was adjusted due to prevailing conditions. It was intended that all workers would be tested for cholinesterase activity before the initial Aldicarb application in order to get normal values. Delays in clearing equipment and materials through customs, and the lack of promised laboratory technicians prevented this. Instead, a clinical evaluation was initially made by the medical team as well as throughout the study. Thirty-eight blood samples were analyzed "on-site'' using the acholest test kit as well as 104 samples sent to Miami for analyses by the Michel method. The tractor drivers (240 alternating daily on 120 tractors) and loaders (120) were to meet each morning with extension agents to get their assignments and each evening to turn in their equipment. The number at each base camp varied depending on the number of feddans (a feddan is a little more than an acre) to be treated. Urine samples were to be collected from both morning and evening throughout the study in order to follow any retention of residues from exposure. A 10% population sampling was intended. The total area to be treated was 160,000 feddans. With only two people collecting all the samples (urine, water, air, patches, and soil), logistics became a problem. Add to this: 1) Teams were not always in the areas where they were supposed to be for a variety of reasons (one of which was that the farmers would flood their fields prematurely and Aldicarb could not be applied until the field dried); 2) Without landmarks, it was difficult to coordinate meeting points, even for people who knew the area; 3) At times workers would be selected from the closest village so that the sampling population changed; and 4) Breaks in the canal walls flooded areas making access impossible. The main water source of the area is the Nile River. This water is used for everything - animal and human consumption, bathing, or watering plants. Luckily the water flows away from the source diminishing the chance of contaminating it. Canals are cut to run past a series of farms, flowing by gravity, with the farmers trenching off from the canals. The farmers or tenants are allowed a ration of water by damming up the irrigation canal and breaking a hole in the canal wall. In some villages, canal water is used for drinking. Some villages have water towers refilled from the canals. Others have deep wells for supplying potable water. In many countries where containers are scarce and costly, discarded pesticide cans are used for potable water. A cross-section of water sources comprised the water samples taken. A four-year crop rotation scheme is used in this area. Cotton is rotated with wheat, then vegetables, with the fourth year laying fallow. Any residues left in the soil from use on cotton could be translocated into a food crop. Soil is of a clay composition which does not allow much penetration of water carrying the Aldicarb. Soil enzymes then metabolize the Aldicarb. This is unlike the problem in Florida where there is little organic material to hold the Aldicarb for enzymatic action. Soil was collected from last year's cotton fields to test for residues. In addition, plant material was collected to test for translocation if residues were found in the soil.

673

The floors of the village hut!are dirt, so some of this soil was collected for analysis. The Aldicarb containers are burned as they are used. Soil from one'of these sites was collected. Loaders are exposed as they load the hoppers on the tractors. The tractor drivers also have a potential exposure. Eight gauze patches (4" x 4") were placed on each subject (1 on each thigh, 1 one each arm, 2 on the chest and 2 on the middle of the back). By relating the patch area to the total body surface, it is possible to calculate the potential dermal exposure. Personal air samplers were placed on loaders and tractor drivers to measure the inhalation exposure. Because-of the close proximity of the villages to the cotton fields, air samples were taken in some of the villages. Samples were split for duplicate analysis and/or analysis by another laboratory. All samples (except soil) were placed in clean glass containers that had been shipped from the U.S. The screw caps were lined with aluminum foil. Soil samples were collected in plastic bags, then placed inside cloth bags. All samples were coded and records kept to show the location and the time of collection. It was imperative to ship the samples frozen, both to prevent further metabolism of Aldicarb and also to facilitate entry into the U.S. under our import permit. Dry Ice is not available in Sudan, so it was necessary to have it shipped from London. The samples were kept frozen at a location near the collection sites which was 120 miles from the airport. The frozen samples were transported to the airport in Styrofoam containers which kept the samples frozen in spite of 120-130°F ambient temperatures. Dry Ice was added to the containers at the airport and the containers placed on the next flight to the States. This was not as easy as it sounds since the Dry Ice had to clear customs in time to be used for samples shipped on the same plane which was also used for the return flight. There are only three flights a week. Any delay would allow the Dry Ice to sublime before it could be used. The samples were picked up frozen at the Miami airport by a Broker, who kept the samples in a freezer until they were cleared by customs. We picked up the frozen samples from the Broker. 3.

CHEMISTRY

In rat metabolism studies [3], Aldicarb was found to be excreted in first day urine as oxime sulfoxide (=30%), sulfoxide (=40%), and a number of other polar compounds. Only 4-5% was recovered by the total dosage administered. In water, plants and soil there is a similar oxidation to final products of oximes and nitriles which have much lower toxicities than Aldicarb (1 mg/kg), Aldicarb sulfoxide (0.88 mg/kg), and Aldicarb sulfone (25 mg/kg). The major concern about health effects was these three compounds (See Fig. 1). Dimethoate is oxidized and excreted as a dimethyl thiophosphate and a dimethyl phosphate (See Fig. 2). Presence of these metabolites indicate the possibility of dimethoate exposure. Other organophosphate pesticides having a (CH30)zPS or (CH30)2PO moiety can yield alkyl phosphates, but dimethoate is the only organophsophate known to be used in the area. Other organophosphates of interest having (CzH5)zPS and (C~HS)~POmoieties will yield diethyl thiophosphate (DETP) and diethyl phosphate (DEP). Of lesser probability and prominence are dimethyl dithiophosphate (DMDTP) and diethyl dithiophosphate (DEDTP).

514

:H3

0 ,I

CH -S-C-CH 3 1 CH3

z=

N-0-C-N-CH I 3 H

0 CH3 11

ALDICARB

0

1

I1

CH3-S-C-CH

N-0-C-N-CH I 3

1

CH3

ALDICARB SULFOXIDE

H

+ 0 CH3

0

11

11

I

CH -S-C-CH = N-0-C-N-CH 3 I, 1 I 3 0 CH3 H Fig.

1.

ALDICARB SULFONE

Chemistry of Aldicarb

Sl

s

0

DIMETHOATE + CH30 CH30 =P-oH

DMTP

+ 0,

0

::$,~/S-CH~-;-N-CH ; , 3 3

Fig. 4.

’

2.

H

CH 0 DIMETHOATE ^..__^_._ + CH30 UKY tiLN ANALOG 3

0

DMP

Metabolism of Dimethoate

HEALTH EFFECTS

Aldicarb (carbamate) and dimethoate (organophosphate) are cholinesterase inhibitors and cause muscarinic and nicotinic effects which can be clinically diagnosed. Mild symptoms may be overlooked, but exposures can be determined in the laboratory. Carbamates cause rapid depression of plasma cholinesterase, but a slow depression of erythrocyte (RBC) cholinesterase. Organophosphates cause a depression in both plasma and RBC cholinesterase. This can be used to determine if a carbamate or an organophosphate is involved in poisoning. Agricultural workers have been known to have cholinesterase activities in the low to borderline area of the normal range, yet show no typical cholinergic symptoms. We usually rely on changes in the activity to determine if an exposure needs treatment, not just one value. 5.

EXPERIMENT

The methodology used was developed by the Union Carbide Corporation [4.5,6]. All methods were similar in that the Aldicarb, Aldicarb sulfoxide and Aldicarb sulfone were oxidized with peracetic acid to insure the presence of only the Aldicarb sulfone which was then analyzed.

57 5

The air sample filters and gauze patch samples were washed with water and the water-wash treated as a water sample. Urine and soil samples were cleaned by the following method: 1.

Evaporate samples to dryness and make to a volume of 2 mls.

2. Activate a silica gel SEP-PAK@

with 2 mls of chloroform.

3.

The 2 mls of sample i hloroform is forced dropwise through the activated SEP-PAKwwith a 5 ml syringe.

4.

Rinse sample co iner with 2 mls of chloroform and force through SEP-PAK%?

5.

Wash through twice more with 5.5 mls of chloroform and discard wash.

6.

Force through 4 mls of a 1:l mixture of chloroform: acetonitrile collecting this fraction.

7. Evaporate to dryness and dilute with 1 ml of acetone for injection into a gas chromatograph. This ethod was tested and found to be comparable to Union Carbide's Florisil @column clean-up. Analyses were performed on:

1.

A Tracor 222 gas chromatograph equipped with a flame photometric detector having a 394 nm filter selective for sulfur and utilizing

a 6' x k" column packed with 5% OV-210 on 100/120 mesh chromosorb W-HP at a N2 flow of 60 mlslmin and a temperature of 145OC; and

2.

A Micro Tek 220 gas chromatograph equipped with an N-P detector and utilizing a 6' x 4" column packed with 5% OV-210 on chromosorb

W-HP at a N flow of 60 mls/min and a temperature of 18OoC. 2 A series of 10 gm samples of urine were spiked with Aldicarb sulfone and placed in the freezer at the beginning of the experiment. Each week that urine samples were analyzed, one of the spiked urines was analyzed to insure recovery. Within experimental error, no losses occurred during the storage of urine samples. See Table 1. In addition, at least one spiked sample was determined for every nine samples analyzed to insure recovery. Urine recoveries ranged from 7242% with an average recovery of 77 %. Water recoveries averaged 95%. Results were not adjusted for recovery.

Table 1.

Urine Storage Losses

576

6.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Urinary metabolites of Aldicarb, calculated as the sulfone, showed an increase from morning to afternoon as can be seen in Table 2 . Detectable residues were found in 61 out of 111 samples analyzed. The residues ranged from 1-271 ppb with an average of 42 ppb. In a follow-up sample the next morning on a 22 year old loader, the residue dropped, but was still detectable. This loader, who had a 15 day prior work history with Aldicarb, had a borderline cholinesterase depression (See Table 2 ) . Table 2 .

Aldicarb Sulfone 'in Urine Samples

~~~~

OCCUPATION

AGE

TIME A.M. P.M.

P.M. A-Moader P.M. A*M-

I

PPB

1

ND*

ao

I

::

I

4:

t ractor Driver

22

Loader

1 A.M. ND A.M.

*ND-none detected at sensi vity of method Table 3.

DATE

&

TIME

Assessment of a Loader

SULFONE (PPb)

PLASMA ChE

ALKYL PHOSPHATE

(PPd DMTP I DMP I DEPT I DEP

ND

1oiaia3 A.M.

41

0.49

ND 0.03 0.03

I

I

I 1oiaia3 A.M.

1 1 I: 1, :I I

ND

I

ND

ND~

ND

ND

0.05

1

ND

ND

511

The normal range is 0.52 - 1.26 ApH/hr. Since there was a possibility of organophosphate exposure, alkyl phosphates were determined. The limit of detection for DMTP is 0.03 ppm and for DMP is 0.05 ppm. Higher levels would be necessary to account for a cholinesterase depression. There are other reasons for lowered cholinesterase such as liver diseases and malnutrition. In addition, about 3% of the population have a naturally low activity. The history of pesticide exposure and a constant monitoring cholinesterase activity is necessary to assess if a problem exists. Based on the history of exposure and the cholinesterase activity, a total of 18 suspect cases out of 100 samples on which cholinesterase was determined were analyzed for alkyl phosphates with only 3 having detectable alkyl phosphates. All three vere at the limit of detection of the method. There were not any cholinergic symptomology manifestations observed throughout the study. A survey of nearby clinics and hospitals failed to uncover any illnesses suspected to be due to pesticide usage. Detectable levels of Aldicarb were found in only one water sample of ten samples analyzed. This sample was taken from a canal at a location where a fish kill was observed. In six of eight air samples analyzed, residues ranged from 0.27 to 1.69 pg/m3 including a sample containing 0.93 ug/m3 taken in a village (See Table 4). The first two samples are a tractor driver and loader team as are the 3rd and 4th values. Samples taken inside a house and outside a house yielded identical results. Patches placed on three agricultural workers contained 19 pg, 27 pg and 7 1 pg. Based on a 2,000 sq. in. body surface area, the eight 4" x 4" patches per person represent about 6.4% of the potential dermal exposure or a potential dermal exposure of 0.029, 0.421 and 1.11 mgs. Comparing this with a dermal toxicity of 5 mg/kg, a 60 kg person would require 300 mg. The two highest values were loaders with the low value being a tractor driver. Soil samples taken from previous cotton fields gave negative results. A soil sample taken at a site where the Aldicarb containers were burned showed a 1.5 ppb residue. Table 4 . Air Sample Results LOCATION

ug/m3

On tractor driver near inhalation zone

1.69

] O n loader near inhalation zone

I

m

On tractor driver near inhalation zone

0.54

On loader near inhalation zone

0.39

Inside house in village Outside,house in village In cotton field during application

I Outside house i,

village

I

0.93

518

7.

CONCLUSIONS The conclusions to the study are:

1 . Aldicarb i s excreted rapidly so that although exposure was indicated by the urine analyses after a work day, morning samples were low or non-detectable. A slow increase over the application period was not seen so there would not be a body burden.

2. Agricultural worker exposure was from dermal and inhalation routes. 3.

Villagers would have exposure through inhalation.

4 . Although there is a threat to the water supply, there was no indication of contamination.

5. Aldicarb metabolizes in the soil under prevailing conditions and would not contaminate food crops grown in the same plot the following year. REFERENCES 1.

Acholest Test@ Kit, distributed by Centerchem, Inc., 475 Park Ave. South, New York, N.Y. 10016.

2.

Michel, O.H., "An Electrometric Method for the Determination of Red Blood Cell and Plasma Cholinesterase Activity," J. Lab. Clin. Med., 2, pp. 1564, 1949.

3.

ha&, J.B., Tallant, Marilyn J., and Sullivan, L.J., "The Metabolism of 2-Methyl-2-(methylthio) propionaldehyde-0-(methyl-carbamoyl) oxime in the Rat," J. Agr. Food Chem., Vol 1 4 , No. 6 , Nov.-Dec. 1966.

4.

Union Carbide Corporation, "A Short Method for the Determination of Total Toxic Aldicarb Residues in Soil by Gas Chromatography,"May 1983.

5.

Union Carbide Corporation, "A Method for the Determination of Aldicarb Residues in Water," March 1980.

6.

Union Carbide Corporation, "Determination of Total Toxic TEMIK Residues in Human Urine by Gas Chromatography.''

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N.Veziroglu Elsevier SciencePublishersB.V.,Amsterdam, 1984-Printed in The Netherlands

579

ACUTE EFFECTS OF NONPHARMACOLOGICAL & PHARMACOLOGICAL SMOKING TOBACCO - A CASE STUDY (COMPARATIVE) UNDER VARIOUS AGE GROUPS M.S. Sharma 84, S.P. Hall King Georges' Medical College Lucknow - 226 003, India J . S . Sharma Oil & Natural Gas Commission Sibsagar, ASSAM, India

D. Nandan Dept. of Social & Preventive Medicine S.N. Medical College, Agra, India ABSTRACT On studying the acute effects of tobacco smoking on 145 individuals under various age groups, it was observed that nausea or vomiting or both occured in 73.79 percent of the cases. In the novice with a maximum of 84.62 percent in the age group of 6 to 10 years, and minimum of 37.50 percent in the age group of 51 to 55 years. Athletic performance was found to be affected in 26.90 percent (maximum in the age group 11 to 15 years). This was observed due to increased airway resistance. The maximum rise in B.P. in the range of 16 to 20 mm of Hg systolic and 11 to 15 mm of Hg diastolic was found to be in the age group of 16 to 20 years, while the minimum occurred in the age group of 41 to 45 years (0 to 5 mm of Hg systolic and 0 to 5 mm of Hg diastolic). The increase in GIT movements was recorded in only 20.69 percent (maximum in age group 16 to 20 years), a decrease found in 20.69 percent (maximum in age group of 16 to 20 years), while there was no change in the rest. INTRODUCTION Tobacco smoke is a ubiquitous personal and environmental pollutant. Human inhalation of cigarette smoke is a twentieth century phenomenon with major medical and economic consequences. In industrialized nations, the principal cause of preventable disease and premature death is cigarette smoking. The custom of smoking tobacco is thought to have originated with the Indians of the western hemisphere, possibly as early as 100 A.D., with the first use of tabacco almost certainly being in religious rituals. By the end of the century, smoking had become a common practice thoroughout the world. Despite the increasingly heavy use of tabacco, since then, the many health effects of smoking were not recognized until fairly recently. Unfortunately, the evaluation of scientifically valid data relating to the harmful effects of smoking on health has often been complicated by emotional and aesthetic considerations.

580

We had confined our attention to cigarette smoking because neither pipe nor cigar smoking appear to have such a profound effect on lung function, i.e. on human health, and also because there is remarkably little information relating to acute effects of pipe and cigar smoking on human health. 2.

OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH

Non-pharmachological (psychosocial, sensorimotor) and pharmacological (indulgent, sedative, stimulative, addictive) typesofsmoking have shown acute effects in the form o f increased airway resistance, depressed-cilliary activity, sympathetic stimulation of the CVS (cardio vascular system), variable effects on alertness, on GIT (gastro-intestinal tract) and appetite. The study has been taken into consideration to know the acute effects of cigarette smoking on human health, for which we have taken the following criteria: (a) (b) (c) (d) 3.

nausea or vomiting, or both nausea and vomiting acute effects upon systolic and diastolic B.P. acute effects on GIT motility acute effect on athletic performance

EXPERIMENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

Individuals from various age groups were chosen including both sexes. A total of 145 indivicuals were taken. Only the individuals who have never smoked in the past were taken into consideration. Each individual was asked to smoke one cigarette completely and then acute effects of it were found separately. Experimental procedures were followed separately with all the 145 individuals. 3.1

Nausea or Vomiting or Both

Nausea is a personal feeling which was felt by the individual after smoking a cigarette. Some individuals had nausea only, while others had only vomiting, and in some individuals nausea was followed by vomiting. 3.2

Effects on Blood Pressure

To know the effects on blood pressure, B.P. recordings were done by the electronic sphygmomanometer1 in order to decrease the error in recording blood pressure. Initially the cuff was put on and both systolic and diastolic B.P.wre recorded. After taking the initial B.P., the individual was asked to smoke a cigarette; after the last puff, a recording of both systolic and diastolic B.P. was taken to find the difference from the initial value in the form of increase or decrease or no change. The cuff was not removed durinq the initial and affected readings, only the air pressure was released. 3.3

Effects on GIT Motility

GIT motility was recorded by stethoscope, putting it at the abdomen at the anatomical position of the ileocaecd jureti?, number of sounds per minute were recorded. The recordings were made

681

before and after the cigarette+moking. Thus, an increase or decrease or no change in GIT motility was found in every individual. 3.4

Effect on Athletic Performance

Increased airway resistance takes place due to the nonspecific effects of submicronic particles, e.g. carbon particles less than 1 micron across. This effect is due to the reflex mechanism. Even inert particles of this size cause bronchial narrowing sufficientto double airway resistance. This is insufficient to cause dyspnoea, though it might affect athletic performance,which varies from individual to individual. A four to five fold increase in resistance is necessary to-cause noticeable dyspnoea and a ten to twenty fold increase to cause severe dyspnoea such as can occur in bronchial asthma. Various methods for measuring the airway resistance are: (a) Body plethsmography (DuBois Botelho & Comroe in 1956). (b) Oesophageal balloon technique (Mead & Whittenberger 1953). (c) Forced oscillations technique (DuBois, Brody, Lewis & Burgess 1956). The airway resistance was measured by the body plethysmographic method before and after the cigarette smoking. The increase in airway resistance is an indicator Of affected athletic performance. 4. 4.1

TYPES OF SMOKING Non-pharmacological

Type of smoking in which the plasma concentration of nicotine is not adjusted automatically by changes in puffing rate and inhalation. It is of two types: (a) Psychosocial - Type of smoking in which an individual uses the symbolic value of the act to increase social confidence status and self esteem. (b) Sensorimotor - Type of smoking in which oral, sensory and manipulatory satisfaction is obtained. 4.2

Pharmacological

Type of smoking in which the plasma concentration of nicotine is adjusted automatically by changes in puffing rate and inhalation. It is of four types: (a) Indulgent - It is the most common type of smoking, which is done to obtain pleasure or to enhance an already pleasurable situation. In it, frequency varies greatly.

-

(b), Sedative Type of smoking which is taken into account to ease an unpleasant situation. (c) Stimulation - To get a "lift", to aid thinking or concentration, help with stressful situations, or help performance of monotonous tasks.

582

(d) Addictive - To avoid withdrawal feelingsthat occur as the plasma nicotine concentration falls below a minimum, usually about 30.minutes after the end of the last smoke. A variant is automatic smoking when the smoker may light up automatically, often being unaware of the act of smoking becoming aware only if a cigarette is not at hand. 5. 5.1

SMOKE

Smoke of Cigars

&

Pipes

Smoke of cigars and pipes is alkaline (pH 8.5) and the nicotine is relatively unionized and lipid soluble so that it is readily absorbed in the mouth. Cigar and pipe smokers thus obtain nicotine without inhaling the smoke. 5.2

Smoke of Cigarette

The smoke of cigarettes is acidic (pH 5.3) and the nicotine is relatively ionized and insoluble in lipids. Desired amounts of nicotine are only absorbed if it is taken into the lungs where the enormous surface area for absorption compensates for the relative lipid insolubility. The amount of nicotine absorbed from tabacco smoke varies from 90 percent in those who inhale to 10 percent in those who do not. Cigarette smoke is a heterogeneousaerosol which is produced by imcomplete conbustion of the tobacco leaf. It is composed of gases and vapours in which droplets are dispersed. Emergence of mainstream smoke is from the mouthpiece during puffing while sidestream smoke is emitted between puffs at the burning cone and from the mouthpiece. The composition of the smoke is influenced by several factors including the type of tabacco, temperature of combustion, length of the cigarette, porosity of the paper, additives and filters. The major constituents of tabacco are carbohydrates, nonfatty organic acids, nitrogen containing coumpounds and resins. The selected cigarette smoke constituents and their effects are listed on the following page. Cigarette temperatures vary greatly from 30 OC at the mouthpiece to 900 OC at the burning cone. In the presence of intense heat some tobacco constituents undergo pyrolysis (thermic decomposition). Volatile substances are distilled directly into the smoke. Unstable molecules recombine to generate new compounds (pyrosynthesis). As the smoke is filtered by unburnt tobacco and is redistilled by the burning cone, a concentration of smoking constituents occurs. Some substances found in tobacco pass unchanged into cigarette smoke. Each cigarette generates approximately 500 mg mainstream smoke of which 92 percent is present in a gas phase and 8 percent is present in a particulate phase. Mainstream smoke contains 2 to 5 billion particles per mililitre, with the particle size ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 micrometre. Nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide account for 8 5 percent of the smoke's weight. The remaining gases, vapours and particulate matter are the substances of medical importance. Some smoke constituents are absorbed directly through the mucosa of the mouth, nose, pharynx and upper respiratory airways, while others

683

SELECTED CIGARETTE SI4OKE CONSTITUENTS Substance

Effect

PARTICULATE PHASE Tar* Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons Nicotine Phenol Cresol Beta-Naphthylamine N-Nitrosonornicotine Benzo (a) pyrene Benz (alpha) anthracene Trace metals (e.g.nicke1, polonium 210) Indole Carbarole GAS

Carcinogen Carcinogen Ganglionic stimulator and depressor Carcinogen and irritant Carcinogen and irritant Carcinogen Carcinogen Carcinogen Carcinogen Carcinoaen Tumor accelerator Tumor accelerator

PHASE

Carbon monoxide Hydrocyanicacid Acetaldehyde Acrolein Ammonia Formaldehyde Oxides of nitrogen Nitrosamines Hydrazine

Impairs oxygen transport and utilization Ciliotoxin and irritant Ciliotoxin and irritant Ciliotoxin and irritant Ciliotoxin and irritant Ciliotoxin and irritant Ciliotoxin and irritant Carcinogen Carcinogen

* The aggregate of particulate matter in cigarette smoke after subtracting nicotine and moisture. are inhaled into the lungs where they are absorbed and retained. Concentrations of toxic constituents in smoke often far exceed threshold limits of industrial toxins. 6.

PHARMACOLOGY

Most studies in humans have dealt with exposure to whole smoke or selected constituents which are thought to pose the greatest risk to health, for example, nicotine and carbon monoxide. 6.1

Nicotine

Nicotine is the most characteristic component of tabacco. It is a hiahly toxic alkaloid. The average cigarette smoker who inhales absorbs about 2 mg nicotine per cigarette. The estimated acutely fatal dose for an adult is 1 mg/kg. Pharmacokinetics - Nicotine is absorbed through mucous membranes in a highly pH dependent fashion. The plasma half-life of

584

nicotine is 30-80 minutes. It is largely metabolized to pharmacologically inert substances though some is excreted unchanged in the urine (pH dependent)

..

Pharmaco-dynamics - Nicotine can both stimulate and depress nervous tissue function, depending on the dose and the interval between doses, and the psychological state of the subject. No definitive statement can be made relating the pharmacodynamics of nicotine to the pleasure experienced by the smoker. Smokers who become more alert tend to take a lower dose of nicotine than do smokers who become more tranquil. In doses used in smokinq, nicotine causes release of catecholamines in the hypothalamus and antidiuretic hormones from the posterior pituitary. In large doses nicotine stimulates directly the ends of peripheral cholinergic nerves whose cell bodies lie in the central nervous system, i.e. it acts at autonomic ganglia and at the' neuromuscular junction. This is what is meant by the term "nicotine like" or "nicotinic" effect. Higher doses paralyse at the same points. The central nervous system is stimulated, including the vomiting centre, both directly and via the carotid body; tremors and convulsions may occur. As with the peripheral actions, depression follows stimulation. In low doses such as are taken in ordinary smoking, the effects of nicotine on viscera are probably largely reflex, from stimulation of sensory receptors (chemo-receptors) in the carotid and aortic bodies, pulmonary circulation and left ventricle. Some of the results are mutually antagonistic. The following account tells what generally happens after one cigarette, from which about 1 mg nicotine is absorbed, although much depends on the amount and depth of inhalation and on the duration of end-inspiratory breath holding. Acute cardiovascular responses to nicotine observed in normal smokers include increases in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, force of myocardial contraction, myocardial oxygen consumption, coronary artery flow, myocardial irritability and peripheral vasoconstriction. Nicotine has also been shown to increase platlet aggregation and serum concentrations of free fatty acids and ADH. Nicotine plays an important but not exclusive role in maintaining the smoking habit. Increase in free fatty acid concentration in the blood, and also platlet stickiness may be a factor in atheroma and thrombosis. On GIT, Nausea and vomiting occur in the novice, probably due to stimulation of the vomiting centre. The effects on the mobility of the GIT are variable. In some cases motility is increased, in some cases it is decreased, while in some cases there is no change. It is well known that tolerance develops to nicotine and that a first experience commonly causes nauseaandvomiting which quickly ceases with repetition of smoking. 6.2

Carbon Monoxide

It is a toxic gas which interferes with oxygen transport and utilization. Because cigarette smoke contains 2 to 6 percent carbon

585

monoxide, smokers inhale concentrations as high as 400 parts per million (ppm) and develop elevated carboxy-haemoglobin (COHB) levels. While the range of COHB for smokers is 2 to 15 percent, levels for non-smokers are near 1 percent. The average COHB level for moderate cigarette smokers is 5 percent. Carbon monoxide produces its adverse effects by reducing the amount of available oxyhaemoglobin and myoglobin and displacing the oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve to the left. Chronic, mild elevations of COHB due to smoking are a common cause of polycythemia and may produce subtle impairment of the CNS function. 7. 7.1

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Nausea or Vomiting or both Nausea and Vomiting

On studying the acute effects of tabacco smoking on 145 individuals, it was observed that nausea or vomiting or both nauset and vomiting occured in 73.79 percent of the cases. In the novice with a maximum of 84.62 percent in the age group of 6 to 10 years, and a minimum of 37.50 percent in the age group of 51 to 55 years (Table 1, Fig. 1). 7.2

Effect of Blood Pressure

On studying the acute effects of tabacco smoking in 145 individuals, it was observed that the maximum rise in systolic B.P. occurs in the age group of 16 to 20 years, in the range of 16 to 20 mm of Hg; while the maximum rise in diastolic B.P. in the range of 11 to 15 mm of Hg was found in the age group of 16 to 20 years. The minimum rise in both systolic and diastolic B.P., in the range of 0 to 5 mm of Hg, was found in the age group of 41 to 45 years (Table 2). In percent, the maximum rise in systolic and diastolic B.P. was found as follows (Tabls 3). In the range of 0 to 5 mm of Hg, the maximum rise in both systolic and diastolic B.P. was found in 50 percent of the cases in the age group of 41 to 45 years. In the range of 6 to 10 mm of Hg, the maximum rise in the systolic B.P. was found in 69.23 percent of the cases in the age group of 6 to 10 years; while the maximum rise in diastolic B.P. was found in 61.54 percent of the cases in the same age group. In the range of 11 to 15 mm of Hg, the maximum rise in systolic B.P. was found in 53.46 percent of the cases in the age group of 31 to 35 years; while the maximum rise in diastolic B.P. was found in 56.25 percent of the cases in the age group of 16 to 20 years. In the range of 16 to 20 mm of Hg, the maximum rise in the systolic B.P. was found in 68.75 percent of the cases (Fig. 2). 7.3

Effect on GIT Motility

On studying the acute effects of tobacco smoking on 145 individuals, it was found that GIT movements increased in 20.69 percent of the cases, decreased in 20.69 percent of the cases; while there was no change in the rest. The increase in GIT motility varied from 6.25 percent in the age group of 51 to 55 years to 43.75 percent in the age group of 16 to 20 years, while an decrease in GIT motility varied from 6.25 percent in the age group of 51 to 55 years to

586 Table 1.

Showing t h e Number of Cases Having Nausea and Vomiting and t h e i r p e r c e n t a g e

Age Group (in years)

No. of Cases

Below 5 6 t o 10 11 t o 15 16 t o 20 21 t o 25 26 t o 30 31 t o 35 36 t o 40 41 t o 45 46 t o 50 51 t o 55 56 t o 60 Above 60 TOTAL

Nausea o r Vomiting o r Both

Percentage

-

-

13 11 16 12 15 13 14 8 7 16 8 12

11 9 13 10 12 10 11 6 4 6 5 10

84.62 81.82 81.25 83.33 80.00 76.92 78.57 75.00 57.14 37.50 62.50 83.33

-

145

107

73.79

P e r c e n t a g e of Cases Having Nausea o r Vomiting o r Both Accord i n g t o Age Group i n Years

a,

p

80

-

70

-

60

*

50

-

4J

$ V

a, PI

40

-

J %

30 0

Age g r o u p ( i n Years) F i g . 1.

58 I

Table 2.

Showing the Number of Cases Having Changes in Blood Pressure RISE IN B.P.

Age Group No. of (in years) cases

Below t 6 to 10 11 to 15 16 to 20 21 to 25 26 to 30 31 to 35 36 to 40 41 to 45 46 to 50 51 to 55 56 to 60 Above 60

6 to 10 mm S D

11 to 15 mm S D

-

- -

- -

-

-

13 11 16 12 15 13 14

- 2 - 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 3 2 4 4 4

9 6 1 4 5 3 6

8 5 6 4 7 5 6

4 3 3 6 7 7 6

3 5 9 6 6 5 4

2

2

3 2 3

6 3 4

3 9 4 5

4 7 4 5

2 3 2 4

1 3 1 3

55 61

47

46

8

7 16

a

12

TOTAL

0 to 5 mm S D

145

20 34

- -

-

16 to 20 mm S D

-

-

2 1 1 1 2 2

-

-1

--

19

-

-

-

-

-

No Change S

D

4

4

-

-

-

S = Systolic, D = Dyastolic

Fig. 2. SHOWING THE LINE DIAGRAMS FOR VARIOUS RANGES OF RISE IN BLOOD PRESSURE ACCORDING TO THE AGE GROUP IN YEARS

-s)

0 to 5mm

-D

-1' -x*-

D

-

6 to 10mmc--+

a, PI

Age group (in Years)

11 to 15mm

588 Table 3.

Showing the Percentage of Gases Having Rise in Blood Pressure in Various Stages 6 to 10

0 to 5

11 to 15

16 to

20

Age Group (in years)

Below 5 6 to 10 11 to 15 16 to 20 21 to 25 26 to 30 31 to 35 36 to 40 41 to 45 46 to 50 51 to 55 56 to 60 Above 60

s

D

-

-

-

-

15.39 9.09 6.25 16.67 13.33 23.08 28.57 50.00 28.57 37.50 37.50 33.33

69.23 54.55 6.25 33.33 33.33 23.08 42.86

61.54 45.45 37.50 33.33 46.67 38.46 42.86

42.86 56.25 50.00 41.67

57.14 43.75 50.00 41.67

28.57 18.75 25.00 33.33

14.29 18.75 12.50 25.00

6.25 8.33 6.67 7.69 14.29 50.00 28.57 18.75 25.00 25.00

s

D

S

-

-

D

S

-

-

-

30.77 27.27 18.75 50.00 46.67 53.46 42.86

23.08 45.45 56.25 50.00 40.00 38.46 28.57

18.18 68.75 8.33 13.33 15.39

-

-

D

6.25 -

S = Systolic, D = Dyastolic

Table 4.

Showing the Number of Cases Having Changes in GIT Motility and their Percentage

Age Group No. of (in years) Cases Below 5 6 to 10 11 to 15 16 to 20 21 to 25 26 to 30 31 to 35 36 to 40 41 to 45 46 to 50 51 to 55 56 to 60 Above 60 TOTAL

Increased Motility

Percentage

Decreased

Percentage

No change

-

-

-

-

-

-

13 11 16 12 15 13 14 8 7 16 8 12

5 4 7 3 3 2 2 1 1 1

38.46 36.36 43.75 25.00 20.00 15.38 14.29 12.50 14.29 6.25

2 4 6 4 4 3 2 1

15.38 36.36 37.50 33.33 26.67 23.08 14.29 12.50

1

8.33

1 1 2

30

20.69

30

145

-

-

-

Percentage

-

6.25 12.50 16.67

6 3 3 5 8 8 10 6 6 14 7 9

46.15 27.27 18.75 41.67 53.33 61.54 71.43 75.00 85.71 87.50 87.50 75.00

20.69

85.

58.62

-

589

Multiple Bar Chart Showing the Percentage of Increased and Decreased Git Motility

n

m

o

4

Age group (in Years) Fig. 3. 37.50 percent in the age group of 16 to 20 years. A minimum effect was found in the age group of 51 to 55 years and 56 to 60 years (Table 4, Fig. 3). 7.4

Effect on Athletic Performance

On studying the 145 individuals, athletic performance was found to be affected in 26.90 percent. This was found due to increased airway resistance. The percentage of affected athletic performance varied from 12.50 percent in the age group of 41 to 45 years and 56 to 60 years to 45.45 percent in the age group of 11 to 15 years (Table 5, Fig. 4). 8.

CONCLUSION

On studying the acute effects of smoking tobacco on human health in various age groups, we have reached the following conclusions: 1.

Nausea or vomiting or both nausea and vomiting occurred in 73.79 percent of the cases. The percentage being higher up to 45 years with the maximum of 84.62 percent between 6 and10 years. It is having a sudden fall between 46 and 56 years with a minimum of 37.50 percent between 51 and 55 years. Above 6 0 years its percentage increases again (Fig. 1).

2.

Systolic and diastolic blood pressure increase with a

590

Table 5.

Showing the Number of Cases Having Affected Athletic Performance and their Percentage ~

Age Group (in years) Below 5 6 to 10 11 to 15 16 to 20 21 to 25 26 to 30 31 to 35 36 to 40 41 to 45 46 to 50 51 to 55 56 to 60 Above 60 TOTAL

No. of Cases

Cases in which athletic performance was affected

Percentage

-

-

-

13 11 16 12 15 13 14 8 7 16 8 12

5 5 6 4 5 3 3 1 1 3 1 2

38.46 45.45 37.50 33.33 33.33 23.08 21.43 12.50 14.29 18.75 12.50 16.67

145

39

26.90

Percent of Cases Having Affected Athletic Performance According to Age Groups in Yrs.

Fig. 4.

691

great variability in different age groups. The rise in systolic and diastolic blood pressures varied from 0 to 20 mm of Hg and 0 to 15 mm of Hg respectively. The maximum rise in both systolic and diastolic B.P. occured in individuals between 16 and 20 years (Fig. 2). 3.

GIT motility has.. shown both increase and decrease types of effects. It was found to be increased in 20.69 percent. Increase in GIT motility is higher at an early age and as the age advances, as an effect of tobacco smoking, the GIT motility decreases. GIT motility was found to be decreased in 20.69 percent, the percentage of decrease being less up to 10 years, becoming maximum between 16 and 20 years. The effect is that GIT motility decreases as the age advances. In 58.62 percent of the cases no changesin GIT motility were recorded. No change in GIT motility was found t be maximum (87.50%) between 51 and 60 years (Fig. 3

4.

The ath is more between tabacco

etic performance was affected in 26.90 percent. affected in the early ages, reaching a maximum 11 and 15 years. The acute effect of smoking decreases as the age advances (Fig. 4).

It

REFERENCES

1. Camner, P., Philipson, K. and Arvidsson, T. (1971). Cigarette Smoking in Man. Short Term Effect on Mucocilliary Transport. Arch. environ. Health, 23, 421. 426. 2.

Royal College of Physicians: Smoking or Health, Tunbridge Wells, Kent, Pitman Medical, 1977.

3.

Schmeltz I, Hoffmann D. Chemical Studies on Tobacco Smoke. xxxviii. The Dhvsiochemical nature of cisarette smoke, in Proceedings of-the 3rd World Conference on Smoking and.Health. DHEW Publication No. (NIH) 76-1221, 1976, pp 13-34.

4.

U . S . Department of Health, Education and Welfare: Health, PHS Publication No. 1103, 1964.

5.

U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare: The Health Consequences of Smoking: A reference edition, DHEW Publication NO. (CDC) 78-8357, 1976.

6.

U.S.

7.

WHO:

Smoking and

Department of Health, Education and Welfare: The effects of Smoking on Health, Morb Mort Week Rep 26: 145, 1977. Smoking and its Effects on Health, WHO Technical Report Series no. 568, 1975.

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N.Veziroau Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,Amsterdam,1984-Printed in The Netherlands

593

ENDANGERED SPECIES IN GUYANA AND THE CARIBBEAN B. N. Kumar Unity Village East Coast Demerara Guyana, South America

ABSTRACT As a consequence of science and technology and the varied activities of man on the local environment, both flora and fauna have become severely affected over the years to the extent that some species have become extinct. The price to be paid is great since natural curiosity and heritage are endangered. Preserving endangered species involves costs to society and to determine the value of such resources has proven to bea difficult undertaking. What can be done to stop the loss of such treasures? Certainly there is the need for conservation programmes and laws. An understanding of the current situation will help environmental educators, students, and other citizens to take an active role in determining the future of life on earth. KEY CONCEPTS

It is also important to noce for (1) the glossary purposes the following concepts: 1. Species - defined for purposes of the endangered species as any species of plants or animals as well as any distinct population of vertebratea that interbreed. 2.

Endangered Species - any species which is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.

3.

Threatened Species - any species which is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range.

4.

Endangered Species Act. - the world's strongest laws for protecting endangered and threatened species.

5.

Extinction occurs when all individual organisms of a species die.

ENDANGERED SPECIES: EXAMPLES AND REASONS There are many species of animals and plants in Guyaha and the Caribbean which can be consdiered as endangered species and some of these are at the threshold of becoming extinct or are extinct for practical purposes already.

(1) Environmental Education Report, January 1982, Vol. 10, No. 1, iss. 199-6916.

594

They include the following: the manatee, the canje pheasant, the river turtle, the St. Vincentian parrot, and the Amazonian parrot, to name only a few. Some of the reasons for the endangered state are: They are hunted for decorations. They are affected by pesticides. Their spawning grounds are eroded. They are hunted for exportation. They are killed for food and sport. Unconfirmed tales doing permanent damage to the reputation of species. Over-hunting and lack of public awareness and usefulness of the unique mammal, e.g. manatee. The encroachment and destruction of habitats and human activity. The indiscriminate collection of species. The removal of vegetation by natural and biotic factors. Other natural and/or man made factors affecting its continued existence. THE SUN PARAKEET is a bird which is exported. These birds are reared in captivity and therefore they have a problem in mating. Exportation has an undesirable effect of reducing population. They are found in Suriname, French Guiana, and Brazil. It is believed that they have migrated from Brazil to Guyana during the dry seasons in that country in search of food. The Sun Parakeet or Aratinga Salastitalis is a very colorful bird. They invaded the corn fields in the Rupununi. Thus, they were either slaughtered or exported or were caught and their feathers used for headwear. THE BUSH HOG OR PECCARY is made of (2) species which have been hunted for a l o n g the and are killed in fairly large numbers for food and sport. Because their numbers are great they can be depended on in the forest to provide a more regular and adequate supply of meat. Unconfirmed tales are doing permanent damage to the reputation of a species whose only reason to be agressive may be in defense or as a response to Sear.

THE MANATEE (2). According to the Sunday Graphic November 17, 1984, page 2. "The Manatee has a peculiar and significant heritage, in that it is not only linked with the new world but Guyana was indeed the only country in the world where the animal had been kept in confinement for almost 100 years and was used for weed control purposes for over 20 years. It is also an important source of proteins. The public awareness of the usefulness of this unique animal is not widely known. At a recent meeting, a call was made by Professor E. D. Amoroso for funds to establish a live c6ntre fof manatees, and he further pointed out that ( 3 ) :

(2)

(3)

Sunday Graphic, November 17, 1984. Noel D. Vietmeyer, The Menaced Mermaid.

595

"Guyana will become more aware of the scientific importance, historical significance and extraordinary opportunities useful so well as scientific opportunities useful so well as scientific applications that this country possesses in its stock of such a unique mammal of proven value in water weed consumption. " LITTLE FISHES There are many little fishes which are caught nearly every day and which are exported. It would be difficult to say what the number or the value of tropical fishes caught and exported each year amounts to. The trade in these little fishes has increased enormously over the last 20 years so much so that many valuable and attractive species are no longer available. This is so because they are: displayed on aquaria, used in schools, used in museums, used in homes and they are gems in shapes and colors. Some are the million fish, patwa,and cat fishes. The demands continue to grow and this will further increase the pressure of fishing in the rivers with the possible result of exploitation to uneconomicallevels and even to local extraction of some species. Obviously this should be avoided. BIRDS Our birds have always been protected and were exported at one time for scientific purposes. They include doves, pigeons, krakatows, finched and evebirds. The Amazonian parrot has become endangered in most Caribbean Islands because of the encroachment and destructionofhabitatsand human activity. As a result, many of these countries have declared their parrot "A Natural Bird". In Dominica, St. Vincent, and St. Lucia, it is fully protected. This means that there can be no hunting, capturing or exporting of any of its species ( 4 ) . Professor J.J. Niles in his paper at the International Council for Bird Preservation World group on parrots reiterated that Psiffacine birds are parrots, macaws and parakeets. In contrast to an island situation and in the light of extensive forested areas in a continental setting free from natural disasters, with abundant food and nesting sites, their status is excellent. In the Caribbean region stretching from Mexico to Peru and Northern Argentina, there are some 120 species of Psittacine birds of which only 26 species are found in Guyana. These birds are not protected in Guyana and as such are exploited and exported. The numbers exported annually are controlled on a quota basis to about 12 registered exporters by the Wild Life Committee and the Ministry of Agriculture. The numbers allowed are not based on precise quantitative data from surveys and studies to the population dynamics of the species, but rather on qualitative assessment from sightings and the degree to which they are pests on agricultural crops in the Coastal region. However, in the case of the sea macaw species in shouldered macaw is very plentiful and as such there Guyana, only the small red is strict control on the exportation of the other five species. The wild life committee is concerned that "a rising threat to wild life in general in Guyana is the increasing impetus in interior development and thrust for forest exploitation, settlement and agriculture with concomitant destruction of habitats and increase in hunting for food and sport.

-

Although the birds face little danger in the wild since predators hardly exact a heavy toll, to prevent any over-trapping of the Amazonian species, consideration is given to imposing a closed season from January to April each year. (5) Close season for Curri Curl January 1st to April lst, Ducks April 1st to September 30th. (4) Professor J.F. Niles Paper - International Council for Bird Preservation (5) Guyana Graphic, Monday, April 21, 1975, p. 8.

596

THE CANJE PHEASANT, whose emblem adorns the Guyana Coat of Arms is in danger of becoming extinct unless a law is enacted to protect it from arrows. This unique bird may become only a name to future generations of Guyanese. They are found in the Mahaicony River area of Guyana. The birds show no fear of being molested by man because the people treat them humanly. The bird is hunted for its meat which is called "Creek mutton". Because its habits restrict it to the banks of rivers, it is within reach of hunters and could easily be impeded out if this hunting is not controlled. They feed on mukka-mukka leaves. The canje pheasant, or Hoatzin, is a cross between bird and reptile; the only such species probably in the world. The three fingers on the wing are each armed with a reptile like claw. According to Mr. Ramsingh, "The Canje Pheasant should be preserved from becoming extinct because it is a major feature of Guyana's Coat of Arms and as such be given full protection as a national symbol". PLANTS It is important also to consider the flora as well. These include the Century Palms of the Botanic Gardens which must be attended to almost immediately. Helraamphora is another which grows to almost one foot in length and changes from green to crimson colour before dying. It has no petal, only sepals. Orchids need to be preserved in their natural habitat and must be protected from indiscriminate looting by collections. Also the removal of mangroves has left large stretches of the shore with no natural defence against the ocean. To prevent the species from becoming more endangered and ultimately extinct there are stringent laws which exist in Guyana for the protection of wild life and the prevention of cruelty to animals. These include, according to ( 6 ) Barrister at Law, Mr. LatchKissoon: 1.

Official gazette 7 July, order no. 64 of 1979. The Wild Birds Protection Amendent order. 1979.

2.

City Council Bye Laws, chapter 28.01 makes provision for the destruction of stray dogs.

3.

Chapter 8.02 summary jurisdiction (offences) from sections 185 to 187 deals with cruelty to animals such as injuries, trapping and lays down penalties for violation.

4.

Section 178 even gives the court the power to deprive persons convicted of cruelty, the ownership of animals.

5.

Chapter 71.02 deals with animal diseases. of experiments.

6.

Wild Bird Protection Act chapter 71.07 which lays down the names of all species of birds to be protected. Some birds are specifically protected during the nesting season.

71.03 deals with animals control

-

CONCLUSION For there to be greater awareness, understanding and appreciation of the environment in which we live. there is an imperative need for environmental education programmes at all levels. I would like t o see all educators include something about endangered species in their classes. Certainly, if we can create an ethic in children it will eventually spread to include 1 (6)

Sunday Chronicle, July 22, 1979, p. 5.

691

p a r e n t s . Indeed, t h e f u t u r e s u r v i v a l of l i f e on t h i s p l a n e t is dependent on t h e upcoming g e n e r a t i o n , so we must e d u c a t e them about t h e importance of p r o t e c t i n g t h e environment. REFERENCES 1.

Environmental Education Report, January 1982, Vol. 1 0 , No. 1. l s s n 0199-6916.

2.

Sunday Graphic (Guyana), November 1 7 , 1974, p. 2.

3.

Noel D. Vietmeyer, The Menaced Mermaid.

4.

P r o f . J.F. Niles p a p e r , I n t e r n a t i o n a l Council f o r B i r d P r e s e r v a t i o n

5.

Guyana Graphic (Guyana), Monday, A p r i l 21, 1975, p. 8.

6.

Sunday C h r o n i c l e (Guyana), J u l y 22, 1979, p. 5.

- paper.

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziro%lu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

599

GIANT PANDA CONSERVATION AND BAMBOO FOREST DESTRUCTION J u l i a n J.N. Campbell School o f B i o l o g i c a l Sciences U n i v e r s i t y o f Kentucky L e x i n g t o n , Kentucky 40506, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT The mountains around Sichuan c o n t a i n r i c h e r b i o l o g i c a l d i v e r s i t y than any o t h e r temperate r e g i o n . B u t i n r e c e n t c e n t u r i e s , human e x p l o i t a t i o n has a c c e l e r a t e d u p from s u b t r o p i c a l l o w l a n d s , removing most temperate f o r e s t . D i s t u r b a n c e i s g e n e r a l l y e x c e s s i v e f o r l a r g e r mammals o f s u b t r o p i c a l - w a r m temperate zones, and now t h e r e a r e t h r e a t s t o t h o s e o f c o o l t e m p e r a t e - s u b a l p i n e , zones. The c o o l temperate zone i s w e t t e s t , f a v o r i n g e x t e n s i v e bamboo w i t h i n t h e f o r e s t . Bamboo i s v i r t u a l l y t h e o n l y f o o d o f g i a n t pandas, and t h i s s p e c i e s ' range has been reduced by r o u g h l y h a l f i n t h e p a s t c e n t u r y . Though much c o o l zone bamboo r e mains, patches o f l a r g e r warm zone bamboos may be needed as w e l l f o r seasonal use and l o n g - t e r m dynamics. I n t h e p a s t decade a t l e a s t , d e c l i n e o f g i a n t pandas has been p r e c i p i t a t e d by p e r i o d s o f bamboo f l o w e r i n g and m o r t a l i t y . Monocarpic l i f e - c y c l e s a r e a n a t u r a l f e a t u r e of bamboos, and f l o w e r i n g may be somewhat synchronous w i t h d r y c l i m a t i c p e r i o d s . D e f o r e s t a t i o n has reduced t h e d i v e r s i t y o f a l t e r n a t i v e bamboos a v a i l a b l e f o r emergency use a f t e r such e v e n t s . To r e s o l v e t h e many problems concerned w i t h n a t u r e c o n s e r v a t i o n i n t h e s e mount a i n s - taxonomic, demographic, e c o s y s t e m a t i c and socioeconomic - much more i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y and i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n w i l l be needed. There may be hope t h a t r e c e n t c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f p l a n n i n g i n China can e x t e n d b e t t e r land-use t o t h e p r o v i n c e s , and t h a t communication problems w i t h w e s t e r n c o n s e r v a t i o n i s t s can be overcome. 1.

INTRODUCTION

T h i s r e p o r t summarizes some e c o l o g i c a l background, w i t h a b o t a n i c a l emphaI t i s an i n t r o d u c t i o n s i s , f o r t h e World W i l d l i f e Fund G i a n t Panda Pro,ject. t o my f i e l d work o f 1982 and subsequent l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w [l]. My work was r e s t r i c t e d t o p a r t o f t h e Wolong Man-And-Eiosphere Reserve i n Sichuan, China ( F i g u r e l a ) . I am p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a t e f u l t o G.B. S c h a l l e r [Z], Z.S. Q i n [3], J.C. Hu [4], J. Zhu [5], M.H. Wang [6], Y.C. Yong [7], R.L. Yang [8]. J. Seide n s t i c k e r [9], T.P. Y i [lo], W.P. Fang [ll],T. Dudley [12] and o t h e r s f o r p r o v i d i n g f u r t h e r r e c e n t d e t a i l s f r o m t h i s r e s e r v e and o t h e r n a t u r a l areas around t h e Sichuan B a s i n (some u n p u b l i s h e d ) . My f u l l c u r r e n t d r a f t r e p o r t [l] has t h r e e aims: t o r e v i e w a l l a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e t e m p e r a t e - s u b a l p i n e f o r e s t s o f Sichuan and p a r t s o f a d j a c e n t p r o v i n c e s ( F i g u r e l a ) ; t o summarize p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s o f p l a n t e c o l o g i c a l work i n t h e Wolong Reserve; and t o d i s c u s s f u t u r e r e s e a r c h and c o n s e r v a t i o n p l a n s i n t h e r e g i o n , w i t h emphasis on i t s s y m b o l i c endangered s p e c i e s , t h e g i a n t panda ( A i l u r o o o d a melanoleuca). I hope t o work t h i s d r a f t i n t o book f o r m a t e v e n t u a l l y , i n c o r p o r a t i n g d e t a i l s o f c l i m a t i c d a t a , f l o r a and v e g e t a t i o n , bamboo taxonomy and ecology. Bamboo

600

Figure l a .

The Sichuan r e g i o n r e f e r r e d t o i n t e x t ; g e n e r a l topography and p l a c e names (based on [82,87] e t c . )

forms o v e r 99% o f t h e normal g i a n t panda d i e t [2], and i t s s t u d y has been a c c e l e r a t e d due t o t h e r e c e n t m a s s - f l o w e r i n g t h a t has l e d t o s e r i o u s s h o r t a g e s o f food. But t h e taxonomy i s s t i l l u n c l e a r , even a t t h e genus l e v e l , w h i l e l i f e c y c l e p e r i o d s and e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f i n d i v i d u a l s p e c i e s remain v i r t u a l l y unkown. 2.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE FORESTS

B o t a n i c a l e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h i s r e g i o n by f o r e i g n e r s o c c u r r e d d u r i n g 1869E.H. W i l s o n [15,16] p r o v i d e d 1948, w i t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n 1880-1922 [13,14]. t h e b a s i c e v i d e n c e t h a t woody p l a n t d i v e r s i t y h e r e i s e x c e p t i o n a l l y h i g h , and t h a t work was soon f o l l o w e d by s i m i l a r z o o l o g i c a l (e.g. c i t e d i n [ 9 ] ) and Chi nese b o t a n i s t s worked i n t e n s i v e l y a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e (e. g. [ 17,181 ) a f t e r 1920 (e.g. [19-21]), b u t f o r e i g n i n t e r a c t i o n d w i n d l e d . The renewed cont a c t s i n c e t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s (e.g. [12]) w i l l improve u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t y p e c o l l e c t i o n s , species-complexes and e v o l u t i o n a r y processes.

.

About t h i r t y t e m p e r a t e - s u b a l p i n e woody genera a r e endemic t o t h e b r o a d Sino-Himalayan r e g i o n c e n t e r e d on Sichuan, o r d i s j u n c t on mountains f u r t h e r e a s t i n A s i a o r e a s t e r n N o r t h America. Some seven o f t h e s e genera ( T e t r a c e n t r o n , C e r c i d i p h y l l u m , E u p t e l e a , Eucommia, R h o i o t e l e a , B r e t s c h n e i d e r a , D a v i d i a ) a r e u s u a l l y p l a c e d i n monotypic f a m i l i e s , whereas no more t h a n t h r e e m o n o t y p i c f a m i l i e s o c c u r i n o t h e r t e m p e r a t e - s u b a l p i n e r e g i o n s o f comparable e x t e n t . The t o t a l number o f genera (ca. 260) i s r o u g h l y 50% g r e a t e r t h a n i n most o t h e r r e g i o n s , and t h e number o f s p e c i e s (ca. 1300-1500) i s r o u g h l y 100% g r e a t e r T h i s endemic d i v e r s i t y r a i s e s ( e x c l u d i n g subshrubs; based on [16] e t c . [ l ] ) .

601

ANNUAL PRECIPITATION (inm) ?

-Xian

0

? PEAK ?’ \

\

Figure l b .

Annual p r e c i p i t a t i o n , l a r g e l y based on t h e most d e t a i l e d a v a i l a b l e s o u r c e [22]. C o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t on o t h e r maps (e.g. [19,44,50,88,89]). Peaks may be undere s t i m a t e d due t o absence o f s t a t i o n s a t h i g h a l t i t u d e i n t h e most r a i n y zones.

fundamental q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e i n f l u e n c e s o f n a t u r a l and human f a c t o r s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , can i t be a t t r i b u t e d t o s p e c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n , o r t o d i s p e r s a l b a r r i e r s t h a t may be overcome by a r t i f i c i a l i n t r o d u c t i o n s ? Much o f t h e s p e c i a l b i o t i c c h a r a c t e r h e r e may be a t t r i b u t e d t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n p a t t e r n s . Annual t o t a l s a r e n o t e x c e p t i o n a l l y h i g h ( F i g u r e l b ) , b u t 70-90% f a l l s Such w i t h l i t t l e i n t e r r u p t i o n d u r i n g t h e 4-6 month warmest season [22-261. temperate monsoonal c l i m a t e i s l e s s pronounced elsewhere i n E a s t A s i a , e x c e p t perhaps i n a n a r r o w zone a l o n g t h e e a s t e r n Himalayas, and on t h e l e s s e x t e n s i v e mountains a l o n g t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t . Low m o i s t u r e s t r e s s h e r e i s p r o b a b l y t h e m a j o r cause o f such f e a t u r e s as t h e r a r i t y o f t r e e s w i t h r i n g - p o r o u s wood ( c f . [27-291) and t h e presence o f v e s s e l -1 ess T e t r a c e n t r o n , t h e abundance o f bamboos and pandas, e p i p h y t e s and leeches, e t c . However, between t h e warm d i s t u r b e d Sichuan B a s i n and t h e c o l d d r y T i b e t a n P l a t e a u , t h e zone w i t h s u f f i c i e n t annual p r e c i p i t a t i o n f o r bamboo, a t l e a s t 900 mm, i s o n l y a b o u t 100 km wide ( F i g u r e lb,c). T h i s monsoonal p r e c i p i t a t i o n , and o t h e r s p e c i a l a s p e c t s o f c l i m a t e and p h y s i o g r a p h y (e.g. [30-32]), a r e l i n k e d w i t h t h e extreme h e i g h t and y o u t h o f t h e s e mountains, w h i c h f o r m an a b r u p t t r a n s i t i o n f r o m s u b t r o p i c a l t o a l p i n e conditions.

In comparison w i t h c l i m a t i c f a c t o r s , d i s p e r s a l b a r r i e r s may n o t be i m p o r t a n t f o r endemism of whole genera i n t h i s r e g i o n around Sichuan. Most endemic woody genera do n o t appear t o be r e l i c t u a l f r o m widespread g l o b a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n t h e T e r t i a r y e r a ( w i t h Metasequoia t h e m a j o r e x c e p t i o n ) , though some p r o b a b l y

602

2-forestlxcric sciubwith oak j-forest/rnesic scrub with barn 4-scrub/crop.mostly warm 5-rnostlvcrobsubtr./warmternD.

Figure l c .

I

M a j o r v e g e t a t i o n zones based on r e c e n t maps [44,55] and m i s c e l l a n e o u s bamboo r e p o r t s [l]. The mixed s c r u b - c r o p zone i s l a r g e l y t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n l i m i t o f c r o p l a n d i n t h e s e two m a j o r sources, t h e l a t t e r p u t t i n g i t f u r t h e r i n t o montane zones ( d e t a i l e d f o r Wolong i n [l]).

had w i d e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s s t i l l c e n t e r e d i n E a s t A s i a (e.g. [33-36]), l i k e t h e pandas ( c f . F i g u r e I d ) . However, t h e l a r g e numbers o f endemic s p e c i e s w i t h i n genera o f c o o l e r zones may be a t t r i b u t e d t o r e c e n t a l l o p a t r i c s p e c i a t i o n due t o d i s p e r a l b a r r i e r s between d i f f e r e n t mountains ranges w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n (e.g. [37-401). W i t h t h i s s u b r e g i o n a l endemism, t h e t o t a l number o f t e m p e r a t e - s u b a l p i n e woody s p e c i e s i n surveyed areas o f a few thousand square km averages o n l y a b o u t 30-50% more t h a n t h e e a s t N o r t h American maximum (e.g. Great Smoky Mts., d a t a and sources t a b u l a t e d i n [ l ] ) .S i m i l a r d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t i n 0.05-0.1 ha p l o t s a t Wolong. There may b e l i t t l e o r no d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e number o f dominant t r e e s p e c i e s a t such small s c a l e s . There a r e s e v e r a l a v a i l a b l e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f f o r e s t d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n s and t h e r e i s an by e a r l y f o r e i g n and Chinese b o t a n i s t s ( e . g . [15,19,37,41-43]), i m p o r t a n t r e c e n t s y n t h e s i s i n Chinese [44]. However, q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d i e s a r e o n l y j u s t b e g i n n i n g ( e . g . [l]and c i t e d t h e r e i n ) . The g e n e r a l a l t i t u d i n a l z o n a t i o n o f o r i g i n a l f o r e s t s i s f r o m s u b t r o p i c a l evergreen b r o a d l e a f a t ca. 500-1250 m, t o warm temperate mixed deciduous-evergreen b r o a d l e a f a t ca. 12502000 m, t o c o o l temperate mixed deciduous b r o a d l e a f - c o n i f e r a t ca. 2000-2750 m, t o s u b a l p i n e c o n i f e r a t ca. 2750-3500 m. A l p i n e s c r u b and g r a s s l a n d o c c u r a t ca. 3000-5000 m ( c f . F i g u r e l c ) . There i s much i n t e r d i g i t a t i o n o f t h e s e p h y s i o gnomic f o r m a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o c l i m a t i c , topograDhic, edaphic and b i o t i c f a c t o r s t h a t have some independence f r o m t h e g e n e r a l t h e r m a l z o n a t i o n [l]. The peak annual p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f 1500-2000 mm o r more i n t h e c o o l t e m p e r a t e - s u b a l p i n e t r a n s i t i o n ( F i g u r e l b ) i s p r o b a b l y a m a j o r f a c t o r c o n t r o l l i n g some p l a n t d i s t r i -

603

GIANT PANDA DISTRIBUTION

0 Rare/ recent 10s ?

Unconfirmed

Pleistocene --_Lesser panda

* Figure I d .

*

*

(25-220AD)

range

Panda d i s t r i b u t i o n (based on [5,90,91] e t c . ) .

butions. Bamboo i s most widespread in t h e f o r e s t s of t h i s zone (Figure l c ) . Comparison with f o r e s t s of e a s t e r n North America f u r t h e r emphasizes the special environment of humid East Asian mountains. Endemic Asian t r e e genera a t Wolong a r e concentrated on warm moist s i t e s , while genera absent from Wolong a r e conc e n t r a t e d on warm dry s i t e s within the Great Smoky Mountains ( d e t a i l e d in [ l ] ; see a l s o [45]). Another d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t t h e mean annual temperatures of formation boundaries a r e about 2-3 degrees C lower a t Wolong, presumably due t o a lower incidence of e r r a t i c f r o s t s (see a l s o [31,46] e t c . ) . 3.

DEFORESTATION AND,ECOSYSTEM PROBLEMS

Most subtropical f o r e s t i n t h e Sichuan region may have been cleared f o r rice-dominated a g r i c u l t u r e about 0-1000 A.D. (e.g. [47-501). There i s v i r t u a l l y none l e f t , though a s much a s 10% of t h i s zone has scrubby f o r e s t and plantation (Figures 1-2). After 1500 A . D . , the human population a c c e l e r a t e d t o double approximately each century (Figure 3 [18]). Warm temperate f o r e s t may Cave been l a r g e l y removed about 1600-1900 (e.g. [12,40,51]), w i t h spread pf r i c e c u l t i v a t i o n , and with introdyction of maize i n 1820-60 [50,52], which rapidly surpassed buckwheat and wheat in more humid a r e a s . Probably no more than 10% of this f o r e s t survives. ' Cool temperate f o r e s t was g r e a t l y d i s t u r b e d a f t e r 1870-1920, w i t h increase in logging f o r export t o lowlands, and w i t h introduction of potatoes, which supplemented meagre c u l t i v a t i o n of o a t s and wheat (e.g. [15,49, 533). Perhaps 20-40% of t h i s f o r e s t survives. Subalpine f o r e s t was l a r g e l y undisturbed before the 192O's, except i n d r i e r marginal a r e a s , b u t s i n c e then about 1-2% of the o r i g i n a l f o r e s t area has been removed each y e a r , and l i t t l e more than half remains today (e.g. [41 ,44,50,54-561). The most d e t a i l e d evidence f o r the c u r r e n t s t a t e of d e f o r e s t a t i o n i s the recent map produced by t h e Chengdu

m

Figure 2 .

F o r e s t e d and d e f o r e s t e d l a n d i n central Sichuan ( f r o m [44]). Note t h a t t h e r e i s some u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t h e e x a c t d e f i n i t i o n o f " f o r e s t " and t h e n a t u r a l s t a t e o f some s u b a l p i n e and x e r i c s c r u b types, b u t t h e s e have been e s t i m a t e d f r o m g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n s o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e and d e t a i l e d comparisons a t Wolong ( s e e t e x t and [ I ] ) .

605

I20

100

I

C

50

5 Z

B 50

pr 3

6 40

h

3 -. -. 0

20

5

D

F i a u r e 3.

General h i s t o r i c a l t r e n d s o f human p o p u l a t i o n and f o r e s t c o v e r i n Sichuan as suggested by a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n ( q u a n t i t a t i v e f r o m [18,50,56] e t c . , r e m a i n i n g guesswork f r o m m i s c e l l a n e o u s sources - see t e x t and [ l ] ) .

I n s t i t u t e o f B i o l o g y [44], as redrawn i n a s i m p l i f i e d f o r m h e r e ( F i g u r e 2). The d e f i n i t i o n o f " f o r e s t " i n t h a t s o u r c e i s u n c l e a r , b u t i t p r o b a b l y excludes v e g e t a t i o n t h a t has had l e s s t h a n ca. 20-30 y e a r s t o r e c o v e r f r o m c l e a r a n c e , i n c o n t r a s t t o some o t h e r sources ( c f . [55-561, d i s c u s s e d i n [l,571). Recent d e f o r e s t a t i o n has been c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e M i n J i a n g watershed and i n a d j a c e n t Gansu P r o v i n c e t o t h e n o r t h . Logged l a n d appears t o have had n e g l i g i b l e management f o r t i m b e r p r o d u c t i o n , b e i n g l a r g e l y c o n v e r t e d , a f t e r fuel-wood c o l l e c t i o n and b u r n i n g , t o p a s t u r e and m a r g i n a l c r o p s (see a l s o [57]). Most c u r r e n t r e s e r v e s a r e i n r e l a t i v e l y i n a c c e s s i b l e mountains ( F i g u r e l a ) , where l o g g i n g f o r e x p o r t was d e l a y e d u n t i l a f t e r t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s [ l - 1 2 1 . These a r e a s d i d n o t r e c e i v e f u l l o f f i c i a l p r o t e c t i o n u n t i l t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s , e x c e p t perhaps Wanglang. O n l y i n t h e Da L i a n g Shan r e s e r v e s t o t h e southwest does e x t e n s i v e warm temperate f o r e s t s u r v i v e . I n t h e Min Shan t o t h e n o r t h w e s t , t h e r e m a y be no warm temperate f o r e s t l e f t , due t o t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f human d i s t u r b a n c e and d r i e r c l i m a t e a t 1ower a1 t i t u d e s . The h i s t o r y of d i s t u r b a n c e i n t h e Wolong Reserve a r e a can be t e n t a t i v e l y t r a c e d f r o m m i s c e l l a n e o u s r e c o r d s . There was p r o b a b l y no s i g n i f i c a n t e x p o r t o f t i m b e r b e f o r e 1442 A . D . , when t h e Wassu P r i n c i p a l i t y was e s t a b l i s h e d h e r e by t h e l o w l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n [58]. However l a m a i s t G i a r o n g t r i b a l p e o p l e l i v e d h e r e and c u l t i v a t e d a l i t t l e b o t t o m l a n d . I n a b o u t 1775, t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n extended power o v e r o t h e r t r i b a l a r e a s f u r t h e r n o r t h and west, and a t r a d e r o u t e through Wolong became f r e q u e n t l y used (perhaps i n i t i a l l y f o r g o l d [15]). I n t h e Muping

6 06

P r i n c i p a l i t y t o t h e southwest, l o g g i n g f o r e x p o r t and c u l t i v a t i o n o f maize began i n 1820-60, w i t h some s t i m u l u s by C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n a r i e s [52]. (The f i r s t g i a n t panda o b t a i n e d by a f o r e i g n e r was here, by David; now t h i s a r e a i s t h e Fengtongzhai Reserve - F i g u r e l a . ) I n t h e c e n t r a l P i t i a o He v a l l e y o f t h e Wolong Reserve, i n d i c a t e d t h a t ext h e f i r s t f o r e i g n r e p o r t s , e a r l y i n t h i s c e n t u r y [15,58-603, p o r t had begun a b o u t 1900 on a s m a l l s c a l e and i n m a r g i n a l zones. L a r g e - s c a l e i n d u s t r i a l e x p o r t c o u l d n o t have begun u n t i l t h e r o a d was b u i l t , i n t h e 1 9 4 0 ' s A " t i m b e r i n d u s t r y area" was s e t up a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e r e s e r v e o r 1950's [21]. i n 1965-75, b u t some management f o r c o n s e r v a t i o n a l s o began i n 1963-65, and i n about 1976 l o g g i n g was o f f i c i a l l y h a l t e d due t o concerns f o r g i a n t panda s u r v i v a l [4-61. I n 1982, I saw no e v i d e n c e o f c o n t i n u e d l o g g i n g f o r e x p o r t , e x c e p t p e r haps f o r a s h o r t f i n a l b u r s t i n m a r g i n a l areas b e f o r e a t i g h t e n i n g o f r e g u l a t i o n s a t t h a t t i m e . However, t i m b e r - p o a c h i n g by l o c a l p e o p l e was o b v i o u s l y c o n t i n u i n g , and massive t r e e - p l a n t i n g e f f o r t s s i n c e t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s were f a i l i n g i n many areas, l a r g e l y due t o g r a z i n g by domestic goats. W h i l e most s u b a l p i n e f o r e s t remained, t h e degree of c l e a r a n c e i n temperate zones was s i m i l a r t o t h e p r o v i n c i a l average i n d i c a t e d above. F o r e s t e c o l o g y i n t h e Sichuan r e g i o n f i r s t developed as an o r g a n i z e d d i s c i p l i n e d u r i n g t h e 1 9 3 0 ' s when l o g g i n g had a c c e l e r a t e d (e.g. [19,41-433). There were s e v e r a l f o r e s t surveys t h e n and some s t u d i e s of t r e e growth. B u t a m b i t i o u s r e f o r e s t a t i o n and c o n s e r v a t i o n programs f o r m u l a t e d i n t h e 1950's e n c o u n t e r e d d i f f i c u l t i e s due t o p o l i t i c a l t u r m o i l and l a c k o f ecosystem p l a n n i n g (e.g. [57, 611). R e c e n t l y , t h e r e has been a resurgence o f a c t i v i t y , w i t h s l o p e s o v e r 10 degrees o f f i c i a l l y d e s i g n a t e d f o r f o r e s t s and a goal t o d o u b l e c o v e r i n t h e n e x t c e n t u r y (e.g. [ 6 2 ] ) . B u t t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e g e n e r a l p r e c i p i t o u s d e c l i n e has been r e s e r v e d y e t . Broad problems t h a t demand u r g e n t a t t e n t i o n by e c o l o g i s t s a r e h y d r o l o g i c a l d e g r a d a t i o n o f ecosystems due t o d i s t u r b a n c e , i n c l u d i n g i n c r e a s e d r u n o f f and e r o s i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h reduced v e g e t a t i o n h u m i d i t y and e f f e c t s of d i s t u r b a n c e on i n d i v i d u a l species, and r e g e n e r a t i o n (e.g. [57,63]), e s p e c i a l l y endangered ones. A t t h e ecosystem l e v e l , much more i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d , b u t s i n c e t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s s c i e n t i s t s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s have a t l e a s t exoressed c l e a r e c o l o g i c a l concern. F o r example, t h e Xinhua news agency r e p o r t e d i n 1979 t h a t "Logging, c l e a r i n g o f f o r e s t s f o r c u l t i v a t i o n , expansion o f p a s t u r e s and f o r e s t f i r e s have so s e r i o u s l y u p s e t t h e ecosystem b a l a n c e i n t h e Min J i a n g b a s i n i n Sichuan t h a t e c o l o g i s t s c l a i m t h e Chengdu p l a i n , home o f a t l e a s t 80 m i l l i o n p e o o l e , f a c e s d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n a few decades, and t h e Yangtze c o u l d become a second Huang He" ([56] c i t e d i n [57]). A t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e c i e s l e v e l , f o r example, t h e bamboos deserve much more taxonomic and e c o l o g i c a l work, s i n c e t h e y a r e dominant i n t h e r e m a i n i n g f o r e s t u n d e r s t o r y , t h e y i n t e r a c t w i t h f o r e s t dynamics by temporary s u p p r e s s i o n o f t r e e s e e d l i n g s , and t h e y p r o v i d e f o o d f o r many animals, i n c l u d i n g pandas [l].

4.

GIANT PANDA-BAMBOO FOREST INTERACTION

There a r e about 1000 (-ZOOO?) g i a n t pandas t o d a y , c o n c e n t r a t e d i n r e m a i n i n g c o o l t e m p e r a t e - s u b a l p i n e f o r e s t . Most bamboo i n t h e i r range i s n o t i n c l u d e d i n o f f i c i a l r e s e r v e s ( F i g u r e s 1 - 2 ) . Much bamboo i n s i d e and o u t s i d e of r e s e r v e s i s e x c e s s i v e l y d i s t u r b e d o r i s o l a t e d f r o m t r u e g i a n t panda r e f u g e s . Some bamboo may r e m a i n a f t e r l o g g i n g , i n c r e a s i n g i n d e n s i t y a t s i t e s where s o i l e r o s i o n i s n o t t o o severe. B u t t h e widespread encroachment of farmland, b e g i n n i n g w i t h w o o d - f o r a g i n g by p e o p l e and g r a z i n g by l i v e s t o c k , tends t o e l i m i n a t e bamboo e v e n t u a l l y a l o n g w i t h o t h e r f o r e s t p l a n t s . Moreover, g i a n t pandas appear t o p r e f e r bamboo i n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h l a r g e t r e e s , w h i c h t h e y use f o r scent-marking Also, t h e i r r e s t r i c t i o n t o small i s o l a t e d areas must and r e s t i n g s i t e s [2]. i n c r e a s e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l f l u c t u a t i o n s and problems o f i n b r e e d i n g .

607

There a r e a b o u t 10-15 bamboo s p e c i e s i n t h e whole q i a n t panda range, e x c l u d i n g s u b t r o p i c a l - w a r m temperate s p e c i e s t h a t a r e r a r e l y a v a i l a b l e due t o d i s t u r b a n c e . There i s much d i f f e r e n c e i n s p e c i e s c o m p o s i t i o n between t h e f o u r m a j o r m o u n t a i n ranges, and t h e r e i s a g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e o f d i v e r s i t y i n warmer zones w i t h a s h i f t f r o m A r u n d i n a r i i n a e t o Phyllostachyidinae(ongoing taxonomic s y n t h e s i s by [1,10,64,65] etc.). A t Wolong i n 1982, above-ground bamboo biomass averaged a b o u t 5-10 t o n n e s / h e c t a r e ( d r y ) a t 2200-3000 m, where stands o f A r u n d i n a r i a f a n g i a n a , Yushania chunqi; - a n d F a r q e s i a a f f . spathacea covered 30-90% o f t h e w o u n d . Awav f r o m t h i s ootimum. biomass d e c l i n e d a b r u D t l v t o t h e upper bamboo l i m i t a t ;a. 3400 m. i t d e c l i n e d more g r a d u a l l y t o ' l t o n n e / h e c t a r e o r l e s s a t 1000-1500 m and below, though i n d i v i d u a l clumps o f some l a r g e r s p e c i e s h e r e may have a t l e a s t 10 t i m e s more biomass p e r square m t h a n t h e most widespread s p e c i e s h i g h e r up. Annual above-ground p r o d u c t i o n o f nonf l o w e r i n g bamboo a t Wolong ( d a t a p o o l e d w i t h X.T. Zhang, Z.S. Q i n e t a l . ) averaged a b o u t 15-25% o f biomass, as g e n e r a l l y r e p o r t e d i n o t h e r bamboo s t u d i e s (cited i n [l]). The annual p o p u l a t i o n t u r n o v e r o f f u l l y grown culms was a s i m i l a r p e r c e n t a g e o f s t a n d i n g d e n s i t y . There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between c u l m r e c r u i t m e n t and m o r t a l i t y i n a l l n o n - f l o w e r i n g p l o t s combined, b u t t h e r e was much s m a l l - s c a l e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e r a t i o o f t h e s e r a t e s ( a t ca. 1-2 square m) t h a t had l i t t l e r e l a t i o n t o m a j o r q r a d i e n t s o f f o r e s t c o m p o s i t i o n o r b a s a l a r e a [l]. T h i s v a r i a t i o n needs t o be a n a l y z e d i n r e l a t i o n t o processes of clump e x p a n s i o n and d e c l i n e .

A t c u r r e n t g i a n t panda d e n s i t i e s o f about 0.1-1 o e r square km o f bamboo i n t h e c o o l t e m p e r a t e - s u b a l p i n e t r a n s i t i o n , t h e i r e x c l u s i v e d i e t o f bamboo culms But a t and l e a v e s amounts t o o n l y 0.1-2.0% o f above-ground o r o d u c t i o n [ l - 4 1 . c e r t a i n seasons, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e s p r i n g , t h e y o f t e n m i g r a t e t o l o w e r temperate zones and f e e d on t h e t h i c k e r young culm s h o o t s o f d i f f e r e n t bamboo s p e c i e s [1-9]. A t Wolong i n 1981-82, t h e r e was a d e f i n i t e s h i f t by some a d u l t s f r o m e a t i n g l e a f y culms o f A r u n d i n a r i a a t 2600-3000 m i n t h e w i n t e r , t o e a t i n g culm shoots o f F a r q e s i a a t 2200-2600 m i n A p r i l - J u n e . About 10-20% o f t h e s e shoots were taken, and, a f t e r t h i s p r o d u c t i o n d i m i n i s h e d and t h e s h o o t s approached f u l l h e i g h t , t h e a n i m a l s r e t u r n e d t o t h e h i g h e r bamboo. I n o t h e r r e s e r v e s , seasonal descent may be as l o w as 800-1000 m, b u t a t Wolong t h e r e i s t o o much d i s t u r b a n c e . T h i s change i n b e h a v i o r may be an i m p o r t a n t r e q u i r e m e n t a f t e r t h e r e l a t i v e l y In poor w i n t e r d i e t and d u r i n g t h e u s u a l m a t i n g season o f A p r i l - M a y [2]. a d d i t i o n t o h a v i n g r e l a t i v e l y h i g h p r o t e i n and a v a i l a b l e c a r b o h y d r a t e c o n t e n t ( d r y w e i g h t ) , t h e s e s h o o t s have r e l a t i v e l y l o w s i l i c a c o n t e n t , w h i l e s i l i c a tends t o i n c r e a s e i n o l d l e a v e s r e m a i n i n g on p l a n t s u n t i l r e p l a c e d i n suminer (see a l s o [66] e t c . ) . H i g h s i l i c a c o n t e n t may reduce d i g e s t i b i l i t y of o l d l e a f y m a t e r i a l , though a d i f f e r e n t problem w i t h young shoots i s t h e h i g h w a t e r Many o t h e r a n i m a l s e a t c o n t e n t , w h i c h r e q u i r e s l a r g e b u l k f e e d i n g r a t e s [2]. t h e s e s h o o t s sometimes, and i n s e c t l a r v a e d e s t r o y e d a b o u t as many as g i a n t pandas d i d a t Wolong. The s i z e and p r o t e i n c o n t e n t o f s h o o t s i s s t i l l h i g h e r i n some s p e c i e s o f warm t e m p e r a t e - s u b t r o p i c a l zones. Moreover, i n t h e s e warm zones some s p e c i e s produce shoots i n August-October and o t h e r s i n A p r i l - M a y , whereas i n c o o l zones s h o o t s a r e m a i n l y produced i n A p r i l - J u n e ( o r w i t h a few B u t huiiian a c t i v i t y t o August i n d w a r f s u b a l p i n e A. f a n q i a n a e t c . [l-3,10,64]). has d e s t r o y e d much o f t h i s l o w e r bamboo o r made i t u n a v a i l a b l e . I f bamboo shoots a r e i m p o r t a n t f o r r e p r o d u c t i o n , one m i g h t s p e c u l a t e t h a t t h e autumn o e s t r u s b e h a v i o r observed i n some g i a n t pandas i s r e l i c t u a l from a t i m e when t h e y roamed i n t o warmer zones, and e a t l a r g e l a t e - s e a s o n shoots [67]. Most bamboos o f t h e Sichuan r e g i o n appear t o b e g r e g a r i o u s l y monocarpic M a s s - f l o w e r i n g o v e r many square km i s g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w e d by m o r t a l i t y [l-101. and r e g e n e r a t i o n by seed, w h i c h may r e q u i r e a b o u t 10-15 y e a r s b e f o r e biomass i s r e c o v e r e d . A t l e a s t 138 g i a n t pandas s t a r v e d due t o m o r t a l i t y o f F a r q e s i a spathacea d u r i n g 1975-76 i n t h e s o u t h e r n M i n Shan (Wanglang and B a i s h u i j i a n g

608 Reserves e t c . , F i g u r e l a ) . A n o t h e r m a j o r d e c l i n e i s c u r r e n t l y f e a r e d due t o f l o w e r i n g of A r u n d i n a r i a f a n q i a n a d u r i n g 1983 f u r t h e r s o u t h , i n c l u d i n g Wolong (and perhaps f a r g e s i i f u r t h e r e a s t ? ) , u n l e s s massive emergency measures a r e implemented.

A.

Based on a v a i l a b l e r e c o r d s , m a s s - f l o w e r i n g by each s p e c i e s may l a s t up t o 10 y e a r s , sometimes w i t h geographic o r a l t i t u d i n a l s h i f t a c r o s s t h e range. T y p i c a l i n t e r v a l s between t h e s e e v e n t s appear t o v a r y f r o m a b o u t 30 t o 120 y e a r s , o f t e n w i t h n e g l i g i b l e f l o w e r i n g between. I t i s g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t i n t e r v a l s a r e f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h i n a bamboo s p e c i e s , b u t i n t h i s r e g i o n no s p e c i e s ' h i s t o r y has been c l e a r l y t r a c e d f o r more t h a n two m a s s - f l o w e r i n g s . D i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s have sometimes f l o w e r e d t o g e t h e r . Some 955 o f a l l a v a i l a b l e r e c o r d s ( c o u n t i n g i n d i v i d u a l h e r b a r i u m specimens e t c . ) have been c o n c e n t r a t e d i n 55% o f t h e t i m e s i n c e r e c o r d s began: d u r i n g 1885-92, 1914-22, 1930-43, 194952, 1955-65 and 1973-83 [l]. I n 1885-92, 1930-43 and 1973-83, more s p e c i e s were i n v o l v e d and a w i d e r a r e a was covered. These f l o w e r i n q p e r i o d s have l a r g e l y c o i n c i d e d w i t h r e l a t i v e l y d r y c l i m a t i c p e r i o d s , which a r e r e p o r t e d t o have (The o n l y e x c e p t i o n i s c y c l e s of r o u g h l y 20, 40 and 80 y e a r s i n China [68-711. t h e Ph l l o s t a c h s f l o w e r i n g o f 1955-65.) Such c l i m a t i c c y c l e s may have s o l a r rela-e a l s o [72]). I t i s a r g u a b l e t h a t d r y p e r i o d s would be f a v o r a b l e t i m e s f o r sexual r e p r o d u c t i o n t o o c c u r i n bamboos. As w e l l as seed d i s p e r s a l t o m o i s t e r m i c r o s i t e s , and perhaps seed dormancy f o r a y e a r o r more, s h o r t e r j u v e n i l e stands m i g h t have l o w e r m o i s t u r e r e q u i r e m e n t s [l]. ( I t m i g h t even be w o r t h a s k i n g whether l o c a l c l i m a t i c changes caused by d e f o r e s t a t i o n have i n f l u e n c e d f l o w e r i n g . ) O t h e r i m p o r t a n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s , such as f i r e , may be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d r y p e r i o d s i n some a r e a s ( c i t e d i n [l]). A more tenuous h y p o t h e s i s proposed by some Chinese r e s e a r c h e r s i s t h a t earthquakes a r e r e l a t e d t o f l o w e r i n g o r m o r t a l i t y , perhaps i n v o l v i n g d r y c o n d i t i o n s as w e l l [6,73]. There has been some s t r i k i n g c o i n c i d e n c e w i t h earthquakes ( s e e a l s o [32]), b u t n o r i g o r o u s a n a l y s i s . The m a j o r a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s f o r bamboo f l o w e r i n g oroposed i n w e s t e r n l i t e r a t u r e , by Janzen [74], assumes t h a t a l o n g t i m e i s r e q u i r e d t o accumulate enough n u t r i e n t s f o r seed-consuming a n i m a l s t o be s a f i a t e d a f t e r m a s s - f l o w e r i n g , which i s t h e n f o l l o w e d by t h e i r s t a r v a t i o n . A l s o , r a t h e r t h a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l cues, a p h y s i o l o g i c a l ' c l o c k ' under g e n e t i c c o n t r o l i s supposed t o i n i t i a t e f l o w e r i n g . T h i s h y p o t h e s i s may i n d e e d a p p l y t o many s u b t r o p i c a l - w a r m temperate bamboos (such as P h y l l o s t a c h y s ) , f o r which t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e o f such animal i n t e r a c t i o n and p r e c i s e t i m i n g o f f l o w e r i n g . However, c o o l tempe r a t e - s u b a l p i n e s p e c i e s may have somewhat d i f f e r e n t i n t e r a c t i o n s . The l i f e s p a n s of c o o l zone s p e c i e s t e n d t o be l o n g e r t h a n t h o s e o f warm zones, on average, and some appear t o be much l o n g e r t h a n t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d t o accumulate enough r e s o u r c e s f o r t h e i r observed seed p r o d u c t i o n , as e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e few a v a i l a b l e d a t a ( e . g . [l,74-761). Moreover, t h e s m a l l e r average seed p r o d u c t i o n and seed s i z e o f c o o l zone bamboos may reduce a t t r a c t i o n f o r some consumers. A l s o , l o n g c l i m a t i c c y c l e s t o w h i c h bamboos m i g h t respond a r e r e p o r t e d t o be more pronounced i n c o o l e r zones (e.g. [68,70]). F i n a l l y , i t i s conceivable t h a t bamboo stands a r e so e x t e n s i v e w i t h i n huniid montane f o r e s t s t h a t m o r t a l i t y o f mature p l a n t s i s r e q u i r e d f o r sexual r e p r o d u c t i o n f r o m seed t o a v o i d p a r e n t a l c o m p e t i t i o n . Monocarpy i s c l e a r l y a g e n e t i c t r a i t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e woody rhizomatous h a b i t i n bamboos [65], which t o g e t h e r w i t h comDlete culm g r o w t h i n one season produces p a r t i c u l a r l y u n i f o r m c o m p e t i t i v e c o v e r [l].The t i m i n g of f l o w e r i n g must a l s o have some g e n e t i c c o n t r o l , b u t t h e m a j o r unanswered q u e s t i o n i s s t i l l : t o what e x t e n t i s g e n e t i c c o n t r o l m o d i f i e d by e n v i r o n m e n t a l p e r i o d i c i t y , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r through e v o l u t i o n ? It i s worth n o t i n g t h a t some c l i m a t i c p e r i o d i c i t y appears t o have been r e l a t e d t o s o l a r c y c l e s f o r a t l e a s t 680 m i l l i o n y e a r s , though i t s c l a r i t y may have f l u c t u a t e d [72]. A v a i l a b l e d a t a may n o t be enough f o r f i r m s u p p o r t o f any p a r t i c u l a r h y D o t h e s i s , b u t i t

609

i s u s e f u l t o pursue more t h o r o u g h s y n t h e s i s o f e x i s t i n g f l o w e r i n g d a t a i n h e r b a r i a and obscure l i t e r a t u r e , n a d d i t i o n t o s e t t i n g up l o n g - t e r m m o n i t o r i n g programs. A n a l y s i s s h o u l d n o t be b i a s e d by t h e most s t r i k i n g c o i n c i d e n c e s . I n summarv. t h e a b i l i t v o f a a n t pandas t o s u r v i v e such n a t u r a l f l u c t u a t i o n s must have-been greatl; r e d i c e d by human d i s t u r b a n c e . It i s probably n o t t r u e t h a t t h e i r w i d e r f o s s i l range i n t h e whole Q u a t e r n a r y e r a ( F i g u r e I d ) was l a r g e l y due t o t h e absence o f human d i s t u r b a n c e , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e l a r g e s h i f t s i n c l i m a t e t h a t have o c c u r r e d . However, some human e f f e c t s may have begun as e a r l y as t h e l a t e P l e i s t o c e n e [77]. C e r t a i n l y , spread o f p a s t u r e and c r o p l a n d d u r i n g t h e p a s t 2000-3000 y e a r s has e l i m i n a t e d t h e s p e c i e s a t l o w e r a l t i t u d e i n t h e Sichuan r e g i o n and on i s o l a t e d o u t l y i n g mountains, perhaps as f a r e a s t as t h e m a r i t i m e J i a n g x i - F u j i a n r e g i o n [5]. From e v i d e n c e summarized above, t h e a c c e l e r a t e d l o g g i n g o f t h e p a s t 100 y e a r s has d e s t r o y e d a t l e a s t h a l f o f t h e remaini n g bamboo-forest h a b i t a t w i t h i n t h e r e c e n t h i s t o r i c a l range ( F i g u r e s 1 - 2 ) . I n c r e a s i n g human p r e s s u r e s a t l o w a1 t i t u d e , i n c l u d i n g c a p t u r e [78-801, combined w i t h f l o w e r i n g o f t h e few bamboo s p e c i e s a t h i g h a l t i t u d e , has c r e a t e d a dangerous s i t u a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e 1930. I f enough bamboo f o r e s t were u n d i s t u r b e d i n t h e warm temperate zone, t h e n d u r i n g r e g e n e r a t i o n h i g h e r up g i a n t pandas c o u l d descend t o s u r v i v e on t h e d i f f e r e n t bamboo s p e c i e s here, m a i n l y S i n a r u n d i P h y l l o s t a c h y s , Chimonobambusa, e t c . , near refuges c u r r e n t l y threatened [l-lo]. I f l a t e - s e a s o n shoots enhance r e p r o d u c t i o n (see above) and growth, t h e n a g r e a t e r s u p p l y o f t h e l a r g e r Bambusa and Sinocalamus o f t h e s u b t r o p i c a l zone m i g h t a l s o be d e s i r a b l e . The m o r t a l i t y o f most g i a n t pandas i n p a r t s of t h e s o u t h e r n M i n Shan d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s was c l e a r l y a g g r a v a t e d by s c a r c i t y of a l t e r n a t i v e bamboos a t t h e r e l a t i v e l y d r y and d i s t u r b e d l o w e r a l t i t u d e s . C u r r e n t f l o w e r i n g o f o t h e r s p e c i e s t o t h e s o u t h and e a s t may n o t c r e a t e such s e r i o u s problems, s i n c e more a l t e r n a t i v e bamboos a r e a v a i l a b l e . B u t g i a n t pandas may be wary o f f o r a g i n g t o o c l o s e t o dense human s e t t l e m e n t s . There a r e no r e c e n t r e p o r t s o f m a s s - f l o w e r i n g i n t h e most s o u t h e r n ( L i a n g Shan e t c . ) and e a s t e r n (Wu Shan e t c . ) o u t p o s t s o f e x t e n s i v e bamboo f o r e s t around t h e Sichuan B a s i n [ l - 1 2 1 . However, g i a n t pandas have a l r e a d y been e l i m i n a t e d t o disturbance i n combination w i t h f r o m most o f t h i s f o r e s t , presumably due p r e v i o u s f l o w e r i n g . They a r e now u n a b l e t o m i g r a t e back, unaided, f r o m t h e i r northwestern refuges across t h e lowlands.

m,

5.

RESFARCH AND CONSERVATION PRIORITIES

I suggest t h e f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l p r i o r i t i e s f o r c o n t i n u e d b o t a n i c a l r e s e a r c h a p p l i e d t o c o n s e r v a t i o n i n t h i s r e g i o n . I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y and i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n s h o u l d be s t r e n g t h e n e d t h r o u g h b e t t e r exchange o f i d e a s and m a t e r i a l s The problems o f h y d r o l o g i c a l d e g r a d a t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r , need u r g e n t s t u d y w i t h new ecosystem approaches. S t r a i g h t f o r w a r d r e s e a r c h on taxonomy and d i s t r i b u t i o n i s b e i n g completed, and t h e r e i s much p o t e n t i a l f o r a s h i f t t o e c o l o g i c a l emphas i s . Taxonomic s t u d i e s on bamboos s h o u l d be p r o m p t l y l i n k e d w i t h g i a n t panda c o n s e r v a t i o n , w h i c h has much r e a l and s y m b o l i c i m p o r t a n c e as an endangered s p e c i e s p r o b l e m i n t h e s e f o r e s t s . There s h o u l d be more s y n t h e s i s o f e x i s t i n g d a t a on bamboos, as w e l l as i n t e n s i f i e d m o n i t o r i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o animal consumers and f o r e s t dynamics i n g e n e r a l . B a s i c s t u d y o f f o r e s t - c l i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s an e s s e n t i a l s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r e c o l o g i c a l s t u d y , b u t a v a i l a b l e c l i m a t i c d a t a f r o m t h e most humid m o u n t a i n s a r e m u c h t o o s c a n t y f o r s e r i o u s r e s e a r c h on v e g e t a t i o n p a t t e r n s ( c f . F i g u r e l b ) . D e t a i l s o f f l u c t u a t i o n s from y e a r t o y e a r s h o u l d be made a v a i l a b l e as w e l l as mean v a l u e s . Broad surveys o f v e g e t a t i o n c o m p o s i t i o n s h o u l d be i n t e n s i f i e d on t h e ground i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a e r i a l photography and LANDSAT imagery. Mu1 t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s of e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s s h o u l d be i n i t i a t e d .

610 I n t h e c u r r e n t g i a n t panda c r i s i s , z o o l o g i s t s a r e t r y i n g t o f e e d o r r e s c u e s t a r v i n g a n i m a l s f o r s e c u r i t y and b r e e d i n g , b u t t h e r e a r e no c l e a r p l a n s f o r r e t u r n t o t h e w i l d . R e l i a n c e on a r t i f i c i a l p r o p a g a t i o n would b e p r e c a r i o u s a t b g s t , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c o n t i n u i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s i n zoos. B o t a n i s t s s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s p e c i e s and g e n e t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f bamboos t h a t f l o w e r , p o o l i n g o l d r e c o r d s o f f l o w e r i n g and c l i m a t e , and s t u d y i n g l i f e - c y c l e mechanisms, so t h a t t i m e s and p l a c e s o f f u r t h e r o u t b r e a k s can be p r e d i c t e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h p e r i o d s needed f o r r e c o v e r y . B u t , t o d a t e , problems o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and communication have h i n d e r e d t h e i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y c o o p e r a t i o n needed f o r t h i s . I was n o t even a l l o w e d t o remove bamboo samples t o t h e l o c a l h e r b a r i u m f o r study, o r t o see m e t e r e o l o g i c a l d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n o u r r e s e a r c h camp. As t h e c r i s i s abates, and more l o n g - t e r m p l a n s f o r r e s e r v e mangement a r e developed, i t w i l l t h e n be i m p o r t a n t t o i n t e n s i f y s t u d y o f v e g e t a t i v e growth, rhizome, culm and l e a f dynamics, w a t e r and n u t r i e n t r e l a t i o n s , t h e b i o c h e m i s t r y o f consumption by pandas, e t c .

But w i t h o u t w a i t i n g f o r d e t a i l s o f b i o l o g i c a l research, t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n c l e a r d i r e c t i o n s i n w h i c h c o n s e r v a t i o n a c t i o n s h o u l d move. The fundamental problem o f c o n t i n u e d human p o p u l a t i o n e x p a n s i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n i n r e m a i n i n g n a t u r a l h a b i t a t s can o n l y be s o l v e d by c l o s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s between c o n s e r v a t i o n s c i e n t i s t s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , l o w l a n d p e o p l e w i t h t h e i r demand f o r wood, and i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e o f t h e mountains. C o n s e r v a t i o n programs s h o u l d be l i n k e d w i t h b e t t e r e d u c a t i o n , f a r m i n g and f o r e s t r y . C u r r e n t management of t h e g i a n t panda c r i s i s s h o u l d be f o l l o w e d up by c o n s t r u c t i o n o f more e n c l o s u r e s w i t h bamboo f o r h o l d i n g rescued a n i m a l s . R e p l a n t i n g and p r o t e c t i o n o f bamboo s h o u l d be i n t e g r a t e d w i t h g e n e r a l mu1 t i p l e - u s e r e f o r e s t a t i o n programs. C a p t i v e animals s h o u l d e v e n t u a l l y be r e i n t r o d u c e d t o a r e a s o f s u i t a b l e h a b i t a t where t h e s p e c i e s has been e l i m i n a t e d , though i n some such areas b e t t e r c o n t r o l of t h e human p o p u l a t i o n would be r e q u i r e d f i r s t , as w e l l as b e t t e r s u r v e y of n a t u r a l p o t e n t i a l . F o r example, t h e Shennongjia F o r e s t D i s t r i c t o f w e s t e r n Hubei ( F i g u r e l a ) has become h e a v i l y l o g g e d o n l y i n t h e p a s t 1 0 y e a r s , w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l encroachment now t h r e a t e n i n g [12]. Bamboo f o r e s t s h e r e and elsewhere on t h e e a s t e r n s i d e o f t h e Sichuan B a s i n (e.g. [ S l ] ) have t h e same genera o r s p e c i e s as t h e more e x t e n s i v e w e s t e r n areas. I n more a c c e s s i b l e e a s t e r n areas w i t h small i s l a n d s o f bamboo f o r e s t , c a r e f u l r e i n t r o d u c t i o n and management o f g i a n t pandas c o u l d g e n e r a t e much t o u r i s m . These problems a r e severe t e s t s f o r C h i n a ' s new e c o l o g i c a l p o l i c i e s , and However, problems w e s t e r n o r g a n i z a t i o n s would o f f e r more s u p p o r t i f p o s s i b l e . o f f o r e i g n e b u l i e n c e and Chinese r e t i c e n c e must f i r s t be overcome. Recent i n t e r a c t i o n s such as t h e World W i l d l i f e Fund p r o j e c t and t h e Sino-American b o t a n i c a l exchange (e.g. [12]) have p r o v i d e d some i m p o r t a n t d a t a and a l s o exposed s e r i o u s d e f i c i e n c i e s . A more t h o r o u g h e c o l o g i c a l approach i s now needed. R e c a l l i n g t h e momentous Q i n g h a i - X i z a n g symposium o f 1980 [40], t h e r e s h o u l d now be no d e l a y i n o r g a n i z i n g a inore p r a c t i c a l m e e t i n g o f s c i e n t i s t s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s concerned w i t h g e o - e c o l o g i c a l problems o f t h e s e mountains around Sichuan, assuming p r o v i n c i a l i n t e r e s t s can be accommodated. The r e g i o n shares many problems w i t h t h e Himalayas, i n p a r t i c u l a r , and more work s h o u l d be shared, b o t h a t t h e degraded ecosystem l e v e l and a t t h e endangered s p e c i e s l e v e l (e.g. t h e l e s s e r / r e d panda w h i c h i s more o p p o r t u n i s t i c b u t a l s o l a r g e l y depends on bamboo f o r f o o d [ g l ] ) . The r e c e n t d e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e Wolong Reserve as p a r t o f t h e Man-And-Biosphere (UNESCO) system [82,83] p r o v i d e s an i m p o r t a n t o p p o r t u n i t y f o r deepening t h e e c o l o g i c a l work here, and f o r l i n k i n g up w i t h MAB p r o j e c t s i n t h e Himalayas [84]. B u t t h e r e i s no s i g n t h a t such c o o p e r a t i o n i s b e i n g planned. I n s i g h t f u l l e a d e r s h i p f r o m B e i j i n g and f o r e i g n c a p i t o l s i s needed. P o l i t i c i a n s c o u l d use such p r o j e c t s t o r e a f f i r m c u l t u r a l t i e s , w i t h some f o c u s on w i l d pandas b e i n g a p o t e n t symbol. C o n s i d e r i n g C h i n a ' s g r e a t r e c e n t advances i n p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l , development o f a l t e r n a t i v e s t o wood as

611 a r e s o u r c e , and c o n s e r v a t i o n - r e f o r e s t a t i o n p l a n n i n g , an 'open-door' p o l i c y f o r t h e s e mountains need n o t r e s u l t i n e x c e s s i v e l y n e g a t i v e exposure ( c f . [ 5 7 ] ) . However, I s u s p e c t t h a t o n l y when t h e c u r r e n t g i a n t panda c r i s i s a b a t e s , and l o c a l b i o l o g i s t s complete t h e i r i n v e n t o r i e s , w i l l c l o s e f o r e i g n i n s p e c t i o n be invited. W i t h a l l t h e g l o b a l r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f such endeavors, o u t s i d e r s must n o t o v e r l o o k t h e s e n s i t i v e i s s u e s of i n d i g e n o u s Sino-Himalayan peoples. The r e c e n t spread of t h e Chipko movement from w e s t - c e n t r a l Himalayas has reawakened l o c a l r e s i s t a n c e t h e r e t o o v e r - e x p l o i t a t i o n o f montane f o r e s t s by o u t s i d e i n t e r e s t s [El. A t t h e o p p o s i t e extreme of t h e Sino-Himalayan r e i o n , i n t h e upper Min J i a n g v a l l e y of Sichuan, t h e Q i a n g p e o p l e (amoncj o t h e r s 7 may s t i l l r e t a i n f e r v e n t c o n s e r v a t i o n be1 i e f s d e s p i t e t h e i r g r a d u a l c u l t u r a l d e c l i n e o v e r t h e p a s t 2000 y e a r s [17-181. A t l e a s t i n 1941, a f t e r t h e modern a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t i m b e r - e x p o r t from t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g f o r e s t s had begun, C.M. Hu [ l E ] r e p o r t e d t h i s New Y e a r ' s Day song: "The g r e a t e s t a r e Heaven and E a r t h , N e x t t o them i s t h e Sacred F o r e s t , W i l d b e a s t s b e a t i n g s t o n e s on t h e c l i f f , F i r t r e e s and b i r c h t r e e s , Grasses f l o u r i s h i n g , l a k e s deep, Mountains h i g h , t h e l a n d b i g , Remember, remember. " Can t h e t r a d i t i o n a l concerns o f t h e s e p e o p l e now be i n t e g r a t e d w i t h c e n t r a l i z e d c o n s e r v a t i o n p l a n n i n g ? Montane m i n o r i t y p e o p l e s i n g e n e r a l a r e i n c r e a s i n g i n p o p u l a t i o n more t h a n l o w l a n d (Han) p e o p l e i n China, s i n c e t h e y a r e exempt from t h e 'one c h i l d o n l y ' p o l i c y , and t h e r e i s presumably a d e s i r e t o r a i s e many c h i l d r e n i n such m a r g i n a l socioeconomic environments [56]. These p e o p l e must be a s s u r e d o f a s e c u r e economic base, e d u c a t i o n , and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n conservat i o n p l a n n i n g , i f t h e i r d e s p e r a t i o n i s t o be d i s s i p a t e d and some n a t u r a l harmony restored. The u l t i m a t e c o n s e r v a t i o n p r o b l e m i s t o persuade p e o p l e i n t e r e s t e d i n expansion and e x p l o i t a t i o n , f r o m greed, f e a r o r i g n o r a n c e , t h a t t h e i r demands a r e d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e n a t u r a l h e r i t a g e , t h a t t h i s i s u n d e s i r a b l e , and t h a t broad-minded r e s e a r c h and p l a n n i n g can be used t o change d e s p e r a t i o n i n t o good f o r t u n e f o r a l l . F o r success, fundamental d i s c u s s i o n o f i d e o l o g y i s r e q u i r e d . The ' c o n s e r v a t i o n f o r development' s l o g a n r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e r e c e n t IUCN-UNEPWWF World C o n s e r v a t i o n S t r a t e g y [86] may r e f l e c t a common i d e o l o g y based on human need ( o r greed?). Indeed, i n China, w h i c h has been j u s t as d e s t r u c t i v e o f n a t u r e i n t h e p a s t as t h e west, c o n s e r v a t i o n and p o p u l a t i o n p l a n n i n g i s now l a r g e l y m o t i v a t e d f r o m government by t h r e a t s o f economic d i s a s t e r . C e r t a i n l y , t h e r e i s much economic argument t o c o n s e r v e f o r e s t r e s o u r c e s f o r f u t u r e use, t o develop a l t e r n a t i v e s , and t o l i m i t p o p u l a t i o n . B u t when a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e devel o p e d f u r t h e r and some r e l a x a t i o n o f t h e c r i s i s comes, m i g h t n o t t h a t argument f a d e i n a c o u n t r y l i k e China, w h i c h has been accustomed f o r so l o n g t o l i v i n g a t m a r g i n a l economic c o n d i t i o n s ? I t m i g h t n o t t a k e much more c o n c r e t e and s t e e l , biogas and h y d r o e l e c t r i c i t y , dams and i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s , e t c . , t o reduce a p u r e l y economic argument f o r f o r e s t s . B u t t h e a d d i t i o n o f a e s t h e t i c , o r even a l t r u i s t i c , arguments, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r economic s p i n o f f i n t o u r i s m , o f f e r s more fundamental hope f o r c o n s e r v a t i o n . Such arguments have o n l y r e c e n t l y been o f f i c i a l l y promulgated i n t h e People's Republic, e v o l v i n g i n p a r t from t h e U n t i l t h i s t i m e , most t r a d i t i o n a l a e s t h e t i c s o f g a r d e n i n g (e.g. [9,57,62]). p e o p l e i n Sichuan p r o b a b l y d i d n o t even know t h a t t h e g i a n t panda was endemic t o t h e r e g i o n and endangered. Suddenly, t h e s p e c i e s has become a widespread symbol of new c o n s e r v a t i o n p o l i c i e s . P r o b a b l y t h i s symbolism w i l l h e l p , b u t I s u s p e c t t h a t l o w l a n d Chinese p e o p l e w i l l have t o d i g much deeper i n t o t h e i r

612 c o l l e c t i v e unconscious t o c r e a t e a new golden age o f f o r e s t c o n s e r v a t i o n ( c f . [51]). I f they can do t h i s , i t w i l l s u r e l y be t h e g r e a t e s t human e c o l o g i c a l drama o f a l l time, s i n c e t h e r i c h e s t and c u r r e n t l y most threatened temperate f o r e s t s w i l l be secure. Yet f u r t h e r south, t h e t r o p i c a l tragedy w i l l almost c e r t a i n l y c o n t i n u e t o g e t worse. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e many people who have c o n t r i b u t e d i n f o r m a t i o n and ideas, e s p e c i a l l y those r e f e r r e d t o above, World W i l d l i f e F u n d - I n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o v i d e d t h e i n i t i a l o p p o r t u n i t y and c o n t r a c t t o work i n Sichuan, under t h e s p e c i a l guidance o f Mark H a l l e . I am extremely g r a t e f u l f o r t h i s chance. REFERENCES

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56. Xinhua News Agency r e p o r t s , e t c . , c i t e d i n Scherer, J.L. (ed.), "China: Facts and Figures" ( f o r e s t r y s e c t i o n s ) , Academic I n t e r n a t i o n a l Press, G u l f Breeze, F l o r i d a , 1978-83. (And i n t h e f o l l o w i n g reference.) 57. S m i l , V., Goodlund, R., & Toh, G., "The People's Republic o f China: Environmental Aspects o f Economic Development", World Bank, 1982. S m i l , V . , "The Bad E a r t h " , Sharpe, Armonk, NY, 1983.) (Also

-

615

5 8 . Edgar, J.H., Journal of t h e West China Border Research S o c i e t y , 1932, 5 , 73-74. (See a l s o Helde, G., 1922-23, 1, 8-13, and map.)

-

59. Hosie, A., "Journey t o t h e Eastern F r o n t i e r o f T h i b e t " , r e p o r t t o Houses o f Parliament, London, August 1905. ( A l s o - "Szechwan", Shanghai, 1922.) 60. L i m p r i c h t , W., Repertorium Specierum Novarum Regni V e g e t a b i l i s (ed., F. Fedde), 1922, Vol. 12. 61. Richardson, S.D.,

" F o r e s t r y i n Communist China", Johns Hopkins Press, 1966.

62. FAO, " F o r e s t r y i n China", Technical Paper No. 35, 1982. 63. Zaychikov, V.T., e t al., "The P h y s i c a l Geography o f China", U.S.S.R., Academy o f Science, 1969. ( T r a n s l a t e d e d i t i o n , Praeger, New York.) 64. Keng, P.C., Chao, C.S.,

e t al., e t al.,

65. Soderstrom, T.R.,

papers i n Journal o f Bamboo Research, 1982-84; and papers i n Bamboo Research, 1981-84. personal communication.

66. D i e r e n f e l d , E.S., "The N u t r i t i o n a l Composition o f Bamboo and i t s U t i l i z a t i o n by t h e G i a n t Panda", M. Sc. t h e s i s , C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , 1981. ( A l s o - D i e r e n f e l d e t a l . , Journal o f N u t r i t i o n , 1982, 112, 636-641.) 67. Kleiman, D.G.,

Z e i t s c h r i f t f k r T i e r p s y c h o l o g i e , 1983, 62, 1-46.

68. Chang, C.C., Wang, S.W., & Cheng, S.C., i n Proceedings o f t h e World Climate Conference, WMO P u b l i c a t i o n 537, 1979, p. 510-524. 69. Wang, S.W., & Zhao, Z.C., i n Wigley, J.M.L., Ingram, M.J., & Farmer, G., "Climate and H i s t o r y " , Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1981, p. 271-288. Zhao, Z.C.,

70. Wang, S.W., 71. Wu, X . D . ,

& L i n Z.Y.,

72. P i t t o c k , A.B., 109, 23-55.

& Chen, Z.H.,

i n L i u , D.G.

GeoJournal, 1981, 5, 117-122.

(ed.),

see above [40].

p. 1581-7.

Q u a r t e r l y Journal o f t h e Royal M e t e r e o l o g i c a l Society, 1983,

73. Wallace, R.E., & Teng, T.L., B u l l e t i n o f t h e Seismological S o c i e t y o f America, 1980, 70, 1199-1223. 74. Janzen, D.H.,

Annual Reviews o f Ecology and Systematics, 1976, 7 , 347-391.

75. Watanabe, M., Ueda, K, Manabe, I . , & Akai, T., F o r e s t r y S o c i e t y , 1982, 64, 107-111.

Journal o f t h e Japanese

76. Gopal, B.H., "Reproductive B i o l o g y o f Some I n d i a n Bamboos", Ph. D. t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f D e l h i , 1982. 77. Wang, T.K.,

Acta Zoologica S i n i c a , 1974, 20, 201.

78. Roosevelt, T. & K.,

" T r a i l i n g t h e G i a n t Panda", S c r i b n e r ' s , New York, 1929.

"The Wilderness Home o f t h e Giant Panda", U n i v e r s i t y o f 79. Sheldon, W.G., Massachussetts Press, 1975. ( A l s o - Journal o f Mammology, 1937, 18, 13-19.)

616 80. M o r r i s , R. & D. ( r e v i s e d , J. Barzdo), "The G i a n t Panda", MacMillan, 1981. 81. Tsien, C.P., Ying, T.S., Ma. C.G., L i , Y.L., Acta Phytotaxonomica S i n i c a , 1975, 13, 5-18. 82. Wang, H.P.,

& Ming, T.L.,

Parks, 1980, 5, 1-10. i n MAB (UNESCO), "MAB A f t e r 10 years",

83. Keating, R., 84. Coburn, B.,

Chang, C.S.,

1981, p . 81-85.

I n t e c o l , N e w s l e t t e r , 1984, Vol. 14, No. 1.

85. Ummayya, P., 86. T i s d e l l , C.A.,

& Bandyopadhyay, The E c o l o g i s t , 1983, 13, 179-183. Environmental Conservation, 1983, 10, 43-52.

87. Anonymus, P e o p l e ' s Republic o f China Map 1:4000000, Map P u b l i s h e r s o f t h e P.R.C., 1980. 88. Hsieh, C.M..

" A t l a s o f China", McGraw-Hill,

89. Geelan, P.J.M., & Twitcheet, D.C. Books, London, 1974.

(eds.),

New York, 1973. "Times A t l a s o f China", Times

90. Chorn, J . , & Hoffman, R . S . , Ailuropoda melanoleuca, Mammalian Species No. 110, American S o c i e t y o f Mammalologists, 1978. 91. Roberts, M.S., 8 Gittleman, J.L., A i l u r u s f u l q e n s , Mammalian Species No. 243, American S o c i e t y o f Mamrnalologists, 1984 ( i n p r e s s ) .

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,Amsterdam, 1984- Printed in The Netherlands

EFFECT OF A COFBINATION OF POLLUTANTS ON THE F I S H RASBORA DANICONIUS (Ham.)

Mattu N. Madhyastha and Rajendra Nayak. Department of Bio-Sciences Mangalore University Mangalore 574 152, INDIA

-

Department of Biology K.J. Somaiya College of Science Bombay - 400 077, INDIA ABSTRACT In the present study laboratory experiments were carried out on Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) by exposing them to a mixture of sodium lauryl sulfate, an active part of the detergent and DDT a commonly used insecticide for time intervals of 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. The clinical diagnostic characters widely used in human medicine like haematological, histochemical and histological studies were employed to assess the health of the fish. Haematological changes like decrease in the TRBC count accompanied by an increase in TWBC count was recorded throughout the 28 days of exposure. The fish exhibited anemia by a decrease in the THS content and changes in the morphology of the RBCs. Erythrocytic, leucocytic and thrombocytic responses were observed in the haematopoietic organs. Pathological changes in the morphology of the peripheral blood cells and their precursor cells were noted in the peripheral blood smears and in the imprints of the haematopoietic organs. The histochemical tests also exhibited a decrease in their intensity both in the peripheral blood cells and in their precursor cells. Degenerative changes were noted in the tissues like gills, liver and kidney. In all, the mixtures of SLS + DDT caused profound changes in the exposed animals much earlier to the time intervals taken by the individual pollutants separately. 1.

INTRODUCTION

It is evident that different anthropogenic wastes ultimately find their way to the acquatic environment in varying amounts and disturb the ecological system. Their action on the communities may vary from severe lethality to minor disturbances based on their individual toxicity, biodegradability, half-life, strength and presence of other compounds and on the physic0 chemical quality of the ambient environment. Thus both intrinsic and extrinsic factors ultimately decide the condition of the reaction and fate of individuals in the aquatic ecological system. The detergents due to their surface active property are believed to affect the aquatic animals living in the water bodies. Agricultural use of pesticides and domestic use of detergents have remained high in an agrarian country like India. This is of particular concern so far

617

618 as the ecological safety of smaller water bodies are concerned because A few reports are available the runoff from the farm land reach them. on the synergistic effect of the detergent in combination with the metals [ 1 3 1 and pesticides [ 8 , 13, 35, 361. Hence a study was undertaken with combination of an active compound of the detergent, sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) and DDT, to evaluate the impact of this mixture at the sublethal level using a fish 5. daniconius (Ham.) as a test animal in the laboratory. -R. daniconius (Ham.) is a larvicidal fish inhabiting small waterbodies and streams of India. This fish is often exposed to a threat of the combination of surface active agent and pesticides. Blood often shows immediate pathological changes before external signs of poisoning can be seen. As in human medicine, the assessmen; of the haematological parameters of the fish has been emphasized by many workers to diagnose the disease conditions of the fish [ 2 6 , 18, 20, 61. The behavioural and histological effects are often studied in routine So the fish were exposed to to assess the effect of many pollutants. a sublethal concentration of SLS + DDT mixture and the effects of this combination was studied on the behavioural, haematological and histological parameters of the fish. 2.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Laboratory acclimated fish of average size 9.2 cm and average weight gm. were taken for the study. Healthy fish irrespective of sex were used for the experiment.

4.6

The detergent SLS was supplied by M/s Loba Chemie, Indoaustranal Co., P.B.NO. 6130, Colaba, Bombay - 5. A stock solution of SLS was prepared in distilled water. The insecticide DDT (technical grade para para isomer 72%) was supplied by M/s Hindustan Insecticides Ltd., New Delhi. A stock solution of DDT was prepared in AR grade acetone. Only one ml of the stock solutions of SLS and DDT were added to 42 liters of water to attain a experimental concentration of 0.127 mg/l of SLS and 0.00074 mg/l of DDT in each of the four experimental tanks. One ml of distilled water and one ml of AR grade acetone used for preparing the stock solutions were added to 42 liters of water in each of the four control tanks. Since no reproducible results could be obtained by using different combinations of SLS + DDT to find out the LC50 values it was necessary to revert back to the LC50 values of individual toxicants used in our previous studies [ 2 3 , 301. The 96 hr. LC50 values of SLS and DDT were multiplied by the factor 0.02. All the standard methods as cited in [ 2 ] were taken into consideration. The hydrological parameters of the water used for the toxicity test as determined by the Standard methods 121 are given in Table 1. Eighty fish were divided into eight groups of ten each, of which four groups served as experimental and four groups as controls for the specific time intervals of 7, 14, 21 and 28 days of exposure to a mixture of the sublethal concentration of SLS + DDT. Each group of ten fish were reared in 42 liters of water during the experiment. Ten fish were removed from each experimental and controlled group at the end of specific time

619

Table 1.

Hydrological parameters of the water used for the toxicity studies

Parameter

Range

1.

Temperature

2 1-25OC.

2.

Total EDTA hardness mg CaC03 /litre

122-156 mg CaC03/litre

3.

86-134 mg CaCO /litre

5.

Total Alkalinity mg CaCO 3 /litre H P Conductivity

6.

Dissolved Oxygen

4.

3

6.8-7.3 12.5-26.5p mho/cm 6.2-8.2 ppm.

interval of time and their length and weight were determined. They were then sacrificed for assessing their haematological parameters as per the standard methods [TI. Tests were carried out for the presence of myeloperoxidase enzyme, for the presence of sudanophil and PAS positive granules [71 on the peripheral blood cells. The red blood cells (RBCs) were measured to find out their C:N and N:C ratio. In case where the blood volume was not sufficient to conduct all the haematological tests, the pooled blood sample was used. Tissues like gill, liver and kidney were fixed in Bouin's fluid and sections cut at 8,Uwet-e stained in haematoxylin and eosin. Head kidney tissue imprints were prepared to study the blood precursor cells. The imprints were stained in 5% Giemsa stain as adopted for the differential count of peripheral blood cells. The above histochemical tests were also conducted on the blood precursor cells. 3. OBSERVATIONS 3.1

General Behaviour

The fish exposed t o the mixture were highly irritable when compared to the controls. After 7 days of exposure, the feeding rate was reduced as evidenced by the unconsumed feed lying at the bottom of the aquaria containing the exposed animals. Shedding of the scales was also observed. Opercular movements were around 88 to 102 per minute in the experimental animals whereas it ranged from 68 to 80 per minute in the controls. The fish were slippery -to touch indicating the hypersecretion of the mucous.

3.2

Haematological Parameters

Many changes were noted in the blood parameters of the exposed fish as given in the Tables 2 and 3.

Table 2.

Effect of exposure to sublethal conc. of SLS (0.127 mg/l) + DDT (0.00074 mg/l) mixture exposed for d i f f e r e n t t i m e i n t e r v a l s on the haematological parameters of E. dariiconius (Ham.). Time Intervals

7 days

Control

Parameters Average length cm.

9.20

9.20

Average weight gm

4.60

4.55

f

TRBC counta x 1 = No. of cells/mm

3.29

No. of cells /mm THb gm/lM1 ml PCV

X

MCVY' MCH MCHC

P9

X

b RBC Dimensions CYTOPLASM Average length

,&

0.23'

3.03

0.21

57.50

i

0.21

10.81

t

0.39

10.20

i

0.27

153.30

i

14.3

32.81

*

3.5

53.16

f

2.37

2" 2 2 4

175.40 i12.5' 33.66

i

2.14 1

21.41

f

1.55

19.18

t

1.27

10.80

i

0.45

11.20

t

O.4EL

9.20

4.50

5.90

f

2.97

i

0.17

58.50

i

7.97

10.10

i

0.22

1 2

4.54

2.90

f

0.08

57.13

i

5.32

9.80

i

0.45

1 1 1

2.73

t

0.19

56.60

f

6.54

9.60

f

0.44

42.81

f

4.34

i

16.20

154.60

156.20

i

12.40

33.99

f

2.14

33.84

i

2 1.45

35.04

i

2.81

21.84

f

0.90

22.42

i

1.28

10.10

i

5.30

i

0.36' 1 0.24

4.20

f

0.41

2.50

i

0.00

5

i 11.40

20.47

i

1.48

10.60

i

0.55

10.30

i

0.40

5.50

i

0.26

5.45

t

0.46' 2 045

4.30

i

0.38

2.50

i

0.00

/A

4.80

i

0.48

4.80

i

0.55

4.20

f

045

r-

2.50

i

0.00

2.50

i

0.00

2.50

i

0.00

1

1

N C ration

0.194

0.181

0.180

0.196

0.191

C:N ratio

5.13

5.50

5.55

5.34

5.09

a. Calculated from haemocytometer. b. Calculated from the stained peripheral blood smears C. t Standard deviation. calculated from the student's t-test representing the difference between the control and the experimental groups.

0.002

3

<

0.005

4

<

0.01

5

1

165.80

i

<

1

44.86

5.70

2

1

2.48

/A

1 & 0.001

1

f

f

3.34

1

49.37

NUCLEUS Average length Average width

9.20

1

Average length

0.48

28 days

4.55

6.91

2.94

21 days

9.10

f

f

Experimental

14 days

49.70

50.47

-

<

0.02

6

<

0.05

"

2 5

1

Different levels of significance

k 0

Table 3.

Effect of exposure to sublethal conc. of SLS (0.127 mg/l) + DDT (0.00074 mg/l) mixture for d i f f e r e n t t i m e i n t e r v a l s on t h e peripheral blood cells of E. daniconius (Ham.). Time Intervals

Type of cell No./3000 cells

Control

2686.30

MRBCs

i

Experimental

22.30

14 days Differential count of 3000 blood cellsa 1 1 2596.10 i 35.41 2624.40 i 42.79

b

IRBCs

112.50

i

21.50

141.30

t

13.13'

153.00

i

33.19'

Smudge Cells

104.00

i

26.87

135.70

i

17.87'

138.40

i

12.53

Thrombocytes

67.50

i

8.01

65.40

i

12.93

76.30

i

10.83

Small Lymphocytes

22.40

i

2.94

23.20

i

2.53

26.50

i

3.87

5.60

Large Lymphocytes

0.90

Neutrophils Monocytes

0.80

i i i

1.92

6.70

0.35

1.80

0.55

1.10

Plasmacytes

0.40

No./100 cells

t

i i i

1.26 0.92

0.37

87.60

i

2.58

83.40

t

2.76

7.30

t

1.94

9.20

i

1.83

Neutrophils

4.30

i

1.25

6.50

i

1.28

Monocytes

0.80 i

0.55

0.60

i

0.65

0.30

i

0.38

-

Plasmacytes

1

6.20

2

2.00

0.57

Large Lymphocytes

a

3

1.10 3

0.40

i i

t

i

1.60 0.84

21 days 2584.10

'

11.38

156.60

t

27.38

144.30

i

30.91'

81.10

i

15.57

22.40

i

4.08

4.80

i

0.98

5

4 1

4.00 2.00

0.72 0.31

i

28 days

3

i i

2.07 0.76

0.70

i

0.46

81.40

f

3.59

1 1

2

1 1 1

2554.40

i

44.87

165.90

i

23.43

159.60

i

12.87

86.40

i

13.72

20.20

i

4.74

6.20

i

1.61

4.10

i

1.90

1' 1 1 1 1 4 1 2

1.80

i

1.14

1.40

i

0.89

81.20

i

2.19

10.10

i

2.80L

6.10

i

1.20'

1.90

i

0.66'

0.70

i

0.60

1

Differential count of leucocytesa

Small Lymphocytes

c

-

7 days

1

82.20

4

9.20

3

4

i i

4.30 1.96

1 4

10.00

3

5.90

i

0.45

2.30

i

0.40

i

0.59' 1 0.37

i

2.17

1 2

6.00

i

0.69J

2.00 0.60

i

0.63 0.39 1

t

1

1

Calculated from stained peripheral blood smears. b i Standard deviation. Different levels of significance calculated from the student's t-test representing the difference between the control and the experimental groups.

<

0.001

2

<

0.002

3

C 0.005

4

<

0.01

5

<

0.02

6

<

0.05

Table 4 . Effect of exposure t o sublethal conc. of SLS (0.127 m g / l ) + DDT (0.00074 m g / l ) time i n t e r v a l s on the blood precursor cells of t h e head kidney. Time Intervals

Type of cell No. / 300 cells

7 days

Control

212.00

MRBCs

18.10

IRECs

6.36

t

b

186.30

2.25

i

23.20

t t

-

14 days 5.68 3.76

Normoblasts

5.10

i

1.08

6.30

i

2.50

Large Lymphoid Hemoblasts

4.10

i

0.59

5.80

i

0.74

Small Lymphoid Hemoblasts

3.50

t

0.63

4.20

t

0.60

Myeloblasts

2.60

i

0.99

2.50

i

0.47

Myelocytes

2.40

t

0.76

3.80

i

0.82

Neutrophilic Meylocytes

3.50

t

0.77

4.80

t

1.60

Neutrophils

4.20

t

0.68

6.40

t

0.60

1

188.80

1

23.50

1 1

1

2 1 1

Small Lymphocytes

16.00

t

2.53

20.10

t

3.81

Large Lymphocytes

4.40

f

1.80

4.50

i

1.62

i i

1

4.26 5.25

Experimental 21 days

2

20.00

i

4.23

20.10

i

4.40

t

1.00

6.40

i

i

0.49

2.90

t

0.57

t

0.82 0.83 1

2.80

i

0.67

3.10

i

0.72

2.40

i

0.81

23.00

i

3.25

2.40

t

1.12

0.87 0.81

0.96

4.80

t

t

0.74

3.40

i

i

0.42

3.30

i

4.20

i

2.80 2.60

6

4.60

i

0.80

5.90

t

0.80

20.90

i

3.50

6.20

i

1.20

1

1 1 1

5.10

i

1.10

t

0.90

2.50

t

0.68

2.90

t

0.67

2.40

t

0.45

2.50

t

0.66

2.90

i

0.70

2.20

i

0.52

Reticuloplasrnacytes

1.20

t

0.25

3.00

t

0.90

1.60

i

0.57

3.00 2.70

Plasmacytes

0.90

i

0.48

1.90

i

0.42

1.40

t

0.48

17.00

Thrombocytes

1

3.70

-_--

Megaloblasts

a

i

20.40

t

2.41

1.00

i

0.51

1

20.20

i

3.73

0.90

i

0.35

5 2

1.30

1 1

i

i

1

1 0.63 1 0.85 4 1.00

6.70

Monocytes

1

6.00 3.70 1

t

0.85

Promonocytes

1

i

i

0.94

i

2.60

1

i

5.60

i

28 days 1

5.80

6.90 4.90

N

'1 10.42 1 5.39 1 2.06 1 2.44 1 0.93 1 0.87 1 0.75 3 0.64 1 2.32 1 2.85 1 1.45

182.60 26.00

4

mixture for d i f f e r e n t

0.40

21.70

t

4.42

1.00

i

0.54

1

1 1

6 1 1

174.20

t

24.90

i

7.50

i

6.80

i

4.40

i

4.20

i

3.60

t

4.80

i

6.50

t

Calculated from stained peripheral blood smears. b i Standard deviation. Different levels of significance calculated from the student's t-test representing the difference between the control and the experimental groups.

<

0.001

2

<

0.002

3

<

0.005

4

<

0.01

5

<

0.02

6

<

0.05

1 1

1 1

623

From Table 2 it is evident that total red blood cell count (TRBC) and Total haemoglobin (THb) showed significant decrease starting from the seventh day of exposure onwards; whereas the total white blood cell count (TWBC) increased throughout the 2 8 days of exposure period. The packed cell volume (PCV) and mean cellular volume (MCV) values exhibited an increase after 7 days of exposure but PCV value decreased significantly after 2 1 and 2 8 days of exposure. MCV did not change after 7 days of exposure. The increase in the PCV and MCV values at the end of 7 days of exposure is accompanied by an increase in the average length of the RBCs. The significant decrease in the PCV values at the end of 2 1 and 2 8 days were concomittant with a decrease in the average length and width of the RBC-s. Mean corpuscular haemoglobin content value (MCHC) decreased after 7 and 14 days of exposure but recorded an increase after 28 days, whereas the mean corpuscular haemoglobin value (MCH) exhibited a significant increase after 2 1 and 2 8 days of exposure. Table 3 depicts that in the differential count of 3000 peripheral blood cells, a significant decrease was exhibited by mature red blood cells (MRBCs), whereas the blood cells like immature red blood cells (IRBCs) smudge cells, neutrophils and plasmacytes exhibited an increase throughout the 2 8 days of exposure. However, the thrombocytes increased in their number after 14 to 2 8 days of exposure to the SLS + DDT mixture. The monocytes increased significantly after 2 1 days of exposure which may be due to large scale destruction of the blood cells. There was comparative elevation of large lymphocytes in the experimental animals after 2 8 days of exposure period whereas, the small lymphocytes exhibited a decrease. The large lymphocytes also exhibited a similar trend during 7 and 14 days of exposure to the above mixture. In the di,fferept'ia@, count of the leucocytes, the number of leucocytes exhibited similar trend especially after 14 and 2 8 days of exposure. Throughout the 28 days of exposure period, many interesting changes were noted in the morphology of different peripheral blood cells. After 7 days of exposure, RBC with double nuclei and with eccentric nuclei were very common. Some of the RBCs were hypochromic and had clumped chromatin material. A few IRBCs had ragged appearance and a few were anucleate. Orthochromatic normoblasts were many in number; whereas they were rarely seen in the controls. In the 14 days of exposure period, the poikilocytes were very common and a few anucleate granular bodies were also observed. RBCs with dumbbell shaped nuclei were also noted. Someneutrophils had crescent shaped nucleus and a few had 2 nuclei connected by a thin thread of chromatin material. 2 1 days of exposure caused the following type of pathological changes in the peripheral blood cells compared to the controls. Many RBCs and large lymphocytes exhibited the presence of vacuoles. Some RBCs attained tear drop shape and a few thrombocytes had 2 nuclei with a chromatin connection in between. Many blood cells had nuclear bits in them. Unidentified blast cells were many in number.

Many degenerative changes were observed in the peripheral blood cells after 2 8 days of exposure to SLS + DDT mixture. A few neutrophils exhibited a reduction in their size and had pinkish red patches in their cytoplasm. Neutrophils with punctate nuclei were commonly seen. Monocytes had vacuoles both in the cytoplasm and the nucleus. Some large lymphocytes had lobed nuclei and intense basophilic cytoplasm.

624

From the Table 4, it is evident that in the differential count of 300 cells of the head kidney imprints, a general trend was observed throughout the 2 8 days of exposure. The MRBCs number decreased whereas the IRBCs, normoblasts, large lymphoid and small lpphoi! haemoblasts, myeloblasts, myelocytes, neutrophilic myelocytes, neutrophils, small and large lymphocytes, promonocytes, monocytes, reticuloplasmacytes, plasmacytes, thrombocytes and megaloblasts increased in their number especially after 2 8 days of exposure to SLS + DDT mixture. The myeloperoxidase enzyme, PAS positive granules and sudanophil granules exhibited a decrease both in the respective cells of the peripheral blood and those of the head kidney imprints in all the exposed animals throughout the experimental duration when compared to the controls. In the differential count of 300 cells of the head kidney imprints, The a general trend was observed throughout the 2 8 days of exposure. erythropoietic response was exhibited by an increase in the number of IRBCs and normoblasts. The IRBCs increased in their number throughout the 2 8 days of exposure period, whereas the normablasts exhibited an increase only after 14 days and 28 days but not for 7 and 21 days of exposure periods. The neutrophilic response was also observed by an increase in the number of neutrophilic myelocytes and neutrophils throughout the 28 days of exposure period. The increase in the number of reticuloplasmacytes and plasmacytes may be due to an allergic response.

3.3

Histological Changes

Many histological changes were evident in the animals treated with SLS + DDT mixture. The gill filaments started bending and exhibited degenerative changes like sloughing off of the epithelial layer, presznce of cell mass and mucous at many places. In the liver, the hepatocytes became distinct by getting separated from the neighbouring cells. The chromatin material exhibited pyknosis. The cytoplasm exhibited granules. The nucleus was pyknotic in some of the cells and was eccentric. The sinusoidal spaces were infiltrated by RBCs . Many degenerative changes were noted in the epithelial cells of the kidney tubules. Many of the cells had pyknotic nuclei. Destruction of the epithelial cells lining the tubules and the glomerulus was evident from the open spaces present in the tissues. After 2 8 days of exposure, incursion of the intertubular spaces by the RBCs in very large numbers was also observed. 4.

DISCUSSION

From the haematological and histological observations on E. daniconius (Ham.) exposed to SLS + DDT mixture at the sublethal level, it can be concluded that the fish exhibited a combined effect of SLS and DDT. The effect of DDT is more pronounced than that of SLS. The decrease in the feeding rate as evidenced from the presence of unconsumed feed at the bottom of the aquaria has also been observed by

625

[91 in zebra fish danios Brachydanio 9 after exposure to sublethal concentration of zinc, pottassium dichromate and ABS mixture. The decrease in the feeding rate of the fish exposed to SLS + DDT mixture may be due to the effect on taste receptors of the fish. This view has been put forward by [17] who observed a decrease in the feeding rate of Jordanella They suggested that lack of sensory information floridae exposed to ABS. from the taste receptors prevented the fish from recognising the food as such and hence they spat out the food even after they ingested it. Hypersensitivity of the SLS + DDT mixture exposed fish to mechanical disturbance has been already noted in the fish exposed to sublethal concentration of DDT only [3O]. Similar response has also been noted in Salvelinus fontinalis exposed to DDT [31. The slippery body surface has been noted in fish exposed to SLS [231 and the commercial detergent (point) [31], whereas the shedding of the scales has been observed in fish exposed to DDT only [301. The decrease in the TRBC count in fish exposed to SLS + DDT mixture were also observed in the fish exposed sublethal concentration of commercial detergent (Point) L311, DDT (unpublished) and SLS 1231 after 14 days in the former two cases and after 21 days in the latter case. Decrease in the number of RBCs has been reported in stress conditions [281 and also during exposure to various pollutants [22, 4, 21, 1 1 1 . To compensate this decrease the erythropoietic response in the head kidney was evident as revealed by an increase in the number of the precursor cells of the RBCs. The MCHC value decreased after 7 and 14 days of exposure. A decrease in MCHC value was observed in the blood of carp exposed to organophosphorous insecticides [371. However it exhibited an increase after 28 days of exposure which is in conformity with the observations recorded for sublethal exposure of 5 . daniconius (Ham.) to DDT (unpublished). This might be due to a decrease in the dimensions of the RBCs. The significant decrease in the dimensions of the RBCs after 28 days of exposure might be due to stress. A decrease in the RBC size has been reported in goldfish [28l and Ictalurus punctatus [271 maintained at different loading denisities which caused fish density syndrome for RBC morphology. The presence of double nucleated RBCs, RBCs with fragmented nuclei and anucleate erythrocytes observed in this case have been observed in folic acid anemia in fish [38] and in Heteropneustes fossilis exposed ;o pollutants [29]. The mixture of SLS + DDT might have either caused an impairment in the uptake of vitamins due to reduced feeding or might have caused abnormalities during the haemopoiesis. The thrombocytic response observed after 14 days may be due to stress. Stress has been found to cause an increase in the number of thrombocytes [lo] in rainbow trout. In performing the histochemical tests on the peripheral blood cells the decrease in the intensity of the reactions encountered may be due to the presence of immature cells in the circulation. The present finding is in agreement with the observations of [61 who have opined that immature cells exhibit lesser intensity to the different histochemical tests. This view is strengthened by an increase in the number of precursor cells of the myelocytic series in the head kidney.

626

The histological changes in the gill filaments of daniconius exposed to SLS + DDT mixture also conform with the reports in fish exposed to detergents [32, 13, to detergent + zinc mixture [ 8 1 and other pollutants [14, .34, 121. Apart from the histopathological degradation of the hepatocytes and epithelial cells of the liver and kidney respectively which were also observed by many authors in fish exposed to different pollutants [24, 25, 14, 19, 15, 161, it is interesting to note that incursion of the RBCs in the sinusoidal spaces of the liver and the intertubular spaces of the kidney in large numbers is an observation recorded only in the case of fish exposed to SLS + DDT mixture and not in the individual exposures to SLS and DDT separately. Thus from the present mixture at sublethal level than the effects that, were separately in the laboratory 5.

experiment it is evident that the SLS + DDT concentration is more toxic to E. daniconius observed in the fish exposed to SLS and DDT findings.

REFERENCES

1.

Abel, P.D., "Toxic action of several lethal concentrations o f an anionic detergent on the gills of brown trout (Salmo trutta L.)", J.Fish Biol., 9, 441-446 (1976).

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American Public Health Association, AWWA and WPCF, "Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater", 14th ed., New York, p.1193 (1976).

3.

Anderson, J.M., "Effect of sublethal DDT on the lateral line of brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis", J.Fish Res. Board Can., 25, 2677-2682 (1968).

4.

Anees, M.A., "Haematological abnormalities in a fresh water teleost Channa punctatus exposed t o sublethal and chronic levels of three organo phosphorous insecticides", Int. J. Eco. and Environ. Sci., 4, 53-60 (1978a).

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Blaxhall, P.C., "The haematological assessment of the health of fresh water fish. J. Fish Biol., 4, 593-604 (1972). of selected literature".

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Blaxhall, P.C., and Daisley, K.W., J. Fish Biol., 5, 771-782 (1973).

7.

Brown, A.B.,

8.

and Stark, G.T.C., "Effects of chronic exposure t o zinc on toxicity Brown, V.M., Mitrovic, V.V., of a mixture of detergents and zinc", Wat. Res., 2, 255-263 (1968).

9.

Cairns, I., and Loos, I., "Changed feeding rate of Brachydanio rerio (Hamilton Buchanan) resulting from exposure t o sublethal concentration of zinc, potassium dichromate and alkyl benzene sulfonate detergent", Proc. Pa. Acad. Sci., 40, 47-52 (1967).

10.

Casillas, E., and Smith, L.S., "Effect of stress on blood coagulation and haematology in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri)", J. Fish Biol., 10, 481-491 (1977).

11.

"Subacute stress induced by sodium lauryl Dalela, R.C., Tyagi, AX., Pal, N., and Verma, S.R., Water, Air and sulfate (SLS) on certain haematological parameters in Saccobranchus Soil Pollution, 15, 3-9 (1981).

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"Routine

A review

haematological methods for use w i t h fish blood',

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II Edition, Lea and Febiger, p.336 (1976).

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Daye, P.G.,

and Garside, E.T., "Histopathological changes in surfici tissues of brook trout, exposed to acute and chronic levels of $'I, Can. J. Zool., 54,

linus fontinalis (Mitchell),

Salve2140-

2155 (1976). 13.

Dugan, P.R., "Influence of chronic exposure to anionic detergent on the toxicity of pesticides to fish", J. Wat. Pollu. Control Fed, 39, 63-71 (1967).

14.

Eller, L.L., "Histopathological lesions in cut throat trout (Salmo clarki) exposed chronically the insecticide endrin", Amer. J. Pathol., 64, 321-336 (1971).

15.

fernandez, B.DE.CJ.C., "Histopathological study of the trout (Salmo irideus) intoxicated with technical warfarin", Bol. R. Soc. ESP Hist. Nat. Secc. Biol., 75, 417-426 (1977a).

16.

fernandez, B.De,Gl.C., "Histopathological study of the liver of the trout (Salmo irideus) intoxicated with technical warfarin", 75, 427-438 (1977b).

17.

Foster, N.R.,

to

Scheier, A., and Cairnsb J. Jr., "Effects of ABS on feeding behaviour of flagfish, Trans. Am. fish. Soc., 95, 109-110 (1966).

Jordanella floridae", -

18.

Hesser, E.F.,

19.

Hinton, D.E., Kendall, M.W., and Silver, B.B., "Use of histologic and histochemical assessments in the prognosis of the effects' of aquatic pollutants", Biological methods for the assessment of water quality. American Society for testing and materials STP 528, p.194-208 (1973).

20.

Klontz, G.W., Yasutake, W.T., Wales, J.E., Ashley, L.M., and Smith, C., "The application of haematological techniques to fishery research", obtained from G.W. Klontz, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, (1963).

21.

Krishan, A.G., and Garg, V., "2-3', 4 triaminoazobenzene induced haematobiochemical anomalies in fish (Channa punctatus)", Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 25, 136-141 (1980).

22.

Lone, K.P.T., and Javaid, M.Y., "Effect of sublethal doses of 3 organophosphorous insecticides on the haematology of Channa punctatus", Pakistan J. Zool., 8, 77-84 (1976a).

23.

Madhyastha, M.N., and Nayak, R.R., "Bioassay studies with sodium lauryl sulfate (An anionic detergent) with reference to certain haematological parameters of R. daniconius (Ham.)", Proc. Symp. Environ. Biol., Muzaffarnagar, India, p.327-336 (1979).

24.

Mathur, D.S., "Histopathological changes in the liver of certain fishes as induced by BHC and lindane", Proc. Natl: Acad. Sci. India, 328, 429-434 (1962a).

25.

Mathur, D.S., "Studies on the histopathological changes induced by DDT in the liver, kidney and intestine on certain fishes", Experentia, 18, 506-509 (1962b).

26.

McCay, C.M., and Vars, H.M., "Studies upon fish blood and its relation to water pollution", N.Y. State Conserv. Dep. Ann. Rep., 20, 230-233 (1931).

27.

Murray, S.A.,

28.

Murray, S.A., and Burton, C.B., ?Effects of density on gold fish blood: II Cell morphology", Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A. Somp. Physiol., 62, 559-562 (1979).

29.

Narain, AS., and Srivastava, P.N., "Hematological responses of the Indian fresh water catfish to environmental pollution by sewage, fertilizers and insecticides, Arch. Heteropneustes Biol.. 90, 141-160 (1979).

"Methods

for

routine fish haematology", Progr.

Fish-Cult.,

22,

164-171 (1960).

-

"Effects of loading density on fish blood', Experentia, 36, 205-206 (1980).

fossilis

628 30.

Nayak, R.R., and Madhyastha, M.N., "Bioassay studies w i t h DDT w i t h reference t o some behavioural and haematological parameters of R. daniconius (Ham.)", Proc. International Seminar on Management of Environment, Dr. A.K. Ganguly Felicitation Committee, BARC, India, p.243-250 (1980a).

31.

and Madhyastha, M.N., "Preliminary studies on the effects of a detergent (Point) Nayak, R.R., on the blood cells of R. daniconius (Ham.)", Proc., Symp. Environ. Biol., Trivandrum, India, p.212217 (1980b).

32.

and Mann, H., "Action of a detergent dodecyl benzene sulfonate on the gills of Schmid, D.J., trout", Nature: Lond., 192, 675 (1961).

33.

Smith, C.E., and Halver, J.E., 111-114 (1969).

34.

Smith, C.E., and Piper, R.G., "Pathological effects in formalin treated rainbow gairdneri)", J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 29, 328-329 (1972).

35.

Solon, J.M., and Nair, L.M., "The effect of sublethal concentration of LA5 on the acute toxicity of various phosphate pesticides t o the fat head minnow (Pimephales promelas Rafinesque), Bull.

"Folic acid anemia in Coho Salmon", I. Fish Res. Board Can.,

trout

26,

= (

Environ. Contem. Toxicol., 5, 408-413 (1970). 36.

Solon, J.M., Lincer, J.L., and Nair, L.M., "The effects of sublethal concentration of LAS on the acute toxicity of various insecticides t o the f a t head minnow (Pimephales promelas Rafinesque), Wat. Res., 3, 767-775 (1969).

37.

Svobodova, Z., "Changes in the red blood cell picture of the carp intoxicated w i t h organophosphate pesticides", Acta Vet. Brno., 44, 49 (1975).

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

ENVIRONMENTAL UPTAKE O F LEAD I N BLACK-CROWNED

Dave S i g u r s l i d B o x 323 P i n e d a l e , WY 82941,

N I G H T HERONS

USA

ABSTRACT Samples of b l a c k - c r o w n e d night h e r o n t i s s u e w e r e e x a m i n e d f o r l e a d using s p e c t r o p h o t o m e t r i c analysis. Average l e a d content i n t i s s u e s ( i n p p m w e t w e i g h t ) w e r e 4.87 i n e g g s h e l l , 3.6 i n e g g c o n t e n t s , 0 . 3 5 i n d e v e l o p i n g e m b r y o s , and 18.3 i n young h e r o n tissues. T h e s e d a t a s u g g e s t o n t o g e n i c d i l u t i o n o f l e a d and t h e n d o s a g e , p r e s u m a b l y by f o o d , i n young h e r o n s . H e r o n foods contained lead. I t i s c o n t e n d e d t h a t l e a d f r o m s p e n t gunshot w a 5 d i s s o l v e d , t a k e n u p by r e s i d e n t o r g a n i s m s , and t h e n a c c u m u l a t e d by young h e r o n s t h r o u g h t h e i n g e s t i n g o f f o o d s p e c i e s . There are o t h e r p a t h w a y s by w h i c h h e r o n s c a n t a k e u p l e a d . Though t h e amount o f l e a d c o n c e n t r a t a b l e through t h e p r o c e s s d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s paper does not appear t o be e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y g r e a t , i t i s s o m e t h i n g about w h i c h t o b e a w a r e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h i s s p e c i e s w h o s e b r e e d i n g r a n g e and h a b i t a t s e e m t o b e d e c r e a s i n g .

1

.

INTRODUCTI ON

H i s t o r i c a l l y , r e s e a r c h on l e a d i n n a t u r a l s y s t e m s has b e e n c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e i n g e s t i o n o f l e a d ( i n t h e f o r m o f s p e n t g u n s h o t ) by w a t e r f o w l . H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s some c o n c e r n t h a t l e a d f r o m s o - c a l l e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l s o u r c e s < i. e . l e a d w h i c h i s i n t r o d u c e d by s u r r e p t i t i o u s e n t r a n c e i n t o and throughout e c o s y s t e m s ) may h a v e m o r e w i d e s p r e a d e f f e c t s than l e a d f r o m We a r e c o n c e r n e d h e r e w i t h c e r t a i n , p e r h a p s m o r e i n g e s t e d shot. vulnerable, environments.

I t has b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t h e a v i l y h u n t e d f r e s h w a t e r m a r s h e s may b e e s p e c i a l l y v u l n e r a b l e t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l l e a d c o n t a m i n a t i o n by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s p e n t l e a d shot and s u b s e q u e n t d i s s o l u t i o n and u p t a k e o f l e a d by s u c c e s s i v e l y h i g h e r t r o p h i c l e v e l s ( l ) , and t h e r e i s c o m p e l l i n g evidence that t h i s does, i n f a c t , occur. If t h i s c a n b e f u r t h e r d e m o n s t r a t e d , t h e imp1 i c a t i o n s a r e impressive: 1 9 6 9 data show that 6 10-6 K g o f l e a d s h o t a r e d e p o s i t e d by h u n t e r s on w a t e r f o w l a r e a s i n t h e U.S. e a c h y e a r (2).

*

629

One o f t h e s e w a t e r f o w l a r e a s , Rush L a k e i n W i n n e b a g o C o . , W i s c o n s i n h a s f o r many y e a r s r e c e i v e d h e a v y s e a s o n - 1 o n g h u n t i n g pressure. A s much a s 10-3 k g o f l e a d shot h a s b e e n d e l i v e r e d i n t o Rush L a k e on t h e o p e n i n g day o f w a t e r f o w l h u n t i n g s e a s o n alone (3). Chemically, l e a d i s o n l y m i l d l y r e a c t i v e i n s u b t l e reducing e n v i r o n m e n t s s u c h as f r e s h w a t e r m a r s h e s . However, c e r t a i n . substances i n biodegradable detergents r e a d i l y d i s s o l v e lead, t h u s m a k i n g i t a b u n d a n t l y a v a i l a b l e f o r u p t a k e by a q u a t i c commun i t i e s (4). C e r t a i n m a r i n e m o l 1 u s c s a r e a b l e t o c o n c e n t r a t e l e a d f r o m t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t ( 5 ) . On R u s h L a k e , e l e v a t e d l e v e l s o f l e a d h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n s u b s t r a t e s e d i m e n t s and i n C h a r d , t h e Further investigation dominant submergent p l a n t o f t h e l a k e ( 1 ) . o f t h e Rush L a k e b i o t a h a s r e v e a l e d m a r k e d l e a d c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f a1 gae o t h e r t h a n C h a r d , m o l 1 U S C s h e 1 1 f i sh t i s s u e s (espec i a l 1 y b o n e ) , a n d b i r d t i s s u e s ( e s p e c i a1 1 y b o n e a n d e g g s h e l 1 ) .

,

L e a d may b e b i o a c c u m u l a t e d i n t h e R u s h L a k e b i o t a much i n t h e m a n n e r w h i c h has b e e n shown f o r c e r t a i n p e s t i c i d e s . Support f o r t h i s i d e a i s o f f e r e d by d a t a on b a l d e a g l e s , w h i c h seem t o a c c u m u l a t e m o r e p e s t i c i d e than go1 d e n e a g l e s , p r e s u m a b l y b e c a u s e o f t h i s increased length o f the food chain f o r piscivorous balds ( 6 ) . T h u s , a f o c a l ( a n d m o s t v u l n e r a b l e ) s p e c i e s may b e t h e t e r m i n a l consumers of a q u a t i c systems. T h i s i d e a h a s become we1 1 establ ished. On Rush L a k e o n e o f t h e m o r e c o n s p i c u o u s t e r m i n a l c o n s u m e r s , t h e b l a c k - c r o w n e d n i ght h e r o n , was espec i a l 1 y i n t e r e s t i n g f o r two o t h e r reasons. F i r s t , i t h a s been f o u n d t h a t av i an p r e d a t o r s c o n s i s t e n t l y show g r e a t e r h e a v y m e t a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t h a n mammal i a n p r e d a t o r s (7). S e c o n d , t h e s e b i r d s seem t o h a v e a somewhat p r e c a r i o u s f o o t h o l d i n much o f t h e i r I, t h e r e f o r e , d e c i d e d t o e x a m i n e t h e s e b i r d s a n d breeding range. t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e l e a d pathways i n t h i s marsh system. The m a j o r o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s s t u d y w a s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e magn i t u d e o f 1 e a d c o n t a m i n a t i o n i n t h e R u s h L a k e b l a c k - c r o w n e d n i g h t heron population. B u t because r e l a t i v e l y high c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f l e a d had a l r e a d y b e e n shown t o b e p r e s e n t i n a w i d e v a r i e t y o f o r g a n i s m s i n t h i s s y s t e m , and b e c a u s e h e r o n s i n g e s t some o f t h e s e 1 ead-1 a d e n s p e c i e s as f o o d , a d d i t i o n a l q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g those p o s s i b i l i t i e s were asked. S p e c i f i c a l l y , w h a t w e r e t h e l e a d l e v e l s i n h e r o n f o o d s ? Was l e a d accumulated ontogenical l y in the o f f s p r i n g ? Were t h e r e a n y p o s s i b l e i n t e r f e r e n c e s by l e a d i n t h e r e p r o d u c t i v e s u c c e s s of a d u l t herons? F i n a l l y , what were t h e p o s s i b l e dynamics and r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f l e a d u p t a k e and d e p o s i t i o n i n these b i r d s ? I e x a m i n e d l e a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n e g g s , young h e r o n s , and h e r o n foods. I a l s o c o n s i d e r e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f l e a d on v a r i o u s aspects o f the 1 i f e h i s t o r y of t h i s population. I n t h i s paper I w i l l d i s c u s s l e a d accumulation v i a e n v i r o n m e n t a l means i n y o u n g n i g h t h e r o n s .

2.

METHODS

I s t u d i e d a c o l o n y o f a b o u t 200 n e s t i n g h e r o n s d u r i n g a 4 3 - d a y o b s e r v a t i o n p e r i o d i n t h e l a t e s p r i n g o f 1975. I

631 c o l l e c t e d b r e e d i n g b i o l o g y d a t a and s a l v a g e d b r o k e n and d i s p l a c e d I also e g g s , r e g u r g i t a e , and y o u n g h e r o n s w h i c h h a d d i e d . m o n i t o r e d t h e g r o w t h o f young h e r o n s . I n t h e l a b I measured e g g s h e l l s and d i s s e c t e d t h e s a l v a g e d young i n t o t i s s u e g r o u p s o f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t . A1 1 b i o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a1 s w e r e we i g h e d t o t h e n e a r e s t 0 . O O O g. Samples w e r e t h e n d r i e d f o r 2 4 h o u r s a n d a s h e d i n a f u r n a c e a t 800 d e g r e e s C. A s h e d s a m p l e s w e r e d i g e s t e d i n 4 N n i t r i c ac d a n d b r o u g h t t o a 2 5 m l volume by w a t e r d i l u t i o n . The s a m p l e s w e r e t h e n a s s a y e d f o r l e a d by a t o m i c a b s o r p t i o n spectrophotometry. L e a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e r e p o r t e d on a wet-weight b a s i s , u n l e s s otherwise i n d i c a t e d .

I performed a p o s t e r i o r i s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s o f hypotheses using data analysis. The v a l i d i t y o f a s s u m p t i o n s on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the data as w e l l as the v a l i d i t y o f s p e c i f i c h y p o t h e s e s was t e s t e d . The s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y a r e o u t l i n e d by S o k a l a n d R o l f f ( 8 ) . D a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e mean f o l l o w e d by t h e s t a n d a r d e r r o r . 3.

RESULTS

A t o t a l o f 224 b i o l o g i c a l s a m p l e s was a n a l y z e d f o r l e a d content. T i s s u e s a v e r a g e d 6 . 2 + 3 . 2 ppm l e a d (n=224) on a w e t w e i g h t b a s i s , a n d r a n g e d from 0 . 1 ppm i n e m b r y o n i c t i s s u e t o 123.1 ppm i n y o u n g h e r o n bone t i s s u e . The t w o m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e s o f these d a t a a r e the seemingly u b i q u i t o u s n a t u r e o f lead and t h e g r e a t v a r i a t i o n o f v a l u e s encountered. I n an e f f o r t t o d e t e r m i n e w h e r e t h e v a r i a b i l i t y o f o b s e r v e d v a l u e s l a y , I d i v i d e d t i s s u e s i n t o the f o l l o w i n g groups: e g g s h e l l , e g g c o n t e n t s , embryos, a n d y o u n g h e r o n s . A summary o f t h e l e a d r e s i d u e s f o u n d i n n i g h t h e r o n s i s g i v e n i n T a b l e 1. All sampled t i s s u e s were p o s i t i - v e f o r l e a d . Were t h e r e a c t u a l d_i f f e r e n c e s i n 1 e a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s among t h e s e f o u r g r o u p s ? S t a t i s t i c a l c o m p a r i s o n s w e r e made o f l e a d amounts i n t i s s u e s w i t h i n a n d among 1 i f e h i s t o r y g r o u p s ( e g g s , embryos, a n d y o u n g ) . T i s s u e s among t h e s e g r o u p s d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n l e a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n (F=13.81, KW s t a t i s t i c =

T a b l e 1. Summary s t a t i s t i c s o f l e a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t i s s u e s o f black-crowned n i g h t herons. (ppm f r e s h w e i g h t )

................................................................ Egg c o n t e n t s Embryos Young *

Statistic Eggshell N 135 Mean 4.78 Range 1.0 40.1 SD 2.40 SE 0.21

-

35 3.6 0.2 14.9 3.20 0.54

-

0.1

6 0.35 0.7 0.25 0.11

-

0.3

12 18.35 123.1 27.84 5.46

-

................................................................

* R e f e r s t o bone, c o l 1 e c t i v e l y.

liver,

and f e a t h e r s o f young herons,

632 T a b l e 2. A summary o f c o m p a r i s o n s o f l e a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t i s s u e s b e t w e e n and among 1 i f e h i s t o r y s t a g e s o f b l a c k - c r o w n e d n i g h t herons. A l l f i g u r e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e p
................................................................

A1 1

Compar i s o n t issues

W i t h i n stages Eggs S h e l l vs. c o n t e n t s Young h e r o n t i s s u e s L i v e r v s . bone v s . f e a t h e r s L i v e r vs. bone Liver vs. feathers Bone v s . f e a t h e r s

ANOVA 13.81

T-Test(2)

U-Te s t 2045(3)

2.78( c )

5.75Cb)

2.4(b)

1.30ca) O.Ol(a) 5.39cb) 2.10Ca)

1.02ca) 1.42(a) 1.45Ca)

28( a) 35( a) 63(a)

2.53( c ) 2.74( c ) 3.17cc) 19.29 5.91

2.66( c ) 3.07(c) 3.45 4.14 3.45

____________________----------------------------------------

Among s t a g e s ( 1 ) 17.39 S h e l l v s . e m b r y o v s . young C o n t e n t s v s . embryo v s . young 6.07cc) S h e l l vs. young 31.72 C o n t e n t s vs. young 9.72 Embryo v s . y o u n g 2.45ca) 19.79 Embryo v s . s h e l l Embryo v s . c o n t e n t s 7.32(c)

-_______________________________________---------(a) (b) (c)

p>O.O5 p
( 1 ) Young h e r o n t i s s u e s p o o l e d (2) Unequal v a r i a n c e ( 3 ) K r u s k a l -Wal 1 i s t e s t

2 0 4 5 , p
A

R e s u l t s o f t h e analysis o f l e a d amounts i n t i s s u e s w i t h i n 1 i f e h i s t o r y stages were d i v e r g e n t . The t w o e g g s t a g e t i s s u e s ( e g g s h e l l and e g g c o n t e n t s ) d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y ( F r 5 . 7 5 ; t e 2 . 4 ; l k 2 . 7 8 ; O.OS>p O . O 5 ) . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e w a s p r o b a b l y n o t a p p r o p r i a t e f o r young h e r o n t i s s u e s as t h e i r s a m p l e s i z e may h a v e p r e c l u d e d t h e Thus, v a l i d i t y of a p p l i c a t i o n of a p a r a m e t r i c assumption s e t . t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e F s t a t i s t i c a b o v e ( T a b l e 2, l i v e r v s . f e a t h e r s ) may b e m i s l e a d i n g . Also, even i f t h e samples c o u l d h a v e b e e n shown t o s a t i s f y t h e p a r a m e t r i c a s s u m p t i o n s e t , i t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t an a d d e d v a r i a n c e c o m p o n e n t ( s u c h as a g e ) may have a f f e c t e d t h e v a r i a b i l i t y of e n c o u n t e r e d l e a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h i s case. These comparisons p o i n t t o a high w i t h i n group v a r i a t i o n f o r young h e r o n t i s s u e s , b u t n o t so g r e a t t h a t young h e r o n s c o u l d n o t be considered a separate e n t i t y i n terms of l e a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n .

633

I conclude t h a t there are f o u r d i s t i n c t tissue populations w i t h respect t o l e a d load. Egg t i s s u e s ( b o t h e g g s h e l l a n d e g g c o n t e n t s ) c o n t a i n e d g r e a t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f l e a d than embryonic t i s s u e s , and young heron t i s s u e s c o n t a i n e d more l e a d than e i t h e r o t h e r group. The p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a b i l i t y a c c o u n t e d f o r among g r o u p s i s b e t w e e n 86 a n d 9 6 p e r c e n t ( s e e T a b l e 2, ANOVA c o l u m n , amonq groups comparisons). The r e 1 a t i o n s h i p s cof 1 c a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s among 1 i f e h i s t o r y g r o u p s ( e g g s > e m b r y o s < y o u n g h e r o n s ) s u g g e s t o n t o g e n i c d i l u t i o n o f l e a d d u r i n g i n c u b a t i o n a n d t h e n d o s a g e by f o o d i n t h e young h e r o n s .

I t i s c l e a r t h a t eggs, embryos and young h e r o n s d i f f e r e d i n t h e amounts o f l e a d c o n t a i n e d i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e t i s s u e s . It i s s u s p e c t e d t h a t some f a c t o r o r f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n h e r i t a b i l i t y f r o m t h e a d u l t f e m a l e ( p r e s e n t but p r o b a b l y o f d e c r e a s i n o i m p o r t a n c e as o n t o g e n y p r o g r e s s e d ) o p e r a t e d o n t h i s s y s t e m t o create these d i f f e r e n c e s . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e r e was some v e r y s m a l l t r a n s f e r of l e a d f r o m a d u l t s t o o f f s p r i n g lembryos and young h e r o n s ) , but t h e v e r y l a r g e amounts o f l e a d i n young h e r o n s c a n n o t b e a c c o u n t e d f o r by h e r i t a b i 1 i t y t o a n y m e a s u r e a b l e degree. It a p p e a r s t h a t some d i l u t i o n o f l e a d o c c u r e d d u r i n g e m b r y o n i c d e v e l o p m e n t a n d i t seems n e a r l y c o n c l u s i v e t h a t r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e a m o u n t s o f l e a d seem t o h a v e a p p e a r e d i n offspring a f t e r hatching. We now l o o k t o a s u s p e c t e d d o s a g e medium ( i . e . h e r o n f o o d s ) f o r f u r t h e r e l u c i d a t i o n o f t h i s problem. The f a v o r e d f o o d o f t h i s p o p u l a t i o n a p p e a r e d t o b e f i s h ( s e e T a b l e 3, c o l u m n C ) b u t h e r o n s a t e a v a r i e t y o f f o o d s d u r i n g t h e study p e r i o d . The a v e r a g e a m o u n t o f l e a d p r e s e n t i n a l l h e r o n f o o d i t e m s w a s 2.72 + 2 . 2 ppm. Statistically,

l e a d concentrations i n heron foods d i f f e r e d

F o o d s summary f o r b l a c k - c r o w n e d T a b l e 3. LaKe i n 1 9 7 5 .

n i g h t h e r o n s o n Rush

--------------______-----------_-_----__-------__----------__---

(A) Mamma 1 s 12.3 Birds ; 2.6 Amphibians 12.4 60.9 Fish Invertebrates 11.8

(B) 4.3

15.2 8.7 58.7 13.1

(C) 1.3

(D)

1.1

0.57 1.20

2.7 9 1 .O 3.9

2.51 3.52 1.56

(E) 0.23 0.23 2.02 95.55 1.81

-----_______________------------__------------__----__--------

(A) X t o t a l o f sampled mass b a s e d on c o l l e c t e d samples of r e g u r g i t a t e d i t e m s and p r o v e n t r i c u l a r c o n t e n t s o f s a l v a g e d b i r d s ( n=20 ) (B) X f r e q u e n c y o c c u r r e n c e of a l l f o o d i t e m s b a s e d on samples l i s t e d i n < A ) i n addition t o f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s of f o o d s w h i c h w e r e n o t c o l l e c t e d (n=64). (C) a d j u s t e d Z o f t o t a l d i e t a r y mass. (D) a v e r a g e l e a d load p e r f o o d t y p e ( i n ppm). (E) Z of t o t a l l e a d i n t a k e p e r s o u r c e .

.

s i g n i f i c a n t l s f r o m a d u l t d e r i v e d t i s s u e l e a d ! e g g s h e l l : F=6.66. p < @ . O 5 : c o n t e n t s : t=2.13, p < 0.05j. y o u n g h e r o n t i s s u e l e a d ~ ( 0 . 0 5 )a~n d e m b r y o l e a d !U=48. piCi.C11). Embryos !t=2.02, c o n t a i n e d l e s s l e a d t h a n d i d f o o d i tems w h i l e b o t h eggs and young herons. c o n t a i n e d m o r e . I n %.urn. h e r o n f o o d s c o n t a i n e d l e a d . a n d f e e d i n g h e r o n s ! b o t h young and p r o b a b l y a d u l t s , b a s e d on p o s s i b l e a d u l t l e a d c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o e g g s h e l l and egg c o n t e n t s ) c o n t a i n e d more l e a d than t h e i r foods. O n l y t h e n o n f e e d i n g c o m ~ o n e n to f t h e p o p u l a t i o n {embryos.) c o n t a i n e d l e s s l e a d t h a n h e r o n f o o d s . I t is t h e r e f o r e h i g h l y p r o b a b l e t h a t 1 e a d i s. p a s s e d t o h e r o n s t h r o u g h t h e i r foods. and t h a t t h e b u l k o f t h e l e a d f o u n d i n h e r o n t i s s u e s i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e i r f o o d sources. T h e r e seems t o b e a m p l e e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e w h i c h i n d i c a t e s that l e a d i s r e t a i n e d i n organisms which c h r o n i c a l l y i n g e s t l e a d c o n t a m i n a t e d f o o d s ( 9 ) . T h e same e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e amounts o f l e a d a n i m a l s w i l l a c c u m u l a t e i s a f u n c t i o n o f ingested vs. excreted lead. I t f o l l o w s t h a t those animals which ingest lead contaminated foods f o r the longest time w i l l have l a r g e r amounts o f r e t a i n e d l e a d i n t h e i r t i s s u e s . I f that i s so, t h e n o l d e r h e r o n s s h o u l d h a v e h i g h e r l e a d l o a d s t h a n younger herons. I t e s t e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between age o f y o u n g One s i gn i f i c a n t h e r o n s and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e t i s s u e 1ead 1odds. c o r r e l a t i o n was f o u n d between r a n k e d age a n d f e a t h e r l e a d (Rho = 0.66, ~ ( 0 . 0 5 ) . T h i s may b e an i n d i c a t o r t h a t y o u n g h e r o n s a c c u m u l a t e l e a d , but t h e r e was n o o t h e r e v i d e n c e i n t h i s s t u d y which s u p p o r t s such a c o n t e n t i o n .

4.

DISCUSSION

L e a d s t u d i e s i n w i I d p o p u l a t i o n s h a v e g e n e r a l I Yf a 1 l e n i n t o two m a j o r g r o u p s : those t h a t r e p o r t acute t o x i c episodes r e s u l t i n g f r o m i n g e s t i o n o f spent shot, and those t h a t r e p o r t h r e l i n e i n f o r m a t i o n on l e a d l o a d s , p r e s u m a b l y e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y accumulated. C o n s e q u e n t l y . pub1 i s h e d f i g u r e s f o r l e a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h a v e b e e n , p r e d i c t a b l y , d i v e r g e n t (10). G e n e r a l l y , i t a p p e a r s t h a t l e a d r e s i d u e s f o u n d i n y o u n g Rush L a k e h e r o n s exceed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s f o u n d i n o t h e r s t u d i e s of (perhaps) e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y c o n t a m i n a t e d s p e c i e s and f a l l w i t h i n t h e r a n g e , and i n some c a s e s e x c e e d t h e u p p e r l i m i t , o f v a l u e s f o u n d i n a c u t e l y lead-poisoned w i l d 1 i f e . T h e V a l i d i t y o f m a k i n g c o m p a r i s o n s among s t u d i e s o f l e a d t o x i c i t y i s c a l l e d i n t o q u e s t i o n on a n u m b e r o f p o i n t s . V a r i a t i o n s among s t u d i e s may b e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o a n a l y t i c a l technique ( 1 1 ) or d i f f e r e n c e s i n species, sex, s t r e s s , disease, age, p a t h o f a b s o r p t i o n , and l e n g t h o f e x p o s u r e ( 1 2 ) . T h e r e i s some i n d i c a t i o n t h a t l e a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n i n d i g e n o u s s p e c i e s a r e a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e amount o f l e a d p r e s e n t as a p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t i n t h a t a r e a ( 1 3 ) . I f that i s so, Rush L a k e o r g a n i s m s w o u l d t h e n a c c u m u l a t e l e a d f r o m a t l e a s t f o u r sources: t h e s o i l as a n a t u r a l o c c u r r e n c e , a t m o s p h e r i c l e a d , l e a d d e p o s i t e d i n t o t h e w a t e r by o u t b o a r d motors which burn leaded f u e l , and d i s s o l v e d l e a d shot. The

u l t i m a t e importance o f a d e t e r m i n a t i o n of r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e s e s o u r c e s 1 i e s i n t h e imp1 i c a t i o n s t h i s s t u d y m a y h a v e on I t e s s e n t i a l l y makes n o t h e mu1 t i p l e u s e n a t u r e o f Rush L a k e . d i f f e r e n c e as t o what, e x a c t l y , i s the source o f lead. The f a c t r e m a i n s t h a t t h e s e h e r o n s h a v e l e a d i n t h e i r t i s s u e s , and so d o t h e i r f o o d s , sometimes i n r e l a t i v e l y h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . B e c a u s e l e a d w a s f o u n d i n t h e s e young n i g h t h e r o n s , i t m u s t b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e y a t e i t as p a r t o f t h e i r f o o d , t h a t t h e y w e r e s h o t , o r t h a t t h e y a b s o r b e d i t t h r o u g h some body s u r f a c e . The No t e s t w a s y o u n g h e r o n s s t u d i e d h e r e i n had n o t b e e n s h o t . p e r f o r m e d i n o r d e r t o a s s e s s gaseous l e a d p r e s e n c e , but a s t h e o n l y c o n c e i v a b l e s o u r c e o f a i r b o r n e l e a d w o u l d have been a u t o m o b i l e e x h a u s t , i t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t h e r o n s w o u l d h a v e I t i s possible that herons absorbed t h i s l e a d t o a g r e a t degree. may h a v e a b s o r b e d w a t e r - b o r n e l e a d t hroug h b o d y s u r f a c e s o r as i n c i d e n t a l t o t h e i n g e s t i o n of f o o d . Herons do not d r i n k a g r e a t d e a l o f w a t e r , and t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f l e a d i n R u s h L a k e w a t e r i s l e s s than 1 ppm ( 1 ) . H e r o n s may absorb l e a d t h r o u g h body c o n t a c t w i t h t h e w a t e r b u t i f t h a t w e r e t r u e one m i g h t e x p e c t t h e l e a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n each o f t h e s e p a r a t e t i s s u e g r o u p s t o be more c l o s e l y c l u s t e r e d . Thus t h e l a r g e s t 1 i k e l y source of l e a d E v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s study f o r herons i s t h e i r food. indicates that l a r g e amounts o f l e a d a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r i n g e s t i o n v i a t h i s mode. N i g h t h e r o n f o o d s h a v e b e e n shown t o b e a s t a t i s t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t e n t i t y w i t h respect t o lead values. F i s h were the most Because i m p o r t a n t food i t e m s f o r h e r o n s d u r i n g t h e study p e r i o d . l e a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n f i s h v a r y as t o t i s s u e t y p e ( 1 4 ) , a k n o w l e d g e o f p o r t i o n s o f f o o d s e a t e n by h e r o n s i s i m p o r t a n t . L e a d r e s i d u e s c o n c e n t r a t e i n s p e c i f i c t i s s u e s , e s p e c i a l l y bone, 1 i v e r , and k i d n e y ( 1 0 ) . Heron r e g u r g i t a e c o n t a i n e d whole small f i s h but l a r g e r f i s h ( w i t h s o f t p a r t s p a r t i a l l y e a t e n ) w e r e observed i n the heronry. Mallards accumulate a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.02 p e r c e n t o f i n g e s t e d l e a d when d o s e d w i t h h i g h l y l e a d - c o n t a m i n a t e d foods ( 1 5 ) . On t h e basis of t h i s evidence, young h e r o n s must e i t h e r have s e l e c t e d more h i g h l y c o n t a m i n a t e d p o r t i o n s ( a c o n t e n t i o n w i t h n o data b a s e ) or a c c u m u l a t e d l e a d i n i n o r d i n a t e l y high p r o p o r t i o n s . This l a t t e r i d e a i s s u p p o r t e d by e v i d e n c e i n young r a t s , w h i c h a c c u m u l a t e d l e a d t h r e e t i m e s f a s t e r than a d u l t s o f t h e same spec ie s ( 16).

O b s e r v a t i o n s of night h e r o n s r e v e a l e d t h a t young a r e f e d B a s e d on t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n b e t w e e n 4 and 6 t i m e s p e r day ( 1 7 ) . y o u n g h e r o n s i n t h i s s t u d y w o u l d h a v e s t o r e d about 10 p e r c e n t o f the ingested lead. T h i s seems s o m e w h a t h i g h b u t may b e e x p l a i n e d o n t h e basis o f s e l e c t i o n f o r m o r e h i g h l y c o n t a m i n a t e d f o o d s f i s h ) and t h e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t i n g t h e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y f o r (i.e. g r o w i n g young t o s t o r e i n o r d i n a t e l y h i g h a m o u n t s o f l e a d .

I t has b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t e v e n v e r y s m a l l a m o u n t s of l e a d may h a v e d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s on a v a r i e t y o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n s (18). R e c e n t l y , t h e enzyme d e l t a - a m i n o l e v u l i n i c a c i d d e h y d r a t a s e (ALAD) w a s found t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e p r e s s e d by l e a d i n c a n v a s b a c k d u c K s ( 1 9 ) . S i n c e t h i s enzyme i s i n v o l v e d i n

636 e r y t h r o c y t e s y n t h e s i s , t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f even v e r y l o w l e a d l e v e l s may b e m o r e s e r i o u s t h a n p r e v i o u s l y t h o u g h t . The e f f e c t s cmf l o w l e a d l e v e l s o n d y s f u n c t i o n i n any s y s t e m a r e s u b t l e a n d may n o t b e d e t e c t a b l e o r s t a t i s t i c a l l y i m p l i c a t i v e i n s h o r t t e r m s t u d i e s a s f a c t o r s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e p o s s i b l e d e c l i n e of w i l d p o p u l a t i o n s , b u t t h e y may b e e x c e e d i n g l y i m p o r t a n t i n a l o n g term sense. Popul a t i ons o f b l ack-crowned n i g h t h e r o n s a s t e r m i n a l t r o p h i c 1 eve1 consumers and env i r o n m e n t a l a c c u m u l a t o r s o f l e a d w i l l r e q u i r e s p e c i a l m o n i t o r i n g i f we a r e t o p r e v e n t a n y p r o b l e m s w h i c h may ( a l r e a d y b e ) d e v e l o p ( i n g ) .

5.

CONCLUSI ONS

a) Young b l ack-crowned n i g h t h e r o n s h a v e 1 a r g e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f l e a d i n t h e i r t i s s u e s t h a n h e r o n embryos and adul t - d e r i v e d egg tissues.

b)

Heron f o o d s c o n t a i n l e a d .

c) The l a r g e s t and most i s t h e i r food. d)

I t i s probable that

l i k e l y source of

l e a d for young herons

l e a d i s passed through f o o d chains.

B1 a c k - c r o w n e d n i g h t h e r o n s may b e e s p e c i a1 1 y v u l n e r a b l e e) hecause ( i ) l e a d i s p r e s e n t i n t h e i r systems, ( i i ) i t a f f e c t s s u b t l e p h y s i o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n s , and ( i i i ) t h e s e h e r o n s have decl i n i n g breeding ranges.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would l i k e t o thank R. Rozier f o r h i s h e l p and e s p e c i a l l y This D. S t r o h m e y e r f o r h i s g e n e r o u s c o m m e n t a r y on t h e r e s e a r c h . paper i s p a r t o f a t h e s i s s u b m i t t e d t o the U n i v e r s i t y o W i s c o n s i n a t Oshkosh i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u r e m e n t s f o r t h e M.S. d e g r e e . REFERENCES AND NOTES 11) D . L . S t r o h m e y e r . CAS R e s e a r c h R e D o r t . U n i v . o f W i s - 0 s h k o s h Grants O f f i c e (1976); D.L. S t r o h m e y e r , F i n a l P r o j e c t R e p o r t , U n i v . o f Wis.-Oshkosh Grants O f f i c e ( 1 9 7 7 ) . (2) R. A n d r e w s a n d J.R. L o n g c o r e , T r a n s . 3 4 t h N.A. W i l d l i f e a n d N a t . Res. C o n f . , W i l d l . M g t . I n s t . ( 1 9 6 9 ) . (3) D.L. S t r o h m e y e r and J.L. K a s p a r , R e s e a r c h P r o p . N o . 8 1 1 0 , W i s . D e p t . N a t . Res. ( 1 9 7 2 ) . (4) C.D. G r e g o r , E n v i r o n . S c i . and T e c h . 6:278-279 ( 1 9 7 2 ) . (5) B.H. P r i n g l e e t a l , J. S a n i t . E n g . D i v . , P r o c . h e r . S O C . C i v i l Eng. 94:455-475 (1968). (6) W.L. R e i c h e l e t a l , P e s t i c i d e M o n i t . J. 3 : 1 4 2 - 1 4 4 (1969). ( 7 ) N . F i m r e i t e e t a ) , Can. F i e l d N a t . 8 4 : 2 6 9 - 2 7 6 ( 1 9 7 0 ) . (8) R.R S o k a l and F . J R o l f f , B i o m e t r y (1969). (9) R. A l l c r o f t , J. Comp. P a t h . 6 0 : 1 9 0 - 2 0 8 ( 1 9 5 0 ) ; K.L. B l a x t e r , J. Comp. P a t h . 6 0 : 1 4 0 - 1 5 9 (1950). (10) Random n a t i o n - w i d e s a m p l e s o f s t a r l i n g s h a v e r e v e a l e d

637 b a c k r o u n d l e a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f f r o m 0 . 1 2 t o 1 3 . 3 ppm l e a d w e t weight. W.E. M a r t i n , P e s t i c i d e M o n i t . J. 6:27-32 ( 1 9 7 2 ) ; S i m i l a r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f w a t e r f o w l and o t h e r b i r d s h a v e r e v e a l e d a r a n g e o f l e a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f f r o m 0 . 2 t o 2 6 . 0 ppm E . G . B a g l e y and L.N. L o c l t e , B u l l . E n v i r o n . C o n t a m . wet weight. T o x i c o l . 2:297-305 (1967): On t h e o t h e r hand, a c u t e l y 1ead-poi s o n e d w a t e r f o w l h a v e shown 1 i v e r 1e a d c o n c e n t r a t i m i . of f r o m 1 t o 70 p p m . F.E.W. A d l e r , J. W i l d l i f e M g t . 8:83-85 ( 1 9 4 4 ) : N.R. C h u p p and P . D . D a l l t e , J. W i l d l i f e M g t . 2 8 : 6 9 2 - 7 0 2 ( 1 9 6 4 ) ; K . E r n e and K . B o r g , B u l l . No. 5, S w e d i s h N a t . S c i . R e s . C o u n c i l (1969). (11) W.E. M a r t i n and P . R . N i c k e r s o n , P e s t i c i d e M o n i t . J. 7:76-72 (1973). A . C a n t a r o w and M . T r u m p e r , L e a d P o i s o n i n g ( 1 9 4 4 ) . (12) (13) T . J . Chow and J.J. P a t t e r s o n , G e o c h i m . C o s m o c h i m . A c t a 26:263-308 (1962). (14) L. W e t t e r b u r g , L a n c e t 1 : 4 9 8 ( 1 9 6 6 ) . f.1951): J.R. (15) D.R. C o h u r n e t a l , J W i l d l i f e M g t . 1 5 : 1 E 6 - 1 9 2 L o n g c o r e e t a l , S p e c . S c i . R e p . W i l d l i f e No. 1 1 2 ( 1 9 7 4 ) . (16) J . B . S h i e l d s e t a l , J. I n d u s t . H y g . T c ~ x i c o l . 21:7-23 (1938). J.W. W o l f o r d l MS T h e s i s , U n i v . o f A l b e r t a ( 1 9 6 6 ) . (17) (18) L e a d has b e e n f o u n d t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h e n z y m e f u n c t i o n . e r y t h r o c y t e f u n c t i o n , k i d n e y c e l l s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n . n e u r c 4 n s t r u c t u r e and n e u r o m u s c u l a r c o o r d i n a t i o n . b r a i n a.dens1 c y c l a s e f u n c t i o n , coenzyme o x i d a t i o n i n t h e b r a i n , h e p a t i c m i x e d f u n c t i c m GX i dases, and g l u c o n e g e n i c p r o c e s s e s . These r e f e r e n c e s a r e r e u i e w e d by D i e t e r ( b e l o w ) . (19) M.P. D i e t e r , A n i m a l s a s M a n i t o r s o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l P o l l u t a n t s , N a t . A c a d . S c i . (1979).

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

PHOTOINDUCED TOXICITY OF ANTHRACENE IN AQUATIC ORGANISMS: AN ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVE J.T. Oris, J.P. Giesy, P.M. Allred', Pesticide Research Center, Center for Environmental Toxicology and Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, U.S.A. D.F. Grant, Department of Entomology, Michigan S ta te University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, U.S.A. P.F. Landrum, Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, NOAA, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48104, U.S.A. 'Current Address - Environmental Protection Division, 3420 Norman Berry Drive, 7th Floor Scott Hudgens Building, Hapeville, Georgia 30354, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT The toxicity of anthracene, a common polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), has been assessed in a variety of aquatic organisms under environmentally realistic conditions. In the presence of natural or simulated sunlight anthracene was acutely toxic, a t concentrations within aqueous solubility limits, to freshwater zooplankton, insect larvae, and fish. Less than 15 min was required for 50% immobilization of Daphnia pulex at I# p g anthraceneb under natural sunlight (UV-B, 310 +/- 34 nm, = 484 p W/cm 1. Culicid mosquito larvae were also sensitive to anthracene phototoxicity with a 24 hr LC-50 value of 26.8 pg/L at a solar UV intensity five times less than summer maximum in Michigan. A 96 hr LC-50 value of 11.9 p g anthraceneb was determined for a natural population of juvenile bluegill sunfish a t a solar U V intensity equivalent to a depth of 0.6 m in a typical eutrophic north-temperate lake. A freshwater green alga was not adversely affected by the light-anthracene combination. These findings a re in contrast to the previously reported non-toxicity of anthracene to aquatic organisms. Evidence exists which suggests that anthracene is only one of many PAH that can cause photoenhanced toxicity, and concentrations of these compounds a r e expected t o increase in surface waters as a result of increased use of fossil-fuel for heat and energy. The potential environmental consequences of increased loading of PAH in freshwater and marine systems are discussed. We conclude that solar UV radiation is an environmental parameter which must be accounted for when assessing the toxicity of PAH to aquatic organisms. 1.

INTRODUCTION

Assessing the potential hazards of chemicals in the aquatic environment is a monumental task. Until recently most of t h e information used for predictive hazard assessment has been obtained from single species toxicity tests conducted in the laboratory. While laboratory toxicity tests have played an important role in the development of hazard assessment, there is a strong need for the implementation of environmental realism in predictive toxicity testing [ 11. The concepts of ecological relevance and pollutant realism have been discussed by Blanck and Gustafson 121. Pollutant realism is attained when the characteristics of a compound in the natural environment a r e incorporated into the laboratory test system [l]. In general, standard toxicity tests are insensitive t o the complex interactions between an organism and its environment. For instance, standard laboratory toxicity tests generally have

639

640

indicated that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are not acutely toxic to aquatic organisms within t h e limits of aqueous solubility [ 31, and reported acute LC-50 values often exceed maximum solubilities by a factor of 100 to 1000 [ 4 ] . Such high concentrations indicate that carrier solvents were used in t h e tests or that the PAH of interest precipitated or formed micels, possibly altering t h e solution behavior or the bioavailability of the compound. Additionally, PAH studies in the laboratory are often conducted under specialized lighting to prevent photodegradation of t h e parent compound. By incorporating ecological realism into test systems, however, w e have found that in the presence of natural or simulated sunlight, anthracene, a linear 3-ring PAH, is much more acutely toxic to a variety of aquatic organisms than previously expected, at concentrations well within the limits of solubility (( 35 pg/!L). PAH consist of a class of compounds comprised of two or more fused benzene rings with occasional heteroatom or cyclopentene inclusions in the ring structure, or variously substituted alkyl side chairs. Compounds in this class, of environmental importance, range from two-ring napthalene (MW 128.16) to seven-ring coronene (MW 300.36) [ 41. PAH occur as natural products in plants and microbes [ 5 ] . Some PAH are released from volcanic activity and forest fires [ 6 ] . PAH can be formed under anaerobic conditions from quinones and related precursors produced by fungi, plants and animals [ 41, but evidence for direct synthesis of PAH by plants and animals is inconclusive [ 4 ] . Major sources of PAH in surface waters are oil spills, industrial processes, fossil fuel combustion and other pyrolytic processes attributed to human activity [7,8,9,101.

Nearly 230,000 metric tons of PAH enter t h e world's oceans and surface waters every year [ 41, and these inputs are expected to increase with increased use of coal as an energy source [ l l ] . Eisenreich et al. 1121 determined the major input of organic contaminants in t h e Great Lakes region to be non pointsource atmaspheric deposition, and PAH in freshwaters near industrialized areas can be elevated as a result of aerial inputs [61. Water concentrations of PAH resulting from aerial inputs have been reported to range from 0.05 to 3.0 pg/!L [ 4 ] . The flux of total PAH and the concentration of 12 individual PAH into Lake Michigan from aerosols were measured, and in southern Lak Michigan, the 5 flux of anthracene to t% lake was between 0.9 and 14 X 10 kg/yr in dry deposition and 1.3 X 10 kg/yr in wet flux 1131. These fluxes resulted in considerable increases of PAH in the surface waters of the lake. Anthracene concentrations alone ranged from 0.015 to 0.15 pg/!L. In outdoor stream microcosm experiments, anthracene caused acute mortality in juvenile bluegill sunfish at 12.7 pg/!L [14,15]. This concentration had shown no effects in laboratory fate experiments of similar duration. It was determined that sunlight, specifically the atmospheric ultraviolet (UV)portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, significantly enhanced the toxicity of anthracene in the outdoor microcosm studies. The findings presented in this report are derived from our extended investigations of the photoenhanced toxicity of anthracene in aquatic organisms under laboratory and field conditions. To date, we have studied this interaction in the crustacean, DapFia p"f"', larvae of the dipteran, Aedes aegypti, natural and hatchery populations o juvenile bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus, and t h e freshwater green alga, Chlorella pyrenoidosa. These findings are discussed with reference to the previously reported nontoxicity of PAH to these organisms, and to the fact that anthracene is probably only one of many PAH which can cause photoenhanced toxicity. We also a s s e s the potential environmental consequences of increased loading of PAH in freshwater and marine systems from difficult to manage, non pointsource inputs.

641 2.

MATERIALS A N D METHODS

2.1

Laboratory System

Sunlight was approximated in the laboratory using a combination of G.E. Chroma F40C50 white and Westinghouse FS40 ultraviolet fluorescent bulbs. The lights were mounted on a 1.22 X 2.74 m frame on 15.24 cm centers, alternating every other bulb. A 5 mil thick cellulose triacetate (CTA) filter was used to eliminate wavelengths shorter than 285 nm. Light intensity was varied by changing the height of the light bank over the bioassay table or by changing the thickness of the CTA filter. Except where otherwise noted, anthracene (MW 178.23, Sigma grade 111, no. A-3885) solutions were obtained from a once-through aqueous elution column, which avoided .the use of carrier solvents in the bioassays. Anthracene dissolved in acetone w a s slowly poured onto a thin layer of silica sand at 0.2% wt/wt, and the solvent was allowed to evaporate in the dark. When dry (24 hr) the sand was packed into a 7.5 X 45 c m glass column and flushed with water for 48 hr to remove loose anthracene crystals. Anthracene eluted from the column, as part of thedaboratory water delivery system, at aqueous solubility (ca. 35 pg/!L at 22 C) and was diluted to a desired concentration before use. 2.2

Light Measurement

UV-B (310 +/- 34 nm) was quantified using a Macam Photometrics Model UV-103 radiometer equipped with a water-tight Model SD104 cosine-corrected photodiode (Macam Photometrics, Ltd., Livingstone, Scotland).2 Irradiance w a s read directly from the meter in units of pWatts/cm Integrated photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) was measured using a L I C O R LI-188 integrating quantum photometer.

.

2.3

Daphnia Bioassays

Daphnia pulex were collected from a research pond at the Michigan State University Limnological Research Facility and were held in filtered well water. Organisms were fed a maintenance diet of yeast and C. yrenoidosa. Static acute toxicity bioassays were used to characterize the 'actinic toxicity of anthracene. To obviate the need to add organic carrier solvents directly to bioassay chambers, 1%'shell-coating' technique was employed. Anthracene was combined with 9- C anthracene (3.3 pCi/pMole, California Bionuclear, radiochemical purity 98%) in HPLC grade acetone to prepare a stock solution having 2.0 pg and 0.14 pCi anthracene per m!?. of acetone. Three nominal anthracene concentrations of 3.0, 9.6 and 30.0 pg/!L were achieved by adding 0.3, 2.0, and 6.0 m9. of the anthracene stock to 300 m!?. beakers, evaporating the acetone to dryness and adding 200 m!?. of filtered well water. Similarly, designated beakers received 6.0 m!?. of acetone without anthracene to serve as 'shell-coated' controls. Twenty adult D. pulex of approximately the same size and age were placed into each beaker anrgently swirled periodically for 24 hr in the dark to allow the anthracene concentrations in the water and the organisms to reach Ytfady state. Actual anthracene concentrations were determined from measured C activity in the water and known specific activity. Exposures were begun 24 hr after the water and organisms were placed in anthracene coated beakers and were conducted outside on clear (UV-B = 484

642

2 2 2 p W/cm ), partly cloudy (UV-B = 278 p W/cm ), and cloudy (UV-B = 189 p W/cm days. Results are reported as the time (min) required to immobilize 50% of the organisms (ET-50). Solar radiation exposures were terminated a fte r 60 minutes, or after greater than 50% immobilization in all anthracene treatments w a s observed, whichever occurred first. 2.4

Mosquito Bioassays

Mosguito larvae, ti (Rockerfeller strain) were reared in enamel pans a t 25 C and w e r e e l m a 1.6% solution of dried liver powder each day. Static bioassays with 15 to 30 four day old (third instar) larvae were conducted in 500 m.Q beakers in the laboratory (sec. 2.1). Larvae were not fed during the bioassays. Larvae were preincubated in test solutions obtained from the anthracene column (sec. 2.1) or dilution water for 24 hrs to allow equilibration of anthracene with the organisms. After preincubation, the test solutions were replaced with fresh solutions of the same anthracene concentration. The larvae were then exposed to simulated sunlight, and percent mortality was recorded af t er 24 hrs of irradiation. Dark controls were exposed to similar anthracene concentrations in the absence of light. Light controls were exposed to simulated sunlight but were incubated in dilution water containing no anthracene. Larvae molted from 3rd imtar t o 4th instar during the course of the bioassays. Any larvae that pupated during the exposure period were not counted as part of a bioassay. Anthracene water concentrations were determined directly by reverse-phase HPLC.

2.5

Fish Bioassays

For most fish studies, a natural assemblage of juvenile bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) was used. These fish were collected by seine from Park Lake, Clinton Co., Michigan. Other studies were conducted using k. macrochirus obtained from Osage Catfisheries (Osage Beach, MO) or from B y B m k Bass Hatcheries (Ashford, CT). Different populations of fish were kept segregated and w e r e held in large flow-through fiberglass tanks with charcoal filtered, aerated tap-water at 22 C. Fish were held for at least two weeks prior to bioassays on an 18:6 hr lighkdark photoperiod under a low pressure sodium lamp (UV fluence negligible) and were fed twice a day with Biodiet-Starter (BioProducts Iw., Worrenton, OR). Fish were exposed t o anthracene in 18.85k glass aquariums in a flowthrough system under the laboratory light system (sec. 2.1). Fish were transferred to dosing aquariums 48 hr prior t o bioassays for acclimation and to establish an anthracene body burden approximately 80% of the theoretical steady state [16]. Ten fish per aquarium and two aquariums per anthracene concentration were used in all bioassays. Only fish appearing in excellent condition were>used. The photoperiod w a s changed from 18:6 hr light:dark to continuous light in 2 hour per day increments. Fish were not fed for 48 hr prior to, and for the first 96 hr of a bioassay. After 96 hr, fish were fed sparingly every other dax for the duration of the test. Fecal and other particulate material was siphoned from the aquariums as needed. Mortality, gross physical damage, and behavioral changes were noted and recorded at least twice daily. A fish was considered dead when no opercular movements could be detected. Results from fish bioassays are reported as median lethal time (LT-50) in units of hours. Anthracene water concentrations were determined as in section 2.4.

643 2.6

Algal Bioassays

The green alga Chlorella renoidosa was grown in continuous cultures h al. [171 under Sylvania Gro- ux using t h e EPA-AAP medium o fluorescent lighting. Primary productivity was measured as a function of lkCbicarbonate fixation [ 18,19,20]. Incubation chambers were constructed from 0.5 cm thick Lexan (Plexiglas OP-1, UV transparent) or Plexiglas OP-2 (UV opaque). There w e r e 6 chambers per incubation box and each chamber held 180 I& algal suspension. For bioassays, 19 ?!. glass carboys were 'shell-coated' in a manner similar to section 2.3 with a concentrated stock solution of anthracene in acetone. After all acetone evaporated, 18 liters of EPA-APP medium w a s added to the carboys and allowed to equilibrate for 24 hr. 5Algae was added to dosed and undosed carboys at a density of 5 X 10 cells/& and allowed to equilibrate for 24 hr in the dark before adding the algal suspension to individual yyubation chambers. Immediately prior to exposure to solar radiation 1.0 & of C-bicarbonate (1 pCi/mt, 0.1 p C i / p g ) was added to each chamber. After a three hour incubation, 5.0 mZ ! of the algal suspension from each chamber was pipetted into i n d i v e d 20 mP. glass scintillation vials containing 100 1.11 Formalin. Unfixed C-bicarbonate was remove$)y bubbling each vial for 30 min a f t e r adding 100 p1 of 0.1N HCk4 Total C-bicarbonate fixation w a s determined from measured remaining C activity in the algal suspension and known specific activity.

z.

Incubations were performed in the laboratory system (sec. 2.1) and in situ on Lake Michigan from t h e NOAA research vessel Shenehon, 20 km due west of Grand Haven, MI. Field incubations were conducted at a depth of one meter from 0900-12gO hr, during which t h e UV-B intensity at 1 m increased from 180 to 1125 p W/cm The UV-B intensity during the laboratory incubations was held constant at 130 pW/cm 2 UV transparent chambers transmitted greater than 90% of incident radiation greater than 290 nm. The major proportion of U V attenuation in these chambers was due to reflectance. UV opaque chambers eliminated greater than 80% of all radiation less than or equal to 400 nm.

.

3.

.

RESULTS

The actinic effects of anthracene were observed only in the presence of UV radiation. Organisms exposed to anthracene under cool-white fluorescent or yellow fluorescent bulbs were not affected. Likewise, organisms exposed to anthracene under natural or simulated sunlight but were shaded from the UV portion of the spectrum by wavelength selective filters were not affected. In addition, anthracene need only be internally present for any toxic effect to occur, yet when anthracene was present in the external medium toxicity occurred more rapidly. Organisms that had attained theoretical steady state anthracene body burdens and were allowed sufficient depuration to eliminate anthracene in the dark were not adversely affected when subsequently exposed to solar radiation. Thus, the pharmacokinetics of anthracene are such that the phototoxic effects are dependent on the anthracene body burden and the exposure history of the organism. These results are in agreement with the findings of Bowling et al. [ 151. 3.1

Daphnia

Anthracene is extremely photoxic t o the crustacean zooplankter Daphnfa 1). Note that the time units for calculated ET-50 values are in minutes whereas toxicity is usually measured in terms of hours or days. Once

pulex (Figure

644

FIGURE 1. Median e f f e c t time, ET-50, for the immobilization of Daphnia pulex as a function of natural UV-B (310 34 nm) intensity and anthracene concentration. Bars open at top, with stars, indicate no organisms immobilized in 60 min. immobilized by the phototoxic action, no recovery was observed. Control mortality was always less than 10 percent during the exposure, f v e n at the greatest light intensity. At the greatest intensity (484 pW/cm UV-B) and anthracene concentration (32.7 pgP.), all organisms were immobilized within two minutes, with an ET-50 of 0.86 min. Even at the lowest, more environmentally relevant anthracene concentration (1.2 pgP.), t h e ET-50 value was still extremely short (14.0 m i d . Likewise, at lower irradiance levels, ET-50 values were in minutes excepting the lesser anthracene concentrations where no immobilization occurred in 60 minutes (Figure 1). 3.2

-

Mosquitoes

Culicid mosquito larvae, Aedes a e p p t i , are more tolerant to anthracene phototoxicity than D. but are still susceptable to t h e light-anthracene interaction (Figure is. There is an apparent threshold level of light intensity for toxicity2in A. ae ti with marked increases in t o 9 i t y between 80 and 150 p W/cm UV-B an again between 150 and 315 p W/cm (Figure 2). A 24 hr LC50 of 26.8 pg/J?, anthracene was calculated for t h e intermediate light intensity Of 150 I.I W/cm UV-B. Due to the stepped light-anthracene d o s r r e s p o n s e and to t h e lack of partial mortality in tests other than at 150 p W/cm , no other LC-50 values could be calculated. Such a s t e e p dose-response curve, especially across

m,

645

FIGURE 2. Percent mortality of third to fourth instar Aedes ae larvae a f t e r 24 hr continuous exposure to simulated sunligca*on B (310 2 34 nm) intensity and anthracene concentration.

t i mosquito of UV-

light intensity, indicates a homogeneous population response with no resistance to t h e toxic i n t e r a c t i p of UV radiation and anthracene. At the greatest light intensity (470 p W/cm UV-B), mortality was observed even in the no-anthracene controls, approximating a toxic level of UV radiation alone.

3.3

Fish

Under continuous laboratory illumination, t h e t i m e to reach 50% mortality (LT-50) f o r fish was dependent on both UV-B intensity and anthracene concentration (Figure 3). Affected fish showed signs of irritation and hypoxia [21]. Dorsal surfaces became thickened with a creamy white appearance similar to t h e sunburn in fish described by Wlllock [ 2 2 ] . Dead fish exhibited symptoms of asphyxia: open mouth, splayed opercula, and pale gill filaments [23]. In Park Lake fish, +he LT-50 values ranged from 38hr at 26.8 p g F anthracene and 170 pW/cm UV-B to no mortality in 144 hr at t h e lesser UV intensities and anthracene concentrations.

646

FIGURE 3. Median lethal time, LT-50, of juvenile bluegill sunfish, Le macrochirus, exposed to simulated sunlight (photoperipd = 24:O hr l i g h t : d & G tunction of UV-B (310 34 n m ) intensity and anthracene concentration. Bars open at top, with stars, indicate no mortality in 1 4 4 hr. Open bars = natural assemblage of juvenile sunfish collected from Park Lake, M I (USA). Black bars and stipled bars = juvenile bluegill sunfish obtained from Osage Catfisheries, MO (USA), and B y B m k Hatchery, CT (USA), respectively. Calculated ninety-six hour LC-50 values [ 2 4 ] are presented in Table 1. The natural assemblage of juvenile sunfish was not as sensitive to the lightanthracene combination as were the hatchery bluegill sunfish. Bluegill sunfish from Osage Catfisheries were 10 times more sensitive than the Park Lake sunfish (Table 1). Although no LC-50 value could be calculated for ByBrook bluegills, it is apparent from Figure 3 that for at least one anthracene concentration and UV intensity these fish were approximately twice as sensitive than Park Lake fish. LT-50 values were 63 hr and 136 hr for ByBrook and Park Lake fish, respectively, at comparable anthracene concentrations and at the same U V intensity (Figure 3). No direct comparisons between Osage and ByBrook bluegills could be made. 3.4

Algae

The 14C-bicarbonate fixation by the freshwater green alga, Chlorella pyrenoidma, was not adversely affected by anthracene in the presence of UV radiation in the laboratory or in the field. 14n fact, under controlled laboratory conditio'm, there was significantly greater C-bicarbonate uptake (a = 0.05) in anthracene treatments (Figure 4). However, there was significant inhibition of carbon fixation due to UV radiation alone.

647 TABLE 1. 96 hr LC-50 values for juvenile bluegill sunfish exposed to a n t h r a c e n e

at d i f f e r e n t UV-B (310 +/-34 nm) intensities in t h e laboratory. FISH

UV-B interyity (PW/cm )

LC-50 (Pg m

95% Fiducial limits Lower Upper

14.8

26.47

22.62

34.48

70.0

18.23

16.14

21.11

170.0

11.92

10.15

13.40

14.8

2.78

1.94

3.92

Park Lake

Osage Hatchery

CI42SE 5

LAKE

LAB

FIGURE 4. 14C-bicarbonate uptake by t h e green alga, Chlorella pyrenoidosa, exposed to a n t h r a c e n e (A) or not exposed to a n t h r a c e n e (NA) in solar UV opaque (0) or transparent (TI Plexiglas chambers a f t e r 3 hr incubations under natural (LAKE = 1 rn deep, Lake Michigan, 20 km offshore Grand Haven, MI) and simulated (LAB) sunlight. 4.

DISCUSSION

The observed a c u t e toxicity of a n t h r a c e n e in t h e presence of solar radiation is in s h a r p contrast to t h e majority of l i t e r a t u r e toxicity values. Previously, a n t h r a c e n e and related PAH have been widely regarded as not being A c u t e toxicity values f o r PAH a r e a c u t e l y toxic to a q u a t i c organisms. consistently in t h e parts per million (mg/ll) range [ 4 ] , and a r e 100 to 1000 times g r e a t e r than t h e concentrations at which we observed toxicity under ecologically

648

relevant conditions of UV-irradiation. Direct comparisons of our results with literature toxicity values for anthracene are difficult. For example, Eastmond et al. 1251 reported that anthracene is %on-toxic" to Daphnia magna, whereas we observed an ET-50 of 14 min at 1.2 pg anthracene per liter on a sunny day for pulex. However, UV irradiated nauplii of the crustacean, Artemia salina were found to be sensitive to a wide range of PAH at molar concentrations similar to those used in our study [ 2 6 ] .

e.

N o values for anthracene toxicity in mosquitoes are available in the literature. However, larval A. aegypti are known to be photosensitized by polyacetylenes and other thiophene derivatives at small p g h concentrations [ 271. The nontoxic xanthene dye, fluorescein, was .found to synergise the toxicity of rose bengal to larval 4. triseriatus in sunlight, under fluorescent light, and upon illumination by laser light of 488.0 and 514.5 nm 1281. Exposure to solutions containing parts per million concentrations of the dye erythrosin-B in the presence of visible light caused mortality in larvae of the mosquito, Culex pipiens quinquesfasciatus, comparable to our mosquito studies [ 291.

Applegate et al. [ 3 0 1 reported a 24 hr "no-effectlr anthracene concentration of 5 mgh for juvenile bluegill sunfish. This value is 190, 274, and 420 times greater than ou~calculated96 hr LC-50 values at UV-B intensities of 14.8, 70, and 170 I-I W/cm , respectively, for the natural assemblage of sunfish (Table 1). Bluegill sunfish from the Osage hatchery were 1800 times more sensitive than the "no-eff ect" concentration. The only known studies of anthracene photosensitized toxicity to fish are the studies of Giesy et al. 1141 and Bowling et al. [151. Dunbar [311, however, may have unknowingly reported one of the first observed cases of photoenhanced PAH toxicity in fish. The report describes a high rate of mortality in rainbow trout fingerlings held in rfblack-asphaltum painted" troughs after two days of exposure to bright sunlight. Direct effects of U V radiation were considered, though no association w a s made between possible photosensitization by PAH leached into the water and the observed mortality. Kagan et al. [ 321 has shown that late embryonic stages of the frog, Rana pipiens, that share similar habitats with juvenile sunfish are extremely sensitive to anthracene in the presence of natural sunlight. LC-50 values of 65 u g h and 25 p g k for 30 min and 6 0 min exposures, respectively, were determined. Although solar irradiance was not measured, these toxicity values closely correspond to the results of our studies. Ecologically relevant U V radiation has been shown to inhibit carbon fixation by phytoplankton [ 33-37], and the potential for anthracene photosensitization in C. pyrenoidosa was thought to be great. In general, however, phytoplankton have been observed to be very tolerant of exposure to PAH. For instance, unc&r illumination by cool-white fluorescent lights anthracene did not inhibit C-HCO incorporation [ 201. Similar to our studies, Prouse et al. [ 3 8 ] observed a sqight stimulation of the growth of marine phytoplankton exposed to low concentrations of oil and concluded that concentrations of oil encountered in polluted sea water could affect the growth of phytoplankton but the effects would be minor and short lived. The studies of Prouse et al. 1381 were conducted under laboratory conditions and possible photosensitization was not considered. However, our results suggest that the conclusions of their study are valid. The autotrophic capability of phytoplankton requires that they be exposed to both photosynthetically active solar radiation and potentially damaging UV radiation. Also, the very nature of the reactions of photosynthesis expose phytoplankton to potentially damaging photo-oxidative chemical reactions. The

649

carotenoid accessory pigments of algae and photosynthetic bacteria are known to protect these organisms from lethal photooxidation caused by their own chlorophyll [ 3 9 ] . In addition, a carotenoidless mutant of the photosynthetic bacterium, Rhodopseudomonas spheroides, is extremely sensitive to exposure to U V radiation [40]. The active response of cells to photosensitizers can procede by both free radical (Type I) and singlet oxygen (Type 11) mechanisms [ 4 1 ] . However, the singlet oxygen pathway is much more prevalent [41-471. 6 carotene can protect organisms against both Type I and Type Jl reactions [ 4 8 ] , but it is known to be an extremely effective singlet oxygen quencher [39,49] and has been shown to almost completely inhibit the photosensitization reactions of compounds such as porphyrirs in vitro and in vivo [50]. Thus, we would expect the carotenoid containing f i y v a n k t o n to be less sensitive to PAH photosensitized toxicity than the zooplankton, insect larvae, or fish. 4.1

Potential Environmental Phototoxins

Photoenhanced toxicity of anthracene in aquatic organisms is probably not an isolated case since many other PAH strongly absorb radiation in the solar UV range, and can be considered potential environmental phototoxins (Table 2). Almost every organic molecule which absorbs radiation in the region of the electromagnetic spectrum from 320 to 900 n m has been proposed as a potential photosensitizing compound [ 511. There are several possible reasons for the photosensitizing potential of P A H such as anthracene. These include the great absorbance by PAH in the portion of the solar spectrum that penetrates the atmosphere, high quantum yields of singlet and triplet excited states, and long lifetimes of these excited states [ 521. Medical and biochemical researchers have long recognized that PAH are involved in photosensitization and phototoxic reactions in the skin of mammals [53,54]. Complex mixtures such as coal tar as well as individual PAH have been observed to cause erythema in the presence of UV-A (345-390 nm) and UV-B (285-345 n m ) [ 5 5 ] . As early as 1939, Burkhardt [ 5 6 ] reported hypersensitivity and pronounced edema in patients treated with coal tar in the presence of sunlight. The structure-activity relationships of photoreactive PAH have been determined [ 57-61], and the mechanisms of photcxsensitized reactions are well characterized [41-471. There is a need, however, to identify compounds which, due to their environmental mobility and bioavailability, have a great potential to act as phototoxins in the aquatic environment, and to identify environmental parameters which may serve to attenuate or magnify the actinic effects of these com pounds. 4.2

Ecological Consequences

For largely unknown reasons, but perhaps due to the lack of instrumentation, aquatic biologists historically have assumed that solar ultraviolet radiation does not penetrate natural waters to significant depth, and have discounted the importance of solar UV in the aquatic environment. Solar UV does penetrate surface waters to a considerable extent and this penetration has been observed by numerous authors [ 62,63,this study]. The depth of UV penetration is dependent on the productivity and turbidity of a particular body of water [62,64]. For example, in eutrophic Park Lake, MI, 99% of incident UV-B

6 50

TABLE 2. Solar Radiation Absorption Characteristics of Selected Polycyclic Organic Compounds [ 83,841. Absorption in Atmospheric Solar Range Compound Acridine Anthracene Anthranthrene Benz[a]acridine Benzo [ b] chrysene Benzo [ a ] fluoranthene Benzo [ c ] fluorene Benzo[g,h,i] perylene Benzo [ a ] pyrene Benzo [ b] naptho ( 1 , 2 4 1 thiophene Chrysene Coronene Dibenz [ a,j] acridine Dibenz [ a,c]anthracene Dibenz [ a,j]anthracene Dibenzo [ a,h] pyrene Fluorant hene Fluorene Napthacene Napthalene 1-Nitropyrene Phenant hrene Pyrene

UV-B (285-345 nm)

UV-A (345-390 nm)

*

-

*

* * *

* * * *

*

* * *

* * * * *

* * * * * *

* * *

*

* * * -

*

* *

Visible (390-700 nm)

* * *

-

*

*

is attenuated in the upper 2 meters (attenuation coefficient (K) = 2.504 m-'), while in offshore Lak-9 Michigan 1% of incident UV-B penetrates to about 10 meters (K = 0.496 m ). From these measurements, it is evident that solar ultraviolet radiation is present at ecologically significant depths and may play an important interactive role in an environmentally realistic assessment of PAH toxicity.

The impacts of environmental phototoxirrs in aquatic systems a re unknown since research to present has not made explicit tests on an ecosystem-wide basis. It is ilstructive, however, to examine the direct effects of UV radiation on aquatic organisms since UV exposure is necessary to elicit the phototoxic phenomenon due to PAH. In addition, photosensitized PAH toxicity may be considered to enhance the damaging potential of solar UV to aquatic organisms. It is common to describe this toxic response as the photoenhanced toxicity of PAH in aquatic organisms, but there are no compelling reasons why the converse cannot be true (i.e. PAH enhanced toxicity of UV radiation). The impact of Ctirect UV irradiation on planktonic organisms has been the focus of many studies. Shrimp larvae, cr ab larvae, and euphasids are known to be living at or near their UV-B tolerance under current irradiance conditions [65]. These animals have a threshold UV-B tolerance level, below which little or no e f f e c t occurs and above which a strong dose/dose-rate response is

651

observed. Damkaer et al. 1651 suggest that near surface waters are environmentally important since many zooplankters have their center of abundance in these strata or are found exclusively there for at least part of their life cycle. These authors calculate that a 20% reduction in global ozone could significally shorten the larval season of these species, and suggest that natural intensities of UV-B have had a selective role in the seasonal adaptation and community structure of zooplankton species. At slightly enhanced UV-B intensities, seasonal or geographical restrictions could occur in shrimp populations if reproductive success is dependent on late season (i.e. summer-fall) larvae [ 661. Tolerance of exposure to solar UV of many aquatic microorganisms (eg. bacteria, yeast, algae, protozoa and arthropods) and current environmental UV intensities are approximately equal, and solar UV has been implicated as being a major ecological factor controlling the distribution of these organisms [67]. It h a s been suggested that there may be no large reserve of organismal resistance which could cope with altered solar UV exposure, or UV sensitivity, without requiring modification of physiology or behavior [ 671. The vertical migrations of marine and freshwater zooplankton and phytoplankton have been variously interpreted as a maximization of resources such as food or nutrients, photosynthetically active radiation, and avoidance of predation and/or of injurous UV radiation [68,69,70]. In many species of zooplankton, significant negative correlations between incident radiation and the pattern of vertical migration have been observed 1711. In addition, seasonal changes in the vertical distribution and migration patterns correlate significantly with incident radiation, among other factors [ 711. In perhaps one of the earliest studies to recognize the ecological importance of solar UV, Klugh [701 addressed the evolutionary significance of vertical migration of marine copepods relative to exposure to damaging UV irradiation. A close relationship w a s found between the depth of daylight occurrence and the susceptability to UV of these organisms. These results further indicate that the differential sensitivity of organisms to solar UV may play an important role in determining planktonic community structure. More recently, it has been observed that the habitat of a wide variety of planktonic organisms is behaviorally determined by avoidance of solar UV on the basis of differential species sensitivity [ 72,73,74]. For instance, of the many factors considered to affect the vertical distribution of a protozoan by Barcelo and Calkins [ 741, including wind, cloud cover, temperature gradients and food gradients, only UV-B and total solar irradiance were significantly correlated with vertical distribution. The effects of solar UV exposure on marine and freshwater fish have also been examined. Larvae of the northern anchovy are very sensitive to UV-B [ 751. Anchovy and other species of clupeiod fish spawn only during seasons when UV-B irradiance is low or utilize habitats where solar UV-B is strongly attenuated (eg. productive, turbid inshore waters). There are exceptions to the spawning seasonality pattern, such as the pacific mackeral which spawns in June, but these species are more tolerant to UV-B exposure. These seasonal and locational patterns probably evolved with co-occurring periods or areas of optimal food density, but since the food organisms may also exhibit sensitivity to UV irradiation, one should exercise caution in interpreting t h e evolutionary significance of direct effects of UV irradiance on spawning behavior of fishes [ 75). Solar UV has been shown to influence periods of optimal food density, and anchovy, as well as other fish species, are known to be currently existing near their tolerance threshold for UV expawre 1761. Thus, the effect of solar UV on seasonal occurrence and habitat utilization remains an important factor. Sockeye salmon eggs irradiated with UV-B exhibit a high rate of mortality compared to non-irradiated controls [77]. Hatching among irradiated eggs

652

occurred approximately 1 month prematurely, and alevins from these eggs suffered significant developmental abnormalities. Decreased hatching success due to solar U V stress could severely alter the population dynamics of fish. The eggs and larvae of fish are not the only life stages that can be deleteriously affected by solar UV exposure. There are many accounts of 'sunburn' in juvenile and adult fishes in the literature [ 22,31,78,79,80], and it is common knowledge among hatchery workers that juvenile fish are sensitive to exposure to bright sunlight [ 811. Worrest et al. [36] investigated the impact of UV-B on estuarine microcosms in one of the few studies of the community level effects of solar UV. Elevated UV-B exposure resulted in altered phytoplankton community structure, lesser community biomass, less total chlorophyl-a concentration, and lesser radiocarbon assimilation. These authors speculated that altered species composition could affect the quality and quantity of food for primary consumption and that organic carbon exchange between trophic levels could be affected. This impact would be significant if organisms selected by UV were of lower nutritional value. In addition, a decrease in size of representative diatoms upon which consumers could graze was observed, thereby possibly increasing the energy allotment required for grazing and reducing the feeding efficiency of the consumers [ 361. In another community level study, the possible effects of solar U V on competition among species of coral reef epifauna was examined [ 821. It was hypothesized that organisms could gain a selective advantage by developing U V tolerance to avoid competition for space in shaded areas, but that these species would be inferior competitors in the absence of UV since the metabolic burden of maintaining enzyme systems required for U V protection would reduce growth and reproductive potential. This possibility was investigated using two closely related species of sponges, differing mainly in their UV tolerances, and it was found that the shade-adapted species was a better competitor when UV was removed by selective filters, and vice versa when UV w a s present [ 821. From the above discussion, it is apparent that a wide array of aquatic organisms are sensitive to solar UV, and that many are living close to their tolerance threshold or are currently under UV related stress. Any mitigating factor such as increased PAH loading that would either increase the effect of UV or decrease tolerance to UV irradiation of aquatic organisms even slightly could cause significant short and long term ecological consequences through species and size specific mortality, habitat limitations, seasonal tolerance restrictions, reduced reproductive success, or altered energy-flow dynamics. 5.

CONCLUSIONS

It has been known for many years that anthracene and other related PAH can act as photosensitizing compounds in the presence of atmospheric solar radiation, but this fact has not been widely recognized as important in the assessment of the environmental hazards of these compounds. Solar UV radiation penetrates to significant depths in natural waters and is an ecological parameter which must be accounted for in an environmentally realistic hazard assessment program. The importance of this consideration is shown in our observed increases, from 100 t o > 1000 times literature values, in the toxicity of anthracene to aquatic organisms. Current environmental concentrations of anthracene are less than our measured acute toxicity thresholds. However, the additive, subtractive, or synergistic properties of natural mixtures of phototoxic PAH are unknown, and chronic effects have not been assessed. Therefore, it is feasible that small

653

increases of PAH concentrations in s u r f a c e w a t e r s could c a u s e d r a m a t i c impacts in a q u a t i c ecosystems, or t h a t a q u a t i c organisms may presently be under considerable photo toxin induced stress. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS W e gratefully acknowledge t h e assistance of R. L. Graney, D. J. Versteeg, J. Newsted, S. R. Nihart, M. Reinhold, and t h e crew of t h e R.V. Shenehon. J e n n i f e r Sweet typed t h e manuscript. This research was supported by t h e Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station and t h e G r e a t Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory of t h e National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Travel funding was provided by t h e C e n t e r f o r Environmental Toxicology, Michigan State University. Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station journal a r t i c l e number 11218.

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32. Kagan, J., P.A. Kagan, and H.E. Bushe. Light dependent toxicity of alphaterthienyl and a n t h r a c e n e toward late embryonic stages of Rana pipiens. J. Chem. Ecol. (in press) (1984). 33. Smith, R.C., K.S. Baker, 0. Holm-Hansen and R. Olson. Photoinhibition of photosynthesis in natural waters. Photochem. Photobiol. 31: 585-592. (1980). 34. Lorenzen, C.J. Ultraviolet radiation and phytoplankton photosynthesis. Lirnnol. Oceanogr. 24: 1117-1120. (1979). 35. Worrest, R.C. Impact of solar ultraviolet-B radiation (290-320 nm) upon marine microalgae. Physiol. Plant. 58: 428-434. (1983). 36. Worrest, R.C., B.E. Thomson, and H. Van Dyke. Impact of UV-B radiation upon estuarine microcoms. Photochem. Photobiol. 33: 861-867 (1981). 37. Hannan, P.J., J.W. Swinnerton, R.A. Lamontagne and C. Patouillet. Effects of UV-B on algal growth r a t e and t r a c e gas production. Aquatic Toxicolo , ASTM STP 707, J.G. Eaton P.R. Parrish and A.C. H e n d r d . American Society f o r Testing and Materials (1980). 38. Prouse, N.J., D.C. Gordon, and P.D. Keizer. Effects of low concentrations of oil on t h e growth of unialgal marine phytoplankton culture. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 33: 810-818 (1976). 39. Matheus, M.M. and W.R. Sistrom. The function of t h e carotenoid pigments of Sarcina lutea. Arch f u r Microbiologia 35: 139-146. (1960).

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40. Dworkin, M. Endogenous photosensitization in a carotenoidless mutant of Rhodopseudomonas spheroids. J. Gen. Physiol. 41: 1099-1112 (1958). 41. Lochmann, E.R. and A. Micheler. Molecular and biochemical aspects of photodynamic action. Photochem. Photobiol. 29: 1199-1204 (1979). 42. Gornmers, F.J., J. Bakker, and H. Wynberg. Dithiophenes as singlet oxygen sensitizers. Photochem. Photobiol. 35: 615-619 (1982). 43. Owens, O.V.H., D.T. Krizek. Multiple effects of U V radiation (265-330 nm) on fungal spore emergence. Photochem. Photobiol. 32: 41-49 (1980). 44. Webb, R.B. and J.R. Lorenz. Oxygen dependence and repair of lethal effects of near ultraviolet and visiblelight. Photochem. Photobiol. 12: 283289 (1970). 45. Ito, T. Toluidine blue: The mode of photodynamic action in yeast cells. Photochem. Photobiol. 25: 47-53 (1977). 46. Bakker, J., F.J. Gommers, I. Nieuwenhuis, and H. Wynberg. Photoactivation of the nematicidal compound a-terthienyl from roots of marigolds (Tagetes species). J. Biol. Chem. 254(6): 1841-1844 (1979). Inhibition of 47. Shimizu-Takahama, M., T. Egashira, and U. Takahama. respiration and loss of membrane integrity by singlet oxygen generated by a photosensitized reaction in Neurospora crassia conidia. Photochem. Photobiol. 33: 689-694 (1981).

48. Foot, C.S. Photosensitized oxidation and singlet oxygen: Consequences in biological systems. In: Free Radicals in Biology VII. W.A. Pryor (ed.), Acad. Press, N.Y. pp. 8 5 - 1 m 1 9 7 6 ) . 49. Anderson, S.M. and N. Krinsky. Protective action of carotenoid pigments against photodynamic damage t o liposomes. Photochem. Photobiol. 18: 403408 (1973). 50. Cannistraro, S. and A. V a n de Vorst. Photosensitization by hematoporphyrin: ESR evidence for free radical induction in unsaturated f a t t y acids and for singlet oxygen production. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 74(3): 1177-1185. (1977).

51. Krinsky, N.I. Cellular damage initiated by visible light. In: The Survival of Vegetable Microbes. T.R.G. Gray and J.R. Postgate (eds.). 26th Symp. SOC. Gen. Microb. pp. 209-239 (1976). 52. Prusik, T., N.E. Geactinov, C. Tobiasz, V. Ivanovic and I.B. Weinstein. Fluorescence study of the physic-chemical properties of a benzo(a)pyrene 7,8-dihydrodiol 9,lO-hydroxide derivative bound covalently t o DNA. Photochem. Photobiol. 29: 223-232 (1979). H.A.D. White and J.A. Parrish. Components of 53. LeVine, M.J., Goeckerman regimen. J. Invest. Dermatol. 73: 170-173 (1979).

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60. McVie, J., R.S. Sinclair, and T.G. Truscott. Quantum yields of triplet formation of some derivatives of anthraquinone. Photochem. Photobiol. 29: 395-397 (1979). 61. Co, Tiao-Te and A.L. Kwiram. Effect of methyl substituents on the triplet s t a t e properties of benz(a) anthracene. Photochem. Photobiol. 29: 10211023 (1979). 62. Smith, R. and K.S. Baker. Penetration of UV-B and biologically effective dose-rates in natural waters. Photochem. Photobiol. 29: 311-323 (1979). 63. Calkins. J. A method for the estimation of the Denetration of bioloeicallv injurous' solar ultraviolet radiation into natural wGers. In: The Role ofpSol& Ultraviolet Radiation in Marine Ecosystems. J. Calkins ( e d T Plenum Press N.Y. pp. 2 4 7 - 2 6 2 2 T 64. Smith, R., K.S. Baker, and J. Fahy. Effects of suspended sediments on penetration of solar radiation into natural waters. Project Summary, U.S. EPA, Athens, EPA-600/S3-83-060 (1983). 65. Damkaer, D., D. Dey, G. Heron and E. Prentice. Effects of UV-B radiation on near-surface zooplankton of Puget Sound. Oecologia (Berl.) 44: 149-158 (1980). 66. Damkaer, D., D. Dey, and G. Heron. Dase/dose-rate responses of shrimp larvae t o UV-B radiation. Oecologia 48: 178-182 (1981). 67. Calkins, J. and T. Thordardottir. The ecological significance of solar UV radiation on aquatic organisms. Nature 283: 563-566 (1980). 68. Bainbridge, R. Migrations. Chap 12 In: Physiology Press, N.Y. pp. 431-463 (1961).

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The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

ENERGY SYSTEMS, HYDROGEN AND THE BIOSPHERE

John E.S. Graham 15 Dundonald Street #1902 Toronto, Ontario, Canada M4Y 1K4

ABSTRACT

In the living of its life, every species has an effect on the environment. And it is the sum of all such effects, plus the characteristics of the physical environment, which ultimately define the biosphere. Recently, geologically speaking, human activities have begun altering ecosystems in ways and in magnitudes which are almost unprecedented and which are perceived to have lowered the "quality" of living systems. Pollution is the word used generally to describe such deleterious effects on the biosphere but it does little to shed light upon why or how pollution occurs. What we must learn to accept is that man's impact on the environment derives primarily from his quest for and use of energy, either to feed himself or power his activities. His search for and production of materials also degrade selected ecosystems but since these activities would be impossible without usable energy, it is actually how we capture, store, transmit and utilize energy which determines how seriously the biosphere is affected by our actions. Earth's serious environmental problems - air pollution, water pollution, thermal pollution, acid rain, C 0 2 accumulation in the atmosphere, deforestation, desertification and so on and so forth - all result from "human/energy" interactions. This concept gives us a starting point for perceiving ways in which man's degradation of the environment can be diminished. It appears evident that most forms of pollution could be significantly ameliorated by reducing our dependence on fossil fuel resources. Movement away from hydrocarbon-based energy systems to systems characterized by the exploitation of nonfossil sources of energy, and in particular by the use of hydrogen and electricity as the prime energy currencies (energy carriers), is presented as an energy strategy which would produce distinct environmental benefits. 1.

INTRODUCTION

All the lifeforms which inhabit Earth exert some influence o n their surroundings. And i t is the s u m total of these

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multitudinous effects, taken together with the characteristics of the physical environment, which conspire to define niches, communities, ecosystems and, ultimately, the biosphere. The biosphere is analogous to the thin skin of a bubble, and it constitutes the fragile outer layer or covering of our planet. Compared w i t h the size of Earth itself, i t i s rather insignificant, extending above the planet only a very short distance and penetrating only minimally into Earth's crust. But this thin-skinned phenomenon is remarkable indeed, for despite our most concerted efforts w e have not yet been able to detect its like anywhere else in the universe. It is difficult to grasp the fact that the biosphere is actually extremely limited because w e live in it. In the way a small puddle represents the universe to a tadpole, w e have difficulty seeing and appreciating the universe beyond because we are completely immersed in the swirling, seething mass of life we call the biosphere. We are, however, developing a greater and greater appreciation for the biosphere's uniqueness a s w e be begin to travel outside its boundaries and recognize it as an environment which appears to be completely unrepresentative of the rest of space. Because w e live in the biosphere, because w e are u s e d t o t h e grandeur of nature's h a n d i w o r k , and because w e h a v e all experienced the awesome power of "the elements" through natural disasters or catastrophes, we think of the biophere as "strong". We think of it as an entity with which we have to cope, not vice versa

.

It certainly is all-encompassing - only a handful1 of men have ever managed to venture beyond it - but the biosphere constitutes only the thinnest of coatings on our planet, and it is remarkable in that it has persisted at all over time, not for the fact that it seems incredibly resilient, and resistant to the rough handling it has received from the species Homo sapiens. This is not to say that all species live in harmony with their environment in such a way that they never change it, and, by implication, that man and all his activities are bad because he and they d o change the status quo. Indeed, as mentioned above, it is the very sum of multitudinous effects by innumerable individuals which actually define ecosystems. And one has only to think of the "oxygen revolution" that plants carried out 3 . 5 to 4 billion years ago to realize that, as a species, nothing we are likely to do short of instigating nuclear war is likely to have as profound an effect on the biosphere as did green plants and the (essentially) irreversible transformation they wrought with their chlorophyll molecules eons ago. This should not, however, be taken as an excuse to disregard our impact o n the environment. Plants "got a w a y " w i t h w h a t they did - polluting t h e atmosphere with molecular oxygen - because, in the process, they transformed the environment in a way which enabled them to create their o w n food energy. They became independent. They became

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autotrophs, species which are able to tap the never-ending supply of energy which falls o n Earth in a continuous stream of radiation from the Sun. In doing so they created an environment which all other organisms must cope with if they are to survive. Man, on the other hand, is as yet unable to directly tap an external (or extraterrestrial) source of energy to any significant degree and is therefore dependent upon the marvellous photosynthetic ability of plants to nourish his body with the energy it needs. He also depends upon natural planetary energy resources to supply his other energy needs. In other words, we are heterotrophs which depend absolutely on the proper functioning of Earth's various ecosystems so that the plants within them can carry out the primary production which is the essential first step in providing us, and all other heterotrophs, with food, with the energy we need to "run" our bodies. But man differs significantly from the rest of the world's heterotrophs in at least one very important way. We are unique in that we have needof e n e r g y i n t w o d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t f o r m s . We need food to power our bodies, and we need energy currencies (media of energy exchange which can be spent in return for work) to spend on doing the activities we do to provide ourselves with s h elter and w a r m t h , t o p o w e r o u r c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d transportation systems, to supply ourselves with materials for the creation of the goods w e require, and to enable us to manipulate ecosystems to provide us with our daily bread. In short, we need energy currencies to facilitate "human/energy" interactions. It is our ever-increasing use of energy, however, which enables us to alter ecosystems and to pollute. 2.

ENERGY SOURCES, CURRENCIES AND TECENOLOGIES

Our energy systems can be divided into three different parts: (1) energy sources, ( 2 ) energy currencies, and ( 3 ) energy technologies. Each of these segments have their own peculiar effects on the environment and this breakdown gives us three potentially different ways of looking at how we can attack the problems resulting from our use of energy. We must become more serious at developing and utilizing energy sources, currencies and technologies which are increasingly environmentally benign. Everyone knows what energy sources are. They are simply resources which can be developed and exploited for the production of utilizable energy. They range from fossil fuels to nuclear power, from ocean thermal energy to solar radiation, from tidal power to geothermal energy. There are, however, significantly varied perceptions as to which of these sources are most desirable for exploitation from an environmental point of view. Almost every energy form has its proponents and detractors. There appears to be very little discussion over which energy

currencies we should be moving towards using, primarily because "energy currency" is neither a term nor a concept which is familiar to many. Energy currencies are are neither energy sources nor energy technologies. They are intermediaries between the source from whichenergyisderived and the point at which it is used. Most energy currencies have traditionally been called fuels. But t h e t e r m fuel n o r m a l l y r e f e r s to c o m b u s t i b l e materials and therefore does not aptly describe electricity. An energy currency is simply a medium of energy exchange which can be spent in return for work. Of course, according to the First Law of Thermodynamics, energy is neither created nor destroyed: therefore, we do not actually use energy for anything. We do, however, facilitate its transformation from one form to It is this another, and in so doing derive work from it. process, because of its present magnitude, that is directly or indirectly causing our environmental problems. Nevertheless, we must use energy to maintain modern society. Therefore, w e must concentrate to an increasing degree on developing ways and means of generating, storing, transporting/distributing, and using energy without engendering environmental havoc. The term energy technologies describes,those means we have of facilitating (or inhibiting) the transformation of energy from one form to another. For example, hydroelectric installations enable u s to transform the energy of falling w a t e r into electrical energy, and nuclear plants enable us to transform the energy of radioactive elements into heat or electrical energy. Since energy sources are not inherently naturally polluting, we must recognize that it is man's transforming of energy forms which generates pollution and environmental deterioration. Thus, one of the first steps w e must take to reduce our impact on the biosphere will be to develop energy technologies which are (1) non-polluting and (2) conserving in nature, so that w e can keep our energy transforming activities to a minimum. We must also increasingly use those energy currencies available to us which pose the least threat to the environment. And w e must redirect our thinking to use those energy resources which are inherently least damaging to the environment upon exploitation, that is which can be used to produce desirable energy currencies and which will require the use of those energy technologies which are least environmentally disruptive. 3.

POLLUTION AND THE USE OF ENERGY

The problems w e are facing as a result of our violation of the biosphere are many. They range from local phenomena like the pollution of streams or lakes, to larger-scale problems such as the desertification of extensive regions of Earth (the Sahel in Afrika being a prime example), to global problems such as acid rain and C 0 2 accumulation in the atmosphere.

In many of the world’s freshwater lakes, streams and rivers, industries and energy-generating installations pour all manner of pollutants into the waterways - everything from heavy metals to organic wastes, from newly-systhesized, completely unnatural chemicals to energy-containing materials such as coal particulates and oil , from radioactive contamination to thermal pollution. In the Sahel, the environment is suffering from a disastrous desertification problem. This has also been brought about by energy considerations. First, gleaning for firewood to produce thermal energy for cooking and keeping warm has literally denuded the countryside of vegetation and promoted the deterioration of the ecosystem to the point where it is now no longer capable of combating the various forces of erosion which act to destabalize dryland communities. Second, cattle husbandry is practised to an extent greater than the carrying capacity of the environment in order to generate food energy in the form of animal protein, or to produce economic gain enabling farmers to buy food other than meat. Overgrazing of the sparse vegetation cover very quickly produces an ecosystem unable to cope with diminishing supplies of rain, and leads inevitably t o the exacerbation of desertification. As far as pollution problems which have now become truly global in scale are concerned, it is obvious that these phenomena are directly related to man’s manipulation of energy. For example, the Industrial Revolution was made possible by an exponential increase in the use of energy for the generation of heat and electricity and to provide motive power in the transportation sector. This feat was accomplished by combusting ever-increasing quantities of fossil fuels:. coal first, then oil over the last fifty years and, most recently, natural gas. Billions of tons of carbon dioxide have been released to the atmosphere as a result oftheoxidation of these fossil fuels and that enormous amount, combined with a roughly equivalent amount of C 0 2 generated as a result of deforestation, has led to an increase in the concentration of C 0 2 in the atmosphere of some 4 0 PPm. In addition, burning fossil fuels and smelting sulphurcontaining ores has released billions of tons of acid rain precursors - sulphur dioxide ( C 0 2 ) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) - to the atmosphere producing acid rain. Acidic precipitation has now become a modern-day malaise which n o longer plagues industrialized nations alone. It has spread worldwide, even recently being detected in the fogs of the Arctic. Similarly, and paradoxically, a large portion of the energy w e require for the “human/energy“ interactions referred to earlier is used for activities which are carried out to provide our bodies with food energy - agriculture and the food processing industry in general use prodigious amounts of energy. This is perhaps the clearest example of how the simple transformation of wind, water, electrical, nuclear, geothermal, or whatever energy form to food energy for m a n contributes greatly to the contamination of the environment.

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In fact, the cause of the biosphere's ills can all be traced directly or indirectly to our quest for, and/or our manipulation and use of energy. We must therefore admit that none of these problems would exist if w e weren't either searching for or "using" large quantities of energy. We must understand that it is the process of transforming energy from one form to another on an ever-increasing scale which is causing our environmental ills. In fact, the one "sure-fire'' way of ending pollution by man would be to deprive him of his energy supplies. Without them .he wouldn't be able to do anything to damage the biosphere. 4.

ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL DETERIORATION

The more energy w e process through our energy systems, the more damage w e do t o the environment. This is done in two ways: via the generation of material pollution through the manipulation of matter; and via "pollution" with energy itself, usually in the form of thermal pollution, but also existing in such forms as extremely low frequency (ELF) electric fields from electric transmission lines (Marino and Becker, 1 9 7 8 ) , or radioactive contamination.

The term pollution usually refers to an excess of some manmade material in a specific location (mercury in freshwater rivers and lakes, excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, oil on the seas and in estuaries, and so forth) and does not conjure images of such environmental problems a s deforestation and desertification. But the corruption of the biosphere is now truly a global phenomenon and looking from the vantage point of outer space it is not difficult to accept the image of man damaging the planet through the indiscriminant use of energy. Unfortunately, the use and control of greater and greater amounts of energy has become increasingly dangerous in that we have begun interfering with the normal functioning of natural biogeochemical cycles, the cycles in which elements such a s carbon pass through biological and non-biological compartments in an endless recycling process. Except for green, photosynthetic plants, no species has ever before had the power to remove itself from and independently alter such cycles. In burning fossil fuels on a large scale over the last one hundred years or so, w e have released to the atmosphere a quantity of carbon that natural processes took millions of years to lay down and, in the process, w e have significantly perturbed the carbon cycle. This rapid turning back of t h e carbon clock m a y very w e l l t u r n back t h e meteorological clock as well, leading to a climate which has not existed on Earth for millions of years. Man developed the ability to manipulate the environment with ene r g y o v e r a very long period of time. At f i r s t s m a l l quantities of energy were used when he discovered fire. Then he domesticated beasts of burden, harnessing their energy for

agriculture and transportation. Next he discovered coal, then m o v e d t o t h e use of petroleum and more r e c e n t l y t o t h e burning of natural g a s , t h e latter 3 0 years o r so seeing a parallel development of nuclear power take place. Surprisingly, during this evolution he actually moved in the direction of using cleaner and cleaner fuels - from wood, to coal, to petroleum, to natural gas. This was undoubtedly done more for convenience that for cleanliness, but the direction has been towards fuels (or energy currencies) with decreased carbon content and increased hydrogen content. If one looks at the hydrogen-to-carbon ratio of these fuels, one finds that it is a ratio that is continually increasing. The logical extention of this trend is to move to pure hydrogen produced from a varietyof energy sources alternative to fossil fuels, probably most notably via the electrolysis of water. In 1 9 8 0 / 1 9 8 1 a Special Committee on Alternative Energy and Oil Substitution of the Canadian House of Commons did a study of alternative energy options in the Canadian context and produced a widely-acclaimed report entitled Energy Alternatives (Canada 1981). While working for this committee a seven point pnilosophy was iterated to be used in the formulation of environmentallyresponsible energy policy. The points were made in connection with establishing a new energyorder for a world in which the use of fossil fuels would slowly be diminished. This goal was desired because fossil fuels are an exhaustible resource and because there are unacceptable environmental risks associated with the continued and increasing burning of carbon-containing energy resources. The report stated: that w e should make every effort to reduce energy demand by practicing conservation; that in the long term, energy should be derived primarily from renewable and/or inexhaustible sources of energy; that the production of the primary energy w e require should be achieved w i t h as little environmental disruption as possible; that w e must achieve greater d i v e r s i t y in our energy mix; that w e must recognize r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n energy r e s o u r c e s and in energy requirements; that w e must address s t r a t e g i c c o n c e r n s in formulating energy policy, and: that we must adequately consider the social implications of bringing about major changes in energy systems. In short, w e should be thinking about establishing energy systems which are flexible, diverse, environmentally benign, strategically and socially responsible, and essentially conserving in nature. That is undoubtedly easier said than done. But w e h a v e a n abundance o f resources o n Earth and the technological capability t o build such a n ecologically responsible energy system. All w e have to quibble about is whether w e are willing to pay the price. 5.

HYDROGEN AND ELECTRICITY

It is the i:hesis of this paper that a significant array of our environmental ills derive from the continued and expanded use

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of energy and, in particular, f r o m the combustion of the fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas. Oil spills, black lung disease, carbon dioxide pollution, acid rain, open pit mining, carbon particulates, the despoiling of terrain or water bodies in the search for and the delivery of hydrocarbons a1 1 result from our "addiction" to carboncontaining molecules laid down in warmer times millions of years :go. We must gain a greater appreciation for the fact that the menu" of energy sources available to man is extensive and that we should begin tailoring our energy systems to make use of regional energy resources to meet local energy requirements and not force all our activities into the mould of having to conform to the requirements of an oil-based technological system. All of Earth's energy sources should be used where most appropriate to produce a diverse energy system which would nevertheless be cohesive and universally acceptable through the generation and use of the energy currencies hydrogen and electricity. Developing such a system would be ecologically responsible and would simultaneously free us from the fundamental error or having the entire planet's energy system based o n one single depleting and nonrenewable energy source. Hydrogen and electricity represent ideal energy currencies because they are of themselves non-polluting and because they are renewable. Hydrogen is produced from water via the process of electrolysis and it combines with oxygen to reform water upon combustion. Similarly, electricity is generated via the separation of charge and it returns to charge neutrality upon be ing "used "

.

Hydrogen and electricity also make perfectly compatible energy currencies because they are interconvertible. Hydrogen can be converted to electricity via fuel cells, and electricity can be converted to hydrogen via electrolysis cells. And lastly hydrogen and electricity make perfect energy currencies because the are complementary. Hydrogen can meet all our requirements for chemical energy, such as is required for the transportation sector. And electricity can satisfy all our needs for electrical energy where chemical energy would not suffice, such as in running electrical appliances or computers. Electricity and hydrogen are ideal energy currencies (or fuels) because they contain no carbon and produce no pollutants when used. But it would certainly not benefit us greatly if we converted to environmentally benign energy currencies while generating them from environmentally damaging energy sources. We must make a planned and controlled effort to use clean energy currencies, and to generate them in a clean and conserving manner from those energy sources which are most appropriate in any specific location.

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6.

CONCLUSION

The environmental problems Earth is suffering from today are anthropogenic. Nature does not pollute. All the ills the biosphere i s suffering f r o m e x i s t a s a result of man's manipulation of matter and, more specifically, energy. None of the pollution problems which trouble us so greatly would exist if w e did not use energy to concentrate materials in a location where they would not occur naturally. And none of the forms of pollution such as desertification, the desizruction of the ozone layer, the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the extinction of species, the introduction of new life forms, or the synthesis of new and unrecognizable chemicals would be possible w i t h o u t using large quantities of energy. Directly o r indirectly, our search for and development of, our distribution and/or transportation of, our storage of and our "use" of energy conspire to affect our biosphere in ways which always seem to be detrimental. Our energy systems can be broken down into three components: ( 1 ) energy sources, ( 2 ) energy currencies, and ( 3 ) energy technologies. This factoring enables us to judge more easily where we should make improvements to the energy system to reduce mankind's effect on the biosphere. It means we must look at all kinds of energy sources, currencies and technologies to produce the energy w e need, not just blindly adhere to the oil-based system which has evolved. First, we should make every effort to practice conservation. By limiting our use of energy w e will automatically reduce our impact on the environment. Second, we should strive to utilize inexhaustible o r replaceable sources of energy. Third, the production of the primary energy w e require should be achieved with as little environmental disruption as possible. Fourth, we should strive for diversity in our energy mix. Fifth, w e must recognize and make allowances for differences in regional energy requirements and energy resources. Sixth, energy systems which are resiliant and independent must be strived for in order to address the strategic concerns associated with dependence upon energy supplies. And seventh, all attempts at changing our energy systems must only be made while simultaneously taking all the many and varied social implications they will mean into account. Which energy sources to exploit and how to do so will remain a question to be answered while taking the specifics of each situation into consideration. But it does seem that an expanded use of the energy currencies hydrogen and electricity would permit a diversification of our current energy system, would give us the opportunity to develop and utilize less polluting and more energy-conserving energy technologies, and would allow us to use energy currencies or fuels which are themselves environmentally benign.

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7.

REFERENCES

Canada (1981). House of Commons special committee o n Alternative Energy and Oil Substitution, (Thomas Lefebvre, Chairman) (J. E. S. G r a h a m , c o - a u t h o r a n d c o - e d i t o r ) . Energy Alternatives, Report of t h e Special Committee, Supply and Services, Hull, Quebec, Canada. H i g h v o l t a g e lines: M a r i n o A. A., a n d R. 0. B e c k e r (1978). hazard at a distance. Environment, 20, 1-12.

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N.Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.,Amsterdam,1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

HYDROGEN PRODUCTION BY NON-PHOTOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA Samuel D. Huang, Carolyn K. Secor Riverside City College Riverside, California 92506, U.S.A. Robert M. Zweig Clean Fuel Institute Riverside, California 92503, U.S.A. Richard Ascione National Cancer Institute Bethesda, Maryland 2 0 0 1 4 , U.S.A. ABSTRACT This paper is devoted to the identification of hydrogen producing non-photosynthetic bacteria and the discussion of the following three areas of possible research: 1) hydrogen from sewage treatment plants; 2) hydrogen from rumen bacteria; and large scale production of hydrogen through the genetic manipuation of hydrogen producing non-photosynthetic bacteria. KEYWORDS

Hydrogen production; non-photosynthetic bacteria; sewage treatment plant; rumen bacteria; hydrognease; formate dehyrogenase. INTRODUCTION International problems with air pollution (acid rain, health effects, property damage, etc.) have raised public awareness to the need for a non-polluting energy source. Hydrogen has, in the past, been suggested as a fuel which would eliminate most air pollution problems. One reason for the delayed acceptance of hydrogen has been the difficulty of production on a cost-effective basis. One method of hydrogen production with great promise has been that by unicellular organism synthesis. Photosynthetic and nonphotosynthetic organisms have been studied and suggested as possibilities. Extensive analytic reviews of algae and photosynthetic microorganisms have been published. However, photosynethic organisms require solar collectors, and engineering analysis has suggested that solar generators would be too costly. Therefore this paper suggests that the use of non-photosynthetic bacteria would be more cost effective in producing hydrogen. Bacterial classification, enzyme identification and future large scale production designs will also be addressed. BACTERIAL PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN Historically, science has known about hydrogen production from microorganisms for over fifty years, but most of the research has been conducted with photosynthetic organism. Weaver (1980) at Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), and Mitsui (1980) at the University of Miami have led the experimental work in the fields of photobiosynthetic bacteria and algae. A brief examination of the practicability of establishing a generator

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utilizing cultures of Rhodopseudomonas capsulata led us to the conclusion that l o n g term efficiency would not be cost-effective. Data supplied by (SERI) were analyzed by Lummus/Combustion Engineering Corp. of Englewood, New Jersey. Lummus (1981) concluded that with a 5% efficiency, the payback time would be about 11.5 years. With this information we were forced to seek out other options for hydrogen production, specifically non-photosynthetic microorganisms for the production of hydrogen. Reviewing the literature on this subject, we found evidence of hydrogen production in humans. CLINICAL EVIDENCES OF HYDROGEN PRODUCTION IN MAN

Man has known about explosive intestinal gases for centuries. It has been suggested that ancient Chinese Dragons eructed hydrogen and methane which ignited to form the historical "flaming breath.'' Levy ( 1 9 5 4 ) reported evidence of an explosive mixture of intestinal gases ( I G ) found during electro-surgery. Bigard (1979) also reported the occurrence of a fatal explosion during colonic polypectomy. Analysis of this explosive IG was reported by Levitt ( 1 9 7 0 ) . He found that hydrogen could reach a s high as 4 5 % of the total IG of the lower intestine. LaBrooy ( 1 9 8 1 ) found that hydrogen concentration increased when mannitol was used as a pre-operative laxative. When the hydrogen levels reach 4.1% it is considered explosive. A level of 4 5 % was therefore a life-threatening situation. Further analysis of I G by Perman ( 1 9 8 1 ) utilizing gas chromatography and mass spectrometry concluded that hydrogen production rates were pH dependent, with an optimum range from 5 . 5 to 7.6, with maximum production at 7 . 0 to 7.4. Additional infomation regarding hydrogen production was supplied by Levitt (1969) who found that hydrogen concentration increased following meals of non-absorbable carbohydrates. Pernan measured glucose as the substrate, and concluded that bacteria can utilize glucose via pyruvate degradation. AS l o n g as glucose is available, hydrogen production was constant at 16.3 micromoles per hour at pH 7.3. Raskin ( 1 9 8 0 ) also found that certain foods such as beans. raisins, bananas, fruit juices, and the antibiotic succinylsulfathiazole increased hydrogen production. Since hydrogen is now known to be produced in the human intestine, we would expect that hydrogen could be obtained from human sewage. Me will deal with this potential later. First, we must identify and classify these non-photosynthetic microorganisms and their mechanism of hydrogen production. CLASSIFICATION OF ALL HYDROGEN PRODUCING ORGANISMS Gray and Gest in ( 1 9 6 5 ) wrote an excellent review, on the classification of hydrogen producing organisms. They divided all the hydrogen producing organisms into the following four categories. CATEGGRY I Strict anaerobes with hydrogenase enzvme and ferredoxin (which mediates the transfer of electrons to the enzyrre) comprise Categorv T. The source of electrons are from any reduced two-carbon compounds (such as

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degraded pyruvate) products from purine and pyrimidine metabolism, and anaerobic degradation of amino acids. Phosphoclastic cleavage of pyruvate with no formic acid intermediate appeared to be the mechanism for organisms in Category I. The electron carrier is a ferredoxin protein and not cytochrome. The following scheme represents the reaction of pyruvate degradation in Clostridium pasteurianum. ethanol-aldehyde

Hydrogenase

.L 1

-t

CH3COCOOH@H3CTk

2 Ferredoxin. e

CH~C~-COENZYME-A I

p3p0, CH3COOP03H2

In this model Gray and Gest (1965) described how reduced two-carbon compounds, such as ethanol or aldehyde could enter the reaction and result in the formation of a CH CHO-X complex. Electrons are then passed onto the 3 ferredoxin protein, where they eventually unite with two hydrogen ions to form molecular hydrogen (catalyzed by hydrogenase). The CH CHO-X can combine with Co-Enzyme A to form acetyl-Co-Enzyme. The presence 02 oxygen severely inhibits the generation of hydrogen, which could be interrupted as interference or competition by oxygen with hydrogen as the terminal electron acceptor. CATEGORY I1 Facultative anaerobes that cleave pyruvate, forming a formic acid intermediate, are classed a s Category 11. The formic acid is produced through a phosphoclastic reaction catalyzed by a complex of soluble formic dehydrogenase. This enzyme coupled to an insoluble hydrogenase enzyme, along with two intermediate electron carriers are designated as X L and X,. The following model shows the cleavage of pyruvate with formlc acid as the intermediate. (a)

CH3COCOOH+H3P04

(b)

HCDOH >-

(c)

Formate Dehydrogenase

_3

CB3COOP03H2+HCOOH

(2)

C02+H2 Hydrogenase I

Pyruvate is degraded thrcugh a phosphoclastic reaction t o form formic acid(a). Formic acid is then degraded further into C02 and molecular hydrogen(b). Details of formic acid degradation (b) are shown in step(c). Electrons from formic acid are passed into XI, which is identified as cytochrome reductase; while X, is identified as cytochrome C552 by LJimpenny L

67 2

(1963), and Williams ( 1 9 6 4 ) . Finally the electrons are passed on to the hydrogenase enzyme for the formation of molecular hydrogen.

Facultative and heterotropic anaerobes such as E. are examples of the microorganisms found in category 11. During anaerobic growth most of these bacteria can produce cytochrome reductase and cytochrome, which are the X 1 and X electron carriers previously described. 2 Category I organisms utilitizes direct cleavage of pyruvate by the hydrogenase enzyme coupled to ferredoxin. In Category 11, formate is oxidized to CO and H2 by formate hydrogenlyase which is a complex of formate deiydrogenase and hydrogenase enyzmes. The enzyme systems of categories I and I1 are not the same. When formate dehydrogenase enzyme from E. (Category 11) was mixed with the hydrogenase enzyme from 5. pasteurianum (Category I) no hydrogen was produced. This evidence supports the obligatory association between formate dehydrogenase and hydrogenase enzymes in the Category I1 systems. CATEGORY 111 Only one microorganism is classified in Category IiI because of its unique characteristics. Desulfovibrio desulfuricans is a heterotrophic strict anaerobe with a cytochrome system of low redox potential ( E = -205 mv). It can also catalyze the evolution of hydrogen from Na S 0 in" the presence of cytochrome C3 or methyl viologene. The reaction howe%r!does not take place in the presence of ferredoxin or methylene blue, which would imply an electron transfer mechanism similar to Category 11. The hydrogenase enzyme is more like a Category I type enzyme. D.desulfuricans can also use sulfate, as will as hydrogen, as the terminal oxident. The actual process of pyruvate degradation produces a formic acid intermediate, like the mechanism for Category 11. Gest suggested that the enzymes fourid in D.desulfuricans might represent a transition state with the "coli" type hydrogenase enzyme, vhich has a phosphoclastic type pyruvate breakdown found in Category I. CATEGORY IV All photosynthetic microorganisms are placed category IV, which consists of photosynthetic sulfur bacteria; photosynthetic non-sulfur purple bacteria; and the anaerobically adapted algae. Gray and Gest determined that the function(s) of hydrogen evolution for each of the four categories. Using Clostridium pasteurianu? as the example of a strict anaerobe in Category I, they proposed that hydrogen evolution was used for the disposal of electrons from energy-yielding oxidations processes. Using E. coli as the example of a facultative anaerobe in Categoy 11, they speculated that hydrogen production promoted energy yielding oxidation through the removal of formate. Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, the only organism in Category 111, shares both the functions of Categories I and 11. Lastly, in photosynthetic organisms (Category IV), hydrogen evolution is used for regulation of the reducing power and the energy pool. Readers are recommended to read this excellent article by Gray and Gest ( 1 9 6 5 ) .

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PHOTOSYNTHETIC PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN A brief discussion of photobiological production of hydrogen will be summarized in order to have a better understanding of hydrogen production, but readers are recommended to read the review article by Dr. Paul Weaver. When reviewing the history of hydrogen metabolism in microorganisms one can see the simulateous discovery of hydrogen uptake and hydrogen evolution, but

under different environmental conditions. Photoautotrophic growth using hydrogen was first reported by Roelbsen (1934) in Chromatium vinosum, grown under light conditions. Three years later, hydrogen evolution was discovered in the same organism by Nakamura (1937) but the organism was grown in a dark environment. Both hydrogen uptake and evolution were reported in Rhodospirillum rubrum, grown under different environmental conditions (Gest 1949a, Gest 1949b. Kamen 1949). Hydrogen evolution in R .rubrum occurred when the organism was grown photosynthetically in media containing amino acids that served as the sole source of nitrogen, but hydrogen production ceased when nitrogen gas or amonia ions were introduced into the culture. Conversely, Ormerod and Gest (1962) reported the autotrophic growth of R. rubrum utilizing hydrogen. It is concluded that almost all photosynthetic microorganism can produce hydrogen under certain environmental conditions. HYDROGEN METABOLISM Hydrogen metabolism can be expressed through the following equation: H2

2H+

+

2e

(3)

Because this is a reversible reaction, the term hydrogen uptake is used to describe the ionization of molecular hydrogen (reaction from left to right); while the formation of molecular hydrogen (reaction from right to left) is referred to as hydrogen evolution. Ionization of molecular hydrogen is perhaps more common and can be found in many biochemical pathways, where the ionized hydrogen and its electron are carried through the electron transport system by Nicotine Adenine Dinucleotide(NAD); and the various cytochromes; eventually combining with molecular oxygen to form water, and ATPs. Hydrogen ions are utilized by aerobic organisms to make ATPs, through the electron transport systems, but what advantage would hydrogen evolution offer the organisms? Gray and Gest provided this following summary for hydrogen evolution in microorganisms. In the absence of an external electron acceptor (molecular oxygen), where the supply of energy is limited, some anaerobes have adapted to use inorganic compounds such as sulfate and nitrates as their terminal oxidants. Strict and facultative anaerobes use hydrogen as the terminal electron acceptor. A different reason is given for photosynthetic organisms that produce hydrogen. The energy supply and reducing power can accumulate and be in excess in relationship to the metabolic scheme of the entire organisms, thus hydrogen evolution in photosynthetic organisms is strictly for the elimination of excess electrons. In non-photosynthetic organisms, the hydrogen is serving as a terminal oxident electron acceptor during anaerobic growth conditions. FUTURE POTENTIAL FOR YON-PHOTOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA HYDROG PRODUCTION Since it is well established that hydrogen can be produced by non-photosynthetic bacteria, we must now speculate future possibility for large scale

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application. The abundance of hydrogen producing non-photosynthetic bacteria and the ease of growing these organisms would make them a preferred choice over photosynthetic hydrogen producers. The question remains, what are the options available for future research? It would seem logical that the source of hydrogen should be obtained from non-photosynthetic organisms already found in nature, such as in sewage treatment plants, or in animal waste. Still another approach would be to use pure cultures of genetically enchanced hydrogen producing non-photosynthetic microorganism on an industrial scale. The remaining portion of this paper is devoted to the following three areas of possible research: 1) hydrogen from sewage treatment plants; 2 ) hydrogen from rumen bacteria; and 3 ) large scale production of hydrogen through the genetic manipulation of hydrogen producing nonphotosynthetic bacteria. HYDROGEN FROM SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS Hydrogen producing microorganisms from the Moorhead Minnesota sewage treatment plant were isolated and identified by Holmes (1978). Hydrogen producing organisms from the sewage sludge digester were isolated and grown in defined media, in which 84% of the tested organisms showed a preference for glucose. Enterobacteriaceae, consisting of genera Citrobacter(58Z); Enterobacter(28%); and Escherichia (0.3%) were the hydrogen producers found in the digester. No obligatory anaerobes were identified as hydrogen producers in the sewage sludge. Although the major hydrogen producing organisms were not clearly identified,, the Enterobacteriaceas were present in the highest concentration (1.4 x 10 /ml) in sewage sludge. Lutgen (1982) observed hydrogen production in Citrobacter freundii, using a continuous culture system. Obviously much more research is needed in the following areas: 1) identification of the specific species of hydrogen producers; 2) quantitation of the hydrogen yield, under optimum pH and temperature; 3 ) media specificity; and 4) optimum physical and chemical environment to enchance hydrogen yield. We suggest that, Since hydrogen is produced in the digester, the gases could be collected and the hydrogen could be separated by a molecular sieve or a prism premeable membrane to give us the purified gas as described by Moore (1983). It is conceivable that such a separation unit could be mounted on the existing sewage digester to collect hydrogen. If sufficient hydrogen could be collected, it would be the most economical means of producing hydrogen since sewage disposal is a growing problem with all city municipalities. The production and the sale of hydrogen could potentially provide the city with a gevenue to off-set the cost of operating the sewage treatment plant. HYDROGEN PRODUCTION-BY RUMFJ BACTERIA Many species of hydrogen producing rumen bacteria have been reported. Joyner (1977) studied the following rumen bacteria in pure cultures and cell-free systems: Bacteroides clostridiiformis; Butrivibrio fibrisolvens; Eubacterium limosum; Fusobacterium necrophorum; Ruminococcus albus; and Ruminococcus flavefaciens. In all the preceding species the reaction appeared to be catalyzed by’a soluble hydrogenase enzyme. The hydrogen was

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produced from the oxidation of pyruvate, but in E.limosum. F. necro horum, and B. clostridiformis the hydrogen was associated with formate degr:dation. This would suggest the presence of a formate dehydrogenase enzyme system. When the hydrogenase enzyme was subjected to DEAE-cellulase treatment first, the hydrogenase activity was greatly inhibited. Joyner suggested that such an inhibitory reaction would imply the involvement of a ferredoxin-like electron carrier in these reactions. Wolin (1980) studied the inhibitory affects of several, agents on hydrogen production in R.albus, R.flave€aciens. R.bromei, B.fibrisolven, and Veillonella alfaleseens. A complex of molybdate and sulfide at a concentration of 10 M' inhibited hydrogen production, but not when molybdate or sulfide were placed into the growth media individually. The observed hydrogen inhibition was coupled with an increase of formate production. The data has led Wolin to suggest that a molybdate-sulfide complex inhibited the hydrogenase and diverted the electrons that were normally used to form molecular hydrogen to be used in the reduction of C02 to form instead of formate. The mechanism of hydrogen production in Rumen is not clear. E.limosum, F.necrophorum, g. clostridiiformis, R. flavefaciens produces hydrogen through a formate intermediate, which would suggest the presence of a formate hydrogenlyase complex. Joyner (1977) reported that the hydrogenase enzyme appeared to be soluble in 211 the organisms examined except R. albus, which did not form a formate intermediate to produce hydrogen.

~-~

Scheifinger ( 1 9 7 5 ) reported an interesting finding in Selenomonas ruminantium grown with Methanobacillus omelianskii. Hydrogen was produced only when the S. ruminanthium was mixed with the methanogenic bacteria. Hydrogen evolution ceased when the S. ruminantium was grown independently in culture. The mechanism of hydrogen evolution was from reduced NADH formed during the degradation of glucose, glycerol or lactate. This mechanism is unlike any of the previously described mechanisms for hydrogen production. It is clear that many rumen microorganisms are capable of producing hydrogen, and since many of these organisms have been isolated and identified, it is quite possible to employ a continuous culture fermentation processes €or hydrogen production. ENHANCEMENT OF HYDROGEN PRODUCTION THROUGH GENETIC ENGINEERING

It is interesting to find E. & listed as one of the hydrogen producers in Category 11. Although the hydrogen yield by E. & may not be high, as Holmes (1978) indicated by the percentage distribution found in sewage sludge, E. & is still best suited for genetic manipulations. It is quite possible to insert the genes responsible for hydrogen evolution into coli plasmids to enchance its hydrogen production. Of course. the nucleotide sequence of the enzymes responsible for hydrogen production must be identified and synthesized. This may be a monumental task. Another approach would be to promote the growth of organisms with high hydrogen yield through genetic selections. However, direct genetic recombinant manipulation to increase hydrogen evolution is still more desirable. Presently hydrogenase and formate dehydrogenase are the only two enzymes €or certain in hydrogen producing non-photosynthetic bacteria.

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HYDROGENEASE AND FOFNATE DEHYDROGENASE The amount of information available on hydrogenase (EC-1.12.1.1 li :Ferredoxin Oxidoreductase) and formate dehydrogenase (EC -1.2.2.1-

2 b l Oxidoreductase) are too voluminous to review in this Formate:Cytochrome article. Readers are recommended to read the following references for additional information on these two enzyme systems: Gest (1952); Peck (1957 ) ; Plortenson (1974); Peck (1957b): Scherer (1978, 1982); Wagner (19778; Leonhardt (1977); Enoch (1982) and Hou (1982). FUTURE POTENTIAL FOR NON-PHOTOSYNTHETIC HYDROGEN PRODUCTION Ideally, large scale fermentation of genetically engineered microorganisms would be employed to produce maximum yield of hydrogen. Such a goal would require years of research and development, and would be very costly. We maintain that the most economically efficient approach would be t o collect hydrogen from sewage treatment plant digesters, which in essence are already a large fermenters producing hydrogen. We propose the development of collecting hydrogen from sewage treatment plants in the following manner: 1) monitor the amount of hydrogen produced in existing sewage digesters to obtain a baseline level for hydrogen yield on a daily bases; 2) collect the effluent gases from the sewage digester through the uses of molecular sieves or prism permeable membrances separating hydrogen from the other gases; and 3) provide a storage system for the collected hydrogen gas. This approach would also facilitate the collection and the sale of methane gas which is another by-product from sewage digesters. It is our contention that hydrogen producing non-photosynthetic bacteria should be considered as a source of hydrogen producer. Suggestions for future research should address the following questions: 1.

2. 3.

Can present sewage digesters be converted to produce hydrogen on a large scale? Can hydrogen be obtained from animal waste, or can hydrogen be obtained from rumen bacteria in controlled fermentation processes? Can genetic engineering produce a more efficient hydrogen producing organism?

REFERENCES Bigard, Marc-Andre, P. Gaucher. and C. Lassalle (1979). Fatal Colonic Explosion During Coloooscopic Polypectomy. Gastroenterology, 77: 1307 - 1310. Enoch, H. and R. Lester, Formate Dehydrogenase from Escherichia Methods of Enzymology, 89: 537-543. Gest. H. and Kamen, M.D. (1949a). Photouroduction of Molecular Hvdrogen by Rhodospirillum vubrum. Science, 109: 558-559. Gest, H. and Kamen,laciM.D. mehco.)b9491( Production of Molecular Hyrdrogen by Growing Cultures of Photosynthetic Bacteria J. Bacteriol., 58: 235-245. Gest, H., (1952) Properties of Cell-Free Hydrogenase of Escherichia and Rhodospirillum vubrum. J- Bacteriol., 63: 111-121. Gray, T. and H. Gest. (19651, Biological Formation of Molecular Hydrogen, Science, 148: 186-191. Holmes, P. and M. Freishel (1978). H Producing Bacteria in Digestive Sewage Sludge Isolated on Simple, Defined Media, Appl. and Environ. Microbiology. 36: 394-395.

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Hou, C.T., R.N. Patel, A.I. Laskin, and N. Barnabe. (1982) NAD - linked Formate Dehydrogenase from Methanol - Grown Pichia pastoris, Arch Biochem Biophy, 216: 296-305. Joyner, A.E., W.T. Winter, and D.M. Godbout, (1977), Studies on Some Characteristics of Hydrogen Production By Cell-Free Extracts of Rumen Anaerobic Bacteria, Can. J. Microbiology, 23: 346-353. Kamen, M.D. and H. Gest (1949) Evidence for a Nitrogenase System in Photosynthetic Bacterium, Rhodospirillum Rumbrum. Science, 109: 560. LaBrooy, Susan A . , Avgerinos, C.L. Fendick, C.B. Williams, and J.J. Misiewicz (1981). Potentially Explosive Colonic Concentration of Hydrogen After Bowel Preparation with Mannitol, The Lancet, March 21, 634-635. Lavitt. M.D. (1969), Production and Excretion of Hydrogen Gas in Man, N. Engl. J. Medicine, 281: 122-127. Leonhardt, V. and J.R. Andreesen (1977), Some properties of Formate Dehydrogenase Accumulation and Incorporation of 185-W-tungsten Into Proteins of Clostridium formicoaceticum, Arch. Microbiol., 115: 277-284. Levitt, M.D. and R.N. Donaldson (1970). Use of Respiratory Hydrogen Excretion to Detect Carbohydrate Malabsorption. 3. Lab. Clinical Medicine, 75: 9371945. Levy, El (1954). Explosions During Bowel Electrosurgery. Am. J. Surg., 88: 754. Lutgen, H. and G . Gottschalk (1982) Cell and ATP yields of Citrobacter freundii Growing with Fumarate and H or formate in Continuous Culture. J . General Plicrobiol., 128: 1915 $921. Mitsui, A., Y. Ohta, J . Frank, and S. Kumazawa (1980), Photosynthetic Bacteria As Alternative Energy Sources. Overview on Hydrogen Production Research. Alternative Energy Sources 11. Vcl. 8. Hydrogen Energy. (Ed) T.N. Veziroglu. Hemisphere Publishing Co., Washington, D.C. 3483-3510. Moore, R.B. (1983). Economic Feasibility of Advanced Technology for H2 Production Erom fossil fuel, Int. J. of Hydrogen Energy, 8: 905-911. Mortrnson, L.E., and J.S. Chen. (1974) Hydrogenase. Microbiol. Iron Metabolism, pp. 231-282, Academic Press, N.Y. Nakamura, (1937) Presence of hydrogenlyse in Rhodobacillus palustris and its Role in the Mechanism of Bacterial Photosynthesis. Acta Phytochim, 10: 211. Ormerod, J.E. and H. Gest (1962), Hydrogen photosynthesis and Alternative Metabolic Pathway In Photosynthetic Bacteria., Bacteriol. Rev., 26: 51-66. P e c k , X and H. Gest (1957a) Hydrogenase of Clostridium butylicum,.J. Bacteriol.. 73: 569-580. Peck, H.D. and H. Gest (1957b), Formic Dehydrogenase and Hydrogenylase J. Bacteriol., Enzyme Complex in coliaerogens. Bacteria. 73: 706-721. Perman, Jay, S. Modler, and A. Olson (1981), Role of pH in Production of Hydrogen from carbohydrates by Colonic Bacterial flora, J. Clin. Invest., 67: 643-650. Personal Communication, (1981). Raskin. Jeffrey (1980) Intestinal Gas, Geriatrics. 38: 77-84. Roelesen. P.A. (1934) Metabolism of Pumle Sulfur Bacteria. . Acad. Sci. -Amsterdam, 37: 660-669: Scheifinger. C.C., B. Linehan. and M.J. Wolin (1975), H, Production by Selenomonas vuminantium in the Absence and Presekce of Methanogenic Bacteria Appl. Microbiol.. 29: 480-483. . -

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Scherer, P.A. and R.K. Thaver ( 1 9 7 8 ) Purification and Properties of Reduced ferredoxin: C 0 2 oxidoreductase from Clostridium pastevianum, a Molybdenium Iron Sulfide. J. Biochem., 85: 125-135. Scherer, P.A. and J . G . Ferry (1982) Properties of Formate Dehydrogenase in Methanobacterium fromicicum. J. Bacteriol., 150: 1-7. Wagner, R. and I.R. Andreesen ( 1 9 7 7 ) , Eifferentiation Between Clostridium acidiurici and 5. cylindrosporum on the Basis of Specific Metal Requirements for Formate Dehydrogenase formation - Arch. Microbiol., 114: 219-224. Weaver. Paul F.. S. Lien, and M. Seibert ( 1 9 8 0 ) . Photobiological Production-of Hydrogen. Solar Energy 2 4 ( 1 ) , 3-45. Wimpenny, J.W.T., M. Raulett, and C.T. Gray ( 1 9 6 3 ) , The Inter-Relation of Low Redox Potential Cvtochrom C,,, and Hvdroaenase in Facultative ~Anaerobes. Biochem. Biophys. Acta, '35: 170. Williams, J.P., J.T. Davidson, and H.D. Peck ( 1 9 6 4 ) . Bacteriol. E. p. 110. IJolin, M.J., T.L. Miller ( 1 9 8 0 ) , Molybdate and Sulfide Inhibit H and Increase Formate Production from Glucose by Ruminococcus 2 Arch. Microbiol.. 124: 137-142.

e,

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 -Printed in The Netherlands

POLLUTION-FREE PESTICIDZS A. J a g a d e e s h Society of Science f o r the People, 2/210 Nawabpet, N e l l o r e 524 002 Andhra P r a d e s h , I n d i a

ABSTHACT I n t h i s p a p e r t h e i n s e c t i c i d a l p r o p e r t i e s o f Annona Squamosa s e e d o i l , C a l o t r o p i s L a t e x , E u p h o r b i a Antiquorum L a t e x are d e s c r i b e d . 1 . INTRODUCTION

L c o l o g i s t s are v o i c i n g t h e i r c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e p o L l u t i o n c a u s e d due t o i n d i s c r i m i n a t e u s e o f p e s t i c i d e s . The answer t o combat t h i s menace i s n a t u r a l p e s t i c i d e s from p l a n t s l i k e Annona S q u m o s a , C d o t r o p i s , Xuphorbia Antiquorum, C i t r u l l u s Colocynthis etc.

2. ANNONA SQUAMOSA Anilona Gquamosa o r C u s t a r d ap-lle t r e e s grow w i l d i n t h e f o r e s t re;.ions o f Wahboobnagar, Ivledak, N m a e d , Iir?lgonda i n Andhra P r a d e s h and i n some p a r t s of o t h e y s t a t s s i n I n d i a . The f r u i t h a s many s e e d s The s e - d i s f l a t and a b o u t 2 cm. l o n g w i t h b r i t L l e s h e l l and t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f s h e l l and k e r n e l s i s 31.5 and 68.5 p e r c e n t r e s p e c t i v e l y . ?he k e r n e l h a s been found t o c o n t a i n 39.5 p e r c e n t o f a brown c o l o u r e d n o n - d r y i n & o i l w i t h an i o d i n e v : l u e o f 83.3. The f a t t y a c i d c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e o i l as per c e n t weight i s as f o l l o w s :

.

M y r i s t i c , 0.3; p a l m i t i c , 12.5; s t e a r i c , 8.9; as a r a c h i d i c 1.8 ; h e x a d e c e n o i c , 2.3; o l e i c , 34.2 and l i n o l e i c , 20.0. The o i l i s similar t o g r o u n d n u t o i l b u t a l s o c o n t a i n s the toxic principle. 2.1 D e c o r t i c a t i o n o f S e e d s

The d e c o r t i c a t i o n o f s e e d s can be c a r r i e d o u t by any b e a t e r t y p e a e c o r t i c a t o r a v a i l a b l e i n t h e market. I n o u r i n v e s L i ; a t i o n s a power d r i v e n d e c o r t i c a t o r w i t h a r e v o l v i n g s h a f t h a v i n g i! b l a d e s w i . h wide o p e n i n g s was u s e d m a found s a t i s f a c t o r y . S e p a r a L i o n o f n u l l s from t h e k e r n e l s w a s done by hand s c r e e n i n g - and winnowing. A m e c h a n i c a l s h a k e r s e p a r a t o r w i t h E i r s e p a r a l i o n would be more e f f i c i e n t on a l a r L e - s c a l e ,

619

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and would p r e v e n t inflammation of e y e s and nose by f i n e h u l l rust. 2.2 Expression o f O i l

For e f f i c i e n t e x p r e s s i o n o f o i l , i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o g r i n d t h e k e r n e l s t o 30-40 mesh and cook t h e meal with a l i t t l e water a t about 70°C. No s p e c i a l t e c h n i q u e i s n e c e s s a r y i n e x p r e s s i o n of t h e o i l , which can be done w i t h any o f t h e u s u a l o i l m i l l i n g machinery s u c h as e x p e l l e r s o r h y d r a u l i c p r e s s e s . Ghanies could be used, b u t t h e y i e l d o f o i l w i l l be lower. 2 . 3 Hazards t o Workers

The o i l a f f e c t s t h e c o n j u c t i v a c a u s i n g r e d n e s s and inflammation, and t h e r e f o r e , h a n d l i n g t h e s e e d e n t a i l s r i s k s t o workers. The use of rubber g l o v e s and eye g l a s s e s w i l l h e l p a g r e a t d e a l i n p r e v e n t i n g a c c i d e n t s . The workers s h o u l d a l s o be c a u t i o n e d n o t t o rub t h e i r e y e s w i t h t h e i r f i n g e r s while h a n d l i n g t h e s e e d meal, and s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n should be p a i d t o these s a f e t y precautions.

2.4 P r o p e r t i e s 1.

The o i l , h o t p r e s s e d o r h o t e x t r a c t e d , can be used as an i n s e c t i c i d e , s i n c e i t c o n t a i n s a t o x i c p r i n c i p l e (5.8;; on t h e weight o f t h e o i l . I n s e c t i c i d a l t e s t s snowed t h a t a 8,; s o l k t a o n of raw oi; i n k e r o s i n e i s a h i g h l y t o x i c c o n t a c t poison t o pumpkin b e e t l e s , cabbage a p h i d s and house f l i e s and a stomach p o i s o n t o saw-fly l a r v a e and pumpkin b e e t l e s . A 8:; s o l u t i o n O T t h i s o i l i n k e r o s i n e h a s been found t o be equivao r (Gammexane) as an i n s e c t i c i d e l e n t t o 6;; U.D.T. towards a v a r i e t y o f t h e common i n s e c t s wnich d e s t r o y a g r i c u l t u r a l crops.

2. The o i l can beused f o r soapinaking as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r

t h e more expensive groundnut o i l u s u a l l y used by t h e soap-making i n d u s t r y . Soaps were made from same, with o r without a d d i t i o n o f coconut o i l by t h e t h r e e wellknown p r o c e s s e s cold p r o c e s s , s e m i b c i l e d p r o c e s s and t h e b o i l e d p r o c e s s and found t o compare w e l l with similar s o a p s made w l t h groundnut o i l . The t o x i c c o n s t i t u e n t i n t h e o i l being s e n s i t i v e t o a l k a l i a p p e a r s t o be d e s t r o y e d on conversion of t h e o i l i n t o soap.

3 . The o i l can be used a s

a p l a s t i c i s e r i n alkyd p r e J a r a t i o n a t any o i l len,th, u s i n g e i t h e r g l y c e r o l o r penraerithyritol.

2.5 D e t o x i f i c a t i o n U e t o x i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c u s t a r d a p p l e s e e d o i l czn be a f f e c t e d by a l k , d i r e f i n i n g employing a l y e c o n t u n i n g a 50% e x c e s s o f d k a l i on t h e t h e o r e t i c a l arnount r e q u i r e d t o n e u t r a l i s e

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t h e f r e e f a t t y a c i d s i n t h e o i l . The r e f i n c d o i l i s l i g h t i n c o l o u r and f r e e from t o x i c i t y . P r e l i m i n a r y f e e d i n < ; t r a i l s on w h i t e mice mere q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l , b u t f u r t h e r t r a i l s w i l l be n ! - c e s s a r y b e f o r e i t can be c o n s i d e r e d f i t f o r human consumption. 2.6 O i l Cake

The r e s i d u u l oi1c::ke l s f t a f t e r e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e o i l , o f n i t r o g e n ; h e n c e , i t c m be u s e f u l as an c o n t a i n s a b o u t Lt.3: o r g a n i c n i t r o g e n o u s f e r t i l i z e r . The d e f a t t e d cake c o n t a . i n s 20.9); g r o t e i n . A p a p a i n h y d r o l y s a t e o f t h e cake can be employed 2.s an a c c e s s o r y n u t r i e n t i n t h e l a c t i c f e r m e n t a t i o n o f s u g a r cane m o l a s s e s ; and t h e p r o t e i n s o f t h e c a k e c o n t a i n i n g e s s e n t i a l m i n o a c i d s can form a s a t i s f a c t o r y d i e t a r y s u p p l e m e n t i n f e e d i n g s t u f f s f o r c a t t l e and p b u l t r y . The a l c o h o l - e x t r a c t e d cake from which t h e t o x i c m a t t e r h a s been removed, may be u s e d as c a t t l e - f e e d .

3. CALOTi4OPIS TO CONTROL WD H A I R Y CATLR PILLAR The p l a n t 'CALOTHOPIS'grows w i l d l y t h r o u g h o u t I n d i a . T h i s p l a n t h a s l a r g e l e a v e s . The L a t e x i s g e n e r a l l y u s e d by r u r a l p e o p l e t o c u r e wounds. I n C h i t t o o r D i s t r i c t , Andnra P r a d e s h , I n d i a , g r o u n d n u t i s beJ-ng grown i n t h o u s a n d s o f a c r e s . The c r o p i s a t t a c k e d by ' i t D H A I R Y CATER PILLAR'which rscduces t h e y i e l d c o n s i d e r a b l y . 1 found iviien t h e l e a v e s o f ' C a l o t r o p i s ' t i r e p l a c e d i n t h e

g r o u n d n u t f i e l d t h e c a t e r p i l l e r consumes t h e p l a n t l e a v e s , n h i c h r e s u l t s i n a r r e s t i n g ' P u p a t i o n ' , Thus t h e mcnace o f t h e c a t e r p i l l a r c n n be t a c k l e d . T h i s c a t e r p i l l a r a p p e a r s on g r o u n d n u t c r o p more u n d e r r a i n f e d c o n d i t i o n s . As s u c h if t h o r o u g h r e s e e r c h i; c a r r i e d o u t on t h e above o b s e r v a t i o n , I a m s u r e t h i s will iielo immensely t h e f a r m e r s growing g r o u n d n u t . B i t h t h e wide u s e o f c h e m i c a l l e r t i l i s e r s , t h e n a t u r a l f e r t i l i t y o f t h e s o i l i s r e d u c e d g r a d i l a l l y . 'Thglre i s t h e need L O e n r i c h t h e s o i l and a l s o t o c o n s e r v e t h e f e r t i l i t y by t h e u s e o f greenmanure. 2 i t i i wide m e c h a n i s a t i o n , t h e a n i m a l s have become s c a r c e a d henGe t h e a n i m a l dung.

Here I r e c a l l t h e famous e q u a t i o n : C = B : L

The c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f any l a n d depends on t h e b i o t i c p o t l - . n t i a l and 1,he e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e s i s t a n c e . C a l o t r o p i s o f f e r s a r i c h s o u r c e o f g r e e n mc.nure and grows w i l d l y . Hence t h i s c a n be grown i n Government v a c a n t lamds.

4 . i4AT POISON F ,OM THE: LATE,< OF "2UPHORBIA A~~'L'IQUOEIUP~~~ During sowing o f Groundnut, t h e crows were a mena.ce as

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t h e y used t o t a k e away t h e seed. When t h e L a t e x of ‘Euphorbia Antiquorum’mixed i n cooked r i c e and p l a c e d on t r e e s , t h e crows a f t e r e a t i n g i t -died w i i h i n minutes. Thus t h e crow problem i s solved. This l e d me t o t h i n k o f u s i n g t h e L a t e x t o k i l l r a t s . Obviously t h e Latex must be verF poisonous. Of course we a r e having many r o d e n t i c i d e s a v a i l a b l e r e a d i l y i n t h e market. B u t t h e p l a n t ’Euphorbia Antiquorum‘ grows w i l d l y and o c c u r s widely. As such t h e poison i s r e a d i l y available locally. CONCLUSIONS The n a t u r a l p e s t i c i d e s from p l a n t m a t e r i a l d i s c u s s e d above show tnat t h e y a r e l o c a l l y a v a i l a b l e b e s i d e s being p o l l u t i o n f r e e . I t i s high time thorouLh r e s e a r c h i s conducted t o s t u d y some o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s mentioned above more i n d e p t h . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The z u t h o r e x p r e s s e s h i s g r a t e f u l L i m k s t o P r o f . Y. Nayudamma, Governor, I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development Research C e n t r e , O t t a w a , Canada; P r o f . T.Ne j a t Veziroglu, D i r e c t o r , Clean Energy Research I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y o f M i a m i , U S A and D r . I4.S. Swaminathan, D i r e c t o r General, I n t e r n a t i o n a l liice Research I n s t i t u t e , Manila, P h i l l i p i n e s € o r t h e i r c o n s t a n t encoura&ement and h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n s .

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

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MORAL CONSIDERATIONS RELATING TO PROBLEMS OF SPACE DEBRIS S a n d r a Anderson Schuh Department o f Philosophy U n i v e r s i t y of M i a m i Coral G a b l e s , F l o r i d a 3 3 1 2 4 , U.S.A

ABSTRACT I t is a r g u e d t h a t a more v i a b l e a p p r o a c h t o t h e moral a s p e c t s Using t h e problems of space o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l p o l l u t i o n is r e q u i r e d . d e b r i s a n d p o l l u t i o n o f t h e e a r t h f r o m s p a c e a s an e x a m p l e , t h e s u g g e s t i o n i s a d v a n c e d t h a t t e c h n i c a l and e t h i c a l f a c t o r s a r e u n j u s t i f i a b l y d i c h o t o m i z e d and t h a t t h e way t o overcome t h i s dichotomy i s t o e x t e n d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c method t o m o r a l a s w e l l a s t e c h n i c a l problems. T h i s i s t h e a p p r o a c h d e f e n d e d by J o h n D e w e y i n h i s instrumentalist theory of value. A b r i e f r e v i e w o f t h e hypot h e t i c o - d e d u c t i v e p a t t e r n of p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g , f i r s t o u t l i n e d by t h e An e x p l a n a t i o n is American p r a g m a t i s t p h i l o s o p h e r s , is o f f e r e d . f u r n i s h e d o f t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h i s method t o a n y p r o b l e m , i n The a p p r o a c h t o p r o b l e m s o f s p a c e c l u d i n g t h o s e w h i c h a r e moral. p o l l u t i o n f o l l o w s a s a matter o f c o u r s e . I t is s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e p r o b l e m s b e i n g g r a p p l e d w i t h by p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e p r e s e n t Symposium a r e o f u n p a r a l l e l e d g r a v i t y . They a r e much t o o i m p o r t a n t i n t h e i r moral a s p e c t s t o b e r e s o l v e d by a p p e a l t o m e r e l y t e c h n i c a l f a c t o r s , o r t o s c r i p t u r e , moral i n t u i t i o n , t r a d i t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s and v a l u e s , t h e " g r e a t e s t h a p p i n e s s p r i n c i p l e " , or t o any o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e t o what Dewey w a s f o n d o f c a l l i n g t h e "method o f i n t e l l i g e n c e " .

INTRODUCTION

I i n t e n d i n t h i s p a p e r t o d e s c r i b e b r i e f l y a v e r y n a r r o w and w e l l d e f i n e d area o f b i o s p h e r i c a l p o l l u t i o n - - t h e m o u n t i n g accumulat i o n o f d e b r i s i n s p a c e - - a n d t h e n d e m o s t r a t e t h a t t h e t e c h n i c a l cons i d e r a t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n t h i s p r o b l e m a r e i n e s c a p a b l y bound up w i t h moral c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . I would l i k e t o show, f o l l o w i n g t h e l e a d many d e c a d e s ago o f t h e American p h i l o s o p h e r , J o h n Dewey, t h a t no b i f u r c a t i o n c a n b e made b e t w e e n e n g i n e e r i n g a n d s c i e n t i f i c p r o b l e m s , on t h e o n e h a n d , and moral a n d v a l u e p r o b l e m s on t h e o t h e r .

I t h a s been w i d e l y p u b l i c i z e d t h a t t h e Wright B r o t h e r s ' f i r s t a t t e m p t e d f l i g h t o n December 1 7 , 1 9 0 3 , w a s s h o r t e r t h a n t h e l e n g t h of today's space s h u t t l e . A l i t t l e more t h a n f i f t y y e a r s l a t e r , on October 4 , 1957, t h e r e w a s o n e man-made o b j e c t i n s p a c e : t h e R u s s i a n S p u t n i k I . And t h e n , w i t h i n t w e n t y y e a r s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4,500 obj e c t s i n s p a c e were b e i n g t r a c k e d by NORAD, N o r t h American A i r Defense. T o d a y , s e v e n y e a r s l a t e r , somewhere a r o u n d 2 5 , 0 0 0 o b j e c t s are b e i n g t r a c k e d . I n c l u d e d a r e s u c h d i v e r s e o b j e c t s a s communicat i o n s s a t e l l i t e s t h a t m a l f u n c t i o n e d , some b u r n e d o u t 30 by 15 f o o t

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S a t u r n F i v e t a n k s , and an a u s t r o n a u t ' s g l o v e . One area i n s p a c e - i s e s p e c i a l l y becoming e m b a r r a s s i n g l y o v e r populated. T h i s is t h e area o f p l a c e m e n t f o r g e o s y n c h r o n o u s e q u i t o r i a l o r b i t i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s a t e l l i t e s . B e f o r e l o n g some h a r d i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a r g a i n i n g w i l l have t o t a k e p l a c e , even though t h e r e a p p e a r s t o be n o p r e c e d e n t i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w f o r a p r o b l e m s u c h as this. c

And how d o w e r e s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m s stemming f r o m c o l l i s i o n i n s p a c e ? The S p a c e Command S p a c e D e f e n s e O p e r a t i o n s C e n t e r , SPADOC, claims t h a t d u r i n g t h e 4 t h s h u t t l e m i s s i o n , a S o v i e t r o c k e t body p a s s e d w i t h i n o n l y a few m i l e s of t h e o r b i t i n g s h u t t l e . O f f i c i a l s a t SPADOC s a y t h a t t h e y e v e n t u a l l y may h a v e t o become t h e t r a f f i c c o p s o f o u t e r s p a c e - - t h o u g h o f c o u r s e o n e w o n d e r s how t h e S o v i e t Union w i l l g r e e t t h a t k i n d o f u n i l a t e r a l d e c i s i o n ? I n a n y e v e n t , c o l l i s i o n s i n space w i l l r e s u l t , at t h e very least, i n t h e creation o f more s p a c e d e b r i s . The t h r e e a u t h o r s o f a p a p e r i n l a s t y e a r ' s J o u r n a l of S p a c e c r a f t and R o c k e t s c l a i m : " I t is c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t d e b r i s p o p u l a t i o n w i l l be c r e a t e d w h i c h w i l l make t h e n e a r - E a r t h o r b i t u n u s a b l e f o r a n y e x t e n s i v e s p a c e programs. I f t h i s occurs there w i l l be v e r y l i t t l e t h a t c a n be d o n e e x c e p t w a i t f o r atmospheric drag to clean out t h e lower-altitude regions."(l) SPACE DEBRIS AND MORAL ISSUES N o t o n l y d o w e f a c e u n p r e c e d e n t e d problems o f t h e c o l l i s i o n s of o b j e c t s i n s p a c e , b u t w e a l s o must somehow l a y down g r o u n d r u l e s f o r t h e r e - e n t r y o f u n d e s i r a b l e space o b j e c t s i n t o t h e e a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e . An a l r e a d y c l a s s i c e x a m p l e o f t h i s , o f c o u r s e , is t h e l a n d i n g i n Canada o n J a n u a r y 2 4 , 1978, o f t h e C o s m o s 954 r e a c t o r . T h i s m i s h a p , a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t s e a r c h a n d r e c o v e r y o f d e b r i s , cost m i l l i o n s of d o l l a r s . ( 2 ) And a s i m i l a r t h r e a t w a s p o s e d by C o s m o s 1402, a malfunctioning nuclear-powered r a d a r ocean s u r v e i l l a n c e spacecraft. The a t t e m p t e d s e p a r a t i o n o f its reactor i n t o a h i g h a l t i t u d e o r b i t f a i l e d , and t h e f i s s i o n system o f Cosmos 1402 w a s l e f t in low orbit.(3) Among t h e o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t s p a c e p o l l u t a n t s are r o c k e d e f f l u e n t s w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o D.M. Rote i n a 1982 i s s u e o f t h e J o u r n a l o f S p a c e c r a f t & R o c k e t s , may a c t u a l l y c a u s e " c o m p o s i t i o n a l c h a n g e s " i n t h e atmosphere.(4) And o f c o u r s e w e c a n n o t i g n o r e o n e of t h e most ominous e n v i r o n m e n t a l t h r e a t s o f a l l : t h e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f space. I t is now known t h a t t h e f i r s t D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e p a y l o a d e n t e r e d t h e new f r o n t i e r a b o a r d space s h u t t l e number f o u r . In the m e a n t i m e , o f t h e 101 m i s s i o n s i n t o space l a u n c h e d by t h e R u s s i a n s i n 1983, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 85% i n c l u d e d m i l i t a r y o b j e c t i v e s . Q u e s t i o n s aboun&-many, or p o s s i b l y most, o f w h i c h a p p e a r t o be philosophical i n nature. S h a l l w e s o l v e t h e e n g i n e e r i n g problems f i r s t , a n d t h e n sit down a t t h e b a r g a i n i n g t a b l e ? S h a l l w e agree f i r s t o n a common moral code o r s y s t e m o f v a l u e s or set o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w s ? H o w do w e j u d g e t h e r i g h t n e s s o r w r o n g n e s s , t h e good o r e v i l , o f c o l l i d i n g a n d e x p l o d i n g a n d f a l l i n g o b j e c t s o f d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l o w n e r s h i p ? N a t i o n a l l a w s , i n t h i s l a s t case, are w o r t h l e s s . And i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w i s i n e f f e c t i v e , a t t h e v e r y

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most, and u s u a l l y is t o t a l l y i n a p p l i c a b l e . The way t o a n s w e r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s , i t seems t o m e , is a c t u a l l y q u i t e s i m p l e , a l t h o u g h t h e a n s w e r s c e r t a i n l y are h i g h l y complex. T h e r e h a s been i n t h e t r a d i t i o n of European c u l t u r e , a dichotomizing o f f a c t a n d v a l u e , s c i e n c e a n d h u m a n i t i e s , means a n d e n d s , t h a t traces back a t least t o Aristotle, and probably back t o P l a t o . I contend, w i t h a l l due r e s p e c t t o t h e s e t w o g r e a t t h i n k e r s , t h a t t h i s d i c h o t o m y is f a l s e . One d o e s n o t a s k : D o w e s o l v e t h e t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s f i r s t , o r t h e m o r a l p r o b l e m s ? The s c i e n t i s t or e n g i n e e r o r p h i l o s o p h e r or moralist o r r e l i g i o n i s t does n o t d e a l w i t h one t y p e of problem t o t h e e x c l u s i o n of t h e o t h e r . I am n o t s a y i n g t h a t i t i s t i m e f o r s c i e n c e and e t h i c s t o m a r r y o r r e m a r r y . R a t h e r , i t is t i m e t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e y s h o u l d never have been d i v o r c e d . The a n c i e n t G r e e k s , l a c k i n g a h i s t o r y , had r e a s o n t o detempor a l i z e e t h i c a l knowledge a n d t o s a n c t i f y morals a s e t e r n a l and u n i v e r s a l l y binding. W e no l o n g e r are j u s t i f i e d i n a d o p t i n g t h i s pos i t i o n . F o r o n e , t o o many moral r e v o l u t i o n s h a v e t a k e n p l a c e o v e r t h e p a s t t w o thousand y e a r s . The s c i e n t i s t d o e s n o t f u n c t i o n p r o f e s s i o n a l l y i n a c o n t e x t u a l o r t e m p o r a l o r moral vacuum. H e comes t o h i s l a b o r a t o r y w i t h a v e r y g r e a t number o f moral a s s u m p t i o n s a n d v a l u e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s . Nor o u g h t t h e moral p h i l o s o p h e r come t o a p r o b l e m o f a p p l i e d e t h i c s w i t h o u t a t h o r o u g h l a y m a n ' s knowledge o f t h e r e l e v a n t e m p i r i c a l data. I t would a p p e a r t h a t t h e f a l s e a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g t h e b i f u r c a t i o n o f s c i e n c e a n d e t h i c s a r e t w o i n number. The f i r s t ass u m p t i o n is t h a t s c i e n c e a n d e t h i c s a r e o f a d i f f e r e n t l o g i c a l form The s e c o n d is t h a t t h e y t r e a t o f d i f f e r e n t i s s u e s , t h e e t h i c i s t d e a l i n g w i t h t h e moral i s s u e s w h i l e t h e s c i e n t i s t l e a v e s a s i d e t h e moral a n d p u r s u e s h i s e m p i r i c a l o r t h e o r e t i c a l r e s e a r c h . The f i r s t a s s u m p t i o n r u n s a s f o l l o w s : S c i e n c e d e a l s w i t h t h e g e n e r i c and u n i v e r s a l , hence t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l , t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l , and t h e c a u s a l . E t h i c s , on t h e o t h e r hand, deals w i t h t h e p a r t i c u l a r , t h e c a t e g o r i c a l , p r a c t i c a l and n o n - c a u s a l . I t d e a l s , t h a t is, w i t h t h e i n t r i n s i c r a t h e r than with the instrumental, with ends r a t h e r t h a n w i t h means. L e a v i n g a s i d e , f o r t h e moment, t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e f o r m o f s c i e n t i f i c t h o u g h t , what m u s t be q u e s t i o n e d h e r e is t h e view of e t h i c s . To r e g a r d e t h i c s i n t h i s way is t o p l a c e i t i n t h e same f e u d a l i s t i c s y s t e m t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d s c i e n c e h u n d r e d s of y e a r s a g o , a n d w i t h p o t e n t i a l l y t h e same r e s u l t s : a total.lack of g r o w t h a n d a f r u s t r a t i n g b a r r i e r i n t h e way o f s o l u t i o n s t o moral problems. The s e c o n d a s s u m p t i o n is t h a t s c i e n c e a n d e t h i c s d e a l w i t h d i f f e r e n t i s s u e s . A g a i n t h i s s i m p l y is n o t t r u e . A t t h e v e r y h e a r t o f a n y e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s s u e , f o r e x a m p l e , are t h e moral i s s u e s . . W e p l a c e v a l u e on l i f e and t h e q u a l i t y of l i f e . When s c i e n c e h e l p s t o d e t e c t a n d r e s o l v e human p r o b l e m s i n v o l v i n g b a s i c v a l u e s , t h e n i t , s c i e n c e , becomes by d e f i n i t i o n moral. When, a s Dewey says, " t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f s c i e n c e is f u l l y i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f human v a l u e , t h e g r e a t e s t d u a l i s m w h i c h now w e i g h s humanity down,

t h e s p l i t between t h e m a t e r i a l ; t h e meachnical, t h e s c i e n t i f i c and Human f o r c e s t h a t now w a v e r t h e m o r a l a n d i d e a l w i l l be d e s t r o y e d . b e c a u s e o f t h i s d i v i s i o n w i l l be u n i f i e d a n d r e i n f o r c e d . " ( 5 ) I n t h e e a r l y d a y s o f s c i e n c e men who a d o p t e d w h a t is now c a l l e d t h e s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d o f i n q u i r y w e r e t h o u g h t t o be f o e s o f s c i e n c e and s u b v e r t e r s o f t r u t h . F r a n c e s c o S i z z i , P r o f e s s o r o f Astronomy at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P i s a , r e f u s e d t o l o o k t h r o u g h G a l i l e o ' s new t e l e s c o p e . T h e r e c a n n o t p o s s i b l y be f o u r new b o d i e s o r b i t i n g J u p i t e r , P r o f e s s o r S i z z i a r g u e d , s i n c e t h e r e are sevend d a y s i n t h e week, so t h e r e m u s t o n l y b e s e v e n s e v e n a p e r t u r e s i n t h e h e a d , a n d so o n ; b o d i e s i n t h e s o l a r s y s t e m . And t o d a y t h e moral p h i l o s o p h e r who a d o p t s t h e s c i e n t i f i c f o r m o f i n q u i r y i s w i d e l y c o n s i d e r e d t o be a f o e o f g e n u i n e moral i n q u i r y . T h i s is s i m p l y n o t t r u e f o r e t h i c s , anymore t h a n it w a s e v e r t r u e f o r s c i e n c e . I n s c i e n c e w e d o n ' t s t a r t With categorical and a n t e c e d e n t l y g i v e n c o n c e p t i o n s a s d i c t a t e d , f o r e x a m p l e , b y some c h u r c h , a n d t h e n N e i t h e r s h o u l d w e d o so i n e t h i c s . e x p e c t t o r e s o l v e our p r o b l e m s . Rather, t h e general pattern of e t h i c a l inquiry q u i t e c l e a r l y follows t h a t of s i c e n t i f i c i n q u i r y .

We s t a r t , a s a l l y o u e n g i n e e r s a n d s c i e n t i s t s k n o w , w i t h a problem s i t u a t i o n . W e g a t h e r r e l e v a n t d a t a , and f o r m u l a t e p l a u s i b l e hypotheses. From t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s w e d e d u c e c o n s e q u e n c e s w h i c h w e t e s t , sometimes e m p i r i c a l l y , b u t u s u a l l y i d e a t i o n a l l y . Most h y p o t h eses w e r e j e c t w i t h o u t a n e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t . Some are t o o e x p e n s i v e , some a r e i n h e r e n t l y i m p l a u s i b l e , o t h e r s r u n a f o u l o f g e n e r a l l y acc e p t e d mores. The few r e m a i n i n g h y p o t h e s e s are t e s t e d and c o n f i r m e d or d i s c o n f i r m e d , o r q u i t e p o s s i b l y s h o v e d i n t o a d e s k d r a w e r t o a w a i t f u r t h e r t h o u g h t o r more t i m e . Now I a s k y o u w h e r e i n r e s i d e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n y o u r s c i e n t i f i c p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a n d t h e i n t e l l i g e n t - - a n d I stress i n t e l ligent--solving of e t h i c a l or v a l u e problems? L e t ' s t a k e a problem mentioned e a r l i e r , t h a t o f t h e December, 1 9 8 2 , Cosmos 1402 m i s h a p . The S o v i e t e n g i n e e r s t r i e d t o separate a n u c l e a r r e a c t o r f r o m a r a d a r o c e a n s u r v e i l l a n c e s p a c e c r a f t . The maneuver f a i l e d . The d a n g e r o u s f i s s i o n s y s t e m , r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g s e n t i n t o a h i g h - a l t i t u d e o r b i t , r e m a i n e d i n a n o m i n o u s low o r b i t . When i t e n t e r s t h e a t m o s p h e r e a n d l a n d s a t a s i t e o t h e r t h a n t h e o c e a n , who p a y s t h e d a m a g e s ? Who d o e s t h e c l e a n i n g u p ? Who c o m p e n s a t e d t h e maimed a n d t h e f a m i l i e s o f t h e d e a d ? What e x a c t l y i s r i g h t or w r o n g , g o o d or e v i l , i n t h i s p r o b l e m - s i t u a t i o n ? What ought t o b e done? To g a t h e r d a t a b e a r i n g o n q u e s t i o n s s u c h a s t h e s e is d i f f i c u l t , And i t i s o f s u r p a s s i n g i m o f c o u r s e , b u t it is n o t i m p o s s i b l e . portance. Consider t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s . An a p p e a l t o J u d a i c - C h r i s t i a n S c r i p t u r e p e r h a p s ? or t o t h e K o r a n ? or t o das K a p i t a l ? o r a s i m p l e f i d e i s t i c a p p e a l t o some p o p u l a r c o n t e m p o r a r y r e l i g i o u s o r p o l i t i c a l I t ' s a v e r y great p i t y , l e a d e r ? or a n a p p e a l t o moral i n t u i t i o n s ? a c t u a l l y , b u t n o n e t h e l e s s t r u e , t h a t t h e moral i n t u i t i o n s , s c r i p t u r e s , i n j u n c t i o n s , a n d s o o n , o f t h e a d v e r s a r i e s i n t h i s s a d game s i m p l y do n o t agree. W e n e e d d e s p e r a t e l y t o f i n d a common moral s t a n d , o n e o n w h i c h men w i l l a g r e e , much a s t h e y agree o n s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r y a n d hard technical data.

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R e l e v a n t d a t a c o n c e r n i n g C o s m o s 1402 w o u l d s u r e l y i n c l u d e , f o r Does t h e d e s i g n e x a m p l e , t h e d e s i g n age o f t h e r e a c t o r - l a u n c h e r s . n e e d u p d a t i n g ? O r s h o u l d i t b e r e p l a c e d by a new d e s i g n ? I n p o i n t o f f a c t , t h e S o v i e t d e s i g n i s a b o u t 15 y e a r s o l d a n d s h o u l d b e u p d a t e d and p r e f e r a b l y r e p l a c e d . B u t more i m p o r t a n t w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e g u i d e l i n e s a n d p a r a m e t e r s o n s a f e t y f e a t u r e s t h a t c o u l d , b y m u t u a l c o n s e n t , be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o satellites u s i n g n u c l e a r f i s s i o n . Presumably continued and r e s p o n s i b l e d i s c u s s i o n c o n c e r n i n g i s s u e s l i k e t h i s would e v e n t u a t e i n a t r e a t y ( t h a t is, a h y p o t h e s i s ) t h a t would s e e k t o p r e v e n t f u t u r e I f it works, t h r e a t s o f f a l l i n g n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s . So w e t r y i t o u t . s o much t h e b e t t e r f o r t h e w e l l b e i n g o f m a n k i n d . I f it does not work--if t h e h y p o t h e s i s is d i s c o n f i r m e d - - w e had b e t t e r get b a c k t o t h e bargaining t a b l e i n a hurry. What I h a v e s u g g e s t e d b a r e l y s c r a t c h e d t h e s u r f a c e o f a p r o b l e m s u c h a s t h a t p o s e d by Cosmos 1 4 0 2 . B u t I h o p e my p o i n t h a s b e e n D o e s a l l t h i s , o r d o e s i t n o t , i n v o l v e human v a l u e s ? A n e made. g a t i v e a n s w e r is p r e t t y h a r d t o s w a l l o w . Were i t n o t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t human v a l u e s a r e i r r e v o c a b l y b o u n d u p w i t h t e c h n i c a l f a c t s , t h e n what d i f f e r e n c e w o u l d i t make t h a t t h e n e a r - E a r t h e n v i r o n m e n t m i g h t become g l u t t e d w i t h d e b r i s a n d o t h e r p o l l u t a n t s ? L e t m e p r e s s t h i s t h e s i s i n a s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t , p e r h a p s more p e r s o n a l l y e f f e c t i v e way. S u p p o s e o n e o f you e n g i n e e r s o r s c i e n t i s t s were t o d i s c o v e r a s i m p l e new e q u a t i o n , s a y , o n t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y o f some c h e m i c a l w i t h some p o l l u t a n t . L e t u s assume t h a t you a r e d e l i g h t e d by t h i s d i s c o v e r y . B u t s u p p o s e t h e n t h a t s o m e o n e comes a l o n g a n d d e m o n s t r a t e s t o y o u i n some way t h a t y o u r d i s c o v e r y w i l l h a v e u t t e r l y n o p e r c e p t i b l e e f f e c t o n human a f f a i r s o r i n d u s t r y o r progress i n science. I d o n ' t q u i t e know how t h i s w i l l be demons t r a t e d t o you--but l e t u s s u p p o s e t h a t you h a v e b e e n c o n v i n c e d . What w o u l d b e y o u r r e a c t i o n ? T h i n k a b o u t it*. I s u g g e s t t h a t you might f o r a while indulge i n a l i t t l e s e c r e t i v e fantacizing--a vacuous mathematical game-playing. But a f t e r t h i s unproductive p e r i o d w a s o v e r , would you n o t s e e k a n o t h e r l i n e o f r e s e a r c h , o n e t h a t w o u l d i n v o l v e i n some c o n c e i v a b l e way human v a l u e s ? CONCLUSIONS I n c l o s i n g l e t m e r e e m p h a s i z e what I c o n s i d e r t o b e t h e t w o m o s t i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s i n my p a p e r . F i r s t , t h e b i f u r c a t i o n o f s c i e n c e and e t h i c s , or more f u n d a m e n t a l l y o f f a c t a n d v a l u e , i s n o t m e r e l y a n I t is a d i c h o t o m y w h i c h , i f p e r p e t u a t e d , c a n u n j u s t i f i e d dichotomy. o n l y b e c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y p e r n i c i o u s . And s e c o n d , a c l o s e l y r e l a t e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n : a s o l u t i o n t o t h e problem of overcrowding of o b j e c t s i n n e a r - E a r t h o r b i t , a s w e l l a s t h e s o l u t i o n t o almost a n y o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m , r e q u i r e s t h a t moral f a c t o r s b e c o n s i d e r e d , n o t o n l y as r e l a t e d t o , b u t a s i n s e p a r a b l y bound u p w i t h t e c h n i c a l factors. REFERENCES 1.

R e y n o l d s , R o b e r t C . ; F i s h e r , Norman H . ; R i r e , E r i c E . ; "Man-made D e b r i s i n Low E a r t h O r b i t - - A T h r e a t t o F u t u r e S p a c e O p e r a t i o n s " , J o u r n a l of S p a c e c r a f t and R o c k e t s , V o l . 2 0 , N o . - 3 , M a y - J u n e , 1983, p. 285.

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2.

C o v a u l t , c. ; " S o v i e t Nuclear S p a c e c r a f t P o s e s R e e n t r y Danger", A v i a t i o n Week and S p a c e T e c h n o l o g y , J a n . 1 0 , 1983, p . 18.

3.

Ibid.

4.

R o t e , D.M., " E n v i r o n m e n t a l E f f e c t s of S p a c e S y s t e m s " , J o u r n a l of S p a c e c r a f t and R o c k e t s , Feb. 1 9 8 2 , Vol. 1 9 , No. 1, p . 2 0 .

5.

Dewey, J . ; R e c o n s t r u c t i o n j . P~h i l o s o p h y , Henry H o l t , N . Y . , p . 173 f .

1920,

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions, edited by T.N. Vezuoglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

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ENERGY AND LEGISLATION IN OUTER SPACE J.J. Hurtak Technology Marketing Analysis Corporation 680 Beach Street San Francisco, CA 94109, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT The evolution of man into space can open new resources for the collective development of all humanity. One of the major questions before each nation is whether or not we of this generation will continue to develop our technological capability to use these new resources. The answer to this question lies within the limits of our imagination. The first movements into space, which culminated in Apollo, catalyzed our imagination. The Space Shuttle now gives license to our creative exploration. The economic utilization of the solar system's vast resources--minerals, energy, various chemical compounds, etc.--will begin to be realized. What is needed now is the development of the proper energy technology, with a closer look at solar, MHD, MPD, and various renewable energy alternatives so that we can expand our capabilities. We must aim for a unified effort that will provide an efficient network of commercial development with the technical capacity of interfacing spacecraft from many nations. This unified effort will have to come via careful space legislation, taking into account such factors as the ecology of space and the type and purpose of vehicles sent into space. 1.

INTRODUCTION: THE ENTERPRISE OF SPACE

In the real world our planet functions as an aggregate of some 140 nations. Their means and capabilities have differed widely at any given point in history. The creation of wealth throuqh the machine age made possible great social and economic advances. The industrial revolution necessarily triggered an environmental expansion. Techno-scientific advances continue to intensify the industrial process in response to the pressure of needs as well as the promise of new options. The industrial revolution is not completed until the environmental revolution has restored an open energy environment commensurate with the growth and survival needs of the metabolic life form of which man is a sovereign guardian. For these reasons, the energy demand has expanded the environment not only into the deeper layers of the Earth's crust, but into the high frontier of space where new energy sources and strateqies compete with the imagination of scientists, engineers and businessmen.

690

The evolution of man into space can open new opportunities for us and for all mankind. There are new resources that have never before been available. One of the major questions before each nation is whether or not we of this generation will continue to develop our technological capability to use these new resources. The answers to this question lie within the limits or our imagination. The first movements into space, which culminated in Apollo, catalyzed our imagination. Skylab gave direction to our imagination. The Space Shuttle now gives license to our imagination. Originally space, like atomic energy, existed as a technological focus of endeavor--initiated by the military; however, the motivations of many of the space science pioneers were and are nonmilitary. Their visions are of people in space and human exploration of the solar system. Moreover, the Space Act declares that the U . S . is to develop space for peaceful purposes, for the benefit of all mankind, and mandates cooperation by the U.S. with other nations and groups of nations. Few of the originators of the Space Act (1) envisioned how quickly the day would come when space would serve as the site of routine operations. Now that space exploration has paved the way, the next obvious step into the outer regions is the establishment of manned habitats and space law to govern these extraterrestrial stations. The nsxt generation of space development envisions establishing the essential controlled environment for living comfortably in space, initially in confinedartificialenvironments. It will be an era of planetary engineering in which, for example, remote operations of machinery, artificial intelligence, micro-electronics, microsensors, learning and adaptive computers will dominate and will find new and unusually sophisticated applications. With these tools, economic utilization of the solar system's vast resources--minerals, energy, various chemical compounds, etc.--will begin to be developed in automated factories by computer-aided manufacturing. Presently, we are developing astronomical observatories, that is, sophisticated space platforms with large assemblies of optical and radio telescopes. Soon thereafter, spacecraft orbiting the outer planets will be essential for understanding space phenomena and exploring new resource areas, such as those observed by the Space platforms of 10 to 100 tons with a power Voyager spacecraf:. supply of at least several 100 kilowatts--perhaps as great as one megawatt--could be developed and deployed in low-earth or geosvnchronous orbit in the 1990s. 2.

THE POTENTIAL OF SOLAR ENERGY

A collecting,surface of 10 kilometers square in space could qather 10-100 gigawatts of solar power. Hundreds of such collectors gathering solar flux otherwise lost to the Earth would provide energy equivalent to the present world energy needs. This solar flux alternative could be either beamed directly to the ground or converted into electrical energy in space and transferred to Earth by high-power microwave beams. ( 2 ) With such collectors we could change, by utilizing new technology, nearly 1% of the solar flux reachinq Earth either by adding to it reflectinq additional energy,

6 91

or by reducing solar flux by "shadowing". A few large power stations in synchronous orbit could potentially provide power for different types of minor weather intervention on the ground, such as the dispersing of fog on the ground and protecting tender crops from frost--thus eliminatinq crop damase in crucial fruit areas such as Florida. With more powerful stations we miqht provide weather and even climate control, perhaps copinq with chanqes in climate either by natural forces or human activity. A larger alternative energy strategy envisions the full control of the solar flux on the Earth with a system of perhaps 10 million free-flvinq solar collectors in the vicinity of the Lagrangian point between the Earth and the sun, where the gravitational pull of solar sails is clearly within our present technoloqical capability. A serious difficulty with the development of a Satellite Power System (SPS) is the volume of material that engineers would need to take into space to build the solar platforms. Hundreds of tons of material would have to be lifted off the Earth every day. Accordinq to NASA projections, we may be able to build such platforms from minerals mined from the moon: a NASA study has reported that 90 percent of a satellite power system could be built from the silicon, oxygen, and various metals found in lunar rock. A lunar factory weighing perhaps 100 tons might produce a space Satellite Power System utilizing 10 billion kilosrams of aluminum, titanium and silicon in a few generations. These huge factories, whether on lunar soil or in the sky, would make little use of old energy technologies for space operations. Moreover, several criteria must be met when choosing manufacturing methods for use in space. For instance, they could use solar energy and local materials as far as possible and they should be suitable for automation. NASA has discovered that a cruder form of silicon of a metallurgical grade can be used for the manufacturins of solarcells. It is nowknownthat less-pure forms of silicon, such as metallurgical-grade, are less expensive than semi-conductor-qrade material and would help to lower the cost of solar-cells. However, typical metallurgical-grade silicon contains titanium in concentrations of 1014 or more atoms per cubic centimeter, which seriously degrades solar-cell performance. Cells composed of 15 to 50 micron-m-thick epitaxial layers on metallurgical-grade silicon substrates have efficiencies as high as 11.7 percent, whereas cells composed of diffused junctions in the same metallurgical-grade material have a top efficiency of 8 percent. ( 3 ) As a result of solar-cell innovation, current carriers in a vast array of applications in space will travel a shorter distance in the epitaxial layer than they do in the relativelythick diffused layer. The state-of-the-art for the Satellite Power Stations (SPS) would involve perhaps 100 satellites in geosynchronous orbit approximately 36,000 km above the Earth. Planners in the U.S. think that in building a complete satellite solar power system, reusable vehicles would be needed, shuttles capable of carryinq tremendous weight, as much as 4 0 0 tons, compared to the 3 0 ton capacity of the present Space Shuttle.

692

Each 5 GW power factory would be 10 km long and 5 5 km wide (considered roughly the size of Manhattan Island) and weigh some 50,000 tons. One surface would be covered with silicon cells to convert solar energy to electricity. In energy transfer an array of microwave tubes would transform the electricity into radiation which would be sent to a receiving antenna (called a rectenna) on Earth. The rectennas (one for each satellite) would convert the microwaves to electricity and conduct it to population centers. The European Space Agency has studied this subject since 1976 ( 4 ) , although it has no full Satellite Power Systems research program. In particular, the agency commissioned Hydronamic, a Dutch firm of civil engineers, to investisate sites in.Europe for rectennas which would be huge structures covering 100 square km. Among the sites the firm proposed are several in the North Sea area. Several technoloqies that would be important in a satellite power system are under study--control systems to position objects accurately in space within a configuration of larqe satellites. Each satellite would contain some 1000 million cells; and to be competitive they would have to cost 300 dollars for every kW that they produce--which is 5% of the price of the cells that are used on Earth today. To most of us, earth-based manufactured space systems larqe enouqh to provide energy for a high standard of living on Earth (containing as much as ten billion kilograms of material) is inconsistent with the preservation of the Earth's natural environment. The alternative is the industrialization of space and the development of the bountiful resources of other celestial bodies--the moon, asteroids, comets, and planets. In summary, future technological breakthroughs in space can be envisioned in two major areas of advancement. The first envisions applvinq lunar based industrial systems in space. Here one or more self-contained factories on the moon could manufacture solar collectors using abundant lunar aluminium, titanium and silicon for sail-like solar collectors. Light-weight, intelligent components will be supplied from the Earth. The second follows an exponential system, in which a single, highly sophisticated materials-processing and construction facility is sent to the moon: to utilize lunar materials for building large solar enerqy collectors but at the same time, to build additional factories in which collectors can be built. Under this scenario, a 10 billion kilogram solar energy system with 10 million collectors might be constructed and assembled in 20-30 years. However, this requires a technological breakthrough where a self-reproducing robot technology would strengthen new technological and energy developments that lead directly to continuing applications. 2.1

Industrial Robots and Energy Production

A microprocessor-controlled system comprising a solar-cell preparation and an industrial robot has been used to reduce labor in assemblinq photovoltaic solar ganels. The preparation station

693

prepares a cell for soldering; the robot picks up the cell, heats it to soldering temperature, and solders it in place as it positions the cell. While carrying the cell to the solar panel, a coil in the end effector heats the cell to soldering temperature by RF induction. The robot then simultaneously positions the cell and solders it in place in the panel. Jet Propulsion Lab has developed a robot hand that heats a solar-cell to solderinq temperature while the robot transports the cell from a preparation station to a solar panel where the cell is simultaneously placed in position and soldered. (5) The use of RF induction heatins allows the cell to be heated without resuirinq direct mechanical and thermal contact of a bonding tool such as a soldering iron. By the time the solar-cell arrives at the panel, it is hot enough to reflow the solder paste applied to the cell and to solder the cell to the interconnects of the next cell in the string as the robot places it in position. A configuration of robots preparinq large solar arrays underscores a growing emphasis in considering robots and unmanned space missions as drivers of basically new technology. With a few new advancements we can see, from a qeneral economic point of view, how the satellite power system could rapidly turn into a big new industry. At any one time, several hundred people would be working in space to construct the space platforms; and the project would require many times this number of technicians and engineers on Earth. Later, there would be other developments. The continuous availability of solar energy in space would make it economically feasible to site factories in orbit rather than on the ground. And, ultimately, people will mine other bodies in the solar system, such as the moon and the asteroids, for minerals which the space factories will process. For example, the European Economic Community imports virtually all its chromium, cobalt, nickel, tin, copper, manganese, titanium, tungsten and half of its aluminum, lead, zinc and iron. The only way that the European Economic Community (EEC) can reduce this dependence on other countries is to explore ways of obtaining the vital materials from space inexpensively. A n automatic or preprogrammed response from robots in various mining endeavors through remote viewing, automata and teleoperators might be appropriate in the absence of laws governing space chattel. But these are just the types of complex problems that would be challenqins to those who are researching adaptive and learning computers for robotic systems. (6) The attractiveness of collecting solar power in space and beaming it back to Earth depends on the development of either low-cost photovoltaic solar arrays or solar enerqy concentrators with thermal converters deployed on extremely light-weight structures. 2.2

Mobile Photovoltaic Generators

New ways have also been developed to deploy small scale solar generators. A compactly folded reflector can be deployed easily to form corner reflectors for a solar array. The reflector concept, developed for a solar electric-propulsion space vehicle, is applicable also to mobile solar electric-generators on Earth. As envisioned, in a simplified model, a flat box is deployed as a reflector comprising two panels. The panels direct sunlight into the arravs of solar-cells that are deployed with the panels.

694

A box holds two hinged+flat containers that rotate to deployment-ready position and a counterbalance beam that rotates into position after the containers. Each container holds a thin-membrane reflector, folded like a fire-hose. A mast is graduallv extended from the box and unfolds the reflector membrane from the two containers. The mast moves the counterbalance beam, which is connected to the supporting structure. In effect, the unfoldable-membrane reflector swings open for deployment and oDens up a new range of aDplications for mobile photovoltaic generators. 2.3

Components for Space Power and Energy Futures

The basic areas for understanding our energy futures in space can be modeled as follows (Fig. 1):

Energy For Space Power And Propulsion

Acq uiring

Processing_

Transferring

Storing

Energy Collection

Enerqy Conversion

Enerqy Transmission

Energy Storage

-

Energy Futures I

Fig. 1.

Flow Diagram for our Energy Future in Space.

695 3.

IMANAGEMENT OF ENERGY AND TECHNOLOGY FOR SOLUTIONS

Future space missions will require siqnificant improvements in data handling capability with respect to a variety of energy sources. This will demand high-density data processing systems and memories with low power requirements. 3.1 Conversion from Electro-magnetic (Photon) Energy

Photon energy from the sun or a laser beam may be converted to propulsive energy. To enable space travel NASA has researched the Shuttle's ability to use a solar electric propulsion (SEP) confiquration. Here parameters for photovoltaic cells and power orocessors are combined with mercury bombardment thrusters. The knowledqe garnered by NASA using solar cells with the Space Shuttle can now deliver about 6 0 0 kilowatts with the aid of reflectors to concentrate the sunlight on individual whotocells. Such a system could remain operating in space for 15 years (and over that time, its power-generating ability would not drop below 440 kilowatts). Lockheed studies for NASA indicate that SEP could provide more thrust from less propellant than rockets. A SEP vehicle could undertake interplanetary missions without being encumbered by a large propellant tank. For missions beyond Jupiter, however, NASA would have to design a more sensitive solar array. Solar sails have also been considered for Years as a possible means of low-cost propulsion. A form of Solar sail enqineering has already been successfully tested near the wlanet Mercury ( 7 ) , but Shuttle operations would provide the first opportunity for relatively low-risk "on-orbit'' deployment of the required extensive light-weight structure. The vehicle uses a. stiffened mylar structure with vanes for attitude control. A third method beinq investigated is "beam heated" thermal rocket engines. A laser beam source is located on the ground or in orbit around the Earth. Energy transmission is thus achieved bv a collector on the spacecraft. This collector then focuses the enersy through windows in a thrust chamber where it is absorbed by a propellant which is heated and exhausted through a nozzle (e.g., H2). Exhaust velocities of the order of 7.5 x lo3 to 2 x lo2 m/s are possible if the hvdrogen can be heated to temperatures of 2,500 to 20,000 degrees Kelvin. Critical developments required for this device, in addition to beam generator technology, are windows for high-intensitv beam transmission, means for enerqy absorption by the propellant, and chamber thermal protection. Laser beam conversion by electric propulsion may also be evaluated by relating laser energy to solar energv at 1 atomic mass unit(s). (8) 3.2

Conversion from Nuclear Energy

The specific mass and cost benefits of nuclear power capabilities in space are a necessary complement to solar power for many awplications. High levels of operational power must be supplied for long durations in situations where solar energy is not available. The cost-effective solution is the employment of nuclear energy storaae converted to tens of kilowatts to megawatts of electric power in space. Development of a fission nuclear power

system of 100 to 500 kWe can be used for providing power for spacecraft in the first phase of space engineering. If nuclear propulsion is to be used for high-load transportation such as placement of solar power stations in synchronous orbit, multimegawatt systems should be produced. With proper safeguards. a "two-track system" could produce a quantum leap in energy futiires. Radioisotopes provide a very efficient mechanism for storing energy. When used at power levels below 10 kWe, in conjunction with thermoelectric or thermionic conversion, radioisotopes provide electrical energy on a mass-per-unit energy basis three to four orders of magnitude more favorable than electrochemical batteries. Projected improvements in thermoelectric or thermionic converters and in isotopic fuel can significantly reduce costs from today's high costs in fossil fuels which portend a major unfavorable impact on the Earth's biosphere. Nuclear electric Drouulsion offers the potential for low thrust propulsion at a very high exhaust velocity ( V e = 4 to 6 x l o 4 m/s), as with solar electric propulsion, but with a system that is independent of solar distance. Working parameters that are forecast for the 120 kWe to 1 MWe power levels are consistent with use of thermionic or fluid dvnamic conversion devices, electric propulsion power processors and mercury electron bombard ment thrusters. Although detailed studies of 1 to 10 MWe systems have not been accomplished, it is anticipated that dvnamic conversion or maqnetogasdvnamic cycles would be applicable to that size ranqe appropriate for missions in deep space. (9) The Soviet Union has concentrated on this area of energy research and is entertaining it for its satellite efforts. (10) This research probably will not severelv affect the development of solar or other alternative technologies. Efforts will continue to increase the present low efficiency of solar technologies and lower the cost of the system components. For example, advanced engineers, qenerators, and power conditioning devices can make solarthermal electro-power aeneration economicallv very attractive. 3.3

Chemical, Liquid and Laser Propulsion

Rocket motors now used for propulsion utilize the stored alectronic energy in the chemical bond, released through a combustion process, to provide thermal expansion and high-velocity exhaust of the combustion products. Forecasts are presented for liquid propellant rocket motors, solid propellant rockets, and a conceptual svstem using metastable hydrogen as a propellant. Other eneruy technology such as liquid-propulsion activitjes will undoubtedly be affected by the efforts required to brinq the Space Shuttle into full operation. The use of the Space Transportation System (STS) will dictate the trends in new systems and liquid-rocket technologv in the coming years. Bipropellant systems are expected to be develoued for quidance-and-control roles on highly maneuverable upper stages and low-altitude antimissile defense systems. Emphasis will also be placed on propulsion technology for highly maneuverable anti-satellite missiles

697

Another key area of energy is the use of laser propulsion in space. A solar-pumped laser has been developed that can be used for: 1) remote power transmission for propulsion of orbital-transfer vehicles; 2) power beaming from space to provide laser-powered aircraft propulsion systems: 3) power beaming from space to Earth to provide electric power, and energy for materials processing and for fuel production; and 4) power for space-based science missions such as particular physics. The allure of laser systems is their conceptual simplicity and potency. Although ballistic missile defense is the most dramatic application of laser weapons, so far more money has been spent trying to develop more mundane energy applications. The arguments for space law seem eminently reasonable when the most controversial role envisaged for laser weapons is in orbiting battle stations that would defend against nuclear attack. 3.4

New Ion Propulsion

Early versions of the engines being developed for Ion Drive were placed in Earth orbit in 1969 during the Space Electric Rocket Test (SERT) Program under the direction of Lewis Research Center. Electricity-producing solar arrays have long been the mainstays of space power-production, although on a much smaller scale than will be used for Ion Drive. The development of larse arrays is made possible by new methods of stowinq deployment and improved solar cell technoloqy resulting in ultrathin light-weight cells (50 microns or 3/1000 inch). This will enable the spacecraft's solar wings to be deployed much like roll-down window shades. Once boosted into space by the shuttle, flexible thin blankets of solar cells wrapped tightly around a central core will be unrolled by the Ion Drive craft to begin power generation. The engines will then be ianited and the ion-powered trajectory to distant targets will begin. With solar array wings fully extended, the craft will resemble a huge galactic butterfly, spannins the length of one and a half football fields. 1983 saw great advancements in the elements of ion propulsion. Using electromagnetic propulsion, NASA engineers achieved an increase in MPD (magneto-plasma-dynamics) thruster efficiency to Experiments recently over 40% at 3,000 to 3,500 sec. I sp. performed at the Japanese Institute of Space and Aeronautical Sciences, using improved cathode materials, promise very large increases in MPD operating life through order-or-magnitude decreases in erosion rates. In related research, TRW installed a thrust stand to evaluate a 1-m-diam pulsed inductive thruster operated on arqon. Preliminary data indicate thruster efficiencies from 28-44% at I sps from 1,100-2,400 sec, respectively, as well as close agreement between the direct thrust measurements and thrust levels derived from probe data in the accelerated propellant. 3.5

New MHD Alternatives

Magnetohydrodynamics is the branch of continuum mechanics which deals with the motion of electrically conducting media(s) in

698

the presense of magnetic fields(s). A MHD electric power generator utilizes an electrically conducting media moving through a magnetic field to generate electric currents. The electric output depends on the media's conductivity, the velocity of the media's flow, and the field strength of the magnet. By setting the magnetic field as a constant (i.e., assuming the same magnitude of magnetic flux for each generator configuration), the output power of a MHD generator becomes the function of the media's electrical conductivity and the velocity of its flow through the electrode area (magnetic Revnolds number parameters) . Research into MHD generator technology has defined two different types of electrode confiqurations: those with electrodes in the duct and electrodeless generators. Due to the relative simplicity with respect to the theoretical analysis, experimental verification, and low ionization potentials of thermally ionized (burning of gases, etc.) wlasmas, earlier efforts to produce electric outputs via MHD generators have emphasized the development of various DC electrodes in the duct designs. Electrodeless MHD generators are based on induction couwling of the magnet(s) to the kinetic energv of the flowing conducting media (similar in concept to conventional electric generators). Because of the high input energy requirements and the numerous technological problems encountered in fostering the plasma conditions necessary for this tyue of MHD generator, this electrodeless generator design has had minimum research prior to the cvcling path generator concept. What has prompted continued research into this type of MHD generator is the theoretical efficiency; as the magnetic Reynolds number parameters increase, the performance of this type of qenerator continues to improve. Thus, significant improvements in plasma conditions make this technoloqy a most attractive technique for generating electric power (especially when compared to other conversion technologies). Cycling the residual energy improves the plasma conditions. Early radiative energy ionization research into MHD generators was limited to apuroaches to improve magnetic Reynolds number conditions; as electromagnetic particles will only ionize along their path. Nonresonance techniques places the energy source within (or direct the input signal into) an oscillator cavity. However, the cycling path concept directs the "left over residual energy" exciting from the generator back into the uenerator system. This technique combines the entrancing energy with the cycling residual energy to improve the plasma's flow conditions and the energy flux densities (leading to improved output power conditions). The cycling path generator design parameters offer a number of different conctersion inputs (i.e., solar energy driven, atomic energy driven, and laser/microwave transmission line driven). Limiting further generator description to the solar energy driven units, there are three different systems; a large utility generator; a small user generator (which is now in development stages); and a transportation generator (for space propulsion, etc.). Each of these generators offers extremely hiqh conversion efficiencies and can be scaled to any desired output.

Presently, thermally ionized MHD generators require a solar collector area of over 8,000 square meters. New research has indicated, however, that a MHD generator configuration can be built which would require only twenty square meters of solar radiant enprgy for a collection area. Initial research and testing indicates that this theoretical conversion ratio is feasible even for larger size units, offering a powerful source of space applications that would need major power from a small MHD cycling path generator technologv. It has been brouqht to my attention that the first permanently-manned space station launched by the U . S . in the 1990's could have such an innovative solar-MHD power system. (11) 3.6

The Parameters of Space Energy Systems

The following schematic (Fiqure 2) indicates the propulsion devices (not including mechanical and thermal) arranged according to the type of energy from which conversion is made, v&., electrical, photonic, chemical, and nuclear. Pertinence performance is placed in a profile for each device or system forecasted. The schematic displays the various program options being entertained in energy futures. As has been described, space technology finds wide application in energy systems. Some of the appllcations, for example, propulsion, are obvious. Other applications have developed throuqh study of energy needs and comparison with NASA interests and capabilities. It is possible that most of the likelv candidates for the use of aerospace technolosy for energy have been studied. There are, however, more opportunities, but the discoverv of new roles in energy, will still take effort and dedication on the part of the specialists to locate the need for R&D and formulate a means to meet the need. Some possible areas for the future include: 1) the problem of safety and quality assurance in the desiqn, management, and oDeration complex and dangerous energy production systems: 2) manaaement of global C02 and S02; 3 ) capabilities for controllinq utility systems with a wide variety of energy sources; and 4 ) energy resource surveys that can help with the expanding frontiers of space. Even more advanced propulsion and conversion concepts, which would be brought into operation after the turn of the century, offer the prospect of system mass per unit power levels two to three orders of maqnitude less than is possible with currently envisioned solar and nuclear electic propulsion. Exotic work by elementary particle physicists on antimatter production, storage, and reaction may ultimately lead to an energy source with available energy per unit mass two orders of magnitude greater than fusion, but is clearly within the time frame of the 21st century. A more important component of the creative role of energy is the consideration which has to be given to the appropriate form of social order for large space ventures. Translating our knowledge to the environment of space, and understanding the special problems and opportunities in space requires emphasis on space law.

700 PROFILES OF ENERGY FUTURES

(Fig. 2a)

ENERGY To Mechanical From:

Energy Collection (Acquiring)

Energy Transmissio

Arc & resistance heated thrusters

Ionosphere grids Lightning rods

Electron bombard ment electrostatic thruster Colloid electrostatic thruster

Capacitors conditioning equipment

Beam energy drive thermal rocket engine

Wire conductors

Electric propulsion power conditioning equipment

Electromagnetic accelerator Solar concentrator

Energy Storage (Storage)

Superconductors

1 Photovoltaic

ILaser generator

Laser collector Solar sails Microwave antenna

generator

Solar electric propulsion

Chemical manufacture on Earth Extraterrestrial surface materials collection and processing t o obtain chemical reactants

Liquid propellant rocket engines

Dynamic cycles

Solid propellant rockets

Magnetogasdynamic cycles

batteries

Detonation rocket

chemicals as reactants

Metastable chemical rocket engines

Extraerrestrial atmospheric component collection and processing as chemical reactants

Secondary batteries

Metastable chemicals

Atmospherebreathing thermal engines

Manufacturing processes Solid core rocket engine

I Dust-bed rocket

I

RadioisotoDc

Radioisotopes

Thermoelectric

Fission reactors Solid core Fluid core Gas core

Thermionic Dvnamic cvcles

Light bulb/gas core rocket

I Nuclear electric Atmospherebreathing thermal engines

Thermoelectric

I

Thermionic

I

Liquid metal MHD

I

Magnetogasdynami4 Fusion: Direct heat rocket

Dynamic cycles

Micro explosions

Gadfluid core reactor/converter Fusion energy conversion

I

Fusion reactors

I

APPROXlhi ,TE SYSTEM PERFC MANCE PARAMETERS

(Fig. 2b)

Year of Stated Parameter

%P (kdks)

a,

1975-2000

1.5 x 0.85 x

5.0 3.5

10-3 10-3

0.7

2.9

lo4

1985-2000

1.6 x

0.9

10-3

0.65

2.9

104 105

1985-2000

0.3 0.1 7

1.5

10.~

0.3 0.5

lo4 Adjustable

1985-1990

0.05

10-4

0.2

104

1985-2000

1.5 x 0.85 x

40 x 10-3 20 10-3

0.63 0.70

2.9 4.0

From Electronic (Chemical) Liquid Propellant Rockets (Pump Fed)

1985-1995

0.05

6.0

0.95

4.6 103 5.5 x 103

From Nuclear Fission Solid Core Nuclear Rocket (F=70,0OON)

1985

0.05

1990-2000

0.05

1.0

1985-1995

10-2

3.0 x

1990 2010

10-2 10-2

2.0 x 10-2 1.0 x 10-2

From Nuclear Fusion Fusion Rocket En ine (Jet Power=POOM~to 1GW)

2000-2010

0.17

10-3

Fusion Microexplosions

1990-2000

0.17

1o

Description : From Electrical Electron Bombardment Electrostatic Thrusters (Primary Hg Propellant) Colloid Electrostatic Thruster (auxiliary) Cesium Propellant Electromagnetic Acceleratoir (Steady 1MW)

Solar Electric Propulsion System (Mercury Propellant)

Nuclear Gas Core Rocket. Nuclear Electric Propulsion Thermionic (12OkWe to 240kWe) MHD (1MWe) (10MWe)

qc

(kq/We)

10.’

9.0

103

4.0

104

0.65

4.0

lo4

0.65 0.7

4.0 x 104 6.0 104

0.25

104-106

0.15

105

10-5

-~

I

lo4

104

4

c 0

702

4.

SPACE ENVIRONMENT AND ENERGY RESOURCES FOR MANUFACTURING

Non-terrestrial options--both in terms of production and resources may literally seem too futuristic to a good many business people. But the commercial development of space require few scientific breakthroughs--onlv a great deal of engineering--to establish technical, economic, and environmental viability. In the Past, expendable launchers imposed overwhelminq constraints on payloads sent into space. These contraints no lonqer exist. Now, the new marriage between space technologv and private enterprise brings a new range of possibilities in the spin-offs of the Space Shuttle's flexibility. Four space-manufacturing activities seem especially promising: pharmaceuticals, electronic devices, glass products, and advanced alloys. The efforts to interest commercial investors in space futures bore fruit in 1979 with the signing of an unprecedented agreement between NASA and McDonnellDouglas Astronautics, which in turn signed an agreement with a nonaerospace user corporation (Ortho Pharmaceutical). The aim was to evaluate possibilities such as vaccine production in space that requires a delicate process called electrophoresis. This cooperative agreement was an imaginative legal milestone for work in space, for it qave Ortho sufficient proprietary rights to test data to make the sizable investment of pharmaceutical production in space financially strong without violating federal antitrust or freedom-of-information statutes. Furthermore, it clearly demonstrated that the Federal government was willinq and even eager to subsidize this new industry, just as it had done previously with Comsat Corporation in the development of the commercial communication satellite network. With the help of the A I M Corporate Associates proqram, major companies such as DUDOnt and Exxon began to look at the potential of commercial returns on investments in space technoloqy. Thus, even before the first successful flight of the Space Shuttle, Beckman Instruments, 3-M and other pioneers in industry joined with TRW in leadership of a broad-base segment of private industry known as the ad hoc Materials Processing in Space Industrial Committee. In the pharmaceutical sector, it becomes increasingly desirable to separate and concentrate living cells that are capable of producing medically important substances. Earlier space experimentation had shown that pure materials could be developed for medical uses when molecular separation (the basis of electrophoresis) was not complicated by gravity-induced convection and sedimentation. Under zero-qravity in space, living cells (whose mass/charge ratios differ) can be separated efficiently and accurately by applving weak electric fields. The effectiveness of this method is strongly impeded in the presence of a sizeable gravitational force. Electrophoresis has a wide range of medical and bioloqical auplications. An early promising use is isolation of the human kidney cells that produce the enzyme urokinase, a substance with a uotential effectively preventing and dissolving blood clots and fatty material of heart attack victims. The pioneering work was done by Dr. Maurice

Mazel, and has now been cleared for large scale production in outer space. There, in the clean energy environment, it is considered that the ideal environment will contribute to its production as the miracle medicine of the late 1980's and 1990's. Even at the present cost of $1,200 dollars per dose the 500,000 doses currently needed annually in the U.S. alone cannot be produced by the present method that extracts one dose of urokinase from more than one ton of urine. The "electrophoretic method" can also be applied to separate other kidney cells that produce erythropoietin (an anti-anemia hormone stimulating the production of red blood cells in bone marrow); to a host of needed enzymes controlling a wide variety of metabolic functions (and malfunctions); to white blood cells and antibodies (effecting tumor growth, transplant rejections, etc.); to chromosomes (x, y, types affecting cattle population through artifical insemination); and possibly to nerve cells (neurology). The total benefits from medical and the biolosical sciences to research in agriculture cannot even be estimated today from a clean energy environment. In the electronic product area, value lies in the srowth of mono-crvstalline semiconductors of highest perfection and puri-ty for a wide variety of aDplications. The same space features of null-qravity--eliminatins convection current in metals and ease of levitation in melting (no contamination through wall contacts) also permit the production of glasses of very high puritv and optical quality as needed for high-power laser systems, fibreoptic transmission lines, and high-resolution optics. Thus it seems to me that the space frontier and the technological frontier are in a sense "meant for each other." with their interaction serving as the wellspring for the new developments that might help space trade-offs in technological leadership and economic well being. Possibly the most urgent area of space law that requires attention is the extension of medical, corporate and patent law to cover the infinite range of treatment, research and industrial activities that will soon beqin in space. Precedents are being set which may not be in the right direction either with respect to the interests of business, international development of planetary resources, and the interests of future consumers and pioneers of the interests of our planetary society. 5.

PERSPECTIVES OF SPACE LAW OM NEW RESOURCES

As civilization places permanently manned orbital stations and a host of high-tech factories in space, it will have to establish a commensurate set of laws for space manaqement, interplanetarv activities and exoindustrial operations.

In preparation of what could be called an extraterrestrial imperative to develop space, a subset of international law, recognized as "space law," has been developing in stages since the 1950's. Since about 1959, jurists, legal scholars, and pundits have elaborated with increasing detail and expanding

704

scope the principles, rules, and regulations under which spaceflight activities have progressed. The first essential and pragmatic international steps were taken out of operational necessity, in the form of bilateral agreements. Between 1959 and 1969 the United States had established more than 4 0 bilateral agreements involving manned-flight support communications, earth-orbitinq satellites tracing and telemetry facilities, reimbursable launch arrangements, unmanned scientific and application satellite proqrams, and deep-space network support for tracking, telemetry and control of space objects on trajectories away from the Earth. When Sputnik I went up, there was a truly global response. Among the first major undertakings of the U.N. was the identification, analysis and prioritization of the legal problems and issues qenerated by spaceflight activity. Some of the immediately identified issues were addressed and resolved in relatively rapid formulation of fundamental principles that won early unanimous support. Resolution 1721 of the Sixteenth General Assembly of the U.N. in December of 1961, articulated the rudimentary principles of emerging global space law, and laid out a program of work and study in areas of international cooperation, meterology, and communications. The subsequent. formulations of UNGA Resolution 1 8 8 4 (XVTII), of October 17, 1963. and Resolution 1962 (XVIII) of December 13, 1963, became exulicit references in +he Preamble of the 1967 Treaty o-"_Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Fodies. And with the entry into force of the treaty, the first decade of spaceflight was crowned with a charter of Principles that would be decades more in elaboration. The United States and the world community have come a lonq way in space law since Sputnik I. From the 65 national cooDerative experiment called the International Geophysical Year (1957), we have evolved a 103-nation Intelsat Organization, a ten-nation European Space Agency, a 22-nation cooperative Arab Communication Satellite Corporation and other, newer international organizations for space application. The search for new resources has dramatically increased Dollution in low-earth orbits and biospheric space in the last twenty-five years. More than 170 communications satellites are already in t.he geostationary position or are planned. Add all the military satellites, together with those now planned for direct broadcasting of television programs, and the space left for more satellites in t.his orhit becomes very limited. International agreements ensure that the signals from satellites near each other are modified so that they do not cause interference. Space nearer the Earth is also very crowded, wirh 3000 or so satellites "jostling for Dosition" alongside bits of old rockets and other debris. The vastness of space makes collisions unlikely, but one day the shuttle may have to act as a "qarbage vehicle" to retrieve space flotsam or nudge it into a different orbit. so that

706

it re-enters the atmosphere and burns up. The law that is being formulated today, in the U.S., in Europe, in the United Nations, is law that is focused on the detailed regulation of technological development of the space frontier. We are setting up insurance provisions, we are covering liability risks, and we are concerned with international interpersonal relations between citizens of different countries flying in space on the spacecraft of a third country. (12) In the U.N., countries are focusing on guidelines for remote-sensing operations, guidelines for direct television broadcasting by satellite, and possible regulation of the use of nuclear power sources in space. But there are other, more challenging, lonqer-term issues under debate.as well. Should we define "Outer space?" Should the geostationary orbit have a special status? Under what kind of governing regime might we one day exploit the resources of the moon and other celestial bodies? These are questions now on the agenda, not only of the U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, but also of the U.S. Congress. And as Congress begins to move, for the first time to address issues of how to regulate extraterrestrial activity, what should be its guidelines, its guiding principles, its touchstone of validity? In the plethora of commentary that emerged in the wake of Sputnik I, a qreat deal was written about the upper limit on national sovereiqntv. It is clear that over the new decades we are going to be busily ensaged in perfecting our rules of behavior for our technological activities below and above that elusive limit, wherever it may be. As we seek to establish the first phase of a scientific civilization in outer space with new energy sources, we must begin to strain our limits and to think in new and unearthly ways about how to regulate man beyond his home planet, in a new environment, seeking to explore, to build new homes and factories, and to survive. When Skylab and the Soviet satellite Cosmos 9 5 4 fell out of orbit, the incidents accented some of the dangers inherent in space Dropulsion systems. The fall of the Cosmos 9 5 4 spewed nuclear debris across part of Canada. The space accident illustrates a growing need for international cooperation to oversee the dimensions of "orbit" pollution. An international space organization might help to prevent such accidents and could help to resolve celestial "legalities" and difficulties stemming not only from the numerous nuclear-powered satellites, but also from the non-nuclear ferret, optical and electronic eaves-dropping satellites. An international organization should be more reliable than individual nations at monitoring orbits and giving advance notice of satellites in trouble. The Organization might even develop the technical know-how to alter orbits in terms of emerqency, or provide consulting or servicing programs when circumstances warrant. It might, for example, direct a danqerous. unsteady satellite to a fatal orbit away from our planet, even toward the sun. At orbital levels, discarded launch stages and other debris are creating space "litter" that could obstruct future launches and

706

experiments. An international organization would be useful in controllina space dumping. Privileqes and penalties could be keyed into the siqning of a custom model contract which would regulate "product deplovment" and set aside a certain percentage of total systems earnings for "trust fund" benefits. Any nation that makes use of space should economically contribute to a trust fund according to its use of outer space. There are also numerous leaal and regulatorv questions that arise when one contemplates solar power systems in snychronous orbit around the Earth. How do we establish national and international rates for the power generated and transmitted to receiving points on Earth? A subsidiary leasins program could be established, for example, which requires a down Dayment from each generator customer upon signing the contract, with penalties for withdrawal. A reasonableinstallation charge would be required. At the time of installation turnover, an additional payment, based on future lease service charges, would be required. The annual fee would include all maintenance and component replacement costs. The space frontier can become the font of technological development or the frontier for powerful national interests depending on how precise the requirements of space law are articulated for all of humankind. The question of where the emphasis is placed in defining "Outer space" from "Earth-resources space" is fundamental in this regard. An important perspective for space law is the need to communicate and agree on a boundary between the "space of the Earth" and outer space. Accordingly, space is now considered an extension of natural territory under current international law. But "outer space" is considered open territory where nations enjoy a freedom to navigate much like the freedom of the high seas. The U . S . S . R . would like to set a boundary between "air space" and outer space at about 100 kilometers, but the U.S. is hesitant to agree. We may want to operate the Space Shuttle at somewhat lower altitudes without having to worry about trespassing the boundary lines accordinq to international law. Space law would thus soothe national viewpoints currently irritated by the presence of "foreign satellites" stationed over national regions. Some "Third World" nations even argue that satellites in "fixed position" still violate their:territorial space even thouqh they are 3 5 , 0 0 0 kilometers aloft. Ultimately, space law specialists who argue for the need for "licensing negotiations" for use of low-earh orbits may have to define orbital usage for a defined licensee time period. Use would be defined according to "special energy configurations" to "service specific industries," while the orbit itself maintains a status of "economjc free goods," that is, goods not diminished by utilization. The Space Shuttle is-the first major step in a positive answer to the question of energy markets in space. Once the Space Shuttle's "services loop" is economically established through continual automation routine, that is, when we have relatively economic and convenient access to the near-earth space environment, then imaqinative use of that environment becomes possible.

I01

6.

CONCLUSIONS

T!ie special requirements of energy recovery and processing in space, quite different from those typical of earth-based industrial processes, need to be aligned with space law management over the next one or two decades so as to control growing areas of space pollution. The resource areas that must be protected and enhanced are basically three in number: 1) Continuous and instantaneous view of the Earth. solar resources and energy materials: 2 ) An infinite quantity of clean,altra-high vacuum; and 3 ) A weightless environment, that is, an environment free of aravitational stress, or "low gravity space" which would allow us to study and control the mixing of fluids, gases and solids which, on Earth, seoarate out because they have different densities. In addition, man's application of new remote sensinq systems shows unlimited potential. With uuantum leaps of computer-robots in the last twenty years, it is possible that the "fifth qeneration" of computerized robots could be out-thinking "Plan" in the not too distant future. (13) The question is, should humans be prepared for long-term operations in an outer space environment, or should we prepare "to govern" through "levels" of remote television "eyes," articulated "hands," radio "ears" and the means of locomotion for these extended sensors and doers? SDace "law" will have to answer to both manned and unmanned complexities. In the near future a half-dozen countries will be able to launch their own satelittes and, as the orbiting bodies proliferate, the ricrht of satellite power and purpose in space will no longer be taken for granted. We may wisely evolve, in the cooiseration between specialists in space prouramming and space law, a sliding criteria of "values" to cover what could be called "space chattel." In resolving the deeper nuances of "economic free goods," "space chattel" and "energy options," perhaps, the resolution of the "space-boundary issue" might make it easier for a better distribution of the energv resources and activity down here on planet Earth. The underlying principles of the American space Drouram have remained surprisingly constant. They include one basic theme that could be implemented through space law--namely, considerable openness in the technical prosrams, manifested by a strong emphasis on public information and a willingness to expose mistakes as well as successes. In addition to this theme, the basis for space law could use the Law of the Seas as a key map. The recent enactments following from the 1973 London Convention and the 1978 Protocol relating-to the International Convention Prevention and Pollution from Ships. entered-into-force in October, 1983, could provide for the legal norm, enforcement model, and act as a major criteria for the management of energy futures in the area of space law. (14)

To provide for the future of Man, space law must establish the proper "checks and balances" to promote the development of enerqy futures that will go to higher levels of autonomy creating a pollution-free environment in space and on earth. Indeed, we have the scientific techniques to assure a meaningful life for all

708 earthlings throagn untapped resources. What we need is the vision to recognize that we are indeed all earthlings with a common destiny in snace. REFERENCES 1.

Report of the United Nations Ad Hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, a report to the U.N. General Assembly, 14th session, New York, 1959, U.N. Document No. A/4141, July 14, 1959. See also Senate Bill 8 7 5 . submitted by Senator H. Schmitt on April 4. 1979, providing for regulation of a commercial Earth Resources information Service.

2.

Intersocietv Energy Conversion Engineering Conferences (IECEC) report for 1981:summarized in Mechanical Engineerins_,October. 1981.

3.

Ibid. See a.lso Deudney, Daniel, Space: The Hiqh Frontier in Perspective, Worldwatch Paper X50, Worldwatch Institute, Washington, D.C.

4.

Cf.U.N. 1974 Convention on Registration of Objects Launched Into Outer Space. An excellent survey of pendinq areas of legal and policy development was recently published hv Mossinghoff, "New AIAA Task Force Wades Into Legal Waters," Astronautics and Aeronautics 20-24 (October, 1979).

5.

This work was done by John J. Hagerty of MBAssociates for NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratorv.

6.

"Man-Machine Systems--An Evaluation of Roving Vehicle Navigation bv Landmarks," V.F. Anthony, R.A. Lewis and J.W. Moore, JPL Doc. 760-57, 15 April, 1970. Cf. Shannon, C.E., and McCarthy, J. (eds.) "Automata Studies." Princeton University, 1956. Ward, M.R. et al., "CONSIGHT" in 9th Intern. Symposium on Robots, W G h K g t o n , March, 1 9 7 .

7.

Private conversation with G. Hall at JPL. Lewis Research Center and two contractors, Hughes Research Lab., Malibu. Ca., and TRW Systems, Redondo Beach, Ca., have contributed engines and power-processing esuipment.

8.

Laser Beam Generator forecast specifications by D.L. Nored, Lewish Rearch Center, 1975-present.

9.

Findings of the Electric Propulsion Technical Committee under Committee Chairman: Robert Poeschel of Hughes Research Laboratory in December, 1983. Major work includes findings by K. Kuriki of the Japanese Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, F. Terdan of NASA-Lewish, and R. Vondra Of JPL.

10.

Oberg. James, Red Star in Space (Harrap), 1981. American specialists feel major contributions will be made by the Soviets in magnetogasdynamic applications and super-boosters.

11.

Private conversation with Fred Duncan, MHD specialist. in June, 1982 (Solar.Technologies Conference: Houston, Texas).

I09 12

S e e , e . q . , Oxman, B . H . , "The T h i r d U n i t e d N a t i o n s c o n f e r e n c e 1 (1980). In addition, on t h e Law o f t h e S e a , " 74 A . J . I . L . t h e s e s a n e p r i n c i p l e s have been a s u b j e c t o f i n c r e a s i n g p u b l i c d e b a t e b e c a u s e o f t h e i r i n c l u s i o n i n t h e Agreement G o v e r n i n a t h e A c t i v i t i e s o f S t a t e s o n t h e Moon and O t h e r C e l e s t i a l B o d i e s . a p p r o v e d by t h e UNGA on D e c . 5 , 1 9 7 9 : A/RES/34/68.

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P r i v a t e views o f Robert J a s t r o w d i s c u s s e d w i t h c o l l e a g u e s i n r o b o t i c Droaramming. C f . VanderBruq, G . J . s t ( 1 9 7 9 ) . "A V i s i o n System f o r R e a l T i m e C o n t r o l o f R o b o t s , " 9 t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l SymDosium o n R o b o t s , W a s h i n a t o n , March. 1979.

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U.S. D e p t . o f S t a t e . Treaties-In-Fo:.ce: 1983. TIAS. Annex 2 o f t h e London P r o t o c o l w i l l b e e n f o r c e d i n 1 9 8 6 .

e.,

Note. F i g u r e 1, 2a and 2b p r e p a r e d from p o s i t i o n p a p e r s d e l i v e r e d by c o n s u l t a n t s o f t h e Energy Management C o o r d i n a t i n q Comm i t t e e : Goddard S p a c e F l i g h t C e n t e r , J P L , L e w i s R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , Johnson Space C e n t e r , and M a r s h a l l Space F l i g h t Center. S p e c i a l f o r e c a s t s o n L a s e r Beam t r a n s m i s s i o n , E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c e n e m y c o n v e r s i o n , N u c l e a r F i s s i o n Conversion, etc., are available.

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711

The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions,edited by T.N.Veziroglu Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 1984 - Printed in The Netherlands

AUTHOR INDEX A b i d i , S . B . H . , 169 A l l r e d , P . M . , 639 Arment a n o , T. V . , 181 A u l t , K . A . , 181 B e c k e r , C.M., 3 4 7 Bendix, G.G., 41 Bendix, S. , 41 B i s e l l e , C.A., 87, 1 1 9 Bowonder, B . , 527 Brenner, P . J . , 211 B r i g g l e , T . V . , 559 B r o w n , R . D . , 8 7 , 119

571

Machlis, G.E., 49 Madhyastha, M . N . , 617 Mann, J . B . , 5 7 1 M a s o n 111, J . T . , 303 M e b a n e , R . A . , 83 M e n g e s , E . S . , 181 M e y e r s , W.E. , 4 7 1 M i l l e r , B . , 381 M i l l e r , C.W., 1 4 5 M o l o f s k y , J . , 181 Morgan, E. L . , 297 Morris, P . J . , 333 M o r r i s o n , R., 287

415

N a n d a n , D . , 579 N a y a k , R . , 617 Nemerow, N.L., 461

C a m p b e l l , J . J . N . , 599 Coleman, D . R . , 471 Cowgill, U.M., 233 Danauskas, J . X . , D a v i s , C . B . , 11 E a k i n s , J . , 315 E i s e n h a r t , R.W., Eley, M.H., 471

L a nd r u r n , P . F . , 6 3 9 L a u g h l i n , T . J . , 471 L e e , J . A . , 17 Leonard, D.R., 303 Lishawa, C.L., 471 L o r a n , B. I . , 333

F a r o o q u i , N . , 169 F l i n t , R.W., 387 (Sr.) F r e i , J . K . , 2 7 1 G i e s y , J . P . , 639 Graham, J . E . S . , 6 5 9 G r a n t , D . F . , 639 Gray, R . H . , 547 Gregg, W . P . , J r . , 65

H a l l , C . A . S . , 181 Horsbrugh, P . , 23 H u a n g , S . D . , 669 Hurtak, J.J., 689 J a g a d e e s h , A . , 2 2 7 , 679 J e f f e r , H . , 271 J o h n s o n , W . , 315 J o n e s , W . W . , 101 K a p a r t h i , R . , 515 Kilgore, M.V., J r . , 471 K l e m o w , K . M . , 195 K o t t u r i , M.S., 2 6 1 K u m a r , B . N . , 593

Orenic, C., 271 O r i s , J . T . , 639 O s t e r . C.V., J r . , l O l ParkBr, F . L . , 453 P e o p l e s , A . J . , 559 P f a f f e n b e r g e r , C.D., Polunin, N., 1 P r i m e , V . , 35

559

Raharnan, A . A . , 4 3 7 Ran,jitha, A . , 447 Ray, K.C., 347 Raza, S . A . , 169 Raza, S . M . , 169 R i c h , K.E., 487 R i t c h i e , I . W . , 101 S c h u h , S . A . , 683 S e c o r , C . K . , 669 S h a r m a , J . S . , 535, 5 7 9 Sharma, M.S., 579 S i g u r s l i d , D., 629 Simon, J . , 453 Smith, N., 271 S o l o m a h , A . G . , 159 S t o r r s , P . N . , 333

712

Thgrien, N., 287 Thorhaug, A . 381, 407

Yildiran, M., 145 Young, R.C., 297

Willard, D.E., 101 Wright, R.G., 49

Zogorski, J.S., 101 Zweig, R.M., 669 Zwenig, E.A., 499