Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China
Victor Squires • Hua Limin Zhang Degang • Li Guolin Editors
Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China
Editors Victor Squires University of Adelaide Adelaide, Australia
[email protected] Hua Limin Gansu Animal Husbandry Bureau Lanzhou, China
[email protected]
Zhang Degang College of Grassland Science Gansu Agricultural University Lanzhou, China
[email protected] Li Guolin Gansu Animal Husbandry Bureau Lanzhou, China
[email protected]
ISBN 978-90-481-9621-0 e-ISBN 978-90-481-9622-7 DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7 Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York Library of Congress Control Number: 2010936073 © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010 No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
Preface
Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in China’s North West is based on the program of the International Conference Implementing GEF Objectives in a Systems Framework held in Lanzhou, Gansu, China in October 2008. This collection reviews the extent of resource debasement in China’s pastoral zones and offers solutions for their sustainable use. The five parts deal with rangelands, and the people who manage them, and assess prospects for implementation of more sustainable rangeland/livestock production systems. Topics include Livestock husbandry development and agro-pastoral integration in Gansu and Xinjiang; Ecological restoration and control of rangeland degradation. Despite widespread degradation, the articles reveal the approaches that are likely to lead to recovery of these rangelands and better livelihoods for the local herders and farmers. Two chapters are devoted to the achievement of global environmental objectives. Carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation in mountain grasslands are just a few of the covered subjects. This portion of the book pays special attention to the successful results in Gansu and Xinjiang – major regions of China’s pastoral lands. The final division addresses measures to improve the profitability and sustainability of herding and farming in the pastoral areas of north-west China There are fifteen chapters on subjects that include: Livestock management, Rangeland management interventions, Agro-pastoral integration, Improved animal husbandry practices as a basis for profitability. Land tenure and access, Environmental education, Ecological Restoration and New Management approaches for China’s northwest pastoral areas. These and other innovative ideas make Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in China’s North West a valuable addition to any environmental library. This book will draw upon the large body of Chinese language literature that is generally inaccessible to the English language audience. By having joint editors/ contributors who are Chinese specialists of high repute we “unlock” much useful data and synthesize the current thinking in China of academic circles and government agencies toward the notion of a systems approach to environmental management.
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Based on a better understanding of the environment and of the management systems involved in the different parts of the region, it is vitally important that a beginning is made on addressing the issues raised here. It is timely that the direction be set and the first steps taken in that direction. If this book can help in the process of achieving better resource management in NW China, we will feel truly rewarded. Victor Squires Hua Limin Li Guolin Zhang Degang
Adelaide, Australia Lanzhou, China Lanzhou, China Lanzhou, China
Foreword
Rangelands, grasslands, pasture lands.… The world’s grasslands have a key role to play in global, regional, and local environmental management. They function as global carbon sinks, they are important keepers of biodiversity, and they are key supporters of local communities – generating income and contributing to poverty reduction. On the other hand, managing grasslands is about complex economic, cultural, environmental, and political interactions, requiring a well defined, supportive policy framework, local governments’ active and informed support, and technical capacity at local levels. Renewed attention is now paid on grassland management in the context of climate change. China’s grasslands can play an important role demonstrating generation of global public goods such as carbon sequestration and biodiversity in productive pasture environments. Moreover, implementation of measures for sustainable grassland management is becoming increasingly critical as grassland based animal husbandry has to adapt to climate change. China could be a global leader in demonstrating best practices of such measures. Successful innovative demonstration activities have been implemented over the past decade in many provinces in Western China. The World Bank, together with local and international partners (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and United States) has financed activities in Gansu Province and Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region demonstrating sustainable grassland management, including ways to reduce grazing pressure by increasing individual animal productivity and quality, thus optimizing the animals’ income generating capacity for their owners. At this point, there are plenty of lessons learned for scaling up successes, as documented in this book. One of the main lessons learned is that the capacity of local decision makers and herders need to be continuously improved. In this context, local decision makers need to stop making decisions based on short term interests and look into the importance of long term sustainability of grasslands for their local economy. The livelihood of their herder communities will in the foreseeable future depend on their grassland resources and the herders’ ability to optimize a sustainable income
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Foreword
generation stream from their livestock. Similarly, central and provincial governments must take their responsibility as policy makers and policy enforcers to provide an enabling environment for sustainable grassland based animal husbandry, discouraging short term profit seeking versus a more stable, long term path that would allow a share of the population to make their living of the grasslands in the long term. Sari Söderström Feyzioğlu The World Bank, Washington, DC Receiver of the 2002 Gansu Dunhuang Award, 2004 China Friendship Award, and 2009 Xinjiang Tianshan Award.
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Foreword
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has had the privilege to support the Government of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in addressing a pressing environmental challenge that the country is facing: combating land degradation and desertification in the Northwestern provinces. Land is losing its nutrients, becoming waterlogged; or being destroyed by salinization. Sediment from erosion is fouling rivers and obstructing their flow. There is deforestation and the degradation of grassland, leading to losses in plant and animal species as well as global biodiversity. Recognizing the potential ecological, economic, and social implications of further degradation of the Northwestern area, the Government worked with the international development partners Global Environment Facility (GEF), ADB, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and the World Bank to rethink, restructure, and strengthen its dryland management program. Since 2002, under a co-financing agreement with the GEF, ADB undertook a lead role in developing and coordinating the introduction of an integrated ecosystem management (IEM) approach to manage its drylands. The cooperation framework that was setup resulted in a long-term PRC-GEF Partnership on Land Degradation in Dryland Ecosystems, which is greatly changing the country’s dryland policies and practices. Sustainable use of rangelands is considered a key component of the IEM approach under the PRC-GEF Partnership. In particular the World Bank-supported pastoral development project in Gansu province and Xinjiang autonomous region has been the principal investment program under the PRC-GEF Partnership to improve livelihood of famers and pastoralists. Sharing and dissemination of the experiences in sustainable rangeland management through this book is a significant and most valuable contribution to the knowledge sharing that has been promoted and implemented through the PRC-GEF Partnership. We hope that local governments, research institutes, and finally the farmers and pastoralists, both in the PRC and in the rest of the world’s rangeland areas, can benefit from this wealth of knowledge and experience.
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Foreword
ADB would like to congratulate the Government of the PRC, the authors, and all other stakeholders for sharing their experiences through this important publication. ADB also looks forward to further cooperation with all stakeholders to continue improving sustainable rangeland management under the PRC-GEF Partnership. Frank Radstake Environment Specialist East Asia Department Asian Development Bank
Acknowledgements
Many people have contributed to this book and we thank them all. Specifically the editors want to thank all those people at the village, county, and provincial level who worked tirelessly for years to implement the World Bank/GEF project Gansu Xinjiang Pastoral Development and to work with herders and farmers. There were 18 counties in the Project and we have only had a chance to highlight a few of them. Special thanks are due to the contributors whose detailed knowledge has been drawn upon to compile this book. The support of the World Bank office in Beijing and the Ministry of Agriculture, through the Animal Husbandry Bureau at provincial and county level, is appreciated. Universities in both Gansu and Xinjiang have made available their staff and students to conduct the applied research programs and various National-level research programs provided on-going support. The Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) and Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) have a long involvement in both Gansu and Xinjiang and we acknowledge their contribution of ideas and research findings that help to distinguish this book from those that simply describe and do not analyse. The editors are grateful to Peter Waldheim of Adelaide for preparing many of the graphs and diagrams for this publication. The editorial team at Springer helped in many ways to improve and simplify the manuscript to tap this rich vein of knowledge and experience from western China and bring it to a wider English-speaking readership. The editors accept responsibility for errors and omissions that may have crept in while endeavouring to present such a wide ranging book.
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Contents
Part I Rangeland systems and People under pressure 1 North-West China’s Rangelands and Peoples: Facts, Figures, Challenges and Responses............................................. Victor Squires and Hua Limin
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2 Livestock Husbandry Development and Agro-Pastoral Integration in Gansu and Xinjiang........................................................ Victor Squires and Hua Limin
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Part II Combating rangeland degradation 3 Exploring the Options in North-West China’s Pastoral Lands......................................................................................... Victor Squires, Hua Limin, Li Guolin, and Zhang Degang
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4 Ecological Control of Rangeland Degradation: Livestock Management........................................................................... Brant Kirychuk and Bazil Fritz
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5 Ecological Restoration and Control of Rangeland Degradation: Rangeland Management Interventions................................................. Victor Squires, Zhang Degang, and Hua Limin
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Part III Achieving the global objectives 6 Biodiversity of Plants and Animals in Mountain Ecosystems............. 101 Zhao Cheng-Zhang and Victor Squires 7 Carbon Sequestration and the Implications for Rangeland Management............................................................................................. 127 Long Ruijun, Shang Zhanhuan, Li Xiaogan, Jiang Ping-an, Jia Hong-tao, and Victor Squires xiii
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8 Protecting Local Breeds of Livestock in NW China............................. 147 Lang Xia, Wang Cailian, and Victor Squires Part IV Improving the profitability and sustainability of herding and farming in the pastoral areas of north-west China 9 Agro-Pastoral Integration in NW China: A New Paradigm?............. 183 Zhang Degang, Ren Jizhou, Hua Limin, and Victor Squires 10 Improved Animal Husbandry Practices as a Basis for Profitability........................................................................................ 207 Wu Jianping, Victor Squires, and Yang Lian 11 Herders’ Income and Expenditure: Perceptions and Expectations...................................................................................... 233 Hua Limin and David Michalk 12 Land Tenure: Problems, Prospects and Reform . ................................ 255 Wang Meiping, Zhao Cheng-Zhang, Hua Limin, and Victor Squires Part V The way forward 13 Environmental Education: A Tool for Changing the Mind-Set............................................................................................. 285 Zhao Cheng-Zhang, Hua Limin, and Victor Squires 14 Redesigning Livestock Systems to Improve Household Income and Reduce Stocking Rates in China’s Western Grasslands............... 301 D.L. Michalk, Hua Limin, David Kemp, Randall Jones, Taro Takahashi, Wu Jianping, Nan Zhibiao, Xu Zhu, and Han Guodong 15 Towards Ecological Restoration and Management in China’s Northwest Pastoral Lands...................................................................... 325 Victor Squires, Hua Limin, Li Guolin, and Zhang Degang Author Index.................................................................................................... 341 Subject Index.................................................................................................... 343
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Map of NW China’s rangelands. The principal areas are in Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Qinghai and Xinjiang (that part of China to the left of the line)........................................... Fig. 1.2 Herders of several ethnic minorities occupy vast areas of rangeland in NW China. Many spend their entire life looking after their herds/flocks................................................... Fig. 1.3 Rangeland types in (a) Xinjiang and (b) Gansu................................ Fig. 1.4 Photos of rangelands in NW China. There are true grasslands, steppes and meadows, Many are at high altitude and have a short growing season, in some places less than 90 days................. Fig. 1.5 The linkages between the breeders of young animals, the croplands in the oasis areas and the markets are quite important. Desert and other lowland rangeland is linked to summer grazing in the mountains by transhumance..................... Fig. 1.6 Social and biophysical factors in global drylands are closely linked, difficult to predict, and involve a mixture of “fast” and “slow” variables. The core of the biophysical system is the “state of the ecosystem” whereas the core of the socioeconomic system is “rural livelihood”...................................... Fig. 2.1 An example of a grazing situation involving several pastures and specific dates of entry and exit that are set by the local village committee............................................... Fig. 2.2 The proportion of the annual forage supplied by the rangeland varies across the various sites but most are heavily dependent on the rangelands. In pure grazing areas it is near 90% but in the agro-pastoral counties more than 50% of total forage/fodder comes from sown pastures or fodder crops....................................... Fig. 2.3 Rangeland systems involve interactions between major subsystems. Some of the interactions are strongly negative. Good management seeks to minimize negative impacts...................
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Fig. 2.4 Elements of the more intensive production system based on pen feeding in winter. Note the scope of the management interventions and the need to put together packages of measures that are mutually reinforcing......................... Fig. 2.5 Applied research projects and their objectives in Gansu................... Fig. 2.6 Warm pens for over-wintering livestock (especially pregnant females) are a major energy-saver and can also allow selective feeding of supplements to keep pace with nutritional demands of pregnancy..................................................... Fig. 3.1 Rangeland has been converted to cropland in both Gansu and Xinjiang. There was a big surge in the 1960s and again in the 1990s as this data from Gansu shows............................ Fig. 3.2 There were many changes in China’s pastoral lands after the late 1940s. Large areas of the better rangelands were converted to cropland. Often these previously cultivated areas were abandoned soon after. This contributed to serious land degradation as the rising population of livestock and people were competing for resources on a shrinking land base.................................................................... Fig. 3.3 Livestock populations grew rapidly in response to growing demand for food and fiber and exceeded the carrying capacity of the rangelands in some areas by the 1970s as this example from Subei County, Gansu shows.............................................................. Fig. 3.4 Elements of pastoral production under the HCRS system. Herder households (HH) (number, ethnicity, age structure are key elements.) The thickness of the lines reflects the strength of the interactions and arrows indicate direction................. Fig. 3.5 The training program used in Gansu’s implementation of the World Bank/GEF project focussed on the warm pen and the related aspects emanated from that. Training was problem-oriented.......................................................... Fig. 3.6 There are two basic options open to herders in western China. They can either reduce demand for forage/fodder or increase its supply (see text)............................. Fig. 4.1 Forage requirements and availability (1000’s t), community pasture pilot, Ewanke Banner, Inner Mongolia Autonomous region (2008).............................................. Fig. 4.2 Grazing system demonstration diagram, near Chenbarhu, Inner Mongolia....................................................... Fig. 4.3 Generic grazing system rotation incorporating rest during the grazing season for rangeland recovery............................. Fig. 4.4 Forage yield and litter measurements (kg/ha) by range health class, community pasture pilot, Ewanke Banner, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (2008)..............................................
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List of Figures
Fig. 4.5 Rangeland health and litter (kg/ha) (Adapted from Saskatchewan rangeland health assessment guide)........................... Fig. 4.6 Minimum nutritional requirements and safe levels of essential elements ((%) dry matter, ppm, or mg/kg). Sample 1: Hay, Xilinhaote; Sample 2: Mixed hay sample, Xilinhaote; Sample 3: Mixed hay, Hailar; Sample 4: First Mixed hay sample, Hailar; Sample 5: Second mixed hay sample, Hailar; Sample 6: Corn sample, Xilinhaote; Sample 7: Salt sample; Sample 8: Natural salt sample........................................................... Fig. 5.1 Rangelands are comprised of several elements, both biotic (people, plants, wild animals, livestock, insects and microbes) and abiotic elements (soils and climate)............................................ Fig. 5.2 A simplified representation (Causal Loop Diagram) of the main physical and biological mechanisms affecting ecosystem regulation in rangeland systems........................ Fig. 5.3 Causal Loop Diagram for vegetation subsystem in sandy land in NW China................................................................ Fig. 5.4 A Causal Loop Diagram of the grazing system. Thick arrows indicate the dominant effect of grazing pressure (grazing, browsing, trampling) which limits opportunities for regeneration of rangeland vegetation................................................. Fig. 5.5 The Causal Loop Diagram of the pastoral ecosystem. There are three main subsystems. The human population subsystem, a major part of the economic system determines people’s well being and thus population number; the vegetation sub system and the livestock subsystem. Thick arrows represent driving loops of the system. Broken arrows indicate management decisions................................. Fig. 5.6 The general structure of state-and-transition models. The small boxes represent individual plant communities and the dashed arrows between them represent “pathways” along which shifts among communities occur. These shifts are reversible through facilitating practices and fluctuations in climate. The large boxes containing communities are States that are distinguished by differences in structure and the rates of ecological processes (such as erosion) The transitions among States (solid arrows) are reversible only through accelerating implementing rangeland improvement practices (e.g. reseeding) that can be applied at considerable expense......................................................................... Fig. 5.7 A state and transition model for semi arid rangelands. There are five clearly recognized States each dominated by a particular assemblage of species. There is clear tendency toward dominance of mid-preferred species (State I) but because mid-preferred grasses are sensitive to heavy grazing State I changes to State II (Transition 1, T1) under moderate grazing pressure and to State III under heavy pressure.....................
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Fig. 5.8
Fig. 6.1 Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.3 Fig. 6.4 Fig. 6.5 Fig. 6.6 Fig. 6.7
Fig. 6.8 Fig. 6.9 Fig. 6.10 Fig. 6.11 Fig. 6.12 Fig. 6.13 Fig. 6.14 Fig. 6.15
List of Figures
A typical Time series of: (a) 5-year; and (b) 20-year moving averages of rainfall averaged across grazed rangelands to show the cyclic nature of drier-than-usual years............................. Changes to plant community diversity over the period 2004–2008 as assessed by several indices (Zhao et al. unpublished)................ The changes in the main biological attributes of steppe community after exclosure. (a) inside fences, (b) outside fences (Zhao et al. unpublished)................................... The changes of soil organic matter content of different land-use types after 4 years of a restoration program (Zhao et al. unpublished)................................................................. The value of ecosystem service function of grassland in Dingxi county after imposition of grazing bans in 2004 and restructuring cropping patterns (Zhao et al. unpublished).............. Changes in species attributes under different grazing intensities from Medium (MG) to Overgrazed (OG). NG was the ungrazed Control (Zhao et al. unpublished)................ The ratio of palatable to inedible plants under different grazing intensities as reflected in dominance and in biomass (Zhao et al. unpublished)................................................... The biodiversity change under different grazing intensities in mountain meadow in Gansu where moderate grazing (MG) Heavy (HG) and overgrazing (OG) were compared with an ungrazed Control (NG) (Zhao et al. unpublished).............. Changes in fish diversity from 1983 to 2007 in a wetland community in Suzhou, Gansu (Zhao et al. unpublished)................ The birds diversity change from 1983 to 2007 in a wetland community in Suzhou, Gansu (Zhao et al. unpublished)................ The species array and Simpson diversity index of grazed meadow grassland (A) and the ungrazed control (CK1) (Zhao et al. unpublished)................................................................. The species and Simpson diversity index of saline/alkaic grassland (B) and the ungrazed control (CK2) (Zhao et al. unpublished)................................................................. The change of coverage and above-ground biomass on grassland. (a) meadow grassland, (b) saline/alkaic grassland (Zhao et al. unpublished)................................................. A flow chart showing the various steps followed in Xinjiang to study biodiversity in mountain rangeland communities in the lower elevation pastures of the Tian Shan................................. Fragmentation of habitat is a major cause of loss of biodiversity.................................................................................. A graphical habitat change index to illustrate the status of various aspects of habitat change................................................
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Fig. 6.16 Rodents like voles, can often be present in plague proportions and they are thought to consume large quantities of forage (Photo Victor Squires)..................................................................... Fig. 6.17 Mapping of environmental problems by land type. Note that drylands often respond in a way that is quite different to other land types (Adapted from UN Millennium assessment 2005)........ Fig. 7.1 A simplified carbon balance model showing the fast and slow cycling of Carbon. Movement of C between the soil and the atmosphere is bidirectional.......................................... Fig. 7.2 Assessment of carbon sequestration dynamics in mountain rangelands in NW China................................................. Fig. 7.3 The sampling sites in the Qilian Mountain..................................... Fig. 7.4 The sampling sites in the Tian Mountain........................................ Fig. 8.1 Fig. 8.2 Fig. 8.3
Fig. 8.4 Fig. 8.5 Fig. 9.1 Fig. 9.2 Fig. 9.3 Fig. 9.4 Fig. 9.5 Fig. 9.6
NJ tree based on DA genetic distance of 13 sheep populations (Data from Lang Xia, unpublished)............................. UPGMA tree based on DA genetic distance of 13 sheep population (Data from Lang Xia, unpublished).............................. Cluster diagram for genetic distance among 11 breeds of sheep in Xinjiang KEY A = Altay, H = Hotan, B = Bashbay, D = Dolang, NH = Hotan in crops production area, SH = Hotan in mountain area, K = Kergiz, C = Cherieye, T = Tashkurgan, X = Xinjiang fine wool sheep, M = China Merino (Data from Liu Wujun, unpublished).............................................. Schematic of the Tianzhu white yak conservation program............ Flow chart of the Tianzhu white yak conservation program........... Schematic showing some of the interventions relating to the livestock sub-component........................................................... Economic returns of the integrated crop-livestock production system developed in Quanwan Village of Anding District, Dingxi County, Gansu..................................................................... Economic returns of the integrated crop-livestock production system developed in Pingshanhu Township of Ganzhou County, Gansu............................................. Economic returns of the integrated crop-livestock production system developed in Ma Yinggou Village of Yongchang County, Gansu............................................. Economic returns of the integrated crop-livestock production system developed in Pingshanhu Township of Ganzhou County......................................................... Interfaces within a pratacultural system. Human activity is a link. Closer coupling between the elements of the system can enhance output and ensure sustainability (Ren et al. 2000)..............................................................................
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List of Figures
Four production levels of rangeland ecosystem. Linkages between the various levels are often weak or absent but close coupling can improve output. Notes: Pre-plant production level (economic activities on rangeland such as recreation, sport and tourism), plant production level (producing plant products, such as forage, grass bale, fodder millet), animal production level (animal feeding, fattening and managing etc.) and ultra-biological production level (processing and marketing of plant and animal products) (After Ren 1995).............................................................................. 203
Fig. 10.1 Diagram of the grazing ecosystem. In this attempt to reduce the extremely complex interactions to a simple flow chart we can see the interplay between climate, soils, plants and the grazing animal. Grazing impact is expressed as run-off water, soil erosion, nutrient loss and destruction of useful perennial plants.................. 209 Fig. 10.2 A simplified representation of the livestock/pasture system. Plants, soil, livestock and humans interact to determine the flow of livestock products – meat and fiber. Limiting factors restrict productivity of livestock and the plants on which they depend....... 209 Fig. 10.3 Beef cattle on seasonally variable rangelands often show a sawtooth pattern of live weight gain and loss. It means that it may take 3–4 years before they reach slaughter weight............... 210 Fig. 10.4 Feed balance results of Sunan County, China. Pastures were divided in to spring and autumn pasture, summer pasture, winter pasture and lambing pasture, lambing pasture is part of winter pasture, and is grazed from March to May. Lambing is in April.......................................................................... 210 Fig. 10.5 A flow chart to show the factors and components that contribute to the ultimate weight of a grazing animal..................... 212 Fig. 10.6 Breeding females need a lot of protein for early growth (from birth to puberty) during late pregnancy and during lactation................................................................................ 214 Fig. 10.7 Terminal Sire System provides an opportunity to protect the genetic purity of local breeds while allowing the production of offspring that are more acceptable to the market. Note that all F2 offspring both male and female are marketed for slaughter....... 227 Fig. 10.8 The schematic of rotational terminal cross breeding system that allows some of the female breeders to be used to breed replacements while the remainder produce offspring from a terminal sire, all of which are marketed for slaughter.................................................... 228 Fig. 11.1 Location of Sunan County in Zhangye Prefecture of Gansu Province (After Longworth and Williamson 1993)......................... 237 Fig. 11.2 The change in trend of human population and livestock number in Sunan County between 1954 and 2005.......................... 237
List of Figures
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Fig. 11.3 Rainfall (mm/year) for Sunan County, 1986–2006......................... 238 Fig. 11.4 Relationship between the number of rural households and rural population in Sunan County, 1980–2006......................... 242 Fig. 11.5 Changes on livestock numbers and herders’ gross income from livestock enterprises in Sunan County (1986–2008)....................... 243 Fig. 12.1 The fencing of a saline/alkaic meadow in Suzhou county, Gansu, represents a case of a collective tenure and management regime. Grazing was banned and households adopted a more intensive system of livestock management involving fodder production and pen feeding. Access to the wetland resulting from such an arrangement is effectively controlled by the village collective. The area on the right is subject to a grazing ban and is recovering..................................................................................... Fig. 12.2 The changes in species Richness index........................................... Fig. 12.3 Changes in livestock number in Group 1 and Group 7 over the period 1985 to 2009. Note the big decline after the new tenure arrangements came into effect as part of the Community-based management plan........................................ Fig. 12.4 The changes in the flock-size distribution among households before and after the tenure reform in (a) Group 1 and (b) Group 7........................................................... Fig. 12.5 The changes to household net income as a result of the implementation of community-based management (CBM)............ Fig. 12.6 The changes to sources of family income since the implementation of CBM..................................................................
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Fig. 13.1 Examples of primary school student’s posters on aspects of environmental protection............................................................. 298 Fig. 14.1 Basic relationships between animal production per head and per hectare for grazing livestock (Based upon Jones and Sandland 1974). Points A and B are explained in the text........ Fig. 14.2 Impact of change in species composition on spring production in meadow steppe grassland in Xingan League, Inner Mongolia (Michalk unpublished)..................................................................... Fig. 14.3 Estimates showing actual energy available to ewes throughout the year in relation to requirements at the same liveweight for current enterprise in Taipusi (Mutton sheep and January lambing), Siziwang (mutton sheep and February lambing), Sunan (fine wool sheep and April lambing) and Huanxian (Tan mutton sheep and January lambing)........................................ Fig. 14.4 Predicted effect on household profitability by changing enterprise in Sunan and Huanxian Counties.................................... Fig. 14.5 Change in match between energy available and energy required for ewes lambing at different times in Taipusi
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and Siziwang and impact on net farm income at different stocking rates (Zhen et al. 2010; Han et al. 2010)........................... 316 Fig. 14.6 Net return (RMB/farm) calculated for a fine wool enterprise with January lambing with and without pen feeding in a greenhouse shed in Sunan County (Yang et al. 2010)..................... 318 Fig. 14.7 Total farm net return under different grazing strategies combined with pen feeding in non-grazing period (Han et al. 2010)................................................................... 321 Fig. 15.1 People are the most important factor in the management of rangeland resources. Their actions determine whether or not there is sustainable use. People include the rangeland users and the government officials who monitor and regulate use and those people responsible for setting policy........... 327 Fig. 15.2 Three systems intersect. A better understanding of the interactions between them is an essential prerequisite to designing better policy and management interventions................... 332 Fig. 15.3 A simple landscape model illustrating the consequences of changes to land use on plant communities and on ecological and hydrological processes.............................................................. 333
List of Tables
Table 1.1 The benefits people derive from ecosystem services fall under three main categories...................................................... Table 1.2 Forage yield as an indicator of rangeland degradation in selected counties in Gansu Province, western China................. Table 1.3 Changes in rangeland degradation in China’s pastoral zones........ Table 2.1 Percentage of rangelands in NW China that was estimated to be overgrazed in 1990 and 1999. Further degradation has occurred in many areas since 1999........................................... Table 2.2 Distinguishing features of conventional versus integrated ecosystem approaches..................................................................... Table 3.1 Comparison of year round activities of herders before and after sedentarization................................................................. Table 3.2 Changes in type and number of livestock in selected pastoral prefectures in Gansu.......................................................... Table 3.3 Elements of the new scientific system of animal husbandry being promoted in Xinjiang and Gansu.......................................... Table 8.1 Distribution of sheep and cattle in Gansu and Xinjiang................. Table 8.2 Climatic conditions in the areas of Gansu and Xinjiang where local breeds occur................................................. Table 8.3 Rangeland conditions in Gansu and Xinjiang in areas where local breeds of sheep and cattle occur.................... Table 8.4 Crops grown in Xinjiang and Gansu areas where indigenous breeds of sheep, goats and cattle are common............. Table 8.5 Major characteristics of cattle and sheep breeds in Gansu and Xinjiang........................................................................ Table 8.6 Names, sample types, locations and numbers of 13 sheep breeds............................................................................... Table 8.7 Nei’s genetic distance (shaded area above the diagonal) and Nei’s standard genetic distance (below the diagonal) among 13 sheep breeds...................................................................
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Table 9.1 Table 9.2
List of Tables
Changes in plant attributes after 4 years of grazing ban on rangeland in Quanwan Village, Anding, Gansu................ 197 Sheep population and net income................................................. 200
Table 10.1 Relative proportion of grass, forbs and shrubs (browse) in the diet of cattle, sheep and goats............................................. Table 10.2 Introduced breeds of sheep and cattle used in crossbreeding practice in NW China................................................................... Table 10.3 Heritability and heterosis (hybrid vigour) comparison................ Table 10.4 Heritability estimates of beef cattle traits..................................... Table 11.1 Land use patterns in Sunan Yugur Autonomous County (Adapted from Wu 2001).............................................................. Table 11.2 Mean income and expenditure of livestock producing households in Sunan County from 1986 to 2008 (unit: CNY/person)....................................................................... Table 11.3 Change in condition of Sunan’s rangeland resources from 1983 to 2003........................................................................ Table 11.4 Loss of biomass production and grazing capacity in Sunan County due to rangeland degradation over the period 1968–2001................................................................... Table 11.5 Average production resources for the herding households surveyed in Dacha Village, 2005–2007........................................ Table 11.6 Average income structure of households surveyed in Dacha Village, Sunan (Unit: CNY/HH)................................... Table 11.7 Average expenditure of households surveyed in Dacha Village, Sunan, 2005–2007 (Unit: CNY/HH)................... Table 11.8 Total feed balance for the 30 households surveyed in Dacha village, Sunan County, 2005–2007................................ Table 11.9 Change in biomass of different grassland type in Sunan County, 1986–2009 (Unit: kg fresh material/hectare).................. Table 12.1 A typology of potential tenure and management arrangements for the pastoral lands on NW China....................... Table 12.2 The changes in dominance and frequency before and after the imposition of the new tenure arrangements in Ma Yinggou village, Gansu (Zhao et al., unpublished data, not to be cited)...................................................................... Table 12.3 The main changes in biological characteristics of plant community before and after contract................................... Table 12.4 The changes in livestock by sets of households (HH) in Group 1 and Group 7................................................................
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Table 13.1 Desirable attributes of a successful environmental education program........................................................................ 288
List of Tables
Table 14.1 Summary of resources and outputs from typical farms in Siziwang (Han et al. 2010), Taipusi (Zheng et al. 2010), Sunan (Yang et al. 2010) and Huanxian (Wang et at. 2010)......... Table 14.2 Predicted effects of increasing weaning rate to either increase lamb crop with typical farm ewe flock or maintain current lamb crop with a reduced ewe flock at Siziwang............. Table 14.3 Liveweight of lambs weaned at 30, 45 and 60 days compared to unweaned lambs....................................................... Table 14.4 Comparison between adult ewes, replacement ewes and lambs housed in warm or conventional sheds in Sunan County (Yang et al. 2010).................................................. Table 14.5 Summary of potential options identified by modeling to reduce stocking rate in Gansu and Inner Mongolia..................
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Table 15.1 Principal benefits and beneficiaries of sustainable rangeland management at various spatial scales........................................... 337 Table 15.2 Benefits, costs, and returns of management options for rangeland improvement................................................................ 338
List of Boxes
Box 2.1 Box 3.1 Box 3.2
An example from Xin Yuan County, Xinjiang of innovative approaches to implementation.........................................................
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Checklist of factors to be dealt with in Rangeland management.... Are herders making the most of their situations using the observed grazing strategies, or are there potential policy changes that could increase Herder’s welfare.................................
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Box 5.1 Box 5.2
Misconceptions and missed opportunities....................................... Some definitions relating to State-and-Transition Models..............
83 90
Box 7.1 Box 7.2 Box 7.3
Soil carbon sequestration: how it works.......................................... Rangeland characteristics that affect C sequestration..................... Carbon storage in 17 grassland types across northern China (Fan et al. 2008).................................................................... Desertification and carbon sequestration........................................ Carbon mineralization in sandy soils in North China (Su et al. 2004)...........................................................
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Box 7.4 Box 7.5
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Box 10.1 Abortion in goats in Subei county, Gansu: extent, probable causes and remedies......................................................... 216 Box 12.1 The grassland responsibility system................................................ Box 12.2 A case study of pastoral households in the townships of Xueqan and Jiuchaigou, Gansu................................................... Box 12.3 Rangeland contracting system in an agro-pastoral area of Gansu................................................................................... Box 12.4 Demonstration of alternative rangeland tenure arrangements in Yongchang County, Gansu..........................................................
262 264 265 274
Box 13.1 Statement by the UN on the role of education for sustainable development.................................................................. 286 Box 13.2 Concepts and principles of environmental education for sustainability.............................................................................. 290 Box 15.1 The state and environmental engineering in NW China................. 335 xxvii
Contributors
Bazil Fritz, (formerly Manager, Canada-China Sustainable Agriculture Development Project, Beijing) Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada – PFRA, Regina, Canada Han Guodong, Professor (Leader National Program Grassland Carbon Sequestration) Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Mongolia, China Jia Hong-tao College of Pratacultural and Environmental Sciences, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, China Jiang Ping-an College of Pratacultural and Environmental Sciences, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, China Randall Jones, (formerly New South Wales Department of Primary Industry, Orange), Australia Asian Development Bank, Manilla, The Phillipines Hua Limin, (formerly Environmental Officer, GEF Gansu Xinjiang Pastoral Development Project, Lanzhou) Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China David Kemp Charles Sturt University, Orange, NSW, Australia Brant Kirychuck, (formerly Manager, Canada-China Sustainable Agriculture Development Project, Beijing) Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada – PFRA, Regina, Canada Li Guolin, (formerly Director Gansu Project Management Office, Gansu Xinjiang Pastoral Development Project) Gansu Animal Husbandry Bureau, Lanzhou, China Li Xiaogang Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China xxix
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Contributors
Lang Xia Lanzhou Institute of Animal and Veterinary Pharmaceutical Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Lanzhou, China Long Ruijun International Center for Tibetan Plateau Ecosystem Management, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China David Michalk, (formerly FAO Adviser Gansu Xinjiang Pastoral Development Project and researcher for ACIAR project in Gansu) Charles Sturt University, Orange, NSW, Australia Nan Zhibiao Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China Frank Radstake, Manager (ADB/GEF/PRC Partner on Land Degradation Control) Asian Development Bank, Manila, The Philippines Ren Jizhou College of Grassland Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China Shang Zhanhuan International Center for Tibetan Plateau Ecosystem Management, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China Sari Soderstrom, (formerly Manager, Gansu Xinjiang Pastoral Development Project, Beijing) World Bank, Washington DC, USA Victor Squires, (formerly GEF Advisor Gansu Xinjiang Pastoral Development Project) University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia Taro Takahashi, Honorary Research Fellow (Assistant Professor, University of Tokyo, Japan) Charles Sturt University, Orange, NSW, Australia Wang Cailian Faculty of Animal Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China Wang Meiping Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China Wu Jianping, Vice President Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China Xu Zhu, Deputy Director Grassland Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, China
Contributors
Yang Lian College of Grassland Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China Zhang Degang College of Grassland Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China Zhao Cheng-Zhang College of Geography and Environment, North West Normal University, Lanzhou, China
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Part I
Rangeland Systems and People Under Pressure
The two chapters in this part outline the context for what follows. The geographic location, population characteristics, settlement history and policy environment are explained. The types and distribution of the principal grazing lands are described. This Part is an overview of the grazing systems in common use in NW China. People are recognized as a key factor in the management of rangelands and the participation of herders and other land users is especially important in arresting and reversing rangeland degradation. Current strategies to achieve more sustainable rangeland use are examined.
Chapter 1
North-West China’s Rangelands and Peoples: Facts, Figures, Challenges and Responses Victor Squires and Hua Limin
Synopsis A brief overview the pastoral regions of NW China that sets the scene for the chapters that follow. The principal geographic features (areal extent, elevation, topography), climatology, demography and the policy environment are summarized. Key Points 1. China has large area of pastoral land, the third largest in the world, and it supports the world’s largest population of sheep and goats, and fourth largest population of cattle. 2. The pastoral region comprises a vast and geographically remote area characterized by extreme diversity in environments. The pastoral region is occupied by people of many nationalities. 3. The pastoral region comprises extremely diverse physical, hydrological and ecological systems as well an array of different rural communities and production systems. 4. There are over 3.3 million herder households. Low relative incomes and the incidence of poverty are pervasive in western China and are a major challenge for all levels of government. About 26 million poverty stricken people live in western China. Many pastoral households are classified as poverty households within these poverty counties. 5. There has been a massive increase in livestock numbers over the period since the late 1970s and a more intensive use of the forage resource. This intensive use has led to severe degradation and lower productivity as well as massive reductions in carbon sequestration potential and in biodiversity. 6. Various countermeasures have been implemented but their effectiveness is still being assessed. Victor Squires (*) University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia e-mail:
[email protected] Hua Limin Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China V. Squires et al. (eds.), Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7_1, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
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Keywords Poverty • land degradation • policy • grazing bans • grain for green • set aside • off farm work • supplementary feeds • pen feeding • cropland • conversion of rangeland
1 Introduction China, the third largest country in the world, has a large area of land devoted to pastoral production. The rangelands of north and western China are the third largest in the world and support the world’s largest population of sheep and goats, and fourth largest population of cattle. Rangelands are widely distributed over many provinces but only the northern and western provinces of Inner Mongolia, Tibet, Gansu, Qinghai and Xinjiang, as well as Sichuan – have the majority of the rangelands listed in officially designated pastoral counties (Kang et al. 2007). Thus the ‘pastoral region’ is closely aligned with north western China (see Brown et al. (2008) for a more detailed description of these areas). There are six major pastoral areas occupying over 3 million square kilometers of mainly steppe and include arid, semi-arid and sub-humid regions that stretch across northern China from the eastern part of Inner Mongolia to the Western Tarim Basin in Xinjiang – a distance of over 4,500 km from east to west and about 600 km from north to south (Fig. 1). The pastoral lands are mainly distributed within the range of longitude 74°E to 119°E and 35°N to 50° N within the interior basins and plateaus. The western end is near the Tarim Basin in Xinjiang, and the eastern end on the Hulunbeier grasslands in Inner Mongolia. This vast region encompasses the ‘Three Norths’ (Northwest, North China and the Northeast of China).
Fig. 1 Map of NW China’s rangelands. The principal areas are in Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Qinghai and Xinjiang (that part of China to the left of the line)
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Fig. 2 Herders of several ethnic minorities occupy vast areas of rangeland in NW China. Many spend their entire life looking after their herds/flocks
There are over 3.3 million pastoral households in China. Most are located in the semi-pastoral counties (2.3 million households). By far the largest number of pastoral households are in Inner Mongolia (766,000 households) accounting for one third of households in the pastoral counties and one fifth of those in semi-pastoral counties. Tibet, Qinghai and Xinjiang have around 125,000 pastoral households. Gansu, despite having less usable rangeland area, has a larger number (215,000) of pastoral households in its semi-pastoral counties. Figure 2 shows various aspects of herder life including the migration to fresh pastures. The principal rangelands in Gansu and in Xinjiang are shown in the maps (Fig. 3a and b). They include desert steppic rangelands, true grassland and meadows as well as alpine meadows in the Qilian Shan, Tian Shan and Altai Shan.
2 The Pastoral Region Defined The pastoral region comprises a vast and geographically remote area characterized by extreme diversity in environments. The pastoral region is occupied by people of many nationalities and has several autonomous regions. Parts of the pastoral region are border areas that are strategically important to China’s security. The pastoral region comprises extremely diverse physical, hydrological and ecological systems as well an array of different rural communities and production systems. High yielding, intensive irrigated cropping of grains, fruits, fodder and intensively managed livestock enterprises such as large-scale dairy have been promoted in newly established artificial oases. As livestock and human populations grow and the demands of the oases for water, energy and arable land have increased, the pressure on the rangelands has intensified. The magnitude of this pressure can be seen in the effect on the provision of the key ecological services from the rangelands. Rangeland resources are utilized by people who harvest products including water, fossil fuels, mineral ores and other saleable commodities as well as “invisible” ecosystem services (Table 1).
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Victor Squires and Hua Limin 47�
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Table 1 The benefits people derive from ecosystem services fall under three main categories Provisioning Regulating Cultural Non-material benefits Benefits obtained Goods produced or obtained from ecosystems from regulation of provided by ecosystems • Spiritual ecosystem processes • Food • Inspirational • Climate regulation • Fresh water • Aesthetic • Disease regulation • Wood fuel • Educational • Flood regulation • Timber • Recreational • Water purification • Fiber • Biochemicals • Genetic resources Supporting Services necessary for production of other services • Soil formation & conservation • Nutrient cycling • Primary production Supporting biodiversity
Healthy ecosystems provide vital services such as water flows, nutrient cycling and biomass production which underpin rural livelihoods (Table 1). As ecosystems become degraded, their capacities to deliver such services are undermined. Furthermore, healthy ecosystems act as a buffer against extreme weather events such as recurrent droughts and floods. These capabilities are diminished as ecosystems undergo land degradation. The relationships between land use and ecosystems are dynamic as usage patterns shift and ecosystems evolve. Every land use option we consider has associated consequences for ecosystems and livelihoods. The resilience of ecosystems has significant bearing on what land uses are viable in the future. Diversity is a main characteristic of traditional livestock production (Fig. 3). A wide array of feed sources is being used, most of which have no or only limited alternative value. These include forage from various rangelands, crop by-products and, to a certain extent crop residues (corn stalks, cotton seed meal, etc.). The scope for increasing the traditional forage source from rangeland is limited. There are several reasons for this. Firstly, across NW China the most productive rangelands are being converted to croplands to satisfy the demand for food grains and/or fodder for the penned livestock that are a feature of the new modernized animal husbandry system that accompanies sedentarization of herders. Secondly, the use of indigenous breeds is decreasing and thirdly, the asset, petty cash and insurance functions that livestock once provided are being replaced by financial institutions as even remote rural areas enter the monetary economy. The opportunities that arise from strong market demand for meat, wool cashmere etc. conflict with the limited potential to expand the conventional resource base on which animal husbandry depends. This results in strong pressure to change the situation by applying new technologies, warm pens, silage making, artificial insemination, improved shearing techniques for harvesting wool and cashmere etc (see Chapter 3, Squires et al, 2010).
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Fig. 4 Photos of rangelands in NW China. There are true grasslands, steppes and meadows, Many are at high altitude and have a short growing season, in some places less than 90 days
The inter-connectedness of the various elements in the pastoral rangelands has to be appreciated. The linkages between the cropland (including the densely populated oases) and the more extensive grazing lands adjacent to them are vital. Seemingly unrelated development programs and new policies aimed at agro-industrialization and livestock intensification in the oasis area exert a major impact on rangelands and on herder livelihoods. Marketing of livestock products derived from rangelands can also have a major impact (Brown et al. 2008).
3 Rangeland Degradation The pastoral region comprises a vast and geographically remote area characterized by extreme diversity in environments. In addition there is an array of different rural communities (with many ethnic groups and cultures) and various production systems. China’s pastoral rangelands are degrading as evidenced by encroaching deserts, invasive weeds (including poisonous plants) and denuded pastures (Squires et al. 2009). These are some of the more visible signs of the degradation but they deflect attention from the plight of the herders and the rural communities who have developed around them.
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The natural, strategic and economic values of the pastoral rangelands have one thing in common – they are all diminished by rangeland degradation. This is a pervasive and urgent problem for China as the degradation has become more severe and widespread and the impact of degradation has become more widely appreciated. One key indicator of rangeland degradation is the forage yield and its trend. Table 2 summarizes annual data on forage yield for selected counties in Gansu between 1985 and 2006. A downward sloping trend in yields was observed for all counties except Ganzhou although there was significant variation from year to year based on climatic and other factors. Average decline in forage yield, shown in the right-hand column of Table 3 was between 20% and 70%. Table 3 also provides indicators of degradation in China’s pastoral region as a whole (see Squires et al. 2009 for eight case studies from the key pastoral regions). The areal extent of rangeland degradation has increased along with its severity (Squires et al. 2009).
Table 2 Forage yield as an indicator of rangeland degradation in selected counties in Gansu Province, western China Average change in yields County Type of grassland Average yielda from 1985 to 2006 (%) Anding Temperate Meadow Steppe 1,020 −34 Jingtai Temperate Steppe 443 −61 Alpine Meadow 1,001 −39 Liangzhou Temperate Steppe 602 −21 Yongchang Temperate Steppe 531 −55 Ganzhou Temperate Desert 440 27 Sunan Alpine Meadow 1,004 −72 Alpine Shrub- Meadow 800 −14 Suzhou Lowland Meadow 1,665 −61 Temperate Desert 659 −61 Subei Alpine Meadow 438 −51 Alpine Shrub- Meadow 536 −31 Yield as Dry Matter (kg/ha) (Gansu Grassland General Workstation)
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Table 3 Changes in rangeland degradation in China’s pastoral zones Average Average rangeland rangeland Rangeland area in 1978 related to total area in 2008 (000 km2) land area (%) (000 km2) a Eastern China (N = 61) 5.80 0.6 1.20 Central China(N = 45) 21.80 1.8 19.53 Western China(N = 44) 1,237.47 97.6 1,126.13 Grand Total 372.07 100 336.80
Rangeland related to total land area (%) 0.1 1.8 98.1 100
Changes in area from 2008 to 1978 (%) 79.3 10.4 9 9.5
N = number of surveyed villages Zuo Ting, China Agricultural University, Beijing, personal communication
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4 Challenges Faced in Reversing Land Degradation Low relative incomes and the incidence of poverty are pervasive in western China and are a major challenge for all levels of government. About 26 million poverty stricken people live in western China. Of these, about half live in the pastoral provinces. Of the 592 nationally-declared poverty counties in China in 2006, over 350 of the counties were in western China. Many pastoral households are classified as poverty households within these poverty counties. The national standard for poverty is about 1,300 RMB1 per capita per annum. In respect of their contribution to the GDP the pastoral counties in China the 226 pastoral counties are relatively unimportant whether measured in terms of ruminant livestock numbers, turnoff of livestock or animal products. This may account for the lack of investment by governments, and others, in the pastoral industries. The contribution of the 226 pastoral and semi-pastoral counties account for around 14% of beef production in China, 24% of sheep and goat production, 16% of dairy production, 33% of goat wool production, 58% of cashmere production, 45% of sheep wool production, 56% of fine wool production and 22% of semi-fine wool production (Brown et al. 2008). However, household incomes in these poverty-stricken regions are higher among herders than among many other rural households, especially where income is supplemented by remittances from the migratory labor force. There has been a massive increase in livestock numbers over the period since the late 1970s and a more intensive use of the forage resource. This intensive use has led to severe degradation and lower productivity as well as massive reductions in carbon sequestration potential and in biodiversity (Squires et al. 2009; Chapter 6, Zhao and Squires 2010). Rangelands and their utilization by ruminant livestock (in some cases horses) are especially important in autonomous minority regions such as Tibet, Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang. Nowhere is the problem of underinvestment and low household income more pronounced than in the development of ruminant livestock industries. Some of the key issues and challenges confronting the pastoral lands and their users include increasing human population, excess grazing pressure, increasing land degradation, more intensive use of the rangelands and the link between livelihoods, ecological services and degradation. Growth of livestock industries is constrained by the availability and cost of feed inputs. Another key input is labor. Population growth in pastoral areas has exceeded that in other parts of China because of the higher proportion of minority nationalities and the different population policies that govern these groups. The population growth has provided a ready source of labor to increase output in the pastoral regions. At the same time labor has been subject to diminishing returns and so the remuneration for labor has fallen. On the other hand the relative scarcity of capital in these poor areas of China has constrained growth in the pastoral region.
$1 = 6.8 RMB at time of writing
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5 Constraints to Improved Productivity The utilization of rangelands by ruminant livestock and horses is crucial to the economic development of pastoral areas. The official view is that rangelands are a resource to be exploited and developed, especially in the autonomous regions that have been the preserve of ethnic minorities and whose life styles and rangeland use need considerable change before modern animal husbandry practices can be fully implemented. The massive increase in livestock numbers has occurred because of more intensive use of rangelands. The intensive use has led to degradation and lower productivity – acting as further constraint to economic growth (Squires et al. 2009). As rangeland degradation has worsened attention has turned to alternative sources of ruminant livestock feed (including cutting lands for hay, forages, feed grains and crop residues) to overcome the limitations imposed by the rangeland feed availability. Growth of livestock industries is constrained by the availability and cost of other feed inputs because many of the existing livestock systems had previously relied upon rangelands as a cheap source of feed. According to (Brown et al. 2008) the sources of growth and constraints in pastoral regions are listed under six main headings: Managing structures (fragmented and chaotic structures, overlapping mandates, economy of scale) Managing policies (lack of comprehensive rangeland management policy framework; consistency in planning, legislation and programs; coordination with other policies) Managing institutions (powers and responsibilities; capacity to carry out tasks; coordination, facilitative vs interventionist approaches) Managing livestock (livestock industry development; technology (feed, breeding. Grazing management) Managing markets (price determination and macro-level management of markets; micro-level management of markets) Managing people structural adjustment of pastoral and agricultural industries, settlement policies; population policies)
6 The Environmental Challenges Over the past few decades large land areas have become degraded. Focusing on the livestock-associated environmental problems we can note that: • Accelerated land degradation in semi-arid and arid rangelands is caused by a complex set of factors involving humans, livestock, crop encroachment in marginal areas and fuelwood collection. • Rising human and livestock populations, changes to land tenure arrangements, settlement and incentive policies have undermined traditional land use practices and contributed to degradation through overgrazing.
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Arid rangelands in China’s NW are now seen as containing dynamic and highly resilient ecosystems, especially under traditional management of continuous adjustment to the highly variable rainfall (both in space and time). And vegetation is extremely resilient and most of the changes observed are the result of particularly dry periods (extended droughts) and are therefore likely to be temporary. Resting of an area (as under grazing bans) brings the original flora back again which indicates that the loss of these species is not irreversible. Flexibility and mobility are key requirements to achieve sustainable rangeland use in these regions. Where this mobility is impaired and customary practice impeded by the changing property rights (Chapter 12, Wang et al. 2010) accelerated degradation often occurs. The introduction of new user rights during the collectivization that followed the birth of New China undermined the intricate fabric of customary practice. It is widely believed that, in essence, the replacement of an ecologically well-balanced system of communal land (before collectivization) for a ‘free for all’ open access system has contributed more than any other single factor to accelerated land degradation but this is disputed by Harris (2009). What is clear is that after the period of decollectivization in the late 1970s the former state farms were privatized and grazing user rights were assigned, this led to fragmentation but more importantly it reduced the critical mobility and flexibility that was a feature of traditional systems, and forced livestock to be restricted to limited areas which might have insufficient rain to promote growth of forage. This loss of mobility was a serious downside of sedentarization and one that had profound environmental consequences. With the dissolution of collectives and the rapid transition to a market economy in the 1980s, many pastoralists modulated their herd sizes to those which they perceived would make them the most money. In the semi-arid areas, those with more than a 90-day growing season, land degradation through grazing livestock is a much more serious problem than in the arid regions at the fringes of deserts. So this semi-arid region is where the main livestock environment interactions occur. It also coincides with the area in which human population has increased rapidly over the 60 year period from the 1950s. Conversion of rangelands to cropland, fuelwood collection and over grazing are interlocking factors causing land degradation in the semi-arid zones. Crop encroachment not only exposes the soil directly to the erosive effects of winds and downpours, it progressively hampers the flexibility of animal movement because it obstructs passages between the various seasonal pastures. The differential income potential of crops versus livestock often exacerbates the conversion of the higher potential sites within the rangelands into marginal crop land. Government policy has favored grain production over livestock production and the differential between income within the two groups is widening (Brown et al. 2008).
7 Responses to Challenges Degradation of farmlands and rangelands is a serious problem in China, especially in its western and northern regions. It causes soil erosion, flooding, desertification, and sand storms. The response to the problem suffers from overlapping mandates of the
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principal Ministries. Forestry has the mandate for desertification control in sandy lands, and Water Resources and Agriculture for other aspects. Even within a given Ministry the different Bureaus may try to implement conflicting policies or ones that provide perverse incentives.2 As (Brown et al. 2008) point out the Ministry of Agriculture is a production-oriented organization with an interest in expanding output and revenues and this often conflicts with environmental objectives such as sustainability and biodiversity conservation. The Animal Husbandry Bureau within the Ministry and its associated institutions such as the Grassland Inspection and Supervision stations have traditionally had jurisdiction over rangelands and remain the dominant institutions but they operate under the aegis of the Ministry of Agriculture and are committed to increasing production and are often target-driven. Because rangelands are often viewed as a resource to be exploited and developed for other uses there has been intensive and sometimes exploitative use of rangelands as part of economic development. The policy approach of the Chinese government towards rangeland degradation and herder livelihoods cannot be viewed in isolation of policy developments and operation in other parts of Chinese society. In the transition from a centrally-planned to a more market-oriented economy of China, the types of policies, mix of policies, and the broader policy and institutional setting have all undergone dramatic changes. China’s rural sector has not been immune from the general reforms and changes occurring elsewhere in society (Waldron et al. 2006). To combat the land degradation problems, the Chinese government started an ambitious “Grain-for-Green” restoration project in March 2000. Farmers are compensated for discontinuing use of their marginal cropland, turning it back into forest, shrubland or grassland. Other programs include the ‘Reduce Grazing Return Grasslands’ – a set-aside program for rangelands. Most emphasis in government plans to rehabilitate rangelands has been carried out under the Reduce Grazing Return Grasslands Program. The stated aims of the program are to: • Increase vegetation cover by 10–50%, depending on the specific area involved. • Reduce the loss of topsoil, sand and sandstorms including reduction in the soil runoff to rivers by 20%. • Protect watersheds. • Bring about economic benefits through increased productivity brought through: livestock penning; better feed and forage, reduced death rates; increased breeding and survival rates; reduced time on feed; higher turnoff rates, making a shift from traditional systems based on number of livestock and toward quality-based traditional systems; improve the livestock economy and increase herder incomes. • Bring about social benefits through the transformation of livestock production systems by changing living conditions; lifestyles, improving attitudes toward civilized culture and ecological awareness, improving livelihoods of ethnic peoples and improving social stability in minority areas. In 2003, the significant Grazing Ban and Rest Program, involving exclusion of grazing in certain months or year round, was launched by the national government
Perverse incentives are those that foster undesirable outcomes (often as unintended consequences)
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and has been undertaken in several northwestern provinces where rangeland degradation is most severe. In many areas grazing bans, either seasonal or total have been put in place. The strengths and positive effects of the whole-year grazing ban include: • Greatly improve the natural vegetation • Shifted the natural grazing animal production system to a more sowing-activity reliant system The weakness and negative effects of the banning are: • Limited access to rangeland feed resources and increased difficulties of maintaining feed supply • Increased the cost of animal raising • Affected the livelihoods due to increased cost for animal raising The practice of Grazing Ban has increasingly become a matter of finding alternative feed resources, or even alternative livelihood to reduce the grazing pressure on rangeland areas. The sowing or transplanting activities were assumed to have two purposes. Firstly, “artificial forage production” was regarded as a means to increase the forage available, support pen feeding (Chapter 3, Squires et al. 2010) and thus reduce dependence on the rangeland. Secondly, it was considered as an ecological protection measure that would increase the vegetation coverage and species richness in the rangeland (Chapter 6, Zhao and Squires 2010a). Despite the positive impacts of these policies and technical interventions on ecological improvement of grasslands, the improvements have been sometimes observed to be at the cost of socio-economic well-being of affected communities. Adverse impacts on affected communities led to further degradation of the rangelands because the herding communities are left with very few options except continuing to overexploit the depleted grasslands. Therefore there is a need to better understand the ecological and socio-economic context of rangelands ecosystems that occur in systems that are complex and difficult to predict. The core of the socio-economic system is farmer/herder livelihoods (Fig. 4). On the one hand, policy and technical interventions have to respond to farmers/ herders demands, and to aim at empowering the capacity of the herders to enable innovations in their production systems based on their local farming and social resources and not be dependent on unsustainable subsidy and infrastructure. On the other hand, there is a need to limit the number of people who rely on grazing for their livelihoods if a balance between herders’ livelihoods and rangeland health is to be achieved. This is not easy as the minority nationalities are exempted from the One-Child Policy. Out-migration is one of the options, but its success depends much on alternative employment opportunities and the skills of the affected people. Perhaps one of the ultimate solutions to the problem is to increase the investment to education in the pastoral areas (Chapter 13, Zhao and Squires 2010b) so that the younger generation of the herding families will have the opportunity to start a new career elsewhere, instead of continuing fathers’ job as herders (Li et al. 2007) (Fig. 6).
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Desert rangeland
Mountain rangeland
Forage, Supplies
Oasis Fattening Fodder and livestock products
Livestock and livestock products
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Fig. 5 The linkages between the breeders of young animals, the croplands in the oasis areas and the markets are quite important. Desert and other lowland rangeland is linked to summer grazing in the mountains by transhumance
Fig. 6 Social and biophysical factors in global drylands are closely linked, difficult to predict, and involve a mixture of “fast” and “slow” variables. The core of the biophysical system is the “state of the ecosystem” whereas the core of the socioeconomic system is “rural livelihood”
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The rangelands have been home to large herds of sheep, goats, cattle, horses and camels for centuries but in recent decades land degradation or even severe desertification has become more and more widespread. Believing the root problem to be overgrazing, the government has focused on restraining or even forbidding grazing. However, why do these grasslands degrade only now, when herders have already been living on this land for thousands of years. Apart from over-grazing, changing patterns of agriculture and land distribution also play a role, and all of these are consequences of a deeper cause: the deterioration of indigenous culture, which was better adapted to the local environment than the current use of the land that has been imposed. And the recent reform policy of privatization and the transition to the market economy have been quite instrumental in weakening the indigenous culture (Chapter 13, Zhao and Squires 2010b) and destroying traditional livelihood systems (Zhang et al. 2002; Long et al. 2009, Huang et al. 2009). The various countermeasures being implemented by the government at all levels are mostly considered to be good for releasing animal production pressures on the rangeland and achieving better livelihoods for herders. However, whether it is true or not remains unclear and questionable for the reasons set out in the Chapters that follow.
8 State-Led Interventions and Agro-Pastoral Integration These have been critical in triggering and shaping the changes occurring now in NW China. At the macro-level there is the West China Development strategy (WCD). Clearly the WCD is a strategic decision made by the government of China to bring the country into the new century. The WCD initiative was timely because it has a highly relevant institutional structure to address the formidable ecological problems confronting the nation. As a multi-sectoral initiative, the WCD is concerned with, among other things, freshwater resources, renewable energy, forestry and land use, food and markets. One aim is to improve the use, distribution and conservation of all natural resources in western China. Environmental improvement and ecological rehabilitation constitute an important pillar of the WCD initiatives. Declining vegetation cover, soil erosion and ever expanding areas of desertification have seriously hindered economic construction and social development in China’s west. Also important are the national policies aiming at sedentarizing pastoral groups. These have provided huge incentives for people to settle by developing agriculture in non-suitable areas (i.e. through irrigation), while also providing support to a decreasingly-extensive livestock production, through investment in fodder conservation (e.g. silage pits) and animal health services. Land policies have played a key role in this respect. Traditional land tenure systems that were aimed at protecting pastoral resources and enhance their regeneration were revised by the government with the objective to sedentarize groups, creating opportunities for people to get exclusive user rights to land, through new land regulations that favor privatization. Fragmentation of grazing resources, breaking of transhumance
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routes and constraints to migration corridors undermined traditional natural resource management, with local administrative regulations further constraining traditional livestock mobility. All extensive grazing systems subject to drought must retain the ability to move livestock. Renting grazing and agistment are common features of ranching in the Americas and Australia. Unlike commercial ranchers many herders has misgivings about adopting sedentary systems of production. Past experience has taught them that the option of long distance movement is good insurance against drought. Many herders in western Gansu have relatives in neighboring Xinjiang (further west) or in Inner Mongolia (further north) and it was common for the extended family members to re-locate livestock in times of drought. Tradition is still strong amongst sedentary agro-pastoralists and affects the quantity of labor and supervision that the heads of households can devote to their agro-pastoral business; likewise their animal husbandry practices have not changed very much.
9 Climate Change Perceptions and Reality In most herder communities Climate Change is mentioned and perceived differently. The overall perception is that climate is behaving differently from the past: less rainfall, increase in winter temperature, higher variability, increasingly unpredictable onset of spring rains and green-up, more frequent likelihood of sandy wind (generally associated with drought) and a general feeling that drought occurrence is more frequent nowadays than in the past. Discussions with local herders and villagers reveal that over the past 2 decades drought has become to be regarded as a structural factor that should be integrated in the strategies of development of the local area, rather than a temporary climatic phenomenon. Drought has thus become a characteristic of the region and is manifested as degrees of change in weather conditions and rainfall patterns that show greater variability and instability in agro-pastoral production, diminished water flow in streams, and rapidly falling groundwater tables. Scientific indications would back this community perception, as climate might have changed towards longer dry periods (sequence of dry years), although within an historical trend of oscillation. For the Gansu corridor, Chen et al. (2002) presented precipitation trends from 22 meteorological stations, none of which displayed statistically significant declines from the early 1950s to 1999, although three stations (Sunan, Qilian, Gaotai) had significantly positive trends of precipitation over time. While uncertainty might still pervade the Climate Change debate, there seems to be little doubt about the role of the large growth in overall human and animal populations in the region in triggering major shifts in local natural resource management and related institutional and ecological environments. Most people would agree that environmental degradation and drought vulnerability, are more the result of inappropriate management of local resources, rather than the outcome of changes in climatic patterns.
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References Brown GC, Waldron SA, Longworth JW (2008) Sustainable development in Western China: managing people, livestock and grasslands in pastoral areas. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, p 294 Chen RS, Kang ES, Yang JP, Lan YC, Zhang JS (2002) Variance tendency in the fifty-year annual meteorological and hydrological series of Hexi Region of Gansu Province. J Lanzhou Uni (Nat Sci) 38:163–170 (in Chinese) Harris RB (2009) Rangeland degradation on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau: a review of the evidence of its magnitude and causes. J Arid Environ 74(1):1–12 Huang J, Bai Y, Jiang Y (2009) Case study 3: Xilingol Grassland, Inner Mongolia. In: Squires VR, Lu X, Lu Q, Wang T, Yang Y (eds) Rangeland degradation and recovery in China’s pastoral lands. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp 120–135 Kang L, Han X, Zhang Z, Sun OJ (2007) Grassland ecosystems in China: review of current knowledge and research advancement. Philos Trans Royal Soci London B Biolog Sci 362(1482): 997–1008 Li X, He F, Wan L (2007) A review of China’s institutional arrangements for rangeland management. In: Li X, Wilks A, Yan Z (eds) Rangeland co-management. Proceedings of international workshop, Diqing, Yunnan, China, 13–15 May 2006. China Agricultural Science and Technology Press, Beijing (in Chinese) Long RJ, Shang Z, Guo X, Ding L (2009) Case study 7: Qinghai-Tibetan plateau rangelands. In: Squires VR, Lu X, Lu Q, Wang T, Yang Y (eds) Rangeland degradation and recovery in China’s pastoral lands. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp 184–196 Squires VR, Lu X, Lu Q, Wang T, Yang Y (2009) Rangeland Degradation and Recovery in China’s Pastoral Lands. CAB International, Wallingford UK p 264 Squires VR, Li Guolin HL, Degang Z (2010) Exploring the options in North-west China pastoral lands (Chapter 3, this volume) Waldron SA, Brown CG, Longworth JW (2006) State sector reform and agriculture in China. China Quart 186(2):277–294 Waldron SA, Brown CG, Longworth JW, Zhang CG (2007) China’s Linestock Revolution: agribusiness and policy developments in the Sheepmeat Industry, CAB International, Wallingford, UK Wang M, Zhao CZ, Hua LM, Squires VR (2010) Land tenure: problems, prospects and reform (Chapter 12, this volume) Zhang L, Huang J, Rozelle S (2002) Employment, emerging labour markets, and the role of education in rural China. China Econ Rev 13(2):313–328 Zhao CZ, Squires VR (2010a) Biodiversity of plants and animals in mountain ecosystem (Chapter 6, this volume) Zhao CZ, Squires VR (2010b) Environmental education: a tool for changing the mind-set (Chapter 13, this volume) Zuo Ting
Chapter 2
Livestock Husbandry Development and Agro-Pastoral Integration in Gansu and Xinjiang Victor Squires and Hua Limin
Synopsis This is an overview of the grazing systems in common use in NW China. People are recognized as a key factor in the management of rangelands and the participation of herders and other land users is especially important in arresting and reversing rangeland degradation. Current strategies to achieve more sustainable rangeland use are examined. Key Points 1. Two major livestock production systems are in use in NW China. The Pure grazing enterprise that relies on seasonal migration from winter pastures at low elevations to summer grazing on alpine and mountain meadows and the Agro-pastoral enterprises that rely on integration (to a greater or lesser extent) of the rangelands and the croplands. 2. Government policy is to develop a system of livestock production from rangelands that incorporates modern scientific animal husbandry and an intensification of production methods. Policy is difficult to implement and progress toward better integration of arable and non arable land which is the key to increasing forage and fodder production is slow. 3. Mixed systems, at the interface between croplands and rangelands, are under constant pressure to increase the area devoted to fodder and grain to meet the burgeoning demand for pen feeding of livestock and in response to population pressures and national policies that subsidize cereal production and self-sufficiency. 4. Grazing systems are characterized by a relatively low productivity, and most land that is suitable for grazing is already under use. Stocking rates of rangelands are probably at the maximum levels (or higher) allowed by current technologies.
Victor Squires (*) University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia e-mail:
[email protected] Hua Limin Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China V. Squires et al. (eds.), Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7_2, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
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Therefore, it is not realistic to expect large increases of production from these systems. 5. There is a clear need to tackle the causes of the land degradation problem and not just deal with the consequences. Most effort in the past have been aimed in “solving” minor problems such as “how to get more forage from each hectare” rather than deal with the underlying causes of lower productivity such as insecure land tenure, unclear boundaries for the assigned grazing user rights, lack of clear policy on how to balance livestock numbers and feed supplies. Keywords Ecosystem services • agro-pastoral integration • feed balance • stocking rates • grazing user rights • land tenure • ecological versus conventional approach • artificial pastures • pen feeding • markets • management interventions • carbon sinks • applied research • scaling-up
1 The Setting for the Pastoral Rangelands in Northwest China The rangeland in western China occupy about 331 million square hectometers, accounting for 49.04% of the total land area, and account for 84.1% of China’s in total rangeland (Chapter 1, Squires and Hua 2010). Not all rangelands are used for pastoralism but by far the biggest proportion of Gansu and Xinjiang are used for range/livestock production. Between them these areas represent 19.1% of China’s rangelands. Rangelands in northwest China including those in Gansu, Qinghai and Xinjiang are mountainous area with elevations up to 4,000 m whilst others are lowlands with a semi-desert climate. The Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau rangeland in the west is the source of a few major rivers in China Yellow, Yangtze, Mekong and Bramaphutra). And the degraded rangeland in Xinjiang, Gansu and parts of neighbouring Inner Mongolia are also a major source for dust and sandstorm (DSS). The ecological value of the grazed rangelands (pastoral lands) is high (Squires et al. 2009) and ranks highly in the continental ecosystem, especially as it provides important ecological services (Chapter 1, Squires and Hua 2010a). Herding is a major subsistence activity in high risk environments such as NW China. Pure herding may be defined as a mode of existence based on the exploitation of successive generations of domestic animals but variations on this production system do occur (see below). The accumulation of animals and herd mobility are the main elements of the pastoral pursuit in order to deal with the environmental instability. For the accumulation of livestock the herd managers, generally a herder household, have to protect the livestock from all kinds of hazards, such as, animal diseases and lack of forage and water. The latter two may even wipe out (large parts of) the herds in a short span of time. The accumulation of animals is therefore not an irrational strategy geared towards prestige, but an insurance strategy. The reason for accumulating livestock lies not in the desire to increase yield beyond a fixed domestic target, but in the need to provide the household with some security against environmental fluctuations. Such a strategy may be labelled ‘opportunistic’ rather than profit oriented. This strategy seems to be oriented towards the reduction of
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risks. Yet, the maintenance of large flocks and herds introduces a new element of instability into the pastoral enterprise. Nowadays, only a few herder households exclusively rely on livestock keeping for their subsistence, but in the better rainfall zones some agro-pastoral households cultivate and keep animals at the same time. In the same ecological zones most cultivating neighbours keep significant numbers of animals, and sometimes even move with these animals. Over the past century the importance of the combination of pastoral and agricultural production within one organizational unit has grown under the impact of market integration and the transformed policy environment. Most areas of rangeland in north-west China, especially Gansu and Xinjiang, are home to semi-nomadic people from ethnic minorities who depend on herding for their living. Despite the development of commercial pastoralism, most herders continue to use rangeland resources in ways that resemble their traditional lifestyles and economies (Hu and Zhang 2003). A brief description of the two major livestock/rangeland systems that apply in most counties is given below.
1.1 Pure Grazing Systems The pure grazing enterprise relies on seasonal migration from winter pastures at low elevations to summer grazing on alpine and mountain meadows. A transhumance system still operates within many rangeland areas that are classified by the time when they are grazed. Summer pastures which are located at the highest altitude with a short growing season are grazed in common with other flocks from July to August. Autumn/spring pastures are grazed in June, then again in September and October when livestock move from the lowest altitude (grazed from November to May). Typically there are four pastures (sometimes only three) that are used in response to seasonal growth rhythms and altitudinal differences. Variations to this system exist e.g. Sunan County in Gansu has a pure herding system but the livestock remain on the mountain for the whole of the year and move up and down according to the growing season of the major rangeland types. In Fuyun County, Xinjiang there is long distance seasonal migration (over 400 km each way) and the herds/ flocks remain in one place for relatively short periods of time en route. The period on the summer pastures is about 8–9 weeks (Fig. 1).
1.2 Agro-Pastoral Areas These enterprises rely on integration (to a greater or lesser extent) of the rangelands and the croplands. Typical pastoral counties fall into several categories depending on the extent of their reliance on rangelands/rangelands. They range from almost total reliance to about 40/60 as this example from Xinjiang shows (Fig. 2).
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Fig. 1 An example of a grazing situation involving several pastures and specific dates of entry and exit that are set by the local village committee
Reliance on Rangeland
Fuyun 95/5 Hejing 90/10, Aletai 85/15 Baicheng 80/20 Bole 75/25
Hami 65/35 Yumin 65/35 Takesi 65/35 Xinyuan65/35
Qitai40/60
Reliance on fodder crops, sown pastures
Fig. 2 The proportion of the annual forage supplied by the rangeland varies across the various sites but most are heavily dependent on the rangelands. In pure grazing areas it is near 90% but in the agro-pastoral counties more than 50% of total forage/fodder comes from sown pastures or fodder crops
A greater understanding of the linkages between animal husbandry, rangelands and the realities of the market economy has now emerged (Chapter 9, Zhang et al., 2010). The role of the urban centres and of the irrigated croplands as suppliers of fodder, services such as animal health, and as a market for livestock (for fattening or direct slaughter) and livestock products (wool, cashmere, skins and hides etc.) is now more clear (Li et al. 2008; Hou et al. 2008). Government policy is to develop a system of livestock production from rangelands that incorporates modern scientific animal husbandry and an intensification of production methods. This policy is difficult to implement and progress toward better integration of arable and non arable land which is the key to increasing forage and fodder production is slow. There are constraints, some of which relate to:
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• The lack of suitable land to convert from rangeland to forage-producing areas such as cropland for silage maize or oat production or for alfalfa for hay • The present system of transhumance that requires livestock to move on a seasonal basis from grazing areas in the lowlands to the uplands • The mind-set of herders that has developed over centuries of use of these remote rangelands that relied on mobility and freedom of movement to “follow the rain and the forage” • The lack of technical know-how on the part of the herders about how to grow fodder and forage crops and how to practice fodder conservation like hay making and silage production • The lack of suitable land where supplementary irrigation is available • The lack of capital with which to buy seed, fertilizer and agricultural equipment to plow, reap, harvest and process fodder and forage crops. This problem is exacerbated by the lack of rural credit This important aspect is dealt with in more detail in Chapter 3 (Squires et al. 2010a) and Chapter 9 (Zhang et al. 2010) where there is discussion of current and future challenges for livestock systems.
2 The Rangelands of Northwest China: A Resource on the Edge Western rangeland plays a very important role in the local economy. Reference has already been made to its value as a source for several major rivers (including some transboundary ones in Xinjiang) and numerous inland rivers in both Gansu and Xinjiang that provide a food production base from China’s irrigation areas.1 However both the human interferences and natural factors have driven the rangeland ecosystem downwards. The rangeland degradation is caused by a multiple factors. It is commonly recognized that the unbalanced feed and stock due to overgrazing is an important cause on top of natural factors such as drought (Li et al. 2008). Most of the problems associated with the management of rangelands and especially those dealing with rangeland degradation are people problems (Squires 2009). It is not really possible to manage natural resources without engaging the land users themselves in the process. Most cases of serious land degradation arise from misuse of land by people who are under great pressure from a harsh environment and, all too often. policy decisions that adversely affect them. Relief of the pressure by such policy instruments as improved legislation, fairer prices for inputs and outputs, income re-distribution and subsidies can make a huge difference to how people behave. The coping strategies of subsistence herders often involve destructive practices and the notion of sustainability is far from their minds as they eke out an Called artificial oases that were developed by damming inland rivers and converting riparian areas and adjacent rangeland into cropland.
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existence at the margin of society. There is still a belief that animal husbandry is the key component and raising herder incomes is a priority. The management of the rangeland is a secondary concern. The efforts are in “solving” minor problems such as “how to get more forage from each hectare” rather than deal with the underlying causes such as insecure land tenure, unclear boundaries for the assigned grazing user rights (Chapter 12, Wang et al. 2010) and poorly developed markets for livestock and livestock products such as meat, wool and cashmere. Grazing systems are characterized by a relatively low productivity, and most land that is suitable for grazing is already under use. Grazing production has a very slow response to changes in demand, because of the long time required for reproductive animals to grow and mature, and thus for stock numbers to build up. In fact, partly because in these systems animals are both the capital base and the source of cash flow the short-term response to increases in price is a reduction of marketed production, as increases in stock are retained to increase production capacity. In any case, stocking rates of rangelands are probably at the maximum levels (or higher) allowed by current technologies. Therefore, it is not realistic to expect large increases of production from these systems. Mixed systems, at the interface between croplands and rangelands, are under constant pressure to increase the area devoted to fodder and grain to meet the burgeoning demand for pen feeding of livestock and in response to population pressures and national policies that subsidize cereal production and self-sufficiency (Waldron et al. 2007; Wang et al. 2004). These policies are a major driving force behind the conversion of good and marginal lands from rangelands and pastures to cereal cropping (Hou et al. 2008; Zhang et al. 2009).
3 Stocking Rates, Carrying Capacity and Total Grazing Pressure The rangeland monitoring in 2006 shows that average rate of overstocking on rangelands across China is about 34%, whereas the overstocking rate in Gansu is about 40% and in Xinjiang it is up to 70% in some areas (Han et al. 2008; Jin and Zhou 2009). The causes of overgrazing have received closer attention in recent years from government officials and scholars. A series of comments and suggestions has also come out from these studies (Yang and Hou 2005). The overstocking problem is serious with the overstocking rate at least 40% on average but in some areas it is even higher (Table 1) and is accelerating in many areas since 1999 (Squires et al. 2009). There is a lack of clear policy on how to balance livestock numbers and feed supplies. The Chinese government in 2002 issued < Various guidelines to strengthen the protection and utilization of rangeland>, in which the feed balance system was promoted as an important approach. In 2003, there was a revised < Grassland
Called Grassland Law in China because rangelands is not a term commonly used in China.
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Table 1 Percentage of rangelands in NW China that was estimated to be overgrazed in 1990 and 1999. Further degradation has occurred in many areas since 1999 1990 1999 Province Overgrazed Degraded Overgrazed Degraded Tibet No data 14 30 15 Inner Mongolia No data 40 32 60 Xinjiang No data 0 60–70 65 Qinghai No data 17 31 39 Sichuan No data 24 13 28 Gansu No data 40 35 50
Law > to legislate the feed balance system and allow the determination of stocking rate on the basis of pasture condition and forage availability. As a follow- up, the governments at various levels have gradually enforced local regulations on implementation of the revised < Grassland Law2>. One important approach that has been stressed repeatedly is the “feed balance management system”. There have been great efforts since 1980s in Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang and Gansu, where the major herding areas are located, on how to implement the feed balance system. Two aspects were considered: (i) the policy point of view; and (ii) the technical point of view. Despite this, the overgrazing issue has not been addressed thoroughly. The answer to this is partly explained by the weak rangeland supervision regime, and by the inaccurate calculation of feed balance (Chapter 10, Wu et al. 2010). The policy maker’s perspective on how to perfect the feed balance system has informed the feed balance program but it is clear that input from plant ecologists and livestock nutritionists would help. Theoretically, the objective of feed balance system could be reached through the reduction of flocks and raising the supply of pastures given the overgrazing status on China’s rangeland. However, rangeland in western China has its unique features, special types of rangeland (most them are high-cold meadow and desert steppe). In addition to that, the artificial pastureland is confined to small areas. Hence the possibility to increase the pasture supply is limited. It leads to the point that the reduction of herd size becomes the focus (Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010). The questions are: • How to supervise the reduction of stocking pressure? • Who will supervise the process – the government or will the herders and farmers supervise the process by themselves? • How to transfer the excessive stock from the rangeland? • How to secure the herders’ subsistence? The answers to these questions are the key to the success of the feed balance system. It is usual to start with an economic analysis of sample household families (Chapter 14, Hua and Michalk 2010) and end with the suggestions on how to improve the current feed balance system. There is need for stakeholders to discuss the impact on their livelihood status given that the feed balance calculation usually means a drastic reduction in the stocking rate.
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Efforts to reduce livestock pressure will be ineffective if the recommended stocking rate generates insufficient income to meet the absolute minimum that a household needs (Chapter 11, Hua and Michalk 2010). Gansu was ranked 30th out of 31 Provinces in 2004 in terms of the rural income per capita and levels were far lower than the average rural income for China as a whole (Brown et al. 2008, p. 233). The herders’ income sources in Gansu are undiversified and their net income is low. In some cases, the expenditure is even bigger than income (Chapter 11, Hua and Michalk 2010). Livestock production is the dominant income source for herders. If the herders’ subsistence cannot be secured, the reduction of herd/flock size would impose negative impact on herders. This may necessitate action on the part of the government to provide compensation. This could be linked to enhanced livestock production that rises from fewer, more productive animals (Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010).This link between the rangeland monitoring, the calculation of feed balance and the extension of the principles of science and technology to the countryside is not really appreciated by the local bureaus. The effectiveness of the efforts to achieve feed balance depends on a consolidation of these ideas into a unified program of training, extension, and analysis. The development of strategic plans for each Village3 that are based on community participation in the design and management of more sustainable rangeland uses has been trialled. It might be difficult in most demonstration villages to get complete agreement by the whole village but a household-based approach is certainly achievable and there are good examples of cooperating households agreeing to and testing out alternative ways of managing their land (Chapter 1, Squires and Hua 2010). Many past interventions that relied on technical “solutions” such as those in many multilateral and bilateral projects in Xinjiang, Gansu, Inner Mongolia and elsewhere in northwest China have failed to bring about long term change. The introduction of new approaches such as Integrated Ecosystem Management (IEM), whose guiding principle is to allow solutions to evolve rather than be imposed from outside, may have a better chance of success (Jiang 2006) There is a clear need to bridge the gap between production and income objectives of the land users on the one hand, and the long-term objective of preserving natural resources on the other. The process will be long and costly but to do nothing is not an option. Examples of agro-pastoral integration such as in Anding District of Dingxi County in Gansu show that the approach is not just something theoretical but that it can allow incomes to rise without over-exploiting rangeland resources (Zhang et al. 2010). Re-structuring of crop and livestock enterprises has enabled the village households to rest rangelands, arrest soil erosion and yet still get higher net incomes. Other innovative approaches are a feature of the implementation in Sunan and Yongchan counties in Gansu and in Xinyuan and Yumin counties in Xinjiang. There are three major elements (Fig. 3) in most Counties (people, rangeland and livestock). In some areas wildlife (plants as well as animals) plays an important role. In China, local government is based on a hierarchy of Province, Prefecture, Township and Village. A Village can cover a very large area of rangeland and involve 150–300 households.
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+
Livestock
+
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Human population
+ −
− Rangeland
Arrows with “
−
+
− Wildlife
+“ indicate the same direction of change −“ indicate the opposite direction
Arrows with “
Fig. 3 Rangeland systems involve interactions between major subsystems. Some of the interactions are strongly negative. Good management seeks to minimize negative impacts
Design, build Species Biogas
Animal health
Artificial pastures or fodder
Waste disposal
Grassland management defer, rotational grazing, re-seed
Feed balance
Warm pen design, build
Fodder conservation
Hay making Ration formulation, which stock to feed and how much?
Sowing rate, sowing time Grass chopping machines, use, care, safety
Silage pits. Why? How? Design
Fig. 4 Elements of the more intensive production system based on pen feeding in winter. Note the scope of the management interventions and the need to put together packages of measures that are mutually reinforcing
There are intersecting sets of activities that relate to each of these elements (Fig. 4). No progress can be made in developing sustainable rangeland management and meeting the other development objectives without an understanding of how the rangeland/livestock/people system works (see Fig. 3). The choice of interventions from an extensive menu of possibilities depends on matching the proposed intervention to the perceived need.
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Box 1 An example from Xin Yuan County, Xinjiang of innovative approaches to implementation Xin Yuan county in Xinjiang is one of the sites for the World Bank/GEF project. The rainfall here is about 450 mm per year. Traditionally, whole yearround grazing is the norm and this involves the designation of different seasonal pastures and animal movement, usually altitudinal migration up and down the mountain. Livestock over-wintered in the open on designated winter pasture in the lowlands. Of recent years the rapid expansion of livestock numbers has led to a lack of feed intake and generally poor livestock nutrition. This is mainly due to the lack of forage from the overgrazed rangelands, exacerbated by low feed quality in winter and spring. Overloading of summer pastures due to failure of the grazing user rights system to regulate stock numbers is a special and serious problem. Even though user rights were assigned the demarcation of boundaries of individual grazing user rights are unclear. As a result, the degraded grassland area is now more than 5 million mu, about 67% of the total rangeland area. In addition, poisonous plants and inedible grass are taking over the rangelands gradually and forage production capacity has decreased dramatically. In order to solve the problem of land degradation in the seasonal pasture, an innovative approach was trialled. The farmers changed the whole year-round grazing to two seasonal grazing and prolonged the time of pen feeding to 180 days. The system involved dividing the year into two parts with grazing within fenced areas in the spring and autumn pastures and on communal range in summer and pen feeding in winter. Keeping the animals in the pens a little longer, after green-up, allows deferment of grazing in spring (leading to better rangeland health and improved livestock nutrition). In the two-season system more fodder is required and crop residues and other purpose-planted fodder crops and forage crops are grown. The ‘intervention package’ being implemented in Xin Yuan required investment for fencing, the warm pens, fodder conservation (hay, silage) and the purchase of crop residues and some grain or concentrates. Notwithstanding these outlays farmers reported that within several years there were higher incomes from fewer livestock. The approach mitigated the grazing pressure on natural pastures because the farmers feed their livestock with hay, crop residues, crop straw, etc., so as to reduce the dependence on overgrazed winter pastures. Mortality rates of pregnant females are down and the birth weights of offspring born in early spring have increased thus reducing neonatal mortality. Body weight losses which often accounted for more than 30% in the period November to May has been reduced so that the energy stores of livestock after they leave the pen feeding situation are at a higher level, allowing the animals to make rapid compensatory gains and for lactating females to conceive again sooner as their bodyweight quickly passes the threshold for conception. All of these benefits are additive and farmers/herders can move toward a more sustainable use of the rangelands while at the same time improve their lives and livelihoods. Compiled from field notes in World Bank/GEF project on Pastoral Development in Gansu and Xinjiang.
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Each activity-set has the potential to reduce the pressure on the rangelands. In other words, to manage the vast areas of rangeland in a way that achieves the objective of conserving biodiversity and capturing carbon while at the same time contributing to livelihoods of millions of people. Carbon gain and storage will be enhanced when rangeland are not abused (Chapter 7, Long et al. 2010). At present the experimental evidence from sites across China is that most degraded rangelands are net emitters of CO2 (Fang et al. 2007). To turn this around so that these rangelands become a C sink (or even C neutral) would be a big step (Squires 1998). In recent years there is a better understanding among both land users (herders and farmers) and the county and provincial level technical staff of the keys to sustainability and the realities of the market economy. There is recognition now too of the fact that there are only a few management options available to the land users (Chapter 3, Squires et al. 2010). Those that do exist fall into two categories: • Reduce total grazing pressure • Increase feed supply and/or utilization efficiency
4 Applied Research Strategy for Northwest China Research by specialist institutes and universities needs to focus on the problems. The strategy should emphasize farmer/herder participation in demonstrations implemented through a co-learning, collaborative framework. The focus of the research and extension program includes: rangeland rehabilitation and improvement, artificial rangeland development, biodiversity conservation and enhanced carbon sequestration (Fig. 5) There are three broad strategies in this applied research program: 1. Designing optimal grazing models for pastoral areas in Xinjiang and Gansu –– Systems relevant to village-based herding that have a higher component of artificial rangeland and supplementary feeds from crop residues and conserved fodder such as hay –– Systems relevant to transhumant herding is practiced and where altitudinal migration occurs between summer pastures in the uplands and winter grazing in the lowlands Optimizing resource utilization under both grazing systems requires derivation of a feed balance that seeks to identify the contribution to the annual food intake that comes from various sources e.g. rangeland, artificial pastures (usually irrigated), crop residues, feed supplements such as cotton seed meal, grain etc. Specific topics for investigation and demonstration involve the management of total grazing pressure in matters such as season of use, stocking density and “return time” (the interval between grazing of individual forage plants). Opportunities for agro-pastoral integration are being explored in applied research studies and
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Fig. 5 Applied research projects and their objectives in Gansu
demonstrated in the pilot areas (Chapter 4, Kirychuk and Fritz 2010; Chapter 9, Wu et al. 2010). 2. Assessing the response of grazing lands to total grazing pressure (including trampling and harvest by rodents, grasshoppers and wildlife) –– Dynamic monitoring of rangeland productivity, soil protection function –– Biodiversity and carbon sequestration potential under different grazing regimes –– Development of a sound Baseline rangeland resource inventory using remote sensing, GIS and other relevant technologies –– Demarcate and map important rangeland areas in Xinjiang and Gansu 3. Investigating the genetic potential of important local livestock breeds –– Work is focused on • The white yak in Gansu • Tan sheep in Gansu • Assessment of genetic distance among local sheep breeds in Xinjiang 4. Evaluating the new systems based on warm pens, sown pastures, fodder crops (silage/hay)
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• Two-pasture systems versus four-pasture systems • Role of pen feeding in the seasonal feed balance equation
5 Ecological Versus the Conventional Approach The role of the ecological approach is to provide the type of understanding necessary for ecologically sustainable land management. The ecological approach maximizes the use of natural resources without causing damage to an ecosystem. The ecological approach defines ecological sustainability in quantitative, measurable terms. There are big differences between the conventional (most exploitative) approach and the ecosystem approach (Table 2). There has been a failure throughout China to replicate the results of successful projects or applied research where worthwhile outcomes/results were demonstrated. Even where some replication has been attempted it has been limited. The next step after successful replication in a number of sites would be to scale up. Scaling up means taking successful programs, policies or projects and expanding, adopting and sustaining them in different places and across time, which requires learning about what works and what doesn’t. Scaling up the fight against rangeland Table 2 Distinguishing features of conventional versus integrated ecosystem approaches Attribute Conventional approach Integrated ecosystem approach Natural and managed ecosystems Perspective Natural systems seen as input viewed as part of one suppliers Land fertility, water etc. interdependent whole, providing a for current or future commodity wide range of goods and services production Products A few commodities or products A wide array of both managed and natural goods and services Strategy Maximize yield, production, and net Optimize total ecosystem goods and services output over time present value by intensifying the use of land, labour and capital System-oriented, including both Methodology Reductionist: high resolution quantitative and qualitative measurement of a small number assessments with close attention to of factors (“know more and more interactions, flows, trade-offs about less and less”) Take advantage of diversity Approach to Reduce diversity for more (biodiversity, social and cultural) diversity predictable results, more targeted to exploit niche potential, meet a interventions, and greater wider range of needs, reduce total economies of scale system risks and preserve future options Ecosystem level, community and Scales of work Field level, ownership boundaries secured landscape, societal plus biophysical Combine biophysical with social and Role of science Applied Science focused on policy analysis to create working biophysical resources, geared models for testing and for local towards specific technology adaptation outputs
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degradation or biodiversity loss can be defined as adapting and expanding positive development experiences in space and time. There are examples e.g. Anding, in Gansu where the county government has implemented a funding scheme to encourage the building of warm pens and silage pits. Subsidies are paid to the participating farmers in the way of providing construction materials and blueprints (plans) and technical advice and assistance. Other important indicators of success of research or demonstration relates to the reported substantial rise in income by demonstration households (HH). Higher net farm income to HH is seen by many as the end-point but the more important question is what happens to the extra HH income. What is pertinent is the plans that HH make to use this additional income. These plans might fall into one of three categories (a) invest in their enterprise e.g. buy more livestock or a motor bike, (b) improve living standards, e.g. new house, TV, etc. or (c) invest in their children’s education. This last mentioned is an important tangible outcome of demonstration projects although it is not so easily quantified. Where HH are able to generate more income through the recommended interventions there is a clearly demonstrable benefit in that this emphasis on children’s education is contributing to the National program of re-structuring agriculture and re-location of rural people away from direct dependence on the land. This empowerment of the people is a way forward for rural NW China and contributes to the rural readjustment policy of the government of China. From the point of view of uptake by others (and thus the impact of the demonstration projects) the principal barrier is lack of rural credit. The existing short term (1 year) loans do not allow time for infrastructure improvements or anything much except purchase of more livestock. In this regard they are actually counterproductive and exacerbate the problem of overstocking. There is a clear need to tackle the causes of the land degradation problem and not just deal with the consequences. Most effort in the past have been aimed in “solving” minor problems such as “how to get more forage from each hectare” rather than deal with the underlying causes of lower productivity such as insecure land tenure, unclear boundaries for the assigned grazing user rights, lack of clear policy on how to balance livestock numbers and feed supplies. There has been progress though over recent years in gaining a better understanding, among both land users (herders and farmers) and the county and provincial level technical staff, of the keys to sustainability and the realities of the market economy. These two issues requires special knowledge and skills, requires delicate work by the line agencies. It is not easy to solve at the moment. The rapid development in pen-fed enterprises at farming areas is intended to lay a new path to address the overstocking problem in rangelands. But the pastoral areas in China have unfavourable conditions to develop stall fed enterprises, such as poor infrastructure, lack of fodder supplies from crops or from artificial pastures, lack of storage facilities for conserved fodder etc. It has been proposed by some experts to set closer linkages between the farming and herding areas (Hou et al. 2008). The linkages could be explained as a production chain integrating the breeding in the herding area and fattening in the lowland farming area to reduce the stocking
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Fig. 6 Warm pens for over-wintering livestock (especially pregnant females) are a major energysaver and can also allow selective feeding of supplements to keep pace with nutritional demands of pregnancy
rate on rangelands. However, such a new production model may have limited application if there was irrational distribution of benefits between stakeholders. One of the feasible options to reduce the number of livestock on rangeland is to drive the excessive animals out of the rangeland (Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010). However the herding areas are far behind the farming area in terms of communication and availability of technical and market information. There is still room for improvement in terms of management and technologies to improve the economic returns from the pen-fed enterprises and to improve the marketing systems in herding areas (Chapter 9, Zhang et al. 2010; Chapter 10, Wu et al. 2010; Chapter 11, Hua and Michalk 2010) (Fig. 6). Clearly, the overstocking problem cannot be solved at one go, it should be addressed using a systematic approach. The government and the technical agencies should carry out basic work over a wide range of sites to facilitate the implementation of policy for “determination of stocking rate based on pastures”. The government and the technical agencies should set up complete teams and technical system to do rangeland monitoring and provide herders with accurate and effective feed balance information (Chapter 4, Kirychuk and Fritz 2010; Chapter 5, Squires et al. 2010).
6 The Economics of Various Production Systems Several important considerations are relevant to the profitability of raising livestock in NW China. A better understanding of these factors will help land administrators, extension personnel and the policy-makers. The cost structure of livestock production is composed of pastoral private costs (PPC), which livestock owners bear for rearing their herds, and pastoral private saved costs (PPSC), which livestock owners are not paying because they have access to,
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relatively, free grazing resources. Under these conditions, the objective of pastoralists is to minimize the size of the PPC while increasing the size of the PPSC by extensively relying on common pastures and free grazing access-options. The PPSC is an important variable in herder’s decision making as it determines whether they would like to be involved in collective action or not. The higher the level of PPSC, the more likely is the responsiveness and respect of rules governing the use of common resources. Once the PPSC is eroded, and the size of the PPC increases, the more likely is reluctance of herders to respect collective rules governing access, especially the owners of large herds. There are two important issues. The first issue relates to the changes to the cost structure associated with raising an additional animal on the common pastures while the second relates to the changes of the profitability of the production system associated with raising an additional animal. If we consider that without access to grazing resources, every pastoralist, who wants to raise an animal, would be obliged to purchase the full amount of feed needs – the same as livestock owners operating under intensive livestock production systems. Under such system, therefore, the total costs of raising animals would be equal to the number of animal multiplied by the costs per animal. Adding another animal means raising the total costs. Therefore, understanding the potential changes of the sizes of PPC and PPSC for the acquisition of an additional animal under various range management systems is critical in the decision making of herders. Moreover, potential changes on the PPSC are a good indicator for assessing the contribution of range resources to the welfare of herders under different management systems. Given the differences of the regions of NW China where the range management options are implemented, the marginal costs for adding an additional animal is less important although this is an indicator favored by many analysts. The most important indicators, because they show how the costs of adding an additional animal would change, are the changes of private costs (DPPC) and pastoral private saved costs (DPSC) under each system. The first measurement is easily quantifiable because we can collect information regarding the expenses incurred by every herder household. These costs include feed costs, grazing, water and herd management costs. If we consider that the sum of the changes of PPC and changes of PSC is equal to 1, then we can formalize this situation by the following equation: ∆PPCi = (∂C pi / C pi ) / (∂H pi /H pi ) = 1 − ((∂Csi / Csi )/ (∂H si /H si )) (∂Cpi/Cpi) indicates changes of private costs for a given herder household with respect to total costs (∂Hpi/Hpi) indicates changes of herd size for a given herder household with respect to total herd size (∂Csi/Csi) indicates changes of saved costs for a given herder with respect to total saved costs (∂Hsi/Hsi) indicates changes of herd size for a given herder household with respect to total herd size
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Under the customary herding system, it is clear that net collective benefits accrued to all group members are higher than net benefits accrued by acting individually. The main difference being the limited capacity of an individual member to negotiate reciprocal grazing arrangements with neighboring or other herder HH. When herders augment their herds because they see the profitability of doing so, they will eventually drive to zero the share of saved costs. Under such a case, not only will the herders bear the full costs of raising animals but also generate an externality, for example, land degradation and loss of biodiversity, that they are not paying for and that is negatively affecting the welfare of the whole community. The question then for governments has been on how to make sure that the individual livestock owner does bear some of the costs. As a result, there have been many attempts by different pastoral societies and governments to reduce the share these private saved costs by introducing different management systems for accessing and using the resource while minimizing such externalities on society. It is likely that livestock owners would also be willing to pay a premium to access or participate in collective action in order to lower their private costs. As long as the herders are aware that accepting proposed range management options will continue to be profitable, they will be willing to comply with new rules and pay fees. Under the community system livestock owners see that adding an animal in their herd will reduce their private costs and increase their benefits from the common grazing resources. The incentives to increase flock sizes are real amongst community members. Adding another animal increases private savings and also reduces private costs. However, when one looks at the profitability of adding another sheep unit to the flock, it clear that even if costs are reduced, the profitability is low. There should be further reform of the livestock production system and strengthening of the infrastructure facilities, including marketing, and the further application of science and technology to improve pastoral development (Chapter 4, Kirychuk and Fritz 2010; Chapter 15, Squires et al. 2010). The shift from the conventional pastoral production system to a new system which combines the grazing with the pen-fed enterprises requires a lot more research and investigation (Chapter 9, Zhang et al. 2010). There is a need to conduct trials and further research (especially socio-economic studies) on the linkages between herding and farming activities in order to optimize the sustainable utilization of resources over the large areas of pastoral land (Harris 2009). There are other important considerations to ensure sound resource management. This includes secure tenure, equity and access, institutional credit, marketing, and legal protection. In any case, the community should be empowered to protect the commons from encroachment, regulate seasonal movements between pastures and arbitrating in local disputes. This would redirect emphasis on the importance of flexible management strategies incorporating seasonal animal movement to make use of the best grasses in a given season or year (Chapter 12, Wang et al. 2010). It is clear that herders in the project area see pasture as having a particular seasonal value; if there is snow, winter pasture does not require water but needs a good windbreak; spring pastures require a position on southern facing slopes where snow
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melts more readily and grasses grow quicker; summer pastures require access to water, while autumn pastures require particular grass species that promote lactation and fat accumulation.
References Brown GC, Waldron SA, Longworth JW (2008) Substainable development in Western China. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK, p 294 Fang JY, Guo ZD, Piao SL, Chen AP (2007) Terrestrial vegetation carbon sinks in China, 1981–2000. Sci China Ser D 50(9):1341–1350 Han JG, Zhang YJ, Wang CJ, Bai WM, Wang JR, Han CD and Li LH (2008) Rangeland degradation and restoration management in China. The Rangeland J. 30:233–239 Harris RB (2009) Rangeland degradation on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau: a review of the evidence of its magnitude and causes. J Arid Environ 74(1):1–12 Hou FJ, Nan ZB, Xie YZ, Li XL, Lin HL, Ren JZ (2008) Integrated crop-livestock production systems in China. Rangeland J 30(2):221–231 Hu ZZ, Zhang DG (2003) China’s pasture resources. In: Suttie JM, Reynolds SB (eds) Transhumant grazing systems in temperate Asia. Plant production and protection series 31. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, pp 81–133 Hua LM, Michalk DL (2010) Herders’ income and expenditure: perceptions and expectations (Chapter 11, this volume) Jiang Z (ed) (2006) Integrated ecosystem management. Proceedings of the international workshop, China Forestry Publishing House, Beijing, p 250 Jin G, Zhu J (2009) Case Study 8: Northern Xinjiang. In V. Squires et al., Rangeland Degradation and Recovery in China’s Pastoral Lands. CAB International, Wallingford, Uk pp 197–215 Kirychuk B, Fritz B (2010) Ecological restoration and control of rangeland degradation: livestock management (Chapter 4, this volume) Li XL, Nan QH, Wan LQ, He F (2008) Perspectives on livestock production systems in China. Rangeland J 30(2):211–220 Michalk DL, Hua LM, Kemp DR, Jones R, Takahashi T, Wu JP, Nan Z, Xu Z, Han G (2010) Redesigning livestock systems to improve household income and reduce stocking rates in China’s western grasslands (Chapter 14, this volume) Long RJ, Shang ZH, Li X, Jiang P, Jia H, Squires VR (2010) Carbon sequestration and the implications for rangeland management (Chapter 7, this volume) Squires VR (1998) Prospects for increasing carbon storage in desert soils and the likely impact on mitigating global climate change. In: Omar S, Misak R, Al-Ajmi D (eds) Sustainable development in arid zones: assessment and monitoring of desert ecosystems. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, pp 19–30 Squires VR (2009) People in Rangelands: Their role and influence on ecosystems. Range and Animal Sciences and Resources Management, Victor R. Squires (ed), in Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford, UK, http://www.eolss.net Squires VR, Hua LM (2010) North-west China’s rangelands and peoples: facts, figures, challenges and responses (Chapter 1, this volume) Squires VR, Hua LM, Li GL, Zhang DG (2010) Exploring the options in North-west China pastoral lands (Chapter 3, this volume) Squires VR, Hua LM, Zhang DG, Li G (2010) Towards ecological restoration and management in China’s northwest pastoral zone (Chapter 15, this volume)
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Waldron SA, Brown CG, Longworth JW, Zhang CG (2007) China’s Livestock Revolution: Agribusiness and Policy Developments in the SheepMeat Industry, CAB International, Wallingford UK Wang M, Zhao CZ, Hua LM, Squires VR (2010) Land tenure: problems, prospects and reform (Chapter 12, this volume) Wang X, Han H, Bennett J (2004) Sustainable land use change in the North West Provinces of China. Research report no. 1 ACIAR, Canberra Wu JP, Squires VR, Yang L (2010) Improved animal husbandry practices as a basis for profitability (Chapter 10, this volume) Yang L, Hou X (2005) Reflection on grassland-livestock balance management model. China Rural Econ 2005(9):62–66 Degang Z, Jizhou R, Limin H, Squires VR (2010) Agro-pastoral integration: development of a new paradigm (Chapter 9, this volume) Zhang K, Yu Z, Li X, Zhou X, Zhang WD (2009) Land use change and land degradation in China from 1991 to 2001. Land Degrad Dev 18(2):209–219
Part II
Combating Rangeland Degradation
The rangelands of north and western China are severely degraded through overstocking. Herders in the region are among the poorer people in China. Presentday land utilization in the pastoral regions of NW China shows the influence of both the long tradition of herding and the impact of population increases through inward migration, and of the changing policy environment from the mid-twentieth century. The three chapters in this Part examine what needs to be done to arrest and reverse land degradation in the pastoral lands by first examining the various options available to do this. There is in-depth focus on two elements: (a) livestock and their management and (b) the ecology of the rangelands themselves.
Chapter 3
Exploring the Options in North-West China’s Pastoral Lands Victor Squires, Hua Limin, Li Guolin, and Zhang Degang
Synopsis Present-day land utilization in the pastoral regions of NW China shows the influence of both the long tradition of herding and the impact of population increases through inward migration, and of the changing policy environment from the mid-twentieth century. Management options and livelihood strategies for the herders and farmers in NW China are considered and evaluated. The necessity of working within a systems framework is explained. Key Points 1. There are only a few management options available to the land users. Those that do exist fall into two categories: Reduce total grazing pressure (from livestock, from mammalian competitors) and Increase feed supply and/or utilization efficiency (by planting sown pastures, and fodder crops, by utilizing crop residues in a better way, e.g. urea treatment, by conserving fodder as hay or silage). 2. Recently there has been a re-shaping of the local agro-pastoral production systems and rural livelihoods. The main strategies adopted can be classified into two main groups: Reactive/Shorter term coping mechanisms and Proactive/Longer term adaptive changes. 3. A prerequisite to any plan to improve the herder incomes or the productivity of the rangelands is to gain a good understanding of the existing system and the linkages between the components of the system. Experience has shown that
Victor Squires () University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia e-mail:
[email protected] Hua Limin Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China Li Guolin Gansu Animal Husbandry Bureau, Lanzhou, China Zhang Degang College of Grassland Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China V. Squires et al. (eds.), Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7_3, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
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“packaging” interventions is essential because attention to a single aspect such as better breeds will do little to overcome the existing bottlenecks. 4. Many changes are occurring that effect the relationships between the herders and those in adjacent areas. There are now important new linkages between the rangelands, the farming community, villages as service centers and the larger urban centers that provide a market for many livestock products. 5. As China moves toward a market economy the influence of both supply and demand for livestock products (milk, meat, fiber) and environmental concerns loom large. Importantly, the role of the pastoralist becomes that of a supplier of market demand rather than a mediator between the rangeland and animals. 6. Rural livelihood strategies in the regions are changing. At the household level the income generated through agriculture and rural activities seems increasingly unable to satisfy the economic needs of a family; and the labor opportunities provided by herding and farming do not inspire the younger generations. As a result the importance of income sources produced off-farm are becoming of utmost importance. Keywords Agro-pastoral • herders • farmers • markets • livelihood strategy • population growth • rangeland conversion • sown pasture • packaging interventions • fodder crops • crop residues • systems framework • ecosystem services • nonequilibrial • biodiversity • livestock • gender bias • animal dung as fuel • edible plants
1 Introduction North-west China is a vast area with a wide variety of landscapes and land uses. The altitude varies greatly from basins that are below sea level through to towering mountains. The region varies from densely populated artificial oases to sparsely populated pastoral land. Overlain on this is a rich diversity of nationalities and cultures that influence land use practices (Chapter 1, Squires and Hua 2010a). Present-day land utilization shows the influence of both the long tradition of herding and the impact of population increases through inward migration, and of the changing policy environment from the mid-twentieth century. The first round of Han immigrants to Xinjiang and Gansu mostly settled down around the oasis (both natural and artificial) when they found suitable land to cultivate and so the rangelands were seldom reached at that time. But as populations grew, more and more land was converted from rangeland to cropland. This conversion to agriculture fundamentally changed the landscape of the rangeland. Herders who turned to farmers became gradually detached from the core of their material culture (herding). In some interzone areas between cropping and herding, in both Gansu and Xinjiang, settled or semi-settled herders took on many elements of Han farming practices. Pastoralists and their activities were thus affected in different degrees by the influx of migrants, depending on their locations. Pastoral land available to herders was much reduced in the areas where new settlers were converting rangelands to cropland and where water supplies were being diverted to irrigate the newly-opened croplands (Figs. 1 and 2). Land degradation began to increase in its extent and severity. Despite this loss of grazing area livestock populations increased rapidly (Fig. 3).
The area of rangeland converted (ten thousand ha)
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1958
1961
1969
1976
1983
1989
1993
1995
1997
1999
Fig. 1 Rangeland has been converted to cropland in both Gansu and Xinjiang. There was a big surge in the 1960s and again in the 1990s as this data from Gansu shows
Late 1940s
Increasing land degrada on (LDD)
Late 1980s
Late1990s
Rangeland
No LDD LDD
Cul�vated
Fig. 2 There were many changes in China’s pastoral lands after the late 1940s. Large areas of the better rangelands were converted to cropland. Often these previously cultivated areas were abandoned soon after. This contributed to serious land degradation as the rising population of livestock and people were competing for resources on a shrinking land base
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Total livestock number
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400,000 300,000
unty
i Co
200,000
e Sub
100,000
Shi Baochen
0
g Township
1949
1959
1969
1979
1989
1999
2009
Fig. 3 Livestock populations grew rapidly in response to growing demand for food and fiber and exceeded the carrying capacity of the rangelands in some areas by the 1970s as this example from Subei County, Gansu shows
Sedentarization was strongly promoted by the government since the 1960s because nomadism was considered as backward and something to be eliminated. It was assumed that permanent houses and shelters in winter for livestock would improve pastoralist’s living conditions. However, due to water shortage or limited grazing land, the critical time for calving and lambing in the spring, houses and shelters were actually built in the spring pastures in most of the pastoral areas. This has exacerbated the problem in many areas, especially if the winter was harsh and fodder reserves were exhausted and ‘green-up’1 was delayed. As China moves toward a market economy the influence of both supply and demand for livestock products (milk, meat, fiber) and environmental concerns loom large. Importantly, the role of the pastoralist becomes that of a supplier of market demand rather than a mediator between the rangeland and animals. The three key factors (Chapter 2, Fig. 2.5) in the system are People (culture, knowledge, labor) Livestock (herd size and composition) and the Forage resource (area, type, seasonal variability, yearly fluctuations).
2 The Grassland Law and Its Impact Past policies have had a profound effect on current land use and on management practices (Brown et al. 2008; Squires et al. 2009) especially the impact of the Household Contract Responsibility System (HCRS) on land tenure arrangements (Chapter 12, Wang et al. 2010). The landscape is changing quite rapidly under pressure to impose techno-scientific management on the commons as part of the grander constructionist vision of ‘engineering’ the natural environment – a mastery
1 Green-up is term given to the commencement of growth by the winter-dormant grasses and forbs, usually in April or May each year but its timing varies according to altitude and weather patterns
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over nature (and indigenous values) – something at which the Chinese have long been particularly adept. Resource-users seem to be increasingly caught in a lifechanging world, one that has very few options and that gives them little control while increasing impoverishment (Williams 2002, p. 175). The Grassland Law has influenced the way that herders manage their livestock and the rangelands on which they depend. Under HCRS, the relationship between animal, rangeland and pastoralists is very different from that in traditional pastoralism (see Table 1). Further, the change of labor division is evident. In nomadic times, men herded livestock at some distance from the encampment, looked for lost animals, dug wells and decided migration routes. Women were responsible for all work in the encampment and primary processing of produce such as wool and mare’s milk. However, with the reduction of migration frequency (and distance), men worked less and less. Women do almost all the work and men only do some heavy work because nowadays most of the work is done near the semi-permanent settlements (Table 1). Herder households have adjusted their management of animals and vegetation accordingly after the government measures to reduce stocking rates. First, animal structure has greatly changed (Table 2). There are fewer big animals (horses, camels and cattle) now and in some local government areas there are restrictions on cashmere goats because they are believed to be too destructive. Since one big animal will take five times the rangeland area of a small animal, households with small contracted rangeland only raise small animals and those with bigger contracted Table 1 Comparison of year round activities of herders before and after sedentarization Month Traditional pastoral activities Present pastoral activities March Calving and lambing Calving and lambing Cultivating fodder April/May Calving lambing Calving and lambing Migration to summer pasture June Migration to summer pasture Shearing of sheep and collect mohair Shearing sheep and from goats collect mohair from goats Migration to summer pasture July Migration to summer pasture Shearing sheep and collect Shearing sheep and collect mohair mohair from goats from goats August Migration to autumn pasture Harvesting/buying fodder Mowing hay Migration to sedentary pasture September Migration to autumn pasture Harvesting/buying fodder Mowing hay Migration to sedentary (often sown) pasture October Migration to autumn pasture November Migration to winter pasture Cleaning shelter December Migration to winter pasture Selling animals January Migration to winter pasture Feeding animals in shelter February Migration to spring pasture Feeding animals in shelter
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Table 2 Changes in type and number of livestock in selected pastoral prefectures in Gansu Ratio of small to Sheep and goats Large stock large stock (%) Prefecture/county 1985 2005 1985 2005 1985 2005 Whole province 1,030.62 1,532.2 507.88 614.69 203 249 Semi-pastoral and 275.94 286.53 102.07 104.51 270 274 pastoral area Gan Nan/Ma Qu 31.45 35.12 31.96 32.62 98 108 Gan Nan/Lu Qu 27.28 28.57 15.58 13.79 175 207 Gan Nan/Xia He 65.59 55.74 29.77 16.91 220 330 Zhang Ye/Su nan 53.39 48.64 6.03 2.94 885 1,654 Wu Wei/Tianzhu 42.06 46.26 9.32 13.34 451 347 Jiu Quan/Subei 22.87 24.47 0.57 0.81 4,012 3,021 Jinchang/Yong chang 21.09 62.84 3.11 5.1 678 1,232 Unit: ten thousand
rangeland also raise some cattle. However, horses and camels are seldom parts of the herds anymore. Besides, the availability of modern transportations and the less mobile lifestyle reduce the utility of camels and horses. The change of herd/flock animal composition not only means that some traditional management knowledge is no longer practical, but also implies or reflects changes in people’s life. Because the various species used to provide different necessities for the herders: sheep and goat for meat and winter clothing, cattle for milk, horses for riding and camels for transportation. Basically, the mobility and flexibility that was provided through access to extensive areas of rangeland and seasonal change of pastures (four-pasture systems), were terminated by this official institutional arrangement that was set out in HCRS and through the Grassland Law. Therefore, it is not surprising to see that this institutional design is contradictory to several fundamental premises of herder tradition. Contracted rangeland under HCRS and the sedentary lifestyle thus limit access to formerly available pasturage in the face of seasonal and potentially catastrophic variations of the ecosystem. Nowadays the pastoral households must rely on better constructed shelters, ample storage of fodder (hay and silage), and prompt assistance from the outside world to fight against disasters. The new system of livestock production depends on the level of household incomes and their ability to access fodder either through production on land allocated for the purpose or by purchasing it from farmers. Access to markets and the organization of outside assistance in times of disasters including severe winters or prolonged drought are also important prerequisites to full implementation of the new market economy. The new system has also brought about changes of relationships between the herders and those in adjacent areas (Chapter 9, Zhang et al. 2010). There are now important new linkages between the rangelands, the farming community, villages as service centers and the larger urban centers that provide a market for many livestock products (Chapter 1, Squires and Hua 2010a and Chapter 2, Squires and Hua 2010b). Within this resulting complex, diversified and dynamic context it is
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difficult to understand which livelihood strategies are most appropriate to address the suite of problems – land degradation, over-population, lack of arable land, lack of water, changing markets, and the new policy environment. Processes, factors and trends that largely influence the livelihood outcomes of herders and farmers in NW China have led to a re-shaping of the local agro-pastoral production systems and rural livelihoods. The main strategies adopted can be classified into two main groups.
2.1 Reactive/Shorter Term Coping Mechanisms • Storage of fodder and animal feed diversification of feed methods and mechanisms • Reduction of flock size and sales of drought-stressed animals to facilitate feeding of the remaining animals which can vary to different degrees – from the fast sale of young lambs and kids to the sale of reproductive ewes – with different important implications • Provisional short term indebtedness with feed sellers • Shifts in animal and also people diets to lower price/lower quality inputs, with important nutritional and health implications • Reliance on external inputs (supplementary feedstuffs, energy) • Multiplication and deepening of wells to exploit ground water • Greater attention to animal health so as to make best possible use of available feed resources • Temporary migration.
2.2 Proactive/Longer Term Adaptive Changes • Privatization of communal range through irrigation and or/crop schemes, tree plantations or other investments, including expansion of artificial pastures in marginal rangelands • Systematic recourse to the complementation of purchased feed • Loan and credit schemes between private contractors, either of land or of other production inputs • Collection of grass.hay after the rainy season and storage for use in dry times or in winter • Reorganization of transhumance schemes, with mechanized transport and skilled labor requirements • Shifts in flock composition with continuous increase in numbers of small ruminants (especially cashmere goats in some areas) • Development of shrub plantings, alley cropping, soil rotation and other conservation agriculture techniques • Improved management and utilization of conserved fodders and crop residues and by-products
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• Increased reliance on feed and grains storage capacities • Diversification of income generation activities through migration of some household members. The option of diversifying the source of income seems an increasingly important strategy all over the region. Rural livelihood strategies in the regions are changing. At the household level the income generated through agriculture and rural activities seems increasingly unable to satisfy the economic needs of a family; and the labor opportunities provided by herding and farming do not inspire the younger generations. As a result the importance of income sources produced off-farm are becoming of utmost importance. The main failure of the efforts to modernize agro-pastoral resource management is reportedly the limited capacity to self-provide for adequate stored stocks of food and feed, both for people and for pen-fed animals. This is perceived as a weak link in the rural livelihood chain, as it does not allow proper utilization of locally available resources. Improvements in the animal production system are important; keeping fewer and more efficient animals seems to be the way forward for the local community. This will reduce the amount of forage and fodder consumed and allow household incomes to rise despite the smaller flock (Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010). Options to support and facilitate people and livestock mobility during harsh times should be considered and developed, so that drought impacts can be reduced. Opportunities that might be considered are: • Enhance access to basic services such as education, communication and basic assistance to people and animals on the move • Adequate care and assistance provided to household members who cannot afford mobility • Provide opportunities to tackle disputes and conflicts over land access which increase at these difficult times. Mobility related to market exchanges is also a reportedly increasingly important livelihood strategy in most areas and options to be explored to facilitate access to alternative income-generation and/or credit opportunities for mobile communities. Opportunities nonetheless exist for revamping mobility through investments in the physical as well as human capital, as both mechanized transportation and skilled shepherding are nowadays needed. Transhumance is becoming a profession, a skilled labor that requires the presence of specialized shepherds who have a thorough knowledge of the resources and their distribution in space and time – for which it makes sense to set up adequate policy frames and training centers; the institutionalization of such activity would also improve pastoralists’ capacity to raise visibility. Many areas are now experiencing severe and prolonged poverty as herders struggle to adapt to the new market economy and the policy environment in the face of a changing climate2. Opportunities to diversify the rural economy are also becoming increasingly important to support rural livelihoods. Comparisons of the changing income levels of herders, urban dwellers and peasant farmers over the past 20 years shows a greater divergence as time goes by.
2
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There has been acceleration in the rate of land degradation in recent decades (Fig. 2) characterized by: • • • •
A reduction in plant cover and reduced productivity of the grazing lands3 More soil loss from the action of wind and water Loss of biodiversity Diminished capacity to sequester carbon.
Pastoral activities have also undergone a big transformation. Generally, the context under the Household Contract Responsibility System (HCRS) is rather different from before. A comparison of present year round pastoral activities with the traditional ones (see Table 3) shows that pastoralists nowadays need to spend less time in migration but more time in preparing fodder and winter shelters. There was no such tradition among nomadic herders to store fodder or hay for animals in autumn and winter. Local government initially promoted the construction of warm pens, sowing of artificial pastures and fodder conservation as a strategy to rescue starved livestock in ‘white disasters’4 and to save loss of breeding herds/flocks.5 Later, it became the main strategic intervention to improve livestock productivity and increase output. Grazing bans (seasonal or total) were also implemented in some areas as part of the strategy to restore degraded rangelands. The National fencing program “Returning grazing lands to grasslands” is also part of the strategy as is the attempt to maintain a “feed balance”. After the imposition of grazing bans in spring or even year-round in some areas, cultivated fodder crops like silage maize or oats and mown hay either from alfalfa or from natural grasslands became a main source of fodder for livestock. Wheat straw and other crop residues from adjacent cropping areas are also important in some areas. Besides, there are also some periodic activities, like fencing maintenance, shelter maintenance, hybridization and veterinary inspection. These new activities reflect the changes in pastoral management and the changes in the herders’ lifestyle over the past few decades. The acceptance of the new system of livestock production depends on the level of household incomes. Cash (or credit at low interest rates) is required to acquire equipment or other infrastructure and their ability to access fodder either through production on land allocated for the purpose or by purchasing it from farmers. Access to markets and the organization of outside assistance in times of disasters including severe winters or prolonged drought are also important prerequisites to full implementation of the new market economy. The key elements of the newly imposed system are summarized in Fig. 4. For example, the rangeland productivity in Gan Nan prefecture, Gansu dropped from 5,610 kg/km2 in 1982 to 4,050 kg/km2 in 1999; the vegetation coverage has decreased from 95% to 75%; the average vegetation height was lowered from 75 to 15 cm. 4 White disasters occur when the winter is severe and are often exacerbated by heavy snow in late spring 5 In both Gansu and Xinjiang losses of up to 30% of breeding stock and their offspring were known to occur each spring 3
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Table 3 Elements of the new scientific system of animal husbandry being promoted in Xinjiang and Gansu Attribute Conventional system New scientific system Warm pen Not used Vital element of new system Ration formulation Not used Selective feeding of penned livestock, especially pregnant ones Getting right nutritional balance for optimum output Fodder crops Not used Vital element of new system Small silage pit suitable for Silage pit Only used in feed lot small householders used in or dairy cropping land area or agrocattle farm pastoral area Hay making and fodder Used in a limited way Being encouraged as a way to conservation improve feed balance Not used Part of suite of tools for making Grass Chopping machine silage Not used Seen as a focus for the new Feed balance approach system as a way of assessing to assessing stocking carrying capacity and rates underpin sustainable use Artificial pastures Not used An important part of efforts to augment feed supply Re-seeding rangelands Not used Useful in selected areas to help reinforce rangelands and increase forage supply Biogas pit Not used Incorporated as part of waste treatment from warm pens and households. Part of fuel saving plan Solar stove and battery Not used Part of energy saving strategy to reduce pressure on rangeland fuel resources Village- or household-based Community-based Used by kin-related groups rangeland management is a grazing plans to restrict access to key element forage and water Rotational and deferred Not used Rangeland rehabilitation depends grazing on reducing grazing pressure and allowing regeneration Grazing bans Used in some areas Seasonal or year-long bans have been applied to allow rangeland regeneration Animal health Important but limited to more More emphasis on vaccines, and accessible herds/flocks culling of diseased stock Cross breeding and use of Introduction of high quality Less emphasis - herders selected sires encouraged livestock breeds used their own replacement sires AI technique Not used Now widely available in specially built AI stations Targeted training and Not widely used Technology transfer and targeted technical assistance training is an essential element
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Livestock - Number - Species - Herd size Products - Markets
Rangeland - Amount - Condition
Govt. policies & measures
Fig. 4 Elements of pastoral production under the HCRS system. Herder households (HH) (number, ethnicity, age structure are key elements.) The thickness of the lines reflects the strength of the interactions and arrows indicate direction
Design, build Species Biogas
Animal health
Artificial pastures or fodder
Waste disposal
Grassland management defer, rotational grazing, re-seed
Feed balance
Warm pen design, build
Fodder conservation
Sowing rate, sowing time Grass chopping machines, use, care, safety
Hay making Ration formulation, which stock to feed and how much?
Silage pits. Why? How? Design
Fig. 5 The training program used in Gansu’s implementation of the World Bank/GEF project focussed on the warm pen and the related aspects emanated from that. Training was problemoriented
As the diagram (Fig. 5) shows, by mounting a training program that elaborates on the various practical issues related to the successful integration of the warm pen into the overall management of rangeland/livestock system a coherent approach is created. The training package can be contributed to by people with different knowledge as diverse as design and construction of warm pens or biogas (or silage) pits to veterinary science (animal health under pen-fed conditions in winter) or animal nutrition (ration formulation).
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Training is a necessary process for all levels of society. It is used to transfer specific skills and to transfer technology “packages”. The latter approach involves transferring concepts and ideas as well as teaching “how to”. Training also should include the “why” as well as the “how”. Much of the training offered by the various extension agencies in China is driven by the needs of the various bureaus to implement new policy and explain new regulations. Capacity building in the Township, County and Prefecture level is a necessary prerequisite. Training of trainers is a common strategy. A much neglected aspect is the role of training in changing the mind-set of the people who make and implement policy. There is a very important role for training and awareness-raising among government officials of the environmental impacts of land use and the implications of the policies they are developing or trying to enforce (see Chapter 13, Zhao and Squires 2010). Only when the trainers are properly informed can the training of land users be thought of as effective. Herders and farmers who are struggling to deal with many new and important concepts, rules and regulations, need effective training in the “why” - the rationale and principles on which the new regulations are based. In addition, there is a clear need to teach specific skills-training on techniques related to their core business e.g. animal health (vaccination), animal nutrition (ration formulation), carrying capacity assessment (feed balance).
3 Links Between Poverty and Land Degradation Mitigating land degradation and alleviating poverty (two closely integrated problems) in China’s pastoral areas depends on the interplay of socio-economic and biophysical factors (Brown et al. 2008). Often the problems of poverty, population and the environment are intertwined: earlier patterns of development and the pressure of rapidly expanding population mean that many of the poor live in areas of acute environmental degradation (World Bank 1990). It is irrational to expect people to knowingly behave in ways that destroy resources necessary for their survival or that of their future generations unless very strong pressures to do so are present. The poor do not wilfully degrade the environment but poor families often lack the resources to avoid degrading their environment. The very poor, struggling at the edge of subsistence, are preoccupied with day to day survival. It is not that the poor have inherently short horizons; poor communities often have a strong ethic of stewardship in managing their traditional lands. But their fragile and limited resources, their often poorly defined property rights, and their limited access to credit, insurance and markets prevents them from investing as much as they should in environmental protection. When they do make investments they need quick results. Land users are less likely to make natural resource investments where returns are expected after a number of years. The time-preference argument suggests that the immediate and urgent needs be satisfied first. Risk aversion can lead to a short time horizon. To the extent that outcomes in the future become less certain than outcomes closer to the present, people will prefer
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to trade the more uncertain outcomes for the more certain ones. Risk aversion amongst herders is widely documented Attitude of the poor to risk is not distinguished from those of the non-poor by innate or acquired characteristics but by the higher levels of risk faced by the poor and by the greater constraints to coping with these risks. Deteriorating land quality brings not only poorer forage yields but also greater yield fluctuations and hence higher risk. To the extent that access to common property resources serves as insurance for the poor in times of setbacks to the primary sources of income, the decrease in access can increase the risk. Outward migration can benefit the environment through mitigating risk. Individual migration is increasingly seen as an outcome of family decision making, particularly in response to uninsured risks. Remittances, from family members who move to urban areas for employment, are an important coping strategy for rural poor. The poor face greater constraints to managing their risks. Their assets and stored production are generally minimal. Their access to credit and insurance is generally limited and or non-existent. Rural credit and insurance markets in developing countries are notoriously fragmented. In most cases there is also a gender bias so that poor women have far less access to mechanisms for managing risk than their male counterparts. The poor generally have access only to areas that have higher risk for health and income generation. In terms of the productivity of the resources that the poor manage, the decline is intricately related to the poverty-population-environment interaction. Where the poor depend on biomass fuel and confront increasing fuel wood scarcity they often shift to using animal dung, fodder and crop residues for fuel. This leads to accelerated land degradation. The most debilitating risk is that of drought in semi-arid and arid areas. The combination of poverty and drought can have serious environmental consequences that threaten future agricultural and livestock productivity and the conservation of natural resources. Poor people are induced to scavenge more intensively during droughts, seeking out wood and other organic fuels, wild life and edible plants, both to eat and to sell. This scavenging aggravates deforestation and damage to watersheds and soil already under stress from the drought. The problem is aggravated in open access pastoral farming (Chapter 12, Wang et al. 2010) where herders have extra livestock as insurance against drought and may commonly exploit and over burden the carrying capacity of the land increasing the likelihood of permanent damage. Small ruminants can be exceptionally damaging to resources. Poorer households are generally responsible for raising small ruminants, which are allowed to graze low quality resources especially on open access and common property land. The Chinese government at national and provincial levels have initiated a number of sometimes-conflicting and confusing policies aimed, at least nominally, at restoring rangeland productivity. On the basis of a comprehensive literature review, Harris (2010) argues that the true extent and magnitude of rangeland degradation remains largely unknown because the area is vast, often remote, and highly variable and because the monitoring programs have been subjective and poorly documented.
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4 How Will We Abate Negative Environmental Impacts of Livestock? A comprehensive conference on livestock-environment interactions held in 1997 (Nell 1998) confirmed that a lot of land degradation and environmental damage is associated with livestock production. These negative impacts were attributed to increased population pressure associated with poor management practices, particularly in grazing and mixed systems. In almost all cases, negative environmental consequences of livestock production are traced to specific policies and institutional backgrounds, and are not explained by an inherent lack of technological options or biophysical characteristics of the production process. Extensive grazing systems and mixed systems impact vast land areas, and rely directly on ecosystem services such as primary productivity, nutrient cycling, and dissipation of pollution (Chapter 1, Squires and Hua 2010a). Livestock in these systems interface directly with biodiversity, and produce more methane per unit output than industrial systems, as methane is a more abundant by-product of fermentation of fibrous forages. Thus, extensive grazing systems should be a focus for global plans to reduce negative impacts of livestock. There is a need for a series of property, financial, institutional, informational, and infrastructure measures to mitigate the negative effects of grazing systems. Property rights should be set such that herders have security in access to grazing and water resources. Herders, local communities, and producers should be stakeholders of biodiversity and other natural resources, so there is an incentive for investment and conservation. Programs that regulate and monitor access to common grazing lands, particularly when they are based on a strengthening of traditional pastoral institutions, have the greatest chance at being successful and sustainable. From the point of view of financial and infrastructure measures, it is essential to understand and incorporate the variability of weather and forage production, particularly in arid ecosystems. The non-equilibrial6 nature of these systems requires development that enhances flexibility and mobility, instead of striving for an unattainable equilibrium. Roads, markets, information systems, and investment in cold storage and slaughterhouses can facilitate the rapid changes in stock numbers needed during drought with minimum loss of value. Equally important is the need to develop credit and investment opportunities that are responsive to unpredictable but expected abiotic events. Almost invariably, the root cause of increasing environmental problems due to livestock production is the rapidly increasing human population. This increase is fastest in less developed counties, where concern for environmental degradation, and policies to address the negative impacts, have lower priority than the promotion of growth and self-sufficiency.
See discussion in Chapter 5, this volume
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5 Possible Entry Points for Interventions and Solutions A prerequisite to any plan to improve the herder incomes or the productivity of the rangelands is to gain a good understanding of the existing system and the linkages between the components of the system (Chapter 1, Squires and Hua 2010a and Chapter 2, Squires and Hua 2010b). Experience has shown that “packaging” interventions is essential because attention to a single aspect such as better breeds will do little to overcome the existing bottlenecks. Only after careful analysis can possible interventions be identified. As is shown in Fig. 5 the system being developed with government support and encouragement relies heavily on herders having access to a minimum set of inputs. There is recognition now too of the fact that there are only a few management options available to the land users (Fig. 6). Those that do exist fall into two categories: Reduce total grazing pressure (from livestock, from mammalian competitors such as ‘rodents’ (e.g. voles) and wildlife; and from grasshoppers and other invertebrate pests); and by reducing herd/flock sizes through heavier culling and through adoption of precision management to cull unproductive animals. Breed improvement also falls into this category as a longer term strategy but it is not a panacea. Improved breeds will not perform well unless they get better nutrition (Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010). Of course reducing the competition from rangeland pests like rodents and grasshoppers should be part of the strategy to reduce grazing pressure. Lowering grazing pressure means more than just reducing livestock number. Grazing pressure relates to the impact of livestock of all types, at all seasons, and the harvest by insects such as grasshoppers and small mammals such as voles etc. Grazing pressure at certain critical times such as early spring, just after “green-up” and in
Options
Defer grazing in spring
Ease the grazing
Add to the
pressure on
supply of
grasslands
forage
Feeding in warm pen in winter and early spring
Production of winter lamb in warm pen
Control rodents & grasshoppers
Sown pastures
Grow forage and fodder crops, make hay/silage
Re-seed areas of degraded land
Fig. 6 There are two basic options open to herders in western China. They can either reduce demand for forage/fodder or increase its supply (see text)
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late summer/autumn at seed set can be significant factor that determines the recovery in the next year and, ultimately, the sustainability of the rangeland. Increase feed supply and/or utilization efficiency (by planting sown pastures, and fodder crops, by utilizing crop residues in a better way e.g. urea treatment, by conserving fodder as hay or silage). Better ration formulation for penned animals helps to make better use of the available feed and allows the tailoring of ration to the specific animal’s need. What can be said is that proper management of rangelands that avoids heavy grazing pressure at critical times like early spring after green-up and at seed-set in autumn will automatically ensure that rangelands will remain intact and plant biodiversity is conserved. Efforts are often concentrated on growing more fodder and forage by means of planting of crops like silage maize and oats or by sowing alfalfa and other fodder species. To be effective, there is need to have good fodder conservation techniques and technology (mowers, rakes and silage pits etc.). To be even more effective the livestock need to be housed in warm pens over the winter and early spring months. So the minimum package required is comprised of a core (warm pen, silage pit, hay and other roughage, crop residues, grain or other supplement) plus, good veterinary care, improved genetics, better nutrition and so on. Regrettably not all herders have access to arable land and many lack the knowledge and skills to prepare the soil, plant and tend the crop and conserve the fodder at the end of the growing season. New approaches are required that build on the existing methods of livestock production, rangeland management and livestock marketing. In other words, there is need to work within a systems framework. This implies that the existing rangeland/animal husbandry approach needs to be fully understood and that the linkages between the various components (seasonal grazing areas, animal husbandry and veterinary health, markets and supplementary feed supplies, etc) are recognized. This recognition then allows the various activities and interventions to be more meaningful. To be really effective there is need to support participatory natural resource management initiatives, conserving globally significant plant ecosystems and endangered wildlife (plants as well as animals) biodiversity. There is a role for the technical advisory services in increasing stakeholder awareness of the benefits of integrated resource management approaches (Chapter 5, Squires et al. 2010). Capacity building of county and township staff is required to promote and engage in this approach. Government at all levels should support applied research, training and extension (especially on cost-effective rangeland management ecosystem management techniques), and dissemination of lessons learned. The next major shift has to be a move from ‘component thinking’ to ‘systems thinking’ – moving toward a whole enterprise approach (Chapter 4, Kirychuk and Fritz, and Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010). Adjustment to the structure of crops, shifts in the flock/herd structure, efforts to conserve fodder, protect rangelands at their crucial stages of development (just after green up in spring and at seed-set in autumn) and formulate rations that more closely match the nutritional requirements of pregnant females are just some of the measures demonstrated (and adopted). Others include: (i) changing the time of lambing to get a better price for lambs;
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(ii) using the waste from the livestock pens to produce biogas; and (iii) efforts at breed improvement through either artificial insemination (AI) or through purchase of better quality sires. There is evidence of this happening in several counties (Chapter 9, Zhang et al. 2010). Agro-pastoral integration (Chapter 9, Zhang et al. 2010) is a trend that is bound to be more common in the future (Huo et al. 2008). One model is for contractual arrangements between herders and farmers. Farmers grow fodder and process it and sell to the herder for use in the warm pen. This break with the tradition of relying on dormant rangelands to be used as winter pastures allows rangeland to recover by easing grazing pressure and at the same time allow incomes to rise because housed animals have less body weight loss and produce more viable offspring. Birth weights of the offspring are heavier and the body weight of the dam does not fall so low as to delay the onset of estrus and the opportunity to get pregnant again at an earlier time (Chapter 10, Wu et al. 2010 and Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010).
6 Evaluation of Current Practices and Policies in Rangeland Management in Gansu and Xinjiang Government policy is to get a better balance between the livestock and the forage resource. Generally this involves reduction in livestock numbers but it may also involve changing the species of animal to get a more saleable product, e.g. cashmere from goats may be more profitable than carpet wool, from sheep. If herders change to a different species of animal they may be able to maintain or improve household income with fewer animals (Chapter 9, Zhang et al. 2010 and Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010). There are many aspects to consider, some of them are technical, some relate to policy and some to people management as outlined in the checklist below.
Box 1 Checklist of factors to be dealt with in Rangeland management 1. Nutrition of livestock – intake, energy, protein, mineral deficiency, role of supplements By species By season By physiological status Feed balance 2. Livestock management Supplementary feeding in field, indoors Stall feeding Rotational grazing Deferred grazing (continued)
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Box 1 (continued) Setting stocking rates Breeding and selection – mating, percentage of rams, time of lambing, orphan lambs, culling Veterinary health – vaccination, drenching, dipping Animal husbandry – castration, ear-tagging, shearing, foot trimming etc Sales strategy Coping mechanism for bad seasons 3. Fodder supply Fodder conservation – hay, silage Purchase fodder, concentrates Urea treatment of roughage Sown fodder crops for cut and carry 4. Season of use Policy set by village Policy set by government – grazing bans, prohibition of some types of livestock
Because of the complexity of the systems of range/livestock production in NW China it will not be easy to arrive at a solution that suits everyone. We could ask though whether enough opportunity exists for herders to make their own decisions.
Box 2 Are herders making the most of their situations using the observed grazing strategies, or are there potential policy changes that could increase Herder’s welfare Hypotheses (a) Opportunistic behavior of herders allows them to seek out optimal stocking strategies. (b) There are failures in institutional structures (e.g. decision making, markets, property right regimes) that prevent herders from realizing their full potential of grazing resources. (c) Policy mechanisms have failed to reduce volatility of prices for livestock and livestock products (wool, cashmere, meat). (d) Transaction costs of enforcing more conservative grazing strategies prevent them from being enforced. (e) It is difficult for policy to improve herder’s welfare in many parts of NW China, where traditional structures have collapsed and where there is a vacuum of ideas and direction.
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Many government agencies in charge of regulating grazing lands persist in promoting recommendations dependent on flawed calculations of carrying capacity and a policy that is based on a particular set of calculations. Improving livelihood outcomes for livestock owners requires special attention to strengthening, and in some instances building, local herder-based institutions. Interventions need to be designed to develop and diversify herder’s economic opportunities and encourage empowerment for people to direct their own need. To diminish the impacts of crashes after prolonged drought or harsh winters and maximize recovery may require improved livestock marketing, increased opportunities for animal movement, land tenure reform and devolution of responsibilities for managing rangeland resources (Campbell et al. 2006; Behnke et al. 1993).
References Behnke RH, Scoones I, Kerven C (eds) (1993) Range ecology at disequilibrium: new models of natural variability and pastoral adaptation in African savannas. Overseas Development Institute, London Brown CG, Waldron SA, Longworth JW (2008) Sustainable development in Western China: managing people. Livestock and grasslands in pastoral areas. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, p 295 Campbell BM, Gordon IJ, Martin K, Luckert MK, Petheram L, Vetter S (2006) In search of optimal stocking regimes in semi-arid grazing lands: one size does not fit all. Ecolog Econ 60:75–85 Harris RB (2010) Rangeland degradation on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau: a review of the evidence of its magnitude and causes. J Arid Environ 74(1):1–12 Hou FJ, Nan ZB, Xie YZ, Li HL, Lin HL, Ren JZ (2008) Integrated crop-livestock production systems in China. The Rangeland J 30:221–231 Kirychuk B, Fritz B (2010) Ecological restoration and control of rangeland degradation: livestock management (Chapter 4, this volume) Michalk DL, Hua LM, Kemp DR, Jones R, Takahashi T, Wu JP, Nan Z, Xu Z, Han G (2010) Redesigning livestock systems to improve household income and reduce stocking rates in China’s western grasslands (Chapter 14, this volume) Nell AJ (ed) (1998) Livestock and the environment, international conference proceedings. International Agricultural Centre, Wageningen, The Netherlands Squires VR, Hua LM (2010a) North-west China’s rangelands and peoples: Facts, figures, challenges and responses (Chapter 1, this volume) Squires VR, Hua LM (2010b) Livestock husbandry development and agro-pastoral integration in Gansu and Xinjiang (Chapter 2, this volume) Squires V, Lu X, Lu Q, Wang T, Yang Y (2009) Degradation and recovery in China’s pastoral lands. CAB International, Oxford, p 265 Wang M, Zhao CZ, Hua LM, Squires VR (2010) Land tenure: problems, prospects and reform (Chapter 12, this volume) Wu JP, Squires VR, Yang L (2010) Improved animal husbandry practices as a basis for profitability (chapter 10, this volume) Williams DM (2002) Beyond great walls: environment, identity and development on the Chinese rangelands of Inner Mongolia. Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, CA, p 251 World Bank (1990) World development report: poverty. Washington, DC, p 274 Zhang DG, Ren J, Hua LM, Squires VR (2010) Agro-pastoral integration: development of a new paradigm (Chapter 9, this volume)
Chapter 4
Ecological Control of Rangeland Degradation: Livestock Management Brant Kirychuk and Bazil Fritz
Synopsis Ecological recovery of degraded rangelands in NW China depends to a large extent on how we manage the livestock. Grazing involves more than just defoliation. The number and type of animals, the stocking intensity, duration, season of use are important factors. This chapter explores the issues that determine how the decisions of the livestock owners affect the prospects of ecological recovery of the degraded rangelands. Key Points 1. Rangeland recovery is related to more than just stocking rates and grazing systems. In order to get widespread change to historic practices, farmers/herders must realize a cash benefit to act as an incentive make these changes. 2. In order to develop a program to reduce livestock numbers, and improve rangeland health you must first understand the history and why the herders are using the current practices they use. 3. Land resources now become a very real issue where herders must make a living on less land and therefore many fewer livestock to remain sustainable. Confining traditional-thinking herders to small geographic areas does not necessarily change their thinking in regards to the way they raise livestock. 4. The switch from a nomadic, numbers-based system to a confined, sustainable and market system based on quality is a gradual process based first on a desire to change and then on demonstration, education, training, government support and policy with accumulated experience. 5. It is clear that there are more animals than the land will support in northwest China. It was also apparent that livestock output is not being optimized. The challenge is how to have the farmers and herders believe that they could make more money by cutting back on the size of their livestock herd.
Brant Kirychuk (*) and Bazil Fritz Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada – PFRA, Regina, Canada e-mail:
[email protected] V. Squires et al. (eds.), Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7_4, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
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Keywords Herding practices • profitability • CIDA • nomads • forage supply • feed demand • SADP • extension • full farm approach • technological fix • grazing systems • rest rotation grazing • carrying capacity • Inner Mongolia • rangeland health • less from more • livestock nutrition • full farm approach
1 Introduction Rangeland recovery is related to more than just stocking rates and grazing systems. In order to get widespread change to historic practices, farmers/herders must realize a cash benefit to act as an incentive to make these changes Thus a full farm approach, considering the livestock production, marketing, economics and range management must be considered. An extension program based on a full farm approach to rangeland recovery was used by the Canadian CIDA1 Sustainable Agriculture Development Project in Northwest China. A catch phrase used in the program was to “make more money with less livestock”. In order to develop a program to reduce livestock numbers, and improve rangeland health we must first understand the history and why the herders are using the current practices they use. Traditional thinking often equates livestock numbers with survival and wealth (Chapter 9, Zhang et al. 2010). There has been a long history of nomadic grazing on the rangeland regions of Asia, and historically under nomadic pastoralism grass limitations were not the issue they are today. Large livestock numbers were traditionally more important than livestock quality, especially in times of need as experienced in disasters, such as storms, drought, animal disease outbreaks, and even human health issues within the family. Traditional thinking was to take the forage when it was available for the taking and it mad no sense to limit numbers. The importance of quality was of lesser importance. In place of culling low production animals, they simply consumed these animals and sold others as required. Further in a nomadic culture, the level of education tends to be less as getting access to schooling is inherently difficult for nomadic peoples. Confining herders, whose mind-set is traditional, to small geographic areas does not necessarily change the thinking in regards to the way they raise livestock. Modern times brought with it allocation of land and the influx of additional peoples (Chapter 12, Wang et al. 2010). Limited land resources have now become a very real issue where herders must make a living on less land and therefore much less livestock to remain sustainable (Chapter 3, Squires et al. 2010c). The problem arises because herders have never managed under a system of land confinement or in a market economy. In addition herders may receive little or no training but are expected to change their land and livestock management to conform and prosper within these new criteria that they are totally unfamiliar with. Herders, as part of their culture, are keeping additional livestock, well beyond what their feed resources can carry. They have many reasons for doing this, the 1
Canadian International Development Agency.
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strongest of which is based in cultural beliefs which equates the number of livestock is a sign of wealth. Horses have a sentimental value with many herders, but are using valuable feed resources and contributing little to the range/livestock operation. Further, keeping additional livestock is a form of insurance, such that when there is a disaster and half the herd dies off, they still have a reasonable sized herd as a base. The biggest problem with the excess livestock is inadequate winter feed resources. Many of the livestock are grazed through as much of the year as possible, as there is limited stored feed. The quality of both the rangeland and the stored feed used at this time of year, is often far below the requirements for maintenance, thus the livestock lose condition over winter, and often either abort their offspring or are not in a nutritional situation to conceive during breeding season (Chapter 10, Wu et al. 2010). Figure 1 is a very common example of what was found on much of the rangeland in northwest China. There were just too many animals for the amount of feed that was available. There was false economics at work, as herders were trying to maintain larger herds to increase their income, and in fact governments were encouraging increased livestock production. With a lack of feed the inevitable happened. Livestock were in poor condition, and reproduction was low on breeding animals. Animals for sale were very slow to reach market weight (Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010). There were also disastrous losses during drought or storms due to weakened condition, and no reserve forage supplies. The CIDA Sustainable Agriculture Development Project (SADP) was able to demonstrate that there are often many efficiencies that herders could consider. Herders could adapt to confined livestock management systems and market economies but the expectation to have them adapt quickly is unrealistic because of their deep seated biases, and past experience, developed over generations. The switch from a nomadic, numbers-based system to a confined, sustainable and market
200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
Forage Required Forage Available Forage Potential
Fig. 1 Forage requirements and availability (1000’s t), community pasture pilot, Ewanke Banner, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (2008)
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system based on quality (Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010) is a gradual process based first on a desire to change and then on demonstration, education, training, government support and policy with accumulated experience. It is clear that there are more animals than the land will support in northwest China. It was also apparent that livestock output is not being optimized. The challenge is how to make the farmers and herders believe that they could make more money by cutting back on the size of their livestock herd (more from less). This is the first challenge, before even considering putting new systems in place to recover the landscapes. Thus the “less means more” approach was implemented by SADP with an aim of proving that greater economic output could be achieved by having fewer animals on the land. In order to accomplish this, the full farm approach had to be used, along with a learning program.
1.1 The Full Farm Approach Grazing systems and stocking rate adjustments alone will not solve the severe degradation problem facing north western China. The full farm community must see the benefits of reducing the livestock herd. Farming is a business, thus farmers must see an economic benefit of change, either through government incentives or through improved farm business management. The output per head of livestock needs to be improved so the farmer has the financial ability to reduce livestock numbers, understands how to do this, and sees the benefits. A multi-faceted approach called the full farm approach included: • • • • • • • •
Resource inventory Range management planning (grazing systems and stocking rates) Nutrition Herd health Reproduction Marketing Record keeping Learning and information sharing
It appears that the most success can be had by working with a few “demonstration” farms that are interested, and committed, and are viewed as leaders in their community. The aim is to insure that each step in implemented in the best way applicable to that particular farm. There are a number of benefits to working with just a few farms to start with. Firstly, the facilitators get some experience (and generally learn a lot) in that particular area, and set of circumstances. Secondly, there is the ability to get some data that can be used as examples in the future. Thirdly, these demonstration farms can be used as a basis of an extension program, where training can be done and results shown to others. One of the largest impacts of a successful demonstration can be the “over the fence effect”. Where neighbours observe or hear about successful practices and are more willing to try them on their own.
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In order to have herders adopt a change they must believe in it. For them to believe, it must address their needs. Success can be had by forming small groups, and have brainstorming sessions which outline their needs. Most often, and not unexpectedly, these needs relate to increased income, larger livestock numbers, and increased productivity. Interestingly with nomadic herders there is an attachment to the land and they would like to see the return of the healthy productive rangelands of past generations. There is also interest in the “quick fix”. Both herders and the animal husbandry bureau technicians believe that technology can bring immediate benefits through livestock genetics, and “improved” forage varieties. Thus the extension and training program must address some of the misconceptions that surround the use of technology to rapidly fix their problems. The focus instead should be on recognizing their real needs – how to be more profitable and sustainable in the market economy. Thus a program had to be developed with the herders to improve their livelihood and at the same time prevent further damage to the rangeland. How do you do this when the land is obviously over stocked? Is it possible to get more economic output from less livestock? In studying the farms that the SADP Project worked with it became apparent that it was quite possible by working with the full production and management system to actually improve the economic situation of the farms, while reducing livestock numbers, and in the long term improving rangeland health. All facets of the livestock operation were part of this effort: 1. Resource inventory: Each land user needed to conduct an inventory of the resources available to them, usually with the help of an extension specialist. This includes livestock, rangeland, feed, and infrastructure inventories. Also part of the process was a discussion and determination of the level of change the farmer/ herder was willing to undertake, and what economic and people resources were available. This is the basis of a planning exercise. Also a goal has to be set regarding where the household wants to get to within the next few years. 2. Range management planning: Establishing what livestock the land could carry and discussing how to get to these numbers are key steps in rangeland recovery. Discussions on resting grazing land, and developing rotations to aid in recovery are the next step. Grazing systems on these parcels of land can be helpful if farmers are willing to try them, and the extension support is available to implement them. It is important to keep in mind, that while cross fences are often an important tool for grazing systems, management, including rotations can be implemented using herding without fences, as a herder is always with the livestock. A final, and often over-looked facet, is if the government has put in fences as part of the land allocation system, then herders with no experience in fences, must be taught how to maintain fences and gates. 3. Nutrition: Livestock in over grazed rangeland situations are almost always deficient in even the most essential nutrients, including energy and protein. Working with the farmers to show them the improved weight gains and reproductive output that can be gained with fewer livestock who have more feed available to them is a valuable first step. The next step is examining the status of micro-nutrients,
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and building in mineral supplementation, which has the effect of both improving productive output, but also reduce losses related to disease, thus further enhancing overall farm output, but with fewer animals. 4. Herd health: It is quite common to see high losses from both epidemic diseases and sporadic losses related to debilitating disease, as well as just reduced livestock performance due to non fatal disease. Once taught and demonstrated herders can see the value in vaccination and herd health programs. Seeing that there is pay back can be an incentive to make the required investment. The challenge is having the up-front resources to pay for the vaccines and other treatments. 5. Reproduction: Increasing the reproductive output of individual animals gives the economic incentive for a producer to reduce adult livestock numbers while still having the same or more offspring to market. The challenge is to work with producers who may be tempted to keep more replacements, with their increased reproductive output, and end up in the same over stocking situation. Improved feed supplies, nutrition, and herd health, through reduced livestock numbers, and a change in production practices will result in increased reproductive output. A further opportunity on the reproductive side, is to try and find ways to access high quality sire genetics, so that over the long term, the genetics of the herd is improved. This can be done through cooperative arrangements in the local community to purchase and share better genetic sires, or government AI or sire support programs to improve the overall livestock genetics. 6. Marketing: Locals working together to increase their marketing power can have a great impact on improving economic output of an individual farm. The middle man who traditionally buys from most herders, is taking a significant profit that the herder himself could realize if he dealt with the local packing plant or butcher. A group of farmers working together and building relationships with the local packing plant to provide consistent product, at agreed upon times can realize more profit to all involved. This does take a lot of up-front work, teamwork, and trust among all group members. Also herders must get to understand the product that the packing plant wants. If a group of herders can provide the exact product the plant wants, it will give them an advantage over other herders. Further, if done well and recognized widely, this could result in the group being able to take bids from a number of plants, even further increasing the potential economic output. The challenge will be changing the production system to meet what the packer wants. 7. Record keeping: The cost of outlays, income or livestock records are not commonly kept. Individual livestock records are critical to understanding of which are the best and most productive animals to keep, while culling the non-productive animals. Records are imperative to improve the breeding program, and also to verify to buyers the product being offered for sale. Further cost and income records allow a producer to analyze and see how production changes have affected his livelihood. 8. Learning and information sharing: In order for farmers to quickly advance their livelihoods, through improved livestock management it requires a learning program. While government extension programs have worked in many parts of the world
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and should be encouraged in NW China, there are other options as well. Farmers working together through farmer associations can use these as information sharing forums, by sharing their successes and failures, bringing in specialists on various subjects to speak to them, and implementing demonstrations together. Learning is the most important tool in order to adjust production systems to improve both rangeland health and herder livelihood (Chapter 13, Zhao and Squires 2010).
2 The Value of Grazing Systems The grazing system is integral to any discussion on livestock production and recovery of rangeland, as the rangelands are the primary nutrition source. Further, grazing systems are a valuable tool to improve rangeland health by incorporating a rest period into each part of the grazing system during some part of the growing season. Thus a person must always consider the full rangeland livestock production system when working to recover the rangelands of northwest China. The grazing systems allow planning for adequate forage quantity, and feed quality throughout the growing season. Grazing in a planned way within a confined system is new to the herders, and will require building their confidence in the value of the system and requires on-going technical support as the system is implemented. Interestingly, the notion of rotational grazing is a concept that is not completely foreign to herders, as in their nomadic days livestock were moved to different areas on a seasonal basis based on forage availability and quality. In mountainous regions, they often moved up an elevation gradient as the growing season progressed and back down as fall approached, while finally wintering at lower elevations (see Fig. 1 in Chapter 2). Thus this was a natural rotational grazing system, with rest for the rangeland and forage quality the cornerstones of the system. These season systems resulted in the rangelands being reasonably healthy under historical nomadic grazing regimes. Grazing systems can be developed using fences, as is currently associated with rotational grazing systems, or they can be developed using herding. Most commonly government staff wanted any project on grazing systems to incorporate cross fencing, as they felt there was a need to have technology in a project, and didn’t trust the herders to manage a system properly based on herding alone. Cross fencing can be effective to control grazing, and as a tool to physically divide up the rangeland, which is visually easy to plan. The SADP project developed very simple systems, generally with three to six paddocks depending on the land base and access to water. Figure 2 is one simple system designed near Chenbarhu, Inner Mongolia. There was one existing fence in the system. Thus all that was added were two new cross fences, using electric fencing using funds from the national fencing program. A gravity water delivery system was developed to deliver water to all the paddocks. The aim was to develop a low cost system that herders could afford to put in place. The first step in implementing the grazing system was to calculate the correct stocking rate, and demonstrate to the herder co-operator, that there was only a certain
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Existing fence New fence Water Farmyard
4
3
2
5
1
Fig. 2 Grazing system demonstration diagram, near Chenbarhu, Inner Mongolia
amount of feed available for his livestock and that the rangeland was not an unlimited resource. One tool that worked well was to clip a known area of grass (often 1 m2) and pile it on the ground like loose hay, and discuss with the herder how much feed this would provide his livestock, and then equate it to the full land area. When the herders had a visual cue to amount of feed, they were better able to relate to carrying capacity. A further step was to demonstrate that as range health improved, that the carrying capacity would increase. This is important, as that is the economic benefit, and the motivator for the herder to improve range health. The second key was to build some rest periods into the management system so that the rangeland could recover. Often the systems included some kind of deferred grazing in the plan. The chart below is a common deferred rotation arrangement (Fig. 3) that would have been used as a basis for developing a grazing system where one paddock each year would receive a full year of rest. The table is a generic example, as each system was different based on the rangeland eco-type, the level of degradation of any particular piece of the land, and the herders management requirements. Rest rotation is a powerful tool in rangeland recovery. A new challenge for implementing such a plan arises when after a year of rest there is often abundant standing biomass. It is tempting for the herder to use it, and there were even cases of neighbours bringing their livestock in to use this perceived unused resource. Grazing systems allow a plan to be implemented which takes into account getting enough feed for the livestock of a quality that insures productivity from the animals in the system (Chapter 9, Zhang et al. 2010). All of this is accomplished with the recognition that the system is put in place to meet both the needs of the livestock while at the same time improving range health. These systems if fully implemented are “win/win” as the goals of livestock production and rangeland health can both be accomplished.
4 Ecological Control of Rangeland Degradation: Livestock Management Apr – May
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May – June June – Aug Aug – Sept Oct – Nov Nov – Dec
Year 1
1
2
Summer
3
4
5
Year 2
2
3
Summer
4
5
1
Year 3
3
4
Summer
5
1
2
Year 4
4
5
Summer
1
2
3
Year 5
5
1
Summer
2
3
4
Fig. 3 Generic grazing system rotation incorporating rest during the grazing season for rangeland recovery
There is more to implementing a grazing system, than teaching the herders how to manage the rotation. If the grazing system will be using fencing there is a need to also show how to manage and maintain fencing, as the herders have limited experience with fences. This is critical. The national fencing program in northern China, had significant failures, because the program came in and built fences but didn’t do any training on maintenance and repair. So many fences ended up in disrepair and are no real value. One often overlooked concept is that planned grazing systems can be implemented without fencing. In many areas of northern China herders are with the livestock all day long. Thus a plan can be developed where specific areas of a pasture are grazed at specific times. The livestock are herded to these areas and their distribution is controlled by the herder rather than rely on fencing. The positive of this method is that it is low cost because limited or no new infrastructure is required, and nomadic herders are very comfortable being with and moving their livestock, The challenge is documenting the plan, having the herder understand the importance of the plan and agreeing to follow it. Thus the plan does not have to be a large written document, but rather a diagram with some notes often proves to be the most useful tool.
3 Knowing Healthy Rangeland We all need to know that our aim to our target is sound, true and actually occurring. To know this we first need a benchmark of what a healthy range land is, second to set our goals to approach this healthy state and then to put actions into play that take us in this direction. To assess how we are doing in reaching or moving toward our goals we put in place monitors, which really score our progress in our journey toward our goal. If the goals are to maintain or improve livestock production while improving rangeland health, herders/farmers must understand what health rangeland is. This is important in the livestock production system in order to determine livestock movements within the system, and also to be able to monitor the impacts of grazing livestock in the production system (Chapter 5, Squires et al. 2010c).
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An extremely critical aspect of this whole model is to understand that it must be flexible especially if a rangeland is degraded. To make significant progress in an unpredictable, weather dependent system, safeguards and short term monitors must be also in place to allow for a change in the overall plan at short notice. Such a range/livestock system is very difficult to work within, especially when land, livestock and household livelihoods are all involved. Often farmers/herders must seek other alternative income (Chapter 11, Hua and Michalk 2010) and when this is not available, disaster and failure can result. It is always much easier to implement better grazing management when the rangeland is already healthy as it is more stable and much more predictable. As unhealthy rangeland cannot support the same animal numbers as a healthy range, production falls off and this usually triggers a response of farmers to increase animals to get back lost production causing an ever increasing spiral to disaster, failure and land degradation. The biological limit of the land must be respected and the land users must be prepared to work within these finite parameters. In the degraded rangelands of northern China the farmers and herders really had no indicator of what healthy rangeland was. They took all they could get from the land, for economic reasons, and also there were government priorities of increased livestock production which encouraged production expansion. Further exacerbating the pressure on the rangeland, was the settling of the nomadic herders on defined parcels of land, with the result being that if they did not use the available forage someone else would. A further challenge was that there was no formal system of rangeland health evaluation. Thus even rangeland and livestock professionals did not have the tools to evaluate rangeland health. There are two critical steps required to assist both herders, and professionals in monitoring rangeland health. First, a formal rangeland health system needs to be developed for the area. There are systems that are in place in the United States, Canada and Australia. While these systems are based on similar science, each has its own unique way of evaluating rangeland health. Thus there is no need to develop a new system for use NW China. One of these ‘tried and true’ systems could be used as the basis of a system in China. Fortunately there are extensive data sets on species composition, soils, and biomass production data from the rangelands of China. Thus the basis is there to take this data, define ecological sites, health ratings, and assess carrying capacities using an existing system or modifying it to be specific to the China situation. The SADP project worked with the Inner Mongolia Agriculture University, and Inner Mongolia Animal Husbandry Bureau and developed a rangeland health system, based on the Canadian approach to rangeland health using the extensive data collected in Inner Mongolia (Fig. 4). While the formal system of rangeland health evaluation is important, there must be tools and training developed so that herders can understand rangeland health. We found that simplified approaches based on the current range health systems, can be taught and are readily understood by herders. The key is to have clear, concise diagrams to base the scoring on, and to do it in a step wise, visual and hands-on way. There are a number of tools that work very well to teach range health. They are highly dependent on visual clues, can be done in the field, and can be scored.
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2500 2000 1500
Unhealthy At Risk Healthy
1000 500 0
Yield
Litter
Fig. 4 Forage yield and litter measurements (kg/ha) by range health class, community pasture pilot, Ewanke Banner, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (2008)
These tools have a strong relationship to rangeland health methodologies used in Canada. The aim was to get across to herders the factors that represented healthy versus unhealthy rangeland, so that they could recognize the symptoms of rangeland degradation and recovery. (a) Comparisons to healthy rangeland An effective method of demonstrating range health, was to find an ungrazed or lightly grazed site in the local area and use it as a reference. It was best to take the group to a site such as this first then compare all other sites to the healthy reference site. This creates a picture in their mind of healthy rangeland, and also it is a site that they can go back to in the future for reference. With some groups you may be able to make some estimates on similarity between the healthy site and another site based on a percentage – effectively an index. (b) Unwanted plants Discussing unwanted plants proved to be both effective and a challenge. It is helpful to have a local specialist available who is familiar with the plant species and point out plants that were productive and beneficial, and the others that came in with increased grazing pressure and were less desirable. This often led to a discussion among participants of what were desirable and undesirable plants. It was interesting to see how well some of the people who spent their lives on the rangeland knew the plants. While they did not know the taxonomic or even the common name, they either had their own name or understood the plant and its characteristics. The confusion arose where some naturally occurring plants (some of which had palatability or poison problems) were pointed out by the herders as undesirable, but were actually a natural part of the plant community. (c) Bare ground Bare ground was an easily taught sign of rangeland degradation. Using pictures of acceptable levels of bare grounds for various range sites, and what was acceptable
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was one tool that was effective, as participants were able to quickly pick up on what was an appropriate level of bare ground. The other method we used was referring back to the reference site and the amount of bare ground it had versus the amount of bare ground in the site we were on. There were often lighter grazed sites within a particular pasture that have adequate plant cover and could be used as an effective reference. (d) Signs of erosion Signs of erosion can often be discussed at the same time as bare soil as there is a strong relationship. It is useful to take the time to point out less subtle signs of erosion such as pedestalling of plants, small rills between plants, and excessive trailing. (e) Litter If there is only time to teach one tool, then teach about the importance of litter. It is such a powerful tool to use and has such a high correlation to rangeland health. If a herder understands litter he would have a good proxy for range health. When discussing litter it is important not only to discuss evaluation of litter amounts but also the value of litter in conserving moisture and cycling nutrients. We pointed out the insulating power of litter, and how it conserved soil moisture. A simple demonstration of putting your hand on some exposed soil, and reaching over and putting your hand under some litter in an area within reach that had some cover was very powerful. On a sunny day there is quite a discernable temperature difference that can be felt. Another point to emphasize is that plant litter, and animal dung keep the nutrient cycle functioning in native rangeland, thus why nutrient inputs are not required on native rangeland. In evaluating litter a two-step method proved effective. The first step was just recognizing that having continual litter cover is important and describing and looking at litter. Secondly, we used visual cues of the amount of litter developed for a variety of precipitation zones. A good exercise is to rake up all the litter in a 50 by 50 cm2 and hold it in your hand. Using our pre-developed measures for each precipitation zone we could demonstrate what the appropriate amount of litter should be and compare it to the litter the participants had raked up at the site.
4 Livestock Nutrition to Reduce Stocking Rates Traditional herdsmen have generally associated livestock production with animal numbers. If most breeding females are kept long enough they will produce offspring and contribute to farm income. However, once a value is placed on the available forage, a cost is put on it as one must where there is a limited land base, then livestock production on a strict forage harvest (annual timetable) becomes a critical challenge. Selecting livestock or even livestock type to efficiently harvest and return on grass investment must be a priority. Most herders do not want to incur
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costs (forage costs) without the best return on the cost of that resource and still keep the system sustainable. A basic premise to achieve reproductive and productive potential and remain healthy a minimum nutrition requirement of animals must be supplied. As the nutrition of the animal is compromised, the reproduction, health and growth of the animal decline. There is significant cost associated with maintaining an animal and the added cost of additional nutrition to supply optimum reproduction, growth and health is relatively lower, therefore it makes economic sense to feed an animal to a point in its nutritional requirement that it can produce at an optimum level. Forage quality and feed values are fixed and limited and to extend the rangeland resource value to a maximum there needs to be supplementation to complement forage production, For example, most rangelands lack some key nutrients required for livestock production thus it is important to use mineral supplements to enhance production and profitability. In many of the areas in northern China, the situation was similar to that outlined in Fig. 1 where there were more livestock on the land base than there was feed available for the time period they were grazed there. This resulted in livestock lacking the most crucial of nutrients – protein and energy. Thus animals were not reaching their growth or reproductive potential. Calving and lambing rates were well below norms expected in this type of livestock production system, and growth rates of calves and lambs to slaughter weight were much lower than many other parts of the world (see Fig. 3, Chapter 10). Offspring and growth rates are the two key factors affecting output and profitability. When herders reduced livestock numbers to levels which matched their feed availability, the results were almost immediate with increases in reproduction and growth. There were many opportunities to cull unproductive animals, once records were used to determine which animals were not contributing to the output of the operation (Wu et al. 2010, Chapter 10). Mineral supplementation was not carried out in most situations, but there were significant micro-nutrient deficiencies in the forage available to the livestock (Fig. 5). This has contributed to reduced livestock production, with both clinical and non-clinical signs of deficiency and increased incidence of various diseases affecting the output and productivity of the livestock. A balanced mineral supplement, when tried by herders, also had almost immediate results. In the past herders were reluctant to use minerals due to the cost, and a lack of awareness on the benefit to production and profitability. Once they had the opportunity to try a balanced mineral supplement, the benefits became apparent, there was a willingness to use this supplement. The challenge faced in northern China, was lack of availability of supplements in some areas, particularly one that matched the needs of the rangeland area. Feed testing, which is also not commonly available, is critical to choosing the appropriate supplement (Fig. 6). It is important to know the forage resource potential, the livestock requirements and to match the two in the best combination to return the most satisfactory farm income. This means optimizing livestock production, which can mean reducing
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910 Precipitation (mm)
Healthy (>65%)
Health with Problems (65 -35%)
Unhealthy (<35%)
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1300 (>850)
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<450
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<140
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160 Fig. 5 Rangeland health and litter (kg/ha) (Adapted from Saskatchewan rangeland health assessment guide)
livestock numbers and still increasing farm profits. It can mean adding value to the livestock in a quality based system including good breeding selection to enhance carcass quantity and quality.
5 Marketing to Increase Returns with Less Animals Traditional herders were more focused on animal husbandry than marketing and their nomadic ways made it difficult to market animals in a planned and strategic way. The result was many animals that were marketed, often because of an immediate need, were sold to drovers2 who would come to the field, view the animals, offer a standard price and pay the herder right on the spot. This was very handy for herders, as they never had to concern themselves with the market and what it was doing. The drover often contacted the herder eliminating the need to look for a buyer. Even transportation was up to the drover. In many areas of the world, market economies are becoming more and more the norm with traditional ways being phased out, often through necessity, with too many people on limited land. Where this transformation is occurring, significant market efficiencies can be realized when more attention is given to marketing. Drovers are people who buy animals from herders and move the purchased flocks/herds to the processor or to the railhead.
2
mg/kg
--
------
0.1 10 10 100 ? 30-50 0.1 20-50 100 400 -1,000 20 1,000 0.36 6 0.1 3 40 500
mg/kg
0.35%
0.5% 0.4% 0.2% 0.2% 0.5%
mg/kg 100-200 8-25 60-200 8 ----5-20 3 1000
0.1 5 ? 0.1-0.8 30-50 20-40 0.05 0.1 35-50
---
0.09 10 266 36 0.581 0.0403 8
205 38 1.502 0.0201 12
mg/kg
.532
0.37 9
mg/kg
.907
.014
---
.004
1.33
2.11
-----------
mg/kg
0.25
0.2-0.52 0.16-0.37 0.04-0.08 0.14-0.26% 0.5%
10.242 1.0 .084 .23
15.661 .58 .17 .17
332 41 0.902 0.0519 5
0.63 15
mg/kg
.461
.0009
0.87
11.214 .59 .072 .18
63.95
37.97
6.684
57.9
6.16
Sample (Hay) 3
170 36 0.187 0.0408 5
0.3 10
mg/kg
.587
.006
1.28
11.102 .59 .08 .19
63.42
36.91
8.804
59.1
7.62
Sample (Hay) 4
252 37 0.162 0.0706 6
0.3 12
mg/kg
.563
.004
0.96
11.955 .56 .065 .17
63.93
38.39
8.932
57.4
7.12
Sample (Hay) 5
246 2.4 0.425 0.0196 7
--0.12
mg/kg
.247
1.8
0.36
8.163 .015 .265 .15
10.13
2.39
9.653
78%
8.59
Sample (Corn) 6
221 7.2 0.095 0.0102 4
-----
mg/kg
59.64
38%
0.35
0.421 .19 .0026 .13
---
---
2.65
--
--
Sample (Salt) 7
911 31.7 2.012 0.0378 ---
0.39 0.18
mg/kg
2
35%
0.33
0.149 .39 .020 .56
---
---
23.964
--
--
Sample 8 N Salt
Fig. 6 Minimum nutritional requirements and safe levels of essential elements ((%) dry matter, ppm, or mg/kg). Sample 1: Hay, Xilinhaote; Sample 2: Mixed hay sample, Xilinhaote; Sample 3: Mixed hay, Hailar; Sample 4: First Mixed hay sample, Hailar; Sample 5: Second mixed hay sample, Hailar; Sample 6: Corn sample, Xilinhaote; Sample 7: Salt sample; Sample 8: Natural salt sample
Co Cu FL Iodine Fe Mn Mo Se Zn
Trace
MICRO /
NaCl
Ca P Mg S K
Sol.Carbs
52.78
60.4
61.8
63.29
8.26
NDF
11.74
35.67
Max
10.973
Min
Sample (Hay) 2
34.49
Max
sample (Hay) 1
9.084
47%
7.5%
SHEEP
Protein@ 10% M Energy (TDN) @10% M Moisture Content ADF
Min
CATTLE
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In a demonstration conducted as part of the SADP project herders were encouraged to market their animals “direct to the processing plant”. A significant part of the benefit came from having the herders follow their animals through the processing stage before final settlement. When they watched their product being weighed, compared to other product and explained why they received what they did, and how they could receive more with improvement, they were immediately motivated into action. In the demonstration the action meant the selection of superior breeding stock and culling small animals that often brought down the average price and group weight at product settlement. Discussion and training had much more effect when it could also be viewed on the processing floor along with settlement. Training and advisement in the classroom, seemed to be soon forgotten and usually not followed up on unless something like price/reward/penalty was felt by the herder immediately or soon after being exposed to the principles. Thus conducting group discussions and marketing training, soon followed up by marketing of actual livestock, proved effective. Such demonstrations also initiated more curiosity in the herders and more interest in further information. “When people are highly motivated, it’s easy to accomplish the impossible. When they are not, it’s impossible to accomplish the easy”!3 The biggest challenge when starting a new marketing project is to find someone who believes in the process and get them to take leadership, provide coaching and encouragement, and in fact make most of the arrangements to start with. As without going through the marketing process first, the herders do not have the knowledge or confidence to do it on their own. Big impediments to change were strongly associated with herders doing what they knew well, were used to and were comfortable doing. When they were removed from their “comfort zone” there was some fear and resistance. Small details such as finding where the processor was, searching out his phone number, contacting the processor, making arrangements for sale, and arranging a trucker to transport the animals were all different and strange for most herders. Often these tasks in the demonstration were completed by the “wife” whom would take on the extra initiative to complete this new task. Once the experience, confidence and a level of comfort was gained, then the family would take on the change themselves. A second benefit shown by this demonstration was the increased power the seller had with group marketing. The processor was much more willing to deal with a group of herders, who could supply a large number of livestock. This insured the processor a guaranteed supply, and was also worth his time and effort to deal on thousands of head of livestock in a group. An interesting fall-out of group marketing, is that herders quickly saw which producers were getting better prices for their livestock. They quickly adapted, as there was not only extra profit, but a pride factor. The long term result will be better quality more consistent product sold to the processor.
Attributed to Bob Collings, from the Speakers Source Book by Glenn Van Ekeren.
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6 The Value of Records A key challenge is to get herders to not only think of livestock rearing as a way of life but as a business. The salvation of the rangeland will be that herders see livestock husbandry as a business, that their rangeland is an asset, thus realizing that there is productivity and profit to be gained from a healthy rangeland resource. The health of the rangelands across North America, has improved significantly in the last two plus decades, and it was driven by the economic benefits of a healthy and productive rangeland resource. A key to operating a business is making informed decisions. In order to make better decisions there is need for data and records to base them on. Keeping livestock records seem to be the most difficult chore a farmer completes to operate a good business enterprise such as a ranch with a livestock operation. Simple records assist the businessperson to make better financial decisions and to reach established financial goals. The first step on the path to successful livestock business is just sitting down and discussing what the household is aiming to achieve. These goals will be the guiding force for their business decisions. In the past the goal was survival and keeping the household fed and clothed, thus records were not of major importance. The herders now have goals of improved lifestyle, leisure, comforts, family health and education. To achieve these goals will require a change in their production system. Simple records like which offspring belongs to which parents and how old the animals (date of birth) are at sale time, allow one to separate growth/genetic potential rather than growth simply by age alone. The need for such basic information came home very quickly in the SADP producer demonstrations when the herders’ product was hanging on the rail in the processing plant and terrific variation was evident. However the reason for the difference was not clear. Were the size differences related to age, sire, dam, milk or differences in feed? Without records these differences could only be inferred, but not confirmed. When money was involved such as in the above demonstration, the herder was motivated to answer these questions themselves to realize more “household income” in the future. The basis of a record keeping system is animal identification, followed by the recording of birth date, sire and other simple information needed for sound decision making. A convenient record book or large colourful, meaningful calendar made it easier to retrieve and keep track of records. The key to records is individual animal identification, through the use of ear tags. Locating tags, and demonstrating their use, then tying them to records is the first step in setting up a livestock record system. Too many farmer demonstrations in the past involving tagging/identification were never used by the farmers/herders, as the tie to records was not followed up and this turns them off for future use of system-based management. Even when herders and farmers went to the effort and expense to identify animals, this source of information was often not used unless there was a tangible benefit or reward such as better carcass quality, as discussed above. This is critical to the success of record keeping and business decision making. The key is to link it to the economic output.
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The key concept is to keep records as basic and functional as possible. The simpler the system the herder/farmer is responsible for keeping, the greater chances of its use. The opposite is also often true, a more sophisticated, more informative and complicated system in the user’s eyes is often of no value, or may create fear or confusion and it may never be used. It is more successful when implementing a new system of record keeping, as with any new technology, is to start with a simple system. It is amazing to see when a person gets comfortable with keeping and using simple records, they will begin adding to the records on their own, and seek out advice to advance their management model. As they begin to see a personal and economic benefit, it is quickly accepted.
7 Putting It All Together Managing the rangeland livestock operation using a system, and business approach is a necessary step in rangeland recovery of degraded rangelands. While grazing systems and appropriate stocking rates are critical, these pieces must be tied to the livestock production, and business side of the operation, and of course profit. A full farm approach working with all facets of the operation is necessary. Farmers and herders who have never been exposed to a defined management system, a step-wise approach must be used. Most importantly the approach must consider their goals. Working with groups and trying new practices as groups, allows for the risk to be shared, as well as being a forum for discussion and sharing ideas. Also a farm group can build an individuals confidence to try a new practice. A measure of how effective a program is in turning around the situation is comparing how well farmers/herders can now think and plan for themselves, to trouble-shoot and solve or at least deal more effectively with their own problems. In developing country extension and demonstration programs, the success is in how the people can adapt and put it all together that results in a more efficient, well operated and sustainable program that will have a lasting effect. A successful program is when the farmers/herders continue working toward the goals and objectives of the program as they have become compatible with their goals and objectives. When they solve one of their immediate problems such as reduced rangeland degradation, it was because they realized that fewer animals increased quality and output, resulting in greater returns, thus moving toward rangeland sustainability! The ultimate measure of success is how the changes ripple out to the surrounding community for the desired macro affect on the people and on the land (replication and scaling up).
References Michalk DL, Hua LM, Kemp DR, Jones R, Takahashi T, Wu J P, Nan Z, Xu Z, Han G (2010) Redesigning livestock systems to improve household income and reduce stocking rates in China’s western grasslands (Chapter 14, this volume)
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Squires VR, Hua L, Zhang D, Li G (2010a) Exploring the options in North-west China pastoral lands (Chapter 3, this volume) Squires VR, Hua L, Zhang D, Li G (2010b) Towards ecological restoration and management in China’s northwest pastoral zone (Chapter 15, this volume) Squires VR, Hua L, Zhang D (2010c) Ecological restoration and control of rangeland degradation: rangeland management interventions (Chapter 5, this volume) Meiping W, Hua Limin ZC, Squires VR (2010) Land tenure: problems, prospects and reform (Chapter 14, this volume) Zhang D, Degang Z, Ren JZ, Hua L, Jizhou R, Limin H, Squires VR (2010) Agro-pastoral integration: development of a new paradigm (Chapter 9, this volume) Hua LM, Michalk DL (2010) Herders’ income and expenditure: perceptions and expectations (Chapter 11, this volume) Wang M, Zhao CZ, Hua L, Squires VR (2010) Land tenure: problems, prospects and reform Wu JP, Squires VR, Yang L (2010) Improved animal husbandry practices as a basis for profitability (Chapter 10, this volume) Zhao CZ, Squires VR (2010) Environmental education: a tool for changing the mind-set (Chapter 13, this volume)
Chapter 5
Ecological Restoration and Control of Rangeland Degradation: Rangeland Management Interventions Victor Squires, Zhang Degang, and Hua Limin
Synopsis The problems and prospects for reversing land degradation and for ecological restoration of degraded landscapes are reviewed. Animal husbandry on rangelands in NW China is under great pressure. This pressure is leading to a major transformation of the livestock sector, from one that is resource-driven (based on available forage, water, crop residues/by-products) to one that aggressively looks for new resources (grain, fodder crops, energy inputs). This shift has resulted in environmental damage and disruption to the traditional systems of production. Key Points 1. Rangelands provide habitat to a wide array of native wildlife and plants, high quality water, forage for domestic livestock and wildlife, and play a part in biodiversity conservation and CO2 sequestration. In addition, they directly provide livelihood and lifestyle to millions of herders and, indirectly, to the bureaucracy and service industry set up to cater to their needs. 2. A major productivity gaps exists within NW China’s pastoral Lands. Closing this productivity gap could offer opportunities to relieve the strain on rangelands but it is clear that this cannot be obtained by expanding the conventional feed base on rangelands. 3. Rangeland grazing systems offer only limited potential for intensification and livestock production is becoming increasingly more dependent on crops. Thus the importance of forage from rangelands is decreasing at the expense of cereals, fodder crops like maize and oats, and industrial by-products.
Victor Squires (*) University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia e-mail:
[email protected] Zhang Degang College of Grassland Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China Hua Limin Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
V. Squires et al. (eds.), Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7_5, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
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Keywords By-products • cereals • forage • CO2 sequestration • energy inputs • fences • intensification • constraints • degraded landscapes • ecological restoration • equilibrial • irreversibility • sand dunes • non-equilibrial • grazing bans • causal loop diagrams • ground water • grazing subsystem • ecosystem function • process • wind erosion • water erosion • modelling • functional types • State-and-transition models • dynamic thresholds • safe carrying capacity • stocking rates • time series • overgrazing
1 Introduction Many rangelands in NW China are degraded to a greater or lesser extent (Chapter 1, Squires and Hua 2010a) and there are limited options for repairing them. Even fewer options are available to land users and to the agencies that manage them (Chapter 3, Squires et al. 2010a). Despite these constraints there is need to put in place a series of measures to control the rate and areal extent of rangeland degradation and to initiate a program of ecological restoration. This chapter explores the problems and prospects for reversing land degradation and for ecological restoration of degraded landscapes.
2 The Grazing System – Linkages Between Livestock and Forage The first point we would make is that animal husbandry on rangelands in NW China is under great pressure. This pressure is leading to a major transformation of the livestock sector, from one that is resource-driven (based on available forage, water, crop residues/by-products) to one that aggressively looks for new resources (grain, fodder crops, energy inputs). This shift has resulted in environmental damage and disruption to the traditional systems of production. Where population pressure and poverty coincide, such as in many pastoral areas, poor management of livestock degrades resources still further. These pressures call for new policies, institutions and markets and require the development and adaptation of new technologies to make livestock raising more environmentally benign (Chapter 15, Squires et al. 2010b). A major productivity gaps exists within NW China’s pastoral Lands. Closing this productivity gap could offer opportunities to relieve the strain on rangelands but it is clear that this cannot be obtained by expanding the conventional feed base on rangelands. Increasingly, the herders are being encouraged to resort to external inputs – notably pen-feeding of supplements, but also shifts to more productive breeds and greater attention to animal health and general husbandry inputs. However, the increased investment for a warm pen, better breeding stocks, and other means of production would be beyond the farmers’ capacity to pay unless proper credit facilities became available (Chapter 11, Hua and Michalk 2010).
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Rangeland grazing systems offer only limited potential for intensification and livestock production is becoming increasingly more dependent on crops. Thus the importance of forage from rangelands is decreasing at the expense of cereals, fodder crops like maize and oats, and industrial by-products. In Inner Mongolia it has been shown that the proportion of livestock wholly supported on rangelands has declined since 1990 from a peak of over 50 million to less than 20 million in 2005. This apparent anomaly is explained by the fact that many livestock now depend on energy inputs (Fodder, grain) from outside the pastoral system (Dalintai 2005). In fact, the dominant animal product areas are in Shan Dong, and He Nan provinces where there is abundant agricultural by-products (Chapter 11, Hua and Michalk 2010) Increased attention to livestock-environment interactions is therefore of critical importance in sustaining NW China’s pastoral resource base. These interactions have been the subject of much conjecture, often lacking objectivity and over-simplifying complex relationships (Lu et al. 2005). Box 1 examines some misconceptions about livestock and their role in rangeland degradation. The second point is that an integrated approach is required to reverse the present downward trend in rangeland productivity. The objective is not simply to revegetate the degraded areas by means of re-seeding (see below) or imposition of grazing bans but rather it involves the management of the grazing livestock. This management includes more than just adjusting the stocking pressure. It calls for adjustment of the animal husbandry system and the greater understanding of the linkages between grazing livestock and the rangeland on which they depend (Chapter 4, Kirychuk and Fritz 2010; Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010). Rangelands provide habitat to a wide array of native wildlife and plants, high quality water, forage for domestic livestock and wildlife, and play a part in biodiversity conservation and CO2 sequestration (Chapter 6, Zhao and Squires; Chapter 7, Long et al. 2010). In addition, they directly provide livelihood and lifestyle to millions of herders and, indirectly, to the bureaucracy and service industry set up to cater to their needs.
ox 1 Misconceptions and missed opportunities B Statements like “Livestock have been criticised for damaging the environment in a number of ways” (FAO 1995) and “Livestock have been charged with wholesale devastation of rangelands and irreversible destruction of soils – desertification” (Winrock International Institute 1992) reinforce stereotypes. It would appear as if livestock themselves go out and decide to destroy or not destroy the rangeland. But livestock do not move, produce or reproduce without humans wanting it. They are completely dependent upon humans and inseparable. Livestock do not degrade the environment – humans do (Reynolds et al. 2002). As a result of these misconceptions about animal husbandry development, institutions and government continue to miss opportunities which would permit the livestock sector to make its full contribution to human welfare and economic growth.
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Winter grazing
Browsing
Live above-ground biomass selective removal
Trampling Urine & faeces deposit Direct leaf & twig browsing Lopping trees Fruit & seed consumption
Impact on vegetation productivity DIRECT Short term • Same-season production • N/P + minerals uptake • O M decomposition • Browse production INDIRECT Medium & long term • Floristic Changes
Impact of other activities Harvesting medicinal plants Fodder crops silage/hay associated crops Collecting
• Woody plant population • Top soil: run-off/run-on • Soil fertility
Cutting wood for other purposes (construction etc)
Fig. 1 Rangelands are comprised of several elements, both biotic (people, plants, wild animals, livestock, insects and microbes) and abiotic elements (soils and climate)
Management of rangelands requires a clear understanding of the linkages between the biotic and the abiotic elements (Figs. 1 and 2). In particular, the function and processes involved in rangeland ecosystems need to receive more attention.
2.1 The Vegetation Subsystem Rangelands grazed by livestock support a forage crop capable of intercepting and storing large amounts of solar energy and, consequently, support livestock production at low cost, if managed properly. There has been a slow realization that livestock are tools for managing the rangeland vegetation resource and marketing its forage, not an end in itself. There is still a lot to learn about how to manage rangelands for higher solar energy interception. Vegetation is the central variable in the rangeland system which is externally affected by the amount and timing of precipitation and other weather factors such as wind, freezing conditions and drought. For example, wind erosion increases the area of bare sandy land and thus decreases vegetation cover which exacerbates erosion rate. Eroded areas are more subject to evaporative loss and are less fertile than intact ecosystems. Severe degradation also prevents vegetation from regenerating (Fig. 3). In reality the physical and biological processes involved in rangeland ecosystems are more complicated and involve a greater number of processes and factors. The lack of the necessary geochemical, physical and meteorological data precludes
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Phytoreclamation Precipitation Sandy land Erosion
Evaporation
Sown pasture Vegetation
Ground water
Irrigated agriculture
Wildlife
Vegetation turnover Irrigated agriculture
Livestock
Livestock
Salinization
Farms
Private farms
Irrigated agriculture area
Ground water State revenues
Private revenues
Human population Employment
Poaching Irrigated agriculture Nature reserve
Arrows with “
” indicate the same direction of change
Arrows with “
” indicate the opposite direction
Driving loops (thick arrows)
Fig. 2 A simplified representation (Causal Loop Diagram) of the main physical and biological mechanisms affecting ecosystem regulation in rangeland systems
Erosion
Precipitation
Sandy land
B R Vegetation
R
Evaporation
Sown pasture Ground water
R Vegetation turnover Arrows with “
” indicate the same direction of change
Arrows with “
” indicate the opposite direction
Legend: Reinforcing loops Balancing loops Driving loops (thick arrows)
Fig. 3 Causal Loop Diagram for vegetation subsystem in sandy land in NW China
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doing proper modelling but some indications of the direction and likely rates have been recorded in the scientific literature, e.g. vegetation (yield, cover) sand dune formation, rate of soil loss from wind and water erosion etc.
2.2 The Grazing Subsystem The grazing system (Fig. 4) is driven by external factors – vegetation productivity which in turn is dependent on other factors (Fig. 2). Besides, the competition for forage and livestock’s domination in grazing system limits the opportunity for rangeland ecosystems to recover and is the driving force in rangeland degradation (arrows in bold in Fig. 1). The driving force of the rangeland ecosystem is the human dependence on livestock as the main source of economic revenues. Livestock grazing is the destructive force of the semi-arid rangeland ecosystems (arrows in bold in Fig. 2). The basic dynamics of the human population system are as follows: its growth is dependent on economic revenues. Population grows under favourable financial conditions and this in turn, leads to an increase in total livestock numbers. When revenues from agriculture/animal husbandry are less than 50% of the official poverty line, outward migration occurs because people are forced to look for economic opportunities elsewhere. Hence outward migration is the main cause of population decline. Higher human populations lead to increased livestock numbers to derive economic benefit. However, the unrestrained growth of people and their livestock (Chapter 1, Squires and Hua 2010a) inevitably leads to accelerated desertification and, ultimately, to the collapse of the ecological
Vegetation
Erosion
B
Trampling
B
Livestock
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B Wildlife
B R Poaching
Wildlife Reserve
Ground Water
Fig. 4 A Causal Loop Diagram of the grazing system. Thick arrows indicate the dominant effect of grazing pressure (grazing, browsing, trampling) which limits opportunities for regeneration of rangeland vegetation
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system endangering biodiversity (Chapter 6, Zhao and Squires 2010a), carbon sequestration (Chapter 7, Long et al. 2010) and herder livelihoods (Chapter 11, Hua and Michalk 2010).
3 Challenges for Rangeland System Researchers There are three major aspects that need further research: physiological plant ecology, rangeland ecology, and global change biology. A better understanding of these aspects will provide an ecological foundation for the design and evaluation of ecosystem assessment protocols and management strategies. The ecological impacts of major global change drivers can be evaluated by linking individual plant processes to ecosystem responses. Researchers and academics face a considerable challenge in acquiring this knowledge and the level of understanding required to make sensible management decisions and reverse the downward trend in rangeland condition (Figs. 4 and 5). There is a dearth of knowledge about these aspects in China’s rangelands and so the major challenge is to do the research that would enable an ecologicallybased restoration and sustainable management program to be developed. These three themes coalesce around ecosystem behaviour by emphasizing (a) alternative models of ecosystem behaviour, (b) the utilization of plant functional types1 to organize the inherent complexity of ecosystem dynamics, and (c) exploration of how ecosystem behaviour may be modified by pending global change scenarios.
Private Farms
B
Human Population
Livestock
R
R
State Revenues
Private Revenues
<Employment
Farms
Irrigated Agriculture
Employment
B Salinization
Irrigated Agriculture Area
Fig. 5 The Causal Loop Diagram of the pastoral ecosystem. There are three main subsystems. The human population subsystem, a major part of the economic system determines people’s well being and thus population number; the vegetation sub system and the livestock subsystem. Thick arrows represent driving loops of the system. Broken arrows indicate management decisions
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Another challenge is to increase adoption of a science-based information in policy and management decisions targeting rangeland ecosystems. Firstly there is need to determine (a) the response of specific functional types to natural and anthropogenic disturbances (e.g., drought, grazing, freezing, fire), and (b) to establish the primary contributions of unique functional types on ecosystem function (e.g., productivity, nutrient cycling). Classification of functional types will be based on the ability of plant species to resist and recover from disturbance, including stress resistance and regrowth potential and on correlations between plant structure and function. Further research is needed to investigate the effects of altered precipitation distribution and warming on contrasting growth forms to establish an ecophysiological basis to interpret the response of plant community structure and function to relevant global change scenarios. The proposed research will need to investigate the ecological mechanisms that establish the responses of key grass and shrub species to altered precipitation distribution and warming. Effective ecosystem management must focus on the adoption of management practices and policies that maintain or enhance ecological resilience to prevent stable states from exceeding thresholds. Ecological thresholds describe abrupt changes in ecological properties in time or space. More formally they describe situations where the conditions are sufficient to modify ecosystem structure and function beyond the limit of ecological resistance, resulting in the formation of alternative states. In rangeland management, thresholds reflect changes in vegetation and soils that are expensive or impossible to reverse. Ecological resilience describes the amount of change or disruption that is required to transform a system from being maintained by one set of mutually reinforcing processes and structures to a different set of processes and structures (e.g., an alternative stable state). Resilience management does not exclusively focus on identifying thresholds per se, but rather on within-state dynamics that influence vulnerability to degradation or proximity to specified thresholds. Resilience-based ecosystem management provides greater opportunities to incorporate adaptive management than does threshold-based management because thresholds emphasize limits of state resilience, rather than conditions that determine the probability that these limits will be surpassed. A challenge for the Grassland Monitoring stations is to understand the concepts of State and Transition (Briske et al. 2008) and apply it in their monitoring and assessment program. In particular, it is important to understand the concept of resilience (see above). Effective ecosystem management must focus on the adoption of management practices and policies that maintain or enhance ecological resilience to prevent stable states from exceeding potential thresholds. This is task for those assessing safe carrying capacity (see below). The ultimate objective is to develop process-specific indicators that enable managers to identify at-risk plant communities and potential restoration pathways. Understanding the role of plants as indicators has important implications for sustainable rangeland Functional types/groups rely on role of plants within an ecosystem as opposed to phylogenetic groupings. Two meanings are found in the literature. One meaning focuses on species that respond in a similar way to environmental perturbations, while the second usage groups together species that have similar effects on ecosystem-level processes. 1
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management, and for the rehabilitation of areas that are already degraded. The threshold concept describes unidirectional changes in ecosystem structure and ecosystem functional processes. The state-and-transition model (STM) implies that plant community composition makes dramatic changes only during times of unusual environmental influences. Furthermore, the species composition of differing plant communities in particular states, on a particular ecological site, fluctuate within defined limits, which can also be expressed as several domains of attraction or threshold or ecological transition zones depending on the degree of responses to disturbance. When these thresholds are crossed, recovery to the original ecosystem states2 is difficult (Heshmati and Squires 2009; Li 2009). Rangeland ecosystems shift across dynamic thresholds between different ecological states in response to natural or human-induced factors. These different ecological states are the result of interactions among climate, soils, grazing history, and management practices. Natural ecosystems shift between different ecological states through ecological transition zones (Anand and Li 2001) in response to natural or human-induced factors rather than follow a prescribed successional path. The notion of a single ‘pristine’ final state is only conceptual in nature, and because of this, dynamic thresholds and the effects of various processes on ecosystem structure and function must be incorporated into decision-making. Rangeland managers should have a working knowledge of the key ecological processes in each state, and the processes that drive a system across a dynamic threshold from one state to another. To do this they need indicators for critical decision-making points. It is essential to identify the thresholds of an ecological transition state and ecological indicators of these states. The criteria of these ecological indicators might be measurable, sensitive to stress on the system, have a known response to disturbance and easy to measure. The state and transition approach may offer an appropriate framework as an aid for decision making (Westoby et al. 1989) and can be used to highlight ‘management windows’ where opportunities can be seized and hazards avoided (Fig. 6). Box 2 presents some terminology and attributes of States and Transitions. To illustrate the way in which the general principles can be applied in practice a simplified State-and -Transition model of change in a semi-arid rangeland is presented in Fig. 7. Note that T1 is a transitional state where, as a result of grazing pressure, the vigour or the population density of the vegetation will begin to decline (usually). Under certain grazing pressure regimes the process of change may stop at the next stable state (II). The vegetation at T1 can go either way (back to State I if livestock are excluded) or to State II (and beyond). State II is also stable and has developed under the influence of grazing which is likely to maintain the existing mix of plant species. The remaining vegetation will continue to decline regardless of grazing pressure. If grazing pressure is high and prolonged the vegetation may change (T2 on the diagram). T2 is another transitional stage. Vegetation in this state will move backward to State II if livestock are removed.
States in this context refers to a stage, at a given point of time, in the successional changes in plant communities that follow perturbations like drought, overgrazing etc (see Box 2).
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Community
Transition 1
Community pathways
State A
State B Transition 2
State C
Fig. 6 The general structure of state-and-transition models. The small boxes represent individual plant communities and the dashed arrows between them represent “pathways” along which shifts among communities occur. These shifts are reversible through facilitating practices and fluctuations in climate. The large boxes containing communities are States that are distinguished by differences in structure and the rates of ecological processes (such as erosion) The transitions among States (solid arrows) are reversible only through accelerating implementing rangeland improvement practices (e.g. reseeding) that can be applied at considerable expense
ox 2 Some definitions relating to State-and-Transition Models B States – are defined States are separated by thresholds in terms of vegetation attributes For vegetation types to change from one state to another a state must cross a measurable threshold defined in terms of observed changes in, e.g. strata, growth form and dominant species A state encompasses multiple expressions of vegetation types A state represents the results of management actions undertaken to vegetation types either within the present state or to another state that can influence the present one (continued)
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Box 2 (continued)
Transitions and thresholds are defined relative to states, i.e. how the various components and drivers may interact
The drivers of changes between states (management actions) that have resulted in a change of a vegetation type from one state to another should be understood and described in terms of their impacts on vegetation structure (e.g. cover, basal area, strata, growth forms) composition (e.g. dominant structuring species) and function (e.g. regenerative capacity, soil health, water quality) A threshold must be crossed in order for a change in state to occur
However, if the decline continues, the recovery potential of soil and vegetation will diminish and eventually lead to State IV or V. Usually the only movement is down (degradation continues). The remaining vegetation will continue to decline regardless of grazing pressure. The stable State IV is another stable (but degraded) stage with little or no recovery even with complete exclusion of livestock. While the functions of water and soil conservation usually recover first, more time is needed for productivity and other functions to completely recover, suggesting the idiosyncratic nature of different ecosystem variables in response to time and microclimate change. Particularly, nutrient cycling recovers very slowly by natural restoration and artificial plantation may be necessary to accelerate the restoration process. Regrettably, many rangelands in NW China may be in State V but evidence from the grazing ban sites indicates that many have the potential to recover when grazing pressure is removed.
4 Rangeland Degradation and Recovery A number of points are clear from an analysis of rangeland degradation that has occurred in NW China over the past 70 years (Squires et al. 2009). • • • •
That environmental change has occurred over a very long period That many influences are important That many species have been lost from these ecosystems The recent changes have been quite rapid and difficult to repair
T4
T6
T8
T7
T9 T10
Fig. 7 A state and transition model for semi arid rangelands. There are five clearly recognized States each dominated by a particular assemblage of species. There is clear tendency toward dominance of mid-preferred species (State I) but because mid-preferred grasses are sensitive to heavy grazing State I changes to State II (Transition 1, T1) under moderate grazing pressure and to State III under heavy pressure
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• The impact of sheep, goats and cattle in this region has been all pervasive and linked with the loss of other livestock species (camels, horses) may be the key to many other changes that led to accelerated land degradation Nature is far from constant and it is very difficult to separate patterns of climate and vegetation change from more directly imposed human effects. Some points are quite clear: 1. That in a general climatic sense there is a series of fluctuations rather than one simple trend 2. That some of the fluctuations may be long term (10s to 100s of years), but there is a general consensus about current trends over time periods of this order (Lu et al. 2009) 3. That over large parts of the dry areas there has been serious deterioration in levels of vegetation, and this has become emphasised over the past 2 decades 4. That overgrazing, especially around the increased number of settlements (villagebased herding), de-vegetation for fuelwood, and other human activities are likely to be the major cause of this deterioration Because of the changes in vegetation cover, accompanied by changes in the status of soil in some places, the land cover and land-use boundaries between dry areas and wetter ones have changed over the past few decades. Drought is often cited as a principal cause of rangeland degradation and doubtless it is a major factor, especially since it is the combined effect of drought and heavy grazing pressure that leads to the loss of desirable forage species (Hodgkinson 1995; Li 2009). The long-term stability of perennial grasslands is strongly dependent on maintaining grass basal cover of desirable perennial species. Grass basal cover is greatly reduced under conditions of high utilization and dry growing conditions. Excessive grazing pressure and climatic variability interact to cause the loss of desirable perennial species (grasses and shrubs). Experimental evidence from many rangeland sites is that damage to perennial grass basal cover occurred when utilization exceeded 30% of forage in ‘dry’ growing seasons (Bao et al. 2004). Furthermore, composition of preferred ‘3P’ grasses (perennial, productive and palatable) could be maintained or increased (even in dry years) by adjusting stock numbers to maintain a constant level of forage utilisation (25%) independent of climatic variability. The key to prevention of further rangeland degradation is to regulate grazing pressure. Clearly this means matching livestock to forage supply but how can this be done in such a variable climate? This brings us to the vexed question of safe carrying capacity.
5 Safe Carrying Capacity: A Dream or an Ecological and Economic Imperative Climate factors (and CO2) interact with land-type attributes to affect forage (including shrub) production and invasive plant competition. Similarly, land-type and climate factors affect many components of the grazing system, potential forage
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utilisation, animal production per head (live weight gain and wool cut), choice of breed, enterprise type, animal husbandry and supplementation requirements, calendar of operations, and the impact of grazing on resource components such as cover, soil erosion, fire frequency and pasture species composition. Despite high year-to-year variability in rainfall, many grazing enterprises are based on a nucleus of self-replacing herds and flocks. The concept of a safe livestock carrying capacity (i.e. LCC) was developed to estimate the capacity of the rangeland to sustainably carry livestock in the long-term (greater than 30 years). Implicit in the meaning of the words ‘long term’ is the responsibility of resource managers to achieve sustainable resource use over much greater time intervals (thousands of generations) than the duration of an individual herder’s life. Many of the degradation processes (e.g. soil erosion, invasive plants) which are accelerated by over-utilization operate episodically and/or inexorably and hence, managerial vigilance is required to reduce the risk of degradation. The nominated timeframe of ‘greater than 30 years’ matches the period of responsibility of an herder (i.e. one generation) and the challenge of managing multi-decadal variability in rainfall. A definition of ‘safe’ grazing capacity (LCC) is “the number of animals (e.g. sheep units or beef equivalents) that can be carried on a rangeland pasture system in the long-term without any decrease in pasture condition and without accelerated soil erosion”. In essence, LCC is a strategic (i.e. long-term) estimate of what livestock numbers ought to be but there is not universal acceptance of the concept. There is an argument for abandoning the notion of carrying capacity (Lu et al. 2006). The value of the concept, even for grazing management, is being questioned. Its definition is controversial, its estimation complex, and its appropriateness to non-commercial rangeland-based livestock systems is called into question on the grounds of variability of rainfall, the spatial mobility of herds, the contribution of crop residues, vis a vis natural pastures for feeding livestock (Behnke et al. 1993). The calculation of LCC involves estimates of forage production and the safe level of forage utilization for each pasture type LCC = % utilization safely eaten / forage consumed per SU per year x area of pasture where: amount of forage which can be safely eaten (kg/ha/year) = (‘Safe’ level of forage utilisation (%)/100)* average annual forage grown (kg/ha/year) Mathematically, a ‘safe’ grazing capacity (i.e. LCC) can be represented as: ‘safe’ grazing capacity (in SU/rangeland pasture) = (amount of forage which can be safely eaten (kg/ha/year) divided by amount eaten per sheep (kg/SU/year) × the area of the pasture (ha) Thus, the calculation of LCC involves estimates of forage production and the safe level of forage utilization. These components of LCC are often ignored. Another important factor that is many calculations of LCC ignore two of the most salient features of the pastoral landscape – spatial heterogeneity and temporal variability.
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The above terms and formulas are not to be confused with the procedures for the calculation of short-term (less than 1 year) stocking rates based on appropriate utilisation of standing forage. This short-term carrying capacity assessment is the principal focus of the Grassland Monitoring Station and is associated with the derivation of feed balance. It could be described as the ‘responsive’ strategy to grazing management and, if accurately calculated, could be a useful tool to optimize utilization of available forage resource on a growing season to growing season basis. Accurate calculation of forage production averaged across a whole pasture area requires knowledge of land types, hydrology, cover, density and rainfall. As this information is not usually available, more use can be made of RUE (rainfall use efficiency) calculation (Le Houerou 1984). As Thomas and Squires (1990) show, available soil moisture is a basis for assessing land capability and hence the rangeland’s net primary productivity (NPP). Spatial variation in LCC should be directly related to forage production, which determines the flow of edible dry matter in the grazing system. The term ‘percentage utilisation’ has been commonly but loosely used since the 1970s. However, for calculating LCC, it is used here to indicate the proportion of average annual forage production that can be consumed in the long-term. Safe long-term utilization rates were derived in Australia by comparing LCCs reported by knowledgeable livestock owners for different land-types and average annual forage production calculated from forage production models. There is an urgent need for the Grassland Monitoring stations and university researchers to gather this type of data for NW China’s rangelands. Studies in Australia, North America, and elsewhere, on assessment of “safe carrying capacity” suggest that pasture utilization should be below a ‘safe’ forage utilization threshold (e.g. 30% of summer growth) in 70–80% of years and hence the proportion of years that rangeland recovery can occur substantially exceeds the time when rangelands are overgrazed. The RUE, expressed in kg DM ha−1 year−1 mm−1, is the ratio between the rangeland’s NPP and the annual precipitation received. The elusive NPP is often replaced by the more accessible value of the peak standing above-ground biomass that is approximately 20% smaller then NPP on arid and semi-arid rangelands. When interpreting RUE, values of 0.5–1.0 indicate a degraded or desertified environment. For example, 20 sites range sites in medium to poor condition under current free grazing system exhibited a mean RUE of 1.9 kg DM/ha/year/mm. Adjacent 20 range exclosures, or controlled grazing sites that were in medium to good condition, had an average RUE of 4.8. Hence a rangeland in poor-degraded condition in a 200 mm year−1 zone may have a RNPP of approximately 100–200 kg DM ha−1, while in good condition, the NPP may reach 800–900 kg DM ha−1. The RUE may be appropriately used as a synthetic and integrating range condition indicator providing that it is calculated with (a) factual field NPP measurements possibly in relation to high resolution satellite imagery and (b) actual rainfall data either measured on the same rangeland site or carefully generated using GIS, 3D topographic data combined with precipitation data from nearby meteorological stations. Scaling up the results of RUE calculations to larger regions or country level certainly needs further research. For example, most RUE in semi arid areas
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Fig. 8 A typical Time series of: (a) 5-year; and (b) 20-year moving averages of rainfall averaged across grazed rangelands to show the cyclic nature of drier-than-usual years
range from 1.76 to 2.82 kg/ha/mm and it is possible (where a time series of stocking rates is available) to calculate the percentage of years in a decade where forage utilization exceeded the utilization threshold of 30%. A time series of rainfall data from a grazed rangeland sites show decade-long sequences of wet and dry years. This is revealed regardless of whether the data are analysed on the basis of either 5-year or 20-year moving averages (Fig. 8). Clearly when livestock numbers are high, and drier-than-usual years are experienced, there will be a mismatch and utilization will be near 90%. If basal cover of the “3P” species falls dramatically, as a result of overgrazing and drought, then there is little opportunity for them to recover even in wetter than usual years. It is more likely that noxious species will invade, further reducing the opportunity for “3P” species to compete for space, nutrients and moisture. There exist multiple optimal stocking densities beyond which a grazing system might reasonably be judged to contain too many animals. Six different criteria that could be used to identify these different optima: (a) individual animal performance, (b) profit versus, (c) yield maximization, (d) the number of herding operations and, finally, (e) the total number of livestock which could be supported on a permanent basis (f ) the total number of livestock which could be supported on a temporary basis. Confusion arises because different densities are appropriate to different management and production systems or advocated by different sets of professional observers. It is no wonder that carrying capacity has proved to be such a slippery concept. Within the limits of what is biologically feasible, the correct stocking rate for a grazing system must be determined in relation to the production strategy and the social and economic circumstances of the rangeland user. There is no single optimum density and, hence, little point to simply characterizing an area as
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overstocked. This conclusion is especially pertinent to NW China. Different livestock breeds, species and output mixes, variable levels of market involvement and different systems of land tenure are characteristic of open-access herding versus small holder fenced rangeland areas.. The combined effect of these differences means that stocking rates are higher in pastoral than in ranching systems (Behnke and Abel 1996). This is partly because herders seek to maximize output per unit area as commercial ranchers want to maximize production per animal. In addition there are two biological mechanisms that sustain pastoral stocking strategies: (a) the physiology of indigenous stock and (b) the broad mix of products derived from these animals (meat, milk, fiber, draft). There is little doubt that some areas are overgrazed but that is a different concept and there is a strong case to reduce grazing pressure from the high levels that prevail over most of NW China. That subsistence-oriented producers can meet their production targets at much higher stocking rates does not mean that the land they occupy is more resilient. To the contrary there are strong incentives for considering the environmental consequences of over grazing. This is not a problem that most Grassland Monitoring Stations or research staff are equipped to examine, since they rarely continue for long enough to pick up the lagged effect of high stocking densities on output levels (Ash and Stafford Smith 1996).
References Anand M, Li BL (2001) Spatiotemporal dynamics in a transition zone: patchiness, scale, and an emergent property. Community Ecol 2(2):161–169 Ash AJ, Stafford-Smith DM (1996) Evaluating stocking rate impacts in rangelands: Animals don’t practice what we preach. Rangeland J 18:216–243 Bao Y-J, Li Z-H, Zhong Y-K (2004) Compositional dynamics of plant functional groups and their effects on stability of community ANPP during 17yr of mowing succession on Leymus chinensis Steppe of Inner Mongolia, China. Acta Bot Sin 46:1155–1162 Behnke RH, Abel NOJ (1996) Revisited: the overstocking controversy in semi-arid Africa, World Animal Review 87:3–27 Behnke RH, Scoones I, Kerven C (eds) (1993) Range Ecology at disequilibrium: New models of natural variability and pastoral adaptation in African savannas. Overseas Development Institute, London Briske DD, Bestelmeyer BT, Stringham TK, Shaver PL (2008) Recommendations for development of resilience-based state-and-transition models. Rangeland Ecol Manage 61:359–367 Dalintai A (2005) Rethinking grassland desertification. J Coll Finance Econ Guizhou 3:46–50 (in Chinese) FAO 1995 Livestock: a driving force for food security and sustainable development. Feed Res. Group, FAO, Rome WAR/RMZ 84–85 Heshmati GA, Squires VR (2009) New thinking in range ecology. In: Squires VR (ed) Range and animal sciences and resources management, EOLSS/UNESCO Hodgkinson KC (1995) A model for perennial grass mortality under grazing. In: West NE (ed) Rangelands in a sustainable biosphere. Proceedings of the IVth International Rangeland Congress, vol 1, Society for Range Management, Denver, CO, pp 240–241 Hua LM, Michalk DL (2010) Herders’ income and expenditure: perceptions and expectations (Chapter 11, this volume)
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Kirychuk B, Fritz B (2010) Ecological restoration and control of Rangeland degradation: Livestock management, (Chapter 4, this volume) Le Houérou HN (1984) Rain use efficiency: A unifying concept in arid-land ecology. J Arid Environ 7:213–247 Li X (2009) Mechanisms of degradation in grazed rangelands. In: Squires V, Lu X, Lu Q, Wang T, Yang Y (eds) Degradation and recovery in China’s pastoral lands. CABI, Wallingford, pp 45–60 Long R, Shang Z, Li X, Jiang P, Jia H, Squires VR (2010) Carbon sequestration and the implications for rangeland management (Chapter 7, this volume) Lu Q, Wang S, Squires V, Yang Y (2005) Desertification and dust storms in China: Impacts, root causes and mitigation strategies. China Forestry Sci Technol 5(3):22–35 Lu Q, Wang X, Wu B (2009) An analysis of the effects of climate variability in northern China over the past five decades on people, livestock and plants in the focus area. In V. Squires et al., (eds) Rangeland degradation and recovery in China’s pastoral lands. CABI, Wallingford UK pp 33–44 Michalk DL, Hua LM, Kemp DR, Jones R, Takahashi T, Wu JP, Nan Z, Xu Z, Han G (2010) Redesigning livestock systems to improve household income and reduce stocking rates in China’s western grasslands (Chapter 14, this volume) Reynolds JF, Stafford Smith, DM (eds) (2002) Global desertification: Do humans cause deserts? Dahlem Workshop Report 88, Dahlem University, Berlin, pp 1–21 Squires VR and Hua L (2010a) (Chapter 1, this volume) Squires VR, Hua L, Li G, Zhang D (2010b) Exploring the options in North-west China pastoral lands (Chapter 3, this volume) Squires VR, Hua L, Zhang D, Li G (2010b) Towards ecological restoration and management in China’s northwest pastoral zone (Chapter 15, this volume) Squires VR, Lu X, Lu Q, Wang T, Yang Y (2009) Rangeland degradation and recovery in China’s pastoral lands. CABI, Wallingford UK p 264 Thomas D, Squires VR (1990) Available soil moisture as a basis for land capability assessment in semi arid regions. Vegetatio 91:183–190 Westoby MB, Walker B, Noy-Meir I (1989) Opportunistic management for rangelands not at equilibrium. J Range Manage 42:266–274 Winrock International (1992) Assessment of Animal Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa. Winrock International. Arkansas, USA Zhao CZ and Squires VR (2010) (Chapter 6, this volume)
Part III
Achieving the Global Objectives
China is a repository for much of the world’s biodiversity and the mountainous regions of NW China contain many plant and animals that are under increasing threat. Biodiversity is at risk but so too is the capacity of these plant communities to sequester carbon. The three chapters in this part deal with aspects of biodiversity, including conservation of local livestock breeds and with carbon sequestration.
Chapter 6
Biodiversity of Plants and Animals in Mountain Ecosystems Zhao Cheng-Zhang and Victor Squires
Synopsis Biodiversity in NW China is discussed. Four specific issues are dealt with in this chapter: (i) plant responses to grazing; (ii) plant invasions; (iii) the responses to management of valued rangeland biota (plants and animals); and (iv) vulnerability to climate change. Case studies in Gansu and in Xinjiang are presented. Key Points 1. Biodiversity is a multifaceted phenomenon involving the variety of organisms present, the genetic differences among them, and the communities, ecosystems, and landscape patterns in which they occur. Many factors affect biodiversity of plants and animals (including birds and insects). Grazing (defoliation and trampling) is a major one. 2. Although pivotal in rangeland management, plant responses to grazing are sometimes difficult to predict. Two alternative approaches have been used. The first analyzes long-term grazing experiments to investigate the links between plant traits (like species composition, density, frequency, cover and biomass) and response to various levels of grazing pressure. The second analyzes the impact of varying periods of exclosure (protection from grazing) on the plant traits. 3. Reducing or removing grazing pressure was effective for rehabilitating rangelands. With the increase of plant diversity, community coverage, density, aboveground biomass, the structure of below-ground biomass of the steppe community has been improved, the capacity of retention and storage of water has been enhanced, and the ecosystem service function of natural grassland has been effectively restored. Zhao Cheng-Zhang (*) College of Geography and Environment, North West Normal University, Lanzhou, China e-mail: [email protected] Victor Squires University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia e-mail: [email protected] V. Squires et al. (eds.), Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7_6, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
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4. Habitat loss is often characterised by vegetation fragmentation or the loss of connectivity in landscapes. The degree of fragmentation is a key indicator. It is noted that fragmentation of natural habitat due to overgrazing, opportunistic cultivation and other modifying practices disrupts ecological processes such as nutrient and energy cycling, creates sub-populations of species and isolates those subpopulations from one another. 5. There is a correlation between the size of remnant vegetation patches and susceptibility of the natural environment to a variety of pressures. There is also a correlation between the size of remnants and numbers of species and population viability, and there are further possible impacts on pollination, seed dispersal, wildlife migration and breeding. Rangeland vegetation that is retained and forms part of a ‘connected landscape’ can perform a variety of roles in allowing species (plant and animal) to move and adapt to a changing climate. Keywords Ecosystem services • grazing pressure • cover • density • species composition • climate change • fragmentation • diversity index • habitat change • plant-plant interactions • alpine areas • wetlands • birds • fish • biomass • steppe • meadow • exclosure • grazing ban • invasive plants • rodents • voles • carbon sequestration • litter • mineralization • Altai Shan • Qilian Shan • Tian Shan • Hexi corridor • Loess Plateau • grazing impacts • connected landscapes • remnant vegetation • buffers • vulnerable species • keystone species • tissue quality • herbivory • Relative Growth Rates • alpine plants • tannin • toxicity • soil moisture
1 Introduction Natural, semi-natural grasslands, steppes, shrublands (rangeland ecosystems) and artificial grasslands (sown pastures) occur around the globe. A wide range of rangeland ecosystems are represented in NW China across a full elevation gradient from cold alpine meadows to low-lying arid and semi-arid rangeland lands. Together these rangeland habitats form an important network of systems which support the existing transhumant pastoral systems, but successful management for production and biodiversity poses several dilemmas for conservationists and land managers. Because of the significance of such rangeland ecosystems for biodiversity conservation, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) has, as one of its global program objectives, to maintain natural rangeland ecosystems to enhance global environmental benefits, including biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration and ecosystem services such as water flow. These objectives are expected to be achieved through encouraging sustainable resource management. This implies an ecosystem approach to land management at a landscape scale across rangelands that are used as a base for primary production (herding and farming). Such efforts in NW China aim to promote sustainable land use and combat and reverse land degradation.
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At the practical (field) level this calls for participatory, integrated ecosystem approaches to rangeland management and pastoral development in globally significant areas for biodiversity corridors in the Tian Shan, Altai Shan and Qilian Shan mountains that are the focus of this chapter. These mountainous areas are biodiversity ‘hot spots’ because the elevation of land areas leads to compression of climatic zones over short distances. High conservation priority is ascribed to these areas and they have a key role to play. In undisturbed sites within humid alpine areas a substantial part of the regional flora and fauna can be found within 1 km2 (often within 10 m2) of each other, and very few additional species are added if the survey is extended to the mountain-range or regional scale (Wang et al. 2007). Four specific issues are dealt with in this chapter: (i) plant responses to grazing, (ii) plant invasions; (iii) the responses to management of valued rangeland biota (plants and animals); and (iv) vulnerability to climate change.
1.1 Plant Responses to Grazing Although pivotal in rangeland management, plant responses to grazing are sometimes difficult to predict. Two alternative approaches have been used. The first analyzes long-term grazing experiments to investigate the links between plant traits (like species composition, density, frequency, cover and biomass) and response to various levels of grazing pressure. The second analyzes the impact of varying periods of exclosure (protection from grazing) on the plant traits. 1.1.1 Effect of Grazing Intensity Three treatments were used to evaluate the effect of grazing intensity (ca 30% and 50% herbage removal), aspect (north and south), and slope (<10% and 10–30%) on plant community structure of mountain grasslands in Qitai county, Xinjiang. Plant species richness was not significantly affected by grazing intensity, aspect, or slope. Although plant species composition was similar (Sorensen’s similarity index = 0.87) between both grazing intensities, species frequency and cover were affected by grazing intensity. Moderate grazing intensity (50% herbage removal) plots contained a greater number of plant species with a frequency of more than 50%. The lowest cover for Festuca corresponded to low grazing intensity, north aspects, and steeper slopes. The lowest cover for Agrostis was found under low grazing intensity (30% herbage removal) and steeper slopes. Potentilla erecta, and Trifolium repens were significantly affected by aspect and grazing intensity. Low grazing intensity on sites with northern aspects and steep slopes favored Agrostis, a species with a low nutritional value. A. capillaris, A. curtisii, P. erecta, and T. repens were sensitive to soil properties and aspect. Nitrogen and K soil concentrations were significantly higher in areas with low grazing intensity, most likely due to greater dead herbage
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accumulation. Significant (P < 0.05) correlations between plant species and soil pH or P concentration were found in areas with low grazing intensity. Reduction in grazing intensity together with the effect of slope and northern aspect has resulted in changes in plant community structure, leading to increases in forages with lower nutritional value. A comprehensive study reports on changes in plant functional group composition, litter quality, and soil C and N mineralization dynamics from a 9-year sheep grazing study in Inner Mongolia (Barger et al. 2004). Three main questions were addressed: 1 . How does increasing grazing intensity affect plant community composition? 2. How does increasing grazing intensity alter soil C and N mineralization dynamics? 3. Do changes in soil C and N mineralization dynamics relate to changes in plant community composition via inputs of the quality or quantity of litter? Grazing plots were set up near the Inner Mongolia Grassland Ecosystem Research Station near Xilinhot, with five grazing intensities: 1.3, 2.7, 4.0, 5.3, and 6.7 sheep ha−1·year−1. Plant cover was lower with increasing grazing intensity, which was primarily due to a dramatic decline in grasses, Carex duriuscula, and Artemisia frigida. Changes in litter mass and percentage organic C resulted in lower total C in the litter layer at 4.0 and 5.3 sheep ha−1·year−1 compared with 2.7 sheep ha−1·year−1. Total litter N was lower at 5.3 sheep ha−1·year−1 compared with 2.7 sheep ha−1·year−1. Litter C:N ratios, an index of litter quality, were significantly lower at 4.0 sheep ha−1·year−1 relative to 1.3 and 5.3 sheep ha−1·year−1. Cumulative C mineralized after 16 days decreased with increasing grazing intensity. In contrast, net N mineralization (NH4+ + NO3−) after a 12-day incubation increased with increasing grazing intensity. Changes in C and N mineralization resulted in a narrowing of CO2-C:net Nmin ratios with increasing grazing intensity. Grazing explained 31% of the variability in the ratio of CO2-C:net Nmin. The ratio of CO2-C:net Nmin was positively correlated with litter mass. Furthermore, there was a positive correlation between litter mass and A. frigida cover. Results suggest that as grazing intensity increases, microbes become more C limited resulting in decreased microbial growth and demand for nitrogen (N).
2 Evaluation of Ecosystem Service’s Value for Participative Ecological Restoration in Hilly Region Loess Plateau Region of Gansu Dingxi county (Lat. 35°30¢N, 104°33¢E) located in the middle reaches of the Yellow River in central Gansu province, is a typical hilly region on the western edge of the Loess plateau. Around 87% of area is slope land at an altitude between 1,750 and 2,580 m. The climate is classified as semi-arid temperate, with an annual
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rainfall of 400 mm while annual evaporation reaches 1,536 mm. In the late twentieth century, the ecological environment deteriorated seriously as evidenced by serious soil and water loss, lowering of groundwater, soil fertility decline and productivity loss. Grazing bans were put in place in Quanwan village. The degraded rangelands (including shrub and forest uplands were fenced, abandoned croplands were planted to perennial forage plants, e.g. sanfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) and greater care was taken to match fertilizer requirements of the croplands to the soil nutrient status. Monitoring of various attributes such as changes in soil organic matter, litter accumulation, foliage cover of rangelands, plant density and species diversity and run off were conducted with a view to assessing the speed and extent of recovery. An assessment was made of the environmental services provided by the rangelands using the market-value method, opportunity cost method, shadow project method and restoration cost method. A brief summary of the results is presented here.
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Fig. 2 The changes in the main biological attributes of steppe community after exclosure. (a) inside fences, (b) outside fences (Zhao et al. unpublished)
2.2 Changes in Soil Organic Matter Soil structure of the sloping land has been improved after adopting ecological restoration measures which mainly include planting perennial pasture such as sanfoin and fertilizer applications based on soil testing. The soil of croplands, abandoned cropland (now sown to perennial forage), forest land and shrub land showed a marked improvement in soil organic matter (Fig. 3). The accumulation of a litter layer increased year by year with obvious benefit to runoff interception, effectively reducing the soil erosion and sediment deposition downstream thereby mitigating the losses caused by floods. After 3–4 years restoration, the annual runoff modulus of small watershed was reduced from 2.23 × 104 to 1.193 × 104 m3/km2. From 2001 to 2008, the soil erosion modulus of sloping land had been reduced from 5,845 to 2,100.8 t/km2 year, the efficiency of storing water in situ and reducing soil loss respectively reached to 45.9% and 64.1%.
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2.3 Analysis of Service Functions of Steppe Ecosystem With the increase of plant diversity, community coverage, density, aboveground biomass, the structure of below-ground biomass of the steppe community has been improved, the capacity of retention and storage of water has been enhanced, and the ecosystem service function of natural grassland has been effectively restored in Quanwan village (Fig. 4). The overall value of ecosystem services (Chen et al. 2007) increased from 2,160,000 Yuan in 2004 to 3,870,000 Yuan in 2008, among which the value of producing organic material increased by 1,005,000 Yuan, the value of conditioning the atmosphere rose by 920,000 Yuan, the value of storing water increased by 601,000 Yuan, and the value of soil conservation rose by 16,000 Yuan.
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3 A Study of Diversity in the Farming-Pastoral Transition Zone in the North Slope of Qilian Shan In the 1980s, during the planned economy period, Ma Yinggou village (Lat. 38°60¢N, Long 102°07¢E°) was one of the main pasture lands of Yong Chang county. There was strict management of the rangeland and clearly defined responsibilities about livestock numbers and entry and exit dates. Rangeland and livestock were in balance. This balance was upset after the transfer of responsibilities under HCRS. Conversion of rangeland to increase the area under fodder and forage production and increased numbers of livestock was encouraged by the government The villagers ignored the research findings and the previous arrangements gave way to free and disordered herding of the rangelands under a system of common use grazing. It has been difficult to implement the HCRS on the grazing land, because of free herding, and unclear grazing user rights of grassland use and the difficulty of how to cope with the massive overgrazing. Over the past 20 years rangeland productivity has fallen rapidly, run off and soil erosion have increase alarmingly, and rangeland is seriously degraded with about 90% classified as “moderate” degradation. In August 2007, we surveyed the Ma Yinggou’s mountain meadow (2,600–2,900 m) in order to research the impact of unrestricted grazing on rangeland diversity. According to the slope, and it begin with villages. A 2,400 m long transect was sampled about every 800 m. At every survey site a set six quadrats (1 ×1 m) were taken. We recorded foliage cover, plant density, mean plant height in each sample. We selected three contrasting study area for the monitoring of above-ground biomass (dry weight basis) (i) severely over grazed (OG), (ii) heavily grazed (HG) and moderately grazed (MG). The Control (Ck) was a site that was ungrazed.
3.1 The Effect of Grazing on the Plant Community Characters The plant community structure and plant species composition changed in response to the gradient of grazing pressure (Fig. 5). The number of species decreased from seven in moderately grazed (MG) area to four in the over grazed (OG) site, but 14
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overall the number of species in the Control (fenced area) was significantly greater than the over grazed (OG) area. The coverage and height fell sharply with the increase of the grazing intensity, foliage cover was down by 9% in the OG site, and the height was 15.8 cm lower than either the MG or the Control (NG). Cover and height in the MG and Control showed no significant difference, Moderate grazing had no obvious effect on rangeland, but heavy grazing and over grazing accelerated the rate of degradation.
3.2 The Effect of Grazing on Functional Group Composition With increasing grazing intensity, invasion by inedible and/or poisonous plants occurred and the structure of the functional group changed dramatically. Inedible plants, such as Stellera chamaejasme, Leontopodium leontopodioides, were dominant in the OG sites (Fig. 6).
3.3 The Effect of Grazing on the Diversity Grazing pressure had a significant effect on diversity, evenness and ecological dominance (Fig. 7). Species diversity index was higher in MG and the Control. Ecological dominance was generally low, diversity index and evenness were higher in MG, HG and NG than in OG. The Simpson index of ecological dominance was highest in OG because of the dominance of one or two inedible plants to the exclusion of all other species. Even in the moderately grazed area, defoliation by livestock and trampling had an effect on the growth of dominant species, which left vacant an ecological niche for the subdominant species and invasive adventitious species; so species composition was rich. The Shannon – Wiener diversity index continued to be reduced as grazing intensity Edible grass
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increased, but the Simpson ecological dominance showed a reverse tend, so there was strong community stability in the moderately grazed area. Compared with grazing grass, The plant diversity was high in the ungrazed Control (NG), the Simpson Index was low, but because there was no disturbance, dominant species occupied the ecological niche space, so subdominant species found it hard to expand. Therefore, moderate stocking benefits the maintenance of the diversity that can strengthen the rangeland’s resilience to the grazing.
4 Species Diversity of Ecosystem Evolution Process in Wetland Resource of Liufen Village of Suzhou District The total area of wetland in Liufen Village, Suzhou county (Lat. 39° 38 N and Long. 98.58°E) is 867 hm2, and it is a combination of pond wetland, lake wetland and meadow wetland. It also is the main fish reserve in Jiuquan oasis. It has two main categories of vegetation, one is a meadow grassland, and another is a saline area dominated by halophytes. Until the middle-1980s, the wetland was a broad water surface with lush aquatic plants. There were 13 species of birds and 14 species of fish. Under pressure from economic development and rising human population especially since the middle-1990s, agricultural development expanded and about 400 ha of wetland was drained and converted to cropland in Renjiatan, Zhangjiahaizi and Sunjiahu. Water use was not regulated. Because water recharge of upstream was reduced, groundwater was over-exploited and more and more wetland was converted to cropland, the ecological flows cannot be maintained. At the same time livestock numbers rose rapidly. Long-term over-grazing led to reduced vegetation cover and the ecological environment is further deteriorated. GEF project team fenced the remaining wetland of Liufen villige in 2004 after consultation with community’s manager and local residents. Livestock were removed and the wetland was subjected to a total grazing ban. We monitored the biological diversity in the wetland in April-November in 2007 to determine the process of biological diversity’s succession. We were assisted by reference to the local literature and long-term observations of a community resident.
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4.1 Diversity of Fish and Birds in Wetland Resource of Liufen Village
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Due to environmental changes, land reclamation, over grazing and other anthropogenic interference, the wetland area of Liufen Village was reduced, water quality was worsening, and species diversity was reduced gradually since the 1980s. Fish and birds species number were 14 and 13 species respectively in 1983, but fish and birds species number reduced to five and four respectively in 2003. The Shannon-Wiener index for fish was 2.32, and for birds it was 2.13. But diversity of fish and birds was reduced gradually from 1983 to 2003, and was much lower in 2003. Pielou evenness index has the same tendency of fish and birds, but fish Pielou evenness index has a larger fluctuation (Fig. 8). The aquatic organisms and the some bird species increased gradually after the imposition of the grazing ban, and the fish and the birds species increased by two and three respectively. Compared with 2003, Simpson dominance index was lower in 2007, but was still higher than the 1980s and 1990s. This indicates that the animals diversity was increased in the short term after the grazing ban, but there was no dominant species. The structure of the fish and the bird communities are not yet stable (Fig. 9).
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Fig. 9 The birds diversity change from 1983 to 2007 in a wetland community in Suzhou, Gansu (Zhao et al. unpublished)
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4.2 The Decrease of Grass Species Diversity 1. Meadow grassland: There were 27 species in the 1980s, but only seven in 2004 because of climate change, land conversion, over grazing, and so on. 2. Saline/alkaic meadow: There were six species in the 1980s, but only one in the early twentieth century because of the continuous decline in groundwater level and over grazing. 4.2.1 Evaluation of Restoration Effect on Plant Diversity in Grassland 1. Meadow grassland: The number of species in the grazing ban area increased from 5 to 11 species by 2006 (Fig. 10). Along with the increasing richness in the wetland community, the plant diversity increased significantly. Simpson species diversity reached to 0.834 in 2007, much higher than in any grazed area (Fig. 11). After 1 year of the grazing ban, the foliage cover improved from 62% to 69%, and the above-ground biomass improved from 1,416 to 2,046 kg/hm2. The Jaccard similarity index of the banned grazing area and the control group (CK1) was 0.45 in 2007, but this index was only 0.14 in the grassland in 1983. 14
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2. Saline/alkaic meadow: After 4 years of grazing ban, species increased to four kinds, the plant diversity increased significantly. The Simpson index of species diversity has increased to 0.5811, however, but it was still very low (Fig. 12). Compared with free grazing in 2003, the community coverage improved from 14% to 26%, the dominant species such as Leymus secalinus, increased in height from 9 to 24 cm., above-ground biomass improved from 440 to 1,560 kg/hm2 (Fig. 13). The Jaccard similarity index after 4 years of grazing ban was 0.532 compared with control grassland, and quite different (0.212) from the meadow in 1983. Consequently, grazing bans not only increased the species diversity in grassland but also improved grassland productivity. The functional group structure of salted and meadow grassland changed significantly after 1 year under grazing ban, but it still needs a long time to restore the natural situation. Although the species diversity and productivity in salted and meadow grassland improved significantly after 4 years under the grazing ban, there are still some problems, such as the plant functional groups structure has much difference compared with natural meadow, and the effect of restoring is not ideal, so there is necessary to take some comprehensive measures to improve the recovery speed.
5 Biodiversity in the Tian Shan, Xinjiang A study by researchers from Xinjiang Agricultural University in a mountain meadow sought to characterize the site, in the Tian Shan foot slopes, on the basis of three main functional groups (i) vegetation (vascular plants) diversity; (ii) soil animal diversity; and (iii) soil microbe diversity with a view to developing a biodiversity baseline data bank. Figure 13 shows the broad framework for the study.
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Fig. 13 A flow chart showing the various steps followed in Xinjiang to study biodiversity in mountain rangeland communities in the lower elevation pastures of the Tian Shan
After erection of fences to control grazing there was an opportunity to evaluate the impact on biodiversity. Four treatments were compared: (i) ungrazed areas within the enclosure; (ii) mown areas within the enclosure; (iii) rotational grazing within fenced areas; and (iv) grazed areas outside the fence. A summary of the conclusions follows: The plant biodiversity in the ungrazed (fenced) areas was lower than outside (grazed) area but the Atatalo evenness index was much lower outside. For the microbial community the biggest difference was found between the ratio of actinomyctes to bacteria. In the absence of grazing it was 61.0:39.0 but much lower under grazed conditions. Fungi was uniformally low across all treatments. The diversity index of soil animals went from highest to lowest in this sequence: (1) Mown areas within the enclosure; (2) Rotational grazing; (3) Ungrazed; and (4) Grazed.
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5.1 Plant Invasions Linked often crucially with grazing, but also driven sometimes by extrinsic factors, invasions are often a cause for concern in rangeland management. The invasions of rangelands by woody plants or toxic plants like monk’s hood (Aconitum spp.) or Stellera chamaejasme, Oxytropis glabra, Aconitum pendulum, Achnatherum inebrians threatens rangeland habitats while the invasions of sown pastures by alien weeds reduces pasture productivity. The discussion in this section highlights how a complementary suite of management activities can reduce the abundance of invaders but also highlights how global environmental change is presenting new circumstances in which rangeland invasion can occur. In order to persist, individuals that comprise populations and species must (i) reproduce, and to achieve this must (ii) acquire resources to maintain themselves and produce biomass. In the process, they create conditions that may be essential or detrimental to the existence of other species. Regardless of the impact of these interactions, the ultimate result is to select for traits that promote the persistence of certain genotypes in space and time, and not maximization of production or rates of biogeochemical cycling per se. In some circumstances high productivity may promote persistence. For instance, following disturbance, rapidly growing species quickly monopolize the available light and nutrients. Other species may occupy niches where slow growth and space occupancy lead to long term persistence and reproductive output. In other words, high biotic diversity is not necessarily coupled to a particular rate of production or biogeochemical cycling, but may depend on the maintenance of an environmental matrix in which different strategies are favoured at different times or places. In contrast to canopy height which can be an important factor in shrub invasion, specialization in rooting depth can enable deep-rooted species to tap resources that would otherwise be unavailable to the rest of the community For ecosystems to persist there is need to avoid habitat loss. Habitat change and loss can be extremely varied, ranging from logging of native forest and conversion of rangelands to croplands, to physical modification of rivers, drying up of wetlands due to reduced water flows, pollution or direct damage from infrastructure development. Any or all of these changes may be significant in terms of loss of biodiversity. Habitat threats depend on scale and context. Relatively small losses in those rangeland ecosystems which are already significantly depleted are of immediate concern. Habitat threats are lessened where loss occurs in vegetation types that are wellreserved and relatively abundant. Other agents of habitat change, such as pests (both plant and animal) and climate change (see above) can have significant consequences even in well-preserved vegetation communities. Habitat loss is often characterised by vegetation fragmentation or the loss of connectivity in landscapes (See Fig. 14). There is a correlation between the size of remnant vegetation patches and susceptibility of the natural environment to a variety of pressures. There is also a correlation between the size of remnants and numbers of species and population viability, and there are further possible impacts on pollination, seed dispersal, wildlife migration and breeding. Rangeland vegetation
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Fig. 14 Fragmentation of habitat is a major cause of loss of biodiversity
that is retained and forms part of a ‘connected landscape’ can perform a variety of roles in allowing species (plant and animal) to move and adapt to a changing climate. Fragmentation is a key indicator. It is noted that fragmentation of natural habitat due to overgrazing, opportunistic cultivation and other modifying practices disrupts ecological processes such as nutrient and energy cycling, creates sub-populations of species and isolates those sub-populations from one another. There is a correlation between size of remnants and susceptibility to a variety of pressures. For example, there is a correlation between the size of remnants and numbers of species and population viability; and possible impacts on pollination, seed dispersal, wildlife migration and breeding. Fragmented landscapes are more susceptible to exotic species invasions (see above). Changes in catchment vegetation cover – especially from deep-rooted to shallowrooted types (or vice-versa) – can change hydrological processes including the water runoff/infiltration balance which is central to maintaining water quantity, quality and flow regimes in both groundwater and surface water. Fluvial geomorphic processes are therefore also affected by catchment land cover disturbances. Habitat change in the alpine habitat may occur through a variety of physical, chemical, or biological processes. However, there is limited monitoring and, consequently, few indicators to describe trends and changes in these habitats. Because some changes are unseen and typically unmonitored, they may occur without adequate government scrutiny and considerable change may have already occurred before any remedial action is planned. Incremental changes to habitat may involve change processes such as inappropriate grazing regimes particularly overgrazing. These incremental changes can result in degradation or loss of habitat over time. Firewood collection and removal is also a significant source of habitat change, including the loss of nest sites for birds and bees. The relative significance of different habitat threats will change and new interactions between threats will occur as a consequence of climate change. On the land, the legacy of past and continued land use change will interact with a changing climate in ways that will make it harder for some species and ecosystems to adapt. Fragmented or disconnected habitats are less resilient to change and more vulnerable to climate change or to invasion by toxic or otherwise undesirable plants.
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Habitat Change index significance of pressure minor
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A graphical index is included as a visual method to allow a comparison of priority issues. The positioning of the dials for habitat change reflects the increasing significance of pressures on a variety of habitats. It reflects the increasing spatial scale of emerging pressures such as changes to grazing regimes and changes in season of use. Information and knowledge is generally significantly poor (Fig. 15). Also associated with drying trends and increasing demands for water is the degradation of wetlands, which has occurred in many parts of the Qilian Shan and Tian Shan uplands with major impacts on aquatic and waterbird communities. Many wetlands have become dry in the past few decades, with significant ecological and biological effect. There has been a shift in the timing of rainfall and increases in evaporation, which has resulted in the drying out of ‘permanent’ wetlands. Wetlands are unable to refill because of dry winters with resulting decimation of aquatic ecosystems and declines in waterbird breeding. A little recognized impact of grazing is on biodiversity in riparian areas. Such riparian areas receive 20–30% more grazing animals and cattle, in particular, can also influence the water quality (increased nitrates and phosphates), as well as plant and animal biodiversity of land and aquatic systems. Biodiversity provides an agro-ecosystem with the ability to adapt to changes in the environment. A healthy rangeland maintains a high biodiversity not only of the plant species but also of the whole food chain. Three factors are considered to be the major causes of lost plant biodiversity on rangelands: overgrazing, collection of woody species for fuel, and conversion to cropland. With overgrazing, the more palatable plant species disappear, and the less palatable or unpalatable species remain filling in the gaps and empty niches (West 1993). Uprooting or cutting of woody species for fuel destroys the microenvironment in which other species flourish. Invader plants dominate overgrazed rangelands and fill in the voids left by the suppressed palatable plants, replacing the diverse biotic-rich native plant communities. Resulting monocultures create their own self-sustaining environment. It is nearly impossible to replace the once rich biodiversity by re-seeding or restoration with currently available technology; the rich native biodiversity is permanently lost once rangeland is cultivated. Biodiversity is affected indirectly through fodder requirements that may mean converting species-rich rangeland to cropland planted to monocultures. There has been a new wave of rangeland conversion (often the best rangeland) to cropland to grow the fodder and forage crops required to pen feed livestock.
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5.2 The Responses to Management of Valued Rangeland Biota (Plants and Animals) A species does not have to be the most abundant in an ecosystem to have a key role in the long-term preservation of ecosystem functioning. Rare, endangered or vulnerable species may act as buffers for ecosystem processes in the face of changes in the physical and biological environment. Some species are referred to as ‘keystone’ because they interact with many other species in a community. The loss of these species could cause a greater than average change in the populations of other species or in ecosystem processes. Some understanding of the importance of the interaction between the plant and the grazing animal is helpful to management of the rangeland ecosystem (West 1993). Tissue quality, which governs rates of both herbivory and decomposition correlates closely with the Relative Growth Rate (RGR). Differences between species, in the quality of their tissues, acts as a positive feedback to amplify ecosystem differences in soil resources. Alpine plants at a given growth rate have higher tissue concentrations of N than plants found in warmer areas (Chapin 1987) but variations exist across sites within alpine rangelands. Species from sites of low resource availability generally have low annual production and high concentrations of tannins, lignin, and waxes that are toxic or indigestible to herbivores resulting in low feeding rates in infertile rangeland sites. By contrast, in high-resource sites plants produce leaves with high nutrient contents and low levels of secondary metabolites. These leaves can be eaten in large quantities with a high digestive efficiency. As a result of species and site differences in tissue quality, animals prefer to concentrate on more fertile sites. Because animals preferentially feed on high quality tissues within these sites and respire away much of the assimilated C (>98%) livestock accelerate nutrient turnover in fertile sites (Chapin 1991). Species differences in tissue quality are critical in determining rates of litter decomposition. Litter from poor-resource sites decomposes slowly because of the effect of lignin, tannins, wax and other recalcitrant or toxic compounds on soil microbes, reinforcing the low nutrient availability of the site. By contrast plants from high-resource sites produce litter with more N and P and fewer recalcitrant compounds. Therefore, this litter decomposes rapidly – accelerating nutrient turnover (Pastor and Cohen 1997; Pastor et al. 1997). Plant–plant interactions may increase or reduce the impact of abiotic stress on species’ distributions, depending on the balance between competition and facilitation. A mosaic of soil moisture variation often dictates spatial patterns of seed germination and seedling survival. Seed germination, seedling survival, and net establishment success increased markedly with soil water supply. The impact of desiccation stress brought about by soil compaction (hoof impact), is changing botanical composition and leading to either increased density of unpalatable shrubs or toxic plant invasion in alpine grassland communities. Localised mortality from attack by insects, and rodents is on the increase (Fig. 16). It is thought that drought stress is triggering these outbreaks prompting concern of an increasing future issue particularly on low rainfall sites.
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Fig. 16 Rodents like voles, can often be present in plague proportions and they are thought to consume large quantities of forage (Photo Victor Squires)
5.3 Vulnerability to Climate Change Climate change may act directly or indirectly on species and ecosystems. Ecological changes altering the ecosystem structure and function in the Earth’s biomes and the loss of biotic diversity have been sources of concern by ecologists in recent years. These two processes have received a lot of attention but by different groups of researchers and with little attention by either group on the environmental causes and ecosystem consequences of changes in biodiversity. The two processes are clearly interrelated. Changes in ecological systems cause changes in diversity but what are the processes and circumstances under which this occurs? Alpine ecosystems such as those found in the Tian Shan, Altai Shan and Qilian Shan are ideal subjects when considering these questions because: • Cold regions are the areas where global warming would have the greatest ecological consequences. • High altitudes, due to reduced pressure, are regions where CO2 should be particularly limiting and where rising CO2 concentration might strongly stimulate plant growth. • Owing to their relative simplicity, these ecosystems may show clear effects of species-change on ecosystem processes and may, therefore, be strongly affected by the loss or gain of species. In cold-dominated ecosystems the balance between the formation of a soil organic mat and disturbance results in an inverse relationship between soil carbon and species diversity. For example relatively arctic ecosystems have three times more soil carbon (55 Pg)1 than similarly undisturbed alpine ecosystems (20 Pg) but 1 Pg = 1015 g
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only 13% of the number of plant species. This pattern reflects the active accumulation of soil organic matter and a low degree of disturbance in the low-arctic compared to high-altitude ecosystems. In alpine ecosystems, gravity does a number of things: (i) prevents water retention that would reduce rate of decomposition and cause soil organic accumulation and (ii) disrupts the soil organic mat as freeze-thaw action displaces the soil surface down-slope opening space for many colonizing species. Such slope effects are found in many alpine areas of NW China so that within each region the greatest diversity is found on slopes steep enough to minimize soil accumulation. Mountain slopes above 20° slope that are relatively undisturbed are hotspots of diversity. In alpine regions, where relative relief is even more pronounced, many areas have a very high diversity within each square meter. Of course disturbance from overgrazing and the associated hoof action of foraging livestock has created a whole new set of circumstances with major impacts on biodiversity and on carbon sequestration as the soil organic matter is lost (Chapter 7, Long et al. 2010) and invasion by colonizing species occurs. Alpine plant species are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Climate change will also affect threats that cause changes in the health of species and ecosystems. Therefore, estimating the adaptive potential of alpine species is of vital importance for determining their future viability. In alpine plants, adaptive potential depends on: • Altitudinal genetic differentiation among populations, combined with gene flow along an altitudinal gradient • Phenotypic plasticity for the traits under selection • Co-gradient variation between genetic and environmental influences on these traits, although we cannot exclude an influence of habitat loss due to human impact Climatic warming during the past century (0.7–1.0°C) has already caused upward migration of alpine species. If climatic warming continues, taxa restricted to narrow alpine zones at the summits of mountains may disappear. However, this migration is at half the rate that would be expected if species had maintained an equilibrium relationship with temperature. Thus, both the rate of individual migration and the movement of ecosystems are slower than would be predicted from change in temperature. This is consistent with findings that altitudinal ecotones of forest species move slowly in response to climatic shifts, since their position is strongly determined by species interactions, particularly in the understory (Korner et al. 1995). Apparently, CO2 enrichment has little effect on plant growth in high alpine regions in the short term perhaps because other factors more strongly restrict growth (Korner et al. 1995). There is evidence that global climate change is already affecting and will continue to affect many species and ecosystems in the mountain rangelands of NW China. We might conclude that natural systems have limited adaptive capacity and that projected rates of climate change are very likely to exceed rates of evolutionary adaptation in many species. Habitat loss and fragmentation (Fig. 14) are very likely to limit species migration in response to shifting climatic zones. Direct and indirect impacts of climate changes on biodiversity include physiological effects on species (such as a failure of alpine species to cope with increased summer temperatures, a failure of native plants to cope with changed water availability), altered interactions within communities and ecosystems (such as increased or
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decreased competitive ability of native versus introduced plants as increased temperatures and elevated carbon dioxide levels encourage increased growth rates, changes in food availability and predator-prey relationships, changes in the structure of habitat and cover, and the movement of species to new areas), altered stream flows, and changes in the severity and frequency of natural events such as severe snow events. One immediate implication of climate change is the need to revise conservation objectives. There is a need to ‘manage the change to minimize the loss’. Decisions will be required on threatened plant and wildlife species that may no longer have viable populations in the wild and may only be maintained through ex-situ conservation programs. In many cases, ex-situ conservation options-trans-location in the wild or captive breeding and wildlife parks-may not always be available. The trend towards a warmer climate may adversely affect certain species. A number of other alpine species have been affected by drought that may be related to climate change. An increase in severe drought events is expected to augment decline or cause local extinctions. Warming is likely to threaten the survival of species in some natural ecosystems, notably in alpine regions.
6 The Importance of Threatened Species and Threatened Ecological Communities Threatened species and threatened ecological communities are those that are at risk of extinction in the wild. They are important for a number of reasons: their intrinsic value irrespective of how the community uses them; their contribution to the local community’s sense of identity; and the variety of ecosystem services they provide for people. Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. (see Table 2, Chapter 1, Squires and Hua 2010) These services include provisioning services, such as food and water; regulating services, such as flood and disease control; cultural services, such as spiritual, recreational and cultural benefits; and supporting services, such as nutrient cycling. Threatened species are flora or fauna that are listed in the Redbook as extinct, endangered, vulnerable or rare. Threatened species can also be defined as an environmental problem. The United Nations Global Environmental Outlook developed a consistent way to map environmental problems according to management and reversibility (Fig. 17). The classification shows the irreversible problem of species extinctions while identifying management actions to tackle the key threatening processes that lead to extinction. Losses of biodiversity may also reduce the capacity of ecosystems for adjustment to changing environments (that is, ecosystem stability or resilience). Local extinctions are the loss of a species from a local area and functional extinctions are the reduction of a species such that it no longer plays a significant role in ecosystem function. A global extinction is the loss of all individuals of a species from its entire geographic range. The loss of multiple components of biodiversity, especially functional and ecosystem diversity at the landscape level, will lead to lowered ecosystem stability. Species and genetic diversity helps to increase the capability of an
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ecosystem to be resilient in the face of a changing environment and helps to increase resistance to invasions by non-native species. The UN Millennium Assessment identified five indirect drivers of changes in biodiversity and ecosystem services: demographic, economic, socio-political, cultural and religious, and scientific and technological. These indirect drivers create the circumstances for many of the more direct drivers of biodiversity loss. The responsibility to act on direct drivers is usually at the local, state and national level. The direct drivers vary in their importance among ecosystems and regions but they generally include the following: land use and habitat change, climate change, invasive species, overexploitation and pollution. Globally the drivers of loss of biodiversity and the drivers of changes in ecosystem services are either steady, show no evidence of declining over time, or are increasing in intensity.
7 Conclusions The functioning of ecosystems involves the movement and transformation by the biota of millions of tons of material per year between organic and inorganic pools through the processes of decomposition, nutrient mineralization, assimilation and
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production. There is growing concern that changes in the number and spatial distribution of species can have an important effect on ecosystems functioning, whereby species poor ecosystems may perform differently or less efficiently than the more speciesrich systems from which they are derived. Rather, the potentially critical consequence of species losses is that their disappearance can lead to the loss of the individual traits that are essential for the production of organic matter and functioning of biogeographical cycles. There is experimental evidence to suggest that small, critical changes in biodiversity may have an adverse effect on the average rates of ecosystem processes such as primary production, and nutrient retention in some rangeland ecosystems (Vitousek 1982). Plant biodiversity is affected by a range of pressures including: weeds, pests and diseases, altered hydrology and changes to grazing regimes. There remains considerable uncertainty about how species, ecosystems, threats to biodiversity, and society will respond to these changes due to the complex interactions and feedbacks between ecosystems and climate. Species whose loss is thought to have large functional consequences are those that modify the availability of limiting resources, that affect the disturbance regime, or alter the trophic structure of the impacted ecosystem. In the face of climate change and growing demands for agricultural productivity, future pressures on rangeland ecosystems will intensify. In this system in which productivity and conservation are so closely bound, there is a need both to raise the profile of the issues involved, and to improve our understanding of the applied ecology required for successful management. Scenarios of changes in biodiversity for the year 2100 have been developed based on scenarios of changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide, climate, vegetation, and land use and the known sensitivity of biodiversity to these changes. Research (Sala et al. 2000) has identified a ranking of the importance of drivers of change, a ranking of the biomes with respect to expected changes, and the major sources of uncertainties. For terrestrial ecosystems, land-use change probably will have the largest effect, followed by climate change, nitrogen deposition, biotic exchange, and elevated carbon dioxide concentration. For freshwater ecosystems, biotic exchange is much more important. Mediterranean climate and grassland ecosystems likely will experience the greatest proportional change in biodiversity because of the substantial influence of all drivers of biodiversity change. Northern temperate ecosystems are estimated to experience the least biodiversity change because major land-use change has already occurred. Plausible changes in biodiversity in other biomes depend on interactions among the causes of biodiversity change. These interactions represent one of the largest uncertainties in projections of future biodiversity change (Sala et al. 2000) In alpine regions, human impact will be the greatest source of environmental change in the coming decades. Altered grazing regimes and unprecedented grazing pressures have great impact on alpine biodiversity and ecosystem processes. Human impacts depend strongly on economic and social forces outside the alpine areas, and therefore feedback loops involving people are relatively insensitive to changes within these ecosystems. People directly influence biodiversity by harvesting targeted species of plants and animals, either directly as with food and medicinal
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plants or indirectly via their livestock. In some areas this harvest threatens species because of changes in local social institutions and exogenous forces such as demand for animal products such as meat, milk or fiber. Human actions are fundamentally, and to a significant extent irreversibly, changing the diversity of life on Earth. Carbon sequestration is an increasingly key ecosystem service provided by biodiversity (Chapter 7, Long et al. 2010). Biodiversity affects carbon sequestration through how much carbon is taken up from the atmosphere (assimilation) and how much is released into it (decomposition, combustion). Recent work has shown the importance also of soil carbon – taking soil carbon into consideration wetlands and grasslands together may exceed the carbon storage of some forests. It has become apparent that although changes in biodiversity(as measured by the number of species) may not necessarily be the main driver of ecosystems processes, they can importantly modify the effects of such changes in land use, atmospheric composition and climate have on ecosystem functioning. The effects of these fast and drastic changes in the chemical composition of the atmosphere, the geographic distribution of biomes and climate will be controlled or altered by the effect of biota on the global biogeochemical cycles. Biodiversity can no longer be considered only the “passive” result of composing static abiotic constraints with the dynamics of biotic interactions. Biodiversity is a multifaceted phenomenon involving the variety of organisms present, the genetic differences among them, and the communities, ecosystems, and landscape patterns in which they occur. Society will increasingly value biodiversity and influence the passage of laws and writing of regulations involving biodiversity which rangeland managers will have to abide by over the coming decades. While taxonomic knowledge of vertebrates and vascular plants and their abundance, rarity, and distribution is generally inadequate. Furthermore, adequate knowledge of invertebrates, nonvascular plants, and microbes is deficient everywhere. Although the basis of variation at all higher levels, genetic variation within rangeland species, even the major ones, has barely been assessed. Obtaining statistically adequate data on populations of rare species that are small and secretive is well nigh impossible. We have many means of measuring community diversity, but all of them are value laden. That is, choice of variables to measure and how they are indexed betrays what we consider are important. We should be more forthright in stating to the users the biases of these methods. There are many other, more useful ways to describe community-level diversity besides the traditional focus on species. Ungulate grazing is an important process in many ecosystems. Thus, removal of grazing destabilizes some systems. Livestock grazing will actually increase the chances of survival of some species. Moderate livestock grazing can also enhance community and landscape-level diversity in many instances. Attention is now shifting from “charismatic” species to defensively managing larger tracts of land with habitat or ecosystems holding suites of sensitive species. Since some accelerated extinction of isolated populations and species is inevitable, we need to know which species and ecotypes are most valuable. Understanding of modular, guild, and functional group structure would also help us identify keystone or critical link species and better focus our attention on truly important tracts of
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land where they live. It is probably more important to sustain soils and ecosystem processes than any randomly selected species, especially if functionally redundant species can be identified. Similarly, not all introduced, alien, or exotic species are equal threats; it depends on how they fit into ecosystems. Sustainable development will depend on finding balance between use and protection, from range sites to landscapes, and even on a global basis. Acknowledgements The authors thank Sheng Yaping), Dong Xiaogang, Ren Heng for vegetation sampling, materials collection and data processing of the Gansu data and Jiang Ping and Jia Hongtao for the summary of data from their work in Xinjiang.
References Chapin FS III (1987) Environmental controls over growth of tundra plants. Ecolog Bull 38:69–76 Chapin FS III (1991) Integrated responses of plants to stress: a centralized system of physiological responses. BioScience 41:29–36 Chen ZH, Wang J, Ma QY, Yang Z (2007) Assessing value of grassland ecosystem services in Gansu Province, northwest of China. International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, IEEE International, Barcelona, pp 1782–1785 Korner C, Diemer M, Schappi B, Zimmermann L (1995) Response of alpine vegetation to elevated CO2. In: Koch GW, Mooney HA (eds) Carbon dioxide and terrestrial ecosystems. Academic Press, New York, pp 177–196 Barger NN, Ojima DS, Belnap J, Wang S, Wang Y, Chen Z (2004) Changes in plant functional groups, litter quality, and soil carbon and nitrogen mineralization with sheep grazing in an Inner Mongolian grassland. Rangeland Ecol Manage 57(6):613–619 Long R, Shang Z, Li X, Jiang P, Jia H, Squires VR (2010) Carbon sequestration and the implications for rangeland management (Chapter 7, this volume) Pastor J, Cohen Y (1997) Herbivores, the functional diversity of plants species, and the cycling of nutrients in ecosystems. Theor Popul Biol 51(3):165–179 Pastor J, Moen R, Cohen Y (1997) Spatial heterogeneities, carrying capacity, and feedbacks in animal-landscape interactions. J Mammal 78(4):1040–1052 Sala OE, Chapin FS III, Armesto JJ, Berlow E, Bloomfield J, Dirzo R, Huber-Sanwald E, Huenneke LF, Jackson RB, Kinzig A, Leemans R, Lodge DM, Mooney HA, Oesterheld M, Poff NL, Sykes MT, Walker BH, Walker M, Wall DH (2000) Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science 287(5459):1770–1774 Squires VR, Hua LM (2010) North-west China’s rangelands and peoples: facts, figures, challenges and responses (Chapter 1, this volume) Vitousek PM (1982) Nutrient cycling and nutrient use efficiency. Am Nat 119:553–572 Wang Z, Tang Z, Fang J (2007) Altitudinal patterns of seed plant richness in the Gaoligong Mountains, south-east Tibet. China Diversity and Distribution 13(6):845–854 West NE (1993) Biodiversity of rangelands. J Range Manage 46(1):2–13
Chapter 7
Carbon Sequestration and the Implications for Rangeland Management Long Ruijun, Shang Zhanhuan, Li Xiaogan, Jiang Ping-an, Jia Hong-tao, and Victor Squires
Synopsis The significance of the carbon balance in the rangelands of the NW of China is examined against a global perspective of carbon gains and losses from soil and vegetation. The results from field work in Gansu (Qilian Mountains) and in Xinjiang (Tian and Altai Mountains) are summarized. In this chapter we review the processes of C capture and storage (sequestration) and argue that the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere by plants and its storage in ecosystems is perhaps the only practicable way of removing atmospheric CO2 in the short term. Therefore it is one of the few options for addressing the existing carbon load as distinct from slowing future loading by reducing current and future emissions. Key Points 1. It is clear that C sequestration, particularly in soils, can bring other ecosystem and social benefits such as rebuilding of the biophysical foundation of a sustainable natural environment – biodiversity, livestock, soil, water, natural ecosystems – thus increasing productivity, improving water quality, restoring degraded soils and ecosystems, and thereby improving livelihoods of herders and farmers who are so dependent on the ecosystem services. 2. There is a large range of strategies to increase the stock of C in the soil. Examples include enhancing soil quality, erosion control, afforestation and woodland Long Ruijun (*) and Shang Zhanhuan International Center for Tibetan Plateau Ecosystem Management, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China e-mail: [email protected] Li Xiaogan Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China Jiang Ping-an and Jia Hong-tao College of Pratacultural and Environmental Sciences, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, China Victor Squires University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia e-mail: [email protected] V. Squires et al. (eds.), Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7_7, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
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regeneration, no-till farming, use of cover crops, nutrient management, optimal stock densities, water conservation and harvesting in situ, land use changes (cropland to grass/trees), set aside (grazing bans).There is growing interest in assessing C sequestration potential of such strategies quantitatively. 3. Soils are the largest carbon reservoir of the terrestrial carbon cycle. The quantity of C stored in soils is highly significant; soils contain about three times more C than vegetation and twice as much as that which is present in the atmosphere. Soils contain much more C (1,500 Gt1 of C to 1 m depth and 2,500 Gt of C to 2 m) than is contained in vegetation (650 Gt of C) and twice as much C as the atmosphere (750 Gt of C). 4. Dry soils are less likely to lose C than wet soils as lack of water limits soil mineralization and therefore the flux of C to the atmosphere. Consequently, the residence time of C in many rangeland soils is long, sometimes even longer than in forest soils. The issue of permanence of C sequestered is an important one in the formulation of C sequestration projects. 5. Grazing is a feature of many rangelands. This might be expected to decrease the availability of residues that can be used to sequester C, especially as the quantity of C returned in manure is less than that consumed. However, provided there is careful grazing management, many investigators have found a positive effect of grazing on the stock of soil C. Keywords C sequestration • soil organic carbon • cultivation • soil moisture • enclosure • grazing ban • fencing • methane • CO2 • Livestock emissions • Xinjiang • Gansu • soil mineralization • radiative forcing • manure • GEF • World Bank • global environmental benefits • community based grassland management
1 Introduction The Global Environmental Facility (GEF) in conjunction with the World Bank has sponsored a major 6-year long pastoral development project in Gansu and Xinjiang Provinces, China. The global environmental objective of the project was to maintain and nurture rangeland ecosystems to enhance global environmental benefits. More specifically, the project aimed to mitigate land degradation, conserve globally important biodiversity, and enhance carbon sequestration, through promotion of integrated ecosystem management in the rangeland ecosystems of the Qilian Shan, Tian Shan, and Altai Shan mountain ranges in NW China. These global environmental objectives would be achieved by implementing community based grassland management in selected project areas with high global biodiversity values; providing incremental investments for implementing rangeland management plans; and carrying out monitoring of these rangelands to assess their status and trend as a guide to better management. Loss of plant biodiversity and carbon losses from rangelands are associated with loss of vegetation cover and soil erosion. Therefore, management interventions 1 gigatonne = 1015 t = 1 Pg
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PLANT AND ROOT LITTER
C output
FAST t = 10o year CO2 pool
RESPIRATION
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PASSIVE t = 103-4
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SOIL
EROSION, Dissolved C
Fig. 1 A simplified carbon balance model showing the fast and slow cycling of Carbon. Movement of C between the soil and the atmosphere is bidirectional
that slow or reverse these processes can simultaneously achieve C sequestration and help to preserve biodiversity a well as improve livelihoods of farmers and herders in this vast region of NW China. Increasing C stocks in the soil can increase soil fertility, water holding capacity, and reduce erosion risk and can thus reduce the vulnerability of managed soils to future global warming (Fig. 1) It is clear that C sequestration, particularly in soils, can bring other ecosystem and social benefits. These include rebuilding of the biophysical foundation of a sustainable natural environment – biodiversity, livestock, soil, water, natural ecosystems – thus increasing productivity, improving water quality, restoring degraded soils and ecosystems, and thereby improving livelihoods of herders and farmers who are so dependent on the ecosystem services (Chapter 6, Zhao and Squires 2010). In this chapter we review the processes of C capture and storage (sequestration) and argue that the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere by plants and its storage in ecosystems is perhaps the only practicable way of removing atmospheric CO2 in the short term. Therefore it is one of the few options for addressing the existing carbon load as distinct from slowing future loading by reducing current and future emissions.
2 Soils and Carbon Sequestration Plants take up CO2 from the atmosphere and incorporate it into plant biomass through photo-synthesis. Some of this carbon is emitted back to the atmosphere but what is left – the live and dead plant parts, above and below ground- make an organic carbon reservoir (Box 1). Some of the dead plant matter is incorporated into the soil in humus,
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Box 1 Soil carbon sequestration: how it works Atmospheric CO2 Photosynthesis Soil Carbon Release C Upper SOM (Rapid Decomposition) Lower SOM (More Stabilization) Source: Tschakert 2000
Carbon sequestration in soils suggests that fluxes or movements of carbon from the atmosphere can be increased while the natural release of carbon back into the air can be reduced. By absorbing carbon instead of emitting it, soils could evolve from carbon sources to carbon sinks. This process relies on respiration and photosynthesis, two basic processes of the carbon cycle. Carbon, entering the soil in form of roots, litter, harvest residues, and animal manure, is stored primarily as soil organic matter (SOM). In undisturbed environments, balanced rates of input and decomposition determine steady state fluxes. However, in many parts of the world, agricultural and other land use activities have upset this natural balance, thereby releasing alarming rates of carbon to the atmosphere. thereby enhancing the soil organic carbon pool. Soil carbon storage is an important parameter for the study of carbon cycling and global change (Glenn et al. 1993). Soil types and land use are the main factors that determine soil organic carbon density (SOCD). By soil types, meadow soil and chestnut soil have highest SOCD of 69,879 and 34,583 t/km2 respectively (Fang 2000; Fu et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2002). Soils are the largest carbon reservoir of the terrestrial carbon cycle. The quantity of C stored in soils is highly significant; soils contain about three times more C than vegetation and twice as much as that which is present in the atmosphere (Batjes and Sombroek 1997). Soils contain much more C (1,500 Gt2 of C to 1 m depth and 2,500 Gt of C to 2 m) than is contained in vegetation (650 Gt of C) and twice as much C as the atmosphere (750 Gt of C). The process of C sequestration, or flux of C into soils, forms part of the global carbon cycle (Fig. 1). Movement of C between the soil and the atmosphere is bidirectional. Consequently, carbon storage in soils reflects the balance between the opposing processes of accumulation and loss. This reservoir of soil C is truly 1 gigatonne = 1015 t = 1 Pg
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dynamic. Not only is C continually entering and leaving the soil, the soil C itself is partitioned between several pools, the residence times of which span several orders of magnitude. Nor is soil C an inert reservoir, the organic matter with which it is associated is vital for maintaining soil fertility and it plays a part in such varied phenomena as nutrient cycling and gaseous emissions. Many of the factors affecting the flow of C into and out of soils are affected by land-management practices. Therefore, management practices should focus on increasing the inputs and reducing the outputs of C in soils. (Table 1). According to Churkina et al. (2005) peak rates of carbon uptake are a key control over annual uptake; the other key control is the length of the growing season (when the system gains carbon) relative to the dormant season (when the system loses carbon). Carbon storage in soils is the balance between the input of dead plant material (leaf and root litter) and losses from decomposition and mineralization processes (heterotrophic respiration). Under aerobic conditions, most of the C entering the soil is labile, and therefore respired back to the atmosphere through the process known as soil respiration or soil CO2 efflux (the result of root respiration – autotrophic respiration – and decomposition of organic matter – (heterotrophic respiration). Generally, only 1% of that entering the soil accumulates in more stable fractions with long mean residence times. The long-term C sequestration potential is determined not only by the increase of C inputs into the soil but also by the turnover time of the carbon pool where the C is stored. For long-term C sequestration, C has to be delivered to large pools with slow turnover. The partitioning between different soil carbon pools with varying turnover times is a critical controller of the potential for terrestrial ecosystems to increase longterm carbon storage. Allocation of C to rapid-turnover pools limits the quantity of long-term carbon storage, as it is released rapidly back to the atmosphere. A proper analysis of the C sequestration potential of a specific management practice should consider a full carbon balance of the management practice if it is to be used for carbon mitigation purposes. Furthermore, other greenhouse gases (GHG) such as methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) are influenced by land use. Although emitted in smaller amounts, they have a much larger greenhouse potential. Therefore, they should be quantified explicitly and included in the total balance. One kilogram of CH4 has a warming potential 23 times greater than 1 kg of CO2, over a 100-year period, while the warming potential of 1 kg of N2O is nearly 300 times greater. About one third of CH4 emissions and two thirds of N2O emissions to the atmosphere come from soils and are related to agricultural practices. Dry soils are less likely to lose C than wet soils (Glenn et al. 1992) as lack of water limits soil mineralization and therefore the flux of C to the atmosphere. Consequently, the residence time of C in many rangeland soils is long, sometimes even longer than in forest soils. The issue of permanence of C sequestered is an important one in the formulation of C sequestration projects. Although the rate at which C can be sequestered in these regions is low, it may be cost-effective to improve rangelands, particularly taking into account all the side-benefits resulting for soil improvement and restoration. Soil-quality improvement as a consequence of increased soil C will have an important social and economic impact on the livelihood of people living in these areas.
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Moreover, given the large extent of drier rangelands in NW China, there is a great potential for C sequestration (Shen 2008; Shen et al. 2008). The potential offered by rangelands to sequester C is large, not only because of the large extent, but because historically, soils in such drylands have lost significant amounts of C and SOM is far from being at saturation level. Because of all of these characteristics, any strategy to re-establish SOM in these regions is particularly interesting (Box 2). Plant biomass per unit area of rangelands, typical of those in NW China, is low (about 2–6 kg/m2) compared with many other terrestrial ecosystems (about 10–18 kg/m2). But the large surface area of rangelands gives carbon sequestration an added significance (Chen et al. 2009; Shen 2008). In particular, soil organic carbon (SOC) reserves can be as high as 27% of the soil organic stores (MA 2005). Rangelands in NW China include considerable areas of alpine steppes, meadows and other plant communities that traditionally have accumulated a lot of SOC. The soil properties, such as chemical composition of the soil organic matter (SOM) and the matrix in which it is held, determine the different capacities of land to act as a store for C (Farage et al. 2003). According to FAO (2004) these factors have direct implications for capturing GHG. The fact that many rangelands in NW China are degraded to a greater or lesser extent (Squires et al. 2009) means that they are currently far from saturated with C and their potential to sequester C may be very high (Piao et al. 2009). A study was made of carbon storage in grassland types across northern China. Total biomass carbon in both above and below ground was determined (Box 3) Land use change and degradation are important sources of GHG globally for about 20% of emissions. Land degradation leads to increased C emissions both through loss of biomass, when vegetation is destroyed, and through increased soil erosion (Box 4). Shifts in botanical composition and loss of biodiversity may have implications for C capture and sequestration (Chapter 6, Zhao and Squires 2010). Erosion leads to emission on two ways: (i) by reducing net primary productivity Box 2 Rangeland characteristics that affect C sequestration • Favourable –– –– –– ––
Residence time of SOM is long They occupy a large part of NW China As a consequence of historic carbon loss they are far from saturation Soil quality improvement through C sequestration will have large economic and social impact
• Unfavourable –– –– –– –– –– ––
Lack of water Low and erratic rainfall Generally high or extremely low temperatures Low productivity Low SOM (0.5–1%) and nutrient content Prone to soil degradation and desertification
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Box 3 Carbon storage in 17 grassland types across northern China (Fan et al. 2008) Field measurements of above- and below-ground biomass were made. Above-ground biomass was separated into stem, leaf, flower and fruit, standing dead matter, and litter. Below-ground biomass was measured in 10-cm soil layers to a depth of 30 cm for herbs and to 50 cm for woody plants. Mean total biomass- carbon densities were determined. Values ranged from 2.400 kg m−2 for swamp to 0.149 kg m−2 for alpine desert grasslands. Ratios of below- to aboveground carbon density varied widely from 0.99 for tropical tussock grassland to 52.28 for alpine meadow. Most below-ground biomass was in the 0–10 cm soil depth layer and there were large differences between grassland types in the proportions of living and dead matter and stem and leaf. Differences between grassland types in the amount and allocation of biomass showed patterns related to environments, especially aridity gradients. Comparisons of our estimates with other studies indicated that above-ground biomass, particularly forage-yield biomass, is a poor predictor of total vegetation carbon density. Our estimate for total carbon storage in the biomass of the grasslands of China was 3.32 Pg C, with 56.4% contained in the grasslands of the Tibet-Qinghai Plateau and 17.9% in the northern temperate grasslands.
Box 4 Desertification and carbon sequestration The effects of desertification on soil quality include: • • • • • •
Loss in soil aggregation Decrease in water infiltration capacity Reduction in soil water storage Increase in erosion potential Depletion in SOM, difficulty in seed germination Disruption of biogeochemical cycles C, N, phosphorous, sulphur alterations in water and energy balance • Loss of soil resilience (NPP), thereby reducing the soil’s potential to store C and (ii) through direct loss of stored SOC. Although not all C in eroded soil is returned to the atmosphere immediately, the net effect of erosion is likely to be increased in C emissions. In China, degradation of rangeland, particularly on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, has led to the loss of 3.56 Gt3 of SOC over the last 20 years. It is estimated that the soils of NW China overall now act as a net C source, with a loss of 2.86 Gt in the same period (Xie et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2008). It is therefore vital from a climatic perspective that this region is managed to enhance C sequestration (Xu et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2002) and further study is clearly required in this area. 1 Gt = 1015 t = 1 Pg
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2.1 Soil Inorganic Carbon Not all soil C is associated with organic material; there is also an inorganic carbon component in soils. This is of particular relevance to drylands because calcification and the formation of secondary carbonates is an important process in the soils of arid and semi-arid regions where, as a result, the largest accumulations of carbonate occur (Batjes and Sombroek 1997). The dynamics of the inorganic carbon pool are poorly understood although it is normally quite stable. Sequestration of inorganic C occurs via the movement of HCO3 into groundwater and closed systems. Although soil inorganic C is relatively stable, it will release CO2 if the carbonates become exposed through erosion. Methane oxidation is also an important factor. All well-aerated undisturbed soils including very dry desert soils not subject to nitrogen fertilization oxidize methane at a low rate (Squires 1998). It has implications for hyper arid lands of NW China. It also applies to much of the remaining areas of arid rangelands. Whereas there is no direct carbon uptake, methane uptake of 1–30 kg/ha/year (equivalent to 5–150 kg C/ha/year), can occur indefinitely. The existence of the oxidative sink has been demonstrated by several scientists. The benefit is direct and simple, and it happens anyway. But the process is sensitive to nitrogen deposition. There are no social, political or economic risks. There are no operational costs. Similarly, C mineralization can occur in sandy soils (Box 5).
Box 5 Carbon mineralization in sandy soils in North China (Su et al. 2004) Soil organic carbon mineralization potential in four different sandy habitats (shifting, semi-fixed, fixed sand dune, and interdunal lowland) and the effects of litter addition from shrubs and annual plants on soil microbial respiration were measured using a laboratory soil incubation experiment. Soil samples were collected from beneath and outside the canopies of shrubs in all habitats. Soils were incubated for 33 days with and without litter addition. It was concluded that the differences in C mineralization of soils among habitats correlated with the vegetation cover, litter accumulation, and soil structure, organic C, and N contents. Very poor organic C and N as well as very weak microbial respiration were found in soils of the shifting sand dune, suggesting that sandy desertification strongly depleted both bulk of soil organic C and soil labile C pool. Litter from Caragana microphylla (a leguminous shrub) was used to amend soils and annual additions led to higher SOC and lower microbial respiration, which might in part be attributed to the N contents and C/N ratios in litters. Soil beneath shrubs accumulated more organic material. Caragana created fertile islands with larger organic C and nutrients and microbial activity under their canopies, and therefore, significantly contributed to C sequestration.
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3 Gaseous Emissions of Livestock Livestock emit significant quantities of greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrous oxide, contributing to the phenomenon of global warming. Three major ruminants contribute about 95% of total methane emissions from livestock digestive systems – cattle 75%, buffalo 10% and sheep 10%). Emissions from domesticated livestock digestive systems are estimated to be 80 Pg (65–100 Pg) per year or about 20% of total anthropogenic emissions. Methane is one of the principal greenhouse gases, second only to carbon dioxide (CO2) in its contribution to potential global warming. In fact, methane is responsible for roughly 18% of the total contribution (1990 baseline year) of all greenhouse gases to “radiative forcing”.4 Methane is a potent contributor to global warming. On a kilogram for kilogram basis, methane is more potent than CO2 (about 60 times greater over 20 years, 20 times greater over 100 years, and nine times greater over 500 years) Livestock produce gases. Some are local, such as ammonia, whereas others such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), ozone (O3), nitrous oxide (N2O) and other trace gases (together forming greenhouse gases) affect the world’s atmosphere. Livestock contribution to that effect can be estimated as between 5% and 10%.
3.1 Methane Methane is one of the potent greenhouse gases (GHGs) whose atmospheric abundance has grown 2.5-fold over three centuries (Lassey 2007) and contributes approximately 14.3% to the present global warming (Johnson et al. 2007). Within the agricultural sector, methane emissions from enteric fermentation of ruminants considered to be of primary concern (Johnson et al. 2007), as domesticated livestock species release approximately 110 Tg methane per year out of a total global emission of 630 Tg/year. The excretion of methane from the rumen can represent a loss of 8–15% of the digestible energy depending on the type of diet (Johnson et al. 2000). It is clear that possibilities exist to enhance animal productivity and decrease methane and carbon dioxide emission into the environment through properly management approaches. The challenge lies in identifying simple strategies, and put in place to benefit farmers in enhancing their income, and at the same time to conserve environment and contribute to meeting the target on decreasing the environment pollutants set through Kyoto agreement.
The measure used to determine the extent to which the atmosphere is trapping heat due to emissions of greenhouse gases
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3.2 Carbon Dioxide There are three main sources of livestock-related CO2 emissions. Firstly, all domesticated animals emit CO2 as part of basic metabolic function or respiration, estimated at a total of 2.8 billion tons worldwide every year. Secondly, CO2 emissions result from biomass burning for fuel or for land clearing or for getting rid of crop residues. Thirdly, CO2 is released in relation to livestock-related consumption of fossil fuel for harvesting processing of odder, for heating, manufacturing of machinery, transport etc. Carbon dioxide is the least aggressive of greenhouse gases but is emitted in large quantities. However, unlike the emissions from fossil fuels, the rangelands (grasslands, shrublands, savanna woodlands, forests) recapture part of these emissions (see below). Rangelands after rehabilitation can sequester considerably more than those in a degraded state.
4 Climate Change Mitigation Through Addressing Land Degradation Addressing land degradation in rangeland ecosystems presents two complementary ways of mitigating climate change. First, by slowing or halting degradation, associated emissions can be simply reduced. Second, and arguably of greater significance, changes in land management practices can lead to greater carbon sequestration, that is, to removing C from the atmosphere. In general, on a per hectare (ha) basis, the C storage potential of many rangeland ecosystems is lower than ecosystems in moister regions, but the larger area of drylands means that overall they have significant scope for sequestration (Squires et al. 1995).
4.1 Managing Rangelands for C Sequestration There is a large range of strategies to increase the stock of C in the soil. Examples include enhancing soil quality, erosion control, afforestation and woodland regeneration, no-till farming, use of cover crops, nutrient management, optimal stock densities, water conservation and harvesting in situ, land use changes (cropland to grass/trees), set aside (grazing bans).There is growing interest in assessing C sequestration potential of such strategies quantitatively (Smith et al. 2008). Grass-dominated rangelands are the natural biome in many of NW China’s drylands, partly because rainfall is insufficient to support trees, and partly because of prevailing livestock management. Estimates for C stored under grassland are about 70 t/ha, which is comparable with values for some forest soils. Although many of
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the rangeland areas are poorly managed and degraded, they offer potential for C sequestration as a consequence. The average annual input of organic matter into grassland in good condition is about double the 1–2 t/ha that is contributed to cropped soils. The key factor responsible for enhanced carbon storage in grassland sites is the high carbon input derived from plant roots. It is this high root production that provides the potential to increase SOM in pastures and vegetated fallows compared with cropped systems. Root debris tends to be less decomposable than shoot material because of its higher lignin content. Consequently, the key to maintaining and increasing C sequestration in rangeland systems is to maximize grass productivity and root inputs. Grasses also have the potential to sequester C on previously degraded land. Grazing is a feature of many rangelands. This might be expected to decrease the availability of residues that can be used to sequester C, especially as the quantity of C returned in manure is less than that consumed. However, provided there is careful grazing management, many investigators have found a positive effect of grazing on the stock of soil C. With proper grazing management, rangelands in the United States of America can increase soil carbon storage by 0.1–0.3 t/ha/year. The positive effect of grazing appears to result from the effect that it has on species composition and litter accumulation. For example, when a New Mexico grassland was protected from grazing there was little effect on overall production but there was an increase in the quantity of litter. There was an accumulation of litter in an ungrazed semi-arid system but soil carbon levels were higher in the grazed lands. This was because the litter acted as a store of immobilized C. The ungrazed rangeland also experienced an increase in species that lacked the fibrous rooting system that is conducive to SOM formation and accumulation. Therefore, grasslands can play a vital role in sequestering C. However, careful grazing management is essential. The historical record shows how susceptible semiarid rangelands are to overgrazing, soil degradation and carbon loss (Squires et al. 2009).
4.2 Impacts of Managing Alpine Rangelands of the Qilian and the Tian Mountains on C Sequestration The work was supported by World Bank and Global Environment Facility from 2007 to 2009. One of the objectives of this work was to evaluate the influence of rangeland utilization and management practices on its carbon sequestration capacity in the Qilian Mountain of northeast edge of the Tibetan Plateau and the Tian Mountain of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, China. A schema of how this was done in both Gansu and Xinjiang is in Fig. 2. The work was implemented in three areas of the Qilian Mountain, i.e. the eastern Qilian Mountain, middle part of Qilian Mountain and western Qilian Mountain where covered Tianzhu, Sunan, Yongchang, and Subei Counties of Gansu province (Fig. 3). The work was focused on the five vegetation types of alpine shrub meadow,
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Use remote sensing, historical data, field visits
Selection of sample sites in typical vegetation communities
Study on carbon cycle and C flux
Carbon sink
Soil carbon C discharge from soil respiration
Soil inorganic C reserves
C discharge from soil respiration
Below-ground biomass
Above-ground biomass
Carbon sequestration dynamics
Fig. 2 Assessment of carbon sequestration dynamics in mountain rangelands in NW China
Fig. 3 The sampling sites in the Qilian Mountain
C discharge from vegetation respiration
Vegetation carbon
Carbon release
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Fig. 4 The sampling sites in the Tian Mountain
alpine meadow, alpine steppe, temperate steppe and desert steppe. On each vegetation type the different managing practices were applied. The similar work was carried out in the Tian Mountain, focusing on the sub-alpine meadow (rotation with fence) in Fuyun County, sub-alpine steppe (grazing-ban by fence) in Bole County, Mountainous steppe (fenced for hay) in Tekesi County and Alpine meadow (grazing-ban by fence) in Hejing County (Fig. 4). The following parameters were investigated at each site from 2007 to 2009. 1. Carbon storage for vegetation carbon sink (live vegetation, litter fall, standing dead litter) and soil carbon sink (roots, humus) 2. Plant respiration (CO2), soil respiration (CO2) and their instant carbon emission 3. Comparison of the carbon sequestration capacity for the soil-plant system under un-degraded vegetation, different degraded vegetations and rehabilitated periods of each vegetation 4. Comparing carbon dynamics of all the vegetation types of vegetation within each province 5. Analyzing the relation between rehabilitation of degraded grassland with carbon sequestration capacities
4.2.1 Effects of Rangeland Utilization on the C Storage In the Qilian Mountainous areas, the native pastures are used by grazing animals in transhumance, therefore the pastures are divided into seasonal pastures of spring, winter, summer and autumn grazing lands, also a small piece of land is cultivated for hay making in each household. These practical utilization models of rangeland lead to various C storages in the grazing lands of the Qilian Mountain. It showed that the
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carbon effect from the winter pasture of alpine meadow was much higher by 31% (0–10 cm soil layer) than those in the summer pasture. The cultivated pastures reduced soil carbon storage. When summer pasture was cultivated for planting oat, soil carbon pool storage was decreased by 19% (0–10 cm) whereas the soil carbon pool storage in the field with growing barley decreased by 51% (0–10 cm). In winter pasture, the soil carbon pool storage was reduced by 38% (0–10 cm) in oat field and by 63% (0–10 cm) in barley field. The reduction of soil carbon pool storage was up to 80% in the sub-alpine meadow cultivated for annual crop lands. Hence, it is the optimal way to promote the carbon effect in the alpine meadow system to prohibit cultivation considering its much slower recovery rate. The soil carbon storage decreased remarkably after the temperate steppes were cultivated to grow oat hay, but its storage was immediately enhanced after the croplands were abandoned. After 5 years of abandonment, the topsoil carbon was increased by 17% (0–10 cm) and other two deeper layers remained un-changed. The soil carbon pool storage in forage land sown to perennials was also increased significantly compared with oat field and abandoned lands. On account of aboveand below-ground carbon benefit, it is a win-win strategy to establish perennial pastures on the abandoned lands. The sown pastures would have big potential of succession into the native rangeland in a long-term period. Therefore, it was suggested to establish sown pastures rather than returning farmlands to rangelands would have more soil carbon sequestrated and more above-carbon/biomass harvested for animals as well. The Alpine steppes are suffering from conversion to cropland in the Qilian Mountain. There was loss of about 10.7% of soil organic carbon (SOC) content from the steppe cultivated for 12 years. The concentration of total organic carbon (TOC) declined by 24.3% after 50 years’ in rangeland converted to cropland compared with its original vegetation. Also cultivation resulted in a higher decrease in soil nitrogen than SOC. The water-stable aggregate (>1 mm) significantly decreased after the rangeland was cultivated for 12 and 50 years and more aggregate (>1 mm) transferred into the aggregate (<1 mm) in the process of wet-sieving. A reduction of 62.3% appeared in mean weight diameter of water-stable aggregate after the former rangeland was cultivated for 12 years. Whereas 50 years later, it decreased by 81.4%. Cultivation also caused a marked decrease of aggregate organic carbon and nitrogen which referred to the fractions of 10–5, 5–2 and 2–1 mm, while in the fractions of 1–0.5, 0.5–0.25 and 0.25–0.05 mm enhanced significantly. Overall, in natural grassland, aggregate (>1 mm) was accounted for 43%, which stored 40% of SOC, while only 16% aggregate (<1 mm) that contained 7% of SOC. It indicated that after cultivation, aggregate (>1 mm) was easily broken and transferred to the aggregate (<1 mm), which made the organic matter stay in the large aggregate exposed to the soil microbe and accelerated the decomposition of soil organic matter. In addition to the reduction of above-ground biomass input, the decomposition of soil organic matter was accelerated by mechanical disturbance and the destruction of soil structure were the main reason to cause the reduction of soil organic carbon and carbon stock. The results indicate that changing the
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cultivated land utilizing pattern, increasing the ground biomass input and reducing the disturbance to soil aggregate would enhance the content of soil organic carbon content. SOC content showed a significant difference under different land-use patterns. The concentration of SOC decreased by 56%, at 0–10 cm depth after alpine meadow was cultivated. After abandonment for 3 years of the cultivated land, SOC was markedly restored by 17% and by 23% after 10 years. SOC density in the sub-alpine meadow used for grazing was significantly higher than the oats land cultivated for 20 years. Cultivation resulted in 5.59 kg C/m2 loss at 0–30 cm soil layer. There was 3.31 kg C/m2 accumulation of SOC in the abandoned land for 3 years. After 10 years’ abandonment, the restoration of SOC reached 5.15 kg C/m2, which was significantly higher than the oats land cultivated for 20 years. However, as for the arable land abandoned for 10 years, soil organic carbon density had no significant difference compared with alpine meadow in the 0–30 cm soil layer. TOC stock and particulate organic carbon (POC) stock were 115 and 37 t/ha in the natural grassland. While after reclamation for 30 years, the TOC and POC decreased by 31% and 54%. The TOC stock and POC stock were increased by 29% and 56% in the perennial cultivated pasture for 4 years. POC stock was enhanced by 36% in abandoned arable land for 4 years. Therefore, both planting with perennial grass and abandonment can increase the content of soil nitrogen markedly in the 0–30 cm soil layer. And the carbohydrate would enhance significantly in the 0–10 cm soil layer, as the water-stable aggregate. All these results showed that returning cropland into grassland and changing the utilizing pattern of cultivated land were the main way to enhance the soil carbon stock. 4.2.2 Effects of Rangeland Fencing on the C Storage The coverage and carbon pools of aboveground vegetation in alpine rangeland were significantly improved by fence and imposition of a grazing-ban. The aboveground vegetation carbon increased by 1.5–6 times through enclosing in present evaluation, but different research sites showed different increasing rates because each enclosure site was at various states of degradation degree at the time of fencing. The longer the enclosure, the more aboveground carbon was acquired, and the more carbon input into underground. When the degraded alpine meadow was enclosure for 3 years, a positive impact of carbon pool storage was achieved by increasing 16% (0–10 cm) in the soil of the degraded Polygonum viviparum meadow. While in the un-degraded meadow, this difference between free-grazing and enclosure-grazing was not significant, mainly because of there was no way to limit the livestock numbers. Similar results were found in the Tian Mountain. Desert steppe in the Qilian Mountain is mainly used for grazing extensively and some for irrigation farming. Enclosure significantly improved vegetation coverage (20%) and aboveground vegetation carbon (60%) in steppe vegetation. Therefore, for the recovery of desert vegetation, we mainly assessed the effects of fence and water use on the carbon. Enclosure management improved the soil carbon pool
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with an average of increasing by 19% (0–10 cm soil layer) for the desert vegetation. The enclosure of grazing pasture by fence not only increases soil carbon pool, but increases the aboveground plant carbon because of the accumulation of litter and root carbon. Plant carbon sequestration was dependent on the grassland management practices. Although the aboveground carbon sequestration is an indicator for the production of acquired carbon, it is worthless on the aspects of sustainable land use. Especially in the steppe regions, a high level of soil carbon pools and vegetation can lead to high harvest of plant carbon. The high plant carbon requirement by rangeland conversion to cropland is temporary under the regime of frequent cultivation of soil that can result in carbon emission. Water in the arid regions was a key factor to influence SOC. The increment of soil water content leads to the increase of SOC, which was obvious in the desertarid area. A positive correlation appeared between soil water content and soil organic carbon. The results indicated soil carbon pool was improved 2–11 times with the water content increasing. For the desert vegetation, carbon pool increased by 0.9–2.3 times with double water content. Water input is the bottle-neck for steppe vegetation carbon storage. Of course the change of land use from desert to high-yield farmland by irrigation would obtain high soil carbon and plant carbon. Currently, the main rangeland utilization patterns both in the Qilian Mountain and Tian Mountain are grazing and fencing with few cultivated lands. According to the view of carbon sequestration capacity in rangeland systems we found that enclosure practices are able to increase the storage of carbon pools significantly. 4.2.3 Summaries Compared with before and after implementation of the WB/GEF projects, the rangeland carbon-sinks capacities in both the Qilian Mountain and the Tian Mountain have been improved. Alpine shrub-land system: Climate warming and drying trend would lead to changes in the balance between the natural shrub communities and the herbage communities. It is not a negative impact for the alpine region nor to the carbon capacity of the rangeland system. Although the short-term soil carbon pools may vary by up to 30%, but over the long-term process of succession, the carbon capacity would increase gradually by more than 17%, especially after the succession to scrubland. The fence will help to increase alpine scrub carbon efficiency. Compared with over-grazing which is leading to a reduction of carbon pool by more than 11%, fencing increased the carbon pool by more than 13%. Thus, less interference to shrubs and stop grazing can ensure the stability of carbon capacity of scrub habitat. Alpine meadow: the carbon-efficiency in winter pasture is 16% higher than that in the summer land. Planting annual crops caused the carbon losses by 8–61%.
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Activities by rodents can lead to a short-term loss of soil carbon pool. It may take more than 15 years recover the carbon capacity in a natural process. Fencing practices increased the soil carbon pool of degraded rangeland over 12%. Therefore, maintaining a reasonable grazing stress on alpine meadow, having a low carrying capacity in summer and providing supplementary feed to animals in winter are effective ways to increase soil carbon pool in the meadow. Temperate steppe: To restore the degraded temperate steppe is a hard task. Rehabilitation of heavily degraded temperate steppe can greatly increase the carbon efficiency by more than 45%. Temperate steppe lost 27% of its soil carbon pool after plowing, while the soil carbon pool increased more than 17% after the land was abandoned for few years. Compared with the abandoned land, the perennial sown pasture, after few years’ growth, would enhance the surface soil carbon pool by more than 15%. Therefore, returning cultivated land to either sown perennial pastures or native vegetation would achieve a soil carbon and plant carbon win-win harvesting strategy. Alpine steppe: Cultivation of alpine steppe would cause loss of over 11% of carbon. Long-term cultivation of alpine steppe makes recovery of carbon pools very difficult. Rehabilitation measures such as abandonment may restore its soil carbon gradually, after 10 years the recovery rate may achieve 23% of its original carbon pool. Sowing perennial pastures can recover 29% of the soil carbon pool in 4 years time with large amounts of plant carbon harvested. Therefore, as with the temperate steppe, planting perennials forage may be the best strategy for improving C storage in this abandoned land. Desert steppe: Overgrazing can always lead to degradation of desert vegetation. The effective measure with fencing of desert steppe can improve the soil carbon by over 14%. Shortage of water resource in the steppe constrains its carbon capacity. For the desert vegetation, each onefold increase of water, carbon pool will accordingly increased by 0.9–2.3 times. The potential increment of soil carbon pool in the steppe would be achieved by 2–11 times with sufficient water supply. Cultivation of perennial forage crops would increase carbon pools over 31%. Therefore, carbon efficiency can be increased significantly in desert vegetation after irrigation and cultivation of forages.
References Batjes NH, Sombroek WG (1997) Possibilities for carbon sequestration in tropical and subtropical soils. Glob Change Biol 3:161–173 Chen SP, Lin GH, Huang JH, Jenerette GD (2009) Dependence of carbon sequestration on the differential responses of ecosystem photosynthesis and respiration to rain pulses in a semiarid steppe. Glob Change Biol 15:2450–2461 Churkina G, Schimel DS, Braswell BH, Xiao XM (2005) Spatial analyses of growing season length over net ecosystem exchange. Glob Change Biol 11:1777
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FAO (2004) Carbon sequestration in Dryland Soils. Food and Agriculture Organization of UN, Rome, p 102 Fan J, Zhong H, Harris W, Yu G, Wang S, Hu Z, Yue Y (2008) Carbon storage in the grasslands of China based on field measurements of above- and below-ground biomass. Clim Change 86:375–396 Fang JY, Guo ZD, Piao SL, Chen AP (2000) Terrestrial vegetation carbon sinks in China, 1981– 2000. Sci China Ser D 50(9):1341–1350 Farage P, Pretty J, Ball A (2003) Biophysical aspects of carbon sequestration in drylands. University of Essex Fu Y, Zheng Z, Yu G, Hu Z, Sun X, Shi P, Wang Y, Zhao X (2009) Environmental controls on carbon fluxes over three grassland ecosystems in China. Biogeosci Discuss 6:8007–8040, 2009 Glenn EP, Pitelka LF, Olsen MW (1992) The use of halophytes to sequester carbon. Water Air Soil Poll 64:251–263 Glenn E, Squires V, Olsen M, Frye R (1993) Potential for carbon sequestration in drylands. Water Air Soil Poll 70:341–355 Hu Z (2008) Effects of vegetation control on ecosystem water use efficiency within and among four grassland ecosystems in China. Glob Change Biol Hu Z, Yu G, Fu Y, Sun X, Li Y, Shi P, Wang Y, Zheng Z (2008) Effects of vegetation control on ecosystem water use efficiency within and among four grassland ecosystems in China. Glob Change Biol 14(7):1609–1619 Johnson DE, Johnson KA, Ward GM, Branine ME (2000) Ruminants and other animals, Chapter 8. In: Khalil MAK (ed) Atmospheric methane: its role in the global environment. SpringerVerlag, Berlin Heidelberg, Germany, pp 112–133 Johnson JM-F, Franzluebbers AJ, Weyers SL, Reicosky DC (2007) Agricultural opportunities to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Environ Poll, pp 1–18 Lassey KR (2007) Livestock methane emission: from the individual grazing animal through national inventories to the global methane cycle. Agric For Meteorol 142:120–132 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) (2005) Ecosystems and human health. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC Piao S, Fang J, Ciais P, Peylin P, Huang Y, Sitch S, Wang T (2009) The carbon balance of terrestrial ecosystems in China. Nature 458:1009–1038 Shen M (2008) Estimation of aboveground biomass using in situ hyperspectral measurements in five major grassland ecosystems on the Tibetan Plateau. J Plant Ecol 1(4) Shen M, Tang Y, Klein J, Zhan P, Gu S, Shimono A, Chen J (2008) Estimation of aboveground biomass using in situ hyperspectral measurements in five major grassland ecosystems on the Tibetan Plateau. J Plant Ecol 1(4):247–257 Shi PL, Sun XM, Xu LL, Zhang XZ, He YT, Zhang DQ, Yu GR (2006) Net ecosystem CO2 exchange and controlling factors in a steppe-Kobresia meadow on the Tibetan Plateau. Sci China Ser D 49(Suppl II):207–218 Smith P, Fang C, Dawson J, Moncrieff J (2008) Impact of global warming on soil organic carbon. Adv Agron 97:1–43 Squires VR (1998) Dryland Soils: their potential as a sink for carbon and as an agent in mitigating climate change. Adv GeoEcol 31:209–215 Squires VR, Glenn EP, Ayoub AT (1995) Combating global climate change by combating land degradation. Proceedings of a Workshop Nairobi, Kenya, UNEP, Nairobi, 4–8 September 1995, p 348 Squires V, Lu X, Lu Q, Wang T, Yang Y (eds) (2009) Rangeland degradation and recovery in China’s pastoral lands. CABI, Wallingford Su Y, Zhao H, Li Y, Cui J (2004) Carbon mineralization potential in soils of different habitats in the semiarid horqin sandy land: a laboratory experiment. Arid Land Res Manage 18(1):39–50 Tschakert P (2000) Soil carbon sequestration in semi-arid and sub-humid Africa. Brochure prepared for U.S. Geological Survey, EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, South Dakota
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Wang Y, Zhou G, Wang Y (2008) Environmental effects on net ecosystem CO2 exchange at halfhour and month scales over Stipa krylovii steppe in northern China. Agri For Meteorol 148:714–722 Wang GX, Cheng GD, Shen YP (2002) Soil organic carbon pool of grasslands on the Tibetan Plateau and its global implication. J Glaciol Geocryol 24:693–700, in Chinese Xie XL, Sun B, Zhou HZ et al (2004) Organic carbon density and storage in soils of China and spatial analysis. Acta Pedologia Sinica 40:344–352 (in Chinese) Xu X, Hua O, Cao G, Pei Z, Zhou C (2004) Nitrogen deposition and carbon sequestration in alpine meadows. Biogeochemistry 71:353–369 Zhao CZ, Squires VR (2010) Biodiversity of plants and animals in mountain ecosystems (Chapter 6, this volume)
Chapter 8
Protecting Local Breeds of Livestock in NW China Lang Xia, Wang Cailian, and Victor Squires
Synopsis Protection of local breeds of livestock is an important part of bio-diversity conservation and is one of the pillars of sustainable development for animal husbandry in NW China. China has a wide variety of specialist livestock breeds that have developed in response to the severe climatic and nutritional regimes. Over recent decades cross breeding in response to changing market demands has diluted the unique gene pools. Efforts are underway to conserve the major local genotypes. This chapter presents an overview of the local breeds of the major livestock sheep, goats, cattle, and yaks and reports on research on establishing the genetic distance between breeds of sheep. Key Points 1. The genetic diversity of local livestock is the gene bank for improving breeds of domestic animals and adapting to future changes in animal production pattern. 2. The history of cattle and sheep production is centuries-old in Gansu and Xinjiang. Under special environmental background and economic conditions, the rich diversity of livestock breeds formed by long term natural and artificial selection. 3. Over recent decades cross breeding in response to changing market demands has diluted the unique gene pools. Efforts are underway to conserve the major local genotypes. 4. Under special the environments of Xinjiang and Gansu, through long term natural and artificial selection and breeding, sheep and cattle breeds came into being.
Lang Xia (*) Lanzhou Institute of Animal and Veterinary Pharmaceutical Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Lanzhou, China e-mail: [email protected] Wang Cailian Faculty of Animal science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China Victor Squires University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia e-mail: [email protected] V. Squires et al. (eds.), Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7_8, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
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The breeds have adapted to local environment well and have the attributes of cold tolerance, drought tolerance, resistance disease and coarse fodder tolerance. 5. Various factors have contributed to changes in the population size of local breeds of livestock. These include changes to market conditions and to the sedentarization of the herders. 6. Protecting local breeds of livestock is a long term undertaking. Measures put in place now will ensure that further pollution of the gene pool does not occur. Keywords Mendelian genetics • genetic drift • gene pool • crop residues • nutrition • climatic factors • laws and regulations • semen • ova • goats • sheep • cattle • gansu • xinjiang • market conditions • cluster analysis
1 Introduction Protection of local breeds of livestock is an important part of bio-diversity conservation and is one of the pillars of sustainable development for animal husbandry in NW China. The local breeds of livestock are precious natural resources. The genetic diversity of local livestock is the gene bank for improving breeds of domestic animals and adapting to future changes in animal production pattern. The history of cattle and sheep production is centuries-old in Gansu and Xinjiang. Under special environmental background and economic conditions, the rich diversity of livestock breeds has formed by long term natural and artificial selection. Many of the breeds have excellent productive performance and are well adapted to the harsh climate and nutritional regimes in the rangelands where they evolved. Locally-adapted breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, yaks and horses developed over centuries in response to climatic and ecological conditions. In recent decades the genetic resources of local breeds of sheep, cattle and yaks were contaminated by cross breeding. Some local breeds are now endangered. The research reported here examines the genetic distance between several key breeds of sheep in Gansu and Xinjiang with a view to assessing their genetic purity and to help focus conservation efforts on unique local breeds that remain.
2 Analysis of Factors Endangering Local Breeds of livestock It is clear that the populations of some breeds have declined. Various factors have contributed to changes in the population size of local breeds of livestock. The deterioration of grassland resources means that they cannot meet the nutritional requirement of animals. The characteristics of most local breeds are geared toward
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to survival and most animal products are not adapted to the market change. To remedy this, some cross-breeding was done to improve productive performance of local breeds. The long term consequences were not well thought out. As a result, the gene pool of local breeds was contaminated, to the extent that some local sheep breeds are endangered, e.g. Lanzhou large tailed sheep and Minxian black fur sheep. Bias toward high-yield breeds coupled with changes of the social and economic pattern (more sedentary life style, supplementary feeding in winter, etc.) resulted in endangering of local breeds. With the rapidly changing pattern of animal production, the contamination of gene resources (even extinction of some breeds) will become more and more serious.
3 Protecting the Status of Local Breeds of Livestock Protecting local breeds of livestock is a long term undertaking. At present, the Chinese government has actively supported protection of local breeds of livestock in the national planning and social development agenda. At the same time, the government also encourages, individuals, enterprises and international organizations to participate in the protection of local breeds of livestock. Institutions for genetic resources of livestock have been established at all levels of government. The relevant laws and regulations on protection local breeds of livestock have been enacted and implemented, e.g. Animal husbandry law, Management regulation on breed livestock and poultry and so on. The establishment of specialist farms for protecting local breeds of livestock has been promoted e.g. for the Tianzhu white yak, the Lanzhou large tailed sheep, and the Minxian black fur sheep and so on. Since these were established some sheep and cattle and yak breeds have been protected, and the population size has increased gradually. At the same time, biotechnology was used to protect local livestock breeds; embryo, sperm and DNA of some local sheep, cattle, yak and goat breeds were conserved. Tianzhu white yak, Lanzhou large tailed sheep, Minxian black fur sheep and Anxi cattle were listed on the national protection breeds.
3.1 Protection Measures for Local Breeds of Livestock The main task of modern protection of animal genetic resources is to protect the diversity of local breeds or population of livestock whose characteristics are distinctive and potential value is latent, even though productive performance may be low. The measures are as follows. 1. Constructing foundation stock, establishing and perfecting the breeding records (pedigree management system). As for population size of foundation stock, if the inbreeding coefficient will be below 10% in 100 years, effective population
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size for sheep was 200, the generation interval is 2.5 years; effective population size for cattle was 100, the generation interval is 5 years. 2. Demarcation of boundaries for protecting local breeds of livestock. Once the protecting areas were determined, other breeds must not be introduced. Crossbreeding will be prohibited. 3. In each generation, the son of each ram will be the stud, the number is equal; the daughter of each ewe will be in the stud, the number is equal. 4. Making rational mating system, preventing inbreeding. 5. Rationally prolonging generation interval. 6. Keeping environmental stability, reducing mutation. 7. Researching animal genetic diversity with emphasis on: • • • •
Protecting animal genetic resources, making relative policy Developing special gene, cloning gene and transferring gene Analyzing original system and genetic resources of livestock Fixing excellent traits.
3.1.1 Protection and Development Strategy for Local Breeds of Livestock Animal genetic resources are regarded as the biological resources that can create social wealth. Protecting genetic resources of livestock has several objectives including: (a) Protecting genetic diversity of Mendelian population, namely, protecting gene kinds at different loci; (b) Conserving characteristics of breeds, namely, keeping equilibrium of genotype at specific loci; (c) Keeping stability of diversity gene combination system in Mendelian population. In practice, it is necessary to establish different lines in the same breed, to keep the diversity of breed origin and ecological type. Strengthening understanding Preserving local breeds of livestock is an important part of efforts to protect bio-diversity, and underpin sustainable development of animal husbandry in NW China. The crisis of animal genetic resources has become the focus of the global Environment Facility (GEF) and UN agencies such as FAO. These agencies, in particular, have paid close attention to local breed conservation as part of efforts to protect biodiversity. So, it is necessary to raise awareness about the necessity to protect local breeds of livestock. Protecting, monitoring and management training of animal genetic resources should be carried out actively. Protection and utilization should proceed simultaneously. The governments at county level or higher should give support to efforts to investigate, evaluate, protect, and utilize animal genetic resources. At the same time, the government or relevant departments should give the award to person or organizations who achieved outstanding achievement in protecting, breeding and researching animal genetic resources. The management institutions of animal husbandry should pay special attention to protection and utilization of local breeds of livestock.
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3.1.2 Perfecting a System to Protect Local Breeds of Livestock The management institutions of animal husbandry should cooperate with research institutes, university, extension and production-oriented bureaus to investigate and register local breeds of livestock according to their geographic areas. The system for protecting local breeds of livestock includes several aspects. First, basic research on animal genetic resources, including breed characteristics, specific traits, heredity and variation, breed origin, breed standard. Second, developing protection technology, including protecting living specimens, frozen semen, frozen embryo, frozen tissue, frozen oocyte, protecting chromosome and DNA fragments and so on. Third, applying management technology, including protection farms, protection zone, management of gene pool, monitoring breeds, database management; fourth, sustainable utilization, including developing harmonious pattern protecting and utilizing local breeds of livestock, utilizing special traits of breed or population, establishing and evaluating ecosystem of local breeds of livestock. 3.1.3 Methods for Protecting Local Breeds of Live Stock According to management measure introduced in Gansu Province, the breed resources of livestock in Gansu Province will be protected at different levels. The provincial management institutions of animal husbandry determined the list of protected breeds of livestock according to the status of breeds in all prefectures and counties, then, established national and provincial monitoring system, gene pool, testing station and protection farms of breed resources of livestock and poultry by planning. The measures to be taken were prioritized. Firstly, strengthening protection of endangered or almost-extinct breeds, such as Tianzhu white yak, Lanzhou large tailed sheep and Minxian black fur sheep. On the one hand, constructing protection farms, organizing protected population by sire bloodline, preventing inbreeding and genetic drift; on the other hand, determining protection zone, establishing protection zone by natural barrier, prohibiting introducing other breeds and crossbreeding; on the other hand, applying biotechnology, for example, frozen semen, frozen embryo, frozen tissue, frozen oocyte, protecting chromosome and DNA fragments and so on. Secondly, as for Tan sheep and Tibet sheep, their population size is large, the economic traits can meet the requirements of the market. These breeds are important in local animal production and accounted for the highest proportion of sheep traded in the local market. Protection of these breeds is to combine breeding and developing specialist products to better suit the market. Where genetic drift is not apparent the methods to protect and utilize the genetic resources are as follows, (a) strengthening breeding in the same breed, culling poor individuals, increasing genetic quality; (b) rational crossbreeding with introduced breeds, improving quality of products, breeding new breeds on the base of local breeds; (c) developing special products according to market demand; (d) promote the benefits of protecting local breeds.
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4 Present Status of Local Breeds of Livestock in Xinjiang and Gansu, NW China The Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (hereinafter called Xinjiang) and Gansu Province, where the history of animal production is centuries-old, are important bases for animal production in China. After a long period of natural and artificial selection, the breed resources of cattle and sheep became quite distinctive to their respective areas .e.g. Altay sheep, Hotan sheep, Tan sheep, Tibet sheep, Minxian black fur sheep, Tianzhu white yak and so forth. Local sheep breeds in Gansu are Tan sheep, Minxian black fur sheep, Lanzhou large tailed sheep, Mongolian sheep, Tibet sheep including Oula sheep, Ganjia sheep and Qiaoke sheep, and Gansu alpine fine-wool sheep. Goat breeds are Zhongwei goat, Hexi cashmere goat and Longdong black goat. Cattle breeds are Anxi cattle, Zaosheng cattle, Gannan yak and Tianzhu white yak (Table 1). Xinjiang also has famous local sheep breeds like the Bashbay, Hotan, Dolang, Kazak, Bayinbuluk, Tashkurgan, and Kergiz, and cattle breeds like Xinjiang Brown cow, Altay white headed, and Xinjiang yak (Table 1). Therefore, under the influence of the special environment of Xinjiang and Gansu, aided by long-term natural and artificial selection and breeding, these indigenous sheep, goat and cattle breeds came into being. The breeds have adapted to the local environment and have the ability to tolerate cold and/or drought, resist disease and digest coarse fodder. The breeds have plenty of excellent characteristics in respect of meat, milk, wool, skin, cashmere, draught, multiparous ability and so on. The breeds consist of a rich gene pool for livestock in Xinjiang and Gansu. The present day distribution of indigenous breeds of sheep, cattle and goats in Gansu and Xinjiang are described below (Table 1). Because of the importance of local climatic conditions a climatic summary is provided in Table 2. There is an opportunity to equate the climate with the distribution of each local breed. The colocation of livestock-raising adjacent to the cropping areas, especially in the agropastoral transition zone means that crop residues are available for use as feed supplements. Table 3 matches the dominant crop that is grown in the area with the dominant local breed. In some pure grazing areas no crop supplements are available. Gansu Province and Xinjiang are important pastoral regions in NW China. Extensive rangeland is the base of the cattle and sheep industry. The rangelands supply essential nutrition for cattle and sheep for about half of every year. However, Gansu and Xinjiang are also important bases for crop production, so crop byproducts are abundant. These can be used as supplements for cattle and sheep. The by-products of crop are an important source of fodder, especially in the agro-pastoral transition zone and on the periphery of the artificial oases. So, the crop situation in the areas of Xinjiang and Gansu where particular local breeds are distributed are summarized in Table 4 (Table 5).
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Table 1 Distribution of sheep and cattle in Gansu and Xinjiang Province Breeds Distribution (by county) Gansu Sheep Minxian black fur Minxian, Tanchang, Lintan breeds sheep Lanzhou large tailed Lanzhou City sheep Tibet sheep Gannan prefecture, Wudu, Tanchang, Minxian, Zhangxian, Linxia, Jishishan, Tianzhu, Sunan Mongolian sheep Whole province, except Gannan prefecture Tan sheep Huanxian, Jingyuan, Jingtai, Baiyin, Gaolan, yuzhong, Huining Gansu alpine fine-wool Sunan, Tianzhu Yongchan sheep Goat breeds Zhongwei goat Jingyuan, Jingtai, Baiyin, Gaolan Hexi cashmere goat Subei, Sunan Longdong black goat Huachi, Huanxian, Heshui Cattle breeds Anxi cattle Yumen, Dunhuang, Jinta, Jiuquan Zaosheng cattle Ningxian, Zhengning, Qingyang Gannan yak Gannan prefecture Tianzhu white yak Tianzhu Sheep breeds Xinjiang fine-wool Yili prefecture, Bortala prefecture Xinjiang sheep Hotan sheep Hotan Dolang sheep Maigaiti Kazak sheep North Xinjiang Altay sheep Fuhai, Fuyun, Qinghe, Altay Burj, Jimunai, Habahe Bashbay sheep Yumin county Bayinbuluk sheep Hejing county Tashkurgan sheep Tashkurgan Kerkiz sheep Kerkiz Xinjiang lamb pelt Aksu Bayinguoleng sheep Cheriye black sheep Cheriye county Xinjiang brown cattle Yili ,Tacheng Cattle breeds Kazak cattle Yili prefecture, Bortala prefecture, Changji prefecture Mongolian cattle Heshuo, Hejing, Yanzi, Bohu Altay white head cattle Altay Burj, Jimunai, Habahe Xinjiang yak Kunlun mountain, Aljin mountain, Pamirs, south slope Tianshan mountain, hami
Gannan yak Tianzhu white yak
3,000–4,000 2,000–4,843
1.4 0–0.1
424–860 300–416
2,553.3
Table 2 Climatic conditions in the areas of Gansu and Xinjiang where local breeds occur Annual Mean annual Annual temperature precipitation sunshine duration (h) (mm) Province Breeds Altitude (m) (°C) 2,500–3,000 5.5 635 Gansu Sheep Minxian breeds black fur sheep Lanzhou large 1,500–3,000 9.5 312.1 2,430.2 tailed sheep Tibet sheep 1,400–4,700 2 Mongolian sheep Tan sheep 1,300–2,700 6.3–8.3 180–477 2,500–2,900 2,400–4,070 0–3.8 257–461.1 2,272–2,641.3 Gansu alpine fine-wool sheep Goat Zhongwei goat 1,200–2,000 8 102.5–371.5 2,700 breeds Hexi cashmere 1,400–5,564 8 80–200 2,500 goat 350–550 2,700–3,000 Longdong black 1,200–1,600 8 goat Anxi cattle 1,100–1,400 8.8 45 3,272.1 Cattle breeds Zaosheng cattle 1221.2 9.1 576.8 1,935.7 110–120 120
157 160–180
150 3,146.0 1,496.2
3,177–3,565
110–219 130
Warm, subhumid Arid Warm, subhumid Alpine cold Alpine cold
Semi-arid Arid, semi-arid
Arid Alpine cold
1,700–3,300 1,111.9–1,730.9
103–185 60–120
Climate characteristics Alpine cold and darkness Drought Alpine cold
1,393.2
Annual evaporation (mm)
110–120
199
Frost-free period (days) 90–120
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Xinjiang Sheep breeds
Province Breeds
600–3,400 Xinjiang fine-wool sheep Hotan sheep 1,100–4,000 Dolang sheep 1,200 Kazak sheep 1,500–3,000 Altay sheep 1,500–2,500 Bashbay sheep 715–3,248 Bayinbuluk 2,500–2,700 sheep Tashkurgan 3,000–5,000 sheep Kerkiz sheep 2,000–2,400 Xinjiang lamb pelt 800–1,200 sheep Cheriye black 1,336 sheep Xinjiang brown 600–3,400 cattle Kazak cattle 200–700 Mongolian cattle 1,100–2,700 Altay white head 800–2,500 cattle Xinjiang yak 2,300–4,000
Altitude (m)
222 121–178
2,695.9– 3,163.4 3,074–3,163
68.0 200–250 40–60 35.7 199.5–512.5
50.7–79.9 350 68–284.6
3.5 9.8–11.9 11.8
3.5 3.1
2,830
3,000
2,830.1
173–184 60–70
191–249
71.3
200–220 214 102–185 130 153 120
3.1
2,800.8
2,550–3,000 2,806 2,700–3,000
15–150 42 200–600 350–500 269 284.6
4–11 11.8 5 −3.6 6.5 −4.7
110–180
Frost-free period (days)
200–500
Annual sunshine duration (h)
5.4–9.2
Mean annual Annual temperature precipitation (mm) (°C)
2,249.4
1,430
2,552.8
2,247.4
1,022.9–1,247.5
2,200–2,900 2375 1,500–2,300
Annual evaporation (mm)
Alpine cold
Warm, arid
Arid
Alpine cold, arid Alpine cold, Arid
Arid,semiarid Arid Arid Cold Warm and cool Alpine cold
Warm, humid
Climate characteristics
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Table 3 Rangeland conditions in Gansu and Xinjiang in areas where local breeds of sheep and cattle occur Province Breeds Main types of natural grassland Main species of pasture Gansu Sheep breeds Minxian black fur sheep Grass mountain and slope, Grass family, shrubs forest steppe Lanzhou large tailed sheep Tibet sheep Alpine meadow, prata stepposa, Grass family, sedge family, lymegrass, common emersisherbosa goosecomb, windhairlike, smartweed, Cinquefoil Mongolian sheep Tan sheep Xerophytic and sand grassland Goosefoot family, composite family, grass family Gansu alpine fine-wool Alpine meadow, arid grassland, Grass family, sedge family, bluegrass, lymegrass sheep forest and shrub grassland Goat breeds Zhongwei goat Artemisia stelleriana, desert sagebrush, harmel peganum, common seepweed, lovely jijigrass Sickle alfalfa, camelthorn, ural licorice, purple Hexi cashmere goat Alpine shrub grassland, meadow, fescue, drooping lymegrass, lovely jijigrass, semi-desert, desert grassland, fringed sagebrush sand grassland Longdong black goat Needlegrass, wheatgrass, lovely jijigrass, India horseorchid, argy sagebrush, bushclover Reed, lovely jijigrass, camelthorn, ural licorice Cattle breeds Anxi cattle River valley plain, semi-desert grassland Zaosheng cattle Gannan yak Alpine meadow, prata stepposa, Grass family, sedge family, lymegrass, common emersisherbosa goosecomb, windhairlike, smartweed, Cinquefoil Tianzhu white yak Semi-shrub grassland Grass family, sedge family
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Province
Xinjiang
Low meadow Low meadow, mountain desert grassland, mountain meadow, alpine meadow, plain desert grassland Forest steppe
Dolang sheep
Kazak sheep
Meadow, bent, desert
Desert, low meadow, low shrub meadow
Kergiz sheep
Xinjiang lamb pelt sheep
Cheriye black sheep
Mountain desert grassland, alpine grassland, alpine meadow
Tashkurgan sheep
Bayinbuluk sheep
Bashbay sheep
Altay sheep
Hotan sheep
Main types of natural grassland Low meadow grassland, mountain desert grassland, mountain grassland, mountain meadow grassland Valley meadow grassland, mountain desert grassland, gobi, desert
Xinjiang fine-wool sheep
Breeds
Sheep breeds
Main species of pasture
(continued)
Common ceratoides, yellow spiderflower, sympegma, Fescue, bluegrass, Siberian jijigrass Siberian jijigrass, China milkvetch, lymegrass lymegrass, Asia plantain India horseorchid, lovely jijigrass, Fescue, Needlegrass, yellow sweetclover, rhubarb, sympegma, Saxoul, China peashrub Ephedra family, overload, kneejujube, China peashrub, common ceratoides, common ceratoides, ural licorice, reed, lovely jijigrass, camelthorn, rush
Fescue, Needlegrass, prostrate broomsedge, xeric bromegrass Needlegrass, wheatgrass, fescue
Needlegrass, equal alopecurus, fescue, bluegrass
Saxoul, Siberian jijigrass, fescue, lymegrass, bluegrass, awnless bromegrass, equal alopecurus, lovely jijigrass, reed, ural licorice
Saxoul, sixweeks triawn, roxburge sagebrush, common ceratoides, lovely jijigrass, reed, ural licorice, India horseorchid, Cinquefoil, rush, Needlegrass, wheatgrass, awnless bromegrass Norton sagebrush, yellow spiderflower, sympegma, Siberian jijigrass, China peashrub, common ceratoides common ceratoides, ural licorice, reed Reed, camelthorn, ural licorice, China aeluropus
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Cattle breeds
Table 3 (continued) Province Breeds
Alpine meadow, mountain meadow, mountain grassland, mountain desert, plain desert, plain deserta substepposa, low meadow Alpine meadow, alpine dent, alpine grassland, mountain grassland, mountain desert, plain desert, mountain deserta substepposa, low meadow Mountain meadow, mountain meadow grassland, alpine meadow, desert grassland Alpine desert, alpine meadow, alpine grassland, emersisherbosa
Kazak cattle
Xinjiang yak
Altay white head cattle
Mongolian cattle
Alpine meadow, mountain meadow
Main types of natural grassland
Xinjiang brown cattle
Needlegrass, bluegrass, wheatgrass, equal alopecurus, China milkvetch, lymegrass lymegrass, Asia plantain, common ceratoides
Fescue, Needlegrass, bluegrass, equal alopecurus, wheatgrass, goldball onion
Fescue, Needlegrass, bluegrass, sympegma, camelthorn, overload, regel iijinia
Awnless bromegrass, bluegrass, ural licorice, lovely jijigrass, equal alopecurus, Fescue, Needlegrass Lovely jijigrass, common ceratoides, reed, awnless bromegrass, equal alopecurus, Fescue, bluegrass, jerusalemsage, Saxoul
Main species of pasture
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Table 4 Crops grown in Xinjiang and Gansu areas where indigenous breeds of sheep, goats and cattle are common Province Breeds Crops Gansu Sheep Minxian black fur sheep Wheat, broad bean, highland breeds barley, oats, potato, oil plants, angelica Lanzhou large tailed sheep Wheat, millet, broom corn millet, potato, corn, melon and fruit, vegetables Tibet sheep Highland barley, barley, oats Mongolian sheep No crops Tan sheep Wheat, corn, potato, broom corn millet, hulless oat, millet, oriental sesame, rape, oats, broad bean, beet, Chinese herb, hemp Gansu alpine fine-wool sheep Highland barley, barley, oats, broad bean, potato Goat breeds Zhongwei goat Wheat, highland barley, potato, buckwheat, hulless oat, oil plants Hexi cashmere goat Highland barley, barley, oats, broad bean, potato Longdong black goat Wheat, corn, potato, broom corn millet, hulless oat, millet, oriental sesame, rape, oats, broad bean, beet, Chinese herb, hemp Cattle breeds Anxi cattle Wheat, cotton, corn, highland barley, broad bean, broom corn millet Zaosheng cattle Corn, sorghum, broom corn millet, buckwheat, millet, beans Gannan yak Highland barley, oats Tianzhu white yak Highland barley, oats, potato Corn, wheat, cotton, oriental Xinjiang Sheep breeds Xinjiang fine-wool sheep sesame Hotan sheep Wheat, corn, highland barley, broad bean, rice Dolang sheep Corn, wheat, cotton, oriental sesame, sunflower, hemp, alfalfa, melon and fruit Kazak sheep No crops Altay sheep
“”
Bashbay sheep
“” “”
Bayinbuluk sheep
“”
Tashkurgan sheep Kergiz sheep
Broad bean, highland barley, spring wheat, sorghum, oil plants No crops
Xinjiang lamb pelt sheep
“”
Cheriye black sheep
Corn, wheat, cotton (continued)
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Table 4 (continued) Province Breeds Cattle breeds
Crops Xinjiang brown cattle
Mongolian cattle
Wheat, corn, sorghum, rice, broad bean, soybean, potato, beet, carrot, rape, oriental sesame Wheat, corn, sorghum, rice, broad bean, soybean, potato, beet, carrot, rape, oriental sesame Wheat, corn, rice, alfalfa
Altay white head cattle
No crop
Xinjiang yak
No crop
Kazak cattle
5 Evaluation of Genetic Diversity in Local Breeds of Livestock The local breeds of livestock are precious natural resources and economic resources with high value. The genetic diversity of local livestock is the genetic base to improving breeds of domestic animals and adapting to change of animal production pattern in the future. Moreover, the genetic diversity of local livestock is the motivation to keep sustainable development of animal production. So, the evaluation on genetic diversity of local breeds of livestock contributes to protecting and rational utilization of breed resources of local livestock as well as helping inform the policy on development of the cattle and sheep industry. An important task is to determine the extent of genetic contamination that may have already occurred through cross breeding. The determination of genetic distance is a tool that can help define breed purity.
5.1 Determination of Local Sheep Breeds in Gansu and Their Core Area: Sampling Strategy The genetic distance of Gansu local sheep breeds and introduced sheep was determined. At the same time, the database on genetic resources of sheep breeds in Gansu Province was constructed.1 There are six indigenous sheep breeds in Gansu Province, including a fixed hybrid (Gansu alpine fine-wool sheep). The local breeds are Tan sheep distributed over Jingyuan County and Jingtai County; Minxian black fur sheep distributed over middle and upstream area of Taohe River and the areas around of Minxian; Lanzhou large-tailed sheep distributed over the outskirts of Lanzhou City; Mongolia sheep almost distributed all over Gansu, while the core
The Site URL is http://my.gshow.net.cn
1
Table 5 Major characteristics of cattle and sheep breeds in Gansu and Xinjiang Province Breeds Major characteristics Gansu Sheep breeds Lanzhou large-tailed Long fat tail sheep, meat-fat type breed. Body weight: adult ram, 57.89 kg; adult ewe, 44.35 kg. sheep Fleece is composed of fine wool, heterotopias fibers, coarse wool and kemp. Wool weight: ram, 2.5 kg; ewe, 1.3 kg.: fine wool, 65–67 count. 2%; heterotopias fibers, 17.5–17.7%; coarse wool. 4.4%; kemp, 10.7–17.5% Minxian Black Fur Short fat tail sheep, mainly using to produce black lamb fur, adapt to cold and darkness Sheep environment. Body weight: adult ram, 31 kg; adult ewe, 27.5 kg. Wool weight is 0.75 kg and could be used to produce fur. Wool length 7 cm with 3–5 wool crimps per cm. Meat production: dressing percentage is over 44% for adult gelded ram. Lambing percentage: 100% Oula Tibet sheep High and huge body, narrow and long head, with wattle, yellowish-brown wool on brisket of ram, not obvious for ewe. Short wool fleece, more kemp hair. Yellowish-brown wool on head, neck and four limbs. Few pure white. Body weight, adult ram, 75.8 kg, adult ewe, 58.5 kg; wool yield, ram 1.08 kg, ewe, 0.77 kg; carcass weight of adult sheep 35.2 kg, dressing percentage of adult sheep 50.2% Tan sheep Short fat tail sheep, mainly using to produce black lamb fur, wool elasticity and resilience used as the coarse material for carpet, firm type, adapted to barren condition. Body weight: adult ram, 47 kg; adult ewe, 35 kg Wool length: ram, 11.2 cm; ewe, 8.9 cm.Wool weight: ram, 1.6–2.0 kg; ewe 1.3–1.8 kg. Fineness: unmyelinated wool, 17 mm, medullated fiber, 26.6 mm.Wool quality: clean content, 65%.The lamb fur of Tan sheep is white, soft and beautiful with wave shape wool. Wool crimpness 5–7 per section wool. Meat production: dressing percentage is 45% for adult gelded ram, 40% for adult ewe. The rate of lamb fur of Tan sheep is 50%. Lambing percentage: 102%. Mongolian sheep Short fat tail sheep, one of the four local sheep types, strong and compact body, adapt to stock management. Body weight: ram, 47–70 kg; ewe, 32–54 kg.Wool quality: fleece is composed of fine wool, heterotopias fibers, coarse wool and kemp. Wool length: 6.5–7.5 cm, spring. Fleece weight: ram, 1.5–2.2 kg; ewe,1–1.9 kg. Fineness: fine wool, 22 mm; coarse wool, 44 mm. Dressing percentage: moderately large gelded ram, over 50%; 6-month old gelded ram,46%.Fat weight of tail:1.4–3.1 kg. Reproduction ability: one lamb per year per ewe; the rate of two-lamb is 3–5%. (continued)
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Goat breeds
Breeds
Table 5 (continued)
Province
Hexi Cashmere goat
Ganjia Tibet sheep
Qiaoke Tibet sheep
Gansu Alpine fine-wool sheep
Middle body, health condition, mesomorph, long body, wide and deep chest, plump rear quarter. Ram with spiral large horn, ewe without horn or with small horn. Close wool fleece. White. Body weight, adult ram after shearing 80 kg, adult ewe after shearing 43 kg. wool yield, ram 8.5 kg, ewe, 4.4 kg; staple length, ram 8.24 cm, ewe 7.4 cm; clean wool yield 43–45%; Lambing percentage: 110%. Live weight of adult gelded ram 57.6 kg, carcass weight 25.9 kg, dressing percentage 44.4–50.2%. Huge body, short hair on head, ram with spiral horn, ewe with small and short horn. Coarse wool fleece. More kemp hair. Yellowish-brown or black wool on head, neck and four limbs. Live weight of adult: 61.9 kg; carcass weight : 29.4 kg; dressing percentage: 47.4%; meat weight: 22.7 kg; ratio of bone to meat 3 to 1; wool yield of adult sheep, ram 0.98 kg, ewe 0.81 kg; wool staple length: ram 26 cm, ewe 24 cm; Lambing percentage: 98.8%. Health condition, small body, long and regular four limbs, variegated wool on head and four limbs. Most white. Yellowish-brown short wool on face. Ram with spiral large horn, ewe with small horn. Wool length: adult ram 27.97 cm, adult ewe 26.7 cm. large wave wool strand. Meat production: carcass weight of adult gelded ram 21.5 kg, dressing percentage 47.5%; carcass weight of adult ewe 19.4 kg, dressing percentage 44.5%. wool yield of adult sheep: ram 1.21 kg, ewe 1.05 kg. length of wool staple: ram 30 cm, ewe 29 cm. clean wool; ram 68.3%, ewe 70.7%. Producing white down hair. Adult weight: male, 38.5 kg; female, 26 kg. Fleece weight: male, 0.317 kg; female, 0.383 kg. Down hair weight: male, 0.324 kg; female, 0.28 kg. Down hair length: male, 4.9 cm; female, 4.3 cm. Down hair fineness: 15 mm. Wool strength: 3.6 g. Wool elongation at break: 44%. Dressing percentage: 44%.Down hair content: about 50%. Reproduction ability: low. Lactation number: 1 year, 1. Lambing percentage:130–143%.
Major characteristics
162 Lang Xia et al.
Province
Cattle breeds
Breeds
Anxi cattle
Longdong Black Goat
Zhongwei goat
Lamb skin, wool and down hair is material for rare clothes. 80% of them are white; the others are black or brown. Adult weight: in autumn, male, 44.6 kg; female, 34.1 kg; shearing top, 30.8 kg; shearing ewe, 28.6 kg. Fleece weight: male, 0.4 kg; female, 0.3 kg. Down hair weight: male, 164–240 g; female, 140–190 g.Wool fineness: 14 mm. Dressing percentage: adult male, 42%, adult female, 50%. Milk production: one day, 0.3 kg. Laction period: 6 months. Less medium constitution, short and narrow head, extrusive forehead, longer neck, wider breast, flat back and wide, strong limbs, short and thin tail is upwards. There are horns of ram and ewe, and a percent of 75% of horns is “ ” type. Most of them have beard. Hair coat is crude, which outer is crude hair and inner is thin and dense fluff. This breed is famous for black pelt and violet fluff. Color of lamb pelt is various, and mainly is black. Adult weight: 27.2 kg for ram and 21.3 kg for ewe. Adult hair yield: 0.45 kg for ram and 0.30 kg for ewe. Breeding age is 6 years and its oestrus is seasonal, and most is spring. Initial mating age is 1–1.5 years olds. Lambing ratio is 100–150%. Short and wide head, long and curve horn upward, underdeveloped dewlap, low withers. Deep chest, flat back. Short and narrow rear quarter. Sloping rump. Short four limbs. Hard hooves. Black, yellow, humo and badius hair. Average body weight 206.3–365.5 kg, body height 108.5 to 122.7 cm, milk yield in 100 days 518 kg, the rate of milk fat 5.2 %, even 9%. The average maximal draught powers are 426 and 259 kg being 57.5% and 62.4% of body weight respectively for bulls and cows. The dressing percentage and meat percentage are 55.7% and 47.7% for adult cows; 53% and 44.5% for bullocks respectively. The average muscle: bone ratio and eye muscle area are 1:5.3 and 44.2 cm2 respectively. The average maximal draught power are 426 and 295 kg being 57.5% and 62.4% boby weight respectively for bull and cows (continued)
Major characteristics 8 Protecting Local Breeds of Livestock in NW China 163
Table 5 (continued) Province Breeds
Gannan yak
Zaosheng cattle
There are three coat colors of mauve, red and yellow. The bull’s head is comparatively big with broad forehead, flat face, big eyes and square mouth, while the cow is trim with short stub horns. The horn length is about 10 cm for the female and 14.5 cm for male. The withers of the males are high and broad while the females’ are low and broad. The cow’s udder develops well. The average birth body height is 64 and 66.7 cm for females and males respectively. The withers height and body weight are 130.3 cm and 381.3 kg for adult females respectively, and 141.5 cm, 594.5 kg for males respectively. The draught powers are 475.5, 333.6 and 281.2 kg for the bull, the bullock and cow respectively. The daily gain in the fattening period is 0.7 kg, 0.5 kg and 0.6 for the bulls, the cows and the bullocks respectively. The average dressing percentage, meat percentage and meat yield of carcass percentage are 58.3%, 50.5% and 86.9% respectively. The muscle area is 97 cm2 and the lean meat percentage is 76%. The milk yield is 715.8 kg per lactation (about 7 months), and 3.2 kg per day with the milk fat percentage of 4.7%. Bulls reach to sex maturity at the age of 12 months and begin to be bred at 2 years old. Cows are bred at 2 years old with calf every year. An evident hetaerists is found. Genes of wild yak are mixed into this breed, so there are some characteristics of the wild yaks. Black and brown hair covers 71.8% of the whole body. The wither is high long and wide. Short hair of white or staining white in color covers over lip, eye pit and back. This breed has compact fine constitution, well developed fore quarters; the hind quarters are not good as the fore ones. Gannan yak has big head, wide horns, soft and deep skin, the head of female yak is long with broad forehead and horn, udders are relatively like bowl and dish, teats are short. Adult males weight on average 443.4 kg, and females of 256.4 kg, with an average withers height of 129.2 and 110.9 cm, respectively. The dressing percentage of the steer is about 53%, meat percentage is 42.5%. Lactation period usually is 150 days, annual milk yield is 274 kg, dairy output is about 1.38–1.70 kg, milk fat percentage is about 6.4–7.2% Adults annual fleece weight is about 1.17–2.62 kg. Half of them have coarse wool and the half have fine wool. The diameter of coarse wool is about 64.8–72.9 mm. The diameter of both types is about 18.3–34 cm, length of fine wool is about 4.7–5.5 cm. The time of male sexual mature is 2 years old, female is 2–2.5 years old. Survival rate of production is about 60%, the probability of one calf every year is 60%, with a twinning rate of 3%.
Major characteristics
164 Lang Xia et al.
Breeds
Sheep breeds
Province
Xinjiang
Xinjiang fine-wool sheep
Tianzhu white yak
The Tianzhu white yak has a compact, fine constitution, well developed fore quarters, and the hindquarters are not as good as the fore one. Hair covering: all body is white and the skin is pink. Head of male is big and forehead is wide. Forelock grow thickly and curly. Horns are wide and long. Head of female is trim and forehead is comparatively narrow, horn is thin and long. Neck is wide and dewlap is underdeveloped. the wither is prominent, high and chest is deep. The rump is narrow, like a roof, the hindquarters grow very short. Adult males weigh on average 264.1 kg, and females of 189.7 kg, with an average withers height of 120.8 and 108.1 cm, respectively. The average draft capacity is 75 kg to a maximum of 100 kg, being able to walk 30–40 km.The dressing percentage, meat percentage and the meat: bone ratio are 52%, 42.5% and 1:2.4 for bulls respectively. 52%,39.6% and 1:3.7 for cows respectively and 54.5%,41.4%and 1:4.07 for bullocks. Annual fleece weight of males is 3.6 kg, with the maximal yield of 6.0 kg, the under wool yield is 0.4 kg, and the weight of tail hair is 0.6 kg; 1.3, 0.8 and 0.4, respectively for females; 1.7, 0.5 and 0.3, respectively for bullocks. The tail length males and females are 52.3 and 44.7 cm, respectively. The annual milk yield is 400 kg, with the maximal daily milk yield of 4.0 kg, and the milk: fat ratio of 6.8%.Males reach breeding age at 3 years old, and females at 2–3 years old. Male-female ratio reaches 1:2–25,and the reproductive rate is 56.4–75.6%. Middle body, health condition, mesomorph, long body, wide and deep chest, plump rear quarter. Ram with spiral large horn, ewe without horn or with small horn. Close wool fleece. White. Color spot on eye socket, ears and lip of some individual. Average body height: adult ram 75.3 cm, adult ewe 65.9 cm; body length; adult ram 81.9 cm, adult ewe 72.6 cm; chest girth: adult ram 101.7 cm, adult ewe 86.7 cm. shearing wool body weight of yearling sheep: ram 42.5 kg, the highest 100 kg, ewe 35.9 kg, the highest 69.0 kg; body weight of adult sheep: ram 88 kg, the highest 143 kg, ewe 48.6 kg, the highest 94 kg. Wool yield of yearling sheep: ram 4.9 kg, the highest 17 kg, ewe 4.5 kg, the highest 12.9 kg. Wool yield of adult sheep: ram 11.57 kg, the highest 21.2 kg, ewe 5.24 kg, the highest 12.9 kg. Clean yield 48.06– 51.53%. Staple length of yearling sheep: ram 7.8 cm, ewe 7.7 cm; staple length of adult sheep: ram 9.4 cm, ewe 7.2 cm (continued)
Major characteristics 8 Protecting Local Breeds of Livestock in NW China 165
Province
Breeds
Table 5 (continued)
Altay sheep
Kazak sheep
Dolang sheep
Hotan sheep
Using as coarse material of fleece. Strong abilities of fat cumulated under hot and arid conditions and low nutrition level. Body weight: adult ram bred in Choteau, 39 kg; adult ram bred in plain, 36 kg; adult ewe bred in Choteau, 29 kg; adult ewe bred in plain, 29 kg.Wool quality: fleece wool is composed of down hair, heterotopias fibers, coarse wool and kemp. The wool weight is 1.6 kg for adult ram and 1.2 kg for adult ewe. The wool length is 18 cm in spring, 11.3 cm in autumn. The fleece weight production: fine wool, 25.3%; heterotopias fibers, 35.5%; coarse wool, 6.5%; kemp, 4.7%. Clean content: 70%. Meat production: dressing percentage is 42% bred in Choteau, 36.8% bred in plain. Reproduction ability: lambing percentage is 102% Meat-fat type breed, large body size, grow fast, high reproductive rate. Average body weight at the day-old sheep, yearling, and adult is 6.8, 59.2 and 98.4 kg for ram and 5.1, 43.6 and 68.3 kg for ewe respectively. Dressing percentage: adult ram, 59.8%; adult ewe, 55.2%.Wool weight: adult ram, 2.6 kg; adult ewe, 1.6 kg. Wool weight production to whole wool weight is 60–70% for down hair. Time of sex mature: male, 6–7 month; female, 6–8 months Fat tail sheep, one of the four local sheep types. Graze in four seasons. Good abilities to adapt to pasture area. Body weight in spring: adult ram, 60 kg; adult ewe, 45.8 kg. Wool quality: fleece wool is composed of fine wool, heterotopias fibers, coarse wool and kemp. Fleece weight: ram, 2.63 kg; ewe, 1.88 kg. Wool length: ram, 14.8 cm; ewe, 13.3 cm.The weight production: fine wool, 41–55%; heterotopias fibers, 14–20%; coarse wool, 12–24%; kemp, 13–21%; clean content is 58–69%. Dressing percentage: adult gelded ram, 47.6%; 1.5 year old gelded ram, 46.4%.The weight of fat tail: adult gelded ram, 2.3 kg; 1.5 year old gelded ram, 1.8 kg. Lambing percentage: 102% Fat tail sheep, grazing in all seasons. Strong abilities of fat cumulated under the condition of grazing in four seasons. Body weight at autumn: adult ram, 93 kg; adult ewe, 67.6 kg. Fleece weight is 2.0 kg for adult ram, 1.6 kg for adult ewe. Wool quality: fleece is composed of down hair, heterotopias fibers, coarse wool and kemp. The weight of wool production: adult ram, 2.0 kg; adult ewe, 1.6 kg.The weight production is 60% for fine wool, 40% for heterotopias fibers, 7.8% for coarse wool and 28.73% for kemp; clean content is 71.24%. Meat production: dressing percentage is 52.9% for adult gelded ram, 50% for 18-month old gelded ram. The weight of the fat tail is 7.1 kg for adult gelded ram, 4 kg for 18-month old gelded ram. Reproduction ability: lambing percentage is 110%
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Kazak cattle
Cheriye black sheep
Kergiz sheep
Tashkurgan sheep
Bayinbuluk sheep
Bashbay sheep
(continued)
Short mature period, red brown fleece, less kemp and more down hair. Body weight at autumn: ewe, 80–85 kg; ram, 120 kg. Short mature period. The body weight is 30 kg at 2-month old, 68.3 kg for ram and 56.9 kg for ewe under normal breed environment. Dressing percentage: 50%.Wool weight is 3–3.5 kg per year Short fat tail sheep, meat-fat type coarse wool sheep, not good at production wool. Body weight: adult ram, 70 kg; adult ewe, 43 kg. Wool quality: fleece is composed of down hair, heterotopias fibers, coarse wool and kemp. Fleece weight in spring: ram, 1.6 kg; ewe, 0.9 kg. Dressing percentage: adult gelded ram, 46.6%; 6-month old gelded ram, 44.1% Lambing percentage: 102%. Meat-fat type, fat-tailed breed, large body size, short mature period, bearing, grow fast. Average body weight: ram, 69.3 kg; ewe, 541 kg. Tail length: ram, 20.7 cm; ewe, 16.3 cm. Tail width: ram, 26.0 cm; ewe, 20.7 cm.Tail thickness: ram, 14.0 cm; ewe, 9.8 cm. The lamb body weight at 3-month is 22.5 kg, only 30–40% of adult sheep. Dressing percentage: 50–60%. The proportion of body fat weight and tail fat weight to carcass weight is 30–40%.Wool weight: ram, 1.7–2.75 kg ewe, 1.5–2.0 kg. Staple length: 5–9 cm Black fleece, appearances look like Kazakh sheep. Ram has horns and ewe has small horns. Average body weight: ram, 40–60 kg; ewe, 35 kg.Wool weight: ram, 1.5–2.0 kg; ewe, 1.0–1.5 kg. Dressing percentage: 50%. Tail weight: 2.0 kg. Reproductive percentage: 86.9% Narrow and long head, prominent bridge of a nose, drooping large ears, ram with spiral and large horns, ewe without horn or with small horn. Black wool. Born lamb with dark black wool, with maturity, appearing black gray except head and four limbs. Body height, body weight and wool yield of adult sheep; ram, 64 cm, 41 and 0.78 kg; ewe, 61 cm, 34 and 0.72 kg, respectively. Sexually mature at 6 months old. Twinning rate 61.8% The coat colors of yellow and black are common. The Kazak has medium or small sized head, relatively depressed forehead, medium length thin neck, underdeveloped wattle, low and flat withers, and elliptic horns. The back and waist are smooth and straight, with narrow rear quarters, relatively pinched and drooping rump, and relatively low tail head. Cows’ udders are small and bowl shaped. Adult bulls weigh on average 369.2 kg and cows 301.5 kg with an average withers height of 115.5 and 119.9 cm respectively. The average draught powers are 383 kg for bullocks, and the highest will reach 586 kg.The average dressing percentage, meat percentage, muscle: bone ratio and eye muscle area are 49.7%, 37.2%, 1:3.2 and 64.3 cm2 respectively. The lactation period lasts 5–6 months, with milk yield 718.4 kg (not including suckling the calves).The Kazak is managed to first breeding at 2 years old, and with the reproductive rate and survival rate of reproduction of 96.7% and 94.2% respectively
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Table 5 (continued)
Xinjiang yak
Altay white head cattle
Mongolian cattle
The fore quarters develop better than the rear quarters. Black and yellow in color are usually found. Raccoon, dog color and smoke, however, may be found. The Mango has short broad rugged head, long ahead swept horns, underdeveloped wattle and low withers. The back and waist are smooth and straight, with short narrow rear quarters, drooping rump, short quarters and hard hooves. The basal area of cows’ udders is large and broad with small teats. The body weight and body size vary among different grassland types. And the average withers height and body weight are 108.5–122.7 cm and 206.3–365.5 kg, respectively. The Wuzhumuqin is the largest framed one, reaches 176.7 kg at 1-year old, and stops growing at age 6. The average milk yield of 100 days is 518 kg, and the milk fat percentage is 5.2% with the highest record of 9%.The average maximal draught powers are 426 and 259 kg being 57.5% and 62.4% of body weight respectively for bulls and cows. The dressing percentage and meat percentage are 55.7% and 47.7% for adult cows; 53% and 44.5% for bullocks, respectively. The average muscle: bone ratio and eye muscle area are 1:5.3 and 44.2 cm2 respectively. The average draught capacity of the Mongolian cattle is 400–500 kg. The reproductive rate and the survival rate of reproduction is 50–60% and 90%, respectively The Altay White Head is medium sized. They are white of head and red brown of body. And the belly, the thorax, the udder, the rear quarters and the trailhead are white. 60% of Altay White Head with no horns. The Altay White Head has heavy head, wide forehead, deep thorax, wide broad withers, huge belly, rump with proper size, middling developed udder with teats of proper size and strong straight firm hooves. Adult bulls weigh on average 585 kg, and cows 365.8 kg, with an average withers height of 120 cm for cows. The average dressing percentage is 48.9%. The average milk yield of 150 days is 693.8 kg. The Altay White Head is managed to breeding at about 2-year old. And the survival rate of reproduction is 70–75% Xinjiang yak has rugged head, short broad forehead, aerial withers, deep thorax and short thick quarters. Long hair covers the whole body, with hairs under belly skirt shaped and tail hairs broom shaped. They are mainly black, brown, gray in color. Those in Hami area are mostly pure black, and then gray or black and white in color. Adult males weigh on average 288.2 kg, and females of 210.6 kg, With an average withers height of 122.8 and 112.7 cm, respectively. The average dressing percentage is 47–59%. The females have an average daily milk yield of 2.6 kg. The average fleece weight is 1.3 kg with an average under wool yield of 0.4 kg. The Xinjiang yak is managed to breeding at 2.5 to 3-year old. The reproductive rate varies in different regions, and varies from 37% to 97%. The average survival rate is over 90%
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Table 6 Names, sample types, locations and numbers of 13 sheep breeds Sample size Breeds Abbreviation Female Male Sampling location Gansu alpine fineGA 40 8 Huangcheng sheep wool sheep breeding farm in Gansu Tan sheep TAN 71 6 Jingyuan County and Jingtai County in Gansu Minxian Black Fur MB 50 10 Minxian County in Gansu sheep Tibet sheep TB 48 10 Hezuo city in Gansu Mongolia sheep MON 48 10 Minqin County in Gansu Lanzhou large-tailed LT 29 5 Lanzhou City in Gansu sheep Small-tailed Han sheep HAN 35 31 Baiyin and Linxia City in Gansu, sheep from Heze of Shandong Poll Dorset sheep PD 25 5 Yongchang Mutton sheep Breeding Farm in Gansu Australian merino AM 48 8 Huangcheng sheep breeding farm in Gansu German merino GM 20 10 Dongxiang Kaitai Modern Agriculture Company Limited White Suffolk SF 25 5 Yongchang Mutton sheep Breeding Farm in Gansu Texel TX 26 5 Yongchang Mutton sheep Breeding Farm in Gansu Borderdale BD 26 5 Yongchang Mutton sheep Breeding Farm in Gansu
area was Minqin County and Subei County; Tibet sheep are mainly distributed over Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture; Gansu alpine fine-wool sheep, a fixed hybrid breed are mainly in Sunan County and Tianzhu County. Seven other breeds were included in the study, some of them imported breeds from Europe or USA. The sampling strategy was combination of random sampling and typical population sampling, the sample size of every breed was 40 sheep at least, in them, the rams were not below 10%. Details of Sample size and the location of tested flocks can be seen in Table 6
6 Genetic Distance and Clustering Analysis In this study, the genetic distance between populations was analyzed by Nei’s genetic distance (DA) and Nei’s standard genetic distance (Ds). Table 7, shows that Nei’s genetic distance between 13 sheep breeds ranged from 0.1116 to 0.2427; and Nei’s standard genetic distance ranged from 0.0758 to 0.3878.
See Table 6 for code for the 13 breeds
Table 7 Nei’s genetic distance (shaded area above the diagonal) and Nei’s standard genetic distance (below the diagonal) among 13 sheep breeds GA LT TB TAN MB MON HAN BD GM AM PD SF TX GA 0.1973 0.1918 0.1835 0.1651 0.2056 0.2069 0.2069 0.1585 0.1757 0.2194 0.176 0.2314 LT 0.2696 0.164 0.1164 0.1454 0.1415 0.1539 0.2163 0.1817 0.1953 0.1922 0.1957 0.2427 TB 0.2855 0.2456 0.1592 0.1116 0.1893 0.2036 0.2236 0.2159 0.2087 0.2141 0.1964 0.2311 TAN 0.2856 0.1633 0.2499 0.1552 0.1559 0.152 0.2068 0.1957 0.1912 0.2373 0.1724 0.2121 MB 0.2313 0.1971 0.1383 0.2379 0.1488 0.1961 0.208 0.2111 0.2115 0.2128 0.2016 0.2102 MON 0.2949 0.1771 0.2807 0.1898 0.1832 0.1422 0.2191 0.2081 0.2339 0.2133 0.1949 0.2353 HAN 0.3356 0.1979 0.3603 0.1953 0.3308 0.2039 0.233 0.2107 0.2244 0.2191 0.1936 0.2176 BD 0.2593 0.2577 0.2885 0.2857 0.2449 0.2356 0.3232 0.2099 0.2074 0.2036 0.1533 0.1528 GM 0.2019 0.2023 0.3003 0.2825 0.2718 0.268 0.2885 0.2101 0.1909 0.2174 0.1728 0.2349 AM 0.2888 0.2489 0.3137 0.32 0.2919 0.2942 0.3878 0.2501 0.2707 0.216 0.1813 0.2214 PD 0.2821 0.2122 0.3033 0.3747 0.2622 0.2944 0.3438 0.2025 0.2 0.2593 0.1458 0.1675 SF 0.2001 0.1961 0.2214 0.1783 0.2252 0.1935 0.2093 0.135 0.1536 0.1969 0.1103 0.1316 TX 0.2943 0.3056 0.3161 0.2669 0.2759 0.2687 0.2922 0.1375 0.2671 0.2869 0.1644 0.0758
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The genetic distance between Minxian Black Fur sheep and Tibet sheep was the smallest (DA = 0.1116, Ds = 0.1383), the genetic distance between Gansu alpine merino and Mongolia sheep was largest (DA = 0.2056 Ds = 0.2949). As expected, the greatest genetic distance was between introduced breeds and local sheep breeds (Figs. 1, 2). By clustering, 13 sheep breeds in this Gansu study can be divided into three main groups. In the first group, including Lanzhou large-tailed sheep, Tan sheep, Mongolia sheep, Small-tailed Han sheep, Tibet sheep, and Minxian Black Fur sheep. The second group included Gansu alpine merino, German merino, and Australian merino. The third group included Borderdale, Texel, Suffolk and Poll Dorset sheep. As for 15 microsatellite loci in 13 sheep breeds, the polymorphism information content ranged from 0.793 to 0.902, the heterozygosity ranged from 0.8692 to 0.8921. Therefore, in this study, the 15 microsatellite loci analyzed were highly polymorphic, which can be used to evaluate the genetic diversity in sheep and establish a baseline for detecting the extent of genetic pollution from cross breeding. 64
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Fig. 1 NJ tree based on DA genetic distance of 13 sheep populations (Data from Lang Xia, unpublished) 86 50 79
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Fig. 2 UPGMA tree based on DA genetic distance of 13 sheep population (Data from Lang Xia, unpublished)
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Fig. 3 Cluster diagram for genetic distance among 11 breeds of sheep in Xinjiang KEY A = Altay, H = Hotan, B = Bashbay, D = Dolang, NH = Hotan in crops production area, SH = Hotan in mountain area, K = Kergiz, C = Cherieye, T = Tashkurgan, X = Xinjiang fine wool sheep, M = China Merino (Data from Liu Wujun, unpublished)
Similar work on Xinjiang sheep showed clear cut groupings of local breeds and affinities between them (Fig. 3). The 11 breeds were drawn from the major breeds of indigenous sheep (Table 1) plus one hybrid, the Xinjiang Fine wool which is derived from the Merino. Genetic pollution from cross breeding is less pronounced than in Gansu because many of the local breeds in Xinjiang are run in comparative isolation and are separated by long distances. Xinjiang has a large land area (over 1,600,000 km2. Despite this there is still concern about maintenance of genetic purity as herders practice cross breeding to get more acceptable products (wool, meat) for the market. The reader is referred to Chapter 10 Wu, Squires and Yang 2010, for a discussion of the use of terminal sires in a cross breeding program and ways to maintain the purity of local breeds while at the same time providing, via the F1 hybrids, a more marketable animal. There are initiatives to conserve and protect specific local breeds in NW China. In the following Case studies we look at two examples.
6.1 Case Study 1 Protecting Tianzhu White Yaks Tianzhu White Yak is a rare yak breed that is restricted to Tianzhu county, Gansu and unique in the world. The Tianzhu white yak has been the subject of special attention since 1982 when a conservation and breeding program commenced. The Tianzhu white yak breeding farm and a few out-stations were established. Research has continued and is now focused on eight key objectives (Fig. 4). The work of conservation and improvement for Tianzhu white yak is made up of several parts. There is a nucleus herd and several other breeding groups (Fig. 5).
Conservation and improvement for Tianzhu white yak
Conservation of live yaks
Biotechnical conservation
Establishing effective protection and breeding system for Tianzhu white yak. .Research on reproductive technologies to breed more calves
Processing frozen semen of different type of Tianzhu white yak in Tubule (straws) for AI
Study on effect of different levels of supplement on reproductive performance of female Tianzhu white yak.
Construction of forage base
Constructing database on conservation information
Farmers training
1. Introducing and screening annual grass adapted to the local environment. 2. Analysis of feed balance between the nucleus group of Tianzhu white yak and feed resources
Study on a scheme of prevention and cure of epidemic disease and emergency countermeasure
Sustainable improvement for White yak
Fig. 4 Schematic of the Tianzhu white yak conservation program
Supplying frozen semen for National gene bank of livestock and poultry as well as other yak farm
Station for breed bull or frozen semen and embryo
Breeding farm for Tianzhu white yak
Being responsible for guidance of breeding technology
Male yak
Male yak
Breeding group
Nucleus group The first class of female yak Management station for animal science or veterinary or rangeland
Reproduci ng group Good female yak
Offering technical service
Fig. 5 Flow chart of the Tianzhu white yak conservation program
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The first priority was to strengthen protection of any living Tianzhu white yak to prevent the genetic resources of the Tianzhu white yak from disappearing. There was a real threat from cross breeding with black yaks and the pollution of the gene pool from that source. The group of white yaks in the nucleus herd can offer high quality male yak for breeding (including AI). At the same time, the breeding group can offer pure bred yak for nucleus group also, or offer high grade yak for the productive group. Calf breeding from the nucleus and breeding groups was a priority and efforts were made to get many calves so as increase the number of replacement yaks. Collecting relevant data and information and developing the database on conserving genetic resources of the Tianzhu white yak is an important task. Data collection, processing and retrieval are important. The effect of protecting Tianzhu white yak was obvious. The number of white yaks is up 16% since the program began in 1987. In 2009, there were 39,400 white yaks in the conservation areas, which accounted for 44% of total yaks in Tianzhu County. The nucleus group increased by ten groups (560 yaks), the improving group increased by 64 groups (3,300 yaks). The first and the second class yaks increased by 14 and 16 percentage points respectively. The proportion of white haired individuals increased by four percentage points. As for main body measurement, body weight and productive performance, average body height, chest girth and body weight of adult male yaks increased by 4.1, 15.4 cm and 13.0 kg respectively; average hair and beef yield of female yaks increased by 0.3 and 5.6 kg respectively.
6.2 Case Study 2 Protecting Tan Sheep Tan sheep was an excellent local sheep breed in China. They have been used for centuries to graze on drought affected semi-desert rangeland. The sheep graze coarse feed and can resist disease and drought, They can produce high quality fur and tender mutton. Tan sheep is a valuable genetic resource. However, in recent years, due to introducing sheep breeds and crossing, Tan sheep was crossed to large degree, the mutton breeds and fur quality decreased, the number of pure bred Tan sheep was reduced. In order to protect genetic resource of Tan sheep and prevent degeneration of Tan sheep quality, a GEF project was designed. The aims of the project were to increase the quality of Tan sheep, improve the ecosystem for Tan sheep, carry out the stratagem of sustainable development, stabilize the income of local farmers. The strategy adopted was to (a) establish protection areas and conserve the local population for Tan sheep, (b) increase area of artificial grassland, and (c) carry out enclosure construction and rangeland improvement. To protect the gene purity, 318 Tan sheep were selected for the nucleus group and transferred to a protected area. All of the Tan sheep in the nucleus group met the national standard above the second class. The nucleus group comprised, 265 base ewes, 53 breed rams, including 16 special first class rams. The ratio of male to female was 1–5. The target of producing 86 first or second class rams in a year
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has been achieved. By strictly selecting and mating over a 3 year period the progeny of the Tan sheep group that was crossbred has been changed into a breeding group whose fur quality was good. This group is being graded-up in successive generations. 6.2.1 Criteria for Success • • • • •
Staple length and crimp at birth Crimp and staple of lambs at the age of 1 month Improved grade of fur Increased birth weight and live weight of lambs at the age of 1 month The quality of lamb hogget was improved
By implementing this program, the degeneration of Tan sheep has been prevented. After 3 years the Tan sheep in the nucleus group were improved. The gene frequency of good traits in the population increased. Economic traits were fixed further. The genetic structure of population was optimized further. The productive performance was increased. At the same time, the ecological environment of Tan sheep was improved in areas where Tan sheep were common. The method for rearing Tan sheep was changed, local forage resources were utilized rationally and the economic benefit of Tan sheep production and farmers’ income were increased. Biodiversity conservation is necessary part of any management plan to achieve sustainable use of rangelands in NW China.
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Acknowledgements Special thanks to researchers from the Lanzhou Institute of Animal and Veterinary Pharmaceutical Science of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science in Lanzhou, the Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, and the Animal Husbandry Bureaus in Tianzhu (white yak) and Jintai (Tan sheep) counties in Gansu. GEF provided an Applied Research Grant under the Gansu Xinjiang Pastoral Development Project. We are grateful to the management and staff of the various sheep breeding farms and to the Director of the Tianzhu White Yak breeding center for the active support and assistance. Thanks too to Lv Xiaoxiao and Xu Linna for the laboratory analysis of Gansu DNA.
Reference Wu JP, Squires VR, Yang L (2010) Improved animal husbandry practices as a basis for profitability (Chapter 10 this volume)
Part IV
Improving the Profitability and Sustainability of Herding and Farming in the Pastoral Areas of North-West China
The four chapters in this part deal with the practical measures that need to be put into effect to change the present range/livestock system. Thus agro-pastoral integration receives attention here as does the improvement in animal husbandry practices and the ways in which livestock systems can be redesigned for greater profitability. Herder perceptions and expectation are examined in a Case study from Gansu. Reform of the land tenure system and the administration of grazing user rights is examined with reference to several alternatives that were trialled in Gansu and Xinjiang.
Chapter 9
Agro-Pastoral Integration in NW China: A New Paradigm? Zhang Degang, Ren Jizhou, Hua Limin, and Victor Squires
Synopsis The local agro-pastoral economy is changing in NW China; farming activities seem to be very instrumental to livestock development, rather than the other way around. Furthermore crop production has expanded to meet the increasing demand for fodder (and grain) for animal feeding and herd growth. In some areas agricultural activities seem often to represent strategies to claim user rights to plots of land by converting rangeland to cropland. It is clear that the process of modernization of the region has changed patterns of natural resource management in critical ways, increasing dependency on marketbased dynamics and important out-migratory fluxes and reliance on off-farm income, with remittances playing an important role in the local economy, together with revenues from the tourism sector in some selected areas. Key Points 1. The people-livestock-environment that operated in the NW region of China for centuries changed dramatically in the 1950s and continues to change in ways that are irreversible. The balance has shifted from herders, who traditionally controlled access and utilization of rangelands, to others (farmers, government agencies etc) through the process of individualization of natural resources. This process has undermined the customary institutional environment on land encroachment practices. 2. The local agro-pastoral economy is changing. The overall relevance of cropping activities within the local agro-pastoral system has increased. Recent trends indicate a shift from rangeland-related animal feeding, towards an increasing relevance Zhang Degang (*) and Ren Jizhou College of Grassland Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China e-mail: [email protected] Hua Limin Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China Victor Squires University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia e-mail: [email protected] V. Squires et al. (eds.), Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7_9, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
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of cropped forage and fodder, and to the purchase of fodder (hay, straw, grain, by-products). In some agro-pastoral counties, rangeland grazing provides about half of forage needs, ensuring about 40% in the animal requirements in dry years and up to 60% in wetter years. 3. Traditional transhumance mobility patterns through the NW region is nowadays confined within defined administrative boundaries, and many herders inhabit settled villages and are highly dependent upon commercial exchanges with other regions and communities. 4. As a result of these trends nowadays a decreasingly mobile, growing number of animals subsist on a shrinking land resource base. Overall these trends have distorted the people-livestock-environment balance which characterizes pastoral systems, contributing to a greater dependency on external resources to ensure the viability of the livestock sector. This has also weakened the social and institutional mechanisms behind pastoral resource management. 5. The growing reliance on supplementary feed is part of the government-sponsored policy to modernize animal husbandry but it has a tendency to lead to the development of investment schemes – such as the expansion of crop production on marginal rangeland – often represent a way to encroach on communal grazing lands. 6. Due to increasing population on one side (which results in less grazing land available) and increasing political and administrative limitations on the other, the space and time dimensions of pastoral mobility have contracted dramatically. Government policies have further contributed to rising livestock figures on local rangelands, favouring the building up of flocks and herds thus triggering overall communities’ dependence on policy and on market dynamics for production inputs as well as outputs. 7. Rural livelihood strategies in the regions are changing. At the household level the income generated through agriculture and rural activities seems increasingly unable to satisfy the economic needs of a family; as much as labour opportunities provided do not inspire the younger generations. As a result the importance of income sources produced off-farm are becoming of utmost importance. 8. The main failure of the efforts to modernize agro-pastoral resource management is reportedly the limited capacity to self-provide for adequate stored stocks of food and feed, both for people and for pen-fed animals. This is perceived as a weak link in the rural livelihood chain, as it does not allow proper utilization of locally available resources while inducing dependencies on market-based dynamics. 9. The easiest innovation to offer to both farmers and agro-pastoralists is the stall fattening of a few livestock. It has the advantage, in a relatively short time, of increasing saleable beef or lamb production, producing better finished carcasses, stimulating off-take of surplus males at a younger age, utilizing crop by-products and introducing the agro-pastoralists to commerce and credit. Keywords Markets • interdependence • subsidies • fodder • silage • pen feeding • hay • remittances • off-farm employment • land user rights • tenure • transhumance • mobility • population change • migration • policy • water • land conversion • climate change.
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1 Introduction Both crop and livestock production show increasing degrees of complementarity and integration in NW China, especially in Gansu and Xinjiang. Many pastoralists are becoming agro-pastoralists by including subsistence crops into their production systems. Thus, apart from seeking the same social amenities like schools and health facilities as the arable farmers, many now have the same ecological and market needs which result in their settlement within, or on the periphery of, arable farming communities. The overall relevance of cropping activities within the local agro-pastoral system has increased, and so has the importance of market-related dynamics. Overall the regional livestock population has been growing (albeit at different rates for the different animals and areas). Rough indications at regional scale are of human population increasing yearly at over 2% (increased from 29.86 millions in 1949 to 94.63 millions in 2006 in the NW region, http://www.chinapop.gov.cn/rklt/) while livestock numbers have risen by about 3% per year over the past 50 years (Chapter 1,Squires and Hua 2010a) but at different rates at different times. For example, the national livestock number increased from 441.834 millions in 2000 to 526.628 millions in 2006 http://www.agri.gov.cn/sjzl). Recent changes in the production system are in response to both changes in local conditions as well as increasing integration of the local economy with regional markets, though many aspects of the traditional lifestyle continue to be maintained. Herders (pastoralists) are generally classified into four groups, according to their mobility: nomadic, semi-nomadic, semi-settled, and settled. In terms of crop/livestock integration however, it is more meaningful to classify them according to their enterprise system and their degree of contact with cultivators, recognizing that individual pastoral households modify their production strategies according to perceived risks and advantages. It is sufficient to distinguish between: (a) Full-time livestock keepers: ranging from those with no consistent association with a particular farming/land-use system (nomads), to those who have more or less regular contact with cropping systems at their grazing sites. This group can be referred to as ‘pure pastoralists’. (b) Livestock keepers who practise some cropping: have consistent association with a particular farming land-use system, and could exploit improved opportunities for integrated crop/livestock production. These ‘agro-pastoralists’ can be subdivided into (i) those who crop at one site but move all or most of their livestock to other grazing areas during the non-cropping season (transhumant agro-pastoralists), and (ii) those who keep livestock throughout the year near their cropping activities (sedentary agro-pastoralists). Apart from better access to crop residues there are other reasons why pastoralists wish to settle and integrate their livestock with crop production: (a) The inability to survive on livestock products and revenues because of drought or disease.
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(b) Traditional husbandry systems will become more difficult to sustain due to encroachment on grazing land by crop producers. (c) Livestock movement will be impeded by ribbon development along highways and water-courses that cut across trek routes. (d) Sanctions against livestock movement such as veterinary, quarantine or administrative regulations. (e) The need to settle to obtain access to veterinary, livestock feed and social amenities such as education, health and welfare facilities. (f) Acquiring livestock as payment for herding livestock owned by local farmers. These factors will vary in priority but all will depend on the availability of grazing land which will be determined by: ( a) Competition for available land by cultivators (b) The relationship between the herders and their prospective neighbours (c) The land tenure status and the degree of government intervention in the provision of land for pastoralists The acceptance of a sedentary life style is a major revolution in the socio-economic life of herders. It affects their individual and collective self-confidence, especially when settlement is imposed.
2 Transforming Structures and Processes Shifting perception of drought events and their impact in the communities is embedded in an environment that is changing. Traditional transhumance mobility patterns through the NW region is nowadays confined within defined administrative boundaries, and many herders inhabit settled villages and are highly dependent upon commercial exchanges with other regions and communities (Chapter 2, Squires and Hua 2010b and Chapter 3, Squires et al. 2010). Due to increasing population on one side (which results in less grazing land available) and increasing political and administrative limitations on the other, the space and time dimensions of pastoral mobility have contracted dramatically. Government policies have further contributed to rising livestock figures on local rangelands, favouring the building up of flocks and herds thus triggering overall communities’ dependence on policy and on market dynamics for production inputs as well as outputs. As a result of these trends nowadays a decreasingly mobile, growing number of animals subsist on a shrinking land resource base. Overall these trends have distorted the people-livestock-environment balance which characterizes pastoral systems, contributing to a greater dependency on external resources to ensure the viability of the livestock sector. This has also weakened the social and institutional mechanisms behind pastoral resource management. Recent trends indicate a shift from rangeland-related animal feeding, towards an increasing relevance of cropped forage and fodder, and to the purchase of fodder (hay, straw, grain, by-products). In some agro-pastoral counties, rangeland grazing
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provides about half of forage needs, ensuring about 40% in the animal requirements in dry years and up to 60% in wetter years. Capacity to store fodder depends obviously on crop productivity during good seasons, availability of cash related to income generation opportunities and the price of feed. Overall animal feeding represents more than half of the total cost of the small ruminants’ production. In dry years herders may be forced to sell important portions of the flock to keep up with feeding expenses. With increasing (people and animals) population pressure and the shrinking rangeland accessibility and decreasing forage availability there is a greater dependence on supplementary feed even in “normal” seasons. The growing reliance on supplementary feed is part of the government-sponsored policy to modernize animal husbandry but it has a tendency to lead to the development of investment schemes – such as the expansion of crop production on marginal rangeland. These often represent a way to encroach on communal grazing lands; the same might be said of enlargements to tree plantations and to creation or expansion of artificial oases which are indeed ways of securing land in the long term. It represents a strategy for the better-off households to secure their own access and to control (what used to be) a community rangeland. The social implications of this process of individualization of rangeland resources are important and should not be underestimated as they also impact on the vulnerability of different social groups. Livestock, especially small ruminants like sheep and goats, embody all livelihood assets (natural, physical, financial, social and human) and are a key component of local livelihood strategies. Any technical, policy and institutional option must fit within this frame – where livestock considerations are primary concerns to community household livelihoods. The decline of mobility and settlement has led to a new kind of animal husbandry. The growing number of livestock, the re-composition of the regional herds and flocks, the changes in land tenure arrangements and in mobility patterns and the overall redefinition of local natural resource management have largely contributed to increased herd and community vulnerability to drought and other unfavourable weather events. This phenomenon has been hidden by costly government assistance at critical times, through subsidies for transport and purchase of critical products, but it is no longer sustainable either in socio-economic or environmental terms. What was previously a dependency on climatic factors, such as rainfall (quantity and timing) has been transferred to a dependency upon political and financial mechanisms, thus including different degrees of exposure and risk, ultimately a ‘modern’ form of vulnerability.
3 The Progression from Pastoralism to Integrated Crop and Livestock Production As livestock development policy tends to be the responsibility of specialized agencies there are few national policies directed specifically towards the integration of crop and livestock systems. Development plans for pastoralists have tended to
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concentrate on infrastructure to encourage settlement rather than increasing agro-pastoral production. Forage production technology has not been adapted to pastoral circumstances. Some integration measures like livestock fattening on smallholdings which were developed for mixed farmers are suitable for agro-pastoralists. Many pastoral development schemes have, however, discouraged cultivation by herd owners, and service centers and credit are presently not suited to the needs of agro-pastoralists. Unlike the nomads the agro-pastoralists are exposed to commerce and other external influences although, apart from veterinary services, the impact of government development and advisory services has not been great. This is largely because, until recently, government officials grouped pastoralists with nomads, who were considered unreachable apart from their inclusion in mass animal health control measures. Most development projects were designed to induce settlement rather than to promote the welfare of those agro-pastoralists already settled, and contained large infrastructural components like roads, schools, health centers in new areas set aside for settlement. There are few explicit national policies for integrating crop and livestock production orientated to the specific needs of the pastoralists; integrated crop/livestock production involves more than smallholder fattening schemes. Further, because arable farmers form the majority of producers agricultural development projects have tended to ignore pastoralists. In view of the rapidly growing human population and the need to increase food crop production it can be assumed that all potential arable land will eventually be used for crop production. As a result there is a tendency to lower the priority, or even deny the need, to include livestock in the development of arable areas. Livestock extension staff tend to be poorly motivated because they have insufficient contact with herders and, as a result, spend much of their time on infrastructural development like dips, shearing sheds, feedlot design, etc. Any serious attempt to integrate crops and livestock will require coordination at both political and field level. Equipping agricultural service centers to supply the needs of the livestock producers would be a major step to achieve this coordination. Whilst it is true that in a food deficit situation all suitable land should be devoted to crop production, this does not imply that ruminant livestock should be excluded from these areas because: 1 . There will always be a demand and good dietary reasons for animal protein. 2. With a single crop growing season, ruminant livestock provide the only land use opportunities for the rest of the year. 3. There will always be residual rangeland. 4. The poor carbon and nitrogen content of the soils could be improved by the incorporation of forage legumes into cropping and fallow systems. 5. Over 50% of the dry matter produced by grain crops can be utilized only by ruminants. 6. Intensive fattening systems provide income and cash flow benefits that can assist in the timely purchase of agricultural inputs.
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Although it is recognized that there is sufficient genetic variability in the indigenous breeds on which to base selective breeding for improved productivity (Chapter 8, Lang et al. 2010) this would take a very long time to make any significant impact on national herd productivity. For a rapid improvement in production it will be necessary to use imported genes provided an adequate proportion of indigenous blood is retained in the cross to maintain natural adaptation to the environment. Introduction of crossbreeding in pastoralists’ herds however should await the solution of health, nutritional and management problems. Forage production is now receiving priority and governments and research institutions are becoming more conscious of the need to undertake adaptive or systems research. The identification of appropriate species and cultivation techniques has made rapid progress in some counties. But the uptake by agro-pastoralists has been limited although it has created a good technical base for future work. The principal limitation is the lack of suitable arable land and lack of irrigation water. The easiest innovation to offer to both farmers and agro-pastoralists is the stall fattening of a few livestock. It has the advantage, in a relatively short time, of increasing saleable beef or lamb production, producing better finished carcasses, stimulating off-take of surplus males at a younger age, utilizing crop by-products and introducing the agro-pastoralists to commerce and credit. The people-livestock-environment that operated in the NW region of China for centuries changed dramatically in the 1950s and continues to change in ways that are irreversible. The balance has shifted from herders, who traditionally controlled access and utilization of rangelands, to others (farmers, government agencies etc) through the process of individualization of natural resources. This process has undermined the customary institutional environment, as mentioned above, on land encroachment practices. As one herder in Hami, Xinjiang said “once we had fewer animals per household and we were much better organized, now we have many animals and very little organization”. The shift from a predominantly social livelihood asset base to a material one might have improved rural life to some extent, but it also carries important consequences in the longer term for sustainable development of the whole community. Shared concerns and joint efforts are vital in ensuring sustainable management of pastoral resources and effective response to drought events in the changing environment. Degradation of rangelands is a clear phenomenon in some areas, with rangelands resulting in low natural productivity, and some plants almost disappearing. Monitoring has revealed that the capacity of the rangelands decreased by half in the past 15 years. This results not only from increasing population pressure, but also critically from decreased capacities to organize and plan resource management at community level. Extreme over utilization of pastoral ecosystems has put pressure on the shift toward pen-feeding and the augmentation of feed supplies from artificial pasture, fodder crops and crop by-products. The implications these changes have for resource management patterns and for the socio-political environment cannot be overemphasized. Occurrence of conflicts is also perceived as an increasingly worrying problem for the future. This is likely to be to be linked to issues of access to and user rights of land (Chapter 12,
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Wang et al. 2010). This will affect not only croplands but also the relevant grazing lands, leading to an overall shrinkage of opportunities for transhumant mobility in later decades. The process of intensification of land use is likely to further stratify the local community, with winners and losers and conflicts may become more frequent and intense. Social stratification and absentee “stock-lordism” is a rampant problem in some areas, where wealthy herders inflate their flock numbers through purchases of animal feed and investments in water storage or other improvements, thus overusing rangelands and depriving less endowed households from accessing adequate grazing. This has become a serious problem in the famous Nalati grasslands in Xinyuan county of Xinjiang and in parts of the summer rangeland in Takesi county, Xinjiang and elsewhere, e.g. Sunan county, Gansu.
4 Impediments to Integration 4.1 General The major constraint to animal production is malnutrition. In the arid zones of NW China this is due to overstocking leading to low daily intake of often poor quality forage. There is ample evidence to show that low productivity is not wholly genetic and that local breeds are capable of much higher performance given better nutrition. Nevertheless, owing to the poor quality of the natural rangeland and short daily grazing time productivity cannot be increased without feed supplementation. Improved nutrition is the most important factor affecting performance; when high quality feeds are scarce the best returns come from supplementing breeding females (Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010. Given the shortages of agro-industrial by-products and other feeds, however, this supplementation will normally come from improved crop residue utilization and forage production on fallow lands. Crop production systems that require long periods of fallow are under pressure due to shortage of land and labor. Land tenure is complex and uncertain because the agro-pastoralists are usually minority, non-landowning communities. The lack of routine, developmental inputs and inappropriate credit mechanisms are major impediments to the development of integrated crop/ livestock systems.
4.2 Shortage of Labor and of Access to Arable Land The greatest impediments to increased crop production by agro-pastoral households are shortage of labor and access to additional arable land. The latter may be overcome through the more intensive use of smaller plots but this will lead to other problems as the present agricultural systems are not designed to produce long-term returns from the same piece of land. The agro-pastoralists have access to animal manure but in some instances, they provide this manure to the cultivators with whom they associate.
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4.3 Lack of Security of Tenure Land reform and some form of land use rights can offer advantages through physically, and formally, linking particular persons to certain pieces of land; this has great appeal to farm planners and credit suppliers. It is unlikely, however, that the Chinese government would be prepared to undertake any large land reform program with the result that there is some doubt that any satisfactory solution can be found to underwrite long-term land improvements. Lack of land title has not prevented progress in crop husbandry with its annual cycles and traditional rights of occupancy and land use, but it has delayed progress in rangeland improvement and forage production (Chapter 12, Wang et al. 2010). The semi-arid agro-pastoral zone has been increasingly occupied over several centuries. As the population has grown, pressure on land has intensified with the result that the typical unit is a smallholding. Little change can be expected. A tangible constraint to the adoption of integrated crop/livestock systems by herders is that in most parts of NW China pastoralists are members of minority communities without permanent land rights. In these circumstances it is not easy for scientists and extension workers, who are accustomed to thinking in terms of croplands on clearly designated arable fields, to justify pasture improvement in the more extensive and less reliable rangelands.
4.4 Shortage of Inputs and Credit Land that has been avoided by cultivators are unlikely to be attractive to agro-pastoral settlers. Although the agro-pastoralists’ first needs are for veterinary services and food for their livestock, and seeds and fertilizer for their crops, the extension staff they usually encounter are the veterinary auxiliaries who know how to inject vaccines and dose with anthelmintics but cannot diagnose nor prescribe, and junior range management specialists who cannot advise on cropping or forage production. This situation leads to mutual frustration and minimal contact between extension staff and producers. This frustration is exacerbated by shortage of inputs and credits. Even if inputs like salt, feedstuffs, drugs, fencing materials, seeds and fertilizers are available, supplies are sporadic and expensive. Rural retailers are disinclined to stock such goods because of the high transportation and storage costs and the slow turnover resulting from the seasonality of demand; neither do they have the necessary cash nor incentive to finance such inventories. Although the herders may be aware of the benefits of employing these inputs they do not have the means to finance their purchase. A prime need of farmers for supplier-credit, but the credit available to them is usually in the form of complex development loans with onerous conditions and supervision. The technicians do not find it easy to recommend crop/livestock integration packages in which pastoralists and cultivators keep to their specialities but share
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common land resources. The major points of interaction such as manuring of fields and crop residue grazing are known but their values and opportunities for improvement are not well understood. It is also difficult to explain the high level of response obtained from grazing crop residues when related to their quantity and quality; the nutritive value of immature seed heads and weeds left in fields after harvest deserves further investigation. There are a range of more complex issues that need evaluation. What are the agronomic advantages of crop/livestock interactions? How can the farmer receive tangible benefit from increased crop residue or forage production? How can land be made available and secured for forage production within the different land tenure systems? How can forage be produced without exacerbating critical labor shortages? Although it is recognized that herders and/or farmers need to produce forage, there are as yet no proven fodder production packages adapted to circumstances in NW China. There is, therefore, very little information that the extension service can offer traditional agro-pastoralists who are adopting integrated crop/livestock systems. The informal sociological studies on land tenure and the relationship between farmers and pastoralists identified goodwill between the communities; they also showed that pastoralists could obtain the right to use fallow land for fodder production. The household economic studies, on the other hand, indicated that if pastoralists had spare labour it would be used for subsistence crops not forages. There is also an important trade off between cultivation and herding with respect to labor input. One has to devote labor power to herding – though less than average – when labor demands for cultivation are at their peak. As a result labor input in cultivation is reduced and leads to less than optimal harvests. The combination of herding and cereal cultivation in one geographical area further necessitates the careful timing and co-ordination of herd movements and cropping practices. This requires that land tenure arrangements are sufficiently flexible and leave room for continuous negotiations between all the parties involved to allow for adjustments both to the exigencies of the production systems and to climate fluctuations.
4.5 Lack of Understanding and Inadequate Research Although the majority of pastoralists have identified their own time and place to settle conferences and planners persist in trying to develop ideas and hypotheses on how to encourage them to settle. Much less attention has been given to assisting those that have already settled. This lack of understanding of the herders is in part due to the fact that most socio-anthropological work has been done amongst true nomads who principally seek water and grazing. Reliance on reshaping old remedies will continue until the research stations can collect applicable field information on farming systems. There needs to be active cooperation between research station and field scientists and between scientists of all disciplines. This can be slow to develop. Farming systems research in Gansu was pioneered more than a decade ago at in a joint research
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program with the Australian Center for Agricultural Research (ACIAR) at Gansu Agricultural University and through the Sustainable Agricultural Development Program of the Canadian International Agricultural Development Agency (CIDA) who worked in both Gansu and Xinjiang. There is still scope for livestock systems research to be carried out in research institutes. There is need to define who should carry out the work, what resources should be committed to it, how the teams should select topics and how feed-back mechanisms should function between systems teams, the research stations and development agencies. There is a tendency for research staff to be overly critical and for extension staff to be defensive concerning the promotion of new techniques. Lack of systems research information about arable farming has meant that multiple-cropping has only now become accepted as a recommendable practice after many years of promoting sole cropping, usually against the experience and wishes of the beneficiaries. Even now planners and advisers know little about the efficiency of the multiple cropping systems which form the existing production base. The projects thus tend to concentrate on infrastructural and input supply systems, while the farmers’ ability to utilize the improved opportunities is constrained by their traditional practices.
4.6 Animal Diseases Although major diseases still constitute a serious threat to livestock in NW China, this situation is due to failure to maintain adequate vaccine production and application rather than to lack of efficient vaccines or of knowledge of the epidemiology of these diseases. The adoption of more intensive management systems could result in some shift in the herd disease spectrum with better control of epidemic disease becoming facilitated as herds become more static and therefore more accessible. Greater contact frequency between animals could bring higher incidence of bacterial diseases such as tuberculosis, brucellosis and gastro-intestinal parasitism. However, malnutrition is now the main limiting factor in herd productivity and is likely to remain so until such time as supplementation of natural range and better utilization of agricultural by-products have become successfully established.
4.7 Natural Resource Management It is clear that there is a large element of risk and uncertainty involved in farming and herding, given the high variability in crop production figures each year, and the cyclical oscillations in livestock numbers. Actors, whether individuals or groups have to deal in a comprehensive manner with each event, in order to survive each calamity, while not eroding the basis of their existence. Nevertheless, they do so
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within their own particular framework, ideologies and their membership of a particular herding or farming community. There is no pastoral or agro-pastoral land use system where risk can be eliminated, or where all risks can be foreseen by the decision makers. The poorest have to rely on quite different strategies to cope with cereal (or forage) deficits. They cannot count on their own harvest or the sale of cattle, as the rich do. Instead they have to muddle through on a day-to-day basis.
4.8 Food and Feed Policies These have also been pivotal in reshaping rural livelihoods, as the problem of feeding a growing livestock population with limited mobility and access to remote pastures has been tackled in some local areas through subsidies for the purchase and transportation of fodder and supplementary feed, including crop residues and by-products. Food policies on the other hand depress the price of animals in urban markets – thus distorting overall relationships between rural communities and the market environment. For the past decade government policy has favored grain production and farmers have been subsidized (Brown et al. 2008). Meat prices have been depressed. Specific state interventions aimed at supporting commitments to tackle drought events have indeed safeguarded herder livelihoods in the shorter terms, though having contributed to hampering their capacities to cope with these events in the longer term. Social differentiation and access to diverse economic opportunities are important factors that define vulnerability at household level. As is often the case among pastoralists large size might represent different livelihoods strategies – and related vulnerability levels. Large flocks might in fact pertain to wealthy households that reinvest income from other activities into livestock or it might indicate households with limited capacities to diversify the income source. Impact of drought on these households is opposite, together with their coping strategies.
5 Agro-Pastoral Integration – Case Studies from Gansu 5.1 General Agriculture has underpinned China’s civilisation for several thousand years. Livestock production in the Loess Plateau, for instance, began ~4,000 years ago and cropping in the same region began ~3,500 years ago (Ren 1997a). Various farming systems have evolved and developed. Integrated crop-livestock production is the core of these systems and in recent times the thinking has extended to a greater integration of herding and crop farming in the areas where these are practiced on
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adjacent areas. In this section we examine the experiences in four counties that were part of the World Bank/ GEF project. Reducing poverty and social inequalities, using natural resources more sustainably, raising household incomes and fostering participatory development, are overall project objectives. The rural population in the project area of NW China is expanding rapidly. Food security is often a problem for the rural poor. A large proportion of them live only by subsistence agriculture and animal husbandry. Rural development and the introduction of more scientifically-based approaches to production are actively encouraged by the government. A major theme in agricultural development is the gradual transition from low-productivity subsistence farming/herding to specialized production based on comparative advantage and the trading of surpluses on the market. Households must produce a sufficient range of competitively-priced outputs in the right quantity and quality at the right time. This move from subsistence to a more market-based approach is consumer- rather than producer-driven. Thus, use of new strategies in technology development and transfer such as Participatory Action Research (PAR) not only incorporates the collective knowledge of key role players, it increases the likelihood that research results will be applied by giving the community ownership over the research process and its results. PAR is a powerful research tool that unites the work of the researcher and the client to improve both the topics researched and the research findings themselves. Its main role is to convert information into knowledge on which to base action. PAR has been used throughout the project area in Gansu and three examples will be cited here.
5.2 Case Studies Based on the results from PAR interview and practical status of rangeland pastoral production in each project village, the project interventions (technical and socioeconomic) were determined in consideration of the appropriate agro-pastoral integration for the site and the technical support (personnel and resources) available for this purpose. This needs assessment was the framework to guide the project activities. PAR tools were widely used during the technical training and extension. The livestock (type, number and ownership), available forage, alternative feed supplies and fuelwood sources were catalogued. Where imbalance was noted which affected animal production and the supply of fuelwood for the daily life of local farmers the relevant techniques to resolve the existing problems in animal production (feed balance, animal nutrition, animal health) and daily life (including food security, human health and fuelwood supply) were assessed. All techniques were linked to each other and this integration into a “package of interventions” represented a major departure from the traditional extension approach that was based (usually) on a single issue such as animal health or low reproductive performance (Fig. 1)
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Rangeland/cropland /fodder crop
• Grazing techniques changed • Grazing bans employed • Fodder crop introduced • Fodder processing shown • High-quality breed introduced • Feeding in pen • Precision management • Supplementary feeding
Residue return Livestock Biogas
• On-site training • Demonstration • PAR field trip • PAR monitoring • Environmental education
Bans
Dung processing
Fig. 1 Schematic showing some of the interventions relating to the livestock sub-component
5.2.1 Case Study A: Anding Anding is located east of the Yellow river on the edge of the Loess Plateau where the soil and water erosion is very severe. The rangeland was in an open access regime before GEF project implmentation and its degradation was severe. To ensure environmental protection of severely degraded upland, the area was fenced and grazing was forbidden. Forage crops like alfalfa and sainfoin were introduced and the pen fattening is applied in the agricultural system to resolve the deficiency of forage after the imposition of grazing bans and to offset the loss of income. The income of farmers was increased through the livestock-forage crop integration (Fig. 2). The area for forage growing increased from 0.31 to 0.76 ha/household, the animal number per household decreased from 27 to 13 head and the net income per capita increased from 1,490 to 1,863 RMB Yuan.1 As for non-project household, the land area for forage growing increased from 0.27 to 0.4 ha/household and the animal number per household decreased from 32 heads to 5 heads. Four years after the area was fenced and livestock excluded there was noticeable improvement in vegetation cover (Table 1) and the runoff decreased by 76.3%. The total grassland ecological service value of grassland fence for 4 years increased from 2.16 million RMB in 2004 to 3.87 million RMB in 2008. The values of organic production, atmosphere adjusting, headwater conservation and soil conservation increased by 100.5, 9.2, 60.1 and 1.6 millions RMB Yuan respectively. 1
At the time of writing $1 = 6.8 RMB
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Grain
Cropland
Net income per capita: 1,490 RMB Yuan
Forage crop
Livestock (Sheep)
Market
Net income per capita: 1,863 RMB Yuan
Fig. 2 Economic returns of the integrated crop-livestock production system developed in Quanwan Village of Anding District, Dingxi County, Gansu
Table 1 Changes in plant attributes after 4 years of Village, Anding, Gansu Foliage Plant cover (%) height (cm) Open access grazing 86 8.2 regime After 4 years of 97 14.6 grazing ban
grazing ban on rangeland in Quanwan No. of plants (m2) 268
No. of species 43
Biomass (kg/mu) 251
392
63
357
According to the estimation, the 1,318 t of soil and 3,796 m3 of runoff can be conserved each year. The erosion modulus was reduced from 5,660 to 1,666 t/year·km2.
5.2.2 Case Study B: Ganzhou Pingshanhu Township is a poverty area where the herders’ livelihood heavily depends on natural grassland and the productivity of desert rangeland is very poor. The project implementation not only improved the animal production conditions but also offered the care and support to the poverty-stricken herders. It could also meet goals such as improving national unity and fostering a harmonious community environment. The awareness of herders of the need for rangeland protection and participatory decision making is enhanced as well. Forage yield and vegetation coverage are increased through project activities. In the project area, the average coverage of grassland vegetation is increased from 35% before project to 49% in 2008 and the grass yield is increased from 396 kg/ha
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Livestock (native goat) + Natural grassland
Net income per household: 8200 RMB Yuan
Market Livestock (Introduced goat) + Natural grassland (with fence) + Forage crop
Net income per household: 19466 RMB Yuan
Fig. 3 Economic returns of the integrated crop-livestock production system developed in Pingshanhu Township of Ganzhou County, Gansu
in 2005 to 548 kg in 2008. In contrast, the grassland condition is getting worse in the adjacent non-project area. The Erdos goat was introduced to improve the native goat breed. The average cashmere yield was increased from 0.15 to 0.3 kg and the income of herders was significantly increased (Fig. 3). The project households also realize the importance of rangeland improvement and actively reduce their animal number through adjusting the animal flock structure to release the pressure on the forage resource. The overgrazing decreased from 72% in 2005 to only 1% in 2008. By contrast, the nonproject herders still enlarge their flock size to pursue more income with the result that there has been more serious rangeland degradation. The overgrazing rate is increased from 49% in 2005 to 133% in 2007. However, these herders also realized the importance of fencing, better grazing management and the production of forage and fodder as demonstrated by the project households and the average overgrazing rate had decreased to 127% by 2008. The average annual income of project household is increased from 11,716 RMB Yuan in 2005 to 16,586 RMB Yuan in 2008 an increase of 4,870 RMB Yuan. As for the non-project household, the annual income is increased from 6,600 to 6,740 RMB Yuan, an increase of only 140 RMB Yuan. And the increase of the latter group came at the at the cost of more serious rangeland degradation. 5.2.3 Case Study C: Yongchang Ma yinggou Village of Yongchang County is located in the agro-pastoral area in the Hexi Corridor west of the Yellow river where the rangeland utilization is similar to that in Anding. The most concerning issue is land tenure and accelerated land degradation that arises from unclear grazing user rights. So the project design focused
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on the reform of rangeland tenure and on raising farmers’ income. The household group contract was applied and the fencing cost was met by the project (Chapter 12, Wang et al. 2010). Project activities such as introduction of new breeds of sheep, pen feeding in warm sheds, animal fattening in warm shed and provision of training in aspects such as breed improvement, fodder processing and ration formulation not only changed the traditional livestock production pattern, but also worked as a demonstration to non-project households. For example, the technique of animal fattening in shed has been accepted by 260 non-project households after it was demonstrated in 20 project households. In 2009, only five households introduced Suffolk and Dorset in non-project village, compared with 37 households in the project village. The income was increased dramatically (Fig. 4). Totally 17,551 mu of grassland, fenced in eight grazing rest paddocks, have been properly utilized and protected. Combining the technique of animal feeding and fattening in the shed and sheep breed improvement, the livestock population has been reduced. The sheep number was reduced from 6,000 to 3,200 a reduction of 46.7%. The overgrazing rate was reduced from 54.9% to 25.6%. The stocking rates in project village and non-project village are 2.5 and 5.5 sheep units/ha respectively. Based on the data in 2008, the coverage in the project village was increased (depending on pasture type) by 5–30%. Forage yield of rangeland was up 5–20%. By contrast, the overgrazing in non-project village is not changed. Before the rangeland tenure reform demonstration, the livestock grazed all the year round, and supplement was only given to the breeding females. The profit margin is only 35–55 RMB Yuan per head and some households even lost money. After the project, the net benefit per head reached 100–185 RMB Yuan, which is a
Livestock (native goat) + Natural grassland (open access)
Net income per capita: 1430 RMB Yuan
Market Livestock (Introduced goat) + Natural grassland (contracted with fence) + Forage crop + Fattening in pen
Net income per capita: 3100 RMB Yuan
Fig. 4 Economic returns of the integrated crop-livestock production system developed in Ma Yinggou Village of Yongchang County, Gansu
200 Table 2 Sheep population and net income Project area Net income per Sheep number capita (Yuan) per capita Year 2006 1,430 16 2007 2,906 10 2008 3,100 10
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Non-project area Net income per capita (Yuan) 1,314 2,582 2,464
Sheep number per capita 22 24 24
twofold to threefold increase. The sheep population and net income per capita in project area and non-project area are shown in Table 2. As an example, Zhao Zhiwen, a farmer in the project village, now has 60 mu of contracted grassland and 4 mu of arable land. Before the contract, he raised 130 sheep and supplied 2,000–3,000 kg of supplements; the feeding cost was over 3,000 RMB Yuan. He earned 7,500 RMB Yuan each year by selling 30 sheep and his net income was 4,500 RMB Yuan. After the contract, he raises 60 sheep and the supplements were 1,500 kg. He gets 40 lambs each year (60% are hybrid). The feeding cost is over 2,000 RMB Yuan and he earned 10,000 RMB Yuan by selling 40 sheep and his net income is 5,600 RMB Yuan. In this example, his livestock number reduced 54.6% but his net income increased by 1,100 RMB Yuan. 5.2.4 Case Study: Liangzhou The agricultural production system in Wugou Village of Liangzhou County is similar to that in Yongchang County. The key issues for livestock production are the rangeland tenure and feed balance (general lack of forage and fodder). According to the PAR interview and group discussion, the bidding contract pattern of grassland tenure was conducted. And the fodder seeds are provided for fodder growing. At the same time, a high quality goat breed (Gaixian goat) was introduced for increasing the cashmere yield. Under this integrated model, the animal production efficiency is increased and the total income is increased with lower animal population through warm shed establishment, high quality goat breed introduction and individual animal management. The goat number is reduced from 13,000 to 5,400 heads (reduced by 58.5 %). The average cashmere yield per head is increased from 0.4 to 0.7 kg/head. The per capita income has increased from 3,120 RMB Yuan in 2005 to 3,670 RMB Yuan in 2009 (Fig. 5). The grazing pressure is reduced as well. After the land tenure reform, the 33,000 mu of contracted rangeland and fence are well maintained. The forage yield and vegetation coverage have increased in the fenced area from 40% in 2005 to 70% in 2008 and the average forage yield has doubled. As a result of these (and other) demonstrations and project activities, farmers/ herders have realized that the rangeland is a limited renewable resource not only valuable for animal production but also as the environment for humans. They recognize that proper utilization is essential to ensure sustainability. If the rangeland
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Fig. 5 Economic returns of the integrated crop-livestock production system developed in Pingshanhu Township of Ganzhou County
is improperly grazed, it will not only cause the land degradation, but also destroy the living environment. The awareness of farmers for properly utilizing range land was improved through the project and they now actively use the approaches such as rotational grazing, forage growing, purchasing feeds and selling surplus animals all of which reduce the pressure on rangeland. Through the feasible and appropriate training activities, the animal production efficiency was effectively improved. Most farmers have learned new techniques (including adjusting flock structure, animal breed improvement, forage processing, supplementary feeding in winter) and the receptiveness of farmers for learning new techniques has been improved. The participatory level of local people was greatly improved because the project team used the participatory tools during project implementation. Farmers realized that GEF project is their project and actively contributed their knowledge and their capacity to apply new ideas and techniques has increased as well. The rangeland utilization approaches were improved as well through development of participatory rangeland management plans. The problem of rangeland tenure in two villages was resolved and the ecological protection of rangeland and animal production are now more closely balanced. The participatory training increased the project implementation capacity of local government technicians and administrators. They can now use PAR tools in project implementation and they have established good relationship with farmers. The contribution of animal husbandry to household income has been increased and the production methods (and living standards) of many farmers have been greatly improved. The project activities such as grazing bans, forage growing, warm shed construction and use, animal breed improvement, clean energy production from biogas has
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played very important roles in terms of rangeland restoration, water and soil erosion control and improved householder livelihoods. Some integrated livestock-crop production models, such as “zero grazing on top + forage growing at middle + raising pen-fed animal” in Anding, “rangeland tenure reform + grazing on rangeland + supplementation in pen” in Yongchang and Liangzhou, and an economic model based on recycling, i.e., “forage + animal + biogas”, were developed. Aimed at the existing problems in animal production and rangeland management and based on the participatory demand assessment, the activities for rotational grazing, rest grazing, fencing, introduction of high quality goat/sheep breeds, forage growing, individual animal management, clean energy production, training and environmental education have been conducted and have merged into the routine animal production and social life. The holistic approach is comprehensive and systematic. The livelihood of farmers has improved by increasing their income and the pressure on rangeland has eased. All of these achievements will be helpful to achieve the global environmental objectives of sustainable ecosystem use, enhanced carbon sequestration and biodiversity preservation. The successful demonstration of the integrated approach in GEF project counties suggest that the packaging project interventions and activities could be an example for resolving the grassland degradation in the agro-pastoral areas of NW China
6 Agro-Pastoral Integration – A New Paradigm Significant achievements have been made in various aspects of farming system research in China. For the purpose of achieving better agro-pastoral integration, researchers have made great efforts in terms of developing conceptual models and devising theories. Some recent publications have discussed strategy for sustainable development in China’s rangelands (Du 2006), dryland cropping in the Loess Plateau (Hu et al. 2002; Ren 1997b), integrated development of dryland farming in northern China (Xin and Zhang 2001), and an overview of agriculture in China in the future (Tso and He 2004). Among the more important research outcomes, the theories of “Interface Theory” (Fig. 6), “Four Production Levels Theory” (Fig. 7) and “Coupling and Discordance” launched by Ren Jizhou are perhaps most relevant to further development of integrated crop-livestock production systems (Ren et al. 2000; Ren and Wan 1994; Ren and Hou 2004; Ren 1995; Ren 1997a; Ren 1997b; McLintock 2007). In the view of these theories, the pratacultural system2 consists of three interfaces, i.e. the interface between plant and environment (interface A), interface between rangeland and the grazing animal (interface B), interface between rangeland-livestock system and human activity (interface C). Furthermore, the rangeland ecosystem is characterized by four
Prataculture is commonly used in China to refer to the livestock-pasture-people system
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Fig. 7 Four production levels of rangeland ecosystem. Linkages between the various levels are often weak or absent but close coupling can improve output. Notes: Pre-plant production level (economic activities on rangeland such as recreation, sport and tourism), plant production level (producing plant products, such as forage, grass bale, fodder millet), animal production level (animal feeding, fattening and managing etc.) and ultra-biological production level (processing and marketing of plant and animal products) (After Ren 1995)
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production levels, i.e., pre-plant production level (economic activities with grassland before plant products, such as turf, sport and tourism), plant production level (producing plant products, such as forage, grass bale, fodder millet), animal production level (animal feeding, fattening and managing, etc.) and ultra-biological production level (processing and marketing of plant and animal products). The productivity of the system could be enhanced through closer coupling between different levels. System coupling and discordance are two fundamental concepts to describe interactions between crop and livestock production. Within an agricultural system, any two or more components can be coupled. Plant production, for instance, could be coupled with livestock production in the same region or in another region. System coupling can also take place within each component, for example, wheat and lucerne production could be coupled, rangeland and sown pasture could be coupled. On a large geographic scale, crop, livestock and forest production and feed processing could be coupled, so the function of a component in the system will be improved by movement of resources or outputs between system components. The productivity of the rangelands of China in the early 1980s was estimated to potentially increase tenfold if plant and livestock production were coupled to overcome system discordance (Ren and Wan 1994) which is common in China (Ren and Zhu 1995). To integrate crop-livestock production, two types of system coupling need to be achieved; spatial integration and temporal integration. Spatial integration of crop and livestock can take place between farms (regional integration) or within the same farm (household-level integration), the latter always being accompanied by temporal integration (Ren et al. 1995; Entz et al. 2005). The challenge for researchers and policy makers is to create an enabling environment in which fosters the capture of rangeland resources in a sustainable way and channels livestock products to the consumer of a quality that is acceptable and at price that ensures a reasonable livelihood. Market demands create an impetus for a new relationship between farmers and suppliers of goods and services (Chapter 3, Squires et al. 2010). The main gaol of farming system research in China is to optimize production by identifying and overcoming existing system discordance, and in this way guide the evolution of the agro-pastoral system toward a new paradigm.
References Brown C, Waldron S, Longworth J (2008) Sustainable development in Western China: managing people, livestock and grasslands in pastoral areas. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK, p 295 Du QL (2006) Strategy of sustainable development of grassland in China. China Agriculture Press, Beijing (In Chinese) Entz MH, Bellotti WD, Powell JM, Angadi SV, Chen W, Ominnski KH, Boer B (2005) Evolution of integrated crop-livestock production systems. In: McGilloway DA (ed) Grassland: a global resource. XX international grassland congress, pp 137–148. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen/Dublin, Ireland
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Hu HJ, Zhang RZ, Huang GB (2002) Dryland farming in the loess plateau. China Agriculture Press, Beijing (In Chinese) Lang X, Wang C, Squires VR (2010) Protecting local breeds of livestock (Chapter 8, this volume) McLintock AH (2007) Lamb and mutton production. In ‘The Ara-The Encyclopedia of New Zealand’. Available at www.teara.gov.nz/1966/L/LambAndMutton Michalk DL, Hua LM, Kemp DR, Jones R, Takahashi T, Wu JP, Nan Z, Xu Z, Han G (2010) Redesigning livestock systems to improve household income and reduce stocking rates in China’s western grasslands (Chapter 14, this volume) Ren JZ, Nan ZB, Hao DY (2000) The three major interfaces within pratacultural system. Acta Prataculturae Sinica 3:1–8 (in Chinese) Ren JZ, Wan CG (1994) System coupling and desert-oasis agro-ecosystem. Acta Prataculturae Sinica 3:1–8 (in Chinese) Ren JZ (1995) Agro-grassland ecology. China Agriculture Press, Beijing (in Chinese) Ren JZ (1997a) Alternation of cropping and livestock production and their culture development in the Loess Plateau. In: Zhou Z, Zhu GY (eds) ‘Collection of 100 academicians’ speeches’. Xinhua Press, Beijing, pp 157–166 (in Chinese) Ren JZ (1997b) An outline for sustainable development of grassland agrosystem. Acta Prataculturae Sinica 4:1–5 (in Chinese) Ren JZ, He DH, Zhu XY, Li ZQ (1995) Models of coupling agro-grassland systems in desert-oasis region. Acta Prataculturae Sinica 4:11–19 (in Chinese) Ren JZ, Zhu XY (1995) The pattern of agro-grassland systems and system discordance in Hexi Corridor of China: the mechanism of grassland degradation. Acta Prataculturae Sinica 4:69–80 (in Chinese) Ren JZ, Hou FJ (2004) Discussion on the framework of pratacultural science. Acta Prataculturae Sinica 4: 1–6 (in Chinese) Squires VR, Hua LM (2010a) North-west China’s rangelands and peoples: facts, figures, challenges and responses (Chapter 1, this volume) Squires VR, Hua LM (2010b) Livestock husbandry development and agro-pastoral integration in Gansu and Xinjiang (Chapter 2, this volume) Squires VR, Hua L, Li G, Zhang D (2010) Exploring the options in North-west China pastoral lands (Chapter 3, this volume) Tso TC, He K (2004) Dare to dream a vision of 2050 agriculture in China. China Agricultural University Press, Beijing (in Chinese) Wang M, Zhao CZ, Hua LM, Squires VR (2010) Land tenure: problems, prospects and reform (Chapter 12, this volume) Xin NQ, Zhang YQ (2001) Development and demonstration of integrated dryland farming in northern China. China Agriculture Press, Beijing (in Chinese)
Chapter 10
Improved Animal Husbandry Practices as a Basis for Profitability Wu Jianping, Victor Squires, and Yang Lian
Synopsis Animal husbandry on rangelands has been the mainstay of people’s livelihoods in NW China for centuries. The rangeland/livestock system is complex and improvements in animal productivity will depend on raising awareness of the underlying ecological principles but more specifically on the training of herders/farmers on new approaches and techniques in animal health, animal nutrition, breed improvement and in better winter housing. The constraints to animal production are outlined and discussed. Key Points 1. The rangeland/livestock system depends on the exploitation of large and extremely complex ecosystems. There are constraints to animal husbandry that affect both the forage supply and livestock themselves. 2. In NW China livestock experience successive periods of surfeits and shortages of food. Unfortunately livestock under rangeland conditions in NW China frequently suffer periods of weight loss. Many animals lose up to 30% of their body weight over the period November to March each year. 3. Because of the seasonal pattern mean cyclic fluctuations in food supplies occur. Unreliable rainfall means that forage may be scarce for protracted periods in droughts or when temperatures are too low to support growth. Thus many problems of flock management arise from the difficulties of ensuring that the fluctuations in food supplies meet the nutritional needs of the grazing flock or herd. 4. The digestibility of the forage is the largest single factor affecting the amount of forage energy available. Fresh green forage can have a digestibility of 75% but Wu Jianping (*) Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China e-mail: [email protected] Victor Squires University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia e-mail: [email protected] Yang Lian College of Grassland Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China V. Squires et al. (eds.), Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7_10, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
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on average values are about 50–55%. If digestibility falls below 50%, the energy cost of digesting the forage will exceed the nutritive value. Generally when the forage on offer has a digestibility below 48% (on an organic matter basis) there is zero weight gain. 5. There is a strong interaction between diet, nutritional status and reproductive success. Females usually will not conceive unless there is a certain minimum live weight. The concept of the critical live weight below which an animal will not exhibit oestrus and above which it will, is fundamental to livestock management. Breeding females need a lot of protein for early growth (from birth to puberty) during late pregnancy and during lactation 6. The maintenance of animal numbers is the first essential to animal production but the number of animals depends upon the balance between births and deaths and culling rates. 7. Optimizing resource utilization under both grazing systems requires derivation of a feed balance that seeks to identify the contribution to the annual food intake that comes from various sources. Keywords Early weaning • systems approach • carrying capacity • stocking pressure • soil erosion • run off • animal health • contagious abortion • grazing behaviour • critical bodyweight • conception • lactation • liveweight loss • feed balance • digestibility • diurnal pattern of grazing • rumen microflora • grazing model • mongrelization • under nutrition • micro-elements • threshold body weight • energy balance • neonatal losses • night corral • Non protein nitrogen
1 Introduction In NW China livestock production depends on the exploitation of large and extremely complex ecosystems (Fig. 1). There are many constraints to animal husbandry in NW China. The limiting factors affect both the livestock and the plants on which pastoralism depends. Some of these factors are shown in Fig. 2. Grazing animals need a continuous supply of food for their maintenance and additional food for such productive processes in reproduction, growth of body tissues, and fiber such as wool. In NW China, livestock experience successive periods of surfeits and shortages of food. Unfortunately livestock under rangeland conditions in NW China frequently suffer periods of weight loss. Many animals lose up to 30% of their body weight over the period November to March each year. During periods of negative energy (weight loss) the order in which body tissue disappears is set. The first tissue to be mobilized is the fat. Most of this fat can be lost before there are inroads into the muscle tissue. The use of fat, which is an energetically rich substance, is important in cushioning the vicissitudes of a harsh pastoral environment. Almost without exception, the growth of livestock in NW China is characterized by a succession of weight gains and losses which alternate with the seasons. It may take up to 4 years before cattle reach a saleable slaughter weight (Fig. 3).
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Fig. 1 Diagram of the grazing ecosystem. In this attempt to reduce the extremely complex interactions to a simple flow chart we can see the interplay between climate, soils, plants and the grazing animal. Grazing impact is expressed as run-off water, soil erosion, nutrient loss and destruction of useful perennial plants
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Fig. 2 A simplified representation of the livestock/pasture system. Plants, soil, livestock and humans interact to determine the flow of livestock products – meat and fiber. Limiting factors restrict productivity of livestock and the plants on which they depend
Because of the seasonal pattern mean cyclic fluctuations in food supplies occur. Unreliable rainfall means that forage may be scarce for protracted periods in droughts or when temperatures are too low to support growth. Thus many problems of flock management arise from the difficulties of ensuring that the fluctuations in
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Fig. 3 Beef cattle on seasonally variable rangelands often show a sawtooth pattern of live weight gain and loss. It means that it may take 3–4 years before they reach slaughter weight 20
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food supplies meet the nutritional needs of the grazing flock or herd. Figure 4 shows the energy requirements for maintenance of an adult sheep unit and the typical pattern of forage supply in NW China’s rangelands. Time spent grazing is negatively correlated with forage intake but is not generally correlated with forage availability. Grazing time is positively correlated with distance traveled and time spent walking, and negatively correlated with crude protein and metabolizable energy (ME) intake. In terms of energy, grazing and walking each accounted for 45% of the daily energy expended on behavioral activities (walking,
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grazing, resting, and ruminating). The results of a study in pastoral areas indicate that (a) grazing occupied 73.1% of the 8 h day that the livestock were out of the night enclosure (corral), (b) walking to and from the corral and around the pasture accounted for 20.6%, (c) resting 4.6%, and (d) watering 1.7% during an average 8 h day. The animals’ behaviour at pasture was related to the forage mass encountered along their daily itineraries. Maximum daily itinerary lengths were 25 km in cattle, 20 km in goats and 21 km in sheep; itinerary length varied significantly between species, herd management modes and season. Animals spent between 456 and 625 min/day on pasture, the grazing day of cattle being longer than that of sheep and goats when grazing on the same area of pasture. Estimated total daily energy costs (i.e., for behavioral activities, production processes, and basal metabolism) ranged from 1.56 Mcal ME/day in June to 3.32 Mcal ME/day in January. The higher energy need (about double) in winter is particularly important and gives greater impetus to transfer livestock to warm pens and to provide supplementary feed (see below).
2 Diet, Intake and Feed Quality The animal’s diet from day to day is likely to be based on some kind of compromise between the demands of appetite, the availability of forage, the energy expended on collecting it, and the competition provided by other animals (including rodents and grasshoppers). Figure 5 shows the functional interrelationships in a grazing model. A key factor is the chance of an encounter between a grazing animal and an individual plant. Under high intensity grazing there is a high probability that every plant will be visited at least once every day. The short “return time (hours or, at best, days) is a factor contributing to death of the best forage plants. The short return time does not allow the plant to build up root reserves as new tillers are cropped as soon as they emerge and root volume is drastically reduced and photosynthetic function is impaired. Rangelands are comprised of a great diversity of forage species. Grasses and forbs (herbage) predominate although shrubs may make a contribution (Table 1). Goats eat more browse than cattle or sheep. The digestibility of the forage is the largest single factor affecting the amount of forage energy available. Fresh green forage can have a digestibility of 75% but on average values is about 50–55%. If digestibility falls below 50%, the energy cost of digesting the forage will exceed the nutritive value. Generally when the forage on offer has a digestibility below 48% (on an organic matter basis) there is zero weight gain. This coincides roughly with about eight per crude protein. Nitrogen is not the only consideration; however, since the energy content of the forage can also affect the live weight change. Chemical analyses are often poor indicators of diet quality. A commonly used analysis (crude protein content) can give a misleading idea of the food value of a plant. The reasons for this are many and varied. The main deficiency may be that the digestibility is low. This can be due to high fiber or lignin content, or to the presence of chemicals that inhibit rumen microflora.
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Fig. 5 A flow chart to show the factors and components that contribute to the ultimate weight of a grazing animal
Table 1 Relative proportion of grass, forbs and shrubs (browse) in the diet of cattle, sheep and goats Kind of forage Cattle Sheep Goats Grass 60 40 20 Forbs 20 40 20 Browse 20 40 50
When the forages have low nitrogen content the rumen microflora are unable to function properly and digestion is inefficient, even though energy levels in the forage are adequate. Non protein nitrogen sources such as urea or monammonium sulphate can be used under such circumstances to augment the nitrogen supply and encourage rumen microflora activities. The availability of forage is as important a consideration as its quality. For the more arid rangeland communities characterized by spaced plants, the availability is related to plant size and frequency of occurrence, and should refer only to the plants actually being eaten and not to the yield of forage as a whole. In examining such measurements as forage yield and quality (nutritive value), it should be remembered that the animals themselves influence the quality of the available diet by their selection of the best portions, so quality cannot be measured without reference to the conditions of grazing. Diet selectivity is extremely complex. Animal attributes such as breed, age, physiological status, appetite, and the special
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senses (sight, smell, and taste) and interact with the chemical and physical attributes of the plant (Squires 1980). Particularly during the late dry and the rainy season, careful herding can increase the amount of forage on offer to grazing livestock. Observations in Xinjiang show that forage mass encountered along the animals’ itineraries was higher than the average amount of forage available in the area. A good herd boy can ensure that his livestock get a ‘better than average’ share of the forage resource particularly during the end of summer and autumn grazing season when forage is sparse. The impression that time spent grazing is restricted by the present herding practices is supported by studies on the diurnal pattern of grazing activity (Squires 1980). Free-ranging animals show a peak of grazing activity in the early morning, another in the late afternoon and substantial grazing activity during the night. The grazing periods are separated by resting and ruminating periods. Night grazing can account for up to 25% of total daily grazing time in free-ranging indigenous cattle. In contrast, the herded cattle studied maintain a high level of grazing activity throughout the herding day, and most of the non-grazing time is occupied by walking. There is scope for changing the present system of corraling the animals at night, especially since predators are almost non-existent in most of NW China nowadays.
3 Diet – What Livestock Choose to Eat Sheep are notoriously selective grazers. They have a cleft upper lip which, though not prehensile, permits close grazing. Forage is severed as the head jerks slightly forward and upward, the forage being held by the lower incisors against the dental pad. The tongue of sheep does not protrude as with cattle. For mechanical reasons short, easily-torn forage is preferred although sheep can eat almost any type. Goats have a more fully-cleft upper lip and are more adept at selecting small leaf fragments, particularly from spiny shrubs. Both sheep and goats are well adapted for grazing in steep or rocky terrain. Cattle use their tongues to gather forage into their mouths before biting and tearing it off. On tall grass they nibble the leaf from the stems. Prior experience can affect an animal’s choice of food. Cattle that graze on sparse pasture may vary their bite size, grazing time and number of bites per minute to compensate but there is no known set pattern of adjustment to meet a particular energy demand under different pasture conditions. Horses tend to be more selective than cattle and because of their dentition (both upper and lower teeth) can graze a lot closer. The senses of sight, touch in the lips, taste, and smell are all involved in diet selection. The botanical composition of the diet rarely conforms to that of the pasture they are grazing except under conditions of hard grazing and overstocking where competition between animals for every piece of edible forage overrides diet selectivity.
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4 Diet, Nutritional Status and Reproductive Success There is a strong interaction between diet, nutritional status and reproductive success. Females usually will not conceive unless there is a certain minimum live weight. The concept of the critical live weight below which an animal will not exhibit oestrus and above which it will, is fundamental to livestock management. The basic factor is the amount of energy stored in the female’s body. This is reflected in live weight, the integrated response of the animal to the plethora of environmental and genetic factors that contribute to its performance. The store of nutrients in the body can be called upon to fill requirements not met by the diet. Reserves will be deployed depending on the priority of the physiological processes in the body. Reproductive failure is often a protective mechanism. Pregnancy is the area of the reproductive cycle most sensitive to nutritional stress. The ‘decision’ whether or not to become pregnant is a vital one. The pregnant animal subjected to inadequate nutrition is committed to producing an offspring, rather less committed to producing sufficient milk to rear it, and definitely not committed to start the cycle again.
4.1 Nutrition and Reproduction The level of nutrition can affect reproduction. Females need a lot of protein for early growth (from birth to puberty) during late pregnancy and while lactating (Fig. 6). Inadequate nutrition during pregnancy leads to increased neo-natal mortality. Sub-maintenance rations towards the end of pregnancy may reduce the length of gestation and the birth weights of the neonates, delay the onset of lactation, reduce the duration of lactation and alter the composition of milk. Severe under-nutrition can have an effect on reproductive performance of primiparous1 females but the effects seem to be confined to the first year of the reproductive
Fig. 6 Breeding females need a lot of protein for early growth (from birth to puberty) during late pregnancy and during lactation 1
Primiparous means first time to deliver a newborn.
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life of the dam2, provided that nutrition improves and there is some opportunity for the dam to recover from the earlier nutritional deprivation. The problem of attaining optimum nutrition levels for breeding livestock in NW China is quite a serious one. The poorly distributed, unreliable rainfall and the ensuing fluctuations of plant growth make it difficult to meet the varying nutritional requirements of breeding herds/flocks. The demands on the stamina of the lactating females are greatest when forage is scarce, and hard to locate or collect. Malnutrition, and not starvation, may set the population’s ceiling by restricting the reproduction rates increasing the death rates of older and/weaker females. It is convenient to consider the reproductive life of an animal in three sections, (a) puberty; (b) first pregnancy and lactation; and (c) subsequent pregnancies, since different norms apply and tolerance to nutritional stress varies. (a) Flock/herd replacements and puberty The occurrence of puberty is governed by whether or not the animal attains a particular body condition, and this has most frequently been documented in terms of body weight, although the two are not synonymous. Low levels of nutrition, by promoting low rates of growth, delay the onset of the first oestrus. For instance, poor calving rates of heifers are commonly associated with live weights that are below 200 kg. Experimental evidence is that heifers need to be above 250 kg to achieve a conception rate of 80% or better. Some breeds require a different live weight to get better conception. Ewes and does (goats) that are too light weight cannot conceive and if they do there is high rate of spontaneous abortion. This latter problem is common among Cashmere goats in Subei county, Gansu (Box 1 and much of it is due to malnutrition rather than to disease. (b) First pregnancy and lactation This period is critical in the reproductive life of the female because she is not only producing an offspring, but is also required to meet a substantial growth component, in addition to nutrient storage sufficient for lactation and re-conception. There is a marked interaction of lactation and body condition in relation to the incidence of post-parturition oestrus. For reasonable conception rates to occur lactating heifers, for example, need to be at least 30 kg heavier than they were at first conception. Weight gains on a similar scale also apply to yaks, sheep, goats, horses and camels. Lactation accounts for over 50% of the daily energy expended during the first 3 months after parturition, and resulted in negative energy balances of up to 0.57 Mcal ME/day during that period. (c) Subsequent pregnancies The class of livestock showing the lowest pregnancy rate is the heifer (or ewe) suckling her first offspring. More mature animals are able to tolerate a degree of nutritional restriction, basically because of the decreasing requirement for growth
Dam in this context refers to the mother. The male equivalent is the sire.
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Box 1 Abortion in goats in Subei county, Gansu: extent, probable causes and remedies Abortion in cashmere goats has been studies in Subei county, Gansu where it is a serious problem. The field investigation showed that the average abortion rate in Shibaocheng Township was 48.3%, the lowest is 32.7%, and the highest is 73.2%. Abortion is most likely to occur from 3.5 to 4.5 months of the pregnancy (79.3% of the total) Abortion can occur in various bearing ages, among which primiparous females account for about 51.6%, whilst multiparous nanny goat accounts for only 31.8%. The clinical study shows that spontaneous abortion affects 33.9%, mummified embryo 39.9%, and weak lambs/kids that die soon after birth accounts for 26.2%. These alarmingly high reproductive losses are a serious problem. The problem is not confined to Subei and occurs also in Sunan and in Tianzhu (high elevation areas in the Qilian mountains). Counter measures have been tested and the most successful are listed below. Most relate to countering the impact of malnutrition of the pregnant female and mitigating the extremely cold climatic conditions in late pregnancy and early spring. Mitigating the extreme climate (a) Wearing a thermal coat and warm-barn feeding is the effective way to resist cold for reduction of goat abortion. Wearing the thermal coat is a convenient, simple and obvious control measure. It can reduce abortion rate by 12.4%. The thermal coat is made of 77.6% available cotton, 19.4% terylene and 3% urethane elastic fibre. The inside material is 100% polypropylene. The thermal coats are wind-resisting, insulating and waterproof was made in three sizes: large, medium and small. They are used from October to March next year. Confining the animals to a warm-barn and feeding them supplements is also effective. The temperature inside the barn may be increased by 20–30°. (b) Feed supplementation: proper feed supplementation during late pregnancy can reduce the abortion rate by 8.2%. It is suggested that in the early pregnant time, each of the goats is fed concentrate at a rate of 0.2 kg/day, the formulation is 48% corn powder, 32% bean cake, 16% wheat bran, 2% licking brick with multiple microelement. During late pregnancy, the concentrate is increased to 0.25 kg/day; and 0.5 kg/day of good quality hay is added; if available, more carrot should be fed; and also microelement such as selenium additives properly added to strengthen pregnant goat’s health and increase disease resistance. The feed supplementation in Subei, at least should start from early December. The combined measure of warmshed + feed supplementation can reduce the goat abortion by 13.9%. (c) Improved management of pregnant females: Scientific management in the flock can produce a good effect on the reproductive success of the pregnant female, lead to higher birth weights, lower neo-natal losses and a quicker return to oestrus and better conception rates. Culling of barren nannies, segregating young males and females, to prevent premature (continued)
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Box 1 (continued) conception and mating of close relatives. Vaccination against disease the abortion caused by improper management such as overcrowding, lack of water, intake of poisonous plant and frosted grass, icy water and rotted feed etc. can be controlled. (d) Enforce disease control: Bang’s disease (brucellosis) screening and checking should be conducted and goats that test positive must be culled. The vaccination against Bang’s disease should be carried out for all flocks. The vaccine of foot and mouth disease can be injected at the same time. The control of lamb dysentery, sheep fever sore and blue tongue disease should be strengthened; and de-worming executed.
with advancing age. The interval between parturition and re-conception is variable but the shortest intervals are associated with slight weight gain, as opposed to loss, during lactation, and that the body weights of these animals is above the threshold immediately after parturition. This is why supplementary feeding during the last weeks of pregnancy is so critical (see below). Mortality rates of offspring are higher among mothers (dams) subjected to a low plane of nutrition before parturition. The highest mortality is commonly found to occur in offspring from the youngest dams. Under-nutrition can also impair the fertility of the male. Inadequate dietary energy can delay puberty in males and reduce semen production. Body growth and semen production are closely related. The emphasis should be on a satisfactory rate of growth of the young animal. Energy is the nutrient of major importance, for females and males alike, in limiting reproductive function. Specific shortage of protein has been shown to reduce reproductive performance by reducing energy intake. Other mineral nutrients suspected of having specific effects on reproductive function include phosphorus, manganese, copper, cobalt, iodine, zinc and selenium. Micronutrients such as molybdenum, cobalt and copper are important for overall nutrition.
4.2 Survival of Neonates The ratio of ‘females mated to offspring weaned’ under the harsh pastoral conditions in Gansu and Xinjiang is rather variable but in any event is not very high. Few herders can tell whether their loss of potential offspring was due to failure in conception, fetal death, or death of newborns during the neo-natal period. However, neo-natal losses can be the major contributor. The mortality of neonates is one of the major causes of lowered productivity. The major pre-natal factors affecting survival of lambs, kids, foals and calves are: (a) food supply of the dam; (b) disease and (c) environmental cold. Low birth weights are strongly linked to poor survival
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rates. For example, lambs with birth weights as low as 2 kg have a 30% chance of survival. Heavier lambs, those over 3 kg, survive quite well. Similar problems exist for new-born calves, kids and foals.
5 Weaning Early-weaning of lamb is a very important technology in lamb mutton production, however, at present, China has yet to develop guidelines for optimizing the time of earlyweaning of lambs from different breeds. The weaning time of lambs is about 4 months or later, which results in poor performance of breeding ewes because of low bodyweights that affect time to first oestrus, conception rates and lamb birth weights – all factors that impact the next cycle of sheep production. Milk-production by ewes noticeably declines after 3–4 weeks which is extremely disadvantageous to the growth of the lamb. Early-weaning is conducive to the restoration of ewe body condition after they stop lactating, and it is also beneficial to the growth performance of weaned lambs. Fat lamb production is an effective measure to adapt to the seasonal changes of pasture, Fattening lambs have the following characteristics: lambs grow fast with high feed conversion ratio (3:1–4: compared with adult sheep (6:1–8:1), low cost of production, rapid turnover; The price of lamb mutton and lamb skins is very high so there are economic benefits is well. Early weaning can increase the turn-off rate of lambs, shorten the sheep production cycle. It also can reduce the loss of body weight of the sheep in winter and early spring. From the above analysis, we can see that early-weaning of lambs allows fattening the lambs in a shorter time, and provide high-quality lamb mutton that will be sold at a higher price thus achieving better economic benefits for farmers\herders. Another important aspect is the benefits to summer pastures if the lambs do not go with their dams. Apart from the energy cost of walking long distances from spring pastures to alpine areas that are used to get to summer pastures, there is the impact that lactating ewes and their rapidly growing lambs have on stocking pressure. As summer pastures become degraded and over loaded, any measure that can reduce total grazing pressure must be pursued with vigor. Early weaning has an important role to play. Another spin-off is the potential to create a new source of income for lowland farmers or sedentary herders who can use their warm pens as feed lots in summer to fatten the early-weaned lambs. Those with access to crop by-products and to fodder crops can fatten lambs and supply a lucrative market.
5.1 Early Weaning in Gansu Research on early weaned lambs was conducted in Gansu to (a) compare the effect of early weaning on lambs, (b) present the theoretical basis for early weaning, determine the appropriate weaning age in NW China, (c) explore the feasibility of early weaning, (d) develop rations and formulae and processing methods suitable for early or ultra-early weaned lambs, (e) assess the best milk replacement formula
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suited to the early and ultra-early weaned lambs,(f ) research the body condition and production conditions of ewes after early weaning, and (g) recommend the feeding management procedures for early and ultra-early weaned lambs. A group of 150 Gansu Alpine Fine-wool lambs (born in the period late April, 2007 to early May, 2007) were used. With basically the same date of birth, live weight, sex ratio (male and female ratio is 2:3) and the same fetal order, all lambs were assigned to ten experimental groups (of which nine groups for the trial group, another group as the control group), comprising 15 lambs of 6 male and 9 female. A 3 × 3 factorial arrangement of early weaning age and milk replacer was designed. Weaning age was 30 days, 45 days and 60 days, each weaning period comprising 3 different kinds of milk replacer. Milk replacer had been fed for 15 days in each group after weaning, and then lambs were fattened until 120 day old. The control group was weaned freely, which means all 15 lambs stayed with ewes for grazing until 120 days old. Lambs had better growth rates if weaned when 45 days old. Body weight of lambs was 17.0 kg at 60 days of age and significantly higher than control group (12.9 kg) (P < 0.01). Early weaning and use of milk replacer did not hinder the metabolism, digestion and absorption of protein, carbohydrate and fat. It also improved the immune function of lamb. Early weaning had great influence on later fattening in lambs. 60 day weaning age was especially beneficial for later growth in lambs. Body weight of lambs in 60 day weaning group was the highest at 120 day and reached to 35.2 kg, ADG3 for days 75–120 reached to 277.2 g/day, which significantly higher than control group (22.8 kg and 144.9 g/day). Economics benefit was 52 yuan/per lamb higher than control group. Body weight, ADG and economics benefit of lambs in 45 day weaning group was 33.75 kg, 275.6 g/day and 47.69 yuan/per, but there was no significant difference compared with 60 day weaning group (P > 0.05). Therefore, 60 day weaning age is a feasible method to increase economics benefit. Otherwise, 45 day weaning time is also available.
5.2 Early Weaning in Xinjiang Experiments in Xinjiang on early weaning involved 300 lambs from three breeds (Kazak, Xinjiang Merino and Bayinbuluk) over a 100-day period. The weaning date was either 40 or 60 days after birth. The Control group was fed by ewe’s milk and weaning was not enforced. Three different levels of supplement (20%, 22% and 24% CP) were made available to the early weaned lambs at the rate of 300 g per lamb per day and the performance of lambs was compared. Birth weights were similar for each group and body weights of lambs were taken at 10 day intervals. Daily gain of both the 40-day and 60-day group was higher than the Control group and there were differences between breeds. ADG of Kazak and Bayinbuluk lambs was higher than that of the Xinjiang Merino and, for the two local breeds, the 20% CP ration was optimal. The results indicated that earlier weaning is feasible provided
ADG is average daily gain
3
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that supplements are available. It has the advantage of promoting lamb growth and allows ewes to regain the threshold body weight and conceive earlier. Weaning policies vary considerably. Weaning of young, so that their dams can pick up condition before the next pregnancy, is a much–neglected management practice. A dry4 female needs 30% less forage intake (on a dry matter basis) 64% less digestible protein and 40% less energy than a wet one. A further benefit of earlier weaning is that the lambs can be moved to feed lots in the farming areas of the lowlands (Chapter 1, Squires and Hua 2010; Chapter 9, Zhang et al. 2010). This will reduce grazing pressure on the summer pastures in the uplands and help to arrest the accelerated rangeland degradation that is becoming such a serious problem.
6 Herd/Flock Structure The maintenance of animal numbers is the first essential to animal production but the number of animals depends upon the balance between births and deaths and culling rates as expressed by the formula: S=
2000 MN(100 - d)
where S = the % of young females to be selected as future breeders in order to maintain numbers M = % young weaned as a % of dams present N = the mean number of times the females are mated in their lifetime d = death rate between weaning and time of first mating The choice of a culling plan is influenced by the reproductive rate of the herd/ flock. Where reproduction rates are high, selection of females entering the herd/ flock can be practiced. Where rates are low, as in much of NW China, selection of females may not be possible and under these conditions all genetic improvements must come from the male. Breed improvement is discussed below.
6.1 Culling Criteria Improvement of the herd/flock will result from strict culling of animals with “faults”5 or which are ‘empty’. Weaning time is an appropriate time for culling of females on performance criteria. There is much to be said for cutting losses and disposing of ‘Dry’ and ‘wet’ in this context relate to whether or not the female is lactating. Non pregnant , non lactating is a ‘dry’ animal. 5 Faults include poor teeth, bad feet, inferior quality wool/cashmere, etc. 4
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empty cows/ewes, especially if the annual intake into the herd/flock of good replacements is more than sufficient to balance this and other causes of wastage normally encountered. On the other hand if there are more empty females than can be suitably replaced, a proportion of the empty ones may have to be retained. The rates of reproduction in many herds/flocks in NW China are unnecessarily low. Reproduction rates are reduced by the harsh climate and poor plane of nutrition so that herds/flocks have difficulty in maintaining themselves, even with no culling. Herders are only able to maintain their herds/flocks by either buying in females or by keeping breeding animals longer than usual. Neo-natal losses are a major source of reproductive wastage. Many herds/flocks have a disproportionate ratio of males to females. The next group for culling comprises the worst of the female weaners and their dams, if they can be identified. Diseased livestock, especially those with Tuberculosis (TB) and all brucellosis reactors, must be culled. Commonly herders will decide, either arbitrarily or on the basis of their experience of ‘average’ animals, to cull females at some predetermined age – say 8 years for cattle and maybe 5 years for sheep. There is justification for ‘culling by age’ when good and poor producers cannot be identified in terms of reproductive success. An important consideration in culling is to strike a balance between the intensity of culling and maintenance of herd numbers at the desired level, while preserving an appropriate age structure in the herd/flock (Chapter 11).
7 Feed Balance Optimizing resource utilization under both grazing systems requires derivation of a feed balance that seeks to identify the contribution to the annual food intake that comes from various sources e.g. rangeland, artificial pastures (usually irrigated), crop residues, feed supplements such as cotton seed meal, grain, etc. Specific topics for investigation and demonstration involve the management of total grazing pressure in matters such as season of use, stocking density and “return time” (the interval between grazing of individual forage plants). As part a project in Gansu that was sponsored by the Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) two case study villages from Sunan and Huanxian in Gansu were set up. These villages were selected to provide crosssectional data on farms of varying size and with varying livestock, cropping and other attributes. The project set out to investigate ways of improving herder-household incomes from livestock production and to achieve environmental benefits including rangeland improvement, reduced dust and sandstorm and to reduce greenhouse gases from livestock production. An underlying concept is how to find ways of moving herders from a ‘survivor’ attitude to one of ‘production’, where they think more of their livestock as a viable business. The data obtained has been analysed using several models developed to investigate different aspects of the livestock farming system. These models include one designed to analyse the feed supply and animal demand for a typical farm in a typical
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year. The model also computes the net farm financial returns and methane output from livestock per farm, per unit of animal product and per RMB of cost. A subsidiary aim is to develop the tool for finding efficient ways of reducing greenhouse gas production from livestock. The project has introduced the new concept of feed balance using maintenance energy requirements which is more accurate and a more scientifically sound approach to understand the true value of rangeland and of supplementary feeds (more details in ACIAR Proceedings, in press). Changing enterprise practices such as lambing time are sound techniques for the farmers that improve animal husbandry through better alignment of feed supply and demand. In the traditional herding model the herder’s practices have not been strongly linked to the system resources which leads to a deteriorating situation of pasture degradation. There are major problems across northern and western China in rangeland degradation and low household incomes for those dependent upon livestock. We have shown that solutions can come from first reorganising the livestock system with the goal of reducing livestock numbers to achieve at least maintenance of household incomes and to then provide opportunities to rehabilitate the extensive grasslands (Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010).
8 Breed Improvement Animal breeding is always thought to be most important aspects of animal husbandry, especially in the last 30 years, the tendency of crossbreeding is widespread. China has imported almost all major commercial breeds from different countries and regions such as sheep breeds from Australia and New Zealand and cattle breeds from Europe and North America (Table 2). These exotic breeds are widely used in the crossbreeding practice in China, as it is in the pig and chicken industry and it is now very common in sheep, beef and in dairy industries as well. The crossbreeding program has improved some efficiency in livestock production, but the breeding system is not yet fully developed. There are unintended consequences, for example, almost all breeding farms which used to be state owned enterprises or research breeding farm, have been commercialized or are implementing self-response management practice. Under these trends, the farms are forced into financial difficulties that have resulted in closure of some animal breeding centers. On the other hand, in the recent years, private companies that lack adequate technical support, have carried on breed importation from overseas with eyes only on the profit. This results in unorganized breeding in livestock production, and mongrel type of offspring now take a large proportion of the herd which diminishes the role of locally-adapted breeds (Chapter 8, Liang et al. 2010). The ‘mongrelization’6 of livestock also sets the hurdle for improvement of livestock in the long run Mongrelization refers to indiscriminate mixing of genes and the production of offspring that have few redeeming features.
6
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Table 2 Introduced breeds of sheep and cattle used in crossbreeding practice in NW China Sheep breeds introduced Cattle breeds introduced Breed name Country and Breed name Country or region regions from from Borderdale
New Zealand
Angusc
Suffolk Dorset Merino German Merino Dorper
Texel
Australiaa Australiaa Australia Germany South Africa
Simmental Hereford Charolais Limousin Holsteinb
Europe and North America Europe Britain Europe Europe Europe and North America
Australiab
Notes: A breed originally developed in the England, UK b A breed originating in The Netherlands c A breed originating in Scotland UK a
since it slows genetic progress and is an inefficient breeding program. At the same times, the heterosis (see below) resulting in crossbreeding, a genetic advantage seen in beef and mutton production will be diminished. In addition, loss of the genetic diversity of livestock will be another consequence, which further weakens the fundamentals of livestock breeding and production. In the last 30 years, China has introduced almost all major livestock breeds from different countries and regions aimed to improve the productivity of the livestock. Introduced sheep breeds are often from Australia and New Zealand such as Dorset, Borderdale and Suffolk which are British breeds but upgraded in Australia and New Zealand. The beef breeds introduction has been taken place over the past 30 years which coincides with the emergence of the beef industry in China. The introduced beef breeds often seen in China are British breeds such as Hereford, Angus or continental breeds such Simmental and Charolais and so on, In the recent years as the international trade development, some beef breeds are also imported from North America, Australia and some European countries. There were no typical meat-type cattle breeds in China because cattle used to be regarded as draft animals providing power for agriculture and transportation for farmers. To slaughter cattle was considered to be criminal before the 1980s. Only after the market reforms in the early 1980s, did the beef industry emerge and introduction of breeds from overseas begin for the purpose of improving local cattle breeds for meat and dairy purpose. The Simmental was introduced first and is more common than any other breeds in cattle improvement as it is a dual purpose animal. At that time Chinese were desperate for meat and dairy products. Therefore, hybrids of Simmental are very common in China. at the moment, as the beef industry is developed for production of quality beef and improving efficiency of production system. Other breeds have been used in crossbreeding and upgrading of local cattle breeds. The trends if properly managed, can maintain adaptability and other advantages of local genetics (Chapter 8, Lang, Wang and Squires 2010).
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As for sheep, in the early 1950s, the Merino from Australia was the first of several introductions aimed at improving wool production and wool quality. As a result, a few local breeds of merino-type of have been formed. For example the Gansu Alpine fine wool and the Xinjiang Fine wool. Wool production once only met the demands for low quality textile industry, mainly carpets. From the early 1980s the wool market was gradually taken over by Australian wool as the inferior wool quality produced locally was unsuitable for fine worsteds and other cloth. Later, the sheep meat industry has been developed and meat-type sheep breeds were introduced and are now widespread in China’s sheep production regions, mainly NW China. However, crossbreeding local breeds to introduced breeds was considered the only way of improving productivity and meet the changing market-driven demand.
8.1 Cross Breeding The basic objective of cross-breeding is to optimize simultaneously the use of both non-additive (heterosis) and additive (breed differences) effects of genes. Crossbreeding offers two primary advantages: heterosis (also called hybrid vigor) and the opportunity for breed complementarity. When the performance of crossbred offspring exceeds the performance of the purebred parents, the difference is called heterosis. In other words, the whole can be greater than the sum of the parts. Some crossbreeding systems offer a greater degree of heterosis than others, and some traits respond more to crossbreeding than others. Heterosis is realized in inverse proportion to heritability for a given trait. In other words, lowly heritable traits offer the most heterosis, highly heritable traits the least. As an example, Table 3 lists beef cattle traits of economic importance and their heritability estimates. In general, reproductive traits are weakly heritable, growth traits are moderate and carcass traits are highly heritable. Thus, differences in reproductive performance between herds are virtually all due to environment and management, while differences in growth or carcass traits are due primarily to genetics. Also, reproductive traits will respond the most to crossbreeding, carcass traits the least. Crossbreeding must be planned. Simply mixing breeds at random will not produce the benefits that a well organized, thoughtful crossbreeding system can provide. Producers must avoid mongrelization of their herds/flocks. This is particularly important in NW China where a number of distinctive local breeds are part of the gene pool that contributes to biodiversity (Chapter 8, Lang, Wang and Squires 2010). Table 3 Heritability and heterosis (hybrid vigour) comparison Traits Heritability Fertility, mothering ability, calf survival Low Birth and weaning weight, milking ability and Medium feedlot gain Mature weight, carcass quality High
Heterosis High Medium Low
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Table 4 Heritability estimates of beef cattle traits Trait Percentage heritable Low heritability Conception rate 0–10 Calving interval 0–10 Moderate heritability Milking ability Calving ease Gestation length Birth weight Weaning weight Weaning conformation score Postweaning daily gain-pasture Postweaning feed conversion Slaughter conformation score Dressing percentage
15–25 10–40 30–40 35–40 25–30 20–25 30–35 35–40 35–40 35–40
Moderate to high heritability Postweaning daily gain Postweaning daily feed consumption Final feedlot weight Yearling weight
40–45 50–55 50–55 50–55
Some crossbreeding systems offer a greater degree of heterosis than others, and some traits respond more to crossbreeding than others. Heterosis is realized in inverse proportion to heritability for a given trait. In other words, lowly heritable traits offer the most heterosis, highly heritable traits the least (Table 4). The success of a crossbreeding program will depend on its simplicity and ease of management. There are several factors and challenges that need to be considered when evaluating choice of crossbreeding system, including: 1 . Number of females in the herd/flock 2. Number of available breeding pastures to allow segregation of groups 3. Labor availability and management skill (record keeping, etc) 4. Amount and quality of feed available 5. Production and marketing system for the F2 generation The design of any crossbreeding program should take advantage of both heterosis and breed complementarity. The goal of a crossbreeding program should be to (1) optimize heterosis in both the calf crop and most importantly in the cow herd heterosis), (2) utilize breeds and genetics that fit the feed resources, management, and marketing system of the operation, and (3) is easy to apply and manage, and is sustainable over time. One of the ways that herders can improve their herds and flocks (apart from improving nutrition) is to cross breed. The government are encouraging this with AI stations being progressively extended across the whole of NW China. Regretably,
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some mongrelization of local well-adapted breeds has occurred (Chapter 8, Lang, Wang and Squires 2010) but this can be avoided by using a breeding system based on ‘terminal sires’
8.2 Terminal Sires In a terminal system females are selected to match environment and resources while males are selected to meet end product targets (i.e. growth and carcass). In some terminal crossbreeding systems, replacement females are produced in special matings between the local breed and a sire of superior characteristics (for beef, wool, cashmere or milk etc). The high level of productivity experienced with offspring from these special F1 hybrid-producing matings give the terminal crossbreeding systems their advantage. All male offspring are slaughtered before sexual maturity or gelded. Operationally, the economical production of superior replacement females is the key to the success of terminal crosses. The F1 hybrids that are the product of these special matings, either in the field or by AI, are later crossed with a sire from a third breed. All offspring of this terminal sire are slaughtered (both males and females). This way ensures that the purity of the local breed is not diluted by genes from the introduced breed because the progeny all the F1 females are kept for breeding with the terminal sire and all male offspring are either gelded or slaughtered without them breeding. There are two commonly used variants of terminal sire crossbreeding. These are well developed strategies in North America for cattle and for pigs and in Australia and New Zealand for sheep. 8.2.1 Static Terminal Cross In this system the herd consists entirely of F1 females that are mated to males of a third, terminal sire breed. All calves (males and females are marketed for slaughter). Only one breeding pasture is required and heterosis and breed complementarity can be nearly maximized. However, F1 replacement females must be purchased or bred. Maintaining a steady supply of high-quality F1 replacements can be difficult but it opens the possibility for the emergence of specialist herders whose principal task (and source of revenue) is to breed and supply F1 females. This new market niche is part of the new paradigm for agro-pastoral integration (Chapter 9, Zhang et al. 2010) (Fig. 7). 8.2.2 Rotational Terminal Sire This system combines the best parts from the traditional rotational systems and the static terminal sire systems. The rotational part of the system provides replacement females while the terminal sire part of the system allows most of the marketed
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Purchased or bred replacements
Terminal Sire
X
F1 females
All progeny marketed for slaughter
Fig. 7 Terminal Sire System provides an opportunity to protect the genetic purity of local breeds while allowing the production of offspring that are more acceptable to the market. Note that all F2 offspring both male and female are marketed for slaughter
offspring to be sired by growth carcass type sires. Females remain in the rotational part of the system until they reach 4 years of age and then they move to the terminal part of the system. A portion of the herd (typically 20–30%) is designated for production of replacement females. These females are maintained separately from the rest of the herd and mated to males of a maternal breed (most commonly from one of the local breeds). The majority of the females in the herd/flock are mated to a terminal sire and all offspring marketed for slaughter. This can be a demanding system to maintain but will produce excellent results. It requires a large herd/flock of at least 100 breeding females. A more feasible variant may be to mate all primiparous females to maternal breed males and keep replacements from them while the mature females produce only terminal-sired offspring. The logic behind this is that primiparous females should be managed separately from mature females anyway and that most (but by no means all) maternal breed males give rise to fewer difficult births than terminal breed sires that are often quite a lot bigger (Fig. 8). 8.2.3 Use of Artificial Insemination The use of artificial insemination may make the application of these described crossbreeding systems more feasible provided the expertise, labor, and facilities are available to make effective use of AI. The use of AI can significantly reduce the number of breeding pastures necessary. Additionally, the use of AI may significantly reduce the number of males (and breeds) required for natural service. As an example, in a rota-terminal system the top 50% of the females could be mated by AI for the production of replacement females. Females that did not conceive with AI as well as the other 50% of the female herd could be mated naturally to the terminal sire.
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Male B A sired females Replacement females
4+
4+ Terminal sire A and B sired females All progeny marketed for slaughter
Fig. 8 The schematic of rotational terminal cross breeding system that allows some of the female breeders to be used to breed replacements while the remainder produce offspring from a terminal sire, all of which are marketed for slaughter
This would reduce the number of breeding pastures required from three to one or two (depending on numbers of females). Another major advantage to the use of AI is genetic improvement, as semen from top males in any breed could be utilized.
9 Animal Health Animal health is crucial for animal husbandry. It not only determines production efficiency but also determines the products quality and safety. The animal health was neglected to a certain extent until recent years. Livestock disease such as TB, brucellosis, and anthrax can be transmitted to humans. The public is increasingly aware of the health and are demanding safe products from livestock production, in addition, international trading of livestock products also demands a high level of animal health standards, therefore, the government has started to pay a attention to the animal health. As a result, the veterinary bureau has been formed in each level of the municipal governments, which aims to strengthen livestock health and disease control, especially to strengthen the control over the epidemic diseases, especially those that may affect human beings, such as bird flu or N1H1 influenza. Animal health was not given enough attention either by government or by the public because of the severe shortage of supply of livestock products in the early time (before 1978). Also the very extensive management of the livestock was common in that period of time. This has been changed since intensive pig and chicken production industries have emerged in China in early 1980s, and the outbreaks of animal diseases are common and it often causes severe economic losses and even affect the human health as well. More recently, commercial sheep and cattle
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production in NW China has been also developed with more intensified management. However, in NW China only epidemic diseases of the ruminants has been given attention, other diseases such as infertility diseases, metabolic diseases are not yet receiving attention although it may cause significant economic losses. It is only recently when sheep and cattle production became commercialized that the disease and products quality have received greater attention. At the moment, the sheep and cattle meat take up to 15 percentage of the meat consumption in China. And often the sheep and meat and beef are luxury food compared to other animal livestock such as pig and chicken.
9.1 Infertility Diseases Infertility diseases encountered in herds/flocks in NW China are brucellosis (contagious abortion) vibriosis, leptospirosis and trichomoniasis. Of these brucellosis is the most serious disease of cattle and goats. Sheep are less prone to venereal diseases than either cattle or goats. Brucellosis leads to severe reproductive wastage through widespread abortion among susceptible animals that become infected with the causal organism (Brucella abortus). The disease is widespread throughout NW China, and the introduction of an infected animal, or even accidental contact with straying or travelling livestock that have the disease, can cause catastrophic losses in a herd/flock of susceptible animals. Protective vaccination should be regarded as a high-priority routine management practice. Tuberculosis (TB) is also widespread and the problems of eradicating it are even greater. Progressive testing and slaughter of infected animals and stringent control over the entry of livestock into protected (quarantined) areas should eliminate this disease in due course but it might take decades.
9.2 Vaccination Against Infectious Diseases Vaccination against common diseases such as foot and mouth disease, bradsot (black disease), lamb diarrhea and enterotoxaemia and sheep blackleg disease is common. Vaccinatation against foot and mouth disease is still compulsory in some areas, streptococcus ovis, sheep sore mouth diseases and so on are also vaccinated against.
9.3 External Parasites Regular dipping of livestock to keep them free from external parasites is being actively promoted throughout NW China. The external parasites of cattle were less recognized before since the beef was only draft animal and had less economic significance. However, since last 20 years, the beef industry has been developed rapidly
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and the economic importance of the beef has been rising, therefore, the external parasites has been given more attention for keeping animal health and good quality of hides which is large part of cattle value . the external parasites often seen in cattle are cattle biting louse, Boophilus sarcoptes scabiei , larvae of Hypoderma bovis, acariasis (mites) and myiasis (fly strike). Sheep are dipped to control external parasites and protect against fly strike.
9.4 Internal Parasites Internal parasites such as intestinal worms and liver fluke are commonly seen in the sheep and there are also some other parasites which may seen in NW China, such as are Fascioliasis (liver rot) , Taeniasis (tapeworm), Gastrointestinal nematodiasis, Rhinoestriasis, Melophagus ovinus (keds). Cestodosis (tapeworm) of cattle and sheep, Trichostrongylidosis, Filariasis (threadworms), Bunostomiasis (hook worm), Oesophagostomiasis (parasitic nematode), Chabertiosis (nodular worm), Trichuriasis (whipworm) are a problem in some areas but livestock grazing extensive rangelands are less susceptible than those in more intensively grazed systems. The introduction of rotational grazing into rangeland management has an unexpected bonus in that worm burdens are lower where livestock are rotated across several pastures and the return time is long enough to ensure that worms dropped with the feces on the first visit have perished before the grazing animals re-visit. Most internal parasites rely on the cycle (see below) where eggs are deposited with faces and they hatch allowing the larval forms to climb on forage plants so that they can re-enter the digestive tract. Any absence of livestock for 30 days or more is likely to ensure that the cycle is broken. Although rotational grazing is a good strategy to manage pasture health and provide quality forage, it does not prevent Haemonchus contortus (barber’s pole worm) from building up to very high levels on pasture. The barber pole worm is a blood-sucking parasite that pierces the lining of the abomasum (the sheep’s fourth or “true” stomach), causing blood plasma and protein loss to the sheep. High worm burdens can kill sheep. The life cycle of the Haemonchus contortus worm during the grazing season is as follows. Other worms have similar strategies, although some can remain dormant for longer periods in cattle feces. Adult worms, attached to the stomach of an infected animal, lay eggs that are passed in the animal’s feces. Under the favorable temperature and moisture conditions that exist in most summer pastures, eggs hatch to the infective larval stage in 4–7 days. Newly hatched larvae remain near the fecal pellet and pass through three stages of larval development termed L1, L2 and L3. The L3 stage is termed the infective stage because this larva will climb up blades of grass and wait to be ingested by grazing animals. Once the L3 stage has been ingested, it molts into an L4 larva stage and then molts into an immature adult. When adults reach about 14 days of age in the
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stomach of the infected animal, they begin laying eggs. The entire life cycle from egg to egg can occur in as little as 24–25 days.
10 Summary and Conclusions Animal husbandry (nutrition, health, genetic improvement, housing) is an important aspect and one that can be improved. Some of the ways that this can be done are discussed in this chapter. Many improvements require capital expenditure e.g. construction of warm pens for winter. Other improvements are best facilitated by training of the herders and farmers about animal health, animal nutrition and breed improvement, including use of AI services and better marketing of their products. There is a challenge here for the extension service to promote better husbandry practices. Applied research on aspects such as early weaning, cross breeding using terminal sires, and derivation of a reliable feed balance methodology will go a long way toward improving productivity and sustainability (Chapter 5, Squires, Hua and Zhang 2010). Whilst the animal husbandry experts have traditionally focused on their speciality e.g. animal health, or animal nutrition there is recognition now that the rangeland/ livestock system is complex and its management requires calls for dealing simultaneously with both the livestock and the rangeland. Single-factor approaches .e.g. breed improvement without also looking at feed sources to support the higher nutritional demands of the hybrid animals and the changing market demands won’t work. Better understanding of the way animals use their environment (diet selection, grazing behaviour) and the importance of resting pastures at critical times (in early spring immediately after green-up and in autumn at seed set). The impact that these important management interventions will have depend on how the enforcement of the Grassland Law (2003) is carried out. If, as seems the case now, the basis of calculating safe carrying capacity is based on a flawed approach to feed balance (Chapter x) then we can only predict there will be difficult times ahead. It is so important to get a better understanding of the complexity of the rangeland/livestock system and to use this knowledge to devise a more robust and universally applicable methods of assessing carrying capacity. Many commentators argue that the whole concept of carrying capacity is of doubtful relevance in pastoral rangelands that are subject to climatic variability (Chapter 5, Squires et al. 2010). Less reliance on a ‘set formula’ and more effort on the part of research institutes and universities is called for. Better understanding of the ecological principles that underlie rangeland management would help. There is a role here for universities to revise their curricula, particularly in grassland science. Greater emphasis on the systems approach, the teaching of ecosystem function and process and the interlinkages is a logical place to start. Livestock raising on the extensive rangelands in NW China will continue for a long time to come. Whether it persists in perpetuity will depend on the transition to more sustainable land use practices, including the application of better animal husbandry (Chapter 4, Kirychuk and Fritz 2010; Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010).
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References Kirychuk B, Fritz B (2010) Ecological restoration and control of rangeland degradation: Livestock management (Chapter 4, this volume) Lang X, Wang C, Squires VR (2010) Protecting local breeds of livestock (Chapter 8, this volume) Michalk DL, Hua LM, Kemp DR, Jones R Takahashi T, Wu JP, Nan Z, Xu Z, Han G (2010) Redesigning livestock systems to improve household income and reduce stocking rates in China’s western grasslands (Chapter 14, this volume) ACIAR Proceedings (in press) Squires VR (1980) Livestock management in the Arid Zone. Inkata Press, Melbourne, 281p Squires VR, Hua LM (2010a) North-west China’s rangelands and peoples: Facts, figures, challenges and responses (Chapter 1, this volume) Squires VR, Hua Limin, Zhang D (2010) Ecological restoration and control of rangeland degradation: Rangeland management interventions (Chapter 5, this volume) Squires VR, Hua LM, Zhang D (2010) Exploring the options in North-west China pastoral lands (Chapter 5, this volume) Zhang D, Ren J, Squires V.R. 2010 Agro-pastoral Integration: development of a new paradigm. (Chapter, this volume)
Chapter 11
Herders’ Income and Expenditure: Perceptions and Expectations Hua Limin and David Michalk
Abstract The purpose of this chapter is to examine the changes in livestock management and grassland condition that have taken place in Sunan Yugur Autonomous County, Gansu Province, over the past 2 decades. Household surveys were used to assess the current financial situation (income and expenditure) and interviews with herders shed light on their livestock management practices. The objective was to better understand the causes of degradation in this region and why herders continue to over graze their rangeland resources. Key Points 1. Currently, small household livestock producers like those in Sunan County account for 73% of China’s sheep production. However, these impoverished herders often have insufficient skills and knowledge for making decisions in a market economy, and are unlikely to adopt innovations leading to sustainable livestock enterprises unless major barriers (e.g. information, credit or selling risk) are removed. 2. Low investment and a lack of effective technology transfer are key constraints to the development of rangeland based livestock industries. 3. Producers elsewhere in western China, have pushed their livestock numbers beyond the sustainable carrying capacity to maintain their own financial security by providing livestock products to satisfy the rapidly increasing demands for pastoral products. 4. The financial analysis of Dacha village households clearly shows a desire to change livestock production methods to arrest rangeland degradation in Sunan County. This is evident in the investment herder households have already made
Hua Limin () Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China e-mail: [email protected] David Michalk Charles Sturt University, Orange, NSW, Australia e-mail: [email protected] V. Squires et al. (eds.), Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7_11, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
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in new infrastructure such as fences and warm sheds as has also been the case throughout much of north-west China. Keywords Dust storms • dysfunctional rangelands • income inequalities • subsistence–survivors • market orientated producer–managers • HeiHe • Shule He and Shiyang He • Sunan county • Xilinguole League • drought • yak • Tibetan sheep • time series • consumption expenditure
1 Introduction Useable rangeland in China (363 million hectare) accounts for about 84% of the nation’s grassland, steppe and meadow resources. This ranks China second, just behind Australia, in the area of usable rangeland (Han et al. 2008) which on a global scale represents about 12% of the world’s rangelands (Zhao et al. 2005). In the western provinces (Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Gansu) rangelands are of particular ecological importance and economical value because they are the source of China’s major river systems (Pan et al. 2010) and provide the livelihood and traditional lifestyle for many of the China’s Minority people (Guo 2006). In addition, these rangelands are a significant repository of China’s plant and animal genetic resources (Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine Division of Ministry of Agriculture of China 1996). However, due to a combination of climate change impacts (Wang et al. 2006) and human activities (Li et al. 2008), western China is now highly degraded and is the major source of China’s dust storms and soil erosion (Wang et al. 2004) with impacts extending beyond eastern China to the North Pacific region (Merrill et al. 1989). Statistics indicate that more than one-third of China’s rangelands have been overgrazed by livestock since the 1970s. Degradation is now accelerating at an alarming rate rising from 55% to 90% in the last decade (Lu et al. 2006) which is causing serious economic, social and environmental problems (Dong et al. 2007). This reflects both land-use changes and rapid population growth (Wang et al. 1999), particularly in the fixed farming and semi-pastoral rangelands that are most degraded (Huang et al. 2007). Cai (2000) calculated that deforestation, over-grazing and inappropriate cultivation were collectively responsible for 84% of rangeland degradation in China. To address poverty and improve the environment by better protecting rangeland resources the Central Government has invested more than $US1.3 billion over the past 8 years in projects to restore degraded and dysfunctional rangelands (Xinhua News Agency 2008; Han et al. 2008).
1.1 Why Do Herders Overgraze Rangeland? Despite China’s strong and sustained economic growth, poverty is still persistent, especially in remote rural areas (World Bank 2005). Income inequalities between urban (eastern provinces) and rural (western provinces) populations have broadened
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considerably since the late 1970s (Chang 2002), with the bulk of the rural poor living in China’s western rangelands. In Gansu province, for example, which is regarded as one of the China’s poorest provinces, household income averaged only RMB1946 in 2001 with 70% derived from agricultural activities (MOA 2001). Although herders in western China are experiencing major transitional changes from subsistence– survivors to market orientated producer–managers the rate of change is slow compared to farmers in eastern China. This slow adaptation to the market economy is explained by a combination of traditional values and inadequate extension of new technologies to remote and inaccessible areas (Delman 1991; Wu 2003). The initial response of herders to the free market was mostly passive – they accepted whatever prices the traders offered and increased livestock numbers in order to improve household incomes from their pastoral activities, typical of what Neidhardt et al. (1996) describe as survivor mode. Unfortunately, although increases in livestock numbers were initially encouraged by Central Government policies (e.g. Zhao 1981), the severe overgrazing that followed rapidly degraded the rangeland resources (Wang 2000). Increasing demands for food of animal origin, especially among China’s urban population (FAO 2007), most pastoral households have increased stocking rates to be well beyond the number considered to be the safe carrying capacity (Chen et al. 2003). In Gansu, for example, the provincial stocking rate in 2006 exceeded the sustainable levels by > 40% while Xilinguole League in Inner Mongolia livestock numbers increased from 2 million in 1977 to 18 million in 2000 (Wang and Han 2005). This destructive management has caused one of China’s most important environmental challenges evident in the loss of ground cover, unacceptable levels of soil erosion, loss of biodiversity and the disappearance of wetlands across western China (Smil 2004). Due to this severe degradation, the sustainability of livestock production is now in question (Zhang et al. 2007) unless solutions are found that use fewer animals to maintain or improve household income. Some of the new management options that increase production efficiency are described by Michalk et al. (2010). However, before assessing the appropriateness of these options as a means to improve household profitability or rehabilitate rangelands, one must first understand the causes of rangeland degradation (Harris 2010) because poor appreciation of the relationships between livestock production and rangeland condition has already led to misunderstandings among herders (Han et al. 2008). The purpose of this chapter is to examine the changes in livestock management and grassland condition that have taken place in Sunan Yugur Autonomous County, Gansu Province, over the past 2 decades. By using a combination of government statistics, household surveys to assess the current financial situation and discussions with herders about their livestock management practices, we hope to better understand the causes of degradation in this region and why herders continue to over graze their rangeland. Once we will have a clearer picture of herders’ needs and their technological and financial capacities, we can develop programs that incorporate new management approaches into their livestock production enterprises. Just as importantly, we need to demonstrate to herders that although their incomes may be reduced for a short time after switching practices that restore rangeland condition, incomes will improve in the longer term (Han et al. 2008).
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1.2 Qilian Mountains: General Perspective of Study Area With World Bank and Global Environment Facility (GEF) support, research was undertaken in the Sunan Yugur Autonomous County which is located in Qilian Mountain area on the northeast margin of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. The Qilian Mountains consists of a series of parallel mountain ranges and broad valleys that extends for several hundred kilometers with a NWW to SEE direction and forms the border between the Qinghai and Gansu provinces and the western side of the Hexi Corridor. This major alpine pastoral and forestry area has elevation ranging from 2,200 to 5,500 m. Its extensive snow coverage and glaciers are the major source for several of China’s inland rivers including the Heihe, Shulehe and Shiyanghe (Pan et al. 2010). The climate of Qilian Mountains is classified as a temperate continental mountainous climate controlled by the Mongolia anticyclone in winter and the continental cyclone in the summer (Zhou et al. 2007). This atmospheric circulation pattern results in very cold winters and warm summers with annual rainfall ranging from 500 mm at altitude exceeding 4,000 m to <100 mm in parts of the Hexi Corridor (Li et al. 2000). The difference in precipitation between summer and winter is large, and most of the annual precipitation occurs in summer. The precipitation is highly variable both within and between years. Influenced both by climate and terrain, the prevalent vegetation types in the Qilian Mountains area are forests and alpine meadows and steppe. The main species found in the 157,000 ha of native forest include spruce, cypress, poplar and willow while the alpine rangelands are considered to be of high conservation value because of their rich biodiversity and role in soil erosion control (Chen et al. 2007). Both forest and rangeland resources are under siege. During the past 50 years the forest resource has receded upward from an altitude of 1,900–2,300 m (Wang 2004). This 16% reduction in forest has weakened the water conservation function causing deterioration of Hexi basin ecosystem (Zhou and Yang 2006). Animal husbandry has supported nomadic pastoralists in the Qilian Mountains for thousands of years. Livestock grazing with hardy, cold tolerant animal breeds such as Tibetan sheep and yak still offers the most feasible land use as cropping is not practiced in most areas of the Qilian Mountains because the high altitude and the harsh environment. Due to rapid increases in livestock, over-grazing has reduced the dominance of palatable grasses, increased the proportion of unpalatable and poisonous weeds and reduced ground cover (Zhou and Yang 2006).
1.3 Sunan Yugur Autonomous County Sunan Yugur Autonomous County (37°28¢ to 39°49¢N; 97°21¢ to 102°13¢) which is located in the middle section of Qilian Mountains on the southern edge of the Hexi Corridor in Gansu Province (Fig. 1) became a county in 1954 (Zhou and
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120,000
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Fig. 1 Location of Sunan County in Zhangye Prefecture of Gansu Province (After Longworth and Williamson 1993)
Fig. 2 The change in trend of human population and livestock number in Sunan County between 1954 and 2005
Yang 2006). With a land area of 2.4 million hectare and a current population of only 36,450 (Fig. 2) Sunan County is considered to be sparsely populated by Chinese standards. Due to special family policies and the traditions of the Yugu, Tibetan, Hui and Mongol minorities, the population has changed little since 1978 (Fig. 2). More than 67% of the population derives their livelihood directly from agriculture (Wu 2001).
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The altitude of Sunan County ranges from 1,400 to 5,560 m with 90% of the landscape categorised as mountain areas and the balance as undulating to hilly plains (Wu 2001). Winters are cold with an average January temperature of −12.5°C and summer temperature are moderate with a maximum of 27°C in July. Long-term annual rainfall averages 325 mm with most rainfall received in the June to August period. Evaporation exceeds 1,600 mm/year. Temperature and precipitation are highly variable spatially and temporally. Sunan County has experienced serious droughts in recent years with the lowest rainfall of 150 mm/year in the past 30 years recorded in 1991 (Fig. 3). The impact of climate on rangeland condition is discussed below. Like most counties that are located in the Qilian Mountain area, Sunan County has a large area of usable rangeland resource (1.4 million hectare) accounting for ~58% of the county which is equivalent to an average of ~38 ha/person. This is about equally divided into spring/winter and summer/autumn grasslands (Table 1). Rangelands are classified as alpine meadow and alpine steppe vegetation with average ground cover of 50–60% and fresh biomass production of 1.0–1.3 t/ha/year.
Fig. 3 Rainfall (mm/year) for Sunan County, 1986–2006 Table 1 Land use patterns in Sunan Yugur Autonomous County (Adapted from Wu 2001) Category Area (ha) Percent of total Rangelands: spring/winter pasture 914,600 38.1 summer/autumn pasture 785,400 32.7 Arable land 4,700 0.2 Sown pasture 6,700 0.3 Forestry 86,000 3.6 Housing/roads 2,500 0.1 Industry 4,700 0.2 Unusable land (including permanent snow 595,400 24.8 cap and watershed) Total 2.4 million 100.0 Sources: Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Department of Sunan County (1987); Bureau of Animal Husbandry of Sunan County (1999).
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Alpine meadows are dominated by sedges (Carex atrofusca, Kobresia spp.), grasses (e.g. Stipa spp. Festuca spp.) and forbs (e.g. Polygonum viviparum, Polygonum alatum and Potentilla spp.) present in varying proportions, depending on location, season and grassland condition. In over grazed areas, forbs and some seasonal toxic plants such as Oxytropis ochrocephala and Ranunculus pulchollus become dominant (Long et al. 1999). Alpine steppe which is found below 3,000 m on castanozem soils were originally dominated by Stipa spp. (including S. krylovii, S. breviflora, S. przewalskii and S. purpurea) depending on aspect and elevation (Hu et al. 1992). Traditional livestock production was based on locally available feed resources such as natural grazing during the short growing season, a limited amount of crop waste and browsing of senesced grassland during winter that generally has little to no feed value. Feed deficiency during winter remains the key problem of the production system that depends on natural grazing year round. This makes maintaining a balance between forage production and animal requirements a significant challenge for sustainable management in Sunan County. Due to a better match between livestock feed requirement and forage supplies from grasslands grazed using a transhumance grazing system (Yang et al. 2010), Sunan County has become the main production area for Gansu Alpine fine-wool sheep with a population exceeding 500,000 head and a county-wide output of 1,250 t/year of 21–22.5 mm wool with a scoured yield of 50%. The Sunan Fine Wool Association has created the wool brand called “Sai Mei Nu”. Despite unsuitability for crop production, 9,246 ha of grassland in Sunan County was cultivated between 1958 and 1961 as a result of the then China’s policy of emphasizing grain production as a top priority, irrespective of local conditions. As a result of poor yields, much of the area was abandoned and today only about 4,700 ha is planted to crops in Sunan County (Table 1, Zhou and Yang 2006). This means that unlike other areas of western China that experience warmer conditions, herders in Sunan County have little opportunity to grow fodders as feed supplements for livestock production due to both a scarcity of arable land and climatic conditions that are too cold and too dry for high quality forages such as alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Only small areas (<0.2 ha/household) of cold tolerant cereals such as oats and barley are grown in Sunan County. Further, due to remoteness and the poor condition of rural roads, the transportation of hay and feed supplements even from the nearby Hexi Corridor is difficult and expensive for small households. Similar to other pastoral areas in China, the Sunan County Government implemented the Household Contract Responsibility System (HCRS) in the mid-1980s. Under this policy all livestock and rangeland resources that originally belonged to the State and were used on a communal basis were distributed to each householder according to family size at that time based on a contract between government and herders (Dong et al. 2007). In Sunan, the spring/winter rangelands located near by the herders’ semi-sedentary houses were allocated as an encouragement to complete a sedentary lifestyle that improves animal husbandry, manages rangelands in a sustainable way, and ensures access to better health and educational services (Zhao et al. 2000). However, the rest of the rangelands situated in remote mountainous areas that are grazed mainly during the warm season are used as communal lands.
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2 Income and Expenditure of Herder Households in Sunan County Low investment and a lack of effective technology transfer are key constraints to the development of rangeland based livestock industries (Han et al. 2008). Currently, small household livestock producers like those in Sunan County account for 73% of China’s sheep production (MOA 2003). However, these impoverished herders often have insufficient skills and knowledge for making decisions in a market economy, and are unlikely to adopt innovations leading to sustainable livestock enterprises unless major barriers (e.g. information, credit or selling risk) are removed (Wu and Pretty 2004). This may increase income inequality because lower-income households are constrained from diversifying into new enterprises or adopt new practices whereas larger producers with access to credit and knowledge are likely to benefit from China’s livestock revolution (Kung and Lee 2001; Rae and Zhang 2009). The importance of these constraints was investigated by analyzing the financial situation of typical herder households at the county level using Sunan government statistics (1968–2008) and at the village level using information collected from household surveys conducted in Dacha village between 2005 and 2007.
2.1 The Income and Expenditure of Farmers in Sunan County (1986–2008) Mean income and expenditure for rural households in Sunan County (Table 2) show some of the broad changes that have occurred over the past 22 years. There has been an obvious increase in Chinese yuan (CNY) terms in household net income (6.2 times), total income (8.6 times), total business costs (16.4 times) and household living expenses (eight times). As pointed out by Rae and Zhang (2009) the nature of small household livestock production makes it difficult to account for some components of net income. For example, own consumption of livestock products is not included as income and income does not include the sale of animal byproducts such as manure. Despite this accounting issue, the data for Sunan County highlight the continuing importance of livestock production in this remote and less-developed region of China for both household food security and income generation through sales of meat and fiber. In 2008, livestock enterprises still accounted for >85% of household gross income, and unlike other regions of China where structural changes have seen a decline in the proportion of households raising livestock (Zhang 2006), the number of rural households in Sunan has increased (Fig. 4) indicating that few herders are exiting the livestock sector. More importantly, the data suggests that a large number of young people are staying in the county and establishing their own livestock enterprise which may poses challenges for future sustainability as the land resource available per household becomes smaller with successive generations.
Data source: Agriculture Investigation Team of Sunan County, 2009
Explanation of composition of household income and expenditure Wage income: the income from work off farm Operational income: the income from householder operating the farming enterprize Property income: it generated from the ownership of investment properties, including real estate and stocks Transfer income: the income mainly from government subsidies Operational expenditure: the expenses for operating the farm Expenditure for fixed assets: the expense for purchasing fixed production assets Expenditure for employee: the expense for hiring labor Expenditure for tax and fee: the expenses to pay tax and fee according to the government rules Property expenditure: the expense for buying or maintaining property Transfer expenditure: the expense for paying the public expenditure after farmers got the government subsidies Consumption expenditure: the expense for food, clothes, communication, health
Table 2 Mean income and expenditure of livestock producing households in Sunan County from 1986 to 2008 (unit: CNY/person) Year 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 Net income (excluding household expenditure) 704 734 2,636 3,639 5,028 Business Total income 921 1,208 3,511 5,721 6,773 Wage income 24 43 211 269 568 Operational income 830 1,126 3,178 5,212 5,980 Property income 28 14 26 25 55 Transfer income 38 25 96 215 170 Business Total business expenditure 217 474 875 2,082 1,745 Operational expenditure 136 168 564 1,555 1,410 Expenditure for fixed assets 33 145 79 135 103 Expenditure for employee 0 100 38 0 0 Expenditure for tax and fee 31 56 142 211 104 Consumption expenditure 456 493 1,562 2,779 3,618 Property expenditure 0 0 22 7 0 Transfer expenditure 17 5 30 174 128 Household Total consumption expenditure 456 493 1,562 2,779 3,618 2008 5,036 8,809 949 7,609 1 250 3,773 2,649 553 0 103 4,115 0 468 4,115
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27000 26500 26000 25500 25000 24500 24000 23500 23000 22500 22000
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Fig. 4 Relationship between the number of rural households and rural population in Sunan County, 1980–2006
Further evidence of the immobility of Sunan’s population is the small amount of income earned from off-farm employment. Although off-farm income has tripled since 2001, it still only accounts for 10% of income generation for households or individuals in Sunan County (Table 2) despite the attraction of off-the-farm work (higher wages and more steady hours). However, this may highlight a lack of access to off-farm jobs within the region rather than a lack of interest or willingness in gaining off-farm income. On the positive side, the large increase in farm expenditure and fixed assets suggests that herders are actively investing in infrastructure (e.g. livestock sheds, fences) and supplementary feed in order to increase their production efficiency through livestock specialization. The decision to invest in livestock enterprises is linked to two important factors – security and degradation. The implementation of the second phase of the Household Contract Responsibility System (HCRS) by the Sunan Government in 1991 was a significant event because it increased certainty in access to rangelands by extending the grazing user rights to 30 years. This provided a level of confidence to invest in infrastructure and training necessary to become specialized household producers. Reportedly, about 60% of all China’s rangelands have already been contracted, and out of this, 68% has been contracted to individual households (Li 2007). The second reason for investment in infrastructure is to shift livestock production from systems completely reliant on rangeland to more specialized pen feeding operations. This aims to reduce stocking rates because Sunan County’s livestock audit and rangeland monitoring show clear evidence of continued degradation since 1991 (Table 3), presumably due to high stocking rates (Fig. 5). Since 1996 when livestock number were at their lowest level since the 1960s due to a combination of drought and severe winters, the livestock population in Sunan has increased by 25% to over one million SUs in 2008 (Fig. 5). At the same time, gross income derived
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Table 3 Change in condition of Sunan’s rangeland resources from 1983 to 2003 Degraded rangeland area (× 104 ha) Total Total available degradation rangeland area Heavy Medium Light (× 104 ha) degradation degradation degradation area Year 1983 170.9 26.9 17.2 27.1 71.2 2003 142.8 33.3 22.4 33.6 89.3 Change −28.1 6.4 5.2 6.5 18.1
Proportion (%) 42 63 21
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Fig. 5 Changes on livestock numbers and herders’ gross income from livestock enterprises in Sunan County (1986–2008)
from meat and wool sales has increased six-fold to CNY 7,608/person in 2008. This increased income does reflect some positive changes in management that have increased turn-off rates. In the 1980s, for example, the turn-off rate in Sunan County was <18% because in the minds of the herders stock numbers was equated with wealth and they only sold animals, mainly adults, to purchase a few needed consumables such as salt and oil. However, with the development of market economy there has been a paradigm shift to an output focus with herders selling as many young fat animals which explains the current turn off rate of 36%, or twice in 1980s. In spite of higher household profitability and changes in livestock management more still needs to be done to halt rangeland degradation. Since 1983, monitoring in Sunan County shows that the area of excellent to good condition rangeland has declined from ~990,000 to ~535,000 ha. There was also a significant reduction in the area of usable rangeland (281,000 ha – Table 3) because forage production was too low to support grazing. The rate of degradation is occurring uniformally across condition classes and it is predicted that if this rate of degradation continues that by 2013 the area of heavy, medium and light degradation will exceed 96,000, 78,000 and 97,500 ha, respectively, and less than 164,000 ha of good condition rangeland will remain in Sunan County. Degradation on this scale has a significant impact on the carrying capacity of Sunan County through reductions in desirable species and
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Table 4 Loss of biomass production and grazing capacity in Sunan degradation over the period 1968–2001 Type Yield of rangeland forage (kg/ha) Plain desert Forest-pastoral Alpine Mountain Year zone zone steppe zone desert zone 1968 750–4,125 1,875–4,500 – 750–1,500 1983 330–510 1,350–1,875 510–750 870–1,050 2001 75–375 1,125–2,550 375–750 375–975
County due to rangeland Theoretical stock rate (×104 SU) 124.2 76.82 60
Range condition Excellent Good Fair
Source: Zhao (2004)
invasion of unpalatable or poisonous species. Statistics show that loss of biodiversity reduced the theoretical (or ecological) stocking rate by 600,000 SU between 1968 and 2001 (Table 4). Creating the opportunities to reduce stocking rate, but at the same time maintain household income is a vexing imperative because it is clear that continuing with current management systems is unsustainable. From an analysis of sustainable rangeland management in China, Groom et al. (2008) concluded that in order to achieve long-term sustainability, new programs should target policy issues such as land markets, increase tenure security and access to credit. Capital remains a significant constraint to the development of livestock industries. Current banking regulations make it almost impossible for commercial banks to lend money to poor farmers. Without completely reforming the banking system one of the ways to provide initial capital is through micro-credit projects (Li et al. 2004). This is why micro-credit projects have played a pivotal role in technology transfer to poor households in rural China (Park and Ren 2001). However, these are medium to long term issues. A more immediate approach is to re-designing livestock production systems to achieve a substantial reduction in stocking rate (Chapter 11 Michalk et al. 2010). Using precision management based on individual ew performance can significantly increase productivity through higher weaning rates, changing lambing time to better match available forage, and early weaning; all simple tactics that will maintain current household income with a smaller, more productive and efficient breeding flock. Other alternatives included investing in increased fodder supply to reduce their rates of overstocking and to seek to lease extra rangeland from other households who may wish to leave the livestock industry because of a higher potential for accessing off-farm income opportunities (Wilkes et al. 2010). However, these technical changes need to be supported by advisory programs and demonstrations aimed at providing the detail required for such changes to be effectively implemented.
2.2 Analysis of Herding Households in Dacha Village County based household statistics clearly highlight the broad issues facing livestock producers in Sunan. However, to better understand whether changing livestock enterprises or management practices within the current enterprises is feasible, it is highly desirable to analysis the issues with households at the village scale. Dacha
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village, located in Dahe Township in Sunan County, is a good example of the serious over-grazing problems typical of the Qilian Mountains region. The landform of Dacha village is characterized by steep slopes and peaks with an average altitude to 3,500 m. The climate is cold with average January temperature of −18°C and average July temperature of 10°C which restricts growth for the alpine meadow and steppe to a 40–60 day frost free period. The average annual precipitation varies between 340 and 400 mm. Attempts to improve management on the 15,554 ha of usable rangeland began in 2000 when allotments were contracted to individual households under HCRS. In 2006, Dacha Village was chosen by local government as a demonstration site for the Reduce Grazing Return Grassland program which was formulated by The Central Government in 2002 to recover and improve rangeland environments with grazing bans and rest grazing (Dong et al. 2007). Dacha village has 112 households of which 89 are herding families. The total number of livestock present in 2006 was 13,822 heads comprising mostly sheep. Household survey method: 30 herding households (representing 34% of herding households in Dacha village) were interviewed over a 3 year period (2005–2007) to obtain information about their livestock management practices, household income and expenditure, knowledge of new technologies for raising livestock, and their attitude to and effect of new government policies (e.g. ‘Grazing Ban’) on their livestock enterprises. They were interviewed one-to-one or in groups in their homes. Each interviewed used a semi-structured format in which each herder was asked a number of standardized open-ended questions with points of interest followed up where the need arose. This is the same survey approach successfully used by Nolan et al. (2008) to investigate local farming systems of the Loess Plateau in Gansu Province. Basic production resources of surveyed households: The area of rangeland contracted to each household in Dacha village was small, averaging only 364 ha (Table 5) which is lower than the county average (424 ha/household). Tibetan sheep are the dominant livestock type in terms of numbers, but yak account for a higher proportion (~53% depending on year) of the total livestock expressed in sheep unit (SU) equivalents (Table 5). The average number of SU equivalents/household on hand but prior to sale was 476 SU. The average annual turn off of sheep (33%) and yak (10%) averaged 101 SU/household that were either sold on the local market or consumed by the household themselves. Sources of Household Income: Herder households derived an average total income of CNY 27,510 from the sale of livestock products and other non-livestock sources (Table 6). Sales of livestock products accounted for >90% of household income whereas off-farm work such as labor for the construction industry, sales of Chinese medicines collected from rangeland and proceeds from assets generated
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Table 5 Average production resources for the herding households surveyed in Dacha Village, 2005–2007 Items 2005 2006 2007 Rangeland Area (ha) 364 364 364 Sown pasture Area (ha) 0.33 0.33 0.33 Annual DM yield (kg/ha) 8,767 8,767 8,451 Livestock Sheep on hand prior to sale (hd) 224 240 221 Number of SUs 224 240 221 Average turnoff liveweight (kg/hd) 30 30 30 Average wool produced (kg/hd) 0.91 0.91 0.91 Turn off rate (%) 33 33 33 Yak on hand prior to sale (hd) 59 66 66 Number of SUs 234 265 245 Average turnoff liveweight (kg/hd) 80 80 80 Turn off rate (%) 10 10 10 Total number of SU equivalentsa 458 505 466 0 31 35 Warm pen Increase in area of high standard pen (m2) a Conversions rates to sheep units (SU): 1 sheep = 1 SU; 1 yak = 4 SU
Table 6 Average income structure of households (Unit: CNY/HH) Items Income from Sale of animals Livestock Sale of animal produce Activities Sale of crops Subtotal Percent of grand total Off farm work Income from non-livestock Side-line enterprise activities Income from asset or subsidy Subtotal Percent of grand total Grand total
surveyed in Dacha Village, Sunan 2005 21,897 2,460 670 25,027 93% 1,300 399 90 1,789 7% 26,816
2006 20,868 2,384 785 24,037 91% 1,280 345 640 2,265 9% 26,303
2007 23,431 2,875 801 27,107 92% 1,250 354 700 2,304 8% 29,411
h ouseholds will continue to receive compensation for 5 years based on both the productivity and area of grassland (Dong et al. 2007). Household expenditure: Household expenditure was subdivided roughly into regular cost that occurred year by year and irregular cost that included expenditure relating to larger investment on fixed assets (e.g. new fences, livestock pen construction and building new house) that did not occur every year (Table 7). Regular household expenditure which averaged CNY 14,548 accounted for between 53% and 67%, depending on year. Compared to non-rural families, expenditure on food by herder households is modest because they consume some milk and meat products themselves. However, herder households have a high level of miscellaneous expenses (>30% – Table 7) that includes a range of items including transportation, accommodation in near-by towns for children to access educational and work opportunities
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Table 7 Average expenditure of households surveyed in Dacha Village, Sunan, 2005–2007 (Unit: CNY/HH) Items 2005 2006 2007 Food 4,804 4,804 4,980 Regular household Health 939 1,197 1,267 expenditure Education 807 882 882 Communication (phone, internet) 1,279 1,302 1,333 Production means for current year 1,296 1,323 1,453 Water, electricity 410 410 413 Insurances 469 563 548 Miscellaneous 4,061 4,088 4,134 Subtotal 14,065 14,569 15,010 Account for grand total 67% 54% 53% Irregular household expenditure
Grand total
Fixed assets, such as warm pen and fence Rams and ewes Purchase house or build house Loan repayment Subtotal Account for grand total
323
2,794
3,423
484 645 5,371 6,823 33%
703 962 8,008 12,467 46%
687 965 7,986 13,061 47%
20,888
27,035
28,071
and hospitality during festivals for which Sunan people are well known. Health and education fees are also constantly rising. The irregular expenditure also covers investment in infrastructure needed to improve livestock production efficiency. This includes fencing allotments to prevent trespass grazing and implement rotational grazing as part of the agreed conditions of the grassland contract system and warm shed construction to undertake pen feeding to reduce grazing pressure on grasslands at critical times. Most of herders lack cash to invest in infrastructure and rely on various types of bank and personal loans. It was expected that one consequence of implementing the grazing ban would be that households would sell off livestock to establish a feed balance to match the reduced availability of grazing land. However, rather than significantly reduce livestock numbers all households significantly increased their loans in 2006 (Table 7) to extend the size of their warms sheds and feeding pens (Table 5). The terms of these loans of 1–3 years for repayment are unsatisfactory for investment in livestock infrastructure which requires much larger amounts of credit than is the case for crop production systems. Net household income: Net household income was calculated as: Net household income = Total income (Table 6) – business expenses (which includes irregular expenditure plus costs of communication, water, insurance and production means – Table 7). Calculations show that household income was reduced by ~30% following the changes to grazing patterns compared to the profit of ~CNY 16,539 in 2005. However, households have not changed their spending patterns which meant that they have made no savings since 2005. However, with new infrastructure in place households are in a position to raise better quality animals in future years.
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Table 8 Total feed balance for the 30 households surveyed in Dacha village, Sunan County, 2005–2007 Item 2005 2006 2007 Winter and spring range (ha) 4,798 4,798 4798 Grass yield from winter/spring range (kg DM/ha) 920 1,020 923 Grazing period at winter/spring range (days) 210 210 210 Area of artificial pasture (ha) 9.97 9.97 9.98 Output of artificial pasture (kg DM/ha) 8,767 8,767 8,451 Actual stocking capacity at winter/spring range (SU) 10,826 11,974 10,835 Theoretical stocking capacity at winter/spring range (SU) 8,989 9,941 8,979 Feed balance status at winter/spring range (+/−) −20% −20% −21% Summer and autumn range (ha) 6,115 6,115 6,115 Grass yield from summer/autumn range (kg DM/ha) 600 653 594 Grazing period at summer/autumn range (days) 150 150 150 Actual stocking capacity at summer/autumn range (SU) 13,748 15,150 13,698 Theoretical stocking capacity at summer/autumn range (SU) 11,550 12,570 11,529 Feed balance status at summer/autumn range (+/−) −19% −21% −19% Actual stocking capacity for whole year (SU 24,574 27,124 24,533 Theoretical stocking capacity for whole year (SU 20,539 22,511 20,508 Feed balance status of whole year −20% −21% −20% Note: The utilization ratio for winter and spring range is 75%; for summer and autumn range is 85%
Feed balance in Dacha village: The financial analysis indicates that Dacha herder households have accepted that it is not feasible to use the traditional systems of livestock production are no longer viable and have invested in the infrastructure to adopt pen feeding and rotational grazing as alternatives production strategies. An assessment of feed balance was undertaken as part of the household survey to gauge the short-term impact on rangeland condition by changing to a more intensive livestock production model. It was clear that prior to implementing the second phase of responsibility management that winter/spring and summer/autumn rangelands in Dacha village were both utilized at rates 20% above the theoretical stocking rate (Table 8). To achieve feed balance in Dacha village, the current stocking capacity of 476 SU/household needs to be reduced by 20% to 380 SU/household. Assuming a weighted average turn-off rate of 21% (based on 33% for sheep and 10% for yak) and a sale price of CNY 244, sheep and yak sales would generate an average household income of CNY 19471 which is of the same order as current income from livestock sales (Table 6).
3 Why Then Are Households Still Over-grazing Dacha Village Rangeland Resources? To formulate effective agricultural policies it is necessary to understand the structure and operation of particular management regimes (Dong et al. 2007). This chapter has provided a concise summary of environmental condition, management
11 Herders’ Income and Expenditure: Perceptions and Expectations Table 9 Change in biomass of different grassland type in Sunan County, fresh material/hectare) Grassland type 1986 2006 2007 Alpine meadow 4,140 1,885 2,053 Alpine shrub-meadow 2,640 2,159 2,480
249 1986–2009 (Unit: kg 2008 1,146 2,281
2009 1,667 2,356
Data source: Gansu Grassland Station (2009)
systems and financial situation of herder households in Sunan County. The analysis has shown that Sunan livestock producers, like producers elsewhere in western China, have pushed their livestock numbers beyond the sustainable carrying capacity to maintain their own financial security by providing livestock products to satisfy the rapidly increasing demands for pastoral products. However, the analysis also shows that these same producers are acutely aware that rangeland degradation has reduced productivity, biodiversity and environmental values. Evidence from Sunan County (Table 9) indicates that the alpine meadows are most seriously degraded because they are more accessible than the higher altitude alpine scrub meadows. Bedunah and Harris (2002) also reported substantial rangeland degradation in the western section of the Qilian Mountains. Just as important as biomass decline, is the negative trends in species composition associated with stocking rate in which valuable and palatable grasses are lost and replaced by low quality forbs and poisonous plants (Zhao et al. 1988, 2002). Herders in Dacha openly attribute these negative changes to increased grazing pressure that they believe coincided with the implementation of the HCRS for grasslands began in 1985 (Dong et al. 2007). More importantly, the financial analysis of Dacha village households clearly shows a desire to change livestock production methods to arrest rangeland degradation in Sunan County. This is evident in the investment herder households have already made in new infrastructure such as fences and warm sheds as has also been the case throughout much of north-west China. Dong et al. (2007) reported from an extensive survey of livestock producers across China’s major rangeland regions that herder households in the north-west gave the highest endorsement to adopting new grazing practices (including ‘Grazing Ban’ – 95%) and rearing livestock in sheds (72%) in spite of the acknowledged difficulties and costs incurred in procuring alternative feed supplies. Yet, the fed balance analysis for Dacha village indicates that little change has taken place in terms of livestock numbers that were still well in excess of the sustainable grazing capacity (Table 8). Does this suggest that the combination of grazing and livestock management practices recommended and demonstrated in Dacha village are ineffective? Are the incentives and motivations which are important driving forces for the effective implementation of land reform policies (Swallow and Bromley 1995), insufficient to cause producers to abandon traditional methods and fully adopt new practices? Or are the Dacha herders just taking their time to test their capacity to manage livestock in a new way in this pastoral area where there are few alternative agricultural options? Extension workers also interviewed by Dong et al. (2007) reported that technical training in a wide range of activities including forage management, grazing
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anagement, animal feeding and breeding, marketing and alternative enterprises m was a key component to effective implementation of change in the livestock industry. Currently, the rangeland industry comprises small businesses, large markets and a low level of technology and it is difficult for herders to grasp a new initiative for livestock production while they are caught up in the existing systems and market places (Han et al. 2008). A substantial part of the GEF project in Gansu was to encourage herders to actively participate in training courses, workshops and farm demonstrations in which individual experiences were freely exchanged. Herders were also kept well informed of results from demonstrations through electronic and print media. However, this training was focused largely on fencing winter areas and associated management tactics, controlling rodents, and the use of warm sheds for lambing. As Harris (2010) rightly points out that there is still more to be done in simple technology transfer in key components of livestock production such as improving flock structure so that male-female ratios maximize off-take and adopting animal monitoring to increase individual reproductive and/or growth performance. It is an imperative that financial support is continued for participatory training programs to maintain momentum for sustainable development of production systems in the Qilian Mountains.
4 Conclusions Due to this severe degradation, the sustainability of livestock production is now in question (Zhang et al. 2007) unless solutions are found to maintain or improve household income with fewer animals being dependent upon the grassland and increased efficiency is achieved through better livestock management. The analysis of Sunan County and Dacha village in particular, confirm that over-grazing is a prime cause of rangeland degradation. This is the same conclusion reached by others (e.g. Ning et al. 2004, Wang et al. 2006, Han et al. 2008, Wilkes et al. 2010). Despite this clear evidence herders seem to knowingly continue the pattern of the ‘tragedy of the commons’ by grazing rangelands at stocking rates well above those considered to be sustainable. In a sense herders are responding rationally to the combination of economic and political incentives by choosing the management system that generates the most benefit at least risk for themselves and their families (Harris 2010). Harris concludes that “the lack of power to negotiate higher prices for produce and … lack of secure land tenure have favored short-term benefit over long-term perspective of rangeland sustainability.” This indicates that overgrazing is inevitable unless the income generating opportunities are improved. The combination of technology and the market are fundamental to responding to herders’ demands for more livestock management options to enable a shift away from continuing to overexploit the already degraded rangelands (Han et al. 2008). If herders profit from growing animals faster and producing heavier better quality carcasses this could function as the market mechanism to limit stocking densities
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(Harris 2010) and stimulate the development specialized production systems with efficiency and product quality as clear production goals. In contrast, unspecialized households while still ensuring food security for the household will only ever supply the low-value market segments (Rae and Zhang 2009). The genesis of this transition to specialization of livestock production is already evident in Sunan County where herders have invested in basic infrastructure needed to change practices from a local multi-purpose activity to an increasingly marketoriented business (Li et al. 2008). By empowering herders with new technical knowledge through targeted training and increasing their confidence and decisionmaking skills through effective on-farm demonstrations, we believe that new innovative production systems will emerge that improve household incomes with fewer animals being dependent upon rangelands thereby providing opportunities for grassland rehabilitation. Acknowledgement Thanks are due to the project officers from Sunan county and to the Grassland Monitoring station staff for assistance and providing data. Special thanks to the herder families of Dacha village who participated in the survey that made this report possible.
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Chapter 12
Land Tenure: Problems, Prospects and Reform Wang Meiping, Zhao Cheng-zhang, Hua Limin, and Victor Squires
Synopsis An overview of grazing user rights (GUR) assigned to households or to kin-related groups to more easily regulate access to grazing and other rangeland resources (water, fuel wood). Several alternative models of tenure are outlined. Three contrasting models were tested in Gansu as part of the World Bank/GEFfunded project. Implementation problems are discussed. There is a focus on an evaluation of a community based management plan involving 67 households grazing 1,170 ha in Gansu. Key Points 1. The introduction of rural reforms including the Household Contract Responsibility System (HCRS) began in the early 1980s. HCRS was modelled on the successful reform of cropland tenure but its implementation on rangeland was more complicated and there is room for further changes. 2. HCRS was intended to clarify the rangeland tenure, but it did not bring about a successful result with regard to rangeland as it had done for cropland in south and east China. Rangeland has many different characteristics to those of cropland. 3. The success of any policy depends on how the policies are implemented locally. China’s experience is that there was a wide range of responses to the national policy and that considerable variation existed in the way it was implemented by local government. 4. Further reform in rangeland management was pushed forward by official concerns of desertification tendencies. The amount of pasture land now in use in NW China is certainly less than was in use prior to 1949. This is due to several Wang Meiping and Hua Limin Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China Zhao Cheng-Zhang College of Geography and Environment, North West Normal University, Lanzhou, China Victor Squires (*) University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia e-mail: [email protected] V. Squires et al. (eds.), Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7_12, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
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big scale rangeland conversions and the subsequent increased grazing pressure on the rangeland. 5. Evidence from within the GEF project counties in both Gansu and Xinjiang indicates that overgrazing became a problem with the introduction of Grassland User Rights (under the HCRS) since the early 1980s. Arguments that this is simply a population problem is only a partial explanation; planned community relocations, confused User Right policy interpretations and exploitation of this by the local elite, and the active encouragement by the Animal Husbandry Bureau to increase levels of livestock production was another side of the problem. 6. The optimum use of rangelands still provides considerable conceptual difficulties for land use planners and policymakers. Because traditional herding exploits natural processes rather than attempting to control them, as is the case in cropping or intensive animal husbandry it favors flexible and communal land rights rather than private land tenure and it requires some “fuzzy logic” and site-specific investigation and planning. 7. Property right regimes represent social controls that influence the benefit streams that people receive from natural resources. By defining the context within which households operate, property rights regimes provide incentive frameworks within which local befits are realized and created through use and management of livestock. 8. Three different models were tested in counties in Gansu and the outcomes have considerable value to those who are seeking to bring about tenure reform. 9. China’s revised Grassland Law (2003) arguably provides legal space for these, and other, alternative models. However, for the future of community-based grassland management to be secure, implementing agencies need to be more aware of these alternative models and have the willingness and capacity to adopt a flexible and participatory approach to grassland policy implementation. Keywords Collective land ownership • house-site usage right • stocking rate • Gansu • Xinjiang • household contract responsibility system • Tibet • state ownership • Grassland Law • community-based management • privatization • usufruct • trespass • open access grazing • collectivization • modernization drive • mobility • migratory cycle • rangeland management
1 Introduction The development of the current regulatory framework for management of rangeland resources in China began in 1949. Prior to this, there were family, tribal and other traditional systems of grazing management (Wang et al. 2010). Under the State ownership regime that prevails throughout China, the State holds all the rights while pastoral communities are transformed to mere users of the resource. This situation, which has been very much criticized, was considered by many (Banks 2001; Williams 1996; 2002; 2006; Humphrey and Sneath 1999; Wu and Richards 1999) as the main factor that led to rangeland degradation.
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The emphasis in government policy since 1949 has been to increase animal production and economic output from the rangelands. There is continuing pressure from the State to foster economic development as part of reform and the opening-up agenda first put forward in the 1980s. The introduction of rural reforms in the early 1980s including the Household Contract Responsibility System (HCRS) led to economic benefits but it is widely believed to have accelerated the environmental degradation of rangeland (Banks 2001; Han et al. 2008). The rangeland-based animal husbandry system that applied before collectivization was stable but there were low economic returns to herders (Brown et al. 2008; Squires et al. 2009). The success of any policy depends on how the policies are implemented locally (Yeh 2004). China’s experience is that there was a wide range of responses to the national policy and that considerable variation existed in the way it was implemented by local government (Wu and Richards 1999). Further strengthening of national polices on the environment and specifically on better management of land resources followed the early disappointments associated with the Grassland Law (1985) and its implementation. The problems of rangeland degradation, overgrazing and desertification have become issues of serious concern for the Chinese government since the beginning of economic reform. This led to revision of the Grassland Law in 2002.
2 Management Based on Enclosure and Stocking Rates Further reform in rangeland management was pushed forward by official concerns of desertification tendencies. The amount of pasture land now in use in NW China is certainly less than was in use prior to 1949. This is due to several big scale rangeland conversions (Chapter 1, Squires and Hua 2010a; Chapter 2, Squires and Hua 2010b) and the subsequent increased grazing pressure on the rangeland. Current Chinese government policy is to make herders responsible for specific tracts of land. This privatization of responsibility falls short of outright ownership. Land use decisions and risk management strategies in much of NW China are now personal choices for which the State accepts no blame. However, it is the State which allocates land, and recent anthropological fieldwork suggests allocations go to those who enjoy good personal connections. Once land is allocated, equitably or not, those with the biggest herds and best connections continue to run their animals on the remaining commonly owned land for as long as possible, reserving for emergencies their own allocated areas, fenced off with finance from an agricultural bank made possible only by utilizing their government connections. Only when there is no alternative is the personal fenced area grazed. Further fencing of the rangelands is proceeding as funds become available (Williams 2006, 2002; Zhang et al. 2007). However, the worsening effect of desertification was not relieved after the implementation of HCRS (Williams 2002). In 1994, over one third of usable rangeland had been reported as being degraded to some degree, while total biomass production per hectare had declined to 30–50% of that in the 1950’s (Li 1993, 1998). Rational
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use of rangeland was not realized after the implementation of HCRS as it is assumed would happen. Hence, it is not surprising to see that rangeland conditions have not improved under HCRS. HCRS was intended to clarify the rangeland tenure, but it did not bring about a successful result with regard to rangeland as it had done for cropland in south and east China. Rangeland has many different characteristics to those of cropland. A farming household invests in a fixed piece of cropland and harvests from this same piece of land. One does not intrude on another household’s land for cultivation. Therefore, the land tenure in cropping areas was clarified by HCRS. However, the rangeland is immense and spatially diverse with different rangeland types widely dispersed. Even if HCRS nominally divided rangeland to individual households, without fencing, one family’s animals might easily cross proposed boundaries to graze another’s rangeland. Consequently, many disputes arose. Additionally, in many places, HCRS was only a “partial” contract that obviously encouraged ‘grazing in common’ practices and discouraged investment in pasture conservation and improvement by individual households (Longworth and Williamson 1993: 321). By allocating exclusive and long term use rights of rangeland to individual households, HCRS realizes partial privatization of pastures. This ‘privatization’ of rangeland was thus invalid and it actually created the very basis of “Tragedy of the Commons” expounded by Hardin (1968) by having private animals with open access to common rangeland. In addition, there is a strong conviction among specialists and in administrative circles that the rangelands are overgrazed and that overstocking is the cause of the widespread land degradation, even though statistics of livestock numbers show no big growth in the 1980s. To tackle this problem, enclosure of the householder’s rangelands and appraisal of rangelands in terms of stocking rates were required to be carried out by the local government. This enclosure was generally carried out between around 1995 and 1997 in most counties in Inner Mongolia but there were delays in implementing it throughout the whole of NW China. Evidence from within the 18 GEF project counties in both Gansu and Xinjiang indicates that overgrazing became a problem with the introduction of Grassland User Rights (under the HCRS) since the early 1980s. Arguments that this is simply a population problem is only a partial explanation; planned community relocations, confused User Right policy interpretations and exploitation of this by the local elite, and the active encouragement by the Animal Husbandry Bureau to increase levels of livestock production was another side of the problem. Banks (2001) Ho (2000, 2002) and Williams (1996, 2002) also show that individual enclosures and the implementation of HCRS since 1983 have largely failed to bring about significant improvement in either ecological stability or the quality of life for farmers and herders (Banks 2001; Williams 1996, 2002). These conclusions were based on the premise that the establishment of individual household tenure will give pastoralists the incentive to stock pasture within a ‘carrying capacity’ (Chapter 9, Zhang et al. 2010; Chapter 10 Wu, Squires and Yang 2010) defined by techno-scientific principles and invest in pasture improvement (Banks 2001: 718).
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The problem is clear, User Rights has been a knotty issue because it has been discordant with the social, cultural and economic realities of herders; the characteristics of natural resources, customs and social values, etc., along with the broader institutional environment (Banks (2001: 719). Thus, Banks correctly concludes, issuing household User rights may not be the most effective or efficient institutional arrangement for natural resource management. There are other important considerations to ensure sound resource management. This includes secure tenure, equity and access, institutional credit, marketing, and legal protection (Williams 2002: 13). In any case, the community should be empowered to protect the commons from encroachment, regulate seasonal movements between pastures and arbitrate in local disputes. This would redirect emphasis on the importance of flexible management strategies incorporating seasonal animal movement to make use of the best grasses in a given season or year (Humphrey and Sneath 1996: 13; Ho 1998). It is clear that herders in the project area see pasture as having a particular seasonal value; if there is snow, winter pasture does not require water but needs a good windbreak; spring pastures require a position on southern facing slopes where snow melts more readily and grasses grow quicker; summer pastures require access to water, while autumn pastures require particular grass species that promote lactation and fat accumulation (Williams 2002: 181). In fact, the enclosure system, despite the state’s modernization drive, is not the preferred option for most herders residing in more densely populated semi-pastoral areas. In terms of rationalization and economics, these herders have opted instead for continuing public or group herding arrangements that bring the community together as resource sharers (Chapter 14 Hua and Michalk, 2010). However, this runs counter to conventional microeconomics, which states that the non-excludability of others is seen as reducing incentives for investment in improvements and, even creating incentives for individuals to exploit natural resources, etc. Instead, herders argue that group herding means realizing economies of scale with respect to labor and least-cost institutional arrangements. This facilitates joint use of pasture and equitable access to resources, especially marginal and patchy grasslands that would otherwise not be easily sub-dividable.
3 Herders and Mobility China’s rangelands are home to many different ethnic groups. The survival of their cultures is intimately linked with the rangelands: rangeland resources provide their spirituality, culture in the broadest sense, and sustenance. They are an intimate part of finely tuned natural systems and are therefore very vulnerable to changes in their local and larger environment (Zhang et al. 2007). The annual migratory cycle has generally been driven by climate. Periods of prolonged drought or above-average rainfall regulated both settlement patterns and flock sizes. During drought, animals would die in large numbers and animal production would decline and the herders would be forced to become more mobile; wetter periods offered the possibility of settlement and perhaps some opportunistic cropping.
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Examination of mean annual rainfall during the past 50 years shows that decade-long cycles of wet and dry years are common (Lu et al. 2009). During wet decades such as the 1950s and 1970s cropping areas expanded only to be abandoned as conditions returned to normal. The herders traditionally had to constantly adapt their migratory cycles to changing situations. Until relatively recently, they only had to adapt to climatic fluctuations and changes in the resource base, but modernization, political intervention (e.g. transmigration of large numbers of Han people and the concomitant expansion of cropland), and subsequent accelerated resource degradation have complicated their process of adaptation. The failure to understand the importance of “actor perspectives” was the main reason for considerable reluctance among herders over the acceptance of scientific calculations of carrying capacity. The optimum use of rangelands still provides considerable conceptual difficulties for land use planners and policymakers. Because traditional herding exploits natural processes rather than attempting to control them, as is the case in cropping or intensive animal husbandry, it favors flexible and communal land rights rather than private land tenure and it requires some “fuzzy logic” and site-specific investigation and planning. Although we have already travelled a long way from the top-down transfer-of technology approach to range development that prevailed under the collectives and State farms, there are still challenges that have been created by the HCRS and the full implementation of the Grassland Law. There is still a lot of conceptual work to be done. This includes: • Reaching agreement on appropriate and universally accepted definitions and classification of rangeland types. • Gaining a better understanding of the capabilities and limitations of rangeland productivity. • Economic assessment of different range uses, and of complementarities and trade-offs between these uses. • Development of appropriate institutions for range management and for providing services, typically the Provincial and county-level Grassland Monitoring and Supervision stations have been charged with this responsibility but more capacity building needs to be done.
3.1 Enforcement Costs Enforcement costs arise in the case of non-compliance and are related to both local, traditional interpretations of property rights as well as the formal legal framework. Those engaging in the contract, and legal framework under which the contract is signed, must address the very difficult questions of who has both the responsibility and authority for enforcing compliance, what are the punishments for non-compliance, and who has the authority to extract punishments?
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4 Property Right Regimes Property right regimes represent social controls that influence the benefit streams that people receive from natural resources. By defining the context within which households operate, property rights regimes provide incentive frameworks within which local befits are realized and created through use and management of livestock. Although there are numerous types of property rights regimes, each with potentially different implications for resource management, for the purposes of this discussion we will focus on two aspects: spatial attributes and degree of exclusivity associated with property rights (Liu, Carter and Yao, 1998; Wang, 2006). Some herders have access to grazing over large areas that allow for transhumance use of grazing lands. In other cases, we find that tighter social controls govern areas where livestock maybe grazed, thereby restricting grazing activities to more defined areas. These differences in property right regimes add another dimension to the temporal variability. If herders have more choices regarding when and where to graze their livestock, they are allowed more degrees of freedom in dealing with environmental variability, and all other factors being equal, people with more options regarding where to graze will be able to sustain a higher level of stocking than people with fewer spatial options. Where property rights to potentially value−creating resources are not fully secure, potentially value−creating combinations of resources may not be realized. In addition to dictating where livestock are allowed to be grazed spatially, property right regimes may establish exclusivity by controlling how many livestock owned by whom, may be grazed on a given piece of rangeland. This may extend to “when” and “for how long”. In cases where there is no exclusivity of property rights, open access prevails and values of grazing may be dissipated through overuse (Cheung 1970). Under such circumstances we may see a “rush for spoils” rather than optimum stocking strategies. This has been observed in so many of the summer grazing lands in both Gansu and Xinjiang where accelerated land degradation has occurred in places like the famous Nalati grasslands in Xinyuan county, Xinjiang or around Lake Salimyu in Bole Prefecture Xinjiang where there is no real control of livestock numbers. It is this situation that has prompted the speeding up of the implementation of the Grassland Law and the supervision of the grazing user rights (GUR) but, as indicated earlier, there are problems with this too (Williams et al. 2009; Williams 2002; Bauer 2005)
5 Grazing Rights and New Tenure Arrangements Grazing User Rights (GUR) have been assigned to herder households on a 30 year tenure in most of northwest China under the Household Responsibility System and the Grassland Law of 2003 (Chapter 7 Long et al. 2010). Box 1 sets out the essential features of the Grassland Responsibility scheme. There are some problems with how these GUR are administered (Williams et al. 2009).
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Box 1 The grassland responsibility system The payable use of grassland responsible system clarifies property rights and use rights for herders. Herders contract with local governments for use of grasslands and the contract specifies the grassland type, area, estimated yield and theoretical carrying capacity, contract period and fees payable in return for the rights. The contract period is usually more than 30 years and the fees are determined by the grassland area and livestock numbers. The system was developed in three stages: at the initial stage (1980–1982) the contract only defined and assessed a fee based on livestock numbers; during the second stage (1983–1986) the contract defined and assessed a fee based on livestock numbers and defined a grassland area without an attached fee; the third stage (post-1987) separated the use right and the property right by charging the grassland use fee. Up to the end of 1999, 113 million hectares of grassland (36% of total usable grassland) has been contracted to herders across the country with most progress having been made in Inner Mongolia Autonomy Region which has contracted 82% (93 million hectares) of its usable grassland. It is generally considered that this system has improved the quality and sustainability of grassland management although it needs further improvement (enforcement of grassland use and carrying capacity is apparently weak, there is a need to develop management approaches which provide a venue for all relevant stakeholders – herders, relevant experts, government officials – to make informed management decisions regarding technical, environmental and other issues.
Recent innovative attempts to both improve and formalize collective and group tenure arrangements(Banks et al. 2003.) indicate that there is a wide range of different possible rangeland tenure-management models available, in addition to the household tenure – household management model currently emphasized in rangeland policy There are three main models under test in Gansu. The most formal is in Mayinggou village, Yongchang county (see below).
6 Evaluation of Current Practices and Policies in Rangeland Management in Gansu and Xinjiang 6.1 Land Tenure Models Under Evaluation in NW China Basically, there are three broad types of land tenure arrangements. Those that are: (a) with individual households; (b) contracted to a group of households; or (c) to an administrative group, e.g. a Village. Table 1 sets out a classification of potential tenure and pastoral arrangements for the pastoral lands.
Village
Household group
Households
Model 1 Individual HH contract Management by HH Each HH derives benefits from their own land (Ma Yinggou village is an example Box 4)
Model 2 Individual HH contract Management by HH group Resources shared communally based on HH and livestock population Model 4 Group contract Management by group Resources shared communally based on HH and livestock population (Wugou village is an example Box 2)
Table 1 A typology of potential tenure and management arrangements for the pastoral lands on NW China Management arrangements Tenure (contractor) Households Household groups
Model 6 Village contract (no internal land division) Management by village or collective of villages Resources shared communally based on HH and livestock population
Model 3 Individual HH contract Cooperative of individual contract holders for rangeland management Each HH derives benefits from their own land Model 5 Group contract Rangeland management by cooperative of HH groups Resources shared communally based on HH and livestock population
Village
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Several alternative systems for using the rangeland (both communal and land allocated under the HCRS) have been examined in selected counties in NW China over the past few years.
7 Case Study from Sunan County, Gansu Sunan has about 358,000 people (9,679 households) of whom 67% are farmers or herders. Average household size is 3.7 people and the Yugur people account for 55% of the population (10,000 people). Rangeland occupies 1.4 million hectares which is 59.5% of the total area.. The livestock population is comprised of 486,400 head of sheep and goats, 21,150 head of yaks and 200 head of camels (Gansu Provincial Rural Statistical Year Book 2005). Per capita net income is 5,086 yuan. All the livestock and 90% of the rangeland in the villages were allocated in 1983–1984 to individual households. All the livestock owned by collectives were distributed based on the number of the people in each household. Winter and spring pasture allocations occurred but summer pastures were not divided until later. In areas like Sunan, where
Box 2 A case study of pastoral households in the townships of Xueqan and Jiuchaigou, Gansu In a case study of pastoral households (Longworth et al. 1997) in the townships of Xueqan and Jiuchaigou in Sunan County, investment in rangeland improvements accounted for only 20% of expenditure. This pattern of expenditure occurred despite all of the rangeland in the townships being completely contracted out to households. Furthermore, degradation of the rangeland administered by Jiuchaigou Township was estimated to have increased by 68% in the same 6-year period. The issue of why herders in pastoral areas like Xuequan and Jiuchaigou townships have not chosen to capture increased returns through investments in their new rangeland “assets” is an important one, as it remains central to the development of sustainable production systems in the region. There are at least two plausible explanations for this apparently irrational investment behaviour. First, restrictions both on the sale of rangeland and on the transfer of user rights to the rangeland have tended to lower the attractiveness of rangeland related investments compared with other investments, especially investments in livestock. A second major factor contributing to a socially sub-optimal level of investment in rangeland conservation and improvement is the level of uncertainty regarding the permanency of new property rights arrangements. Since 1949, pastoral households have experienced significant and frequent political and institutional change and, as a result, there still exists a strong perception that the present arrangements regarding property rights are not as permanent as the State would like the pastoral households to believe.
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clear property rights are necessary for effective range management, the present property right situation is inadequate. The property rights are vested in the village collective and rangeland management and protection overseen by external bodies such the AHB and its Grassland Monitoring Station. It is difficult to envisage how land users can take any interest in making long term investments to maintain rangelands when property rights are not vested in organizations which they regard as their own. The experience in other townships in Sunan proved that user rights alone did not guarantee sound and sustainable management (Wang et al. 2010). Box 2 summarizes the experience from field work in Sunan county. Two other specific examples can be cited (a) Yumin county, Xinjiang where there is a cooperative agreement where two households rotationally graze about 200 ha of summer rangeland that has been fenced. (b) A further example is in Lianzhou, Gansu where an auction or competitive tender system applies for the right to use a large piece of summer pasture (Box 3).
Box 3 Rangeland contracting system in an agro-pastoral area of Gansu Wuguo Village of Liangzhou (Lat. 37.92°N Long. 102.6°E) is located in an agro-pastoral area with large areas of rangeland that has been poorly managed. The rangelands were grazed under a common use system and were severely degraded. Both herders and local officials have been seeking ways to get a better outcome for both the herders’ livelihoods and the rangeland sustainability. Given the variability in householder income the contract bid system was trialled as way to facilitate rangeland rehabilitation. The contract bid system was developed after consultation with householders and local officials. The contract bid system was conducted with principles of transparency, justice and equity to conform with the grazing user right guidelines. Technical training and pilot demonstrations for rangeland fencing, reseeding and rotational grazing were carried out in order to improve the level of rangeland management. A package of interventions was used. Solar panels and solar stoves were introduced as a measure to reduce the harvesting of fuelwood. High quality breeding cashmere goats were introduced to increase cashmere output but the higher production per head meant that fewer animals were needed to achieve it. After that the foliage cover in the fenced area increased from 40% in 2005 to 70% in 2008, and the average forage yield doubled. Goat numbers were reduced from 13,000 in 2005 to 8,000 in 2008. The production of cashmere per head increased by 0.2 kg/head, partly because of better livestock and partly because of improved nutrition. The contract bid system was judged a success. The district government released “Provisional Regulation for Rangeland Management Contract of Liangzhou District” as the policy for the whole district. The rangeland contract bid system has resolved the tenure problem in Wuguo Village and changed the situation of “No cost, no restriction, no responsibility” during rangeland utilization.
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8 Land Tenure Models Under Evaluation in NW China Participatory methods and tools (Chapter 9, Zhang et al. 2010) were introduced into China about 2005 and applied to the management of rangeland as part of the implementation of the World Bank/GEF project in Gansu and Xinjiang. A serious problem in many counties in NW China was created by grossly overgrazed rangelands and accelerated land degradation and falling household incomes because the herdsman pursued short term gains with no thought to the future – a situation closely resembling the classic “Tragedy of the Commons” expounded by Hardin (1968). Community-based management (CBM) is the principal way that the situation can be rectified. It depends on democratic consultation and the formulation of regulations to manage the rangelands and ensure equity in access. It is an attempt to improve the present unsatisfactory situation surrounding the Grazing User Rights (GUR) that have been assigned to households.
8.1 Group Herding in Yongchang County, Gansu: A Case Study of CBM in Practice The focus village was Ma Yinggou where 67 households have agreed to divide 1,170 ha of rangeland into eight blocks and each block is grazed by about flocks from six households. It was selected as the site for a demonstration to assess the feasibility of CBM in the local context.
8.2 The Impact of the Change in Tenure Arrangements The new tenure arrangements, where groups of households managed the rangelands, set the livestock numbers and the entry and exit dates, had an almost immediate effect. The changes to rangeland usufruct removed the disorder that had prevailed, eliminated the excessive use pattern, and provided the necessary conditions for rangeland recovery. After 2 years of the new tenure arrangements, the variety and production capacity of rangeland in Ma Yinggou village got better. Meanwhile, the livestock population and income of Ma Yinggou village have been changed (Chapter 9, Zhang et al. 2010). 8.2.1 Change in Dominance Index and Frequency of Rangeland Plants We surveyed the vegetation before and 2 years after the new arrangements were put in place to judge the rangeland vegetation recovery. There were more than 40 species, from Families such as Cypercaceae, Leguminosae, Gramineae, Compositeae
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Table 2 The changes in dominance and frequency before and after the imposition of the new tenure arrangements in Ma Yinggou village, Gansu (Zhao et al., unpublished data, not to be cited) Average superiority rate%a Average frequency% Before CBM+ After CBM Before CBM After CBM Pasture types Plant name Degraded 9 ± 1.2a 12 ± 0.8b 9 ± 0.91a 14 ± 0.28b Peganum harmala pasture Artemisia dalailamae 10 ± 0.6a 9 ± 0.7a 13 ± 0.37a 12 ± 0.43a Alpine Kobresia bellardii 17 ± 2.3a 27 ± 3.2b 8 ± 0.12a 18 ± 1.1b meadow Potentilla multifida 11 ± 1.6a 13 ± 1.0a 33 ± 0.6a 31 ± 0.22a 9 ± 1.5a 12 ± 1.7b 21 ± 0.26a 23 ± 0.52a Melilotoides ruthenicus var inschanicus Mountain Carex kansuensis 19 ± 1.4a 28 ± 3.2b 35 ± 0.72a 42 ± 1.11b meadow Poa pratensis 21 ± 3.0a 22 ± 3.0a 14 ± 0.93a 16 ± 0.85a Agropyron cristatum 36 ± 4.3a 48 ± 5.1b 66 ± 0.32a 79 ± 0.96b Oxytropis kansuensis 11 ± 0.9a 6 ± 0.4b 34 ± 0.65a 31 ± 0.88a 13 ± 1.2a 11 ± 1.1a 12 ± 0.71a 11 ± 0.92a Leontopodium alpinum, Stipa grandis 42 ± 5.3a 45 ± 6.0a 77 ± 0.2a 80 ± 0.18a Mountain grassland Aneurolepidium 13 ± 1.8a 21 ± 2.1b 59 ± 0.2a 70 ± 0.39b dasystanchys Artemisia frigida 15 ± 1.7a 16 ± 2.1a 14 ± 0.95a 13 ± 0.71a Aster tataricus 10 ± 0.8a 11 ± 1.2a 44 ± 0.36a 42 ± 0.5a Stellera chamasejasme 8 ± 1.3a 6 ± 0.7a 15 ± 0.45a 12 ± 0.73a 10 ± 1.4a 20 ± 0.32a 23 ± 0.54a Achnatherum inebrians 9 ± 0.9a a Contribution to total above-ground biomass + Community based management
and Rosaceae. The edible species in study area included Carex kansuensis, Stipa grandis, Agropyron cristatum, Aneurolepidium dasystanchys, Poa pratensis, Melilotoides ruthenicus var.inschanicus, Potentilla nivea and Artemisia frigida. The inedible plants included Stellera chamasejasme, Oxytropis glabra, Leontopodium alpinum, Aster tataricus and Achnatherum inebrians. Troublesome plants (weeds) contribute 50% to the total biomass, and Compositeae, especially Aster frequency was up to 44% (Table 2). After 2 years the dominant species changed and the dominance index of edible forage increased, and dominance index of weed and poisonous plants decreased; Plant frequency changed too: the average frequency of Kobresia bellardii, Carex kansuensis, Aneurolepidium dasystanchys, and Agropyron cristatum increased (Table 2). 8.2.2 Main Changes in Plant Community’s Character After 2 years of the average foliage cover and above-ground biomass increased everywhere except in BeiCha. Total plant density also increased except for Jie Daban and Lao Niugou. Foliage cover in Shen gou, Jie Daban, NanCha, Hong Shanwa increased
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Table 3 The main changes in biological characteristics of plant community before contract Before CBM After CBM Ground Ground biomass Coverage Density Coverage biomass (g/m2) (g/m2) (%) Place namesa (per m2) (%) MaLiangou (1) 65 39.28 2,736 67 40.48 Shen gou (2) 43 13.52 1,632 48 18.32 Jie Daban (3) 52 28.28 2,480 60 32.4 Lao Niugou(4) 70 37.76 2,308 74 42.28 NanCha (5) 70 59.44 4,908 82 65.8 BeiCha (6) 85 99.12 5,864 83 95.32 Hong Shanwa (7) 50 45.68 1,784 56 51.28
and after
Density (per m2) 2,820 1,708 2,420 2,296 5,076 5,928 1,850
Numbers refer to the allotments on the map in Box 2
a
by >10% (17.1% in NanCha). Cover showed a marginal increase (3.0%) in Ma Liangou but it dropped in BeiCha by 2.4%. The total above ground biomass increased at most sites except BeiCha (−4% drop). The largest increase was in ShenGou, up 35.5%, Ma Liangou with 3.1% was the least. Plant density also increased BeiCha, NanCha, Hong Shanwa, Jie Daban and Lao Niugou (Table 3). 8.2.3 The Changes in Rangeland Diversity Diversity is a composite indicator and it is closely related to the maintenance of ecosystem form and function and to resilience and stability. Diversity has importance in detecting changes in plant community succession that may have implications for rehabilitation and reconstruction of degraded ecosystems (Tilman 1996; Ma 1994, 1999). Species richness is one measure of diversity. The richness Index in Ma Lianggou (1), Jie daban (3), Nan cha (5) and Bei cha (6) have increased slightly. The richness Index is lower in Lao niugou (4) but is unchanged in Shen Gou (2) and Hong shangou (7). The richness Index in Nan cha (5) had the largest increase (up 20%) while that in Lao niugou was down 25% (Fig. 1). 8.2.4 The Impact of Household Contract Responsibility System (HCRS) on Livestock Breeding After the implementation of CBM in the study area the livestock population has changed. The number of mule and other livestock was unchanged essentially, goat and sheep numbers were reduced by 50%; and the ratio of goats and sheep has changed. Goat numbers have been reduced, and sheep have increased substantially. Until the CBM was implemented everyone had the right to use and to derive maximum advantage for the individual household (typical example of the Tragedy
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Fig. 1 The fencing of a saline/alkaic meadow in Suzhou county, Gansu, represents a case of a collective tenure and management regime. Grazing was banned and households adopted a more intensive system of livestock management involving fodder production and pen feeding. Access to the wetland resulting from such an arrangement is effectively controlled by the village collective. The area on the right is subject to a grazing ban and is recovering
of the Commons). After implementation of CBM the new usage right changed the mind set of householders and the consciousness of rangeland ecosystem improved. Herdsman reduced flock size and some households abandoned stockbreeding. During the period from 1985 to 2007, the livestock population increased from 1,251 to 3,956 in Group 1 and from 2,162 to 5,025 in Group 7. These increases were 1.3 times and 2.2 times, respectively and the average annual growth rate of the livestock population from 1985 to 2007 is respectively 38.4% and 24.5%; Since 2007, livestock numbers have declined by 54.6% and 56.6%, respectively (Fig. 2). The changing flock size and distribution among households underwent changes (Figs. 3 and 4). 8.2.5 The Impact of Community-Based Management (CBM) on Livestock Structure As Table 4 shows, after CBM was implemented, the number of sheep and goats in two groups dropped by 54.6% and 56.6%, respectively. Most of the reduction was accounted for by the reduction in goats (82.4% and 88.3%, respectively). After the reforms, goats represented 22.2 % of the total. The proportion of goats went from 60.8% to 16.4%, and sheep increased from 39.2% to 83.6% (Table 4).
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Fig. 2 The changes in species Richness index
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Fig. 3 Changes in livestock number in Group 1 and Group 7 over the period 1985 to 2009. Note the big decline after the new tenure arrangements came into effect as part of the Community-based management plan
8.2.6 The Impact of CBM on Household Income 1. The change in herdsmen household’s net income Selecting 15 herdsmen families from the study area we compared the reported net income of HH before and after CBM. We used a semi-formal interview technique and found that compared with CBM and post-CBM, the average household net income rose from 4,407 to 4,900 yuan (about 11.2%). Some households reported lower net income from livestock after the reform (Fig. 5). Ma Yinggou village is located in a farming-pastoral transition zone where family income is mainly from agricultural cash crops, livestock farming and work for others, transportation and catering provide sideline income.
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Fig. 4 The changes in the flock-size distribution among households before and after the tenure reform in (a) Group 1 and (b) Group 7 Table 4 The changes in livestock by sets of households (HH) in Group 1 and Group 7
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HH set Set1 Set2 Set3 Set4 Total Set1 Set2 Set3 Set4 Total
Before CBM Total Goat 394 245 733 420 1,580 855 1,249 748 3,956 2,268 1,020 654 1,310 762 1,480 886 1,215 751 5,025 3,053
Sheep 149 313 725 501 1,688 366 548 594 464 1,972
After CBM Total Goat 271 71 297 42 652 152 574 134 1,794 399 410 78 560 110 610 56 600 114 2,180 358
Sheep 200 255 500 440 1,395 332 450 554 486 1,822
Horse (mule) (Head) 12 14 15 14 55 15 17 15 13 60
Implementation of CBM caused a tremendous influence on net income, the questionnaire and interview showed that the proportion of derived from nonlivestock activities increased. Income derived from work for others increased by 140%, income from cropping increased 28.6%, other income increased 12.5%, and stock raising income was 40.4% lower by a large margin than before the contract (Fig. 6). 2. Change in income among households of peasants and herdsmen
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Fig. 6 The changes to sources of family income since the implementation of CBM
8.3 Problems and Suggestions for Management and Utilization of Grassland 8.3.1 The Analysis for Management and Utilization of Rangeland Before the CBM Before contracting, it was the sole meadow mainly in the Ma Yinggou. There were the following problems in the management and utilization of this rangeland. 1. Due to the fuzzy boundaries between groups and severe overlap of grazing, such as Jie Daban, Hong ShanWa, Ma Liangou, Serious overgrazing occurred, for example the overgrazed rate of No. one community and No. seven community in Ma Liangou was 1327% and 1534% respectively, The degree of rangeland degeneration varied the number and varieties of the excellent pasture species
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were reducing, and the pastures were being invaded with poisonous species and other troublesome weed growth. The pasture productivity was reduced and could not meet the livestock needs. 2. Goats numbers increased dramatically (more than 50% of all livestock) and this caused an accelerated rate of rangeland degradation. 3. Some farmers had favoured fencing of their assigned pastures but lacked strong organization and capital to extend the fence over a long distance, So the fencing could not be implement. Without the fence and/or good agreements between households, most farmers had no way of protecting the rangeland. 4. The phenomenon of illegal coal mining in rangeland was pervasive, and a very serious cause of damage to turf and accelerated soil erosion.
8.3.2 Analysis of the Questions Arising from CBM Implementation The purpose of a participatory approach in CBM is to advance the protection of the forage and the resource base on which it depends. And then to foster sustainable economic develop through a system of management, protection and utilization of grassland resources, that rationalized the user rights, stressed the duty of care and assured a profit to the group membership. A field survey showed that the following matters came to light after CBM implementation. 1. After the contracting, farmers reduced the number of breeding animals. Although the overgrazing rate was significantly lower than before CBM contracting was implemented, it was still overgrazed. 2. The pasture was divided without paying much attention to the differences in pasture productivity. Some seriously degraded grassland was included in the contracted area, such as the part of grass in Jie Daban where the grazing capacity was low and yet more than 3.33 per hm2 continued to graze there and intensify the rangeland degradation trend. 3. Based on the distribution of population, the rangeland contracting neglected the grazing capacity. In the planning process, all the cooperating farmers were divided into several equal groups and allocated approximately equal areas of land (See Box 4). Livestock numbers were not the same so there was considerably more grazing pressure on some than on others. 4. The absence of rules and regulations about illegal mining in the rangelands. There was absolutely no idea of illegal mining in the contract area when CBM was launched. The phenomenon of illegal mining was serious, mainly in NanCha, BeiCha, Lao Niugou and Huo Songlin. The survey showed that eight firms or individuals were operating there and that their vehicles caused considerable damage to the pasture (over an area of 13.33 ha), Over the whole area of Ma Yinggou 40 ha has been destroyed so far without compensation. 5. Farmers lack of awareness of grass growth and ecological principles and their enthusiasm for participation in training in these matters is low. In order to facilitate rangeland management and reflect the status of the herdsmen, we established the
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Box 4 Demonstration of alternative rangeland tenure arrangements in Yongchang County, Gansu Yongchang county is located at the eastern end of the Hexi corridor in Gansu in the agro-pastoral transition zone on the north slope of the Qilian mountains. Rainfall is about 260 mm supporting mainly mountain grassland and meadow grassland. With support of the World Bank/GEF project a demonstration involving 133 householders and 1,170 ha of rangeland was set up in 2006 to evaluate the benefits of community-based rangeland management on the health of the rangeland and on the livelihood outcomes of the participants. In the pilot village (Ma Yinggou), the pasture was originally communally grazed and degraded. After consultation and the agreement of the villagers the area was divided into eight fenced paddocks. Each paddock was contracted by about 15 householders to manage the community grassland. The farmers decided on the boundaries of each allocated parcel of land, where to put the fence, access road and drinking spot, etc. They fenced the pasture by themselves, and more importantly, each group worked out the corresponding management measures based on their discussion and evaluation on rangeland health. The grazing time and dates of entry and exit from the various pastures were also determined. The number of livestock that could be grazed by group members was assessed. This meant that some farmers had to make other arrangements for feeding their livestock (or sell the surplus). They were not forced to sell their surplus livestock but were excluded from grazing on the contracted rangeland. Some found that fattening animals in the pens was a viable option. Despite the reduction in livestock number there was an increase in farmer income and improved rangeland condition. The results over the 3 years of the trial showed that alternative tenure and grazing user arrangements can be an effective alternative to the individual grazing user rights. The fact that the farmers of Ma Yinggou village have decided to continue with the group grazing arrangement is a strong endorsement of the new system.
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Rangeland management association and about 80% of householders joined. Although the association absorbed a number of youth and women, they contributed very little to discussion at the association symposium because they lack autonomy and experience in groups. 8.3.3 Strategies and Suggestion to Promote Sustainable Utilization of Rangeland 1. Redefine boundary, avoid battles for grazing or prevent trespass grazing. The local government should redefine the boundary between the communities in respect of historical boundary conditions and built the fence to avoid forage stealing by others, especially trespass grazing by those outside the CBM agreement. 2. Adjustment scheme to reduce grazing pressures. Under CBM some grazing bans were imposed or the herders carried out rotational grazing in the severely degraded grassland, and adjusted the proportion of households without livestock to slow down the grazing pressure. 3. Make reasonable use of mining right and increase farmer’s compensation. The local government should make sure that full restoration of mining sites occurs when the mining permit contract expires, intensify punishment for illegal mining and formulate a fair and just compensation system for loss of forage caused by illegal mining. 4. Participatory rangeland management association should conduct (a) more education and training in order to guide the community residents to actively participate in CBM, especially women and children, (b) embark on further awareness-raising in the community about grazing management, ecology and sustainability, (c) improve the association’s service efforts, strengthening technical training of herdsmen, (d) offer effective reference data about rangeland monitoring methods and implications grazing, (e) guide the herdsmen to breed the livestock with higher economic benefit. Help reduce flock size by implementation of precision management (Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010) that culls barren or otherwise unproductive animals. 5. The local government must solve the problem of the transfer of surplus labor force which will promote the development of diversified economy income.
8.4 Discussion and Conclusion from Field Evaluation of CBM in Gansu 8.4.1 Analysis of Main Vegetation Species and Community Character Changes The contract system under CBM reduced grazing pressure and plant dominance generally increased, frequency increased. If grazing pressure is reduced, the average dominance increased and plant frequency increased slightly. The proportion of
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poisonous weeds accounted for 50% in the total of 16 species that recorded a frequency change. The most significant species were Oxytropis glabra, Leontopodium alpinum, Stellera chamasejasme, Achnatherum inebrians, Artemisia frigida, Aster tataricus. Changes in Artemisia dalailamae and Potentilla acaulis were not significant. After the implementation of CBM, which gave assured access to the designated pastures and avoided the battle for grazing and eliminated trespass grazing, the herdsmen decreased livestock numbers and reduced the overgrazing ratio. Plants had the opportunity to rehabilitate, grassland diversity and community characteristic changed significantly in Shengou, Ma Liangou, Lao Niugou, Nancha, Beicha and Hong Shanwa but the Jie Daban’s rangeland battle for grazing, trespass grazing and overloading is still severe (188%). Livestock grazing number in Jie Daban reached 3,956, because, without power to forbid breeding, the group was only able to reduce herd/flock size slightly after CBM was implemented. Aggravated rangeland degradation continues.
8.4.2 Changes in the Scale of Animal Husbandry and the Root Causes During the HCRS land contracting period in the late 1970s and early 1080s agricultural cropland was contracted to households and livestock was distributed according to the number in the household, but the rangeland resources was simply divided among the community, with no specifically fixed user right. So the herdsmen enlarged the scale of animal husbandry to take advantage of the open access grazing regime (Wang et al. 2010) that was created (perhaps as an unintended consequence of the land reforms). For example, the No.1 and the No. 7 communities of Ma Yinggou village enlarged 1.32 and 2.16 times respectively in the period before the implementation of CBM. Livestock numbers rose at a rate of 38.4% and 24.5% per year. After CBM the user right use was fixed to the household, and in the No.1 group and the No.7 group livestock number decreased by 54.6% and 56.6% respectively under the supervision of the government. This will help ensure the sustainable development of animal husbandry and protect the ecological environment. Herdsmen reduced the livestock number after the implementation of CBM because of: (a) productivity constraints and the change from an open access system to fixed user right; (b) large-scale farmers/herders with more than 100 livestock basically disappeared, and small-scale farmers number increased; A part of the small-scale farmers sold out, or subcontracted their livestock, which led to an increase in the number of non-farmers (c) A third factor was a sharp decrease in goats due to the goat’s destructive feeding habits and the introduction of the excellent sheep. The herdsmen decreased the proportion of goats, breeding efficiency was improved and fewer animals could generate more income.
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8.4.3 Influence of CBM on the Herdsmen’s Economic Condition User rights were adjusted and changed, which had significant effects on the farmer’s income structure and livelihood. They decreased the livestock numbers and adjusted the breeding structure to adapt to a production cycle that is long-term and yields lower but more stable returns. After CBM, herders managed livestock in a more holistic way and used rotational grazing within fenced paddocks, which led to a labor surplus. The surplus laborers engaged in agriculture, and do work for others, Off-farm income augments the animal husbandry farmers’ income, the farmer’s income base becomes diversified, total income increased dramatically. Wage income increased to 140%, cultivation income increased by 28.5%, other avocation income increased by 12.5%. Therefore, after the CBM plan was effected work income became the main income of the farmers.
8.4.4 Influence of the CBM on Excessive Grazing The policy makers introduced the HCRS in the 1980s to solve the problem of low efficiency and poor productivity from rangelands. Herdsmen, who considered the pasture as a means of production ignored sustainable utilization and were focused a lot more on the actual economic value of livestock. Overuse of the rangeland, which ignored the “take half, leave half rule” put the grass and livestock out of balance. Farmers as rational economic individuals, were seeking profit maximization. Although the production capacity continued to decline in the past decades, the herders, in order to improve their survival conditions, took pre-emptive action. Herdsmen increased herd/flock size and over-used the rangeland. The alternative land tenure arrangements that CBM encourages can do a lot to reverse the trend to constant overloading and in conjunction with better animal husbandry (Chapter 10, Wu et al. 2010; Chapter 14, Michalk et al. 2010) can raise farmer/ herder income. There are constraints that may reduce the impact of efforts to introduce the proposed community-based rangeland management (CBM). The proposed strategy framework that underlies the CBM requires that land users (herders and farmers) be sensitized to sustainable environmental management and accept restrictions on the use of renewable natural resources within a specific area. This framework goes somewhat against historic and traditional understandings that these resources (grazing land and water) are a “free” gift of the global commons. Overcoming this barrier (mind-set) is particularly important on a program that relies on the cooperation of the whole village in the formulation of integrated rangeland management plans and which is based on demonstration areas that represent a miniscule fraction of the entire rangeland area. The role of environmental education program in schools (Chapter 13, Zhao Hua and Squires 2010)
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is a vital one in that mind-set change is at the base of any real and lasting change in farmer/herder attitudes. As Brown et al. (2008) point out even where long-term (up to 50 years) leases have been allocated to households and fencing has partly facilitated exclusive grazing, it is not clear that individual household management of rangelands and livestock (pursuing self interest) will lead to efficient and sustainable practices. For some activities group management provides more equitable access to resources, can internalize local externalities and can be aligned with social settings and spatial complexity. Banks et al. (2003) and others, argue that the government should support community-based governance and institutional structures much more than in the past. Indeed much of the challenge is in protecting individual rights while also promoting group management where there is mutual benefit. Groups and village collectives however cannot be expected to deliver all the solutions. Some households have members of the family working outside rangeland areas, some are becoming increasingly commercialized, agistment and contract grazing1 is increasing, and traditions are breaking sown. Grazing systems, livestock and product types, and regulations have become increasingly complex and individual households may want to pursue farm/herd management systems different from that of their neighbors. The varied incentives and farm management methods of households could be expected to make it more difficult for local collectives and groups to apply uniform rules across the households. If these developments also lead to increased disputes between households or within the groups, traditional community mechanisms (through consensus style processes) may also be put under pressure (Brown et al. 2008: 264)
Much of the challenge for China is to create the institutional framework and economic incentives that encourage households to put into practice sustainable management systems consistent with practical or feasible opportunities as seen by the households. Notionally there are multiple opportunities and mechanisms for local people to provide input into the design of policies and regulations. In reality the top-down nature of policy processes in China “smother” any bottom– up input. If the rangeland-based livestock industry is to become more sustainable in the market economy there needs to be change in the way in which things are done. These changes include those listed in Chapter 3, (Squires and Hua, 2010). Some of these are directly related to animal husbandry (health, nutrition, genetics) and some relate to livestock nutrition. The policy environment (legislation, regulations) will continue to evolve at the national and Provincial level but it is recognized that village-level implementation, enforcement of regulations and dispute resolution must be part of the formula if sustainable use is to be guaranteed.
Agistment refers to paying others for the right to graze on their land and contract grazing means taking in other’s livestock for payment (often involving long distance seasonal migration).
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9 Summary and Conclusions With the dismantling of the commune system in the early 1980s, rangelands were typically allocated to whole villages or groups of households, varying in size from several hundred households to just a few. The area of pasture assigned to groups was crudely based on the number of commune livestock distributed to their constituent households at the time, which in depended on their household population or labor force. The legal and regulatory framework for grassland tenure has been evolving, with the 1985 Grassland Law providing an overarching (though somewhat ambiguous) framework. Subsequent regulations issued by the Grassland Division of the Central Office of the Ministry of Agriculture in Beijing, and provincial implementing regulations, have since provided more specific guidance.2 The issuance of user right contracts in many parts of western China is still in progress. For example, 94% of total useable grassland in Xinjiang3 has been assigned to individual households. Issuance has not necessarily been synonymous with the establishment of individual household boundaries in rangelands because often kin-groups graze several user-right areas in common. However, in cases where household pastoral tenure has been established, the proposed benefits have frequently not materialized (Ho 2005). The official rationale underpinning Chinese rangeland policy is that through the assignment of user rights to the individual household level, pastoralists will be given the incentive to stock their rangelands within biophysical limits and to invest in land improvements. Rangeland policy seeks to address issues related to land degradation through the establishment of household tenure and the derivation and external enforcement of household stocking rates. Drawing upon field research at a number of sites in western China, Banks et al. (2003) argue that the existing forms of community-based management (including collective and small group tenure) are advantageous, given the socioeconomic and ecological context. Among other things, community-based management can facilitate low-cost external exclusion, economies of size in herd supervision, equal access to pastoral resources, the mitigation of environmental risk, and the prompt resolution of grassland-related disputes. Recent innovative attempts to both improve and formalize collective and group tenure arrangements indicate that there is a wide range of different possible grassland tenure-management models available, in addition to the household tenure–household management model emphasized in grassland policy. China’s revised Grassland Law (2003) arguably provides legal space for these alternative models. However, for the future of community-based grassland management to be secure, implementing agencies need to be more aware of these alternative models and have the willingness and capacity to adopt a flexible and participatory approach to grassland policy implementation.
Explanations of draft PRC Grassland Law [Revised]. Beijing People’s Daily, 24 August 2002. According to Xinjiang Animal husbandry Bureau.
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In many parts of western China, individual household tenure in rangelands remains the exception rather than the rule. When former commune rangelands were distributed in the early 1980s, the general pattern was for pastures to be allocated to the administrative or natural village (“collective tenure”) or to small groups of often kin-related households (“group tenure”). Collective or group tenure arrangements have persisted across most regions and seasonal pastures. In Xinjiang, for example, group tenure arrangements were established in 1985 and although some of the original groups have subdivided, the average size of the groups has increased due to population growth (Banks 1999, 2001, 2002). Likewise in Tibet, rangelands have mainly been allocated to whole villages or groups of kin-related households, and these arrangements have largely persisted. However, there is an emerging trend for households to subdivide and fence winter and winter–spring pastures in the vicinity of their winter bases, especially in areas where extension inputs and government subsidies have been pervasive. This failure to effectively establish household tenure in China’s extensive rangelands, more than 2 decades after the initiation of rural reforms, contrasts sharply with the case of cropland areas, where household tenure was virtually established overnight. With regard to rural land tenure, there are many problems, such as allocation of user rights, ambiguity in the definition of user rights and imperfection in the implementation and administration of the system. Suggested reforms that would promote the development of the rural economy and realize the value of land, would require that the assigned right should be deemed as a property right and allowed to be transferred. The transferability of collective land ownership should be gradually established and the process of assignment to users should be further normalized. Meanwhile, the farmers/ herders must receive sufficient compensation. The house site usage right is a special form of right of usufruct. To follow the principle that property should be made best use of, the house site usage right should also be transferable. Land and related property rights will increasingly represent a critical issue in local development processes, and further assistance in the area should cautiously address these problems. On a more positive note, current research on rangeland ecology in Africa suggests that we have less to fear from pastoral land stewardship than was previously thought. On the one hand, the natural environments exploited by pastoralists are generally robust and resilient. And on the other hand, pastoral techniques of land management are not as dysfunctional as was once widely assumed. While regulation of pastoral activity may be necessary in specific circumstances, there no longer exists a broad scientific mandate to control or modify almost every aspect of pastoral land use in order to preserve the environment (Behnke 2008). Acknowledgement Thanks are due to Dong Xiao-gang, Ren Heng and Sheng Ya-ping graduate students North Western Normal University, Lanzhou who assisted with field work in Ma Yinggou village, Gansu, and for help with data analysis and translation. The GEF project provided funds to support this applied research.
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References Banks T (1999) State, community and common property in Xinjiang: Synergy or strife? Dev Policy Rev 17:3293–313 Banks T (2001) Property rights and the environment in pastoral China: Evidence from the field. Dev Change 32(4):717–740 Banks T, Richard C, Li P, Yan Z (2003) Community-based grassland management in western China rationale, pilot project experience, and policy implications. Mt Res Dev 23(2):132–140 Bauer K (2005) Development and the enclosure movement in pastoral Tibet since the 1980s. Nomadic Peoples 9(1):53–81 Behnke R (2008) Natural resource management in pastoral Africa. Dev Policy Rev 12(1):5–28 Brandt L, Li G, Huang J, Rozelle S (2001) Land rights in China: A comprehensive review of the facts, fictions, and issues, University of California – Davis, REAP Working Paper, February 2001 Brown CG, Waldron SA, Longworth JW (2008) Sustainable development in Western China: Managing people. Livestock and grasslands in pastoral areas. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 294 p Cheung SNS (1970) The structure of a contract and the theory of a non-exclusive resource. J Law Econ 13:49–70 Du Q (2002) Explanations of draft PRC Grassland Law [Revised]. Beijing People’s Daily, 24 August Han JG, Zhang, YJ, Wang CJ, Bai WJ, Wang G, Han GD and Li LH (2008) Rangeland degradation and restoration management in China. The Rangeland J 30:233–239 Hardin G (1968) The tragedy of the commons. Science 162(3859):1243–1248 Ho P (2000) The clash over state and collective property: The making of the rangeland law. China Quart 161:240–263 Ho P (2001) Who owns China’s land? Property rights and deliberate institutional ambiguity. China Quart 166(2):394–421 Ho P (2005) Institutions in transition: Land ownership, property rights and social conflict in China. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 273 p Humphrey C, Sneath D (eds) (1996) Culture and environment in Inner Asia: The Pastoral Economy and the Environment. Cambridge, UK, White Horse Press, Concord, MA Humphrey C, Sneath D (eds) (1999) The end of Nomadism? Society, state and the environment in inner Asia. Central Asia Book Series. Duke University Press, Durham, NC, p 355 Hua L, Michalk D (2010) Herder’s income and expenditure: Perceptions and expectations (Chapter 11, this volume) Li YH (1993) Grazing effects on the species diversity of Stipa grandis steppe and Leymus chinensis steppe. Acta Bot Sin 35:877–884 Li YH (1998) Degraded land: Its social economic dimensions. China Environ Sci 18:92–97 Liu S, Carter M, Yao Y (October 1998) Dimensions and diversity of property rights in rural China: Dilemmas on the road to further reform. World Dev 26:1789–1806 Long R, Shang Z, Li X, Jiang P, Jia H, Squires VR (2010) Carbon sequestration and the implications for rangeland management (Chapter 7, this volume) Longworth JW (1997) Chinese Agriculture Production, Supply, Marketing System Reform – the Case of Sheep and Wool. Longworth JW, Brown CG, Williamson GJ (1997) Second generation problems associated with economic reform in the pastoral region of China. Int J Soc Econ 24(1/2/3):139–159 Longworth JW, Williamson GJ (1993) China’s pastoral region: Sheep and wool, minority nationalities, Rangeland degradation and sustainable development. CABI, Wallingford Lu Q, Wang X, Wu B (2009) An analysis of the effects of climate variability in Northern China over the past five decades on people, livestock and plants. In: Squires V, Lu X, Lu Q, Wang T, Yang Y (eds) Rangeland degradation and recovery in China’s pastoral lands. CABI, Wallingford, pp 33–44
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Ma W, He JS, Yang YH, Wang XP, Liang CZ, Anwar M, Zeng H, Fang JY, Schmid B (1994) Environmental factors covary with plant diversity–productivity relationships among Chinese grassland sites. Global Ecology and Biogeography 19(2):233–243 Ma K (ed) (1999) Ecosystem diversity in key areas in China. Zhejiang Sci Technol Press, Beijing Michalk DL, Hua LM, Kemp DR, Jones R, Takahashi T, Wu JP, Nan ZB, Xu Z, Han GD (2010) Redesigning livestock systems to improve household income and reduce stocking rates in China’s western grasslands (Chapter 14, this volume) Squires V, Lu X, Lu Q, Wang T, Yang Y (eds) (2009) Rangeland degradation and recovery in China’s pastoral lands. CABI, Wallingford, p 264 Squires VR, Hua LM (2010a) North-west China’s rangelands and peoples: Facts, figures, challenges and responses (Chapter 1, this volume) Squires VR, Hua LM (2010b) Livestock husbandry development and agro-pastoral integration in Gansu and Xinjiang (Chapter 2, this volume) Squires VR, Hua L, Li G, Zhang D (2010) Exploring the options in North-west China pastoral lands (Chapter 3, this volume) Tilman D (1996) Biodiversity: Population versus ecosystem stability. Ecology 77:350–363 Wang L (2006) Rural land ownership reform in China’s property law. Front Law China 1(3):311–328 Wang MP, Zhao CZ, Long RJ, Yang YH (2010) Rangeland governance in China: Overview, impacts on Sunan County in Gansu Province and future options. Rangeland J (in press) Williams A (2006) Improving rangeland management in Alxa League, Inner Mongolia. J Arid Land Stud 15(4):199–202 Williams A, Wang M, Zhang MA (2009) Land tenure arrangements, property rights and institutional arrangements in the cycle of rangeland degradation and recovery. In: Squires V, Lu X, Lu Q, Wang T, Yang Y (eds) 2009 Rangeland degradation and recovery in China’s pastoral lands. CABI, Wallingford, pp 219–234 Williams DM (1996) Rangeland enclosures: Catalyst of land degradation in Inner Mongolia. Hum Organ 55(3):307–313 Williams DM (2002) Beyond great walls: Environment, identity, and development on the Chinese Rangelands of Inner Mongolia. Stanford University Press, Stanford, pp xii–251 Wu N, Richard C (1999) The privatization process and its impact on the pastoral dynamics in the Hindukush Himalayas: the case of western Sichuan China. VIth Int Rangelands Cong Proc 1:14–21 Wu JP, Squires VR, Yang L (2010) Improved animal husbandry practices as a basis for profitability (Chapter 10, this volume) Yeh ET (2004) Green governmentality and pastoralism in western China: Converting pastures to grasslands. Nomadic Peoples 9(1):9 Zhang MA, Borjigin E, Zhang H (2007) Mongolian nomadic culture and ecological culture: On the ecological reconstruction in the agro-pastoral mosaic zone in Northern China. Ecol Econ 6(2):19–26 Zhang D, Ren JZ, Hua LM, Squires VR (2010) Agro-pastoral integration: Development of a new paradigm (Chapter 9, this volume) Zhao CZ, Squires VR (2010) Environmental education: A tool for changing the mind-set (Chapter 13, this volume)
Part V
The Way Forward
The three chapters in this part deal with the future and consider the way forward. In the first an ambitious program to change the mind-set of farmers and herders through an innovative approach to environmental education in rural primary and middle schools is presented via a Case study in eight counties in Gansu. A synthesis of the results of years of research and extension under the auspices of the Australian Center for Agricultural Research (ACIAR) has culminated in an approach that re-designs range/livestock systems in NW China. The final chapter summarizes the whole book. It explores the premise that people are the most important factor in the management of rangeland resources in NW China. Their actions determine whether or not there is sustainable use. People include the rangeland users and the government officials who monitor and regulate use and those people responsible for setting policy. The two key questions are: What are the vital trends in NW China over the next two decades and how will resource management be affected by these trends?
Chapter 13
Environmental Education: A Tool for Changing the Mind-Set Zhao Cheng-Zhang, Hua Limin, and Victor Squires
Synopsis This chapter briefly reviews the development, role and purpose of environmental education in China and abroad. The principles, strategies and curriculum for environmental education in the school context are outlined with a detailed Case Study from eight counties in Gansu Province in NW China. Key Points 1. Environmental education, in the broadest sense, includes formal teaching in schools and at institutions of higher learning but also through awareness raising and specific knowledge transfer to land users through training courses. In short, environmental education is a tool for changing the mind-set of people. 2. There are three quite different aspects of environmental education. – ‘about’, ‘in’ and ‘for’ the environment. The framework about, in and for the environment is a popular way of organizing the experiences within an environmental education program. 3. Environmental education has three main goals: (i) to foster clear awareness of, and concern about, economic, social, political and ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas; (ii) to provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment and skills needed to protect and improve the environment; and (iii) to create new patterns of behavior of individuals, groups and society as a whole towards the environment. These goals and the accompanying objectives and guiding principles have underpinned much of what happened in the name of environmental education.
Zhao Cheng-Zhang (*) College of Geography and Environment, North West Normal University, Lanzhou, China e-mail: [email protected] Hua Limin Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China Victor Squires University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia V. Squires et al. (eds.), Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7_13, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
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4. In the process of the environmental education program, the cooperation of volunteers, local officials and teachers of the primary and secondary was very important, so clarifying the tasks of the managers was helpful to specify the tasks of teachers and students, the teaching time, teaching place and group practicals. 5. The clarification of environmental attitudes and commitments, the development of critical thinking skills and learning how to work collaboratively to improve human and environmental wellbeing are also important outcomes of environmental education. Thus, effective environmental education has implications ‘not only for what we learn but also how we learn’. Keywords GEF • Gansu • environmental ethics • guiding principles • volunteers • mind sets • sustainability • curriculum • multimedia • posters • essays • needs assessment
1 Introduction For many years, and in many countries, environmental education has sought to develop knowledge about the environment and to establish an ethic of caring towards the natural world. It has also grown over time to recognize the need to engage with many different interests in society in order to address environmental issues. Environmental education for sustainability acknowledges what has always been true, ‘that how people perceive and interact with their environment (their worldviews) cannot be separated from the society and the culture they live in’. Environmental education, in the broadest sense, includes formal teaching in schools and at institutions of higher learning but also through awareness raising and specific knowledge transfer to land users through training courses. In short, environmental education is a tool for changing the mind-set of people. The UN view is set out in Box 1
Box 1 Statement by the UN on the role of education for sustainable development There can be few more pressing and critical goals for the future of humankind than to ensure steady improvement in the quality of life for this and future generations, in a way that respects our common heritage – the planet we live on … Education for sustainable development is a lifelong endeavour which challenges individuals, institutions and societies to view tomorrow as a day that belongs to all of us, or it will not belong to anyone. (United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2005–2014)
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2 Environmental Education in the Schools It is useful to clarify just what we mean when using the term environmental education. There are three quite different aspects – ‘about’, ‘ in’ and ‘for’ the environment. The framework about, in and for the environment is a popular way of organizing the experiences within an environmental education program. • Education about the environment focuses on students’ understanding of important facts, concepts and theories (environmental awareness). • Education in the environment involves students in direct contact with a grassland, forest, river or street to further develop awareness and concern for the environment. • Education for the environment aims to promote a willingness and ability to adopt lifestyles that are compatible with the wise use of environmental resources (land, water, vegetation, wildlife) and to modify land use practices that contribute to land degradation. Many countries started their environmental education initiatives in the 1970s and these have continued to evolve as notions of environmental education have developed over the decades. Since the 1970s, the guiding principles of environmental education have emphasized consideration of the environment in its totality – natural and cultural, technological and social. This holistic approach to the environment was a major shift from programs that focused only on the natural environment and thus failed to understand the role of human decisions and actions in causing ecological problems. The guiding principles acknowledged that environmental problems need to be addressed through economic, social and political policies, and technological change (Lee and Williams 2009).
2.1 Environmental Education Has Three Main Goals 1. To foster clear awareness of, and concern about, economic, social, political and ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas 2. To provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment and skills needed to protect and improve the environment 3. To create new patterns of behavior of individuals, groups and society as a whole towards the environment These goals and the accompanying objectives and guiding principles have underpinned much of what happened in the name of environmental education. The clarification of environmental attitudes and commitments, the development of critical thinking skills and learning how to work collaboratively to improve human and environmental wellbeing are also important outcomes of environmental education. Thus, effective environmental education has implications ‘not only for what we learn but also how we learn’.
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2.1.1 Learning Objectives Schools implementing environmental education programs try to plan learning experiences that enable students to achieve the following learning objectives or outcomes. Some are specific to environmental education for sustainability, while others are more generic and relevant across several or all key learning areas. Students are seen as active, self-directed and collaborative learners and ethical and responsible citizens taking action for a sustainable future (Table 1). An environmental education for sustainability curriculum involves understanding the present environment – how it has been shaped, the value in which it is held, and seeking to mitigate adverse effects on it. This involves an investigation of how we have come to the present situation and accepting responsibility to work towards a sustainable future. Identifying what is distinctive about the local environment and understanding local community issues is essential to shaping the environmental education programs in a school. 2.1.2 Curriculum Planning An effective environmental education for sustainability curriculum provides the knowledge and understandings, skills, attitudes and values, and opportunities for participation and action that will help students to create a sustainable future. The basic characteristics of curriculum planning to promote environmental education for sustainability are: • Coherence and rigor the key concepts are clearly identified and coordinated wherever they appear in the curriculum and are reinforced through all key learning areas. Table 1 Desirable attributes of a successful environmental education program Skills and capabilities The ability to engage in: • • • •
Explorations of the many dimensions of the environment using all of their senses Observations and recording of information, ideas and feelings about the environment Identification and assessment of environmental issues Critical and creative thinking about environmental challenges and opportunities
Attitudes and values These are reflected in an appreciation and commitment to: • • • • •
Respecting and caring for life in all its diversity Conserving and managing resources in ways that are fair to present and future generations Building societies that are just, sustainable, participatory and peaceful Understanding and conserving cultural heritage The ability to identify, investigate, evaluate and undertake appropriate action to maintain, protect • Enhance lo4cal and global environments • A willingness to challenge preconceived ideas, accept change and acknowledge uncertainty • The ability to work cooperatively and in partnership with others
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• Prior understandings students’ experiences, knowledge, attitudes and skills from their own lives and previous educational experiences are identified and inform the planning process. • Relevance and connectedness students are enabled to relate to their surroundings as a frame of reference and are consulted about what is important and relevant to their own lives. • Flexibility schools adapt the curriculum in response to change and developments in the wider world. • Evaluation procedures for monitoring and evaluating are built in from the beginning. • Progression there is a clear and identified path within and across year levels, matched to the needs and interests of the students and structured in developmentally-appropriate ways. The most effective environmental education for sustainability programs develop learning opportunities outside the classroom to support and extend the classroom program. Possibilities here include: • Special environmental events, celebrations and projects to complement classroom activities • Involving students in investigating, maintaining and improving the school and local environment • Using the local community as an “outdoor laboratory” to investigate practical and real-life situations • Incorporating outside programs and services into school programs to bring learning to life 2.1.3 Curriculum Content Environmental education for sustainability is underpinned by several concepts and principles, as shown in Box 2 2.1.4 The Strategies The challenge is to provide a wide range of effective learning experiences that promote and support environmental education for sustainability. Some learning strategies are more appropriate than others, depending on the needs of the student. Appropriate strategies place the student at the centre of the learning, and are highly interactive within and beyond the classroom. A few important strategies supportive of environmental education for sustainability are described below. They may overlap or interrelate with other strategies, depending on the whole-school program. 1. Experiential learning: Sometimes called ‘learning by doing’ or ‘hands-on’, experiential learning engages students in constructing knowledge, skills and values from direct experience and in contexts that are personally relevant to them.
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Box 2 Concepts and principles of environmental education for sustainability Interdependence Humans are an inseparable part of the environment and we are part of a system that connects individuals, their culture and their natural surroundings. Resource management The natural world contains a range of renewable and finite resources that humans can develop to satisfy their needs and wants according to the lifestyle choices they make and with regard to long-term sustainability of these choices. Diversity Variation and variety can take several forms–biological, cultural, social and economic. We need to understand the importance and value of each of these forms of diversity to the quality of human life. Natural environment The natural environment comprises ecosystems which include the plants and animals of an ecological community and their physical surrounds, forming an interacting system of activities and functions regarded as a unit. Cultural environment The cultural environment comprises all the tangible and intangible evidence of human activity, including buildings, traditions and beliefs. Significant elements of the environment have cultural and historic values that may require protection from unplanned or unwise human activity. Values and lifestyle choices The balance of natural ecosystems and cultural heritage can be affected by unplanned or unwise human use of resources. Sometimes the resulting problems are so severe that changes in management practices and human lifestyles are necessary to protect the cultural environment or to allow ecosystems to, if possible, rebuild their ecological balance. Poor choices now may affect the wellbeing and lifestyle of future generations. Social participation Attitudes of concern for the quality of the environment are required to motivate people to develop the skills necessary for finding out about the environment and to take the necessary actions for problem-solving.
Such experiences are supported by feedback, reflection, critical analysis and the application of the ideas and skills to new situations. Experiential learning takes many forms, ranging from scientific predict-observe-explain situations to drama and creative art. Experiences outside the classroom are especially important. These can include participating in specific projects outdoors (like tree planting, wetland monitoring). 2. Values clarification and analysis: Dealing with controversial issues in a balanced and sensitive manner is one of the greatest challenges for teachers. Values clarification is an approach that encourages students to analyze their own thoughts and feeling about an environmental issue like biodiversity conservation, while values analysis encourages students to think about and analyse a
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range of perspectives in relation to their own. Students can be encouraged to think about the stewardship of finite resources. 3. Science in the community: Collecting scientific data from the local environment is a common activity in many schools. A wide range of data can be collected from the local environment, including data on soil, air, water, energy, solar radiation, transport and biodiversity. Such activities have the potential to link scientific ideas with community concern and activity, and provide opportunities for students to actively participate in local issues.
3 Changing the Mind-Set of Land Managers and Land Users With the support of The World Bank/GEF project, we completed the Grassland in Hometown and Love Our Hometown in elementary and secondary schools in Gansu Province. We chose Sunan Yugur Autonomous County, Shibaocheng township of Subei county, Yinda township of Subei district, Pingshanhu township of Ganzhou district, Wugou village of Liangzhou district, Ma Yinggou village of Yongchang country, Xindunwan village of Jingtai country and Xiangquan township of Anding district. The team consisted of an advisory consultant and volunteers from the College of Geography and Environment Science, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou. We compiled the regional textbook and teachers’ guide book, made the Multimedia courseware for environmental knowledge, formulated the regulations of social practice and formed the environmental education model of community participation.
3.1 The Needs Assessment and Volunteer Training for Environmental Education 3.1.1 The Forming of Teams and Volunteer Training The trainer team consisted of the volunteers who were undergraduate and graduate students of Northwest Normal University. In order to improve the environmental knowledge level, skill of making multimedia courseware and spreading education, professional experts in Northwest University conducted a volunteer training about the theory of ecological environment, which included form, structure and function of the ecological environment. At the same time, we discussed the measures to control environmental degradation and we trained the trainers (volunteers), in skills such as making courseware, blackboard writing and lecture techniques. On this basis, the volunteers were sent to the project area, and visited local elementary school with officers from the World Bank/GEF project so that they inspected rangeland and wetland, experienced the living predicament of the residents in different
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areas. Through the above process, all volunteers have the qualifications to conduct environmental education based on a good theoretical understanding and possession of appropriate skills, perceptions and so on.
3.1.2 The Present Situation of Environmental Education in Project Area and Needs Assessment In order to guarantee the relevance of the education to its actual project area and fundamentally change the environmental awareness of herders and farmers, The educators, consulting experts and volunteers made themselves familiar with the GEF project objectives. The needs assessment questionnaire for primary and middle school students, lists more than 40 topics, including: environmental knowledge, understanding of environmental issues, the hometown environmental problems, the cause of environmental problems, the idea about solving environmental problems. With cooperation of the project officers, we visited and surveyed people in eight project areas, and, through statistical analysis of the results, we arrived at a clear understanding of environment problem in the different regions and among different groups. The results from needs assessment were stratified according to environmental education priorities of children and adults, cadres and farmers, householders who were project beneficiaries, and those who were not. The field work provided the basis for the environmental education plan. A feature of the plan was that it close to the real life of primary and middle school students, focused on the present environment situation and problems, developed love of nature and enhanced the ability of children, their parents and neighbors to participate in community-led ecology protection.
3.2 Writing Materials for Environmental Education 3.2.1 The Investigations and Research on the Problem of Environment in the Project Area • Acquire basic data in the project area such as: collect material and pictures about animal husbandry, social economy, population, natural scenery, local customs and practices, focusing on the information from the statistical yearbook, statistical summary of the township government, county annals, brochures of touring. This information was compiled and analysed to give a clear picture of farming systems and their key characteristics. • Assess the problems of the rangeland ecological environment and the impacts on culture, society and the economy. • Develop case studies of traditional knowledge and it application to animal husbandry in the project area.
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3.2.2 Materials Writing The field survey and the data collected by the volunteers gave a good grasp of the needs and conditions in the various schools and villages. From this we distilled six to seven key problems which needed to highlighted in the Teacher’s Manual and the textbook. Under the guidance of specialists, the members of the trainer’s team worked out the environmental education outline that included four aspects: (1) eco-environment basic knowledge; (2) knowledge about love of hometown and grassland, steppe, meadow and forest; (3) participatory social practices and activities; and (4) participatory community environmental education. On the basis of ample materials and domestic and foreign research results, the first draft was completed. This was specific to the natural conditions and human factors. The teaching plan, reference materials (text, pictures), electronic teaching aids and a program of social practice activities was developed through workshops and discussion. 3.2.3 The Improvement of Materials Writing Project officers and teachers were invited to attend the seminar about teaching materials, and the members of the training team had an internal communication about training materials and plan that were guided by project officers and education specialists. The teaching materials went through several modifications before being used in the school.
3.3 Developing the Teaching Material 3.3.1 The Student’s Book “The rangelands of the hometown” and “Love my hometown”, included the following: • Hometown description: Information about the hometown’s geography, climate, topography etc were compiled and documented (including photos and drawings) with student’s help. • Resource description: land resources, the biological resources, water, mineral resources, tourist resources, etc. compiled and documented (including photos and drawings) with student’s help. • The main ecological environment problems in hometown: e.g. water shortage, water quality, desertification, rangeland degradation, soil erosion, and water pollution were identified by the students, with teachers as facilitators, and documented with plenty of charts and photos. • Reasons of the ecological environment problems: Analyze the causes of deterioration of the environment, evaluate natural and socio-economic causes from the perspective of the students.
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• Discuss countermeasures: the book and the environmental education classes guide students to protect ecological environment taking the following factors into account: protection of nature and the ecological environment; reasonable utilization of natural resources, optimization of agriculture production mode. By awareness raising in the school we hope to form a good habit of protecting environment from childhood onwards.
3.3.2 Teachers’ Guide Book Influenced by the mode of training Chinese teachers in primary and middle school, teachers in NW China were lacking knowledge of the importance of ecological environment protection generally. These aspects were strengthened in the process of compiling the Teachers’ Handbook. The teaching materials mainly included: geography and environmental background of Gansu province, the ecological/ environmental problems in eight GEF projects areas, their causes and countermeasures, as well as practical skills. The curriculum included basic knowledge about protecting the ecological environment, the rangeland and wetland ecosystems and about ecosystem structure and function (trophic levels).
3.3.3 Multimedia Courseware of the Environmental Knowledge The Research Group created multimedia courseware with special software AUSWEI, aimed at explaining the global environmental problems. There were four modules: (1) global warming, (2) water pollution, (3) what is energy, and (4) protecting biodiversity.
3.3.4 The Materials for Student Practicals According to the existing environmental problems in the eight project areas, specific to the students’ knowledge level, age structure and hobbies, combined with the specific conditions of the school, the volunteers designed more than 20 practicals on topics such as (1) understanding plants, (2) collecting and preserving plant specimens, (3) observing the growth of plants, (4) observing the degeneration phenomenon, (5) investigation for family animal husbandry and crop production situation, (6) collecting garbage, (7) sorting the household garbage, (8) refuse reclamation, (9) making blackboard newspaper, (10) pasting the banners, (11) environmental knowledge quiz, (12) speech contest, (13) watching dust and sandstorms, (14) observing remedial environmental works, (15) value and exploitation of mineral resources, and (16) flood situation (hazards, mitigation measures) Each school could choose which to use according to local conditions.
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3.4 The Process of Environmental Education With the cooperation local government officials, GEF project staff, school principals and project officials a deputy team leader was appointed for each school to work with the volunteers and the teacher to make work regulations and clarify the tasks, work plan, and then set up the coordinating mechanism. 3.4.1 Training for Teachers and Project Officers Capacity building was an important guarantee for conducting the environmental education program smoothly. Experts trained teachers and local project officers in two ways. (1) Residential workshops were conducted for teachers and project officers at Northwest Normal University in 2006–2007 on two occasions. Training on the theory and practice of environmental education was the theme. Participants came to understand basic knowledge of environmental education, became familiar with the methods of using courseware and activities for popularization of science, grasp the skill of teaching. Specialist teachers were invited to Northwest Normal University to give special lectures; (2) experts visited the project area and organized environmental education activities, explained the steps of environmental education and organized students and teacher in on-the job training so as to make them accept and understand the methodologies and guide students to engage in awareness raising among their peers and in their own households. 3.4.2 Clarifying the Tasks In the process of environmental education, the cooperation of volunteers, local officials and teachers of the primary and secondary was very important, so clarifying the tasks of the managers is helpful to specify the tasks of teachers and students, the teaching time, teaching place, group practicals: • The task of the volunteers. They need to understand the present condition and requirements of environmental education, collect local knowledge, compile the teaching materials of “Love our hometown” according to the environmental characteristics of the project area. Other tasks are making environmental education CD, train primary and secondary school teachers, guide the setting up and conduct of practical activities and facilitate class-meetings on the “Love our hometown” topic, and write the report (with others) on ecological environment education methods and practice in western pastoral areas. • The task of project officers in GEF project office. They need to coordinate with project headquarters, and ensure that the environmental education equipment is in place on time. They need to coordinate, guide and supervise the environmental education program, provide basic working and living condition for volunteers,
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provide the necessary funds and facilities for every school, and evaluate performance of each participating school and their respective written reports. • The tasks of the teachers. They need to familiarize themselves with the philosophy and process of the environment education, master the methods of using electronic textbooks and organize the education courses, class-meeting and group practical sessions, at the same time, guide the students to work for a better environment. 3.4.3 Make the Plan of Environmental Education According to the detailed scheme put forward by the Research Group, special meetings were held with the project officials to ensure the smooth implementation. The tasks of teachers and students, the teaching time, teaching place, teachers and the group practicals were specified. The teaching of environmental education in eight counties in Gansu was done based on the coordination of teachers, school principals, local project officials and Research Group at North West Normal University in Lanzhou. 3.4.4 The Activities of Environmental Education • Education about ecology and the environment. Students learn more about our earth, atmosphere, geological, ecological hydrology and biodiversity, understand global change, ecology, environment and the key environment problems, realize that “environmental protection should take action from me”, start from now, do something in one’s local area (even a simple project like an anti-littering campaign). • Environmental education on rangeland in hometown. Combining classroom education and practice, the volunteers, together with teachers and students, discussed the impact of climate change (rising temperatures, erratic precipitation, river runoff, and the trend of long-term runoff). Guide the teachers and students to understand the impact of future changes in hometown including loss of vegetation, biodiversity, etc. Combined with production and improved living conditions, guide students to know the relationship between environment change and human activities, they understand the importance of sustainable utilization. Arouse enthusiasm and motivate teachers and students to take responsibility for, and participate in, caring for the environment. • Group practical activities. The volunteers organized teachers and students to participate in the training and made them understand the basic methods of social survey, conduct the investigation assigned the topic of investigation, the outline and the survey table, guide students to complete each questionnaire with the participation of their parents. • Theme class meeting and learning corner. We selected the courseware according to the different circumstances in every project area, and conduct theme class
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meeting by knowledge Question and Answer, games, quizzes and so on. We publicized the purpose and meaning of environmental education to the students in order to attract more teachers and students to participate in the activity by conducting some learning corners and blackboard newspapers. • Making environmental protection art works. We guided the students to make environmental education works, such as drawing, writing and handwritten posters, extracurricular practice, homework and so on. These activities make the students aware that taking action as individual can be important. “Think globally, act locally” (Fig. 1). We invited the local government officials, the school principal and the parent representatives to participate in a summary meeting after the end of the environmental education activities. We analyzed the main achievements and problems, organized the students to perform aspects of their environmental protection program, take part in the environmental protection knowledge competition and show their work on environmental protection. To expand the influence of environment education we invited the local government leadership to present prizes to the top students and give a speech to invited media, parents and the community.
3.5 On-Going Management Mechanism of Environmental Education The expected outcomes of the environmental education program: • The primary and secondary school teachers and environmental officials would understand basic knowledge about environmental protection. • Master methods of use of the teaching material and the skills of conducting daily environmental activities. • Establish environmental education as part of the curriculum for primary and middle school children in Gansu. • Guide the students and teachers to be more concerned about the ecological environment problems of the hometown and improved the effect of various remediation projects sponsored by the GEF program. • Bring the GEF environmental education into the daily teaching work of rural schools in the pilot project counties. The effectiveness of the environmental education program in primary and middle school in the rural areas needs to be monitored. The long-term impact of the program requires us to build a reasonable evaluation system. The environment education evaluation system was established and built. At present, good progress is being made in China’s environmental education but over the long term, due to various constraints, the quality and sustainability of the environmental education program cannot be guaranteed. We must make great efforts to foster environment protection and ecosystem management protection. Because of the long term
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Fig. 1 Examples of primary school student’s posters on aspects of environmental protection
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consequences of environmental degradation it is important that we raise awareness not only of the impacts of neglect but also engender hope that individuals can make a difference. 3.5.1 GEF Environmental Education Caused Widespread Participation in the Community Members “The rangelands of the hometown “ and “Love my hometown” environmental education curriculum allowed the students in their hometowns to (i) experience and learn about the ecological environment, (ii) understand the effects of environment changes on their town’s production and living conditions, and (iii) stimulate students’ learning about environment protection. A combination of classroom teaching and group practicals overcame the current lack of environmental education. The approach is highly efficient. Practice proves that the scientific evaluation, classroom teaching and group practical activities combine teaching methods in a scientific method that is suitable for environmental education in primary and middle school students in the western region of China that is characterized by its undeveloped, weak ecological environment, and complex ethnic relationships. The Environmental education program achieved its primary goal “training a student to influence the whole family, educate a class and help manage a community.” The enhancement of environmental awareness of students has influenced the people around with 93% of the students very willing to promote environmental protection measures. The environmental education teaching materials developed for “Rangeland of hometown” has become the main source of environmental knowledge for the farmers and herdsmen of the project regions. The environmental education concept, technical content, delivery mode, have been praised by many of the local technical training agencies for its effectiveness in changing the mind set of local land users.
Reference Lee JC-K, Williams M (2009) Environmental education for sustainability in primary schools in Chinese communities. In: Lee C-K, Williams M (eds) Schooling for sustainable development in Chinese communities: experience with younger children. Springer Science + Business Media B.V, The Netherlands
Chapter 14
Redesigning Livestock Systems to Improve Household Income and Reduce Stocking Rates in China’s Western Grasslands D.L. Michalk, Hua Limin, David Kemp, Randall Jones, Taro Takahashi, Wu Jianping, Nan Zhibiao, Xu Zhu, and Han Guodong
Synopsis Results and implications of a study of rangeland/livestock systems in four counties in western China are discussed. Two key questions were posed: (1) Can changing the current livestock production system to an alternative enterprise, or (2) can changing key management practices in current enterprises increase household profit at same stocking rate (SR) or maintain profit at lower SR? The answers to these questions and their implications in terms of structural adjustment and attitudinal change for the long term sustainability of NW China are helpful in planning new livestock systems. Key Points 1. The grasslands of north and western China are severely degraded through overstocking. Herders in the region are among the poorer people in China. A project funded by the Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) aimed to maintain or improve household income and at the same time rehabilitate rangeland by reducing stocking rate (SR) is consistent with the Chinese D.L. Michalk () New South Wales Department of Primary Industry, Orange, NSW, Australia Hua Limin and Wu Jianping Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China David Kemp and Taro Takahashi Charles Sturt University, Orange, NSW, Australia Randall Jones Asian Development Bank, Manilla, NSW, Australia Nan Zhibiao Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China Xu Zhu Grassland Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, China Han Guodong Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Inner Mongolia, China
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Government’s ‘Western development strategy’. This goal was achieved by collecting farm survey data in four study villages (Siziwang and Taipusi in Inner Mongolia; Sunan and Huanxian in Gansu) as inputs to a series of models of the livestock production systems to identify more sustainable management options. The core to these models is the basic relationships between animal production and stocking rates, derived from Chinese research. This project commenced in January 2005 and finished in June 2009. 2. The models were used to answer two key questions: (1) Can changing the current livestock production system to an alternative enterprise, or (2) can changing key management practices in current enterprises increase household profit at same SR or maintain profit at lower SR? The assessment of current household situation indicated that there is an inefficient use of limited energy resources due to a poor match between feed supply and livestock feed requirements and little or no flock segregation and differential feeding programs (e.g. pen-fed lambs). The data indicate that livestock maintenance requirements exceed feed supplies for 7–8 months of the year (i.e. livestock are provided with insufficient feed during most of the year). 3. The models indicate that changes in the livestock enterprise (sheep for mutton, sheep for wool or goats for cashmere), and/or simple changes to the production system (e.g. culling unproductive stock, changing lambing time, weaning earlier, developing better supplementary feeding regimes and grazing management, over-wintering stock in warm sheds) should lift net farm incomes by 15–40% (depending on the location) at current stocking rates, or should allow 20–40% reductions in stocking rates while holding net farm incomes at present levels. 4. While the current versions of the models can detect change in household profitability, they have limited capacity to assess the environmental sustainability of the prospective changes (e.g. whether SR reductions of 20–40% would arrest and/or reverse pasture degradation). A dynamic bio-economic model is being developed to predict changes in pasture condition, soil erosion and long-term productivity expected at different grazing intensities. Preliminary results indicate that stocking rates that are near-optimal for farm income (in the absence of payments for environmental services) may be too high to allow worthwhile reductions in soil erosion to be made. 5. Community impacts are starting to occur. The modeling work has shown how net farm incomes from livestock production can be improved compared with current levels. This has stimulated on-going discussion about a range of new strategies to improve incomes and improve grasslands. Some of these have been taken up by households in each of the four study villages and local officials have provided financial and other support to further develop the on-farm demonstrations. Keywords Western Development strategy • inner Mongolia • Gansu • households • fecundity • early weaning • stocking rates • forage • fodder • warm pens • markets consumer preference • product quality • profitability • precision management • terminal sires • whole farm models • bio-economic model • environmental sustainability
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1 Introduction China’s 400 million hectares of rangelands, which accounts for 42% of the nation’s land area (Hong 2006) is highly degraded as a result of over-population, overgrazing, improper land conversion to cropland and adverse effects of drought exacerbated by climate change (Li et al. 2008). Statistics indicate that rangeland degradation which is thought to have begun in China in the late-1960s (Wang and Han 2005) has increased at an alarming rate, and in last 10 years the area degraded has risen from 55% to over 90% (Lu et al. 2006). The major evidence for rangeland degradation is lower plant productivity and biodiversity, increased frequency of rodent and grasshopper infestations, and large scale dust storms (Chen and Wang 2000; Lu et al. 2005). Despite this widespread degradation China remains the largest producer and consumer of livestock products in Asia (FAO 2006) with grassland systems still producing 70% of China’s wool, 33% of sheep meat, 14% of beef and 10% of national milk production (Li et al. 2008). This highlights the importance of rangelands to generate livelihoods for households in pastoral areas and where livestock constitutes up to 80% of the agricultural output value and remain central to the culture of minority peoples (Brown et al. 2008). In response to growing demand for livestock products and to stabilize downward spiraling incomes, most pastoral households have simply increased stocking rates which is reflected in the number of livestock grazing rangelands which has increased from 12 million in the 1950s to >90 million (Chen et al. 2003). In Gansu and Xinjiang which are among the most degraded of the western provinces (Lu et al. 2006) sheep numbers have doubled since 1994, providing further clear evidence that the degree of degradation is directly proportional to stocking rate (Wang et al. 1998). It is clear that grassland degradation and its associated environmental problems will continue at an escalating rate unless new approaches to livestock management are adopted to restore a reasonable balance between grazing capacity and livestock number, particularly in China’s extensive pastoral and semi-pastoral areas. Chen et al. (2003) estimated that the current livestock numbers grazing China’s rangelands are more than double the number considered to be the safe carrying capacity. This raises policy dilemmas and conflicts as to whether to treat grassland degradation as a resource management issue or as a pastoral household livelihood issue (Brown et al. 2008). Chinese scientists and officials have been challenged to revise policies and management strategies to ensure the future of rangeland natural resources within a market economy (Dong et al. 2007). Given the fragile state of China’s rangelands and the ineffectiveness of past management policies, the Central Government has resorted to more drastic resource management policies such as grazing bans (Brown et al. 2008) in which pastoralists trade off grazing rights for a 5 year compensation package of grain and cash based on their rangeland productivity and the area of land that is enclosed. Despite about one fifth of China’s rangelands having
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been subject to grazing bans or other rehabilitation methods since 2000, degradation continues primarily because little or no attention has been given to reducing livestock numbers. This has led to the perception by many commentators that livestock enterprises are the main cause of the problem and further development of ruminant livestock sector in China should be curtailed. However, rather than being viewed as the cause for degradation, livestock enterprises should be seen as central to the solution when correct management strategies are applied (Michalk and Kemp 1994). The aim of this chapter is to focus on how livestock production systems can be re-designed to shift the current emphasis from livestock number to product quality as the main driver to stabilize or increase household income and provide the high valued livestock products needed to meet the consumption patterns of China’s increasing affluent urban population (Ma et al. 2004). A shift to production efficiency as the main driver of livestock production could result in a large number of low-producing animals being replaced by fewer but better fed animals of higher potential which provide solutions to the Chinese problem of grassland degradation and associated greenhouse gas emissions through reduced stocking rates while at the same time maintaining or increasing the supply of livestock products (Herrero et al. 2009; Kemp et al. 2010).
2 Understanding Livestock Production Responses Finding ways to reduce over-grazing and increase production efficiency requires some basic understanding of livestock production responses. A useful starting point it is to consider the basic relationships between animal production and stocking rate for grazing livestock (Fig. 1). Consideration of these relationships provides a justification for setting stocking rates appropriately. Considerable research and farmer experience have shown that as stocking rates increase, per head production (e.g. meat, milk, wool and growth of lambs, calves and kids produced) will decrease, driven by a decline in the quantity and quality of forage available per head. This is consistent with the Law of Diminishing Returns. In terms of total productivity, output per hectare will increase until around the point where production per head is half that of the maximum possible and then declines (Fig. 1). For this discussion a linear decline between per head production and stocking rate is assumed although curvilinear relationships between stocking rates and per head production are possible (Kemp and Michalk 2007). However, the general points remain the same irrespective of the shape of the relationship. Within animal production systems it is very difficult at a farm scale to achieve the biological maximum growth rate (at a relative stocking rate of 1, Fig. 1) and it is also unlikely that net profit is maximized at that point. Rather, in practice, it is more realistic to attain around 75% of the biological maximum. The shapes of these curves then means that 75% of the livestock production per hectare can be achieved at two different stocking rates (A or B, Fig. 1) and farmers who aim for that level
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of production may not appreciate which side of the curve they are on. Current stocking rates on Chinese grasslands are often to the right of point B on these curves as production of saleable product per head is often low and net change in animal liveweight over a year is very low. At point A the production per hectare (and net profit would be close to maximum) is the same as at B, but the livestock production per head is three-times that of point B, meaning that growing animals, e.g. calves or lambs, reach marketable weights in about one third of the time. Overall, at point A compared with point B the same production per hectare can be achieved with less than half the animals in half the time. Because young animals reach market specifications much earlier at lower stocking rates, their total methane output (per head or per kilogram of product) is reduced to half or less (Chapter 7, Long et al. 2010). The economic optimum is around point A whereas the sustainability optimum may be at stocking rates less than point A. This occurs because as more criteria need to be satisfied, the costs will marginally increase and the stocking rate for maximum net profit per hectare declines.
3 Criteria for Re-designing Livestock Systems The general implication from this theoretical analysis is that a conservative stocking rate policy would not reduce animal product per hectare which, in turn, should increase net profit per hectare due to improvements in the quality of livestock products. Just as importantly, the substantial reduction in stocking rate would have substantive positive impacts on grassland rehabilitation and methane reduction. These outcomes – increased profitability, reduced stocking rate and improved
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ecosystem function – are the main criteria that re-designed livestock production systems must meet to gain acceptance by households that depend on livestock for their livelihood and the community eager to see significant environmental improvement. Fundamental to achieving these outcomes is a shift in focus of both policy advisors and farmers away from livestock numbers as the measure of success to efficiency measures such as product output/resource unit. This evolution has already begun in the pig and poultry industries where adoption of technical innovation has improved both productivity and product quality, whereas technical progress has been slower and improvements in efficiency much lower for Chinese ruminant production enterprises (Rae et al. 2006). This reflects the limited success of previous programs targeting sustainable use of China grasslands, which can be partly attributed to adopting a component rather than integrated approach to identifying solutions (Kemp et al. 2010). Some have tried to deal with the possible ways to balance the apparently conflicting objectives of grassland protection and income generation (e.g. Niu and Chen 1994; Xin et al. 2000; Ministry of Agriculture 2002), but few have come up with sound proposals that can help the small-holders in the northern and western regions to increase their income and to protect the environment.
3.1 A Household Model Approach Bio-economic farm models are a useful tool to assess the impacts of policy changes and technological innovations on the production and economics of farming systems. These mechanistic models use mathematical and optimization procedures often within a Linear programming framework in which the farm is represented as a linear combination of ‘activities’ (Janssen and van Ittersum 2007) match the reality of many small farmers who are striving with limited resources to improve their situation (Anderson et al. 1985). An activity is a coherent set of operations with corresponding inputs and outputs that results in an outcome such as the delivery of a marketable product (ten Berge et al. 2000). Constraints to activities are specified as the minimum or maximum amount of inputs or resource that can be used. The matrix of activities and constraints is optimized for an objective function such as profit (Janssen and Ittersum 2007). A bio-economic modeling system (Takahashi et al. 2010) was developed to evaluate alternative livestock management options in northern China grasslands as part of the ACIAR funded ‘Sustainable Development of Grasslands in Western China’ project (Kemp et al. 2010). The methodology employed was to survey a number of farms in four case study villages (two in Gansu Province – Sunan and Huanxian; two in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region – Siziwang and Taipusi), use the data collected to parameterize farm level models for representative farms in the four villages, and then analyze the current livestock production system and investigate the impact of alternative management options on household profitability
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(Kemp et al. 2010). These villages covered a wide range in farm size and enterprise mixes which provided a good test of the model to investigate alternative management strategies based on enterprise budgets for the representative farms.
3.2 Developing Appropriate Strategies Scientists, advisors and policy makers are only starting to grapple with how China’s rapidly expanding livestock sector should be managed and where production systems can be appropriately re-designed to achieve improved productivity and environmental outcomes. For improved productivity in livestock production, product outputs should be defined in terms of both quantity and quality. For both fiber and meat, improved productivity often includes achieving a higher standard of product using the same inputs, and this change in quality has a direct effect on product price (Rowe and Atkins 2007). To identify key drivers of production efficiency in western China grasslands the ACIAR modeling frameworks were used to answer some key questions including: • What can be done to provide better solutions for small-holders to adopt? Is it appropriate to: (1) change enterprise; (2) Improve management of current enterprise; or (3) a combination of both? • How can re-organizing the farm contribute to grassland rehabilitation and are loop-back responses strong enough to achieve substantial improvement?
4 Current Resources, Enterprises and Management of ‘Typical’ Farms Compilation of the results from household surveys undertaken by the ACIAR team complemented with information from county level Animal Husbandry Bureaus highlight the diversity of the rangeland/grassland types (desert steppe, typical steppe and alpine meadow steppe) and the enterprises that from a traditional perspective have best utilized these grassland resources (Table 1).
4.1 Farm Size and Family Structure Farm size (Table 1) in the project area tended to be smaller (Taipusi and Huanxian) or larger (Sunan and Siziwang) than the average described by Hu and Zhang (2003) for the pastoral areas of western China, viz. a family comprising five to six people with up to 40–80 ha of grassland and 100–150 sheep units of livestock. This is explained by differences in grassland productivity with lower current
Notes: An EU is defined as any female sheep that is capable of producing a lamb, irrespective of condition or size. For a description of local sheep breeds see Chapter 8 (this volume) and for a map of the distribution of vegetation types in Gansu see Chapter 1, Fig. 3
Table 1 Summary of resources and outputs from typical farms in Siziwang (Han et al. 2010), Taipusi (Zheng et al. 2010), Sunan (Yang et al. 2010) and Huanxian (Wang et al. 2010) Experimental sites Key parameters Siziwang Taipusi Sunan Huanxian Grassland type Desert steppe Typical steppe Desert steppe to alpine Typical steppe meadow Farm size 520 ha 21 ha 93 ha 32 ha Livestock Mongolian mutton sheep Mutton sheep Fine wool Gansu Alpine Tan mutton sheep Breeding ewes (EU) 180 63 100 60 Stocking rate 0.35 EU/ha 3 EU/ha 0.93EU/ha 1.9 EU/ha(grassland only) Income RMB 19,000 RMB 6,000 RMB 17,800 RMB 12,100 Income/EU RMB 106/EU RMB 95/EU RMB 178/EU RMB 202/EU Income/ha RMB 36/ha RMB 285/ha RMB 191/ha RMB 378/ha(grassland only)
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stocking rates and larger farm size found in the dry and/or colder alpine and desert steppe grassland (Table 1). However, for all farms the grassland resources still belong to the State and are used by herders according to a Long-term Grassland Use Contract or Grazing User Right (GUR) with the government whereas the livestock belong to the family (Chapter 12, Wang et al. 2010).
4.2 Grassland Resources In Chinese classification ‘steppe’ simply refers to vegetation associations dominated by xerophytic, cold-tolerant bunchgrass type perennials (typified by species from the Stipa genus) often intermixed with semi-low shrubs and ground cover of 40–60% (Li et al. 1980). All grasslands included in this study were classified as different types of steppe based on species composition and productivity. Net productivity ranging from as low as 300 kg/ha/year for desert steppe (Han et al. 2008, 2010) to 2,250 kg/ha/year in typical steppe (Zheng et al. 2010). Productivity reflected the current status of the rangelands with all considered to be moderately to severely degraded (Ren et al. 2000). As rangelands degrade, production not only declines but annual and seasonal variability increases due to changes in rangeland composition (Fig. 2). This is evident in composition changes with original bunchgrasses such as Stipa breviflora, S. bungeana and S. krylovii in these rangeland steppes (Hu et al. 1992) only surviving as subdominant species or remnants due to heavy over-grazing in early spring which removes the C3 grasses. The same successional shift from C3 to C4 grasses has occurred across a
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all sites which has effectively shorten the 5-month growing season (late May to mid October) by 1 month because C4 grasses (e.g. Cleistogenes spp.) have a much higher temperature threshold for growth initiation and so do not commence active growth until mid-June (Chen et al. 2002).
4.3 Forages Grown for Livestock Production Improving the feed base for livestock often involves the search for forage crops or pasture species with improved productivity and superior quality to complement grasslands by providing supplement during winter and early spring. The establishment of small-seeded perennial legumes (e.g. alfalfa -Medicago sativa, Chinese milk vetch – Astragalus adsurgens and sainfoin – Onobrychis sativa) have proven to be a valuable source of high quality green forage and conserved hay for livestock in western China, including parts of Gansu Province and Inner Mongolia. As early as 1983, there were 226,700 ha of alfalfa type legumes (M. sativa, M. falcata, M. media) in Gansu Province which represented about 24% of the total alfalfa area in China (Wu and Zhang 1988). Maize is widely grown as a livestock feed and is fed as greenchop or as silage, grain and stover during winter. The use of sown forage varies with local policies, environmental conditions and the financial circumstances of individual households in the project areas. In Taipusi, for example, the typical farm stores about 20 t of meadow hay and maize silage produced from their own crop and grassland (Zheng et al. 2010). In contrast, increasing available forage supply by sowing special purpose crops is limited in Siziwang Banner by regulation to only 0.67 ha of fodder maize per household per year (Han et al. 2010). A similar situation exists in Sunan County where there is very little sown forage production with the typical household growing >0.2 ha of forage oats (Yang et al. 2010). The largest area of sown forage was reported for Huanxian County in Gansu where the typical farm grows 1.7 ha of alfalfa and feed by-products of wheat, buckwheat, broom-millet and corn and potato to livestock in the cool season (Wang et al. 2010). Livestock households in all areas purchased some additional supplements as required.
4.4 Livestock Enterprises Sheep and goats are dominant in most pastoral systems because they produce a wide range of products including mutton, wool, hides for clothes and tents, and dung for heating and cooking (Degen 2007). In the project villages sheep and goats account for about between 70% and 95% of the livestock with the sheep: goat ratio fluctuating with the price of cashmere as well as being a risk minimization strategy to buffer losses caused by disease or extreme environmental conditions (Degen 2007). Goat production is discouraged in some locations (e.g. Taipusi) because they are considered to be more harmful to the rangelands than sheep (Zheng et al. 2010).
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Due to protracted droughts and extreme cold (−15 to −30°C) the highly adapted fat-tailed carpet wool breeds (Chapter 8, Lang et al. 2010) have traditionally been the preferred sheep type in western China because the large amount of fat deposited in the tail and rump is used to meet nutritional demands during winter and spring. Three out of the four ACIAR project villages currently raise fat-tail mutton sheep of Mongolian origin (Table 1). Fine-wool sheep are only raised in Sunan County where the Gansu Alpine breed is well adapted to this harsh environment and has a relatively good reproductive performance and wool quality (Wong 1988). Cattle are raised on some farms in Taipusi (Zheng et al. 2010) and Huanxian (Wang et al. 2010) some of which are still used as draft animals in crop production.
4.5 Management Systems Government policies have encouraged individual households to settle on allocated areas of land under the responsibility system (Lin 1987, 1988). In Taipusi, Siziwang and Huanxian where the rangelands are located within the village, continuous grazing is practiced either in fenced paddocks or by using the traditional practice of herding livestock to graze in the morning and again in the afternoon for most days of the year. In Sunan County, however, a transhumance system still operates with three distinct grassland areas classified by the time of the year they are grazed. Summer grasslands which are located at the highest altitude with a short growing season are grazed in common with other flocks from the village from July to August. Autumn/spring grasslands are grazed in June, then again in September and October when livestock move from the lowest altitude winter (grazed from November to May) to the summer grasslands and back again. Livestock management such as shearing and joining are often timed to mesh with feed availability and grazing practices at the different project villages. For example, lambing time varied across sites: December to March in Siziwang with lambs sold in September; November to February in Huanxian and sold at ~18 months according to the farmer’s need; and lambing from March to April in Sunan County when livestock are grazing winter grassland with lambs sold around the end of September. All animals were managed as a single flock with little or no flock segregation into classes of animals.
5 Matching Livestock Feed Demands to Forage Supplies Matching livestock demands with available feed supplies is the key to efficient livestock production. Analysis of the relationship between the demands of the current enterprises and feed supplies using the ACIAR modeling framework indicated an inefficient use of limited energy resources due to a poor match between feed supply and livestock feed requirements.
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In Taipusi, for example, a mutton production enterprise with January–March lambing had a major feed deficit from September to early May (Fig. 3). Similar misalignment was apparent with the current combination of enterprises and management practices at Huanxian, Sunan and Siziwang (Fig. 3). Unlike other parts of China, livestock production practices in the project villages are mainly based on local multi-purpose activity and only leading producers are transitioning to a market-oriented and vertically integrated business (Ke 1997). The current use of available forage resources combined with poor livestock management practices highlight opportunities to select an enterprise that better suits the available feed supply or change management tactics to improve efficiency of the current enterprise to maintain or improve household profitability.
6 Changing the Current Enterprise In addition to profitability, a key object of re-designing livestock production systems is to achieve a substantial reduction in stocking rate. To warrant a change the alternative livestock enterprise needs to either increase household profit at the current stocking rate or maintain current household profit at a lower stocking rate. The whole-farm model (Takahashi et al. 2010) was used to estimate household profitability of mutton sheep, fine wool sheep, and cashmere goats using the feed resources at the different sites. The analysis showed that a some sites the current enterprise was best suited to the forage and financial resources of the typical household whereas at other sites a
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change in enterprise would have positive economic and environment impacts. In Sunan County, for example, at the optimal stocking rate for fine wool sheep, a change to mutton sheep would potentially reduce net farm return by 29% (Fig. 4). At the optimal net farm return for fine-wool sheep no significant reduction in stocking rate or increase in net farm return would be achieved by changing to cashmere goats. This confirms that fine-wool is the enterprise best suited to Sunan County (Yang et al. 2010). In contrast, the modeling predicted that at the optimal stocking rate for the current mutton enterprise at Huanxian, a change to fine-wool increased net farm return by 20% (Fig. 4). More importantly, at the current farm return for mutton sheep, a fine-wool enterprise would generate the same income but with a 25% reduction in stocking rate (Fig. 4). For Taipusi, Zheng et al. (2010) concluded that fine-wool and mutton sheep would generate similar profits and were substantially better than cashmere goats reflecting the high volatility of the market price of cashmere. These examples suggest that investigating the potential impact of changing enterprise is warranted for rangeland based livestock production to achieve an increase household profitability, a reduction in stocking rate, or possibly both.
6.1 Changing Management to Improve Efficiency of Current Enterprises The same criteria of increasing profitability at the same stocking rate or maintaining profitability at a lower stocking rate can be applied to identify ways to improve the efficiency of current enterprises. Review of current management suggests that application of new tactics could increase enterprise efficiency by improving reproductive and feeding efficiency.
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6.1.1 Improving Reproductive Efficiency Increasing productivity and reproductive performance of the female generally improves economic and biological efficiency of animal production enterprises (Wang and Dickerson 1991). The success of a sheep and goat operation depends on the number of offspring raised, weaned, and marketed each year. From a management perspective reproductive performance can be enhanced by strategies such as improving weaning rate, changing lambing time to correlate better with feed supply and early weaning. Impact of these management strategies were investigated using the ACIAR model framework. Predicted effect of increasing weaning rate: Maintaining high levels of reproductive performance, defined as the percentage of females that produce offspring(s) combined with effective mothering ability (ability to raise offspring to weaning) are critical component of efficient livestock production. Many Chinese sheep breeds are noted for high fecundity (Feng et al. 1996), but as is generally the case for commercial sheep production world-wide (Notter 2008), the weaning rate in the project areas was well below the minimum objective of producing at least one lamb per ewe with satisfactory growth. For example, the 70% weaning rate calculated from the household survey in Siziwang (Han et al. 2010) is well below the 150% lambing reported for Mongolian mutton sheep (Turner 1965). Low weaning rate was not due to mortality because households reported lamb survival rates of >95% indicating that either low ovulation rates or early abortion are the probable sources of low weaning rate. This reproduction wastage can be remedied by improved nutrition and early weaning (see below and Chapter 10, Yang et al. 2010). Increasing weaning rates effectively increased revenue from lamb sales and reduced feed consumed by non-lambing ewes (Table 2). However, this increased the effective stocking rate (depending on weaning rate increase) even if all nonlambing ewes were culled at 90% weaning rate. Alternatively, increasing weaning rate but maintaining the current lamb crop would reduce ewe flock size by 13% and 22% at 80% and 90% weaning rate, respectively (Table 2). Weaning rate increases of this magnitude can be achieved with precision sheep management focused on maintaining ewes in good body condition through pasture management, supplementation or strategic weaning (see below). Simple management procedures such as tagging for identification of ewes and their offspring and recording of key performance information (e.g. liveweight, body condition, lamb growth rate) are central to identifying non-productive ewes for culling. The ‘fat and condition-scoring’ systems (Shands et al. 2009) which is used as a management tool for small tail sheep breeds in Australia (Langford et al. 2004) needs to be modified for application with fat-tail breeds because important production parameters such as lamb weaning rates, lamb weaning weight and wool cut are all a function of ewe body weight or body condition (Chapter 10, Yang et al. 2010). Predicted effect of changing lambing time: Current time of lambing in the project villages is highly influenced by ewe condition which usually peaks in late summer (August/September) at the end of the growing season (Fig. 2). At all sites, typical households join ewes at this time because it generally leads to higher lambing rates
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Table 2 Predicted effects of increasing weaning rate to either increase lamb crop with typical farm ewe flock or maintain current lamb crop with a reduced ewe flock at Siziwang Increasing lamb crop with current ewe flock Feed cost of non Weaning Size ewe Lambs Non-performing performing ewes (RMB) rate (%) flock weaned ewes 70 180 126 54 3,600 80 180 144 36 2,400 90 180 162 18 1,200 Maintaining current lamb crop with reduced ewe flock Feed cost saved by reducing Feed cost of non Reduction in ewe flock Weaning Size ewe Lambs Non-performing performing (RMB) ewes (RMB) ewe flock rate (%) flock weaned ewes 70 80 90
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at the current stocking rates. Traditionally, winter born (January/February) lambs are sold in September at 6 (Taipusi) to 18 month of age (Huanxian) to minimize the amount of supplementary required over winter (Zheng et al. 2010). However, increased consumer demands for meat provide both motivation and opportunity to modify the traditional lambing schedules (Notter 2008). Furthermore, the modelling highlights a mis-match between livestock energy demands and current feed supplies to support winter lambing practices (Fig. 3). Analysis showed that shifting lambing time had practical and economic advantages at some villages whereas at others the current lambing was optimal. For example, shifting lambing time from January to July at Taipusi provided a better fit of livestock requirements and energy supplied by rangeland and supplementary feed sources (Fig. 5). A similar improvement was observed at Siziwang when lambing was moved from February to April (Fig. 5). At Taipusi where the current stocking rate is high (3 EU/ha) lambing in July generated a 45% increase in net farm return due to substantially lower cost for feed supplement compared to January lambing. More importantly, lambing in July would allow the ewe stocking rate to be reduced by 20% (0.6 EU/ha) and still generate a 15% higher farm profit than is possible with January lambing at the current ewe stocking rate. In contrast at Siziwang where the ewe stocking rate is low (0.35 EU/ha – Table 1), there was no economic advantage gained by changing lambing time. If stocking rate was substantially increased then February lambing is better because of the high feed costs required to finish lambs to market condition over winter. Predicted effect of early weaning: Early weaning has been used as a management strategy to improve feeding efficiency and potentially reduce stocking pressure on rangelands. The underlying principle is that the efficiency of converting forage sources into milk and then to lamb growth is about 24%, compared with a value
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exceeding 30% where the ruminant lamb directly consumes forage (Graham and Searle 1970). Additional production efficiency may be gained in improved ewe reproductive performance (e.g. ovulation and conception) due to retention of ewe body condition resulting directly from a shortened lactation period. For sheep and goats early weaning is defined as removing the lamb/kid from the mother at 3 months of age or younger (Chapter 10, Yang et al. 2010). Weaning is a major event in the life of a lamb which usually impacts on growth. For this reason, successful early weaning depends on the lamb’s ability to utilize solid food. When available feed is adequate there is little advantage to early wean, but when herbage availability is low, milk production may virtually cease within 2 months of lambing (Corbett 1966). This is normative for livestock enterprises in western China where grasslands are degraded, especially when winter lambing is practiced as is the case in the project areas. Early weaning early will deprive the lambs of only small quantities of milk. Some reports of early weaning of lambs have shown this practice has the potential to increase productivity in western China. One recent study in Gansu compared the survival and growth rate of lambs weaned at 30, 45 and 60 days with unweaned lambs (Table 3). Mean daily gain from Day 75 to 120 was 277 g/hd/day compared
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Table 3 Liveweight of lambs weaned at 30, 45 and 60 days compared to unweaned lambs Weaned at Liveweight (kg) at Unweaned 30 days 45 days 60 days Day 75 13 16 17 19 Day 120 24 29 34 37
to only 145 g/hd/day for unweaned lambs. In addition early weaning maintained ewe body condition. For example, weaning lambs at 30 days of age increased ewe liveweight by 5.2 kg compared to ewes with lambs. In turn, this additional body condition increased breeding efficiency with ewes returning to estrus 30 days earlier than ewes with lambs. These results indicate that early weaning provides a practical means to increase weaning rate by maintaining ewes in better condition. This could effectively reduce ewe flock size and at the same time maintain or increase net farm income. Improving feeding efficiency: Feed resources and nutrition constitute the principal technical constraints to ruminant production in Asia (Devendra and Sevilla 2002) including China. The efficient use of forage resources either directly through planned grazing management systems or indirectly through the tactical use of pen feeding least-cost rations, use of sown forages and investing in infrastructure (e.g. greenhouse livestock sheds) will future enhance per animal performance and increased productivity (Devendra 2000). For the typical households in Gansu and Inner Mongolia, small areas of sown forage combined with greenhouse livestock sheds consolidate the benefits of implementing strategies to improve reproductive efficiency by ensuring livestock products meet the increasingly rigorous market quality specifications (Chapter 3, Squires et al. 2010). Effect of greenhouse sheds on feed efficiency: Greenhouse (or solar or warm) sheds (Huang et al. 1995) have emerged as important infrastructure for raising livestock in western China where mid-winter temperatures often drop to minus 30°C. At these temperatures, the low quality forage consumed is insufficient to maintain liveweights and body temperature and as a consequence livestock suffer significant weight loss over the protracted winter even when housed in traditional livestock sheds where the inside temperature is often below minus 10°C (Huang et al. 1995). In contrast, greenhouse sheds that incorporate a fixed or moveable solar collector in the roof and part of the wall on the south facing front of the shed maintain an inside temperature in January of about 5°C during the day and just above 1°C at night (Huang et al. 1995). Under these conditions livestock either maintain or increase liveweight over the winter period, without changing the type or amount of forage available to livestock. The high economic and social benefits of greenhouse sheds were demonstrated in Sunan County (Table 4). Similar to the results reported by Huang et al. (1995) for cattle, all classes of sheep housed in the warm shed gained weight over the winter period whereas all animals in the conventional shed lost liveweight (Table 4). In effect, the warm shed substitutes capital for energy which means that its impact
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Table 4 Comparison between adult ewes, replacement ewes and lambs housed in warm or conventional sheds in Sunan County (Yang et al. 2010) Livestock in Warm shed Livestock in conventional shed Replacement Replacement Lambs Indicator parameters Adult ewes ewes Lambs Adult ewes ewes Mean initial 43.5 31.8 21.0 42.4 30.1 23.4 liveweight (kg) Mean final 48.6 41.6 27.9 35.1 25.1 22.4 liveweight (kg) Mean final 5.1 9.8 6.9 −7.3 −5.0 −1.0 liveweight (kg) Liveweight gain (%) 12 31 33 −17 −17 −4
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Fig. 6 Net return (RMB/farm) calculated for a fine wool enterprise with January lambing with and without pen feeding in a greenhouse shed in Sunan County (Yang et al. 2010)
is greatest when base nutrition is moderate to low. The whole-farm model output (Fig. 6) for a combination of warm shed investment and pen feeding predicts that current net return from a fine-wool enterprise with January lambing could be generated with a significant reduction in stocking rate. The use of terminal sires to produce quality lamb from part of the fine wool flock would further increase net farm return through higher growth rate and improved carcass quality (Chapter 10, Yang et al. 2010). Value of artificial pastures to improve feed efficiency: Improving the feed base to improve livestock production efficiency often involves the search for forage crops or pasture species that produce high quality feed to supplement the low quality base ration. The provision of high quality green feed poses a significant challenge for livestock producers in the project area. The household survey showed that only in Huanxian County was there significant investment in alfalfa and silage maize
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(Wang et al. 2010). In Taipusi, Siziwang and Sunan where low rainfall and cold temperatures limits potential of artificial pastures households buy either grain or higher quality hay to complement smaller amounts of meadow hay harvested from summer rested areas (Yang et al. 2010; Zheng et al. 2010; Han et al. 2010). Demonstrations have been set up as part of the GEF component of the GansuXinjiang Pastoral Development Project in several additional counties in Gansu (Chapter 11, Hua and Michalk 2010). Using a range of species including oats, sainfoin, alfalfa and forage maize, these demonstrations clearly indicate that production efficiency and income/ animal of collaborative households were higher than control households. The net result was that demonstration households maintain the same net farm return as control households. For example, in Suzhou district demonstration households had 25% fewer sheep and 10% fewer goats; in Anding district demonstration households reduced sheep flocks by 16% and stopped grazing the rangelands completely; and in Liangzhou County demonstration households reduced goats herds by 16%. These findings again demonstrate the potential to effectively decrease the number of animals per household but maintain household profitability.
6.2 Management Tactics to Improve Quality of Livestock Products The economic analysis of the management tactics evaluated in the preceding sections assumes no change in product quality. However, China’s meat and fiber markets are increasingly demanding higher quality products and livestock producers will need to further improve their technical base to ensure that these market requirements are satisfied consistently. While there is structural change towards specialist household producers as well as commercial, large-scale enterprises, small holders still account for 73% of sheep and 63% of China’s dairy production (MOA 2003). As the market specifications become more developed, it will become increasingly difficult for small households to efficiently both breed and finish animals. This means that further development of the modeling framework is needed to incorporate aspects related to product quality and genetic improvement to help small households identify the most suitable combination of livestock product and breeding system.
6.3 Changing Management to Improve Rangeland Condition The prime aim of this chapter is to analyze how livestock production systems can be re-designed to reduce stocking and at the same time maintain household income. It is appropriate, however, to consider some of the broader implications that changes to livestock management have on rangeland condition. Are the impacts of
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Demonstrations indicate reduction in SR of 10–25%, depending on current grassland condition Expected to increase product output, product quality and profitability/EU
Table 5 Summary of potential options identified by modeling to reduce stocking rate in Gansu and Inner Mongolia Experimental sites Principle or management factor Caveat Huanxian Sunan Taipusi Siziwang ? Change enterprise Maintain current Change to wool No change Change to wool net farm return reduce SR by 25% reduce SR by 25% Increase weaning rate (WR) Maintain current ? ? ? 70–90% WR net farm return reduce SR 22% Change lambing time Maintain current ? Reduce Reduce No difference negative net farm return SR 35% SR 38% at high SR Early weaning (45 days) ? Increases weaning rate through early return to oestrus and better ewe condition Pen feeding and warm shed combination Maintain current ? Reduce ? ? net farm return SR 42%
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stocking rate reductions of the order predicted at the household level sufficient to reverse current trends in rangeland degradation? Management tools for rangeland improvement that are linked to livestock production include changes to stocking rate and changes to grazing season. It is clear from research in western China that reducing livestock stocking rates releases extra biomass that can be used to sustain the remaining animals in a better condition thereby increasing productivity and/or contribute to the re-building of ecosystem function. The large number of options identified by modeling are being complemented with field demonstrations showing small households how they can use new management approaches to reduce stocking rate and maintain current farm income; these are summarized in Table 5. Changing grazing season by implementing strategic rests (Chapter 4, Kirychuk and Fritz 2010) will increase the opportunities for: additional biomass production; species recruitment; retention of cover at critical times; and an improvement in biodiversity through changes in species composition over time. The capacity of rangeland to respond to strategic rest was shown at Taipusi where a seasonal grazing ban imposed from early April until late May each year doubled available biomass in August to 1.6 t/ha (Zheng et al. 2010). Similar investigations at Siziwang (Han et al. 2010) indicated that grazing restricted to the growing seasonal was more profitable than yearlong grazing (Fig. 7) especially when stocked at the typical farm rate of ~0.35 EU/ha (Table 1). However, net farm return did decline when grazing was reduced to 5 months or less, irrespective of stocking rate (Fig. 7) due to the current costs of providing supplementary feed. Analysis at Huanxian (Wang et al. 2010) also showed a decline in net farm income when grazing was confined to the summerautumn period due to high feed costs. Wang et al. (2010) analyzed the value of rotational grazing and found no significant difference in income generation compared to yearlong grazing. This is an important finding because it confirms that rotational grazing systems provide good opportunities for rehabilitating grasslands provided the strategic rest periods are based on the phenology of the key species.
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7 Key Conclusions Despite opportunities arising from the growing demand for livestock products, China’s livestock sector is facing threats from increasing pressure on land and water resources and it is an imperative that the efficiency of livestock production is improved. The current livestock production system across the four villages studied is still based upon a traditional survival management strategy, especially at the household level. Using household survey data and modeling approaches, this chapter has identified a range of management options that if adopted could improve the sustainability of small livestock producers in western China. By considering change in livestock enterprise to better match feed resources, changing management of current enterprises and/or changing feed supply, households have the potential to achieve significant stocking rate reductions across a range of grassland types and conditions and livestock enterprises without incurring penalty in net farm income.
References Anderson J, Dillon J, Hardaker J (1985) Socio-economic modelling of farming systems, pp 77–88. In: Hardaker JB (ed) Agricultural systems research for developing countries. Proceedings of an international Workshop. ACIAR Proceedings Series. Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, NSW Brown CG, Waldron SA, Longworth JW (2008) Sustainable development in Western China: managing People, livestock and grasslands in pastoral areas. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, London Chen L, Michalk DL, Millar GD (2002) The ecology and growth patterns of Cleistogenes species in degraded grasslands of eastern Inner Mongolia, China. J App Ecol 39:584–594 Chen ZZ, Wang SP (2000) Typical steppe ecosystems of China. Science Press, Beijing, pp 9–45, In Chinese Chen ZZ, Wand SP, Wang YF (2003) Update of progress on grassland ecosystem research in Inner Mongolia. Chinese Bull Bot 20:423–429, In Chinese Corbett JL (1966) Variation in the yield and composition of milk of grazing Merino sheep. Aus J Agr Res 19:283–294 Degen AA (2007) Sheep and goat milk in pastoral societies. Small Ruminant Res 68:7–19 Devendra C (2000) Strategies for improved feed utilisation and ruminant production systems in the Asian Region. Asian-Aus J Anim Sci 13(Suppl July 2000 B):51–58 Devendra C, Sevilla CC (2002) Availability and use of feed resources in crop-animal systems in Asia. Agr Syst 71:59–73 Dong SK, Gao HW, Xu GC, Hou XY, Long RJ, Kang MY, Lassoie JP (2007) Farmer and professional attitudes to the large-scale ban on livestock grazing of grasslands in China. Environ Conserv 34(3):246–254 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (2006) Livestock report 2006 (FAO, Rome). Available at ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/a0255e/a0255e.pdf. Accessed 26 Feb 2010 Feng W, Ma Y, Zhang Z, Zhou D (1996) Prolific breeds of China. In: Fahmy MH (ed) Prolific sheep. CAB International, UK, pp l46–151 Graham NMc, Searle TW (1970) Energetic efficiency of lambs and weaners. Proceedings of the Australian society of animal production, vol 8, pp 263–266 Han GD, Li B, Wei ZJ, Yang J, Li H (2000) Grassland in China 1:4–6
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Han GD, Li N, Zhang M, Li ZG, Bai WJ, Zhao ML, Wang ZW, Takahashi T, Kemp D, Jones R, Michalk D (2010) Chapter 9 – Changing livestock numbers and farm management to improve livelihood of farmers and to rehabilitate grassland condition – a case study of the Desert steppe in Siziwang Banner. ACIAR Proceedings (in press) Han JG, Zhang YJ, Wang CJ, Bai WM, Wang YR, Han GD, Li LH (2008) Rangeland degradation and restoration management. Rangeland J 30:233–239 Herrero M, Thornton PK, Gerber P, Reid RS (2009) Livestock, livelihoods and the environment: understanding the trade-offs. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 1:111–120 Hong FC (2006) ‘Zhongguo Caoye Kechixu Fazhan Zongti Zhanlue’ (Comprehensive strategy for the sustainable development of China’s grass industry). In: Du Q (ed) Zhongguo Caoye Kechixu Fazhan Zongti Zhanlue. China Agricultural Publishing House, Beijing Hu ST, Hannaway DB, Youngberg HW (1992) Forage Resources of China. Podoc, Wageningen, Netherlands. pp. 327 Hu Z, Degang Z (2003) Chapter 5 – China’s pasture resources. In: Suttie JM, Reynolds SG (eds) Transhumant grazing systems in temperate asia. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome. Hua LM, Michalk DL (2010) Herders’ income and expenditure: perceptions and expectations (Chapter 11, this volume) Huang GQ, Li YF, Zhang SW, Tian Y, Wang JL, Wang YJ (1995) The experimental study on the solar ox-shed. Trans Chinese Soci Agr Engi 11(3):114–119 Janssen S, van Ittersum M (2007) Assessing farm innovations and responses to policies: a review of bio-economic farm models. Agric Sys 94:622–636 Jones RJ, Sandland RL (1974) The relation between animal gain and stocking rate: derivation of the relation from the results of grazing trials. J Agr Sci Camb 83:335–342 Ke B (1997) Industrial livestock production, concentrate feed demand and natural resource requirements in China. Proceedings of the international conference on livestock and the environment, pp 180–190. International Agricultural Centre, Wageningen Kemp DR, Michalk DL (2007). Towards sustainable grassland and livestock management. J Agric Sci Camb 145:543–564 Kemp D, Brown C, Han GD, Michalk D, Nan ZB, Wu JP, Xu Z (2010) Chapter 3 – Chinese grasslands: problems, dilemmas and finding solutions. ACIAR Proceedings (in press) Kemp DR, Michalk DL (eds) (2010). Sustainable Development of Livestock Systems on Grasslands in North-Western China. Proceedings of an International Workshop, Hohhot, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China, 28 June 2008. ACIAR Proceedings (in press). Kirychuk B, Fritz B (2010) Ecological restoration and control of rangeland degradation: livestock management (Chapter 4, this volume) Lang X, Wang C, Squires VR (2010) Protecting local breeds of livestock (Chapter 8, this volume) Langford C, Alcock D, Holst P, Shands C, Casburn G (2004) Wean more lambs. Optimising sheep reproductive performance. Meat and Livestock Australia, Sydney Li P, Liu CL, Wong SP (1980) Steppes in China. In: Wu YZ (ed) “Vegetation of China” Academia Sinica, Institute of Botany. Science Press, Beijing Li XL, Yuan QH, Wan LQ, He F (2008) Perspectives on livestock production systems in China. Rangeland J 30:211–220 Lin JY (1987) The household responsibility system reform in China: a peasant’s institutional choice. Am J Agr Econom 69(2):410–415 Lin JY (1988) The household responsibility system in China’s agricultural reform: a theoretical and empirical study. Econom Develop Cult Change 36(3), Supplement: Why does overcrowded, resource-poor East Asia succeed: lessons for the LDCs? (April 1988), pp S199–S224 Long R, Shang Z, Li X, Jiang P, Jia H, Squires VR (2010) Carbon sequestration and the implications for rangeland management (Chapter 7, this volume) Lu ZJ, Lu XS, Xin XP (2005) Present situation and trend of grassland desertification of North China. Acta Agrestia Sinica 13:24–27, In Chinese Lu XS, Fan JW, Liu JH (2006) Grassland resource. In: Du QL (ed) Chinese grassland sustainability development strategy. Chinese Agricultural Press, Beijing, Chinese
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Ma H, Rae A, Huang J, Rozelle S (2004) Chinese animal product consumption in the 1990s. Aus J Agr Res Econom 48:569–90 Michalk DL, Kemp DR (1994) Pasture management, sustainability and ecosystem theory: where to from here? In: Kemp DR, Michalk DL (eds) Pasture management: technology for the 21 Century. CSIRO, Australia, pp 155–169 Ministry of Agriculture of China (MOA) (2002) China agricultural outlook in the era of the 21st century. China Agricultural Press, Beijing Ministry of Agriculture of China (MOA) (2003) Statistical yearbook of animal husbandry of China. China’s Agricultural Press, Beijing Notter DR (2008) Genetic aspects of reproduction in sheep. Reprod Domes Anim 43(2):122–128 Niu RF, Chen JY (eds) (1994) Economic aspects of raw wool production and marketing in China. China Agricultural Sciences Press, Beijing Rae AN, Ma HY, Huang JK, Rozelle S (2006) Livestock in China: commodity-specific total factor productivity decomposition using new panel data. Am J Agr Econom 88(3):680–695 Ren JZ, Hou FJ, Zhang ZH (2000) Developing grassland agriculture and advancing sustainable development in western China. Adv Earth Sci 15(1):19–24, In Chinese with English abstract Rowe JB, Atkins AD (2007) Strategies for lifting productivity in the sheep industry. ABARE outlook conference proceedings sheep session 2, March 2007. National Convention Centre, Canberra. Shands CG, McLeod B, Lollback ML, Duddy G, Hatcher S, O’Halloran WJ (2009) Comparison of manual assessments of ewe fat reserves for on-farm use. Anim Prod Sci 2009(49):630–636 Squires VR, Hua L, Li G, Zhang D (2010) Exploring the options in North-west China’s pastoral lands (Chapter 3, this volume) ten Berge HFM, van Ittersum MK, Rossing WAH, van de Ven GWJ, Schans J (2000) Farming options for The Netherlands explored by multi-objective modelling. Euro J Agron 13:263–277 Takahashi T, Jones R, Kemp D (2010) Chapter 5. Dynamic modelling of sustainable livestock production systems. ACIAR Proceedings (in press). Turner HN (1965) Sheep breeding in the people’s republic of China. Wool Technol Sheep Breed 12(2):39–47 Wang CT, Dickerson GE (1991) Simulation of life-cycle efficiency of lamb and wool production for genetic levels of component traits and alternative management options. J Anim Sci 69:4324–4337 Wang SP, Li YH, Wang YF, Han YH (1998) The succession of Artemisia frigida grassland and multivariation analysis of different stocking rate in Inner Mongolia. Acta Ecologica Sinica 6:299–306, In Chinese Wang XG, Han JG (2005) Recent grassland policies in China: an overview. Outlook on Agriculture 34:105–110 Wang XY, Hou FJ, Nan ZB (2010) Chapter 6. Grazing systems on loess soils: options in Huanxian. ACIAR Proceedings (in press) Wong MSF (1988) Reproductive performance of some sheep breeds in China and their response to Fecundin. Wool Tech Sheep Bree 36 Wu RR, Zhang ZX (1988) The review and prospect of lucerne scientific work on loess plateau. Pratacultural Sci China 5(2):1–6. Xin XP, Liu J, Xu B (2000) ‘Grassland production-ecological issues and sustainable development patterns. In: Tang HJ (ed) Studies on agricultural resource use and regional sustainable development. China Agricultural Sciences and Technology Press, Beijing, pp 245–60 Yang L, Wu JP, Jones R, Kemp D, Ma ZF, Takahashi T (2010) Chapter 8 – Changing livestock and grassland management to improve the sustainability and profitability of Alpine grasslands in Sunan County, Gansu. ACIAR Proceedings (in press) Zheng Y, Xu Z, Kemp D, Shan GL, Tian QS, Xie JH (2010) Chapter 7 – Public grassland grazing systems on typical steppe, Taipusi IMAR. ACIAR Proceedings (in press)
Chapter 15
Towards Ecological Restoration and Management in China’s Northwest Pastoral Lands Victor Squires, Hua Limin, Li Guolin, and Zhang Degang
Synopsis The strongholds of semi-nomadic systems in NW China are undergoing rapid evolution as market-driven systems overtake them. New socio-economic issues have arisen which impact the way in which traditional societies view the future. This chapter focuses on those characteristics and issues which we judged to be most important in the current and future management of environmental resources. Sustainable use of these vast and highly variable rangelands depends on recognition of the interplay between people, livestock, wildlife and the rangeland resource on which they all depend (either directly or indirectly). The impact of the application of grassland science, as currently formulated is reviewed and alternatives explored. Key Points 1. Herders in the NW are Post-traditional pastoralists (at the transition between nomadic traditionalism and post-nomadic modernity). There is interplay in the pastoral areas of NW China between people, livestock, wildlife and the rangeland resource on which they all depend (either directly or indirectly). 2. Pastoralism in the arid zone has always been severely constrained. The key constraints that have plagued pastoralism in the past include both the technical (e.g. animal health, nutrition) and socio-political (land tenure, user rights, policy issues) and economic (marketing) aspects. Victor Squires (*) University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia e-mail: [email protected] Hua Limin Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China Li Guolin Gansu Animal Husbandry Bureau, Lanzhou, China Zhang Degang College of Grassland Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
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3. Traditional lifestyles are under threat throughout NW China. Environmental, social, economic and political changes will impact on nomadic/semi-nomadic herding. The strongholds of semi-nomadic systems in NW China are undergoing rapid evolution as market-driven systems overtake them. New socio-economic issues have arisen which impact the way in which traditional societies view the future. 4. These shifts call for a different set of institutions, markets and policies. They also call for the development and adaptation of new technologies to make livestock production environmentally more benign. The scope is enormous and so is the task. The challenge is to find ways of managing pastoral rangelands that are more environmentally sustainable, economically viable and socially equitable than at present. Such systems must also be robust enough to cope with the wide variations in both temporal and spatial dimensions of the problem in rangelands. 5. The current reliance by “grassland science” on the concepts of carrying capacity and succession theory in systems that are probably less affected in the long term by livestock than by stochastic and unpredictable climatic events and sequences needs urgent reform. A much more critical analysis is required in order to understand the complexity of the relationship between enclosures, grazing bans, cultural practices, and grazing pressure intensification. 6. In order to tackle grassland degradation we need to firstly understand the nature of the problem itself, establish the basis on which scientists and resource–users can agree, while encouraging mutual respect for various viewpoints. If local people are going to make a difference in transforming an environmentally degraded landscape, they must see this as a problem first, and then have some control and responsibility in the management of their natural resources. Keywords Gansu • development • post-traditional pastoralists • policy • regulations • mobility • land tenure • user rights • grassland science • markets • socioeconomics • natural hazards • drivers of change. Minerals • industrial development • rangeland governance
1 Introduction In attempting to analyse the most important features of the regional environment (with emphasis on Gansu Province) we have deliberately focused on those characteristics and issues which we judged to be most important in the current and future management of environmental resources. Issues on the management of resources are, therefore, woven into the text. However, this is not a comprehensive analysis of development problems in NW China. The reader is referred to Brown et al. (2008) for insights into these. Herders in the NW are Post-traditional pastoralists (at the transition between nomadic traditionalism and post-nomadic modernity). There is interplay in the pastoral areas of NW China between people, livestock, wildlife and the rangeland resource (Fig. 1) on which they all depend (either directly or indirectly).
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Fig. 1 People are the most important factor in the management of rangeland resources. Their actions determine whether or not there is sustainable use. People include the rangeland users and the government officials who monitor and regulate use and those people responsible for setting policy
Pastoralism in the arid zone has always been severely constrained (Grice et al. 2002). The key constraints that have plagued pastoralism in the past include both the technical (e.g. animal health, nutrition) and socio-political (land tenure, user rights, policy issues) and economic (marketing) aspects. Emerging and current problems include the conservation of the resource base (including biodiversity issues) the globalization of the world economy, the breakdown of tradition, and potential impacts of climate change. Traditional lifestyles are under threat throughout NW China. Environmental social economic and political changes will impact on nomadic/semi-nomadic herding. The strongholds of semi-nomadic systems in NW China are undergoing rapid evolution as market-driven systems overtake them. New socio-economic issues have arisen which impact the way in which traditional societies view the future. Demands for education, better health, higher expectations for their children and a desire for a more technologically based lifestyle (television, mobile phones, motorized transport) have shifted priorities. Changes in land tenure, uncertainty about the security of user rights, reductions in mobility (as sedentarization is encouraged) have all played their part. These shifts call for a different set of institutions, markets and policies. They also call for the development and adaptation of new technologies to make livestock production environmentally more benign. The scope is enormous and so is the task. The challenge
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is to find ways of managing pastoral rangelands that are more environmentally sustainable, economically viable and socially equitable than at present. Such systems must also be robust enough to cope with the wide variations in both temporal and spatial dimensions of the problem in rangelands (Williams 1996). Rangelands in NW China display considerable heterogeneity (in peoples, grazing systems, climates, infrastructure development and accessibility).
2 Sustainability Is the Key Sustainability is a concept that most people know about but opinions differ as to what it means. Sustainable development is defined as “development to meet the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. Sustainable development assumes the alignment of development decisions with environmental considerations. The key question is just what do we want to maintain? Many possibilities exist. Do we want to sustain: (a) The rural population and community structure at existing levels? (b) The biological and ecological integrity of the region? (c) The financial viability of herders? (d) The herders and their traditions and culture? Once a decision is made as to which of these (singularly or in combination) is the main aim, then the action taken to achieve this aim is better specified. But what does sustainable development mean in practice? Essentially, sustainable development is a set of strategies and tools to achieve the following: • • • • •
Integrate conservation and development Ensure satisfaction of basic human needs Achieve equity and social justice Provide for social self determination and cultural diversity Maintain ecological integrity of the rangeland system so as to conserve biodiversity and carbon sequestration
Although the concept of modern rangeland management (in its broadest sense) is still evolving and its operational content remains notoriously difficult to define, there is need to move in the direction of environmental sustainability as demonstrated in the World Bank/GEF Pastoral Development project in Gansu and Xinjiang.1 This involves developing production systems that maximize the positive synergisms between the various elements in the system (Chapter 5, Fig. 3) and reduce reliance on external inputs that have a negative effect on people and ecosystems. website http://www.wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDS_IBank_Servlet?pcont=details&eid=00016 0016_20030821123942
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In the context of the fragile resource base and limited potential for high productivity-gain that characterizes marginal areas, it can be expected that a major emphasis must be placed on reducing the vulnerability of herder households (Squires 1998). Resource fragility and natural hazards such droughts, floods and snow disasters are manifestation of resource fragility as well as the system’s propensity to degrade quickly (Chapter 2, Squires and Hua, 2010).
3 Driving Forces in Pastoral Systems Over the longer term, the fundamental driving force on natural resources is population pressure, especially from outside of the pastoral lands but also from pastoral users themselves. There has been a dramatic increase in the numbers of livestock per head of population. Many of the ethnic minorities who dominate the herder communities in pastoral lands are exempt from the “one child policy” that applied in most of China. The population of non-pastoral groups in the arid and semi arid regions has been among the highest in the world. This growth of other groups causes an increasing encroachment of cropping into pastoral lands, especially the more fertile “key resource sites”, and constrain the critical mobility necessary to adjust to disequilibrium conditions (Chapters 5 and 13). The need to reduce human population pressures as well as to diversify sources of income remain crucial issues in the sustainable development of pastoral areas. The increased population pressure also leads to water development (more wells to tap ground water) and new settlements in the pastoral lands. Also within the system, the population pressure mounts and causes accelerated land degradation. Thus, in spite of the resilience of the system, many pastoralists face a downward spiral of increased crop encroachment, increased fuelwood requirements and decreased grazing available (Chapter 5, Squires et al. 2010). These forces contribute to the impoverishment of the pastoral population and to land degradation. The trend is being exacerbated by drought, and vulnerability to drought is one of the main indicators of long term environmental and social sustainability of these pastoral systems. Several policy pressures exacerbate the fundamental driving force of increasing population pressure including: (a) Attempts at “stabilization” of the system. Often well-intentioned policies sought (and still seek) to stabilize the “boom and bust” cycles, which traditionally existed between man, livestock and vegetation in pastoral lands through settlement of herders and attempts (so far unsuccessful) to regulate and control stocking rate (b) Changes in access to land: “privatizing” communal areas, carving them up into small plots under the HCRS which does not allow the necessary mobility (c) Inappropriate incentives such as supported products prices for cereals which, in turn, intensified the encroachment of crops into the “key resource” areas of the herders
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4 Environments and Herder Development in NW China: the Next 2 Decades For the next 2 decades and beyond, most people in the pastoral regions of NW China will derive their living from the productivity of the soil, water and vegetation resources. Yet this vast region, perhaps more than all others in China, has real physical constraints on the productivity of the environment. These limitations have been compounded by layers of human misuse and mismanagement (Williams 2002; Brown et al. 2008; Squires et al. 2009). What are the vital trends in NW China over the next 2 decades and how will resource management be affected by these trends? The clearly defined and somewhat predictable trends are those concerning population. It is clear that population is very probably going to continue to increase steadily. It is also highly probable that urban growth in larger county and prefecture seats like Zhangye, Wu Wei, Jiayuguan, Dingxi in Gansu and Turpan and Hami in Xinjiang etc will continue at rates above that of general population growth. This will continue to put pressure on the rangelands and, possibly, lead to more land conversion so that crops can be grown. Crops will be needed for either fodder for penned animals or for food for the burgeoning urban population (Chapter 9, Zhang et al. 2010). Growth of the urban areas and rising human populations will also reinforce the linkage between the pastoral zone, the crop zone and the markets and transport and service hubs that urban areas provide (Chapter 1, Squires and Hua 2010a; Chapter 9, Zhang et al. 2010). Population growth will continue to exert pressure on existing and new agricultural land. There will continue to be dual pressures for food production to meet local and regional needs and for export to more distant markets. Future trends in climate are impossible to predict, but a likely scenario is for a continuing period of rainfall uncertainty in the dry regions of NW China (Lu et al. 2009). Even if mean annual rainfall totals increase, unless soil and vegetation resources improve, the dryland areas will have even greater difficulty in meeting the increased demand for food and fiber that is required to meet the new needs in these areas. Mineral exports and industrial development will help some counties, but for the next 2 decades the soil and water resources and their products will provide the basis for most counties in NW China. Much of what will happen in the next 2 decades will depend on herders themselves and on actions by people who administer the rangelands, and the development of their responses to current, and emerging, problems. There are signs that governments and the herder community are beginning to treat environmental issues with concern and the certainty they deserve. If this continues, there is hope that some of the very basic issues such as environmental degradation, poverty alleviation, land tenure and land use rights, and rural health will receive serious and coordinated attention. In short, government will adopt a more holistic approach to the development of the pastoral areas. The behavior of individual rangeland users suggests that in practice, most people have a ‘unimodal’ view of the rangelands. Rangeland is perceived from the
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perspective of the principal benefit that the individual expects to derive from it. This may take the form of: • Traditional grazing lands provide, food, shelter and security for present and future generations • A factor of production in a profit-maximizing commercial enterprise • A complex natural system supporting a vast diversity of life forms • A mantle over untold mineral wealth concealed in the geological formations beneath Governments, however, are responsible for the long-term welfare of the community as a whole and therefore cannot focus solely on the benefit that any particular group in the community may derive from rangelands. Thus, a unimodal approach is inadequate for the purposes of government. Rather, consideration must be given to and compromises made between the entire range of current and possible future uses of the resources of the nation, including rangelands. It is a major challenge to balance the interests of different users so as to deliver the best overall outcome (Wu and Richard 1999). The very seriousness of the problems of accelerated land degradation, water management, wood and fuel supply, and soil resources may in themselves, be a factor in a new level of responsiveness. The best hope for the next 2 decades rests with the development of a new level of responsiveness. We need new levels of knowledge and understanding, we need more fact-finding and research, but most importantly we need new levels of awareness at the level of the Ministries and Bureaus so that policy and implementation are more soundly based and more coherent. Unfortunately even the best scenario suggests a period of continuing difficulty in issues of resource management in NW China. The present-day restrictions on herder mobility, the heavy reliance on the import of energy and feed supplements, the reduced area of rangeland, the ever-spreading area of degradation and the rising numbers of livestock suggest that NW China’s pastoral lands are far from secure (Squires and Yang 2009). However, there is enough accumulated experience now to prevent widespread catastrophe if the lessons of recent history are taken into account when charting the course of rangeland monitoring and management over the next 2 decades as China strives for sustainable use of the vast areas of rangelands (true grassland, alpine grassland, shrub/ grass steppe and desert steppe). There are two ‘take home’ lessons: • Land degradation is a problem that encompasses both biophysical and socioeconomic dimensions and cannot be comprehended adequately by just focusing on one of them. • The need for prevention, an approach that is not only better but also more costeffective than the after-the-fact action (i.e. remediation). The conflict between livestock and environment is really a conflict between different human needs and expectations. In many places livestock production is growing out of balance with the environment or is under so much pressure that it leads to
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Social subsystem
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Production losses Compaction flooding
Pollution
Economic losses
Fig. 2 Three systems intersect. A better understanding of the interactions between them is an essential prerequisite to designing better policy and management interventions
environmental degradation. The fact is that livestock do not migrate, produce or reproduce without human intervention. Livestock do not degrade the environment – humans do. As a result of these misconceptions about livestock development, institutions and governments continue to miss opportunities that would permit the livestock sector to make its full contribution to human welfare and economic growth (Fig. 2). Clearly the problems of rangeland management and of pastoral development are much more complex than the reduction of land degradation through the control of livestock numbers, based on some ill-defined and unenforceable concept of carrying capacity of the rangelands. Grazing systems cannot be replaced easily by prescriptions to reduce land degradation through the control of excessive livestock numbers. Such prescriptions are usually ignored. There is, what Brown et al. 2008 call, “an intricate web of policies and institutions that now impact on rangeland degradation and sustainable development in China’s pastoral region. Understanding this complex matrix and its impact on the management of people, livestock grasslands, markets and industry structure is crucial in charting a way forward”. A simple landscape model is presented in Fig. 3. China faces enormous challenges in dealing with the unique economic, social and environmental conditions of the pastoral region. In particular, Chinese policies developed in the intensive agricultural regions of the east and south and aimed at rural, regional, industry and environmental development are quite often unsuited to
15 Towards Ecological Restoration and Management in China’s Northwest Pastoral Lands 333 Changes in uses of the landscape
Changes in Landscape composition and Pattern
Changes in ecological Goods and Services
Changes in Ecological and Hydrological Processes
Fig. 3 A simple landscape model illustrating the consequences of changes to land use on plant communities and on ecological and hydrological processes
the extensive pastoral region which has vastly different social ecological and economic problems. This has led to a situation where there are uniform policies but non-uniform impacts – problem made worse by the fact that in many of the pastoral regions there is extreme heterogeneity (ethnically, socially). There is a raft of laws, regulations and policies, many designed to cater for this heterogeneity because they are broadly framed and allow for local governments to tailor them to the local needs. Some though suffer from the implementation being constrained by adherence to administrative, rather than ecological boundaries. Rangeland governance remains one of the crucial issues to be faced in the coming decades. The present highly imperfect system needs serious reform. The Household Contract Responsibility System (HCRS) is thought to lie at the root of the problem (Chapter 13, Wang et al. 2010) although Harris 2010 concluded after detailed review of literature and field work in Qinghai that this assertion has not been proven. Although it transformed agricultural areas of China it has been far less successful in pastoral areas (Williams 2002; Brown et al. 2008). The recent policy trends toward grassland ‘privatization’ and the household enclosure movement (with fencing) are generating conditions for greater inequalities and the decline of natural resources (Williams 2002, 2006). Minority peoples though subject to immense external pressure since the collectivization and post-collectivization periods still possess their own cultural ideas about environment, identity and ethnoecological knowledge (Zhang et al. 2007). The impact of enclosures in nonequilibrium contexts (Chapter 5, Squires et al. 2010) and its effects on peoples’ lives is now beginning to be more widely recognized (Banks 2001; Banks et al. 2003; Wu and Richard 1999; Zhang 2006) and calls into question the current reliance by “grassland science” on the concepts of carrying capacity and succession theory in systems that are probably less affected in the long term by livestock than by stochastic and unpredictable climatic events and sequences. A much more critical analysis is required in order to understand the complexity of the relationship between enclosures, grazing bans, cultural practices, and grazing pressure intensification.
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Conventional grassland/rangeland science in China has never been concerned with local viewpoints and is fundamentally concerned with successional changes in plant species composition and how this is affected by particular stocking rates. It is clear that we need to take into account complex species, animal and human (social and cultural) interactions, as an interdependent system. This necessitates a holistic, multidisciplinary approach to rangeland management, which is not a conceptual issue for herders, but it is for grassland scientists. It is clear that science should be partnered with good local agro-ecological knowledge and that for scientists to discount herders’ viewpoints, which is typical throughout NW China, is in itself akin to ignorance. The relationship between scientists and herders is constituted by the knowledge and categories of science (Hobart 1993: 2). Indeed, we need a more critical position when it comes to trust in systematic, rational and scientific knowledge as universal and the only version of knowledge as this kind of one-sided knowledge claims. Herders are presented as mere objects to be changed (Hobart 1993; Taylor 2006a, b). Therefore assumptions that ‘one size fits all’ is another case of inappropriate science based on conventional equilibrium environments being applied to diverse pastoral communities living in non equilibrium systems. The significance of the equilibrium vs non-equilibrium paradigms is dealt with earlier (Chapter 5, Squires et al. 2010). External knowledge is consistently considered more valuable than local wisdom and realistic ‘best possible practice’ in modern management should include ‘culturally-informed’ and ‘praxis oriented’ ecological knowledge (Sullivan and Homewood 2003: 33, 38). Therefore, planning must consider local knowledge that has enabled communities for generations to respond to ‘subtle environmental cues’ (Williams 2002: 204), though arguably the ability to respond nowadays given policy constraints is increasingly variable and often largely ineffectual (Brown et al. 2008). Unless an alternative approach combining both science and local wisdom is used, there will be no longer-term and community-agreed commitment and responsibility toward natural resource management. It is suggested that adapted communitybased grazing practices and vernacular Agro-Ecological knowledge should be included in the formulation of new grassland management policy (Taylor 2006b). Access to pastures is skewed and has to be resolved to avoid increased tension and over-exploitation of common-pool resources (beyond the ecosystem’s ability to recover from sustained heavy grazing) where the grassland is not an object but is rather a social relation that defines the resource user with “respect to something of value (the benefit stream) against all others” (Taylor 2006b). Addressing rangeland degradation might start with a consideration of whether or not grazing land allocations are adequate or equitable (Williams et al. 2009) and whether stocking rates are appropriate to the land type and condition (Li 2009). Taylor (2002) in his analysis of rangeland privatization and ecology makes useful points (Box 1). Because herders live or languish according to how well they can assess risk and uncertainty they are more sensitized to natural changes than most other population groups. That is why robust and meaningful rangeland monitoring (using appropriate indicators) and its evolving techniques appropriate to the large scale required
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Box 1 The state and environmental engineering in NW China The state/regional government have centred debate about the need for ‘protection’ (fencing) and ‘construction’ (planting grass and trees) in the rangelands. As stated in many official documents, the problem is too many grazing animals and the solution is reduced stocking. Most herders interviewed [on the project] will say that the most critical consideration is not so much animal numbers but seasonal variation, resource availability and temporality (critical feed time). Now, surprisingly, given the wide recognition of the degradation problem and the considerable scientific literature on grassland ecology, there has been little attention given to cultural practices and human motivations of grassland inhabitants. For instance, in the Central government’s ‘Grasslands Ecological, Environmental Protection and Development Plan of China 2001–2010’ the solution to grassland problems (overgrazing leading to degradation or desertification) is in a ‘combination of biological, engineering and agricultural methods’. There is no mention of how the more than fifty ethno-linguistic groups who inhabit China’s rangelands can participate in this ambitious singularly defined ‘engineering’ venture except in suggesting strengthening policing and penalties. It would seem that the solution is to be found in science, technology, and of course the market. The market in this sense follows the current stage of the ‘socialist market economy with Chinese characteristics’, which favours the current land tenure arrangements. The market refers to individual rights of access to grazing land and is based on the assumption that privatisation will encourage more responsible management and sustainable use of the grasslands. Indeed, the extent to which the re-allocation of pastures has been made to individual households has never been known before in NW China. It has serious consequences for pasture degradation connected to the restricted communal movement of animals.
are potentially of such critical importance to them. Measures for the sustainable development of rangelands, and certainly of efforts to mitigate land degradation, must take a close look at both directly–related variables (change in vegetation cover, depth of topsoil, species composition etc) and indirectly-related variables (intensity and distribution of precipitation, prices of meat, fiber and hides and other commodities, human immigration and emigration etc). But authorities must proceed on the basis of cost/benefit analysis of how best to respond to the perceived threats. A number of decision-making problems arise as we try to balance the costs of early action against delayed or no action. One way to deal with this problem of uncertainty is to adapt the precautionary principle “when there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing such measures”.
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Enhanced soil and land quality benefits will also provide a resource base for future generations. Benefits on the national scale primarily refer to improved food security and agricultural sustainability. On the global level, anticipated benefits from improved carbon management are: enhanced biodiversity, increased carbon offsets and climate change mitigation. The principal benefits and the beneficiaries of sustainable rangeland management are set out in Table 1 while Table 2 shows the benefits, costs and returns associated with the management of rangelands. The right sort of interventions can yield benefits at the local, national and global benefit. By this we mean that efforts to protect the biodiversity, sequester C and generally apply sustainable rangeland management practices can increase soil fertility, and can lead to higher productivity and ultimately improve herder and farmer livelihoods (Fig. 1). The lessons learned from the World Bank/GEF Pastoral Development project in Gansu and Xinjiang over the 6 years of the project provide opportunities for replication and scaling-up of successful interventions and in particular the combining of sets of measures and technical improvements into ‘packages’ that collectively can make a difference to peoples’ livelihoods while ensuring more sustainable use of the vast pastoral lands. A series of these interventions and the best approaches to inserting them have been tested in the project counties in both Gansu and Xinjiang. We have attempted to examine here the constraints (technical as well as sociopolitical) to widespread application how these packages might be further attuned to suit local conditions. In order to tackle grassland degradation we need to firstly understand the nature of the problem itself, establish the basis on which scientists and resource–users can agree, while encouraging mutual respect for various viewpoints. If local people are going to make a difference in transforming an environmentally degraded landscape, they must see this as a problem first, and then have some control and responsibility in the management of their natural resources. The variable social, economic and agro-ecological condition between counties, rural townships and villages in NW China indicates a need for an adaptive grazing strategy able to permit seasonal and ad-hoc animal movement and maintain an overlapping grazing strategy. In this context, traditional responses to such ecosystem demands may be the most appropriate. This presents a challenge to some of the important priorities in the ‘current drive to modernize the pastoral economy’. The thorough-going review by Harris (2009) puts much of this book in perspective. He says on p. 11: It seems clear that Chinese policy will not tolerate a return to traditional nomadic pastoralism over large spatial scales, nor does this seem feasible given recent integration of livestock production systems with distant markets and with on-going socioeconomic development taking place in pastoral areas. Some kind of modernized livestock management, even if not what Chinese policy currently promotes, must ultimately be adopted. But even where it can be safely assumed that rangeland degradation is serious and that it has been caused by excessive livestock numbers, there has been very little rigorous Chinese research into the reasons for overgrazing and rangeland degradation. Most Chinese biological research has not asked, much less answered, questions regarding human motivations among the pastoralists using the rangelands.
Increased C sequestration
Enhanced plant and animal biodiversity Dust storms reduction
Increased aquifer recharge Flood reduction
Global
National
Local
Enhanced resource base for future generations Improved health, decreased maintenance costs in infrastructure and industry, decreased damage in agropastoral production systems Increased water availability Decrease damage of infrastructure (roads, reservoirs, crops, livestock, houses)
Mitigation of global climate change
Benefits
Increased water use efficiency Decrease of soil degradation Conserve livestock productivity Increase of plant biomass
Environmental services
Scale
Local herders
Water users State (public infrastructure) utility companies, downstream populations
Conservation groups, private firms, tourism industry
International community/ countries, private firms
Beneficiaries/demanders
Table 1 Principal benefits and beneficiaries of sustainable rangeland management at various spatial scales
Groundwater levels, groundwater use Stage heights at hydraulic structures (flood crests); reservoir siltation. Infra-structure damage Biomass survey, soil sampling, Stocking rate monitoring
Early warning system, automatic weather stations, Remote sensing
Soil sampling, eddy flux towers, static chambers, vegetation cover by remote sensing
Monitoring
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Table 2 Benefits, costs, and returns of management options for rangeland improvement
Environmental benefits Increased carbon sequestration Plant biodiversity Animal biodiversity Increased aquifer recharge Flood reduction Increased water use efficiency Decreased soil degradation Increase of plant biomass Local returns (animal productivity) First returns (years) Variability of returns Costs Investment (capital) Monitoring Enforcement Supplementary feeding
Controlled grazing
Protected Controlled grazing Controlled grazing + shrub plantation natural + shrub +water harvesting rangeland plantation
X
XX
XX
XX
XXX XX X
XX XXX X
XX XXX X
XX XX X
X X
X XX
X XXX
X XXX
X
X
X
X
XX
XXX
XXX
XXX
1–3 XXX
2–3 X
2–3 X
3–5 XXX
X XXX XXX
XX X XX n/a
XXX X XX n/a
X XX XXX n/a
X slight benefit/cost XX significant benefit/cost XXX large benefit/reduced cost n/a not applicable
The general conclusions reached in this book are indeed somewhat pessimistic. There are no quick or easy solutions to the complexity of NW China’s environmental problems. On balance we might conclude that there been an attempt to apply a techno-scientific solution to a predominantly socio-cultural ecological problem. This undermines the stock of social capital among these communities and in some cases even leads to outright community conflict. Perhaps based on the assumption that science has all the answers, rangeland technicians, assumed that field experimentation conducted under controlled conditions could and should be replicable in any setting. Naturally, long fallows (or grazing bans) will restore soil fertility, critical biomass and allow pasture species to regenerate. Within NW China special conserved areas are already being set aside under government regulations. But in the interim (especially in densely populated areas) there are questions that need practical answers: (a) Where and how are livestock to be grazed? (b) How should households coordinate rotational grazing? (c) How to acquire the means to turn sand dunes
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into productive pastures? Answers to these questions require the application of timely participatory research methods in the context of non-equilibrium ecological settings described elsewhere in this book. Based on a better understanding of the environment and of the management systems involved in the different parts of the region, it is vitally important that a beginning is made on addressing the issues raised here. It is timely that the direction be set and the first steps taken in that direction. If this book can help in the process of achieving better resource management in NW China, we will feel truly rewarded
References Banks T (2001) Property rights and environment in Pastoral China: Evidence from the field. Dev Change 32(4):717–740 Banks T, Richard C, Li P, Yan Z (2003) Community based grassland management in Western China: Rationale, pilot project experience and policy implications. Mountain Res Dev 23(2):132–140 Brown CG, Waldron SA, Longworth JW (2008) Sustainable development in Western China: Managing people, livestock and grasslands in pastoral areas. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham UK and Northhampton MA, USA 294 p Grice AC, Hodgkinson KC (2002) Global Rangelands: Progress and prospects. CABI, Oxford, 299 p Harris RH (2010) Rangeland degradation on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau: A review of the evidence of its magnitude and causes. J Arid Environ 74(2010):1–12 Hobart M (ed) (1993) An anthropological critique of development: The growth of ignorance. Routledge, New York Li X (2009) Mechanisms of degradation in grazed rangelands. In: Squires VR, Lu X, Lu Q, Wang T, Yang Y (eds) Rangeland degradation and recovery in China’s Pastoral lands. CABI, Wallingford, pp 45–60 Lu Q, Wang X, Wu B (2009) An analysis of the effects of climate variability in northern China over the past five decades on people, livestock and plants in the focus areas. In: Squires VR, Lu X, Lu Q, Wang T, Yang Y (eds) Rangeland degradation and recovery in China’s pastoral lands. CABI, Wallingford, pp 33–44 Squires VR (1998) Sustainable development: A dream or an economic and environmental imperative? In: Squires VR, Sidahmed AE (eds) Drylands: Sustainable use of rangelands into the twenty-first century. IFAD, Rome, pp 3–9 Squires VR, Lu X, Lu Q, Wang T, Yang Y (2009) Rangeland degradation and recovery in China’s pastoral lands. CABI, Wallingford, UK p 264 Squires VR, Yang Y (2009) How can the next degradation episode be prevented? In: Squires VR, Lu X, Lu Q, Wang T, Yang Y (eds) Rangeland degradation and recovery in China’s Pastoral lands. CABI, Wallingford, pp 247–257 Squires VR, Hua LM (2010a) North-west China’s rangelands and peoples: Facts, figures, challenges and responses (Chapter 1, this volume) Squires VR, Hua LM (2010b) Livestock husbandry development and agro-pastoral integration in Gansu and Xinjiang (Chapter 2, this volume) Squires VR, Hua L, Li G, Zhang D (2010) Exploring the options in North-west China pastoral lands (Chapter 3, this volume) Sullivan S, Homewood K (2003) On non-equilibrium and nomadism: Knowledge, diversity and global modernity in drylands (and beyond…). CSGR Working Paper No. 122/03 (CSGR Centre for the Study of Globalisation and Regionalisation), University of Warwick, Coventry
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Taylor JL (2006a) Rangeland policy, privatization and new ecology in Inner Mongolia. The 11th Conference of the International Association for the Study of Common Property, Bali, Indonesia, 19–23 June 2006 Taylor JL (2006b) Negotiating the Grassland: The Policy of Pasture Enclosures and Contested Resource Use in Inner Mongolia Human Organization 65(4):374–386 Wang M, Zhao CZ, Hua LM, Squires VR (2010) Land tenure: problems, prospects and reform (Chapter 13, this volume) Williams A (2006) Improving rangeland management in Alxa League, Inner Mongolia. J Arid Land Stud 15(4):199–202 Williams A, Wang M, Zhang MA (2009) Land tenure arrangements, property rights and Institutional arrangements in the cycle of rangeland degradation and recovery. In: Squires VR, Lu X, Lu Q, Wang T, Yang Y (eds) Rangeland degradation and recovery in China’s pastoral lands. CABI, Wallingford, pp 219–234 Williams DM (1996) Rangeland enclosures: Catalyst of land degradation in Inner Mongolia. Hum Organ 55(3):307–313 Williams DM (2002) Beyond Great Walls: Environment, identity, and development on the Chinese Rangelands of Inner Mongolia. Stanford University Press, Stanford, p 251 Wu N, Richard C (1999) The privatization process of rangeland and its impacts on the pastoral dynamics in the Hindukush Himalayas: the case of Western Sichuan, China, In: Eldridge D, Fruedenberger D (eds) People and Rangelands. Proceedings of the VI International Rangelands Congress, Townsville. Australia International Congress Inc., Aitkenvale, Australia, pp 14–21 Zhang DG, Ren J, Hua LM, Squires VR (2010) Agro-pastoral integration: Development of a new paradigm (Chapter 9, this volume) Zhang MA, Borjigin E, Zhang H (2007) Mongolian nomadic culture and ecological culture: on the ecological reconstruction in the agro-pastoral mosaic zone in Northern China. Ecol Econ 63:19–26 Zhang, Q (2006) May they live with herds: Transformation of pastoralism in Inner Mongolia, of China. MSc thesis, University of Tromso, Norway
Author Index
F Fritz, B 61 H Han, G 301 Hua L .3,19, 41, 81, 183, 233, 255, 285, 301 J Jia, H 127 Jiang P 127 Jones R 301 K Kemp. D 301 Kirychuk, B ..61 L Lang X .147 Li G 41,325 Li X 127 Long R .127 M Michalk, D. . 233, 301 N Nan, Z 301
R Radstake. F .ix Ren, J .. 183 S Shang. Z 127 Soderstrom, S vii Squires,V. 3,19,41, 101, 127, 147,183, 207, 255, 285,325 T Takahashi T. 301 W Wang C. 147 Wang, M 255. Wu J. 207, 321 X Xu, Z 301 Y Yang. L .207 Z Zhang, D .41, 81, 183, 325 Zhao, C 101,255,.285
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Subject Index
A Abandoned farmland/cropland, 104, 106, 139, 140–141 Abiotic elements, 84 Abortion in goats, 216 Extent, 216 Possible causes, 216 Remedies Thermal coats, 216 Warm pens, 216 Subei, 216 Sunan, 216 Tianzhu, 216 Vaccination, 217 Advisory services (see Extension) Agistment, 17, 278 Agro-pastoralists, 21, 185 Classification into groups, 185 Agro-pastoral systems, 41, 45 Limited by lack of arable land, 190 Limited by lack of secure tenure, 191 Agro-pastoral integration, 16, 26, 29, 32, 57 New paradigm, 202, 226, 243 Alfalfa, 23, 55, 196, 239, 318 Alpine areas, 116, 122, 138, 142–143 Alpine meadow, 120, 138, 139, 141, 238–239, 248 Biodiversity ‘hot spots’, 120 CO2 sequestration, 7, 138–140 Impact of climate change, 117–120, 122 Altai Shan, 5, 102, 103, 119, 128 Biodiversity, 119 CO2 sequestration, 128 Altay sheep, 152 Altai white headed cattle, 152 Anding district, Gansu, 26, 196, 198 Animal health, 45, 51, 65, 82, 188, 195, 228 Diseases, 194 Infectious, 229 Fertility diseases, 229
External parasites, 229 Internal parasites, 230 Quarantine, 229 Test and slaughter, 229 Vaccination, 65, 228–229 Animal husbandry, 236 Animal Husbandry Bureau (AHB), 13, 258, 263, 307 Grassland Inspection and Supervison Stations, 13, 30, 88.97, 260, 263 Animal identification Eartags, 314 Record keeping, 77–78 Animal nutrition, 195 Feed balance (see Feed balance) Ration formulation, 50, 51, 199 And reproduction, 214 Requirements, 75, 310 Role of supplementary feeding (see Supplements) And reduction in stocking rates, 72 Seasonal variation, 209 Under-nutrition, 214, 215, 217 Anxi cattle, 152 Applied research, 30 51, 56 Link with training, 288 Arable land, 5, 47, 56, 188 As a limitation to fodder production, 56 Artificial insemination (AI), 7, 226, 227–228 Artificial oases, 8, 15, 42, 152 Links between pastoralism and market outlets, 15 Artificial pastures (sown pastures), 14, 25, 29, 30, 32, 45, 51, 55, 102, 140, 189, 317 Constraints to expansion, 314 Lack of irrigation water Lack of arable land, 314 Asian Development Bank (ADB) ADB/PRC Partnership to combat land degradation, ix 343
344 Australia, 222, 223, 224, 234, 314 Australian Center for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), 193, 221, 301, 306, 307 B Bare soil as an indicator of range health, 70–71 Bayinbuluk sheep, 21 Biodiversity, 11, 27, 29, 31, 54, 83, 87, 100–12, 236, 237, 248.304, 321, 326, 336 Birds, 110, 111, 116 Fish, 110, 111 Hot spots, 104, 120 Local livestock breeds, 175 Loss of Plants, 103–104, 112 Methodology, 112 Bio-economic model (see also Modeling), 303, 306 Constraints, 306 Linear programming framework, 306 Biogas, 30, 57, 201 Biophysical factors, 53 Biomass, 67, 104, 105, 132, 249, 257, 321 Birds (see Biodiversity) Body weight Birth weights, 57 Loss, 208, 218 Seasonal changes in, 316 Threshold body weight for conception, 314 Bole county, Xinjiang, 139, 261 Botanical composition (see Species composition) Breed improvement, 57, 222–223 British breeds of livestock, 223 By-products as feed supplements (see also Crop residues) C Camels, 16, 45, 93, 263 Changing role of, 46 Canada, 70 Canadian International Agricultural Development Agency (CIDA), 62, 63, 193 Capacity building, 52 As part of training, 52 In local government agencies, 52 Environmental education’s role, 295 Carbon Carbon balance, 129, 336 Carbon efflux/flux, 130, 131 Carbon sinks, 29, 128, 130 CO2, 118, 121, 122, 129
Subject Index Carbon sequestration, 11, 29 49, 83, 129, 102, 120, 127–130, 33 Dynamics, 131, 135, 137 Cycling, 129, 137 Effects of rangeland utilization on, 139 Inorganic C, 134 Livestock-related CO2 emissions (see Gaseous emissions from livestock) Magnitude of soil C storage, 128 Managing rangelands for C sequestration, 134–135 Residence time of C, 128 C/N ratios in litter, 134 Soil carbon, 104, 119, 122, 129–130 Particulate organic carbon (POC), 141 Soil organic C (SOC), 140–141 Soil organic matter (SOM), 104, 119, 130 Total organic carbon(TOC), 140–141 Carrying capacity, 43, 58, 68, 96, 249, 258, 333 Concept, 230 Safe, long term, 89, 93–95. 304 Case studies Anding, Gansu, 196 Ganzhou, Gansu, 197 Jiuchaigou, Gansu, 263 Lianzhou, 207 Perverse incentives, 13 Sichuan, 4, 25 Sunan, Gansu, 263 Xueqan, Gansu, 263 Yongchang, Gansu, 198 Cashmere, 7, 10, 57, 263, 309, 313 Cattle Population, 4 Causal loop diagrams, 86–88 Changes in the livestock enterprise (see Re-designing Livestock Systems) Options, 320 Chenbarhu, Inner Mongolia, 67, 68 Children’s education, 31 Climate change, 17, 104, 116, 118, 234, 304, 326 Impact on alpine areas, 118 Mitigating via reversal of land degradation, 134 Radiative forcing, 135 Collective land ownership Collectivization, 333 Decollectivization, 12 Communal grazing lands, 192, 239, 260, 334 Common property land and resources, 32, 53, 257 Community participation, 26 Community based management, 128, 266, 269, 270, 272, 274
Subject Index Analysis of effect, 271, 275 Impact on household income, 269–70, 271, 277 Impact on livestock number, 270 Constraints, 208, 240, 276–7, 326 Lack of capital, 244 Lack of rural credit, 244 Lack of arable land, 189, 239 Lack of irrigation water, 189 Legislative, 326 Socio-economic, 326 Policy and Administrative, 326 Consumer preference, 302 Consumption expenditure, 241 Contagious abortion, 229 In goats, 216. Conversion of rangeland to cropland, 24, 42–43, 108, 328 Coping strategies, 23, 194 Corralling at night, 213 Cost/benefit analysis, 335 Cover percentage in rangelands, 70 Changes in, 14 Value as an indicator, 70 Critical bodyweight (see Bodyweight) Crop residues as stock feed, 6, 10, 29, 45, 55, 152, 190, 192 By-products, 83, 189, 192, 193, 218 Cross breeding, 224–225 Breed complementarity, 224–226 Forbidden for local breeds, 149 Heterosis, 223, 224, Heritability, 225 Terminal sires, 172 Culling, 62, 216, 274, 303, 313 Criteria, 220, 314 Need for, 220–221, 274 Cultivation, 234 Impact on CO2 sequestration, 140 Cyclic fluctuations in food supplies, 209 D Dacha Village, Gansu, 244–245, 246, 247, 248 Deferred grazing, 50 Desertification, 12, 84, 133, 257 Diet selectivity, 211, 212 Dietary overlap, 212 Feed quality, 28, 67, 211 Intake, 57, 190, 210 Nutritive value, 212, 213 Nutritional Status and Reproductive success, 214 Species differences in diets, 211, 212
345 What sheep chose to eat, 213 Botanical composition, 213–214 Digestibility of forage, 211 Forage energy, 211 Dingxi County, Gansu, 26, 104, 108, 197 Development Conflict between economic development and environment, 257, 336 Diversity Climatic, 6 Effect of grazing on, 109–110, 268 Ethnic diversity, 8, 11, 13. Plant, 105, 268 Rural economy, 7 Diversity index, 105, 109 Drivers of change, 122, 307, 327 Implication for sustainability, 327 Drought, 1, 17, 23, 48, 53, 59, 62.84, 87, 119, 186, 189, 237, 259, 304, 310, 327 Dust and sandstorms (DSS), 12, 20, 221, 234, 337 Dynamic thresholds, 89 Dysfunctional rangelands, 234 E Early weaning Benefits, 314, In Gansu, 218–219 In Xinjiang, 219–220 Optimum Age, 219 Ear tags, 314 Ecological processes Ecosystem structure and function, 88, 122, 307 Ecosystem processes, 122 Ecological thresholds, 88 Ecological resilience, 87–88, 327 Ecological restoration, 81–86 Ecological versus conventional approach, 31 Ecosystem Approach, 30, 31, 88, 102 Implications of non equilibrium for grassland science, 334 Non equililbrial systems, 54, 334 Ecosystem services, 5, 7, 20, 54, 102, 121, 129, 196 197 Value of, 108, 196 Economic development, 52 Enclosure, 257, 258, 333 Energy inputs Energy cycling, 102 Energy in diets, 316 Energy cost of walking, 218
346 Environmental education Role in children’s education, 286 Role of education for sustainable development, 286, 290 Three main goals of, 287 Changing the mind-set, 277, 286, 290 Concepts and principles of environmental education, 289 Curriculum development, 287, 288 Curriculum planning, 287 Desirable attributes of successful environmental education, 288 Evaluation system, 297 Environmental ethics and values, 289–90 Ethics of caring, 286 Role of in environmental education, 286 Experiential learning, 288 Learning by doing, 288 Tools Art works, 294, 298 Essays, posters debates, 298 Field work, 290 Multimedia, 292 Needs assessment, 290 Teacher’s Handbook, 291, 292 Teaching Material, 291, 292 Textbook, 291 Training and capacity building, 291, 293 Environmental impacts of livestock, 54 How to abate, 54 Environmental sustainability, 302, 328 Constraints to, 11 Environmental engineering, 335 Erdos goat, 198 Ethnic minorities, 5, 10, 237. 327 Europe, 169, 222 European livestock breeds, 169 Ewanke Banner, Inner Mongolia, 71 Exclosure (see Enclosure) Extension service, 192, 231 F F1 hybrids, 172 Fallow land, 188, 190, 192, 338 FAO, 132, 150 Farm size and family structure, 307 Farming-nomadic interface zone, 42 Farmer associations, 67 Farmers Integration with pastoralism (see Agro-pastoral integration) Household income of ( see Household income and expenditure)
Subject Index Farming systems, 192 Fast and slow variables, 15 Fat tailed sheep, 167, 310, 311, 314 Fecundity, 314 Feed balance, 24, 29, 31, 195, 221, 248 Calculation of, 248 Feed demand Seasonal variation, 335 By age of animal, 208, 214 Fences (see also Fencing) Construction, 242, 248 Maintenance, 65 Value of, 67, 191, 199, 272, 278 Opposition to, 257, 258, 278 Fencing Government policy, 49, 258 Impact on forage, 93, 105, 199 Impact on CO2 sequestration, 141–142 Impact on biodiversity, 128–30 Role in grazing bans, 49, 199 Fertilizer, 23, 106, 191 Fine wool sheep enterprise, 313 Fish (see Biodiversity) Firewood collection (see Fuelwood) Flock/herd structure, 198, 201, 220 Changes in, 271, 272 Ratio of goats:sheep, 268, 269, 309 Fodder Fodder crops, 30, 55, 189, 218 Conservation of fodder, 45, 49 Hay, 45, 309, 313 Silage (see Silage) Foliage cover, 108, 263 Food security, 195, 240, 249 Forage From rangelands, 49, 53, 83, 108, 260 From sown pastures, 309 Quality, 73, 104 Forage supply, 63, 302 Fragmentation of habitats, 102 Connectivity, 102 Significance of, 12 Fuelwood collection, 11, 15, 93, 116, 117, 195, 263, 327 Full farm approach, 78 Defined, 77–78 Relevance to NW China, 75–78 Functional groups/types of plants, 104 Fuyun County, Xinjiang, 21, 139 G Gaixain goat, 200 Gannan yak, 152
Subject Index Ganzhou County, Gansu, 9, 197, 198, 291 Gaotai County, Gansu, 17 Gansu alpine fine-wool sheep, 239 Gansu, 4, 5, 19, 20, 24, 25, 26, 42, 43, 51, 148, 185, 192, 193, 217, 234, 261, 306, 313, 326 Anding District, 9, 291, 314 Dingxi County, 26, 76, 104, 107, 197, 330 Economic development, 110, 257, 336 Gannan County, 197, 198 Ganzhou County, 9 Gaotai County, 17 Huanxian County, Gansu, 221, 302, 306 Human population growth, 10, 234, 280, 330 Jintai County, 9, 160, 291 Jingyuan County, 160 Lianzhou District, 9, 263, 291, 314 Livestock husbandry in, 19, 77 Location and extent, 8 Minqin County, 169 Qilian, 17 Rangeland types, 7 Sunan County, 9, 17, 26, 137, 221, 306 Subei County, 9, 137, 169 Suzhou County, 9, 110, 269, 314 Tianzhu County, 9, 137, 169 Yongchang County, 9, 26, 108, 109, 137, 291 Gansu Agricultural University, 193 Gaseous emission from livestock, 54, 134–135 Enteric fermentation of ruminants, 134, 222 GEF, 51, 102, 110, 128, 150, 174, 194, 236, 249, 258, 264, 274, 291, 297, 299, 314, 326, 336 Global objectives, 128 Partnership with PRC, ix Gene pool Clustering analysis, 169, 171 Genetic contamination, 160 Genetic distance, 30, 160, 169, 171 Genetic drift, 151 Genetic purity, 148 Local breeds of livestock, 31, 147–156 Factors endangering, 148 Protecting local breeds, 149 Microsatellite loci, 171 Goats Cashmere, 44, 152, 200, 263 Destructive effect of, 276, 309 Gaixian breed, 200 Locally-adapted breeds, 148 Population of, 4, 272 Government policy (see State-led interventions)
347 Grain for Green program, 13 Grasshoppers, 30, 55, 304 Grassland Law, 25, 43–44, 256, 260, 261, 278 Grassland science Need for change of focus, 230, 333 Grassland Monitoring Stations (see Animal husbandry Bureau) Grazing ban, 14, 49, 83, 104, 107, 112, 196, 245, 248, 304, 321, 333 Grazing behavior Diet selectivity, 212, 213 Distance walked by grazing livestock 210, 211 Grazing pressure, 83, 109, 200, 274, 303, 333 Soil loss, 196 Total grazing pressure, 24, 30, 55 Grazing subsystem (see Ecosystem) Grazing systems, 23, 67, 278, 329 Four pasture systems, 31 Linkages between livestock and forage, 82–83 Mixed systems, 24 Nomadic, 45, 49, 61, 62, 65 69, 70, 74, 185, 231, 236, 325, 326 Pure grazing, 21, 22, 152 Semi nomadic, 21, 185, 325, 326, 327 Sedentary, 17, 45, 46, 149, 185, 186, 218, 239 Season of use, 29 Transhumance, 15, 16, 21, 23, 47, 48, 139, 184, 186, 234, 239, 311 Entry and exit dates, 22 Two-pasture system, 30, 31 Grazing time, 210, 213 Daily itineraries, 211 Effect of night corralling, 213 Night grazing, 213 Grazing user rights (GUR), 31, 108, 258, 261, 262, 266 Greenhouse gases (GHG), 131, 132, 221, 305 Methane, 131, 306 Nitrous oxide, 131 Green-up, 43, 55 Ground water, 17, 45, 104, 113, 327, 337 Growth rates of livestock, 73, 208, 210 Habitat change Fragmentation, 113 Index of, 117 Loss of habitat, 102 H Halophytes, 109, 120 Hami, Xinjiang, 189
348 Han farming practices, 42 Hay (see Fodder Conservation) Henan Province, 83 Herd health (see Animal Health) Herders Belief Systems, 62 Classification, 185 Indigenous culture, 16, 44 Livelihoods, 14, 16, 26, 59, 87, 129 Traditions, 62 Herding practices Entry and exit dates, 22, 274 Grazing times, 213 Group herding, 259 Night corralling, 213 Heterosis (see also Crossbreeding), 223, 224, 225 Hexi corridor, 102, 198, 236, 239, 274 Location in Gansu, 237 Hexi cashmere goat, 152 Hoof action (see Trampling) Horses, 10, 11, 16, 46, 63, 93, 148, 213 Hotan sheep, 152 Household contract responsibility system (HCRS), 43–44, 49, 51, 108, 239–244, 256, 258, 263, 276, 327, 332 Households Income and expenditure, 10, 57, 77, 240–244, 241 246, 247, 243, 246, 247, 319 Off-farm income, 48, 53, 242, 271 Household profitability, 77, 306, 312 Net household income, 243, 246, 321, 322 Households without livestock, 247 Household Survey methods, 245 House-site usage right (see Land Tenure) Huanxian County, Gansu, 306, 312, 312 Hulunbeier, 4 Human impacts, 234, Hydrological processes, 113, 333 I Illegal mining, 273 Problem in rangelands, 273–4 Income inequalities, 234 Between NW China and other regions, 234 Rich and poor households, 240 Indigenous breeds of livestock, 6, 97, 189 Genetic distance between, 30 Genetic variability, 189 Industrial development (see Development)
Subject Index Infrastructure, 16, 32, 49, 188, 242, 246, 248, 317 Dips, 188 Shearing sheds, 188 Feedlot design, 188 Inner Mongolia, 4, 10, 20, 25, 26, 69, 104, 234, 262, 306 Chenbarhu Qi, 67 Full farm approach in, 64 Fencing and privatization in, 16, 47, 257 Xilinguole League (Xilinhot), 104 Integrated ecosystem management (IEM), 26 Integrated ecosystem approach, 31 Intensification of land use, 50 Modernization, 50 Interdependence within rangeland systems, 8 Role of people in rangeland systems 327, 330 Invasive plants, 122 Irreversibility of land degradation, 82 J Jiuquan Oasis, Gansu, 110 K Kazak sheep, 219 Keystone species, 118, 123 Kyoto Agreement, 134 L Labor Division of, 44 Migratory, 10, 242 Shortages of, 190, 192 Lactation, 36, 162, 164, 208, 214, 215, 217, 259, 316 Breed differences, 162.164 Impact of early weaning, 316 Nutritional requirements, 214 Lake Salimyu, Xinjiang, 261 Land Allocation, 65, 334 Land conversion, 12, 117 Clearance of land for cropping, 12, 108.115, 117, 118 Time line, 43 Land abandonment (see Abandoned cropland) Land Degradation (see Rangeland degradation) Land-use change, 116, 122, 123, 238 Conversion to cropland (see Land conversion)
Subject Index Fragmentation of rangelands (see Habitat change) Shrinking land resource base, 187, 188 Lanzhou large-tailed sheep, 149 Law of Diminishing Returns, 305 Legal and regulatory framework (see Regulatory framework Less from more, 64 Concept explained, 64–65 Liangzhou District, Gansu, 265 Linkages, 15, 45, 55, 84, 203 Litter, Role and significance, 104, 106 As in indicator of rangeland health, 72, 74 C/N ratio, 104 Liufen village, Gansu, 110, 111 Livelihoods, 45 Impact of market systems, 42 Interactions with environment, 83 Livestock emissions of greenhouse gases, 128 Livestock nutrition (see Animal nutrition) Liveweight loss (see Bodyweight) Local breeds of livestock, 147–52, 153, 154–158 Distribution of, 154 Photos of breeds, 175–180 Present status of, 152–153 Protection of, 151–152 Local extinctions, 122 Loess Plateau, 104, 202, 245 M Ma Yinggou village, Gansu, 108, 198, 262, 266, 270, 271, 274, 276 Malnutrition as a limiting factor, 75 Management interventions Options, 29 Packaging interventions, 27–8, 42 Marketing, 8, 31, 32, 35, 59, 65, 74 Livestock buyers and sellers, 74, 76 Markets, 12, 42, 43, 185, 243, 249, 304, 335 Market conditions, 42. 49, 149, 314 Market orientated approaches, 59, 235, 304, 311 Matching livestock feed demands to forage supplies (see also Feed Balance), 310, 311 Mating time (see Time of Lambing) Meadow, 5, 9, 102, 108, 109 Microbial community, 104, 112, 118 Rumen microflora, 211 Microcredit, 244 Micronutrients (see Mineral nutrition)
349 Migration Inward migration as factor in land degradation, 42 Outward, 14, 53.86 Seasonal Migratory cycle, 45, 49, 259, 260 Migratory labor force, 10 Milk vetch, 309 Mind sets, 62 of herders farmers, 62, 277 Ministries Agriculture, 13 Forestry, 13 Water Resources, 13 Mineralization of Soil nutrients, 104 Nitrogen (N), 104 Carbon ( C), 104, 131 Phosphorous (P) Mineral nutrition, 73 Mineral licks, 65, 217 Micronutrients, 65, 217 Role in animal nutrition Minxian black fur sheep, 149 Mobility of livestock as a factor in successful pastoralism, 12, 20, 45, 48, 187, 259, 326, 327, 328 Modelling, 302 Household model approach, 306 Modernization drive, 256, 259 Implications for traditional pastoralism, 259 Mongolian sheep, 152, 153, 154, 159, 161, 176 Mongrelization of livestock breeds, 222 Monitoring of rangelands, 31, 53, 189, 274, 334 Role of Grassland Monitoring and Supervision Station, 88, 260, 265 Nalati grasslands, 190, 261 Natural hazards, 49, 327 Extreme winters (snow disasters), 327 Drought (see Drought) Flood, 327 Needs assessment, 195 Neo-natal mortality, 214, 216, 217 Factors affecting survival of, 217 New Mexico, 137 New Zealand, 222 Net Primary Productivity (NPP), 132–133 Non-equilibrial ecological systems (See Ecosystems) Non protein nitrogen, 212 And rumen microflora, 212 North America, 222 North West Normal University, Lanzhou, Gansu, 291, 295, 296 Nutrient cycling, 70, 72, 87, 102, 121
350 Nutrition Importance of, 71 Standards, 74 Under nutrition and its implications, 194 O Oats, 314 Off-farm Employment, 184, 241 Income sources, 184 Off-take, 189, 218, 243, 245, 248 One Child policy, 14, 329 Onset of estrus in livestock, 57 Open access herding/grazing, 53, 97, 261, 276 Opportunistic cropping, 102, 259 Overpopulation (see Population) Overgrazing, 11, 12, 24, 25, 31, 102, 109, 117, 198.213, 234, 236, 249, 256, 264, 271, 305 Extent of, 25 As a factor in loss of biodiversity, 25, 117 Own consumption of livestock products, 240, 246 P Packaging management interventions, 27, 55, 191, 263, 336 Intervention package, 55, 195, 196 Minimum package, 55 Packages of measures, 51, 196 Rationale, 55 Participatory decision making, 197, 201, 264, 278 PAR tools, 195 Pastoral costs Marginal costs, 32 Pastoral private costs, 31–33 Pastoral private saved costs, 31–33 Profitability, 32–32 Pen feeding, 27, 30, 32, 82, 189, 242, 303, 321 Percentage utilization, 93 And safe carrying capacity, 94 Phenology of key species, 321 Pingshanhu Township, Gansu, 197, 201 Plant invasions, 112, 116 Plant-plant interactions, 118 Plant functional types, 87–88, 123 Plant responses to grazing, 49, 103–104 Poisonous/toxic plants, 8, 109, 217, 236, 239, 248, 274 Policy, 24, 51, 57, 256, 278 Rural adjustment, 31 Post-collectivization, 332
Subject Index Post-traditional pastoralists, 326 Poverty, 197, 234 Incidence of, 10 Links with land degradation, 234 Links with market economy, 48 Poverty reduction strategy, 52 Precautionary Principle, 335 Precision management, 244, 314 Culling practices (see Culling) When less means more, 64 Privatization (see Tenure) Profitability, 73, 306 Factors affecting, 73–74, 306 Producer–managers, 235 Changing role of herders, 235 Product Changing market demands Premium for quality, 247, 250, 251 Property rights regimes, 261 Pure grazing systems (see Grazing systems) Q Quanwan village, Gansu, 104 Qinghai Province, 4, 5, 20, 236, 332 Qitai County, 103 Biodiversity, 103–104 Impact of grazing intensity on productivity, 103–104 Qilian Shan, 5, 102, 103, 107, 117, 119, 128, 139, 236, 245, 248 Biodiversity in, 107 CO2 sequestration in, 119, 139 Alpine plant communities, 119–120 R Radiative forcing (see Climate change) Rainfall Variability, 12 Rangeland systems and subsystems, 27 Rangeland conversion (see Conversion of rangeland to cropland) Rangeland degradation, 8, 9, 10, 20, 42, 49, 82, 102, 189, 235, 248, 256, 275, 304, 305, 319, 327 Challenges faced in reversing, 10 Changes in, 42–43, 243 Impact on C sequestration, 132 Nature of, 23, 54, 256, 328 Rangeland governance, 332 Rangeland health, 69–70, 117 Assessment, 69–70 How to ensure, 70 Litter as an indicator, 71, 72, 74
Subject Index Rangeland Law (see Grassland Law) Range management, 57, 326, 329 Constraints to, 11 Monitoring (see Monitoring of rangeland) Rest rotation grazing (see also Rotational grazing) Rainfall Use Efficiency (RUE), 95–96 Defined, 95 Application, 95 Ration formulation (see Animal nutrition) Record keeping, 64, 65 Value of, 77–78, 314 Re-designing Livestock systems, 306–7, 311–12 Relative growth rate (RGR), 118 Regulatory Framework, 256, 278 Enforcement costs, 260 Non-compliance, 260 Remittances, 10, 183 Role in household income, 10 Reproductive performance, 195 Resource inventory, 65 Resilience (see Ecological resilience) Return time, 29, 221 Riparian areas, 117 Risk aversion, 52–53, 257, 334 Rivers Bramaphutra, 20 Heihe, 236 Mekong, 20 ShiyangHe, 236 ShuleHe, 236 Taohe, 160 Yangzte, 20 Yellow, 20, 104, 196, 198, 199 Rodents (see Voles) Rotational grazing, 65, 67, 69, 112, 202, 275, 277, 321 And biodiversity conservation, 112 Impact on worm burdens, 230 To assist with rangeland restoration, 65, 69, 275 Ruminant livestock, 188 Rural credit, 23, 32, 45, 49, 54, 82, 191, 240, 259 Rural livelihoods, 7, 41, 47, 48, 194 S Sustainable Agricultural Development Program (SADP), 64, 69–70, 76 Safe carrying capacity, 88, 93–4, 231, 235, 303 Concept, 93 Sand dunes Reclamation of, 339
351 Sand storms (see Dust and sand storms DSS) Sanfoin, 104, 196, 309, 313 Scaling-up, 31, 336 Replication of successful results, 31, 336 Season of use, 29 Sedentarization, 7, 16, 44, 45, 326 Seed-set, 56 Set-aside program, 13 Semen Collection and storage, 151, 173 Distribution, 173 And under-nutrition, 217 Shandong Province, 83 Sheep Population of, 4 Shepherding, 48 Sichuan Province, 4 Silage, 16, 32 Making, 7 Silage maize, 23, 55, 318 Similarity index, 103, 112 Small ruminants as livelihood asserts, 187 Socio-economics, 14, 32, 187, 326 Externalities, 32 Soil erosion, 72, 106, 108, 128, 133, 235, 236, 303 Run off, 196 Water erosion, 196 Wind erosion, 84 Soil organic carbon, 106, 108, 119 Sown pasture (see Artificial pasture) Species composition, 105, 108, 132, 248, 321, 334, 335 Botanical composition, 106, 132, 267, 308, 321 Changes in, 267, 268, 308 Decline of perennial plants, 3P species in rangelands, 96 Dominance Index, 267 Frequency, 104, 267 Richness index, 14, 268 Successional shifts from C3 to C4 grasses, 308–9 Stakeholders, 56 State-led interventions, 16 Land policies, 16 One Child policy, 14 Return of grazing land to grassland, 49 Rural readjustment policy, 32 Scientifically-based approaches, 195 State-and-transition models, 88–92 Application in rangeland ecology, 89–90 Concept, 88–90
352 Steppe, 9, 102, 106, 308 Alpine, 9, 239, 307 Desert, 8, 141, 307 Typical, 141, 307 Stocking pressure (see Grazing pressure) Stocking rates, 12, 24, 26, 64, 96, 242, 257–258, 278, 303, 304, 307–8, 313, 327, 334 How to reduce, 312, 320, 321 Subei county, Gansu, 43, 291 Subsidies, 23, 187, 195 To grain farmers, 24 Subsistence, 25, 52, 195 Subsistence-oriented herding vs fenced rangeland, 97 Subsistence–survivors Concept of, 235 Succession theory, 333 Equilibium versus non equilibrium paradigms, 327, 339 Sunan county, 21, 235, 236, 291, 302, 309, 312, 317 Abortion in goats, 216 Case study, 235–238 Household survey, 235 Location in Gansu, 237 Population change, 237 Supplements Feeding of, 31, 82, 187, 303, 328 Sustainable development, 102, 148, 189, 307, 337 Principal beneficiaries, 337 Sustainability, 30, 32, 240, 326, 336 Sustainable Land use, 89, 337 Suzhou county, Gansu, 269 Suziwang village, Inner Mongolia, 309 Systems approach, 56 Causal flow diagrams, 84–86 Grazing subsystem, 86–87, 209 Livestock/pasture system, 209 Pastoral ecosystem, 87 Systems framework, 56 Vegetation subsystem, 84, 85 System coupling and discordance, 203, 204 Spatial integration, 203 Temporal integration, 203 T Taipusi village, Inner Mongolia, 302, 311, 312 Tan sheep, 32, 31 Breed characteristics, 153, 154, 161 Preserving local breeds, 174 Tian Shan, 102, 103, 117, 128
Subject Index Tarim Basin, 4 Technical Advisory groups, 56, 64 Extension services, 64, 78, 188, 192, 193, 248 Technological fix, 62 Technology transfer, 50, 233, 240. 244, 250, 260 Tenure, 12, 15, 16, 43–4, 59, 185, 190, 249, 326, 335 Individualization of rangeland resources, 187, 189 Group tenure, 280 House sites, 280 Land User rights, 16, 189, 192, 198 Privatization, 16, 257, 327, 332, 335 Usufruct, 266, 280 Terminal sires, 227, 228, 314 Replacement females, 226, 227, 228 Role in preservation of local breeds 172, 226 Rotational terminal sires, 227 Static Terminal cross, 227, 228 Threatened species, 121–122 Three Norths region of China, 4 Thresholds, 82, 88, 89, 90 Tian Shan, 5, 112, 119, 137 Biodiversity in, 112 CO2 sequestration, 141 Taipusu, Inner Mongolia, 309 Tianzhu county, Gansu, 9, 149 Tibet, 4, 5, 10 Tibetan sheep, 236 Yaks, 236 Tibet-Qinghai Plateau, 137, 236 Time of lambing, 56, 310, 314–5 Effect on ewe nutrition, 56 Market for out of season lambs, 56 Profitability v.207, 235, 243, 305, 306, 313, 319, 320 Time series, 97, 237, 238 Climatic, 97, 237 Human population, 51, 237 Livestock numbers, 51, 237 Rainfall, 238 Tissue quality, 118 Implications for litter breakdown, 118 Implications for nutrition, 118 Toxic plants (see Poisonous plants) Traditional practices, 193, 258 Tragedy of the Commons, 249, 264, 268–9 Training (see also Environmental education), 51, 52. 76, 249, 250, 273 Trampling, 30, 120
Subject Index
353
Transhumance, 12, 29, 45, 102.186, 190, 261, 310 Significance of, 190 Trespass grazing, 247 True grasslands, 8 Turn-off (see Offtake)
Wildlife, 30, 53, 83, 113, 121 Wind erosion (see Soil Erosion) World Bank, 51, 137, 194, 236, 264, 291, 326 Wugou Village, Gansu, 263
U UN Millennium Assessment, 121 USA, 137 User rights (see Tenure)
X Xilinguole League, Inner Mongolia, 235 Xinjiang, 4, 5, 10, 19, 20, 24, 25, 26, 42, 43, 112, 137.148, 171, 185, 193, 213, 217, 234, 261 Altai Prefecture Bayinbuluk Beichen County Bole county, 139 Extent of land degradation, 25 Fuyun county, 139 Hami county, 189 Hejing county, 22, 139, 153 Land Conversion, 257 Local breeds, 148 Overstocking in, 24, 25 Qitai county, 128 Rangelands of, 5 Tekesi County, 190 Xinyuan county, 26, 28, 190 Yumin county, 26 Xinjiang Brown cattle, 152, 153, 155 Xinjiang yak, 152, 153 Xinyuan county, 28 Grazing system, 28 Location in Xinjiang
V Vegetation (see also Species composition) Cover, 84, 196 Productivity, 84 Voles, 119 Pest status, 30, 55, 119, 304 W Walking Distance travelled, 211 Energy cost, 211, 218 Warm pens, 7, 31, 32, 51, 57, 82, 248 Energy conservation in, 317, 318 Individual least cost rations, 317 Ration formulation (see Animal nutrition) Role as fattening shed in summer, 32, 184, 188 189, 196, 199, 204, 218, 274 Water erosion (see Soil erosion) Weaning, 218, 313, 317 Early weaning, 30, 218, 313, 315, 316 Western Development strategy, 16, 302 Wetlands, 30, 109, 111, 117, 236 Biodiversity, 109–111, 117 Degradation and recovery of, 269 White yak, 30, 149, 173 Whole farm models, 312, 314 Full farm systems, 62 Whole enterprise approach, 56
Y Yak, 263 Local breeds Tianzhu White yak, 30, 172 Nucleus herds, 173, 174 Yonchang County, Gansu, 197, 262, 266, 274
