The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates, Vol. 2

The chemistry of

amidines and imidates Volume 2

THE CHEMISTRY OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

A series of advanced treatises under the general editorship of Professor Saul Patai The chemistry of alkenes (2 volumes) The chemistry of the carbonyl group (2 volumes) The chemistry of the ether linkage The chemistry of the amino group The chemistry of the nitro and nitroso groups (2 parts) The chemistry of carboxylic acids and esters The chemistry of the carbon-nitrogen double bond The chemistry of amides The chemistry of the cyano group The chemistry of the hydroxyl group (2 parts) The chemistry of the azido group The chemistry of acyl halides The chemistry of the carbon-halogen bond (2 parts) The chemistry of the quinonoid compounds (2 volumes, 4 parts) The chemistry of the thiol group (2 parts) The chemistry of the hydrazo. azo and azoxy groups (2 parts) The chemistry of amidines and imidates (2 volumes) The chemistry of cyanates and their thio derivatives (2 parts) The chemistry of diazonium and diazo groups (2 parts) The chemistry of the carbon-carbon triple bond (2 parts) The chemistry of ketenes. allenes and related compounds (2 parts) The chemistry of the sulphonium group (2 parts) Supplement A: The chemistry of double-bonded functional groups (2 volumes, 4 parts) Supplement B: The chemistry of acid derivatives (2 parts) Supplement C: The chemistry of triple-bonded functional groups (2 parts) Supplement D: The chemistry of halides, pseudo-halides and azides (2 parts) Supplement E: The chemistry of ethers, crown ethers, hydroxyl groups and their sulphur analogues (2 parts) Supplement F: The chemistry of amino, nitroso and nitro compounds and their derivatives (2 parts) The chemistry of the metal-carbon bond (5 volumes) The chemistry of peroxides The chemistry of organic selenium and tellurium compounds (2 volumes) The chemistry of the cyclopropyl group The chemistry of sulphones and sulphoxides The chemistry of organic silicon compounds (2 parts) The chemistry of enones (2 parts) The chemistry of sulphinic acids, esters and their derivatives The chemistry of sulphenic acids and their derivatives The chemistry of enols The chemistry of organophosphorus compounds, Volume 1 The chemistry of sulphonic acids, esters and their derivatives UPDATES The chemistry of a-haloketones, a-haloaldehydes and a-haloitnines Nitrones, nitronates and nitroxides Crown ethers and analogs Cyclopropane derived reactive intermediates The silicon-heteroatom bond Synthesis of carboxylic acids, esters and their derivatives Patai's guide to the chemistry of functional groups-Saul

Patai

The chemistry of amidines and imidates Volume 2

Edited by SAUL PATAI

and Zvi RAPPOPORT The Hebrew University, Jerusalem

1991

JOHN WILEY & SONS CHICHESTER-NEWYORK-BRISBANE-TORONTO-SINGAPORE An Interscience@Publication

Copyright 0 1991 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd Baffins Lane, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 IUD, England All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced by any means, or transmitted, or translated into a machine language without the written permission of the publisher Other Wiley Editorial Offices John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, USA JacarandaWiley Ltd, G.P.O. Box 859, Brisbane, Queensland 4001, Australia John Wiley Sons (Canada) Ltd, 22 Worcester Road, Rexdale, Ontario M9W 1L1, Canada John Wiley & Sons (SEA) Pte Ltd, 37 Jalan Pemimpin 05-04, Block B, Union Industrial Building, Singapore 2057 Library of Congress Catdoging-in-PubIicationData:

The Chemistry of amidines and imidates / edited by Saul Patai and Zvi Rappoport. cm.-(The Chemistry of functional groups) p. ‘An Interscience publication.’ Includes bibliographical referencesand indexes. ISBN 0-471-92457-1 (v. 2) 1. Amidines. I. Patai, Saul. 11. Rappoport, Zvi. 111. Series. QD34lSA7C64 1991 547’.042-d~20 90- 12884 c1P A catalogue record of this book is availablefrom the British Library Phototypeset by Thomson Press (I) Ltd, New Delhi and Printed and bound in Great Britain by Courier International Ltd, East Kilbride.

TO

Anat, Galit and Sara

Contributing authors Per Ahlberg

Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Goteborg, KemigHrden 3, S-412 96 Goteborg, Sweden

Zeev 6. Alfassi

Department of Nuclear Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel

Department of OrganicChemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem,Jerusalem 91904, Israel lrena BuSko-Oszczapowicz Department of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, ul. Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland Dipartimento di Studi di Chimica e Tecnologia delle Simonetta Fornarini Sostanze Biologicamente Attive, Universitl degli Studi di Roma ‘La Sapienza’, 00185 Rome, Italy Institut fur Organische Chemie der Universitat Tubingen, Gunter Hafelinger Auf der Morgenstelle 18, D-7400 Tubingen 1, Germany Department of Chemistry, The University of Warsaw, ul. Jan S. Jaworski Pasteura 1,02493 Warsaw, Poland Department of Chemistry, The University of Warsaw, ul. Marek K. Kalinowski Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Hiroshima Satoshi Kojima University, 1-89 Higashi-sendamachi 1 chome, Naka-ku, Hiroshima, 730 Japan Tadeusz Marek Krygowski Department of Chemistry, The University of Warsaw, ul. Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland Institut fur Organische Chemie der Universitat Tubingen, Frank K. H. Kuske Auf der Morgenstelle 18, D-7400 Tubingen 1, Germ-any Institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry, Rostov lgor E. Mikhailov University, 344711 Rostov on Don, USSR Institute of Physical and Organic Chemsitry, Rostov Vladimir I. Minkin University, 344711 Rostov on Don, USSR Department of Chemistry, The University, Dundee, DD1 Douglas G. Neilson 4HN, Scotland Department of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, ul. Janusz Oszczapowicz Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland

Gerhard V. Boyd

...

Vlll

Contributing authors

Charles L. Perrin

Department of Chemistry D-006, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0506, USA

Kalevi Pihlaja

Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, SF-20500 Turku, Finland

John Shorter

Department of Chemistry, The University, Hull, HU6 7RX, UK

Lena Swahn

Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Goteborg, Kemigirden 3, D-412 96 Goteborg, Sweden

Krzysztof Wofniak

Department of Chemistry, The University of Warsaw, ul. Pasteura 1 , 02-093 Warsaw, Poland

Yohsuke Yamamoto

Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Hiroshima University, 1-89 Higashi-sendamachi 1 chome, Naka-ku, Hiroshima, 730 Japan

Foreword The volume on The chemistry of amidines and imidates appeared in 1975 in the series The chemistry offunctional groups. The size of the net text of that volume was 617 pages in a period when print sizcs and distances between lines were considerably larger than in the more recent volumes of the Series. Even so, the present Volume 2 on the same topic contains 845 pages of net text, covering fifteen years of development of the subject. Another pleasing aspect to the editors is that while the twelve chapters of Volume 1 were written by authors in six countries, all in Europe and in the USA, in the sixteen chapters of Volume 2 authors from ten countries participated including several from what used to be behind the Iron Curtain (USSR, Poland) as well as from Japan, Italy, Finland, Sweden, Germany, UK, USA and Israel. Indeed the continued international character of the Series is a source of lasting satisfaction to the editors. Two planned chapters failed to materialize for this volume: One on ‘Biochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology’ and the second on ‘Isotopically substituted amidines, their preparation and uses’. The literature coverage in most chapters is up to the end of 1989. We would be grateful to readers who would draw our attention to mistakes or omissions in this volume. Jerusalem May 1991

SAULPATAI ZVI RAPPOPORT

The Chemistry of Functional Groups Preface to the series The series ‘The Chemistry of Functional Groups’ was originally planned to cover in each volume all aspects of the chemistry of one of the important functional groups in organic chemistry. The emphasis is laid on the preparation, properties and reactions of the functional group treated and on the effects which it exerts both in the immediate vicinity of the group in question and in the whole molecule. A voluntary restriction on the treatment of the various functional groups in these volumes is that material included in easily and generally available secondary or tertiary sources, such as Chemical Reviews, Quarterly Reviews, Organic Reactions, various ‘Advances’ and ‘Progress’ series and in textbooks (i.e. in books which are usually found in the chemical libraries of most universities and research institutes), should not, as a rule, be repeated in detail, unless it is necessary for the balanced treatment of the topic. Therefore each of the authors is asked not to give an encyclopaedic coverage of his subject, but to concentrate on the most important recent developments and mainly on material that has not been adequately covered by reviews or other secondary sources by the time of writing of the chapter, and to address himself to a reader who is assumed to be at a fairly advanced postgraduate level. It is realized that no plan can be devised for a volume that would give a complete coverage of the field with no overlap between chapters, while at the same time preserving the readability of the text. The Editor set himself the goal ofattainingreasonablecoverage with moderate overlap, with a minimum of cross-referencesbetween the chapters. In this manner,sufficientfreedom is given to the authorsto produce readable quasi-monographic chapters. The general plan of each volume includes the following main sections: (a)An introductory chapterdeals with the generaland theoretical aspects of the group. (b) Chapters discuss the characterization and characteristics of the functional groups, i.e. qualitative and quantitative methods of determination including chemical and physical methods, MS, UV, IR, NMR, ESR and PES-as well as activating and directive effects exerted by the group, and its basicity, acidity and complex-forming ability. (c) One or more chapters deal with the formation of the functional group in question, either from other groups already present in the molecule or by introducing the new group directly or indirectly. This is usually followed by a description of the synthetic uses of the group, including its reactions, transformationsand rearrangements. (d) Additional chapters deal with special topics such as electrochemistry, photochemistry, radiation chemistry, thermochemistry, syntheses and uses of isotopically labelled compounds, as well as with biochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology. Whenever applicable, unique chapters relevant only to single functional groups are also included (e.g. ‘Polyethers’. ‘Tetraaminoethylenes’or ‘Siloxanes’).

xii

Preface to the series

This plan entails that the breadth, depth and thought-provokingnatureof each chapter will differ with the views and inclinations of the authors and the presentation will necessarily be somewhat uneven. Moreover, a serious problem is caused by authorswho deliver their manuscript late or not at all. In order to overcome this problem at least to some extent, some volumes may be published without giving consideration to the originally planned logical order of the chapters. Since the beginning of the Series in 1964, two main developments occurred. The first of these is the publication of supplementary volumes which contain material relating to several kindred functional groups (Supplements A, B, C, D, E and F). The second ramification is the publication of a series of ‘Updates’, which contain in each volume selected and related chapters, reprinted in the original form in which they were published, together with an extensive updating of the subjects, if possible, by the authors of the original chapters. A complete list of all above mentioned volumes published to date will be found on the page opposite the inner title page of this book. Advice or criticism regarding the plan and execution of this series will be welcomed by the Editor. The publication of this series would never have been started, let alone continued, without the support of many persons in Israel and overseas, including colleagues,friends and family. The efficient and patient co-operation of staff members of the publisher also rendered me invaluable aid. My sincere thanks are due to all of them, especially to Professor Zvi Rappoport who, for many years, shares the work and responsibility of the editing of this Series. The Hebrew University Jerusalem,Israel

SAUL PATAI

Contents 1. General and theoretical aspects of amidines and related compounds

Gunter Hafelinger and Frank K. H. Kuske

1

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

101

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds Charles L. Perrin

147

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives Irena Buiko-Oszczapowicz and Janusz Oszczapowicz

231

5. Mass spectra of amidines and related compounds

301

6. Thermochemistry of amidines and related compounds Kalevi Pihlaja

323

7. Recent advances in the synthesis of amidines

339

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines Gerhard V. Boyd 9. lmidates including cyclic imidates Douglas G. Neilson

367

Tadeusz Marek Krygowski and Krzysztof Woiniak

Simonetta Fornarini

Gerhard V. Boyd

425

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives Yohsuke Yamamoto and Satoshi Kojima

485

11.

527

Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

12. Basicity, H-bonding, tautomerism and complex formation of imidic acid derivatives

623

Janusz Oszczapowicz

13. Electronic effects of amidino, guanidino and related groups John Shorter

689

14. Radiation Chemistry of amidines Zeev B. Alfassi

707

15. Catelysis by amidines

749

Per Ahlberg and Lena Swahn

xiv

Contents

16. Electrochemistry of amidines Jan S. Jaworski and Marek K. Kalinowski

789

Author index

853

Subject index

907

List of abbreviations used Ac acac Ad Alk All An Ar

acetyl (MeCO) acetylacetone adamantyl alkyl ally1 anisyl aryl

BZ

benzoyl (C6H,CO) butyl (also t-Bu or Bu‘)

Bu CD CI CIDNP CNDO CP DBU DME DMF DMSO ee EI ESCA

ESR

Et eV

Fc FD FI

FT

Fu Hex c-Hex HMPA HOMO iIP

circulardichroism chemical ionization chemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization complete neglect of differentialoverlap q5-cyclopentadienyl 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.O’J undec-Fene 1,2-dimethoxyethane N,N-dimethylformamide dimethyl sulphoxide enantiomericexcess electron impact electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis electron spin resonance ethyl electron volt ferrocene field desorption field ionization Fouriertransform furyl(OC,H,) hexy1(C6H13) cyclohexyl(C6Hl hexamethylphosophortriamide highest occupied molecular orbital is0 ionization potential

xvi

List of abbreviations used

IR ICR

infrared ion cyclotron resonance

LCAO LDA LUMO

linear combination of atomic orbitals lithium diisopropylamide lowest unoccupied molecular orbital

M M MCPBA Me MNDO MS

metal parent molecule m-chloroperbenzoic acid methyl modified neglect of diatomic overlap mass spectrum

Naph NBS NMR

n-

normal naphthyl N-bromosuccinimide nuclear magnetic resonance

Pen Pip Ph PPm Pr PTC PYr R RT

pentyl(C5H11) piperidyl(C,H loN) phenyl parts per million propyl (also i-Pr and Pr’) phase transfer catalysis pyrW G H P ) any radical room temperature

SET SOMO

S-

secondary single electron transfer singly occupied molecular orbital

tTCNE THF Thi TMEDA To1 Tos or Ts Trityl

tertiary tetracyanoethylene tetrahydrofuran thienyl(SC,H,) tetramethylethylene diamine tolyl(MeC6H,) tosylk-toluenesulphonyl) triphenylmethyl(Ph3C)

XYI xYlYl(Me,C,H,) In addition, entries in the ‘List of Radical Names’ in IUPAC Nomenclature oforganic Chemistry, 1979 Edition. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1979, p. 305-322, will also be used in their unabbreviated forms, both in the text and in formulae instead of explicitly drawn structures.

CHAPTER

1

General and theoretical aspects of amidines and related compounds GUNTER HAFELINGER and FRANK K. H. KUSKE Institute of Organic Chemistry. University of Tubingen. Auf der Morgenstelle 18. 7400 Tiibingen. Germany ~~

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1I.GENERALOVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111. CLASSIFICATIONS AND NOMENCLATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . Acyclic Amidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Unsubstituted amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. N- or N'-Monosubstituted amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. N,N'-Disubstituted amidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. N. N.Disubstituted amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . N'.N'.N '-Trisubstituted amidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. N.N.N',N '.Tetrasubstituted amidinium cations . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. CyclicAmidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Amino group part of the heterocycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Imino group part of the heterocycle ........................... 3. Amidino group incorporated in one heterocycle ................ 4 . Bicyclic amidines ........................................... C. Cyclic Heteroaromatic Amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Amidino group fully part of the ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Amidino group only partly incorporated. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Amidine Related Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . Acyclic imidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Cyclic imidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Y-Conjugated systems: guanidines and guanidinium cations . . . . . IV . EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATIONS OF MOLECULAR STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . CN Bond Distances for Comparison with Amidine Systems . . . . . . . B. CN Distances in Neutral Amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Experimental Molecular Structures of Amidinium Cations . . . . . . . . The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates. Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and Z . Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley '& Sons Ltd

1

3 3 5

5 5

6 7 7 7 7 9 9 10

10

10 11 11 12 13 13 13 14

15 15 15 318

2

G . Hafelingerand F. K . H. Kuske

D. Experimental XD Determinations in Amidinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Molecular Structuresof Neutral Guanidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. Molecular Structuresof GuanidiniumCations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G . Structural Data of Imidates and the CorrespondingCations . . . . . . . H. Structural Data of Neutral and Protonated Y-conjugated Systems . . . I. MiscellaneousCompounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Biguanide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Bis(N'-acetimidoylacetamidine.N', N3)nickel(II)chloride trihydrate 3. Psychoactive amidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 6-Dimethylamino-5-azaazulene ...................... V. THEORY METHODS O F CALCULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . Assumptions of ab initio Hartree-Fock SCF MO Procedures . . . . . . 1. Gaussian basis sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Notations for Gaussian basis sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Gradient Optimizations of Molecular Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Methods of Population Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Integrated Bader populations and integrated projected populations . 2. Basis set population methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Mulliken population analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Post-Hartree-Fock Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI . RESULTS O F A B INITIO CALCULATIONS FOR AMIDINES . . . . . A . 3-21G Calculationsfor Formamidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. E,2 Formamidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Formamidiniumcations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Anionic formamidinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Basis Set Dependence of Calculated Molecular Structures . . . . . . . . 1. Comparison of calculated CN distances with experimentalvalues . . 2. Formamidines, acetamidines, benzamidines and corresponding cations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Guanidine and guanidiniumcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Basis set dependence of calculated angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. E, Z Isomerism of Amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Experimental results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Calculated energy differences between E,Z isomers. . . . . . . . . . . D . Hindered Rotation Around the Formal CN Single Bond . . . . . . . . . 1. Experimental facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Calculationsof rotational barriers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Tautomerism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. ExperimentalIR determinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 15N NMR study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Experimentaldeterminationsof pK, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . Calculated energy differences of tautomeric amidines . . . . . . . . . F. Molecular Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Experimental IR results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 'H NMR studies of molecular association. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 3-21G calculationof water-mediated tautomerism of formamidine . 4. 3-21G calculationsof the hydrogen-bondeddimer of formamidine . 5 . 3-21G calculation of the 1. 3.hydrogen shift in formamidine . . . . . . VII . EXPERIMENTS AND CALCULATIONS OF PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . Dipole Moments of Amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Experimentaldeterminationsof mesomeric dipole moments . . . . .

21 26 26 30 31 31 31 33 35 35 37 38 38 39 40 40 40 41 41 42 42 42 43 47 47 47 49 49 51 51 57 57 59

63 63 65 66 66 68 68 68 70 70 71 72 72 73 74 74 74

3

1. General and theoretical

2. Basis set dependence of ab initio calculated dipole moments . . . . . B. Basicity (Proton Affinities) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Experimental results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Calculations of protonation energies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Mass Spectra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Electronic Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII. MO THEORETICAL DESCRIPTIONS,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Basis Set Dependence of MO Diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Basis Set Dependence of Mulliken Charge Densities. . . . . . . . . . . . I. Total charges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. n-Electron charges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Basis Set Dependence of Mulliken Overlap Populations . . . . . . . . . IX. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75 75 75

79

82 85 85 85 88 88 90 92 92

1. INTRODUCTION

Amidines, the nitrogen analogues of carboxylic acids, are structural parts of numerous compounds of biological interest and form important medical and biochemical agents’-3. Since the publication of the monograph of this series2 in 1975 these compounds have found wide interest with respect to determinations of molecular structures, quantum chemical calculations, physico-chemical properties and synthesis. Amidines find widespread applications in organic synthesis especially for the preparations of various heterocyclicsystems. Methods of preparationsand reactionsof amidine systems have been reviewed lately by Granik3 with 259 referencesfor the period of 1971 to 1981. In this introductory chapter on general and theoretical aspects emphasis will be placed on molecular structure and properties of amidines and related compounds calculated by . means of ah initio SCF MO procedures. These will concentrate on experimental and calculated molecular geometries, E,Z isomerism, rotational conformers,tautomerism, Hbonding effects and basicities. II. GENERAL OVERVIEW

Amidines of the general formula 1 are nitrogen analogues of carboxylic acids (2a), esters

(2b) or amides (3) which are each treated in separate volumes of the present series on functional group^^-^.The chemistry of amidines has already been reviewed three times’-3.

HNR3

R4 C \ N R ~ R ~

(1)

//O

RC \OR’

( 2 0 ) R’= H ( 2 b ) R’= alkyl or aryl

do

RC \NR~R~

(3)

These compounds are special cases of n-a conjugated heteroallylic systems which are isoconjugated to the allyl-anion ( 4 X = Y = CH,) and described by the mesomeric formulae 4a-4c. Furtherexamples of hetero-ally1 a-systems are collected in Table 1. Of

”

RC

‘v (4a)

/’-

RC

\y+

(4b)

R C/ tx \Y

(4c)

4

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

TABLE 1.. Heteroallylic x-systems 4 X

Class of compounds

0 0 0 0 0 0

Carboxylic acids Carboxylates Esters Acid halides. Acid anhydrides Amides Thioamides Amide oximes. Amidines lmidic acids Imidates (imino ethers) Thioimidates Imidoyl chlorides Amidrazones lmidines

Y

References

OH 0OR F, CI, Rr or I OCOR NR'R2 NR'R*

4,6 4,6 4,6

'

S

NOH NR3 NR NR NR NR NR NR

I

5

N R I R ~

NR'R2

1-3 6

OH

OR' SR' CI NHNH, NR'-C=NR2

2

I

R3

these imidic,acidsand imidates areespecially related to amidines and will also be treated in this chapter. Amidines contain two nitrogens of different functionality: a formally single-bonded amide-like amino nitrogen (denoted Nam)and a formally doubly-bonded imino nitrogen (Ni,,,).Sometimes in the literature these two nitrogens have been (erronously) named sp' and sp2 nitrogens8-1'0,a problem which will be treated later. As a consequence of conjugation, the formal CN double bond in 4a will be slightly elongated and the formal CN single bond will be shortened by gaining some doublebond characteras shown in the mesomeric form 4b. This leads to an increasein the barrier of torsional rotation around the CN single bond with the possibility of rotational conformers. An extension of the conjugation system leads to cross-conjugated or Y-delocalized hetero-x-systems' '.I2 of the generaltype given by mesomeric formulae 5a to 5d for which chemical examples are given in Table 2. These are isoconjugated to the trimethylene (5: X = Y = 2 = CH,). dianion'2*13

x=c

/z \Y

(SO)

4-----,

2

x--c/

t ,

RZ+

x--c

\y+

\Y

-

x--c

(St)

(Sb)

X

Carbonic acid Dialkyl carbonates Urethanes Ureas Thioureas Guanidines

0 0 0 0 S NR5

Y

'Y

(Sd)

TABLE 2. Chemical examples of cross-conjugated n-systems 5 Class of compounds

+/=

Z

OH OH OR OR' OR NR'R2 NR'R2 NR3R4 N R ~ R ~ NR3R4 NR3R4 NR'R2

5

1. General and theoretical

Amidines (and especially guanidines) are strong organic bases. Their protonation occurs at the imino n i t r ~ g e n ' ~leading . ' ~ to the symmetrical amidinium cation 6 wh.ich is stabilized by conjugation as shown by the mesomeric formulae 6a-6c that aresimilar to the isoelectronic carboxylate anions 7a-7c, leading (depending on substituents R 1to R3) to equivalent CN bond lengths in 6. H /N+-1 R4-C

I

-

(6a)

R-C

H' 0'-

,N-R3 c-----)R4-C*

\N--R~

\N+-$

- ~ 2

R'

I

I -R3

N , R4-C

\N

H

H

R3

I

I

R'

(6b)

R-C

/O-

-

R' (SC)

R-C*

/O\0-

In strong acidic media double protonation leading to a &cation 8 is o b s e r ~ e d ~ . ' ~ . ~ ~ and 8 has a localized immonium C=N double bond.

With strong bases anionicamidinates 9 are formedlGand may be stabilized by reactions with transition metal complexes17*18. ill. CLASSIFICATIONS AND NOMENCLATURE

The functionalamidino group may be acyclic or part of different heterocyclic ring systems. Depending on the number and distribution of substituents(R may be H, alkyl or aryl, but usually not a heteroatom) acyclic amidines may be classified in six general types: A. Acyclic Amidines 1 . Unsubsrituted amidines

As shown in formulae 10a and 10b these amidines occur as E,Z (syn, anti or cis,trans) isomers with respect to the C=N double bond. Generally the E form is energetically preferred".

G . Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

6

H

1

R-C

-

HN

A

\N-H

R-C

//”-H \N-H

1

I

H

H

(100) E

(lob) Z

In the chemical literature amidines are named after the carboxylic acid or the amide which may be obtained from them by hydrolysis; thus R = H in 10 is formamidine, R = CH, is acetamidine and R = phenyl is benzamidine. As basic groups these three unsubstituted amidines will be considered later explicitly. In Chemical Abstracts (CA) specific amidines are now named as amides of the correspondingimidic acid. Thus hexanimidamideis the name of the amidine derived from hexanoic acid by replacing the carboxyl group by -C(=NH)NH2. The trivial name guanidine is retained for carbonimidic diamide: H2NC(=NH)NH2. Cyclic amidines are indexed at ring names. The locants N and N’denote the amide and imide nitrogen atoms, respectively. In the following text R, the substituent on the amidino carbon, may be hydrogen or any alkyl, aryl or heteroaryl substituent. If it is a hetero atom one deals with the Y-conjugated n-systems ofTable 2. In these cases, i.e. when R is oxygen or fluorine”, care must be taken with the application of the E,Z nomenclaturebecause then the form 10a must be denoted as 2 due to the higher priority of oxygen or fluorine with respect to the amino nitrogen, and not E as in the case of R = H or alkyl. Substituents on nitrogens (R’ to R3) should be alkyl or aryl. 2. N- or N‘-Monosubstituted amidines

Monosubstituted amidines should occur as pairs of tautomers as indicated by formulae l l a and l l b as well as l l d and lle. But numerous experimental attempts to isolate or

R-C \N-H

-

H

H

I

,N-R~

R-C’

I

%. 4 -H

H

(110)

z

(llb)

It

JI R’

R’

I

(lld) E

JI R1

I

R-C

I H

Z

I

H (llc) E

I

,N-H

/N-H NN-H

I

H

(llc)

Z

(llf) E

7

1. General and theoretical

prove the existenceof both tautomers in equilibrium apparently all In addition E,Z isomerism with respect to the C=N double bond in l l a versus lld, l l b versus 1Ic and 1l e versus l l f should be observable as well as s-cis or s-transrotamers with respect to the C-N single bond shown in I l b versus Ile and Itc versus 11f. By computations these six different configurations may be clearly distinguished (see Table 19). 3. N,N-Disubstituted amidines

I

If the substituents R’ and RZ on nitrogens are different these N,N’-disubstituted amidines show the same kinds of isomerism as those of the monosubstituted amidines; tautomers: 12a versus 12b and 12d versus 12q E,Z isomers:12a versus 12d, 12b versus 12c and 12e versus 12c rotamers: 12b versus 12e and 12c versus 12f. H

H /N-R’

/

I N-

R’

R-C ‘N-R2

I

I

H (12.0)Z

11 R’

I

R2

(12 b ) Z

11

R1

(12c) E

11

R1

I

,N-H

I

H

(12d) E

R2

(120) z

(12 f ) E

4. N,N-Disubstituted amidines

In these amidines the amino functionality is fixed by substitution and no tautomerism is possible. Only E,Z isomers 13a and 13b with correspondingrotamers 13c and 13d may be differentiated if R’ and R2 are different. 5. N ’ , N ’ ,N2-Trisubstituted arnidines

In these fully substituted amidines, as mentioned before, E,Z isomerism 14a versus 14b and 14c versus 14d as well as two pairs of rotamers 14a versus 14c and 14b versus 14d are possible if R’ and R2 are different. 6. N,N,N’,N’-Tetrasubstituted amidinium cations

Each type of the amidines listed before may, by protonation or alkylation at the imino nitrogen, be converted into the symmetrical amidinium cation 15 in which the positive

G . Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

8

H

//N-H

R-C

\N-R~

I

I

R’

R’

(13 b ) E

(13012

11

R-C

HN-” \N-R1

I

1

R2

RZ

(13 e l Z

(13d) E

I

R’

(140) Z

(14 b) E

11 I

R3

R-C

//N-R3

I

R2 (14d) E

( 1 4 ~Z )

R4 /Nt-

I

R-C \N

R3

-R“

I R’

(15 0

-

R4

I

/N-R3 R-C \N+-R2

I

R’ (15 b )

-

R4 ,N-R3

I

R-C+

\N-R~

I

R’

(lbcl

9

1. General and theoretical

charge is evenly distributed in the heteroallyl n-system as indicated by the mesomeric forms 15a to 1%. Protonation at the amino nitrogen leading to 16 is c a l ~ u l a t e d in ' ~ the case of formamidine to be 37 kcal mol- higher in energy than the symmetrical cation 15. R3

B. Cyclic Amidines Various types of rings may incorporate the amidino group into heterocyclic systems: 1. Amino group part of the heterocycle

These amidines are a special case of the acyclic derivatives mentioned in Sections III.A.4 and III.A.5. For two derivatives of this class of compounds, namely 2,6-cis( a ) n = 4 pyrrotidino RC

\N(cH~),

( b) n

=

5 piperidino

dimethylpiperidyl-N-phenylacetamidine (18) and 2,6-cis-dimethylpiperidyl-N-phenyl2,2-dimethylpropionamidine (19), an X-ray determination of molecular structures was reported by Gilli and Bertolasiz3. The sterically demanding tert-butyl substituent in 19 forces the phenyl substituent in the usually not preferred 2-form out of the plane with a twist angle of 88.4".The di-equatorial dimethylpiperidine ring is twisted by 86" out of the plane of the amidine group with a corresponding increasein the C-N bond lengths and with a short C=N double bond.

10

G . Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

In 18 the phenyl substituent shows the generallypreferred E orientationstill with a large twist angle of 74.6'. The di-axial dimethylpiperidine group is only slightly twisted out of the plane of the amidine group (by 14.1'). 2. lmino group part of the heterocycle

These amidines may show tautomerism in which case the imino group may be endocyclic (20a) or exocyclic (20b). This substitution pattern is shown in the well-known tranquilizer chlordiazepoxide (Librium, 21).

H

(200)

n= 3

(20b)

(21)

n =4

3. Amidino group incorporated in one heterocycle

If the amidino group is incorporated into one ring, a series of homologous compounds as shown in 22a to 22e is obtained. The three- and four-membered ring systems isodiazirine (22a) and 1,3-diazetidine (22b) are not known experimentally. A b initio c a l c ~ l a t i o n sindicate ~~ that 22a is the least stable of seven structural isomers of diazomethane,due to its iso-electronicrelation to the Huckel anti-aromaticcyclopropenyl anion. The five-, six- and seven-membered ring systems (22c to 22e) are experimentally well known and may be synthesized in good yields by treatment of the appropriatediamines with HCN25 or isonitrilesZ6. The chemistries of A2-imidazolines2' (22c) and of 1,3-diazepines2*(22e) have been reviewed separately. These cyclic amidines behave like the corresponding acyclic N , N'disubstituted amidines (Section III.A.3). (0 n

= 0 isodiaririne

b ) n = 1 1,3-diazetidine

= 2 P 2 -imidazoline d ) n = 3 tetrohydro- A* - pyrimidine C

I

n

e ) n = 4 1,3-diazepinrs

H

4. Bicyclic amidines

The amidino group may be part of two rings leading to bicyclic amidines. Of these 1,5diazabicyclo[4.3.0]nonen-5 (DBN, 23) and 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.O]undecen-7 (DBU, 24) found wide applications as non-nucleophilicbases for dehydrohalogenati~ns~~-~ ', aldol

1. General and theoretical

(23) D B N

11

( 2 4 ) DBU

condensations3* and preparations of Wittig reagents". The chemistry of these compounds was reviewed r e ~ e n t l y ~ ~ . ~ ' . Another class of bicyclic amidines, a series of so-called vinamidines(2%-ZSc), has been ~ y n t h e s i z e dThe ~ ~ . 'H-NMR spectrum of 25a shows that the tautomeric malonic acid diamidine form %a is not detectably present. Modification of this structure" leads to 27, which may act as a non-nucleophilic proton-sponge with strong delocalization of the positive charge in the cation 28.

(----n => R

I

W

(250) R = H ( 2 5 b ) R=CH3

(25cl

R=COCH3

(27)

C. Cyclic Heteroaromatic Amidines

The amidino group may be incorporated fully or partly in cyclically conjugated unsaturatedring systems. These heterearomaticsystems are mentioned here to show the wide distribution and importance of the amidino group in organic chemistry. The structural properties and basicities of the amidino group will be modified by cyclic conjugation in the aromatic ring3*. 1 . Amidino group fully part of the ring

This structural principle occurs in odd-membered heterocycles. The most important occurs in the amino acid histidine 29b and in the example is i m i d a ~ o l e ~29a ~ - ~which ' biogenic amine histamine 29c. Dimethylbenzimidazole (30) is part of native vitamin

B,242.

12

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

H

(30)

(29o)R=H ( 2 9 b ) R =CH2CH(NH2)COOH ( 2 9 ~ R=CH2CH2NH2 )

Other examples of azoles with an amidine structural unit are the 1H-and 48-1,2,4triaz01es~~ 31a and 31b, 1,3,4-tria~ole~~ 32 and 1 H - t e t r a ~ o l33. e~~

Bicyclic heteroaromatic compounds containing the amidino group are biologically active derivatives of 9 H - p ~ r i n(M), e ~ ~which containsformally a monocyclic (7,8,9) and a bicyclic amidino group (3,4, 9). Natural products are xanthine (35) and its methylation product caffeine (36).

2. Amidino group only partly incorporated

This situation is typically observed in a-amino pyridine (37) in which the possibility of tautomerism between an amino form (37a) and an imino form (37b) has to be taken into account.

H

(370)

(37b)

1. General and theoretical

0

H

I H

13

H2NANANH2

(39)

(38)

(40)

Important examples are the DNA and RNA constituentscytosine (38) and adenine(39) as well as melamine (40). D. Amidine Related Compounds 1 . Acyclic imidates

In Table 1 above various heteroallylic n-systems which are related to amidines are collected. Free irnidic acids (41a) which are tautomers of amides (41b) are usually not observed in e q ~ i l i b r i u mbecause ~~ the amide form is energetically much more favoured4'. However, alkylation or arylation fixes the imino form 41a in which case the chemical class of imidates (42, also named imino ethers, imido esters or imidic acid esters) is obtained. Their chemistry is treated separately in this volume.

HNH

RC

L

,

RC

HNR'

NH2

RC

N O

'OH

\OR"

(421

(41b)

(410)

R ' = H , olkyl or oryl R"= olkyl or oryl R RC//N-R' \S-RU

RC//N-R' \Cl

HNR1 ,R3

RC

R2

(43)

(44)

(4s)

,R'

HN/C=N \C=N

\N-N

I

I

\R4

I

'R'

R

(46)

Furtherimidic acid derivatives are thioimidates (43), imidoyl chlorides (44), amidrazones (45) and imidines (46, nitrogen analogues of carboxylic acid anhydrides). 2. Cyclic imidates

Of chemicalimportanceare cyclic imidates and thioimidates either in exocyclic forms 47 and 48 or as endocyclic derivatives 49.

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

14

Special cases of 49 are A'-oxazolines (50a) whose chemistry was reviewed sepaI (51). In a wide sense oxazoles2 (52a) and thiazoleS3(52b) form a special group of heteroaromatic imidates.

rat el^^',^',A2-thiazolinesz6~s0 (50b) and 5,6-dihydro-4H-1,3-oxaziness

3. Y-Conjugated systems: guanidines and guanidinium cations Of the Y- or cross-conjugated systems shown in Table 2 above guanidine (53) is most important and closely related to amidines. It is a very strong mono-acidic organic base, having a pK, of 13.6, which is comparable to the basicity of the hydroxide anion. On protonation the symmetrically Y-delocalized guanidiniumcation 54 is formed. For both forms four mesomeric structures,53a to 53d and 54a to 54, may be formulated. The first three are identical in energy for the cation but the fourth one apparently describes best the calculated charge distribution (see p. 51).

//NH: H2N-C 'NH2

(540)

-

+

7

H2N-C \NH

(54 b )

2

-

/NH2 H2N-C

-

/NH2

H2N -C+

\NH:

(54c)

'NH2

(54d)

The guanidiniumcation 54 has a singular structure with the possibility of so-called Yconjugation''*'*and the possibility to engage in patterns of hydrogen bonding which are rare,if not indeed unique.These properties may well accountfor the evolutionary selection of L-arginine(55) as one of the about 20 amino acids commonly found in proteins. In 55 the guanidinium group occurs as the zwitterionic internal salt.

1. General and theoretical

15

IV. EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATIONS OF MOLECULAR STRUCTURES

The structural chemistry of amidines and related species is treated by Krygowski in a separate chapter of this volume. Therefore here only results of highly accurate determinations of CN distances in basic structures are reported which are useful for comparison with calculated molecular geometries reported in Section V1. A. CN Bond Distances for Comparison with Amidine Systems

ExperimentalCN bond lengths collected in Table 3 show a wide variety of distances as dependent on molecularstructures,i.e. primary, secondary or tertiary nitrogen,the kind of hybridization at carbon and nitrogen, and of the state of aggregation [solid-state X-ray (XD) or neutron diffraction (ND) of single crystals versus gas-phase electron diffraction (ED) or microwave (MW) determinations]. Averaged gas-phase ED and M Wdata for Csp3-NSp3 single bond lengths given in Table 4 show a small but significant reduction with increase in alkylation from I .470 to 1.467 to 1.454A for primary, secondary and tertiary amines. However, averaged solidstate XD data of amidesS4indicate an increase in CN single bonds from 1.456A for secondary to 1.471 A for tertiary amides. Ouaternization leads to elongated XD CN distances of 1.499 A. The unconjugated Csp~=Nsp2double-bond MW distance is 1.273 0.008 A. Soli-stateXD data for amide-type CsBz-Nsp~bonds, which areformally related to the amidino group and are, because of conjugation, intermediate between CN single and double bonds, show by statistical analysis54an increasefrom 1.322 to 1.331 to 1.346 A for primary, secondary and tertiary amides. The corresponding C=O distances are slightly reduced in the same sequence from 1.234 to 1.231 to 1.228.k Only for formamide and acetamide are both solid-state and gas-phase data available. These indicate 0.045 A longer CN distances in the gas phase thanin the solid state which is well above experimental errors. This difference must reflect the effect of the hydrogenbonded network in the solid which is not present in the gas-phase determinations.

+

B. CN Distances in Neutral Amidines

Foramidinesand amidiniumcations only solid-state X-ray determinationsare reported in the literature,althoughab initio calculated moleculargeometries should be compared to gas-phase data. Recently in the literaturea large number of XD determinationsof molecular structures of neutral amidines have appeared which are collected in Table 5. This reflects the widespread interest in such compounds because of their pharmaceutical use as well as their biological importance and bonding or ligand properties. In Scheme 1 the structural formulae for the amidines of Table 5 are shown. These are classified according to the substitution pattern of acyclic amidines presented in

Methylamine

Dimethy lamine

Piperidine Piperazine Trimethylamine

Dimethylethylamine Aniline Methylene imine Formamide

Csp3-Nsp3

Secondary:

Tertiary:

Csp~-Nsp3 CsP2=NsP2 Csp~-Nsp~

MW ED re ED rg MWr, ED ro ED rg M Wr, ED rz ED rg ED re MWr, MWr, M Wro ED r g ED rE ED + M W r,, XD ED rb XD ND, 23 K ED rg XD ED rg

XD XD XD XD

Method/parameteP 1.499(12) 1.501(14) 1.497(10) 1.490( 10) 1.509(10) 1.474(5) 1.465(2) 1.465(2) 1.466(8) 1.472(11) 1.467(4) 1.45 l(3) 1.458(2) 1.452(2) 1.401(2) 1.273(8) 1.352(12) 1.376( 10) 1.367(4) 1.368(3) 1.3665 1.318(1) 1.380(4) 1.336(4) 1.337(1) 1.402(2) 1.360(6) 1.397(4)

C-N

1.2 19(12) 1.193(20) 1.21l(4) 1.2 12(3) 1.210 1.241(1) 1.220(3) 1.243(4) 1.250(1) 1.2 I q2) 1.278(7) 1.240(5)

c-0

68 69 70 71 72 72 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79

63

60 61 62 63 64 65 66

59

58

56 57

55

Ref.

'Definitions of ED and M W structurealparameters are well documented in the literatures0**'.E D r, = constant distance argument in molecular scatteringintensity curve; rl = thermal average of the mean interatomicdistance(the recommended value for comparisonswith other structuralparameters);r: =average distance in the ground vibrational state. M Wr, =structure derived from isotopic substitution in the molecule; r,, = eflective ground-statestructure.

Diacetamide Urea Tetramethylurea

Acetamide

Ethylamine.HBr Taurine(H,lh-CH2CH,-S0,-) Piperidine.HCI Piperazine.ZHCI.H,O

Compound

CsP,-N&

Type of bond

TABLE 3. Experimental CN distances (in A) for comparison with amidine systems (quoted limits of error in parentheses)

1. General and theoretical

17

TABLE 4. Averaged values of CN distances (in A) from Table 3 and literature Type of byd C,p,-N,pl' CIp3-NqP1

C,pl-Ns;l Clp2-Nlp2

Method/ parameter

Compound Quaternary CN' Primary amines Secondary amines Tertiary amines Secondary amides Tertiary amides Imines Primary amides Secondary amides Tertiary amides Formamide Acetamide

XD MW ED, MW ED XD XD MW XD XD XD XD ED, MW XD, N D ED

C-N

l.499(10) 1.470(5) 1.467(3) 1.454(3) 1.456(14) 1.471(7) 1.273(8) 1.322(13) 1.331(11) 1.346(10) 1.318(1) 1.366(4) 1.337(3) 1.380(4)

C-0

Ref.

54

1.234(11) 1.231(11) 1.228(9) 1.247(1) 1.209(4) 1.247(3) 1.220(3)

54 69 54 54 54 73

74

Section 1II.A. With the exception of N-monosubstituted 57 to 59 and trisubstituted (19) amidines the substituentsat the imino nitrogens form E isomers with respect to the amino group. The Z configuration is forced by the bulky tert-butyl substituent o n carbon in 19 and in 59. In 58 the p-nitrophenyl ring is nearly perpendicularly twisted out of the plane of the amidino group which allows full conjugation with the lone electron pair on the imino nitrogen, but the phenyl ring on carbon is only twisted by 21.1" so that it is a sterically demanding substituent. In 57 internal hydrogen bonding between the amino group and the heterocyclic substituent may lead to the observed Z orientation. Rotational isomerism with respect to the CN single bond shows s-cis rotamers for larger substituents in 60, 61,66 and 67 as well as s-trans rotamers in 62 and 63. The most unusualmolecular structures are shown by the N,N'-diarylformamidines60 and 61, which form two differently hydrogen-bonded dimers as shown in Scheme 1. In 60 the hydrogen bonding is similar to that observed in dimers of carboxylic acids, but in 61 one part of the dimer is a cationic amidinium form and the other is the negative imidinate form. Acetamidine (56) forms a hydrogen-bonding network connecting four molecules with hydrogen donation from the NH, groups and acception a t imino nitrogens. The imino hydrogen is not involved in hydrogen bonding. Krygowski and coworkerss7 showed that for experimentalCN distances a shorteningof formal single-bond distances is linearlyrelated to the elongationof formal C=N distances ofamidines with regression equation I for 8 data points and a linear regression coefficient R = 0.966. dCrN = 2.059 - 0.567dC-,

For23 data points collected in Table 5 we obtain the correspondingequation 2 with the plot given in Figure 1. Our R value is 0.922 and the standarddeviation is 0.009 A. Only one point for 62 is far of the regression line. dC=,

= 2.304 - O.546dc-,

As a measure ofconjugation in the amidino group" the difference ofCN bond distances A = d,, - dimas given in Table 5 may be used. This value is zero for bond equalization due

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

18

TABLE 5. XD experimental CN distances (in

A) in neutral amidines Ref.

1.502(1) I ,499(6) 1.493(6)

0.046 0.050 0.010

82 83 84

1.280(5)

1.495(4)

0.075

85

1.320(5) 1.324(5) 1.323(3) I .3l4(3) 1.311(5) 1.313(5) 1.369(8) I .35I (7) 1.395(5)

1.3I8(5) 1.323(5) 1.31 l(3) 1.305(3) 1.31 l(5) 1.313(5) I .31 O(8) I .29S(6) 1.264(3)

1.552(6) 1.528(7)

86 86 87

I .48 I(8) 1.488(7) 1.490(3)

0.002 0.001 0.012 0.009 0.000 0.000 0.059 0.056 0.131

1.349(7)

1.303(7)

1.486(8)

0.046

91

1.334(5)

1.301 (6)

0.033

92

I .366(8)

1.273(8)

1.522(10)

0.093

93

1.374(3)

1.278(3)

1.5 I6(3)

0.096

23

1.441(5)

1.263(5)

1.529(5)

0.178

23

1.424(5) I .365(5)

1.263(5) 1.286(6)

1.536(6) I .490(6)

0.162

0.079

23 94

1.365(6)

1.290(6)

1.497(7)

0.075

95

1.372(5)

1.283(5)

I .468(5)

0.089

96a

1.343(3) 1.348(3)

1.294(3) 1.294(3)

0.049 0.054

96b

C-N

C=N

56a 56b 57

1.344(I ) I .348(7) 1.327(5)

1.298(1) 1.298(8) 1.317(5)

1.355(5)

62

Acetamidine Acetamidine CoCICO, H 5-(1-Aminoethylideneamino)-3-chloromethyI1,2,4-thiadiazole N'-p-Nitrophenylbenzamidine N-Pivaloylpivalamidine N -Pivaloylpivalamidine N,N'-Diphenylformamidine dimer N,N'-Di-(p-bromopheny1)formamidine dimer N,N'-Diphenylbemamidine

63

5-(l-Imino-N-methylethyl-

58 S9a 59b 60 61

64 65 66 18 19 67 68 69 70

amino)-3-methyl-1,2,4thiadiazole N,N-Dimethylbenzamidine wolfram pentacarbonyl N,N-Pentamethylene-N'(p-nitropheny1)formamidine N'-p-Bromophenyl-Nmethyl-N-(p-tolyl) acetamidine 2,6-cis-Dimethylpipeamidine 2,6-cis-Dimethylpipcridyl-N-phenyl-2,2dimethy lpropionamidine N-Methyl-N-pheny I-N'-(ptolyl)-benzamidine N'-(m-Chlorophenyl)-N,Npentamethylene benzamidine N'-(p-Methoxyphcnyl)-N,Npen tamethylene benzamidine Bis-(N'-p-nit rophenylN,Ndiethyl) oxamidine

c-x

A

No. Compound

88 89 90

to complete conjugation (as in amidinium cations).Its maximum experimental value with 0.178 for no conjugation in a perpendicularlytwisted amidino group in an amidine may be derived from 19 because the sterically large t-butyl substituent at the amidino carbon forces the substituted amidino nitrogen to be twisted by 90" from the plane of the amidino group.

C. Experimental Molecular Structures of Amidinium Cations

In Table 6 experimental XD CN distances for 17 amidinium cations with different substitution patterns are presented; molecular formulae are given in Scheme 2. Due to

19

1. General and theoretical 1. Unsubstituted amidines (see Section III.A.1)

2. N-Monosubstituted amidines (see Section IIi.A.2) 21.z

/NH2

78.90 (58)

(57)

3. N,N’-Disubstituted amidines (see Section III.A.3)

Br (60)

SCHEME 1 (continued on next page)

Br (611

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

20 15.50

-I

60.7

4. N',N'-Disubstituted arnidines(see Section III.A.4)

(63) 5. N',N1,N2-Trisubstitutedamidines (see Section III.A.5)

1. General and theoretical

88.4

21

O

@c.-c"3

&' .3

GI

(19)

z

(68)

Q' N

NC-/

Et-N

I

Et

I

N-

Et

1 \N

103.3'

Et

NO2

(70)

(69)

SCHEME1. Structuralformulae for XD data of neutral amidines presented in Table 5 delocalization in the protonated cations the CN distances are equal or differ only slightly. Krygowski and coworkersx7derived equation 3 for seven amidinium cations where the shorter versus longer bond distances are linearly related, but, contrary to equations 1 and 2 of amidines, with a positive slope (R = 0.990).

+

d,,, = - 0.367 I .275d,-, (3) For 26 data from Table 6 we obtain the regression equation 4 with R =0.870 and esd = 0.007 A, shown graphically in Figure 2. dCYN = 0.246 + 0.807dc-,

(4)

D. Experimental XD Determinations In Amidinates

The molecular structure of amidinate anions (9) is preserved in transition metal derivatives of N,N'-diphenyl benz- or acetamidineswith examplescollected in Table 7 and molecular formulae shown in Scheme 3. The CN distances which differ not too much are

O

22

G . Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

t

1.25

-

1.30

1.35

dC-N

-

I

1.45

1.40

FIGURE 1. Plot of equation 2. Interrelation of experimental shorter and longer CN distances in amidines (----- shows unit slope)

t 0

0

-

n

0

1.27

1.30

-

3.35

%N

1.38

FIGURE 2. Plot of equation 4. Interrelation of experimental CN distances in amidinium cations

TABLE 6. Experimental CN distances (in A) in amidinium cations

No.

Compound

71a 7lb

Formamidinium.FeCI, Formamidinium trisformato-Zn(l1) Bis(a,a’-dithiobisformamidinium hexachlororhenate(1V).3H 2O Acetamidinium chloride Bisacetamidinium carbonate.H,O Acetamidinium nitrate as above, at 116 K Acetamidinium N-acetimidoyldithiocarbamate Malonyldiamidinium sulphate Benzamidinium chloride hydrate Benzamidinium pyruvate Benzamidinium tetracarbonyl rhenaacetylacetonate 4-Amidinophenylacetic acid morpholide.HI N-Pivaloylpivalamidinium pyrosulphate N,N’-Bis-(4-ethoxyphenyl) acetamidinium bis-p-nitrophenyl phosphate.H,O N,N-Dimethylchloroformamidinium chloride.H,O 2-Chloro-2-phenox ymalonyldimethylamidedimethy lamidinium hydrochloride. H,O N-[2,2,2-Trilluoro-I (trifluoromethy1)ethylldimethylformamidinium chloride Tetrakis(dimethylamino)ethene dication 2CIas above, 2Br-

72 73a 73b 73c 73d 74 75a 75b 7% 76

77 78 79 80

81

82

83 84

85 86

87 88

Tetramethylformamidinium phosphonate Tetramethylformamidinium phosphonic anhydride Tetramethylformamidinium phospha perchlorate Tetramethylformamidinium methylphospha diiodide Tetramethylformamidinium phosphinate perchlorate Octamethyl-[bis-2,4-6cycloheptatrien-1-yl]3,3-dicarboxamidinium.2J3-

A

Ref.

1.28 l(9) 1.286(4)

0.000 0.000

97 98

1.31 1 (5)

1.308(5)

0.003

99

1.310(3) 1.315(5) 1.314(5) 1.309(4) 1.32l(5) 1.310(3)

1.305(2) 1.309(5) 1.307(5) I .301(4) 1.309(4) 1.301(2)

1.477(3) 1.495(5) ISOO(5) I .489(4) 1.481(5) 1.484(4)

0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.012 0.009

100 101

1.308(4)

1.297(4)

1.499(4)

0.011

104

1.328(7)

1.293(7)

1.471(8)

0.025

105

1.3I 7(3) 1.3I 4(7)

1.310(3) 1.301(9)

1.472(3) 1.488(9)

0.007 0.013

106 107

1.312(7)

1.304(7)

1.473(7)

0.008

108

1.344(4) 1.36I (4) 1.319(8)

1.281(4) 1.295(5) 1.318(8)

1.527(5) 0.063 1.509(4) 0.066 1.492(10) 0.001

86

109

1.325(5) prim. 1.318(5)

I .282(6) tert. 1.303(5)

0.043

110

0.015

111

1.301(8)

1.290(8)

0.01 1

112

1.320(3) 1.31S(3) 1.331(3) 1.312(3) 1.336(3)

1.315(3) 1.315(3) 1.319(3) 1.297(3) 1.323(3)

0.005 0.000 0.012 0.015 0.013

113

113

1.333(3)

1.328(3)

0.013

115

1.352(5)

1.335(5)

0.017

116

1.31 8( I 2)

1.312(12)

0.006

116

1.335(5)

1.335(5)

0.000

I I7

1.325(5)

1.321(5)

0.004

118

C-N’

C-N2

1.28 I(9) 1.286(4)

C-X

1.524(3) 1.512(3)

102 102 103

114

G. Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

24

1 . Unsubstituted amidinium cations H

I

H-C

+/N-H \N-H

I

H

(72) ReClt‘*3H20

( 7 1 0 )+FeClG3-

(71 b ) Z ~ I ( I I ) ( H C O ~ - ) ~ 36.6

2. N-Monosubstituted amidinium cation H C

H

3 \

+ -03s

3. N,N’-disubstituted amidinium cation

-0

-so, @-02p OEt

(77)

SCHEME 2 (continued)

(78)

(.

*

N O 4 2 H20

1. General and theoretical

25

5. N',N',N*-trisubstituted amidinium cations

4. N',N'-disubstituted amidinium

cations

(80)

(79)

5. N,N,N',N'-tetrasubstituted

amidinium cations CH3

CH3

\

,/N--H3

I

HjC-N H3C-N

I

I

1 /N--H3

0

11

-0-

P-c+

I ;c-ci 1

\i-CH3

N-CH3

I

CH3 2 C I - or

OH

CH3 2Br-

CH3

(83)

(82)

H3C-N H3C-

I

0

0-

0-

0

\+ c - P - o11- P - c +

/

I

N

I

I

I

,N--CH3

II

\N

I

-w3

CH3

CH3

(84)

-

CH3

I

CH3

H3c-N>~/P\~/N\CH3

I

H3C

'

'CH3

I

H3C-N\

I

I

N

N H3C'

C ' H,

1

CH3

CH3

C"3

1

/N\CH3

/p\

7

f*

N

H3C'

'CH3

H3C/N\

c104-

(88)

( 8 81

SCHEME 2 (continued on next Page)

21-

CH3

26

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

CH3 H&-N H3C-N

CH3

I

0

I

O’

iH3

I

I

CH 3

004-

(87 1 (88) SCHEME 2. Molecular structures of amidinium cations of Table 6

TABLE 7. CN bond lengths (in A) of arnidinates 9 No.

Compound

C-N2

C-X

A

Ref.

1.356(9)

1.331(9)

1.490(8)

0.025

17

1.340(7)

1.334(7)

1.493(8)

0.006

18b

1.350(7) 1.339(7) 1.322(4)

1.346(7) 1.317(9) 1.322(4)

lSOl(6) 1.502(7) 1.512(9)

0.004 0.012 0.000

17 17 18a

1.320(4)

1.320(4)

1.499(5)

O.OO0

18a

C-N1 ~

89a N,N‘-Diphenylbenzarnidinate

Rh cycloocta-1,5-diene 89b Bis(N,N’-diphenylbenzamidino) Pt(I1) 90 (N,N’-Diphenylbenzamidinate), Rhz (tetrafluorobarrelene) 91 (N,N‘-Di-p-tolylacetamidino), Pd(I1) 92

N,N’-Diphenylacetamidino Mo($-Cs HI)(CO),

longer than in the cationic amidines or in neutral amidines. The distances fall on the regression line defined by amidinium cations (equation 4). E. Molecular Structures of Neutral Guanidines

In Table 8 four XD determinationsof molecularstructuresof neutralguanidinesshown in Scheme 4 are presented. With the exception of 93 the formally double CN bond is relatively long, between 1.308 and 1.333 A. F. Molecular Structures of Guanidinium Cations

Experimental data for the unsubstituted guanidinium cation 54 are shown in Table 9 and structuresin Scheme 5. This system is very often studied (17 determinations).Usually all three bonds differ slightly but mostly they are equal within the limit of three standard deviations (esd), unless the H-bonding situation is different. The average CN distance (of

21

1. General and theoretical

(89b)

(89 0 1 Ph

(92)

(91)

SCHEME 3. Molecular formulae of amidinates given in Table 7

TABLE8. CN bond distances (in A) in neutral guanidines No. 93

Compound

(E)-N,N’-Dicyclohexy1-4-

morpholinecarboxamidine 94 2-(2,6-DichIorophenyl)-lmethylguanidine 9511 2-Cyanoguanidine 95b 2-Cyanoguanidine potassium cyanamide

C-N’

C-N2

C-N3

Ref.

1.414(2)

1.381(2)

1.276(3)

119

1.364(5)

1.339(4)

1.308(4)

120

1.3414(3) 1.348(6)

1.3391(3) 1.331(6)

1.3327(3) 1.329(6)

122

121

G . Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

28

NH2

C"3

I

(93)

I

(95 1

(94)

SCHEME 4. Molecular formulae for compounds of Table 8

TABLE 9. CN bond lengths (in A) in guanidiniumcations = GUAD

No.

96 97 98 99 100

Compound GUAD.CIGUAD.CI0,GUAD.HC0,Di-GUADCO,' di-GUAD.CrO,'thermal correction:

101 102 103 104

Di-GUAD.Zn(S0,2-), Di-GUAD.(CH,),AsMo,O, ,H. HZO Di-GUAD.B,05(0H),.2H20

55

GUAD.maleic acid GUAD.crown.CI0,GUAD-dibenzo-27-crown-9 GUAD.dibenzo-30-crown- I0 Methylguanidinium.H,PO,Bis(methy1guanidinium). HPO,zGuanidinomethylphosphonic acid Guanidinoacetic acid (glycocyamine) Creatine.H,O Creatine /I-Guanidinopropionic acid ~-Arginine.ZH,O

55

L-Arginine.HCI. HzO

55 55

L-Arginine.H,PO,,H,O L-Arginine.L-aspartate 2-(2,6-Dichlorophenyl)-lrnethylguanidinium.HCI

105

105b

10%

106 107

108

109 110 110 111

94

ND corr. XD

C-N'

C-NZ

C-N3

I .325(5) 1.327(5) 1.325(3) 1.358(6) 1.330(5) 1.330(5) 1.349(5) 1.341(5) 1.3 l9(4) I .338 (3) 1.338(3) 1.340(5) 1.325(5) 1.329(9) 1.331(5) 1.331(6) 1.320(6) 1.326(2) 1.328(2) 1.331(2) 1.341(3)

1.325(5) 1.327(5) I .325(2) 1.335(6) 1.325(4) I .328(5) 1.333(4) 1.343(5) 1.319(4) 1.322(3) 1.326(2) 1.333(5) I .322(5) 1.325(7) 1.330(5) 1.324(7) 1.320(6) 1.325(2) 1.324(3) 1.327(2) 1.328(3)

1.318(5) 123 1.327(5) 124 1.322(2) 125 1.33316) 126 1.312(sj 127 1.320(4) I .329(5) 1.334(5) 1.316(3) 128 1.313(2) 129 I .3 17 (3) 1.314(5) 130 1.321(5) 1.311(7) 131 1.316(5) 132 1.324(6) 132 1.312(5) ,132 1.319(2) 133 1.322(3) 134 1.330(2) 1.323(3) 135

1.327(2)

1.324(2)

1.330(2)

136

1.346(6) 1.334(2) 1.333(5)

1.334(6) l.327( I ) 1.322(4)

1.324(6) 1.336(2) 1.323(4)

137 138 139

1.331(2) 1.345 1.340(8) 1.327(4) I .329(3) I .326(4) 1.334(5) 1.349(6)

1.329(2) I .344 1.322(8) I .326(3) 1.325(3) 1.324(4) I .328(5) 1.338(6)

1.335(2) I .35 I 1.351(8) 1.318(3) 1.322(3) 1.315(3) 1.341(5) 1.312(6)

140 140 141 142 142 143

Ref.

144

120

1. General and theoretical NH2

I C+

H3C-N0

I H

0

II O-P-CHO\ I

-

'NH2

OH

CH,

29

NH2

NH2

I

N

I

I

AN/CH%c40 NH2 I

NH2

H

i

0-

H

0

(110)

(111)

SCHEME 5. Structuresfor guanidinium cations collected in Table 9

TABLE 10. XD bond distances (in A) in neutral and protonated forms of imidates No.

Compound

112 I I3 1 I4

Methyl-Z-acetohydroximate Methylbenzimidate W(CO), 4-Chlorophenylimino(trimethylsi1oxy)methyl-phenyltrimeth ylsilylphosphan N,N'-Bis-(trimethylsily1)oximidatebis(trimethylsily1)ester 2-Methoxycarbonyl-I-naphthylN-( 1-naphthyl)benzimidinate trans-Bis(dimethylg1yoximato)(ethyl)(methyl 4-pyridinecarboximidate)cobalt(IIl) Diiminooxalic acid diethylester K[I(CN),] 3-Cyano- 1,2,4-thiadiazol-5carboximidic acid methyl ester N-Benzoylethyl-benzimida te thermal correction: N-(el hoxyphenylmcthy1ene)carbamic acid phenyl ester thermal correction: Acetamide hemihydrobromide at - 160°C Acetamidc nitrate N,N-Dimethyl-(0-ethy I)phenylpropiolamidinium BF,-

115 1 I6

117

I18 1 I9

I20 I21 122a 122b 123

C=N

C-0

1.274(5) 1.276(8) 1.275(2)

C-C

Ref.

1.336(3) 1.309(8) 1.355(2)

1.480(5) 1.496(8)

-

145 91 146

1.282(9)

1.376(8)

1.508(16)

147

I .26 I(4)

1.372(3)

1.482(4)

148

1.261(7)

1.333(7)

I.Sll(7)

149

I .252(3)

1.327(4)

1.511(7)

150

I .245(3)

1.345(3)

l.483(3)

151

I .272 I .274(4)

1.262(5)

1.323(4) 1.334 1.332(2)

1.498(5) 1.499 1.484(3)

152

153

1.282 1.307(4)

1.347 1.264(4)

1.488 1.497(5)

154

I .292(5) I .3 I 5 ( 8 )

1.287(5) 1.282(7)

1.488(6) 1.488(9)

155 156

G. Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

30

51 values) is 1.325& which is definitely longer than the bond distances in amidinium cations (see Table 6). With thermal correction^'^^this value is even increased to 1.338 A. Some monosubstituted guanidiniumcations are also included in Table 9. The CN bond to the substituted carbon (C-N3) is generally shorter than the other two bonds. G. Structural Data of lmidates and the Corresponding Cations

In Table 10 CN and CO distances of the functionalgroup of neutral imidates 42 and of three protonated forms are shown, and structures are given in Scheme 6. The C=N double bond (average value of 1.267 A, increased by thermal correction to 1.277A) is generally very short. The average of the C-0 bond distances is 1.341 A, which is very

H

CH3

I

I

/O

H3C-C

“-0

1

H ‘

CH3

(113 1

(112)

(114)

Sib3

Me3Si-0

‘c-c

N@

I

I HN \O-

SiMe3 1-73.0°

SiMeS

H

HO-N

N-OH

\ / / \ Et -CO-N/ >C~ , \ -

NNH

-.CH3

I

EtO

‘c-c N

I

HN ‘0-E+

H

“

-

K

O

H

K*[I (C N)21 (118)

SCHEME 6 (continued)

1. General and theoretical

31

@kc/ I

H

I

-CH2 \

CH3

(120)

(119)

0

@
H

-CH2

\

CH3

(121)

CH3

I

I

H3C-C+

/O

I

@c=c-c

\NH

BF4-

(1229) Br-.CH3CONH2

(122b) NO3-

\N

I

-CH3

CH3

(123)

SCHEME 6. Structural formulae of imidates collected in Table 10

similar to the corresponding value of 1.340(14) A derived for the carboxylic ester g r o ~ p ' ~ ' . Neither of these distances indicates a large interaction due to conjugational effects which should increase C=N and shorten C-0 distances. For three protonated imidates in Table 10 the average CN distance with 1.305A is appreciably elongated and the CO is shortened to 1.278%r, showing the effective delocalization of the positive charge. H. Structural Data of Neutral and Protonated Y-conjugated Systems

From cross- or Y-conjugated systems 5 of Table 2, bond distances of neutral nitrogencontaining examples are collected in Table 11 and protonated charged systems are given in Table 12. Structures are presented in Scheme 7. 1. Miscellaneous Compounds 1. Biguanide

Biguanide (137) is structurally related to guanidine (53).It forms a mono- and a bisprotonation product 138 and 139, respectively (Scheme 8). The molecularstructuresof all three forms have been determined in two independent s t ~ d i e s ' ~ ~73. ' with ~ ~ * results ' shown in structures 137a, 138a and 139a. The chemistry of biguanides was reviewed in 1968'74.

G. Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

32

TABLE 1I . Bond lengths (in A) of neutral Y-conjugated systems ~~

~

No.

Compound

124 125

Ethyl carbarnate N-(Diphenoxymethy1ene)carbamic acid phenyl ester

126 127

I28 I29 130

1,2-Bis(dimethylphosphinat Pt(1I)-N-(p-chloropheny1)-

0)-

methoxy imidate Bis( 1-tert-butyl-2,3-dimethylisourea).Pd(ll)CI, Fluorenylisothiourea Bis(N-methyl O-ethylthiocarbarnate).Pd(ll)(SCN), Ethyl 2-imino-4-oxo-5phenylirnidazoline-I carboximidate

1.34 1 (4) 1.264(2)

1.342(4) 1.329(2)

1.219(4) 1.325(2)

158 I59

1.268(9)

1.386(7)

2.058(5)

160

1.31 l(8)

1.326(8)

1.327(8)

161

I .27 l(3) 1.302(7)

1.339(3) 1.331(6)

1.787(2) 1.700(6)

I62 163

I .259(3)

1.337(3)

1.399(2)

164

CY

Ref.

TABLE 12. Bond lengths (in A) of charged Y-conjugated systems ~~

~

No. 131

Uronium nitrate

132

0-Methyluroniurn chloride

134 135

thermally corrected: 3-(1,3-Diphenyl-l-oxo-2-propenyl)tetramethyluronium trillate Azidoformamidinium chloride Thiuronium nitrate

136

Thiourea S,S-dioxide

133

~~

Compound ND: XD: Cu": Mob:

Cu":

Mob:

~~

CN

cx

1.315(1) 1.309(3) 1.321(10) 1.331(11) 1.337(10) 1.352(10) 1.320(3)

1.313(1) 1.306(3) 1.294(11) 1.289(11) 1.312(10) 1.318(10) 1.304(3)

1.298(2) 1.302(3) 1.331(9) 1.332(9) 1.310(9) 1.322(9) 1.343(3)

164 165 166 166 167 167 168

1.314(4) 1.321(5) 1.312(5) 1.2972(4)

1.302(4) 1.293(5) 1.300(5) 1.2972(4)

1.393(4) 1.735(4) 1.739(4) 1.8615(4)

169 170 170 171

"XDusing copper as radiation source.

6XD using molybdenum as radiation source.

CI

0

II

Et-0'

C

'NH2

33

1. General and theoretical

SCN

c IiH3

CF3S03-

(133)

(134)

(135)

H2N\

7-

H2N

(136)

SCHEME 7. Molecular structures of compounds collected in Tables I I and 12

2. Bis( N I -acetimido yla cetarnidine-N I , N3)nickel(//) chloride trihydrat e (140) A methanolic solution of acetamidine and nickel(I1) chloride leads to crystals of 140 as the result of a self-condensation reaction possibly under the influence of the metal175.This chelate is a structural example of imidine 46. The numbering is shown in Scheme 9 and bond lengths and angles are shown in Table 13.

G. Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

34 H

ti

I

I

H-N,/\~,N-H

II

H

H-N,

+C

,N,

I

I N

H/N..-...,H/

1

HIN\

\H

1

,N-H

ti-N,

ct

I

-

0 . ~ ~ r1m r

SCHEME 8 (continued)

H

H N, +C

I

1

I

/N-H C+

I

dN\H

2c1(139)

115.2

(138 a )

I

d\

HIN\H CI (138)

1137)

H

H

-

1. General and theoretical

35

(139 0 ) SCHEME 8. Formulae and geometric parameters of biguanide (137) and its mono- and bisprotonation products: (138) and (139)

SCHEME 9. Atomic labels of the square-planar chelate 140

3. Psychoactive amidines

Several psychoactive drugs contain an amidino moiety. For four of these compounds (21 and 141 to 143) the molecular structures have been determined'76-'78 with CN distances presented in Scheme 10. 4. 6-Dimethylamino-5-azaazulene (144)

In this molecule (144) the amidino group is incorporated into the heteroconjugated azulene ring179with rather long C N distances shown in the formula.

36

G. Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske TABLE 13. Bond distances (in A) and bond angles (in deg) between non-hydrogcn atoms of 140” Values I .849(4) 1.858(4) 1.282(6) 1.367(5) 1.510(6) 1.362(5) 1.285(6)

1.508(5)

N( 1)-Ni-N(3) N( l)-Ni-N(3’) Ni-N(l)-C(1) N( I)-C( I)-N(2) N( I)-C( 1)-C(2) C(2)-C( I)-N(2) C( 1)-N(2)-C(3) Ni-N(3)-C(3) N(3)-C(3)-N(2) N(3)-C(3)-C(4) (2) C(4)-C(3)-N

89.9(2) 90.3 (2) I29.9(3) I24.4(4) 122.1(4) 113.5(4) 121.7(4) I29.7(3) 124.3(4) I2 1 S(4) 114.2(4)

1.861(4) 1.873(3) 1.270(5) I .369(5) 1.514(6) 1.376(5) 1.276(5) 1.497(5) 89.8(2) 90.1 (2) I30.6(3) 122.3(4) 123.0(4) I14.6(4) 124.9(4) I30.4(3) 121.7(4) 123.8(4) 114.5(4)

“Right column is for the primed atoms of Scheme 9

o r n o ~ a p i n e ’(142 ~~ 1 ,C“3

CN\

1.324

I

CH3

SCHEME 10. Molecular structuresof psychoactive drugs containing the amidine group

1. General and theoretical

31

,1.347(4)

1.356(4)

V. THEORY: METHODS OF CALCULATION

The presently available quantum-mechanicalprocedures for calculations of molecular properties are shown in Table 14. The semi-empirical one-electron methods may be classified into those which neglect inter-electron repulsions, i.e. simple Huckel (HMO) nelectron theorylsO and Hoffmann’s extended Hucked theory (EHT) for valence electronslsl, and those which include inter-electron repulsions and electron spin explicitly: the latter range from the Pariser, Pople and Parr(PPP)n-electrontheoryIs2*ls3 to various ‘neglect of differential overlap’ (NDO) methods for valence e l e c t r o n ~ l ~ ~ ~ ’ ~ ~ . The P P P and JaK2s CNDO/S methodslS6are still useful for calculations of electronic absorption spectra. For calculation of molecular geometries Dewar’s semi-empirical procedures: MINDO-3Is7, M N D 0 I s 8 , or AMl”’, Pullman’s PCILO method1g0,or may be used. molecular force-field procedures (not included in Table 14) like MM2191-192 ‘Ab initio methods’ are all quantum-chemical procedures which use the appropriate Hamiltonian and an appropriatekind of variational wave function for evaluation of all necessary integrals, and, in contrast to semi-empirical methods, do not use experimentally adjusted parameters.The backgroundinformation about ab initio calculationsis given in a The introduction of fast and large computers and series of excellent monograph^^^^-^^'. efficient computer programs distributed through the quantum chemistry program TABLE 14. Kinds of available proceduresfor quantum-mechanicalcalculations ~ _ _ _ _ _

Kind of Electrons

Excluded

Electron repulsion Included

r-Electrons, Only planarsystems

HMO 1931 Hiickel

PPP 1953 Pariser, Parr, Pople

Valence shell electrons, non-planar and planar

EHT 1963 HoNmann

CND0/2 1965 INDO Pople, Santry, NDDO Segal CNDO/S 1968 JaNk MIND0/3 1975-1985 MNDO Dewar

(n + +systems All electrons= core and valence electrons, any molecular

system

Types of theories Semiempirical methods

AM I

PCILO 1972 Pullman 0 I) POLYATOM-2 Moskowitz IBMOL-4 1968 Vcillard iriif io PHANTOM 1971 Clementi met hods HONDO 1976 King TEXAS 1979 Pulay GAUSSIAN 70; 76; 80; 82; 86; 88 Pople

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

38

exchange (QCPE) in Bloomington, Indiana to the scientific community went hand in hand. A selection of available ab initio programs is indicated in Table 14. Theoretical calculations for amidines and related systems in the original volume of this series*have been based on Huckel and PPP procedures, but now we present results of ab initio Hartree-Fock MO calculations using Pople's GAUSSIAN 82 program system198. A. Assumptions of ab initio Hartree-Fock SCF 1 1 1 1 0 Procedures

The considerations presented here are based on ab initio Hartree-Fock SCF MO

calculation^'^^-'^'with full optimization of molecular structures by means of the

analytical gradient optimization of Murtagh and SargentI" implemented in the GAUSSIAN 82 (G82) program system of Pople's group"* on a COMPAREX 7/88 computer. Inherent to all ab initio programs are the following assumptions: The Born-Oppenheimer approximationZoo is the separation of the movement of electrons and atomic nuclei due to the large difference of masses. This leads to the formulation of chemical molecules with definite three-dimensionalmolecular geometry. The orbitaI approximation: Although it is not possible experimentally to differentiate separate electrons in a molecule, each of these is treated by a one-electron wave function, named orbital, which leads to a model of independent enumerable particles. A single-determinantal wave function: The many-electron wave function, i.e. for the ground-stateconfiguration,is formulated as one Slater determinantof spin orbitals which takes care of the Pauli exclusion principle and of the change of sign of the total wave function on interchange of the label of two electrons. Hartree-Fock SCF procedure in Roothaans's LCAO-MO formalism: For molecules one-electron molecular orbitals (MO) are obtained by linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO) as first formulated for determinantal wave functions by RoothaanZ0'. The Hartree-Fock Hamiltoniantreats each electron in the effective field of the others and contains the interaction of electrons with same and opposite spins in a different manner. Therefore this self-consistentfield (SCF)procedure is iterative. Starting from a first guess for electron distributions, Roothaan'sequationsare solved, insertingthe resultingelectron distributions until the total energy does not alter with respect to a predefined limit. Use of Gaussian-type basis functions instead of Slater-type functions. 1 . Gaussian basis sets

4nlm(rr0, @) = N,P-

exp ( - ar') Y(,@, @) (6) Numerical many-electron atomic wave functions are Slater-type (STO) s, p, d or f functionszozof the kind shown in equation 5 which are characterized for s electrons by a cusp at the nucleus and fall off by exp( - l r ) as shown graphically in Figure 3, or Gaussian-type functions (GTF) as defined in equation 6 which show an exp( - ar2) dependence and are curved at the nucleus. The notations used for atomic orbitals 4 in equations 5 and 6 are defined in the following wayzo3: r, 0 and are spherical coordinates (radial coordinate r, equatorial angle 0 and azimuthal angle 0)instead of Cartesiancoordinates x, y and z; n, I and m are quantum numbers used for the separation of atomic wave functions in spherical coordinates: n = main, I = angular momentum and m = magnetic quantum numbers; N are normalization constants and Y,,, are spherical harmonics indicating the angular dependence of atomic wave functions,which are the same for Slater- and Gaussian-type functions. For molecules with many atoms, electron repulsionintegralsbetween atomic orbitals at

1. General and theoretical

39

t (BOW A.U.I

FIGURE3. Comparison of a Is Slater-type orbital (STO) and Is Gaussian-type orbitals (GTF) as a function of r. (Repoduced by permission of Elsevier Science Publishersfrom Reference 193)

one, two, three and up to four centres have to be evaluated. This is difficult mathematically for STO functions. Use of GTF functions leads to much simpler integral evaluation because the product of two Gaussiansat different centres is a new Gaussian in between, and the resulting many-electron repulsion integrals may be solved analytically. But Gaussian-typewave functionshave no cusp and fall off too rapidly, as shown in Figure 3. Therefore,in order to approximate each STO, at least three differentGaussiansmust be used as indicated in Figure 3 and equation 7.

In equation 7 the number N of Gaussians is called the degree of contraction, which ranges from 3 to 6. The linear factor dip is called the contraction ocoeflicient, ai is the exponent andjis a scale factor, both tli and f being characteristicfor each atom. In Pople’s GAUSSIAN program systems the exponents and scale factors for atomic 2s and 2p subshells are set equal (Pople constraint), which greatly simplifies calculations, but only contraction coeficients and angulardependence differentiatebetween 2s and 2p orbitals. 2. Notations for Gaussian basis sets

Ifone Slater-type orbital is approximated by a fixed number of Gaussians,one speaks of a minimal Gaussianbasis set, termed STO-3G up to STO-6GZo4.Split-valencebasis sets, are constructed by one block of 3,4 named 3-21GZo5,4-31GZo6,6-31GZo7or 6-31 1GZo8, or 6 Gaussiansfor core electrons (first number)and by two (indicated by 21 or 31) or three (31 1) blocks for valence electrons which are varied linearly and independently.

40

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

Although split-valence basis functions show larger flexibility, this may be further increasedby the addition of so-calledpolarization functionswhich are three 2p orbitals for hydrogen, or five or six 3d orbitals for elements of the second row of the periodic system. The latter case is marked by the addition ofone asterisk, i.e. ST0-3G*L09,3-21 G*210or 6or 6-311 G**20s*212, indicate the additional 31G*’”. Two asterisks, i.e. 6-31 G**211 presence of polarization 2p orbitals on hydrogen. Especially for negatively chargedsystems, diffuse s- or p-type functionsof high quantum numbers may be necessary. These are marked by signs, i.e. 3-21 G or 6-31 G**. Optimizations of molecular geometries may be performed with a simpler basis set followed by a single-point HFcalculation with a larger basis set for this geometry. This is indicated by double bars, i.e. 6-31 GISTO-3G.

+

+

+

B. Gradient Optlmirations of Molecular Structures Until the end of the 1970s the optimization of molecularstructuresby means of a6 initio calculations was a very tedious and time-consuming procedure and usually calculations had been performed for selected standard geometries or experimentalvalues. But since the pioneeringwork of Pulay2’3efficient computer programs (GAUSSIAN 80,82,86 and 88 as well as other a6 initio programs listed in Table 14) have been developed which use analytical gradients of the total energy with respect to internal coordinates to optimize molecular geometries. In our calculations we used the Murtagh-Sargent procedurelg9, implemented in the G 82 program system19s. C. Methods of Population Analysis

Methods of population analysis, the first of which was proposed by M~lliken’’~, are designed to relate molecular electronic structures to intuitive concepts of chemistry. For this purpose one extractsfrom the wave functiona set of quantities, such as bond orders or overlap populations and atomic charges, for a shorthand description of the electronic structure. But this procedure is ambiguous because these derived parameters are not observable and cannot be defined in a unique way. Two fundamentally different approachesare used for this purpose. The partitioningof the molecularelectron density to define atomic chargesis done either in the real three-dimensionalCartesian space (a),or in the Hilbert space spanned by the atomic orbital-like basis set (b). 1 , Integrated Bader populations and integrated projected populations

The first kind (a)is used by Bader2I5and Streitwieser216-2’8.In Bader’sanalysis there is a set of partitioning surfaces which start at a saddle point in the electron distribution between a pair of atoms and follow paths of steepest descent through the electron distribution.These ‘zero-fluxsurfaces’are mathematicallywell defined and lead to natural definitions of atoms in molecules. The electron populations that are obtained by integrations over the volumes defined by these surfaces are termed ‘Integrated Bader Populations’or IBPs. Bader’s method has the advantages that it partitions the molecule according to a real physical property, the chargedistribution,and that it is independent of the quantum-mechanical model used. The disadvantage is that locating the zero-flux surfaceis not simple and the computation of IBP values is relatively slow and computer intensive. StreitwieserZL6 introduced with ‘Integrated Projected Populations’,or IPPs, an approximation to Bader’s method the three-dimensional electron distribution is first integrated in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the molecule to give a twodimensional projected electron density, which is partitioned by zero-flux lines. For gaussian basis sets this integration is analytic and rapid. A disadvantage is that relative

1. General and theoretical

41

IPP values frequently differ from IBPs and the determination of lPPs for hydrogen is particularly diflicult218. 2. Basis set population methods

The basis set population methods (b) are used by M ~ l l i k e n ~A' ~h ,l r i ~ h s ~and '~-~~~ W e i n h ~ l d ~Ahlrichs ~ ~ . ~and ~~ coworkers, . following D a ~ i d s o n and ~ ~ 'R ~ b y ' construct ~~, from the ah initio molecular density operator a minimal set of modified atomic orbitals which are used to compute atomic occupation numbers (N)and shared electron numbers (SEN) for description of the molecular electron density distribution. In the Natural ~ density ~ ~ *matrix ~ ~ is~transformed PopulationAnalysis (NPA) of Weinhold's g r o ~ p .the into a set of orthonormal but arbitrary atomic one-centre orbitals which are localized on the individual atoms. The occupancy of these natural orbitals gives the NPA values. An advantage of NPA over Mulliken population analysis(MPA) is the relative independence on basis sets. 3. Mulliken population analysis

For analysis of molecular wave functions obtained by full optimization of molecular geometries we had access only to Mulliken'spopulation analysis214,which is defined in the following way: for a MO given in equation 8 as a linearcombination of atomic orbitals cprk on atoms k of a molecule (LCAO-MO), the projected electron density q, at the nucleus k is named gross atomic population and is defined by equation 9, where bj is the occupation number of MO $j(equals 2,l or 0),crkjand csJ are linearexpansioncoefficients of equation 8 and S,,,, is the overlap integral between atomic orbitals at different atomic centres k and 1. $j=

Ccrkj4rk rk

Gross atomic population on atom k:

net atomic population

f overlap population

I

I a

b 2&o&b

FIGURE 4. Origin of overlap population in molecular hydrogen. (From Reference 226)

42

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

In equation 9 the first sum is called the net atomic population qk" and the second sum is one-half of the so-called overlap population pk,, which takes into account the electron distribution in the bonding region between atoms as indicated in Figure4 and which is added equally to both atoms. This equal partitioning of the overlap population between bonded atoms is a weak point of the Mulliken population analysis, especially if these bonds are between atoms which differ in electronegativities.As shown by FlizarZZ7 it may be replaced by an experimental partitioning of overlap populations defined by an empirical scaling of atomic charges. D. Post-Hartree-Fock Calculations

The Hartree-Fock limit in energy and geometry is the best possible solution obtainable with a single-determinantalwave function (Slater determinant) for a hypothetical basis of infinite members. Improvements below the Hartree-Fock limit are possible by the use of configuration i n t e r a c t i ~ n '((21). ~ ~ In * ~this ~ ~case excited-state structures are derived in which one or more electrons are shifted from occupied molecularorbitals(MO)into virtual antibonding MOs. Each of these numeral electron configurations is described by one Slater determinantand their contributionsaredetermined by the quantum-mechanicalvariation principle. Depending on the type of excitation, this procedure is named CI-SDQ for single,double or quadrupleexcitations. As this C1method is only slowly converging,many configurationsmust be taken into account needinglarge computers and much computing time. Another estimation of CI energies that result from imbalance in the treatment of electrons with like and unlike spin in the Hartree-Fock equation is possible by use of pertubation theory, which was suggested by Moller and P l e ~ s eand t ~ may ~ ~ be applied to second, third or fourth order, named MP2, MP3or MP4. Both CI or MP procedures are incorporated in Pople's GAUSSIAN programs but have not been applied by us for calculations related to amidines. VI. RESULTS OF A 6 lNlTl0 CALCULATIONS FOR AMlDlNES A. 3-216 Calculations for Formamidines

An extensive ab initio study with full optimization of molecular geometries and conformational preferences of neutral, protonated and deprotonated forms of formamidine as shown in Scheme 11 was reported by Zielinski and coworkerslg, using the 321G split valence basis set. The species studied can be divided into four groups:anionic,neutral,cationic imino and amino protonated formamidines.The ten structurespresented in Scheme 1 1 correspond to minima.of the potential energy hypersurface.Relative stabilities are calculated as follows (see Table 15): (1) 148E > 1492: In neutral planar formamidine the E isomer is favoured over the 2 isomer by only 2.5 kJ mol(2) 150 >> 151 > 152 > 153 > 154 The planar symmetrical formamidiniumcation 150 is the most stable molecule of Scheme 11. The amino protonated formamidines 151 to 154 are higher in energy by at least 155 kJ mol-' than 150. As in the neutral molecule E isomers are more stable than Z isomers. (3) 147 > 146 > 145 Among anionicformamidinates the symmetrical E form 147 is the most stable. Transitionstate structures,which may be obtained by rotations aroundCN bonds or by inversion at the imino NH bond, are shown in Scheme 12.

'.

1. General and theoretical Anionic :

43

H

H

H

I

I

I

N/CY,/H

H\,P\,/H

N

I H

I H

4

J

1H

Neutral:

lmino protonated:

H

I

H\N/:\N/

I

H

H

I

H

Amino protonoted:

(161) cs

(152) Cs

(153) Cs

(154) Ca

SCHEME11. Minimum conformations of the potential energy surface for anionic deprotonated, neutral and cationic imino and amino protonated formamidines Numericalvaluesof 3-21G calculatedbond lengthsand anglesarepresentedin Figures 5 and 6 for the compounds shown in Schemes I I and 12. Calculatedtotal energiesfor minimum structuresof molecules 145 to 154 and transition structures 155 to 164 are collected in Table 15. The entry order presents the number of negative eigenvaluesof the Hessian matrix (these are second derivatives of the energy): structuresof minima arezero-ordercriticalpoints, saddlepoints have at least one negative eigenvalueand a chemical transition state may have only one negative eigenvalue. I . E, Z Formamidines

The planarE isomer 148 of neutralformamidineis calculatedto be 2.5 kJ mol-' more stable than the Z isomer 149. The E,Z isomerization by in-planeinversion at the imino

G. Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

44

TABLE 15. 3-21G ah inirio total energies for formamidinium cations, formamidine and formamidinate anions" ( I hartree=627.51 kcalmol-I =262.5 kJmol-I)

AE Compound lmino protonated HC(NH,), +

Formula

Order

E (hartree)

150

0 I 2

- 148.643507

I55

156

Neutral HC(=NH)NH,

Anionic HC(NH), -

Amino protonated HC(=NH)NH, +

kJ mot-'

kcal mol-'

- 148.597781 - 148.486938

28.7 98.2

0.0

0.0 120.0 4 10.9

- 148.237764

0.0 2.5 42.7 49.0 97.1 164.8 0.0 15.5

I48 E 149 Z I57 158 159 160

0 0

1 1 1

- 148.236833 - 148.221461 - 148.219078 - 148.200857 - 148.174995

0.0 0.6 10.2 11.7 23.2 39.4

147 146 145 161 162 163 164

0 0 0 I 1 2 2

- 147.591675 - 147.585742 - 147.572178 - 147.555046 - 147.542646 - 147.490760 - 147.482760

0.0 3.7 12.2 23.0 30.8 63.3 68.3

51.0 96.3 128.9 264.8 285.8

151 154

0 I 0

- 148.584362

0.0 1.8 8.9 9.6

0.0 7.5 37.2 40.2

3

153 152

- 148.581463 - 148.570176 - 148.569122

1

lmino protonated: H\N/:\N/H

i

I

H

H

I

H\N/:\N H'*'

'H

(155)

P *.

H

(156)

Neutral :

H

I

Ht /c\\N .N

/'

I

H

(157)

i HI NC /H ,\

H'

/

I

I

I

H

H\N/CBN

\N/c\N H'

H

(158)

H

H

H'

H*'

(159)

(160)

(163Y

(164)

Anionic:

ti

(1 611

(162)

SCHEME12. Molecular structuresfor transition state structuresof protonated,neutraland anionic formamidines

45

1. General and theoretical

I

0.99331

0.9948

H

(148)

H

(149)

FIGURE5. 3-21G optimized molecular geometries for minima of total energies of formamidine systems.(From Reference 19)

NH group through structure 159 was computed to be 97.1 kJ mol- I . 160corresponds to a maximum in the potential surface of order 3, since inversion at both N atoms as well as rotation aroundthe CN bond correspond to negative eigenvalues of the Hessian matrix. Barriersto rotation around the formal CN single bond are calculated to be 49.0 (148 + 158+ 148) and 40.2 kJmol-' (1494 157- 149) for 148 and 149. These values are lower than 75-105 kJ mol- calculated for the CN rotational barrier in formamide using various geometries and basis sets4' with an experimental range of values of 71-S7.9kJ mol- I . This trend parallelsthe 3-21G calculated CN distances:1.3534 A for formamide228 is shorter than 1.3645 or 1.3730A in 148 and 149, indicating a higher degree of double-

'

46

G. Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

H Io.9999

4: 3

I

1.3128

ti 1.9979

@:N: 1.3067

r N C N = 131.91'

THNCN= -87.57'

(162)

(163)

(164)

FIGURE6. 3-21G optimized molecular geometries for first- and second-order critical points of the formamidine systems. (From Reference 19)

1. General and theoretical

47

bond characterin the CN bond of formamide than in formamidine.In terms of mesomeric forms, due to the more electronegative oxygen, the zwitterionic form Ib contributes more to formamide than IIb to formamidine. H 0-

H

(10)

(Ib)

(110)

(IIb)

The gas-phase proton affinity of 148 at the imino nitrogen is calculated to be

- 254.6 kcal mo1-l (1065 kJ mol-I), comparable to the 4-31G value273c of - 249 kcal mol- ' (1042 kJ mol- I). Theproton affinity at the aminonitrogen,calculatedas - 217.5 kcalmol-' (910 kJ mol-I), is much lower. 2. Formamidiniurn cations

The most stable cationic structureis the planar symmetric minimum (150) of order zero obtained by protonation at the imino nitrogen. The twisted structures 155 and 156 represent transition structures for the single and simultaneous double rotations around the CN bonds with computed rotationalbarriersof 28.7 and 98.2 kcal mol- respectively. The first value is in close agreement with 28.2 kcal mol-' calculated by Kollman and using the 4-31G basis set but with only partial optimization of molecular geometry. The 3-21G calculated CN distances with 1.302 A are longer than the experimental valueg8 of 1.286(4) A. The angle of 125.28' at the planar central carbon is in close agreement with the experimental value of 125.6" but deviates strongly from the hypothetical value of 120.0". Protonation at the amino group leads to 151 as the most stable form of the series 151 to 154 which is 155 kJ mol-' higher in energy than 150. Barriersfor C-NH, rotation are very low: 2.9 kJ mol-' for the Z (153-r 154 -+ 153) and 7.5 kJ mol-' for the E conformers (151+ 152 -+ 151). These E,Z isomers have significantly different molecular geometries as may be seen by comparison of 151 with 153 and 152 with 154 in Figure 7.

',

+

3. Anionic formamidinates

The minimum energy conformation for anionicformamidinate is 147 with isomers 146 and 145 15.5 and 15.0kJ mol- ' higherin energy. The barrierto rotation of 147 to 146 E via 161 is 96.3 kJ mol-I and of 146 to 145 via 162 is t 13.0 kJ mol-I. A conversion from 146 to 145 through simultaneous double rotation via the conformational maxima 163 or 164, representingdisrotatory or conrotatory movement of the hydrogens, is not likely to occur due to the high barriers, around 250kJ mol-', for this process. The proton affinity of 147 is computed to be - 405.4 kcal mol-' (1696 kJ mol-I). Thus anionic formamidinate is very unstable compared to the neutral and cationic forms. In agreement with experimental observations (Table 7), calculated CN bond lengths of Figure 7 are longer than in cationic species. 8. Basis Set Dependence of Calculated Molecular Structures

Singledeterminantalwave functionswith increaseof basis sets approach asymptotically the Hartree-Fock (HF) limit of total energy from one side as a consequence of the

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

48

H

10085 \

7'07v'1.

*.

2192

11.0194

k

TH'NCN= $60.44'

TH'NCN= f l20.56O

H- H' TH'NCN= 2 119.02"

1.0177

I

H

TH'NCN= f 58.57'

FIGURE7. Optimized geometries for the amino-protonated forms of the formamidinium cation. (From Reference 19)

quantum-mechanical variation p r i n ~ i p l e l ~ ~ -Gradient '~'. optimizations of molecular structuresaredependent on the kind of applied basis setsig6and calculated bond distances may be longer or shorter than the theoretical rHF distances or the scarcely known experimental r, distances. We had shown22ybthat out of eight tested basis sets for unstrained CC distances the 6-31G basis set gives statistically the best agreement with experimental gas-phase ED rg bond lengths, although it was not the best with respect to total energies. Forour ab initio calculationson amidine systems with Pople's GAUSSIAN 82 (G82)lg8 we applied only three basis sets: ST0-3GZo4as the economically cheapest one, 3-21G because of comparison with extensive calculations of Zielinski'9*230-232and 6-3 1G because of expected accuracy. Some 6-31G* values from the literaturezz8have also been used.

1. General and theoretical

49

7 . Comparison of calculated CN distances with experimental values

In Table 16 for ten small CN systems which cover the range from single over double to triple bonds, STO-3G, 3-21G and 6-31G* basis set calculationstaken from Reference228 have been correlated by linear least squares to experimental gas-phase data. The regression equations 10 to 12 for 13 data points (CH,NH, was discarded because it is a solid-state XD value and it was trimethylamine because its 6-31G* value is missing)show high statistical relevance with the linear correlation coefficient R increasingfrom 0.9967 over 0.9994 to 0.9998 and standard deviations esd decreasing from 0.01 1 over 0.005 to 0.003 A for STO-3G, 3-21G and 6-31G* basis sets. Theseequations may be used to predict experimental gas-phase distances from calculated CN bond lengths. ryz = 0.914rEi0-3G+ 0.101 (R = 0.9967; esd = 0.01 1) (10) +

(R = 0.9994; esd = 0.005) r?: = 0.943 r& *Ici + 0.087 (1 1) rFJ = 0.980r&31G + 0.046 (R = 0.9998; esd = 0.003) (12) Equation 11 is shown graphically in Figure 8. Of interest is the isodistance point ri = a/(l - m), which gives from slope m and intercept Q of the regression the value of the intersection of the regression line with that of slope 1.0. If the slope of the derived regression equation is smaller than 1.0, all calculated distances largerthan ri are decreased by application of the regression,and distances smaller than ri are increased.The STO-3G ri value with l.lS5b; is close to the range of CN triple bonds, i.e. most calculated CN distances are decreased. The 3-21G value with 1.511 A is in the range of bonds to quaternarynitrogen, i.e. most calculated CN distances are increasedby application of the regression.The 6-31G* value with 2.352 A is far outside the rangeof accessible CN bonds, therefore all distances are increased. 2. Formamidines, acetamidines, benzamidines and corresponding cations

In Table I7 the basis set dependence of our calculatedCN bond lengthsfor E, Z isomers of formamidine,acetamidine and benzamidine and the corresponding cations protonated

TABLE 16. Basis set dependence of calculated CN distances (in A) in comparison to experimental ED and MW data (collected in Table 3)

Compound

STO-3G

3-21G

6-31G*

Experimental

Me-NH3+ Me-NH,

1.5288 I .4855

1.5473 1.47 16

1.5075 1.4532

(MWH

1.4844

1.4656

1.4470

(Me),N

1.486

1.464

-

H,C=NH H,C=NOH HCO-NH,

1.2729 1.2814 1.4028

1.2564 1.2553 1.3534

1.2614 1.2494 1.3489

HCrN

1.1530

1.1372

1.1325

MeC+=N CrNH

1.1543 1.1703

1.1390 1.1596

1.1348 1.1542

1.499(10) I .474(5) 1.465(2) I .466(8) 1.465(2) 1.45l(3) 1.458(2) 1.273i8j I .276(5) I .367(4) I .368(3) 1.3665 I . I568(2) 1.1 158(3) 1. I59(2) 1.1726(2)

Method XD MW ED MW ED MW ED MW

MW

ED ED ED+MW MW ED ED MW

Ref. 55 59 60 61 62 65

66 69 233a 72 72 72 233b 234 234 233b

50

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

/

1.10

1.20

1.30

3-21G %N

-----)

I .40

1.50

FIGURE 8. Plot of equation 11. Experimentalversus 3-21G calculated CN distances

at the imino nitrogen is shown. (Angles are given in Table 18 and total energies in Table 19.) The STO-3G minimum basis set predicts for E and Z formamidinea non-planartetraThe hedral amino group, as was found also by CND0/2235and MNDO calculated difference A = R,, - Rim with 0.16A is close to the maximum value (0.18 A) for a non-conjugated amidine system obtained from 3-21G data by Zielinskilg for the twisted amino group and also close to the experimental value of 0.178A. Assumed planarity as a constraint leads to A = 0.12 A, a value close to the range of 0.09 to 0.11 A found for other basis sets and is characteristic for normal amidine conjugation. Splitvalence basis sets leads to coplanar geometry of the amidino group with all hydrogen substituent atoms in the plane. In the case offluorinesubstitutionon amino nitrogen the 321G calculation leads to non-planar tetrahedral geometry of the amino group’’. Formamidinemay be compared to formamide in which difficulties exist in the precise determination of the experimental g e ~ m e t r y ~ ~as- ~ well * *as~ in ~ ab initio calculations of the molecular s t r ~ c t u r e ’ ~ * ~ ~ ’the - * ~results ’, of which vary with the applied basis set whether or not the lowest-energy geometry is planar.Recent MP2 calculations241favour a single, slightly non-planarminimum energy geometry although the HF potential energy surfacefor formamide exhibits a very flat region near its global minimum. It should be remembered that the experimental geometry of aniline shows also a non-planar tetrahedral geometry of the amino group6’. Numerical data in Table 17 show that increaseof the basis set reduces the formal CN

1. General and theoretical

51

single bond, R,,, in the sequence STO-3G to 6-31G*. However, for the formal C N double bond, Rim, 6-31G values are longer than 3-21G and 6-31G* data. For Z-formamidine the R,, values are slightly longer than in the more stable E isomer and Rim values arc very similar for both series. For the formamidiniumcation both equal C N bond lengths vary in the series STO-3G>6-31G>3-21G and the data are close to the average of the corresponding C N single and double bonds in neutral formamidine. Experimental distances (Table 6) are 0.02 8, longer than calculated values. N H bond distances are about 1.00 8, with the bond of the hydrogen syn ( Z )to the imino nitrogen being longer than that of the m i t i (E) hydrogen in the neutral amidines and cations. This may be relatcd to a study of Perrin and coworkers242of the kinetics of basecatalysed proton exchangein amidinium cations:H, exchanges 25 to 100% faster than HE which was explained as 'the most acidic proton exchanges fastesl'. We may conclude:the weaker-bound hydrogen (longer N H bond) exchanges faster. It should be noted that in acid-catalysed proton exchangez4,, in 80% H2S04,HEexchanges faster than H, but this reaction proceeds via the dication [RC(-NH, +)=NH2 '1. Surprisingly, the imino NH bond is about 0.01 8, longer than the amino N H bond. In acetamidine, both C N distances are longer than in the corresponding formamidine isomers and the C C distance is between 1.53 and 1.50 8,. Experimental XD distances for acetamidinium cations in Table 6 show very good agreement with 3-21G and 6-31G data. The agreement for acetamidine (Table 5) is less satisfactory and may be due to the hydrogen-bonding effects in the crystal, neglected in the calculation. In benzamidine, the phenyl ring and the amidine group are twisted by 42" (STO-3G) or 46" (3-21G) for the minimum-energy E conformationand by 30"(STO-3G), 21' (3-21G) or 26" (6-31G) for the Z isomer. Both E,Z isomers have the same 3-21G energy. In the Z isomer, less sterical strain between the imino N H and ortho hydrogens of the phenyl group leads to a smaller torsional angle. The torsional angle in E-benzamidine is very similar to that calculatedand determined for gaseous biphenyl244"(STO-3G:38.6'; 6-31G: 44.7";ED rB:44.4') indicating similar sterical requirements.As in the case of biphenyl, the molecular geometry may be optimized for the constraint of coplanarity or for a fixed twist angle of 90"with results presented in Table 17. C N bond lengths vary only slightly as dependent on the torsional angle. STO-3G optimization for benzamidinium cation leads to a torsional angle of 32.3" for STO-3G and to 44.4" for 3-21G basis sets, in agreement with a C N D 0 / 2 calculation235 which yields a twist angle of 35.7" compared to the experimental angle of 36.6' (Table 6). Due to conjugative interactions the CN bonds are 0.007 8, longer in the coplanar form than in the perpendicularly twisted molecule. 3. Guanidine and guanidinium cation

Ab initio SCF optimizations of molecular structures of several Y-conjugated hetero-nsystems using STO-3G and 3-21G basis sets have been reported by Williams and G r e a d ~ ' The ~ ~ ~results . for guanidine and its cation are shown in Figure 9. In the free base guanidine ( 5 3 the two bonds to amino groups differ by 0.004 8, (STO3G) or 0.009 8, (3-21G), the longer bond being cis to the imino N H group. Protonation at the imino nitrogen leads to the highly symmetrical planar guanidinium cation (54) in which all three C N bonds are equal at 1.355 (STO-3G) or 1.324 8, (3-21G). The second value is very close to the experimental average of 1.325 A, Calculated C N distances are related linearly to Mulliken rr-bond orders244b. 4. Basis set dependence of calculated angles

In Table 18 our calculated angles of E,Z isomers of formamidine, acetamidine, benzamidine and corresponding cations are shown for STO-3G, 3-21G, 6-31G and

2-Benzamidine twist

STO-3G 3-21'3 6-31G STO-3G 3-21G 6-31G

E-Benzamidine twist' I .403 1.368 1.368 1.406 1.373 1.374

1.309

1.316

6-31G 3-21G

1.310

3-21G

1.306

6-31G I .402 1.370 1.367 1.406 1.378 1.376 1.338

I .302

3-21G

STO-3G 3-21G 6-3 1G STO-3G 3-21G 6-31G STO-3G

1.435 1.397 1.364 1.359 1.359 1.436 1.401 1.373 1.369 1.363 1.330

Ram

STO-3G STO-3G 3-21G 6-31G 6-31G* STO-3G STO-3G 3-21G 6-31G 6-31G* STO-3G

Basis

H-PerpendiculaP

(73)

Acetarnidinium plan

(56)

Z-Acetamidine plan.

E-Acetamidine plan.

(150)

(148)

E-Forrnamidinetetr? plan.' plan. plan. plan. Z-Formamidinetetr. ( 149) plan. plan. plan. plan. Formarnidiniumplan.

Compound

1.287 1.264 1.264 1.286 1.265 1.274

1.309

1.313

1.307

1.284 1.262 1.272 1.282 1.263 1.272 1.337

1.306

1.302

1.276 1.281 I .260 1.268 1.268 I .276 I .279 1.260 1.267 1.257 1.330

Rim

1.012 0.993 0.988 1.01I 0.992 0.988

1.013 0.996 0.99 1 1.014 0.996 0.991

I.003

.oo 1 1

0.997

1.003

1.013 0.996 0.991 1.014 0.997 0.99 I I .024

0.998

1.004

1.029 1.013 0.997 0.992 0.992 1.028 1.014 0.997 0.992 0.994 1.026

NI-H2

0.995

1.002

1.012 0.994 0.989 1.013 0.995 0.990 I .023

0.996

I .003

1.028 1.012 0.993 0.988 0.988 1.027 1.013 0.995 0.990 0.992 I .025

Nl-HI

TABLE 17. Basis set dependence of calculated distances (in A) in amidines and correspondingcations

1.003 1.042 1.009 1.002 1.046 1.012 1.006

1.oo 1

1.044 I .043 I .009 1.002 1.002 I .048 1.047 1.015 1.008 1.007 1.025 1.026 1.003 1.004 0.996 0.998 1.042 1.009 1.002 1.046 1.014 1.007 1.023 1.024 1.001 I .003 0.995 0.997

N2-H4 N2-HS

1.520 1.497 1.495 1.516 1.497 1.491

1.504

1.497

1.505

1.535 1.518 1.509 1.531 1.511 1.501 1.533

1.072

1.07 1

1.095 1.096 1.08 1 1.080 1.080 1.092 1.093 1.075 1.074 1.102 1.102

C-X3

0.116 0.104 0.104 0.119 0.109 0.100

0.000

0.003

0.003

0.119 0.109 0.095 0.123 0.115 0.106 0.001

0.000

0.000

0.105 0.092 0.092 0.160 0.121 0.112 0.102 0.107 0.000

0.159

0.1 16

An

~h)

VI

1.336

STO-3G STO-3G STO-3G STO-3G STO-3G

N'-Phenylformarnidine' twist = 46.6" N*-Phenylformarnidine' twist = 69.5" N-Phenylformarnidiniuncation' 1.399 1.366 1.361 1.372 1.363 1.376 1.371 1.307 1.308

STO-3G 3-21G 3-21G 3-21G 3-21G 3-21G 3-2 1G 3-21G 3-21G 1.298 1.296

'perp. = perpendicularorientation between

the amidine plane and the plane of the phenyl ring (Q, = 90").

E-Benzamidine: 0 = 42.4' (STO-3G); 45.5 (3-21G); 45.8" (6-31G), Z-benzamidine: Q, = 29.6" (STO-3G); 21.0"(3-21G); 26.3" (6-31G). benzamidinium: CJ= 32.3" (STO-3G); 44.4' (3-21G); 41.4' (6-31G),

1.002 1.002

1.012 0.993 0.994 0.995 1.456 0.994 1.458

1.023

1.330 I .278 1.255 1.262 1.261 1.26I 1.257 1.261

1.018 1.018 1.013 1.013

1.023

0.994 1.019

1.001

1.010 1.009 1.013 1.021

1.280 1.277 1.283 1.281

btetr. = tetrahedral non-planar amino group in the amidine system. 'plan. =planar amidine system. "One hydrogen of the methyl group perpendicular to the planar amidino group (ClV symmetry). 'twist =torsion by angle q5 (twist) between the planar amidine group and the phenyl substituent:

" A = R,, - R4,.

(180) (181)

N-Methylformamidinium cations':

(174) (174) (175) (176) (177) (178) (179)

N-Met hylformarnidines':

1.409 1.415 1.394 1.397

STO-3G

Benzamidinium perp. 1.339

1.319 I .346

1.319 1.346

6-31G STO-3G

Benzamidinium plan. 1.339

1.312

1.312

3-2 1G

1.287 I .288 I .285 1.344

1.405 I .405 1.402 I .344

STO-3G STO-3G STO-3G STO-3G

Z-Benzamidine plan. E-Benzamidine plan. E-Benzamidine perp.' Benzamidinium twist

1.002 1.003

1.013 0.996 1.458 1.456 0.997 0.994 0.999

1.467

1.427 1.436 1.014 1.013

1.024

0.996 1.022

1.002

1.014 1.013 1.014 I .023

1.002 1.004

1.487 1.464 1.009 1.013 1.009 1.467 1.015

1.023 1.020

1.045 I .040 1.043 1.021 1.023 1.001 1.002 0.994 1.019 1.022 I .023 I .024 1.043 1.044 1.454 1.463

1.071 1.072

1.096 1.083 1.081 1.075 I .082 1.076 1.076

1.100

1.095 1.OY 3 1.093 1.094

1.520

1.473 1.497

1.474

1.519 1.527 I .525 1.495

0.009 0.012

0.145 0.1 12 0.099 0.111 0.102 0.119 0.110

0.005

0.129 0.137 0.111 0.116

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.118 0.117 0.117 0.000

u l W

54

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

STO-3G:

3-21G:

119.6

117.7

0.993

0.994 (

16.4

1.ooo

53)

( 54)

FIGURE9. STO-3G and 3-21G optimized bond lengths and angles for guanidine (53) and guanidinium cation (54).(From Reference 244b)

6-31G* basis sets (data for formamidines are from References 19 and 228, except 6-31G values). Numerical values show relatively small basis set dependent variations between angles for heavy atoms of at most 1.5'. The angle NlCN2 (/3 in the notation of 181a) differs very much for E,Z isomers. For all E isomers this angle is smaller than in the cation and the Z isomer. 6-31G values, which are usually intermediate between STO-3G and 321G angles, are in the formamidineseries 122.2' for E, 124.8"for the cation and 128.8' for Z. The angle XCN2 (a) behaves in just the opposite manner: 124.3' for E and 117.7' for the 2 isomer and the cation. The angle XCNl(y) remains small: 113.6' and 113.7' in the E, Z isomers and 117.5' in the cation. These trends reflect stereochemicalrequirements:in E-formamidine H4-H3 interactions open angle a and in Z-formamidine H4-HZ In .symmetrical formamidiniumcations the H5-HZ interaction interactions open angle /I opens angle /3. Substitutionat functionalcarbon either with methyl or with phenyl leads to the same pattern of angular variation at the amidine group. Angles to hydrogen atoms show larger dependences on basis sets, thus especially the CN2H4 angle at the imino nitrogen varies up to 8'. The angle H l N l H 2 of the amino group lies between 116' and 119".

x3

xs

A2

(1810)

Notation for molecules of Tables 17 to 19

Z-Benzamidine twist

H-Perpendicular" E-Benzamidine twist'

(73)

Acetamidinium

Z-Acetamidine plan. (56)

E-Acefamidine plan.

(149)

(148)

E-Formamidinetetr? plan.' plan. plan. plan. Z-Formamidine tetr. (149) plan. plan. plan. plan. Formamidinium'

Compound

P

121.62 118.56 120.09 119.27 124.93 125.72 125.01

119.18 115.10 114.41 115.50 116.31 116.06 116.33

119.20 126.34 125.50 125.23 118.77 118.22 118.66

119.95 120.06

1 18.40 119.01

121.65 120.94

3-21G 6-31G

3-21G STO-3G 3-21G 6-31G STO-3G 3-21G 6-31G

125.98 126.10 125.01 124.26 124.38 119.16 119.11 117.99 117.49 118.23 117.89 117.37 117.51 127.33 126.73 126.13 120.17 119.66 119.59 120.27

a

X3CN2

113.03 112.59 112.54 113.57 1 12.80 113.29 112.85 1 12.76 113.72 112.71 117.89 117.37 117.65 1 13.83 1 13.26 114.45 114.12 113.58 114.51 119.20

Y

X3CNl

120.98 121.30 122.45 122.17 122.82 127.55 128.05 129.26 128.79 129.06 124.23 125.26 124.84 118.84 120.02 1 19.42 125.71 126.75 125.90 120.53

NlCN2

STO-3G STO-3G 3-2 1G 6-31G 6-31G* STO-3G STO-3G 3-21G 6-31G 6-31G* STO-3G 3-21G 6-31G STO-3G 3-21G 6-31G STO-3G 3-21G 6-31G STO-3G

Basis

121.15 107.89 114.86 115.22 108.09 115.33 I 15.92

121.26 121.04

108.46 107.75 114.74 115.38 110.93 108.53 108.15 1 15.50 116.61 112.33 120.19 120.87 120.68 107.92 114.92 115.21 108.12 1 15.06 115.99 120.47

CN2X4

TABLE 18. Basis set dependence of calculated angles (in deg) in amidines and corresponding cations

121.15 121.94 122.64 122.67 122.12 122.53 122.30

120.99 120.92

110.67 121.39 122.16 122.05 121.94 111.30 121.07 120.85 120.82 120.90 120.19 120.87 120.68 121.81 122.59 122.63 121.37 121.19 121.32 120.35

CNlXl

122.74 119.11 117.73 117.93 120.13 120.09 120.32

122.84 123.00

109.70 119.78 118.53 118.81 119.09 1 11.46 121.04 121.39 121.56 121.39 122.19 122.96 123.18 119.38 118.05 118.23 120.88 121.16 121.21 122.20

CNlX2 CN2X5 108.89 118.83 119.32 119.14 118.97 108.76 117.89 117.76 117.62 112.71 1 17.62 116.17 116.14 118.81 119.37 119.14 117.76 117.65 117.48 117.46 117.41 116.17 116.08 116.07 116.12 118.96 119.63 119.40 117.75 117.38 117.38 (continued)

XlNlX2 X4N2X5

ul ul

See the footnotes at the end of Table 17.

(181)

(180)

(179) N-Methylformamidinium cations':

( 174) (175) (176) (177) (178)

Benzamidinium plan. Benzamidinium perp. N'-Phenylformamidinec twist = 46.6" Nz-Phenylformamidinec twist = 69.5" N-Phenylbrmamidinium cation' N-Methylformamidines': ( 174)

(75)

Z-Benzamidine plan. E-Benzamidine plan. E-Benzamidine perp. Benzamidinium twist

Compound

TABLE 18. (continued) U

121.35 123.2I 121.89 129.00 122.61 130.05 129.36

STO-3G 3-21G 3-21G 3-21G 3-21G 3-21 G 3-21G 3-21G 3-21G

117.77

1 17.22

117.00

125.00 125.66

117.34

125.62 123.56 125.08 118.03 124.93 1 17.65 117.97

113.04 113.24 1 13.04 1 12.97 1 12.46 112.30 112.67

115.50

121.60 119.82 110.52 111.18 112.58 112.67

I 17.05 120.43 124.50 130.25 120.33 129.35 128.98

STO-3G STO-3G STO-3G STO-3G STO-3G STO-3G STO-3G 121.47 119.76 124.99 I 18.57 127.09 118.00 115.52

119.93

6-31G

119.93

121.24

3-21G 120.14

124.07 116.16 119.21 118.89

STO-3G STO-3G STO-3G STO-3G 119.38

X3CN2

119.38

Y

X3CNI 118.41 127.00 126.56 120.56

P

NICN2 117.53 116.85 114.23 120.55

Base

123.23 122.82

118.11

114.81 119.92 114.83 116.07 114.66 123.41 115.57

121.60 119.79 107.50 109.18 118.62 I 16.94 1 18.96

120.65

120.54

108.09 109.04 107.74 120.49

CN2X4

120.86

120.81

121.25 122.09 119.94 118.78 123.37 120.05 123.63

121.60 119.79 115.34 116.19 121.25 120.51 112.99

120.64

120.55

122.97 123.74 121.50 120.51

CNlXl

122.93 124.67 122.82 120.04

119.85 118.54 120.45 122.49 116.59 122.47 118.64

121.23 122.53 129.16 127.00 119.82 121.32 134.27 123.57

122.82

122.75

119.60 I 17.76 119.52 121.92

CNlX2 CN2X5

116.26 1 17.22 116.32 116.72

118.90 119.38 119.61 118.74 120.04 117.48 117.72

117.43 118.50 118.98 117.57 117.58 116.70 116.70 116.54 116.54 117.17 117.69 115.50 116.82 118.93 118.17 112.74 117.47

XlNlX2 X4N2X5

57

I . General and theoretical C. €,Z Isomerism of Amidines

1. Experimental results Acyclic amidines may show 2,E (syn, unti or cis,truns) isomerism with respect to the formal C=N double bond. Whereas the E isomer is mostly energetically more favoured than the Z formlg,the actual geometry depends on the kind and number ofsubstituents at the amidine fragment. The adopted geometry depends mainly on the steric requirementsof the substituents and the X D data on amidines in Table 5 and cations in Table 6 show the occurrence of both kinds of isomers. Hegarty and Chandler245described the stereospecific preparation of thermodynamically unstable 2-amidines by 1,l-addition of secondary amines to isonitriles in the presence of AgCl below 0 "C (equation 13) or by s o l v 0 1 y s i s ~ of ~ ~ N-phenylformohydrazonyl chloride in water in the presence of morpholine (equation 14).

t

Ar-NeC-

+

H

N

R

p

F

Ar-N

/c\

6OoC

H - N

I

z

H >C=lU--Ph

morphollne

[H-CC"+-Ph]

d

CI

z

('4

By acid catalysis or by retlux in chloroform (6h) the 2 form may be converted into the E form. The stereochemistry was deduced from the 'H N M R spectrum of the N-CH, signalsof the morpholino group which, owing to the effect of the adjacentaryl group in 2, are shielded by 0.65 ppm in CDCI, relative to E . In addition this signal shows a smaller solvent-induced shift for the Z isomer when measured in benzene relative to chloroform (0.15 ppm for Z and 0.33 ppm for E ) due to the fact that the intramolecularN-aryl group already 'solvates' the morpholino group. The temperature dependence of 'H NMR spectraz4' of the E isomer shows that the signals of the NMe, groups are equivalent a t 34°C but, on cooling to - 30"C, separate signals of equal intensity are obtained with a coalescence temperature of - 5 "C. This temperature,and thus the energy barrier for CN bond rotation, is raised when Ar contains an electron-withdrawing group which increases by conjugation the bond order of the formal C N single bond. The Z isomer presents quite a different situation, since the signal for the NMe? group remains as a singlet over the temperature range from - 80 to 34 "C. This is explained by the possibility that the Z isomer is frozen even at 34 "Cin a twisted conformation (165a) in which the perpendicularmethyl groups are in equivalent positions. When the aryl group

G. Hiifelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

58

contains an ortho substituent, the two Me groups become non-equivalent, a fact clearly pointing to a fixed conformation around the CN single bond and the N-aryl bond.

H

-C'

\N0CH3 "CH3

The Z+ E isomerization of 165 is pH-independent from pH 0 to 8 and then decreases. Thus the protonated form 166 is undergoingthe isomerization as shown in Scheme 13. No evidence was found for isomerization of the free base by direct nitrogen inversion248. Ar

H-C

HN-Ar

H-C

I HN

"-Me

.'I

(166)

I

\N4-

(16b)E Me H

I

//N+-Ar

N '

/N-

-H-C

I

7

H-C

I

\N-Me

I Me

(165)Z

Ar

H-C

-Me

/N-Ar

%-Me

I Me

Me

I

Me

Me

Ar

-H~/

I

/N-H H-C

%-Me

SCHEME13. Mechanism of proton-catalysed-Z

I

Me +E

isorneri~ation~~~

A direct proof of the presence of the E isomer of N',N',N2-trimethyl-pnitrobenzamidine (167) in CDCI, solution was given by Exner and coworkers249.They observed in the ' H NMR a nuclear Overhausereffect as an intensity enhancementof the signalsof protons H2 and H6of the phenyl ring o n selective irradiationof the=N-CH, signal. The intensities of other signals remain unaffected. Me

Me

59

1. General and theoretical

For Nz-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-N1,N'-dimethylformamidine (168) in CDCI, solution the occurrenceof both E,Z isomers but with 80% predominanceof E was shownz50in the 'H N M R spectrum at room temperature. 'H NMR and I R studies of neat N,N'-dimethylformamidine have shownz5' that of structures169ato 169d the E isomer 169a is present exclusively. It undergoestautomerism which is proposed to occur through a hydrogen-bonded cyclic dimer 170. At 25°C k, = 820s- * and E, = 41.5 1.5 kJ mol- l . CH3

CH3

I

H-C

HN

H-C

\N-H

I flN

//N--CH3

'N-CH3

I

I

H

CH3

(169b)

CH3

\N-CH3

I

H

(169 0 )

H-C \N-H

I

CH3

//N---CH3

H-C

(169d 1

(169~)

CH3

(170)

(171a )

(171b)

ForNz-sulphonyl formamidines(171),using 'H and "C NMR and IR spectroscopy the occurrence of the E isomer and of two rotamers 171a and 171b was s h o ~ n ~In ~ ~ * ~ ~ phosphorylated amidines 172 the presence of both E,Z isomers in solution in different ratios was by 'H, I3C and 31PNMR spectroscopy. CH3

CH3

(R 0 ) p P

11

0

I

-N

I

N

H3C

-CH=CH -C//N-ph

'CH

\N-R.

I CHCI,

(172) Z

I

R"

(173) Z

However, for several propenyl amidines (173) the predominance of the Z isomer by about 60% was indicated255by I3C NMR spectroscopy. The free energy of activation for rotation around the formal single CN bond was determined2s6from the temperature dependence of the 13CNMRsignalsas 49.4 kJ mol- for the E isomer and 36.4 kJ molfor the 2 isomer.

'

2. Calculated energy differences between E,Z isomers

Numerical values of total energiesof several amidines in various basis sets are given in Table 19 (see also Scheme 14).The basis set dependenceof the differencesbetween E and Z

dinium cation nlan

twist = 69.5" N-Phenylformami-

N2-Phen ylformamidinec

E-Formamidine tetrb (148) plan.' Z-Formamidine tetr. (149) plan. Formamidinium' (150) E-Acetamidine plan. Z-Acetamidine plan. Acetamidinium' (73) H perpendicular" E-Benzamidine twist Z-Benzamidine twist' Z-Benzamidine plan. E-Benzamidine plan. E-Benzamidine perp.l Benzamidiniurntwist Benzamidinium plan. Benzamidinium perp. N '-Phenylformamidine' twist = 46.6"

Compound

-373.90719 - 373.90798 - 373.90749 -373.90375 -373.90469 -374.39168 -374.39010 -374.38572 -373.9081 1 -373.90349 -313.90657 - 373.90563 -374.3695 7

-147.14828 - 147.15338 - 147.14885 - 147.61022 - 185.73694 - 185.73769 - 186.21172

- 147.15397

~

STO-3G

-378.48505

- 378.90185

-376.93263

- 376.50931

.- 376.50129

- 149.00849

- 148.23684 - 148.64351 - 187.06495 - 187.06488 - 187.48061 - 187.48055 -376.51247 -376.51247 - 378.48626

- 149.41073 - 188.03882 - 188.03756 - 188.44858

- 149.01146

6-31G

- 148.23777

3-21G

- 149.46382

- 149.07289

- 149.07504

6-31G*

~~

- 148.85178 - 149.25493

- 148.85427

4-3 1G

TABLE 19. Basis set dependence of calculated total energies(in hartreeunits). Forformamidinesystems all basis sets, except 6-3 lG, are given in References 19 and 228. All others are taken from our own calculations using G82

- 185.73034

- 246.85613 - 246.95835

- 246.85027

- 246.50086 -246.50642' -246,58021 - 246.57319' -246.46863 - 246.47665' - 246.47308'

- 187.46196

- 187.46404

- 187.05215 -187,05184 - 187.04968 - 187.04889 - 187.04865 - 187.04803

"-'See the footnotes at the end of Table 17. 'New values which are not included in Reference 20. 'Change in stereochemical E.Z notation due to higher priority of fluorine over nitrogen.

N-Meth ylformamidines': (174)E (175)E (176)Z (177)E (178)Z (179)Z Z-N-Methylformamidinium cation' (180) E-N-Methylformamidinium cation' (181) Fluoro-substituted formamidineszO: E-N2-Fluoroformamidine' (182a) Z-N2-Fluoroformamidine' (183a) Z-FluoroformamidineCh(182b) E-Fluoroformamidine'.* (183b) E-N'-Fluoroformamidineb (182c) Z-N '-Fluoroformamidineb (183c) Z-N'-Fluoroformamidineb (184c) Protonated fluoroformamidinesZ0: Z-N-Fluoroformamidinium cation' E-N-Fluoroformamidinium cationC Fluoroformamidinium cation'

62

G. Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske H

I

H-C

I

H’

I

H

H

(176) Z

(175)E

(174)E

!,A

N C ‘-H ,

H

I //N+.YH

/N

H-C

/H

H-C

‘H

H-C

\N-H

\N-H

\N-H

I

I

I

/$-

H

H y f \ H

i

H

(179) 2

(178) Z

(177) E

//N-H

H

/N-ccH I

H-C+

/H

N , -H H-C+

‘N-H

I

H

\N-H

I

H

(180) z

(181) E

SCHEME 14. Geometrical isomers of N-methylformamidines

energies for formamidine is given in Table 20. Neglecting the extreme values of non-planar and planar STO-3G energies, the Hartree-Fock results for split-valence basis sets yield energy differences between 2.4 and 7.8kJmol-’. The 4-31G value is taken from Reference 236. TABLE 20. Differences between total energies for E and 2 isomers of formamidine as dependent on the applied basis sets

AE E-Z

STO-3G STO-3G tetr. planar

hartree kJ mol-’

0.00569 14.94

0.00057

1.50

3-21G 0.00093 2.44

4-31G

6-31G

6-31G*

MP2257” MP3257n

0.00249 6.54

0.00296 7.78

0.00236 6.20

0.00355 9.32

0.00341 8.95

63

1. General and theoretical

Moeller-Plesset post-Hartree-Fock calculations by Wiberg and using the extremely large 6-31 1 + G** basis set (with diffuse functions and polarization functions on all atoms) at 6-31 G* optimized geometries give slightly increased energy differences of 9.3 kJ mol-' for MP2 and 9.0 kJ mol-l for MP3. The energy differences between E and Z isomers are relatively small but the 3-21G calculated barrierofactivation bond (159) is rather high (96.9 kJ mol-'). for i n v e r ~ i o nwith ' ~ a linear =N-H For all six stereochemical isomers of N-methyl formamidine, 174 to 179, 3-21G optimized bond lengths are shown in Table 17, angles in Table 18 and energies in Table 19. The structuresin Scheme 14 show four pairs of Z , E isomers: the methyl groupE,Z isomers 174 and 178 show a difference of 9.18 kJ mol- in 3-21G energies, and in the cations, 180 versus 181, a value of 5.46 kJ mol-'. For the s-cis isomeric pair 175 and 176 the difference of 18.03 kJ mol-' is rather high, due to steric interaction. In the s-trans isomers 177 and 179 the energy difference is only 2.26 kJ mol-I. For acetamidine, the STO-3G basis favours the Z isomer over E by 1.97 kJ mol-' (Table 19) but 3-21G and 6-31G show calculated stabilities of E versus Z higher by 0.18 and 3.31 kJmol-'. For benzamidine, STO-3G and 3-21G predict higher stability for the Z isomer by - 2.1 and -0.02 kJ mol-' but in the 6-31G basis the E form is more stable by 3.18 kJ mol-'. We reported" 3-2 1G optimizations of seven fluorine-substituted formamidines (Scheme 15) with up to three fluorine atoms at the positions a t imino nitrogen, amino nitrogen and functional carbon, all in E configuration 182, since we assumed from steric reasons that these isomers are the most stable. To our surprise, the Z isomers 183a and 18% were calculated to be energetically more stable by 14.6 and 21.1 kJ mol-'. This may be explained by the same factors which determine the greater stability of cis-42dichloroethyleneover the trans form2s7b.This result shows that the predominanceof E or Z isomers is not determined only by steric effects but also by electronic effects.

+

'

(182)

(183)

(184)

F H H (a) X 4 = F; X3 = X z = H HFH (b) X3 = F X 4 = X z = H HHF (c) Xz = F; X3 = X 4 = H FFH (d)X4=X3=F;XZ=H F H F (e) X4 = X 2 = F; X3 = H HFF (f)X3=XZ=F;X4=H FFF ( g ) X z = X 3 = X 4 = F

SCHEME15. Geometrical isomers of fluorine-substituted formamidines D. Hindered Rotation Around the Formal CN Single Bond 7 . Experimental facts

Substituentson the amino nitrogen of amidines are magnetically non-equivalent as in the case of d i r n e t h y l f ~ r m a m i d eTherefore ~~~. the temperature dependence of NMR

64

G . Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

spectra allows the determination of coalescence temperatures and activation energy parametersfor rotation aroundthe formally single C N bond. A collection of experimental data up to 1971 was presented in the first volume on this subject259(Table 27 and 28, pp. 68 and 70) and need not be repeated here. For unsubstituted formamidinium chloridez60the barrier to rotation about one of the C N bonds was found to decrease with an increasein the dielectric constant of the solvent: E, = 124 kJ mol-' in chloroform, 105 kJ mol-' in acetone and 77 kJ mol-' in DMSO. For the N',N2-dimethyl(trideuteroacet)amidinium cationz6' in DMSO-d, E , is 89 1 kJ mol-'. N',Nz-dimethylbenzamidine262 in CDCI, shows a value for E, of 76.1 kJ mol- ', which may be affected by a hydrogen bond of about 12.6 kJ mol-I. In N',N'-dimethyl-Nz-t-butylformamidine263 in pyridine-d, E, is as low as 46 & 3 kJ mol-' with a coalescence temperature of - 48 "C. The free enthalpy of activation (AGI) is in the range of 46 to 63 kJ mol- for variously substituted N',N'-dimethylamidinesz56.Zh3-266, while for amidinium cations260,Z61.266.267 the values are higher, in the range of 70 to 92 kJ mol-I. These different energy values may be taken as an indication of stronger bond orders in the amidinium cations due to mesomeric bond-length equalization. phenylacetamiRecentlyz6* barriers to rotation in N',N'-dimethyl-N2-substituted dines with 12 different substituents on the phenyl ring have been determined from line shape analysis of dynamic 'H and ',C NMR spectra. The values of A G f are 51.2-58.7 kJ mol- '. Their correlation with Hammett a-values indicate an important contribution of substituentsto the barrier height. Correspondingly substituted for ma mi dine^^^^.^^' show a higher barrier of 63kJ mol-I. This decrease of about 10 kJ mo1-l in the parent compounds is probably due to steric interaction of the methyl group with the aromatic ring that leads to non-planarity and a decrease in conjugationof this phenyl ring with the amidine group. However, this may be compensated by conjugation to the lone pair on imino nitrogen. Similar differences were observed270327' for N heteroaryl substituted N',N'-dimethyl formamidines (73-84 kJ mol- I ) and acetamidines (39-59 kJ mol- I ) . The influence of aryl substitution at N z and of alkyl substitution at the functional carbon (R3) on I3C N M R was studied at low temperature by WawerZ6' for ten N ' , N ' dimethylformamidines,five acetamidines and five isobutyramidines. With an increase in the stericdemand ofsubstituent R3 the enthalpy ofactivation decreasesfrom 63.3 to about 30 kJ mol-' as shown in Table 21. The rotational barriers of eleven Nz-phosphorylated N I , N '-dimethylamidines have reportedz7' AGs values between 45.6 and 90kJ mol-'. For N,N,N',N'-tetramethyl-formamidinium and -acetamidhiurn cation273"AGI was determined as 64.4 and 44.2 kJ mol-I. Thus in the cation the methyl substituent a t the

'

TABLE 21. Influence ofsubstituents (R3) at the functional carbon on chemical shifts, 6CF,and the barrier to rotation around C-N' in N',N1-dimethyl-N2-phenylamidines R3

H CH,

C2H5

n-C,H, i-C,H,

6CF

AG~

Isomer

(PPm)

(kJ mol-')

Solvent

Ref.

E E E E E

153.5 157.0 160.5 160.0 162.5

63.3 53.8 45.9 45.9 30(?)

acetone-d, acetone-d,

269 268 256 256 269

CDCI, CDCI,

acetone-d,

65

1. General and theoretical

functionalcarbon has a larger influenceon the rotational barrierthan in the neutral base. In N,N-dimethyl-N’,N’-diethylf~rmamidine~~~~ the rotational barrier of the dimethylamino group is 66.8 kJ mol-’ and of the diethylamino group, 63.9 kJ mol-I. 2. Calculations of rotational barriers

MNDO and ah initio STO-3G, 4-31C and pseudo-potential calculations with determinations of rotational barriers have been reported236for formamidine, acetamiand N’-cyanoformamidine. Calculated barriers are dine, N’,N’-dimethylformamidine given in Table 22. The MNDO values are lower by a factor of 2 to 3 than ah initio pseudopotential calculations.Contrary to experimental results the rotational barrier is lower in formamidine than in acetamidine with the exception of the H4 basis set. For N,Ndimethylformamidine the calculated barrier to rotation is considerably lowered in all cases. An electron-withdrawing cyano substituent at the imino nitrogen raises by conjugative influence the barrier of rotation around CN’. This effect is similar to N2 phenyl-substituted for ma mi dine^'^^where the p-nitrophenyl substituent at the imino nitrogen (N2)increases and a p-anisyl group decreasesthe rotational barrier with respect to the unsubstituted compound. Zielinski’slg 3-21G calculations yield rotational barriers of 49.1 kJmol-’ for the E isomer and 40.4 kJmol-’ for the Z isomer. The first value is very close to the pseudopotential H31* calculation2”. A calculation by a MNDO effective charge modelz73bwhich introduces the solvent effect into MO calculations yielded, for the barrier to rotation of the formamidinium cation, 68.4, 64.9 and 54.2 kJmol-’ for dielectric constants of 1 , 2 and 10, respectively. The N-methyl substituted formamidinesand 174 to 181 from Scheme 14 contain three pairs of rotamerswhich yield, from 3-21G optimizations (Table 19), the following groundstate energy differences:the E isomers 175 and 177 differ by 7.73 kJ mol- the Z isomers 176

’,

TABLE 22. Calculated rotational barriers in formamidines (in kJ mo1-1)236 Pseudo-potentials

Compound Formamidine Acetamidine N1,N1-Dimcthylformamidine N’-Gyanoformamidine

MNDO

H4

H31

H31*

27.2 28.0

77.0 69.5

66.5 68.6

48.5 50.6

7.9 36.8

49.0 92.0

51.9 89.1

67.8 67.8

ab initio’¶ HF 3-21G 49.1(E);40.4(2)

TABLE 23. Calculated rotational barriers273‘ of amino-substituted carbenium carbon (kJ mol-I)

STO-3G 4-3 I G

34 1 295

144 I18

84 59

I12

66

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

'

and 179 differ by 4.33 kJ mol- and the cations 180 and 181 which are E,Z isomers as well as rotamers yield 5.46 kJmol-' energy difference with 2 being more stable than E . Immonium (185), formamidinium (186) and guanidinium (187) cations may be considered as carbenium cations, which are very effectively stabilized by amino substituentsas indicated in the given structures. Rotational barrierscollected in Table 23 have been calculatedby partial optimization of moleculargeometry by use of STO-3G and 4-3 1G basis The bond lengths increase and rotational barriers decrease in the sequence from left to right. E. Tautomerism

N-mono- and N,N'-disubstituted amidines may occur in two different tautomeric forms. This problem was studied experimentally mainly by the use of IR and 15N NMR spectroscopy. 1. Experimental IR determinations

For N-monosubstituted amidines the preference in the tautomeric equilibrium in equation 15 depends on the electronic type of the substitutent R on n i t r ~ g e n ~ ' ~ - ~ ' ' .

imino form

amino form

For R = alkyl the equilibrium prefers the imino form due to the + I effect of the s u b ~ t i t u e n talthough ~ ~ ~ , in chloroform solution both forms are present. For R = aryl the aminoform is dominant275*277q278 due to the - 1 and - M effect of the substituent, which may conjugate in a planar geometry with the amidine system, and even in the twisted orientation it can still conjugate with the lone pair on imino nitrogen.

(1Sl)

(192 1

Sieveking and LuttkeZ8'studied the tautomerism of cyclic amidines 189 to 192 by application of IR spectroscopy. In these the electronic influence of substituents is combined with steric factors, which include the preference of endo- or exocyclic C=N double bonds in five- or six-membered rings276.

1. General and theoretical

67

TABLE 24. Expectation values and assignment of characteristic IR vibrations of monomeric cyclic amidines2'' (in an-') Amino form

Imino form

assignment

region

NH, NH, v C=N (amidine I) 6, NH, (amidine 11) Y C-N (amidine 111) ya, NH, (twisting) 6,, NH, (rocking) Y s NH, (wagging) Vas

vs

3540-3490 3420-3390

1680- 1600 1610- 1580

1450-1350 I250? 1100 650

assignmcnt

region

vsec NH 11 =NH I) C=N (amidine I) 6 SCC N H (amidine 11) v C-N (amidine 111) S=NH y =NH y sec N H (amidine IV)

3460-3420 3370-3250 1680- 1600 1410-940? I3 10-1 200

1450- 1050 900-850 780-420

The expected values for characteristic1R vibrations of the cyclic amino and imino forms are shown in Table 24. All four cyclic amidines studied exist completely in the amino rather than the imino form. The characteristicgroup frequencies depend strongly on the state of aggregation,the solvent and the concentration,that is on the state of association. They have been studied specifically by means of partial and full deuterium exchange. Mono-deuteration of the amino group of 189 leads to four bands in the region of NH(D) valence vibrations: 3475, 3450, 2565 and 2535cm-'. These bands have been interpreted by the presence of two rotamers, 189a and 189b, as shown in Scheme 16. The absorptions at higher frequencies in each pair are assigned to the NH or ND group which is s-trans to the C=N bond.

uas:3513

3475O

3450b

2628

us: 3410

2535'

2565'

2489

'=VNH

or VND(Iruns).

(1890)

b=

\)NH or \)ND(cis)

(189b)

SCHEME 16. NH and N D valence vibrations28' of I89

Deuteration of the acyclic N-benzyl benzamidine (193), which occurs mainly in the imino form (193a), shows a different picture. Besides the bands at 3450 (17 sec NH)and

68

G. Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

'

3320cm-' (v=NH) only two furtherdeuterationbands at 2251 ( v sec ND) and 2455 cm(v=ND) are observed. In addition, the presence of the amino form of 190 is inferred from the 100MHz 'H NMR spectrum: the proton H, shows a double triplet at 6 = 3.43 ppm with coupling constants J,, = 13.5 Hz and J,, = J,, = 1.5 Hz. Due to the spatial arrangementof protons H, and H, a 'homoallylic coupling' is to be assumed which may occur only through the endocyclic double bond of the amino form"'.

b

(190)

2.

I5N

NMR study

Natural abundance "N NMR s p e c t r o s ~ o p y is~ a~ ~ useful * ~ ~tool ~ for the study of tautomeric equilibria in nitrogen-containingheterocycles. This method was applied by Clement and K a m p ~ h e nfor ~ ' the ~ study of tautomerism in N-monosubstituted amidines. Due to fast proton exchange, signal averaging occurs and no N H coupling could be observed. Experimental "N chemical shifts for tautomeric equilibria 194 and 195 as well as structurally fixed non-tautomeric amidines 196 to 199 are given in Scheme 17. In the case of the N-methyl substituted benzamidine (195) both N signals are rather similar at 141.6 and 145.1 ppm, which indicates the presence of both exchangingtautomers in about equal amounts. However, in N-phenylbenzamidine (194) there is a difference of 145 ppm between the two nitrogen signals. The reference signals of the non-tautomeric amidines 196 to 199 allow the estimation of the presence of the less stable tautomer 194a as 11% in the equilibrium mixture. In agreement with P r e v o r S e k ' IR ~ ~determinations ~~ for Nphenyl substituted amidines the amino form 194b is dominant whereas for N-alkyl substituted amidines (195) both forms seem to be present in about equal amounts. 3. Experimental determinations of pK,

Oszczapowicz and Raczynska22*28s3286 proposed the prediction of pK., values of tautomeric equilibria of amidines based on Hammett go substituent constants and measured macroscopic pK, values of methylated derivatives. For N-phenyl formamidine pK, was calculated as 1.8, showing the predominanceof the amino form by 98.5%. For Nphenylacetamidine this value is 2.7, yielding a practically 100% presence of the amino tautomer. Katritzky and c o ~ o r k e r s employed ~ ~ ' ~ ~ UV ~ ~spectroscopy to determine the tautomeric equilibrium constant of N-acyl and N-sulphonyl substituted amidines. Values for K, are about 30 for the acyl and LO7 for the sulphonyl compounds, favouring the amino (H,N-CR=NY) tautomer as in the case of phenyl substituents. For NphenylacetamidineZ8*pK, is 2.4, in agreement with the above-mentioned value of 2.7. 4. Calculated energy differences of tautomeric amidines

The 3-21G calculations on N-methylformamidines of Scheme 14 show two kinds of tautomeric relations. The lowest-energy isomer 174 is the amino form with the methyl

H3C-

/CH3

(194)

Ph-

H

/

(197)

CH3

‘C=NH

?h 223.2

(Solvent: H20)

(194b )

H3C-N\72.4

N

Ph

H3c-N

HSC-N

Ph

(198)

\CH3

79.5

7=F;l43.8

\ 7 Ph

d

Ph

=::a.

(199)

Ph

\98.4

\

Ph

6CaN1

H

2

145.1 L141.6

-N/

’

-N’

H3C-N

H

H3C

\c

Ph

SCHEME 17. ISN NMR values in DMSO(6 values in ppm relative to NH3). (Reproduced by permission of VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH from Ref. 284)

(196)

CH3

N,71.4

\H

N

/*

Ph

/‘;20.5

\

Ph

Ph-

129.6

(1940)

H ‘

Ph

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

70

group on imino-N E or anti to NH,, but the tautomer 175 with the methyl substituent s-cis to the E-imino NH is only 0.82kJmol-' higher in energy. This negligible difference explains why N-alkyl substituted amidines occur usually as tautomeric mixtures. Energy differencesof 174 compared to other tautomeric isomers 176,177 and 179 are with 6.5,8.5 and 10.8 kJmol-' higher,but still relatively small. Startingfrom the other amino form 178 with the methyl substituent in Z arrangement, the smallest difference in energy of 0.64kJmol-' is towards the more stable isomer 177. STO-3G calculations for twisted N-phenyl substituted formamidines lead to 5.6 kJ mol-' stabilization for the amino tautomer with a torsional angle of 69.5"between the phenyl substituent and the amidino group. In the case of fluorineas a substituent in formamidineswe foundz0much larger energy differences for two pairs of tautomers appearing in equations 16 and 17. The energy differencefor the tautomersin equation 16 is 84.6 and for equation 17,53.0 kJ mol- I , both in favour of the isomer with the fluorine on the imino nitrogen. A second fluorine substituent on the functional carbon decreases the energy difference.These data are in accord with an earlier conclusion28gthat the less basic tautomer predominates in the equilibriummixture of tautomers and with the more basic amidines the differencebetween the energy of the two tautomeric forms is larger. FNzCH-NH,

FNH-CH=NH

(16)

FNzCF-NHZ

FNH-CF=NH

(1 7)

F. Molecular Association

Amidines with at least one hydrogen on nitrogen may show intermolecularhydrogen bonding leading to dimers or polymers in the crystal, the melt or in unpolar solvents. In polar solutions, hydrogen bonding from solvent protons to the basic imino nitrogen or of the NH protons to basic centres of the solvent may also occur. Experimentally, these problems may be studied by IR and Raman or 'H NMR spectroscopy. 7 . Experimental IR results

Intermolecular associates of amidines leading to dimers have been detected in cyclic amidinesZ8', N',N'-diethyla~etamidine~~~, N,N'-diphenylformamidine (both in the crystal8' and in benzene solution29')and in N,N'-diphenyla~etamidine~~~. In the case of N,N'-diphenylbenzamidine no association was observed29z;this was explained as a result of sterical shielding by the bulky phenyl groups allowing no hydrogen bonding. The solid-state IR spectrum of 3-amino-1H-isoindole(191) in CsI shows an interesting N

(191)

shorp: U,rrr

: 3451

brood: Uossoc.:3 0 5 0

3445

2561

2539

2280

3050

2280

SCHEME 18. IR NH and ND valence vibrations (in cm-') of partially deuterated 3-amino-1Hisoindole2*' (191)

1. General and theoretical

71

feature281.In the region ofNH valence vibrations a sharpand intense absorption band at 3451 cm- and a broad band about 3050cm-’ is observed, which on partial deuteration leads to four bands with values shown in Scheme 18. These bands prove the presence of the aminoform and a partial association of - NH, as shown in structure191.The NH which is s-transto the C=N bond is sterically shielded by the annelated phenyl ring so that only the s-cis proton may be engaged in hydrogen bonding, which may be dimeric or polymeric. In chloroform,a specific hydrogen bonding to the imino nitrogen is observed from shifts of 1R frequencies281(200).

’

2. H NMR studies of molecular association

N,N‘-Diphenylformamidine (201) in THF forms a hydrogen-bonded s-transconformer (201a)and a s-cis conformer (201b), which interconvert slowly on the NMRtime scalezg3. According to recent ‘H NMR results294201 is subject to the complex reaction scheme shown in Scheme 19. Both rotamers form hydrogen bonds to the solvent, but only the sPh

Ph

I

I

H-C

P

H-C

\

N-Ph

/;” \

N-Ph

I

I

H

(201b) H S

Ph

Ph

I

H-C

I fYN

\-H

I

I

Ph

Ph

(2010) Ph

H-c;

‘k-H

‘N

...:H-i /

Ph I

Ph

Ph

dh

I

Apc

#

kA*

LAc;

H-C

/ U*+-N \N-H..

I

Ph

Ph

I

\

...FN

I

Ph

A”

SCHEME 19. Rotation,association,and proton transferof diphenylformamidine(201) in tetrahyA,, = solvated s-trans monomer (2014, B,, = solvated s-cis monomer d r ~ f u r a n ’ ~S ~=solvent, . (ZOlb), k = rate constants, K =equilibrium constant, *denotes proton transfer,Azc=cyclic dimer, A,, and B,, = free monomers,A, =higher associates.A,, and B,, are intermediatespresent only in small concentrations.(Reproduced by permission of VCH VerlagsgesellschaftmbH from Ref. 194)

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

72

trans conformer(2Ola) is capable of forminga cyclic dimer and of double proton exchange in the latter. The energy of activation for this exchangeis about 17 kJmol-I and a kinetic HH/HD isotope effect of 5 to 6 was found at 298 K. Higher associates were not observed.

3. 3-21G calculation of water-mediated tautomerism of formamidine

Zielinski and coworkers230 performed 3-21G optimizations for the water-mediated tautomerism between formamideand formamidicacid (equation 18) and for formamidine (equation 19).

H-C

//"----"\ '. N-H I H

9-H

O-.--

e H - C ;

H

k '\.,9-H \.N----H ..'

/O-T.

\\N---.-H?-"

=H-C

I

I

H

H TS

H

I

(18)

H

H

I

H

I

H

TS

Optimized geometries for the water-bounded systems and corresponding energies are reported in the paperz3'. Two possible orientations of the water molecule have been considered:first, water being coplanar, bifurcatingthe water oxygen lone pairs by the NH proton. The second type with non-planarwater was obtained by rotation of the water plane relative to the carbonyl hydrogen bond plane, bringing one of the water lone pairs into the formamide plane. The latter case is energetically favoured. The bonds involved in hydrogen bonding were slightly extended and hydrogen bonds are bent by about 140". The minimum-energyformamide-water complex is 74.6 kJ mol- more stable than the isolated monomers, leading to 37.3 kJ mol- ' per hydrogen bond. For the formamidinewater complex these values are 78.5 kJ mol- I, yielding 39.3 kJ mol-' per hydrogen bond. The activation energy for proton transfer is 101.9 kJ mol- from the formamidewater side to the transition state and 41.3 kJmol-' from the formamidic acid-water side. The correspondingenergy differenceof 60.6 kJ mol- ' is 13 kJ mol- smaller for hydrated molecules than for isolated molecules. The activation energy for the bifunctional water-mediated proton transfer in formamidine-water is 71.6kJmol-' in the 3-21G basis. Use of the 6-31G basis at 3-21G optimized geometrieslowers all dimerization energiesand increasesthe activation barriers of the proposed tautomerization mechanism.

'

4. 3-21 G calculations of the hydrogen-bonded dimer of formamidine

Amidines were shown experimentallyto form hydrogen-bonded dimers in the crystal or in non-aquous solutions.

1. General and theoretical

73

Ab initio 3-21G optimizations for hydrogen-bonded dimers of formamide, formamidic acid and formamidine have been performed by ZielinskiZ3'. STO-3G data for the formamidine dimer were reported by Ahlberg and coworkers295.The 3-21G interaction energy for formamide dimer is - 97.3 kJmol- I , for formamidic acid dimer 124.7 kJ moland - 83.4 kJ mol-' for formamidine dimer leading to energies of - 48.7, - 62.4 and - 41.7 kJmol-' per hydrogen bond. The formamidine dimer and the symmetrical transition state have the calculated geometry shown in Scheme 20. The shorter CN distance is elongated relative to free formamidine and the longer bond is shortened as a result of hydrogen bonding. The hydrogen bond deviates with 175.5" slightly from linearity. In the transition state structure both CN distances are equal at 1.3061(, which is very close to the average value of 1.308 1( for both CN distances in the dimer. The hydrogen bond remains bent with 176". The activation energy for symmetrical hydrogen transfer is 66.9 kJ mol- slightly lower than in the water-mediated reaction. H

H

-N/'\N

I

-H

I

y H-N

j 1.905

H

11.020 123.B'N-H

-

H

I

H-N

H-

I

1.27>C<343

p

C

b

N-

H123.80 H 1.280 i(122.50! I '1.239)

+.

-9N-H

c

1.306 ((1.327)

H

H

TS

SCHEME20. 3-21G optimized geometries''' of hydrogen-bonded dimer of formamidine and transition state of symmetrical hydrogen transfer (values in parentheses are from STOJG calculations29f) 5. 3-27G calculation of the 7,3-hydrogen shift in formamidine

Zielinski and coworkers232studied the 1,3-hydrogen shift in formamidine using 3-2 LG and 6-31G** basis sets. By application of the Woodward-Hoffmann ruleszg6the shift is antarafaciallysymmetry allowed as a thermal process. 6-31G** optimized geometrical parameters for formamidine and for the symmetrical transition state for the 1,3-hydrogen shift are include in equation 20. (Values in parenthesesare 3-21G data.) The 6-3 1G**distances are shorter than the corresponding321G values. H

I

(1.365) 1.356 C

H--NG.~:N-H

(1.260)

I257

I(122.4O)

H

-

H

I C

H-N4''>N-H

(1.313) 1301

'..!05.7a (104.6')

. .

.+I;

-

H

I

H-N

4

C

\N-H

I

H

TS (20) For the transition state, the most noticeable change besides the equalization of the CN distances is the narrowingof the NCN angle by 17"on the path from the minimum to the transition state. For derivation of highly reliable energies, 3-21G and 6-31G** geometries have been

14

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

used for single-point calculations with the 6-31G basis set using configuration interaction'" (CI) for single and double excitations (CISD) and up to quadruple excitations (CISD-DQ). The calculated activation energy for equation 20 is 247.6 kJ mol-' (321GI3-21G) or 254.9 kJ mol-' (6-31G**//6-31G**)at the Hartree-Fock level. Application of CI reduces this value to 220.1 kJ mol- ' for (6-31G/CISD-DQ). But the activation energy for the 1,3-hydrogenshift is much higher than in the case of water-mediated or dimeric hydrogen transfer. VII. EXPERIMENTS AND CALCULATIONS OF PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES A. Dipole Moments of Amldlnes 1. Experimental determinations of mesomeric dipole moments

Experimental dipole moments of alkyl- and aryl-substituted amidines collected in Table 25 span the range of 2.2 to 3.4 debyes. In the case of N',N'-dimethyl-N'-phenyl formarnidine~~~' p-Br and p-NO, substitution at the N2-phenyl ring increase this value to 4.56 and 1.70 debyes. Lumbroso299-301calculated a mesomeric moment, which is the vector difference between the actual dipole moment and that calculated for a classical structural formula, of 1.9 0.2 D for the Me2N-C=NH group of N,N-dimethylbenzamidines. Exner and collaborator^'^^derived for this group in E-N',N',N2-trimethylbenzamidine a lower value of 0.88 D. Comparison to mesomeric dipole moments in N,N-dimethylben~amide'~' (1.4 D), N,N-dimethylthioben~amide~~~ (2.55 D) and methyl benzoate304(0.24 D) shows a low value for amidines, indicating a small contribution of the mesomericformula202b. Since,in 202b, complete electron transferis estimated to result in a dipole moment of 11 D, the actual contribution of this form is estimated at about 8%. TABLE 25. Experimental dipole moments of amidines (debye) Compound N,N'-Diphenylformamidine 2-Ethyl-A2-imidazoline 2-Phenyl-Az-imidazoline

H

I

Structure

Solvent

11

Ref.

60

dioxane benzene

2.20 3.42

305 299

benzene

3.08

299

benzene

2.83

300,301

dioxane

3.00

300,301

benzene

3.29

299

benzene benzene

3.4 I 2.48 2.62 1.98 3.19 3.21 2.99 4.56

299 249

R = Et

[:)-I? R

N',N'-Dimethylbenzamidine

DBN (23) DBU (24) N1,N',Nz-Trimethylbenzamidines (202) N';N'-DimethylN2-phenylformamidines

(203)

X=H X=Me X = Br X = NO, X=H X=Me X = Br X = NO2

= phenyl

benzene

1.70

249

1. General and theoretical

75

CH3

CH3

(202 b)

(202 a )

The mesomericdipole moment in NL,N'-dimethyl-NL-phenyl forrnamidinez4'(203a) is 1.81 D, which is an indication of extended conjugationas shown in the mesomeric formula 203b.

(203 a )

(203 b)

2. Basis set dependence of ab initio calculated dipole moments

Calculated dipole moments as dependent on basis sets are presented in Table 26. Numerical values increasewith increasein basis sets and aresimilar to experimentalvalues in the range of 2.2 to 3.9 debyes. With the exception of benzamidinethe dipole moments of theZ-forms are largerthan those of the E-forms. The difference of dipole moments between Z and E isomers is most pronounced for formamidine,yielding 0.70 D for STO-3G, 0.88 D for 3-21G and 0.87 D for 6-3 IG basis sets. Foracetamidinethis differenceis smaller:0.39 D (STO-3G), 0.49 D (3-21G) and 0.39 D (6-31G); and for benzamidine in the two split-basis sets the 2 form has a smaller dipole moment: 0.033 D (STO-3G), - 0.064 D (3-21G) and - 0.252 D (6-31G). In the series of six N-methylformamidines174 to 179 the 2 isomer always has the larger value with differencesfrom 0.8 to 1.9D. The fluoro-substitutedformamidines182 and 183 show no regularpattern for dipole moments of E and Z isomers, but numericalvalues may be as large as 5.1 D. B. Basiclty (Proton Affinities) 7. Experimental results

The basicity of amidines is measured in solution by their pK, values defined by equation 21 as the acidity of the corresponding protonated base. (The higher the number, the stronger is the basicity.) The parentheses in equation 21 denote molecular activities.

pK, = -log

(H+).(base) (base+ - H)

Some characteristic pK, values of nitrogen bases are collected in Table 27 (see Scheme 21). These values are solvent- and temperature-dependent. Oszczapowicz and c o l l a b o r a t ~ r sintroduced ~ ~ ~ * ~ the ~ ~use of azeotropic ethanol (95.6% aqueous ethanol)as

16

G. Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

TABLE 26. Basis set dependence of calculated dipole moments (debye) STO-3G

Compound E-Formamidine NH, tetrahedral Z-Formamidine NH, tetrahedral E- Acetamidine Z-Acetamidine E-Benzamidine, twist. 2-Benzamidine,twist. Z-Benzamidine,planar E-Benzamidine,perp. N'-Phenylformamidine Nz-Phenylformamidine

/1

2.416 2.245 3.245 2.634 2.639 3.025 2.747 2.7SO 2.658 2.704 2.644 2.297

N-Methylformamidines: (174) E (175) E (176) Z

3-21G

A(Z-EE)"

/I

0.699

2.829

0.386 0.033

3.05 1 3.538 3.218 3. I54

A(Z-E)"

A(Z-E)"

0.877

3.706

3.073

0.866

3.939 0.487 -0.064

3.355 3.749 3.571 3.319

0.394 -0.252

3.442 3.138

(178) Z (179) Z

2.382 2.120 3.859 2.863 3.172 3.829

Fluoro-substitutedformamidines: E-FHH(182a) Z-FHH (183a) Z-FFHb(182b) E-HFHb(183b) E-HHF( 1 8 2 ~ ) Z-HHF(183~) Z-FFHb(182d) E-FFHb(183d) E-FHF(182e) Z-FHF(183e) Z-HFFb(182f) E-HFFb(1830 Z-FFF(182g) E-FFF(183g)

5.061 4.916 1.954 4.716 4.414 2.677 4.955 4.598 4.622 5.030 2.623 2.439 3.742 3.7 I8

(177) E

6-31G

- 174 - I75

0.790 1.139

178 I76

1.897

179 - 177

-0.145 2.762 - 1.197

-0.357 0.408 -0.184

-0.024

'Difference of calculated dipole moments between Z and E isomers. hChangeof stereochemical E.Z-notation due to higher priority of fluorine with respect to nitrogen.

an experimentallywell-defined solvent with good solution properties for the measurement of pK, values of amidines and nitrogen bases. The basicity ofamidines depends on the extent and type ofsubstitution at three sites: a t both the amino and imino nitrogens,and at the functionalcarbon atom. The protonation occurs at the imino nitrogen (im) atom. Therefore, substitution at this site exerts the strongest influence on the pK, values of amidines, followed by substitution at the functional carbon. In the review of SevEik and Gramba1308the following order of increasing basicity is

I1

1. General and theoretical TABLE 27. pK, values of nitrogen bases in solution at 25°C Compound

Structure

Ammonia Methylamine Dimethy lamine

NH, CH,NH, (CH3)2NH

Trimethylamine n-Propylamine

(CH3),N CH,CH,CH2NH2

Piperidine

C N - H

PK,

Solvent'

Ref.

9.245 10.657 10.732 9.56(4) 9.752 11.03

water water water az. EtOH water 98.5% aq. EtOH

324 325 325 31 1 325 309

az. EtOH

311

9.59(2)

Pyridine

5.23(5)

Aniline

4.65

water

327

N-Methylaniline

3.49(5)

az. EtOH

31 1

98.5'x EtOH 98.5% EtOH az. EtOH az. EtOH

309 328 306 306

Formaniidines: RN=CH-NHR RN=CH-NMe,

R = 17-propyl R = phenyl R = ti-propyl R = phenyl .hN.=cH-Na

8.69

98.5% EtOH

316

PhN=CH-NMePh

5.29(5)

az. EtOH

319

12.40 8.30 8.35(5) 12.46(7) 8.32(7) 6.96(1)

water water 98.5% EtOH az. EtOH az. EtOH az. EtOH

329 329 328 310 310 319

11.6 11.23 11.1 11.27 7.59(4) 5.75(7) 7.56(5) 7.45(5) 6.89(14) 6.67(3) 7.71(9) 6.66(9) 6.92(9) 7.43(5)

330 water 33 I 50% aq. EtOH 75% aq. EtOH 332 333 50% aq. MeOH 312 az. EtOH az. EtOH 320 308 50% :iq. EtOH 307 99.8% EtOH 307 az. ElOH 307 50% aq. EtOH 308 50% aq. EtOH 308 50% aq. EtOH 50% aq. EtOH 308 328 98.5% EtOH (continued)

Acetamidines: Unsubstituted acetamidine

N,N'-Diphenylacctamidine

RN=CMe-NMe, PhN=CMe-NMePh Benzamidines: Unsubstituted benzamidine HN=CPh--N(I?-Bu)2 PhN=CPh-N(Me), PhN=CPh-N(Me)Ph PhN=CPh-N

3

PhN=CPh-NH, PhN=CPh-NHMe PhN=CPh-NHPh

12.22 7.17 10.84(5) 7.45(5)

326

R = ti-propyl R = phenyl

G . Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

78

TABLE 27. (con/iiiued) Compound

Structure

Cuanidines:

Guanidine Tetramethylguanidine Pentamethylguanidinc Phenyl tetramethylguanidine

R =H

(205b) R

Solvent"

13.6 13.6 15.6

n-Rutyltetramethylguanidine

(20%)

PK,

= CH,

(206)

Heptamethylbiguanid(207)

Bicyclic arnidine~,~': DBN (23)

DBU (24)

(25b) (27)

(208)

Ref.

water water watcr. 14.83(10) az. EtOH I1.52(7) az. EtOH 13.46 CH,CNb 12.93 CH,CNb 12.05 CH3CNb 17.1 water

334 335 336 315 315 337 337 338 336

11.29 11.82 14.46 17.46 11.50

338 338 36 31 337

CH,CNb CH,CNb CH3CN" CH,CN" CH,CNb

"Percentages refer to aqueous ethanol (EtOH): az. EtOH is azeotropic ethanol (95.6% aqueous EtOH). 'Experimental absolute pK, valuesdeterrnined in ace~onitrile''~have been converted by subtraction of 12.5 units to relative values, based on pK, of 9-phenylfluorene = 18.49.

( 2 0 5 0 )R = H (205b) R=CHS

(206)

(207)

(208)

SCHEME 21. Structuresof compounds in Table 27

indicated if no strongly polar substituents are present: N,N,N'-trisubstituted amidines < N,N'-disubstituted amidines c N-mqnosubstituted amidines c N,N-disubstituted amidines c unsubstituted amidines S ~ for ~ ~amino* ~ and ~ ~ imino-substituted - ~ ~ Oszczapowicz and C O W O ~ ~ ~ ~showed amidines linear relations of pK, values of amidines with pK, values of corresponding primary or secondary amines. For example, for N',N'-disubstituted-N2phenylformamidines (204) the regression equation 22 shown in Figure 10 was obtained3l'. This figure shows an interesting and important feature of the basicity of amidines: the bisection of the axes (dotted line) is crossing the regression line between the experimentalpoints. This means that only amidines derived from secondary amines whose pK, value is below this intersection are stronger bases than the corresponding amines,

1. General and theoretical

19

H

R

(204)

otherwise the amidines are weaker bases than secondary amines. pK,(amidine) = (0.35 f O.W)pK,(sec. amine)+ 3.97

(22)

R = 0.991; esd = 0.018

For aryl ring substituted amidinespK, values obey Hammett-type correlations with csubstituent constants; this was shown by Oszczapowicz and coworkers in numerous papers306.307*3’0*312-320. From the slope of regressions, the sensitivity to substituent effects is largest for substitution at the imino which is at the centre of protonation. Substitution at the amino nitrogen is of less influencethan at the functional carbon. The extent of mutual interaction of substituents at these three sites was modelled by ab initio 3-21G calculations of fluorine-substituted formamidines with one to three fluorine substituents2’, with the same result as experimental conclusions. In cyclic amidines the pK, values depend significantly on the ring size321-323.The basicity decreases in the sequence C, > C, > Cs z C, for systems 209. 2. Calculations of protonation energies

In Table 28 calculated protonation energies, AE,, as the difference of total energies between protonated amidines (AmH +) and corresponding neutral amidines (Am) are

FIGURE 10. Plot of equation 22. Correlation of pK, values of N’,N’-disubstituted N2-phenylformamidines (FPh) with pK, of corresponding secondary amines (SA). (Reproduced with permission from Reference 31 1)

G. Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

80

Ar2

I

A?-C.NYH,). /N>

(a) n = 2; five-membered ring321 (b) n = 3; six-membered ring322 (c) n = 4; seven-membered ring3223

(a)

n = 5; eight-memberedring323

(209)

given for three basis sets: STO-3G, 3-21G and 6-31G, derived from values of Table 19. With increase in basis sets B E , decreases. Quantity AEp estimates protonation energies in the gas phase at OK without consideration of the zero-point energy which was calculated339 as 10.2 kcal mol- ' for formamidine. Del Bene339 calculated for Eformamidine a 6-31G**//6-31 G* Hartree-Fock value for AE,= - 246.7 kcalmol-l which is slightly lower than our 6-31G energy of - 250.6 kcal mol- Post-Hartree-Fock calculations339by Moller-Plesset perturbation methods, MP2and MP3, lead to a further reduction to -242.4 and -244.7 kcalmol-' for MP2 and MP3, respectively. The enthalpy of protonation of E-formamidine in the gas phase was calculated as AHzg8 = - 236.0 kcal mol- I . Substituted amidines are mostly more basic than methylamine and the 3-21G values of protonation energies in Table 28 show the following calculated sequence of decreasing basicity: E- and 2-benzamidine > Z-acetamidine > E-acetamidine methylformamidines: 178 > 176 > 179 > 177 > 175 > 174 > Z-formamidine > E-formamidine > fluoro-substituted formamidines: 182c > 183b > 184c > 183c > 182b > methylamine > ammonia > 182a > 183a > water. TABLE 28. Basis set dependenceof ah inirio calculatedprotonationenergies(AEp = EAmH+ - E,,,,,) from data of Table 19 Compounds Waterzz8 Ammoniazz8 Methylaminez2* E-Formamidine228 Z-Formamidine228 E-Acetamidine Z-Acetamidine

hartree:

kcal mol-':

kJmol-I: hartree: kcal mol-': kJ mol-':

hartree: kcal mol- ': kJmol-': hartree: kcal mol-l: kJ mol-': hartree: kcal molkJ mol - I: hartree: kcal mol-': kJmol-': hartree: kcal mol - I: kJmol-I:

STO-3G

3-2 1G

- 0.36249 - 227.47 -951.7 -0.41343 - 259.44 - 1085.5 - 0.42117 - 268.43 - 1123.1 - 0.45625 - 286.31 - 1197.9 - 0.45684 - 286.68 - 1123.1 - 0.47418 - 297.93 - 1246.5 - 0.47403 - 297.46 - 1244.6

- 0.30527 - 191.56 - 801.5 -0.36166 - 226.95 - 949.5 - 0.31168 - 237.00 -991.6 - 0.40574 - 254.61 - 1065.3 - 0.40667 - 255.19 -991.6 - 0.41 566 - 260.83 - 1091.3 - 0.41 573 - 260.88 - 1091.5

6-3 1G -0.27581"

- 173.08 - 124. I

-0.34641" -217.38 - 909.5 0.36366' 228.20 - 954.8 - 0.39927 - 250.55 - 1048.2 - 0.40224 - 252.4 I - 954.8 0.40976 -257.13 - 1075.8 0.4 1 102 - 251.92 - 1079.1 (continued)

-

-

-

81

1. General and theoretical TABLE 28. (continued)

STO-3G

Compounds E-Benzamidine twisted 2-Benzamidine twisted N'-Phenylformamidine planar N-Methylformamidines: AE(181 - 174)b

hartree: kcalmol-I: kJmol-I: hartree: kcal rnol- I: kJmol-I: hartree: kcal mol-I: kJ mol-I:

- 0.48449

- 304.03

- 1272.0 - 0.48370 - 303.53 - 1267.0 -0.46146 - 289.57 - 1211.6

hartree: kcalmol-': kJ mol-I: hartree: AE(180- 175)b kcal mol- I: kJ mol- I: hartree: AE(180 - 176)b kcal mol- I: kJmol-I: hartree: AE(181 177)b kcal mol- I : kJ mol-I: hartree: AE(180 - 178)' kcal mol- I: kJ mol-': hartree: AE(181 - 179)* kcal mol - I : kJ mol-I: Fluoro-substitutedformamidines: (18W hartree: kcal mol- I: kJmol-I: (183a) hartree: kcal mol-I: kJmol- I : (182b) hartree: kcalmol-I: kJ mol- I: (183b) hartree: kcal mol- I: kJ mol - I: (182c) hartree: kcal mol- ': kJ mol- ': ( 183c) hartree: kcal mol- I : kJmol-I: ( 1 W hartree: kcal mol-': kJ mol- ':

-

"6-31G' values from Reference 228. *Energy differences between thc protonatcd and unprotonated amidincs.

3-21G - 0.42016

- 263.66 - 1103.1 - 0.420 16 - 263.66 - 1103.1

- 0.40981 - 257.16 - 1076.0 - 0.41220 - 258.66 - 1082.2 -0.41436

- 260.02 - 1087.9

-0.41307

- 259.21 - 1084.5

- 0.41 539

- 260.67

- 1090.6

-0.41393 - 259.75 - 1086.8 - 0.34941 -219.26 -917.4 - 0.34385 - 215.77 - 902.8 -0.37814 - 237.29 - 992.8 -0.38516 -241.70 - 1011.2 - 0.38750 - 243. I6 - 1017.4 - 0.37948 -238.13 - 996.3 - 0.38305 - 240.37 - 1005.7

6-31G

- 0.41559 - 260.79 - 1091.1 - 0.4 I 680 - 261.55 - 1094.3

82

G. Hiifelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

The calculated gas-phase basicity of benzamidine is higher than that of acetamidine, in contrast to the experimental pK, values of Table 27 which are 12.4 for acetamidine and 11.6 for benzamidine in water solution. C. Mass Spectra

Mass spectra are mainly reported for various N-substituted f ~ r m a m i d i n e s ~ but ~O-~~~ 18 symmetrical amidines [R'-N=C(R)-NHR'] including formamidines, acetamidines, benzamidines and tert-butylamidines have been studied recently by Kilner and coworkers345.The fragmentation of all the molecular ions is characterized by skeletal

FIGURE 11. Mass spectrum of N,N'-diphenylformamidine, C6H,N=CH-NHC6H,, mol. wt. = 196. (Reproduced with permission from Reference 343)

1-*

HCN

66.8

1-*

HCN 459

SCHEME 22. Fragmentation pattern of N,N'-diphenylf~rmamidine~~~

83

1. General and theoretical

carbon-nitrogen bond cleavage to form [R'-N=CR] and [R'-NH] fragments, both of which are observed. For formamidines (R = H), the positive charge remains with fragment which leads, for R' = phenyl, to the base peak at m/z 93 the [R'-NH]' corresponding to [C6H,-NH,] ", In contrast, for acetamidines and benzamidines the charge prefers to remain on the [R'--N=CR]+ fragment which gives the base peaks for +

'""

I

100

m/z

FIGURE12. Mass spectrum of N,N'-diphenylacetamidine, mol. wt. = 210. (From Reference 345)

=C(CH,)-NHC,H,,

51fZO%I

+

200

C6H,N

64f1%1

SCHEME 23. Fragmentationpattern of N,N'-diphen~Iacelamidine~~~

65(4O/.)

84

G . Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

with m/z I18 and 180 for R = CH, the compounds corresponding to [C,H,-N=CR]+ and C6HS,respectively. The fragmentation pattern of N,N’-diphenyl derivatives of formamidine, acetamidine and benzamidine are summarized in Schemes 22 to 24 with the corresponding mass spectra shown in Figures 11 to 13. In all three cases the M +as well as the [M - I]’

m/z

FIGURE 13. Mass spectrum of N,N’-diphenylbenzamidine,

wt. = 272. (From Reference 345)

C6H5N=C(C6H5)-NHC6H,, mol.

SCHEME 24. Fragmentation pattern of N,N’-diphen~lbenzamidine~~~

1. General and theoretical

85

molecularions were observed with differentintensities. Many of the fragmentation routes shown in Schemes 22 to 24 are supported by the presence of metastable ion peaks as indicated. The spectra of unsubstituted amidines [HN=C(R)NH,] arecharacterizedby cleavage of the substituent at carbon from the NCN skeleton, [HN=CNH,]+ (m/z 43) being produced in all cases. occurs through the The fragmentation of N',N'-dimethyl-N2-phenylformamidine [M-11' peak which is due to loss of hydrogen at the ortho position leading to benzimidazolium as discussed explicitly in the first volume on this subject in this series259. D. Electronic Spectra

Ultraviolet absorption spectra of pro-substituted derivatives of benzamidine are reported by Nelson and coworkers346. The shift of absorption maxima due to p substituents correlates linearly with those of the corresponding benzoic acids. The dication of 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (210) binds specifically to doublestranded DNA with a concomitant increasein fluorescencequantum yield. The electronic properties in the UV-vis spectrum of 210 have been studied by means of lineardichroism, fluorescencepolarization anisotropy, circulardichroism and magnetic circular dichroism meas~rernents~~'.

VIII. MO THEORETICAL DESCRIPTIONS

This section will be based only on calculations for E- and Z-formamidine and for the corresponding formamidinium cation. A. Basis Set Dependence of MO Diagrams

In Table 29 MO orbital energies are given for STO-3G, 3-21G and 6-31G basis sets. Numerical values increasewith increasein basis sets. As usualfor M O functionsthe MOs are delocalized, containingcontributionsfrom all AOs of appropriate symmetry. Leading A 0 contributions(atomic orbitals coefficients > 0.3) are indicated in Table 29 and 6-31G values for valence orbitals are plotted in Figure 14. The three lowest MOs 1 to 3 refer to 1s core AOs on heavy atoms in the sequenceNH, > NH > C. MOs 4 to 6 are mainly 2s A 0 contributions of nitrogen and carbon (MO 6). The MOs 7 to 9 show leading 2p, and 2p, AOs contributions at nitrogen and carbon in combination with hydrogen 1s AOs. MOs 8 and 9 are mostly affected by the change in molecular geometry: in the E form they are very close together with only 0.013 hartree 6-31G difference, but in the Z form the separation is 0.115 hartree (6-31G). MOs 10, 12 and 13 are of pure n-symmetry (2pJ with the frontier orbitals, 12 being the HOMO and 13 the LUMO.The corresponding HOMO-LUMO gap, which may be related to molecular stability, is 0.559 for Eformamidine, 0.570 for Z-formamidine and 0.578 for formamidinium cation (6-3IG

86

G. Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske

TABLE 29. Basis set dependence of molecular orbitals (MO E ~ of ) E- and Z-formamidines and formamidiniumcation with leading atomic orbital contributions Compound

E- Formamidine (148)

gj

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11

HOMO-LUMO gap: Z-Formamidine (149)

Formamidiniumcation (150)

3-21G

IsNH, IsNH ISC 2s N,C 2s N 2s C,N 2pX,2p,, H ZP,, 2p,, H ZP,, ZP,, H 2p,:n1

- 15.3431 - 15.3094 - 11.1 I66 - 1.1892 - 1.0816 - 0.7578 -0.6615 - 0.5556 - 0.5425 - 0.4538 - 0.3560 - 0.3038 0.3 I00 0.6138

- 15.4768

NZ:n

2Pi 2p,:

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

IsNH, IsNH ISC 2s N , C 2s N 2s C,N 2pX,2p,, H ZP,. 2P,, H 2pX,ZP,, H 2p.q N
- 15.3430 - 15.2863 - 11.1 I96

Is N

- 15.6806 - 15.6805 - 11.4881

12 13 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10

HOMO-LUMO gap:

STO-3G

12 13

11

HOMO-LUMO gap:

Type

I1 12 13

R, R~

1s N

Is c 2s N,C 2s N 2s C,N 2P,, 2p,, ZP,, 2p, 2P,, 2P,, ZP,, 2p,, 2p; IL, 2p; 112 2p,: n3

H

H H H

- 1.1845 - 1.0721 - 0.7748 - 0.6504 - 0.6 I23 -0.5115 - 0.4666 - 0.3455 - 0.2843 0.3320 0.6138

- 1.5032 - 1.3901 - 1.0889 -0.9816 - 0.9369 - 0.8595 - 0.8072 - 0.7788 - 0.6072 -0.0019 0.6053

- 15.4312 - 1 1.2502 - 1.2484 - 1.1368 -0.8171 - 0.7379 - 0.6268 -0.6159 - 0.5202 - 0.3899 - 0.3440 0.2320 0.5760

6-31'2

- 15.5654 - 15.5245 - I 1.3206 - 1.2626 - 1.1476 - 0.8328 - 0.7494 - 0.6401 - 0.6271 - 0.5254 - 0.3980 -0.3518 0.2074 0.5592

- 15.4899 - 15.4360 - 11.2510 - 1.2532 - 1.1410 -0.8312 -0.7168 - 0.6882 - 0.5746 - 0.5251 - 0.3946 - 0.3527 0.2332 0.5760

- 15.5790 - 15.5289 - 11.3216 - 1.2678

15.7603 - 15.7602 - 11.5496 - 1.5495 - 1.4363 - 1.1222 - 1.0234 - 0.9851 - 0.8990 - 0.8340 - 0.8072 - 0.6454 - 0.0543 0.591 I

- 15.8362

-

- 1.1516 - 0.8464

- 0.7302 - 0.7007 - 0.5859 - 0.5307

-0.4017 - 0.3604 0.209 I 0.5695

- 15.8361 - 1.5496 - 1.4417 - 1.1325 - 1.0269 - 0.9891 -0.905 I - 0.8407 - 0.8049

- 11.6122

- 0.6466 - 0.0688 0.5778

values). MO 11 may be considered as a mainly lone pair MO on imino nitrogen with 2s, 2p, and 2p, A 0 contributions. This MO is mostly shifted (by 0.503 hartree in the 6-31G basis)in the changeto the MOs of the protonated formamidiniumcation. All other valence MOs in the cation are lowered by a nearly constant difference of - 0.286 hartree with respect to 2-formamidine.

81

1. General and theoretical

+

0.

1 3 A

0.

11-

"1

10-

9 -

n2

- 0.

- --1s

121 4 -

2P

2P

4

"1

10-

8I-

-2

121 1 10-

n

6-

"1

9-

98-

12112

5-

11% 10-

4-

8 7-

r6-

6 -

9 -

-1

8 -

7-

%

5-

5-

4-

4-

5-

- 1.

4-

H

C

N

Eformamidine

Zformamidinium ally1 anion

cation

FIGURE 14. 6-31G MO orbital energies ti (in hartree)

88

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

13

*3

0. 13

t

a

E

HOM(

-

0.

5-

-1.

Eformamidine

zformamidinium

allyl anion

cation

FIGURE 15. 6-31G MO orbital energies of formamidines and the allyl anion placed for comparison at the same HOMO energy

The similarity of the MO diagramsof formamidineswith the iso-electronicallyl anion is seen clearly in Figure 15, where the HOMOS of both molecules are placed for comparison at the same energy. B. Basis Set Dependence of Mulliken Charge Densities 1 . Total charges

In Table 30 Mulliken total charge densities (A4"' = Z-4'" with Z = atomic nuclear charge) for three basis sets are collected for formamidines in comparison to formimine,

89

1. General and theoretical TABLE 30. Basis set dependence of Mulliken total charge densities (Ay'"' = 2 - y'"') Compound

For miminr

E -Formamidine

H'

I

Nz&\NL

I H4

H'

I H2

2 - Formamidine

H3

I

Formomidinium cotion

H3

I

H5

I

HZ

Allyl onion

Atom

STO-3G

3-21G

6-31G

C N H' H2 H3

-0.0091 -0.2762 0.0734 0.0606 0.1514

-0.1104 -0.5802 0.2 163 0.1826 0.2918

-0.0919 -0.5312 0.1752 0.1471 0.3009

0.2005 -0.2826 0.2066 0.3345

0.1003 -0.7495 0.3617 0.4629

0.1330 -0.706 1 0.3 I23 0.4743

0. I803 -0.3514 -0.4264 0.1952 0.2065 0.06 I I 0. I346

0.4409 -0.9050 -0.7150 0.3421 0.4390 0.2033 0.2759

0.3507 -0.9022 -0.6572 0.3652 0.3837 0.1701 0.2897

0.1786 -0.4321 -0.3406 0. I997 0.1935 0.0764 0.1245

0.428 1 -0.9 137 -0.6991 0.3484 0.3402 0.2366 0.2595

0.3598 -0.9217 -0.6442 0.3682 0.3717 0.1923 0.2739

0.3414 -0.3551 0.3008 0.2885 0.1901

0.6628 -0.8762 0.4366 0.4228 0.3706

0.5874 -0.8528 0.4528 0.4435 0.3256

-0.0506 -0.3440 -0.062 1 -0.0554 -0.0265

-0.1488 -0.6202 0.0664 0.0767 0.1031

O.OOO5 -0.5747 0.0205 0.0323 0.0435

formiminium cation and ally1 anion. Numerical values of the 6-3 1 G basis set are mostly between those of the STO-3G and 3-21G basis sets, but closer to the latter. In formimine, a large negative total charge is accumulated on nitrogen which is about half-compensated by the positive chargeon N-H hydrogens. O n protonationat the iinino nitrogen this atom carries a negative charge of - 0.706, which is in contrast to the usual chemical notation in formula 185a, so that this system is better described by the mesomeric formula 185b. However, the positive charge is most effectively distributed onto the hydrogen atoms.

-

(185 a )

H

H

(lB5b)

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

90

In E- and Z-formamidine,negative total chargesarecalculatedfor both nitrogen atoms, with a larger value at the amino nitrogen N'. Positive chargesare found at carbon and in similar magnitude at hydrogens decreasing in the sequence: H2 > H' > H4 > HJ. (For numbering, see Table 30). Differences of charges between E- and Z-formamidine are relatively small ( < 0.02 hartree) and not characteristic.Again, on protonation, negative charge accumulateson both nitrogens and positive charge on carbon as indicated by the mesomeric structure 186c but most of the positive charge is transferredto the hydrogen atoms, as was observed for charged hydrocarbonsJ4*.

2. n-Electron charges

In Table 31 Mulliken n-electron charges (Aq"=Z"-q" with Z"=number of nelectrons)are given for our three basis sets. The numericalvalues increasewith increasein basis sete.,The sum of n-electronchargesadd in all cases to zero, indicating that in the 2nelectron systems (formimine and its cation) and in the 4n-electron systems (E- and Zformamidine,their cation and the ally1 anion) there is no resultant n-electron charge but only n-electron polarization. In the formamidiniumcation and ally1 anion we have an ambiguity in the description of the n-electron chargedistribution,which may be referred either to structure 186c, leading to Aq;= = - 0.6728 and Aq'& = 0.3364, or to the superposition of 186a and 186b, which places 1.5 n-electrons on the equivalent nitrogens and one n-electron on carbon with resultant values as given in Table 31. The n-electron charges in E- and Z-formamidine are rather similar. As described with resonance structures 211a and 21lb the imino nitrogen N2carries a partial negative WTABLE 31. Basis set dependence of Mulliken x-electron charge densities (Aqn = Z" - qy ~~

Compound

Atom

STO-3G

Formimine

C N C N C

0.0446 -0.0446 0.4247 -0.4247 0.0704 0.1415 -0.21 19 0.0728 0.I358 -0.2086 0.2960 ~ -0.1480 ~ 0.0678 -0.0339

Formiminium cation E-Formamidine

N' NZ

Z-Formamidine

C

N' NZ C

Formamidinium cation ~

AIIyl anion

C2

C'=C3

1

3-21G 0.0751

-0.0751

2

0.4475 -0.4475 0.1218 0.1651 -0.2869 0.I264 0. I566 -0.2830 0.3273 -0. I636 0.1071 -0.0536

6-31G 0.1190 -0.1 190 0.4849 -0.4849 0.I695 0.1525 -0.3220 0.1777 0.1402 -0.3 180 0.3139 -0.1 869 0.1225 -0.0612

1. General and theoretical

91

electron charge of - 0.20 to - 0.32 and the amino nitrogen N' shows a positive charge between 0.14 and 0.16 with about the same positive charge at carbon.

(211 b)

(2110)

TABLE 32. Basis set dependence of Mulliken total and n-electron overlap populations (p'" and p") Compound

Formimin.

Formiminium cation

-

E Formomidinr

n'

I

N2-NL

I

ti4

I

H*

I- Formomidinr

Formomidinivm calion H'

Ally1 anion

Bond

STO-3G

3-21G

6-31G

C=N C-H' C-H2 N-H3 p^:C=N

1.0410 0.7776 0.7702 0.6224 0.3722

1.0252 0.7510 0.7258 0.6416 0.4806

1.0430 0.7638 0.7684 0.6466 0.4884

C=N C-H'; C-H2 N-H3; N-H4 p":C=N

1.0196 0.7636 0.6836 0.3200

0.6784 0.7238 0.6326 0.3968

0.6820 0.7648 0.6262 0.3854

C-N1 C=N2 N'-H' N'-H2 N2-H4 C-H3 p": C-N' p": C=N2

0.7792 1.0152 0.7242 0.7 170 0.6322 0.7672 0.0746 0.3420

0.7074 1.0266 0.68 18 0.6552 0.6552 0.7356 0.0674 0.4444

0.2538 1.2056 0.6668 0.6334 0.6678 0.8072 0.0322 0.4616

C-N1 C=N2 N'-H' N'-H2 N2-H4 C-H3 p": C-N' p": C-N2

0.7630 1.0195 0.7213 0.7276 0.6192 0.7778 0.0720 0.3442

0.3748 1.1652 0.6684 0.67 I0 0.6498 0.7668 0.0644 0.4454

0.2560 1.2398 0.6516 0.6474 0.6600 0.8016 0.0282 0.46 16

C-N N'-H' N'-H2 C-H3 p": C-N

0.9342 0.7074 0.7014 0.9408 0.2108

0.7014 0.6528 0.6524 0.7364 0.2564

0.7 124 0.6436 0.6456 0.77 18 0.2470

C'=C2 C1-H' C'-H2 C2-H3 p": C'-C2

I .0602 0.7874 0.7824 0.7540 0.2390

0.9952 0.8002 0.8048 0.7758 0.3052

1.1023 0.7674 0.7840 0.7538 0.3044

92

G. Hafelingerand F. K. H. Kuske

C. Basis Set Dependence of Mulliken Overlap Populations

In Table 32 Mulliken total and a-electron overlap populations are shown for STO-3G, 3-21G and 6-31G basis sets. (The values given in Table 32 are two times the printout values, because in the program only half of the overlap populations are calculated.) Numerical values show no regularbasis set dependent trends, thereforethe discussion will be based on 6-316 values. The total overlap population of the unconjugated C=N bond in formimine is 1.043, which is lowered to 0.682 in the corresponding cation. Surprisingly, in E- and Zformamidine this value is increased to 1.206 and 1.240. Protonation again reduces this parameter to 0.712. The C-N single bond shows a total overlap population of 0.254 and 0.256 for E- and Z-formamidine. Bonds between carbon and hydrogen have overlap populations between 0.76 and 0.80.Those between nitrogen and hydrogen are in the range of 0.63 and 0.66 with the largest value for the imino NZ-H4 bond. The n-electron overlap populations are closer to chemical intuition:the value of 0.4884 for the unconjugated C=N bond in formimine reduces to 0.385 on protonation and to 0.462 in the conjugated n-system of the E- and Z-formamidine which, in turn,is reduced to 0.247 on protonation. With 0.032 and 0.028 the n-electron overlap for the C-N1 single bond is rather small. Linearleast-squarescorrelations for 6-3 1G calculateddistances with either p'"' or p" for 7 values ofTable 32 lead to results shown in equation 23 and 24. Statistically the regression with p" is highly significant and satisfactory. dCN= - 0.102.p'O' + 1.379 (23)

R = 0.909; sd = 0.021

dcN = - 0.227.~" + 1.369

(24)

R = 0.991; sd = 0.007 IX. REFERENCES 1. R. L. Shriner and F. W. Neumann, Chem. Reu., 35, 351 (1944). 2. S. Patai (Ed.), The Chemistry o j Amidines and Imidates, Interscience, London, 1975. 3. V. G . Granik, Russ. Chem. Rev., 52, 377 (1983); Usp. Khim., 52, 669 (1983). 4. S. Patai (Ed.), The Chemistry ojCarhoxylic Acids and Esters, Wiley-Interscience, London, 1969. 5. J. Zabicky (Ed.), The Chemistry of Amides, Wiley-Interscience, London, 1970. 6. S. Patai (Ed.),Supplement B. The Chemistry ofAcid Deriuariues, Wiley-Interscience, Chichester, 1979. 7. S. Patai (Ed.), The Chemistry of Acyl Halides, Wiley-lnterscience, London, 1972. 8. R. Meckc and W. Kutzelnigg, Spectrum. Acta, 16, 1216 (1960). 9. H. Gonqlves and A. Secches, Bull. SOC.Chim. Fr., 2589 (1970). 10. Z. B. Kiro, Yu. A. Teterin, L. N. Nikolenko and B. I. Stepanov, Zk. Org. Khini., 8,2573 (1972); Chem. Abstr., 78, 152102 (1973). 11. P. Gund, J . Chem. Educ., 49, 100 (1972). 12. J. Klein, Tetrahedron, 39, 2733 (1983). 13. D. Wilhelm, H. Dietrich, T. Clark, W. Mahdi, A. J. Kos and P. von R. Schleyer, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 106, 7279 (1984). 14. A. Kotera, T. Morita, S. Aoyagi, Y. Kakiuchi, S. Nagakura and K. Kume, Nippon Kayaku Zassi, 82, 302 (1961); Chem. Abstr., 55, 15128e (1961). 15. A. Hantsch, Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges., 63, 1782 (1930). 16. M. E. Runner, M. L. Kilpatrick and E. C. Wagner, J . Am. Chem. Soc., 69, 1406 (1947). 17. F. J. Lahoz, A. Tiripicchio, M. Tiripicchio-Camellini, L. A. Oro and M. T. Pinilos, J . Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans., 1487 (1985). 18. (a) J. Barker, N. Cameron, M. Kilner, M . M. Mahoud and S. C. Wallwork, J . Chem. Soc., Daltori Trans., 1359 (1986).

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H.-H. Limbach, H. Rumpel, L. Meschede, B. Wehrle, M. Schmalhachand G. Scherer,J. Mol. Struct., 177, 143 (1988). L. Meschede, D. Gerritzen and H.-H. Limbach, Ber. Bunsenyes. Phys. Chem., 92, 469 (1988). P. Svensson, N.-A. Bergman and P. Ahlberg, Z. Naturforsch., 44A, 473 (1989). R. B. Woodward and R. Hofmann, Anyew. Chem., 81,797 (1969). I. Shavitt, The Method of Conjiguration Interaction, in Modern Theoretical Chemistry. Vol. 3. Methods oJElectronic Structure Theory(Ed. H. F.SchaeferIll), Plenum Press,New York, 1977, pp. 189-275. C. Moller and M.S. Plesset, Phys. Rev., 46, 618 (1934). C. Pipnet and H. Lumbroso, Bull. Soc. Chim. Fr., 3743 (1972). H. Lumbroso,C. Pigenet, H. RosswagandG. Schwenker,C.R. Acad.Sci. Paris.Ser. C,266,1479 (I 968). H. Lumbroso and G. Pifferi, Bull. Soc. Chim. Fr., 3401 (1972). 0. Exner and Z . Papouikovl, Collect. Czech. Chem. Commun., 45,2410 (1980). 0. Exner and K. Waisser, Collect. Czech. Chem. Commun., 47, 828 (1982). B. PIesniEarand 0. Exner, Collect. Czech. Chem. Commun., 46,490 (1981). 0. A. Osipov, A. M. Simonov, V. 1. Minkin and A. D. Garnovskii, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSR, 137, 1374 (1961); Chem. Ahstr., 55, 24173f (1961). J. Oszczapowicz and E. Raczynska, Polish J. Chem., 57, 419 (1983). J. Oszczapowicz, E. Raczynska and T. Pawlik, Polish J . Chem., 58, 117 (1984). J. SevEik and F. Grambal, in The Chemistry OfAmidincs and Imidtites (Ed. S. Patai), Chap. 12, Wiley-Interscience London, 1975, p. 565. J. Oszczapowicz and R. Orlihski, Polish J. Chem., 54, 1901 (1981). J. Oszczapowicz and E. Raczynska, J . Chern. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2, 1643 (1984). E. Raczyhska, J. Oszczapowicz and M. Wojtkowska, Polish J . Cheai., 59, 945 (1985). J. Oszczapowicz, W. Krawczyk, J. Osek and E. Raczynska, Polish J. Chem., 60, 157 (1986). J. Oszczapowin and K. Ciszkowski, J. Chem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. 2,663 (1987). J. Oszczapowin and W. Krawnyk, J. Chem. SOC.. Perkin Trans. 2, 21 (1989). J. Oszczapowicz and J. Osek, Polish J. Chern., 57, 93 (1983). J. Oszczapowicz, R. Orlinski and H. Walczynska, Polish J. Chem., 53, 2531 (1979). J. Oszczapowicz, J. Osek and R. Orlinski, Polish J. Chem., 54, 1191 (1980). 1. Oszczapowicz, E. Raczynska and R. Orlinski, Polish J. Chem., 55, 2031 (1981). E. Raczyhska, J. Oszczapowicz and M. Walczak, J. Chem. SOC.,Perkin Trans. 2, 1087 (1985). J. Oszczapowicz, E. Raczynska and I. Barecka, Polish J . Chem., 59,387 (1985). B. Fernandez, 1. Perillo and S. Lamdan, J. Chem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. 2, 1371 (1973). B. Fernandez, I. Perillo and S. Lamdan, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2, 1416 (1974). B. Fernandez, 1. Perillo and S. Lamdan, J. Chem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. 2, 2068 (1977). R. P. Bell, The Proton in Chemistry, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 1959, p. 65. H. S. Herned and B. B. Owen, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 52, 5079 (1930). A. Gero and J. J. Markham, J. Org. Chem., 16, 1835 (1951). N. F. Hall and M. R. Sprinkle, J. Am. Chern. Soc., 54, 3469 (1932). J. Oszczapowicz, R. Orlinski and E. Hejchnian, Polish J . Chem., 53, 1259 (1979). G. Schwarzenbach and K. Lutz, Helu. Chini. Acta, 23, 1162 (1940). A. Albert, G. Goldacre and J. Philips, J. Cliem. Soc., 2240 (1948). J. N. Baxter and J. Cymerman-Craig, J. Chem. Soc., 1490 (1953). J. Goerdeler, D. Krause-Loevenich and B. Wedekind, Chem. Ber., 90, 1638 (1957). E. L o n and R. Baltzly, J . Am. Chem. SOC.,71, 3992 (1949). A. Albert, R. Goldacre and J. Phillips, J. Chem. SOC., 2240 (1948). J. F. Coetzee and G. R. Padmanabhan,J . Am. Chem. Soc., 87, 5005 (1965). K. G. Flynn and D. R. Ncnortas, J. Ory. Chem., 28, 3527 (1963). R. Schwesinger, Chimia, 39,269 (1985); R. Schwesinger and H. Schlemper, Angew. Chem., 99, 1212 (1987). R. Schwesinger,Nachr. Chem. Tech. Lab., 38, 1214 (1990). J. E. Del Bene, J . Comput. Chem., 5, 381 (1984). A. K. Bose, I. Kugajevsky, P. T. Funke and K. G. Das, Tetrahedron Lett., 3065 (1965). H. F. Griitzmacher and H. Kuschel, Org. Mass. Spectrom., 3, 605 (1970).

100 342. 343. 344. 345. 346. 347. 348.

G. Hafelinger and F. K. H. Kuske H. Kuschel and H. F. Grutzmacher, Org. Mass. Spectrom., 9, 395,403,408 (1974) N. G. Keats, J. E. Rockley and L. A. Summers, 2. NaturSorsck., 32b, 1156 (1977). A. A. H. Saced and S. A. Selman, Can. .I. Spectrosc., 27, 123 (1982). J. Barker, M. Jones and M. Kilner, Org. Mass. Spectrorn., 20, 619 (1985). E. Rogrnan, D. L. Nelson and M. Mares-Guia, J . Am. Chem. SOC.,97, 6844 (1975). M. Kubista, B. Akerman and B. Albinson, J . Am. Chem. SOC., 111, 7031 (1989). G. Hafelinger, Properties of Hydrogen as u Substituent in Planar Organic d y s t e m s in Similarity Models in Organic Chemistry (Eds. T. M . Krygowski, J. Shorter and R. Zalewski), Elsevier, Amsterdam (in print).

CHAPTER

2

Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems TADEUSZ MAREK KRYGOWSKI and KRZYSZTOF WOtNlAK Department of Chemistry, The University of Warsaw, 02-093 Warszawa, ul. Pasieura 1 , Poland

I. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. ANALYSIS OF AMlDlNE AND AMlDlNlUM CATION DERIVATIVES (3 + 3' GROUP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Planarity of theNC(X)N Skeleton in Amidine Derivatives and their Salts B. Substituent Effects on Structural Parameters of the Amidine Skeleton. C. Principal Component Analysis Applied to CN(s), CN(I), CX3, a, P and y D. Analysis of the Mean Values of the StructuralParametersin the Amidine Skeleton Affected by Substituent Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Analysis of Interrelations Between Structural Parameters in Amidine Derivatives with Varying X 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Group with X3 = N (guanidine derivatives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Groups with X3 = C . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Group with X3 = O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Group with X3 = S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Groups with X3 = C1 and P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. Analysis of Other Subsamples Selected from the (3+ 3') Group. . . . . 1. Analysis of amidine derivatives with R', R2 and R3 unrestricted . . 2. Analysis of systems with X' = X 2 = X4 = H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Analysis of systems with X3 = H (formamidine derivatives) . . . . . 4. Analysis of systems with X4 # H and X I or X2 = H . . . . . , , , . . 5. Analysis of amidine and amidinium derivatives substituted at imine nitrogen and functional carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Analysis of amidine and amidinium derivatives substituted a t amine nitrogen.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111. ANALYSIS OF AMIDINIUM SALT DERIVATIVES (3' GROUP) . . . A. Analysis ofthe Subgroupwith R,' R2, R4 and R5 Unrestricted but X3 = C. . B. Analysis ofthe Subgroupwith R', R2, R4 and R5 Unrestricted but X3 = N . C. Analysis of Subgroups with R ' = R2 = R4 = R5 = H and either X3 = C or X 3 = N , . . . . . . . . , , .. . . . . .. . . . , . , . , , . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . , , . . . . The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates, Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and Z. Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons Lid

101

102 106 107 110 110 111 116 116 117 118 119 119 120 120 120 122 124 124 128 129 131 131 131

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T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

IV. ANALYSIS OF SUBGROUPS OF AMIDINE DERIVATIVES. . . . . . A. StructuralComparison of the Mean Geometries of NC(X)N Skeletons in Amidine and Amidinium Salt Derivatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘V. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF IMIDATE DERIVATIVES. . . . . . . . A. AnalysisofSubsam,pleswith either R ’ and R 3 or R 3 and R4 Unrestricted . VI. ANALYSIS OF IMIDINE DERIVATIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII. GENERAL REMARKS AND FINAL CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . A. Planarity of the NC(X)N and NC(X)O Skeletons . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Equalization of NC Bond Lengths in the NCN Fragment. . . . . . . . c. Sequence of the Variation of Structural Parameters Analyzed along Main Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Variation of the Angle p and the Problem of the Configuration of Amidine Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................ IX. REFERENCES ...................................................

131 134 135 135 138 139 139 139 143 144 144 144

ABBREVIATIONS

hydrogen bond accepting atom in B-H... A complex longer of the two CN bonds shorter of the two CN bonds Cambridge Structural Database estimated standard deviation structural parameters correlation coefficient sum of all valence angles deviation of the central C atom from the N’N’X plane estimated standard deviation the first atom of the group R’ the first atom of the group R3 attached to the carbon atom of the amidine skeleton. 1. INTRODUCTION

The structure of a molecule may be interpreted either as the electron structure or as the geometrical structure of the chemical species in question. These two meanings of the molecular structureare interrelated by the quantumchemical approach which gives both ofthem as a final result.In this chapter we take into account only the geometrical meaning of the molecular structure.The main sources of structuraldata are the X-ray diffraction technique and, to a much lesser degree, the neutron- and electron-diffractiontechniques, and finally the microwave measurements. In the case of complex organic systems X-ray techniquesare used to obtain most, perhaps95% or more, of the geometrical information. Hence, the experimental geometries presented in this chapter originate from such measurementsand they were retrieved from the Cambridge StructuralDatabase’ (CSD) by July 1989. The geometry of a molecule is usually defined by means of bond lengths,bond or valence angles,torsional anglesand dihedral angles.Only in some exceptional situationsare other terms used. Often, some of the already-mentioned concepts are used in a complex way, such as in linear combinations or the like. The above-mentioned geometrical (or structural) parameters differ by their resistance to forces which tend to deform the molecules. It is usually a c ~ e p t e d ”that ~ the force needed for deformation of bonds by

2. Structuralchemistry of amidines and related systems

103

stretching is one order of magnitude largerthan that requiredfor (in-plane)deformation of the bond angle. Torsion deformation is again one order of magnitude less costly energeticallythan the latter. A similar situation occurs in the case of out-of-plane bending deformations. Hence it is often decided3 to discuss changes in the molecular geometry separately for the case of bond lengths and bond angles,which are called hard structural parameters, and for torsional angles and dihedral angles, which are referred to as soft structural parameters. Hydrogen bonds and interatomic distances in EDA complexes belong also to the soft structuralparameters. The hard parameters may often be used as indicatorsof intramolecularinteractions between various parts of molecules, whereas the soft parameters have been mainly used to study the flexibility of molecularconformations. Hard parameters are supposed4 to be hardly deformed by intermolecular interactions, particularly in rigid molecular systems (aromatic rings and polycyclic aromatics), but recently this point of view has often been c r i t i c i ~ e d ~ Nevertheless, ~~. in the cnse of structuralparameters which are averaged values over sets of many molecularsystems the concepts of Kitajgorod~ki~ are still valid. Individual structuralparameters may be studied as dependent on intermolecular interactions due to the crystal lattice forces. The amidine moiety 1 may be either included in cyclic systems, as e.g. 2, or may exist in acyclic molecules of the general form 3.

-N&C

(3,

I \

N N-

R3

I

R4- N2= C

J-

I

\

N1- R2

I

R'

(3) R2

I

R4- N2- C

I

R3-N=C

I

R' R2

I

R4

I

SCHEME 1

I

\

OR'

T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

104

Since systems like 2 are mostly treated as amines, they are not taken into account here. In this chapter only derivatives of 3, their cationic forms (amidinium salts) 3’ and additionally imidates 4 and imidines 5 are taken into consideration. Guanidinesin which R3 is NR’R”, and their salts are treated within groups 3 and 3’(althoughfor some purposes these two subgroups are treated separately). Table 1 gives the numbers of crystal and molecular structures which belong to these three (four) groups solved by X-ray diffraction and neutron diffraction techniques retrieved from CSD’. The data in CSD are divided, into groups according to their precision described by the AS designation. For AS = 1 the mean value of the estimated standard deviation, hereafterabbreviated as esd or 0, for all bond lengths between nonhydrogen atoms is in the range0.00l-0.oO5 A. The group indicated as AS> 2 corresponds to all less precise geometries,whereas those with unknownprecision are denoted as AS = 0. Some 15 years ago Hafelinger6reviewed the generaland theoretical aspects of amidines. That review dealt with the quantum chemicalapproach and with the structuralchemistry obtained mostly from X-ray diffraction studies, as well as with various physicochemical properties considered from the structural point of view. Since that time, in all those directions significant developments occurred and hence these fields of research are updated in the present chapter, without repeating what has already been written in the previous review6,presentinghere an extensionand continuationof the former work. In the last two decades an enormous volume of structuralinformationhas been published chiefly due to the development of computer techniques and of the theoretical basis for solving crystal and molecular structures by X-ray diffraction. Since so much information is available, statistical methods must be used to draw reasonable conclusions from these data, lest the review be transformed into something like a telephone directory. We use the statistical approach to describe the most important structuralpatterns of the amidine and imidate moieties in the compounds in question. Moreover, in order to obtain more precise and reliably averaged information on structural parameters, further partitioning into smaller,more homogeneous groups has been carried out in this chapter. Although we try to supplement our elaboration with short notes about statistical techniques applied, for those who are either ignorantofstatistics or who wish to understand deeper the statistical tools used, two references may be recommended’**. The material considered in this chapter, as mentioned above, consists of three main groups: amidine derivatives and their salts assigned as 3 and 3’, respectively; imidate derivatives referredto as 4, and imidine derivatives named 5. All these groups are shown in Scheme 1, with possible substituents attached to all allowed sites. The first atoms of the

TABLE 1. Number of compounds retrieved from the Cambridge Structural Database by July 1989 and presented in Scheme 1

Group of

compounds

Number of compounds

3 3’ 4

5 3 with X = N“ 3 with X = N“

342 234

19 13 197 146

“X is the first atom of the R3 group, is. the one linked

directly to the functional carbon atom.

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

105

/

CNId

x (first atom of the group R3) I

R' FIGURE1. Schemeof labellingfor amidine derivatives (group 3). In the case of amidinium cation derivatives (group 3') the fifth substituent RS is attached at nitrogen atom

NZ

substituents R'-R5 are assigned as X'-X5, respectively. The three main groups o! compounds, 3 + 3 , 4 and 5, are first treated as three independent samples and then divided into smaller subsamples. Within each of these three samples, and then within the many subsamples, statistical analyses of structural parameters are carried out, including the lengths of those bonds which, in Scheme 1, are drawn in bold lines, and all bond angles between those bonds. Additionally, the planarity of the main skeleton is analyzed. For the structuralparameters, which for amidine derivatives are presented in detail and assigned in Figure 1, the tables give the number of data points in the subsample, n, the mean value for the structuralparameter, its variance (var) and estimated standard deviation (esd), as well as both the minimal and maximal values of the parameter within a given sample or subsample. -Apart from the presentation of the data, an analysis of the relationship between various structuralparameters is also carried out. The resultsof these analyses are described in this chapter if they are chemically informative. Since this analysis is often not conclusive in a chemically reasonableway, it is usuallynot discussed in detail. This procedureis applied to all main groups (3+ 3', 4 and 5) and also to those subgroups which are chemically important and sufficiently numerous. The division of the subgroups is as follows. As a principle of this division we select one of the bonds between the skeleton of the functional group of (3+3'), 4 or 5 and one of the possible substituentsR' through R4 for 3, R' through R3 (for 4) and R' through R S (for 3 and 5). We can distinguish between various bonds according to the natureof X', i.e. the atom linking the substituent to the functionalgroup. Then we can select subsamplesaccordingto the nature of Xi, say X i = C,N,H,O,S, etc., until we explore all reasonable possibilities. This procedure may only be used for cases where the subsamplesaresufliciently numerous,since otherwise the statistical conclusionswould not be reliable enough. To illustrate the method let us consider subsample 3, i.e. amidine derivatives. We select compounds in which X3= const, e.g. X3 = H. Thus we obtain the X3 subsample which contains formamidine derivatives:

H

I

I

R'

106

T. M. Krygowski and K. Wozniak

In this subsample R1, R2 and R4 are unrestrictedand may be any substituent.If we choose next X3 = C, we obtain anotherX subsample whose structure may be represented by the general formula:

C’‘

I I

I

R’ In this subsample there are included acetamidines, benzamidines and all derivatives of amidines in which the first atom of R3, i.e. X3, is a carbon atom, X3 = C, independently of what is attached further to this carbon and what substituents are represented by R1, R2 and R4. Next we can put X3 = N,S,O, etc., obtaining subsets in which the differentiating featureis the differencein the C-X3 bond. Within these subsets with C-X3 equal to CH, CC, CN.. .. statistical analysis is carried out. The same can be done for X’, Xz and X4 giving for amidine subsample 3 four possible ways of division. In addition, more complex substitutions may be taken into account as well. These problems will be dealt within more detail during the analysis of particular subsamples. While considering the main skeleton in 3, 3, 4 and 5 some common problems arise. First of all, from the formal point of view the functional carbon atom should be sp2hybridized due to the double bond between the C and N2 atoms and hence the NC(X)N skeleton should be planar. This means that both nitrogen atoms N’ and N2, the carbon atom and the X atom linked to the latter should lie in the plane at least in nonionic derivatives of 3,4 and 5. Figure 1 illustratesthe labellingused for amidine derivatives and designates the structural parameters considered in the chapter. Similar schematic structures are then given for other main groups (3, 4 and 5). Throughout this chapter, unless stated otherwise,X is always the first atom of group R3. Opposite to the C-X bond is situated always the bond angle8. The shorterof the two CN bonds is labelled CN(s),and the longer one CN(I). The bond angle opposite to CN(s) is always designated y and that opposite to CN(I) is always designated u. Other problems while consideringvariously substituted amidines 3 and their salts 3 are to what extent the structuralparameters of the amidineskeleton depend upon one another and how they are influenced by substituent effects. Both these problems will be treated before any more detailed analysis.Similar problems arise for compounds of groups 4 and 5, but since these groups are much less numerous(cf. Table 1) statistical conclusionswhich may be drawn for them are much less significant.Nevertheless, when justified, these data will also be taken into consideration.It must be remembered that throughout the chapter most often the mean geometry parameters are considered and the data for classes or subclassesare averaged values, except in cases when individual compounds are shown as examples for important structural patterns. II. ANALYSIS OF AMlDlNE AND AMlDlNlUM CATION DERIVATIVES (3

+ 3’ GROUP)

Before presenting a more detailed analysis of structural parameters of the subgroups included in groups (3 + 3)we give the results of the analysis for the whole group (3 3) and make some methodological remarks. We should be aware of the fact that the really fixed part of the NC (X)N skeleton is only the amidine moiety NCN. The CX bond varies

+

2. Structuralchemistry of amidines and related systems

107

more, but due to its key importance for the NCN group it is regarded as an important part of the skeleton under study. A. Planarity of the NC(X)N Skeleton in Amidine Derlvatlves and their Salts

For a long time the NC(X)N skeleton has been regarded as being planar6.In order to check this hypothesis we have retrieved from the Cambridge Structural Database the whole sample consisting of 576 compounds included in the generalstructures3 and 3' with subsamples in which R3 was N R R (343 compounds), CR'RR"' (146 compounds), SR (53 species), P R R R (8 compounds)and OR (11 compounds).Thw subsamplesare labelled throughoutthis chapter 3(CN), 3(CC), 3(CS), 3(CP) and 3(CO), indicatingin parentheses the kind of bond between the carbonatom of the amidine group and the X atom of group R3 (Scheme 1 and Figure 2); the numeral 3 represents the numeral which defines the substituent in question, R3 in this case. If salts are considered, these labels are marked by primes; e.g. 3(CN)' means a guanidinium salt [N(R1R2)C(R3)N(R4R5)]+Anion-. The three atoms N', N2 and X define a plane as shown in Figure 2. In the special case when the NC(X)N is planar,the deviation A ofthe central C atom from the plane N1N2Xis equal to zero (A = 0) and the sum of all valence angles,SA, at the central C atom is equal to 360"(SA = a + f l + y = 360").Thus, for the whole group we have estimated mean values of A and SA and found them equal to: = 0.019 with the sample variance 7.9 x 10-4%12 and ==359.83" with the sample variance 1.1702. In order to check the hypothesis regarding the planarity of the N'N'XC skeleton we have to test two null hypotheses:

H:, and H,:

-

A1=O, against HI: 8'>0, -

SA' = 360°, against H I : SA' c 360".

H I standsfor the alternative hypothesis which we accept after rejectingthe null hypothesis at a given significancelevel. The superscript t stands for the true value of a parameter, i.e. either A or SA for the whole population. We cannot study the whole population of all possible amidine and amidinium cation derivatives (3and 3') but only those for which the molecularstructure has been determined, i.e. our groups with 576 entries. Even so, we try to draw conclusions about the whole population of amidine and amidinium cation derivatives by studying only this available sample group. That is why we have to apply tests for checking the above-mentioned hypotheses instead of directly by comparingA or SA values with O A and 360°, respectively. (Fordetails of applying statistics in structural studies cf. Reference8.) Applying Student's t test at the significancelevel a = 0.05, both hypotheses must be rejected. This means that, with the probability of error in 5% of the cases, we can accept an alternative hypothesis that the NC(X)N skeleton in 3 and 3 is not planar. To show how frequently those nocplanar skeletons occur in comparison with those which are planar, Figures 3 and 4 show histograms of A and SA distributions for all structuraldata. It is worth mentioning that when applying statistical methods to obtain reliablescientificconclusions,there is a need to use as many data ofthe highest precisionas possible*. If, however, we wish to recognizethe natureof the distribution,it is better to use all possible data excluding only those which are methodologically incorrect. In Figures3

FIGURE2. Definition of the N'XN* plane with the functional carbon atom deviating from the plane by the distance A

108

T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

Jw-a15

A(& FIGURE 3. Frequency histogram of A for the (3 + 3)group(i.e.amidine and amidinium cation derivatives) for all data irrespective of precision

359.5

3596.

3597

359.8

359.9

MI0

m 1 SA (70)

FIGURE4. Frequency histogram of SA for the (3 + 3 ) group; cf. Figure 3

and 4 we can observe distributions which are similar to the normal one (Gauss-type distribution). This may be easily checked by using proper statistical tests. We can summarize that nonplanarity of the NC(X)N skeleton in amidine and amidinium salt derivatives is very slight, but statistically significant, and at least in some particularcases it should be taken into account while analyzing chemical or physicochemical (spectral !) properties of these systems. From the histograms (Figures 3 and 4) it is apparentthat A is a more sensitive parameter in describing nonplanarity than SA and in the following analyses only A will be taken into consideration. When we consider the dependence of the planarity of the NC(X)N group on the natureof R3 we find that for all but one (X = C1) subsamples mentioned a t the beginning of this section, the hypothesis of planarity can be rejected a t a = 0.05.This means that accepting the alternativehypothesis H, that the NC(X)N skeleton is not planar, we are in error in 5% or less cases. However, when we compare Ai values of subsamples i with the mean nonplanarity parameter of>he generalsample, A, we can see that only one of the Ai values is significantly greater than A of

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

109

TABLE 2. Mean values of nonplanarityparametersA and SA and their significancesat u = 0.05 for

various groups of amidine and amidiniumcation derivatives"

A (A)

R Total

CP CCI

0.019 0.019 0.018 0.014 0.047 0.011

3 3' 4 5

0.023 0.014 0.016 0.013

CN

cc co cs

"The

-

Significance of deformation

SA (deg)

+ + + + + + + + + +

0.016

359.83 359.78 359.84 359.94 359.63 359.95 360.06 359.11 359.94 359.92 359.95

Significance

of deformation

+

+

-

+

-

+ sign indicates a significant deformation from planarity.

the general sample. This takes place particularly for X = P. With R3 representing in this case P R R R / A . It is seen more clearly by looking at the data of Table 2, where apart from the mean values of A and SA there are given also the results of testing the null hypotheses H,: & = 0 or = 0 (i enumerates the group o r subgroups) at the significance level a = 0.05. When the + sign appearsin the "significance"column, we can reject H, and accept H I , i.e. the nonplanarity of the NC(X)N skeleton. As we can see A is more sensitive than SA. A significantly larger value of hi for the subsample with R3 = PR'R"R"'and a still larger value of Ai for SR may be interpreted in a very simple way. In both these cases X (i.e. P o r S) belong to the third period of the Periodic Table and their covalent radii are greater than those of atoms of the second period, i.e. C, N and 0. The values are 1.04 A and l.lOA for sulfur and phosphorus,respectively, while for oxygen, carbonand nitrogen they vary from 0.66 A to 0.77 A. The elongation of the CX bond for the derivatives of S and P gives the effect on A, as presented in Figure 5. For a very strong deformation from planarity it may be expected that rather strong intermolecular interactions must occur. Let us consider as a n example the crystal and molecular structure of guanidinium tricarbonatotrifluor~thorate(IV)~ for which A = 0.274A. All five guanidinium units of this system are involved in strong interactions with negatively charged oxygen atoms (of the carbonateanions), or fluoride anions. We e with the shortest should be aware that all of them are N-H ~ . . A - ~ - t y pinteractions contacts N-H...O-' ranging from 2.79b; and N - H . . . F - 6 ranging from 2.70A. So shortcontacts may imply ratherstrongN-H A-d interactionswhich in turn may affect

a,

e .

N

N

X'

FIGURE5. Comparisonof NCN planes for mean geometriesof (3+ 3') groupsfor the case of X from the second,and X' from the third row of the PeriodicTable(e.g. X and X may be consideredas C and P atoms, respectively)

110

T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

the planarity of the NC(X)N system. No deeper analysis on the energy of interactions may be given here since in the structure determinations of guanidinium tricarbonatrotrifluor~thorate(IV)~ the final results were given with very low precision and without giving the positions of the hydrogen atoms. Comparison of the above-mentioned N--H...A-' contacts with standard H-bonding systems with the same constituents suggests relatively strong H-bond interactions. It should be mentioned that the out-of-plane deformations of the NC(X)N skeleton cannot be observed in cases when the deformation forces give a resultant force close to zero. Nevertheless, it should be stressed that if in any individual case A > 30 for a given sample or subsample (the values of cr( = esd) are given in the tables of this chapter),one should consider the possibility of relatively strong interactions in the crystal lattice. Very low force constant^'.^ for out-of-plane deformations should also be taken into consideration. In general,it can be concluded that for individual cases or for smallersubsamples as well as for subsamples 3 or 3 we should always be aware of the fact that the amidine skeleton may be slightly but significantly deformed from planarity. 9. Substituent Effects on Structural Parameters of the Amidine Skeleton

When six structural parameters of the amidine group, CN(s), CN(I), CX (if, in the assignment CX, there is no superscript it means that we deal with CX3) and a,p,y, are exposed to substituent effects which can come from various substituents, R,' R2, R3, R4 and even RS, one may expect a very complex picture. And indeed it is so, since not only various electronic substituent effects may act, but also direct steric effects of bulky substituentsin too close a neighborhood may affect the geometry of the amidine skeleton. In order to simplify the situation we apply first the principal component analysis to the set of six structuralparametersof the sample built up of 576 species retrieved from the CSD. C. Prlncipal Component Analysis Applied to CN(s), CN(I), CX', a,

fl and y

When many factors operating in a quantitatively unknown way affect the experimental data, it is convenient to use the principal component analysis'0. This method relies on a simple mathematical procedure which reduces the multidimensionalspace built up upon not necessarily independent vectors, into the lowest number of linearly independent orthogonal vectors which reproduce the initial data set with the required precision. For details of this technique and for its particularapplication in chemistry, see reference 10. When this technique was applied to the full data matrix with structuralparametersCN(s), CN(l), CX, a, fi and y retrieved for 576 amidines of the groups 3 and 3,the results shown in Table 3 were obtained. This table contains a number of factors (or components) with their weights, i.e. percent of explanationof the total variance of the structuralparameters analyzed. In order to understandbetter the information obtained by using principal component analysislet us recall what variance means. each set of numericaldata xl, x2,. ..,x, may be characterized by the mean value:

however, may be differentiated.A numericaldescription of The dispersion of xi around i, this dispersion is given by the variance: var(x) =

"1 i=l

(x - xi)'/(n - 1)

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

111

TABLE3. Factorsneeded to reproducethe total varianceof the initial set of structuraldata CN(I), CN(s), CX, a, j and y for amidines and amidiniumcations in their derivatives (3 and 3’ groups) Factor

numbef

Percent of explanationof the total variance by factors in subgroups of 3 + 3 CN

Total

cc

~~

1 2

29.4 27.2 18.3 14.2 10.5 0.4

3

4 5 6

cs

CP

co

45.6 29.1 10.7 10.0 4.5 0.1

64.5 27.6 5.1 2.4 0.4 0.0

71.4 14.6 9.6 2.6 1.8 0.0

~~

37.6 21.5 21.0 8.5 5.0 0.5

32.5 27.6 17.3 16.7 5.7 0.2

~

“Factors are ordered according to their decreasing magnitudes.

Thus the variation of a given property among n elemental sets of systems is described by variance.If we assume that this property depends on many various causes (‘factors’), then each of them may describe only some part of the total variance. The first factor may describe, say, 30% of the total variance.Then, the next one may describe anotherpart, say 20% of that part which was not explained by the first factor. Principalcomponent analysis gives the numericalforms of factors which if all of them are used, reproduce exactly the initial set of data, i.e. describe the whole variance for these data. However, each factor represents another weight in reproducing the initial data set, or each factor explains another percentage of the total variance. What is the chemicalcontent of these data? First of all, the sixth factor has always been close to zero, never greater than 1%. This is an obvious consequenceof the constraint that tl /I + y = 360”. Even if the NC(X)N system is not fully planar,deviations from planarity are rather small (the mean value of a + p + y is 359.83). Thus, only five structural parameters may be treated as fully geometrically independent. Indeed, when the whole sample (3 + 3 ) is taken into consideration five factors are necessary to explain more than 95% (99.6% in this case) of the total variance(as shown in the second column ofTable 3). A very similar situation is observed for subsamples CN, CC and CS. However, quite different situation is found for the C P and C O subsamplesfor which only three factors are necessary to explain > 95% of the total variance(97.2% and 95.6%, respectively). This is a distinct difference, but may be the result of the set of data being too small in these two groups, n = 8 and 11, respectively. In such cases conclusions should be drawn only with great care. Another possible reason for the above-described situation may be that these two groups constitute, perhaps by chance, a more homogeneous set of data. Chemically this can be understood, since intramolecularinteractions present in molecules belonging to these two group are more concerted, i.e. more strongly correlated one to another. In general, however, the result that so many factors must be applied to reproduce the six structuralparametersexposed to the nonhomogeneous substituent effect means that the mutual interactions between the structuralparametersof the amidine skeleton are rather weakly intercorrelated. In other words, the amidine skeleton does not follow readily concerted structural changes as a result of variations in interactions in the structure comprising the NCN(X) skeleton.

+

D. Analysis of the Mean Values of the Structural Parameters in the Amldine Skeleton Affected by Substltuent Effects

It results from the former section that structural parameters describing variations of geometry in the amidine skeleton affected by substituent effects are rather weakly

T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

112

interrelated.However, in subsamples which exhibit some structuralsimilarity they cannot be excluded. For limited and rather homogeneoussamples it was found, for example, that there exists quite a good linear dependence between CN(s) and CN(l)'I. In both cases the slope observed was negative and it could be interpreted" as a compensation in bondlength changes due to n-electron delocalization. Before we try to analyze the interrelationbetween structuralparametersgenerally called Pi; namely CN(s),CN(I),CX, a, fl and y (cf. labellingin Figure l), we will first consider mean values of these parametersin groupsof compounds containingdifferent substituentsat the functional carbon. Table 4 presents the mean values of structural parameters P , their variances var(P) and estimated standarddeviations, esd(P). Then the minimal P(min)and the maximal P(max) values of the parameters are also shown. Under the label of the sample (or subsample) in the parentheses the number of compounds included in this calculationis given. Additionally, in the last column on the right the values of the planarity parameters A are given. Since the amidine skeleton of compounds 3 3 contains two fixed bonds, CN(I) and CN(s),while CX is being varied, the analysis of this group must be carriedout accordingt o a division dependent on the type of the link C-X3. Table 4 shows these subgroups by indicating in the first column the type of the C-X3 bond. Data are presented first for the total sample of 3 + 3 structures and then in three versions each for X = N (guanidinederivatives) and X = C in order to check the hypothesis regardingthe dependence of the mean structuraland statistical parameterson the quality of data. In these two cases (CN and CC)data are given first for the whole subsample. Then for two sets of differing precision: (a) for the subsample in which the precision of the data is the highest, in which the reliability factor R d 0.035; and (b) for the subsample with R Q 0.05.Forless numeroussamples with X = S, C1 and P no such divisions are made, and only the whole group was analyzed. Table 5 presents the results of the statistical analysis of the significance or insignificance in the differences between the two parameters in question. This information is chemically important-we may decide in which cases the parameters differ as a result of almost random action of the substituent effect on them.

+

TABLE 4. Structuraland statisticaldata for amidineand amidiniumcation derivatives. Differentiation of the sample is at C-X3 bond. All other substituents R', R2, R4 and R 5 (if present) are unrestricted.Formamidinederivativesare included in the total sample,but are consideredseparately in Table 9 Type of subsample (numberof entires)

Parameter

CW)

C "

Total

F

1.306 0.0010 0.033 1.103 1.476 1.307 0.00 1 2 0.035 1.103 1.423

(576)

CN" (343)

var (P) esd(P) P(min) P(max) ij

var(P) esd(P) P(min) P(max)

cx

a

B

Y

A

1.341 0.0007 0.03 I 1.158 1.48 1

1.436 0.0229 0.151 0.938 1.938

120.21 17.5 4.2 89.19 140.19

121.03 18.0 4.2 103.37 136.50

118.60 17.1 4.1 97.14 137.81

0.019 0.0008 0.028 O.OO0 0.274

1.333 0.0006 0.025 1.158 1.442

1.355 0.001 I 0.033 1.252 1.499

120.06 10.7 3.3 106.85 135.84

121.34 13.0 3.6 110.78 136.50

118.38 13.2 3.6 105.23 128.12

0.019 0.0009 0.030 0.000 0.274

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

1 I3

TABLE 4. (continued) Type of subsample (number of entries)

Parameter CN(s)

B

Y

A

CN(1)

CX

1.316 0.0002 0.0 15 I .263 1.381

1.331 0.0002 0.015 1.295 1.381

1.349 0.0007 0.027 1.308 1.484

119.76 8.4 2.9 112.43 130.37

121.52 12.7 3.6 113.33 136.50

118.65 10.7 3.3 110.33 125.94

0.01 1 0.0001 0.010 0.000 0.037

1.314 0.0003 0.0 I 6 1.263 1.336

1.329 0.0002 0.0 14 1.302 1.381

1.343 O.OOO6 0.024 1.314 1.416

120.21 5.7 2.4 115.89 128.54

120.70 5.2 2.3 117.12 128.23

119.06 9.9 3.1 110.33 125.93

0.010 0.0001 0.010 0.000 0.035

1.302 0.0009 0.030 1.252 1.476

1.353 0.00 14 0.037 1.266 1.481

1.492 0.0016

0.040

1.354 1.734

119.88 27.6 5.3 89.19 133.19

121.03 19.8 4.5 103.37 131.90

118.93 17.2 4.1 103.35 137.81

0.018 0.0007 0.027 0.000 0.274

1.298 0.0003 0.018 1.252 1.352

1.350 0.0008 0.029 1.306 1.447

1.486 0.0005 0.023 1.394 1.551

119.41 18.7 4.3 108.68 133.19

122.23 1.2.5 3.5 108.67 131.90

118.33 13.1 3.6 103.35 128.63

0.014 0.0002 0.013 0.000 0.059

1.301 0.0004 0.019 1.274 1.352

1.336 0.0004 0.020 1.306 1.364

1.492 0.0001 0.009 1.482 1.514

1 19.70

5.1 2.3 115.77 124.40

121.61 15.3 3.9 109.58 124.98

118.53 6.3 2.5 116.46 126.01

0.015 0.0003 0.016 0.000 0.059

1.302 0.0005 0.021 1.235 1.349

1.355 0.0013 0.036 1.297 1,472

1.765 0.0016 0.039 1.659 1.862

121.38 27.6 5.3 110.23 140.89

120.65 26.1 5.1 108.64 132.39

118.03 33.2 5.8 97.14 125.92

0.0 16 0.00 12 0.011

1.321 0.0008 0.029 1.285 I .378

1.348 0.0015 0.039 1.300 1.430

1.29 1 0.0032 0.056 1.213 1.383

123.25 16.4 4.1 I 14.80 131.77

120.27 28.2 5.3 110.58 126.51

116.42 8.8 3.0 112.70 122.34

0.014 0.0002 0.013 0.000 0.037

1.324 0.0001 0.01 1 1.303 1.337

1.337 0.0002 0.014 1.308 1.354

1.858 0.00 17 0.04 1 1.791 1.890

119.21 8.3 2.9 I 15.79 124.57

119.70 2.7 1.7 117.07 122.15

120.71 17.5 4.2 112.73 126.38

0.047 0.0005 0.022 0.0 16 0.092

1.300 0.0002 0.015 1.282 1.317

1.330 0.0002 0.032 1.313 1.355

1.724 0.0002 0.015 1.703 1.744

119.97 5.8 2.4 I 17.06 123.60

120.85 3.9 2.0 119.07 125.02

119.12 10.4 3.2 115.25 122.72

0.11 0.0002 0.0 14 0.002 0.043

a

~~~

~~

"For thediNerences between the three different CN and three different CC subsamples, see text.

0.000 0.05 1

114

T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

TABLE 5. Statistical analysis of differences between the mean values of structuralparameters Fj [CN(I), CN(s),CX, a, /?andy.] The sampleincludesboth 3 (amidines)and 3 (amidiniumcations). Full subsamples are taken into account (irrespectiveof precision).Assignments of subgroups are as in Table 4. The significantdifferencesare assignedthe sign of inequalityand insignificantdifferencesby the sign of approximateequality P CN(S) C"

cx a

B Y

CCI CCI CO CP CP

co

z cs z CN < CN P P P

CC

co cs

z

CC z CP < CC z CCI P P

cs

CN

z CN

z CO < CCI z CN P CCI P CC

< z < < P P

CO CS CS CS CC CCI

z CP z cc < CP z co z CN 1 CP

The mean values of a given structuralparameter,say pi [e.g. in Table 5 in the first row pi are ordered in a sequence according to increasing magnitudes. Then, the analysis carried out is based on the applicatign of Student's t test to verify the null hypothesis H,, when two parameters Pi and Pi are equal, i.e. H,: Fj= pi, against the alternative hypothesis H,:Pj # P,. It is carried out in the following way. The t statistics is defined as: = CN(s)]

where Fj and pi denote the mean values for a given structuralparameter in subsamplesj and i, while s j and:s denote the subsample variances;N . and Ni are the numbers of data points in these subsamples.This test works even whe! the assumption, that variances of both subsamplesaredifferent,is true. Foreach pair of Pj and Pi, of which we want to know if the difference(Pi - Pi) is significantlydifferent from zero, we compare the value oft for our pair with the value to,, taken from the statistical tablesI2 at a given significancelevel (called a) and for a given degree of freedom$ Usually, we accept a = 0.05 and this means that when we reject the null hypothesis at a = 0.05 we may be in error in 5 ou_tof LOOcases. In such an event we may accept the alternative hypothesis, i.e. that Pi # P j at this probability is in error. Both Tables 4 and 5 containa great deal of chemicalinformation.Anybody interested in the differencesbetween structuralparameters P in variously substituted NC(X)N systems (containingboth 3 and 3),may find in Table 4 t i e relevant number for the mean value of a given subsample and compare it with the value for another subsample. The differences between the mean values of parameters within a given subsample may also be found from Table 4, which makes it possible to test the hypothesis about the equality of two bond lengths or two bond angles in question. Let us consider an example to illustrate how to utilize the contents of Table 4.Two CN bonds in groups (3,3')differ from one another.The shorter CN(s) has mean length 1.307 A, whereas the longer CN(1) has mean length 1.333 A. The differenceis evident and amounts to 0.026 A. Is it statistically significant?To answer this question we assume the null hypothesis, that for this case these bonds are of equal length,H,:R[CN(s)] = R[CN(I)] and calculatethe Student's t value following equation 1. Taking the values of variances for these two bonds from Table 4, 1.23 x and 0.61 x AZ,we obtain It1 = 10.830. Comparisonwith the = t,~,,,,2, = 1.967 value from the statistical table at the significancelevel a = 0.05 for 326 - 2 = 324 degrees of freedom allows us to conclude that we have to reject this null hypothesis. However, accepting the alternative hypothesis, namely, that the lengths of bonds CN(s) and CN(I)are significantly different, we are in error only in 5 out of 100 cases. The same can be done for any two parameters, Pi and Pi, which we wish to compare.

115

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

Another, alternative way of estimating the significanceof the difference between two structuralparameters(or their mean values) in question is applying the so-called 30 rule. This rule,very popularamong crystallographers;states (and this resultsfrom the statistical properties of a normal distribution’) that if the difference between two structural parameters Pi and P j is greater than the threefold value of the estimated standard deviation of these two parameters, then the difference is statistically significant at a = 0.0027 (0.27%),and we are in error in 0.27% of cases. How to use this rule? Let us consider once again the example with the bond lengths CN(I) and CN(s). The differenceis (1.333- 1.307)8= 0.026A. The value of the estimated standard deviation for the difference is

{ [O~(CN(I))]~ + [~(CN(S))]~}’~’ = {var[CN(I)]

+ var[CN(s)]}’/’

= 0.043.

However, in the case when we do not compare two individual data but two mean values, the formula for the estimated standard deviation of the mean values has to be divided by n’/’. Thus, we have to divide 0.043 by (326)”’ and obtain 0.0023.Dividing 0.026 by 0.0023 we end up with 10.92 > 3. So we can reject the hypothesis (at a = 0.0027)that the lengths of CN(s) and CN(1) are equal. The conclusion is in line with the former one. It should be stressed strongly here that when we apply statistical tests to verify hypotheses, we should always apply the same level of significance,a. Otherwise, we may assign various weights to conclusions drawn from various experiments or sets of experiments. We must return to the problem of drawing conclusions from the sets of data. By increasing the precision, the data become less numerous and the distribution becomes more difficult to correctly characterize.However, the mean values of structuralparameters do not change much when coming from largersets of less precise data or from smaller sets of more precise data.This is well illustrated (Table 4) by the data for subsamples CN(3,3) and CC(3,3) each considered in three versions: as the whole subsample, as precise data (R < 0.05) and as very precise data (R < 0.035).This conclusionis worth rememberingand can be applied in all cases except in those when data strongly deviating from the standard precision are present in the data set, presentttk mean values Pi of the structural parameters, where stands for - Table _ _5 _ CN(s), CN(I), CX, a, fi and For each subsample NC(X)N with X = C, N, S, CI, H, P, 0 these parameters are arranged in the order of increasingvalue of the parameter. If two adjacentparameters in a row, Pi and Pj. differ one from anotherin a significantway, which was checked by the use of Student’s t test at the significancelevel a = 0.05, then we put between these two parametersthe sign of inequality, Pi < Pj. When the above-mentioned difference insignificanbthen we indicge this situation as Pi 1 P , which may either mean that Pi = P j exactly or Pi is less than P j but in a statistically insignificant way. Thus, the structuralparameters on the left side of this relationship are almost always smaller than those on the right side, but only sometimes are they smaller in a significantway. Let us consider as an example the first row of Table 5, showing the relative magnitudes of the bond lengths for CN(s) in the six subsamples. The CN(s) bond length is insignificantly shorter for subsample NC(CI)N than for NC(S)N, and the latter is insignificantlysmaller for NC(S)N than for NC(C)N and so on. The only sharpinequality is between CN and CO, the latter being significantlylarger.Finally,it may be monitoned that the CN(s)bond is the longest for the NC(P)N group, but this is only insignificantlylonger than the CN(s) bond in the NC(0)N subsample. The total difference between the shortest CN(s) and the longest one is 0.026 8.Interestingly for the CN(I) bond lengths the sequenceis reversed (except for the CCI subgroup).In the third row of Table 5, the covalent radii of X, equal to 0,N, C, CI, S and P increasevery distinctly in the sequence,and hence in this row all differencesare statistically significant.

i.

116

T. M.Krygowski and K. Woiniak

Considering the variations of the_a, fl and 7 values (Table 4) we observe that 7 is the smallest(1 1 8.60")in comparison to B = 121.03' and ti = 120.21'. The variancesfor all three angles are comparable', between 17.1" and 18.0°2, and the values of esd are rather large, about 4.2". Hence, no significant conclusion can be drawn from these differences. Moreover the sequencesofincrease for E, Band rare also not conclusivein these series,and except for the CN < CS case, the inequalitiesare not sharpand not significantstatistically. The opposite directions in the sequence of the ti and 7 angles may also be mentioned. E. Analysis of Interrelations Between Structural Parameters in Amidine Derivatives with Varying X3

In the previous section we presented mean geometriesand a simple statistical analysisof structuralparameterscompared between subsamples(Tables4 and 5). This, however, does not help one to understand the dependences between them while varying substituents R' through R4 (R5 for the 3' group). In this section we will try to relate structuralparameters within subsamples which are selected, as formerly, by dividing the material according to the C-X3 link, as in the structure below:

x3

I

R', R2 and R4 are unrestricted. 7 . Group with X 3 = N (guanidine derivatives)

The mean geometry of the amidine moiety for this group is given in Figure6. The main featuredistinguishingthe geometry of this subgroup from the others is the relatively small differentiationbetween CN(s), CN(1) and CX, even though the differences between them are significant.An interesting fact is that an increase in a bond length opposite a bond angle implies an increasein this angle. For the series of CN bond lengths 1.307 A, 1.333 and 1.355d; the opposite bond angles increaseto the values 118.38", 120.06' and 121.30", respectively.

a

N

I

1.355 120.1 1184

c .

R4-

1.307/121.3\1.333

N

N -R'

I

R2 FlGURE6. Mean geometry of the amidine moiety of guanidine and guanidinium cation derivatives

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

117

Table 4 shows that the data for all three groups: the whole sample (343 entries), the sample with R < 0.035 (41 entries) and the sample with R < 0.05 (1 14 entries), all give equivalent results. The mean values of the structural parameters are similar and, even if they differ from each other in the three precision-dependentsubsamples,the differencesare small and statistically insignificant (at a = 0.05). Hence the analysis of interrelations between structuralparameterswas carried out for the whole set of 343 entries. It must be said that no chemically important and conclusive interrelations of the type have been found for Pi and Pj, being either bond lengths or bond angles. The same was found for analysis of mixed structuralparameters, when either Pi or P j was bond length while the other was bond angle.The following problem may arise:if the substituents R', RZ(R3), R4 and R5vary in a random way, why should the structuralparametersfollow any regularity? This is even further corroborated by the fact that factor analysis gives in this case the following weights of subsequent, fully independent factors:29.4,27.2, 18.3, 14.2, 10.5,0.4. In order to avoid the complexity of mutual interactions affecting variations in structural parameters, we have undertaken another kind of analysis, looking for dependences between differences in structural parameters 6 , = Pi - Pj plotted against another parameter Pk or one of the constituents of 6:,

Pi = a P j + b

d i j = a'P, + b'

(2)

(3)

Thus we have found a few weak relationships,such as 6 , = CN(l) - CN(s) plotted against CNQ). In this case the correlationcoefficient was equal to 0.76, and for 6 , = CN(I) - CX and aij= CX -CN(s) vs CX the correlation coeffcients r were -0.73 and 0.74, respectively. It seems that in these cases the variability of the constituents of 6 , affects the 6, value sufficiently to find a relationship between these two parameters. Thusin differences6, might dominate the contributionsresultingfrom the variations in CN(I) and CX, and hencethe 6, values were found to depend on the CN(I) and CX values. This effect may be regarded as chiefly geometrical in nature. Much higher dependences are found for 6ij for bond angles. Quantity is found to depend on Pi or P j in all cases if either Pi or P j is present in the difference defined, for example, tl - B vs CY or B, B-y vs B or y, etc. For all these cases Irl is always greater than 0.8. Once again these relationships seem to illustrate geometrical constraints rather than electronic effects of substituents. Additionally, we should be aware of the constraint that a fl +y E 360".

+

2. Groups with X 3 = C The mean geometry of the NC(C)N skeleton is given in Figure 7. The main difference between this subsample and the previous one is that CN(s) is significantly shorter than CN(1) (at a = 0.05). The differenceis equal to 0.051 A. This means that substitution of the amidine carbon by a substituent bound to the latter by a C atom causes stronger localization of the double bond in the amidine moiety. Again, opposite CN(s) is an angle with a smaller value (118.93') than that opposite CN(I) (119.88). Similarly, as in the case of guanidine derivatives, no strong regularitiesof the form of equation 2 could be observed for this group. In the analysiswe have consideredthe data for the full sample (146 entries)even though it was found that the mean values of the structural parametersfor this sample are not fully equivalent to those with more precisely measured subsamples.The picture observed is very similarto that for guanidinederivatives, for both equations 2 and 3. For equation 2 no dependence was found, with the correlation coefficient Irl> 0.40. However, better dependences are observed for equation 3, when the

118

T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

C 11.492 119.9p 118.9

R4-

13.02g i/0.1\3.53

N - R'

N

I

R2 FIGURE7. Mean geometry of the amidineskeleton of the (3+ 3')group with R', R2 and R3 unrestrictedand x3=c

+ +

structuralparameters are bond angles.This effect may be due to the constraint a p y = 360" (or close to 360" when the NC(X)N atoms do not form an exact plane). Stronger lineardependences were found for equation 3. Correlationcoefficientsfor plotting 6, vs P, or Pi in the case of bond lengths attained the values - 0.85, - 0.80 and 0.86. For bond angles these coefficients were even better: 0.90, - 0.84 and 0.85. Once again, geometrical effects should be taken as the main reason for these regularities.They may also be due to greater variability of the structuralparameters for this group, compared to derivatives of guanidine.Simple comparison of variancesfor P i values (cf. Table 4) shows that in almost all cases vari for this group is greater than vari for guanidines.

3. Group with X3 = 0 The mean geometry of the amidine skeleton for this group is given in Figure 8. The difference between CN(s) and CN(I) is significant and in the same range as for the derivatives of guanidine,whereas the C-0 bond is surprisingly short. Angles a, fl and y differ from one another considerably. In this group c( is much larger than y (a = 123.25" and y = 116.42")in spite of the fact that CN(s) and CN(1) differ only slightly from one another(1.321 A and 1.348A, respectively). Only 11 entries belong to this group and hence no significantstatistical study may be carried out. Nevertheless,it is interestingthat for this small sample equation 2 is observed quite well. The lowest correlation coefficient Ir I observed for interrelations between bond

r1

0

c

23.3 116.4

R4-

1.321/120.3\1.348

N

N -R2

R' FIGURE8. Mean geometry of the amidineskeleton of the (3+ 3') group with R', R2 and R3 unrestrictedand x3

=o

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

119

lengths was equal to 0.721, but those for bond angleswere even worse. The anglesNCN(B) plotted against the CN(1) bond lengths gave some weak regularity with a correlation coefficient r = - 0.867, and similar plots against CN(s) and CO gave r = 0.721 and - 0.805, respectively. The picture for the regression(equation 3) is better and similarto the previous case. It must be remembered,however, that interrelationsin these groups, even if statistically significant, have very low predictive power. They may only indicate some trends in cooperative effects in the electron structure due to multiple and varied substitution in the amidine (or amidinium) moiety. 4. Group with X 3 = S

The mean geometry of this group is given in Figure 9. The most striking feature is the relatively great difference between CN(s) and CN(1):0.053 A. Again the relationa < y exists, but to a lesser degree than for derivatives with X3 = 0, in spite of the large difference between Cn(s) and Cn(1).

S 11.765 121.4 120.7

c

R4-

1.302/n8-0\1.355

N

N-R*

I

R' FIGURE9. Mean geometry of the amidine skeleton of the (3 + 3') group with R', R2 and R3 unrestricted and

x3=s

5. Groups with X 3 = Cl and P These two groups are not numerous,each having only 8 entries. ForC1 and particularly for P derivatives, there are rathersmall differencesin the CN(s) and CNQ) bond lengths,as and y. Moreover, the regularitya > y is not observed for P derivatives. well as between a, /I Due to small numbers ofdata in these three sets, these observations cannot be regarded as conclusive. Figure 10 presents the mean geometry of these two classes of compounds.

P

CL 120.0

R4-

1.300/~~g\1,330

N

11.858 119.2 P 120.7

17.724

A119.1

N - R2

1

R'

R4-

1.324/1$.7\1.337

N

N-R2

I

R'

FIGURE 10. Mean geometry of the amidine skeleton of the (3 + 3 ) group with R', R2 and R3 unrestricted and X3= C1 and P

120

T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

F. Analysis of Other Subsamples Selected from the (3 + 3') Group 1 . Analysis of amidine derivatives with R ' , R2 and R3 unrestricted

This sample contains 54 fragments and may be represented by the mean structure presented in Figure 11. Even a cursory examination of the group reveals interesting patterns: CN(s) << CN(l), u >> y and < 120".These results are rather surprising.Table 6 contains all the structuraland statistical data for the main group as well as for subgroups which may be drawn from the main group. Table 7 presents the sequencesof structuralparametersordered accordingto increasing value. In all cases the amidine skeleton NC(X)N is significantly deformed from planarity. There are many possible selections of subsamples which may be derived from amidine and amidinium salt derivatives. We have selected a few of them in order to get more homogenousgroups, and then within these groups we proceeded as previously. We use the same scheme of labelling as in Scheme 1 and Figure 1. 2. Analysis of systems with X' = Xz = X4 = H

The general structure for this group of amidine derivatives is shown below:

The total number of entries of this kind is 35, but in 30 of the cases X3 = N. Figure 12 presents the mean geometry for these 30 guanidine derivatives. The most striking feature for this group is the quite small differencein the CN bond lengths.Table 8 contains all the structuraldata. An interesting findingis that, in the factor analysis of this subgroup, only three factors are necessary to reproduce 94.3% of the total variance(the explainingpowers of factors being: for the first factor 61%, for the second one 20.2% and for the third one 13.1%).This must mean that within this group strong cooperative interactions operate. In other words, substitution at the functional carbon with no other substituents (R' = RZ = R3 = H) produces more concerted changes in the structural parameters than was

c

1258 116.1

1.3M/118.0\1.373

-N

N -R'

I

R' FIGURE11. Mean geometry of the amidine skeleton of the (3+ 3 ) group with R' and R2 unrestricted

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

121

TABLE 6. Structuraland statistical data for unrestrictedamidine and amidinium cation derivatives Type of subsample (number of entries)

B

Parameter

CN(s)

CN(I)

CX

P

1.302 0.0008 0.028 1.235 1.355

1.373 0.003 1 0.055 1.273 1.484

1.461 0.029 0.170 1.037 1.827

125.82 28.1 5.3 116.25 140.19

118.04 17.6 4.2 110.93 128.07

P

1.288 0.0004 0.020 1.252 1.329

1.370 0.0022 0.047 1.295 1.48I

1.501 0.0005 0.022 1.473 1.559

124.74 8.1 2.9 119.48 132.01

118.14 5.4 2.3 111.31 122.31

P

1.322 0.0005 0.023 1.272 1.350

1.414 0.0025 0.050 1.337 1.484

1.331 0.0004 0.021 1.379

129.17 35.2 5.9 116.25 136.50

B

var(P) esd(P) P(min) P(max)

1.291 0.0007 0.026 1.235 1.339

1.369 0.0022 0.047 1.273 1.460

1.435 0.04 1 0.203 1.037 1.827

var(P) esd(P) P(min) P(max)

P

1.318 0.0006 0.025 1.270 1.350

1.392 0.0046 0.068 1.295 1.484

P

1.303 0.0007 0.028 1.235 1.355

1.355 0.0017 0.042 1.273 1.416

vam esd(P) P(min) P(m4 var(P) esd(P) P(min) P(max) var(P) esd(P) P(min)

vam esd(P) P(min) P(max)

u

Y

A

116.06

0.014 0.0003 0.017 0.000 0.101

1 17.07

2.5 1.6 9 1.74 120.36

0.014 0.0001 0.010 0.000 0.038

114.97 23.9 4.9 110.93 125.07

115.84 9.4 3.1 110.33 119.12

0.009 0.0001 0.008 0.000 0.023

125.15 31.2 5.6 116.25 140.19

119.79 15.9 4.0 1 13.02 128.07

114.89 37.4 6.1 91.74 121.18

0.018 0.0006 0.025 0.000 0.101

1.427 0.216 0.147 I .305 1.734

128.38 35.7 6.0 120.32 136.50

115.41 20.7 4.5 110.93 122.31

116.18 8.47 2.9 110.94 120.08

0.01 1 0.0001 0.008 0.002 0.027

1.487 0.029 0.I70 1.037 1.827

124.58 19.2 4.4 116.25 140.19

1 19.02

116.27 21.0 4.6 91.74 121.18

0.0 15 0.0003 0.019 0.000 0.101

1.305

14.8 3.8 113.02 128.07

18.7 4.3 91.74 121.18

TABLE 7. Statistical analysis of differences between the mean values of structural parameters Pj[CN(I), CN(s), CX, u, B and y ] . Analysis is carried out in sequence of a given j. The subsample consists of both 3 and 3 species, i.e. both amidine and amidinium cation derivatives are taken into consideration. Full subsamples are taken into account (irrespectively of precision). The sequence for given parameters with significant differences is assigned by the sign of inequality c, and for insignificantdifferences by the sign of approximate equality z ~~

C W C"

cx U

B Y

(X'=C) (X'=C) (X3=N) (X'=C) (X3=N) (X4=C)

1 (X*=C) 1 Total 2 (X4=C) 1 (X'=C)

< (X*=N) z (X4=C) 1 (X'=C)

1 (X*=C)

1 (X3=N)

z Total

z (X4=N) s Total

(X'=C)

g

Total Total 1 (X3=C) r (X*=N)

1

E

1 Total

= z

(X4=N) r ( X 3 = N ) 1 (X3=N) (X'=C) z (X3=C) (X*=N) z (X3=N) (X'=C) z (X4=C) (X'=C) g (X3=C)

r (X4=N)

s z

1

T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

122

N

H FIGURE 12. Mean geometry of the amidine skeleton of the (3 + 3') group with R' = R3 = R4 = H and X3=N TABLE 8. Structural and statistical data for amidine and amidinium cation derivatives with X' = X2 = X4 = H. The only variation is in the C-X3 bond and this is taken as a base for differentiation of the sample Type of subsample (number of entries)

Parameter

CN(s)

CN(I)

CX

a

B

Y

A

1.319 O.ooo4 0.02 1 1.268 1.342

1.330 0.0005 0.022 1.279 I .389

1.387 0.018 0.13 1.309 1.794

121.29 11.1 3.3 1 17.00 130.37

120.80 4.2 2.1 117.72 125.33

1 17.87 12.4 3.5 109.46 121.78

0.013 0.0001 0.010 0.002 0.028

1.324 0.0002 0.015 I .288 1.342

1.328 0.0005 0.023 1.279 1.897

1.340 0.00 16 0.040 1.309 1.524

120.71 7.9 2.8 1 17.00 130.37

120.56 3.7 1.9 116.72 125.09

1 18.69 6.8 2.6 11 1.13 121.78

0.0 14 o.oO01 0.010 0.002 0.028

observed for less homogeneous samples. The bond lengths CN(I) vs CN(s) exhibit a weak but statistically significantcorrelation (with r = - 0.610). We should also note the very small differences between CN(I) and CN(s), which result from dimer formation in the crystal lattice. This is usually the case when, at the amine nitrogen, at least one of the substituents is H. This situation is presented in Figure 13. Due to dimer formation the n-electrondelocalization in the amidine skeleton is enhancedin most cases in which, at one of the two nitrogen atoms, a hydrogen atom may serve as an H-donor. Some other interrelationshave also been found to be statistically significant,but they are all without any predictive power and chemical value. 3. Analysis of systems with X 3 = H (formamidine derivatives)

This group of structures is not numerous (17 entries), but it seems to be important. Table 9 containsstructuraldata for this group. It is apparent that the differencesbetween CN(I)and CN(s) are large and significant.Also, one of the bond angles is p = 122.56", i.e. significantly greater than 120". The full geometry is given in Figure 14.

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

123

H

H

FIGURE 13. Scheme of nelectron delocalization in the NCN moiety for amidine derivatives forming dimers via H-bonds

rABLE 9. Structural and statistical data for formamidine and formamidinium cation derivatives Nith R', R2 and R4 unrestricted rype of wbsample number of mtries)

Parameter

Formamidines

a

17)

var(P) esd(P) P(min)

CN(s)

CN(I)

CX

a

B

Y

A

1.289 O.OOO6 0.024 1.216 1.315

1.340 0.0016 0,040 1.283 1.420

0.977 0.0058 0.076 0.819 1.092

117.85 32.0 5.7 105.58 132.93

122.56 12.0 3.5 113.53 128.04

119.31 27.1 5.2 104.92 130.94

0.015 O.OOO8 0.028 0.0 0.101

H 1%

R4-

I

o.98 117.9

C

1.289922.6\.340

N

N-R2

I

R' FIGURE 14. Mean geometry of the amidine skeleton for formamidine and formamidinium derivatives. X3 = H, R', RZ and R4 unrestricted

124

T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

The value of the variancefor the B angle is the lowest amongthe three bond angles. This may be due to the fixed substituent X' = H. However, the fact is that /I > 120 cannot be explained on the basis of the Walsh rule''.' since the electronegativity of H (K = 2.1) is not much different from that for NR, (2.4 for NMe,)14. The only reasonableexplanation may be based on the repulsion between two rather bulky groups (=NR and NR,). The relationshipbetween CN(I)and CN(s) is weak but significant.Factoranalysisshows that, to explain about 95% of the total variance,four factors must be used (their weights are: 1st 40.6%, 2nd 26.7%, 3rd 15.7% and 4th 13.7%). 4. Analysis of systems with

# H and X' or X2 = H

The general structure for these systems is given below:

x3

I

P

R 4-N

@\

N-R

2

I

R' or R 2 = H , R 4 # H . Within this group one can select subsamples e.g., by taking X2 = C(n = 31), X3 = C(n = 12), X' = N(n = 16) and X4 = C(n = 21). Table 10 contains structural and statistical data for these subsamples as well as for the whole group. For all cases there are only small differences between the CN(I) and CN(s) bond lengths. Even more, differences between equivalent bonds for various subsamples are usually small as presented in Table 11. In spite of small differences between CN(s) and CN(I), the differences between a and y are sometimes very considerable (for X3 = C and X3 = N these differencesare 4.65" and 1.75", respectively. The only sharpinequalitiesin this table are for CX bonds, which are easy to understand, due to the variation of X. The reason for the strong equalization of the CN(s) and CN(I) bond lengths lies in the possibility of dimer formation and in enhanced n-electron delocalization in the NCN fragment, as shown in Fig. 13. The results of factor analysis show that in all these groups strong cooperative interactions exist, since the number of factors necessary to explain 95% of the variance is either four or,in two cases, only three.Table 12 containsthe relevantdata.This decrease of the number of independent factors necessary to explain the total variance of all six structuralparametersmay be associated with the findingthat CN(1) ECN(s). This, in turn, results from the fact that structures of this group exist in the crystal lattice mostly as dimers. 5. Analysis of amidine and amidinium derivatives substituted at imine nitrogen and functional carbon

This subsample was extracted from the (3+ 3 ) set of Scheme 1 for getting less complex interactions in the NC(X)N skeleton as a result of substitution. The substituents are

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

125

TABLE 10. Structuraland statisticaldata for amidineand amidiniumcationderivatives with R' or R2=Hand R 3 # H Type of subsample (number of entries)

Parameter

s

Total (32)

vaW) esd(P) P(min) P(max)

x3=c

P

(12)

Var(P) esd(P) P(min) P(max)

X3=N (16)

P vam esd(P) P(min) P(max)

x4=c

P

(21)

vam esd(P) P(min) P(max)

xz=c

P

(31)

var(P) esd(P) P(min) P(max)

CN(s)

CN(I)

cx

a

P

Y

A

1.330 0.0014 0.037 1.273 1.400

1.324 0.0012 0.034 1.272 1.381

I .465 0.02 10 0. I45 1.302 1.839

118.61 22.6 4.8 110.33 128.63

123.22 17.4 4.2 114.83 132.39

118.09 16.7 4.1 109.35 126.64

0.018

1.327 0.0026 0.051 I .273 1.400

1.328 0.0011 0.034 1.272 1.368

1.488 0.0008 0.027 1.436 1.527

120.93 22.3 4.7 1 15.00 128.63

122.64 4.9 2.6 117.89 127.70

116.28 10.45 3.2 109.35 120.30

0.028 0.0003 0.016 0.0 0.059

1.329 0.0009 0.030 1.275 1.382

1.331 0.001 1 0.033 1.272 1.381

1.365 0.0017 0.041 1.328 1.460

117.90 20.0 4.5 110.33 128.18

122.41 21.7 4.7 114.83 130.93

119.65 21.1 4.6 112.28 126.64

0.011 0.0001 0.010 0.0 0.035

1.322

0.03 1 1.272 1.381

1.455 0.0260 0.162 1.328 1.839

118.01 21.9 4.7 110.33 126.73

123.18 21.8 4.5 1 16.95 132.39

118.76 19.9 0.0 12 112.28 126.64

0.017 o.oO01 0.012 0.0 0.042

1.331 0.00 11 0.033 1.272 1.381

1.468 0.02 14 0.146 1.328 1.839

118.57 23.4 4.8 110.33 128.63

123.21 18.8 4.2 114.83 132.39

118.14 17.1 4.1 109.35 126.64

0.016 0.0001 0.012 0.0 0.059

1.327 0.0009 0.030 1.275 1.382 1.322 0.0014 0.037 1.273 1.400

0.0095

TABLE 11. Statisticalanalysisof the differencesbetween the mean values of structuralparametersPj[CN(I), CN(s), CX, a, B and y ] for amidine and amidiniumcation derivatives with R' or RZ= H and R3 # H. The sequencefor a given parameterwith significantdifferencesis assignedby the sign of inequality <,whereas for insignificantdifferencesby the sign of approximateequality 2 CN(S) CN(1)

cx

a

P Y

(xZ= c)g (X4 = C) z (X3 = C) E(X3 = N) z Total (X4 = C) 2 Total 2 (X3 = C) 2 (X3 = N) 2 (X2= C) (X4 = C) c (X3 = N) 2 Total z (X2 = C) 2 (X3 = C) (X3 = N) 2 (X4 =C) E (X2=C) E Total 2 (X3 = C) (X3 = N) g (X3 = C) E (X" = C) E (Xz = C) E Total (X3 = C) g Total E (X2 = C) (X4 = C) E (X3 = N)

0.0002 0.014 0.0 0.059

T. M.Krygowski and K. Woiniak

126

TABLE 12. Results of factor analysis for amidine and arnidiniurncation derivatives Factor number 1 2 3 4

Total 44.8 28.8 16.3 8.5

5

1.6 0.0

6

X3=C

X3=N

39.8 36.0 16.4 7.5 0.2

52.2 38.1 4.6 3.3 1.2

50.0 35.1 9.8 3.0 1.6

0.0

0.0

x4=c xz=c

0.0

44.1 28.9 16.2 8.5

I .6

0.0

attached in this subsample only at the functional carbon and at the imine nitrogen, as shown below:

I

R’ This subsample is quite numerous(n = 53) and its mean geometry (together with other statistical data) is given in Table 13. The table also includes data for five smaller subsamples in which X3 is either N (34 entries) or C (13 entries) and those where X4 is C (22 entries), N (14 entries) or 0 (12 entries). The analysis of planarity gives the same results for the sample and for all smaller subsamples: H,: A = 0 has to be rejected at a = 0.05. Since in this group and all its subgroups an N-H bond exists, all these compounds form dimers in crystals.As a result, CN(1) and CN(s) have very similar lengths, with small variances for both. The only exceptionsare two subsamples:that with X3= C and the other with X4 = 0,in which both CN(s) and CN(1) differ significantly.In these two groups the amidine group may be a part of a largergroup and may be involved in strong interactionsas with a complexation agent. Scheme2 shows the structureof bis(oxamideoximato)copper(II)-oxamide oxime”. In this

H H--

0 0

/NHZ /N I“\

\

0’

\

\

-C

0

0SCHEME 2

H

127

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

TABLE 13. Structural and statistical data for amidine and amidinium cation derivatives substituted at imine nitrogen and functional carbon. Thus R' = R2 = H, X3 and X4 are unrestricted Type of subsamples

Parameter

CN(s)

CN(1)

CX

U

P

Y

A

Total

B

(53)

var(P) esd(P) P(min) P(max) P var(P) esd(P) P(min) P(max) -

1.317 0.00 13 0.036 1.184 1.398

1.339 0.0015 0.039 1.150 1.407

1.418 0.020 0.14 1.252 1.832

119.64 25.6 5.1 111.11 130.50

121.08 26.4 5.1 110.78 129.13

119.21 7.7 2.8 115.32 130.72

0.014 0.0002 0.014 0.0 0.076

1.329 0.0012 0.035 1.184 1.398

1.329 0.0019 0.043 1.150 1.407

1.339 0.0006 0.025 1.305 1.408

120.64 32.6 5.7 111.13 130.50

119.81 29.5 5.4 t10.78 129.13

119.50 10.7 3.3 115.32 130.72

0.0 13 0.0002 0.015 0.0 0.076

P

1.283 0.0003 0.016 I .269 1.330

1.362 0.0005 0.022 1.322 1.391

1.493 0.0002 0.014 1.463 1.515

116.33 1.68 1.3 113.10 118.18

123.73 12.8 3.6 118.10 128.42

119.10 4.3 2.1 116.67 123.88

0.018 0.0004 0.02 1 0.0 0.076

P

1.333 0.0005 0.024 1.285 1.383

1.334 0.0004 0.02 1 1.295 1.371

1.345 0.00 19 0.044 1.282 1.495

119.76 21.0 4.6 111.13 127.04

121.10 14.1 3.8 1 13.40 125.69

119.05 5.3 2.3 116.13 123.88

0.016 0.0003 0.017 0.0 0.076

F

1.317 0.0024 0.050 1.184 1.398

1.329 0.005 0.065 1.150 1.407

1.494 0.054 0.233 1.305 1.382

122.34 38.4 6.2 111.92 133.50

116.64 32.9 5.7 110.78 129.13

120.98 14.8 3.9 117.81 130.72

0.013 0.0002 0.03 1 0.0 0.05 1

P

1.283 0.0003 0.017 1.269 1.330

1.365 O.OOO4 0.02 1 1.322 1.391

1.493 0.0002 0.014 1.463 1.515

116.18 1.5 1.2 113.10 117.91

125.47 1.7 1.3 122.64 128.42

118.29 1.3 1.1 116.66 121.19

0.017 0.0001 0.011 0.002 0.032

X3=N (34)

x3=c

(13)

x4=c

(22)

X4=N (14)

x4=0

(12)

var(P) esd(P) P(min) P(max) var(P) =W) P(min) P(max) var(P) ew? P(min) P(max) var(P) =d(P) P(min) P(max)

compound, as is clear from the scheme, the amidine skeleton (in bold lines) is involved in strong interactions with Cu(I1) and contains links as mentioned previously. These strong interactions may be responsible for localizing the double bonds and hence causing a significant difference between CN(s) and CN(I). The applicationof factor analysisto the data of the main sample and smallersubgroups mentioned above shows that, except in the subsample with X4 = 0,usually four or even five factors must be applied to explain 95% of the total variancefor the three bonds and three bond angles taken into account.Thus, it seems that in this subsample the intercorrelations between structural parameters describing the NC(X)N skeleton are rather weak. And indeed, while correlatingstructuralparametersaccording to equation 2, only in one case is Irl > 0.84, namely for the plot of bond angles NCR3 vs NCN. This is not particularly strange considering the obvious constraint that the three bond angles sum up to almost 360" or slightly less.

128

T. M. Krygowski and K. Wozniak

6. Analysis of amidine and amidinium derivatives substituted at amine nitrogen

Another subsample which can be selected from the (3 + 3') sample is the group of compounds in which substitution is at the amine nitrogen atom, as shown in Figure 15. One of the substituentsat the amine nitrogen atom R' or R2 is H. There are 42 entries of this group, from which two smaller subsamples with X 2 = C (n = 33) and X2 = N (n = 7) may be selected. An importantfeature of this group is that both CN bonds are of almost equal length and, again, this results from the possibility of dimer formation in the crystal lattice. The differencesin the CN bond lengths in the subgroup with Xz = N may result from the fact that the molecules of this group may form more complex H-bonding networks in which there is no reason for the equalization of the CN bonds. Table 14 contains structural and statistical data for the group and both subgroups. Table 15 presents the sequence of increasing structural parameters for the amidine

R3

I

1.339

119.1f i 120.4 1.330301&\335

R4-

N-R'

N

1

R' FIGURE15. Mean geometry of the amidine skeleton of the (3 + 3') group for derivatives with R', R2 and R4 unrestricted, but R' or R2 must be H TABLE 14. Structural and statistical data for amidine and amidinium cation derivatives with R' or R2 = H; other substituents unrestricted. If R2# H then two subsamples may be extracted Type of subsample Total (421 \

I

xz=c

(33)

Xz = N (7)

Parameter

CN(s)

CN(1)

CX

a

P

V

A

P

1.330 0.0003 0.017 1.303 1.386

1.335 0.0003 0.017 1.288 1.371

1.339 0.0006 0.023 1.279 1.418

119.07 6.7 2.6 15.15 26.63

120.43 9.8 3.1 114.13 125.79

120.43 12.8 3.6 112.03 126.02

0.018 0.0001 0.01 0.0 0.049

P

1.332 0.0003 0.016 1.305 1.386

1.332 0.0003 0.017 1.288 1.351

1.342 0.0005 0.021 1.320 1.418

18.54 6.3 2.5 15.15 26.63

120.78 8.8 3.0 117.02 125.79

120.62 12.1 3.5 112.03 125.93

0.018 o.oO01 0.01 0.003 0.035 .

P

1.322 0.0003 0.018 1.303 1.356

1.350 0.0002 0.012 1.332 1.371

1.323 0.0007 0.026 1.279 1.358

121.86 1.4 1.2 119.92 123.80

118.71 1.9 2.8 114.13 122.89

119.35 12.3 3.5 114.97 124.07

0.017 0.0003 0.02 0.0 0.049

var(P1 esdiPj P(min) P(max) var(P) esd(P) P(min) P(max) var(P) esd(P) P(min) P(max)

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

129

TABLE 15. Statisticalan_alysisof differencesbetween the mean values of structuralparametersPi [CN(I), CN(s), CX, a, /?and y] for amidine and amidiniumcationderivativeswith R' or R2 = H;other substituents unrestricted. The sequence for a given parameter with significant differencesis assigned by the sign of inequality <, and for insignificant differences by the sign of approximate equality

=

( X z = N) z

x =(X'

= C)

(X2= C) 1 X < (X' = N) (X' = N) 2 x = 0 ( 2 =C)

(X'

= N)

= X =(X'

(X' = N) 2 X z(X'

=C) =C)

skeleton. The application of factor analysis leads to the conclusion that the subgroupwith X2 = C needs five factors to describe 95% of the total variance,whereas the other subgroup with X2 = N needs only three factors for the same purpose. This may be interpreted as follows: X2 = N is a structuralcomponent which facilitates mutual interactions, since in this case all three atoms linked to the functionalcarbonof the amidine moiety are nitrogen atoms and have very similar electronegativities. This may decrease the number of independent factors affecting the geometry of the NC(X)N skeleton. 111. ANALYSIS OF AMlDlNlUM SALT DERIVATIVES (3' GROUP)

The general scheme for this group and the labelling of the structural parameters is in principle the same as for the 3 group (Figure 1) provided there are attached two substituentsR4 and R 5 at the N2 atom. Since in this group very often both CN bonds are of the same length, CN(s) and CN(1)are chosen randomly. If, however, one of them is shorter than the other, it is labelled as CN(s). All other assignments are as in the scheme for amidine derivatives (group 3).The mean geometry for the amidine skeleton is presented in Figure 16. The equalization of CN(s)and CN(I)observed in this group is due to the almost identical chemical state of both nitrogen atoms: both are trivalent and differences may be due only to the nature of the substituents, or even to the nature of interactions between NR'R' and NR4R5 with the environment. This is a particularly important factor if - R4 = R s = H. Table 16 contains the structural and statistical data for the R'=R large group (234 entries) which was divided into four subsamples, differing in the nature

R3 119.6

R4-

c 119.6

1.32#20.7\.323

N

N - R2

FIGURE 16. Mean geometry of the arnidine skeleton of group 3 (amidiniurn cation derivatives)

130

T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

TABLE 16. Structuraland statistical data for amidinium cation derivatives ( 3 group) Type of subsample

GI

B

Y

A

1.323 1.323 1.422 0.0005 0.0005 0.0236 0.022 0.022 0.154 1.266 1.266 0.967 1.890 1.447 1.447

119.60 9.3 3.0 103.35 133.19

120.73 5.9 2.4 107.92 126.51

119.60 9.3 3.1 103.35 133.19

0.014 0.0002 0.01 0.0 0.107

1.473 1.323 0.0010 0.0025 0.032 0.050 1.274 1.324 1.551 1.447

1 18.95 12.7 3.6 103.35 133.19

122.06 4.1 2.0 116.08 125.1 1

119.16 12.7 3.6 103.35 133.19

0.016 0.0036 0.020 0.0 0.107

1.353 0.0060 0.078 1.308 1.43 1

119.78 6.3 2.5 111.23 129.83

120.35 3.3 1.8 107.92 126.51

119.78 6.3 2.5 103.35 129.83

0.012 0.0001 0.01 0.0 0.039

1.350

119.87

120.16

119.87

0.012

0.0063 0.079 1.308 1.388

6.1 2.5 111.23 128.54

3.1 1.8 115.86 126.28

6.1 2.5 111.23 128.54

0.0001 0.010 0.0 0.039

1.476

119.36

121.39

119.36

0.007

0.0015 0.038 1.394 1.529

19.7 4.4 103.95 133.19

2.0 1.4 118.95 123.46

19.7 4.4 103.35 133.19

0.0001 0.007 0.0 0.026

Parameter CN(s) CN(1)

1.323 0.0010 0.032 1.274 1.447

1.324 1.324 0.0002 0.0002 0.015 0.015 1.266 1.266 1.416 1.416 1.322

1.322

0.0002 0.0002 0.013 0.013 1.266 1.266 1.380 1.380 1.313

1.313

0.0002 0.0002 0.015 0.015 1.297 1.297 1.375 1.375

CX

of the C-X3 link with unrestricted R,' R2, R4 and R5 substituents. The other two subgroups are similar but with R' = R2 = R4 = R5 = H. The typical pattern of the geometry of the NC(X)N skeleton shows very little differentiationbetween CN(I) and CN(s), with very small variances for both. The same is observed for the bond angles tl and y. This corroborates the recognized fact that both nitrogen atoms as well as both CN bonds are chemically very similar. Table 16 contains structuraland statistical data for the amidine skeleton for the whole group as well as for the four subgroups, which will be discussed separately. Table 17 presents the sequences of increasing structural parameters. For both CN(s) and CN(1) the inequalities are mostly weak ones, and the same is true for the a, fi and y angles.The only significantdifferenceis for CX bonds and results from the variation in the chemical nature of X. Factor analysis gives a surprising result, namely that except in one subgroup (two unsubstituted NH, groups with X3 = C), always all five factors are necessary to reproduce the total variance for the main group as well as for the remaining three subgroups.

2. Structuralchemistry of amidines and related systems

131

TABLE 17. Statistical analysis of differences between the mean values of structural parameters F, [CN(I), CN(s), CX, a, band y] for amidinium cation derivatives. The sequence for a given parameter with significant differences is assigned by the sign of inequality <,and for insignificant differences by the sign of approximate equality s CW)

C"

cx

a

B Y

(X3 = C) s(X3 = C, R' = H) s Total s (X3 = N, R' = H) (X3 = N) (X3 = C,R' = H) < (X3 = N, R' = H)E(X3 = N ) a Total g(X3 =C) (X' = N, R' = H) g (X3 = N) < Total < CX' = C) z ( X 3 = C, R' = H) (X3 =C)zTotal g(X3= N ) g ( X 3 = N, R' = H ) z ( X 3 = C, R' = H) (X' = N, R' = H) g (X' = N) < Total z (X3 = C, R' = H) 1(X3 = C) (X3 = C, R' = H) z(X3 = C) E Total E (X' = N) z (X3 = N, R' = H)

A. Analysis of the Subgroup with R', Rz, R4 and Re Unrestricted but X' = C

This group is quite numerous(n = 54). While looking at its geometry it is importantto say that both CN bonds are of the same length, whereas anglesa and y differ only slightly. This reflectsthe similarity of the chemicalnatureof both nitrogen atoms and might suggest a relatively concerted substituent effect on the n-electron system of NCN(X)N which results in equalization in bond lengths and bond angles, although the latter is to a much lesser extent. B. Analysis of the Subgroup with R', Rz, R4 and R* Unrestricted but Xa = N

This numerousgroup (n = 146) consists of guanidiniumcation derivatives. Compared to the former group(X3 = C), variancesfor all structuralparametersare smaller.Even the deviations from the planarity of this group are less exhibited than in the former one. This may result from the easier delocalization of the n-electronsdue to equal (or almost equal) electronegativities of all three nitrogen atoms involved in the skeleton. C. Analysls of the Subgroups with R' = R* = R' = Re = H and either Xa = C or X' = N

These two groups differ rather slightly from each other. The CN bond lengths for the

X3= N group are somewhat longer than for the X3 = C group. A greater difference is found

for the fl angle which, for the X3 = N group, is 1.23"smaller than for the X3 = C group. The greater equalization of c1, p and y values in the X3 = N group may result from possible interactions of NH fragmentswith anions in the environment, involving all three nitrogen atoms in question. The application of the factor analysis to the structural parameters of this group and its subgroupsshows that all five factors are necessary to reproduce the total variance (the fifth smallest factor is still larger than 9.0%). This seems to suggest low cooperative effects due to variations of the substituents in the NCN group in amidinium cation derivatives. IV. ANALYSIS OF SUBGROUPS OF AMlDlNE DERIVATIVES

This group consists of 346 entries and may be described by the mean geometry as presented in Figure 17. Full geometrical and statistical data for this group and all its subgroups are given in Table 18. The most important characteristicsof this group are: a significantdifferencebetween CN(s) and CN(I)equal to 0.041 A, and c1 > y, by 1.76".This picture for bond lengths becomes even more distinct while coming to subgroups with X3 = C with CN(1) - CN(s) = 0.056 and for X3 = S with CN(1) - CN(s) = 0.069A, respectively. For the latter case a - y = 4.35". The differencein CN bond lengths is the smallest

T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

132

X

c

a 5 n8.2

R4-

1.3C?/l21.1\1346

N

N -R'

I

R2 FIGURE17. Mean geometry of the amidine skeleton of group 3 (amidine derivatives) for the X 3 = N group. Undoubtedly, the three nitrogen atoms bound to the same functionalcarbon atom behave similarlyand hencedelocalization of the n-electronsin the NCN fragment is easy, with CN(I)- CN(s) = 0.035 8. The sequential relationships between the structuralparametersof this groupand all its subgroupsaregiven in Table 19. The whole group as well as all subgroups exibit deformations from planarity. The mean geometries for the subgroupsare presented in Figures 18,19 and 20. Regressionalanalysis carried out within group 3 and its subgroups has not given any chemically important results.The results of the factor analysis are given in Table 20. In all cases (except X3 = S) TABLE 18. Structural and statistical data for amidine derivatives. DilTerentiation of the sample is by the C-X3 bond. All other substituents R', R2, R4 and R 5 (if present) are unrestricted Type of subsample Total (342)

CN(3) (197)

CC(3) (94)

CS(3) (35)

Parameter

s

va@) esd(P) P(min) P(max)

P

var(P) WP) P(min) P(max)

P

var(P) esd(P) P(min) P(max)

s

var(P) esd(P) . P(min) P(max)

CN(s)

CN(I)

CX

a

P

Y

A

1.303 0.0015 0.038 1.103 1.476

1.346 0.0012 0.035 1.158 1.481

0.0215 0.147 0.938 1.938

1.441

120.48 22.9 4.8 89.19 140.19

121.05 23.3 4.8 103.37 136.40

118.24 21.4 4.6 97.14 137.81

0.023 0.0011 0.034

1.301 0.0018 0.043 1.103 1.423

1.336 0.0009 0.030 1.158 1.442

1.363 0.0014 0.037 1.252 1.499

120.17 14.7 3.8 106.85 135.84

121.84 18.0 4.2 110.78 136.50

117.64 16.3 4.0 105.23 128.12

0.025 0.0001 0.037

1.303 0.0013 0.036 1.252 1.476

1.359 0.0015 0.039 1.266 1.481

1.488 0.0011 0.032 1.354 1.607

120.21 34.3 5.9 89.19 132.19

120.27 27.3 5.2 103.37 131.90

119.29 21.1 4.6 110.25 137.81

0.022 0.0010 0.032 0.000 0.274

1.299

1.368 0.0010 0.032 1.327 1.472

1.767 0.0010 0.032 1.719 1.839

122.06 34.3 5.9 110.23 140.89

120.33 35.5 6.0 108.64 132.39

117.71 42.5 6.5 97.14 125.92

0.016 O.OOO1 0.010 0.003 0.051

0.0005

0.022 1.235 1.338

0.000

0.274

0.000

0.274

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

133

TABLE 19. Statistical analysisof differencesbetween the mean values of structuralparametersF, [CN(I), CN(s), CX, a, fl and y] 'for amidine derivatives. Differentiationof the sample is by the C-X3 bond. All other substituentsR', RZ, R4 and R5(if present)are unrestricted.The sequence for a given parameterwith significant differencesis assigned by the sign of inequality <, and for insignificant differences by the sign of approximateequality 1

CS z CN P Total z CC CN < Total < CC z CS CN < Total < CC < CS CN 1 CC P Total = CS CC c CS 1 Total c CN CS < CC E Total < CN

C" CNU)

cx a

P Y

N izaz R4-

I

117.6

1301/121.8\1.337

N

N -R'

I

R2 FIGURE 18. Mean geometry of the amidine skeleton of group 3 with X 3 = N . R', R2 and R4 are unrestricted

C

c

120.2 119.3

R4-

1.303/120.3\.359

N

N -R'

I

R2 F'IGURE19. Mean geometry of the amidine skeleton of group 3 with X3=c. R', R2 and R4 are unrestricted

five factors are necessary to reproduce more than 95% of the total variance.In the case of the X3 = S group, four factors are needed to give a 96.3% explanation.

134

T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

S 122.1

R4-

c19.77 117.7

1.299/1~~\1.368

N

N -R'

I

R2 FIGURE20. Mean geometry of the amidine skeleton of group 3 with X3 = S. R .' R2 and R* are unrestricted TABLE 20. Results of factor analysisfor amidinederivatives. Differentiationof the sample is by the C-X3 bond

Factor number

Percent of explanation of the total variance by factors in subgroupsof 3 Total

CN

cc

cs

1 2

29.9 27.6

4

14.6 9.3 0.4

37.0 28.7 20.8 7.8

34.9 24.6 17.3 14.3 5.5 3.4

46.1 29.3 11.4 10.6 3.6 0.1

3 5

6

18.2

5.0 0.6

A. Structural Comparison of the Mean Geometries of NC(X)N Skeletons in Amldlne and Amidinlum Salt Derivatives

Both groups of compounds, 3 and 3 , i.e. amidine and amidinium salt derivatives, are of comparable amounts, containing 346 and 234 entries, respectively. The a_midinederivatives 3 exhibit the greater mean value of deviation from planarity A=0.023A in comparison to 0.014 for the 3' group. The analysis of the shape of the distribution of A values for the 3 and 3 groups supports the conclusion that the NC(X)N skeleton in the amidinium salt derivatives is often less deformed from planarity. An obvious differenceis in the CN bond lengths, the mean values of which for group 3' areequal to each other and have a very small value of variance0.0005A, whereasfor group 3 these bonds are significantly(at a = 0.05) differentiatedin length with much larger values of variances,0.0015 and 0.0012 for CN(s)and CN(I),respectively. Undoubtedly, in group3' the equalization of the CN bond lengths as well as the more planar shape of the NC(X)N skeleton results from the delocalization of the positive chargevia the n-electroneffect. This effect is weaker in group 3, except in cases of dimers formed in the crystal lattice by amidine derivatives with R' or R2 = H. The differencesin bond angles in the NC(X)N fragment of the 3 and 3' groups fit our previous conclusions.In the amidinium salt derivatives the mean value of a is equal to the mean value ofy with /?= 120.73. In the case of amidine derivatives fi = 121.05,and it is only slightly larger than in the 3 group, but E > 7, with the difference being quite large, 2.24'.

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

135

V. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF IMIDATE DERlVATiVES

Imidates and their derivatives belong to class 4 of Scheme 1 and retrieval from CSD gave 79 imidate entries. The labellingof bonds and bond angles is given in Figure 21. Imidates may be again classified according to the nature of the C-X3 link, and four subgroups have been selected from the total sample. The mean geometry of the imidate skeleton is given in Figure 22. The most striking fact observed in the mean geometries of all subsamples is the large value of a. Since this angle is opposite the C-0 bond, it may be interpreted within the frame of the Walsh rule13.j. The electronegativity of the oxygen atom (x = 3.5) may cause the increase in the value of a. The structural and statistical data for imidates and some subsamples are gathered in Table 21. We can analyze the planarity of the N=CX30 skeleton in a way similar to that employed before, applying as a measureof deviation from planarity the value of A defined previously (Figure 1). The mean value of A for the total sample (0.016A) is significantly different from zero at the significancelevel a = 0.05. This observation is in line with that for amidines (groups 3 and 3’ in Scheme 1). Table 22 presents the results of the statistical analysis of the sequence for the changes of structural parameters for the total group of imidate derivatives and for all its subgroups as well. The application ‘of principal component analysis to the data of the whole sample of imidate derivatives as well as to the above-mentioned subsamples leads to the results collected in Table 23. The main conclusionis that, except for the X3 = C subsample,for all subsamples five or four factors are enough to reproduce from 90 to 95% of the total variance(in the case of X3 = 0, even threefactors).This could support the conclusionthat, in the imidate derivatives, the substituents affect the skeleton in a way giving more concerted changes in the structural parameters. A. Analysis of Subsamples with either R’ and R3 or R3 and R‘ Unrestricted

The sample containing 79 entries is not a group of homogeneous systems. The substituents (R’, R3, R4) may differ by the first atom linked directly to the atoms of the

R3

R4-N

YC T p 0-R’

FIGURE21. Assignment of bonds and angles for imidate derivatives

X 11.493 124.5 cl15.9

-N

1.289/119.5\1.328

0-

FIGURE22. Mean geometry of the imidate skeleton

T. M.Krygowski and K. Woiniak

136

TABLE 21. Structural and statistical data for imidate derivatives with R' and R 3 unrestricted Type of subsample

B

Y

A

Parameter

CN(s)

CO

CX

P

1.289 0.00 10 0.032 1.205 1.387

1.328 0.0010 0.032 1.224 1.418

1.493 0.0415 0.229 1.170 2.099

124.55 10.8 3.3 115.10 133.17

119.51 18.0 4.2 108.06 126.75

1 15.86

0.016 0.0002 0.015 0.0 0.058

P

1.276 0.001 I 0.033 1.205 1.302

1.332 0.0010 0.031 1.304 1.398

1.744 0.0016 0.040 1.17 1.804

124.21

1 18.03

2.3 121.02 127.41

117.68 26.4 5. I 113.21 124.97

39.0 6.2 107.21 124.26

0.024 0.0002 0.014 0.004 0.052

P

1.302 0.0001 0.008 1.285 1.3 11

1.324 0.0006 0.024 1.299 1.383

1.319 0.0002 0.014 1.298 1.336

123.48 2.048 1.4 121.75 126.51

120.49 12.9 3.6 114.80 123.51

1 15.98 8.6 2.9 I 12.69 121.56

0.012 0.0001 0.015 0.0 0.037

P

1.311 0.0020

1.334 0.0006 0.025 1.29 1 1.366

1.285 0.0083 0.09 1 1.173 1.484

125.61 9.7 120.54 129.72

3.1

117.75 53.7 7.3 108.06 125.01

I 16.49 24.2 4.9 I 1 1.92 123.80

0.021 0.0004 0.02 1 0.0 0.058

1.323 0.0012 0.035 1.224 1.418

1.492 0.0041 0.064 1.415 1.850

124.15 12.7 3.6 115.10 130.94

119.23 9.8 3.1 115.01 126.75

1 15.56

0.0 14 0.0002 0.0 14 0.0 0.048

var(P) esd(P) P(min) P(max) va@) esd(P) P(min) P(max) vam esd(P) P(min) P(max) var(P) =d(P) P(min) P(max)

P

0.044

1.264 1.387

1.284

vam esd(P) P(min) P(max)

O.OOO9

0.030 1.231 1.346

a

5.1

19.3 4.4 107.21 124.26

113.7 4.4 109.17 121.92

TABLE 22. Statistical analysis of differences between the mean values of structural parameters Pj [CN(I), CN(s), CX, a, B and y ] for imidate derivatives with R' and R3 unrestricted.The sequencefor a given parameter with significant differences is assigned by the sign of the inequality <, and for insignificantdifferences by the sign of approximate equality g

(X3 = S ) r ( X 3= C) r Total r ( X 3 = N) g (X3 = 0) (X3 = C) E (X3 = N) =Total g (X3 = S) 2 (X3 = 0) (X3 = 0 ) r ( X 3 = N) <(X3 = C ) r T o t a l <(X3 = S) (X3 = N ) r ( X 3 =C) r ( X , = S)=Total 2 ( X 3 = 0) (X3 = S) g (X3 = 0)E Total r (X3 = C) 2 (X3 = N) (X3 = C) g Total c (X3 = N) r ( X 3 = 0)z (X3 = S) TABLE 23. Results of factor analysis for imidate derivatives with R' and R3 unrestricted Factor number 1 2 3 4 5 6

Total

X3=0

X3 = N

44.6 27.9 15.5 7.3 4.7 0.0

81.7 11.8 4.0 2.3 0.2 0.0

44.2 24.7 20.2 9.7 1.2 0.0

x3

=c

50.1 19.5

15.2 8.1 7.1 0.0

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

137

TABLE24. Structuraland statisticaldata for two groupsof imidatederivatives,the first with R' and R2unrestricted(X3 = C, X3 = H andX3 = N), and the otherwith RZand R3 unrestricted(X' = C and X I = H) ~

~

Type of subsample

Parameter

CN(s)

CO

CX

x3= c

B

1.288 0.004 2 0.034 1.205 1.387

1.332 0.0009 0.030 1.282 1.398

1.565 0.0665 0.258 1.173 2.099

125.51 9.7 3.1 1 19.79 133.17

118.70 19.5 4.4 108.06 125.01

115.68 20.3 4.5 107.2 1 124.26

0.022 0.0003 0.017 0.0 0.058

1.284 0.0008 0.030 1.231 1.312

1.317 0.0002 0.015 1.299 1.344

1.413 0.008 1 0.090 1.298 1.527

124.25 3.9 2.0 121.44 127.35

120.38 11.4 3.4 115.37 124.16

115.36 18.7 4.3 109.17 121.56

0.010 0.0001 0.010 0.0 0.041

P

1.293 0.0005 0.022 1.266 1.325

1.326 0.0045 0.067 1.224 1.418

1.429 0.0078 0.088 1.318 1.521

121.60 24.9 5.0 115.10 129.61

122.24 8.4 2.9 188.5 126.75

116.14 10.9 3.3 111.90 121.20

0.014 0.0002 0.015 0.0 0.041

P

1.287 0.00 10 0.032 1.205 1.387

1.331 0.0008 0.028 1.282 1.418

1.495 0.0468 0.216 1.173 2.099

124.94 9.2 3.0 118.23 133.17

119.27 17.8 4.2 108.06 126.75

115.70 19.1 4.4 107.21 124.26

0.017 0.0002 0.016 0.0 0.058

1.309 0.0001 0.0 10 1.298 1.325

1.289 0.0010 0.032 1.224 1.314

1.402 0.0086 0.093 1.298 1.521

121.81 11.7 3.4 115.10 124.83

1 18.92 10.3 3.2 115.37 123.70

119.26 5.5 2.3 I 15.36 121.56

0.008 o.oO01 0.008

(39)

X3=H (19)

var(P)

esd(P) P(min) P(max)

B

vam

esd(P)

P(min) P(max)

var(P) esd(P) P(min) P(max) X'=C (70)

var(P) esd(P)

P(min) P(m4

P var(P)

esd(P) P(min)

P(max)

a

B

Y

A

0.004

0.017

imidate skeleton ( X I , X 3 and X4, respectively) and may produce quite different structural changes of the skeleton. Figure 22 presents the labelling of the structural parameters, whereas Table 24 contains the structural and statistical parameters for subsamples extracted from imidate derivatives (group 4) by fixing X3 = C, X3= H and X3 = N. The most numerous subsample, n = 41, is the one with X2= C and X' and X3 being varied. First of all, testing the hypothesis on the planarity of the NX'CO skeleton leads to the same conclusionas for the whole sample, that is, A = 0.014 A is significantlydifferentfrom zero at a = 0.05. The other structuralparameters, two of them being chemically fixed, i.e. C-NZ and C-0 bonds, vary very strongly and in a way which makes it difficult to carry out any analysis. These two types of bonds, however, in spite of the possibility of being involved in the a-electron conjugation, in general,do not interact in an expected way. If this conjugation occurred, one would expect a mutual dependence between the lengths of the CN and CO bonds with a negative slope. In this kind of plot the correlation coefficient r = - 0.51 was obtained, and it is significantlydifferent from r = 0 at the a = 0.05 level. This kind of dependence, however, gives no perspectives for any quantitative interpretation. Of many other plots, only two seem to be interesting and significant:tl vs CN and a vs CO bond lengthsgive r = 0.64 and - 0.58, respectively,and they support the conclusion

T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

138

that the electroniceffects of the substituentsat various sites affect these three parametersin a relatively concerted way, as already shown above for the CN vs CO bond lengths. The application of principal component analysis shows that three main factors explain 50.1, 19.5 and 15.2% of the total variance, i.e. altogether 84.8%. The next two explain 8.0 and 7.1%, being distinctly lower in significance.The last factor is close to zero, which results from the almost complete planarity of the skeleton and from the restriction that the three angles must add up to 360". Apart from subsamples whose structural parameters are given in Table 21, one can consider anotherpartitioning in which the principle of division involves atoms linked to the nitrogen (N-X group) and oxygen (0-X group) atoms. Table 24 also contains structural and statistical parameters for these subsamples. The most interesting features are relatively short CN bond lengths,the longest being for the OX' subgroup(1.309 A) for which the CO bond is the shortest (1.289 A). VI. ANALYSIS OF IMlDlNE DERIVATIVES

From this group of compounds (5 in Scheme 1) only 13 fragmentscould be retrieved from CSD. The mean geometry of this group is presented in Figure 23, whereas the full geometrical and statistical characteristics are presented in Table 25. An important feature of the mean eometry of the NCN skeleton is that CM(I) is considerably longer than CN(s), 1.384 and 1.314 A, respectively. The largest of all bond angles is the central CNC angle equal to 122.33' with a relatively large variance 11.8°2, which is significantly greater than 120" at c( = 0.05. The large value of this angle seems to result from the repulsion of substituents at both functionalcarbon atoms. Factor analysis applied to NC(X)N fragmentsshows that to reachmore than 95% of the explanation of the total variance, five factors have to be used.

f

X'

R :4

N

/

X

r

119.Lp 121.7 \122.3/1k.9\1.315 N 1.384

N - R"

I

R' FIGURE23. Meangeometry of the imidineskeleton of

group 5

TABLE 25. Structuraland statisticaldatafor imidinederivatives (5). All substituentsR,' R2, R4 and R5 (if present) are unrestricted Type of subsample

Parameter CN(s)

CN(1)

CX

a

B

Y

A

1.384 0.0010 0.031 1.307 1.460

1.431 0.0316 0.178 1.213 1.762

121.74 24.0 4.9 109.35 131.77

118.85 21.8 4.7 110.33 127.70

119.36 13.7 3.7 112.29 128.63

0.013 0.0002 0.013

~~~

Total (13)

P

var(P)

esd(P) P(nm

P(max)

1.314 0.0009 0.030 1.264 1.381

0.OOO 0.048

2. Structural chemistry of amidines and related systems

139

VII. GENERAL REMARKS AND FINAL CONCLUSIONS

A. Planarity of the NC(X)N and NC(X)O Skeletons

While considering the NC(X)N skeleton in amidines, amidinium cations and imidine derivatives and the NC(X)O skeleton in imidate derivatives and looking throughall tables one can conclude that for all groups and subgroups the NC(X)N and NC(X)O fragments treated as averagedstructuresshould not be taken as planar.The largestvalue of A = 0.274 A observed for guanidinium tricarbonatotrifluorothorate(IV)g is quite large, but this is rather an exception and the mean values of A are in the range O.ooS~-O.OSO A. Chemical implicationsdue to this nonplanarityseem not to be importanteven if the mean values of A are always different from zero in a statistically significant way at the significance level o! = 0.05. How to interpretthis finding?It is well known that the force constants for out-ofplane deformations in rigid systems such as in aromaticones, are one order of magnitude smaller than for the deformation of the bond angle^^.^.The packing forces, which operate in the crystal lattice are strong enough to cause deformations from planarity, which indeed are observed. Only in a small fraction of the systems (4.8% of the cases) do we observe planarity (i.e. Ai = 0). In these cases the forces operating may be either very weak and hence little deforming, or quite strong but operating in opposite directions and cancelling each other in the skeleton in question. Table 26 presents the frequency distribution of A values calculated for the whole sample of amidine and amidinium salt derivatives. TABLE 26. Frequency of deviation of the carbon atom from the N'XN2 plane for the whole sample

Range of A

% of NC(X)N

O.OO0 o.OO0-0.005 0.005-0.010 0.010-0.015 0.015-0.020 0.020-0.025 0.025-0.030 0.030-0.035 0.035-0.040 0.040-0.050 0.050-0.100 > 0.100

4.8 22.6 17.7 14.2 10.9 7.3 7.5 4.5 2.0 2.5 3.7 2.3

(4

entries

B. Equalization of NC Bond Lengths in the NCN Fragment

Another generalfeature of the amidine skeleton is the relation between the shorter and longer CN bond lengths, i.e. CN(s)and CN(I),respectively. In many cases these two bonds are of similar length. In general,this is observed for two situations:(a)when amidines can form dimers in the crystal lattice and (b) in the case of amidinium salt derivatives. Additionally, it may occur in the case of amidine derivatives with substituents acting by a push-pull effect. Let us illustrate all three cases.

140

T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

( a ) Equalization of CN bond length due to dimer formation in the crystal lattice. In the case of amidine derivatives with at least one N-H bond at one of the nitrogen atoms in the NCN skeleton, dimerization may be observed in the crystal lattice (see Figure 13). As an illustration let us consider the crystal and molecular structure of N,N'diphenylformamidine'' presented in Figures 24 and 25. Figure 24 shows the arrangement of the dimers of N,N'-diphenylformamidine in the crystal lattice. The NCN planes as shown in Figure25 are not coplanar in both parts ofthe dimer; the dihedral angle between them is equal to 180-40.4 = 139.6'. This makes the situation even more complex, but this noncoplanarity results from the very low value of the force constant of N-H, ., N bond bending.

FIGURE24. Projection of the cell content along the Z-axis. Only half of the cell is presented

FIGURE 25. Scheme of the spatial arrangement for NCN skeletons in dimers of N,N'diphenylformamidine'

2. Structuralchemistry of amidines and related systems

\N/c\

H

I

N/

1

H

-

141

2%/

\ON H

I

NO

I

H

FIGURE 26. Canonical structures for (NCNH) in dimers

To understandthe natureof the interactionswe apply the approximateestimation of the N-H.. .N interaction energy given by equation 4 E(N.. .H) = E(N-H)exp(a[R(N-H)

- W...H)l)

(4)

where E(N-H) and R(N-H) stand for the energy and bond length of the N-H bond in ammonia, respectively, whereasE(N.. .H) and R(N.. .H) standfor the energy of the N.. .H bond (interaction)with the interatomicdistance R(N.. .H), respectively. Quanitity a is an empirical constant estimated for the case when R(N.. . H) and E(N.. .H) are known (for H'. .. N - interaction a = 4.01 5). The application of this formula to N-H.. .N interactions in the above-mentioned dimer yields E = 29.2 kJ mol- I . This relatively strong interaction causes the two canonical structures of the NCN skeleton to be taken into account while analyzing its geometry in the dimer. This is shown in Figure26. It seems that both canonical structuresparticipate with almost equal weights, resultingin equalization of CN bond lengths. ( b ) Equalization oJ CN bond lengths in the case of amidinium cation derivatives, It is usually accepted that in the case of amidiniumcation derivatives the values of the two CN bond lengths are CN(s) z CN(1). This is well supported by the mean values of CN bond lengths for this class of compounds (Table 16). However, in many individual cases the intramolecularstructureof the compound would suggest the equality of CN bond lengths, whereas the observed values are not equal to each other. This is particularlywell observed for cases with R' = R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H. Let us consider a typical example: the molecular structure of guanidinium carbonatela for which Figure 27 presents the geometry and the closest contacts. When equation 4 is applied to NH.. .0 interactionsone can obtain E(N'H ...0-')= 13.0kJmol-', whereas for the NZH...0-aand N3H ...O-' interactions the energies are considerable larger, 23.6 and 33.7 kJ mol- respectively. In these calculations a (the empirical constant in equation 4) is estimated to be equal to 4.338'6*'7.It is immediately apparent that the C-N bond with the NH, group must weakly interacting with the oxygen atoms of the carbonate anion is the longest (1.358 A). This may be understood, since in the two other NH, groups much stronger H-bond interactionscause the appearanceof a negative chargeat the nitrogen atom which may be partly delocalized along the CN bond. Hence, these two CN bonds are considerably shorter.

',

T. M. Krygowski and K. Wozniak

142

0

0

33.7 kJ.md-

0'

.o'

0 13.0 kJ.mol-'

FIGURE27. Geometry and H-bonding net for the guanidiniumcation in its carbonate salt". The numbers at the H atoms are the N . . . O interatomic distances

FIGURE28. Canonical structures for amidine derivatives with an electron-accepting substituent attached at imine nitrogen atom

(c) Equalization of CN bond lengths us u result of substituent ejrects via push-pull interactions. In the case of an electron-acceptinggroup attached to the imine nitrogen atom, one can expect an increasein the weight of the canonicalstructureI1 with a localized negative charge at the accepting group A (Figure28). This intramolecularcharge transfer should be reflected in the equalization of the CN bond lengths. Let us consider as an illustration the molecular geometry of N,N-dimethyl-N-sulf~nylarnidine'~ in which the CN bond lengths are equal to 1.307(5) A and 1.314(4)A. The application of the HOSE model'' (i.e., the model which allows to obtain the weights of canonical structures directly from the geometry of the n-electronmolecule or a fragmentof it), gives weights for the first and second canonicalstructuresequal to 53 and 47%, respectively. In the case of a weaker accepting substituentZ1,i.e. p-nitrophenyl, these values are 67 and 33%, respectively. It should be noted here that the delocalization of the n-electronsin the NCN skeleton depends not only on the accepting properties of the R4 substituent at the functionalcarbon, and in the case of R3 = tert-buty12' these weights are 85.2 and 14.8%

143

2. Structuralchemistry of amidines and related systems

respectively. Undoubtedly, conformational conditions may affect in these cases the ITelectron delo~alization'~. These two effects, namely the push-pull one from the R4 substituent (if it is electron accepting) and the steric one from R3, make the general situation very complex. C. Sequence of the Variation of Structural Parameters Analyzed along Main Groups

The data in Table 27 show the results of the sequence analysis of the structural parameters for all main groups including the structures3, 3', 4, 5 and (3 3). The most

+

TABLE 27. Sequence of parametersin all main groups of amidine and

amidinium cation derivatives C W

CNO)

cx

U

B Y

A

4 < 3 z (3 + 3')1 5 z 3 3' EqC-0) < (3 + 3') < 3 < 5 3' 2 5 z (3 + 3 ) z 3 c 4 3' < (3 + 3 ) 1 3 5 < 4 5 = 4 < 3' E(3 + 3') z 3 4 < 3 z(3 + 3 ) P 5 z 3 5 E3' 1 4 < (3 + 3') < 3

planarNC(X)N skeletons [or NC(X)O skeletons] are in the systems belongingto groups 5, 3 and 4. The NC(X)N skeleton in group (3+ 3) is significantlymore deformed than the former ones. Most deformed are the NC(X)N skeletons in structures of group 3. With a few exceptions the sequencesof 8 and 7 anglesaregenerallyopposite in direction, and this is true also for the CN(s) and CN(I) bond lengths. These observations are very approximate and true only for averaged structures. In individual cases they may often not be maintained. D. Variation of the Angle /I and the Problem of the Conflguration of Amidine Derivatives

The amidine derivatives (group 3) may be considered in terms of geometrical isomerism aroundthe CN(s) double bond. Formally, one can select four possible isomers as shown in Figure 29 for the case when R-one of the substituents at N'-is ;i hydrogen atom. The spatial relations between thesubstituents at N', NZand the functionalcarbonatom follow the rules given by Cahn, Ingold and Prelog (Figure 29). An interesting observation that the angle p depends on the size of R3 and on the configuration at N2 has been made by Ciszakz2. She has found that for formamidines, benzamidinesand acetamidines,all in configurationN2(E),the angle p is 122.9, 119.0 and 118.5", respectively. For those amidines which are in configurationNz(Z), the angle /l is as large as 125.9'. These results, although observed on a relatively stnall sample, are very important. First, the sample was chosen from not very complex systems and with wellsolved geometry. Second, it shows a relation between the configuration at N2and the NCN angle,which is of great interest in the field of amidine derivatives. She has also found that for < 124" mostly the N2(Z) configuration occurs. Moreover, the fact that in the series of formamidines,benzamidines and acetamidinesthe /3 value decreasesfor the N2(E) configurationmay simply mean that the /l value depends on spatial requirements 0f_R3. Considering the values of pfor the (3+ 3') group (Tables 4 and 9) it can be seen that /l for formamidines has indeed the largest value, supporting broadly the former conclusion.

144

T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak

I

I

R’

R‘

N2(Z) ” ( E l (cis,trans)

N ~ ( E ) NI(E) ( trans, trans 1

FIGURE 29. Assignment of the spatial arrangementsfor the amidine skeleton according to Cahn, Ingold and Prelog VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by project G-MEN 178/90 ofthe Polish Ministry ofNational Education. IX. REFERENCES 1. Cambridge Structural Database (CSD); for details see F. H. Allen, S. Bellard, M. D. Brice, B. A. Cartwright, A. Doubleady, H. Higgs, T. Hummelink; B. G. Hummelink-Peters, 0. Kennard, W. D. S. Matherwell,J. R. Rogers and D. G. Watsan, Acta Crystallogr.,B35233 1 (1979), See also F. H. Allen, 0. Kennard and R., Taylor, Acc. Chem. Res., 16, 146 (1989) and F. H. Allen, ‘The retrieval and analysis of precise structural information from CSD files’, Lecture Notes of 11th Course of InternationalSchool of Crystallography, Erice, Italy, 24 May-6 June, 1985: Static and Dynamic Implications of Precise Structural Information, CNR Reports, Technogralico, Roma,

1985. 2. J. C. D. Brand and J. C . Speakman,Molecular Structure, the Physical Approach, Arnold, London, 1960; see also J. Bernstein, Lecture Notes (quoted in Ref. I), p. 269. 3. T. M. Krygowski, Prog. Phys. Org. Chem., 18,291 (1990). 4. A. .I Kitajgorodzki, Molecular Crystals and Molecules, Academic Press, New York, 1973. 5. T. M. Krygowski and I. Turowska-Tyrk, Chem. Phys. Lett., 138, 90 (1987). 6. G . Hafelinger,in The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates (Ed. S. Patai), Wiley, London, 1975, pp. 1 a 7. J. B. Czerminski, A. Iwasiewicz, Z. Paszek and A. Sikorski, Statistical Methods in Applied Chemistry, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1990.

2. Structuralchemistry of amidines and related systems

145

8. T. M. Krygowski and K. Woiniak, in Similarity Models irt Organic Chemistry, Biochemistry and Related Fields (Eds. R. 1. Zalewski, T. M. Krygowski and J. Shorter), chap. I, Elscvicr, Amsterdam, 1991. 9. S. Voliotis, Acta Crystallogr., B35, 2899 (1979). 10. R. 1. Zalewski, in Similarity Models in Organic Chemistry, Biochemistry c~ndRelated Fields (Eds. R. I. Zalewski, T. M. Krygowski and J. Shorter), Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1991. 11. R. Anulewicz, T. M. Krygowski and B. Pniewska, J . Cryst. Spectr. Res., 17, 661 (1987). 12. D. 9. Owen, Handbook of Statistical Tables, Addison- Wesley, Reading, 1962. 13. H. A. Bent, Chem. Rev., 61, 275 (1961). 14. J. E. Huheey, J. Phys. Chem., 69, 3284 (1965). 15. H. Endres, N. Genc and D. Nothe, Acta Crystallogr., C39, 701 (1983). 16. T. M. Krygowski and S. J. Grabowski, submitted. 17. T. M. Krygowski, M. K. Kalinowski, I. Turowska-Tyrk, P. C. Hiberty, P. Milart, A. Silvestro, R. D. Topsom and S. Dahne, Struct. Chem., 2 (1991). 18. J. M. Adams and R. W.Small, ACCRCrystallogr., B30, 2191 (1974). 19. R. Anulewicz, T. M. Krygowski, Ch. Laurence and E. D. Raczybska, J . Phys. Org. Chern., in press. 20. T. M. Krygowski, R. Anulewicz and J. Kruszewski, Acta Crystallogr., 839, 732 (1983). 21. E. Ciszak, M. Gdaniec, M. Jaskbski, 2. Kosturkiewicz, J. Owsianski and E. Tykarska, Acta Crystallogr., C45,433 (1989). 22. E. Ciszak, PhD Thesis, The University of A. Mickiewicz, Poznan, 1988.

CHAPTER

3

Stereochemical aspects of amidines. imidates and related compounds CHARLES L. PERRIN Departmenf of Chemistry D.006. University of California San Diego. La Jolla. California 92093.0506. USA

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I1. CONFIGURATION ABOUT C-N DOUBLE BONDS . . . . . . . . . A . Configurationsof Amidines and lmidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Configurationsof amidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Configurationsof imidate esters and imidic acids. . . . . . . . . . . 3. Configurationsof thioimidates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Configurationsof Conjugate Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Configurationsof amidinium ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Configurationsof amidinate anions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Configurationsof conjugate acids of imidate esters and of imidatonium ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Configurationsof imidate anions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . Configurationsof metal complexes of amidines. . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Configurationsof metal amidinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Configurationsof metal complexes of imidate esters and imidate anions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Configurationsof Amidines and Imidates with spz-C Substituents . . 1. Configurationsof N-alkylidene amidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Configurationsof N-acylamidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Configurationsof imidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Configurationsof N-Heterosubstituted Amidines and Imidates . . . . 1. Configurationsof N-aminoamidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Configurationsof amidrazones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Configurationsof amidoximes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates. Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and Z . Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

147

150 150 151 153 153 153 155 158 158 158 159 160 160 162 162 163 164 164 164 1.65 166 166 166 167

I48

C. L . Perrin

4 . Configurations of hydrazide derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Configurationsof hydroximates and related derivatives . . . . . . . E. Configurations of C-Heterosubstituted Amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Configurations of isothioureas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Configurations of haloformamidines and haloformimidates . . . . . 3. Configurations of C-metallosubstituted amidines . . . . . . . . . . . IT1 . CONFORMATION ABOUT C-N A N D C-0 SINGLE BONDS . . A . Conformations of Amidines and Imidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Conformations of amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Conformations of imidate esters and imidic acids. . . . . . . . . . . B. Conformations of Conjugate Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Conformations of imidatonium ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Conformations of metal complexes of amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Conformations of Amidines and Imidates with spz-C Substituents . . 1 . Conformations of N-acylamidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Conformations of imidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Conformations of N-acylimidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Conformations of N-Heterosubstituted Arnidines and Imidates . . . . 1. Conformations of amidoximes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Conformations of hydroximates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Conformations of C-Heterosubstituted Arnidines and lmidates . . . . 1. Conformations of guanidinium ions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Structure of iminocarbonates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. X-Ray Structures of Amidines, lmidates and Related Compounds . . IV . INVERSION AT NITROGEN AND ROTATION ABOUT C-N DOUBLEBONDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . Stereoisomerization of Amidines and lmidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. E-Z stereoisomerization of amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. E - 2 stereoisomerization of imidate esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. E-Z stereoisomerization of thioimidate esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Stereoisomerization of Conjugate Acids and Bases. . . . . . . . . . . . 1. E - 2 stereoisomerization of amidinium ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. E-Z stereoisomerization of amidinate anions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. E-Z stereoisomerizationofimidatonium ions and protonated imidate esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. E - 2 stereoisomerization of imidate anions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . E-2 stereoisomerization of thioimidatonium ions and protonated thioimidate esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. E - 2 stereoisomerization of metal complexes of amidines and of imidate esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Stereodynamics of Amidines and lmidates with sp2-C Substituents. . 1. Stereodynamics of N-alkylidene amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. E-Z stereoisomerization of N-acylamidines and N-acylimidates . . 3. E-Z stereoisomerization of imidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Stereoisomerization of N-Heterosubstituted Amidines and lmidates . 1. E - 2 stereoisomerization of N-aminoamidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. E-Z stereoisomerization of amidoximes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. E - 2 stereoisomerization of hydrazide derivatives. . . . . . . . . . . 4. E-Z stereoisomerization of hydroximates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Stereoisomerization of C-Heterosubstituted Amidines and Imidates . 1. E-Z stereoisomerization of guanidines ................. . 2. E - 2 stereoisomerization of gumidinium ions . . . . . . . . . . . . .

168 168 i69 169 170 170 171 171 171 171 172 172 173 173 173 174 174 174 174 175 175 175 175 176 178 178 178 179

180

181 181 183

183 184 184 185 185 185 185

186 I86 186 186 187 188 188 188 189

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines. imidates and related compounds 3 . E-Z stereoisomerization of isourea derivatives 4. E-Z stereoisomerization of isothioureas . . . . 5 . Stereoisomerization of iminocarbonates . . . .

............ ............

............

V. RATES O F ROTATION ABOUT SINGLE BONDS . . . . . . . . . . . A . Rotation about Single Bonds of Amidines and Imidates . . . . . . . .

1. Rates of C-N rotation in amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Conformational interconversion of imidates and thioimidates . . . B. Rotation in Conjugate Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Racemization of chiral amidinium ions and similar conformational interconversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Rates of C-N rotation in amidinate ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Rates of C-0 rotation in imidatonium ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Rotation of Amidines and Imidates with sp2-C Substituents . . . . . . 1. Rates of C-N rotation in N-acylamidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Rotation of N-Heterosubstituted Amidines and Imidates . . . . . . . . 1. Rates of C-N rotation in N-aminoamidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Rates of C-N rotation in amidoximes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Rotation of C-Heterosubstituted Amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Rates of C-N rotation in guanidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Rates of C-N rotation in isothioureas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . Rotation of haloformamidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Rotation of C-metallosubstituted amidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VT . STEREOCHEMICAL EFFECTS ON FORMATION O F AMIDINES, IMIDATES AND RELATED COMPOUNDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Formation of Stereoisomeric Amidines and Imidates . . . . . . . . . . 1. Formation of stereoisomeric amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Formation of stereoisomeric imidic acids and imidate esters . . . . 3 . Formation of stereoisomeric thioimidates . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . B. Formation of Stereoisomeric Conjugate Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Formation of stereoisomeric amidinium ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Formation of stereoisomeric imidatonium ions . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Formation of stereoisomeric metal complexes of amidines . . . . . C. Formation of Stereoisomeric Amidines with sp2-C Substituents . . . . 1. Formation of stereoisomeric imidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Formation of Stereoisomeric N-Heterosubstituted Amidines and Imidates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Formation of stereoisomeric aminoamidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Formation of stereoisomeric amidoximes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Formation of stereoisomeric hydrazide derivatives . . . . . . . . . . 4. Formation of stereoisomeric hydroximates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII . STEREOCHEMICAL EFFECTS IN REACTIONS O F AMIDINES, IMIDATES AND RELATED COMPOUNDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . Stereochemical Effects on Reactivity of Amidines and Tmidates . . . . 1. Reactions of chiral amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Stereoelectronic effects in reactivity of amidines. . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric imidate esters . . . . . . . . . 5. Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric thioimidates . . . . . . . . . . B. Stereochemical Effects on Reactivity of Conjugate Acids . . . . . . . . 1. Relative reactivities of diastereotopic groups in amidinium ions . . 2. Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric imidatonium ions and of diastereotopic groups in imidatonium ions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

149 190 190 190 192 193 193 197 197 197 198 199 199 199 200 200 200 201 201 201 202 202 202 202 202 203 203 203 203 204 204 204 204 204 204 205 206 207 209 210 210 210 211 214 215 215 215 216

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C. StereochemicalEffects on Reactivity of Amidines with spz-C Substituents 1. Relative reactivities of N-alkylidene amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Stereochemical Effects on Reactivity of N-Heterosubstituted Amidines and Imidates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric amidoximes . . . . . . . . . . 2. Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric hydrazidates. . . . . . . . . . 3. Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric hydroximates . . . . . . . . . E. Stereochemical Effects on Reactivity of N-Heterosubstituted Amidines 1. Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric isoureas and isothioureas . . VIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

220 220

220 220 220 220 222 222 222 222

1. INTRODUCTION A. Scope

This chapter is a review of recent developments in the stereochemical aspects of amidines,imidates and related compounds. It is an updatingof parts of two chapters from the 1975 volume on amidines and imidates:'Generaland Theoretical Aspects of Amidines and Imidic Acid Derivatives', by Hafelinger', and 'Constitution, Configurational and Conformational Aspects, and Chiroptical Properties of Imidic Acid Derivatives', by Fodor and Phillips2.The literature has been surveyed from 1974 to early 1990, and little effort was devoted to coverage of any pre-1974 publications that may have been omitted from the earlier volume. One other review on amidines, emphasizing their synthesis and reactions, has been published by Granik3. The structures under consideration all have the functional group N-C=N or 0C=N, as in amidines RC(NR;)=NR" or imidates RC(OR)=NR". Consideration is extended to thioimidates RC(SR')=NR", as well as to conjugate bases and conjugate acids, including alkylated species. Further extensions are to amidines and imidates substituted with an oxygen or nitrogen heteroatom at nitrogen, as in amidoximes RC(NR2)=NOH or hydrazidates RC(OR)=NNR;, or substituted with a heteroatom at carbon, as in guanidines R2NC(NR2)=NR" or iminocarbonatesROC(OR)=NR. We omit doubly heterosubstituted amidines and imidates, such as hydroxyamidoximes RC(NHOH)=NOH or aminoguanidinesR,NC(NR;)=NNR';. Also we omit heterocycles that incorporatethe N-C=N or 0-C=N grouping,except where these exemplify the behavior of amidines or imidates independently of their presencein a heterocyclic ring. If there is a proton on the singly bonded nitrogen (or oxygen), there is the further complication of tautomerism, and this is discussed in anotherchapter of this supplement4. The emphasis is on configurations and conformations of amidines and imidates. The principal topic is the characterization of the stereochemistry of the C-N double or partial-double bond and of the C-N or C-0 single bond. A further aspect is the interconversion of those configurations and conformations, by such mechanisms as nitrogen inversion and rotation about double, partial-double and single bonds. Most of the results presented will be NMR results, since NMR is such a powerful technique for answering such questions, far more direct than the older IR methods that rely on correlations of bands with structuralfeatures.However, little attention will be paid to the assignment of NMR signals, since chemical-shift correlations are now complemented by measurement of n-bond coupling constants "J and nuclear Overhauser enhancements (NOES),which are more secure. Further aspects of stereochemistry concern reactivity. Diastereotopic groups in an amidine or imidate molecule can react at different rates. Also diastereoisomeric

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

15 1

(diastereomeric) amidines or imidates can have different reactivity, and they may be formed at different rates, so that the product that is obtained synthetically is not necessarily the equilibrium material. Also, the stereochemistry of an amidine or imidate may induceconfigurationalor conformationalfeaturesin intermediatesalong the reaction pathway, and these may determine the course of the chemicalreaction,or its regiochemistry or stereochemistry. In particular, there are often stereochemical aspects of amidines (and imidates) that arise from chiral (stereogenic)centers,either in the amidine or imidate itself or in reaction intermediates or products derived therefrom. This review is organized according to the stereochemicalquestions that are considered. First the structural aspects are surveyed What are the configurations of amidines and imidates-the stereochemistry about the C-N double bond? What are the conformations of amidines and imidates-the stereochemistry about the C-N or C-0 single bond?Then the interconversionsof these stereoisomersaresurveyed-rates of E-Z stereoisomerization and rates of rotation about the single bond. Finally the consequences of stereochemistry for reactivity are surveyed Which stereoisomers are obtained from a chemical reaction? What are the relative reactivities of the different diastereoisomers (diastereomers)or of diastereotopic groups in the same molecule? Within each category of stereochemical questions the various functional groups are considered in turn. The order is approximately an order of increasing molecular complexity: amidines, imidic acids and esters, thioimidates, ionic conjugate acids and bases (amidinium ions, amidinate anions, imidatonium ions, imidate anions, plus metal complexes), amidines and imidates with sp’-C substituents (N-alkylidene amidines, Nacylamidines, imidines, N-acylimidates), N-heterosubstituted amidines and imidates (N-aminoamidines, amidrazones, amidoximes, hydrazidates, hydroximates), Cheterosubstituted amidines and imidates (guanidines,isoureas, isothioureas, haloformamidines, haloformimidicacids and their conjugate acids). There are frequent gaps in the record, where some stereochemicalquestion has not been addressed for some functional group, and it is hoped that this review will encourage researchers to answer these questions. We neglect the extensive investigations into chiroptical properties-optical activity, optical rotatory dispersion and circular dichroism-that were included in the original volume’. Although these are influencedby the amidine chromophore, the amidine itself does not carry the chirality, since it is planar. Instead we focus on those stereochemical aspects that are consequences of the chemistry of the amidine functional group. B. Nomenclature

Amidines are characterized by the RC(NR;)=NR” fragment, with the singly bonded nitrogen formally sp3 hybridized and the doubly bonded nitrogen sp2 hybridized. Imidate esters arecharacterizedby the RC(OR)=NR fragment,and imidic acids are RC(OH)= NR, althoughthis is the unstable tautomer of an amide RCONHR and cannotreadily be studied directly. The conjugate acids (amidinium ions and imidatonium ions) are obtained by protonating or alkylating these species on sp’ nitrogen, to create a resonance-stabilized cation. It should be noticed that an imidatonium ion is RC(OR)=NR;+, and the conjugateacid of an imidate ester is RC(OR)=NHR+, both of which arequite similar to the conjugate acid of an amide RC(OH)=NR;+, except that the latter is protonated on oxygen rather than alkylated. However, the conjugate acids of amides are discussed in another volume of this series. The conjugate bases of interest here (amidinate anions and imidate anions) are obtained by deprotonating from singly bonded nitrogen or from oxygen, respectively. The imidate anionRC(-0-)=NR is also the conjugate base of an amide RCONHR’, and these are discussed here. Also, amidines and imidate esters can

C. L. Perrin

152

form metal complexes RC(NR;)=NR”-+ M or RC(OR’)=NR”+ M, where a metal is bound to the sp2nitrogen.Since the metal is a Lewis acid akin to a proton, these complexes are analogous to amidinium or imidatonium ions. Thioimidates are characterizedby the RC(SR’)=NR” fragment.These are synthetically more accessible than ordinary imidates, but the stereochemicalaspects are quite similar. N-Alkylidene and N-acyl derivatives arecharacterizedby an sp2carbon (or phosphoryl phosphorus or sulfonyl sulfur) attached to a nitrogen, as in N-alkylidene amidines RC(N=CR;)=NR“, N-acylamidines RC(NR;)=NCOR” or RC(=NR‘)N(R”)COR”’ (or phosphorylated or sulfonated amidines), imidines (the tri-nitrogen equivalent of a carboxylic anhydride) RC(=NR)-N(R”)CR“’(=NR”’) or RC(NR2)= NC(R”)=NR”’, and N-acylimidates RC(OR‘)=NCOR”. N-Heterosubstituted amidines and imidates have the grouping N-C=NX or 0C=NX, where X is a nitrogen or oxygen substituent. These include N-aminoamidines RC(NR;)=NNR‘;, amidrazones RC(NR;)=NN=CR;, amidoximes RC(NR;)= NOR”, hydrazidates RC(OR’)=NNR’; and hydroximates RC(OR’)=NOR“. These are often configurationally more stable to inversion of the sp2 nitrogen than ordinary amidines and imidates, so that their stereochemistry has been more extensively studied. The C-heterosubstituted amidines and imidates include guanidines (R,N),C=NR‘, isoureas ROC(NR2)=NR”, isothioureas RSC(NR;)=NR”, haloformamidines XC(NR,)=NR and haloformimidates XC(OR)=NR, as well as their conjugate acids, suchas guanidiniumions (R,N)&+ and isouroniumions ROC(NR&+. These often show quantitatively different stereochemical features because the additional heteroatom is conjugated with the amidine or imidate group and reducesthe conjugationofthe lone pair on the singly bonded nitrogen or oxygen. The stereochemical designations of amidines and imidates are indicated by the structures 1Z-syn, 1Z-anti, 1E-syn and IE-anti in Figure 1. These use the Cahn-IngoldPrelog sequence rules of the IUPAC nomenclature system of organic chemistry. In Figure 1 it is assumed that the group R on carbon ranks lower than the group Y (0or NH) and that the group R‘ on Y ranks lower than N. (This is true in the usualcase that R or R’ is a carbon substituent.) The C-N double or partial-double bond is designated as Z or E, according to whether the higher rankinggroups are on the same side or opposite sides of the bond. The C-N or C-0 single bond is designated as syn or anti, also according to whether the higher ranking groups are on the same side or opposite sides of the bond. Notice that the designation syn or anti does not depend simply on the relationship of the singly bonded substituents on that single bond, but it considers the doubly bonded nitrogen as a group. This is opposite to the convention in the original 1975 volume of this series, and it is not always the way the stereochemistry was designated in the original publications summarized here, but for consistency we choose the same system not only for double bonds but also for single bonds that have double-bond character. For N,N‘disubstituted amidiniumions with differentsubstituentsthere areZZ (2227, EE(2EE), ZE ( 2 2 4 and EZ ( 2 E Z ) forms, as shown in Figure 2. The latter two are distinguished by R’

(12-syn)

R‘

(iz-onri)

(1r-syn,

( 1E-onrf)

FIGURE 1. Stereochemical designations of amidines (Y = NH) and imidates (Y = 0)

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds R

H

R

\

\

H -R -;(

i-"

H

(211)

H

\

H<-"

H+{-"

--H

.!

( 2EE )

7-"'

\

R H -+ ;

%-"

H

R

(22E)

(2E2)

R

FIGURE 2. Stereoisomers of N,N'-dialkylformamidiiiium

153

ions

specifying that the first descriptor refers to the nitrogen whose alkyl substituent ranks higher according to the sequence rules. The transition state for E-Z interconversion by rotation about the double bond is shown as 3. The transition state for E-Z interconversionby nitrogen inversionis shown as 4. NMR methods for measuringactivation energiesaredesignated with the nucleus('H or I3Cor other)and with the techniquefor extracting rates from spectra [time dependenceof signal intensitiesNMR(t), coalescencetemperature T,, line shape analysis LSA or saturation transfer ST]. All rate constants have been expressed in terms of the free energy of activation AG:. For uniformity in tables any activation energies reported in kJ mol- have been converted to kcal mol- ',with 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ. Entriesin tables are listed in order of increasingcomplexity of each successive substituent group.

'

II. CONFIGURATION ABOUT C-N

DOUBLE BONDS

A. Configurations of Amidines and lmidates 7 . Configurations of amidines

We begin with the question of whether amidines RC(NR;)=NR'' are of Z or E configuration. Much progress has been made in determining the stereochemistry of amidines since the previous volume, when only formamidoxime, azobis(N-chloroformamidine)and N,N-dimethylbenzamidinecould be assignedas E, and none was found as a mixture of two forms. Usually the stable form of an N,N,N'-trisubstituted amidine is Es. Indeed, chemical shifts for 65 different N-arylamidinesand guanidinescould be correlated using additivity parameters,so that all must be of the same E configuration6.In a survey of the Cambridge Crystallographic Database nine N,N,N'-trisubstituted amidines were found' to be of E stereochemistry.One disubstituted amidine was also found to be E. Two monosubstituted amidines, as well as the unsubstituted MeC(NH,)=NH, were found to be Z. In solution N,N,N'-trimethyl-p-nitrobenzamidine could be confirmed as E by NOE data. Moreover, the resonancecontribution to the dipole moment is only 0.880 in this compound, lower than the 1.810 in HC(NMe,)=NAr, where the small hydrogen permits coplanarity and thus delocalizationof the nitrogenlone pair into the C-N double bond. Despite this general

154

C. L. Perrin

preferencefor a singlestereoisomer,some casesshow two forms,as listed in Tables 1 and 2. For the adamantylidene derivatives, the Z and E forms were assignedgby comparison of NMR chemical shifts with those of other aziridinimines, and the E structure could be confirmed by X-ray analysis. Another case where two forms are observed is when hydrogen bonding provides stabilization to the Z form, as in HC(=NAr)-NMe, with Ar = o-hydr~xyphenyl'~, and the hydrogen bond could be confirmed by IR spectroscopy. Forphenyliminopyrrolidine(6, n = 5, X = H) there is a complication due to the presenceof the amino tautomer, so that early assignments and estimates of the E:Z ratio, based on chemicalshifts,arequestionable". On the basis of kinetic proton acidities in the conjugate acid, it was concluded1s that the more stable configurationof N,N'-dimethylacetamidine MeC(NHMe)=NMe is 2. This is the one that permits rotation about the C-NHMe bond to relieve methyl-methyl rcpulsions.

TABLE 1. Equilibrium between Z and E forms of amidines, RC(NRR)=NR"' R

R

R

H

H -t-BuCH--" -t-BuCH--" CH,CH=CH Me Ph CH,CH=CH Ph CH,CH=CH2 Ph CH,CH=CH, Ph CH,CH=CH, Ph Me Ph Me -2-Admantylidene-

o-ToI Me Me Me H Me Me Me Me Me t-Bu

R"'

%Z

Solvent CDCI, CCl,

CH,CH,OMe Me t-Bu Ph Ph Me Me Me CH,CH=CH, CH=CHCH, Me

cc1;

CCI, CCI, Cl'db C.SDsCD3 CD,COCD, CDCl, CDCI; CDCI,

75(25?) 30 22

8 9

0

10

0

11 11

ncr. 5.

'Various chlorinated solvents.

TABLE 2. Equilibriumbetween n

X

5 5 5 5 5

6 6 6 6 7

7

2,6-Cl, H H

Z and E forms of cyclic amidines, 6

Solvent

%Z

Ref.

CDCI, CDCI, CDCl, CDCl, CD,OD CDCI, CD,COCD, CD,OD CDCl, CDCl, CD,OD

loo

12 13 12 12 12 13 13 13 12 13 13

0

90 20

90 64 14

loo

>O

85 100

Ref.

56 > 50 15 15

>O

10

9 5 5

10 10 9

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

155

TABLE 3. Calculated energies (kcalmol- ') of stereoisomericformamidines, HC(NHR)=NR

H H H H H (CH2)3NH2

(CHANH, H

H H H

H H H H Ph

>O 0.6

2.94 1.6 2.1

0.08

1.00 0.72

CND0/2 3-21G

4-31G 4-31G 6-31 1 +G**/MP3

+

MNDO

STO-3G MNDO

16 17 18 19

20

21

21 22

Molecularorbital calculationson some formamidinesHC(NHR)=NR' generallyshow that the E form is most stable. The results for these derivatives are summarized in Table 3. The preferenceis not large,so that steric interactionsof substituentscan readily reverse the stabilities. Also, according to CNDO/2 MO calculations'6 on HC(NH,)=NH, the molecule is not planar,but the singly bonded nitrogen is pyramidalized. However, this is likely to be an artifact,as in some calculationson amides. According to the X-ray structure of N-hexamethylene-N'-p-nitrophenylformamidine, an amidine (7) is planarz3,in order to achieve resonance stabilization or delocalization of the lone pair on the singly bonded nitrogen. Thereforethis nitrogen is only formally sp3, and it is actually sp', like the other nitrogen.The differencebetween them is that the doubly bonded nitrogen has its lone pair in an sp' orbital, whereas the singly bonded nitrogen has a lone pair that is p.

2. Configurations of imidate

esters and imidic acids

Since the earlier review in this series', it is now thoroughly establishedz4that the E form of imidate esters is more stable than the Z. The dipole moment of MeC(OMe)=NMe is nearly the same as that of 2-methoxy-A1-pyrroline,whose cyclic structureconstrainsit to be E. The NMR signals of RC(OR)=NMe can be assigned unambiguouslyto Z and E isomers on the basis of the 5JRCNMe, as well as through lanthanide-induced shifts. Moreover, it was possible to detect a long-range through-space 6J,F in the E form of (CH3)2CHC(OMe)=NC6H4F-o, which confirms the stereochemical assignments. The proportion of Z form for various imidate esters is listed in Table 4. The proportion of the Z form is increasedby polar solvent^'^.Likewise, hydrogen bonding to added acids, such as phenols,increasesthe proportion of the Z form of PhC(OMe)=NMe, and the proportion increases with the acidity of the phenol, from 7.2% with p-t-butylphenol in PhNOz to 17.5% with p-bromophenol. It can be seen that electron-withdrawing groups in the aryl ring of MeC(OAr)=NMe stabilize the E formz6, since these favor coplanarity, which is not possible in the Z form. Another generalsituation where there areappreciable amounts of the Z imidate ester is when steric effects destabilize the E form. Thus HC(OMe)=NBu-t and PhC(OMe)=NMe areexclusively E, but PhC(OMe)=NBu-t at - 10 "Cisa mixture of 62% E and 38% Z, assignedz5 by NMR chemical-shift correlations and nuclear

156

C. L. Perrin

TABLE 4. Equilibrium between Z and E forms of irnidate esters, RC(OR')=NR"

R H H Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me t-Bu t-Bu Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph o-ToI o-FC~H, o-CIC~H, o-BrC,H, a-IC,H, o-O~NC~H, I-Naph

R Me Et Me Me Me Me Ph Ph pTol pTol p-CICBH, P-02NC.5H4 Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me

R

Solvent

t-Bu

CD,C12 CDC1,

m-C1C6H, Me Me Et Et Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me i-Pr t-Bu CI i-Pr i- Pr i-Pr i- Pr i-Pr i-Pr i-Pr

cc1,

CD,OD CCI, CD,OD CCI, CD,OD CCI,, CDCI, CD,CN CDCI, CDCI, CCI, CD,OD CDCI, CD,CI, CD,OD PhOH-PhN02 PhOH-PhN02 CD2C12 CDCI, PhOH-PhNOz PhOH-PhNO2 PhOH-PhN02 PhOH-PhN02 PhOH-PhN02 PhOH-PhNO2 PhOH-PhNO2

%E 100

< 100

100 95 100 95 69 56 61 80 80 90 81 11 98 100 93 89 82 62 25 91 85 89

90

88 92 86

Ref. 25 5 24 24 24 24 24 24 26 26 26 26 24 24 21 25 21 21 21 25 28 21 21 27 21 21 21 21

Overhauser enhancements. On the other hand, ortho substituents on the aryl ring of ArC(OMe)=NPr-i shift the equilibrium toward the E form". A cyclic imidate ester (8),formed as a mixture of diastereomers, has been assignedz9as the 2 isomer, on the basis of the generalization2that this is the more stable. Although the generalization is not universal,it does apply for this cyclic case, where the C-0 bond is constrained to be syn (see Section III.A.2 below). Besides, here there is an intramolecular hydrogen bond that stabilizes the Z form.

(8)

X-ray analysis30of PhC(OMe)=NC(NMe,)=Cr(CO), shows that this too is the E stereoisomer. This contrasts with P~C(OCOP~)=NC(C-BU)=C~(CO)~~', where the

157

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

CNC angle is nearly 180".The latter structureis better viewed as PhC(OCOPh)=N+= C(t-Bu)Cr(CO),-, so that Z and E lose significance.The nitrogen lone pair here is needed to stabilize the carbene, whereas the Me,N nitrogen is sufficient in the contrasting PhC(OMe)=NC(NMe,)=Cr(CO), . N-Chloroimidate esters2*may be an exception where the Z form is more stable, if the NMR assignments are reliable. This is consistent with the relative stabilities of stereoisomeric hydroximate estersRC(OR)=NOH (Section II.D.5).However, according to MNDO calculation^^^the E stereoisomer of HC(OR)=NCI is more stable than the Z by 0.4 kcal mol-' for R = Et and by 2.6 kcal mol-' for R = Me& In agreement, for TABLE 5. E/Z e q ~ i l i b r i u r n ~for ' . ~thioimidate ~ esters, RC(SR)=NR

R Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Et Et Pr t-Bu t-Bu PhCH, PhCH, Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph O-HOC,H, o-HOC~H, O-HOC~H, o-HOC~H, o-HOC~H, o-HOC~H, o-HOC~H~ o-HOC~H,

R Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Et Et i-Pr t-Bu PhCH, PhCH, Ph p02NC6H4

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Et Et Et i-Pr i-Pr t-Bu t-Bu Ph Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me

R" Me Me Et Pr i-Pr Bu t-Bu Ph Me Ph Me Me Me Ph Me Me Me Me Me Me Ph i-Pr Ph Me i-Pr Me t-Bu Ph Me Ph Me Ph Me Me Me PhCH, PhCH, Ph Ph 1-Naph 1-Naph

Solvent

CDCI, C6D6 C6D6 C6D6

C6D6 C6D6 C6D6

C6D6 C6D6 C6D6 C6D6

C6D6

CDCI, C6D6 C6D6

CDCI, CDCI, C6D6

CDCI, CDCI, CDCI, C6D6 C6D6

PhNO, CHBr, C6D6

CDCI, CDCI, C6D6

CDCI, C6D6

CDCI,

C6D6

CDCI, DMSO CDCI,

DMSO

CDCI, PY-d5 CDCI, CDCI3-DMSO

%E

64

76 74 73 77 74 84 95 73 95 75 92 79 94 10 85 50 51 38

0 0

69 90 56 39 58 17 56 42 49 52 86 6

0

57

0

69

0

87

0

60

158

C. L. Perrin

RC(OEt)=NCI (R = Me, Pr, Bu, s-Bu) the NMR spectrum indicates that the former is a mixture, but the latter is a single isomer. 3. Configurations of thioimidates

The separate Z and E forms of thioimidate esters, RC(SR')=NR", can be distinguished by 'H NMR and the peaks a s ~ i g n e d ~ 'The . ~ ~proportion . of E form at equilibrium is given in Table 5, and additional data for ortho-substituted thiobenzimidate esters ArC(SMe)= NPr-i are available. Also, the configurations of some of these in the crystal were determined by comparing the NMR spectra after dissolving the crystalline material. As with ordinary imidate esters (Section II.A.2) the E isomer is usually more stable. It can furtherbe seen that bulky R groups at carbon favor the Z form, whereas bulky R at sulfur or R at nitrogen favor the E, but only slightly. As with ordinary N-isopropyl benzimidate esters ArC(OMe)=NPr-i, ortho substituentsshift the equilibrium toward the E form. The position of the equilibrium depends on solve'nt, with more polar solvents favoring the Z form. For example, for MeC(SBu-t)=NMe, which is 92% E in C6D6, there is 80% E in CDCI, and only 60% E in CD,OD. Also, as with ordinary imidate esters the proportion of (Z)-PhC(SMe)=NMe increaseswith the acidity of an added phenol, from 73.6% with p-tbutylphenol in PhNO, to 83.9% with p-bromophenol. With S-methyl ohydroxythiobenzimidates, o-HOC,H,C(SMe)=NR, the configuration in CDCI, is entirely Z, since only this configurationcan form an intramolecularhydrogen bond with the ortho hydroxyl, but in solvents that compete for the hydrogen bond there are again substantial amounts of the E form. B. Configurations of Conjugate Acids and Bases 1 . Configurations of amidinium ions

The antibiotic imipenem (9) and a model N-alkyl formamidinium ion H,NCH= NHR+ (R = CH,CH,SC,H,CO,--o) are present,, at equilibrium in water as a 2:1 mixture of Z and E stereoisomers.They could be characterizedby 'H and "C NMR, and they areseparableby HPLC or crystallization. X-ray analysis verified that the major form is 2.

(9)

(10)

In CDCI, the cyclic amidiniumion 10(R = p-TolCHP0,OMe-) is presentj5as a 30:70 mixture of Z and E forms, assignedon the bais of 'H NMR chemicalshifts. With other ring sizes the proportions change slightly, but in C D 3 0 D these are entirely the Z isomer. In CF,COOH the tri-substituted formamidiniumion HC(NEt,)(NHPh)+shows' a ,JHCNH of 17.3 Hz, consistent only with an E stereoisomer. The previous cases were simple, in that their substitution patterns permit only Z and E isomers. With patterns of lower symmetry the question of isomerism is more complicated, since each C-N partial double bond can be Z or E. As Figure 2 shows, there can then be up to four stereoisomers,althoughthe Z Z isomer (222) is usuallyabsent, owing to severe

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

159

TABLE6. Equilibrium between ZE and EZ stereoisoiners of amidinium ions RC(NRMe)(NHR)' R

H Me Me Me

Me Me

Me Me Me

R

R"

H H Me H

Me H Me i-Pr

H H H H

CHZPh t-Bu CH&Me= CH

H

Bu neoPen

%ZE

Ref.

5(O/,EE)

37 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 39

96(%Z) < 2 (%Z)

54 52 61 38 85 38

steric repulsions,and with identical nitrogens the EZ (2EZ) is not different from the Z E (2ZE).The Z E stereoisomerof N,N'-diphenylacetamidinium ion MeC(NHPh),+ has been verifiedJ6by X-ray crystallography. The 'H NMR spectrum of N,N'-dimethylformamidinium ion" HC(NHMe),+ in aqueous HCl shows two N-methyl peaks, at 6 3.70 and 6 3.49, corresponding to the inequivalent methyls of the dominant Z E stereoisomer. There is also a peak at S 3.62, due to the EE isomer. These peaks were assigned on the basis of the ' J . N,N'-Dialkylamidiniumions with two different alkyl groups exist almost exclusively as a mixture of Z E (2ZE)and EZ (2EZ) stereoisomers (Figure 2), although formamidinium ions have an additional EE form (2EE). These may be assigned on the basis of NMR chemical shifts, since an E substituent is generally downfield of the Z, as in amides. The proportion of Z E form for a series of N-alkyl-"-methyl amidinium ions in DCI/D,O is listed in Table 6. Also included are the monomethyl and trimethyl acetamidinum ions. The NMR spectrum of the drug mifentidine, HC(NHPr-i)(NHAr)+, Ar = p: imidazolylphenyl, shows4' two differentCH signals,in the ratio 6:4. These are attributed to the EE plus the Z E or EZ forms. The puzzling equilibrium constants in N-t-butyl-N'-aryl- and N,N'-diarylformamidinium ions can now be understood. It had been observed4* that electrondonatingsubstituentsshift the equilibriumtoward the ZE form. This was considered to be contrary to resonancetheory that predicts that the EE isomer, which can be coplanar,will be stabilized by electron-donating substituents. Thereforethe Z E form was considered to be stabilized by dipolar interactions. However, it is clear that electron-donating substituents cannot delocalize the positive charge of the amidinium ion, even when it is planar, whereas electron-withdrawing substituents can delocalize the lone pair on the nitrogen and stabilize the EE form, as observed. Relative stabilities of stereoisomeric N-methyl-N'-phenylformamidinium ions HC(NHMe)(NHPh)+have been calculated4' by MO theory. The EE isomer is most stable, with the EZ 0.56 kcal mol- higherenergy, and the ZZ > 0.65 kcal mol- higher. Since it is likely that the relative stabilities are determined by steric interactions in a structure constrained to be planar, molecular mechanics calculations might be useful in estimating stereoisomer energies for a wider range of such ions.

'

2. Configurations of amidinate anions

It is surprising that the stereochemistry of amidinate anions RC(NR); is so poorly established. They are isoelectronic to the well-known case of carboxylic acids, where lone pair repulsions or dipole-dipole interactions strongly favor the 2 form. Therefore

C. L. Perrin

160

it might be expected that the Z Z form of an amidinate anion would be favored. However, mutual repulsions of bulky substituents on the nitrogens could favor the ZE form, and solvation or counterion effects might favor the EE form. A 3-21G MO c a l c ~ l a t i o non ' ~HC(NH),- shows that the Z Z form is most stable, with the Z E form 3.7 kcal mol- less stable, and the EE form 12.2 kcal mol- ' less stable. A 631 1 + + G**/MP3 calculationZoshows that the ZZform is most stable, with the EE form 5.5 kcal mol - higher in energy. In CD3NHz the 'H NMR of the anion HC(NMe),- showsJ7equivalent methyl peaks down to - 56°C. From the 4J,c-c- of 0.5 Hz it was concluded that this is the EE stereoisomer. In order to account for the preferential formation of the Z stereoisomer of 5, it was proposedg that lone pair repulsions favor the ZZ stereoisomer of the amidinate tBuCHBrC(NMe)(NR)-, not only for R = Me but also for R = t-Bu.

'

'

3. Configurations of conjugate acids of imidate esters and of imidatonium ions

The equilibrium between Z and E isomers of protonated imidate esters is indicated in Table 7. For the conjugate acid MeC(OTo1-p)=NHMe+ only the Z form could be detectedz6, even though the imidate ester itself is 80% E. The reversal is attributed to interferenceof the hydrophobic aryl group with solvation of the proton. Also, for the imidatonium ion HC(OMe)=NMeAr' (Ar = 2 , 6 - X ~ 1 ) the ~ ~ equilibrium favors the E form by ca 3:l. 4. Configurations of imidate anions

An imidate anion RC(-0-)=NR is isoelectronic to carboxylic acids and esters RC(= Since these are syn as regards the C-0 single bond, owing to lone-pair or dipole-dipole repulsions that destabilize the anti conformer, an imidate anion may be expected to be Z (112) rather than E (114 as regards the C-N double bond. Results of MO calculationson the conjugate bases of formimidic acids are listed in Table 8. They all agree with this analogy to carboxylic acids and esters. However, according to calcul-

0)-OR.

0\c=N

0-

\

/H

f="\

/

TABLE 7. Equilibrium between Z and E stereoisomers of protonated imidate esters, RC(OR')= NHR"'

R

R'

R"

Solvent

'X z

Ref. ~~

H Me t-Bu Ph Ph Ph Ph o-FC,H, o-CICAH,

Et p-Tol Me Me Me Me Me Me Me

Me Me Ph i-Pr Ph Ph 2,6-Xyl i-Pr i- Pr

CD3N0, H'/H20 HW.4 CF,COOH CF,COOH CHC1,COOH CF3COOH CF3COOH CF3S03H

< 100

> 87 81.0 91.8 60.6 68 65.3 91.4 84.1

44 26 27 21 21 27 27 21 21

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

161

ations4' solvation by a molecule of water stabilizes the E form more than the 2,so that the relative stabilities may be reversed in solution. Although stereochemicalaspects of amides have long been studied, imidate anions were neglected until recently. The stereoisomeric N-alkylformimidate anions, HC(-0-)= NR, have been c h a r a c t e r i ~ eby d ~'~H NMR. Each exists as an equilibrium mixture of Z and E forms. Rapid reprotonation preserves that mixture's proportions and creates the parent N-alkylformamide in a nonequilibrium mixture of its Z and E forms, which equilibrate on standing.The E/Z equilibriumconstants for the imidate anions are listed in Table 9. With few exceptions the E stereoisomer is more stable than the Z , and even those exceptions disappear if the imidate anion is compared with its amide, where the Z form has an inherentlygreater stability. This is contrary to the simple molecular orbital calculations above, but it is consistent with the calculated effect of solvation. Indeed, the A So for isomerization of E imidate anion to Z is + 10 - 20cal mol-' deg-', suggesting a difference in solvation. The discrepancy between the calculated stabilities and the experimental ones can then be attributed to steric hindrance by the N-alkyl group to TABLE 8. Calculated relative stabilities (kcal mol- ') of stereoisomeric formimidate anions, HC(-0-)=NR

R H H H H H H Me

E(E) 0 0 0 0" 0 0 0

7.0 >O 6.9 2.7" 5.4 3.6 4.7

Method

Ref.

3-21G 4-336 4-31G 4-31G MP4SDQ 6-31 1 + + G**/MP3 6-31G**

45 46 47 47 47 20 47

"Imidate rnonohydrated.

TABLE 9. Equilibrium constants, K = [ Z ] / [ E ] , for N-alkylformimidate anions, HC (-0-)=NR, at 22°C

R Me t-Bu CH,Ph CH,Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph m-To1 p-Tol 3,5-Xyl m-MeOC,H, p-MeOC,H, p-BrC,H, m-O,NC,H,

K

Solvent DMSO-d, DMSO-d, THF DMSO-d, THF c-HexOH-dioxan c-HexOH DMSO-d, HOCH,CH,OH EtCONHMe EtCONHMe EtCONHMe EtCONHMe EtCONHMe EtCONHMe EtCONHMe EtCONHMe

4.09 0.19 < 0.03 0.26 < 0.07 0.17 0.42 0.3 1.02 0.37 0.30 0.25 0.22 0.41 0.31 0.29 0.26

-

Ref. 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49

162

C. L. Perrin

solvation of the Z form, and the solvent dependence of the equilibrium constant is consistent with this interpretation. The relative stabilities of stereoisomeric imidate anions correspond to the relative acidities of diastereotopic protons of amides. It follows from thermodynamics that the greater stability calculated for (2)-HC(-0-)=NH means that HE is the more acidic proton of formamide. This contrasts with protonated or 0-alkylated acyclic amides (see Section VII.B.2), where HZis more acidic than H,. The differencearises because relative stabilities of the stereoisomeric imidate anions are determined by lone-pair/lone-pair repulsions, whereas stabilities of the imidate esters are determined by dipole/dipole interactions. As further evidence for the greater acidity of HEin formamide, it has been foundSo by STO-3G molecular orbital calculation that OH- hydrogen bonds more strongly to this proton. Moreover, it is quite a general observation5' for primary amides that HEundergoesbase-catalyzed proton exchangefaster than H,. However, in nonpolar solvents it is H, that is faster,and in secondary amidesSZand a lactarn', it is also H, that is faster. These results were rationalized by recognizing that an E imidate anion can be stabilized more than the Z by solvent or counterion,and that a Z N-alkyl group interferes with that stabilization, as described above to account for the relative stabilities of stereoisomeric N-alkylformimidate anions. 5. Configurations of metal complexes of amidines

Amidines (and imidate esters) can form metal complexes RC(NR,)=NR +M [or RC(OR)=NR +MI, with a metal bound to the sp2 nitrogen. These are analogous to amidinium (or imidatonium) ions. However, since the metal is a high-rankingsubstituent accordingto the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog sequencerules,the metal complex of a Z ligand is of E stereochemistry, and vice versa. In CDCI, the methyl(dimethylglyoxime)cobalt(III) complex of N,N'-dimethylformamidine,HC(NHMe)=NMe + M [M = MeCo(DMGH),], is a 1:2 mixture of Z and E isomers, di~tinguishable~~ by the larger 4JHCNCH, of 1.5Hz in the E isomer. For the bis(amidine)complex, [HC(NHMe)=NMe + I 2 M [M = Co(DMGH),], in CD,CN each of the amidine fragments can be Z or E independently, but only the EE isomer, with a 4 J ~ c ~ ,of - ~0.5 , Hz, could be detected. The E stereochemistry is presumably favored on steric grounds. The nickel complex, MeC(NRR)=NH +NiL, where L is a tridentate ligand, is a mixture of Z and E forms, distinguishableS5by 'H NMR. For R = R = Me, there is only 9% Z in CDCI,, and none in DMSO. For R = Et, R' = H, there is an 8:7 mixture. The PtCI,(N=CPh) complex of PhC[N(t-Bu)CH,CH,NHBu-c]=NH is a mixture of stereo isomer^^^about the C-N double bond. By comparison of the NH chemical shifts with those of chelated model compounds that must be Z, it was concluded that the major form is E, present to 90% in CD2C12,or 67% in CDCI,. In support, the crystallineform was found to be E by X-ray analysis. 6. Configurations of metal amidinates

Treatment of N,N'-dimethylacetamidine with Me,M (M = Al, Ga, In) produces5' the Me,M" salt of the amidinate, MeC(NMe),-. According to mass spectrometry this is dimeric, and the IR/Raman spectra show that it is centrosymmetric. Therefore the stereochemistry must be ZZ, with an eight-membered ring. Many metal complexes of amidinates have the metal bonded equivalently to both nitrogens,and the Z Z configurationof the complex, or the EE configurationof the ligand itself, can be confirmed by X-ray analysis.Among the complexes are MoCI,' and ReCI," complexes58of CIC(NPr-i),-, AICI,+ and SnCI," complexes59of PhC(NSiMe,),-, the

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

163

Me,AI+ complex6’ of PhC(NSiMe,),-, 2:1 complexes6’ of this amidinate with TiCI,” and and anionic complex62 of this amidinate with SnCI,F, vanadium complexes6’ of HC(NTo1-p),-, the 2:l complex64 of MeC(NTo1-p),- with Pd’,, and CpMo(CO),+ complexes65of RC(NPh),- [R = 2,4-cyclopentadienyl and CpMo(CO),]. Also, there are various dimetal (Ag,, Cu,, Ir,, quadruply bonded Mo,, Re,, Cr, and Rh,) salts with 2, 3 or 4 amidinate counterions such as PhC(NPh),-, PhC(NMe),- or HC(NTo1-p),- that have the two metals in close proximity. This again requires the ZZ configurationof the complex, or the EE configurationof the amidinate ligand itself, which is confirmed66 by X-ray analysis. A similar structure is seen6’ with the tetrameric [HC(NPh)2-Au+]4. The further complication of chiral centers at the metal and at both alphacarbonsis seen with the CpMo(CO),’ complex6’ of PhC(NCHRPh)(NCHR’Ph)-. 7. Configurations of metal complexes of imidate esters and imidate anions

Reaction of the nickel acetonitrile complex, MeCN-NiL,Ar (Ar = c&, L = PhPMe,) with methanol or ethanol produces6’ MeC(OR)=NH +NiL,Ar as a mixture of stereoisomers, in ratio 5:3 for R = M e or 8:s for R=Et. With the phenylacetonitrilecomplex these ratios are 5:1 and 7:2. Forthe bulkier L = Ph,PMe only one isomer is formed. Although the Z and E stereoisomerscould be distinguishedby their NMR spectra, they were not assigned. Similarly, various tungsten complexes, RC(OR’)=NH + Mo(CO),, appear” as a mixture of Z and E forms, with different ‘Hand 13C NMR spectra. No interconversion could be detected up to 60 “C. The chromium analog is a single stereoisomer. Subsequently,the H NMR spectra of such stereoisomers,but of the cationic complexes RC(OMe)=NH+NiL+ ( R = Me, Et or Ph, L = a tridentate ligand), have been assigneds5 on the basis of the proximity of substituents to the deshielding nickel. The E form of the complex (with Z imidate as ligand) predominates, to 60-75%, and the proportion of the E form increases at lower temperature. Addition of one or two moles of methanol to the coordinated benzonitrile ligands of either cis- or trans-(PhCN),PtCI, produces7’ the mono or di PhC(0Me)= N H complexes of the platinum. Forthe mono complex PhC(OMe)=NH + PtCl,(NCPh) there areZ and E forms (with E or Z imidate ester as ligand, respectively), and for the di complex [PhC(OMe)=NH +],PtCI, there are ZZ, ZE and EE forms. The NMR spectra were assigned on the basis of a downfield chemicalshift for the methoxy or ortho-hydrogenthat is cis to the platinum. The stereoisomers can be separated by chromatography or crystallization, and often a nonequilibriumdistribution of stereoisomersprecipitates from the reaction mixture. At equilibrium in CDCI, there is a 1:8:3mixture of ZZ, ZE and E E stereoisomers for the trans-diimidatoplatinum complexes,and a 1:10:7 mixture for the cis. Despite the proximity of the bulky phenyl and platinum, the E imidate complex is favored over the Z, especially in the cis, where a reciprocalinfluenceof the two ligands is thought possible. The crystal structure of the Cu(l1)complex of a bicyclic RC(OMe)=NR‘ shows72that the stereochemistry is E, as required by the polycyclic nature of the complex, and that the C-0 single bond is anti. The crystal structures of the dichromium complex of an N-arylacetimidate anion, q2(MeCONAr),Cr, (Ar = 2,6-Xyl) and of its molybdenum isomorph have been determined7,. Since this is an q2 complex, it is necessarilyZ, with an E imidate anion. Similarly, the q2 nature of the isocyanate or carbamate ligand of Cp*Tr(CO)(t-BUNCO)or Cp*Ir(OCONBu-t) requires74that the imidate anions be of Z stereochemistry as regards the C-N partial double bond. Most metal imidates whose stereochemistry is known involve coordination at nitrogen. One 0-metallated exception” is the difluoroboron complex of N-(4-fluoro-2-

164

C. L. Perrin

pyridy1)acetimidateanion. Its unusually high stability, relative to other difluoroboron complexes of enolic species, was attributed to intramolecular hydrogen bonding to the pyridine nitrogen. This then requires that the imidate be Z, and with a syn C-0 bond. C. Configurations of Amidines and lmidates with sp2-C Substituents

1. Configurations of N-alkylidene amidines

Molecular orbital calculations agree that the most stable form of HC(N=CH,)=NH is the planarZ-antistereoisomer(12). According to STO-3G MO calculation^^^the E-syn is 2.31 kcal mol- ' higher is energy. According to double-zeta SCF MO c a l c u l a t i o n the ~~~ E-syn, E-anti and 2 - s y n stereoisomers are respectively 1.0, 3.1 and 8.4 kcalmol-' less stable, with the last destabilized simply by steric repulsion. According to high-level ab initio MO calculations7*the most stable form is again Z-anti, although the E form, with the C-N single bond twisted by 60" (13), is only 0.59 kcal mo1-l higher in energy, and twisting the Z form by 43" requiresonly 1.33 kcal mol- I . The X-ray analysis of PhC(N= CHAr)=NBu-t (Ar = p-MeOC,H.,) does indeed show that the stereochemistry is Z about the C=NBu-t bond. However, the CHAr group is twisted 110" from the amidine plane, so that the sp2 lone pair on the CHAr nitrogen can be delocalized into the amidine C-N double bond. H-

c//"-H

H

\

N

\

N

H -C

4 \

N-CH2

2. Configurations of N-acylamidines

In general N-acylamidines RC(NR;) = NCOR"7' are exclusively of E stereochemistry. This probably arises becausethe N-C=N-C=O must be coplanarso as to delocalize the lone pair of the distant nitrogen into the carbonyl group. This means that the acyl group is effectively too bulky to give the Z isomer, where it would interferewith the syn NTABLE 10. Equilibrium between Z and E forms of acylamidines and phosphorylamidines RC(=NR')-NR"R"'

R H C1,CH CI,CH C1,C C1,CH CI&H CI,CH CIZCH C1,CH CI,CH

R'

R"

pTol Me Me Me Me Me I-Bu PhCH, PhCH, Ph

pTol Me Me Me

R"' COCH, PO(OEt), PO(OPr), PO(OEt), =PPh, -PPh, =PPh, =PPh, =PPh, =PPh,

Solvent

cc1,

CCI, CCI, CDCI, C6D6

CD,CN C6D6

CD,COCD, C6D6 C6D6

%Z

Ref.

0 48

80 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 81 81

44 100 68

19

48 71 51 0

-

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

165

alkyl groups. Neverthelessmany N-phosphoryl amidines,RC(=NR')-N(R")PX,: show two forms, perhaps becausethe phosphoryl group can delocalize electrons without strong conformational constraints. The E:Z proportions for some N-phosphoryl amidines in nonpolar solvents are listed in Table 10. In more polar solvents the Z form becomes more favoreds'. According to X-ray analysiss2 the acylamidine 14 is in the Z form, stabilized by intramolecular hydrogen bonding. In 15 the C-N double bond is exclusively E, accordingto the observed 5J of0.88 Hz, which is substantially lower than the 1.76 Hz seen in a model for the Z stereoisomer.

(14)

(15)

(16)

(17)

For the iminoisoindolone 16 (R = Me, R' = aryl) only one stereoisomer is observed, assigneds3 as E according to the shielding of the benzo ring by the aryl group, which is twisted perpendicular to the plane of the rest of the molecule. The same shielding was seen in the anti aminoisoindolinone 17 (R = Me, R' = aryl). However, for 16 (R = H, R' = aryl) there is a mixture of the E stereoisomer shown and the Z form, which predominates to the extent of 87-88% (or 100%for 2-pyridyl derivatives, which are capable of internal hydrogen bonding) in CDCI, and to 69-100% in DMSO. Similar behavior is seens4with other compounds 16 (R = H, R' = Me or Bu), which are 95-96% Z. In contrast, for R = R' = Me, NOE measurementsshow that the molecule is 100% E. For R = H, R ' = Me there is I1-12% Z, although in CDCI, the barrier to interconversion is low, so that the separate forms can be seen only below - 50°C. It is especially unusualto see the separate forms, since proton exchangeusually interconverts them. N-Sulfonylformamidines,HC(NR;)=NS02R", have been assigneds5as E accordingto CMR and IR spectra and analogy to other amidines. 3. Configurations of imidines

In CDCI, at 263-298 K the aminoiminoisoindoline 18 (Ar = p-Tol) occurs" as a mixture of 90% Z and 10% E about the exocyclic C-N double bond. The diimino species 19 is exclusively EE for Ar = Ph and R = Me, but for R = H there is a mixture of ZZ and ZE forms. The proportion of ZE isomer increasesfrom 28% for Ar = p-MeOC,H, to 37% for Ar = Ph,which is relatively electron-withdrawingand provides resonancestabilization when it is coplanar with the imidine. Electroniceffects are not the only determinant, since for electron-withdrawing Ar = 2-pyridy1, the material is 100% Z Z , owing to an internal hydrogen bond, even in DMSO. These stereoisomers can be distinguisheds7on the basis of chemical shifts. The ZE isomer is less symmetric and shows an ABCD pattern for the benzo ring, as well as inequivalent N-aryls if these carry methyl groups that can be resolved. The Z Z and EE forms show an AA'BB' pattern, and the benzo ring is more shielded in the EE form. For 19 (R = H) the proportion of ZZ form is increasedat higher temperature or in more polar solvents, whereas the ZE form is favored in solvents like DMSOand pyridine, which are hydrogen-bond acceptors that bind at the NH and repel the N-aryl.

166

C. L. Perrin NAr

NAr

(19)

(18)

The nickel(l1) salt of the imidine HN(CMe=NH), is necessarily ZZ (EE imidine) in order to chelate the nickel, and this is confirmed'' by X-ray analysis.

D. Configurations of KHeterosubstitutedAmidines and imidates Much progress has been made through studies of N-hydroxy, N-alkoxy and N-amino amidines and imidates, where the configurationalstability makes structuredetermination easier than in simple amidines or imidates. HegartyE9has reviewed this topic, from the viewpoint of the reactivity of nitrilium ions, 1. Configurations of N-aminoamidines

According to a STO-3G molecularorbital calculationg0the more stable stereoisomer of NCC(NH,)=NNH, is 2. 2. Configurations of amidrazones

The equilibria between 2 and E stereoisomers of amidrazones PhC(NHR)=NN= CMeCH,COR and also of their enamine tautomers PhC(NHR)=NNHCMe= CHCOR in CCI, have been determinedg1by 'H NMR. All are entirely Z except for one enamine with R = Me, which is 70% E. The correspondingconjugate acids are a mixture. For example, for R = H and R' = OEt the N-protonated keto form is 20% E and the Nprotonated enamineis 50% E. For some cyclic amidrazoniumions (20),the E / Z equilibria are given in Table 11. R"

R

(20)

TABLE 11. E/Z equilibriumg'in some amidrazoniumions, 20

R ~~

Me

Ph Ph Ph

R' ~

H H H

Me

R"

%E

H

35 33 20

~

H Me H

15

3. Stereochemicalaspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

167

3. Configurations of amidoximes Since amidoximes are configurationallymore stable than amidines, it seems that it would be easier to elucidate their stereochemistry. However, there have been several complications.One is that the Z stereoisomeris often the one that is formed more quickly by amineaddition to a nitrileoxide, and this then rearrangesat a measureablerate to the E isomer. Another complication is that the stable configurationof N,N-dialkyl amidoximes is different from that of N-alkyl or unsubstituted amidoximes. Besides, the resonance contributionto the dipole moment was sufficientlyuncertainthat some amidoximes were misassigned. The kinetically formed benzamidoximes ArC(NMe,)=NOH (Ar = p-MeOC,H,, p Tol, Ph, p-CIC,H,, p-O,NC,H,) were assigned" as Z through the use of paramagnetic shift reagents,and on heatingeach is converted to the more stable E form. Although these assignmentscontradict those based on dipole moments, furtherevidence was obtainedg3 from chemical shift correlations,aromatic solvent induced shifts and nuclearOverhauser enhancements.Conclusively, an X-ray analysisof the stable form of PhC(NMe,)=NOH showed that it is indeed E, as had been foundg4for MeC(NMe,)=NOH. FurtherNMR studies indicated that the kinetic product from addition of morpholine to the nitrile oxide p-O,NC,H,CNO is the Z form, which is converted to the more stable E form by heating or treatment with acid, and these assignmentsare in agreement with the dipole moments and with X-ray analysisg5of the stable form. Likewise, X-ray analysisg6showed that the stable isomer of PhC(NEt,)=NOH is E. Furtherdipole moment studiesg7showed that various RC(NMe,)=NOH and RC(NMe,)=NOAc are E. Nevertheless crystalline ArC(NHPh)=NOH (Ar = 2,6-C1,C,H,)98 is Z (and anti about N-0 and C-N). Also, ArCH(OH)C(NH,)=NOH [Ar = 3,4-(methyIenedio~y)phenyl]~~, PhC(NH,)=NOHg6 and the parent HC(NH2)=NOH'O0 are found to be 2-anti, and these assignmentsagree with dipole moment measurementsand chemicalshift correlations101~'02 on ArC(NH,)= NOH and ArC(NH,)=NOCOAr'. Further evidence from I5N NMR'O' shows that PhC(NHR)=NOH (R = H, Me or Ph) are Z, whereas PhC(NR,)=NOH [R,R = Me, Me or Ph, Me or (CH,),] are E, or perhaps a mixture of Z and E. The resolution of these apparently contradictory assignments is that with N,Ndisubstituted amidoximes,the initiallyformed Z isomer can be converted by heatingto the more stable E isomer. Howwever, with N-monosubstituted or-unsubstitutedamidoximes, the initially formed Z isomer is also the more stable one, owing perhaps to internal hydrogenbondingg3.Thus the stabilitiesdepend on the substitution pattern. The E form is the more stable for N,N-disubstituted amidoximes, but the Z form is more stable for N unsubstituted and -m~nosubstituted'~~. TABLE 12. Equilibrium between 2 and E forms of amidoximes, RC(NK'R)=NOR"

R &To1 p-Tol 2,6-CI,C6H, Mes" p-MeOC6H4 p-ClC6H4 3,5-C1,Mesa P-OZNCBH4 p-02NC6H4 "Mes= 2,4,6-Me,C,H2.

R

R

R"

Solvent

H Me H H Me Me H H Me

DMSO-d6 dioxan DMSO-d6 DMSO-d, dioxan dioxan DMSO-d,

HZO

dioxan

Ref. 83.5 12 62 67 12 13 62 67 12

105 106 105 105 106 106 105 107 106

C. L. Perrin

168

Some amidoximes are a mixture of Z and E stereoisomers,even though dipole moment measurements on ArC(NHR)=NOH, as well as cyclization by COCI, or SOCI,, had s~ggested'~' that these are of Z configuration. The proportions of the two forms are shows the interesting indicated in Table 12. N,N-Pentamethylene-p-nitrobenzamidoxime featurelo6of isomerizingin the solid to the E form,even though this is the less stable one in solution. 4. Configurations of hydrazide derivatives

In general,the more stable stereoisomer of a hydrazidate ester RC(OR')=NNR; is E, althoughthe 2 isomer is often the one formed faster'". This is discussedin Section VI.C.3. For RC(OMe)=NNMeAr [R = Ph or t-Bu, Ar = Ph, p-02NC6H4or 2,4-(02N)&H3] the equilibrium proportion of E stereoisomer ranges from 20 to 78%. Most hydrazonateesters RC(OR')=NN=CR; are a single stereoisomer, according to NMR'O'. However, with pivalate derivatives, which contain a t-butyl group, two forms (212,21E)can be detected, and three for a molecule with two hydrazonategroups (2222, plus Z E and E E forms). Since a t-butyl group can destabilize only the E form, it can be concluded that the simpler compounds that are a singleform must be E. Relative to other imidates, these show a greater preferencefor the E form. This may be due to a greater destabilization of the 2 form by repulsion between the 0-alkyl and the other nitrogen, in the anti conformation, or to repulsions between the oxygen and nitrogen lone pairs in the syn conformation.

O?

/C=N

7-

<Me

OMe

\

Me

OM* 'C=N

t - B u'"=N\N+Me

Me

t-BU

(21€1

(212)

/

/Bu-r ;=% OMe

t-Bu

(22 22)

According to 6-31G**/MP2 calculations'l o the 2 stereoisomer of the hydrazidoyl fluorideHCF=NNH, is 4.3 kcal mol- more stable than the E isomer. In agreement,the only available hydrazidoyl chlorides are the Z. This is opposite to the situation described above for hydrazidate esters, where the E form is slightly more stable. Perhapsthe stability of the Z halide is due to a generalized anomericeffect, arising from delocalization of the nitrogen lone pair into the C-X cr* orbital.

'

5. Configurations of hydroximates and related derivatives

Hydroximoyl and alkoximoyl halides had been a problem for several years. There had been some confusionfrom misassignmenton the basis of dipole moment studies, but X-ray analyses have been definitive. In particular, the stable isomers of p-O,NC,H,CCI= NOH' and p-0,NC6H,CCI=NOMe1'2 were found to be 2-anti. Equilibrationwith catalytic HCI shows''3 that the Z forms of various ArCCl=NOMe (Ar = Ph, p-O,NC,H,, p-Tol, p-CIC,H,, p-t-BuC,H,) are much more stable than the E . Originally these assignments had been mistakenly reversed, but the X-ray analyses show that the stable form is the 2 isomer. This is also consistent with the 'H NMR spectra, where the methoxy groupof the E form is shifted upfield by proximity to the aromatic ring, just as in hydroximate esters, ArC(OR)=NOMe. These in turn are of certain assignment, since several have been assigned by chemicalinterconversionand by correlationof 'H and I3C NMRs and melting points with the higher-meltingisomer of MeC(OMe)=NOH,

''

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

169

whose structure was contirmed'l4as Z by X-ray crystallography. Moreover, a series of hydroximoyl chlorides' l 5 shows consistency of the infraredand NMR spectra, so that all of these are Z. Although the Z isomer of an oximoyl halide is considerably more stable than the E, the stabilities of the alkoximate esters are more closely balanced.For PhC(OMe)=NOMe in acetic acid, the equilibrium mixture'l3 contains 32% Z, and 20% in benzene. With other substituents the equilibrium is hardly changed, except that with o-TolC(OMe)=NOMe there is only 12% Z in acetic acid. The contrast between halides and esters is not clear. Rationales based on dipole moments suggest that the E halide should be more stable. Thereforethe stability of the Z halide may again be due to a generalized anomericeffect, as proposed (Section II.D.4) for hydrazidoyl halides. E. Configurations of C-Heterosubstituted Amidines 7 . Configurations of isothioureas

N-Arylisothioureas, MeSC(NH,)=NAr, exist as a mixture"6 of Z and E stereoisomers, in nearly equal amounts.ForN-aryl-N'-methylisothioureas' the Z form is slightly favored, especially in more polar solvents. The proportion of Z form increases with electron-withdrawinggroups on the aryl ring, since the SMe is bulkier than the NH, and interfereswith a coplanar aryl. Similarbehavior is seen' I s for 2-(arylimino)thiazolidines in CDCI,-CD,OD, but in CDCI, intermolecularhydrogen bonding shifts the equilibrium to the Z form (23). N-Phosphorylated isothioureas(24,25) also exist as a mixture of Z and E forms, by 3 1 P and 13C NMR. The proportions of the stereoisomers are listed in Tables 13 and 14.

''

TABLE 13. Equilibrium MeSC(NH R)=NR

R H alkyl Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me

t-BU

I-BU

R' aryl alkyl Ph Ph MeP(0)OPh MeP(0)OPh MeP(S)OEt MeP(S)OEt MeP(S)OEt MeP(S)OEt MeP(S)OPh MeP(S)OPh MeP(S)OPh MeP(S)OPh PO(OEt), PO(OEt), PS(OEt), PWEO, PS(OEt), PS(OEt), PO(OEt), PO(OEt),

between

2

and E

Solvent CDCI,-CSZ CDCI, CDCI, CDC13-CS2 CD,COCD, CD,OD CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD,OD CD,OD CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD,OD CD,OD CD~COCD, CD,OD CD;COCD, CD,COCD, CD,OD CD~OD CDCI, CD,OD

forms

of isothioureas %E

Ref.

33-50 100 100 33 67 41 86 75 71 58 86

116 121 121 117 120 119 119 120 1 I9 I20 119 120 119 120 119 119 119 120 119 120 122 122

55

76 44 85 33 78 66 66 50 10 90

170

C. L. Perrin TABLE 14. Equilibrium between 2 and E forms of N-phosphorylated isothioureas RSC[N(R')PO(OEt),]=NR" R

R

R"

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Et Et Et Et

Me Me Me Me Me Me

Me Me Et Et i-Pr t-Bu Me Me Me Me Et i-Pr Me Me

Et Et

i-Pr t-Bu Me Me Et i-Pr

H RS-C

Ar

Solvent

%E

Ref.

42 46 47

121 123 .121 123 121 121 121 123 121 121 121 121 121 121

50 52 100 36 41

40

0

48 46 32 31

FR' \

RS-C

N--PO(OR"),

/

Me

(23)

(24)

/;IMe

\

N-PO(OR")~

R.i

(25)

The E/Z equilibrium constants have been determined'24 for a series of isothiouronium ions, RSC(NR;),+. Even if the two groups on a nitrogen are as disparate as hydrogen, methyl, benzyl or aryl there is little preferencefor one stereoisomer over the other. 2. Configurations of haloformamidines and haloformimidates

In CD,OD the 'H NMR spectrum ofCIC(NHMe),+ shows'2s N-methyl peaks at 6 2.9,

3.1 and 3.2, in a ratio of 1.2: 1.0: 1.0. These were attributed to 30% of the E E stereoisomer,

plus 70% of the ZE, which has inequivalentmethyls. However, the chemicalshift of the (E)N-methyl of the ZE isomer ought to be closer to that of the N-methyls of the EE isomer, and it may be that hydrolysis produced some CD30C(NHMe),+. The stereochemistry of this simple ion should be reinvestigated in an aprotic solvent. According to MNDO calculations'26 the E-syn forms of FC(OH)=NH and CIC(OH)=NH are 1.8 and 0.1 kcal mol-', respectively, more stable than the Z-anti forms. 3. Configurations of C-metallosubstituted amidines

Just as with simple amidinium ions, the 'H NMR spectrum of the cationic gold complex Au[C(NHMe),],+, with two N,N'-dimethylamidiniumligands,shows'27two different N methyls, so that it must be the ZE stereoisomer (26ZE, M = Au,,,). This is an Au(1) complex, but the same behavior is seen with the Au(II1) complex.

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

171

CH, (28ZE)

(2822)

Dimethylglyoximecobalt(lI1) complexes with N,N'-dimethylamidinium ligands appear54as a mixture of Z E [26ZE, M = Me(DMGH),Co] and Z Z (2622) stereoisomers. For the ZE isomer, the upfield 'H NMR peak was assignedto the E methyl by comparison with HC(NHMe),+, and the other isomer was assigned as Z Z on the basis of comparison ofchemical shifts. In CDCI, there is a 1:1 mixture of the two, but the proportion of the ZE form increasesin more polar solvents. For bis(amidinio)cobaltcomplexes (26ZE, 2622, M = [(DMGH),Co],,,) each of the amidinium fragments can be ZE or ZZ independently, but the presenceof a mixture of isomers leads to an unresolvedmultiplicity of peaks. With the (DMGBF,),Co[C(NHMe),], complex there is only one form, assigned as the EE structure on the basis of the steric effect expected from the BF, group, but with a chemical shift that is appropriate for the ZZ. 111. CONFORMATION ABOUT C-N

AND C-0

SINGLE BONDS

A. Conformations of Amidines and lmidates 1 . Conformations of amidines

Nearly all the amidines studied have two identical groups attached to the singly bonded nitrogen. Therefore there is no conformational equilibrium, but only the dynamics of rotation about the C-N single bond (Section V.A.l). Two exceptions are Ph(NMeCH,SMe)=NMe'O, which exists as a mixture of two conformers,in unequal but unspecified proportion, and HC(=NPh)-NHPh128, which is a 2.92: 1 mixture of anti and syn conformers,although at higherconcentrationsthe equilibriumshiftsfurtherto the anti, which can form a hydrogen-bonded dimer. In contrast to many experimental and theoretical values indicating a planar structure for amidines, with a significantbarrier to rotation about the C-N single bond, the low 35cc,, in 27 (R = Et or Ph) suggests123that the phosphoryl group is rotated nearly perpendicular to the five-membered ring. Me,

p;

,PO(OR12

2. Conformations of imidate esters and imidic acids

Stereochemical information regarding conformations of imidate esters could be obtainedlZ9through 'H nuclear Overhauser enhancements. For PhC(OMe)=NBu-t enhancementscould be detected at the ortho positions on saturatingthe t-butyl group of

172

C. L. Perrin

TABLE 15. Calculated relative energies (kcal mol- ') of stereoisomeric imidates, RC(OR)=NR" R

R

R

E(E-anti)

H H H H H H H H H H H H Me Me Me

E(E-syn)

E(2-anti)

E(Z-syn)

_ _ _ _ _ ~

~~

H H H H H H H H Me Me Me OH H Me Me

a H H H H H H H H H H H Me

H

Me

0

8.33 0 9.1 9.1 -

-

7.3 7.43 5.0

-

6.01 1.95 4.07

1.65

0

>O

0

0 0.9 0 0 0 0 0.28 1.1 1 3.61 4.65 8.40

Method

Ref.

~

0 3.77 >O 4.0 c 9.1 0 4.21 4.4 1.65 4.1 0

1.52 0.88 0.58 0

>O

1.65 6.66

3.2 <9.1 -

3.93 3.8 6.11

-

9.4 0 0 0 36.6

MNDO 4-3 1G CNDO/2 3-2 1 G 3-21G MNDO 6-31G** 6-31 1 + + G**/MP3 4-31G MNDO 4-31G STO-3G/6-3 1G MIND0/3 MIND0/3 CND0/2

32 18 16 45 130 126 131 20 132 126 133 134 135 135 136

'Iminyl free radicals (28syn and Banti), neither 2 nor E.

the E isomer and on saturating the methoxy group of the Z. This means that the C-0 bond of the E isomer is anti and that of the Z isomer is syn. Likewise MeC(OMe)=NMe shows mutual enhancementsbetween C-methyl and N-methyl, but none involving the 0methyl, so that this is E-anti. The results of molecular orbital calculations on formimidic acid and its derivatives, RC(OR)=NR, are summarized in Table 15. Some of the calculations found only the optimum geometry or neglected unstable conformers.It can be seen that the E-syn,formis generally the most stable, but that steric effects can shift the equilibrium toward the Z form, as is seen experimentallyz4 for imidate esters. It is not clear why two 4-31G calculation^'^^^'^^ give such-differentresults.

The preferencefor the syn form is due to dipole-dipole interactions, as in carboxylic acids and esters, which also have a strong preferencefor a syn C-0 singlebond. In the syn conformer of an imidate ester the interaction between the dipoles of the nitrogen and oxygen lone pairs is more favorable in the E stereoisomer. However, if the C-0 single bond is somehow constrained to be anti, then the interaction of these dipoles is more favorable in the Z stereoisomer. B. Conformations of Conjugate Adds 1. Conformations of imidatonium ions

According to NOEs'j', the C-0 single bond of HC(OMe)=NMe,+ is anti. According to X-ray analysis'38 the Z stereoisomer of HC(OMe)=NMeAr+, Ar = 2,6-

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

173

Xyl, has its C-0 bond anti. These conformations are surely a consequence of steric effects. have been carried out for the conjugate acid of MO calculations at the 3-21G formimidic acid. The syn conformation of HC(OH)=NH,+ (29syn)is 3.1 kcal mol- less stable than the anti (29anti).This is in agreementwith the experimentalresults even though steric effects are minimal in this model.

'

H

2. Conformations of metal complexes of amidines

The (dimethylglyoxime)cobalt(III) complexes54 of N,N'-dimethylformamidine, HC(NHMe)=NMe + M [M = MeCo(DMGH),] and [HC(NHMe)=NMe + I 2 M [M=Co(DMGH),], are of anti conformation, according to the large 3JH,NH of 13-14Hz. This holds for both the Z and E stereoisomers of the former complex. C. Conformations of Amidines and lmidates with spz-C Substituents 1 . Conformations of N-acylamidines

For HC(=NTol-p)-N(C0Me)Tol-p, which is the E stereoisomer at the C-N double bond, the C-N single bond is exclusively antiso,according to Kerr constant and dipole moment measurements. For the cyclic acylamidine 30 (R = H)'j9 both syn and anti forms can be seen, in ratio 3: 1 in CDCI, and 9: I in DMSO. The syn form could be distinguishedby the long-range' J of 0.67 Hz between the N-methyl and H(4). In contrast 30 (R = Ph) shows only one Nmethyl in the 'H NMR, so that one conformer must predominate. Also the aminoisoindolinone 17 (R = Me, R' = aryl) is anti, according to the shielding of the benzo ring by the aryls3.

(30)

N-Sulfonylformamidines HC(=NS02R)-NR'Ars5 exist as an unequal mixture of conformers,with hindered rotation about the C-N single bond. For R' = H, the ,JHCNHS of 12.5Hz and 5.5Hz permit assignment as syn and anti forms, respectively. The equilibrium proportions in DMSO-d, are given in Table 16. The two forms of HC(= NS0,Me)-NHCH,CH,NH Ph can be separated by crystallization, but on dissolution they show the same NMR and IR spectra. These had been considered140to be Z and E forms, but they show the same chemical shifts for the SO,R groups, so that they differ at the NR'Ar portion of the molecule.

174

C. L. Perrin TABLE 16. Equilibriums5 between syn and anti conformers of N-sulfonylformarnidinesHC(=NSO,K)-NR'Ar in DMSO-d,

R

R

Me Me Me Ph

H Ph H H H H

p-To1 p-Tol

Ar

Ph (CH,),NHPh P-ToI

Ph

c-Hex

Ph

% sYn 42 20(80?) 33 37 25 43

According to NMR coupling constants between CH and P, the further stereochemistry single bond of the various CI,CHC(=NR)-N=PPh, in Table 10 (Section ILC.2) could be assigned*' as anti in the Z stereoisomers and syn in the E, although for CI,CHC(N=PPh,)=NBu-t the Ph,P is twisted out of the plane.

of the C-NPPh,

2. Conformations of imidines

In CDCI, at 263-298 K both the Z and E stereoisomers of the aminoiminoisoindoline 18 (Ar = p-T01)*~are exclusively the anti stereoisomer about the exocyclic C-N single bond. 3. Conformations of N-acylimidates

According to 3-21G MO calculation^'^^the most stable form of N-carboxyformimidic acid, HC(OH)=NCOOH, is E-syn, with a barrier of only 4.8 kcal mol-' for rotation about the N-COOH bond. Indeed, the X-ray structureof PhC(OEt)=NCOOPh shows that the molecule is E-syn, with the COOPh rotated nearly perpendicular to the C-N double bond. No dynamic NMR behavior could be detected even at low temperature. Similarly,the structureof PhC(OEt)=NCOPh'42 in the crystal is E-syn. The N-COPh dihedral angleis 71.6", so that the carbonyl IC system overlaps the nitrogen lone pair, rather than the imidate n system. A 3-21G MO calculation of the parent HC(OH)=NCHO indicates that the E-syn form (with the amide C-N also syn) is most stable even though the lowest-energy form is calculated as the Z-syn-syn, which is stabilized by an intramolecular hydrogen bond that is absent in the actual molecules studied. D. Conformations of HHeterosubstituted Amidines and lmidates 1. Conformations of amidoximes

Dipole moment measurementsLo5on ArC(NHR)=NOH show that these are of Z configuration, with antiperiplanar conformations about the C-N and N-0 single bonds. Molecular orbital calculationsgenerallysuggest that the most stable configurationof a simple amidoxime is 2, with a preferredanti conformation about the N=O bond. Results are listed in Table 17. These calculations are in agreement with the experimental data (Section II.D,3),except that for N,N-dimethyl-substituted amidoximes the stabilities are reversed, owing to steric repulsion. For the tautomeric RC(NROH)=NR" there are also syn and anti conformersabout the N-0 single bond, but only the more stable conformer is listed in the table.

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

175

TABLE17. Calculatedrelativeenergies(kcalmol - ')of stereoisomericamidoximes, RC(=NOR)NR;

R

R

R"

E(E-anti)

H H H H

H H H H

H

Me Me" Me Ph Ph a

H H

Me

H H Me H H

H H H Ac CONHPh

E(E-syn)

E(Z-anti)

1.4 4.0 3.66

8.1

0 0 0

5.0 11.2

14.75

0

0

5.90

>o

-

0

-

>O

23.5 0

11.7 9.2 0 0

E(Z-syn) Method 11.04 STO-3G 3-21G dbl-zeta

-

MNDO 13.05 6-31G8 8.15 6-31G8 - MNDO - CND0/2 CND0/2 >O

Ref. 100

100 I43 144

145 145 144 146

147

-

RC(NR'OH)=NR".

TABLE 18. Calculated relative energies (kcal mol- ') of stereoisomeric formohydroximic acid

derivatives, HC(OH)=NOR R H

H -(anion)

E(E-anti)

E(E-syn)

E(Z-anti)

E(Z-syn)

Method

Ref.

6.5

2.5 2.64 9.6

-

4.9

0 0 0

STOJG dbl-zeta 4-31G/CI

148 143 149

-

18.7

27.0

2. Conformations of hydroximates

In contrast to imidic acids, where the E-syn form is most stable, molecular orbital calculations on hydroximic acid derivatives RC(OH)=NOR generally show that the Zsyn form is most stable. The results for these derivatives are summarized in Table 18. For the neutral HC(OH)=NOH there is the further possibility of synlanti stereoisomerism about the N - 0 bond, but the values in the table are for whichever N-0 conformer is the more stable. The experimental data o n ArC(OMe)=NOMe113 indicate that the E form is slightly more stable, but this may be due to steric repulsions between the methoxy groups in the Z form. E. Conformations of C-Heterosubstituted Amldines and lmldates 1 . Conformations of guanidinium ions

The 'H NMR spectrumLs0of (Me,N),CN(CH,Ar),+ shows an AB pattern for the CH,Ar groups, so that the ion cannot be planar, but must be twisted. 2. Structure of iminocarbonates

Some N-alkylidene iminocarbonatonium ions show a n interesting contrast. F o r ~ < - 54°C shows two sets of ethyl PhCH=N*=C(OEt), the 13CN M R s p e ~ t r u m "at signals, corresponding t o a structure bent a t nitrogen (31). In contrast t-Bu&=N+= C(OEt), shows n o separationofsignalseven a t - 90 "C, and this is consistent with a linear structure(32) as indicated by the IR band at 1750cm- and verified by an X-ray structure. A 3-21G MO calculation on H,C=N+=C(OH), suggests that the linear form is most stable, although the bent form is only 2.56 kcal mol-' less stable. ,-

176

C. L. Perrin

F. X-Ray Structures of Amidines, lmidates and Related Compounds

Structures of many amidines and a few imidates have been determined by X-ray analysis.Table 19 lists the amidines,includingsome amidoximes and C-heterosubstituted derivatives, along with the stereochemistriesof the C-N double and single bonds. One molecule (38) bears two amidine functionalities, one of them Z and the other E. It is necessary to remember that the designationsZ or E and syn or anti apply to the rankingof substituents, so that they do not have a uniform significance as regards heteroatom substituents. An asterisk (*) marks those molecules where the ranking reverses the stereochemistry from that shown in Figure 1. Clearly X-ray analysis is a powerful method for determining stereochemistry. The structuresthemselves carry a great deal of additional information regardingbond lengths and bond angles,as well as dihedral angles that define the conformations,and the reader is referred to the originals for such details. The examples in the table are representative, rather than comprehensive, and a complete set can be obtained through the Cambridge Crystallographic Database.

TABLE 19. Stereochemistry of crystalline amidines, RC(NRR")=NR"'. Molecules where the geometry dillers from that in Figure I are marked with *. Molecules where the stereochemistry is required by the cyclic structure are marked with R

R

R"

H H H H Ph H Me Me H Me Me H H -(cH2)6H -(cH2)6H -(CHZ)6H H Me H H Me H H Me H Me Me H Ph Me p-Tol H Me H R"/ Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me -cis-MeCH(CH,),CHMeC(W*CI,,,(CHz)z H t-Bu -2-Adaman tylidenet-Bu t-Bu H H

R"'

Stereochem.

z

E-anti

E E E E E

cs2-

R"" H,Ph" p-Tol H p02NC6H4

OH Ph 2,6-CI,C,jH3 Me COBu-t

Ref. 100 152 153 154 23 155 156

E-SJJII

157 158 159 160

E-syn E

156 160 153

2 2

z

ZE E-syn

E E E-syn

e-anlit

Z

36

94 98 161 9 162

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

177

Table 19. (continued)

R

R'

R"

R"

t-Bu H,H" H COBu-t Me Me t-Bu p02NC6H4 -cis-MeCH(CH,),CHMet-Bu Ph H H Ph p-02NC6H4 H H Ph C(=S)NEt, H H OH Ph CI H H Ph Ph OH H CH,Ph (S)-PhCHMe Ph H (S)-PhCHMe H Ph Ph Ph Ph H Ph C(=S)NEt, Me Me OH Ph Ph Me Me SMe Me Ph Ph P-ToI Ph Et Et OH Ph PtCI,(NCPh) C-BU (CH&NHBU-t Ph m-CIC6H4 -(cH2)6-p-MeOC6H4CHPh t-Bu Ph p-MeOC&, 2,4,6-(OzN),C6H, p-MeOC6H4 Ph SiMe, SiMe, SiMe, p-0ZNC6H4 - ~ ~ ~ z ~ z ~ ~ ~ ~ z O~H z H Ph OH %~-CIZC~H, R' Et Et SOZTol-p ArCHOHh H OH H H HC(=NOH) H OH MeC(=NOH) Me Me OH H,NC(=NOH) H H OH H c-Hex c-Hex OC(CHz)z12N R' p-BrC6H4 p-BrC,H, HZN F CF, H,CF," CF3 Ph -SCHZ-Ph SOZTol-p -SCHz-SOZTol-p Ph -S(CHz)zH 2,6-Xyl --S(CHz)zH Ph -s(cHZ)3H -SC(=CMeX)-j Me t-BU -SC(=O)Ph SOZTol-p -SC(=S)Ph SOZTol-p c1 -(CH*)4Rrnk -(Me,P)z(OC)zFeC(=CHz)--' c-Hex c-Hex CP,U Et Et 2,6-Xyl "Cationic. bR" = 6-Penicillanyl acid (cf. 33). 'RR"= 6-Penicillanyl acid I -(ethoxycarbonyloxy)-I-ethyl R" = 3-(Chloromethyl)-5-1,2,4-thiadiazolyl (cf. 35). 'R" = 3,4-Dimethyl-5-l,2,4-thiadiuzolylium (cf. 36). R'" = 3-Methyl-S-l,2,4-thiadiazolyl (cf. 37). R' = MeC={cyclo-[CSC(=NBu-t)NMe]) (d, 38). hAr = 3,4-(Methylenedioxy)phenyl. 'R" = 3-(p-Bromophenyl)-5-1,2,4-thiadiazolyl (cf. 39). X' = (Et,N)C=NSO,Tol-p (cf, 38). 'R" = CYCIO-[CC(=O)C(=O)CP~] (cf. 40). 'cf. 41.

ester (cf. 34).

Stereochem. Ref.

z z z z z z z

Z-anti E-syn E-syn Z-anti E E E-anti E E* E

z

E-syn E Z Z-anti E

z z E

z

E-anti* E-syn* Z' Z-syn't Z-anti" Z-syn*t Z-syn*t

Z-syn*t Z-syn*t Z-syn*' Z-syn*'

z*

Z-anti*+ E*

162 153 98 163 164 96 165 166 I67 168 169 93 I70 171 96 56 172 78 173 59 95 98 I74 99 I75 176 175 I77 178 I79 I80 181 182 183 184 174 185 186 187 188 189

178

C. L. Perrin

H

\

Me-C

Me

(35)

(37)

(36)

Me3P

IV. INVERSION AT NITROGEN AND ROTATION ABOUT C-N

DOUBLE BONDS

A. Stereoisomerization of Amidines and lmldates 1.

E-Z stereoisomerization of amidines

The interconversion of Z and E forms of amidines has not often been studied, since the equilibrium usually lies far to one side. For the few N,N,N-tnsubstituted amidines where there is an appreciable amount of each isomer, interconversion proceeds via nitrogen

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

179

inversion,with a barrier of ca 25 kcal mol- '. Forexample, for CH,CH=CHC(NMe,)= NPh the barrier to E-Z interconve~sion~ is ca 26 kcal mol- '. For the iminoaziridines59 the barrier to E-Z interconversionis 23.3 kcal mol-' (R = Me) or 21.4 kcal mol- (R = tBu). Although these values correspond to a relatively slow process, it is fast enough that isomerization can occur under laboratory conditions. Therefore the ratios in Table 1 (Section II.A.2) presumably refer to true equilibrium. Forsome amidines other mechanismscan provide lower barriers.Forexample, AG' for the cyclic amidine6 (n = 5, X = H)" is ca 15 kcal mol-', and this was originallyviewed as proceeding by nitrogen inversion, since tautomerization was expected to be slow in CDCI,. Yet for the cyclic amidine 6 (n = 7, X = H)', AG*= 15.9 kcal mol-', and the mechanismfor this E-Z interconversionis certainly rotation about the C-N singlebond of the amino tautomer, which could be detected by NMR in the mixture of amidine structures.Likewise, for HC(NMe,)=NAr, with Ar = o-hydroxyphenyl,the barrier to EZ interconver~ion'~ is low, and this was attributed to rotation about the partial double bond of the tautomer, HC(NMe,)(NHC,H,O-)+. According to 3-21G MO ~alculations'~ the transition state for interconversionof the Z and E stereoisomers of HC(NH,)=NH by nitrogen inversion lies at 23.2 kcal molabove the E reactant.

'

2. E-Z stereoisomerization of imidate esters

For a series of methyl N-isopropylbenzimidates,the rate of E-Z interconversioncould be measured from the NMR coalescencebehavior of the separate Z and E signalsor from the time dependence of the integrated NMR intensities after dissolving one crystalline form of the conjugate acid of the imidate in CDC1,-pyridine. The results are shown in Table 20. It can be seen that both experimental methods give the same AG*,even though they involve different temperatures. Therefore ASf is near zero. TABLE 20. Activation barriers (kcal mol- ') to E - 2 interconversion of imidate esters, RC(OR')= NR"

R Me Me t-Bu Ph Ph Ph Ph 0-To1 o-FC~H, o-FC~H, o-CIC~H, o-CIC~H~ o-BrC6H, o-BrC,H, o-IC,H, o-IC~H~ o-O,NC,H, o-O,NC,H, 1-Naph

R

R"

Solvent

Method

Ad

Ref.

Ph p-To1 Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me

Me Me Me Me i-Pr t-Bu t-BU i-Pr i-Pr i-Pr i-Pr i-Pr i-Pr i-Pr i-Pr i-Pr i-Pr i-Pr i-Pr

O-CsH,CI, CCI, CCI, PhOH-PhNO, PhOH-PhNO, CDZCl, CDCI3 PhOH-PhNO, PhOH-PhNO, CDC1,-Py-d, PhOH-PhNO, CDCI,-Py-d, PhOH-PhNOI CDCI,-Py-d, PhOH-PhN0, CDC1,-Py-d, PhOH-PhNO, CDC1,-Py-d, PhOH-PhNO,

'H T, NMR(t) 'H T, 'H To ' H T, 'H To 'H T, 'H To 'H T, NMR(t) 'H Tc NMR(t) 'H T, NMR(t) 'H T, NMR(t) 'H T, NMR(t) 'H T,

19.8 20.4 15.9 18.9 18.7 14.0 14.2 19.4 18.9 18.8 19.3 19.2 19.6 19.5 19.2 19.0 18.8 19.3 19.5

24 26 24 21 21 129 129 21 21 21 21 21 27 21 21 21 21 27 21

C. L. Perrin

180

In contrast to the behavior of the conjugate acids (below), which isomerize by rotation about the C-N double bond, the rates for the imidate esters are independent of the steric bulk of the ortho substituents. Therefore,the substituents on nitrogen can remain in the molecularplane, which means that the isomerization proceeds by nitrogen inversion. For MeC(OAr)=NMe in CCI, the mechanism is nitrogen inversion, but in aqueous solution there is catalysis by bases such as tertiary amines, and stereoisomerization by tautomerization to CH,=C(OAr)-NHMe could be confirmedz6 by deuterium incorporation into the C-methyl. On heating to 100°C for 40 minutes the Z and E isomers of the N-chloroimidatez8 PhC(OMe)=NCl equilibrate. This represents a slower spz nitrogen inversion than in ordinary imidates, as expected from the electronegative chlorine. According to 3-21G MO c a l c ~ l a t i o nthe s ~ ~activation energy for nitrogen inversion in the syn conformer of formimidic acid HC(OH)=NH is 20.3 kcal mol-', whereas in peroxyformimidicacid HC(=NH)-OOH134 it is 15.9 kcal mol- ' by 6-31G calculations. 3. E-Z stereoisomerization of thioimidate esters

The barriersto E-Z intercon~ersion~~ of various thioimidate esters,RC(SR')=NR", are given in Table 21, and additional data for aryl-substituted thiobenzimidate esters ArC(SMe)=NPr-iz7 are available. For a few of these methyl N-isopropylbenzothioimidates, the rate of E-Z interconversion could be measured not only from the coalescence behavior of the separate 2 and E NMR signals but also from the time TABLE 21. Activation barriers,, (kcal mot-') to E-Z interconversion of thioimidate esters, RC(SR')=NR" R Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Et Pr i-Pr PhCH, PhCH, Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph

R

R"

Me Me Me Me

Me Et i-Pr t-Bu Me Ph Me Me Me Ph Me Me Me Me Ph i-Pr Ph Me i-Pr Ph Me Ph Me Ph Me Ph

Et

Et i-Pr t-Bu PhCH, PhCH, Ph p02NC6H4

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Et Et i-Pr i-Pr t-BU t-Bu

Solvent

o-C~H~CI, PhNO, CHBr, C6D6

o-C~H~CI, CDCI, o-C~H~CI, PhNO, o-C~H~CI, CDCI, PhNO, PhNO, CHBr, PhNO, CDCI,-C6D, o-C~H~CIZ CD,OD O-C,H,C12 CHBr, CDCI, PhNO, CDCI, PhNO, CDCI, PhNO, CDCI,

AGf 21.6 21.2 19.6 16.7 21.6 16.0 21.6 21.4 21.2 15.7 20.3 20.8 20.4 19.7 13.9 19.6 15.7 19.8 19.5 14.2 20.4 14.2 20.3 14.2 20.6 t3.8

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

181

dependence of the integrated NMR intensities after dissolving one crystalline form of the thioimidate in CDCI,. The barrier to E-Z interconversion is nearly independent of solventJ3, although there are slight increases" in the presence of phenol. For MeC(SC,H,NO,-p)=NMe in CD,OD-CDCI, the rate of stereoisomerization is the same as that of deuterium incorporation,so that the mechanism for this ester involves tautomerization to CH,=C(SAr)-NHMe and rotation about the C-N single bond. For the others, which lack alpha hydrogens or acidifying aryl groups, the mechanism is simply nitrogen inversion. 6. Stereoisomeriration of Conjugate Acids and Bases

1. E-Z stereoisomerization of amidinium ions

I n the previous review* there were very few examples of rotation about the partial C-N double bonds of amidinium ions, and except for PhC NMePh)(NMe,)+'go,where steric effects lower the barrier, these clustered close to a AG of 21 kcal mol-'. Subsequently it has been possible to find lower barriers,and to measure them. Barriersto rotation about the partial C-N double bonds in various amidiniumions are listed in Table 22. For N,Ndimethylacetamidiniumion1g1the rate is independent of counterion(nitrate or chloride) even in 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane solvent, and it is the same as in DMSO. Therefore the process is indeed rotation about the C-N partial double bond, rather than rotation about a C-N singlebond of a covalent adduct. For this ion and for the seven-membered ringamidiniumion lo3' the activation parameterswere also determined. Forthe latter the rate is higher in the presence of Et,N, since isomerization can occur by rotation about the exocyclic C-N single bond of the amidine free base. Solvent and counterioneffects have been studied19' more extensively for HC(NMe,),+. With perchloratecounterion the rate is nearly independent of solvent, and the same rate is seen in DMSO with iodide or tosylate counterion. However, the activation enthalpy is higher with chloride in DMSO or tosylate in CDCI,, and there is a large increasein A H f with iodide in CDCI, or chloride in CDCI, or acetone-d,. However, these latter cases show acompensating large increasein A$, so that the rate is nearly the same. This is most likely due to stereoisomerizationvia formation of the covalent intermediate(Me,N)&HX (X = CI, I, OTs) in these nonpolar media. Forimipenem (9)kinetic analysis34by HPLC (not NMR) indicates that reequilibration of the Z and E forms takes several hours at 0 "C at pH 5.5 or only a few minutes at room temperature at pH 7. The base catalysis indicates that this isomerization proceeds via deprotonation and rotation about the C-N single bond of the amidine.

c

TABLE 22. Activation barriers (kcal mol-') to rotation about C-N amidinium ions Ion CD3C(NHZ)=NMe2+ +H3NC(NH2)=Nye2+ Me,NCH=NMe, Me,NCH=NMc, Et,NCH=NMe,+ Me,NCH=NEt 2 + Et ,NCMe=NEt Et,NCMe=NEt,+ 10, R = p-TolCHP0,OMe+

,+

partial double bond of

Solvent

Ad

Method

Ref.

CZHZCI, FSO,H-SbF,-SOz CDCI, CDCI, CDCI, CDCI, CDCI, CDCI, CDC1,

22.1 15 15.6 15.4 16.0 15.3 15.5 14.9 19.7

'H LSA

191 192 I93 194 194 194 193 194 35

'H To T,

T,

T, T, I3C T, I3C T. 'H L ~ A

C. L. Perrin

182

For the dimeric amidinium ion 42, obtained as the meso isomer, the 'H NMR spectrum'96shows four N-methyl peaks at 253 K, and these coalesce to two with a AG' ca 14.6 kcal mol-'. The X-ray structure shows that the molecule has an inversion center, so that the two amidiniumfragmentsare equivalent to each other. However, each amidinium fragment is twisted relative to the seven-membered ring, so that the Z methyls on the two nitrogens of the same amidinium fragment are not equivalent and neither are the E methyls. The dynamic behavior could be due to restricted rotation about either the C-N partial double bond or the C-C bond between the amidinium fragment and the ring. If the process were C-N rotation, then the two kinds of C-N bonds are in different environments and should show different AG$. Since there is only a single AGf for the coalescence of both pairs of N-methyls, the dynamic process is most likely the C-C rotation. This then means that the barrier to C-N rotation is considerably higher than 14.6 kcal mol- '. This is consistent with the other studies above on amidinium ions.

(42)

Around 120 "Cin DMSO-d, the 'H NMR peaks of the inequivalentN-methyls of(ZE)ion HC(NHMe),+ coalesce'g'. This represents an isomerization of both C-N partial double bonds, presumably via the E E isomer as intermediate. From the NMRcoalescencetemperaturethe barrierto interconversionof the two forms of mifentidine [HC(NHPr-i)(NHAr)+,Ar = p-imidaz~lylphenyl]~~ is 16.1kcal mol- '. Equilibrationpresumably occursby deprotonation (pK, 8.88), followed by rotation about the C-N single bond. The barrieris sufficiently low that under physiological conditions the ZE or EZ distomer (inactivestereoisomer)can convert to the E E eutomer, which is the active form that binds to the histamine receptor. The calculated barriers to rotation about the partial C-N double bonds in various amidinium ions are listed in Table 23. The experimental barriers in Table 22 are significantly lower, because steric repulsions of the N-alkyl groups destabilize the planar amidinium ion relative to its transition state.

N,N'-dimethylformamidinium

TABLE23. Calculated activation energies (kcalmolabout the C-N double bond of amidinium ions E,

Ion

H,NCH=NH,* H,NCH=NH, H,NCH=NH,+ H,NC( Me)=N H,+ +

34.5 28.7

28.2 26.8

') for

rotation

Method

Ref.

STO-3G

198 18 198 198

3-21G 4-31G 4-31G

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

183

According to MNDO calculations and an effective charge to account for solvation of both planarand twisted HC(NH,),+, the activation energy for rotation about the C-N double bond decreases with increasing solvent dielectric constant. This is in general agreement with the experimental results above. The decrease occurs because the positive charge is more localized in the transition state for rotation. 2. E-Z stereoisomerization of amidinate anions

According to a 3-21G MO calculation" the barrierto 22-to-ZE isomerization by CN rotation in HC(NH),- is calculated to be 23.0kcalmol-' and that for ZE-to-EE is 27.1 kcal mol- According to a 6-311 + G**/M P3 calculation" the barrierto rotation about oneC-N bond of(2Z)-HC(NH),- is 21. I kcal mol-'. It is surprisingthat thereare no experimental data in so simple a system, although it might be difficult to distinguish C-N rotation from nitrogen inversion.

'.

+

3. E-Z stereoisomerization of imidatonium ions and protonated imidate esters

In C2H,CI, the barrier to rotation200about the C-N double bond in HC(OMe)= NMe,' is greater than 19.7 kcal mol- '. The 'H NMR spectrum of the imidoyl chloride, HCCl=NMe,+, shows coalescenceof the inequivalentmethyl groups around240 K. The AC*is only 10.5 kcalmol-I, far too low to be due to rotation about the C-N double bond. Indeed the rate in acetonitrile increaseswith increasingsubstrate concentration, so that the stereoisomerization must occur by chloride exchange,.to form CI'CHNMe, as intermediate. In methylene chloride the rate constant decreaseswith increasingsubstrate concentration, and although this suggested a more complicated mechanism, it may be simply due to a polarity effect, whereby the substrate stabilizes the HCCI=NMe,+ Cl ion pair, relative to the covalent intermediate. Equilibration of the stereoisomeric formimidatonium ions HC(OMe)=NMeAr' (Ar = 2,6-X~1)~'proceeds rapidly in aqueousmedium or with Et,N in CH,CI, or CH,CN. The mechanisminvolves reversible formation of a tetrahedral intermediate. In contrast, deuterium incorporation2" confirmed a tautomeric mechanism,via CH,=C(OEt)-NMePr-i, for E-Z stereoisomerization of the acetimidatonium ion, MeC(OEt)=NMePr-i+, in aqueous alkali. Activation barriers to E-Z isomerization of protonated imidate esters are listed in Table 24. The rates are independent of the counterion (dichloroacetate, bisulfate or trifluoromethanesulfonate),so that the mechanism for these conjugate acids is rotation about the C-N double bond, rather than via deprotonation to the imidate ester. Comparisons of entries in the table show that ortho substituents retard the rotation, since they areabove or below the molecularplane,where they interferewith the rotating groups on nitrogen. TABLE 24. Activation barriers" (kcalmol-') to rotation about C-N 0-methyl imidate esters, RC(OMe)=NHR'+

R t-Bu

Ph Ph Ph Ph

o-FC~H~ o-CIC~H~

R' Ph

i-Pr Ph Ph

2,6-Xyl i-Pr i-Pr

Solvent HW4

,

CF C00H CF,COOH CHCI,COOH CF,COOH CF C00H CF,SO,H

,

double bond of protonated

Method

AGi

NMR(t) NMR(t) NMR(t) 'H T, NMR(t) NMR(t) NMR(t)

22.6 24.2 20.9

20.8 24.1 25.8

28.4

C. L. Perrin

184

M Ocalculationsat the 3-21G level45on protonated formimidicacid HC(OH)=NH,+ suggest a barrier to rotation about the C-N double bond of 39.7kcalmol-I. Other calculationszo2suggest a barrier of 75.1 kcal mol- Both of these are overestimates, compared to the experimental values.

'.

4. E-2 stereoisomerization of imidate anions

For HC(-0-)=NH the barrier to Z-to-E interconversion by rotation about the C-N double bond is calculated at the 3-21G to be 30.6kcalmol-'. The barrier to nitrogen inversion is still higher, 37.7kcalmol-', but this is not a proper transition state. According to MP4SDQ/631 + + G calculation^^^these barriersare 27.5 G**/MP3 level2') and 34.0 kcal mol- I , respectively. For (also at the 6-31 1 MeC(-0-)=NH these barriers are 31.1 and 38.6 kcal mol-', respectively, according to a 6-31G** calculation. Thus it would seem that the operative mechanism for stereoisomerization is rotation about the C-N double bond. This is not the common mechanism for imines, but delocalization of the oxyanion electrons, as in the resonanceform RC(= 0)-NH-, reduces the double-bond character.Rotation is thereby facilitated and might become competitive. Rates of E-Z interconversion in various N-arylformimidate anions HC(-0-)=NAr could be measured by 'H NMR saturation transfer. The experimental activation barriers4' are 19-23 kcal mol- I , quite similar to the barriers in other imines that are known to interconvert by nitrogen inversion. It was therefore concluded that nitrogen inversion is also the mechanism in imidate anions. However, the molecular orbital calculationsa b ~ v e ~suggest ~ . ~ 'that the lower-enegy pathway is rotation about the C-N partial double bond. Nevertheless the Hammett p for stereoisomerization of a series of N-arylformimidate anions4yis + 2.2, quite close to p for other imine stereoisomerizations known to proceed by nitrogen inversionand far from the + 3.8 expected for rotation about the C-N bond. It was therefore concluded that E-Z interconversion in imidate anions proceeds by nitrogen inversion.

++

5. E-Z stereoisomerization of thioimidatonium ions and protonated thioimidate esters

The barriers to rotation about the C-N double bond in a series of thioimidatonium ions, RC(SR)=NR"R +,and protonated thioimidate esters in various solvents, are given in Table 25. According to a molecular orbital calculation202the barrierto rotation about the C-N double bond of HSCH=NH2+ is 57.3 kcalmol-I. This is clearly an overestimate. TABLE 25. Activation barriers(kca1 mol- I ) to rotation about the C-N thioimidates and thioirnidatonium ions, RC(SR')=NR"R"'

double bond of protonated

+

R H t-Bu Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph o-To1

R'

Me PhCH, Me Me Me Me Me t-Bu

Ph Me

R

R

AG:E-Z

Ref.

Me H H H Me H H H Me H

Me

> 19.5

193 203 203 203 203 203 203 203 203 203

Me

i-Pr Ph Ph o-ToI 2,6-Xyl Ph Ph Ph

26.5 26.5 2 1.75 22.3 21.9 26.1 21.5 23.1 24.0

3. Stereochemicalaspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

185

6. €4stereoisomerization of metal complexes of amidines and of imidate esters

Metal complexes RC(NR'J=NR -+ M or RC(OR)=NR"-+ M, with a metal bound to the sp2 nitrogen,are analogousto amidinium ions or imidatonium ions. The formal single bond and the formal double bond of the amidine or imidate ester both become partial double bonds, so that rotation about the double bond becomes faster.On the other hand, the rate of sp2 nitrogen inversion is markedly reduced. The barrier to interconversionof the two stereoisomers of the PtCI,(NCPh) complex of PhC[N(t-Bu)CH2CH,NHBu-t]=NHs6 is only 10.8 kcal mol-I, which is too low for rotation about a C-N double bond, but dissociation of the Pt, followed by nitrogen inversion, also seems unlikely. Nucleophilic attack by the free amino group has been suggested", although deprotonation of the sp2 nitrogen, followed by inversion via a transition state with 180" C=N-Pt angle, is also possible. For the cationic complexes RC(OMe)=NH-+NiL+ (R=Me, Et, or Ph, L = a tridentate ligand) the observationSSthat the equilibrium between Z and E stereoisomers can be established at different temperatures means that the barrier to interconversion is not so high as to freeze the mixture,even though the interconversioncannot be detected by NMR lineshapechanges.This is a system whose kinetics might be followed by saturation transfer. Only for the platinum complexes PhC(OMe)=NH -+ PtCI,(NCPh) and [PhC(OMe)=NH+],PtCI," has interconversion of Z and E (or Z Z , Z E and EE) complexes of imidate esters been seen. The interconversion is catalyzed by base. The mechanism involves reversible addition of methoxide, rather than simply deprotonation and nitrogen inversion, since in deuteriomethanol both isomerization and deuterium incorporation occur simultaneously. C. Stereodynamics of Amidines and lmidates with spz-C Substituents 7. Stereodynamics of N-alkylidene amidines

The transitionstates for inversion of the N=CH2 nitrogen in HC(N=CH2)=NH are calculated78to be around 20kcalmol-' higher in energy than the reactant, and the transition state for inversion of the =NH nitrogen is 30.8 kcal mol-' higher, but no dynamic behavior of the N-alkylidene amidine PhC(N=CHC,H,OMe-p)=NBu-t could be detected by I3.C NMR, even at - 90°C. 2. E-Z stereoisomerization of N-acylamidines and N-acylimidates

For most ordinary acylamidines the equilibrium lies so far toward the E stereoisomer that rates of equilibration cannot be measured. Interconversion of the Z and E forms of some N-phosphoryl amidines, CI,CHC(=NMe)-N(Me)PO(OR), and CI,CHC(= NR)-N=PPh,81, proceeds with a AGt of 18-22 kcal mol-', and the reactivity parallels the rate of exchange at the CHCI, group. Therefore the mechanism involves a tautomerization and rotation about the C-N single bond of the enediamine (ketene aminal). Although X-ray analysis shows that the acylamidine 14 is the Z form, this can be cyclizedS2to a benzopyrimidine. Therefore the E form must be accessible as a reaction intermediate. For 16 (R = H, R ' = ~ - T o I ) *the ~ barrier to E-Z interconversion is 18.6kcalmol-I. According to MIND0/3 calculations204 on N-nitrosoformamidine, HC(= NH)NHN=O, the barrier to E - 2 isomerization by sp2 nitrogen inversion is 9.2 kcal mol-'. A 3-21G c a l ~ u l a t i o n 'on ~ ~ HC(OH)=NCHO shows that E-Z isomerization occurs by nitrogen inversion and rotation of the carbonyl to overlap with the lone pair.

186

C. L. Perrin

3. E-Z stereoisomerization of imidines

For 19 (R = H)the Z Z and Z E forms interconvert*' with a AG*varying from 16.5 to 18.8 kcalmol-', depending on substitution. Dynamic NMR behavior is also seen for 19 (R = Me), although only the EE form is detectable. A similarity of rates indicates that all these stereoisomerizations occur by nitrogen inversion, rather than tautomerization. However, for 19 (R = H, Ar = unhindered aryl) the rates are concentration dependent, suggestingequilibration by tautomerization. This permits interconversionof the inequivalent aryls of the ZE form via the Z Z isomer. It was claimed that the kinetics could not be fit by a four-site model, with independent E-Z isomerization of the two aryls, nor by synchronousisomerizations of both aryls. However, the exchangematrix used to analyze the NMR spectra appears to be incorrect.This is a system that might well be studied by 2D NMR exchange spectroscopyzos. D. Stereoisomerizationof HHeterosubstituted Amidines and imidates 1. E-Z stereoisomerization of N-aminoamidines

Stereoisomerization of (Z)-MeC(NMe,)=NNMeAr to its E isomerzo6 could be followed by UV spectrophotometry in aqueous buffers. The reaction proceeds at different rates in acid and base, with a transition region at the pK, of the protonated substrate, corresponding to separate reactions of the free base and its conjugate acid, protonated on the sp2nitrogen.The mechanismscould be elucidated from the Hammett p for variation of Ar. For reaction of the conjugate acid, p > 0, corresponding to rotation about the C-N partial double bond. For the free base, p c 0, so it cannot be by rotation about the C-N double bond. Nor can the mechanism be by tautomerization to CHz=C(NMez)NHNMeAr, since in DzO there is insufficientdeuterium incorporation.Therefore it was concluded that the mechanismis nitrogen inversion.For Ar = 2,4-(O,N)&H3 there is an additional OH--catalyzed reaction,correspondingto addition to the C-N double bond and rotation about the C-N bond that becomes single in the tetrahedral intermediate. E-Z stereoisomerization of some amidrazonium ions, 20 (R = Ph, R' = H), has been studiedg1 by 'H NMR. For R " = H and Me the activation barriers are 20.3 and 19.1 kcal mol- l , respectively. 2. E-Z stereoisornerization of amidoxirnes

Interconversion of Z and E stereoisomers of amidoximes RC(NR,)=NOH was not recognized until rather recently, since the dynamic process was thought to be rotation about the C-N single bond. With ArC(NHR)=NOH bearing ortho-substituted aromatic rings two forms could be detectedLos in the 'H NMR spectrum, with a coalescence temperature near 120 "C. These were mistakenly assigned as different conformers about the C-N single bond. Likewise, the stereoisomerizations of ArC(NHPh)=NOH were originally thoughtzo7to be rotations about the C-N single bond, since the barrier near 20 kcal mol- seemed too small for an E-Z interconversion. However, comparison with ArC(N[CH,CH,],O)=NOH showed lo' that E-Z isomerization does proceed with such a low barrier,and comparison with ArC(NMe2)=NOHZo8 showed that rotation about the C-N single bond has a much lower barrier.Thereforethe process in ArC(NHR)=NOH is indeed E-Z interconversion, perhaps proceeding via tautomerization to ArC(NHOH)=NR, which can rotate about its C-N single bond. to its E The kinetics of conversion of (Z)-N,N-dimethyl-p-nitrobenzamidoxime stereoisomer could be determinedg3by following the time course of NMR intensities. Table 26 lists the activation barriersto several such amidoximes. It is surprisingthat these barriers are not much higher than those of ordinary amidines (Section IV.A.l), inasmuch

'

187

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

TABLE 26. Activation barrierspcal mol-') to isomerization of a Z amidoxime ArC(NRR)=NOH to its E isomer Ar

R

R

Solvent

AG~

Ref.

DMSO-d6 CDCI, H2O H+ / H Z 0 DMSO-d,

21.5 24.7 24.56 16.04 19.9 24.5 23.7 23.3 25.5

207 92 107 107 207 93 93 93 93

C6D6

CDSCN MeOH Pyridine

as an attached hydroxyl group generally raises the barrier to sp2 nitrogen inversion, and the barrier in an N-chloroimidate ester is higher than in ordinary imidate esters (Section IV.A.2). For E-Z isomerization of ArC(NMe,)=NOH with a series of C-aryl groupsg3 electron-donatingsubstituents acceleratethe reaction, with a Hammett p of - 0.56. The reaction in pyridine is slow because of a negative ASt. The mechanism may be rotation about the C=NOH double bond becausethe rate increasein more polar solvenp can be attributed to stabilization of the charge-separated resonance form, ArC(=NMe,)N-OH.+However, it is more likely that the mechanism involves tautomerization to ArC(=NMe2)-NHO-, which can rotate about the C-NO single bond. This then accounts for the retardation by pyridine, which removes the proton. In aqueous solution the stereoisomerization of ArC(NR,)=NOH (Ar = p-C1C6H4, R,NH = morpholine)could be followed'07 by UV spectrophotornetry.Both the substrate and its conjugate acid react, but the latter is 105-foldfaster,since rotation about the C-N partial double bond is easier. For a seriesof aryl groups, the Hammett p for the reaction of the conjugate acid is -0.28, which is in accord with reduction of the double-bond characterby electron-donating substituents. For the amidoxime itself there is no need to invoke stereoisomerization via the ArC(NRz)=NHCO- tautomer, since ArC(NR,)= N O R reacts at nearly the same rate. The oximate, ArC(NR,)=NO-, is unreactive toward stereoisomerization. The Z and E stereoisomers of MeC(=NOH)C(NHR)=NOH (R = Me, Et, i-Pr, t-Bu), differing at the amidoxime C-N double bond, interconvert slowly enough that they could be distinguishedzo9by NMR. However, they interconvert too fast to be separated by liquid chromatography. 3. E-Z stereoisomerization of hydrazide derivatives

Methoxide ion catalyzes the isomerizationZ1' of the kinetically formed hydrazidate ester (Z)-RC(OMe)=NNMeAr [R = p-MeOC6H4, Ar = 2,4-(OzN),C6H,] to the more stable E stereoisomer. The kinetics of this conversion could be followed by analyzing aliquots of the reaction mixture by HPLC. The mechanisminvolves reversibleaddition of methoxide, to form RC(OMe),N-NMeAr. According to 6-31G**/MP2 calculations"' the barrier to E-Z isomerization of the hydrazidoyl fluoride HCF=NNH, is 25.3 kcal mol- '. The lowest-energy pathway is nitrogen inversion. The equilibrium of the hydrazonate esters (21Z and 21E, or 2 2 2 2 plus Z E and EE

C. L. Perrin

188

forms)10g is established too rapidly to permit taking the NMR spectrum of an unequilibratedstereoisomer.Nevertheless no coalescenceof the signalscould be seen even at 120"C, so the AGt is greater than 15.9 kcal mot-'. 4. E-Z stereoisomerization of hydroximates

Isomerization of the E stereoisomer of the imidoyl halides ArCCI=NOMe (Ar = Ph, pO2NCsH4,p-To], p-ClC,H,, p-MeOCsH4, o-Tol) to the more stable ZZ" can be effected with HCI in dioxane. With DCI the reactionis 2.3 times as fast,so that the reactioninvolves a prior equilibriumprotonation.With H3%1 the exchangeof chlorineproceeds half as fast as the isomerization, showing that the mechanismof isomerization is not simply rotation about the C-N double bond, but involves nucleophilicaddition of CI-, to produce an intermediate that can lose either of two equivalent chlorines. Incorporation of 36CIinto the more stable 2 isomer proceeds only 1/210 as fast as into the E isomer. Although this was attributed to a greater basicity of the E form, it is a necessary consequence of their relative stabilities, since the exchange reactions of the two stereoisomers proceed by an identical intermediate. According to 4-31G/CI calculations149on the anion HC(OH)=NO-, the activation energy for stereoisomerization of the 2 isomer to the E by nitrogen inversion is 46.9 kcal mol-'. E. Stereoisomerlration of C-Heterosubstituted Amidlnes and imidates

1. E-Z stereoisomerization of guanidines

It is now firmly establishedz12that stereoisomerizationabout the C-N double bond of guanidines proceeds by nitrogen inversion, rather than rotation. However, if there are protons on one of the other nitrogens, stereoisomerization can proceed by tautomerization and rotation about a C-N singlebond. Thus ISNNMRZL3of arginine,(H,N),C= NR [R = (CH,),CH(NH,)CO,-], in 50% aqueous DMSO shows inequivalent NH, nitrogens,which coalesce with a AGt of 10.4 kcal mol-I. This is much lower than the 18.8 kcal mol-' for nitrogen inversion in pentamethylguanidine,so that the mechanism must involve tautomerization to RNHC(=NH)-NH, and rotation about the C-NHR bond that has become single. In contrast, 13C NMR indicates that AG* for making equivalent the methyls of the acylguanidine ArCON=C(NHMe), (Ar = 2-amino-5-chlorophenyl or 3,5-diamino-6chloro-2-pyrazinyl, the side chain of a m i l ~ r i d e ) is ~ ' 14.7 ~ kcal mol-'. Since the ''N spectrum of ArCON=C(NH,), shows that NH exchangeis slow, the mechanismcannot be via tautomerization but must involve direct isomerization of the C-N double bond.

TABLE27. Calculated activation energies (kcal rnol- I ) for rotation about the C-N double bond of guanidines,(H,N),C=NR R

Method

H

CNDO/2

H Me NH2 F

Ph COAP

6-3 1G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G

CNDO/2 CNDO/2

'

EA

Ref.

30.4 24.10 21.09 48.16 42.45 24.8 15.8

215 216 216 216 216 214 214

~

"Ar = 3,5-diamino-6-chloro-2-pyrazinyl

(amiloride side chain).

3. Stereochemicalaspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

189

Moreover, the barrier in ArCON=C(NMe,), is c 10 kcal mol-', and this permits only the direct isomerization.The acyl groupreducesthe double-bond characterand lowers the barrier to rotation. Calculated barriers to rotation about the C-N double bond of N-substituted guanidinesare listed in Table 27. These are not very informative,since nitrogen inversion is the more common mechanism for E-Z stereoisomerization. 2. E-Z stereoisomerization of guanidinium ions

The experimentally determined barriers to rotation about the C-N partial double bonds in guanidiniumions arelisted in Table 28. Calculatedbarriersa re listed in Table 29. TABLE 28. Activation barriers (kcal mol-') to rotation about the C-N guanidiniumions, (R,N)(R,N)C(=NRR"' +)

R

R'

R"

R"'

partial double bond of

AG*

Solvent

Method

Ref.

'H LSA 'H LSA 'H LSA 'H LSA "C T, I4N LSA

150 215 217 217 214 213

~~

H H Me Me H,Me

H

H H,Me ArCH, Me H,Me H

H Me Me ArCH, H

H CH,CO,Me ArCH, ArCO"

liq. cryst. CD,OD CDCI, CDCI, DMSO-d,-CD,OD 50% aq. DMSO

R"*b

X

<12-13 11.05 14.6-15.7 13.8-15.2 14.8 12.9

"Ar = 3,5-diamino-6-chloro-2-pyrazinyl (amiloride side chain). bR"'= (CH,),CH(NH,+)COOH (arginine side chain).

TABLE 29. Calculated activation energies(kcal mol-') for rotation about the C-N bond of guanidinium ions, (RNH)(H,N)C(=NHRR"')

R

R'

H H H H

H H H

Me H H H H H H syn-H,N anti-H,N H syn-Me anti-Me H syn-F nnti-F

Me

H

H

syn-CH=CH, anti-CH=CH, "Ar = 3,5-diamino-6-chloro-2-pyrazinyl

H Me H H H

H

H

H H

H

H H

H

H H H H H H

R" H H H H Me CH,CO,CH=O COAf

H

H H NH, H H Me H H F H H CH=CH, H H

partial double

Method

EA

Ref.

MIND0/3 STO-3G 4-3 1G CND0/2 CNDO/2 CND0/2 4-3 1 G CNDO/2 STO-3G 4-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G

8.9 20.1 14.1 21.9 19.7 22.6 11.7 16.2 22.76 14.97 14.73 22.79 23.40 12.97 16.78 15.21 13.47 19.70 19.33 11.53 14.67 13.42 13.54

150 198 198 215 215 215 218 214 219 219 220 22 1 22 1 22 1 22 I 22 1 22 I 22 I 22 1 22 1 222 222 222

(amiloride side chain).

I90

C. L. Perrin

TABLE30. Activation barriers(kcalmol-') to rotation about the C-N partial double bond of 0-alkyl isouroniumions Ion

MeOC(NMe,)=NMe, MeOC(NMe,)=NMe, MeOC(NEt,)=NMe, MeOC(NMe,)=NEt, MeOC(NEt,)=NEt,+

+ +

+

+

Solvent

AG'

Ref.

CH2C12 CDCI, CDCI, CDCI, CDCI,

10.3 10.2 9.8 8.9 9.5

193 194 194 I94 194

Under acidic conditions the experimental AG* of 12.9 kcal mol- ' for arginine, (H2N)*CNHR+,R = (CH,),CH(NH,+)COOH, is higher than the A d of 10.4kcal mol- ' for the basic form, but it is independent ofpH2'3.Thereforethe mechanismfor making the NH, groups equivalent must be rotation about the C-NHR partial double bond, rather than deprotonation to (H,N),C=NR and nitrogen inversion. The 4-31G and 6-3 IG calculated barriers are in good agreement with the experimental values. The increased barriers221calculated for N-amino- and N-fluoroguanidiniumions are due to a hydrogen bond to these substituents, and the decreased barrier for the H,N anti to the substituent is due to the reduced electron density on the nitrogen bearing the substituent. 3. E-Z stereoisomerization of isourea derivatives

Rates of rotation about C-N partial bonds of 0-alkyl isouroniumions, ROC(NR;),+, measured by "C coalescencetemperatures, are listed in Table 30. These are significantly lower than for corresponding amidinium ions, RC(NR'J2', since the alkoxy group stabilizes the positive charge in the transition state for rotation. 4. E-Z stereoisomerization of isothioureas

The barriers to interconversion of Z and E stereoisomers of N-arylisothioureas, MeSC(NHR)=NAr, and some N-phosphorylated isothioureas, MeSC(NHMe)=NPX, and RSC[N(R)PO(OEt),]=NR, are listed in Tables 31 and 32. These barriers are similarto values found in imine derivatives known to isomerize by nitrogen inversion,so it was inferred'16that this is the process in these molecules. For variation of substituentson the aromatic ring of N-aryl-N'-rnethylisothioureas''' the Hammett p (versus a-) of 1.1 does not distinguish between nitrogen inversion and rotation about the C-N double bond, but acceleration by an ortho methyl indicates that the former is the operative mechanism. Relative to N-phosphorylated benzamidines, the sulfur substituent reduces the activation barrier'21. The barriers to interconversion of Z and E stereoisomers of isothiouronium ions, RSC(NR'2)2+,are listed in Table 33. In CF,COOH there is no exchange of NH protons with solvent OH'24,so that the mechanism involves rotation about the C-N partial double bond. However, in methanol the interconversionis faster if one of the substituents on nitrogen is a hydrogen,since this permits proton loss and rotation about a C-N single bond of the isothiourea, so that the barrier is reduced.

5. Stereoisomerization of iminocarbonates For PhCH=N+=C(OEt), (31) the interchange of syn and anti ethoxy group^'^' proceeds with an experimental Act of 10.0kcal mol-I. This corresponds to nitrogen inversion, via a linear transition state like the stable form of the analogous di-t-butyl derivative (32).

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

191

TABLE 31. Activation barriers(kcalmol- ')to E - 2 interconversionofisothioureasMeSC(NHR)= NR ~

R

R

H

2,6-Xyl

H H Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me 23

Solvent CDCl,-CS, CDC13-CSZ CDC13-CSZ CDCI3-CS2 CD30D CD,COCD3 CD,OD CD3COCD3 CD,OD CDJCOCD, CD,OD CD;COCD, CD30D CD,OD-CDC :I3

Mesa 2,6-Et,C,jH3 Ph MeP(0)OPh MeP(S)OEt MeP(S)OEt MeP(S)OPh MeP(S)OPh PO(OEt), PO(OEt), PS(OEt), PS(OEt), 2,6-Xyl

13.1 13.3 13.2 12.4 15.0 14.3 13.8 14.6 14.3 14.8 15.6 14.4 14.8 12

116 116 116 117

119 119 119 119 119 119 119 119 119 183

"Mes = 2,4,6-Me3C6H,.

TABLE 32. Activation barriers (kcalmol- I ) to E-Z interconversion of N-phosphoryl isothioureas RSC[N(R')PO(OEt),]=NR in C6D6121

Me Me Me Me Et Et i-Pr i-Pr

Me Me Me Et Me Et Me Et

Me Et i-Pr Me Et Me Et Me

17.9 17.6 17.4 18.0 17.5 17.6 17.5 17.6

Forthe N-acyliminocarbonates(RO),C=NCOR' and (R0)2C=NCOOR'Z24*225 the R groups are equivalent in 'H and "C NMR, corresponding to a barrier to nitrogen inversion of <9kcalmol-'. In support, a 3-21G MO calculation on the model compound, (HO)2C=NCH0, indicates that the transition state for nitrogen inversion lies at 9.5 kcal mol- above the reactant. However, (MeO),C=NN=C(OMe)22Z6 shows inequivalent rnethoxy groups in both 'H and "C NMR, and the X-ray structureverifies that the structureis centrosymmetric (43), as is consistent with the IR/Ramanspectra. The

C. L. Perrin

192

TABLE 33. Activation barriers (kcalmol-’) to interconversion of 2 and E stereoisomers of isothiouroniumions MeSC(NRR)=NR”R“’ +

R

R’

R”

H H H H H H H Ha Hb H‘ H H H H Hb HC H H H H H H H Me

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H Me

H H H H H H H H H H H H H

Et t-BU PhCHMe

H

Me Me Me Me

Me‘ Me Et Ph

Me

Me Me Me Me

Me Me Me Et Ph

Me Me Me Me Et H Me H H H H

Me Me

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me

R ”’

Me

CH2Ph Ph p-CIC,H, p-MeOC,H, 2,6-Xyl 2,6-Xyl 2,6-Xyl 2,6-Xyl 2,6-Xyl 2,6-Et,C,H, 4-Br-2,6-XyI 3-02N-4-Br-2,6-Xyl 2,6-Xyl 2,6-Xyl 2,6-Xyl 2,6-Et&H3 2,6-Xyl 2,6-XyI 2,6-Xyl 2,6-Xyl 2,6-Xyl 2,6-XyI 2,6-Xyl 2,6-CI,C,H,

Me Me

2,6-Xyl 2,6-Xyl 2,6-Et,C,HS 2,6-Xyl

Me Me Me

Solvent CF3COOH CF3COOH CF,COOH CF C00H CF,COOH CF,COOH CD,OD CF,COOH CF,COOH CF,COOH CF3COOH-PhNO2 CF,COOH CF3COOH CF3COOH-PhNOz CF,COOH-PhN02 CF3COOH-PhNO2 PhNO, CF,COOH-PhNO, CF,COOH CF3COOH-PhNOz CF3COOH CF,COOH CF3COOH CF,COOH CF,COOH CDCI, CH2C12 CF,COOH-PhNO, CF,COOH-PhNO, CF3COOH-PhN02 CF,COOH-PhNOz CH,CI, CH,C12 CH,C12

AG* 17.7 16.9 14.3 14.1 14.6 20.0 18.1 18.5 20.4 20.1 20.6 20.0 19.6 22.9 23.9 23.9 24.3 22.7 11.6 22.9 17.7 16.8 11.6 14.0 16.0 9.4 10.3 21.1 21.9 23.2 19.0 15.06

> 15.5 12.7

Ref. 124 124 I 24 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 124 I 24 124 124 124 194 223 124 124 124 124 223 223 223

“S-Phenyl. bS-Ethyl. ‘S-s-Butyl.

barrier to nitrogen inversion is lower in the previous compounds because the electronwithdrawing acyl group stabilizes the p lone pair on nitrogen in the transition state. The barrierto E-Z stereoisomerization by nitrogen inversion in the iminodithiocarbonate (MeS),C=NC(NR,)=NCNZ2’ (R = CH,Ph) is ca 10 kcal mol-’. V. RATES OF ROTATION ABOUT SINGLE BONDS

Hindered internal rotation has been reviewed by Umemoto and Ouchizz*. Included is rotation about the C-N single bond of amidines, as well as some examples where the C-N double bond of the amidine is incorporated into an aromatic heterocycle.

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

193

A. Rotation about Single Bonds of Amidines and lmidates 1. Rates of C-N

rotation in amidines

Rates of rotation about the C-N single bond of amidines have been studied by various NMR methods. It is usually necessary to use reduced temperatures, since the barrier to rotation is low. Data are listed in Table 34, and many earlier values are tabulated in an earlierreview'. Unless otherwise noted, all these amidines are known or presumed to be of E configuration. Rotational barriers for many additional RC(=NHet)-NR; with bicyclic heterocycles (Het)235not included in Tables 34 were also measured. Restricted rotation about the C-N bond was also seen for N-phosphoniobenzamidines, ArC(=NP+Ph,)-NMez, and related but no activation barriers were determined.The large AS? reviously reported for C-N rotation in phC(=NH)-NMeZ3' could be corroboratedzJBas 11.4calmol-'deg-', but this was considered to be an anomaly due to the high viscosity of the solvent CDC1, near its freezing point. Indeed, in CHF,CI the AS$ is not significantly different from 0. Solvent dependence of AG*is ordinarily slight. The barriers for the various HC(=NHet)-NMe,Z29 hardly change from DMSO to CS,, and for HC(NMe,)=NPh the barriers vary only from 14.5 to 14.7 kcal mol- across a wide range of although added CF,COOH raises the barrier considerably by protonating the lone pair. With HC(="Nc6D5)'sNHC6D,'28 the "N label simplifies the spin system so that the ' J H C N Hcan be seen and used to assign anti and syn forms. The inverconversion of these by C-N rotation could be followed by line-shape analysis, which was complicated by NH exchange of the syn isomer, and the temperature dependence was fit as k = 1013.8e-14.27/RT. It is generallyfound that the barrier to rotation is lowered by steric bulk of substituents, which destabilizes the planar ground state of the moelcule. The effect is rather small for formamidines". The contrasts*z30between the Z and E forms of CH,CH=CHC(= NPh)-NMe,, differingin the stereochemistry of the C-C double bond, is particularly significant,in that the Z form shows the lower barrier. A similar dichotomy is seen with RC(=NAr)-NMe,, where the barriersfor R = H or Me are measurable,but the barrier for R = i-Przz, which is the Z stereoisomer according to I3C chemical shifts, is c 7 kcal mol-'. Likewise, the comparison234between the Z and E forms of HC(= NPh)-NMe,, differingat the C-N double bond, shows that rotation of the Z form is too fast to measureeven at - 80 "C.The same behavior is found for the conjugate acids, in CF,COOD or with DOAc in CDCI,. All these resultscan be explained by destabilization of a coplanar NMe, group by the bulky 2 substituent. However, these authors unfairly reject the conclusion that C-N rotation would be freer in the more congested stereoisomer.Instead they conclude that the methyls are statically equivalent, in a twisted structure(44). In support of this interpretation,the 'H NMR spectra of amidines HC(= NAr)-NMe, with ortho-substituted aryl groups show inequivalent N-methyls, and the inequivalencepersists from - 80 to 34°C. This is certainly a puzzling observation. Electronic effects are now clear, even though there was a controversy described in an earlier review in this series' due to complications from steric effects. Electron-withdrawing

'

+

Pr Pr i-Pr Bu i-Bu Hex PhCH, p-CICSH,CH, m-MeOC,H,CH, pTolCH2 Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph m-CIC,H,(E) m-CIC,H,(Z) 2-Py 3-Me-2-Py 4-Me-2-Py 5-Me-2-Py 3-CN-2-Py 5-02N-2-P~ 2- Pym 2-Pyz 5-CI-2-Pyz 3,5-Br2~2-Pyz 3-Pyd~ 6-CI-3-Pyd~ 2-N-MePy+ N,3-Me2-2-Py+

H H H

H

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H

H

H H

H H H H H H H H H H H

H

R E

R

-

-

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Et -

c

~

~

-(CHJs-(CH*),-

R"

TABLE 34. Activation barriers (kcal mol-') to rotation about the C-N

~

~

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me

~

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Et

R"

,

~

~

? ? ? ? ? ?

-

DMSO-d, DMSO-d, DMSOd, DMSO-d,

DMSO-d, CD,COCD, CD,COCD3 CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD,COCD3 CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CDCI, CD,COCD, DMSO-d, CH,=CCI, DMSO-ds DMSO-d, CD,COCD, ~ ~ 2 ~ ~ CDCI, CDCI; DMSO-d, DMSO-d, DMSO-d, DMSO-d,

Solvent

1

-

single bond of amidines, RC(=NR)-NR"R"

12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.0 12.5 12.6 12.4 12.4 14.9 14.8 14.9 14.3 14.4 16.5 13.6 14.3? < lo? 16.6 16.4 16.7 16.6 19.1 19.1 18.1 17.5 18.6 19.9 17.4 18.4 23.0 21.1

13.0

AG: 229 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 230 23 1 229 230 232 232 233 234 234 229 229 229 229 235 235 235 235 235 235 229 229 229 229

Ref.

E

H

-W,h-

= pTolCHP0,OMe-

Ph Ph Ph Me Me Ph

Ph

Ar

N,4-Me2-2-Py N,5-Me2-2-Py+ N,,,-Me-3-Pydz+ 4-CI-N,,,-Me-3-Pydz + 6-CI-3-Pydz-1-0 6-Cl-3-Pydz-2-0 Hex c-Hex Ph Ph 2-Py 3-CN-2-Py 3-Me-2-Py 4-Me-2-Py 3-Pydz 6-CI-3-Pyd~ 4-Me-6-CI-3-Pydz 5-Me-dCI-3-Pydz 4,5-Me2-6-C1-3-Pydz 2-Pym 2-Py.Z Ph

R ' "'

(compound 10).

"Pym = pyrimidyl, Pyz = pyrazyl, Pydz = pyridazyl.

Ph Ph

Ph

(E)-CH,CH=CH (Z)-CH,CH=CH (CH,),C=CH

Bu

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Et i-Pr

H

H H H

H

+

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me H Me Me Me Me CH,SMe Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me R"t b Me Me Me Me Me Me C.SDSCD3 CDCI,

C6D5CD3

? CH,=CCI, CD,COCD, CDC1, CDCI, CH,=CCl, CH,=CCI, CH,=CCI,

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

DMSO-d6 DMSO-ds DMSO-d, DMSO-ds DMSO-d6 DMSO-d, CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CDCI, CD,COCD,

15.3 11.5 8.5 11.6 11.1 11-12 12.8

11.0


22.4 22.8 23.1 > 25.2 19.7 19.3 < 10 < 10 12.7 12.4 < 10.4 13.0 < 9.4 13.2 14.0 14.0 < 9.4 14.2 < 9.7 < 9.3 13.9 11.0

10 10 230

5 5 5

229 229 229 229 229 229 22 22 236 22 235 235 235 235 235 235 235 235 235 235 235 230 22 230 35

196

C. L. Perrin

aryl or heterocyclic groups on the singly bonded nitrogen retard the rotation, since the resonance form 45, with a full double bond about which rotation must occur, is s t a b i l i ~ e dBy ~ ~the ~ ~same ~ ~ reasoning, ~. electron-withdrawing groups on the doubly bonded nitrogen can accelerate the rotation, although fewer of these have been studied, since the experimental method is easiest for N,N-dimethyl-substituted amidines. For a series of HC(=NAr)-NMeZz3' the activation barriers can be fitted to the Hammett equation as AG: = 14.8 + 2.390, but two m-alkoxyphenyl derivatives deviate positively, and this has been attributed236to a steric effect. In support of a steric effect, the acetamidine analogs, MeC(=NAr)-NMe, show a higher rate of rotation and a lower slope p of 1.67, since the greater size of the methyl group reduces the amidine conjugation. Forthe hexamethyleneimineanalogsHC(=NAr)-N[(CH,),]232 the tit to the Hammett equation is AG* = 16.5 + 1.990. For the pipendine analogs HC(=NAr)-N[(CH,),]233 the equation is AG* = 1.44 + 2.04a, and for the morpholine analogs HC(=NAr)N[(CH,),],O it is AG$= 13.7 + 1.700. The reduced barrier in this last case is due to the electron-withdrawing power of the oxygen. The barrier with the seven-membered ring is higher than with the six, owing to different conformations of the ring. This is a general observation, also seen in urea derivatives and enamines. According to 3-21G MO calculation^^^on HC(=NH)-NH,, the barrier to rotation about the C-N single bond is 10.2 kcalmol-i. According to a pseudopotential method and a polarized double-zeta basisi9 the barrier to C-NH, rotation is 12.0kcalmol-', but for HC(=NCN)-NH, the barrier rises to 16 kcal mol-'. In CD,NH,, N,N'-dimethylformamidine HC(NHMe)=NMe3' shows an interesting dynamic behavior. At -56.5"C the 'H NMR spectrum shows inequivalent N-methyls. The peak at 6 2.68 shows a 45 to the formyl CH proton of 0.52 Hz, and the one at 63.02 shows a 4! of 0.98 Hz. Therefore the former one was assigned to the singly bonded C-NHMe of the E-anti stereoisomer, and the latter to the doubly bonded C= NMe. In CDCI, these coalesce around - 15"C, with an activation energy of ca 9.8 kcal mol- ',dependent on amidine concentration, but far lower than the barrier to rotation about the C-N double bond. The mechanismwas therefore considered simply as a tautomerization of the E-anti stereoisomer, whose presence was inferredfrom the IR spectrum. However, the absenceof splitting of the N-methyls by the NH proton shows that proton exchange is very fast. Therefore the two N-methyl peaks must be assigned to 'inside' (Z and syn) and 'outside' (E and anti) methyls of E-syn and Z-anti stereoisomers. The interconversion must then proceed by rapid tautomerization, plus slower rotation about the C-N single bond (Scheme 1). The two equivalent tautomers of the E-anti stereoisomer are then the key intermediates. At - 40°C in Similar behavior is seenz4, for N-alkyl-N'-methylbenzamidines. CDC1,-acetone-d, N,N'-dimethylbenzamidine shows two methyl peaks in both 'H and I3C NMR. These were ascribed to the inequivalent methyls of PhC(NHMe)=NMe, which become equivalent at higher temperature through tautomerization. For higher homologs the doubling of signalsat - 40°C was ascribed to a mixture of PhC(NHMe)= NR and PhC(NHR)=NMe (R = Et or i-Pr), and the relative amounts of these two was solvent-dependent. ForR = t-Bu or Ph only one form was observed, as is reasonablefrom the acidifying natureofphenyl, but not so obvious for the t-butyl derivative. By analogy to the above case, where 3JHCNH is not seen, it seems more likely instead that tautomerization is fast, and that the dynamic process involved is the interconversion of E-syn and Z-anti stereoisomers.Then the phenyl and t-butyl derivatives can be viewed as cases where the Zanti stereoisomer predominates, owing to the bulk of these substituents. MeC(NHPh)= This same behavior is also seen with N,N'-diphenylacetamidine NPh244.In DMSO-d6(and in the solid) there are separate 'H and I3CNMR signalsfor Z and E phenyl geoups, but in CDCI, these arecoalesced.By HPLC it is possible to separate two compounds, in 1:l molar ratio, but these interconvert too quickly to permit purification. Again it is likely that the mechanism involves rapid tautomerization plus

3. Stereochemicalaspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds H

197

Cf3 N-H

CH3

CH3

\

H-C

/"-"

dH3

fast

\

CH3

\

H-C

P

\

H

rCH3

H

N-CH3

SCHEME1. Proposed mechanism for equivalencing 'inside' and 'outside' N-methyls of rapidly tautomerizingN,N'-dimethylformamidine slower rotation (Scheme I), with two equivalent tautomers of the E-anti (or 2-syn) stereoisomer as key intermediates. 2. Conformational interconversion of imidates and thioimidates

According to molecular orbital calculations132the barrier to rotation about the C-OMe bond of methyl formimidate HC(OMe)=NH is 23.57 kcal mol-'. The 6-31Gcalculated134 barrier to rotation about the C-0 bond of peroxyformimidic acid, HC(OOH)=NH, is 6.61 kcalmol-I. Photolysis of RC(OR)=NC13* produces the radical, RC(OR)=N*, whose ESR spectrum shows a temperature dependence of the 14N coupling. This is viewed as arising from slow interconversionof syii (28 sun) and ariti (28 anti) radicals,with differentcoupling constants. According to MNDO calculationson HC(OH)=N., the AGt for conversion of anti to syn is 4.5 kcal mol- which is consistent with the ESR behavior. Furtherstereochemicalfeaturescan be seen with some N- or C-isopropyl thioimidate esters, whose NMR spectra" show inequivalent methyls owing to restricted rotation of a the barrier to N-aryl bulky aryl ring. For methyl N-(o-phenylphenyl)isobutyrthioimidate, rotation is ca 8 kcal mol- I . for various methyl N-isopropylbenzothioimidates with ortho substituentsin the benzene ring, as well as i-PrC(SMe)=N-Naph - I , the barrierto C-Ar rotation is near 19 kcal mol-' althoughit is 12.5 kcal mol-' for i-PrC(SMe)=NC,H,F-o and 22.7 kcal mol- I for the ortho-iodo analog.

',

9. Rotation in Conjugate Acids and Bases

I. Racemization of chirai amidinium ions and similar conformational interconversions Sandstrom and his have carried out a series of elegant studies on stereodynamics of amidinium ions bearing an electron-donor substituent(46, A,A' = CN,

198

C. L. Perrin

COMe, COPh, CSMe, etc.) that permits an additional ketene aminal resonanceform (47).

To achieve the C-C double bond of the latter, the molecule must be planar and therefore achiral. Many of these molecules are indeed planar, but show a dynamic NMR behavior that makes A and A' or R and R equivalent.This corresponds to rotation about the C-C double bond, with a barrier unusually low owing to resonance stabilization of the

perpendicular transition state by amidinium resonance form 46. For example, for the acyclic PhC(CN)=C(NMe,), AGl is only 19.3kcal mol- '. For many other such molecules steric repulsions destabilize the planar form, and electron-acceptingsubstituents A and A' stabilize the twisted form. If A # A' and R # R' the molecule is then chiral.In some cases these can be resolved into enantiomers, and the rates of racemization measured polarimetrically. Some faster reactions can be measured by NMR, when R = i-Pr or PhCH,, which provides a prochiral group. For example, for 46 (n = 6, R = i-Pr, R' = PhCH,, A = A' = MeCO) AG*is 30.3 kcal mol- Generally it is found that AS* is large and positive, since solvent is liberated on converting the zwitterionic reactant to the less polar transition state. The amidinium ion 48246shows the interestingfeatureof an apparent Dlh symmetry in its 'H NMR spectrum. This requires deprotonation to the monocation 49 and closure to 50, which is the actual form of the monocation even though this too shows apparent D,,

'.

symmetry in the 'H NMR. Deprotonation and reprotonationat anothernitrogen makes the nitrogens equivalent, to produce effective C,, symmetry, and to achieve the full D,, symmetry the 10-memberedring of 48 or 49 must undergo rapid inversion. Although this example would require additional substitution to make it a racemization of a chiral amidine, it is included here because it involves conformational interconversions, plus bonding changes, to produce an apparently higher symmetry than the static structure. 2. Rates of C-N

rotation in amidinate ions

Conjugate bases of amidines have not often been characterized. However, one likely candidateis ArC(=N-)-N(SiMe,),247, which might show a readily measurablebarrier near 11 kcalmol-I for rotation about the C-N single bond.

3. Stereochemicalaspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds 3. Rates of C-0

199

rotation in imidatonium ions

MO calculation^^^at the 3-21G level on protonated formimidicacid HC(OH)=NHz+ suggest a barrier to anti-to-syn interconversion by C-0 rotation of 17.6 kcal mol-'. C. Rotation of Amidines and imidates with sp2-C Substituents

7 . Rates of C--N

rotation in N-acylamidines

The cyclic acylamidine30 (R = Me)z48shows two N-methyls in the 'H NMR. Therefore rotation about the C-N single bond must be slow. Rates of rotation about the C-N single bond of acylamidines have been measured by NMR methods. Data are listed in Table 35. Unless otherwise specified, the C-N double bond is of the more stable E configuration.For some of the N-acylamidines in the table rotational barriers in other solvent^^^*^^' have been determined. Also, for some acylamidines the activation parameters have been evaluatedzs0,and AS%is negative but small. As with ordinary amidines (Section V.A.1) the rotation is retarded by an electronwithdrawing group on the doubly bonded nitrogen. Thus the barrier for the Ntrifluoroacetyl derivative is higher than for the N-trichloroacetyl derivative, and for the phosphoryl series, the barrier increasesz5' in the order P(-OCH,CH,O-) < PO(OR), < P(T0l-p),+ < PPh,', and this correlates with "C chemicalshifts.It is also necessary to consider steric effects, since bulky R groups such as trichloromethyl lower the barrier, despite their electron-withdrawing power. TABLE 35. Activation barriers(kcalmol-') to rotationabout C-N sulfonylamidinesand phosphorylamidines RC(=NR')-NR"R"

R H H H H H H H H Me Me CI,CH CI,CH CI,CH CI,CH F,C F,C CI,C CI,C Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph 2-Py 3-Py 4-Py

R

R

COCF, COCHCI, COCCI, S0,Me S0,Me S0,Me S02Ph SOzTol-p COCF, COCHCI, Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me COCHCI, COCF, COCCI, COCF, COCCI, COCF,

Me Me Me H H Ph H H Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me

R'"

Me Me Me Ph pTol (CH,),NHPh Ph Ph Me Me PPh,+ P(Tol-p),+ PO(OMe), PO(OPr), PPh,+ PO(OEt), PPh,+ POOMe PPh,+ R-OCH,CH,O-) Me Me Me Me Me Me

single bond of acylamidines,

Solvent C2H2C14

C2H2C14

CCI, DMSO-d6 DMSO-ds DMSO-d6 DMSO-d, DMSO-d6 CC1, C2H2C14

CD,CN CD,CN CD,CN CD,CN CD,CN CD,CN CDCI, CD,COCD, CD,CN CD,CN CI,CDCDCI, CHCI, c2c14

CDCI, CDCI, CDCI,

AG'

Ref.

20.1 21.7 21.7-23.1

79 79 249 85 85 85 85 85 249 79 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 250 79 249 249 251 25 1 251

19.0

19.6 19.5 19.8 19.4 17.2 17.9 18.2 17.8 16.1 15.7 17.9 14.6 14.2 10.8 21.4 14.5 15.8 18.1 16.1 16.7 16.1 16.6

C. L. Perrin

200

According to MTND0/3 calculationszo4 on N-nitrosoformamidine, HC(= NH)NHN=O, the barriers to C-N and N-N single bond rotation are 11.6 and 4.0 kcal mol- I , respectively. D. Rotation of KHeterosubstituted Amldines and lmldates 1. Rates of C-N

rotation in N-aminoamidines

Rates of rotation of N-aminoformamidines and N,N-dimethyl-N'-(acylamino) formamidines about their C-N single bond were determined by 'H NMR. Activation barriersare listed in Table 36. The higherbarrier found when the N-acylamido group is Z is attributed to more extensive conjugation of the lone pair on the dimethylamino nitrogen. 2. Rates of C-N

rotation in amidoximes

Rates of rotation about the C-N single bond of amidoximes have been studied by variousNMRmethods. Data are listed in Table 37. The barrierto rotation about the C-N single bond is lower in (Z)-ArC(NMe,)=NOH than in the E isomerg2,owing to steric interaction between the methyls and the OH.

single bond of N-

TABLE 36. Activation barriers (kcal mol-') to rotation about the C-N aminoformamidines,HC(=NNRR')-NR"R"' R

R

R"

R"'

H H H H H Me H H Me Me Me Me Me

CH,Ph 2-Py Me CH2Ph 2-Py Me CH,Ph CH,Ph Me Me Me Me Me

Ad

Ref.

14.8 17.4 14.9 14.9 17.5 9.1 15.6 15.2 13.4 10.9 13.2 < 10.0 13.2

252 252 252 252 252 252 252 252 253 253 253 253 253

Solvent

~ _ _ _ _

Me Me Me Me Me Me i-Pr CH,Ph (2)-HCO (E)-HCO (2)-HCO (E)-HCO (2)-HCO

Me Me Ph Ph Ph Ph i-Pr CH,Ph Me Me i-Pr i- Pr t-Bu

CDCI, CDCI, CDCI, CDCI, CDCI, CD,COCD, CDCI, CDCI, CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD;COCD; CD,COCD, CCI,

TABLE 37. Activation barriers(kca1mol- ') to rotationabout the C-N RC(=NOR')-NMe,

R AP AP AP Mes

R

(E)-H (E)-Me (Z)-H or Me H

Solvent CD2CI, CDZCI, CDCI,? CD2C12

AG%

singlebond of amidoximes,

Ref.

Method

'H T, 'H T, T, < 90 "C 11.2 ' H LSA 9.7 9.7

"Ar = p-MeOC6H4, p-Tol, Ph, p-CIC,H,, p-O2NChH4,without significant variation in

92 92 92 208

AG'.

3. Stereochemicalaspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

201

E. Rotation of C-Heterosubstituted Amidines 1. Rates of C--N

rotation in guanidines

The barrier to rotation about the C-NMe, single bond of the acylguanidine51'" is 15.6 kcalmol-'. In acid, AG*is 17.7kcalmol-', and the rate is independent of the acid concentration,so that this representsrotation about the C-NMe, partial double bond of protonated 51. Similarly,the barrier to rotation about the C-N(CH,Ph), single bond of H

Ar,C=NC(=NCN)-N(CH,Ph),zz7 is 17.3 kcal mol- in toluene-d,, and it is higherin more polar solvents. Such restricted rotation is probably responsiblefor the inequivalence of the R,N 'H and I3CNMR signalszs4in AdNC(=NCOAr)-NR, (AdNH = adenine, R,NH = piperidine, pyrrolidine, Me,NH, morpholine).These barriersare higher than in most other guanidines because the electron-withdrawing carbonyl or cyano group increases the double-bond character. Calculated barriers to rotation about the C-N single bonds of guanidinesare listed in Table 38. The variations in activation energies are attributed' l 6 to hydrogen bonding to the substituent, which stabilizes the planarform.The increasein activation energy due to a carbonyl substituent is in agreement with experimental 2, Rates of C-N

rotation in isothioureas

Barriers to rotation about the C-NMe,

single bond of some N-phos-

TABLE 38. Calculated activation energies(kca1mol- ') for rotation about the C-N single bonds of stereoisomeric (H,N)C(=NH)-NHR or (H,N)C(=NH)-NR,

R H

H H

H

Me Me Me Me Me2 CHO NH2 NH2 NH2 NH,

F F F F

C=N Z Z

E

E

? ?

Z Z

E E

Z Z

E E

C-N

Method

? ? syn anti SYn anti syn anti

CND0/2

? SYn anti SYn anti sYn anti sYn anti

4-3 1 G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G

-

4-31G 6-3 1G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G 6-31G

CND0/2

E,(NH,) 14.4 12.2 7.50 11.90 12.97 12.30 11.6 17.0 19.31 10.84 16.98 9.89 -

E,(NHR)

-

-

8.16 9.36 13.19 14.39

-

14.80 11.20 19.29 19.40 13.13 8.53 15.84 7.26

Ref. 215 218 216 216 216 216 216 216 215 218 216 216 216 216 216 216 216 216

C. L. Perrin

202

~ ~rotation ~ about the TABLE 39. Activation barriers ( k c a l r n ~ l - ' )to C-N single bond of phosphorylated isothioureas MeSC(=NR)NMe,

Solvent

R

MeP(0)OPh PO(OEt), PO(OEt)(SEt) PS(OEt),

CDCI,-CD,COCD, CDCI, CDCI, CDCI,-CD,COCD,

AGa 10.5 11.5 11.6

11.0

p h o n i o i s o t h i ~ u r e a are s ~ ~listed ~ in Table 39. The barriers are lower than in the correspondingN-phosphonioamidines,perhapsowing to steric repulsionfrom the bulkier methylthio group. 3. Rotation of haloformamidines

In contrast to most otherN-acylamidines,the 'H NMR spectrum of ClC(=NCOPh)NMe, in CDCI, a single N-methyl peak. Therefore rotation about the C-N single bond must be fast. 4. Rotation of C-metallosubstituted amidines

The 'H NMR ~pectrum'~' of the cationic gold complex, Au[C(NHMe)(NMe2)I2+, ligands, shows two different methyls on the with two N,N,N'-trimethylamidinium dimethylamino nitrogen. Likewise Au[C(NHMe),], +, with two N,N'-dimethylamidinium ligands, shows two different N-methyls. Therefore rotation about the C-N partial double bonds must be slow. These are Au(1) complexes, but the same behavior is seen with the corresponding Au(II1) complexes. The behavior parallels that of simple amidinium ions, in contrast to amidines, where rapid rotation about the C-N single bond leads to equivalent N-methyls. The 'H NMR spectrum189of Cp,UC(NEt,)=NXyl-2,6 shows inequivalent N-ethyl resonances,so that rotation about the C-N single bond is slow. Moreover, there are inequivalent cyclopentadienyl ligands, so that rotation about the U-C bond is also restricted. VI. STEREOCHEMICAL EFFECTS ON FORMATION OF AMIDINES, IMIDATES AND RELATED COMPOUNDS A. Formation of Stereoisomeric Amidines and lmidates 1. Formation of stereoisomeric amidines

Since the E stereoisomer of a trisubstituted amidine is the more stable, this is usually the product formed. However, it is sometimes possible to take advantage of kinetic control to produce the Z form. In particular,the Z stereoisomer of 5 is formed preferentially,and this has been attributed9 to the preferred stereochemistry of the precursor. Another case is addition of secondary amines to isonitriles (equation 1)257, where reaction at - 15 "C RZNH + R'NC --t (Z)-HC(NR,)=NR + (E)-HC(NR,)=NR' (1) leads to the Z form, which is isomerized to the E form only on refluxingin chloroform.The Z form could be distinguished by the 0.65 ppm shielding of the substituents on nitrogen. The mechanism for preferentialformation of the Z stereoisomer is viewed as proceeding

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

203

via the silver complex of the isonitrile,nucleophilicaddition of amine, N-protonation and 1,Zhydrogen shift. Alternatively, addition of nucleophileanti to the lone pair is preferred stereoelectronically,and this establishes the stereochemistry immediately while allowing external proton to displace the silver. The Z form could also be obtained from HCCI= NAr plus secondary amine,and this seems to be the result of stereoelectronicallypreferred addition to HC=NAr+. Another example is the reactionzs8of CH,CN, ArN(Me)SPh (Ar = p-O,NC,H,) and RC=CH (R=Bu or Ph), catalyzed by BF,-OEt,, which produces a mixture of stereoisomeric PhSCH=CRN=CMe-NMeAr, which slowly converts to a single material. By analogy with other reactionsit was concluded that the kinetic product is the Z form as regards the C-N double bond, and that the thermodynamic product is the E isomer. 2. Formation of stereoisomeric imidic acids and imidate esters

Photolysis of N-phenylbenzamide PhCONHPhzS9produces a long-wavelength fluorescence whose intensity, at constant absorbance, increases with concentration. Although similarfluorescenceis seen with N-methyl-N-phenylbenzamide, the width of the emission band in N-phenylbenzamide varies with solvent polarity, so it is composite and can be attributedz6' partly to emission from the tautomeric imidic acid. Since the amide catalyzes conversion to the emitting state, presumably by a double proton transfer, the imidic acid is claimed to be created in its E configuration(52), but the evidence is weak. Reaction of PhC(OMe)=NH with NaOCl produces the N-chloroimidate'" PhC(OMe)=NCI as a 9:l mixture of Z and E isomers. Only on heating do these equilibrate, so that this is indeed a kinetically determined mixture. 3. Formation of stereoisomeric thioimidates

Methyiation of the N-pyridinium betaine ArC(-S-)=N(NC,H,+)261 produces only the Z stereoisomer of the S-methyl N-(1-pyridini0)thioimidate (53, R,R' = H, Me). This

Ph'

(52)

(53)

means that the reactant must have been present predominantly as its Z configuration. On heating the product to 70°C, an equilibrium is established, with the E isomer predominating for R = R = H and with the 2 predominating for R = H, R = Me. For R = R = Me no equilibrationcould be detected, and this was attributed to retardation of equilibration by steric hindrance.However, it is more likely that the equilibrium simply favors strongly the Z form.

B. Formation of Stereoisomeric Conjugate Acids 1 . Formation of stereoisomeric amidinium ions

Reaction of RC=NMe+ (R = Me or Ph) with RNH, [R' = cis-(NC)C(NH,)= (NC)C]26z produces N,N'-dialkylamidinium ions as a mixture (1.4:l or 1S:l) of ZE and

204

C. L. Perrin

EZ isomers (2ZE, ZEZ), in nearly equal amounts. It is not clear why addition across the C-N triple bond is not anti, as in the cases above (SectionVI.A.1) and below (Sections VI.D.1-4). Nor is it clear how the material that crystallizes from the reaction can be a mixture of stereoisomers. 2. Formation of stereoisomeric imidatonium ions

By 0-alkylation of the separate Z and E amide stereoisomers it is possible to prepare stereoisomeric imidatonium ions43 that can sometimes be enriched or separated by crystallization and characterized by NMR. 3. Formation of stereoisomeric metal complexes of amidines

The W(CO)5 complex of PhC(NMe,)=NH” is formed as a 1 :3 mixture of Z and E isomers, from which the E can be separated by crystallization. This material is then stable to stereoisomerization to the Z form. Since the precursor PhC(OMe)=NH + W(CO)5 was a 1.2: 1 mixture of stereoisomers, its reaction with Me,NH is not stereospecific,but proceeds by an addition-elimination mechanism. C. Formation of Stereoisomeric Amidines with spz-C Substituents 1. Formation of stereoisomeric imidines

According to X-ray analysis263[2 + 21 cycloaddition of c-HexN=C=NHex-c with pO,NC,H,N=C=S produces the Z Z imidine 54. Although previous studies had suggested that steric effects would favor kinetic formation of the Z E stereoisomer, the ZZ form is the most stable. Since the barrierto isomerization is likely to be low, the ZE form might be formed initially, but then be rapidly isomerized to the 22. In contrast, another four-memberedring imidine (55, Ar = p-T01)’~~ is the EZ form shown, owing to the steric bulk of the diphosphine ligand.

D. Formation of Stereoisomeric NHeterosubstituted Amidines and lmidates

N-Hetero-amidines and -imidates show the unusual feature that the kinetic product may be different from the thermodynamic product. 1. Formation of stereoisomeric aminoamidines

Reaction of various MeCCl=NNMeAr with Me,NHZo6produces (2)-MeC(NMe,)= NNMeAr as kinetic product, by stereospecific addition to MeCEN’NMeAr. For Ar = 2,4-(O,N),C,H, this product can be crystallized and kept as the Z stereoisomer at

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

205

- 20°C, but with other aryl groups impure crystals are obtained or the material does not crystallize, and such substances more readily convert to the E stereoisomer. 2. Formation of stereoisomeric amidoximes

The Z stereoisomer of an amidoxime is often the one that is formed more quickly by amine addition to a nitrile oxide, and this then rearrangesat a measureable rate to the more stable E stereoisomer. Thus the kinetically formed ArC(NMe,)=NOHg2 is Z, and on heating this is converted to the E form. Further NMR studiesg5 indicated that the kinetic product from addition of morpholine to the nitrileoxide p-0,NC6H4CN0is the Z form, which is converted to the more stable E form by heating or treatment with acid. Another example26s is the addition of Me,SiNEt, to MeCNO, to produce (Z)MeC(NEt,)=NOSiMe,, which takes days to isomerize to its E isomer. However, with Nmonosubstituted or -unsubstituted amidoximes9,, the initially formed Z isomer is also the more stable one, and this persists in the reaction mixture. Thus the general addition of amine R,NH to nitrile oxide ArCNO produces (Z)-ArC(NR,)=NOH as kinetic product. If at least one of the R groups is hydrogen, this is the stable product. However, if both R groups are alkyl, the product isomerizes to the more stable E stereoisomer, especially under acidic conditions. To obtain the Z form, it is necessary to carry out the synthesis near 0°C. A MNDO calculation266on the addition ofNH, to fulminicacid HCNO or acetonitrile oxide MeCNO shows that (Z)-RC(NH,+)=NO- is formed faster. Rapid proton transfer then produces the more stable Z amidoxime RC(NH,)=NOH. Reaction of hydroximoyl and alkoximoyl chlorides with amines106shows interesting sterochemical features. Reaction of (Z)-ArCCl=NOMe (Ar = p-Tol, p-CIC6H, or pMeOC6H4) with R,NH (pyrrolidine) produces (Z)-ArC(NR,)=NOMe as kinetic product, but on heating this is converted to an equilibrium mixture of Z and E stereoisomers.Reaction with RNH, produces(Z)-ArC(NHR)=NOMe as the stable form. In contrast, (E)-ArCCI=NOMe is unreactive toward R,NH or RNH,, even though this stereoisomer is reactive toward the better nucleophile methoxide. With the still more nucleophilicR,NLi (N-lithiopyrrolidine)the E stereoisomeris reactive,but only one-sixth as fast as the Z. The Z alkoximoyl chloride reacts stereospecifically to form (Z)ArC(NHR)=NOMe, but the E gives a 57:43 mixture of Z and E products. These results have been interpreted in terms of a stereoelectronic effect, whereby cleavage of an alkoxide leaving group requirestwo antiperiplanarlone pairs, but cleavage of the better leaving group chloride requiresonly one. Thus addition of nucleophileNu to (Z)-ArCCkNOMe produces intermediate 56, which cleaves to the Z product. Addition of Nu to (E)-ArCCI=NOMe produces intermediate 57. If the nucleophileis R,NH, there is no lone pair antiperiplanarto CI, and this intermediate reverts to reactant faster even than it can rotate about the C-N single bond. Thus the E reactant cannot lead to product. If the nucleophileis R,N- or MeO-, there is a lone pair antiperiplanarto CI, and

0 Nu

0 Nu

Nu

C. L. Perrin

206

this intermediate can lose CI- or rotate to other conformations with two lone pairs antiperiplanarto C1, one of which (56)gives Z product and the other of which (58) gives E. The same behavior is seen209in addition of amines to MeC(=NOH)CNO, formed as an intermediate from MeC(=NOH)C(CI)=NOH. Addition of ammoniagives only the Z amidoxime. Addition of primary amines gives 1.5-4.0% E amidoxime, except that tbutylamine gives 10% of the E isomer. The stereoisomers could be distinguished by their 'H NMR spectra, especially the chemical shift of the amidoxime hydroxyl. With secondary amines, the E amidoxime is the kinetic product that can only be detected by NMR, since it isomerizes rapidly to the more stable Z. 3. Formation of stereoisomeric hydrazide derivatives

Reaction of hydrazidoyl halides with nucleophilesalso can lead to a kinetic product that is not the more stable stereoisomer. For example, reaction of various RCX=NNMeAr [Ar = 2,4-(02N)2C6H,] with silver acetate26' produces the Z stereoisomer of the hydrazidoyl carboxylates, 59Z (R' = Me). On heating these in inert solvents, they isomerize to the E form (59E), which then undergoesa 1J-acyl shift. The kinetics could be R'COO

\

R

/NMeAr

/=="

7?

*' coo\ R

/"="\NMeAr

followed by U V and NMR, but the intermediate E form could not be detected. Nevertheless, the substituent effects indicate that the nitrogen inversion is rate-limiting. This same behavior is seen*OBwith methoxide as a nucleophile. Only the Z methyl hydrazidate RC(OMe)=NNMeAr is formed,but this can be isomerized to the E on heating. Moreover, the starting halide could be confirmed as the Z stereoisomer by X-ray studies. Therefore,the substitution occurs with retention of configuration.The mechanism is an addition-elimination, via an intermediate (60, X = C1, Br). Since the methoxy can enter

ArNMe

antiperiplanar to a lone pair on the imino nitrogen, and since halide can leave antiperiplanarto a second lone pair on that nitrogen,the lifetime of the intermediate is too short to permit rotation about its C-N single bond. It should be noted that with methoxide as nucleophilethe reaction is furthercomplicated by methoxide catalysis210of the isomerization of the Z product to the more stable E. All these studies were limited to the available Z reactant. To compare the stereoselectivitiesof the Z and E forms, it was necessary to prepare the E form. Although

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

207

TABLE40. Product stereochemistry'"

from reaction of stereoisomeric 0- or S-p-nitrophenyl benzo(thi0)hydrazidates ArC(XC6H,N02-p)=NNMeC6H3(N02)2-2,4 with sodium methoxide Ar

X

Reactant

%E

p02NC6H4 p-MeOC,H, p-MeOC,H, P-02NC6H4 P-02NC6H4

0 S S S S

z

16 16 49

Z

E Z E

10

62

this was not possible, even by photolysis, for the hydrazidoyl halides, reaction with thiophenols2l o could produce either stereoisomer of RC(SAr')=NNMeAr. The Z form is the kinetic product, obtainable if the reaction is carried out at room temperature. The E form is thermodynamically more stable, and it predominates if the reaction is carried out at 65 "C.The two forms could then be purified by chromatography.These are still reactive toward nucleophilicsubstitution, since Ar'S- is a good enough leaving group. According to substituent effects the reaction is again an addition-elimination. The product composition is shown in Table 40. The E thiophenolates produce a mixture of Z and E products, since there is no nitrogen lone pair antiperiplanarto the leaving group in the initial intermediate (61, X = SAr'). Therefore this undergoes rotation either to 60

(X = SAr'), which gives 2 product, or to another rotamer, which gives E. However, in contrast to the reaction of the hydrazidoyl chlorides, the reaction of the Z thiophenolates (or phenolate)is not so stereospecific,and 10-16% of E product is formed. This is because the thiophenoxide or phenoxide is not as good a leaving group as chloride,so that some of the intermediates (60, X = SAr' or OAr') live long enough to rotate about their C-N bond. 4. Formation of stereoisomeric hydroximates

According to 4-31G c a l c ~ l a t i o n son ' ~the ~ reaction coordinate for addition of OH- to fulminicacid HCNO, the simplest nitrile oxide, the activation energy for formation of the Z product is 32 kcal mol- ',substantially lower than the 61 kcal mol- for formation ofthe E product. This same result was obtained qualitatively for addition of methanol268(or water269)to RCNO (R = H, Me, Ph);accordingto MNDO calculationsthe Z product (62) is formed via a kinetically preferred stereoisomer(63) of the intermediate,which transfersa proton with little barrier. A MNDO calculation270on the initial adduct of HCNO and OH- is also of relevance to the question of stereoelectronic control. Although the

'

208

C. L. Perrin

>-"

H

H

0'

Me-0

G

P

\

/C="

R

R

0

0-

H

0/"

\

/"="\0-

H

preferentialformation of the Z-stereoisomer can be attributed, through the principle of microscopic reversibility, to a preference for cleavage of a leaving group that is antiperiplanarto a nitrogen lone pair, the C-0 bond length of the Z adduct (642) does not show any weakening, compared to the E adduct (ME). Formation of hydroximates from hydroximoyl or alkoximoyl halides is stereoselective. As formed by action of PCI, on hydroxamic acids or esters, an oximoyl halide is exclusively (99.5%) the Z stereoisomer"3 (equation 2). On photolysis of this material, a photostationary state can be set up, with detectable amounts of the E form. The reactivities of the two stereoisomeric alkoximoyl chlorides271are quite different. The Z form undergoes S1, reaction 470 times as fast as the E even though the equilibrium favors the Z form by at least 99.5%. This represents a strong preference for a nitrogen lone pair antiperiplanarto the leaving group, just as in the ElcB reaction of vinyl halides. Then, by the principle of microscopic reversibility, there should be a strong preference for an incoming nucleophileto enter antiperiplanarto the lone pair on the nitrogen. This then leads to the Z product (equation 3). Indeed, both stereoisomers of the reactant give only the same 2 product, PhC(OMe)=NOMe, since both proceed via the common intermediate, A r C r N O M e + . In support, this same Z product is obtained2" if the intermediate is generated by diazotization of the amidoxime, PhC(NH,)=NOMe. ArCONHOR

+ PCI,

ArCX=NOMe ArCSNOMe' + NuArc(-0-)=NOR

+ AcCl

-

(Z)-ArCCl=NOR

ArCENOMe' + X(Z)-ArCNu=NOMe

-

-+

(Z)-ArC(OAc)=NOR

(2)

(3) (4)

Similarly the intermediate nitrilium ion, ArC=NOPr+, formed by diazotization of ArC(NH,)=NOPr, can be trappedt7' with acetate, to form (Z)-ArC(OAc)=NOPr. Alternatively, acylation of the silver salt of an N-alkoxyimidate anion produces the Z stereoisomer of the 0-acylalkoxyimidate (equation 4). This product is stable to 0-to-N acyl shift,since the lone pair on the nitrogenis transto the acyl group. Photolysis produces a mixture of Z and E forms, which can often be separated by chromatography. The stereochemicalassignment is confirmed by the observation that the E form does undergo an 0-to-N acyl shift. Preferential formation of the Z stereoisomer was attributed to chelation of the Ag' counterion, which favors the Z stereoisomer of the reactant. However, the chelation effect of silver is not necessary, since treatment of PhCONHOCH,Ph with acetic anhydrideand ~ y r i d i n e produces ~'~ the 2 stereoisomer of PhC(OAc)=NOCH,Ph, so that this is a general feature of the reactant stereochemistry. The same behavior is shown in addition to nitrile ~xides''~.Addition of ethoxide produces the Z hydroximate, with the nucleophileentering anti to the nitrogen lone pair (equation 5, Ar = p-O,NC,H,). Photolysis produces a mixture of 2 and E forms, and the ArC=N+O-

+ EtO-

-

(Z)-ArC(OEt)=NOH

(5)

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

209

E form can be distinguishedby a 0.9 ppm upfield shift of the OH resonance.With acetate as nucleophile,the initial adduct is not stable, but undergoes a 1,4-acyl transferto produce ArCONHOAc. This transferrequiresthat the initial addition product be Z. With azide as nucleophile,the Z hydroximoyl azide, ArC(N,)=NOH, could be obtained, whereas if the product had been the E isomer, it would have cyclized to a hydroxytetrazole, which is known to form when there are catalysts that isomerize the double bond. Under S,2 conditions the formation of alkoximates from alkoximoyl chlorides is not Reaction ~~. of (Z)-ArCCI=NOR with alkoxide produces always so s t e r e o s p e c i f i ~ ~ exclusively the Z alkoximate ester, within limits of detectability. In contrast,the E chloride produces a mixture of Z and E esters, with the E predominating.The 2 and E forms react at nearly the same rate, and the kinetic behavior is consistent with an addition-elimination mechanism. Although formation of hydroximate esters usually leads to the Z form, from the more stable 2 stereoisomer of the hydroximoyl halide,alternative routes can produce a mixture of stereoisomers. In particular, complexation of benzyl methyl ether with chromium tricarbonyl activates the methylene toward nitrosation, and the resulting rf-Cr(CO), complex of methyl benzohydroximate, PhC(OMe)=NOH, is as a 5545 mixture of Z and E forms. Reaction of S-alkyl-N-hydroxy thioacetimidates MeC(SR)=NOH with i s o c y a n a t e ~ ~ ~ ~ produces N-(carbamoy1oxy)thioacetimidates (65). These are a mixture of Z and E forms,

whose NMR spectra could be assigned.However, the formation ol'a mixture is due to the trivial fact that the reactant is also a mixture. Such compounds are important because methomyl (65, R = R = Me) is an insecticide, active as its Z formz7*. VII. STEREOCHEMICAL EFFECTS IN REACTIONS OF AMIDINES, IMIDATES AND RELATED COMPOUNDS

One of the principles of stereochemistry is that enantiotopic groups or enantiomeric structuresmust show identical reactivity (in the absenceof optically active coreagents),but that diastereotopic groups or diastereomeric strxtures can show different reactivities. Certainly different stereoisomers can show different reactivities, since diastereomers are genuinelydifferent.Reaction may be stereospecific,if each stereoisomericreactantleads to a different product. If the two stereoisomers can be studied independently, their separate reactivities can be determined. However, it is quite possible that they interconvert under the reaction conditions, especially if they are simply conformers, interconverting by rotation about single bonds. It is then necessary to take account of the Curtin-Hammett principle279.The observed rate is not the rate ofeither individual reactant.Also, even ifthe reaction is stereospecific,the mixtureof products representsneitherthe mixture of reactant stereoisomers nor simply their relative reactivities. It is quite possible that the dominant product arises from a greater reactivity of a minor stereoisomer.

210

C. L. Perrin

A. Stereochemical Effects on Reactivity of Amidines and lmidates 1. Reactions of chiral amidines

Meyers2*' has used 'chiralamidines to synthesize chiral amines in high enantiomeric purity. Forexample,alpha-deprotonationof amidine66, derived from valinol, followed by alkylation, produces 67, which can be hydrolyzed to alkylated amine. The model for diastereoselection is alkylation of chelated organolithium 68 with retention of configur-

t -BuO (66)

ation. Although the chirality cannot reside in the amidine functional group, it is the chemistry of the amidine functionality that permits the transferof chirality from a group on one nitrogen to one on the other. 2. Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric amidines

The Z and E stereoisomers of amidines can show different reactivities. Obviously substituentsthat areto react must be on the same side of the double bond, Thuscyclization of N-aryl-N'-cyanoformamidines HC(NHAr)=NCN to 4-aminoquinazolines (69)281 requires the Z-syn stereoisomer so that the electrophilic cyano and nucleophilic aryl can be in proximity. Likewise ring expansion of the aziridine derivative (equation 6)257

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

211

succeeds only with the E form shown, since this one has the nitrogen lone pair properly disposed for substitution. (It is likely that this reaction proceeds via a 2-chloroethyl derivative, since direct opening of the aziridine would be a 5-endo-tet reaction,',.) Another example is the conversion of N-allylbenzamidine PhC(=NH)NHCH,CH=CH, to 2phenyl-4-(iodomethyl)imidazoline (70)283with N-iodosuccinimide, where the cyclization

requires proximity of the nitrogen lone pair and the ally1 group on the other nitrogen. Likewise, cyclization of the adduct from an amidine and a pyrone derivative (71, R' = H or OMe)284requires proximity between nitrogen and carbonyl. In both these kinds of cyclization, the stereochemicaldescription depends on whether the attacking nucleophile is an amino nitrogen or an imino nitrogen, but the necessity for proximity is obvious. The intramolecular 1,3-phosphoryl shift in various N-phosphorylated amidines also obviously requires the Z stereoisomer, and it could be verified by line-shape analysis243 that the E stereoisomer is unreactive and must convert to the Z form in order to undergo the rearrangement. The stereochemical requirement is less obvious for the alkyl migration in a diaminocarbene (72)285.With R = R , as in the bispyrrolidine carbene studied, it is not possible to determine whether the Z or E alkyl migrates. However, with R=Me, R'R' = (CH,),, the product may be expected to be either a tetrahydropyrimidine or an iminopyrrolidine, so that this is a practical experiment to do. 3. Stereoelectronic effects in reactivity of amidines

Hydrolysis of amidines has been used as evidence both for and against the theory of stereoelectronic according to which preferential cleavage of tetrahedral intermediates occurs when there are two lone pairs antiperiplanarto the leaving group. This is an especially good system for testing the theory, since the positions of the nitrogen lone pairs can usually be specified unambiguously. Hydrolysis of the cyclic amidines 73' can lead to two possible products, depending on which C-N bond is cleaved. Since an alkyl amine is more basic, it ought to be cleaved more readily, to produce 74, even though 75 is more stable. For n = 7 ca 50% of the kinetic product 74 was indeed detected, but for n = 6 , only 75 was obtained. A possible explanation is that the tetrahedralintermediate 76 (n = 6) cannot achieve a conformation

C. L. Perrin

212

with two lone pairs antiperiplanarto the more basic nitrogen, and therefore this must cleave the other C-N bond, to produce 75. However, an alternative explanation is that the kinetic product 74 (n = 6) is formed, but it is too transient to detect. Hydrolysis of N,N'-dimethylformamidinezB7 produces predominantly or exclusively the less stable E stereoisomer of N-methylformamide, which converts to the Z stereoisomer under the reactionconditions. The reaction involves hydroxide attack on the predominant ZE stereoisomer of the amidinium ion. Because the initial tetrahedral intermediate (77) lacks two lone pairs antiperiplanar to any nitrogen leaving group, rotation about a C-N single bond is required for cleavage. Rotation of the nitrogen that was originally E (at the rear of the structure as illustrated) would produce 78, which is sterically crowded. Therefore rotation of the other nitrogen is preferred, to produce 79.

0 0

I

Me

(77)

(78)

(79)

This now has two lone pairs antiperiplanarto the rear nitrogen, whose cleavage produces (E)-N-methylformamide.Although this result had been taken as evidence for stereoelectronic control, it should be noted that 79 is a uniqueconformation of the intermediate, free of gauche butane or other 1,4 H-H repulsions,and this can cleave only to the (E) amide, regardless of whether stereoelectronic control operates. Another case is the cleavage of intermediate 80288,not to precursorazalactam 81, but to amidine 82 and aminoamide 83. Although this was viewed as a consequence of

stereoelectronic control, the products are determined simply by thermodynamic stabilities, and no kinetic effects need be invoked. Hydrolysis of appropriatecyclic amidines provides a definitive test for stereoelectronic control in cleavage of tetrahedral intermediates. The predictionszB9of stereoelectronic control are shown in Scheme 2. Hydroxide is expected to attack the amidinium ion 84 antiperiplanarto the lone pairs on the two nitrogens, to form 85 as initial intermediate. Following rotation about the exocyclic C-N single bond, there are lone pairs on oxygen and on one nitrogen antiperiplanarto the endocyclic C-N bond, which can cleave to produce 86. Ring inversion of 85 produces 87, which also has lone pairs on oxygen and on

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

0

OH

213

0

SCHEME 2. Stereoelectronic control in hydrolysis of cyclic amidines

nitrogen antiperiplanarto the endocyclic C-N bond, so it too can cleave to 86. However, neither85 nor 87 has two lone pairs antiperiplanarto the exocyclic C-N bond. To cleave this bond, it is necessary also to invert the ring nitrogen,to produce 88. Now there arelone pairs on oxygen and on ring nitrogen antiperiplanar to the exocyclic C-N bond. Cleavage of this bond produces lactam 89 plus amine RNH,. This has the advantage over hydrolysis of imidatonium ions (see Section VII.B.2), where the comparison is between oxygen and nitrogen leaving groups and between amide plus alcohol and ester (or lactone) plus amine products, which are not comparable. In contrast, here the leaving groups are uniformlynitrogens,and the products areamide or lactam plus amines.Moreover, the rate constant for nitrogen inversion is estimated as ca lo5 s- l , significantlylower than the lo* s - ' estimated for cleavage of intermediate 85 or 87. Therefore,conformations like 88 are inaccessibleduring the lifetime of the intermediate.In summary, then, 86 is expected to be the predominant product if stereoelectronic control is operative. Initial results289were in accord with this expectation. For 84 (R = H, n = 5,6) the aminoamide 86 is the only product, within the experimental error. However, control experiment^^^showed that the leaving abilities of the two nitrogens are not balanced. Therefore it was necessary to balance the leaving abilities with 84 (R = Me, n = 5,6,7)290. For the six-membered ring the product is 93% aminoamide 86, just as expected from stereoelectronic control. However, for the five- and seven-membered rings the products include 56-58% lactam 89 plus MeNH,. These are formed through the use of the syn lone pair on the ring nitrogen,so that stereoelectronicpreferencefor an antiperiplanarlone pair cannot be universal.Indeed, this is entirely parallel to well-known syn eliminationsin fiveand seven-memberedrings. Even the 93% aminoamide product from six-membered rings represents only a weak preference, of c 2 kcal mol-', in this most favorable case. Hydrolysis of N,N'-dialkylamidinescan show an unusualconfigurationaleffect38.For N-alkyl-N'-methylacetamidinium ions, which exist as a mixture of ZE and EZ stereoisomers (2ZE and 2EZ), there is a preferencefor cleavageof the nitrogenwhose alkyl groupis 2. This arises from weak stereoelectronic effectsza6in formation and cleavage of the

214

C. L. Perrin

tetrahedral intermediate. Thus, hydroxide is expected to add antiperiplanar to the nitrogen lone pairs of the Z E ion to produce 90. After rotation about C-N single bonds, which preserves the absolute configurations at both nitrogens, there are only two conformations (91 and 92) that are free of steric repulsion, that have a leaving group

antiperiplanarto two lone pairs and that can cleave to repulsion-freeZ-amide products. In both these conformations the leaving group is not MeNH, but RNH,, the amine whose alkyl group was Z in the original ion. Correspondingly the EZ ion is expected to lead to cleavage of MeNH,. For R = i-Pr, Bu or t-Bu the experimentalresults3*are in fair agreement with this expectation, kif the relative reactivities of the two stereoisomeric ions are such that they react at the same rate ratherthan with the same rate constant. However, for R = neoPen or PhCH,, leaving abilities that arise from unequal basicities of the two nitrogens also influence the direction of cleavage. 4.

Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric imidate esters

The stereochemistry of imidate esters is of importance for their reactivity. The intramolecular Diels-Alder cyclization of ethyl N-(3,5-hexadienoyl)acrylimidatesz9' requires that the C-N double bond be E. Fortunately the barriers to conformational interconversionare low, so that all conformations can be explored, includingthe reactive ones. A more elaborate case of differing reactivities of imidate stereoisomers occurs in the hydrolysis of aryl N-methylacetirnidatesz6. These differ in their basicities, and spectrophotometric titration shows that for MeC(OTo1-p)=NMe the pK, of N-protonated Z . H + is 8.0 whereasthe pK, of E.H+is 6.55. Observation of biphasickinetics suggests that the two stereoisomers also react at different rates, such that the rate of interconversion is comparableto the rate of hydrolysis of the slower isomer. In acid the 2 isomer is 4 times as reactive as the E, whereas in base the E isomer is 3 times as reactive as the Z. The ratelimiting step must be nucleophilic attack on the N-protonated substrate, since if breakdown of the tetrahedral intermediate were rate-limiting, the reactants would equilibrate rapidly and biphasic kinetics would not be observed. By correcting the relative reactivities for the basicities, it could be concluded that E * H +is 3.0 times as reactive as 2.H' toward H,O, 4.0 times as reactive toward MeNH,, 10 times toward carbonateand 7 times toward OH-. With peracids the stereoisomeric PhC(OMe)=NR could be oxidized to oxaziridines, which were obtainedz5as a mixture of cis and trans forms (93), even from PhC(OMe)= NMe, where the Z form is undetectable by NMR. Since the oxidation should be stereospecific,this result means that the Z form, present in low concentrations,is more reactive than the E. Photolytic conversion of azides to imidate estersz9' presents an interesting stereochemical problem. On heating RR'C(OMe)N, to 360°C, there is loss of N, and preferential

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

215

migration of the smaller alkyl group to the electron-deficientnitrogen. Alternatively, the migration can be induced photochemically, without any migration preference. This rearrangementis modeled bya transitionstate (94) with the alkyl group migrating to the vacant 2p atomic orbital on nitrogen ratherthan opposite to the N, that is being lost. Yet any suchmigration will not place the migratingalkyl coplanarwith the methoxy and other alkyl, as it must become in the product imidate(95).It would be ofinterest to determine the stereochemistry of the product from the photochemical reaction.

Ph'

(93)

(94)

5. Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric thioimidates

Iodolactonization of y,d-unsaturated S-methyl-N-benzylthioimidateszg3 clearly requires the Z stereoisomer, so that the nitrogen lone pair can serve as nucleophile. B. Stereochemical Effects on Reactivity of Conjugate Acids 1 . Relative reactivities of diastereotopic groups in amidinium ions

An unsubstituted or N,N'-dialkyl-substituted amidinium ion RC(NHR),+ (R' = H or alkyl) has diastereotopic 2 and E protons. These have identicalbonds and might be naively expected to show identical reactivities. However, the protons are in different environments, and they can and do show different reactivities. Base-catalyzed proton exchangeof amidinium ions shows the remarkable stereochemical feature of positional selectivity in an encounter-controlled r e a c t i ~ n ' ~ The . rate constants are shown in Table 41. Although the diastereotopic protons in a molecule exchangeat nearly identical rates, the differencesare significant.In all these cases it is the more acidic proton, or the proton that is expected to be more acidic, that exchangesfaster. This is remarkable,in that hydroxide is a sufficientlystrong base to remove any proton in an encounter-controlledreaction, so that acidity ought not to matter. These results were originally interpreted in terms of a mechanismwhere the breaking of a hydrogen bond in an amidine hydrate is partially rate-limiting.However, more recent results39suggest that TABLE 41. Rate constants for OH--catalyzed exchangeI5 in amidinium ions RC(NHR') (NHR")' ~

H H Me H Ph H Me Me Me Me Ph Me -(CH*k "D,Ocatalyzed.

H H H Me Me Me H

'H LSA

'H ST

'H LSA 'H LSA NMR(t) 'H LSA 'H ST

4.2 3.8 15.6 0.48

6.8 x lo-& 0.71 3.8

8.6 4.8 1 19.5 0.35 1.8 x 10-& 0.85 14.3, 6.2

2.0 1.28 1.25 0.13 3.8 -1 3.8, 1.6

216

C. L. Perrin

the relative reactivities are governed by the rate at which hydroxide diffuses to the ion, along channels of hydrogen bonds in the solvent. Acid-catalyzed proton exchangeof amidinium ions shows an intriguingstereochemical feature. The reaction occurs only in strongly acidic solutions. The mechanism is protonation on one of the nitrogens, to produce a dication. It had originally been observedzg4 that HE of (ZE)-N,N'-dimethylacetamidinium ion, MeC(NHMe), +,exchanges 6.4 times as fast as H,. Likewise, in 66% H,S04 the NH protons of (2E)-N,N'dimethylformamidiniumion3' undergo exchangewith solvent, and the E proton, the one on the nitrogen with the upfield (Z) N-methyl, exchangesfaster. These observations were attributed to an inherently greater basicity of the nitrogen that bears HE. However, comparison with the isoelectronic alkenes suggests that the difference in basicities is not so large. Indeed, it was observedzg5 that HE of benzamidinium ion, .PhC(NH2),+, exchanges faster than H,, and here the nitrogens must be of identical basicity. Similar behavior is seen296with p-toluamidinium ion, and saturation-transfermeasurements on p-fH3NC,H,C(NH2)2+ indicate that H, exchanges 1.44 times as fast as H,. The key to the greater reactivity of HElies in the structure of the intermediate, RC(= NH, *)-NH3+.The preferred conformation of this intermediate is 96, and the initial 7 2 '

R-C

,,.i"'"\ z HE

protonation creates this intermediate with the protons as labelled. It would seem that rotation about the C-N single bond would render the three protons of the -NH3+ group equivalent, so that H, and H, would necessarily exchange at identical rates. Nevertheless, even though that rotation is extremely fast, so is deprotonation, since the intermediate is so strong an acid. (The rate constant for deprotonation of a strong acid in water has been estimatedzg7 as 1.6 x 10'' s-'). Therefore the protons do not become equivalent. Loss of H, from the intermediate can proceed readily, but exchange of H, requiresprior rotation about the C-N bond. Thus exchangeof HEcan proceed faster, as observed. In 97% H2S04 there is also coalescence of the Z and E N-methyls of (ZE)-N,N'dimethylformamidiniumion37.This occurs by rotation of the N-protonated intermediate, to produce the EE stereoisomer as further intermediate. In CD,CN with added CF3COOH the gold(1) complex (26E, M = A U , , , ) ~ ~undergoes proton exchange. The upfield N-methyl doublet, corresponding to the E methyl, exchanges faster. Different rates are expected, since the NH groups are inequivalent. Specifically, exchange of the Z methyl requires rotation about the C-NH,Me single bond, and this is competitive with d e p r o t o n a t i ~ n ~At ~ ~higher * * ~ ~CF3COOH . concentrations the two N-methyls coalesce with each other, by acid-catalyzed rotation about the C-N bonds, and via the ZZ or EE form, in which the methyls are equivalent. 2. Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric imidatonium ions and of diastereotopic groups in imidatonium ions

With sodium iodide in acetonitrile each of the two stereoisomeric HC(OMe)= NMeXyl-2,6+ is demethylated stere~specifically~~ to the corresponding formamide.

3. Stereochemical aspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

217

In dilute aqueous acid, primary amides RCONH, with electron-withdrawingsubstituents have been shown298to undergo acid-catalyzed proton exchange via the conjugate acid RC(OH)=NH,'. The NH protons are diastereotopic and might exchange at different rates. In particular, it is found that the amide proton H, often exchangesfaster than H,. Also, in 46% sulfuric acid MeC(OEt)=NH,", the conjugate acid of ethyl acetimidate, undergoes water-catalyzed proton exchange299,and the proton H, exchanges 2.0 times as fast as H,. In contrast, for 24minotetrahydrofuranhydrochloride in wet DMSO-d6 it is HEthat exchanges 1.15 times as fast as H,. There is no intramolecular proton exchange,so that the mechanism does involve deprotonation to the imidic acid or imidate ester, which is configurationally stable during its lifetime before reprotonation. Since the more acidic proton is the one likely to exchangefaster,these results indicate that 97 and 98 are the more stable stereoisomers, in agreement with MO calculations and

considerations of dipole-dipole interactions(Section 111.A.2). The contrast arises because the C-0 single bond of the cyclic imidate ester is anti, whereas in the acyclic one it is syn. The reactivities of stereoisomeric imidatonium ions under alkaline conditions show a dependence on the conformation of the C-0 bond, and the product mixtures have been presented"' as evidence for a stereoelectronic effect in formation and cleavage of the tetrahedral intermediate. The results have been interpreted in terms of preferential cleavage of a leaving group that is antiperiplanarto two lone pairs, or preferentialattack of nucleophileantiperiplanarto two lone pairs. The consequencesof stereoelectroniccontrol are shown in Scheme 3. Attack on the syn imidatonium ion 99 is expected to produce intermediate 100,which has two lone pairs antiperiplanarto the nitrogen.Ifthis undergoes cleavage faster than it undergoes conformational change, it will produce only ester plus amine. In contrast, attack on the anti imidatonium ion 101 is expected to produce intermediate 102, which lacks two lone pairs antiperiplanarto any leaving group (except the OH). This then has time to rotate either about the C-OR' bond, to produce 100, or about the C-N bond, to produce 103. As before, 100 can cleave to ester plus amine, but 103 can cleave to amide plus alcohol.Thusit is expected that a syn imidatonium ion should produce only ester plus amine, but an anti ion should produce a mixture of products. The are given in Table 42, along with the presumed conformation experimental result^'^^^^^^ of the C-0 bond. It can be seen that the results are in accord with the expectations, and there are additional bicyclic cases not included in the table. Thereforethese results seem to be excellent evidence in support of the proposed stereoelectroniceffect. However, in some cases reactant conformations were unknown independently and simply assumed in order to tit the products. Also, a key assumption is that if there are two lone pairs antiperiplanar to a leaving group, then cleavage occurs faster than conformational equilibration. Further interesting results are obtained with some cyclic six-membered-ring formimidatonium ions30' that necessarily have the C-0 bond anti. Under basic conditions hydrolysis, via C - 0 cleavage, produces hydroxyamide, but as a nonequilibriummixture of amide stereoisomers.These results were interpreted in terms of initial C-N cleavage,

C. L. Perrin

218

(1011

I R"

SCHEME 3. Stereoelectronic effects in hydrolysis of imidatonium ions

TABLE 42. Product mixture (% C-N cleavage to ester + amine)13'0300 from alkaline hydrolysis of imidatonium ions, RC(OR')=NMeR +

R

H Me oHex t-Bu Ph Me Ph Ph

R'

c-0

R"

anti

anti or mixt.

anti or mixt. sYn

SYn

sYn SYn

sYn

anti

anti anti syn

+

anli-syn

%C-N

Cleavage 50 81 15 100 100 100 100 100

50 33 65

83

3. Stereochemicalaspects of amidines, imidates and related compounds

219

when steric effects permit, followed by reclosure and C-0 cleavage from two possible conformationsleadingto the two differentamide stereoisomers.With a hinderednitrogen, C-0 cleavage is assumed to occur directly from a half-boat conformation of the intermediate. Similar results have been obtained302 in reactions of cyclic five-membered-ring imidatonium ions with HS-. The kinetic product is obtained with C-N cleavage, even though the thermodynamic product requires C-0 cleavage. The C-N cleavage is interpreted in terms of a stereoelectronic effect, but it is necessary to make assumptions about conformational equilibria. The reactivities of the two stereoisomericethyl N-methyl-N-isopropylacetimidatonium ions, MeC(OEt)=NMePr-i+, are nearly identical, but their partitionings to productsz0' have importantimplications for the theory of stereoelectroniccontrolzs6.Studies of N,Ndimethyl and N,N-diisopropyl analogs had shown that alkaline hydrolysis leads to 80% Me,NH but only 6% i-Pr,NH. This was attributed to steric repulsion in the tetrahedral intermediate between the Z-isospropyl group and the 0-ethyl, which is thereby forced into an anti position, in place of an antiperiplanarlone pair on oxygen that is needed to assist in expulsion of amine.Then it would be expected that the product mixture from (Z)MeC(OEt)=NMePr-i+ would resemble that from the N,N-diisopropyl analog, whereas (E)-MeC(OEt)=NMePr-i+would resemble the N,N-dimethyl analog. Nevertheless, the two stereoisomers produce identical product mixtures, with up to 65% i-PrNHMe in alkali. It is not possible to account for this in terms of equilibration of reactants,although this does occur to some extent. lnstead it is necessary to conclude that the tetrahedral intermediates (104,105) equilibrate, by sp3 nitrogen inversion and C-N rotation, before they cleave to products. If such conformational processes do not occur during the lifetime of the intermediate, then there is no need to reject conformations like 106, and the

hEt (104)

(105)

1.11

Et

(106)

stereoelectronic explanation for the difference between N,N-dimethyl and N,Ndiisopropyl analogs is weakened. Indeed, a key assumption in applying the theory of stereoelectroniccontrol to hydrolysis of imidatonium ions is that if therearetwo lone pairs antiperiplanar to a leaving group, then cleavage occurs faster than conformational equilibration, and this does not seem to be the case. Similar results have been obtained43in hydrolysis of some formimidatonium ions. The stereoisomeric HC(OEt)=NMeCH,Ph+ and HC(OMe)=NMeAr+ (Ar = Ph or 2,6Xyl) are hydrolyzed in base nonstereospecificallyto the same equilibrium mixture of N , N dialkylformamides. How then can the results in Table 42 be accounted for?The question is not a simple one, since it is necessary to compare cleavage of oxygen vs nitrogen leaving groups. It may be that C-N cleavage is favored by steric repulsions in the tetrahedral intermediate, as suggested303for the analogous hydrolysis of tertiary amides. The occurrence of C-0 cleavage from some of the antiprecursorscan be attributed simply to the instability of the lactone p r o d ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .

220

C. L. Perrin

C. Stereochemical Effects on Reactivity of Amidines with sp2-C Substituents

1 . Relative reactivities of N-alkylidene arnidines

The six-electron electrocyclization (followed by 1,Shydrogen shift) of RC(=NC6H4Xp)N=C(CF3), to a 4,4-bis-(trifluoromethyl)-3,4-dihydroquinazoline (107)305obviously

(107)

requires that the stereochemistry be Z, since the C(CF,), group cannot reach to the aromatic ring in the E stereoisomer. It is also of interest that the C(CF3), group in the reactant is perpendicular to the amidine plane.

D. Stereochemical Effects on Reactivity of KHeterosubstituted Amidines and lmidates 1 . Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric arnidoxirnes

The kinetics of cyclization of PhC(NH,)=NOCOPh to a 1,2,4-0xadiazole~~~ have been followed. This is an obvious case where reaction requiresthat the stereochemistry be Z, since the E stereoisomer cannot cyclize. 2. Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric hydrazidates

The two stereoisomers of S-p-nitrophenyl benzothiohydrazidates ArC(SC6H4N0,p)=NNMeCsH3(N0,),-2,4 react with sodium methoxide at different rates"'. Kinetics could be followed by UV, and substituent effects indicate that the mechanism is an addition-elimination. At 30 "C the Z form reacts 8.9 (Ar = p-MeOC,H,) or 13.8 (Ar = pO2NC6H4)times as fast as the E. This is an unusual case where the more stable stereoisomer is neverthelessthe more reactive one, but presumably the intermediate from the Z reactant (60, X = SAr') is stabilized by an anomeric effect of having nitrogen lone pairs antiperiplanarto methoxy and to thiophenoxy groups. 3. Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric hydroximates

The stereoisomericoximoyl chloride anionsP h C C k N O - react to form PhCNO at rates differing by more than 107-foldJo7.These anions could be generated by hydrolysis of PhCCl=NOAc, whose two stereoisomers could be separated from the photostationary state by preparative TLC. The rate constants were found to be k Z = 4 x 105s-' and k, = 6.6 x lo-, s-'. The reactivities of the stereoisomeric hydroximate esters275provide a further contrast to their formation. With ethoxide, the Z stereoisomer of the methyl ester, PhC(OMe)= NOMe, could be transesterifiedto PhC(OEt)=NOMe, and the reaction proceeds with retention of configuration.The E stereoisomer is inert. In the reverse direction, with the ethyl ester plus methoxide, the Z form reacts 300 times as fast as the E, even though the E reactant leads predominantly to the Z product. This behavior is quite differentfrom that of

Ph

X

OMe (fast, X = OEt)

Ph

(110)

(109)

-

Z

Ph

rotation

(108)

E

OMe

\

N

SCHEME 4. Stereoelectronic effects in nucleophilic substitution reactions of alkoximoyl chlorides (X = Cl) and alkoximate esters (X = OEt)

E

z

222

C. L. Perrin

the correspondingalkoximoyl chlorides (SectionVI.D.4),where the E isomer is as reactive as the Z but leads to a mixture of products. The stereochemical outcome of the transesterificationis complicated by the equilibration of the stereoisomers under the reaction conditions. Although the Z isomer is the kinetic product, under these conditions the equilibrium strongly favors ( > 98%) the E. This is in marked contrast to the alkoximoyl chlorides,where the equilibriumfavors the Z isomer. The stereochemical dichotomies could be rationalized in terms of stereoelectronic effects, which favor loss ofa leaving group that is antiperiplanarto a lone pair. Addition of methoxide to the Z chloride produces an intermediate (108, X = CI) with a nitrogen lone pair antiperiplanar to the chloride, which can be lost faster than the intermediate undergoesrotation about the C-N single bond (Scheme 4). Addition of methoxide to the E chloride produces an intermediate (109, X = CI) with no nitrogen lone pair antiperiplanar to the chloride, so that the intermediate has time to undergo C--N rotation. Rotation to conformer 110 (X = Cl) leads to the E product, correspondingto retention of configuration, but rotation to 108 (X=Cl) permits formation of the 2 product, corresponding to inversion. In the transesterifications,addition of alkoxide to a Z ester leads to an intermediate (108, X = OEt) that can rapidly lose either of the two alkoxides, to revert to reactant or to produce product, but with retention of configuration(Scheme 4). Addition to the E ester leads to an intermediate (109, X = OEt) that rapidly reverts to reactant. Progress toward transesterificationrequiresrotation about the C-N bond, to form 108 and 1I0 (X = OEt), which lead to a mixture of Z and E products. E. Stereochemical Effects on Reactivity of NHeterosubstitutedAmidines 1 . Relative reactivities of stereoisomeric isoureas and isothioureas

Cyclization to a dihydropyrimidine of the Michael adduct from 0-methylisourea or 0(pmethoxybenzy1)isothiourea plus ArCH=C(COOR)COMeJo8 clearly requires the Z anti stereoisomer of the N-alkylated adduct, so that the lone pair on the nitrogen is in a position to condense onto the ketone. VIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Some of this research was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation. Part of this review was written during a stay at the Institut de Topologie et de Dynamique des Systemes of the University of Paris VII, and I am grateful to Dr. Marie-Franqoise Ruasse for her hospitality. IX. REFERENCES I . G . Hafelinger, in The Chemistry o f h i d i n e s and Imidates(Ed. S. Patai), Wiley, New York, 1975. 2. G . Fodor and B. A. Phillips, in The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates (Ed. S. Patai), Wiley, New York, 1975. 3. V. G. Granik, Russ. Chem. Rev. (Enyl. Tmnsl.),52, 377 (1983). 4. J. Oszczapowicz, this volume. 5. M. Naulet, M. L. Filleux, G . J. Martin and J. Pornet, Org. Magn. Reson., 7, 326 (1975). 6. J. Oszczapowicz, E. Raczydska and J. Osek, Magn. Reson. Chem., 24, 9 (1986). 7. 0.Exner, M. Budtiinsky, D. Hnyk, V. VSeteEka and E. D. Raczyhska, J . Mol. Struct., 178, 147 (1988). 8. B. A. Burdick, P. A. Benkovic and S. J. Benkovic, J . Am. Chem. SOC.,99,5716 (1977).

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CHAPTER

4

Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives IRENA BUSKO-OSZCZAPOWICZ Biotechnology Research and Development Center. Warsaw. Poland

and

JAN USZ OSZCZAPOW ICZ Department of Chemistry. University of Warsaw. Warsaw. Poland

.I . INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. CHROMATOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . Gas Chromatography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Dual parameter regressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Chromatography on polar columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. High-performanceLiquid Chromatography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Thin Layer Chromatography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Amidoximes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Amidrazones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Formazans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111. MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . StructuralProblems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. 'H and '3C NMR Spectra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Chemical shift assignments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. 'H NMR chemical shift calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. I3C NMR chemical shift calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Amidoximes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . Amidrazones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Formazans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Imidates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. 15NNMRSpectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Amidoximes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Internal Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates, Volume 2 Edited by S Patai and 2 Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

.

.

23 1

232 232 233 239 240 242 246 246 249 250 250 251 251 253 253 253 254 259 266 268 271 272 274 214 276 277

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I. BuSko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

IV. INFRARED SPECTRA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Amidines.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Amidoximes.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Amidrazones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Formazans.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Complexes.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Complexes with proton-donating compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Complexes with metal carbonyls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Boron complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. ULTRAVIOLET AND VISIBLE SPECTRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Amidines.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Amidoximes.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Amidrazones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Formazans.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V1. MASSSPECTRA.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII. MISCELLANEOUS METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Microchemical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Microbiological Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX. REFERENCES.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

279 279 286 287 288 289 289 290 291 291 291 291 293 293 294 295 295 295 295 295

1. INTRODUCTION

Since the publication of the preceding volume on amidines and related compounds in this series in 1975, the chemistry of amidines has been developed considerably. It suffices to mention the discovery that new pharmaceuticalsof improved properties can be obtained just by the modification of known ones via the introduction of an amidine group into a molecule. It was also found that amidoximes may selectively chelate some metal ions, thus opening new horizons for the recovery of rare elements. In consequence,noticeable effort was made to improve the methods of characterization and determination of imidic acid derivatives, becausethe question of the structureand purity of the compound is of interest in synthetic works, as well as in investigations concerned with physicochemical or pharmaceuticalproperties of the compound. Each of the methods applied for this purpose has some advantages and disadvantages with respect to a particulargroup of compounds. For example, UV spectra which are readily applied to steroids and generally to enones, and mass spectra which are very useful in structural3tudiesof many naturalproducts are of little use in the case of imidic acids derivatives. In this chapter methods and applications of general use to problems encountered in amidines will be discussed, and problems requiring further research will be mentioned. Qualitative and quantitative determinations will not be separated as this would be a rather arbitrary division. The chapter is divided into sections according to the techniques applied. II. CHROMATOGRAPHY

The earlier review on the detection and determination of amidines’ included the statement: ‘It should be noted that certain physicochemical methods, in particular all aspects of chromatography, have not been applied with any enthusiasm to the subject matter of this chapter””,and furtherlb:‘Amidines have not been extensively investigated by chromatographictechniquesand consequently ...studies are worth more than passing interest’.

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

233

This has changed considerably in the last decade. The rapid development of chromatographic techniques, the application of amidino derivatives to gas-chromatographic analysis of various compounds containing an NH, group, as well as the results of investigations on structure-retention relations in amidines have resulted in the publication of several papers on the subject. It can be expected that chromatographywill be widely applied in the future to analysis of amidines. A. Gas Chromatography

Gas-liquid chromatography(GLC)is one of the most powerful and versatile analytical tools. It enables both qualitative and quantitativeanalysis of even very complex mixtures. As it is fast and requiresminute amountsof the sample, it has now become one of the most popular routine analytical methods. In the chemistry of amidines this technique is very useful in synthetic work as a tool for following the reaction course and as a method for purity determination. This is particularly important in the case of unsymmetricallyN,N’-disubstituted amidines, since considerableamountsof the two symmetrically N,N‘-disubstituted amidinesareformed as by-products in their synthesis due to amino group In spite of its advantages gas chromatography was not used until the last decade for analysis of amidines. The first attempts at such application are quite recent. It was shown in 1978 that amidines, even those which were considered thermally unstable, can be analysed by gas chromatography6. Amidines were proposed as very conven,ient derivatives for various NH,-containing compounds. Derivatization is based on a known reaction of dialkyl acetals of N,N’dialkylformamideswith primary a m i n e ~ ~ c- ’a~r b, o x a r n i d e ~I~, sulphonamides’’*l ~~~*’ 2.1 and other corn pound^^^^^*'^-^^.

The most convenient reagent for derivatization seems to be N,N-dimethylformamide dimethyl acetal (1, R’ = R* = R3 = Me), widely known as the DMF-DMA reagent. Some authorspointed out that these derivatives ‘have excellent gas chromatographic and mass spectral characteristics’l2+’“,and that ‘their ease of preparation, even at submicrogram level, make them attractive for GLC studies’I2. Thenot and HorningI6 showed that they are particularly convenient for GC analysis of aminoacids because, simultaneously with the formation of a dimethylaminomethylene (Me,N-CH=N-) group from the NH, group, methylation of the carboxyl group also occurs, and the amidino derivatives obtained are thermally stable. It should be emphasized that in any analytical work concerningderivatization of NH, groups by the DMF-DMA reagent the term ‘amidine’ is not even mentioned. The or N-DMAM derivatives. Therefore, derivatives are called N-dimethylaminomethylenetheir GC data are scattered in the literatureand are hardly found under the ‘amidine’or ‘amidino’ entries. Scoggins” derivatized mixtures of diastereomeric bis(4-aminocyclohexyI)methanes and 2,2-bis(4-aminocyclohexyl)propanes, and has found that these derivatives yield wellcis-trans and trans-trans isomers on a Poly A-103 column, resolved peaks of the cis-cis, whereasthe free aminesand the other three derivatives were not resolved satisfactorily.He then concluded that the simplicity of the reaction and the properties of the derivatives

234

I. BuSko-Osznapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

'could make this procedure the method of choice in the analysis of amines with similar chemical and physical properties'. Vandenheuveland GruberI2tested the applicability of these derivatives for analysis of the primary sulphonamides, p-ethylbenzenesulphonamide, B-naphtylsulphonamideand n-heptylsulphonamide on polar OV-17 column at 210 "C. They have found that this method can be applied in biological systems to detect sulphonamides in blood, and that the method has a detection limit of 25 ppb. Me2NCH(OMe),

+

Me\/N-cH=N

H~N+SOZNHR-

--@SOzNHR

Me

(3)

( 4)

Nose and coworker^'^ derivatized fourteen sulphonamides, determined their relative retentions (they called them 'retention indices') on three columns of different polarity (Table 1) and have shown that these sulpha drugs can be analysed simultaneously. The DMF-DMA reagent was also applied for derivatization of lidamidine (9,which is referred to as amidinourea, but should be classified as a guanidino derivative. The resulting derivative of lidamidine, like the derivatives of other substituted guanidines, undergo further cyclization to form the triazine derivative 6, which is detected by gas chromatography".

The most commonly used parameter for the characterization of compounds by gas chromatography is the KovAts retention index19s20,because under given gaschromatographic conditions (i.e. column and temperature) there is only one definite retention index for a particular chemical structure and the probability of identical retention indices for two different compounds on three columns of various polarity is minimal.Thereforean unknown compound can be identified by gas chromatographyonly if its retention indices on a few (at least three)differentstationary phases areknown. This is not a problem if the retention indices of the compounds in question are reported in the TABLE 1. Relative retentionso of N,N'-dimethylformamidines (4)derived from sulphonamides (3)13 Stationary phase Parent sulphonamide Acetosulpharnine

Sulphisomezole

R COMe

OV-101 230°C

OV-225 240°C

0.9

1.1

1.2

2.3

3.3

3.9

XE-60

220°C

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

235

TABLE 1. (continued) Stationary phase OV-101 230°C

OV-225 240°C

XE-60 220°C

2.4

3.1

4.2

2.4

3.8

4.2

Sulphathiazole

2.9

3.6

3.9

Sulphisomidine

3.1

3.0

3.7

Sulphamerazine

4.1

6.5

1.4

Sulphamonometoxine

4.3

4.8

5.7

Sulphamethomidine

4.4

4.3

5.4

Sulphamethoxypyridazinc

4.8

8.1

9.0

Sulphamethizole

4.8

9.3

10.8

Sulphadimetoxine

7.2

10.7

13.2

Xylolylsul phamine

8.4

14.3

18.1

Sulphaphenazole

9.2

16.5

19.1

R

Parent sulphonamide Acet ylsulphisoxazole Sulphisoxazole ’

M e v C H 2 C O M e

0

M

Ph

“Diethyldithiocarbamic acid 2-benzothiazolyl ester was taken as the internal standard.

I. BuBko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

236

literature,or if the samples are available for determination of their retentions. However, in investigations of unknown compounds, the lack of retention data is a real problem and, whenever possible, methods for the prediction of retention data are used for this purpose. The most popular of these methods areadditivity rules. According to them the retention index of a compound containing a given functionalgroup is calculated by addition of an increment characteristic of this group to the retention index of the unsubstituted compound. However, if more than two functional groups have to be considered in the calculation of the retention index, the differences between the calculated and experimental values of retention indices are frequently much larger than the acceptable experimental errors. Investigations on structure-retention relations, carried out on amidines, led to some general conclusions which are applicable also to other kinds of compounds2'. Oszczapowicz and coworker^^'-^^,in a search for some general rules for predicting retention parameters of any amidine, have determined Kovats retention indices of over 500 amidines on a non-polar GE SE-30 column. Oszczapowicz has pointed out21*22 that the prediction of any parameter ofa compound belonging to one group, based on the parameter of a compound belonging to another group, is a typical problem of correlation analysis, in which the parameters (Pl) of the compounds (xi) of one series are expressed as a function,usually linear,of the parameters ( P , ) of compounds (xi) in another series (equation I). Any additivity scheme is a very particular case of a linear equation (I), where the coefficient u is equal to unity by definition.

P

+

,(xi) b (1) It was found that Kovats retention indices ( I ) of amidines can be correlated with the retention indices of the corresponding simple compounds taken as the reference compounds (standards). The correlations are in the form I(amidine)= al(standard)+ b (2) =

The trisubstituted amidines in the table below containinga variable substituent R' in a series have been investigated.

Series

R' NRZR3

~3

Series

R'

NR2R3

R'

Series

NR2R3

7

H NMe,

13

Me

NMe,

20

Ph

NMe,

8

H

15

Et

NMe,

21

p-MeC,H,

NMe,

9

H

17

i-Pr

NMe,

22

p-MeOC,H, NMe,

10

H

18

t-Bu

NMe,

23

p-CIC,H,

NMe,

11

H

14

Me

N(Me)Ph

19

CH2Ph

NMe,

12

H N(Me)Ph

16

Et

N(Me)Ph

24

NMe,

NMe,

-

n

4

4

W

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

237

Retention indices of selected representative amidines from each series are presented in Table 2. The indices of all the trisubstituted amidines studied were in the range 805-2578. There arethree sites in the amidinegroup to which various substituentscan be attached, i.e. the functional carbon atom and the two nitrogen atoms. In order to predict the retention indices of amidines of general formula R"N=CR1NR2R3,where R" is a variable substituent representingthe substituted or unsubstituted alkyl or aryl group, the most appropriate correlation seemed to be with the retention indices of the corresponding substituted hydrocarbons R"H. However, as shown in the case of these referencec o m p ~ u n d s isomerism ~ ~ - ~ ~ is not taken into account. Therefore, prediction of retention data for compounds containing these moieties in the molecule cannot yield accurate results. It was then assumed2z-26 that better results might be obtained by taking other simple compounds containing certain functionalgroups at the correspondingcarbon atom as the standards. Consequently, the retention indices of the amidines were also correlated with those of the corresponding primary amines RXNH2 (Table 3 and 4). It was found that the slopes of the correlation lines (parameter a in equation 2) are not the same when different types of compounds aretaken as the referenceseries. Moreover, in certain cases the regression coeficient a is definitely different from unity. This shows convincinglythat, at least for amidines,prediction of the retention indicescannotbe based on the additivity rule, whereas a linear correlation may be successfully applied for the purpose. It was also found that the a values depend on the series.This is particularlyevident in the correlation with substituted hydrocarbonsR"H. These differencesmean that some change of the substituent at a certain site of the molecule,e.g. at the amino nitrogen or the amidino carbon atom, may vary the parametera concerningsubstitution at the other site, e.g. at the imino nitrogen atom. Sincefor amidinessubstituted by alkyl substituents at the amino nitrogen atom (series7, 8, 9 and 10) the differences between the regression coefficients a are much below the TABLE 2. Retention indices of representativeamidines from various series on a non-polarcolumn

Series

t(T)

Ref.

Pr"

Hex"

Ph

CH,Ph

4-BrC,H4 4-0,NC6H4

7 8 9 10

240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 280 280 280 280 280 240 280 280 280

22 24 24 24 24 22 26 26 26 26 23 23 23 23 22 28 29 29

864 & 5 1202 f 4 1273 f 4 I378 & 4 1255 k 4 1001 9 1065 k 6 1065 & 0 1093f 0 1605f 0 1498 0 1583f 8 1734f 5 1687 f 5 997 f 4

1166f6 1501 f 4 1577 f 3 1668 f 0 1551 k 2 1284 f 4 1366 k 4 1374 f 2 1393f4 1881 f 2 1689f 0 1767 f 5 1915f4 1870 f 3 1352 f 5 1770k 11

1385f 7 I733 f 4 1798 f 4 I898 f 2 1792f6 I452 f 7 1510f 1 I541 f 4 1539k4 2056 f 1 1842f I 19O9k I 2059 f I 2013 f I 1526 f 3 1980f 6 1972f 0 1985f 6

1408f 5 1751 7 1821 f 4 1918 f 2 1792k3 1441 + 6 I617 f 5 1561k 2 I607 2 2148 ,j 1 I943 f 3 2023 f 3 2169 f 0 2121 f 2 I615 f 3 1992f 0 1998& 5 1998 f 3

I732 f 1 2060 f 5 2126 f 3 2239 f 1 2122 f 4 1780f4 1826 f 1 I856 f 1 I843 f 3 2374 f 1 2160k2 2208 f 1 2360 f 2 2321 f 0 1860f 6

11 13 15 17 I8 19 20 21 22 23 24 12 14 16

+

+

+

1969f 4 2295 f 2 2363 f 2 2475 f 1 2487 f 0 2OO9f 1 2076 It 1 2107 f 1 2120f 1 2630 f 3 2415fO 2454 f 2 2610 f 2 2578 f 1 2146 f 0 2363 f 5

I. Buiko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

238

TABLE3. Parametersof the regressionof retentionindicesof amidines vs retention indices of substituted hydrocarbonsR"H Series 7 7 8 9 10 11 15 13 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

a'

1.28 f 0.08 1.33 f 0.10 1.31 fO.10 1.32 f 0.09 1.32 fO.10 1.44 f 0.15 1.16 f0.08 1.20 f 0.10 1.18f0.10 1.15 f 0.10 1.17 f 0.12 1.04 f 0.12 1.02 f 0.10 1.01 f 0.1 1 1.02 f 0.1 1 1.24 f 0.09

b"

P

nc

Ref.

467 275 771 838 935 744 599 673 679 704 1197 1105 1192 1344 1289

0.991 0.990 0.990 0.990 0.9989 0.981 0.989 0.984 0.984 0.981 0.977 0.972 0.976 0.974 0.971 0.987

24 19 19 19 19 19 22 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 22

22 24 24 24 24 24 26 22 26 26 26 23 23 23 23 22

641

"Parameters of equation 2. bCorrelation coellicient. 'Number of data points.

TABLE4. Parametersof the regressionof retentionindices of amidines vs retention indices of primary amines R"NH, Series 7 8 9

10 11 13 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 14 16

a'

1.11 f0.02

1.1OfO.04 1.1OfO.04 1.11 k.0.03 1.20f0.06 1.01 fO.03 0.98 fO.03 1.00fO.04 0.97 f0.04 1.00~0.04 0.89 fO.05 0.86 kO.05 0.86 f 0.05 0.87 kO.06 1.03 kO.04 0.91 k0.09 0.89f0.05

ha

P

nc

Ref.

280 615 685 780 581 450 540 544 570 1057 980 1074 1225 1167 500 1071 1092

0.999 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.995 0.998 0.998 0.997 0.997 0.996 0.992 0.991 0.991 0.990 0.997 0.995 0.997

26 20 20 20 20 24 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 24 9

22 24 24 24 24 22 26 26 26 26 23 23 23 23 22 29 29

10

"Parameters of equation 2. 'Correlation coeficient. 'Number of data points.

confidenceintervals, they can be regarded as practically identical. For formamidines (11) containingthe 0x0 group in the alkyl substituent bonded to the amino nitrogen atom, the a value is considerably higher. Similarly, the a values for all the series of N',N'-dialkylamidines derived from the carboxylic acids (13,15,17,18 and 19) studied are indistinguishablewithin the confidence

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

239

intervals26.The same appliesto variousseriesof benzamidines(20-23), but in this case u has another valuez3. For tetramethylguanidinesz2(24) it is again different from that for the above-mentioned series. Thus, it was concluded that the structureof the alkyl substituent at the amino nitrogen of the amidine group has a noticeable influence on the regression coefficient a for substitution at the imino nitrogen atom, and that the a value depends mainly on the type of substituent(hydrogen atom, alkyl, aryl or aminogroup) at the other site and only to a negligible extent on its detailed structure. It was also foundzz-z6that for each series of amidines the correlation with retention indices of primary amines is of higher quality than that with substituted hydrocarbons. Although the former are therefore of a higher predictive value, the latter are still satisfactory. 1 . Dual parameter regressions

On the basis of linear regressionsit was assumed that when predicting retention indices for amidines,and in generalfor any type of compounds (Cpd),containingtwo substituents a linear regression (equation 3) can be applied f(Cpd) = a,l(Std,)

+ a,l(Stdz) + b

(3)

For systems containing more than two substituents, a multiparameter linear regression

(equation 4) is applicable:

+

I(Cpd) = Cai(Stdi) b (4) Secondary amines(R2),NH were used as the second standardseries for the dual parameter regression (Table 5.) Fordimethylbenzamidines(20-23), all the regression coefficientsa were identical;thus, for prediction of their retention indices,the dual parameter regression(equation 3) can be applied. The same applies for N',N'-dimethylamidine derivatives of aliphatic carboxylic acids (7, 13, 15, 17 and 19). When predicting retention indices of amidines with two variable substituents for TABLE 5. Parameters of the multiple regression"of retention indices ofamidines vs retention indices of standard compounds Stdb

Series

2

1

a1

a2

b

R*

nk

Ref.

-190

0.997 O.YY8 0.992 0.987 0.991 0.986

100 80 115 115 92 92

24 24 26 26 23 23

~~

C

d e

e

f f

PA PA PA PA PA PA

SA SA EtA DMA BS EtB

1.12k0.02 1.1OfO.02 0.99 f 0.03 0.99 f0.04 0.87 f 0.03 0.87 k0.03

1.08 f O . 0 4 1.09kO.03 0.93 k 0.03 0.79 kO.04 0.88 k 0.07 0.88 kO.09

- 174 - 115 -186 389 -36

"Equation 3. bPA =primary amine RXNH,, SA =secondary amine R,NH. EtA =ethyl esters of alkyl carboxylic acids, DMA = dimethylamides of carboxylic acids, 59 . =substituted henzene, EtB =ethyl benzoatcs. "N', N '-Dimethylformamidines. dN',N1-Dimethylformamidines, except those containing morpholine moiety. 'N ',N '-Dimethylacetamidines.

'N',N'-Dimethylbenzamidines.

#Correlation coefficient. 'Number of data points.

240

I. BuSko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

substitution at the amidino carbon atom, two types of compound were tried as the second standard: ethyl esters and dimethylamides of the corresponding carboxylic acids. The latter seem to be more appropriate as their structure resembles more that of the N',N'dimethylamidinesthan that of esters. However, both the correlationcoefficientsR and the calculatedconfidenceintervals for both parametersa, and u2 indicate that the correlation wtih the esters is ofslightly higherquality. The parametersa, for substitution at the imino nitrogen atom appeared, as expected, to be identical with those obtained in separate regressions with the retention indices of hydrocarbons. Dual parameter regression coeficients a , and a2,calculatedfor all formamidinesand for those excludingseries 11, are the same within the confidence intervals. It can be concluded that for predictiting retention indices of trisubstituted amidines, the multi-parameter relation (equation 4 with three parameters) can be applied, providing substituents of only one type are present at each site.

2. Chromatography on polar columns have also attempted to apply the correlation method in Oszczapowicz and order to predict retention indices on polar phases. They have assumed that for series of compounds (Cpd")containing certain functionalgroups, the retention indices on a polar column IP(CpdX)can be related to their retention indices on a non-polarcolumn Z"P(Cpd") by the correlation equation 5, where parameters a and 6 depend on both the nature of the stationary phase and the type of functional group:

+

IP(Cpd")= aInP(Cpdx) 6

(5)

Alternatively, like on a non-polar phase, the IP(CpdX)values can be related to the retention indices of the corresponding simple model compounds (Std,), measured on the same stationary phase (equation 6).

+

ZP(Cpd")= d P ( S t d 7 6

(6) Retention indices of two series of amidines were determined on a polar OV-225 stationary phase and correlated with retention indices on a non-polar GESE-30 phase (Tables 6 and 7). The attempts at correlationshave shown that, for each of the series, at least two separate correlation lines are obtained one for compounds in which R" is alkyl, and the other for

TABLE 6. Parameters of the correlations of retention indices of amidines on a polar OV-225 column

vs their retention indices on a non-polar GE SE-30 column25

Series

a"

Alkyl derivatives 7 1.05 k 0.07 13 1.04 k 0.06 Phenyl derivatives

I

13

1.65k0.17 1.50k0.14

'Parameters of equation 5 bCorrelationcoefficient. 'Number of data points.

b"

P

151 559

0.998 0.998

8 8

0.987 0.990

14 14

-383 -275

'n

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

24 1

TABLE 7. Parametersof the correlationsof retention indices of amidines vs retention indices of standards both on a polar OV-225 stationary phasez5

Series

Std‘

Alkyl derivatives 7 SH 13 SH 7 PA 13 PA

Phenyl derivatives 1 13 1 13

SH SH PA PA

ab

bb

f

nA

1.10*0.09 1 .oo f 0.02 1.03 f 0.19 1 .OO f 0.07

727 1291 361 872

0.997 0.9998 0.995 0.999

8 8 5 5

1.23f0.15 1.09 f 0.15 0.74 f 0.08 0.66 0.10

866 969 919 1026

0.983 0.977 0.984 0.971

14 14 14 14

“PA = primary amines, SH=substituted hydrocarbons R”H. bParametersof equation 8. ‘Correlation coeficient. “Number of data points.

those in which R“ is a substituted phenyl ring. It was also noted that the retention indices of para- and meta- nitrophenyl derivatives deviate considerably from the correlation lines. Thus, it was evident that for alkyl as well as phenyl derivatives separate correlations should be applied and that a separate correlation should perhaps be calculated for nitro derivatives. Retention indices of compounds studied on polar phases were also correlated with those of simple model compounds taken as the standards, measured on the same stationary phase. For both series of amidines the quality of the correlationswith primary amines and those with hydrocarbons is comparable. It was concludedz5 that when predicting retention (13) and perindices of N’,N ‘-dimethylformamidines (7), N’,N’-dimethylacetamidines haps other amidines as well, on a polar column, either equation 5 or equation 6 can be used, as both provide similar satisfactory results. Recently, it was shown that even some tautomerizing amidines can be analysed by gas chromatographyz7(Table 8). N,N’-Disubstituted amidines display tautomerism:

[XC,H4N=CH-NHCGH,Y

FXc6H4NH-cH=Nc6H4m (25) It is obvious that if the substituents X and Y are not identical, the tautomers will have different physical and chemical characteristics.It would therefore be expected that their retentions may also differ. The parameters of the regression of retention indices of NJ”’dipheny1formamidines (25) vs those of the corresponding anilines(equation 7) appeared to be very close to those (7-10). calculated for the series of trisubstituted N’,N’-dialkyl-N2-phenylformamidines Thus it was concluded that N,N’-diphenylformamidines in the gas phase exist as monomeric species.

+

I(amidine)= (1.078 f 0.059).I(RWH2) (1.080 & 0.053)-I(RRNH)- 127.7

(7) The regression coefficients a I and az, obtained for N,N’-diphenylformamidines, are identical because the retentions of both tautomers are indistinguishable. Hence the

I. Buiko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

242

TABLE 8. Retention indices (I)of N,N'-diarylformamidines(25) on a non-polarcolumnz7

X H

p-Me p-OMe p-OEt p-CI P-Br m-Me m-OMe m-OEt

m-C1 m-Br

H H H H H H H H

Y

1

X

H p-Me p-OMe p-OEt p-CI P-Br m-Me m-OMe m-OEt m-CI

1933 k 1 2199 f 4 2485 f 3 2169 & 5 2419 L- 2 2366 f 2 2180 f 2 2477 f 3 2586 k 6 2399 f 2 2604+6 2122 & 3 2266 & 3 2319 f 3 2215 f 2 2321 + 4 2095 f 2 2230 f I 2291 f 3

H H p-Me p-Me p-Me P-Me p-OMe p-OMe p-OMe pOEt P-CI m-Me m-Me m-Me m-Me m-OMe m-OMe m-OEt m-CI

m-Br

p-Me p-OMe pOEt PC1 p-Br m-Me m-OMe m-OEt

Y m-CI

m-Br

p-OMe p-OEt p-CI p-Br p-OEt p-c1 p-Br p-CI p-Br m-OMe

m-OEt

m-CI m-Br m-OEt m-CI m-CI

m-Br

equation for predicting the retention indices of N,N'-diphenylformamidines form of equation 8. 1(25)= a[f(XC6H,NHz)

+ f(YC,H,NHz)] + b

I 2200 f 3 2294 f 2 2326 f 1 2409 f 3 2304 k 1 24O6f 1 2539 f 3 2443 f I 2543 f 1 2509 & 5 2535 f 1 2315f I 2384 f 4 2296 f 2 2404f8 2550 f 3 2458 f 0 2509 f 1 2518 f 1

(25) takes the

(8)

This equation implies that the retention index of an unsymmetrically disubstituted formamidine is the mean of the retention indices of the two symmetrically disubstituted compounds, and that retention indices of symmetrically disubstituted amidines can be predicted on the basis of equation 9. I(RXN=CR-NHRX) = 2d(R"NH2)

(9)

General structure-retention relations for amidines are discussed elsewhere in a review article". B. High-performance Liquid Chromatography

HPLCas an analytical tool has so many advantages with respect to other chromatographic techniques that, whenever applicable, it is now used as a routine method for the determination of various types of compounds even in very complex mixtures. In the literature, however, only few reports on the applicationsof HPLC for analysis of amidinesare found.The most noteworthy is that of Hanocq,Fuksand Lefebvre30in which various factors which influence separation of the salts of thirteen N,N-substituted amidines 26 by the HPLC method were discussed. R'

243

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

Analyses were performed at 50 "C on a p-Bondapack C,8 column,using as mobile phase a mixture of acetonitrile and a phosphoric acid-phosphate (20230 v/v, pH 6.0) buffer containing 0.06 mM sodium salt of n-octyl sulphate; detector wavelength was 205 nm. The effect ofpH, the concentration of n-octyl sulphateand the percentageof acetonitrile on the capacity factors k' of the amidines are presented in Table 9. It is seen that these factors influence considerably the results of chromatography. The capacity factors increasewith the pH value of the mobile phase, with the concentrationof the counter-ion and with the decrease in the concentration of acetonitrile. Optimal conditions were found to be 20% (v/v) ofacetonitrile, 0.6 mM of sodium n-octyl sulphate and pH of mobile phase 2.5. The values of the capacity factors obtained under these conditions are summarized in Table 10. It was concluded that this method can be applied for both qualitative as well as quantitative determination of amidines and impurities encountered in their synthesis. Massil, Ezra and Grushka" analysed amidines by the reversed-phaseion-pair HPLC method. They have obtained very good separationof a mixture of acetamidine(k' = 0.60), isobutyramidine (k'= 2.2) and benzamidine (k'= 8.6).This method enabled them also to obtain a good resolution of amidines (e.g. isobutyramidine, k' = 0.63) and related impurities (isobutyronitrile, k' = 0.25 and isobutyramide, k' = 2.25). Separations were obtained on Phase-Sep S10 ODS column using 12.5/87.5 (v/v) methanollwater mixture as the mobile phase. The water component contained 1 mM of sodium heptasulphonateand 1% of KH2P0,. To obtain reasonable retentiontimes addition of methanol to the mobile phase was required. Quantitative determination of several manufacturing batches of technical grade isobutyramidine by the HPLC method were in very good agreement with the results obtained by titration, thus indicating that the method is precise, reproducible and without interferencefrom the impurities. An additional advantage of the method is that it enables one to determine the concentration of amidines either as solids or in aqueous solutions. As the authors concluded, 'the introductionof HPLC makes the determination of the amidines a routine task'j'. The HPLC method appears to be very useful in analysis of drugs and cosmetic TABLE 9. HPLC parameters for salts of amidines [R4NH-C(R')-NRZR3]+X-

a b C

d e

f

g

h 1

j

k I m

X

CI CI CI CI CI CI CI

c10, CIO, CI CIO,

c1 CI

R'

R2

R3

Me Me Me CH,=CH CH,=CMe CH,=CMe CH,=CMe CH,=CMe CH,=CMe CH,=CMe CH,=CCI CH,=CCI CH,=CCI

"Standard deviation.

3,4-CI,C6H, 4-CIC6H4 4-EtOzCCsH4 2-MeOC6H4 3-CIC6Hd CJ 5 2-CIC6H4 i-Pr 4-EtOzCC6H4 CCIC6H4 Et 2-CIC,jH, 2-MeC6H,

k'

R4 ~

H H H H H H H i-Pr H H Et H H

(2q3O

Detection limit U"

(Pg)

0.06 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.1 1 0.1 I 0.15 0.04 0.12

71 41 88 82 166 101 119 343 230 I46 343 238 166

~

i-Pr

t-Bu t-BU

t-Bu t-Bu t-Bu t-BU t-Bu r-Bu t-Bu t-Bu t-Bu t-Bu

6.85 4.29 5.90 3.71 7.8 I 3.17 5.96 7.07 11.38 8.47 4.59 9.51 5.83

0.05

I. BuSko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

244

TABLE 10. Influenceof various parameterson capacity factors k‘ in HPLC of amidines 2630 k‘ valuesb

Parametef acetonitrile

15

(v/v %)

18 20 22 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 2.50 2.65 2.75 3.00 3.28

n-octyl sulphate sodium salt (mM) PH

26a

26b

26c

26m

26.22 14.07 6.85 6.25 6.09 6.52 6.85 7.98 6.85 11.46 11.77 12.00 12.29

14.32 8.03 4.29 3.99

22.33 11.33 5.90 5.15 5.26 5.56 5.90 6.47 5.90 10.05 10.25 10.32 10.52

28.13 16.19 9.57 8.36 8.69 9.32 9.57 10.44 9.57 15.29 16.94 24.55 32.54

3.80

4.07 4.29 4.78 4.29 6.55 6.85 6.89 7.20

“Theother component ofthe mobile phase is an aqueous phosphoric acidphosphate buffer. bMean value from at least three measurements.

components containing the amidino group, as well as for determination of their degradation products. It was successfully used for the determinationof amidinopenicillins such as mecillinam (27a) and pivmecillinam (27b)32-34. Amidinopenicillins undergo very easy degradation via different mechanisms,depending on the conditions, and thus various degradation products are formed. Among the fifteen known degradation products of mecillinam and pivmecillinam and among the manufacturingimpurities there are several which contain intact amidino group.

(a) mecillinam: R’=H;

R4=Hj

NR2R3 =N

0 1

4

I1

(b) pivmecillinam: R =H; R =Me3CCOCH2;NR2R3=N

Determination of mecillinam was performed on a p-Bondapack C , , column using a 220-nm UVdetector. A series of eight mixtures of acetonitrileand aqueous0.01 Msodium phosphate rangingfrom25:75 to 0: 100,respectively, were found to be useful for the HPLC analysis of mecillinam. The two systems which effectively separated all the compounds at reasonable times were mixtures A (15:85) and B (2.5:97.5). Degradation products of mecillinam can be divided into two groups: the first contains compounds having a hexahydroazepine ring, and the second contains compounds which

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

245

do not have hexahydroazepinemoiety. The two groups exhibit differentchromatographic behaviour. Compounds of the first group are less polar, strongly retained, well separated by mobile phase A and are not eluted by mobile phase B. Compounds of the second group aremore polar, weakly retained and are well separated by mobile phase B. Using these two phases the capacity factor k' of mecillinam is 2.83 and it is not eluted after 1 h, whereas the K factors of the degradationproducts are 5.00-7.92 for group I which is not eluted after 1 h and 1.51-3.95 for group 11. Consequently mecillinam and its degradation products can be resolved satisfactorily, and mobile phase A yields better results for determination of mecillinam. This shows that the HPLC method is adequate for separation of mecillinam from impurities of both groups, and that it may be used for quantitative analysisof this drug and of its dosage form with acceptable accuracy and precision. Comparison of the quantitative analysis of mecillinam by the HPLC method with the previously applied UV method has shown that the HPLC method is superior, because unidentified UV absorbing impurities may cause errors in determination by the UV analysis. The HPLC method has also been applied for determination of pivmecillinam (pivaloyloxymethyl ester of mecillinam) and pivmecillinam capsules33. The previously described spectrophotometric procedure did not permit independent determination of pivmecillinam in the presence of its biologically active hydrolysis product, i.e. mecillinam. The products of degradation of 27a and 27b cannot be detected by spectrophotometric analysis35. The best results have becn obtained on 5pm Chromegabond X, column, using a mixture ofacetonitrileand 0.01 Maqueoussodium phosphate buffer (60:40 v/v, pH 3.0) as a mobile phase, and a 220-nm UV detector, sensitivity 0.016 a.u.f.s. Under these conditions the k' values were: mecillinam-8.0, pivmecillinam-0.41, esterified degradation products-0.46,0.92,2.21,10.92, and unesterifieddegradationproducts-0.12,0.14,0.26, 0.31,0.34,0.54, 1-04.These values indicate that the method enables separation of all the compounds mentioned. Hence, the HPLC method can be used for quantitative determination of pivmecillinam and the related compounds mentioned above. The accuracy of the method is comparable to the published spectroscopic assay, and the relative standard deviation of replicate assays is better than A 0.7%33. The HPLC method was also used for determination of mecillinam in urine after oral administrationof pi~mecillinam~~. The latter is well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and its activity is due to its rapid biotransformation to mecillinam. For the HPLC method a 10-pg Chromegabond C18 column and mobile phase consisting of 15% of acetonitrile in 0.01 M potassium buffer (pH 5.0) were used, with a detection wavelengthof 220 nm. The sensitivity limit of the HPLC assay is 50pg per ml urine. The capacity factors K were 2.5 for mecillinam and <0.5, 0.5, 0.8 and 2.75, respectively, for the urinary metabolites. These values show that the metabolites do not interferewith mecillinam,since they are eluted in the solvent front and are also weaker chromophores than 27a34. The data on urinaryexcretion,obtained by the HPLC assay, arein good agreementwith those obtained using microbiological assays following the parenteral administration of mecillinam or oral administration of pivmecillinam. HPLC appeared to be a very suitable method for analysisof pharmacologicallyeffective benzamidine derivatives which were previously determined only by a biological method. piperidide (28) was The Ncc-(2-naphthylsulphonylglycyl)-4-amidinophenylalanine found to be a highly active selective inhibitor of tromb11-1~~. A Separon SIX CIScolumn and mixtures of acetonitrile-water-HCIO, (320 1800.4 and 1803200.4, respectively) as the mobile phase and UV 235-nm detection were used in its analysis. The concentration of 28 in bile and in homogenates of rat liver was determined by

246

1. BuSko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz @N fH

\NH2

@J@-soT~NH /CH2

(28)

HPLC analysis.The sample of bile was simply diluted, while for the liver homogenation an extractionprocedure was necessary.Satisfactory agreementbetween the concentrationsof 28 determined biologically and by HPLC was obtained. The recommended procedure for qualitative and quantitative determination of 28 and similar benzamidines substantially extends the scope of the method for the pharmacological characterization of new enzyme inhibitors. Some amidines are used as preservatives in cosmetics and in pharmaceuticalproducts due to their good antibacterial and antifungal activity3'. A rapid HPLC method was developed for simultaneous determination of dibromopropanamidine,hexamidine and dibromohexamidine as diisethionates and chlorhexidine as dihydrochloride, which are used as preservatives in creams. The extraction step of these amidines, except for chlorhexidine,from creams before HPLC analysis is short and simple. The optimized chromatographicparameters were: Erbasil C, column; mobile phase: acetonitrile-water containing 0.05 M sodium perchlorate and 0.005 M of tetramethylammonium bromide (pH 3.0); detection UV 264 nm; detector sensitivity 0.64 a.u.f.s Under these conditions very good resolution of amidines with high precision in the quantitative assay was obtained. The k' values were 1.36 for dibromopropanamidine,1.79 for hexamidine, 3.74 for dibromohexamidine and 5.25 for chlorhexidine. On account of its simplicity the HPLC method was recommended for determinationof amidines in cosmetic products. C. Thin Layer Chromatography

Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is mainly applied to determine the number of components in a sample, or to detect given compounds in a mixture. Thus it was applied for purity determination and for identification of given amidines in a reaction mixture, while checking the reaction p r o g r e s ~ ~ * ~ ~ - ~ ~ . For characterization of a compound under given condition (stationary phase, solvent and temperature)the R, values are used. It has to be kept in mind, however, that R, values are less reproducible than retention values in gas chromatography, because the chromatography conditions are not as easily controlled as in gas chromatography. Therefore,the R, values are reported in synthetic works only as a characterizationof the compounds, whereas general structure-retention relations are not discussed. However, investigations of the influenceof some structuralparameters on the R , values have been recently undertaken4'. 1. Amidines

The TLC method was applied in investigations on the amino group exchange in amidines5. XC6H4N=CH-NHCsH4X

+ NHR'R'

i=?

XC6H,N=CH-NR1R2

+ XC6H4NH,

241

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

Trisubstituted and N,N’-disubstituted amidines were detected simultaneously in the reaction mixture and their relative concentrationswere estimated by the spot sizes. The TLC techniquewas also used for the determinationof amidinopenicillins(27)40*41. Amidinopenicillinsdisplay a very strongactivity againstGram-negative organisms,and some of them are commercially available and widely used. The p-lactam ring in amidinopenicillins undergoes easy cleavage, and a reliable and fast method for purity determination and detection of the degradation products is therefore necessary. It was found42that, under the conditions presented in Table 11, amidinopenicillins are well resolved from both the starting material and the degradation products. Chlorhexidine, which is used as a common antiseptic in cosmetics (lotions) and in pharmaceuticalpreparations(ointments),was determined by the TLC method on Silicagel HF,,, plates using n-butanol-acetic acid-water mixture (4:1:5; upper layer) as the developing system43. Visualization for detection was achieved by UV irradiation or by spraying with the iodoplatinate reagent prepared according to Stahl”. Chlorhexidine (R, =OS) and its degradation products (R,=0.3, 0.4 and 0.8) are well resolved. For quantitative analysis, the silicagel plates were extracted with ethanol and the extracts determined by a spectroscopic method43. It was found49that, at least for some series of amidines,their R, values on Silicagelplates correlate with their pK, values, as expressed by equation 10.

R, =a, - a,pK,

ForN1-methyl-N1,N2-diaryl benzamidines29, the following parameters of equation 10 have been obtained: a, = 2.97, a, = - (0.34+_ 0.07), r = 0.943. Ph

I

XC6H4N-C-NC6H4Y

RN=CH-NC6H5

I Me

1

Me

(30)

(29)

The differences between the experimental R, values and the calculated values from equation 10 arewithin the limits of acceptableexperimentalerror(Table 12). Better results TABLE 1 1. Rr values for amidinopenicillinsand 6-aminopenicillanicacid (6-APAr2 ~

~

~~~

Developing system’ Compound Mecillinam Pivmecillinam Other arnidinopenicillins

6-APA

Degradation products of Mecillinam Other amidinopenicillins Pivmecillinam

I

I1

0.55 0.25 0.42-0.65 0.84

-

0.20 0.85 0.15-0.30 0.38

0.37 0.84 0.30-0.45 0.54

0.05

0.05 0.24

0.46 -

Ill

0.92 0.02 0.58 0.65

0.02 0.4

“OnSilicagel GF, plates. I: n-butanol-water-acetic acid 4040:1.5 (lower layer); 11: n-butanol-ethanol-actonewater 4: l:4:l; Ill methanol-acetone 1:I.

248

I. Bubko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz TABLE 12. R, values for N'-methyl-N1,N2-diarylbenzamidines (29) on a Silicagel plate3*

a b C

d e F

g h I

j

k 1

m n 0

X

Y

PK,

Rf

AR,'

4-OMe 4-OMe 4-OMe 4-Me 4-Me 4-Me H

4-OMe H 341 4-OMe

8.36 7.96 7.39 8.05 7.56 7.14 7.10 6.68 7.21 6.72 6.30 6.86 6.37 5.95 6.10

0.13 0.17 0.45 0.2 1 0.52 0.73 0.63 0.8 1 0.44 0.62 0.18 0.76 0.85 0.88 0.87

-0.02 -0.1 1

H

3-OMe 3-OMe 3-OMe 4-Br 4-Br 4-Br 3-C1

OAR, = Rdexp.)

H

3-Br H 4-Br 4-OMe 4-Br 4-Br 4-OMe H 4-Br H

-0.02

-0.04 0.09 0.17 0.06 0.10 -0.10 -0.08 -0.06 0.11 0.03 -0.08 -0.04

- R,(calc.).

areobtained if the substituent in the series is varied at only one site, and if all the R , values are determined under the same, strictly controlled condition^^^. The R, values for N'-methyl-N'-phenylformamidines (30) on Silicagel plates were measured by using various developing systems (Table 13).It was found49 that in each case good correlation was obtained (Table 14). However, the nature of the developing system considerably influences not only the R, values, but also the parameters of equation 10.

TABLE 13. R, values for N'-rnethyl-N'-phenylformamidines (30) on Silicagel plates in various developing systems49 Developing system R 4-02NC6H4 3-CICsHd 4-CIC,jH, 3-MeOC6H, C,H, 3-MeC,H4 4-MeC6H, 4-MeOC6H, PhCH2 CH,=CHCH, n-Hex n-Bu i-Pr

Acetonel Acetone CHCI, 2: 1 Methanol pK, of 30 0.66 0.63 0.66 0.60 0.64 0.63 0.59 0.55 0.15 0.26 0.14 0.28 0.16

0.64 0.61 0.62 0.57 0.58 0.57 0.55

0.53 0.39 0.43 0.40 0.40 0.40

0.7 1 0.69 0.69 0.63 0.64 0.66 0.63 0.62 0.45 0.42 0.43 0.40 0.43

3.54 4.36 4.68 5.14 5.16 5.51 5.60

5.72 8.20 8.41 8.72 8.88 8.98

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

249

TABLE 14. Parameters of the regression of R, values of N'-methyl-N'-phenylformamidines their pK, values (equation

(30) vs AR,"

a

b

r

$

mean

max

-0.11 k0.02 - 0.05 k 0.0 I

1.12 0.82

0.953 0.987

0.33I 0.176

0.05 0.01

0.1 I 0.04

- 0.06 It:

0.97

0.987

0.177

0.02

0.04

System Acetone Acetone/ CHCl, 1:l Methanol ~

0.01

~

"AR, = R, (exp.) - R,(calc.)

2. Amidoximes

The TLC method was applied in order to distinguishamidoxime 31 from the isomeric quinazolineoxide 32 formed as a by-product in its p r e p a r a t i ~ nAnalysis ~ ~ . was performed on Silicagel HF,,, plates using two developing systems: methanol-ethyl acetate 1 :4 (for 31 R , = 0.18; for 32 R, = 0.61) and methanol-ethyl acetate 2:3 (for 31 R, = 0.31; for 32 R, = 0.83).

(32)

(31)

As the R, values of amidinescorrelate well with their pK, values, it can be expected that similarrelationsshould be obtained for other imidic acid derivatives. Unfortunately,in the papers where their R , values are given for amidoximes, the pK, values are not reported. However, it was recently found49that Hammett's Q values, being linearly related to the pK, values, can be used instead. For p-substituted N,N-dimethylbenzamidoximes Me,N-C(4-XC6H4)=NOH (Table 15) the following regression was obtained:

R, = 0.40 + (0.32 f 0.09)0,

r = 0.989

TABLE 15. R, values for p-substituted benzamidoximes [Me,N-C(4-XC6H,)=NOH] plates

4"

X OMe Me H

0.29 0.36 0.41 0.50 0.64

c1

NO2

'From Reference 51. bFrom Reference 52. "R, = R,(exp.) R,(calc.).

-

Ub

-0.268 -0.170

0

0.227 0.778

N,N-dimethylon Silicagel

AR,'

-0.03 0.01 0.01 0.02 -0.01

250

I. BuSko-Osznapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

TABLE 16. R, values of formazans 33 on

R2

R3

2-benzothiazolyl 2-benzothiazolyl 2-benzothiazolyl 2-benzothiazolyl 2-benzothiazolyl 2-thiazolyl 2-thiazolyl 2-thiazolyl 2-thiazolyl 2-thiazolyl 2-thiazolyl 2-thiazolyl

4-MeC,H4 4-MeOC,H4 4-CIC,H, 4-BrC,H4 4-H0,CC6H, 4-MeOC6H, 4-MeC6H, C6HS 4-BrC,H4 4-0,NCGHd 2-thiazolyl 2-thiazoly I

R'

Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph MeCO MeCO MeCO MeCO MeCO MeC=NOH MeCO

a Silufol UV-254 plates

Developing syslem U U

h b h C C

c

d d d d

K,

Ref.

0.60 0.6 1 0.55 0.75 0.70 0.61 0.75 0.59 0.60 0.74 0.76 0.28

45 45 45

45 45 46 46 46 46 46 46 46

"Ethanol-petroleumether I : I . bEthanol-chloroformI : I. 'Ethyl acetate-chloroform 1 :2. 'Ethyl acetate-heptane I: 1.

Again, the differences between the observed R, values and the values calculated from regression are within acceptable experimental error. 3. Amidrazones

Purity checking of amidrazones on Silufol UVZ5, plates was described. Chromatograms were developed with chloroform or benzene, but the R, values were not reported5'. 4. Formazans

The TLC method was applied for checking the purity as well as for characterizationof various formazans 3345*46.

I

R'

(33)

The R , values are given in Table 16. Polar effects of substituentsat the phenyl ring (in 33, R3 = Ar) are varied widely. However, neithercorrelations of the R , values with substituent

constants nor other general conclusions on the structure-retention relation are possible, because the R, values of the compounds were measured under incomparableconditions.

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

25 1

111. MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTRA

Since the preceding review on detection and characterizationof imidic acids derivatives' numerous NMR data for these compounds were published. It has to be kept in mind, however, that in that period of time spectacular developments of NMR techniques occurred, and versatile spectrometers for recording the magnetic resonance of various nuclei became commerciallyavailable. Many results,which at the time of their acquisition required sophisticated experimental methods, became easily accessible in just a few years. The most striking example is the analysisof complex spin-spin systems of A,B, type in the proton NMR spectra, which now can be simplified by the increasein the spectrometer frequency and by the use of shift reagents.Other developments are assignmentsof groups of protons, or assignments of protons to carbon atoms by a two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy. Consequently, some results, which once attributed considerably to a better understandingof structuralproblems in amidines and related compounds, may seem now inadequate and deserve reinvestigation. In the last decade 'H NMR spectra became a routinecharacteristicfor new compounds, and in synthetic reports they accompany other physical constants. For organic compounds they often replace elemental analysisbecausethey provide more information about the compound without its destruction. A. Structural Problems

NMR spectrawere applied mainly for study of structuralproblems such as the structure (E-Z) isomerism of amidinesand other of the predominant tautomericform, the cis-trans imidic acid derivatives, and in conformationalstudies, includinginternal rotation around the C-N single bond. Spectrometers for carbon magnetic resonancebecame commercially available several years later than those for proton resonance,thus it is no wonder that literature 'jC NMR dataconcerningamidinesaremuch less numerous.Nevertheless,several relationsbetween the structureand chemical shifts of amidines can be formulated on the basis of accessible data. Carbon chemical shifts are much more sensitive than proton chemical shifts to steric interactions.Non-additive 13Csubstituent effects,as a rule,indicate steric crowding of the carbon atoms involved54. "C NMR spectra are particularly useful in the study of isomerism and tautomerization. Structuralchanges can be slow on the NMR time scale, resulting in separate signals for each form (isomer or tautomer), or they are fast and averaged signals are observed. The latter case may provide quantitative information. In the case of fast interchangebetween any two forms A and B of a molecule (isomers, tautomers or conformers)the averaged chemical shift S,(Zi) of a given nucleus Zi in the molecule ('H, I3C, I5N, j'P, etc.) depends on the chemical shifts of that nucleus in the individual forms a,(Z,) and S,(Zi) and on their molar fractionsX, and X,, as expressed by equation 115 5 * 5 6 .

Sobs(zi) = xA6A(zi) + xB6B(zi) (1 1) As, by definition, X, = 1 - XA, after substitution and rearrangement equation 12 is obtained.

This relation may be applied to any nucleusas long as its chemicalshifts in both forms are known and different.The precision of quantitativedeterminationsdepends on the ratio of

252

I. BuSko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

the difference between chemical shifts in the two forms to the error in the chemical shift determination.Thus it is evident that this method is much more precise than the one based on signal intensities in ‘H NMR spectra, especially since intensities may be affected by various effects. Moreover, if the relative concentrationof one of the forms is about 5% or lower, the acceptable error in the determination of peak intensities results in a considerable error in the ratio of the two forms. For configurationalchangesat the C=N bond in amidines,three possible mechanisms have been considered5’: 1. A mechanism referred to as the ‘lateral shift’ mechanism which involves a linear transition state. It is generally considered to be more favourable than the second mechanism in isomerization of the RRC=NR moiety for all compounds containing the C=N double bond, except amidines. 2- The second, termed the ‘internalrotation’ mechanism,involves a rotation about an axis going through the C and N atoms of the double bond. It is probably subject to acid catalysis, as demonstrated in the transformation 34a 34d.

-

(340)

(34b)

(34d

(34d)

It is believed that this mechanism is usually not taking place because NMR measurements of isomerization are carried out in a well-purified solvent5’. However, experimental details given in some papers do not provide support for this belief. 3. In monosubstituted and N,N’-disubstituted amidines a third tautomerization mechanism, referred to as the ‘tautomeric rotation’ mechanisms7,may exist. It involves prototropic tautomerization of an amidine 35a to the other tautomeric form 35b, rotation about the single C-N bond (35b+35c) and back tautomerization to the second geometrical isomer 35d. R’

R3

R’

I

R2

I

H

R’

R3

I

H

I

R3

R3

H

It was generally assumed that for amidines the more favourable isomer has E configuration. However, it was shown recently5* that the preferred configuration depends on the substituents R ’ and R3 at the C=N double bond. In the case of bulky substituents, steric hindrance,which increase in the order Me, Et, i-Pr, c-Hex and t-Bu, increases the preference for the Z isomer. A phenyl ring does not cause sufficient steric hindrance and X-ray analysis has shown that Nz-phenylbenzamidines and N2phenylformamidinesexist as the E isomer^^^-^^. In amidines, strong conjugation between a lone electron pair at the amino nitrogen atom and the n-electrons of the C=N double bond is observed, as shown by the two mesomeric forms below.

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

R*-N=cR’

--N

../ R3

t------,

-

..

R~--’F~-cR’=N

‘R4

253

*/R3

‘R4

X-ray data show that, due to this conjugation,the ‘single’ C-N bond always has some double-bond character6’. On the basis of the IR data it was concluded that the amino nitrogen atom, often referred to as the ‘sp3 nitrogen’atom, is also in an sp2 hybridization state6’. The same conclusion was drawn from ab initio calculations for several amidineP~~~. In this chapter only relevant chemical shifts are presented. Chemical shifts of nuclei which do not depend on the structureof the amidine group are not cited, even if they are reported in the literature. B. ‘H and ”C NMR Spectra

7 . Chemical shift assignments

In all structural investigations proper assignment of chemical shifts is a crucial point. Chemical shifts of protons in the same group may differ to a considerable degree depending on whether they are bonded to the functionalcarbon atom or to the imino or amino nitrogen atom. Proper assignment of the signals (and thus determination of the structure)is not a problem in the case of simple compounds containing few carbon atoms, but if groups containing several atoms or aromatic rings are bonded to the three sites, assignments may become somehow confusing. In such cases various rules derived by regressionanalysisof accessibleNM R data,which enable prediction ofchemical shifts, are very helpful. By analysing over 200 trisubstituted trans (E) amidines, Oszczapowicz and ~ o w o r k e r sderived ~ ~ . ~ additivity ~ parameters for the calculation of ‘Hand I3C NMR chemical shifts for protons and carbon atoms of a phenyl ring, and for a and fi protons and carbon atoms of alkyl groups bonded to either the nitrogen or carbon atoms of the amidino group. a. ‘H NMR chemical shift calculations. The chemical shifts of a methylene group CH,XY are usually calculated from Shoolery’s rule7’ (equation 13), where beff are the effective shielding constants of the substituents X and Y, respectively. The parameters calculated for amidines are summarized in Table 17. Chemical shifts of protons in the CHR’R2R3group are calculated on the basis of the additivity rule”, according to equation 14 where To= 0.824, cj is the number of identical substituents, and T . are substituent constants. The parameter for the RN=C(NMe,)group is 1.096 0.630, and for the RN=C(NMePh)- group 0.287 0.012.

+

6 = To CCjTj

Shoolery’s rule may be treated as a particular case of equation 14, where one of the substituents R is a hydrogen atom. However, Shoolery’s constants are better known and much more often used for chemical shift prediction. Moreover, they yield more precise chemical shift values since they are determined directly for a given substituent. Chemical shifts of the protons in the phenyl ring are calculated by using equations 15-18”. For para-disubstituted derivatives

6, = 7.266 + d,(R’) + y(R’)d,(R4)

I. BuSko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

254

TABLE 17. Additivity parameters for calculation of chemical shifts of CH, groups linked to substituted aminomethyleneaminogroups -N=CR-NMe, (equation 13)"

R' H Me i-Pr

t-Bu Et

p-MeOC,H, p-MeC,H, Ph p-CICsH, P-O,NC,H,

Additivity parameter 2.31 f 0.03 2.38 & 0.04 2.46 f 0.03 2.44 f 2.56 f 2. I9 f 2.14 f

0.02

0.08 0.06 0.04

2.14 & 0.02 2.14 f 0.09 2.57 f 0.06

and for meta-disubstituted derivatives

6, = 7.266 + d,(R') + d,(R3) d4 = 7.266 + d,,(R3) + d,(R') d5 = 7.266 + d,(R') + d,(R') where do, d , and d, are additivity parametersfor calculatingthe chemical shifts of protons at positions ortho, meta or para, respectively, to the substituent R, and y is a constant for substituent R'. The parameters of equations 15-18 for substituents a t different sites of the amidino group are summarized in Tables 18 and 19. The derived parameters enable one to calculatefairly accuratelychemical shifts ofsubstituents at both nitrogen atoms and at the amidino carbon atom. In 90% of the cases the differences between the chemical shifts observed for amidines and those calculated on the basis of the parameters d o not exceed 0.07ppm. The highest differences are encountered in the case of a phenyl ring at the amidino carbon atom in benzamidines, but these still d o not exceed 0.25 ppm688.72. It was found68that the 'H N M R chemical shifts of substituents at the nitrogen atoms depend mainly on the structureof the substituentat the amidino carbonatom, and only to a certaindegree o n the type of substituent(i.e. alkyl o r phenyl) a t the second nitrogenatom. Thus, the chemical shifts of substituentsa t one of the nitrogen atoms for all amidines with the same substituent at the carbon atom (e.g. formamidines,acetamidines, benzamidines) and with the same type of substituent at the second nitrogen atom can be calculated using the same set of additivity parameters. Only in the case of p-nitrobenzamidinesdoes the set of additivity parametersdiffer from those for other benzamidines. It was assumed that this is due to a strong conjugation between the nitro group on the phenyl ring bonded to the amidino carbon atom and the phenyl ring on the nitrogen atom68. b. I3C N M R chemical shift calculations. Chemical shifts of carbon atoms in a substituted phenyl ring are usually calculated by using additivity parameters (SCS, substituent-induced chemical shifts) and employing equation 1973: S(Ci) = 128.5 + bajk(Xj) (19) where Ad, is the additivity parameter(SCS)of substituentX, being a t position k (C,,,,0, rn or p) with respect to the Ci carbon atom.

-(cH2)5-

-(cH2)4-

Me

-(cH2)5-

Alkyl Me Me

Alkyl Me Ph

--(CH2)2O(CH2)2-Alkyl Alkyl Me Ph Me Me Me Me Me Me Alkyl Alkyl Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me

Me

- 0.35 f - 0.35 f - 0.35 f - 0.35 f - 0.34 f - 0.44 f - 0.60 f - 0.58 f - 0.65 f - 0.62 f - 0.69 f - 0.73 f - 0.75 - 0.73 f - 0.77 f - 0.75 f - 0.59 f - 0.50 f

"Mean value for 34 compounds. bMean value for 28 compounds. "Mean value for 24 compounds, not applicable to p-nitrophenyl derivatives.

XC6H4' 4-02NC6H4 C,H,

C6H5

4-MeC,H4 4-MeOC6H, 4-CICsH4

C6H5

H H H H H" Me Me i-Pr t-Bu Alkb 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.07 0.03 0.05 0.08

~

0.02 0.04 - 0.09 f 0.05 - 0.08 f 0.13 - 0.08 f 0.02 - 0.02 f 0.02 - 0.10 f 0.03 - 0.08 & 0.03 - 0.14 f 0.08 - 0.10 f 0.03 - 0.32 & 0.02 - 0.33 f 0.04 - 0.33 f 0.06 - 0.29 f 0.09 - 0.37 f 0.02 - 0.33 f 0.01 - 0.14 f 0.03 - 0.29 f 0.05

- 0.09 f - 0.10 f

TABLE 18. Additivity parametersof the substituted aminomethyleneamino group -N=CR'-NRZR3 phenyl ring at the imino nitrogen atom (equations 15-18),'

0.09 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.67 -0.63 f0.15

- 0.53 f - 0.46 f - 0.67 - 0.5I f - 0.47 f

- 0.48 f 0.35

-0.3320.12

- 0.34 f 0.1 1 - 0.37 f 0.09 - 0.32 f 0.08 - 0.34 f 0.03 - 0.29 f 0.04 - 0.36 f 0.08 - 0.40 f 0.08 - 0.49 f 0.06 - 0.44 f 0.05 - 0.50 f 0.14

0.09 f 0.02 0.65 f 0.46 1.30 f 0.92 0.58 f 0.0 0.63 f 0.17 1.85 f 1.81 0.49 f 0.12 0.77 f 0.32 0.40 f 0.12 0.58 kO.18 0.37 f 0.1 1 0.36 f 0.1 1 0.62 f 0.27 0.49 f 0.03 0.43 f 0.67 0.40 f 0.24 0.41 f 0.0 2.97 f 1.65

for calculation of chemical shifts of protons in a

I. BuSko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

256

TABLE 19. Additivity parameters of substituted amidino group R’N=C(NR;)for calculation of chemical shifts of protons in a phenyl ring at the amidino carbon atom (equations 15-18)68 NR;

do

dln

Y

4-CIC6H,CH, n-Hex c-Hex

- 0.08 f 0.12 - 0.08 f 0.06 -0.08f0.17 -0.08f0.17 - 0.07 f 0.10 - 0.06 f 0.07 - 0.07 f 0.04 - 0.07 f 0.10 -0.07k0.12 - 0.08 f 0.06 - 0.05 f 0.06 - 0.06 2 0.04

0.02 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.06

2.60 f 0.76 2.62 f 0.42 2.50 f 0.38 2.70 f I .08 2.34 It 0.62 2.49 f 0.41 2.44 f 0.24 2.29 f 0.6 1 2.35 f 0.75 2.38 f 0.36 2.36 f 0.37 2.42 f 0.23

CCIC,H,

- 0.14 f 0.05

- 0.09

1.19

4-MeC6H,

- 0.12 & 0.03

- 0.08

1.19

R2

NMe, NMe, NMe, NMe, NMe, NMe, NMe, NMe, NMe, NMe, NMe, NMe,

4-MeC6H, 4-MeOC6H, 4-CIC6H4 4-02NC6H4 3-MeOC6H, 3-BrC6H, C6H5

4-MeC,H,CH2

C6HSCH2

NS

a

Oszczapowicz and coworkers derived additivity parameters for the calculation of chemical shifts of the phenyl ring at the three sites of the amidine group, i.e. at the imino nitrogen atom69(Table 20), at the amino nitrogen atom74(Table 21) and at the amidino carbon atom74(Table 22). In addition to amidines mentioned in this chapter the following ones have been investigated (cf. Table 20):

Series

R’

36

Me

37

Me

J- (N

38

Me

o N n

NR2R3

W

Series

R’

NR2R3

39

Me

N(Alk),

40

H

N(Me)Ph

41

Me

N(Et)Ph

42

Me

N(Me)Ph

Chemicalshiftsof the carbon atoms in substituted alkyl groups RX arecalculatedon the basis of the chemicalshifts of the corresponding referencehydrocarbonsRH or RMe using either a regression (equation 20) or an additivity (equation 21) method: ~ ( C J C=~aA(Ci)rer ~I +A x 6(Ci)Cpd = a(Ci)rer

+ A:

(20) (21)

257

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives TABLE 20. Additivity parameters of the aminomethyleneamino group RzR3N-CR'=Ncalculation of the I3C NMR chemical shifts in the phenyl ring (equation 19)69 C(1,

Series

- 7.4 f - 7.5 f - 7.3 f - 7.4 f - 7.3 - 6.0 f - 5.7 - 6.2 - 6.6 - 6.5 - 6.3 f - 6.3 f - 6.7 f

23.5 f 0. I 23.6 f 0.I 24.0 f 0.2 22.9 f 0.I 22.9 23.7 f 0.2 23.6 23.6 22.9 23.4 23.2 f 0.4 24.1 f O . l 23.3 f 0.2

7 9 10

11

40 13

36

37 38

41 42

39

24

m

P

0.4 f 0.0 0.4 f 0.0 0.4 f 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 0.2 f 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 f 0.0 0.1 f O . 0 0.2 f 0.0

- 6.2 f 0.1 - 6.2 f 0.0 - 6.3 f 0.0 - 5.6 0.2 - 5.2 - 7.1 f 0.1 - 7.2 - 7.2 - 7.5 - 7.0 - 6.7 f 0.2 - 7.8 f 0.4 - 8.6 f 0.5

0

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1

*

0.1

0.4 0.3 0.1

for

TABLE 21. Additivity parameters of the aminomethyleneamino group R4N=CR1-NR2-for calculation of the "C NMR chemicalshifts in the phenyl ring (equation 19)74 R'

R2

R4

C(1,

0

m

Me Me Ph Ph Ph

Et Me Me Me Me

C,H, C,H, 4-BrC,H4 4-MeC6H4 4-MeOC,H4

16.05 17.70 17.44 17.78 17.78

0.19 - 1.02 - 1.46 - 1.59 - 1.50

0.75 0.89 0.19 0.06 0.06

P -3.85

- 2.02 -3.37

- 3.76

-3.72

TABLE 22. Additivity parameters of the amidino group R4N=C(NMe,)-for calculation of the 13C NMR chemical shifts in the phenyl ring (equation 19)74

R4

C(1)

0

m

P

C6H5

5.35 5.70 5.61 5.04 4.39 5.31 4.87

0.32 0.40 0.40 0.23 0.15 0.23 0.15

-0.55 -0.50 -0.42 -0.33 -0.05 -0.46 -0.33

-0.20 -0.25 -0.20 - 0.06 -0.20 -0.12 -0.37

4-MeC6H4 4-MeOC,H, 4-CIC,jH, 4-02NC6H4 3-MeOC6H4 3- Br C H

,

where d(Ci)Cpdand d(Ci)reFare the chemical shifts of carbon atom i in a given compound (Cpd) and in a reference compound (ref), respectively. It should be mentioned that, for certain substituents, some sources give additivity parameters, whereas other sources give regression parameters with differing values of the parameter A,. As mentioned before (cf. Section 1I.A) the regression method should be regarded as the more reliable one, unless it is shown that the regression coefficient a is equal to unity, which means that regression 20 becomes additivity rule 21.

258

I. BuOko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

Recently, it was shown" that chemical shifts of carbon atoms of an alkyl group at the nitrogen atom of the amidino group can be predicted on the basis of the chemicalshifts in a corresponding primary amine. The advantage of using an amine instead of a hydrocarbonas referencecompound is that the amine, regardlessof its structure,was used for the synthesis of a given amidine and thus its spectrum is available, whereas it can be sometimes difficult to find in the literature the spectrum of the corresponding hydrocarbon. it was also found'5 that for alkyl substituentsat the imino nitrogen atom in amidines excellent correlations (r 2 0.998) with the chemical shifts in the corresponding primary amines are obtained, and that the regressioncoefficienta is practically equal to unity, and thus additivity parameters can be applied. These parameters are presented in Table 23.

TABLE 23. Additivity parameters of the aminomethyleneamino =N- for calculation of the ' C NMR chemcarbon atoms of alkyl groups (equation 21)75" I

Secondary C atom

R'

4

H

13.03 f 0.27 14.04' 7.73 f 0.22 6.98 f 0.57 6.37f0.19 8.08 f 0.11 8.83 f 0.53

H

Me Et i-Pr t-Bu XC6H4

Tertiary C atom

A,

A,

A,

0.08

-

- 1.1'

- 1.57 f 0.06 - 1.31 f 0.09 - 1.13*0.51 - 2.20 f 0.29 - 1.38 & 0.12

7.3' 5.9' 6.8' 7.2'

- O.Sb - 0.6'

- 1.17 f

- 1.65'

-

-

-

- 1.4' -

.Based on chemical shifts of primary amines RNH,. blnsullicient data to calculate the confidence level.

TABLE 24. I3C NMR chemical shifts of the amidino carbon atom in selected amidines 4-XC6H,N=CR1 -NR2R3 in CDCI, solutions' X

R2

H H

Me Me Me Ph -tCHzh-(cHZ)6Me Me Me Ph Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me H XC6H4 H H Me Me

H

'

'

R3

R'

H Me Me Et i-Pr t-Bu CH2Ph Ph Ph Ph 4-MeC6H,

NO2

H

Me

153.91

153.33 156.78 152.62 153.31 157.21 156.78 161.58 163.19 167.87 157.55 160.94 154.43 155.78 161.24

153.22 156.82

152.81 157.13 161.11 167.42 157.33 161.32 153.13 156.47 161.76

"From J. Oszczapowicz and coworkers, unpublished results.

157.52 156.82 161.80 163.48 168.00 157.91 161.97 161.28

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

259

Chemical shifts of the carbon atoms depend on the substituents at the three sites of the amidine group (Table 24);however, the relation with substituent parameters seems to be of a non-linear type74. In trisubstituted amidines there are two substituents at the amino nitrogen atom. Their chemical shifts depend on whether or not rotation around the ‘single’ C-N bond is restricted. In the case of restricted rotation two separate signals for the protons at the carbon atom linked to the nitrogen are o b ~ e r v e d ~ ~one . ’ ~at , a higherfield (lower 6 value) for the substituent in a syn-periplanar conformation with respect to the C=N double bond, and a second at a lower field for the proton in an anti-periplanarconformation.In the case of free rotation, only one signal and an averaged chemical shift are observed. 2. Amidines

In 1972, NMR spectroscopy shed some new light on the problem of the protonation site of amidines. Comparison of ‘HNMRspectra of protonated N’-methyl-N’,N*-diarylformamidines (Table 25) with those ofthe free bases have shown that for both unsubstituted phenyl rings, at the imino and the amino nitrogen atoms the changes of the chemical shifts caused by protonation areexactly the same. All signalsareshifted downfield, those of phenyl protons by 0.32 ppm and the signalof amidine CH by 0.60 ppm. In otheramidinesall the signalsare also shifted downfield and the values for the corresponding protons are similar or approximately equal. This indicates that the positive charge is evenly distributed between both nitrogen atoms and its centreis on the amidino carbon atom. These results provided further evidence that protonation occurs at the imino nitrogen atom76, as concluded earlier on the basis of the structure of quaternary amidinium salts. Jackman and Jen5’ in 1975, using as examples some cyclic N-arylamidines and guanidines, have shown convincingly that ‘H NMR spectra can be applied for unambiguous determination of the predominant tautomeric form.

qN=7 @4-43 H

I

e

R

R

(43)

imino form

R

@N=C”2

omino form

H

R

‘s

@NH-<] R

R

(44)

The spectra of tautomerizing compounds 43 and 44 were compared with those of the corresponding N-methylated derivatives 45, 46 and 47, where tautomerization is not possible and one or the other form, respectively, is ‘fixed’. In the spectra of the imino form of amidines(43, X = CH,) and guanidines(43, X = NR)

H H OMe H

RZ

8.20 8.20 8.07 8.30

B

8.80 8.80 8.55 9.00

BH'

~

BH' 3.83 3.88 3.88 3.90

B 3.41 3.40 3.40 3.40

NCH,

"Assignment uncertain, qze6, and €IoF,, can be interchanged.

H OMe H NO,

R'

CH

7.23

6.93"

B

H(2,6)

1.07

7.20

B

8.10

1.33"

H(3,5)

7.55

7.W

BH+

'(2.6)

C=NAr

7.65

1.52

8.22

7.60"

BH+

53.5)

B

1.05"

7.35

7.20 7.05

1.23"

B

53.5)

7.05"

BH+

H(2.6)

N(Me)Ar

7.90

1.52 7.60

3 5)

7.67'

Bk'+

(B) and their salts (BH+)76

52.6)

TABLE 25. 'H NMR chemical shifts (6 ppm) in trisubstituted formamidines 4-R1C6H,N=CH-N(C,H,RZ-4)Me

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

4+<3 R

26 1

@
i‘

R

(45)

(46)

qNJ] @L<;] Me

R

s‘

R

R

(47)

(48)

the para protons of the benzene ring are strongly shielded (ca 0.5 ppm) relative to the meta protons and to those of benzene itself. The amino structureis characterized by considerable deshielding (ca 0.3 ppm) of the GI protons (with respect to the nitrogen atom) in the heterocyclic ring (H,,, in 46 and H(4)in 48) as compared with the imino form. It was then shown5’ that in all the studied tautomerizing compounds the ‘imino’ form predominates (Tables 26 and 27). It was also shown that the relations observed between TABLE 26. Characteristic ‘H NMR chemical shifts in cyclic amidines, and guanidines (43) and their N-methyl derivatives (45 and 46) in CDCI, solutions57 ~

Five-membered ring

X 13a 13b

13c

13dd

a&=

13f

R H Me.

c1 C1 C1

15b

CI Me CI CI CI H

16a 16b

CI H

4%

13h 13i 15a 1%

C1

Phenyl ring

H(4)

H,S,

2.56 2.04 2.56* 2.05 (1.68-2.885 2.50’ 2.14 2.04 1.32

3.46 3.35 3.40 3.43 2.80

4 3 )

-

(1.58-2.445 (1.60-2.40)

‘Chemical shifts determined by AB, analysis. ‘For the E isomer d = 2.71 at - 40T. Unresolved multiplet. ‘In CD,OD. ‘In C,D,. ‘For the E isomer S = 2.71 at - 40°C. Determined a1 300 M H z

3.45 3.41 3.49 3.41 3.25 3.34

3.43 3.76 3.64

H,m-,

H@-)

6.97 7.22

6.81 6.80

7.00 6.83 7.23 6.80 7.28 6.82 1.25 6.18 7.1Is 6.18# 7.20 6.76 7.42 7.24 1.20-7.53

I. BuSko-Oszczapowin and J. Oszczapowicz

262'

TABLE27. 'H NMR chemical shifts in cyclic amidines, (44) and derivatives of dihydro- and tetrahydro-l,3-thiazines their N-methyl derivatives (47 and 48) in CDCI, solutionS7

44a 44a" 44b 44b 44cb 47ab 41a 47b" 41c

42la 48b 48c

R

Ho,

H(S1

H H Me

3.35 3.44 3.35 3.20 3.31 3.38 3.38 3.37 3.43 3.13 3.70 3.70

2.00 2.92 2.02 3.04 2.06 2.92 1.!% I 2.85 2.00 3.00 2.18 2.90 2.87 2.17 2.12 2.85 2.15 2.92 2.92 1.83 2.90 1.78 2.96 1.80

Me C1

H H Me

CI H

Me

C1

"In CD,OD. DMSO-d,.

the structure and the chemical shift can be applied to the spectra obtained in other solutions as well, because changesin the chemical shifts of the protons in question caused by solvent effects are much smallerthan the differences between those of the two tautomeric forms (cf 44a and b). In the imino form, on account of steric effects of substituents R, the plane of the phenyl ring is expected to be almost perpendicularto the N=C-N plane. Thus, shieldingeffects of an aromaticring on the CH, groups in a saturated heterocyclic ring may serve as an indication of the configuration(E, Z)ofthe C=N bond. However, since the rate of isomer interconversion at room temperature is comparable to the NMR time scale, only for compounds 43b and 43d is the second isomer detectable. The structure of the predominant tautomer in cyclic N-arylamidines was also determined by "C NMR spectras'. For the corresponding N-methyl derivatives it was shown that in the N-aryl rings the chemicalshifts of the ortho and para carbon atoms, and in the alicyclic ring the a carbon atom with respect to the ring nitrogen atom, are of good diagnostic values. In the aryl ring at the imino nitrogen the chemical shift is considerably lower than at the amino nitrogen atom (Table 28). The CH, carbon atom in the tautomer with an endocyclic double bond displays a signal at a higher field (allylic shift). Chemical shifts of other atoms in both rings are of lower diagnostic values. By using this criterion it was shown that in all the studied amidines, as well as in cyclic guanidines, the imino tautomer predominates. The first characterizationof E and Z isomers of amidines by I3CNMR spectra is due to Martin and coworkers". Forthe crotonamidines(49:g,h and i, Table 29) two forms, i.e. E and Z, are observed in addition to the cis and transisomers with respect to the C=C bond of the methylvinyl moiety. Study on isomerization about the C=N double bond and rotation about the C-N single bond in N',N'-dimethylamidines, carried by 'H NMR spectroscopy's, have shown that, upon addition of secondary amines to isocyanides in the presence of AgCl at low temperatures, unstable but isolable Z formamidines are stereospecifically formed. On heating them in an inert solvent, or on treatment with an acid at room temperature, they isomerize completely to the correspondingE isomers. In the stable E isomer of the NZ-(4chlorophenyl)derivative, both NMe, groups give one signalat + 34 "C,but on cooling to

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

263

TABLE 28. Characteristic 13C NMR chemical shifts in cyclic amidines 43-48'' Heterocyclic ring

Phenyl ring

R

45 CI 46 C1 41 H 4 8 H 43 H 43 Me 43 CI 43 CI 43 CI 43 Me 43 c1 43 c1 43 C1 4 4 H 44 Me

X

Isomer

CH, CH,

imino amino imino amino

-

CH, CH, CH, CH, CHI (CH,), (CH,), (CHd, (CH,), -

imino imino imino imino imino imino imino

E+Z E+Z Zb

Eb

C,l,

0

147.3 140.5 150.0 145.1 149.0 147.8 146.1 145.9 144;6

128.3 136.1 122.8 122.8" 121.2 129.3 128.3 128.6 127.7 129.3 128.5 128.5 128.2 122.1 130.8

-

-

144.5 142.9 146.7 145.5

Z'

C

-

m

P

127.8 128.5 128.5 128.3" 129.0 127.9 128.9 127.9 127.9 127.9 128.0 127.9 127.8 128.6 127.5

122.2 128.5 122.5 126.5 122.0 122.3 122.8 122.7 122.7 122.1 122.7 122.6 123.4 122.5 122.7

a

P

51.7 57.1 27.6 27.4

19.4 24.1 24.6 20.6

28.4 28.7 30.7 21.6" 227' 22.2 22.P 27.1 26.9

21.9 21.6 24.1 23.3" 20.8 20.1" 206.' 227. 23.5

"Assignment may be reversed. bDetermined at - 60°C. 'Unobservable, presumably because of exchange broadening. 'Determined at - 70°C.

TABLE29. 13C NMR chemical shifts in the E and 2 isomers of trisubstituted amidines PhN=CR'-NR2R3 (49)77 NPP)

R1 a b C

d

e

r

I3 h I

j k I

m

H H

n

Me Et

n-Bu

CH=CHMe CH=CHMe CH=CHMe CH=CHMe CH=CHMe CH=CHMe CH=CMe,

R3

R2 Me Et

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me

H H Me

Me Et Ph Ph

Me Me

Me Me Ph Ph

H H Me

Isomer

E E E E E E Pb '2 Eaob ~

2'

3

Zb

E

N-C=N

153.0 152.0 149.8 155.2 160.5 160 156.4 157.7 155.5 155.9 154.0 157.0 157.7

R' a

16.2 19.9 271. 122.2 121.2 123.5 122.5 122.0 120.8 118.1

B

130.2 135.2 130.1 137.1 130.6 134.4 138.9

Y

11.1 29.6 22.6 17.9 15.4 17.8 15.6 18.1 181. 24.2

R'

R'

a

a

39.8 43.4 33.5 38.8 37.6 37.95 38.0 39.4 38.7 399.

34.1 37.0

38.2

37.2 37.4 36.4 37.4

36.6

"2 form predominates (- 60%). btrans-CH=CHMe. 'cis-CH=CHMc.

- 30 "C(in CDCI,) separate signals for both groups are observed. The energy barrier, and thus the coalescence temperature, increase with the increased electron withdrawal of the substituent at the imino nitrogen atom. The spectra of the 2 isomers are quite different. The signal of the NMe, groups remains a singlet over the temperature range of + 3 4 to -80°C. It was assumed that this equivalence is due to a 'fixed' conformation (referred to as 'configuration') in which each of

I. BuSko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

264

the N-phenyl and NMe, planes is orthogonal to the amidino N=C-N group plane. Two separate signals obtained for the NMe, groups in the ortho-phenyl derivatives provide support for this assumption. No evidence was found for the isomerization of the amidines studied by nitrogen inversion. Rather, it occurs by the rotational mechanism. Substantial differences between the spectra of E and Z isomers were o b ~ e r v e d 'for ~ phosphoryl derivatives [R = (AlkO),PO] of amidines 50-52. CHCI,

CHCI,

I

MeN=C-NRMe

I

RN=C-NPPh,

CCl,

I

MeN=C-NRMe

(50) (51) (52) It was shown that for the two isomers different values of 'Hand ,'P chemicalshifts and the ,'P-H coupling constants are observed. For50 two separate3'P signals are observed at room temperature, which at higher temperatures coalesce into one signal. In fresh solutions of 51 only signals of the Z isomer are observed at room temperature. The second isomer appearsonly after the temperatureis increasedto ca 50 "C,or afterstanding for a long time at room temperature. Evidence was provided in this case that the Z + E isomerization occurs by a free rotation around the C-N single bond in the tautomeric enamine 53, rather than by a nitrogen inversion mechanism.

(53)

Z

E

The enaminetautomer, however, was not detected either in the 'H, or in the "C or in the ,'P NMR spectra of any of the compounds studied78.This was explained by the short lifetime of this isomer. Indirect evidence for the mechanismis the exchangeof the CHCI, group protons in CD,OD solutions, whose rates correlatewith the activation energies of the E Z isomeri~ation'~. Moreover, for compound 52, where the enaminetautomer does not exist, the E form is not detected even in the temperaturerange of - 40 to + 150 "C. In amidine 51, which contains a phenyl ring at the imino nitrogen, proton exchange in the CHCI, group does not occur even in boiling CD,OD, and up to 200°C it exists only as the E isomer. NMR spectra provided furtherevidence for E + Z isomerization in phosphorylated a m i d i n e ~50-52. '~ At room temperature separate signals for both isomers are observed. The J , coupling constants for both isomers are also different. 57" and 5g8' have The migration of phosphorus-containinggroups in 54", 55", been studied. ',C NMR, 'H NMR and P ', NMR spectra were used in the study of the phosphotropic t a u t o m e r i ~ min ~ these ~ - ~ ~phosphorylated amidines. It was found that at R1

R1

I MeN=C-NMe

I MeN=C-NMe

I

P(0R2)2

(54) R'=Ph ( 5 5 )R ' = C F ~

R'

I

MeNEC-NMe

J R P P

(56) X = O , NPh

I

PF2 R2R3

(57)

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

265

(58)

lower temperatures separate signals, and different 13C-31 P coupling constants, are observed for the probe substituents. In the N-PI" phosphorylated N1,N2-dimethylbenzamidines (54) and tritluoroacetamidines (55) different chemical shifts for the methyl groups at the imino and amino nitrogens and different J , coupling constants are observed at room temperature. At higher temperatures an averaging of the chemical shifts and .IpHcoupling constants 0

~

~

7

9

.

It was assumed that in amidines (58a) containingan N-P bond the group containing the P'I or Pv atom may undergo migration to the second nitrogen atom (phosphotropic t a u t o m e r i ~ m )to ~ .give ~ ~ 58c via the four-membered intermediate 58b.

'H NMRspectra of equimolarmixturesof 59 with 60 or of 61 with 62 in benzene provide good evidence that such migration may indeed occur. When such mixtures are heated to 80°C for 54h, considerable amounts of the exchange products are formed. Ph

I

MeNZC-N-

''1

1 ' 0

Me

'

Ph MeN-C-N-

I Me (61)

+ Me

il +

(60)

MeN=C-N-P,

"7

l o Me (62)

Migrations of phosphoryl groups were studied also for N'-methyl-NZ-alkylamidino fluorophosphonates*' (57), and for N,N-dialkylamidino-bis(o-pheny1enedioxa)phosphatesS2(58).

I. BuSko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

266

TABLE 30. Illustrative 'H and "P chemical shifts in N'-phosphonated N1,N2-dimethylamidines (63) in C,D, solutions" 6 (PPm)

R'

X

RZ

J",' ~

TCC) Isomer

N'Me

N2Me

N'Me 3J,,

E(81%) Z(19X) Z+E E(720/,) Z(28%) Z+E

3.32 2.62

2.92 3.49

8.1 9.3

2.81 3.32

8.8 9.4

3.59 3.27 3.49

1.3 8.9

d(ppm)b*r

NlMe 'JPH

31P

0.6 2.1

- 4.4 - 2.1

0.3 2.0

- 3.3

1.2 2.2

- 3.9 - 1.4

~

a 0

Ph

OEt

b NPh

Ph

OEt

c 0

CHCI,

30 30 200 30 30 200 30 30

OEt

100

~~

~

3.12 2.66

E(50%) Z(50"/,) Z+E

2.84 2.88 2.90

3.03 2.19

6. I 6+ I

8. I

- 9.2

~

"*0.1 Hz. b f 0.5 Hz. '85% H,PO, external standard

'R

(63)

In the 'H NMR spectra of N'-phosphoryl-N',NZ-dimethylamidines 6380, both the E form and the less favourable 2 form are observed. An analogous mechanism was proposed also for the migration of a 2,4,6tris(trifluoromethylsulphonyl)phenyl group in N,N'-di(p-t~lyl)benzamidine*~. The E isomers are characterized by lower values of J,, and JpHcoupling constants and by a downfield shift in the "P NMR spectra compared with the Z isomers (Table 30). 'H N M R spectra show that the amount of the Z isomer increaseswith increasingsolvent polarity, and the Z:E ratios are 15:85 in benzene-d,, 26:74 in o-dichlorobenzeneand 37:63 in acetone-d,. Data presented in Table 30 reveal anothercharacteristicfeature unnoticed in the original paper, that the E Z ratio for C-alkylamidinesis considerably higherthanfor benzamidines,because alkyl groups cause higher steric hindrancethan the phenyl rings8. 3. Amidoximes

Configuration and conformationof amidoximes became subjects of interest in the last two decades when very promising complexing properties of amidoximes were noticed. In 1971 an ASIS (aromatic solvent induced shift) method was applied in a study of the geometry of amidoximese4. For ten N '-(substituted phenyl)benzamidoximes,differences in 'H NMR chemical shifts between CS, and C,D, solutions were discussed. The authors concluded that 'the two phenyl rings adopt a trans position', having in mind a conformation about the C-N single bond in which the N-phenyl ring is in a synperiplanar position with respect to the imino nitrogen. However, the configurationof the C=N bond was not even discussed. The question of E-Z isomerization of amidoximes was clarified by Gozlan and

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

267

coworkers". In their work both E and Z isomers of N,N-dimethylbenzamidoxime (64) were first obtained and the structure of the E isomer was unambiguously determined by X-ray crystallography. C H Y-4

CgHdY-4

IS

I

It was then shown that IH NMR chemicalshiftsofthe N-Me, NOH and ortho protons in the phenyl ring, as well as the I3C NMR chemical shifts of the N-methyl groups are characteristic for a given isomer and hence may serve for configuration assignment. In both 'H and "C NMR spectra, signals of the methyl groups of the E isomer are at a considerably lower field, and a similar relation was observed for protons of the oxime group, whereas an opposite relation is observed for ortho protons in the phenyl ring (Table 31). The E -2 isomerization rate in various solvents and its mechanism were studied with the p-nitro derivatives1. It was found that in aprotic solvents the rate constant increases with the solvent polarity, e.g. in acetonitrile it is about four times higher than in benzene, and the activation energy is about 0.8 kcal mol- lower. Consequently, it was concluded that in this case isomerization occurs by the rotational mechanism, although in most compounds containingthe C=N moiety the inversionmechanismis more frequentdue to the energy requirements.It was also found that in protic solvents the isomerization rate increases with the acidity of the reaction medium, also indicating that in this case the isomerization occurs by a rotational mechanism. It was also concluded" that E + Z isomerization was not observed for unsubstituted and N-monosubstituted amidoximes because the Z configuration is stabilized by an intramolecularhydrogen bond, as shown by formula 65, and thus much higher energy is required for isomerization.

'

(65)

NMR chemical shifts in E and 2 isomers of psubstituted N,NTABLE31. 'H and dimethylbenzamidoximes M5

'H (8 PPm) H (ortho)

NCH,

Y Me H

c1

NO2

E

"C (8PPm)

z

2.80 2.54 2.81 2.55 2.82 . 2.56 2.60 2.84

NOH

NCH,

E

2

E

Z

E

z

7.05 7.36 7.41 8.20

7.20 7.51 7.50 8.28

9.62 9.70 9.85 10.20

9.00 9.05 9.20 9.40

41.15 41.31 41.21 41.29

38.96 39.12 39.03 39.29

268

I. BuSko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

4. Amidrazones

'H NMR study of amidrazonesprovided further confirmation for previous findings", that of the two tautomeric forms 66a and 66b only the one containing a C=NZ double bond is found. Fortautomer 66a two geometric isomers E and Z are possible, and each one of them has two conformations for each of the groups N'RZR3and N3HR4. R4

1

R'\/N3 I2

H

RYNI/N\

I R3

(660)

(66b)

li R4

R4

I R'\,AH

I

R'L c 4 N 3

I

2

112

N\N1/R

H

I R3

N2 \NvR2

I

R3

(6609

(66b')

Both 'H and I3C NMR spectra indicated that l-acyl-l-alkyl-3,3-dimethylamidrazones 67 exist only in the E form. Conformationalchangesat room temperatureare slow enough to give separate signals for substituents at the amidrazone carbon and at the N' nitrogen atom in the two conformerssS(Table 32). R',C,~3~e2 R2

I

o//",l/

II I

N2

il

R', C , ~ 3 ~ e ~

C R2/ \"0N

112

I

R3

R3

(670)

(67b)

N M 32e, ,R !

II

R3

N2 LNl'

1

(67~)

It was claimedss that the observed separate signals are due to two conformations (67a and 67b) obtained by rotation of the CORZ acyl group. The assignmentswere based on the values of the coupling constants between the acyl carbon atom and the proton of the R3 alkyl group, which were assumed to be 47. Hz for 67b and < 2 Hz for 67a. It was shown that the ratios of the two conformers determined form 'H NMR spectra

269

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

TABLE 32. 'H and "C NMRchemicalshifts"for E and 2 I-acyl-3,3-dimethylamidrazones

'H (6 PPm) R' R'

R2

R3

z

a H H Me 7.86 1.90 b H H Et c H H Pr 7.93 d H H i-Pr 7.93 e H H t-Bu 8.19' f H H Ph 8.30b g Me Me Pr h H Me Pr -

(67)"

I3C (6 PPm)

c=o

R2

C=N

E

z

E

z

E

z

E

%E

1.58 1.55 1.55 1.54 1.59'

1.91 1.94 1.88 1.13 1.60 1.12

8.1 1 7.90 1.93 1.91 7.68'

156.1 151.2 151.2 156.5 155.5 157.6 -

159.7 159.7 159.8 158.6 169.6 169.1

158.2 161.0 160.9 161.0 161.2 161.1

150.1 151.1 157.0 159.9

I1 61 51 48 <5 <5 > 95 > 95

-

1.68 1.45

-

-

1.88 I .90

-

-

161.4 156.5

"For IW/, solutions in CCI, at -30°C. bBroad. 'Measured at 0°C.

correlate with Taft's steric constants E,: Ig(E'/Z') = 0.49

+ 1.30Es;

r = 0.99

However, two signals were observed in the "C NMR spectra for the carbonyl carbon atom. This was not discussed in the paper and cannot be rationalized by two conformations of the acyl group. It seems that this discrepancy could be explained by conformational changes involving rotation around the N1-N2 bond (67a and 67c), particularly because a high rotational barrier for this bond is expected by analogy to hydraziness6.The authorsdo not discuss this possibility, althoughthey mention the high barrier for hydrazines on a different occasion. Consistency of the recorded chemical shifts and coupling constantswith structures67a and 67c could be obtained if the assignmentsof the C=O and C=NZ signals(Table 32) in the "C NMR spectra were interchanged,and if it was assumed that the two conformations arise by rotation aroundthe N'-N2 bond. In the 'H NMR spectra of amidrazone hydrochlorides (68 and 69) in DMSO-d, solutions at room temperature, each proton gives a separate signal. It means that proton exchangeis slow, and rotation aroundthe N'-N2 bond is hindered.The mobility of the N2H protons increases with temperature and, at 50°C, their signal is 'not localized'. Above 140"Caveragingof chemicalshiftsof all protons at nitrogen atoms occurs,and one common signals is observeda7. Me

c

I

CI-

(68)

(69)

It was also shownss that, as a result of alkylation of amidrazones with methyl iodide, either N'-methyl- or Nz-methyl-amidrazonium salts (70 or 71) can be formed, depending on the substituents at the N' nitrogen atom. The structures of thirteen products were determined by 'H and "C NMR spectra.

270

I. BuSko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

(70)

(71)

In 1986 Cunninghamand HegartyE9synthesized four Z-acetamidrazones 72a-d (called incorrectly amidines)and showed that two of them, 728 and 72b, can be stored indefinitely in the solid state at low temperature ( - 70°C) without further reaction. 72b was contaminated by a small quantity of the E isomer, whereas 72c could not be isolated in a pure form as a single isomer; it was prepared in situ and subsequent isomerization was observed.

I

R’ ( M ~ ) N

Z

E

(72) ( 0 ) R1=2,4-(02N)2CgH3

(b) R’=4-

NR2R3 =NMe2

NR2R3 =NMez

02NCgH4

(c) R’=Ph

NR2R3 =NMe2

(d) R1=2,4-(02 N)2CgH3

NR2R3=rnorpholino

The chemical shifts of the methyl groups at the amidrazone carbon atom are well differentiatedin the E and Z isomers and may serve as an indication of the structureof the isomer. Chemical shifts of the methyl groups at the nitrogen atoms of both isomers are much less differentiated (Table 33). I3C NMRspectra were also applied to the study of ring-chain tautomerization in N1-alkenylideneamidrazone salts (73ae73b)”.

TABLE 33. ‘HNMR chemical shifts (6 ppm) for amidrazones 72 in CDCI, solutionssg

Phenyl ring

Methyl group MeC=N a

z

b

z

C

d”

E

E

z E E

2.02 3.02 2.15 1.95 2.05 2.12 2.20

Me,NC

MeNAr

“om

3.10 3.15 2.94 3.12

3.15 3.15 3.15 3.22 3.20 3.18 2.91

7.03 7.04 6.16 6.63

-b -

3.00

“The 2 isomer isomerizes too fast and could not be isolated bMultiplets at 3.60-3.70 and 3.77-3.90 ppm. ‘Multiplets at 3.30-3.60 and 3.70-3.90ppm.

H(3)

8.55 8.55 8.12 8.10 - 7.0-8.4 6.9-8.6 - 6.6-7.4

H(5)

8.24 8.17

-

-

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

I

Ph

27 1

I

Ph

5. Formazans Comparison of the chemical shifts of the H(z,6) and Ho,,, protons of the p-nitrophenyl groupin N-acylformazans(74) with those of correspondingmodel compounds indicatedg1 that thek structure is represented by the formula 74b.

(740)

(74b)

Unsymmetrically 1,s-disubstituted formazansmay exist in two tautomericforms where the N' and N5 nitrogen atoms may be termed azo (N') and hydrazo (N') nitrogen atoms. In several papers on the tautomerism of their structure is related to that of a 1,3,5-triphenylformazancontaininga nitro group at one of the terminal phenyl rings (75, X = p-N02, Y = H) which, according to Fischer, Kaul and Zollingerg4,exist practically only as the tautomer 75b, where the p-nitrophenyl group is at the hydrazo nitrogen atom (NH group).

(750)

(7Sb)

These authorsg4recorded 'H NMR spectra of three formazans (75, X = H, 4-OMe, 4NO,; Y = H)which contained a I5N atom bonded to the unsubstituted (C6H4Y) phenyl ring, and those of the three unlabelled analogues.It was found that in labelled N-phenyland N-(p-methoxypheny1)formazans the NH signal appeared as a doublet due to I5N-' H coupling (6 = 15.68 ppm, J = 45 Hz, and 6 = 15.33 ppm, J = 86.5 Hz, respectively)whereas for the p-nitro derivative, similarly to the unlabelled compounds, the NH signal (6 = 14.68 ppm) appeared as a broad singlet. Thus it was concluded that, the phenyl and the p-methoxyphenyl derivatives, the proton is at the ',N-labelled nitrogen, i.e. the substituted phenyl ring is at the azo (N') nitrogen atom. On this basis it was concluded that the p-nitrophenyl group is at the hydrazo (N5)nitrogen atom. It is noteworthy that this conclusion contradicts the general rules derived for

1. BuSko-Oszczapowin and J. Oszczapowicz

272

TABLE34. Additivity parameters for calculation of

NMR chemical shifts of the phenyl ring and the chemical shifts of the carbon atom in N',C3,NS-triphenylformazans (equation 19) in CDCI, solutionsg3 Phenyl at ~

~~

Azo nitrogen atom Hydrazo nitrogen atom Carbon atom

19.3 20.3 8.8

-9.8 -9.8 - 2.8

0.8 0.8 0.2

- 1.1 - 1.1 - 1.0

amidines (cf. the chapter on basicity), where the electron-withdrawingsubstituent,such as a p-nitrophenyl group, is always at the double-bonded nitrogen atom. There is no evidence, however, that the absenceof the I5N-H coupling in the NHgroup signal is not due to fast proton exchange in the chelate bridge between the N' and N5 nitrogen atoms. Unambiguousevidence would be provided if the NH coupling in the 'H NMR spectra of the lSN-labelled formazan at the second phenyl ring were recorded, and temperature investigations were conducted. Since this compound serves as the referencein determinationof tautomericstructuresof formazans, a structural reinvestigation by using other techniques would be useful. For 1,3,5-triphenylformazans substituted in a phenyl ring at the nitrogen atom, all carbon atoms were assignedg3.For all compounds studied only averaged chemical shifts are observed. Chemical shifts for individual tautomers were calculated on the assumption that in the case of symmetrically 1,Sdisubstituted formazans (75, X = Y), the observed chemical shifts are the mean of the shifts in the two tautomeric forms 75a and 75b and that the p-nitrophenyl derivative exists practically only as the tautomer in which the p-nitrophenyl group is at the amino nitrogen94. On this basis the content of individual tautomers in the equilibrium mixtures have been calculated, probably by using equation 12. The same approach was used for anotherseriesof triphenylf~rmazans~~~~~. On the basis of the literaturedata,additivity parameters(equation 19) for calculationof I3C chemical shifts of the phenyl rings in formazans can be derived (Table 34). 6. lmidates

The configuration and conformation of imidate esters were studied by using NOE differencespectra". lmidates may exist as the two configurationalisomers E and Z (76), each having two conformations, sp or ap, of the OR' group. It was found that for imidates 76 only one configurationalisomer is detectable in CDCI, and CD,CI, solutionsboth at room temperatureand at low temperatures,althougha 98:2 E:Z isomer ratio was earlier reportedg6 for 76a in CDCI, solutions. Imidates 76c and 76d are substituted by a bulky tert-butyl group at the nitrogen.atom. Steric repulsion between this group and the hydrogen atom in 76a is too small to cause configurationalchanges,but in 76d, which is substituted by a phenyl ring at the carbon of the C=N group, it is high enough to cause destabilization of the E isomer, and thus the compound at room temperature exists as rapidly interconverting E and Z isomers. At temperatures below - 60 "C the signals of the two isomers of 76d are clearly resolved, indicating an E : Z ratio of 64:36 in CD2CI, at - 67 "C and 4050 in CDCI, at - 58 "C. Low-temperature data for 76d provided an instructive example of the application of the NOE technique for structure determination of imidates. For N-t-Bu Saturation there is 3.6% enhancementof the phenyl proton signalsneighbouringthe tert-butyl group in the E

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives R1-0 'C=N R2 /

\R3

a

273

R'-0 'C=N

/ R2

/R3

isomer, and only 0.8% in the Z isomer. Thus configurationalassignments can be made unequivocally on this basis. Considerable differencesin the NOE enhancementsare also observed for all other combinations of pairs of substituents in imidates 76a-d. For some imidoyl derivatives, additivity parameters for the calculation of chemical shifts in the phenyl ring have been derived" (Table 35). Imidate anions RN=CROe formed in situ by treating the amide with NaH or KH in THF or Me,S04 have been characterized by 'H NMR spectrag7.Indirect evidence was based on eliminatingreasonable alternatives.The only direct evidence is a one four-bond coupling constant observed in one isomer of the N-benzylformimidate anion, which is significantly greater than the coupling observed in the parent ainide. Measurements of the kinetics of proton exchangein ethyl acetimidate9*(referredto as imidate ester) in 46% H2S0, show that the proton in the cis position with respect to the OR groupexchangesfasterthan the proton in the trans position. In contrast,the cis proton of the protonated 2-iminotetrahydrofuranexchanges faster than the trans proton. In addition to the 'H NMR spectra discussed above, the literature also reports 'H 'O~, NMR spectra of the following imidic acids derivatives: a m i d i n e ~ ~ ~ - amidinopenicillins41.42.104-107 , a r n i d r a z o n e ~ and ~ ~ ~formazans''O. *'~~

TABLE 35. Additivity parametersfor calculationof I3C NMR chemical shifts of the phenyl ring in imidoyl derivatives C,H,N=CXY (equation 19)"

H H H R

OR NMe, NEt, NMe,

19.0 22.8 23.5 23.1

- 7.4 - 7.8 - 7.9 - 6.6

0 0 -0.8 0

- 4.8 - 1.8 -6.9 - 7.8

274

I. Bubko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

C. 'ON NMR Spectra

Widespread application of nitrogen magnetic resonanceis indeed very recent. The first direct detection of the 15Nresonancesignalsat the naturalabundancelevel was realized in 1964. The very low signal-to-noise ratio of 3-4 obtained for neat liquids was really discouraging.Low sensitivity of the lSNresonancestill remainsthe main disadvantageof the nitrogen NMR spectroscopy. However since, after carbon and hydrogen, nitrogen is the most impo,rtantatom in organic and bioorganic molecules, considerable effort was expended in the last decades on improving NMR technology. The wide rangedisplayed by "N chemical shifts, and the smaller number of nitrogen atoms in a molecule compared with carbon and hydrogen atoms which simplify the ''N spectra, make nitrogen NMR spectroscopy attractivefor investigationof organicmolecules. Suchspectra are particularly valuable as a means of distinguishingbetween isomeric structures,includingtautomers. A common reference and common scale are necessary in order to compare nitrogen chemicalshifts in various molecules. The rapid development of 5N spectroscopy resulted in the suggestion of at least thirteen different compounds in various solutions as standards for 15Nchemical shifts"'. Two scales are encountered in the literature. One is the screening constant scale, which assigns plus sign to shifts to higher magnetic field at a constant frequency, or lower frequencies at constant magnetic field (a constants). This scale is preferred by physicists and physical chemists because the screeningconstant is a quantity which appears in the equations of the general theory of chemical shifts. The second scale, the frequency scale, is based on preferences from 'H and I3C spectroscopy, and takes as positive all shifts to higher resonancefrequenciesat a constant magnetic field or to a lower magnetic field at a constant frequency (S constants). In this scale the positive direction is that of increased energy of observed transitions, which are actually measured in any modern NMR spectrometers where the frequencysweep is used. This scale, analogousto those used in proton and carbonNMR spectroscopy, is preferred by organicchemists,and recommended by IUPAC' l l m l 12. Both scaleshave opposite signs and have different zero points, because two different standards are used to express chemical shifts. Therefore, prior to any comparison, one should find out what kind of standard was used. In this chapter, to avoid confusion, all chemical shifts are given according to the IUPAC recommendationsin 6 (ppm) units with respect to nitromethane. Chemical shifts were recalculated using conversion factors given on p. 53 in the monograph of Martin, Martin and Gouessnard'l l. 1. Amidines

Tautomeric equilibria for monosubstituted benzamidines 77 were analysed by I5N ~pectroscopy"~ using equation 12. Ph

Ph

I

I

RNH-C=NH imino form Ph

I

RN-C=NH

I

Me

RN=C-NH, (77)

amino form Ph

I

RN=C-N-Me

I

Me (78)

(79)

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

275

The chemical shifts of the nitrogen atoms in individual tautomers were estimated from the chemical shifts in the corresponding, non-tautomerizing, methylated derivatives 78 and 79 (Table 36). For N-phenylbenzamidine(77, R = Ph) it was found that the tautomer substituted by R at the imino nitrogen predominates. The amount of the second tautomer was found to be 11% or 2%, depending upon which of the two nitrogen chemical shifts was taken for the calculations. This discrepancy arises since the chemical shift of one of the nitrogens depends to a certain degree on the substitution at the second one, and thus in the corresponding tautomer its value is not exactly identical with that in the methylated model derivative. The authors estimated that the value of 11% is more reliable as it was based on the chemicalshift of the unsubstituted nitrogen atom, because in model compound 78 there is only one methyl group whose influenceon the chemicalshift of the nitrogen atom was not taken into account. ' Electronic delocalization in quaternary amidinium salts 80 was studied by the N

TABLE 36. "N NMR chemical shifts" (a ppm) for non-tautomerizing amidines R4N2=CR'N'R2R3 R' H Me,C=CH Me,N . H H H H H H H H H H H H H

H

H Ph Ph Ph Ph

R2

R3

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me -(CHJS-(CH2)s-(CHZ)s. -(CHZ)s-(CH&-(CH&-(CH&-(cH2)6-(CH2)20(CHz)z-(cH2)20(CHz)z-(CH2)20(CH2)2--(CH2)2O(CHZ)2Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Ph

R4

Ph Ph Ph Ph 4-MeC,H4 4-BrC,H4 4-MeOC,H4 CMeC,H, 4-BrC6H4 3-OzNCsH4 COZNC6H4 CCIC6H4 4-BrC6H, 4-O,NC,H4 4-MeOC6H, 4-MeC6H, Ph 4-CIC,H, Me H Ph H

N' amino

-b -b b

- 301.7 - 302.0 - 299.7 - 280.5 - 279.9

- 277.4

- 274.1 - 269.2 - 274.5

- 274.4

- 274.3 - 289.6 - 288.9 - 287.7 - 286.6

- 310.5' - 309.5' - 302.4' - 283.5'

NZ imino

Ref.

- 145.8 - 135.5 - 171.7 - 153.5 - 151.1 - 151.8 - 158.7 - 157.9 - 160.6 - 163.3 - 160.8 - 159.5 - 159.5 - 159.5 - 152.1 - 151.2 - 150.9 - 154.6 - 161.4' - 158.7' - 138.1' - 143.7'

116 116 116 117 117 117 117 117 117 117 117 117 117 117 117 117 117 117 113 113 113 113

Tonverted to the MeNO, scale. 'Not given. Correction factor of - 381.9 (p. 53 in Ref. I 1 I) was used (liquid NH, external standard).

216

1. BuSko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

TABLE 37. I5N NMR chemical shifts"for quaternary amidinium salts ~

R'

R*

R3

H Me OMe SMe H H CI OMe OMe

Me Me Me Me Et

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Et Et

H

OMe

Et

Me Et Et

Et Et

X CI

C1

OS0,F OS0,F C1

OSOZF

~

NR3

613C

- 275.9

- 275.9 - 273.3b - 294.2 - 269.1 - 250.6' - 250.6' - 269.W - 272.1

156.8 152.6 164.3 176.6 156.5 159 164.8 155.1 164.7

- 273.3' - 294.2 - 269.1 - 275.6' - 215.6' - 269.W - 291.8 - 29 1.8 - 249.1 - 270.2

MeSO, OSO,F OSOIF CI CI

~

NR2

- 272.1 - 249.1 - 270.2

"2M solutions in CH,CN. bCorrection factor - 1.5, given in the paper. '2 M solutions in CH,CI,.

NMR spectroscopy'14. It was found that for limited series of amidinium salts the 15N chemical shifts are linearly correlated with the 13Cchemical shifts (Table 37) of the same N=C fragment by the relation S15N(f 1.3)=(78f 11)-(2.25+0.11)6"C where 615N is expressed in ppm units using NO3- as a standard. It was noted that the ''C chemical shift decreaseswhen the 15Nchemical shift and the electron delocalization increases.This was explained in terms of a push-pull mechanism governing the lone-pair density, which deshields the nitrogen atom and shields the sp2 carbon atom'14. In order to discuss the chemical shifts of both NMe, and NEt, derivatives in terms of electron delocalization and steric effects, the value of the fl-substituent effect was determined. It was found to be + 11.1 ppm. For series of similar compounds a good correlation was found between the activation parameter E,(AE,) for the rotation about the C-N bond and the chemical shift of the nitrogen atom' 14. Recently, it was found that the chemical shifts of both nitrogen atoms in formamidines RZN=CH-NR$ (Table 36) are related to the pK, values of the correspondingprimary (RfNH,) and secondary (HNR:) amines related to the amidine molecule. 2. Amidoximes

For arnidoximes,two tautomeric forms, the oxime form (81s) and the hydroxylamine form (81b), have been considered' '.

'

R'

I

RNH-C=NOH

R

I

=RN=C-NHOH (81b)

C6H 5

I

R1R2N'-C=NzOH (82)

The I5N NMR chemical shifts and I P N H coupling constants of several benzamidoxirnes (82) have been determined'" for the free bases and their HCI salts (Table 38). The

211

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

TABLE 38. "N NMRchemical shifts"(6 ppm)andcouplingconstants benzamidoximes(82)'15 6'5N

R'

Isomer

R2

H H Ph Me -(CWs-(cH2)5Me Ph

H H H H

H Ph

H H

Me Me

Z

z

Z Z

z E

2

HCI salts

N'

- 318.7 - 318.1 - 289.1

for 'JIJ

N2

NII

N'-H

324.0 -310.0 - 303.2 326.3 - 304.8

-94.2 -86.1 - 73.2 - 92.9 - 72.8 - 76.9 - 79.8 - 38.2

81 87.3 91.6 87.9

- 280.0 - 263.9

- 213.3 - 193.9

-b -b

-

-

-

"Converted to the MeNO, scale. bNot detected.

values of coupling constants indicate that the nitrogen atom bonded to substituent R has an sp2 hybridization and thus that these amidoximes exist in the oxime form (8la) only. Coupling constants observed for salts have shown that protonation occurs at the imino (N2)nitrogen atom. D. Internal Rotation

The formal single C-N bond in amidines has in fact some double-bond character.By analogy to amides the two mesomeric forms A and B are considered in amidines.

(A)

(6)

The partial double-bond charactercauses some restriction to rotation about the formal single bond. Obviously the higher the contribution of mesomeric form B to the structure of the amidine, the higher the rotational barrier. When a strongly electron-withdrawing substituentis at the imino nitrogen and electron-donatingsubstituentsare attached to the amino nitrogen, separate signals for the R2 and R3 groups for each of the two For other amidines,separate conformations are observed even at room temperat~re~'.'~. signals for the two conformers are observed at low temperatures. A line-shape analysis of the 'H as well as I3C NMRspectra were applied for determination of the activation free energies for the internal rotation in several types of amidinesin various solvents, such as chloroform,deuteriochloroform,benzene, methylene chloride,dichloroethyleneand acetone114,118-121. The values of activation free energiesas well as the coalescence temperatures (Tc,if reported) are given in Table 39. It can be assumed that the conjugation in the amidine system, and thus the contribution ofmesomeric form B, depend not only on the substituentsat both nitrogen atoms, but also to a considerable extent on the substituent at the amidino carbon atom. The changes

TABLE 39. Activation free energiesfor internal rotation (AG;J and coalescencetemperatures(T,K) for amidines R4N=CR'-NR2R3 R' H H Et Bu H H H Ph Ph CH=CHMe CH=CHMe H H

H H H H H H

H

H H H Me Et Bu i-Pr H H H H H H H H H Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me

R2

R'

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Et Et Et Er Et Et H H H H H H H H Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me (CHz)zO(CHz)z (CHz)zO(CHz)z (CHz)zO(CHz)z (CHz)zO(CHAz (CHz)zO(CHz)z (CHz)zO(CHz)z (CHz)zO(CHz)z (CHz)zO(CHz)z (CH,)zO(CHz)z Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me ,Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me

R4 Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph 4-CICsH4CHZ PhCH, 3MeOC,H,CH, 4-MeC6H,CH, n-Hex n-Bu i-Pr n-Hex c-Hex Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph 4-OzNC& 3-OzNCd4 4-BrC6H4 3-BrC6H4 4-CIC6Ha Ph 4MeCdL 4-EIOC,H, 4-MeOC6H, 4-02NC,H, 3-O2NC,H, 3-BrC6H4 4-BrC6H, 4-BrC6H, 3-CIC6H, 3-CIC6H, CCIC,H, 4-CIC6H4 3-EtOC6H, 3-EtOC6H, 3-MeOC6H, 3-MeOC6H, Ph Ph 3-MeC6H, 3-MeC6H, 4-MeC6H, 4-MeC6H, 4-E10C6H, 4-EtOC6H, 4-MeOC6H, 4-MeOC6H,

Method

Solvent CDCI, CDCI, CH,CI, CDCI, CHzCIz CH,CI, CH,CI, CDCI, CDCI CH,=CCI, CH,=CCI, CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD3COCD3 CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD3COCD3 CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD3COCD3 CDXOCD, CDkl. CDCI; CD3COCD3 CD,COCD,

T,(K) 318 278 213 215 304 294 275 26 I 262 233 176 326 275 273 271 270 263 264 264 < 223 < 223 256

-

CD~COCD;

CD,COCD, CD3COCD3 CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD3COCD3 CD3COCD3 CD,COCD, CD3COCD3 CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CDCI, CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD3COCD3 CD3COCD3 CD,COCD, CD,COCD, , CD3COCD3 CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD3COCD3 CD3COCD3 CD3COCD3 CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD,COCD, CD3COCD3 CD,COCD,

328 322 311 315 306 298 295 292 284 282 277 268 223 266 223 268 217 26 1 212 256 219 254 222 256 231 252 219 252 215 248 208 248

AGc

(kJ mol-') 35.6 35.1 26.3 26.3 34.2 33.9 33.7 30.6 31.3 28.2 20.8 63.3 52.8 52.4 52.0 51.8 50.4 50.6 50.6

<40

<40

51.9 63.3 53.8 45.9 45.9 -30 63.0 61.8 59.6 60.4 58.6 57.0 56.4 55.9 54.3 58.7 58.0 55.6 50..0 55.4 50.1 55.8 49.0 54.0 47.6 53.0 48.1 525 48.9 53.0 49.3 52.1 48.1 52.1 41.9 51.2 46.3 51.2

Ref. 118

118 118

I18

118

118 118

118 118

118 118

121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121

121 ~.

121 121 120 120 120 120 120 120

120 120 120 119 119 I19 119 119 119 119 119 119 119 119 119 119

119 119 119 119 119 119 119 119 119 119

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

279

observed in the p value of the Hammett equation in correlations of the pK, values of amidines with the Hammett u values at the imino nitrogen atom, following changesof the inductive effects of the substituent at the carbon a t ~ m ' ~ ~ provide . ' ~ ~a certain , support for this assumption. The resultsindicate that the conjugation increaseswith the increaseof electron donation by the substituent at the amidino carbon atom. Thus it can be expected that for the series of N2-aryl amidines the values of the activation free energies will correlate with Hammett Q constants for substituents on the phenyl ring at the imino nitrogen atom, and that for each seriesdifferingby the substituent at the amidino carbon (e.g. formamidines and acetamidines) another p value will be obtained. The activation free energies obtained for a series of formamidines (Table 39) were correlated with Taft's u* constants, but a rather poor correlation was obtained"l. However, it should be mentioned that the choice of the substituent constant was not proper. The author assumed that 'the Q* constants describe both the inductive and the resonance effects of the substituent', and did not even try to correlate the values of the activation free energieswith othertypes ofconstants, such as Q or , 'a which arethose most commonly used in correlations for amidines containing a substituted phenyl ring at the imino nitrogen a t ~ m ' ~ ~The - ' ~activation ~. energies for N2-phenylacetamidines"9 appeared to be approximately 10 kJ lower than for the corresponding formamidines"'. However, ab initio calculations by the same author and coworkers125indicated that the barrierheight is nearly the same for formamidinesand acetamidines.It was concluded that this 'should be explained as being mainly due to effects other than electron donation from CFCHJ'.lf5It seems quite probable that this discrepancy is due to hydrogen bonding between the amidine and the water molecules present in a small quantity in the deuteriated acetone, because in the experimental section of all the papers by the author11g-121the problem of solvent purity was not even mentioned. IV. INFRARED SPECTRA

A. Amidines

Analysis of IR spectra was the best method for investigating the structureof tautomers until the development of more convenient spectroscopic methods, such asC'' and "N NMR spectroscopy. IR spectra were, and still are, particularly applicable to studies of tautomerism in monosubstituted amidines and to investigations of hydrogen bonding.

(83)

(84)

In monosubstituted open-chain(83)and cyclic (84) amidines the two tautomeric forms are called imino form and amino form, depending on the bonding of the unsubstituted nitrogen atom. These two forms are well differentiated in the IR spectra, Amidines are regarded as derivatives of amides, where the oxygen atom is replaced by nitrogen;thus in their IR spectroscopy similar terminology is applied. However, it must be mentioned that this terminology is not in general use and some small but confusing differences are encountered. P r e ~ o r B e k ' ~ ~considered .'~' two bands as the Amidine I band: v (N=C-N)1640cm-' and v(C=N)- 1615cm-', whereas Sieveking and Liittkely3 mentioned only the v(C=N) band at 1680-1600cm-'.

280

I. BuSko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

The characteristic absorptions for open-chain amidines were assigned by analogy of structuralfragmentsto primary and secondary amines and imines, and for cyclic amidines to lactams (Table 40 and 41). The most informative parameterfor determiningthe tautomeric structureof monosubstituted amidines are the NH stretching vibrations v(NH), because for monomeric species each type of vibration occurs in a separate region not overlapping other vibrations. Thus, the absorptions are characteristicfor a given tautomeric structure.The frequency of the Amidine I band (i.e. the C=N stretching vibration) v(C=N) is not related in a straightforward manner to the structure of cyclic amidine, because it depends on two opposite effects. For the endocyclic C=N bond it is lower than for the exocyclic one, but on the other hand alkyl substitution on the ring nitrogen atom results in an increaseof the C=N frequenciesin the imino form and a decrease in those of the amino form. TABLE 40. IR absorption regions (cm- ') for monosubstituted amidines Range open-chain amidines Vibration ~~

amino form imino form ~

V(NH sec.) V(=NH irnino) Vs"H,) V(C=N), Amidine I vaS(N=C-N) GJNH,), Amidine I1

~~

-

3415-3396b 1615-1601b 1652-1 640' 1597-1589'

S(>NH sec.), Amidine I1 v(C-N), Amidine 111 6(=NH, irnino) yas(NH2),twisting y(=NH) 6,,(NH,), P, rocking Ys(NH2), wagging "1656-1627cm-' b1610-1588 cm-' '1610-1544m-' "1571-1540 cm-' 'uncertain

imino form

~

3515-3497

Vas(NH2)

cyclic amidines

--

1290

amino form ~

3540-3490 3450-3446 3332-3305

3400-3420 3370-3250

-

-

3420-3390 1680- 1600

1680-1600

1610-1580 1525-1 505d

-

14 10-940" 13 10-1200 1450-1050

1450-1350

-

- -1250?

--

-

in the solid state.

in the solid state. in the solid state. in the solid state.

TABLE 41. IR absorption disubstituted amidines'

regions

Vibrations

In solution

v(NH sec.) v(C=N), Amidine I S(>NH sec.), Amidine I1 v(C-N), Amidine I11 V(N--R) Y"H)

3448-3350 1655-1 633 1519-1505 1450-1 350 1210 900-600

'

(cm-')

for

N,N'-

In the solid state

3290-3115 1647-1620 1550-1531 1220

3490-3440 3360-3 300 3200-3000 1650-1630 1670- 1650 1630-1605 1420-1385

-

900-850 1100

1100 600

associate ~~

990-965

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

28 1

The Amidine I1 band, i.e. the in-planebending vibrations, 6(NH,), in a cyclic amidine is also not informative,becausecharacteristicfrequenciesforthe imino and amino form have not been found yet. The ranges of Amidine I and Amidine 11 bands are overlapping. The structure-frequency relationsfor the remainingamidine bands are not known well enough to be useful for the structure determinations'03. Investigations into the IR spectra of cyclic amidines 85-88 have shown that these amidines exist in the solid state, as well as in solutions, in the amino form. However, the characteristicgroup frequenciesdepend strongly on the solvent and concentration,i.e. on the degree of association (cf Table 42).

TABLE 42. Characteristic IR absorption bands (in cm- ') for monomeric cyclic amidines"and thcir associatesbwith chloroform'03 Compound

VadNH2)

Solvent ~

85 85 86 86 a7 87 88 88

CZCL CHCI, C2CL CHCI, C2CL CHCI, CZC14 CHCI,

'0.01 M solutions in 1,2-dichloroethene. M solutions in chloroform.

0'0.1

vdNHA

V(C=N)

UNH2)

3405 3410 3403 3408 3404 3408 3392 3402

1661 1655 1648 1643 1632 1633 1673 1667

1590 1596 1590 1594 1591 1592 1587 1597

V(C--N)

~

3507 3513 3504 3513 3503 3508 3496 3506

'

1383 1392 1384 1393 1407 1412 1380 1384

I. Buiko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

282

The spectra of the monodeuteriated amino group show that formation of the hydrogen bonds decreases the frequency by ca 400 cm-' for CH and by ca 250 cm-' for C D vibrations. Hydrogen bonding between the ring nitrogen atom and the hydrogen atom of chloroform causes a discernible shift of all bands characteristic for the amidine~'~'*' 28. IR spectra of sulphonylbenzamidines'29 provided evidence for the predominanceof the tautomer containing a sulphonyl group at the imino nitrogen atom 8%. R'

I

(890)

R1

R'

I

I

(89d

(89b)

The NH stretching vibration region in the IR spectra of N-substituted N'-sulphonylbenzamidines in solution (with the exception of N-tert-butyl derivatives) showed one sharp weak band, and one broad strong band, which displayed only little changesof frequencyor relative intensity upon dilution. The persistenceof the broad band upon dilution indicated the presence of a strong intramolecular hydrogen bond, and provided evidence that these amidines exist predominantly as the Z isomers, since only this isomer is capable of such hydrogen-bond formation (cf. 89c). Additional evidence for the Z configuration was provided by the cyclization capability of the iodomethyl derivative (R3 = CHJ). The weak absorption band is probably due to a low concentration of the E isomer. The IR spectra of the N-tert-butyl derivatives, which for steric reasons cannotexist as the Z isomers, are markedly different in that the NH doublet observed for concentrated solutions collapsed to a sharpsingle band upon dilution, thus indicating that there is only intermolecular hydrogen bonding. It is noteworthy that, in addition, the tert-butyl derivatives are not capable of cyclization. It seems obvious that in monosubstitutedamidines the substituentat the nitrogen atom influences the tautomeric equilibrium. For monosubstituted N-arylbenzamidines this influencewas studied by means ofthe IR ~pectra''~. It was found that substituentslike Me, OMe,OEt,NMe,andClin thepara,metaandorthopositionin the N-phenyl ringhavelittle effect on the tautomeric equilibrium. In the spectra of the amidines recorded in CCl, solutions, the following characteristic bands were observed: v,,(NH,) at 3525cm-', v,(NH,) at 3410cm-' and v(C=N) at 1650cm-'. No absorption was observed in the v(:NH) region at 3300-3005 cm-I. This shows that N-arylbenzamidinesexist in the amino form, i.e. that the aryl ring is at the imino nitrogen atom. It is well known that amidinescontainingat least one hydrogen at the nitrogen atom, i.e. monosubstituted, N,N'-disubstituted and unsubstituted amidines, may form intermolecular or intramolecularhydrogen bonds'. IR spectroscopy is a very convenient tool for the detection of such hydrogen bonds. As a result of hydrogen-bond formation new bands appear at lower frequencies. Intramolecularand intermolecular hydrogen bonds areeasily distinguished because the latter weaken or even disappear upon dilution with a solvent incapable of hydrogen-bond formation. It isevident that substituentsat both nitrogen atoms or at the amidino carbon atom that influence the basicity of the amidine also influence the strength of the hydrogen bond. As the measure of an intramolecular hydrogen-bond strength in a series of carbamoylamidines 90, the difference between the v( >NH) frequency (3410cm-') in an

-

-

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

283

amidine which cannot form an intramolecular hydrogen bond and amidine 90 was taken' 31.

(SO)

On the basis ofthese differences,amountingup to 700cm-' (Table43), it was found that substituentR' at the amidino carbon atom exerts a very stronginfluenceon the possibility of formation of an internal hydrogen-bonded bridge. Large substituentssuch as t-Bu and i-Pr cause the highest steric interferencewith neighbouringsubstituentsRZand R4, and in such cases intramolecular hydrogen bonding was not observed. The influenceof substituentsR2 and R4 at the amidino nitrogen atoms is much smaller, because replacement of a methyl by a cyclohexyl group at either nitrogen of the amidino group(90h us 9op and 9Oq us Ww; Table 43) or by a phenyl(m us 90v) resulted in relatively small changes in the v(NH) frequency. Furtherconclusionscan be drawn on the basis of these data. It seems obvious that the strength of the hydrogen bond depends mainly on the polar effects of the substituents at TABLE 43. Changes in the v(NH) frequency in amidines

a b C

d e f g

h I

j

k I m n 0

P q

r

S

t U V

W X

Y Z

Rl

R2

R'

R4

WH) (cm-')

Ph t-BU i-Pr H H H H Me Me Me Me Me Me Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Me Et

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me c-Hex Et Me

Me 4-CIC6H4 4-CIC6H4 Me Ph 4-CICBH4 4-02NC6H4 Me Ph 4-CIC6H4 4-02NC6H4 C6CIS

Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Ph c-Hex c-Hex Et Me

3412 3441 3440 3200 3040 3000 2940 3100 2860 2810 2775 2775 2720 3145 3140 3140 2880 2860 2840 2830 2790 2980 2885 2845 2820 2800

S02C6H5

Me Bu c-Hex Ph I -Naph 4-CIC6H4 3-CIC6H4 4-02NC6H4 Ph Ph Ph Ph 4-CIC6H4

Av (cm - I )

+ 32 4-1

0

- 240 -400 -440 - 500 - 340 - 580

-

630 -665 - 665 -720 -295 -300 -300 -560 -580 -600 -610 -650 -460 -585 -595 -620

-640

284

1. BuSko-Oszczapowin and J. Oszczapowicz

the proton-donating and proton-accepting sites. At the proton-accepting site, i.e. the imino nitrogen atom, the bond will be strengthened by electron-donating substituents which increase the basicity, and at the proton-donating site by electron-accepting substituents R3 which increase the acidity of this proton (i.e. will strengthen the bond). Recently it was shown that polar effects of substituents at various sites of the amidine group can be enhanced or diminished by substituents at other site^^^^^^*^^^-^^^^^^^. The data in Table 43 provide good support for this reasoning. N-Acyl-formamidines(R' = H),-acetamidines(R' = Me) and -benzamidines (R' = Ph) can be regarded as a separate series. It is immediately seen that for each of these series the shift of the v(NH) frequency,and thus the strength of the intramolecularhydrogen bond, increaseswith the increasein the electron-withdrawingability properties of the substituent R3 at the protonation site. Moreover, in each series four compounds with the same substituent R3, namely Me, Ph, 4-CIC6H4and 4-02NC6H4, were studied. These are:d, e, f, g for formamidines, h, i, j, k for acetamidines and n, 0, p, q for benzamidines. It was foundIJ3that the A values for formamidines and benzamidines correlate very well with those for acetamidines, giving the following regression parameters: Av(formamidines)= 19.87 + (0.75 f 0.35)Av(acetamidines) Av(benzamidines) = 71.60 + (1.08 0.13)Av(acetamidines)

r = 0.998 r = 0.999

Although the regressions involve an insufficient number (only four) of experimental points, the differences between the calculated and experimental Av values, being < 23 cm- ' for a range of 260cm-', indicate that the strength of a hydrogen bond indeed depends on polar effects of the substituent, and shows that polar effects of a substituent at one site depend on the substituent at another site of the amidino group. For monodeuteriated cyclic amidines it was foundIo3that the stretching frequency of the C-H or C-D bond depends on the sp or up conformationalorientation(in the work it was referred to as cis or trans) of this bond with respect to the ring nitrogen atom as shown below.

v,,(cm - I): 35 13 v,,(cm-'): 3410

2688 2489

ap: 3475 sp:2535

sp: 3450 ap: 2565

Monodeuteriationalso influencesthe frequency of the hydrogen-bonded NH groups'03.

free (cm - I): 345 1 H-bonded (cm- I): 3050

2567 3050

2539 2280

3445 2280

In general, IR spectra are not applicable for determination of the syn us anti isomerism of amidines, but in specific cases they might provide indirect evidence on the existence of E or Z configuration.The IR spectra of 2-benzothiazolylamidines 91 are a good example of such specific application'02.

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

i

H-NH

285

I

(91a) E isomer

The E isomer can form an intramolecular hydrogen bond between the amidino NH, group and the nitrogen atom of the benzothiazolyl moiety. As a result the v(NH) frequencies observed (3260 and 3390 cm-') are lower than for other open-chain monosubstituted amidines(cfTable40).The authorshave found that the Z isomer exists in enolate form (91~).and that enolization of the E isomer is not detectable. The protonation site in amidines was also studied by means of IR ~pectra'~. Comparison of characteristic frequenciesfor trisubstituted formamidines R'N=CHN(Me)R2with those for their salts provided further evidence that protonation occiirs at the imino nitrogen atom. The decrease of the C=N bond order, resulting from protonation at the imino nitrogen atom, causes considerable decrease of the v=(N=C-N) and v(C=N) bands (40-70 and 14-31 cm-', respectively) as shown in Table 44. A similar shift of the v(C=N) band upon protonation was observed for N ' , N ' dimethyl-N2-(l-antraquinono)formamidines'34. However, as a result of an intricate discussion of their IR and UV spectra the authorsreached a rather surprisingconclusion that in this case protonation occurs at the amino nitrogen. Changes in the electron density and bond order in amidines resultingfrom substituents at the three sites of the amidino group cause not only variations in the v(C=N) and v(C-N) frequencies,but also in the pK, values of amidines. Thus, attempts at a correlation of the v(C=w with the pK, values for some trisubstituted formamidines and methacrylamidines have been made' 35. TABLE 44. Characteristic IR absorptions (in cm- ') for trisubstituted formamidines R'C,H,N= CH-N(Me)R' and their salts76

R' 4-NO2 4-NOZ H 4-NO2 4-OMe H 4CN

R2

Base

Salt

Base

Salt

Me Ph 4-02NCsHd 4-MeOC,H4 4-OZNCbH4 4-NCC,H, H

1635 1631 1639 I630 1630 I635 1636

1710 1685 1688 I668 1688 1685 1685

1576 1575 1588 1580 1592 1590 1584

1605 1600 1602 1598 1615 1605 1610

286

I. Buiko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

TABLE45. Characteristic1R absorption of amidinopenicillins" v(C=O) R'

R4

H

H

S02Yb Me

Ph PhCH, PhCH, H

CH,OCOCMe, H H

H CH,OCOCMe, CH2COMe

v(C=N)

/3-lactam

1695-1680 1685-1675 1685-1665 1675-1665 1670-1660 1680 1620

1770-1760 1785-1775 1775- I770 1775-1770 1775-1765 I780 1775

COOH 1610-1600 -

1620-1 605 1620-1615 1610-1605

-

COOX

1765-1740

-

I745 I740

Ref.

41

104

42 42 42 105 107

"In KBr pellets.

= Ph or 4-MeC6H,.

It was found that the v(C=N) values (in cm-') recorded for the salts are related to the pK, values by the following relations: Acetamidines (4 experimental points). pK:f = 248.5 - 0.145~(C=N)

r = 0.999

Methacrylamidines (6 experimental points), pKT = 405.8 - 0.249v(C=N)

r = 0.985

It was concluded that such relations can be applied for determinationof pK, values for insolubleamidines,and in this way the p K , value for one methacrylamidinewas calculated. However, it must be kept in mind that any vibration frequency depends to a considerable degree on the mass of the substituents'36.Forexample, the mass of the substituent R3 is varied by 45% only when phenyl is replaced by chlorophenyl, but by 90% when ethoxycarbonyl replacesphenyl. This probably contributes to thc difference of 0.4pK, units between calculatedand experimentalp K , values. Similar', and even higherdeviations are encounteredalsoforotherseriesofamidines.Althoughsuchrelationsareofsome theoretical valueand requireextensions,they arenot recommended as amethodofpK,determination. IR spectra have been regarded as the most convenient tool for routine analysis of amidinopenicillins41~4z*'04*10*~'07. These p-lactam antibiotics undergo degradation very easily and the /?-lactam v(C=O) band disappears whereas other frequencies are discernibly shifted. However, it was shown that the absorption regions of characteristic groups do not overlap(Table 45). Few other drugs containingthe amidino group, such as were also characterized lidamidine" and N-phenyl-N'-tert-b~tyl-3-propanamidine*~~, by IR spectra. B. Amidoxlmes

Characteristicfrequenciesfor the amidoxime group, exemplified by 3,5-disubstituted 4isoxazolylamidoximes137 and 2-pyridineamido~imes'~', are given in Table 46. The

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

287

TABLE46. CharacteristicIR absorptions(in cm- ') of Cisoxalylamidoximes and 2-pyridylamidoximes Vibration

Vms(NH,)" VS(NH3

V(C=N)

v(N-OH) 6(N-0)

Pyridylamidoximes'30

4-lsoxazolylamidoximes137

3390-3610 3190-3920 1630-1660 900-950 790-795

3356b

3356

1633 950 -

"Forall other compounds the v,(NH,) vibration is at a higher frequencythan v,(NH,); the reason why the assignments are reversed in this particular case is not discussed by the authors. bBroad.

structureof a resin 92, used for concentratingvarious metals present in aqueous solutions in trace amounts, was determined'39 by using IR spectroscopy. In addition to the characteristic frequenciesfor other groups present in the resin, the following amidoxime frequencieswere observed: v(NH,) at 34001x1- I, broad v(0H) at 3325 cm-', broad v(C=N) at 1650cm-I and broad v(N-OH) at 900cm-'. C. Amidrazones

For N',N'-disubstituted and N1,N',N3-trisubstituted amidrazones 93 hydrogen . ~ ~ CCI, ~ . solutions two absorption bonding was observed in the IR ~ p e c t r a ~In~dilute bands are observed in a range which depends on the substitution of the amidrazone group. When the substituent R4 at N3is a hydrogen atom, and R,' RZ and R3 are alkyl or aryl groups, the v(NH) absorption bands appear in the region of 3493-3475 cm- and 34243375cm-'. When N' carries a hydrogen, the absorption bands are at 3475-3410cm-' and 3375-3297 cm- ', respectively.

a

R ' = C ~ H x~

b

C

288

I. BuSko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

In the IR spectra of amidrazone derivatives of 2,6-diisopropyl-1,Cbenzoquinone (94) three v(NH) absorption bands are observed in the regions 3468-3411 cm-I, 3368-3281 cm-' and 3228-3215cm-', respectively. The authorsa s s ~ m e d ' ~ that ' the first region is due to form a, the second to form b and the third to form c having an intramolecular hydrogen bond. amidrazones it was found8' that the v(C=N) band In E-l,l,3,3-tetra-substituted appears in the 1650-1660cm-' region. D. Formazans

For formazans containingbenzazolyl or pyrimidinyl groups it was s h o ~ n ' ~that ~ - ' ~ ~ the v(NH) stretching vibrations are in the 3450-3420cm-' region for a free secondary amino group, and at 3360-3330cm- for an intramolecularhydrogen bonded one. This band occurs at lower f r e q ~ e n c i e sif~ the ~ nitrogen is substituted by an electronwithdrawing substituent. Such a frequency shift caused by substitution can be explained in the same way as for the case of hydrogen bonds in amidines (vide supra).It is obvious that the intramolecular hydrogen bond can be formed only if the compound has an appropriate configuration and conformation. Thus, in formazans containing bulky substituentsat the nitrogen atoms of the amidrazone group, steric hindranceprevents the formation of a planarconformation and an intramolecularhydrogen bond in such cases is not observed48. (95), in addition to the two usual In the case of N-(2-benzimidazolyl)formazans tautomericforms 95a and 95b a third one, called an 'imino form'by the authors,may exist.

'

In CCI, solutionsonly a v(NH) absorption of a free secondary amino group in the region 3441-3427 cm-' is observed. It was thereforeconcluded that these formazans exist in an 'imino form'9Jc. In CHCI, solutions, however, a weak band in the 3336-3286cm-' range also appears, and it was concluded that in this solvent intramolecularhydrogen bonding occurs. Consequently formazans exist in either of the two tautomeric forms 95a and 95b, because intramolecularhydrogen bonding is possible for these forms only'45. Analogous results were obtained for other related formazans'08.The reason why intramolecular hydrogen bonding occurs in CHCI, solutions but not in CCI, was not discussed.

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

289

In the IR spectra of N-(2-aminophenyl)-3-phenyl-N'-arylformazans (96) three v(NH) bands of practically constant frequencies of mean values 3488.7 1.6 cm-', 3397.8 f 0.9 cm- and 3302.8 f 0.6 cm- were observed92. These bands were assigned respectively to the v,(NH,), v,,(NH,) and v(NH) vibrations of the hydrogen-bonded N H group. On this basis the authorsconcludedg2that these formazans do not form intermolecular hydrogen bonds but exist in the form 96. However, for compounds of structure 96 four absorption bands are expected, namely v,(NH,), vas(NHz),v(N5H) and a band for hydrogen-bonded NH,. The reason why only three of them are observed was not discussed.

Ph

E. Complexes

The IR spectra of imidic acid derivatives reported in the literature can be divided in generalinto three groups depending on the type of the complex. The first groupcomprises collision complexes with proton-donating compounds. In such complexes, as a rule, a v(X-H) frequency of the proton-donating compound is observed, and only little attention, if any, is paid to the characteristicfrequenciesof the imidic acid derivative itself. The second group includes complexes with various metal complexes, mainly metal carbonyls. In them attention is paid to the v(C=O) frequencies,and the spectra are used mainly for analytical purposes. Sometimes the IR spectra of such complexes demonstrate that the C O groups have different spatial orientation. However, in some works the frequencies characteristic for the complexed amidine are given137. The third group includes boron complexes of amidines. 1. Complexes with proton-donating compounds

For complexes of N ',N1-dimethyl-N2-arylformamidines with ethanol and substituted phenols it was found'46 that the v(0H) frequenciesdepend on the polar effects of the substituents in the phenyl ring, and that the difference(Av) between the frequenciesin the complexed and uncomplexed molecule correlate with Hammett 0 constants, as expressed by equation 22. Av(X-H)

+b

=a - x a

(22)

For ethanol a = 53.7 and b = 300 (I = 0.96). Complexes of various series of amidines with CDCl, were studied by measuring the C-D stretchingfrequency.It was found65that in solutions ofamidines in CDCl,, in addition to the 1:l complexes, other complexes containing more than one CDCl, molecule are formed. Recently it was found128that for CDCl, complexes with N1,N1-dimethyl-NZsubstituted phenylformamidines,the Av(C-D) values correlatewell with Hammett-type constants of substituents, and that the regressioncoefficient a depends to a considerable degree on the substitutionat the amidino carbon atom. Preliminary results indicate that it increaseson increasingthe electron-donating properties of this substituent. It should be

I. BuCko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

290

noted that these changesare similarto those observed for the f~ values in correlations of the pK, values of amidines with (r constants (cf the chapter on basicity). 2. Complexes with metal carbonyls

N,N'-Diphenylformamidines, acetamidines and benzamidines form with Re(CO),X and [Re(CO),X], two types of complexes, 97 and 98, depending on the reaction conditions 147.

It was known that in complexes where the carbonyl ligand is bonded only to one metal atom (referredto as the terminal carbonyl group)the v(C=O) frequenciesare in the 21001900 cm-' region, depending on the metal and its s u b ~ t i t u e n t s ' ~ ~ . For complexes 97 a typical pattern of terminal C=O groups is observed in the 21082020,2022-1994,1987-1967 and 1948-1913 cm-' regions, in addition to the carbamoyl CO group at 1675-1650cm-'. The absorptions at 1583-1569cm-' assigned to vaS(NC-N) are approximately at 40-50 cm- lower frequenciesthan in the parent amidines. Forcomplexes 98 four terminal CO bands are also observed, but a v(NH) band at ca 3320 cm- also appears,indicating that the amidine is acting in the complex as a two-electron donor and is retaining the NH group. Nitrido complexes of osmium ofthe type [OOsN(L),]OH.H,O, where L are various N amidinoisoureas,have been investigated by means of IR spectro~copy'~~. In the free ligand the bands in the 3350-3180cm-' region are very broad, and they are assigned to the stretching vibrations of the free and hydrogen-bonded NH, and NH groups. In the complexes a discernibleshift of one of these bands to ca 3145 cm- indicates coordination to the metal atom. The v(N-C-N) band in a free ligand (1680cm-') is shifted appreciably to lower frequencies(1650cm- ') and this shift was attributed by the authors to appreciable n-bonding between the metal and the ligand. The new band appearingin the 1260-1250cm-' range was assigned to the chelate ring vibrations. The absence of the band at 1340cm-' indicated that the amidinourea in a complex is completely enolized. Absorption bands at 1025cm-' and 900-800cm-' are assigned to the ~ ( 0 s - N ) and v(Os=O) vibrations, respectively. On this basis structure 99 was suggested for the complex.

'

'

'

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

29 1

Complexes of the type LZnCI, (I) and L,Zn (11),where L is a symmetrical 1,5-di-(1alkylbenzimidazolyl-2)-3-alkyl formazan ligand, have been studied. In the complex the v(NH) band (at 3840 cm-I for the imino form) disappears and the v(C=N) band (at 1670cm- I) is shifted to lower frequenciesby about 40-50 cm- for type I and 75-80 cmfor type I1 complexes. 3. Boron complexes

In the complexes of acyloxyboranes with amidines 100, five sharpbands at 3300,3240, 3200, 3160 and 3135 cm-! were observedI5' in the v(NH) absorption region. Neither dilution nor heating of the sample up to 70-80°C result in changes of the absorption pattern in this region. The appearanceof the absorption in this region was attributed to Fermi resonancebetween the V(NH)and 6(NH) overtones. In compounds 100 the v(C=O) band ofacylborane of 1680cm-' is shifted to the 1675-1650 cm-' region, thus indicating the presence of a C=O HN bonding.

T

R'

V. ULTRAVIOLET AND VlSl6LE SPECTRA A. Amidines

In the electronic(UV-VIS) spectra ofamidines, reported in the literature,the absorption is due to the aromatic moiety of the molecule and spectra are mainly given for characterizationof the c o m p o ~ n d Only ~ ~ *in~a~few ~ .cases were the UV-VIS spectra used in connection with the NMR or IR spectra as an additional tool for structure d e t e r m i n a t i ~ n ~ ~ ~ ~ The ' ~ ~ ease ~ ~ ~ of ~ . measurements and the sensitivity of the method make it a readily applicable method in quantitative determinations. It is noteworthy that changes in the UV spectra are used in pK, determinations. For several amidines, UV absorption was applied for detection and quantitative determination in HPLC analysis3z.3J. In some cases U V spectroscopy was applied for investigations on E - 2 isomerization, e.g. for N',N1-dimethyl-N2-phenylformamidine: in aqueous solutions at 305 nm the absorption of the 2 isomer is much higherthan that of the E i ~ o m e renabling '~ one to follow the reaction course. Similar investigation were carried out for amidoxirnesIs4and a m i d r a z ~ n e s ~ ~ . For trisubstituted amidines in acetonitrile solutions ,A, is in the region 246-378 nm with log E in the range 4.22-4.34. For the hydrochloride salts a batochromic shift is observed, but ifelectron-donatingsubstituentsareattached to the nitrogen atoms this shift is about 10-20nm, whereas in the case of electron-withdrawing substituents it is considerably higher, about 30-70 nm76. B. Amldoximes

The influenceof the pH value on the spectra of 3,5 disubstituted 4-isoxazolylamidoximes in water and water-ethanol mixtures has been inve~tigated'~'.

I. Buiko-Oszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz

292

Although not much attention has been paid to the UV-VIS spectra of free amidoximes, the spectra of their complexes have heen studied on account of their expected analytical and industrial applications. The spectra of complexes of ML2X2 type, where L is 2pyridine-2 amidoxime, M is Cu”, Ni”, C O + ~Fe+’ , and Mn+2whilst X = C1, Br, NO3, CIO, and OH have been studied and used for determining the structure of the complexes’38. Numerous polyamidoxime-metal (mainly Cu2+) complexes were studied. As polyamidoximes 3,3’-imino-, 3,3‘-dioxy-, 3,3’-thiodipropionamidoxime, a,a’-azobis(isobutyramidoxime), nitrilotriacetamidoxime and ethylenediaminotetraacetamidoxime (I01 and 102) were used.

TABLE47. UV-VIS absorption for complexes of amidoxirnes with some metals155 Metal

Amidoxime

cu2+ cu2+ cu2+ Cu2+

cu2 cu2+ +

Fez+ Fez+ Fez Fe2+ +

co2 co2+ co2+ Ni2+ Nil+ Niz+

‘Shoulder. “ow absorption. ‘Not well defined.

lOlb lOla lOld lOlc lOle 102 lOlb lOlc lOle 102 lOld lOlc 102 lOlc lOle 102

L,, (nm) 740

610 605

500

710 690 645 61 5 380b 580b 650‘ 520 505 575 425 435

750” 770” 500‘

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

293

For all complexes the ,L,, value depends mainly on the kind of metal and then on the heteroatom and on the substitution of the a m i d o ~ i m e ~(Table ~ * ' ~47). ~ C. Amidrazones

In the UV spectra of alkyl amidrazones R'R2N'NZ=C(Me)NR3R4 (Table 48) an absorption band at 208-215 nm, Ige = 3.33-3.51, is observed. Substitutionat the N' atom (hydrazine group) by a phenyl ring causes a bathochromic shift to 230-235 nm and an increasein molar absorption (Ig E = ca 3.90). For hydrochlorides,a bathochromic shift of 12-20 nm with respect to the free bases and discernibledecreasein the molar absorption is observed8'. It is obvious that characteristic absorption bands for the phenyl ring also appear in the spectrum. D. Formarans

Characteristic UV absorption of formazans 103 and their complexes with metals is summarized in Table 49. The A,, value in the free base depends mainly on the type of substituentsattached to the terminal nitrogen atom^^'.^^.'10*156. In complexes it mainly depends on the type of metal atom'55.

(103)

X-PhCHZN,

S,O

TABLE48. Characteristic UV absorption of amidrazones R3R4NC(CH3)=N2N'RzR' and their salts in water solutionss7

H

H

H Me Et n-Pr i-Pr t-Bu Ph

H H H H H H H

Me Me

Me Ph

H

H

H H

Me Me Me

Me Me Ph

Ph Me Me

H Me Me

H

H

H H

H H

H H H

H H H

209 209 208 208 210 208 228 214

3.51 3.51 3.42 3.33 3.52 3.51 3.96 3.24

207 233 272 213 215 235 275

3.47 4.05 3.24 3.90 3.95 4.14 3.37

223 225 226 225 224 224 234 288 309 225 253

3.51 3.69 3.58 3.72 3.74 3.72 3.82 3.60 3.50 3.49 4.08

226 232 222 260

3.19 3.80 4.24 4.16

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294

TABLE 49. UV-VIS absorption of formazans 103 and their complexes with metal ions' l o ~m.,

Formazans

(nm)

Complexes with metal ions

X

R'

R2

Salt

base

Nil+

Zn2+

NCHzPh NCH,Ph NCH,Ph NCH2Ph

Ph Ph Me Me Ph Ph Me Me Ph Ph Me Me

NO, NMe, NO, NMe, NMe, NO, NMe, NO, NMe, NO, NMe, NO,

554 508 522 510 586 532 510 500 472 500 456 476

628 556 628 548 608 542

678 660 674 652 676 482 546 670 660 480 640 640

666 466 568 520 668 482 486 528 640 480 516 640

S S S S 0 0 0 0

510

554 574 522 566 526

co2+ 680 586 422 584 670 464 550 610 560 610 540 596

710-760 750-800 700-750 750-800 690 750-800 670 750-800 670 750-800 655 750-800

VI. MASS SPECTRA

In the case of amidines and derivatives of imidic acids, which are usually synthetic or modified natural compounds, mass spectrometry is much less informative than other spectroscopic methods, and is not of much use for structure determination purposes. However, it is of some interest from the theoretical point of view. Therefore,the reports on mass spectra of amidines are not numerous. The fragmentation pattern for eighteen unsubstituted and N,N'-disubstituted formamidines,acetamidinesand pivalamidineshave been studied53.From the fragmentation patterns presented for the N,N'-disubstituted amidinesit can be concluded that the parent molecular ion undergoes initially a C--N bond cleavage, forming the ion radicals of the corresponding primary amine and imine (Scheme 1). R'

+' --H

L

[RNH,]+* A

+*

-1

[R-N=C-R']+'

0

SCHEME 1. The initial fragmentation step for amidines

The most prominent peak in the spectrum forformamidinesis the amine ion A, but for acetamidinesand benzamidines the main peak is ion B formed by elimination of the amine

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

295

fragment.For all the amidines studied a prominent peak corresponding to the loss of one hydrogen atom was observed. Furtherfragmentationof the amine and imine ion radicals occurs according tb.the mechanismspresented in monographson mass spectrometry. The fragmentations are further discussed in chapter 5. VII. MISCELLANEOUS METHODS A. Mlcrochemlcal Methods

It was s h o ~ n ' ~that ~ - some ' ~ ~drugs containing an unsubstituted amidino group can be identified as characteristiccrystals formed on a microscale in reactions with reagents such as Reinecke salt, H,PtCl,, H,PtCl, + NaBr, HAuCI,, HAuCl, + NaBr, CdI, + HI, NaHPO,, K,Fe(CN),, HgCI,, picric acid, 3,s-dinitrobenzoic acid, 5-nitrobarbituricacid or Dragendorfreagent.The method was applied to amidines used as antibacterialagents 104, diuretical agents 105 and antihypertensive agents 106. The microscope view and appearanceof the crystal is given in detail by the authors.

r

1

(106)

(106)

B. Microbiological Methods

A microbiological method for determination of amidinopenicillinsusing an agar plate diffusiontechnique was described. In this method Penassay agar',, No 1, or impregnated and the NCTC Esherichia coli 10418 as indicator organism were used. The method was standardized for determination of sensitivity VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Financial support by the project RP.II.10 from the Polish Ministry of Education is gratefully acknowledged. IX. REFERENCES 1. W. H. Prichard,in The Chemistry ofhnidines and lmidates (Ed. S . Patai), Wiley, Chichester, 1975, pp. 157-185, (a) p. 159, (b) p. 165, (c) p. 171. 2. R. L. Shriner and F. W. Neumann, Chem. Reu., 35,351 (1944).

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91. B. I. Buzykin, L. P. Sysoeva, A. A. Espenbetov, Yu. T. Struchkov and Yu. P. Kitaev, Zh. Org. Khim., 22,2277 (1986); Chem. Abstr., 107, 133786k (1987). 92. L. V . Shmelev, Yu. S., Ryabokobylko, A. V. Kessenikh and V . N. Ostrovskaya, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 57, 1637 (1987); Chem. Abstr., 108, 166892r (1988). 93. L. A. Fedorov, S. A. Sokolovskii, G. N. Lipunova, G. 1. Sigeikin and L. I. Rusinova, IEU. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Khim., 691 (1987); Chem. Abstr., 108, 21274f (1988). 94. P. B. Fischer, L. B. Kaul and H. Zollinger, Helu. Chim. Acta, 51, 1449 (1968). 95. D. E. Gallis and L. R. Crist, Magn. Reson. Chem., 25 480 (1987). 96. W. Walter and C. 0. Meese, Chem. Ber., 110,2463 (1977). 97. C. L. Pemn, C. P. Loll0 and Chi-Sun Hahn, J. Org. Chem., SO, 1405 (1985). 98. C. L. Perrin and E. R. Johnston,Can. J . Chem., 59, 2527 (1981). 99. C. J. Shisoo, M. B. Devani, V. S. Bhadti, S. Ananthanand G. V. Ullas, J. Chem. Res. (S), 375 (1985). 100. M. Van den Bnl and R. Fuks, Tetrahedron, 37,2905 (1981). 101. T. V. Aleshnikova, A. F. Prokof'eva, V. V. Negrebetskii, A. F. Grapov and N. N. Melnikov, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 56, 2507 (1986). Chem. Abstr., 108, 75487w (1988). 102. P. Baudet and D. Rao, Helu. Chim. Acta, 53, 1011 (1970). 103. H. W. Sieveking and W. Luttke, Justus Liebigs Ann. Chem., 2, 189 (1977). 104. I. BuSko-Oszczapowin and J. CieSlak, Acta Polon. Pharm, 39, 121 (1982). 105. I. BuSko-Oszczapowin, J. Kazimiernak, T. Prussak,Z. Marchlewska, A. KaJuia,A. Cieniecka and J. CieSlak, Acta Polon. Pharm., 33, 191 (1976). 106. J. Cieilak, 1. BuSko-Oszczapowicz, W. Rogowska, M. Stppniak, J. Sadowska, W. Kotula, A. Cark, T. Prussak-Wipckowska and Z . Marchlewska, Acta Polon. Pharm., 38,499 (1981). 107. J. Cidlak, I. BuSko-Oszczapowicz, A. Cajka, W. Kotula, M. Wrocinski, T. PrussakWipckowska, Z. Marchlewska and M. Stepniak Acta Polon. Pharm., 38, 69 (1981). 108. R. F. Smith, D. S. Johnson,C. L. Hyde, T. C. Rosenthaland A. C. Bates, J.Org. Chem., 36,1155 (1971). 109. R. F. Smith, D. S. Johnson,R. A. Abgott and M. J. Madden, J. Org. Chem., 38, 1344 (1973). 110. N. V. Serebryakova,G. N. Lipunova, N. P. Bednyagina and L. F. Lipatova, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soed., 1403 (1970); Chem. Abstr., 74, 138178k (1971). 111. G. J. Martin, M, L. Martin and J-P. Gouessnard,"N N M R Spectroscopy, Vol. 18 in series (Eds. P. Diehl, E. Fluck and R. Kosfeld), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 1981. 112. IUPAC Recommendationsfor Nuclei Other than 'H, Pure Appl. Chem., 45, 219 (1976). 113. B. Clement and T. Kampchen, Chem. Ber., 119, 1101 (1986). 114. C. Rabiller, G. Ricoleau, M. L. Martin and G. J. Martin, Nouu. J . Chem., 4, 35 (1980). 115. B. Clement and T. Kampchen, Chem. Ber., 118,3481 (1985). 116. N. Naulet and G. J. Martin, Tetrahedron Lett., 1493 (1979). 117. J. Oszczapowicz, I. Wawer, M. Dargatz and E. Kleinpeter, in preparation. 118. M. L. Filleux,N. Naulet, J. P. Doric, G. J. Martin, J. Pornetand L. Miginiac, Tetrahedron Lett., 1435 (1974). 119. I. Wawer, Magn. Reson. Chem., 26,601 (1988). 120. I. Wawer, J. Mol. Liq.. 38, l(1988). 121. I. Wawer, Magn. Reson. Chem., 27, 577 (1989). 122. J. Oszczapowicz and W. Krawczyk, J . Chem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. 2,21 (1989). 123. J. Oszczapowicz and K. Ciszkowski, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2,663 (1987). 124. J. Osxzapowicz and E. Raczynska, J. Chem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. 2, 1643 (1984). 125. W. Kinasiewicz, A. Lei and I. Wawer, J. Mol. Struct. (Theochem.),168, 1 (1988). 126. D. C. Prevoraek, J. Phys. Chem., 66, 769 (1962). 127. D. C. Prevorkk, J. Chim.-Phys.. Phys. Chim. Biol., 55,840 (1958). 128. J. Oszczapowicz, J. Jaroszewska-Manaj,L. Skulski and K. Erbel, in preparation. 129. R. B. Tinkler, J. Chem. SOC. E, 1052 (1970). 130. B. V. Passet,G. N. Kul'bitskii,N. A. KalashnikovaandT. I. Voropaeva, Zh. Org. Khim.,& 1246 (1972); Chem. Abstr., 77, 100964g (1972). 131. R. Kolb and G. Schwenker. Chem. Ber., 106, 105 (1973). 132. J. Oszczapowicz, W. Krawczyk and P. Cyiwinski,'J. Chem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. 2, 311 (1990). 133. I. BuSkorOszczapowicz and J. Oszczapowicz, in preparation. 134. B. E. Zaitsev, L. B Krasnova, S. I. Popov and T. A. Mikhailova, Zh. Org. Khim., 22, 1743 (1986); Chem. Abstr., 107, 6907g (1987).

4. Detection and determination of imidic acid derivatives

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135. M. Hanocq, M. Van Damme and R. Fuks, J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal., 31,29 (1985). 136. G. Varsanyi, Assignmentsfor Vibrational Spectra of 700 Benzene Deriuatiues, Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, 1973. 137. J. L. Bernal, M. Pedrero, V. Cerda and J. Cantallops, Thermochim. Acta, 98, 19 (1986). 138. G. S. Sanyal, A. B. Modak and A. K. Mudi, Indian J. Chem., 22A, 307 (1983). 139. M. B. Colella, S. Siggia and R. M. Barnes, Anal. Chem., 52, 967 (1980). 140. W. Walter and H. Weiss, Justus Liebigs Ann. Chem., 162, 758 (1972). 141. K. S. Burmistrov, N. V. Toropin, S. J. Burrnistrovand T. V. Gosteminskaya, Zh. Org. Khim., 17, 387 (1981); Chem. Abstr., 95,42558 (1981). 142. E. S. Karavayeva, H. P. Bednyagina,T. A. Sharkova and J. J. Mudretsova, Khim. Geterotsilol Soed., 1420 (1975); Chem. Abstr., 84, 59365k (1976). 143. 1. .I Mudretsova and S. L. Mertsalov, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soed., 1666 (1975). 144. .I A. Nasyr and W. M. Cherkasov, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soed., 1409 (1976). 145. G. N. Tyruenkova, I. I. Mudretsova, S. L. Mertsalov and N. P. Bednyagina,Khim. Geterotsikl. Soed., 818 (1980); Chem. Abstr., 93, 20374 (1980). 146. J. Vaes, F. Faubertand T. Zeegers-Huyskens, Can. J. Chem., 53,604 (1975). 147. J. A. Clark and M. Kilner, J. Chem. SOC.,Dalton Trans., 2613 (1983). 148. L. A. Kazitsyna and B. Kupletska, Applications of UV,I R and N M R Spectroscopy and Organic Chemistry, Vyzshaya Shkola, Moscow, 1971 (Russian). 149. N. C. Ta and D. Sen, J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem., 43,209 (1981). 150. V. A. Dorokhov, M. V. Bochkareva and 0.0.Boldyreova, Izu. Acad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Khim., 411 (1979); Chem. Abstr., 90, 203057e (1979). 151. P. Sohir, Acta Chim. Acad. Sci. Hung., 54, 91 (1967). 152. A. P. de Jong and H. Van Dam, J. Med. Chem., 23,889 (1980). 153. A. P. de Jong and H. Van Dam, Pharmazie, 36,349 (1981). 154. K. J. Dignam, A. F. Hegrty and P. L. Quaim, J. Chem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. 2, 1457 (1979): 155. F. Borrull, J. Guasch, E. Casassas and V. Cerdi, Polyhedron, 5, 1277 (1986). . 156. 0. M. Stashkevich,G. T. Pilyuginand W. W. Stashkevich,Khim. Geterotsikl. Soed., 1104 (1970). 157. 0. N. YalCindag, Sci. Pharm., 44,328 (1976). 158. 0. N. Yalcindag and E. Onur, Sci. Pharm., 45,318 (1977). 159. 0. N. Yalcindag, Sci. Pharm., 48, 166 (1980). 160. 0. N. YalCindag, Sci. Pkarm., 48, 391 (1980). 161. 0. N. Yalcindag, Sci. Pharm., 49, 500 (1981). 162. J. D. Wiliams, J. Andrews, M. Mitchard and M. Kendall, J.Antimicrob. Chemother., 2,61(1976). 163. A. P. Ball, A. K. Viswan, M. Mitchard and R. Wise, J . Antimicrob. Chemother., 4,241 (1978). 164. M. Zaremba, K. Zukowska-Nytko, A. Grala-KaJuina, A. Kacprazak-Wiatr, J. Piotrowski, J. Grygiel and J. Borowski, Med. DoSw. Mikrobiol., 33, 219 (1981); Chem. Abstr., 98, 31297e (1983).

CHAPTER

5

Mass spectra of amidines and related compounds SIMONETTA FORNARlNl Dipartimento di Studi di Chimica e Tecnologia delle Sostanze Biologicamente Attive, Universite di Roma ‘La Sapienza’, 1-00185 Rome, Italy 1. INTRODUCTION.. . . . . . . . . . 11. MASS SPECTRA O F AMIDINES .

..... .. ...... .. . ....... .. . . .... .. . . ...... . . . .. A. Formamidines.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Higher Amidines . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Guanidines.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Guanidine and substituted guanidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Biologically important guanidino compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Amidrazones.. . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Amidinium Salts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. Amidino Complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. Miscellaneous Amidino Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111. MASS SPECTRA O F IMIDIC ACID DERIVATIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V.REFERENCES .

...................................

301 302 302 305 306 306 309 312 312 315 316 318

321 321

1. INTRODUCTION

The 1975 volume of the ‘Chemistryof the FunctionalGroups’ series on ‘TheChemistry of Amidines and Imidates’ included a discussion of the mass spectra of N,N-dimethy1-N’arylformamidinesas a section in the chapter on generaland theoretical aspects of amidines by G. Hafelinger’. Since then, amidines and imidic acid derivatives have been the spbject of relatively few mass spectrometric studies. Most of the scant literature data reported electron impact (EI)mass spectra recorded for analytical purposes. Only a minor fraction dealt with the characterizationof ion structuresor focused on the effect of substituentson the fragmentation pathways. Thus, the gas-phase ion chemistry of these compounds is virtually unknown. The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates, Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and Z. Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

30 1

302

Simonetta Fornarini II. MASS SPECTRA OF AMlDlNES

Mass spectrometric data on amidines2-10are rather limited and mainly restricted to EI

studies of formamidines with various N-substituents. Upon EI ionization, the fragmentation of amidines which are unsubstituted at nitrogen, e.g. la-e, involved cleavage of the R-C bond to yield [HNCNH] +'ions at m/z 42 and [HNCNH,] ions at m/z 43 as typically the base peaks, with the exception of le whose base peak at m/z 104 was assigned to [C6H,CNH]+ ions2. Amidines Id and l e showed also intense [R]' ions. +

NH

R-C

4

R=

CI Me t-Bu Ph

H

\

(a) (b)

(4

(4 (4

NH2 (1) A. Formamidlnes

The mass spectrum of N,N'-diphenylformamidine 2a has been reported by several

R = H o-Me p-Me m-C1 p-C1 p-NMe, (a)

(4

(b)

(4

(4

(0

and compared to the mass spectra of the corresponding acetamidine and benzamidine by Kilner and coworkers2. The proposed fragmentation scheme, shown in equation 1, was based on the presence of metastable ions (* symbol on the appropriate [PhNH2]+' mjz 93

(100%)

*I

CC5H61

+'

[Ph-N=CH-NHPh]"

+

(2a)+' m/z 196

m/z 92

7TH

m/z 66

[PhNCH]'

[CI3N2H1J+

1

(24%)

(24%)

(14%)

[PhNH]'

mjz 104

(4%)

l*

[C,H,I+ m/z 65

mlz 195

(10%)

[C~HS]+ m/z 65 (10%)

arrow)and accuratemass measurements2.The main fragmentationmode involved NHCH bond rupture to afford the two fragment ions at m/z 92 and m/z 104. The base peak at m/z 93 was associated by a strong metastable transition to NH.-CH bond cleavage with concomitant hydrogen migration to give, probably, the aniline radical cation. The substituted N,N'-diarylformamidines 2b-f have aniline-type ions as their base peaks2-,. Slight differencesin the relative intensitiesof [ArNH,] and [ArNHl+ ions were remarked in the case of the ortho (2b) and para (2c) tolyl isomers2. The mass spectrometric fragmentation pattern of N,N-dimethyl-N'-arylfomamidines has been d i s c ~ s s e dand ~ . ~reviewed'. The fragmentation process leading to significant +-

5. Mass spectra of amidines and related compounds

303

[M - HI' peaks, explained by the formation of benzimidazolium ions, has been further investigated by Kuschel and Griit~macher'-~. The loss of a chlorine atom gave rise to the most abundant [M - Cl]' ions in the mass spectra of N,N-dimethyl-N'-2chlorophenylformamidine3 (X = CI), in contrast to the minor intensity of these fragments from the meta- and paru-chloro-substituted analogues. This result was found to substantiatethe postulated formation of benzimidazoliumions by a formal intramolecular aromatic substitution reaction on the radical cation of 3, as shown in equation 2.

Further insight into the mechanism of the cyclization reaction outlined in equation 2 was sought by a study of the effect of substituents at the 2-chlorophenyl ring as in compounds 4a-n, on the appearancepotential (AP) and the intensity of [M - Cl]+ ions N=CH

-NMe2

X \

CI

(4)

X= H

4-NMe,

(4

(b)

5-Me

5-CI

6)

(k)

4-Me0 4-Me (c) (4 5-CN 5-NO, (1) (m)

4-CI

(4

4-CN 4-NO2 5-NMe, (r) (9) (h)

5-OMe

(3

5-CF,

(4

and on the ionization potential (IP)of the parent molecules7.While the IP values showed the expected decreasingtrend with the increasingelectron-donatingability of the X group and gave a linearcorrelation with the Hammett (r constants, the A P values did not exhibit any clear relationship. The intensity of the [M - CI]' ions relative to the molecular ion intensity was reduced by 4- and 5-dimethylamino and 4-methoxy substituents, all other substituents displaying only minor effects. A similar effect had been observed in the mass unsubstituted in the 2-position, where the spectra of N,N-dimethyl-N'-arylformamidines relative intensity of the [M - HI' ions was reduced by p-hydroxy and p-methoxy substituents'*6.The formation ofcyclic [M - H]+ ions was strongly reduced from ionized 5a with respect to 5b8. These results have been interpreted by the contribution of resonanceforms, e.g. distonic Sa", delocalizing the positive charge of the radical cation on the nitrogen atom as in 5a'. Since the formal positive charge on the nitrogen atom was N=CH

Me2N-CH=N

Me2N(SO)

P-

N=CH

--Me2 CH=N

(Sb)

-NMe2

304

Simonetta Fornarini

thought to promote the cyclization to the benzimidazolium ions, their relative abundance was accordingly depleted by delocalizing the positive charge away from the attacking nitrogen atom. To corroborate this mechanistic interpretation, the behavior of N.N-dimethy1-N’biphenylylformamidines 6a-g was examined’. In particular, a lower abundance of R‘

(4 (b)

(c)

(d) (e)

(f)

(g)

R2

H NO2 MeCO Me0 Me2NCH=NMe2NCH=NMe2NCH=N-

H H H H H Me Me

H H

H H H H Me

[M - HI’ ions was observed from ionized 6e while compounds 6f and 6g showed the typical intensities of fragment ions, common to unsubstituted 6a. Thus, methyl substitutionin the 2,2’ and 2,2’,6,6 positions was suggested effectively to depressresonance interactions between X and the amidino group by steric hindranceto coplanarity. Further information on the mechanismof formation of cyclic benzimidazolium ions was provided by varying the ortho substituent X in compound 3 (equation 2), X = H, F, CI, Br, 19. No simple relation was observed between the intensities of [M -XI’ ions and the dissociation energies of the C-X bond, as might have been expected for a direct cleavage process. This observation, together with the trend of kinetic energy release in the fragment ions along the halogen series, substantiated a stepwise cyclization-elimination mechanism, as shown in equation 2, the first step being characterized by the highest activation energy. The problem concerning the fragmentation pathway leading to [M - HI+ ions has been also addressed by Marsel and coworkers in their study on rn- and p-substituted N . N -

5. Mass spectra of amidines and related compounds

305

dimethyl-N'-phenylformamidines'O. They reported IP values and AP values for the formation of [M - H I +ions which varied within a largerrangethan previous data6.With the gross assumption that (AP - IP) values corresponded to approximate activation energies for the fragmentation process, a correlation of the (AP - IP) differences with Brown's u+ was attempted. Negative slopes were obtained for both p- and m-substituted isomers,which were interpreted accordingto a concerted cyclization-elimination process, initiated by nucleophilic attack of the nitrogen atom on a radical cationic aryl ring, as shown in equation 3. Clearly, the interpretationofmass spectrometric data on the origin of fragment ions from differently substituted compounds is debatable. -+.

H

J (3)

Tetrafluoroformamidine (7) has been obtained among the products of the direct fluorination of guanylurea and characterized by its mass spectrum, that displays a molecularion of low intensity and a base peak at m/z 64' The C-N singlebond cleavage dominated also the mass spectrum of l-[N-(2-cyano-4-nitrophenyl)formimidoyl] piperidine 8, yielding the base peak at m/z 8412.

'.

m/z 6 4

(7)

C ' N

m/z 84

(8)

B. Higher Amidines

The C-N single bond cleavage gave the most prominent ions in the mass spectra of nitrogen-substituted acetarnidines and benzamidines of the general formula R'N= C(R)NHR', R = Me, Ph, studied by Kilner and coworkers*. A wide variety of relative ion intensities were found but thP charge-retainingfragment from the C-N bond fission typically differentiated the mass spectra of acetamidines and benzamidines from the correspondingformamidines.Their general pattern is exemplified by the fragmentation 9 (equation 4) and N,N'-diphenylbenzamidine 10 schemes of N,N'-diphenylacetamidine (equation 5,) which may be compared to equation 1showing the fragmentationpattern of N,N'-diphenylformamidine. The positive charge was mainly retained by the [RCNPh]+ fragment when R = Me, Ph, but by the [PhNH,]" fragment when R = H. A detailed study of the fragmentation pattern of bisamidine 11 using peak matching, direct analysis of daughterions, defocusingand deuterium labelling has been reported by Schluneggerand coworkersI3.

Simonetta Fornarini

306 c

-,

[Ph-N=CMe-NHPh]"

-

(9)+ m/z 210

(27%) [MeCNPh] + mfz 118

m/z 209

(19%)

[PhCNPh]+'

[PhNCCH,] mlz 117

(100%)

I*

+'

[Ph-N=CPh-NHPh]*'

m/z 180

(100%)

*I

(4)

+

[M - H I +

(lo)+'

m/z 271

m/z 272

(5%)

""I' (

[PhNCH]' mjz 104 (1%)

(37%)

I

CC,H,I+ m/z 51

(9%)

HN

NH

C. Guanidines 1 . Guanidine and substituted guanidines

The fragmentation pathways upon El of guanidine (12a) and some of its derivatives (12b,c,f,i-o) have been studied with metastable ion analysis and accurate mass measurements by peak matchingI4.

5. Mass spectra of amidines and related compounds

307

NRS

II

R1RZN-C-NR3R4 (12)

The carbon-amino nitrogen bond fission characterized the mass spectra of guanidine and of its methylated derivatives, all showing prominent molecular ions, though product ions were also found involving cleavageprocesses with The base peak at m/z 43 in the mass spectrum of guanidine, 12a, was due to loss of NH2 from the molecular ion but an unexpected ion at mJz 31, [N,H3]', was thought to arise from migration ofNH, to the imino nitrogen atom. Equation6 summarizesthe most significant

fragmentation pathways of ionized 12a which may be compared to those assigned to the N.N-dimethyl derivative 12c shown in equation 7. Tentative ion structures have been proposed, founded only on reasonable guesses; e.g. the [M - Me]' ion in equation 7, produced from the molecular ion as a flat-topped metastable peak, was assigned a probable three-membered ring structure 13a or a linear structure involving migration of a hydrogen atom 13b-c. The ion corresponding to [M - MeN]' in equation 7 probably requiring migration of a methyl group to the imino nitrogen was a common feature in the mass spectra of all rnethylguanidine~'~.'~.

308

1'' .

Simonetta Fornarini

.

I"iH

-NH,

[M-NHz]'

Me2N-C-NH2

\

(12c)

.+

-Me

+.

c

II

NH

*

-MeN

[C2H6N21+

.+

ll

li

NH2

I'

Upon EI, N-cyclohexylguanidine (124 fragmented at the cycloalkyl group yielding the base peak at m/z 60 ([CH,N,]+) and the [M - C,H,]+ component to the peak at m/z 98. A second component to the peak at m/z 98 was due to [M - CH,N,] ions. The latter fragmentions yielded the base peaks at m/z 106 in the mass spectra of the two isomers 12j12k which differed markedly in the molecular ion region. The molecular ion was the second most abundantion in the case of 12j but its intensity was weak compared to the intense [M - H I + ions from 12k. The nature of the substituent R' markedly influenced the fragmentation pattern of 121-120; e.g. the molecularions, base peak in the mass spectrum of 121, underwentcleavage of CH,N, with hydrogen migration or stepwise loss of H and N,H, to give abundant [N,HJ+ ions at m/z 32 and [CH,N,]+ ions at m/z 43. The molecular ions of 1 2 4 representing the base peak, competitively lost [CHN,] and NH, neutral fragments. [M -NH,] ions corresponded to the base peak in the mass spectrum of 120 where loss of NH, from the urea group could occur. In the 36eV mass spectrum of N-hydroxyguanidine, 12p, intense [MI" ions were accompanied by the most abundant [CH,N,]+ and [CH,N,]+ ionst6. Pentafluoroguanidinehas been characterized by its mass spectrum showing the two most intense peaks at m/z 97 ([CF,N,]+) and m/z 78 ([CF,N,]+)". The ionization potentials of guanidine and methylguanidines 12b-h have been r e p ~ r t e dand ' ~ reinterpretedt7.The analysis of Baldwin and coworker^'^suggested that the effect of methylation on the energy of the HOMO of (methy1)guanidinesand related compounds is additive. Their quantitative estimates were found to agree with the differenceof IP values between guanidineand pentamethylguanidine.However, the trend of the IP values for guanidine and N.N-dimethylguanidine was taken as indicative of ionization at different sites. It was argued that the IP of the imino nitrogen lone pair in guanidine itself was slightly below that of the amino nitrogen, but the situation was reversed upon dimethylation of the amino nitrogen as in 12c. The whole discussion +

5. Mass spectra of amidines and related compounds

309

appears in contrast with the notion that, in the presenceof molecularorbitals lying close in energy to the HOMO, the El ionization potential gives a weighted average of the IPS of all the orbitals concerned rather than the IP corresponding exclusively to the HOMO. The gas-phaseion chemistry of guanidinesor amidinesin generaldo not appearto have ever been investigated, However, the computational determination of the proton afinity of guanidine may be mentioned. A6 initio calculations at the 4-31G level gave a proton affinity value of 263 kcal mol-' Is which would place guanidine as one of the strongest gaseous basesI9. This was related to the exceptional stability of the guanidinium ion, owing to the Y-shaped delocalization of six li electrons. 2. Biologically important guanidino compounds

The mass spectrometric assay of the hypotensive drug 2-(2,6-dichlorophenylimino)-2imidazolidine (14) (clonidine) and related compounds (15-20) has been developed,

CI

CI

(19)

(20)

exploiting the high sensitivity and specificity of negative-ion chemical ionization by resonance electron capture20. To this end, suitable fluorinated derivatives were synthesized, the negative-ionmass spectrum of which contained abundanthigh mass ions undergoing little fragmentation.

310

Simonetta Fornarini

Positive-ion CI and electron capture negative-ion CI mass spectra of compounds 1520 have been recorded after conversion of the amidine group to a bis(trifluoromethy1)

pyrimidine by reaction with hexafluoroacetylacetone(equation 8). With the exception

of 19, [M + H] ions represented the base peak in the positive-ion mass spectra, showing little or no fragmentation.In the negative-ion mass spectra, [M]-'ions were the base peaks for all compounds except 18 and 19. Intense negative-ion currents, compared to the positive-ion mode, allowed the detection of picogram amountsby selected ion monitoring. Similar results were obtained from clonidine, once converted to the disubstituted derivative upon reaction with 3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)benzoyl chloride. The negative-ion mass spectrum of this derivative showed only a weak molecular anion but a characteristic base peak correspondingto [M - HCll-' ions which permitted the picogram detection of clonidine. Earlier attempts with the methyl, p-trifluoromethylbenzyl, pentafluorobenzyl and pentafluorobenzoyl derivatives of 14 met with poor success owing to the lack of intense characteristic high-mass negative ions, with chloride ions at mlz 35 and m/z 37 comprising a large fraction of the total ion current. The desorption CI mass spectra of 21 biologically important guanidino compounds have been reported2'. The related to arginine NH=C(NH2)NH(CH2),CH(NH2)C02H use of ammonia as the reagent gas provided the highest intensity of the analytically valuable [M +HI+ ions which were missing, however, in the mass spectra of several compounds. In particular, the presence of an additional carboxylic acid group or alkyl branching at the methylene chain led to enhanced loss of water, with [M + H - H 2 0 ] + ions as the base peaks. Methylguanidine, arginine and related compounds could also be directly mass analyzed, without prior transformation into volatile derivatives, by using FAB ionization of their glycerol solution.22Both methylguanidineand arginineshowed [M + H I C ions as the base peaks with little interferencefrom dimer ions, [2M + H+], or glycerol (G) clusters, e.g. [2G + HI+. In some cases the situation was reversed. Thus the FAB mass spectrum of arcaine,NH=C(NH,)NH(CH,),NHC(NH,) = NH, examined as the sulfate, was dominated by the glycerol ions [nG + H I + and showed only weak [M + HI+ and [M + H + H,S04]+ ions. Several 1-arylbiguanidino compounds are endowed with pharmacological activity, Among them, the mass spectral features of compounds 21 and 22a-d have been reported". The 70 eV mass spectra, obtained by direct insertion at controlled temperature to avoid thermal decomposition, comprised some of the ions characteristic of guanidine~'~. The fragmentationpatternof 21 (equation 9) shows that the major fragment ions arise by ArNH-C bond fission to give [C2HSN,]+ ions at m/z 85 and [ArNH,]+' ions, involving hydrogen rearrangement,at m/z 179. In the case of the unsymmetrical 1,5-diaryl-substitutedcompound 22d both possible arylamineions and the corresponding ionic residues were formed. The fungicideguanidinocompound 23 has been characterized by its FAB positive-ion mass spectrum as the sulfate or acetate giving the monoprotonated base as the base +

[Ar NHz]+'

[ArNHCNH

m / z 179 ( 73 '10

J

1'

m/z 205

(500/0)

[ArNHCN]" m/z 2 0 4

\

[Ar]' m/z 163

(45 /o'

(9) NH-C-NH-C-NR'

ilH

R~

(22)

~

R' Rz

Et Et

i-Pr H

3-CF,C,jH, H

I-Quinolyl H

NH NH II 1I H2NCNH(CH2)8NH(CH2)8NHCNHz (23) peakz4. Fragmentation of [M + HI+ ions occurred by loss of NH,, CHzNz and CH,N, neutral molecules and by sequential cleavage at the methylene chain to give a series of prominent ions separated by 14 mass units.

312

Simonetta Fornarini

D. Amidrazones

The amidrazones can be regarded as derivatives of amidines whose imino (or amino) nitrogen atom bears an amino substituent. The 70eV mass spectra of N1-aryl benzamidrazones 24a-g have been studied and the major ions were found to result from

H H

R' R2

H Br

H Me

H Br Me0 H

Me H

Me0 H

N-N bond cleavagezs. The fragmentation pattern shown in equation 10 illustrates the possible origin of the most significantions without implying the actual occurrenceof any of the transitions involved. ,>-NHC,jH4R2 b1c6H4-c-,H2

(24)+'

1

[R2C6H4N]+'

-+

[RLC6H4CN]+'

(10) [R2C6H4NH]+

[R2C6H4NHz] +'

For all the compounds examined, distinct molecular ions were accompanied by base peaks correspondingto [R2C6H4m+'ions except in the case of 24b, which gave a mass spectrum dominated by equally intense [RZC,H4N]+' and [R2C6H4NH2]+'ions. The process of formation of [M - NHJ]+' ions at m/z 272 has been checked by using a labelled sample of 24b in which all the hydrogen atoms attached to the nitrogen atoms had been replaced by deuterium atoms. The absence of any mass shift for the ions at m/z 272 was indicative that the hydrogen atoms lost with the ammonia neutral fragment originated exclusively from the amino nitrogen atoms. E. Amidinium Salts

Many of the reported ET mass spectra of amidines and guanidineshave been obtained from the corresponding amidinium or guanidiniumsalt which dissociated to the free base plus acid once introduced by the direct insertion p r ~ b e ~ .In' ~a .few cases, compounds incorporating an amidinium group were directly mass analyzed. The field desorption (FD) mass spectrum of acetamidinium N-acetimidoyldithiocarbamate,25, has been recorded at the probe temperatureof 2O0CZ7.The molecular ion [MI" at mlz 192 corresponding to the whole cation-anion pair was accompanied by [M + H]+ and [M - H]+ ions. The base peak corresponded to [M - 151' ions whose elemental composition was not determined.

5. Mass spectra of amidines and related compounds

313

H

Me-C,

I S FN-"---+ -:C-N=C \%N--H----S '. .y I H

/Me

(25)

The preparation of poly(dipeptamidinium) salts of the general formula 26 has been described2'. These compounds are polypeptide derivatives, in which the carbonyl oxygen of each second backbone amide group is replaced by a protonated imine nitrogen. X-

X-

The FAB positive-ion mass spectra of monomeric and up to hexamericcompounds with R = H, Me, PhCH, have been reported. Distinct molecularion informationwas obtained, particulary when the terminal amino group was protected by t-butoxycarbonyl (BOC) group. Conventional 70eV El mass spectra of compounds 27-29 have been reported2*. The molecularions were absent or gave peaks of low intensity. By far the most intense signalin ions and furtherfragmentationstypically the mass spectra was associated with [M - R]' originated from the second R' group as exemplified by the fragmentation pattern of ionized 27a-d, shown in equation I I . This behaviour was accounted for by the aromatic character imparted to [M - R'] + ions by the 672 electrons delocalization. +

R'

R2

R3

n-Pr H Me

n-Bu H Et

n-Pr H Ph

n-Pr n-Pr Ph

Ph Me Ph

n-Bu

H Ph

3 14

Simonetta Fornarini

L

-

L

( 2 7 a -d

-RCH;

*

I+'

R = Me, E t

Me

I

Ph-C

HNMe+

"\

XC13

PhC

\. N/

\N(CI)Me

XC14

I

tie

(30) (a) (b) X=

P

As

(c) Sb

5. Mass spectra of amidines and related compounds

315

The [N,N'-dimethylbenzamidino]-N,N'-tetrachloroelement (V) (30), element = P, As, Sb, has been prepared according to reaction 12 and characterized by X-ray crystallography, NMR and mass s p e ~ t r o m e t r yNMR ~ ~ . data suggested that the electron distribution in the amino moiety of 3Oc resembled that of amidiniumcations. This relation was much less pronounced in the case of 3Oa and 30b. In the 70 and 2OeV EI mass spectra, molecularions were present only from 30c, which was attributed to the high stability of the Sb-N bond. Similar fragment ions were present in the mass spectra of the three compounds, but with noticeable variation in relative abundances. [M-Cl]' ions gave the base peak in the mass spectrum of 30a while the mass spectrum of 30b showed only [M--3CI]+ ions of significantabundance.Other important fragment ions corresponded to [PhC(NMe),]+ ions, fairly abundant in the mass spectrum of 30b, probably originating from [M-Cl] + precursors, and [PhCNMe] ions, base peaks in the mass spectra of 30a,b, probable fragmentation product of [M - 3Cl]+ ions. +

F. Amidino Complexes

Amidine and amidino groups are important ligands in transition metal chemistry. Amidino complexes have been studied extensively by Kilner and coworkers who used their 70eV mass spectra for characterization purposes30. Complexes of the general formula { M[RZNC(R')NR2]2}nare involatile and were examined by direct insertion into the ion source at elevated temperature, which did not exclude the possible occurrenceof thermolytic processes. Ions correspondingto dimeric complexes have been observed when M= Ni(II), Pd(II),Cu(I1). Their fragmentation typically involved loss of amidino groups as exemplified by the fragmentation routes, most of them supported by metastable transitions, of bis(amidin0) palladium(I1)complexes, shown in equation 1330b.

L = [RNC(Ph)CNR] (R = p-FC,H,, p-Pr'C,H,, Ph, p-MeC,H,, Me) A second, least favoured, fragmentationpathway involved fragmentationof the ligand whilst it remainedcoordinated to the metal. Ions originatingfrom the free ligand ion [L]' were the most intense and showed a fragmentation pattern very similar to that of the correspondingfree amidine,. The mass spectra of the amidino complexes ofcopper(T)were very similar to those of the corresponding copper(11) At the highest m/z value, [Cu,L,]+ ions were detected, which could represent either the molecular ions of dinuclear complexes or the thermolysis product of a possible tetranuclear complex. N-(N,N-Dialkylthiocarbamoy1)benzamidines (31) afforded, by deprotonation at the NH2 group, bidentate ligands (L), via S and N donors, which were used to form new technetium(V)complexes3I .

316

Simonetta Fornarini

Nitrido complexes of the general formula TcNL, are neutral and their mass spectra were recorded with EI ionization. The molecular ions were accompanied by most fragment ions originating from the ligand. However, once [MI + 'ions were selected, their MIKE and CAD spectra yielded abundantmetal-containingdaughterions. The ionic 0x0 complex [TcOL,]CI (R=Et) was examined by FAB ionization. The ensuing mass spectrum showed both [MI" and [M H I + ions and several metal-containing fragments involving loss of one oxygen or sulfur atom(s) and ligand elimination. A FAB mass spectrometic study on complexes of difluoroboron cations [BF,]' has been undertaken to ascertain the role of ion-molecule reactions in the high-pressure FAB probe was loaded with the region just above the sample ~ u r f a c e ~ 'A. ~divided ~. fluoroboron complex dissolved in a matrix of either 3-nitrobenzyl alcohol or tetramethylene sulfone on one half of the probe tip and with neat ligands of varying basic strength, from pyridine to strongly basic amidine ,ligands, 1,s-diazabicyclo[4.3.0]non-5-ene (DBN) (32), 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0] undec-7-ene (DBU) (33) or 1,1,3,3-tetramethylguanidine, on the second half of the probe tip. FAB irradiation of

+

DEN

DBU

(32)

(33)

the dual target probe tip produced composite positive-ion FAB spectra with peaks arising from the difluoroboroncation salt (e.g. [L,BF,]+, [LBF,]+) and from the basic ligand (e.g. [DBN + H I + ) in addition to mixed ions resulting from ligand displacement (e.g. [L(DBN)BF2]+, [(DBN),BF,]+). The relative ease of displacement of weaker ligand bases (L = pyridine, quinuclidine)by the strongly basic amidine ligands has been interpreted as due to gas-phase reactions which may render the interpretation of FAB spectra more difficult. G. Miscellaneous Amldlno Compounds

The EI mass spectra of several substituted amidinothioureashave been reported34. The unimolecular fragmentation pattern of ionized 1-arylthioureas (34) outlined in equation 14 was based on exact mass determinations and the presence of appropriate metastable peaks. The molecular ions always gave intense peaks. Loss of the guanidine moiety NH,C(NH)R2 gave rise to abundant ions, frequently base peaks, formally corresponding to ionized aryl isothiocyanates [ArNCS] +*, which fragmented further to aryl cations, except in the case of 34d. Cleavage of the second NH-CS bond also yielded intense peaks due to [ArNH,]" and [M - ArNH]' ions while the formation of [M - SH]' ions appeared less favored. [MI" and [M - RNH]' ions afforded the major peaks in the mass spectra of 1-alkyl-3-amidinothioureas 35 while [RNH,]" ions were absent and [RNCS]+' ions were usually negligible.Fragmentationof the alkyl group at the C-C bond in the a-position, accompanied by hydrogen migration, gave distinct ions at m/z 132 ( [C3H8N4S]+) in the mass spectra of 35d-h, i.e. in the presence of an alkyl chain longer than C,.

5. Mass spectra of amidines and related compounds

(a)

R=Me

(b)

Et

(4

(4

(4

n-Pr n-Bu n-C,H,,

(0

n-C,H,,

(g)

n-C,H,,

317

(h) n-C,,H,,

The structure of newly synthesized N-(arenesulfonyl)-N’-[(2-chloro-2-methyl-lmorpho1ino)-propyl]benzamidincs 36 was probed also by their 70eV mass spectra35. Molecular ions were absent but fast CI loss led to [M - Cl]+ ions which were assigned an aziridinium structure to account for the base peak at m/z 128.

(36)“ Me.

318

Simonetta Fornarini

A study has been reported on the mass spectrometric behaviour of substituted glycocyamidine derivatives 37, which may be regarded as incorporating the guanidine moiety R'R2NC(NR3)NR4RSinto a five-membered ring36.

The most representative fragmentation routes of ionized 37 bearing R' = H, Me, Et, PhCH,, t-Bu; RZ= H R3 = t-Bu as substituents, supported by first and second field free region metastable ions and exact mass measurements, are shown in equation 15. Ion

Rl-Y-$

Ph Ph

NH

OH

+-

woH

Ph -I?'

Ph-NN+

R'#H

N

K NH

NH

[PhCNH]'

=PhH

[PhCHNHPh]'

(15)

structures are only speculative and were suggested to result from a McLafferty-type rearrangement involved in the loss of C4H8 and from a phenyl migration process accompanying cleavage of the R' group. Mass spectra of N-acetimidoyl dithiocarbamic acid, H,&=CMeNHCS; (38)"; and some of its salts26 have been recorded for characterization purposes. The FD mass spectrum of 38 showed [MI" ions as base peak, [M + HI", [M - HJ' and dimer ions. On the other hand, the 70eV El mass spectra of N,N'-diphenyl-N-formimidoyl dithiocarbamate salts M[PhN=CH-NPh-CSJ did not yield significant inf~rmation~~. 111. MASS SPECTRA OF IMlDlC ACID DERIVATIVES

Goldberg and Harris have reported a study on the EI mass spectra of some aryl N-arylbenzimidates (39-42) and their Chapman rearrangement products N benz~yldiarylamines~~. The mass spectra of compounds 39-42, whose general formula may be written as Ar'N=CPh(OAr2), typically showed a molecular ion of low intensity

319

5. Mass spectra of amidines and related compounds

(40)

(39)

(a)

(b)

(c)

R'

R2

R3

H Me CI

CI

H Me Me

H H

and a base peak corresponding to [Ar'NCPh]+ ions. The peak at m/z 105, [PhCO]', was most intense in the mass spectrum of 42 (41% relative to the base peak), a compound particularly prone to undergo Chapman rearrangement, and was ascribed to partial thermal conversion to the amide in the inlet system of the mass spectrometer. In the mass spectra of the corresponding amides, Ar'N(COPh)Ar2,the base peak ions at m/z 105 were ions. The latter ions could be traced to accompanied by [M-OAr']+ and [M-OAr2] the possible occurrence of reverse Chapman rearrangement undergone by the ionized amides, as outlined in equation 16. The mass spectra ofethyl N-arylformimidates,ArN= +

0

Ar

+*

-

$--? i

+.

-,

:

dN-CPh

Ar

[Ar2NCPh]+

(16)

t

CH(OEt),exhibited major ion peaks correspondingto [MI", [M-CO]", [M - EtO]+, which did not exclude extensive thermal conversion to f ~ r m a n i l i d e s ~ ~ . The mass spectral fragmentationpattern of benzimidoyl halides (43) has been discussed by Gal and coworkers4'. Fast halogen loss prevented the detection of molecular ions,

Simonetta Fornarini

320

A

(e) (43)

(0

R

x

n-C4H9 Br(CH2)5

CI Br CI Br

except in the case of 43a and 43c, although compound 43e retained the chlorine atom in fragment ions of low intensity corresponding to [M - C,H5]+ and [M - C3H7]+ (equation 17). The base peaks in the mass spectra of 43c-f (R #Me) formally

[PhCNH]+

[M - C,HJ+

[M - C3H7-j'

mJz 104

mJz 166

mJz 152

( 100%)

(2%)

(9%)

*i

(17)

-HCN

[C,Hslf mJz 77 (20%)

correspondedto the nitrilium ion [PhCNH] +.The formationof this ion was unfavourable from ionized N-methylbenzimidoyl halides 43a and 43b, which displayed loss of the constituents of methyl halide forming [PhCN]+' ions at m/z 103. Furtherfragmentation yielded [C6H4]+' and [C6H3]+ ions, also observed in the mass spectrum of benzonitrile. The mass spectrometric behaviour of imidoyl trifluoroacetates (44) and imidoyl trifluoromethanesulfonates (45) has been investigated in the search for a fragmentation Ar

Arl

'C=NCHR'CHR2Ar2 CF,COO

/

C ' C F3S 0,O

(44)

1

=NCHRCH,Ar

2

/ (45)

pattern resembling a retro-Ritter reaction4'. Compounds 44 and 45, formally mixed anhydrides, were obtained by the exclusive attack of trifluoroacetic anhydride and trifluoromethanesulfonicanhydride at the oxygen atom of the starting amide. The mass spectra of imidoyl trifluoroacetates44 were characterized by ion peaks w responding to [M-CF3C02]+, [M - CF3COzH]+, [ArZCRZCHR1]+',[Ar'CN]+' and [Ar'CNH]".

5. Mass spectra of amidines and related compounds

321

The origin of the latter was traced to a retro-Ritter process from the molecular ion, rather than to thermal decomposition in the probe tip. lmidoyl trifluoromethanesulfonates 45 displayed a similar fragment ion distribution. Ethylation of the sodium salt of N-benzoyldimethylphosphoramidate with ethyl iodide in the presence of n-Bu,NBr in refluxing benzene led to E and Z 0-ethyl-N(dimethylphosphory1)benzimidate (46a and 46b) (equation 18) characterized,inter alia, by 0

0 0

(Me0)2Px-y

._-

'>c-Ph

No+

E t I ,(n-Bu),NBr refluxing benzene

w

N

II

(Me0)2P-N=C 'OEt

(46) ( a ) €isomer ( b ) 2 isomer

(18)

the detailed description of their mass spectra43.While the most important fragmentation pathways are common to the two geometrical isomers, the abundances of individual ions could be significantly different. A major fragmentation pathway involved loss of neutral [C2H503P] with hydrogen rearrangement,to yield formally the radical cation of ethylbenzimidate [HNC(OEt)Ph]+', the base peak a t m/z 105. The loss of PhCN from [MI" and [M - H J + ' ions was about twice more favourable in the case of the 2 isomer 46b. This finding was ascribed to the cis orientation of the N-dimethylphosphoryl group and the migrating OR group (R = Et, C,HJ as shown in equation 19.

However, partial occurrence of E / Z isomerization of the neutral molecules, prior to ionization, at the ion source temperature used, could not be excluded.

IV. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Prof. F. Cacace and Prof. M. Speranza for carefully reading this chapter and for their useful comments, and to Ms. M. L. Fabrizi for preparation of the manuscript. Financialsupport by the Italian Minister0 della Pubblica Istruzione is also gratefully acknowledged. V. REFERENCES

I. G. Hiirelinger, in The Chemisrry r,fAmidines and Imidates (Ed. S. Patai), Chap. I , Wiley, New York, 1975, p. I . 2. J. Barker, M. Jones and M. Kilner, Ory. Mass Specrrom., 20, 619 (1985). 3. A. A. H. Saeed and S. A. Selman, Cam J . Spectrosc., 27, 123 (1982).

322 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. IS. 16. 17.

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43.

Simonetta Fornarini

N. G. Keats, J. E. Rockley and L. A. Summers, Z . Naturforsch., 32b, 1156 (1977).

A. K. Bose, I. Kugajevsky, P. T. Funke and K. G. Das, Tetrahedron Lett., 3065 (1965). H. F. Griitzmacher and H. Kuschel, Org. Mass Spectrom., 3, 605 (1970). H. Kuschel and H. F. Griitzmacher, Org. Mass Spectrom., 9,395 (1974). H. Kuschel and H. F. Griitzmacher, Org. Mass Spectrom., 9,403 (1974). H. Kuschel and H. F. Griitzmacher, Org. Mass Spectrom., 9, 408 (1974). M. Medved, S. Stavber, V. Kramer, L. BenEik and J. Marsel, Croat. Chem. Acta, 49,415 (1977). R. J. Koshar, D. R. Husted and C. D. Wright, J. Org. Chem., 32,3859 (1967). M. F. G. Stevens and A. Kreutzberger, Angew. Chem., lnt. Ed. Engl., 8, 142 (1969). U. P. Schlunegger,S. Leutwyler, F. Friedli and R. Scheffold, Helu. Chim. Acta, 58, 65 (1975). J. H. Beynon, J. A. Hopkinson and A. E. Williams, Org. Mass Spectrom., 1, 169 (1968). A. G. Loudon, A. Maccoll and K. S. Webb, Adv. Mass Spectrom., 4,223 (1968). G . Gattow and T. Kuhlmann, 2. Anorg. Allg. Chem., 494, 134 (1982). M. A. Baldwin, A. G. Loudon, K. S. Webb and P. C. Cardnell, Org. Mass Spectrom., 12, 279 (1977). T. Ohwada, A. Itai, T. Ohta and K. Shudo, J. Am. Chem. SOC., 109, 7036 (1987). S. G. Lias, J. F. Liebman and R. D. Levin, J. Phys. Chem. Rc$ Data, 13, 695 (1984). S. Murray and D. S. Davies, Biomed. Mass Spectrom, 11, 435 (1984). E. L. Esmans, F. G. Alderweireldt, B. A. Marescau and A. A. Lowenthal, Anal. Chem., 54,693 (1 984). A. Mori, Y. Watanabe, T. Aoyama and Y. Robin, C. R. Seances SOC.Biol. Ses Yil., 178,659 (1984). N. P. Buu-Hoi, P. Jacquignon, M. Mangane, S. Btrangerand H. Pinhas, J. Chem. SOC.,Perkin Trans. I , 278 (1972). H. R. Hudson, A. Lavorenti and M. Pianka, Chem. lnd., 161 (1988). 2. V. Bezuglaya, G. V. Avramenko, V. N. Bochkarev and B. I. Stepanov, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 50, 131 (1980). W. Eul and G. Gattow, 2. Anorg. Allg. Chem., 538, 151 (1986). H. Moser, A. Fliri,A. Steiger,G. Costello, J. Schreiberand A. Eschenmoser,Helv. Chim. Act& 69. 1224 (1 986). B. M. Zolotarev, 0.S. Chizhov, V. A. Dorokhov, L. I. Lavrinovich and B. M. Mikhailov, lzu. Akad. Nauk SSSR. Ser. Khim., 1312 (1978). W.Honeise, W. Schwarz, G. Heckmann and A. Schmidt, 2. Anorg. Allg. Chem., 533,55 (1986). (a) M. Kilner and A. Pietrzykowski, Polyhedron, 2, 1379 (1983). (b) J. Barker,N. Cameron, M. Kilner, M. M. Mahoud and S. C. Wallwork, J.Chem. SOC.,Dalton Trans., 1359 (1986). (c) J. Barker, M. Kilner and R. 0. Could, J. Chem. SOC..Dalton Trans., 2687 (1987). U. Abram, R. Muenze, J. Hartung, L. Beyer, R. Kirmse, K. Koehler, J. Stach, H. Behm and P. T. Beurskens, Inorg. Chem., 28, 834 (1989). K. Balasanmugam,J. S. Hartman,J. M. Miller and 2. Yuan, Can. J. Chem., 67,685 (1989). Fora recent discussion on the mechanism of formation of FAB mass spectra, see: J. Sunner,A. Morales and P. Kebarle, lnt. J. Mass Spectrom. lon Processes, 89, 169 (1988). T. Ueda, A. Takada, K. Takahashiand F. Ueda, Chem. Pharm. Bull., 19, 1990 (1971). E. Rossi, R. Stradi and A. Benedusi, Tetrahedron, 43,4785 (1987). J. Tamas, G. Czira, G. Simig and K. Lempert, Org. Mass Spectrom., 10, 390 (1975). W. Eul and G. Gattow, 2. Anorg. Allg. Chem., 543, 81 (1986). W. Eul and G. Gattow, 2. Anorg. Allg. Chem., 535, 159 (1986). V. D. Goldberg and M.M. Harris, J. Chem. SOC.,Perkin Trans. 2, 1303 (1973). A. A. H. Saeed, S. A. Selman, A. W. A. Sultan and N. A. Abood, Can. J.Spectrosc, 28,63 (1983). J. Gal, B. A. Phillips and R. Smith, Can. J. Chem., 51, 132 (1973). S. Nagubandi, Org. Mass Spectrom., 15, 535 (1980). V. Mizrahi, T. Hendrickse and T. A. Modro, Can. J . Chem., 61, 118 (1983).

CHAPTER

6

Thermochemistry of amidines and related compounds KALEVI PIHLAJA Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, SF-20500 Turku, Finland

I. INTRODUCTION.. . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIAZENES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GUANIDINES . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AMIDINES . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CYCLIC AMIDINES . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Imidazoles , . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Tautomerism. . . . . . . , . . . . . . . , , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Clonidine and Related Structures. . . . . . . . . . , , , . . . . . . . . . . D. Histamines.. . . . . . , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI. AMIDOOXIMES., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , , , , . . . . . . . . . . VII. IMIDATES AND IMINIUM SALTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII. MISCELLANEOUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX. CONCLUDING REMARKS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X.REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. 111. IV. V.

.

323 323 326 327 330 330 331 332 333 335 336 336 337 337

1. INTRODUCTION

More than 15 years ago' Robert Shaw stated that it was embarrasingfor a thermochemist to report the lack ofexperimental data on amidinesand related compounds. The situation today is not much better. 1 will not repeat Shaw's estimates from 1975 but try to review some material related to the thermochemistry of amidines in some respect or another. II. DIAZENES

Diazenes are a marginal group of compounds for this chapter. They have been included, however, to extend the scope of this review to their relatively abundantthermochemical diphenyldiazene (l), cyclic diazenes (12-16) and data'. The data for diazenes (1-lo), diazene-N-oxides (17-19) collected in Table 1 were discussed earlier in Reference 2 (pp. 175-179 and 196) except those for 11 and 19. Kirchner and his coworkers6 estimated the dissociation enthalpy of the (N-0) bond [D(N-0) = 321.5 kJ mol-'1 in 19 as the The Chemistry of Amidines and Irnidates, Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and Z. Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

323

Kalevi Pihlaja

R' N-NR~

(1-11)

TABLE 1. Thermochemical data for dialkyl- and some cyclic diazenes and for three diazene N-oxides trans-Dialkyldiazenes

R' 1 Me 2 Me 3 Et 4 Me

5 Pr 6 i-Pr

7 Bu

8 t-Bu

9 t-BU 10 1,1,3,3-Me4-Bu 11 Ph

R2 Me Et Et Bu Pr

CPr

Bu t-BU I,1,3,3-Me4-Bu 1,1,3,3-Me4-Bu

Ph

Cyclic Diazenes 12 3,3,4,4-Me4-A'-12-diazetine 13 1,1,3,3-Me4-trimethylenediazene 14 1,1,4,4-Me4-tetramethylenediazene

15 2,3-diazabicyclo[2.2.l]heptene-2 16 1,4-Me2-2,3-diazabicycloC2.2.21octene-2

trans-N-Oxides 17 Di-n-propyldiazeneN-oxide 18 Di-t-butyldiazene N-oxide 19 Diphenyldiazene N-oxide 'Estimated values. *Estimated value only 28.9 kJ mol-' (Reference 2).

Statc

-

A,H",cr or I) (kJ mol-')

ArHi(g)

(kJ mol-')

42.5 f 2.2 11.5f3.5 - 0.3 & 3.5 -40.1 f 3.8 - 75.5 k 2.7 - 172.9 f 5.6 - 263.3 k 9.3 320.5 f 1.7

148.6 k 5.1" 92.2 f 3.8" 120.4 f 2.3" 78.9 k 2.2 51.3 k 3.5 35.6 f 3.6b 9.2 k 3.8 - 36.4 f 2.75 - 119.3 & 5.6 78.9 f 2.2 414.3 rt 1.8

1

88.0 f 2.7 - 22.3 f 3.5 - 8.1 f 4.6 152.1 & 2.6 20.4 f 4.4

150.3 k 2.9 39.3 f 3.6 42.0 & 4.6 207.4 k 2.7 92.4 4.4

1

- 82.7 & 1.4 - 153.5 2.1

-31.Ok 1.4 - 107.6 f 2.1 342.0 f 2.4

-

I 1

I I I

1 1 cr

cr cr cr cr

1

cr

-

243.4 f 2.2

References

2,3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

6. Thermochemistry of amidines and related compounds

325

TABLE 2. Strain energies (S) in compounds 12-16 Compound

ArH:(g, obs) (kJ mol-

150.3 39.3 42.0 207.4 92.4

12

13 14 15 16

I)

s"

ArHi(g, calc) (kJ mol-I)

(kJ mot-')

47.8 27.0 6.2 134.3 48.4

102.5 12.3 35.8 73.1 44.0

enthalpy of the reaction: trans-PhN=N(O)Ph(g) = trans-PhN=NPh(g)

S"/Ref. 7 (kJ mot-')

-

11.3 34.7 64.4 42.3

+ O(g)

(1)

where ArHO,(O, g) is 249.2 kJ mol-' and the values for 19 and 11 are given in Table I . Similarly, the D(N-0) values for 17 and 18 (331.5 and 320.4 kJ mol-I, respectively) can be derived. The value of D(N-0) in 18 is about I 1 kJ mol-' less than in 17, consistent with steric strainenergy in the former5a,in agreement with a molecular mechanicsstudysb. Engel' discussed the effect of strain energy on the thermal lability ofcyclic diazenes (1316) and estimated their strain energies using group contributions taken from the compilation of Benson and ONeal'. We have complemented his data by estimating the strain energies of compounds 12-16 (Table 2) using Allen-type increments: AfH:(g, calc) = CArHo(g, atoms) - C E b ( g ) - o!

(2) where a, for instance, for 3,3,4,4-tetramethyl-Al-1,2-diazetine (12) is 6Tccc 6rCCNd 2Accc 6ACCNd C(N=N). The values of the different parameterswere taken from the 18.7, ACCNd - 7.7 and X(N=N) 1043.35 kJ compilation of Pihlaja' including rCCNd mol-'. In general the present estimates (Table 2) are 1-2 kJmol-' higher than those of Engel' except that for 2,3-diazabicyclo[2.2. tlheptene-2 (15). One must, however, keep in mind (6) used as a that the experimental enthalpy of formation for trans-diisopropyldiazene model for 15 by Engel is obviously too positive by ca 7 kJ mol-'. Engel and his coworkers' also have discussed the energetics of the cis-trans isomerization and decomposition of several diazenes (e.g. 5, 8, 20 and 21).

+

+

+

+

Foster and Beauchamp" studied the gas-phase ion chemistry of dimethyldiazene (I) and estimated its proton allinity at 887 f 21 kJ mol-', in good agreement with their later estimate' ' of 875.3 & 0.8 kJ mol- I . In the latter report the ionization energy(8.45 f 0.05 eV) for trans-dimethyldiazene( I ) was also determined by photoionization mass spectrometry.

326

Kalevi Pihlaja 111. GUANlDlNES

Despite the fact that guanidineand biguanide derivatives are often useful drugs and that the former is frequently incorporated in biologically important compounds, including many of the purines, surprisingly little thermochemicaldata are available even on this family of compounds. Gund" estimated the delocalizationenergiesof guanidine(22) and its cation (23) at 1.28 NH

N,H2

II

@

C 'N H ,

li

HN=C(NH2)2*HNOJ

(241 ,NHNO2

'NH~

(83kJmol-') and 1.68 (llOkJmol-I) stating that the filled orbitals of the 67t electron 23 resemble those of benzene. The loss of 0.68 on deprotonation of 23 is in agreement with Pauling's estimate'j of 25-34kJ mol-'. Lobanov and Karmanova14 determined enthalpies of combustion and formation for guanidinenitrate [MA,HL(cr) - 405.0 f 4.6 kJ mol- I ) and nitroguanidine[25: A,H&(cr) - 93.7 & 1.7;for a melted crystal - 100.0 f 2.5 kJ mol- I J but unfortunatelythey give only > 95% purity for the latter. Cundalland coworkers1scarriedout vapour pressuremeasurementson several organic high explosives. In this context they also determined the standard enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs energy for sublimationof 25 at 142.7 f 2.0 kJ mol- 116.8J mol- K- and 107.9 & 4.6 kJ mo1-l respectively. This allows us to estimate A,HO,(g, 25) at (- 93.7 k 142.7) = 49.0 f 5.5 kJmol-' (the statistical error has been taken doubled to make some allowance for the impurity of the sample burnt in Reference 14). Loudon and his colleag~es'~ measured the electron impact (EI)ionization energiesfor guanidine (22) and several methyl substituted derivatives (26-33). These results were discussed later by Baldwin and coworkers" in relation to those for phosphoramides, formamides,acetamides, ureas and thioureas.In comparison with photoelectron spectra of formamidesand acetamidesls they found that the EI ionization energiesdid not give the ionization energy of the HOMObut values which were weighted averages of the ionization energies of all the orbitals concerned.The observations for 22 and 26-33 were best explained by assumingthat the ionization energy of the imino nitrogenlone pair was a few tenths of an eV below that of the amino nitrogen lone pair (Table 3).

',

TABLE3. The electron impact ionization energies [l(M)] for guanidine (22) and its methyl derivatives (26-33), R1C(=NR3)NR2

22 26 27 28 29

30

31 32 33

NH2 NHMe NHMe NMe, NHMe NMe, NMe, NMe, NMe,

H H Me H Me Me Me H Me

9.10 8.60 8.40 8.20 8.15 8.05 1.95 8.10 7.85

6. Thermochemistry of amidines and related compounds

327

TABLE4. Thermodynamic quantities in aqueous solution at 253 K for some neutralization processes Process

H++OH-= H20 H++ 22 = 23 H + 34 = [34] H+ H++ [34]H+ = [34]HZ2+ +

- AH(U mol-

')

56

76

95 21

AS(J mol-' K-')

111

8 - 71

- 13

- AG(W

mol- ')

89 78 74

17

Fabbrizzi and his collaborators' showed that the protonation of guanidine (22) and biguanide (34) is 25 and 70%, respectively, more exothermic than the neutralization of OH-, the strongest base in aqueous solution. This effect is caused by the symmetrization of the mesomericmolecules duringthe process and the increasedrigidity of the protonated base moleculesis reflected by the unusuallow andeven negativeentropy changes(Table4). IV. AMlDlNES

Zielinski and coworkers" performed ab initio SCF MO calculations for protonated (35 A, H) neutral (35B,C) and deprotonated amidine (35F) using the 3-21G split valence basis set since amidine (35) is the simplest model, e.g. for the protonation and deprotonation of the N(3)-C(4)-NH2 region in cytosine (36) and the N( 1)-C(6)-NH2 region of adenine (37).

YH2

328

Kalevi Pihlaja

Protonationat the amidine (35)=NH site (planarform A) was calculated as being preferredover the -NH2 site (form H) by 155kJmol-'. Neutral amidine showed two, almost equally stable minima, B (rel. E O.OkJmol-') and C (2.5 kJmol-I). The barriers to rotation about the C-N single bond were calculated at 49 and 40 kJ mol-' for B and C, respectively. These can be compared with the rotational barriersabout the exocylic C-N bond of cytosine (36), the double-bond character of which can be, however, somewhat increased due to conjugation with the heteroaromatic ring in 36. The experimental activation energies for this rotation range from 36 to 74kJmol-', depending on the solvent and method used2'. The minimum energy conformation for the anionic amidine is F. Its proton affinity is computed to be 1695 kJ mol- and it is very unstablecompared to the neutraland cationic forms (by 2670 and 1700 kJ mol-', respectively). Becauseof hinderedrotation aroundthe N(2)=C bond, substituted amidines can attain two configurations,one with the R' substituentE and the other with R' 2 to theN(1). Two

E isomer

2 isomer

conformations, with R2 syn- or anti-periplanarto the N(2) nitrogen, are distinguishable when the rotation about the C-N(1) bond is slowed down sufficiently, and separate signals appear for the two RZgroups in, e.g., I3C NMR spectra. Waver has studied and reviewed the rotational barriers in substituted formamidines, acetamidines and butyramidines22. She found that electron-acceptingsubstituentsat the phenyl ring increaseand electrondonating substituents decrease the barrier for rotation about the C-N(l) bond in N( l),N(1)-penta- (38) and -hexamethylene-N(2)-@-substituted)phenylformamidines (39), which correlate linearly with the I3C NMR chemical shift (6) of the amidine carbon atom and with the Hammett o constant22a: AG' (kJmol-') = - 615.9 + 4.4956 (for 38, r = 0.991)

AG' (kJ mol-') = - 508.7 + 3.8266 (for 39, r = 0.992)

AG #(kJmol- I ) = 60.1 AG#(kJ mol- ') = 69.6

+ 8.5250 (for 38, r = 0.992) + 8.3310 (for 39, r = 0.975)

(40) When comparing N(1),N(1)-dimethyl-N(2)-(m-substituted)pheny~formamidines and -acetamidines(41; equation 3: R 3 = H or Me, respectively) with each otherzzbit was found that the barrier heights in 41 (51-59 kJ mol-I) are in general about lOkJ mol-' lower than in 40, mainly due to a steric interaction of the C-Me group with aromatic protons; this leads to non-planarity and a decrease in the conjugation. The barriers to rotation of 41 correlate again with the Hammett o values (AG* = 52.7 + 6.970, r = 0.968). The rotational barriersabout the C-N( 1) bond of N(l),N( 1)-dimethyl- and N(l),N(1)hexamethylene-N(2)-phenylformamidines did not show significantchanges (usually less than 1 kJ mol-' only) in different solvents22b.

6. Thermochemistry of amidines and related compounds

329

The low-temperature "C NMR spectra of ten formamidines (equation 3: R3 = H) indicated that the barrier to rotation about the C-N(1) bond for R' = alkyl, benzyl and phenyl (cf. equation 3) is cu 51, 52 and 63 kJ mol-', respectively, and the height of the barrier is related to Taft substituent constants for R' (equation 3): AG* = 49.25 + 8.08a* - 3.21E,. The barriers for rotation around the C-N(l) bond of alkyl substituted (R' = alkyl) acetamidines and (m-substituted)phenyl-substituted butyramidines (Bu derivatives preferred Z instead of E isomers;cf equation 3) were too low to be measured and phenylacetamidines (R' = Ph or substituted Ph) gave barriers similar to those of

N(2)-alkylformamidineszzd*z3. For comparison one should mention that Riand and his coworkerst4 determined the freeenergiesof activation A (C)' for hinderedrotation aroundthe exocyclic C-N bond in (43) by 'H and I3C NMR a series of 2- (42) and 4-(N,N-dimethylamino)pyrimidines lineshapeanalysis.The barrier heights varied from 38 to 60 kJ mol-' for 42 and from 43 to 64 kJ mol- I for 43. The differences between these barriers for the corresponding R4

(43)

(42)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

R4 = NHNH,, R 5 = R6 = H R4 = C1, Rs = H, R6 = OCH,Ph R4 = piperidin-1'-yl, R5 = H, R6 = CI R4 = 4',6'-CI2-pyrimidin-2'-yl, Rs = R6 = H (e) R4 = 4'-NMe2-6'-CI-pyrimidin-2'-yl, R S = R6 = H (f) R4 = NMe,, R5 = Me, R6 = H (g) R4 = NMe,, R5 = H, R6 = Me (h) R4 = NMe,, R5 = NO,, R6 = H (i) R4 = NMe,, R5 = H, R6 = CI (j) R 4 = O H , Rs = R6 = H

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

(0

(g) (h) (i) (j)

(k) (I)

R2=RS=R6=H RZ=C1, R s = R 6 = H R Z = R6 = Me, Rs = H R2 = CI, R5 = H, R6 = Me R2=R6=CI,Rs=H R2 = C1, R s = H, R6 = OCH,Ph R Z = NMe,, R S = R6 = H R 2 = NMe,, R S = Me, R6 = H R2 = NMe,, R 5 = H, R6 = Me R2 = NMe,, R s = NO,, R6 = H R2 = NMe,, R S = H, R6 = CI R2 = R6 = C1, R5 = SMe

-

symmetrical and unsymmetrical pyrimidines decrease with increasing electronwithdrawing power of the substituent, and substituent effects through the ring nitrogen atom were larger than through a ring carbon atom24b.Correlations of the (AG') values with the 'JC," couplingconstant for the dimethylamino group and Hammett constantsare discussed. Neuman and Jonas25found it possible to obtain rotational barrier data with N M R lineshapeanalysisfor the nitrate and chloride salts of N,N-dimethylacetamidinium-d3 ion (44a,b) in 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane and DMSO at very low concentrations (AG' =92.5/90.0 for 44a and 90.8/91.2kJ mol-' for 44b, respectively). An attempt to relate these results to ion pairing and solute-solvent interactions was also made. Thermodynamic data for proton ionization of several N(2)-substituted N(l),N(1)dimethylacetamidiniumions in ethanolare reported26as well as the gas-phasebasicitiesof a few N ( 1),N(l)-dimethyl-N(2)-(p-substituted)phenylformamidines~'.

330

Kalevi Pihlaja

( 4 4 a ) X = NO3 (44b)X=CI

V. CYCLIC AMlDlNES A. lmldatoles

The importance of imidazole (45) has been emphasized2*. Recently, the enthalpy of sublimation of imidazole has been determined by several groups of author^'^-^^.Effusion methodszgseem to give the most reliable value (80.4-85.4 kJ mol- ') whereas calorimetry appears to give a too small value (74.5 kJ mol- 30). JimCnez and coworkers2gredetermined the enthalpy of combustion for 45, A,HO, = - 1801.9 &- 0.5 kJmol-', which

'

deviates significantly from a previous value-", - 1810.6 k 3.3 kJ mol-'. Together with their enthalpy of fusion, 83.1 k 0.2 kJ mol- ',we can estimate the selected values for the enthalpies of formation of 45, A,HO, (cr and g)=49.8 kO.6 and 132.9k0.6kJ mol-', respectively. Similarly,Jimhez and his groupz9determined A,HO,(cr) = 79.5 1.5,AsubH: = 102.2 f 0.4 and A,HO,(g) = 181.7 f 1.4 kJ mol-' for benzimidazole. Guthrie and PikeJ3measured enthalpies of hydrolysis for three acylimidazole acetals [45a,b,c; R = HC(OEt),, MeC(OEt)2 and PhC(OMe),, respectively] and used them to estimate their enthalpies of formation in the liquid and gaseous states (Table 5). In the same context they estimated the enthalpy of formation of 45 in the gas phase at 139.3 f 1.9 kJ mol-'. This is ca 6 kJ mol-' more positive than the selected value29given above, which in turn is reflected in the values listed in Table 5. The ionization energy34(8.96eV) and proton affinity35(920.5 kJmol-') for imidazole (45) have been reported. Catalan and coworkers carried out INDO calculations of the protonation (AE,) and lone pair orbital energies ( E ~ of ) twenty pyrazoles (46) and twenty i m i d a ~ o l e with s ~ ~ Me, CN, F, NH, and NO, substituents and observed a linear correlation between these TABLE 5. Enthalpies of formation in the gaseous and liquid states and the Gibbs energies of formation for acylimidazole acetals (45s-c) in aqueous solution Compound 4%

45b 4%

ArHm (kJ mol-I)

A,HXg) (kJ mol-I)

- 329.3 & 2.8 - 368.9 f 2.0 - 163.0f 3.6

- 255.3 & 3.0 - 296.8 f 2.3 - 77.5 3.7

*

ArGXaq) (kJmol-I)

- 32.0 f

4.9 - 40.6 f 4.8 142.6f 6.4

6. Thermochemistry of amidines and related compounds

331

properties.Derivatives with a nitro substituent,however, gave a different linearcorrelation:

+ 675.98, (AEJ = 765.3 + 819.78, ( B E , ) = 679.6

(r = 0.981; excluding NO, compounds) (r = 0.991; NO, compounds)

These correlations describe the modification of the reactivity centre by the polar substituents. In the case of the NO, substituents, the deviation from the common plot was stated to be due to some mixing of the orbitals on the nitrogen lone pair and on the nitro group. B. Tautomerism

Several reports deal with the tautomerism in imidazole (1mH) and related systems. Jackman and Jen37discuss the use of ‘H and I3CNMR chemicalshifts to determineunambiguously the predominant tautomeric form of many aryl cyclic amidines and guanidines, 2-aminoimidazoles, 2-imino(amino)thiazinesand related tautomeric systems like aryl acetamidinesand aryl guanidines.Their resultsshow that in all the potentially tautomeric systems studied the predominant tautomer was the aryl imino form [ArN=C(NHR)R’] rather than the amino form [ArNHC(=NR)R’]. In some cases, e.g. for 47 and 48, both syn and anti forms could be found at low temperatures.Griindeman and his discuss qualitatively the prototropic processes at N ( 1),(3) and N(exo) in several N-acylated 2-aminobenzirnidazoles. Jimenez and his coworkers3* studied the tautomeric equilibria of 4(5)-nitroimidazole (49 and 50) by MNDO and ab initio calculations and by dipole moment, solution and sublimation enthalpy measurements and MIKE and photoelectron spectra. The results showed that in the gas phase both tautomersareof similarenergy but in water solution the 4-nitro tautomer (49) is stabilized by 12.6 kJ mol- I due to its more effective solvation effect, which is probably due to the large differencein dipole moments (49 7.510 and 50 3.87.0, 7.36 and 4.070, respectively). models 1-methyl-4-nitro-and 1-methyl-5-nitroimidazoles Munowitz and coworkers3g have discussed the acid-base equilibria in the solid state ~ ~ out ab using 15NNMR spectroscopy of histidine (51). Bolton and M ~ C l e l l a n dcarried initio calculations with the split-valence 3-21G basis set on imidazole nitrenium and carbenium ions, but these calculations are mainly of theoretical interest.

syn

- 4 7 (n =2

syn-48

(n=3)

)

unti-47 ( n = 2 ) o n t i - 4 8 (n-3)

332

Kalevi Pihlaja

Recently, Scheragaand his group4' improved a model for the freeenergy of hydration of conformationally flexible solute molecules by introducing an exact method for the calculation of the volume of the hydration shells and by improved selection of the numericalparameters.In this context they also compared the calculated and experimental free energies of hydration for propylguanidine (52) and 4-methylimidazole (53): - 45.7 vs - 45.7 kJ mol- I for 52 and - 43.6 vs - 42.9 kJ mol- for 53. Solvent effects on the acidity and basicity of twelve azoles, includingseveral imidazoles, have been calculatedwith fully optimized INDO geometries4' in terms ofprotonationand deprotonation energies.Molar heat capacities of imidazole (45)43-44 and ben~irnidazole~~ have been reported. The enthalpies of dissociation of ImH,' and ImH have been measured at several temperatures and ionic strengthsin water solution45and in aqueous methanol solvents46. Paiva and his group4' discuss ionization of methyl derivatives of imidazole (49, histidine (Sl), thyreotropin releasing factor and related compounds in aqueous solutions. J e n ~ e studied n ~ ~ the energetics of the complex formation between cadmium and 45 in aqueous solution and Sletten and Stogird49carried out SCF ab initio calculations for Li' and Cu' complexes of 45. C. Clonidine and Related Structures

Clonidine, 2-[(2,6-dichlorophenyl)imino]imidazolidine (54), is an antihypertensive drug widely used therapeutically. Therefore, even its energetic properties have been frequently discussed. de Jongand van Dam" employed UV photoelectron spectroscopy (UV PES) and CNDO/s molecular orbital calculations to investigate the electronic

4l(s R'

I

R4

R1

R2

R3

R4

54 C1 C1 H 55 CI H H 5 6 H H H

H H H

57 58 Me H Me H 59 CI CI Me 6 0 F F H

H Me H

6. Thermochemistry of amidines and related compounds

333

structure of clonidine and related 2-(arylimino)imidazolidines (54-62, Table 6). The assignment of the different bands (ionization energies) in the U V PE spectra was carried out by the CNDO/s calculations,substituenteffects and differences in intensities between He(1) and He(I1) spectra. The results showed that the phenyl and imidazolidine rings are perpendicular for all investigated 2-(arylimino)imidazolidines (Table 6). The first ionization energies of the pharmacologically active derivatives did not correlate with hypotensive activitys0. TABLE 6. Ionization energies (eV) of 54-62 and their assignmentss1 Compound 54 55 56 57 58 59 6 0 ' 61 62

kl

8.01 7.96 7.85 7.75 7.63 7.84 8.12 8.60 7.62

8.62 8.80 8.86 8.60 8.33 8.7 9.09 9.52 8.34

%=N

nN -

A2

8.88 8.90 8.98 8.75 8.60 8.7 9.09 9.52 8.56

9.24 9.24 9.22 9.26 9.25 8.4 9.28 9.85 9.26

10.34 10.32 10.15 10.14 10.04 10.38 10.63 10.99 10.04

Pook and coworkers5' applied 'H and 13CN M R spectroscopy to indicate with the aid of different model compounds, e.g. 59, that 54 and 56 exist as 2-(arylimino)imidazolidine tautomers. Timmermans and his group" established the ground state geometry of 54 (X = Y = H, interplanar angle 0 = 34") and its protonated form 54H+ (0 = 40") by CND0/2

'X

(54 X=Y=H)

54H'

calculations. The preferred conformationsa. ieveral free bases (54 and relate, compounds) and their protonated forms were used as inputs for the semi-empirical calculationmethod used to obtain several quantum-mechanical parameters. The calculated parameters gave good correlationswith the experimentally determined pK, values of the molecules. Avbelj and HadziS3' in turn concluded that the potential energy functions for 2(arylimino)imidazolidines, e.g. 54, indicate that the molecules assume any conformation within rather broad limits, and they derived equations connecting the conformational entropy with pK, ( K i = dissociation constant) for [3H]clonidine displacement53b. D. Histamines

It is well known that histamine, P-(4-imidazolyl)ethylamine, interacts with two kinds of human receptors: the H I and H, receptors. The interaction with the former stimulates the smooth muscles, induces a strong depressive action and produces a

334

Kalevi Pihlaja

gouche,e2=60'

or 300"

H

H'

H

'H

(63d)

characteristic clinical pattern of the allergic reactions. The interaction with the latter stimulates in turn the gastric secretion^'^.This is why histamine has been frequently studied both energetically and structurally. Genellin and his coworkerss5"applied molecularorbital calculations(EHTand CNDO method, Table 7) and 'H NMR spectroscopy to determine the conformationalenergiesof the histamine dication 63a and of the two tautomeric forms of its monocation (63b,c) and to inspect the relative population of the translgauche rotamers (63d,e).The NMR data indicated that 63a favoured slightly the trans form (636, x = 0.54) and the monocation (63b,c) the gauche form (63e, x = 0.55). Methylation at the amino group of histamine increased the relative mole fraction (x) of the trans rotamer of the analogue of 63a to 0.57 for -+NH,Me, to 0.72 for -+NHMe, and to 0.92 for -+NMe,. The trans/gauche conformer ratios for a- and fl-methyl- and N,N-dimethylhistaminesSsbwere predicted to be quite different(0.1,0.02 and 4, respectively). However, none of these compounds showed significantbiological selectivity. Despite the fact that 2- and 4methylhistamines have very similar translgauche conformer populations, they showed a 1000-fold difference in their activity ratios. Although the side-chain rotamer preference did not appear to determine whether the conformationally mobile derivatives distinguish between H, and H, receptors,an altered rotamer preferencewas accompanied by reduced activity and the trans conformer appeared to be involved in both types of histamine receptor.

TABLE7. Totalenergiesby CNDO of minimum energyconformationsfor dimerent histamine species Species 63b 63c 63d

truns (02 = 180")

gctrrchc,

0 , (deg)

E (au")

0 I (deg)

0 0 180

- 78.2687 - 77.9065 -77.9158

0 60 240

(U, = 300") E (au")

- 78.2531 - 77.9125 - 77.9257

6. Thermochemistry of amidines and related compounds

335

Later on Ganellin and his groups5’calculatedconformationalenergiesof histamineand 4-methylhistamine monocations using the EHT molecular orbital procedure and expressed the results as potential energy surfaces.Their pre-assumption was that such a procedure provides a quantitative basis for comparison with other histamine derivatives. The general value of an approach of this type for studying relationships between conformation and biological activity (without parallel experimentation) is still open for argumentation. Ganellins6 also returned to the question of imidazole geometry and histamine tautomerism and showed, using a6 initio calculations, that histamine monocation favored N(3) tautomer (634, whereas histamine base did not show a clear tautomer preference. Topiols’ carried out MNDO, MIND0/3 and ah initio calculationsto study tautomerism in 63 and 2- and 4-methylhistamines. Despite some differences in the values of structuralparameters,the changesin structureupon tautomerization and/or protonation predicted by the different methods were very similar. The MNDO method appeared to give a better quantitative agreement with the 3-21G and STO-3G results than the MIND0/3 method. Jaureguiand coworkerss8 carried out empirical atom-atom potential calculations for the above molecules and suggested that mobile gauche and transconformationswould be active with H , receptors whereas fairly rigid gauche conformations would be active with H, receptors. Abraham and Birch59introduced the counter-ion into complete neglect of differential overlap (CNDO) calculations of conformations of 63a,b,c and obtained results in good agreement with the conformations observed in aqueous solution. According to Kang and Chou60,a b initio and INDO molecularorbital calculationson histamine showed that the monocation (63c) favours the N(3) tautomer in agreement with the conclusion of Ganellin and his groups6. In contrast to the opinion of the latter workers Kang and Chou were able to conclude that the neutral molecule favours the N(l) tautomer. Xiao-Yuan and Shu-Jun6’calculatedenergiesof protonation (pE) and tautomerization for 63 and methylhistaminesusing the CNDO/2 method. The pE values showed the same trend as the pK, values determined in aqueous solution. However, there was no apparent relation between the calculatedpE and the biological activities. The relative stability of the N(1) and N(3) tautomers did reflect the H, receptor agonist activities: the smaller the energy of the former, the greater its activity. Hernandez-Lagunaand collaborator^^^calculated the charge distribution and conformationalenergymaps for 63 using(localized) CND0/2 and ab initio STO-4G methods. Sakurai and Takeshima6* determined thermodynamic parameters for the acid dissociation of 2-mercaptohistamine,ergothioneine, 2-mercaptoimidazole, N-methyl-2mercaptoimidazole and histamine dihydrochloride and compared them with literature data. Vl. AMIDOOXIMES

Cerda and his studied the thermometric behaviour of three amidooximes (64-66) and evaluated thermodynamic quantities for their dissociation from the pK, values and neutralization enthalpies (Table 8).

rH2

//NOH

CH

x\

\NH~

C H Z C H ~ /NH2 C

“OH

(64) X=NH

( 6 5 )X = O (66)x=s

336

Kalevi Pihlaja TABLE 8. Values of AGi, AH, and ASi for 64-66

Compound

i

pK(i)

A Gi (kJmol-’)

AHi (kJmol-’)

64

1 2

3.54 4.58 8.47 4.61 5.83 4.95 5.89

20.2 26.2 48.4 26.3 33.3 28.2 33.6

30.0 25.1 36.0 32.9 21.5 31.3 29.8

65 66

3 1 2 1

ASi (Jmol-’ K - ’ ) 32.8

- 1.4

-41.0 22.0 - 19.4 10.2 - 12.8

VII. IMIDATES AND IMlNlUM SALTS

Perrin and Thoburd4 studied the kinetics of E/Z isomerization of N-arylformimidate anion, HC(0-)=NAr (equation 4), in N-methylpropionamide solvent by an NMR saturation-transfer method. A Hammett plot of the rate constants gave a slope p of 2.3 or 2.1, which was very close to that observed in similarimine stereoisomerizations.Therefore, it can be concluded that E / Z isomerization of imidate anions proceeds by nitrogen inversion, despite a high-level MO calculation that favoured C-N rotation.

E

z

Two more reports areworth mentioning.Rabillerand coworkers6’ showed by dynamic I3C NMR studies that the rotation about the C-N bond is generally slow and used relaxationtime (TI)measurementsfor a qualitative description of the molecularmotion of iminium salts. Barr and his research group66 carried out variable-temperature and variable-concentration‘Hand ’Li NMR studies on hexamericiminolithium compounds, (R1R2C=NLi),, where (R’, R2) are (Me,N, Ph), (Me,N, Me,N), (t-Bu, Ph) and (t-Bu, tBu). VIII. MISCELLANEOUS

Due to the diffuse nature of this chapter there are several reports which deserve to be mentioned but do not fit under any other topic. The enthalpy of sublimation (176 10kJmol-’) of cytosine has been determined and its enthalpy of formation in the gaseous state (- 59.4 f 10.0 kJ mol- I ) derived6’. Benoit and Frichette68studied calorimetrically solvent effects on the protonation of some purines, pyrimidines and related compounds. A few reports deal with thermal decomposition (dec) and dissociation (dis) of guanidinium salts: nitrate ( d e ~ ) acetate, ~ ~ ~ , carbonate, chloride, chromate, nitrate, sulphate and thiocyanate ( d i ~ ) ~ and ’ ~nitroguanidine(dec),”. Ratcliffe’s NMR investigations on the molecularmotion of guanidiniumchloride, bromide and iodide should also be mentioned”.

6. Thermochemistry of amidines and related compounds

337

IX. CONCLUDING REMARKS

It is a pity that so little, strictly thermochemical material is available on amidines and related compounds. Obviously, working with them must be very difficult, which finds support in the strong theoretical orientation of many investigations quoted. This authordoes not believe that we can ever replace the motivation and enjoyment of successful experimentation by a mere theoretical approach.Therefore, more empirical thermochemical investigations within this biologically and physiologically important category of compounds are very much needed. However, trying t o compile something useful from so diffuse and limited sources of information has been a real learning experience. Nevertheless, I would not be willing to repeat it too often. X. REFERENCES 1. R. Shaw, Estimation ofthe Thermochemistry oflmidic Acid Derivatives, Chap. 1 1 in The Chemistry

of Amidines and Imidates (Ed. S . Patai), Wiley, Chicheskr, 1975. 2. K. Pihlaja, Thermochemical Methods in the Structural Analysis of Organic Compounds, Chap. 5 in Molecular Structure and Energetics, Vol.2 (Eds. J. F. Liebman and A. Greenberg), VCH Publishers, Inc., New York, 1987. 3. F. D. Rossini and R. L. Montgomery, J . Chem. Thermodyn., 10, 465 (1978). 4. L. G. Cole and E. C. Gilbert, J. Am. Chem. SOC.,73, 5423 (1951). 5. (a) K. Bystrom, J. Chem. Thermodyn., 13, 139 (1981). (b) K. Bystrom, J . Comput. Chem., 4, 308 (1983). 6. J. J. Kirchner, W. E. Acree Jr., G. Pilcher and L. Shaofeng,J . Chem. Thermodyn, 18,793 (1986). 7. P. S . Engel, J . Am. Chem. SOC.,98, 1972 (1976). 8. S. W. Benson and H. E. ONeal, Natl. Stand. Ref: Data Ser., Natl. Bur. Stand., No. 21 (1970). 9. P. S. Engel, R. A. Melaugh, M. A. Page, S . Szilagyi and J. W. Timberlake, J . Am. Chem. SOC.,98, 1971 (1976) and references cited therein. 10. M. S. Foster and J. L. Beauchamp, J. Am. Chem. SOC.,94,2425 (1972). I t . M. S. Foster, A. D. Williamson and J. L. Beauchamp, fnt. J. Mass Spectrom. Ion Phys., 15,429 (1974). 12. P. Gund, J . Chem. Educ., 49, 100 (1972). 13. L. Pauling,The Nature ofthe Chemical Bond, 3rd ed., Cornell University Press,Ithaca,New York, 1960, p. 286. 14. G. A. Lobanov and L. P. Karmanova, Izv. Vyssh. Zaved., Khim. Khim. Tekhnol., 14,865 (1971). 15. R. B. Cundall, T. F. Palmer and C. E. C. Wood, J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. I , 74,1339 (1978). 16. A. G. Loudon, A. Maccoll and K. S . Webb, Adu. Mass Spectrom., 4,223 (1968). 17. M. A. Baldwin, A. G. Loudon, K. S. Webb and P. C. Cardnell, Org. Mass Spectrom., 12, 279 (1977). 18. D. A. Sweigert and D. W. Turner, J . Am. Chem. Soc., 94, 5592 (1972). 19. L. Fabbrizzi, M. Micheloni,P. Paoletti and G. Schwarzenbach,J.Am. Chem. SOC.,99,5574(1977). 20. T. J. Zielinski, M. R. Peterson, 1. G. Czismadia and R. Rein, J. Comput. Chem., 3,62 (1982) and

references cited therein.

21. J. S. Kwiatkowski and B. Pullman, Adu. Heterocycl. Chem., 18, ,199 (1975). 22. (a) I. Waver, Magn. Reson. Chem., 25, 514 (1987) and references cited therein. (b) 1. Waver, Magn. Reson. Chem., 26, 601 (1988) and references cited therein. (c) I. Waver, Magn. Reson. Chem., 27, 577 (1989). (d) I. Waver, Magn. Reson. Chem., 27, 1031 (1989) and referencescited therein. 23. 1. Waver, J. Mol. Struct., 218, 165 (1990). 24. (a)J. Riand, M.-Th. Chenon and N. Lumbroso-Bader,J . Chem. SOC.Perkin Trans. 2,1248 (1979). (b) J. Riand, M.-Th. Chenon and N. Lumbroso-Bader,J.Chem. SOC.Perkin Trans. 2,1551 (1987). 25. R. C. Neuman and V. Jonas, J. Org. Chem., 39,929 (1974). 26. E. D. Raczynska, J. Chem. Res. (S), 20 (1987). 27. M. Borgarello, R. Houriet, E. D. Raczynska and T. Drapala, J . Org. Chem., 55, 38 (1990). 28. C. A. Matuszak and A. J. Matuszak, J. Chem. Educ., 53,280 (1976). 29. P. Jimenez, M. V. Roux, C. Turrion and F. Gomis, J. Chem. Thermodyn., 19, 985 (1987) and

references cited therein.

338 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44.

45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53.

54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70.

Kalevi Pihlaja

R. Sabbah, Thermochim. Acta, 41, 33 (1980).

H.G. M. DeWit, J.C. van Miltenburgand C. G. deGruif,J.Chem. Thermodyn., 15,651 (1983).

A. F. Bedford, P. 9. Edmondson and C. T. Mortimer, J. Chem. SOC.,2927 (1962). J. P. Guthrie and D. C. Pike, Can. J. Chem., 65, 1951 (1987). 9. G. Ramsey, J. Org. Chem., 44, 2093 (1979). S. G. Lias, J. F. Liebman and R. D. Levin, J. Phys. Chem. Ref: Data, 13, 695 (1984). J. Catalln, P. Perez and J. Elguero, Heterocycles, 20, 1717 (1983) and references cited therein. (a) L. M. Jackman and T. Jen, J . Am. Chem. SOC.,97,281 1 (1975). (b) E. Griindemann, H. Graubaum,D. Martin and E. Schiewald, Magn. Reson. Chem., 24,21 (1986). P. Jimenez,J. Laynes, R. M. Claramant,D. Sanz, J. P. Fayet, M. C. Vertut, J. CatalBn,J. L. G. de Paz, G. Pfister-Guillouzo, C. Guimon, R. Flammang, A. Maquestiau and J. Elguero, New J. Chem., 13, 151 (1989). M. Munowitz, W. W. Bachovchin,J. Herzfeld, C. M. Dobson and R. G. Griffin, J. Am. Chem. SOC.,104, 1192 (1982). J. L. Bolton and R. A. McClelland, J. Mol. Struct. (Theochem), 165, 379 (1988). Y. K. Kang, K. D. Gibson, G. Nkmethy and H. A. Scheraga, J. Phys. Chem., 92,4739 (1988). J. Catalan,M.Sanches-Cabezudo,J. L. G. de Paz and J. Elguero,J.Mol. Struc. (Theochem), 166, 415 (1988). H. G. M.de Wit, J. C. A. Offringa,C. G. de Kruif and J. C. van Miltenburg, Therrnochim. Acta, 65,43 (1983). 0. Enea, C. Jolicoeur and L. G. Hepler, Can. J. Chem., 58, 704 (1980). V. P. Vasil'ev, L. A. Kochergina and V. Yu. Garavin, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 55, 1601 (1985). Yu. S. Koryagin, V. A. Shormanov and G. A. Krestov, Koord. Khim., 11, 1046 (1985). A. C. M. Paiva, L. Juliano and P. Boschcow, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 98, 7645 (1976). J. 9. Jensen, Acta Chem. Scand, A29, 250 (1975). E. Sletten and A. Stogihd, J. Mol. Struc. (Theochem), 153, 289 (1987). A. P. de Jong and H. van Dam, J . Med. Chem., 23, 889 (1980). K.-H. Pook, H. Stahle and H. Daniel, Chem. Ber., 107, 2644 (1974). P. B. M. W.M. Timmermans, P. A. van Zwieten, C. M. Meerman-van Benthem,K. van der Meer and J. J. C. Mulder, Drug Res., 27(11), 2266 (1977) and referencestherein. (a) F. Avbelj and D. Hadzi, Mol. Pharmacol., 27, 466 (1985) and references cited therein. (b) A. P. De Jong and W. Saudijn, Eur. J. Pharmacol., 69, 175 (1981). A. Hernandez-Laguna,F. J. Romero-Sanchyezand Y. G. Smeyers,Ann. Quim., 81,247 (1985). (a)C. R. Ganellin,E. S. Pepper, G. N. J. Port and W. G. Richards,J . Med. Chem., 16,610(1973); (b) C. R. Ganellin, G. N. J. Port and W. G. Richards, J. Med. Chem., 16,616 (1973). (c) L. Farnell, W. G. Richards and C. R. Ganellin, J. Med. Chem., IS, 662 (1975). W. G. Richards, J. Wallis and C. R. Ganellin, Eur. J. Med. Chem.- Chim. Therapeutica, 14, 9 (1979). 8. Topiol, J . Comput. Chem., 8, 142 (1987). E. A. Jauregui,M. R. Estrada,L. S. Mayorga and G. M. Ciuffo,J.Mol. Struct., 54,257 (1979). R. J. Abraham and D. Birch. Mol. Pharmacol., 11, 663 (1975). S. Kang and D. Chou, Chem. Phys. Lett, 34,537 (1975). F. Xiao-Yuan and S. Shu-Jun,Int. J. Quantum Chem: Quantum Biol. Symp., 8, 197 (1981). H. Sakurai and S. Takeshima, Talanta, 24, 531 (1977). V. Cerdi, E. Casassas and F. Borrull, Thermochim. Acta, 57, 195 (1982). C. L. Perrin and J. D. Thoburn, J . Org. Chem., 54, 764 (1989). C. Rabiller, J. P. Renou and G. J. Martin, J. Chem. SOC.Perkin Trans. 2, 536 (1977). D. Barr, R. Snaith, R. E. Mulvey, K. Wade and D. Reed, Magn. Reson. Chem., 24, 713 (1986). R. Sabbah, Thermochim. Acta, 35, 73 (1980). R. L. Benoit and M. Frkhette, Thermochim. Acto, 127, 125 (1988). (a) M. R. Udupa, Thermochim. Acta, 53, 383 (1982); (b) W. W. Wendlandt, M. Kasper and S . Bellamy, Thermochim. Acta, 75, 239 (1984). (c) P. P. Lee and M. H. Back, Thermochim. Acta, 127, 89 (1988). C. I. RatcliNe, Can. J . Chem., 63, 1239 (1985).

CHAPTER

7

Recent advances in the synthesis of amidines GERHARD V. BOYD Department of Organic Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel

. . ...... . . . ..... . . ...... . . . ..... . . . . .. .. MISCELLANEOUS SYNTHESES , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. From Orthoesters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. From N-Dichloromethylenedimethylammonium Chloride. . . . . . . . . C. From Compounds with Cumulated Double Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. From lsocyanides.. . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Formation of Amidines by Addition Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. From Heterocyclic Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. Other Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I. INTRODUCTION. .

11. PREPARATION FROM NITRILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111. PREPARATION FROM AMIDES, THIOAMIDES AND LACTAMS

IV.

,

V.REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

339 340 344 352 352 353

355

357 358

359 361 363

-

1. INTRODUCTION

In this chapter advances in the synthesis of amidines are reviewed. The term ‘amidine’is restricted to compounds of Type 1, where R’= H, alkyl, aryl or halogen and R2-R4 are usually hydrogen or organic radicals.Thus guanidines(1, R’ = NR5R6), amidoximes (1, R2 = OH) and amidrazones (1, R2 = NRSR6)are excluded. Cyclic amidines,such as 2, are mentioned occasionally but a-amino nitrogen heterocycles, which incorporate the

The Chemistry of Arnidines and Imidates, Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and Z. Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

339

G. V. Boyd

340

amidine structure, e.g. 2-aminopyridine, are beyond the scope of this review. Apart from the earlier account in this series’, a Russian survey of the chemistry of amidines appeared in 19832. II. PREPARATION FROM NITRILES

The classical Pinner ~ y n t h e s i s ~which - ~ , proceeds in two steps (equation l), is a reliable method for preparing a variety of amidines and is used extensively’-lO.

R’C-N

+

-

R~OH

HC I

+

+ R3R4NH

- R‘OH

R’C

‘OR2 CI

(1)

-

CI

-

// NH

PhC

\ NHBu

2-Cyanonaphthalenes give amidinonaphthalenes (3)‘’ and 2- and 3-amidinofurans, -thiophens and -sclenophens have bccn obtained from the corresponding cyaiio compounds’2. lmidates may be formed by the base-catalysed addition of alcohols to nitriles; subsequent reaction with ammonium chloride produces amidine hydrochlorides”:

ArNHCH2CN

+ MeOH

NaOMe

HNH + NH&l

ArNHCH2C

‘OMe

- MeOH

ArNHCH2C

q+NH2

\.

NH2

c I-

Heating a mixture of benzonitrile,butylamine and methanol under high pressureyields Nbutylbenzamidine (4)14. Arenesulphonylamidines are obtained when aryl cyanides are heated with arenesulphonamides in the presence of an alkali metal salt of the sulphonamide’’:

Ar’CN

+

H2NS02Ar2

-

NS 0 2 Ar Ar’C

Treatment of the cyanobutenolide 5 with benzylamine results in a mixture of the corresponding amidine, the lactam amidine 6 as the major product and the amidino carboxylic acid 716:

7. Recent advances in the synthesis of amidines

34 1

NH

Both E- and Z-amidinium chlorides 8 are produced by the action of hydrogen chloride on a mixture of propionitrile and trichloroacetonitrile”.

A modification of the Pinner synthesis involves thioimidates (equation 2).

It has been shown that aromaticamines give good yields of amidines, but on adding the more basic aliphatic amines the first step is reversed and the nitriles are recovered. If, however, the reaction is conducted in a medium buffered with acetic acid, alkylated amidines are readily formed.I8. Thioimidates were intermediates in the synthesis of various 1-amidinonaphthalenes’ and of a phenyls~lphinylamidine~~: The action of primary amines on alkyl or aryl cyanides in the presence of tributylborane results in (dibutylboryl)amidines, which yield amidines on hydrolysis2’.

G. V. Boyd

342

ClCH2CH2CN

+

HCI

2PhSH

-

+

+

/NH2 PhSCH2CH2C

HaN

PhSCH2CH2

\SPh

7

CI-

PhSOCHzCHz
H

H

Nitrilium salts react with amines to give amidines. For example, the complexes of aryl cyanides with aluminium chloride afford disubstituted amidines by the action of Nmethylanilinez': -b

ArCN-

ArC=N-AIC13

- //""

-

PhNHMO

Arc

'N(Ph)Me

N-Substituted nitrilium salts are obtained by treating nitriles with iron(II1)chloride and alkyl halides; subsequent addition of an amine or ammonia affords amidines in good yieldsz2: MeCN

+

Pr'CI

FOCI

(i)R'R'NH HNPr' 7 MeC ( 1 1 ) NaOH

+

MeC-NPr'

\NR'Rz

FeClq

N-Ethylnitriliumtetrafluoroborates(9)and N-methylnitrilium fluorosulphonates(10) are readily formed from nitriles and triethyloxonium tetrafluoroborate,Et,O+ BF,-, and methyl fluorosulphonate,respectively. These salts have been used to prepare a variety of amidines by treatment with aliphatic or aromatica m i n e ~ ~ ~ - ~ ' .

+

+ RC=NMe

R C E N E t BF,(9)

FSO,

(10)

The formation of amidines from nitriles and organometallic compounds has been reported. Benzyl cyanide and the lithium derivatives of aromatic amines yield Narylamidinesz6:

.

PhCH2CN

+

ArNHLi

HN-

+PhCH2C

'NHAr

Li+

W

//"H PhCH2C \HAr

7. Recent advances in the synthesis of amidines

343

It is well known that the action of Grignard reagents or organolithium compounds on nitriles leads to ketones via intermediate imines. It has been found, however, that nbutyllithium reacts with two molecularequivalents of benzonitrile or o-chlorobenzonitrile to give, after hydrolysis, mainly the amidines 11 as mixtures of E- and Z-i~omers~’**~: 2ArCN

+

Buti

64

H

(11)

The action of lithium bis(trimethylsilyl)aihide on aryl cyanides produces lithium salts 12, which react with trimethylsilyl chloride to form the silylated amidines 1329;the latter are readily hydrolysed to amidine hydrochloridesJ0. SiMaS

ArCN

+ -/ N

‘SiMeS Li+

-

HN-

Arc

‘N(SiMs3)p Li+

(12)

+CISiM.,

dNSiMa3

Arc

‘NIS~MI~)~

(13)

A.NH2 Arc I+ k.NHz CI-

N,N-Dialkylcyanamides, R,NCN, are sufficiently nucleophilic to add acyl chlorides possessing electron-withdrawing groups to yield acylated chloroformamidines. Thus,in the absence of a solvent, N-cyanomorpholine and p-nitrobenzoyl chloride give the amidine 143’, perfluoropentanoyl chloride and dimethylcyanamide afford compound W 2 and the chlorocyclobutenedione 16, a vinylogous acyl chloride, and Ncyanomorpholine produce the analogue 1733:

G. V. Boyd

344

111. PREPARATION FROM AMIDES, THlOAMlDES AND LACTAMS

The synthesis of amidines from amides or thioamides requires activation of the latter by modification of the carbonyl or thiocarbonyl group. There are numerous ways of achieving this, of which the more important are described here. Tmidoyl chlorides, prepared by the action of phosphorus pentachloride, phosphorus oxychloride or, preferably, thionyl chloride on secondary amides, react with ammonia or primary or secondary amines to yield a m i d i n e ~ ~ ~ :

R'CONHR~

- NNR2 +R'R4NH R'C

HNR2

R'C

'CI

\NR3R4

Recent examples illustrating this method are the formation of allylamidines from Nallylcarbo~amides~ 5:

4- PhNHMe

MeCONHCH2CH=CH2

MeC//NCH2CH=CH2

PCI,

and of arenesulphonylamidinesfrom imidoyl chlorides and arenes~lphonamides~~:

Ar'C

HNPh + H2NS02Ar2

d Ar'C //NS02Ar2

C 'l

'NHPh

The reaction of N-aryltrifluoroacetimidoyl chlorides with lithium trimethylsilylarylamides gives silylated amidines3':

""'

F 3CC

\Cl

+

Me3SiNAr2

Lit

-

A phosphorylated amidine was obtained as shownJ8:

+ NH4CI

-

HNH

CI3CC

'NHP02CI

Phosphorylated amidines have also been prepared from amidinium salts by the action of phosphorus penta~hloride~~:

7. Recent advances in the synthesis of amidines

345

+

CI-

CI-

-

and other derivatives of pentavalent p h o ~ p h o r u s ~ ~ : ANH2 MeC :

+

+

/OMe SEP-OMe

‘*NH2

\C,

NaOH

//NPo(oMe)2 MeC ‘NH2

CI-

N-Arenesulphonylbenzimidoyl

chlorides

: imid~ylamidines~’ PhC//Nso2A

\a

+

condense

-

HN-CMe-NMe2

with

amidines

to

yield

/Nso2Ar PhC ‘N=CMsNMa2

Imidoyl chlorides are intermediates in the formation of amidines from dichlorovinyl sulphones and arylamines4’: ,NAr

.NAr

The activation of tertiary amides, especially dimethylformamide,with phosgene, thionyl chloride, oxalyl chloride or phosphorus oxychloride to yield Vilsmeier reagents, 18 (X = CI or PO,CI,), and the reactions of these salts with amines and other nucleophiles have received much attention43.The preparation of twenty-two formamidines from 18 and primary aliphatic or aromatic amines has been reported44. 4-Aminobenzo-2,1,3-

p>&x 0

+ H-C

’NMe2 ‘Cl

X-

(18)

N=C

/H ‘NMs2

NQ

I

( 20)

NMe2

(19)

thiadiazole and its selenium analogue yield the formamidines 19 (X = S or Se) on treatment with IS4’; the quinazolinonederivative 20 was obtained similarly46.The action of Vilsmeier salts 18 on acetanilides results in formamidines with the elimination of acetyl chloride4’:

346

-

G. V. Boyd

MeCONHAr

+ 18

HNAr + MeCOCi +

HC \NMe2

HX

N-Alkyl-N’-arylureas react with 18 (X = Cl) to yield mixtures of amidinium salts48: RNHCNHAr

+

18

Me2N-C +

/NRCoNHAr

+

Me$=C

\H

/N(Ar)CoNHR \H

CI’

CI-

and with thioacetamide or thiobenzamide to form thioacylformamidinium salts, which can be deprotonated to thioacylformamidinesor hydrolysed to N-thioacylforrnamide~~~:

The Vilsmeier salt derived from dimethylacetamide reacts normally with aniline to give, after treatment with sodium hydroxide, the acetamidine 2lS0.

Lactams are activated by phosphorus oxychloride and similar reagents to yield salts, e.g. 22”, which react with amines” and thioamides, including thiourea53,to afford amidines and thioacylamidines, respectively:

Me (22) R Me

7. Recent advances in the synthesis of amidines

341

Amides react with amines in the presence of diethylthiocarbamoyl chloride to yield amidine~~~: MeCONHPh

+

EtZNCSCI

+

HNPh

ArNH2

+

MeC

t

COS t Et2NH2

c1-

‘NHAr

The formation of N,N-dimethylamidinium chlorides when secondary amides are heated with dimethylcarbamoyl chloride is a related reaction?

PrCONHPh

+

Me2NCOCI

4

@iHPh PrC

-‘Ozp

\\C,NMe2

@- I, 0

P r C/cNHPh I+ ‘NMe,

CI-

CI-

Treatment of amides with triethyloxonium tetrafluoroborate produces reactive salts 2356,which readily condense with amines to give amidinium salts’’:

B F4-

BF4-

(23) Lactams are similarly converted into amidinium tetrafluor~borates~’*~’:

B F4-

BF4-

The method has been applied to the synthesis of amidino acids from benzyl cyanoformateS8: + + PhCH202CCN

H2S

.

P h CH202C C

Et,OBF,

+

HNH2 PhCH202CC \SEt

BF4’

G. V. Boyd

348

Under acidic conditions, thioamides are sufficiently electrophilic to react with amines to form amidines. It has been shown that the combined action of butylamine and butylamine hydrochloride on ethyl thioacetate produces N,N-dibutylacetamidinium chloride, presumably via N-b~tylthioacetamide~~:

MeC ‘OEt

BUNHI

”

MeC

-p

BUNHI‘ HCI

“HE“

CI-

Closely related to the salts 23 are the ‘amidc acetals’ 2460.6’. These compounds react with all types of primary amines to give amidines. Numerous heterocyclic formamidines have been prepared by the condensation of dimethylformamide acetals (24, R ’ = H, R2 = Me or Et, R3 = Me) with 3-aminopyra~ole~~, 2-aminopyridine (to yield 25)63, 2amin~pyrimidine~’, 2-aminopyra~ine~~ and 6-aminopurine6’.

The analogous lactam acetals 26 (n= 1,2 or 3) afford amidines by reaction with 2aminobenzimidazole, 2-aminobenzothiazole, 2-aminopyridine and 2-aminopyrimidine. With diamines, such as ethylenediamine, 2,3-diaminopyridine and phenylenediamines, diamidines, e.g. 27, are obtained66.

(27)

(26)

Primary enamines are attacked by amide acetals to yield enamidines6’:

condensation occurs both with the amino and the With ethyl fl-amino-a-cyanocrotonate activated methyl groups6’:

0::; HZN\

C

II

Me

+

Et02C’

/CH3

C C ‘N

@N\c/cH=Q Me Et02C’

E C ‘N

Me

7. Recent advances in the synthesis of amidines

349

The reaction of dimethylformamide diethyl acetal with amino acids is accompanied by esterilication, resulting in amidino e s t e r P : 2 HC-OEt /NMe2

t H2NCH(R)CO2H +HC//NCH(R)C02E’

“Me2

‘OEt

Primary amides or thioamides are converted into acylated amidines on treatment with dimethylformamide diethyl acetal; on hydrolysis with 70% aqueous acetic acid at room temperature the products give excellent yields of d i a ~ y l a m i n e s ~ ~ * ” : /Me2 HC-OEt

t RCONH2 d

/ NCoR 5

HCNHCR

HC

‘OEt

II 0II

“Me2

0

Arylureas and -thioureas similarly yield compounds 28 (X = 0 or S) by the action of dimethylformamide a c e t a l ~ ’ ~ ~With ’ ~ . isopropylidenecyanoacetamide the amidine derivative 29 is obtained74. Me

HNCXNHAr

H C.

The salt 30 is closely related to amide acetals. It reacts with aniline to give N,N’diphenylformamidine via the acetal 31 of a secondary amide. The further reaction of diphenylformamidine with 30 yields the amidine 3275*76:

Another type of an activated amide is represented by the ester aminal 33. This compound reacts with secondary amides to give amidines and d i m e t h y l f ~ r m a m i d e ~ ~ : /!NMe2 HC (.+ /NMe2 HC-NMe2

‘OB“‘ (33)

“Me2

-6u‘OH

t HCONHR

F

/O-

HC \NR

-

HCNMe2 NMe2 HC’

/ “Me2 O&NR H

II

-+

0

Me2N

\c/ H

NR

G. V. Boyd

350

The action of amines on amides in the presenceof various derivatives of phosphoricacid results in amidines. Heating a mixture of an anilide, a secondary aliphatic amine and phosphorus pentoxide furnishesa trisubstituted amidine77:

MeCONHAr

t

Pr2NH

‘2’9

b

HNAr

MeC,

‘NPr2

A modification of this method consists in heating a mixture of an aliphatic or aromatic acid, the hydrochloride of a primary aliphatic amine, N,N-dimethylcyclohexylamine and phosphorus pentoxide7’:

A related reaction is that of dimethylformamide with secondary amides under the influence of phosphorus pentoxide to yield for ma mi dine^^^:

MeCONHAr

+

HCONMe2=

RNAr

MeC

\NMe2

When secondary amides are heated with hexamethylphosphortriamide (HMPA)at ca 220 “C, mixtures of amidines and nitriles are produced, presumably via phosphorylated imidates (equation 3). If RZcan exist as a relatively stable carboniumion the formation of nitriles is favoureds0*81.

,N R ~

0

(3)

A similar reaction of formic acid with aromaticamines in the presence of HMPAyields formamidines MS2. Polyphosphoric acid trimethylsilyl ester, which is readily obtained from hexamethyldisiloxane and phosphorus pentoxideS3, promotes the formation of symmetrically substituted amidines 35 from aliphatic or aromatic acids and arylamines8 4 * 8 5 and of unsymmetricallysubstituted amidines from secondary or tertiary amides and primary aliphatic or aromatic amines. Thus, heating the ester with N-methylbenzamide

351

7. Recent advances in the synthesis of amidines

and aniline at 160°C yields compound Mas. Polyamidines, e.g. 37, are obtained from aromatic acids and aromatic diaminesa6.

//NLlr

HC

HNAr PhCHNPh w

RC

;

-

g

~

N

i

\ NHMe

“Me2

Tetrakis(dimethy1amino)titanium reacts with all types of secondary amides: form anilide, N-methylacetamide, t-butylformamide, pyrrolidin-Zone etc. in refluxing tetrahydrofuran to give trisubstituted amidinesa7:

HNRZ + Ti02 +

2 R‘CONHR2+ Ti(NMe2I4 + 2 R’C

2 Me2NH

“Me2

Bicyclic amidinesare produced when N-(aminoalkyl)lactamsare heated in xylene in the presence of p-toluenesulphonicacid:

The N-methyl derivative 38 yields the transamidated macrocycle 39 via a bicyclic amidinium salt, traces of which can be isolateda8:

(38)

TosO-

(39)

N,N‘-Disubstituted ureas are reduced to formamidines by sodium borohydridea9 or lithium aluminium hydridegO:

G. V. Boyd

352

Chloroformamidines are produced by the combined action of carbon tetrachloride and triphenylphosphine on trisubstituted ureasg

’:

R‘R‘NCONH

R3

PhP/CCI4

b

NNR3

CIC

‘NRlR2

The chlorination of N,N’-diarenesulphonylpseudothioureas chlor~formamidines~~:

‘

H N S O Z Ar

MeS-C

CI

similarly leads to

NHsoznr

‘

//NsozAr

2_ CIC

N H SO$ r

3-

Aroylisocyanide dichlorides yield chloroformamidines on treatment with silylated aminesg3: CI2C=NCOPh

t

Me3SiN

CICY N C O P h

IV. MISCELLANEOUS SYNTHESES A. From Orthoesters

Primary amines react with orthoesters to give symmetrically disubstituted amidines by way of imidates. If catalytic amounts of acetic acid are added the imidates can be is~lated~~*~~: R1C(OEt)3+ R2NH2

-2EtOH

RNR2 fR‘NH2, R’C ‘OEt

//

N R ~

R‘C

‘NHR2

The method was used for the synthesis of the anti-allergicagent MDL-427 40g6:

\

o-H,NC,H,C02Me

..

(40)

H

7. Recent advances in the synthesis of amidines

353

and for the preparation of unsymmetrically tetrasubstituted formamidinium salts by successive alkylationsg7:

8. From KDichloromethylenedimethylammonlum Chloride

N-Dichloromethylenedimethylammonium chloride (‘phosgeneiminium chloride’) 41 is ~ ~ . reacts related to the Vilsmeier salts 18 but it far surpassesthem in r e a c t i ~ i t y ~ *It . readily with primary amines to afford chloroformamidineslOO:

+

C12C=NMe2 CI (41)

+

HNR

RNHZ d

CIC

\ NMe2

The sydnone imine 42 reacts analogously’01, as does 5-amino-4,6-dich10ropyrimidine1~*.

-C

//NMe2 CI

CI-

Successive treatment of 2,6-dichloroaniline with the phosgeneiminium salt and ethylenediamine yields Clophelin 43Io3:

H

p-Toluenesulphonamide is converted into the sulphonylamidine 44 by the action of

41 104.1 05.

// CIC

NS0,C6H4Me

-p

354

G. V. Boyd

Secondaryamines yield amidiniumsalts, which arehydrolysed to tetrasubstitutedureasg9:

41

+ PhNHMe

H20

+ CIC/ N: +( P h ) M e \NMe2 CI

o=c "Me2

-

but aziridine suffers ring-fissiong8:

The action of phosgeneiminiumchloride on 2,2-dicyanovinylamineleads to the amidine 45, which cyclizes to the pyrimidine 46 under the influence of triphenyIphosphinelo6:

"""YNX H2NxH

41 t NC

CN

NC

CN

PPha

CI

(45)

(46)

N,N-Dimethylacetamide reacts with 41 to give the propenylium salt 47, which forms diamidines 48 on treatment with primary amines; treatment with methylamine in the presence of triethylamine yields the ynamine amidine 49l O':

The 1,3-dichloro-2-azapropenylium salt 50, a useful reagent for the synthesis of various heterocycles'08, is obtained from 41 and dimethyl~yanamide'~~. The related azapropenylium salt 51 is prepared by the action of cyanuricchloride (2,4,6trichloro-1,3,5-triaine) on dimethylformamide' lo; it reacts with primary amines RNH, or primary amides RCONH, to yield formamidines 52 and acylated formamidines 53, respectively'

'

355

7. Recent advances in the synthesis of amidines

C. From Compounds with Cumulated Double Bonds

A number of amidine synthesesproceed from compounds possessingcumulated double bonds. A reaction of this type is the addition of amines to ketenimineswhich has been used to prepare polyamidines' 2:

'

R12C=C=NR2

+

R3NH

__*

R',CH-C

HNR2 'NHR3

'

Carbodiimides are reduced to formamidines by sodium borohydride' : P r 'N-C-NPr'

.

@NPri

NaBH

HC \NHPr'

and they add Grignard reagents or organolithium compounds to yield metal derivatives, which afford amidines on hydrolysis' 14: PhN=C=NPh

t BuLi

-

LNPh H20

\ NPh

BuC'-

Li

HNPh

BuC

N ' HPA

+

The combined action of t-butyllithium and carbon monoxide on carbodiimides leads via Bu'COLi to thermally unstable a-oxoamidinesl I 5 :

-

G. V. Boyd

356 EtN=C=NEt

t Bu’Li

co

Bu’COC

HNEt ‘NHEt

+

The [2 23 cycloaddition of isocyanates to amides yields unstable four-membered ring compounds, which decompose spontaneously into carbon dioxide and amidines:

R‘NCO

HNR’

+ R2CONR3R4-

R2C

\NR3R4

R4 R3A

HNPh

MeC

“Me2

HNTS

HC

“Me2

HNCOR HC

\ NMe2

MeC//NSo2Ar

\

NH2

Thus, heating phenyl isocynate with benzamide at 200 “C gives N-phenylbenzamidine’ 16, phenyl isocyanate and dimethylacetamide afford the acetamid55 is formed from p-toluenesulphonyl ine 54’ ”, and the p-toluenesulphonylformamidine isocyanate and dimethylformamide’ 1 8 , The reaction has been extended to the preparation of numerous formamidines from aryl isocyanates and dimethylformamide’ ”. NAcylformamidines 56 are produced by heating mixtures of acyl chlorides (ArCOCI or CI,CCOCI), sodium cyanate, dimethylformamide and lithium chloride”O. Thioacetamide and arenesulphonylisocyanates give the amidines 57 with loss of carbon oxysulphide121. The N-sulphinylsulphonamide58 reacts with dimethylketene N-phenylimine t o give the cycloadduct 59, which is hydrolysed to sulphurdioxide and the amidine 60; when other ketenimines were used the intermediates could not be isolated’22.

Me

The formation of N-benzenesulphonyl-N’N’-dimethylformamidine from the imine 61 and dimethylformamide is though to involve an intermediate o x a ~ e t i d i n o n e ’ ~ ~ :

351

7. Recent advances in the synthesis of amidines

-

NSozPh
+

“YC5 0

D. From lsocyanldes The reaction of aryl isocyanideswith amines to form formarnidineshas been known for a century124but alkyl isocyanides did not react. It was found that under catalysis by silver chloride and other salts of metals of Groups IB and IIB aliphaticisocyanidesadd all kinds of primary and secondary i i r n i n e ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ ’ : BuNC i- R’R‘NH

AgCl

YNBu

HC,

The method has been applied to the preparation of N-sulphonylformamidines62 from various isocyanides and methanesulphonamideor arenesulphonamides;the I3C NMR spectra of the products show that they exist in solution in the tautomericform shown128.A number of glycosylformamidineshave been obtained from sugar isocyanides and various amines in the presence of silver chloride’29.The catalysed addition of morpholine to phenyl isocyanide leads to the Z-isomer 63, which rearrangesto the stable E-isomer64 at room temperature. The corresponding aziridine derivative 65 undergoes ring-expansion on treatment with hydrogen chloride to yield N-phenylirnidazoline130.13

’.

Ph

I

G. V. Boyd

358

E. Formation of Amldines by Addition Reactions

Aliphatic aldehydes react with sodamide in liquid ammonia to yield amidines 66 Catalytic hydrogenation of the nitro compound 67 leads to a cyclic arnidine'j3.

132.

J----% H2NJ .---

O2N

H

H

(67)

The electrophilicenamine68 reacts with anilineto give an amidine'34. The enamidine69 is formed by the addition of formamidineto dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylateat - 10 0C135.

(68) H2N\

E'

/N

JL

C02Me

Me02C

(89)

Primary amines add to the enynamine 70 at the triple bond to yield olefinic a m i d i n e ~ ' ~ ~ .

(70)

N,N'-Disubstituted propenamidines 71 (Ar = 2-C1C6H, or 2-O,NC&) react with ~ the respective adducts, amines13', alcohols138,thiols' 3 9 and r n a l ~ n o n i t r i l eto' ~afford e.g. 72-75.

H

(71)

(72)

(73)

359

7. Recent advances in the synthesis of amidines

F. From Heterocyclic Compounds

2-Alkyl-Zoxazolines react with ethylene diamine or N-alkylethylene diamines to yield cyclic amidines with the elimination of e t h a n ~ l a m i n e ’ ~ ~ : H2N < k R 1

Q$R1

t R~HN

ANJ

The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of tosyl azide to a-cyclopropylenamines 76 (NR3, = morpholino) results in triazolines, which decompose by two pathways (see Scheme 1).

(76)

I

R2 Rl-$+

I

Tos

(78)

SCHEME I

(7s)

G . V. Boyd

360

In the first, diazoalkanes and amidines 77 are produced, while the second leads to rearranged amidines 79. Increasing alkyl substitution in the enamine favours the formation of the rearranged products, presumably by stabilizing the intermediate carbeniumions 78. Thus, with compound 76 (R' = R2 = H) the ratio of amidines 77:79 is 25:75; for 76 (R' = R2 =Me) this ratio is reversed142. A thiatriazoline is thought to be the intermediatein the formation of tosylamidines from thioamides and tosyl a ~ i d e ' ~ ~ : Me

Dehydrogenation of 1,3,5-triethylhexahydro-1,3,5-triazine fluoroborate affords the corresponding amidinium EtN-NEt

<J Et

Ph,c* BF,____,

with triphenylmethyl tetra-

Et NE :-t


BF4-

1,3,5-Triazine is a source of formamide in its reaction with 2-amino-5-phenyl-1,3,4oxadiazole to yield the corresponding formamidine; in the presence of piperidine, The aminothiazole 81 behaves a n a l o g ~ u s l y ' ~ ~ . compound 80 is ~btained'~'.

2,4,6-Triphenyl-1,3,5-oxadiazinium pentachlorostannateis transformed into derivatives of benzamidine by the action of primary or secondary amines14':

7. Recent advances in the synthesis of amidines

361

G. Other Reactions

Amidines are produced by a type of Beckmann rearrangement when ketoximes are heated with hexamethylpho~phortriamide’~~:

HMPA

Ar\

/C=N-ZOH

Me

HNAr

MeC

“Me2

The action of tris(dimethylamino)phosphine on amide oximes yields mixtures of amidines and 2,Sdihydro- 1,3,5,2-triazaphosphorin 2-oxides 82’49; N,N-dialkylamidoximes give 1If-2,l -benzazaphosphole 2-oxides 83 in this reaction.

NMe2

NMe2

I

The action of primary aliphatic or aromatic amines on the imidazolidine derivative 84 results in N-(anilinoethy1)formamidines. The authors consider the zwitterion 85 as a possible intermediate (Scheme 2)’”. Ph

Ph

Ph

Ph

Ph

Ph

Ph

Ph

(84) Ph

“\;/NR NHPh

.

Ph

N-

Ph

SCHEME 2

/

362

G. V. Boyd

Analogous reactions of 84 with p-toluenesulphonamide and the phosphoramide H,NP(O) (OEt), afford the formamidine derivatives 86 and 87, respecti~ely'~~.

(86)

(87)

Flash-vacuumpyrolysis of various diaminobicyclo [n. 1.01alkanes results in cycloalkenes and amidines, possibly via carbene intermediates. Dimorpholinobicyclo C4.1.01heptane, for example, gave cyclohexene and the cyclic amidine 88lS2.

(88)

The combined action of nitriles and olefins on phenylsulphenamidesin the presence of trifluoromethanesulphonicacid leads to amidines by way of episulphonium salts:

+ PhSNHBu'

CF,SO,H -H~NBU'

*

O

-

P

h

Me

1-Octene, N-(phenylsulpheny1)pyrrolidine this reaction153.

and acetonitrile gave solely compound 89 in

7. Recent advances in the synthesis of amidines

363

Treatment of the enamines 90 with nitrosobenzene surprisingly produces rearranged amidines 91, together with azoxybenzene and other reduction products of nitrosobenzene 54:

4- PhNO Me2N

H

-2

[HI

ArCOC

/NMe2

\NPh

(90)

(91)

The authorssuggestthe intermediate formation of 1,Zoxazetidines 92, which rearrangeby a radical mechanism and then open to yield the products (Scheme 3)’”.

90

+

O=NPh

4

q+H

Me2N

0-N,

PhNO -H.

\Ph

.

A? Me2N

+fH 0-N,

1

(92)

\Ph

IrwNMe2 -H.

0-N

0-N

‘Ph

\Ph

SCHEME 3 V. REFERENCES 1. J. A. Gautier, M.Miocque and C. C. Farnoux,in The ChemistryofAmidinesand fmidates(Ed.S.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10.

11.

12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Patai), Wiley, New York, 1975, p. 283. V. G. Granik, Usp. Khim., 52, 669 (39833; Russ. Chem. Rev., 52, 377 (1983). A. Pinner and F. Klein, Chem. Ber., 10, 1889 (1877). A. Pinner, Die fminoiither und ihre Derivate, Oppenheim, Berlin, 1892. Reference I, p. 292. R. Roger and D. G. Neilson, Chem. Rev., 61, 179 (1961). G. Wagner and J. Wunderlich, Phurmazie, 31, 766 (1976). G. Wagner, B. Voigt, D. Danicke and T. Liebermann, Pharmazie, 31, 528 (1976). R. R. Tidwell, L. L. Fox and J. D. Geratz, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 445,729 (1976). T. Pantev and R. Georgieva, Farmutsiya (Sofin), 29, 1 (1979). G. Wagner and B. Voigt, Pharmazie, 33, 568 (1979). B. Decroix and P. Pastour, J . Chem. Res. ( S ) , 132 (1978). C. Soula, A. Marsura and C. Luu-Duc, J . Phann. Belg., 42,293 (1987). Japan, Patent, 7,392,301 (1973); Chem. Abstr., SO, 145 849 (1974). USSR Patent, 91461 I (1982); Chem. Abstr., 97, 91 965 (1982). A. A. Avetisyan, S. Kh. Karagez, M. T. Dangvan and D. L. Gezalyan, Arm. Khim. Zh. 32,389 (1979); Chem. Abstr., 92, 215 023 (1980).

364 17. 18. 19. 20.

G . V. Boyd

Japan, Patent, 77,131,521 (1977); Chem. Abstr., 88, 120 625 (1978). R. C. Schnur, J . Org. Chem., 44, 3726 (1979). Brit. Patent, 1,519,353 (1978); Chem. Ahstr., 90, 121 204 (1979). V. A. Dorokhov, A. R. Amamchyan, V. S. Bogdanov and T. R. Shchegoleva, Izu. Akad. Nauk SSSR. Ser. Khim., 2622 (1987). 21. J. I. Ogonor, Tetrahedron, 37, 2909 (1981). 22. R. Fuks, Tetrahedron, 29, 2147 (1973). 23. Belg. Patent, 831,934 (1976); Chem. Ahstr., 85, 116 917 (1976). 24. Brit. Patent, 1,466,047 (1977); Chem. Abstr., 87, 117 663 (1977). 25. M. Strebelle and R. Fuks, Bull. SOC.Chim. Belg., 87, 717 (1978). 26. B. V. Passet, G. N. Kulbitskii, N. A. Kalashnikova and T. 1. Voropaeva, Zh. Org. Khim., 8,1246 (1972). 27. L. S. Cook and B. J. Wakefield, Tetrahedron Lett., 147 (1976). 28. L. S. Cook and B. J. Wakefield, J. Chem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. 1 , 2392 (1980). 29. R. T. Boere, R. T. Oakley and R. W. Reed, J . Organomet. Chem., 331, 161 (1987). 30. A. R. Sanger, Inorg. Nucl. Chem. Lett., 9, 231 (1967). 31. W. Ried, H. Dietschmann and H. E. Erle, Synthesis, 619 (1980). 32. V. N. Lebedev, V. V. Yurechko and T. P. Vishnyakova, Zh. Vies. Khim. Oua., 26,465 (1981); Chem. Abstr., 95, 168 502 (1981). 33. W. Ried and H. Dietschmann, Ann. Chem., 1009 (1981). 34. Reference 1, p. 296. 35. J. I. Ogonor, Acta Pol. Pharm., 43, 191 (1986). 36. V. L. Dubina, L. N. Shchebitchenko, 1. Yu. Kozak and N. V. Dubina, Zh. Ory. Khim., 22,2590 (1986). 37. W. Maringgele and A. Meller, 2. Anorg. Ally. Chem., 445, 107 (1978). 38. V. P. Kukhar and T. N. Kasheva, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 46, 1462 (1976). 39. A. D. Sinitsa and V. 1. Kalchenko, Dopov. Akad. Nauk Ukr. RSR. Ser. B: Ceol.. Khim. Biol. Nauki, 1007 (1977); Chem. Abstr., 88, 89 765 (1978). 40. N. M. Mironovskaya, S. F. Dyrnova, 1. L. VladirnirovaandN. N. Melnikov, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 48, 2465 (1978). 41. V. L. Dubina, V. P. Pedan and I. K. Dembinskii, Zh. Org. Khim., 12, 64 (1976). 42. A. V. Martynov, A. N. Mirskova, 1. D. Kalikhman, P. V. Makerov and M. G. Voronkov, Zh. Org. Khim., 15,427 (1979). ,43. C. Jut? in Iminium Salts in Organic Chemistry, Part 1 (Eds. H. Bohme and H. G. Viehe), Wiley, New York, 1976, p. 225. 44. D. Dzharov, Farmatsiya (Sofia), 27, 1 (1977). 45. E. K. Dyachenko, V. G. Posin, A. A. Smirnova, A. I. Kapitan, N. D. Rozhkova and M. P. Papirnik, Zh. Org. Khim., 23, 2456 (1987). 46. L. M. Yun, S. A. Makhmudov, Kh. M. Shakhidoyatov, Ch. Sh. Kadyrov and S. S. Kasymova, Khim. Prir. Soedin., 680 (1980); Chem. Abstr., 94, 175 039 (I98 1). 47. J. Besan, L. Kulcsar and M. Kovacs, Synthesis, 883 (1980). 48. I. Bitter, E. Karpati-Adam and L. Toke, Acta Chim. Acad. Sci. Hung., 102, 235 (1979). 49. J. Liebscher, Synthesis, 1084 (1982). 50. U. S. Patent, 4,353,830 (1982); Chem. Ahstr., 98, 534344 (1983). 51. R. G. Glushkov andV. G. Granik, Usp. Khim.,38,1989(1969);Russ. Chem. Reu.,38,913 (1969). 52. U. S. Patent 4, 321, 202 (1982); Chem. Abstr., 96, 217 693 (1982). 53. J. Liebscher, M. Paetzel and U. Bechstein, 2. Chem., 26, 289 (1986). 54. M. Ogata and H. Matsumoto, Heterocycles, 11, 139 (1978). 55. E. Haug, W. Kantlehner, P. Speh and H. J. Brauner, Synthesis, 35 (1983). 56. W. Kantlehner, in Iminium Salts in Oryanic Chemistry, Part 2 (Eds. H. Bohme and H.G. Viehe), Wiley, New York, 1979, p. 181. 57. T. Kato, A. Takada and T. Ueda, Chem. Pharm. Bull., 20, 901 (1972). 58. Y. Nii, K. Okano, S. Kobayashi and M. Ohto, Tetrahedron Lett., 2517 (1979). 59. P. Reynaud, J. D. Brion and G. Menara, Bull. SOC.Chim. Fr., 301 (1976). 60. J. Gloede, L. Haase and H. Gross, Z. Chem., 9, 201 (1969). 61. R. F. Abdulla and R. S. Brinkmeyer, Tetrahedron, 35, 1675 (1979). 62. V. GGranik, E. 0.Sochneva and I. V. Persianova, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 379(1978);Chem. Abstr., 89, 43 228 (1978).

7. Recent advances in the synthesis of amidines

365

63. 64. 65. 66.

H. Junek, M. Mittelbach and B. Thierrichter. Monarsli. Chem., 110, 1279 (1979). E. C. Taylor and D. J. Dumas, J. Org. Chem., 45,2485 (1980). R. S. Kosmane and N. J. Leonard, J. Org. Chem., 46, 1457 (1981). P. Ahuja,J. Singh,M. B. Nigam, V. Sardana,K. KarandN. Anand, IndianJ. Chem., Sect. B, 2IB, 849 (1982). 67. V. G: Granik, N. B. Marchenko, E. 0. Sochneva, R. G. Glushkov, T. F. Vlasova and Yu. N. Sheinker, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 805 (1976); Chem. Abstr., 85, 108 568 (1976). 68. V.G. Granik, N. B. Marchenko, E. 0. Sochneva, T. F. Vlasova, A. B. Grigorev, M. K. Polievktov and R. G. Glushkov, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 1505 (1976);Chem. Abstr., 86, 139 814 (1977). 69. W. Kantlehner, F. Wagner and H. Bredereck, Ann. Chem., 344 (1980). 70. Y. Lin, S . A. Lang, Jr., M. F. Lovell and N. A. Perkinson, J . Ory. Chem., 44,4160 (1979). 71. Y. Lin and S. A. Lang, Jr., Synthesis, 119 (1980). 72. Y. Lin, S . A. Lang, Jr. and S. P. Petty, J . Org. Chem., 45, 3750 (1980). 73. S . I . Kaimanakova, E. F. Kuleshova, N. P. Soloveva and V. G. Granik, Khim. Geterotsikl, Soedin., 1553 (1982); Chem. Abstr., 98, 89 306 (1983). 74. N. I. Smetskaya, N. A. Mukhinaand V. G. Granik, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 799 (1984);Chem. Abstr., 101, 230 309 (1984). 75. W. Tritschler and S . Kabusz, Synthesis, 32 (1972). 76. W. Tritschler and S . Kabusz, Synthesis, 423 (1973). 77. B. W. Hansen and E. B. Pedersen, Acta Chem. Scand., 834, 369 (1980). 78. E. B. Pedersen and D. Carlsen, Chem. Scr., 23, 123 (1984). 79. E. B. Pedersen, Synthesis, 546 (1979). 80. E. B. Pedersen, N. 0. Vesterager and S. 0. Lawesson, Synthesis, 547 (1972). 8 I. E. B. Pedersen and S. 0. Lawesson, Tetrahedrbn, 29,4205 (1973). 82. E. B. Pedersen, Acta Chem. Scand., B31, 261 (1977). 83. T. Imarnoto,T. Matsurnoto, H. Yokoyama, M. Yokoyama and K. Yamaguchi, J.Org. Chem., 49, 1105 (1984). 84. M. Kakimoto, S. Ogata, A. Mochizuki and Y. Imai, Chem. Lett., 821 (1984). 85. S. Ogata, A. Mochizuki, M. Kakimoto and Y. Imai, Bull. Chem. SOC. Jpn., 59, 2171 (1986). 86. S . Ogata, M. Kakirnoto and Y.Imai, Makromol. Chem.. Rapid Commun., 6, 835 (1985). 87. J. D. Wilson, J. S. Wager and H. Weingarten, J . Ory. Chem., 36, 1613 (1971). 88. C. Heidelberger, A. Guggisberg, E. Stephanou and M. Hesse, Helu. Chem. Aclu, 64, 399 (1981).

89. Y. Kikugawa, S. Yamada, H. Nagashima and K. Kaji, Teirahedron Lett., 699 (1969). 90. G. Lettieri, A. Larizza, G. Brancaccioand P. Monforte, Atti SOC.PeloritanaSci. Fis., Mat. Nat., 24, 77 (1978); Chem. Abstr., 92, 94 028 (1980). 91. W. Ried and R. Christ, Ann. Chem., 693 (1980). 92. E. A. Abrazhanova, V. N. Sevastyanov and A. F. Pronskii, Zh. Org. Khim., 11,2243 (1975). 93. German (East) Patent 258, 223 (1989); Chem. Abstr., 110, 134 895 (1989). 94. R. M. Roberts and R. H. de Wolfe, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 76,2411 (1954). 95. E. C. Taylor and W. A. Ehrhart,J. Org. Chem., 28, 1108 (1963). 96. A. P. VinogradoB and N. P. Peet, J. Heterocycl. Chem., 26, 97 (1989). 97. S. C. Wicherink, J. W. Scheeren and R. J. F. Nivard, Synthesis, 273 (1977). 98. H. G. Viehe and 2. Janousek, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl., 12,806 (1973). 99. Z. Janousek and H. G. Viehe, Reference43, p. 343. 100. H. G. Viehe and 2. Janousek, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl., 10, 573 (1971). 101. R. G. Glushkov, L. I. Dronova, L. A. Nikolaeva, B. A. Medvedev, M. D. Mashkovskii, N. P. Soloveva, K. F. Turchin and 1. V. Persianova, Khim. Farm. Zh., 12,59 (1978);Chem. Abstr., 89, 109 286 (1978). 102. R. G. Glushkov, L. I. Dronova, L. A. Nikolaeva, B. A. Medvedev and M. D. Mashkovskii, Khim. Farm. Zh., 15, 39 (1981);Chem. Abstr., 95, 132 801 (1981). 103. R. G. Glushkov, L. 1. Dronova, L. A. Nikolaeva and Yu. 1. Kostikova, Khim. Farm. Zh., 12,93 (1978); Chem. Abstr., 88, 190 679 (1978). 104. V. P. Kukhar, A. M. Pinchuk and M. V. Shevchenko, Zh. Org. Khim., 9,43 (1973). 105. V. P. Kukhar, V. 1. Pasternak and A. V. Kirsanov, Zh. Org. Khim.. 2. 1309 (1966). 106. N. G. Pavlenko and V. P. Kukhar, Ukr. Khim. Zh. (Russ. Ed.), 48,395 (1982);Cheh. Abstr., 97, 23 735 (1982).

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107. B. Caillaux, P. George, F. Tataruch, Z. Janousek and H. G. Viehe, Chimia (Switz.), 30, 387 (1976). 108. A. Antus-Ercsenyi and I. Bitter, Acta Chim. Acad. Sci. Hung., 99, 29 (1979). 109. Z. Janousek and H. G. Viehe, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. Engl., 12,74 (1973). 110. H. Gold, Angew Chem., 72,956 (1960). 1 1 1. J. T. Gupton, C. Colon, C. R. Harrison, M. J. Lizzi and D. E. Polk, J . Org. Chem., 45,4522 ( 1980). 112. K. Kurita, Y. Kusayama and Y. Iwakura, J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Chem. Ed., 15,2163 (1977). 113. K. Kaji, H. Matsubara, H. Nagashima, Y. Kikugawa and S. Yamada, Chem. Pharm. Bull., 26, 2246 (1978). 114. J. Pornet and L. Miginiac, Bull. SOC.Chim. Fr., 994 (1974). 115. D. Seyferth and R. C. Hui, J . Org. Chem., 50, 1985 (1985). 116. P. F. Wiley, J. Am. Chem. SOC.,81,3746 (1949). 117. M. L. Weiner, J. Org. Chem., 25,2245 (1960). 118. C. King, J. Org. Chem., 25, 352 (1960). 119. J. L. Neymeyer, J. Pharm. Sci., 53, 1539 (1964). 120. German Patent 3, 125,438 (19833; Chem. Abstr., 99, 122 071 (1983). 121. K. Burger and E. Hoess, Chem.-Ztg., 112, 349 (1988). 122. T. Minami, F. Takimoto and T. Agawa, Bull. Chem. SOC. Jpn., 48, 3259 (1975). 123. A. V. Fokin,N. D. Chkanikov, V. L. Vershininand A. F. Kolomiets, Iru. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Khim., 949 (1984). 124. J. U. Nef, Ann. Chem., 270, 267 (1892). 125. T. Saegusa, Y. Ito, S. Kobayashi, K. Hirota and H. Yoshioka, Bull. Chem. SOC.Jpn., 42,3310 ( 1969). 126. T. Saegusa and Y. Ito, Synthesis, 291 (1975). 127. T. Saegusa and Y. Ito, in Isonitrile Chemistry (Ed. I. Ugi), Academic Press, London, 1971, p. 65. 128. P. Jakobsen and S. Treppendahl, Tetrahedron, 33, 3137 (1977). 129. D. Mannet, P. Boullanger and G. Descotes, Tetrahedron Lett., 21, 1459 (1980). 130. A. F. Hegarty and A. Chandler,J. Chem. SOC.,Chem. Commun., 130 (1980). 131. A. F. Hegarty and A. Chandler, Tetrahedron Lett., 21,885 (1980). 132. Japan. Patent 7,512,408 (19753; Chem. Abstr., 83, 178 370 (1975). 133. S. Rajappa and R. Srinivasan, Indian J. Chem., 178, 339 (1979). 134. Japan. Patent 5,857,357 (19833; Chem. Abstr., 99, 121 842 (1983). 135. L. P. Prikazchikova, L. I. Rybchenko and V. M. Cherkasov, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 831 (1977); Chem. Abstr., 87, 184 452 (1977). 136. S. E. Tolchinskii, I. A. Maretina and A. A. Petrov. Zh. Org. Khim., 17, 1807 (1981). 137. R. Fuks and M. Van Den Bril, Tetrahedron, 37,2895 (1981). 138. M. Van Den Bril and R. Fuks, Tetrahedron, 37,2905 (1981). 139. R. Fuks and M. Van Den Bril, Synthesis, 121 (1980). 140. M. Van Den Bril and R. Fuks, Synthesis, 893 (1980). 141. K. H. Magosch, Synthesis, 37 (1972). 142. D. Pocar and P. Trimarco, J. Chem. SOC.,Perkin Trans. I , 622 (1976). 143. 0. V. Zelenskaya, V. A. Kozinskii, A. V. Nazarenko and A. P. Ranskii, Zh. Prikl. Khim. (Leningrad), 57, 1155 (1984); Chem. Abstr., 102, 5 853 (1985). 144. H. Mohrle and U. Scharf, Arch. Pharm., 307, 51 (1974). 145. P. Henklein and G. Westphal, Z. Chem., 13, 429 (1973). 146. A. Kreutzberger and M. U. Uzbek, Angew. Chem., lnt. Ed. EngL, 11, 144 (1972). 147. R. Fuks, M. Strebelle and A. Wenders, Synthesis, 788 (1977). 148. J. T. Gupton, J. P. Idoux, R. Leonard and G. DeCrexenzo, Synth. Commun., 13, 1083 (1983). 149. L. Lopez and J. Barrans, J. Chem. SOC..Perkin Trans. I , 1806 (1977). 150. J. Hocker and R. Merten, Chem. Ber., 105, 1651 (1972). 151. J. Hocker and R. Merten, Ann. Chem., 16 (1978). 152. E. Vilsmaier, G. Kristen and C. Tetzlaff, J . Org. Chem., 53, 1806 (1988). 153. P. Brownbridge, Tetrahedron Lett., 25, 3759 (1984). 154. L. N. Koikov, P. B. Terentev and Yu. G. Bundel, Zh. Org. Khim., 18, 669 (1982). 155. L. N. Koikov, P. B. Terentev, D. S. Yulit, Yu. T. Struchkov and V. E. Zubarev, Zh. Org. Khim., 21, 1820 (1985).

CHAPTER

8

Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines GERHARD V. BOYD Department of Organic Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel

.......,,,,,,...........,, . . ..... . . . ..... . . . ..... . . . A. With Electrophiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. With Nucleophiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Miscellaneous Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111. SYNTHESIS OF HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS FROM AMIDINES A. Five-membered Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Pyrroles.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Imidazoles.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Oxazoles and thiazoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Systems containing three heteroatoms . . . . . , , . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Systems containing nitrogen and phosphorus or boron. . . . . . . . . B. Six-membered Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Pyridines.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Pyridazines and pyrazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Pyrimidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Triazines.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Other ring systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1V.REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. INTRODUCTION.

...

..

..

11. REACTIONS O F AMIDINES.

367 368 368 375 378 380 380 380 380 386 386 389 390 390 395 398 410 416 420

1. INTRODUCTION

In this chapter reactions and synthetic uses of amidinesare discussed.By farthe largerpart deals with the preparation of heterocyclic compounds. A headings such as ‘pyridines’ means the formation of a six-memberedring containingone nitrogen atom; thus pyridines, partially or completely hydrogenated pyridines, pyridones and annelated pyridines, e.g. quinolines,are included in this section. Apart from the earlieraccount in this series’ there has been a very general review of the chemistry of amidines2,as well as a more specialized survey of syntheses with heterocyclic amidinesj and a review of the use of amidineprotected nucleosides for the synthesis of oligodeo~ynucleotides~. The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates, Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and Z. Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

367

G. V. Boyd

368

II. REACTIONS OF AMlDlNES A. With Electrophiles

Fluorination of trichloroacetamidine hydrochloride with fluorine in the presence of sodium fluoride and nickel filings at low temperatures results in the trifluoroamidine 15. Bromination of the enamidine 2 yields the bromo derivative 3 by an addition-elimination mechanism6. N-Tosylamidines form ureas on treatment with sodium hypochlorite by a Hofmann rearrangement (equation I)'. Simple amidines 4 (R = H, Me or Ar) are converted into N-methoxycarbonyl derivatives 5 by the action of methyl chloroformate'. Acylation of N-arylamidines occurs at the substituted nitrogen atom to yield the amidines 6(R = Me or the products readily rearrangeto the isomers 7 under the influenceof a trace of hydrochloricacid (equation 2)''. The site of acylation of aminoalkylamidines,e.g. 8, has been investigated' I .

p

h

~

(1)

~ Ph"

4

-

Ph
H

3

CBrPr

NH

Ph

(3)

(2) NHTos NaOCl

NHAr

-

-

H+

Fh '
Ph
NHA~'

NAr'COR

(2) NHAr'

(7)

(6)

HZN

Ph
N"2

(8)

Treatment of N,N,N'-trimethylbenzamidine with phenyl isothiocyanate results in the amidine 11 and methyl isothiocyanate. The kinetics of this exchangereaction point to the intermediacy of the betaine 9 and the 1,3-diazetidinethione10 (Scheme l ) I 2 .

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

369

t PhNCS

Ph
NMe2

Me2N Ph

(9)

-

Ph

x:>s Me

Me2N

NPh --MeNCS

-ph-(

NMe2

Ph

(11)

(10)

SCHEME 1 A number of phosphorylated amidines has been obtained by Russian workers. N,NDimethyltrifluoroacetamidine hydrochloride (12) reacts with phosphorus pentachloride to yield the salt 13; with triphenylphosphine-carbon tetrachloridethe triphenyl analogue 14 is formed' 3 . Acetamidine and benzamidine react with SP(OMe),CI to yield compounds 15 (R = Me or Ph)I4. The action of triethyl phosphite on the trichloroacetamidines 16 ( R = H or Me) is accompanied by reduction, giving derivatives 17 of dichloroacetamidinel 5*16.

<;"'

CF3

t

NPCI,

NMe2

NMe2 CI-

3 (14)

P(OEt),

NMeR

NH2

CI-

(13)

(16)

R
NMe2

CI-

(12)

II /OMe

NPPh,

C F3

( % C

S

t

(15)

0

II/OEt

CHC12 NMeR

(17)

The adduct 18 of formamidine to dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate has been described". The kinetics of the addition reactions of amidines to fluorinated nitriles, e.g. equation 3, have been determinedL8.

G. V. Boyd

370

NH c4F9-(NH

t

CeHisCN

C 4 F 9 3

(3)

c6Fi3

N4NH2

NH2

The action of dichlorocarbene, generated from chloroform and sodium hydroxide under phase-transfer conditions, on benzamidine results in benzonitrile and sodium cyanide, possibly as depicted in Scheme 219.

N P (H h --

t :CCI2 NH2

-

Ph

I-"+

H2

PhCN t CN-

SCHEME 2 Bicyclic amidines are chlorinated at the a-carbonatom by carbon tetrachloride in the absence of light and oxygen (equation 4)". Another type of reaction at the a-carbon atom of amidines is hydrogen-deuterium exchange, e.g. equation 5", and condensation (equation 6)22.The activation of the a-methylene group of amidines is attributed to the existence of amidine-enediamine tautomerism (equation 7); it is an important feature of ring-forming reactions of amidines (see equations 68, 69, 72, 77, 78, 83 and 87 and Schemes 9 and 12 below).

&

Me

t

R'CH~-C

BU'OCH

\ NMe2

JNR2 'NR3R4

--MezNH -BU'OH

L

(4)

t CHCI,

Me

Me2NCH=CH

RiCH=C

(6)


/NHR2 'NR3R4

(7)

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

371

N,N-Dimethylformamidines derived from esters of a-amino acids are alkylated at the other nitrogen atom; subsequent hydrolysis yields N-alkylamino acids with almost complete retention of configuration(equation 8)23.C-Alkylation of compounds of type 19 can be accomplished by prior conversion into the lithium derivatives 20. The reaction sequence has been used to prepare a great variety of C-substituted a-amino acids (equation 9)24. Meyers and his coworkers have put lithiated formamidines akin to 20 to impressive use. Treatment of pyrrolidine with N’-t-butyl-N,N-dimethylformamidine yields 21, which was converted into a-alkylpyrrolidinylformamidines22 by way of its lithio derivative. The formamido group was then removed by alkaline hydrolysis or by treatment with hydrazine, yielding 2-alkylpyrrolidines 23. Lithiation of 22, followed by alkylation and hydrazinolysis, gave 2,5-dialkylpyrrolidines 24 as mixtures of diastereomers (equation 10).The sequence was used for the synthesis of the fire ant venom 2ethyl-5-heptylpyrrolidine. The formamidino derivative 25 of tetrahydropyridine affords solely the rearranged4-methyl derivative 2626.Successive treatment of the tetrahydro-jcarboline27 with potassium hydride and t-butyllithium yields the metalated derivative 28, which forms 1-alkyl-tetrahydro-lktrbolines 29 (R = Me or Bu). When 1-bromo-3chloropropane is used as the alkylating agent the tetracyclic compound 30 is obtained (equation 11)26. Alkylated tetrahydropyridines have been prepared, starting with the piperidine derivative 31, via the phenylselenyl compound 32, which is hydrolysed t o the 2,3-dehydro compound 33. The latter on successive lithiation and alkylation yields 34. Hydrazinolysis of 34 gives 2-alkyl-l,2-dehydropiperidines35, while further lithiation, alkylation and hydrazinolysis affords 2,6-dialkyl- 1,2-dehydropiperidines 36. The latter sequence was used for the synthesis of solenopsin A (truns-2-methyl-6-undecylpiperidine)

+ CF,SOIMe

PhCHC02Me

I

t

PhCHC02Me

I

NM e

Me”i/

NYNMe2 H

R’CHC02H

I

NH2

I NHMe

(8)

S 03-

-

R’CHC02Me

- I

PhCHC02H

H

CF

,NMe2 HC\y;b

-

LI N

,w

\Prf

C02Me

I I

RI-C-Li

(4)

t

,yNMe2 H

H

(20)

(19)

R2 R’-

1 C-C02H 1 NH2

HCI

(9) R2 R’-C

I 1

-C 0 2 M e

NYNMe2 H

(82) I

(II) (62) tl

(22)

+ngNYH

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

373

by reducing 36 (R' = C , 'HZ3,RZ = Me) with lithium aluminium hydride(Scheme 3)". A method for the homologation ofcarbonylcompounds is shown in Scheme 4.27Thus, from benzophenoneand butyl iodide the ketone 37 is obtained,cyclohexanoneand butyl iodide give 38, and piperonal and methyl iodide yield the ketone 39. Chiral formamidines have

0

(,i) Bu'Li

(ii) PhSoSePh

0

0

SePh

H

(31)

HA N B u t

HA N B u t

(32)

(33)

I Q aR, =R2aR *aR, (i)Bu'Li (i i)R' B r

R1

N2H4

R*

I

I

Bu'Li

'Rf:3 Me2C0

+

0

SCHEME 4

H2N-N

G . V. Boyd

314

been employed for the synthesis of optically active 1-alkyltetrahydroisoquinolines. Treatment of N-formyltetrahydroisoquinolinewith triethyloxonium fluoroborate, followed by disilylated (lS,2s)- I -phenyl-2-amino-1,3-propanediolgave the formamidine40, which was converted into various alkyltetrahydroisoquinolines 41 (R = Me, Bu, Bu', PhCH, or PhCH,CH,) by successive lithiation, alkylation and hydrazinolysis (equation 12). All products had the S-configuration and in each case the enantiomeric excess was better than90x2'. Among otherchiralauxiliariesevaluated, the t-butyl ether of valinol proved to be particularly advantageousz9.The derived formamidine 42 afforded ( - )-salsolidine(43) of nearly complete optical purity3'.

F

'

h

4 C4"9

M

e

o

~

M

Me0

Ph

Me0 e-4

Me0

Me0 Me

(42)

(43)

e

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

375

B. With Nucleophiles

Mild hydrolysis of acylamidines 44, obtained by the condensation of primary amides with dimethylformamide diethyl acetal, gives diacylamines in excellent yields (equation 13)31. A method for converting ketones R’R2CHCOR3into acids R1R2R3CC0,H is illustrated in equation 14. The ketone is transformed into the pyrrolidine enamine 45, which reacts with the phosphoryl azide (PhO),P(O)N, to give a rearranged amidine. Alkaline hydrolysis gives the substituted acid32. The selective removal of the methoxycarbonyl group in the formamidinopyrazine N-oxide 46 was brought about by treatment with lithium iodide in hot wet dimethylformamide; the formamidino group was then split off by leaving the compound in methanol containing triethyl orthoformate and toluene-p-sulphonicacid, giving the protected aminoaldehyde 47, a useful intermediate for pteridine synthesis (equation 15)”. HC-OEt 7 4 e 2

+

HzNCOR U H
‘OEt

NMeZ

NHCOR

H<

‘XphyHN N-P

MeCHZCOPh

0 OP ,hII

‘0Ph-

+

Me-

IN\

Me

/ \

LJ

PhYC /

H

\

Me

(14)

G. V. Boyd

376

N,N,N'-Trifluoroacetamidine (48) reacts with ethanolic sodium ethoxide to give a mixture of the imidate 49 and ethyl acetate (equation 16)34.The exchange reaction of simple amidines with butylamine produces mixtures of tautomeric amidines,which react furtherwith butylamine to yield N,N'-dibutylamidines(equation 1 7)35.Hydrazinolysis of acetamidine hydrochlorides with hydrazine or substituted hydrazines in ethanol affords high yields of hydrazidines (equation 1 8)36;the reaction also proceeds well under high pressure3'. N,N'-Dibenzylformamidine exchanges one of its benzylamino groups for morpholine when it is heated with the morpholine enaminederivative of isopropyl methyl ketone (equation 19)38.The N,N-dimethylformamidino group in compound 50 is readily exchanged on treatment with secondary amines (equation 20)39.A more complex exchangereactionis shown in equation 2 140. The amidine 51 exchangesone of its methoxy groups for cyanide when it is heated with trimethylsilyl cyanide (equation 22)4'.

'OEt

H

NMe2

CI

-

NMe2

c1R = H , M e or Ph

NCHpPh

t NHCHp Ph

+cHMe2+

H /<

+

cH3-(HMe2 NCH2Ph

(19)

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

7

311

COzEt C02Et

R’R’NH

R‘R2N

H

“M : e2

(20) H

(50)

/CN

/OMe

OM^

MeISiCN

(22)

‘OMe

(61)

The amidinium salts 52 (R = CN or C0,Et) suffer deamination on treatment with sodium borohydride (equation 23)42.Cyclic amidines are cleaved by the action of lithium diisobutylaluminium hydride. Thus compound 53, prepared43 from N-isopropyl-1,3diaminopropaneand ethyl acetoacetate, gives N-ethyl-N’-isopropyl-1,3-diaminopropane (equation 24) and DBU is reduced to 1,s-diazacycloundecane(equation 25). The reaction has been used as a method for the monoalkylation of polyamines. For example, 1,8diaminonaphthaleneyields the heptyl derivative (equation 26) and 1,3-diaminopropane has been converted into spermine (54) by treatment of its tosylate with succinonitrile, followed by hexamethyldisilazane and reduction of the resulting bis(trimethylsily1) derivative (equation 27)44.

&;

H

+

R> f@

H

H

(23)

(52)

+ MeCOCH2C0,Et

Y

-H,O

NH

NH2

[-MeCO,Et]

L i AIBu’zH,

G3 -c> G. V. Boyd

378

H

DBU

9

00-00

NH2

NH2

(25)

NHz

(26)

NH ‘C,Hl5

C. Miscellaneous Reactions

The cyclic amidine 55 is converted into thioacylketene aminals by the combined action of aromatic aldehydes and sulphurin a process akin to the Willgerodt-Kindler reaction (equation 28)45. 2-Dimethylamino-1-pyrrolin-5-one undergoes a remarkable ringcontraction on irradiation, yielding the cyclopropyl isocyanate 56 (equation 29)46. The pesticidal amidine 57 undergoes photolysis in water to afford mainly the hydrolysis product 58, together with a little of the ether 59 (equation 30)47.The thiazetidine S-oxide 60 extrudes sulphur monoxide on flash-vacuum pyrolysis to yield the enamidine 61 (equation 31)48.

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

379

0 \\

(29)

Me

Me

\

Ma

H

(60)

(61)

The 1,3-migrationof groups from one nitrogen atom to the other has been observed for a number of amidines. The migrating group may be sulphenyl (equation 32)49,chlorine, Ph2S+,Ph3P+or Ph,As+ (e.g. equation 33)” or nitroso (equation 34)’l. A degenerate [3,3] sigmatropic shift (equation 35) has been reported”. A: N-SR

NAr’

HYN-sR = Ar2

Ph

37”+ NAsPh3

Me

H<

(32)

NA~*

Me +

NAsPhS

Ph<\

(33) NMe

G. V. Boyd

380

Ph

Ph

I

I

A r = p-Tol, E =C02Me

111. SYNTHESIS OF HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS FROM AMlDlNES

A review on amidinoboranes,which exist as equilibrium mixtures with four-membered boron nitrogen heterocycles (equation 36), has appeared".

-

L

R2

N

R'<j'BRd

N/

(36)

R3

A. Five-membered Rings 1. Pyrroles

5-Amino-6-methyluracil condenses with the ester aminal 62 on heating to give the amidine 63,which in turn yields the annelated pyrrole 64 on treatment with ammonia (equation 37)s3. The action of N,N-dimethylbenzamidine on diphenylcyclopropenone results in the pyrrolinone 65 (equation 38)54. Lithiation of the formamidine 31 (see Scheme 3) with t-butyllithium, followed by reaction with pentynylcopper, gives the copper derivative 66, which on treatment with 1-chloro-34odopropaneand subsequent hydrolysis furnishesthe azabicyclo [4.3.0]nonane 67 (equation 39)55. 2. lmidazoles The amidine 69, formed from n-phenylenediamine and the nitrile 68, cyclizes spontaneously to benzimidazole (equation 40)56; a similar reaction of 2,3-diaminopyridine is shown in equation 41 5'. o-Fluoronitrobenzenereadily condenses with N , N dimethylbenzamidine; the product yields the benzimidazazolium nitrite 70 on heating (equation 42)58.Thermalcyclization of the complex cyclohexylamidine71 (as the formate)

w---/-"2

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

0

H

+

38 1

PBu+

2H-C-NMe2

CH3

"Me2

+ NH,

W--y$Ye2 0

0

NMe2

NMe2

H

oAPh

+

ph-(NH NMe2

Ph

0

a::: f H-C-OMe /NMe2

'CN

-MeOH -HCN

a)

(67)

(66)

/H a N T N M e 2 NH2

-Ms,NH,

H

G . V. Boyd

382

The gives the imidazole 72, accompanied by a trace of the isomer 73 (equation 43)5y. reduced imidazoquinoxaline 74 is formed by the action of N-methylbenzamidine on 1methylquinoxalinium iodide (equation 44)". Heating the formamidinophenylazouracil 75 yields 8-dimethylaminotheophylline(77), which is formed by way of the isolable N anilino compound 76 (equation 45)61.The iminoimidazoline 79 results from the reaction of benzamidine with cr-acetamido-/~,~-dichloroacrylonitrile (78)(equation 4616'. Bromination of the N-allylbenzamidine80 yields the imidazoline hydrobromide 81 (equation 47); in contrast, the cinnamyl analogue82 forms the tetrahydropyrimidine 83 (equation 48)63.

aF

t M e H N F P h

NO2

aNyph Me

4

d

NMe NO2

MeN

Me

(70)

NHCHO

H 2 N c ~ N H C6H11 H

-

, Z N C 1 N ,

C6H11

Me

N H

+

(42)

H2 N

H2N

Me

1-

NO;

(74)

C6H11

(43)

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

- Ph
iI N

ccl,-(NH

NHCH2CH-CHPh

L_,

Brz

3x3

(46)

cc13yx (48)

HN

Br

(82)

(83)

N-Chloro-N-phenylbenzamidine 84, obtained by the action of N-chlorosuccinimideon N-phenylbenzamidine, reacts with enamines 85 (R = alkyl or aryl) to yield unstable 4dialkylaminoimidazolines 86, which readily eliminate a secondary amine to form imidazoles 87 (equation 49)64. The same result is obtained when mixtures of Nphenylbenzamidine and enamines 85 are treated with bromineb5.It has been suggested that both reactions proceed via a halogenoimmoniumsalt 88 (X = CI or Br), which adds N-phenylbenzamidine to yield 89 (equation 50). N-Benzoyl-N’-chlorobenzamidineand the enamine 90 gave a mixture of the imidazoline 92 and the amidine 93; the latter is thought to be formed by rearrangementofthe common intermediate91 (equation 5 1)66. A

H ___,

G . V. Boyd

384

f--0

Ph

Me

(94)

(95)

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

385

compound of the same type as 89 and 91, namely the tosyl derivative 95, was isolated from the reaction of N-chloro-N’-tosylbenzamidinewith the enamine 94 in chloroform; cyclization to the imidazoline 96 occurred readily (equation 52)67. The imidazolines 97 are produced from N-acyl-N’-chlorobenzamidines and trans-l,2-dimorpholinoethene (equation

(97)

The action of cr-bromophenylacetyl chloride on N,N’-dimethylbenzamidine results in the unstable mesoionic anhydro-4-hydroxyimidazolium hydroxide 98, which can be trapped as the pyrrole 99 by a n in situ reaction with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate (equation 54)69. The tetraphenyl analogue 100, prepared similarly from N , N diphenylbenzamidine, can be isolated7”.

“To . ph-c:e +

-HCI NEtl

H

Ph

ph+!%o

-HBr

Br

Me

Ph E

-MeNCO

E =C02Me

Ph

Ph Me

Ph

Ph Me

P h * r x o

Ph

Ph

The isocyanatoamidine 102 is obtained when the azirine 101 is treated with tosyl isocyanate. The reaction is thought to proceed by way of two dipolar intermediates. Compound 102 readily rearrangesto the imidazolinone 103 (Scheme 5)”. It has been claimed that benzamidine reacts with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate in boiling methanol to yield the biimidazolinone 104’’ (cf. equation 93, below).

-

G. V. Boyd

386

NMe2

+

2eJ.

TosNCO

__*

M e & X ~ o s

Me Me

‘NFNTos Me i -

Me

(101)

0

I

0

10s

(103)

(102)

SCHEME 5

HN

Ph

3. Oxazoles and thiazoles

‘Phosgeneiminiumchloride’(Viehe’s salt, 105) and dimethylacetamide yield the salt 106, which reacts with ammonia to give the ynamine-amidine107. The latter is converted into the oxazolines 108 and 109 by the action of carbon dioxide and phenyl isocyanate, respectively (Scheme 6)73. Thiazoles 11 1 (Ar = p-MeOC,H,; R = CO,Me, Ac or Bz) are formed from the amidine 110 and the appropriate thiols (equation 55)74. The amidines 112, obtained from dimethylformamide dimethylacetal and N-arylthioureas,react with phenacyl bromide to yield thiazoles 115 via the isolable intermediates 113 and 114 (equation 56)75. 4. Systems containing three heteroatorns

Acylamidines 116 are converted into 1,2,4-oxadiazoles 117 and 1,2,4-triazoles 118 (R = H or Me) by treatment with hydroxylamine and hydrazines,respectively. In the latter case intermediate hydrazidines are isolated (Scheme 7)76.The 3-amino-1,2,4-oxadiazole 120 (R = 2,6-dichlorobenzyl) is produced from the N-cyanoamidine 119 and hydroxylamine, as shown in equation 5717. The formamidinopteridine 3-oxide 121 is cleaved on treatment with hydroxylamine;the resulting diamidoxime 122 cyclizes to the oxadiazole 123 in hydrochloric acid (equation 58)78. The formamidinopyridine 124 is converted into s-triazolo[1,5-a]pyridine (125) by the action of hydroxylamine-0-sulphonic acid

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

+ CHSCONMe,

+

2 Me2N=CCI2

+

CI-

Me2N

(105)

387

H

YcYNMe2 CI

CI

+ Y(Io6) -3HCI

Me2N-

C

+y

C q 1 1 e 2

(107) ~

Me2Nv

H Me2N h

\NCO

N ( 1 0M 8) e

2

SCHEME 6

+ I SH

N

M

e

2

(109)

(55)

-HCI --Me2NH

\Ar (110)

N-C

X-

/NHAr

s\‘

(111 1

+ BrCH,COPh *

+ N 3 r A r

/

M ~ ~ N +CH2

I

PNHAr

COPh

(115)

COPh

(116)

Br-

G. V. Boyd

388

(equation 59)79.This reagent transforms the amidine 126 into the 1,2,4-thiadiazole 127 (equation 60)".

(117)

(116)

- H20 NHNHR

N-NR

(118)

SCHEME 7 H

+ H2NOH

R-C HN ,

/N-CN

A0 - " H p

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

129 is formed in the reaction of The 4-imino-4,5-dihydro-1,2~~,3-oxathiazol-2-one potassium t-butoxide with the amidine 128 (equation 61)81.

BJN

Br

5. Systems containing nitrogen and phosphorus or boron

The phosphorylated amidine 130 adds dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate to form the azaphosphole 131 (equation 62)’*. The reaction of N,N,N’-tris(trimethylsily1)benzamidine with the phosphine 132 unexpectedly yielded the 1,4-diaza-2,3-diphospholene 133(equation 63)83.The amidine 134, formed from N,N-dimethylbenzamidoxime and tris(dimethylamino)phosphine, cyclizes to 1J-bis(dimethy1amino)-1 H-2,1 -benzazaphosphole 1-oxide (135) by the radical mechanism outlined in equation 6484. /OEt NC
C02Me

+

111I I

C02Me

- GIt NC

Et2N

Me02C

(130)

(131)

NSiMe3 ph<

C02Me

Ph i(Me3Si)2CHPCIz

y’ N,

(132)

“<::*

bCH(SiMe3)2

N=P

N(SiMe312

,CH(SiMe&

(63)

(133)

Amidines add 1,2-dicarbonylcompounds to form unstable products 136, which rapidly decompose to intractable mixtures. When the addition is carried out in the presence of bis(dipheny1boron)oxide, stable crystalline boron heterocycles 137 (R’ = Me or Ph; R2, R 3 = H, Me or Ph) are isolated (equation 65)85.

(136)

(137)

(65)

B. Six-membered Rings 1. Pyridines

N,N-Dimethylacetamidine condenses with the dimethylformamide-dimethyl sulphate adduct 138 to yield an amidinium salt, isolated as the perchlorate 139. Deprotonation generates the unstable 2-azabutadiene 140, which reacts in situ with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylateto form the pyridine 141 (Scheme 8)86. The urea 142 is converted into the chloroformamidine 143 by the combined action of carbon tetrachloride and triphenylphosphine; successive treatment with lithium phenylacetylide and polyphosphoric acid yields 2-morpholino-4,S-diphenylpyridine(144) (equation 66)87.The dimer (145) of malononitrile reacts with formamidine acetate to afford the pyridine 146 (equation 67)s8. Condensation of ethyl fi-aminocrotonatewith dimethylacetamide dimethylacetal affords the amidine 147, which cyclizes to the y-pyridone 148 when heated (equation 68)89.This reaction illustrates the reactivity of a-methylene groups of amidines discussed previously (see equation 7). Another example of this phenomenon is the thermal ring-closureof the acetamidine derivative 149 to the a-pyridone 150 (equation 69)90.The amidine 151, prepared from isopropylidenecyanoacetamide and dimethylformamide (152) on heating (equation 70)91.The diethylacetal, yields 3-cyano-4-methyl-a-pyridone bicyclic a-pyridone 153 is formed by a similar reaction (equation 71)92.

39 1

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

(138)

M

e

2

N

v

E -M*gNH

Me2 A +E-=---E

M~zNT

e--E

E

E = C02Me

Me2NKN H

(140)

E

(141)

SCHEME 8

(143)

(142)

R2N=morpholino

(145)

(148)

- ANxNM

G . V. Boyd

392

C02Et

+ Ma

MeOJ Me0

NMe2

Me

H (153)

The formation of heterocyclic compounds from amidines and ylidenemalononitriles (1,l-dicyanoethenes) has been extensively investigated by robe^^^. Treatment of N methyl-N-phenyl-phenylacetamidine (154) with arylidenemalononitrilesat room temperatureaffordsthe adducts 155 as separablemixtures of cis- and trans-isomers(equation 72)94. When monosubstituted phenylacetamidinesare employed in this reaction, adducts of a different type are formed, which undergo spontaneous dehydrogenation to the imines 156. The Latter are converted into the pyridines 157 by a Dimroth rearrangement (equation 73)95.

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines % 'C PhMeNX

N

H

+

CN H

X

A

r

-p, rr

HNA

(72)

\

(154)

PhCH2

393

(155)

+

-

I

-2H

H+cN

AH r'

Ar2

i

Ar'

N

- phy-JcN Ar2

1

(73)

PrONa PrOH

H2N

NHA~'

(157)

The propenylium salt 106 reacts with aniline under conditions of high dilution to give 2,4-bis(dimethyIamino)quinoline(158) (equation 74)". The condensation product 159 of N-phenylbenzamidine with malononitrile cyclizes to the quinoline 160 under acid catalysis (equation 75)97. Treatment of the chloroformamidine 161 with acetylenic

Me2NmN Me2NYYNMe2 +

I

+ PhNH2

CI

/NMe2

-HCI

CI

CI

N,

(0)

CI-

&

(106)

(15 6 )

+-

N H f-P -h NH

I

/cN H2C

\CN

Ph

-NH,

(74)

HN

Ph

(159)

(160)

H2

(75)

G . V. Boyd

394

Grignard reagents yields the amidines 162 (R = H, Ph or cyclohexyl), which form the quinolines 163 under the influence of polyphosphoric acid (equation 76)98. Heating acetanilidein turn with HMPA and DMF gives 2-dimethylaminoquinoline,as shown in equation 7799. The formation of the quinolone 165 from the amidine 164 proceeds by a similar mechanism (equation 78)1009'0'.Other syntheses of quinolones etc. are shown in equations 791°2 and Solo3.

CI

-

t BrMg-E-R

Ph

\

R - E

(162)

(161

@$k

-HzO

NMe

EtOZC,

(164)

€to$

0

II

(165)

(78)

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

395 0

(yCJ - &J Me

Me

(80) H

4-Cyano-2,3-dihydro-3-oxo-SH-pyrido [1,441 [1,4] benzothiazine (167) results from the thermal ring-closure of the amidine 166 (equation 81)lo4. N-Phenylphenylacetamidine reacts with two molecules of aromatic aldehydes to give 1,Cdihydroisoquinolines (equation 82)'".

x:

-Me,NH

@X:vo H (166) CN

H

(81)

0

(167) CN

N,N-Dimethylacetamidine forms the crystalline Meisenheimer complex 168 (R = H) with 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene.When N,N-dimethylphenylacetamidineis used, the resulting complex at once cyclizes to the bridged betaine 169 (equation 83)lo6. 1,3,5-Trinitrobenzene and the bicyclic amidine 170 yield an analogous bridged dipolar compound 171 as a mixture of two stereoisomers; on the other hand, 1,3-dinitronaphthalene forms the Meisenheimer complex 172, which has no tendency to c y ~ l i z e ' ~ ~ . 2. Pyridazines and pyrazines

The action of the acetamidine 173 on 3-phenyl-6-a-pyridyl-l,2,4,5-tetrazine (175, R = apyridyl) leads to a mixture of the isomeric pyridazines 176 and 177. The process represents a Diels-Alder reaction with inverse electron demand of the electron-richdienophile, the

396

G. V. Boyd

for R= Ph

NO

*

tautomeric ketene aminall74(see equation 7), with the electron-poordiene, the tetrazine. Two regioisomeric adducts are formed, which give the products by sequential loss of nitrogen and piperidine (Scheme 9)"'. 2-Amidino-2-aminoacetamide (178) condenses with numerous 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds 179 (R', R2 = H, Me, Ph, etc.) to yield 2-aminopyrazine-3-carboxamides180, which are useful precursors of pteridines (equation 84)'". Phenylglyoxal reacts with 178 at pH 8-9 to give the pyrazine 180 (R' = H, R2 = Ph)'OY,whereas at pH 4-5 the isomer 180 (R' = Ph, R2 = H) is obtainedllO.Treatment ofthe benzyl derivatives 181 with formic acid-acetic anhydride yields 1-benzylpteridin-4(1H)-ones 182 (equation 85)' The amidinouracils 183 cyclize on heating to the pteridinediones 184 (equation 86)' 1 2 . The N-oxide 187 is formed from 4-chloro-5-nitro-6-pyrrolidinopyrimidine (185) and the cyclic amidine 186 (equation 87)' 13; l-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene undergoes an analogous reaction with the amidine' 14.

'.

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

391 R

Ph

(176)

Ph

Ph

dNHBUf (173)

0

'

0

(174)

R

(177)

SCHEME 9

G. V. Boyd

398

1

I

CHZPh

CHZPh

(181)

(185)

(186)

I

CHzPh

(182 1

(187)

(87)

3. Pyrimidines

The classical Pinner synthesis' of 4-hydroxypyrimidines from amidines and 8-keto esters and related compounds is exemplified by the formation of the thienyl derivative 188 from 2-amidinothiophen and ethyl acetoacetate (equation 88)' l 6 and of compound 189 (R = 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl) (equation 89)"'. Cycloheptanone-, cyclooctanone- and cyclododecanone-carboxylicesters have been condensed with numerousamidines to give the corresponding pyrimidines (equation 90)"'. The reaction of ethyl cyclohexanone-2carboxylate with the amidine 190 takes an abnormalcourse, resulting in the pyridone 191 (equation 91)"'. Numerous dihydropyrimidine-4,6-diones193 have been prepared from aliphatic and aromatic amidines and the malonic esters 192 (R2= H, Me, Pr or Ph) (equation 92)'*O.

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

-

R

”‘?”R

R = olkyl or a r y l

(90)

N-

OH

n = 5 , 6 or 10

C02Et

H . 9

C0,Et

(91)

Et 02coyJ-H2N*

NH

0

(191)

(190)

(192)

(193)

(92)

Acetamidine and trichloroacetamidinereact with dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate in boiling methanol in the presence of sodium methoxide to give low yields of 4hydroxypyrimidine-6-carboxylic esters 195 (R = Me or CI,C) via the isolable intermediate adducts194 (equation 93)’”. N-Phenylacetamidineand ethyl propiolate similarly furnish the pyrimidone 196 (equation 94)”*; the pyrimidone 197 was prepared analogously from N-o-chlorophenylbenzamidineand ethyl phenylpropiolate’23.

(194)

(195)

(93)

G . V. Boyd

400

H

I

(94) C02Et

41 /

Ph

Ph

0

(19 6 )

0

C,H,CI

-0

(197)

A number of pyrimidine syntheses from eneamidines have bcen reported. The chloroformamidine 143 reacts with silver cyanate, potassium thiocyanate and potassium and its sulphurand selenium selenocyanateto yield 2-morpholino-5-phenyI-4-pyrimidone analogues,respectively. With N-cyanomorpholine 2,4-dimorpholino-5-phenylpyrimidine is obtained (Scheme The unsaturated amidine 198 adds methyl isocyanate to give the urea derivative 199, which cyclizes to the pyrimidine 200 under the influence of tosyl chloride and pyridine (equation 95)' 24. Ethoxymethylenemalononitrile reacts with N phenylbenzamidine in hot ethanolic potassium hydroxide to yield the pyrimidine 202, which is formed by a Dimroth rearrangement of the intermediate imine 201 4C)E~NR~

Ph

H

Ph

P

h

w

N

(143) R2N= morpholino

Ph

Ph

SCHEME 10

/

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

40 1

(equation 961)2.' Arylmethylenemalononitriles and N-arylamidinesgive the imines204 by spontaneous dehydrogenation of the initial adducts 203. The imines rearrange to the pyrimidines 205 on heating(equation 97). Fifty compounds of this type were reported The pyrimidines205 undergoa remarkablering-contractionto the pyrroles 206 under the influenceof zinc and acetic acid (equation 97)'*'. The dieneamidine208, obtained by the

-

NHMe NCONHMe 4Ph<*

MeNCO

Ph

N Ph Ph

(95) (200)

(199)

+.

ph+TH

P

NHPh

CN

h

T

Y

C

N

NHPh

4

NHPh (202)

N phg?cN Ph

(2011

NH

(96)

G. V. Boyd

402

action of dimethylformamide diethylacetal on ethyl 8-amino-a-cyanocrotonate (207) yields the dihydropyrimidine 209 on treatment with ammonia (equation 98)lZs. Pyrimidines and pyridines fused to a five-membered ring have been prepared by the thermal cyclization of the acylamidine 210 (equation 99)lZ9,by boiling compound 211 with water (equation and by the reaction of the urethane 212 with ammonia (equation 101)13'. The action of trifluoroacetamidine on the ylidenemalononitrile 213 affords the aminopyrimidine 214 (equation 102)'32. Aminomethylenemalononitrilereacts with Viehe's salt 105 to yield the chloroformamidine 215, which is transformed into the CN

(98)

(208) Me

+ 2 HC-/

?yCONH2

CH2Ph

CN

OEt \OE t

eH +H20

CHZPh

CN

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

403

pyrimidine 216 by the action of triphenylphosphine (equation 103)13’. Treatment of N,N’dimethylbenzamidine with ethoxymethyl enemalononitrile gives the betaine 217, which rearranges to the tetrahydropyrimidine 218 in boiling ethanol (equation 104)134. The adduct 219 of acrolein to benzamidine (equation 105) has been fully characterized by IR, UV and ’H NMR spectroscopy and X-ray diffra~tion’~~.

6

-NchN NC

+ NC

NH2

+

C12C=NMe2

CI-

(105)

PPh,

N”

cl<

NMe2

NMe2

(215)

(216)

EtO

Me

Me

I N-

CN

(103)

404

G. V. Boyd

Ph
NH2

+

\>

CHO

(105)

d P h + { ? H

OH

(2 19)

Some remarkable transformations of pyrimidines, induced by amidines, have been reported by Van der Plas and his coworkers. N-Methylpyrimidinium iodide (220) reacts with benzamidine in ethanolicsodium ethoxide to produce 2-phenylpyrimidine(222). It is proposed that the reaction is initiated by attack of the amidine at position 6 of the pyrimidine ring to give the adduct 221, which opens and then recyclizes in an alternative way, as shown in Scheme 11. Elimination of N-methylformamidine yields the product. The mechanismis supported by the findingsthat N-methylpyrimidinium iodide enriched with I5N at both nitrogen atoms gives an unlabelledproduct'36.5-Nitropyrimidine (223) and benzamidineyield 5-nitro-2-phenylpyrimidine (225), whereaswith phenylacetamidine the aminopyridine 226 is obtained. To account for these diverse products the authors suggest (Scheme 12) that in the former case the reaction is initiated by nucleophilicattack of a nitrogen atom of the amidine (Path A) to form the bridged intermediate 224, which gives the product by ring-opening,followed by elimination of formamidine, while in the latter case it is the a-carbon atom of the amidine which becomes attached to C-6 of the pyrimidine (Path B); subsequent cyclization, ring-openingand loss of formamidine yield 226. Propionamidine(227)reacts with 5-nitropyrimidinein both senses to afforda mixture of the pyrimidine 228 and the pyridine 229 (equation 106)13'.

-HI

Me

Ph

Me NH

I-

Ph

(220)

Ph

I

(221)

I H

I

H (222)

SCHEME 1 I The bicyclic pyrimidine 231 is obtained from the keto lactam 230 and acetamidine (equation 107)'38. The formamidinopyridine 232 reacts with benzylamine to yield the pyridopyrimidine 233 (equation 108)'39.Treatment of the imido ester hydrochloride 234 with cyanamide yields the N-cyano derivative 235, which is converted into the

405

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

N -H =(

H

H

(224)

SCHEME 12

G. V. Boyd

406 223

+

+02

02NyA

HN\>CH2cH3 H2N

CH2CH3

NH2

CH3

(227)

(228)

(229)

C230)

(106)

(231)

CO2Et a N + N M e 2

+

Me

H2NCH2Ph

--EtOH

-

Ma,NH

Me

H

(232)

(233)

( 108)

cyanoamidine 236 by the action of morpholine. A subsequent reaction with morpholine gives the guanidine 237, which readily cyclizes to the pyrimidine 238 (equation 109)'40. Successive treatment of 5-aminotetrazole with triethyl orthoformate and methyl anthranilate yields the tetrazolylformamidine 239, which in the presence of sodium hydroxide undergoes ring-closure to the anti-allergic agent 'MDL-427' 240 (equation 1 Viehe's salt 105 reacts with dimethylcyanamide to give the azapropenylium salt 241, which

3::; +

E t 02C C H2

(234)

HpNCN

Et02CCH2
NCN

RIN H

'qYNR2 -

CI

-.

H

--EtOH

NR2

(238)

NR2

R,N = morpholino

(237)

EtOzCCH2

407

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

is converted into 6-methyl-2,4-bis(dimethylamino)quinazoline by the action of p-toluidine (equation 11 l)'42. A similar reaction of the propenylium salt 106 with a-aminopyridine yields the pyridopyrimidinium salt 242 (equation 1 12)'42.

-

N-N

t NoOH

-MIOH

._

H

H'

No'

(106) NMe2

me

-3HCI

NMe2

+

NMe,

I

The N-aminopyrazolopyrimidone 244 results from the action of hydrazine on the formamidinopyrazole243(equation 113)'"; the nitrile 245 reacts in an analogousfashion (equation 114)'43. 4-Amino-5-(aminomethyl)triazoles condensewith formamidineacetate to afford 1,6-dihydro-8-azapurines (equations 115 and 116)'44. A derivative of the same ring system was obtained from the aminotriazolecarboxamide 246 and acetamidine (equation 117)'45.

G. V. Boyd

408

(246)

The 2-formamidinonicotinonitrile 247 is converted into the pyridopyrimidinethione 248 by the action of hydrogen sulphide (equation 1 18)'46. Hydroxylamine transforms compound 247 into the diamidoxime 249, which cyclizes to the N-oxide 250 on heating (251) con(equation 119)'*'. 6-Chloro-5-ethoxycarbonyl-3-methylthio-l,2,4-triazine denses with benzamidine to yield the acylated amidine 252, which undergoes ring-closure to the 7-azapteridine derivative 253 (equation l2O)I4'. N-1-Naphthylbenzamidine (254) reacts with trimethyl orthoacetate to yield the benzo[h]quinazoline 255 (equation 121)14'; the urea 256 undergoes a similar cyclization in hot dimethylformamide

(equation 122)' 2-Acetyl-3,6-dianilino-1,4-benzoquinone reacts with amidines in hot ethanol to afford quinazolinequinones257 (equation 123)'5'.The anthrapyrimidine259 is 258 produced by the action of ammonium acetate on the formamidinoanthraquinone (equation 124)' ". 3-Aminoindole reacts with dimethylformamide-phosphorus oxychloride to yield the amidine-aldehyde 260, which is converted into pyrimido[5,4-b]indole (261) by ammonia (equation 125)ls3. Derivatives 263 of the isomeric pyrimido[4,5-b]indole ring system are produced by the action of amidines on 3-arylmethyleneindolin-2-ones 262 (equation 126)'54. S

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

409

.&E

NHZ I

YH2

241

+

2NH20H

-MeONH

H (249)

NOH (250)

U

(253) Ph

Ph

(119)

G. V. Boyd

410 H
'

NH40Ac

-Me,NH, -HaO -AcOH

&

0

(258)

H

(261) (125)

(260) Ar

A number of oxygen heterocycles react with amidines to form pyrimidines with concomitant opening of the oxygen-containingring. 2,4,6-Triphenylpyryliumperchlorate (264) and amidines yield, in a four-stage reaction, 2-substituted 4,6-diphenylpyrimidines 265 (equation 127)'". The action of acetamidine on the dihydrofuran 266 leads to the aminopyrimidone267 (equation 128)156.The 4-thiazolylisoflavone268 and formamidine yield the pyrimidine 269 (equation 129)' s7; the isoflavone270 is similarlytransformedinto the pyrimidine aldehyde 271, which exists as the hemiacetal 272 (equation 130)158*159. 4. Triazines

Vilsmeier salts 273 react with N-cyanoamidinesat room temperatureto yield 2-chloro1,3,5-triazines 274 (equation 131)160. The action of hexafluoroacetone imine (275) on trifluoroacetamidine leads to the dihydrotriazine 276 (equation 132)I6l. The dihydrotriazine 281 is formed from the morpholinoenamine 277 and N-chlorobenzamidine.The authors propose that the process is initiated by a transfer of chlorine (cf. equation 50) to yield the ions 278 and 279, which combine; the product undergoes a 1,Zshift ofthe morpholino group and then reactswith a second molecule of benzamidine anion to give the diamidine 280. Cyclization and loss of ammonia complete the process (Scheme 13)162.The tetracyclic triazine 284 is produced by the action of pyridine on the cyclic chloroformamidine282, presumably via the salt 283 (equation 133)163.Heating

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

41 1

I

NH2

(266)

(268)

(267)

(269)

(129)

G . V. Boyd

412

Me

i

(270)

(271)

(272)

the complex amidine derivative 285 to 120"C yields the trimethyltriazinedione 286, whereas at 200 "Cthe dimethyltriazinedione 287 is formed (equation 134)164. Several reports on the reactions of amidines with isocyanates and isothiocyanates have appeared165. N - Arylbenzimidoyl isothiocyanates 288 and acetamidine yield the triazinethione 289; similarly, with N-phenylacetamidine the N-phenyl derivative 290 is obtained (equation 135)1663167

- MPjR2 413

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines MeyNR2

+ ,>,N,I.

CI

Me

H2N

+

Me

(277)

-.\tF'h

H2N

(278)

(279)

Me Me Ph

NH2

-NH,

Me

Me

Ph R2N =morpholino ( 2 80)

(281)

SCHEME13

G. V. Boyd

414

KSCN

Ph
(135) NAr

(288)

Me (2901

Methyl isothiocyanate adds to 2-methyl-1-imidazolineto give the thiourea 291, which forms the hexahydrotriazinedithione 292 on treatment with furthermethyl isothiocyanate reacts directly with two molecules of (equation 136)'68. N,N,N'-Trimethylformamidine phenyl isocyanate to afford the 1:2 adduct 294 via the postulated 1,rl-dipolarintermediate 293 (equation 137)169. The analogue 295 is obtained from N,N-dimethy1-N'and phenylformamidineand chlorosulphonyl isocyanate' ". N,N'-Dimethylbenzamidine phenylsulphonyl isocyanate yield either the 1:2 adduct 296 or the 2:l adduct 297 according to the proportions of the reagents (equation 138)17'. The action of phenyl isocyanate on the a-formamidinopyridine 298 at room temperature results in the diazetidinone 299; at higher temperatures the pyridotriazinedione 300 is obtained. The latter is formed by the combination of phenyl isocyanate with a-pyridyl isocyanate, which arises from the decomposition of the diazetidinone (Scheme 14)' 72. The pyridazine analogue 302 is similarly produced from phenyl isocyanate and the amidine 301 (equation 139)'73. The formamidinothiazoline 303 and phenyl isocyanate afford the 1: 1 adduct 304; with an excess of phenyl isocyanate the I :2 adduct 305 is obtained. Heating a mixture of 303 and an excess of phenyl isocyanate at 240 "C yields compound 306, an analogue of 300 (equation 140)'74.

"yy" - "v'yo N' (291)

(292)

Me

+ PhNCO "Me2

+ PhNCO

N e ~ i M

Ph

Me2N

(137)

PhNKNPh 0

(293)

(294)

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

ClO2SN ~ N S 0 , C l

0 (295)

+ PhNCO

0’‘’ CNY0 ‘YNPh 3

I +PhNCO

0

SCHEME 14

415

G . V. Boyd

416 /"

p N y N M e 2

"2

(301)

i 2PhNCO

- PNYO "K""" ""K +

0

NPh

NP

(302)

0

(306)

Heating the 1,2,4,5-tetrazine175 with benzamidine yields a mixture of four products: two 1,2,4-triazines308 and 312, and two 1,3,5-triazines310 and 314. The two former arise from the isomeric Diels-Alder adducts 307 and 311 by extrusion of nitrogen, followed by elimination of ammonia. The 1,3,5-triazinesare formed from the 1,2,4-triazines by a second Diels-Alder reaction of benzamidine at N-2 and C-5. The resulting adducts 309 and 313 then loss benzonitrile and a-cyanopyridine, respectively, followed by ammonia (Scheme 15)175.

5. Other ring systems The amidine 315 condenses with a-cyanoacetophenoneto yield compound 316, which readily cyclizes to the pyran 317 (equation 141)'76. The 1,2-thiazineS-oxide 319 is formed by Diels-Alder addition of the sulphinylamidine 318 to isoprene (equation 142)177. Thioaroylformamidines320 react with ketene to give (322) 1,3-thiazin-6-ones321 (equation 143)' ". l-Chloro-3-phenyl-l,2,4-benzothiadiazine is produced by the action of sulphur dichloride on N-phenyl-N'-chlorobenzamidine (equation 144)'79. The analogous reaction with N-phenyltrichloroacetamidine results in

R =a-pyridyl

(175)

R

Ph

SCHEME 15

/ (307)

(311)

R

d

I

NH2

(310) Ph

G. V. Boyd

418

+

2-N
Ph

Me2N +)0 N ,< M le2

+ PhCOCH CN

NMe2

Ph

CN

Ph

CN

(31 5 )

(316) Ph

(141)

CN

H
NMe2

Ph

CN

CI

(322)

CI

(323)

8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

4t9

323 (equation 145)'"O. 1,2,4,6-Thiatriazines are obtained the 7-chlorobenzothiadia~ine from N-cyanoamidines (equation 146)'" or imidoylamidines (equation 147)'".

a

Ph+/

4;,

(146)

N==S

\a

l,l-Dichloro-1,2,4,6-phosphatriazines result from the reaction of phosphorus pentachloride with N-cyanoamidines (equation 148)lS3or imidoylamidines (equation 149)IE4. The dihydrophosphatriazine2-oxide 325 is formed by cyclization of the diamidine 324 (equation 150)184.1,3,2,4,6-Diphosphatriazines 326 have been prepared from amidines as shown in equation 15t185.

0 (324)

(325)

G . V. Boyd

420

Ph

(326) Thermal cyclization of the complex amidine 327 yields the benzodiazepine 328 (equation 152)'86.

Ph'

(327) IV. REFERENCES 1. J. A. Gautier, M. Miocque and C. C. Farnoux,in The Chemistry ofdmidines and lmidates(Ed. S . Patai), Wiley, London, 1975, p. 283. 2. V. G. Granik, Usp. Khim., 52,669 (1983); Russ. Chem. Rev., 52, 377 (1983). 3. M. TiSler, Heterocycles, 20, 1591 (1983). 4. M. H. Caruthers,L. J. McBride, L. P. Bracco and J. W. Dubendorff, Nuclcosides Nucleotides, 4, 95 (1985). 5. A. V. Fokin,V. P. Stolyarov, V. A. Komarov and A. T. Uzun, Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Khim., 2139 (1977); Chem. Ahstr., 88,22 104 (1978). 6. L. S. Cook, N. D. Venayak and B. J. Wakefield, J. Chem. Res. ( S ) , 199 (1983). 7. USSR Patent 533, 591 (1976); Chem. Abstr., 86, 121 013 (1977). 8. German Patent 3,134,144 (1983); Chem. Abstr., 99, 5 226 (1983). 9. French Patent 2,081,556 (1972); Chem. Abstr., 77, 61 615 (1972). 10. E. P. Navarrete,C. H. Rodriguez, A. H. Pavez and V. A. Marquez, Bol. S o t . Chil. Quim., 27,227 (1982); Chem. Abstr., 97, 23 41 1 (1982). 11. P. L. Barker, P. L. Gendler and H. Rappoport, J. Ory. Chem., 46,2455 (1981). 12. R. Kolb and G. Schwenker, Tetrahedron Lett., 4699 (1972). 13. A. D. Sinitsaand V. I. Kalchenko,Dopov. Akad. Nauk Ukr. RSR, Ser. B: Geol.,Khim. Biol. Nauk, 1007 (1977); Chem. Abstr., 88, 89 765 (1978). 14. N. M. Mironovskaya, S. F. Dymova, I. L. Vladimirova and N. N. Melnikov, Zh. Obshch. Khirn., 48, 2465 (1978); Chem. Abstr., 90, 86 907 (1979). 15. V. 1. Shevchenko, V. I. Kalchenko and A. D. Sinitsa, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 47,2157 (1977); Chem. Abstr., 88, 22 103 (1978). 16. A. D.Sinitsa, V. S. Krishtal, V. I. Kalchenko and L. N. Markovskii, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 50,2409 (1980); Chem. Abstr., 95, 24 191 (1981). 17. L. P. Prikazchikova, L. 1. Rybchenko and V. M. Cherkasov, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 831 (1977); Chem. Abstr., 87, 184 452 (1977). 18. G. M. Tolmacheva, S. P. Krukovskii, E. L. Berman and V. A. Ponomarenko,Irv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Khirn., 1963 (1976); Chem. Abstr., 86, 88 663 (1977). 19. J. Graefe, 2. Chem., 15, 301 (1975). 20. S. Lof&sand P. Ahlberg, J . Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun., 998 (1981). 21. V. G. Granik, A. M. Zhidkova, T. F. Vlasova, R. G. Glushkov and Yu. N. Sheinker, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 533 (1974); Chem. Abstr., 81, 62 725 (1974).

8. Reactions a n d synthetic uses of amidines

42 I

22. W. Kantlehner, F. Wagner and H . Bredereck, Ann. Chem., 344 (1980). 23. M. J. ODonnell, W. A. Bruder, B. W. Daughterly, D. Liu and K. Wojciechowski, Tetrahedron Lett., 25, 3651 (1984). 24. J. J. Fitt and H. W . Gschwend, J . Org. Chem., 42, 2639 (1977). 25. A. I. Meyers, P. D. Edwards, W. F. Reiker and T. R. Bailey, J . Am. C h m . Soc., 106,3270 (1984). 26. A. I. Meyers and M. F. Loewe, Tetrahedron Lett., 25, 2641 (1984). 27. A. 1. Meyers, P. D. Edwards,T. R. Bailey and G. E. Jagdmann,Jr.,J . Ory. Chem.,50, I019 (1985). 28. A. 1. Meyers and L. M. Fuentes, J. Am. Chem. Soc., i05, 117 (1983). 29. A. 1. Meyers, L. M. Fuentes and Y. Kubota, Tetrahedron, 40, 1361 (1984). 30. A. I. Meyers, M. Boes and D. A. Dickman, Angew. Chem., fnt. Ed. Engl., 23,458 (1984). 31. Y. Lin and S. A. Long, Jr., Synthesis, I19 (1980). 32. Jap. Patent 7,959,238 (1979); Chem. Ahstr., 91, 156 827 (1979). 33. E. C. Taylor and D. J. Dumas, J . Org. Chem., 45, 2485 (1980). 34. A. V. Fokin, V. P. Stolyarov, A. M. Gukov, A. T. Uzun and V. A. Komarov, Izv. Akad. Nauk S S S R , Ser. Khim., 2802 (1978); Chem. Abstr., 90, 120 979 (1979). 35. P. Reynaud, J. D. Brion and G. Menard, Bull. Soc. Chim. Fr., 449 (1978). 36. V. A. Khrustalev, K. N. Zelenin and V. P. Sergutina, Zh. Ory. Khim., 15, 2280 (1979); Chem. Abstr., 92, 180 607 (1980). 37. German Patent 3,126,388 (1983); Chem. Abstr., 98, 160 259 (1983). 38. P. Ahlberg and M. Ek, Chem. Scr., 10, 47 (1976). 39. V. G. Granik, E. 0. Sochneva, N. P. Soloveva, G. Ya. Shvarts, R. D. Syubaev and M. D. Mashkovskii, Khim.-Farm. Zh., 14, 36 (1980); Chem. Ahstr., 93, 220 653 (1980). 40. M. M. Davtyan, A. V. Ignatenko, S. P. Kukovskii and V. A. Ponomarenko, Izv. Akad. Nauk S S S R , Ser. Khim., 2775 (1977); Chem. Abstr., 88, 120 546 (1978). 41. W. Kantlehner, E. Haug, P. Speh and H. J. Brauner, Chem.-Ztg., 109, 433 (1985). 42. Y. Okamoto and T. Kinoshita, Chem. Pharm. Bull., 29, 1165 (1981). 43. H. Baganz and S. Rabe, Chem. Ber., 98,3652 (1965). 44. H. Yamamoto and K. Maruoka, J . Am. Chem. Soc., 103,4186 (1981). 45. S. Rajappa, M. D. Nair, R. Sreenivasan and B. G. Advan, Tetrahedron, 38, 1673 (1982). 46. B. J. Swanson, G. C. Crockett and T. H. Koch, J . Org. Chem., 46, 1082 (1981). 47. G. C. C. Su and M. J. Zabic, J. Agric. Food Chem., 20, 320 (1972). 48. G. L'abbC, A. Van Asch, J. P. Dekerk and T. Minami, Tetrahedron Lett., 22,583 (1981). 49. L. P. Olekhnovich, 1. E. Mikhailov, N. M. Ivanchenko, Yu. A. Zhdanov and V. 1. Minkin, Zh. Org. Khim., 15, 1355 (1979); Chem. Ahstr., 91, 210 648 (1979). 50. K. Hartke and H. M. Wolff, Chem. Ber., 113, 1394 (1980). 51. V. 1. Minkin, 1. E. Mikhailov and G. A. Dushenko, J.Chem. Soc.. Chem. Commun., I181 (1988). 52. B. M. Mikhailov, Pure Appl. Chem., 49, 749 (1977). 53. R. S. Klein, M. 1. Lim, S. Y. K. Tam and J. J. Fox, J . Org. Chem., 43, 2536 (1978). 54. T. Eicher, F. Abdesaken, G. Franke and J. L. Weber, Tetrahedron Lett., 3915 (1975). 55. P. D. Edwards and A. 1. Meyers, Tetrahedron Lett., 25,939 (1984). 56. H. Bredereck, G. Simchen and W . Kantlehner, Chem. Ber., 104, 932 (1971). 57. B. Stanovnik and M. TiSler, Synthesis, 121 (1974). 58. H. M. Wolff and K. Hartke, Arch. Pharm. (Weinheim, Ger.), 313, 266 (1980). 59. W.F. Keir and H. C. S. Wood, J . Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1 , 1847 (1976). 60. L. M. Naumova, V. N. Charushin, 0. N. Chupakhinand G. G. Izmailova, Khim. Geterotsikl, Soedin., 390 (1985); Chem. Abstr., 104, 50 846 (1986). 61. F. Yoneda, M. Higuchi and T. Nagamatsu, J . Am. Chem. Soc., 96, 5607 (1974). 62. T. K. Vinogradova, G. N. Miskevich and B. S. Drach, Zh. Org. Chim., 16, 1869 (1980); Chem. Abstr., 94, 84 010 (1981). 63. 1. I. Ershova, Yu. I. Gevaza and V. 1. Staninets, Ukr. Khim. Zh. (Russ. Ed.), 43,884 (1977); Chem. Abstr., 87, 201 457 (1977). 64. L. Citerio, D. Pocar, R. Stradi and B. Gioia, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans, I , 309 (1978). 65. M. Gobbini, P. Giacconi and R. Stradi, Synthesis, 940 (1983). 66. L. Citerio, D. Pocar, M. L. Saccarello and R. Stradi, Tetrahedron, 35, 2453 (1979). 67. E. Rossi, R. Stradi and A. Benedusi, Tetrahedron, 43, 4785 (1987). 68. L. Citerio, M. L. Saccarello, R. Stradi and B. Gioia, J . Chem. Res. ( S ) , 347 (1979). 69. M. Hamaguchi and T. Ubata, Chem. Left., 169 (1975). 70. K. T. Potts and S. J. Chen, J. Ory. Chern., 42, 1639 (1977).

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8. Reactions and synthetic uses of amidines

423

114. P. C. Parthasarathy,B. S . Joshi, M. R. Chaphekar,D. H. Gawad, L. Anandan, M. A. Likhate, M. Hendi, S. Mudaliar and S . lyer, lndian J. Chem.. Sect. B, 22B, 1250 (1983). 115. Reference 1, p. 325. 116. B. Decroix and P. Pastour, J. Chem. Res. ( S ) , 132 (1978). 117. A. A. Aroyan, M. S. Kramcrand A. G. Saakyan,Arm. Khim.Zh.,28,150(1975);Chem. Abstr.,83, 79 185 (1975). 118. G. Bernath, J. Lazar, L. Gera, G. Gondos and Z. Ecsery, Acta Chim. Hung., 115, 231 (1984). 119. M. Suesse and S. Johne, 2. Chem., 27,69 (1987). 120. I. Gagauzov and A. Poryazov, Probl. Farm., 3, 51 (1975); Chem. Abstr., 87, 23 199 (1977). 121. L. P. Prikazchikova, L. I. Rybchenko and V. M. Cherkasov, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 831 (1977); Chem. Abstr., 87, 184 452 (1977). 122. K. A. Gupta, A. K. Saxena and P. C. Jain, Synthesis, 905 (1981). 123. Indian Patent 158,084 (1986); Chem. Abstr., 107, 59 051 (1987). 124. N. D. Venayak and B. J. Wakefield, J. Chem. Res. ( S ) , 200 (1983). 125. S . K. Robev, Dokl. Bolg. Akad. Nauk, 33, 635 (1980); Chem. Abstr., 94, 83 735 (1981). 126. S. K. Robev, Dokl. Bolg. Akad. Nauk, 30, 719 (1977); Chem. Abstr., 87, 167 970 (1977). 127. S. K. Robev, Tetrahedron Lett., 1163 (1978). 128. E. N. Dozorova, N. P. Soloveva and V. G. Granik, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 1109 (1988); Chem Abstr., 110, 192 759 (1989). 129. V. G. Granik, E. 0. Sochneva, N. P. Soloveva, E. F. Kuleshova and 0. S. Anisimova, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 1120 (1980); Chem. Abstr., 94, 192 250 (1981). 130. V. A. Azimov, N. N. Bychikhinaand L. N. Yakhontov, Kliim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 1283 (1981); C h e m Abstr., 95,219 982 (1981). 131. E. F. Kaimanakova, E. F. Kuleshova, N. P. Soloveva and V. G. Granik, Khim. Geterolsikl. Soedin., 1553 (1982); Chem. Abstr., 98, 89 306 (1983). 132. A. Ya. Ilchenko,V. 1. Krokhtyak and L. M. Yagupolskii, Khim. GeterotsikL Soedin., 1680(1981); Chem. Abstr., %, 85 512 (1982). 133. N. G. Paulenkoand V. P. Kukhar, Ukr. Khim. Zh. (Russ. Ed.),48,395 (1982);Chem. Abstr., 97, 23 735 (1982). 134. K . Hartke and H. M. Wolff, Arch. Pharm. (Weinheirn, Ger.), 313, 208 (1980). 135. A. L. Weis and D. Zamir, J. Org. Chem., 52, 3421 (1987). 136. E. A. Oostveen, H. C. Van der Plas and H. Jongejan,R e d . Trav. Chim. Pays-Bas, 95,209 (1976). 137. P. Barczynski and H. C. Van der Plas, J. Org. Chem., 47, 1077 (1982). 138. R. G. Glushkov, 0. Ya, Belyaeva, V. G. Granik, M. K. Polievktov, A. B. Girgorev, V. E. Serokhvostova and T. F. Vlasova, Khim. Ceterotsikl. Soedin., 1640 (1976);Chem. Abstr., 86,121 287 (1977). 139. E. 0. Sochneva,N. P. Soloveva and V. G. Granik, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 1671(1978);Chem. Abstr., 90, 121 530 (1979). 140. J. M. McCall, B. V. Kamdar and D. Kloosterman, Synthesis, 123 (1980). 141. A. P. Vinogradoff and N. P. Peet, J. Heterocycl. Chem., 26, 97 (1989). 142. A. Antus-Ercsenyi and 1. Bitter, Acta Chim. Acad. Sci. Hung., 99, 29 (1979). 143. M. Tiiler, B. Stanovnik and 2. Zrimsek, Heterocycles, 17, 405 (1982). 144. A. Albert, J. Chem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. 1, 291 (1976). 145. A. Albert and A. M. Trotter, J . Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1 , 922 (1979). 146. M. TiBler, B. Stanovnik and 2. Zrimsek, Synthesis, 299 (1981). 147. B. Vercek, I. Leban, B. Stanovnik and M. TiSler, J. Org. Chem., 44, 1695 (1979). 148. J. J. Huang, J . Org. Chem., 50,2293 (1985). 149. S . K. Robev, Dokl. Bolg. Akad. Nauk, 36, 1551 (1983); Chem. Abstr., 101, 110 858 (1984). 150. S. K. Robev, Dokl. Bolg. Akad. Nauk, SO, 41 (1987); Chem. Abstr., 109, 128 942 (1988). 151. W.Schaefer and C. Falkner, Ann. Chem., 1809 (1976). 152. L. B. Krasnova, S. 1. Popov and N. S. Dokunikhin,Zh. Org. Khim.,9,1494(1973); Chem. Abstr., 79, 91 826 (1973). 153. N. N. Suvorov, V. A. Chernov, V. S. Velezheva, Yu. A. Ershova, S. V. Simakov and V. P. Sevodin, Khim.-Farm. Zh., 15, 27 (1981);Chem. Abstr., 96, 85 492 (1982). 154. V. P. Borovik, L. Yu. Ivanovskaya and V. P. Mamaev, Izv. Sib. Otd. Akad. Nauk SSSR. Ser. Khim. Nauk, 110 (1977); Chem. Abstr., 88, 152 548 (1978). 155. M. P. Zhdanova, E. A. Zvezdina and G. N. Dorofenko, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 456 (1978); G e m . Abstr., 89, 43 321 (1978).

424

G. V. Boyd

156. H. WamhoNand C. Materne, Ann. Chem., 754, 113 (1971). 157. V. P. Khilya, G. M. Golubushina, E. N. Meita and M. Yu. Kornilov, Dopou. Akad. Nauk Ukr. RSR. Ser. B: Geol.. Khim. Biol. Nauki, 55 (1980); Chem. Ahstr., 93, 95 175 (1980). 158. U. Peterson and H. Heitzer, Ann. Chem., 1663 (1976). 159. W . Lowe, Ann. Chem., 1050 (1977). 160. R. L. N. Harris, Synthesis, 841 (1980). 161. N. A. Kapran, Yu. L. Yagupolskii and V. M. Cherkasov, Zh. Ory. Khim., 19, I192 (1983);Chem. Abstr. 99, 139 910 (1983). 162. L. Citerio, D. Pocar, R. Stradi and B. Gioia, Tetrahedron, 35, 69 (1979). 163. F. Sanewski and H. Foks, Synthesis, 154 (1981). 164. A. Etienne,G. Lonchdmbon, J. Roques, B. Lemmens and F. Pintard, C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris. Ser. C , 287, 285 (1978). 165. Reference 1, p. 335. 166. J. Neuffer and J. Goerdeler, Chem. Ber., 104, 3498 (1971). 167. G. Barnikow and H. Ebeling, Z . Chem., 13,424 (1978). 168. A. C. Veronese, C. Di Bello, F. Filira and F. DAngeli, Guzz. Chim. Ira/., 101, 569 (1971). 169. K. Seckinger, Helu. Chim. Acta, 56, 776 (1973). 170. H. Suschitzky, R. E. Walrond and R. Hull. J. Chern. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1,47 (1977). 171. G . Schwenker and R. Kolb, Chem. Ber., 108, I142 (1975). 172. M. TiSler and B. Stanovnik, J. Chem. Soc.. Chem. Commun., 313 (1980). 173. M. Zupan, B. Stanovnik and M. TiSler, J. Org. Chem., 37, 2960 (1972). 174. D. Richter and H. Ulrich, Chem. Ber., 103, 3525 (1970). 175. H. P. Figeys and A. Mathy, Tetrahedron Lett., 22, 1393 (1981). 176. S . Morimurn, Heterocycles, 14, 1449 (1980). 177. G. S. Borovikova, E. S. Levchenko, E. 1. Borovikand E. A. Darmokhva1,Zh.Org. Khim., 20,190 (1984);Chem. Ahstr., 100, 209 279 (1984). 178. J. C. Meslin and H. Quiniou, (a) Synthesis, 298 (1974); (b) Tetrahedron, 31, 3055 (1975). 179. E. S. Levchenko, G. S. Borovikova, E. I. Borovik and V. N. Kalinin, Zh. Org. Khim., 20, 196 (1984); Chem. Ahstr., 100, 191 836 (1984). 180. L. N. Markovskii, E. A. Darmokhval and E. S. Levchenko, Zh. Org. Khim., 9,2038 (1973);Chem. Ahstr., 80, 27 220 (1974). 181. P. P. Kornuta, L. 1. Derii and E. A. Romanenko, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 273 (1978); Chem. Abstr., 88, 152 576 (1978). 182. P. P. Kornuta, L. 1. Derii and L. N. Markovskii, Zh. Ory. Khim., 16, 1308(1980); Chem. Abstr., 93, 204 600 (1980). 183. P. P. Kornuta, N. V. Kolotilo and L. N. Markovskii, Zh. Ohshch. Khim., 47,342 (1977); Chem. Ahstr., 87, 23 223 (1977). 184. P. P. Kornuta and N. V. Kolotilo, Zh. Ohshch. Khim., 48, I181 (1978);Chem. Ahstr., 89, 109 392 (1978). 185. K. L. Paciorek, J. H. Nakahara,D. H. Harris, M. E. Smythe and R. H. Kratzer, Report 1985, SN-2007-F, AFOSR-TR-85-0500, Chem. Abstr., 106, 102 400 (1987). 186. R. I. Fryer, J. V. Earley and L. H. Sternbach, J. Org. Chem., 32, 3798 (1967).

CHAPTER

9

Imidates including cyclic imidates DOUGLAS G . NEILSON Chemistry Department. The University. Dundee. Scotland. UK

I. INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I1. NOMENCLATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111. SYNTHESIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . The Pinner Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Base Catalysed Reactions of Nitriles with Alcohols. . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Reaction of Imidoyl Halides with Alkoxides and Phenoxides . . . . . . . D . Conversion of Amides and Thioamides into Imidates . . . . . . . . . . . E. lmidates from the Reaction of Amino Compounds and Ortho Esters . . F. Transesterificationof lmidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. Preparation of N-Substituted Imidates from Simpler Imidates . . . . . . H. Imidates from Unsaturated Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. Imidates from Metal Complexes and Organometallic Compounds . . . . 1 . Chromium and tungsten complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Iron complexes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . Cobalt and nickel complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Ruthenium and palladium complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . Platinum complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Goldcomplexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 . Organotin compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J. Miscellaneous Preparationsof Imidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV . PROPERTIES OF IMIDATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . General Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B . Isomerism and Imidate Conformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Spectra of Imidates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D . Thermal Decomposition of lmidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . N-Unsubstituted imidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. N-Substituted imidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Hydrolysis of Imidates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. Action of lmidates with Hydrogen Sulphide and Hydrogen Selenide . . G. Alcoholysis of lmidate Salts-Preparation of Ortho Esters . . . . . H. The Reaction of lmidates with Ammonia and its Derivatives . . . . . . . 1. Reactions with ammonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Reactions with primary amines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates. Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and Z. Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

425

426 427 427 427 428 429 429 431 431 432 432 433 433 434 434 435 435 436 436 436 438 438 438 442 442 442 443 445

447 448 . 448 448 448

D . G. Neilson

426

3. Reactions with secondary amines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 4. Reaction with tertiary amines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 5 . Reaction of imidates with hydrazine and its derivatives . . . . . . . . 450 6. Reaction of imidates with hydroxylamines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 7. Reaction of imidates with a-amino acid derivatives includingpeptides and proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 I. Preparationof Heterocyclic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 1. Preparation of pyrroles and their reduced derivatives . . . . . . . . . 452 2. Formation of imidazoles. imidazolines and benzimidazoles. . . . . . 453 3. Formation of 1,3.azaphospholines and 1,3.benzazaphospholes. . . . . 454 4. Preparation of pyrazoles and their benzo derivatives . . . . . . . . . 454 5 . Preparation of oxazoles. benzoxazoles and their reduced derivatives 455 6. Preparation of thiazoles and benzothiazoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 7. Preparation of oxadiazoles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 8. Preparation of thiadiazoles and dithiazoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 9. Preparation of 1,3,4.thiazaphospholes. 1.3.2.oxazaphospholines and 458 related species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. Preparation of 1,2,4-triazoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 11. Preparation of tetrazoles and triazaphospholes. . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 12. Preparation of azines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 a. Pyridines and their fused derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 b. Pyrimidines and their fused systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 c. Pyridazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 d. 1,2,4-Triazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 e. 1,3,5-Triazines and their derivatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 f. 1,2,4.5-Tetrazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 13. Preparation of 1,3- and 1.4-oxazines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 14. Preparation of other six-membered heterocyclic systems . . . . . . . 463 15. Preparationof azepines and azaphosphenins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 J. Reaction of Imidates with Grignard Reagents and Metal Alkyls . . . . . 463 465 K . Oxidation and Reduction of Imidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 1. Oxidation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 2. Reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 L. N-Acyl and N-Sulphonyl Imidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466 M . Reactions of N-Halo Imidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 N . Phosphorus Derivatives of Imidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 0 Trichloroacetimidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 P. Miscellaneous Reactions of Imidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 1. 1,4.Dipolar addition reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Imidate and thioimidate methylides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 470 3. Silylation via imidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 4. Sugar imidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 5. Sundry reactions of imidates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Q. Uses of Imidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 V . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 VLREFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.

.

.

1 INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE

Imidates (1. X = 0).the esters of imidic acids or iso-amides (2) and their thio-analogues (1. X = S) are in the main well-defined chemical compounds. This review will cover the

421

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

HNR2 R1CHNR2RO-CQ

R' C 'XR3

\OH

(1 1

(2)

RN=C ',

(31

(4)

chemistry ofcompounds of type 1 as well as, where appropriate,that ofcompounds of type 3 and 4 (althoughthese latter compounds could more appropriately appear in reviews of heterocyclic compounds) as it has developed since the author's earlier review'. Readers should, therefore, refer to the earlier work' in conjunction with this review to gain an overall picture of imidate chemistry. More recently (1979) Bohme and VieheZpublished a wide-rangingreview which contains referencesto imidate chemistry. Other short reviews on specific topics will be referred to where appropriate in the text. Imidates appear as useful synthetic intermediates in numerous papers dealing with a very wide range.ofchemical topics, hence this review can in no way be exhaustive but will attempt to map out some of the more important developments of recent years. II. NOMENCLATURE

The nomenclatureof compounds of type 1 has changed over the years. From time to time the older names,imino ether, imido or imidic ester and imidoate, are still to be found even in recent scientific papers. The most modern nomenclature would term compound 5, methyl ethanimidate,and compound 6, ethyl N-methylbenzenecarboximidate. However, for consistency over the author's reviews' it is proposed to retain the name methyl acetimidate for species 5 and ethyl N-methylbenzimidate for compound 6-these names still being widely found in recent publications.

111. SYNTHESIS A. The Pinner Synthesis

The Pinner synthesis, extensively covered in the earlier review', continues to be a common synthetic route leading to imidate salts. A useful one pot synthesis involves the generation of hydrogen chloride in situ by dropping acetyl chloride (1.05 mole) diluted with, e.g., ethyl acetate into ethanol (2.05 mole) in the presence of a nitrile (1 mole) at temperatures below 5 "C.The mixture is stirred during the addition and kept for 12-48 h,

R'CN

+

R ~ X H

+

HY

-

x=O, S j Y =CI ,Br

t

/;JH2

R'C 'XR2

y-

D. G. Neilson

428

dry ether then being added if necessary to precipitate the product. The method has also been applied to cyanohydrins, e.g. mandel~nitriles~. In the case of hindered benzonitriles', 2-azidobenzonitrile4 has been successfully converted into an imidate via the Pinner method whereas 2,4,6-trihydroxybenzonitrile5 and 4-azido-2-hydroxybenzonitrile6 failed to react under such conditions. Hindered nitriles possessing tertiary a-centres have been successfully used to prepare imidate intermediates for conversion into esters and amides'. Studies on biological systems have involved the Pinner synthesis of labelled imidates and deuterium' and tritiumg*'' labelled acetonitrile as well as I4C labelled hydrogen ''*'~, suberonitrile'', 4-azidobenzonitrile' 6,and cyanide"*' a ~ e t o n i t r i l e ~ ~adip~nitrile'~, 4,4-dithio-bi~butyronitrile'~ have been used in this way. Moreover, radioactive halogen has been used to label 4-hydroxy-3,5-diiodobenzonitrile used in a Pinner synthesis". Imidate (7) which has been synthesized in a radioactive form (jH)is an interestingexample

',

O2N

&

\ OCH2CH,S03-

where both alcohol and acid functionalities are on the same moiety (isethionic acid, HOCHZCH,SO3H'*). Although the Pinner reaction leads to N-unsubstituted imidates, related reactions, e.g. the addition of alcohols,phenols or thiophenols to N-methylnitriliumtriflates,produce Nmethylimidate salts in very good yield^'^*'^.Trimethylsilylmethyl trillate salts of nitriles have also been employed' An imidate-like intermediate has also been recognized in the reaction of benzonitrile, propan-2-01and boron trifluoridez2.

'.

B. Base Catalysed Reactions of Nitriles with Alcohols

This route' has come to the fore in recent years with much interest being shown in the ~~, and sugarz4imidates derived from trichloroacetosynthesis of a l l y l i ~propargylic2' nitrile (see Section I V . 0 for further references).In the case of secondary and tertiary alcohols-the latter failing to react in the Pinner procedure-best results are reported from the addition of the alcohol/alkoxide to an ether solution of trichloroacetonitrile,i.e. the reverse of the addition procedure in the primary alcohol casez5.Interest in compounds of type 8 centres on their ability to alkylate hydroxy groupsz6(see Section I V . 0 ) to give, e.g., t-butyl esters and ethers.

CCISCN

t

ROH

base

NH

4 CCISC 'OR

( 81

Heterocycliccompounds having a cyano groupalphato a hetero atom (usuallyN or 0) form imidates with alcohols in the presence of bases such as sodium borohydrideZ7*'*, potassium carbonatez9or traces of concentrated ammonia3' and 3,5-dinitrobenzonitrile

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

429

reacts similarly with methanol/methoxide ion3'. The HOCH,CH= CHCH,OH, and t h i ~ p h e n o lhave s ~ ~ been utilized in related syntheses and the nitrile 9 in the presence of benzaldehyde or benzophenone has been converted directly into the glycidic imidate 10 (R = H or Ph)34. t

CH2=CCICN

PhCOR

MeO-

Ph

C (=NH

R

(9)

)OMe

CH20Me

(10)

In carbohydrate chemistry protected (e.g. benzylated) sugars with free anomeric hydroxy groups have been converted into stable 0-glycosyl trichloroacetimidates under base ~ a t a l y s i s The ~ ~ ~synthetic ~~. pathway is illustrated by the use of 2,3,4,6-tetrabenzylglucose but related sugarsgive analogous results. When sodium hydride is the base catalyst of choice, the 0-a-glucopyranosyl trichloroacetimidate 11 is obtained as the thermodynamic product in very high yield but the use of potassium carbonatepermits the isolation of the /?-anomer 12 in good yield as it brings about rapid formation of the kinetic product 1224-3s.36.

Ro% RO

RO

o.R&

RO

(R = PhCH2)

(12)

OC(=NH)CCI,

OC(=NH)CCl3

(111

C. Reaction of lmidoyl Halides with Alkoxides and Phenoxides

Phase transfer catalysts such as tetrabutylammonium bromide3' have found use in [midate synthesis using imidoyl halides and phenols' or their thio analogues in iichloromethane/water under basic conditions. Unsaturated alcoholsJ8,e.g. cyclohex-2-

RNR2 + R3SH

R' C

\CI

-

HNR2

R'C

'SR3

m-1-01, have also been employed in this reaction using potassium hydride as base in THF39, as has t-butylmercaptan in the presence of pyridine4'. However, 4-aminophenol rurnishes amidines rather than imidates4' in related reactions. D. Conversion of Amides and Thioamides into lmidates

Various reagents have been utilized to alkylate amides and their thio-analogues' and improvements in technique have been reported in some instances, e.g. the reaction of imides, lactams and thiolactams with diazomethane, although not a universally applicable reaction, is much accelerated in the presence of neutral silica gel4'. Labelling,

430

D. G. Neilson

and competitive studies involving added thiols, have shown that the interaction of thioamides with thiochloroformateesters takes the following pathway4' and this synthesis has been extended to include t h i o l a c t a m ~ ~ ~ .

,P

/Nn2c;'

R' C

It has been noted that in the interactionof amides with triethyl orthoformate,increasing yields of N-acyl-imidate arerealized as the electronegativity of the R-group of the amide 13 increases45. RCONH2

HC(0Et)Z "2%

HNCOR

HC

\

Trirnethyloxoniumfluoroborateis a useful reagent for the synthesis of a$-unsaturated imidates from the corresponding amides, the synthetic route being superior to earlier published methods46.Imidates not available via the Pinnerprocedurecan be prepared in this Diketopiperazines have been successfullyconverted into diimidates by this method4'. The silylation of a m i d e ~ ~ is~ of - ~current * interest because some imidate derivatives such as N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide are silylating agents in their own right53-S5(see Section IVY) or can act as nitrile precursors in the presence of Lewis acidss6. Studies, including I3C NMR, point to lactams undergoing N-silylation, heteroaromatic amides such as 2-hydroxypyridines being silylated on oxygen and acetanilides yielding mixtures of N- and 0-silylated product^^^^^ with 0-silylation being favoured by increasing the electronegative substitution pattern of the aryl group49. In addition, althoughthe formamide 14 has the N,N-disubstituted structureshown, highermembers of the homologous series exist as the N,O-substituted species lSO. Trimethylsilyl triflate has

',

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

43 1

been used to prepare, from amides, imidates which act as intermediates in the synthesis of a-amino-fi-hydroxycarboxylic acids5'. Whereas alkylation of arylacetamides gives imidates (16; R' = Ar) exclusively, the use of cyanoacetamides gives rise to mixtures of imidates (16 R' = CN) and enamine ethers (17; R' = CN), the equilibrium being dependent on temperature and solvent5s.

HNR3

R'R~CHC

R'R2C=C(NHR3)0Et

'OEt

(17)

(16)

A novel synthesis leading finally to 1,3,4-oxadiazoles involves the interaction of benzotrichloride with an acid hydrazide in the presence of an alcohol59.

E. lmidates from the Reaction of Amino Compounds and Ortho Esters Aromatic amines including hindered amines, e.g. those possessing 2-bromo6' or 2,5dimethy16' substitution patterns, yield N-substituted imidates on treatment with ortho esters'. Unlike most aliphatic amines, aminoacetonitrile forms an imidate on interaction

R'NH2

t R2C(OR3)3----*

HNR'

R2C

\OR3

with triethyl orthoformate but the catalytic conditions (concentrated sulphuricacid) are fairly critical as imidazole derivatives are produced in the presence of other catalysts6'. Amides react similarly45to give N-acyl-imidates (see Section 1V.L) and Ph,P(O)NH, has been converted into the imidate 1863. HC//NP(o)Ph

\

OEt

(18)

F. Transesteriflcationof lmidates

Allylic imidates have been produced from ethyl imidates by transe~terification~~.~~.

HNPh

PhC

\OEt

t

HOCH,CH=CH,

-

HNPh

PhC

\ OCH2CH =CHz

Oxazolines may be converted into open chain imidates by the action in HMPTof t-butoxide ion65.

432

D. G. Neilson R C//NCH2CH20H

R Y : ]

\ OBu-t G. Preparation of KSubstituted lmidates from Simpler lmidates

The reactions between imidates and amino acid derivatives’ such as peptides, leading either to N-substituted irnidates or amidines, are discussed in Section IV.H.7. Cyanamide66 reacts selectively with the imino group of the imidate 19 to yield the N-cyano derivative 20 and imidates of the type 2167 and 2268 have been prepared by the action of the appropriate chloroformic acid derivative on the corresponding N-unsubstituted imidates. t

NH&N

YNHaC‘\OEt

EtOOCCHZC

HNCN

EtOOCCH2C

‘OEt

Aryl halides with appropriate activating groups have been shown to react with Nhydroxy-irnidatesto yield compounds of the type 23, which are useful intermediates in the synthesis of O-arylhydr~xylamines~*-~~. NOCGH4N02- 4

t

RC

4-02NCeHeCI

//

RC

\ OEt

‘OEt

(23 1 N-Trirnethylsilyl-imidatescan be converted into N-selenyl-substitutedanalogues7I and related reactions have been carried out with compounds of type Ph,BCl”.

yNSiMe3 d PhSeCl

Arc

\ ‘OMe

Arc, //NSeC‘2Ph \

OMe

H. lmidates from Unsaturated Systems

Ketenimine derivatives of cephalosphorins(24) react with bromine followed by lithium methoxide to yield i m i d a t e ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ .

433

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

Reaction of a phosphorus ylide (26) with chloroformimidates of type 27 opens up a pathway to a,fl-unsaturatedi m i d a t e ~Imidates ~~. have also been recorded as products

Ph3P=CH2

(26)

+

-

HNR'

CIC

\

OMe

Ph,P=CHC

-

HNR'RQHO \ OMe

HNR'

R~CH=CHC

'OMe

(27)

from the reaction of isocyanides with perfluorinated acetylenes in protic solvents76,and from the reactions77of isocyanates with alkenes of the type R'O(Me,N)C=CR:. Azirines (28) can undergo ring opening reactions with alkoxides to yield imidates (29)". \r

Ar

hlPU

1. lmidales from Metal Complexes and Organometallic Compounds

Referenceis made in this section both to preparationsfrom which free imidates may be derived and to those in which suitable ligands are converted into imidates which then remain within the complexes. The reader is also referred to further references in Reference 79. 1 . Chromium and tungsten complexes

Imidatecomplexes of chromiums0can be formed by the action of alkyl or aryl nitrileson carbene complexes of type 30; related work involves the insertion of the C=N moiety of

(C0I5Cr =C

'

/OMe

R'

(30)

R'CN

(CO)&r=C

r/R2

\

N =c.

/OMe

'

R'

Me,NCN into a chromium or tungsten carbene carbon bond". Alkoxyorganocarbene metal complexes of chromium or tungstens2 also yield imidate complexes (31) on treatment with Ph,S=NH and chromium carbenecomplexes react with 1-azirinesto give N-~inylirnidates'~.Chromium or tungsten complexes of type 32 (M = Cr or W)on

D. G. Neilson

434

M=Cr,W

2 3

(CO)&rC ( OMe )R‘

+

A

R

R3

Ph

(CO),MC(OEt)CH,PPh, (32)

‘

MCNHNHZ

4

R‘C

/NCPh=CR

\ OMe

* (CO),M[PPh,CH,C(OEt)

= NH]

(33)

treatment with methylhydrazines4yield the imidate complexes (33).The cyclic species (35) derived from interactionof a carbodiimide and the tungsten complex (34) decompose with loss of an imidate moietyss. The nitrile Ph,PCH,CH,CN yields phosphine imidate complexes of tungsten, W(CO)*L, but the reaction conditions can also lead to amine complexesa6.

2. Iron complexes

Iron complexes (36) possessing carbene and nitrene ligands have been prepared from the correspondingcarbonyl compounds by interactionwith EtOTf and have been found to eliminate imidate, e.g. on exposure to carbon monoxides’~ss. Ph

I

3. Cobalt and nickel complexes

The complex CCo(4-CNpy)(Hdmg),CI] (Hdmg = dimethylglyoximate monoanion)has been converted into an irnidatecomplex in which the imidate was shown by ‘HNMR to

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

435

have a 4:l ratio of the E/Z arrangements in CDCI, but to be exclusively of the E configuration in the solid statea9. (37) and nitrile complexes7 Carbene complexesg0 of pentachlorophenylnickel(I1) e.g. of type 38, also react with alcohols to give imidate complexes. In the case ofcompound 38 the alcohol is required to be dry, otherwise a nitrile-to-amideconversion takes place79.

(37) 4. Ruthenium and palladium complexes

The structureofa rutheniumcomplex of type 39 has been confirmed by X-ray studiesy2. Palladium(I1)nitrile complexes have been ~tudied’~-’~ and complexes of type 40 have

Hal =halogen

C’H P h

OMe

(39)

(40)

been derived from them by the action of alcohols or thiols. However, the action of a causes loss of the nitrile ligand thiophenol on cis[Pd(2-MeC,H4CN)(PPh3),],(BF,), with formation of [Pd(SAr)(PPh,),],(BF,), in place of formation of an imidate complex93. 5. Platinum complexes

Platinum complexes of the type 41 react in methanol with aryl isocyanides to give and related species have been synthesized imidates (42) of proven Z-stereo~hernistry~~

R2

(41)

R2

‘OMe

(42)

with an ethylene linkage between the phosphorus ligandsg7.o-Cyanobenzylbis(dipheny1phosphine)ethyleneplatinum(II) tetrafluoroborate similarly gives complexes by nucleophilic attack of alcoholsy8and complexes of the type [Ph,PCH,],Pt[C(OMe)=NRI, have been shown to act as bidentate ligands (L) forming complexes of the type MX,L where M = Cd, Hg, Zn and X = halogen99.

D. G. Neilson

436 6. Gold complexes

Trigold(1) imidate complexes are knownlOO~lO' and have been studied by Mossbauer spectroscopylo2;ligands (L), e.g. triphenylphosphine'OO,react with trigold complexes (43) to give gold complexes of type 44.

+L

[AuC(OR')=NR2], (43)

-

LAuC(OR')=NR' (44)

7. Organotin compounds

The following reaction yielding imidate as product takes place at 120 "C in the presence of (Ph,P),Pd as cataly~t"~. t-BuNC

+

t PhBr

Bu3SnOMe d

HNBu-)

PhC

\

t Bu3SnBr

OMe

The introductionof stannouschloride into a Pinnersynthesis involving a ~ r y l o n i t r i l e ' ~ ~ resulted in formation of the organotincompound (45) in which the halogen ligands can be replaced by sulphur ligands (46). t

C l3 Sn (C H2C,) //NH2C'-

0'

[Me (C H2 ),302C C H,S

1 Sn (C H

C ,)

HNH 0'

R

(45)

R

(46)

J. Miscellaneous Preparations of lmidates

Isocyanides of type 47 react readily with thiols or thiophenols in the presence of Cu(acac), to give thioirnidates, although alcohols fail to react in this way'05-'os. Trifluoromethyl cyanatelogalso reacts with thiols or thiophenols to yield thioimidates (48) and a-nitroketones' can similarly be converted into aryl thioimidates. Me3SiCH2NC

t

Cu(acacJn

-HC

RSH

4NC H2SiMe3 RS '

(47)

CF3CNO t

CFSC

RSH

RS ' (48)

RCOCH2N02 t

ArSH

TiCl

//"OH

RCOC

'SAr

431

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

Various imines have proved to be useful starting materials for imidate syntheses, e.g. organoaluminiumcompounds have been used to carry out the following reactions leading to thio and selenyl imidates'1'.*12.

R'

\

/OMS

R3* A I S e R 4

R'C

HNR2 'SeR4

Favorskii-type rearrangementsof a-chloroketimines in the presence of methoxide ion can give either imidates or amides' '' and the dinitrile 49 with one equivalent of ethoxide ion as base yields imidate SO-higher base concentrationsleading to other products' 14.

'

Ketimine N,S-acetalshave also found use as starting materialsin imidatesynthesis' and the alkyl amidines (51) form imidates (52) on treatment with base' 1 6 . HC

EtOH

EtO--

yNF RC 'OEt

Gas phase thermolysis and photolysis of a-azidoethers produces imidates"', and the migrating aptitudes of various groups under these differentconditions have been studied. Individual imidates have also appeared as products in reactions involving the ring opening reactions of a variety of heterocyclic compounds such as l-azetines''s, 1-

$TNRlR2

h\) MeC//NCoNR'R2 MIOH

Me

'OMe

D. G. Neilson

438

a z i r i n e ~ ' ~oxazoles' - ~ ~ , 19, o x a ~ o l i n e s 1,2,4-triazines' ~~, 2 o and 1,2,3-tria~olines'~ I , and removal of a 4-toluenesulphonylgroup from sulphonamides'22of type 53 has given rise to the cyclic imidate 54.

(53)

(54)

Cyclic thioimidates includingsteroidal imidates have been synthesized from thioketals on interaction with azide ion in the presence of stannic chloride'23.

n

(CH2ln

/sMe C

u \ S M e

.u

p c / S M e

SnC14 NoN,

(CH2)"

II

Imidate and thioimidate N-oxides are also k n o ~ n ' ~see~ equation ~ ' ~ ~ (1). ,

+

P hC(OEt)2NMeq

MsNHpOH

.

//N(o)M PhC

(1)

'OEt

IV. PROPERTIES OF IMIDATES A. General Properties

Simple aliphatic imidate salts tend to be hygroscopic' undergoing hydrolysis (see Section 1V.E) while aromatic imidate salts or compounds of higher molecular weight are in general more stable but are best stored under anhydrous conditions. Other unstable imidate salts include aliphatic compounds with strong electronegative groups, e.g. CC13C(OR)=NH,CI. Such compounds lose alkyl halides and form amides very readily, however they are stable as their bases (see Section 1V.D). B. isomerism and lmidate Conformations

Non-cyclic imidates possess four possible planar configurations(55a, b, c, d) due (i) to the presenceof the C=N moiety and (ii)to the partial double-bond characterof the C-0 bond. These structures(55a-d) are designated as E and Z by relating the remoteness or nearness,respectively, ofthe R3 and ORZgroups andadditionally as cis or trans depending on the relative positions of the R' and ORZgroups (see References 1, 126, and 127 and referencescited therein).An alternative nomenclature relates the geometric configuration of the OR2 group and the nitrogen su-bstituent(R3) in terms of syn and anti, leaving cis and trans to indicate the conformation of RZ on oxygen with respect to the nitrogen substituent R3 (see Reference 127 and referencescited therein and also Perrin'schapter in this volume). Compound 55a is thus anti-cis and compound 55d, syn-trans. Although some earlier work based on 'H NMR and dipole moment measurements on 0-imidates gave conflicting results relating to configurations'.'26*'27, spin-spin coupling 'H NMR

439

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates R3

R3

-R'

I HN C

R'-C

\0-R2

//N-R3

0'

I

I

E-trans

R2 Z-cis

(550)

(SSd)

R2

studies of C-alkyl and N-alkyl protons of imidates undertaken by Walter and coworkers' 28 and utilizing shift reagents in CCI, or CD30D highlighted the presence of E-imidates either exclusively or in very high percentages. Subsequently aryl imidates ( 5 5 R 1= aryl) have also been shown by NMR NOE studies to have high E/Z ratios'29 or to be exclusively E. However, if bulky groups are present, as in compound 56, steric factors become increasingly important and, at - 67"C, the 'H NMR spectrum of the imidate can be resolved into peaks characteristic of both E and Z isomers and hence imidate 56 is undergoingrapid isomerization of configurationsat room temperature''O. R2

Me0

Ph'C /=N

\ Bu-t

@ y l , M e

,C=N MeS

R3

(67)

(56)

In the case of thiobenzimidates, e.g. of type 57, the E and Z forms have been isolated chromatographically and the E/Z ratios and barriers to isomerization determined by NMR'31.'32.The predominanceof the E-isomeris not so marked for S-imidates as it is for 0-imidates' 2 9 - 132. Conversion of a seriesof amides(58,X = 0)by alkylation led to imidate salts (59,X = 0) Ar

Ar

X

MeX

(58)

'

+/"

'R

Ar

MeX

Z

z

(59)

(60)

possessing the Z-configuration from which the thermodynamically unstable Z-imidates (60,X = 0)could be formed by treatment with pyridine at low temperatures, and related studies have been carried out on thioimidates (59, X = S) where higher percentages of the Z-forms exist normally129.The rate of isomerization of protonated imidates varieswidely, methyl N-methylacetimidate undergoing Z c E equilibrium only very slowly even at elevated temperatures whereas methyl N-phenylbenzimidate equilibrates more readily. Protonated imidates or their thio analoguescan undergo isomerization by rotation about

D. G. Neilson

440

the C=N moiety in acid solution, whereas the free bases isomerize via planar inversion pathways or imine-enamine procedures (see Reference 133 and references cited therein; see also the chapter by Perrin in this volume). In the case of N,N-disubstituted imidates there can be serious steric interactions,e.g. in compound61 between an N-isopropyl groupand the 0-ethyl group'33,and this causes the (62), molecule to adopt the arrangement shown (61). The N-methyl-N-isopropylimidate

AM. /pr-i

Me-C

1

'OEt

Er (61)

(62)

prepared by alkylation of ethyl N-isopropylacetimidate, is formed in a 1:1 ratio of E:Z isomers from which the pure E-isomer may be isolated by c r y s t a l l i ~ a t i o n 'Basic ~~. conditions permit EsZ interconversions in compound 61, the mechanism involving a n enamine route as seen by deuterium incorporation in the C-methyl group. Such interconversions d o not take place in acid solution'33. Comparisons between proton exchangein strongacid have been made for imidates and amides using N M R technique^"^.For the imidate (63; R' = Me, R2 = Et), H, exchanges appreciably faster than HEwhereas in the case ofprimary amides (64),H,exchanges faster, pointing to different mechanistic pathways for exchange'j4.

The stereochemical outcome of the reaction of hydroximoyl chlorides with alkoxides appearsto be dependent on the conditions of the reaction,the structureof the chloride and its configuration(Z/E)'35-'37. Thus the Z-hydroximoyl chloride (65; X = CI)when treated with methoxide ion in methanolldimethyl sulphoxide gives exclusively the Z-imidate (65; X = OMe) whereas the E-halide is much less stereospecific in reaction, although the principal imidate product still exhibits stereochemical retention136. However a Z hydroximoyl halide (66)reacted with sodium ethoxide' 37 to yield the E-hydroximidate 67. In each case the stereochemistry was checked by independent ~ y n t h e s i s ' ~ ~ .Tsomeriz'~'.

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

441

ation ( Z e E ) rates for compounds of type 65 (X = OMe) have also been investigated’”. Some alkyl hydroximidates (68) exist exclusively in the E form’39 and imidate Nand their thio analogues125( 6 9 X = 0,s) have been identified in both E and Z forms with pure Z-isomers being obtained by crystallization in the case of the thio compound (69; X = S). The corresponding oxygen compounds (69; X = 0),although separable by flash chromatography, quickly re-eq~ilibrate”~.

,;IoH R C‘onlkyl

4

Ar\ R‘ X /c=N\R

(68)

(69)

X-ray analysis’40 has proved that the hydrazimidate 70 exists in the E form allowing furthercorrelationsto be carriedout using NMRdata,and the imidate 71 exists in Z and E forms separable by chromatographyi4’. The structures of perfluorinated imidates and thioimidates have also been studied using I9F NMRI4’. Me

Me PhC//NoP(oMe)2

‘OEt

(70)

(71)

Imidate-amide tautomerism is exhibited by bis(trimethylsilyl)amides (72). Except for HCON(SiMe,), these compounds exist mainly as the N,O-disilylimidate tautomers (73a and b) which undergo reversible intramolecularexchange of the trimethylsilyl groups between nitrogen and oxygen, brought about by rapid free rotation of the carbonnitrogen bond of the amide tautomer (72)143-146.

The nickel(0) complex 74 has been shown by X-ray analysis, variable temperature ‘H and 29Si NMR and 15N labelling experiments to have predominantly the imidate structure 74 both in the solid state and in solution14’.

D. G. Neilson

442

C. Spectra of lmidates

The spectra (IR, Raman, UV, NMR, and mass spectra)associated with a wide variety of imidate types have been reviewed'.'48 and the preceding section of this chapter "F (Section 1V.B) details the use of NMR techniques, e.g. 13C data13', 'H data128*130, studies'42 and NOE experiment^''^,to determine the E/Z configuration of i m i d a t e ~ ' ~ ~ . The position of ~ i l y l a t i o nof~lactams, ~ 2-hydroxypyridines and acetanilideshas also been investigated by 13C NMR and the imidateeamide tautomerism (72e73) for imidates of type 73 has ,been studied by looking at "N ~pectra'~'. Imidates and their salts are subject to rearrangementand to hydrolysis reactions' and hence care must be taken in the interpretation of spectroscopic data, e.g. mass spectra studies on N-arylformimidates showed that these compounds underwent Chapman prior to fragmentation' I . D. Thermal Decomposition of lmidates 7. N-Unsubstituted imidates

Whereas N-unsubstituted imidate salts normally decompose on heating to give amides and alkyl halides, their bases are stable to heat when, for compound 75, R' = alkyl, or /iH2c,b

R'C

t R2CI

decompose to nitrile and alcohol when R' = aryl (species 75).

-

yNH b

R1C

'OR2

R'CN

+

R~OH

R' =Aryl

(73)

Extensive studies on ally1 trichloroacetimidates have shown that these compounds undergo,on heating,concerted [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangementsto give allylically transposed trichloroacetamides (equation 2)' 52; see OvermanZ3and references cited therein. d

c' 'CCI,

(2) NHCOCC13

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

443

The rearrangementsare totally regiospecific and highly stereoselectivez3, the transformation to amide occurring suprafaciallywith virtually complete transfer of chirality153. In some instances much milder rearrangementconditions have been made possible by the use of mercury(I1) or palladium(I1) salts as catalyst^^^*'^^,the rearrangements taking place most readily with imidates prepared from tertiary alcohols. The reactions, now known as Overman or Overman-Claisen rearrangements (equation 2)lSs-' s 7 , are of synthetic significancebecause of the ease of removal of the trichloroacetyl group; e.g. use has been made of this reaction in the synthesis of the isomers of polyoxamic acidIs7, amino acids155, 3-arnin0-1,2-diols~~*, 4-amino-2,5-hexadienoic acidlS6, aminosugars'59 and ( )-acivicin160. 1 -N-Trichloroacetylamino- 1,3-dienescan be prepared by thermal rerrangementof the corresponding propargylic imidates, usually in the presence of a free radical inhibitor23.161*'62 (see especially references cited in Reference 23). The reaction (equation 3) .NH

I

-(a). CC13CONH ( b ) DOSO

(3)

proceeds via the intermediacyof a 1,2-diene, 1-trichloroacetylaminopenta-1,2-diene, in the example citedl6I. Although the kinetic product is favoured in this [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement,the thermodynamic diene (76) is available by base catalysed equilibration. 2. N-Substituted imidates

The thermal decomposition of N-substituted imidate salts is often complex', but use has been made of the reaction to prepare N-(a-metho~yallyI)amides'~~. The thermal, intramolecular 1,3-shiftof an aryl group from oxygen to nitrogen in aryl N-aryl arylimidates has become known as the Chapman rearrangementand extensive reviews are available (References 1 and 150 and references cited therein). A recent application of the reaction involves the synthesis of arylamin~coumarins'~~.

Rearrangement pathways of 0-alkyl arylimidates depend on the nature of the alkyl group and are subject to catalysis by alkyl Studies by Challis and Frenkel14' have shown the catalysed reaction (equation 4) to follow the equation,

//VMe

PhC

b r - i

i-PrX

/NHPr PhC

No

-i

(4)

rate = k [imidate] [alkyl halide] and they invoke a two-step mechanism involving a benzimidonium intermediate. However, if isopropyl halide is used as catalyst, a concomitant E2 elimination takes place149(equation 5).

D. G. Neilson

444

PhC/

N

q

c!3

n

H-CH2-CH-CH3

l

4

CH3CH=CH2

+

H0

PhC

'OPr-i

'NHMe

(5)

Metal catalysts'65.L66 have been utilized to good effect in the Claisen rearrangementof allyl N-substituted imidates (see Reference 166 and references cited therein) allowing many reactions to be carried out at 25 "C instead of the 200 "C required for the thermal process'66. Product and mechanisticstudies showed palladium(0)catalysts to give ca 1: 1 ratio of products 77 and 78, palladium (11) catalysts to form exclusively the Claisenproduct

(77), whereas rhodium (I)and iridium (I) yielded predominantly the anti-Claisen product (78) with only the palladium (IT) catalyst giving high stereoselectivity in addition to regioselectivityL66.S-Ally1 thioimidates also rearrange on heating' giving the isomerized product 79, but the thioamide 80 when palladium (11) salts are present. The 5031679168,

HNMe

PhC

A

- >Na

HNMe

PhC

Pd(II1

A

PhC

(79)

(80)

palladium(I1) reaction has also been applied to cyclic thioimidates, for example, to synthesize N-alkyl-thio-~-caprolactam'~~. Pyrolysis of 2-alkoxyazetines gives different products in the liquid and vapour phases"* (compounds 81 and 82 respectively). Isocyanates may be obtained by heating imidates of type 83169or type 84 (R = per!luoroalkyl)'70and reaction 6 is a useful route to nitriie~~~. Me vap.

Me0

(81)

(82)

445

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates Arc

HNC1

RC

\ OSiMe3

‘OSi

Me 3

‘OSiMe3

E. Hydrolysis of lmidates Imidate salts are extensively subject to hydrolysis, especially under acid conditions when the hydrolysis products normally are as shown in equation 7.

-

H )2C-I

H,O+

RC

‘OEt

RCOOEt

+

NH4CI

Following on from extensive work already reported in the earlier review’, more recent studies’71 have come, in the main, from groups led by S ~ h m i r ” * - ’and ~ ~ DeslongIt has been proposed that Scheme 1 represents the mechanism of hydrolysis of imidate salts in basic media with the rate-determining steps being the OH

/ dC

i’

\

‘OR2

I

/

I

R1-c-d

I ‘

OR2

/

\

I

OR2 0-

(85)

H,O/OH-

\

I

/

OH

N -R f-,’

/

0-

+

R’-C-NH I

-

/

R’-C-NH

I

I

OR2

+ /

‘

(87)

1

dR2

(86)

+

R ~ C O O R ~>NH

R~CON/ \

+

R~OH

(88)

SCHEME 1

446

D. G. Neilson

interaction of an imidate with water or hydroxide ion to give cationic (85) or neutral(86) intermediates of tetrahedral structure-thereafter the breakdown pathways of the intermediates depend very much on the imidate s t r ~ c t u r e ' ~ ' - 'It ~~ is.known that all the intermediates (85-88) are formed180*'81and that C-0 or C-N bond cleavage can be Except for concomitant with protonation or deprotonation in some imidates derived from weakly basic amines'" 7 5 , e.g. ethyl N-4-nitrophenylformimidate, neutral or cationic species in general furnish amines whereas amides and alcohols arise from breakdown of anionic intermediates. Normally amide and alcohol are the thermodynamic products, ester and amine being the result of kinetic control. Although factors such as the pK, of the conjugate acid of the leaving group or the ability of any remainingheteroatoms to confer stability on the incipient carbocation may play a part in determining the reaction pathway, D e s l o n g ~ h a m p sin' ~a~review paper presents evidence that cleavage of the tetrahedralintermediates is under stereoelectroniccontrol and hence is heavily dependent on conformation and, in particular, on the orientation of the lonepair orbitals of the hetero atoms. Thus antiperiplanararrangementsof lone-pair orbitals relative to the leaving group assist in the cleavage of an N-C or 0-C bond. To test this theory cyclic imidates were used to lock molecules in syn (89) and anti (91) arrangements correspondingto the syn (90) and anti (92) conformations (in stereoelectronic terms, see above) of acyclic imidates. The products predicted on stereoelectronic grounds from rigid anti-imidate salts under conditions of kinetic control are exclusively ester/amine and those were confirmed experimentally. In the case of acyclic imidates, imidate 90 (R' = Et, R 2 = H, R3 = Me) shown by NOE to have a syri conformation gives mixtures of ester/amine and amide/alcohol products in accord with stereoelectronic theory whereas

imidate 92 (R' = Et, R 2 = t-Bu, R3 = Me) locked into an anti arrangement by the bulky R2 substituent gives ester/amine products exclusively under alkaline hydrolysis and kinetic c ~ n t r o l " ~ . In comparison with the above hydrolysis, in acidic conditions ester/amine products arise from the hydrolysis of both anti (92) and syn (90) imidate sa1ts'77.'78*'80.'81. It has been noted that for cleavage of a C-N bond the nitrogen of any tetrahedralintermediate must either be protonated under acidic conditions or hydrogen bonded with solvent in basic media179-181 . Hence in the case of any imidate, e.g. compound 93 which is highly Ph

Me

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

441

hindered to protonation, base hydrolysis proceeds to yield a lactam althouh at pH values below 4 ester/amine products appear'81. Other s t ~ d i e s ~include * ~ ~ comparison '~~ of hydrolysis of benzimidates and benzamides in sulphuricacid solutions'84 and Hammett relationshipsin the alkalinehydrolysis of aryl N-aryl arlyimidates 8 5 * 186. Benzimidates under basic conditions may also yield nitriles (equation 8) and this

Arc,

- -

//""

OH-

'OR

ArCN

+

ROH

elimination has been shown to follow an ElcB mechanism'". Hammett plots for the displacement reaction 9 have also been reported"*.

Ar'C

"*''

+

MeO-

Ar'C

4

\OAr3

RNAr2 +

Ar30-

(9)

\OMe

Less work has been carried out on thioimidates but the thioformimidate 94 hydrol y ~ e s as ' ~shown ~ in equation 10 and the thioimidate N-oxide 95 is h y d r o l y ~ e d 'in ~~ accord with equation 11.

/-.

33% HCl/ether "\S

RNPh

R

HC,

0

t

PhC

- //" HCI b

PhC

+

MeNHOH

'SMe

F. Action of lmidates with Hydrogen Sulphide and Hydrogen Selenide

Furtherexamples of the preparationof thione~ters'~' from imidates and of dithioesters from i m i d a t e ~ and ' ~ ~thioimidate~'~' by interaction with hydrogen sulphide have been published and an improved m e t h ~ d ' ~for ~ -the ' ~synthesis ~ of selenoesters has been evolved.

-

D. G. Neilson

448

HNH+

RC

H2Se

Py/EI,N

-25

G. Alcoholysis of lmidate Salts-Preparation

HSe

RC

OC

of Ortho Esters

Studies on the alcoholysis of imidate salts to give ortho esters were reviewed extensively' and little new work has appeared, although the method has been used to prepare bicyclic bis-ortho estersIg5.

+

//JH2X

-

+

dC

2R20H

\OR2

-

R1C(OR2)3

+

NHqX

H. The Reaction of lmidates with Ammonia and its Derivatives 1. Reactions with ammonia

The reaction between imidates and ammonia (equation 12) to give amidines is well d o ~ u m e n t e d ' .with ' ~ ~ the mechanism of the reaction having been elucidated by Handand Jencksl9', and the reader is referred to these earlier reviews. Selective attack by a r n r n ~ n i a 'on ~ ' the thioimidate (96) leads to amide (97) rather than amidine.

+

//"OH MeC \SCH$OOE+

N"3

-

//"OH MeC

.

\SCHZCONH~

2. Reactions with primary amines

Due to the growing interest in the interaction of proteins and related smaller molecules with both mono- and di-imidates' (see also Section IV.H.7)the study of the mechanismof the interaction between primary amines and imidates has become of increasing importance. Hence Browne and Kent'99*200studied the reaction of acetimidates with primary amines under conditions analogous to those used in protein condensations and found that amidines (98)were rapidly and cleanly formed at pH values of ca 19 whereas at lower pH (e.g. ca 8) competing reactions'" gave rise to esters (99) and N-substituted imidates (100). Studies on the amidination of acetimidates with horse liver alcohol dehydrogenaseZo0 (LADH) and cytochrome C202also suggest that yields of amidines are maximized at pH 10, e.g. LADH has 28 out of 30 lysine &-aminogroups per subunit modified at pH

449

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

p*

p"

yNH2 t +R~NH~

MeC

MeC\NH2 (98)

+

'OR'

RNHR2

+

MeC

'OR'

10 with overall retention of basic charge. I t is very likely that some earlier work requires to be reassessed in the light of these findings as a t lower pH values -Lys-Lyssubunits may form amidines of type 102 rather than of type 103 due to the initial formation of imidates of type 101. Gilbert and Jencks203, in a study of the aminolysis of alkyl benzimidates, have shown that at alkaline p H values formation of a tetrahedral intermediate 104 is rate determining, but at acidic pH values expulsion of alcohol from the same intermediate is rate determining and hence there is marked exchange of amine for ammonia to give product 105. -Lys--Lys-

i

-Lys-Lys-

i

H2N

N

\\'c'\ /

I

OEt

I

NH N \\ /

\'c

I

Me

I

1

Me

(102)

(101)

HNH Arc +

(103) NHR~

P+3

R ~ N H ~

I I

~r-c-0~1

/ (Z\

O ' R'

HR )~ Ar

\OR1

)HR2

+

NH3

Ar

\

+

R'OH

NH2

Choice of appropriate conditions has led to the following (equations 13 and 14) and to the synthesis of pirbenicillin2ns,and clavulanic acid derivativeszn6among other compounds potentially useful as d r ~ g s ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ .

+

RNH2

EtO2CCHz C

HINCN

*

-

RNCN

EtO2CCHzC

R.NH

HNCN

EtO2CCH2C

\ NR2

(13)

450

D. G. Neilson //NcN

ArNH2

HC

\OE

RNCN AlkylNHZ

HC

t

\NHAr

RNAr

HC

(14)

‘NHAikyi

Despite the fact that thiols are better nucleophilesand also better leaving groups than the correspondingalcohols,thioimidates have found less use in amidine synthesis because, particularly with more basic amines, reversal with nitrile formation occurs although weakly basic amines react successfully to give amidines. Schnur2’ohas found, however, that amidines can be formed in good yields by the action of an amine in an acetic acid/acetate buffer in CHCI, on a thioimidate salt at room temperature. 3. Reactions with secondary amines

N,N-Disubstituted amidines have been prepared from pyrrolidines’ and piperidines212and Hammett re1ation~hip.s~~~ have been derived for the action of Et2NH on imidates of type 106.

(106)

4. Reaction with tertiary amines

Tertiary amines may be used to prepare imidate bases from their salts’.

5. Reaction of lmidates with hydrazine and its derivatives The reactions of hydrazine and substituted hydrazines with imidates and thioimidates is well do~umented’.~ l 4 and much recent ~ o r k ~ has ’ followed ~ - ~ ~similar ~ patterns (see also Section IV.1.10 relating to 1,2,4-triazoles). However, a series of N-sulphonylformamidrazones has been prepared to investigate their amide/hydrazone structures2’0. Other novel syntheses include the preparation of 1,2,4-thiadia~oles~~~ (equation 15) and of the fused pyrazole system 107222; see also Section IV.I.4.

45 I

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates 6. deaction of imidates with hydroxylamines

The irninogroup of an irnidateor thioimidate can be replaced by the oximino group of hydroxylamine’. Use has also recently been made of 0-alkyl-hydroxylamines in s y n t h e s i ~ ~(equations ~ ~ . ~ ~ ‘ 16 and 17). Compounds of type 108 have potential use as pesticides22s*226and compounds of type 109 can reactivate pyrophosphate inhibited ~holinesterase’~~*~’*, but these imidates are often synthesized by other routes. CICH,C

dNH + NH20Me ‘OE

t

+

HC

NH20CH2Ph

‘OEt

-

CICH2C

‘OEt NC

I

OCH2Ph

MeC,dNOCONHR \

‘SCH~CH~NE+~

SMe

(109)

(108)

7. Reaction of imidates with u-amino acid derivatives including peptides and proteins

Depending on the reaction conditions, imidates react with a-amino acids and their simple derivatives’ to form either imino-peptides (110), irnidazolones (111) or N substituted imidates (1 12). However, chiral oxazolines have been prepared by the ~ a~ series ~ ~ of* ~ ~ ~ condensation of imidates with P-hydroxy-a-amino-acid e ~ t e r and polydipeptarnidinium salts (113) has been obtained by the action of thioimidates on ’. amidin~peptides’~

(110)

(111)

(112)

D. G. Neilson

452

Imidates react with free amino groups, e.g. the t-amino groups of lysine in peptides and proteins', and the new work that has appeared in this biological/biochemical area merits an up-to-date review of these aspects which lie outside this chemical review. As explained in Section IV.H.2, amidination of proteins with mono-imidates such as acetimidates is best carried out at ca pH 10 in order to retain overall basic charge of the protein by maximizing amidine formation (cf compound 103). At lower pH values secondary products such as N-substituted imidates (101) and cyclic amidines (102) appear. The amidine moiety may be removed by the use of methylamine buffers of ca pH 11.4 without serious disruption of the protein2". Methyl t h i ~ a c e t i m i d a t e ~ethyl ~ ~ , br~moacetimidate'~~, methyl C3KJ-acetimidate which has a higher specific radioactivity than methyl ['4C]-acetimidateg in addition to 7*234-243. ethyl and methyl acetimidates have all been used in reactions with proteins202*21 Whereas ethyl and methyl acetimidates are reagents permeant to lipid b i o l a y e r ~ ~the ~', related isothionyl acetimidate (114) is impermeant to such mernbrane~'~~*~~'~'~~*~~'. Crosslinking of proteins is also of biological interest and has been carried out using methyl 3mer~aptopropionimidate~~~, methyl 4 - m e r c a p t o b ~ t y r i m i d a t e ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~and ~-~~~ their dimeric analogues dimethyl 3,3'-dithiobispropi0nimidate~~~*~~~-~~~ and 4,4'dithiobisb~tyrimidate~~~. Other work on crosslinking has utilized diethyl mal~ndiirnidate'~~,

(114)

dimethyl adipimidate238.2so*25s, dimethyl suberimidate235.238.250~253.255.256 including a I4C labelled form2s4,among others257. Several aromatic i m i d a t e ~ have ~ ~ ' also proved useful in protein coupling experiments, e.g. methyl 4-hydroxybenzimidate (Wood reagent)239*259-264 allows incorporation of '"1 after condensation,e.g. with cell wall surfaceproteins. Methyl and ethyl 4-azidobenzimidates'6~265-26" are photoactivatable cross-linking agents. Other reagents include compounds 115 and 116'8*75. 1. Preparation of Heterocyclic Compounds 1 . Preparation of pyrroles and their reduced derivatives

2,3,4-Trisubstituted pyrroles, which were otherwise difficult to obtain269,have been synthesized by the condensation of electron-deficientalkenes with imidates of type 117 in base. Methylides prepared from thioimidates of type 120 also condense with alkenes but yield p y r r o l i d i n e ~ ~and ' * ~related ~~, rea~tions~~ have ' . ~led ~ 'to the fused systems 118 and 119.

Pyrrolidine-Zones are available from the cyclization reactions of y-unsaturated 18, and pyrrolidines from the condensation i m i d a t e ~ and ' ~ ~t h i ~ i m i d a t e se.g. ~ ~equation ~, of N-acyl formimidate methylides and alkeneslo5.

453

9. lmidates including cyclic imidates x l h

// NCH2SO2C6H4Me-4

0

RC

oM R'z

1

'SMe

Me

(117)

(119)

(118)

NC MeC//NCHzSiMe3

PS '

A'JF

__.___*

JcN

r

h

(120)

NC'

)+;

t PhSe6r

/

Me

Go

PhSe

Bu

2. Formation of imidazoles, irnidazolines and benzimidazoles

Much work on the synthesis of imidazoles via imidates has centred on obtaining the imidazoles with substituents suitable for furthersynthesis, e.g. of purines. Aminomalonic acid derivatives are useful in this respect, acting directly with imidates to give imidazoles".275.276(equation 19) or by formation of N-substituted imidates which are subsequently cyclized with a m i n e ~ ' ~ (equation ' . ~ ~ ~ 20). Nucleosides have been derived in ~ ~ ~ suitably . substituted imidates this way from a m i n o - ~ u g a ror s ~sugar ~ ~ i m i d a t e ~Other can also be cyclized to imidazoleshz~280~281 (equation 21 and 22).

+ //NH2C'-

Hi 4C

O E t'

(19)

CCH(NH2)CONHz

t

H2N

/

H

R //NCH2CN HC

\

OMe

meoP

' A O M e H

-

D. G. Neilson

454

PhCOC(=NOH)C //NCH2Ph

\ S Me

COPh

A

Ph

Het = heterocycle

SMe

H

,Tos

Het

(121)

Othercompounds prepared via imidates includethe tosyl derivative282121, imidazolyl4 - m e t h a n o l ~ ’and ~ ~ 2,2’-biimida~ole’~~ among others285. Imidazolines are available by the action of i,tdiaminoalkaneson imidates or their derivatives’*286and use has been made of this reaction to prepare optically labile imidazolines for the asymmetric transformation of alanine2*’. Benzimidazoles arise from the condensation of imidates and 1,2-diaminober~zene’~~~~ and 4,5,6-triaminopyridinehas been used analogo~sly’~~. 3. Formation of 1,3-azaphospholines and 1,Sbenzazaphospholes

1,3-Azaphosph0lines~~~ and 1,3-benzazaphosph0les~~*+*~~ can be prepared by reactions 23 and 24, respectively.

+

HNHZC‘t R~PHCH~H$H,

R’ C

\

OM0

---.

(23)

I

apH2 a:‘>R2

+

YNnic‘-

R’ C

\OMe

t

(24)

I

NHR~

4. Preparation of pyrazoles and their benzo derivatives

Pyrazoles can be formed by the action of hydrazines on f l - k e t o i m i d a t e ~ ~ ~ ’ . ~ ~ ~ . Thermolysis of 2-azidobenzimidate gives rise to 3-ethoxybenzopyra~ole~.

ti

455

9. h i d a t e s including cyclic imidates 5. Preparation of oxazoles, benzoxazoles and their reduced derivatives

Oxazoles have previously been synthesized by the action of aryl aldehydes on dithiodiimidates' and 2,5-disubstituted o x a z ~ l e have s ~ ~more ~ recently been preparcd by an adaptation of that reaction. ArCHO

t

//

NCH2SO2C6HqMe-4

MeC

\ SMe

Me

Ar

It has been found that w-hydroxy-N-substituted amidines (and not, as previously suggested, N-substituted imidates') are the intermediates in the formation of 2-oxazolines from the reaction between 1,2-aminoalcohols and imidatesZg6.However, the recent main thrust of the work on oxazolines derived from imidates has been in the synthesis of chiral oxazolines capable of being exploited for asymmetric syntheses with much of this work coming from Meyers' group47.229.297*298 among others230*299.For this purpose the imidates are condensed with optically active 8-hydroxy-a-amino acid esters or their reduced derivatives, and then, e.g., the resultant oxazolines are subjected to lithiation and alkylation. Other syntheses of oxazolines include the formation of 4-methyleneoxazolinesJoo from imidates of type 122 and the use of oxazolines in the the siderophore agrobactinJo2 preparation of the antibiotic (S)-3-fluoroalanine-2-dJo1, and a chiral peptide analogueJo3.

(122)

Cyclization reactions of 0-ally1 trichloroacetimidatesin the presence of iodine/pyridine or N-iodosuccinimide in chloroform have been shown to give 4,5-dihydrooxazoles (123) by 5-exo ring closureJo4of 2-ally1 i m i d a t e ~ ~ whereas ~ ~ - ~ the ~ ' E-ally1 analogues give 6endo ring closureJo4with resultant formation of 4,5-dihydro-1,3-oxazines (124) (E and Z here refer to the allylic group stereochemistryand not to that of the imidate).Use has been made of this reaction in the synthesis of daunosamineJo8. a-Hydroxyimidate bases react with oxalyl chloride to yield oxazolidine-2,4-dionesand, as their salts, with N,N-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide to form 2-cyclohexyliminoxazolidin-4ones309.

D. G. Neilson

456

I R2

or

CCI,

CCI,

CCI,

(123)

(124)

Benzoxazoles, including the anti-inflammatory drug B e n o ~ a p r o f e n ~are ' ~ ,made by reacting imidates with o-aminophenols'. 6. Preparation of thiazoles and benzothiazoles

Thiazoles have been derived from the action of P-mercapto esters or amides3" o n thioimidates of type 125 and also from the action of acyl chlorides or imino chlorides on thioimidate~~'~.

- AS2

H e t CHNCN t HSCH~COOM~ h e

(125)

Het

COOMe

Het =Heterocycle

2-Carboethoxybenzothiazole (127) is the major product313 of the reaction of oaminothiophenol and imidate 126.

aNH2 +

HNH

Et02CC

SH

E t O C < [ D

'OEt

7. Preparation of oxadiazoles

1,2,4-Oxadiazoles1 (128)are found as products in the reaction between hydroxylamine and N-a~ylimidates"~ and are also reported to be formed by the action of imidates o n a m i d o ~ i m e s ~Nitrile ' ~ . oxides also yield 3,5-disubstituted-I ,2,4-oxadiazoles by reaction

9. Imidates includingcyclic imidates

457

R3

'nn3

R'.

(128)

with imidates3l 6 and N-hydroxyimidates react with isocyanatesor isothiocyanates(129 Y = 0 or S ) to form 1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-ones or -thiones3I7. R3

\ N q y

R'C

t

R3NCY R'

\OR2

ANP

(129)

1,3,4-Oxadiazole~'*~~ are obtained by cyclization of imidates of type 130.

8. Preparation of thiadiazoles and dithiazoles

Further of 1,3,4-thiadiazoles derived from irnidates' have been reported and 2-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazoles3l9 have been isolated from the cyclization reaction 25. The fused system 132 arises by the action of P,S, on the thioimidate 1313'0.

The 1,2,4-thiadia~ole~~l 133 has been prepared by reaction 26 and 3-arylimino-1,2,4dithiazoles areprepared by the reactionof bromine in chloroformon thioimidatesof type 134322.323

D. G. Neilson

458

(133)

RNCSNHAr2

A ?C

__*

‘SCH2Ph

Art

9. Preparation of 1,3.4-thiazaphospholes,1,3,2-0xazaphospholines and related species

1,3,4-Thiazaphospholes(135) have been prepared from thioimidates. The reaction is believed to proceed via a four-memberedcyclic intermediate324.

+ R2CH2C//NH2Br-

‘SR’

PCI,

EtsN/MeCN

. *AskR, P-N

R

(135)

a-Hydroxyimidates react with phosphorus trichloride to give 1,3,2-oxazaphospholinesJZ5(equation27) and with phosphorus dichlorides to give related compounds containingpentavalent phosphorusJ26(equation28). Biacetyl has also found use in the preparationof oxazaphosph~lidines~~’ (equation29) and cyclic phosphatesJZ8arisefrom the condensationof MeOP(O)F, and N,O-bistrimethylsilylfluoroacetamide.

R 2S kg ON R 3

1

CI

L R‘PCI,

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

459

10. Preparation of 1,2,4-triazoles

1,2,4-Triazolesare often synthesized from imidates via amidrazone intermediateswhich but are also available from the action of may or may not be isolated','45,214,329-332 hydrazines on N-acyl i m i d a t e ~ ' , ~ ' ~ . ~and ''.~ N~ - c~y a n o i r n i d a t e ~ ~ ~ ~ * In ~ ~ ~this . latter case336there is high selectivity with compound 136 (X = 0)yielding the 5-aminotriazole 137 whereas the thioimidate 136 (X = S) yielded the 3-amino derivative 138. 1,2,4T r i a z o I i n - 5 - 0 n e s ~ have ~ ~ . ~been ~ ~ prepared by related reactions and fused systems involving the triazole ring formed from imidates include 1,2,4-triazolo[4,3-a]and 1,2,4-triazolo[1,5-a]p y r a z i n e ~ ~ ~ * ,pyrazol0[1,5-b]-1,2,4-triazoles~~~

pyrimidine^^^^.^^'.

-

t

HNHZCI-

R'NHNHS

R'C

\OR2

/NC0R3

/NNHR3 R'C

R~CHO

"H2

R'

N-N

R'NHNH?

R'C'OR'

/R3 N-N

R' A N 4 k R 3

Me

Me

11. Preparation of tetrazoles and triazaphospholes

Tetrazoles can be synthesized from imidates via amidrazone intermediate^'.^'^or directly using hydrazoic acid' or, in the case of imidate 139, azide anion342.

HNR

CI c

\ SCCI,

(139)

Na-

HNR N3C \SCCl,

-

C13CS

I

R

460

D. G. Neilson

Closely related 1,2,4,3-triazapho~phoIes~~~

N-P

R~NHNH,

R'C\

are available via reaction 30.

A, \ HN-P

+

R' AN;N\R2

OMe

,OEt

/OEt R'

H

p-R*

(30)

12. Preparation of azines

a. Pyridines and their fused derivatives. Aue and Thomas' have condensed acetylenedicarboxylic acid esters with imidates to yield pyridines. However, the main s ~ ~related ~ fused thrust of work in this area has been in the preparationof i s o q ~ i n o l i n eand from imidates includingcyclic imidates (140) and homophthalicanhydride and of q ~ i n o l i n e sfrom ~ ~ suitably ~ - ~ ~ N-substituted ~ imidates. Quinoline or isoquinoline N - o x i d e ~ condense ~~' with imidates of ,type 141 to produce substituted ethylenes (142). COOMe

t

MeOOCCSCCOOMe

MeC

\

qo tMeOg Me

OMe

0

Me

0

(140)

\

c 0

OEt

(142)

(141)

Intramolecularamidoselenation of N-alkenyl imidates yields p i p e r i d i n e ~ ~ ~ ~ .

b. Pyrimidines and theirfused systems. This biologically important class of compounds has been extensively synthesized from imidates either directly or via amidine derivatives'. Recently pyrimidines353and their derivatives have been synthesized by the action of Ncyano-irnidate~ usually ~ ~ ~ with malonic acid derivative^^^^-'^^(equation 31) and from NC

+

R' I

NCCH2CONHZ H

9. lmidates including cyclic imidates

46 1

H

(32)

(equation 32). Mesoionic species (143) have been hidatepactam condensation^^^^^^^^ derived by the action of I,4-dipolar zwitterions on i m i d a t e ~ ~ ~ ’ . 0

(143)

Two main routes lead to pyrimidines which are part of fused systems: (a)intermolecular condensation of an imidate with a ring compound having adjacent amino and carboxylic acid groups and (b) intramolecularcondensation of a carboxylic acid derivative with an adjacent imidate group normally formed by the action of an ortho ester on the amino function (equations 33 and 34). In this latter case (equation 34) the product can depend . The reactions on the natureand molecular ratio of the ortho ester to hydra~ide’~’-’~~ 33 and 34 are highly versatile and, in addition to q u i n a z o l i n - 4 - 0 n e s ~ ’ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~and - ~ ~ their ~ saturated derivative^^^^-'^^, pyrimidine nuclei fused to f ~ r a n ’ ~b~e n, ~ o f u r a n ~ ~ l , oxazole3’’, isoquinolineJ7’,t h i a z ~ l e ’ ~ ~ .i’ n~ ~d , ~ l e 1,2,4-triazoIe2’*, ~~~, 1,4-thia~ine’~~, as well as i r n i d a ~ o l e ~ ~ rings ’ ~ ~ have ’~.~ been ~ ~prepared. Fused systems have also been ~ ~imidates. ’ generated from the action of ketenes3” and aryl i s ~ c y a n a t e s on

8

gNH2 CONHNH2

0 II

‘OE t

c. Pyridazines. Diels-Alder addition of compounds of type ArN=NCN with N-unsaturated imidates acting as d i e n e ~ yields ~ ~ ’ compounds of type 144, and there is a report that methyl N-allylacetimidate yields a 4-aminopyridazine by Diels-Alder addition to a 1,2,4,5-tetrazine3*’,but see also Section IV.I.12.f.

d. 1.2,4-Triazines. 1,2,4-Triazines(145) are available from Diels-Alder condensation . ~ see ~ ~also the reactions of imidates or thioimidates and s-tetrazinesacting as d i e n e ~ ’(but

D. G. Neilson

462

section above), and from the interaction of a-keto acid hydrazones and imidatesJS5,eg. compound 146, but these compounds are more usually obtained from amidrazones with 1,Zdiketo

(145)

CMe3

(146)

e. 1,3,S-Triazines and their derivatives. Furtherexamples of both ~ y m m e t r i c a l l y ~ ~ ~ * ~ ~ and unsymmetrically s ~ b s t i t u t e d1,3,5-triazines ~ ~ ~ * ~ ~ ~arising from imidate trimerization reactions have been noted since the earlier review'. However, many interesting triazines including the fused systems 5 - ~ a a d e n i n e ~ ~pyrazolo', and 1,2,3-triazolo[1,5-a] t r i a ~ i n e sand ~ ~azacycl[3,3,3]a~ines~~~*~~~ ~*~~~ (147) among others395*396 have been derived from the action of N-cyanoimidates on amidines'q3'' includingcyclic amidines or cyanamide398. Exceptionally under these conditions 5-amino-lH-tetrazole gives 2amino-4-azido-1,3,5-triazine rather than a fused cyclic productJ9'.

HNCN H2Ny6y - dNANJ NH2

Y

t HC

\OMe

(147)

NH2

1,3,5-Triazin-2,4-diones can arise from the interaction of iso~yanates~~~~~~'.

imidates and

f: 1,2,4,5-Tetrazines. S y m m e t r i ~ a l l y ' * ~ ' ~and * ~ ~ unsymmetrically'*z8 ~ 3,6-disub-

stituted-1,2,4,5-tetrazines are formed in the reaction of hydrazine, usually as its hydrate on imidates or imidate/amidine mixtures. 13. Preparation of 1.3- and 1P-oxazines

Amidines have been recognised as the intermediate^^'^.^'^in the condensation of Related comimidates and propanolamines to give dihydro-1,3-oxazines368*40s~406. pounds are available from the treatment of ally1 trichloroacetimidates with Ni o d ~ s u c c i n i m i d e ~(see ~ ~Section * ~ ' ~ IV.I.5) and 2H-1,3-oxazin-2-onesandthiones407from the action of phosgene or thiophosgene on 2-hydroxybenzimidates. &

H,N(CH,),OH

RC4NHzC'-

b

/N(cH2)30H RC

O M e'

Morpholine-2,3,5-triones result from the interaction of oxalyl chloride and ahydroxyimidate salts, the free imidates yielding oxazolidine-2,4-diones30g.

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

463

14. Preparation of other six-membered heterocyclic systems

Compounds of types 148 and 149 have been prepared from N-cyanoimidates and the appropriate sulphurc o r n p o ~ n d sthe ~ oxadiazin-4-one ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , 150 from arylnitroso species

(148)

(149)

(150)

and irnidatesls2,and 1,4,Zoxathiazines by ring closure410of thioimidates of type 151. //"OH Arc

s'

(CH 2 ),C I

Ar

(151)

15. Preparation of azepines and azaphosphenins

The synthesis of azepines and their fused derivatives has been r e v i e ~ e d ' * ~ '2~*~'~. Aminobenzoic acid hydrazides with ortho esters can yield triazepines152 but more usually give quinazolin-4-0nes~~~-~~~,and the azepine 153 has been isolated from the intramolecular cyclization of ethyl N-2-metho~yphenylphenylpropiolirnidate~~~.

(153)

(152)

(154)

The azaphosphenin 154 has been synthesized414via the intermediacy of the imidate PhC(OEt)=NP(OR)z. J. Reaction of lmidates with Grignard Reagents and Metal Aikyls

Primary amines are available from both sulphonamides' and phosphorusa m i d e via ~~~ imidate intermediates (equation 35).

PhzP(0)NHz

HC(OEt),

//Np(o)Ph2

HC

'OEt

RMqBr ___*

R2CHNHP(O)Ph2

(35)

D. G. Neilson

464

Thioimidate N-oxides (155) react with alkyl Grignard reagentsIz5to yield substituted hydroxylamines (156). /NJ(o)Me

memper

PhC

PhC(Me)2N(Me)OH

\SMe

(155)

(156)

Both Grignard and alkyl lithium reagents react with imidate 157, the latter reagent yielding ketones415.Keteneimines4I6are synthesized by the action of methyl lithium on imidate 158 and imidate 159 can be converted into fl-hydroxy acid amides417via reaction sequence 36.

‘OMe

K

(1571

,NSiMe3 a.BuLi

MeC//

0‘s

i Me3

b. R’ COR’

R’ R2C(OH)CH$ONH2

In recent times imidates have proved to be useful intermediates in asymmetric s y n t h e ~ e s ~ ~ The * ~ ~products, ~ - ~ ~ ”often . obtained in high enantiomeric excess, include carboxylic acid esters4” and non-proteinogenic a-amino acid among others4I9.Reaction 37a illustrates the kinetic product of alkylation of a cyclic thioimidate and reaction 37b the thermodynamic product of the reacti~n’’~. Related sulphenylation reactions have been studied42’.

( R 2 chiral)

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

465

K. Oxidation and Reduction of lmidates

I . Oxidation

Alkoxyoxiridines and hydroxylamine derivatives by subsequent hydrolysis422are the normal products of oxidation of N-substituted imidates with per acid^'.'^^,but nitroso dimers have also been Lead tetraacetate oxidizes both N-substituted imidates and cyclic imidates at the aposition423.

Perimidic acid salts (160) have themselves proved to be useful oxidizing agents424-426 yielding oxiranes with alkenes. RCN

- /i”” H202

Na,CO,

RC

=p<

‘o-o-

(160)

2. Reduction lmidates are reduced to a m i n e ~ ~by -sodium ~ ~ ~borohydride - ~ ~ ~ or cyanoborohydride, althoughyields tend to be lower with this latter reagent428.N-Acylimidates similarly yield N-(a-alkoxyalk yl)amides 3*430*43I .

-

NaBH4 4NcoR2 R’CH(OR3)NHCOR2

dC

\OR3

Hydrogen over palladium reduces the nitro group of ethyl 2-hydroxy-4nitrobenzimidate but appears to be without effect on the imidate moiety6. L. KAcyl and MSulphonyl lmidates

Improved methods432*433 have been developed for the acylation of imidates’ but Nacyl imidates may also be prepared d i r e ~ t l yas~ shown ~ ~ . in ~ ~equation ~ 38. A hindered base, e.g. 2,4,6-trimethylpyridine, has been found useful in the condensation of imidates and methyl c h l ~ r o f o r m a tto e ~give ~ ~ N-carbomethoxyimidates. ,NAc

Ac~NH

Me,SiCI or Me,SC,F,

// MeC 0‘s

iM e 3

D. G. Neilson

466

Transacylation reactions have also been studied-reaction sequence 39-and such reactions have proved useful for exchangingthe substitution pattern of the lactam ring of penicillins and ~ e p h a l o s p o r i n s ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ * . /O R' C

4

[

HNR2 R4COCI

+ R'C

\NHR2

\OR3

R,

3!?+

/gR2COR4]

NHR~

\OR3

(39) 1,3-Dialkoxy-2-azapropenylium salts (161) have been derived from N-acyl i m i d a t e ~ ~ ~ ~ which can also be useful intermediates in the synthesis of a wide range of heterocyclic ~, and 1,2,4compounds such as o ~ a d i a z o l e s ~ ' p~y, r r ~ l i d i n e s ' ~ thiazoles3'* triazo~es3'4.333.334and the reader is referred to the appropriatesections of this review. R'

CH N C O R 2

+

R!Ot

\OR3

X-

-

R1\,c&c

/R2

R ~ O

\OR4

(161)

N-Sulphonyl-l-azabuta-1,3-dienes (162) have been prepared from N-sulphonyl imil k~e n e ~ ~and ~ ' ,the aminating agent (la), useful in preparing dates and a l k y n e or ~ ~a ~ aziridines from a l k e n e ~is~available ~~, from N-hydroxyimidates (163). //Nso2Ph PhC

Mac

'5

PhS02N

CN Et,

NEt2

Ph

SPh

(162)

' ?I

C"OH

+

-

C1502*Me

b. HC104

Me-SO20NH2

M. Reactions of KHalo lmidates Little new work has been oberved in this area' but the N-fluoroimidate 165 has been preparedu3 and N-chloroimidates give products of type 166 on reaction with OC (COOEt 12

HNF,

* EtOOCC/NF \OH

CHINt.

/NF EtOOCC 'OMe

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

HNC1 t S

Arc

\

'OMe

-

467

ArCON=S=NCOAr

N. Phosphorus Derivatives of lmidates

lmidate 167 reacts with bromodifluorophosphineat -80°C to yield the imidate 168 or subsequently the product 169 with excess reagent445and imidates of type Ph,P+N= CRSMe arise from the a l k ~ l a t i o of n ~Ph,P(SCN),. ~~ Todd-Atherton ph~sphorylation"~' of imidates gives high yields of product 170 and Wittig reactions have been used to prepare a$-unsaturated imidates7s*448.449 as well as a l k e n e from ~ ~ ~cyclic ~ imidates of type 4. PF, Br RNSiMe3

MeC

b

'OSiMe3

HNW2 +

MeC

//JPF2 MeC

'OSiMe3

(167)

'OPF2

(188)

(169)

(170)

Imidates having replaceablehalogen atoms react with phosphorus compounds to yield a variety of p r o d ~ c t s ~ ~ and ' * imidates ~ ~ * with N-phosphorus undergo Arbuzov and Perkov type reactions45s.

+

MeC,

MeP(OR)2 + MeC,

'OMe

'OMe

HNH+ P(OR)S

CI3CC

d

HNH

(R0)2P(O)CC12C

'OMe

'OMe

--(J..

NP(O)(CC12COOEt)OMe

4

C13Cc00Et

PhC//NP(oMe)2 'OMe

NP(O)(EtOC=CC12)0Me

'OMe

The E / Z forms of PhC(OEt)=NP(O)(OMe), have been separated chromatographially'^' and pK, values have been measured4s6 for imidates of type R'R2P(0)XC (=NH)OEt where R1,RZ= alkyl or alkoxy and X = CH2, OCH, and CH,CH,.

D. G. Neilson

468

Thioimidates are normally made by alkylation of the appropriate N-phosphorus thioamide’, e.g. with monochloroacetic acid derivative^^^'. Heterocyclic systems containing phosphorus atoms in the ring458are described in the main in Sections IV.I.3, IV.I.9 and IV.I.l I. 0. Trichloroacetimidates

The preparationof trichloroacetimidates(8,11,12), a series of highly versatile reagents,is discussed in Section II1.B. 0-Ally1 trichloroacetimidates undergo ring closure reactions to yield 4,5-dihydrooxa58q304-308*459-46’ (see Section IV.I.5) and allylic and zoles or 4,5-dihydro-1,3-oxazines1 s 2 - 1 6 2 (see propargyllic trichloroacetimidates are subject to thermal rearrangementz3*’ Section IV.D.l). In addition, the imidates 8 are useful alkylating agents, e.g. compound 8 (R = CHzPh) acts as a benzylating agent towards both primary and secondary hydroxy groups under mild conditions which do not normally upset other acid or base sensitive protecting g r o ~ p s ~Moreover, ~ ~ - ~ imidate ~ ~ . 8 (R = t-Bu) offers a convenient route to t-butyl esters and ethers which are otherwise difficult to synthesizez6. With chiral substrates no racemization has been observed465. Trichloroacetimidate derivatives of e.g. compounds 11 and 12, are useful intermediates undergoingattack by a wide range of 0-,S-, N- and C-nucleophiles to give good yields of products with high degrees of anomericspecificity which are not often found in other methods of synthesis. The reader is referred to Reference 24 and referencescited hydrazoic therein for detailed discussion. Acids,’such as carboxylic and diben~ylphosphate~~’, react directly with the a-anomer 11 to yield the P-products 17ls,b,c respectively. Nucleophiles other than acids, e.g. t h i o l ~ a~ l~ ~, o h o l s ~ ~ * ~ ~ ~ sugars(see below) or some heterocycles469,require the presenceof an acid catalyst suchas s ~ ~ ~on silyl enol boron trifluoride etheratez4.3sfor reaction. Carbon n u c l e ~ p h i l e based ethers, ally1 trimethylsilanes or trimethylsilyl cyanide react to form C-glycosides, e.g. compound 172 and electron-rich heterocycles469such as furans give product 173. ,OR1

(17 1a)

(171b)

MeSSiCN

CN

\ aRZb (172)

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

469

0-Glycosyl trichloroacetimidates have also found wide application in the linking of carbohydrates to give di-, tri- and tetra-sa~charides~~, the method being superior to the older Koenigs-Knorr synthesis in terms of both yield and stereochemistry. The stereochemical outcome of the reaction depends on the nature of the protecting groups. Thus perbenzylated (non-participating) a-trichloroacetimidate of D-glUCOSe (11; R = CH2Ph)reacts with inversionat the anomericsite in the presence of boron trifluoride etherate as catalyst to give P-glycosides whereas its peracetylated counterpart ( I 1, R = CH,CO) reacts with neighbouring group participation. Stronger catalysts such as trimethylsilyl triflateyield the cc-glycoside which is thermodynamically more stable24.The method involving neighbouring group p a r t i ~ i p a t i o nis~ ~ illustrated ’ by the synthesis of the &Hinked trehalose 174.

11

R=Ac

+

Eta0 BFa

RO OR

R RO o & ; e ; ; OR

(174)

R=Ac

Examples of the application of trichloroacetimidatesin the synthesis of pharmacologically and biologically important species include the synthesis of a glucuronide of the antidepressant mianserin4”, glucosides of d i g i t ~ x i g e n i nand ~ ~of ~ d i ~ a l m i t i nfurther ~~~, and Williams475. examples being found in reviews by Trichloroacetimidates have also proved to be useful intermediates in the synthesis Of Derythro-~phingosine~~~, isoxazolines of antitumour and amino sugarsl 59,459.460

P. Miscellaneous Reactions of lmidates

1. 1,4-Dipolar addition reactions Imidates and t h i o i m i d a t e ~ ~ undergo ~ ~ - ~ ~ cycloaddition ’ reactions with ketenes and related compounds and the reaction has been extensively studied by Aue and Thomas344.400*4*2 among others4’” who extended the work by the introduction of cyclic imidates showing the mechanism to involve IP-dipolar cycloaddition pathways by However, not all imidates react in this isolation of an intermediate 175 in one way4”. Ph B u - f PhC

‘SMe

+

NC

/

Me

Tos

/OMe TosNCO

/OMe (175)

D. G. Neilson

470

2. lmidate and thioimidate methylides

Imidate methylides based on imidates oftype 120 have been discussed in Section IV.I.1 dealing with pyrrole and pyrrolidine synthesesz'~'05-'08~269-272 and use of these and related 1,3-dipoles(176) has been extended to give 4H-imida~oles~'~ by interaction with EtOOCCN and oxazoles by addition to ketones485. CIC,//NcH(CN)Me

'SR

Et,N

+

RSC=NC<

/Me 'CN

(176)

3. Silylation via imidates

-

N,O-Disilylamides (15) are useful silylating agents forming both silyl ethers and e ~ t e r ~ ~ In ~ addition, * ~ ~ thermal * ~ ~ decomposition ~ - ~ ~ ~ of . N,O-disilyl compounds yields nitriles opening up a convenient route from amides to nitrilesS6.

+

/NSiMes

g C O O H

MeC 'OSiMe)

COOH

//NsiMa3

RC

+

RC\ OSiMeg

BuaN'F-

A

COOSiMeg

COOSiMeg

RCN

4. Sugar imidates

The chemistry of imidates derived from sugarsin which the saccharideacts as an alcohol (e.g. compounds 11 and 12) is extensively reviewed in Section 1II.B. However, sugar derivatives in which the saccharide is attached to the carbon atom of the imidate or thioimidate moiety (177) are also known and have been used in the main to prepare n ~ c l e o s i d e s ~ ~ The ~ ~ ~imidate '~-~~ ~ .has also been synthesized469 and found to 178 undergo attack by electron-rich heterocycles to form derivatives such as compound 173. Sugar amidines derived from imido-lactones have also been noted in a study of the cyanohydrin synthesis of sugars493.

//"" " W E + R o

oC' OR

OR OR

(177)

b

R=CH2Ph

4NAr

I

CHAr2

(178)

5. Sundry reactions of imidates

f l - E n a m i n o e ~ t e rand s~~ e n~a m i n ~ d i n i t r i l e(179) s ~ ~have ~ been derived from imidates as have N-(alkylamino)alkyl,alkyl and aryl ketones496(180), unsaturatedaldehydes497and a-hydro~y-amines~~'.

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

HC

-t R’COCHBrR‘

‘OMe

-

4

47 1

R‘COCH(NHMe)R‘

(180)

Use of liquid-liquid phase transfer catalysts permits the synthesis of unsymmetrical sulphides without recourse to odoriferous t h i ~ l s ~ ~ ’ .

, S R‘

MeC ‘NH2

R‘X

R’SR‘

Other reactions include the synthesis of D~-canahne’O’ [H,NOCH,CH,CH(NH,)COOH] by the addition ofacrolein to the imidate MeC(=NOH)OEt, the formation5’’ of the N-cyanopyridone 181 and the addition of TeCI, to allylic imidatesSo2.

N h i O R

(181)

0. Uses of lmidates

Imidates have found extensive use in modifying and cross-linkingpeptides and proteins and this important area of biological chemistry is reviewed in Section IV.H.7. However, the study of the industrialpotential of imidates has increasedenormously in recent years and many hundreds of references are to be found in Chemical Abstracts, particularly in relation to plant and food protection products, and this subject area would merit a review of its own. Pesticides, bactericides and fungicides4’ are often based on Nhydroxythioimidates’ 98*224.226-228=503, e.g. methomyl (182), thiodical (183) and oxamyl (184), although other systems (185 and 186) have also been studied504-’06.

472

D. G. Neilson

MeC \SMe

/rP(0)(SR")(OR4) R' C

HN

Arc

\OR2

A

\OR

(185)

(186)

Other uses include imidates as stabilizing agents"' for CH,CCI,. V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authorgratefullyacknowledges useful comments and help from Dr. Daniel Hunter in preparing the manuscript and from Mrs. D. G. Neilson in collating references. VI. REFERENCES 1. D. G. Neilson, in The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates ( The Chemistry of The Functional Groups) (Ed. S . Patai), Wiley-Interscience, London, 1975, pp. 387-489. 2. H. Bohme and H. G. Viehe, Irninium Salts in Organic Chemistry (Adoances in Organic Chemistry. Methods and Results, Vol. 9, Pt. 2), Interscience,New York, 1979. 3. D. Hunter and D. G. Neilson, unpublished results. 4. A. A. Manoucher,R. K. Smalley and R. H. Smith, J. Chem. SOC.,Perkin Trans., I , 2501 (1983). 5. W. D. Guither, M. D. Coburn and R. N. Castle, Heterocycles, 12, 745 (1979). 6. R. J. Bergeron, J. B. Dionis and M. J. Ingeno, J. Org. Chem., 52, 144 (1987). 7. A. N. Mandal, S. R. Raychaudhuri and A. Chatterjee, Synthesis, 727 (1983). 8. M. T. H. Liu, N. H. Chrishti, C. D. Burkholder, W. E. Jones and J. S . Wasson, J . Org. Chem., 45,

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266. W. Burgermeister,M. Hekman and E. J. Helmreich, J. B i d . Chem.. 257, 5306 (1982). 267. C. C. Chen, J. S. Her and Y. C. Chen, J. Chim. Biochem. Soc., 12,80 (1983); Chem. Abstr., 102, 44167 (1985). 268. C. A. Lingwood, J. Lipid Res., 25, 1010 (1984). 269. H. A. Houwing and A. M. Van Leusen, J. Heterocycl. Chem., 18, I127 (1981). 270. A. Padwa, J. R. Gasdaska, G. Holfmanns and H. Rebello, J. Org. Chem., 52, 1027 (1987). 271. E. Vedejs and G. R . Martinez, J . Am. Chem. Soc., 102, 7993 (1980). 272. 0. Tsuge, S. Kanemasa, T. Yamada and K. Matsuda, Heterocycles, 23, 2489 (1985). 273. A. Toshimitsu, K. Terao and S . Uemura, J . Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun., 530 (1986). 274. H. Takahata,J. Chem. SOC.,Chem. Commun., 1627 (1987). 275. T. Atsumi, Y. Tarumi and N. Yoshida, German Patent 2, 838, 892 (1979); Chem. Ahstr., 90, 204102 (1979). 276, K. A.M. El-Bayouki, M. Hammad, S. A. Osman and W. M. Basyouni, Orient. J. Chem., 2,45 (1986); Chem. Abstr., 106, 196367 (1987). 277. N. J. Cusack, G. Shaw and F. I. Logemann, J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. I , 2316 (1980). 278. P. Goya and A. Martinez, Heterocycles, 24, 3451 (1986). 279. M. T. Garcia-Lbpez, R. Herranz and J. 1. Andrks, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. I , 2303 (1983). 280. Azizur-Rahman, H. Ila and H. Junjappa, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun., 430 (1984). 281. R. S. Hosmane, Tetrahedron Lett., 25, 363 (1984). 282. E. C. Taylor, J. L. LaMattina and C. Tseng, J. Org. Chem., 47, 2043 (1982). 283. P. Dziuron and W. Schunak, Arch. Pharm., 307, 470 (1974). 284. D. P. Matthews, J. P. Whitten and J. R. McCarthy, Synthesis, 336 (1986). 285. C. Avendano, T. Ramos and E. Gomez-Molinero, J. Heterocycl. Chern., 22, 537 (1985). 286. G. Levesque, J. Gressier and H. Proust, Synthesis, 963 (1981). 287. S. Shibata, H. Matsushita, K. Kato, M. Noguchi, M. Saburi and S . Yoshikawa, Bull. Chern. SOC. Jpn., 52, 2938 (1979). 288. G .Tennant, in Heterocyclic Compounds, Vol. 40, Pt. 1, Benziniidazoles and Congeneric Tricyclic Compounds (Ed. P. N. Preston), Wiley-Interscience, London, 1980, p. 13. 289. K. L. Kurilenko and V. M. Cherkasov, Ukr. Khim. Zh., 45,760 (1979);Chem. Abstr., 91,175305 (1979). 290. J. Heinicke and A. Tzschach, 2. Chem., 26,407 (1986). 291. K. Issleib and R. Vollmer, 2. Anorg. Allg. Chem., 481, 22 (1981). 292. J. Heinicke and A. Tzschach, Tetrahedron Lert., 23, 3643 (1982). 293. R. Neidlein and U. Askani, Synthesis, 48 (1975). 294. H. Ishikawa, S. Nakagawa, S. Kida, Y. Kawashima and N. Nakayama, Japanese Patent, J P 61,236,768 (1986); Chern. Abstr., 106, 102281 (1987). 295. H. A. Houwing, J. Wildeman and A.M. Van Leusen, J . Heterocylc. Chem., 18, I139 (1981). 296. M. I. Butt, D. G. Neilson, K. M. Watson and Z. Ullah, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. I , 2328 (1977). 297. A. I. Meyers, G. ICnaus, K. Kamata and M. E. Ford, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 98, 567 (1976). 298. A. I. Meyers and N. R. Natale, Heterocycles, 18, 13 (1982). 299. S. Shibata, H. Matsushita, H. Kaneko, M. Noguchi, M. Saburi and S . Yoshikawa, Bull. Chem. SOC.Jpn., 55, 3546 (1982). 300. L. E. Overman, S. Tsuboi and S . Angle, J. Org. Chem., 44, 2323 (1979). 301. P. J. Reider, R. S. Eichenconn,P. Davis, V. J. Grenda,A. J. Zambito and E. J. J. Grabowski, J. Org. Chem., 52, 3326 (1987). 302. R. J. Bergeron, J. S. McManis, J. Dionis and J. R. Garlich, J. Org. Chem., 50, 2780 (1985). 303. R. E. Hermes and L. J. Mathias, J . Pol.vm. Sci., Part C , Polym. Lett., 25, 161 (1987). 304. J. E. Baldwin, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun., 734 (1976). 305. G. Cardillo, M. Orena, G. Porzi and S . Sandri, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun., 1308 (1982). 306. A. Bongini, G. Cardillo, M. Orena, S. Sandri and C. Tomasini, J . Org. Chern., 51,4905 (1986). 307. A. Bongini, G. Cardillo, M. Orena, S. Sandri and C. Tomasini, J . Chem. Soc., Perkin 7i.ans. I , 1339, 1345 (1986). 308. H. W. Pauls and B. Fraser-Reid, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun., 1031 (1983). 309. M. I. Butt, D. G. Neilson and K. M. Watson, J. Chem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. I, 542 (1976). 310. H. M. Hugel, Synth. Commun., 15, 1075 (1985). 311. W. Ried and D. Kuhnt, Ann. Chem., 780 (1986).

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312. J. Liebscher and J. Mitzner, Synthesis, 414 (1985). 313. A. McKillop, A. Henderson, P. S. Ray, C. Avendano and E.G. Molinero, Tetrahedron Lett., 23, 3357 (1982). 314. M. A. Perez, C. A. Dorado and J. L. Soto, Synthesis, 483 (1983). 315. G . A. Shvekhgeimer, V. I. Kelarev and L. A. Dyankova, Khim. Geterotsikl Soedin, 1609 (1984); Chem. Abstr., 102, 149193 (1985). 316. P. Rajopalan, Tetrahedron Lett., 3 1 1 (1969). 317. A. B. H. Amor and B. Baccar, J. SOC.Chim.. Tunis, 2,9 (1986); Chem. Abstr., 107,39709 (1987). 318. H . R. Mueller and H. Bollinger, Swiss Patent 612,191 (1979); Chem. Abstr., 91, 175362 (1979). 319. E. Ayca, A. A. lkizler and R. Aslan, Chim Acta Turc., 12, 305 (1984); Chem. Abstr., 106,84495 (1987). 320. E. K. Mikitenko and N. N. Romanov, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin, 199 (1981); Chem. Abstr., 95, 7130 (1981). 321. K. Akiba, A. Noda, K. Ohkata, T. Akiyama, Y. Murata and Y. Yamamoto, Heterocycles, 15, 1155 (1981). 322. M. R. Ah, R. Singh and V. K. Verrna, J . Indian Chem. Soc., 59, 663 (1982); Chem. Abstr., 97, 163897 ( 1982). 323. R. Rai and K. Verma, Indian J. Chem., Sect. B, 18B, 284 (1979); Chem. Abstr., 92,94310 (1980). 324. A. Schrnidpeter, K. Karaghiosoff, C. Cleve and D. Schomburg, Angew. Chem., 97, 125 (1985). 325. Y. E. Shishkin and Y. M. Yukhno, J. Gen. Chem., 46, 1603 (1976). 326. M. 1. Butt and D. G. Neilson, unpublished results. 327. 1. V. Konovalova, R. D. Careen, M. V. Cherkina, E. G. Yarkova, L. A. Burneava and A. N. Pudovik, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 52, 1962 (1982). 328. R. Schwarz and I. Ugi, Angew. Chem., 93, 836 (1981). 329. T. Vanek, J. Farkasand J. Gut, Collect. Czech. Chem. Commun., 44, 1334 (1979). 330. A. Ornodei-Sale, P. Consonni and G. Galliani, J. Med. Chem., 26, 1187 (1983). 331. A. Ikizler, Doga Seri A , 1, 25 (1983); Chem Abstr., 99, 105182 (1983). 332. N. Nihon, Japanese Patent J P 58,225,070 (1983); Chem. Abstr., 100, 209881 (1984). 333. R. R. Schmidt, W. Guilliard, D. Heermann and M. Hoffmann,J . Heterocycl. Chem., 20, 1447 (1983). 334. C. Luethy and R. Zurflueh, European Patent Appl., EP 185, 256 (1986); Chem. Abstr., 105, 133896 (1986). 335. J. Svetlik, Heterocycles. 20, 1495 (1983). 336. H. Kristinsson and T. Winkler, Helu. Chim. Acta, 66, 1129 (1983). 331. A. Ikizler, Doga Kim. Ser., 10, 34 (1986); Chem. Abstr., 106, 138338 (1987). 338. S. W. Schneller,J. L. May and E. DeClercq, Croat. Chem. Acta, 59,307 (1986); Chem. Abstr., 107, 7490 (1 987). 339. T. Sato, T. Kawagishi and N. Koyakata, JapanesePatent, J P 68,215,687 (1985); Chem. Abstr., 104, 188170 (1986). 340. Y. Lin and S. A. Lane Jr., J. Org. Chem.. 46, 3123 (1981). 341. M. Bonanomi and L. Baiocchi, J. Heterocycl. Chem., 20, 1657 (1983). 342. R. Galli, 0. Palla and F. Gozzo, J. Chem. SOC.,Perkin Trans. 1 , 2813 (1982). 343. Y. Charbonnel and J. Barrans, C . R. Acad. Sci. Paris. Ser. C , 272 1675 (1971). 344. D. H. Aue and D. Thomas, J Org. Chem., 40,2360 (1975). 345. E. Stanoeva, M. Haimova and V. I. Oanvanov, Ann. Chem., 389 (1984). 346. M. Haimova, V. I. Ognyanov and N. M.~MollOv,Synthesis, 845 (1980). 347. G. M. Coppola, J. Heterocycl. Chem., 18, 767 (1981). 348. N. D. Harris, Synthesis, 826 (1976). 349. J. Y. Merour and F. Tatibouet, Synthesis, 698 (1978). 350. L. G. Qiang and N. H. Baine, Tetrahedron Lett., 29, 3517 (1988). 351. H. Yamanaka, M. Kornatsu, S. Ogawa and S. Konno, Chem. Pharm. Bull., 27, 806 (1979). 352. K. Terao, A. Toshimitsu and S. Uemura, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1 , 1837 (1986). 353. D. J. Brown and K. Ienega, J. Chem. SOC.,Perkin Trans., 1, 372 (1974). 354. A. Edenhofer, H. Speigelberg and W . E. Oberhaensli, Helu. Chim. Acta, 58, 1230 (1975). 355. H. Kristinsson, J. Chem. Soc.. Chem. Commun., 350 (1974). 356. H. Uchida, A. Chinone and M. Ohta, Bull. Chem. SOC.Jpn., 41, 1720 (1974). 357. D. J. Brown and K. Ienaga, Aust. J . Chem., 28, 119 (1975).

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358. M. A. Ptrez, J. L. Soto and J. R. Carrillo, Synthesis, 402 (1983). 359. G. Stajer, E. A. Szabb, G. Bernath and P. Sohar, Magy. Kern. Foly., 92,234 (1986);Chem. Ahstr., 106,84543 (1987). 360. G. Stajer, A. E. Szabo, G. Bernath and P. Sohar, Synthesis, 290 (1987). 361. F. Mercer, L. Hermandez, Jr. and H. W. Moore, Heterocycles. 12, 45 (1979). 362. N. P. Peet and S. Sunder, J. Heterocycl. Chem., 21, 1807 (1984). 363. R. W. Leiby, J. Heterocycl. Chem., 21, 1825 (1984). 364. R. W. Leiby, J. Org. Chem., 50, 2926 (1985). 365. E. Honkanen,A. Pippuri, P. Kairisalo, P. Nore, H. Karppanen and 1. Paakkari,J . Med. Chem., 26, 1433 (1983). 366. I. Ganjian and I. Lalezari, Synth. Commun., 14, 33 (1984). 367. T. Hara, Y. Kayama and T. Sunami, J. Org. Chem., 43,4865 (1978). 368. G. Bernath, G. Stajer, A. E. Szab6, F. Fulop and P. Sohar, Tetrahedron, 41, 1353 (1985). 369. G. Stajer, A. E. Szab6, F. Fulop, G. Bernath and P. Sohar, Chem. Ber., 120, 259 (1987). 370. F. Johannsen, A. Joergensen, K. A. M. El-Bayouki and E. B. Pedersen, Chem. Ser., 26, 337 (I 986); Chem. Abstr., 106, 67249 (1987). 371. V. P. Makoveskii, Y. M. Volovenko and A. A. Svishchuk, Ukr. Khim. Zh., 51,528 (1985);Chem. Abstr., 104, 5836 (1986). 372. Y. Otsuka, Japanese Patent 72 21434 (1972); Chem. Abstr., 77, 101650 (1972). 373. J. Kobor, F. Fulop, M. S. El-Gharib and G. Bernith, J. Heferocycl. Chem., 21, 149 (1984). 374. A. Singh and A. S. Uppal, J. lndiun Chem. Soc., 55, 1040 (1978). 375. A. Singh, A. S. Uppal, T. K. Bindal and M. Singh, Indian J. Chem., Sect. B, 19B, 37 (1980). 376. H. WamhoKand B. Wehling, Chem. Ber., 108, 2107 (1975). 377. W. Ried and D. Kuhnt, Ann. Chem., 551 (1987). 318. B. Hajjem, M.T. Kaddachi and B. Baccar,J . SOC.Chim.. Tunis, 2, 15 (1985);Cliem. Abstr., 106, 119529 (1987). 379. R. S. Hosmane, B. B. Lim and F. Burnett, J. 0r.q. Chem., 53, 382 (1988). 380. N. Katagiri, R. Njwa and T. Kato, Heterocycles, 20, 597 ( I 983). 381. U. Kraatz, Tetrahedron Lett., 1219 (1973). 382. W. Ried, U. Reiher and J. Bats, Helu. Chim. Acta, 70, 1255 (1987). 383. G. Seitz and W. Overheu, Arch. Pharm. (Weinheim), 310, 936 (1977);312, 452 (1979). 384. D. L. Boger and J. S. Panek, Tetrahedron Lett., 24, 451 I (1983). 385. J. Daunis, R. Jacquier and C. Pigiere, Tetrahedron, 30, 3171 (1974). 386. V. 1. Kelarev, D. Ammar, A. F. Lunin, R. L. Ushakova, A. 1. Mikaya, N. V. Petrova and S. H. Shvekhgeimer, Zh. Org. Khim., 19, 2401 (1983). 387. V. 1. Keralev, F. L. Yahia, R. A. Karahanov, A. F. Lunin and 0. V. Miilova. Khirri. Geterotsikl Soedin, 107 (1986); Chem. Ahstr., 106, 4982 (1987). 388. W. M. Koppes and H. G. Adolph, J . Org. Chem., 46,406 (1981). 389. Y. A. Lin, T. L. Fields, V. L. Lee nd S.A. Lang, Jr., J. Helerocycl. Chem., 19, 613 (1982). 390. 1. Lalezari and S. Nabahi, J . Heterocycl. Chem., 17, 1 121 (1980). 391. T. Strohmeyer, D. R. Sliskovic, S. A. Lang, Jr and Y . Lin, J. Heterocycl. Chem., 22, 7 (1985). 392. F. T. Oakes and N. J. Leonard, J. Ory. Chem., 50, 4986 (1985). 393. R. S. Hosmanc, M. A. Rossman and N. J. Leonard, J . Am. Chem. Soc., 104, 5497 (1982). 394. M.A. Rossman, N. J. Leonard, S. Urano and P. R. LeBreton, J. Am. Chem. SOC.,107, 3884 (1985). 395. N. J. Leonard, R. S. Hosmane, Y. S. Agasimundin, L. J. Kostuba and F. T. Oakes, J . Am. Chem. Soc., 106, 6847 (1984). 396. Y. S. Agasimundin, F. T. Oak= and N. J. Leonard, J. Org. Chem., 50, 2474 (1985). 397. S. Weiss and H. Krommer, German Patent 3,411,202 (1985);Chem. Ahstr., 104,68890 (1986). 398. M. A. Perez and J. L. Soto, Heterocycles, 20, 463 (1983). 399. W. Ried, G. Beller, B. Kuembel and D. Kuhnt, Synthesis, 31 I (1985). 400. D. H. Aue and D. Thomas, J. Org. Chem., 40,2356 (1975). 401. W. Kantlehner, P. Fischer, W. Kugel, E. Moehring and H. Bredereck, Ann. Chem., 512 (1978). 402. D. G. Neilson, K. M. Watson and T. J. R. Weakley, J . Chem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. I , 333 (1979). 403. D. Hunter and D. G. Neilson, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Truns. I , 1371 (1981); 1601 (1983). 404. G. Bernlth, F. Fulop,L. Gera, L. Hackler, A. Kalman, G. Argay and P. Sohar, Tetrahedron, 35, 799 (1979). 405. P. Sohar, G. Stajer and G. Bernath, Org. Mayn. Reson., 21, 512 (1983).

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates 406. 407. 408. 409. 410. 41 I. 412. 413. 414. 415. 416. 417. 418. 419. 420. 421. 422. 423. 424. 425. 426. 427. 428. 429. 430. 431. 432. 433. 434. 435. 436. 437. 438. 439. 440. 441. 442. 443. 444. 445. 446. 447. 448. 449.

48 1

G . Stajer, A. E. Szabo, F. Fulop, G. BernLth and P. SohLr,J . Heferocycl.Cliem., 21, 1373 (1984). P. Stoss, Chem. Ber., 111, 314 (1978). W. Ried and D. Kuhnt, Ann. Chem., 1648 (1986). W. Ried and M. A. Jacobi, Chem. Ber., 121, 383 (1988). W. G. Brouwer, A. R. Blcm, A. R. Bell and R. A. Davis, European Patent Appl., EP 104,940 (1984); Chem. Ahsrr., 101, 38485 (1984). B. Renfroe and C. Harrington,in Heterocyclic Compounds, Vol. 43, Pt. I, Wiley-Interscience, London, pp. 234,235,237,244,247,251. J. W. H. Watthey and J. Stanton,in HeferocyclicCompounds, Vol. 43, Pt. 2, Wiley-Interscience, London, pp. 90, 96. M. Barreau and G. Ponsinct, Synthesis, 262 (1987). Z. A. Bredikhina, N. G. Khusainova, Y. Y. Efremov, R. L. Korshunov and A. N. Pudovik, Zh. Ohshch. Khim. 55, 1710 (1985). S. Inoue, 0. Suzuki and K. Sato, J. Chem. Soc.. Chem. Commun., 1773 (1985). W. Adam, 0. DeLucchi, H. Quast, R. Recktenwald, Y. Rautgundis and F. Yany, Angew. Chem., 91, 855 (1979). T. Morwick, Tetrahedron Letr., 21, 3227 (1980). U. Schollkopf, W. Hartwig, K. H. Pospischil and H. Kehne, Synthesis, 966 (1981). Y. Nakahara, K. Beppu and T. Ogawa, Tetruhedron Lett., 22,3197 (1981). C. Gluchowski, T. Tiner-Harding,J. K. Smith, D. Bergbreiter and M . Newcomb, J.Org. Chem., 49, 2650 (1984). P. A. Zoretic, P. Soja and N. D. Sinha, J . Ory. Chem., 43, 1379 (1978). D. H. Aue and D. Thomas, J . Org. Chem., 39, 3855 (1974). A. J. Biloski and B. Ganem, J. Org. Chem., 48, 31 18 (1983). G. B. Payne, Tetrahedron 18, 763 (1962). A. L. Arias, S. Adkins, C. J. Nagel and R. D. Bach, J. Org. Chem., 48, 888 (1983). S. Szakacs and F. Nagy, Magy. Kem. Foly., 88, 193 (1982); Chem. Abstr., 97, 182250 (1982). Y. Tsuda, T. Sano and H. Watanabe, Synthesis, 652 (1977). R. J. Sundberg, C. P. Walters and J. D. Bloom, J . Org. Chem., 46, 3730 (1981). S. Nagarajan and B. Ganen, J. Org. Chem., 51,4856 (1986). T. Matsumoto, M. Yanagiya, K. Tsuzuki, T. Watanabe and Y. Nakajima, JapanesePatent 79, 145, 609 (1979); Chem. Ahstr., 92, 146456 (1980). F. Matsuda, M. Yanagiya and T. Matsumoto, Tetrahedron Lett., 23, 4043 (1982). M. A. Perez, C. A. Dorado and J. L. Soto, Synthesis, 483 (1983). R. Kupfer, M. Nagel, E. U. Wuerthwein and R. Allmann, Chem. Ber., 118, 3089 (1985). B. A. Gostevskli, 0.A. Vyazankina, I. D. Kalikhman, 0. B. Bannikova and N. S. Vyazankin, Zh. Obshck. Khim., 53, 2051 (1983). L. 1. Belousoya, 1. D. Kalikhman,0. A. Vyazankina, E. L. Brodskaya and N. S. Vyazankin, Zh. Ohshch. Khim., 57. 1 199 (1987). F. J. Cuadrado, M.A. Perez and J. L. Soto, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1,2447 (1984). A. Koda, K. Takanobu, 1. Isaka, T. Kashiwagi, K. Takahashi,S. Kawahara and M. Murakami, J . Pharm. Soc. Jpn., 92, 459 (1972). T. Saito, K. Nishihata and S. Fukatsu,J. Cltem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. I , 1058 (1981). E. U. Wuerthwein and R. Kupfer, Chem. Ber., 119, 1557 (1986). R. A. Abramovitch, B. Mavunkel, J. R. Stowers, M. Wegrzyn and C . Riche, J . Chem. Soc.. Chem. Commun., 845 (1985). R. Neidlein and U. J. Klotz, Chem. Ber., 118, 3217 (1985). J. C. Bottard. J . Chem. SOL. Chem. Commun., 560 (1980). A. V. Folkin, Y. N. Studnev, I. Timofeenko and V. P. StOlydtOV, Izv. Akad. Nauk S S S K , Ser. Kim., 2622 (1981). G. S. Borovikova, E. S. Levchenko and E. 1. Borovik, Zh. Org. Khim., 15, 2313 (1979). E. E. V. Ebsworth, D. W. H. Rankin, W. Stegcr and J. G. Wright, J. Chem. Soc.. Dalron Trans., I768 ( I 980). Y. Tamura, T. Kawasaki, M. Adichi and Y. Kita, Synthesis, 887 (1979). B. 1. No, V. E. Shishkin, Y. M. Yukhno, E. V. Mednikov, S. V. Ufimtsev and S. I. Maikov, Zh. Ohshch. Kliim., 56, 1 I92 (1986). H. Yoshida, T. Ogata and S. Inokawa, Synrhesis, 626 (1977). H. Yoshida, T. Ogata and S. Inokawa, Bull. Chern. Soc. Jpn., 50, 3315 (1977).

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Obshch. Khirn., 54, 2203 (1984). 454. I. V. Konovalova, R.D. Gareev, E.G. Yarkova, L. Burnaeva, M. V. Cherkina, N. M. Aleksanina and A. N. Pudovik, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 52, 1491 (1982). 455. I. V. Konovalova, L. A. Burnaeva, R. D. Gareev, A. S. Lyakhova, T. M. Moshkina and A. N. Pudovik, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 53, 1471 (1983). 456. V. E. Shishkin, E. V. Mednikov, B. I. No and N. V. Shishkina, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 49, 2720 (1979). 457. N. G. Zabirov, R. A. Cherkasov and A. N. Pudovik, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 56, 1237 (1986). 458. N. G. Khusainova, Z. A. Bredikhina and A. N. Pudovik, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 52, 1296 (1982). 459. P. G. Sammes and D. Thetford, J . Chem. Soc.. Chem. Commun., 352 (1985). 460. R. M. Guiliano, T. W. Deisenroth and W. C. Frank, J. Org. Chem., 51, 2304 (1986). 461. G. Cardillo, M. Orena, S. Sandri and C. Tomasini, Tetrahedron, 42,917 (1986). 462. T. Iversen and D. R. Bundle, J . Chem. Sac., Chem. Commun., 1240 (1981). 463. H. P. Wessel, T. Iversen and D. R. Bundle, J. Chem. SOC.,Perkin Trans. I , 2247 (1985). 464. H. Takaku, T. Ito and K. Imai, Chem. Lett., 1005 (1986). 465. U. Widmer, Synthesis, 568 (1987). 466. P. Barbier and F. Schneider, .IOrg. . Chem., 53, 1218 (1988). 467. R. R. Schmidt and J. Michel, J. Carhohydr. Chem., 4, 141 (1985). 468. R. R. Schmidt and M. Stumpp, Ann. Chem., 680 (1984). 469. R. R. Schmidt and G . Effenberger,Ann. Chem., 825 (1987). 470. M. G. Hoffmann and R. R. Schmidt, Ann. Chem., 2403 (1985). 471. S. J. Cook, R. Khan and J. M. Brown, J. Carbohydr. Ckem., 3, 343 (1984). 472. C. A. A. Van Boechel, L. P. C. Delbressine and F. M . Kaspersen, Recl. Trau. Chim, Pays-Bas, 104,259 (1985). 473. H. Rathore, A. H. L. From, K. Ahmed and D. S . Fullerton,J. Med. Chem., 29,1945 (1986). 474. I. I. Bityukova, L. V. Volkova and R. P. Evstigneeva, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 55,2807 (1985). 475. N. R. Williams, Carbohydr. Chem., Part I , 20, 19 (1988); 21, 18 (1989). 476. B. Bernet and A. Vasella, Tetrahedron Lett., 24, 5491 (1983). 477. E. Schaumann,H. Mrotzek and F. Assmann, Ann. Chem., 334 (1979). 478. H. W. Moore, L. J. Hernandez and R. Chambers, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 100,2245 (1978). 479. W. R. McKay and G. R. Proctor, J. Chem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. I , 2443 (1981). 480. N. Katagiri, R. Niwa and T. Kato, Chem. Pharm. Bull., 31,2899 (1983). 481. 1. Antonini, M. Cardellini, F. Claudi and F. M. Moracci, Synthesis, 379 (1986). 482. D. H. Aue and D. Thomas, J. Org. Chem., 40,2552 (1975). 483. A. Etienne,G. Lonchambon,J. Roques, B. Lemmens and F. Pintard, C . R . Hebd. Seances Acad. Sci., Ser. C., 287, 285 (1978). 484. R. Bossio, S. Marcaccini and R. Pepino, Tetrahedron Lett., 27, 4643 (1986). 485. 0. Tsuge, S. Kanemasa, T. Yamada and K. Matsuda, J . Org. Chem., 52,2523 (1987). 486. T. P. Mawhinney and M. A. Madson, J . Org. Chem., 47, 3336 (1982). 487. S. D. Young, C. T. Buse and C. H. Heathcock, Org. Synthesis, 63, 79 (1985). 488. G. Bauer and W. Vogt, Anal. Chem., 53,917 (1981). 489. T. Huynh-Dinh, A. Kolb, C. Goyuette and J. Igolen, J . Heterocycl. Chem., 12, 111 (1975). 490. T. Vanek, J. Farkasand J. Gut, Collect. Czech. Chem. Commun., 44, 1334 (1979). 491. F. Freeman, Synthesis, 935 (1981). 492. H. S. El Khadem and J. Kawai, Carbohydr. Res., 153, 271 (1986). 493. A. S. Serianni, H. A. Nunez and R. Baker, J . Org. Chem., 45, 3329 (1980). 494. J. CCICrier, E. Deloisy, P. Kapron, G. Lhommet and P. Maitte, Synthesis, 130 (1981). 495. R. W.H. Berry, P. C. Drewry and H. F. Hodson, J. Chem. Res. (S), 87 (1988). 496. A. Guzman, J. M. Muchowski and N. T. Naal, J. Org. Chem., 46, 1224 (1981). 497. M.K. Tay, E. E. Aboujaoude, N. Collignon and P. Savignac, Tetrahedron Lett., 28,1263 (1987). 498. P. G. Sammes and D. Thetford, Tetrahedron Lett., 27, 2275 (1986). 499. T. Takido and K. Itabashi, Synthesis, 817 (1987). 500. G. A. Rosenthal and D. Thomas, Anal. Biochem., 140,246 (1984).

9. Imidates including cyclic imidates

483

501. A. R. Katritzky and P. Molina-Buendia, J . Chem. SOC.,Perkin Trans. 1,1957 (1979). 502. L. Engham, J . Am. Chem. SOC., 106,3977 (1984). 503. J. Drabek and M. Boeger, US Patent 4, 364,959 (1982); Chem. Abstr., 98,215201 (1983). 504. T. Kume, S. Tsuboi and K. Isono, Japanese Patent, JP 61,260,089; Chem. Abstr., 106, 176661 (1987). 505. R. K. Huf, D. D. Evans and N. H.Anderson, European Patent Appl., 5944(1979); Chem. Abstr., 93, 150018 (1 980). 506. S. I. Nelson, US Patent 4,431, 667 (1984); Chem. Abstr., 100, 191600 (1984). 507. J. Sasaoka, H. Udagawa and K. Mizushiro, Japanese Patent 79,132,509(1979); Chem. Abstr., 93, 146246 (1 980).

CHAPTER

10

Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives YOHSUKE YAMAMOTO and SATOSHI KOJIMA Department of Chemistry. Faculty of Science. Hiroshima University. Hiroshima. Japan

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I1. PREPARATION OF GUANlDlNES . . . . . . . . . . . . A . Synthesis of Guanidine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Addition of ammonium salts to cyanoguanidine . . . . . . 2. Addition of ammonium salts to cyanamide . . . . . . . . 3. Reaction of thiourea with ammonium salts in the presence of lead(I1) chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Synthesis of Carbon-substituted Guanidines . . . . . . . . . 1. Synthesis from thiourea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Synthesis from urea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Synthesis from carbodiimide . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Synthesis from cyanamide and cyanoguanidine . . . . . . 5. Alkylation and arylation of guanidine. . . . . . . . . . 6. Miscellaneous methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Synthesis of biguanide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8. Synthesis of cyanoguanidine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. Synthesis of guanidine-derived acids . . . . . . . . . . 10. Synthesis of guanylurea and guanylthiourea. . . . . . . . 1 1 . Synthesis of acylguanidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Synthesis of Nitrogen-substituted Guanidines . . . . . . . . 1 . Synthesis of nitroguanidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Synthesis of nitrosoguanidines . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Synthesis of aminoguanidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Synthesis of Miscellaneous Guanidines . . . . . . . . . . . I . Synthesis of oxygen-substituted guanidines . . . . . . . . 2. Synthesis of phosphorylguanidine . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Synthesis of sulfonylguanidine . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Synthesis of halogenated guanidines . . . . . . . . . . 111. STRUCTURE OF GUANIDINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . Structure of Guanidinium Ions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates, Volume 2 Edited by S . Patai and Z . Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons Lid

485

486 487 487 488 489 489 489 489 490 491 491 492 492 494 494 495 495 496 497 497 497 498 499 499 499 500

501 501

501

486

Y. Yamamoto and S. Kojima

B. Structureof Substituted Guanidines . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. BASICITY OF GUANIDINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Basicity of Methyl-substituted Guanidines. . . . . . . . . . B. Basicity of Monosubstituted Guanidines . . . . . . . . . , C. Basicity of Substituted 2-Phenyl-l,l,3,3-tetramethyIguanidines. . . D. Miscellaneous Acid and Base Properties of Guanidines . . . . . V. BARRIERS TO ISOMERIZATION ABOUT GUANIDINE AND GUANIDINIUMCARBON-NITROGENBONDS. . . . . . . A. Barriersto Isomerization about Guanidinium Carbon-Nitrogen Bonds B. Barriers to Isomerization about Free Guanidine Carbon-Nitrogen Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI. COORDINATION O F GUANIDINES AND GUANIDINIUM IONS WITH METALS, ANIONS AND CROWN ETHERS . . . . . . A. Coordination of Guanidines with Metal Ions. . . . . . . . . B. Coordination of Guanidium Ions with Anions . . . . . . . . C. Coordination of Guanidium Ions with Crown Ethers. . . . . . VII. REACTIONS OF GUANIDINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Hydrolysis of Guanidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Condensation of Guanidines with Carbonyl Compounds to Synthesize Five- or Six-membered Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 1. Synthesis of pyrimidines and other six-membered heterocycles . 2. Synthesis of five-membered rings . . . . . . . . . . . C. MiscellaneousReactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

501 505 505 506 507 508 509 509 512 515 515 516 516 517 517 518 518 520 52 1 522 522

1. INTRODUCTION

Guanidine(1)is the imide of urea (2), or the amidine of carbamic acid (3).The chemistry of guanidines,however, is closely related to that of amidines (4) which were reviewed in a previous volume in this series', and which are also the subjects of the present supplementary volume. In this chapter, in Section 11, the methods of synthesis of guanidinesand substituted guanidineswill be surveyed. Typical and recent methods have been selected from the vast number of reported methods.

Section 111 discusses the tautomers of substituted guanidines (5A and 5B). Much confusion in representing the tautomers is found in the literature even now, but recent structuralstudies,especially by X-ray crystallography,have shown that the tautomer5A is generally preferred when the substituent R is an electron-withdrawinggroup.

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

487

Guanidine is one of the strongest organic bases, and the basicity of some substituted guanidines has been investigated systematically. The results will be described in Section IV. The C-N bonds in guanidinesand guanidiniumions (6)are partial double bonds with single-bond character.Introduction of a substituent into guanidineand/or a guanidinium ion changes the character of all of the C-N bonds. In that respect the barriers of isomerization about the C-N bonds have attracted interest and will also be discussed in Section V, along with mechanistic investigations of the isomerization in guanidines and guanidinium ions. N ,HZ H2N-C

H2N-C

"+HZ

(6)

/

NH2

N N + H (cH 2)3cH w + H

)(co2-

(7)

Suggested coordination of the guanidine(or guanidinium)group of arginine(7) with an anion or a metal in uiuo has prompted several recent model studies. These results will be briefly mentioned in Section VI. In addition, coordination of guanidinium ions with crown ethers will also be described. Guanidines have been used as starting materials for the synthesis of useful drugs and other preparations. Recent reports of reactions of guanidines will be surveyed in Section VII. Guanidine and its derivatives have been known to show various biological properties and thus have been studied in the field of pharmacology in recent years. In practical medicine, they have been applied to chemotherapy of illnesses such as hypertension and diabetes. Although some of the earlier preparative methods have been given in Rodd's Chemistry of Carbon Compounds', and industrial methods have been mentioned in short reviews3m4,generalreviews on the physicochemicalproperties, reactions and coordination have not been published. Thus it is our intention in this review to focus on these points. II. PREPARATION OF GUANlDlNES

A survey of methods of preparation of guanidines is described in this section. The discussion is divided into four parts: (A) Synthesis of Guanidine;(B) Synthesis of CarbonSubstituted Guanidines;(C)Synthesis of Nitrogen-Substituted Guanidines;(D) Synthesis of Miscellaneous Guanidines. Commercially available guanidines are listed in Table 1 with suppliers and approximate prices. A. Synthesis of Guanidine

Guanidine has been obtained as its salts (6) by the following reactions:(1) addition of ammonium salts to cyanoguanidine(dicyandiamide)(8);(2) addition of ammonium salts to cyanamide (10);(3) reaction of thioureawith ammonium salts in the presence of lead(I1) chloride. Method (1) is most common in the industrial preparation of guanidinium salts3-', but the laboratory synthesis of guanidinium nitrate by method (1)6*7 is not recommendable due to potential danger'. Free guanidine (1) is strongly basic (pK, = 13.6, Section IV), very hygroscopic and crystalline(rnp48-49 'C'O). It also absorbs carbon dioxide. It has been isolated by treating an alcoholic solution of guanidinium perchlorate with potassium hydroxide9.10.

Y. Yamamoto a n d S. Kojima

488

TABLE 1. Typical commercially available guanidines Suppliers Compounds"

Ab

F

4-Aminobutylguanidine (Agmatine) sulfate D-Arginine free base, hydrochloride L-Arginine free base, hydrochloride methyl ester phosphate L-Canavanine sulfate Creatine anhydrous or hydrate Creatinine free base Cyanoguanidine(Dicyandiamide) [(2,6-Dichlorobenzylidene)amino]guanidine (Guanabenz) Ethylguanidine hydrochloride 1-Ethyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine Guanidine acetate carbonate hydrochloride nitrate sulfate thiocyanate Guanidinoacetic acid CGuanidinobenzoic acid hydrochloride 4-Guanidinobutyric acid 3-Guanidinopropionicacid Guanidinosuccinic acid Methylguanidine hydrochloride 1-Methyl-3-nitroguanidine 1-Methyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine Nitroguanidine I-Propyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine I,I,3,3-Tetramethylguanidine

-

-

+ +-

-

+ + + +

-

+ + + + + + + + -

+ + + + + +

Sd

Price'

+ + + + + + + -

+ + + + + + + + +-

-

+ + +

'Trivial name is given in parentheses. 'Aldrich 1990-1991. LFluka 1990-1991. %gma 1990. ' $ cu $20 or less/100g,

$ $ cu $20-90/25g,

$ $ $ cu $l0-50/1

g, $$$$: cu $20 or more/100mg.

1 . Addition of ammonium salts to cyanoguanidine (8)

Guanidinium salts (2) have been obtained directly from cyanoguanidine (8)by fusion (at 160°C for nitrate, a t 260°C for benzenesulfonate) with 2 equiv of ammonium salts6.'-' in 80-95% yield. Again it should be noted that the preparation of guanidinium nitrate by this procedure is reported t o be dangerous'. By use of a n equimolecular mixture

489

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

of 8 and ammonium salts, biguanide (diguanide)(9) can be isolated' I, which undergoes further reaction with a second molecule of the ammonium salt to give 6. 2. Addition of ammonium salts to cyanamide (70)

The fusion of calcium cyanamide and three moles of ammonium salt (at 100°C for nitrate)gives guanidiniumsalt 6 (in 75% yield for nitrate12).The advantage of this method is that it avoids the isolation of pure cyanamide, which is generated in situ under the reaction condition.

+ N+H4X-

CON-C-N

-

/NH2

H2N-C

\NH

HX

(6)

(10)

3. Reaction of thiourea (77) with ammonium salts in the presence of lead(//) chloride

Thiourea(1 1) reacts with a large excess of ammonium salts (ca 20 equiv) in the presence of lequiv. of PbCI, at 300°C in 95% yield13. Unfortunately, the process requires the use of a large excess of ammonium salts and heating in an autoclave.

+ N+H,X-

H2N-C-NH2

IIS

PbCl2

,NH2

H2N-C

HX

B. Synthesis of Carbon-substituted Guanidines

Various methods of preparing alkyl- and arylguanidines from thiourea, urea, carbodiimide, cyanamide, and cyanoguanidine are described, as well as alkylation and arylation of guanidine and syntheses of biguanides (9), cyanoguanidines (S), guanidine, derived acids, guanylurea,guanylthiourea,and acylguanidines. 1. Synthesis from thiourea

In practice two types of activation of thioureas are used for the reaction with amines:(a) conversion to S-methylisothiourea (12); (b) conversion to aminoiminomethanesulfonic acids (16). a. Conversion to S-methylisothiourea (12). Addition of methyl iodide or dimethyl sulfate to thioureagives almost quantitative yields of the S-methylisothiuroniumsalt (12), which can be isolated. The salt is converted into alkl- and arylguanidiniumsalt (13) with

R'NH-C-NH2

IIS

MeX

H2N-C

R ~ N H ~

H2N-C

NHR~

Y. Yamamoto and S. Kojima

490

’~*~ is ~one . of the most useful methods for amines at 60-80°C (Rathke p r o ~ e d u r e ) ’ ~ - This preparation of various guanidines (vide infra); the yields are generally good to excellent. All of the eight possible methyl-substituted guanidines have been prepared by this method by use of S-methylisothioureas in 40-50% yields after ~rystallization”~’~. 3(R)- and 3(S)-hydroxy-(2S)-arginines (14) have been obtained recently from the corresponding /?-hydroxyornithines(15) in 57 and 60% yield by this methodIg. HgN-C

/SMe

HX

HX

“H

H2N 4

O NH2 Z

(15)

H

OH

/NH2

N

N

4

0

H2N-c

2

H

NH2 (14)

b. Conversion to aminoiminomethanesuyonic acids (16). Oxidation of thioureas by peracids gives aminoiminomethanesulfonic acids (16), some of which (unsubstituted and phenylated 16)can be isolated in 50-800/, yield and react with amines at room temperature to give substituted guanidines (17)2’v22. The method is relatively new, and amino acids react better with 16 than with the S-methylisothiuroniumsalt (12) to give guanidinoacids (18)”. The yield in the reaction of unsubstituted 16 with glycine is 80%. Aminoiminomethanesulfinicacids give 18 in much poorer yields than the correspondingaminoiminomethanesulfonicacids”.

H2N-C

+

H2NCHR2C02H

H2N-C

/

NHR’

\\J-CHR2C02H

2. Synthesis from urea Three types of activation of urea are used for the reaction with amines:(a)conversion to 0-alkylisourea; (b) activation by phosphoryl chloride; (c) activation by phosgene. a. Conversion to 0-alkylisourea (19). Alkylation of urea gives 0-alkylisouronium salts (19), which react with amines to afford substituted guanidines(17)22*23. The reaction is the extension of the well-known Pinner method for the preparation of amidinesZ4,and has

also been a method for the preparation of various guanidines.

b. Activation by phosphoryl chloride. Reaction of urea with POCI, gives complex 20, the structure of which has not been confirmed. The latter reacts in situ with amines to give trisubstituted guanidines (17a)25.

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

(20)

49 1

(17a)

A series of 2-(substituted phenyl)-l,l,3,3-tetramethylguanidines this methodz6.

has been prepared by

c. Activation by phosgene. N,N-Disubstituted ureas react with phosgene to give N,N,N-trisubstituted guanidinium chloride (17a), directlyz7. The initial product is considered to be chloroformamidiniumchloride (21), which reacts with a second molecule of the urea and breaks down to a trisubstituted guanidineand isocyanatez7.The reaction saltsz8,but may be useful for the preparationof symmetrical N,N’,N”-trialkylguanidinium unsymmetrical ureas may give mixtures of guanidines”.

R NHCONHR

coc12

3. Synthesis from carbodiimide

Carbodiimide by reaction with alcohol in the presence of alkoxidesz9 gives 0-aikylisourea, from which substituted guanidinesmay be prepared (see previous section). The reaction of an amine salt with carbodiimide gives a guanidinium salt directly”. R’N=C=NRz

R3Nn,

.nx

NHR3

RtHNC’

HX

N ‘ R2

4. Synthesis from cyanamide and cyanoguanidine

The method is the extension of those previously described for the preparation of guanidine,and reaction of an amine with ~ y a n a m i d e ~at * ~room ’ * ~temperature ~ has been used widely for preparation of substituted guanidines. The yield from an anilinium salt with cyanamide is around 70x3’. Reaction of an alkylamine with cyanoguanidine may give a mixture of products via formation of biguanide”.

Y. Yamamoto and S. Kojima

492

5. Alkylation and arylation of guanidine

Alkylation of guanidine by simple alkyl halides often leads to mixtures of products. However, a sterically hindered tosylate (22) reacts with free guanidine to give a monosubstituted adduct (23)33.

H Z N /"":,I

N ,H2 CH2NHC

NaH

CH20Ts

\\NH

(22)

(23)

Arylation of guanidines is also limited, but a strongly electrophilic pyridine (24) reacts with free guanidine to give adduct 2534.

'NH

(24)

(25)

6. Miscellaneous methods Substituted guanidiniumsalts are obtained35by reaction of amines with 3,Sdimethyl1-guanylpyrazole nitrate (26), which is obtained by reaction of acetylacetone with aminoguanidinenitrate36. HN03

HNH

H2Nc,5Me

N\

RNH.

H2NC

\\NR

HN03

I

Me

(26)

This method has been used in the final step of the synthesis of (-)-ptilocaulin. Reaction of fl-aminoketone (27) with 26 gives (-)-ptilocaulin in 58-65% yield after 6 h at 145155"C3'. A guanidino group is introduced electrophilically into aromatic hydrocarbons by the acid (28) with aluminum chloride3*. reaction of hydroxyguanidine-0-sulfonic

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

493

li

(27)

(-)-ptilocaulin

-

RNHC/NH0S03-

ArH

\\N

AICI,

R1

NH R~

RNHC

\NAr

(28)

Isocyanide dichlorides (29) have been used for the preparationof tri-, tetra- and pentasubstituted guanidines3’. Some of the intermediate chlorides (30) can be isolated and reacted with another amine. R ~ HN

R~NH

A

R’N-CC12

(29)

R’NH-c

/NHR3

(30)

Reaction of amines with S,S-dimethyl-N-sulfonyliminodithiocarbonimidates (31), which are easily prepared from the reaction of sulfonylamide with carbon disulfide in the presenceof alkali followed by quenchingwith MeI, gives N-sulfonylisothioureas(32)40in SO-SO% yield. Compound 31 affordsN-sulfonylguanidines(33)by reaction with amines as described in Section 1I.B.l.a. R’SOoN=C

(31)

R2NH2

\SMe

R1S02N=C

/ \

NHR‘

SMe

(32)

R ~ HN

/NHR‘ R’SO~N=C

\NHR3

(33)

The cyclic tosylguanidine (34) prepared from the corresponding diamine by this procedure is detosylated by the reaction of anhydrous hydrogen fluoride4’.

Y. Yamamoto and S. Kojima

494 7. Synthesis of biguanide

Synthetic methods for biguanide derivatives have been reviewed4'. These are essentially extensions of the methods for guanidines and carbon-substituted guanidines: a. Reaction

of

amines

with

N',N5-disubstituted

guanyl-S-alkylisothioureas

(3S)43. Compound 35 prepared from guanylthioureareacts with amines to give N ',N'-

disubstituted biguanides.

H R'N=C-N-C-NHR3

I

R4NHz

II

SR2

H R'NH-C-N-C-NHR3

II

NH

NR4

II

NH

b. Reaction of guanidine with O - a l k y l i ~ o u r e a ~0-Alkylisourea ~. prepared from urea reacts with guanidine to give substituted biguanide.

+

HZNC/OR2

/NH2 HzNC

H RINHC-N-CNH2

\\NH

II

NH

c. Reaction of cyanoguanidine with amine salts' cyanoguanidine to give substituted biguanide.

1.45.

-

/NH H2NC

R N H z . HX

IINH

Alkyl- or arylamine reacts with

H RNHC-N-CNH2

IINH

IINH HX

8. Synthesis of cyanoguanidine

Cyanoguanidine is commercially available (Table 1) and has been prepared by dimerization of ~ y a n a m i d e ~ ~ . /NH2

2 HZN-CEN

NHs

H2N-C

Substituted cyanoguanidines have been obtained by the reaction of ammonia or substituted amineswith cyanoisourea(36),which is synthesized from the reactionof sodium cyanamide with isothiocyanate followed by methylation of the resulting a d d ~ c t ~ ' . ~ ' .

R~NH-C

/SMe

\\N-CN

(36)

R'NH~

R~NH-C

/NHRz

\\N-CN

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

495

9. Synthesis of guanidine-derived acids Arginine(7) and creatine(methylguanidinoaceticacid, 37) are typical compounds in this group. HX

HX

HNH

7 4 2 H2NC

\Nhyc"'"

H2NC

'NcH,co,H

I

NH2

Me

(37)

(7)

The isothiourea method (Section 1I.B.l.a) and the aminoiminomethanesulfonic acid method (Section 1I.B.l.b) for the preparation of carbon-substituted guanidine are most common for the synthesis of guanidino acids. 4-guanidiGuanidinoacetic acid (glycocyamine)2 creatine", hydroxyarginine~'~, nobutanoic acid2'and other guanidinederivatives have been prepared by these methods. L-Arginine has been obtained from gelatine conveniently5'. Cyclization of a-guanidinoaceticacids occurs on heating with acids to give imidazoline derivatives

(38,

39)S2*53.

Glycocyamidines have also been prepared by the reaction of guanidinewith glyoxalsS4.

R=H glycocyamine

glycocyamidine

R=Me

creatinine

creatine

(38)

(39)

10. Synthesis of guanylurea and guanylthiourea

Methods of preparation of these compounds have already been reviewed42. The most common methods for guanylureas include: a. Acid hydrolysis of cyanog~anidine'~.Cyanoguanidines are hydrolyzed under acidic conditions to give guanylureas (40).

H RNHC-N-CEN-

II

NH

aq. acids

H

RNHC-N-C-NH2

II

II

0

NH

(40)

b. Reaction 01 isocyanate with g ~ a n i d i n e Isocyanate ~~. reacts easily with guanidine to form guanylurea(40).

Y. Yamamoto and S. Kojima

496

Similarly, the most common methods for guanylthioureas include: a. Addition of hydrogen sulfide to ~yanoguanidine~'.Cyanoguanidines react with hydrogen sulfide to give guanylthioureas(41).

H RNHC-N-C-N

II

HlS

H RNHC-N-CNH,

NH

II NH

II

S

(41)

b. Reaction of isothiocyanate with guanidines8. Isothiocyanatesreact with guanidine to afford guanylthioureas(41). 7 H2NC

2

R2N=C=S

H R'NHC-N-CNHR~

IINH

IIS

11. Synthesis of acylguanidines

Monoacylguanidines have been synthesized by the following methods:

a. Acylation of guanidine with acid anhydride" or ester60. Guanidineis easily acylated by acid anhydrides or esters. A diacylguanidine (triophamine,42) was synthesized by the reaction of ester (43) with guanidine in 48% yield6'.

(42)

(43) A r = p-NOpC&

triophomine

b. Controlled deacylation of di- or triacetyl guanidine6'. Acetyl-N,", N"-trimethylguanidine (44) is prepared from the corresponding diacetyl compound (45) in 41% yield by use of absolute ethanol at 75 "C for 1.5 h63.

Me-N

/

Ac

Ac

(4 6 )

(44)

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

497

Cyclization products of a-guanidino acids as described in Section II.B.9 may be considered to be (cyclic) acylguanidines. Alkoxycarbonylguanidines have been obtained from guanylureas by treatment with alcoholic hydrogen chloride64. C. Synthesis of Nitrogen-substituted Guanidines

In this section the syntheses of nitroguanidines, nitrosoguanidinesand aminoguanidines are surveyed. 1. Synthesis of nitroguanidines

The chemistry of nitroguanidineswas reviewed in 195265. At that time nitration of guanidineswas the only common method for preparing nitroguanidines66-68,although several nitroguanidines had been prepared by treatment of N-methy1-N-nitroso-N’nitroguanidines(uide infra) with a r n i n e ~ ~ ~ , ’ ~ .

H2NC

-

HN03

\\NR /NH2

Runa

MeN-C

I

NO

\NN02

/NHR

H2NC

cone. H,SO,

\NN02

RNHC

\“02

The isothiourea method has been used for the preparation of nitroguanidines since 1954”. Amines react with nitroisothiourea, which is obtained from isothiourea by nitration.

R‘ SC

nitration

\\NH

R’SC

\“02

PNH,

R~NHC

The isourea method has also been reported to be useful for the preparation of nitroguanidino acids, such as nitr~arginine’~. Nitroisoureas have been obtained by nitration of isoureas.

MeOC

HX

nitration

MeOC

L - ornithino ‘ 2 HCI copper carbonate

rn

L-nitroorginins

\\,NO2

2. Synthesis of nitrosoguanidines

Nitrosoguanidines have been synthesized by the methods given below.

Y. Yamamoto and S. Kojima

498

a. Controlled reduction of nitroguanidines. Nitrosoguanidines (46) have been obtained in 45-52% yield from nitroguanidines (47) with zinc dust in the presence of aqueous ammonium chloride below 20-25 0C73. RNHC

\\"02

Zn NH,+CI'

RNHC

\NNO

b. Nitrosation of guanidines. Nitrosation has been carried out with nitrous acid70 or nitrosyl ~hloride'~. N-Alkyl-N-nitroso-N'-nitroguanidines (48), which are among the important precursors for diaz~alkanes~', have been obtained from N-alkyl-N'nitroguanidines (49) by nitrosation70.

3. Synthesis of aminoguanidines

The chemistry of aminoguanidines was reviewed in 193976 and 196277. The most common synthetic methods for aminoguanidinesare given below. a. Reduction of nitroguanidine. Aminoguanidines have been obtained from nitroguanidines with zinc and acetic acid at 40 0C78.

b. Reaction of hydrazine with i~othiourea'~, isoureaSoand cyanamide". These are the extensions of the previously described methods for carbon-substituted guanidines, in which amines are used instead of hydrazines.

X-0

or S

499

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

Catalytic hydrogenation of guanyl hydrazones, which have been prepared by condensation of aminoguanidine with aldehydes or ketones, gives 1-(alkylamino)guanidiness2.

D. synthesis of Miscellaneous Guanidines 1 . Synthesis of oxygen-substituted guanidines

N-Hydroxyguanidinium salts have been prepared by the reaction of hydroxylamine with S-methylisothi~urea~~ or cyanamides4. NH.OH.HCI

rH2NC/NHR

MeSC

\NOH

HX

Canavanine (SO) has been synthesized in 80% yield by the cyanamide method”’, in contrast to the isothiourea or isoureaS6method which gives much lower yields of 50.

C02Et HCI

HpNCN

HCI

H2NC

C02Et

NHBz

NHBZ

canavanine .2HCI

(SO)

2. Synthesis of phosphorylguanidine

N-Phosphorylguanidines have been prepared by the following methods. a. Phosphorylation of guanidines with PoC1387or (RO),P(O)Cl”’. Phosphocreatine has been prepared by phosphorylation.

500

Y. Yamamoto and S. Kojima

b. Reaction of amines with pho~phorylisourea~~ or phosphoryliso~hiourea~~. Phosphorylisoureas and phosphorylisothioureas are prepared by phosphorylation from isoureasor isothioureas,respectively. Phosphoargininehas been synthesized by the use of phosphorylisourea.

X-0

or S

3. Synthesis of sulfonylguanidine N-Sulfonylguanidineshave been prepared by the methods given below. a. Sulfonylation of guanidines with ArS0,C13*’7*91. The useful drug sulfaguanidinehas been prepared by sulfonylationof guanidinewith p-acetylaminosulfonylchloride followed by hydrolysis.

b. Reaction of sulfonamides with i s ~ t h i o u r e a ~ ~ .

c. Reaction of thiourea with N-suljnyls~lfonamide~~.

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

501

4. Synthesis of halogenated guanidines

N-Haloguanidines, which are usually explosive on heating, have been prepared by halogenation of guanidines with NaOCI9’, NaOBr94, CIz9’, BrZ9’ and Fz96. Perfluoroguanidinehas been prepared from guanidinium hydrochloride with FZg6.

111. STRUCTURE OF GUANlDlNES

A. Structure of Guanidinium Ions

Determination of the crystal structure of guanidinium chloride has revealed that the three nitrogen atoms are nearly equivalent and lie in almost the same plane as the carbon atom9’. The structureis slightly distorted by crystal packing forces to the CaVsymmetry. The carbon-nitrogen bond len ths (1.318,1.325,1.325A) are halfway between the normal C-N single bond length (1.47 )and the pure double bond length (1.24di)98.These data confirm that the structureof the guanidiniumion is a resonancehybrid of three equivalent forms, one of which is shown below.

1

/NH2 H2Nt=C ‘NH2

The infrared spectrum of guanidinium chloride and iodide and their perdeutero derivatives have been obtained, and assignments for the fundamental vibration are consistent with the symmetrical D,, structureg9. In the crystal structures of 4-guanidinobutanoic acid hydrochloride’00 and 3guanidino ropionic acid”’, the three C-N bond lengths are reported to be 1.32, 1.32 and 1.34 , and 1.32, 1.32 and 1.33 A, respectively. These results indicate that the structuresofcarbon-substitutedguanidiniumions do not differ from that of the parent guanidiniumion, suggestingthat the contribution of the three resonance structures is comparable.

K

6 . Structure of Substituted Guanidines

A neutralmonosubstituted guanidinecan exist in two forms,which have conventionally been referredto as the amino (a) and imino (b) form. Unfortunately, the strong basicity of the guanidino group in simple alkyl- and arylguanidines has precluded the X-ray diffraction studies of these compounds.

amino form (0)

imino form

(b)

Y. Yamamoto and S. Kojima

502

Recently sNNMR has been employed to investigate the amino-to-imino equilibrium constant of L-arginine (51)'02 and of arylguanidines (52)'03 in solutions of pH 14 by comparison of the chemical shifts for these compounds and related model compounds such as tetramethylguanidine and pentamethylguanidine. The estimated equilibrium constant for L-arginineis about 1.8, hence the imino form (51b) is slightly favored. The preferred tautomer in arylguanidines is, in contrast, the amino form (52a).

imino form 64%

amino form 36%

(51b)

(510)

Guanidino groups remain uncharged under neutral conditions in guanidines with electron-withdrawingsubstituentssuch as nitroguanidine(53), cyanoguanidine(54), sulfaguanidine(59, L-canavanine(56) and N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (57; MNNG). The industrial and biological importance of these compounds, in addition to the ease of their isolation, have made them widely studied molecules. Interestingly, many of them were originally proposed to exist in the wrong form [imino (b)]. For nitroguanidine,the imino form (53b) was favored'04 until McKay cast doubt on this, based on the chemicalstudies10s.The amino form (53a) has been supported by work on the 'H NMR106 of crystalline nitroguanidine, and by the acidity'O' and the dipole moment108measurementsof nitroguanidines.Finally, a crystal structurestudy by X-ray diffraction has established the amino form (53a)'". In the case of cyanoguanidine, the originally suggested imino form (54b)"O was corrected when X-ray crystallographic analysis pointed to the amino form (Ma) in 1940'". IR spectra112and ab initio STO-3G calculations113have also supported the amino form (54a). Crystallographic studies of sulfaguanidinehydrate (55)' 14, L-canavanine(56)' and

H2N-C

HzN-C

H2N-C

'"oZ

'N-cN

nitroguanidine

cyonoguanidine

(530)

(5140)

\N--SO~CGH~NHZ sulfaguanidine hydrate

(550)

-p

2

~~

N-Methyl-"-nitroN-nitrosoguanidine (57)

Nitroguanidine (53) Cyanoguanidine (54) Sulfaguanidine hydrate (55) L-Canavanine (56)

H2N-C

N'",

Compound

ON\;

1

CH,

'

I,,N02

2

NO2 CN S0,C6H,NH, O(CHJ,CH(CO,-)NH,+

R

1.391

1.34 1.333 1.329 1.361

C-N'

1.307

1.34 1.339 1.334 1.347

C-NZ

C-N bond lengths (A)

1.346

1.35 1.341 1.348 1.302

C-N3

119.3

118 118.7 118.1 116.4

N1CN2

129.1

129 123.8 126.0 125.2

N2CN3

NCN bond angles (deg)

TABLE 2. Structural parameters of compounds containing the guanidino group as determined by X-ray diffraction

111.7

112 117.5 115.8 118.4

N1CN3

116

109 117 114 115

Reference

Y. Yamamoto and S. Kojima

504 7

ON

2

/NH2

\

H2N-C \\NOCH,CH~HCN'H,)CCO;)

Me

L-canavonine

N-methyl- N'- nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG)

(570)

(360)

MNNG (57)'16, and an "N NMR study of sulfaguanidine"' have also been accomplished in recent years. All of them suggest the amino structure (a) as illustrated above. Some bond lengths and bond angles in these compounds are listed in Table 2. The similarity in C-N bond lengths aroundthe centralcarbon in the guanidinogroup has been explained by the presence of zwitterionic resonance hybrid structures, for example a, c, d for cyanoguanidine'' I . Support for this explanation has been acquired by a low-temperature X-ray measurement of cyanoguanidine, which has revealed the charge deformation density. The importance of the two additional resonance structures e and f has been suggested' 7

2

-

H,N+=C'

H2N-C 'N-C=N

NH2

\ N-C-N -- -

-

p H2N-C

\N=C=P

(d )

(C)

(0)

2

The calculated charge distribution of cyanoguanidine (54) is shown below'I8 -0.09

-0.12

+0.22

/

N2 H2

+ 0 . 2 1 ( t o t a 1 ) for H,H of N

~ H ~

+0.18(total) for H,H of N1H2

H2N'-\N-C=N -0.21 +0.07 -0.29

The VESCF(BJ)CI MOcalculation for nitroguanidine has also indicated a highly delocalized electronic structure'19, which is a resonancehybrid of the eight forms shown below.

505

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

IV. BASICITY OF GUANIDINES

Guanidine is a monoacid base of strength comparable to sodium hydroxide. The remarkablestability of the guanidiniumion, which is inert to boiling water, has sometimes been discussed based on ‘Y-delocalization (or Y - a r ~ m a t i c i t y ) ” * ~,-but ’ ~ ~it has also been explained well by resonance among three structures that are all equivalentlZ4. N ,HZ H2N+=C

H2N-C ‘NH2

2”. ‘NH2

N ,H2 H2N-C h

H

2

The pK, value of the parent guanidinium salt has been determined by potentiometric titration to be 13.6Iz5 in water at 25°C. A. Basicity of Methyl-substituted Guanidines

The pK, values of all the possible methyl-substituted guanidineshave been reported’’. The results are cited in Table 3, indicating that the values are only slightly affected by methyl substitution. A small base-weakeningeffect is observed by introductionof a methyl group into guanidine because the substitution destroys the equivalence of the three

TABLE 3. pK. values for methyl-substitutedguanidiniumsalts in water at 25°C. Kcprodiced by permission of the Royal Society of Chemistry from Ref. 17

Compound

PK,

Guanidiniumsulfate N-Methylguanidiniumsulfate N,N-Dimethylguanidiniumsulfate N,N’-Dimethylguanidinium iodide N,N,N’-Trimethylguanidinium iodide N,N’,N”-Trimethylguanidinium sulfate

13.6

Pentamethylguanidiniumiodide

13.8

N,N,N’,N‘-Tetramethylguanidinium N,N,N’,N”-Tetramethylguanidiniurn

iodide iodide

13.4 13.4

13.6 13.6 13.9 13.6 13.9

Y. Yamamoto and S. Kojima

506

nitrogens. The combined electronic base-strengthening effect of the methyl groups compensates for the nonequivalenceeffect, but among isomers with the same number of methyl substituents the ones with the more even distribution of methyl groups are stronger bases. 8. Basicity of Monosubstituted Guanldlnes

A correlation equation for the pK, values of monosubstituted guanidinium salts (16 compounds-see Table 4) with the Hammett a, value has been proposed'25:

pK, = 14.18( & 0.25) - 22.58( f 0.78)0, This is a revision of the equation proposed by ChartonlZ6derived from eight compounds, namely by pK, = 14.20 - 24.09 a,. In these equations, the pK, values of guanidine and methylguanidine are recalculated based on statistical factors to provide a common basis for the correlation.The dissociation constantsare multiplied by the statistical factors of 6 and 5, respectively, for the number of protons that can dissociate. Thus it should be noted that the pK, values of these compounds in Table 4 are larger than those in Table 3 by log 6 (guanidine)or log 5 TABLE4. pK, values for monosubstituted guanidinium salts in water at 25 "C. Reproduced by permission of the Royal Society of Chemistry from Ref. 125.

Compound PK."

R N q N H * .HX

UP

APK,'

NH2

R

Me H Ph NHZ 4-02NCbH4 OH NHCOPh CONHZ COMe COPh C0,Et

NHPh OMe OCH2C0,CSNHZ SOZNH, CN NO2

14.1d*e 14.38d.e 10.77'*/ 11.04' 9.13 f 0.02 7.96 f 0.04 7.94 f 0.06 8.1 I f 0.05 8.20 0.05 6.98 f 0.05 7.03 f 0.05 8.26 f 0.06 7.w

-

*

7.51* 556 0.02 1.83 f 0.02 0.85 f 0.OY

- 0.98 f

0.02

-.O.Ol 0.00 0.12 0.17 0.23 0.24 0.28 0.28 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.32 0.38 0.53 0.57 0.67

-0.31 + 0.20 - 0.70 + 0.70 + 0.14 -0.80 + 0.08

+ 0.25

+ 0.79

-+

- 0.43

0.38 0.85 + 0.05 + 0.56 - 0.04 0.28 2.16 - 0.03

-

'pK. values in bold type are those. uscd in the correlation described in the text. )ul values are from M. Charton, P r q . Phys. Org. Chern., 13, 119 (1981). 'ApK, is the deviation of the observed from the calculated pK, value according to the equation in the text. 'From D. D. Pemn, Dissociation Constants of Bases in Aqueous Solution, Butterworths, London, 1972. 'With statistical corrections, x 5 applied to methylguanidine and x 6 to guanidine. 'Reference 126. #Not included in the correlation.

507

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

(methylguanidine).The authorsassume that the amino tautomer (a) predominates when R is an electron acceptor and the imino tautomer (b) is considered predominant or the two isomers are present in comparable amounts when R is an electron donor.

amino form (0)

H2N-

imino f o r m

'NHR

(b)

pKn= 14.0-3.600* Perrin also has proposed an equation'", however he did not present any details. C. Basicity of Substituted 2-Phenyl-1,I,3,34etramethylguanidines A number of pK, values of substituted 2-phenyl-1,1,3,3-tetramethylguanidines in waterz6 and in acetonitrile'28have been reported. Several data are listed in Table 5. A good relation of the pK, values in water with the Hammett's u , , ~values is found

pK,(in water)=(12.12 +0.02)-(1.84+0.05)a,,, The difference in pK, in acetonitrile (AN) and water, ApKAN-"I0, is fairly constant: A P K ~ A N - H ~ O= 8.1 0.5. TABLE 5. pK, values for substituted 2-phenyl-l,l,3,3-tetramethylguanidinium salts in water and in acetonitrile (AN) at 25°C. Reproduced by permission of the National Research Council of Canada from Ref. 128 Compound

H

4-NOZ 4-CN 4-CF3 4-CI 4-Br 4-Me 4-OMe 3-CF3 3x1 3-Me 3-OMe 2-CF3 2-CI 2-Me 2-OMe

20.6 f 0. I 17.82 f 0.07 18.37 f 0.08 19.00 f 0.09 19.68f 0.10 19.6 f 0.1 20.9 f 0. I 21.0 f 0.1 19.09 f 0.09 19.30f 0.09 20.8 f 0.1 20.4 f 0.1 17.70 f 0.08 18.80 f 0.09 20.5 & 0. I 21.0 f 0.1

12.18 f 0.02 9.78 f 0.09 10.95 f 0.05 11.36 f 0.04 I I .70 f 0.02 11.60f0.10 12.37 f 0.01 12.57 k 0.03 1 1.47 f 0.09 12.25 & 0.04 1 1.96 f 0.04

8.4f0.1 8.0 f 0.1 7.42 f 0.09 7.6f0.1 8.0f0.1 8.0 f 0.1 8.5 f 0.1 8.4 10.1 7.8 f 0.2 8.5 f 0.1 8.4 f 0.1

11.2 & 0.1 12.28 f 0.03 12.19 & 0.04

7.6 f 0.1 8.2 f 0.1 8.8 f 0.1

-

-

Y. Yamamoto and S. Kojima

508

D. Mlscellaneous Acid and Base Properties of Guanidines

Diprotonatedguanidineshave been observed by 'H N M R in the FS0,H-SbF,(magic acid) system'29.

H

H

The NMR spectrum of the diprotonated guanidine at - 80°C consists of an N + H 3 group at 6 8.68 and two protons at 6 8.07 and 7.85. In methylguanidine, the second protonation is at one of the primary amine groups. The acidity of 1-substituted 3-nitroguanidines has been reportedlZ6.In the nitroguanidines,the correspondinganions are fairly stable. Values of pK, are given in Table 6.

The lithium derivative, [(Me,N),C=NLi],, has been isolated by the reaction of N,N,N',N'-tetramethylguanidine and methyllithium' 30. The lithium compound has been determined by cryoscopy to be dimeric in benzene.

TABLE 6. pK, values for I-substituted 3-nitroguanidines in water at 24°C. Reprinted with permission from Charton, J . Org. Chem., 30, 970. Copyright (1969) American Chemical SocietylZ6 Compound /NH*

PK,

RNH-$N-N02 R

H

EtO,CCH, NH, NCCH, PhCO H,NCO

Ph

12.80 I 1.20

10.60 9.30 8.10 7.50

10.50

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

509

V. BARRIERS TO ISOMERIZATION ABOUT GUANlDlNE AND GUANlDlNlUM CARBON-NITROGEN BONDS A. Barriers to lsomerization about Guanidinium Carbon-Nitrogen Bonds

Temperature-dependentNMR studies have been the generalmethod to determine rates of carbon-carbon (or carbon-nitrogen) double bond isomerizationl3I. Forthe parent guanidiniumion, since the six N-H protons are chemically equivalent, standard NMR studies using isotropic conditions have been precluded. However, proton NMR studies in an anisotropic nematic liquid crystallinesolution have deduced an upper limit of AG* < 13 kcalmol-I for the free energy of activation for bond rotation13*. The restricted rotation of 2-aryl- I, 1,3,3-tetramethylguanidinium trifluoroacetatc has been investigated by Kessler and coworkers*33.Two mechanisms have been considered, one being rotation about the C-N bond and the other deprotonation to the corresponding free guanidine followed by inversion and protonation. The rotation mechanismis more likely for two reasons.First,in 2-alkyl-1,1,3,3-tetramethylguanidinium salts the 'H NMR signals of the a protons of the alkyl group are coupled with the NH protons while the signalsof dimethylamino protons appear as singlets.Secondly, a similar free energy of activation has been observed for pentamethylarylguanidinium iodide'34. Three rotational barriers have been observed in the former salt and two processes can be measured in the latter. Thus the rotation about the C-N bonds in y position with respect to the aryl ring (processes B and C) and the c--N bond /Ito aryl (process A) has been observed as illustrated below.

( Y = H or CH3)

The activation energies(AC') and coalescencetemperatures (T,) for these processes in these salts are listed in Tables 7 and 8, respectively. The rotational barriers are correlated linearly with the Hammett dp- constants of p-substituents in the aryl group, especially in the pentamethylarylguanidinium salts. In the system, p is - 1.00 for process B (or C), and p is + 1.09 for process A. Thus, electron-withdrawing groups inhibit the rotation about the C-N bond y to the aryl group and facilitate the C=N+ rotation (bond /lto the aryl ring). These results suggest the importance of resonance structures 58 and 59. Large groups in ortho positions stabilize the C=N bond against rotation. A similar steric effect has also been observed for rotation about the C=C bond in o-substituted stilbenes'35 (see p. 51 I). Temperature-dependent NMR of -N(CH,Ar), and -NMe, resonances in 2,2dibenzyl-1,1,3,3-tetramethylguanidinium chloride have shown that the free energy of activation of rotation about the C-NMe, bonds and the C-N(CH,Ph), bond is 14.6 A nonplanarstructure 0.2( + 3 "C)and 13.8 0.2( 17 "C)kcal mol- I , re~pectively'~~.

+

510

Y. Y a m a m o t o a n d S. Kojima

TABLE 7. Rotational barriers for 2-aryl-1,1,3,3-tetramethylguanidinium t r i f l ~ o r o a c e t a t e sin '~~ CDC13-CF,C02H. Reprinted with permission from Ref. 133. Copyright ( I 969) Pergamon Press PLC Compound -N

-N

I

hN{

-N

-N

Z

p-Me2NC6Hbp-Meoc6H4p-MeC6H4Php-FC6H4 p-CICeH4 P-CH~COC~H~p-NCC6H4~-02NC6H4-

-N

*N<

2

I

I

I F N (

4

2

I

-N

-N

B

C

&N(

z

I

I

-N

z

I

Tc ("C)

AGf (kcal mot-')

Tc ("C)

A Gf (kcalmol-I)

Tc ("C)

AGf (kcal mol-')

- 18

- 16 - 21 - 25 - 24 - 28 - 38 - 37 -44

12.9 13.0 12.7 12.5 12.6 12.4 11.9 11.9 11.6

- 30.5 - 32.5 - 28.5 - 25 - 25 - 27 - 38 - 43 - 40

12.6 12.6 12.7 12.9 12.9 12.8 12.3 12 12.1

- 60.5 - 62 - 52.5 - 48 - 58 - 48 - 38

10.5 10.4 11.0 11.2 10.6 11.2 11.7

+ 24

14.9

-44

11.8

- 61

10.4

+ 34

15.4

- 51.5

11.3

- 53

10.8

+ 56

16.5

- 56

11.0

- 63

10.3

Me

'Me

j-Pr

iH3 IH3 /N\C/N\

CH3

II

""@R

CH3

A+

CH3

/ \/

CH3

I

yN 'Q

I

-

CH3

\cH

3

R

CH3

CH3

/"/

N\c

I+

CH3

I

3

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives TABLE 8. Rotational barriers for 2-aryl-1,1,2,3,3-pentamethylguanidinium permission of VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mbH from Ref. 134.

51 1

iodides. Reproduced by

Compound -N

-N

I

Z'

I Z

Tc

AGZ (kcal mol- ')

Tc ("C)

AGf (kcal mol - ')

- 21 - 32 - 42 - 46 - 43 - 54 - 66 - 70 - 80

12.4"

9

9.4"

18 23 28 25 31.5 50 52 58

14.55' 15.0b 15.2b 15.5b 15.4b 15.7b 16.6b 16.7b 17.0b

12

14.2b

12

14.2b

144

212.'

14

14.3"

195

24.0'

8

14.1"

("C)

p-Me2NC6H4p-MeOC6H4p-MeC6H4Php-FC6H4p-CIC6H4P-CH~COC~H~p-NCC6H4p-02NC6H4

($

11.8"

11.3" 11.1" 11.20

10.7" 10.1" 9.9"

Me

i-Pr

i

-

p

r

q

i-P,

"Dichloromethane is used as solvent. bNitromethane-d, is used as solvent. 'Formamide is used as solvent.

512

Y. Yamamoto and S. Kojima

is proposed for the highly substituted guanidiniumsalt based on the nonequivalenceof the benzyl hydrogens at low temperatures. A6 initio calculations have been carried out for the parent guanidinium ion',', and monosubstituted (F,NH,, CH,) guanidiniumions' 38 usingGAUSSIAN-70 with an STO6-31G basis set.

The calculated barrierof rotation for the parent ion is 14.73 kcal mol- ' and those about C-N', C-N2, C-N3, for the fluoro substituted ion are 19.7, 19.3, and 11.5 kcal mol- ', respectively. 15N NMR has been employed to investigate the barrier to rotation about the C-N' bond in the guanidinium group of L-arginineby line-shape analyses of the N2 and N 3 resonances'02. The AG# value obtained is 12.9 kcal mol- ' (at 8 "C)which is close to AG' for other guanidinium ions as described.

8. Barriers to lsomerization about Free Guanidine Carbon-Nitrogen Bonds

In principle there are two possibilities for the syn-anti isomerization about a carbonnitrogen double bond in free guanidine: (a)Rotation of the N substituent out of the plane of the molecule. The sp2 hybridization of the nitrogen atom, and hence the bond angle (C-N-ZI, is retained.

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

513

(b) Inversion of the N substituent by an in-plane'lateral shift' via a transitionstate with sp hybridization at nitrogen. The bond angle (C-N-Z) increasesto 180"in the transition state.

The mechanism which has been supported has been the inversionmechanism,although an intermediate mechanism with both components has been proposed for some iminesl 39.140 Two main argumentshave been adduced in support of the inversionmechanism.In the first place, the effect of polarity of the solvent on the rate of isomerization of tetramethylphenylguanidineis small [AG' = 12.0 kcal mol- in CD3CN ( - 38 "C),AG* = 12.1 kcal mol- in CS, ( - 35 "C)]'"'. A polar solvent should facilitateisomerization by rotation, becausethe transition state in rotation should be substantially chargeseparated. Secondly, the influence of substituents in the o-position in 2-aryl-l,1,3,3tetramethylguanidine~~~~ on the rates of isomerization is totally different from that in the corresponding guanidiniumsalts. Thus, the barrier is lowered as the size of R increasesin the free guanidines as shown in Table 9; in contrast, the barrier is heightened by the substituents R in the guanidinium salts as described in the previous section.

'

R '

'R

The electroniceffect of p-substituentsin the aryl group in the free guanidinesis similarto that in the guanidiniumsalts'42.AG- and T, for the guanidinesare listed in Table 9. In the system p is 2.95 ( f 0.30) (at - 50°C) against op-. Also, in the aliphatic derivatives of tetramethylguanidinessimilar electronic effects have been observed as shown in Table 10. Generally, in carbon-nitrogen double-bonded compounds X,C=NZ, the isomerization rate increases very rapidly as the substituent Z is varied in the order: RO w R,N < halogen < alkylc aryl< a ~ y l ' ~ 'Substituents . ~ ~ ~ . X on the imino carbon also increase the inversion rate, the order being quinone ring < alkyl< acetyl< alkoxycarbonyl < aryl < methoxy < alkylthio < dialkylamino131.142. Recently, a A G f value (at - 14°C) of 10.4kcalmol-' for isomerization of the guanidino group of L-argininehas been obtained by 15N NMR'". The value is much smaller than the value 18.7 kcal mo1-l. (at 73°C) for pentamethylguanidine. The low barriermay be due to the contributionsfrom tautomers Band C, which should have lower barriers for rotation about the C-N2 bond.

+

TABLE 9. Rotational barriers for 2-aryl-1,1,3,3-tetramethylguanidines. Reprinted with permission from Ref. 142. Copyright (1970) Pergamon Press PLC Compound MazN+N,z M.2N

T," ("C)

Z

AGf (kcal mol- *)

-5 -8

13.7 13.5 12.65 121. 126. 11.8 9.4 9.45 85.

- 24 - 35 - 26 - 41 - 85 - 84 - 100

@-

- 36

12.q11.0)b

- 24

12.q11.1)b

- 46.5

11.4(10.2)*

i-Pr

i-Pr ~~

"The CSJCDCI, solvent system is used. bElectronic effect of the alkyl groups (0.5kcalmol-' for one CH, group, 0.4kcal mol-' for one i-Pr gr0up)issubtracted from the experimental AG value. The *.v corrected values are listed in parentheses.

TABLE 10. Rotational barriersfor aliphatictetramethylguanidines.Reprinted with permission from Ref. 142. Copyright (1970) Pergamon Press PLC Compound M"N)=N,z M82N

2 NMe, OMe H CH3 Et i-Pr S02Ph COMe CN NO2

Solvent Diphenyl ether CDCl,

CSZ/CDCl,

Tc

AGf (kcal mol- ')

> 200 > 200 < -80 73 65

> 25 > 25 < 10 18.7 18.2 17.5 7.85 8.95 9.2 10.9

("C)

53

- 120 - 100 - 95

- 65

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

515

HN

II

-

;2

'

L

- ' I

I

ft'

JJ2

H' R

R'

'

H' R

'

VI. COORDINATION OF GUANIDINES AND GUANlDlNlUM IONS WITH METALS, ANIONS AND CROWN ETHERS

The guanidiniumgroup of arginine has been shown to act as an anion recognition site in many metal lo enzyme^'^^. For example, in the iron protein, transferrin, the arginine residue has been known to play an important role in the coordination with a synergistic anion (bicarbonateor carbonate) for strong binding of Fe3+ or other metal ions to the t r a n ~ f e r r i n ' ~Such ~ , ' ~properties ~. have promoted the study of the coordinationchemistry of guanidinium ions and guanidines. A. Coordination of Guanidines with Metal Ions

Guanidine forms three types of complexes with (a) cationic complexes (in which the guanidium cation is formed by taking up a proton); (b) adducts with neutral molecules or coordination products with ionic salts; (c) substitution products. Cationic complexes have been studied as those with rare earth elements such as La'46. Substitution products such as (Me,N),C=NLi (Section 1V.D) are not common. A number of complexes of tetramethylguanidine with main group elements such as R,A1I4', and transition metals Co", Cu", Zn", Pd", Nil' and Cr"' have indicatedI4* the imino nitrogen to be the donor site. Recently, [Pt(trpy)CI]' (trpy = tripyridine) has been used for the complexation with guanidinium salts and arginine under slightly basic (pH 8.5-10.5) condition^'^^.The study is related to the binding of Pt(I1) to L-arginine(Arg) in the tuna cytochrome c, in which Arg 91 reacts with Pt(1I) even at pH 7.0. The high reactivity of Arg 91 has been explained by the structural environment in cytochrome c. NHR H2N -C

I

Biguanides form deeply colored chelate complexes with many metals'46, and have stabilized a number of usually high oxidation states of the metals.These complexes can be classified into two groups: (a) uncharged metal biguanides [M(big),] (60); (b) charged metal biguanides [M(big H),]X, (61).

516

Y. Yamamoto and S. Kojima

The structures illustrated above have been confirmed by X-ray crystallography for and Co(big H)&1, 15', respectively. Cr(big), B. Coordinationof Guanidinium Ions with Anions

Models studies of the anion recognition of arginines described above have appeared recently. Ab initio calculations of the guanidinium-formate and guanidine-formic acid pairs have been carried The potential curves of these complexes cross at a C-C distance of about 4 A with the charged (guanidinium-formate) state being more stable at shorter distances. The X-ray crystallographic study of guanidinium bicarbonate indicates that the guanidiniumcation forms two hydrogen bonds (averageN-H . . . Odistance 2.87 A) with the same bicarbonate anion, and is thus well suited for anion binding'53. H

I

I

H

C. Coordination of Guanidinium Ions with Crown Ethers

The existence of interaction between dibenzo-18-crown-6 and guanidinium salts has been demonstrated by Pedersen'54 by the use of UV spectroscopy. Later a crystalline complex between guanidiniumnitrateand l8crown-6 ether was obtained and the structural analysisby X-ray diffractionwas carried As it turns out the stoichiometry is 1:2 (18crown-6 guanidinium nitrate) and the two guanidinium cations are each hydrogen bonded to one face of the 18-crown-6 ether with just one hydrogen bond. This result indicates that the crown ether cavity is too small for the guanidiniumions, which may fit into bigger crown ethers in an encapsulated form. In this context, guanidinium salts are compared with othercations (K+and n-Bu4N+)for their ability to act as templates in the formation of benzo-27-crown-9 and to complex the cyclic polyethers once formed'56*'". The following order has been observed for the ability to serve as templates for the benzo27-crown-9 K + > guanidinium ion > tetrabutylammonium ion > tetramethylammonium ion. The complexation of guanidiniumions with the crown ether has been implied by the fact that the crown ether solubilizes ca 1 mol (per mol of host) of the otherwise insoluble crystalline guanidinium tetraphenylborate'56. Stability constants K, of guanidinium complexes of the hexacarboxylate 27-crown-9 have been shown to be very large (K,= 9000+ 7001mol-')158. But the stability of the complexes decreases markedly as the number and bulk of the substituents on the guanidiniumion increases(methylguanidinium,K, = 45 1 f 40; N,N'-diethylguanidinium,

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

517

R = C02- HN'(CH2CH20H)j

R

R

K, < 10 I mol-I). The steric effect suggests that inclusion of guanidino groups into the macrocyclic cavity occurs, making the crown ether a guanidinium receptor molecule. A systematic study has been carried out on X-ray structuresand kinetic stabilities of 1: 1 complexes of guanidinium perchlorate with benzo-27-crown-9, dibenzo-27-crown-9 and dibenzo-30-crown-10159. From the X-ray analysis of these complexes two points have become clear:(a) all the hydrogen atoms of the guanidiniumcation are used in hydrogen bonds linking it to the macrocyclic host in these encapsulated complexes; (b) the electrostatic interaction and hydrogen-bonding scheme in the 30-membered ring are not as ideal as those in the 27-membered ring. This, however, is not reflected in the kinetic stability of the complexes. The activation energiesof decomplexation have been given by temperature-dependent NMR to be 11.4 (at - 33"C), 11.2 (at -40°C) and 12.0 (at - 33 "C)kcal mol- for the complexes with benzo-27-crown-9,dibenzo-27-crown-9 and dibenzo-30-crown-10, respectively.

VII. REACTIONS OF GUANlDlNES

A. Hydrolysis of Guanidines

In aqueous solution guanidine is hydrolyzed very slowly, first to urea and eventually to carbon dioxide and ammonia. In the presence of alkali, the rate of hydrolysis increases. About 34% of guanidine (1.3 mol I - ' of solution) is hydrolyzed to form urea at room temperature after 41 days in the presence of 1 equiv of NaOH; in contrast about 19% is hydrolyzed after 31 days without NaOHI6'. The hydrolysis is reversible and, in fact, formation of guanidine from urea and ammonia has been reported'6' although the yield based on urea does not exceed 30%.

Y. Yamamoto and S. Kojima

518

B. Condensation of Guanldlnes wlth Carbonyl Compounds to Synthesize Five- or Slxmembered Rings

Cyclization is one of the most important reactions of guanidines, and especially the synthesis of pyrimidines has been studied e ~ t e n s i v e l y ' ~ * - ' ~ ~ . 1. Synthesis of pyrimidines and other six-membered heterocycles

The reaction of a$-unsaturated ketones or aldehydes with a m i d i n e ~or ' ~guanidines ~ has been used since 1899, when Traube reported the condensation of mesityl oxide with guanidine as shown below166. H3C\

/NH2

+

H2N-C N'

/C"3

II C

H

CH3CO'

C

es-91?J0*

H'

H2N

.p N-

CH3

Although no results were obtained in early work on the condensationof guanidinewith benzalacetone, acrolein or inna am aldehyde'^',careful optimization of reaction conditions in the reaction of guanidine with acrolein has later given the product, 2-amino-6hydroxy-1,4,5,6-tetrahydropyrimidine, in ca 75% yield168.

'OH

fi-Dicarbonyl compounds have also been widely used in the synthesis of pyrimidine and other six-membered heterocycles. For example, ethyl cyanoacetate gives good yields (80-82%) of 2,4-diamin0-6-hydroxypyrirnidine'~~. 7

2

H2N-C

C0,Et

+

\NH

I

CH2

I

CN

-

OH

NoOEt EtOH reflux

\

HCI

NH2

2,4,6-Triaminopyrimidine '3C-labelled at 2,5-positions has been synthesized by the reaction of rnalon0nitrile-2-'~Cwith guanidine-I3Cnitrate in the presence of sodium ethoxide'". Diethyl allylmalonate can also be used in these reactions"'.

H$-c

* /NH2 \N

H

CN

+

I I

*CH2 CN

NoOEt

HN03

NH2

9 4 % yield

519

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

In order to obtain mechanisticinsight into these reactions,the reactionsof acetylacetone, methyl acetoacetate and dimethyl malonate with guanidiniumsalts, amidinium salts and ureas have been followed by I3C NMR"'. A diol62 has been observed as the only intermediate in the reaction of acetylacetone with guanidine.The result suggests the mechanism shown below.

s H 2 N 4 tfN HH

H . y < t o H s

Me

H

y

+

Me

q

Me

(62)

A cytotoxic six-memberedptilocaulin(63) has been synthesized recently by four groups. Three of them employed the reaction of guanidinewith a,/?-unsaturatedketone' 73-1'5 in the final step. The fourth group used the reaction of l-guanyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazole (see Section II.B.6) with a B-amino ketone d e r i ~ a t i v e ~ ~ .

benzene: rsflux

HNoa,

& :

H ptilocaulin

35

(63)

- 50% yield

Reaction of cis-benzene trioxide with guanidine in buffered tert-butyl alcohol gives a 1,3-bridged six-membered ring adduct in 88-91% yield'76. A five-membered adduct resulting from 1,2-bridging is also formed in 8-12% yield. NH

Y. Yamamoto and S. Kojima

520

2. Synthesis o f five-memberedrings

The condensationsof guanidinewith a-dicarbonyl compounds have been studied most extensively in this area. The reaction of benzil with guanidine has been reported to be solvent- and conditionsensitive. Thus, in dioxane, imidazoimidazole (64) is obtained but in methanol 2-amino-4hydroxy-4,5-diphenyl-4H-imidazole (65)can be obtained instead’7 7 . Catalytic hydrogenation of compound 65 produces 2-amino-4,5-diphenylimidazole (66).

N ,H2 HpN-C

o=c

+ -1

0--c

“H

-

‘ih I

OH p h T\ v N H 2

Ph

Ph

-

Ph

Ph

(65 )

N H

(66)

85% yield

The adducts of a-dicarbonyl compounds with guanidine can be trapped by the formation of diphenylboron chelates (67). The chelates have been isolated from the reaction of an a-dicarbonyl compound, guanidine and oxybis(diphenylborane)’78.

(67)

33-00%

yield

Reaction of guanidiniumsalts with glyoxal bis-hydrate gives cis and trans mixtures of the cyclic adducts (68) with the trans isomer being the major product ( 4 l ) I 7 ’ . H /NH2

HzN-C

\\NH HX

I

HO-C-OH

+

I

HO-C-OH

I

H

H 2 N q x ; :

H

(68)

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

521

The spirocyclization of heterocyclic o-dicarboxylates with 1,3-diphenylguanidinein the presence of sodium hydride gives the heterospiro compounds (69)Iao. However, the reaction is confined to pyrimidine and isoxazole derivatives because it is influenced by the degree of heteroaromaticity of the starting material. COP Me

H2N-C

5

/NHPh

[H2N-C<::]

\\I%

not detected

(69) 83% yield

qy2

Reaction of 3-acetyltropolone methyl ether with guanidinehas been reported to give the aminoimidazole derivative (7O)Ia1.

H2N-C

7 4 2

+

(J

N ‘H HCI

COMe

EtoNa

-

-N

OMe

(70) 43% yield

Excess sulfur monochloride reacts with N,N-dimethylguanidinium hydrochloride to cation (71)Ia2. give 4-(dimethylamino)-l,2,3,5-dithiadiazolium

(71) 5 4 % yield

C. Miscellaneous Reactions

Recently, tetramethylguanidine (TMG)has been recognized as a useful, strong and hindered base for the Michael addition of nitroalkanes to a,S-unsaturated ester^'^^*'^^ and ketones’85.

Y. Yarnamoto and S. Kojima

522

For example, the Michael addition of nitromethane to sterically hindered methyl 3-methylcrotonate does not proceed by use of usualMichaelcatalysts, but TMG catalyzes the reaction to form an adduct in 45% yield at room temperature in 2-4 days'84. HN=C

+ CH3N02

Me\

Me /c=c
,NMe2 (TMG) ' N M ~ ~

Me

*

'C-CH2C02Me

Me

Me

/I

CH2N02

The use of TMG catalyst has given a good result (93% yield) in the reaction of the fl-ketoester shown below with methacrolein'86.

qoMe

[y HO

r t CHzCIz

C02 Me

93% yield

In deprotection of oligonucleotidephosphotriesters, mixtures of TMG and/or4- (or 2-) nitrobenzaldoxime (or pyridine-2-carboxaldoxirne) have been reported to be clean 89. reagents'

\p/o

\p/o

w

O"';N*=c<::/y

Ar = 2-CIC6H,

TKy=thymin-1-yl

TMGis not quite sterically hindered toward 2,4,6-trinitrocumene,thus a-complex formation with the benzene ring to form 72 has been o b s e r ~ e d ' ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ . 2 0N ,@, N2 0

HN=C\NMe, ,NMez

02N,@N02

i

+

,NMe2

HN=C NO2

NO2

"Me2

10. Synthesis and chemistry of guanidine derivatives

523

VIII. ACKNOWLEDGMENT W e are heartily grateful t o ProfessorKin-ya Akiba of Hiroshima University, who gave us the chanceto write this chapterand also supplied us with guidelines and encouragement.

IX. REFERENCES

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CHAPTER

11

Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds VLADlMlR I. MlNKlN and IGOR E. MIKHAILOV institute of Physical and Organic Chemistry, Rostov University, 34471 7 Rostov on Don, USSR

. . . CENTERED GROUPS. . , . , . . . . . . A. 1,3-Shifts of Alkyl and Aralkyl Groups . . . . B. 1,3-Migrationsof Acyl Groups in Amidines. . .

I. INTRODUCTION . . .

,

. .

,

. .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

11. REARRANGEMENTS INVOLVING MIGRATIONS O F CARBON-

111.

IV. V.

VI.

C. 1,3-Migrationsof Acyl Groups in Acyl Imidates . . . . . . . . D. 1,3-Migrationsof Aryl Groups in Amidines and Imidates . . . . . E. 3,3-SigmatropicRearrangementsin N-Ally1 Amidines and 0-Ally1 Imidates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,3-SHIFTSO F MAIN-GROUP 5-7 ELEMENT-CENTERED MIGRANTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . . A. 1,3-Shiftsof Nitroso and Nitro Groups . . . . . . . . . . . B. 1,3-Shiftsof Phosphorus-containingGroups . . . . . . , . , C. 1,3-Shiftsof Sulfur-containingGroups . . . . . . . . . . . D. 1,3-Shifts of Chlorine in Amidine Systems . . . . . . . . . . REARRANGEMENTS INVOLVING ORGANOMETALLIC DERIVATIVES O F AMIDINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OTHER REARRANGEMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Migration of Groups N-Anchored to Aromatic Rings . . . . . . B. RearrangementsResulting in Cyclization . . . . . . . . . . C. Rearrangementsof Imidates due to Heterolytic 0-C Bond Fission . REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

527 528 528 534 542 551 559 571 572 577 591 596 598

607 607 609

613

615

1. INTRODUCTION

In the preceding volumes of ‘The Chemistry of Functional Groups’ series, the reviews devoted to rearrangementsof amidinesand relatedcompounds’.*dealt almost exclusively with thermaland catalyzed 0 +N transfersof alkyl, acyl, aryl and ally1 groups in imidates of both acyclic and heterocyclic types, i.e. with variousclassesof the Chapmanand Claisen rearrangements. The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates, Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and 2. Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

527

528

Vladimir I. Minkin and Tgor E. Mikhailov

(1) R=alkyl,aryl, allyl, acyl

Data on the analogousrearrangementsof amidines themselves were scarce at that time (in the review, literature had been covered up to 1973), but since then rich material has been accumulated concerning the 1,3-transfersof various groups R in the amidine triad.

I

R3

(3)

I

R3

(4)

The migrants R include acyl, aryl, nitroso, trialkylsilyl, phospinyl, phosphoryl, phosphonio, sulfenyl, sulfinyl, chloro and various other groups. An important section of the rearrangements represented by equation 2 consists of the so-called degenerate rearrangements (when R' = R2). Even though not of direct preparative interest, the investigation of degenerate rearrangements, mainly by studying their kinetics and sterochemistry with the aid of dynamic NMR spectroscopy, leads to a deeper insight into the intrinsic mechanism of the group transfer reactions and thus provides the synthetic chemist with a cue for the optimization of reaction procedures. For the sake of comparison, the rearrangements of imidates 1 which have not been surveyed before arealso included in the discussion.All the rearrangementsof amidines and imidates aregrouped accordingto the origin of the migrant R in the reactions(equations 1 and 2), which entails differentiation in reaction mechanisms. Some peculiar rearrangements of amidines associated with cyclizations and photoinitiated steps of group transfers within a molecule are considered separately. No special section is devoted to conformational and configurational (Z E) isomerizations, but these reactions, which in some cases constitute the preliminary stages for the principal rearrangements given by equations 1 and 2, are considered where appropriate. The subject of rearrangements involving group transfer reactions in amidines 3 and imidates 1 has grown immensely during the last 15 years after the appearanceof the last review paper' covering this topic. Clearly, the present review does not aim at being exhaustive but, hopefully, it may serve as a helpful framework for systematizing the abundantand rapidly accumulating relevant information. The literature up to 1989 has been taken into account and emphasis placed on the more recent studies in order to make this review a useful complement to the previous II. REARRANGEMENTS INVOLVING MIGRATIONS OF CARBON-CENTERED GROUPS A. 1,t-Shifts of Alkyl and Aralkyl Groups

The 1,3-0,N-migrationsof alkyl groups in alkyl imidates 5 with the formation ofamides 6 (equation 3) were described in considerable detail in the review articles'-3. Such

11. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

529

rearrangementsoccur, as a rule, under severe conditions (at 300 "C and higher)with low yields; they can, however, be fairly effectively catalyzed by electrophilic agents, such as quaternary salts of the rearrangingalkyl imidates 7 or alkyl thioimidates g4sS.

The quaternarysalts which are alkylated products common to both of the rearranged isomers serve in these reactions (equations4 and 5) as the alkyl group carriers. The reactions cannot follow the intramolecular route, since the spatial structure of the triad systems 7, 9 does not provide conditions for the realization of a trigonal-bipyramidal transition state structure, containing both the entering and the leaving nucleophilic centers in axial positions, which is inherent in the S,2 reactions6.Therefore, all known reactions of ij-shifts ( j = 3,5,7,9) of alkyl and aralkyl groups are realized in an intermolecular way'-" or include homolytic bond fission steps giving rise to the formation of radical pair intermediates7.''.

(Ao I

OFN

I

Me t-

I

Me

(Ao I

Me

Me

-7 -..

(4)

.

fii7 he

( 9)

(10)

A possibility of concerted intramolecular 1,3-shifts of CSp3-centeredgroups in model amidines ll" and in the related N-methyl nitrosoamine14 system with retention of configurationat the migrating center has been investigated computationally. MIND0/3 calculation^'^indicate the pentacoordinatecarbon CH,+-like transition state structure 1lc (X = NH) of C, symmetry for the intramolecularN,N'-transferof methyl, fluoromethyl and trifluoromethyl groups (equation 6). While very large values of energy barriers to concerted methyl and fluoromethyl 1,3shifts were predicted, the case of the trifluoromethyl group migration in the amidine framework seems to be a challenge to experimentalists (Table 1). It was, indeed, shown recently that a purely intramolecular1,3-migrationof the benzyl group (equation 7) can be

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

530

(11a)

(He)

(llb)

R'

R2 R3 Migrant

H H H H H F F

F

F

(Me) (CH2F) X = O , NH (CF,)

traced in labeled benzyl benzoate (12a) in neat samples sealed under N,, at 260 "C,with the energy barrier to 0,O-transfer amounting to 45 kcal mol- ".

//" 16

Ph-C

13

F-CHzPh

-

L

16

Ph-C

13 /o-cH2Ph

w:

(7)

(12 b)

(120)

Noncatalyzed thermal rearrangements of alkyl imidates in compounds in which the isoimide moiety is incorporated in a heterocycle ring proceed, as a rule, under milder conditions than those needed for the open-chain derivatives (equation l)z*s. Some rearrangementsof cyclic imidates can proceed in the melt. Thus, 5-alkoxy-2-aryl-1,3,4oxadiazoles 13 (R = alkyl) being melted at 180 "C undergo facile transformation to the corresponding oxadiazol-5-ones 1416. No 13 + 14 rearrangement occurs in solution at this temperature. When, however, methyl (R = Me) is the migrating group in compounds 13, the rearrangement 13+14 (equation 8) proceeds in the melt at 120-140°C; moreover, it occurs at an even faster rate in the crystalline state". The degree of completeness of the reaction 13 +14 amounts to 90-95% with no byproducts detected. The kinetics of this reaction both in the crystalline state and in the melt have been studied by means of 'H NMR spectroscopy. The activation barriersin the 13+ 14 process are: 24(b), 18(c), 56(d) kcalmol-' in the solid state and 28(a), 31 (b), 28(c), 31 (d) kcal mol-' in the melt. The

TABLE 1. MIND0/3 cal~ulated'~ energy barriers (kcalmol- l ) of 1,3-migrationof alkyl and fluoroalkyl groups in formamidine ( X = N H ) and formic acid (X = 0)derivatives 11 ___~

Migrant CR1R'R3 Me CH,F CF3

~

X=O

X=NH

80.6

60.0 61.3 20.7

80.0

60.1

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

53 1

following conclusions were drawn by the authors” from these data: (1) In the melt, the energy barriers to the rearrangementfor compounds 13 (a-d) are close in value; (2) the mechanism of the rearrangement in the solid state for compound 13d @=NO,) is different from that for 13b (X = Cl) and 13c (X = OMe); (3) the activation energiesfor the rearrangementsof compounds 13b and 13c are far smaller in the solid state than in the melt.

~

R

X

Me H

Me C1

Me OMe

Me NO,

CD, OCD,

~

Me CN

The ratio off ,,,(melt) to t,,,(solid) for 13b and 13c is 384 and 281, respectively, showing that the rearrangementproceeds much faster in the crystalline state than in the melt. The appearanceof cross-products upon heating of a 50:50 mixture of 13c and 13e, both in the solid state and in the melt, points to an intermolecular mechanism of this rearrangement. The unexpectedly rapid 13 14 rearrangement in the solid state is explained by the favorable geometry of the crystal packing of compounds 13. A similar enhancementof reaction rates of group-transferreactions in the condensed phase brought about by proper orientation of the reacting groups in the crystal compared to either the melt or the solution has been documented1sv19. I t has been confirmed by means of differential scanning calorimetry experiments that the reaction in crystal (equation 8) occurs without preliminary melting of the reactants20. Some intermolecular migrations of methyl groups proceed in derivatives of symtriazines 15-18 both in the solid state and in the melt. The conditions under which these

532

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

occur depend strongly both on the migration type (0+ S, 0 +N or N + S) and on the symmetry of the starting corn pound^^^-^^.For example, symmetrical methyl cyanurate (15a, X2 = X4 = X6 = 0)at 200°C undergoes successive isomerizations by the scheme 15+16-+17+18 given by equation 921 where 0 and N signify the atoms to which the methyl group is linked. Note that the intermediate compounds 16a (O.O.N.) and 17a (O.N.N.) in the rearrangementdescribed by equation 9 are thermally unstable to such a degree as not to be capable of being isolated preparatively. (9) 0.0.0.-0.O.N.-0.N.N.-N.N.N. In the case of symmetrical methyl thiocyanurate(18b, X2 = X4 = X6 = S), a reverse hightemperature isomerization described by equation 10 takes place”, and structures 16b (S.S.N.) and 17b (S.N.N.) are more stable than their oxygen analogs and can be isolated preparativelyz3.

N.N.N.

- - S.N.N.

S.S.S.

S.S.N.

(10)

Equally at a high temperature(2OO0C),the less symmetrical compounds 1% (X2 = X6 = S , X4 = 0)and 15d (X2 = X4 = 0,X6 = S) isomerize to 16c (Xz = 0, X4 = X6 = S) and 18d (X2 = X6 = 0, X4 = S), re~pectiveIy*~. All other migrations of methyl groups in the asymmetrical compounds 16 and 17 proceed in the solid phase fairly readily: 0 -+ S at room temperature and 0 + N at about 1OOoCz4.In compounds 16 that contain two different methoxyl groups, a selectivity of isomerization is observed. In the first place, there occurs a fairly smooth migration of the methyl group located between the two nonequivalent nitrogen centres (19). When the methyl group is positioned more symmetrically (20), thermal isomerizations in both 15 and 16 occur at high temperatures( 200 “C).Such a behavior is thought to be accounted for by the diNerencein the polarizationof reactive sites. In the compounds with the fragment 19, the negative charge at the imine nitrogen is greater than in the case of 20, while the methyl carbonis more deshielded as has been shown by the magnitudes of chemical shifts of the methyl protons in the ‘HNMR spectra.

-

OMe

I

(19)

I

OMe

I

II (20)

lntermolecular catalyzed rearrangements have been studied of heterocyclic alkyl (21), 1-R-2thioimidates in the 1,3-diazole series: l-R-2-alkylthio-A2-imidazolines alkylthio-A2-tetrahydropyrimidines (23)” and 1-R-2-alkylthioimidazoles (25)26. The rearrangementsdescribed by equation 11can be catalyzed by I or alkylating agents (alkyl halides and alkyl 0-tosylates), and in the case of derivatives of imidazoles 25 the corresponding N-alkyl imidazolium salts can equally serve as catalysts, as also in the rearrangements represented by equations 4 and 5. The rearrangements (equation 11) proceed by the autocatalytic SN2mechanismwith subsequent regenerationof the catalyst. On allowing imidazole 25a (R = Me) to stand at 120°C for 2.5 h (with 3 mol% of the catalyst), an equilibrium is established with a 50:50 ratio between the rearrangement products 25a and 26a. The yield of rearrangementproducts in the imidazole (25) series grows on going from the R = Me to i-Pr migrants while on passing to t-Bu and Ph it falls due to a changein the electronic density at N(3! and to steric hindrances.An increasein the steric volume of the substituent at the sulfur impedes the rearrangement,particularly in the case of R’ = i-Pr. From a comparison of data on the rearrangements of 1-R-2-

1 1. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

533

methylthio-A2-imidazolines (21), l-R-2-methylthio-A2-tetrahydropyrimidines (23) and 1R-2-methylthioimidazoles (25) it follows that, with the Rs being identical,the facility of the rearrangement is diminished in the order 21 > 23 >> 25. The pK, of these compounds increases in the same order. The equilibrium ratio between rearrangement products grows with the rise in the temperature. Among the salts of 1,3-dimethyl-2methylthioimidazolium (catalysts of the rearrangement of imidazoles 25) the iodate is more active than the tosylate, and the latter is more active than the chloride:the degree of completeness of the rearrangement(140 "C, 1 h) amounts to 50,37 and lo%, respectively, for I-, TsO- and CI-. When Me1 and MeOTs are used for the quaternization of imidazoles 25, the rearrangement is complete to 80 and 25%, respectively (140"C, 2 h). R

R

I

(21)

R'

R

R

R

(25)

R' (26)

1

I

I

R = alkyl, Ph, R' = Me, Et, i-Pr, All, CH,Ph, CH,Ac Opposed to the above-given examples of intermolecularmigrations of alkyl groups, in derivatives of 1,3,5-triazines27, the noncatalyzed 0 + N shift of the chloroethyl group can proceed by an intramoleculartwo-step mechanism via intermediateformation of the cyclic quaternary ammonium salts 2827-30.Upon brief boiling in toluene, derivatives of symtriazines 27 undergo intramolecularquaternizationto form the salts 28 which decompose under the action of the chloride anion giving rise to N-/I-chloroethyl-sym-triazines 29 (equation 12). Furtherheatingof the latters resultsin the eliminationofalkyl chlorides and formation of the target products 30a and 31b. The corresponding 2-hydroxyethoxy-sym-triazines 32 are not subject to thermal isomerization, even upon prolonged heating in inert solvents, since they do not form quaternary ammonium salts of type 28.

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

534

(27)

(32)

R = Me, Et R'= SAlk, OAlk (a); NAIL, (b) B. 1,3-MIgrations of Acyl Groups in Amidines

The 1,fdisplacements of acyl groups in the series of the derivatives of amidines and 0acyl isoimides (acyl imidates) occur under much milder conditions than those needed for the transferof alkyl groups. Possibly one of the first reactionsof this type was detected and studied back in 1903 by Wheeler and coworkers3'. It is the rearrangementof N-benzoylN-phenylbenzamidine(33)to its isomer, occurringin the course of the recrystallization of 33 from ethanol or when its solution is simply allowed to stand for some days at room temperature (equation 13).

Ph

Ph

(33)

(34 1

Later on, an analogous rearrangement proceeding under quite mild conditions was detected for N-acyl-N-phenylbenzamidinesJ2. Thus, in the course of the aroylation of N-

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

535

36 are formed in 62-75% yield. phenylbenzamidine( 3 9 , N-aroyl-N-phenylbenzamidines The latter, after brief heating in ethanol in the presence of strong acids (HCI, H,SO,), rearrange irreversibly, as a result of the 1,3-N,N’-acyl shift, into N-aroyl-N’phenylbenzamidines 37 (equation 14).

OH

(35)

c

(36)

‘Ar

Ar

/

c\o (37)

Under nearly as mild conditions as those above (in benzene or acetonitrile solution at 40-65 “C),the IJ-transfers(0-+N) of acyl groups are realized in acyl imidates38 for which the mechanism (equation 15) involving the preliminary stage of the fast Z + E isomerization and the formation ofadipolar transition state structure39 had been assumed33.The acyl group transferreactions (equations 13-15) should be certainly viewed as examples of intramolecularaddition-elimination substitutions at the sp2-hybridized carboncenter of the acyl group. From this standpoint it is easy to understand the necessity of the 2 to E isomerization of acyl imidates which places the inner nucleophiliccenter (imine nitrogen) in a proper steric position for the approach of the carbonyl carbon being attacked. Although in the E-diastereomericforms 33,36 and E-38 a turn of acyl group to the plane perpendicularto the rest of the molecule does not render the reaction site to have optimal directionality for the nucleophilicattack on the carbonyl center 41a, b (see References 6, 34,35 for comprehensive reviews), while such directionality is by no means achieved in Zdiastereomers, the conformation 42 is sufficiently close to that required by the necessary steric demandsJ6-’*.

Vladimir I. Minkin and Tgor E. Mikhailov

536

Fi

Nu:

!,'

.. -

x a)-\

I

4"

C

R"NTx

R2 = O

R2

(410) Qcop,=

100-110"

(41b)

(42 1

Bop,= 0' (no x+= c -0resonance)

a = 126' R = 50"

MIND0/3 calculation^^^ have been performed to study the topography of the potential N acyl group transfer reaction (equation 16). energy surface (PES) of a model N

-HNYNH 0

I

As Figure 1 shows, the thermal rearrangement 43a 43b is initiated by a rotation of the acetyl group about the C-N bond that results in the emergence of the 42-like reactive

180'

FIGURE1. Potential energy surface of the thermal reaction 43a # 43b in the coordinates $ , O from the data of MIND0/3 c a l ~ u l a t i o n sThe ~ ~ . arrows indicate the minimal energy reaction path and the crosses denote the transition states

1 I. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

537

conformationpreceding the formation of the late transition state structure(0 = 168") and the dipolar intermediate 43c for which a very shallow minimum on the PES was predicted. The energy barrier to the degenerate rearrangement (equation 16), 25 kcal mol- ', was .~'. calculated to lie in the upper limit of the range of the tautomeric energy ~ c a l e ~ ~This ~ 'degenerate(equation 17) prediction agreeswell with the results of extensive s t ~ d i e s ~ ' -of and nondegenerate (equation 18) acylotropic rearrangements of N-acyl-N,N'diarylbenzamidines with the aid of dynamic 'H NMR spectroscopy. In the 'H NMR spectra of compounds 44, the proton signals of different p-tolyl and p-methoxyphenyl groups are well separated at room temperaturepointing to a low (on the 'H NMR time scale)rate of the 44a e 44b exchangeprocess. With the gradualincreasein the temperature of the solution, the signals of the indicator methyl and methoxyl groups in the N-aryl fragments are broadened reversibly (usually above 100°C) and coalesce (140-160 "C, 100 MHz). Such a spectral pattern can originate only from the 44a P 44b transformations (equation 17), since no process of rotation and inversion in the 44 molecules can lead to isochronicity of the p-tolyl and p-methoxyphenyl indicator groups. At lower temperature in ' H NMR spectra of compounds 44, processes were detected associated with their stereochemical nonrigidity.

X = Me, OMe

R'= H, 4-An, Ph, 4-BrC6H4,4-N02C6H4, I-Naph R = Me, 4-An, Ph, 4-C1C6H4, 4-BrC6H4,4-N02C6H,

Table 2 lists rate constants and activation parameters of acylotropic rearrangementsof amidines, with the calculations based on the line shape analysis of the 'H NMR spectra. The absence of a concentration dependence of the dynamics of the 'H NMR spectra and of cross-exchangeproducts after allowing the compounds (Nos. 9,13 in Table 2) to stand in o-dichlorobenzene at 170°C for 0.5 h bears witness to the intramolecularcharacterof the process described by equation 17. The rate of acyl migrations is influenced quite essentially by the substituent at the 2carbon atom of the acyl amidines. As may be seen from Table 2 (compounds Nos. 1-4, 7-14), the acylotropic transformationsproceed fairly rapidly, on the 'H NMR time scale,

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1

Compound

in Reference 41

4-An

4-BrC6H, 4-BrC,H4 4-N02C6H, Me Me

4-N02C6H, 4-N0,C,H4 4-NO2C6H4 CNO,C,H, 4-N02C6H, CNO,C,H, 4-BrCsH4 4-CIC6H4 Ph

R

H

4-BrC,H4 Ph Ph

4-An

Ph Ph

Ph Ph

Ph 4-BrC,H4 4-N02CbH, 1 -Naph H

4-An

R1 Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me OMe OMe Me

X 17.4 2.18 0.87 0.44 0 0.015 0.55 0.87 1.17 0.14 0.44 0.13 0.69 0.12 0

6-7

k25.c x lo5 I)

23.2 f 0.3 26.0 f 0.3 26.1 f 0.4 25.6 f 0.5 26.1 f 1.0 26.6 f 0.2 26.3 f 0.2 26.0 f 0.4 21.2 f 0.3 26.1 f 0.2 27.0 f 0.3 25.3 f 0.2 27.3 f 0.4

AH: (kcalmol-

+ 5.9 f 0.7

+ 5.4 f 0.7 + 6.5 & 0.5

+ 6.7 f 0.5 + 6.7 f 0.5 + 2.9 i 1.0 + 6.0 f 0.1 + 4.8 f 0.6

0.0 f 1.5

+ 2.3 f 0.7 + 7.8 & 0.8 + 6.0 f 1.0 + 3.0-& 1.2

AS: (cal deg-l mol-')

22.5 23.7 24.3 24.7 > 27.0 26.7 24.6 24.3 24.1 25.4 24.7 25.4 23.4 25.5 > 27.0

AGI5.C

(kcalmol-I)

TABLE2. Kinetic and activation parameters of degenerate acylotropic rearrangements44a F? 44b (equation 17) in o-dichlorobenzeneaccording to the data

wl w

00

11. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

539

only on condition that there is in position 2 an aryl group conjugated with the n-system of the amidine fragment.This is explained by the structureof the tetrahedraltransition state (or intermediate)44c whose stabilization is promoted by the delocalization of the positive charge in the amidine triad onto the 2-aryl substituent. Accordingly, electron-donating substituents in the aryl group R' increase,while electron-withdrawing ones decrease the rate of acyl migrations (6. compounds 1 and 4 in Table 2). Table 3 presents correlation equations that describe quantitatively the effect of the substituentsR and R' on the rate of the acyl migrations 44a 44b. Unlike the substituentsin the 2-aryl group, the electronwithdrawing substituents in the migrating N-aryl group accelerate, while the electrondonating ones slow down the exchange (compounds 2 and 10 in Table 2). The best correlation is achieved by making use of the electrophilic 0' substituent constants of (Table 3). This result is identical to that found earlier in studying the acylotropic tautomerism of cis-(Z)-acylenols of a ~ e t y l a c e t o n e ~ 'and , ~ ~ it, indicates that the concentration of the positive charge at the carbon of the migrating group leads to an increase in the rate of acyl migrations. Nondegenerate acyl migrations have been studied in the series of N-pnitrobenzoylamidines 45 with a variable p-substituent X in the N-aryl ring42. Data on the kinetics of the rearrangement 45a~45b and the character of the equilibrium (equation 18) are given in Table 4. The equilibrium content of the tautomer 45a decreasessharply when an electron-withdrawingsubstituent X is present in the N-aryl ring and, accordingly, the 1,3-acyl transfer rate (k,) increases. The constants of the tautomeric equilibrium (K = Pa/Pb)are virtually insensitive to the temperature of the solution thus indicating that the value of ASo is close to zero. The E-configurationof N-acyl-N,N'-diarylamidines 44a, b and 45a, b necessaryfor the intramolecularmigration to occur does not always correspond to an energetically most favored structure. The spatial structure of compounds of the type-46 series in CCI, solution (equation 19) has been studied by dipole moment and Kerr effect methods4,. It has been found that the acyl group in the diastereomer 46a is rotated by an angle 'p3 ?: 4050°, i.e. this conformation is sterically suited to its N,N' transferwithin the molecule. The equilibrium content of 46a for the amidines 1,3 and 4 amounts to 33, 28 and 71%, respectively, while for compound 2, in which 1J-acyl migrations encounter the highest energy barrier4I,the conformer 46b is predominant. Using the dynamic 'H NMR method, the kinetics has been studied of stereodynamic processesthat determine the equilibrium(equation 20) in solution and are associated with amide (angle cp3) and amidine ( q 5 )rotations and the Z e t E isomerization (planar inversion of the imine nitr~gen)~'*'~. The order of magnitude of the energy barriers can be seen from the data of Table 5 obtained for N-(p-nitrobenzoy1)-N-(p-toly1)-N-(pmethoxypheny1)benzamidine (47). Since the 2 P E isomerization and the amidine and TABLE 3. Correlation equations describing the effect of R and R' on the rate of the acyl migrations 44a P 44b40*41

Reaction series Variable substituent

R'

R

Permanent fragments

R = 4-N0,C6H4 X=Me

R'

= Ph

X=Me

Nos. Table 2 1-4

27-10

Correlation equation b3(wo)lm.c = - l.lS00 ~g(klk0)Im.c = 0.641 u+

r 6) 0.993 (0.103) 0.996

(0.060)

Vladimir I. Minkin and Tgor E. Mikhailov

540

Ph

(450)

xaNJa I

R

X

Ph

H

H Me

Ph Me

Ph Br

amide rotations in acyl amidines proceed with activation barrierssubstantially lower than those for the 1,3-shift of the acyl group, they do not impede the latter process. A study has been undertakento assess the effwt that the presence of a free-radicalcenter in The oxidation of N-acylamidines exerts on the rate of N,N‘-acyl rearrangement^^^.^^. N,N’-diaryl-(3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl) amidines 48 leads to the corresponding phenoxyl radicals 49 which, according to ESR spectral data, exist predominantly as Ediastereomers (equation 2 l)45.

Compound 23.9 23.7 23.5 23.3 22.5

+ 0.9 f 0.6 + 7.8 f 0.8 + 7.5 f 0.3 + 7.8 f 0.6 + 6.2 f 0.7

26.6 f 0.3 26.0 f 0.3 25.7 f 0.1 25.6 f 0.3 24.4 & 0.3

1.75 x 10-5 2.18 x 1 0 - 5 3.27 x 10-5 4.95 x 10-5 18.6 x 1 0 - 5

OMe Me H Br NO2

AGiYC-

(kcalmol ')

(caldeg-' mol-')

AH' (kcal mol - ')

(k25-cs-')

X

AS'

0.55 0.50 0.45 0.33 0.08

pa

0.45 0.50 0.55 0.67 0.92

Pb

+ +

-0.12 0 +0.12 0.42 1.45

w 5 ,

(kcal mol-

I)

TABLE 4. Kinetic, activation and thermodynamic parameters of nondegenerate acylotropic rearrangements 4Sa 3 4Sb (equation 18) in o-dichlorobenzene, according to the data of Reference 42

542

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

TABLE 5. Kinetic and activation parameters of acylotropy and stereodynamics for amidine 47,

accordingto Reference 42 Dynamic process

Tautomer

N,N’-migration N,N’-migration

a+b b-ra

E+Z E+Z

cp,-rotation rp,-rotation qyotation

a

b

a and b a

b

4

5 “C

(kcal mol-’) 5.2 4.2

1.68 x

1.34 >3.5

103

103 105

3.68 104 1.98 x lo4

24.5 24.6 18.9 19.0 < 12.5 14.5 14.9

Although the spin density in the radicals 49 is partly delocalized over the amidine fragment, the migration aptitude of the acetyl group in 49 does not grow stronger in comparison with 44 or 48. In contrast to these two species, the protonation of 49 occurs at the acyl group oxygen thus leading to the formation of radical cations 5046.The latter exhibit in the ESR spectra equivalent nitrogen atoms with a hyperfinesplitting caused by the protonation of the carbonyl oxygen. Such a structuremay serve as a proper model of the intermediate 44c of the acid-catalyzed acylotropic rearrangement(equation 17). C. 1,3-Migrations of Acyl Groups in Acyl lmidates

The acyl N,N’-rearrangementsin amidines considered in the preceding section are a particularcase of a more general type of rearrangement,namely that of 1,3-migrationsof

1 1. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

543

0’

OH

I

mop, H+

\

N:

I

I

Me

(48)

9

,.>-.A,

,

(2-49)

It

r

Ar = 4-To1, 4-N0,C6H4 X = CF,COO, C1, C104

acyl groups in a triad system (equation 22). Such triad systems with a fixed imine center Z include triazines (X = Y = N), hydrazones (X = C, Y = N), thioimidates (X = S, Y = C) as well as imidates (X = 0, Y = C). Data on the rearrangementdescribed by equation 22 obtained prior to 1972,includingthose for compounds in which the triads 51,52 form part of a cyclic system, were systemati~ed”~~’ and r e v i e ~ e d ~ vRecently, ~~. considerable attention has been given to 0 -+ N acyl migrations in imidates whose investigation has further elucidated the role of the stereoelectronic factors that determine the kinetic stability and steric course of the acyl migrations in conjugated triad systems.

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

544

Unlike the thermally stable cyclic acyl imidates, their acyclic analogs are prone to fast 0 + N acyl transfer reactions whose driving force is the energy preference of the amide versus the isoimide conjugate system. This is the reason why the acyclic acyl imidates were preparatively isolated only not so long ago. Hegarty and M c C o r m a ~ khave ~ ~ *succeeded ~~ in obtaining acyl imidates 55, stable below 60 "C,and studying their thermal rearrangement(in chlorobenzeneand acetonitrile at 40-80 "C)into the corresponding N-acyl hydrazides 56 in accordancewith equation 23. As a result of a stereospecific nucleophilic attack of carboxylic acid anions on the azocarbonium ions 54, regenerated from the hydrazonyl halides 53, there are formed, according to IR and 'H NMR spectroscopic data, exclusively the (Z)-0-acyl isoimides Z 55, in which the 0-acyl groupand the electron lone pair of the imine nitrogen are located in a transposition. The stability of the compounds Z-55 is explained by a high energy barrier of isomerization relative to the C=N bond. The heating of 0-acyl isoimides 2-55 above 60 "C or the use of acid catalysts under conditions that rule out hydrolysis results in their isomerization to ,545. A rapid intramolecular 1,3-O,N-acyl migration transforms the latter into correspondingN-acyl hydrazides 56. This rearrangementis made possible by the sterically favorable position of the OC(0)R3 group relative to the electron lone pair of the imine nitrogen. Depending on the substituentsR', R 2 and R3, the rate constants of the 55+56 process are varied from 0.13 x to 10.5 x 10-4s-' with the Z + E isomerization (Z-55 -P E-55) being the limiting step of this process. The electron-withdrawing groups in the substituent R 2 lower the rate of the Z - P E isomerization in 55, thereby slowing down the 1,3-O,N-acylmigration in this system.

R3C02M

x\ R' /c=N\R2

4

R'--C=N-R*

-.I

+

(53)

tost

Q\\

/C0R3

R' /C-N\R*

0

3-0 \C=$

R3

R'

/

\R2

(E-55) X = CI, Br; M = Na, Ag; R' = Me, t-Bu, Ph; R 2 = N(Me)Ar; Ar = 2,4-(NO2)&H,, 4-NO2C6H4;R 3 = Me, 4-An, Ph, 4-CIC6H4,3-N02CsH4, 4-N02C6H, (56)

Another approach to obtaining stable derivatives of acyclic 0-acyl isoimides 5851.52is based on the stereospecific acylation of silver salts of 0-alkylbenzohydroxamic acids 57 (equation 24).

1 1. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

545

OR +R'COCI

(2-58) Ar

(E-58)

R = Me, n-Pr, CH,Ph R' = Me, Ph, 4-Tol, 4-CIC,H4, 3-CIC6H,, 3-N02C,H4, 4-N0,C6H4 Ar = Ph, 4-N02C6H4,3-N02C6H,, 3-CIC6H, The products of the 0-acylation 58 have all, without exception, 2-configuration, which can be accounted for by the chelate structure of the initial silver salt 57. 2-acetic benzoalkoximic anhydrides (2-58)have proved configurationallystable to such a degree as not to be isomerized even under reflux in toluene or chlorobenzeneduring 6-8 h. The E-isomersE-58 were obtained in the end, in a preparativeform, through UV irradiationof 2-58 in benzene or hexane for six hourss2. The heating of(E)-0-acyl isoimides E-58 to 50-80 "Cin solvents ofdifferent polarity led to N-acyl-N-benzoyl-0-alkylhydroxylamines (59) as a result of the isoimide-imide rearrangement E-58-59 whose kinetics has been studied by IR, UV and 'H NMR spectral methods. It has been showns2that the first-order rate constants for the E-58 -+ 59 reaction depend on the origin of the substituentsR, Ar, R' and vary in the 0.24 x 1 O - j to 2.63 x 1 O - j s-' range (MeCN, 77°C). The free energy of activation (Eat,) of the 1,3-O,Nacyl shift associated with a rearrangement of the compounds E-58a-c [R = CH2Ph; Ar = Ph; R ' = Me (a), Ph (b), p-To1 (c)] amounts to 26.1, 26.3 and 25.8 kcalmol-', ASf = 1.1, 2.0 and 2.65 cal deg-I mol-', respectively. All these values agree with an intramolecularreaction without any appreciable reorganizationof the solvent shell in the transition state. I t has been found5', upon addition of catalytic amounts of acetic acid or CaH,, as well as radicalpromoters and inhibitors, the rate of the E-58 -+ 59 rearrangement does not change, which indicates very low probability of a free-radical mechanism. A dissociative ionic mechanism via the acylium cation and 0-methylbenzohydroxamate followed by the N-acylation is ruled out since, after heating the mixture of the compounds E-58b and E-58d (R = Pr, Ar = Ph; R ' = Me (a)), solely the N-acyl amides are formed without any trace of cross-products. Electron-donating substituents in Ar and R speed up the rate of the isoimide-imide rearrangement,while in R' they slow it down; note, however, that this effect is in either case insignificant( l p l < 1). Equally, the polarity of the solvent affects but slightly the rate of this process, which points to a low polarity of the transition state structure. In the above-considered examples, the rate-determiningstep of the rearrangementof 0acyl imidates into N-acyl imides was the Z + E isomerization about the C=N double bond. This is understandablein light of the known data which show that the presence of

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

546

electronegativesubstituentsat the imine nitrogen (OR, NR'R' in compounds 5558) leads to a considerable rise of the energy barrier of such an i s o m e r i z a t i ~ n ~In ~ -contrast ~ ~ . to this, the barriers to the 2-t E isornerization in N-aryl-substituted irnines lie within the characteristic time scale of the NMR spectroscopy, being lower than 25 kcal rnol-I 1 9 s 3 * s s 0 s 6 .For this reason, the Z + E isomerization in compounds 62 proceeds either very fast, or its rate is comparable with the 0 + N migration of the acyl group5'. Upon dissolution of imidoyl chlorides 60 in aqueousdioxane (pH 3-13) in the presence of acetate or benzoate ions, the transient nitriliumcations 61 emerge yielding isoimides 62 in situ. At pH 6-1 1, the intramolecularrearrangement62 + 63 (equation 25) proceeds at a rate which does not depend on pH of the solution in this interval nor on the composition of

I

RCO~-NO+

\ ,C-R

'0

&=4 *r

e-k-1

X

Y

(€-62)

\

x (2-62)

R = Me, C6H,R ( R = m-NO,, m-CI, p-CI, H,m-Me, p-MeO); X, Y = p-NO,, m-NO,, mC1, p-C1, H, p-Me.

11. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

547

the binary solvent. The isoimide-imide rearrangementis as a rule, accelerated with the enhancement of the electron-acceptor properties of the substituent R in the order: Me, CICHZCH,, Et, MeOCH,, H3NfCH2 and CICH, (Ig k/k, = 1.270*). In the case of compounds 62 [X = Y = H, R = C6H,R' ( R ' = rn-NO,, rn-CI, p-CI, H, ni-Me, p-Me, p-OMe)] the Hammett plot consists of two linear dependencies (with p = 0.65 for the acceptor and p = 1.65 for the donor R ' ) crossing each other in the point R' = H. An analogous dependence has been found also for compounds 62 (X = H, Y = p-NO,, R = C6H,R'). The 1,3-O,N-migration of the acetyl group (R = Me) in compounds 62 is accelerated with the enhancementof the electron-releasingpower of the substituentsX(Y) in the order: p-NO,, rn-NO,, m-CI, p-CI, H, p-Me ( p = - 0.84). According to the conclusions in Reference 57, the limiting stage of the rearrangement(equation 25) is the migration of the electrophilic RC(0) group in (E)-0-acyl isoimides E-62. This migration takes place after the fast Z a E isomerization of (Z)-0-acyl isoimides 2-62 formed in the reaction. As for the donor substituents in the migrating ArC(0) group, the Z p E preequilibrium is shifted towards the Z-isomer 2-62 thereby disturbing the linear Hammett plot. A theoretical study of the mechanism of the formyl and acyl group 1,fshifts from oxygen to nitrogen in compounds 64, which may serve as models for 5 5 , s and 62, has been carried out employing quantumchemicalcalculationsby the semiempiricalMNDO meth~d~~*~~. According to calculationss8,amide 6% is energeticallymore favored by 16.1 kcal mol- ' than 0-acyl imidate 64a, whereas structures 64b and 65b are in this respect roughly equivalent. The reaction path (equation 26) is fully analogous to that calculated for the N,N'-migration of the acetyl group in amidine 43 (Figure 1.) Planarfour-memberedcyclic transition state structurescontaining tetracoordinate carbon centers have been located, and are shown in Figure 2.

oYN'R1

o Y N ' R 1

R = H, R' = H(a), OH(b)58 R = n-Bu, R' = H ( c ) ~ ~ Taking into account the model character of structures 64, 65 and the fact that the

MNDOmethod in its standard parametrization6' usually overestimates enthalpies of

activation6', the data obtained should be recognized as reproducing fairly well the experimental values for compounds 5 5 5 8 and 62. O(S)-acyliso(thio)ureas66 containing an imidate moiety are also extremely unstable compounds rapidly rearranging into corresponding N-acylureas 67 (equation 27). However, they repeatedly occur as intermediates in a variety of important reactions. For example, the mechanism of the action of biotin in carboxylase reactions6, includes an intramolecular 1,3 O + N acyl rearrangementof activated carbon dioxide linked via an oxygen atom to the imidazolidone fragment of biotin 68. The carbodiimide r e a ~ t i o n ~ ~ . ~ ~ (equation 28), important in peptide synthesis, proceeds fairly frequently via formation of the intermediate 0-acylisourea 69. The formation of the transient species 69 is confirmed

548

Vladimir I. Minkin and Tgor E. Mikhailov AH+= - 2 3 . 5 kcolmol-' AN' = 3 5 . 6 kcoJmol-' Vim= 500 cm"

&

R = R ~ = H( 0 1

AH+= - 38.9 kcol mol-' AN+ = 45.4 kcalmol-' Uim=591 cm"

1.63

.b

R=H,R'=OH

-

(b)

FIGURE2. Structure of the transition states for the 0 N acyl transfer reaction (64-65). Heats of formation, enthalpies of activation and imaginary vibration frequencies are given according to MNDOcalculationsSs

by the presence in products of the carbodiimide reaction (particularly in the absence or with insufficient amount of a nucleophile) of N-acylurea 70 resulting from 0-acylisourea in consequence of a fast 1,3 O+N shift o the acyl group.

I COR'

O N N O -

I

nzyme

1 I. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds OCOR2

R’ NHC

II

549

1

I

+

-NR’

R’ NHC N H R’

I

II

0 COR‘ (70)

0

Stable acyclic derivatives of 0-acylisoureas (73) that model the structure of the intermediate 69 in the carbodiimide reaction have been described by Hegarty and coworker^^^.The reaction of the benzoate anion with the nitrilium cation 72, obtained by treatingimidoyl chloride 71 with silver benzoate in chloroform,proceeds stereospecifically to form as the only product (2)-0-acylisourea 2-73, which at ambient temperature does not isomerize to N-acylurea 74 (equation 29). The Z-configuration of compound 2-73 (transposition of the 0-benzoyl group and the lone electron pair of the imine nitrogen)has been proven by X-ray diffraction study. The compound 2-73 in aqueous dioxane solution undergoes at 25 “Cin the presence of acids two competitive transformations associated with the acyl group transfer. One of these is an intermolecularreaction affordingureil75 and benzoic acid, the other is an intramolecular rearrangement, predominant for pH > 3, resulting in N-acylurea 74.

-

CI

\

Me2N/C=N\R

-

Me2N,

[Me2NC=hR]

/“=r,

0

‘COPh

(72)

(71)

0 C‘ Me2N /

-N/R ‘COPh

fl

(29) b*,H.$

Me2NCONHR

+

(75)

+

0 COPh

(t4)

(2-73)

PhC02H

(IF-73) R = NMeC6H,(NO2),-

2,4

The intramolecular rearrangement of 0-acylurea 2-73 to N-acylurea 74 definitely includes the formation of the intermediate E-diastereomer E-73 in which the favorable position of the lone electron pair of imine nitrogen and carbonyl carbon facilitates the intramolecular transfer of the acyl group from oxygen to nitrogen. The origin of the substituent R at the imine nitrogen determines the magnitude of the barrier to the Z-, E isomerization and ultimately the stability of the 2-73 structure. The acid catalysis (imine

550

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

nitrogen protonation) diminishes the double-bondingcharacterof the C=N bond in Z73, which facilitates its isomerization to the intermediate E-73 and, in the end, to N acylurea74. The protonation of 2-73 also facilitates the competitive intermolecularacylgroup transfer (hydrolysis) under these conditions since it involves the formation of neutral urea 75 as a leaving group. The interest in chemicalproperties of acylureasis all the stronger because some of their derivatives are efficient herbicides. A typical representative is given by 1-benzoyl-144chlorophenyl)-3,3-dimethylurea (Benzomark)used to protect corn66.Understandably,the reactionsof S(0)-acyl iso(thio)ureasin various media and the S(0) +Nacyl isomerizations occurring in the course of these have been studied in considerable detail6'-''. It has been shown6' that the S-benzoylisothiouronium salts 76 (protonated Sbenzoylisothioureas)rearrangein water solution in the pH 3-5 range to the corresponding N-acylthioureas 78 in consequence of an intramolecular 1,3 S + N migration of the benzoyl group (equation 30). In the case of compounds 76a (R' = RZ= R3 = Me, X = Br) and 76b (R' = R2 = Me, R3 = Et, X = Br), the rate of the t,3 S + N migrations increases with the lowering of the pH of solutions. This is explained by the fact that the ratedetermining step is in this case the Z + E isomerization 2-77 + E-77 occurring via the protonated form 76 in which the rotation about the C=N bond proceeds readily enough.

(18)

R,' RZ, R3 = H, Me, Et, t-Bu; X = CI, Br The structure of the intermediate that emerges during the rearrangement of 0acylisoureas to N-acylureas has been elucidated by studying the stereoselectivity of the ~ ~ . 0-acylisoureas 80a-e were regenerated rearrangement of chiral a c y l i s o ~ r e a sChiral in situ by means of a reaction of chiral N,N'-di-[(S)-L-phenylethyl] carbodiimide (SPEC) with a-substituted carboxylic acids 7%- (equation 31). For two diastereoisomeric forms of the acylureas 80 (S and R) there are two transition states 83 and 84, respectively (X is the polar group, L > S). In structure 83, the nitrogen atom approachesthe carbonyl carbon from the least stericallycrowded side, whereasin 84 the same attack encounters steric hindrance. For that reason, the rearrangementof the stereoisomer83 to N-acylurea81 proceeds faster than that of 84 to 82. When acids 79c-e

11. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

11

0

551

II

.N

Me H (80)

(el)

182)

(a) R = Me, X = C1; (b) R = Ph, X = OH; (c) R = Me, X = OPh; (d) R = Me, X = Br; (e) R = LPr, X = Br having bulky substituentsparticipate in this reaction,it is characterized by a particularly high stereoselectivity (the yield of compounds 81c-e attains 95%).

(85)

(84)

A thermal rearrangementof N-acyloxyformamidines85 has been i n ~ e s t i g a t e leading d~~ to a mixture of N-acylureas91 and 92 (equation 32). An IR spectral study hasshown that in the first step of the rearrangementcarbodiimide 86 and carboxylic acid 87 areformed (path A). Their subsequent interaction leads to 0-acylisoureas 88 and 89 that rearrangeto the respective N-acylureas 91 and 92. However, the occurrence of the rearrangementvia a cyclic transition state 90 (path B) is not ruled out. D. 1,EMlgratlons of Aryi Groups in Amldlnes and lmldates

Thermal uncatalyzed rearrangementsof 0-aryl imidates 93 to N-aroyldiarylamides 95 (equation33) proceeding at 150-300 “Cvia 1,3 0 N aryl shift were discovered by Mumm and coworkers in 191574. However, this reaction became known as the Chapman

Vladimir I. Minkin and lgor E. Mikhailov

552 Ar

&

Ar-N=C=N-A?(86)

+

I

OCOR

RCOOH

(85) OCOR

OCOR

I

(88)

(89)

I

Ar NCONHAr‘

(90)

Ar NHCONAr‘

I

I

COR

COR

rearrangement as it happened to be Chapman who, over the period from 1925 to 1932, had been conducting intensive studies of its mechanism and expanding the area of its appli~ationl-~.

(94)

1

2BR1

R2

EtOH, KOH

R@N@

I H

R‘

(33)

I

11. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

553

.

The Chapman rearrangementprovides a convenient way for transformationof phenols to anilines as well as for obtaining some not readily accessible diarylamines and nitrogen heterocycles. As an illustration,one may point to the general approach to the synthesis of 9-arylaminoacridines100 (equation 34)75with the key step represented by the Chapman rearrangement 97 -+ 99. The series of transformations features a method suggested by Cymerman-Craigand L ~ d e r ' ~ The . mechanism of the Chapman rearrangementhas been studied in considerable detail. The reaction 33 is irreversible, intramolecularin nature, of first kinetic order, and occurs via the four-membered transitionstate structure94 and may be regarded as an intramoleculararomaticnucleophilic substitution. The rate at which the rearrangement93+95 takes place depends on the natureand position of substituents R, R1 and R2 in the aryl rings. In the aryloxy fragment R, the electron-withdrawing substituents accelerate the rearrangement,while in N-aryl R' and C-aryl RZ rings they slow it down, with the substituentsR having by far the greater effect. The presence oforthosubstituents in the aryloxy group provides for higher rates of the rearrangement, as opposed to imidates where the same substituents are located in the p-position. R'

a39

Chapman

rearr.

I

(97)

R2

(99)

(34)

rnR2LR,$& HN

I

R'

I

R'

aRS

CI

0

I

R& l R2

A recent X-ray diffraction study" of 2-methoxycarbonyl-l-naphtyl-N-( Inaphthy1)benzimidate (97, R' = R 2 = 2,3-C4H,) has revealed that the conformation of the molecule in the ground state matches the requirements of the S,Ar substitution reaction route associated with the formation of a four-membered cyclic transition state (intermediate) structure of type 98. As may be seen from Figure3, the N, ,......C(')distance is rather short, 2.648 A, i.e. much less than the sum of the van der Waals radii (about 3.1 A). The plane of the 0-naphthalenering is rotated by 73.5" relative to the plane formed by the C(,,, O,,,,, C(16)and N(,, atoms thus facilitating the attractive two-electron n,n*-orbital interaction when the nitrogen atom attacks the C(l,atom.

554

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

R = COOMe FIGURE 3. Stereoprojection, bond lengthsand anglesin molecule 97 (R' = R 2 = 2,3-C4H,) according to data of X-ray diffraction study"

Chapman discovered also the reversible thermal rearrangements of N-aryl-N,N'diphenylbenzamidines (101) occurring at 330-340 "C (equation 35); see the review in Reference 2. Ph

Ph

Ph

(1010)

(1Olb)

In the 1970s, a considerable lowering of the energy barrier to N,N'-migrations of aryl groups adjusting these to the tautomeric rearrangementscale was achieved36*37*42*78-80. This was made possible by activating the phenyl group through the introduction of electron-withdrawing substituents into the aryl moiety. Using dynamic 'H NMR, degenerate and nondegenerate 1J-migrations of 2,4,6-trinitrophenyl (picryl) and 2,4,6tris(trifluoromethylsulfony1)phenyl groups lO2a # lO2b have been studied; these may be viewed as processes of intramolecularnucleophilic substitution reactions (equation 36). Compounds 102 are conformationally nonrigid;however, in their 'H NMR spectra no additional dynamic processes are observed either when their solutions are cooled to - 50°C or when protonic acids are added79.This is indicative of rather low activation barriers(AG*< 13kcal mol- I ) to the amidine rotation and Z # E isomerization, which is in accord with the on barriers to rotation and on Z # E rearrangementsin the Owing to low conformseries of derivatives of N-aryl-N,N'-dialkylben~amidines~'-~~. ational barriers, the amidine molecules 102 can easily attain the reactive conformation

11. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

555

x$Jy

L

x

(102c)

(102 a) R'

#

x7@y X

(102 b)

R', R2 = OMe, Me, H, Br, NO,

R = H, 4-An, Ph, 4-CIC,H4, 4-BrC6H,, 4-N0&H4,

X = Y =NO2; X = NOz, Y = H X = Y = S02CF3

1-C,,H,

102d which provides necessary spatial condition for the intramolecular nucleophilic attack on the ipso-carbon center of the aryl ring activated with electron-withdrawing groups. The decisive role of the favorable orientation of interacting centers achieved in 102d in the realization of rapid intramolecular migrations of nitroaryl groups is highlightedby the absenceof the picryl exchangein l-picryl-3,5-dimethylpyrazole (103) up to the temperatures (170-200°C) at which 103 starts decomposing. Thus, there is inhibition of intramolecular N N' migrations even though the reactive centers lie closer to one anotherthan in amidines.This can be explained only by the orientation of the electron lone-pair axis of the sp2-hybridized pyrazole nitrogen which is unfavorable for the formation of a transition state (or intermediate) of type 102c. Ar

Ar\N

ox&y

I

\

NO2

X

(S-cis-E-lO2d)

(103)

556

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

The structure of the rapidly rearranging nitroarylamidine molecules 102 was ascertained in the crystalline state by X-ray d i f f r a c t i ~ n ~Taking ~ * ~ ~the . case of N-(2,4,6trinitropheny1)-N,N'-di-(p-methoxyphenyl) benzamidine (102, R = Ph, R' = RZ= OMe, X = Y = NO2), it could be shown that it is the 102d conformation, i.e. the one most favorable for the N,N'-aryl migrations 102a P 102b, that is stable among those of the arylamidines 102. As may be seen from Figure4, the distance N~,,.-----.C~,, equals 2.66& which is by 0.5 A less than the sum of the van der Waals radii, thus pointing to strong attractive interaction between those centers in the ground state molecularconformationof 102.

Tables 6 and 7 list kinetic and activation parameters of the degenerate and nondegenerate rearrangementsof the activated aryl groups in amidines 102a P 102b obtained by dynamic 'H NMR. Analysis of the data of Table 6 leads to the following conclusions.(1) The rate of the reversible 1,3-transferof the picryl group increases 105-107 times and the free activation energy (AG:50c) is lowered by 7-10 kcal mol- ' when passing from formamidine(R = H, row 8 in Table 6) to benz- and naphthamidines(R = Ar, compounds 1-6,9-14, Table 6). The aromatic substituent R in compounds 102 stabilizes the dipolar structure of the transition state (or intermediate) 102c by delocalizing the positive charge in the amidine triad, thereby lowering activation energy of the exchange reaction (equation 36). (2) The greatest migration aptitude is possessed by the 2,4,6-tris (trifluoromethylsulfonyl)phenyl group (No. 9, Table 6). The free activation energy of its migration is lower by 2.1 kcal mol- I than AG& of the 2,4,6-trinitrophenylgroup in the analogous amidine derivative (compound 2, Table 6), which agrees with the exceptionally high

FIGURE4. Stereoprojection, bond lengths and angles in molecule 102 (R = Ph, R' = R2 = OMe, X = Y = NO2) according to data of X-ray diffraction s t ~ d y ~ ~ * * ~

p-An Ph 4-BrC6H, CNO,C,H, 1-Naph Ph Ph H Ph 6An Ph 6CIC6H, 4-N0,C6H, 1-Naph Ph

R

Me Me Me Me Me OMe Me OMe Me Me Me Me Me Me Me

R'

Me Me Me Me Me OMe Me OMe Me H H H H H H

R2

NO, NO, NO, NO, NO2 NO, NO, NO, SOZCF, NO2 NO2 NO, NO2 NO, NO,

X

NO, NO, H

NO, NO,

NO, NO, NO2 NO2 NO2 NO2 H NO, SOZCF, NO2

Y

10-7

21.9 1.23 0.69 0.27 0.014 0.87 0.4.10-6

I .95 0.69 0.3 1 0.078 0.69 1.25 1.9.10-6

k=.,(s-') 15.7 f 0.1 16.3 f 0.1 16.2 f 0.2 17.3 f 0.3 16.2 f 0.1 15.5 f 0.2 25.2 f 0.6 4.2 f 0.5 16.7 f 0.1 15.6 f 0.2 16.8 f 0.2 20.0 f 0.3 15.7 f 0.1 25.0 f 0.4

AH' (kcalmol-')

- 4.4 0.2 - 6.4 f 0.4 - 5.5 0.9 - 4.6 f 0.4 - 6.0 f 0.5 0.2 & 1.2 - 38.3 0.7 -2.1 f0.4 - 6.8 f 0.6 - 4.7 f 0.4 - 0.4 f 0.7 - 6.2 f 0.4 +0.3+1.7

- 4.3 103

* *

AS (caldeg-' mol-')

18.1

18.9 17.6 17.3 25.2 27.0 15.6 17.4 17.6 18.2 19.9 17.5 25.9

17.0 17.6

AG3.c(kcalmol I)

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.60 0.60 0.62 0.63 0.68 0.53

0.5 0.5

0.5 0.5 0.5

Pa

~

0.40

0.38 0.37 0.32 0.47

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.40

Pb

OMe Me H Br NO2

1 2 3 4

5

R

No.

Compound

19.8 & 0.3 16.3 f 0.1 15.6 k 0.2 16.9 & 0.3 18.0k0.8

0.44

0.69 0.69 0.25 1.1 x lob3

AH: (kcalmol-')

kwc

(s-') - 4.4 f - 6.8 - 4.0 f - 7.0 f 0.7 0.8

0.2 0.5

+ 6.2 f 0.6

A6 (caldeg-'mol-') 17.9 17.6 17.6 18.1 20.1

AGiYC-

(kcalmol

I)

200 123 112 94.4 5.26

Kit, (s-')

300 123 75 26.6 0.94

:.

ei

(s-')

+

0 0.24 -I0.75 + 1.02

- 0.24

AGZ., (kcalmol-')

0.15

0.60 0.50 0.40 0.22

Pa

0.40 0.50 0.60 0.78 0.85

P,,

TABLE 7. Kinetic and activation parameters of nondegenerate migrations of the picryl group lO2ae lO2b (102, R = Ph, R' = Me, X = Y =NO,) in chlorobenzene, according to Reference42

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

No.

Compound

TABLE 6. Kinetic and activation parameters of the arylotropic rearrangementslO2a p 102b in chlorobenzene, according to reference79

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

558

TABLE8. Correlationequationsdescribingthe effect of p-substituentsin benzamidines102 (R = pR3C,H4) on the rate of 10211a 102b rearrangements,accordingto data in Reference 79 Reaction series Varied group R3 R3

Constant groups R' = R2 = Me

X = Y = NO, R' =Me, R2 = H X = Y = NO,

Nos. in Table 6 1-4

10-13

Correlation equation Ig (k/ko)gooc = - 1.300O

Ig (k/k&o.,c = - 1.313~'

r (4

0.991

(0.135)

0.997

(0.082)

electrophilicity of the former group. Indeed, it is k n ~ w n ~that " . the ~ ~anionica-complexes of 1,3,5-tris(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)benzene are more stable to decomposition than the corresponding a-complexes of 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene.Upon going from the migrating picryl group to the 2,4-dinitrophenyl group, the rate of the 102a P 102b rearrangement drops by about six orders of magnitude (compounds 2 and 7, 11 and 15, Table 6). No rearrangements of the p-nitrophenyl group into N-p-nitrophenyl-N,N'diarylbenzamidinescould be detected by dynamic 'H NMR, even at temperatures close to +200°C. (3) In contrast to the strong acceleration of the 1,3-shifts of the 2,4,6trinitrophenyl group brought about by an aryl substituentattached to the carbon atom of the amidine triad, the effect on the rate of reaction (equation 36) of the substituents in the C-aryl ring is relatively slight (AGiSec varies within 2-2.5 kcal mol- '). The correlation equations describing the dependence of the rate constants of the degenerate and nondegenerateexchanges102a P lO2b on the a-constants of the substituentsare given in Table 8. The electron-withdrawingsubstituents in the C-aryl ring slow down the process (equation 36), while the electron-donating ones speed it up. (4) Negative values of the activation entropy (AS*) that characterize the migration of the 2,4,6-tris(trifluoromethylsulfony1)phenyl and picryl groups, and the near-zero values for the 2,4dinitrophenyl groups (Tables 6,7) suggest tight transition-statestructuresof lO2a e 102b. In the nondegeneraterearrangements,electron-withdrawingsubstituentsR2 reducethe equilibrium content of tautomers 102a, in which the migrating group is linked to the nitrogen atom nearest to the substituent being varied (compounds 1-5, Table 7). No variation in the constants of tautomeric equilibrium (K = PJP,,) is observed when changing the temperature of the solution, which indicates a close-to-zero entropy term (AS" M 0). An enhancement of the nucleophilicity of nitrogens in the amidine moiety of 102, between which there occursthe migration of the activated aryl group through replacement of N-aryl rings by alkyl groups, leads in N,N'-dialkylamidines 104 to a competition with the 1Z-migration by an irreversibleringclosure reaction to form benzimidazolium nitrites 105 in 33-97% yield^^^^^^. The cyclization 104+ 105 (equation 37) proceeds smoothly on heating to 100-I5O0C bromobenzene or DMSOsolutions of amidines 104 during the one hour. The successful cyclization of the benzamidines depends on the two N,N'-alkylgroups.In the case of N-ethylN'-methylbenzamidine (104a, R' = CH,), the reversible 1,3-shift of the N-(2,4dinitrophenyl) group is faster than the cyclization 104-+105, whereas with the N-(2nitrophenyl) group the rates of the 1,3-displacement and of the ring closure are of comparable magnitudeg0.The intramolecular Chapman-like 1,3 0 +N rearrangement (equation38) has been studied with the tropolone derivative 106" by 'H NMR spectroscopy. Thus at a temperatureabove 120°C, as a result of the nucleophilicattack by the imine

559

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

4

X

(1040)

(104b)

(105bl

X =.H,NOz; R = H, OCH,, NO2; R'

= H,

CH,

Ph

/Ph

O q P h N-Ph

B

Br

(1060)

Br

(106~)

r

v

B

r

Br (107)

(38)

N atom upon the tropolone ring, 0-imidoyl tropolone 106 rearranges irreversibly via a four-membered cyclic transition state (or intermediate) to 2-(N-phenyl-N-benzoyI) amino3,5,7-tribromotropone 107 (equation 38)9'. E. 3,3-Slgmatroplc Rearrangements In KAllyl Amidines and OAllyl lmldates

The title transformations represent a particular case of the polyhetero-Cope rearrangements which conform to the general equation 39.

560

Vladimir T. Minkin and Tgor E. Mikhailov

R2@Z

A

r*R'

5 L (39)

R'

R4

R3

R3

(108)

(109)

X,Y = 0, NR, S The rearrangementof ally1 imidates(X = 0,Y = NR), discovcred by Mumm and Moller in 193792(see earlier reviews'*2),was one of the first among the general transformations (equation 39) to become known. The rearrangementsof allyl imidates, which, accordingto the classificationin Reference 93, belong to the 1-0,3-N-hetero-Cope class, proceed, as opposed to the migrations of alkyl groups in imidates (equation 3), in an intramolecular manner,at lower temperatures(heating at 200-215 "Cfor 3-4 h) often in high yield^^^.'^. The reactions are of concerted character,and their transition states are highly ordered possessingeither a chair-likeor, if it is sterically inaccessible,a boat-like structure,110 and 111, re~pectively~~. The high regio- and stereoselectivity as well as the possibility of chirality

/R

(110)

(111)

transfer (if present in the initial compound) have been conducive to the extensive use of these rearrangementsin organics y n t h e s i ~ ~ ~ .The ~ ' -ease ~ ~ .with which the rearrangement (equation 39) occurs depends on the structureof the allyl imidates. It has been found that allyl trichloroacetimides 108 (X = 0, Y = NH, R = CCI,) undergo particularly readily the thermal 3,3-rearrangement9*.The required temperature is for them 80-140 "C, and the time of the reaction ranges from several minutes to several hours. The activation parametersfor the thermal rearrangementof trichloroacetimidate 112 to the corresponding amide 113 (equation 40) in xylene are as follows: AH' = 23.8 i- 0.5 kcal mol- ', ASt = - 18.6caldeg-'mol-' loo.

CCI3 (112)

(113)

I t has been shown'O' that the thermal rearrangementsofallyl imidates proceed not only regio- and stereoselectively, but also with the retention of chirality if it was present in the

1 1. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

561

initial compound. Using the lanthanideshift reagent technique,it has been demonstrated by 'H NMR spectra that the thermal rearrangement(equation41) of optically active (R,E)allyl trichloroacetimide ( I 14) leads to optically active (R,E)-ally1 trichloroamide (116) by route A. It follows from this that the rearrangement 114- 116 occurs exclusively by the concerted suprafacial 3,3-sigmatropic shift pathway. Stereochemical regularities of this rearrangement can serve as evidence in favor of a transition state structure of type 11.5 where the Me and Ph groups take equatorial positions. An alternative transition state structure 117 that would lead to the 2-isomer 118 (route B) is less favored because of nonbonding interactions of the methyl group with the syn-axial hydrogen atom.

Considering the rearrangement of 0-ally1 trichloroacetimidates 121 produced by the ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ condensation of allyl alcohols 119 with trichloroacetonitrile 120, O ~ e r m a nhas developed a general method for transforming 119 into allyl amines 123 (equation 42). The trichloroacetyl groupcan be readily eliminated through hydrolysis of N-allyl'imidates 122 at room temperature, which leads to allyl amines 123. Acyl amides 122 and amines 123 obtained by reaction 42 are widely used as active dienes in the Diels-Alder synthesis of amino-functionalcarbocyclesy8. Thus, trans-l-(acylamino)-l,3-butadiene was 'used as a starting material in the total synthesis of the neurotropic alkaloids, d,/-pumiliotoxinC'02*'03 and d,/-perhydrogephyrod~xin'~~. The introduction of a nitrogen-centered group in the hinder,ed 3-position of 3substituted 2-cyclohexen-1-01s can be effected by means of the thermal ,rearrangement I 124- 125 (equation 43)'05. By making use of the propensity of trichloroacetimides 127 to thermal rearran,gement,a method could be developed for introducingfunctional groups in the ally1 and homoallyl . . positions of allyl carbinols 126 (equation 44)'06*'07. 2-Amino- 1,3-diols 129 are obtained through hydrolysis of oxazoles 128 ,which form when imide 127 is treated with N-iodosuccinimide in CHCI, (route A). Fn a like manner,3amino-1,Zdiols 132 were produced from amides 130, formed by the thermal rearrange,,. . , ment of imides 127 (equation 44). Thermal rearrangementsof propargylic imidic esters 133 into amides 134 may be

.

562

Vladimir 1. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

+

R2&R4

CijC-CEN

R'

' & , 2R R'

OH

R5 (120)

(119)

I

CCI,

(121)

I

CCI,

(123)

(122)

p"'

employed in the synthesis of substituted 2-pyridones 135, provided that the substituent X is a potential leaving g r ~ (equation ~ 45). p ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ In some cases, the rather severe conditions under which the rearrangements occur (equation 39) are conducive to thermal decomposition of the starting substances and products, and to certain side-processes. On this account, beginning from the 1960s intensive work has been going on aimed at the catalysis of hetero-Cope rearrangements; see the reviews2.93.97,98.110,~~~ Salts of Hg2+ and Pd2+ employed as catalysts in allyl imidate rearrangements108 + 109 have not only acceleratedthe reaction 39 by a factor of 1010-1014 but also increased the yield of products and their regioselectivity as compared with the corresponding thermal rearrangement^^^*'^^*' lo. A cyclization-induced mechanism has been suggested to explain the catalysis by the Hg2+ salts of the allyl imidate transformations 136 +13898*100. It involves the emergence in the transition state of a six-membered 1,3azaoxonium intermediate 137 and accounts for the exclusive formation of the products of the 3,3-shift and the stereoselectivity observed in this case (equation 46).

1 I . Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

P LR2 ii

__*

R'

R'

(127)

A i

\

i

R'

(130)

\

iii

JAR, (126) I

R'

(131)

(128 ) iv\

.p,p,,,

R' OH

NH 2

(129)

(132)

i -CCI,CN ii- 1 10 "C iii-N-iodosuccimimide iv-hydrolysis

-

R'

t-

X

(133)

in CHCI,

(134)

563

564

Vladimir 1. Minkin and lgor E. Mikhailov

_r

R

(136)

R

(137)

(138)

(46)

Detailed studies of Pd2+- and Pdo-catalyzed allyl imidate rearrangements with asymmetrically substituted or asymmetrically deuterium-labeledallyl groups have shown the following. The Pd2+- catalyzed rearrangements proceed to give exclusively the product of the 3,3-transformations(equation 47), whereas with Pdo a mixture of products of the 3,3 and 1,3 shifts is formed (equation 48)'12.

In the former case,the coordinated olefin 139 undergoesan intramolecularattack by the imidate nitrogen atom bearing an electron lone pair to form a metal-bound six-membered cyclic carboniumion intermediate 140 which rapidly rearrangesinto 141 with the catalyst regenerating. Under Pdo catalysis (equation 48), the process occurs by a nonconcerted mechanism with the formation of the n-ally1 complexes 142a,b as kinetically independent species. Their isomerization rate is determined by the E:Z ratio and the subsequent interaction between them and the imidate anion 143 leads to the products of 3,3-(144) as well as of the 1J-rearrangements (145, 146). In order to study the stereoselectivity and the possibility of chirality transfer in the

565

1 1. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

(146)

PhN-/p

(143)

(143)

Ph

E

S

Ph [PdCI,(PhCN),]

PhNYb 6 h,CDC1,,25

(147)

I phw A , B h C,He

phi

Yo Ph

S

OC

Ph

phw Yo Yo

w phi

E

Ph

(148) 78 Oo/

+

PhN

Ph

(149) 22%

(49)

566

Vladimir 1. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

Pd*+-catalyzedprocess, the optically active (S,E)-ally1 imidate 147 was taken as the starting compound (equation 49). Whereas the thermal rearrangement yields pure (E)allyl amide of S-configuration 148, the catalytic reaction produces a E (148): Z(149) mixture in 78:22 ratio, with the E and Z olefin isomers possessing the S and R chirality, respectively. The authorsexplain this stereochemicaloutcome by the scheme presented in equation 50. Because of the presence of the chiral center, the olefin plane is diastereotopic so that, upon coordination of Pdz+ with olefin, two energeticallydifferent structures 150, 151 are obtained, from which two different Pd six-membered intermediates 152,153 are then formed. The ring opening in these intermediates that proceeds by a concerted mechanismand is determined by the orbital symmetry conservation rules leads eventually to the products 148 and 149. The predominance of allyl imidate 148 in the reaction products is predetermined by the fact that the structure of the intermediate 152 is energetically more favored than that of 153 since in the latter, as opposed to 152, not all substituents are positioned equatorially.

Ph

(150)

1

P ‘h

Ph

(152)

I

(153)

Ph

Ph

(148)

I

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

567

Another subject treated in the same work is the catalysis of rearrangements of allyl imidates by Rh' and Ir' proceeding nonstereoselectivelyto give the products of the 3,3and 1J-shifts. The thermal I-NJ-S-hetero-Cope rearrangement of S-ally1 imidates 154 (X = S) (160 "C, 1 h, 95% yield) is characterized by a concurrentside-process, the S +C migration of the allyl group, resultingin a mixture of diastereomers 156 (X = S)'I3.The formation of 156 is explained by the immediacy of ketene-S,N-acetal 155 (X = S) in the thermolysis (equation 5 1). The Pd(OAc), catalysis of this rearrangement leads exclusively to the thioamide 157 (X = S). The imidates 154 (X = 0) are also subject to such a rearrangement'I4. Both directions of the process (A and B, equation 51) develop thermally. When +

+

(154)

methyl is the substituentat the C,,, carbon atom ofthe imide fragment(R' = R2 = H),a 3,3 0 +N allyl shift (route B) occursin the thermolysis. If, on the other hand, there are at C(2) substituentscapable of stabilizing the double bond of the isomeric ketene-0,N-acetals 155 (X = 0)(such as Et, i-Pr or CHzPhgroups), then the reaction proceeds preferably along route A (0 C shift). High-temperaturethermal and moderate-temperaturecatalyzed 3,3 and 1,3 O(S)+ N shifts of allyl groups are observed also for compounds in which the imidate or thioimidate lo. fragment is included in a heterocycle'~2~93-98~' The allyl and crotyl derivatives of 2-oxypyridine 158 (R = H) and quinoline 158 (R = 5,6-C4H4)undergo thermal 3,3-rearrangementto give a mixture of the products of Nand C-allylation (159 and 160, respectively) in nearly one-to-one ratiog4.The total yield of the products ranges from 14 to 67%. The H,PtCI, catalysis of the rearrangements (equation 52) of allyl oxypyridines 158 leads exclusively to N-products of the 3,3-allyl shift 159, while the use of Pt(PPh,), gives, as a result of 1,3- and 3,3-shifts, a mixture of compounds 160 and 1611'5. It has been shown' 16*' ' that the regioselectivity of allyl rearrangementsof 3-(a1lylthio)1,2,4-triazin-5(2H)-ones 162 (formation of N-2 or N-4 products), with PdZ salts acting as catalysts, is strongly dependent on the character of substitution in the allyl fragment (equation 53). So through catalysis of the rearrangement of 162 (R' = Phi R2 = Me,

'

+

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

568

R'

R

&&

250-300 OC

R

e

o

+

R&

H

(160)

1

X:Xs

R'

I

0

R

2

-

Y R3

(162 a 1

(163)

(53) R2

(162 b)

(164)

R 3 = H ) , a mixture of isomers 163 and 164 is formed in 30:70 ratio, while the rearrangementof 162 with R' = Ph, R2 = H, R3 = Me gives isomers 163 and 164 in 74:26 ratio. Using 'H NMR, it has been found that N-acetyl-2-ally1 (165a) and N-acetyl-2crotylthioimidazoline (165~)rearrangeat 145"Cduring 72 and 30 h, respectively, to give the products of a 3,3-sigmatropicshift, i.e. imidazolidinethiones 166a and 166c in 75% and

11. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

569

(166 1

(165)

a b c

R'

R2

H H Me

Me OMe Me

30% yields, respectively''8. The reaction (equation 54) is of first order and, in the case of thioimidazoline 165c, k , = 8.3 x s - ' in benzene solution in sealed tubes at 141 "C.In the thermolysis of N-methoxycarbonyl-2-allylthioimidazoline (165b), instead of the expected imidazolidinethione 166b, N-methyl-N'-allyl- (65%) and N-methylimidazolidinethione (25%) are formed as a result of decarboxylation. Also studied was the thermal rearrangement of 2-allyloxy substituted 4,Sdiphenyl(168a-c) proceeding by a oxazoles (167a-c) into 3-allyl-4,5-diphenyl-4-oxazoline-2-ones 3,3-sigmatropic shift' '93120 (equation 55). A similar mechanism (equation 56) is operative

(167)

a b c

(169)

(168)

R'

R2

H H

H Me OMe

Me

(170)

570

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

(169) to 2-methyl-3in the thermal isomerization of 2[(furyl)oxy]-4,5-diphenyloxazole (4,5-diphenyl-4-oxalin-2-on)furan (171) (6 h at 80 "C). This has been confirmed by the preparative isolation of the intermediate 170 and its subsequent transformationinto the furan 171 by heating or treatment with acids. Unlike allyl imidates, thioimidates and allylcarboxylates 108 (X = Y = 0)93, the 3,3sigmatropic shifts of allyl groups in amidine 1-N,3-N systems have not yet been studied adequately. No such rearrangementwas observed in N,N'-dimethyl-N-ally1benzamidine when heatingits solutions to 1750C'21.When, however, an allyl fragment is attached to a cyclopentadiene ring activated with electron-withdrawing substituents, the above rearrangements do proceed and the conditions for their occurrence are fairly mild122. In dynamic 'H NMR spectra of compounds 172, one may observe at elevated temperatures synchronized broadening and coalescence of the signals of the methyl groups X = Me and R' = COOMe, which bears witness to the occurrence of the intramolecularhetero-Cope rearrangementwith a low-energy barrier. Table 9 lists kinetic and activation parameters of the rearrangement 172a e 172b (equation 57) found by means of line-shapeanalysis of the 'H NMR spectrum. The 1-N, 3-

R'

(1720)

... R'

(172b)

R'

= COOMe; X = p-Me,

m-Me; R = 1-Naph, 4-N0,C6H4, 4-BrC6H4, Ph, p-Tol, p-An

N-hetero-Cope rearrangementsproceed most rapidly in naphthamidines172 (compounds 1,2 in Table 9). In the benzamidine series 172 (compounds 3-7), electron-withdrawing substituentsin the aryl at the C,2,atom of the amidine triad increasethe rate of the process (equation 57), while electron-releasingones slow it down. Upon heating o-dichlorobenzene solutions of benzamidine 172 (compound 5, Table 9)

571

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

TABLE9. Kinetic and activation parameters of degenerate rearrangements 172ae172b dichlorobenzene, according to data in References 122 and 123 Compound k90;C

No.

R

X

1

1-Naph 1-Naph 4-N02C,H, 4-BrC6H, Ph 4-Tol 4-An

p-Me p-Me p-Me p-Me p-Me p-Me p-Me

2 3

4

5 6 I

AH:

(s- )

(kcal rnol-')

3.9 2.0 0.84 0.21 0.11 0.069 0.034

15.1 h0.3 15.7 f 0.4 19.9h0.3 20.6f0.5 22.5 f 0 . 4 22.7 f0.2 23.450.3

ASf

(cal deg-'rnol-') - 14.7 f 0.7 - 14.3 + 0.9 -4.3 f 0.8 -5.2k 1.1 - 1.5 f 0.5 - 1.6 & 0.4 - 1.1 k0.6

in o-

AGiOT-

(kcal mol ') 20.4 20.9 21.5 22.5 23.0 23.3 23.8

at 130°C for OSh, equilibrium is established with the dipolar isomer 173a (172:173a = 0.70:0.30) formed in consequence of the 1,4-shift of the methoxycarbonyl group to the imine nitrogen (equation 58). The conformation 173b in the solid state has been proved by an X-ray diffraction study (Figure 5)123.

111. 1,8SHIFTS OF MAIN-GROUP 5-7 ELEMENT-CENTERED MIGRANTS

The study of rearrangementsof this type in the series of amidinesand imidates began in the past decade. The majority of the rearrangements(equation 59) known to date have intramolecular character, and in their mechanism they correspond to reactions of nucleophilic substitution at the central atom of a migrating group. These reactionsmay be regarded as

(174)

Y = N R , 0, S

(175)

X = NO, NO,, PR'R', h 1 R 2 R 3 ,P(Y)R'R2, PR1R2R3R4, SR, S(O)R, Hal

572

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

FIGURE5 . Stereoprojection,bond lengths and anglesin molecule 173b accordingto data of X-ray diNractionstudy'23 belonging to a variety of the so-called 'X-philic' reactionslZ4. Unlike reactions of nucleophilic substitution at sp3- and spz-hybridized carbon atoms, the pathways of substitution reactions at the main-group 5-7 element centers have not been studied in great detail. Therefore, in this section we shall present experimental data on the rearrangementsrepresented by equation 59 along with some results of their theoretical analysis. A. 1,3-Shifts of Nitroso and Nitro Groups

MIND0/3 calculations of reactions of nucleophilic substitution at sp*-hybridized nitrogen atoms of the nitroso and nitro groups have shownlZ5that the steric course of the reaction is very similar to that of nucleophilic substitution at a CsP2-center(41a,41b).

573

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

Hence, similarly to the case of N-acyl amidines, it may be expected that N-nitroso and N-nitro amidines will undergo intramolecularN,N'-shifts. MIND0/3-calculated energy profiles of the model reactions (equation 60) are quite H

H

H

(1760)

(17 6 c

X = NO, AE* = 22.1 kcal molcalculations'

';

X = NO,,

(176b)

AE* = 32.7 kcal mol-

'

(MIND0/3

close to the one given in Figure 1 for the analogous N,N'-transferof the acetyl group. In both reactions,the symmetrical structure 176c is expected to be a short-lived intermediate located along the reaction path in close vicinity to the transitionstate structure.Calculated activation enthalpies warranted the conclusion that in amidines 176, provided there is suitable substitution, the migration of nitroso and nitro groups can be realized on the tautomeric energy scale. It has indeed been recently found"* that in N-nitroso-N,N'-diarylbenzamidines 177, readily obtained by treatment of N,N'-diarylamidines with 5-nitro-1,2,3,4,5pentakismethoxycarbonylcyclopentadiene, rapid degenerate N,N'-migrations of the nitroso group occur, manifested in temperature-variable 'H NMR spectra of 177 by the averaging of signals of the groups R ' and of the protons in the aryl rings. There is no dependence of the temperature-variable 'H NMR spectra of amidines 177 (compounds 17 in Table 10) on the concentrationand n o free-radicalspecies are detected upon heating the solutions. Kinetic and activation parameters of the degenerate rearrangements (equation 61) calculated from line-shape measurements of the indicator signals R' are presented in Table 10, from which it follows that electron-withdrawing substituents R in

0NO

(1770)

(177c

NO

(177b)

1 2 3 4 5 6 I

No.

4-To1

4-BrC6H4 4-NOZCeH4

Ph

2,3-C4H4 2,3-C4H4 4-An

R

P-Me m-Me p-Me p-Me P-Me P-Me P-Me

R'

-

-

-

-

-

19.8

18.0 20.6 20.4 20.2 19.9

18.5

- 11.5 f 0.9 - 2.0 f 1.0

14.4 & 0.4 17.3 f 0.5 -

AG!o.c(kcalmol ')

ASi (cal deg-' mol-')

51 103 2.8 4.0 5.1 7.9 8.5

(s(kcal mol-I)

AH^

according to References 122 and 126

1

k90iC

TABLE 10. Kinetic and activation parameters of rearrangements 177ae177b.

122 122 126 126 122 126 126

Reference

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

515

the aryl group at the carbon atom of the amidine triad increase the velocity of the degenerate rearrangement 177a ~t 177b while electron-donatingones slow it down. The system 177 is a convenient model for studying various structuraleffects as well as those of solvents on the nitroso group transfer reactions. The reactions of these compounds containing an N-nitrosoamine function have been attracting considerable attention lately in view of the fact that N-nitrosoamines are widely occurring 29 and experimental'30data indicate catalysis of different carcinogens"'. nitroso group transfer reactions due to the protonation of N-nitroso compounds. There are also quite a few examples of intermolecular 1,3-nitroso group transfers promoted by acidic catalysts in the series of urea derivatives (equation 62). 0 R'N KNkiRz

I NO

R'

R'

-. H+

0 R'HN

I

NO

= Me; R 2 = HI3' = 3-CH2C5H4N,4-CH2C5H4N;R2 = CH,CH,CI, CHMe,, CH2CHMe,, c-Hex13'

There are reasons to assumeLJothat the reaction of 178 may include an intermediate step of the 1J-shift of the nitroso group towards the oxygen atom, involving successive N,O- and 0,"-shifts. The relative content of the nitroso derivatives of the ureas 180 and 181 that form in the course of nitrosationof the initial N,N'-substituted ureas 182 depends on the natureof the substituents R' and R2. After the separation of the isomers and treatment of each of them with formic acid (in the presence of HCI,H2S04),a mixture is obtained of 1- and 3-nitroso ureas togethers with the product of denitrosation (equation 63). R'NCONHR2 I

+ HCOOH #R'NHCONHR2 + HCOONOF?R1NHCONR2 + HCOOH I

It is believed that the mechanismof the intermolecularrearrangement(equation 63) of N nitroso ureas',' is similar to that of the Fischer-Hepp reaction'30.N-nitroso ureas 180, 181 interact with formic acid to give nitrosonium formate which then acts as the nitrosating agent. 1,3-Migrations of nitro groups in amidine systems similar to the nitroso group rearrangements (equation 61) have not been observed so far. However, the transformations described by equation 64'33may be regarded as indirect evidence that a nitro group is capable of the N,N'-migration in the amidine system, even though the N-nitro amidines 183a and 183b, which serve as precursors for 184, 185 and 186 respectively, could not be isolated. A similar problem, namely the migration ofthe nitro group from an N atom to an N-aryl ring, has been encountered by Carvalho and coworkers'34 in studying the rearrangement of imidoyl nitrates 188 into N-nitro amides 189 (equation 65). They have shown that the addition of AgNO, to imidoyl chloride 187 (R' = Ph, R2 = Me) in acetonitrile leads to Nnitro amide 189 (R' = Ph, R2 = Me). At the same time, when compound 187 (R' = R2 = Ph) is used in this reaction, a mixture of 2- and 4-nitro substituted benzanilides 190 (R' = Ph;R2 = 2-NOZC6H4,4-N0,C,H4) is formed as a result ofthe migration ofthe nitro

516

9

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

9

1.EtOK 2.EtON02

NHZ

KNNO2 PhC=NCeH4Me-4

x

I /

H\

y 0'

k%OZ

(190)

R'

= Ar;

R2 = Me, Ar

11. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

577

group into the N-phenyl ring. Even the presence of two nitro groups in the N-aryl ring does not impede this migration which [compound 187;R' = Ph, RZ= 2,4-(NO,),C,H,] leads to 2,4,6-trinitro-substituted benzamide 190, R' = Ph, RZ= 2,4,6-(N0,),C6H,. However, when the 2,4 and 6 positions in the N-aryl nucleus are blocked by substituents [compounds 187; R' = Ar, RZ= 2,4,6-(Me, CI),C,H,], imidoyl nitrites 188 are detected by 'H NMR and their rearrangementinto corresponding N-nitro amines 189is observed. The reaction 188-189 is first order, and at 22°C its rate constants vary from 1.09 x lo-, S - I (188; R' = 4-N0,C,H4, RZ= 2,4,6-Me3C,H,) to 18 x IO-'s-' (188; R' = 4NO,C,H,, R2 = 4-Br-2,6-Me,C6H,). The rate of the reaction is not affected by the reactantconcentration,which indicates its intramolecularcharacter,and the merely weak influence of the solvent on the rearrangement kinetics points to the absence of an ionization process, such as the dissociation of 188 to the cation NO2+ and benzanilide anion.The last point accords well with the insignificanceof the effect the substituent R' has on the reaction rate. The value of the enthalpy of activation (ASt) for the rearrangement 188+ 189 calculated for compound 188 (R' = 4-NO2C,H,, R2 = 2,4,6-Me3C,H,) amounts to O + 1.2cal deg-' mol-I. From the foregoing the conclusion has been drawni3, that the rate-determiningstep of the rearrangement188+ 189 is the homolytic fission of the imidate 0-N bond, followed by recombination of the thus formed radical pair 191 at the nitrogen atom (equation 66).

The absence of a specific orrho-directingeffect when the nitro group migrates into the ortho- and para-positions of the N-aryl ring'34 also fits a radical mechanism f0.r the nitration of the N-aryl fragment (equation 65). Another example of a 1,3-N,N'-transferof the nitro group which, unlike the preceding case, occur by a heterolytic mechanism, has been discovered in studying the N-NO, +C-NO, rearrangementin 2-aminothiazoles 19213s-'37.The 'H, I3C and I5N N'MR spectral study of the rearrangement(equation 67) in D,SO, at - IO'C has shown the formation of all the transitionforms 193, 194 and 196. This study resulted in the following conclusions:The protonation of the 2-nitroamine derivatives of thiazole 192 gives rise to 193, which undergoes a heterolytic 1,3-shift of the nitro group to produce the nonaromatic intermediate 194. Due to a heterolytic 1,3-N,C-shift, the 0-complex 195 emerges from compound 194. Its descomposition into compound 196 is a relatively slow process as was inferred from the study of the rearrangement(equation 67) of compounds labeled with deuterium in the 5-position. The deprotonation of compound 196 leads to the final product of the rearrangement,5-nitro-2-aminothiazole 197. 8 . 1,I-Shifts of Phosphorus-containing Groups

In nucleophilic substitution reactions at a tri- and tetracoordinate phosphorus atom in sterically nonconstrained molecular systems, both enteringZ - and leaving Y groups take up axial positions in trigonal bipyramidal transition state structures'38.

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

578

(197)

(196)

R = H , Me

Such a position of the Z and Y groups cannot be realized in a four-membered cycle of 176c type. On this account,the one-step concerted 1,3-transferof phosphorus-containing groups X (equation 59,Z = N) cannot occur intramolecularly.There exists, however, an important complementary possibility of the occurrence of intramolecular migration inherent in the second and lower row element-centeredgroups in structuralenvironments not suitable for a linear alignment of the forming and breaking bonds as featured by the structures198-200. Such a possibility is provided by the stepwise mechanismpredicted by W e ~ t h e i m e r 'The ~ ~ . structural and electronic requirements imposed upon the migrants, which may be involved in the stepwise intramoleculardisplacements,and the stereochemical consequences were considered in detail e l ~ e w h e r e ~ ~ * ' ~ ~ * ' ~ ' . The necessary condition for the axial approach of the attacking nucleophile and the departure of the leaving group from another axial position can be met if the initially formed intermediates(Figure6) containingthe former group in the axial and the latter one in the equatorial positions are capable of a low-energy barrier polytopal rearrangement, resultingin the interchangeof their positions. The departureof the leaving group proceeds then from the axial position in accordancewith the demand of the principle of microscopic reversibility. Figure 6 portrays the energy profile of such an addition-rearrangementelimination (AdRE) mechanism of the intramolecular 1,3-displacementsof phosphoruscontaining groups in sterically constrained amidines and similar molecular systems. The crucial step of the total reaction is the polytopal rearrangementof the intermediates to

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

579

1

Reaction coordinate FIGURE 6. Energy profile of the degenerate (Y = Z) rearrangementgoverned by the AdRE mechanism. TS(Ad), TS(R) and TS(E) are the transition states of, respectively, addition, rearrangement and elimination steps of the intramolecular group X transfer reactions'40

which the local minima on the potential energy curve (Figure 6) correspond. The most feasible ligand permutation made in trigonal bipyramid-based structures is the Berrypseudorotation ($-Berry). Its energy barrier is known to be strongly affected by ~ is . 'therefore ~ ~ . importantto apicophilicities of the substituents at the central a t ~ m ' ~ It choose properly the substituents R', RZ, R3 in the phosphorus-centered migrants to warrant the sufficiently low energy barrier to interconversion of the intermediates of 201203. Since the Berry-pseudorotation leads to pairwise interchangesof ligands, the lowest

(201) X=PR'R2

( 2 0 2 )X = P (0)R' R2

(203)X =P'R' R2 R3

energy barriers of reversible rearrangementsare to be expected in those relating to the degenerate type (Y = N and R' = R'). It is precisely this type to which the first known rearrangementbelonged, involving fast 1,3-migrationsof the triphenylphosphonio group between nitrogen atoms in the N,N'-dimethylbenzamidine derivative144.The activation parameters of the process 204a*204b are as follows: AGjJec = 17.2 f 0 . 9 kcal mol-I, A H t = 14.2 f 0.7 kcal mol- '.When the anion in the salt 204is replaced by C1- for Br-, the energy barrier of the rearrangement(equation 68) is markedly lowered with A@= 13.9

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

580

1

.b

kcal mol-',. T, =O,+ 2"C, using CH,CI, as the solvent145.Energy barriers close to the above value have been found for the salts 204 with the anions Clod- and BPh,- (Table 11 below). As expected the stereochemicaloutcome of the AdRE rearrangementsis the retention of configuration at the central atom of the migrating g r o ~ p ~ This ~ * prediction ' ~ ~ ~ was ~ ~ ~ . elegantly verified by Mikol'ajnyk and c o ~ o r k e r s ' ~who ' , studied the mechanism and stereochemistry OF the rearrangement of S-phosphorylisothioureas 205 into Nphosphorylthioureas:207. The rearrangement (equation 69) is of the first order, and RNHG=NR

I

s-P'

# .

.OR'

/ -0

(2051

-

RNHCZS

R-N-P'

I

/ -0

.-

,OR'

R20

proceeds stereoselectively with retention of configuration at the phosphorus atom. In the first step,, the nitrogen atom in S-phosphorylisothiourea 205 attacks the phosphorus to give a betaine-like phosphoraneintermediate206c1,which undergoespseudorotation that transfer the sulfur atom into the axial position resulting in the intermediate 206c,. The rupture.of the P-S bond in the latter affords N-phosphorylthiourea 207 with retained configuration1at phosphorus. There is a fair19detailed review148of the triad 1,3-O(S),N-rearrangements (equation 59, Y = 0,S) of phosphorus-containinggroups where primarily the synthetic aspect of these reactions has been considered. This section will therefore concentrate on 1,3-N,N'migrations of phosphorus-centered groups in amidines and their structural analogs. In the carbodiimide synthesis widely used for obtaining biologically importantesters of phosphoric acid14991'50, N-phosphorylated ureas 210 have been isolated (equation 70) amongotherproducts. As opposed to the oxygen analogsof 208 (X = Y = 0),in the case of

581

11. Rearrangements in amidines and ,related compounds YHR'

(209)

(208)

R'

('210)

X,Y=O,S

the thio derivatives of 208 (X = Y = S or X = 0, Y = S) S-phosphorylisothioureas209 could be isolated which are in equilibrium with N-phosphorylthioureas210. Theposition of the equilibrium is determined by the substituents both at ,the phosphorus and at the nitrogen atomsLso'lI . In imidoyl phosphates 211 (X = 0, S; Y = 0),the 1,3-O,N-rearrangementis irreversible, while for the thio analogsof 21 1(X = 0,S; Y = S) a tautomericequilibrium(equation 71) is established (Act = 20-21 kcal mol-1)'48.152-154.The dependence of the rate of Ar

Ar

I

X

I .I1 N-PR'R*

I1

X

(2110)

(211c)

(2llb)

equilibration 21 la $21 lb for N-thiophosphorylthioimides on the concentration of the solution, as well as cross-over results, point to an intermolecular character of the phosphoryl migrations (equation 71) that proceed via the cyclic dimeric bipolar intermediate 21lc. The position of the equilibrium 21 l a P 21 lb depends in an essential manner on the natureof the solvent, and with rising temperatureit is shifted towards the imidothiol form 2lla. A systematic and thorough study of the phosphorotropic tautomerism and stereodynamics in the series of amidines,their heterocyclicanalogs and isothioureasby means of dynamic 'H, 13C and "P NMR methods was carried out by Negrebetski and coworkers'"-' 72. Both degenerate and nondegenerateintramolecular1,3-migrationsof tricoordinate phosphorus (212)155-L57, tetracoordinate phosphorus (213)158-161 as well as of triphenylphosphonium groups (214)16' have been studied (equation 72). The NMR results showed that phosphorylated amidines 212-214 exist in solution predominantly in the form of the E-isomer,sterically preferablefor the migration of the phosphorus group, in which the electron lone pair of imine nitrogen and phosphorus are located in cisposition with respect to each other. The largely intramolecular character of the phosphorotropic tautomerism of compounds 212-214 has been demonstrated by special experiments. The amidine hydrochloride catalysis of the phosphorotropic 212a F? 212b rearrangementhas been dete~ted"~.

--p/)

\

CF,

Ph Ph

5

6 7

/ \O

D

CDCI,

\

-pm

-

C6D6

C6D12

Ph

Solvent

C6D6

X

Ph

Ph

212

1

R

4

type

No.

Structural

-

22.6 24.9 (178°C) -15.3f2.2

1S.Of 1.0

-

19.0

- 14.4 f 0.6

14.7 f 0.3

19.9

15.3

13.3

1.3

* 1.0

17.0

- 10.8 k 1.0

- 7.5

- 5.9

-15.3f1.3

10.1 f 0.3

17.7 f 0.5

13.5 0.3

12.4f0.4

155 155

1 . 7 lo-' ~

-

155

155

155

155

155

Reference

7 . 0 lo-' ~

980

1 . 4 lo-' ~

36.3

2.05

AH$ ASt A G ~ ~ ~ (kcal mol- ')(caldeg-' mol-')(kcalmof-I)

32'

TABLE 11. Kinetic and activation parameters of degenerate 1J-migrations of phosphorus-centered groups (equation 72) in amidines and isothioureas 212-214

h,

vl 00

Ph

Ph

Ph

Ph

CHCI, Ph Ph Ph

7

8

9

10

1 2 3 4

214

Ph

6

CF,

CF3

4

5

CCI,

3

SMe

CCI,

213

2

1

C6D6

0 + -?Ph,CIO,-?Ph,CI-?Ph,CIO,-PPhsBPh,-

II

-PF,

0

II

CDCI, CDCI, CDCI, (CD312CO + (CD,),SO, 1 :1

(CD3)2C0

C6D6

It

NPh -P(OCH,CF,CHF,)Z

C6D12

C6D6

C6D6

-P(OEt),

II 0

-P(OEt)2

-PFz II 0

0

II

-P(OEt),

14.8 9.4 9.9 10.3

f 03. f 0.2 f 0.2 f 0.6

- 3.6 f 08. -15.2kO.6 - 13.3 f 0.7 - 12.0 f 1.6

-

-

f 10 .

-

-26.1

-

9.5 f 0.3

13.

f 1.4

-

- 12.4

-

2.0f

-

0.3 f 0.6

-

-

05 .

18.1 f 0.6

21.9

-

19.8 f 0.2

-

15.9 13.9 13.9 13.9

68

(- 90 "C)

68

(- 90 "C)

17.3

21.8

24.9 (174°C)

21.7 (174°C)

21.3

20.0 (125°C)

19.7

26.0 (200°C)

-

-

10-3

-

-

14.1 368 368 368

12.8

6.1 x 10-4

14.

-

2.1 x 10-2

-

162 162 162 162

159

159

159

158

158

159

159

159

159

160

W

01

u l

Vladimir I. Minkin and lgor E. Mikhailov

584 R

R

x

x

( 2 1 2 a - 214a)

(212b-214b)

R = Ph, CHCI,, CCI,, CF,, SMe R' = Me, Et, LPr, t-Bu, Ph

213:

-P

,-P(OEt)2,

II0

NPh

-PP(OPr)2,-

II

0

P(OCH2CF2CHF2)2,

II

0

- PCI2,II

0

-P(OEt),

IINPh

PF2

II

0

When the degeneracy of the rearrangementwas cancelled in nonsymmetrical amidines i-Pr, t-Bu, Ph)lS7, it was only in the case of N'-methyl-N2ethyldiethoxyphosphinylbenzamidine 212, R' = Et, X = - P(OEt), that rapid 1,3-migrations of the phosphorus-containinggroup could be observed (equation 72). In benzene solution, this amidine contains in an equilibrium mixture 80% of isomer 212a and 20% of 212b, while in all other cases the equilibrium is completely shifted toward the less sterically hindered form 212a. Unlike compounds 212, 214, phosphorylated amidines 213 are present in solution as a mixture of Z and E isomers relative to the C=N bond so that the dynamics of their molecules is governed by the relative velocity of two processes, i.e. the phosphorotropic tautomerism 213a 213b and the Z F? E isomerization. The kinetic and activation parameters of the phosphorotropic tautomerism (equation 72), calculated on the basis of the line shape analysis of indicator N-Me signalsin the 'H and I3C NMR spectra, are given in Table 11. The energy barriers (AG*) of the phosphorotropic migrations (equation 72) are determined by the coordination state of phosphorus,the natureof the substituents at the P and C atoms of the amidine and by the conformation of the triad system. The values of AG*vary in a broad range from < 8 to > 25 kcal mol- I . The natureof the solvent does not affect in any significant way the rate of the intramolecularmigrations. The most pronounced impact upon the magnitude of AG* 212 ( R ' = E t ,

585

I I. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

comes from the substituents at the migrating phosphorus. The migrations are accelerated by electron-withdrawing substituents which greatly enhance the electrophilicity of phosphorus and especially by the inclusion of phosphorus into the dioxaphospholane cycle-an effect well-known in the chemistry of organophosphorusc o m p o ~ n d s 'The ~~. replacement of electron-withdrawing substituents at the carbon atom of the amidine triad (R = CHCI,, CCI,, CF,, SMe) with a phenyl group that enhancesthe nucleophilicity of the imine nitrogen and promotes delocalization of the positive charge in the intermediates 201-203, markedly increasesthe rate of the phosphorotropy. Highly negative values of the entropy of activation (from - 10 to -20cal deg-' mol-') are evidence in favor of a stepwise mechanism of phosphorus migration in the amidine triad (equation 72) which requires considerable reorganization of the initial molecular structure. A direct confirmation of the intramolecular character of tautomeric migrations (equation 72) as well as of the retention of configurationat the migrating center implied by the AdRE mechanism was obtained in an NMR study of N-dioxaphospholanyl-N,Ndimethyl benz- and trifluoroacetyl amidines 212 (Nos 1, 3 in Table 1 It has been shown that the spin-spin coupling of N-Me protons with the 3 1 P nucleus is not disturbed even at fairly high rates of the PI"-centered group migration (kwoc= I2 s-I). Under these conditions,even with the temperature raised to 170 "C (compound No 3), the diastereotopy of methylene protons in the dioxaphospholane ring is retained, manifesting retention of the chirality at the phosphoruscenter in the course of the migration. At elevated temperatures, in polar solvents and at increased solution concentrations, these and other amidines containing P'"-centered migrants manifest, in addition to intramolecular migrations, also the slower intermolecular ones that proceed with ~ ~ . proposed mechanism of the interinversion of configuration at p h o ~ p h o r u s ' The molecular migrations includes the formation, as a transition state o r an intermediate, of the dimeric form 212c with diaxial position of the entering and leaving groups (equation 73).

I

Me

Me

(2120)

(212c)

(212b)

In heterocyclic analogs of amidines, the processes of phosphorotropic tautomerism represented by fast reversible intramolecularmigrations of phosphoryl and thiophosphoryl groups between the exo- and endocyclic nitrogen atoms have been studied in phosphorylated 2-R-aminodihydro(iminotetrahydro)-1,3-thiazines (215, equation 74)' 64 and 2-R-amino(imino)thiazoli(di)nes (216, equation 75)16'. In phosphorylated 2-Ramino(imino)pyrroli(di)nes(217), the intermolecular phosphorotropic tautomerization ~ ~ intermolecular . Dhos(equation 76) proceeds via the dimeric intermediate 2 1 7 ~ 'The phorotropy ofihis type has been thoroughly studied in thiophosphorylated derivati;es of 1.3.5-triazine 218' 74-176. . , Whereas 2,4,6-tris(dialkoxydithiophosphoryl)-1,3,5-triazines (218a, X = S) d o not manifest propensity towards tautomeric processes, 2,4,6- tris(dia1koxyphosphorylthio)-

Vladimir I. Minkin and lgor E. Mikhailov

586

(2160)

(216cl)

(216C2)

(216b)

(75)

0-

(2170)

1,3,5-triazines (218a, X = 0) are capable of tautomerization occurring through S e N migrations of the phosphoryl groups (equation 77). This process is stepwise and intermole~ular’’~. The absence of phosphorotropy in dithio analogs of 218a (X = S) is explained by a decreasein the electrophilicity of phosphorusincluded in the P=S bond as 218 compared to the P=O bond175.As one goes from dihydro(tetrahydro)-1,3-thiazines that provide optimum geometry conditions for the formation of transition states

587

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

(intermediates)to acyclic amidines 213 and then to thiazoli(di)nes216, the free energy of activation for migrations of the phosphoryl groups of the same type increases165.The geometry of pyrroli(di)nes 217 provides only for slow intermolecular migrations of phosphoranyl groups via dimeric transition states 2 1 7 ~ ' ~ ~ .

(R0)2 S y,N

YS

X (RO)ZP/~T~\P(OR)~

IIX

s (2led)

IIX

(RO), P " y

11

'P(OR

s

X

II

12

(218~)

MIND0/3 calculation^'^^^'^^ have shown that a possibility exists for tautomeric migrations of the groups with pentacoordinate phosphorus in amidine systems. The reaction of nucleophilic substitution at the pentacoordinate phosphorus atom is associated with an equatorial cis-approach of the nucleophile to the leaving group and a cis-departure of this group in the stable octahedral intermediate formed. Experimental realization of the phosphorotropic tautomerism with a migrating pentacoordinate phosphorus atom was effected in the case of phenyltrifluorophosphoranyltrihalogenacetamidines (219, R = CF,, CC13)'67*'68 and bis(ortho-pheny1enedioxa)phosphoranyl trihalogenacetamidines (220, R = CF,, CC1,)163*169.When a phenyl group in benzamidinium tetra- or phenyltrifluorophosphatesthat exist in crystal and in solution as a cyclic hexacoordinatespecies 219c,c' (R = Ph) is replaced by an electron-withdrawing trifluoroor trichloromethyl group, opening of the four-membered ring of 21%,c' takes place with the formation of N',N2-dimethyl-N'-phenyltrifluorophosphoranyl trihalogenacetamidines (219a,b). The temperature-dependent 'H and 31P N M R spectra display three dynamic processes occurring in compounds 219 (R = CF,, CCI,) (equation 78). At temperaturesfrom 0 to 20 "C,a hindered rotation about the N-P bond is observed (Act = 15.2-16.4 kcal mol-'); in the 90 to 145 "C range, permutational isomerization in the trigonal bipyramid of phosphorus takes place (AG* = 18.6-18.9 kcal mol-'); in the range of 160 to 200 "C,the phosphorotropic tautomerization 219a,a' 219b,b' has been detected and is characterized by the following activation parameters:AG;,,, = 23.7 (219, R = CF,), AGf3,.c = 21.5 kcal mol-' (219, R = CI,). As in the case of benzamidinium fluorophosphorates 219 (R = Ph), benzamidinium bis(ortho-pheny1enedioxa)phosphorates 220 (R = Ph) exist in crystal and solution in the mesoionic hexacoordinate form 2 2 0 ~ In . compounds 22012, (R = Ph), similarly to phosphorates 21% (R = Ph), using dynamic 'H and "P N M R , permutational isomerizations have been detected and studied (equation 79). They proceed with the dissociation

*

Vladimir 1. Minkin and lgor E. Mikhailov

588 Me

F'

R

(219a)

(219b)

(219b')

(219~')

(2190')

R = Ph, CF,, CCI, Me

R

(2200)

(220c2)

R = Ph, CF,, CCI,; R'

= Me,

i-Pr

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

589

of the P-N and P-0 bonds of bidentate ligands via pentacoordinate intermediates 220a,b,c, (AGf,., = 16-24 kcal mol- 1 ) 1 6 3 * 1 6 8 . The phosphorotropic tautomerism has been'studied in the case of dimethyl and diary1 . The phosphorotropic migrations in derivatives of 1,3-isoindolenines221, 222170-172 compounds 221,222occur as successive 1,3-shiftsby a multistep mechanism(equation 80).

(22 I d )

(2224)

(221.)

l

R

/

"

1

@N-M

R /N

(221b, 222b)

R\.KIM

N

R

(2210,2220) 221: R=Me 4-To1 4 - A n

'

@

(222.)

590

Vladimir I. Minkin and lgor E. Mikhailov

The transient forms in these migrations are represented by the structures with a penta(221d,e) and a hexacoordinate (222d,e) phosphorus for, respectively, tetra- (221) and pentacoordinate (222) migrants. The free energy of activation (AGi30ec) for the phosphorotropic rearrangements (equation 80) of compounds 221, 222 ranges from 16.0 to 27.3 kcal mol- with the lower value correspondingto the migration of the phosphoranyl group in 222 (R = 4-Tol). In l-methyl-bis(ortho-phenyleneoxa)phosphoranylamino-3-methyliminoindolenine (223), using dynamic 'H and "P NMR a fast (AG:<6kcalmol-'), reversible intramolecular valence isomerization (coordinationalisomerism Pv Pv') has been detected. It consists of a rapid (on the NMR time scale) process of bond-making, bond-breaking between the endocyclic nitrogen atom and the phosphorus atom in 223a and 223b'63 (equation 81).

'

>'"

\" /

Me'

Me'

(2230)

(223b1

Me'

(223~)

Only one well-documented example of the tautomeric migration of an arseniccontaining group in the amidine system is known to date. An exchange of the triphenylphosphonio group in amidine 212 for the triphenylarsenio migrant substantially accelerates lJ-N,N'-shifts. The energy barrier to such a migration (equation 82) was found to be lower than 10kcal mol- at - 90"C'45.The antimonio analogsofcompound224 arestable as Sb(V1) amidinium chlorotriphenylantimonates (225), which in solutions are susceptible to permutational isomerization like that shown by their P(V1) congeners 219, 220.

'

+AsPh3CI-

I

+AsPh3CI-

I

MeHNYN\Me Ph

(2240)

(224b)

59 1

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds C. 1,3-Shifts of Sulfur-containing Groups

The stepwise addition-rearrangement-elimination mechanism was also found to operate in intramolecular rearrangements of amidines involving 1,3-displacements of sulfur-containinggroups. The intermediates which should exhibit the low-energy barrier polytopal rearrangement in the cases of sulfenyl, sulfinyl and sulfonyl migrations are represented by, respectively, the structures226-228, in which X represents the migrating groups specified in equation (59).

Y (226) X = S R

3

Y

(227) X=S(O)R

(228) X z S O 2 R

In the pentacoordinate structure 228, a pairwise ligand permutation (Berrypseudorotation, i.e. the most feasible rearrangementprocess) results in the transferenceof at least one 0--group to the axial position. Since the apicophilicity of this group is extremely low (according to 3-21 G* calculation^'^^it takes 9.3 kcal mol-' to displace one 0--group from its energy preferable axial position in trigonal bipyramidal phosphorane to the equatorial one), it may be expected that the total energy barrier of a If-transfer of a sulfonyl group in amidines will be sufficientlyhigh. In actual fact, no such migration has yet been reported'40, and the 'H NMRspectrum of N-phenylsulfonylN,N'-di(ptoly1)amidine showed no averagingon heating its diphenyl ether solution up to 180-200 0C"9. If the T-shaped structures226, which should be viewed as trigonal bipyramids with two lone pairs as the phantom-ligands, were prone to a Berry-pseudorotation type of polytopal rearrangement,this would also lead to the energy-richstructureholding the less apicophilic phantom-ligands in axial positions. However, the principal mode of the polytopal rearrangementof the T-shaped structureswas predicted by quantum mechanical c a l c u l a t i ~ n s 'on ~ ~a~series ' ~ ~ of model compounds to be rather peculiar, being represented by a simple in-plane shift of one of the ligands. Therefore, in N-sulfenyl amidines the AdRE mechanismof 1,3-N,N'-transferof the sulfenyl group is expected to be shown by equation 83. By inclusion of a step of the formation of intermediate 229q this scheme provides the necessary condition for the axial attack by the nucleophile and the axial departure of the nucleofugalgroup. This intermediate must have sufficient lifetime for the polytopal rearrangement into 229c2. R

R

I

(2290)

Indeed, in the series of N-sulfenyl-N,N'-diary1 benzamidines 230, using dynamic 'H

NMR,the kinetics of the 1,3-N,N'-transferof arensulfenylgroups could be detected and studied'8'*'8z. The intramolecular character of this reaction (equation 84) has been proven by cross-experiments and by the absence of any concentrationdependence of the

Vladimir 1. Minkin and lgor E. Mikhailov

592

rearrangement rate in various solvents. The effect of electronic and structural factors on the rate of sulfenyl migrations in amidines 230 has been studied in detail"'. Kinetic and activation parameters of these migrations, given in Table 12, calculated by the line-shape analysis technique suggest the following conclusions.

"\R3

(2300)

(230b)

(1) The migration of the sulfenyl group is observed on the IH NM R time scale only in the presence of an aromatic substituent (R = Ar) at the carbon atom of the amidine triad. Formamidines(R = H, Nos. 8, 14 in Table 12) d o not exhibit a suficiently fast exchange reaction up to 160-180°C. The aromatic substituent R promotes the stabilization of the dipolar intermediates 229c1,c2 so that the activation parameters of the rearrangement (equation 84) fall into the tautomeric scale. (2) The electron-withdrawing groups in the substituent R accelerate(No. 5 in Table 12, R = p-NO,C,H,) the migration rate of arenesulfenyl groups, while the electron-donating ones slow it down (No. 1 , R = p-An). The correlation equation has the form: Ig(k/k,)2s.c = 1.260' + (r = 0.985, s = 0.178). (3) The high negative values of the entropy of activation (from - 14 to - 24 cal deg- I mol- I ) are in agreementwith the two-step mechanism of I ,3-migrationsof the sulfenyl group (equation 83) in compounds 230, which requires a substantial reorganization and ordering of the molecular structure as compared to the initial form 230a. (4) The introduction of substituents in the ortho position in the N,N'-aryl rings of benzamidines (Nos. 1 1,12) sterically inhibits the N,N'-transferof the arenesulfenyl group.

there are no tautomeric In contrast to N-arenesulfenyl-N,N'-diarylbenzamidines, migrations of arenesulfenyl groups in the corresponding derivatives of N,N'dimethylbenzamidines 231, 23289*'45.'H NMR spectra of compound 231 in diphenyl while compound 232 undergoes, oxide are temperature-independent up to 190 0C145, already at 100 "C,elimination of sulfur and nucleophilic substitution of the nitro group to give benzimidazolium nitrite 233 (20% yield)89 (equation 85).

(231)

(232)

(233)

When the arenesulfenylbenzamidine 234 and the N-unsubstituted benzamidine 235 are mixed, a n interchangeof positions is observed between the two migratinggroups, namely the arenesulfenyl fragment and the proton"' (equation 86).

-

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

No.

Ph Ph H Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph H

pC6H4N02

pC6H4C1

pC6H4Br

p-An Ph

R

R'

Compound

p-Me p-Me p-Me p-Me P-Me pOMe p-OMe p-Me p-Me p-Me o-OMe o-OMe P-Me o-OMe

R' p-Me p-Me p-Me p-Me P-Me pOMe p-OMe p-Me H p-OMe o-OMe o-OMe P-Me o-OMe

R2

0

2.2 0

0 0

22.0 62.0

1.7 6.3 12.2 15.5 309 12.2 10.0

6- '1

k;,fz x 10'

~

13.6 f 0.6

15.4 f 0.5 15.0 f 0.6 13.3 f 0.5 11.9 0.3 9.8 f 0.3 13.4 f 0.7 13.4 f 0.4 11.9 f 0.4 10.7 f 0.2

AH^

(kcalmol-')

-

- 20.1 & 1.1

- 23.2 & 0.9 - 18.1 f 1.1 - 17.7 f 1.3 - 21.6 f 1.0 - 23.6 f 0.9

- 14.8 f 1.4 - 13.6 f 1.2 - 18.5 f 1.4 - 22.2 f 0.8

ASt (caldeg-'mol-')

19.8 19.0 18.8 18.5 16.7 18.8 18.7 > 27 18.3 17.7 > 27 > 27 19.6 > 27

A Gf, 'C(kcalmol ')

TABLE 12. Kinetic and activation parameters of sulfenyl rearrangementsin chlorobenzene (equation 84), according to References 181 and 182

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

594

(234)

(235)

Intermolecular 1,3-N,N’-rearrangementsof arenesulfenyl groups from one nitrogen atom to another have been detected in heterocyclic analogs of amidines, namely 5(6)chloro-N-[(2,4-dinitrophenyl)thio~-2-methylbenzimidazoles 238, 239lS3. The mixture of the isomers 238 and 239 obtained upon sulfenylation of 5-chloro-2-methylbenzimidazole with 2,4-dinitrophenylsulfenyl chloride in THF in the presence of triethylamine was separated by means of fractional crystallization. Upon heating, these isomers transform into each other, with the rate of their interconversion depending on the concentration(in toluene at 65 “C, k , = 1.65 x M - l s - ’ ). The addition of unsubstituted methylchlorobenzimidazole substantially increasesthe rate of migration of the arenesulfenylgroups in compounds 238, 239 (k,= 14.3 x 10-3M-1s-1 , toluene, 65°C). According to Reference 183, the bimolecular mechanism of migrations of the arenesulfenylgroups in 238 and 239 consists of a nucleophilic attack by the pyridine-type nitrogen of one sulfenamidinemolecule on the sulfenyl sulfur of another(equation 87).

s

‘A,

(238)

(239)

Intramolecular rearrangements (equation 88) associated with the transfer of an anchored SII-centered migrant between nitrogen atoms in derivatives containingamidine fragmentshave been studied by Akiba and c ~ w o r k e r sIn~the ~~ course ~ ~ of ~ this ~ . reaction, the tetraazathiopentalene242emergesin the role of an intermediatewith a linearN-S-N group. The position of the equilibrium 242#243 is dependent on the solvent, temperature and the substituent R. Bulky groups and electron-withdrawing substituents facilitate the formation of the isomer 243.

595

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

$%:

+

239

(87)

I

(240)

(241)

238

N

CI

(239)

-

I

-

(242)

(243)

Two successive rearrangementsof this type (equation 89), the first of which leads to the formation of compound 245 from 244 while the second results in the salt 246, have been describedlS6.

me]

7' MeyyN" i" I OEt Me--=NH.

N-S

(244)

Ye

1

(89)

yyy;: & " y-y y Me

I

NH2

(246)

(245)

HX = HBF,, CF,COOH

1,3,-Migrationsof sulfinyl groups in amidinesystems have been studied to a lesser extent. The possibility has been shown of an intramolecular tautomerization realized through rapid N,N'-migrations of an arenesulfinylgroup in the corresponding derivatives of N,N'(di-p-to1yl)form- and benzamidines 247a s 247b (in chl~robenzene)~~' (equation 90).

Vladimir 1. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

596

(2470)

(24tb) f AG25

OC J

kcal mol-'

H

21.5

Ph

20.9

The rearrangement188of thiophosphorane 248 into 249 (equation 91) may be considered as an intramolecular migration of the anchored tricoordinate sulfur group.

1

D. 1,3-Shifts of Chlorine in Amidine Systems There are but a few examples known of the reversible 1,3-shifts of halogens in triad systems189.The only one pertaining to amidine derivatives was described by Wolf and Hartke'45, who found that in diphenyl ether or hexachlorobutadiene solutions of N-chloro-N,N'-dimethyl benzamidine (250) migration of chlorine occurs at elevated temperatures, accompanied by partial decomposition of 250 (equation 92). Not details on the mechanismof the rearrangementwere given, but the ionic or ion-pair pathways of the rearrangement seem to be the most plausible ones. Intramolecular 1,3-P,C-migrations of chlorine in amidinium chlorophosphates have been studied by Markovski and coworker^^^^-'^^. Using 'H and 31PNMR,they detected

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

Me "/ A,Me

I CI

I CI

597

(92)

(25Ob)

(2500)

both reversible and irreversible migrations of chlorine in the C-N-P

triad

(251ae251b) accompanied by a change in the coordination of phosphorus (equation93). Benzamidinium chlorophosphates (R = Ph; R', R2 = Alk, Ar; R3 = R4 = CI) exist in

solution exclusively in the form with a hexacoordinatephosphorus atom. The presence of two phenyl groups at the phosphorus(R3 = R4 = Ar) stabilizes the phosphoranePv-form and facilitates the irreversible migration of the chlorine atom from phosphorus to the carbon of the amidine triad. The same result is achieved when the phenyl group at the carbon atom of the amidine triad (R = Ph) is replaced with the electron-withdrawing trichloro- and trifluoromethyl groups (R = CCI,, CF,) incapable of the delocalization of the positive charge.In the case ofchlorine-substituted compounds (R = CCI,, CF,; R', R2 = Alk; R3 = R4 = CI) with equalized nucleophilicities of the carbon and phosphorus atoms, it proved possible to realize reversible migrations of the chlorine atom in the C-N-P triad 251a F! 251b, that proceed with the free energies of activation AG~,., = 15.6-16.9 kcal mol-' (equation 93).

Of the two transition states of the process in equation 93, preference was given to structure 253 since the great negative values of the entropy of activation of the rearrangement(AS*rangesfrom - 16 to - 34 cal deg- mol- ')and the dependence of the free activation energy on the solvent polarity are, apparently, due to the formation of a tight ion pair in the transition state.

'

(252)

(253)

1,3-O,N- or N,O-migrations of chlorine in the corresponding derivatives of imides and amides are unknown. There is, however, a method for obtaining 0- and p-halogeno

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

598

anilines, based on the halogenation of N-acylamines, that includes a rearrangement (equation 94) associated with the migration of the chlorine atom into the ortho and para positions of the N-aryl ring193.Based on kinetic studies of this rearrangement in water solution at various temperatures and pressures,the scheme in equation 95 was suggested and it was shown that the limiting step of this reaction is the ionization 257 +258194.The ratio between the ortho and paraproducts (255256) increaseswith rising temperatureand with fallingpressure,which is thought to be associated with a lesser degree of hydration of the intermediate complex for the ortho isomer 255. NHCOMa

I

Me

NHCOMe

I

CI

(255)

(254)

(256)

H+ + -a+ + CI2 254 e CINH(Ph)Ac G NH(Ph)Ac a 255 + 256

(95)

IV. REARRANGEMENTS INVOLVING ORGANOMETALLIC DERIVATIVES OF AMlDlNES

Amidines areaza analogsof the ally1system and, similarly to metal-ally1 compounds, they may, in principle, form with organometallic groups structures of various bonding types, such as 259-262. The x-complexes 259 in which the pseudo-ally1q3 bonding mode would be realized are not known. Also the ionic bonding in 262 is quite a rare case, whereas and bidentate (chelateJ o-N,N’ 261145*199-203 forms monodentate a-N 260145*195-198 represent the most commonly encountered bonding type in organometallic derivatives of amidines.Two types of rearrangementare possible for these compounds: ( I ) The 1,3-shift ofthe organometallicgroup in q’-structural type compounds and (2) the u1-q3 haptotropic rearrangementwhere the $-form may serve as the energy-richintermediate or transition state. Although the latter rearrangementmode is rathertypical in the case of metal-a-ally1 compounds204,in amidine rearrangements the q1-q3 transformationswere invoked to describe the reaction mechanism in few cases only 19’.

(259)

(260)

(261)

(262)

The present section concentrateson 1,bshifts of organometallicmoieties in the amidine triad. Among the migrants, Si-centered groups will also be considered. Even though the silicon groups cannot, strictly speaking, be classified as organometallic,there is, in view of common mechanisms operative in reactions of organosilicon and main-group-metal

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

599

organic compounds, a customary practicezo5to examinejointly reactions of both classes of compounds. It has been f o ~ n d ’ ~ that ~ , ’ N-trimethylsilyl ~~ and N-trimethylstannyl N,N’dimethylbenzamidines 263 are rapidly isomerized as a result of the intramolecular 1,3N,N’-shift of the corresponding organometallic group (equation 96). The degenerate 263b can be frozen only at - 60 “C. exchange reaction 263a

(2630)

M=Si,Sn

(263b)

Bis-trimethylsilyl derivatives of benzamidines 264 were shown by ‘H NMRIg6 to undergo a reversible intramolecular 1,3-exchange of positions of both trimethylsilyl groups (AG& = 11.7 kcal mol- ’). The substitution of silicon in compounds 264 by germanium,tin or lead makes the 264a + 264b reaction irreversible.This is e ~ p l a i n e d ” ~ by the propensity of Ge, Sn and Pb for additional coordination, which indeed is achieved in the structure 264c. It is assumed’96 that the intramolecular process represented by equation 97 proceeds synchronously.

I I SiMe3 MMe3

I I MMe3 SiMef (2640)

(264b)

‘.\MMe3

(97)

(264~)

R = Me, M= Si, Ge, Sn, Pb R = Et, M = Si Whereas in the cyclic analogs of amidines, namely in imidazoles 265, migrations of the trimethylsilyl and trimethylgermyl groups occur intermolecularlyz06~*07 (equation 98), in the corresponding derivatives of 1,3-indolenines266 containing two amidine fragments with a common exocyclic nitrogen atom, the silylotropy is predominantly realized in an intramolecular ~ a y ” ~ - ~The ’ ~dimethyl . derivatives 266 exist in solution mainly in the form of 1-methylamino-3-methyl-iminoisoindolenines (266a,d), while the diary1 ones are in the tautomeric equilibrium of l-arylamino-3(266b). Intramolecular aryliminoisoindelenine (266a,d) and 1,3-diaryliminoisoindoline silylotropic migrations in compounds 266 proceed as successive 1J-shifts by a threepositional exchangescheme (equation 99). The structures266c,b,f with the N,,,-migrant R

R = H, CI; M= SiMe,, GeMe,

Vladimir 1. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

600

bond serve as intermediates in the process. The geometry of the triad N=C=N in 266c,f must meet the following necessary conditions: an axial-equatorial position of nitrogen atoms and permutationalisomerization in the trigonal bipyramid of silicon atomsz0*.The free activation energy of silylotropic migrations in compounds 266 ranges from 20.8 to 23.2 kcalmol-', which exceeds a good deal the AG' values of 1,3-migrationsin silylated

dimethylbenzamides'4s-196.

R

i

i"

b/R

(266))

(2660)

(2664)

R = Me, 4-Tol, 4-An First the intramolecular 1,3-N,O-migrationsof the trimethylsilyl group were detected in bis(trimethylsily1)acetamide (267, R = Me)Z09.Later on210-z1z,after studying the NMR and IR spectra of the I5N-labeledcompound 267 and measuringactivation parametersof the silyl exchange, a scheme was suggested (equation 100) for migrations of the trimethylsilyl groups in bis(trimethylsilyl)amide 267. This schemezlO-z as well as all other^^'^-^'^that describe silylotropic rearrangemnets involves unhindered rotation . about the carbon-nitrogen bond of 26713 e 267c type in the N,N'-disilylamides. Migrations of silyl groups have been studiedz15in six-membered disilylacetimidate 268 that occur through the four-membered intermediate268c (equation 101).The intermediate 268c is so stable that it can be isolated preparatively. The equilibrium content of N-acetyltetramethylcyclosilazoxane (268c) and disilylacetamide 268a,b grows with falling temperature and with increasing polarity of the solvent. As opposed to the six-membered cyclic disilylbenzimidates of type 268 which are not undergo susceptible to tautomerizationf15,the eight-membered ring benzimidates 2691'6 rapid intramolecular 1,3-N,O-silyl migrations via a six-membered ring intermediate 269c amido form (equation 102). The free activation energy (AG*) of 1,3-migrationsof the silyl groups in compounds 269 amounts, depending on the substituent R, to 13.7-

'

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

-

It

601

rotation

/ N-Si’ N -

’.

Me3

0

//-

‘<2Si2Me3

‘S?Me3 ;?Me3

15.5 kcal molElectron-donating substituents R accelerate the rearrangement (equation 102) because they promote the transannularnucleophilicattack by nitrogen on silicon-1 or 2 by increasing the electron density on nitrogen. A comparison was made’” between activation parameters for the exchange of silyl groups in the acyclic 270 and cyclic 271 (R = Ph) disilylbenzamides (equations 103 and 104, respectively). While for the exchange of silyl groups in acyclic disilylbenzamide the free activation energy (AGiOec)amounts to 18.3kcal mol-’, upon coordination of the phosphine donors to the Ni(CO), fragment a sharp increase occurs in the rate of the silyl group migration 271a ~t 271b (AG* = 14.6 kcal mol-’, R = Ph). This effect is explained by the fact that in the 10-memberedchelate ring 271b there occurs a drawing together of the lone pair of the imidate nitrogen atom and the OSiMe, group, which facilitatestransannularattack’” on silicon by the imidate nitrogen to form the N,N-disilylamide 271a. Nondegenerate intramolecular 1,3-N,O-migrations of the trimethylsilyl group that (equation 105) occur also in monosilyl amides 272’18-”2. It has been found’20~22’ the activation parameters of the process (equation 105)and the position ofthe equilibrium 272a z=i 272b depend to a great extent on the substituents both in the amide fragment (R, R’) and at the silicon atom (R’). The 1,3-N,O-shift of the trimethylsilyl group in amides 273 has been studied”’*z23 bY dynamic ‘HNMR (equation 106). A number of other examples of migrations of the trimethylsilyl group in the amide, system have been described in review article^'^^*^^^. N,N’-Dimethylborylbenzamidines 274Ig9exist in solution in an equilibrium mixture of

Vladimir 1. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

602

Me

Me

Me

(2690)

R=OMeJH,CIJN02

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

603

- R-csiMe

R = Me, All, CH=CH,, Ph

R47 N-

2

SiMeZ R2

I

R’

N

I

R’

RZ= Me, t-Bu

(272a)

(273a)

(272b)

(273b)

the open 274a and the cyclic 274) forms (equation 107). 1,3-N,O-tautomericmigrations of the BR,225 and A1Me,226 groups have been detected in the correspondingderivatives of amides. Ph

Ph

(2740)

(274b)

R = n-Pr, i-Bu In the ‘H, 13C and F NMR spectra of methyl- and phenylmercury derivatives of N,N’-diarylformamidines 275, the indicator groups X are isochronic down to the temperatureof - 100°CLg7. This spectral behavior may be accounted for by either a fast, on the NMR time scale, exchange27% # 275b or by the existenceof the compounds in the stable symmetrical form 27% (equation 108), resembling 261. The latter explanation contradicts the X-ray diffraction study’” according to which the phenylmercury derivative of N,N’-di-p-tolylformamidine (275; X = Me, R = Ph) exists in the crystalline

604

Vladimir 1. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

state as the structure 275a where the Hg atom has the T-shaped configuration with one covalent (I = 2.13 A) and one dative (r = 2.68 b;) Hg-N bond.

(275b)

X = Me, OMe, F; R = Ph, Me The same conclusion has been amved at by studying the 19Fand 15NNMRspectra of the phenylmercury derivatives of N,N'-bis(4-fluorophenyl)formamidine (275, X = F; R = Ph) and '5N,1SN'-diphenylformamidine (275, X = H; R = Ph)227.In the former case (in solution in a 2:3 THF-pyridine mixture), a singlet signal with 6 = 14.14 ppm is observed in the "F NMR spectra down to - 110 "C.In the latter (solution in pyridine, 20°C) the 15NNMR spectrum contains one signal of "N with 6 = 193ppm. No satellites caused by the 19'Hg and "N spin-spin coupling have been observed, which indicates very fast, on the NMR time scale, migration of the phenylmercury group in this system. At the same time, when an amidine fragment is included in the structure of the stable phenoxyl radical 278, the 261 bonding type can be realized. The compound 278 is phenoxyl (276) obtained228in the interaction of N,N'-di-p-tolyl-tert-butylbenzamidine (277) in T H F at room temperature with N-phenylrnercury-N,N'-di-p-tolylbenzamidine when, by an intermolecular exchange, the proton is replaced by the phenylmercury fragment (equation 109). On the ESR time scale (the characteristic time is within the 10-'-10-8 s range), compound 278 behaves as possessing C,, symmetryzz8. 1,3-Rearrangementsof transition and main-group metal-centered groups have been described'98*2z9-233that proceed in compounds in which the amidine triad is incorporated in a heterocycle. Making use of the UV (visible) adsorption spectroscopy, nondegenerate 1,3-N,Nfdisplacement of the phenylmercury group has been studied2z9 in phenylmercury (280). The coexistence in acetonitrile derivatives of 2-phenylsulfonylaminopyridine solution of aminopyridine (280a) and pyridone imine (280b) tautomeric forms of compound 280 has been shown as well as their interconversion by way of N,N'-migration of the phenylmercury moiety (equation 110). The dependence of the ratio between the tautomers on the character of the solvent has been established. Whereas the trimethylsilyl derivative of 2-pyridone (281, MR, = SiMe,) exists exclusively in the form of the 0-Si derivative 281aZJ0,in the case of the phenylmercury,

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

605

I

I

(277)

HgPh

I

H

Q =Q NSO2Ph

I

I

I

HgPh

HgPh

(2800)

NSO2Ph

(280b)

triaryltin, triaryllead and diarylantimony derivatives of 2-pyridone 281231.232and of amides 28223'*233, dynamic tautomeric equilibria take place (equations 11 1 and 112). The phenylmercury derivatives 281,282 (MR, = HgPh) exist in solution predominantly as the 0-derivatives 281a, 282a, while the triaryllead and tin derivatives 281,282 (MR, = PbAr,,

a

OMR, I

(2810)

hR, (281b)

R

R

MR, = HgPh, SnAr,, PbAr,, SbAr,

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

606

SnAr,) are more stable in the tautomeric forms 281b, 282b in which the organometallic group is bonded to nitrogen. Thio analogs of the compounds 281,282 exist, in the solid state and solution alike, exclusively as S-derivatives 281a, 282a23’.233. It has been revealed by dynamic ‘HNMR that the di-(p-toly1)formamidinePt and Pd complexes of the monodentate o-N bonding 283 type195*z34 exhibit in solution fluxional behavior associated with intramolecularlow-energy metal 1J-shifts in the amidine triad. The process (equation 113) proceeds via the pentacoordinate intermediate 283c in which both nitrogen atoms form a-bonds with the metal using their electron lone pairs.

(2834)

(283~)

(285b)

R = 4-Tol; M = Pt, Pd L, L, X = C6H3(CHzNMez)z-2,61ys L = PPh,; X = H, An analog of the metallotropic transformations of amidines (equation 113) is represented by fast reversible intramolecular1,3-N,N’-shifts of organometallic groups in the 1,s-naphthyridinesystem ~ t u d i e d ~ by ~ dynamic ~ - ~ ~ ’‘HNMR. In compounds 284 the fastest migrations (equation 114) between the nitrogens of the naphthyridinecycle occur in the case of the Au-centered group236whose intramolecular migrations 284s e284b could be ‘frozen’ only at - 90°C.

MRn

(2840)

MRn

(284b)

MR, = Cr(CO),, W(CO), z35 Me,AuX (X = Hal, OCN, SeCN)236 Pt(PEt,)CI2” An intermolecular shift of Pd in the amidine system takes place in the course of the irreversible rearrangement 285 +286 (equation 1 15). An X-ray diffraction study has shownzo3that the complex 285 { [(dpb)Pd],(p-dpd),} contains two Pd” ions bridged by two N,N’-diphenylbenzamidine (dpd) ligands with an additional dpb moiety chelated to each of the metals forming four-membered rings. Due to steric hindrance caused by the chelating ligands, the Pd atoms in the complex 285 are spaced 2.90A apart so that no covalent Pd. ..Pd bond exists. When the complex 285 is refluxed in methanol (2 h), the two chelating ligandsrearrangeto form the tetra-bridged complex 286 [Pd,(pdpb),] in 40% yield in which the Pd...Pd distance is reduced to 2.58 A permitting the binding of these atoms.

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds ph,

607

Ph

ph

ph\N&

I

Ph

Ph

rn

V. OTHERREARRANGEMENTS

Of course, the 1,3- and 3,3-migrations do not represent all the types of molecular rearrangementsinherent in amidines, imidates and related compounds. Next we examine, by no means claiming to exhaust the subject, some other cases not reducible to the above migrations as well as rearrangementsthat lead to cyclization. A. Migration of Groups N-Anchored to Aromatic Rings

Such migration is characteristicof Ocentered groups attached to amidine or imidate nitrogen. So N-tosyloxy-N,N'-diarylbenzamidines 287, under mild conditions (CHCl,, 10 "C),readily undergo N +C displacements of the tosyloxy group to the ortho-carbonsin both N-aryl rings238.In addition to the rearrangementproducts 289,291, the products of substitution 290,292 are also formed when in 287 X or Y =NO, (equation 116). The ratio between the products 289 and 292 is dependent upon the substituents X and Y. The mechanism of the reaction (equation 116) studied by 15N and I8O labeling experiments implies heterolytic ionization of the N-0 bond with the formation of the intermediate tight ion-pair structure 288, which then undergoes intramolecular rearrangement.In the case of amidines 287a,d, a particular memory effect is evidenced in that the rearrangement(equation 116) proceeds regioselectively, i.e. the tosyloxy group attacks the ortho position of the neighboring aromatic ring (A) to produce compounds 289a,d, respectively. This behavior is explained by the structureof the tight ion pair 288 in which the recombination of counter-ions takes place faster than the migration to the remote aromatic nucleus(B). In the case of compounds 287b,c containingan NO, group in one of the N-aryl rings, the memory effect is outbalanced by the electronic effect of the substituent so that both ortho and para isomers are formed. Like benzamidines 104 and 232, the compounds 289-292 are readily cyclized with the elimination of TosOH to give a mixture of benzimidazoles 293,294 and 1,3-diazepine 295 whose relative yields strongly depend on the substituents X, Y. In contrast to the rearrangement(equation 116), the photoinitiated rearrangementof 1imidoyloxy-4,6-diphenyl-2-pyridones 2%239*240 (MeCN, irradiation at A, = 254 and 350nm) follows, according to References 241 and 242, a homolytic N-0 bond fission pathway (equation 117) resulting in the formation of the radical pair 297 and subsequent displacement of the imidoyl radical to the 3 and 5 positions of the pyridine ring. This mechanism(which may also be explained in terms of the Doering biradicaloid mechanism of 3,3-sigmatropic shifts; see References 241 and 242) was suggested by the effect the substituents in the imidoyl fragment have on the ratio between the products 298,299 as well as by the formation of a number of by-products of the rearrangement.

Q

608

Vladimir 1. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

I

O-Tos

+ OTos

(290)

(289)

+

(291)

Ph

(292)

I

--TOSOH

6 Y

(294)

(295)

11. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

609

It is argued that the free-radical mechanism of the photoinduced 0,C-shift of ally1 groups with a transient loose radical pair is also responsible for the rearrangementof 2[ (2-butenyl)-oxy]-4,5-diphenyloxazolone (300a) leading to the formation of 5-allyl-4,5diphenyl-3-oxazolinones(301a, 83% and 302a, 17%)' 19*120. The rearrangement(equation 118) is regiospecific.The isomers 301 are formed in higheryields than 302, which is due to steric hindrance when the transient ally1 radical approaches the heterocyclic radical formed upon homolytic photodissociation of 300 from the side shielded by substituents.

+ R2

Ph

(300)

(301)

(a) R'=-H, R2 =Me

(b) R'=R2=Me

The radical mechanismof the transformations(equation 119) is corroborated by results (303)'2o which of the photochemical rearrangementof 2-(benzyloxy)-4,5-diphenyloxazole produces oxazolinone 304 and bibenzyl305.

Axph A<'h

PhCH20

Ph

CH2Ph

+

PhCH2CH2Ph

(305)

(1 19)

B. Rearrangements Resulting in Cyclizatlon

This class of rearrangementscan be divided into two groups. One of these comprises processes in which the ringclosure is a direct act of the amidine or imidate rearrangement,

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

610

the other consists of the rearrangementsof amidines or imidates that lead to compounds with such a position of functionalgroups as to provide conditions for furtherdevelopment of the ring closure reaction. Rearrangementsof the former type may be exemplified by the formation,in good yields, of derivatives of 1,3,7,8-tetraazaspiro[4,5Jdecane 308 from the interaction of pyridazine4,Sdicarboxy anhydride (306) with 1,3 binucleophiles (substituted guanidines, thioureas and benzamidines) under mild conditions243(equation 120).

'q I

coo-rNH bph 4HN$Tph COOH

Ph

I

HN=C-NHa)

N\

"-

HN\

0

0

ij

(306)

(307)

Forsalts of arylideneamidrazones309 (R' = Ph), using 'H and "C NMR, the ring-chain tautomeric equilibrium 1-arylidenamidrazone (309a)# 1,2,4-triazoline (309b) has been observed244(equation 121). The presence of a substituent at the N atom facilitates the formation of the cyclic form 309b (R' = Ph, R2= H, R3 = R4 = R'7 = Me), while in its absence the form 309a prevails (R' = Ph, R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H). The substituents RZ, R4, R5 exert little influence on the position of the ring-chain equilibrium. R'

Methyguanylhydrazonium iodides 310 also undergo a ring-chainrearrangementof this type245.They can exist in solution in a chain form 310a, a cyclic form 310b or as a mixture of both of them (equation 122). The arylidene derivatives 310 (R2 = Ar) exist in solution exclusively as the chain tautomers 310a on account of the stabilization brought about by conjugation. On the other hand,the alkylidene derivative 310 (R' = R 2 = Me) contains in DMSOat ambient temperature47% of the chain isomer 310a and 53% of the cyclic isomer 310b.

(3100)

(310b)

R,' R2 = Ar, H, Alk

61 1

1 I. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

A more complex ring-chain equilibrium was found to occur in o-dichlorobenzene solution of 5,7-dimethyl-2-(p-tolyl)-S-triazino[ 1,5-f]pyrimidine-l-oxide (31la), a molecule which contains a guanidine fragment246. The free energy barrier to degenerate isomerization was evaluated (AG~2,,oc= 20.2 kcal mol- I ) and the formation of a nitroso imine intermediate 31 lc detected (equation 123). 0-

MI

MI

Me

MI

Me

MI

Tol-4

0(3110)

/NMe2

RCH2-C

It RCH=C

( 124)

OH-

/NMe2

\

02Np H+ NH2

No2

R=Ph, R=PhO

I

(312)

e amidine -

0

2

N

p

N

H

N02-

N02-

(315)

M

Re

2

Vladimit: I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

612

Upon interaction of trinitrobenzene and various di-, tri- and tetranitronaphthalenes with amrdines 312; the products. of both N- and C-arylation are formed (313 and 314, respeetively) which, under the action of bases (amidineor alkali),ultimately rearrangeinto the bicyclic adduct 315 (equation 124)247-250. This process is known under the general term of r n e t a - b ~ i d g i n g ~ ~ ' - ~ ~ ~ . Ananusualcyclkation of derivatives of amidines 316 containingtwo phenoxyl moieties was recently reported253.Single-electronoxidation of 316 with ferricyanideor PbO, leads to the formation of stable radicals 317, 318 giving well-resolved ESR spectra. Further oxidation,resultsin the biradical319 which readily undergoes ring-closureto afford a bis-

R

(320)

t

t (316)

I

(317 )

1

--.,--H*

?tR

R"

I

--.,--H*

R

(319~)

I

I

+ (318)

o%o.

+ (3190)

___)

0

N

I

NYR

1 1. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

613

320 in 95% yield (equation 125).The 320 spirocyclic derivative of 2,5-pyrrolidine-2,5-dione to 316 conversion can be realized by smooth reduction of 320 with LiAlH, in ether solution. The molecularstructureof compound 320 was confirmed by an X-ray diffraction studyzs3. Ring-closure reactions preceded by rearrangement of amidines or imidates are often very useful in synthetic practice. An illustrative example is a convenient synthesis of N (5-oxazolyl) derivatives of amidines (322a-d), guanidine (322e), isourea (3220 and of oxazolo[5,4-~fjpyrimid-7-ones (323a-f)2s4. The key step in this sequence of transformations in the intramolecular rearrangement of oxazoles 321a-f to 322a-f upon boiling their toluene solution (equation 126). The proposed procedure may be utilized in the preparation of some of the biologically important purine and hypoxanthine systems.

-

COOEt 1. KOH/E~OH

2.AcOH

C. Rearrangements of lmidates due to Heterolytic 0-C

Ph

Bond Fission

These rearrangementscan occur within a molecule possessing a nucleophiliccenter in a spatial position favorable for attack upon the imidate CSp2-center. It has been showng1 by dynamic 'H NMR that the 0-(N-pheny1)benzimidoyl derivatives of tropolone 324 exhibit fluxional behavior associated with degenerate rapid reversible intramolecular0,O-migrations of imidoyl moiety that proceed by an associative mechanism via a tive-membered cyclic transition state (or intermediate) 324c. Table 13 lists kinetic and activation parameters of the process (equation 127). Migrations of imidoyl groups in compounds 324 are accompanied by two stereodynamic processes, viz. (1) the Z e E inversion of the imine nitrogen and (2)hindered rotation about the bonds C(!)-O(2)and C(3,-O(zp An X-ray diffractionstudy has shown255*2s6 that the structureof compounds 324 (Nos. 3,s in Table 13) in the solid state favors the intramolecular0,O'-migrations of the imidoyl groups. Indeed, the imidoyl moieties are deviated from the plane of the tropolone cycle and rotated about the C(,)-O(2t bond by 69.8" and 48.9", respectively. The distances between

614

Vladimir I. Minkin and Igor E. Mikhailov

TABLE 13. Kinetic and activation parameters of degenerate rearrangements 324a # 324b, according to Reference 91

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

R'

R2

H OMe H H NO2 NO,

H H NO, OMe H OMe NO,

NO^

6.4 x 10' 1.3 x lo-' 1.5 x lo3 2 . 7 lo-' ~ 1.3 x 10' 8 . 5 10 ~ 4.3 x 1 0 3

AH: (kcal mol-')

ASf (cal deg-' mol-')

AG~,. (kcal mar-')

7.4 f 0.3 15.0 f 0.3 8.6 k 0.3 18.2k 0.3 9.1 k0.3 9.3 k 0.3 8.6 f 0.3

-21.1 f 1.0 - 12.2 f 0.7 - 15.6 f 0.5 0.0 0.7 - 17.9 f 1.0 -17.9fl.O - 12.9 f 1.0

13.6 18.6 13.2 18.2 14.6 14.8 12.4

R@

l $

N=C

\

(127)

he

Me

(324~)

(3240)

(324b)

I',R ~ = H , O M ~ , N O ~ the carbon atoms of the isoamide triad and the tropolone carbonyl oxygen atom, 2.74A and 2.58 A, are shorter than the respective Van der Waals contacts. A rapid degenerate 0,O'-migrationof the (cyanoimino)alkyl group in tropolones 325 has been s t ~ d i e d ~By~ heating ~ . ~ ~325 ~ .(R = Me) in boiling toluene (2.5 h) the Diels-Alder adduct 326 was formed (equation 128).

Rp & NC

\N=C

/'h

\

R

R

I

1 1 0 oc 2.5 h

\R

R

R=H,Me

(3250)

Me

(325U

6h

(326)

(128)

11. Rearrangements in amidines and related compounds

615

Similar migrations of the (cyanoimino)alkyl group have also been detected in 1,3diketone systems259. So the reaction of acetylacetone 327 with N-cyanobenzimidoyl chloride 328 in the presence of triethylamine/dimethylaminopyridine produces a mixture of the E- and 2-isomers of the 0-substitution product 329 (equation 129). A rapid degenerate intramolecular 0,O-migration (Z-329a # Z-329b) of the (cyanoimino)alkyl group has been shown2s9 by dynamic 'H NMR t o occur in 2-329 (equation 129).

Ph

Me

Me

Me

Me

(2-3290)

(2-329b)

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196. 0. J. Scherer and P. Hornig, Chem. Ber., 101, 2533 (1968). 197. M. G. Kuzmina, N. G. Boki, Yu. T. Struchkov, V. I. Minkin, L. P. Olekhnovich and I. E. Mikhailov, Zh. Struct. Khim., 18, 122 (1977). 198. L. A. Fyodorov, D. N. Kravtsov and A. S . Peregudov, Usp. Khim., 50, 1304 (1981). 199. B. M. Mikhailov, Pure Appl. Chem., 49, 749 (1977). 200. E. W. Abel and J. Skittral, J . Organomet. Chem., 185, 391 (1980). 201. A. D. Robinson, S. D. Robinson, A. Sahajral and M. B. Hursthouse, J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans., 1327 (1981). 202. E. Forsellini,U. Cassellato, R. Graziani, L. Toniolo, R. Ressi and L. Magon, Inorg. Chim. Acta, 61, 255 (1982). 203. C.-L. Yao, L.-P. He, J. D. Korp and J.-L. Bear, Inorg. Chem., 27, 4389 (1988). 204. Reference 53, Chap. 11, pp. 441-487. 205. F. G. Stone and R. West (Eds.), Adu. Organomet. Chem., Vol. 16, Molecular Rearrangements, 1977. 206. R. E. Wasylishen, G. S. Birdi and A. F. Janzen, Inorg. Chem., 3054 (1976). 207. V. N. Torocheshnikov, N. M. Sergeeyev, N. A. Viktorov, G . S. Goldin V. G. Poddubny and A. N. Koltsova, J . Organomet. Chem., 70, 347 (1974). 208. H. J. Reich and D. A. Murcia, J . Am. Chem. Soc., 95, 3418 (1973). 209. C. Kruger, E. G. Rochow and U. Wannagat, Chem. Ber., 96, 2138 (1963). 210. C. H. Yoder and D. Bonelli, Inorg. Nucl. Chem. Lett., 8, 1027 (1972). 211. C. Yoder, W.C. Copenhafer and B. DuBeshter, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 96,4283 (1974). 212. A. Komoriya and C. H. Yoder, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 94,5285 (1972). 213. W. C. Copenhafer, B. DuBeshter and C. H. Yoder, J. Am Chem. SOC.,96,4286 (1974). 214. K. Itoh, M. Katsuda and Y . Ishii, J . Chem. Soc. (B), 302 (1970). 215. B. Dejak and Z . Lasocki, J. Organomet. Chem., 246, 151 (1983). 216. B. Dejak, Z. Lasocki and H. Jancke, Bull. Pol. Acad. Sci.. Chem., 33, 275 (1985). 217. M. D. Fryzuk and P. A. MacNeil, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 106,6993 (1984). 218. J. F. Klebe, J . Am. Chem. Soc., 90, 5246 (1968). 219. J. F. Klebe, Acc. Chem. Res., 3, 299 (1970). 220. M. Fukui, K. Itoh and Y . Ishii, J . Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2, 1043 (1972). 221. C. L. Hausman and C. H. Yoder, J. Organomet. Chem., 161, 313 (1978). 222. J. Matsuda, K. Itoh and Y. Ishii, J. Chem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. 2, 1678 (1972). 223. K. Itoh, N. Kato and Y . Ishii, J . Organomet. Chem., 22, 49 (1970). 224. A. G. Brook and A. R. Bassindale,in Rearrangementsin Ground and Excited States, Vol. 2 (Ed. P. de Mayo), Chap. 9, Academic Press, New York, 1980, pp. 149-221. 225. W. Maringgele and A. Meller, J . Organometal. Chem. 141, 241 (1977). 226. T. Hirabayshi, T. Sakakibara and Y. Ishii, J. Organomet. Chem., 32, C5 (1971). 227. E. B. Borisov, Candidate Thesis, Inst. Elem. Org. Soed. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Moscov, USSR, 1983. 228. E. P. lvachnenko, I. E. Mikhailov, V. I. Minkin, A. 1. Prokofyev and M. I. Kabachnik, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 288, 1117 (1986). 229. D. N. Kravtsov, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 162, 581 (1965). 230. L. Birkofer, A. Ritter and H. P. Kuhlthau, Chem. Ber., 97, 934 (1964). 231. D. N. Kravtsov and A. N. Nesmeyanov, Izu. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Khim., 1747 (1967). 232. A. N. Nesmeyanov, L. Alfonso, D. N. Kravtsov and B. V. Lokshin, Izu. Akad. Nauk SSSR. Ser. Khim., 296 (i968). . 233. A. N. Nesmevanov. D. N. Kravtsov and E. M. Rokhlina. Izu. Akad. Nauk SSSR. Ser. Khim.. 1038 (1968). 234. L. Toniolo, U. Croatto, A. Immirzi and G. Bombieri, Inorg. Chim. Acta, 19, 209 (1976). 235. K. R. Dixon, D. T. Eadie and S. R. Stobart, Inorg. Chem., 21,4319 (1982). 236. H. Schmidbaur and K. C. Dash, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 95,4855 (1973). 237. K. R. Dixon, Inorg. Chem., 16, 2618 (1977). 238. N. Binding and A. Husing, Chem. Ber., 116, 1822 (1983). 239. A. R. Katritzky, A. V. Chapman, M. J. Cook and G. H. Millet, J . Chem. SOC.,Chem. Commun., 395 (1979). 240. A. R. Katritzky, A. V. Chapman, M. J. Cook and G. H. Millet, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1, 2743 (1980). 241. W. v. E. Doering, V. G. Toscano and G. H. Beasley, Tetrahedron, 27,299 (1971). ~~

~

11. Rearrangementsin amidines and related compounds

62 1

242. M. J. S. Dewar and C. Jie, J. Am. Chem. SOC., 109, 5893 (1987). 243. S. Chimichi, R. Nesi and M. Nesi, J. Chem. SOC., Perkin Trans. I , 2491 (1984), 244. V. A. Khrustalyov, V. P. Sergutina, K. N. Zelenin and V. V. Pinson, Khim. Geterocycl. Soedin., 1264 (1982). 245. K. N. Zelenin, V. P. Sergutina, 0. V. Solod and V. V. Pinson, Khim. Geterocycl Soedin., 1071 (1987). 246. T. L. Gilchrist, C. J. Hannis, C. J. Moady and C. W. Rees, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun., 486 (1974). 247. M. J. Strauss and F. Terrier, Tetrahedron Lett. 313 (1979). 248. R. R. Bard and M. J. Strauss, J. Org. Chem., 41, 2421 (1976). 249. M. J. Strauss and R. R. Bard, J . Org. Chem., 43, 3600 (1978). 250. F. Terrier, A.-P. Chatrousse and M. J. Strauss, J. Org. Chem., 49,4172 (1984). 251. M. J. Strauss, Ace. Chem. Res., 7, 381 (1974). 252. S. S. Gitis and A. Ya. Kaminskii, Usp. Khim., 47, 1970 (1978). 253. V. I. Minkin, E. P. Ivachnenko, A. I. Shif, L. P. Olekhnovich, 0. E. Kompan, A. 1. Yanovskii and Yu. T. Struchkov, J. Chem. SOC., Chem. Commun., 990 (1988). 254. K. Smith and L. French, Synthesis, 10, 837 (1983). 255. N. G . Furmanova, V. I. Andrianov and T. N. Safonova, KristaRograJa, 32, 1530 (1987). 256. N. G . Furmanova, L. P. Olekhnovich, V. I. Andrianov, A. V. Lesin, Z. N. Budarina, $! V. Kurbatov, V. 1. Minkin and Yu. A. Zhdanov, Zh. Org. Khim., 24, 903 (1988). 257. K. Hartke, W. F. Richter, W.Massd and G . Baum, Tetrahedron Lett., 27,2743 (1986). 258. K. Hartke, W.F. Richter, W. Massa and G. Baum, Chem. Ber., 122, 657 (1989). 259. K. Hartke, W. F. Richter and T. Kampchen, Chem. Ber., 122, 669 (1989).

CHAPTER

12

Basicity. H.bonding. tautomerism and complex formation of imidic acid derivatives JANUSZ OSZCZAPOWICZ Department of Chemistry. University of Warsaw. Warsaw. Poland

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I1 . BASICITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Basicity of Trisubstituted Amidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Correlations with substituent constants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Substitution at the functional carbon atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Substitution at the imino nitrogen atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. Substitution at the amino nitrogen atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d . Substitution at two and more sites of the amidino group . . . . . 2. Correlations with pK, values of amines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Substitution at the imino nitrogen atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Substitution at the amino nitrogen atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Basicity of Tautomerizing Amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. General relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Basicity of monosubstituted and N.N'-disubstituted amidines . . . . C. Basicity of Amidoximes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Basicity of Amidrazones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Basicity of Formazans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111. TAUTOMERISM AND H-BONDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Tautomeric Equilibria, General Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Compounds with two tautomeric forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Compounds with three tautomeric forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Tautomerism of Amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Prototropic tautomerism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Other tautomerisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Tautomerism of Amidrazones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D . Tautomerism of Formazans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV . COMPLEX FORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . Complexes of Amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates. Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and Z . Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

623

624 625 626 626 627 629 634 636 648 648 653 655 655 658 660 660 662 662 663 663 665 666 666 670 671 673 676 676

624

J. Oszczapowicz

1. Collision complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Metal complexes of amidines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a. Complex formation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b. Practical applications of amidine complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Boron complexes of amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Complexes of Amidoximes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Complexes of Formazans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VLREFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

676 677 679 680 68 1 682 683 684 684

1. INTRODUCTION

Tautomerism, H-bonding and complex formation of amidines all depend on their acidbase properties. Hydrogen bonding between amidine molecules and tautomerism are strictly related, but hydrogen bonding with another proton-donating compound is discussed separately in the section on complexes. In the section on basicity, the influenceof substitution at various sites of the functional group on pK, values is discussed in terms of correlationswith Hammett-type substituent constantsor with pK, values of corresponding amines.In suchcases regressioncoefficients are given with confidenceintervals calculated at a significancelevel of 0.95, except when a literature source did not state which values of the independent variables (n) were used. Comparability of the pK, values is very important for the investigations on structurebasicity relations. The pK, values of many amidines reported in the literature were measured in various solvents, such as methanol, ethanol, water, acetonitrile and waterethanol or water-cellosolve mixtures because their solubility in water is insufficientfor the purpose. However, the pK, value of any compound depends on the solvent, or on the composition of binary solvents. As the most convenient solvent for pK, determinations 95.6% ethanol was recommended’.’ because,as an azeotrope, it always possesses the same composition. Investigations on relations between pK, values of amidines or the p values and the solvent parametersare quite r e ~ e n t and ~ - ~no generalconclusions may as yet be drawn. It is well known that the reliability of conclusions based on comparison of p values depends on the number of compounds in the series, as well as on the range of the substituenteffects. Another substantialfactor to which not enough attention is paid, is the comparability of the series. Since the regression line very seldom passes through all the experimentalpoints, and usually it is only the ‘line of the best fit’, it is obvious that addition or subtraction of some experimental points may alter the slope of a regression line. Therefore,for some series several p values are given, one for the whole series studied and the others for shorter sets. In addition to the commonly used correlation coefficient r, an additional estimatorExner’s function6-is often given, since the latter takes into accountalso the number of experimental points and hence provides more reliable information about the goodness of fit. For example, consideringjust two experimental points, the coirelation coefficient‘r is equal to unity, suggesting jdeal correlation, but according to Exner’s function it is immediately seen that the quality of the correlation is very poor. In each section, wherever possible, ambiguities of the literature data or their interpretationare discussed and some suggestions or assumptions are presented. It is the author’s hope that these assumptions will serve as starting points for new investigations in the field.

+

+

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

625

It. BASICITY

The amidino group contains an amino nitrogen atom with a free electron pair conjugated with the n-electrons of the C=N double bond. O n protonation of the imino nitrogen atom, a resonance-stabilized symmetrical amidinium ion 1 is obtained, and therefore amidines are strong bases.

-

/N-R

R-C

H+

\N-R

I R

H

I+

R-C

//N-R \N-R

I R

-

/N-R

R-C

\NTR

I

R

(1)

Depending on the substitution at both nitrogen atoms, amidines are classified into various general types: unsubstituted (2), monosubstituted (3), symmetrically N,N'disubstituted (4a), unsymmetrically N,N'-disubstituted (4b), N',N '-disubstituted (5) and trisubstituted (6) amidines. R

R

I HN=C-NHz

R

e

R~NH-C=NH

(3)

(2) R

R

R

R' NH-C=NR1

R'

I HN=C-N

R' /R2

'R3

R4N=C-N

I

,R2

'R3

N,N'-Disubstituted amidines in general are often erroneously called symmetrical, however this name should be used only for amidines where substituents at both nitrogen atoms are identical. On the other hand N',N'-disubstituted amidines (5) are sometimes called unsymmetricalamidine;, but this should be avoided as it may lead to confusion with 4b. Only trisubstituted and N',N'-disubstituted amidines (5 and 6 ) d o not undergo prototropic tautomerization. All other amidines may exist in two tautomeric forms. For unsubstituted (2) and symmetrically disubstituted (4a) amidines tautomerizationis usually neglected, since in these cases both tautomeric forms are identical. However, when considering their pK, values, this tautomerization should be taken into account (cf. Section II.B.l). For years it was not entirely clear which of the two nitrogen atoms is being protonated as a result ofsalt formation.Even in the review on basicity of amidines published in 1975 in

2

J. Oszczapowicz

626

this series' it was stated: 'it is impossible to decide which of the two nitrogen atoms is being protonated, even though some sources state that the protonation occurs at the sp2 nitrogen'. After that review was written, all reliable experimental results, such as the pK, values of amidines compared with those of aminess, the p values obtained for correlations ofpK, values with substituent constants at both nitrogen atom^^-'^,as well as analysis of the IR spectra of amidines and their saltsI3 indicated unambiguously that protonation occurs at the imino nitrogen atom. Even so, in a recent paper14 as a result of intricate discussion of the UV and IR spectra of N',N'-dimethyl-N2-( I-anthraquinono)amidines, the rathersurprisingconclusionwas drawn that protonation occurs at the dimethylamino group, i.e. at the amino nitrogen atom. Investigations on quantitative relations between basicity and the structure of amidines are comparatively recent. In the above-mentioned review' it was concluded that the basicity of amidines increases in the order: trisubstituted amidines; N,N'-disubstituted amidines; N-monosubstituted; N',N'-disubstituted and unsubstituted amidines. But it was pointed out that 'this classification is not valid if strongly polar substituents are present at the nitrogen atom^'^'. In another review on a m i d i n e ~the ' ~ pK, values (in 50% EtOH) of 7, 8 and 9 were compared, and the conclusion was drawn that 'introduction of a phenyl group on the amino nitrogen in benzamidine causes a reduction in basicity by a factor of about 10, but the introductionof the same group on the imino nitrogen reducesthe basicity by a factor of about 1000"5. Ph

1 Bun NEC-NHBu"

Ph

I Bun N=C-NHPh

Ph PhN-C-N,

I

/Me 'Me

(7)

(9)

Although it seemed obvious that basicity of amidines depends on substitution at all threesites (at both nitrogen atoms and at the functionalcarbon atom), until the second half of the 1970s investigations on the quantitative relations between substitution and basicity were few. Only at the beginningof the eighties was a systematic study on relations between substitution at both nitrogen atoms and the functional carbon atom and the basicity of amidines undertaken by Oszczapowicz and c ~ w o r k e r s ~ - ~ . ~6-27. -' '4'

A. Basicity of Trisubstituted Amidines 1. Correlations with substituent constants

Values of the pK, of acids and bases containing a substituted phenyl ring obey the Hammett equation 1, which for pK, values is now written'" in the rearrangedform given in equation 2. Ig(K/K") = pa

(1)

pKu = PK; - p a (2) In any kind of investigation on the relation between properties of organiccompounds and substituentconstants, the proper choice ofavalues is a crucialpoint. In early works on the basicity of amidines their pK, values were correlated with ordinary a values. Only P a ~ s e for t~~ monosubstituted phenylacetamidines (lo), and later Katritzky3' for p substituted N1,N'-dimethyl-N2-phenylacetamidines (11) have applied no values. Recently Oszczapowicz and coworkers'*'4 have shown that the proper choice of parameters can be achieved by considering the possible interactions of the substituents

621

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

(11)

(10)

with the reaction centre. In the case of amidines there are three possible sites to which substituents may be bonded-both nitrogen atoms and the functional carbon atom. Substituentson the phenyl ring a t the amino nitrogen atom cannot conjugate with the reaction centre. Electron-withdrawingsubstituents at the imino nitrogen atom conjugate with the amidine system but, as shown by structure 12, the effect of the substituent produces neitherchargeformation nor electron configurationon the imino nitrogen atom, which is a protonation centre.

' -

R'

R' [ X e N = C - N , R

-

' X O N - C = N , . ]

R'

1

-/R

(12)

Therefore it was concluded' that for amidines containing variable substituents at a phenyl ring bound to either of the nitrogen atoms, most suitable should be 0' values. ~ ~ ~ ~ good ~ - ~ support ' for this Correlations for several series of a m i d i n e ~ ' ~ ~provided conclusion.O n the other hand, for substituentson the phenyl ring at the functionalcarbon atom, ordinary 0 values are suitable, because in this case conjugation may considerably alter the electron configurationon the imino nitrogen atom (13). This was confirmedz4 for a series of substituted benzamidines: the best results are obtained with ordinary 0 values, but for the p-nitro group the 0 - value should be used instead of B.

(13)

The imino nitrogen atom is the protonationsite of the amidino group. Therefore it is obvious that the strongest influence on basicity will be exerted by a substituent at this atom, a smaller effect by substitution at the functional carbon and the smallest one by substitution at the amino nitrogen.

a. Substitution at thefunctional carbon atom. The first attempt at relating the pK, values of amidines to substituent constants was made in 1953 by Jafft?' and concerned only substitution at the amidino carbon atom. Jaffe correlated cr constants with the pK, values of N',N'-dibutylbenzamidines (14) measured in 50% methanol by Lorz and Baltzly3', and found that the pK, values of the amidines obey the Hammet equation 1. The p values of 1.41 was obtained. Harnmett-type constants cr were introduced for compounds containing phenyl rings

J. Oszczapowicz

628

C6H4X

I

HN&

B“2

substituted in the para or meta position (or in both positions). Attempts have been made also to apply these constants to amidines which did not contain a phenyl ring. In 1965 Chart~n collected ~~ the literature pK, values measured in water for unsubstituted amidines (15), containing various substituents bonded directly to the amidine carbon atom, and attempted to establish correlations with three different sets of substituent constants:CT, and a,constants taken from the compilation of McDaniel and Brown34and the c, constants (wherever possible) given by Lewis and T a P . X

I

HN=C-NHZ (15)

Charton has applied the same approach to monosubstituted N-phenylamidines(16), Nsubstituted guanidines(17) and N-substituted N‘-nitroguanidines(18) containingvarious substituents bonded directly to a nitrogen atom. He found that the best correlations are obtained with u, values, however in the case of N-phenylamidines (16) the best results (Table 1) seemed to be obtained with c, values. X

I

PhN=C-NH,

X

=

XN=C-NHNO*

I

XN=C-NHZ

NH2

I

NH2

NH2

e

t

XNH-C=NNO,

NH2 =XNH-C=NH

NH

II

e XNH-C-NHNO,

(18)

1

In 1968-69 Minkin and coworker^^^-^"correlated the pK, values (Table 2) measured in anhydrous acetonitrile for various series of benzamidines, namely 2-arylbenzimidazoles” (19), 2-aryl-5,6-diphenylbenzirnida~oles~~ (20), N,N‘-(2,2’-biphenylene)benzamidineP [(21) referred to as 5-H-dibenzo-(d,f) (1,3)diazepinesJ, N,N’-[2,2’(4,4‘dichl~ro-)-biphenyl]-benzamidines~~ (22), N,N’-(1,8-naphthylene)-benzarnidine~~~ (23, referred to as meso-arylperimidines)and N,N’-diphenylbenzamidine~~~ (24).

XC, H 4 - CN ‘ e N D H

(19)

(20)

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

629

R

I

(21) R=H

(24)

(23)

(22)R=CI

The p values were reported to the third decimal point, but the authors did not state confidenceintervals nor the source of the u values used. The regression parametersof these pK, values with reliable and the most commonly used u values34 calculated laterlg with confidence intervals at a significance level of 0.95 (Table 3) indicated that substitution at the nitrogen atoms may influence the obtained p values for substitution at a phenyl ring bound to the amidino carbon atom. However, on account of considerable confidence intervals, these differences were not regarded as significant. n ~ much ~ higher than those obtained by other The p values reported by C h a r t ~ are authors, but it must be remembered that in the case of structures 15-16 the substituent X was directly bonded to the functional carbon atom, whereas in benzamidines the polar effects of the substituents X are transmitted through a phenyl ring.

b. Substitution at the imino nitrogen atom. In the first paper concerning the influence of substitution at the imino nitrogen atom on the basicity of amidines, Katritzky and coworkers39 measured the pK, values (Table 4) in water for N1,N1-dimethyl-N2arylacetamidines (11) anc correlated them (equation 1) with c-, c and uo constants,

TABLE I . Parameters of regression (equation I ) of pK, values of C-substituted amidines (15, 16) and Nsubstituted guanidines(l7 and 18)with various sets of substituent constants33 Series

U

~

15

UI

U,

16

UP

U, U,

17

UP 61

a,

18

P

r

n

- 11.01

0.815 0.965 0.619 0.931 0.999 0.811 0.990 0.908 0.648 0.980 0.779 0.559

10 10 10 5 5 5 8 8 8 7 I

~

UP 01

om UP

- 11.98 - 4.64

- 14.63 - 12.08 - 6.31 -24.09 - 17.70 - 7.80 - 16.44 - 8.28 - 2.83

I

J. Oszczapowicz

630

TABLE 2. pK, values of benzamidines 19-24 in anhydrous acetonitrileat 25 & 0.1 "C

X P-NO, m-NO, m-Br

19"

20"

21b

2Zb

23'

24'

10.93

11.27

12.33 12.47 -

10.69

11.92 12.69

13.19 13.38 13.8I

-

-

-

11.11

-

m-CI

11.76

m-F p-Br p-CI m-OMe P-F H p-Me p-OMe p-NMe,

-

-

I 1.98 12.00

12.3I

-

-

12.65 12.99 13.18 14.30

12.76 13.05 13.32 14.28

-

-

13.13 13.35 13.85 13.66 13.93 14.26 14.60 -

-

11.58

11.80

12.84

-

-

14.05

-

12.39

-

-

-

12.42 13.02

13.44 13.74 13.92

14.65 14.92 15.27

-

-

"Reference 36. bReference 31. 'Reference 38.

TABLE 3. Parametersof regression of pK, values measured in anhydrous acetonitrile with substituent constants (equation 2) for various benzamidine~'~ Series

pKZ

p (lit)

Ref.

P

r

19 20

12.57 12.76 13.93 12.53 13.40 14.62

2.124 1.880 2.118 2.591 1.920 1.873

36 36 37 38 37 38

2.12+0.11 1.88k0.09 2.12k0.22 2.59 kO.46 1.88 kO.23 1.87 kO.24

0.998 0.999 0.992 0.998 0.996 0.994

21 22 23 24

TABLE 4. pK, values of N-aryl-amidines(11) in water at 25 kO.1 DC39

X =H

pK,=9.85

OMe 11.15

NO, 7.42

Me 10.81

CN 7.70

CI

9.28

COOEt 8.69

obtaining the following results: with u- values: p = - 0.948, r = 0.979; with u values: p = - 3.60, r = 0.999; with uo values: p = - 3.36, r = 0.992.

Thus it was found that c or oo rather than 6 - values should be used for correlations 'however, discussion on the relative merits of using c or o" values for the range of substituents in the series 11 hardly seems m e a n i n g f ~ l ' ~ ~ . Later it was found that the p value for substitution at the imino nitrogen atom is not * ~ ' a p value of 2.48 for pK, values identical for various series of amidines. S e ~ E i k 7 ~found (25) measured in 50% ethanol. of N',N*-(pentamethylene-l,5)-N2-phenylbenzamidines

631

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation TABLE 5. pK, values of N',N'-pentamethylenebenzamidines

25 in binaryethanol-water solutions

at 25f0.1"C3

R'

99.98XEtOH

m-C,H,Br m-C,H,CI p-C,H,Br p-C,H,CI rn-C6H,0CH, m-C,H,0C,H5 C6H5

m-C6H,CH, pC6H4CH3 p-C6H40C2H5 pC6H40CH3

6.38 f 6.45 f 6.65 f 6.77 f 7.35 f 7.58 f 7.45 f 7.72 f 7.90 f 8.17 f 8.19 f

0.04 0.06

0.05

0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.08

0.03 0.03 0.04

CH2C6H5

Cyclohexyl Isopropyl "7.10 b6.44 7'5.6 7'8.6

f f f f

95.6ZEtOH

5OXEtOH

5.93 f 0.08 6.00 f 0.08 6.23 f 0.08 6.37 & 0.05 6.92 f 0.08 6.91 f 0.05 6.89 f 0.14 7.14 f 0.07 7.49 f 0.04 7.57 f 0.04 7.71 Ifr 0.05 9.75 f 0.05 10.60 f 0.05 10.72 f 0.09

5.61 kO.10 5.65 f 0.05 5.93 f 0.09" 6.05 f 0.06* 6.57 f 0.09 6.47 f 0.09 6.67 f 0.03' 6.84 f 0.03 7.04 f 0.03d 7.20 f 0.04 7.19 f 0.04

00.5 (Reference 7b). 0.09 (Reference 7b). 0.05 (Reference 7b). 0.04 (Reference 7b).

TABLE 6. Parameters of pentamethylenebenzamidines

regression of pK, values of N',N'25 in binary ethanol-water solutions with

substituentconstants' Solvent

PK,"

P

99.98% EtOH 99.98% EtOH 95.6% EtOH 95.6% EtOH 50% EtOH

7.50 7.45 6.99 6.95 6.63 6.60

2.80 f 2.85 f 2.69 f 2.72 f 2.49 f 2.52

50% EtOH

r

0.48 0.23 0.42 0.29 0.32 0.19

0.995 0.996' 0.979 0.993' 0.986 0.996"

"Without the m-alkoxy derivatives

Since the difference of p values can be attributed to solvent effects, Oszczapowicz and coworkers3 compared the basicities of amidines of these series in three different binary solvents (Table 5). It was found that the relation between pK, of the amidine and percent composition of water-ethanol mixtures, contrary to that for carboxylic acids, is not linear. The pK, values were correlated with Hammett CT constants (Table 6). The pK, values of m-alkoxyphenyl benzamidines evidently deviate from the obtained relation, and correlationswithout this derivative are of considerably higher quality. Similar deviations for m-alkoxy derivatives are observed also with other N2-arylamidines'~9~'o~12~16~17~z3 and N2-aryltetramethylguanidines' It was assumed' that the c value given in literature for the m-alkoxy substituent does not tit this group ofcompounds. The differences between pK, values as well as the p values (Table 6) show that, for investigations on structurebasicity relations,the same solvent should be used to ensurecomparability of the results.

'.

632

J. Oszczapowicz R'

Ph

'3

R~N=C-N

I

R"N=C-N

/Me \Me

(26) R'=H ( 2 7 ) R ' = Me

It was found that for N',N'-dimethylformamidines' (26, Table 7) and N ' , N 1 dimethylacetamidines*(27, Table 8) different p values are obtained. The pK, values of three types of amidines (26, 27 and 25) obtained in various solvents (Tableg) were correlated both with u and with uo values. The test of parallelism for regression lines, calculated for amidines containing identical substituents in both compared series, disclosed that the slopes of the regression lines are undoubtedly different. Thus it was concluded' that the sensitivity of the amidine group to substitution on the phenyl ring at the imino nitrogen atom depends on the substitution on the functionalcarbon atom. The pK, values of amidines containing two variable substituents do not obey the linear equation 3, where ulmand uAmrelate to substituents at imino and amino nitrogen atoms, respectively. In such cases some additional term, accounting for the changes of the observed p value, should be introduced. pKa = pK: - Plm'Im - PAmQAm

(3)

TABLE 7. pK, values of N',N'-dimethyIformamidines 26 in 95.6% ethanol at 25 f 0.1 OC' ~

p-C6H4N02 m-C,H4Br m-C6H4C1 PC6H4Br p-C6H41 pC6H4C1

rn-C6H40CH3 m-C6H40C,H5 C6H5

m-C,H,CH, PC6hCH3 pC6H40C2H5 ~c6H40CHS P-CH~C~H~NO, p-CH2CBH4CI CH2C6HS

m-CH,C,H,OCH, /J-CH,C~H~CH 3 i-Butyl n-Hexyl n-Buiyl n-Propyl Cyclohex yl Isopropyl

5.25 & 0.05 6.45 f 0.05 6.50 & 0.03 6.69 f 0.05 6.75 & 0.04 6.84 & 0.07 7.45 f 0.07 7.45 f 0.04 7.45 & 0.05 7.63 f 0.04 7.75 f 0.05 7.83 f 0.05 79. I & 0.08 9.25 & 0.09 9.71 f 0.06 10.04 f 0.05 l0.14&0.02 10.28 f 0.03 10.70 & 0.08 10.75 f 0.05 10.80 & 0.05 10.84 f 0.05 10.90 0.05 10.95 0.05

+-

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

633

TABLE 8. pK, values of N2-substituted N',N'dimethylacetamidines (27) in 95.6% ethanol at 25fO.l O C 2

R"

PK, 5.69 f 0.02 7.19 & 0.02 7.25 f 0.04 7.55 f 0.04 7.65 f 0.04 8.22 f 0.06 8.26 f 0.06 8.32 f 0.07 8.41 f 0.06 8.65 f 0.06 8.90 f 0.05 8.96 f 0.08 I I .24 0.05 I I .70 & 0.05 12.30 0.05 12.37 & 0.07 12.34 & 0.05 12.46 f 0.07 12.55 & 0.07 12.56 & 0.05

&6H4N02

rn-C,H,Br m-C,H,CI p-c6 H,Br p-C,H,CI m-C6H,0CH, rn-C6H,0C2HS C6HS

rn-C,H,CH, &H4CH3

p-C6H40C2H 5 p-CBH,OCHZ p-CH 2C,jH,CI CH2C6H5

i-Butyl n-Hexyl n-Butyl n-Propyl Cyclohex yl Isopropyl

TABLE 9. Parametersof regression of pK, values of N2-substituted N',N'-dialkylamidines 25, 26 and 27 with various substituent constants*

Series 26

u

ph':

P

r

'u

7.46 7.39 8.13 8.08 8.32 8.29 10.20 10.10 7.04 7.00 6.67 6.63 7.52 7.45

2.60 f 0.28 2.52 f 0.40 2.65 f 0.25 2.55 f 0.22 3.08 f 0.27 3.00 f 0.38 3.5 I f 0.49 3.57 f 0.36 2.90 f 0.38 2.66 f 0.37 2.70 _+ 0.30 2.49 f 0.32 2.38 & 0.73 2.34 f 0.70

0.990 0.973 0.998 0.998 0.994 0.984 0.993 0.996 0.990 0.984 0.992 0.986 0.946 0.948

d

uo

27

U

uo U

25

uo u U0

U

uQ

U

'u

U

n

Solvent

Based on data from Ref.

11

95.6% EtOH 95.6% EtOH water water 95.6% EtOH 95.6% EtOH water water 95.6% EtOH 95.6% EtOH 50% EtOH 50% EtOH 50% EtOH 50% EtOH

1 40 40 2 2 39 39 2 3 3 3 40 40

13 6 6 10 12 7 7 9 I1 9 11 9 9

1

Additional evidence for this conclusion was provided by the pK, values of NZsubstituted tetramethylguanidines" (28, Table lo), where a p value of 2.28 0.4 was found. Guanidinescan be regarded as amidines containingan amino group at the amidino carbon atom, and thus the differences between the p values also indicated that sensitivity

634

J. Oszczapowicz TABLE 10. pK, values of N2-alkyl-tetramethylguanidines(28) in 95% ethanol at 25 f 01. "C"

PK,

RX

10.55 10.98 11.44 11.38 11.52 11.74 1 1.94 12.08 12.16 14.19 14.95 14.83 15. I8

f 0.02 f 0.02 f 0.03 f 0.02 f 0.07 f 00.1 & 0.04 f 0.03 f 0.02 f 0.04 f 0.07 f 0.10 f 0.06

to substitutiona t one site ofthe amidine groupmay depend o n substitutiona t anothersite.

(28)

c. Substitution at the amino nitrogen atom. Perillo, Fernandez and Lamdan8*4'v42 measured pK, values (Tables 11-13) for three series of cyclic N-arylamidines, namely 1,2-diaryl-2-imidazolines8 (29), 1,2-diaryl-1,4,5,6-tetrahydropyrimidine~~~ (30), 1,2-diaryl4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-lIf-1,3-diazepines4* (31, n = 4) and 1,4,5,6,7,8-hexahydro-l,3d i a ~ o c i n e(31, s ~ ~n = 5).

The pK, values of imidazolines 29 were compared8 to those of the corresponding arylamines and it was shown that the pK, values of the imidazolines are a few pK units higher, indicating that protonation occurs at the imino nitrogen atom. The p value obtained for the correlation of the pK, values with Hammett CT constants (p = 1.28) was compared with that for anilines( p = 2.73) and for amidines 14 ( p = 1.41). This comparison provided furthersupport for the conclusion that protonationoccurs a t the imino nitrogen atom. The authorsalso noticed that the furtherthe substituent is from the imino nitrogen atom, the lower is the p value obtained. For.tetrahydropyrimidines 30 a p value of 0.948 was obtained4i. Even though the substituted phenyl ring in 30 was a t the same distance from the protonationsite as in the imidazolines, i.e. at the amino nitrogen atom, this p value was considerably lower, but this fact was not discussed. Comparison42 of the pK, values of the 31 homologs have shown that the basicity of cyclic amidines depends to a considerable degree on the ring size, decreasingin the order:

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

635

TABLE 11. pK, values for cyclic benzamidines 294'

R'

P K

R2

~~

Ph 4-An 3?4(MeO)2C6H4 4-EtOC6H4 4-HOC,jH, 4-Tol 3-Tol CCICeH, CN02C6H4 2-NO2CeH4 2,4-(N02)2C6H4 1-Naph 2-Naph Ph Ph 4-NOzC6H4

9.26

Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph 4-NOZCeHa 3-NOzC6H4 4-NO2CBH4

9.64

9.55

9.60 9.62 9.48 9.36 8.98 7.65 7.51 6.65 8.67 8.63 7.66 1.75 6.14

TABLE 12. pK, values of cyclic bemamidines 30'

X

PK,

Y

H 4-Me 4-OMe 4-CI 4-NO2 2-NO2 2-NOZ 4-NOz

I I .67

H H H H H H 4-NO2 4-NO,

11.99 1 1.87

11.36 10.51 10.55 9.23 9.16

TABLE 13. pK, values of cyclic benzamidines 3P2

X 4-NO2 4-NO2 2-NO2 2-NO2 4-NO2 4-NOz

Y

n

PK,

H NO2 H NO2 H NO2

4 4 4 4 5 5

8.43 7.38 10.39 9.15 7.78 6.75

tetrahydropyrimidines > tetrahydrodiazepines > hexahydrodiazocines > imidazolines. This decrease of basicity with decrease of the ring size was discussed in terms of possible conformations of the ring. The pK values (Table 14) of Nz-phenylformamidines(32) and Nz-phenylacetamidines (33) containing a variable substituent in the phenyl ring at the amino nitrogen atom

J. Oszczapowicz

636

TABLE 14. pK, values of N',NZ-phenylformamidines (32) and N'-phenylacetamidines (33) in 95.6% ethanol at 25 f 0.1 TZQ

R"

R"

33

32

-

5.83 f 0.09 6.00 k 0.09 6.52 & 0.04 6.68 f 0.02 7.00 0.02 7.22 & 0.02 1.37-i 0.03 7.34 f 0.03 9.83 f 0.02 9.25 k 0.03 10.50 k 0.04 10.60 f 0.03

5.00 f 0.04 5.1 5 f 0.03 5.29 f 0.05 5.46 f 0.03 5.50 f 0.06 5.12 & 0.06 7.07 0.01 6.57 0.05 7.42 f 0.03 8.12 f 0.04

*

(32) R'=H (33) R'= Me

were correlatedz6 with a and an values. The following parameters of regression were obtained: Series

a

PK,"

32 32 33 33

a uo

5.31

0

'a

5.32 7.00 7.02

P

r

$

n

0.78 k 0.14 0.84 k 0.20 1.43 f 0.08 1.44 f 0.05

0.9954 0.99 17 0.9986 0.9994

0.1233 0.1665 0.06 16 0.0401

5 5 8

a

I t was shown that correlations with 0' values, as expected (cf. Section II.A.l), are of higher quality. The p values for substitution at the amino nitrogen in formamidines and in acetamidines are lower than those for substitution at the imino nitrogen because in the former case the substituents are at a greater distance from the imino nitrogen atom, which is the protonation centre. Differences between the p values also show that the sensitivity of the amidino group to substituent effects at the two nitrogen atoms also depends on substitution at the amidino carbon atom. Thus, replacement of a hydrogen atom at the functional carbon atom by a methyl group (acetamidines vs formamidines) causes a 1.7-fold increase in the p value for substitution at the amino nitrogen atom, but only a t.2-fold increase in the p value for substitution at the imino nitrogen atom.

d . Substitution at two and more sites olthe urniditlo group. Preliminary investigationsI6 of the influenceof substitution at the two different sites on the basicity of amidines were

carried out with the example of symmetrically disubstituted N,N'-diphenyformamidines (36) (Table 15). The

(34) N,N'-diphenylacetamidines (35) and N,N'-diphenylbenzamidines

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

637

TABLE 15. pK. values of symmetrically disubstituted N,N'diphenylformamidines(34), acetdmidines(35) and benzamidines

(36) in 98.5% ethanol at 25

X

0.1 T

I 6

34

35

36

5.25 6.22 6.40 6.65 7.12 7.17 7.43 7.63 7.85 8.04

6.86 7.25 7.40 8.05

5.80 6.42 6.5 1 6.83

8.35 8.28 8.54 9.40 9.57

7.43 7.78 8.24

~

m-CI p-Br p-CI m-OCH, m-OC,H, H m-CH, P-CH, P-OC,H, p-OCH,

-

-

-

8.60

identity of both tautomeric forms in these amidines made it possible to disregard the usual problem of the contribution of the two tautomers to the measured pK, value. The pK, values obey the Hammett equation 2, and for the correlations with Q constants the following parameters have been obtained:

R

I

XC6H,--N=C--NH--CBH,X (34) R = H (35) R = Me (36) R = Ph

34 pKZ = 7.12 p = 3.26 f 0.03 r = 0.996 35 pKD+= 8.29 p = 4.03 k 0.04 r = 0.991 36 pKZ = 7.43 p = 4.12 f 0.03 r = 0.995

In these series it was observed for the first time that the sensitivity of the amidine group to substitution at nitrogen atoms depends also on substituents at the amidino carbon atom. Here it was also shown that explanationsbased on only a few compounds may lead to confusingresults. Acetamidines were more basic than formamidines,in agreement with the inductive effect of the methyl group at the amidino carbon atom. However, the regression lines for benzamidines and formamidines cross each other near the c value of 0.36. This means that benzamidines and formamidines containing strong electronwithdrawing substituents at the nitrogen atoms offer a satisfactory explanation for the influence of the negative inductive effect of the C-phenyl group causing a decrease in the basicity of the amidine group. O n the other hand, benzamidines and formamidines containingless electronegativesubstituentsat the nitrogen atoms can serve as an example that the conjugation of the C-phenyl ring with the amidine group leads to an increase in basicity. In all these series substituents at both nitrogen atoms were varied, and thus it was impossible to conclude whether, and to what extent, the changes in the observed p values are due to changes in the influence of substitution at imino or amino nitrogen atom or at both sites. Taking into account that the pK, values of symmetrically disubstituted N,N'diphenylamidine?,as well as formamidines containingonly one substituted phenyl ring at

J. Oszczapowicz

638

the imino nitrogen atom, obey the Hammett equation,it was concluded that the basicity of amidines containinga substituted phenyl ring at each nitrogen atom should obey the twoparameter equation 3. Later, the influenceof substitution on a phenyl ring bound to the imino nitrogen atom 37,38 on the basicity of the three series of N',N'-(alkylene-a,w)-N2-phenylformamidines and 39, containing also a cyclic secondary amine moiety, has been studied".

'i'

XC~H~N-CH-NR'

~2

3

(37)

N R ~ R ~N =

(39)

NR'R~=

The pK, values shown in Table 16 were correlated with u values and the following results were obtained: Series

pK,"

P

r

11

37

9.33 8.64 7.71

2.01 f 0.27 2.29 f 0.24 2.05 f 0.43

0.988 0.992 0.963

10 10 11

38 39

TABLE 16. pK, values of N',N'-(alkylene-a,o)-Nz-arylformamidines in 98.5% ethanol at 25 f 0.1 "C"

X

37

38

39

m-Br m-CI p-Br PCI m-OCH, m-OC,H, H m-CH, P-CH, P-OCzH, p-OCH,

8.46 8.52 8.75 8.85 9.22

7.70 7.83 7.95 8.09 8.47

9.3 1 9.53 9.75 9.70 9.97

8.69 8.74 9.10 9.10 9.38

6.80 6.96 7.02 7.10 7.68 1.17 7.81 7.92 8.02 8.16 8.82

-

-

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

639

The p values for all three series are approximate and lower than the p value (2.48) obtained by Se~Eik'.~' for series of N ',N '-(pentylene-1,5)-benzamidines (25) containing the piperidine moiety, and are much lower than the p value found for N,N'diphenylformamidines (34). Thus it was concluded" that the basicity of the amidino group depends to a higher degree on substitution at the imino than at the amino nitrogen atom. It was also assumed that for symmetrically N,N'-disubstituted amidines, the observed p value is the sum of the two p values for substitution at each of the nitrogen atoms. In all three series, the pK, values increase in the same order as the basicities of the corresponding cyclic amines built into their molecules (pyrrolidine, piperidine and morpholine). For N2-aryl-N',N'-dialkylformamidines4 26, 38 and 39 the influence of ethanol concentrationon the basicity of amidines was studied (Tables 17-19). It was found that, like in the case of 25, pK, values are not changedlinearly with solvent composition. Forall amidines studied the pK, values pass through a minimum at about 80% (w/w) of ethanol. The p values (Table 20) change with the solvent composition differently for each series studied. For the 26 series the p value passes through a minimum at about 50% (w/w) of ethanol,and for water solutions it is lower than for 95.6% ethanol. Forthe 38 series, on the contrary, the p value seems to pass through a maximum at about 80% ethanol. The strongest influenceon the p values is observed for the 39 series, where the p value for 50% ethanol is much higher than for 95.6% ethanol. Determinationof the quantitative relation between the pK, values or p values and the solvent parametersrequiresa large number of experimental data and its most crucial point is the proper choice of solvent parameters. For compounds containing two substituted phenyl rings at the two sites, the linear equation 4 si usually applied: (4) PK, = PK,"- p101- pzaz This equation implies that for substitution at a certain site the same p value should be obtained in all series of compounds, no matter what kind of substituentsare at other sites. However, study of various series of amidines indicated that the pK, values of amidines

TABLE 17. pK, values of N',N'-dimethyl-N2-arylformamidines water solutions at 25 f 0.1 "C4

(26, R" = XC6H4) in ethanol-

Ethanol(w/w%) X P-NO,

m-NO, m-Br

m-CI P- I

p-Br

p-CI

m-OMe m-OEt H

m-Me P-Me p-OEt

p-OMe

95.6

5.57 f 0.05 5.92 f 0.01 6.77 f 0.05 6.82 f 0.03 7.07 f 0.04 7.01 f 0.05 7.16 f 0.07 7.77 f 0.07 7.77 f 0.04 7.77 f 0.05 7.95 f 0.04 8.07 f 0.05 8.15 f0.05 8.23 f 0.08

80 4.88 f 5.12 f 6.05 f 6.07 f 6.36 f 6.38 f 6.37 f 7.01 f 7.06 f 7.19 f 7.22 f 7.40 7.43 f 7.47 f

0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.0 I 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.08 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01

50

30

0

5.81 f 0.05 6.04 0.01 7.04 f 0.04 6.95 0.06 7.18 f 0.02 7.27 f 0.03 7.37 f 0.02 7.56 f 0.04 7.75 f 0.04 7.59 f 0.02 8.07 f 0.02 8.15 f0.04 8.22 f 0.02 8.25 f 0.02

6.32 f 0.06 6.94 f 0.06 7.60 & 0.05 7.58 f 0.05 7.84 f 0.04 7.91 f 0.06 7.89 f 0.02 8.3I f 0.05 8.46 f 0.03 8.66 f 0.08 8.65 f 0.02 8.78 f 0.01 8.74 f 0.02 8.83 f 0.06

6.71 f 0.03 7.29 & 0.03 8.08 f 0.04 7.97 f 0.02 8.10 f 0.02 8.46 f 0.03 8.60 f 0.03 8.87 f 0.04 9.00 0.07 9.1 1 f 0.03 9.21 f 0.02 9.24 f 0.04 9.35 f 0.05

J. Oszczapowicz

640

TABLE 18. pK, values of N',N1-pentamethylene-Nz-phenylformamidines solutionsat 25 f 01. O C 4

(38) in ethanol-water

Ethanol(w/w %)

X P-NOz m-CI p-CI

m-OMe H m-Me P-Me pOMe

80

95.6 5.83 6.83 7. I4 7.75 7.83 79.1 8.08 8.25

f f f f f f f f

0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03

4.85 5.93 6.37 6.95 7.06 7.15 7.38 7.56

f f f f f f f f

50

0.05 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

5.78 f 0.03 6.85 f 0.01 7. I6 f 0.0 1 7.66 f 0.02 7.86 f 0.07 7.91 f 0.02 8.13 k0.07 8.17f0.03

TABLE 19. pK, values of N',N1-(3-oxapentamethylene)-N~-phenylformamidines water solutions at 25 f 0.1 'C4

30 -

7.47 f 0.04 7.76 f 0.05 8.07 i- 0.07 -

8.40 f 0.08 -

(39) in ethanol-

Ethanol (w/w %)

X

95.6

80

50

30

~~

PNOZ m-CI

p-CI m-OMe H

m-Me p-Me pOMe

5.67 5.99 6.27 6.77 6.76 6.99 7.02 7.07

f f f f f f f f

0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.03

4.45 5.14 5.55 5.95 6.09 6.17 6.31 6.34

0.01 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.02 f 0.03 fO.01 f 0.03 f f f f f

4.97 5.92 6.39 6.86 6.96 7.02 7.10 7.12

f 0.05

f 0.03 f 0.08 f 0.02 f 0.04 f 0.02 f 0.01 f 0.03

-

6.51 L- 0.02 6.92 f 0.04 7.16 f 0.02 -

7.48 f 0.03

containingone substituentat a nitrogen atom and a second at the functionalcarbon atom d o not obey this equation. Hence, it has been proposed' that the pKa values for such amidines obey the following relationship: PK, = PK,"- PI01 - P2Q2- P I Q 2 (5) where a1 and o2 are the Q values of substituents on phenyl rings at the two sites and the coefficient p represents the mutual interaction of substituents, and is responsible for the 'twist' of the regression line. This type of equation has been discussed earlier among other equations by E ~ n e rUsing ~ ~ .this equation, if the substituentat one ofthe sites is not varied (e.g. o2 = constant) the constant p2o2 is included in a new p K i value and the term pta2 in a new p value. As a result a linear correlation (equation 6) will be obtained, but the slope of the correlation line for each series depends o n the Q value of the invariant substituent and on the term p. PK, = PK,"- P2Q2 - ( P I + PQ2)QI (6) To verify this hypothesis and to determine to what extent replacement of the hydrogen at the amidino carbon increases the sensitivity of the amidino group to the effects of substitution at the nitrogen atoms, three series of trisubstituted amidines, namely N 1 methyl-N',N2-diarylformamidines' (40), N'-methyl-N1,N2-diarylacetamidines19 (41)

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

641

TABLE 20. Parameters of regressions of pK, values with substituent constants4 Series 26

% EtOH (w/w)

Type OfU

95.6

r

*

7.77

2.62 If: 0.21 2.52 0.33 2.56 f 0.33 2.66 k'0.22 2.56 & 0.33 2.60 If: 0.32 2.38 f 0.23 2.32 f 0.27 2.33 f 0.28 2.40 f 0.26 2.28 f 0.35 2.35 f 0.35 2.48 f 0.26 2.37 f 0.33 2.42 f 0.34 2.65 & 0.28 2.39 & 0.29 2.40 f 0.28 2.37 f 0.38 2.68 f 0.28 2.66 f 0.37 2.42 & 0.25 2.30 f 0.37 2.38 & 0.37 2. I4 k 0.46 1.52 0.41 1.51 f 0.40 1.97 f 0.29 1.95f 0.34 2.23 f 0.43 2.19 0.54

0.993 0.979 0.984 0.993 0.979 0.985 0.991 0.983 0.985 0.989 0.972 0.978 0.990 0.978 0.983 0.993 0.989 0.993 0.987 0.995 0.990 0.995 0.988 0.985 0.96 1 0.966 0.966 0.990 0.985 0.982 0.971

0.126 0.22 1 .O. 194 0.127 0.218 0.188 0.149 0.196 0. I86 0.158 0.256 0.228 0.155 0.226 0.206 0.135 0.165 0.135 0.184 0.118 0.160 0.120 0.176 0.195 0.306 0.299 0.299 0.167 0.199 0.221 0.276

7.71 7.06 7.00 7.00 7.8 1 7.77 7.76 8.49 8.42 8.43 8.90 8.86 8.86 8.71 8.65 7.78 7.75 7.03 6.98 7.77 7.73 7.75 7.72 6.78 '6.75 6.02 5.99 6.85 6.8 I

50 30

0 98.5 95.6 80 50

39

P

7.71

80

38

pK,"

98.5 95.6 80 50

i1

12" 14 12" 12" 14 12" 12" 14 I 2" 12" 14 12a 11" 13 I I" 9" 10

8 8 8 8 8 8 9"

11

8 8 8 8 8 8

'Without the OEt derivatives.

and N'-methyl-N',N2-diarylbenzamidines10 values (Tables 21-23) determined.

(42), have been synthesized and their pK,

R

I

XCGH,N=C-NC,j

I

H4Y

Me

R Series

H

40

Me 41

Ph 42

The pairs of substituents for this study were selected in such a manner that their Hammett constants were not collinear.Therefore the obtained correlations represent the

J. Oszczapowicz

642

TABLE 21. pK, values of N'-methyl-N1,NZdiarylformamidines (40) in 99.8% ethanol at 25f0.1" C9

X m-Br m-Br p-Br p-Br p-Me p-Me p-Me p-OMe p-OMe

Y

PK,

H p-OMe H p-OMe H p-Me p-OMe P-CI p-OMe

5.62 5.46 5.69 6.42 7.02 7.15 7.21 6.61 7.10

TABLE 22. pK, values of N'-methyl-N',N2-diarylacetamidines (41) in 95.6% ethanol at 25 f 0.1 OClZ

Y

PK,

m-CI H p-OCH3 p-Br H P-CH, m-CI PBr H P-CH, p-OCH3

5.40 f 0.03 5.90 f 0.02 6.05 & 0.02 5.77 0.02 6.10 f 0.03 6.29 f 0.03 6.45 f 0.03 6.48 f 0.02 6.96 f 0.01 7.19 f 0.04 7.24 f 0.04 7.07 0.03 7.44 & 0.03 6.78 & 0.03 7.34 f 0.03 7.41 f 0.03 6.89 f 0.03 7.58 f 0.02 7.17 f 0.02

X m-CI m-CI

m-CI p-Br p-Br p-Br H H H H H rn-CH, rn-CH, P-CH, P-CH3 P-CH, p-OCH, p-OCH, P-OCH,

*

H

P-OCH, rn-CI H P-CH,

m-CI

H p-OCH,

influence of substitutionat the two nitrogen atoms of the amidine group. The number of experimental points was insufficient for finding the parameters of equation 5; for equation 3 the following parametershave been found

40 41 42

PK,"

P1m

PAm

R

Ref.

6.38 6.90 7.10

2.59 f 0.28 2.88 f 0.18 2.69 f0.22

1.36 f 0.43 1.42k0.16 1.54k0.22

0.995 0.995 0.994

9 12 10

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

643

TABLE 23. pK, values of N1-methyl-N1-N2-diarylbenzamidines (42) in 99.8% ethanol at 25 f 0.1 "C'O

X rn-CI p-Br P-Br P-Br m-OCH, rn-OCH, rn-OCH, H H P-CH, P-CH, P-CH3 p-OCH3 p-OCH3 p-OCH3

Y

PK,

p-Br H p-OCH, P-Br H p-OCH3 p-Br H p-Br H p-OCH3 m-CI H P-OCH3

6.1 I f 0.14 5.94 & 0.12 6.47 f 0.15 6.72 f 0.08 6.28 f 0.23 6.86 f 0.20 7.23 fO.12 6.59 f 0.21 7.10 f 0.06 7.03 0.06 7.67 f 0.06 8.09 f 0.22 7.41 f O . 0 4 8.01 f 0.06 8.36 f 0.10

H

The considerably higher values of plmthan those of pAmfor all three series leave no doubt that the protonation site in amidines is the imino nitrogen atom. The influence of substitution at the amidino carbon atom on the sensitivity to substitution at either of the two nitrogen atoms was less evident from the p values only, because the differences between the two series were within the confidenceintervals. But the plm:pAm ratios (1.90, 2.03 and 1.75 for the three series) provide satisfactory evidence that substitution at the carbon atom changes the sensitivity of the amidine group to the effects of substituents at the nitrogen atoms. The plmvalue for N'-methyl-N'-arylformamidines (40) was close to that obtained for N',N'-dialkylformamidines (37-39), ranging from 2.05 0.43 to 2.29 0.24. Thus it was concluded that substitution at the amino nitrogen has a rather small influence on the sensitivity of the amidino group to substitution at the imino nitrogen. For N1-methyl-N1,N2-diarylacetamidines1 (41), pK, values were also correlated with o0values using equation 5, but the p values obtained for substitutiona t the imino and amino nitrogen atoms (2.94 f 0.15 and 1.46 f 0.13) were identical within the confidence intervals to those obtained using the linear disubstituent regression (equation 4), and the 'cross term' p of equation 5 was highly uncertain,as the confidence intervals amounted to > 75% of the 11 value. The correlation for N1-methyl-N',Nz-diarylacetamidines was 27 and it was found that the slopes compared*with thzt for N',N'-dimethylacetamidines of regression lines cannot be treated as different. Thus it was concluded that the pK, values of N'-methyl-N',N2-diarylamidines are best explained by the equation of a plane 4. It was then assumed that it is possible to find an equation which makes it possible to predict pK, values of amidines containing substituted phenyl rings a t all three sites of the amidine group. series of amidines Evidence for this hypothesis was found in an i n ~ e s t i g a t i o of n ~several ~ containingalkyl substituentsof increasinginductive effect, such as hydrogen methyl, ethyl, isopropyl and t-butyl (Table 24). Comparing the series of N',N'-dimethylacetamidines (27), propionamidines (43), isobutyramidines (44) and pivalamidines (45) one can readily see that the p value (Table 25) increases with the number of methyl groups at the a-carbon atom. In fact there

644

J. Oszczapowicz

(43) R = E t (44) R-Pr' (45) R=BU' (46) R-Ph

,

is a good linear correlation between the p values and the number of methyl groups. This indicated that the p value may depend on the inductive effect of an alkyl substituent at the amidino carbon atom. It was shownz3that the plmvalues of these series together with the dimethylformamidine (26) series can be correlated with the Q* values44 of the alkyl substituents at the amidino carbon atom: In this equation plmis the observed p value for a series of amidines containing various substituents at the phenyl ring on the imino nitrogen atom and a fixed substituent at the amidi'nocarbon atom: plq, is the plm value for acetamidines (for the Me group Q* = 0).

TABLE 24. pK, values of N',N'-dimethylamidines in 95.6% ethanol at 25 f 0.1 OCZ3

R"

"cf. Table 8.

43

44

45

5.65 f 0.03 6.06 f 0.06 7.13 f0.03 7.15 f 0.07 7.36 f 0.01 1.43 f 0.07 1.55 f 0.02 8.13 f 0.03 8.16 f 0.01 8.30 f 0.03 8.38 f 0.07 8.44 f 0.08 8.89 0.03 8.94 f 0.03 11.11 k0.09 11.41 kO.04 1 1.48 f 0.09 1 I .66 f 0.05 1 1.59 f 0.04 11.96f 0.06 12.11 f 0.09 12.13 +0.03 12.20 f 0.09 12.28 f 0.05 12.20 f 0.09

5.52 f 0.03 6.14 f 0.03 7.03 f 0.01 7.10f0.01 7.54 f 0.07 7.41 f 0.02 7.51 f 0.02 8. I2 f 0.01 8.15 f 0.01 8.22 f 0.02 8.41 f 0.03 8.63 f 0.02 8.93 f 0.01 8.89 0.03 11.13 f 0.07 I 1.36 f 0.04 11.31 f0.05 1I .72 f 0.06 I 1.88 f 0.05 1 1.93 f 0.09 1 I .95 f 0.09 12.22 0.09 12.33 f 0.07 12.16f 0.09 12.26f 0.06

5.18 f O . 0 4 5.86 f 0.03 6.8I f 0.03 7.01 f 0.06 7.1 7 f 0.01 7.20 f 0.01 7.19 f0.09 7.91 f 0.02 7.93 f 0.03 8.03 f 0.04 8.24 f 0.03 8.43 f 0.01 8.63f 0.05 8.62 f 0.02 9.96 f 0.02 10.30 f 0.05 10.28 f 0.02 10.54 f 0.04 10.65f 0.04 10.76f 0.03 10.98 f 0.09 10.91 f 0.03 10.94 f 0.03 10.91 f 0.03 10.88 f 0.05

21

6.38 f 0.03

-

7.53 f 0.02

tl

D

-

0

-

1 1.60 f 0.03 1 1.64 f 0.03 11.75 f 0.03

-

(I

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

645

TABLE 25. Parametersof regressions of pK, values of N',N'-dimethylamidineswith substituent

constantsz3 Series

U

26

U U0

21

U U0

43

U

44

U

U0 U0

45

U U0

PK,"

P

r

$

n

7.39 7.45 8.27 8.33 8.19 8.24 8.21 8.26 7.97 8.04

2.53 0.33 2.63 & 0.21 2.91 f 0.34 2.97 f 0.25 3.01 f 0.34 3.07 f 0.22 3.1 1 k 0.29 3.14+0.23 3.15 0.37 3.23 f 0.27

0.979 0.994 0.984 0.993 0.984 0.995 0.989 0.995 0.983 0.993

0.220 0.096 0.196 0.129 0.191 0.111 0.160 0.1 14 0.200 0.128

14 12 14 12 .I 4 12 14 12 14 12

+

The term p has a negative value, which indicates that the increasein the electron density at the C=N double bond, caused by the inductive effect of a substituent at the amidino carbon atom, increases the sensitivity of the arnidinogroup to the effect of substituentsat the imino nitrogen atom. The parametersfor equation 5 have been calculated using the pK, values of all five series (a total of 60 compounds). PK: 8.04

Plm

2.99f0.20

PFa

0.93 kO.27

P

0.76f0.72

r

+

0.973 0.239

' p F if the rho value for substitution at the functional carbon of the arnidine group.

The correlation has a predictive value. The difference between the pK, values obtained experimentally,and those calculated from equation 5 using the above parameters, in 80% of the cases does not exceed 0.3 pK, units, and in 92% of the cases does not exceed 0.35 pK, pK, units) are observed in the case of the meta- and units. The largest deviations (0.44-0.48 para-methoxy derivatives. Amidines containing a phenyl ring at the amidino carbon atom, i.e. N1,N1dimethylbenzarnidines(46), do not fit this correlation,as shown by point 6 in Figure 1. The most probable reason for this is that the Q* values represent only inductive effects, while with benzamidines the resonance effects may also be involved. Thus it can be concluded that a general equation should contain additional terms. For substituentsat the functionalcarbon and at the imino nitrogen atom, the influence of substitution at one site on the sensitivity to substitution a t the second site was, in the case of benzamidines, not so evident.

( 4 7 ) x = p-CI (48) X=p-Me

J. Oszczapowicz

646

O6

FIGURE1. Correlation of the plm values with the a* values of the substituentat the amidino carbon atom. 1,45; 2,44,3,43;4,27; $ 2 6 6,

46 series

The pK, values for the series of N ',N'-pentamethylene-N2-p-chlorophenylbenzamidines (47) and N1,N'-pentamethylene-N2-p-tolylbenzamidines (48), containing an invariant substituent at the imino nitrogen atom and variable substituent at the ' ~ the Q values using both functional carbon atom (Table 26), were ~ o r r e l a t e d with equations 4 and 5. For the linear regression (equation 4) the following parameters were obtained: for 47: p = 1.85 0.13, r = 0.998, $ = 0.07; for 4 8 p = 1.95 & 0.23, r = 0.995,) I = 0.12. The polar effects of C1 and Me are opposite and the difference in Q values for the two substituents amounts to 0.39 units. Thus it is expected that a considerable difference between the p values for the two series will be observed. However, the obtained correlationsindicated that exchangeof a methyl group for the chlorine atom in the para position of the phenyl ring at the imino nitrogen has no observable influence on the sensitivity of the amidine group to substitution at the amidino carbon atom, and the only difference is in the pKZ values. Similarresultszz were obtained for N',N'-dimethylbenzamidines (49), N',N'-dimethyl(Sl), containinga p-chlorobenzamidines(50) and N',N'-dimethyl-p-methylbenzamidines variable substituent at the imino nitrogen and an invariant one at the phenyl ring at the amidino carbon atom (Table 27).Parametersof regression (Table 28) indicated that in this case again correlations with go values are of higher quality, however correlations with ordinary Q values are also satisfactory. Comparison of the obtained correlationswith those for N',N'-dimethylformamidines (26) and acetamidines(27) provided further support for the conclusion that the sensitivity of the amidino group to substitution at the imino nitrogen depends on the substituent at the amidino carbon atom. The regression coefficients for benzamidines are very close to those for acetamidinesbut definitely differentfrom those for formamidines.The difference between individual series of benzamidines was not evident, particularly if compared with

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

641

TABLE 26. pK, values of N 1,N2-(pentamethylene)-N2-arylbenzamidines (47 and 48) in 95.6% ethanol at 25 kO.1 'C"

X p-CI p-CI PC1 p-c1 p-CI PC1 p-c1 P-CH, P-CH 3 P-CH, PCH, P-CH3 P-CH, P-CH,

Y m-Br m-CI PC1 H m-CH, PCH, p-OCH, m-Br m-C1 p-CI H m-CH, PCH, p-OCH,

QK, 5.65 f 5.61 f 5.89 f 6.37 f 6.47 f 6.63 f 6.86 f 6.65 f 6.74 f 7.03 f 1.49 f 7.62 f 7.68 f 8.01 f

0.07 0.02

0.04

0.05 0.04 0.03 0.06 0.12 0.04

0.04

0.04 0.07 0.02 0.05

the results obtained for benzamidines containing variable substituents at the amidino carbon atom. Only furtherstudy on two additional series24,p-methoxybenzarnidines(52) and p-nitrobenzamidines (53), and extension of the series of p-chlorobenzamidines (50, Table 29) makes it possible to draw reliableconclusions.Correlationsof the pK, values for these serieswith cr values (Table 30 and 31), usingboth equations4 and 5, left no doubt that the effect of substitution at one site on the p value for substitution at another site is observed also in the case of benzamidines,and that equation 5 should be used to predict the pK, values for benzamidines. The term p obtained in this equation has a negative value. This indicates that the increasein the electron density at C=N, caused by the polar effect of a substituent on the phenyl ring at the arnidino carbon, increases the sensitivity of the amidino group to the effect of substituents on the imino nitrogen. On the other hand, electron-donating substituents at the imino nitrogen increase the sensitivity of the amidino group to substitution at the amidino carbon atom. Some support for the postulate concerning the influenceof substitution at one site on the sensitivity to substitution at other sites was provided by the ab initio optimizations of molecular structures. Hafelinger, Oszczapowicz and studied sixteen

J. Oszczapowicz

648

TABLE 27. pK, values of NL,N'-dimethyl-N2-substituted 25 f 0.1 oC22

R"

49

n-Hexyl Cyclohexyl

51

50

4.58 f 0.02 6.27 f 0.03 6.52 f 0.02 7.16 k 0.03 7.26 f 0.01 7.57 f 0.02 8.05 f 0.02 9.76 2 0.03 10.12f0.02 10.32 f 0.05 10.44 f 0.I0 10.60 5 0.1 1

p-C6H4N02 m-C6H4Br p-C,H,CI m-An Ph p-Tol D-An

benzamidines in 95.6% ethanol at

4.27 5.85 f 6.02 f 6.62 f 6.75 f 7.19 f 1.45 f 8.92 f 9.46 f 9.58 f 9.80 f 9.69 f

0.03 0.05 0.0 1 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.07 0.10

4.96 f 0.02 6.53 f 0.04 6.8 1 f 0.03 7.36 f 0.01 7.59 f 0.04 7.83 f 0.01 8.08 & 0.02 9.90 0.08 10.17f 0.03 10.31 f 0.02 I 1.02 0.04 1 1.08 f 0.02

*

TABLE 28. Parameters of regressions of pK, values of N2substituted N',N'-dimethylbenzamidines with substituent constantsz2 Series

a

pKi

P

r

$

n

49

uo

7.32 7.27 6.82 6.77 7.53 7.48

3.22 f 0.42 3.15 kO.64 3.02+0.31 2.96f0.52 3.00f0.36 2.93 50.61

0.994 0.985 0.996 0.998 0.994 0.984

0.134 0.205 0.105 0.180 0.125 0.209

7 7 7 7 7 7

50 51

u uo u 'a u

amidines, namely trans and cis formamidines with up to three fluorine atoms, and the correspondingamidinium cations. Again it was found that the p value for substitution at one site depends on substituents at anothersite. In equation 6 this is represented by the term pta,. The strongest influenceis exerted if one of the substituents is at the carbon and the second at imino nitrogen. Electron-withdrawing substituents at either of these sites cause a decrease in the p value. The effect is much lower if the substituents are at the two nitrogens. However, if one of the substituents is at the carbon and the second at the amino nitrogen, the p value is changed to a small extent, but in the opposite direction, so that for an electron-withdrawing substituent an increase in the p value occurs. This provides good support for an assumption25 made regarding the changes in p values observed for some series of symmetrically disubstituted N,N'-diphenylformamidines, acetamidines and propionamidines. It was also found that the p values as well as changescaused by substitution at another site depend on the configurationat the C=N double bond and those for cis a m i d i n e ~ ~ ~ differ considerably from those for trans isomers45. 2. Correlations with pK, values of amines

a. Substitution at the imino nitrogen atom. Hammett-type equations are unfortunately limited to compounds containing either m- or p-substituted phenyl rings or alkyl

649

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation TABLE 29. pK, values of N2-substitutedN',N'-dimethylbenzamidines ethanol at 25 f 0. I "CZ4

R"

50

-, 4.97 0.03 -a 5.77 f 0.03 6.13 f 0.06 6.08 f 0.05 -a -# 6.8 1 f 0.09 7.02 f 0.04

p-C6H4N02

m-C,H4NOz m-C,H,Br m-C,H,CI p-C6H41 pC6H4Br

P-C~H~CI rn-An

rn-C6H40C2H5 Ph rn-To1

(I

-

pTol

pC6H40C,H

(I

0

5

7.53 f 0.01

p-An P-CHZC~H~CI CH,Ph m-CH,C,H,OCH, P-CHZC~H~CH,

-a

-a 9.37 f 0.03 9.78 f 0.03 10.I9 f 0.04 -?I 10.32f 0.02 10.32 f 0.02 10.42 f 0.03 (I

Ally1 lsobutyl

n-Hexyl n-Butyl

n-Propyl

Cyclohexyl lsopropyl

(I

(50, 52 and 53) in 95.6%

52

53

5.28 f 0.01 5.71 f 0.03 6.96 & 0.06 6.79 f 0.03 6.95 f 0.02 7.18 f 0.01 7.15+0.03 7.9 I f 0.06 8.16 f 0.03 8.39 f0.16 8.21 f 0.03 8.79 f 0.08 8.68 f 0.06 8.83 f 0.06 9.99 f 0.03 10.37 f 0.03 10.42 f 0.05 10.52f 0.04 10.59 f 0.04 I I .06 f 0.02 I 1.25 f 0.02 11.06f0.04 11.35kO.04 I 1.39 f 0.03 11.23+0.1I

2.55 f 0.1 I 3.03 f 0.11 3.19f0.11 3.28 f 0.16 3.34 f 0.07 3.41 f 0.06 3.69 0.04 4.15 f0.09 4.10 f 0.15 4. I4 f 0.17 4.12f0.12 4.35 f 0.05 4.55 0.12 4.66 f 0.04 5.78 f 0.05 5.86 f 0.05 5.87 f 0.02 5.99 f 0.05 6.02 f 0.02 6.15 f 0.07 6.09 f 0.05 6.24 f 0.04 6.20 f 0.06 6.00 f 0.05 6.1 I f 0.04

+

"d. Table 27.

TABLE 30. Parameters of regressions of pK, values of N 2 substituted N',N'-dimethylbenzamidines with substituent constantsz4 Series

u

pK,"

Plrn

r

50

d

4.07 4.09 8.07 8.15 6.80 6.83

1.88 kO.38 1.89 0.38 3.40k0.49 3.53k0.32 2.86k0.32 2.87 -i 0.24

0.952 0.962 0.975 0.992 0.984 0.993

52 53

o" u u" u 0''

I C I n 0.329 0.299 0.240 0.141 0.190 0.130

14 12" 14

12" 14 12"

"Without the p-OEt and rn-OEt derivatives.

substituents, and treat both types of compounds separately.This is not sufficient to predict the properties of most of the amidines. Therefore it was necessary to search for a relation enabling calculation of pK, values of all amidines using just one general equation. Since pK, values of substituted N-phenylamidines obey the Hammett equation, and pK, values of substituted anilines also obey this equation, Oszczapowicz and Orlinski proposed**that the pK, values of amidines should correlate with the pK, values of the

J. Oszczapowicz

650

TABLE31. Dual parameter regressionsof pK, values of N1,N1-dimethylbenzamidines

with uo and u value of substituents at phenyl rings at the imino nitrogen atom and at the amidino carbon atom (equations 4 and 5)24

7.22 7.18 7.33 1.29

3.06 f 2.86 f 3.09 f 2.85 f

3.75 f 0.28 3.44 f 0.25 2.60+0.11 2.39 f 0. I 2

0.30 0.32 0.18 0.23

- 1.40 & 0.73

-

- 0.97 f 0.28 -

0.984 0.979 0.995 0.990

0.184 0.209 0.105 0.148

50" SOb

So"*' SOb.'

'According to equation 5. bAccording to equation 4. CFor the NO, group at the phenyl ring at the amidino carbon atom the u- value was used.

corresponding anilines, as expressed by equation 8. pK,(amidine) = a.pK,(amine)

+b

(8)

It was assumed that this correlation could be applied to amidines containingalkyl, aryl or aralkyl substituents bonded directly to the nitrogen atoms of the amidine system. However, the interactions between substituent and protonation centre in anilinesand Nphenylamidines are different, and this may affect the quality of the correlation and the accuracy of pK, predictions based on it. The first attempt at such a correlation was made for symmetrically N,N'-disubstituted diphenylformamidines(34, Table 15) and symmetrically N,N'-disubstituted dialkylformamidines(54, Table 32), and yielded unexpectedly good results.The experimentalpoints for alkyl and aralkyl substituents fall exactly on the extension of the correlation line for the aromaticones (Figure2). The values a = 0.96 & 0.04, = 1.62 and r = 0.996 were found, and the correlation was of a very good quality.

[R"N=CH-NHR"

R"NH-CH=NR"] (54)

Oszczapowicz and coworkers studied the applicability of this relation to trisubstituted amidines containinga variable substituent at the imino nitrogen a t ~ m ' " ~ * ' ' * The ~~-~~. results indicated that the existence of such correlations can be taken as a rule. For amidines containing variable substituents at the imino nitrogen primary amines RWH, (PA) were taken as the most appropriateindependent variables and equation 9

TABLE 32. pK,

values of N , N dialkylformamidines (54) in 98.5% ethanol at 25 f 0.1 oC18

R"

PK.

Benzyl Isobutyl n-Hexyl n-Butyl n-Propyl Cyclohexyl Isopropyl

10.94 12.12 12.35 12.26 12.22 12.49 12.85

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

I

+ 0.5 0

1

2

I

- 0.5

0 3

4

5

6

65 1

U

7

8

9

m

pK,(PA)

FIGURE2. Correlation of pK, values of symmetrically N,N'-disubstituted formamidines (FA) with pK, values of the corresponding primary amines (PA). Inset (r scale. From data in reference 18 was proposed'*.

pK,(amidine) = a,,pK,(PA) + D (9) For N'-substituted N',N'-dimethylformamidines (26),a very good correlationwith the pK, values of primary amines (a=0.62f0.02; r=0.996) was obtained'. For N2substituted N',N'-pentamethylenebenzamidines (25) the correlation (a = 0.65 f 0.04; r = 0.995) was also very good3. Correlationsof the pK, values of amidines and amines appeared to be very useful tools with which to study the influence of a substituent at one site on the sensitivity of the amidine to polar effects of substituents at other sites. Such correlationsobtained for series containingalkyl, aryl and aralkyl substituents are of higher diagnostic value, because the range of the considered pK, values is twice as large as that with substituted anilines covering the range of 0 values only. (27) the a values of 0.75 f 0.02 (r = 0.998) was found For N',N'-dimethylacetamidines to be higher than that for N',N'-dimethylformamidines (26). The ratio of these two a values (1.23) is almost the same as the ratio (1.1) of the p values' (Table 33). In equations 8 and 9 the term /I corresponds to the pK, value of a hypothetical amidine, whose pK, value is equal to zero. Therefore it was found convenient to normalize this equation by subtraction of the pK, value of unsubstituted aniline from the pK, value of primary amine (equation 10). pK,(amidine) = pK:(amidine) + a,, [pK,(PA) - pK,(PhNH,)] (10) In the normalized equation 10 the term pK,"has the same meaning as in the Hammett

J. Oszczapowicz

652

TABLE 33. Parametersof regressions of pK, values of N',N'-dimethyIamidines with pK, values of correspondingprimary amines (equation Series

PK,"

a,,

r

*

n

26

7.29 7.34 6.24 8.16 8.21 7.44 8.07 8.12 7.78 8.06 8.14 7.96 7.73 7.90 7.40

0.62 k 0.02 0.69 0.I0 0.82 k 0.05 0.75 k 0.02 0.82 f 0.08 0.89 0.12 0.73 k 0.02 0.82 0.09 0.78 f 0.07 0.74 f 0.03 0.87 f 0.07 0.75 k 0.22 0.58 & 0.04 0.88+0.10 0.63 k0.15

0.997 0.979 0.997 0.998 0.990 0.983 0.998 0.986 0.993 0.997 0.993 0.93 1 0.987 0.985 0.955

0.010 0.223 0.020 0.06 I 0.157 0.201 0.065 0.180 0.I27 0.080 0.129 0.403 0.168 0.187 0.330

24" 1 3b I I' 24" 13' 1 I' 24" I 3b I I' 24" I 3' 1 I' 24" 13' 1l C

21

43 44 45

"Without rn-NO1derivatives. N'-phenyl derivatives. 'Only N*-alkyl and N2-benzyl derivatives.

equation and represents the pK, value of the amidine containing(as a variable substituent RX)a n unsubstituted phenyl ring. In both equations 10 and 9, the numerical value of a is the same. It was foundz5that the changes of a values for N1,N'-dimethylpropionamidines (43), N',N'-dimethylisobutyramidines (44) and N I,N I-dimethylpivalamidines (45), following the changes of the u* values of the substituent at the functional carbon atom (Table 33), were not so evident as in the case of the plmvalues (cf. Section 1I.A.l.d). Thus it was not possible to derive a general equation for predicting the pK, values of amidines containing vaned substituents at the imino nitrogen and at the functional carbon atom. It was notedzs that the quality of correlationscommon for both alkyl and aryl substituents is decreasing with an increase in substitution at the a carbon atom, and thus with an increase in the u* value. Therefore separate correlations for N-aryl and N-alkyl derivatives were also calculated. For pivalamidines the a values were found to be 0.88 & 0.10 for aryl and 0.63 kO.5 for alkyl derivatives. The authors assumed that this may be due to different influences of the substituent a t the amidino carbon atom on N-alkyl- and on Narylamidines.The almvalues for N2-alkylamidinesseem to decrease with a n increasein the u* value of the substituent at the amidino carbon atom, whereas for Nz-phenylamidines they increase, as exepected on the basis of equation 7. A good explanation for these discrepancieswas found recently. It was shown4' that in the case of bulky substituentsat the functionalcarbon atom in amidines with alkyl groups at the amino nitrogen atom, the geometrical isomer where the substituent a t the imino nitrogen atom is in a cis position with respect to the amino nitrogen atom is more stable. The steric hindranceincreases in the order: H < Ph < Me < Pr' c Bu'. O n the other hand, it was shown46 that the change of configuration a t the C=N double bond in amidines involves not only changes in pK, values but also a considerable change in the p values. Thus the conclusion can now be drawn that the differences between the a values can be taken as an indication of the presence of a cis isomer in Nz-alkylamidines. The question of the ratio of cis to truns isomers in such amidines and the influence of the substituent at the amidino carbon atom on the regression parameters is at present under i n v e ~ t i g a t i o n ~ ~ .

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

653

All N'-phenylbenzamidines studied so far were trans isomers (N-phenyl is trans with respect to the amino nitrogenr'. Steric hindrancebetween two phenyl rings, o r a phenyl ring and an n-alkyl group, is much lower than between any two alkyl groups,because they can be twisted out-of-plane of the amidine group. Therefore, for NL,NI-dimethyl-N2phenylbenzamidines 49-53, the correlations with the pK, values of corresponding primary amineszZqz4 are of high quality (r > 0.991 for the full series, and higher if pnitrophenyl derivatives are excluded). The influence of substitution at one site on the sensitivity to polar effects at the second site is less evident because the CI values are in the range 0.60-0.65 with a confidence interval of 0.05. The only exception providing good support for the statement that in benzamidines the regression coefficient a for substitution at the imino nitrogen also depends on substitution at the functionalcarbon, is the series of p-nitrophenylbenzamidines (53), where the a value of 0.41 & 0.03 (r = 0.989) was found. For substitution a t the imino nitrogen atom in tetramethylguanidines" (28), a good correlation was also found (a = 0.61 f 0.03, r = 0.997).

h. Substitution at the amino nitrogen atom. It seemed reasonable that a relation with amines should be found also for amidines with variable substituentsat the amino nitrogen atom. Therefore Oszczapowicz and coworkers" correlated the pK, values (Table 34) of N2-phenylformamidinescontainingvariable substituentsat the amino nitrogen atom (55) with those of the corresponding secondary amines (SA). Ph-N=CH-

N

/ R y

\RX

(55)

The relation obeyed equation 1 1 : pK,(amidine) = ccA,pK,(SA)

+ /I

TABLE 34. pK values of N'-phenylformamidines (55) in 95.6% ethanol at 25 f 0.1 OC2' NRrRY

PK, 5.29 f 0.05

5.41 f 0.03 5.12 f 0.06 5.50 f 0.06 6.51 & 0.05

N(Bu'),

"Pr"), NMe,

6.92 f 0.03 1.42 It: 0.03 1.45 f 0.02 1.42f 0.03 8. I2 f 0.04

U

J. Oszczapowicz

654

- 0.5

-0.1

u

FIGURE3. Correlationof pK, values of N2-phenylformamidines(FA) with pK, values of correspondingsecondaryamines(SA). Inset u scale. From data in reference21

The following parameters were obtained:

pK,(amidine) = 3.97 + (0.35 f O.(M)pK,(SA) r=0.991, $ = O . l S O

Figure 3 illustrates a particularfeature of the basicity of amidines. The bisection of the axes (dotted line) crosses the regression line, which means that amidines containing the moiety of the secondary amine, whose pK, values are below this point, are stronger bases than the corresponding amines;the other amidines are weaker bases than the corresponding amines. This should be considered in discussions whether amidines are stronger or weaker bases than the corresponding amines. Equation 11 was normalized in a similar way to equation 9 by subtractingthe pK, value of unsubstituted N-methylaniline(NMA) from the pK, value of the secondary amines (SA, equation 12). pK,(amidine)

= pK,O

+ a-[pK,(SA) - pK,(NMA)]

(12)

In this equation the term pK,"has the same meaning as in the Hammett equation for Nmethylanilines. The validity of this relation was later confirmed26 by the series of N 3 phenylformamidines(32) and N2-phenylacetamidines(33).The following parameters of this equation (for 9 compounds in each series) were found: Series

PK:

U

r

32 33

5.3 1 7.00

0.60 f 0.06 0.40 f 0.08

0.994 0.975

*

0.121

0.255

655

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

The parameters of these equations indicate that the tl values for substitution at the amino nitrogen also depend on substitution at the functional carbon. These results supported the assumption'' that, in order to predict the pK, values of trisubstituted amidines (TSA) containing substituents of any kind, a two-parameter equation 13 can be applied where pK,(PA) and pK,(SA) are the pK, values of the corresponding amines built into a molecule of amidine. PKa(TSA) = tl,rnpKa(PA)+ tl,mPKa(SA) This equation can be also normalized, giving equation 14: pKa(TSA) = PK,"+ aImCpKa(PA)- pKa(PhNH,)]

+B

(13)

+ aAimCpKa(SA)- pK,(PhNhMe)]

(14)

An important advantage of this approach is that the amines are substrates for the synthesis of amidines and the pK, values of the latter can be predicted prior to the synthesis.

B.

Basicity of Tautomerizing Amidines

1. General relations

In the literature the pK, values. of compounds containing a mono- or disubstituted amidino group are usually given without comment as to the meaning of the reported values. Therefore we have to consider what really is measured in pK, determinations of tautomerizing compounds. Equations enabling prediction of microscopic pK, values of individual tautomers and the measured macroscopic pKa, value of the tautomericmixture have been derived on the basis of correlation analysis20. Forthe sake of clarity the tautomer in which the substituent R" is at the imino nitrogen atom will be called B, and the other one, in which R" is at the amino nitrogen,will be called B, (Scheme 1). Protonation of either tautomer yields the same salt, which is the conjugate acid BH+ of both B, and B2.In a solvent S this salt undergoesdissociation as shown in Scheme 1. The values K and K,, are called the microscopic dissociation constants4' of the conjugate acid BH" to B, and B,. The Bronsted theory defines K,, and K , , as follows:

R'

R'

I

SH+ + R~N-C-IUNHR~ (8,)

I

R~NH-C=NR~

Kl

(8,)

I

RXNH.-.G.-*NHR

( B h

SCHEME 1

+

SH+

J. Oszczapowicz

656

It is obvious that if substituents R" and RYare not identical, the microscopic constants pK,, and pK,, of the tautomers B, and B, are different. Tautomerization of amidines is a very fast reaction. In the case of N , N dimethylformamidines the lifetime of a tautomer in CDCI, solution at 25 OC50 is about lO-'s, and in the case of N,N'-di-(p-fluoropheny1)formamidines it is between lo-' and s, depending on the temperature (- 70 to 62 "C). This rate of proton transfer is about 30 times higher than that between water molecules under identical conditionss1.In the case of other N,N'-diphenylamidines the rate of proton transfer,as estimated on the basis of 'H and I3C NMR spectra, is between 10' and lo3 per second depending on the substitutions at the amidine carbon and at both nitrogen atoms48.Hence, the pK, values of individual tautomers are not experimentally accessible. All direct empirical methods measure only the macroscopic dissociation constant, which is definedSoas

+

This measured constant is the sum of the two microscopic constants: Ka,,, = K a , + Ka, (18) In the case RX= RYboth microscopic constants are identical and can be written as K,, i.e. K , = K , , = K,,. The experimentallyaccessible pK,, value is not equal to the pK, value of any of the two tautomers, and is given by equation 19.

pK,, = pK, - log2 (19) It was already shown that the pK, values of trisubstituted amidines containing a variable substituenteither at the imino'-3~9~'0~'2~'7.z2~25~39.40.52 or at the amino nitrogen atom8-10, 12.26.41.42 obey the Hammett equation 2. Since symmetrically disubstituted N,N'-diphenylamidines also obey this relation16 it can be assumed that in the case of unsymmetricallydisubstituted N,N'-diphenylamidines(56) the pK, value of tautomer B, can be determined as follows:

R

I

XC6H4N=C-NHC6H4Y (Bl)

R KT

(56)

I

XC6H,NH-C=NC6H,Y

(B2)

(20) PK,, = PK: - Plrnai - P A ~ D ; Here 0; and a; are the 'a values of substituentsX and Y respectively, plrnand pAmrelate to substitution at the imino and amino nitrogens and pKZ is the microscopic pK, value of the amidine containing unsubstituted phenyl rings at both nitrogen atoms. Consequently for the tautomer B, pKa, = P K ~ PArnOi - Prrna; (21) By replacingK , , and K,, in equation 18 by these terms obtained from equations 20 and 21 respectively, after rearrangement,equation 22 is obtained: pK,, = pK: - log [lC)("lm'i+PAmu;) + 10(PAm'~+Plmu;) 1 (22) On the plot in Figure4 the pK, values (equation 22) are represented by a curved surface lying below the pK,, and pK,, planes and approaching them asymptotically. There are several implications of equation 22 relating to the basicity of tautomerizing amidines. The most important conclusion is that, even for N-phenylamidines with only one variable substituent X, the relation between pK, values obtained experimentally (i.e.

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

t

657

pKa

FIGURE4. Plots of macroscopic pK, and microscopic pK,, and pK,, values vs u values of substituents at both nitrogen atoms in tautornerizingamidines (56).From J. Oszczapowicz, unpublished results

pK,, values) and substituent constants is not a straight line. Relation between substituent constants and pK, values for N,N'-diphenylamidineswith only one variable substituentX is presented in Figure 5. In this case again the dependence of pK, values on u constants is not a Hammett-type linear relation, but yields a curve the shape of which depends on both p values. For this reason we believe that linear regressionsbetween observed pK, values of tautomerizing amidines and u values, reported in the l i t e r a t ~ r e ' ~ * *are ~ *based ~ ~ * on ~ ~an , erroneous assumption. The lines representingpK,, and pK,, values cross each other at the point corresponding to the u value of the constant substituent Y in the series. This point represents the pK, vdlue of a symmetrically disubstituted (X = Y) N,N'-diphenylamidine. Equation 22 shows that the pK,, value is always lower than any of the two microscopic pK, values, and that it is closer to the pK, value of a less basic tautomer. It shows also that if the experimentally obtained pK, values of tautomerizing amidines (which in fact are pK,, values) are correlated with substituent constants, satisfactory linear regression can sometimes be obtained, but the apparent p value will depend mainly on the range(A, B or C on Figure 5 ) in which the majority of experimental points is found. This means that for amidines of the same type, e.g. formamidines, acetamidines etc., with the same set of variable substituents X, various apparent p values can be obtained depending on the substituent constant of the invariant substituent Y in the series. The only exceptions are symmetrically disubstituted N,N'-diphenylamidines (X = Y). Equation 22 implies that in this case pK,, values should obey the linear Hammett equation 23, where the observed p value is the sum of the plmand pAmvalues as has already been discussed'6. pK,,=PK,"-log2-(plm+pAm)u, (23)

658

J. Oszczapowicz

FIGURE5. Plot of macroscopic pKa, and microscopic pKa, and pK., values vs u values for N,N'-disubstituted amidines containing only one variable substituent. From reference 20 On the plot in Figure4 these pK,, and pK., values (equations 20 and 21) are represented by two planes crossingeach other along the straight line representingthe microscopic pK, values of symmetrically N,N'-disubstituted (ax = uy) amidines. 2. Basicity of monosubstituted and N,N'-disubstituted amidines

The derived equations were applied to unsymmetrically N,N'-disubstituted acetamidines (57) and benzamidines (58). The experimentally obtained pK, values are nearly identical with the calculated pK, values (Table 35).

R

I

XC6H,-N=C-NH-C6H,Y

R

I

XC6H,-NH-C=N-CBH,Y (57) R = Me (58) R = Ph

This provided support for the assumption that, in order to estimate microscopic pK, values of tautomers and thus to estimate equilibrium constants, the p values obtained for analogous series of trisubstituted N-methyl derivatives can be applied satisfactorily. However, it should be remembered that, no matter how accurate, this is an estimation only, since it was f o ~ n d that ~ * substitution ~ ~ * ~ ~at one of the nitrogen atoms has a small, but discernible,influenceon the p value for substitution at anothersite. Therefore the real

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

659

TABLE 35. pK, values of N,N'-disubstituted acetamidines (57) and benzamidines (58) in 95.6% ethanol at 25 0.1 TZo

+

51 57 51 57 51 51 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 58

p-Me H p-Br p-Br p-Br p-CI p-OMe p-Me m-Me H m-OMe P- F p-CI p-Br

H H H H H H H H H H H H

P-I

m-CI m-Br m-NO,

7.66 f 0.03 7.55 f 0.07 6.97 _+ 0.03 6.60 f 0.05 6.51 k 0.03 6.19 f 0.05 6.36 k 0.08 5.52 k 0.10 5.52 k 0.1 1 5.63 f 0.12 5.63f0.11 6.78 f 0.04 6.64 f 0.10 6.52 k 0.04 6.45 k 0.06 6.36 f 0.03 6.29 f 0.06 6.15 f 0.04 6.04 f 0.02 5.91 f 0.07 5.90 k 0.03 5.76 f 0.10 5.46 0.03 5.56f0.12 5.42 0.03 5.50 f 0.12 5.43 f 0.08 5.47 k 0.13 5.23 f 0.05 5.24 k 0.16 5.25 0.03 5.23 f 0.16 4.24 k 0.04 4.27 f 0.27

50 50 79 f 6 71 + 4 50 50 37+7 40f8 45+2 50 57f4 61 k5 68k8 69k9 70f9 75k I I 76f 12 87f I6

p-Me H p-Br H p-Br p-CI

+ + +

p values for the two tautomeric forms may be different from those obtained for model N -

alkylated compounds. Correlationsof pK, values with substituent constants for other tautomerizing amidines were reported. Chart01-1~~ found for unsubstituted amidines with a variable substituent bonded directly to the amidine carbon(59) that the pK, values were correlated with the om, ap and Q, constants. Since unsubstituted amidines can be treated as symmetrically N,N'disubstituted ones, linear regression can be applied. The best results were obtained for correlations with Q, constants ( p = 11.98, r = 0.965). HN=CX-NH,

(59) TABLE 36. pK, values of N-substituted phenylacetamidines (10) in ethanol at 25 f 0.5 'CZ9

X

PK,

X

PK,

H m-NMe, p-NMe, o-OMe p-OEt o-Me

8.93 9.09" 9.6Sb 9.14 8.85 9.09

m-Me p-Me 0-CI m-CI p-CI

8.85 9.17 7.76 7.92 8.29

"For the NMe, group pK, = 2.98. bFor the NMe, group pK, = 3.34.

J. Oszczapowicz

660

Passet and coworkers29 correlated the pK, values of N-arylphenylacetamidines (10, Table 36) with go constants and reported a p value of 2.089 & 0.127. C. Basicity of Amidoximes

Amidoximes are useful analytical reagents with interesting application^^^and their properties were studied extensively. By analogy to amidines it can be assumed that protonation occurs at the oxime nitrogen atom, as only in this case can a resonancestabilized cation be formed. This, nevertheless, was for long a matter of controversy’. Papers dealing with this problem are still scarce.GonCalves and S e ~ c h ecompared s~~ the pK, values of aminoamidoximes (60, R contains an amino group) with the pK, of the corresponding aminonitriles (Table 37) and on this basis suggested that protonation occurs on the oxime nitrogen atom. In another p a p e P the pK, values of three 4isoxazolylamidoximes were determined with high accuracy but the question of protonation site was not mentioned.

D. Basicity of Amidrazones

The pK, values of several amidrazones 61,62 and 63, referred to as guanylhydrazones, were correlateds6with Taft o* constants and with inductive field ons st ants^'.^^F . The pK, values calculated on the basis of parameters of both correlations do not differ more than 0.3 pK, units from those obtained experimentally (Table 38).

(63 1

(61) R3= H (82) R3=Ph

TABLE 37. pK, values of amidoximes

R NH2CHZCHz NH,(Me)CHCH, NH,CH(Me)CH, NHZCH(Ph)CHz NH,CHPh 2-NHzCbHe PhNHCHzCHz MeNHCH,CH, Bu”NHCHZCH2

Amino

group

OH

9.15 9.15 9.15

3.75 3.65 3.75 3.75 2.30 4.50” 5.35” 3.60 3.75

8.00 7.15

2.20” 2.45”

9.60 9.60

‘According to the authors, the NH, and OHviilues in these two entries may possibly be interchanged.

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

66 1

TABLE 38. pK, values of amidrazones61, 62 and 6356 PK, calculated

61 61 61 61 61 61 61 61 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 62 63 63 63 63 63 63

R'

R2

exP

from D

from F

n-Pr n-Hex n-Pentyl 2-Thienyl Ph 2-Thienyl 2-Thienyl 2-Q u inoIy I n-Bu n-Pr n-Hex n-Pentyl 2-Quinolyl Ph Ph Ph 2-Thienyl n-Pent yl n-Octyl n-Pr Ph 2-Thienyl

n-Pr Me n-Pr H H Me Ph H Me n-Pr Me n-Pr H Me Et Ph Ph n-Hex Me n-Hex H Ph

10.10

9.85 9.79 9.87 8.63 8.88 9.00 8.55

9.80 9.71 9.80 8.80 8.89 8.98 8.43 8.21 8.93 9.02 8.93 9.02 7.42 8.29 8.38 7.74 7.65 9.29 9.20 9.29 8.38 7.93

10.00 9.85 8.48 8.75 8.90 8.50 8.05 8.90 8.98 8.90 8.80 1.52 8.10 8.42 8.10 1.80 9.35 9.20 9.20 8.25 8.10

-

8.87 8.94 8.88 9.04

-

8.32 8.4 1 7.89 7.64 9.31 9.22 9.30 8.30 7.97

TABLE 39. pK, values of amidrazones (64) in 80% ethanol at 25 "CS9 R' p-Me2NC,H, Ph Ph Ph Ph 2-Pyridyl 2-Pyridyl 2-Pyrid yl

X

PKB

H OMe Me H NO2 Me H NO2

7.10 7.88 8.18 8.48 10.47 9.39 9.77 10.83

R

I

HzN -NH -C =NH

-CeH4X-4

(64)

Basicities of several N3-substituted amidrazones(64) were givensg as the pK, values (Table 39).

J. Oszczapowicz

662 E. Basicity of Formazans

Papers on the basicity of formazans are not numerous. Acid-base properties of 1aryl-2-[(4,6-diphenyl)-2-pyrimidynyl]-formazans (65) and 1-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-3alkyl-5-(2-benzazolyI)-formazans (66) and their pK, values (Tables 40 and 41) were reported60-62, but neither the solvent nor the temperature of the measurements were specified. Ph

111. TAUTOMERISM AND H-BONDING

N,N'-disubstituted and monosubstituted amidines undergo prototropic tautomerism. R R

I

I

R*-N=C-NH-RY

R"-NH-C=N-RY

The tautomerization in amidines is very fast, and according to NMR s t ~ d i e s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ * proton exchange occurs several tjmes per second. When both substituents are identical both tautomericforms are also identical,and the tautomericequilibrium constant is equal to unity, while in all other cases it depends on the substituents.

TABLE 40. pK, values" [(4,6-diphenyl)-2-pyrimidynyl]-fomazans

R' Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Me

X

H

P-Me p-OMe PCI P-Br p-COOH p-COOMe o-OMe H

I-aryl-3-phenyl-5(65)60

PK, 13.57 f 13.62 f 13.94 f 13.17 f 13.03 f 13.06 f 12.85 f 14.05 f 12.51 f

0.08 0.02 0.14 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.09 0.09 0.1 1

'Probably in water solution; solvent and temperature not given.

663

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

TABLE41. pK, values" of 1-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-5-(2-benzazolyl)forrnazans

R

X

Et

0

Et Me

Et

S NH NH NCH2Ph NCH,Ph

Et

0

Me Me Me

Et Me Et Me Et

S

S S

S NCH2Ph NCH2Ph

(66)

Y

NH

OH

Ref.

4-NO2 5-NO, 5-NO2 4-NO2 S-NO, 5-NO2 5-NO2 H H 4-NOz 4-NO2 4-NOI 4-NO2

5.78 f 0.03 8.60 f 0.02 8.52 f 0.03 10.79 f 0.28 10.67 f 0.27 -b -b -b -b 6.68 f 0.05 6.75 f 0.04 8.62 f 0.06 8.86 f 0.06

8.25 f 0.04 6.30 & 0.01 6.70 f 0.02 7.45 0.03 7.00 f 0.02 6.84 f 0.04 7.04 f 0.01 9.51 f 0.02 9.36 f 0.02 9.62 f 0.03 9.75 f 0.01 10.20 f 0.05 10.50 f 0.05

61 61 61 61 61 61 61 61 61 62 62 62 62

"References61 and 62 give neither solvent nor temperature. bGiven as 'determination unsuccessful'.

A. Tautomeric Equilibria, General Relations

Tautomerism of amidines was for years a matter of controversy. P r e ~ o r S e k ~ ~ . ~ ~ investigating the IR spectra of monosubstituted and N,N'-disubstituted amidines stated: 'alkyl substituents tend to prefer attachment to the amino nitrogen atom of the amidine group, but the reverse is true for aryl groups'. His conclusions were in agreement with earlier work on N-arylamidines by P ~ m a n ~and ' . ~were ~ supported later by M ~ r i t z ~ ~ , who criticized the work of Grivas and T a u r i n ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ . The question, in which form an amidine exists, was often discussed in early studies. However, in the 1970s it became understood that there is always an equilibrium state, and that even if the amount of one of the forms may be over 99%, an equilibrium still exists. Thus the question became: which of the tautomers predominates in different cases? The groups of Gautier7' and Reynaud7I have determined the structure of the predominant tautomer by acylation or alkylation of the tautomeric mixture and study of the products. sulphonylben~amidines~~ and some cyclic The tautomerism of N-phenylben~amidines~~, a m i d i n e ~was ~ ~also studied by IR or NMR spectroscopy. However, no quantitative information on the position of the tautomeric equilibrium was obtained in these papers. In 1964 Katritzky and C O W O ~ ~ proposed ~ ~ S ~ a ' method ~ ~ ~ based on measurements of pK, values of two methyl derivatives, assuming that the difference between them is equal to the difference between the pK, values of the two tautomers (equation 26), and applied this method to estimate equilibrium constants of monosubstituted acetamidines. Development of N M R spectroscopy also enabled determination of tautomeric equilibria". N o relations between structuralparameters and tautomeric equilibria were reported until 1985, when it was shown" that tautomeric equilibria for amidines can be predicted on the basis of polar effects of substituents at both nitrogen atoms. 1. Compounds with two tautomeric forms

In the case of N,N'-disubstituted amidines the equilibrium constant between tautomers B, and B, is defined as

J. Oszczapowicz

664

where x is the molar fraction of tautomer B,. Equations 15 and 16 indicate that the lower the basicity of a tautomer(i.e. the higher the acidity of its conjugated acid), the higher is its relative content in the equilibrium mixture. Dividing equation 15 by 16 we obtain or, in logarithmic form, Equation 26 implies that the molar fraction(x) of the base B , in the equilibrium mixture is determined by the difference between the pK, values of both tautomers: log

(G)

= ApK,

The plot of this relation (Figure 6) shows that, if the pK, values of both tautomers differ by one pK, unit, the tautomeric mixture contains 90% of the less basic tautomer, i.e. the tautomer in which the stronger electron-withdrawing substituent is bound to the imino nitrogen atom. When the difference between pK, values is about two pK, units, practically only one of the two tautomers is present in the mixture. Figure 6 presents a general relation for prototropic tautomerization of any compound with two tautomeric forms. In the case of amidines, the equilibria can be related to the polar effects at all the three sites48, i.e. at both nitrogen atoms and the amidino carbon atom. The relation between substituent constants and KT values can be derived by substitution of pK,, and pK,, in equation 26 by values from equations 20 and 21, respectively. After rearrangement,a Hammett-type disubstituent equation 28 is obtained, where pT = plm- pAm.Equation 28 does not contain the term p K t because it is the pK, of unsubstituted N,N'-diphenylamidine (X = Y = H), and thus is equal to 0. After replacement of uX- oy by ACTand plm- pAmby Ap and further rearrangement,we obtain

-1

0

1

ApKa

FIGURE 6. Plot of amounts (molar %) of individual tautomers in the equilibrium mixture vs the differences between pK, values of individual tautomers (ApK,). From J . Oszczapowicz, in preparation

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

-1

0

1

665

Aa

FIGURE 7. Plots of amounts(molar"/o) of individual

tautomersin the equilibriummixturevs the differences between u values (Au) of substituentsat both nitrogen atoms of the amidine group for various differences between the p values (Ap): 1,2.5;2,2.0; 3, 1.5; 4,l.O; 5, 0.75; 6, 0.50; 7, 0.30. From J. Osznapowicz, in preparation

The plot of this relation for various Ap values is presented in Figure 7. This shows that for the same pair of substituents X and Y on phenyl rings at the nitrogen atoms, and consequently for any pair of substituents R" and RY of any kind (aryl, alkyl or aralkyl), the equilibrium depends on the difference between the p values for substitution a t the imino @,J and amino (pAm) nitrogen atoms, but not on the p values. As has already been shown, the two p values depend to a different degree on the substitution a t the functional carbon atom9,10,12,23,26, which therefore also influences the equilibrium state. Support for the above conclusions was recently provided by ah initio calculations for several flu or of or ma mi dine^^^^^^.It was shown that the equilibrium is shifted towards the tautomer containingthe electron-withdrawingsubstituentat the imino nitrogen atom, i.e. the less basic tautomer predominates in the equilibrium mixture. The substituent at the amidino carbon atom also causes considerable differences in the equilibrium constants of amidines identically substituted at both nitrogen atoms. From a comparison of the total energies of pairs of tautomers, the general conclusion was drawn that the more basic is an amidine, the largeris the difference between the energy of the two tautomeric forms and, in consequence,the higher is the difference between the have claimed concentrations of tautomers. This was the reason why some that some amidines exist in one tautomeric form only, since their conclusions concerned strongly basic amidines, with substituentsof considerably differing polar effects at the two nitrogen atoms. Obviously the equilibrium state depends also on the solvent, because it exerts an influence on both p values to a different degree4~5~27~48. 2. Compounds with three tautomeric forms

General relations for compounds such as guanidines,2-azolylamidines or 2-azolylformazans with three possible tautomeric forms can be derived48. Compounds which may exist in three tautomeric forms B,, B2 and B, but yield a common conjugated acid BH', have three microscopic dissociation constants: K,,, K,, and KaZ (Scheme 2). The equilibrium in such systems is represented by three tautomeric equilibrium constants,

cp J. Oszczapowicz

666

B3

SCHEME 2 KT(11,

KT(2)and KT(,,, which can be defined as follows:

Equilibrium constants so defined obey equation 31: KT(l) = KT(2)/ KT(3) (3 1) In such systems, again the least basic tautomer predominates. In the case of N’,N2,N3trisubstituted guanidines this will be the tautomer with the strongest electronwithdrawing substituent at the imino nitrogen atom. The ratio of tautomericforms in an equilibrium mixture is given by the relation

B,:B2:B3= K a 1 : K a 2 : K a j The macroscopic dissociation constant Kamin this case is defined as Kam =

“Bl)

+ (B,) + (BJI(SH+) (BH + 1

(32)

(33)

Thus, as in equation 18, Kamis again the sum of the microscopic constants: Ka* = Ka, + Ka,

+ Ka,

(34)

8. Tautomerlsm of Amidlnes 1. Prototropic tautomerim

G r a t ~ i k ’pointed ~ out that in many cases only one of the two tautomeric forms was detected by physicochemical methods, and in the presence of an electron-withdrawing substituent the tautomer with this substituent at the imino nitrogen atom predominates. Passet” and coworkers stated ‘it is known that N-alkylated amidines exist in solutions as a mixture of two tautomeric forms with predomination of N1-alkylated form; in contrast to that N-arylamidines exist as Nz-arylamidines’. But whether it is a mixture of two tautomers or a single tautomer was not discussed.

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

661

IR spectra have shownlg that monosubstituted phenylacetamidines (67) in carbon tetrachloride solutions exist only in the form in which the aryl group is at the imino nitrogen atom.

"

1

CH,Ph

CH,Ph

I

RC,H,N=C-NH,

RC,H,NH--C=NH

(67) Tinkler7*compared the pK, values of sulphonylamidines(68)with those of sulphonylamides and sulphonylureas,assuming that the pK, value of a sulphonylamidine should distinguishbetween the two tautomeric forms A and B if they exist separately. On the basis of the IR spectra he has found that in solutions of N-alkylsuphonylamidinesthe form with the sulphonyl group at the imino nitrogen atom predominates. Changes in the IR spectra on dilution indicated that monosubstituted N-sulphonylbenzamidines (68, R 2 = H), in contrast to the substituted compounds, displayed intermolecular hydrogen bonding. R R

[

' I

1

R'S02-N=C-NH-R2

R'SO~,-NH-C=N-R2

A

B

(68 Jackman and Jen73investigated the structure of the predominant tautomer in cyclic amidines (69) using 'H NMR and "C NMR spectra and found that in all cases the imino tautomer A predominates. They have also shown that this is true also for oxa analogs (X = 0)as well as for cyclic guanidines(X = NH). In open-chainguanidinesalso the form with the phenyl ring at the imino nitrogen atom predominates. However, the paper does not state whether the presence of the second tautomer is detectable or not.

A

B

(69)

The tautomeric structure of 2-amino(imino)thiazines(69, X = SCH,) was a matter of interest and confusion for many years, and may serve as a good example of how the reliablity of conclusions on tautomerization depends on the techniques of structure determination available at the time, as well as on the proper application of these ~.'~ techniques. The 2-phenylimino thiazine (69, R = H), was synthesized by T i ~ l e r ~and on the basis of IR and UV spectra of the compound and its methylated derivatives, was assigned the imino form. A few years later it was that the structures of the methylated compounds were improperly assigned, and it was c o n ~ 1 u d e d ~that ~ * 'the ~ amino structure must be assigned to it. However, just two years later Rabinovitz80*8', consideringthe coupling between methyleneprotonsand an NH proton in the spectrum of the protonated compound, supported Tisler's assignment.Jackmanand Jen7' have shown that in fact the compound exists in the imino form, although they found Rabinovitz's

668

J. Oszczapowicz

interpretation unconvincing,because the ortho-carboxyl derivative (70) most likely exists as a zwitterion and the question of tautomerism does not arise.

A

0

(70)

Jakobsen and Treppendah182*83, while investigating N-sulphonylformamidines, have also found that the sulphonyl group is at the imino nitrogen atom. The tautomer containingthe electron-withdrawinggroup a t the imino nitrogen atom predominates also in N-thiophosph~rylbenzarnidines~~. Quantitative estimations of tautomeric equilibria in N-acylamidines (71, R2 = RCO) and sulphonylamidines (71, R2 = RSO,) were conducted on the basis of the difference between pK, values of the two corresponding N-methyl derivatives by Katritzky and coworkers30.They found that in all cases the form with the acyl or sulphonyl group at the imino nitrogen atom predominates, and the K, value is ca 30 for acylamidines and ca 10' for the sulphonyl compounds.

[

Y'

R~N=C-NH,

e (71)

I

R~NH-C=NH R1

1

For N-phenylacetamidine~~', on the basis of UV spectra it was found that the imino N-aryl tautomer predominates and the pK, value of 2.4 was obtained from basicity measurements. An attempt was made at combining the correlation method20 with the approachbased on the differences between pK, values of the corresponding methylated derivative^'^.^^, and the equilibrium constants estimated by Katritzky and coworkers30 for monosubstituted acetamidines (71, R1 = Me, R2 = XC,H,) were called into q u e s t i ~ n ' ~ . However, the reasoning was based on the erroneous assumption that substitution at one of the nitrogen atoms bears no influence on the p value for substitution at the second nitrogen atom. Therefore the microscopic pK, values of tautomers obtained are only estimates. Proper evidence for accuracy of such estimations could only be provided by agreement of predicted and experimentally obtained macroscopic pK,, values for series of amidines in which the amount of a certain tautomer would be varied over the wide range of 0 to 100%. Evidence could be provided also by good agreement with the determinations of equilibrium constants obtained by N M R spectroscopy for solutions in the same solvent in which the pK, values were determined, but in neither of the two paper^'^.'^was any experimental evidence given for the presented assumptions. Tautomeric equilibria in N-monosubstituted benzamidine (72) and N,N'On . the basis of I5N diphenylguanidine(73) were studied by Clement and K a m p ~ h e n ' ~ NMR spectra they found that the tautomer containing the phenyl ring at the imino nitrogen atom predominates in the mixture. The amount of the second tautomer, in N-phenylbenzamidine (72) in water solution, was found to be 2% or 1 l%, depending on which of the two nitrogen atoms in the correspondingmethylated derivatives was taken as

669

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

the basis for calculation (cf. Sections 1II.A and III.C, chapter on detection and determination, this volume). Ph

(72)

PhN

NHPh

-

L

PhHN

NPh

(73) Tautomerization of amidines was also a subject of ab initio calculation^^^*^^^^^ -89. The results have shown that tautomerization is facilitated by hydrogen bonding between amidine molecules, o r by hydrogen bonding with other molecule^^**^^.It was also shown that the more stable tautomer is that containing the electron-withdrawing substituent a t the imino nitrogen and that the difference of energies between the two tautomers depends on the substitution at the amidino carbon atom and on the configuration (cis-trans) on the C=N double bond46. Prototropic tautomerism in amidines is facilitated by intermolecular hydrogen bonding, for which experimental evidence was provided by several studies. Halliday, Symons and Binderso, on the basis of 'H NMR and 1R spectra of N,N'dimethylformamidine,assumed that tautomerization occurs through a hydrogen-bonded cyclic dimer (74). Effectively 100% association was shown for the neat compound. From

'H NMR data the following rate constants of tautomerization were found for 74 in various concentrations and solvents (in s - I): neat liquid

CD3NH, (1.4 m)

CDCI, (0.5 m)

1.4 x 10'

6.3 x 103

8.2 x 10'

CDCI, (2.9 m) 4.2

103

~

Differences in the lifetime of tautomers may be caused by changes in the monomer-

670

J. Oszczapowicz

hydrogen-bonded dimer equilibrium with dilution. The authors'" assumed that the effects are also caused by changes in the dimer structure in different solvents. Amidines may also form a hydrogen bond with other groups or molecules containing nitrogen atoms. Baudet and RaogOpostulated H-bonding between the hydrogen atom of the amidino group and the nitrogen atom of benzothiazolyl moiety in 2-benzothiazolylamidines to explain a considerable decrease of y,(NH) and y,,(NH) frequenciesin the TR spectra. IntramolecularH-bondingbetween an amidino NH group and the nitrogen atom of a thiazole ring in some histamine receptor antagonists was studied by 'H NMR ~spectroscopyg Another type of prototropic tautomerization was observedg2 in the case of N 1 , N 1 diphenyl-N2-p-tolyl(4-hydroxy-3,5-di-t-butyl)benzamidine (75) where the proton of the phenol group migrates to the imino nitro nitrogen atom, and a quinoid tautomer is formed. In this particularcase both tautomers were isolated and their structuresconfirmed by IR and 'H NMR spectra.

'.

4-MeCeH4N=C-NPhZ

4-MeCGH4NH-C-NPh2

(75)

A similar type of tautomer, with two amino groups and a C=C double bond, was postulatedg3as an intermediate to explain the Z-E isomerization in chloroacetamidines (76).

Z

E

2. Other tautomerisms

In addition to proton migration, other tautomerisms were also observed. In the case of amidines containinga strongly electron-withdrawinggroup at the amino nitrogen atom, ~-~~, other types of tautomerism referred to as tautomeric m i g r a t i ~ n ~ permutative ~ * ' ~reported. ~ Foramidines containinga N-P i s o m e r i z a t i ~ n ~or* 1* ,~3~- m i g r a t i 0 n ~ were bond (77), migration of the phosphorus-containing group was observed in the NMR

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

67 1

(78)

spectra94-96*98*99. It was assumed that tautomerization occurs either via a cyclic 77b or by a cyclic dimer 78. form94-96*98-99 Chemical evidence for such processes was provided by heating equimolar mixtures of either 79 with 80, or of 81 with 82, when all four exchange products are formedgs (Scheme 3).

I

Ph MeN=C-N-P
I Me

J

+

M e N = CF3 t!-N-P/’G

I

0‘

Me

Ph MeN=!-N-P/@

I ‘ Me

+

MeN=C-N-P Me

(821

(81)

SCHEME 3 Migration of an electron-withdrawinggroup was reported” for N’-p-chlorosulphinylNL,NZ-di(p-tolyl)-amidine (83), as well as for N,N’-di-(p-tolyl)-N-2,4,6-tris(trifluoromethylsulphonyl)phenylbenzamidine (84)loo (Scheme 4). The last process is very fast, and in the ‘H NMR spectra separate signals of the methyl groups in the two tautomers are observed only below - 10°C. C. Tautomerlsm of Amidrazones

Amidrazones undergo prototropic tautomerism and may exist in the amide hydrazone form (85a), usually referred to as amidrazone, and in the hydrazide imide form (85b), the former being the preferred 0ne’01-104. In previous review 1 0 5 . L 0 6 , amidrazones were classified as those capable of existing in tautomeric forms and those which cannot tautomerize. It was statedlo6that even where tautomerism is possible ‘only one tautomer is normally obtained, there being no evidence for the presence of tautomeric mixtures’, and further:‘The structure of some substituted amidrazones is less clear cut’. To understand tautomerism in amidrazones they have to be considered as amidines containing a substituted or unsubstituted amino group NR2R3 at one of the amidino

612

J. Oszczapowicz

L

CI

CI

(83)

R'

I

I:>.-.--N-R4

I

H

-

R

RZ

\ N-N-C=N-R4 I

R3'

(85a)

I

H

(8Sb)

nitrogen atoms. With this approach it becomes clear which amidrazonesmay tautomerize and equations 24-29 can be applied to predict this ability. It was shown (Section III.A.1) that in the equilibrium mixture the tautomer with the stronger electron-withdrawing group at the imino nitrogen atom predominates, and the equilibrium position depends on the differencebetween the u values of the substituentsat the two nitrogen atoms (Figures6 and 7). Thus, amidrazone(86)exists exclusively in the hydrazide imide form"', but if the N3-phenyl group is replaced by an N3-methyl group (87), apparently the exclusively formed tautomer'02 is the amidrazone. Ph

Ph

Me

>N1_N2

I

H--C=N3Ph

Me

(86)

Me\

/ Me

I

N1-N2=C-N3HMe

(87)

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

673

Another type of tautomerizationwas observed for NL-alkenylideneamidrazone saltslo' (88). Using I3C NMR spectroscopy it was found that they undergo ring-chain tautomerization 88a-88b, and the equilibrium depends to a considerable degree on steric effects. The presence of a substituent at the N2 nitrogen atom makes the cyclic form preferable;otherwise the chain form 88a predominates. A substituent at the N3 nitrogen atom has only little effect on the equilibrium.

r',CR' I

R~

Nbt,$NHR3

-

i

HY-~R'R~ I I N+tdNR3 xi

I

Ph

6h

D. Tautomerlsm of Formazans

Unsymmetrically 1J-disubstituted formazans (89) may exist in the two tautomeric forms A and B, where the N' and N5 nitrogen atoms may be called 'azo' and 'hydrazo' nitrogen atoms, respectively.

R

R

The numbering of atoms in formazans is different from that of amidines.To show that owing to tautomerism the position of a substituent is not clearly defined, two locants for a substituentare given, the second (less probable) in parentheses;however, this system is not in general use. Numbering begins with the double-bonded terminal nitrogen atom, as shown in 89. Formazans may formally exist in various configurationaland conformational forms. Configuration at both C=N and N=N double bonds may be syn or anti, and conformational arrangementson single bonds also contribute to the variety of forms. Moreover, each geometrical form may exist as a mixture of two tautomers62~'08-'". However, the data indicate that all atoms of the formazan group are practically coplanar, and that on both nitrogen-nitrogen bonds there is an anti configuration, or conformation,respectively. Thus mainly two geometrical forms are observed, the one (90) referred to as 'the open form"" and the second (91), with an intramolecular hydrogen bond forming a six-membered ring, referred to as the 'chelated form"09s'lo.

0

A

(90)

J. Oszczapowicz

674

I

I

R '.

A

R'

(91)

0

In the treatment of structure-basicity relations and of tautomerism, the formazan group can be treated as an amidino group, where the system of conjugated double bonds is extended by an additional azo double bond at the amino nitrogen atom, and by a nitrogen atom at the imino nitrogen atom. Thus it could be expected that the general conclusions concerning the structure of the predominant tautomer in amidines were valid for formazans as well, and that in the equilibrium the tautomer containing at the doublebonded nitrogen atom the more electron-withdrawing group will predominate. In several papers dealing with formazans the conclusions are just the opposite. It was shown that the more electron-withdrawing substituent is at the single-bonded hydrazo nitrogen atom'0s*'10*112. However, it has to be pointed out that in these papers the structures, determined by 'H or 13CNMR spectroscopy, are referred to the structure of 1,3,5-triphenylformazan(92)containinga nitro group at one of the terminal phenyl rings, as determined by Fischer, Kaul and Zollinger1'3. The authors recorded the 'H NMR spectra ofthreelabelled formazans(92, X = H, OMe, 4-N02) which contained a 15Natom bonded to an unsubstituted phenyl ring and the three corresponding unlabelled ones.

Ph

6h

(92A)

(928)

Usually, in the 'H NMR spectra of compounds containinga I5NHgroup, the signal of the proton at the nitrogen atom is split into a doublet by the 15N-'H coupling. It was found that the NH signalin labelled N-phenyl- and N-(p-methoxypheny1)formazans was a doublet, whereas for the p-nitro derivative and for unlabelled compounds the N H signal was a broad singlet. It was then concluded that in the case of the first two derivatives the proton is at the 15Natom, i.e. the substituted phenyl ring is at the azo (N') nitrogen atom. From the lack of splitting in the other cases it was concluded that the p-nitrophenyl derivative exists practically as a single tautomer B, with the p-nitrophenyl group at the hydrazo nitrogen atom. Interpretationof the NMR data is, however, not convincing.The presenceor absence of lH-15N coupling is not a reliablecriterion for determining the structureof the formazan. It is well known that the absence of N H coupling is often a consequence of a high rate of proton exchange, and thus it cannot be taken as evidence of the C=N double-bond position. Neither was the possibility of hydrogen bonding between N' and N5 nitrogen atoms considered.The spectra of formazans labelled at the second nitrogen atom was also not studied, and thereforethere is no evidence that the NH coupling will be observed for a nitrogen atom bonded to a p-nitrophenyl group. Moreover, the splitting of the NH signal does not mean that the second tautomer which contains the hydrogen at the unlabelled

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

675

nitrogen does not exist in the mixture, because it may happen to be unobservable. Therefore the problem calls for reinvestigation using other techniques. Support for the assumption that equilibria in formazans and amidines obey the same rules is provided by the paper of Buzykin and coworkers"'. The authorsdetermined the structure of l-(4-nitrophenyl)-3-ethyl-5-benzoylformaan (93) by X-ray analysis" and found it to be in an 'open' form. The obtained bond lengths (N'N2:1.259(3)A, N4N5:1.370(3)& N2C3:1.425(3)w and C3N4:1.281(3)a) show that the p-nitrophenyl group is at the double-bonded (azo) nitrogen atom. The H ' NMRchemical shifts of some other N-acyl-N'-(4-nitrophenyl)-formazans, reported in the same paper, indicate that they also exist in the tautomeric form with the phenyl ring at the azo nitrogen atom, i.e. in the form expected on the basis of general considerations for amidines. Unfortunately, this paper was devoted mainly to conformationaland configurationalaspects and the authors did not note that their results may throw new light on the problem of tautomerization of formazans. 0

*

H C

'CH3

(93)

The X-ray-determined structure'0g of l-(p-methoxyphenyl)-3-phenyl-5-(2-benzothiazoly1)-formazan (94) shows that in this case both nitrogen-nitrogen bond lengths (1.33(2) and 1.3 t(2) A, respectively) are equal. The two C'-N bonds, 1.34(3) and 1.39(2) A, are slightly different similarly to the bonds between terminal nitrogen atoms and carbon atoms of the 2-thiazolyl and p-methoxyphenyl moieties, which are 1.37(3) and 1.43(2)A, respectively. Thus it can be concluded that either the amounts of the two tautomers are equal, or that in this case the question of a predominant tautomer does not exist. The equalization of the bond lengths in the formazan group provides also confirmation for strong hydrogen bonding.

(94)

Tautomeric equilibria in the gas phase for 1(5)-phenyl-3-phenyl-5(1)-(2-benzthiazolyI)formazans (95, X = S, R' = 4-C6H,Y, R = Ph) and 1(5)-phenyl-3-phenyl-5(1)-2benzimidazoly1)-formazans (95, X = NR) were estimated on the basis of the peak distributions in their mass spectraloY(Table 42). In addition to the two tautomeric forms involving the formazan group only, a third one (95C)was assumed'14. It is noteworthy that the tautomer C was not differentiatedfrom A, so there is no evidence of its amount. Tautomeric equilibria in 1(5)-phenyl-5(1)-(2-thiazolyI)-formazans (95D and E) were

676

J. Oszczapowicz

TABLE 42. Tautomeric equilibria of 1(5)phenyl-3-phenyl-5( I)-(2-benzthiazolyl)formazans (99, as estimated on the basis of their mass spectra'"'

"/, of B form

X H Me NMe, OMe

c1

Br COOH

TABLE 43. Tautomeric equilibria of l(5)phenyl-5(1)-(2-thiazolyl)-formazans (95D and E) in CDCI, and DMSO solutions"'

%B 89.3 90.6 91.9 89.6 93.6 94.2 90.1

10.7 9.4 8.1 10.4 6.4 5.8 9.9

X OMe Me H Br NO2

CDCI,

DMSO

0 30 50 40 70

26 40 36 80

2

I

R

(9SA)

determined on the basis of the averaged chemical shifts in their I3C NMR spectra"' (Table 43).

IV. COMPLEX FORMATION

A. Complexes of Amidines

Complexes of amidines, depending on the bonding type, can be classified into three main groups. The first group comprises collision complexes with proton-donating compounds. The second group consists of complexes with metals or complexes with other ligands. The third group comprises boron complexes. 1. Collision complexes

Collision complexes are formed by hydrogen bonding of proton-donatingmolecules to the nitrogen atoms of the amidine. Vaes, Faubert and Zeegers-Huyskens"5 have found

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

677

that N1,N'-dimethyl-N2-phenylformamidines (26, R" = XC6H4),in carbon tetrachloride solutions, form complexes with ethanol and phenols, and that the formation of the hydrogen bond takes place on the imino nitrogen atom. Forcomplexes with ethanol it was found that the differences Av(0H) between the stretching 0-H vibration frequencies in complexed and uncomplexed ethanol molecules correlatewith the Hammet Q constants of substituents on the phenyl ring in the amidine molecule according to the relation Av(0H) = 300 - 53.7 x u

(r = 0.96)

Stability constants K also correlate with the o values: log K = 0.74 - 0.48

1o

(r = 0.98) For complexes with substituted phenols, it was found that stability constants correlated with Q constants of substituents both on the phenyl ring in the N1,N'-dimethyl-NZphenylformamidine and on the phenol molecule according to the general equation 35, where un and ub are u values of the substituents in the two types of molecule. The stability constants of the 2: 1 complexes were also calculated,and it was concluded that 'the second molecule of phenol seems to be bonded to the oxygen atom of the first phenol molecule rather than to the amino nitrogen Mierzecki, Oszczapowicz and Kozakowski' l6 have shown that amidines form complexes with chloroform molecules. Infraredstudies of deuteriochloroform complexes with various formamidines have shown that complexes containing a larger number of molecules are also formed besides 1 : 1 complexes. In the 1R spectra of these mixtures two new bands for the stretchingv(CD) vibrations appear, providing evidence for two kinds of complexes. As in such a system the only possible electron donors are amidine nitrogen atoms, it was concluded that both nitrogen atoms may be involved in the formation of 2: 1 complexes. In a further study"' on I :1 complexes of amidines with deuterated chloroform, the differences (Av) between v(C-D) stretching frequency in uncomplexed and complexed CDCI, molecules were determined for 75 N ' , N l-dimethylamidines including dimethylformamidines (26), dimethylacetamidines (27), dimethylisobutyramidines (44) and dimethylpivalamidines (45). In the case of Nz-alkylamidines the two bands are well separated and the Av is as high as 50 cm- I , while for Nz-phenylamidines it is lower but still discernible. It was found that Av correlates with the pK, values of amidines as well as with the u values of substituents at the phenyl ring in N2-phenylamidines.Foralkyl- and arylsubstituted formamidines (26) and acetamidines (27) a good, common correlation is obtained. For isobutyramidines (44) and pivalamidines (45) better results are obtained if correlations are calculated separately for Nz-alkyl and N2-aryl substitutions. This was explained by differences in configuration of the C=N double bond. As was recently shown4', N'-phenylamidines containing an isopropyl (44) or t-butyl (45) group at the amidino carbon atom are, like all formamidines and acetamidines, in the trans configuration,but those containingaliphatic substituents at the imino nitrogen atom are cis isomers. 2. Metal complexes of amidines

Complexes of amidines with metals can be further classified according to the type of bonding between the amidine molecule and the metal ion. Three kinds of 1: 1 complexes are possible: symmetrically chelated (96), unsymmetrically chelated (97) and orthometallated (98) ones. Metals can be complexed also by two (99) or three (100) amidine molecules. Ortho-metallated complexes (98) may form complexes with an additional

678

J. Oszczapowicz

moleculeof amidine' l a . If the amidinemolecule takes part in complexing of two metal ions (bridging complexes), then the amidine may bridge either two identical (101) or two different (102) metal atoms.

R

I R 'N-C-R' 4N\/ ;;;/ R'-c\N/M-N

R'

I

R

(99)

(101)

(102)

The various bonding modes of amidines to metals have attracted much interest. The amidino group in the majority of its complexes bonds as an N,N'-chelate11g-'24or N,N'bridging12s-133three-electrondonor, althoughit is known to act as a monodentate oneelectron ligand to transition metals' 34. Symmetrical chelate amidino groups have been assigned to avarietyoftungsten120~122-124, manganese11g-12' ,rheniumI2',platinum135 and palladium135complexes. Unsymmetrical chelate groups, as found126in [TaMeCI,(Pr'NC(Me)NPr'],], are less well documented. N,N'-bridging amidino groups were found in molybdenumL2', rheniumL3' and sil~er-platinum'~~ complexes. In addition to coordination to metals as monodentate and bidentate groups, amidines act also as nucleophilic reagents towards coordinated carbonyl and nitrile groups"*. N,N'Diphenylformamidines, acetamidines and benzamidines react thermally or photolytitally"*with rheniumcarbonyls Re(CO),X or [Re(CO)4X]2, where X = CI or Br, to afford stable complexes Re(CO),[RNC(R)NHR]X containing monodentate amidine ligands. Severalstereochemicalproblems of metal complexes with amidines are discussed in the literature.However, these areproblems of complex chemistry rather than of amidines,and

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

679

therefore will not be discussed here in detail. In the complexes with one metal atom the question of the spatial arrangement of the ligands arises, particularly in the case of complexes with metal carbonyls. If two or three unsymmetrically N,N'-disubstituted amidine molecules are complexing one metal atom, the possibility of chiral compounds exists, where the metal atom is an asymmetry centre. For example, it was found that amidines react with PhMo(CO),CI to yield Ph(CO),Mo-amidinato chelate complexes, in which the molybdenum atom is an asymmetric center','. With optically active amidines pairs of diastereoisomers, and with racemic chiral amidines diastereoisomeric pairs of enantiomersare obtained, which can be separated.The [a] values for these complexes are very high (from + 6165 to - 3930 at 578 nm) and depend on the wavelength.Considerable differences in their C D spectra were found. The compounds epimerize by change of configuration at the Mo atom. It was ~ h o w n ' ~ ' * that ' ~ * the conformations of optically active substituents with respect to the Mo-amidinato complexes can be unambiguously determined by C D or 'H NMR spectra. With C,H,Mo(CO),CI, optically active amidines R"N=CR1 -NHR form C5H,(CO),Mo-amidinato complexes which differ in configurationon the molybdenum atom"g. Diastereoisomerscan be separated by crystallization. In solutionsepimerization occurs. Equilibriumbetween the isomers depends on temperature,solvent and on the kind of substituents. In one case the absolute configurationsof four diastereoisomershaving the composition (R"C,H,)Mo(CO),[(HCPhR)-N-C(Ph)-N-(HCPhR)] were established by X-ray diffraction method~'~'. a. Complexformation. Metal complexes of amidines are obtained by various methods, depending mainly on the constituents. With metal salts in boiling ethanol amidines form'4' complexes of general formula Me[(amidine),*(HzO),] where Me is Mn, Fe, Co, Ni or Cu. Copper acetate reacts with N,N'-bis(benzoy1)-pentasulphinamidine (HL) in benezene solution to give a Cu(0Ac)L complex .14, With oS3(co)14or O~~(CO)~~(cyclooctene)~, N,N'-dibenzyl- or N,N'-diisopropylformamidines to give different types of nonacarbonyl complexes HOS,(CO)~(Pr'NCHNPr') and HOs,(CO),(PhCH,NCH,Ph), the difference being in the ability of the benzyl group to be ortho-metallated. Ruthenium salts react in acetonitrile with pyrazole derivatives to give'44-'46 amidine complexes,which were characterizedby the I R and NMR spectra, and in some cases by Xray Dimethylgallium or molybdenum complexes react with pyrazole derivatives and orthoaminophenol to give complexes of the type Na+[Me,Ga(pyrazolyl)(o-aminophenol)]. This complex reacts with NiBr,, Re(C0)4CI or (MeCN),Mo(CO), yielding the corresponding nickel, rhenium or molybdenum c o m p l e x e ~ ' ~Structures ~. of some of the complexes were determined by X-ray diffraction method. Nitrido complexes of osmium with amidines are formed in the reaction of KOs0,N with amidinoisoureasulphate in water at pH 10, when a crystalline complex of the type [OOsNL,]OH.H,O (L = amidinoisourea) insoluble in common organic solvents is obtained (103). The structures of the complexes with various amidinoisoureas were determinedI4* on the basis of the structures of ligands and IR characteristics of the complex. 50 that the complex (104) has In complexes ofamidines with cobalt(II1)it was a hexadentate ligand which involves a novel diamidine arrangement of an N,N'disubstituted amidine and a trisubstituted amidine,each amidine group being coordinated through one nitrogen. The structureshave been characterized by "C and 'H NMR and IR spectra.

-

680

J. Oszczapowicz

(103)

(10 4)

It was shown"' that reactions of the iridium complex [(Ph,P),(CO)lrCI] with [M(RN=CH-NR)], where M is Cu or Ag, afforded the complex [(Ph,P),(CO)IrM(RN=CH-NR')] in which the formal iridium to metal donor bond is stabilized by a bridging formamidino group. The ease of complex formation and its stability depends on the metal and on the size of the group R. For small R groups the stability and the ease of complex formation is higher than for bulky R groups. For Ag complexes it was found that for small R groups two isomers were formed, the NR group being bonded to either Ir or Ag, but in the case of bulky R groups the NR group is always bonded to Ag. Complexes of amidines with rhodium and mercury of the composition [diene(RNC(R')NR'),RhHgCl] are formed in almost quantitative yield in the reaction'33 of [(diene)RhCI], with [Hg(RNC(R')NR'),]. These complexes in the solid state are probably dimeric, while in solution they are definitely monomeric. NMR data show that the molecular configuration consists of the rhodium atom coordinated by a bidentate diene, and a bidentate amidino group, which bridges the Rh-Hg bond. The I3C N M R data show that the complexes are fluxional. The process involves an interchange of the bridging and the chelating amidino groups via monodentate intermediates. The diene ligands d o not exchange with free olefins, but the formamidino group can be rapidly replaced by a more acidic triazenido or amidino group.

b. Practical applications ofamidine complexes. Metal complexes of amidines are applied for spectrophotometric determination of some metals, such as m o l y b d e n ~ m ' ~tun~, gsten",, niobiurnIs4and antimonylS5.The method is based on extraction from solution containing thiocyanate and metal ions as a complex with a derivative of N,Ndiphenylbenzamidine. Mo(")was detected by extraction from a solution containing amidine hydrochloride, thiocyanate and ascorbic acid as the 1 : 2 : 2 Mo-SCN-amidine complex into benzene, followed by absorbance measurements'". The method is sensitive and selective and free from interference by metal ions commonly associated with molybdenum in various ores and minerals.The applicability of the method has been confirmed by using it to determine M o in steel samples, and the dust obtained from phosphate fertilizers. A comparative study of the extraction of Nb(') in benzene and chloroform showed that extractability and selectivity of the method are greatly affected by the nature of the solvent. In the determination of niobium, Mo interferes and has to be removed by prior extraction. Other metals d o not interfere in benzene. The method was applied to the recovery of niobium from columbite. Determination of tungstenlS3is based on reduction of W"') to W"' and extraction of the resultant thiocyanate complexes with a benzene solution of amidine. The method is applied to steel alloys. A method for the determinationIS5of trace amounts of antimony in industrial waste water is based on reaction of Sb"' with iodine and extraction of the iodo complex with

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

68 1

amidine [HA] as Sb,l,HA complex. The method was applied for the recovery of Sb from water samples. A method for the determinationlS7of gold in low-grade ores is based on the extraction of Au from the ore with N,N'-diphenylbenzamidine into chloroform, and stripping the gold from the organic phase with thiourea and its determination in the aqueous phase. Another methodL5*is based on extraction of [AuX,] where X = CI, Br, I with amidines in benzene or chloroform as solvents. The method is simple, rapid, reproducible and free from the interferenceof almost all metal ions tested. Complexes with magnesiumof the type R-N=C(R')-NRC0,MgBr were found' 5 9 to be useful reagents for the transfer of CO, to RZCOCH,R3 to give R2COCH,(R3)COOH in good yields. Amidine complexes of the general formula Me[(amidine),.(H,O),], where Me is Mn, Fe, Co, Ni or Cu, were investigated as antifungal agents','. It was found that metal (105, R'=Me) and bencomplexes with N-(S-phenyl-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl)-acetarnidines zamidines (105, R'= Ph) are more fungitoxic than the free ligand, and that the fungiotoxicity of the complexes increases as the radius of the metal ion decreases.

(106)

Metal complexes with optically active amidines were investigated as stereodifferentiating catalysts. It was found that optically active amidines (106a and b) or their Li derivatives with [RhCl(cycl~octene),]~ after activation with molecular hydrogen give catalysts which hydrogenate unsaturated compounds such as cyclohexene, benzene or toluene, as well as prochiral substrates, such as various derivatives of cinnamic acid, with a high (75-100%) yieldi6'. However, the good hydrogenation activity is in contrast to the low optical induction which gives values different from zero only in the hydrogenation of a-methylcinnamic alcohol. Ph

1

R-N'

I h-C-Ph I Me

c\ H

Ph

I

H

(1060)

R-N'

H

C' 'N-C-Ph

Me

1 I H

(106b)

3. Boron complexes of amidines

N,N,N',N'-Tetramethylmalonamidine reactsi6' with triethylborane, ethoxydiphenylborane or trimethoxyborane to give neutral chelating complexes 107, which can be protonated with HBF, to form the salt 108. Intramolecular boron complexesi6' are formed in the reaction of 3,4-dihydro-4boraquinazolines with acids or alcohols. These complexes may exist in two tautomeric forms 1Wa and 109b. Dialkylboracylamidinates (1 10) were obtained'63in the reaction of primary amides with nitriles and trialkylboranes in THF. The IR spectra showed that intermolecular hydrogen bonding occurs between the complex molecules.

682

J. Oszczapowicz t

BF4-

(107)

(108)

B. Complexes of Amidoximes

Owing to their practical applications amidoxime complexes with various metals are the subject of extensive studies. Their colour reactions with transition metals were already noted in the early days of coordination chemistrys3. Analytical applications of amidoximes have been r e v i e ~ e d ~ *More ~ ~ ,recently ' ~ ~ . the analytical applicability of amidoximes for spectroscopic determinationof Hg"),Hg("),Cu"", Mo"" Fe"" was Fe(lII),CO(")and Ni(11). The amidoxime group is capable of binding metal ions as such or in the form of the amidoximate anion,and can behave as a bidentate ligand through the amide nitrogen and oxime oxygen or nitrogen atoms. However, when the amidoxime ligand contains an additional-NRR' donor site allowing a five-membered chelate ring via amine nitrogen to be formed, the second coordinating atom can be either the oxime'nitrogen (111) or the amide nitrogen (112). In both modes of chelation thestabilities of the complexes would be expected to decrease with increasing N-methylation. 9

,

(X=any group containing one or two carbons)

Complex formation equilibria between Ni"') and 2-aminoacetamidoxime(113, HL) and its N-methylated derivatives was studied'67.It was shown that the complexes Ni(HL)2+, Ni(HL):+ and Ni(HL):+ are formed stepwise. Stability constants decrease with increasingN-substitution, the effect being more prominent for tris complexes than for bis

12. Basicity, H-bonding and complex formation

683

and mono complexes, clearly demonstratingthe participation of the amine nitrogen atoms in the coordination.

(113)

It was found'65 that some polyamidoximes (114) easily form complexes with such metals as Cu(1l) Co(Il) Ni(ll) Fe(11) Fe(l1l) pd(l1) Mo(V1) and U(v1).

(X--any

orgonic moiety)

(114)

(116)

A divinylbenzene cross-linked poly-(acryloamidoxime) resin (115) was applied16*for concentration of trace metals from aqueous solutions. The resin exhibits no affinity to alkali or alkaline earth metals, and thereforecan be applied to samples at high electrolyte content, suchas sea water. The order ofdecreasingselectivity is Cu("),Ni"'), Cop'),Zn'")and Mn'"). Similar resins were found suitable for the accumulation of uranium from sea water169.The method was also investigated using other poly-amidoxime resins'70-'72. A method173for the recovery of rareearthmetals from aqueous solutions by extraction with organic solvents using amidoxime complexes in a continuous counter-current process was proposed. Complexes of Cu(II),Ni("),Co'"), Fe(")and Mn"') with pyridine-2-amidoxime'74 (116) and pyrazine-2-amidoxime'7 5 were prepared as potential biologically active compounds.

C. Complexes of Formazans

It was found that with Cu2+176, Ni2+176,C02+177and Zn2+'78, symmetrical dibenzazolyl formazansform chelate complexes of the L,M type (117). With tetrachlorides of elements of the IV group, molecular complexes of the type LMCl,, L,MCI, and L(MCl,), are formed'79. Complexes of the L,M type with Zn(II),Cd("),Ag"), Pb'"), Mn'") and Fe(")of similar structures are formed also with other 1,5-diarylformazan~~~. In complex formation with formazans other functional groups, in addition to the terminal nitrogen atoms, can be involved. A kinetic s t ~ d y "of ~ the reaction of 142hydroxyphenyl)-3,5-diphenylformazan with nickel'") has shown that complex formation occurs stepwise. An intermediate (118) was isolated which, in contrast to the more stable

684

J. Oszczapowin R'

I

I

R'

(117 )

isomeric form (1 19), contains a five-membered ring. The kinetics of the rearrangement of 118 to 119 was studied'". Similar complexes with 1-(2-hydroxy-4-nitrophenyl)-3-alkyl-5-(2-benzazolyl)formazans were investigated later6*, and the conclusions concerning the structure were in principle the same.

(118)

V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Financial support by project RP.II.10 from the Polish Ministry of Education is gratefully acknowledged. VI. REFERENCES 1. J. Oszczapowicz and E. Raczyhska, Polish J . Chem., 57,419 (1983). 2. J. Oszczapowicz and E. Raczykka J . Chem. Soc., Perkin Truns. 2, 1643 (1984). 3. J. Oszczapowicz, E. Raczynska and T. Pawlik, Polish J . Chem., 58, 117 (1984). 4. J. Oszczapowicz and J. Jaroszewska-Manaj, J . Chem. SOC.,Perkin Truns. 2, submitted. 5. J. Oszczapowicz and M. Kuminska, in preparation.

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98. V. V. Negrebetskii, V. I. Kal’chenko, R. B. Rudyi and L. N. Markovskii, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 55, 271 (1985); Chem. Abstr., 103, 37540x (1985). 99. V. V. Negrebetskii, V. 1. Kal’chenko, R. B. Rudyi and L. N. Markovskii, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 55, 1982 (1985); Chem. Abstr., 105, Y7559m (1986). 100. 1. E. Mikhailov, V. I. Minkin, L. P. Olekhnovich, V. N. Boiko, N. V. Ignat’ev and L. M. Yagupolski, Zh. Org. Khim., 20, 454 (1984); Chem. Abstr., 101, 71979r (1984). 101. R. F. Smith, D. S. Johnson,C. L. Hyde, T. C. Rosenthal and A. C. Bates, J.Org. Chem., % , I 1 55 (1971). 102. R. F. Smith, D. S. Johnson, R. A. Abgott and M. J. Madden, J. Org. Chem., 38, 1344 (1973). 103. V. A. Khrustalev, K. N. Zelenin and V. P. Sergutina, Zh. Org. Khim., 15, 2280 (1979); Chem. Abstr., 92, 180607 (1 980). 104. I. D. Cunninghamand F. A. Hegarty, J. Chem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. 2, 537 (1986). 105. G. Fodor and B. A. Phillips, in The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates (Ed. S . Patai), Wiley, London, 1975, pp. 93-94. 106. K. M. Watson and D. G. Neilson, in The Chemistry o/ Amidines and Imidates (Ed. S. Patai), Wiley, London, 1975, pp. 514-515. 107. V. A. Khrustalev, V. P. Sergutina, K. N. Zelenin and U. V. Pinson, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 1264 (1982); Chem. Abstr., 98, 16382k (1983). 108. L. V. Shmelev, Yu. S. Ryabokobylko, A. V. Kessenikh and V. M. Ostrovskaya, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 57, 1637 (1987); Chem. Abstr., 108, 166892r (1988). 109. N. A. Klyuyev, V. G. Zhil’nikov, G. G. Aleksandrov, 1. I. Grandberg and G. N. Lipunova, Zh. Org. Khim., 19, 2615 (1983); Chem. Abstr., 100, 156139~(1984). 110. L. V. Shmelev, G. N. Lipunova, 0. P. Sulirnand N. P. Bednyagina,Zh. Obshch. Khim., 56,2393 (1986); Chem. Abstr., 107, 58913~(1987). 1 1 1. B. I. Buzykin, L. P. Sysoeva, A. A. Espenbetov, Yu. T. Struchkov and Yu. P. Kitaev, Zh. Org. Khim., 22, 2277 (1986); Chem. Absfr., 107, 133786k (1987). 112. L. A. Fedorov, S. A. Sokolovskii, G. N. Lipunova, G. 1. Sigeikin and L. I. Rusinova, Izu. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Khim., 691 (1987); Chem. Abstr., 108, 21274f (1988). 113. P. B. Fischer, L. B. Kaul and H. Zollinger, Helu. Chim. Acta, 51, 1449 (1968). 114. N. V. Serebriakova, G. N. Lipunova, N. P. Bednyagina and L. F. Lipatova, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 1403 (1970); Chem. Abstr., 74, 138178k (1971). 115. J. Vaes, F. Faubert and Th. Zeegers-Huyskens, Can. J. Chem., 53,604 (1975). 116. R. Mierzecki, J. Oszczapowicz and G. Kozakowski, Polish J . Chem., 53, 1139 (1979). 117. J. Oszczapowicz, J. Jaroszewska-Manaj, L. Skulski and K. Erbel, in preparation. 118. J. A. Clark and M. Kilner, J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans., 389 (1984). 119. T. Inglis, M. Kilner, T. Reynoldson and E. E. Robertson, J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans., 924 (1975). 120. T. Inglis and M. Kilner, J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans., 930 (1975). 121. E. W. Abel and S. J. Skittral, J. Organomet. Chem., 193, 389 (1980). 122. W. H. de Roode, M. L. Beekes, A. Oskam and K. Vrieze, J.Organomet. Chem., 142,337 (1977). 123. W. H. de Roode, D. G. Prins, A. Oskam and K. Vrieze, J . Organomet. Chem., 154,273 (1978). 124. W. H. de Roode, J. Berke, A. Oskam and K. Vrieze, J . Organomet. Chem., 155, 307 (1978). 125. F. A. Cotton, T. Inglis, M. Kilner and T. Webb, Inorg. Chem., 14, 2023 (1973). 126. M. G. B. Drew and J. D. Wilkins, Acta Crystallogr., B31, 2642 (1975). 127. W. Bradley and I. Wright, J . Chem. Soc., 641 (1956). 128. L. Toniolo, T. Boschi and G. Deganello, J . Organornet. Chem., 93, 405 (1975). 129. W. H. de Roode and K. Vrieze, J. Organomet. Chem., 145,207 (1978). 130. F. A. Cotton, W. H. Isley and W. Kaim, Inorg. Chem., 19,2360 (1980). 131. F. A. Cotton and L. W. Shive, Inorg. Chem., 14, 2027 (1975). 132. L. Toniolo, G. Deganello, P. L. Sandrini and G. Bombieri, Inorg. Chim. Acta, 15, 11 (1975). 133. P. 1. Van Vliet, G. Van Koten and K. Vrieze, J. Organomet. Chem., 188, 301 (1980). 134. L. Toniolo, A. Immirizi, V. Croatto and G. Bombieri, Inorg. Chim. Acta, 19, 209 (1976). 135. J. A. Clark and M. Kilner, J . Chem. Soc.. Dalton Trans., 2613 (1983). 136. A. F. M. J. van der Ploeg, G. van Koten and K. Vrieze, Inorg. Chem., 21, 2026 (1982). 137. H. Brunner,J. Lukassek and G. Agrifoglio, J. Organomr. Chem., 195, 63 (1980). 138. H. Brunner,G. Agrifoglio, R. Benn and A. Rufinska, J. Organomet. Chem, 217, 365 (1981). 139. H. Brunner, G. Agrifoglio, I. Bernal and M. W. Creswick, Angew. Chem., 92, 645 (1980).

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140. M. W. Creswick and I. Bernal, Inorg. Chim. Acta, 74, 241 (1983). 141, R. S. Srivastava, Inorg. Chim. Acta, 55, L71 (1981). 142. B. A. Borykin, N. A. Skidan, A. V. Kharchenko, M. M. Kremler, I. V. Koval and S. I. Shaposhnikov, Vopr. Khim. Khim. Tekhnol., 71,104 (1983);Chem. Abstr., 101,203190p (1984). 143. A. J. Deeming and R. Peters, J . Organomet. Chem., 202, C-39 (1980). 144. C. J. Jones, J. A. Cleverty and A. S . Rothin, J . Chem. SOC.. Dalfon Trans., 109 (1986). 145. A. Romero, A. Vegas and A. Santos, J. Organomet. Chem., 310, C-8 (1986). 146. M. D. Albers, A. F. S. Crosby, D. C. Liles, D. J. Robinson, A. Shaver and E. Singleton, Organometallics, 6, 2014 (1987). 147. G. D. Gracey, S. J. Rettig, A. Storr and J. Tretter, Can. J. Chem., 65, 2469 (1987). 148. N. C. Ta and D. Sen, J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem., 43, 209 (1981). 149. G. H. Searle, S. F. Lincoln, S. G. Teague and D. G. Rowe, Aust. J. Chem., 32, 519 (1979). 150. G. H: Searle, Aust. J . Chem., 33, 2159 (1980). 151, P. I. Van Vliet, G. Van Koten and K. Vrieze, J . Organomet. Chem., 182, 105 (1979). 152. L. P. Chandrakar,R. Singh and R. Mishra, Analyst (London), 112, 1511 (1987). 153. A. Shukla, K. S. Patel and R. K. Mishra, Anal. Chim. Acta, 208, 91 (1988). 154. K. S. Patel and K. H. Lieser, Anal. Chem., 58, 192 (1986). 155. A. Golwelker, K. S. Patel and R. K. Mishra, Int. Enuiron. Anal. chem., 33, 185 (1988). 156. R. M. Verma, K. S. Patel and R. K. Mishra, Fresenius Z. Anal. Chem., 307, 128 (1981). 157. K. S. Patel and K. H. Lieser, Fresenius 2. Anal. Chem., 323,494 (1986). 158. K. S . Patel and K. H. Lieser, Anal. Chem., 58, 1547 (1986). 159. N. Matsumura, T. Ohba and M. Inoua, Bull. Chem. SOC.Jpn., 55, 3949 (1982). 160. H. Brunner and G. Agrifoglio, Monarsh. Chem., 111, 275 (1980). 161. K. Hartke, B. Krug and R. Hoffman, Justus Liehiys Ann. Chern., 370 (1984). 162. V. A. Dorokhov, M. N. Bochkarieva, 0. G. Bol'dyrieva, B. V. Rassadin and B. M. Mikhailov, 120. Akad. Nauk USSR, 411 (1979);Chem. Abstr., 90,203057e (1979). 163. V. A. Dorokhov, L. J. Lavrinovich, M. N. Bochkareva, V. S. Bogdanov and 8. Mikhailov, Zh. Obshch. 'Khim., 43, I 1 15 (1973), Chem. Abstr., 79, 66436j (1973). 164. A. 1. Busev, T. N. Zholondkovskaya, L. S. Krysina and L. I. Korobkina, Sourem. Melody Anal. Mater.; 153 (1969); Chem. Ahstr., 73, 9422411 (1970). 165. F. Borrull, J. Guasch, E. Casassas and-V. Cerdii, Polyhedron, 5, 1277 (1986). 166. V. Cer&, E. Casassas and F. Borrul, Ann. Quim. (B), 78, 327 (1982). 167. H. Saarinen, M. Orama, T. Raikas and J. Korvenranta, Acta Chem. Scand., A37, 631 (1983). 168. M. B. Colella, S. Siggia and R. M . Barnes, Anal. Chem., 52, 967 (1980). 169. L. Astheimer, H. J. Schenk, E. G. Witte and K. Schwochan, Sep. Sci. Technol., 18, 307 (1983). 170. M. Suzuki, T. Fuji, S. Tanaka, T. Hagaki and S. Kato, Proc. Eng. Found. Conf. Fundam. Adsorpt., 2nd 1986, p. 537; Chem. Ahstr., 107, 10026Sm (1987). 171. H. Omichi, A. Katakai, T. Sugo, J. Okamoto, S. Katoh, K. Sakane,K. Sugasakaand T. Itagaki, Sep. Sci. Technol., 22, 1313 (1987). 172. H. pmichi, A. Katakai, T. Sugo and J. Okamoto, Sep. Sci. Technol., 21, 563 (1986). 173. J. L': Drobnick, P. R. Ktuesc and T. P. Chen, German Patent 2044574 (1971). 174. F. S. Sanyal, A. B. Modak and A. K. Mudi, Indian J. Chem., 22A, 307 (1983). 175. G. S. Sanyal and B. Modak, Synth. React. Inorg. Met.-Org. Chem., 16, 113 (1986); Chem. Ahstr., 104,6057 (1986). 176. N. P. Bednyaginaand Yu. A. Rybakova, Khim. Geterotsikl. Soedin., 426 (1965); Chem. Abstr., 63, 13239h (1965). 177. A. D. Garnovskii, 0. A. Osipov, N. P. Bednyagina, L. 1. Kuznetsova, R. I. Ogloblina, V. P. Kurbatov and L. S. Kostromina, Z h . Obshch. Khim., 39, 1920 (1969);Chem. Abstr., 72, 18035m (1970). 178. R. I. Ogloblina, N. P. Bednyagina and A. D. Garnovskii, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 40, 367 (1970); Chem. Abstr., 72, 139164m (1970). 179. V. T. Panyushkin, A. D. Garnovskii, D. A. Osipov, N. P. Bednyagina and K. I. Nikitina, Zh. Obshch. Khim., 38, 1161 (1968); Chem. Ahstr., 69, 408632q (1968). 180. S. Balt, J. Meuldijk and W. E. Renkema, Inorg. Chim. Acta, 43, 173 (1980).

CHAPTER

13

Electronic effects of amidino, guanidino and related groups JOHN SHORTER Department of Chemistry, The University, Hull HU6 7RX, UK

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. SUBSTITUENT CONSTANTS FROM NMR STUDIES. . . . . . . . . . . A. Inductive and ResonanceConstants from 13C NMR . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Substituent Constants from 19FNMR and MiscellaneousSpectroscopic Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111. SUBSTITUENTCONSTANTS FROM REACTIVITY STUDIES . . . . . A. Sigma Values from a Kinetic Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Sigma Values from pK, Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. REFERENCESAND NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

689 690 690 695 701 701 702 704 704

1. INTRODUCTION

Previous articlesby the present contributorin The Chemistry of Functional Groups series have dealt with the electronic effects of the sulphonio group', of the sulphinyl and sulphonyl groups2,and of SOOH and related groups3.In the first two cases there was copious informationin the literaturefrom which to draw;in the last mentioned case there was very much less informationavailable.The present case sees a furtherreduction in available information;only a handful of papers provides material relevant to the topic. This situationhas emerged quite clearly from exhaustivework in Science Citation Index and a computerized search of the Chemical Abstracts data base, as well as from consultationswith venerable authoritiesin physical organicchemistry. Thusthereappearsto be no informationabout the electroniceffect of the amidinogroup -C(=NH)NH,, i.e. bonded to the probe moiety via its carbon atom, or of substituted amidino group -C(=NX)NYZ similarly bonded. There is, however, material on the amidinium group -C(NH,),+and on amidino groups bonded via the imino or the amino nitrogen atom. Guanidino and guanidiniumgroups have attracted some attention. Of related heterocyclic groups there appears to be information only on the behaviour of the imidazolyl substituent. The search for material on groups derived from imidates (otherwise iminoesters or iminoethers) R'C(=NR2)OR3 has proved entirely fruitless. The Chemistry of Arnidines and Imidates, Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and Z. Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

689

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J. Shorter

It is difficult to account for the apparent lack of attention to amidino, guanidino and related substituentsby most workers in physical organicchemistry, particularlywhen there is much interest in amidino groups as reaction centres (e.g. their acid-base behaviour4) and in the biological activities of amidines5.It may be that some workers are apprehensive about possible complications in the interpretation of results because of the structural problems of amidines, namely the geometrical isomerism at the C=N double bond, the restricted rotation about the C-N 'single' bond due to conjugationand the possibility of prototropic tautomerism, unless all three hydrogen atoms of the amidino group are replaced by other groups. Suitable choice of systems for study can reduce the impact of these potential problems. The most substantial studies of the substituent effects of amidino and related groups involve the measurementof "C and 19Fchemicalshiftsand the greater part of this chapter will be concerned with such studies. A small number of other spectroscopic studies and of reactivity studies (kineticsand acid-base equilibria)provide some additional information. Many measurementsof 'H chemical shifts in these systems have been made6. Potentially these also will shed light on the electron distribution in the molecules and hence on substituent electronic effects. However, the correlation analysis of 'H chemical shifts in terms of substituent constants is beset with problems, particularly for hydrogen atoms linked to a benzene ring. Also, ordinary carefully made measurements of 'H chemical shifts are not really suitable for this purpose. There are marked effects of substrate concentrationand of solvent, and the extrapolationof the chemicalshiftsto zero substrate concentration is often required in order to obtain data which may be suitable for correlation analysis. This topic is therefore not included in this chapter. Much of the chapter will be devoted to the determinationand discussion of appropriate sigma values. (Throughout this chapter substituent constants for benzene derivatives as originally defined by Hammett are set as 'd, while substituent constants in general are represented by 'sigma'.) It will be assumed that the reader has a basic knowledge of the Hammett equation and its extensions,particularly the separationof substituentelectronic effects into inductive and resonancecomponents as developed by Taft and his colleagues. Two of the earlier articles referred to above'*2gave short introductory accounts of such matters. Some references to background material in linear free-energy relationships (correlation analysis) are provided in the present chapter'-' '. As already indicated, some of the information about electronic effects concerns positively chargedgroups, i.e. amidinium and guanidiniumsubstituents. This information will usually be expressed in terms of sigma values of various kinds. This is often done for charged substituents, but it must be pointed out that the inclusionof unipolarsubstituents in Hammett-type treatments, which are essentially based on the behaviour of dipoiur substituents, is not a strictly valid procedure. There is a long history of anomalies,failures and warnings in connection with the attempt to include unipolar groups in the use of the Hammett equation and related treatments. An account of this was given in Reference 1. Thus the various types ofsigma value for unipolarsubstituentsmust be regardedas having only a semi-quantitative or even just a qualitative significance. These quantities give merely an indication of the electronic behaviour of the groups in question under the given circumstances. II. SUBSTITUENT CONSTANTS FROM NMR STUDIES

A. Inductive and Resonance Constants from "C NMR

Oszczapowicz and coworkers have measuredsubstituent-inducedchemicalshifts in 3C NMR spectra of N2-phenyl-formamidines,-acetamidines and -guanidines''. (N2is the imino nitrogen atom.) While most of this study concerns the influence of various polar

13. Electronic effects of amidino, guanidino and related groups

69 1

substituents m-X or p-X in the NZ-C,H,X moiety and the elucidation of the cumulative substituent effect on the NMR shifts of various carbon atoms, about twenty compounds with X = H provide information on the electronic effects of a variety of formamidino, acetamidino, and guanidinogroups, as transmitted to various positions in a benzene ring. The compounds studied have the great merit that they are trisubstituted with respect to the nitrogen atoms of the amidino group, i.e. there are no problems of prototropic tautomerism. Further,it seems probable that all the compounds involved are in the truns (E) configuration for the group at the imino nitrogen with respect to the amino nitrogen atom. The results have not been used by Oszczapowicz and coworkers” to derive sigma values, but they may be so analysed by utilizing appropriate equations based on other work. The I3C chemical shifts were measured in CDCI, solutions, with 200mg of each substrate dissolved in 2ml of solvent, and TMS as internal reference. The procedures necessaryto obtain reliableresults were followed and an accuracyof 0.04 ppm was claimed for the 3Cchemicalshifts.The chemicalshiftsfor C-3 and C-4 in the authors’Tables 1 and 2” have been converted into meta- and para-substituent chemical shifts, S, and S, respectively, by taking the I3Cchemicalshift of benzene itself as 128.5 ppm. The values are displayed in Tables 1 and 2, for the structures 1 and 2 respectively. The structural

representation,naming of compounds and groups, and numberingof entries are based on the paper of Oszczapowicz and coworkers1’ to facilitate comparison with the original data. Values of S, and S, may be analysed in terms of 0 , and 0; by means of the dual substituent-parameter(DSP) equation of Taft and colleagues or the extended Hammett (EH) equation of Charton13.For this purpose the DSP equations 1 and 2 proposed by Bromilow and c ~ w o r k e r sare ~ ~very * ~convenientI6. ~ By solving equations 1 and 2 as a pair of simultaneousequations, values of u, and u; may be calculated for any substituent for which the values of S, and S, have been determined, but have not been used in establishing the equations. Values of O, and u; calculated on this basis for the various formamidino, acetamidino and guanidino groups are shown in Tables 1 and 2.

. S,

= 1.60,

- 1.40;

+

(1)

S,= 4 . 6 ~ 21.50: ~ (2) However, there is some doubt as to whether the DSP treatment is altogethersatisfactory in respect of its forcing regressionsthroughthe origin, i.e. no intercept term is permitted”. The alternative EH equation permits such an intercept. For the purpose of analysing S, and S, for amidino groups, the present authorhas based EH equationson values of S, and S, (in CDCI, or CCl, as solvent) taken from Ewing’ s critical compilation of 13C substituent chemicalshifts in monosubstituted benzenes”. Sixteencommon substituents, comprising a wide range of electronic effects, were involvedL9.Equations 3 and 4 were derived by multiple linear regression. Values of O, and u; calculated on the basis of equations 3 and 4 are shown in Tables 1 and 2.

N',N'-di-n-propylacetamidino N ',N '-di-n-butylacetamidino N',N'di-isopropylacetamidino N',N'di-isobutylacetamidino N',N'di-cyclohexylacetamidino N',N',N2,N2-tetramethylguanidino

N'-methyl-N '-ptolylacetamidino N'-methyl4 I-p-anisylacetamidino N'-methyl-N'-m-chlorophenylacetamidino

N '-methyl4 '-phenylacetamidino

N'-ethyl4 I-phenylacetamidino

N',N'-tetramethyleneacetamidino N'*N'-pentamethyleneacetaminido N ' , N I-oxapentamethyleneacetamidino

N',N '-dimethylacetamidino

N',N'-pentamethyleneformamidino N',N' -hexamethyleneformamidino N',N'-oxapentamethyleneformamidino N '-methyl-N'-phenylformamidino

N ',N '-dimethylformamidino H H H Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me Me NMe,

H H

R'

R'RZ: R'R2: Et Me Me Me Me n-Pr n-Bu i-Pr i-Bu c-Hex Me

R'R2:

R'R2: R'R': Me Me

Me

R'R2:

R'

p-MeOC6H, m-C1C6H, n-Pr n-Bu i-Pr i-Bu c-Hex Me

pMeC6H4

Ph

R2

0.39 0.40 0.41 0.49 0.54 0.15 0.10 0.15 0.21 0.18 0.27 0.25 0.19 0.32 0.14 0.15 0.10 0.15 0.10 0.15

"S, -6.16 -6.23 - 6.34 - 5.62 -5.23 -7.22 -7.22 - 7.22 - 7.53 -6.96 -6.75 -6.83 -6.84 -6.56 -7.53 - 7.53 -8.05 -7.57 -7.87 - 8.78

S", -0.01 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.1 1 -0.17 -0.20 -0.17 -0.12 -0.14 -0.09 -0.10 -0.13 -0.06 -0.19 -0.18 -0.22 -0.18 -0.22 -0.22

u,b

"I%

substituent chemical shifts calculated from results of Oszczapowicz and coworkersif, taking the chemical shift for benzene as 128.5. bCalculated from equations 1 and Pis. 'Calculated from equations 3 and 4. 'The missing No. 14 was the pbromo compound which was subject ol uncertainty of assignment.

12 13d 15d 16 11 18 19 20 21

11

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

No. Substituent

-0.29 -0.29 -0.30 -0.28 -0.27 -0.30 -0.29 -0.30 -0.33 -0.29 -0.30 -0.30 -0.29 -0.29 -0.31 -0.31 -0.33 -0.31 -0.32 -0.36

ur

0.03 0.03 0.03 0.09 0.12 -0.10 -0.11 -0.10 -0.06 -0.08 -0.03 -0.05 -0.07 -0.01 -0.11 -0.11 -0.14 -0.11 -0.14 -0.15

u;

TABLE 1. I3C substituent chemical shifts and sigma constants for formamidino, acetamidino and tetramethylguanidinogroups (structure 1)

-0.29 -0.30 -0.30 - 0.28 -0.27 -0.3 1 -0.31 -0.31 -0.34 -0.31 -0.3 1 -0.3 1 -0.30 -0.30 -0.33 -0.33 -0.34 -0.33 -0.34 -0.38

Up

13. Electronic effects of amidino, guanidino and related groups

S,

= - 0.2700

n = 16,

+ 2.217( & 0 . 2 0 4 ) -~ ~2.OO6( k 0.206)~:

(3)

R = 0.9625, s = 0.1835, $ = 0.301

- 0.2929 + 5.11 1(k 0 . 6 0 8 ) ~+~20.498( & (0.614)~: n = 16, R = 0.9957, s = 0.5482, II/ = 0.1027

S, =

693

(4)

(n = number of data points; R = multiple correlation coefficient; s = standard error of estimate; t,b = Exner’s statistic of goodness of fitZ0*21. The f values in parentheses are standard errors of the regression coefficients”.) The values of ul and U: as tabulated have been rounded-off at the second decimal place on the grounds that an accuracy of & 0.04 ppm in the chemical shifts renders the third place of decimals of the calculated U, and U: values unreliable. The accuracy of 2 0.04 ppm in the chemical shift gives a possible range of & 0.02 for oI and k 0.01 for 6.: This must be borne in mind in the discussionof these substituent constantsfor the amidino groups. Overmuch significance must not be attached to small differences in c1 or U: respectively, even though the experimental data were obtained under standardized conditions in a singlelaboratory and have been analysed by the same procedures as above. It will be seen from Table 1 that the different procedures of calculation yield c; values which differ but slightly. However, the values of uI given by equations 3 and 4 tend to be more positive by several units in the second place of decimals than the corresponding values given by equations 1 and 2. In Table 2 the relationship for the alternative values of of is reversed. Our discussion will be based on both sets of nf and o: values, and we shall emphasize the features which do not depend too much on the set of values considered. In Table 1 the most remarkablefeature is the occurrenceof definitely negative values of o1for the majority of the substituents. Inspection of any extended compilation of ol values shows that for most substituents u1is po~itive’~-’~. Small negative values may be shown by alkyl groups and by substituentsinvolving silicon.Substituents bonded to the benzene ring through nitrogen commonly show appreciable or considerable positive values of crf. Thus for the NH, and NMe, groups, o1 values are given as 0.12 and 0.06, respectively, by Ehrenson and coworker^^^, and as 0.17 for both groups by ChartonZ4.The only substituents which often show substantial negative values of u1 are negative unipolar (anionic)substituents, although the significanceof such values is open to question in view of the uncertainty as to whether unipolar substituents conform to the same correlation equations as dipolar substituents(see the Introduction).However, o1values hgve recently been recorded for anionic substituents as followsz6:-CO,-, - 0.07; NC-CH, - 0.54; CH,CON-, - 0.19; 0 - , - 0.89. (Values may be found in several c o r n p i l a t i ~ n soften ~~*~~ showing a numericalspread for any given substituent, but undoubtedly negative in many cases.) The negative values of cf for most of the amidino groups in Table 1 are presumably attributable to the structure of the amidine involving a resonance hybrid 3. There is

694

J. Shorter

evidence from dipole moment studies of strong mesomeric interaction between the amidino group and a benzene ring”. Also, NMR studies of the barrier to rotation about the CR‘-NR1R2 bond indicate much double-bond characterz8.The participation of a canonical form in which negative charge is localized on N Z can apparently lead to an electron-releasinginductive effect into the benzene ring. For the formamidino groups Nos. 1-3, the inherent tendency of N2 to attract electrons from the benzene ring is more or less neutralized by the effect of the above resonance. However, the introduction of an 0 atom into R1R2 in No. 4, or of Ph as R2 in No. 5, imparts a more definite electron-attractingcharacteras measured by ul. The introduction of Me as R in the acetamido groups gives a distinct electron-releasingcharacter to the substituents Nos. 6-9, in accord with the ‘traditional’ view of methyl itself being an electron-releasinggroup”. Here again the introductionof 0 into R1R2(No. 9) or of Ph as RZ (Nos. 10 and 11) moves uI in the positive direction. The effect on u1 of introducing substituents into Ph as R2 (Nos. 12, 13 and 15) is small, but is in qualitative accord with what might be expected from the usual electronic effects of p-Me, p-OMe and m-C1. The introductionof longerchain and branchedalkyl groups as R1 and R2 (Nos. 16-20) appears to make uIsomewhat more negative. This may be a sign of electron-releaseincreasingwith chain length and branching, which is the traditional view of the behaviour of alkyl groupsz9. However, the effect could be steric in origin and due to bulky groups encouragingthe bonds of N1 to take up a planar sp2 arrangementand thereby increasing the contribution of the charge-separatedcanonical forms in the above resonance hybrid. The tetramethylguanidino group (No. 21) has the mo3t negative value of uI in Table 1. Presumably the two NMe, groups on the -N=C, encourage the accumulation of negative charge on NZ. There is relatively little variation with structurein the values ofo: in Table 1. At around - 0.3 the resonance effects of these groups are clearly much less marked than those of NH, at - 0.48 (Ehrenson and coworker^^^)or - 0.42 (ChartonZ4)and NMe, at - 0.52 (Ehrenson and coworker^^^) or - 0.44 (ChartonZ4).They are more comparable with NHAc, for which a value of -0.25 is given by both the above sources. The difference between amino groups and amidino groups may be connected with the resonance donor effect of Nz being due to the shifting of the double bond from (N2)=C, rather than to the involvement of the lone pair of electrons which N2 has in the ground state. Calculations of 0: values from I3C substituent chemical shifts for several groups of the general form -N=CXY find values of around - 0.2 (X = H or Me, Y = Ph or OR; data from Ewing’s compilation’8, analysed by equations 3 and 4). This appears to confirm that the resonance donor effect of is weaker than that of x N R 1 R 2 . The values of :a in Table 1 show some slight tendency to become more positive as al becomes more positive, and to become more negative as al becomes more negative. This seems a reasonable finding. The relationship is clearest towards the bottom of the Table and especially with the tetramethylguanidino substituent (No. 21), for which uI and uz take the most negative values in the Table. When a phenyl group is attached at N2 as part of an amidino substituent which is exerting effects on the various positions of a phenyl group attached as probe at N’, we see, so to say, the other side of the coin. The resonancehybrid structure invoked in the earlier part of the discussion implies that N’ bears positive chargeand is thus electron-attracting for the phenyl ring at N’. Hence, as we see in Table 2, the formamidino and two acetamidino groups involved show considerablepositive values of al. At the same time the tendency of the lone pair on N’ to be delocalized into the ring is greatly reduced by its involvement in the above resonancehybrid. The:a values are thereforemuch less negative than those ofNH, or NMe, quoted above. The parallelmovement of the a, and :u values which is hinted at by Table 2 is reasonable,but too much stress should not be laid on this in view of the paucity of results.

-T=

13. Electronic effects of amidino, guanidino and related groups

695

TABLE2. 13C substituent chemical shifts and sigma constantsfor formamidinoand acetamidino groups (structure2) Substituent N1-methyl-NZ-phenylformamidino N'-ethyl-N'-phenyl-

acetamidino N'-methyl-N2-phenyl acetamidino -!See

R'

R'

S,"

S;

ulb

uib

(TIC

c:a

H

Me

0.88

-4.49

0.31

-0.28

0.27

-0.27

Me

Et

0.75

-

1.85

0.33

-0.16

0.32

-0.16

Me

Me

0.84

- 1.85

0.38

-0.17

0.35

-0.16

footnotes in Table I.

A6 initio calculationsof chargedistributionsin monosubstituted benzenes have found a good linearrelationship between para I3C substituent chemicalshifts and the total charge density at the para carbon atom30. (The situation is rather less clear for the meta disposition.) We may thus regard the para ' 3Cshiftsas providing an overall measureof the electronic effects of the para substituents, without essaying a quantitative separation into inductive and resonanceeffects; cf. the originalbenzoic-acid-basedHammett u values. It is worth looking at the S, values in Tables 1 and 2 briefly in this simple way. In Table 1 the upfield shifts (more negative values) shown by the values of S, for the acetamidino groups (Nos. 6-1 1) compared with the formamidino groups (Nos. 1-5) indicate the electron-releasingproperties of the methyl group attached to the amidino carbon atom. The electron-attractingeffect of the Ph in producing a downfield shift is also clear;compare No. 5 with No. 1, and No. 11 with No. 6. The analogouseffect of the ring 0 is seen in the formamidino series (compare No. 4 with No. 2 or 3), but the changein S, is in the wrong direction in the acetamidino series (compare No. 9 with No. 7 or 8). The overall electronic effects of substituents in the N' phenyl ring are indicated qualitatively by the S, values (compare Nos. 11-13 and 15), while a quite definite effect of chain lengtheningand branchingfor R' and RZis shown by the S, values of Nos. 16-20compared with No. 6. As one might expect, the tetramethylguanidino group No. 21 is characterized by a pronounced upfield shift in S ., The marked downfield shifts shown by the groups in Table 2 well indicate the much more electron-attractingcharacterof the amidino groups bonded through N'. This type of explanation is rather limited and unrefined,particularly since it cannot be extended to the much smaller variations in S , with structure,the values of which are also characterized by being of the wrong sign for any straightforward explanation in terms of electronic effects. Oszczapowicz and coworkers'z also record the ' 3Cchemicalshifts for C-l (ipso)and C-2 (ortho)carbon atoms, but these are not amenable to DSP or EH analysis,or indeed to any simple explanation in terms of electronic effects. B. Substituent Constants from "F NMR and Miscellaneous Spectroscopic Studies

Heesing and Schmaldt3* have measured the I9Fsubstituent chemical shifts for several meta- and para-guanidino-or guanidinium-substitutedfluorobenzenesand have interpreted these by means of the DSP analysis proposed by Taft and his coworkers in 196332.In accord with the practice of the nineteen-sixties and through much of the nineteenseventies, the substituent chemical shifts were expressed as shielding parameters. Nowadays it is more usual to express the NMRmagnitudes as deshielding parameters. We will bring Heesing and Schmaldt's data and analysis into accord with the modern

J. Shorter

696

TABLE 3. I9F substituent chemical shifts and sigma constants for guanidino and guanidinium groups in fluorobenzene

No. 1

2 3

4 5 6 7 8

9

Substituent

_____

Guanidino tert-Butylguanidino Phenylguanidino Nitroguanidino Guanidinomethyl Guanidinium' tert-Butylguanidinium' Phenylguanidinium' Guanidiniummethyl'

Sp

S? - 0.67

- 1.02 0.00

1.14 - 0.99 1.81 1.28 1.56

- 11.53 - 12.12 - 10.70 - 3.94

0.00

-4.18

- 2.27 - 2.20 - 2.75 - 1.99

0,

- 0.01 - 0.06 0.08 0.25 - 0.05 0.34

0.26 0.30 0.08

- 0.37 - 0.38 - 0.36

-0.17 -0.11 -0.14 -0.12 -0.15 - 0.07

algFsubstituent chemical shirts for fluorobenzenes in DMSO as solvent3'. bCalculated from equations 5 and 6. T h e counter-ion was NO,-.

convention, which means changingthe signs of the NMR shifts and of the coefficients in the D S P equations. Pertinent data are shown in Table 3. The cr, and u i values are as calculated by Heesing and Schmaldt3' by using the equations of Taft and coworkers of 196332,which we will rewrite as equations 5 and 633,where SE and S! are the shifts relative Q,

= 0.141 S z

0:: =

+ 0.0845

0.0339 SF - 0.0339 S z

to fluorobenzene produced by the substituents in question in the meta- or para-position with respect to the fluorine atom. In Heesing and Schmaldt's study the shifts were measured in DMSO as solvent, whereas in the study by Taft and coworkers on which the above equations are based, so-called 'normal' solvents were used. The term 'normal' appears to embrace a wide range of solvents of the non-hydrogen-bonding, or not markedly hydrogen-bonding, type. Thus the NMR shifts, and the substituent constants derived therefrom, in Heesing and Schmaldt's work may well have been influenced by the choice of DMSO as solvent. Another important consideration for the interpretation of Heesing and Schmaldt's results is the tautomerism of the compounds involved. The free bases in principle exhibit prototropic tautomerism, as in 4 for fluorophenylguanidineitself, with more complicated

possibilities for the N-substituted derivatives. The authorsd o not refer to any information regarding the tautomeric equilibria in DMSO as solvent, and appear to attempt to interpret their results without involving themselves in details of tautomerism. In the related, immediately following, paper by Pies and we is^^^, the guanidino substituent is represented as being attached to a phenyl ring through an amino nitrogen and not through the imino nitrogen, viz. -NH-C(=NH)NH,. Other workers who have considered the

13. Electronic effects of amidino, guanidino and related groups

697

tautomerism of phenylguanidines appear to believe that the predominant form has the phenyl attached via the imino nitrogen atom, viz. -N=C(NH,),35-37. There is in fact evidence from I 'N NMR studies that the principal tautomer for arylguanidinesin DMSO is 538. We shall assume that this is the case for the compounds involving the guanidino substituent in Table 3, when the guanidino moiety is attached directly to a benzene ring.

A guanidino group attached directly to a benzene ring must be supposed to be in extensive conjugationwith that ring cf. the amidino group as discussed in Section 1I.A. In the case of the parent guanidino group (No. 1 in Table 3) this conjugation appears to be sufficient to nullify the naturaltendency of the nitrogen atom to draw electrons inductively from the benzene ring, so that in terms of af the group is more or less electronically indifferent. Replacement of one H of an NH, group by t-Bu (No. 2) produces an appreciably more negative value of af, while such replacement by Ph (No. 3) leads to an appreciably positive af. These changesare in accord with what might be expected from the behaviour of the amidino groupsas revealed in Section 1I.A. It should be noted that the af value found in Section 1I.A for the tetramethylguanidinogroup is certainly much more negative than that of the guanidino group itself as shown by the "F study, indicating a considerable effect of replacing all four amino H atoms by methyl groups. However, the conjugative ability of the guanidino groups Nos. 1-3 in Table 3 as indicated by the :a values is little affected by t-Bu or Ph substitution and is indeed very similar to that of the tetramethylguanidino group as shown in Table 1 of Section ILA, with :a z - 0.37. As would be expected, the replacement of H by NO, to obtain the nitroguanidinogroup (No. 4) produces a markedly positive uf value and a much less negative :u value. In considering the electronic effect of the guanidinomethyl group (No. 5)we must consider the problem of tautomerism again. The guanidino moiety might be attached to the CH, via the imino or an amino N atom. Since extensive conjugation is blocked in either case, the question of tautomeric preference seems an open one. In the absence of definite information we will O n this basis the assume that the guanidinomethyl group is -CH,N=C(NH,),. appreciably negative value of af may be due to the restriction of the resonance of the guanidinomethyl group to 6, thus localizing negative charge on the imino nitrogen atom, which cannot be passed by furtherconjugationinto the benzene ring. A much less negative value ofu: than in Nos. 1-3 is only to be expected, and a t - 0.11 it is comparable with that of methyl itselfzs. -cH,N=c(NH,), --CH ,N-c(NH,), +

(6)

Discussion of the sigma values of the guanidinium groups is not complicated by the problem of tautomerism. However the parent base may be viewed, the phenylguanidinium ion is most simply 7, with extensive possibilities of resonance. O n the other hand, there is

698

J. Shorter

the complication that the discussion of the sigma values of any unipolar substituent must be under the caveat that the treatment of charged substituents in the same systems of correlation analysis as dipolar substituents is a procedure of doubtful validity (see Introduction). It is not surprising that the guanidinium substituents Nos. 6-8 show fairly strong electron-attractingproperties as measured by a., These seem slightly reduced by both t-Bu and Ph substitution. The u, values at ca 0.3 are somewhat lower than those usually found for unipolar substituents in which the positive charge is essentially localized on a group adjacent to the benzene ring, e.g. NMe,+, u, = 1.0724.In the guanidinium groups the positive charge is well dispersed over several atoms by resonance and the situation is perhaps analogousto an NMe,+ group which is slightly separated from the benzene ring by anothermoiety, e.g. CH2NMe,+, for which aI is O.3gz4. Separationof the guanidinium group itself from the ring by a CH, group (No. 9) reduces a, to 0.08; cf. 0.18 for (CH,),NMe, .+24. The guanidinium groups Nos. 6-8 show appreciably negative up values at about -0.14, indicating that the lone pair of electrons on the N atom attached to the benzene ring is able to be delocalized into the ring, in spite of the restraining influence of the positive charge and the possibility of delocalization in the opposite direction, with localization of the positive charge on the N atom. Naturally the :a value becomes rather less negative when an insulating CH, group is placed between the benzene ring and the guanidinium group (No. 9). The above discussionshows that the a, and:a values of the guanidinoand guanidinium groups based on "F substituent chemical shifts form a coherent body of data, which can be shown to be sensibly related to similar data for other groups. However, overmuch significancemust not be attributed to the absolute values of u, and:a given in Table 3. The equations relatingF' ' substituent chemical shifts to u, and, :a which were used by Heesing and SchmaldtJ1, were devised by Taft and coworkers quite early in the development of the correlation analysis of "F substituent chemical shifts3'. We have adhered to them (in the form ofequations5 and 6) in the present accountin order to follow exactly what Heesing and Schmaldt did, but it has been pointed out by Elguero and coworkersJgthat Taft and coworkers have several times changed the equations used to relate SE and S z to u, and ug. When the different equations are used to calculate a, and :u for a given substituent, the same values are not necessarily obtained. The variations in ug are usually no more than one or two units in the second place of decimals, but those in u, can amountto several such units.This is not an appropriateplace to examinethis matter in detail, which raises various questions, such as the properiety of using the DSP equation without permitting an intercept term (cf. the earlier discussion in Section 1I.A of the relationship of S , and S, for I3C NMR to a, and.):u We content ourselves with the warning that the significance of values of a, and :a based on ''F NMR needs to be appraised in relation to the equations used. Before we leave the work of Heesing and SchmaldtJ1,it should be mentioned that indications of the substituent effects of guanidino and guanidinium groups were also obtained in other ways. Thus there is reference to earlier work on redox potentials of quinones, in which El,, values were correlated with up constants of substituents. The examination of 2-guan1dino-1,4-naphthoquinone showed that the guanidino group exerted a considerable electron-releasingmesomeric (resonance)effect, comparable with that of the acetylamino group4'. The guanidinium group showed a similar but weaker effect. These observationsfit in well with the results which the authorslater obtained from I9F NMR studies as already described. Heesing and SchmaldtJ1also studied the directing effect of the guanidinium group in nitration. They found only ortho- and para-nitro products, in the proportions of 28:72. The meta derivative, which in the nitration of substrates containing positively charged

699

13. Electronic effects of amidino, guanidino and related groups TABLE4. 35ClNQR substituent parametersK for N-bonded groups34in chlorobenzene Substituent NHC(NH2)2+ NMe,

NHCOMe NH,'

Koa

0.938 0.336 0.667 1.213

Km'

lip"

grn

UP

01

0.494 -0.380 0.343 0.705

0.282 -0.550 0.056 0.469

-0.15' 0.12e 06.4'

0.38' -0.63" -0.09" 0.49"

0.34' 0.17d 0.28d 0.606

"The units of K are MHz.

dReference 24. 'Reference 23.

bMean value from Reference 48. 'Referenee 3 1.

substituents is often formed predominantly or exclusively4', could not be detected, and amounted certainly to less than 1% of the product. The reaction velocity was greatly reduced compared with that of benzene in competitive nitration. Thus the guanidinium group resembles the halogen substituents in respect of directing effect for electrophilic substitution: these are + K (otherwise + M), - I substituents (Ingold4*).It was further found that the guanidiniummethyl group behaved rather similarly to an alkyl group. Nitration was somewhat faster than with the guanidinium group, and the ortho-nitro product now predominated, with an ortho: para ratio of 71:29. Again no meta product could be detected. Finally, it must be mentioned that Heesing and Schmaldt" prepared a series of N(ch1orophenyl)guanidines and N-(chloropheny1)guanidinium nitrates for "CI NQR measurements by Pies and WeissJ4. The 35NQR study was not able to detect any systematic effect of the guanidino group on the charge distribution within the benzene system, but the guanidiniumgroup was found to reduce the charge density in the phenyl ring by virtue of its inductive effect. NQR substituent parameters K were derived for the guanidinium group and compared with those of other N-containing substituents. A selection of K values is shown in Table 4. For the effect ofsubstituents in the meta- or paraposition there seems to be a rough parallelism between the value of K and the ordinary benzoic-acid-basedQ constants.This indicatesthat K measuresa resultant of inductive and resonanceeffects comparable with that operating on the ionization of benzoic acid. The K values for ortho- substituents appear to show an enhanced contribution of the inductive effect relative to the resonance effect; there is a parallelism with 0, values. The paper by Elguero and coworkersJg already mentioned in connection with "F NMR studies is concerned with the determination of m, and Q: parameters of Nsubstituted moles. Imidazoles bear a structuralrelationship to amidines, etc. and may be deemed relevant to the present chapter. The variety of expressionsrelating I9Fsubstituent chemicalshifts to u, and cri which has been used by Taft and coworkers over the years led Elguero and coworkers to do their own calibration with eleven pairs of meta- and parasubstituted fluorobenzenesinvolving substituentsof well-establishedvalues of Q, and 6:. The NMR measurements were made with 0.5M solutions in CDCI,. The empirical equations which were derived on this basis were equations 7 and 8 (after some Q,

= 0.151 SL - 0.003s;

U;

= 0.032s;

+ 0.019

- 0.035Sz - 0.012

(7)

(8)

rearrangement and change of symbols to facilitate comparison with equations 5 and 6 above). For the 1-imidazolyl substituent 8, Q, was calculated as 0.513 and m i as -0.155 from the SL and S; values of the appropriate1-imidazolylfluorobenzenes. If we write the

700

J. Shorter

structuresofthe formamidino and acetamidino substituents of Table 2 as 9, we can see the structuralrelationship to the I-imidazolyl substituent 8 above. The amino N atom in the

(9)

imidazolyl groupwill have a positive chargedue to extensive delocalization of the lone pair into the imidazole ring, which is somewhat analogous to the delocalization into the amidino system of the amino lone pair in the acetamidines and formamidines.Thus it is not surprisingthat the 1-imidazolyl group is characterizedby a substantialpositive value of u,, in fact somewhat greater than the values for the substituents in Table 2. Similarly a modest value of :c for I-imidazolyl, comparable with the values for the analogous formamidino and acetamidino groups in Table 2, is reasonable,the values being much less than those characteristic of NH,, NMe,, etc. (values quoted in Section 1I.A). From the values of u, and C T Elguero ~, and coworkers39derived a value of 0.358 for C T ~ by simple summation. This value is then compared with certain earlier estimates of cpfor the 1-imidazolyl These involved the correlation analysis of the effect of parasubstituents on the asymmetrical stretching frequency (infrared) of the NH, group of aniline and on the proton chemical shift of the same group. The value of up for the 1imidazolyl group was 0.45 from infraredmeasurementsand 0.24 from PMR. The duplicate values for other N-substituted azoles showed patchy agreement;some agreed quite well with each other and some agreed rather poorly. It may be that the correlation analysis carried out was in some respect(s) nayve. As far as 1-imidazolyl is concerned, the 0: value would be expected to be slightly more positive than up.A value for crp of about 0.30 would be not unreasonable,i.e. within the range covered by the earlier estimates. It was mentioned in the Introduction that the correlationanalysis of 'H NMRchemical shifts in terms of substituent constants is a matter of some difficulty for hydrogen atoms attached to the benzene ring. It has long been known that the study of PMR coupling constants in this respect might be more although the matter does not seem to have been much developed in recent years45. A study bearing on the relationship of coupling constants to substituent constants was carried out by K n 0 1 - r some ~ ~ years ago. This is not concerned with aromaticcompounds but with substituted ethylenes 10 and

\ / "

HA

H

="\

X

13. Electronic effects of amidino, guanidino and related groups

70 1

their geminal coupling constants ‘JHH.An extensive survey of the dependence of *JHH on thesubstituents R and X indicated that 2JH,was largely governed by the I, inductive effect (i.e. through-bondseffect).A correlation equation was developed and used as a basis for a 4 scale. Values of CT: for a large number ofsubstituentswere tabulated.These often do not agree very well with ‘ordinary’ aI v a I u e ~ ~but ~ -this ~ ~is ,becauseCJ: supposedly measuresa pure through-bondseffect, not mixed with a field effect as in the ordinary ‘inductive’effect of physical organicchemistry.The only relevance of K n ~ r r ’work s ~ ~to the present chapter is that a 6: value of 0.60 is recorded for 1-imidazolyl; cf. 0.513 for cI given above”. 111. SUBSTITUENT CONSTANTS FROM REACTIVITY STUDIES

A. Sigma Values from a Kinetic Study

In connection with a study of the deacylation rates of para-substituted benzoyl trypsins and chymotrypsins, Wang and Shaw4’ measuredcp values for a number ofsubstituents of biochemicalinterest, includingamidino and guanidinosubstituents. The selected reaction was the alkaline hydrolysis of 4-nitrophenyl4-substituted-benzoates at pH 8.3 in 01. M veronal buffer containing 30% DMF. Measurements of rate constants k for several standard substituents gave a good Hammett plot, with a p value of 1.92. The oP values for the substituents of biochemical interest were then read off the Hammett plot at the appropriatevalues of log k. At a pH of 83. there is no doubt that all the substituents of biochemical interest were present almost entirely in protonated form. Indeed the solutionsappear to have been made up with the substrates as hydrochlorides or hydrobromides. Once again we refer to our warning in the Introduction about the significance of Hammett treatments involving charged substituents. The derived a, values, presented in Table 5, must be regarded as giving only a rathergeneralindication of the electronic behaviour of the substituentsin the particular conditions. The guanidinium groups (Nos. 1-3) all apparently show a rather feeble electronreleasingeffect. This is not at all what would have been expected either a priori or from the values of Q, and cg as determined in the 19FNMR studies described in Section 1I.B.These would suggest positive values of apin the range 0.1 to 0.2. All that can be said about these discrepanciesis that they may be connected with the very different conditions of medium and counter-ion. Also it should be noted that the Hammett line was established by reactions of an anionic reagent (OH-) with a neutral substrate, whereas the reactions of the guanidinederivatives are those of an anionic reagent(OH-) with a cationic substrate (the protonated form of the guanidine derivative). There is likely to be a considerable dependence of k (and hence of derived crp values) on substrate concentration and ionic

TABLE5. Values of upfor various amidiniumand guanidinium groups from a kinetic study4’ No.

Substituent ~

NHC(NHJ2+ NHC(NHMe)(NH,)+ NHC(NHMe),+ C(NH2)2+ CH2SC(NHJ2+ CH2SC(NHMe)(NH2)+ CH,SC(NHMe),+

- 0.02 - 0.045 - 0.06 0.65 0.04 - 0.05 - 0.02

702

J. Shorter

strengthfor the latter reactions. Extrapolationto 'infinitedilution' might give much higher values of k and positive values of ur. The amidinium group (No. 4) certainly shows a not unreasonableupvalue at 0.65. Such a value is fairly typical ofpositively charged substituents, with the positive charge close to the benzene ring, e.g. NH3+,ca 0.6; NMe3+, ca 0.9; SMe,+, ca 0.9,j. It should be noted that -C(NH,),+ has the possibility of exerting an electron-attracting resonance effect. Thusthe comparison with SMez+ is not inappropriate,since this is commonly regarded as acceptingelectrons by Ir(pd)bonding with a benzene ring'. Attention to concentrationand ionic strength effects on k might result in an even more positive value of a,, for the amidinium group. As to the small +_ values for ap shown by the amidinium groups separated from the benzene ring by CH,S (Nos. 5-7), all one can say is that such values are not unreasonable, bearingin mind the rapid fall-off in a,for groups such as NMe,' when separated from the ring by methylene groups: NMe,', 0.72; CH,NMe,+, 0.44; (CH,),NMe,+, 0.13; (CH,),NMe,+, 0.0223.The possibility of moving the positive charge nearer the ring by conjugation involving S and the amidinium C atom should, however, be noted. Again it seems that op values corrected as above would probably be somewhat more positive. B. Sigma Values from pK, Measurements

Koike4' determined the pK, values of a series of para-substituted phenylguanidinium ions in aqueous solution at 25 "C by UV spectrophotometric measurements.Among the substituents included were COOH, NH, and OH. In these cases the correspondingpK, value for the ionization ofthe substituentwas also measuredas 3.76 (COOH), 3.68 (NH3+) and 9.05 (OH). Since the arylguanidinesin question are very strong bases, the above pK, values indicate the effect of the guanidinium substituent on the ionization of COOH, NH3+ and OH. In association with the appropriatep values and the pK, values for the parent compounds, they may be used to calculate a, values for the -NHC(NH,),+ group. The values were found by Koike4* to be 0.443, 0.377 and 0.317, respectively. In interpreting these it is necessary to point out that the ionization of the aniliniumion is of a charge type different from that of benzoic acid and phenol. Hence concentrationand salt effects on pK, values will be different.Bearing this in mind and the general limitations of sigma values for charged substituents, the mutual agreement of the above ogvalues is all that could be expected. The values are somewhat higher than might have been predicted from the I9Fstudies described in Section ILB, and the guanidinium group seems to be much more electron-attracting than it appeared to be in the ester hydrolysis study described in Section 1II.A. Koike also gives indications of the electron-attracting properties of the guanidinium group, now denoted as g+, in an aliphatic system. The pK, values of g+CH,COOH and g+(CH,),COOH are given as 3.12 and 3.92 respectively?compared with acetic acid at 4.76; cf. 2.35 for NH3+CH,COOH, 3.55 for NH3+(CH,),COOH and 4.03 for NH,+(CH,),COOH. If it is assumed to be legitimate to interpret these values in terms of Taft's linear free energy-polar energy r e l a t i ~ n s h i with p ~ ~ p* = 1.72, the corresponding values of u* and u, may be calculated and are shown in Table6. For NH3+ and NH,+CH, the u, values agree with the literaturez3.The value ofa, for g+ is slightly higher than that based on the I9F NMR studies (0.34), while that for g+CH2is considerably higher than the I9FNMR value (0.08). A more recent paper by Rogana and coworkers5oon the pK, values of metn- and parasubstituted benzamidinium ions permits a calculation of a op value for the amidinium group -C(NH,),+. The pK, value of the O H of para-hydroxyphenylbenzamidinium ion is given as 7.7. There is no doubt that at a pH corresponding to this pK, value the amidine moiety would be fully protonated. (The pK, value of the weakest amidine base

13. Electronic effects of amidino, guanidino and related groups

703

TABLE 6. Sigma values for positively charged groups from measurements of pKa of substituted acetic acids XCHZCOOH4’ ~~

~~~~

Substituent XCH,

Substituent U*’

g+CH2 g+(CH*)2 NH,+CHz NH3+(CHz)z NH3+(CHZ)3

0.95 0.49 1.40

0.70 0.42

X

gt g+CHz NH3’ NH3+CH, NH3+(CH,),

nyb

0.43 0.22 0.63 0.32 0.19

“Calculated from u* = ApK,/p*, where ApK, = pK,(MeCOOH) - pK,(XCH,COOH) and p* = 1.72 and pK,(MeCOOH) = 4.76. bCalculated from the equation a,(X) = 0.45u*(XCH2).(See Reference 49.)

studied, p-nitrobenzamidine,is 10.14.) By taking the p value for the ionization of phenols to be 2.11 and the pK, value of the parent phenol to be 9.85 (following Koike4*), opfor the amidinium group may be calculated as 1.02. This is rather higher than the value of 0.65 referredto in Section II1.A. While one must be carefulnot to over-interpret this result,such a high value for the amidinium group would be quite reasonable, bearing in mind the possibility (already pointed out) of it being able to exert an electron-withdrawing resonanceeffect. If this were the case, then the calculated value of 1.02 would, in fact, have the status of a u; constant, as the sigma value for a conjugatively electron-withdrawing substituent determined from the ionization of a phenol; cf. the behaviour of NO,, CN, SO,Me, etc.’. Finally, we mention that the paper by Taylor and Wait3’ already cited in connection with the tautomerism of phenylguanidineshas information on the o j values of imidazolyl groups. The pK, values of a wide range of guanidinium ions RNHC(NH,),+ are correlated with the a, values of R though equation 9: pK, = 14.18( f 0.25) - 22.58( & 0.78)aj

(9)

n = 16, r = 0.992, s = 0.5 1 (A similar equation was proposed by ChartonJSin 1965 on the basis of 8 data points.) Equation 9 was used by Taylor and Wait to determine the u, values of various heterocyclic groups, includingimidazolyl groups. The value for 2-imidazolyl 11 was found to be 0.27, while that of4(5)-imidazolyll2 was 0.08. The u, value of2-benzimidazolyll3 was found to

N-CH

be 0.32. These values may be compared with that of 0.513 already given for I-imidazolyl (Section I1.B)”. It seems reasonable that the u, values for the carbon-bonded imidazolyl groups should be lower than the value for the nitrogen-bonded group, with u, for the attachment at C-2, situated between the two N atoms, being greater than that for C-4(5), which is adjacent to only one N atom. The more extended conjugation in the 2benzimidazolyl group is not unreasonably associated with a slighly greater electron-

J. Shorter

704

attractingeffect. The introduction of a methyl group at the 1- or 4-position of 2-imidazolyl has only a trifling effect on ol, the value being given as 0.26 in both cases. IV. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Prof. Dr Janusz Oszczapowicz (Warsaw) for helpful discussion and correspondence and Prof. Corwin Hansch (Claremont, California) for helpful correspondence. 1 am always grateful to my Hull colleague Dr David Ewing for discussion of substituent effects and other aspects of NMR. The computerized searches of Chemical Abstracts were carried out by the Library of the Royal Society of Chemistry and by Dr John Chipperfield (Hull). V. REFERENCES AND NOTES 1. J. Shorter,in The Chemistry of the Sulphonium Group (Eds. C. 5. M. Stirling and S. Patai),Chap. 9,

Wiley, Chichester, 1981. 2. J. Shorter, in The Chemistry of Sulphones and Sulphoxides (Eds. S . Patai, 2. Rappoport and C. J. M. Stirling), Chap. 10, Wiley, Chichester, 1988. 3. J. Shorter, in The Chemistry o j Sulphinic Acids, Esters and their Derivatives (Ed. S . Patai), Chap. 17, Wiley, Chichester, 1990. 4. J. Oszczapowicz and W. Krawczyk, J. Chem. SOC.,Perkin Trans. 2,21 (1989) and referencescited therein. See also the chapter by J. Oszczapowicz in the present volume.

5. R. J. Grout, in The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates (Ed. S . Patai), Wiley. Chichester, 1975. pp. 258-281, and referencescited therein. 6. J. Oszczapowicz, W. Krawczyk, J. Osek and E. Raczynska,J. Chem. Res. ( S ) , 384; (M)3975 (1985)

and references cited therein.

7. J. Shorter, Correlation Analysis of Organic Reactivity, with particular reference to multiple regression, Research Studies Press, Wiley, Chichester, 1982. 8. N. B. Chapman and J. Shorter (Eds.), Aduances in Linear Free Energy Relationships, Plenum Press, London, 1972. 9. N. B. Chapman and J. Shorter (Eds.), Correlation Analysis in Chemistry: Recent Advances, Plenum Press, New York, 1978. 10. 0.Exner, Correlation Analysis of Chemical Data, Plenum Press, New York and SNTL, Prague, 1988. 11. R. I. Zalewski, T. M. Krygowski and J. Shorter (Eds.), Similarity Models in Organic Chemistry. Biochemistry, and Related Fields, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1990 (in press). 12. J. Oszczapowicz, E. Ranyhska and J. Osek, Magn. Reson. Chem., 24,9 (1986). 13. Expositions of the dual substituent-parameterequation and the extended Hammett equation in the articles by J. Shorter, in Reference 9, Chap. 4 and Reference 1 I, Chap. 2. 14. J. Bromilow, R. T. C. Brownlee, D. J. Craik and M. Sadek, Magn. Reson. Chem., 24,862 (1986). 15. J. Bromilow, R. T. C. Brownlee, D. J. Craik, M. Sadek and R. W. Taft, J . Org. Chem., 45,2429 (1980). 16. See, for example, Reference 3, p. 525. 17. See Reference 7, pp. 209-213. 18. D. F. Ewing, Org. Magn. Reson., 12, 499 (1979). 19. Values of uI and u i were taken from S. Ehrenson, R. T. C. Brownlee and R. W. Taft, Prog. Phys. Org. Chem., 10,1(1973)for NMe,, NH,, OMe, Me, Ph, F,CI, H,SOMe, SiMe,, CF,, SO,Me, CN,

COOMe, NO,, COMe.

20. 0. Exner, Collect. Czech. Chem. Commun., 31, 3222 (1966). 21. See also Reference 7, Chap. 7. 22. Equations 3 and 4 well reveal the limitations of the correlation analysis of I3C substituent chemicalshifts in terms of oI and ui. The goodness of fit as measured by R, or especially $, is really rather poor with equation 3, that for meta-substituents,although the value of s indicates that the

equation is somewhat better as a summary of the data. On the other hand, the goodness of fit of equation 4 is considerably better, but the higher value of s indicates poor summarizing power. The reverse resonance effect corresponding to the negative sign of the coeflicient of u! in

13. Electronic effects of amidino, guanidino and related groups

705

23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

equation 3 is not well understood (cf. equation 1). In recent years increasingdoubts have been expressedconcerningvarious aspects of the correlation analysisof ' 3C substituent chemicalshifts in terms of inductive and resonanceparameters. See, for example, 0. Exner and M. BudBinski, Magn. Reson. Chem., 27.27 (1989). As a basis for deriving approximate new values of o, and u i , the analysis still seems satisfactory. 0. Exner, in Reference 9, Chap. 10. M. Charton, Prog. Phys. Org. Chem., 13, 119 (1981). S. Ehrenson, R. T. C. Brownlee and R. W. Taft, Prog. Phys. Org. Chem., 10, 1 (1973). I. G. Binev, T. M. Kolev and 1. N. Juchnovski, Can. J . Chem., 63, 3149 (1985). 0. Exner, M. BudEinsky, D. Hnyk, V. VSeteEka, and E. D. Raczynska, J . Mol. Struct., 178, 147

28. 29. 30. 31. 32.

I. Wawer, Magn. Reson. Chem., 27, 577 (1989). Theelectroniceffects ofalkyl groups are discussed at length by J. Shorter, in Reference8, Chap. 2. W. J. Hehre, R. W. Taft and R. D. Topsom, Prog. Phys. Org. Chem., 12, 159 (1976). A. Heesing and W. Schmaldt, Chem. Ber., 111,320 (1978). R. W. Taft, E. Price, I. R. Fox, 1. C. Lewis, K. K. Andersen,and G. T. Davis, J.Am. Chem. SOC.,85,

(1988).

709, 3146 (1963). 33. The authorsof Reference31 actually use the simple symbol ow This symbol is sometimes used to denote resonance parametersbased on ordinary Hammett (Ivalues. However, the DSP analysis ofF' ' substituent chemical shifts was essentially founded on the use of oi values, except for 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39.

40.

41. 42. 43.

44.

45. 46. 47. 48. 49.

50.

conjugatively electron-attracting substituents. None of the substituents with which we are concerned here is of this nature. W. Pies and A. Weiss, Chem. Ber., 111, 335 (1978). M. Charton, J . Org. Chem., 30,969 (1965). R. G. Button, J. P. Cairns and P. J. Taylor, J . Chem. Soc.. Perkin Trans. 2, 1555 (1985). P. J. Taylor and A. R. Wait, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2, 1765 (1986). R. E. Botto, J. H. Schwdrtz and J. D. Roberts, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 77, 23 (1980). J. Elguero, C. Estopa and D. Ilavsky, J. Chem. Res. (S), 364, (M),4237 (1981). A. Heesing, U. Kappler and W. Rauh, Justus Liehigs Ann. Chem., 2222 (1976). P. B. D. de la Mare and J. H. Ridd, Aromatic Substitution, Butterworths, London, 1959. C. K. Ingold, Structure and Mechanism in Organic Chemistry, 2nd edn., Bell, London, 1969. P. Bouchet, C. Coquelet and J. Elguero, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2,449 (1974). M. T. Tribble and J. G. Traynham, in Reference 8, Chap. 4. D. F. Ewing, in Reference 9, Chap. 8. R. Knorr, Tetrahedron, 37, 929 (1981). C.-C. Wang and E. Shaw, Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 150, 259 (1972). H. Koike, Nippon Kagaku Zasshi, 83, 917 (1962); Chem. Ahslr., 58, 13301 (1963). R. W. Taft, in Steric Eflects in Organic Chemistry (Ed. M. S. Newman), Chap. 13, Wiley, New York, 1956. Taft's work is reviewed in Reference 8, Chap. 2. E. Rogana, D. L. Nelson, L. F. F. Leite and M. Mares-Guia, J . Chem. Res. ( S ) , 286; ( M ) , 2963 (1985).

CHAPTER

14

Radiation chemistry of amidines ZEEV B. ALFASSI Department of Nuclear Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, 84105 Beer Sheva. Israel

I. INTRODUCTION.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. RADIOLYSIS O F PYRIMIDINES IN THE SOLID STATE . . . . . . . A. Initial Processes and Ions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Initial Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Final Products . . , . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . , , . . . . 111. RADIOLYSIS OF PURINES IN THE SOLID STATE. . . . . . . . . . . IV. RADIOLYSIS O F AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF PYRIMIDINES, . . . A. Initial Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Final Products . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , , . . . C. The Reactions of Secondary Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. RADIOLYSIS OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF PURINES . . . . . . . A. Initial Intermediates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Final Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI. RADIOLYSIS O F AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF MIXTURES O F PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII. RADIOLYSIS OF IMIDAZOLE AND HISTIDINE . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Solidstate.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Aqueous Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1X.REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

707

709

709 711 714 715 718 718 723 731 734 734 738 739 740 740 742 744 744

1. INTRODUCTION

Radiation chemistry is the study of the chemical effects produced in a system by the absorption of ionizing radiation. This definition includes the chemical effects due to radiation from radioactive sources, high-energycharged particles and short-wavelength (less than about 400 A)' electromagnetic radiation from accelerators. The principal characteristic of high-energy radiation is that it causes ionization in all materials. This makes a distinction between radiation chemistry and phot~chemistry**~. Photochemistry deals with longer-wavelength electromagnetic radiations which have lower energy (less The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates, Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and 2. Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

707

708

Z. B. Alfassi

than about 30eV). This relatively low energy leads in many cases only to the excitation of the molecules and does not produce ions. Usually, the energy of the particles and photons applied in radiation chemistry is much higher. The whole energy is not absorbed by a single molecule,as in photochemistry, but ratherdistributed over several molecules, along the track of the ionizing particle or photon. The high-energyphotons and particles are not selective and may ionize, excite or dissociate any molecule lying in their path, while in photochemistry only some compounds may interact with the radiation, in accordance with the energy of the photons. The high-energyphotons or particles lose energy in successive events and produce ions and primary electrons, which in turn form several secondary electrons with lower energies4.The chemical effects of ionizing radiation occur almost exclusively through the secondary electrons, most of which have less than 100eV. These electrons will cause ionization and excitation of the surrounding molecules and will lose energy until they reach thermal energies. In many solvents these thermal electrons polarize the solvent molecules and are bound in a stable quantum state to them; these electrons are called soluated electrons. On the average half of the absorbed energy is spent on ionization while the other half of the energy leads to excited molecules. The study of radiationchemistry might be divided, from the experimental point of view, into two parts. The first is the study of unstable intermediates which have short lifetimes and thus cannot be studied by the usualmethods ofchemistry. The second part is the study of the final products of the radiolysis which are measuredby common chemicaltechniques. One way to make the short-lived intermediates amenable to study is to increase their lifetime, usually by irradiationin the solid state and/or at very low temperatures.Then, the intermediates can be detected at the end of the irradiationby ESR or optical absorption spectroscopy. The ESR of radicals in the solid state is done on single crystals, polycrystalline samples or frozen aqueous solution. In the case of polycrystalline samples or frozen aqueous solution the identification of the radicals from the ESR spectra is difficult in many cases and for better identificationthe ESR should be done on irradiated single crystals. Later, the method of spin trapping, developed for the liquid phase5, was extended to polycrystalline solids. In this technique the polycrystalline solids are yirradiated and subsequently dissolved in a solution containing the spin trap. Most commonly it is aqueous solution and several spin traps were used6. Another method of making the lifetime longer in the liquid phase is by adding compounds which, upon addition of radicals, produce long-lived radicals;this method is called spin trappings. In this method a diamagnetic spin-trap is used to convert radicals which are short-lived into long-lived radicals. Forexample, using nitroso compounds (as, e.g., t-nitrosobutane,t-NB) the short-lived radicalsform long-lived nitroxide radicals (the spin-adduct) according to reaction I '. R'

R'+

R'N=O

4

R'

'N-0' R/

\

tN'-O-

(1)

R'

More common in the liquid phase is pulse radiolysis'. I n this technique, electron acceleratorswhich can deliver intense pulses ofelectrons lasting a very short time (ns up to ps) are used. Each single pulse can produce concentrationsof intermediateswhich are high enough to be studied by various methods, such as light absorption spectroscopy or electrical conductivity. The yields of radiolysis products are always expressed by the G value, which is defined as the number of particles (molecules, radicals, ions) produced or consumed per IOOeV of energy absorbed in the system. The units for the absorbed energy (dose) are the rad, defined by 1 rad = IOOerg g-I =6.243 x 10'3eVg-', and the Gray (Gy) defined by 1 G y = 100rad.

709

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines

When radiolysing a solution, the radiation interacts mainly with solvent molecules, since the solution consists mainly of the latter and the radiation interacts with the molecules unselectively. Consequently, the radiation chemistry of a solution is the combination of the production of initial intermediates from the solvent, which will be the same as in pure solvents, and the reactionsof those intermediateswith the solute. The most common solvent is water. The radiolysis of water produces hydrated electrons (eaq-, G = 2.9), hydrogen atoms (G = 0.55) and hydroxyl radicals(G = 2.8) which react with the molecules of the solutes. In addition, the radiolysis of aqueous solutions leads to formation of molecular products H,O, (G = 0.75) and gaseous hydrogen (C = 0.45). Also produced are hydronium ions ( H 3 0 + , G=2.9). In most cases the molecular products do not interfere with the reactions of the radicals. To study the reaction of one radical with the solute without interferencefrom other radicals, scavengers for the other radicals should be added. eqq- can be eliminated and even converted to the other radicals OH and H, by the addition of N,O or H + to the system (equations 2 and 3, respectively). Therefore in aqueous N,O saturatedsolutions, O H radicalsarethe predominant species (90%), while in acidic aqueous solution H and OH radicals exist, but not hydrated electrons. The small fraction(- 10%)of hydrogen atoms in N,O-saturated aqueoussolution does not interfere significantly with the measurements of the reactions of O H radicals. In many cases H atoms and OH radicals react with solutes in a similar manner,e.g. by addition to a double bond or by hydrogen atom abstraction. enq-+ N,O e-

+H

ZN, + OH - + OH

(k = 9 x 109 M- I s- 1 1

(k = 2.3 x lo9 M - s - '

-H

(2)

1

(3) The reaction of H atoms can be studied in acidic solution if the O H radicals are scavenged by t-butyl alcohol, in a very fast reaction,while hydrogen atoms react only very slowly with this alcohol (equations4 and 5). The radicalproduced in reaction4 is relatively unreactiveand does not interferewith the study of the reaction of H atoms with the solute. +

+ (CH,),COH H + (CH,),COH-

OH

-

H,O

H,

+ CH2C(CH3),0H

+ CH,C(CH,),OH

(k = 5 x 10' M - '

S-'

(k = 1.7 x lo5 M - '

S-'

1

(4)

1

(5) Hydrated electrons are obtained as predominantradicals by removing the OH radicals with t-butyl alcohol. The removal of both H and O H radicals is accomplished by isopropanol (equations 6 and 7).

+ (CH,),CHOH OH + (CH,),CHOH H

-

H2 + (CH,),COH H,O

+ (CH,),COH

(k = 7.4 x lo7 M - '

+

S-'

1

(6)

(86%) (CH,),CHO (1%)

+CH,CH(OH)CH3(13%)(k= 1.9 x 1 0 9 M - ' s - ' 1 (7) The various amidines for which radiation chemistry was studied are the purine and pyrimidine bases, the amino acids histidine and arginine, and derivatives of guanidine. Very few studies were done on the radiolysis of arginine and guanidinesand this chapter will be devoted to the purine and pyrimidine bases and histidine. II. RADlOLYSlS OF PYRIMIDINES IN THE SOLID STATE A. Initial Processes and Ions

The real initial products are measuredonly when radiation-inducedchangesat very low temperatures(usually4.2 to 20 K) are studied. At this low temperatureESR spectroscopy of irradiatedpyrimidines shows only the cation and the anionof the originalmolecule. The

Z. B. Alfassi

710

electron donated comes from the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and it is accepted into the lowest empty molecular orbital (LEMO). The orbitals are of n symmetry and thus the species formed are n* anions and R cations. The probable reactions are

--

P H + + e(8) PHP H + ewhere PH stands for a pyrimidine-derived molecule. At 4.2 K both cation and anion are detected simultaneouslyand it is assumed that electrons themselves do not exist as reactive chemical intermediates. In addition to the radiation chemistry of the pyrimidine nucleic acid bases, the radiation chemistry of 5-halogen substituted uracil has also been studied extensively due to the enhanced in vivo radiosensitivity of DNA in which a fraction of the thymine bases is replaced by 5-halouracils.For the different 5-halouracilsit was found by calculationthat the anion has n symmetry in the case of Fand CI, and Q symmetry for the case of I. For 5-bromourcil the two orbitals (n* and .*) are nearly degenerate. The cations are mainly formed by losing an electron from the N1 and C5 sites (Scheme I), whereasthe electron is attached to the anion mainly at C6. In addition to the diketo and dienol forms shown in Scheme 1, ofcourse the enone with one OH group and one carbonyl group also exists. The data on the yields of the cations and anions have been proven somewhat unreliable,due to large variations found in G values. The yields obtained at 77 K range from about 0.2 to 0.8. PH

0

OH

H

diketo form

dienol form

SCHEME I Both n cations and n* anions tend to regain the originalcharge state of the undamaged molecules. The cations are either deprotonated to form the P radical (the main route) or add an OH- anion to produce the PHOH radical (a minor fraction). The anions are mainly protonated to PH,, while to a lesser extent PH- may lose an anion to produce a radical plus an anion, PH- -X+ R' (9) For uracil,thymine and various 5-halouracilsthe protonation of the n* anions involves two main sites, namely the C4 carbonyl group and the olefinic C6, to form the two radicals OH

I

0

II

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines

711

I and 11. Radical I has two resonative forms, with the unpairedelectron either on C4 or on C6. Radical I has almost the same spin density at C6 as the anion and consequently it is ESR-spectroscopicallynearly indistinguishablefrom the parent anion. However, radical 11, is clearly distinguishable.In the case of cytosine the protonation cannot occur at C4, and occurs at C2 and C6. Anion elimination from the parent n* anion (reaction 9) occurs only when the leaving group, X, is a very electronegativeone, such as halide or NO, -, and even in these cases it is a very rare process in the solid state. In the case of the n cations the dominant reactions re-establishing neutrality of the species are deprotonation and anion addition. The deprotonation usually occurs from the N1 position. However, if thereis an alkyl substituentat either N1 or C5, the lost proton can come also from the alkyl group. Anion addition as an alternative route for neutralization of the x cation plays a significantrole only in solid systems containing a large amount of water (glasses, frozen solutions) but not in the case of single crystals. The attached OH is connected to C6 leaving the unpaired electron on C5. More detailed information on the initial processes in the solid-state radiolysis of pyrimidines can be found in the extensive review of Bernhard*and in the less-detailed review by Hiittermanng. B. Initial Radicals

The initial cations and anionsare observed only at low temperatures.Upon warming or when the irradiationis done at room temperature, the initial ions are not seen and instead the ESR spectra of the neutral radicalsare observed. Irradiationof crystalline pyrimidine bases at room temperature leads to the formation of radicals mainly by addition and abstractionof hydrogen atoms. The H atoms areadded mainly to the olefinicdouble bond C5-C6. The only effect of the amidine group is the activating effect, causing the two carbon atoms to be non-equivalent. Thus, when a single crystal of uracil was y-irradiated at room temperature ESR spectroscopy showed the presence of almost only the 6-yl radical (III), formed by the addition of a hydrogen atom to the C5 position". A minor product is due to the 5-yl radical, formed by addition of an H atom at the C6 position (radical 11). However, the concentration of this product is so low that in a later review paper' the same authors stated that the C6 addition product is absent in the case of uracil.Minor reactionsinvolved also the addition of the H atom to the carbonyl group. Riesz and his coworkers1Znstudied room-temperature formation of the radicals by y-irradiation of polycrystalline uracil by dissolving the latter after irradiation in aqueous solution containing the spin-trap t-nitrosobutane.They observed both radicals,with C6 addition (5-yl radical)being a minor product. Spalletta and Bernhard'", using the same technique of spin trapping of an irradiated polycrystaline sample, did not find in the case of uracil the 5-yl radical. Slifkin and coworkers' found for uracil powders irradiated by y-rays at room temperatureonly the ESR spectra of radical Ill formed by H-atom addition to the C5 position. 0

0

6- yl rodicol

tnri

712 y

Z. B. Alfassi

The 6-yl radical (111) can be converted into the 5-yl radical (11) by visible light of

> 400nmI4. The 5-yl radical decays slowly back to the 6-yl radical. This decay can be

accelerated by raising the temperature. The same findings were found for 1-methyluracil where only the 6-yl radical (C5 addition) was found'6.I.' The 5-yI radical was obtained by illuminationof the 6-yl radical with light of 1> 435 nm at 77 K. However, when crystals of 1-methyluracil-HBrwere irradiated by X-rays at 77 K, the C6 addition product is also seen in the ESR spectral7.This phenomenon is clearer in the case of cytosine. While irradiatedc y t ~ s i n e ' ~shows * ' ~ only the spectrum of the C5 adduct (unlessthe singlecrystal is photobleached), the only H-adduct observed in irradiated cytosine.HCI crystals is the C6 addition radical2'. This difference in the type of radical formed is explained as due to two different mechanisms of formation of the H-adduct in the solid state2I. The first mechanism involves homolytic dissociation of atomic hydrogen from excited and superexcited molecules and subsequent addition of the hydrogen atom. This mechanism was termed the 'excitation path'. Another route to the formation of the H-adduct is the 'ionizationpath', a two-step process in which the first step is the formation of the molecule anion which is followed by protonation of the anion. The first process leads to the 6-yl radical (CS addition) and it is the major one, if not the only one in apolar crystals. The second process is more prominent in polar crystals, e.g. pyrimidine.HX (X =halogen). Furtherevidence that the 6-yl radicalis formed by the 'excitation path' is the findingthat in 1,3-dimethyluracil,which is a completely non-hydrogen-bonding crystal and in which only van der Waals forces are present, the only H-adduct is the C5 adduct. The observation that the 5-yl radicalformed by illuminationofthe 6-yI radical in uracil, cytosine and similar compounds is decaying back to the 6-yl radical indicates that the C6 addition radical (5-yl) needs a specific environment in order to be stabilized in the crystal lattice, in contrast to the C5 addition radicals. In the case of thymine the main radical formed is the C6 H-adduct (5-yl) The unpaired electron on the C5 interacts with the methyl group, connected to C5, and with the C6 methylene group by way of hyperconjugation.This interaction produces a very distinct ESR pattern ofan octet with about 140 G total spread. The spin density on C5 in the 5-yl radical is approximately 0.70-0.75. The 6-yl radical was also found in singlecrystal studiesz4.Kuwabara and coworkers1Zn found that for X-irradiated polycrystalline thymine dissolved in water containing t-nitrosobutane in the presence of oxygen, the major product is the H abstraction radical in which the H atom was abstracted from the methyl side-group and the C6 H-adduct is a minor product. However, this radical was not observed at all by Spalletta and Bernhardusingthe same technique,in spite of the fact that this radical is clearly present in the solid before dissolution. Riederer and collaboratorszs studied the reaction of H atoms produced by radiolysis or photolysis, with uracil and thymine in acidic glasses (H2S04and H3P04).They used low solute concentrations in order to be sure that the radicals observed aredue almost exclusively to the reaction of the mobile, thermally activated H atoms. In previous studies26 of glasses with high concentrations the 'H-adduct' could also be produced by the protonation of the base anion. Hence this study is similar to the studies of bombardment of crystalline powders with H atoms27. Riederer and coworkers found2' that in the case of uracil 50% of the radicalsarefrom C5 addition and 50% from C6 addition, while in the case of thymine 70% of the hydrogen atoms add to C6 and only 30% of the H atoms form the 6-yl adduct. The different results for glasses and single crystals can be due either to the possibility that in single crystals the H-adduct radicalis formed only by direct H addition to the double bond or to the different stabilization of the radicals in the glassy polar media. Henriksenand Jones26studied the radical formation in thymine in frozen sulphuricacid glasses and found the only thymine radicalto be the 5-thymyl radical.They also found that only a small fraction of the C6 H-adduct is formed by direct addition of the hydrogen atoms to the olefinic C5-C6 double bond. A convincing proof for the formation of the

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines

713

5-thymyl radical, not from direct H-atom reaction, was found by an ESR study of the concentrationsof both the H atoms and the 5-thymyl radicalin H2S04glasses.The glasses containingthymine were irradiatedat 77 K and then heated up to 105 K, which caused the hydrogen atoms to decay completely within 5 min followed by subsequent formation of the 5-thymyl radicals. Leaving the sample at 105K for another 60min hardly changed the yield of the 5-thymyl radicals. Subsequent warming to 140K increased the 5-thymyl radicals almost fourfold although no H-atom signal was found after the first 5min at 105K. In glasses the main radiolysis is due to radiationabsorbed in the H,SO, glass rather than in thymine, and G values calculated assuming that energy was absorbed only in thymine were over 2000. The observation that hydrogen-addition radicals were formed in pure anhydrous crystals of thy~nine’~.’~ and uracilzgproves that the bases themselves can act as hydrogen donors and there should be radicals from abstraction of hydrogen atoms. ESR studies show the existence at room temperatureof the H-abstractionradicals in irradiated single crystals of several bases: thymine28, uracil2g and orotic acid3’, while for cytosine H-abstractionradicals were found only at 77 K, but not at room temperature. Two kinds of H-abstraction radicals were observed: (a)formed by abstraction from the ring N1 atom or (b) by abstraction from the methyl substituent, e.g. in thymine” or in N-methylated pyrimidinesI6.In the case of thymine the H-abstraction radical has two resonative forms and the spin density on the site of the abstraction is only about 0.60.

7 - y l rodicol

This radical is usually referred to as the 7-yl radical. Due to the small mobility of the radicals in the solid phase, especially at low temperatures,the H-adduct radical and the H-abstractionradicalsmight be very close to each other and may form a radical pair with an electronic spin s = 1. Several radical pairs have been identified in l - m e t h y l ~ r a c i l ~and ’ * ~in~t h ~ m i n e ~Flossmann ~ . ~ ~ . and coworkers35 studied by ESR spectroscopy the radicalsproduced by X-ray radiolysis of single crystals of thymine and various thymine derivatives (thymine monohydrate-T.H,O, 5,6dihydrothymine-THi,, I-methylthymine-mT and thymidine-dT) at 77 K and 300 K. They found six types of radicals.The anion radical was found only in T.H,O at 77 K. For the other compounds the anion radical will be found only at lower temperatures.The 4-yl radicals, which is produced by hydrogen-atom addition to the carbonyl bond, was found only for dihydrothymine at 77 K. The 1 -yl radical,formed by the abstractionof an H atom OH

4-yl

rodicol

714

Z. B. Alfassi

from N1, was found only for anhydrousthymine. The 6-yl radical was found in T, TH, and mT. The 6-yl radical was converted into the 5-yl radical irreversibly by heat or by white light (1 < 600 nm).The 5-yl radicalwas found for all compounds at room temperature.The 7-yl radical was present at room temperature in all compounds except TH,. In TH, the 7-yl radicaldoes not have the allylic resonancestabilizationand hence the hydrogen in the CH, side-group is bound more strongly than the other hydrogen atoms. The 7-yl radical was found to have the highest thermal stability and is stable up to 500K. At room temperaturethe most prominent radicals in irradiated thymine were found to be the 5-yl and 7-yl radicals. It is interesting to note that the thermal stability of thymine-derived radicals is different from that of other pyrimidines (uraciland cytosine). While in the latter two the 6-yl radical is thermally more stable, in the case of thymine the 5-yl radical is more stable. C. Final Products

Slifkin and coworker^'^studied the final products induced in crystalline uracil by 6oCo y-rays, and also the electronic absorption spectra of y irradiatedand non-irradiateduracil powder after dissolution. After irradiation the complete spectrum shifts to a shorter wavelength by about 10 nm. Thus the long-wavelength maximum of the spectrum shifts from 258 to 250nm and the short-wavelength maximum from 205 to 195nm. This shift is consistent with the presence of a product having less n-electron delocalization than uracil-possibly a homodimer. No other pyrimidine or purine base has been found to produce this shift towards shorter wavelength upon irradiation. However, in the other bases a decrease in the absorbanceof the irradiated sample relative to the non-irradiated compound was observed, similarly to uracil.After irradiationof 3.2 MGy the absorbance of uracil was decreased by about 40%, suggesting that a substantialfraction of the uracil was converted into a radiation product in the course of the dissolution. Thin layer chromatography(TLC) of the aqueoussolution of the radiolysate shows only one product. Similarly, TLC of irradiated 6-methyluracil shows also one product while irradiated thymine (5-methyluracil)and 5,6-dimethyluracildid not show any radiationproduct. This comparison shows that product formation is prevented when the C5 of the uracil is methylated. The separatedproduct does not show the strongband ofcyclobutane which is expected from the dimerization of two uracil radicals. The yield of the radicals as measured by ESR spectroscopyJ6follows the usual doseyield curveJ7 I , = r,(i - e - K D ) where I, is the intensity of radical signals as a function of the adsorbed dose D. This curve is characteristic for the case where the radicals are not only formed by the radiation but are also destroyed by the radiationJ8.Slifkin and coworkers13 found that equation 10 fits the data for uracil and, from the observation that there is no need for a second-order term, they concluded that there is no radical-radical interaction even at the high doses, explainingwhy there is no formation of a dimer. From the ESR measurement at a dose of 3.9 MGy only about 1% of the dry uracilis destroyed directly by y-irradiation (G of radicals = 0.068) whereas the absorption after dissolution shows a 40% decrease (G = 2.4). Similar G values are found when aqueous solutions of uracil are irradiated, however in aqueous solution the decrease in absorption is due to radicals formed by radiolysis of the water molecules. The higher G value obtained from the absorption spectrometry of the dissolved irradiateduracilis probably due to excited uracil molecules, undetected by ESR but reactive with water molecules upon dissolution. Neutron diffractionofdry uracilirradiatedto 10 MGy shows that the irradiationcauses only very little structuraldamage. This is an additional indication that a cis-syn dimer is not formed.

715

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines 111. RADIOLYSIS OF PURINES IN THE SOLID STATE

There are only a few reports of single-crystalstudies on irradiated purines,due to several reasons: (1) Purines are very sparingly soluble, making it difficult to grow good single crystals. (2) MO-INDO calculationof the spin density distribution for anions and cations of the purines shows a large degree of delocalization of the unpaired spin. The main fractionsof the spin reside on atoms for which the expected hyperfinecontributionis small or zero, making the ESR signals very weak. Higher radiation doses, compared to the case of pyrimidines, are necessary to produce even weak ESR signals. (3) The crystals are sometimes fragile and do not survive the cooling to liquid helium temperatures or do not last long under vacuum. The results of these studies are not always conclusiveand, in many cases, they are based on molecular orbital calculations combined with chemical intuition. The most recent reviews are those by Cadet and Berger3’. Close and coworkers40 and Cadet and coworkers4’. The first, positive, structuralidentification was done by means of ENDOR (electron nuclear double resonance)for the adenine anion by Box and Budzinski4’, who identified a reduction product formed by irradiationat 4.2 K of single crystals of adenine dihydrochloride with unpaired spin density of approximately 0.3 on C8. Kar and Bernhard have used ENDOR to study adenine in a co-crystal of adenine and 5 - b r o m o ~ r a c i They l ~ ~ . found two products: an adenine with a spin density of 0.15 on C8 and 0.35 on C2, and a deprotonated cation where the hydrogen is abstractedfrom the NH, group at C6. Close and coworkers44 found in an ESR study at 15 K, using an irradiated single crystal of guanine hydrochloride monohydrate, a structure which they associated with the guanine radical cation, with spin density of g(C8) = 0.182, g(N3) = 0.283 and g(N10) = 0.168. It is interesting to note that in guaninehydrochloride monohydrate (Gm) the N7 at pH 7 is protonated, thus the formation of this radicalcation must includealso deprotonation.

-

0

NH2

I

H Adenine

H

Guanine radical cation

Close and coworkersu did not observe any decay product of the cation in their study, however, Huttermannand Voit4’ and Hole and collaborator^^^found the decay product of the cation of guanineproduced by radiolysis of 2’-deoxyguanosine-5’-monophosphate tetrahydrate. Huttermannand V ~ i proposed t ~ ~ that the cation decays by deprotonation at Nl, while the other group46disagreed with this assignment.From detailed ENDOR studies of a single crystal irradiated at 10 K, and INDO-MO calculations,they suggested that the cation decayed by a loss of proton from the side-chain NH, group N10. They found that the spin density is 33% at N10 and 17.5% at the C8. 0

Deprotonated guanine radical cation

716

Z. B. Alfassi

Deprotonation of the NH, group was found also with adenosine, both with a pure crystal4' and a cocrystal with 5 - b r o m o ~ r a c i lStrand ~ ~ . and collaborators4*studied the free radicals induced by radiation in single crystals of guanine hydrochloride dihydrate (Gd) between 20 and 300 K, using ESR and ENDOR spectroscopy. They did not observe with Gd the radical cation observed by Close's for Gm. Although the radical cation was observed for Gm at a lower temperature(15 K), it was found49to be stable also at highertemperaturesand decayed at 80 K with no apparentsuccesor radical.Strandand coworkers4' explained this difference between Gm and Gd as due to different hydrogen bonding in the crystals of Gm and Gd. The radical cation can decay in three competitive reactions, two neutralizations and one deprotonation (equations 1 1-13):

G + + e- -G* G + +e--G*

(1 1)

+G

(12)

With Gd reactions 11 and/or 12 may dominate, while with Gm reaction 13 may dominate, leading to the observed deprotonated cation. Nelson and coworkersSodid not agree with this explanation,as they did not expect a large differencein the strength of the hydrogen bonds in the two systems. They suggested that the differencebetween Gm and Gd [and also 5'-guanosinemonophosphate(GMP), in which the cation was also not found5'] is due to differencesin the decay rates rather than in the formation rates. They claimed that the protonated N7 radicals are formed in all three systems, but in Gd and G M P they are easily destroyed by the radiation and their equilibrium concentrationsare too low to be detected. The differencebetween Gm on the one hand and Gd and G M P on the other is the hydrogen bond of the acceptor to HN7. The acceptor is the 0 atom of the OC6 group of anotherguaninein Gm and the 0 atom of water in Gd and in GMP. Thus in Gd and G M P the proton orginating from HN7 produces H 3 0 + ,which in turn reacts with an electron produced by further radiation to give H + H,O. The H atom reacts with high efficiency with the deprotonated cation radical to re-form the parent molecule. Huttermann's group4' found three radicals in low-temperature (20 K) irradiated guanine hydrochloride dihydrate. One of them is the C8 H-adduct found twenty years earlierby room-temperatureirradiations2.A second radicalwas the Odprotonated anion radical, the same product as obtained by H-atom addition to the carbonyl bond (the unprotonated anion was not observed due to the fast protonation caused by 0 6 being a hydrogen-bond acceptor). They could not identify the third radical. Nelson and coworkersSoextended the very low temperaturestudies for Gd and found it to be the C8 OH-adduct. Annealing of the sample to above 250K for several hours led to the disappearanceof the 06-protonated anion radical and the appearanceof a new radical. The latter is a product of net hydrogen abstraction from N9 of the guanine base, by the 06-protonated anion radical. At low temperaturesthe 06-protonatedanion radical was found to exist in fourdifferent conformations, which coalesce into the most stable one at 180K. The 0 6 protonated anion radical of Gm was found to have two conformation^^^. Close and collaborator^^^found in the case of Gm another radical, which is due probably to OH addition to C8. However, while in Gd this OH-adductis stable, in Gm it undergoes further rearrangementand H-atom dissociation and only the rearrangement product is observed (Scheme 2). This radical decays at 160K by reaction with another guaninebase to form the C8 H-addition radicals3(Scheme 3). This mechanismshows that the H-adduct might result from an oxidation process (additionof OH radical)and not only from reduction (protonation of the anion) or by addition of an H atom.

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines

717

SCHEME 2

SCHEME 3 Close and Nelson4’ studied the ESR and ENDOR spectra of adenosine single crystals X-irradiated at 10 K and found two radicals, the N3 protonated anion radical (a) and the N 10 deprotonated cation radical (b). The only radicals formed at room temperature are NH2

I

I

H

I

R

Z. B. Alfassi

718

the hydrogen-addition radicals.The hydrogen atom is added to C8, producing a radicalat N7 which is also protonated in the case of guanine.

H

H

In the case of polycrystalline adenine it was shown that ESR data are not sufficient to distinguish between H addition to C8 or to C254*55.Schmidt and B ~ r studied g ~ ~several polycrystalline N9-substituted adenine derivatives which were selectively deuterated at position C8 and/or in the hydrogen-bonding network. They concluded that the hydrogen atoms are mainly added to C8 and that the C2 adduct is only a minor product. Zehner and ~ o w o r k e r s extended ~ ~ , ~ ~this ~ ~ study ~ to single crystals and used also heat and illumination to distinguish between the two radicals.They showed that for most adenine derivatives both a C8 adduct and a C2 adduct were formed. The C2 radical is usually less stable and needs a specificenvironment in order to be stabilized. Similarresults of both C2 and C8 addition were also found for hypoxanthiness (Scheme 4). 0

II

0

R C 2 Addition

0

II

SCHEME 4

R C 8 addition

Sieber and HUttermanns9studied the reaction of H atoms with purines in acid glasses. They found that H atoms produce C2- and C8-addition radicalsin the case of adenine and C8-addition radicals with guanines. IV. RADIOLYSIS OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF PYRIMIDINES A. Initial Radicals

Several reviews were published in the last five years on the radiolysis of aqueous solutions of pyrimidine bases, among others by von S ~ n n t a g ~ O and - ~ ’ by Neta and

719

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines TABLE 1. Rate constants for the reactions of eag-, OH and H with pyrimidine and purine bases ( x 10' M - ' s - ' 1

en, -

Uracil

100

Adenine Guanine

90 130

Thymine Cytosine

170 130

OH

H

60 60

3 7 1 1

45 50 90

-

D i ~ d a r o g l uTable ~ ~ . 1 gives the rate constants for the reactions of the three main species, formed in the radiolysis of water, with three pyrimidine and two purinebases65.OH reacts with thymine and uracilwith the same rate constant while the reducingradicals(e,, - and H) react above twice as fast with thymine. OH and eaq- react very fast with the pyrimidine bases while H atoms react about one to two orders of magnitude slower. While many data on the radicals formed by radiolysis of solid bases were obtained by ESR, this technique is not so informative in the liquid phase, due to the shorter lifetime of the radicalsin the latter. While spin-trappingcan be used to produce longer-lived radicals, the ESR spectra of spin-trapped radicals do not provide as much information on the structureof the initial radicals as is obtained by direct observation. In some cases the spintrapped radicals are suniciently unreactive to be separated by chromatography66.In this way Riesz and his coworkers66 identified the SOH adduct of uracil and distinguished between the cis and trans isomer. Short-lived radicals of pyrimidines in irradiated aqueous solution were measured by direct ESR (without spin-traps) both by in situ radiolysis, within the spectrometer, and in steady-state experiments.In the pulse radiolysis in situ studies6' the radicals produced by O H and by e,, - with pyrimidine bases have been identified and the rate constants of their reactions with oxygen and with thiols were measured. These studies were extended by Novais and Steenken6', who used in situ radiolysis ESR and determined the coupling constants of the radicals produced in aqueous solutions of uracil and thymine. They found that the splittings of the radicals measured in aqueous solution arevery similar to those previously reported for the solid state. However, only the major hyperfine constants were measured accurately due to the low sensitivity of the method. The sensitivity can be increased by using steady-state studies69-", but then, due to lack of time resolution, often the secondary radicals cannot be differentiatedfrom the primary radicals.Thus, for example, the CS and C6 OH-adducts were not observed, but the secondary products formed by dehydration or oxidation were identified. Both OH and H are electrophilic radicals and will add to double bonds of the pyrimidines. With uracil and thymine there is only one site for addition, i.e. the CS-C6 double bond. With cytosine the double bond N3-N4 is also a potential reaction site, but it was found that O H addition takes place predominantly at CS-C6 with a large preferencefor CS72*73. In uracil, OH and H both attack preferentiallyat the C5 position, but in thymine and its derivatives there is also considerable attack at the C6 position. Steenken and coworker^^^*^^showed that CSH-adduct radicals with the free electron at C6 have reducing properties and readily reduce tetranitromethane, quinones and riboflavin with rate constants > 1 0 9 M - 1 ~ -.1The reducing properties are due to a-substitutionof the carbon-centred 6-yl radical by nitr~gen'~. In basic media this radical undergoes a dehydration process, which converts it to an oxidizing radical. The 5-yl radicals (C5-OH adducts) have oxidizing properties and can oxidize N,N,N',N'tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine (TMPD) very fast, with rate constants in the order of

Z. B. Alfassi

720

109 M - 1 - I . The 5-yl radical can also react with other reducing agents and it was monitored, e.g., in its reaction with ascorbate7'. The C5 and C6 adducts have similar absorption s p e ~ t r a ~ and ~ -their ~ ~ yields are determined using their different redox properties. Recently the different spectra of the C5 and C6 adducts were measured62.The spectra of the OH-adducts differ from one another much more than those of the H-adducts. In the case of thymine and its derivatives, OH and H abstract also hydrogen atoms from the CH, side-group. At high pH when OH is converted to 0 - , hydrogen abstractionbecomes the predominant reaction.The ally1 radical formed by abstraction of a hydrogen atom from the CH, group is neither a strong oxidant nor a strong reductant. Its yield has been determined by its reaction with oxygen yielding the peroxyl radical, which is an oxidant and reacts with TMPD in a reaction that can be m~nitored'~. Table 2 gives the relative reactivities of the different sites in various pyrimidines towards O H and H. It can be seen from this table that H abstraction from a CH, group occurs only for C-CH3 but not for N-CH,. The reducing 6-yl radical is converted by dehydration in basic pH to an oxidizing radical, which can also be formed directly by oxidizing a pyrimidine base with a strong oxidizing radical such as SO4-. The suggested mechanism is shown in Scheme 5. This dehydration process does not occur for methyl-substituted N 1 pyrimidine^'^,a fact which agrees with a suggested mechanism. At acidic pH there is a proton-catalysed rearrangementof the C5-OH adduct into the C6-OH adduct and uice uersd". The major radical, the 6-yl radical, is readily oxidized by transition metal ionsE2.83as well as by organicoxidants. The primary product is an intermediate carbocation which is too short-lived to be observed in pulse radiolysis. However, its decay product, the isopyrimidine formed by deprotonation at N1, has been observed and its decay kinetics were followeda2 (Scheme 6). The isopyrimidines are formed also in disproportionation reactions of pyrimidine radicals. The pyrimidines react with the hydrated electron at a diffusion-controlled rate. The radical anions formed are protonated by H + or by water. The protonation by H" proceeds at diffusion-controlledratesfor all pyrimidines,however concerningprotonation by water there is a large difference between cytosine on the one hand and uracil and thymine on the other. The cytosine radical anion reacts very fast with water (t,,2 = 210 nsE4).The uracil and thymine are longer-lived in water with respect to protonation ( t l l 22 40,~s'~).Thus it is possible to study by pulse radiolysis the electron adduct (before protonation) of uracil and thymine, but not that of cytosine. In the accessible

TABLE 2. Relative reactivities of the various sites in pyrimidines for the attack of H atoms and OH radicals Reactant

H

OH C5

C6

CH,

C5

C6

CH,

82 80 60 88 89 92 91 65

18 20 30 12 11 8 9 22

10 little

69 71 37

31 29 59

-

~~~

Uracil 1,3-Dimethyluracil Thymine 6-Methyluracil Cytosine 1- Methylcytosine 3-Methylcytosine 5-Methylcytosine

-

13

4

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines

HN3 oA3:H '

721

0

0

t OH

0A N

H

TE:i

oA%"... !

H

reducing rodicol

\

oxidizing rodicol

SCHEME 5

cu+2+

1%: -

c u+ I t

0

H

0

H

H

H

X=H orOH

0

isopyrimidine

SCHEME 6

Z. B. Alfassi

722

wavelength region it only shows the tail of an absorption whose maximum must be below 300nmB5.Protonation can occur at two sites, either at 0 4 or at C6. The absorption spectrum of the oxygen-protonated radical is very close to that of the radical anion,except that it has lower extinction coefficients.The protonation at 0 4 is very rapid while the C6 protonation is The protonation at 0 4 is reversible while the C6 protonation is irreversible.Consequently, if not destroyed by other reactions, all the electron adducts should lead to the C6 protonation product. Phosphatebuffer was found to speed up both protonations (C6 and 04) and, of course, also the reversible 0 4 deprotonation. It was found that in the presence of high concentrationof phosphate buffer the electron adducts are irreversibly protonated at C6 (Scheme7). The 0 4 protonated radical, like the electron OH

J-$ 0

0

0 4 - adduct

H

H

C6

- adduct

H

SCHEME 7 adduct, is a reducing radical and reacts rapidly with tetranitrometane (TNM) to give C(NO,), z , which can be monitored. The C6-protonated radical, which is the same as the C6-H adduct, has oxidizing properties and does not react with TNM on the pulseradiolysis time scale. The OCprotonated and the electron adduct can also transfer an electron to oxygen, quinones and to other pyrimidines having a higher electron affinity, such as orotic acidg2. The electron adducts of 5-halouracilscan undergo rapid d e h a l o g e n a t i ~ nThis ~ ~ *is~ ~ . the predominantprocess for the bromo and iodo derivatives while for 5-chlorouracilthere is a competition between this process and the protonation r e a c t i ~ nl . ~Rivera ~ . ~ and Schulergl measured the decay of the radical anions of 5-halourdcik, obtained by their reaction with eaq-, using their optical absorption at 330nm. The 5-bromo and 5iodouracil radical anions decay with very short half-lives (7.0 0.5 and 1.7 f 0.3 ns, respectively), which is in contrast with the much longer half-lives of the electron adducts of 5-chloro and 5-fluorouracil(4.9 and > IS ps). The uracilyl radical produced in this reaction is very reactive and can add to another molecule of halouracil.In the presence of 2-propanol the uracilyl radical can abstract the secondary hydrogen of 2-propanol. The produced isopropanol radicalcan in turnabstract the bromine or iodineatom of the 5-halouraci1,propagatinga chain r e a c t i ~ n(Scheme ~~.~~ 8). The much faster reaction of the electron adduct of cytosine (compared to uracil and thymine) is not yet understood. The rapid protonation by water suggests that it is likely to occur at 0 2 or at N3, which will agree with the reducing properties of the protonated radical.However, it is not reconciled with the high pK, of the radical (> 126').The pK, of the electron adducts of uracil and thymine is rlear 785.

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines

723

SCHEME 8 Busi and coworkers'08 measured the properties of the radiation-induced radicals of pyrimidine (and purine)bases. They studied the transient potential changesat the double layer of a dropping mercury electrode. Their conclusions are not independent but are based on previous results,suchas, for example,that the radicalproduced by addition to C6 is already reduced at 0.OV (vs standard calomel electrode). From the previous electrochemical properties they found for Ar-saturated solution at pH = 7 that C(U(5)OH)= 2.5, G(U(5)H)= 0.46, G(Th(5)OH)= 1.54, G(Th(5)H)= 0.36, G(U(6)OH) = 0.40, G(U(6)H)= 0.14, G(Th(6)OI-T)= 0.81 and G(Th(6)H)= 0.1 1. In this assignment G(U(5)OH)is the radiolytic yield of the radical formed by addition of an OH radical to C5 of uracil, yielding the 6-yl radical. Similarly G(Th(6)H) is the yield for the addition of a hydrogen atom to C6 of thymine. In thymine solution the yields obtained for H abstraction by , O H and H reaction at the methyl groups are 0.55 and 0.13, respectively. B. Final Products

Products of the y-radiolysis of N,O-saturated aqueous solutions are almost exclusively due to the reactions of OH radicals. Many studies were done on the products and the consumption of uracil in de-aerated or N,O-saturated solutions. Shragge and Hunt" found that the G value of uracil consumption varies considerably with pH, with a pK of about 7. This pH dependence was explained later74*96as due to the OH--catalysed C5OH adduct eliminatingwater to become the uracilradical.This radical reforms the uracil molecule by H-atom abstraction from other products or impurities. The adduct itself, if not dehydrated, either recombinesto dimers or disproportionates.Increasingthe dose rate should increase the rate of the bimolecular reactions while not having any effect on the dehydration rate. Fujitag6irradiated a N,O-saturated aqueoussolution of uracilwith 4 ps pulses of electron beams with doses of either 5.7 Gy per pulse or 0.6Gy per pulse. Measuring G(-uracil),he found that the pK for the consumption of uracil is 9.8 for the higher dose pulse and 7.9 for the lower dose pulse. This trend agrees with the lower pK ( - 7) found by Shraggeand Hunt79for 6oCoy-irradiationwith a dose rate of 8.7 x lo3 Gy h- I . At the same pH (> 6) higher concentration of radicals (higher dose rate) leads to higher G(-uracil). This is due to the bimolecular reactions of OH-adducts (either combination or disproportionation)competing more favourably with the dehydration to uracil radicals.This effect of dose rate explains the variations in G(-uracil)found for N,Osaturated solutions. Bhattacharyya and Mandall3O and Infante and coworker^'^' obtained G(-uracil) 3 at pH 5.6 compared to 5.5 given in Table 3, due to their lower dose rates. Bhattacharyya and MandalI3' proposed the following scheme for N,O-saturated solutions. Addition to double bond O H + U -UOH H+U-UH N

N

N

Z. B. Alfassi

124

TABLE 3. Radiolysis products of aqueous solutions of pyrimidines

I. Uracil, deoxygenated solutions Ref. 94 Product

pH=6-7

G(-uracil) cis-Uracil glycol trans-Uracilglycol Isobarbituric acid Dihydrouracil Formyl urea Alloxan Alloxantin 5,6-Dihydro-6-hydroxy uracil (+ 5-hydroxy) Dialluric acid Dimers

3.75 0.81 0.92 0.38 0.05 0.34 0.25 0.13 0.13 0.15 0.21

Ref. 79

Ref. 95

pH=12 p H = 5 pH=8.1 p H = 2 p H = 4 p H = 6 p H = 8 2.92 0.45 0.25 0.72

4.4 0.2 0.5

1.9 0.4 0.4

0.53 0.34 -

0.03 0.14

-

2.68

4.25

5.51

2.11

0.1

0.68 0.29

0.32 0.12

0.30 0.52

0.18 0.16

0.5

0.3

0.31

0.44

0.29

0.18

3.1

0.7

1.35

3.30

4.38

1.6

0.1

0.18

11,. Uracil, N,O saturated solutionsg’, pH = 5.6

11,. Uracil N,O/O, saturated solutiongs

Product

Product

G(-uracil) Dimers

5.59 4.00

pH=3

pH=6.5

p H = 10.0

4.9 0.6 0.5

5.3 0.9 1.1 0.2 1.4 0.2 0.4

5.2 1.4

G(-uracil) cis-Uracil glycol trans-Uracilglycol Isobarbituric acid Formyl-5-hydroxyhydantoin Dialuric acid 5-Hydroxyhydantoin

0

I .6 0.1 0.4

1 .o

1.2 0.2 0.1 0.3

111. 1,3-Dimethyluracil(DMC), N,O saturateds1

Product

pH=3

G(-DMC) DMC glycol 1,3-Dimethylisobarbituric acid 5-Hydroxy-5,6-dihydro-DMC 6-Hydroxy-5,6-dihydro-DMC Dimers (in monomeric units)

3.9 I .5 0.15 0.4

pH = 6.5

pH = 10.4

5.7

5.1 0.8 c0.1

0.85

0.1 0.75 0.2 3.6

<0.1

1.7

0.6

<0.1

3.2

IV. Thymine-N,O saturated (DHT = 5,6 dihydrothymine)

Product

G(- t hymine) Thymine glycol 5- or 6-Hydroxy-DHT 5-Hydromethyluracil DHT Dimers

Ref. 93

Ref. 99 pH = 7.0

Ref. 100 pH = 6.3

Ref. 97 pH = 5.6

3.9 2.26 0.13 0.22 0.1 0.26

2.7 0.32

5.5 I .4 0.5 0.2 0.04 3.1

4.48

0.18

0.27 0.17 -

1.47

V. Thymine-aeratedsolution, pH = 4"' (DHT = 5,6-dihydrothymine) C(-thymine) cis-Thymine glycol trans-Thymineglycol cis-6-Hydroperoxy-5-hydroxy-DHT trans-6-Hydroperoxy-5-hydroxy-DHT cis-S-H ydroperoxy-dhydroxy-DHT trans-5-Hydroperoxy-6-hydroxy-DHT cis-6-H ydroperoxy-DHT trans-6-H ydroperoxy-DHT 5-Hydroperoxy-DHT Urea Formyl urea Formyl-pyruvil urea 5-Hydroperoxymethyl uracil 5-Hydroxymethyl uracil 5-Hydroxy-5-methylbarbituric acid

2.6 0.12 0.12 0.03 0.7

0.08

0.17 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.08 0.07

0.46

0.05

0.02

+

0.15

5-Hydroxy-5-methylhydantoin VI. Cytosine-N,O saturated solutionslo2

G(-cytosine) Uracil Uracil glycol 5-Hydroxy cytosine 6-Hydroxy cylosine Cytosine glycol 5,6-Dihydroxy cytosine Dimers

5.6 0.02

0.15

I .4 0.07 0.05 0.20 3.2

VII. Cytosine, aerated solution'03 G(-cytosine) trans-1-Carbamoylimidazolidone-4,5-diol 4-Amino-1-formyl-S-hydroxy-2-oxoimidazoline cis-Uracil glycol trans-Uracilglycol 5-Hydroxyhydantoin Oxaluric acid Parabanicacid Biuret Formyl urea

2.5 0.6 0.2 0.03 0.I 0.1

0.2 0.03 0.06 0.06 -

VIII. 5,QDihydrothymine (DHT)'" Saturatinggases C(-DHT) trans-6-Hydroxy-DHT cis-6-H ydroxy-DHT trans-6-H ydroperoxy-DHT cis-6-H ydroperoxy-DHT 5-Hydroxy-DHT 5-Hydroperoxy-DHT Thymine cis-5,6-Dihydroxy-DHT trans-5.6-Dihydrox y N-formyl-5-hydroxy-5-methyIhydantoin

N,O/O,

0,

4.1 0.2 0.22 0.29 0.61 0.17 0.38 0.50 0.52 0.28 0.24

2.0 0.09 0.10 0.13 0.30 0.09 0.24 0.46 0.23 0.18 0.03

Z. B. Alfassi

126 Disproportionation

--

2UOH 2UOH

U(OH),

UH + UOH -UH+

H2O

UOH" I

UOH-

H2O

U(OH),

(15)

Cdadduct

CS-adduct

/

+U

U(OH)++ U(0H)-

+ UOH-

(17)

+ H30+

/ \ Isobarbituricacid + H,O+

/U(oH)H+oH-

Dimerization 2UOH

-

(UOH),

(22) UOH+ + UOH--(UOH), Assuming steady-state concentration of the various intermediates leads to the equation

where Go, is the yield of O H in N,O-saturated solution containingknown concentration of uracil(since some of the hydrated electrons will still react with the uracil),and D, is the dose rate. This equation may be written in a simplified form: G(dimer)= K,[GoH - G(-U)]2D, K2GOH (23) Bhattacharyyaand Mandal showed that their result together with previous 34 give a linear dependence between G(dimer) and [GoH-G(-U)]2D, as can be seen in Figure1. Another pH effect is found in the low pH range.Idris Ali and ScholesgSfound that G(-uracil)decreased not only on increasing the pH, but also by decreasing it to pH = 2 (see Table 3). In this range the explanation is different and will be given in the next paragraph. The formation of dimers has been observed in the uracil system, but it has not been possible to assign them a definite structureg7.Idris Ahg7 used-paperchromatography to isolate the radiation-induceddimeric products, and used mass spectrometry to characterize the dimers. However, due to insufficientseparation, he could not identify clearly the dimers. Al-Sheikhly and von Sonntagslwere able to identify dimers in the radiolysis of an aqueous solution of 1J-dimethyluracil, which is easier for analysis than uracil. Mass spectral analysis indicates that the dimers were formed exclusively by the combination of two C5-OH adduct radicalsor of a C5-OH adduct with a C5-H adduct. No dimer was found which involves any combination of a C6-OH adduct, either with itself or with a C5-OH adduct. Instead, a C6-OH adduct radical reacts with a C5-OH adduct radical by electron transfer,resultingin the formation of glycols and the originalmolecule.

+

121

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines

I

4

I

8

[G,,,-G(-u)]2

I

12

I

16

I

20

I

24

x dose rote (rod min-'1

FIGURE 1. Plot of G(dimer) against [Go,, - G( - U)]* x D,. Reproduced by permission of Gordon and Breach from Reference 130.

The net reactionis a disproportionationinvolvingthe transferof an OH group.Idris Ah9' used I4C2 labelled pyrimidines and found that the G values of dimeric products is 71% of the total decomposition of uracil,while it is only 33% of the total thymine destruction.The carbanionformed from the CS-adductmay lose the OH- groupor may alsobe protonated to form the hydrate,the latterappearingas a minor product. However, the carbanionmay be formed also due to electron transferfrom other substrates to the 5-yl radical. In acidic solution G(-1,3-dimethyluracil)decreasesas it does in the case of uracil,while the dimer yield is drastically reduced and that of the glycol increased with respect to neutralsolutions.The reason for the decreasein G(consumption)with the decreasein the pH is a proton-catalysedisomerization of the 5-yl radical to the 6-yl radical, a reaction which occurs throughthe radical cations of the original molecules. This isomerization is

H3c1k Z. B. Alfassi

128

0

2

0

I

CH3 Electron tronsfer

I

CH3

I

6 - y l radical

5 - y l radical

C(5)-adduct

C ( 6 ) - adduct

I

I

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3

-

glycol molecule

I

CH3

I

CH3

original molecule

I

CH3

(26)

reversible and it is catalysed by H+ions, but is usually very slow. At pH < 3, instead of having90% C(5)-OH adductand only 10% C(6)-0H adduct(asin pH > 6), the fraction of the latteris considerablylarger,leadingto a decreasein the combinationandan increase in the disproportionation(electron transfer)reaction of the radicals. Since the electron transferleads to reformationof half of the parent molecules, the decrease in pH causes a decrease in G(consumption).

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines

729

The intermediaie radical cation is likely to be formed also in the reaction of strong oxidants, e.g. SO4- with I ,3-dimethyluracil.Since the cation of 1,3-dimethyluracilcannot lose the positive charge by deprotonation, due to the methylation of both nitrogens, it must react with water to yield the O H - adduct. I t was found by Riedererand Hiittermann that in sulphuric acid glasses104the SO4 leads to the production of the C6-OH. Examination of Table 3 indicates that the data obtained in various laboratories differ considerably, even for G(consumption).For example, G(-thymine)changes from 2.7" to 5.5'" (almost at the same pH). The spread in the yield of the products is even higher.For example, G(thymine glycol) in the radiolysis of N,O-saturated aqueous solutions of thymine is between 0.3299and 2.26"'. These results are probably due to the differentdose rate used. Consequently, it is difficult to draw conclusions by comparing studies from two laboratories. However, conclusions about the same system at different pH values are probably correct. One of the major problems of the analytical method was that the products were separated by gas chromatography.In order to separate such large polar molecules by GC, they first had to be modified into their trimethylsilyl derivatives. However, the derivation might lead to some changes in the molecules. For example, Dizdaroglu and Simic'" studied the nature of OH-induced dimers of thymine by using GC-MS analysis of the trimethylsilyl derivatives of the products. The MS spectra suggested that the dimers are products of combination reactions of OH-adduct radicals. Some of the dimers have also been shown to dehydrate. However, it is not clear whether the dehydration was taking place during the combination or during the derivatization process, although probably the latter suggestion is correct. Thus, separation of the products by HPLC might be preferable. The dimers were found to be composed of two OH-adducts, but it was not determined whether these are C5-OH or C6-OH adducts. However, several peaks of the dimers indicated the formation of all three possible isomers: 5-5', 6-6' and 5-6. The number of dimer peaks observed in the GC was larger than three, possibly due to stereoisomers. In the presenceof 0, no dimeric products were observed, due to the rapid reactionof the OHadducts with 0, to give thymine peroxy radicals, which lead to a variety of monomeric products. The fact that in the case of N,O-saturated aqueous solution of cytosine'" the number of dimer peaks is larger than 3 (at least 8) was also explained as due to stereoisomers.Since there are four optically active carbon atoms, there are six stereoisomers of each type of dimer. Dehydrated dimers have been found also in the case of cytosine. When irradiated samples of cytosine were treated with HCOOH before derivatization and GC-MS analysis, it was found that the normal dimers were absent and the yield of the dehydrated dimers increased,showing that the dehydration of the dimers is an acid-catalysedreaction. Radiolysis of solutions containingoligo- and polynucleotides of thymine105*106 shows the formation of dimers, resulting from combination reactions of OH-adduct and H-adduct radicals of thymine. The electron adducts of pyrimidine bases also form dimers, most probably after protonation. Nishimoto and coworkers"' observed the formation of the dihydrodimer in radiolysis of de-aerated aqueous solutionsof thymidine in the presence of formate ions (to scavenge the OH radicals). They found G(-thymidine) = 2.97 and G(dimer)= 0.87. The main products are the two stereoisomers of 5,6-dihydrothymidine (56% from the consumed thymidine).The O H radical yields, with the formate ions, CO, - and H,O. The C 0 2 radical anion in turn transfersan electron to the thymine molecule, as was proven by irradiation of an N,O-saturated aqueous solution of thymidine in the presence Of sodium formate. In this system all eaq- is converted to OH, which is converted to CO, -. This process is followed by one-electron reduction of the thymidine to the radical anion. The product distribution is almost identical with that in the de-aerated solution.

Z. B. Alfassi

730

Nishimoto and coworkersg9 studied the effect of electron-affnic compounds on the radiolysis of thymine in de-aerated and N,O-saturated solutions. The addition of electron-affiniccompounds in the radiolysis depresses the thymine consumption in both de-aerated and N,O-saturated solutions, while it increases in aerated solution. The radiolysis with varying concentration of misonidazole indicates that the depression of thymine decomposition is due to competition over the OH radical between the thymine and the electron-affniccompounds. In the presence of these compounds the formation of thymine glycol was promoted remarkably. The G value of thymine glycol increased in a sigmoidal form with the one-electron reduction potential of these compounds. This sigmoidal increase reaches the saturation values of 1.1 and 1.8 in de-aerated and N,Osaturatedsolutions, respectively. These resultsareexplained by the one-electronoxidation of the thymine-OH-adduct radical with the electron-affiniccompound to the corresponding cation, which in turn undergoes solvolytic substitution to give thymine glycol. In the absence of the electron-affnic compounds the OH-adduct dimerize or disproportionate, in which case only one-half leads to the glycol. In equation 27 S stands for the electronaffnic compound and S- is its anion.

0

Mandal and coworkers1l0*l1 I measured the yield of the products in the radiolysis of uracil in aqueous solution by high-energy a-particles. This radiolysis, characterized by much higherlinearenergy transfer(LET of 19.9 eV per nm compared to 0.25 eV per nm for 6oCoy-rays), produces much higherconcentrationof radicals.Due to this, many ions and radicalsreact back with their counterpartsto reform the uracil molecule, thus leading to a lower G value for consumption of uracil,G(-U). Table 4 shows that C(-U) for a-particles is about 0.26-0.33 of C(-U) for 6oCoy-rays. The decreasein the yield fits quite well the earlier measurements of free radical yields in a- and y-radiolysis1'2. TABLE 4. Radiolytic yields of uracil by 37 MeV a-particles1lo, pH = 5.6 ~~~~

Gas-saturated aqueoussolution Ar 0 2

N2O

G(-U)

G(-UWG(-U),"

0.73 07. 1.1

"G(-U), taken from Reference 60 and Reference 1 12.

0.26 0.26

0.33

~~

G(radicals)JG(radicals), 0.25 0.26 0.24

II

73 1

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines

When mixtures of thymine and tyrosine are irradiated by ionizing radiations, besides the dimers of thymine and tyrosine, there is also formation of a molecule with a link between thymine and tyrosine' 1 3 * ' 14. Similarcrosslinks are formed between thymine and phenylalanine' '. Similarly, when oligonucleotides are irradiated, crosslinking occurs between the pyrimidine bases. The crosslinking between thymine and tyrosine radicals is favoured over the thymine-thymine and tyrosine-tyrosine radical dimerization. Predominant formation of crosslinking between the molecules was observed also in pulse radiolysis studies, when it was found that the cross-combination rate constant is 4.8 x to8 M- s - I while the dimerization of thymine radicals has a rate constant of 3.2 x to8 M - s- and the dimerization of tyrosine radicals, 2.4 x lo8 M- s- . No explanation is suggested for the deviation from the classical general rule that'l6 the crosscombination rate constant is the geometric average of the combination rate constants of the pure radicals.

' ' '

'

C. The Reactions of Secondary Radicals

In many cases the irradiated solutions contain other solutes besides the pyrimidine bases. For example, in biological fluids and tissues the concentration of NaCl is much higher than that of the nucleic acids. Consequently the OH radicals will react with CI- to form HOCl or CI, -,which will then react with the pyrimidine bases. The presence of chloride ions in irradiated acidic air-saturated aqueous solutions has been shown to increasethe destruction yields of uraciland cytosine, to have no effect on G(-thymine)and to decreasethe consumption of nucleotidesand nucleosides' 19. At acidic pH (pH < 2) OH radicals react with CI- to give CI, 'lZo.

''-'

-

O H + C I - -HOCI' OHCI' + H + H,O

(28) (29)

+ CI

cI+cI--cI,'

(30)

Ward and Kuo also measuredthe rate of reaction of CI, formed from the reaction of O H with CI- at acidic pH' with various bases, and their resultsaregiven in Table 5. It can be seen that the results for uracil and thymine agree quite well with the results of Patterson and coworkers'21.However, for cytosine there is almost an order of magnitude difference. CI, does not add to the double bond, since no chlorine-containingorganic compounds or molecular chlorine have been found in irradiated aqueous uracil in the presence of H36CI"8*119. Rather, C1,- abstracts an electron from the base m o l e c ~ l e ' ~and ' ~thus ~~~ oxidizes the pyrimidine molecule:

',

CI, ' + e-

-

2CI-

At neutral and basic pH, OH radicalsdo not yield CI, 'in the presence of CI- (due to the TABLE 5. Rate constants for the reaction of C1,z with pyrimidine/purine bases ( x lo7M- s- ) Base Uracil Thymine Cytosine

Guanine Adenine

Ref. 1 19 pH=2.7 4. I 12 9.1 8. I c0.5

Ref. 120 pH=2.0

Ref. 122 pH=6

Ref. 123 pH=7

3.5 7.0 1.o

3.1

28 32 35

132

Z. B. Alfassi

slow rate of reaction 29), and at these pH values the reactions are due to O H or HOCI-. The reaction ofCI, at neutraland basic pH can be studied either by the reaction of SO4 L 1 2 2 formed in the radiolysis from the reaction of elq- with S,O,-, or by photolysis of C1- solutions' Masudaand coworkers' 23 explained their higherobserved rate constants (Table 4) as due to the higher pH at which the measurements were conducted. This might be the case with cytosine for which pK, = 4.6 for the first ionization step. However, for thymine and uracil the pK, values are 9.94 and 9.5, respectively, and there should not be any difference between pH 2 and pH 7. Fendler and Pattersoniz6 suggested that irradiation of substrates in micellar solutions would provide a better approximation of the microenvironment involved in biological radiation processes tha? does pure water. Hence,Patterson and coworkers'2' measuredthe rate constants of CI, with some pyrimidine bases in the presenceof micelle-formingsurfactants,such as sodium lauryl sulphate(NaLS),cetyl (trimethyl)ammonium chloride (CTACl) and Igepal CO-730. ForNaLS they found that the rate constants for uraciland thymine were unaffected,while for cytosine, 5-chlorouraciland cytidine this surfactantdecreased the rate constants by a factor of two. Several studies on the oxidation of pyrimidines by inorganic radicals were carried out using the strong oxidant SO, -, formed in radiolysis of aqueous solutions containing S208.2- ions. This is not a common solute and thus this reaction will not occur frequently. SO4 - reacts very fast with pyrimidines (k 5 x lo9 M - ' s - ' ) . SO4- can either abstract electrons (oxidizing) or add to the double bond'". In the case of 1,3dimethylthymine the adduct with SO, was found to have a half-life of 1 5 ~ s ~There ' . is no evidence for the adduct in the case of uracilor 1,3-dimethyluracil,but this may be due to the short half-life of the adduct (ti,, < 2ps). In the presenceof Br-, the OH radicalsare converted to Br, even at basic pH. Br, is a weaker oxidant than CI,-. However, at basic pH the redox potential of the deprotonated pyrimidines is much lower and the electron transfer is quite efficient (2 x 108M-'s-' at pH 13 compared to c 1 x lo7 at pH 7)"'. Bhattacharyyaand Mandal'" studied the degradationof uracilin aqueous solution by 6oCoy-irradiation in the presence of N,O or NO, -. They found that G(-U) in N,Osaturated and Ar-saturated solutions are the same, indicating that enq- and O H lead to degradation of uracil to the same degree. Addition of a low concentration of NO, (05. mM) decreases G(-U) to about half. This is probably due to esq- scavenged by NO,to form NO,, which is a very weak oxidant',,. Although part of the electrons react with uracil, it is possible that the anion transfers an electron to NO, -.

',.

-

-

uL+NO,- - u + N o , ~ + NO,

L2

NO;

+o - ~

(31)

However, when the NO,- concentration is increasedabove 3 mM, the degradationyield is increased. For [NO, -3 > 5 mM the degradation yield is the same as in the absence of NO,-. This was explained by Bhattacharyya and Mandal as due to electron transfer between the nitrate ion and the hydroxyl adduct: .UOH +NO,- -UOH+

+ NO,

(32) The UOH' ion leads more to degradation than UOH itself. If this suggestion is true, then at higher dose rates where almost all UOH adducts lead to degradation, this sensitization effect of NO, - should disappear. This explanation predicts the decrease in G(dimer)and increasein G(glycols) and G(barbituricacid) with the addition of NO, -. The results show a real decrease in G(dimer) but almost no increase in G(glyco1s) on the addition ofO.1 M NO, -. Bhattacharyyaand Mandal'35-L37 found that several metal ions increase the radiosensitivity of uracil in aqueous solution, e.g. Cu+' and Fe+3,while

Metal ion G(-uracil) G(dimr) G(cis-uracil glycol) G(trans-uracil glycol) G(hydroxydihydrouraci1) G(isobarbituric acid)

G(product)

0.3

0.4 0.5 0.4

1.5

3. I

0.5 I .7 0.7 0.8 0.3

5 x 104MC~+Z 5.1

2.9

0.2 0.3

0.5

0.2

1.5

5 x 104MNi+Z

2.7

0.42 0.66

5x104MC~+* 2.8 0.36 0.70 0.30

Ar saturated pH = 5.5

0.2 0.2

0.5 0.1

1.3

3.3

2.0 0.3 0.2

0.5

5 x 1 0 4 M Fe+3

Ar saturated pH = I

M uracil in the presence of diNerent metal ions135-137

N,O saturated pH = 5.5

TABLE 6. G values of various products in the y-radiolysis of 2 x

21

W W

134

Z. B. Alfassi

Ni+, does not do so. Cu radiosensitizes uracil only in the N,O-saturated solution, but not in Ar-saturated ones, while Fe"3 radiosensitizes also in Ar-saturated solution. The concentration of metal ions was chosen so that the primary radicals from water radiolysis will react with uracil but not with metal ions. It is clearly seen from Table 6 that not only G(-uracil)increasesin the presenceof Cu+' or Fe+3but also the distribution of products is changed.The presenceof Cu+' or Fe+3decreasesdrastically the yield of the dimer, which was the major product in the absence of the metal ions. Simultaneouslythere is an increase in the yield of the uracil glycols, mainly the cis isomer. The metal ions react to oxidize the transient radical species: UOH + M"+ --+UOH+ + M("-')+ UH + M"++UH+ + M'"-')+ (33) U- +Mn++U+M("-L)+ While UH+ is unknown to revert back to uracil,UOH' undergoestransformationto give glycols and isobarbituric acid. In N,O-saturated solutions the main radical species is UOH and its presence will explain the observed results. In Ar-saturated solutions, UOH and UH (or U-) are present in about the same concentration. However, in the case of Fe+3,Fe+, is produced by its reduction and the latter reacts with H,O, in the Fenton reaction H,O, + Fe(T1) Fe(TT1)+ OH + OH(34)

-

leading to further formation of OH radicals, which are responsible for the enhanced degradation of uracil. V. RADIOLYSIS OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF PURINES A. Initial Intermediates

The radiolysis of purines (adenine and guanine)in solution has received considerably

adenine

guanine

less attention than that of pyrimidines. The main featureswere reviewed recently138.Both the hydrated electron and OH react very fast with the purine bases ( 1 O l o M - I s--I)while the hyderogen atom reacts two orders of magnitude slower (Table 1). The same high reactivity of ens- and O H is observed also for purine nucleotides. On introduction of the phosphate group into the system (base + phosphate +nucleotide) the O H reaction rate constant decreasesby about 20% while thee,, - reacts more than two-fold slower with the nucleotides compared to the bases themselves. This rate-decreasingeffect in the case of e, - is probably due to electrostatic repulsion between the two negatively charged reactants. Several studies were undertaken to elucidate the chemical nature and reaction of the electron adduct. Moorthy and H a y ~ n "found ~ for several purines and for purine nucleosidesthat the absorption spectra of the electron adducts change with pH in a way N

735

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines

that was interpreted as due to protonation equilibria of the eaq- adducts. They found that for adenosine at pH 11.5 and pH 5.9 there are different spectra of the e- adduct. They concluded that at pH 5.9 the doubly protonated radical cation is present while at pH = 11.5 it is the monoprotonated (uncharged)radical AdH.

-

+ e- -Ad+ 2H+ AdH,

Ad Ad-

(35)

+

Although Hissung and coworkers’40 observed different absorption spectra at pH 4.9 and at pH = 11.5, they demonstrated by conductivity measurements that at both pH values the uncharged monoprotonated radical is present. Thus it is clear that the two different spectra are not due to a deprotonation equilibrium but rather to some other found that not reaction-probably a rearrangementof the adduct. Visscher’s only the spectrum but also the chemicalproperties are changed with the pH. Using optical absorbanceand conductancedetection with nanosecond resolution they showed that the direct electron adduct of adenine A- is protonated by H,O in less than 5 ns. The product thus formed is a strongly reducing radical which can reduce MVZ+ (methyl viologen) and p-NAP (p-nitroacetophenone).The reduction of MV2+ is quantitative between pH 5 and 9. However, for pH values above 10 the situation is changed drastically, as can be seen in Figure2, and above pH 12 the electron adduct is no longer reducing. Later, it was found that the unreducingrearrangedadduct can also be formed at pH near to neutralby using

100

80

s

CI

v

U

p .- 60

>

40

20 J

I

I

I

I

1

FIGURE2. Dependence on pH of(a) the reducing equivalents as titrated by M V z + (A) and (b) the yield of carbon-protonated electron adduct of adenosine (0).With (a), [adenosine] = 2.5mM, 1 M tert-butyl alcohol, [MV”] = 0.1 mM; with (b), [adenosine] = 2 mM, [tert-butyl alcohol] = 0.5 M. ACH’is the same as AH.(C) in the text. Reprinted with permission from Moorthy and Hayon, J . Am. Chem. Soc., 97, 3345. Copyright (1975) American Chemical Society

736

Z. B. Alfassi

phosphateanionsas catalyst^'^^.Thus it was concluded that the phosphate ions catalysed the rearrangementsimilarly to OH- anions, and this was demonstrated by the change both in the spectrum and in the reducing ability. There is no proofforthe structuresof the two differentspecies of the neturalradical AG.. However, considering the solid state chemistry of purines and pyrimidines and the in situ ESR studies of pyrimidines in aqueous solutions, Steenket~”~ suggested that the rearrangementis a 1,2-H atom migration.The two forms of AH.comprise one where the H atom is on the nitrogen atom (either N2 or N7) and the unpaired electron is on a carbon atom, while the other is a species in which the H atom was added to a carbon atom (C2 or C8). NH2

I

NH2

I

-

AH ( 3 N ) y 2

AH-(7N)

AH-tEC)

The C-protonated radicals have appreciably higher spin density on the electronattracting nitrogens and hence have a lower tendency to give up an electron, i.e. to reduce other compounds. The strongreducingpower of the N-protonated radical is due probably to the a-nitrogens stabilizing the ion produced by the oxidation of the AH.(N). The first protonation occursalmost exclusively on nitrogen,since protonation on carbon atoms is a much slower process due to high bond reorganization energy142*143. The rate of direct protonation at the carbon atoms was studied by measuring the rate of formation of AH*(C)between pH = 13 and 1 MOH-, and in this range the rate constant was found to be constant (3.6 x 106s-’). This rate is about two orders of magnitude lower than for protonation on nitrogen ( 2 1.4 x 10’ s - I ) . In this pH range the radical is ionized. The rate of C protonation of the neutral radical was measured by monitoring the build-up of AH-(C) as a function of the concentrationof the phosphate catalyst, and plotting it as a linear function of the phosphate concentration. The intercept gives the rate of self-C protonation (1.4 x 104s-’),which is two orders ofmagnitude slower than the protonation of the anionic radical. The ratio of protonation at C2 and C8 is as yet unknown. The basicity of the electron adduct is much higher (pK,= 12.1) than that of the parent compound (3.5).

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines

131

NH2

NH2

I

I

Ht

pK,=3.5

Such large changesof basicity upon addition of an electron to heterocyclicsystems have been found earlier for pyridine, pyrimidine, pyrazine and p y r i d a ~ i n e ' ~ ~ * ~ ~ ~ . The reactivity of the OH radical with 6-substituted purines was found to follow the o + p + Brown-Okamoto equation. The value of p+ was found to be negative (- 0.9), indicatingthat the transition state is polar. O H radicalsareadded to 6-substituted purines in at least two different places, leading to at least two differentproducts. The products are the adducts of O H to C4 and to C8, which will be denoted by A40H.and A80H in the case of adenine. Both radicals undergo unimolecular decays: A40H,is dehydrated while A80H.undergoes ring opening146.In the dehydration, a carbon-centred radical is transformedinto a nitrogen centred radical,this being a transformationof a weak oxidant to a strong oxidizing radical. 6H I

A 4 OH*

The dehydrated radical can oxidize TMPD (N,N,N',N'-tetramethyl p-phenylenediamine) and the yield of TMPD' is used to calculate the yield of A40H., which is 30% of the yield of OH in the case of d e o ~ y a d e n o s i n e ' ~ ~ . ' ~ ' . The ring-opening reaction of A80H. is recognizable by the increase in the optical density at 35011m'~'. This process can be suppressed quantitatively by small concentrationsof oxidants, e.g. 0,, ' 41 indicating that A80H. is a strong reductant.This was furtherproved by showing that the addition ofoxidants reducesthe yield of the products of ring opening (5-formamido-6-aminopyrimidine derivatives-FAP). The A80H.radical can also be reduced;besides being oxidized, however, the product of reduction is sensitive to hydrolysis, yielding the open-ring product. This is reasonable sincethe final product of the ring opening is formed by reduction of the opened-ring radical (Scheme 9). In the case of adenine and adenosine at room temperature and pH 7, it is difficult to distinguish between the ring opening (build-up at 330 nm) and the dehydration (decrease at 400nm) since both processes have similar rates. However, the processes can be distinguished by their different pH dependencies, by their different temperature dependence and by the effect of substituents. Substituentsat N6 have higherinfluenceon the dehydration reaction (p' = - 3.0) than on the ring-openingreaction (p' = - 03.1)4.' The Hammet lines for the two processes intersect at the N6 substituent being NH,, i.e. adenine and deoxyadenosine. ONeill and his coworkers's0-'52 found that the reaction of OH with 2'-deoxyguanosine (G) leads to an oxidizing-type radical (50%) and to reducing radicals (50%) (while guanine is not sufficiently soluble in water to study its solutions). The oxidizing radical was found to be identical with that produced on reaction with Br, -. This is the

Z. B. Alfassi

738

~

&L I H

NHZ

FAP (4,6-diamino-5formamido pyrimidine)

A80H.

H

6- amine- 8 -hydroxy

- ?,8 -dihydropurine

SCHEME9 neutralradical G(-H) which is obtained by abstractinga hydrogen atom from guanosine. G

+ Br,

-Gt + 2BrGt-G(-H)*+H+

In the case of OH this radicalis formed by addition ofOH to C4 followed by elimination of a water molecule to give G(-H). This is similar to the case of adenine,except that in adeninethe radicalcentreis on a nitrogenatom while in guanosineit is on anoxygen atom.

The reducing radical is the OH adduct to C5 and C8. The C8 adduct radical can be reduced or it may undergo ring opening, as described above for adenine. The C5 OH adduct is a reasonably strong reductant’52. 8. Final Products

Van Hemmen and Blei~hrodt”~ measured the yields of several products of the radiolysis of N,O-saturated aqueous solution of adenine while Berger and CadetlS4

739

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines TABLE 7. The yields (G values)of the variousproductsfrom the y-radiolysis of aqueous solutions of purines I. Adenine in N,O-saturated aqueoussolution’S3

G value

Product Adenine consumption 8-H ydroxyadenine

4,6-Diarnino-5-formamidopyrimidine 6-Amiiio-8-hydroxy-7,8-dihydropurine

1.o

0.35

0.2 0. I

11. 2’-deoxyguanosine in N, and N,O-saturated aqueoussolutions’54

G value N20 N,

Product 2’-Deoxyguanosineconsumption

9-(2-Deoxy-P-~-erythropentopyranosyl)-2,4-diamino-5-

0.81 0.08

0.09

9-(2-Deoxy-a-~-erythropentopyranosyl)-2,4-d~amino-5-

0.26

0.25

9-(2-&.oxy-a-~-erythropentopyranosy~) guanine 9-(2-Deoxy-/?-~-erythropentopyranosyl) guanine 9-(2-Deoxy-a-~erythropentofuranosyl) guanine 9-(2-Deoxy-a-~-threopentofuranosyl) guanine 9-(2-Deoxy-B-o-erythropento- I ,5-dialdo-l, 4-furanosyl)guanine 5’,8-Cyclo-2’,5’-dideoxyguanosine 8-Hydroxy-2’-deoxyguanosine

0.02

0.03

formamidopyrimid-6-one

formarnidopyrimid-Gone

Guanine

1.50

0.02

0.02 0.02

-

0.06 0.24

0.01

0.02 0.07 0.05 0.19

0.03 0.08

0.38

studied the products of the y-radiolysis of 2’-deoxyguanosine (since, owing to its very low solubility in water, guanine itself could not be used) in N,O- and N,-saturated solutions. The results are given in Table 7. The most striking results in this table are the low yields of consumption of the parent compounds. The G values of radicals in N,O-saturated solution are G(0H) = 6 and G(H) = 6. Even assuming that the OH-adduct and the H-adduct react with each other to reform the purine parent molecule, and that all the remaining OH-adducts (G = 5.4) disproportionate leading half to the parent molecule and half to a product, the expected value would be G(consumption) = 2.7. This is in contrast to the observed values G(purine consumption) < 1.5 in Table 7. Van Hemmen and BleichrodtiS3 suggested that this is probably due to a reconstitution reaction of the adenineradicals. It is possible that some of the products can be reduced by the OH-adduct radicals; the OH radicalsare oxidized to as yet unknown hydrates, which upon loss of water could regenerate the purines. VI. RADlOLYSlS OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF MIXTURES OF PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES

Sevilla and coworkers’55 employed pulse radiolysis with optical detection to study the radiation chemistry of aqueous solutions of a dinucleoside phosphate, namely thymidine5-phosphatedeoxyadenosine(TPdA). They observed initial formation of the adenosine electron adduct, which then transfer the electron t o the thymine moiety. They calculated that the transfer from the purine residue to the pyrimidine is only partial. However,

740

Z. B. Alfassi

Visscher and coworkers'56 pointed out an error in the calculations of Sevilla and cow~rkers'~', who treated the pyrimidine spectra as due to the thymidine anion radical T-, while Visscher's noted that in phosphate-bufferedsolutions, as used in that study'", the anion is very rapidly protonated since this reaction is catalysed by the phosphate ions. Considering that the radical is not T - but really the C6 protonated thymidine monophosphate (TMP) radical leads to the conclusion that the electron is almost completely transferredto the pyrimidine base. Visscher and coworkers' 56 studied the radical spectra in radiolysis of aqueous solutions of mixtures of adenosine-9monophosphate (AMP) with either thymidine-5'-monophosphate (TMP) or uridine-5monophosphate(UMP)containingOH and H atom scavengers.The observed spectra can be explained only if it is assumed that there is an electron transferfrom the purine electron adduct to the pyrimidine base. Visscher and collaborators156used lower pH to increasethe protonation of A - to AH. and found no electron transferto thymidine, and hence they concluded that it is the radical anion of adeninewhich is transferringan electron to thymidine. There is some competition between this transfer and the protonation of the anion radical, due to the low concentration of pyrimidine used in this study (in order to ascertain that the enq- will react with the adenine moiety). For the cases of dinucleoside phosphates (dApT, ApU or dCpdA) the concentration of the pyrimidine is much higher and the competition by protonation can almost be neglected. The electron transfer was found to be a diffusioncontrolled reaction with rate constants of 1.2 x 1 0 ' o M - ' ~ - ' for T M P and 3.5 x 1 0 9 ~ - ' ~ -for 1 UMP. Gregoli and coworkers' " observed electron transfer from purine anion to thymine moiety in AMP-TMP mixtures and DNA in frozen solution, by analysis of ESR spectra. The observation that the electron is eventually located on the pyrimidines agrees with theoretical molecular orbital calculations' and shows the affinity for electrons to be in the order thymine > cytosine > adenine > guanine. VII. RADIOLYSIS OF IMIDAZOLE AND HISTIDINE A. Solid State

Lamotte and S e r v ~ z - G a v i nfound ' ~ ~ ~by ESR a radical formed by X-ray radiolysis of imidazole and proposed that the ESR spectrum is due to a radical formed by hydrogen atom addition to C2 (equation37). Blum and coworkers' "argued that the radicalformed 4

HC=CH

5

HC = CH

is due to hydrogen addition to N3. The ESR spectrum of the X-irradiated imidazole crystal shows a characteristic splitting of about 45G and three lines with an intensity ratio of 1:2: 1. The authorsattributed this large splitting to hyperfine coupling with two C4 and C5 protons. However, Bohmelbushowed that the N3 H-adduct cannot have such a large splitting and the radical formed is due to the C2 H-adduct radical. Lamotte and HC=CH

I

HN

\

I

NH

/

9

74 1

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines

proved by ESR studies of single crystals of imidazole and of derivatives deuterated at various places, which were y-irradiated at room temperature,that the radical observed is a n radical formed by the addition of one hydrogen atom to a carbon of the ring. They showed that the hydrogen which is added to form the radical comes from hydrogen atoms that are involved in the hydrogen-bonded chainsin the crystal (imidazole forms one-dimensionalintermolecularchains of hydrogen bonds). From ENDOR studies they determined all the proton hyperfine tensors,and hence the spin density distribution in the radical. Miyagawa and coworkers'63found that the H atom added to C2 to form the radicalcan be exchanged with a deuterium atom of a neighbouring molecule, and oice oersa. The activation energy for this exchange was found to be 17.4 & 2 kcal mol-I. Box and coworkers'64 studied the formation of free radicals in X-irradiated histidine hydrochloride single crystals. At 4.2K, the most prominent component of the ESR spectrum has a four-line hyperfine pattern with an over-all splitting of approximately 37 G.In crystals partially deuterated,the absorption has a doublet hyperfine pattern. Two protons, one of which is exchangeable, account for these hyperfine characteristics. ENDOR measurements gave coupling tensors of the anisotropy which is typical of pproton couplings, observed for a variety of anions formed by electron addition to carboxylic acid derivatives. The exchangeableproton has a significantly larger anisotropy than the nonexchangeableone. These observations are consistent with the interpretation that the absorption is due to the radical anion in which the unpaired electron is localized mainly on the carbon atom of the carboxyl group. ln addition to the added electron the radical anion is abstracting a proton from a neighbouring molecules.

~~oux161.162

H ..

/c\ +

HN cI-

NH

I I C =CH I

0'

H

Histidine -HCI

In addition to the lines due to the radical anion, there are two other components in the ESR spectrum of X-irradiated (4.2 K) partially deuterated histidine hydrochloride single crystals. One is due to radical formed by decarboxylation (1) and the other originates from the imidazole cation of the histidine (11).

/"\

DN cI-

I

?

ND

I

Z. B. Alfassi

142

In the decarboxylation product, the unpairedelectron is localized mainly on the carbon atom adjacent to the amino group. This radical is formed by oxidation of histidine-HCI followed by dissociation of CO,, as has been found for other amino acids165. The radical produced by ionizing radiation from histidine-HCl at room temperature was identified as the hydrogen a d d ~ c t ' ~ ~ .The ' ~ ' unpaired . electron is delocalized in the

HC=CH

imidazole ring and experiences a large interaction with the CH, pfotons via hyperconjugation. The same radical was also observed164 in crystals irradiated at 4.2K and subsequently warmed to room temperature. B. Aqueous Solutions

Samuniand NetaI6' studied the radicalformed by the reaction of O H with imidazole by the in situ ratiolysis steady-state ESR technique. The ESR spectra recorded at pH 9 and at pH 12, in N,O-saturated aqueous solutions of imidazole, were found to be different.The spectrum at the higherpH showed splittings by two equivalent nitrogens,two equivalent protons and one additional proton. The obvious structure is that formed by the loss of hydrogen from the NH group. At the lower pH a completely different spectrum is obtained. The nitrogens are not equivalent;the hyperfine constants are 1.4 G and 2.6 G, the average of which is identical with that found for the two nitrogens at pH 12. Five differentproton hypefine constants were observed at pH 9. One of these constants is 26.4G, which is characteristic for a proton and OH on the same carbon.Two others, 9.8 G and 16.3 G, can be reasonably assignedto allylic hydrogens and two, very low constants, 1.43 G and 0.35 G, are due to NH and O H protons. Thus this radicalis due to the OH-adduct of imidazole. It was found that aroundpH 10both radicals arepresent at similar concentrations.Both O H radical and imidazole dissociate and form different species at differentpH values (OH or 0- and ImH or Im+). However, the two observed radicals are not due to different reacting species since the pH in which equal yields of the two radicals were observed (pH = 10)is considerably differentfrom the pH of either O H radical (11.8) or imidazole (7.0). Thus it is reasonable to assume that the two radicalsare not due to different reactingspecies, but ratherto one radical dissociating with pH to the second one. The most reasonable mechanismis addition of OH to the imidazole ring followed by a slow process of water elimination. This slow process is catalysed by 0-

1.

HC

-CH

hydroxyimidazole radical

14. Radiation chemistry of amidines

743

OH- anions. At pH 13 and above, ESR lines of an additional radical were found by Samuni and NetaI6', who attributed them to the hydroxy imidazole radical produced by secondary reactions. Rao and coworkers'68studied by pulse radiolysis the optical spectra of the products of the reaction of eoq- and OH radicals with imidazole and histidine.The rate constants for the reaction with enq- strongly depend on the pH ( - 2 x lo7 and 4 x lo9 M-' S-' at pH 11 and pH 6, respectively) due to the protonation of the nitrogen in the ring. The reaction of O H depends only slightly on the pH and the rate constants are in the range 512 x 109M-'s-'; the higher the pH, the larger is the rate constant. The reaction of eaq- with protonated imidazole (ImH2+,where ImH is the imidazole molecule) leads to a relatively strong transient absorption spectrum with maxima at 3 0 0 n m ( ~ = 5 6 0 0 M - ~ c m - ~ ) a360nm(~=2000M-'cm-').It nd wassuggested that eaqis added to the ring nitrogen to form the following radical, after protonation:

oJH N

I

H

If, instead of imidazole, N-methylimidazole is irradiated, the formed radical has about the same extinction coefficients (increase of 10-20%) and a shift of lOnm in the short wavelength peak. Similar results were found for histidine. The following absorption lines were found: 295nm ( E =4700M-'cm-') and 370nm ( E = 1700M-'cm-'). The decay rate of the electron adduct of histidine is three times slower than that of the imidazole electron adduct (8 x 10' compared to 21 x 10' M-' s-'); both decayed by second-order kinetics. Rao and coworkers'6s found that the OH-adduct of imidazole has two optical bands. However, themaximaatpH4.4[295nm(3300M-1cm-1)and400nm(1400M-1 cm-')I are more separated that at pH8.5 [310nm (5500M-'cm-') and 390nm (1200 M-' cm-I)]. The authorsconcluded that these findingsindicate formation of more than one adduct radical and suggested that probably O H is added at both the C2 and C5 positions. However, as the O.D. at 310 nm as a functionof pH shows a titration curve with pH = 6.1, the diKerent spectra can be due to the protonated and non-protonated radicals. Similar results were found for the reaction of OH with histidine. The OH-adduct of imidazole decayed five times faster than the OH-histidine adduct (5.5 and 1.2 x lo9 s- '), similarly to what was found for the eaq- adduct. In the presence of both N 2 0and O2it was found that the OH-adductsreact with O2to give probably the peroxy radical, with a rate constant of lo9 M-' cm-'. Bansaland Sellers'69*''O employed polarographicand optical pulse radiolysis to study the radicals formed by OH attack on imidazole and histidine. This work, conducted independently and almost simultaneously with that of Rao and coworkers'6s, gave very similar results concerning the optical spectra, with small differences of lOnm in A,,. The acidities used were not the same; however, they are far enough from the pH values to expect the pH changes to be responsible for the different maxima of absorption. For example, OH-histidine at pH 3.5 was found by Rao's group to have maxima at 300 and 410 nm while Bansal and Sellers at pH 3.05 found A,, = 290 and 400 nm. Similarly, for OH-imidazole at pH 9.9, Bansal and Sellers obtained 300 and 380 nm while Rao's group measured ,A, = 3 10 and 390 nm at pH = 8.5. Both groups measured the reactions not only of imidazole and histidine but also of their methyl derivatives; Rao studied N-methylimidazole and N-methylhistidine while Bansal and Sellers studied 1- and 2-methylimidazole.

-

-

744

Z. B. Alfassi

Bansaland Sellers studied also the rate of the base-catalysed water elimination from the OH-adduct occurringat pH > 11. They found that there is an increasein the absorption of the dehydrated radical after the OH-adduct peaks at 300 and 390 nm had decayed. This increasewas found to be approximately first order and pH-dependent, and the authors suggested that it is due to a dehydrated radical produced by water elimination from anotherOH-imidazole adduct, which does not absorb at 300 or 390 nm. No such second buildup was found in the case of histidine. Faraggi and Bettelheim17' studied the reactions of hydrated electrons with histidine and two histidine dipeptides (/3-alanyl-histidineand glycyl-histidine), by kinetic spectrophotometric pulse radiolysis. The rate constants were found to the pH-dependent. Below the pK value of the imidazole ring, the rate constants for the reaction of the hydrated electron with the histidyl peptides are similar to that with histidine (3 f I x lo9M - s- I). Above the pK value, the pH-dependent rate constantswere lower for histidine than for the histidyl peptides (6 x LO7 compared to 4-8 x lo8M-' s-I). This indicates that at low pH values the main site of the eaq- reaction is the protonated ring, possessing the highest reactivity toward the hydrated electrons. The unprotonated ring reacts slowly with enq(2 x 1 0 7 ~ - ' s - 1 1 6 8) and finally the eaq- reacts also with the carbonyl group in the peptides. Similar conclusions were obtained from the transient absorption spectra resulting from the reaction of enq- with histidine and histidyl peptides. Below the pK of imidazole, the transient absorption spectra of the histidyl peptides are similar to that of histidine.In alkalinesolution of glycyl-histidine it was found that the band characterizing the imidazole transient (A,, = 360nm) disappears with simultaneous appearance of a band at ,A,, N 410 nm. The latter band was suggested to be due to a de-aminated radical produced via an internal electron transfer from the carbonyl group17'. DArcy and S e ~ i l l a studied ' ~ ~ the reactions of hydrated electrons with peptides in neutral aqueous glasses at low temperature by ESR spectroscopy. They found that for dipeptides containingone histidine residue there is competition between de-amination of the amino acids and addition of the eaq- to the imidazole ring. 65430% of the formed radicals are due to a primary de-amination process while 20-35% of the radicals are produced by protonation of the aromaticring anion formed by the addition of eaq- to the ring. There is no large differencein the fraction of the de-amination irrespective of whether the histidyl group is at the C-terminal or at the N-terminal residue. Kopoldova and Heneir173studied the yield of the various products of radiolysis of 0,-saturated aqueous solution of histidine. They found that the yield of the oxidative degradationof the histidine(imidazole) ringcorrespondsto G 4, with many degradation products. The major products were asparagineand aspartic acids. O H also attacks at the main chain, as imidozolylpyruvic and imidazolylacetic acids were identified among the products. Petryaev and coworker^"^studied the yield of fragmentationproducts of imidazole in y-irradiation of aqueous solutions. They found the main products to be ammonia and formamide.The G value ofammoniais more than twice that offormamide at pH 3-7. Both G values decrease with pH, reaching almost zero at pH 2 12.

-

VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to thank Drs A. B. Ross and J. Carmichael from the Radiation Chemistry Data Center, Radiation Laboratory, University of Notre Dame for their help in the literature survey. IX. REFERENCES

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14. Radiation chemistry of amidines

745

2. J. W. T. Spinks and R. J. Wood, An Introduction to Radiation Chemistry, 2nd edn., Wiley, Chichester, 1976. 3. A. J. Swallow, Radiation Chemistry- An Introduction, Longman, London, 1973. 4. A. Mozumder, Adu. Radiat. Chem., 1, I (1969). 5. E. G. Janzen, ACC. Chem. Res., 4, 31 (1971). 6. C. Lagercrantz and S. Forshult, Nature, 218, 1247 (1968). 7. P. K. Ludwig, Ado. Radial. Chem., 3, I (1972). 8. W. A. Bernhard, Ado. Radiat B i d , 9, 199 (1981). 9. J. Huttermann, Ultramicroscopy, 10, 25 (1982). 10. H. Zehner, W. Flossmann, E. Westhof and A. Muller, Int. J . Radiat. Biol., 32, 869 (1976). 11. E. Westhof, W. Flossmann,H. Zehnerand A. Muller, Faraday Discuss., 63, (RadiationEffects in Liquids and Solids), 248 (1978). 12. (a) M. Kuwabara, Y. Lion and P. Riesz, Int. J. Radiat. Biol., 39, 465 (1981). (b) R. A. Spalletta and W. A. Bernhard, Radiat. Res., 89, 11 (1982). 13. P. Martel, B. M. Powell and M. Slifkin, Radial. Ef, 106, 151 (1988). 14. W. Flossmann, E. Westhof and A. Muller, J. Chem. Phys., 64, 1688 (1976). 15. J. N. Herak and C. A. McDowell, J . Chem. Phys., 61, 1129 (1974). 16. W. Flossmann, J. Huttermann,A. Muller and E. Westhof, Z . NaturJorsch., 28C, 523 (1973). 17. W. Flossmann, E. Westhof and A. Muller, Int. J. Radiat. Biol., 28, 105 (1975). 18. W. Flossmann, E. Westhof and A. Muller, Int. J. Radiat. Biol., 30, 301 (1976). 19. J. B. Cook, J. P. Elliott and S. J. Wyard, Mol. Phys., 13, 49 (1967). 20. E. Westhof, W. Flossmann, H. Zehner and A. Muller, Int. J. Radiat. Biol., 28, 427 (1975). 21. W.Flossmann, H. Zehner and E. Westhof, int. J. Radiat. Biol., 36, 249 (1979). 22. J. Huttermann, Int. J . Radiat. Biol., 17, 249 (1970). 23. A. Dulcic and J. N. Herak, Radiat. Res., 47, 573 (1971). 24. T. Henriksen and W. Snipes, Radiat. Res., 42, 255 (1970). 25. H. Riederer, J. Huttermann and M. C. R. Symons, J. Phys. Chem., 85,2789 (1981). 26. T. Henriksen and W. B. G. Jones, Radiat. Res., 45,420 (1971). 27. J. N. Herak and W. Gordy, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 55, 1373 (1966). 28. A. Dulcic and J. N. Herak, J. Chem. Phys., 57, 2537 (1972). 29. H. Zehner, W. Flossmann, E. Westhof and A. Muller, Mol. Phys., 32, 869 (1976). 30. P. K. Horan and W. Snipes, Radiat. Res., 41, 24 (1970). 31. W. Flossmann, A. Muller and E. Westhof, Mol. Phys., 29, 703 (1975). 32. A. Dulcic and J. N. Herak, Mol. Phys., 26, 605 (1973). 33. A. Dulcic and J. N. Herak, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 319, 109 (1973). 34. R. Bergene and T. B. Melo, Int. J. Radial. Biol., 23, 263 (1975). 35. W. Flossmann, H. Zehner and A. Muller, 2. Naturforsch., 35C, 20 (1980). 36. J. B. Cook and S. J. Wygard, Mol. Phys., 11, 357 (1966). 37. A. Muller, frog. Biophys. Mol. Biol., 17, 99 (1967). 38. J. Rotblat and J. A. Simmons, Phys. Med. Biol., 7 , 489 (1963). 39. J. Cadet and M. Berger, Int. J. Radial. Biol., 47, 127 (1985). 40. D. M. Close, W. H. Nelson and E. Sagstuen,in Electronic Magnetic Resonance of the Solid State (Ed. J. Weil), Canadian Society of Chemistry, Ottawa, 1987, p. 237. 41. J. Cadet, M. Berger and A. Shaw, in Mechanism of D N A Damage and Repair (Eds. M.G. Simic, L. Grossman and A. C. Upton), Plenum Press, New York, 1986, p. 69. 42. H. C. Box and E. E. Budzinski, J. Chem. Phys., 64, 1593 (1976). 43. L. A. Kar and W. A. Bernhard, Radiat. Res., 93, 232 (1983). 44. D. M. Close, E. Sagstuen and W. H. Nelson, J. Chem. Phys., 82, 4386 (1985). 45. J. Huttermann and K. Voit, in Electronic Magnetic Resonance of the Solid State (Ed. J. Weil), Canadian Society of Chemistry, Ottawa, 1987, p. 286. 46. E. 0. Hole, W.H. Nelson, D. M. Close and E. Sagstuen, J . Chem. Phys., 86, 5218 (1987). 47. D. M. Close and W. H. Nelson, Radial. Res., 117, 367 (1989). 48. P. Strand, E. Sagstuen, T. Lehner and J. Huttermann,Int. J . Radiat. Biol., 51, 303 (1987). 49. D. M. Close, W. H. Nelson and E. Sagstuen, Radiat. Res., 112, 283 (1987). 50. W. H. Nelson, E. 0. Hole, E. Sagstuen and D. M. Close, Int. J. Radiat. Biol., 54, 963 (1988). 5 I. E. Sagstuen, E. 0.Hole, W. H. Nelson and D. M. Close, Free Radial. Res. Commun., 6,91 ( I 989). 52. C. Alexander Jr. and W. Gordy, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.,58, 1279 (1967). 53. D. M. Close, E. Sagstuen and W. H. Nelson, Radiat. Res., 116, 379 (1988). 54. J. Schmidt and D. C. Borg, Radiat. Res., 46, 36 (1971).

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112.

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CHAPTER

15

Catalysis by amidines PER AHLBERG and LENA SWAHN Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Goteborg, S-41296 Goteborg, Sweden

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. BIFUNCTIONAL CATALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Two-hydron Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Allylic rearrangements involving transfers from and to carbons and nitrogens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Enolizations and allylic rearrangementsinvolving transfersfrom and to carbons, nitrogens and oxygens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Hydrogen exchange of carbon acids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Epimerizations involving transfers from and to nitrogens and oxygens 5. Identity reactions involving transfers from and to nitrogens . . . . . . B. Acid-catalyzed Nucleophilic Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111. MONOFUNCTIONAL CATALYSIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. One-hydron Transfers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Rearrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Addition reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Halogenation reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. MISCELLANEOUS REACTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V.REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

749 750 750 750 76 f 765 769 773 777 778 778 778 780 780 782 785

1. INTRODUCTION

In this chapter catalysis by derivatives of formamidine(I), guanidine(2) and imidic acid (3) is reviewed. Such compounds may act as bases and nucleophiles.Protonationyields the correspondingderivatives of 4-6. Depending on the substitution pattern of the derivatives of 1-3 new acidic hydrogens are created upon mono-protonation. Some of these may be bonded to nitrogen or oxygen remote from the basic atom being protonated. These featuressuggest that such compounds may act as bifunctional(polyfunctional)acid-base catalysts'-3. Their geometries indicate that they may function as bifunctionalacid-base catalysts in various 1,3-hydron4transfer reactions. One of the hydron transferscould be catalyzed by the other one. Such catalysis is considered to be of great importance in, e.g., enzyme catalysis. Derivatives of 1-3 have been designed as models of enzyme catalysis. The imino-nitrogens in 1-3 may also act as nucleophiles and, upon the nucleophilic The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates, Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and 2. Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

attack, acidic hydrogens are created which may catalyze the nucleophilic attack on suitable substrates like esters, etc., by interaction with, e.g., oxygens. Although imidazoles arerelated to amidines and play importantroles in the catalysis by many enzymes, their catalysis is not reviewed here. The present review emphasizes the bifunctionalaspects of the catalysis of derivatives of compounds 1-3 but does not completely ignore that they may operate as monofunctional acid-base catalysts. In most applications of compounds 1-3 as catalysts it is not mechanisticallyclear whether the catalysis is of bi- o r monofunctionalnature.We are here particularly reviewing results of studies aimed at elucidating mechanisms of catalysis. II. BIFUNCTIONAL CATALYSIS A. Two-hydron Transfers

1. Allylic rearrangements involving transfers from and to carbons and nitrogens

According to Woodward and Hoffmann,suprafacial1,3-sigmatropicshifts are symmetry forbidden5. As a consequence, uncatalyzed 1,3-sigmatropic shifts are high barrier processes. There have been attempts to circumvent this symmetry forbiddenness,e.g. by 0

a

b

n

B

C

FIGURE 1. Illustration of interactions in important orbitals involved in (a)uncatalyzed,(b)monofunctionallycatalyzed and (c) bifunctionally catalyzed 1,3-hydron transfer reactions

751

15. Catalysis by amidines

using amidines as catalysts and 'open up' an allowed pseudo-pericyclic rearrangement route as illustrated in Figure 16-''. Secondary amidines have the potential possibility to perform 1,3-hydron transfer in propenes in a bifunctional manner besides a monofunctional mechanism as shown in Scheme 1. H

+

B

I

+

SCHEME 1 If an amidine acts in a bifunctionalmanner,i.e. the catalysis takes place througha cyclic transition state (cf. the B-transition state in Scheme I), deuterium labelling in the proper positions of either substrate or catalyst would result in products with the deuterium in the base or the substrate, respectively. This predicted experimental outcome of bifunctional catalysis is quite different from that expected if the amidine is operating as a monofunctional catalyst, i.e. with an M-like transition state (Scheme I). In monofunctional catalysis a deuterium-labelled catalyst will stay labelled when operating on an unlabelledsubstrateand vice versa. Of course,more complex experimentalresultscould be found than the two extreme types discussed above, e.g. if the M and B routes and/or other exchange reactions compete with each other. The first study of the detailed mechanism of secondary amidine catalyzed 1J-hydron (7) with racemic and optically transfer was performed with N,N'-di-t-butylformamidine (8)in benzene, dioxane and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) active 3-t-butyl-1-methylindene usingGLC and polarimetry6.The rearrangementof 8 to 1-t-butyl-3-methylindene(9)was found to be highly stereospecificin benzene and dioxane,i.e. (+)-8rearrangesinto (-)-9 as shown in Scheme 2. The stereospecificity determined using polarimetry and a high-precisionequilibration method at 60°C was found to be > 99.96% and > 99.90% in benzene and dioxane, respectively. Thus the 1,3-hydron transfer proceeds in a suprafacial manner consistent

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

752 H

H

SCHEME 2 with a bifunctionalmechanism. However, the same stereochemistry has previously been found by Bergsonand coworkers and by Cram and coworkers for monofunctionalaminecatalyzed rearrangements in the present and other indene systems'6-z0. In DMSO, on the other hand, the 7-catalyzed rearrangement of 8 is nearly nonstereospecific. To obtain further information about -the 7-catalyzed rearrangement of 8, isotope labellingexperiments were designed. A benzene solution of pure racemic 'H-8 (0.1M) and 7 (1.0M) was reacted for 16 hours at 25.0"C. The reaction mixture was quenched and analyzed by GLC, which showed that 12.5% had isomerized to 9. Preparative GLC isolation of nonisomerized material and analysis of the deuterium content by mass spectrometry showed that 44.2% of the deuterium were exchanged with protium6. Also, when pure (+)-'H-8 (0.1 M) was reacted with 7, deuterium-labelled at the nitrogen, at 25 "C, rapid exchange of the starting material accompanied the highly stereospecificisomerization.This interferenceof exchangewith the rearrangementmade it diilicult to conclude about the detailed mechanism of the rearrangement.The exchange was suggested to proceed via ion-pairs or througha concerted reaction as discussed below. Possible conformational equilibria and dimerization of the catalyst were also discussed. The bifunctional and monofunctional routes of formamidine-catalyzed 1,3-hydron transferof propene have been studied quantumchemically by the CND0/2 MO method. Application of this crude method indicated that the transition state for monofunctional catalysis (M) has considerably higher energy than that for the bifunctional route (B) (cf. Scheme l)','. To avoid possible steric problems with 7 that may cause the exchange reactions to be faster than the rearrangement,catalysis by 2-aminopyridine (10) was investigated. Thus 'H,-10 and its isotopomer N,N-zHz-2-aminopyridine ('H,-lO) have been studied as catalysts for 1,3-hydron transfer reactions of the substrates 11 and 13'. j-9-Fluorenylstyrene(11) was rearrangedinto 9-/l-phenylethylidenefluorene (12) and 1methylindene ('H-13) and 1-deuterio-1-methylindene ('H-13) to 3-methylindene ('H-14) and 1-deuterio-3-methylindene('H-14), respectively. Based upon this observed absenceof 'H/*H exchangein the reactions,compound 10 was concluded to act as a monofunctional catalyst and not as a bifunctional one.

753

15. Catalysis by amidines

(11)

(10)

(12)

The activation parameters, the isotope effect and rate dependence on the base concentrationfor the 10-catalyzedrearrangementof 'H-13 to 'H-14 have been measured. The deuterium isotope effect showed that the hydron abstraction is rate limiting. It is not clear why the M-route is the preferred one but a number of possible reasons have been analyzed. Compound 10 is in tautomeric equilibrium with the amidine 15 (Scheme 3) but 10 is strongly favored in the equilibrium, at least in water (AG = 7.3 kcal mol- '). Therefore,protonation with 2-aminopyridiniumion to yield 10 is expected to be preferred over the route yielding 15. Thus this thermodynamics might contribute in favoring the monofunctional route. Amidines may form cyclic and h e a r dimers in solution. The cyclic dimers (16) are expected to be much weaker catalysts than the lineardimers (17) which are predicted to be catalytically more active than the monomers. The rate dependenceof the rearrangementof 'H-13 on the concentration of 'H,-10 indicatesthat lineardimers contribute substantially to the catalysis. Another reason for why the experimental results contrast those found theoretically is that the substratesresemblecyclopentadiene ratherthan propene and thus have a more delocalized carbanion.All these facts are expected to favor monofunctional rather than bifunctional catalysis. 2-Aminopyridine (10) has been reported to be a bifunctional acid-base (tautomeric) catalyst for the mutarotation of the aldohexose tetramethylglucose (TMG) by Swain and However, this result has been questioned by Rony and Neff, who concluded that 10 is not to be considered a tautomeric catalyst of that r e a ~ t i o n ~ ~ - ~ ~ . With the aim to favor the bifunctional route the following reaction system was developedlo.' The bicyclic secondary amidine (18) was synthesized. This catalyst shows symmetry with respect to the tautomeric equilibrium (Scheme 4) and has well-defined stereochemistry.In the cyclic dimers (19) the nitrogen lone pairs are occupied by hydrogen bonds and therefore these dimers are not expected to be catalytically active. The linear dimers (20)are presumably not catalytically active for steric reasons.Thus 18 was designed to favor the B-route(Scheme 1)and also for making it possible to pull protons from rather weak carbon acids. 1,3,3-Triphenylpropene(21) and benzene were chosen as substrate and

'.

154

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

H

(15)

(10)

0,

0,

N H,

y

I

NH2

H’Nu y

H

I

NH2---’”\

/

(17)

\

(16)

SCHEME 3

03 -03 I

I

H

H

(18)

H

I

I

H

(18)

I -

-

H

I

H

(18) SCHEME 4

li

I

(x> (19)

15. Catalysis by amidines

755

solvent, respectively10. The amidine 'H2-18 was found to catalyze the rearrangement of 'H-21 into 1,1,3-triphenylpropene(22) in benzene at 75°C. The reaction mixture was initially 1 M in the catalyst H2-18and 0.05 M in the substrate 'H-21 (Scheme 5). After ca I hour the reaction mixture was quenched and the mixture of isomeric propenes was isolated. Analysis by GLC showed that 40% of 'H-21 had rearrangedto 22. The propenes were separated by preparative GLC and analyzed by ' H NMR spectroscopy. Within experimental error the fraction containing 21 consisted solely of the deuterated starting material 'H-21 whereas the fraction containing 22 was largely (93%) the nondeuterated compound 'H-22.

('H) 2H

c8H5..***$I &c6H5 C8H5

(23) SCHEME 5 In a separate experiment employing *H-22 and 'H,-18 it was shown that exchange of the carbon-bonded deutron with the amidine proton was much slower than the rate of catalyzed isomerization of 'H-21 to 22. These results indicated for the first time that the rearrangementis bifunctionally rather than monofunctionallycatalyzed and might involve an activated complex such as 23. In 23 the two hydrons are transferred concertedlyI0. In a recent paper a full report has been provided on the 'H-labelling experiments and kinetic deuterium isotope effects for this bifunctional catalysis. A detailed understanding of the reaction mechanism and its transition states have emerged". T o avoid misinterpretationscaused by unexpected isotope effects, the following 'mirror'

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

756

isotope experiment was carried out. A mixture which initially was 0.49M in the 'Hlabelled catalyst ('H,-18) and 0.06 M in the nonlabelled substrate ('H-21) in benzene was reacted at 75°C and quenched and analyzed as above. The isolated product mixture consisted of 23% 21 and 77% 22. The product 22 was composed of 42% 'H-22 and 58% 'H22. No trace of 'H2-22 could be detected by 'H NMR. Similar experiments were carrried out at 25 "C.At this temperature the bifunctionality was less pronounced and also some 'HfH exchange of the starting material 21 was observed. These labellingexperimentsshow conclusively that at least a substantial fraction of this amidine-catalyzed rearrangement is bifunctional in nature. However, the results also clearly show considerable interferencefrom isotope exchange and/or monofunctionally catalyzed rearrangements. In the light of these results, a number of transition-state structures for the rearrangements and exchange reactions were considered (Scheme 6).

B

A

~

D

C

E

:v:

........ -

~

F

G

I

H

K

SCHEME6 In addition to structureA (cf. structure23), in which there is a concerted transferof the two hydrons from and to carbons and nitrogens, transition states B-E, involving nonconcerted 1,3-hydron transfers, are possible representations. In structure B the 3hydrogen of the carbon acid is in transit but the NH binds only to the C-1 with an asymmetric hydrogen bond. In C, on the other hand,the 3-hydron is being transferredbut no NH...C bond has developed in the transition state. Structure D depicts a transition state in which the 3-hydron ofthe propene has been transferredcompletely to nitrogen and the other hydron originally bonded to N is in transit. In transition state E a hydrogen bond remains between C-3 and the NH group, while the other N-hydron is in transit.

15. Catalysis by amidines

757

Any of the transition states A-E could be thought of as being possible rate-limiting transition state for the rearrangement.The transition states B-E may lead to ion-pair intermediatessuch as F-H (Scheme6). The observed exchangeis possibly the consequence of exchange within such ion-pairs via transition states of type I. Monofunctionally catalyzed rearrangementmay also involve intermediates of the type F-G and a transition state such as K. Hence, in addition to the possibility that the exchangeand rearrangement processes are independent reactions, they could be coupled, e.g. stepwise processes employing common transition states and intermediates. An obvious source of further mechanistic information is kinetic deuterium isotope effectsz6.However, the knowledge of the relationshipsbetween transition state structures and such isotope effectsforconcerted two-hydron transferreactions is limited. Deuterium isotope effectswere measuredat 25 "C.A quench-extractioncapillary GLC procedure was used to obtain accurate kinetics. Complications due to exchangeand reversibility of the rearrangementwere avoided by runningthe rearrangementfor only about 4%. The results are summarized in Table I ' I . For the interpretationof these isotope effects the nature of the amidine catalyst 18 (cf. Scheme4) was investigated. The NH 'H NMRchemicalshift was measured as a function of the concentrationof 18. The data showed that 18 is considerably dimerized and from these data the dimerization constant for 18 and the monomer concentrationsat various amidine concentrationswere calculated.These results in combination with the knowledge of the dependence of the rearrangementrate constant on the concentration of 18 formed the basis of the conclusion that the catalyst for the rearrangementis monomeric 18. The data in Table 1 excluded the concerted two-hydrogen transfer mechanism. The main evidence against such a mechanism was the observed large difference between kiHzH/kiHzH (6.56) and k ! , , ~ ~ ~ / k (1.19). ~ ~ , ~ , A, concerted transfer is expected to yield klHlH/k2H1Hx kiHiH/kiHaH if the transition state is symmetric with respect to the hydron transfers (cf. 23 in Scheme 5 and A in Scheme 6). Instead, it was concluded, on the basis of the pronounced difference between these isotope effects, that the abstraction of the 3-hydron from 21 is rate limiting. The second hydron is not transferredsimultaneouslybut it may assist the abstraction of the 3-hydron from 21 by hydrogen bonding (cf. B and C in Scheme6), thereby giving rise to a secondary isotope effect. Also, the other isotope effects in Table 1 are consistent with such a mechanistic picture and thus suggest a stepwise mechanism. In summary,the stepwise mechanismgets support from the similarly of pK, values of 21 and 22 and the asymmetry of the two hydron transfers in combination with the accompanying hydrogen exchange reaction. It seems plausible that the rearrangement employs one or more ion-pair intermediatesand that transition state B or C is rate limiting and that D or E is populated in the hydronation ofthe intermediate preceding22. It seems likely that an ion-pair with two hydrogen bonds (cf. G in Scheme 6) is on the reaction coordinate. lon-pairs were assumed to participate in the exchange reactions (cf. I in Scheme 6). A more detailed analysis of the isotope effects favored a stepwise mechanism with two rate-limiting transition states, e.g. B and E (or C and D). But E or D are minor contributors. TABLE 1. Deuterium kinetic isotope eNects at 25.00"C for the Scheme 5 reaction system"

"The first superscript refers to the substrate and the second to the catalyst.

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

758

So far all amidine catalyzed 1,3-hydrontransfersfrom carbon to carbon seem to make use of stepwise mechanismsbut, under favorable conditions, bifunctionalmechanismsare employed. Why are stepwise processes the low-energy pathways rather than concerted mechanisms in which the two hydrons are transferred simultaneously from carbon to nitrogen and from nitrogen to carbon? It is known that in monofunctional catalysis by, e.g., amines there is a barrier towards protonation of the carbanionby the aminium ion in the intermediate. Therefore, it seems reasonable to assume that there also should be a barrier for monofunctionalprotonation of the substituted allyl anions by amidinium ions. In the rate-limiting transition state neither the allyl anion nor the amidinium ion is fully developed. As a consequence, concerted two-hydron transfer is predicted to have a considerably higher barrier than each of the stepwise processes' I . Recent high level ab initio calculationsof formamidinecatalyzed 1,3-hydrontransferof propene indicate an asymmetric transition state structure (cf. B in Scheme 6) and an intermediate which is essentially composed of an allyl anion hydrogen bonded by two hydrogen bonds to the amidinium ion (cf. G in Scheme 6)27.

+

+

(26)

SCHEME 7

15. Catalysis by amidines

759

The stereochemistry of the reversible 1,3-hydron transfer of 3-phenyl-l-(2-tolyl) (25), catalyzed by 18 (Scheme 7), cyclohexene (24) to l-phenyl-3-(2-tolyl)cyclohexene has been studied in benzene using a novel method. The stereospecificity was determined by reversibly rearrangingpartially-resolved 24 with 18 and by comparing only the specific Since a large rotation of the starting material 24 with that of24 recovered after about fractionof recovered 24-moleculeshad been converted to 25 one or more times, the specific rotation of these molecules is affected by the stereospecificity of the reaction. A novel method, in which a reversible reaction is regarded as a series of irreversibleprocesses,has been used to calculatethe fractionof 24-moleculesthat has been 25 one or more times, and with these resultsan accuratelower limit for the stereospecificityofthe 1J-hydron transfer was determined to be > 98.4%”. The absolute stereochemistry of this 1,3-hydron transfer, i.e. if it takes place mainly suprafaciallyor antarafacially,was determined using resolved 24 and 25. Since (+)-(R)-24 is found to rearrangemainly into (+)-(S)-25, and since their absolute stereochemistries were determined, it was clear that the reaction takes place mainly suprafacially and possibly via structures like 26.

80

k,l

FIGURE2. Dependence of [(A)Bi]/[(A)] and [(B),,i]/[(A)l on k, t for reversible first-orderor pseudo-first-orderreactions having K = k,/k-, = 10. The curves make up a universal representationof all such reactions with K = 10 in the sense that the curveset is independentof the absolutevalues of k, and k-

1

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

760

In the novel method employed reversible reactions: kl

(A) 7(B) k-

1

were regarded as a series of irreversible processes, i.e.

k-

I

etc. (A)Bo-molecules[(A)-molecules that have been (B) zero times] are, of course, irreversibly transformedinto (B),,-molecules [(B)-moleculesthat have only been (A) once] and these, in turn, into (A)B,. (A)Bi and (B)Aidenote those (A)- and (B)-moleculesthat have been (B) or (A) i times, respectively. This transformation has a formal resemblancewith nonbranched radioactive decay, but t'he rate constants alternate between k, and k - Solutions of the linear differential equations describing the time dependence of the (A)Bi- and (B)Aimolecules and features of these solutions were reported for the general case K = k , / k - , # 1 as well as for the special case K = 1. These results were used for accurate determination of the stereospecificityof reversible first- and pseudo-first-order reactions. Figure 2 gives an universal representation of all such reactions with K = 102s*29. This novel model has recently also been applied to chromatographyin which molecules are transferredreversibly between mobile and stationary phases. An improved stochastic theory of chromatographyemerged and a main result was the derivation of an extended van Deemter equation". The possibility.of having bifunctionalcatalysis of 1,3-hydron transfersfrom carbon to carbon in some enamines by an amidine has also been investigated. Thus N,N'dibenzylmethaneimidamide (27) has been reacted with 4-( 1-isopropylvinyl) morpholine (28). The 1,3-hydron transfer of 28 to 29 (Scheme 8) is expected to br, facilitated by the partial delocalization of the nitrogen lone pair into the olefinic moiety of the enamine. However, instead of observing basic tertiary amidine nitrogen abstraction of the enamine

I

H

+

4

H

I

(31)

(27)

+ H

(28) SCHEME 8

-

(27)

+

(29)

I

H

15. Catalysis by amidines

76 1

hydron and transfer of the nitrogen hydron of the amidine to the olefinic carbon of the enamine,formationof tertiary amidine (30)and imine (31) resulted.The reaction is further discussed in Section TIP'. Pyridoxaminederivatives have been prepared with acetamidine,guanidineand N,N,N'trimethylethylenediamine covalently attached to the pyridine ring via flexible alkyl- or alkylthio-side chains.These compounds react readily with pyruvic acid in methanol with zinc(l1) to afford ketimines, which more slowly isomerize to aldimines in a process that parallels transamination.The isomerization is suggested to be catalyzed by the basic sidechain groups (cf. Section TV)32. 2. Enolizations and allylic rearrangements involving transfers from and to carbons, nitrogens and oxygens

Many enzyme-catalyzed reactionsinvolve hydrogen bonding between the substrateand the active site in the enzyme and the transferof one or more hydrons between the species, e.g. isomerization of deconjugated steroid ketones catalyzed by a group of enzymes called As-3-ketosteroid isomerases. One of these enzymes, isolated from the bacterium Pseudomonnstesto~teroni~~-~", exerts a molecular turnover number of 8.7 x 106/(minute and dimer unit) in the isomerization of androst-5-ene-3,17-dione (32) to 33. 0

0

-

Enzyme0

0

This may be considered a remarkable catalytic activity, since molecular turnover numbers greater than 5 x lo6 have not often been observed in enzyme catalysis40.The isomerization has also been found to proceed through an intramolecularsuprafacial1,3hydron t r a n ~ f e r ~ ~Although . ~ ' . ~ ~this . reactionhas been extensively studied, the structure of the active surface of the enzyme and the detailed mechanism of the hydron transfers seem to be obscure and the object of some c o n t r o ~ e r s y ~ ~ - ~ ~ . The 1,3-hydrontransferin this reaction also poses problems of special interest, namely the timing of the transfers.Are the two hydrons transferred simultaneously in the same elementary reaction step or do the transfersproceed by a stepwise mechanism?If the high isqmerization rate may partly be explained by a concerted 1,3-hydrontransfer,how do the transfers depend on each other? Several attempts have also been made to elucidate the mechanismsoperating in acidand/or base-catalyzed isomerizations of j,y-unsaturated ketone^^'*^'-^^.Simultaneous 1J-hydron transfers have been postulated for the enolization catalyzed by monocarboxylic acids57,without decisive experimental evidence for such mechanisms. Kergomard and coworkerss6~s9-61~66 have studied the isomerization of P,y-unsaturated steroid ketones in benzene solution with a variety of potential bifunctionally active catalysts, such as mono- and dicarboxylic acids, phenol-tertiary amine complexes and phosphinic acids. One of the goals of these studies was to design and test bi- and multifunctionalcatalysts for the isomerization. Indeed, several such catalysts were found and, contrary to what was stated above, dicarboxylic acids, such as tetralluorosuccinic acid in benzene, were found to lead to reactions that were faster and of lower kinetic order

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

762

than those catalyzed by monocarboxylic acids of similar acid strength. When the reaction was catalyzed by monocarboxylic acids, these investigations revealed that two molecules of carboxylic acid were present in the rate-limitingstep of the allylic isomerization. It was proposed that this step corresponded to the y-protonation of the dieno168, although no experimental results, such as kinetic isotope effect measurements,were published in favor of such a proposal. For the purpose of detailed mechanistic studies the bicyclic ketone (34) was recently designed. It is similar to the A- and B-ring part of a P,y-unsaturatedketosteroid with dimethylated C-2 position. Synthetic routes to racemic and optically pure 34 has been developed' 3.14.

(34)

(35)

The ketone 34 was found to undergo hydrogen exchange at the u-position as well as isomerization to its conjugated isomer (35), when 34 was reacted with bifunctional catalysts such as formamidinesand acetic acid. As shown in Scheme 9 the 1H/2Hexchange and isomerization of 34 may result in a product mixture of six detectable components. By a combination of 'H NMR and GLC analysis, it was possible to calculate the mole fraction of each component in such mixtures. The 'HfH exchange at the C-2 position in 34 will produce three different ketones and, together with the unexchanged starting material, this will give the four variants of 34: 'H'H, 'H'H, 'H'H and 'HZH. The first capital in each of these symbols relates to the C-2 hydrogen axial to the x-system of the C-C double bond (C-2a-H)(Ha),and the second capital to the correspondingequatorial C-2 hydrogen (C-2e-H)(He).If it is assumed that the axial hydrogen is positioned on the same side of the ring plane as the C-6-CH3 group in 34 (/?-side),then these hydrogens may be referred to as the P- and a-hydrogens, respectively. A conformational analysis performed with 34, by 'H and I3C NMR and molecular mechanics, did not, however, unequivocally define the C-2a hydrogen as the /?-hydrogen. The isomerization of 34 may proceed from all of these nondeuterated, partially deuterated or fully deuterated variants of 34. As a first approximation, this will give two conjugated ketones, 'H-r and 2H-r, with protium and deuterium at the C-2 positions, respectively. However, ketone 35 may exist as six isotopomers, since the isomerization of 34 may theoretically proceed by incorporation of either protium or deuterium at the yposition on each side of the ring plane in 34. With available analytical techniques, it was not possible to differentiate between the latter structures;only the isotopic substitution pattern at the C-2 position was determined. Together with isotope labelling and isotope effects the rearrangementof 34 to 35 has the potential for elucidation of detailed mechanisms of catalysis. The action of the catalysts acetic acid, formamidines7 and.36,and pyridinium chloride were studied. Acetic acid and 7 were found to catalyze the exchangeof C-2 hydrogens in 34 faster than 34 was rearranged to 35 ('H-r). The following experiment was carried out with 7: An evacuated and sealed-off NMR-tube with a reaction mixture being 0.8 M of 34 and 0.034 M in the catalyst 7 in ('H)chloroform was placed in a thermostat bath at 25°C. The 'H NMR spectrum obtained immediately after the preparation of the mixture showed that no rearrangement to 'H-r had taken place but that the N-bonded protium of 7 had been exchangedfor deuterium in ('H)chloroform. Even after 1.5 h essentially no rearrangement product ( < 1 mol% of 'H-r) could be detected but a large fractionof the C-2 protium in 34

163

764

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

had been exchanged for 'H. In about 47 mol% of the 34-moleculesboth protiums at the C-2 position were exchanged, and in 42mol% of the molecules only one of these two protiums. After long reactiontimes, considerable rearrangementto H-r was observed and at equilibrium no trace of the starting material could be detected by GLC. H

H

(7) The examples of amine-catalyzed isomerization of B,y-unsaturatedketones found in the literature suggest that a dienolate anion or an iminium ion is involved in such r e a ~ t i o n s ~ ~although ~ ~ ~ ~this ~ does ~ ~ not ~ ~necessarily * ~ ~ ~ imply ~ ~ that , the formamidinecatalyzed 'H/'H exchange utilizes such intermediates. In view of the effectiveness of this catalyst, the structural complementarity of the catalyst and the substrate, and the fact that extensive 'H/'H exchange was obtained with only minor concomitant allylic isomerization, a bifunctional concerted mechanism may possibly be in operation. It is possible that the abstraction of the C-2 bonded hydrogen by the imine-N of 7 is assisted by bonding between the N-H group of 7 and the carbonyl-oxygen of 34. Both hydrons may be in transit (Scheme 10) in the transition state (37) and dienol(38) is formed as an intermediate. Deuterium could thus be introduced at the 2-carbon of 34 by employing the ' at the nitrogen. Apart from their reverse reaction and amidine 7 labelled with H mechanistic implications, these results gave a convenient synthetic route to PJunsaturated ketones isotopically labelled at the a-carbon.

(7)

(37)

(7)

SCHEME 10 When acetic acid was used both as solvent and catalyst, the paths for exchange and isomerization seemed to compete with each other on almost equal terms. A solution containing 0.35 M of 34 in (0-'H)acetic acid was reacted at 25 "C for 50 hours. The analysis of the 'H NMR spectrum of the solution showed that 39mol% of 34 had ' rearrangedto the a$-unsaturated ketone, of which approximately 1 mol% contained H at the C-2 position. Moreover, this rearrangement was found to be accompanied by

15. Catalysis by amidines

765

extensive 'H/'H exchange at the 2-carbon of 34. The mixture contained 28 molx of 34 substituted with 'H at the C-2e position and approximately 3 molx of34 with 'H at the C2a position, and in 5 molx both protiums at the C-2 position had been exchangedfor 'H. The above results led to studies of the outcome of monofunctional catalysis by hydrochloric acid. A 0.11 M'HCI-solution in (0-'H)acetic acid was prepared by adding a small amount of acetyl chloride to (O-'H)acetic acid, and the substrate 34 (0.14 M) was added. The investigation of the reaction mixture by 'H NMR after reaction at 25 "C for approximately 80 minutes showed only the presence of the product a$-unsaturated ketone ('H-r) and no trace of 34. Interestingly, no trace of ('H-r) could be detected, indicating that no exchange of the C-2 hydrogens of 34 had taken place prior to the rearrangement to the conjugated isomer. The results sharply contrasted with those obtained with acetic acid but were in accordance with results obtained by Malhotraand Ringold, using A5-3-ketosteroids and hydrochloric a ~ i d ~ ' , 'Thus, ~ . the results seemed to constitute support for the operation of a bifunctionalexchangemechanismalso with acetic acid, similar to the one postulated for the amidine (cf. Scheme 10). The formamidine36 was also found to catalyze the 'H/'H exchangeat the C-2 position of 34 at a rate that was faster than the rate at which 34 was rearrangedto its conjugated isomer. Amidine 7 seemed to be the most effective of all catalysts tested in this respect. The inability of these catalysts to produce fast allylic isomerization could possibly be due to their steric requirements.However, it is not clear why 36 caused a largerfraction of allylic isomerization than 7. The stereoselectivity ['H1H]/['H2H] for exchangeat the C-2 position in 34 was more pronounced with acetic acid and opposite to that with the sterically more crowded formamidines (Table 2). Based on investigations in other systems, it has been suggested that stereoselectivity of the 'H/'H exchange is to be expected for the diastereotopic hydrogens positioned at the a-carbon vicinal to a carbonyl group. It has been proposed that this stereoselectivity is mainly due to steric hindrance of hydron abstraction, to stereoelectronic control or to steric interactions in alternative transition state^^^-'^.By stereoelectronic control of proton abstraction is meant that a more favorable orbital overlap between the a-system of the carbonyl group and one of the C-H a-orbitals is obtained during the abstraction. According to this theory, an axial-positioned C,hydrogen will be more easily abstracted than an equatorial C,-hydrogen in a cyclohexanone deri~ative"-'~. The stereoselectivities ['H'H]/['H2H] found for the 'H/'H exchange of 34 were not easily interpreted. The spatial orientation of the C-2 hydrogens in 34 could not be unequivocally defined according to a conformational analysis.This results indicated that both 8- and a-hydrogens at C-2 may take up axial positions in different conformations

of 34. The mechanismof acetic acid catalyzed enolization of 34 and the rearrangementto 35 have been furtherstudied by isotope effects and reactionorderwith respect to acetic acid in benzene. The 'H/'H exchange of 34 in benzene was shown to be first order in (O'H)acetic acid and thus indicated that monomeric acetic acid catalyzes the enolization. The rearrangementto 35, on the other hand, was found to be second order in acetic acid monomer. The primary deuterium kinetic isotope effects found for the enolization of 34 in transfer and 9.0?;:;, for the C-H-0 neat acetic acid were 2.7:;:: for the 0 - H - 0 transfer.The results suggestthat two hydrons are in transit in the rate-limitingenolization transition state'3.'4. 3. Hydrogen exchange of carbon acids

Amidinium ions (and guanidinium ions) cover a large interval of pK, values. Some amidines and guanidinesare strong enough bases to pull hydrons at reasonablerates from

C'HCI, C'HCI, CH,C002H

Solvent 0.0425 0.342 129.0

[S~bstrate]~

50.0

1.5 24.0

Time (h) 9.7 26.9 24.7

'H'H

'H'H 22.1 23.4 2.8

'H'H 19.5 20.0 28.4

47.1 16.6 5.0

'H'H

'H/'H exchange in 34 (molx)

'The 'H/'H exchange in 34 refers to the exchange of the C-2 hydrogens ('H'H). The symbols used are defined in Scheme 9. bThe catalysts were labelled with *H in the acidic 0 - H and N-H positions. 'The initial concentration of the substrate was 0.35M in each experiment except in the experiment 'H-7/C2HCl, where it was

%-7 2H-36 CH3C0O2H

Catalystb

[Catalyst]

0.08 M.

4.1 1.2

< 0.5

c 0.5

8.4 37.9

'H-r

'H-r

Isomerization (molx)

TABLE 2. The product composition of quenched reaction mixture in the 'H/2H exchange and isomerization of 34 catalyzed by mono- or bifunctional catalysts in various solvents at 25 "C"

767

15. Catalysis by amidines

not too weak carbon'acids. Thus N,N'-di-t-butylformamidine ('H-7) reacts rapidly with neat ('H)chloroform yielding ('H)chloroform and 'H-7. This reaction has been used Similarly the synthetically to make 'H-7 with 99.7 0.2% of 'H in the N-H bicyclic amidine 18 reacts rapidly with 'HCCI, yielding hydrogen exchange.

('H-7)

('H-7)

+ 22HCC13

- 2lHCC13 + I

2H

However, not only the N-bonded hydrogen in 18 is exchangedbut also the u-hydrogen exchanges. The latter reaction is acid-base catalyzed. Small quantities of acid are produced by side reactions (cf. Section III.A.3). Compound 'H2-18 with high isotopic To avoid the contaminationof acidic purity has been synthesized by this impurities, neat trideuterated indene ('H3-39) has been used as a deuterium pool.

Compound 'H,-39 is easily accessiblefrom base-catalyzed 'H/'H exchangeof indene (39) with 'H,O. All three deutrons are available for exchange through combination of methylene hydrogen exchangeand base-catalyzed 1J-hydron transfers.With 'H3-39 the rate of exchangeof the N-bonded hydrogens in 18 is much faster than the rate of exchange of the a-hydrogens. (C2H,),C0 has also been used as a deuterium pool. The mechanistic studies of the 18-catalyzed rearrangementof 1,3,3-triphenylpropene (21) into t ,t ,3-triphenylpropene (22) have revealed that 21 and 22 also undergo 'H/'H exchange (cf. Section 1I.A. 1)". Similarly, hydrogen exchange has been found to accompany rearrangementsof 3-phenylbutene (40) to l-phenylbutene (41) and of 3-methylcyclohexene to l-methylcyclohexene catalyzed by the N-'H labelled guanidine ('H-42). Hydrogen exchange catalyzed by sec-amidines has been found to take place with retention of the configurationof the carbons exchangingtheir hydrogens. The rearrangements of 8 to 9 and of 24 to 25 catalyzed by 'H-7 and 'H,-18, respectively, have been found to take place suprafacially and so do accompanying exchange reactions6*'

'.

168

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

('H2-l 8 )

('H-24) 02H. c C6H5

6

H

4

c

\

(2H-24)

H

3

-

:

c

6

H

/

5

(2H-25)

y0

c

6

:

D

C~H&H,-O

!H CeHdCH3-0

('H-25)

The mechanism for sec-amidine catalyzed hydrogen exchangeof carbon acids has not been studied in detail, but it seems likely that ion-pairs are intermediates and transition states like 43 are involved6*".

769

15. Catalysis by amidines

(43) Large isotope effects, originally attributed to tunneling,have been measured by Caldin and Mateo in hydrogen-transfer reactions of (4-nitrophenyl)nitromethane with bases an isotope effect of containing the imine group in non-polar ~ o l v e n t s ~For ~ - example, ~~. klH/kzH = 45 was measured in toluene with tetramethylguanidine (BH). ArC2HH,N0,+ B'H

-

ArC2HN0,-.

....'HB'H+

However, it has been pointed out that the kinetics are complex since the ion-pair initially formed from the deuterium substrate gives several other ion-pairs as a result of isotopic scrambling;these also returnto the substrateresultingin exchange.If these factors are not taken into consideration, an overestimation of the magnitude of the isotope effect will result since protonation competes favorably with deuteration of the anion in the ionair^'-^^.This is an example that reaction branchingmay cause extreme kinetic isotope

effect^^'.^^.

p,y-Unsaturated ketones of the type 34 undergo base-catalyzed rearrangementto their a$-unsaturated isomers.

(34)

(35)

When 2H-7 was used as catalyst it was found that a-hydrogen exchangewas much faster than rearrangement,yielding 'H'H and lH2H in about equal amounts besides2H2H'*'I4.

Cyclic transition states of the type 37 leading to and from enol intermediates have been proposed to be involved in this unusual exchange (cf. Section Il.A.2). 4. Epimerizations involving transfers from and to nitrogens and oxygens

Almost forty years ago Swain and Brown reported their discovery of the unusual catalytic activity of 2-pyridinone (44) and its tautomer 2-hydroxy pyridine (45), a derivative of imidic acid, in the epimerization of a-tetramethylglucose (46) to j-tetra-

770

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

(37)

methylglucose (47) in b e n ~ e n e ' .i-25*99-104, ~*~ The extraordinary efficiency of this catalyst in relation to its weak basic and acidic properties was the basis for the formulation of the bifunctional mechanism shown in Scheme 11. The reaction system has recently been quantitatively reinvestigated with the use of microcalorimetry,and some new featureshave been re~ealed'~'. Not only the thermodynamics but also the dynamics of the system have been measured with this technique. Tetramethylglucose, previously assumed to be monomeric and complexed with 44, were found to be highly dimerized at concentrationscommonly used in kinetic investigations. The equilibrium constant for its self-association and that of 44 and the complexation constants for the tetramethylglucose:44 complexes were measured together with the thermodynamic parameters for the equilibria. The heats of reaction (AHo) for these reactions show that the association complexes involve two hydrogen bonds and that they are thereforecyclic, as previously assumed. Also, the rate of epimerization, together with its small heat of reaction,was measured microcalorimetrically.These studies have led to a revised free-energy diagram for the system (Figure 3). The unusual (enzyme-like) catalytic activity of 44 compared with several monofunctional catalysts spanninga large pK, interval formed the basis for the suggestion by Swain and coworkers that the first step in the epimerization-formation of the aldol complex (49) in Scheme 11-is bifunctionally catalyzed and the two hydrons are transferred concertedly between N and 0, and 0 and 0, respectively, as indicated by the transition state structure 48. Various transition-statestructureshave been formulated, depending on the number of hydrogens and their degree of transferand coupling to heavy-atom motion. Making use of isotope effects, answers to the following questions have been searched Does the multiple hydron transfer occur in an elementary reaction, i.e. are the hydrons transferred simultaneously,as suggested,or by a stepwise mechanism?To what extent are the hydron transferscoupled to heavy-atom motion in the transition state? Is tunnelingimportant in the reactions?99-'0'.'06.'0' Rate constants for the epimerization were obtained with high accuracy using optically active 46 and polarimetry. The primary deuterium isotope effects were extracted from the positively curved plot of the specific rate of epimerization vs the mole fraction of H ' in the pool of O H and NH hydrogens (Figure4). The following Values Were obtained k i H i J k q p H = 3.66 f 0.09, kiHiJk'HiH = 1.5 and klH1,,/klHZH= 2.4. The secondary deuterium isotope effect 1.14 k 0.02 was measured by using 1-2H-46. The interpretation of the primary isotope effects of this complex reaction has been assisted by calculations using the Bebovib-IV program with assumed vibrational force constants as input. The results suggest that two hydrogens are in transit in the ratecontrolling transition state and that each of them has a fractionation factor of about 0.5.

no-0, 15. Catalysis by amidines

I

H

e;,

77 1

0

I

H

l-3

(46:44)

(47:44)

N.......

.

.

I

Me0

0

Me0

( 1-2H-46)

(49) SCHEME 11

These results,togetherwith the calculations,favor a transitionstate structurein which the simultaneoushydron transfers are coupled with considerableheavy-atom motion (i.e. cleavageof the ring C-0 bond). The tunnelcorrectionsto the isotope effects were found to be negligible. The calculationsalso showed that, to a quite close approximation,the isotope effect for the dideuteratedspecies is the product of the isotope effects for the two monodeuteratedspecies in consistencywith the experiments.Thus,the results uphold the principle behind the rule of the geometric mean despite strongcouplingin the transition

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

112

(46)+y2(44)2 y2(46)2+112(44)2

(46:44)

(47:44)

(47)+1/2(44)2 U2(47)2+1/2(44)2

FIGURE3. Free-energy profile of the 44; 4 6 47-system in benzene at 25°C. The free energy of i (46), + (44), has arbitrarily been set to zero

'03 kobsd

1.0

-

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

&H

FIGURE 4. Plot of kobsd vs X,' the mole fraction of H ' in the mobile hydrogen pool in benzene, at 24.98 f 0.03 "C. The points are experimental values. The solid and dashed lines have been simulated with the pairs of fractionation factors 0.65, 0.42 and 1.00, 0.27, respectively

15. Catalysis by amidines

773

state. Another result of the calculations was that computed klHlH/k2H2H values are relatively insensitive to the extent of hydron transfer. The two hydrogens in transit could, in the transition state, either be governed by a barrier, as assumed in the calculations, or, following Kreevoy and coworkers, be transferred without any energy of activationIo8-'l o . 2-Aminopyridine (10) has been reported to be a bifunctional acid-base (tautomeric) catalyst for the mutarotation of 46 (47) by Swain and Brownz1. However, this result has been questioned by Rony and Neff who concluded that 10 is not to be considered a tautomeric catalyst of that reactionz5.

5. Identity reactions involving transfers from and to nitrogens Amidines may tautomerize, i.e. 50 isomerize to 51. Such reactions may be acid or base catalyzed. They may be self-catalyzed by catalysis of either the mono- or the bifunctional type. For the latter type the tautomerization takes place within amidine dimer and involves two-hydron transfers.Reactions involving transferof two hydrons, in which one of the hydron transfers is assisted by the other one, are common in enzyme and other catalysis'-3. There has been a large number of mechanisticstudies of such reactions and a ~ ~ experimental ~ ~ ~ ~ studies ~ ~ of~ ' - ~ ~ major tool has been 'HfH isotope e f f e ~ t ~ ~Besides the interplay of the two hydrons being transferred,theoretical studies of model systems have been carried to assist the interpretationof observed isotope effects and to investigate the predictive power of simple vibrational models'z0-122.

R'\/

jlt

NR ,3

I

H

(50)

-

R2

R1"

A N P 3

I

H

(51)

The potential energy surfacefor the bifunctionallycatalyzed tautomerization of 52 has recently been studied in detail theoretically by ab initio calculations1z0-12Z.

(1)

(52)

(52)

(1 1

Gaussian-type orbital basis sets of increasing size and precision, namely STO-3G, 3-21G, 6-31G, 6-31 + G and 6-31G*, have been used. Symmetry-restricted geometry optimization was performed using various optimization techniques. Four stationary points have been located: monomer (l),dimer (52), transition state (TS)(53 or 54, identitied as a first-order saddle point) and, at the 6-31G* level, an intermediate (55). All

774

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

stationary points were characterized by their force-constant matrices, calculated using analytical differentiation methods. H

H

H

g

I

I

H

H

H

I + HI

H

I

H

a" ,

...._...

* y N \ H 0.'

H

H

H

(53)

(54)

(55)

The variation of transitionstate structureand energy with basis set is shown in Figure 5 and Table 3, respectively. Thus at the STO-3G level a highly symmetrical transitionstate with D,, symmetry was obtained. This is consistent with the general conception of such reactions" '*lfO. In contrast, a t the split valence level of theory a less symmetrical transition state was formed showing C,, symmetry where the two hydrogens were closer to one of the two amidine subunits than to the other. No transition state structure of D,, symmetry (the two hydrogens exactly midway between the two amidine subunits) could be found. At the 3H 118.2.

1077

11.078

H

FIGURE 5. Calculated equilibrium geometries. Bond lengthsaregiven in A. The valueswith superscriptcorrespond to (a) STO-3G, (b) 3-21G and (c) 6-31G. Of the values without reference the upper one correspondsto the 6-31 + G and the lower one to the 6-3 1G* level of theory'"

15. Catalysis by amidines

775

TABLE 3. Energies, relative to the dimer (52) and the imaginary frequencies for the transition states Basis set

STOJG 3-21C 6-31C 6-31 + G 6-31Gf

11.7

19.9 14.3 12.8 11.2

9.0 16.0 19.4 19.4 25.4"

1311i 14941 4321 146i

'At this level of theory, the structure with C,, symmetry is a local minimum, not a transition state.

21G level, the structure with D,, symmetry (earlier reported as a transition state) was shown to have two imaginary frequencies,as was also the case for the D,, structureat the 6-31G* level. When introducing polarization functionsthe computed C,, structureturned out to be a local minimum instead of a transition state. This indicates that there is an ion-pair-like intermediate of C,, symmetry on the reaction path of the two-proton transfer reaction. Thus there must be two transition states, both of C, or C, symmetry, one before and the other after the intermediate. These transition states were not localized. It is interesting to note that systems which were assumed previously to use concerted two-hydron transfer pathways may make use of stepwise mechanisms involving intermediates even in the absence of solvent. Electron correlation has been taken into account in MP2/6-31G* calculations. The results suggest that the inclusion of electron correlation effects will not change the symmetry of the potential energy surface.The two-hydron transferwithin the formic acid dimer have transition states with D,, symmetry at all the above levels of calculation. Deuterium isotope effects on the two-hydron transfers have been calculated using the vibrational frequencies obtained from the STO-3G-potential energy surface and the Bebovib-IV program. The results deviated from predictions based on common simple vibrational models. Scheme 12 shows the stretching modes of an one-hydron transfer reaction. The initial state is a weakly hydrogen-bonded linear complex, and the TS is linear and symmetrical. The N-H stretch corresponds to the decomposition mode (unsym. stretch) in the

N-H stretch

H-bond stretch

unsym. stretch

Initial state

sym. stretch

Transition state SCHEME12

776

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

transition state. The H-bond stretch, which is almost isotopically insensitive, corresponds to the isotopically insensitivesymmetrical stretch of the TS. If it is assumed that the sum of the frequencies for the bending vibrations is equal for the initial and transition states, respectively, we may conclude that the isotope effect (klH/k2H) for the hydron transfer is dominated by the zero-point energy (ZPE) differencefor the N-'H and N-,H stretching vibrations of the initial statez6. For a concerted two-hydron transfer reaction having a TS with D,, symmetry, one might at a first glancepredict a klHlH/k'H'H = (klH/k2,)' usingassumptionssimilar to those for the one-hydron transfer above, i.e. isotope effects for two one-hydron transfers have been multiplied. However, a deeper analysis still using a simple model yields a different answer. Scheme 13 shows the stretching modes of a two-hydron transfer. The initial state is a weakly hydrogen-bonded complex and the TS has D,, symmetry. There are four stretching modes for each state. The (H-bond), stretches a , and b,, which are essentially isotope insensitive, correspond to the insensitive stretches a, and b, of the TS. The (N-'H), stretches c, and dl, on the other hand, correspond to c, and d , of the TS, where c, corresponds to the decomposition mode. Thus for the two-hydron transferwe may conclude that klHlJkZHzH is dominated not only by the zero-point energies (ZPE) of the (N-'H), and (N-'H), stretchingvibrations c I and d, ofthe initial state, but we also have to take into account the corresponding differenceford, of the TS. However, if we assume that the frequencyford, is equal to that of d,, and again ignore any differencein sums of bending frequenciesof the initial and transition states respectively, we find that klHIJk2H2His dominated by just the differencein ZPE of (N-'H), and (N-'H), of c,. The frequency difference is likely to be close to the corresponding frequency difference for the one-hydron transfer case above. Thereforeone expects that k l H l J k 2 H ~ Hfor a two-hydron transferis approximately equal to klH/kzH for a one-hydron transfer and thus not equal to (klHlk2H)'. Furthermore, we

bl

C1

Initial state

a2

b2

c2 (decomp)

Transition state SCHEME 13

dl

Ill

15. Catalysis by amidines

predict by this simple model for a concerted two-hydron transfer via a D,, TS that k i H i H / k i H Z H ( = k i H q + / k z H i H ) is appr0Ximatdy equal to ( k i H / k q , ) ’ ” . However, it has not been easy to see how accurate are the approximations made above. The calculated isotope effects from the STO-3G potential energy surfaceare dominated by the zero-point energy contribution. The effect due to the stretching vibrations of the initial state is to a small extent counteractedby stretchingvibrations of the transition state. The bending vibrations appear to play a dominant role in reducing the magnitude of the isotope effect for the two-hydron transfer reaction to a value expected for a one-hydron transfer reactionI I . Recent high-levelcalculationsof the tautomerizationof the formicacid dimer also show the decisive role of the bending vibrations in determining isotope effects”’.

B. Acid-catalyzed Nucleophilic Addition Benzamidinehas been shown to react with p-nitrophenyl acetate in chlorobenzene in a second-order process. n-Butylamine, a nucleophile with a basicity similar to that of benzamidine, reacts with p-nitrophenyl acetate in chlorobenzene by means of a thirdorder process, the rate of which is little affected by the presence of large amounts of a tertiary amine. Benzamidine reacts at least 15,OOO times faster than n-butylamine monomer. This reactivity of benzamidine with the ester in the aprotic solvent is attributed to the bifunctional nature of the nucleophile which can concertedly attack the carbonyl carbon of the ester and deliver a proton to the carbonyl oxygen, thereby forming the tetrahedral intermediate without creation of z w i t t e r i o n ~ ’ ~ ~ .

I

H

In lactate dehydrogenase, several arginines appear to function in catalysis and in binding of coenzyme and substrate. The effect of association with guanidiniumion on the rate of reaction of a carboxylate anion has been investigated with the monophenyl ester of succinic acid which hydrolyzes by a pH-independent pathway between pH 4.5 and 9 involving intramolecularnucleophilicattack of the succinate carboxylate anion. Guanidinium ions were found to inhibit the hydrolysis, presumably by complexation as shown in Scheme 14IZ4. 0

+ck;

4

0

H2N.y +,,;.C=Nb +-

./

-

HZN

,,yc --*---NH2

~,~-H-NH. -----

+*\’*.

R-C.’.a\

0 ....... H-NH

SCHEME 14 In contrast, guanidinium ions have been found to catalyze nucleophilic attack at phosphate monoanion. The importance of the association equilibrium in Scheme 15 is stressed.

I18

(Ar0)2P02-

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

+

(H2NI3C+ e

0 -.......H-NH.

4

(ArO)zP\.;

..-*.... H-NH

\c-NH2 +*,y

SCHEME 15 The catalysis could be due either to nucleophilicattack by guanidine,which is a strong base, or to guanidinium ion catalysis of attack by hydroxide' 25. 111. MONOFUNCTIONAL CATALYSIS

A. One-hydron Transfers 1. Rearrangements

In Section II.A.1 catalysis by secondary amidines, which have the potential to act as bifunctional catalysts by making use of two-hydron transfers was reviewed. These catalysts may also operate as monofunctional catalysts and the interference of such catalysis was also reviewed in Section II.A.l; e.g. 2-aminopyridine (10) acts as a monofunctional catalyst of 1,3-hydron transfers in allylic systems. The tertiary amidine (56), which has not the possibility to act in a bifunctionalmanner, has been found to be an efficientcatalyst for the rearrangementof the indene 8 to g6. This monofunctional catalysis is highly stereospecific in benzene. The stereospecificity was determined to be > 99.996% and the 1,3-hydron transfer takes place suprafacially. In DMSO,on the other hand, the isornerizationwith 56 is nearly nonstereospecific.

(56)

Recently transaminase and racemase activity of pyridoxal/pyridoxamine enzyme analogs with acetamidine, guanidine and N,N,N'-trimethylethylenediamine covalently attached to the pyridine ring via flexible allyl- or alkylthio-side chains 57 and 58 have been studied.

(57)

(58)

These compounds react readily with pyruvic acid in methanol in the presenceof zinc(I1) to afford ketimines, which more slowly isomerize to aldimines in a process that parallels

779

t 5. Catalysis by amidines

transamination.It has been suggested that the isomerization is catalyzed by the basic side chain groups by a bifunctional mechanism3'.

+ +

,ZN)

CH3

0

I

+

I

-

+

I SCHEME 16

780

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

In Section II.A.l, results of the reaction of secondary amidine with enamines were reviewed3’. As shown in Schemes, a novel rearrangement took place instead of an expected bifunctionally catalyzed 1,3-proton transfer.Imines and tertiary amidines were produced. Apparently the amine parts of the enamine and the sec-amidine were exchanged.The stability of imines over enaminesshould be an important driving force for this reaction. Several reaction mechanisms could be formulated that make use of amidineaminals and/or enamidines as intermediates (Scheme 16). In an amidineaminal,one of the amine residues of an aminal has been replaced with an amidine residue. Compound 59 could be formed by addition of amidine to enamine, possibly employing the bifunctionalcharacterof the amidine. Elimination of sec-amidine from 59 results in the enamidine 60, which in a subsequent step could react with the secondary amine to yield, after tautomericrearrangement,the observed products. Another possible route to products could be a direct formation from 59 in a concerted reaction where bonds are formed and broken as indicated in structure 59. Acid as well as base catalysis could be of importance in these reactions3

’.

2. Addition reactions

Attempts to prepare the y-nitroester (61) by means of the usual Michael catalysts failed to give any results. This fact may be ascribed to steric hindrance due to the two methyl groups at the B-position of the acceptor. Pollini and coworkers were able to prepare 61 under Michael conditions by use of tetramethylguanidine(62). The catalyst 62 has been used in several Michael additions. The detailed mechanism has not been elucidated’26.

,

N(CH3) 2

HN=C

‘“‘)=c CH

+

CHaN02

.

\

(62)

CHa H

“(CHd2

I I I CHZN4

CHa-C-CH-COOCH:,

COOCHa

3. Halogenation reactions

Recently a reaction of amidines with carbon tetrachloride (CCI,) was discovered giving a-chlorinated amidines and chloroform (Scheme 17). The reaction was investi(18), 2-methyl-2,lOgated for the bicyclic amidines 2,l0-diazabicyclo[4.4.0]dec-l-ene diazabicyclo[4.4.0]dec-l-ene (63), 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.O]undec-7-ene (56) and 1,5-

A

A (18) R = H (63) R = M e

(64) R = H (65) R = Me SCHEME 17

15. Catalysis by amidines

78 1

diazabicyclo[4.3.0]non-5-ene (66). Amidines 18, 63 and 56 gave the monochlorinated amidines 64,65 and 67, while 66 gave a mixture of mono- and dichlorinated amidines 68 and 69. These reactions involve amidine catalysis and the a-chlorinated amidines are useful for synthetic purposes. For example, hydrolysis of 64,65 and 67 gave new bicyclic and spirolactams which, on further hydrolysis, may be transformed into a-amino acids86. I27

The mechanism of the halogenationreaction has been studied in detail using amidine 18 as substrate and bromotrichloromethane (CBrCI,) as reagent in b e n ~ e n e ~ ' *This '~~. reaction proceeds at rates convenient for detailed kinetic studies by HPLC. The results obtained from this investigation show that the a-bromination of 18 is acid-catalyzed and of nonchain type, in contrast to the chain reactions of amines with CCI,. The acid which catalyzes the bromination of 18 seems to be formed in a side reaction by a radical chain mechanism.Kinetic results and measured hydrogen isotope effects and reaction branching indicate that the ketene aminal tautomer 70 is an intermediate in the a-bromination.The

m+m+m+m N-'

I

I

H

H

+

"N

I

I

I

H

H

I

n

H

(70)

(18)

X

I

I

I

H

H

H

(70)

(71) (72)

X = C1, Br SCHEME 18

X = Br X = C1

I

H

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

782

reaction with CBrCI, probably occurs via a redox reaction within the solvent cage. Schemes 18 and 19 summarize the mechanistic results obtained with CBrCI, and CCI,. In the first step an amidine molecule abstracts an a-hydron from an amidinium ion produced by addition of acid or added as amidinium bromide. In this reaction a ketene aminal(70)and a new amidinium ion are formed. In the next steD 70 reacts with CXCl, and an a-halogenated amidine along with CHCI, were formed. a

+

-

cxc1,

r

CXCl,

X = C1, Br

1

*

I

H

SCHEME 19 The kinetics of the acid-catalyzed reaction of 18 with CCI, in benzene, methylene dichloride and dimethylformamide (DMF), and with CBrCI, in DMF, have been investigated. The kinetics of the reaction of DBU (56) with CCI, in D M F and DMSO has also been studied. The reaction of 18 with CCI, and D M F is first-order in [lS], close to zero-order in [CCI,] and close to pseudo-first-order in [acid], indicating rate-limiting formation of the ketene aminal70. In contrast,in the nonpolar solvents the rate of reaction is found to be limited by the reaction of the tautomer 70 with CCI,, which is much lower than in DMF. This change of rate-limiting step is also observed for the reaction of 18 in benzene when CBrCI, is exchanged for CCI,, and is most likely induced by a much faster reaction of tautomer 70 with CBrCI, than with CCI,. The results support a nonchainoneelectron-transfermechanism for the halogenation step, with formation of an intermediate radical-ion pair (cf. Scheme 19). In Scheme 20 is shown a sequence of reactions leading to production of acid that may catalyze a-halogenation.Hydrolysis of the amidine function in 64 (Scheme 21) followed by an intramolecularsubstitution gave the azaspirolactam (73) and the methyl-substituted amidine (65) gave the isomers 74 and 75 in the ratio 22:78, respectively. Similarly achlorinatedDBU (67) gave the bicyclic azalactam (82)(Scheme 22). The azalactam and the azaspirolactams may be hydrolyzed yielding novel diamino acids. The reaction of enamines with bromotrichloromethanewhich involve the intermediacy of trichloromethyl anions have also been studied. IV. MISCELLANEOUS REACTIONS

A new method for the rapid preparation of methyl esters from vegetable oils and fats using tetramethyl guanidine as catalyst has been developed. The method produced the methyl esters in quantitative yields and did not result in isomerization of the fatty acids'29.

15. Catalysis by amidines

+

Bi + ‘cc13

CBrC18

I

H

783

I

H

(18)

-+

‘CC13

-

+

CHCl3

+ CBrC13

-

+

CCI3

+

I

Br

SCHEME 20

?

(64) R = H ( 6 5 ) R = Me

SCHEME 21 On hydrolytic polymerization of E-caprolactam, semicyciic compounds containing terminal amidine groups are formed in addition to linear and cyclic oligomers of Eaminocaproicacid. In contrast to other amidine compounds (e.g. amidine hydrochlorides) these are very reactive and can take part in several reactions during the polymerization. The first member of the polymeric homologous series, N - [ I -azacycloheptene-(l)-yl-(2)]-~aminocaproicacid, can also initiate the polymerization of caprolactam with simultaneous formation of its polymeric homologous. Compounds containing terminal --NH,’

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn

784

(56) X = H ( 6 7 ) X = C1

H

X

(78) X = H (79) x = c1

(76) X = H ( 7 7 ) = c1

x

(83)

(84)

(80) X = H (81) = c1

x

(82)

SCHEME 22 groups are formed in traces only. The amidine carboxylic acids can react with each other resulting in simultaneous disappearance of the amidine and carboxyl groups'30. An improved preparation of vinyl iodides by using strong, fully substituted, guanidine bases (85, 86 and 62) has been reported. The iodides are formed by oxidation of ketone hydrazones by iodine in the presence of base. Three factors were found to be responsible for the improved yields: (1) absence of water, (2) the use of 85, 86 and 62, and (3) inverse addition' I .

R' = t-Bu, R2 = Me (86) R' = R2 = i-Pr (62) R ' = H, R 2 = Me (85)

15. Catalysis by amidines

785

Optically active amidines in complexes with rhodium have been used for hydrogenation of prochiral ole fin^'^'. Also, other transition metal complexes with amidines in

asymmetric catalysis have been studied'". The guanidine exchanged forms of faujasites have been prepared by ion exchanging NaX and NaY zeolites with guanidine-HCI solution. The catalytic activity of guanidineNaX and guanidine-NaY were tested. The high activity of guanidine-NaX is discussed' 34. N-Aryltetramethylguanidines catalyze the formation of polyurethanefoams by a novel exchange reaction involving the CN double bond of the guanidines and the isocyanate groups of the polyisocyanate. The catalyst sites were transferredt o the growing polymer network, achieving a rapid catalytic buildup of the foam. The guanidinecatalysts, viz. 2phenyl- 1,1,3,3-tetramethylguanidine and 2,2'-(methylene-di-p-phenylene) bis [tetramethylguanidine] had a better catalytic activity in polyurethane foam formation than either Et, N or tetramethylbutanediamine'35. The selectivity and kinetics of epoxy resin-bisphenol A reaction catalyzed by certain guanidinederivatives' 3 6 , the mechanism of the effect of chloroformamidinium chlorides in the production of isocyanates' 37, the sulfur vulcanization of cis-l,4-polybutadiene in the presence of diphenylguanidine'38and the inhibitory effect of a series of alkylguanidine hydrochlorides against trypsin catalysis have also been investigated' 39. The N-terminal a-helical region ofphospholipase A, is an important part of the enzyme for catalytic activity and lipid binding. Semisynthetic analogs of 8-amidinated phospholipase A, have been prepared and studied14'. V. REFERENCES

R. P. Bell, The Proton in Chemistry, 2nd ed., Chapmanand Hall, London, 1973. W. P. Jencks, Catalysis in Chemistry and Enzymology, McGraw-Hill,New York, 1969. A. Fersht,Enzyme Structure and Mechanism, 2nd ed., Freeman,New York, 1985. J. F. Bunnett and R. A. Y . Jones, Pure Appl. Chem., 60, 1115 (1988). 5. R. B. Woodward and R. HolTmann, The Conserualion of Orbital Symmetry, Verlag Chemie, Weinheim/Bergstrasse, I971. 6. P. Ahlberg and F. Ladhdr, Chem. Scr., I, 31 (1973). 7. H. M. Niemeyer and P. Ahlberg, J . Chem. Soc.. Chem. Commun., 799 (1974). 8. H. M. Niemeyer, 0. Goscinski and P. Ahlberg, Tetrahedron, 31, 1699 (1975). 9. K. Jam6 and P. Ahlberg, Acta Chem. Scand., Ser. B, 30,245 (1976). 10. K. Jam6 and P. Ahlberg, J . Chem. SOC.,Chem. Commun., 1040 (1976). I I . P. Ahlberg, K. Jannk,S. Lofis, F. Nettelblad and L. Swahn, J . Phys. Org. Chem., 2,429 (1989). 12. h.1. Ek and P. Ahlberg, Acta Chem. Scand., Ser. B, 38, 211 (1984). 13. H. Bivehed, Ph. D. Thesis, Acta Universitatis Uppsaliensis, Abstracts of Uppsala Disertations from the Faculty of Science, 802, Uppsala, Sweden, 1985. 14. H. Bivehed and P. Ahlberg, to be published. 15. M. Ek, Ph. D. Thesis, Acta UniversitatisUppsaliensis, Abstracts of Uppsala Disertationsfrom the Faculty of Science, 692, Uppsala, Sweden, 1983. 16. G. Bergson and A,-M. Weidler, Acta Chem. Scand., 17, 1798 (1963). 17. G. Bergson, Chem. Scr., 8, 145 (1975) and references cited therein. 18. J. Almy, R. T. Uyeda and D. J. Cram, J. Am. Chem. SOC.,89,6768 (1967). 19. D. J. Cram, Fundamentals of Carbanion Chemistry, Academic Press, New York, 1965. 20. J. Almy, D. C. Garwood and D. J. Cram, J . Am. Chem. SOC., 92,4321 (1970). 21. C. G. Swain and J. F. Brown, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 74, 2534 (1952). 22. C. G. Swain and J. F. Brown, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 74, 2538 (1952). 23. P. R. Rony, J. Am. Chem. SOC.,90,2824 (1968). 24. P. R. Rony, W. E. McCormack and S. W. Wunderly, J . Am. Chem. Soc., 91,4244 (1969). 25. P. R. Rony and R. 0. NeN, J. Am. Chem. SOC., 95,2896 (1973). 26. L. Melanderand W. H. Saunders,Jr., Reaction Rates of Isotopic Molecules, Chap.2, Robert E. Krieger PublishingCompany, Malabar,Florida, 1987. 1. 2. 3. 4.

786 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55.

56. 57. 58.

59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77.

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn P. Svensson, N.-h. Bergman and P. Ahlberg, to be published.

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P. Deslongchamps, Stereoelectronic Effecrs in Organic Chemistry, Pergamon Press, Oxford,

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788 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140.

P. Ahlberg and L. Swahn 2. Csiiros, 1. Rusznak, G. Bertalan, L. Trbzl and J. Korosi, Makromol. Chem., 137, 17 (1970). D. H. R. Barton, G. Bashiardes and J.-L. Fourrey, Tetrahedron Lett., 24, 1605 (1983). H. Brunner and G. Agrifoglio, Monatsh. Chem., 111, 275 (1980). H. Brunner, G. Agrifoglio and I. Creswick, Angew. Chem., 92, 645 (1980). 2. Pudzik, S. Kowalak and 2. Wanierowicz, Bull. Acad. Pol. Sci., Ser. Sci. Chim., 23, 1037 (1975). H. Ulrich, H. E. Reymore, Jr. and A. A. R. Sayigh, J . Polym. Sci., Polym. Chem. Ed., 13, 2031 (1975). P. N. Son and C. D. Weber, J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 17, 2415 (1973). Z. Csiiros, R. Soos, 1. Bitter and E. Karpati-Adam, Period. Polyfech.,Chem. Eng., 16,3 15 (1972). V. M. Kharchevnikov, S. N. Korchernkinand V. V. Lomakina, Issled. Obl. Fiz. Khim. Reziny, 43 (1972). T. Inagami and S. S. York, Biochemistry, 7 , 4045 (1968). G. J. M. Van Scharrenburg,W. C. Puijk, G. H. De Haas and A. J. Slotboom, Eur. J . Biochem., 133, 83 (1983).

CHAPTER

16

Electrochemistry of amidines JAN S. JAWORSKI and MAREK K . KALINOWSKI Department of Chemistry. The University of Warsaw. 02-093 Warszawa. Poland

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

789 790 A. Relationships Between Electroactivity and Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . 790 B. Medium Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792 C. Tautomeric Equilibria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793 D. Substituent Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794 111. ELECTROCHEMICAL PREPARATION O F AMIDINE COMPOUNDS 799 IV. ELECTROCHEMICAL PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804 A . Amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804 806 B. Amidrazones, Hydrazidines. Formazans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Amidoximes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812 D. Guanidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815 E. Cyclic Amidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821 1. 2-Aminopyridines and related compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821 2. Aminopyrazoles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824 3. Imidazoles and 1,2,4-triazoles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825 F. Thiamidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829 G . Amidines of Biological Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831 1. Pyrimidines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831 2. Purines and purine bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 V.EPILOGUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 VI . ACKNOWLEDGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846 VI1.REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846

IT . GENERAL ASPECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.

.

1 INTRODUCTION

Two general observations may be formulated from a consideration of electrochemical investigations of amidines and related compounds before and after the review by Lund' in the previous volume of this series. First.in recent years far more attention has been paid to the electrochemical study of cyclic amidines and. in particular. of biologically active compounds which may be treated as amidines. And. second. in the last decade there has The Chemistry of Arnidines and Irnidates.Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and 2 . Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons Ltd 789

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J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

been an unsurgeof interest in the use of non-aqueous,formally aproticsolvents. According to the first observation a great part of this chapter is devoted to the electrochemistry of cyclic amidines,guanidinesand biological molecules. The latter class of compounds needs some comment. Amidines are known as important medical and biochemical agents; the amidine moiety can be identified in numerous cyclic derivatives of biological interest. Consequently, the electrochemistry of these compounds is a very important part of biochemistry.The growing significanceof cyclic amidines in organicelectrochemistry may be estimated on the basis of a continuous flow of specialist publications beginning in the middle 1960s. The magnitude of the available literatureand the complexity of the effects involved can be seen from Therefore, only selected compounds will be discussed in this chapter, i.e. mainly pyrimidines and purine bases. It is noteworthy that some of the amidines presented here are importantcomponents of nucleic acids and their properties are of general interest. However, due to the large number of investigators and the wide variety of literature sources involved, no claim is made for completeness in this review. Electrochemical investigations of heteroaromatic compounds including the amidine moiety, e.g. imidazoles, triazoles, etc., have been recently reviewed by Baumgarteland Retzlaw' and in this field only later literaturesince 1980 is covered in our chapter. On the other hand, recent studies of the electrochemicalbehaviour of simple, noncyclic amidines are scarce. There is no separate section on amidines in Encyclopedia of Electrochemistry of the Elements, although it was anticipated for volume XV9. More information on the electrochemistry of hydrazones, oximes, formazans, etc. have been given in a recent Russian review" but access to this work will be limited because of the language.Thus,for non-cyclicamidines this chaptercovers the period from approximately 1973 to the end of 1989. A comparisonof the aqueous and non-aqueouselectrochemistry of amidines shows the fundamentalrole of the experimental environment related to solvation of reactants, their protonation, influenceon different equilibria,and accompanying reactions.These general principles of the electrochemistry of amidines are discussed in Section 11. They include effects of reactant, solvent, pH and substituents on the half-wave potentials, as well as tautomericequilibria of amidines. Electrosynthesisof amidines is presented in Section 111, and their electrochemical behaviour in cathodic and anodic processes in Section IV. Discussion of reaction mechanisms is usually emphasized as a main topic of interest for organic chemists. The investigations, interesting rather from the electrochemical point of view and important for practical applications of electrode reactions, and especially the adsorption phenomena,will not be discussed in detail. However, some applications of electrochemical processes of amidines are mentioned in the Epilogue (Section V). The following abbreviations for non-aqueous solvents and supporting electrolytes are used: DMF, N,N-dimethylformamide; DMSO, dimethyl szlphoxide; ACN, acetonitrile; EtOH, ethanol;MeOH, methanol;Py, pyridine;TEAP, tetraethylammonium perchlorate; TEAF, tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate; TBAP, tetrabutylammonium perchlorate; TBAI, tetrabutylammonium iodide; TBAB, tetrabutylammonium bromide. The quoted potentials are expressed versus an aqueous saturated calomel electrode (SCE), unless otherwise noted. II. GENERAL ASPECTS

A. Relationships Between Electroactivity and Structure

Only some amidines and related compounds can be reduced or oxidized at electrodes and there is no general scheme describing the electrochemicalbehaviour of the amidines

79 1

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

group. The overall reduction process usually involves a saturation of double bonds and a cleavage of C-N (e.g. in benzamidines),N-N (e.g. in tetrazoliurncations) or N-0 (e.g. in amidoximes) bonds. In other words, the electroactivity of an amidine is a general property of the whole molecule and depends on its constitution as well as on properties of the medium used. The first aspect is discussed in this section in relation to the half-wave potential, ElI2,as the most convenient parameter for measurements. For a simple one-electron (le) reduction not accompanied by any preceding and succeedingchemical step, the correlations between E l l z values and electron affinities(EA) of a reactant have been well established in the literature (cf. work by Parker" and references cited therein): where AAG:otv denotes the difference in free energies of solvation of a reactant and its radical anion,whereasconstant C is characteristicof the referenceelectrode. On the other hand, linear correlations of E l l z values with the energies of the lowest unoccupied Of molecular orbital, E,,,,, can be predicted on the basis of molecular orbital theory7*I2. course, half-wave potentials proper for le oxidation processes fulfil anarogous relationIn order to obtain meaningful regressionsof ships with ionization potentials and EHOMO. this type it is best to use reversible E,12 values determined in non-proton-donatingmedia, i.e. underconditions for a simple l e step. Table 1shows resultsofcalculationsperformed in our departmentt3 for several amidines by the MNDO and also some It is evident that LUMO energies(given experimentaldata for the reduction in DMF16*17. in a conventional scale) decrease with the change of aliphatic amidines to aromatic ones and with the increase in the number of phenyl substituents. The results obtained can elucidate the limited scale of electrochemicaldata for simple amidines.It should be added, however, that the behaviour in aqueous solutions is more complex becausepolarographic waves correspond to irreversible, many-electron transfers accompanied by protonation and other chemical steps. In general, protonation of the amidine group facilitates reduction resulting in E l l z values at more positive potentials than those proper for the reduction under aprotic conditions.

TABLE 1. LUMOenergie~'~ and reduction potentials of simple amidinesin DMFsolutionsat a mercury cathode

R-C'

R H H

Me

Me Me

Ph Ph Ph

NR'

I

'NHR'

Rk

R2

H Ph

H

H Ph H

Ph

H

Ph Ph

H H Ph

H H

Ph

ELUMQ 1.162 0.109 0.993 - 5.445' 0.263 0.312 -0.159 -0.160

-

'Peak potentials (vs Ag/Ag+) in DMF-TBAIl6. bNot reducible in DMF-TEAP". 'Calculated for monoprotonated compound.

- Kcdo b

1.78 1.73

1.60

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J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

Taking into account that ELUMo,as well as Ellz values, are dependent on all characteristics of the molecule, the electrode reactions of some amidine derivatives, in which only a substituent is reduced or oxidized, are occasionally reported in this review. B. Medium Effects

It is well known that in aprotic conditions many organic substances are cathodically reduced in two reversible le steps. If the first of them is not accompanied by any chemical reactions,the E value of a given compound measuredin a seriesof non-proton-donating solvents can be compared with the differenceof free solvation energiesAAC~o,vaccording to equation 1 (for details, see References 18 and 19). Unfortunately, reliable comparisons for amidines areimpossible so far becausetheir investigationsin non-aqueoussolvents are limited only to DMFand ACN. The situation becomes more complex in protolytic media. Now, any one or more of three parameters-the half-wave potential, the limiting current and the number of polarographic waves-depend on acidity of the solution electrolysed, most often expressed as pH or a corresponding acidity function. All these changes result from the effect of acidity on acid-base equilibria and on the rate of chemicalreactions accompanied by an electron transfer step. For a system in which fast protonation precedes the cathodic reduction, the EIlz potential is practically pH-independent at pH < pK, but is shifted towards more negative values at higherpH. In this case a plot of E t l z against pH includestwo linearparts with the intersection corresponding approximately to pK. Emphasisis made, however, that such a picture can be observed when (1)only one polarographicwave is recorded in the whole pH region under study, and (2) the double layer effect ,on the acid-base equilibria can be neglected.

-E 1/2 (V) 1.2

-

1.1

-

4.29

1.0-

0.9

1 3

4

5

6

7

PH

FIGURE 1. Dependences of half-wave potentials for the reduction of benzamidoximes (1) in aqueous ethanol on pH. Values of pK, are given. Experimental data are from Reference 20. For numbering of reactants see text

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

793

An example of such behaviour is the reduction of benzamidoximes (1) at a dropping mercury electrode”. In 50 vol% ethanol these compounds are reducedto amidines,and,as can be seen from Figure 1, the corresponding half-wavepotentials are pH-dependent. The observed intersections on the El,,-pH plots correspond really to the pK, values of the protonated forms; the latter ones were determined by potentiometric titration. Ph C

@NOR’ \NHRZ

(la) R’ = Et, R 2 = H (lb) R’ = H, RZ = CH2Ph

(1)

The slope of the E,,,-pH dependence indicates how many electrons are involved in the overall electrode process. The behaviour presented in Figure 1 is very simple, but, in cases of more complex equilibria of protonation, more linear sections can be observed in the plots under discussion, as will be specified for individual amidines in further sections. C. Tautomeric Equilibria

Tautomerism exhibited by amidines can influence their electrochemical behaviour, and thus polarographicmethods can be used for a study of such equilibria.Unfortunately, only a limited number of cases is a direct investigation possible, when the two tautomeric forms show different waves (or peaks). Of course, the necessary condition for such behaviour is a sufficiently large differencein El,? values of both forms. Usually, in protic media tautomericequilibria depend strongly on pH and separated waves can be observed only within a narrow pH range.This is the case for the reduction of nitrosoguanidine(2) at a mercury electrode in acidic aqueous solutions. It was suggested?’ that two waves observed at pH < 8 correspond to tautomeric forms 2a and 2b, which are additionally protonated. The wave found at more positive potentials corresponds to the form 2a which is reduced to guanidine.On the other hand, 2b is reduced to aminoguanidine(cf. Section 1V.D). It can be added here that a separationof polarographicwaves for the reduction of nitroguanidine (3)in alkaline solutions due to the coexistence of both tautomeric forms was observed earlier and confirmed by UV spectra as well as by HMO calculationsz2. HZN

, C=N-N=O

’

-

H N

\c-NH-N=O N ~ (24 (2b) When one tautomer dominates under the experimental conditions it is possible to identify this form indirectly. For example, the azo form of phenylazobenzaldoxime (4a) was postulated in aqueous 40% methanolic solutions on the basis of the observed polarographic b e h a ~ i o u rnamely ~ ~ , the successive reduction of azo and oxime groups. Two 2e waves found in acidic media were identical with the waves proper for the reduction of azobenzene and benzaldehyde oxime, respectivelyz3. On the other hand, in alkaline media (pH > 9.0) only the first wave was observed due to the formation of an anion (4c) which is less readily reduced. H,N

,N=NPh PhC\ \N-OH (4a)

H

HNNHPh PhC - \N=O

(4b)

,NHNWPh PhC\

‘“-0-

(44

The occurrenceof different tautomeric forms in some heterocycliccompounds poses a problem in considering a given compound as an amidine. Spectroscopic as well as polarographicstudies of 3-amino-4-arylazo-2-pyrazolin-5-ones (5) indicatedz4that these

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J. S. Jaworski and M.K. Kalinowski

compounds existed in the hydrazone form (5a) in the solid state, but in aqueous 30% ethanolic solutions in the azo form (5b), which has no amidine grouping. U

H

(50)

(5b)

Hydroxypyrimidines coexist also in two tautomeric forms and only one of them has the amidine group; this problem will be considered in Section IV.G.1. D. Substituent Effects

Effects of a substituent natureon half-wave potentials have been discussed qualitatively in many papers on electrochemical behaviour of amidines, but polarographic Hammett and Hammett-type equations have been used successfully only in a few cases. In general, linear correlations of El,, values against the substituent constants, u, have been well established in organicelectrochemistry;earlier results were reviewed by Zumanz5*26 and some recent problems have been discussedel~ewhere'~. It is well known that the necessary condition for such relationships is that the same common mechanism operates for all members of a reaction series. This is the case, e.g., for a simple, reversible proess, when a half-wave potential has a thermodynamic meaning. Unfortunately, for electrochemical studies of numerous amidine systems, in particular in aqueous solutions, El,, values correspond to irreversible, many-electron processes where the overall mechanism is complicated by a sequence of electron transfers and chemical steps. Then, half-wave potentials have so complex a naturethat the Hammett equation should be considered only as a local rule for a limited number of compounds and strong deviations are quite conceivable. A comprehensive study of substituent effects for the electroreduction of substituted benzamidines in aqueous buffers containing 50% ethanol was described by SevEikZ7.For six N,N'-diphenylbenzamidines with meta- and para-substituted phenyl groups at the imino nitrogen atom, a good correlationbetween Hammett t~ constants and E,,, values of the first reduction wave at pH = 5 was foundz7, with a reaction constant p = 0.22V per u unit. The considered El,, values correspond to an irreversible 2e wave which is independent of pH (full protonation of the imino N atom occurs pnor to the electron transfer). More investigations have been devoted to formazans. For the oxidation of 3-thenoyl1,5-diarylformazans (6) in ACN solutions two irreversible steps have been foundz8, producing a radical cation and a dication, respectively. Half-wave potentials for both processes obtained at a rotating Pt anode have been related" to u', constants of Brown and OkamotoZ9,as is shown in Figure 2. Acceptable correlations have been observedz8

1.9

E 1/2 [VI 1.8

1

-0.8

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

-0:s

-0:4

-0:2

0

+0:2

+0:4 +0:6

795

+0.8

FIGURE 2. Half-wave potentials for the oxidation of 3-thenoyl-1,Sdiarylformazans in ACN as dependent on Brown's substituent constants u l . The lower and upper lines Correspond to the first and second electron transfer, respectively. Reprinted with permission from Tetrahedron, 30, LaCan, TabakoviC and CekoviC, Electrochemical Syntheses of Heterocyclic Compounds. Copyright (1974) Pergamon Press PLC

(correlationcoefficientsr = 0.998 and r = 0.992, with p = 0.44 and p = 0.48 for the first and second step, respectively) although two alternative pathways have been suggested after a radical cation formation (see Section 1V.B). In other studies of formazans,the authors30931 did not use the Hammett equation and, in general, relationships of this type are poor. However, for a limited number of compounds the obtained results (taken from the original papers)can be interpreted on the basis of correlation analysis. For the irreversible oxidation of 1,3,5-triphenylformazans (7) in ACNat a rotating-disc Pt electrodeJ1the following relationship has been obtained by us:

El,,=0.66+O.18a~ (2) with correlation coeficient r = 0.990 (Ellz values are given vs Ag/Ag+ in ACN). Using a planar regression with Taft's inductive (a,) and mesomeric (ad constants taken from

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

796

FIGURE3. Plot of peak potentials for the oxidation of 1,3,5-triphenylformazans(7), taken from Reference 31 versus values calculated from the two-parameter equation 3. The theoretical line is shown Reference32, a statistically significantcorrelation is found (equation 3).

+

El,, = 0.24( 0 . 0 2 ) ~+~0.3 I ( t- 0 . 0 2 ) ~ 0.65( ~ If:0.01) (3) with the correlation coefficient of planar regression R = 0.995 (the numbers in parentheses denote 95% confidenceintervals of regressioncoefficients).The plot of equation 3 is shown in Figure 3. Simple correlations between E , , , and upcan also be obtained for the resultsJ3of the oxidation of 1,2,4-triazines(S), but points for R = CI slightly deviate to lower El,, values (cf. Table 10 in Section 1V.D).

::xJ+ N / ‘

N

N,C-R1

(8) (80)R3=Me

(8b) R3=Ph R=H, Me,CI,Br, NOp

~

R

~ RC6H4-C

/NoCoc6H4R1

“H,

(9)

For the polarographicreduction of 25 0-benzoylbenzarnideoxirnes (9) in 50% aqueous ethanol at pH 0.9-5.18, a planar regressionof El,, values with two c,,constants for R and

191

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

R' positions was suggestedJ4. However, a careful inspection of the results presented indicates that points for compounds with R = NMe, and NO, deviate even for a simple one-parameter Hammett equation for a series with a constant R' ( = H, OMe or Cl). It should be added that there is a mistakeJ4 in the sign of the np value for NMe,. The observed deviations can be easily explained taking into account a change in the reaction mechanism.The reduction of the nitro group precedes the hydrogenolysis of the N-0 bond in the acyloximino groupJ4and, on the other hand, the dimethylamino group is additionally protonated3', which causes a shift of El,, to more positive values. Nevertheless, for 15 compounds with substituents other than NMe, and NO, a twoparameter regression, as well as a Hammett equation based on the additivity rule, is not statistically significant.Moreover, the substitutionat the R' position by an electron-donor substituent (OMe) and an electron-acceptor one (CI) causes a change of El,* potentials into the same positive direction ( 1 50-200 mV) This reflects the complex natureof the halfwave potentials in contrast to the simple thermodynamic parameter, i.e. the pK, values of 9, which correlates far better with op constants34. So far, polarographic Hammett equations have been discussed only, because applications of linear free-energy relationships to amidines with aliphatic substituents were not applied in the literature. However, in some cases the Taft equation seems to be useful as well. For example, the dependence of half-wave potentials (taken from Reference 20) for the reduction of amidoximes (1, R ' = H, R Z = Me, Et, Ph and CH,Ph) in 50% ethanol at pH 4.03 on Taft n* constants is shown in Figure4. I t should be mentioned, however, that a similar correlation for results measured" at other pH values is less satisfactory. +1/2

(V)

1.05

1.oo

0.95

0.9a -1.0

-0.5

0

0.5

1.0 U*

FIGURE4. Relationshipbetween E,,2 values taken from Reference20, for

the reduction of benzamidoximes (I) and Taft's CT*constants;the correlation coefficient is r = 0.998

798

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

An interesting application of correlation analysis has been proposed by Malik and coworkersJSfor the reduction of 4-arylhydrazono- l-guanidinium-3-methyl-2-pyrazoline5-ones nitrate (10) in aqueous methanol. Half-wave potentials for irreversible 4e, 4H+ transfercorrelate with substituent constants for para- and meta-substituted compounds. Moreover, by taking into account correlationsfor ortho derivatives obtained on the basis of steric substituents, Es, a common straight line has been found3Sfor all compounds with the reaction constant p = 0.16V per Q unit. It should be mentioned, however, that the electrode process under considerationis a reduction of the hydrazono group. Malik and coworkersJs also found that the reaction constant, p, depended on the size of the supporting electrolyte, but El,* was independent of electrolyte concentration. For the irreversibleprocess of interest the above result was interpretedj5in terms of a changein the double-layer structure. A r NH

-N=C

I

-CMe

If

C=NH

I

NHz.HNO3

(10)

Analysis of substituent effects on half-wave potentials is more certain for 1,3,5triphenylverdazyl free radical (ll), which can be reversibly reduced to an anion and oxidized to a cation at a mercury e l e ~ t r o d e ~in ~ ,some ~ ’ non-aqueous solvents. Thus, values of E,,* have a thermodynamic meaning.The application of the Hammett equation for a series of five substituted verdazyl radicals (Table 2) indicated that the substituent effect was stronger for oxidation process (greater values of p) than for the reduction. Such behaviour was interpreted in terms of a greater coplanarity of the verdazyl cations. Positive values of p are quite conceivable: an increase in electron-donor properties of a

‘Ph

(11) ( l l a ) X=H

TABLE 2. Reaction constants and correlation coefficients of the Hammett equation for a series of 1,3,5-triphenylverdazyl radicals (1 1) and half-wave potentials for the unsubstituted compound 11a36,37

Oxidation Solvent

ACN

DMF MeOH

(V per

P B

0.10 0.11 0.12

unit)

r

0.984 0.978 0.982

Reduction El,,

P

(V)

(V per u unit)

r

0.180 0.215

0.08 0.08 -0.04

0.995 0.977 0.912

0.160

- E1,2 (V)

0.760 0.760

0.270

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

799

substituent facilitates the oxidation (El/z is shifted to smaller values) and an increase in electron-acceptorproperties of a substituent facilitates the reduction is shifted in a more positive direction). On the other hand, the negative sign of the reaction constant for the reduction in methanol was explainedj6 taking into account the strongest solvation of anionsand free radicalsby methanol. In our opinion, the observed change in the E l l z shift with substituents to the opposite direction in methanol is probably caused by a protonation’of verdazyl anions which increases for compounds with electron-donor substituents. This is equivalent to a change in the overall mechanism. An interesting application of a polarographicHammett equation was suggested” for the evaluation of the substituent constant for guanidine (op= - 0.63) and guanidinium (up= - 0.12) groups on the basis of half-wave potentials for 2-guanidino-1,4naphthoquinone and its hydrochloride (12) using the El12 vs upplot for 2-ureido-1,4naphthoquinonesand other 2-substituted naphthoquinones. The result obtained indicates the electron-donating properties of the guanidinium group, in spite of its charge. Such behaviour was discussed38in terms of the resonance structure 12b.

0-

(120)

-

(12 b)

R =t8f f Bu

In conclusion, it may be emphasized once more that for irreversible, many-electron processesof amidines at electrodes,the use of the Hammett equation is restricted to a local series of reactants and media, due to the complex nature of the mechanisms reflected by EIIz values. Fortunately, recent observations of a simple, one-electron reduction of benzamidines in DMF solutions16have given a great hope for further applications of the Hammett equation in the electrochemistry of amidines. 111. ELECTROCHEMICAL PREPARATION OF AMlDlNE COMPOUNDS

It has been well documented that ionic and radical intermediates, produced during electrolysis in aprotic media, can further react, first of all with nucleophilic and electrophilic species present in a solution, giving a final product with a high yield and selectivity. However, only a few reports on electrosynthesis have been devoted to compounds with the amidine grouping. Some of them, in which starting materials are amidines, will be discussed in the next section. Here, the main attention will be paid to processes in which only the products have the amidine group. A number of early investigations were devoted to reductive cyclization, as in the following example^^^.^^. In acidic aqueous ethanol the cyclization of onitrothiocyanatobenzene(13) at a mercury electrode39results,among other products, in 2(15). Yields of products aminobenzothiazole (14) and 2-aminobenzothiazole-3-oxide

aNo2*@Q-j +@A y o

SCN

(13)

NH2

NH2

(14)

(15)

-E

Yield (%)

(V)

14

15

0.6

4

81

1.4

31

50

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

800

depend on pH and the potential applied. I n aqueous ethanol at pH 4.5 the cathodic yielded 6-mercaptodibenzo[ d,f] - (1,3)cyclization of 2-nitro-2’-isothiocynatobiphenyl diazepin-5-oxide (93%)40. Anodic electrosyntheses have been studied more intensively in recent years. Electrochemical oxidation of benzaldehyde diphenylhydrazone (16), at a platinum electrode in ACN in the presence of pyridine, results4’ in substituted pyridinium cation (17) with a good yield (80%). Ph

Ph /ph

H

H

P ‘h

(17)

A number of reports were related to anodic oxidative cyclization producing Nheterocycles. Anodic synthesis of 1,3-imidazoles 19 and 21 from Schiff bases at a platinum electrode in an acetonitrile solution containing TEAP and pyridine was elaborated4’. Schiff bases used as a starting material showed two oxidation steps under the experimental conditions, and potentials applied for the preparative oxidation were a little higher than of the first step (Table 3). A detailed study by convolution potential sweep voltammetry for oxidation of 18a indicated4’ a first-order rate-determining step for the overall cyclodehydrogenation process. The mechanism suggested involves the reversible formation of unstable radical cations which further yield imidazolyl radicals (22) by cyclization and deprotonation, but the order of the latter two reactions remains unknown4’. Radicals 22 are then oxidized, either directly at an electrode, or by a solution electron-transfer,and the final product 19a is formed after deprotonation.

TABLE 3. Anodic synthesis of 1,3-imidazoles in ACN-TEAP containing pyridine4*

18a 18b 18C

18d 20

0.68 0.85 0.72

1.20 0.83

1.20

1.30 1.30 1.71 1.06

0.9 1.o

I .o 1.3

0.95

’Half-wave potentials obtained at a rotating-disc Pt electrode. bApplied potential of electrolysis.

85 78

65 80 82

801

16. Electrochemistry of amidines 10 and 19

Ar

b

p- An p-HOCgHq

c

3-Me0- 4 -HO- C,H3

0

I

(18)

22

-e

19a

-H+

Cyclic amidines were also ~ r e p a r e d ~ 'in. ~a~process of 1,3-dipolar addition of some N-heterocycles to diarylnitrilimines (24) produced in an anodic oxidation of nitrophenylhydrazones (23). Thus, I-(p-nitrophenyl)-3-(-N,N-dimethylaminophenyl)-1,2,4triazolo[4,3-a]pyridinium perchlorate (27) and analogous compounds were obtained (Table 4) in a 4e process after addition of pyridine, isoquinoline, quinoline and their methyl TABLE 4. Dipolar cycloaddition of N-heterocycles to nitrilimines (24a) generated at a Pt electrode in ACN-TEAP44 ~~

Heterocycle

F(V)

nb

Pyridine Quinoline Isoquinoline Imidazole 1,2,4-Triazole

0.70

4 4 4

0.60

0.70 0.60 0.70

'Applied potential. bNumbe.r of electrons (F mol-I).

2 2

Product

Yield (%)

27a

62 60 58 80 36

27a 27a 29a

29b

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

802

and 1,2,4-triazole(28b) yielded, derivatives44.On the other hand,the use of imidazole (a) in a 2e process, 29a and 29b, respectively. H

I

-

H

Ar2-C=N-N-Ar'

I

-2c

-2Ht

@

Ar2-C=N-N-Ar'

e

Ar' = p-O2NC6H4

(23) 24, 27 24

+ n N=CH

a

-20

-H*

--e

b C

(25)

Ar2 p-MezNC6H4 p-An p-To1

(27)

(26) A?

I

X-N

Ar' = p-02NC6H4 Ar2= p-Me2NC6H4 (a) X = CH, (b) X = N

X'

(28)

(29)

Electrochemicalsyntheses of imidazolyl and benzimidazolyl disulphides (31 and 33, respectively), which are important as reagents and intermediatesin the production of pharmaceutics,have been recently reported4'. The anodic oxidationof the corresponding imidazole-2(3H)-thiones30 and 32 has been performed at a platinum electrode in solutions of ethanol containingaqueous 2 M HCI.

R'

I

-2.

2 NH

-2H*

(30)

(31)

R'

RZ

R3

H H Me

H Ph H

H Ph H

Yield (%)

54 12 90

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

803

(33)

Yield

R'

(%I

H Me

80"

I1

"Mixture of isomers.

Very recently an interesting method of indirect anodic oxidation has been applied46 with the use of organic mediators for syntheses of N-heterocycles, some of them with the amidine group (Table 5). The main idea of this method is the generation at a platinum P h C H 2 O ~ C H = N N H C O N H ~

-

PhCH20

OMe

OMe

(35)

(34)

NO*

(37) TABLE 5. Synthesis of N-heterocycles with the amidine group by indirect anodic oxidation in the presence of tris-(4brom~phenyl)amine~~ ~

Starting material

E; (V)

(V)

Product

34 36 38

1.3 1.4 1.3

1.1 1.1 1.1

35

Eb

37

39

'Peak potentials. bApplied potential of electrosynthesis.

Yield

Current yield (%)

81

58 81 95

(%)

60 78

J. S. Jaworski and M.K. Kalinowski

804

electrode of radical cations of tris-(4-bromophenyl)amine which oxidize the starting azomethines 34, 36 and 38, giving the cyclic compounds 2-amino-5-(3-methoxy-4benzyloxy)phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole (39, 3-p-nitrophenyl-s-triazolo[4,3-a]pyridine (37) and 2,3-diphenyl-5-(p-nitrophenyl)tetrazolium perchlorate (39).The electrosynthesis has been performed in solutions of ACN containingTEAP at the potential characteristicof the oxidation of the mediator, which is far lower than the potential of the direct anodic oxidation of the starting azomethines (Table 5). The growing interest in electrocatalysis in recent years is certain to result in further investigations in this field. Ph

/1\ O2'

\w / L

,N=G/

,N=NPh \\

I

\ W /

iv-ivnrn

(39)

(38)

IV. ELECTROCHEMICAL PROPERTIES A. Amidines

Only benzamidines, which are the most readily reducible (see Section ILA), have been studied electrochemicallyin recent years. Half-wave potentials for the reduction in various media ofsome typical examples are given in Table 6. SevEik investigated" the reduction of N,N'-disubstituted benzamidines (40) at a mercury electrode in buffered aqueous ethanol. Two diffusion-controlled 2e waves were observed, in contrast to earlier results for unsubstituted ben~amidine'-~' which is reduced in one 4e step. Thc first, more positive wave was observedz7 at pH 3-9 and was irreversible. Values of Ei12 conform to the Hammett equation (cf. Section 1I.D)and the inflection points on Erlzvs pH plots give pK values in accordance withphotometric results.The second, reversible, 2e wave appears at pH 4 and its height increases with pH up to pH > 10, when it begins decreasing. The products of the macroelectrolysis of N,N'-diphenylbenzamidine (4Ob) at pH 4.85 were identified as benzalaniline (41) and aniline (42) after an electrolysis at a potential corresponding to a limiting current of the first wave, and primary and secondary amines TABLE 6. Reduction potentials of some benzamidines

1st step

2nd step ~~~

R' H Ph Ph Ph

Me

RZ H H Ph Ph Ph

Medium

-Eb(V)

-Eb((V)

Reference

DMF-TBAI DMF-TBAI DMF-TBAI

1.78" 1.73" I .60"

I .85" 1.88" 2.37" I .47' I .28'

16

HZO-EtOH HZO-EtOH

"Peak potentials vs Ag/Ag+. 'Half-wave potentials vs SCE, pH 5. 'Half-wave potentials vs SCE, pH 6.

1 .26b

1.24b

16

16

21 27

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

805

after a reduction at a potential proper for the second wave. The proposed mechanism for symmetrical disubstituted benzamidines starts with fast protonation; the rate constants, k,, were estimated.

p'

(40a)R' = Me, C,H,Y;

PhC

\

R Z = Ph

N H R ~ (40b) R' = R 2 = Ph

I

-

fNPh 40b kr PhC4 H+ \ NHPh

41

2e,H+ I wave

2e. 2n+

2 wave

PhCH=NPh (41)

+ PhNH, (42)

PhCH,NHPh (43)

An important step forward in the electrochemistry of amidines has been made recently by Hess and BluemckeI6who have reported that benzamidines(40b-40d) can be reduced in DMF containing TBAI in two simple steps. Coulometric measurements supported the view that only one electron is transferredin the first step, forminga radical anion(44). The formation of a more stable imine radical (45) in the next step by the reductive loss of ammonia or a primary amine (in the form of an anion)has been confirmed by a study on further reactions with CO,; the proper products were isolated by chromatography and identified. The formation of benzalaniline(46, R Z = Ph) and N-benzylaniline (43) during macroelectrolysis was also shownI6. The half-wave potentials obtained are collected in Table 6. The authorst6have emphasized preparative applications of the process under investigation which can be used for a cathodic generation of imino radicals and dianions. Moreover, in our opinion, the findingofconditions for a simple 1e step in the reduction of benzamidines opens new vistas in studying reactivity-structure relationships,tautomeric equilibria, etc. (40b) R' = R Z= Ph ( 40~)R ' = R 2 = H (40d) R' = Ph, R2 = H

40

e

Ph ,

,NHR'

'NR'

I

yNR'

PhC

-H~R'

Phi=NR2

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

806

A

45

PhC=NR2

H+

PhCH=NR2

20,2H*

PhCH2NHPh

R'=Ph

(46)

(45)

The anodic oxidation of 4-hydroxy-3,5-di-tert-butyl benzamidines (47) in ACN containingTBAP at a platinum disc electrode has been reported4' very recently, but the hydroxy group is oxidized in this case. Forsome amidines (47) which are soluble in ACN, three anodic peaks have been found4'. In slightly alkaline media (after addition of 0.01 M tetrabutylammonium hydroxide) all compounds of interest were soluble and gave two anodic peaks. The first of them was reversible and was related to the le oxidation of the hydroxyl group with formation of a stable phenoxyl radical. In more alkaline solutions a new irreversiblewave appeared at 0.6 V which probably corresponded to the oxidation of a dianion formed after deprotonationof a nitrogen atom4'. t-Bu

R' = RZ = Ph, Me, C3HS,C6H, R 3 = H R' = R2 = R3 = Me R' =Me, R 2 = Ph, R 3 = H

JR1

c - J+

t-Bu

'NR2R3

(47)

A quasi-reversible oxidation of acetamidine (48) at a pyrolytic graphite electrode in aqueous solutions at pH 1.35-6.84 has been recently reported49;48 was postulated as a product of the oxidation of 8-methylxanthineand a cyclic voltammogram of 48 at pH 2.3 has been r e p r o d ~ c e dbut ~ ~ ,no details have been given. 6. Amidrazones, Hydrazidines, Forrnazans

Amidrazones and hydrazidines have not been investigated to any great extent electrochemically within the last 15 years, but more reports have been published on behaviour of formazans. Let us remember first that earlier studies in buffered aqueous solutions showed the generalp a t h ~ a y ' . ' ~for * ~the ' reduction of 1,3,5-triphenylformaan (49) to 1,5-diphenylbenzhydrazidine (SO). 4s

HNNHPh 2. 2H+

PhC N 3'

HNNHPh 2. 2H*

PhC

2 =NP 1 h

'NHNHPh

(49)

(50)

/NHNHPh

PhCH\

20,2H*

NHNHPh

PhCHNH2

I NHNHPh

+

PhNH2

(42)

The first reports on the reduction in aprotic media appeared in the mid-1970s and gave no details on the reaction mechanism.Polarographicreduction of benzhydrazidine (51) in DMF containing TEAP showedSo two waves at - 1.92 and - 2.44V; the first one corresponded to the le process. For the reduction of 52 in DMF at a potential of the

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

807

second wave, a cleavage of the N-N bond with a preceding deprotonation and the formation of a dianion was postulated5'. p-02NC6H4CH=N-N

//N-NHPh PhC 'N-N=CHPh

I Ph

1

r

/\ N-N

/

2

NHNHCsHeNOz-p

RC

\\hS14NHCR'

II

0

(53)

((12)

(51)

The polarographic reduction of 2-aryl-acylhydrazidines (53) in DMF containing TEAPSZ occurs in three or four diffusion-controlled,irreversible waves (Table 7). The overall process involves a transfer of at least 8 electrons. Unfortunately, the reduction of nitro and hydrazo groups are found sometimes at similar potentials52and an interpretation of the observed waves is impossible.

TABLE 7. Half-wave potential9 and limiting currents for the reduction of hydrazidines and formazans in DMF-TEAPS2

R = Et, R 1 = Me

R = R' = Ph

Hydrazidines (53)

- E I (v) ~

i (PA)

- El,z (V)

1 2

0.96 I .26

0.50 0.55

3

4

I .84 2.81

2.10 1.50

0.35 0.64 0.84 1.44 2.04

Formazans:

54a

Wave

I 2 3 4 5

0.53 1.28 2.46 2.60 -

i (PA)

- ElI2(V)

i (PA)

0.25

0.31 0.84

0.60 0.70

2.14

3.85

0.30

0.25 0.40 2.80

54b

0.60 0.60 1.20 1.00

-

0.79 1.64 1.81 2.59

-

' E I I 2values expressed vs Hg pool.

0.30 0.90 1.55 2.03 2.58

-

-

-

54d

54c

0.40 0.70 0.80 1.60 2.05

0.60 0.70 0.50 1.45

R=Et,R1=Ph

0.42 0.92 2.15

-

0.78 1.68 2.20 2.38 2.58

0.50 0.65 4.40

-

0.37 0.80 2.12

-

0.50 0.75 0.71 0.82 1.43

0.60 0.75 4.20

-

808

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

NNHC~H,R’ RC ‘N=NCOR~

R’

R2

R3

Ph Ph Et Et

Ph Ph Me Ph

H

54a 54b 54d

(54)

(560)

//

NNHPh

4 - ~ 0 , MeCO-C \ 4-NO2 N=NPh 4-NO2 (55)

(56b)

The reduction in the same medias2 of triphenylformazan(49), I-acyl-5-arylformazans (55) involves more complications. Three to five waves were observed (Table 7) and also some additional anodic peaks on cyclic voltammograms. Nevertheless,a comparison of results indicateds2that the first reduction step of 49,55 and 54a corresponded to the reduction of the azo group, which occurs at a more positive potential for 54a due to the strong electron-withdrawing properties of the benzoyl group. The overall reduction process of 54b-54d consumes about 10 electrons, which is in agreement with predictions: 2e 4e 4e for the reduction of the azo-, the hydrazo- and the nitro groups, respectively. The reduction of N-tetrazolylformazans (5659) also gives three or four irreversiblewaves3’ correspondingapproximately to a transfer of one electron each. The formation of radicals was confirmed by ESR measurements; however, spectra with more than 20 lines were not identified30. The most interesting observation was the splitting of the first wave of some aryl formazans into two waves. This behaviour was interpreted)’ on the basis of the formation of a quasi-aromatic chelate structure (56a) due to intramolecular hydrogen bonding. The more positive wave correspondsto the structure56a and is of a surfacenature,in contrast to a more negative diffusionwave which corresponds to the structure56b. In general,N-tetrazolylformazans (56-59) are more readily reducible than 49, in accordance with predictions based on the electron-acceptor properties of the tetrazole substituent and on calculations of LUMO energy30. (54) and 1,5-diphenyl-3-acetylformazan

+ +

Me

I

(57)

(58)

(59)

Irreversible voltammetric reduction of substituted 3-cyano-l,5-diphenylformazans benzonitrile containing TBAP has been recently described5).

in

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

809

The oxidation of some compounds under discussionwas also reported. It has been well known for many that 1,3,5-triphenylformazancan be readily oxidized to the 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium salt which, in turn, can be polarographically reduced. However, the detailed mechanism in aprotic media was not elucidated until the works of Tabakovii. and coworker^^^.^^.Two electrons are transferred in the overall oxidation process of formazan (49) at a platinum electrode in ACN containing TEAP, as confirmed by coulometrys4. Two anodic peaks appear on cyclic voltammograms at 0.93 and 1.4 V, the second one, however, being very small. Both peaks are irreversible even for a sweep rate of 5OVs-’; this means that the next chemical step is fast. The second peak corresponds, presumably, to oxidation of a formazan molecule protonated by protons which are liberated during the first step. The latter conclusion was confirmed54 by measurements at a rotating disc electrode. After addition of perchloric acid, it was observed54that the first wave decreased and the second one increased.On the other hand, the addition of a base (4-cyanopyridine) caused the reverse behaviour. Moreover, experiments with a rotating ring-disc electrode supported the view that no long-lived intermediates existed and the structureof the final product 63 was confirmedby elemental analysis and IR spectra. Finally, it was concluded that an e-c-P-e-(d) mechanism was operative54, i.e. oxidation of 49 to a radical cation (60) (step e), its cyclization (step c), deprotonation of the cyclic radical cation (61) which is the rate-determiningstep (step P). At the end the second electron is transferred from the tetrazolinyl radical (62), either directly (step e) or in the reaction (d).

Ph

\

N-NPh

62

-k

60

step d

Ph

N=NPh

49

+

63

A similar analysis of the reverse process, the reduction of 2,3,5-triphenyltetraolium perchlorate to 49, indicateds4 the opposite pathway, i.e. an e-P-c-e mechanism. One irreversible reduction peak is normally observed; however, it was showns4 that in superdry ACN, in the presenceof activated alumina,the tetrazolinyl radical (62) was stable and one le reversible peak appeared in cyclic voltammograms. Substituent effects on potentials proper for the oxidation of 10 in ACNs4 were considered in Section 1I.D. Two irreversible anodic steps were also observed earlierZ* for 3-aroyl-1,Sdiarylformazans. However, the detailed mechanism of oxidizing 3-thenoyl-1,5-diphenylformazan (6) in ACN containing TEAP is more complicated than that discussed above for 49. In experiments with a rotating disc electrode it was foundz8that the function i/w’’’c (where i means the limiting current, c the formazan concentration and o the angular velocity) depended on in contrast to measurements performed in nitro-

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

810

benzene, as well as to the behaviour found previouslys4 for 49. It clearly indicates that the radical cation (64) is stable in nitrobenzene, but in ACN the chemical disproportionation of 64 to the originalformazan 6 and a dication (65) occurs,especially at slower sweep rates in cyclic voltammetry. The disproportionation of radical cations was also supported in an elegant way by macroelectrolysis performed up to l.le transfer from a molecule: this process yielded 50% of the parent formazan (6) and 35% of the final product (66). The second, alternative pathway includesfurtherelectrochemicaloxidation to a dication and a ring closure by nucleophilicaddition, formingthe correspondingtetrazolium salt (66)with supportingelectrolyteanions,A-. Substituenteffects on El12values of6 and its derivatives were discussed in Section I1.D. A change of the substituents also influences the ratio of limiting currents for the first and second peak on cyclic voltammograms; e.g. for 6 disubstituted at both phenyls the ratio changesfrom i , / i 2 1.14 to 3.72 for p-OMe and pC1 substituents, respectively.

(66) (65) 6

(64)

(6)

+

65

A-H+

*

66

The application of the reactions discussed above to the electrochemicalpreparation of tetrazolium salts, which are used as biological staining agents, by anodic oxidation of formazansand the electrochemicalsynthesis of formazansin the opposite process (Table 8) has been e l a b ~ r a t e d ~ ~ . ~ ~ . Probably, a similar mechanism governs the oxidation of formazans (67) with heterocyclicsubstituents.Two diffusion-controlled,irreversiblewaves were observed3' for the oxidation of 67 in ACN containing LiC104, in contrast to oxidation of 1,3,5TABLE 8. Electrochemical syntheses based on formazan-tetrazolium salt systems in acetonitrile Starting material

49 49 67 67 67 6 6 63

R'

R2

-

-

4-Me 4-Me H -

Medium

TEAP TEAF 4Tol TEAP Ph TEAP 4-Tol TEAP - TEAP - TEAF - TEAP

F

Electrode

(V)

Product

Pt anode Pt anode Pt anode Pt anode Pt anode Pt anode Pt anode Pt cathode

1.2 1.2 2.0 1.1 1.2 2.0 1.5

63 63 b

'Applied potential. bThe corresponding tetrazolium perchlorate.

-0.45

b b 66

66 49

Yield (%)

Reference

100

54

91 91 100 100 95 83 95

54 28

.

28 28 54

,

54 54

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

811

triphenylformazan (49) with a substituted phenyl group at the No,. atom, which gives31 only one 2e wave (Table 9). Moreover, the first wave of 67 is a little higherthan the second one, and the sum of limiting currentsfor both waves is approximately equal to the limiting current of 49. The above behaviour was interpreted3' in terms of formation of intermediates after le transfer.However, Troepol'skaya and Budnikov pointed out" that protonation of the N-heterocyclic fragments of 67 by protons liberated during the oxidation can also be responsible for the observed behaviour. In our opinion, one should also consider residualwater in LiClO, used as a supportingelectrolyte (thereareno details on its drying). H

TABLE 9. Half-wave potentials' and limiting currentsfor the oxidation of formazansat a platinum electrode in ACN-LiC10,31

2nd wave

1st wave

R1

Formazan 67a 67b

67c 67d 49

H P-NO,

H p-OMe o-OMe P-Me o-Me PC1 P-NO, o-NO,

H p-OMe P-NO,

H

p-Me P-NO, -

"EIn values are given vs Ag/Ag+ in ACN.

E1,2I

(V)

0.31 0.40 0.63 0.54 0.59 0.49 0.54 0.63 0.76 0.73 0.69 0.66 0.74 0.86 0.80 0.94 0.65

i (PA)

25.0 24.0 25.0 23.0 25.0 24.0 23.0 24.0 21.0 22.5 23.0 -

50.0

(V) 0.93 1.04 1.38 0.98 1.03 I .05 1.32 1.41 1.44 1.46 I .60 1.34 1.63 1.64 1 .so 1.65

i

(4) 22.0 21.0 22.5 21.0 21.5 20.0 21.0 21.5 21.0 22.0 20.0 -

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

812

1,3,5-Triphenylverdazylfree radicals(1l),cyclic analoguesof formazans,were reversibly reduced to anions and oxidized to cations36937. Their substituent as well as solvent effects on El12values were discussed earlier (see Table 2 in Section 1I.D).On the other hand, the reduction of trinitromethide-verdazyl salts (68) in ACN containing TEAP yielded two reversible le waves36 with El,, values identical with half-wave potentials proper for the oxidation and the reduction of verdazyl radicals (1l), respectively. Very recently, the temperature dependence of half-wave potentials for the 1,3,5-triphenylverdazyl radical (lla) has been measured and the entropy changes during the oxidation ( A F ) and reduction (ASYd) have been obtaineds5.It has been found that ASYd values in a few aprotic solvents are linearly related to solvent acceptor numbers, ANs6, describing an anion solvating-tendency, whereas AS? values depend on the solvent basicity scale of Kamlet and Taft (cf. Reference 57 and references cited therein).

'Ph

C. Amidoximes

The electroreduction of amidoximes has been investigated only in aqueous solutions and alcohol-water mixtures,becausepolarographicreduction is facilitatedby preliminary protonation. (This is a general tendency for o x i m e ~ e.g. ~ ~ ,aliphatic a-amino-oximes cannot be reduced in DMF in contrast to protic solvents, where a protonation of the amino group occurs prior to the electron transfer5*).The general mechanism for the (i.e. ~ in ~ acid reduction of benzamidoximes to benzamidine proposed earlier by L u n d ' ~ solutions, prior protonation and a subsequent 2e, 2H' process with a cleavage of the NO bond, while in neutral media a decrease of the wave, which disappears at pH > 10)was confirmed and further extended within the last 15 years. Mollin and coworkers2' have shown by IR and HI-NMR spectroscopy that protonation of substituted benzamidoximes takes place mainly at the N atom ofthe oxime group, forming69. Dependencesof E,,, values correspondingto the reduction of 69 on pH have been discussed in Section ILB, and substituenteffects in Section 1I.D.The reduction is facilitated by alkyl and aryl substituents at R' as well as R2 positions. In two cases (R' = C4H9 and CH,Ph) higher, in part catalytic, waves were observed20. In less acid media a second wave appears,which corresponds to the further reduction of benzamidine. The height of the second wave at pH 5.94 is nearly twice that of the first one, as expected for a 4e process for the reduction of benzamidine, but it is far higher at pH 5.22; the latter observation has not been explained2'. H

I+

PA-C

JN--OR'

\NHR* (69)

R'=H, Me,Et,Bu,CHgPh R2 =H,Me,Et,

Ph,CH2Ph,C6HIl

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

813

A similar irreversible 2e reduction to amidines, preceded by protonation, was also suggestedJ4 for 0-benzoylbenzamidoximes (9) on the basis of coulometric experiments and considerationof the pH dependenceof the E , / , values. However, .El/, vs pH plots have shown that the mechanism is more complicated for compounds with R = NMe,, due to additional protonation of the dimethylamino group. On the other hand, in nitro derivatives the reduction of the NO, group precedes the cleavage of the N-0 bond.

Several electroanalytical techniques have been applieds9 to a wide range study of ethane diamidoxime (70). Two diffusion-controlledand completely irreversiblereduction waves have been found. The first one expected for a protonated compound (pK = 3.06) has been observed in acidic media, and the second one (8e, 8H') at pH 4.2-7.9. The overall reduction yields tetraaminoethylene (71) at pH 1.7 and tetraaminoethane(72) at pH 5.1. H,N,

.NOH

2e

H2N

NH2

+ 2H*

""\ CH iH2 I

H2N

NH2

8 14

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

The reduction of the cyclic dioxime (73) has been reported by Forteza and Cerda6', who studied previously the cyclic amidoximes 74 and 75. FourpH-dependent waves have been found for 73. The first one, observed in acidic media, correspondsto an 8e process and was attributed to the formation of the diammonium salt 76. The second 2e wave was related to hydration of the ethylene bond. In alkaline solutions the mechanismis changed,since it is difficult to form a dianion from a neutral molecule of dioxime. Nevertheless, the third 2e wave (PH > 7) and the fourth one (- 8e, pH > 11) also correspond to the reduction of the oxime to the amino group. Some additional details of the mechanism were also suggested6'. NOH

NOH

NOH

NOH

NH

(76)

For the reduction of phenylazobenzaldoxime in aqueous methanol, successive reductions, first of the azo and then of the oxime group, were s ~ g g e s t e d ' ~in. ~acidic ~ media where two diffusion-controlled, irreversible 2e waves were observed (cf. Section 1I.C). Comparison with the reduction of azobenzene and of benzaldehyde oxime supported the mechanism proposed. On the other hand, the possible reduction of the hydrazo to the amino group was rejected, since no wave proper for the reduction of benzamidoxime was found' 3.

2e,2H*

N=NPh

phc\

2e,2H*

)OH

NH-NHPh

//""

phc\

NH-NHPh

(77) 77

+

H20

H+

PhCONHNHPh

+

NH:

+

H2O

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

815

The anodic oxidation at a Pt electrode of 3-hydroxyiminomethyleneamino-6chloropyridazine (78), which can be regarded as a substituted formamidoxime, gives in ACN containingTEAP two, irreversiblevoltammetric peaks (El,z = 1.04 and 1.4V)62.The coulometry at a potential of the first peak indicates a number of electrons n m 2. Anodic intramolecular cyclization carried out at a platinum gauge yields (28%) the triazoles derivative (7th) and three other unknown products6'.

-

,NHCH=NOH

TNl+

-20 -2n+

AN,N-N

0-'

CI

(780)

(78)

D. Guanidines

Some biguanides (i.e. imidodicarbonimidic diamides), important because of their pharmaceutical use, e.g. proguanil (79), phenforminin (SO) and chlorhexidine (Sl), have been i n ~ e s t i g a t e d in ~ ~water-DMF -~~ mixtures at mercuryelectrodes. Biguanidesconsist of two guanidine groups with a common nitrogen atom and in general can form a delocalized x-electron system. However, studies by different polarographic techniques i n d i ~ a t e d that ~ ~ -the ~ ~reduction occurred in the monoprotonated species with the two localized azomethine double bonds. Polarographic activity was observed only for compounds with chlorophenyl groups. The observed irreversible, quasi-diffusionwaves with some kinetic characterwere influencedby hydrogen evolution, so that the number of electrons transferred could not be determined directly. Nevertheless, for the overall process of one biguanide group 4e and 4H+ are needed for the reduction of two C=N double bonds to amino groups. On the other hand, it was found for 79 that only le is transferredin the potential-determiningstep, and only one proton is transferredprior to this step. It has been assumed that the electroreduction starts with adsorption of the (79) R' = p-CIC6H4-,RZ= CHMe, (SO) R' = PhCH,CH,, R 2 = H

R ' NHC H

H

H

(81)

I

HN

+ \C=NH2 /

I

e H+ e

HN' -+ C-NH2

/

HN'

I

0,

H+,

HN

\

HC-NH2 /

HN' 0

\

HC-NHz / HN'

I

816

J. S. Jaworski and M.K. Kalinowski

monoprotonated species and then further heterogeneous protonation occurs. For proguanil(79) the rate constant of this protonation at the electrode is k, = 5.3 x lo1'mol 1-ls-1 and p K = 8.0 under the experimental condition^^^. Finally, simultaneous ~ . most ~ ~ probable mechanism, reduction of both azomethine bonds was a s s t ~ m e das~ the although other possibilities were also considered. Polarographicand cyclic voltammetric reduction of 2-nitrophenylguanidines(82-83) in ACN or DMF containingTEAFat a mercuryelectrode showed66similarbehaviour for all compounds, but only 4-methyl-2-nitrophenylguanidine (82a) was studied in Two reduction waves (or peaks) were observed corresponding to a le (reversible at fast scan rates > 20Vs- l) and a 4e step, respectively. Both of them had a kinetic characterdue to preceding fast chemical reactions.

The first reduction step is preceded by cleavage of an intramolecular hydrogen bond. Addition of tetraethylammonium hydroxide indicated that a reaction between the parent molecule and its anion (S2d) formed during the first reduction step, precedes the second electron transfer. Moreover, anions (826) are adsorbed at the electrode, giving an additional peak in cyclic voltammograms. Anions (82d) also react with the added water reforming the parent molecule:

-OH-

After chromatographic separation the following products of the controlled potential electrolysis of 82a in ACN were identified by IR and UV/vis spectra: 3-amino-7-methyl-oxide (85), 1,2,4-benzotriazine-l,4-dioxide (84), 3-amin0-7-methyl-l,2,4-benzotriazine-l 3-amino-7-methyl-1,2,4-benzotriazine (86a), 3-amino-7-methyl-1,Cdihydro- 1,2,4benzotriazine (86b), 4-methyl-2-nitroaniline (87) (yield 15-20 wt%) and an oligomeric organomercurycompound (35-45%) resulting in melamine(88) after decomposition. The results indicated66 that ring closure yielding 84, 85 and 86 occurred in parallel with the eliminationof the carbodiimide residuefrom the guanidinesubstituent,resultingin 87 and an organomercury compound. Moreover, 84,85 and 87 are electroactive at more positive

817

16. Electrochemistry of amidines 0-

1

a

:

r

N

H

2

+NO2

N H Z ~ N , ( J H Z

"YN NH2

Me

H

CH3

(86b)

(87)

(88)

potentials than that correspondingto the reduction of parent 80a. Finally,the proposed ce-c-e mechanism includes the disruption of the hydrogen bond (the first chemical step), the formation of an anion (83)and its reaction with the parent molecule resulting in the grouping of 89 intermediate(89),followed by cleavage of the N-0 bond in the N-0-N and the cyclization to 84 and 86b. Furtherreduction of 84 yields, successively, 85 and 86.

83

+

80

-

NH YO-

I

0I

,Nn2

e H'

-2 OH-

84

+,

86b

(89)

The reduction of nitroguanidine to aminoguanidine(90) in acidic aqueous media was performed previously at a mercury electrode, but a more detailed mechanism has been reconstructed6' on the basis of investigations at a copper electrode in H,SO, solutions. Potentiometric electrolysis at potentials 0.3-0.6 V yields guanidine (92) as the main product in a 4e process. On the other hand, at potentials corresponding to those of hydrogen evolution, aminoguanidine (90) is formed in a 6e process (yield z600/, at - 0.9 V.) The suggested pathway6' includes 2 and 91 as intermediates. The chemical decomposition of nitrosoguanidine (2) to 92 and HNOz with a further reduction of the

J. S. Jaworski and M.K. Kalinowski

818

acid was considered6' as less important in the process discussed. The reduction of 2 at a mercury electrode in buffered aqueous solutions occurs probably in a similar manner. In acid media (pH 1-5) two polarographicwaves were obtained2'. The first onecorresponds to the 2e process of guanidine (92) formation and the second to a 4e process yielding aminoguanidine(90). In alkaline solutions only one 2e wave was observed. The existence of two waves in acidic media was explained2' in terms of two tautomeric forms of 9, as was discussed in Section 1I.C.

"'Z

6 0 6H*

H"\

A

HNFHN02

FNH2

HN

(90) products of a chemical

f

92

+ HN02

1.

reaction

rNH2

H2N\

HN

products

(92)

Among guanidines, a number of compounds with guanylhydrazone group was electrochemically reduced to guanylhydrazines (a similar reaction is familiar under 93b69 and 93c70, in homogeneous conditions). In most investigated cases, for 93a6,' buffered aqueous solutions and in mixtures with DMF, only one, irreversible wave was obtained, corresponding to the 2e, 2H' process. Two tautomeric forms (amidine and azine) are feasible for guanylhydrazones: RCH-N-NH-C

//""

\NH2

RCH=N-N=C

7"'

\

NH2

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

819

However, fqr the polarographic reduction of pyridine-2-carbaldehydeguanylhydrazone and alkaline (pH > 8.4) media only the azine form was postulated6*.The polarographicbehaviour is additionally complicated by protonation of the amidino groupand by surfacephenomena.Adsorption of 93d was postulated7' and in all cases a maximum was observed in acid media. Nevertheless, in the presenceof surface active substances all waves35-6s-71had diffusion character.The reduction mechanism was investigated in detail7 for benzylideneaminoguanidine (93d). The 2e wave was observed in alkaline DMF-water mixtures and the 4e wave in acid media, as supported by macroelectrolysis. Guanidine (92) and benzylamine (94) were identified7' as products of (95) in the reduction in acid solutions, but 2-(phenylmethyl)hydrazinecarboxyimidamide alkaline media. Then, a simple reduction of the C=N bond was ascertained in alkaline media. On the other hand, in acid solutions, cleavage of the N-N bond with the formation of benzylimine (96) as the first step and then a reduction of the double bond in 96 was assumed". The correspondingmechanismindicates7' the amidine structurefor 93d. (93a) in acidic (pH < 3.3)

93d

e H+ pH

PhCH-NHNH-C

> 8.5

\

PhCH2-NHNH-C

\

'NH2

-

NH2

(93)

a , H+

pH (4

e

4

96

H+

pHC4

+

PhCH=NH2

a

'NH~

PhCH=NH

I.

PhCH-NH2

+

H2N-C

JNH

\

O,H+

PhCH2NH2

(94)

One, irreversible 4e wave was observed3' for the polarographic reduction of 4arylhydrazono-l-guanidiniurr-3-methyl-2-pyrazoline-5-one nitrate (lo), in which also the hydrazono group was reduced in aqueous-methanol solutions (cf. Section 1I.D). El,* values for the reduction of 2-guanidino-1,4-naphthoquinones in water-EMF and waterethanol mixtures were measured3*. The guanidine group appears in a number of heterocyclic compounds, derivatives of 1,2,4-triazine,which are important as luminophores, herbicides and inhibitors of acidic corrosion. Thus, their redox properties are of interest and the oxidation of 80 triazine derivatives (8,9749) at a rotating platinum elctrode in ACN was investigated by Beylis and coworker^^^*^^.The process is irreversible and only in some cases are anodic peaks well-defined. Nevertheless, values of peak and half-wave potentials were ~ o l l e c t e d ~ ~ ~ ~ * . From the typical examples, presented in Table 10, it is evident that compounds belonging

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

820

0

r

R4 R3JfJ-*R -2

i

R’

MeJkA?R2

O

NHN

i

Me I

(97)

R’

(99)

(97b) R3 = R4 = H (97a) Me

pyR2 1

R’

(98)

TABLE 10. Peak potentials for the oxidation of some triazine derivatives at a rotating Pt electrode in ACN-LICIO,

Compound

R’

RZ

E,(V)

97s

H H H H H H Me Ph COPh Me H H Me n-Pr Ph Ph COMe H Me Ph Ph p-To1

Me Ph

1.03 1.04 1.oo

97b 98

99 8a

pC1C6H4

pBrCsH4 p-02NC6H4

8b

Ph Et Ph p-Tol p-02NC6H4 Me Ph Ph Me

p-Tol

p-An p-CIC6H4 p-02NC6H4 Ph Ph Ph Ph Me t-Bu

Ph Ph Ph P-ToI Ph Ph Ph P-OINC6H4 H

H H H H Ph H H H H Me Ph Me Me

0.95 1.05 I .22 0.42 1.08

.oo

1

0.92 0.66 0.69 0.78 0.77 0.85 0.82 0.94 0.98 0.96 1.10 1.56 I .49 1.62 1.65 1.88 I .42 1.58 1.60 1.54 1.92 1.40 1.48 1.44 1.40

Ei (V)

Reference 12

0.72

1.61 1.42

72 33

1.42 1.40 1.42 1.35 33 33

33

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

82 1

to a series of triazines (98) are more readily oxidizable than derivatives of triazino[3,4u]benzimidazole (97) due to a more extended x-electron system in the naphthoimidazoles. The oxidation of compounds from a series of imidazo[ 1,2-b]-1,2,4-triazines(8)is, in turn, the most difficult. Substituent effects are also operating, e.g. the highest E , values were observed for the oxidation of nitro derivatives. On the other hand, effects of methyl and phenyl groups are more complex, as was discussed e l s e ~ h e r e ~ ~ v ~ ~ . Half-wave potentials (vs silver chloride electrode) for the reduction of imidazole derivatives 100 and 101 possessing the guanidinegroup were measured3*in DMF-water mixtures at pH 7.

*
R'

(100) (101) (101)

R

R'

- E l l 1 (V)

CMe, CMe, CMe,

-

0.38 0.53

H Br

0.50

0

It can be also mentioned that guanidinium perchlorate adsorption at a mercury electrode was studied in aqueous solutions73. E. Cycllc Amidines 7. 2-Aminopyridines and related compounds

Polarographic half-wave potentials of some 2-aminopyridines can be found in a review7. However, deeper insight into electrochemicalmechanismswas not provided until recent studies in which 2-aminopyridine (102) was used as a model compound for more complex systems, in particularthat of biological importance. Oxidation of 102 in aqueous solutions pH 3.2-10.3 at a pyrolitic graphite electrode74 consumes 2e per molecule, yielding trans-2,T-azopyridine(105), as confirmed by IR and NMR spectra, as well as by its electrochemicalbehaviour.Only one anodic peak was observed74without any cathodic response at sweep rates slower than 0.4 V s- I , and another, quasi-reversible couple of peaks (correspondingto the oxidation of 104 to 105 in the following scheme),characteristic of the product. The reactant is strongly adsorbed at the electrode. The inflectionpoint in the E , vs pH plot indicates that at pH < 6.8 a monocation (l02a) exists in solutions. At higherpH the value ofdEJdpH is equal to 22 mV, which was interpreted in terms of either a tautomericequilibrium or formation of the anion (IO2b). The suggested pathway for the oxidation includes the formation of the unstable radical (103), which dimerizes to 104 and undergoes further oxidation to 105. A similar oxidation of amino to azo groups is also characteristic of other heterocyclic amines.

(102)

(1020)

(102b)

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

822 102

+ 102 NH

NH-NH

(103)

(104)

\

N=N

The reduction of 2,2'-azopyridine (105) at glassy carbon and pyrolytic graphite

electrode^'^ yields 104 under cyclic voltammetric conditions, but 102 in controlled-

potential electrolysis (in contrast to the 2e, 2H' reduction of azobenzene).Peak potentials for the reduction of cis-2,T-azopyridine in acidic media were about 25 mV more positive than those observed with the trans isomer, but they were practically identical at higher pH75. A number of pyridine derivatives with the amidine grouping have been used as starting materials for electrosyntheses. The anodic oxidative cyclization of benzaldehyde-2pyridylhydrazone (106a) and related compounds (106) at a platinum electrode in ACN containing TEAP has been extensively s t ~ d i e dby ~~ Tabakovii: .~~ and coworkers. The oxidation of 106a yields 3-phenyl-s-triazolo[4,3-a]pyridine (107) and other products, depending on the medium, as shown in Table 11. The best yields of 107 were obtained in acidic media; they reached 83-92% for 4-nitropyridine derivatives of 106. At a rotatingdisc electrode two anodic waves were observed76 for the oxidation of 106a, at 0.82 and 1.62V, respectively; it was supposed that the second one corresponded to oxidation of a NH-N=CHAr

R =H,N02 Ar=Ph,C6HqY, 3,4,5 -(Me0)3C6H2

(106)

(1060)Ar=Ph,R=H

+ p y r idine ,- 4 e ,- 3 H+

Ph

(107)

Me

(108)

t other products

(109)

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

823

TABLE 11. Yields of main products of benzaldehyde-2pyridylhydrazone ~ x i d a t i o n ’ ~ Medium

Applied potential (VI

107

108

109

1.4 1.4

62 72 26

10 25

-

ACN ACN -+ HCIO., ACN + Py

(%I

1 .o

(%I

(%I

-

-

45

protonated molecule of M a . Detailed studies by various electroanalytical techniques indicated an e-D-c-p-p mechanism for 106s, where the rate-determining step (D) is a homogeneous electron-transferin a reaction of disproportionation. The first, reversible step of the protonated reactantyields a radical dication (110), which then forms a radical cation (111).Two radicalcations result in a parent molecule( M a ) and a dication (112) in a disproportionation reaction. Furtherdeprotonation of 112 yields the nitrile imine (113) which is reasonable in the light of the observed products. Some related compounds were also used as starting materials for electrosyntheses by means of an organic mediator (cf. Section 111).

-

-

.+

.f

NH-N=CHPh

NH-N-CHPh

111

+

111

-2H+

’.-. (112)

stop 0

112

+

1060 pyrldlne

I :

[cN-N=:L

FN-N=cph]

L 7

steps P#P

NH-N-CHF

\ N

. . .I \

i

107

(113)

N

108

Selective anodic cleavage of the C-N bond, unusual for secondary amines, has been (1 14).The oxidation in H,SO, at reported” in the case of N-2-pyridyl-2,4-dimethylaniline Ti/MnO, and Ti/RuOz anodes yielded selectively 2-aminopyridine (102) and also 2,4dimethyl-p-quinol(llS), which was further oxidized. It was shown” that a redox system (e.g. MnOJMnO) fixed at an electrode surfacecan act as a heterogeneouscatalyst giving a high current efficiency and selectivity of the product. In the mechanism suggested” the radical cation is formed in the first step. The nucleophilicaddition of water and the second electron transfer yield quinolimine (lla), which hydrolyses to the final products.

J. S. Jaworski and M.K. Kalinowski

824

(114) Me

\ OH

HpO

Me

\

102

+

(116)

o*

-

Me

R

=

a

(115)

Conditions for the selective alkylation of the 2,2‘-dipyridylamineanion (117) generated at a platinum cathode in ACN containing TBAB has been recently found7*.

P (117)

R

X

Me Ally1 PhCH,

I Br

c1

2. Aminopyrazoles The electrochemistryof aminopyrazoles has not been investigated extensively and is not mentioned in the published review’. In the more recent literature the polarographic (118), 3-phenylhydrazono-2reduction of 4-phenylhydrazono-3,5-diaminopyrazole amino-3,5,6,7-tetrahydropyrazolo[ 1,5-u]pyrimidin-5-one (119), and 4-phenylhydrazono3-amino-2-pyrazolin-5-one (5, Ar = Ph) in aqueousethanol at pH 2-9 were i n ~ e s t i g a t e d ~ ~ . However, the observed 4e waves correspond to the reduction of the hydrazone group with a cleavage of the N-N bond. Nevertheless, only 118 and 5 can be reduced at pH > 9 and this fact was attributed” to their structurewhich facilitatesprotonation of the hydrazonic nitrogen at higher pH.

(118)

(119)

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

825

The El,z potentials for the reduction of a series of 3-amino-4-arylazo-2-pyrazolin-5ones (5) were obtained in aqueous EtOHZ4.But it must be stressed that these compounds exist in the hydrazo form (5a) with the amidine group present only in the solid state, as has been discussed in Section 1I.C.

3. lmidazoles and 1,2,4-triazoles The electrochemicalbehaviour of imidazoles and 1,2,4-triazoleswas reviewed' and only subsequent works are reported in this section. Polarographic investigations of a number of nitroazoles were stimulated by their physiological activity (related to redox properties) and their potential pharmacological applicationsas antimicrobial and radiotherapeuticagents. In aqueous solutionsat pH 7.4 for a series of nitroimidazoles (120-122) and nitrotriazoles (123) only one reduction wave was observedE0,although two waves were found in earlier reports. The observed process corresponds to reduction of the nitro group and has only a secondary significancefor the electrochemistry of amidines. However, in the reduction of these compounds in aprotic media the formation of radical anions in a le transfer can be observed and thus the considered process is characteristic of the whole molecules.

R (120)

(12 3)

(122)

(121)

For a series of nitroazoles (120, R' or R3 = NO2),122 and 123 studied in ACN8'98z,two cathodic le waves were observed and only the second one was reversible (Table 12). EPR signals were found for the electrolysis at potentials corresponding to the plateau of the TABLE 12. Half-wave potentials" for the reduction of nitroimidazoles in ACN-TBAP and hyperfine splitting constants at the nitro group of productss2

I20 121 121 120 121 121 121 121 120 121 121

Me Et

-

Me Me Et Me

-

Me Et

H H H H H NO2 NO, NO, H H H

H H H Me Me H H Me NO2 NO2 NO2

RZR' R' RZ-

R'R' R'R'RZRR' -

oE,,2 values expressed vs Hg pool. bR'- and R -' denote radical anion and radical dianion, respectively. 'Value 1.05 in Ref. 81.

0.82 1.75 1.14 0.93 1.75 1.53 1.67 1.51 0.71' 1.49 1.45

2.23 2.98 3.02 2.39 2.95 2.75 2.97 2.85 2.31 2.54 2.54

15.52 13.23 13.60 15.59 14.78 12.70 14.88 13.53 14.65 11.60 11.75

J. S. Jaworski and M.K. Kalinowski

826

second wave only. The structure of EPR spectra indicated that an unpaired electron interacted with all magnetic nuclei of the molecule with the exception of only one proton. Thus, fast cleavage of the N-H bond was considered before the second electron transfer. Comparison with a series of N-alkylimidazoles (121) supported the above mechanismE2. For121 (R = Me, Et) the first wave was reversible, and EPR spectra as well as the colour of solutions indicated the formation of stable radical anions. The second wave was higher and had a maximum, and no paramagneticfinal products were found.

H

I

Alk

Alk

= alkyl

As indicated in Table 12, N-alkylimidazoles (121) are reducible with far more difficulty than 120, while hyperfine splitting constants aNOlin ESR spectra are similar. On the basis of hs constants,it was evaluated that 60% and 45-500/, ofthe spin density is disposed in the nitro group in radical dianions and anions, respectively. A similar mechanism was also establishedE3in DMSOat a platinum electrode. 5Nitroimidazoles, which are not substituted at a nitrogen atom (Table 13), yield three cathodic waves, but substituted compounds yield only two waves. It was proved, using voltammetry, pulse polarography and rotating-discmeasurements,that the first, diffusioncontrolled wave is reversible; the corresponding standard rate constants were also measured (Table 13). Pulse voltammetric experiments indicated that the radical anion product undergoes a consecutive chemical step, and thus no anodic peaks were observed on cyclic voltammograms at scan rates < 1 V s- 5-Nitroimidazoles substituted at a nitrogen atom showed reversible behaviour even at slow scan rates. A detailed inspection of voltammetric behaviour indicated that for p-hydroxyethyl substituted compounds (124) the radical anions undergo a slow chemical reaction of the first order, with rate constants

'.

TABLE 13. Half-wave potentials and standard rate constants for the first step of reduction of imidazoles in DMSO-LiCIn3 Imidazole 121 = H, R2 =NO,

R'

R3

H Me

R

Me

(CHJ,SO,CH,CH,

H 124a

124b

-

-

(CH2)2

H

CHZCI

A NWo

-El,z (V)

10Zk, (cms-')

1.150 I .060

z 1.51 2.14

I .060

2.0 I

I .080 1.076

2.16 2.27

16. Electrochemistry of amidines equal to 0.1 I x respectively”.

827

and 0.06 x 10-3s-’ for metronidazole(124a)and ornidazole(124b),

CH~CHOH

I

R

(124)

(124a) R = H (124b) R = CH2CI

The polarographic reduction of N-phenylbenzimidazolium cations (125a) as well as related compounds 126-128 has been investigated in DMF-water mixtures containing TEAP84*85(adsorption pre-waves were observed in pure aqueous solutions). Two le waves were found for some compounds (Table 14). The first one corresponds to the formation of free radicals which can dimerize, probably giving a dimer with mercury, or can undergo further reduction, yielding the corresponding dihydro compounds. However, only one 2e wave was o b ~ e r v e d ~for ~ . compounds ~’ that formed less stable radicals in the first electron transfer,especially perimidinium(1264 and benzimidazolium (129) cations with 2-phenyl substituents (Table 14). Such a substitution increases the electrophilic properties of radicals which are reducible at more positive potentials than the parent rnoIec~Ies~~. Me

I

1

R’

(125)

(126)

125

R’

R2

126

R1

R2

a

Ph p-MeOC,H4 Me Me

H H H Ph

a

Ph Me Me Me

H H Ph Me

b

C

d

b

C

d

Me

I

@QQ I

I

I

Me

(12’1)

Me

(128)

g+

828

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski Me

dimer (R-R,

8;

I

N

126b

R-Hg-R)

H

Me

O N

H

Me

An interesting application of the cathodic reduction at a platinum electrode in CH,CI, solutions containing TBAB was suggesteds6 for N-methylation of imidazole and other NH acids, as well: Me

H

N-aminobenzimidazole (129a) and other N-aminobenzazoles, among them amino derivatives of theophylline (130a), have been oxidized at a platinum electrode in ACN containing TEAP". In general, only one le anodic peak was observed in the cyclic voltammograms (Table 15) and the absence of a cathodic peak was interpreted8' in terms of a fast dimerization of the radical cations formed. For aminobenzimidazoles 129s and 129b(R = H, Me)small cathodicpeaksappeared at - 1.35 to - 1.4 V correspondingto the

I

Me

TABLE 14. Polarographicreductionpotentials of imidazolium, naphthoimidazoliumand perimidinium cations in DMF-water mixt ~res'**~J' ~

125a 125b

12%

125d

126a 126b 126c 126d 127 128

1.50

ISO 1.85 1.78 1.35 1.42 1.38 1.64 I .42 1.75

"Supporting electrolyte TEAR 10% or 50% DMF.

18.1 1.86

-

1.68 1.78

-

1.79 1.76

-

829

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

TABLE 15. Peak potentials for the cyclic voltammetry of Naminobenzazoles at a Pt electrode in ACN-TEAP and basicity constants measured potentiometrically in ACN" Azole

Benzimidazole 129a

R

EbW)

E','(V)

PK,

H Me NH2 NHMe NMe,

1.62 1.44 I .46 0.94 0.90 0.8 1 1.54 1.38 1.40 1.56

-

13.22 12.53 14.24 15.60 15.83 15.67 9.04 12.40 7.20

CI H

129b

130b

NH, NMe,

I*

-

-

1.78 1.78 1.78 -

-

-

6.30

reduction of the dimers I , 1'-azobenzimidazoles(131). Basicity constants for the investigated compounds were also estimated in ACN. The process of protonation occurs probably at the N atom of the heterocyclic fragments8', but there is no correlation between pK, and E , values (Table 15). Accepting a minimum nelectron conjugation between the amino group and the heterocyclic system, it was suggested that during the oxidation process an electron is abstracted from the R orbital of the heterocyclic moiety.

F. Thiamidines

In this section the electrochemical behaviour of some compounds with HN= C(NH2)-Sgrouping is presented in short. Usually, the introductionof a sulphuratom does not change the general pattern of electrode reactions, i.e. in most cases the electroactive centre for the oxidation is the amino group and in reductions the hydrogenation of unsaturated N=N and/or C=N bonds occurs. A more detailed, quantitative discussion of the effect of the S atom does not seem to be possible at present, because of the varied conditions (medium, electrodes) of the measurements described in the literature. 1,5-diphenyl-3-mercaptoformazan (132), well known as an analytical reagent,dithizone, (133). 132 can also be is reducible in alkaline mediaE8yielding 1,5-diphenylthiocarbazide PhNH-N )-SH PhN=N

-

PhNHNH

+\

N PhNHNH

(132)

PhN-NPh

I?

2e,2~*

i

S'

(133)

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

830

oxidizeds9 at a mercury electrode giving the mesoionic dehydrodithizone (134). More recent investigations of the latter compound in aqueous methanol indicatedg0 that its reduction proceedes indeed, through a dithizonate anion as an intermediate. Polarographic reduction of arylthiosemicarbazides (135) in alkaline aqueous media gave irreversible2e waves corresponding to reduction of the C=N bond, but without its cleavagegl .

RC,H,-N=C-NHNH,

RCsH,-NH-C=NNH,

I

I

SH

SH

(135)

The cleavage of the S-C bond during the reduction of 2-benzoylpyridine thiosemicarbazone (136) at a mercury electrode, suggested in earlier workZo5,has recently been foundg2to be non-existent.Investigation in buffered aqueous-ethanolic media indicated an irreversible4e process yielding thiourea(137) and 2-(aminobenzyl)pyridine(138), which can be further reduced at more negative potentials. An additional adsorption peak was also foundg2by differential pulse polarography. Ph

(137)

(136)

The anodic oxidation of 2-aminothiazole (139) and 2-aminobenzothiazole (140) have been recently s t ~ d i e d in ~ ~buffered . ~ ~ organic solvent-water mixtures at pyrolytic graphiteelectrodes.In both these cases a singleanodic peak has been found corresponding to a 2e, 2H' process. However, during the controlled potential electrolysis additional cathodic and anodic peaks, forming an irreversible redox couple related to the final product, have been observed. The mechanisms u g g e ~ t e d ~on~the . ~ basis ~ , of electrochemical as well as spectroscopic investigations, includes the formation of free radicals in the first step, their dimerization to a hydrazo compound and further oxidation to an azo compound, e.g. for 2-aminothiazole:

(YNH2 C'fAH --e,--H+,

(139)

(1390)

16. Electrochemistryof amidines

831

Oxidation of 4,5-disubstituted2-aminothiazoles(I41 and 142) in ACN containing LiCIO, has been investigated earlierg5qg6 using a rotating platinum disc electrode. For both the reactants,free radicals(143) formed in the first step can dimerize yielding the corresponding disulphidefrom 142 and, in the case of 141, the dimeric azo compounds, 144a and 144b, which have been identified as the final products.

“ey-” MeyyNHR 141

R’

R’ = COOEt (141) R = H (142) R = CSNHCOOEt

-H*-0

R’

(143)

(1440)

143

+

143

H....

0

EtOOC’

(144b)

Finally, it can be added that derivatives of 2-amino-1,3,4-thiadiazoles (e.g. 2benzoylamino-5-cyanomethyl-1,3,4-thiadiazoleg7~9s) are not electroactive in aqueousand organic-aqueous solutions(although2,s-diphenyl- 1,3,4-thiadiazolecan be reduced under similar conditions), unless they possess some reducible or oxidizable g r o ~ p s ~ ’ * ~ * . 0. Amidines of Biological Interest 1. Pyrimidines

Pyrimidine (145) is often treated as the prototype compound for the purine series;the cathodic reduction of purinesoccurs in the pyrimidine ring. Earlierstudies on this subject have been In aqueous solutions within the pH range 0.5 to 13, five polarographic waves of 145 have been observed. The half-wave potentials of these waves are pH-dependent according to the relations below’:

- E’,,2 = 0.576 +.0.105pH - EY/2 = 1.142 + 0.01 1 pH - E & = 0.680 + 0.089 pH - E’,’;2 = 1.600 + 0.005 pH - EYl2 = 0.805 + 0.079 pH

(4)

(5) (6)

(7) (8)

832

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

Some intermediate reduction products were not isolated, but were examined polaroThe electrochemical reducgraphically, coulometrically and spectrophotometri~ally~~. tion pathway which was suggested, based on the results of these studies, is as follows. The first wave, which is formed at low pH (0.5 to S), can be explained by the following scheme (where R denotes 145):

R + H 3 0 += R H + + H,O RH" + e e RH' 2RH. dimerization * HR-RH

(145)

The second wave (pH 3 to 5 ) has been considered to result from the reduction of the radical RH' with subsequent stabilization of the resulting anion, RH-, by water forming 3,4dihydropyrimidine (146). The third wave, recorded within the pH region from 5 to 8, correspondsto the overall process. Two remainingwaves observed at pH 7 to 8 and at pH 9 to 13were attributed to reduction of 146 and 145, respectively, to tetrahydropyrimidines. RH

145

+ e =RH-

+ 2e + 2H,O+

-

146 + 2H,O

The cathodic process of 145 in non-aqueous media, such as DMF and ACN (for details see References 2 and 7), starts with a reversible le transfer

R +e R'The resultingradical anion,R'-, is very unstable. Cyclic voltammograms of pyrimidine in ACN solutions containing TEAP as supporting electrolyte show no anodic peak corresponding to the oxidation of R ' - at scan rates below 3 V s - '. Even at a sweep rate of 60 V s- the ratio of anodic to cathodic peak current was found to be far from unityloO.It seems evident that formation of dimers is the preferred pathway of stabilization of R'under aprotic conditions. During the cathodic reduction of 145 in DMF the corresponding ESR spectrum was recorded;this was unequivocally assigned to the radical anion of 4,4'-bis-pyrimidine10*.In our opinion, the kinetics of this dimerization should be strongly affected by the nature of the supporting electrolyte cations, M+,due to ion association phenomena in R--M" systems. To our knowledge, however, no experimentalresults on this subject are available in the literature. Electrochemical processes of 145 in acetonitrile containing proton-donating agents, HA, such as phenol, have also been investigated"'. Under these conditions the following reactions have been suggested: R +HA z ( R * * . H A ; - - ' R H + + A - ) RH+ + e s RH' 2RH.' dimerization P HR-RH

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

833

We think, however, that such a mechanismneedssome comments. Let ‘usmention that the hydrogen-bonded adduct, R...HA, was not detected in the bulk of the solution. In other words, it can be formed only in the field of the double layer of an electrode. What is the effect of the potential gradient on the formation of R..-HA?,Does‘this addudt really dissociate in the field of an electrode formingRH+? Up to now, it has not been possible to give a detailed explanation of this problem. An importantstep forward was made by Malinski and coworkers103who investigated the electrochemical behaviour of 2-hydroxypyrimidine (147) and related.compounds in DMSO. The existence of a keto-enol equilibrium should be considered, but in the solvent under study the molecules are predominantly in the keto form ‘(cf. Reference 1.03 and referencescited therein).Formally, the keto form of 147 has no amidine group; however, the redox behaviour of this compound is important in elucidating ,the reduction mechanismof cytosine (148), which is one of the important components of both DNA and RNA. Thus, it will be convenient to discuss at first the reduction of 147, which was examined using many electroanalytical techniques. In general, the reduction pathway is similar to those described for pyrimidine. The primary and most remarkable difference between the cathodic behaviour of 147 and 145 is the ability of the substitutedcompound, 147, to serve as a proton source. Therefore,it is interesting‘tonote that 147 is.a proton donor for neutralization of the radical anion formed as a result of,a fast le transfer. Of course, the electrode processes for this reduction are diffusion controlled. However, a diffusioncurrentconstant I, decreasesvisibly with increasingconcentrationof 147. This is mainly due to the differencesbetween the rates of protonation ofthe radical anion-andthe dimerization step. At high concentrations, protonation by the parent molecule is suggested to be the predominantfactor, whereasat low ccincentrat.ionsthis protonation is low and mainly dimerization occurs’o3. As a result of this concurrence,.fundamental characteristics of the recorded polarographic waves are clearly dependent on the concentration of the compound under study (Table 16).

(147)

H

A part of the free radical formed on protonation can be further reduced. The resulting anion is also capable of abstracting a proton from the molecule of 147, similarly to what was described above. Of course, in these father-son processes* 2-hydroxy.pyrimidine anions are produced. They are not reducible at a mercury cathode within the available potential range, but can take part in a Hg(I)/Hg(O).redoxcouple, involving formation of sparingly soluble mercury salts. As a consequence,three anodic polarographicwaves can be observed ( E , , 2 between - 0.1 and - 0.3 V). Similaranodic effects were also described for mercaptopyrimidines, e.g. 2-mercaptopythey have been attributed to the rimidine (149)lo5 and dimercaptopyrimidines’06; precipitation of corresponding Hg(1) salts. Moreover, 149 gave the pH-dependent cathodic waves with characteristics quite similar to those described above for the pyrimidine reduction. *The term “father-son reaction” was first suggested to describe the situation where the principal product of the reaction then reacts with the original reactant of interest’04. In our case, for instance, 147 and its radical anion can be regarded as “father” and “son”, respectively.

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

834

in

TABLE 16. Polarographic data of 2-hydroxypyrimidine(147) DMSO-TBAP'03 P

(mM)

-El,, (v)

1,

1.67 1.64

0.77

+O

2

nc

.oo

1.69

1

0.99

"Concentration of 147. b l , = is/(cm2'3t1'6) where ,i is the limiting current, and m and I denote the rate of mercury flow in a dropping mercury electrode and the drop time, respectively. 'The number of electrons transferred in the electrochemical process, n, was calculated based on.the I , value.

I

(14 9)

H (148)

Very recently the electrochemical properties of 2,4,6-triamino-5-nitrosopyrimidine

(150), a compound of pharmaceutical significance, have been studied using a dropping

mercury ele~trode'~'. Within the pH range 4-14 a single diffusion-controlledcathodic wave has been observed; the changes in Ellz with pH may be expressed as follows:

- E 1 p = 0.20 + 0.055 pH

(9)

The overall process was found to correspond to a 4e, 4Ht transfer,and is connected with the reduction of the nitroso group. However, on the basis of the shape of cyclic voltammograms, step-wise addition of electrons was suggested. Consequently, the hydroxylamino derivative (151) can be assumed as an intermediate, whereas 2,4,5,6-tetraaminopyrimidine (152) was identified as the final product. ze,zn+

N/

H2NAN ?No

(150)

N k N H o H

2e,2n*

-npo NH2

H2NAN

NH2

(151)

(152)

Now, we focus our attention on the cathodic processes of cytosine (148), which is a typical cyclic amidine.The electroreduction of 148 has been studied extensively in aqueous s ~ l u t i o n s ' ~It~is- well ~ ~ ~established . that the 3,4 N=C double bond is initially reduced in the 2e step. The resulting 3,4-dihydro species is rapidly deaminated to produce 2-hydroxypyrimidine, which is further reduced according to the reaction sequence described above. Consequently, a 2-hydroxypyrimidine dimer has been isolated and identified'l3 after a controlled potential electrolysis ( - 1.45V) of 148 at a Hg pool cathode.

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

835

More recently, the cathodic behaviour of 148 has been examined in DMSO

solution^'^^*^^^ . Characteristics of the polarographic wave were found to be visibly

dependent on the reactant concentration; the half-wave potentials of E l , , - 2.42 and - 2.37 V, were estimated for infinite dilution and at a concentrationof 2 mM, respectively (0.1 M TBAP was used as electrolyte). This result and characteristic changes of the I , values with the concentrationof cytosine indicate the occurrenceof afather-son process quite similar to that in the case of 147. 2. Purines and purine bases

Purine (153, note exceptional numbering according to IUPAC), and its derivatives react in many cases analogously to pyrimidine, or more precisely, the electrochemical reduction of purines is restricted to the pyrimid.ine system. Earlier works on the electrochemistry of these compounds have been extensively reviewed2-*; therefore, we note only that 153 forms two polarographic waves in aqueous media, both of which are pH-dependent (within the pH range 0 to 11): -

= 0.697

- EY,z = 0.902

+ 0.083 pH + 0.080 pH

(10) (1 1 )

Based on the results of numerous electrochemical and spectroscopic experiments, 1,6dihydropurine (154) was identified as the product of wave 1. Wave 11 yields 1,2,3,6tetrahydropurine (155) which hydrolyzes, forming 156. The imidazole system is not reducible under polarographic conditions. Note that this observation is consistent with the reactivity of purines with hydrated electrons. As can be seen from the excellent review of Steenken"', the purines have a very intrinsic reactivity with eauand this property is endowed by the electron-deficient pyrimidine ring.

H

H (153)

H

1154)

H

(15 51

NH2

(156)

Purines may also be oxidized electrochemically"6-'26. By way of example, the anodic oxidation of 2,6-diaminopurine (157) was studied in detail on pyrolytic graphite'". Electrochemical:spectroelectrochemical and gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric experiments indicate that the oxidation pathway depends on potential. At less positive potentials 157 is initially oxidized in a 2e, 2H' process to the keto form of 2,6diaminopurinol (l58), which is imniediately further oxidized to 2,6-diaminopurinol-

J. S. Jaworski and M.K. Kalinowski

836

diimine (159) in a 2e, 2H process. At more positive potentials a 4e, 4H process forms the diimine 159. The latteris not stable and decomposes in a seriesof reactions (hydrolysis and (160a) and 2,4,6,8elimination of NH,) giving 5-hydroxyhydantoin-S-carboxamide tetraaza-3,7-dioxo-4-ene-bicyclo[3.3.O]oct-4~ne-l-carboxylic acid (lab) as final products. More recent experimental evidence indicated'28 that the 2e oxidation of 158 proceeded in two l e steps. The mechanismssuggested to explain the results observed are also dkcussed in Reference 129. +

+

H

'2N

-

- 2 0 ~-2H*

H

H2N

(15 7 )

H2N

(159)

(158)

+ Ha0

-4r,-4H*

H

li

(1600)

(160b)

Some information on the cathodic reduction of purine in non-aqueous media is also available. Santhanamand Elving' 30 examined the redox properties of purine itself and its 6-substituted derivatives including adenine (6-aminopurine)in DMF. They postulated that neutral molecules are reducibledue to prior reduction of hydrogen ions, background electrolyte cations or residual water, undergoing a le transfer to form the corresponding free radical anion. The latter dimerizes, as indicated by the lack of an anodic peak, after a potential scan reversal duringcyclic voltammetric experiments.Recent studies of Malinski and coworkers'3Lhave shown that adenine (161) is reduced in DMSO containing 0.1 M TBAP at the potential - 1.58 V. Differential pulse and cyclic voltammograms in the reverse scan showed an anodic peak at E = - 1.08V. More precise experiments with recording of thin-layer spectra during controlled potential electroreduction support a mechanism involving radical generation in a le transfer followed by protonation and dimerization; the dimer may be oxidized at a high overpotential: Ad

f e

Ad'-

+H+

.F== AdH' ?

-

$(AdH),

In this scheme Ad denotes the molecule of adenine. The electrochemicalreduction of 161 in aqueous media has been examined extensively at various types of electrodes and the results of these studies have been r e v i e ~ e d ~ . ~ * ' ~ ~ * ' ~ The following conclusions from these studies are particularly important. First, investigations have revealed adenine to be reducible only when protonated at the N(') nitrogen

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

837

atom'.' '0*'34-136; the reduction has not been observed above pH 5.5. The polarographic wave occurs close to the background electrolyte decomposition, and its half-wave potential is pH-dependent according to the following equation:

= 0.975 + 0.090pH (12) Controlled-potentialcoulometry and large-scaleelectrolysis show that 6e are consumed. The pH change during coulometric measurementsin unbufferedsolutions indicates that five or six hydrogen ions are consumed during the electrochemical process. Second, the reduction product at pH 1.4 is essentially superimposable on that of the product for the purine reduction at the potential of its second wave. Actually, the macroscale electrolysis at a mercury pool cathode produces 155 in 1 M HCli3' as well as in solutions of the pH range 1.3 to 2.313'. Hence the electrochemical reduction occurs in the pyrimidine subsystem and is connected with the elimination of the amino group. All these observations are fully consistent with the results of the pioneer work of Smith and Elving13'. According to these authors the first (potential-controlling)step involves hydrogenation of the 1,6-double bond, i.e. the reduction of the amidine moiety. Further processes follow, being the reduction of the 2,3-double bond, the deamination of the 6position, further reduction of the regenerated 1,6-double bond and finally hydrolytic cleavage at the 2,3-position. The chemicalsteps, i.e. deaminationand hydrolysis, are slower than the electrochemical ones. The overall mechanismof electrochemicalprocesses may be represented by Scheme 1. It should be noted that electroreduction of some substituted derivatives of adenine was also studied (for reviews see References 2 and 7); the reduction pathway seems to be very similar to that of 161.

SCHEME 1 The electrochemicalbehaviour of adenosine (162) is similar, in principle, to that of 161 itselfl4'. Attachment of the ribose moiety decreases the reducibility; the half-wave potential of 162 becomes more negative with increasingpH, according to the following equations: - El,' = 1.040

+ 0.070pH;

at pH 2.0 to 4.5

(13)

- E l / z = 1.180

+ 0.041 pH;

at pH 4.5 to 6.0

(14)

and

In proton-donating media polarograms exhibit a diffusion-controlled 4e wave due to

838

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

reduction of the 16, and 2,3 C=N double bonds in the protonated molecule. In aprotic conditions (DMSO-0.1 M TBAP) a l e transferwas observed. The radical anion dimerizes after prot~nation'~'.

HO

6H

(16 2)

Recently, the participation of adenine reduction has been identified during a s t ~ d y ' of ~' the cathodic processes of coenzyme NAD' (nicotinamideadeninedinucleotide).In acidic media NAD+ produces two polarographicwaves: the first consists of a l e reduction to a free radical N A D which reacts to give the dimer NAD-NAD'41*'42. The second step is connected with the reduction of the adeninesystem; this conclusionhas been confirmed by spectrophotometric measurements and enzymatic assessment of the products of macroscale electrolysis on a Hg pool cathode. It is noteworthy that electrochemicalreactions of adenine nucleosides and nucleotides have also been s t ~ d i e d ' ~ ' , The ' ~ ~ product . of AMP (adenosine monophosphate) reduction was characterized by HPLC and spectroscopic measurements and was identified as a corresponding dihydroadenine n ~ c l e o t i d e ' ~ ~ . Adenine and its derivatives are strongly adsorbed at an aqueous solution/mercury interface.The relative extent of adsorption of 161 and NAD+ from a solution of pH 4.8 (0.5M McIlvaine buffer) has been measured as a function of potential by an inverse normal pulse polarography. 161 shows its maximum adsorption between - 0.25 and - 0.45 V'44; in solution of pH 5.0 (in the same buffer) a maximum at - 0.43 V has been reported'45. 162 is strongly adsorbed at approximately - 0.6 V, which probably involves an uncharged portion of the molecule. At more negative potentials the species are gradually desorbed and may be readsorbed via the protonated portion of the molecule'40. Moreover, the inverse stripping voltammetry of twelve adenine nucleotides and seven nicotinamide adeninenucleotide coenzymes was performed in sodium phosphate buffer at a dropping mercury electrode using high scan rates (10 to lOOV s- '). The stripped phase formed at + 0.15 V consists of sparinglysoluble mercuroussalts and/or the corresponding mercurics~rfacecornplexes'~~. The adsorption offlavin adeninenucleotides at a platinum electrode has been recently Interestingresults have been published'48on the electrochemicalreduction oft-adenine (163). Within the pH range from 2 to 9.5 this compound forms a single, diffusioncontrolled, 2e cathodic wave. The absorption spectrum of the reduced species was found to be similar to that of 5-amino-2,3-bis-imidazole (164), so that the most probable reduction site seems to be the 2,3 C=N double bond. The reduction mechanism for 163 shown in Scheme2 has been suggested.The cathodic reductions of &-adenosineand ofe-NAD+ have also been a n a l y ~ e d ' ~ ~ . Only scanty information is available on the redox properties of 8-aza-adenine(165). In aqueous solutions the reduction pathway is similar to that of adenine: it occurs in the pyrimidine nucleus and takes place after elimination of the amino group in a dehydro 38. In liquid ammonia 165 compound which is suggested to be 3,4-dihydro-d-azapurine1 forms two cathodic peaks; the first is very broad, while the second is close to the reduction

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

839

I

H

H

(163)

SCHEME 2 wall and correspondsto the reduction of the medium used. No oxidation peak was present on the voltammogram. The mechanism of the electrochemical process was not el~cidated'~'.

Electrochemicalreactions of guanine(166) have been studied to some extent. Dryhurst and Pace'" found that the anodic oxidation at pyrolytic graphite in 1 M CH,COOH gave a mixture of guanidine, parabanicacid, C 0 2 and, probably, 5-guanidinohydantoin (167).Afterwards, Yao and Musha"' reported that 166 is oxidized anodically at a glassy carbon electrode in 1 M H,S04 giving allantoin, NH,, urea, guanidine, oxaluric and parabanicacids. Both papers' suggested a mechanism involving intermediates, but without a great deal of supporting evidence for the formation and identity of such species. Reliable identificationof products and intermediates have been reported by Goyal and Dryhurst's2. These authorshave found that 166 is oxidizable at pyrolytic graphite over a wide pH range in aqueous solutions. An oxidation peak is pH-dependent and its potential is described by the equation at a sweep rate of 5 mV s- Controlled-potential coulometry

'.

at pH 3.3 to 10.3 E , = 0.99 - 0.047 pH; (15) at a peak potential between pH 3.0 and 9.0 showed that 4 electrons per molecule were transferred. Using a combination of thin-layer spectroelectrochemistry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to trap and identify intermediates and products, it was established that 166 was initially oxidized in a 2e, 2H' process to give 8-oxyguanine (168) which, being more easily oxidized, was immediately furthertransformedin a 2e, 2H+ process to an unstable quinonoid diimine (169). Then, a series of hydration and other (170) chemicalreactionsoccurred leadingto the final products:2,5-diimino-4-imidazolone

J. S. Jaworski and M.K. Kalinowski

840

and 5-guanidinohydantoin(167). It is interesting to note that 168 is also oxidized by the peroxidase/H,O, system. Electrochemical,kinetic and spectral data indicate that for this process the chemicalreactionpathway is identical to that observed under the electrochemical conditions152.

H2N<XNH

H 2HNN f b = o

0

0

NH

(167)

(170)

The anodic oxidation of 6-thioguanine(171) proceeds by a pathway which involves the thio groupas well as the purinering. Cyclic voltammograms recorded at a rough pyrolytic graphite electrode showed two oxidation peaks, I and 11; the first is present due to an adsorption-controlledprocess. From pH 1.7 to 7.4 at scan rate 5 mV s - ' Ef, = 0.53 - 0.037 pH

(16)

and within the pH range from 8.0 to 10.0 E', = 0.76 - 0.076 pH (17) The potential of the second peak can be described as a function of pH by the following equations:

E!= 1.11 -0.032pH; E! = 1.28 - 0.065 pH;

(18) (19)

at pH 1.7 to 4.0 at pH 4.0 to 10.0

E!= 1.36-0.082pH; at pH 10.0 to 12.5 (20) Experimental results (cyclic voltammetry, controlled-potential electrolysis, coulometry, UV/vis spectroscopy and mass spectrometry) indicate that the oxidation mechanism depends visibly on applied potentials. At a less positive potential (peak I) the -SH group is oxidized forminga dimeric product 172. At more positive potentials (peak 11) the process under consideration correspondsto the overall lOe, lOH+ transferand then the oxidation involves both the thio group and the purine system. In this case l-hydroxy-2,4,6,8SH

S

S

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

84 1

.tetraaza-3,7-dioxo-bicyclo[3.3.0]oct-5-ene

(173) and Sguanidinohydantoin(167) were identified as the finalproducts. However, it was not possible to obtain indirect evidence of the pathway for a process leading to these corn pound^^^^.^^^.

o
(173)

It should be pointed out that 166 is not reducible under normal polarographic

condition^'^^*^^^.It is known, however, that the guanine moiety may be reduced in

nucleosides and nucleotides at potentials approximately - 1.8 to - 1.9V. Dihydroguaninederivatives generated duringthis process may be electrooxidized at ca - 0.2 V in buffered aqueousmedia at a mercury e l e c t r ~ d e ~ Such . ' ~ ~a. picture was observed on the cyclic voltammetric curves of guanosine (174), but the influence of the reactant concentration, scan rate, switching potential, pH and the nature of the supporting electrolyte was very complex, indicating that adsorption/desorption phenomena play an important role in the processes under study' 5 5 . Quantitative investigations on the adsorption stage and association of 174156,its methylated derivative^^^'*'^^and guanosine p h o ~ p h a t e sat' ~a~mercury electrode have been carried out in various buffer solutions by phase-sensitive a.c. voltammetry. It was suggested that the 7,8 C=N double bond in the guanine system is reduced at mercury cathodes'6o. Very recently identification of the electroreduction products has been reported16'. Forthis purpose a macroscalecontrolled-potential electrolysis of 174 in acetate buffer (pH 6.0) with ammonium formate was performed. In other experiments the authors attempted the reduction of 174 in DMSO by the use of borohydride and compared the voltammogram of the product of this chemical reduction with that of electroreducedguanosine.Identical products were found in both experiments.Analyses of the NMR spectrum of chemically reduced 174 revealed that two products were formed: one of them was attributed to 9-ribosyl-2-aminopurine(175), the other was identified as 7,8-dihydroguanosine(176). Thus, rather surprisingly (although intuitively expected in Reference 160) the electroreduction of 174 may really proceed in the imidazole ring. Certainly, this is a unique pathway for the electroreduction of the purine derivatives.

(174)

(176)

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

842

It should be emphasized in this context that highly original and very interesting results have been reported by Subramanianand Dryhurst16'. Studying the oxidation of 174 in aqueous phosphate buffer solutions (pH 2-1 1) at a pyrolytic graphite anode, they found that cyclic voltammograms show up to three pH-dependent anodic peaks. Their potential characteristics were as follows (sweep rates and pH regions are given in parentheses): EL= 1.16-0.050pH EF = 1.24 - 0.035 pH

(5mV s-'; pH 4-11) (200 mV s- '; pH 2-1 1)

(21) (22)

E r = 1.28-0.011pH (200mVs-'; pH 2-8) (23) Having scanned these oxidation peaks several reduction peaks were observed on the reverse scan.Moreover, on the second anodic sweep, two new oxidation peaks appeared at less positive potentials than peak 111. This complex picture was additionally influencedby adsorption phenomena. More precise experiments indicate clearly that 174 is really adsorbed at the surface of an electrode. This being the case the interpretation of experimental results becomes very difficult indeed. Nevertheless the authors16' have shown convincingly that the primary electro-oxidation step involves a le, 1H+transfer leading to a free radical(177) with the unpaired electron being located at the Cc8) position:

R (177)

This radical reacts with guanosineand H,O yielding other radicals,which then undergo a series of chemical and electrochemical processes giving novel guanine di- and trinucleosides. One of these, 8-(8-guanosyl)-l-(1-guanosyl)guanosine(181), is formed in the sequence of reactions shown in Scheme 3. Similarly, additional reasonable routes to form other guanine oligonucleosides were also suggested'62.

R

(178) 0

1I7

+

174 HN R

(1 7 9)

843

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

177

+

H20

__*

HZN

I

R

(160)

178

+

176

-

0

dimerirotion

I R

NH2

I

HzN

N

I

R -*,--H+

0

0


R

R

(161)

SCHEME 3

V. EPILOGUE

It can be seen from this chapter that electrochemicaldata have been accumulatedand used mainly for the explanation of the mechanism of the reduction and oxidation of amidines. Numerous compounds of this group are of biological and pharmaceuticalinterest, and in several publications the electroanalytical point of view is accentuated. Yao and coworkers'54have found that adenine,adenosine,guanineand guanosinecan be oxidized

844

J. S. Jaworski and M.K. Kalinowski

at a glassy carbon electrode in aqueous solutions at different potentials. The bases and their nucleosideswere strongly adsorbed on the surfaceof the electrode, but at pH values below 4 good linear dependences were observed. The differences between the peak potentials of each of the purine bases were most pronounced at pH 2-4; consequently, it was possible to conduct experiments in mixtures of the bases and their nucleosides. The method was recommended as simple and rapid, since no prior separation is required. Furthermore,PaleEek'63has applied a cathodic stripping voltammetry to determine purine derivatives. The method was based on a slow accumulationof the sparingly soluble salts with Hg at the electrode surfaceand their subsequent cathodic stripping. It was found M;the limit that some purine derivatives can be detected at concentrationsas low as of adenine detection was even 2 x M. Electroanalytical methods, mainly polarography, were applied for the quantitative determination of some important pharmaceutics,e.g. proguanil (79) and chlorohexidine (81, in the form of Hibitane tablets)63,~ i m e t i d i n e 'guanabenzoacetate ~~, (Wytensin, which is a derivative of 93c)'O, as well as other amidines discussed in the previous section (7059, 97-10172,33,93d7', 3165).The use of guanylhydrazones (93a-93b) as ligands for the polarographic determination of metal ions was also s u g g e ~ t e d ~Electrochemical ~.~~. detection combined with chromatographic methods was used in numerous papers, in particular, for guanidines and biological amidines' 66-168. Recently, differential pulse voltammetry has been applied'69for anodic determination of 6-mercaptopurine and 6thioguanine.Quite recently,Chodkowski and coworkers foundL70 that amidopenicillines, Selexidin (182) and its pivaloyloxymethyl ester-Selexid, give catalytic polarographic

waves which can be used for their quantitation. A suitable medium is phosphate buffer in which 182 can be best determined in concentrationsof 0.04-0.20mg cm-j at pH 8.20, and Selexid in concentrations of 1 0 - 5 0 p g ~ m -at ~ pH 7.0. The development of electrode reactions is highly dependent on the nature of the electrode-solution interface.Most of these processes are still performed using metallic or carbon electrodes.However, modifications of the surfacemay result in the enhancementof particularproperties of the working electrode which can be exploited in electroanalytical chemistry. Many times the acceleration of the rate of heterogeneous electron transfer at modified electrodes was observed. For example, cytochrome c is very slowly reduced at various bare electrodes, but modification of the surface by purine and its derivatives facilitatesvisibly the electron transfer.For this purpose a silver electrode was modified by the deposition of bis(4-pyridy1)disulphide and purine" I . Purine and its derivatives, among them adenineand guanineL7',as well as 6-mer~aptopurine'~~.'~~, were found to be effective as new promoters for rapid electron transferof cytochrome c at a modified gold surface. The effectiveness of other purinyl compounds has also been Moreover, a film of ethylene-bis-biguanidine silver(II1)on platinum has been electrodeposited from an aqueous HC104 solution and the electrochemical route for the generation and electrocatalytic activity of this film towards oxygen evolution was presented's2.

16. Electrochemistry of amidines

845

The use of metal phthalocyanines as catalysts in the electroreduction of molecular oxygen is a subject ofgrowing i n t e ~ - e s t ' ~ Catalytic ~ - ' ~ ~ . activity was usually considered in terms of redox processes involving the central Recent resultsls8have indicated that in the case of adsorbed laycrs of iron phthalocyanincand iron naphthalocyanineon a gold and a stress-annealedpyrolytic graphite electrode, 0, reduction is really associated with redox processes involving the metal ion through the Fe(lI)/Fe(III)couple. However, in the case of iron tetrasulphonaphthalocyanine the existence of such a mechanism seems to be questionable. In recent years more and more attention has been paid to the electrochemistry of the amidinato complexes of transition metal ions. Cathodic reactions of the biguanide ~ ~ silver(ll1) complexes of ethylene dibiguanideIg0in water are complex of C O ( I I I ) 'and quite simple; polarographicprocesses of the latter indicated that formation of bivalent and monovalent states of silver occurred. More recently, redox properties of dirhodium(I1) complexes with N , N diphenylbenzamidine were studied in CH,CI, and ACN solvents (0.1 M TBAP) and three reversible processes were observedIg'.Also, dipalladium complexes with the same ligand were found to be oxidizable at a platinum electrode in CH,CI,, 0.1 M TBAPLg2. Rh,(ligand), Rh,(ligand),

e

--e

[Rh,(ligand),] [Rh,(ligand),]

+

Chemical and electrochemical oxidation ofdinuclearp-tolyl formamidinato Rh(I)Ig3,as well as Ni(I1) and Pd(ll)'94 complexes were studied in detail in dichloromethanesolvent. The cyclic voltammograms show the first reversible l e transfer for each compound. The second step is reversible for palladium, but irreversible for nickel complexes. The rhodium complexes display a series of sequential redox changes for which the complete elucidation of the relevant pathways is complicated, mainly because of the chemical irreversibility of some processes. Electrochemical behaviour of a series of formamidinato rhenium(1) complexes in CH,CI,, ACN, and acetone solvents is d e ~ c r i b e d ' ~As ' . previously, the anodic reaction is connected with oxidation of the metal, namely with a rhenium(I)/rhenium(II)redox change.Nevertheless, the reversible oxidation potentials were found to be a linearfunction of the Hammett Q constants proper for substituents in the ligand. The next problem is connected with the coordination chemistry of nucleic acids which are involved in a variety of interactions with metal ions in biological systems'96. Ofcourse, the elucidation of the reaction mechanisms between complicated macromolecular assemblies and cations is a very difficult task, and therefore one tries to elucidate the problem on the basis of results obtained for simpler models. Hence, the complexation of purine bases has been studied in detail by means of a variety of electrochemical methods, and the data accumulated in the literature are very ample, indeed. The use of electroanalytical techniques is very convenient in these cases; the stoichiometry and the stability constants can be calculated from the changes in the diffusion current and halfwave potential of a given metal cation upon changes in the ligand concentrationlg7.Since electrochemical processes of purines are not observed in these measurements, the literature on their complexation is not reviewed here. It is noteworthy that the complexation of Cu(ll), Fe(III), Fe(I1) and Ni(l1) by adenine and adenosine has been studied recently in DMS0I3'. One of the results of these studies was to find that adenine stabilizes copper in

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

846

+

its 1 oxidation state, and therefore the reduction of Cu(I1) ions in the presence of excess adenine proceeds in two le steps. A similar mechanismwas observed in aqueous solutions (pH < 5) and some physicochemicalproperties of the intermediate species Cu(1)-adenine were identifiedkg8.Stabilization of the copper(1) ions by adenine was also found in a medium of sulphuricacidIg9.It should be added here that the stereodynamic Cu(I)/Cu(II) redox changesare the most important factors in this type of complex which, in many cases: constitute a valid model for blue copper proteins200. Biological activity of cyclic amidines is sometimes considered in terms of their redox properties. By way of example, polarographicand voltammetric data for purine, adenine, guanine and some of their derivativesz0* as well as quinoline derivatives with the guanidine dihydrochloride groupzoz have recently been correlated with the current pictures ofcarcinogenity. Also, the effectivenessof some nitroimidazoles and nitrotriazoles as radiosensitizingagents in cancer therapy was discussed in relation to their electrochemical potential^^^**^. Finally, considering electrochemical properties of amidines, some other practical aspects should not be omitted. It is well known that benzimidazole is extensively applied as a corrosion inhibitor for copper and its alloys. It has been found very recently that a compact film of benzimidazolato copper(1)is formed on the Cu surfacewhen the electrode is immersed in a stirred benzimidazole solution and cyclic voltammetry applied. This polymer film inhibits anodic processes very effectivelyzo3.Among other applications the use of substituted derivatives of oxopyrimidine in zinc electrodeposition in orderto obtain bright coatings was reportedzo4. Although this finding was considered i n terms of the adsorption phenomena, its full explanation still remains unknown. VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This paper was sponsored by the CPBP 01.15 program of the Ministry of National Education.

_ _

VII. REFERENCES

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1975, p. 241.

2. P. J. Elving, in Topics in Electrochemistry and Bioenergetics (Ed. G. Milazzo), Vol. I , Wiley, London, 1976, D. 182. 3. G. Dryhurst, Ejectrochemistry of Biological Molecules, Academic Press, New York, 1977.

4. D. C. Sawyer (Ed.), Electrochemical Studies of Biological Systems, American Chemical Society,

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1985. 9. A. J. Bard and H. Lund (Eds.) Encyclopedia of Electrochemistry o f t h e Elements, Vol. XV, M. Dekker, New York, 1984. 10. T. V. Treopol’skaya and G. K. Budnikov, Elektrokhimiya Azometinou, Nauka, Moscow, 1989 (in 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

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16. 17. 18. 19.

848

J. S. Jaworski and M. K. Kalinowski

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16. Electrochemistry of amidines

85 1

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I

Author index This author index is designed to enable the reader to locate an author's name and work with the aid of the reference numbers appearing in the text. The page numbers are printed in normal type in ascending numerical order, followed by the reference numbers in parentheses. The numbers in itulics refer to the pag6s on which the references are actually listed.

Aaron, H. S., 467 (452), 482 Abad. G. A.. 765 (74), 786 Abayev, V. T., 806 (48). 847 Abboud, J. L. M., 12 (43). 93 Abd Allah, S. 0..808 (53), 847 Abdel Auem, M., 831 (98). 848 Abdel Fattah, N. F.. 831 (97, 98), 848 Abd-el-Nabey, 8. A., 830 (90). 848 Abdesaken, F., 380 (54). 421 Abdulla, R. F., 348 (61), 364 Abe, T., 429 (31). 473 Abel, E. W., 598 (200). 620, 678 (121). 687 Abgott, R. A., 273 (109). 298,671,672 (102). 687 A M , N. A., 319 (40). 322,442 (151), 475 Abou-Elenien, G. M., 808 (53). 847 Aboujaoude, E. E., 470 (497), 482 Aboutabi, M. A., 831 (98), 848 Abraham, R. J., 335 (59), 338 Abram, U., 315 (31), 322 Abramovitch, R. A., 466 (440). 481 Abrazhanova, E. A., 352 (92). 365 'Acree, W.E. Jr., 323-325 (6). 337 Adam, W., 464 (416), 481 Adams, G. E., 722 (88). 746 Adams, J. M., 28 (126), 95, 141 (18), 145 Adelman, H., 491 (29). 523 Adembri, G., 521 (180), 526 Adichi, M., 467 (446), 481 Aditya, S., 730 ( I 10). 747 Adkins, S., 465 (425). 481 Adolph, H. G., 462 (388), 480 Advan, B. G., 378 (45). 421 Afanasyev, M. M., 581 (1.52, 154). 618 Afran, M., 440 (136), 475

Agadzhanyan, L. G., 533 (27), 616 Aganov, A. V., 164 (79). 199 (79,249,251), 224,228 Agasimundin, Y. S., 462 (395, 396). 480 Agawa, T., 356 (122), 366 Aggarwal, A. K., 205 (266). 207 (268,269), 228 Agrifoglio, G., 679 (137-139), 681 (J60). 687, 688, 785 (132, 133), 788 Ahlberg, P., 73 (295), 99, 370 (20). 376 (38), 420,421, 751 (6-12, 14), 752 (6-9), 753, 755 (10, 11),757(11),758(11,27),759 (12). 760 (28-31). 762,765 (14). 767 (6, 11, 14, 86, 87), 768 (6, 11). 769 (14, 94,97,98), 770 (105-107). 773 (106, 107, 120-122). 774 (120, 121). 777 (121, 122). 778 (6), 780 (31), 781 (86, 87, 127, 128), 785-787 Ahlbrecht, H., 431 (58), 473 Ahlrichs, R., 41 (219-221), 97 Ahmed, K., 469 (473). 482 Ahmed, M. E., 841 (159). 850 Ahmed, Z. A., 841 (159), 850 Ahuja, P., 348 (66). 365 Akerman, B., 85 (347). 100 Akhavan, S., 434 (86), 474 Akiba, K., 18 (84, 90), 94, 176 (158, 160). 177 (178), 226,457 (321), 479,498 (74), 524, 594 (184, 185), 595 (186). 619 Akimoto, H., 428 (17). 472 Akiyama, M., 443,468 (155). 475 Akiyama, T., 457 (321). 479 Akrawi, B. A., 793 (23). 814 (23, 61), 847, 848

853 The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates, Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and Z. Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley ’& Sons Ltd

Author index

854

Alagona, G., 162 (SO), 223 Alayer, J. de 452 (256), 477 Alberg, J. W., 736 (143). 747 Albers, M. D,. 679 (146), 688 Albert, A., 77 (330), 78 (334). 99,407 (144,

145).

423

Albert. M. S., 431,453 (62). 473 Albery, W.,J. 773 (I 13-1 15), 787 Albinson, 8.. 85 (347), 100 Alcock, N. W., 18 (89). 32 (160). 94,95, 177

(166).

226,435 (96).

474

Alderweireldt, F. G., 310 (21), 322 Aleksandrov, G. G., 246,250 (45). 296,673, 675,676 (109), 687 Aleksandrov, Yu. I., 246-249 (49). 296, 662,

683 (60). 686

Aleksanina, N. M., 467 (454), Aleshnikova, T. V,. 154 (13).

482 158 (35). 179 (13). 181, 195 (35). 223, 273 (101), 298 Alexander, C. A., 435 (99,474 Alexander, C. Jr., 716 (52), 745 Alexandrou, N. E., 266 (84), 297 Alfassi. Z. B., 732 (132), 747 Alfonso, L., 604, 605 (232), 620 Alfsen, A., 761 (36, 39, 46), 786 Ali, M. R., 457 (322), 479 AIICaume, M., 502, 503 (1 14), 525 Allen, A. O., 730 (1 12), 747 Allen, F. H., 102 ( I ) , 144 Allen, P. M., 844 (176), 850 Allinger, N. L., 37 (191), 96 Allmann, R., 29 (152, 153), 32 (159). 95, 174 (141, 142), 175, 190 (151), 191 (224, 225). 225-227, 432 (67), 465 (433), 473, 481 Almy, J., 752 (18, 20). 785 Al-Sheikhly, M., 720 (81, 82). 724, 726 (81). 746 Altmann, J. A., 765 (85). 787 Amamchyan, A. R,. 341 (20). 364 Amarasekara, A. S.. 214 (292). 229,437 (117). 474 Amelia, M. V., 534 (32). 616 Ames. A.;437 (1 12). 474 Ammar. D., 462 (386). 480 Amor. A. B. H., 457 (317), 479 Anand, N. 348 (66), 365 Anandan, L., 3% ( I 14). 423 Ananthan. S,. 273 (99). 298 Andersch, J.. 202 (256), 228 Andersen, K. K., 695,696,698 (32). 705 Andersen, N. H., 1 I (32). 93 Andersen, R. J,. 496 (61). 524 Anderson, D,. 430 (43). 473 Anderson, N. H., 471 (505). 483 Andds, J. ,I. 453, 470 (279). 478 Andrews, J., 295 (162), 299

Andrianov, V. G., 177 (176).

226,227

187,206 (209).

Andrianov, V. I., 613 (255, 256). 621 Angell, C. L., 501 (99), 524 Angle, S., 455 (300), 478 Angyal, S. J,. 490,500, 505 (17). 523 Anisimova, 0. S,. 390 (90). 394 (100). 402

(129).

422,423

Anteunis, M. J. 0. 165 (83, 84, 86). 173 (139). 174 (86), 185 (83), 224.225 Antonini, I., 469 (481). 482 Antus-Ercsenyi, A., 354 (108). 366,407 (142).

423

Anulewicz, R., 17 (87). 18 (87, 88). 21, 70 143 (87), 94, 112, 140 (1 I), 142 (19.20).

(19).

145, 176 (152), 226

Aoyagi, S., 5 (14). 92 Aoyama, T., 3 10 (22), 322 Arai, S., 594 (184). 595 (186), 619 Aranda, G., 209 (277, 278). 228 Aranti, L. G., 431 (61), 473 Arbuzov, B. A,, 199 (249, 251), 228 Archer, S., 528, 552 (3), 615 Arconeaux, J. H., 569 (1 18). 618 Arfan, M., 167, 168 (106), 188 (211), 205

(l06), 209, 220 (275), 225,227, 228, 441 (138). 475 Argay, G., 177 (182-184), 191 (183), 226, 462 (404). 480 Arias, A. L., 465 (425), 481 Arkhipova, T. A,, 834 (107). 849 Armand, J., 667 (79), 686 Armstrong, A,, 428,468 (26). 473 Armstrong, J., 428 (9), 472 Aroyan, A. A., 398 (1 17). 423 Arrhenius, G. M. L., 51 (242). 97. 154 (15), 212, 213 (289), 215 (15). 223,229 Amau. J,. 155, 172 (16), 223 Artamkina, G. A., 558 (87). 61 7 Arte, E., 167, 177 (96). 224 Asano, F., 546 (56). 616 Ashburner, S. 438.441 (124). 475 Ashwani Minocha 830 (93). 848 Askani. U., 454 (293). 478 A s h , R., 457 (319), 479 Asmus, K. D,. 735 (140), 747 Assef, G., 532 (25.26), 616 Assmann. F,. 469 (477). 482 Asso, L., 844 (179). 850 Astheimer. L., 683 (169). 688 Astwood, D. 835 (127), 836 (128). 849 Atamas, L. ,I. 196, 211 (243), 228, 581, 584 (l57), 618,596 (190). 619 Atsumi, T., 453 (275), 478 Atwal, K. S., 222 (308). 229 Atwell, G. J,. 553 (75). 61 7 Audrieth, L. F., 489 (12). 523

Author index Aue, D. H., 437,444 (1 18), 460 ( I 18, 344). 462 (400), 465 (422), 469 (344, 400, 482). 474, 479482 Auerrecoeches,J. M., 529 (11). 615 Avbelj, F,. 333, 335 (53a), 338 Avendano, C., 454 (285), 456,461 (313), 478. 4 79 Avery, E. C., 719 (67). 746 Avetisyan, A. A., 340 (16), 363 Avrarnenko,G. V., 312 (25), 322 Avruukaya, I. A., 834 (107), 849 Ayca, E., 457 (319), 479 Azirnov, V. A,, 402 (130), 423 Azizur-Rahman453 (280), 478 Baar, J. F. van 845 (183), 850 Baccar, B., 457 (317). 461 (378), 479,480 Bach, R. D., 172, 197 (134), 225, 465 (425), 481

Bachovchin,W.W., 331 (39), 338 Bachrach.S . M., 41 (218). 97 Back, M . H.. 336 (69c), 338 Bader, R. F. W., 40 (215), 97 Baekler. B., 667 (80). 686 Baeringhausen.H., 32 (169). 96 Baganz, H., 377 (43), 421 Bailey, T. R., 371 (25). 373 (27), 421 Baine, N. H . , 460 (350), 479 Baiocchi, L., 459 (341). 479 Baker, D. C., 163 (75). 224 Baker, R., 470 (493), 482 Baker, R. J., 430, 431, 455 (47), 473 Balasanmugam,K., 316 (32), 322 Balch, A. L., 162 (54). 170 (127). 171, 173 (54). 202 (127). 216 (54). 224,225 Baldwin, D. A., 28 (125). 95, 516 (153), 525 Baldwin, J. E., 21 I (282). 228, 455, 468 (304), 478, 529 (lo), 615 Baldwin, M. A.. 308 (17). 322, 326 (17), 337 Balitskaya, 0. V., 165, 186 (87), 224,581, 589, 599 (170-172). 619 Ball, A. P.. 295 (163). 299 Bally, T.. 175, 189 (150). 226. 509 (132). 525 Balt. S., 684 (180), 688 Bably, R., 77 (333), 99,627 (32), 685 Balvonine,G., 567 ( I 15), 617 Banaie, S . F., 550 (69). 617 Bandini, A. L., 435 (99), 474 Banditelli, G., 435 (99), 436 (100, 102). 474 Bandy, J. A., 516 (155). 526 Banerjee, R., 844 (182). 850 Banfi, D., 428,453 ( 1 1). 472 Bannard,R. A. B., 490 (22). 496 (59, 62), 523.524 Bannikova,0. B., 465 (434), 481 Bansal, K. M., 719 (70). 731 (121. 124). 732 (121). 743 (169, 170), 746-748

855

Baral, S., 163 (73), 224 Barbaro,G., 169 (1 15), 225 Barbey, G . , 800 (41), 847 Barbier,P., 468 (466). 482 Barco, A., 521, 522 (184), 526, 780 (126). 787 Barczynski, P., 404 (137), 423 Bard, A. J., 790 (9), 846 Bard, R. R., 395 (106). 422,612 (248, 249), 621 Bardi, R., 32 (163), 96 Barecka, I., 77, 79 (320). 99, 626, 629, 630, 640, 646, 647 (1 9), 685 Barek, J., 844 (169). 850 Barety, D., 826, 827, 846 (83), 848 Barker,J., 5 (18a). 18 (89), 26 (Ma, 18b), 82-84 (343, 92-94, 100, 163 (64), 177 (166). 224, 226, 250, 294 (53), 296, 302, 305, 312 (2). 315 (2, 30b, 30~).321,322 Barker,P. L., 368 (1 I), 420 Barkigia,K. M., 28 (129). 95 Barnes, R. M., 287 (139), 299, 683 (168), 688 Bamikow, G., 412 (167), 424 Barr, D., 336 (66), 338 Barrans,J., 361 (149). 366, 389 (84). 422,460 (343). 479 Barreau,M., 463 (413). 481 Bartell, L. S . , 16, 49 (60). 93 Barton, D. H. R,. 784 (131). 788 Barton, S . S., 502 (107). 525 Bartz, W . J., 443, 465 (163). 475 Baryshnikova,T. K., 824 (78), 828 (86), 848 Bashiardes,G., 784 (131). 788 Bassindale. A. R,. 601 (224). 620 Basyouni, W . M., 453 (276), 478 Bates, A. C., 273 (108), 298,671,672 (101). 687 Bates, D. L., 428 (13). 472 Bates, G. W., 515 (144). 525 Bats, J., 461, 463 (382), 480 Batzold, F. H., 761 (40, 50). 786 Baudet, P., 273, 284 (102), 298, 670 (90), 686 Bauer, G., 470 (488). 482 Bauer, S. H., 16 (77), 94 Baurn,G., 429 (38). 473, 614 (257, 258). 621 Baurngiirtel,H., 790, 791, 821,824, 825, 831, 832, 835, 837 (7). 846 Baxter, J. N., 77 (331), 99 Bazzano, C., 159 (40,42), 182 (40). 223 Beagley, B., 16,49 (66), 93 Beak, P., 529 (4, 5), 530 ( 9 , 6 1 5 Bear, J. L., 598, 606 (203), 620, 845 (191, 192), 850 Beasley, G. H., 607 (241). 620 Beauchamp,J. L., 325 (10, 1I), 337 Beaulieu,E. E., 761 (39,46), 786 Bechstein, U., 346 (53), 364

856

Author index

Beck, F., 823 (77). 848 Becker, G., 29 (146), 95 Beckwith, A. L. J., 157, 172, 197 (32). 223 Beddoes. R. L., 177 (170). 226 Bedell, L., 205 (265). 228 Bedford, A. F., 330 (32). 338 Bednyagina, N. P., 246 (46, 48). 250, 271, 272 (46), 273 (1 lo), 288 (46, 48, 110, 142, 145). 293 (48, 1 lo), 294 ( 1 lo), 296,298. 299.662 (60). 673,674 ( I 10). 675 (1 14). 676 ( I 10). 683 (60, 176-179). 686-688, 795, 796,810, 81 I (31). 847 Beekes, M. L., 678 (122), 687 Beer, M., 452 (232), 477 Begley. M. J., 27 (122). 95, 167, 177, 205 (95). 224 Behrn, H., 315 (31). 322 Bekker, A. R., 581 (173), 6 f 9 Belasco, J. G . , 773 (1 13, 114). 787 Belash, E. M., 796, 819-821, 844 (33). 847 Belenko, N. P., 806 (48). 847 Beletskaya. I. P., 558 (87). 617 Bell, A. R., 463 (410). 481 Bell, J., 5 I7 (l60), 526 Bell, R. P., 77 (324), 99, 749 (1). 769 (96). 770, 773 (I), 785, 787 Bellachiorna, G., 177 (188). 227 Bellarny, S., 336 (69b). 338 Bellard, S . , 102 ( I ) , 144 Beller, G., 462 (399), 480 Bellinger, H., 428 (29), 473 Bellora, E., 449 (204). 476 Bellucci, F.. 177 (177), 226 Belluci, F., 27 (1 19). 95 Belousoya, L. I., 465 (435). 481 Belyaeva, 0. Ya., 390 (90), 404 (138). 422, 423 Benassi, R., 168, 187 ( I lo), 225 Benati, L., 203 (258), 228 Bentit, L., 302. 305 (lo), 322 Benedusi, A., 3 17 (33,322,385 (67), 421 Bengelsdorf, 1. S . , 495 (54). 524 Bengtsson, S., 769 (97), 787 Benisek, W. F., 761 (48). 786 Benkovic, P. A., 154, 21 I (8). 222 Benkovic, S. J., 154, 21 I (8). 222 Benn, R., 679 ( I 38), 687 Bennett, J. E., 833-835 (103). 849 Bennett, L. L., 14 (48), 93 Benoit, R. L., 336 (68). 338 Benson, A. M., 761 (35, 37, 38.40). 786 Benson, S . W., 325 (8), 337, 731 (116), 747 Bent, H. A., 124, 135 (13), 145 Beppu, K., 464 (419), 481 Btranger, S., 310 (23). 322 Berenfeld. M. R., 452 (240). 477 Berg, H., 837, 838 (138). 849

Berg, U., 197 (245). 228 Bergbreiter, D., 464 (420), 481 Bergene, R., 713 (34), 745 Berger, M., 155, 156, 172, 179 (24). 223,439. 442 (128). 475,715 (39.41). 738, 739 (154), 745, 748 Bergeron, R. J., 455 (302), 478 Bergerson, R. J., 428, 465 (6), 472 Bergman, N.-A., 73 (295), 99, 758 (27). 773 (120-122), 774 (120, 121). 777 (121. 122). 786, 787 Bergman. R. G., I63 (74). 224, 53 I ( I 8). 615 Bergson, G., 752 (16, 17). 785 Berimzhanov, B. A,, 29 (155), 95 Berke, J., 678 (124). 687 Berkowitz, J. K., 452 (262). 477 Berkowitz, J. M.. 452 (261). 477 Berman, E. L., 369 (18). 420 Bemal. I., 163 (65, 68), 177 (167), 224, 226, 679 (139, 140), 687,688 Bernal, J. L., 286, 287, 289, 291 (137). 299. 660 (55). 686 BernPith, G., 398 ( 1 18). 423,461 (359, 360, 368, 369, 373). 462 (368, 4-06). 480, 481 Bemet, B., 469 (476). 482 Bemhard, W. A., 71 I (8, 12b), 715, 716 (43). 745 Bemholdt. D. E., 164 (77), 224 Bemstein, D., 177 (179). 226 Bemstein, J., 102, 103, 110, 116, 139 (2), 144 Beny, R. W. H., 470 (495), 482 Benalan, G., 784 (130), 788 Benelli, D. J., 64 (264), 98, 196 (241), 228 Benhou, J., 28 (136). 95 Beninchamps, A., 740 (157), 748 Benolasi, V., 9, 18 (23), 27 (119). 93. 95, 168 ( 1 12). 177 (177). 225,226 Berzas Nevado. J. J., 8 18, 819, 844 (68, 69). 848 Besan, J., 345 (47). 364 Bettelheim, A., 744 (171), 748 Beug, M. W., 445 (171). 475 Beurskens, P. T., 315 (31). 322 Beveridge, D. L., 37 (184), 96 Bevins, C. L., 761 (33). 786 Bey, P., 443,468 (156). 475 Beyer, L., 177 (164), 226, 315 (31). 322 Beylis, Yu. I., 796 (33). 819-821, 844 (33, 72). 847.848 Beynon, J. H., 306, 307, 310, 312 (14). 322 Bezuglaya, Z. V . , 312 (25), 322 Bhadti. V. 5.. 273 (99). 298 Bhaisa, D. J.. 443 (164). 475 Bhatia, K., 722 (89). 746 Bhattacharyya, S . N., 720 (83). 723 (130).

Author index 730 (110, 111). 732 (130, 135-137). 733 (135-137). 746. 747 Bhavsar, M. D., 443 (164). 475 Bianco, P., 844 (178, 179), 850 Bietti, G., 159 (42), 223 Bilewicz, R., 846 (198). 851 Biloski, A. J., 465 (423). 481 Bindal, T. K., 461 (375). 480 Binder, P. D., 656, 662, 669, 670 (50), 685 Binder, P. E., 59 (251). 98 Binding, N.. 607 (238). 620 Bindner, P. E.. 159, 160, 196,216 (37), 223 Binev, 1. G., 693, 701 (26). 705 Bingham, R. C., 37 (187), 96 Binkley, J. S., 16 (76), 38 (198). 39 (205, 208), 40 (1 98, 208-2 12). 45, 49, 54, 60 (228). 94. 96. 97 Bino, A., 163 (66), 224 Birch, D., 335 (59). 338 Birdi, G. S., 599 (206), 620 Birke, G., 170 (125). 225 Birkofer, L. 444 (169). 475, 604 (230). 620 Birnbaum,G. I., 172 (138). 225 Birnbaumer,M. E., 452 (247). 477 Bisagni, E., 518 (171), 526 Bischoff, J. J., 490, 495 (21), 523 Biswas. M. K., 522 (190). 526 Bitter, I., 346 (48). 354 (108). 364,366,407 (142), 423,785 (137). 788 Bityukova, 1. I., 469 (474). 482 Bivehed, H., 751, 762, 765, 767, 769 (13, 14). 770 (105-107), 773 (106, 107). 785, 787 Bizzini, B.. 452 (249), 477 Blair, J. S., 497 (64). 524 Blair, P. A., 437 ( I 1 I), 474 Blank, M., 790, 831. 835 (6). 846 Blechert, S., 560 (99), 617 Bleichrodt,J. F., 738, 739 (153). 748 Bleidelis, J., 18 (92), 94, 155, 176 (23). 223, 252,253 (60), 297 Bleidelis, Ya. Ya., 177 (176), 226 Blem, A. R., 463 (410), 481 Blonski, C., 581 (151), 618 Bloom, J. D., 465 (428). 481 Bluemcke, C.-0.. 791, 799, 805 (16). 847 Blum, T., 740 (159). 748 Bochkarev, V. N., 312 (25). 322 Bochkareva, M. N., 291 (150),299,681 (162, 163). 688 Bock, H., 23 (I13). 94 Boeger, M., 451 (225). 471 (503). 477.483 Boehme, H., 437 (1 15), 474 Boer, J. A. A. de 28 (132), 95, 517 (159),526 Boer, J. de 167, 176 (94), 224 Boere, R. T., 198 (247). 228, 343 (29). 364 Boes, M., 374 (30). 421 Boese, R., 191 (226). 227

857

Bogan, G., 731,732 (121). 747 Bogdanov, V. S., 341 (20). 364,681 (163), 688 Bogel’fer, L. Ya., 59 (254), 64 (272). 98, 164, 165 (81). 169 (119, 120, 122). 174, 185 (81). 191 (119). 199 (250), 202 (255). 224,225,228,264 (78-80), 265 (79, 80), 266 (go), 297, 581 (155, 156, 158, 159, 162, 164, 165, 169). 582 (I%), 583 (158, 159, 162), 585 (155, 164, 165). 587 (165, 169). 618,619, 670 (93-96). 671 (9496). 686 Boger, D. L., 461 (384). 480 Boggs, I. E., 50 (239), 97 Bohrnan,O., 770 (105), 787 Bohme, H., 427 (2), 472 Bohme, R., 32 (162). 95 Bohme, U. R., 740 (160). 748 Boicelli, A. C., 167, 168. 174, 186 (105). 225 Boiko, V. N., 266 (83). 297, 554 (go), 617, 670,671 (loo), 687 Boileau, G., 452 (259), 477 Bojarska, E., 838 (141, 142, 148). 849. 850 Boki, N. G., 598,603 (197). 620 Boldyreva, 0. O., 291 (150), 299 Bol’dyrieva, 0. G., 681 (162), 688 Bollinger, H., 457 (3 18), 479 Bolton, J. L., 331 (40), 338 Bombieri, G., 606 (234), 620, 678 (1 32, 134). 687 Bonanomi, M., 459 (341). 479 Bonapace,J. A. P., 531 (18), 615 Bonati, F., 435 (99), 436 (100, 102). 474 Bonelli, D., 600 (210). 620 Bongini, A., 455,462,468 (306, 307). 478 Bonham,J., 529 (4), 615 Bonnett, R., 1 I (42), 93 Booth, B. L., 203 (262). 228, 428 (19, 20), 4 72 Borders, C. L. Jr., 515 (143), 525 Bordwell, F. G., 765 (81). 787 Borg, D. C., 718 (54). 745 Borgarello,M., 329 (27). 337 Borgsen, B., 163 (62). 224 Borisenko, N. I., 537-539 (41). 558,559,613, 614 (91), 616, 617 Borisov, E. B., 604 (227). 620 Borisov, E. V., 656, 662 (51), 685 Born, M., 38 (200), 96 Borovik, E. I., 416 (177, 179), 424,466 (444). 481 Borovik, V. P., 408 (154). 423 Borovikova, G. S., 416 (177, 179), 424, 466 (444), 481 Borowski, J., 295 (164). 299 Bomll, F., 292, 293 (155). 299, 335 (63), 338, 682 (165, 166). 688

858

Author index

Borukhova, I. N., 795, 796, 810, 8Fl DT), 847: Borykin, B. A., 679 (142). 688 Bosch. E,. 833 (105, 106). 849 Boschcow, P., 332 (47). 338 Boschi, T,. 435 (93). 474,678 (128). 687 Bose, A. K., 82.85 (340). 99, 302 (5). 322 Bosl, K., 66 (279). 98 Bosnich, B., 444 (166). 475, 564 (1 12). 617 Boss, R., 429 (34). 473 Bossio, R., 470 (484), 482 Botkina, E. V., 628, 630 (37), 685 Bottard, J. C., 466 (442). 481 Botto, R. E. 502 (103). 525,697 (38). 705 Bouchet, P., 700 (43). 705 Boullanger, P,. 357 (1 29). 366 Bounds, P. L., 761 (33), 786 Box, H. C., 715 (42). 741 (164), 742 (164-166), 745, 748 Boyar, A., 502, 503 ( 1 15). 525 Bracco, L. P., 367 (4). 420 Brace, N. 0. 182 (197). 227 Bracher, B. H,. 32 (158). 95 Brackenridge, ,I. 428,468 (26). 473 Brackman, W., 761,764 (54). 786 Bradley, W., 678 (127), 687 Brady, K., 546, 547 (57). 616 Bragg, P. D., 452 (248), 477 Brajter-Toth, A., 835 ( I 19, 121. 122, l27), 836 (128. 129). 841 (129, 153), 849.850 Brancaccio, G., 351 (90). 365 Brand, E,. 495 (49, 51). 524 Brand, F. C,. 495 (49). 524 Brand, J. C. D., 102, 103. 110, 116, 139 (2), 144 Brandes, W., 451,471 (224). 477 Branica, M., 837 ( I 36). 849 Brauer, D. ,J. 18 (96b), 94 Braun, D. M., 580, 581 (150). 618 Braun, G., 437 ( I 15). 474 Braun, R. 0. 496 (60), 524 Braun, U., 177 (164, 167). 226 Brauner, H. J., 347 (55). 364, 376 (41), 421 Brauz, S. E., 529 (lo), 615 Bredereck, H., 233 (7, 14), 296, 349 (69), 365, 370 (22). 380 (56). 421,462 (401), 480, 490 (25). 523 Bredereck, K., 490 (25). 523 Bredikhina, Z. A., 463 (414). 468 (458). 481. 482 Bren', V. A., 628. 630 (37). 685 Breneman, C. M., 62, 63 (257a), 98, 155, 160. 161, 172, 183, 184 (20), 223 Bresciani-Pahor, N., 29 (149), 95,435 (89). 474 Bresnahan, W.T,. 838 (144). 849 Brianese, N., 177,202 (189), 227 Brice, M. D., 102 (I), 144

Bright, D., 167, 176 (94), 224 Bright, G. R., 452 (263), 477 Brinkman, E,. 802 (45). 847 Brinkmeyer, R. S., 348 (61), 364 Brion, J. D., 66 (280). 98, 348 (59), 364, 376 (35). 421,663 (71). 686 Brion, L., 441 (139). 475 Brito, M. B., 175 (147), 226 Brodskaya, E. L., 465 (439,481 Bromilow, J., 691, 692 (14, 15). 704 Brook, A. G., 601 (224), 620 Brouwer. W.G,. 463 (410). 481 Brown, D. J,. 460 (353. 357). 479, 518 (163, 164). 526 Brown, D. W.. 428 (30). 473 Brown, G. M., 490 (22), 523 Brown, H. C., 249 (52), 296, 628, 629 (34), 685, 794 (29), 847 Brown, J. F., 753, 770 (21, 22). 785 Brown, J. M., 32 (160). 95,435 (96), 469 (471). 474,482 Brown, J. N., 32 (166). 96 Brownbridge, P,. 362 (153). 366 Browne, D. T., 448 (199, 200). 476 Brownlee, R. T. C., 691 (14, 15, 19). 692 (14, 15), 693, 694, 697, 701 (25). 704, 705 Bruder, W. A., 371 (23), 421 Bruice, T. C., 550 (67). 61 7 Bruice, T. G., 547 (62). 616 Brunet, P. E,. 502 (105). 525 Brunner, H., 163 (65), 224,679 (137-139). 681 (160). 687,688,785 (132, 133). 788 Bruno, G., 163 (66), 224 Bryden, J. H., 502, 503 (I@), 525 Budarina, Z. N., 539 (43), 554 (78). 558, 559 (91), 613 (91, 256), 614 (91). 616. 617, 621 BudESinski, M., 58 (248). 97, 153 (7). 222, 693 (22). 694 (27). 704, 705 Budnikov, G. K., 790. 806, 81 1 (lo), 846 Budzinski, E. E., 715 (42), 741 (164), 742 (164, 165), 745, 748 Bulgarevich, S. B., 539 (44), 616 Bumber, A. A., 806 (48), 828, 829 (87). 847, 848 Bundel, Yu. G., 363 (154). 366 Bundgard, H., 245 (35), 296 Bundle, D. R,. 468 (462,463). 482 Bunnett, J. F., 749 (4). 785 Buntzlaff, B., 10 (31), 93 Buranbaev, M. Zh., 29 ( I S ) , 95 Burdick, B. A., 154, 21 1 (8), 222 Burger, B. V., 444 (169), 475 Burger, K. 220 (305). 229, 356 (121), 366, 845 (197). 851 Burgemeister, W.. 452 (266), 478 Burgi, H. B., 535 (34, 35). 616

Author index Burilov, A. R., 581 (153). 6/8 Burkardt,L. A., 502, 503 (109), 525 Burken,U., 37 (191). 96 Burkholder,C. D., 428 (8). 472 Bumistrov. K. S., 288 (141). 299 Bumistrov, S. J., 288 (141), 299 Bumaeva, L. A., 458 (327). 479,467 (453459,482 Bumett, F. N., 431, 453 (62). 473, 461 (379), 480 Burtner,R. R., 521 (183). 526 Bunlaff, H., 32 (162). 95 Buschauer,A., 449 (208). 476 Buse, C. T., 470 (487), 482 Busev, A. I., 682 (164). 688 Busi, F., 723 (108), 747 Busing, W.R., 32 (164). 96 BuSko-Oszczapowicz, I., 18 (92), 94, 155 (23), !76 (23, 155). 223,226,246,247 (41, 42, 49), 248, 249 (49), 252 (59, 60). 253 (60), 256, 257, 259 (74), 273 (41, 42, 104-107), 277 (74). 284 (133), 286 (41. 42, 104, 105, 107). 296-298 Butler, R. N., 12 (44). 93 Butt, M. I., 455 (296,309). 458 (326), 462 (296, 309). 478, 479 Button, R. G., 697 (36). 705 Buu-Hoi,N. P., 310 (23). 322 Buxton, G. V.. 719 (65). 746 Buzykin, B. I., 271 (91), 298. 673. 675 ( I l l ) , 687, 806 (50). 807, 808 (52). 847 Bychikhina,N. N., 402 (1 30). 423 Bystrom, K., 324, 325 (5a, 5b), 337 Cadet, J., 715 (39.41). 725 (101, 109). 738, 739 (154). 745-748 Cagle, F. W.Jr., 31 (172). % Caillaux, B., 354 (107). 366, 386 (73). 422 Cain, B. F., 553 (79, 617 Cairns, J. P., 697 (36). 705 Caldin, E. F., 769 (88-90), 787 Calhoon,R. D., 452 (243). 477 Calka, A., 273 (106, 107). 286 (107). 298 Calogero, S,. 436 (102). 474 Camellini, M. T., 204 (264), 228 Cameron, N., 5 , 26 (18a), 92, 163 (64). 224, 3 15 (30b). 322 Campbell, A. L. 443, 468 (162). 475 Cannon,J. R., 23 (100). 94 Cantallops,J., 286, 287, 289, 291 (137), 299, 660 ( 5 3 , 686 Capitani, J. F., 189 (219). 227 Capon, B., 762 (68), 786 Carbon,J. A., 492 (34). 523 Cardaci, G., 177 (188), 227 Cardellini, M., 469 (481). 482 Cardillo, G., 443 (158). 455 (305-307). 462

859

(306, 307). 468 (158, 305-307.461). 475,478,482, 561 (106, 107). 617 Cardnell,P. C., 308 (17), 322, 326 (17), 337 Carlsen,D., 350 (78). 365 Carlsen, N. R., 50 (237). 97 Carlson, E., 5 13 ( 140). 525 Carlson, R. M., 1 I (32). 93 Caro, B., 209 (276). 228 Caron, A., 16 (78). 94 Caron, M., 445-447 (181), 476 Carpy, A., 27, 28 (120). 95 Carrel, H. J., 761 (50). 786 Canillo, J. R,. 460 (358). 480 carsky, P., 37, 38, 42, 48 (194), 96 Cartwright,B. A., 102 (I), 144 Caruthers,M. H., 367 (4), 420 Carvalho,E., 575, 577 (134). 618 Casadevall, A., 765 (75). 786 Casassas. E., 292, 293 ( I S ) , 299,335 (63). 338, 682 ( I 65, 166), 688 Casedevall, E., 765 (75, 76), 786 Casellato, U., 177, 202 (189), 227, 598 (202), 620 Casselman,A. A., 490 (22). 523 Castellino, A. J., 432 (70). 473 Castle, R. N., 428 (3,472 Caswell, M., 183, 219 (201), 227, 440 (133), 445, 446 (176), 475, 476 C a t a h ,J., 12 (43). 93, 172 (131), 225, 330 (36). 331 (38). 332 (42). 338 Caullet, C., 800 (41). 847 Cauquis,G., 831 (95,96). 848 tekovit, 2.. 794, 809, 810 (28). 847 CBIBrier,J.. 470 (494), 482 CerdB, V., 286, 287, 289,291 (137). 292,293 (155). 299, 335 (63), 338, 660 ( 5 9 , 682 (165, 166). 686,688,813 (59), 814 (60). 848 Cereda, E., 159 (40, 42), 182 (40), 223, 449 (204), 476 Cernik, R. J., 177 (170), 226 Cervoni, P., 429 (41). 473 Cesario, M., 209 (278), 228 Cha, Y., 428,452,470 (21). 472 Chad, T. L., 452 (240), 477 Chakrabarti,P., 15, 17 (54), 93 Chakravarty,B., 845 (190). 850 Challis, B. C., 170, 172 (126). 208 (273), 225. 228,442,443 (149). 475 Challis, J. A., 208 (273). 228 Chalova, 0. B., 448 (195), 476 Chambers,R., 469 (478), 482 Champagne,P. J., 765 (73), 786 Chandler,A., 57 (245,247). 58 (247), 97, 193, 194 (234). 202,210 (257). 227,228,233. 262, 291 (15). 2%. 357 (130, 131). 366 Chandrakar,L. P., 680 (152), 688

860

Author index

Chang, H., 594 (183), 619 Chang, K.-C., 773 (108), 787 Chang, Y.-T., 773, 774 (117), 787 Chaphekar,M. R., 396 (1 14). 423 Chapius, G., 435 (98), 474 Chapleo, C. B., 449 (209), 476 Chapman,A. V., 607 (239,240), 620 Chapman,N. B., 690 (8, 9). 704 Chapman,P. W., 737 (147, 150). 747 Charbonnel,Y., 460 (343). 479 Charton,M., 506,508 (126). 525,628, 629, 659 (33). 685,693,694 (24), 697 (33, 698,699,701 (24), 703 (35). 705 Charubala,R., 212 (288), 229 Charushin,V. N., 382 (60), 421 Chasteen,N. D., 515 (145), 525 Chatrousse,A.-P., 612 (250). 621 Chatterjee, A., 428 (7), 472 Chau, L. K., 845 (191). 850 Chavan,M. Y., 845 (191). 850 Chawla, 0. P., 731, 732 (122). 747 Chen, C. C., 452 (267), 478 Chen, S. J., 385 (70). 421 Chen, T. P., 683 (173). 688 Chen, Y. C., 452 (267), 478 Cheng, M. Y., 503,504 (116). 525 Chenon,M.-Th., 329 (24a. 24b), 337 Cheriyan, U. O., 160, 183,204 (43). 217 (301). 219 (43), 223,229,445,446 ( 180). 476 Cherkasov, R. A,, 468 (457), 482 Cherkasov, V. M., 288 (144). 299, 358 (135), 366, 369 (17), 385 (72). 399 (121), 410 (161), 420, 422424, 454 (289), 478 Cherkina,M. V., 458 (327), 467 (454), 479, 482 Chemov, V. A., 408 (153). 423 Chertanova,L. F., 177 (175). 226 Chertopolokhova,E. A., 170, 171 (123). 225, 581, 585 (166). 619 Cheung,H. T. A., 518 (170), 526 Chew, C., 663 (66). 686 Chiang, Y., 429 (32), 443, 468 (160). 469 (32, 160). 473,475 Chimichi, S., 521 (180), 526, 610 (243). 621 Chinone, A,, 460 (356). 479 Chi-Sun Hahn 273 (97), 298 Chivers, T., 23 (1 lo), 94 Chizhov, 0. S., 313 (28), 322 Chkanikov,N. D., 356 (123). 366 ChlBdek, S., 522 (189). 526 Chmielewski, J. A., 761, 779 (32), 786 Chodkowski, J., 844 (170), 850 Chong, I. M., 496 (61). 524 Chorvat, R. J., 395 (104). 422 Chou, D., 335 (60), 338 Chrishti, N. H., 428 (8). 472

Christ, R., 352 (91). 365 Christensen,B. E., 499 (86), 524 Christesen,B. G., 449 (207), 476 Chrzanowski,A., 844 (170), 850 Chua, S. O., 68 (287). 98, 626, 663, 668 (30), 685 Chupakhin,0. N., 382 (60), 421 Cieniecka, A., 273,286 (105), 298 CieSlak, J., 246, 247 (41). 252 (59). 273 (41, 104-107), 286 (41, 104, 105, 107). 296298 CieSlak, L., 176 (155). 226 Cigitti, M., 532 (21, 22). 616 Cignitti, M., 175 (145), 226 Cinquantini,A., 845 (193, 195). 850, 851 Cisazk, E., 18 (93), 94 Ciszak, E., 142 (21). 144 (22), 145, 176 (153, 156). 177 (153), 226, 252 (58, 64), 266 (58). 297, 652, 653, 677 (47), 685 Ciszkowski, K., 78, 79 (313), 99, 236-239 (23, 26), 279, 284 (123), 296, 298, 626 (23, 25), 627 (25), 631, 643-645 (23), 648 (25). 650, 652 (23, 25), 656 (25), 665 (23). 685 Citerio, L., 383 (64, 66), 385 (68), 410 (162). 421 424 Ciuffo, G. M., 335 (58). 338 Claramant,R. M., 331 (38), 338 Clark, C., 739, 740 (155). 748 Clark, J. A., 290 (147). 299,678 (1 18, 135). 687 Clark, M. S. Jr., 154 (1 l), 223 Clark, T., 4, 5 (13), 92 Clarke, G. R., 28 (139). 95, 501 (IOl), 524 Clarke, H. T., 490 (15). 523 Claudi, F., 469 (481). 482 Claverie, P., 37 (1 90). 96 Cleland, W. W., 773 (112), 787 Clement, B., 68,69 (284). 98, 167 (103). 225, 274,275 (1 13). 276,277 (1 15), 298,663. 668 (74), 686 Clementi, E., 38 (202), 96 Cleve, C., 458 (324), 479 Cleverty, J. A., 679 (144). 688 Clift, S. M., 467 (450). 482 Clizbe, A,, 442, 468 (152), 475 Clizbe, L. A., 443,468 (161), 475 Cloarec, A. Y. le 663 (70), 686 Close, D. M., 715 (40, 44, 46), 716 (44, 47, 49-51, 53), 717 (47), 745 Coates, R. M., 438, 441 (124, 125),447, 464 (125). 475 Coburn, M. D., 428 (9,472 Cochran,D. W., 188, 189 (214). 227 Cockbum, W.-F., 490 (22). 523 Codes, A. W., 521 (182). 526 Coetzee, J. F., 78 (335). 99 I

Author index Coffey, S., 487 (2). 523 Coggins, J. R., 428 (13). 472 Coghi, L., 516 (151). 525 Cohen, E., 428, 462 (28). 473 Cohen, L. A., 569, 609 ( I 19, 120). 618 Cohen, V. I., 447 (193). 476 Cole, L. G., 324 (4). 337 Colella. M. B.. 287 (139). 299, 683 (168). 688 Colijn, H. A., 845 (183). 850 Collignon, N . , 470 (497), 482 Collins, J. B., 40 (209, 216). 97 Colon, C., 354 ( I I I), 366 Commeyras, A., 156 (29), 223 Concialini, V., 723 (108). 747 Conradi, E., 23 (97). 94 Consonni,P., 459 (330), 479 Contarnin,0. 845 (187). 8-50 Cook, J. B., 712 (19), 714 (36). 745 Cook, L. S., 343 (27, 28). 364, 368 (6). 420 Cook, M. J., 68 (287, 288). 98, 607 (239, 240). 620, 626 (30). 629, 630,633,656 (39). 663, 668 (30, 39), 685 Cook, S. J., 469 (471). 482 Coolgem, J. G . F., 845 (183). 850 Coolican, S . A,, 452 (237). 477 Coowar, F., 845 (187, 188). 850 Copenhafer,W. C., 430, 431 (50),441, 442, 459 (145), 473, 475, 600 (211, 213), 620 Coppola, 0 . M., 460 (347), 479 Coquelet, C., 700 (43). 705 Cordes, A. W., 440 (137). 475 Corey, E. J., 1 I (32). 93, 765 (72). 786 Cornell, S. C., 208 (271). 228,440 (135). 475 Corral, R. A., 491 (32). 523 Costain, C. C., 16, 50 (71), 94 Costello, G., 312, 313 (27). 322, 451 (231). 477 Coster, R. D., 203 (262). 228 Cosulich, D. B,. 35, 36 (177). 96 Cotton, F. A., 28 (I 33. 134). 95, 163 (63,66, 73), 224, 546 (53), 598 (204). 616, 620, 678 (125, 130, 131),687, 845 (194), 850 Cotton, T. M., 844 (180, 181). 850 Couture, A., 447 (194). 476 Covey, D. F., 761 (40, 50), 786 Cowan, D. J., 62, 63 (257b). 98 Cox, R. A., 447 (184). 476 Coxon, B., 731 ( I 14). 747 Cragoe, E. J. Jr., 188, 189 (214). 227 Craik, D. J., 691, 692 (14, 15). 704 Cram, D. J., 516 (156, 157). 526,752 (18-20). 785 Cramer, F., 499 (88). 500 (89, 90), 524 Cramer, R. E., 503, 504 ( I 16). 525 Crawford, P. W., 846 (201, 202). 851 Creswell, R. A., 49 (233), 97 Creswick, I., 785 (I 33). 788

86 1

Creswick, M. W., 163 (68). 224, 679 (139, 140). 687.688 Crist, D. R., 155, 156 (25). 171. 179 (129), 214 (25). 223. 225,439, 442, 465 (130). 475 Crist, L. R., 272 (95). 298 Crjenak, S., 801 (43), 847 Crljenak,S., 822, 823 (76). 848 Croatto, U., 606 (234). 620 Croatto, V., 678 ( I 34). 687 Crockett, G. C . , 199 (248). 228, 378 (46), 421 Cronan,J. E. Jr., 452 (241), 477 Crosby, A. F. S., 679 (146). 688 Crossland,I., 18 (82). 94, 176 (157), 226 Crowther, A. F., 494 (43), 523 Csizmadia, I. G., 5, 9 (19). 13 (47), 37, 38 (193). 42.44 (19), 45 (19.47). 46 (19), 48 (19, 193). 50.54, 57,60,63 (19), 93, 96, 155, 48, 72 (230). 97, 160 (17), 161, 172, 173 (45). 179 (17), 180 (43, 183 (17), 184 (45). 196 (17). 199 (45). 223, 669 (87, 88). 686 Csiiros, 2.. 784 ( I j O ) , 785 (137), 788 Cuadrado,F. J., 465 (436). 481 Culter, J., 452 (251), 477 Cummings, T. E., 833-835 (103), 849 Cummins, R. A., 66 (278), 98 Cundall, R. B., 326 (15). 337 Cunico, R. F., 205 (265). 228 Cunningham,1. D., 58 (248). 97, 186, 204 (206). 227, 270, 291 (89). 297, 554 (84). 617, 671 (104). 687 Curd, F. H. S., 494 (43, 48). 495 (56), 523, 524 Curtin, D. Y., 535 (33), 543 (33,47,48), 616 Cusack, N. J., 453 (277). 478 Cygler, M., 28, 30 (127). 95 Cymerman-Craig,J., 77 (331). 99, 553 (76), 61 7 Czerminski, J. B., 104, 115 (7), 145 Czira, G., 318 (36). 322 Czismadia, I. G . , 327 (20). 337 Czochralska,B., 834 ( I I I ) , 838 (141, 142, 148), 849, 850 Dahne, S., 141 (17). 145 Daiswal, D. K., 451, 471 (228). 477 Daltrozzo, E., 220 (305). 229 Daly, J. J., 23 (1 14, 1 IS), 94 Dam, H. van 332, 333 (50). 338 Damaskin, V. V., 821 (73). 848 D'Arnico, C. N., 835 (127). 836 (128), 849 Dancey, G. F., 452 (251). 477 D'Angelantonio,M., 723 (108), 747 D'Angeli, F., 414 (168), 424 Dangvan, M. T., 340 (16). 363

862

Author index

Danicke, D.. 340 (8). 363 Daniel, H., 333 (51). 338 D'Arcy, J. B., 744 (172). 748 Dargatz, M., 275 (1 17), 298 Dargelos, A., 155, 172 (16). 223 Darienko, E. C., 246, 288, 293 (48). 296 Darienko, E. P., 246, 293 (47). 296, 662 ( 6 G 62). 663 (61,62), 673 (62). 683 (60). 684 (62). 686 Darmokhval, E. A., 416 (177). 419 (180). 424 Da Ros, J. L.. 844 (165). 850 Das, A., 394 (102), 422, 844 (182), 850 Das, K., 844 (182). 850 Das, K. G., 82, 85 (340), 99, 302 (5). 322 Das, P. K., 845 (189), 850 Das. S., 722 (86, 87). 746 Dasgupta, S., 844 (182). 850 Dash, K. C., 606 (236), 620 Daub, J., 23 (118). 95, 182 (196). 227 Daudey, J. P.. 37 (190). 96 Daugherty, B. W., 371 (23). 421 Daunis, J., 462 (385), 480 Davey, D. G., 495 (56), 524 Davidson, E. D., 41 (224). 97 Davies, D. S., 309 (20). 322 Davies, M. J., 732 (128), 747 Davies, M. S.. 452 (234). 477 Davies. S. E., 737 (151), 748 Davis, G. T., 695,696, 698 (32). 705 Davis, M. I., 62, 63 (257b), 98 Davis, P., 455 (301). 478 Davis, R. A., 463 (410). 481, 501 (96). 524 Davis, T. L.. 487, 488 (6, 8). 497 (66, 68). 498 (73). 523, 524 Davis, T. N., 452 (241). 477 Davtyan, M. M., 376 (40). 421 Day, R. 0.. 23 (1 16, 117). 95 Day, V. W., 28 (133, 134). 95 De, A. K., 845 (189), 850 Declercq, J. P., 23 (1 11). 94, 29 (156). 35, 36 (176). 95, 96, 167 (96). 168 ( I l l ) , 176 (161), 177 (96), 224-226.437 (1 13). 474, 581 (151). 618 DeClerq, E., 459 (338). 479 DeCrescenzo, G., 361 (148), 366 Decroix, B., 340 (12), 363, 398 (116), 423 Dederer, B., 177 (166). 226 Deeble, D. J., 722 (86, 87). 732 (127). 746. 747 Deeming, A. J., 679 (143). 688 DeFrees, D. J., 16 (76). 38 (198). 40 (198, 210, 21 I), 45, 49, 54, 60 (228), 94, 96, 97, 167, 175 (loo), 225 Deganello, G., 678 (128, 132). 687 De Giuli, G., 521, 522 (184). 526, 780 (126). 787 Degl'lnnocenti, A., 521 (180). 526

De Haas, G. H., 785 (140). 788 Dehnicke, K., 23 (97). 94, 162 (58, 59). 163 (62). 177 (59). 224 Deisenroth, T. W., 468, 469 (460). 482 Dejak, B., 430,431 (52), 441 (146), 473.475, 600 (215, 216). 620 De Jong, A. P., 333. 335 (53b). 338 Dekerk, J. P., 378 (48). 421 DeKimpe, N., 437 (1 13). 474 Delaby, R., 7 (21), 93 Del Bene, J. E., 37 (186). 96. 80 (339). 99 Delbressine, L. P. C., 469 (472). 482 Deloisy, E., 470 (494). 482 DeLucchi, 0.. 464 (416). 481 Demant, U., 23 (97). 94 Dembinskii. I. K., 345 (41). 364 Dempsey, B., 507 (127). 525, 626 (28). 685 Denner, L., 28 (125). 95, 516 (153). 525 Denny, J. B., 428, 452 (18), 472 Derii, L. I., 419 (181, 182). 424 Derkach, N. Y., 432,435 (71). 473 Descotes, G., 357 (129). 366 Deslongchamps, P., 160 (43), 172 (137). 183. 204 (43), 211, 213 (286). 217 (137. 300, 301). 218 (137, 300). 219 (43, 286). 223. 225, 229,445, 446 (177-181), 447 (181), 476, 765 (84). 787 Dessolin, M., 530 (17). 531 (17, 20). 615 Detoni, S., 28 (131). 95 Devani, M. B., 273 (99). 298 Dewar, M. J. S., 14 (52). 37 (187-189). 93, 96, 547 (60). 607 (242). 616, 621, 791 (14, 15), 846 DeWit, H. G. M., 330 (3 I), 338 Deysher, M., 835 (127). 849 Dhesi, R., 844 (180). 850 Dianoux, A. C., 428,452 (16). 472 Di Bello, C., 414 (168). 424 Dickman, D. A., 374 (30), 421 Dickopp, H., 444 (169), 475 Diehl, P., 175, 189 (150). 226, 509 (132). 525 Diener, S., 37 (190), 96 Dietrich, H., 4, 5 ( I 3). 92 Dietrich, R. F., 189, 201 (218). 227 Dietschmann,H., 177 (187). 227, 343 (31, 33). 364 Dignam, K. J., 57 (246). 97, 167 (95, 104. 107). 175 (148, 149). 177 (95). 187 (107). 188 (149). 205 (95). 207 (149), 208 (274). 224-226, 228, 291 (154). 299 Di Michele, L., 158, 181 (34). 223 Dimsdale, M. J., 386 (77), 422 Ding, J., 846 (203). 851 Dionis, J. B., 428, 465 (6). 472, 455 (302). 4 78 Diopoh, J., 452 (233), 477 Ditchfield, R., 39 (206, 207). 97

Author index Dixon, K. R., 606 (235, 237). 620 Diyatkina, S . L., 821 (73). 848 Dizdaroglu. M., 719 (64). 724 (100). 725 (102), 729 (100, 102, 105. IOB), 731 (113-115), 746, 747 Dobson, C. M., 331 (39), 338 Dodson. R. M., 518 (167), 526 Doehlemann, E., 487 (4), 523 Doering, W. v. E., 607 (241). 620 Doerk, K., 501 (94), 524 Dohrmann,J. K., 737 (145), 747 Dokunikhin, N . S . , 408 (152), 423 Dolecka, E,. 236-239 (22). 296 Donavan, D. J., 433 (76). 474 Dondoni. A.. 167 (98, 105). 168 (105). 169 (1 15). 174 (105). 176, 177 (98), 186 (105,207,208). 187 (207). 193 (239). 200 (208). 225,227.228 Donetti, A., 159 (40,42), 182 (40), 223, 449 (204), 476 Donohue, J., 16 (78), 94, 502, 503 (109). 525 Doolittle, R. F., 452 (242). 477 Doonan, D. J., 162, 171, 173, 216 (54). 224 Dorado, C. A., 456, 459 (314). 465 (432). 466 (314), 479,481 Done, J. P., 59, 64 (256), 98, 193-195 (230), 227, 277,278 (1 18). 298 Dorofenko,G. N . , 410 (155). 423 Dorokhov. V. A.. 291 (150). 299, 313 (28). 322, 341 (20). 364,681 (162, 163), 688, 824 (78), 828 (86). 848 Doubleady. A., 102 (I), 144 Douglas, A. W., 158, 181 (34). 223 Douglas, J. E,. 189, 201 (218), 227 Douraghi-Zadeh,K., 547 (64). 616 Dovlatyan, A. V., 533 (28-30). 616 Dovlatyan, V. V., 533 (27-30), 616 Dow, J., 28 (142). 95 Dowd, P., 430, 43 I , 470 ( 5 9 , 473 Dowling, M. J., 16, 50 (71). 94 Doyle, T. M., 429 (32), 443, 468 (160). 469 (32, 160), 473, 475 Dozorova, E. N., 402 (128). 423 Drakk, J.. 45 1 (225). 47 I (503). 477,483 Drach, B. S., 382 (62). 421 Dragisich, V., 156 (31). 223,433 (80). 474 Drago, R. S., 515 (148). 525 Dralants, A., 396 (108). 422 Drapala, T., 329 (27), 337 Dratz, E. A., 452 (244), 477 Dressler, H., 496 (58), 524 Drew, M. G . B., 678 (126). 687 Drewry, P. C., 470 (493,482 Drizhd, L. P., 447 (185, 186), 450 (213). 476 Drobnick, J. L., 683 (173). 688 Drobnir-KoSorok, M., 64 (271), 98, 193-195 (235). 227

863

Dronova, L. I., 353 (101-103), 365 Dryhurst, G., 790. 831 (3, 8). 834 (110). 835 (3,8, 116-123, 125, 126), 836 (3). 837 (IIO), 839 (150, 152), 840 (152). 841 (3). 842, 843 (162). 846, 849, 850 Drzewiliski, W., 236-239 (24). 296 Duatti, A., 845 (195). 851 DuM, S., 172, 217, 218 (137). 225,445,446 (177), 476 Dubendorff, J. W., 367 (4). 420 DuBeshter, B., 430, 431 (50), 441, 442, 459 (145). 473,475,600 (211.213). 620 Dubina, N. V., 344 (36). 364 Dubina, V. L., 344 (36), 345 (41). 364 Dhlcic, A., 712 (23). 713 (23, 28, 32, 33). 745 Dumas, D. J., 348 (64). 365, 375 (33). 421 Dunitz, I. D., 15, 17 (54). 31 (157), 93,95. 535 (39,616 Dunn, W. A., 761, 764 (65). 786 Durant, G. J., 490 (20), 523 Durden, J. A. Jr., 448, 471 (198), 476 Dushenko, G. A., 379 (51). 421, 570 (122). 571 (122, 123). 572 (123). 573 (122), 574 (122, 126). 575 (133), 618 Dusinski, G., 830 (205). 851 Dusza, J. P., 386 ( 7 3 , 4 2 2 Dvorko, G. F,. 798, 799, 812 (36). 847 Dwyer, T. 3.. 159 (39). 186 (205). 215 (39). 223,227 Dyachenko, E. K., 345 (45). 364 Dyankova, L. A., 456 (315). 479 Dykstra, C. E., 37, 38.48 (197). 96, 164 (77), 224 Dymova, S . F., 169, 191 (1 19), 225, 345 (40). 364, 369 (14), 420, 668 (84), 686 Dyong, I., 443, 468,469 (159). 475 Dzharov, D., 345 (44). 364 Dziuron, P., 454 (283). 478 Eadie, D. T., 606 (235), 620 Earley, J. V., 420 (186). 424 Earley, J. W., 233 (9). 296 Ebeling. H., 412 (167). 424 Ebert, M., 722 (92). 746 Ebenz, W., 431,438 (65). 473 Ebsworth, E. E. V. 467 (445). 481 Eckhardt,W., 429,471 (40), 473 Eckstein, Z., 14 (51). 93 Ecsery, Z., 398 ( I 18). 423 Eddowes, M. J., 844 (175). 850 Edelstein, H., 452 (257), 477 Edenhofer,A., 460 (354). 479 Edger, G., 495 (53), 524 Edmondson, P. B., 330 (32). 338 Edwards, P. D., 371 (25). 373 (27), 380 ( 5 3 , 421

864

Author index

Effenberger,F., 233 (7, 14). 296 Effenberger,G., 468, 470 (469), 482 Efremov, Y. Y . , 463 (414). 481 Egan, T. J., 28 (125). 95, 516 (153),525 Egorov. M. P., 558 (87). 617 Eguchi, C., 498 (74), 524 Ehrenson,S., 691 (19), 693, 694, 697, 701 (25). 704. 705 Ehrhardt,C.. 41 (219.221). 97 Ehrhart,W.A., 352 (95). 365 Eichen, R., 10 (31), 93 Eichenconn,R. S., 455 (301). 478 Eicher, T., 380 (54). 421 Eigen. M., 736 (142). 747 Eiglsperger,A.. I97 (245). 228 Einstein, F. W.B., 32 (161). 95 Eisenbrand,C., 575 (127). 618 Eistert, B., 575 (131). 618 Eiter, K., 10 (29). I I (33, 34). 93 Ek, M., 376 (38). 421, 751 (12, 15). 759 (12). 760 (28, 29, 31), 767 (15), 780 (31). 785, 786 El-Anani,A. A,, 765 (78). 787 El-Bayouki, K. A. M., 453 (276). 461 (370). 478,480 Elderfield, R. C., 497 (68). 524 El-Gharib,M. S., 461 (373), 480 Elguero,,J., 12 (43), 93, 155 (16), 172 (16, 131), 223.225. 330 (36). 331 (38). 332 (42). 338, 698, 699 (39). 700 (39, 43). 701,703 (39). 705 Eliazyan, K. A., 533 (27-29), 616 El Khadem, H. S., 470 (492). 482 Elliott, J. P., 712 (19). 745 Elliott. R. J., 207 (270). 228 Elmoghayar,M. R. H., 831 (97). 848 Elnagdi, M. H., 793 (24), 824 (79), 825 (24), 831 (95, 96), 847,848 Eloy, F., 660, 682 (53), 685 Elpern, B., 429 (41), 473 El-Sake, M. 2. 824 (79). 848 Elving, P. J., 790, 831 (2). 832 (2, 99, 102). 833 (104), 834 (1 10, 112, 113), 835 (2, I14), 836 (2, 130). 837 (2, 110, .134, 139, 140), 838 (140, 144). 846, 848, 849 Emsley, J. W. 251 (55). 297 Endres, H., 126 (15), 145 Enea, O., 332 (44), 338 Engdahl,K.-A., 770 (105-107), 773 (106, 107). 787 Engel, P. S., 325 (7, 9). 337 Engelman,J. H., 543 (47). 616 Engham,L., 471 (502), 483 England,R. D.. 452 (237), 477 Englin, V. M., 581, 585 (164). 619 Engoyan,A. P., 169, 190, 191 (117). 225

Ennor,A. H., 499 (87), 524 Erbel, K., 282, 289 (128), 298, 677 ( I 17). 687 Eremeev, A. V., 177 (176). 187, 206 (209). 226.227 Ergezinger,C., 162, 177 (59), 224 Erhardt,J. M., 198 (246), 228 Erickson,C. A., 491 (29), 523 Erle. H. E., 343 (31), 364, 390,400 (87), 422 Emst, S . R., 31 (172, 173). 96 Ershova, I. I., 382 (63). 421 Ershova,Yu. A,, 408 ( I 53). 423 Esakov, S. M., 200 (253), 228 Eschenmoser,A., 3 12, 3 13 (27). 322.45 1 (231). 477 Esmans, E. L., 310 (21), 322 Espejo, O., 667 (80), 686 Espenbetov, A. A., 271 (91). 298, 673, 675 ( I 1 I), 687 Espinosa. A., 818, 819, 844 (69). 848 Espinosa Mansilla,A., 818, 819, 844 (68), 848 Estopa, C., 698-701, 703 (39). 705 Estrada,M. R., 335 (58), 338 Etienne, A.. 412 (164). 424,469 (483). 482 Ettre, L. S., 234 (ZO), 296 Eul, W., 23 (103). 94, 176 (159). 226, 312 (26), 318 (26, 37, 38). 322 Evans, D. D., 471 (SOS), 483 Evers, R., 192,201 (227), 227 Evett, M., 761 (%a, 58b). 786 Evstigneeva, R. P., 469 (474). 482 Ewing, D. F., 691 (18), 700 (45). 704, 705 Exner, O., 58 (249), 74 (249, 302-304), 75 (249). 98, 99, 153 (7). 167 (97, 101, 102, 105). 168 (105). 169 (1 15). 174, 186 (105). 222,225,440 (137). 475,624 (6). 640 (43). 684, 685, 690 (lo), 693 (20, 22, 23). 694 (27), 699, 702 (23), 704, 705, 796 (32), 847 Ezra, I., 243 (31). 2% Fabbrizzi, L., 327 (19). 337 Fabian,J., 70 (290), 98 Fahrny,H. M., 793, 825 (24). 831 (95-98). 847,848 Failor, R., 739, 740 (155). 748 Faith,W.C., 519 (173). 526 Falkner,C., 408 (151), 423 Fanizzi, F. P., 163, 185 (71), 224 Fanning,T. G., 452 (259), 477 Faraggi,M., 744 (171). 748 Farkas,J., 459 (329). 470 (490). 479,482 Famell, L., 335 (55c), 338 Famoux,C. C., 340 (1, 5), 344 (34), 363, 364, 367 (I), 398 (115). 412 (165). 420,423, 424,448 (196), 476.490 (24). 518 (165). 523,526

Author index Fartar,W. V., 501 (95). 524 Fauben,F., 289 (146). 299, 676, 677 ( I 15). 687 Fauran,C., 663 (70), 686 Fauve, A., 761 (59, 60, 66), 786 Fayet, J. P., 331 (38). 338 Fedin, E. I., 656, 662 (51), 685 Fedor, L. R., 761, 764 (65). 786 Fedorov, L. A., 271, 272 (93). 298, 674 (1 12). 687 Fedortchenko,V. I., 796, 819421,844 (33), 847 Fedorynski. M., 177 (165). 226 Feeney, J.. 251 (55). 297 Feil, D., 32 (165, 170). 96 Feith, B., 32 (168), 96 Fendler,E. J., 723 (131). 724 (93, 94), 727 (l3!), 731, 732 (121). 746. 747 Fendler,J. H., 723 (I3I ), 724 (93, 94). 727 (131), 731 (121), 732 (121, 126), 746. 74 7 Feng, X., 163 (66). 224, 845 (194). 850 Fenske, D., 23 (1 13). 94 Feretti. V., 27 ( I 19). 95 Ferguson,G., 549 (65). 616 Fern, R. J., 10 (27). 93 Fernanda,M., 428 (20). 472 Femhdez, B., 79, 80 (321-323), 99, 626 (8), 634, 635, 656 (8, 41, 42), 685 Fernelius,W. C., 494 (45). 523 Fernholt,L., 16 (79). 94 Ferretti,V., 177 (177), 226 Ferris,L. P. I1 498 (81), 524 Fersht,A., 749, 773 (3), 785 Fessenden,R. W., 719 (70), 731 (122, 124). 732 ( I 22), 746, 747 Fiandanese,V., 770 (103). 787 Fibiger, R., 214 (292). 229,437 (1 17). 474 Field, J. S., 32 (161). 95 Field, M. J., 773 (1 18), 787 Fields, T. L., 462 (389), 480 Figeys, H. P., 396 (108). 4 16 ( 173,422, 424 Fijtt, T., 598 (194). 619 Filipek, S., 791 (13), 846 Filira,F., 414 (168). 424 Filleux, M. L., 59 (255, 256). 64 (256). 98, 153, 154, 156, 179 (5). 193 (5, 230). 194 (230), 195 (5, 230), 196 (9,222, 227, 262, 263,273 (77), 277, 278 ( I 18). 297. 298 Finch,N., 596 (188). 619 Finnegan,W. G., 499 (82), 524 Firsan,S. J., 438, 441, 447,464 (125). 475 Fischer. B., 13 (46). 93 Fischer,H., 156 (30). 223, 433 (81). 474 Fischer,J. W., 443, 465 (163). 475

865

Fischer,O., 816 (66). 848 Fischer,P., 462 (401). 480 Fischer,P. B., 271, 272 (94). 298, 674 (1 13), 687 Fish,J. R., 836, 838, 845 (131). 849 Fishbein,L., 497 (71). 524 Fitch, F. W., 452 (264). 477 Fitt, J. J.; 371 (24). 42/ Flammang,R., 33 1 (38), 338 Flanders,K. C., 452 (237), 477 Fleming,J., 838 (145). 849 Fleury,J. P., 437 ( I 14), 474 Fliri, A., 312, 313 (27). 322, 451 (231). 477 Hi&, S., 42 (227), 97 Florian, W., 233 (8). 296 Flossrnann,W., 71 I (lo, 1 I), 712 (14, 16-18, 20, 21). 713 (16, 29, 31, 3 9 , 718 (11, 56-58), 745, 746 Floyd, A. D., 452 (237). 477 Floyd, A. J., 428 (30). 473 Fluder, E. M., 172 (130). 225 Flunder,E. M., 38, 40 (198). 96 Flynn, K. G., 78 (336), 99 Fodor, G., 150, 151, 155, 156, 181, 193 (2). 222,438 (127). 475, 671 (105). 687 Fokin, A. V., 356 (123). 366, 368 (5). 376 (34). 420,421,437 (1 16), 474,466 (443), 481 Foks, H., 410 (163). 424 Folz. R. J., 452 (237). 477 Fomakhin,E. V., 585 (174476). 586 (174, 175). 619 Ford, M. E., 455 (297), 478 Foman, S. E., 491 (29). 523 Forrester,A. R., 66 (276). 98 Forsellini,E., 598 (202), 620 Forshult,S., 708 (6). 745 Forsyth, A. C., 521 (185), 526 Forteza, R., 813 (59). 814 (60), 848 Fortier,D. G., 163 (72), 224 Foster, M. S., 325 (10, 1 I), 337 Foulcher,C., 246, 249 (44). 296 Fox, I. R., 695,696,698 (32). 705 Fox, J. J., 380 (53). 421 Fox, L. L., 340 (9), 363 Foye. W. 0. 846 (202). 851 Francl,M. M., 40 (210, 21 I), 97 Frank,W. C., 468,469 (460), 482 Franke,G., 380 (54). 421 Frankel,M., 499 (85). 524 Fraser,R. R., 765 (73). 786 Fraser-Reid,B., 455, 468 (308). 478 Frkchette,M., 336 (68), 338 Freeman,F., 470 (491). 482,802 (45). 847 Freemp. J. A.. 14 (49), 93 French,L., 613 (254). 621 Frenkel,A. D., 442, 443 (149). 475

866

Author index

Freund, H. G., 742 (166). 748 Friedli, F., 305 (1 3.) 322 Frisch, M..J. 38.40 (198), 96 Fritsche-Lang, W., 519 (176). 526 Fritz, H., 519 (176). 526 Frohlich, R., 29 (150). 95 From, A. H. L.. 469 (473), 482 Fry, J. L., 428 (22). 472 Fryer, R. ,I. 233 (9), 296,420 (186). 424 Fryzuk, M.D., 441 (147), 475, 601 (217), 620 Fuehrer, W., 451,471 (224), 477 Fueno, T., 761, 764 (63), 786 Fuentes, L. M., 374 (28, 29), 421 Fuentes de Frutos, J. E., 844 (164). 850 Fuess, H., 177 (180). 226 Fuji, T., 683 (170), 688 Fujita, S., 719 (74), 723 (74, 96), 746 Fujiwara, T., 501 (100). 524 Fukatsu, S., 466 (438). 481 Fukaya, C., 561 (104). 617 Fukiyama, T. 49 (234), 97 Fuks, R,. 176 (161). 226, 242-244 (30). 273 (100). 285 (135). 286 (100). 296.298,

342 (22.25). 364,366

358 (137-140).

360 (147).

Fukui, M., 601 (220). 620 Fulgarevich, S. B., 164, 173 (80). 224 Fullerton, D. S., 469 (473), 482 Fulop, F., 461 (368, 369, 373). 462 (368,404,

406). 480, 481

Fiilscher, M. P., 516 (152), 525 Funaki, Y ., 45 1,455 (230), 477 Funke, P. T., 82, 85 (340), 99, 302 (3,322. Furmanova, N. G., 177 (173), 226, 556 (85,

86). 613 (255, 256), 617, 621

Furuta, T., 519 (175), 526 Fyodorov, L. A., 598, 601, 604 (198), 620 Gabuzda, T. G., 452 (240), 477 Gagauzov, I,. 398 (120), 423 Gajewski, E., 731 (114). 747 Gal, J., 319 (41).

322

Galella, G., 452 (238). 477 Galijl. D., 800 (42). 815 (62). 847, 848 Gallaghan, J. A., 497 (71). 524 Gallaher, K. L., 16 (77). 94 Gallazzi, A.. 159, 182 (40), 223 Galli, R,. 459 (342). 479 Galliani, G., 459 (330). 479 Gallis, D. E. 155, 156, 214 (25). 223, 171,

179 (129). 225,272 (95). 298,439,442, 465 (130). 475 Galloy, J., 23 (1 1 I), 94 Galy, J. P., 844 (179). 850 Gandour, R. D., 773 (1 1 I), 787 Ganellin, C. R., 334 (55a, 55b), 335 (5% 56). 338

Ganem, B., 465 (423,429). 481 Ganguly, A. K., 443,468 (157). 475 Ganjian, ,.I 461 (366). 480 Gaon, ,.I 822, 823 (76). 848 Garavin, V. Yu., 332 (45). 338 Garcia-Upez, M. T., 453,470 (279). 478 Gareev, R. D., 458 (327). 467 (453453,479,

482

Garlich, J. R., 455 (302). 478 Gamer, A,, 720 (82), 746 Gamer, L. A., 4 4 2 4 (150), 475, 527, 528,

530, 543, 552, 554, 560, 562, 567 (2),

615

Gamovskii, A. D., 74 (305),

99, 662, 663 (6l), 683 (177-179), 686, 688 Gamovskii, E. V., 628, 630 (37), 685 Ganvood, D. C., 752 (20), 785 Gasc, M. B., 581 (151), 618 Gasdaska, J. R., 428 (21). 452,470 (21,270), 472,478 Gaspanini, F., 162, 177 (56). 224 Gattow, G., 23 (103). 94, 176 (159). 226, 308 (16). 312 (26). 318 (26, 37, 38). 322 Gautier, J. A., 340 (1, 5). 344 (34). 363, 364, 367 (I), 398 ( I 15). 412 (165), 420,423. 424,448 (196). 476,490 (24). 523, 518 (165). 526, 663 (70). 686 Gauvrit, C., 209 (278). 228 Gavezzotti, A,, 531 (19). 615 Gavin, D. F., 491 (27). 523 Gawad, D. H., 396 (1 14). 423 Gayevoi, E. G . , 547 (59), 616 Gazetdinova, N. G., 806 (50), 847 Gdaniec, M., 18 (93), 94, 142 (21), 145, 176 (153, 156), 177 (153), 226, 252 (64), 297 Geevers, J., 28 (132), 95, 517 (159), 526 Geisser, P., 429 (34), 473 Gelpi, E., 430, 43 I , 470 (54), 473 Genc, N., 126 ( 1 3 , 145 Gendler, P. L., 368 (I .)I 420 Centric, D., 209 (276). 228 Geoffroy, G. L., 434 (87.88). 474 George, P,. 354 (107), 366,386 (73). 422 Georgieva, R., 340 (lo), 363 Gera, L., 398 (1 18). 423,462 (a),480 Geratz, J. D., 340 (9). 363 Gerhart, F., 443,468 (156). 475 Gerig, J. T., 64 (264). 98, 196 (241), 228 Germain, G., 23 ( I l l ) , 29 (156). 94, 95, 167 (96). 168 ( I l l ) , 176 (161). 177 (96), (151). 618 224-226.581 German, G., 35, 36 (176). 96 Gero, A,, 77 (326), 99,436 (la), 474 Gemtzen, D., 71 (294), 99, 171, 193 (128), 225, 773 (1 16), 787 Gerstner, F., 162 (57), 224

Author index Gertsyuk, M. N., 429 (33), 473 Gevaza, Yu. I., 382 (63). 421 Gewald, K., 210 (281). 228 Gezalyan, D. L., 340 (16). 363 Ghafouripour,A.. 167, 168, 205 (106). 225, 440 (137), 475 Giacconi, P., 383 (65). 421 Gibson, K. D., 332 (41), 338 Gieren. A., 23 (118). 95, 177 (166). 182 (196). 226,227 Giessner-F'rettre.C., 37 (1 90), 96 Gilbert, B. C., 732 (128). 747 Gilbert, E. C., 324 (4). 337 Gilbert, H. F., 447 (187). 449 (203). 476 Gilbert, M., 37 (190), 96 Gilchrist, T. L., 61 I (246), 621 Gilli, G., 9, 18 (23). 27 (119), 93, 95, 167, 176 (98), 177 (98, 177). 225, 226 Gilpin, M. L., 449 (206). 476 Gioia, B., 383 (64). 385 (68). 410 (162). 421. 424 Giorgianni, P., 186 (207, 208). 187 (207). 200 (208). 227 Girgorev, A. B., 404 (138), 423 Girijavallabhan,V. M., 443.468 (157). 475 Gitis, S. S., 612 (252). 621 Glatz, B., 447 (191), 476 Glatz, Z., 841 (161). 850 Glodowski, S., 846 (198). 851 Gloede, J., 348 (60). 364 Gloux, P., 741 (161, 162), 748 Glover, S. A., 157, 172, 197 (32). 223 Glowiak. T., 28 (1 35), 95 Gloxhuber, C., 447 (190). 476 Gluchowski, C., 464 (420). 481 Gludicelli, R., 667 (78). 686 Glueck, D. S., 163 (74), 224 Glushkov, R. G., 346, 347 @I), 348 (67, 68). 353 (101-103), 364, 365, 370 (21), 390 (89, 90, 92), 394 (100, 101, 103), 404 (138). 420, 422, 423 Glusker, J. P., 761 (50). 786 Gluzinski,P., 18 (92), 94, 155 (23), 176 (23, 155). 223,226,252 (59.60). 253 (60), 297 Gobbini. M., 383 (65). 421 Goddard, J. D., 521 (182), 526 Godfrey. L. E. A., 498 (77). 524 Godovikova, T. I., 177 (173, 226 Goegelman, R. T., 158, 181 (34), 223 Goerdeler, J., 77 (332). 99, 412 (166), 424, 501 (93, 94), 524 Goesman, H., 23 ( I 13). 94 Gokel, G. W., 516 (157), 526 Gold, H., 354 ( 1 lo), 366 Goldacre,R,. 77.78 (330, 334). 99 Goldberg, V. D., 318 (39). 322

867

Goldfarb, E. I., 585 (175, 176). 586 (175), 619 Goldin, G. S., 599 (207), 620 Golfier, M., 431,457 (59), 473, 530 (16, 17), 531 (17, 20), 615 GoliE, L., 28 (131), 95, 177 (164. 169), 226 Golubushina,G. M., 410 (157). 424 Golucki, Z., 246, 247 (43). 296 Golwelker, A., 680 (I%), 688 Gomez-Molinero, E., 454 (285). 478 Gomez Nieto, M. A., 830 (92). 848 Gomis, F., 330 (29). 337 Gompper, R., 390 (86). 422,493 (40). 523 Goncalves, H., 4 (9), 92,246,249 (44). 296, 660 (54), 685 Goncharova, E. P., 581, 585 (164). 619 Gondos, G., 398 ( I 18), 423 Gonzalez, C. O., 439,442,465 (130), 475 Gonzalez, O., 155, 156, 214 (25). 223 Goodman, L., 196 (242). 228 Gorbatenko, V. I., 429 (33). 473 Gordeev, M. F., 824, 828 (78, 86). 848 Gordon, E. M., 430 (44). 473 Gordon, K. D., 761 (47). 786 Gordon, M. S., 40 (21 1). 97 Gordy, W., 712 (27). 716 (52). 745 Gormin, D., 203 (260), 228 Goscinski, O., 751, 752 (8). 785 Gosteminskaya, T. V.. 288 (141). 299 Gostevskii, B. A., 465 (434), 481 Gotthardt,H., 18 (96b), 94 Gouessnard,J.-P., 68 (283). 98,274,275 (1 1 I), 298 Gould, 1. R., 428, 452, 470 (21). 472 Gould, R. O., 26 (18b). 93, 315 (30~).322 Gould, S. J., 490,495 (19). 523 Goya, P., 172 (131), 225,453 (278). 478 Goyal, R. N., 798 (35). 806 (49). 819 (35). 821 (74), 822 (79, 830 (93, 94), 835 (119-122, 124), 839, 840 (152), 847-850 Goyuette, C., 470 (489), 482 Gozlan, H., 167 (92, 93, 99), 177 (93, 99). 186 (93). 187 (92,93), 200 (92). 205 (92, 93), 224,225, 249,267 (51), 296 Gono, F., 459 (342). 479 Grab, L. A., 441 (140). 475 Grabley, S. 385 (71). 422 Grabowski, E. J. J., 455 (301). 478 Grabowski, M. J., 28, 30 (127). 95 Grabowski, S. J., 141 (16). 145 Gracey, G . D., 679 (147). 688 Gnchov, M. K., 581 (173), 619 Graefe, J., 370 (19), 420 Graf, F., 490 (18), 523 Graine, L., 594 (183). 619 Grala-Kaluha,A., 295 (164). 299 Gralewska-Ludwicka. D., 844 (170). 850

868

Author index

Grambal, F., 76, 77 (308), 99, 220 (306). 229, 626, 631, 639, 657, 660, 682 (7). 684, 792, 793 (20), 797 (20, 34). 812 (20), 813 (34). 847 Grindberg,I. 1.. 246, 250 (45). 296, 560, 562, 567 (97). 617, 673,675,676 (109). 687 Grandclaudon,P., 447 (194). 476 Granik, V. G., 3.4 (3). 92. 150 (3). 222, 340 (2), 346, 347 (5 I), 348 (62,67, 68). 349 (73, 74). 363-365, 367 (2). 370 (21). 376 (39). 390 (89-92), 394 (100, 101, 103). 402 (128, 129, 131), 404 (138, 139). 420423 Granik, W. G., 666 (75). 686 G ~ P V ,A. F., 154 (13), 158 (35). 169 (1 19122). 170 (121, 123). 171 (123). 179 (13), 181 (35). 190 (121). 191 (119, 121). 195 (33, 202 (255). 223,225,228. 273 (IOI), 298, 581 (160, 161, 164-166), 583 (160). 585 (164-166), 587 (165), 618, 619 Graubaum,H., 331 (37b), 338 Gray, P. G., 5 I8 (170). 526 Graziani,R., 177, 202 (189). 227, 598 (202), 620 Gready, J. E., 51 (244b), 97 Greenberg, A., 172 (133). 225 Greenhalgh,R., 496 (59, 62). 524 Greenhut, S. F., 452 (245), 477 Greenquist,A., 428 (14), 472 Greenspan, E. M., 246 (37), 296 Greenstein,J. P., 490 (23), 523 Greenstock. C. L., 719 (65). 726 (133). 746, 747 Gregoli, S., 740 (157). 748 Greig, C. C., 765 (78). 787 Greisel, M . , 220 (305). 229 Grenda,V. J., 455 (301), 478 Gressier,J., 447 (192), 454 (286). 476. 478 Grier, D. L., 40 (217), 97 Griffin, C. A., 844 (168), 850 Griffin, R. G . , 331 (39), 338 Grigorev, A. B., 348 (68). 365 Grim, W. M., 234,286 (18). 296 Grimmett, M . R., I 1 (39,40), 93 Grivas, J. C., 66 (274). 98,663,665 (68.69). 686 Grob, C. A., 13 (46), 93 Gromakov, V. S . , 846 (204), 851 Gronski, P., 32 (162). 95 Gross, H., 348 (60), 364 Groth, P., 29 (154). 95 Grottel, M., 28 (124). 95 Grout, R. J.. 690 (5). 704 Grove, D. D., 436 (110). 451, 471 (226). 474, 477 Grove, D. M., 598,606 (195), 619

Gruber, V. F., 233, 234 (12). 296 L., 801, 802 (44), 847 Gruif, C . G . de 330 (3 I), 338 GrujiC, Z., 809, 810 (54). 847 Grund, P., 65.66 (273~).98 Griindemann,E. 331 (37b). 338 Gruselle,M . , 209 (276). 228 Grushka, E., 243 (31), 296 Griitzmacher, H. F., 23 (1 12). 82 (341, 342). 85 (341), 94, 99. 100, 176 (154). 226, 302, 303 ( 6 9 ) . 304 (8, 9). 305 (6), 322 Gryazev, V. F., 795, 796, 810, 81 I (31), 847 Grygiel, J., 295 (164). 299 Gschwend, H. W., 371 (24). 421 Guasch, J., 292,293 (155). 299,682 (165). 688 Gubin, A. I.. 29 ( I S ) , 95 Guggisberg, A., 212 (288), 229, 351 (88), 365 Guibe, F., 567 ( I 15), 617 Guilhem, J., 209 (278), 228 Guiliano,R. M., 468, 469 (460), 482 Guilliard,W., 459, 466 (333). 479 Guimon, C., 331 (38). 338 Guiteras,J., 833 (106). 849 Guither,W . D., 428 (5). 472 Gukov, A. M . , 376 (34), 421, 437 ( I 16). 474 Gulko, A., 502, 503 ( I 14). 525 Gund, P., 4, 14 (11). 92, 172 (130), 182 (198). 188 (2141, 189 (198, 214), 225. 227, 326 ( I 2), 337, 505 ( I 20), 525 Gundersen,G., 16 (63), 93 GuniC, J., 803 (46). 847 Guo, W., 177 (165). 226 Gupta, K. A., 399 (1 22), 423 Gupton, J. T., 354 ( I I I), 361 (148), 366 Gurd, R. S., 452 (237). 477 Gustafson, K., 496 (61). 524 Gut, A., 760 (30). 786 Gut, J., 459 (329), 470 (490), 479,482 Guthrie,J. P., 330 (33), 338 Gutierrez,A. J., 214 (291), 229 Gutierrez,M. I. A.-L. de 219 (302). 229 Gutmann, V., 812 (56). 847 Guzman, A., 470 (496), 482

Grubert,

Ha, T.-K., 175 (143), 226 Haake, P., 777 (124). 778 (125). 787 Haas, D. J., 28 (123), 95, 501 (97). 524 Haas, M. P. de 735 (141). 747 Haase, L., 348 (60), 364 Habashy, G. M., 824 (79), 848 Habir, M., 435 (95). 474 Hackler, L., 462 (404), 480 Hadicke, E., 519 (176), 526 Hadzi. D., 28 (131). 95. 333, 335 (53a). 338 Hafelinger, G., 6, 17 (20), 47, 48 (229). 50 (20). 51, 54 (244a). 61, 63 (20), 64

Author index (259). 70 (20), 85 (259). 90 (348), 93, 97. 98, 100, 104, 107 (6), 144, 150 (I), 222, 253, 284 (66, 67). 297, 301-303 ( I ) , 321, 438 (126), 475, 626 (15), 647, 648

(45, 46). 652 (46). 658, 665, 669 (45, 46). 685 Hagaki,T., 683 (170), 688 Hagel, R. B., 244 (32, 33). 245 (33). 291 (32. 33). 296 Hagele, W., 493 (40). 523 Hagen, M. D., 522 (189), 526 Hagen, V., 23 (108). 94 Hahn, C.-S., 161, 184 (48), 223 Haimoto, Y., 28 (137). 95 Haimova, M., 460 (345, 346), 479 Hajdu, R., 158, 181 (34). 223 Hajek, H., 233 (l4), 296 Hajjem, B., 461 (378). 480 Haladjian,J., 844 (178, 179). 850 Hale, W. J., 502 ( I 10). 525 Hall, N. F., 77 (327), 99 Hall, R. H., 502 (107), 525 Halliday, J. D., 59 (251). 98, 159, 160, 196 (37). 212 (287). 216 (37). 223, 229, 656, 662, 669, 670 (50),685 Hamaguchi, M., 385 (69). 421 Hamanaka,E. S., 449 (205). 476 Hamilton, W. C., 28 (140). 95 Hammad, M.. 453 (276). 478 Hammond, G. S., 216 (294), 229 Hanagan,M. A., 430, 431,455 (47). 473 Hand, E. S., 163 (75). 224, 448 (197). 476 Hannis, C. J., 61 I (246). 621 Hanocq, M., 242-244 (30), 285 (135). 296, 298

Hansch,C., 660 (58). 686 Hansen,B. W., 350 (77), 365 Hansen,H.-J., 433, 438 (78). 474, 560, 567 (95, 96). 617 Hanson, J. C., 28 (138). 95 Hanson, K. R., 761 (41). 786 Hanson, P., 192 (223). 227 Hantsch,A,, 5 (15), 92 Hara, T., 461 (367). 480 Harihann,P. C., 40 (21 I), 97 Harkema, S . , 28 (132). 32 (165). 95. 96, 517 ( 159). 526 Harmony, M. D., 16, 49 (61). 93 Harper, A,, 27 (122). 95 Harrington,C., 463 (41 I), 481 Harris,D. E., 448 (202). 452 (202, 237). 476, 477

Harris, D. H., 419 (185), 424 Harris, D. L., 64 (263), 98, 159 (41). 223 Harris,D. R., 28 (123). 95, 501 (97), 524 Harris, M. M., 318 (39), 322 Harris. N. D., 460 (348). 479

869

Harris, R. L. N., 410 (160). 424 Harrison,C. R., 354 (1 I I ) , 366 Harrison,R. G., 438 ( I 19), 474 Hart, N. K., 491 (28), 523 Hartke, K., 32 (162). 95, 154, 195 (10). 223, 379 (50). 380 (58). 403 (134). 421, 423, 429 (38). 473, 558 (89, 90). 570 (121). 580, 590 (145), 592 (89, 145), 596, 598600 (145), 614 (257, 258). 615 (259). 617. 618. 621, 681 (161), 688 Hartman,J. S., 316 (32), 322 Hartmann,E., 163 (67). 224 Hartung,J., 315 (31), 322 Hartwig, W., 464 (418). 481 Hasek, J., 23 (106). 94 Haselbach, E., 175, 189 (150). 226, 509 (132). 525

Hasenhundl,A,, 23 ( I 18). 95, 182 (196). 227 Hassner, A., 214 (292). 229, 437 ( I 17). 474, 519 (174), 526 Hathaway, B. J., 168, 206 (108). 225 Hatton, W. G., 496 (60). 524 Haug, E., 347 (55). 364, 376 (41). 421 Haug, Y. K., 440 (137). 475 Hauptmann,J., 245 (36). 296 Hausen, H.-D., 163 (60). 224 Hausman,C. L., 601 (221), 620 Hayon, E., 719 (76), 722 ( 8 5 ) , 734, 735 (139), 743, 744 (168). 746, 747, 748 Hayward, R. C., 516 (158). 526 Hazen, E. E. Jr., 28 (133, 134), 95 Hazra, D. K., 7 19, 720 (75). 746 He, L.-P., 598, 606 (203). 620, 845 (192), 850 Healy, E. F., 37 (189), 96 Heathcock, C. H., 470 (487), 482 Heckendorn, P., 450, 461 (222), 477 Heckmann, G., 315 (29). 322 Heermann,D., 459, 466 (333), 479 Heesing, A., 492 (38), 523, 695 (31). 696 (31, 33). 698 (31, 40). 699 (31). 705, 799. 819, 821 (38), 847 Hegarty, A. F., 57 (245-247). 58 (247, 248). 97, 161 (47), 166 (89). 167 (95, 104, 107). 168 (108). 175 (148, 149). 177 ( 9 3 , 184 (47), 186 (206), 187 (107, 210). 188 (149). 193, 194 (234). 202 (257). 204 (206), 205 (95). 206 (108, 210, 267), 207 (149, 210). 208 (272, 274). 210 (257), 220 (210, 307). 223-229, 233, 262 (15). 291 (15, 154). 296, 299, 357 (130, 131), 366. 544 (49-52). 545 (52), 546, 547 (57), 549 (65), 554 (84), 575 (128). 616418

Hegarty, F. A,, 270, 291 (89). 297, 671 (104). 687

Hegedus, L. S., 433, 438 (83), 474

870

Author index

Hehre, W.J., 37. 38 (196). 39 (204-207). 40 (210, 21 I), 48 (196, 204). 96, 97, 155, 172, 182 (18), 223, 695 (30), 705 Heidelberger, C., 212 (288). 229, 351 (88). 365 Heimgartner, H., 560,567 (95). 617 Hein, S . J., 490,495 (19). 523 Heinemann, U., 390 (86). 422 Heinicke, J., 454 (290, 292). 478 Heinzmann, R., 41 (220), 97 Heitzer, H., 410 (158), 424 Hejchman,E., 77, 80, 81 (328). 99, 626, 631, 636, 637, 657 (16). 685 Hejtmankova. L., 447 (183). 476 Hekman, M., 452 (266), 478 Heldt, J., 203 (260), 228 Helgeson, R. C., 5 16 (1 57). 526 Helman, W . P., 719 (65). 746 Helmechen, G., 447 (191), 476 Helmreich, E. J., 452 (266). 478 Hemela, J., 169 ( I 18), 225 Hemmen, J. J. van 737 (149). 738, 739 (153). 747, 748 Henderson,A., 456,461 (313), 479 Henderson,J. Jr., 844 (168). 850 Hendi, M., 396 (1 13, 114). 422,423 Hendrickse, T., 321 (43), 322.441 (141), 475 Hendry, J. A., 494 (48). 524 Heneir, S., 744 (173), 748 Henke, H., 32 (169). 96 Henklein, P.. 360 (143, 366 Hennig, J. C . M.. 832 (loo), 848 Henning, J., 773 (1 16), 787 Henriksen, T., 712 (24, 26). 745 Henry, R. A., 499 (82). 524 Hepler, L. G . , 332 (44), 338 Her, J. S., 452 (267). 478 Herak, J. N., 712 (15, 23, 27). 713 (23, 28, 32, 33). 740 (158a), 745. 748 Herbstein, F. H., 502, 503 (1 14), 525 Herbullez, E., 667 (80), 686 Herkstroeter,W . G., 546 (56). 616 Herlem, M., 839 (149), 850 Hernandez, L. Jr., 461 (361). 480 Hermecz, I., 1I (35),93 Hermes, J. D., 773 (1 12). 787 Hermes, R. E., 455 (303), 478 Hernandez,L. J., 469 (478), 482 Hernandez-Laguna, A., 334 (54), 338 Hernandez-Mendez, J., 844 (la), 850 Hernau, P. A., 534 (32). 616 Hernau,R. C . , 534 (32), 616 Hemed, H. S . , 77 (325), 99 Hemstadt, C.. 35, 36 (178). 96 Herranz, R. 453,470 (279). 478 Hemott. J. R., 28 (138), 95 Herzfeld, J., 331 (39). 338

Herzig, L., 189 (221, 222). 190 (221). 227. 5 12 ( I 38). 525 Hess, U., 791, 799, 805 (16), 847 Hesse, H., 551 (74). 617 Hesse, M., 212 (288). 229, 351 (88), 365 Hever, W., 55 1 (73), 617 Heyboer, N., 497 (72). 524 Hiberty, P. C., 141 (17), 145 Hickinbottom, W. J., 598 (193), 619 Higginbotham. H. K . , 16, 49 (60). 93 Higgs, H., 102 (I), 144 Higo, N., 844 (173), 850 Higuchi, M., 382 (61). 396 (I 12). 421,422 Hill, H. A. O., 844 (175-177), 850 Hiller, I. H., 773 (1 18), 787 Hiller, W., 163 (62). 224 Hinegardner, S., 495 (53). 524 Hinnen, C., 845 (188). 850 Hirabayshi, T., 603 (226), 620 Hirai, K., 444 (165), 475 Hiraoka, T., 432 (73, 74), q73 Hirose, A., 233, 234 (13). 296 Hirota, E., 16, 50 (70). 93 Hirota, K., 357 (125). 366 Hirsch, J. A., 761. 764 (67), 786 Hirshfeld, F. L., 27 (121), 95, 504 (118), 525 Hirshfield, J. M., 158, 181 (34), 223, 177 ( I 65), 226 Hissung, A., 719 (73). 720 (80, 84). 735 (140). 746, 747 Hjorth, M., 23 (102). 94 Hlavaty, J., 799 (39, 40), 800 (40). 847 Hnyk, D., 58 (2481.97, 153 (7). 222,694 (27). 705 Hocker, J., 173 (140). 225, 361 (150). 362 (151), 366 Hodson, H. F., 470 (499,482 Hoess, E., 356 (1 2 l), 366 Hoesterey, B., 172 (135). 225 Hoffman, R. 591 (180), 619,681 (161). 688 Hoffmann,A., 233 (7), 296 Hoffmann,H., 818 (70), 819 (70, 71). 844 (70), 848 Hoffmann, M., 459,466 (333). 479 Hoffmann,M. G., 468 (470). 482 Hoffmann. R., 37 (181), 96, 750 (5). 785 Hoffmanns, G., 452,470 (270), 478 Hofmann, H., 29 (151), 95 Hofmann, R., 73 (296), 99 Hog, J. H., 16, 50 (68). 93 Hole, E. 0. 715 (46). 716 (50, 51). 745 Hollander, F. J., 163 (74), 224 Hollenberg, J. L., 62. 63 (257b). 98 Hollingsworth, M., 50.5 (123), 525 Holmes, J. M., 23 (1 16, 117). 95 Holmes, R. R., 23 (116, 117). 95 Holroyd, C., 739,740 (155). 748

Author index Horn, M. L., 735 (141). 740 (156). 747, 748 Honeise, W., 315 (29). 322 Honkanen,E., 461 (365). 480 Hope, H., 27 (121). 95. 504 (118). 525 Hopkinson, A. C., 161 (46). 223 Hopkinson, J. A., 306, 307, 3 10, 3 I2 ( 14). 322 Horan. P. K., 713 (30). 745 Horisse, J. V,. 7 (21). 93 Homig. P. 598-600 (196). 620 Homing, E. C., 233 (16). 296 Hortelano,E., 594 (183). 619 Hosmane, R. S . , 43 I (62). 453 (62, 28 l), 461 (379), 462 (393, 395). 473, 478, 480 Hosny, W. M., 808 (53). 847 Hou, G., 452 (248). 477 Hough, E., 32 (171). 96 Houriet, R,. 329 (27). 337 Houwing. H. A., 452 (269). 455 (295). 470 (269). 478 Huang,1. J., 408 (148), 423 Hubberstey, P., 27 (122). 95 Hiibner, T., 23 (118), 95, 182 (196), 227 Hudson,H. R., 31 1 (24). 322 Huff, R. K., 471 (505).483 Huffman,J. C., 156 (31), 223, 433 (80), 474 Hugel. H. M., 456 (310), 478 Hughes, E. W., 502 (109. 1 I I), 503 (109). 504 ( I I I), 525 Huguem, E., 447 (194). 476 Huheey, J. E.. 124 (14). 145 Hui, R. C., 355 ( I 15). 366 Huie, R. R., 732 (132), 747 Huisgen. R., 219 (304). 229 Hulett, L., 168, 206 (108). 225 Hull, R., 414 (170), 424 Hummel, A., 740 (156). 748 Hummelink,T., 102 (I), 144 Hummelink-Peters,B. G., 102 (I), I44 Humprey, D., 244,291 (32). 296 Hunt, J. W., 720,723,724 (79). 726 (133). 746, 747 Hunt, P. A., 21 I (283), 229 Hunter, D., 428 (3), 462 (403). 472,480 Hursthouse,M. B., 598 (201). 620 Husing, A.. 607 (238). 620 Husted, D. R., 305, 308 ( 1 I), 322 Hutchings, M., 846 (199). 851 Hiittemann,J., 711 (9). 712 (16, 22, 25), 713 (16, 22). 715 (45). 716 (48). 718 (55, 59). 729 (104). 745-747 Huynh-Dinh,T., 470 (489). 482 Hvoslef, J., 18, 23 (86), 94, 176, 177 (162), 226 . Hyde, C. L., 273 (108). 298, 671, 672 (IOI), 687

87 1

Ibrahim,L. I., 793, 825 (24). 847 Ide, H., 724 (99), 729 (99, 107). 730 (99), 746, 747 Idoux, J. P., 361 (148), 366 Idris Ali, K. M., 724, 726 (95, 97), 727 (97), 746 Ienaga,K., 460 (353, 357). 479 Ignatenko,A. V., 376 (40). 421 Ignat’ev, N . V., 554 (80). 617, 670, 671 (100). 687 Ignat’ev, V. N., 266 (83). 297 Ignatova,L. A., 169, 190, 191 ( I 17). 225 Igolen, J., 470 (489),482 Iino, K., 432 (73, 74), 473 Ikariya, T., 444 (165), 475 Ikawa, M., 499 (84), 524 Ikeda, M., 432 (69). 473 Ikizler, A. A., 457 (319), 459 (337). 479 Ikizler, N., 459 (331). 479 Ila, H., 453 (280), 478 Ilavskf, D., 698-701, 703 (39), 705 Ilchenko,A. Ya., 402 (132), 423 Iley, J. N . , 170, 172 (126), 225, 575, 577 (134), 618 Ilsley, W. H., 163 (73), 224 Imafuku, K., 521 (181), 526 Imai, K., 468 (464), 482 Imai, Y., 350 (84, 85), 351 (85, 86). 365 Imamoto,T., 350 (83). 365 Immirizi, A., 606 (234), 620,678 (134). 687 In, Y . , 670 (91). 686 Inagami,T., 785 (139). 788 Inamoto, N., 177 (178), 226, 498 (74), 524 Infante,G. A., 723 (131), 724 (93, 94). 727 (131). 731, 732 (121), 746, 747 Ingeno, M. J., 428, 465 (6). 472 Inglis, T., 163 (66), 224,678 ( I 19, 120, 125), 687 Ingold, C. K., 699 (42). 705 Inokawa, S., 193 (237). 228. 433, 452 (75). 467 (75,448,449). 474, 481 Inoua, M., 681 (159), 688 Inoue, H., 670 (91). 686 Inoue, S . , 430 (46). 43 1 (46, 64). 464 (41 3 , 473,481 Inouye, Y., 443, 468 (153), 475 Inouye, Yu., 560 (IOI), 617 Intini, F. P., 162 (56). 163 (71). 177 (56), 185 (71). 224 Inubushi,Y., 10, 14 (26). 93 Irwin. J. D., 164 (77), 224 Isaka, I., 466 (437), 481 Isakov, C. M.. 268,269 (85), 297 Isaksson, R., 197 (245.245). 228 Iseki, M., 844 (171, 172), 850 Ishida,T.. 670 (91), 686

872

Author index

Ishii, Y.. 441, 463 (143). 475, 600 (214), 601 (220, 222,223). 603 (226). 620 Ishikawa, H., 454 (294). 478 Ishikawa,Y., 444 (165). 475 Islamov, R. G., 585, 586 (174). 619 Isley, W. H., 678 (130), 687 Ismail, N. A., 808 (53), 847 Isono. K., 471 (504), 483 Issleib. K., 454 (291). 478 Itabashi,K., 471 (499). 482 Itagaki, T., 683 (171). 688 Itai, A., 309 (18), 322, 505 (122). 525 Ito, T., 468 (464), 482 Ito, Y., 10, 14 (26), 93, 357 (125-127). 366 Itoh, K., 441, 463 (143). 475, 600 (214), 601 (220, 222, 223), 620 Ivachnenko,E. P., 540 (45,46), 542 (46), 604 (228), 612, 613 (253). 616. 620. 621, 670 (92), 686 Ivanchenko,N. M., 379 (49). 421, 537 (41, 42), 538 (41). 539 (41, 42). 541, 542 (42). 554 (42, 78, 79), 557 (42, 79), 558 (79). 591 (179, 181, 182). 592, 593 (181, 182). 595 (187). 616,617,619,670 (97). 686 Ivanchenko,V. I., 169 (121). 170 (121, 123). 171 (123), 190, 191 (121). 225, 581 (160, 161, 165), 583 (160). 585, 587 (165), 618, 619 Ivanovskaya, L. Yu., 408 (154). 423 Iversen, T., 468 (462.463). 482 Iwakura,Y., 355 ( 1 12). 366 Iwano, Y., 432 (73, 74), 473 Iwasaki, F., 18 (84, 90), 94, 176 (i58, 160). 226,595 (186). 619 Iwasiewicz, A., 104, I15 (7), 145 Iyer, S., 396 ( I 13, I14), 422.423 Izmailova, G. G., 382 (60). 421 Izquierdo, A., 833 (105, 106). 849 Izzo, R. S,. 452 (262). 477 Jackman,L. M., 154, 179 (12). 223,252, 259, 261-263 (57). 297, 331 (37a). 338, 546 (53), 598 (204), 616, 620, 663. 667 (73), 686 Jackson,R. F. W., 428, 468 (26), 473 Jacobi, M. A., 463 (409), 481 Jacobsen,P., 59 (252, 253). 98 Jacobson,A., 761 (48). 786 Jacquier,R., 462 (385). 480 Jacquignon,P., 3 10 (23), 322 JaffC. H. H., 37 (186). 96, 627 (31). 685 Jagdmann,G. E. Jr., 373 (27), 421 Jain,P. C., 399 (122). 423 Jain, R., 798, 819 (35). 830 (91), 847.848 Jakobsen,P., 165, 173, 199 (85). 224, 357 (128). 366,430,431 (45). 450 (220).

473, 477, 554 (83). 617, 668 (82, 83). 686 Jancke,H., 600 (216). 620 Jancke,J., 430, 43 I (52). 473 Janik, B., 834 (108, 109, 113). 837 (134, 140). 838 (140). 841 (160), 849,850 JannC,K., 751 (9-1 I), 752 (9). 753,755 (10, 1 I), 757,758,767, 768 ( I I), 785 Janousek,2. 353 (98-100). 354 (98.99, 107, 109), 365,366, 386 (73). 422 Janzen,A. F., 599 (206), 620 Janzen,E. G., 708 (5). 745 Jaouen,G., 209 (276), 228 Jara,R., 813 (59). 848 Jarabak,R., 761 (35). 786 Jarczewski, A., 522 (190). 526 Jaroszewska-Manaj,J., 18 (88). 94,236 (27, 29), 238 (29), 241, 242 (27), 246-249 (49). 258 (75). 282, 289 (128). 296-298, 624 (4). 626, 627 (4, 27). 639-641 (4). 665 (4.27). 677 (I 17). 684,685,687 Jaskdski, M., 18 (85,94,95,96a), 94, 142 (21). 145, 176 (153. 156). 177 (153. 163. 171, 172). 226,252 (61.62). 297 Jaud,J., 389 (83). 422 Jauregui,E. A., 335 (58). 338 Jaworski,J. S., 791 (17). 792, 794 (19), 812 (55), 847 Jayson, G. G., 731 (120). 747 Jeffrey, G. A., 16 (76). 94, 167, 175 (IOO), 225 JehliEka,V., 167, 168, 174, 186 (105), 225 Jellinek, F., 16, 49 ( 5 3 , 93 Jen, T., 154, 179 ( 12). 223,252,259, 26 1-263 (57), 297, 331 (37a). 338, 663, 667 (73). 686 Jencks. W. P., 155, 156, 160, 179, 180, 214 (26). 219 (303). 223,229,447 (187). 448 (197), 449 (203). 476,749, 770,773 (2). 785 Jensen,J. B., 332 (48). 338 Jensen,L. H., 28 (138, 142). 95 Jensen,M. A., 838 (144). 849 Jentsch,W., 10 (25). 93 Jeremif, D., 822. 823 (76). 848 Jessup, P. J., 561 (102, 103). 617 Ji, G., 846 (203). 851 Jibodu, K. 0.. 428 (19, 20). 472 Jie, C., 607 (242). 621 Jimbnez, P., 331 (38). 338 Jin, Z.-T., 521 (181). 526 Jindal,S. P., 765 (74, 79, 82). 786, 787 Jindra,H., 667 (80). 686 Jirathana,P., 723 (131), 724 (94). 727 (131). 746. 747 Jirman,J., 550 (70, 71). 617 Joergensen,A., 461 (370). 480

Author index Johannsen, F.. 461 (370). 480 Johne, S., 398 ( I 19), 423 Johns, S. R., 491 (28). 523 Johnson, B. D., 428,462 (28). 473 Johnson, C. D., 765 (78). 787 Johnson, D. S., 273 (108, log), 298, 671, 672 (101, 102), 687 Johnson, J. E., 167 (106), 168 (106, 113), 169, 175 (I 13). 188 (21 ,)I 205 (106), 208 ( I 13,271). 209, 220 (275). 225.227. 228 Johnson, T. B., 534 (31). 616 Johnston, E. R., 51 (243), 97, 162 (52), 216 (296), 217 (298, 299), 223, 229, 273 (98), 298,440 (134-137), 441 (138), 447 (182). 475.476 Jolicoeur, C., 332 (44). 338 Jonas, V., 64 (261), 98, 181 (191). 227, 329 (25), 337 Jones, C. J . , 679 (I&), 688 Jones, J. B., 761 (43-45, 47), 786 Jones, M., 82-84 (345). 100, 250, 294 (53), 296, 302, 305, 312, 315 (2). 321 Jones, P. G., 29 (151). 95 Jones, R. A. Y., 749 (4). 785 Jones, W. B. G., 712 (26), 745 Jones, W.E., 428 (8), 472 Jones,W.J.,487(10),502(112),523,525 Jong, A. P. de 291 (152, 153). 299, 332, 333 (50). 338 Jongejan, H., 404 (136), 423 Jordan, M. J., 51 (244b). 97 Jorgensen, K. A., 575 (129). 618 Joshi, B. S., 396 (I 14), 423 Jovanovic, S. V., 720 (77). 732 (129), 746, 74 7 Juchnovski, I. N., 693, 701 (26), 705 Jue, R. A., 452 (242). 477 Jugelt, W., 801,802 (44). 847 Juliano, L., 332 (47), 338 Junek, H.. 348 (63). 365, 390 (88), 422 Jung, M. E., 436 (I lo), 437 (I I I), 443, 468 (156), 451,471 (226). 474, 475, 477 Junjappa, H., 453 (280), 478 Jutz, C., 345 (43), 364 Kabachnik, M. I., 540, 542 (46). 604 (228). 616,620 Kabasawa, Y., 519 (175), 526 Kabusz, S., 349 (75, 76). 365 Kacprazak-Wiatr, A., 295 (164). 299 Kaddachi, M. T., 461 (378). 480 Kaddi, D., 844 (181), 850 Kadish, K. M., 790, 831, 835 (5). 845 (191). 846.850 Kadoi, E., 731, 732 (123), 747 Kadyrov, Ch. Sh., 345 (46). 364

873

Kaesler, R. W., 156 (31), 223 Kagiya, T., 724 (99). 729 (99, 107). 730 (99). 746. 747 Kagotani, M., 444 (167, 168), 475, 567 (I 13). 61 7 Kahle, V., 838 (143). 849 Kaim, W., 163 (66), 224, 678 (130). 687 Kairnanakova, E. F., 402 (131), 423 Kairnanakova, S. I., 349 (73). 365 Kairisalo, P., 461 (365). 480 Kaji, K., 351 (89). 355 (1 13). 365.366 Kakimoto, M., 350 (84, 85), 351 (85. 86). 365 Kakiuchi, Y., 5 (14), 92 Kalashnikova, N. A., 282, 291 (130), 298, 342 (26). 364, 626, 657, 659, 660, 663, 666, 667 (29), 685 Kal’chenko, V. A., 670 (93-96, 98, 99). 671 (94-96, 98, 99). 686, 687 Kalchenko, V. ,I. 59 (254). 64 (272). 98, 164, 165, 174, 185 (81), 196 (243). 199 (250), 21 1 (243). 224, 228, 264 (78-82), 265 (79, 80), 266 (80-82), 297, 344 (39), 364, 369 (13, 15, 16), 389 (82). 420. 422,581 (155-159, 162, 167-172). 582 (I%), 583 (158, 159, 162). 584 (157). 589 (168, 585 (155), 587 (167-169). 170-172). 596 (190-192), 599 (170-172), 618, 619 Kalikhrnan, I. D., 345 (42), 364, 465 (434, 433,481 Kalinin, V. N., 416 (179). 424 Kalinowski, H.-0.. 188 (212), 227, 509, 513 (131). 525 Kalinowski, M. K., 141 (17), 145, 792 (18, 19), 793 (21), 794 (19), 818 (21), 847 Kblmbn, A,, 177 (182-184), 191 (183), 226, 462 (404), 480 Kaloustian, M. K., 219 (302). 229 Kaluia, A., 273, 286 (105). 298 Kalyankar, G. D., 499 (84). 524 Kamal, M. M., 841 (156159). 850 Kamalov, R. M., 581 (154), 618 Karnata, K., 455 (297), 478 Karndar, B. V., 406 (140). 423, 432, 449 (66), 4 73 Kamenetskaya, I. A., 575 (133). 618 Kaminskii, A. Ya., 612 (252). 621 Kamiya, S., 575 (132). 618 Karnlet, M. J., 812, 829 (57), 848 Kampchen, T., 68, 69 (284). 98, 167 (103), 225, 274, 275 (I I3), 276, 277 (I 15), 298, 615 (259). 621,663,668 (74), 686 Kampf, A., 491 (31). 523 Kanai, S., 435 (90). 474 Kanamori, K., 188-190 (213). 227,502,512, 513 (102). 525 Kaneko, H., 455 (299), 478

874

Author index

Kanemasa, S., 452 (272), 470 (272, 485). 478, 482 Kang, K., 430.43 I, 470 (55). 473 Kang. S., 335 (60). 338 Kang, S . M., 386 (75). 422 Kang, Y. K., 332 (41), 338 Kantlehner,W., 347 (55, 56), 349 (69). 364. 365. 370 (22). 376 (41). 380 (56). 421, 462 (401). 480 Kantor, E. A,, 448 (195), 476 Kao, J., 164 (76). 224 Kapitan, A. I., 345 (45). 364 Kapon, M., 502,503 (1 14), 525 Kappler, H. A., 62, 63 (257b). 98 Kappler, U., 698 (40), 705, 799, 819, 821 (38), 847 Kapran, N. A., 410 (161). 424 Kapron, P., 470 (494), 482 Kar, K., 348 (66). 365 Kar, L. A., 715,716 (43). 745 Karagez. S . Kh., 340 (16). 363 Karaghiosoff,K., 458 (324). 479 Karakhanov,R. A., 462 (387),480, 547 (59), 616 Karakida,K., 49 (234). 97 Karam, L. R., 729 (106). 747 Karavayeva, E . S . , 288 (142). 299,795, 796, 810, 811 (31). 847 Karayannis,N. M., 836. 838, 845 (131), 849 Kargin, Yu. M., 807 (51), 847 Karipides, D., 494 (45), 523 Karle, I. L., 28 (141). 95 Karle, J., 28 (141). 95 Karmanova,L. P., 326 (14), 337 Karpati-Adam, E., 346 (48), 364, 785 (137). 788 Karppanen,H., 461 (365). 480 Kasha. M., 203 (259,260). 228 Kasheva, T. N., 344 (38). 364 Kashiwagi, T., 466 (437), 481 KaSphk. F., 792, 793, 797, 812 (20). 847 Kasper, M., 336 (69b). 338 Kaspersen,F. M., 469 (472). 482 Kasymova, S . S., 345 (46), 364 Katagiri, N., 461 (380). 469 (480). 480.482 Katakai, A., 683 (171. 172). 688 Kato, K., 454 (287). 478 Kato, N., 601 (223), 620 Kato, S . , 683 (170). 688 Kato, f.,347 (57). 364,461 (380). 469 (480). 480,482,519 (175). 526 Kato, Y . , 28 (137), 95 Katoh, S . , 683 (171). 688 Katritzky, A. R., I 1 (38), 68 (287.288). 93. 98, 155, 172 (16). 223,471 (501). 483, 519 (172). 526, 529 (11). 607 (239.240).

615, 620, 626 (30), 629, 630, 633, 656 (39). 663, 668 (30, 39), 685 Katsuda, M.. 441,463 (143). 475, 600 (214). 620 Katz, L. E., 450, 452 (217), 476 Kaul, L. B., 271, 272 (94), 298, 674 (1 13), 687 Kavelvek, J., 447 (183). 476 Kawada, A., 740 (159). 748 Kawagishi, T., 459 (339), 479 Kawahara,F. S., 761 (34b), 786 Kawahara,S., 466 (437), 481 Kawai, J., 470 (492), 482 Kawasaki, T., 467 (446), 481 Kawashima, Y., 454 (294), 478 Kayama, Y., 461 (367). 480 Kazimierczak, J., 273,286 (105). 298 Kazitsyna, L. A,, 290 (148), 299 Keats, N. G . , 82 (343), 100, 302 (4), 322 Kebarle, P., 316 (33). 322 Kehne, H., 464 (418). 481 Keindl, M. C., 802 (45). 847 Keir, W. F., 382 (59). 396 (I10, 1 1 I ) , 421, 422 Kelarev, V. I., 456 (315). 462 (386). 479,480 Keller. K., 29 (151). 95 Kemme, A., 18 (92), 94, 155, 176 (23), 223. 252, 253 (60), 297 Kemula, W., 793 (22), 847 Kendall, M., 295 (162). 299 Kennard,0.. 102 (1). 144 Kenny, J. W., 452 (259). 477 Kenny, T. S.. 494 (48). 524 Kent, S . B. H., 448 (199, 200). 452 (261). 476. 477 Kenyon, G. L., 188 (215). 189, 201 (215, 218), 227 Keralev. V. I., 462 (387). 480 Kerbachi. R., 177 (179). 226 Kergomard, A., 761 (56, 57, 5 9 4 1 , 66), 770 (102). 786, 787 Kerling, K. E. T.. 497 (72). 524 Kessenikh, A. V., 271,272,289 (92), 298, 673,674 (108), 687 Kessler, H., 188 (212), 227, 509 (131, 133135). 510 (133). 511 (134). 513 (131, 141, 142). 514 (142). 525, 546 (54). 616 Keszler, D. A., 490,495 (19), 523 Ketz, E., 432 (68), 473 Keus, D., 168, 188 (109), 225 Khan, A. Z.-Q.. 197 (245). 228 Khan, R., 469 (471). 482 Khan, S. I., 436 (110), 451,471 (226), 474, 477 Kharchenko,A. V., 679 (142). 688 Kharchevnikov. V. M., 785 (138). 788 Khilya, V. P., 410 (157), 424

875

Author index Khmel’nitskii, L. I., 177 (175). 226 Khorana, H. G., 547 (63). 580 (149). 616.618 Khrustalev, V. A., 166, 186 (91), 200 (253). 224,228, 268 (85). 269 (85, 87, 88), 270 (90), 288, 293 (87). 297, 376 (36), 421, 450 (215, 218, 219). 476,477, 671 (103, 107), 673 (107). 687 Khrustalyov, V. A., 610 (244). 621 Khusainova, N. G., 463 (414), 468 (458), 481. 482 Kida. S., 454 (294). 478 Kiel. G., 23 (103). 94, 176 (159). 226 Kieldt, B., 236,237,239-241 (25). 2% Kielbasinski, P., 580 (147). 618 Kiers, C. Th., 177 (181). 226 Kigeegawa, Y . , 428 (27). 473 Kikuchi, O., 65 (273b). 98, 183 (199), 227 Kikugawa, Y., 351 (89), 355 (113),365, 366 Kiladze, T. K., 448 (195). 476 Kildea, J. D., 163 (62), 224 Kilner, M., 5 (Ma), 18 (89). 26 (ISa, 18b), 82-84 (345),92-94.100, 163 (64,66), 177 (166). 224.226, 250 (53). 290 (147). 294 (53). 296,299,302. 305, 312 (2). 315 (2,30a-c), 321,322,678 (I 18-120, 125, 135). 687 Kilpatrick, M., 70 (291). 98 Kilpatrick, M. L., 5 (16). 92 Kim, C. S., 434 (86). 474 Kimura, M., 29 (148). 95, 553 (77). 617 Kimun, T., 731, 732 (123). 747 Kinasiewicz, W., 50, 62, 65 (236), 97, 155, 196 (19). 223, 279 (125). 298 Kindi, P.. 434 (85), 474 King, C., 356 ( I 18). 366 King, E. J.. 655 (49). 685 King, G. S. D., 177 (174, 185, 186). 204 (263). 226-228 King, H., 495 (50), 524 King, J. F., 529 (8), 615 Kinoshita, K., 825, 846 (go), 848 Kinoshita, M., 435 (90). 474 Kinoshita, T., 377 (42). 421 Kinsman, R. G., 428 (30), 473 Kirchner, J. J., 323-325 (6). 337 Kirdani, R., 761 (51). 786 Kirk, J. M.. 428. 468 (26). 473 Kirkiacharian, S., 4 4 1 (139). 475 Kirmse. R., 315 (31). 322 Kiro, Z. B., 4, 5 (10). 92, 259,260, 285,291 (76), 297, 626 (13). 685 Kirsanov, A. V . , 353 (105), 365 Kirsten, G . W . , 498 (79). 524 Kiselev, S. S., 394 (101). 422 Kiselev, V . V., 539 (43). 616 Kishikawa, K., 550 (72), 617 Kiss, P.. 165. 185 (82). 224

Kister, J., 532 (25, 26), 616 Kita, Y., 467 (446), 481 Kitada, A., 761, 764 (63), 786 Kitaev, Yu. P., 271 (91). 298, 673, 675 (111). 687, 806 (50), 807, 808 (52), 812 (58), 847, 848 Kitaeva, M. Yu., 807 (51), 847 Kitajgorodzki, A. I., 103 (4). 144 Kitajima, K., 520 (177), 526 Kitano, M., 16 (72, 74). 17 (74), 49, 50 (72),

94

Kittler, L., 837,838 (138), 849 Kiwan, A. M.. 830 (90). 848 Kiyama, T. A., 594 (185). 619 Kjaer, A., 29 (145), 95, 169 (I 14). 225, 770 (1 04), 787 Kjoller-Larsen, I., 29 (145), 95 Klaebe, A., 581 (151), 618 Klebe, J. F., 601 (218, 219), 620 Klein, F., 340 (3), 363 Klein, G., 428, 452 (16), 472 Klein, J., 4, 14 (IZ), 92, 505 (121). 525 Klein, R. S., 380 (53), 421 Kleinpeter. E., 275 (1 17), 298 Kletski, M. E., 529,530 (13). 536 (39), 572, 573 (125). 615,616,618 Kletskii, M. E., 185, 200 (204). 227 Kliegel, W., 389 (85), 422, 520 (178), 526 Klochkov, V. V . , 164 (79). 199 (79, 251), 224, 228 Klochkova, V. N., 793 (21). 817 (67). 818 (21, 671,847,848 Kloosterman, D., 406 (140), 423,432,449 (66). 473 Klotz, U. J., 466 (441). 481 KlukanovB, H.. 838 (143, 146). 849 Klyuyev, N. A., 246,250 (45). 296,673,675, 676 ( I 09). 687 Knapp, S., 429 (39), 473, 561 (105). 617 Knaus, G., 455 (297), 478 Knier, B. L., 777 (124), 787 Knobler, Y., 499 (85), 524 Knorr, R., 700, 701 (46). 705 Knowles. J. R., 773 (1 13, 114). 787 Knychala, A., 252 (63). 297 Kobayashi, S., 233, 234 (1 3). 296, 347 (58), 357 (125). 364,366 Kobayashi. T., 594 (184). 619 Kobbe, H. J., 1 1 (33). 93 Kober, E., 491 (27). 523 Kobor, J., 461 (373), 480 Kobrin, P. A., 162 (52). 223 Kobrin, S . , 429 (41), 473 Kocevar, M., 386 (78), 422 Koch, M. H. J., 35, 36 (176), 96 Koch. T. H.. 199 (248), 228, 378 (46), 421 Kochergina, L. A., 332 (45). 338

876

Author index

Koda, A., 466 (437), 481 Koehler, K., 315 (31), 322 Koetzle, T. F., 28 (140), 95 Kohmoto, S . , 550 (72), 617 Kohn, H., 160 (44). 223, 569 (1 18), 618 Koike, H., 699, 702, 703 (48); 705 Koikov, L. N.. 363 (154, 155). 366 Kolb, A., 470 (489). 482 Kolb, R., 283 (131). 298. 368 (12). 414 (171). 420,424 Kolev, T. M., 693, 701 (26). 705 Kollman, P. A., 65.66 (273~).98, 182, 189 (198). 184 (202), 188 (215). 189, 201 (215, 218), 227 Kolomiets, A. F., 356 (123). 366 Kolonits, P., 165, 185 (82), 224 Kolotilo, N. V., 419 (183, 184). 424 Koltai, E., 428, 453 (1 I ) , 472 Koltsov, N. Yu., 546 ( 5 3 , 616 Koltsova, A. N., 599 (207), 620 Kornarov, V. A., 368 (5), 376 (34), 420, 421, 437 ( I 16), 474 Kornatsu,M., 460 (35 I), 479 Komorita, S . , 435 (94). 474 Komoriya, A,, 441 (144), 475, 600 (212), 620 Kompan, 0. E., 571,572 (123), 612, 613 (253). 618, 621 Kondo, M., 731,732 (123), 747 Konno, S., 438 (120). 460 (351). 474,479 Konovalova, I. V., 458 (327). 467 (453455). 479,482 Kopoldova, J., 744 (173). 748 Koppensteiner. G., 428 (29). 473 Koppes, W . M., 462 (388). 480 Korber, G., 191 (226). 227 Korbonits, D.. 165, 185 (82). 224 Korchemkin,S. N.. 785 (138), 788 Kornilov, M. Yu., 165, 186 (87), 224, 410 (157), 424, 581, 589, 599 (170-172). 619 Kornuta, P. P., 419 (181-184), 424 Korobkina, L. I., 682 (164), 688 Korolev, B. A., 451, 471 (227). 477 Korijsi, J., 784 (130), 788 Korp, J. D., 177 (167), 226, 598, 606 (203). 620, 845 (192), 850 Korshunov, R. L., 463 (414), 481 Korvenranta,J., 682 (167). 688 Koryagin, Yu. S., 332 (46), 338 Kos, A. J., 4, 5 (13), 92 Koshar. R. J.. 305, 308 ( 1 I). 322 Kosmane, R. S., 348 (65). 365 KostiC, N. M., 515 (149). 525 Kostikova, Yu. I., 353 (103). 365 Kostromina,L. S., 683 (177). 688 Kostuba, L. J., 462 (395). 480 Kosturkiewicz, 2.. 18 (85, 93-95, 96a). 94, 142 (21). 145, 176 (153, 156). 177 (153,

163, 171, 172),226, 252 (61-64), 297, 652, 653, 677 (47), 685 Kosugi, M., 436 (103), 474 Koten, G. van 598, 606 (195). 619, 678 (136). 687 Kotera, A., 5 (14), 92 Kotula, W., 273 (106, 107), 286 (107). 298 Kovacic, P., 846 (201, 202). 851 Kovacs, M., 345 (47). 364 Koval, 1. V., 679 (142). 688 Kovalek, J., 550 (68-71). 617 KovSi, J., 838 (143, 146). 849 KovAts, E., 234 (19). 296 Kowalak, S., 785 (134). 788 Koyakata, N., 459 (339), 479 Kozak, I. Yu., 344 (36), 364 Kozaki, T., 65 (273b), 98, 183 (199). 227 Kozakowski, G., 253, 289 (65), 297, 677 (1 16), 687 Kozhukharova,A. T., 661 (59), 686 Kozikowski, A. P., 437 (1 12), 474, 522 (186). 526 Kozinskii, V. A., 360 (143). 366 Koziol, A. E., 28 (124), 95, 529 ( 1 l), 615 Kozmutza, C . , 13, 45 (47), 93 Kraatz, U., 461 (381). 480 Krajewski, J. W., 18 (92), 94, 155 (23), 176 (23, 155). 223,226, 252 (59,60), 253 (60). 297 Kramer, A., 433,438 (83). 474 Kramer, M. S., 398 (I 17). 423 Kramer, U., 212 (288). 229 Kramer, V., 302, 305 (lo), 322 Kraske, P. J., 836 (129), 841 (129, 153). 849, 850 Kras’ko, V. V., 821 (73), 848 Krasnova, L. B., 285, 291 (134). 298,408 (152), 423,626 (14). 685 Kratochvil, B., 23 (106), 94, 159, 176 (36). 223 Kratzer, R. H., 419 (185), 424 Krause-Loevenich,D., 77 (332), 99 Kravtsov, D. N., 598, 601 (198), 604 (198, 229, 23 1-233), 605 (231-233). 606 (23 I , 233), 620, 656, 662 (51), 685 Krawczyk, W., 77 (312), 78, 79 (312, 314). 99, 236 (23, 25, 27). 237 (23, 25). 238 (23). 239 (23,25), 240 (25), 241 (25, 27), 242 (27). 253-256 (68), 279,284 (1 22). ( I 32), 296-298, 626 (22, 24, 26). 627 (24,26). 636 (26). 646 (22). 647 (24). 648 (22), 649 (24). 650, 653 (22, 24). 654 (26). 656 (22,26), 665 (26). 685. 690 (4, 6). 704 Krechl, J., 23 (106). 94, 159, 176 (36). 196 (244). 223,228 Kreevoy, M. M., 773 (108-1 10). 787

Author index Kremler, M. M., 679 (142), 688 Kresge, A. J., 769 (99, 787 Krestel, M., 29 (153), 32 (159), 95, 174 (141), 175, 190 (151), 191 (224, 225), 225-227, 432 (67). 473 Krestov, G. A., 332 (46). 338 Kretschmer, 9.. 660, 661 (56). 686 Kreutzberger, A., 305 (12), 322, 360 (146), 366 Krishnan, R., 39 (208). 40 (208, 212), 45.49, 54, 60 (228), 97 Krishtal, V. S., 59 (254). 64 (272). 98, 164, 165, 174, 185 (81). 224,581 (155, 156, 158, 159, 162, 169), 264,264 (78), 265 (79, 80), 266 (80). 297, 369 (16). 420, 582 (155). 583 (158, 159, 162). 585 (1.55). 587 (169). 618,619,670 (93-96). 671 (94-96). 686 Kristen, F., 362 (152). 366 Kristen, G., 21 I (285). 229 Kristinsson, H., 450,457 (221). 459 (336). 460 (355). 477,479 Krivenchuk, V. E., 451,471 (227). 477 Krivonogova, T. I., 246, 293 (477, 296, 662, 663 (61.62). 673, 684 (62), 686 Kroese, C. J., 845 (183). 850 Krokhtyak, V. I., 402 (132). 423 Krornrner, H., 462 (397). 480 Kroon, J. L., 501 (96). 524 Krug, B., 681 (161). 688 Kruger, c., 600 (209). 620 Kruger, G. J., 18.29 (91), 94, 163, 204 (70). 224.433 (82), 434 (84). 474 Kruglenko, V. P., 796, 819-821, 844 (33). 847 Kruif, C. G. de 332 (43), 338 Krukovskii, S. P., 369 (18). 420 Kruszewski, 1.. 142 (20), 145 Krygowski, T. M.. 17 (87). 18 (87, 88), 21 (87). 47. 48 (229). 70 (87), 94, 97, 102 (3). 103 (3, 5). 104 (8). 110 (3, 10). I12 (Il), 124, 135, 139 (3). 140 (11). 141 (16. 17). 142 (19, 20). 143 (19), 144, 145, 176 (152). 226,690 (11). 704, 792 (18). 793, 818 (21). 847 Krysina, L. S., 682 ( I 64). 688 KnnariC, D., 837 (135, 136), 849 Ktuesc, P. R., 683 (173). 688 Kubista, M., 85 (347). 100 Kublik, Z., 846 (198), 851 Kubota, Y., 374 (29). 421 KuEerovB, T., 792, 793,797, 8 12 (20), 847 Kuchitsu, K., 16 (64, 72, 74, 81), 17 (74), 49 (72, 234). 50 (72), 93, 94, 97 Kuczowski, R. L., 16,49 (61), 93 Kuembel, B., 462 (399), 480 Kugajevsky, I., 82, 85 (340). 99, 302 (3,322

877

Kugel, W., 462 (401). 480 Kiihle, E., 493 (39). 523 Kuhlmann, T., 308 (16), 322 Kiihlthau, H. P., 604 (230). 620 Kiihrnstedt, H., 660, 661 (56), 686 Kuhnt, D., 456 (31 I). 461 (377). 462 (399). 463 (408), 478, 480, 481 Kuhs, K., 43 I (60), 473 Kukhar, V. P., 344 (38). 353 (104, 105). 354 (106), 364,365,403 (133). 423,467 (45I), 482 Kukovskii, S. P., 376 (40). 421 Kul’bitskii, G. N., 282, 291 (130). 298, 342 (26), 364, 626, 657, 659, 660, 663, 666, 667 (29). 685 Kulcsar, L., 345 (47), 364 Kuleshova, E. F., 349 (73). 365,402 ( I 29, 131). 423 Kumar, A., 806 (49). 821 (74). 847, 848 Kume, K., 5 (14). 92 Kume, T., 471 (504). 483 Kumidska, M., 236 (28). 296, 624, 627, 650, 658,665 (5). 684 Kumler, W. D., 502 (108). 525 Kunz, Y. K., 168, 169, 175,208 (1 13), 225 Kuo, I., 731 (I 17-1 19). 747 Kupfer, R., 29 (152, 153). 32 (159), 95, 174 (141, 142), 175, 190 (151). 191 (224, 225). 225-227.432 (67). 465 (433). 466 (439). 473. 481 Kupletska, B., 290 (148). 299 Kurbatov. S. V., 558, 559 (91). 613 (91, 256). 614 (91). 617, 621 Kurbatov, V. P., 683 (177). 688 Kurilenko, K. L., 454 (289). 478 Kurita, K., 355 ( I 12). 366 Kurzer, F., 31 (174). 96, 496 (57). 498 (77). 524, 547 (64). 616 Kusayarna, Y., 355 (1 12). 366 Kuschel, H., 82 (341, 342). 85 (341). 99. 100, 302, 303 (6-9). 304 (8, 9), 305 (6). 322 Kuske, F. K., 253, 284 (67). 297, 647,648, 652, 658, 665, 669 (46). 685 Kuthan, J., 196 (244), 228 Kutzelnigg, W., 4 (8). 92 Kuwabara, M., 711,712 (12a), 745 Kuz’menko, V. V., 828, 829 (87). 848 Kuzrnierkiewicz, W., 529 (1 I), 615 Kuzrnina, M. G., 598, 603 (197). 620 Kuznetsov, V. A., 798 (36, 37), 799 (36). 812 (36, 37), 847 Kuznetsova, L. i., 683 ( 1 7 7 ~688 Kvita, V., 21 1 (284). 229 Kwee, S.. 837 (137). 849 Kwiatkowski, J. S., 328 (21). 337 Kyba, E. P., 516 (157). 526

878

Author index

L’abbB, G., 177 (174, 185, I86), 204 (263). 226-228, 378 (48), 389 (81). 421,422 Labes, M. M., 740 (159), 748 LaCan, M., 794 (28), 800 (42). 809, 810 (28). 847 Lacava, T., 835 (121). 849 Lacosse, J. P., 164 (77). 224 Ladhar, F., 751,752. 767. 768. 778 (6). 785 Lafferty, W.J., 16.49 (61). 93 Lagercrantz, C., 708 (6), 745 Lahoz, F. J., 5, 26 (17), 92 Lalezari, ,I. 461 (366). 462 (390). 480 Lam, G. K. H., 428 (14). 472 La Manna, G., 175 (145). 226 LaMattha, J. L., 454 (282). 478 Lamaty, G., 765 (69), 786 Lamb, J. D., 516 (155). 526 Lambert, J. M., 452 (259). 477 Lamberton. J. A.. 491 (28). 523 Lamdan, S., 79, 80 (321-323), 99, 626 (8). 634,635,656 (8.41.42). 685 Lamotte, B., 740 (158b). 741 (161, 162). 748 Land, A. H., 14 (53). 93 Land, E. van? 832 (101). 848 Lande, W., 428 (14). 472 Lang, J. P. Jr., 386 (75, 76), 422 Lang, S. A. Jr., 233 (I ,)I 296. 349 (70-72), 365, 388 (79.80). 422,428 (28), 459 (340), 462 (28, 389, 391). 473,479,480 Lang, T. J., 172, 197 (134). 225 Langhals, H., 529 (12). 615 Langlet, J,. 37 (190). 96 Langone, J. J., 452 (260), 477 Lanovaya, G. A., 438 (121), 474 Larina, L. I., 825 (81, 82), 826 (82). 848 Larizza, A., 351 (go), 365 Larsen, C., 245 (39, 296 Larsen, I. K., 169 (1 14). 225 Larsen, N. W., 16, 50 (as), 93 Larsen, S., 28 (133, 134). 95 Laschi, F., 845 (193, 195). 850, 851 Lasocki, Z., 430,431 (52), 441 (146), 473, 475, 600 (215, 216). 620 Lasovsky, J., 220 (306), 229, 792, 793 (20), 797 (20, 34), 812 (20), 813 (34), 847 Laspkras, M., 156 (29), 223 Latscha, H. P., 170 (125), 225 Latypova, V. 2. 807 (51). 847 Lau, P.-Y., 531 (18), 615 Laurence, Ch., 142, 143 (19), 145 Laurent, A., 28 (136), 95 Laurie, V. W., 16, 49 (61, 62, 65), 93 Lavorenti, A., 31 1 (24). 322 Lavrinovich, L. I., 313 (28). 322 Lavrinovich. L. I., 681 (163). 688 Lawesson, S. 0.. 350 (80, 81). 365. 394 (99), 422

Laynes, J., 331 (38). 338 Lazar, D., 177, 191 (183), 226 Lazar, J., 398 (1 I8), 423 Le, J. C., 845 (191). 850 Leach, S. C., 825, 846 (80). 848 Leadlay, P. F., 428 (9). 472 Leanza, W.J., 449 (207). 476 Leban, ,.I 28 (131). 95. 177 (164, 167). 226, 408 (147). 423 Lebedev, V. N., 343 (32). 364 Le Bihan, 3.-Y., 209 (276). 228 Lebioda, L., 176 (155). 226, 252 (59). 297 LeBreton, P. R., 462 (394). 480 Lebreux, C., 172,217,218 (137). 225,445, 446 (177). 476 Lecher, H,. 490 (18). 523 Lechler, R., 163 (60). 224 Leclerc, G., 27, 28 (120). 95 Lee, J. T., 529 (4). 615 Lee. J. Y., 742 (163, 748 Lee. P. P., 336 (69~). 338 Lee, V. L., 462 (389). 480 Lee, W.W., 825, 846 (80). 848 Lee, Y., 445,446 (173-17.5). 475,476 Lefebvre. G., 242-244 (30). 296 Leffek. K. T., 507 (128). 522 (190), 525.526 Leger, J.-M., 27, 28 (120). 95 Legrand, M., 70 (290). 98 Legraverend, M., 518 (171), 526 Lehmann, M. S., 28 (140). 95 Lehn, J. M., 5 16 (1 58). 526 Lehner, T., 716 (48). 745 Leibfritz, D., 509 (133, 134). 510 (133), 51 I (134), 513, 514 (142). 525 Leiby, R. W., 461,463 (363, 364). 480 Leite, L. F. F., 702 (50), 705 Lemmens, B., 412 (164), 424,469 (483). 482 Lempert, C., 495 (52), 524 Lempert, K., 318 (36), 322 Lenaers, R., 660, 682 (53). 685 Lenhert, P. G . , 23 (107), 94 Lenz, G. R., 443, 468 (162), 475 Leo, A. J., 660’(58), 686 Leonard, N. J., 348 (65), 365.462 (392-396). 480

Leonard, R., 361 (148), 366 LePage, T. J., 62, 63 (257a). 98, 155, 160, 161, 172, 183, 184 (20). 223 Leroy, G., 57 (246), 97, 175 (148, 149). 188, 207 (149), 226 Lei, A., 50, 62, 65 (236), 97, 155, 196 (19). 223, 279 (125), 298 Lesin, A. V., 613 (256), 621 Lespagnol, C., 430,431, 444,470 (56). 473 Lettieri, G., 351 (90). 365 Leutwyler, S., 305 (13). 322

Author index Levchenko, E. S., 416 (177, 179), 419 (180). 424,466 (444). 481 Lever, A. B. P., 845 (184). 850 Levesque, G., 447 (192), 454 (286), 476, 478 Levin, R. D., 309 (19), 322, 330 (33,338 Levine, J. N., 48,49, 73 (232), 97 Levy, G. C., 68 (282). 98, 254 (73), 297 Lewandowski, J. A., 793, 818 (21), 847 Lewis, I. C., 628 (35). 685, 695, 696, 698 (32). 705 Lhommet, G., 470 (494). 482 Liang, T. M., 773 (108, 109). 787 Lias, S. G., 309 (19). 322, 330 (35). 338 Lichter, R. L., 68 (282), 98 Lide, D. R., 16, 49 (59), 93 Lieber, E., 498 (76). 524 Liebermann, T., 340 (8), 363 Liebman, J. F., 309 (19), 322, 330 (35), 338 Liebscher, J., 346 (49, 53). 364, 456, 466 (312). 479 Lien, M. H., 161 (46). 223 Lieser, K. H., 680 (154). 681 (157, 158). 688 Likhate, M. A., 396 ( I 14). 423 Liles, D. C., 679 (146), 688 Lilga, K. T., 742 (166), 748 Lim, B. B., 461 (379), 480 Lim, M. I., 380 (53), 421 Limbach, H.-H., 71 (293, 294), 99, 171, 193 (128). 225,773 (1 16). 787 Lin, Y., 349 (70-72), 365, 375 (3 I), 386 (75, 76). 388 (79.80). 421,422,459 (340), 462 (389, 391). 479,480 Lincoln, S. F., 679 (149), 688 Lindner, H. J., 35 (179), 96 Lingafelter, E. C.. 28 (128), 95 Lingwood, C. A., 452 (268), 478 Lion, Y., 71 1, 712 (12a), 745 Lipatova, L. F., 273, 288, 293, 294 ( I 10). 298, 675 (1 14), 687 Lippincott, T., 835 (127). 836 (128). 849 Lipunova, G. N., 246 (45-48). 250 (45,46), 271, 272 (46, 93), 273 (1 10). 288 (46, 48, 110). 293 (47,48, 1 lo), 294 (1 lo), 296, 298, 662 (60-62), 663 (61, 62). 673 (62, 109, 110). 674 (110, 112), 675 (109, I14), 676 (109, I lo), 683 (60). 684 (62), 686,687 Lis, T., 23 (99), 94 Lister, D. G., 16, 50 (68). 93 Liu, D., 371 (23), 421 Liu, M. T., 428 (8). 472 Livinghouse, T., 436 (105-108), 452, 466 (105). 470 (105-108), 474 Lizogub, A. V., 827, 828 (84, 85). 848 Lizzi, M. J., 354 (1 1 I), 366 Lo, D. H., 37 ( I 87), 96

879

Lobanov, G. A., 326 (14), 337 Loder, J. W., 553 (76). 617 Loeser, E., 761 (51), 786 Loewe, M. F., 371 (26). 421 LSfis, S., 370 (20), 420, 751, 753, 755, 757, 758(11),767 (ll,86,87),768 (11),781 (86, 87, 127, 128), 785, 787 Logachev, E. V., 819-821, 844 (72). 848 Logemann, F. I., 453 (277), 478 Liihr, T., 18 (96b), 94 Lokensgard, J. P., 443,465 (163). 475 Lokshin, B. V., 604, 605 (232). 620 Lollo, C. P., 161 (48). 162 (52). 184 (48). 223, 273 (97), 298 Lomakina, V. V., 785 ( I 38), 788 Loman, H., 722 (92), 735 (141), 740 (156). 746-748 Lomas, J. S., 32 (171), 96 Lonchambon, G., 412 (la), 424,469 (483). 482 Long, S. A. Jr., 375 (31), 421 Longhi, R., 515 (148); 525 Longstaff, C., 452 (243). 477 Lopes, M. M., 846 (199), 8-51 Lopes, 0. C., 782 (129), 787 Lopez, L., 361 (149), 366, 389 (84), 422 Lopyrev, V. A., 825, 826 (81, 82), 848 Lorga, D., 844 (181). 850 Lorz, E., 77 (333). 99, 627 (32). 685 Lo Schiavo, S., 163 (66). 224 Lotz, s., 434 (& 474 I), Loudon, A. G., 307 (15). 308 (15, 17), 322, 326 (16, 17). 337 Loushin, S. K., 164 (77), 224 Loutfy, R. 0.. 791 (12), 846 Lovas, F. J., 16 (61, 69), 17 (69), 49 (61, 69). 93 Lovell, F. M., 35.36 (177). 96 Lovell, M. F., 349 (70). 365, 386 (76). 422 Lovey, R. G., 443, 468 (157). 475 Lowe, J. A., 437 (1 1 I), 474 U w e , W., 410 (159), 424 Lowenthal, A. A., 310 (21), 322 Lubeck, L., 660, 661 (56), 686 Lubin, B. H., 428 (14), 472 Luckenbach, R., 577, 585 (138), 618 Ludmila, S., 447 (183), 476 Ludwig, M., 196 (244), 228 Ludwig, P. K., 708 (7). 745 Luethy, C., 459,466 (334). 479 Lukassek, J., 679 (137). 687 Lukehart, C. M., 23 (ICn), 94 Lukova, 0. A., 164, 173 (80), 224, 539 (44). 616 Lumbroso, H., 74 (299-301), 99. 172 (132, 136). 197 (132). 225 Lumbroso-Bader, N., 329 (24a. 24b), 337

880

Author index

Lunazzi, L., 186 (207, 208), 187 (207). 193 (239), 200 (208), 227, 228 Lund, F., 246, 247 (40), 296 Lund, H., 789 (l), 790 (9), 804, 806, 809, 812 ( I , 47). 837 ( I 37). 846, 847, 849 Lunin, A. F., 462 (386, 387), 480 Luque, J., 452 (253), 477 Luque de Castro, M. D., 830 (92), 848 Luthardt,P,. 164, 177, 185 (78). 224 Liittke, W., 66-68, 70, 71 (281), 98, 273, 279, 281, 282, 284 (103), 298 Lutz, K., 77 (329), 99 Lutz, R. P., 560, 562, 567 (93). 617 LUU-DUC, C., 340 (13), 363 Lyakhova, A. S . , 467 (455). 482 Lyapina, T. V., 432,435 (71), 473 Lythgoe, B., 518 (162). 526 LyEwiiiski, P., (132), 298, 626,627, 636,654, 656, 665 (26). 685 Maas, G., 32 (168). 96 Macciantelli,D., 169 ( I 15), 186 (207, 208). 187 (207). 200 (208), 225, 227 Maccoll, A., 307, 308 (15). 322, 326 (16), 337 Machacek,V., 550 (71), 61 7 MacInnis,J., 203 (259). 228 MacLean,T. D., 32 (160), 95,435 (96). 474 MacLennan,A. H., 396 (1 10, 11I), 422 MacNeil, P. A., 441 (147). 475, 601 (217). 620 Madan, K., 516 (156, 157). 526 Madden, M. J., 273 (109), 298, 67 I , 672 (102), 687 Madson, M. A., 470 (486). 482 Maeda, R., 435 (90), 474 Maeda, T., 501 (100). 524 Maekawa, T., 741 (163). 748 Maeshima, Y., 447 (189), 476 Magon, L., 598 (202). 620, 845 (195). 851 Magosch, K. H., 359 (141). 366 Mahdi, W., 4, 5 (13), 92 Mahoud, M. M., 5, 26 (18a), 92, 163 (64). 224, 315 (30b). 322 Maikov, S. I., 467 (447). 481 Maitte, P., 470 (494), 482 Majlessi, D., 48, 49, 73 (232). 97 Majoral,J. P., 389 (83). 422 Makerov, P. V., 345 (42), 364 Makhmudov, S . A., 345 (46). 364 Makhon’kov, D. I., 572 (124). 618 Maki, A. G., 16, 49 (61), 93 Makino, K., 719 (66), 746 Makoff, A. J., 448 (201), 476 Makosky, R. C., 487 (5). 489 (13), 523 Makoveskii, V. P., 461 (371), 480 Maksimova, N. E., 448 (195), 476 Malcolm, A. D. B., 448 (201), 476

Malhotra,S. K., 761 (42, 52, 53), 765 (42, 52, 71). 786 Malik, W. U., 798, 819 (33, 830 (91). 835 ( 1 24). 847-849 Malinski, T., 833-835 (103). 836, 838, 845 (131). 849 Malova, 0. V., 462 (387). 480 Malrieu,J. P,. 37 (190), 96 Mamaev, V. P., 408 (154). 423 Mandal, A. N., 428 (7). 472 Mandal, P. C., 720 (83). 723 (130), 730 ( I 10, 1 I I ) , 732 (130, 135-137), 733 (135137), 746, 747 Mandel, M., 503, 504 ( I la), 525 Mandel, N . S., 531 (18), 615 Mangane,M., 3 10 (23). 322 Mannschreck,A., 197 (245). 228 Manoucher,A. A., 428, 454 (4), 472 ManouSek, 0.. 799 (39, 40). 800 (40), 847 Maquestiau,A., 331 (38). 338 Mar, D. H., 452 (237), 477 Marcaccini,S . , 470 (484), 482 Marchenko,N. B., 348 (67, 68), 365, 390 (89, 92), 394 (100, 103), 422 Marchi, A., 845 (195), 851 Marchlewska,Z., 273 (105-107), 286 (105. 107), 298 Marckwald, W., 487 (9), 523 Marcus, Y., 812, 829 (57). 848 Mare, P. B. D. de la 699 (41). 705,761 (64). 786 Maresca, L., 162, 177 (56), 224 Marescau,B. A., 310 (21), 322 Mares-Guia,M., 85 (346), 100, 702 (50). 705 Maretina,1. A., 358 (136). 366 Margolis, S . A., 731 (1 14), 747 Marina,N. V., 662. 663 (61). 686 Maringgele,W., 344 (37), 364,432 (72). 473, 603 (225). 620 Markham,J. J., 77 (326). 99 Mirkl, R., 156 (30), 223 Markovski, L. N . , 196, 211 (243). 228, 264 (79-82). 265 (79, 80), 266 (80-82). 297, 369 (16), 419 (180, 182, 183). 420, 424, 581 (155-159, 162, 167-169, 171, 172), 582 (155), 583 (158, 159, 162), 584 (157). 585 ( I S ) , 587 (167-169). 589 (168, 171, 172). 596 (190-192). 599 (171, 172). 618,619,670, 671 (94-96, 98,99), 686,687 Markwell, A. J., 28 (125). 95,516 (153). 525 Marlowe, C. K., 443, 468 (161). 475 Marmet, D., 357 (129), 366 Marquet, A,, 761 (49), 786 Marquez, V. A., 368 (10). 420 Marsch, H. A., 835 (1 16), 849 Marsel, J., 302, 305 (10). 322

Author index Marsh, J., 761 (51). 786 Marsh, J. P. Jr., 196 (242). 228 Marsh, R. E., 23.47 (98). 94, 502,503 (1 14, 1 15). 525 Marsura,A., 340 ( 13). 363 Martel, P., 71 I, 714 (13), 745 Martin, D., 331 (37b). 338 Martin, E., 660, 661 (56). 686 Martin, G. J., 59 (255, 256). 64 (256, 273a). 65 (273a). 68 (283), 98, 153, 154, 156, 179 (5). 181 (193, 194). 183 (200). 184 (193). 190 (193, 194). 192 (194), 193 (5, 230). 194 (230), 195 (5, 230). 196 (5). 222.227.251 (54). 262, 263,273 (77), 274(111),275(111, 116),276(114), 277 ( I 14, 1 18). 278 ( I 18). 296-298, 336 (65). 338 Martin. M. L., 64, 65 (273a). 68 (283). 98, 181. 190, 192 (194), 227, 251 (54), 274, 275 ( I I I), 276, 277 ( I 14). 296, 298 Martin, R. B., 1 I (41), 93 Martin, Y. C., 660 (57), 686 Martinetti,G. V., 452 (236), 477 Martinez, A., 453 (278), 478 Martinez, E., 430, 431, 470 (54), 473 Martinez,G. R., 452, 470 (271),478 Martinez Calatayud,J., 8 15 (63), 848 Martynov, A. V., 345 (42), 364 Maruoka,K., 377 (44). 421 Marzilli, L. G . , 29 (149), 95, 435 (89). 474 Mashkovskii, M. D., 353 (101, 102), 365, 376 (39). 394 (lo]), 421, 422 Mason, S. A., 32 (167). 96 Massa, L. J., 189 (220, 221), 190 (221). 227, 512 (137, 138). 525 Massa. W., 429 (38), 473, 614 (257, 258), 621 Masse. J. A., 802 (45), 847 Massil, S. E., 243 (31). 296 Mastryukov, V. S., 16 (80). 94 Mastubara,Y., 447 (189). 476 Masuda,T., 73 I , 732 (123), 747 Mateo. S., 769 (88-90). 787 Materne, C., 410 (156). 424 Matherwell, W. D. S,. 102 (I), 144 Mathias,L. J., 455 (303). 478 Mathis, F., 246, 249 (44). 296 Mathy. A., 396 (108). 416 (175). 422,424 Math, S . A., 430. 431,442 (49). 473 Matsubara,H., 355 ( I 13), 366 Matsuda, F., 465 (431), 481 Matsuda,J., 601 (222). 620 Matsuda. K., 452 (272). 470 (272.485). 478, 482 Matsumoto, H., 347 (54). 364 Matsumoto, K., 496 (63). 524 Matsumoto, T., 350 (83). 365,465 (430, 431). 481

88 1

Matsumura,H., 521 (181). 526 Matsumura,N., 681 (159). 688 Matsunami,S., 498 (74). 524 Matsushita,H., 454 (287). 455 (299). 478 Matthews, D. P., 454 (284), 478 Mattson, K . J., 164 (77), 224 Matusz, M., 163 (66), 224, 845 (194). 850 Matuszak, A. J., 330 (28). 337 Matuszak, C. A., 330 (28). 337 Mauersberger,K., 210 (281). 228 Mavunkel, B., 466 (440). 481 Mawhinney,T . P., 470 (486). 482 May, C., 21 I (283). 229 May, E. L., 494 (47). 524 May, J. L., 459 (338), 479 Mayorga, L. S., 335 (58), 338 Mazieres, M. R., 389 (83). 422 Mazumdar,S. K., 28 (142), 95 McAuley, A., 163 (72). 224 McBride, L. J., 367 (4). 420 McCall, J. M., 406 (140). 423, 432, 449 (66), 4 73 McCarthy, D. G., 208 (272). 228, 544 (51, 52), 545 (52), 616 McCarthy, J. R., 454 (284). 478 McCarty, C. G., 442-444 (150). 475, 527, 528 ( I , 2). 530, 543 (2). 546 ( I ) , 552 (1, 2). 554 (2), 560 ( I , 2), 562 (2). 567 ( 1 , 2). 615 McClelland,R. A,, 331 (40), 338, 520 (179). 526 McCormack, M. T., 57 (246). 97, 168 (108). 206 (108, 267), 225. 228, 544 (49, 50). 549 (65), 616 McCormack, W. E., 753, 770 (24), 785 McDaniel, D. H . , 249 (52), 296,628,629 (34). 685 McDermott, 1. R., 208 (273). 228 McDowell, C. A., 712 (15). 745 McDowell, R. S., 40 (217). 97, 579, 591 (143). 618 McElvany, K. D., 515 (143). 525 McFarland,D. F., 534 (31). 616 McGarrity, M. J., 529 (8). 615 McGhie, A. R., 740 (159). 748 McKay, A. F., 496 (60). 497 (65.69, 70). 498 (70,75), 502 (105). 524.525 McKay, L., 770 (101). 787 McKay, W. R., 438 ( 1 22). 469 (479). 474, 482 McKee, M. L., 791 (15). 846 McKelvey, J., 65,66 (273c), 98, 182, 189 (198). 227 McKenna, K., 836, 841 (129), 849 McKennis, I. S., 64 (266). 98, 181 (190). 227. 554 (82), 617 McKillop, A., 456, 46 I (3 I3), 479

Author index

882

McManis, J . S., 455 (302), 478 McMullan, R. K., 16 (76). 94, 167, 175 (100). 225

McPhail, A. T., 443,468 (157), 475 Mease, R . C., 761, 764 (67). 786 Mecke, R., 4 (8). 92 Mednikov, E. V., 467 (447,456). 481.482 Medved, M., 302, 305 (10). 322 Medvedev, B. A., 353 (101, 102), 365 Medwid, A. R., 16.49 (66). 93 Meer, D. van der 832 (101). 848 Meer, K. van der 333 (52). 338 Meerman van Benthem, C. M., 333 (52). 338 Meerssche. M. van 23, 29, 35, 36 ( I 1 I , 156, 176). 94.95.96

Meewein, M., 233 (8), 296 Meese, C. 0.. 155, 156 (24, 27), 157, 158 (27,

33). 160 (27), 172 (24). 179 (24, 27). 180, 181 (27, 33). 184 (203). 197 (27). 223,227, 272 (96). 298,439 (128, 129, 131, 132). 442 (128, 129, 131). 475 Mehler, E. L., 516 (152), 525 Mehrota, R., 5 15 (146). 525 Meier, R., 191 (225), 227 Meier, W., 163 (as), 224 Meinwald, J., 443, 465 (163), 475, 765 (83). 787 Meita, E. N., 410 (157). 424 Melander, L., 757, 776 (26), 785 Melaugh, R. A., 325 (9). 337 Meller, A., 344 (37). 364, 432 (72). 473, 603 (225). 620 Meller, B., 163 (61), 224 Mel'nikov, N. N., 154 (13), 158 (35). 169 (119-122). 170 (121. 123). 171 (123). 179 (13). 181 (35). 190 (121). 191 (119, 121), 195 (33,202 (255), 223, 225, 228, 273 (101). 298, 345 (40), 364, 369 (14). 420,550 (66). 581 (160, 161, 164-166). 583 (160). 585 (164-166). 587 (165). 616, 618.619, 668 (84), 686 . Melo, T. B., 713 (34). 745 Menara, G., 348 (59). 364 Menard, G., 66 (280). 98,376 (35). 421.663 (711,686 Mendes e Silva, L. M., 175 (146). 226 Menger, F. M., 777 (123). 787 Mennin, J., 667 (78, 79). 686 Mentzer, W. C., 428 (14). 472 Mercer, F., 461 (361), 480 Merour, J. Y., 460 (349). 479 Merten, H., 443,468,469 (159). 475 Merten. R., 173 (140). 225,361 (150). 362 (151), 366 Mertsalov, S. L., 288 (143, 145). 299 Mertz, S., 18 (82). 94, 176 (157). 226 Merzweiler, K., 23 ( I 13). 94

Meschede, L., 71 (293, 294), 99, 171, 193 ( 128). 225

M e s h . J. C., 416 (178). 424 Metlushenko, V. P., 537 (40-42), 538 (4t),

539 (41, 42), 541, 542 (42), 554, 557 (42, 79). 558 (79). 616. 617 Metz, P., 567 (I 14). 617 Metzger, J., 532 (25, 26), 616 Metzger, P., 765 (75, 76), 786 Meuldijk. J., 684 (180). 688 Meyer, H.. 450 (21 I), 476 Meyers, A. I., 210 (280), 228, 371 (25, 26). 373 (27). 374 (28-30). 380 (55). 421, 430, 431 (47). 451 (229), 455 (47, 229, 297,298). 473.477.478 Meyers, E. A., 32 (166), 96 Mialhe, Y., 761, 764 ( 5 9 , 786 Michael. G., 430,431 (53), 473 Michalik, M., 192, 201 (227). 227 Michel, J., 429 (35). 468 (35,467). 473, 482 Michelin, R. A.. 435 (93, 97), 474 Micheloni, M., 327 (19). 337 Michelot, R., 167 (92.93). 177, 186 (93). 187 (92.93). 200 (92), 205 (92.93). 224, 249, 267 (51), 296 Mickevicius, G., 189 (217). 227, 509 (136), 525 Middleton, W. J., 436 (109), 444 (170). 474. 475 Miers, J. B., 164 (77), 224 Mierzecki, R., 253, 289 (65). 297, 677 ( I 16). 687 Miginiac, L., 59, 64 (256). 98, 193-195 (230), 227, 277, 278 ( I 18). 298, 355 (1 14). 366 Migita, T., 436 (103). 474 Mijlhoff, F. C., 16 (67). 93 Mikaya, A. I., 462 (386). 480 Mikhailov, B. M., 3 I 3 (28). 322, 380 (52), 421. 598, 601 (199), 620. 681 (162, 163). 688 Mikhailov, E. I., 670 (92), 686 Mikhailov, 1. E., 164, 173 (80), 224, 266 (83), 297, 379 (49.51). 421,537 (40-42). 538 (41). 539 (41. 42.44). 541, 542 (42). 554 (42,78-80), 556 (86), 557 (42,79). 558 (79). 570 (122). 571 (122, 123), 572 (123). 573 (122). 574 (122. 126). 575 (133). 591-593 (181, 182). 595 (187). 598, 603 (197). 604 (228). 616420,670 (97, 100). 671 (100). 686, 687 Mikhailov, T. A., 626 (14). 685 Mikhailova. T. A., 285, 291 (134). 298 Mikitenko, E. K., 450 (216). 457 (320), 476, 4 79 Mikolajczyk, M., 580 (147). 618 Mikulski, C. N., 836, 838, 845 (131). 849 Milart, P.. 141 (17). 145

Author index Milazzo. G., 790. 831, 835 (6), 846 Milcent, R., 431,457 (59), 473, 530 (t6). 615 Miljanich, G. P., 452 (244). 477 M i l k G., 532 (25, 26), 616 Miller, A. E., 490, 495 (21), 523 Miller, J. M., 316 (32), 322 Miller, L. L., 535, 543 (33). 616 Miller, T. W., 449 (207). 476 Miller, W. H., 773, 774 (1 17). 787 Millet, G. H., 607 (239, 240), 620 Mills, H. H., 28 (123). 95, 501 (97). 524 Mills, N. S., 505 (123). 525 Mills, 0. S., 177 (170). 226 Miltenburg, J. C. van 330 (3 I), 332 (43), 338 Minami, T., 356 (122). 366, 378 (48). 421 Minamikawa, I,. 432 (69), 473 Minghetti, G . , 435 (99). 436 (100, 101). 474 Minkin, V. I., 74 (305). 99, 164, 173 (80). 185, 200 (204), 224,227, 266 (83), 297, 379 (49, 51). 421, 529 (6, 7, 13), 530 (13). 535 (6.36-38). 536 (39). 537 (36, 37, W 2 ) , 538 (41). 539 (37. 41-44), 540 (45,46), 541 (42), 542 (42,46), 547 (61), 554 (36, 37,42, 78-80), 556 (86). 557 (42, 79), 558 (79, 91), 559 (91), 570 (122). 571 (122, 123). 572 (123, 125). 573 (122, 125). 574 (122, 126). 575 (133). 578 (37, 140, 141). 579 (140), 580 (38, 140). 587 (177, 178). 591 (140, 181, 182), 592, 593 (181, 182), 595 (187). 596 (189), 598, 603 (197), 604 (228), 612 (253), 613 (91, 253, 256), 614 (91). 615621,628.630 (36-38). 670 (92.97, 100). 671 (100). 685-687 Minkwitz, R., 177 (179). 226 Minor, P. C., 845 ( I 84). 850 Minyaev, R. M., 185, 200 (204). 227, 529 (6, 13), 530 (13), 535 (6), 536 (39), 547 (61). 572, 573 (125), 615,616, 618,587 (178). 619 Miocque, M., 340 (1.5). 344 (34). 363.364, 367 (I), 398 (115). 412 (165), 420,423. 424,448 (196), 476,490 (24), 518 (165), 523,526, 663 (70). 686 Mironova, 0. Yu., 806 (50), 847 Mironovskaya, N. M., 345 (40). 364, 369 (14), 420,668 (84). 686 Mirskova, A. N., 345 (42). 364 Mirzoyan, R. G., 533 (29). 616 Mishchenko, V. F., 438 (121), 474 Mishnev, A. F., 177 (176). 226 Mishra, R., 680 (152). 688 Mishra, R. K.. 680 (153, 155, 156). 688 Miskevich, G. N., 382 (62). 421 Mislow, K., 580 (146). 618. MiBfeldt, M., 11, 78 (37). 93 Mitchard, M., 295 (162, 163), 299

883

Mittelbach, M., 348 (63), 365, 390 (88). 422 Mitzner, J., 456,466 (312). 479 Miyagawa, I., 741 (163). 748 Miyamoto, O., 430, 43 I (46), 473 Miyazawa, T., 501 (99). 524 Miyazymbetov, M. E., 828 (86), 848 Mizrahi, V., 321 (43), 322,441 (141). 475 Mizushiro, K., 472 (507), 483 Mizusima, S., 501 (99). 524 Mizutani, M., 567 ( I 16, 117), 617 Moady, C. J., 61 1 (246). 62/ Mochizuki, A., 350 (84, 85), 351 (85). 365 Modak, A. B., 286, 287, 292 (1 38), 299,683 (174, 175). 688 Moder, T. I., 188, 189, 201 (215), 227 Modro, T. A., 321 (43), 322,441 (141). 475 Moehring, E., 462 (401). 480 Moeller, H., 428 (29), 447 (190), 473, 476 Moens, L., 437 (1 13), 474 Moffat, J. B., 10 (24). 93, 166 (90), 224, 502 ( I 13). 525 Mohacsi, E., 430 (44). 473 Mohrle, H., 35, 36 ( I 78). 96, 360 ( I 44). 366 Molina-Buendia, P., 471 (501), 483 Molinero, E. G., 456, 461 (313), 479 Moller, C., 42 (298), 99 Moller. F., 10 (30). 1 I (33, 34), 93, 560 (92). 617 Moller, M. H., 164, 177, 185 (78), 224 Mollin, J., 792, 793, 797, 812 (20), 847 Mollov, N. M., 460 (346). 479 Mom, V., 16 (67), 93 Mondoni, M., 159, 182 (40), 223 Monforte, P.. 351 (90). 365 Monneron, A., 452 (256). 477 Monro, A. M., 492 (33). 523 Montevecchi, P. C., 203 (258). 228 Montgomery, R. L., 324 (3), 337 Moody, C. J., 21 I (283), 229 Moore, H. W., 461 (361), 469 (478). 480.482 Moore, S. S., 516 (157). 526 Moorthy, P. N., 734, 735 (139). 747 Mootz, D., 35, 36 (178). 96 Moracci, F. M., 469 (481). 482 Morales, A., 316 (33). 322 Morehouse, K. M., 731 (125), 747 Mori, A., 310 (22). 322 Mori, K., 45 I, 455 (230). 477 Morihashi, K., 65 (273b). 98, 183 (199). 227 Morimoto, C. N., 28 (128), 95 Morimura, S., 416 (176), 424 Morita, T., 5 (14), 92 Moritz, A. G., 66 (277, 278), 98,663 (67). 686 Morozov, B. I., 812 (58). 848 Mortimer, C. T., 330 (32). 338 Morwick, T., 464 (417). 481 Moschetto, Y., 826, 827, 846 (83), 848

884

Author index

Moser, H., 312, 313 (27). 322, 451 (231). 477 Moshkina,T. M., 467 (453, 459,482 Mosinger, O., 177 (180). 226 Moss, R. A., 177 (165), 226 Mossoba, M., 719 (66), 746 Motekov, N., 167 (97, 101, 102). 225 Motzkus, H. W., 389 (85), 422, 520 (178). 526 Movshovich, D. Ya., 164, 173 (80), 224, 539 W), 616 Mower, H. F., 503, 504 (I 16), 525 Mozumder, A., 708 (4). 745 Mrotzek, H., 469 (477). 482 Muchowski, J. M., 470 (496). 482 Mudaliar,S., 396 ( I 14). 423 Mudi, A. K., 286,287, 292 (1 38). 299,683 (174), 688 Mudretsova, I. I., 288 (142, 143, 145), 299 Muec, C., 567 ( I 14), 61 7 Mueller, D. S., 529, 530 (5). 615 Mueller, H. R., 457 (318), 479 Mueller, J., 452 (265), 477 Muenze, R., 315 (31), 322 Mukhina,N. A., 349 (74), 365, 390 (91), 422 Mulder, J. J. C., 333 (52). 338 Mullane, M., 220 (307). 229 Muller, A., 711 (10, ll), 712 (14, 1&18,20), 713 (16, 29, 31, 35). 714 (37). 718 (11, 57, 58). 745, 746 Muller, J. A., 467 (452). 482 Muller, U., 23 (97), 94 Mulliken, R. S., 40.41 {214), 97 Mulvey, R. E., 336 (66), 338 Mumm, O., 551 (74), 560 (92), 617 Mundt, O., 29 (146). 95 Munowitz, M., 331 (39), 338 Murakarni,M., 466 (437), 481 Murata,Y., 457 (321). 479, 594 (185). 619 Murcia, D. A., 600 (208). 620 Murray, A. G., 494 (48). 524 Murray, S., 309 (20). 322 Murtagh,B. A., 38.40 (199). 96 Murthy, K. S . K., 519 (174). 526 Musha, S., 839 (151). 841, 843 (154). 850 Muxfelot, H., 447 (191), 476 Myers, L. S . Jr., 720 (78). 746 Myers, P. L., 449 (209). 476 Naal, N. T., 470 (496), 482 Nabahi, S., 462 (390), 480 Nader, R. B., 219 (302), 229 Nadji, S., 68 (288), 98, 629, 630, 633, 656, 663, 668 (39). 685 Nag, K., 162, 163 (55), 224,433 (79). 474 Nagakura,S., 5 (14). 92 Nagamatsu,T., 382 (61). 421 Nagarajan,S.. 465 (429). 481 Nagase, H., 429 (42), 473

Nagashima,H., 35 I (89), 355 (1 13), 365, 366 Nagashima,N., 177 (178). 226 Nagel, C. J., 465 (425),481 Nagel, M., 29 (152, 153). 95, 174 (142). 226, 465 (433). 481 Nagubandi, S . , 320 (42). 322 Nagy, F., 465 (426). 481 Nair, M. D., 378 (43, 421 Najer, H., 667 (78, 79). 686 Ndcagawa, S., 454 (294). 478 Nakahara,J. H., 419 (185). 424 Nakahara,Y., 464 (419). 481 Nakai, Y., 490 (20). 523 Nakajima,S., 28 ( 136). 95 Nakajima,Y., 465 (430), 481 Nakamichi, K., 729 (107). 747 Nakamura,A., 177 (178), 226 Nakamura,T., 447 (189). 476 Nakayama,N., 454 (294). 478 Nalley, E. A., 168, 169, 175 (1 13), 188 (21 l), 208 (1 13). 209, 220 (275), 225, 227, 228, 440 (136). 475 Nanavyan, I. M., 828,829 (87). 848 Nardelli, M., 516 (151), 525 Nash, C. P., 18, 23 (86). 94, 176, 177 (162). 226 Naso, F. J., 770 (103). 787 Nass, R., 177 (179). 226 Nasyr, 1. A., 288 (144). 299 Natale, N. R., 455 (298), 478 Natile, G., 162 (56). 163 (71). 177 (56), 185 (71), 224 Naulet, M., 153, 154, 156, 179 (3,193 ( 5 , 230), 194 (230). 195 (5, 230), 196 (3, 222,227 Naulet, N., 59 (255, 256), 64 (256), 98, 262, 263, 273 (77). 275 (1 16). 277,278 ( I 18). 297,298 Naumova, L. M., 382 (60). 421 Nautiyal, A. P., 830 (93), 848 Navarrete,E. P., 368 (10). 420 Nazarenko, A. V., 360 (143). 366 Nazyrova, A. Z., 164, 199 (79), 224 Neely, W. C., 172 (135), 225 Nef, J. U., 357 (124). 366 Nefedova, 0. B., 825, 826 (82), 848 Neff, R. O., 753, 770, 773 (25), 785 Negrebetskii, V. V., 59 (254). 64 (272), 98, 154 (13). 158 (35). I64 (81), 165 (81, 87). 169 ( I 19-122). 170 (i21, 123), 171 (123). 174 (81). 179 (13). 181 (35). 185 (81), 186 (87). 190 (121). 191 (119, 121). 195 (35). 196 (243), 199 (250). 202 (255), 21 I (243). 223-225,228, 264 (78-82). 265 (79, 80). 266 (80-82). 273 (IOI), 297,298,581 (155-172), 582

Author index (155). 583 (158-160, 162), 584 (157). 585 (155. 163-166). 587 (163, 165, 167-169). 589 (163, 168, 170-172). 590 (163). 596 (190-192). 599 (170-172). 618. 619.670 (93-96,98,99), 671 (9496, 98, 99), 686. 687 Neidlein, R., 454 (293), 466 (441), 478,481 Neilson, D. G., 340 (6). 363, 427 (I), 428 ( I , 3), 429, 431, 432,438,442,443,446, 448 (I), 450 ( I , 214), 451, 452, 454 ( I ) , 455 ( I , 296, 309), 456,457 ( I ) , 458 (326). 459 ( I , 214), 460, 461 (I), 462 ( I , 2 14, 296, 309, 402, 403), 463, 465, 466 ( I ) , 472,476,478480, 671 (106), 687 Nelson, D. L., 85 (346), 100, 702 (50), 705 Nelson, G . L., 254 (73), 297 Nelson, S. J., 471 (506),483 Nelson, V. C., 846 (201). 851 Nelson, W. H., 715 (40, 44, 46). 716 (44.47, 49-5 1, 53), 7 I7 (47), 745 Nemes, A., 577 (136, 137). 618 Nemes, P. P., 452 (244). 477 NCmethy, G., 332 (41). 338 Nenortas, D. R., 78 (336). 99 Nes, W . R., 761 (51). 786 Nesi, M., 610 (243). 621 Nesi, R., 521 (180). 526,610 (243). 621 Nesmeyanov, A. N.. 604, 605 (231-233). 606 (23I , 233), 620 Neta, P., 719 (64,69), 732 (132). 737 (144), 742, 743 (1 67). 746-748 Nettelblad, F., 75 I , 753, 755, 757, 758, 767, 768 ( I I ) , 785 Neuffer, J., 412 (166). 424 Neuman, R. C., 329 (25), 337 Neuman, R. C. Jr., 181 (191). 216 (294), 227, 229 Neumann,F. W . , 233 (2). 295, 498 (78), 524 Neumann,R. C. Jr., 64 (261. 267). 98 Newcomb, M., 464 (420). 481 Newman, M. S., 644 (44), 685 Newmann, F. W., 3.4 (I), 92 Neymeyer, J. L., 356 ( I 19). 366 Ngo, F. Q.. 741, 742 (164). 748 Nguyen, M. T., 57 (246). 97, 161 (47). 175 (143, 148, 149). 184 (47), 188, 207 (149). 223.226, 575 (128). 618,835 (121). 849 Nicolaides. D. N.. 266 (84), 297 Nicolb, F., 163 (66). 224 Nielsen, C., 16, 50 (70), 93 Nielsen, H., 770 (104), 787 Niemeyer, H. M., 751, 752 (7. 8), 785 Nifantyev, E. E.. 581 (173). 619 Nigam, M. B., 348 (66). 365

885

Nihon, N., 459 (332), 479 Nii, Y . , 347 (58). 364 Niketic, S . R., 37 (192). 96 Nikitina, K. I., 683 (179). 688 Nikolaeva, L. A., 353 (101-103), 365 Nikolenko, L. N., 4, 5 (lo), 92, 259, 260, 285, 29 I (76), 297,626 (I3), 685 Nikulin, V. N., 793 (21), 817 (67). 818 (21, 67),847, 848 Nishihata, K., 466 (438), 481 Nishimoto, S., 724 (99), 729 (99, 107),730 (99). 746, 747 Nishimura,S., 428 (17), 472 Nishimura,T., 520 (177), 526 Nishiyama, H., 429 (42), 473 Nisly, J., 770 ( I O I ) , 787 Niu, Z . , 50 (239). 97 Nivard, R. J. F., 64 (260), 98, 181 (195), 227, 353 (97). 365 Niwa, R., 461 (380), 480,469 (480). 482 Niyazymbetov, M. E,. 824 (78), 848 No, B. I., 467 (447,’456), 481, 482 Noble, A. C., 10 (28). 93 Noda, A,, 457 (321). 479, 594 (185), 619 Noguchi, M., 454 (287), 455 (299). 478 Noltemeyer, M., 23 (1 12). 94, 163 (61). 176 (1 54). 224,226 Nore, P., 461 (365). 480 Nornyzk-Hamori,M., 428.453 (I I), 472 Norrestam, R., 18 (82, 83). 23 (101, 102). 33 (175). 94, 96, 166 (88). 176 (157), 224, 226 Nose, N., 233, 234 (13), 296 Notaro, C. E., 175 (145), 226 Nothe, D., 126 (15), 145 Novais, H. M., 719, 722 (68), 746 Novak, J., 550 (68), 61 7 Novotny, J., 159, 176 (36), 223 Nowacki, W., 177 (182), 226 Noyce, D. S . , 761 (%a, 58b), 786 Nucifora, G., 719 (67), 746 Nunez, H. A., 470 (493). 482 Nuiiez, 0.. 159 (38). 213 (38, 290). 214 (38), 223.229 Nurakhmetov,N. N., 29 (155). 95 Niirnberg, H. W., 836 (133). 837 (135, 136). 838 (141). 849 Nyberg, D. D., 499 (86). 524 Nyfeler, R., 429, 471 (40). 473 Nysted, L. N., 521 (l83), 526 Oakes, F. T., 462 (392, 395, 396). 480 Oakes, T. R., 433 (76), 474 Oakley, R. T., 198 (247), 228, 343 (29). 364, 521 (182). 526 Obenius. U., 770 (105), 787 Oberhaensli,W. E., 460 (354),479

886

Author index

Oda, J., 443, 468 (153). 475, 560 (101). 617 Odiot, S . , 251 (54). 296 O’Donnell, J. H., 707 (I), 744 O’hnnell, M. J., 37 I (23), 421 O’Donovan, D. G., 492 (35), 523 Oediger,. H., 10 (30). I 1 (33.34). 93 Oesterle, T., 431 (57). 473 Offringa,J. C . A., 332 (43). 338 Ogasawara, K. 443.468 (I%), 475 Ogata, M., 347 (54). 364 Ogata, S . , 350 (84, 85). 351 (85, 86). 365 Ogata, T., 193 (237). 203 (261), 228, 433 (75). 436 (103). 452 (73,467 (75,448, 449). 474, 481 Ogawa, S., 460 (351). 479 Ogawa, T., 464 (419). 481 Ogloblina, R. I., 683 (177. 178), 688 Ognyanov, V,. 460 (345,346). 479 Ogonor, J. I., 342 (21). 344 (35). 364 Oguro, K., 435 (90). 474 Ohba, T.. 681 (159). 688 Ohkata. K., 457 (321), 479, 594 (185), 619 Ohno, K., 429 (42). 473 Ohta, M., 460 (356). 479 Ohta, T., 309 (18). 322, 505 (122), 525 Ohto, M . , 347 (58). 364 Ohwada, T., 309 (18). 322, 505 (122). 525 Okada, T., 546 (56), 616 Okamoto, J., 683 (171, 172). 688 Okamoto. Y . , 377 (42). 421, 794 (29), 847 Okano. K., 347 (58). 364 Okhlobystin, 0. Yu., 806 (48). 847 Okuyama, T., 761, 764 (63). 786 O M ,G . A., 181 (192). 227,508 (129). 525 Olast, M.. 740 (157). 748 Olbrich, G., 732 (127). 747 Olekhnivich, L. N., 164, 173 (80), 224 Olekhnovich,L. P., 266 (83). 297. 379 (49). 421, 529 (7). 535 (36, 37), 537 (36, 31, 4042). 538 (41), 539 (37, 41-44), 540 (45, 46). 541 (42), 542 (42, 46), 554 (36. 37, 42, 78-80), 556 (86). 557 (42, 79), 558 (79.91). 559 (91). 578 (37. 140). 579,580 (140). 587 (177). 591 (140. 181, 182). 592,593 (181, 182). 595 (187). 596 (189). 598,603 (197). 612 (253). 613 (91, 253, 256). 614 (91). 615621.670 (92, 97, 100). 671 (100). 686, 687 Olofson, R. A., 160 (44). 223 Olomucki, M . , 452 (233). 477 O’Malley, B. W., 452 (247), 477 Omichi, H., 683 (171, 172), 688 Omodei-Sale, A., 459 (330), 479 OndraEek,J., 23 (l06), 94 O’Neal, H. E.. 325 (8). 337 O’Neill, P., 737 (147, 15&152), 738 (152). 747, 748

Onuma, K.-I., 177 (178), 226 Onur, E., 295 (I%), 299 Oostveen, E. A,, 404 (1 36), 423 Oppenheimer,J. R., 38 (200). 96 Orama,M., 682 (167). 688 Orazi, 0. 0.. 491 (32). 523 O’Reilly, B. C., 222 (308). 229 OReilly, J. E.. 832 (99. 102). 848. 849 Orel, B., 28 (13l), 95 Orena, M., 443 (158). 455 (305-307). 462 (306, 307), 468 (158, 305-307.461). 475,478,482, 561 (106, 107). 617 Orliiski, R., 77 (309, 328). 78 (309), 79 (316318), 80, 81 (328), 99, 233 (4, 5). 236 (281, 246 ( 5 ) . 296, 626 (9, 10, 16-18), 631 (9, 10, 16, 17), 636, 637 (16). 638, 639 (17). 640 (9), 641 (10). 642 (9, lo), 643 (lo), 649-651 (18). 656 (9, 10. 17), 657 (16). 665 (9, 10). 685 Oro, L. A.. 5, 26 (17). 92 Orville-Thomas.W . J., 502 ( I 12). 525 Osek, J., 77 (312). 78 (312, 315). 79 (312, 315. 317). 99, 153 (6). 222, 236 (22-27). 237 (22-26). 238 (22-24, 26), 239 (2226), 240 (25), 241 (25. 27). 242 (27), 253 (68, 69), 254, 255 (68). 256 (68, 69). 257, 259, 277 (69). 296, 297,626 (9, 1 1 , 22), 631 (9, I I ) , 633, 634 ( I I ) , 640, 642 (9). 646,648 (22), 650 (1 1, 22). 653 (22). 656 (9.221, 665 (9). 685,690 (6. 12). 691. 695 (12). 704 Osipov, 0. A.. 74 (305). 99.683 (177, 179). 688 Oskam, A., 678 (122424). 687 Osman, S . A., 453 (276). 478 Ossola, F., 177. 202 (189). 227 Ostlund, N. S., 37, 38, 48 (195), 96 Ostrovskaya. V. M., 673, 674 (108). 687 Ostrovskaya, V. N., 271, 272, 289 (92). 298 Ostrowski, M., 236239 (23). 296 Oszczapowicz, J., 6 (20). 7 (22), 17 (20), 18 (85, 92, 94). 50, 61, 63 (20), 68 (22). 70 (20. 289). 75 (306.307). 77 (306, 307. 309-312.319, 320. 328). 78 (306, 309-313, 79 (306, 307.310-320), 80. 81 (328). 93. 94. 98.99, 150 (4). 153 (6), 155, 176 (23). 177 (163, 171). 222.223, 226,233 (3-6). 236 (21-29). 237 (2226), 238 (22-24, 26, 29). 239 (22-26), 240 (25), 241 (25, 27), 242 (21. 27), 246 (5, 38. 39, 49), 247 (49). 248 (38, 49), 249 (49), 252 (60-63). 253 (60, 65-69), 254 (68, 72), 255 (68), 256 (68, 69,74), 257 (69, 74). 258 (79, 259 (69, 72, 74), 275 (1 17). 277 (69,74), 279 (122-124), 282 (128). 284 (66.67, 122-124, 133). 286 (72). 289 (65. 128). (132). 296-298.

Author index 624 (1-5), 626 (14.9-12, 16-27), 627 (2,4,5,24-27). 629.630 (19). 631 (1, 3. 9-12, 16. 17.23). 632 (1. 2). 633 (1-3, I I. 48). 634 ( I I), 636 (16, 26). 637 (16). 638 (17). 639 (4, 17). 640 (2,4, 9, 19), 641 (4, 10). 642 (9. 10, 12), 643 (10, 12, 23). 644. 645 (?3). 646 (19, 22), 647 (19, 24.45.46). 648 (22, 25, 45,46), 649 (18, 24). 650 (1-3.5, I I , 18.22-25), 651 (1-3, 18). 652 (23, 25, 46.48). 653 (21, 22,24), 654 (21.26). 655 (20,21), 656 (1-3. 9. IQ, 12, 17, 22, 25, 26,48), 657 (16), 658 (5, 20, 45.46). 659 (20). 662 (48). 663 (20), 664 (48). 665 (4, 5.9, 10, 12, 23, 26, 27, 45.46, 48). 668 (20). 669 (45.46). 677 ( I 16. 117). 684,685,687. 690 (4.6, 12). 691, 695 (12). 704 Ota, T., 430, 431 (46). 473 Otsuka. Y . . 461 (372), 480 Ott, H.. 219 (304), 229 Ott, R. A., 428 (22), 472 Otte. R.. 18, 29 (91), 94, 163, 204 (70), 224, 433 (82), 474 Ottersen. T.. 16, 50 (73, 94 Ouchi, K., 192 (228), 227 Overheu, W.. 461 (383), 480 Overman, L. E., 428 (23, 25). 431 (23), 442 (23, 152). 443 (23, 154, l6l), 455 (300), 468 (23, 152, 154, 161), 472,473,475, 478, 560 (98, loo), 561 (98, 100, 102104). 562 (98, 100, 108-1 lo), 567 (98, 110). 617 Owen, B. B., 77 (325), 99 Owen, D. B., 114, 142 (12), 145 Owens. 1. L., 835 ( 1 18). 849 Owsiariski, J., 142 (21), 145, 176, 177 (153), 226 Oxley, P., 488,489,491,494 ( I I), 523 Paakkari,I., 461 (365). 480 Pace, G . F. 839 (150). 850 Pace, J. S., 832 (99). 848 Paciorek, K. L.. 419 (185). 424 Packer, L., 452 (235). 477 Padmanabhan.G . R,. 78 (335). 99 Padwa, A., 428 (21). 452,470 (21. 270). 472, 478,569,609 (1 19, 120). 618 Paetzel, M., 346 (53). 364 Pafel, P. V,. 561 (105). 617 Page. D. J., 844 (177). 850 Page, M. A., 325 (9). 337 Paintz, M.. 245 (36). 296 Paiva, A. C . M.. 332 (47). 338 Pajak. 2. 28 (124). 95 PaleEek, E., 834 (108, 109). 836 (132). 841 (155). 844 (163). 849.850 Palenik,G. J., 529 ( I I), 615

887

Palla. 0.. 459 (342). 479 Palmer, D. C., 395 (107). 422 Palmer, M. H.. 50 (240). 97 Palmer, T. F. 326 (15). 337 Panek,J. S., 461 (384). 480 Panicucci,R., 520 (179). 526 Pant, B. P.. 45 I , 47 I (228). 477 Pantev, T., 340 (10). 363 Panyushkin,V. T., 683 (179). 688 Paoletti, P., 327 (19), 337 Paolini, I., 532 (21, 22). 616 Papa, A. J., 156, 157, 180, 203 (28), 223 Papirnik,M. P., 345 (45). 364 PapouSkovA, Z., 74 (302). 99 Pappalardo,G . C., 172 (132, 136). 197 (132). 225 Papworth, D. G., 737 (147). 747 Park, K. D., 164 (77). 224 Parker,V. D., 791 ( I l ) , 846 Parks, J. E., 162 (54). 170 (127). 171, 173 (54), 202 (127). 216 (54). 224, 225 Pam, R. G., 37 (182). 96 Parry, D. E., 50 (241). 97 Parsons,B. J., 731 (120). 747 Parthasarathy,P. C., 396 (1 13, 114), 422, 423 Parzi, G., 561 (106). 617 Pascard,C., 209 (278). 228 Passet, B. V., 282, 291 (130). 298, 342 (26), 364, 626, 657, 659, 660, 663, 666, 667 (29). 685 Pastern&, V. I., 353 (105). 365 Pastour,P., 340 (12). 363, 398 (1 16). 423 Paszek, Z., 104, 115 (7). 145 Patai, S., 3 (2.4, 6), 4 (2,4, 6, 7), 38 (2). 92, 486 (I), 523 Patel. D. M., 234, 286 (18). 296 Patel, D. V., 429 (39). 473 Patel, H., 844 (169). 850 Patel, K. S.. 680 (153-156). 681 (157, 158). 688 Paton, R. M., 521 (185). 526 Patricio, N . E., 534 (32). 616 Pattabhi. V., 23 (105). 94 Patterson,D. R., 172,217,218 (137). 225, 445,446 (177). 476 Patterson,L. K., 731 (121). 732 (121, 126). 747 Pattison, I., 508 (130). 525 Paul, I. C., 543 (48). 616 Paul, P., 162, 163 (55). 224,433 (79). 474 Paulenko,N . G., 403 (133). 423 Pauling,L., 38 (203). 96, 326 (13). 337, 505 ( 124). 525 Pauls, H. W., 455,468 (308). 478 Paulss, V., 801, 802 (44), 847

888

Author index

Pauly, M., 430. 431,444,470 (56). 473 Paust. J., 1 I (32). 93 Pavez, A. H., 368 (lo), 420 Pavlenko, N. G., 354 (106), 365 Pavlichenko, L. A., 793 (21). 817 (67), 818 (21, 67), 847, 848 Pavlov, A. E., 744 (174). 748 Pawlak, E., 246, 247 (43). 296 Pawlicki, K., 838 (142). 849 Pawlik, T., 75, 77, 79 (307). 99, 246 (39), 296, 624,626,631,633. 650.65 I , 656 (3). 684 Payne, G. B., 465 (424). 481 Paz, J. L. G. de 172 (131). 225, 331 (38). 332 (42). 338 Pazdera, P., 8 16 (66). 848 Pearson, E. F., 49 (233). 97 Pearson, R. Jr., 16, 17.49 (69). 93 Pedan, V. P., 345 (41), 364 Pedersen, C. J., 516 (154). 525 Pedersen, E. B., 350 (77-82). 365, 394 (99). 422,461 (370). 480 Pedersen. L., 189 (219). 227 Pedrero, M., 286, 287, 289, 291 (137), 299, 660 (55), 686 Peet, N. P., 352 (96). 365. 406 (141). 423, 461,463 (362). 480 Pelizzi, G., 516 (151). 525 Pelova, R. G., 661 (59). 686 Penninger.S., 220 (305). 229 Pennington,W. T., 440 (137). 475 Pepino, R., 470 (484). 482 Pepper, E. S,. 334 (55a). 338 Peppmoller, R. 492 (38). 523 Perchais, J., 437 ( I 14), 474 Peregudov, A. S., 598, 60 I , 604 ( I98), 620, 656, 662 (51), 685 Perera, S. K.. 761. 764 (65). 786 Pbrez, M. A., 456,459 (314). 460 (358), 466 (314). 479,480. 462 (398). 465 (432, 436), 480, 481 Pbrez, P., 330 (36). 338 Perham, R. N., 428 (9). 472 Perham,R. W., 428 (13). 472 Pene. J. J., 581 (151). 618 Perillo. I., 79, 80 (321-323). 99. 626 (8). 634, 635, 656 (8. 41,42), 685 Pens Martinez, V., 815 (63). 848 Perkinson, N. A., 349 (70). 365, 386 (76), 422 Perrett, D., 844 (167), 850 Penin, C. L., 5 I (242, 243). 97, 154 ( 1 5 ) , 159 (38), 161 (48, 49). 162 (51, 52). 184 (48, 49), 186 (205). 212 (289). 213 (38, 289, 290), 214 (38). 215 (15). 216 (295-297), 217 (298, 299). 223, 227, 229. 273 (97, 98). 298, 336 (64). 338,440 ( I 34). 447 (182). 475, 476

Penin, D. D., 507 (127). 525,626 (28). 685 Persianova, I. V., 348 (62). 353 (101). 364, 365 Peterman, K. E., 441,442 (142). 475 Peters, A., 660, 661 (56). 686 Peters, K.. I I , 78 (37). 93, 154, 176, 179 (9), 223, 452 (246). 477 Peters, R., 679 (143). 688 Peterson, F. C., 720 (78), 746 Peterson, M. R., 5 , 9 (19), 13 (47), 42, 44 (191.45 (19,47), 46 (19), 48 (19,230). 50, 54.57, 60.63 (19). 72 (230). 93,97, 155, 160 (17). 161, 172. 173 (45). 179 (17). 180 (45). 183 (17). 184 (45). 196 (17). 199 (45). 223, 327 (20). 337. 669 (87, 88). 686 Peterson, T., 836, 841 (129). 849 Peterson, U., 410 (158). 424 Petrosyan, V. A,, 824 (78). 828 (86). 848 Petrov, A. A., 358 (136), 366 Petrov, S., 828, 829 (87). 848 Petrova, N. V., 462 (386), 480 PetroviC, D., 177 (182). 226 Petruccelli, M. F. de 491 (32), 523 Petryaev, E. P., 744 (174), 748 Pettei, M., 739, 740 (I%), 748 Petty, S. P., 349 (72). 365, 388 (80). 422 Petukhov, L. P., 825, 826 (82). 848 Petukhova, R. P., 838 (147). 849 Pezzano, H., 845 (196). 851 Pfister-Guillouzo. G., 331 (38). 338 PReiderer, G., 452 (265). 477 Philips, J., 77 (330), 99 Philipsborn, W., 579 (144). 618 Phillips, B. A., 150, 151, 155, 156, 181, 193 (2). 222, 319 (41). 322, 438 (127), 475, 671 (105). 687 Phillips, J., 78 (334). 99 Phillips, R., 490 (15). 523 Pianka, M., 31 I (24), 322 Piazzesi. A. M., 32 (163), 96 Picard, J. P., 502 (105). 525 Pichko, V. A., 529, 530 (13). 615 Piepenbroek, A., 177 (181). 226 Pierre,G., 831 (95.96). 848 Piers, E., 496 (61). 524 Pies, W., 696. 699 (34). 705 Pietro, W. J., 40 (210, 21 I), 97 Pietrzykowski, A., 315 (30a). 322 Pifferi, G., 74 (301). 99 Pigenet, C., 74 (299, 300), 99 Pigiere, C., 462 (385). 480 Pihlaja, K., 323, 324 (2). 337 Pijpers. F. W., 64 (260). 98, 181 (195). 227 Pike, D. C., 330 (33). 338 Pilard, R., 844 (178, 179). 850 Pilcher, G., 323-325 (6), 337

889

Author index Pilotti, A,, 172 (136), 225 Pilyugin, G. T., 293 (156), 299 Pincelli, U., 37 (190). 96 Pinchuk, A. M., 353 (104). 365 Pinck, L. A., 494 (46). 497 (64), 524 Pines, H., 63 (258). 98 Pinhas, H. 3 10 (23). 322 Pinilla,M., 452 (253). 477 Pinilos, M. T., 5, 26 (17). 92 Pinkerton, A. A., 23, 31 (104). 94, 435 (98). 474 Pinner, A., 340 (3, 4). 363 Pinson, V. V., 270 (90). 297,450 (218, 219), 477, 610 (244, 245). 621, 671, 673 (107). 687 Pintard, F., 412 (164). 424, 469 (483), 482 Piotrowski, J., 295 (164). 299 Pippuri, A., 461 (365), 480 Piraino, P., 163 (66). 224, 845 (193). 850 BE, V.. 64 (270). 98, 193-195 (229). 227 Pisarevskaya, E. Yu., 838 (147). 849 Pitchfork, E. D., 31 (174). 96 Pitt. M. G., 504 ( I 19). 525 Pitzer, K. S., 62, 63 (257b). 98 Planinic,J., 719 (71), 746 PlesniEar,B., 74 (304), 99 Plesset, M. S . , 42 (298), 99 Plessius, H. A.. 167, 176 (94), 224 Pletcher, J., 23 (109). 94 Ploeg, A. F. M. J. van der 678 (136). 687 Pniewska, B., 17 (87). 18 (87, 88). 21.70 (87). 94, 112, 140 ( I I), 145, 176 (152). 226 Po, H. N., 802 (45). 847 Pocar, D., 360 (142). 366, 383 (64.66). 410 (1 62). 421, 424 Pocker, Y., 445 (171). 475 Podanyi, B., 577 (135), 618 Poddubny, V. G . , 599 (207). 620 Podlovthenko, B: I., 838 (147). 849 Podo, F., 845 (196). 851 Poignant, S., 183”(200),227 Poirer, P., 70 (290). 98 Poiret. B.. 209 (277). 228 Poirier, R. A., 48 (230-232). 49 (232). 72 (230). 73 (231, 232). 97, 161. 172, 173, 180, 184, 199 (45). 223, 669 (88, 89). 686. 773 (I 19). 787 PO~~IIC, S., 64 (271), 98, 193-195 (235). 227 Polef, B., 236, 238 (29). 296, 626, 627, 665 (27), 685 Polezhaeva, A. I., 394 ( I O I ) , 422 Poli, R., 163 (63, 66). 224, 845 (194), 850 Polievktov, M. K., 348 (68), 365, 404 (138). 423 Polk, D. E., 354 (1 I I), 366 Pollack, R. M., 761 (33). 786 Poll& A., 64 (270). 98, 193-195 (229). 227

Pollini, G. P., 521, 522 (184), 526, 780 (126). 787 Polumbrik, 0. M., 798 (36, 37). 799 (36), 812 (36, 37), 847 Polverelli, M., 725 (103), 746 Ponomarenko,V. A., 369 (18). 376 (40). 420, 42 I Ponsinet, G., 463 (413). 481 Pook, K.-H., 333 (51). 338 Pope, M. T . , 28 (129), 95 Pople, J. A., 16 (76). 37 (184, 196). 38 (196, 198), 39 (204-208), 40 (198,208-212). 45 (228). 48 (196, 204). 49, 54, 60 (228), 94, 96, 97, 155 (18). 167 (100). 172 (18), 175 (IOO), 182 (18). 223, 225 Popov, S. I., 285, 291 (134). 298,408 (152), 423, 626 (1 4), 685 Popova, L. L., 628, 630 (36, 38), 685 Popp, F. D., 10 (28), 93 Porcher,H., 447 (191). 476 Porchia, M., 177, 202 (189). 227 Pornet, J., 59 (255, 256). 64 (256). 98, 153, 154, 156. 179 (5). 193 (5,230). 194 (230). 195 (5, 230). 196 (5), 222,227, 262,263, 273 (77). 277, 278 ( I IS), 297, 298, 355 (1 14). 366 Port, G. N. J., 334 (5%. 55b). 338 Poryazov, A., 398 (120). 423 Porzi, G., 455,468 (305), 478 Posin, V. G., 345 (45), 364 Pospischil, K. H., 464 (418). 481 Post, R. G., 517 (161). 526 Potts, K. T., 385 (70). 421 Povolotski, M. I., 596 (190, 191). 619 Povstyanov, M. V., 796, 819-821, 844 (33), ’ 847, 819-821, 844 (72), 848 Powell, B. M., 711, 714 (13). 745 Powell, M. F., 769 (95). 787 Pozarskiy, A. F., 827 (84, 85). 828 (84, 85, 87). 829 (87), 848 Pra, A. del 32 (163), 96 Pradke, J.-P., 160. 183, 204, 219 (43). 223 Praissman,L., 452 (261), 477 Praissman,M., 452 (261. 262). 477 Prat, hk D.. 833 (105). 849 Pratt, R. F., 547 (62). 550 (67). 616. 61 7 Preissner, K., 428 (15). 452 (254). 472,477 Preut, H., 177 (179). 226 PrevorSek, D. C., 66, 68 (273, 98, 279, 280 (126, 127). 298, 663 (63, 64). 686 Prewo, R., 447 (191). 476 Prezhevalski, N. M., 560, 562, 567 (97), 61 7 Price, E., 695, 696,.698 (32). 705 Prichard,W . H., 232, 251 (la-c), 268 (Ic), 282 (la-c), 287 (Ic). 295 Prikazchikova, L. P., 358 (135). 366, 369 (17), 385 (72). 399 (121). 420. 422,423 ~

890

Author index

Prince. E., 28 (1 29). 95 Prins, D. G., 678 (123), 687 Prinzbach, H., 519 (176). 526 Pritchard, W. H., 442 (l48), 475 Procenko, G. I,. 796, 819-821, 844 (33), 847 Proctor, G. R., 438 (122), 469 (479). 474, 482 Roenca, J. R. P., 428 (20), 472 Roenca, M. F,. 428 (19). 472 Roenca, M. F. J. R. P., 203 (262). 228 Prokofeva, A. F., 154, 179 (13). 158, 181, (101). 298

195 (33,223,273

Prokofyev, A. I. 540 (45, 46). 542 (46), 604

(228), 616, 620

Ronskii, A. F., 352 (92), 365 Rosyanik, A. V., 546 (53,616 Proust, H,. 454 (286). 478

Proust. M., 447 (192),

476

Prudchenko, A. P., 447 (185. 186). 476 Prussak, T., 273, 286 (105). 298 Prussak-WiGckowska, T., 273 (106, 107), 286

(107), 298

Pruszynski, P., 491 (26), 507 (26, 128). 523,

525

Pudovik, A. N., 458 (327).

463 (414). 467 (453455). 468 (457,458). 479.481, 585 482,580 (148), 581 (148, 152-154), (174-176). 586 (174, 175). 618, 619. Pudzik. Z., 785 (134), 788 Puijk, W.C., 785 (140), 788 Pulay, P,. 40 (213). 97 Pullman, A., 12 (45). 93 Pullman, B., 12 (45). 37 (190). 93.96.328 (21), 337 Putzeys, J.-P., 23 (1 1,)I 94 Pyman, F. L., 663 (65, 66). 686 Qiang, L. G., 460 (350). 479 Quain. P. L., 167 (104). 208 (274).

225,228, 291 (154). 299 Quast. H., 154, 176, 179 (9). 223,464 (416), 481 Quicksall, C. 0. 28 (129), 95 Quiniou, H., 416 (178), 424 Raabe. E,. 163 (65). 224 Raban, M. 513 (139, 140),525,

619

Rabe, S,. 377 (43), 421 Rabiller, C., 64, 65 (273a),

594 (183).

98, 181 (193, 194), 184 (193). 190 (193, 194), 192 (194), 227, 276, 277 (1 141,298, 336 (63,338 Rabinovitz, J., 667 (80. 81). 686 Rabinowitz, M. 63 (258). 98 Rackham. D. M., 438 ( I 19). 474 Rfkov6, ,.I 816 (66), 848 Raczyfska. E., 7, 58 (249), 59 (250), 68 (285, 286), 97, 98, 68 (22), 70 (289). 75 (306,

307). 77 (306, 307, 310-312, 319, 320). 78 (306, 310-312). 79 (306, 307, 310312, 318-320). 93. 98, 99. 142, 143 (19). 145, 153 (6). 222, 153 (7), 154, 179 (14), 222, 223, 246 (38, 39), 248 (38), 253 (68, 69). 254, 255 (as), 256 (68, 69). 257, 259, 277 (69). 279, 284 (I 24). 296298, 329 (26, 27). 337,624 (1-3). 626 (1-3, I I , 12. 19-22), 627 (2). 629, 630 (19). 631 (1.3, I I , 12). 632 (I, 2), 633 (1-3, l), 634 (11). 640 (2, 19). 642,643 (121,646 (19.22). 647 (19), 648 (22), 650 (1-3, I I, 22), 651 (l-3), 653 (21, 22), 654 (21). 655 (20, 21), 656 (1-3, 12, 22). 658, 659, 663 (20). 665 (12). 668 (20). 684.685.690 (6. 12). 691,695 (12). 704, 668 (85. 86), 686, 694 (27), 705 Radak, S. E., 395 (104). 422 Rademacher, P., 191 (226), 227 Radhe, R., 761, 764 (62). 786 Radom, L., 37, 38.48 (196), 50 (237, 238). 96.97, 155. 172, 182 (18). 223 Raghavachh, K., 38.40 (198). 96 Rai, R., 457 (323). 479 Raikas, T., 682 (167). 688 Raimondi, D. L., 38 (202). 96 Rajappa, S., 358 (133), 366, 378 (45). 421 Rajca, G., 162 (58), 224 Rajeshwari, M., 835 (124), 849 Rajkovic-Blazer. L. M., 28 (129). 95 Rajopalan. P,. 457 (316). 479 Rakhmankulov, D. L., 448 (195). 476 Rakhmatulina, T. N., 825 @ I ) , 848 Rakitin, 0. A., 177 (175), 226 Rakowsky, T., 737 (145), 747 Rakvin, B., 740 (158a), 748 Ramachandran, G. N., 28 (142). 95 Rarnirez. J. L,. 51 (243), 97, 216 (296). 229 Ramos, M. N., 175 (144, 146, 147). 226 Ramos, T., 454 (285). 478 Ramsay, D. A., 16,49 (61), 93 Ramsden, J. H. Jr., 29 (149), 95, 435 (89). 4 74 Ramsey. B. G., 330 (34), 338 Randaccio. L,. 29 (149). 95,435 (89). 474 Rando, R. R., 452 (243). 477 Range, G., 529 (12). 615 Rankin, D. W. H., 16 (63), 93, 467 (445). 481 Ranskii, A. P., 360 (143). 366 Rao, D., 273, 284 (102). 298, 670 (90). 686 Rao, M. R. R., 394 (102). 422 Rao, P. S. 743, 744 (168). 748 Rapoport, H., 368 ( I ,)I 420,432 (70). 473, 493 (41), 496 (63). 523,524 Rappoport, Z., 64 (265), 98, 554 (81), 617 Rasmussen, C., 450 (212), 476

Author index Rasrnussen, K.. 37 (192). 96 Rassadin, V., 681 (162). 688 Rasvodovskaya, L. V., 58 I, 585 ( 164, 165). 587 (165). 619 Ratcliffe, C. I., 336 (70), 338 Ratcliffe, R. W.. 158. 181 (34). 223 Rathke, B., 490 (14), 523 Rathore, H., 469 (473), 482 Ratilla, E. M. A., 515 (149). 525 Raubenheirner, H. G., 18, 29 (91), 94, 163, 204 (70), 224, 433 (82). 434 (84). 474 Rauh, W., 698 (401, 705, 799, 819, 821 (38). 847 Raulings, N. R., 560, 567 (94). 617 Rausch, D. A., 501 (96), 524 Rautgundis, Y., 464 (416). 481 Rauth, A. M., 520 (179), 526 Ray, D. K., 396 (1 13). 422 RSy. P., 494, 495 (42). 523 Ray, P. S., 456, 461 (313). 479 Raychaudhuri. S. R.. 428 (7), 472 Razniak, S. L., 430 (43), 473 Reba, R. C.. 452 (258). 477 Rebello, H., 452,470 (270), 478 Reck, G., 23 (lot?), 94 Recktenwald. R., 464 (416). 481 Reed, A. E.. 41 (222.223). 97 Reed, D., 336 (66). 338 Reed, R. W., 198 (247). 228, 343 (29). 364 Rees, C. W., 61 1 (246). 621 Reese, C. B., 522 (187, 188). 526 Regelmann, C. U., 6. 17 (20). 47.48 (229). 50 (20). 51, 54 (244a), 61, 63, 70 (20), 93, 97, 253, 284 (66). 297, 647, 648, 658. 665, 669 (49, 685 Reich, H. J., 600 (208). 620 Reider, P. J., 455 (301). 478 Reiher, U., 461, 463 (382), 480 Reiker, W. F., 371 (25), 421 Reilly, J., 492 (35, 36), 523 Rein, R., 5, 9,42,44-46, 48, 50, 54, 57, 60, 63 (19), 93, 155, 160, 179, 183, 196 (17). 223, 327 (20), 337, 669 (87), 686 Reingold, A. L., 434 (87, 88). 474 Reinhoudt, D. N.. 28 (132), 95,517 (159), 526 Remko, R.. 719 (67), 746 Renard, M. F., 761 (56. 57. 59-61), 770 (102), 786. 787 Renard. S. H., 7 (21). 93 Renfroe, B., 463 (41 I), 481 Renkema, W. E., 684 (180), 688 Renou, J. P., 181, 184, 190 (193). 227. 336 (65). 338 Repke, D. W., 428 (12). 472 Rerat, C., 16 (57,58), 93 Resibois, B.. 826, 827, 846 (83). 848

89 1

Ressi, R., 598 (202). 620 Rettig, S. J., 679 (147). 688 Retzlaw, K. J., 790, 79 I, 821, 824, 825, 83 I, 832. 835,837 (7), 846 Reymore, H. E. Jr., 785 (135), 788 Reynaud, P., 66 (280). 98, 348 (59). 364.376 (35). 421,441 (139). 475,663 (71), 686 Reynolds, C. A,, 529 (14), 615 Reynoldson, T., 678 (1 19), 687 Rezessy, B., 170, 190, 192 (124), 225 Rhoads, S. J., 560, 567 (94). 617 Riand, I., 329 (24a, 24b), 337 RibBr, B., 177 (182-184), 191 (183), 226 Ricca, S. J., 596 (188). 619 Rice, S., 503, 504 (I16), 525 Richards, F. M., 452 (246), 477 Richards, R. E., 502 (106), 525 Richards, W. G., 207 (270). 228, 334 (55a. 55b), 335 (55c, 56). 338 Richardson, D. N., 494 (43). 495 (56). 523, 524 Richardson, J. F., 23 ( I 10). 94 Riche, C., 167,177 (93, 99). 186, 187, 205 (93), 224,225,466 (440). 481 Riche, G., 249, 267 (51), 296 Richter, D., 414 (174). 424 Richter, M., 245 (36). 296 Richter, R., 177 (164, 167). 226 Richter, W., 429 (38). 473 Richter, W. F., 614 (257,258), 615 (259), 621 Ricolleau, G., 64, 65 (273a). 98, 181, 190, 192 (194). 227,276, 277 (I14), 298 Ridd, J. H., 699 (41), 705 Ridl, B. A., 773 ( I 10). 787 Riebsorner, J. C.. 10 (27), 93 Ried, W., 177 (180, 187), 201 (254), 226-228, 343 (31, 33). 352 (91). 364, 365, 390 (87). 394 (98), 400 (87), 422,456 (31 I), 461 (377, 382), 462 (399), 463 (382,408, 409). 478, 480, 481 Riederer, H., 712 (25), 729 (104), 745, 747 Riera, V., 204 (264), 228 Riesz, P., 7 1 1, 7 I 2 (1 2a), 7 I 9 (66, 72), 745, 746 Riggs, N. V., 50 (237, 238), 97 Rigo, B.. 430,431,444,470 (56). 473 Ringold, H. J., 761 (42, 52, 53), 765 (42, 52. 71). 786 Rinne, D., 29 (147). 95 Riordan, J. F., 515 (143), 525 Rips, R., 167 (92.93). 177. 186 (93). 187 (92, 93). 200 (92). 205 (92, 93), 224, 249, 267 (5 I), 296 Ritter, A., 604 (230). 620 Rivera, E., 722 (91). 746 Robb, M. A., 13.45 (47). 93 Roberts, E., 498 (80). 524

892

Author index

Roberts, J. D., 162 (53). 188-190 (213). 223. 227,502 (102, 103), 503,504 ( I 17). 512, 513 (102). 525,697 (38), 705 Roberts, P. J., 549 (6% 616 Roberts, R. M., 352 (94), 365, 428, 452 (18). 4 72 Robertson, E. E., 678 (1 19). 687 Robev. S. K., 392 (93-95). 393 (97). 395 (105). 401 (125-127). 408 (149, 150). 422,423 Robin, Y., 310 (22). 322 Robinson, A. D., 598 (201), 620 Robinson, C. H., 761 (40, 50). 786 Robinson, D. J.. 679 (146). 688 Robinson, M. A., 491 (27). 523 Robinson, M. J. T., 530 (15). 615 Robinson, S. D., 598 (201), 620 Roby, K. R., 41 (225). 97 Rochow, E. G., 600 (209), 620 Rockley. J. E., 82 (343). 100, 302 (4). 322 Rodebaugh, R., 596 (188). 619 Rodewald, U., 164, 177, 185 (78). 224 Rodricks, J. V., 493 (41). 523 Rodriguez, C. H., 368 (lo), 420 Rodwell, W. R., 50 (237). 97 Roesky, H. W., 23 (112), 29 (151), 94, 95, 163 (6 I), I76 ( 154). 224.226 Rogana, E., 702 (50). 705 Roger, R., 340 (6). 363 Rogers, 1. R., 102 (I), 144 RogiC, V., 800 (42), 847 Rogman, E., 85 (346). 100 Rogne, 0. 769 (91-93), 787 Rogowska, W., 273 (106). 298 Rogues, R., 58 1 (15 I), 618 Rokhlina, E. M., 604-606 (233), 620 Roman Ceba, M., 818, 819, 844 (68). 848 Romanenko, E. A,, 419 (181). 424 Romanenko, V. A., 546 ( 5 3 , 616 Romanov. N. N., 450 (216), 457 (320). 476, 479 Romero, A., 435 (92). 474,679 (145). 688 Romero-Sanchyez, F. J., 334 (54). 3.38 Rony, P. R., 753, 770 (23-25), 773 (25). 785 Roode, W. H. de 678 (122-124, 129), 687 Roos, J. P., 562 (108). 617 Roothaan. C. C. J., 38 (201). 96 Roques, C., 389 (83). 422 Roques, J.. 412 (164). 424,469 (483). 482 Ros, A., 435 (93). 474 Ros, R., 435 (97, 98). 474 Rosa, E., 575, 577 (134). 618 Rose, F. L., 494 (43. 48), 523,524 Rose, I. A., 761 (41). 786 Roseman, M. A., 452 (245). 477 Rosenquist. E. N., 498 (73). 524 Rosenthal, G. A,, 471 (500), 482

Rosenthal. T. C., 273 (108). 298, 671,672 (101). 687 Roshan-Ali, Y., 428 (30), 473 Ross, A. B., 719 (65), 746 Ross, A. M., 761, 764 (62), 786 Ross, W. J., 438 (1 19). 474 Rossetto, G., 177, 202 (189), 227 Rossi, E., 317 (35). 322, 385 (67). 421 Rossi, R., 845 (195). 851 Rossini, F. D., 324 (3). 337 Rossman, M. A., 462 (393, 394), 480 Rosswag, H., 64 (262). 74 (300), 98, 99, 193 (238). 228 Rostami, A. A., 835 (125). 849 Rotblat, J., 714 (38). 745 Rothgery, E. F., 450,452 (217), 476 Rothin, A. S., 679 (144). 688 Roulet, R., 435 (93, 98), 474 Roush, W. R., 492, 5 19 (37), 523 Roux, M. V., 330 (29). 337 Rovnyak, G. C., 222 (308), 229 Row, T. N. G., 23 (105). 94 Rowe, D. G., 679 ( 1 4 9 ~ 688 Rowe, J. E., 187, 206, 207, 220 (210). 227, 429 (37), 447 (188). 473,476 Rowland, B. I., 529 (9). 615 Rozas, I., 172 (131). 225 Rozhkova, N. D., 345 (45). 364 Ruback, W.. 439 (131. 132). 442 (131). 475 Ruble, J. R., 16 (76). 94, 167, 175 (100). 225 Riichardt, C., 529 (12). 615 Rudy, R. B., 264, 266 (81, 82), 297, 581. 587 (167, 168). 589 (168). 596 (19&192), 619,670,671 (98.99). 687 Rufinska, A., 679 (138). 687 Ruiz, J., 204 (264). 228 Rumpel, H., 71 (293). 99,773 ( 1 16), 787 Runner, M. E., 5 (16). 92 Ruppert, K., 23 ( I 13). 94 Rusinova, L. l., 27 I , 272 (93). 298. 674 ( I 12), 687 Rustgi, S., 719 (72). 746 Rusznik, I., 784 (130). 788 Ryabokobylko, Yu. S., 271, 272, 289 (92). 298, 673, 674 (108). 687 Ryan, M. D., 846 (201, 202), 85f Rybakova, Yu. A., 683 (176). 688 Rybchenko, L. I., 358 (1 35). 366, 369 (17). 385 (72). 399 (121). 420,422.423 Rychlewska, W., 252 (63). 297 Rzepa, H. S., 170, 172 (126), 225, 547, 548 (58). 616. 791 (15). 846

S& G. F. de 175 (147). 226 Saakyan, A. G., 398 (1 17). 423 Saarinen, H., 682 (167). 688 Sabbah, R., 330 (30). 336 (67), 338

Author index Sabio, M., 155 (21). 223 Saburi, M., 454 (287). 455 (299), 478 Saccarello, M. L., 383 (66). 385 (68). 421 Sacerdoti, M., 167 (98), 168 ( I 12). 176, 177 (98). 225 Saczewski, F., 410 (163). 424 Sadek, M., 691,692 (14, 15), 704 Sadekov, I. D., 628,630 (36, 38). 685 Sadlej, J., 37 (185), 96 Sadova, N. I., 16 (80). 94 Sadowska, J., 273 (106), 298 Saeed, A. A. H., 82 (344). 100. 302 (3), 319 (40). 321, 322, 442 (151), 475 Saegusa, T., 10, 14 (26), 93, 357 (125-127), 366 Saenger, W., 28 (l43), 95 Safonova, T. N . , 613 (255). 621 Sagina, E. I., 467 (451), 482 Sagstuen, E., 7 I5 (40,44,46). 7 16 (44.48-5 I 53). 745 Sah, P. P. T., 502 (108). 525 Saha, P. K., 845 (189), 850 Sahajral, A., 598 (201), 620 Saito, T., 432 (73. 74). 466 (438), 473. 481 Sakakibara, T., 603 (226), 620 Sakane, K., 683 (171), 688 Saksena, A. K., 443,468 (157). 475 Sakurai, H., 335 (62). 338 Sakuni, K., 28 (137). 95 Salbeck, E., 23 (1 18), 95, 182 (196), 227 Salem, L., 37 (183), 96 Salinas, F., 818, 819, 844 (69), 848 Salunke, D. M., 28 (I#), 95 Samarai, L. I., 429 (33), 473 Samdal, S., 16 (79). 94 Sammes, P. G . , 430, 431, 442 (49), 468, 469 (459). 470 (498), 473,482 Sammour, H. M., 793 (23), 814 (23, 61), 847. 848 Samuni, A., 742, 743 (167), 748 Sana, M.. 57 (246). 97, 175 (148, 149). 188, 207 (149). 226 Sanches-Cabezudo, M., 332 (42). 338 Sanchez, M., 389 (83). 422 Sanchez Misiego, A., 818, 819, 844 (68, 69). 848 Sanchez-Perez, A.. 844 (164), 850 Sandberg, M., 495 (5 I), 524 Sandri, S., 443 (158). 455 (305-307). 462 (306, 307). 468 (158, 305-307,461). 475,478,482,561 (106, 107). 617 Sandrini, P. L., 678 (132). 687 Sandstrom, J., 197 (245). 228 Sanemitsu, Y . , 567 ( I 16, I17), 617 S.anger, A. R., 343 (30), 364 Sangster, D. F., 707 ( I ) , 744 Sanitanin, 2.. 803 (46), 847

893

Sano, H., 436 (103), 474

Sano, T., 465 (427). 481

Santhanam, K. S . V., 836 (130). 849 Santiago, M. L., 438 (123), 474 Santoro, A. V., 188 (216). 189 (217, 221, 222). 201 (216). 190 (221). 227, 509 (1 36). 5 12 ( I 38), 525 Santos, A., 435 (92). 474,679 ( 1 4 3 , 6 8 8 Sanyal, G. S., 286, 287, 292 (1 38), 299,683 (174, 175). 688 Sanz, C., 815, 816 (64), 848 Sanz, D., 33 I (38), 338 Sanz, F., 23 (1 IS), 94 Sanz Box, C., 815, 816 (65), 848 Sapse, A. M., 188 (216), 189 (220-222), 190 (221). 201 (216), 227, 512 (137, 138). 525 Sardana, V., 348 (66), 365 Sargent, R. W. H., 38.40 ( I 99). 96 Sasaoka, I,. 472 (507). 483 Sato, K., 430, 431 (46). 464 (415). 473. 481 Sato, T., 459 (339). 479 Satre, M., 428, 452 (16). 472 Satterthwait, A. C., 155, 156, 160, 179, 180. 214 (26). 223 Saunders, W. H. Jr., 757 (26). 770,773 (106, 107). 776 (26). 785, 787 Sauter, H., 21 I (284), 229 Savelova, V. A., 447 (185, 186), 450 (213), 476 Savignac, P., 470 (497). 482 Savy, M., 845 (187, 188). 85.0 Sawka-Dobrowolska, W., 28 (135). 95 Sawyer, D. C., 790, 831, 835 (4), 846 Sax, M., 23 (109), 94 Saxena, A. K., 399 (122), 423 Sayigh, A. A. R., 785 (135), 788 Scamehorn, R. G . , 765 (81), 787 Scarbeck, G., 845 (187), 850 Schaefer, H. F. 111 773, 774 ( I 17), 787 Schaefer, W., 408 (151), 423 Schafer, H., 210 (281). 228 Schafer, P., 154, 176, 179 (9). 223 Schamp, N., 437 (1 13). 474 Scharf, U., 360 (144), 366 Scharfenberg, P., 50. 5 I (235), 97 Schaumann, E., 385 (71), 422,433 (77). 469 (477). 474.482 Schawartz, J., 428,453 (1 I), 472 Scheeker, H. G., 551 (73). 617 Scheeren, J. W . , 64 (260). 98, 18 I (195). 227, 353 (97). 365 Scheffold, R., 305 (13). 322, 429 (34). 473 Scheiffele, E., 500 (89). 524 Schenck. T. G., 444 (166). 475 Schenk, H. J., 683 (169), 688 Scheraga, H. A., 332 (41). 338

894

Author index

Scherer.G., 71 (293). 99 Scherer,0. J., 598-600 (196), 620 Schiewald, E., 331 (37b), 338 Schiraldi, D. A., 51 (242). 97, 154, 215 (15). 222 Schlabach,M. R., 515 (144). 525 Schlegel. H. B., 38.40 (198). 45,49, 54, 60 (228), 96, 97, 172 (130), 225 Schlemper, H., 78 (337), 99 Schleyer, P. v. R., 4, 5 (13), 37, 38,48 (196), 40 (209). 92.96.97 Schlunegger,U. P., 305 (13), 322 Schmalbach,M., 71 (293), 99 Schmaldt, W., 695 (31), 696 (31, 33). 698, 699 (31), 705 Schmid, H., 212 (288), 229, 560, 567 (95, 96), 617 Schmidbaur,H., 606 (236). 620 Schmidpeter,A., 458 (324). 479 Schmidt, A., 170 (125), 225,315 (29), 322 Schmidt, H.-G., 163 (6l), 224 Schmidt, J., 718 (54), 745 Schmidt, R. R., 428 (24). 429 (24, 35, 36), 459.466 (333). 468 (24, 35, 36,467470). 469 (24). 470 (469). 473,479, 482 Schmidtberg,G., 444 (169), 475 Schmidtpeter,A., 23 (116, 117). 95 Schmir. G. L., 183,219 (201), 227,440 (133), 445,446 (172-176). 475,476 Schmitt, E., 154. 176. 179 (9). 223 Schmitt, G., 431,438 (65). 473 Schnabel,W. J., 491 (27), 523 Schnegelberger,H., 447 (190), 476 Schneider,F., 468 (466). 482 Schneider,R. A., 765 (83). 787 Schneller. S. W., 459 (338). 479 Schnering,H. G. von 11.78 (37), 93. 154, 176, 179 (9). 223 Schnur,R. C., 341 (18), 364,450 (210), 476 Scholes, G., 720 (82). 724, 726 (99, 746 Schollkopf, U,. 430.43 1 (48). 464 (48.41 8). 473,481 Scholz, U., 163 (61). 224 Schomburg,D., 458 (324), 479 Schonbach,B., 246 (37), 296 Schonn,N., 233 (8). 296 Schowen, R. L., 773 (1 I I), 787 Schrader,W. T., 452 (247). 477 Schreiber.J., 312, 313 (27). 322,451 (231). 477 Schrier, S. L., 428 (14), 472 Schroth,W., 202 (256), 228 Schubert,U., 156 (30). 223.433 (81), 474 Schuchardt,U., 782 (129). 787 Schuchmann,H. P. 718,730 (60). 732 (127). 746, 747

Schuchmann,M. N.. 720 (82). 722 (86), 724 (98). 746 Schuckmann,W., 177 (180). 226 Schulenberg,J. W., 528, 552 (3). 615 Schuler, R. H., 722 (89.91). 746 Schulte-Frohlinde,D,. 722 (90). 746 Schulthess.A. H., 433,438 (78). 474 Schunak,W., 449,454 (208, 283), 476, 478 Schwartz, B. D., 452 (251). 477 Schwartz, J., 222 (308), 229,467 (450), 482 Schwartz. J. H., 502 (103). 525,697 (38). 705 Schwan. R., 458 (328). 479,518 (166). 526 Schwan, W., 162 (58), 224,315 (29). 322 Schwarzenbach,D., 23, 31 (104). 94.435 (98), 4 74 Schwarzenbach,G., 77 (329), 99, 327 (19). 337 Schweinberger,R. Y. F., 452 (250). 477 Schweizer, W. B., 31 (157). 95 Schwendeman,R. H., 16,49 (61), 93 Schwenker,G., 64 (262), 66 (279), 74 (300), 98, 99, 193 (238). 228, 283 (131), 298, 368 (12). 414 (171). 420, 424 Schwesinger,R., 11 (36. 37). 78 (36, 37. 337, 338), 93,99 Schwochan,K., 683 (169). 688 Scoggins, M. W., 233 (17). 296 Scott, F., 18, 29 (91), 94, 163, 204 (70), 224, 433 (82). 474 Scott, F. L., 492 (35, 36). 523 Scott, M., 450 (212). 476 Scotton,M., 521 (180), 526 Scrocco, E., 162 (50), 223 Searle, G. H., 679 (149, 150), 688 Secches, A., 4 (9). 92, 660 (54), 685 Seckinger, K., 414 (169), 424 Secyoshi, S.. 575 (132). 618 Seefelder, M., 10 (25), 93 Seeger, R., 39 (208), 40 (208, 212), 97 Seelye, R. N., 553 (79, 617 Seeman, J. I., 209 (279). 228 Seff, K., 503,504 (I 16). 525 Seifert,C. M., 386 (75). 422 Seip. R., 16 (79). 94 Seitz, G., 461 (383), 480 Sellers, R. M., 743 (169, 170). 748 Selling, H. A., 177 (181), 226 Selman, S. A.. 82 (344). 100, 302 (3), 319 (40). 321.322. 442 (151). 475 Sen, D., 290 (149), 299,679 (148), 688 SenCchal,D., 209 (276), 228 SCnechal-Tocquer,M.-C., 209 (276), 228 Senn, J., 447 (191). 476 Senning,A., 500 (92). 524 Serebryakova,N. V., 273,288,293,294 ( I lo), 298,675 (1 14), 687 Sergeeyev, N. M., 599 (207). 620

Author index Sergutina,V. P., 200 (253), 228, 268 (85), 269 (85, 87, 88). 270 (90), 288, 293 (87), 297, 376 (36), 421,450 (218). 477, 610 (244, 245). 621, 671 (103, 107), 673 (107). 687 Sergutira,V. P., 450 (215). 476 Serianni,A. S., 470 (493). 482 Sejeanr, E. P., 507 (127). 525, 626 (28). 685 Semkhvostova, V. E., 404 (1 38). 423 Servoz-Gavin, P., 740 (158b). 748 Seshadri, S., 394 (102), 422 Sevastyanov, V. N., 352 (92). 365 SevEik, J.. 76, 77 (308), 99, 626 (7). 630 (40), 631 (7), 639 (7, 40). 656 (40). 657 (7, 40. 52). 660,682 (7). 684.685,794, 804 (27). 847 Sevilla, D. M., 731 (125). 747 Sevilla, M. D., 739, 740 (155). 744 (172). 748 Sevodin, V. P., 408 (153). 423 Seyferth,D., 355 ( I 15). 366 Seyler, J. K.. 518 (167), 526 Shadyro, 0. I., 744 (174), 748 Shaked, Z., 452 (255), 477 Shakhidoyatov, Kh. M., 345 (46). 364 Shaofeng, Li 323-325 (6). 337 Shapim,J., 505 (123). 525 Shaposhnikov,S. I.. 679 (142). 688 Sharkova,T. A.. 288 (142). 299 Sharma,K. K., 205 (266). 207 (268,269). 228 Sharma,M. P., 830 (91). 848 Sharova,I. L., 246, 288,293 (48). 296 Sharova, L. I., 662, 683 (60), 686 Shaukat,A., 32 (162), 95 Shaver. A,, 679 (146), 688 Shavitt, I., 42, 74 (297). 99 Shaw, A.. 452 (236). 477,715 (41), 745 Shaw, E. 701 (47). 705 Shaw, G., 453 (277). 478 Shaw, R., 323 (I), 337.761 (38). 786 Shawali, A. S., 793 (23), 814 (23. 61), 847, 848 Shchebitchenko,L. N., 344 (36). 364 Shchegoleva,T. R., 341 (20), 364 Shchipanov,V. P., 795, 808 (30). 847 Shea, K. J., 214 (291), 229 Sheers, E. H., 487.491. 500 (3). 523 Sheinker,Yu. N., 169. 190, 191 (117). 225, 348 (67). 365.370 (21). 390 (89). 420, 422 Sheldrick, G. M., 23 (112). 29 (151). 94.95, 163 (61). 176 (154). 224,226 Shenek, T. S., 564 ( 1 12). 617 Sheppard,N., 501 (99). 524 Shevchenko,M. V., 353 (104), 365 Shevchenko,V. I.. 369 (15), 389 (82). 420, 422 Shibanova,E. F., 825 (81). 848

895

Shibata, M., 670 (91), 686 Shibata, S., 454 (287), 455 (299), 478 Shif, A. I., 540 (45, 46), 542 (46). 612, 613 (253). 616, 621 Shikarev, A..V., 819421,844 (72). 848 Shimanouchi,T., 501 (99). 524 ShimodaM., 443,468 (153), 475, 560 (101). 617 Shimohigashi,T., 163 (69), 224,435 (91), 474 Shirai, K., 494 (44). 523 Shishkin,V. E., 458 (325), 479, 467 (447, 456). 481, 482 Shishkina,N. V., 467 (456), 482 Shisoo, C. J., 273 (99), 298 Shive, L. W., 163 (66). 224,678 (131). 687 Shmelev, L. V., 246, 250 (46). 271, 272 (46, 92). 288 (46). 289 (92). 296,298,673, 674 (108, 110). 676 (IlO), 687 Shoivo, Y., 269 (86), 297 Shomaker,V., 501 (98). 524 Shoolery, J. N., 253 (70), 297 Shormanov,V. A., 332 (46), 338 Short, W. F., 488, 489,491,494 (1 1). 523 Shorter,J., 1 10 (lo), 145, 689 ( I , 2). 690 ( I , 2, 8, 9, 11). 691 (13, 16, 17). 693 (21). 694 (29). 697 (37), 702 (I), 703 (2, 37), 704, 705 Showen, K. B., 770 (99, 101). 787 Showen, R. L., 770 (100). 787 Shragge,P. C., 720, 723, 724 (79), 726 (133). 746, 747 Shreeve, J. M., 441, 442 (142). 475 Shriner,R. L., 3, 4 ( I ) , 92, 233 (2). 295, 498 (78). 524 Shroff, J. R., 429 (41). 473 Shudo, K., 309 (18). 322, 505 (122). 525 Shugar,D., 834 (1 I I), 849 Shu-Jun,S., 335 (61). 338 Shukla, A., 680 (153). 688 Shvarts,G. Ya., 376 (39). 421 Shvekhgeimer,G. A., 456 (315), 479 Shvekhgeimer,S. H., 462 (386). 480 Sieber, K., 718 (59), 746 Sieler, J., 177 (164, 167). 226 Sieveking, H. U., 66-68, 70, 71 (281). 98 Sieveking, H. W., 273,279,281,282, 284 (103). 298 Sieveking. S. S., 433 (77). 474 Sigeikin, G. I., 271, 272 (93). 298, 662 (60). 674 (1 12). 683 (a),686,687 Sigeikin, G. N., 246, 288, 293 (48). 296 Siggia, S., 287 (139), 299, 683 (168). 688 Sikorski, A.. 104, I15 (7), 145 Silhan, W., 579 (144), 618 Silk, N. M., 188 (211), 227,441 (138). 475 Silva, J. A. F. de 244, 245 (34). 296 Silver, K., 10 (31). 93

896

Author index

Silvestro, A., 141 (17), 145 Simakov, S. V., 408 (153), 423 Simiio, J. E., 846 (199). 851 Simchen, G., 380 (56). 421,431 (57). 473 Simic, M., 719 (76). 743, 744 (168). 746. 748 Simic, M. G., 720 (77), 724 (100). 725 (102). 729 (100, 102, 105, 106), 731 (113, 115), 732 (129), 746, 747 Simic-Glavaski, B., 845 (184), 850 Simig, G., 318 (36). 322 Simkin, B. Ya., 529 (6, 13). 530 (13). 535 (6). 536 (39). 547 (61). 615, 616 Simkins, R. J. J., 497 (67), 524 Simmonds, R. J., 50 (241), 97 Simmons, J. A., 714 (38), 745 Simon, K., 165, 185 (82). 224 Simonetta, M., 531 (19). 615 Simonov, A. M., 74 (305). 99 Sinellari, L., 32 (163), 96 Singh, A., 461 (374, 373, 480 Singh, J., 348 (66), 365 Singh, M., 461 (375). 480 Singh, R., 457 (322). 479,680 (152). 688 Singleton, E., 679 (146). 688 Sinha, N. D., 464 (421),481 Sinitsa, A. D., 59 (254), 64 (272), 98, 164, 165, 174, 185 (81). 196 (243), 199 (250). 21 I (243). 224.228, 264 (78-80). 265 (79, 80), 266 (SO), 297, 344 (39). 364, 369 (13, 15, 16). 389 (82), 420.422, 581 (155-159, 162, 169), 582 (155). 583 (158, 159, 162), 584 (157). 585 (155), 587 (169). 618, 619. 670 (93-96), 671 (94-96), 686 Sitz, D. A., 167, 168, 205 (106), 225 Siuta-Mangano, R.. 452 (257), 477 Sivertsen, P., 29 (145). 95, 169 ( I 14). 225 Sjostrand, U., 197 (245), 228 Skarjune, R., 529 ( I I), 615 Skidan, N. A., 679 (142), 688 Skittral, J., 598 (200). 620 Skittral. S. J., 678 (121), 687 Skone, P. A., 522 (188). 526 Skrypka, A. V., 450 (213), 476 Skulski, L., 282, 289 (128). 298, 677 ( I 17), 687 Sletten, E., 332 (49). 338 Slitkin, M., 7 1 I , 7 14 ( I 3). 745 Sliskovic. D. R., 462 (391). 480 Slotboom, A. I., 785 (140). 788 Slotta, K. H., 496 (58), 524 Slusarska, E., 43 1,463 (63), 473 Small, R. W., 141 (18). 145 Small, R. W.H., 28 (126). 32 (158). 95 Smaller. p.. 719 (67). 746 Smalley, R. K., 428,454 (4). 472 Smetskaya, N. I., 349 (74). 365, 390 (91), 422

Smeyers, Y. G., 334 (54). 338 Smidt, M. T., 489 (1 2). 523 Smirnova, A. A., 345 (45). 364 Smith, A. C. B., 449 (209). 476 Smith, D. B., 452 (238). 477 Smith, D. L., 834 ( 1 I2), 837 ( I 39). 849 Smith, G. B. L., 487, 488 (7). 490 (16), 498 (76, 79), 499 (82), 523,524 Smith, J. K., 464 (420). 481 Smith, K., 613 (254). 621 Smith, N. R. M., 23 ( I 10). 94 Smith, P. A. S., 64 (266), 98, 181 (190), 227, 554 (82), 617 Smith, R., 319 (41). 322,436 (105-108), 452, 466 (105). 470 (105-108). 474 Smith, R. F., 273 (108, 109). 298, 671, 672 (101, 102). 687 Smith, R. H., 428, 454 (4). 472 Smith, R. K., 451, 455 (229). 477 Smith, R. L., 188, 189 (214). 227 Smith, V. F., 445, 446 (172), 475 SmolikovB, J., 169 (IIS), 225 Smrtkova, S., 159, 176 (36). 196 (244). 223. 228 Smythe, M. E., 419 (185). 424 Snaith, R., 336 (66), 338, 515 (147), 525 Snatzke, G., 430, 431 (Sl), 473 Snedker, S. J. C., 491 (30). 523 Sneen, R. A., 765 (72), 786 Snell, E. E., 499 (84). 524 Snider, B. B., 519 (173), 526 Snipes, W., 712 (24), 713 (30). 745 Snow, M. R., 516 (ISO), 525 Snyder, G., 188 (216), 189 (222). 201 (216), 227 Soccorsi, L., 532 (24). 616 Sochneva, E. 0.. 348 (62,67, 68). 364,365, 376 (39), 390 (89), 402 (129). 404 (139). 421423 Sofronova, 0. V.. 199 (249), 228 S o h f , P., 70 (292). 98,280 (151). 299,461 (359, 360, 368, 369). 462 (368,404406). 480.481 Sohoni, S. S., 765 (82), 787 Soja, P., 464 (421), 481 Sokolov, V. I., 827, 828 (85). 848 Sokolovskii, S. A., 271,272 (93). 298,674 (112),687 So11, J., 495 (55). 524 Solod, 0. V., 166. 186 (91), 224, 610 (245), 62 I Solomun, T., 800 (42), 847 Soloveva, N. P., 349 (73). 353 (IOI), 365, 376 (39). 402 (128, 129, 131). 404 (139), 421.423 Son, P. N., 785 (136). 788 Song Loong, W., 32 (170). 96

Author index Sonntag, C. von 718 (60-63), 719 (73), 720 (62, 80-82, 84), 722 (6 I , 86, 87). 724 (81, 98), 726 (811, 730 (60), 732 (61, 127). 735 (141). 746, 747 Soos, R., 785 (137). 788 Sopin. V. F., 177 (175), 226 Sorensen, G. Q., 16, 50 (70), 93 Sorensen, P. E., 770 (104). 787 Sorgeloos, D., 177 (174), 226 Sotiropoulos, P. D., 23 (107). 94 Soto, J. L., 456, 459 (314). 460 (358). 462 (398). 465 (432, 436), 466 (314), 479481 Soucy. P., 160, 183, 204, 219 (43), 223 Soudijn, W., 333, 335 (53b), 338 Soula, C., 340 (13). 363 Spagnolo, P., 203 (258), 228 Spalletta, R. A., 71 I (12b). 745 Spangler, C. W., 10 (31). 93 Speakman, J. C., 102, 103, 110, 116, 139 (2). 144 Speh, P., 347 (55). 364, 376 (41), 421 Speigelberg, H., 460 (354). 479 Spiessens, L. I., 165 (83, 84, 86), 173 (139), 174 (86), 185 (83), 224, 225 Spinks, J. W. T., 707 (2). 745 Spitzner, R., 202 (256), 228 Spoedler, H. J. W., 735, 740 (141, 156). 747, 748 Spooner, B. S., 452 (263). 477 Sprague, I. M . , 14 (53), 93 Springer, J. P., 158 (34). 177 (165), 181 (34). 223, 226 Springfield, J. R., 168, 169, 175, 208 ( I 13), 225 Springs, B., 778 (125). 787 Sprinkle, M . R., 77 (327). 99 Sreenivasan, R., 378 (45). 421 Srinivasan, R., 28 (142). 95, 358 (I33). 366 Srivastava, R. M., 175 (146, 147). 226 Srivastava, R. S., 679, 68 I ( I4 I ), 688 Srivastava, V . B., 396 (1 13),422 Stach, J., 315 (31), 322 Stahl, E., 247 (50),296 Stlhle, H., 333 (51), 338 StAjer. G., 461 (359, 360, 368, 369), 462 (368, 405,406). 480.481 Stals. J., 504 ( I 19). 525 Stam, J. G., 449 (205). 476 Stnninets, V. I., 382 (63). 421 Stanoeva, E., 460 (345). 479 Stanovnik, B., 64 (270, 271), 98, 193-195 (229, 235). 227, 380 (57), 386 (78). 407 (143), 408 (146, 147), 414 (172, 173). 421424 Stansfield, F., I77 ( I 70). 226 Stanton, J., 463 (412). 481

897

Staps, R. J. F. M., 64 (260), 98, 181 (19% 22 7 Starynowicz, P., 23 (99). 94 Stashkevich, 0. M., 293 (156). 299 Stashkevich, W. W., 293 (156). 299 Stavber, S., 302, 305 (lo), 322 Steenken, S., 719 (68,74,75),720 (75). 722 (68). 723 (74). 734,736 (1 38). 737 (146. 148). 746. 747, 835 (I 15), 849 Steger, W., 467 (445). 481 Steiger, A., 312, 313 (27), 322, 451 (231), 477 Stepanov, B. I., 4, 5 (lo), 92, 259, 260, 285, 291 (76), 297, 312 (25), 322, 626 (13). 685 Stephanou, E., 212 (288), 229, 351 (88). 365 Stephens, K . L., 445 (171). 475 Stqpied, A., 28, 30 (127). 95 Stepniak, M., 273 (106, 107). 286 (107). 298 Sterba, V., 447 (183). 476, 550 (68-71), 617 Stembach, L. H., 420 (186). 424 Stembach, L. M., 233 (9), 296 Stetter, J., 451, 471 (224), 477 Stevens, E. D., 16, 17 (73), 94 Stevens, M. F. G., 305 ( I 2), 322 Stevenson, D. P., 501 (98), 524 Steward, E. G., 28 (139), 95, 501 (IOI), 524 Stewart, J. J. P., 37 (189). 96 Stewart, J. M., 23 (109). 94 Stewart, J. T., 844 (166). 850 Stewart, R. F., 39, 48 (204). 96 Stezowski, I. J., 447 (191), 476 Stillings, M. R., 449 (209), 476 Stobart, S. R., 606 (235), 620 Stocken, L. A,, 499 (87). 524 Stoecken, C. J. Jr., 452 (232), 477 Stoffel, W., 428 (15). 452 (254). 472,477 Stoghd, A., 332 (49). 338 Stojda, R. J., 447 (191), 476 Stolyarov, V. P., 368 (5). 376 (34). 420. 421, 437 ( I 16). 466 (443), 474.481 Stone, F. G., 599 (205), 620 Stopp, G., 233 (8). 296 Storhoff, B. N., 434 (86), 435 (95). 474 Storr, A.. 679 (147). 688 Stoss, P., 462 (407). 481 Stowers, J. R., 466 (440). 481 Stradi, R., 317 (35). 322, 383 (64-66), 385 (67,68), 410 (162). 421,424 Striihle, J., 163 (67). 224 Strakosch, J., 500 (91). 524 Strand, P., 716 (48). 745 Strauss, M. J., 395 (106, 107),422, 612 (247251), 621 Strebelle, M., 342 (25). 360 (147), 364, 366 Streitwieser, A. Jr., 37, 40 (180, 216, 217), 41 (218), 96,97,579,591 (143), 618 Stroh, J., 579 (144). 618

898

Author index

Strohmeyer, T., 462 (391), 480 Strojny, N., 244, 245 (34), 296 Struchkov, Yu. T., 29 (155), 95, 177 (175), 226, 27 1 (9 I), 298, 363 (153,366, 598, 603 (197). 612, 613 (253), 620, 621, 673, 675 ( I l l ) , 687 Struve, G. E., 188, 189,201 (215). 227 Struwe, F. 487 (9). 523 Studnev, Y. N., 466 (443). 481 StudniEkov6, M., 816 (66). 838 (143, 146). 841 (155, 161), 848-850 Stumpp, M., 429 (36), 468 (36, 468). 473, 482 Stutzer, A., 495 ( 5 3 , 524 Su, G. C. C., 378 (47), 421 Subramanian, P., 835 (126), 842, 843 (162), 849,850 Suesse, M., 398 (1 19), 423 Sugasaka, K., 683 (171), 688 Sugimura, Y,. 432 (73.74). 473 Sugino, K., 494 (44), 523 Sugisaki, R., 16,50 (70). 93 Sugo, T., 683 (171, 172), 688 Sukenik, C. N., 531 (18), 615 Sulim, 0. P., 246, 250, 271, 272, 288 (46). 296, 673, 674, 676 (I 10). 687 Sullivan, G. R., 503, 504 (1 17), 525 Sulmon, P,. 437 (1 13). 474 Sultan, A. W. A., 319 (40), 322.442 (151). 475 Summers, L. A., 82 (343). 100,302 (4). 322 Summers, M. F., 29 (149). 95,435 (89). 474 Sunami, T., 461 (367), 480 Sundberg, R. J., I 1 (41), 93,465 (428). 481 Sunder, S., 461, 463 (362). 480 Sunner, J., 316 (33). 322 Surma, K., 18 (85), 94, 177 (163). 226, 252 (62). 297 Suruda, A. J,. 761 (38). 786 Suryanavayana, D., 731 (125). 747 Suschitzky, H., 414 (170), 424 Sut, A. 580 (147). 618 Sutcliffe, L. H., 251 ( 5 3 , 297 Sutherland, H. H., 16 (56), 93 Suvorov, N. N., 408 (153), 423 Suzuki, M., 683 (170), 688 Suzuki, O., 431 (64), 464 (415). 473,481 Svensson, P,. 73 (295). 99,758 (27). 773 (120-122). 774 (120, 121). 777 (121, 122). 786, 787 Svetlik, J., 459 (339,479 Svishchuk, A. A., 461 (371), 480 Svoboda, J. J., 214 (291), 229 Swahn, L., 751,753,755,157,758,767,768 (11). 785 Swain, C. G . , 753, 770 (21, 22), 785 Swallow, A. J,. 707 (3), 731 (120). 745, 747 Swanson, B. J., 199 (248). 228, 378 (46). 421

Sweigen, D. A., 326 (18), 337 Symons, E. A., 59 (251), 98, 159, 160, 196 (37). 212 (287), 216 (37), 223, 229, 656, 662, 669, 670 (50),685 Symons, M. C. R., 712 (25), 745 Sysoeva, L. P., 271 (91), 298,673,675 (I I ,)l 687.807, 808 (52). 847 Syubaev, R. D., 376 (39). 421 Szabo, A., 37,38,4& (195). 96 S~ab6,A. E,. 461 (359,360,368. 369). 462 (368, 406), 480, 481 Szakacs, S., 465 (426), 481 Szatmari. I,. 428, 453 (1 I), 472 Szczesniak, M., 529 ( I I), 615 Szilagyi, S., 325 (9), 337 Szurley, E., 835 (127), 849 Szuts. T., 428, 453 (1 ,I) 472 Szware, H., 531 (20). 615 Ta, N. C., 290 (149). 299,679 (148), 688 TabakoviC, I,. 794 (28). 800 (42). 801 (43). 803 (46), 809, 810 (28, 54), 815 (62). 822, 823 (76). 847, 848 Tabata, S. H., 492 (34). 523 Taddei, F., 168, 187 (1 lo), 225 Taft, R. W., 691 (15, 19), 692 (15). 693,694 (25). 695 (30.32). 696 (32). 697 (25), 698 (32), 701 (25), 702.703 (49). 704. 705, 812, 829 (57). 848 Taft, R. W. Jr., 628 (35). 685 Taillades, J., 156 (29). 223 Taillan, M., 844 (165), 850 Taillefer, R. J., 160 (43), 172 (137). 183, 204 (43). 217 (137, 300, 301), 218 (137, 300). 219 (43), 223,225, 229,445.446 (177, 178, 180), 476 Takada, A., 316 (34). 322, 347 (57), 364 Takahashi. K. 316 (34). 322,466 (437). 481 Takahashi, T., 731, 732 (123). 747 Takahata, H,. 215 (293), 229,452 (274). 478 Takaku, H., 468 (464). 482 Takamatsu, T., 215 (293), 229 Takano, S., 443. 468 (155), 475 Takanobu, K., 466 (437). 481 Takeshima, S., 335 (62), 338 Takido, T., 471 (499). 482 Takimoto, F., 356 (122). 366 Talalay. P,. 761 (34a. 34b, 35, 37, 38.40). 786 Tam, S. Y. K., 380 (53). 421 Tamary, Y., 567 (113. 116. 117). 617 Tamas, J., 318 (36). 322,577 (137), 618 Tamura, H., 436 (103), 474 Tamura, Y., 432 (69), 444 (167, 168). 467 (446), 473, 475, 481 Tanaka, L. K., 164 (77), 224 Tanaka, S., 683 (170). 688 Tang, G.-Q., 203 (259). 228

Author index Taniguchi, .1. 844 (171-174). 850 Taran, L. A., 806 (50), 846 (204), 847.851 Tamowski, T. L., 516 (157). 526 Tarumi, Y., 453 (275). 478 Ta-Shma, R., 64 (265). 98. 554 (8 I), 617 Tassi, D., 168 ( I 12). 225 Tataruch, F., 354 (107). 366, 386 (73), 422 Tatiboutt, F., 460 (349), 479 Tatke, D. R., 394 (102), 422 Taurins, A., 66 (274), 98, 663, 665 (68, 69). 686 Tay, M. K., 470 (497), 482 Taylor, E. C., 348 (64), 352 (95), 365, 375 (33), 396 (109), 4 2 1 , 4 2 2 , 454 (282), 4 78 Taylor, G. F., 562 (IOS), 617 Taylor, K. G., 154 ( I I), 223 Taylor, P. J., 505, 506 (125), 525, 697 (36, 37), 703 (37), 705 Taylor, R., 102 (I), 144 Tchikina, N . L., 828. 829 (87), 848 Teague. S. G., 679 (149), 688 Tebbe, K.-F.. 29 (150). 95 Tee, 0. S., 765 (85). 787 Temerk, Y. M., 841 (156-159). 850 Tenaseichuk, B. S., 628, 630 (37). 685 Tennant, G., 454 (288). 478 Teoule, R., 725 (101, 103), 726 (134). 746, 747 Terao, K., 452 (273). 460 (352). 478,479 Ter Brake, J. H. M., 16 (67). 93 Terekhova, M. .1. 828, 829 (87), 848 Terenin, Yu. A., 259, 260, 285, 291 (76), 297, 626 (I 3), 685 Terentev, P. B., 363 (154, 155), 366 Temer, F., 522 (191), 526, 558 (88), 612 (247, 250), 61 7, 621 Teterin, Yu. A,, 4, 5 (lo), 92 Tetzlaff, C., 21 I (285), 229, 362 (152), 366 Teysseyre, J., 155, 172 (la), 223 Thailambal, V. G . , 23 (105), 94 Thanapaalasingham, K., 507 (128), 525 Theard, L. M., 720 (78), 746 Thenot, J. P., 233 (16), 296 Theobold, H., 43 1 (60). 473 Thetford, D., 468,469 (459), 470 (498). 482 Thewalt, U. 29 (147), 95 Thibblin, A., 769 (94, 98). 787 Thiel, W., 37 (188), 96, 547 (60). 616, 791 ( W,846 Thiele, I., 502 (104). 525 Thiem, J., 443,468,469 (159). 475 Thiemchter, B,. 348 (63). 365, 390 (88). 422 Thobum, J. D., 161, 184 (49), 223,336 (64), 338 Thomas, A. F., 765 (83), 787 Thomas, D. 437,444 (118). 460 (118, 344),

899

462 (400). 465 (422). 469 (344,400, 482). 471 (500). 474,479-482 Thomas, M., 428,452,470 (21), 472 Thomson, C., 529 (14). 615 Thomson, R. H., 66 (276), 98 Thurston, J. T., 498 (81), 524 Tidwell, R. R., 340 (9), 363 Tidwell, T. T., 765 (74, 79, 80, 82), 786, 787 Timberlake, J. W., 325 (9), 337 Timkovich, R., 844 (180), 850 Timmermans, P. B. M. W. M., 333 (52), 338 Timofeenko, I., 466 (443), 481 Tinberg, H. M., 452 (235), 477 Tiner-Harding, T., 464 (420), 481 Tinkler, R. B., 282 (129), 298, 663, 667 (72), 686 Tipton, K. F., 452 (253), 477 Tiripicchio, A., 5, 26 (17), 92, 162, 177 (56), 204 (264), 224,228 Tiripicchio, C. M., 436 (101). 474 Tiripicchio-Camellini, M., 5, 26 (17). 92, 162, 177 (56), 224 Tisler, M., 64 (270, 271), 98, 193-195 (229, 235). 227, 367 (3). 380 (57), 386 (78). 407 (143). 408 (146, 147), 414 (172, 173). 420424. 667 (76,77), 686 Titmas, R. C., 522 (187). 526 Todd, S. L., 167, 168, 205 (106). 225 Toke, L., 346 (48). 364 Tolan, D. R., 452 (259). 477 Tolchinskii, S. E., 358 (136), 366 Toldy, L. 169 (116). 170 (124), 177 (184), 190 (116, 124), 191 (116). 192 (124). 225, 226 Tolmacheva, G. M., 369 (18), 420 Tomasi, J., 162 (50), 223 Tomasini, C., 468 (461), 482 Tomasini, G., 455,462,468 (306, 307), 478 Tomas Vert, F., 815 (63), 848 Tomcsanyi, L., 829 (88), 830 (89), 848 Tomita, K., 501 (loo), 524 Tomita, S . , 10, 14 (26), 93 Toniolo, L., 598 (202), 606 (234), 620, 678 (128, 132, 134). 687 Topiol, S., 155 (21), 223, 335 (57). 338 Toppet, S., 177 (174), 226 Topsom, R. D.; 141 (17). 145,695 (30). 705 Toribara. T. Y., 428 (LO), 472 Tomheshnikov, V. N., 599 (207), 620 Toropin, N. V., 288 (141). 299 Tomto, M. L., 532 (21-24). 616 Toscano, V. G., 607 (241), 620 Toshimitsu, A., 452 (273), 460 (352). 478,479 T6th. G., 169 ( I 16, 118), 170 (I%), 177 (183). 190(116. 124). 191 (116, 183). 618 192 (124). 225,226, 577 (135-137), T6th. I., 170, 190, 192 (124). 225

900

Author index

Toullec, J., 765 (70). 786 Toyosawa, K., 844 (172). 850 Tracey, A. S., 175, 189 (150). 226, 509 (132), 525 Tracy, M. L., 18, 23 (86). 94, 176, 177 (162). 226 Tran Huu Dau. M. E.. 209 (278), 228 TrankovB, L., 841 (155, 161), 850 Traube,W., 518 (166), 526 Traut, R. R., 452 (259). 477 Trave, R., 431 (61). 473 Traynham,J. G., 700 (44). 705 Trefonas, L. M., 430,431,455 (47). 473 Treopol’skaya,T. V., 790, 806, 8 I 1 (I0). 846 Treppendahl,S., 59 (252, 253). 98, 165, 173, 199 (85). 224, 357 (1 28). 366,430.43 1 (45). 450 (220). 473,477, 668 (82. 83). 686 Tresoldi, G., 163 (66), 224 Tretter, J., 679 (l47), 688 Trizl, L., 784 (130), 788 Tribble, M. T., 700 (44), 705 TrijuequeMonge, J., 815, 816 (65), 848 Trimarco, P., 360 (142), 366 Trimitsis, G. B., 765 (77). 786 Trippett, S . , 579 (142). 618 Tritschler,W., 349 (75, 76), 365 Trkovnik, M., 809, 810 (54), 815 (62), 847, 848 Troepol’skaya,T. V., 807, 808 (52), 812 (58), 847, 848 Trost, B. M., 438 (123), 474 Trotter, A. M., 407 (145). 423 Trujillo, H., 435 (93,474 Trummlitz, G., 159 (42). 223 Truong Son, N., 792,793,797, 812 (20). 847 Truscheit, E., 10 (29). 93 Truter, M. R., 5 16 (153,526 Tschesche, R., 496 (58). 524 Tseng, C., 454 (282). 478 Tsuboi, S., 455 (300). 471 (504), 478,483, 562 (108, 109). 617 Tsuchiya,T., 177 ( 178), 226. 595 ( 186). 619 Tsuda, Y., 465 (427). 481 Tsuge. 0. 452 (272). 470 (272,485), 478.482 Tsuzuki, K., 465 (430). 481 Tubertini,0.. 723 (108), 747 Tuck, B., 21 I (284). 229 Tulloch, L. A., 449 (209). 476 Tuppendaul,S., 554 (83), 617 T u h e k , J., 838 (l43), 849 Turchi, I. J., 14 (52). 93 Turchin. K. F., 353 (101). 365 Turner,D. W., 326 (18). 337 Turowska-Tyrk, I., 103 (5). 141 (17). 144, 145 Tumbn, C., 330 (29), 337 Turro, N. J., 428, 452, 470 (21), 472

Tybring, L., 246, 247 (40). 296 Tyka, R., 28 (135). 95 Tykarska, E., 18 (94, 95, 96a). 94, 142 (21). 145. 176 (153), 177 (153, 171, 172). 226, 252 (61). 297,633, 652, 656, 662, 664, 665 (48). 685 Tyler, J. K., 16, 50 (68). 93 Tyruenkova, G. N . , 288 (145). 299 Tzschach, A., 454 (290, 292). 478 Ubata, T., 385 (69). 421 Ubbels, H. J. C., 598, 606 (195), 619 Uchida, H., 460 (356). 479 Udagawa, H., 472 (507). 483 Udupa, M. R., 336 (69a). 338 Ueda, F., 316 (34). 322 Ueda, T., 316 (34). 322, 347 (57). 364 Uemura, S., 452 (273), 460 (352). 478, 479 Ufimtsev, S . V., 467 (447). 481 Ugi, I., 458 (328). 479 Uitenvijk, J. W. H. M.. 28 (132). 95, 517 (1 59), 526 Ullah, Z . , 455, 462 (296). 478 Ullas, G. V., 273 (99). 298 Ulrich, H., 414 (174),424, 785 (135). 788 Ulstrup, J., 770 (104). 787 Umekita, K., 844 (173). 850 Umernoto, K., 192 (228). 227 Upadhyaya, J. S . , 830 (91). 848 Uppal, A. S . , 461 (374, 375). 480 Uptom, R. M., 430, 431, 442 (49). 473 Urano, S., 462 (394). 480 Urban, M., 37, 38,42,48 (194). 96 Urbaficzyk-Lipowska, Z., 18 (92), 94, 155 (23). 176 (23, I%), 223,226, 252 (59. 60). 253 (60), 297 Urbhski, T., 14 (51). 93 Urushibata,K., 203 (261), 228 Ushakova, R. L., 462 (386). 480 Uyeda, R. T., 752 (18). 785 Uyehara,T., 5 19 (175). 526 Uzan, A. T., 437 ( I 16). 474 Uzbek, M. U., 360 (146). 366 Uzun, A. T., 368 (5). 376 (34), 420,421 Vaes, J., 289 (146). 299, 676, 677 (1 15). 687 Vafina, A. A., 807 (5 I), 847 Vagina. G . A., 812 (58). 848 Vakul’skaya,T. I., 825 (81, 82). 826 (82). 848 Valcarcel, M., 830 (92). 848 Valenta, P., 837 (135, 136). 838 (141). 849 Valiente, P., 818, 819, 844 (69). 848 Valle, G., 436 (102). 474 Valtersson, C., 452 (252). 477 VanAllan, J. A., 518 (169). 526 Van Amerongen, G., 839 (149), 850 Van Asch, A,, 378 (48). 421

Author index Boechel, C. A. A,, 469 (472). 482 Dam, E. M., 765 (77), 786 Dam, H., 291 (152, 153). 299 Damme, M., 285 (135). 298 den Bril, M., 176 (161), 226, 273, 286 (loo), 298, 358 (137-140), 366 Vandenheuvel, W. J. A., 233, 234 (12). 296 Van der Plas. H. C., 404 (136, 137). 423 Vanek, T., 459 (329), 470 (490), 479.482 Van Koten, G., 678 (133). 680 (133, 151). 687, 688 Van Leusen, A. M., 452 (269). 455 (295). 470 (269), 478 Van Meerssche, M., 167 (96). 168 ( I I I), 176 (lal), 177 (96), 224-226, 437 (113). 474 Van Meervelt, L., 177 (174, 185. 186), 204 (263). 226-228 Vanoni, P. C., 159, 182 (40). 223 Van Scharrenburg, G. J. M., 785 (140), 788 Van Vliet, P. I., 678 (133), 680 (133, 151). 687.688 Varghese, A. J., 726 (133). 747 Varsanyi, G.. 286 (136). 299 Vasella, A., 469 (476), 482 Vasil’ev, V. P., 332 (43, 338 Vasil’kevich, N. G., 798 (36. 37). 799 (36). 812 (36, 37). 847 Vaslos, A., 452 (259), 477 Vassal, A., 53 I (20). 6 / 5 Vaultier, M., 438 (1 23), 474 Vedejs, E., I I (32). 93, 452,470 (271), 478 Veen, J. A. R. van 845 (183, 186), 850 Vegas, A., 435 (92). 474. 679 (145), 688 Velezheva, V. S . , 408 (153). 423 Velinov, G. D., 661 (59), 686 Veltwisch, D., 735 (140). 747 Venayak, N. D., 368 (6). 400 (124). 420.423 Venugopalan, B., 154 ( I I), 223 Verberne, B. J.. 735 (141). 747 Verbist, J. J., 28 (140). 95 Verbruggen, A., 389 (81), 422 Vertek, B.. 64 (271), 98, 193-195 (235), 227, 408 ( 147). 423 Vergoten, G., 826, 827, 846 (83). 848 Venn, I. A.. 556 (86). 617 Verma, K., 457 (323). 479 Verma, R. M . , 680 (156), 688 Verma, V. K., 457 (322), 479 Veronese, A. C., 414 (168). 424 Vershinin, V. L., 356 (123). 366 Vertut, M. C., 331 (38). 338 Verweij, A. B., 177 (181). 226 Vesser, C., 845 ( I 86), 850 Vessikre, R., 761, 764 (55). 786 Vesterager, N. 0.. 350 (SO), 365 Vibyns, F. C . , 502 ( I lo), 525 Vicente, F., 815, 816 (64), 848 Van Van Van Van Van

90 1

Vicente Pedr6s. F., 815 (63, 65), 816 (65), 848 Vidal, R., 844 (179), 850 Viehe, H. G., 353 (98-100). 354 (98, 99, 107, 109). 365,366, 386 (73), 393 (96). 422, 427 (2), 472 Vieira, A. J . S. C., 737 (146, 148). 747 Vierling. P., 516 (158). 526 Viger, A,, 761 (49), 786 Vignais, P. V., 428, 452 (16). 472 Viktorov, N. A., 599 (207). 620 Viljoen, H. W., 434 (84), 474 Vilkov, L. V., 16 (80), 94 Vilsmaier, E., 21 I (285). 229, 362 (152). 366 Vincent, F., 761 (36, 39), 786 Vinogradoff, A. P., 352 (96). 365, 406 (141), 423 Vinogradova, T. K., 382 (62). 421 Vinokurov, V. A., 547 (59). 616 Virden, R., 452 (234), 477 Vishnyakova, T. P., 343 (32), 364 Visscher, K. J., 735 (141). 740 (156). 747, 748 Visser, G . H., 497 (72). 524 Viswan, A. K., 295 (163), 299 Vladimirova, 1. L., 345 (40). 364, 369 (14). 420, 668 (84). 686 Vlahov, J.. 430,431 (51), 473 Vlasova, T. F., 169, 190, 191 (117). 225, 348 (67,68), 365, 370 (21), 390 (89,90,92), 394 (100). 404 (138), 420, 422, 423 Vlattas, I., I 1 (32). 93 Voghel, G. J. de 393 (96). 422 Vogl. 0. 396 (109). 422 Vogt, W . ,470 (488), 482 Voigt, B., 340 (8, 1 I), 341 ( I I ) , 363 Voit, K., 715 (45). 745 Vojnovic, B., 735 (141). 747 Volford, J., 577 (137), 618 Volger, H. C., 761, 764 (54). 786 Voliotis, S., 109, 110, 139 (9), 145 Volk, K. J.. 836, 841 (129). 849 Volke, J., 799 (39.40). 800 (40). 847 Volkova, L. V., 469 (474). 482 Vollmar, A., 499 (88), 500 (89, 90), 524 Vollmer, R., 454 (291). 478 Volovenko, Y . M., 461 (371). 480 Volquartz, H., 551 (74). 617 Vonderheid, C., 431 (58). 473 Vorobyova, N. N., 581, 585, 587 (165), 6 / 9 Voronina, N., 667 (79), 686 Voronkov, M. G., 345 (42). 364, 825, 826 (82). 848 Voronov, M. A., 539 (43). 616 Voropaeva, T. I., 282, 291 (130), 298, 342 (26). 364,626, 657, 659,660,663. 666, 667 (29). 685 Vrieze, K., 598, 606 (195). 619, 678 (122-124, 129, 133, 136), 680 (133, 151), 687. 688

902

Author index

VSeteEka, V., 58 (248). 97, 153 (7). 222,694 (27). 705 Vuayan, M., 28 (144). 95 Vyas. D. M., 429 (32), 443,468 (160). 469 (32, 160). 473,475 Vyazankin, N. S., 465 (434,433,481 Vyazankina, 0. A., 465 (434,433, 481 Wachter, J., 163 (65), 224 Wada, M., 163 (69). 224, 435 (90, 91), 474 Wada, T., 724, 729, 730 (99), 746 Wade, K., 336 (66). 338, 508 (130), 515 (147), 525 Wager, J. S., 35 I (87), 365 Wagner, B. D., 722 (90). 746 Wagner, E. C., 5 (16). 92 Wagner, F., 349 (69). 365, 370 (21). 420 Wagner, F. E., 436 (102). 474 Wagner, G., 23 (108). 94, 340 (7.8, 1 I), 341 ( I I), 363 Wagner. H.-U., 159 (42). 223 Wagner, K. G., 28 (143). 95 Waisser, K., 74 (303). 99 Wait, A. R., 505, 506 (1 25). 525,697,703 (37). 705 Wajsman,E., 28, 30 (127), 95 Wakefield, B. J., 343 (27, 28), 364. 368 (6). 400 (124). 420,423 Walasek, A. J., 793, 818 (21), 847 Walczak, M., 77, 79 (319), 99, 626, 631, 642, 643, 656. 665 (12), 685 Walczyliska, H., 79 (316), 99, 626, 631, 638, 639, 656 (17). 685 Walker, J. A., 529 (lo), 615 Walker, J. B., 499 (83). 524 Walker, M. S,. 499 (83). 524 Wall, K. A., 452 (264), 477 Wallace, C. J. A.. 448,452 (202). 476 Wallis, J., 335 (56). 338 Wallwork, S. C., 5 , 26 (18a). 92, 163 (64). 224, 315 (30b). 322 Walrond, R. E., 414 (170). 424 Walter, D. S,. 449 (209), 476 Walter, W., 155, 156 (24, 27), 157, 158 (27, 33). 160 (27). 172 (24), 179 (24,27), 180, 181 (27, 33), 184 (203), 197 (27). 200 (252). 223.227, 228, 272 (96). 287 (140). 298, 299, 433 (77), 439 (128, 129, 131, 132). 442 (128, 129, 131), 474, 475 Walters, C. P., 465 (428). 481 Walton, N. J.. 844 (176, 177), 850 Walts, A. E., 492, 519 (37), 523 Wamhoff,H., 410 (156), 424,461 (376). 480 Wang, C.-C., 701 (47). 705 Wang, S. F., 761 (34b). 786 Wang, V. S,. 761 (34a). 786 Wanierowicz, Z., 785 (134). 788

Wannagat,U., 600 (209). 620 Warburton,W. K., 490,500, 505 ( 17). 523 Ward, J. F., 731 (117-119). 747 Warkentin,J., 168, 188 (109). 225 Wannan,J., 735 (141), 747 Warner, D., 28 (139). 95,501 (IOI), 524 Wasa, T.. 835 (1 14). 84 1,843 (1 54). 849, 850 Wasson, J. S., 428 (8), 472 Wasylishen, R. E., 599 (206), 620 Watanabe,A,, 233, 234 (1 3), 296 Watanabe,H., 428 (27), 465 (427), 473,481 Watanabe,T., 465 (430), 481 Watanabe,Y., 310 (22), 322 Watsan, D. G., 102 ( I ) , 144 Watson, A. A., 451, 453 (223). 477 Watson, K. M., 450 (214). 455 (296, 309). 459 (214). 462 (214, 296, 309.402). 476. 478. 480, 671 (106), 687 Watt, G. W., 487 (5). 489 (13). 517 (161). 523.526 Watt, I., 521 (185). 526 Watthey, I. W. H., 463 (412). 481 Wawer, I., 50.62 (236). 64 (268,269). 65 (236.269). 97, 98, 155 (19,22), 193 (22, 240), 194 (22, 231-233). 195 (22, 236). 196 (19,231-233,236), 223, 227, 228, 275 (117), 277, 278 (119-121), 279 (1 19-121, 125), 298, 328 (22a-d), 329 (22d, 23). 337, 694 (28), 705 Waysek, E. H., 244 (32, 33), 245 (33), 291 (32, 33), 296 Weakley, T. J. R., 28 (130), 95,462 (402), 480 Weare, J. A., 452 (239), 477 Weaver, R. D., 825, 846 (SO), 848 Webb, J. W., 834 ( I 13). 849 Webb, K. S., 307 (15). 308 (15, 17), 322,326 (16, 17). 337 Webb. T., 678 (125). 687 Webb, T. R., 163 (66). 224 Weber, C. D., 785 (136). 788 Weber. H.-M., 32 (168). 96 Weber, J. L., 380 (54). 421 Webster, J. G., 741 (163). 748 Wedekind, B., 77 (332), 99 Wegner, K., 449 (208), 476 Wegrzyn, M., 466 (440), 481 Wehling, B., 461 (376), 480 Wehner, W., 436 (104). 474 Wehrle, B., 71 (293), 99 Wehrli, F. W., 251 (56), 297 Weidemann,P., 394 (98), 422 Weidig, C., 209. 220 (275), 228, 440 (136), 4 75

Weidlein, J., 162 (57, 58). 163 (60). 224 Weidler, A.-M., 752 (16). 785 Weimaster, J. F., 761, 764 (62). 786 Weiner, M. L., 356 (1 17). 366

Author index Weingarten, H., 351 (87), 365 Weinhold, F., 41 (222, 223). 97 Weinstock, R. B., 41 (223). 97 Weintraub, H.. 761 (36, 39.46). 786 Weis, A. L.. 403 (135). 423,518 (168), 526 Weiss, A., 696, 699 (34). 705 Weiss, H., 200 (252). 228, 287 (140). 299 Weiss, K., 434 (85), 474 Weiss, S . , 462 (397), 480 Weller, F., 162, 177 (59). 224 Wellman, K. M., 64 (263), 98, 159 (41). 223 Wenders, A., 360 (147). 366 Wendlandt, W. W., 336 (69b). 338 Wenger, J., 435 (98). 474 Wenker, H., 14 (50). 93 Wermeckes, B., 823 (77). 848 Wermuth, C.-G., 27, 28 (120). 95 Werner, L. H., 596 (188), 619 Wessel, H. P., 468 (463). 482 West, R,. 599 (205), 620 Westheimer. F. H., 578 (139). 618 Westhof, E., 711 (10, 11). 712 (14, 16-18, 20, 21). 713 (16, 29, 31). 718 (11, 56-58), 745, 746 Westphal, G., 360 (145). 366 Westwood, N. P. C., 521 (182), 526 Whalen, D. L., 761, 764 (62). 786 Wheeler, H. L., 534 (31). 616 White, A. H.. 23 (100). 94 White, A. M., 181 (192), 227, 508 (129),525 White, D. R.. 447 (191). 476 White, J. C . B., 32 (167). 96 White, N . E., 70 (291), 98 Whiteside, A., 38, 40 (198), 45, 49, 54, 60 (228), 96, 97 Whitten, C. E., 45 1, 455 (229). 477 Whitten, J. P.. 454 (284). 478 Whittle, R. R., 434 (87, 88). 474 Wiberg, K. B., 41 (226). 62,63 (257a), 97,98, 155, 160, 161, 172, 183, 184 (20). 223 Wicherink, S. C., 353 (97). 365 Widmer, U., 468 (465). 482 Wierman, J. C., 452 (232). 477 Wigfield, D. C., 761 (43-45). 786 Wiggins, J. M., 452 (232). 477 Wilberg, K. B,. 529 (9). 615 Wildeman, J.. 455 (295), 478 Wildonger. K. J., 158, 181 (34). 223, 449 (207). 476 Wiley, P. F., 356 (1 16). 366 Wiley, R. H., 14 (48). 93 Wilharm, P., 5 19 ( I 76). 526 Wilhelm, B., 667 (80). 686 Wilhelm. D., 4, 5 (13). 92 Wiliams, J. D., 295 (162). 299 Wilkins, J. D., 678 (126). 687 Willhalm, A., 23 (1 16, 117). 95

903

Williams, A. E., 306, 307, 310, 312 (14). 322 Williams, D. A. R., 192 (223). 227 Williams, D. L. H., 575 (130). 618 Williams, G., 497 (67), 524 Williams, G. D., 434 (87, 88), 474 Williams, M. L., 51 (244b). 97 Williams, N. R., 469 (475). 482 Williamson, A. D., 325 (1 I), 337 Williard, P. G., 441 (140), 475. Willig. M., 501 (93). 524 Willing, R. I., 491 (28). 523 Willis, A. C., 23 (100). 94 Wilson, E. B., 38 (203). 96 Wilson, J. D., 351 (87), 365 Wilson, R. D., 761 (64), 786 Wilson, ,R. L., 722 (88), 746 Windberg, H. E., 233 (lo), 296 Wingfield, J. N . , 516 (155). 526 Winkler, R., 172 (133). 225 Winkler. T., 450 (22 I. 222). 457 (22 I),459 (336), 461 (222). 477,479,579 (144). 618 Winnewisser, G., 49 (233). 97 Winnewisser,.M., 49 (233), 97 Winter, R. E. K., 1 1 (32), 93 Wirthlin, T., 251 (56). 297 Wise, R., 295 (163). 299 Wistuba, E., 529 (12). 615 Wit, H. G. M. de 332 (43). 338 Wit, N. de 845 (183). 850 Witte, E. G., 683 (169). 688 Wityak, J., 490, 495 (19), 523 Wlostowska, J., 177 (165). 226 Woithe, H., 201 (254). 228 Wojciechowski, K., 371 (23), 421 Wojtkowska, M., 77-79 (31 I),99,626,653655 (21). 685 Wolber, G. J., 172, I97 (134). 225 Wolf, H.-M., 580, 590, 592, 596, 5984CMI (145). 618 Wolfe, R. H. de 352 (94), 365 Wolfe, S. N., 452 (255), 477 WOW, H.-M., 154, 195 (lo), 223, 558 (89, 90). 570 (121). 592 (89). 617, 618 Wolff, H. M., 379 (50). 380 (58), 403 (134). 421.423 Wollrab, J. E., 16.49 (62, 65). 93 Won, C. M., 234. 286 (1 8). 296 Wong, S. T. K., 28 (134), 95 Wood, C. E. C., 326 (15). 337 Wood, G., 531 (18), 615 Wood, H. C . S., 382 (59), 396 (1 10, 1 I I ) , 421, 422 Wood, R. J., 707 (2). 745 Woods, T. S., 529,530 (5). 615 Woodward, R . B., 73 (296), 99,750 (3,785

904

Author index

Wordel, R., 436 (102), 474 Worley, S. D., 154 (1 I), 172 (135). 223, 225 Worsham, J. E. Jr.. 32 (164), 96 Woiniak, K., 47.48 (229). 97, 104 (8), 145 Wright, C . D.. 305,308 (1 ,)I 322 Wright, G . F., 497 (69), 502 (107), 524,525 Wright, G. M., 50 (241). 97 Wright, I,. 678 (127), 687 Wright, J. G., 467 (445). 481 Wrocidski, M., 273, 286 (107). 298 Wrona,M. 2. 835 (117, 118, 120, 121),849 Wu, P,. 846 (203). 851 Wuerzer, B., 431 (60). 473 Wuest, J. D., 198 (246). 228 Wulff, W.D., 156 (31). 223,433 (80), 474 Wunderlich, H., 35, 36 (178). 96 Wunderlich, J,. 340 (7), 363 Wunderly, S. W., 753, 770 (24). 785 Wiirthwein, E.-U., 29 (152, 153). 32 (159). 95, 164 (78). 174 (141, 142). 175 (151). 177, 185 (78). 190 (151). 191 (224.225). 224-227,432 (67). 465 (433), 466 (439). 473, 481 Wyard, S. J., 712 (19), 745 Wyatt, B. K., 508 (130). 515 (147), 525 Wygard, S. J., 714 (36), 745 X h g , L. Q., 761 (61). 770 (102). Xia, Y., 522 (186). 526 Xiao-Yuan, F., 335 (61), 338 Xue, G., 846 (203), 851

786, 787

Yaeger, E., 845 (184, 185), 850 Yagupolskii, L. M., 402 (132). 423, 266 (83), 297, 554 (80). 617, 670, 671 (100). 687 Yagupolskii, Yu. L. 410 (161). 424 Yahia, F. L., 462 (387). 480 Yakhontov, L. N., 402 (1 30). 423 Yalqindag, 0. N., 295 (157-161). 299 Yamada, J., 519 (175), 526 Yamada, S., 351 (89), 355 (1 13). 365, 366, 428 (27). 435 (94), 473.474 Yamada, T., 452 (272), 470 (272, 485). 478, 482 Yamaguchi, A., 501 (99). 524 Yamaguchi, H., 844 (171, 172). 850 Yamaguchi, K., 350 (83). 365 Yamaguchi, Y., 773, 774 (1 17). 787 Yamamoto, H., 377 (44). 421 Yamamoto, M., 550 (72), 617 Yamamoto, Y., 443 (153). 457 (321). 468 (153). 475,479, 519 (175). 526, 594 (185). 595 (186). 619 Yamamoto, Yu., 560 (101). 617 Yamanaka, H., 438 (120). 460 (351), 474, 4 79 Yamauchi, K., 731, 732 (123). 747

Yamazaki, T., 215 (293), 229 Yamoda, K., 550 (72). 61 7 Yanagisawa, I., 670 (91). 686 Yanagiya, M., 465 (430,431). 481 Yanakopoulou, K. Y., 529 ( I I), 615 Yang. D. C., 156 (31). 223, 433 (80). 474 Yang ].-Ling 233 ( I I), 296 Yanovskii, A. I., 177 (175), 226, 612, 613 (253), 621 Yanovsky. A. I., 29 (M),95 Yany, F., 464 (416). 481 Yao, C.-L., 598,606 (203). 620, 845 (192). 850 Yao, T., 839 (151). 841, 843 (154). 850 Yarkova, E. G., 458 (327), 467 (454). 479, 482 Yasukouchi, K., 844 (171-173), 850 Yates. K., 447 (184). 476,765 (85). 787 Yau, L., 522 (187). 526 Yavari, ,I. 162 (53). 223 Yijun, C., 433,438 (83). 474 Yoder, C., 600 (21 I,) 620 Yoder, C. H., 430, 431 (50), 441 (144, 145). 442,459 (145). 473,475, 600 (210, 212, 213). 601 (221). 620 Yokoyama, H., 350 (83). 365 Yokoyama, M., 350 (83). 365,438 (120). 474 Yokozeki, A., 16 (64). 93 Yoneda, F., 382 (61). 396 (I 12). 421.422 Yoo, C. S., 23 (109). 94 York, S. S., 785 (139), 788 Yorke, R. W., 502 (106), 525 Yoshida, H., 193 (237), 203 (261), 228,433, 474.481 452 (75), 467 (75,448,449), Yoshida, L., 567 (113. 116, 117). 617 Yoshida, N., 453 (275). 478 Yoshida, 2. 444 (167, 168). 475 Yoshihara, M., 447 (189). 476 Yoshikawa, S., 444 (165), 454 (287). 455 (299), 475, 478 Yoshioka, H., 357 (125), 366 Young, D. J., 530 (15). 615 Young, D. W.. 16 (56). 93 Young, L. B., 64 (267). 98 Young, S. D., 470 (487). 482 Yousaf, T. I., 519 (172). 526 Yuan, Z., 316 (32). 322 Yufit, D. S . , 363 (155), 366 Yukhno, Y. M., 458 (325), 467 (447). 479, 481 Yun, L. M., 345 (46), 364 Yurechko, V. V., 343 (32). 364 Yusman, T. A., 164. 173 (80). 224, 539 (44). 616 Zabic, M. J., 378 (47). 421 Zabicky, N., 3, 4 (5), 92 Zabirov, N. G., 468 (457), 482

Author index Zabolotskaya, A. I., 795, 808 (30). 847 Zaitsev, B. E., 285, 291 (134). 298, 626 (14). 685 Zalewski, R. I., I10 (lo), 145, 690 ( I I), 704 Zalipsky, J . J., 234, 286 (18). 296 Zambito, A. J., 455 (301). 478 Zamir, D., 403 (135), 423,518 (l68), 526 Zanazzi, P., 177 (188), 227 Zanella, P., 177, 202 (189). 227 Zanello. P. 845 (193, 195). 846 (200), 850. 85 I Zaremba, M., 295 (I&), 299 Zaripova, R. M., 807 (51). 847 Zarli, B., 32 (163), 96 Zbiral, E., 579 (144). 618 Zecchi, G., 431 (61), 473 Zecevic, S., 845 (184). 850 Zeegers-Huyskens,T., 289 (l46), 299, 676, 677 ( I IS), 687 ZeGrov, N. S., 572 (124), 618 Zehner, H., 71 I (10, I I), 712 (20, 21). 713 (29, 35). 718 ( I 1,5658). 745, 746 Zelenin, K. N., 166, 186 (91). 200 (253), 224. 228, 268 (85). 269 ( 8 5 , 87, 88), 270 (90), 288,293 (87). 297, 376 (36). 421, 610 (244, 245). 621,671 (103, 107). 673 ( 107). 687 Zelenskaya, 0. V., 360 ( 1 4 3 ~ 366 Zelinin, K. N., 450 (215, 218, 219), 476, 477 Zeller, A.. 818 (70). 819 (70, 71). 844 (70). 848 Znbayashi, M., 10, 14 (26). 93 Zedk, J., 841 (161). 850 Zhdanov, Yu. A., 379 (49). 421, 529 (7). 535 (36, 37). 537 (36, 37.40-42). 538 (41). 539 (37.41-43), 541, 542 (42). 554 (36, 37,42, 78, 79). 557 (42, 79), 558 (79, 91). 559 (91). 578 (37, 140). 579, 580 (140). 587 (177), 591 (140, 181, 182), 592.593 (181, 182), 595 (187), 596 (189). 613 (91, 256). 614 (91). 615-619. 621,670 (97), 686 Zhdanova,M. P., 410 (155). 423 Zheleznova, L. V., 585 (176). 619

905

Zhidkova, A. M., 370 (21). 394 (101). 420, 422 Zhil’nikov, V. G., 246, 250 (49, 296, 673, 675, 676 (109). 687 Zholondkovskaya,T. N., 682 (164), 688 Zielinski, T. J., 5, 9, 42, 44-46 (19). 48 (19, 230-232). 49 (232). SO, 54, 57, 60, 63 (19), 72 (230), 73 (231, 232), 93, 97, 155, 160 (17), 161, 172, 173 (49, 179 (17), 180 (45). 183 (17). 184 (45). 196 (17), 199 (45). 223, 327 (20). 337, 669 (87-89), 686, 773 (I 19), 787 Zigler, F. E., 562 ( 1 I I), 617 Zima, J., 844 (169), 850 Zimin, M. G., 580 (148). 581 (148, 152-154). 585 (174-176). 586 (174, 175). 618.619 Zinke, P., 430 (43), 473 Zinner, G., 432 (68). 473, 551 (73). 617 Zirzow, K.-H., 23 ( I 17), 95 Zobova, N. N., 164 (79), 199 (79, 249, 251). 224,228 Zoebisch, E. G., 37 ( I 89), 96 Zollinger, H., 27 I , 272 (94). 2Y8, 674 ( I 13). 687 Zolotarev, B. M., 313 (28), 322 Zondler, H., 429,471 (40). 473 Zontova, V. N., 169 (119422). 170 (121, 123). 171 (123). 190 (121), 191 (119, 121), 202 (255), 225, 228, 581 (160, 161). 583 (160), 618 Zoretic, P. A., 464 (421), 481 Zrimsek, Z., 407 (143). 408 (146), 423 Zschunke,A,, 253 (71), 297 Zubarev, V. E., 363 ( I S ) , 366 Zukowska-Nytko, K., 295 (164), 299 Zull, J . E., 428 (12). 472 Zuman, P., 794 (25, 26), 847 Zupan, M., 64 (270), 98, 193-195 (229). 227, 414 (173). 424 Zurflueh, R., 459,466 (334). 479 Zvezdina, E. A., 4 10 ( 155). 423 Zvilichovsky, G., 499 (85). 524 Zwierzak, A., 431, 463 (63). 473 Zwieten, P. A. van 333 (52). 338

lndes compiled by K . Raven

Subject index Ab inirio calculations37-40

Acyl migrations, in acyl imidates 542-55 I in amidines 534-542 Acylotropic rearrangements537-539, 54 I , 542 Acyloxyformamidines, rearrangementsof 55 1 Acylureas, rearrangementsof 549,550 Additivity parameters 254-259, 273 Adenine 13, 327 electrochemical properties of 836-839 radiolysis of 7 15, 7 I8 Adenosine, radiolysis of 7 16, 71 7 Aldohexoses, mutarotation of 753 Alkenyloxydiaryloxazolones, rearrangementsof 609 N-Akylidene amidines, conliguration of 164 stereodynamics of 185 stereoisomeric, relative reactivities of 220 Alkyllithium reagents, reactions with imidate esters 464,465 AIkyl migrations - see olso Methyl migrations, Trifluommethyl migrations 528-533 Allen-type increments 325 Allylamidines, rearrangementsof 570, 57 I n-Ally1 complexes 564, 565 Allylic imidate esters, rearrangementsof 442,443,559-570 synthesis of 43 1 Ally1 migrations 559-57 I Allyloxyoxazoles, rearrangementsof 569, 570 AIlylthioimidazolines, rearrangementsof 568, 569 Allylthiotriazinones, rearrangementsof 567, 568 AM1 calculations 37 Amidaminals 780 Amide acetals, reactions of 348, 349 Amide oximes, reactions of 361

for amidinates 47 for amidines, as catalysts 758, 773 conformation and structure of 42-66, 328 dipole moments of 74-76 molecular association in 7&74 molecular orbitals of 85-92 protonation energies for 79-82. 327, 328 tautomerism in 66-70 for histamines 335 for imidazoles 331, 332 Acetamidines, dipole moments of 76 hydrogen bonding in 70 mass spectra of 82-84, 305 pK, values for 77, 633, 635-637, 640, 642, 658-660 protonation energies for 80 rotational barriers in 328, 329 tautomerism in 667, 668 Acetamidinium ions, thermochemistry of 329 Acidic glasses 7 12 Activation energies, methods for measuring 153 N-Acylamidines, CN rotation in, rates of 199, 200 oxidation of 540 rearrangementsof 534-542 stereoisomerism in 164, 165, 173, 174, 185

tautomerism in 185,668 Acylguanidines, synthesis of 496, 497 N-Acylimidate esters, as precursors, of azapropenylium salts 466 of oxadiazoles 457, 466 of triazoles 459, 466 reduction of 465 stereoisomerism in 174. 185 synthesis of 430.43 1, 465

907 The Chemistry of Amidines and Imidates, Volume 2 Edited by S. Patai and Z. Rappoport 0 1991 John Wiley ’& Sons Ltd

Subject index kmides, as precursors, of amidines 344-352 of imidate esters 4 2 9 4 3 I CN bond lengths in 15-17 silylation of 430 Amidinate anions, CN rotation in, rates of 198 stereoisomerism in 159, 160, 183 Amidinates - see also Formamidinates5 metal - see Metal amidinates X-ray studies of 21. 26 Amidinato complexes, electrochemistryof 845 Amidine-enediaminetautomerism370 Amidines - see also Acetamidines, N-Acylamidines. N-Alkylidene amidines. Allylamidines, NAminoamidines,Azolylamidines, Benqamidines,Butyramidines,

Dioxaphospholanylamidines,

Formamidines,N-Nitroamidines,NNitrosoamidines,N-(5-0xazolyl)amidines. Phosphinylamidines,Polyamidines, Sulphenylamidines,Sulphinylamidines, Sulphonylamidines,Vinamidines as catalysts 749-785 as precursors,of heterocyclic compounds 380420 bicyclic - see Bicyclic amidines boron complexes of 29 I, 68 I., 682 calculated molecularstructuresof, basis set dependence of 49-56 chiral- see Chiral amidines CN rotation in, rates of 193-197 collision complexes of 289. 290, 676, 677 cyclic - see Cyclic amidines determinationof 242-249, 843, 844 dipole moments of 74-76 electrochemistry of 799-806 halogenationof 780-782 hydrogen bonding in 17, 19, 70-73, 122, 123, 140, 141. 279, 282-285, 669 IR spectra of 6Wi8.70.7 I, 279-286 isomerism in 5-9, 17.57-63, 143, 144,262, 264,284,285 mass spectra of 294,295, 302-318 metal complexes of 162, 173, 185, 204, 290, 29 I , 677-68 I C-metallo-substituted, configurationof 170, 171 rotation of 202 N M Rspectra of 68.71.72, 259-266, 274-276, 573, 690-695 phosphorylated369 protonationsite of 259, 285 psychoactive 35, 36

reactions of, with electrophiles 368-374 with nucleophiles375-378 reactivity of, stereochemicaleffects on 210-214 rearrangementsof, involving 1.3-shifts of acyl groups 534-542 involving 1,3-shiftsof aryl groups 555-559 involving 1.3-shifts of halogen 379, 596598 involving 1;3-shifts of nitroso and nitro groups 379, 380, 572-576 involving I ,3-shifts of phosphoruscontaininggroups 379, 577-590 involving 1.3-shifts of silyl groups 599-60 I involving I ,3-shifts of sulphur-containing groups 379, 591-596 retention indices of 236-242 stereoisomerism in 153-155, 171, 178, 179, 202, 203 structuralchemistry of 106-129, 131-134 synthesis of 339-363 by addition reactions 358, 359 electrochemical799-804 from amides, thioamides and lactams 344-352 from compounds with cumulated double bonds 355-357 from heterocyclic compounds 359, 360 from isocyanides 357 from nitriles 340-343 from ortho esters 352, 353 from phosgeneiminiumchloride 353-355 tautomerismin 6, 7, 662-671. 773 ab initio calculationsfor 66-70 chromatographicanalysis of 241 effect on electrochemical behaviour 793, 794 in relation to stereoisomerism 179, 196 IR analysis of 279-282 NMR analysis of 259, 262. 264, 274-276 thermocheinistryof 327-335 UV spectra of 291 X-ray studies of 15, 18, 21, 176-178, 556 Amidine skeleton, planarity of 107-1 10 Amidinium groups, substituentconstantsfor 701-703 Amidinium halophosphates,rearrangementsof 596, 597 Amidinium halophosphorates,rearrangements of 587.588 Amidinium ions - see also Acetamidinium ions, Formamidiniumions 5, 7-9

909

Subject index calculated molecular structures of, basis set dependence of 5 1-53 chiral see Chiral amidinium ions mass spectra of 3 12-3 I5 stereoisomerism in 158, 159, 181-183, 203, 204,215 structural chemistry of 106131, 134 X-ray studies of 18, 21-23 Amidino acids, synthesis of 347 Amidinobomes 380 Amidino complexes, mass spectra of 3 15, 316 Amidino groups, conjugation in 17, 18 substituent constants for 690-695 Amidinopenicillins, determination of 244, 245, 247. 286, 295 Amidinothioureas, mass spectra of 3 16 Amidinoureas 234 Amidoximes, basicity of 660 CN rotation in, rates of 200 complexes of 682,683 electrochemical properties of 8 12-8 15 identification of 249. 250 IR spectra of 285, 287 NMR spectra of 266, 267, 276, 277 stereoisomerism in 167, 168, 174, 175, 186, 187, 205, 206, 220, 266, 267 tautomerism in 187, 276, 277 thennochemistry of 335, 336 UV spectra of 291-293 Amidrazones - see olso Arylidenamidrazones 13 as intermediates 459 configuration of 166 electrochemical properties of 806 IR spectra of 287, 288 mass spectra of 3 I2 NMR spectra of 268-271 pK values of 660, 661 purity of 250 tautomerism in 67 1-673 UV spectra of 293 Amines, as imidate precursors 43 I CN bond lengths in 15-17 a-Amino acids, synthesis of 371 Aminoacridines, synthesis of 553 N-Aminoamidines. stereoisomerism in 166, 186, 200, 204, 205 Aminoguanidines, synthesis of 498, 499 Amino(imino)thiazines, tautomerism in 667 Aminopyrazoles, electrochemical properties of 824, 825 Aminopyridines, as catalysts 773

-

electrochemical properties of 821-824 tautomerism in 12 Aminothiazoles, electrochemical properties of 830, 83 I synthesis of 799 Anodic oxidation 803 Anomeric effect 169 Arbuzov reaction 467 Arginine 14, 15 compounds related to, mass spectra of 3 10 synthesis of 495 Arsonio migrations, in amidines 590 Arylidenamidrazones, rearrangementsof 610 Arylmercury migrations 603-605 Aryl migrations, in amidines 555-559 in aryl imidates 551-553 Arylotropic rearrangements557 Azaazulenes - see 6-Dimethylamino-5azaazulene Azaphosphenins, synthesis of 463 Azaphospholes - see also Thiazaphospholes, Triazaphospholes synthesis of, from amidines 389 from imidate salts 454 Azaphospholines - see also Oxazaphospholines synthesis of 454 Azapropenylium salts, synthesis of 466 Azepines, synthesis of 463 Azido ethers, photolysis of 437 Azines, synthesis of 460-462 Azocarbonium ions 544 Azolylamidines, tautomerism in 665 Bactericides 471 Basicity, of amidines 75-82, 6 5 5 4 6 0 correlation with pK, values of amines 648-655 correlation with substituent constants 626-648 of amidoximes 660 of amidrazones 660, 661 of formazans 662,663 Bebovib-IV program 770,775 Beckmann rearrangement361 Benzamidines see also Dimethylborylbenzamidines,

Halodialkylbenzamidines, N-Tosyloxydiarylbenzamidines, Trimethylsilylbenzamidines, Trimethylstannylbenzamidines dipole moments of 74, 76 electronic spectra of 85 mass spectra of 82-84, 305

910

Subject index

Benzamidines (con!.) pK, values for 77, 627631, 636, 637, 641, 643, 646-649, 658. 659 protonationenergies for 81 rearrangementsof 534,535,537-539, 554-559 tautomerism in 668-670 Benzimidate esters, rearrangementsof 553 Benzimidazoles, synthesis of 453,454 Benzodiazepines, synthesis of 420 Benzothiazoles. synthesis of 456 Benzoxazoles, synthesis of 455,456 Benzyl migrations 529. 530 Benzyloxydiaryloxazoles, rearrangementsof 609 Berry pseudorotation579 Bicyclic amidines 11. 12 pK, values for 78 synthesis of 35 1 Biguanide, structuralchemistry of 31, 34, 35 synthesis of 494 thennochemistryof 327 Biimidazolinones,synthesis of 385, 386 Bom-Oppenheimerapproximation38 Butenes, rearrangementsof 767 Butyramidines,rotationalbarriersin 328, 329 Caffeine 12 Cambridge StructuralDatabase 102 Canavanine,synthesis of 499 Caprolactams,polymerization of 783 Carbodiimides, reactionsof 355.491.547-549 Carbonyl compounds, homologationof 373 Carboxylase reaction 547 Carboxylic acids, as catalysts 761. 762 Catalysis, bifunctional749-778 isotope effects for 752,753,755-757 enzyme 749,761 monofunctional75 1, 752, 758, 765, 778-782 Chapmanrearrangement442,443, 551-553 Chiral amidines, reactionsof 210, 373, 374 Chiral amidiniumions, racemizationof 197, I98 Chlorhexidine,determinationof 246, 247 Chromiumcomplexes, in imidate synthesis 433,434 Claisen rearrangement444 Clonidine, thennochemistryof 332, 333 CN bond lengths 15-17 in amidinates2 I , 26 in amidines 15, 17, 18 in amidinium ions 18, 21-23 in guanidines26, 27 in guanidiniumions 26. 28-30

CNDO calculations, for histamines 333, 335 for irnidazolidines332 CNDO/S calculations37 CN double bonds, configurationabout 153-171 mechanism for configurationalchanges at 252 rotation about 178-192 CN single bonds, conformationabout 177-178 rotation about, hindered 63-66 rates of 193-202 Cobalt complexes, in imidate synthesis 434, 435 Configurationinteraction42 Cope rearrangement55%571 CO single bonds, conformationabout 171-178 rotation about, rates of 197. 199 Creatine, synthesis of 495 Cross-conjugatedr-systems, examples Of 4 Cyanamides, as amidine precursors343 reactionsof 489,491, 498 Cyanoguanidines, reactions of 488,489, 491,494496 synthesis of 494 N-Cyanoimidateesters, as precursors, of azines 460.462 of triazoles 459 reactionsof 450 synthesis of 432 (Cyanoimino)alkylmigrations614, 615 Cyclic amidines, heteroaromatic,nomenclatureof 1 1-13 hydrogen bonding in 70 isomerism in 10 pK, values for 79 tautomerismin 33 I , 332, 667 thennochemistryof 33&335 X-ray studies of 9 Cyclic imidate esters, conformationof 446 cycloaddition reactions of 469 nomenclatureof 13, 14,427 reactionsof 467 rearrangementsof 530, 53 I , 544 synthesis of 438 Cyclic thioimidate esters, synthesis of 438 Cyclization, anodic oxidative 800 reductive 799 Cycloaddition reactions 469

Subject index Cytosine 13, 327, 328, 336 radiolysis of 712, 720. 725. 729, 731 Delocalizationenergies, of guanidines326 Diaminobicycloalkanes,reactionsof 362 Diazadiphospholenes.synthesis of 389 Diazene-N-oxides,thennochemistryof 323,

324

Diazenes, thermochemistryof 323-325 Diazepines - see also Benzodiazepines 10 Diazetidines 10 Dihydrooxazines 14 6-Dimethylamino-5-aulene 35, 37 Dimethylborylbenzamidkes, rearrangements of

601,603 Dioxaphospholanylamidines, rearrangementsof 585 Dipole moments 74-76 N.0-Disilylamides 470 Dithiazoles, synthesis of 457,458 DMF-DMA reagent 233,234 Doering biradicaloidmechanism607 Electroactivity, relationshipwith structure

79&792

Electroniceffects, for amidino, guanidinoand related groups 689-704 Electronic spectra. of benzamidines 85 Electron spin resonancespectroscopy 708 of irradiatedhistidines 741 of irradiatedimidazoles 740-743 of irradiatedpurines 7 16-7 18 of irradiatedpyrimidines 709, 7 I 1-7 14,

719

Enamidines780 reactions of 400 Enamines, reactions of 348, 358, 363 rearrangementsof 780 ENDOR spectroscopy, of irradiatedimidazoles 741 of irradiatedpurines 7 15-7 I8 Enolization761-765 isotope effects for 765 Enthalpiesof combustion, for guanidines326 for imidazoles 330 Enthalpiesof dissociation 323 for imidazoles 332 Enthalpiesof formation, for cytosine 336 for diazenes 324, 325 for guanidines326 for imidazoles 330 Enthalpiesof fusion, for imidazoles 330 Enthalpiesof hydrolysis, for imidazole acetals

330

91 I

Enthalpiesof neutralization,for amidoximes

335. 336

Enthalpiesof sublimation, for cytosine 336 for guanidines326 for imidazoles 330, 331 Enynamines.reactions of 358 Epimerization769-773 isotope effects for 770, 771 Ester aminals,reactions of 349 Extended Hiickel theory 37, 333, 334 E,Z isomers, calculated energy differences between 59-63 Father-son reactions 833 Favorskii-typerearrangement431 Fenton reaction 734 Fischer-Hepp reaction 575 Fluoromethylmigrations529, 530 Food protection products 47 I Formamidinates,ab inirio calculationsfor 47 Formamidines - see also Acyloxyfomamidines, Glycosylformamidines,Haloformamidines ab initio calculationsfor 4247 as catalysts 749.75 I, 752,758,762,764,

767

dipole moments of 74-76 hydrogen bonding in 70-73,669 1,3-hydrogenshifts in 73, 74 ionization potentials of 303 mass spectra of 82-85, 302-305 Mulliken charge densities for 89-91 orbital energies for 85-88 p& values for 77-79.632, 635-642 protonationenergies for 80, 81 rotationalbarriersin 328, 329 stntcturalchemistry of 122-124 tautomerismin 72 Formamidiniumions, ab inirio calculationsfor 47 Mulliken charge densities for 89-91 orbital energies for 85-88 rotationalbarriersin 64, 66 structuralchemistry of 122-124 Formazans, basicity of 662, 663 characterizationof 250 complexes of 683, 684 electrochemicalproperties of 806, 808-8 12 IR spectra of 288,289 NMRspectra of 271, 272 tautomerismin 271. 272, 288, 665,

673-676

UV spectra of 293, 294 Free energies of hydration 332 Fungicides47 1

912

Subject index

Gas chromatography233-242 Gaussian basis sets 38, 39, 773-777 notations for 39, 40 Geometry optimization 773 Glucoses, epimerization of 769, 770 Glycocyamidine derivatives, mass spectra of 318 Glycosylformamidines, synthesis of 357 Gold complexes, in imidate synthesis 436 'Grignardreagents, reactions with imidate esters 463, 464 Guanidines- see also Acylguanidines, Aminoguanidines,Cyanoguanidines, Haloguanidines,Nitroguanidines, Nitrosoguanidines,Phosphorylguanidines, Sulphonylguanidines acylation of 496,497 alkylation of 492 arylation of 492 as bases 5 as catalysts 749, 769, 780 as precursors, of biguanide 494 of guanylureas495, 496 calculated molecular structures of, basis set dependence of 5 I , 54 carbon-substituted489-497 CN bonds in, rotation about, barriers to 5 12-5 I5 rates of 201 commercially available488 coordination with metal ions 515, 516 electrochemical properties of 8 15-82 I hydrolysis of 5 17 ionization potentials of 308 mass spectra of 306-3 I I nitrogen-substituted497-499 nitrosation of 498 NMR spectra of 502,504,692, 694-699 nomenclatureof 14 phosphorylationof 499, 500 pK, values for 78, 505-508, 634 proton affinities of 309 reactions of 521, 522 with carbonyl compounds 518-521 stereoisomerism in 188, I89 structural chemistry of 116, 117, 501-505 sulphonylation of 500 synthesis of 487-501 tautomerism in 188, 331, 332, 665, 666 thermochemistry of 326, 327, 336 X-ray studies of 26, 27, 502-504 Guanidiniumgroups, directingeffect in nitration 698, 699 electroniceffects for 699 substituent constantsfor,

from NMR studies 695-698 from reactivity studies 701-703

Guanidiniumions, as catalysts 777, 778 calculated molecular structuresof, basis set dependence of 5 I , 54 coordination of, with anions 516 with crown ethers 516, 517 1R spectra of 501 nomenclatureof 14 rotational barriers for 66, 509-5 12 stereoisomerism in 175, 189, 190 structuralchemistry of 26, 28-30. I 16, I 17, 131, 501 thermochemistry of 336 Guanidinocompounds, biologically important, mass spectra of 309-31 I Guanidinogroups, substituent constantsfor, from I3C NMR 692, 694 from I9F NMR 695-699 Guanine,electrochemical properties of 839, 840 Guaninehydrochloride hydrates, radiolysis of 715, 716 Guanosine,electrochemical properties of 84 1-843 Guanylhydrazoniumhalides, rearrangementsof 610 Guanylthioureas,synthesis of 496 Guanylureas,synthesis of 495

Halodialkylbenzamidines,

rearrangementsof 596 Haloformamidines, CN rotation in, rates of 202 configurationof 170 Haloformimidates,configurationof 170 Haloguanidines,synthesis of 501 N-Haloimidate esters, reactions of 444, 445, 466. 467 synthesis of 437 Haloketimines, rearrangementof 437 Halouracils,radiolysis of 710, 7 I I , 722 Hammett equations 447, 547. 794-799 Hammett substituent constants 68 Haptotropic rearrangements598 Hartree-Fock SCF MO calculations 3 8 4 0 Heat capacities,for imidazoles 332 Hessian matrix 43 Heteroallylic *-systems, examples of 3, 4 Hexenes, rearrangementsof 758.759, 767 High performanceliquid chromatography 242-246 Histamines I I tautomerism in 334, 335 thermochemistry of 333-335

Subject index Histidines I I, 332 radiolysis of 740-744 Huckel (HMO) r-electron theory 37 Hydrazidates,stereoisomeric,relative reactivities of 220 Hydrazide derivatives, stereoisomerismin 168, 187, 188, 206, 207 Hydnzidines, electrochemicalproperties of 806, 807 Hydrazimidateesters, X-ray studies of 441 Hydrazones,rearrangementsof 543 Hydrogen bonding, asymmetric 756 in amidines 17, 19, 70-73, 122, 123, 140, 141. 279, 282-285, 669 in amidoximes 267 in amidrazones287 in formazans288, 289 Hydron transferreactions 749-769, 773-777 isotope effects for 775-777 Hydroximates,stereoisomerismin 168, 169. 175, 188, 207-209,220-222 N-Hydroxyimidateesters, as oxadiazolone precursors457 reactions of 466 with ammonia448 synthesis of 432 a-Hydroxyimidateesters, as oxazaphospholine precursors458 Hydroxypyridines,as catalysts 769 Identity reactions 773-777 lmidate-amide tautomerism44 I lmidate anions, metal complexes of 163, I64 stereoisomerismin 160-1 62, 184, 336 lmidate esters - see also N-Acylimidate esters, Benzimidate esters, NCyanoimidateesters, N-Haloimidate esters, Hydroxyimidate esters, NTrimethylsilylimidateesters allylic - see Allylic imidate esters as precursors, of azepines 463 of azines 460462 of imidazoles 453,454 of imidazolines 453,454 of imidazolones 45 I of iminopeptides 451 of oxadiazoles 456 of oxadiazolones457 of oxazaphospholines458 of oxazoles 455,456 of tetrazoles 459 of thiadiazoles 457, 458 of triazaphospholes459, 460 of triazoles 459

913

as reaction intermediates340 conjugate acids of 160 hydrolysis of 447 isomerism in 4 3 8 4 2 isotopically labelled 428 mass spectra of 318, 319,442 metal complexes of 163, 164, 185 NMRspectra of 272,273,438-442 nomenclatureof 13, 14, 426, 427 oxidation of 465 phosphorusderivatives of 458, 460, 463, 467,468, 472 protonated I83 reactionsof 470, 471 with amines 448450 with a-amino acid derivatives 45 I, 452 with hydrazine 450 with hydrogen sulphide 447 with hydroxylamines45 I with ketenes 469 with organometalliccompounds 463465 rearrangementsof 442-444 involving 1.3-shifts of acyl groups 542-55 I involving 1.3-shifts of alkyl groups 528-532 involving I ,3-shifts of aryl groups 551-553 reductionof 465 stereoisomerismin 155-158, 171, 172, 179, 180, 197, 203, 214, 215 structuralchemistry of 29-31, 135-138, 441 N-substituted432 synthesis of 428-438 by transesterification43 I , 432 from amides and thjoamides 429-43 I from amines 431 from imidoyl halides 429 from imines 437 from isonitriles 436 from ketimines 437 from metal complexes 433436 from nitriles 428, 429 tautomerismin 180 thermal decomposition of 4 4 2 4 5 a,@-unsaturated - see a,@-Unsaturatedimidate esters uses of 47 I, 472 X-ray studies of 176-178, 553, 554 lmidate methylides 470 ImidateN-oxides, synthesis of 438 lmidate salts, alcoholysis of 448 as precursors, of azaphospholes454 of azaphospholines454 of imidazeles 453 of oxazines 462

914

Subject index

Imidate salts (conr.) of pyrazoles 454 of thiadiazoles 457 of triazoles 459 hydrolysis of 445,446 reactionsof, with amines 448,449 with ammonia448 synthesis of 427.428,430 thermal decomposition of 442,443 Imidatoniumions, CO rotation in, rates of 199 reactivity of, stereochemicaleffects on 216-219 stereoisomerism in 160, 172, 173, 183, 184, 204 tautomerismin 183 Imidazoles see also Benzimidazoles, Trimethylgennanylimidazoles carcinogenityof 846 electrochemicalproperties of 825-829 nomenclatureof 1 I , I2 radiolysis of 740-744 rearrangementsof 533 synthesis of 453,454,800,801 from amidines 380-386 tautomerismin 33 1, 332 thennochemistryof 330-332 Imidazolidines, reactions of 361, 362 thennochemistryof 332, 333 Imidazolines see also Allylthioimidazolines 10 dipole moments of 74 pK, values For 634,635 rearrangementsof 533 synthesis of 453, 454 Imidazolium ions 85, 303, 385 Imidazolones.synthesis of 45 1 Imidazolyl disulphides, synthesis of 802 Imidazolyl groups, substituentconstants for 699-701,703,704 Imidic acids, as amide tautomers 13 as catalysts 749 stereoisomerism in 155-158, 171, 172,203 tautomerismin 203 Imidines 13 stereoisomerismin 165, 166, 186,204 structuralchemistry of 138 tautomerismin 186 Imidoyl halides 13 as imidate precursors429 mass spectra of 319, 320 reactions of 344, 345 lmidoyl migrations613 Imidoyl nitrates, rearrangementsof 575-577

-

-

lmidoyloxydiarylpyridones, rearrangementsof 607 lmidoyl phosphates,rearrangementsof 58 1 lmidoyl trifluoroacetates,mass spectra of 320 Imidoyl trifluoromethanesulphonates, mass spectra of 320, 321 Imidoyltropolones,rearrangementsof 559 .Imines, as imidate precursors437 conformationof 174 Iminiumsalts, thennochemistryof 336 Iminocarbonates, stereoisomerismin 190-1 92 structuralchemistry of 175 Iminopeptides,synthesis of 45 1 Imino radicals, cathodic generationof 805 Immonium ions, rotationalbarriersfor 66 Indenes. rearrangementsof 752, 767 INDO calculations, for imidazoles 330, 332 for pyrazoles 330 Infraredspectroscopy, of amidine complexes 289-291 of amidines 66-68, 70, 7 I , 279-286 of amidoximes 286,287 of amidrazones287,288 of formazans288, 289 of guanidiniumions 501 IntegratedBader Populations40 IntegratedProjected Populations'40 Inversionat nitrogen 178-192 Ionizationenergies, for diazenes 325 for guanidines326 for imidazoles 330 for imidazolidines 332 Iron complexes, in imidate synthesis 434 Isocyanates,reactionsof 356 lsodiazirines LO Isoimides 534,544 rearrangementsof 534,545-547 1,3-Isoindolenines,rearrangementsof 589, 590 Isomerism, mechanismsfor 264 Isonitriles, as thioimidate precursors436 Isothioureas- see also S-Phosphorylisothioureas CN rotation in, rates of 201, 202 stereoisomerism in 169, 170, 190, 191, 222 Isothiouroniumions, rearrangementsof 550 stereoisomerism in 190, 192 Isoureas, rearrangementsof 547-550 stereoisomeric,relative reactivities of 222 lsouroniumions, stereoisomerism in I 9 0

Subject index Kerr effect method 539 Ketene aminals 782 Ketenes, reactions with imidate esters 469 Ketenimines, reactions of 355, 356 Ketimines - see also Haloketimines778 P-Ketoimidate salts, as pyrazole precursors454 Ketoximes, reactionsof 361 Lactam acetals, reactionsof 348 Lactams- see also Caprolactams as amidine precursors346,347, 351 Lone pair orbital energies, for imidazoles 330 Mass spectrometry, of amidines 82-85, 294, 295, 302-318 of imidic acid derivatives 3 18-32 1,442 Medium effects, on electrochemicalbehaviour 792, 793 Meisenheimercomplexes 395, 396 Melamine 13 Metal amidinates,configurationof 162, 163 Metal complexes, of amidines 162, 173, 185, 204 of imidate anions 163, 164 of imidate esters 163, 164, 185 Methyl migrations 529, 530, 532 MIND0 calculations,for histamines 335 MINDOD calculations37 for phosphorotropictautomerism587 for 1,3-shiftsof acyl groups 536 for 1.3-shifts of alkyl groups 529, 530 for 1.3-shifts of nitroso and nitro groups 572,573 MM2 calculations37 MNDO calculations37, 65 ' for histamines335 for imidazoles 331 Molecularassociation7G74 Molecularforce-field calculations37 Molecularorbital diagrams,basis set dependence of 85-88 Molecularstructures, calculated, basis set dependence of 47-56 optimization of 38-40 Moller-Plesset perturbationmethods 80 Mulliken chargedensities, basis set dependence of 88-9 I Mulliken overlap populations,basis set dependence of 9 I , 92 NDO calculations37 Nickel complexes, in imidate synthesis 434, 435 Nitriles, as precursors, of amidines 340-343 of imidate esters 428, 429 Nitrilimines, reactionsof 801

915

Nitrilium ions 342, 546, 549 N-Nitroamidines,rearrangementsof 572, 573 Ni troguanidines, reductionof 498 synthesis of 497 N-Nitrosoamidines,rearrangementsof 572-576 Nitrosoguanidines,synthesis of 497, 498 N-Nitrosoureas,rearrangementsof 575 Nuclear magnetic resonancespectroscopy 231, 25 1-279 of amidines 68.7 1.72, 259-266, 274-276, 573, 690-695 of amidoximes 266,267, 276. 277 of amidrazones268-27 1 of formazans 271, 272 of guanidines502,504,692.694-699 of imidate esters 272, 273, 438-442 13C NMR 254-259, 263-273,442, 690495 19F NMR 442,695-699 'H NMR71, 72, 253-255, 259-262, 265-273.438.439.573 I5N NMR 68, 274-271.442 3 1 PNMR 266 2 9 ~ NMR i 441 Nuclear Overhausereffect 58 Nucleophilic addition, acidcatalysed 777, 778 Orbital approximations38 Organometallicamidme derivatives, rearrangementsof 598-607 Organotin compounds, in imidate synthesis 436 Ortho esters, reactionsof 352, 353 with amines43 I synthesis of 448 Overman-Claisenrearrangement443 Oxadiaziniumsalts, reactions of 360 Oxadiazoles, synthesis of 456, 457, 466 from amidines 386, 388 Oxathiazines,synthesis of 463 Oxazaphospholines,synthesis of 458 Oxazines -see also Dihydrooxazines synthesis of 462 Oxazoles - see also Allyloxyoxazoles, Benzoxazoles, Benzyloxydiaryloxazoles 14 rearrangementsof 613 synthesis of 455,456 from amidines 386, 387 Oxazolines 14 reactionsof 359 Oxazolones - see Akenyloxydiaryloxazolones N-(5-Oxazolyl)amidines,synthesis of 613

916

Subject index

Palladium complexes, in imidate synthesis 435 Pariser,Pople and Parr *-electron theory 37 PClLO calculations37 Peptides. reactions with hydrated electrons 744 Perkov reaction467 Perturbationtheory 42 Pesticides 47 I Phenoxyl radicals 540 Phosgeneiminiumchloride see Viehe’s salt Phosphatriazines,synthesis of 419,420 Phosphenins- see Azaphosphenins Phosphinylamidines,rearrangementsof 584 Phospholenes- see Diazadiphospholenes Phospholes see Azaphospholes Phospholines- see Azaphospholines Phosphoranes- see Thiophosphoranes Phosphoranyltrihaloacetamidines, rearrangementsof 587 Phosphorotropictautomerism58 1-590 Phosphorylguanidines,synthesis of 499, 500 S-Phosphorylisothioureas, rearrangementsof 580,581 Phosphotropictautomerism264, 265 Pinnersynthesis 340, 34 I , 398. 427, 428 Plant protection products 47 I Platinumcomplexes, in imidate synthesis 435 Polyamidines,synthesis of 35 I , 355 Poly(dipeptamidinium)salts, mass spectra of 313 Polytopal rearrangements578, 59 I Pople constraint39 Populationanalysis 4 0 4 2 Post-Hartree-Fock calculations42 Primas rule 253 Propenes, rearrangementsof 752, 753, 755, 767 Propenyliumsalts 354 Proteins,crosslinkingof 452, 47 I Proton affinities47 for amidines 328 for diazenes 325 for imidazoles 330 Protonationenergies, calculated 79-82 for histamines 335 for imidazoles 330, 332 for pyrazoles 330 Protonexchange 162, 165, 196, 215-217 Proton sponges I 1 Proton transfer203 Purines, electrochemicalproperties of 835-843 nomenclatureof 12 protonationof 336 radiolysis of, in aqueous solutions 734-740 in the solid state 715-718

-

-

Push-pull effect 139, 142, 143 Pyrans, synthesis of 416, 418 Pyrazines, synthesis of 395-398 Pyrazoles - see also Aminopyrazoles synthesis of 454 Pyridazines, synthesis of 461 from amidines 395, 397 Pyridines - see also Aminopyridines, Hydroxypyridines as catalysts 752-754 synthesis of 460 from amidines 390-395 Pyridinium ions 800 Pyridinones,as catalysts 769 Pyridoxaminederivatives 761 Pyrimidines- see also Tetrahydropyrimidines electrochemicalproperties of 831-835 protonationof 336 radiolysis of, in aqueous solutions 718-734, 739, 740 in the solid state 709-714 rezkrangementsof 533 rotationalbarriersin 329 synthesis of 460, 461, 518, 519 from amidines 398-4 I2 Pyrroles, synthesis of 452,453 from amidines 380, 381 Pyrrolidines,synthesis of 466 Quantum-mechanicalprocedures37 Radicals, H-abstraction7 I3 H-adduct 712, 713,740 inorganic 732 oxidizing 719, 720, 737 protonated736 reducing719, 735, 737 yl 711-714, 719-723 Reaction constants, sign of 799 Rearrangements527-6 I5 allylic 559-57 I , 750-765 degenerate537.538, 556 involving I,3-shifts, of carbon-centredgroups 529-559 of halogen 596-598 of nitroso and nitro groups 572-577 of phosphorus-containinggroups 577-590 of sulphur-containinggroups 59 1-596 pseudo-pericyclic 750, 751 Regression method 257 Relaxationtime measurements,for iminium salts 336 Retention indices 236-242 Ring-chaintautomerism270 Ring-openingreactions,of radicals 737, 738

Subject index Rotational barriers64 calculationof 45, 47, 65, 66 in amidines 328, 329 in amidrazones269 Ruthenium complexes, in imidate synthesis 435 Selenoesters,synthesis of 447, 448 Shoolery’s rule 253 Sigma values, for amidino, guanidinoand related groups 689-704 Silylotropic migrations599, 600 Slater-type functions 38 Solenopsin A, synthesis of 37 I , 373 Spermine, synthesis of 377, 378 Stereochemicaldesignations 152. 153 Stereochemicaleffects 209-222 Stereoelectroniceffect 205, 207, 21 1-214, 217-219, 222 Steroid ketones, isomerizationof 76 I, 762, 765 Strainenergies, in diazenes 325 Structuralparameters, relationshipsbetween 117-1 19 substituenteffects on 110-1 16 Structuredetermination,precision of 104 Styrenes, rearrangementsof 752 Substituentconstants, for amidino, guanidinoand related groups 689-704 steric 798 Substituenteffects, on electrochemical behaviour 794-799 Sugar imidates 428,429,468470 Sulphenylamidines.rearrangementsof 59 1-595 Sulphides, unsymmetrical47 I Sulphinylamidines, rearrangementsof 595, 596 tautomerism in 67 1 Sulphonylamidines, rearrangementsof 59 1 tautomerism in 667, 668, 67 1 Sulphonylguanidines,synthesis of 500 N-Sulphonylthioimidateesters, reactions of 466 Symtriazines,rearrangementsof 53 I, 532 Taft equations 795, 797 Tetrahydropyrimidines.p& values for 634, 635 Tetrazines. synthesis of 462 Tetrazoles, nomenclatureof 12 synthesis of 459 Thiadiazines, synthesis of 416, 418, 419 Thiadiazoles, synthesis of 457.458 from amidines 388, 389 Thiamidines,electrochemicalproperties of 829-831

917

Thiatriazines,synthesis of 4 I9 Thiazaphospholes,synthesis of 458 Thiazines- see also Amino(imino)thiazines synthesis of 416,418 Thiazoles - see also Aminothiazoles, Benzothiazoles, Dithiazoles 14 synthesis of 456,466 from amidines 386, 387 Thiazolines 14 Thin layer chromatography246-250 Thioamides, as precursors, of amidines 344-352 of thioimidate salts 430 Thioesters, synthesis of 447 Thioimidate esters - see also N-Sulphonylthioimidateesters as precursors, of oxathiazines463 of pyrroles 452, 453 of thiadiazoles 457 of thiazoles 456 as reaction intermediates341 cycloaddition reactionsof 469 protonated I84 rearrangementsof 529,532, 533, 543 stereoisomerismin 157, 158, 180, 181, 197, 203, 205 synthesis of 436 tautomerismin 181 uses of 47 1,472 Thioimidatesalts, as precursors, of thiazaphospholes458 of thiazoles 456 synthesis of 430 Thioimidatoniumions, stereoisomerism in 184 Thiophosphoranes,rearrangementsof 596 Thiophosphoryltriazines, rearrangementsof 585, 586 Thioureas- see also Amidinothioureas, Guanylthioureas reactions of 489.490 Thymine, radiolysis of 7 10, 7 12, 7 13, 720, 724.725.730, 73 I Todd-Atherton phosphorylation467 N-Tosyloxydiarylbenzamidines, rearrangements of 607 Transacylationreactions466 Transaminationreactions 778, 779 Transesterificationreactions, of imidate esters 431.432 Triazaphospholes,synthesis of 459, 460 Triazines - Jee also Phosphatriazines, Symtriazines, Thiatriazines, Thiophosphoryltriazines reactions of 360 rearrangementsof 531-534. 543

918

Subject index

Triazines (conr.) . synthesis of 461,462 from amidines 410, 412417 Triazinones- see Allylthiotriazinones Triazinopyrimidineoxides, rearrangementsof 61 1 Triazoles, carcinogenityof 846 electrochemicalproperties of 825 nomenclatureof 12 synthesis of 459, 466 from amidines 386, 388 Triazolines, reactions of 359, 360 Trichloroacetimidates, cyclization of 455 reactions of 468, 469 rearrangementsof ;41, synthesis of 428,429 Trifluoromethylmigrations529.530 Trimethylgermanylimidazoles, rearrangements of 599 Trimethylsilylbenzamidines, rearrangementsof 599 N-Trimethylsilylimidateesters, reactions of 432 Trimethylstannylbenzamidines,rearrangements of 599 Tropolones- see also Imidoyltropolones rearrangementsof 613,614 Tungsten complexes, in imidate synthesis 433, 434 Ultraviolet photoelectronspectroscopy, of imidazolidmes 332 Ultraviolet spectroscopy, of amidines 291 Index compiled by

of amidoximes 291-293 of amidrazones293 of fonnazans293, 294 a,p-Unsaturatedimidate esters, synthesis of 430,433. 467 P,yUnsaturatedketones, isomerization of 761, 762, 764,769 Uracils - see also Halouracils radiolysis of 710-712, 714, 720, 724, 726, 727, 730-734 Ureas - see also Acylureas, Amidinoureas, Guanylureas,N-Nitrosoureas reactionsof 346, 349, 351, 352, 490, 49 I Van Deemter equation 760 Viehe’s salt 353-355, 386,402,406,407 Vilsmeier reagents 345.346 Vinamidines I I Vinyl halides, synthesis of 784 Wave functions, single-determinantal38 Wittig reaction 467 Xanthine 12 X-ray studies 176178 of amidinates 2 1, 26 of amidines 9, 15, 18, 21, 556 of amidinium ions 18, 21-23 of guanidines26, 27,502-504 of imidate esters 29-31.441, 553. 554 Yconjugated systems 14, 15 structuralstudies of 3 1-33 Ylidenemalononitriles.reactions of 392, 393, 402,403

P. Roven